Overfishing is the removal of a species of fish (i.e. fishing) from a body of water at a rate greater than that the species can replenish its population naturally (i.e. the overexploitation of the fishery's existing fish stock), resulting in the species becoming increasingly underpopulated in that area. Overfishing can occur in water bodies of any sizes, such as ponds, wetlands, rivers, lakes or oceans, and can result in resource depletion, reduced biological growth rates and low biomass levels. Sustained overfishing can lead to critical depensation, where the fish population is no longer able to sustain itself. Some forms of overfishing, such as the overfishing of sharks, has led to the upset of entire marine ecosystems. Types of overfishing include: growth overfishing, recruitment overfishing, ecosystem overfishing.

The ability of a fishery to recover from overfishing depends on whether its overall carrying capacity and the variety of ecological conditions are suitable for the recovery. Dramatic changes in species composition can result in an ecosystem shift, where other equilibrium energy flows involve species compositions different from those that had been present before the depletion of the original fish stock. For example, once trout have been overfished, carp might exploit the change in competitive equilibria and take over in a way that makes it impossible for the trout to re-establish a breeding population.

Since the growth of global fishing enterprises after the 1950s, intensive fishing has spread from a few concentrated areas to encompass nearly all fisheries. The scraping of the ocean floor in bottom dragging is devastating to coral, sponges and other slower-growing benthic species that do not recover quickly, and that provide a habitat for commercial fisheries species. This destruction alters the functioning of the ecosystem and can permanently alter species' composition and biodiversity. Bycatch, the collateral capture of unintended species in the course of fishing, is typically returned to the ocean only to die from injuries or exposure. Bycatch represents about a quarter of all marine catch. In the case of shrimp capture, the bycatch is five times larger than the shrimp caught.

A report by FAO in 2020 stated that "in 2017, 34 percent of the fish stocks of the world's marine fisheries were classified as overfished". Mitigation options include: Government regulation, removal of subsidies, minimizing fishing impact, aquaculture and consumer awareness.

Scale

Overfishing has stripped many fisheries around the world of their stocks. The United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization estimated in a 2018 report that 33.1% of world fish stocks are subject to overfishing. Significant overfishing has been observed in pre-industrial times. In particular, the overfishing of the western Atlantic Ocean from the earliest days of European colonisation of the Americas has been well documented.

The fraction of fish stocks that are within biologically sustainable levels has exhibited a decreasing trend, from 90% in 1974 to 66.9% in 2015. In contrast, the percentage of stocks fished at biologically unsustainable levels increased from 10% in 1974 to 33.1% in 2015, with the largest increases in the late-1970s and 1980s.

In 2015, maximally sustainably fished stocks (formerly termed fully fished stocks) accounted for 59.9% and underfished stocks for 7% of the total assessed stocks. While the proportion of underfished stocks decreased continuously from 1974 to 2015, the maximally sustainably fished stocks decreased from 1974 to 1989, and then increased to 59.9% in 2015.

In 2015, among the 16 major statistical areas, the Mediterranean and Black Sea had the highest percentage (62.2%) of unsustainable stocks, closely followed by the Southeast Pacific 61.5% and Southwest Atlantic 58.8%. In contrast, the Eastern Central Pacific, Northeast Pacific (Area 67), Northwest Pacific (Area 61), Western Central Pacific and Southwest Pacific had the lowest proportion (13 to 17%) of fish stocks at biologically unsustainable levels.

Daniel Pauly, a fisheries scientist known for pioneering work on the human impacts on global fisheries, has commented:

According to the Secretary General of the 2002 World Summit on Sustainable Development, "Overfishing cannot continue, the depletion of fisheries poses a major threat to the food supply of millions of people."

The fishing down the food web is something that occurs when overfishing arises. Once all larger fish are caught, the fisherman will start to fish the smaller individuals, which would lead to more fish needing to be caught to keep up with demand. This decreases fish populations, as well as genetic diversity of the species, making them more susceptible to disease, and less likely to adapt to their stressors and the environment. Additionally, catching smaller fish leads to breeding of smaller offspring, which can be problematic for fish. In many species, the smaller the female, the less fecund it is, impacting the fish population.

Types
There are three recognized types of biological overfishing: growth overfishing, recruit overfishing, and ecosystem overfishing.

Growth overfishing

Growth overfishing occurs when fish are harvested at an average size that is smaller than the size that would produce the maximum yield per recruit. A recruit is an individual that makes it to maturity, or into the limits specified by a fishery, which are usually size or age. This makes the total yield less than it would be if the fish were allowed to grow to an appropriate size. It can be countered by reducing fishing mortality to lower levels and increasing the average size of harvested fish to a size that will allow maximum yield per recruit.

Recruitment overfishing
Recruitment overfishing happens when the mature adult population (spawning biomass) is depleted to a level where it no longer has the reproductive capacity to replenish itselfthere are not enough adults to produce offspring. Increasing the spawning stock biomass to a target level is the approach taken by managers to restore an overfished population to sustainable levels. This is generally accomplished by placing moratoriums, quotas, and minimum size limits on a fish population.

Ecosystem overfishing
Ecosystem overfishing occurs when the balance of the ecosystem is altered by overfishing. With declines in the abundance of large predatory species, the abundance of small forage type increases causing a shift in the balance of the ecosystem towards smaller fish species.

Examples and evidence for overfishing
Examples of overfishing exist in areas such as the North Sea, the Grand Banks of Newfoundland and the East China Sea. In these locations, overfishing has not only proved disastrous to fish stocks, but also to the fishing communities relying on the harvest. Like other extractive industries such as forestry and hunting, fisheries are susceptible to economic interaction between ownership or stewardship and sustainability, otherwise known as the tragedy of the commons.

 Tuna has been caught by the locals in the upper Adriatic for centuries. Increasing fishing prevented the large schools of little tunny from migrating into the Gulf of Trieste. The last major tuna catch was made in 1954 by the fishermen of Santa Croce, Contovello and Barcola.
 The Peruvian coastal anchovy fisheries crashed in the 1970s after overfishing and an El Niño season largely depleted anchovies from its waters. Anchovies were a major natural resource in Peru; indeed, 1971 alone yielded 10.2 million metric tons of anchovies. However, the following five years saw the Peruvian fleet's catch amount to only about four million tons. This was a major loss to Peru's economy.
 The collapse of the Atlantic northwest cod fishery off Newfoundland, and the 1992 decision by Canada to impose an indefinite moratorium on the Grand Banks, is a dramatic example of the consequences of overfishing.
 The sole fisheries in the Irish Sea, the west English Channel, and other locations have become overfished to the point of virtual collapse, according to the UK government's official Biodiversity Action Plan. The United Kingdom has created elements in this plan to attempt to restore the fishery, but the expanding global human population and the expanding demand for fish has reached a point where demand for food threatens the stability of these fisheries, if not the species' survival.
 Many deep sea fish are at risk, such as orange roughy and sablefish. The deep sea is almost completely dark, near freezing, and has little food. Deep sea fish grow slowly because of limited food, have slow metabolisms, low reproductive rates, and many do not reach breeding maturity for 30 to 40 years. A fillet of orange roughy at the store is probably at least 50 years old. Most deep sea fish are in international waters, where there are no legal protections. Most of these fish are caught by deep trawlers near seamounts, where they congregate for food. Flash freezing allows the trawlers to work for days at a time, and modern fishfinders target the fish with ease.
 Blue walleye became extinct in the Great Lakes in the 1980s. Until the middle of the 20th century, the walleye was a commercially valuable fish, with about a half million tonnes being landed in the period from about 1880 to the late-1950s, when the populations collapsed, apparently through a combination of overfishing, anthropogenic eutrophication, and competition with introduced rainbow smelt.

 The World Wide Fund for Nature and the Zoological Society of London jointly issued their "Living Blue Planet Report" on 16 September 2015 which states that there was a dramatic fall of 74% in worldwide stocks of the important scombridae fish such as mackerel, tuna and bonitos between 1970 and 2010, and the global overall "population sizes of mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians and fish fell by half on average in just 40 years."
 Overfishing of the critically endangered Pacific bluefin tuna has resulted in the few still caught selling for astronomical prices. In January 2019, a 278 kilogram (612 pound) tuna sold for 333.6 million yen, or over US$3 million, US$4,900 per pound. Fishers, driven by the fish's high value, use extraordinary techniques to catch them, leaving the population on the verge of collapse.
Sharks and rays: The global abundance of oceanic sharks and rays has declined by 71% since 1970, owing to an 18-fold increase in relative fishing pressure. As a consequence, three-quarters of the species comprising this group are now threatened with extinction. A stark example, caught almost entirely on video, was an incident in Hurghada, Egypt on 8 June 2023, in which Russian Vladimir Popov was killed by a tiger shark in an attack which has been attributed to overfishing of the Red Sea.
A study in 2003 found that, as compared with 1950 levels, only a remnant (in some instances, as little as 10%) of all large ocean-fish stocks are left in the seas. These large ocean fish are the species at the top of the food chains (e.g., tuna, cod, among others). This article was subsequently criticized as being fundamentally flawed, although much debate still exists and the majority of fisheries scientists now consider the results irrelevant with respect to large pelagics (the open seas).

In management
Several countries are now effectively managing their fisheries. Examples include Iceland and New Zealand. The United States has turned many of its fisheries around from being in a highly depleted state.

Consequences

According to a 2008 UN report, the world's fishing fleets are losing US$50 billion each year due to depleted stocks and poor fisheries management. The report, produced jointly by the World Bank and the UN Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), asserts that half the world's fishing fleet could be scrapped with no change in catch. In addition, the biomass of global fish stocks have been allowed to run down to the point where it is no longer possible to catch the amount of fish that could be caught. Increased incidence of schistosomiasis in Africa has been linked to declines of fish species that eat the snails carrying the disease-causing parasites. Massive growth of jellyfish populations threaten fish stocks, as they compete with fish for food, eat fish eggs, and poison or swarm fish, and can survive in oxygen depleted environments where fish cannot; they wreak massive havoc on commercial fisheries. Overfishing eliminates a major jellyfish competitor and predator, exacerbating the jellyfish population explosion. Both climate change and a restructuring of the ecosystem have been found to be major roles in an increase in jellyfish population in the Irish Sea in the 1990s.

According to the 2019 Global Assessment Report on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services published by the Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services, overfishing is a primary driver of mass extinction in the world's oceans. A 2021 study published in the journal Nature asserted that the "primary cause" of ocean defaunation is overfishing. Other studies have shown that overfishing has reduced fish and marine mammal biomass by 60% since the 1800s, and is currently driving over one-third of sharks and rays to extinction.

Acceptable levels
The notion of overfishing hinges on what is meant by an "acceptable level" of fishing. More precise biological and bioeconomic terms define acceptable level as follows:

 Biological overfishing occurs when fishing mortality has reached a level where the stock biomass has negative marginal growth (reduced rate of biomass growth), as indicated by the red area in the figure. (Fish are being taken out of the water so quickly that the replenishment of stock by breeding slows down. If the replenishment continues to diminish for long enough, replenishment will go into reverse and the population will decrease.)
 Economic or bioeconomic overfishing additionally considers the cost of fishing when determining acceptable catches. Under this framework, a fishery is considered to be overfished when catches exceed maximum economic yield where resource rent is at its maximum. Fish are being removed from the fishery so quickly that the profitability of the fishery is sub-optimal. A more dynamic definition of economic overfishing also considers the present value of the fishery using a relevant discount rate to maximise the flow of resource rent over all future catches.

Harvest control rule
A model proposed in 2010 for predicting acceptable levels of fishing is the Harvest Control Rule (HCR), which is a set of tools and protocols with which management has some direct control of harvest rates and strategies in relation to predicting stock status, and long-term maximum sustainable yields. Constant catch and constant fishing mortality are two types of simple harvest control rules.

Input and output orientations
Fishing capacity can also be defined using an input or output orientation.

 An input-oriented fishing capacity is defined as the maximum available capital stock in a fishery that is fully utilized at the maximum technical efficiency in a given time period, given resource and market conditions.

 An output-oriented fishing capacity is defined as the maximum catch a vessel (fleet) can produce if inputs are fully utilized given the biomass, the fixed inputs, the age structure of the fish stock, and the present stage of technology.

Technical efficiency of each vessel of the fleet is assumed necessary to attain this maximum catch. The degree of capacity utilization results from the comparison of the actual level of output (input) and the capacity output (input) of a vessel or a fleet.

Reducing overfishing
In order to meet the problems of overfishing, a precautionary approach and Harvest Control Rule (HCR) management principles have been introduced in the main fisheries around the world. The Traffic Light color convention introduces sets of rules based on predefined critical values, which can be adjusted as more information is gained.

The United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea treaty deals with aspects of overfishing in articles 61, 62, and 65.
Article 61 requires all coastal states to ensure that the maintenance of living resources in their exclusive economic zones is not endangered by over-exploitation. The same article addresses the maintenance or restoration of populations of species above levels at which their reproduction may become seriously threatened.
Article 62 provides that coastal states: "shall promote the objective of optimum utilization of the living resources in the exclusive economic zone without prejudice to Article 61"
Article 65 provides generally for the rights of, inter alia, coastal states to prohibit, limit, or regulate the exploitation of marine mammals.

According to some observers, overfishing can be viewed as an example of the tragedy of the commons; appropriate solutions would therefore promote property rights through, for instance, privatization and fish farming. Daniel K. Benjamin, in Fisheries are Classic Example of the 'Tragedy of the Commons', cites research by Grafton, Squires and Fox to support the idea that privatization can solve the overfishing problem: According to recent research on the British Columbia halibut fishery, where the commons has been at least partly privatized, substantial ecological and economic benefits have resulted. There is less damage to fish stocks, the fishing is safer, and fewer resources are needed to achieve a given harvest."

Another possible solution, at least for some areas, is quotas, restricting fishers to a specific quantity of fish. A more radical possibility is declaring certain areas of the sea "no-go zones" and make fishing there strictly illegal, so the fish have time to recover and repopulate.

In order to maximise resources some countries, e.g., Bangladesh and Thailand, have improved the availability of family planning services. The resulting smaller populations have a decreased environmental footprint and reduced food needs.

Controlling consumer behavior and demand is critical in mitigating action. Worldwide, a number of initiatives emerged to provide consumers with information regarding the conservation status of the seafood available to them. The "Guide to Good Fish Guides" lists a number of these.

Government regulation

Many regulatory measures are available for controlling overfishing. These measures include fishing quotas, bag limits, licensing, closed seasons, size limits and the creation of marine reserves and other marine protected areas.

A model of the interaction between fish and fishers showed that when an area is closed to fishers, but there are no catch regulations such as individual transferable quotas, fish catches are temporarily increased but overall fish biomass is reduced, resulting in the opposite outcome from the one desired for fisheries. Thus, a displacement of the fleet from one locality to another will generally have little effect if the same quota is taken. As a result, management measures such as temporary closures or establishing a marine protected area of fishing areas are ineffective when not combined with individual fishing quotas. An inherent problem with quotas is that fish populations vary from year to year. A study has found that fish populations rise dramatically after stormy years due to more nutrients reaching the surface and therefore greater primary production. To fish sustainably, quotas need to be changed each year to account for fish population.

Individual transferable quotas (ITQs) are fishery rationalization instruments defined under the Magnuson-Stevens Fishery Conservation and Management Act as limited access permits to harvest quantities of fish. Fisheries scientists decide the optimal amount of fish (total allowable catch) to be harvested in a certain fishery. The decision considers carrying capacity, regeneration rates and future values. Under ITQs, members of a fishery are granted rights to a percentage of the total allowable catch that can be harvested each year. These quotas can be fished, bought, sold, or leased allowing for the least-cost vessels to be used. ITQs are used in New Zealand, Australia, Iceland, Canada, and the United States.

In 2008, a large-scale study of fisheries that used ITQs compared to ones that didn't provided strong evidence that ITQs can help to prevent collapses and restore fisheries that appear to be in decline.

China bans fishing in the South China Sea for a period each year.

Removal of subsidies

Because government provided financial subsidies can make it economically viable to fish beyond biologically sustainable levels, several scientists have called for an end to fishery subsidies paid to deep-sea fisheries. In international waters beyond the 200 nautical mile exclusive economic zones of coastal countries, many fisheries are unregulated, and fishing fleets plunder the depths with state-of-the-art technology. In a few hours, massive nets weighing up to 15 tons, dragged along the bottom by deep-water trawlers, can destroy deep-sea corals and sponge beds that have taken centuries or millennia to grow. The trawlers can target orange roughy, grenadiers, or sharks. These fish are usually long-lived and late maturing, and their populations take decades, even centuries to recover.

Fisheries scientist Daniel Pauly and economist Ussif Rashid Sumaila have examined subsidies paid to bottom trawl fleets around the world. They found that US$152 million per year are paid to deep-sea fisheries. Without these subsidies, global deep-sea fisheries would operate at a loss of US$50 million a year. A great deal of the subsidies paid to deep-sea trawlers is to subsidize the large amount of fuel required to travel beyond the 200 mile limit and drag weighted nets.
"There is surely a better way for governments to spend money than by paying subsidies to a fleet that burns 1.1 billion litres of fuel annually to maintain paltry catches of old growth fish from highly vulnerable stocks, while destroying their habitat in the process" – Pauly.

"Eliminating global subsidies would render these fleets economically unviable and would relieve tremendous pressure on over-fishing and vulnerable deep-sea ecosystems" – Sumaila.Over 30 billion euros in public subsidies are directed to fisheries annually.

Minimizing fishing impact
Fishing techniques may be altered to minimize bycatch and reduce impacts on marine habitats. These techniques include using varied gear types depending on target species and habitat type. For example, a net with larger holes will allow undersized fish to avoid capture. A turtle excluder device (TED) allows sea turtles and other megafauna to escape from shrimp trawls. Avoiding fishing in spawning grounds may allow fish stocks to rebuild by giving adults a chance to reproduce.

Aquaculture
Aquaculture involves the farming of fish in captivity. This approach effectively privatizes fish stocks and creates incentives for farmers to conserve their stocks. It also reduces environmental impact. However, farming carnivorous fish, such as salmon, does not always reduce pressure on wild fisheries, since carnivorous farmed fish are usually fed fishmeal and fish oil extracted from wild forage fish.  The various species of Pacific salmon and Atlantic salmon are relatively easy to raise in captivity and such aquacultural operations have existed for more than 150 years.  Largescale releases of salmon raised in captivity to supplement wild salmon runs will usually increase fishing pressure on the much less abundant wild salmon runs.

Aquaculture played a minor role in the harvesting of marine organisms until the 1970s. Growth in aquaculture increased rapidly in the 1990s when the rate of wild capture plateaued. Aquaculture now provides approximately half of all harvested aquatic organisms. Aquaculture production rates continue to grow while wild harvest remains steady.

Fish farming can enclose the entire breeding cycle of the fish, with fish being bred in captivity. Some fish prove difficult to breed in captivity and can be caught in the wild as juveniles and brought into captivity to increase their weight. With scientific progress, more species are being made to breed in captivity. This was the case with southern bluefin tuna, which were first bred in captivity in 2009.

Consumer awareness

As global citizens become more aware of overfishing and the ecological destruction of the oceans, movements have sprung up to encourage abstinence—not eating any seafood—or eating only "sustainable seafood".

Sustainable seafood is a movement that has gained momentum as more people become aware of overfishing and environmentally destructive fishing methods. Sustainable seafood is seafood from either fished or farmed sources that can maintain or increase production in the future without jeopardizing the ecosystems from which it was acquired. In general, slow-growing fish that reproduce late in life, such as orange roughy, are vulnerable to overfishing. Seafood species that grow quickly and breed young, such as anchovies and sardines, are much more resistant to overfishing. Several organizations, including the Marine Stewardship Council (MSC), and Friend of the Sea, certify seafood fisheries as sustainable.

The Marine Stewardship Council has developed an environmental standard for sustainable and well-managed fisheries. Environmentally responsible fisheries management and practices are rewarded with the use of its blue product ecolabel. Consumers concerned about overfishing and its consequences are increasingly able to choose seafood products that have been independently assessed against the MSC's environmental standard. This enables consumers to play a part in reversing the decline of fish stocks. As of February 2012, over 100 fisheries around the world have been independently assessed and certified as meeting the MSC standard. Their where-to-buy page lists the currently available certified seafood. As of February 2012, over 13,000 MSC-labelled products are available in 74 countries around the world. Fish & Kids is an MSC project to teach schoolchildren about marine environmental issues, including overfishing.

The Monterey Bay Aquarium's Seafood Watch Program, although not an official certifying body like the MSC, also provides guidance on the sustainability of certain fish species. Some seafood restaurants have begun to offer more sustainable seafood options. The Seafood Choices Alliance is an organization whose members include chefs that serve sustainable seafood at their establishments. In the US, the Sustainable Fisheries Act defines sustainable practices through national standards. Although there is no official certifying body like the MSC, the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration has created FishWatch to help guide concerned consumers to sustainable seafood choices.

In September 2016, a partnership of Google and Oceana and Skytruth introduced Global Fishing Watch, a website designed to assist citizens of the globe in monitoring fishing activities.

Global goals
The United Nations has included sustainable fishing and ending subsidies that contribute to overfishing as key targets for 2030 as part of their Sustainable Development Goal 14 called "Life Below Water".

Barriers to effective management
The fishing industry has a strong financial incentive to oppose some measures aimed at improving the sustainability of fish stocks. Recreational fisherman also have an interest in maintaining access to fish stocks. This leads to extensive lobbying that can block or weaken government policies intended to prevent overfishing.

Outside of countries' exclusive economic zones, fishing is difficult to control. Large oceangoing fishing boats are free to exploit fish stocks at will.

In waters that are the subject of territorial disputes, countries may actively encourage overfishing. A notable example is the cod wars where Britain used its navy to protect its trawlers fishing in Iceland's exclusive economic zone. Fish are highly transitory. Many species will freely move through different jurisdictions. The conservation efforts of one country can then be exploited by another.

While governments can create regulations to control people's behaviors this can be undermined by illegal fishing activity. Estimates of the size of the illegal catch range from 11 to 26 million tonnes, which represents 14-33% of the world's reported catch. Illegal fishing can take many forms. In some developing countries, large numbers of poor people are dependent on fishing. It can prove difficult to regulate this kind of overfishing, especially for weak governments. Even in regulated environments, illegal fishing may occur. While industrial fishing is often effectively controlled, smaller scale and recreational fishermen can often break regulations such as bag limits and seasonal closures. Fisherman can also easily fish illegally by doing things such as underreporting the amount of fish they caught or reporting that they caught one type of fish while actually catching another. There is also a large problem with the surveillance of illegal fishing activity. In 2001, the UN Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), passed the International Plan of Action to Prevent, Deter and Eliminate Illegal, Unreported and Unregulated Fishing (IPOA-IUU). This is an agreement with the intention to stop port states from allowing boats to dock that participated in illegal, unreported or unregulated fishing. It also gives details for port states on effective measures of inspecting and reporting illegal fishing. Some illegal fishing takes place on an industrial scale with financed commercial operations.

The fishing capacity problem is not only related to the conservation of fish stocks but also to the sustainability of fishing activity. Causes of the fishing problem can be found in the property rights regime of fishing resources. Overexploitation and rent dissipation of fishermen arise in open-access fisheries as was shown in Gordon.

In open-access resources like fish stocks, in the absence of a system like individual transferable quotas, the impossibility of excluding others provokes the fishermen who want to increase catch to do so effectively by taking someone else' share, intensifying competition. This tragedy of the commons provokes a capitalization process that leads them to increase their costs until they are equal to their revenue, dissipating their rent completely.

Resistance from fishermen
There is always disagreement between fishermen and government scientists... Imagine an overfished area of the sea in the shape of a hockey field with nets at either end. The few fish left therein would gather around the goals because fish like structured habitats. Scientists would survey the entire field, make lots of unsuccessful hauls, and conclude that it contains few fish. The fishermen would make a beeline to the goals, catch the fish around them, and say the scientists do not know what they are talking about. The subjective impression the fishermen get is always that there's lots of fish - because they only go to places that still have them... fisheries scientists survey and compare entire areas, not only the productive fishing spots. – Fisheries scientist Daniel Pauly

See also

 Biodiversity
 Bycatch
 Catch and release
 Environmental impact of fishing
 Factory ship
Pacific bluefin tuna
Shark finning
 Holocene extinction
 Human overpopulation
 Jellyfish blooms
 Life history theory
 List of harvested aquatic animals by weight
 Natural environment
 Maximum sustainable yield
 Oceanic carbon cycle
 Perverse subsidies
 Population dynamics of fisheries
 Sustainable fishing
 The United Nations Ocean Conference
 Tragedy of the commons
 World Oceans Day
 Overconsumption

References

Sources

 Roberts, Callum (2007) The Unnatural History of the Sea Island Press.

External links

 We've removed 90% of all large fish from the oceans. Just 10% to go. Australian Broadcasting Corporation. 13 February 2021.

Environmental controversies
Environmental crime
Environmental impact of fishing
Fisheries law
Illegal occupations
Illegal, unreported and unregulated fishing

Overfishing


Cayo Fiesta (en inglés: Fiesta Key) es una isla de los Cayos de Florida del medio.

Se conecta a través de calzada de EE.UU. 1 (o la Autopista de ultramar) alrededor de la milla 70, cerca del extremo oriental de Cayo Largo.

Se conoció antes como Cayo Jew-Fish (más tarde Cayo Jewfish, y luego Cayo Jewfish Bush). Louie Turner estableció su vivienda en la isla, el 7 de enero de 1908 convirtiéndose en el primer propietario conocido. Durante un período en la década de 1950 y 1960, el cayo fue propiedad de la empresa de autobuses Greyhound. Durante ese período, fue nombrado Cayo tropical, y luego Cayo Greyhound. Kampgrounds of America (KOA) compró la isla en el año 1966, cambiándole el nombre a 'Fiesta Key o Cayo Fiesta.

Véase también
 Geografía de América
 Geografía de Estados Unidos

Referencias

Enlaces externos
 Mapa de localización de la isla

Archipiélagos e islas de Florida

Cayo Fiesta


NGC 317 este o interacțiune de galaxii formată din galaxiile PGC 3442 și PGC 3445, situată în constelația Andromeda. A fost descoperită în 1 octombrie 1885 de către Lewis Swift.

Note

Vezi și
 NGC 316
 NGC 318

Legături externe
 NGC 317 pe spider.seds.org
 NGC 317 pe WikiSky

Galaxii spirale
Galaxii lenticulare
Galaxii în interacțiune
Obiecte NGC
Constelația Andromeda
Obiecte astronomice descoperite în 1885
Obiecte astronomice descoperite de Lewis Swift

NGC 317


Bülent Çelik (1959), karikatürist.

1985'ten bu yana, sırasıyla Çarşaf Mizah Dergisi, Tempo Dergisi,Haftasonu Gazetesi, Hürriyet Gazetesi, Star Gazetesi, Globus (Dünya Gazetesi)  ve kurulduğu 2002 yılından 2010 yılı Haziran ayına kadar Vatan Gazetesi'nde siyasi karikatür ve ilüstrasyonlar çizdi. GazetePencere'de çizmeye ve yazmaya devam etmektedir.
İstanbul Üniversitesi Fen Fakültesi Biyoloji / Genetik mezunudur. Arel Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü'nde Grafik Dalında Yüksek Lisans yapmıştır. Evli ve bir oğlu, bir kızı vardır.

Dış bağlantılar

Türk karikatüristler
1959 doğumlular
Yaşayan insanlar

Bülent Çelik


The Caledonian Railway (CR) was a major Scottish railway company. It was formed in the early 19th century with the objective of forming a link between English railways and Glasgow. It progressively extended its network and reached Edinburgh and Aberdeen, with a dense network of branch lines in the area surrounding Glasgow. It was absorbed into the London, Midland and Scottish Railway in 1923. Many of its principal routes are still used, and the original main line between Carlisle and Glasgow is in use as part of the West Coast Main Line railway (with a modified entry into Glasgow itself).

Introduction

In the mid-1830s, railways in England evolved from local concerns to longer routes that connected cities, and then became networks. In Scotland it was clear that this was the way forward, and there was a desire to connect the Central Belt to the incipient English network. There was controversy over the route that such a line might take, but the Caledonian Railway was formed on 31 July 1845 and it opened its main line between Glasgow, Edinburgh and Carlisle in 1848, making an alliance with the English London and North Western Railway which connected Carlisle to the English Midlands and London.  In the obituary of the engineer Richard Price-Williams written in 1916 the contractor of the Caledonian Railway is stated to be Thomas Brassey and the civil engineer George Heald.

Although the company was supported by Scottish investors, more than half of its shares were held in England.

Establishing itself as an intercity and cross-border railway, the Caledonian set about securing territory by leasing other authorised or newly built lines, and fierce competition developed with other, larger Scottish railways, particularly the North British Railway and the Glasgow and South Western Railway. The company established primacy in some areas, but remained less than successful in others; considerable sums were expended in the process, not always finding the approval of shareholders.

A considerable steamer passenger traffic developed on the Firth of Clyde serving island resorts, and fast boat trains were run from Glasgow to steamer piers; the company was refused permission to operate its own steamers, and it formed a partnership with a nominally independent, but friendly, operator, the Caledonian Steam Packet Company.

In 1923 the railways of Great Britain were "grouped" under the Railways Act 1921 and the Caledonian Railway was a constituent of the newly formed London Midland and Scottish Railway; its capitalisation at that time was £57 million (equivalent to £ today), and it had a single-track mileage of .

It extended from Aberdeen to Portpatrick, and from Oban to Carlisle, running express passenger services and a heavy mineral traffic.

Early history

The Lanarkshire coal lines
In the closing years of the 18th century, the pressing need to bring coal cheaply to Glasgow from the plentiful Monklands coalfield had been met by the construction of the Monkland Canal, opened throughout in 1794. This encouraged development of the coalfield, but dissatisfaction at the monopoly prices said to be exacted by the canal led to the construction of the Monkland and Kirkintilloch Railway (M&KR), Scotland's first public railway; it opened in 1826. Development of the use of blackband ironstone by David Mushet, and the invention of the hot blast process of iron smelting by James Beaumont Neilson in 1828, led to a huge and rapid increase in iron production and demand for iron ore and coal in the Coatbridge area.

The industrial development led to the construction of other railways contiguous with the M&KR, in particular the Garnkirk and Glasgow Railway and the Wishaw and Coltness Railway. These two lines worked in harmony, merging to form the Glasgow, Garnkirk and Coatbridge Railway in 1841, and competing with the M&KR and its allies. All these lines used the local track gauge of , and they were referred to as "the coal lines"; passenger traffic was not a dominant activity.

English railways

During this period, the first long-distance railways were opened in England; the Liverpool and Manchester Railway, the first intercity line, opened in 1830 and was an immediate success. It was quickly followed by the Grand Junction Railway in 1837, the London and Birmingham Railway in 1838 and the North Union Railway reaching Preston in 1838, so that London was linked with the Lancashire and West Midlands centres of industry.

Connecting Scotland and London
It was clearly desirable to connect central Scotland into the emerging network. At first it was assumed that only one route from Scotland to England would be feasible, and there was considerable controversy over the possible route. A major difficulty was the terrain of the Southern Uplands: a route running through the hilly lands would involve steep and lengthy gradients that were challenging for the engine power of the time; a route around them, either to the west or the east, involved much lengthier main lines, and made connection to both Edinburgh and Glasgow more problematic.

Many competing schemes were put forward, not all of them well thought out, and two successive Government commissions examined them. However, they did not have mandatory force, and after considerable rivalry, the Caledonian Railway obtained an authorising Act of Parliament on 31 July 1845, for lines from Glasgow and Edinburgh to Carlisle. The share capital was to be £1,800,000 (equivalent to £ today).

The Glasgow and Edinburgh lines combined at Carstairs in Clydesdale, and the route then crossed over Beattock Summit and continued on through Annandale. The promoters had engaged in a frenzy of provisional acquisitions of other lines being put forward or already being constructed, as they considered it was vital to secure territory to their own control and to exclude competing concerns as far as possible. It was not the only Anglo-Scottish route; the North British Railway opened its coastal route between Edinburgh and Berwick-upon-Tweed on 22 June 1846, forming part of what has become the East Coast Main Line. The Glasgow, Paisley, Kilmarnock and Ayr Railway had opened in 1841 with the declared intention of reaching Carlisle by way of Dumfries; it did so in 1850, changing its name then to the Glasgow and South Western Railway.

The main line

The main line was opened from Carlisle to Beattock on 10 September 1847, and throughout between Glasgow and Carlisle on 15 February 1848. A continuous railway route between Glasgow and London existed for the first time. (It had been possible to travel via Edinburgh and Newcastle upon Tyne since 1846, but this involved crossing the River Tweed at Berwick by road, and the River Tyne at Gateshead / Newcastle by congested road bridge or ferry.)

The Caledonian Railway's Edinburgh line from Carstairs opened on 1 April 1848. The terminal at Edinburgh was at Lothian Road. Glasgow was reached over the Glasgow, Garnkirk and Coatbridge Railway (successor to the Garnkirk and Glasgow Railway), and the Wishaw and Coltness Railway, which the Caledonian had leased from 1 January 1847 and 1 January 1846 respectively. The Glasgow station was the Townhead terminus of the Glasgow, Garnkirk and Coatbridge Railway.

During the process of seeking Parliamentary authorisation, the Caledonian observed that the Clydesdale Junction Railway was being promoted. The Caledonian acquired that line during its construction, and it opened in 1849. It gave an alternative and shorter access to another Glasgow passenger terminal, named South Side, and to the Clyde quays at General Terminus (over the connected General Terminus and Glasgow Harbour Railway). The South Side station was already being used by the Glasgow, Barrhead and Neilston Direct Railway, worked by the Caledonian. One day, they hoped, they might extend that line into Ayrshire. Meanwhile, the line was leased (for 999 years) to the Caledonian in 1849.

The Caledonian recognised that the Townhead terminus was unsatisfactory and constructed a deviation from Milton Junction to a new Glasgow terminus at Buchanan Street. It opened on 1 November 1849. Trains to Edinburgh, Stirling and Carlisle used the new station; the Stirling trains had to reverse at Gartsherrie Junction. The Garnkirk's old Glebe Street (Townhead) station was reduced to goods and mineral duties. In 1853–54 the Hayhill Fork, between Gartcosh and Garnqueen, was opened, enabling direct running from Buchanan Street towards Stirling.

Financial problems, and Greenock amalgamation
In the period between formation of the Caledonian Railway and the opening of the main line, a large number of leases and working arrangements had been concluded with other railways being promoted or built nearby. This was mostly done by guaranteeing those shareholders an income on their capital, which meant no immediate cash was required. When the lines started working, suddenly a huge periodical payment was required, and the income was inadequate to satisfy it. There were also suggestions of improper share acquisitions, and in the period 1848 to 1850 a number of shareholder inquiries disclosed bad practices, and many board members had to resign in February 1850.

The company had obtained Parliamentary powers to merge with the Glasgow, Paisley and Greenock Railway (GP&GR) in 1847, but even more alarming revelations of financial impropriety emerged regarding that company, and the Caledonian considered getting authorisation to cancel the amalgamation. However, it was later decided to proceed, and the amalgamation took place by Act of Parliament of 7 August 1851. The GP&GR operated the line between Glasgow and Paisley jointly with the Glasgow and South Western Railway (G&SWR), and the Paisley line used a terminus at Bridge Street in Glasgow.

The Caledonian now worked trains at three termini in Glasgow: Buchanan Street, South Side (from the Clydesdale Junction line, mostly used for local trains to Motherwell and Hamilton), and Bridge Street (on the Paisley line).

Gradually the financial difficulties were got under control, by economy, and by the discovery that several of the lease agreements were illegal. Handsome dividends continued to be paid, but it was not until March 1853 that the dividend was paid wholly from revenue.

South Lanarkshire: mainly mineral traffic

If the Caledonian Railway had been formed as an intercity trunk line, its attention was early on turned to other demands. Local interests in Lanark promoted a branch line to their town, opening in 1855. Coal owners in South Lanarkshire pressed for a railway connection, and the Lesmahagow Railway was formed by them, opening in 1856. It was later absorbed by the Caledonian, but other lines followed in the sparsely populated but mineral-rich area. As new coal mines opened, so new branches were needed, connecting Coalburn, Stonehouse, Strathaven, Muirkirk and Darvel and many other places, with new lines built right up until 1905. When the coal became exhausted in the second half of the 20th century, the railways were progressively closed; passenger traffic had always been light and it too disappeared. Only the passenger traffic to the Lanark and Larkhall branches remain in operation.

North Lanarkshire

In North Lanarkshire, the North British Railway was a keen competitor, having taken over the Monkland Railways. The area contained the rapidly-growing iron production area surrounding Coatbridge, and servicing that industry with coal and iron ore, and transport to local and more distant metal processing locations, dominated the Caledonian's activity in the region. The Rutherglen and Coatbridge line, later linking Airdrie, and the Carfin to Midcalder line were routes with significant passenger traffic. Many lines to coal and iron ore pits further east were built, but serving remote areas the lines closed when the mineral extraction ceased.

Developing the network: to 1880

Busby and East Kilbride

With the Barrhead line in full operation, interests in Busby wanted a railway connection. The wealthy middle class saw the town as an elegant location and the Busby Railway opened in 1866. Commuting was already in fashion. The line was extended to East Kilbride in 1868, although at that time the then small village did not generate much business for the railway.

Branches south of Carstairs
When the main line was built, no branches were provided in the thinly populated terrain of the Southern Uplands. Four independent companies made branches themselves, and the Caledonian built two.

The Symington, Biggar and Broughton Railway was opened in 1860, having been taken over by the Caledonian during construction. It was extended to Peebles in 1864.

In 1863 an independent line, the Dumfries, Lochmaben and Lockerbie Railway was opened. The line was encouraged by the Caledonian Railway, giving westward access into Dumfriesshire, and worked by it; the Caledonian acquired the line in 1865. The Portpatrick Railway had opened between Castle Douglas and Portpatrick in 1861–62 and the Caledonian Railway worked that railway; it obtained running powers over the G&SWR between Dumfries and Castle Douglas, and at a stroke the Caledonian had penetrated deep into the south-west, and to the ferry service to the north of Ireland, territory that the G&SWR had assumed was its own. The Portpatrick Railway later reformed with the Wigtownshire Railway as the Portpatrick and Wigtownshire Joint Railway; the Caledonian was a one-quarter owner.

The North British Railway opened its branch line to Dolphinton, east of Carstairs, and the Caledonian feared that the next step would be an incursion by the NBR into Caledonian territory, possibly seeking running powers on the main line. To head this off, the Caledonian built its own Dolphinton branch from Carstairs; it opened in 1867. Dolphinton had a population of 260 and two railways, and traffic was correspondingly meagre, and the line closed in 1945 to passengers and in 1950 to goods.

The independent Solway Junction Railway was opened in 1869, linking iron mines in Cumberland with the Caledonian Railway at Kirtlebridge, crossing the Solway Firth by a  viaduct; the company worked the line itself. It considerably shortened the route to the Lanarkshire ironworks, and was heavily used at first, but the traffic was depleted by cheap imported iron ore within a decade. The Scottish part of the line was acquired by the Caledonian Railway in 1873, and the whole line in 1895. Serious ice damage and later heavy maintenance costs made the line seriously unprofitable and it was closed in 1921.

Glasgow Central station
When the Caledonian's first main line opened, it used the Townhead terminus of the Glasgow, Garnkirk and Coatbridge Railway, and almost simultaneously, it acquired access to the South Side station planned for the Clydesdale Junction Railway. It extended from Townhead to Buchanan Street, an "inadequate and very cramped station" in 1849, but the route from there to the southwards main line was very circuitous. The Caledonian also worked the Glasgow, Paisley and Greenock Railway with a terminus at Bridge Street, also inconveniently situated south of the Clyde: the Caledonian, therefore, had three unsatisfactory Glasgow termini.

As early as 1846 proposals to cross the Clyde from Gushetfaulds to a Dunlop Street terminal had been put forward; the idea was killed by fierce opposition from the Clyde Bridges Trust (which would lose toll income) and the Admiralty (who insisted on a swing bridge).

Another scheme failed to get finance in 1866 and again in 1873, but in 1875 an Act was obtained to build a bridge crossing the Clyde and bringing the South Side route into the city centre. A four-track railway bridge crossing the river was designed by Blyth and Cunningham and built by Sir William Arrol & Co.; the Clyde railway bridge was complete on 1 October 1878. The new Glasgow Central station on Gordon Street opened in December 1879. It had eight platforms, but was considered to be unsatisfactory, having narrow platforms; the circulating area was "ridiculously small"; there was no good cab stance and inadequate siding accommodation.

The Bridge Street terminus was jointly operated with the Glasgow and South Western Railway (G&SWR); it had to be reconstructed as a through station, and the Greenock line trains (operated by the Caledonian) continued to use it.

A ninth platform was added to Central station in 1889, but a major expansion took place in the years 1901–1906, when the platforms were lengthened and four platforms added on the west side; a second river crossing was provided. In 1904 Bridge Street station was substantially changed to provide carriage washing and stabling facilities; it closed as a passenger station on 1 March 1905. Central station was operated by a single signal box, staffed with ten men. It was commissioned on 3 May 1908; it had 374 miniature levers, the largest of its type in the world, operating points and signals by electro-pneumatic and electro-magnetic equipment.

Extending the network after 1880

Moffat Railway
The Moffat Railway was opened from Beattock on 2 April 1883. It was just over  long. It was worked by the Caledonian and absorbed on 11 November 1889. The Caledonian Railway sought to develop both Moffat and Peebles as watering places, and ran The Tinto Express from both places, combining at Symington, to Edinburgh and Glasgow for several years.

With the intention of revitalising the lead mining industry, the Leadhills and Wanlockhead Branch was opened as a light railway from Elvanfoot in 1901–02. With challenging gradients to reach Scotland's highest village in otherwise remote territory, the line scraped a bare living and closed in 1938.

From Greenock to the Firth of Clyde
In the mid-1850s the steamer connections on the Firth of Clyde assumed ever increasing importance, and journey transit times from settlements in Argyll and the islands to Glasgow became critical. The inconvenient situation of the Greenock station and pier encouraged thoughts of more convenient routes, and in 1862 the Greenock and Wemyss Bay Railway was authorised. It was an independent company intending to provide a fast connection from Rothesay on the Isle of Bute; it opened on 13 May 1865 and in August 1893 it amalgamated with the Caledonian Railway, having been operated by the Caledonian Railway since its opening.

In 1889 the Caledonian itself opened an extension line from Greenock to Gourock, more conveniently situated than Greenock; this involved the expensive construction of Newton Street Tunnel, the longest in Scotland.

In competing with rival rail and steamer connections, the Caledonian became frustrated with its reliance on independent steamer operators, and tried to obtain powers to operate the vessels directly; this was refused by Parliament on competition grounds, and in reaction the company founded the nominally independent Caledonian Steam Packet Company in 1889. The CSPC expanded its routes and services considerably; following nationalisation of the railways in 1948 it became owned by British Railways, but was divested in 1968 and later became a constituent of Caledonian MacBrayne (CalMac), which remains in state ownership.

Glasgow and Paisley suburban lines
In the final decades of the 19th century, as the cities spread into conurbations, the company's attention turned to increasing traffic in areas now thought of as "suburban". Street running tramways were already responding to the demand for passenger travel in these areas, but as yet they used horse traction.

The Cathcart District Railway was promoted as an independent concern but heavily supported by the Caledonian. It opened in 1886 from Pollokshields to Mount Florida and Cathcart (the eastern arm of the present-day Cathcart Circle Line) in 1886, and was extended via Shawlands to form a loop in 1894. It was worked by the Caledonian, although the company retained its independence until 1923.

The Glasgow Central Railway was authorised as an independent company to build a surface line from Rutherglen to Maryhill. It encountered fierce opposition, and the scheme was taken over by the Caledonian and converted into a route mainly in tunnel under Argyle Street. It opened in 1896, further encouraging suburban passenger travel. It closed in 1959 but reopened (as the Argyle Line) in 1979.

The Paisley and Barrhead District Railway was incorporated in 1897 and transferred to the Caledonian in 1902; it was to link Paisley and Barrhead and enable a circular service from Glasgow. The line was substantially ready in 1902 but by now street tramways were electrically operated and eminently successful. It was plain that a passenger service would not be viable against tram competition and the intended passenger service was never started.

North Clydeside
The area of the north bank of the river Clyde became increasingly important for industry, and therefore became heavily populated. The North British Railway and its satellites had gained an early monopoly of this traffic, but its importance encouraged the Caledonian to enter the area.

The Lanarkshire and Dumbartonshire Railway was nominally independent, running from near Maryhill to Dumbarton, opening progressively between 1894 and 1896. In 1896 the Caledonian gained access to Loch Lomond with the opening of the Dumbarton and Balloch Joint Railway (originally built by the Caledonian and Dumbartonshire Junction Railway), built jointly with the NBR.

The Lanarkshire and Ayrshire Railway
In 1888 the Lanarkshire and Ayrshire Railway opened a  line from Giffen on the Glasgow, Barrhead and Kilmarnock Joint Railway to Ardrossan. Its purpose was to shorten the route for Caledonian mineral traffic, and it was worked by the Caledonian. In 1903–04 it was extended eastwards to Cathcart and Newton, enabling the heavy mineral trains to avoid the Joint Line and the congested area around Gushetfaulds from the Lanarkshire coalfields to Ardrossan Harbour.

Edinburgh and Lothians

The Caledonian Railway entered Edinburgh from Carstairs on 15 February 1848; its terminus was a one-platform station named Lothian Road. This was the first line to offer travel without change of carriage between Edinburgh and London: passengers on the rival North British Railway needed to cross the River Tweed on foot to continue their rail journey.

The unsatisfactory Edinburgh terminus needed improvement but funds were limited, and the Caledonian built a short spur to Haymarket; talks had taken place about using the E&GR and NBR station, later named Waverley; but the NBR rejected the idea. Eventually in 1870 the Lothian Road station was much improved and extended, and the new terminus was named Princes Street.

The owner of Granton Harbour encouraged, and half-funded, the construction of a branch from near Lothian Road, and this opened in 1861. A branch from the Granton line to Leith Docks was made in 1864. This line was opened to passengers from 1879: the Leith terminal was later renamed Leith North. After 1900 the port authorities built new modern docks to the east of the former Leith docks, and the Caledonian further extended its Leith line to reach the new facilities: the Leith New Lines opened in 1903. It had been planned to open a passenger service on the line, and passenger stations had been built, but tram competition made it clear that an inner suburban passenger railway was unviable and the passenger service was never inaugurated.

The Edinburgh main line passed close to numerous mineral workings, and several short branches and connections were made to collieries, iron workings and shale oil plants. The Wilsontown branch from Auchengray, opened in 1860 was the most significant, and carried a passenger service.

The original Wishaw and Coltness Railway, now leased by the Caledonian, had long since reached Cleland ironworks from the west, and in 1869 the line was extended from near there to Midcalder Junction on the Edinburgh main line, passing through Shotts, Fauldhouse and Midcalder. This line connected to many further mines and industrial sites, and gave the Caledonian a passenger route between Glasgow and Edinburgh that competed with the North British Railway's route through Falkirk.

The first main line had bypassed a considerable centre of industry located on the Water of Leith southwest of Edinburgh, and a branch line to Balerno opened on 1 August 1874. The line was successful in encouraging residential building, especially at Colinton, and also leisure excursions: for a time it was known as "the picnic line", but it too succumbed to more convenient transport facilities by road, and it closed to passengers in 1943.

Speculative residential development encouraged the construction of a line to Barnton, west of Edinburgh. The branch line opened on 1 March 1894; the terminus was named Cramond Brig at first. The Caledonian intended to make the line into a loop, returning to the city by way of Corstorphine, but this idea was shelved.

Stirling, Perth, Callander and Crieff
The Caledonian Railway had intended to lease, or absorb, the Scottish Central Railway (SCR), which obtained its Act of Parliament on the same day as the Caledonian. The SCR needed a partner railway to get access to Glasgow and Edinburgh, but the rival Edinburgh and Glasgow Railway (E&GR) would provide that. The SCR opened from Greenhill Junction with the E&GR to Perth on 22 May 1848, and the Caledonian opened its branch to reach Greenhill Junction on 7 August 1848. The SCR remained independent for some time, mainly because of Parliamentary opposition to proposed mergers. The SCR built Perth General station, which became the focus of several railways at that traffic centre, and a Joint Committee managed the station.

The SCR itself managed to absorb some local railways; the Crieff Junction Railway had opened from Crieff to what later became Gleneagles station in 1856, and it was worked by the SCR and absorbed in 1865.

In 1858 the Dunblane, Doune and Callander Railway was opened in 1858. It achieved considerable significance as the starting point for the Callander and Oban Railway, described below. It was absorbed by the SCR in 1865 immediately before the SCR amalgamated with the Caledonian Railway on 1 August 1865, finally having gained Parliamentary approval to do so.

The Scottish Central Railway was absorbed by the Caledonian Railway in 1865.

North and east of Perth
Several railways obtained their Acts of Parliament on the same day as the Caledonian, on 31 July 1845. There was a frenzy of railway promotion in that year, and it seemed as if every locality must have its own line. The Scottish Central Railway had been described above; the Scottish Midland Junction Railway (SMJR), the Aberdeen Railway and the Dundee and Perth Railway also got their Acts on the same day.

The SMJR built a line from Perth to Forfar; at Perth it used the Scottish Central Railway joint station. The main line ran through the fertile area of Strathmore and the SMJR adopted two existing short lines that were on a suitable alignment. They were the Newtyle and Coupar Angus Railway and the Newtyle and Glammiss Railway. Both were unsuccessful adjuncts to the Dundee and Newtyle Railway, built using stone block sleepers and a track gauge of . The two short lines were modernised and altered to double track using standard gauge. At Forfar the SMJR joined the Arbroath and Forfar Railway, another earlier stone block railway, in this case using the track gauge of . The SMJR opened in 1848.

The Inchture Express was a horse-drawn carriage service operated by the Caledonian Railway Company. Its rails "ran along a hedge-lined route" to Inchture railway station. It later closed and the rails were lifted.

The Aberdeen Railway was to run north from Guthrie, a few miles northwest of Arbroath. Joining the Arbroath and Forfar Railway there, it obtained access to both termini of that line. It was authorised to lease the A&FR. The Aberdeen Railway may have underestimated the cost of upgrading the A&FR's stone block track, and it ran out of money building its own main line; its construction was delayed and it encountered political difficulty in Aberdeen itself. It opened in 1850 to Ferryhill, on the southern margin of the city, extending to Guild Street station in 1854. There were branches to Brechin and Montrose.

At this early stage the Caledonian Railway saw itself as the future creator of an extensive network in Scotland, and it set about gaining control of as many other Scottish railways as possible. It did so not by purchasing them, but by leasing them. This had the advantage that no payment was required at first, only a periodical payment much later. The Caledonian negotiated with the SCR, the SMJR and the Aberdeen Railway and believed it had captured them, but the SCR had other ideas. Much later the Caledonian found that the periodical lease payments were unaffordable, and it was rescued by the legal opinion that the lease agreements had been ultra vires.

The Dundee and Perth Railway opened in 1847; it was taken over by the Scottish Central Railway, and its network came to the Caledonian with the SCR when that company was taken over by the Caledonian in 1865.

The Scottish Midland Junction Railway opened in 1848 from Perth to Forfar, giving onward access to Aberdeen. The SMJR and the Aberdeen Railway amalgamated in 1856 to form the Scottish North Eastern Railway in 1856. The SNER did not remain independent for long: it was absorbed by the Caledonian in 1866. At the time of the absorption the SNER and the Great North of Scotland Railway were engaged in building a through line at Aberdeen, with a new Joint station; it opened in 1867.

The Caledonian had now got what it had wanted from the outset: control of an extensive network of lines covering a considerable territorial area. This came at a cost: Parliament became increasingly uncomfortable with monopolies of this kind, and when the North British Railway protested, it was given running powers over much of the Caledonian's northern system. There was worse to come: as the North British approached Dundee with the building of the Tay Bridge, which opened in 1878, the NBR sought and was given joint ownership of the Dundee and Arbroath Railway, which became jointly owned in 1881. The NBR had already built an independent line from Arbroath to Kinnaber Junction, north of Montrose, and so, with the opening in 1890 of the Forth Bridge immediately north of Edinburgh, the NBR now had a rival route to Aberdeen. Competition between the companies on the east and west coast routes from London to Aberdeen led in 1895 to what the press called the Race to the North.

Acquisition of the SNER and other lines brought a number of branch lines to communities off the main line. A number of infill lines were added towards the end of the 19th century. The Dundee and Forfar direct line was opened by the Caledonian in 1870 between Broughty Ferry and Forfar, developing commuter travel to Dundee but otherwise only a rural line. The Forfar and Brechin Railway was promoted as a potential alternative main line; it opened in 1895 but remained simply a rural branch.

Callander and Oban Railway
The Callander and Oban Railway was an independent company intended to connect the western seas to the railway network, but it had been promised financial support by the Scottish Central Railway (SCR). The Caledonian absorbed the SCR in 1865 and the directors were dismayed at the level of commitment to a difficult construction scheme barely started. Construction took many years, reaching a "Killin" station in 1870 and completing in 1880, and money was always desperately tight.

The line was never profitable although it contributed greatly to the development of the town of Oban. A branch was built to Ballachulish, opened in 1903.

The western part of the line from Crianlarich to Oban is open today, connected to the ex-NBR West Highland Line, but the remainder has closed.

The Strathearn lines
The Perth, Almond Valley and Methven Railway opened in 1858 to connect Methven to the SMJR network; it was extended to Crieff when the Crieff & Methven Railway opened in 1866.

Crieff now had two railway connections, using the same station. The upsurge in tourism in Strathearn encouraged many visitors, who used Crieff as a railhead and continued by road. In 1893 the Crieff and Comrie Railway made a short extension into Strathearn, and this encouraged ideas of completing a link right through to the Callander and Oban line. There were wild dreams of Irish cattle imports coming to Perth markets over the route. This became the Lochearnhead, St Fillans and Comrie Railway; due to serious problems raising capital, it took from 1901 to 1905 to open fully. The through traffic never developed and passenger connections at Balquhidder were poor, discouraging through travel.

Notable accidents

On 2 October 1872, an express passenger train was in collision with a freight train that was being shunted at  on the main line due to errors by the station master and signalman, compounded by a lack of interlocking and absolute block working. Twelve people were killed.
On 23 October 1899, an express passenger train was in collision with a cattle train at . One person was killed.
On 6 April 1906, an express freight train was derailed  south of  due to the failure of a wheel on the third wagon of the train. The derailed wagons fouled the opposite line; an express passenger train ran into them and was derailed. One person was killed and several were injured.
On 2 April 1909, a passenger train became divided and was derailed at  when the crank axle of the locomotive hauling it failed. A few passengers suffered minor injuries.
On 22 May 1915, a troop train was in a head-on collision at Quintinshill due to a signalman's error. An express passenger train then ran into the wreckage. A fire then broke out which killed 226 people and injured 246 in what remains the deadliest railway accident in the United Kingdom . Two signalmen were later jailed for culpable homicide.

Office holders

Chairmen

Robert Hamilton, 8th Lord Belhaven and Stenton 1844
William Lockhart MP 1844
John James Hope Johnstone 1845 - 1850
The Hon Edward Plunkett, RN 1850
John Duncan 1850 - 1852
William Baird 1852 - 1854
William Johnston 1854 - 1859
Thomas Hill 1868 - 1880
J.C. Bolton 1880 - 1897
James Clark Bunten (engineer) 1898 - 1901
Sir James Thompson 1901 - 1906
Sir James King, 1st Baronet 1906  - 1908
Sir Charles Bine Renshaw, 1st Baronet 1908 - 1918
Henry Allan 1918 - 1923

Chief mechanical engineers

 Robert Sinclair 1847–1856
 Benjamin Connor 1856–1876
 George Brittain 1876–1882
 Dugald Drummond 1882–1890
 Hugh Smellie 1890
 John Lambie 1891–1895
 John F. McIntosh 1895–1914
 William Pickersgill 1914–1923

Armorial bearing
From July 1865, the Caledonian Railway adopted "a version of the Scottish arms, without, so far as is known, getting the blessing of the Lord Lyon King of Arms". This was a lion rampant with a riband bearing the motto of the Order of the Thistle, Nemo me impune lacessit. Above there was a crest showing helmet surmounted by a crown; the supporters were unicorns. This was slightly modified in August 1866 and from September 1888 a further riband was added below the motto; this bore the words Caledonian Railway Company. From the base of the shield hung a medallion of St Andrew. A lion sejant affronted was superimposed on the crest, above which was the inscription In Defence (an anglicisation of the Scots language spelling In Defens). The motto was now worded Nemo me impune lacesset but this was corrected to Nemo me impune lacessit in 1899.

See also
 Carlisle railway history
 Locomotives of the Caledonian Railway

References

External links

The Caledonian Railway Association
The Caledonian Railway on Railscot

Notes

Sources

Further reading
 Mullay, A. J. (2010) Through Scotland with the Caledonian Railway.

Companies based in Glasgow
Early Scottish railway companies
London, Midland and Scottish Railway constituents
Pre-grouping British railway companies
1830 establishments in Scotland
Railway companies established in 1830
British companies established in 1830
1923 disestablishments in Scotland

Caledonian Railway


Alabando (del griego antiguo, Ἀλάβανδος y latín, Alabandus), en la mitología griega, fue un héroe de Caria hijo de Erippo y de Caro (a veces, también denominada Car, Cares o Callirhoe).

Fue el fundador de la ciudad de Alabanda, en Caria, Asia Menor, donde después de su muerte sería adorado por sus habitantes como una divinidad.

Cicerón cita al músico ateniense Estratónico, que decía: "Dejemos que Alabando sea mi enemigo, pero que Hércules sea el suyo", porque se había cansado de los elogios que los carios otorgaban incesantemente a su mítico fundador, en detrimento de los cultos más específicamente romanos (como, Hércules, despreciado por los carios).

Aunque su nombre original se desconoce, según una leyenda, después de haber ganado un premio en una carrera de caballos, el pueblo lo denominó Alabandus, ya que la palabra en lengua caria para "caballo" era ala, y para expresar la "victoria ", banda y de ahí el nombre de la ciudad que fundaría. Por tanto, también a veces se le daba el nombre de Hipónico.

Referencias

Fuentes

Héroes de la mitología griega
Caria

Alabando


Marion Gene Snyder (* 26. Januar 1928 in Louisville, Kentucky; † 16. Februar 2007 in Naples, Florida) war ein US-amerikanischer Politiker. Zwischen 1963 und 1987 vertrat er mit einer Unterbrechung in den Jahren 1965 bis 1967 den Bundesstaat Kentucky im US-Repräsentantenhaus.

Werdegang
Gene Snyder besuchte die öffentlichen Schulen seiner Heimat und danach die DuPont Manual High School. Anschließend studierte er bis 1950 an der University of Louisville unter anderem Jura. Nach seiner im selben Jahr erfolgten Zulassung als Rechtsanwalt begann er in Louisville in diesem Beruf zu arbeiten. Von 1954 bis 1958 war er juristischer Vertreter der Gemeinde Jeffersontown. Zwischen 1958 und 1962 gehöre er dem Kreisrat im Jefferson County an. Damals war Snyder auch im Versicherungswesen, im Immobiliengeschäft, in der Landwirtschaft und beim Wohnungsbau tätig.

Politisch war Snyder Mitglied der Republikanischen Partei. In den Jahren 1968, 1976, 1980 und 1984 nahm er als Delegierter an den jeweiligen Republican National Conventions teil, auf denen Richard Nixon, Gerald Ford und schließlich Ronald Reagan als Präsidentschaftskandidaten nominiert wurden. Bei den Kongresswahlen des Jahres 1962 wurde Snyder im dritten Wahlbezirk von Kentucky in das US-Repräsentantenhaus in Washington, D.C. gewählt, wo er am 3. Januar 1963 die Nachfolge des Demokraten Frank W. Burke antrat. Da er im Jahr 1964 gegen Charles R. Farnsley verlor, konnte er bis zum 3. Januar 1965 nur eine Legislaturperiode im Kongress absolvieren. Im Jahr 1964 war er einer der wenigen Republikaner, die gegen den Civil Rights Act stimmten.

Bei den Wahlen des Jahres 1966 bewarb sich Snyder im vierten Distrikt von Kentucky erfolgreich um seine Rückkehr in den Kongress. Dort löste er am 3. Januar 1967 Frank Chelf ab. Nach neun Wiederwahlen konnte er bis zum 3. Januar 1987 zehn weitere zusammenhängende Legislaturperioden im Repräsentantenhaus absolvieren. In diese Zeit fielen unter anderem der Vietnamkrieg und die Watergate-Affäre. 1986 verzichtete Snyder auf eine erneute Kandidatur. Danach hat er kein weiteres höheres politisches Amt mehr bekleidet. Gene Snyder starb am 16. Februar 2007 in Naples.

Weblinks

Mitglied des Repräsentantenhauses der Vereinigten Staaten für Kentucky
Mitglied der Republikanischen Partei
Rechtsanwalt (Vereinigte Staaten)
US-Amerikaner
Geboren 1928
Gestorben 2007
Mann

Gene Snyder


منير فخري عبد النور (القاهرة 21 أغسطس 1945م -) عُيّن وزيرًا للسياحة في حكومة أحمد شفيق وبقي في منصبه في حكومة عصام شرف ثم حكومة كمال الجنزوري . وهو خبير برلماني وسكرتير عام حزب الوفد الجديد وعضو مجلس إدارة البورصة، وعضو بالمجلس القومي لحقوق الإنسان (المستقيل) وعضو مجلس إدارة مركز بحوث ودراسات الدول النامية وكان من مغامرين قلائل في سوق الغذاء عبر شركة فيتراك للصناعات الغذائية.
كان نائبًا في مجلس الشعب في برلمان 2000م عن دائرة الوايلي.
جدير بالذكر أنه حفيد فخري بك عبد النور، والذي كان أحد أقطاب الوفد البارزين وأحد المشاركين في ثورة 1919.

مراجع

أشخاص على قيد الحياة
أصحاب أعمال أقباط
أصحاب أعمال مصريون
أعضاء جبهة الإنقاذ الوطني
أعضاء مجلس الشعب المصري 2000
أعلام مصريون من أصل قبطي
أقباط
حكومة عصام شرف
حكومة كمال الجنزوري
خريجو الجامعة الأمريكية بالقاهرة
خريجو جامعة القاهرة
سياسيون أقباط
مسيحيون أقباط من مصر
مليارديرات مصريون
مواليد 1364 هـ
مواليد 1945
مواليد في القاهرة
وزارة حازم الببلاوي
وزراء استثمار مصريون
وزراء تجارة خارجية وصناعة مصريون
وزراء سياحة مصريون

منير فخري عبد النور


243320 Jackuipers este un asteroid din centura principală de asteroizi.

Descriere
243320 Jackuipers este un asteroid din centura principală de asteroizi. A fost descoperit pe  la Calvin-Rehoboth la Observatorul Calvin College. Asteroidul prezintă o orbită caracterizată de o semiaxă mare de 3,37 ua, o excentricitate de 0,08 și o înclinație de 7,6° în raport cu ecliptica.

Vezi și
 Lista planetelor minore: 243001-244000
 Centura de asteroizi

Referințe

Asteroizi Cybele

Obiecte astronomice descoperite în 2008
Centura de asteroizi

243320 Jackuipers


Kangaroo Jack este un film de comedie american din anul 2003 regizat de David McNally. În rolurile principale joacă actorii Jerry O'Connell, Anthony Anderson și Estella Warren.

Distribuție
 Jerry O'Connell — Charlie Carbone
 Anthony Anderson — Louis Booker
 Estella Warren — Jessa
 Michael Shannon — Frankie Lombardo
 Christopher Walken — Salvatore

Note

Legături externe

Filme din 2003
Filme în limba engleză
Filme americane
Filme australiene
Filme de comedie din anii 2000
Filme de comedie americane
Filme de comedie
Filme Warner Bros.
Filme cu acțiunea în avioane

Kangaroo Jack


Christian IV - Den sidste rejse er en dansk spillefilm fra 2018 instrueret af Kasper Skovsbøl.

Handling
Filmen er en historie om Kong Christian IV's stormfulde forhold til Kirsten Munk og beskriver de afgørende sidste timer i kongens liv, fortalt fra den karet, der fragtede kongen på hans dødsleje fra Frederiksborg til Rosenborg Slot i København. Omdrejningspunktet er Christian og Kirstens turbulente ægteskab med anklager om utroskab og mordforsøg.

Referencer

Eksterne henvisninger

Spillefilm fra Danmark
Danske film fra 2017

Christian IV - Den sidste rejse


Popis stanica podzemne željeznice u Bakuu pregled je svih stanica podzemne željeznice u Bakuu. Ukupno ima 27 stanice. Linija 1 ima 13 metro stanica, Linija 2 ima 10 metro stanica i Linija 3 ima 4 metro stanice.

Stanice

Izvori

Vanjske poveznice

 Službena stranica Bakuanske podzemne željeznice

Baku
Građevine u Bakuu


was a town located in Taka District, Hyōgo Prefecture, Japan.

As of 2003, the town had an estimated population of 7,296 and a density of 86.80 persons per km2. The total area was 84.06 km2.

On November 1, 2005, Kami, along with the towns of Naka and Yachiyo (all from Taka District), was merged to create the town of Taka.

External links
 Kami official website in Japanese

Dissolved municipalities of Hyōgo Prefecture
Taka, Hyōgo

Kami, Hyōgo (Taka)


පිශුනාවාචය යනු අසන්නාට තමා ප්‍රියයෙකු වී, අනෙකෙකු අප්‍රියයෙකු වන ආකාරයේ වචන ප්‍රකාශ කිරීම ය.

එනම් කේළාම් කීම. පිශුනාවාච අකුසලය සඳහා සම්පූර්ණ විය යුතු අංග:
 භේද කිරීම සඳහා පුද්ගලයෙක් සිටීම
 ඔහු හා වෙනත් කෙනෙකු භේද කිරීමේ චේතනාව
 ඔවුන් භේද කිරීම සඳහා යමක් කීම
 ඇසූ තැනැත්තා විසින් එය තේරුම් ගැනීම

පිශුනාවාචය


Østofte Mølle er en stubmølle, der ligger lige uden for Nørreballe, Lolland. Den er opført i 1641, og er bygget helt af træ. Bygningen blev fredet i 1964. Den ligger på det højeste sted i Østofte, nordvest for selve byen.

Møllen var i funktion helt frem til 1943. I 1970 blev møllen renoveret, hvilket sket igen i 1990'erne. I 1992 blev vedligeholdet overtaget af en frivillig forening, der driver møllen i dag.

Se også
 Vindmøller på Lolland-Falster
 Møllen på Historisk Atlas

Referencer

Litteratur
 Lebech-Sørensen, Anne Marie: Vindmøller og vandmøller i Danmark, bd. 4, Forlaget SKIB, 2009

Stubmøller i Danmark
Fredede industribygninger og tekniske anlæg i Danmark
Fredede bygninger, konstruktioner og anlæg i Lolland Kommune

Østofte Mølle


Earl of Donoughmore is a title in the Peerage of Ireland. It is associated with the Hely-Hutchinson family. Paternally of Gaelic Irish descent with the original name of Ó hÉalaighthe, their ancestors had long lived in the County Cork area as allies of the Mac Cárthaigh clan; they lost out during the times of Oliver Cromwell. One branch of the family converted to the Anglican Church and after inheriting territories through his mother and adding "Hutchinson" to Hely, became the Earl of Donoughmore.

History
The title Earl of Donoughmore was created in 1800 for Richard Hely-Hutchinson, 1st Viscount Donoughmore, with remainder to the heirs male of his mother. He was a General in the British Army and sat in the House of Lords as one of the 28 original Irish Representative Peers from 1800 to 1825. Hely-Hutchinson had already been created Viscount Donoughmore, of Knocklofty in the County of Tipperary, in the Peerage of Ireland in 1797, and was made Viscount Hutchinson, of Knocklofty in the County of Tipperary, in the Peerage of the United Kingdom, in 1821. These titles were also created with remainder to the heirs male of his mother. Lord Donoughmore was the eldest son of the Irish statesman and lawyer John Hely-Hutchinson, who married Christiana, daughter of Abraham Nixon (or Nickson) and niece and heiress of Richard Hutchinson of Knocklofty in County Tipperary, whose surname she and her husband adopted. In 1783 Christiana was raised to the Peerage of Ireland in honour of her husband as Baroness Donoughmore, of Knocklofty in the County of Tipperary.

The first Earl was succeeded according to the special remainder (and normally in the barony of Donoughmore) by his younger brother, the second Earl. He was also a General in the British Army. In 1801 he was created Baron Hutchinson, of Alexandria and Knocklofty in the County of Tipperary, in the Peerage of the United Kingdom, with remainder to the heirs male of his body. Lord Donoughmore also served as Lord-Lieutenant of County Tipperary from 1831 to 1832. On his death in 1832 the barony of 1801 became extinct while he was succeeded in the other titles by his nephew, the third Earl. He was the son of the Honourable Francis Hely-Hutchinson, third son of the first Baroness Donoughmore and John Hely-Hutchinson. He briefly represented Tipperary in the House of Commons and served as Lord-Lieutenant of County Tipperary. He was succeeded by his son, the fourth Earl. He was a Conservative politician and served in the Earl of Derby's second administration as Paymaster General and President of the Board of Trade. His grandson, the fifth Earl, was also a Conservative politician and held office as Under-Secretary of State for War from 1903 to 1904 under Arthur Balfour. He was succeeded by his son, the sixth Earl, a noted Irish Freemason. His son, the seventh Earl, sat as Conservative Member of Parliament for Peterborough from 1943 to 1945.  the titles are held by the latter's eldest son, the eighth Earl, who succeeded in 1981.

Another member of the Hely-Hutchinson family was the Honourable Christopher Hely-Hutchinson (1767–1826), fifth son of Baroness Donoughmore and John Hely-Hutchison. He represented Cork City in the House of Commons. The Honourable Sir Walter Hely-Hutchinson, younger son of the fourth Earl, was the last Governor of the Cape Colony. The Honourable Tim Hely Hutchinson, second son of the eighth Earl, is a publisher.

The family seat now is The Manor House, near Bampton, Oxfordshire. The former family seat was Knocklofty House, near Clonmel, County Tipperary, in Ireland, which is now a hotel. The Knocklofty Estate was sold by the family in the 1970s.

The heir apparent to the earldom uses the invented courtesy title Viscount Suirdale (pronounced "Shure-dale"). This derives from the fact that the territorial designation of the Irish viscountcy of Donoughmore was erroneously thought to be "of Suirdale".

Barons Donoughmore (1783)
Christiana Hely-Hutchinson, 1st Baroness Donoughmore (1732–1788)
Richard Hely-Hutchinson, 2nd Baron Donoughmore (1756–1825) (created Earl of Donoughmore in 1800)

Earls of Donoughmore (1800)
Richard Hely-Hutchinson, 1st Earl of Donoughmore (1756–1825)
John Hely-Hutchinson, 2nd Earl of Donoughmore (1757–1832)
John Hely-Hutchinson, 3rd Earl of Donoughmore (1787–1851)
Richard John Hely-Hutchinson, 4th Earl of Donoughmore (1823–1866)
John Luke George Hely-Hutchinson, 5th Earl of Donoughmore (1848–1900)
Richard Walter Hely-Hutchinson, 6th Earl of Donoughmore (1875–1948)
John Michael Henry Hely-Hutchinson, 7th Earl of Donoughmore (1902–1981)
Richard Michael John Hely-Hutchinson, 8th Earl of Donoughmore (born 1927)

The heir apparent is the present holder's eldest son John Michael James Hely-Hutchinson, Viscount Suirdale (born 1952)
The heir apparent's heir apparent is his son Hon. Richard Gregory Hely-Hutchinson (born 1980)

References

Attribution

Kidd, Charles, Williamson, David (editors). Debrett's Peerage and Baronetage (1990 edition). New York: St Martin's Press, 1990,

Earldoms in the Peerage of Ireland
Earl
Noble titles created in 1800

Earl of Donoughmore


L. M. Arcade, pseudonimul lui Leonid Mămăligă, ) a fost un prozator român, expatriat în Franța.

Biografie
S-a născut la Vaslui în familia ofițerului Mina Mămăligă și al soției lui, Sempronia (n. Terfaloga). A urmat școala primară la Lugoj și Lipcani, iar gimnaziul și liceul la Lipcani și Lugoj, trecând examenul de bacalaureat în 1940. A absolvit cursurile Facultății de Drept din București în 1944, urmând în paralel trei ani de studii la Facultatea de Filosofie a Universității din București, fără a-și susține examenul de licență.

În 1946 a obținut din partea guvernului francez o bursă de studii de doctorat în economie la Paris și s-a stabilit definitiv în Franța în 1947, considerându-se exilat din convingeri antimarxiste. A urmat acolo cursuri de economie politică și drept public, fără a absolvi. A lucrat ca director literar adjunct (1949-1950) al editurii pariziene Pavois, apoi director comercial (1951-1952) și director (1952-1976) al societății Colos-Rex-Rotary.

Activitatea literară
L. M. Arcade a debutat cu articolul "Cele două Europe", apărut în 1943 în ziarul Vremea, publicând acolo în anii următori diferite articole pe teme economice. În 1946 a polemizat cu George Călinescu în ziarul Dreptatea cu privire la procesul mareșalului Antonescu.

În timpul exilului francez a publicat proză în mai multe publicații românești. A editat cinci volume din Caietele Inorogului, în colaborare cu Mircea Eliade și Horia Stamatu, și a găzduit un cenaclu românesc în casa lui din Neuilly-sur-Seine, la care au participat personalități ca Emil Cioran, Horia Stamatu, Monica Lovinescu sau Virgil Ierunca.

În opinia criticului Ion Simuț "proza lui Arcade are rafinamentul lingvistic al unui calofil și savoarea oralității povestitorilor sudici". Poveste cu țigani (1965) și Revoluție culturală (1983) sunt două romane alegorice, pe care criticul Ion Negoițescu le considera "anti-utopii în toată puterea cuvântului". Romanul Poveste cu țigani a fost asemănată cu scrierile lui Ion Creangă, I.L. Caragiale, Mateiu Caragiale și Urmuz, iar unii critici au afirmat că el reprezintă "o fundamentală înnoire a prozei românești" sau "o piatră de hotar în istoria scrisului românesc".

Opera
 Poveste cu țigani, în Caietele Inorogului, Paris, 1965;
 Revoluție culturală, în Caietele Inorogului, Paris, 1983;
 Poveste cu țigani, București, 1996;
 Revoluție culturală, București, 1996;
 Teatru, București, 1996.

Note

Lectură suplimentară
 Claudia Drăgănoiu, La prose littéraire d'exil : Vintilă Horia, Constantin Virgil Gheorghiu et L. M. Arcade (Proză literară de exil: Vintilă Horia, Constantin Virgil Gheorghiu și L. M. Arcade), teză de doctorat, Strasbourg, Faculté des Lettres, Université de Strasbourg, 2011.

Nașteri în 1921
Decese în 2001
Prozatori români

L. M. Arcade


Severo-Kurilsk (; , Kashiwabara) is a town and the administrative center of Severo-Kurilsky District of Sakhalin Oblast, Russia, located in the northern part of the Kuril Islands, on the island of Paramushir. Population:

History
The Ainu are the original inhabitants of Paramushir, which came under the control of the Russian Empire in the mid-18th century. Russian sovereignty was initially confirmed under the terms of the Treaty of Shimoda in 1855, but the island was transferred to the Empire of Japan per the Treaty of Saint Petersburg in 1875. The Japanese established a settlement, Kashiwabara, on the site of the largest Ainu village (Ottomai), which became the major port on the island, and a center for the commercial fishing industry, particularly for herring. The village was named for the captain of the survey vessel Iwaki, which charted the coasts of the island in 1875. The village had the northernmost post office in Japan. During World War II Kashiwabara was strongly garrisoned by the Imperial Japanese Army and served as the headquarters of the IJA 91st Infantry Division. Kashiwabara Airfield was established in the outskirts of the village, and numerous fortifications and gun emplacements were built. The area was subject to sporadic air raids from the US Army Air Force and US Navy based in the Aleutian Islands from 1943 until the end of the war.

During the Invasion of the Kuril Islands, Soviet forces landed on Paramushir on August 18, 1945, and combat operations continued through August 23, ending with the surrender of the surviving members of the Japanese garrison. The Soviets forcibly deported the remaining Japanese civilian inhabitants and sent the prisoners of war to labor camps. Kashiwabara was renamed Severo-Kurilsk (Northern Kuril Town) and the island annexed by the Soviet Union in 1946.

On November 5, 1952 the town was completely destroyed by the 1952 Severo-Kurilsk tsunami, with at least 2,336 of the town's 6,000 inhabitants killed. Severo-Kurilsk was rebuilt on higher ground, and the population soon rose above its original level, however in the years since the dissolution of the Soviet Union and the associated economic crisis of the 1990s, the town's population has again declined.

The surrounding area has some remaining Japanese fortifications visible. On 25 March 2020, an earthquake of magnitude 7.5 struck near the town of Severo-Kurilsk.

Gallery

Administrative and municipal status
Within the framework of administrative divisions, Severo-Kurilsk serves as the administrative center of Severo-Kurilsky District and is subordinated to it. As a municipal division, the town of Severo-Kurilsk and one rural locality of Severo-Kurilsky District are incorporated as Severo-Kurilsky Urban Okrug.

Economy
Commercial fishing is virtually the only industry in the town.

Climate
Severo-Kurilsk has a  subarctic climate (Köppen Dfc). The monthly average temperature is greater than 10 degrees Celsius only in August and September. Due to the influence of the cold current of the Oyashio current, it is cold and humid all year round. Severo-Kurilsk is above the 0°C isotherm and has very rarely, sporadic permafrost during the winter. Despite its northern latitude, temperatures are extremely mild as the ocean regulates the temperature.  The annual precipitation is more than five times that of Siberia. Winter lasts from December through April, the months where temperatures average below freezing. The summers are short, cold, and mostly cloudy. Winters are long, freezing, snowy, extremely windy, and overcast. During the winter season, Snow is extremely common and can be found blanketing the ground. Over the course of the year, the temperature typically varies from -6.4°C to 15.2°C and is rarely below -15°C or above 22°C.

Based on the tourism score, the best time of year to visit Severo-Kurilsk for warm-weather activities is for the entire month of August.

Sister city
 Nemuro, Hokkaido, Japan

References

Notes

Sources

Further reading
Krasheninnikov, Stepan Petrovich, and James Greive. The History of Kamtschatka and the Kurilski Islands, with the Countries Adjacent. Chicago: Quadrangle Books, 1963.
Rees, David. The Soviet Seizure of the Kuriles. New York: Praeger, 1985.

External links
Unofficial website of Severo-Kurilsk

Cities and towns in Sakhalin Oblast
Paramushir

Severo-Kurilsk


كريستين تايلور  ممثلة أمريكية من مواليد 30 يوليو 1971, كانت زوجة الممثل بن ستيلر وانفصلت عنه في 26 مايو 2017.

مراجع

مواقع خارجية

أشخاص على قيد الحياة
رومان كاثوليك أمريكيون
كوميديون من بنسيلفانيا
ممثلات أداء صوتي أمريكيات
ممثلات أفلام أمريكيات
ممثلات أمريكيات في القرن 20
ممثلات أمريكيات في القرن 21
ممثلات تلفزيون أمريكيات
ممثلات من بنسلفانيا
ممثلون من ألينتاون
مواليد 1971
مواليد في ألينتاون
نباتيون أمريكيون
ممثلات من ألينتاون

كريستين تايلور


Javni gradski promet u Osijeku čini mreža tramvajskih i autobusnih linija te taksi vozila. Glavninu javnog gradskog prometa obavlja Gradski prijevoz putnika Osijek (GPP), koji je operator tramvajskog i autobusnog prometa, dok promet taksijima obavlja više tvrtki.

Tramvajski promet

Tramvajski promet u Osijeku postoji od 1884. godine, kada je s radom krenuo konjski tramvaj. Elektrifikacija mreže obavljena je 1926. godine. Danas se promet odvija na dvije linije, ukupne duljine oko 30 kilometara.

Tramvajske linije
 1: Zeleno Polje – Višnjevac
 2: Trg Ante Starčevića – Bikara

Vozni park
Vozni park trenutačno se sastoji od 24 tramvaja, od čega je većina vozila, njih 17, tipa Tatra T3R.PV, dok ostatak čine vozila Düwag GT-6.

Autobusni promet

Autobusni promet u Osijeku uveden je 1912. godine, kad je privatni poduzetnik Josip Ehrendiener dobio obrtnu dozvolu za obavljanje gradskog autobusnog prometa najprije s dva, a potom s tri autobusa, točnije tadašnjih omnibusa. Iako je zbog njihove bučnosti te posljedične tréšnje zgrada i oštećivanja cesta gradska uprava imala donekle odbojan stav prema autobusima, ipak je izdala dozvolu, a 1913. godine i izradila Statut za javni promet za automobile - omnibuse, sve kako bi spriječila monopol Dioničkog društva za tramvaj, s kojim je bila u nesuglasicama. U takvoj situaciji autobusi su trebali biti tek privremeno rješenje dok grad ne uvede električne tramvaje. Gradski autobusi danas prometuju na desetak gradskih i prigradskih linija.

Autobusne linije
 1: Jug II – Kanižlićeva – Vijenac Petrove Gore – Retfala
 2: Jug II – Josipovac
 3: Čepin 3-4 – Industrijska zona Nemetin – Tenja 4-3
 4: Briješće – Filipovica – MIO – Tenja 4-3
 5: Bijelo Brdo – Đakovština
 6: Ivanovac – MIO
 7: Đakovština – Podravlje – Tvrđavica
 8: Jug II – KBC Osijek – Jug II
 9: Drinska – Uske njive – Drinska

Vozni park
Vozni park trenutačno broji 32, pretežno niskopodna autobusa marke MAN.

Taksi

Prigradska željeznica
Kao pojačanje tramvajskom i autobusnom prometu ŽTP Osijek je dana 10. rujna 1984. pokrenuo prigradsku željezničku liniju na relaciji Josipovac – Sarvaš, dugoj 23,5 kilometra, a koju su vlakovi prelazili u pola sata.  Iako se pokazala prihvatljivim rješenjem, zbog financijskih poteškoća nije se uspjela razviti te je ubrzo ukinuta.

Izvori

Vanjske poveznice

 Službene stranice GPP-a

Promet u Osijeku
Tramvajski promet u Osijeku
Osijek

Javni gradski promet u Osijeku