Richard Alan Clarke (born October 27, 1950) is an American national security expert, novelist, and former government official. He served as the Counterterrorism Czar as the National Coordinator for Security, Infrastructure Protection, and Counter-Terrorism for the United States between 1998 and 2003.

Clarke worked for the State Department during the presidency of Ronald Reagan. In 1992, President George H. W. Bush appointed him to chair the Counter-terrorism Security Group and to a seat on the United States National Security Council. President Bill Clinton retained Clarke and in 1998 promoted him to be the National Coordinator for Security, Infrastructure Protection, and Counter-terrorism, the chief counter-terrorism adviser on the National Security Council. Under President George W. Bush, Clarke initially continued in the same position but no longer had Cabinet-level access. He was later appointed as Special Advisor to the President on cybersecurity. Clarke left the Bush administration in 2003.

Clarke came to widespread public attention for his counter-terrorism role in March 2004: He published a memoir about his service in government, Against All Enemies, appeared on the 60 Minutes television news magazine, and testified before the 9/11 Commission. In all three cases, Clarke sharply criticized the Bush administration's attitude toward counter-terrorism before the September 11 attacks, and its decision afterward to wage war and invade Iraq. Clarke was criticized by some supporters of Bush's decisions.

After leaving U.S. government, with U.S. government legal approvals, Clarke helped the United Arab Emirates to set up a cyber security unit intended to protect their nation. Years after Clarke left, some components of the program were acquired by a sequence of firms, and it is reported they eventually surveilled women's rights activists, UN diplomats, and FIFA officials.

Background
Richard Clarke was born to a worker in a chocolate factory and a nurse in Boston, Massachusetts, in 1950. He attended the Boston Latin School, where he graduated in 1968. He attended college at the University of Pennsylvania, where he received a bachelor's degree in 1972. He had been selected to serve in the Sphinx Senior Society.

After starting as a management intern at the U.S. Department of Defense and later working as an analyst on European security issues, Clarke went to graduate school. He earned a master's degree in management in 1978 from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology.

Government career
In 1973, Clarke began work in the federal government as a management intern in the Department of Defense. He worked in numerous areas of defense while in headquarters.

From 1979 to 1985, he worked at the Department of State as a career analyst in the Bureau of Politico-Military Affairs. Beginning in 1985, Clarke was appointed by the Ronald Reagan administration as Deputy Assistant Secretary of State for Intelligence—his first political appointee position as a Republican Party member.

During the administration of George H. W. Bush, he was appointed as the Assistant Secretary of State for Political-Military Affairs. He coordinated diplomatic efforts to support the 1990–1991 Gulf War and subsequent security arrangements.

Democrat Bill Clinton kept Clarke on in his administration, appointing him in 1998 as National Coordinator for Security, Infrastructure Protection, and Counter-terrorism for the National Security Council. In this position, he had cabinet-level access to the president.

Clarke continued as counter-terrorism coordinator at the NSC during the first year of the George W. Bush administration, but no longer had access, as the position's scope was reduced. His written recommendations and memos had to go through layers of political appointees above him. In 2001, he was appointed as Special Advisor to the President on cybersecurity and cyberterrorism. He resigned from the Bush administration in early 2003.

Clarke's positions inside the government have included:
 United States Department of State 1985–1992
 Assistant Secretary of State for Politico-Military Affairs, 1989–1992
 Deputy Assistant Secretary of State for Intelligence, 1985–1988
 United States National Security Council, 1992–2003
 Special Advisor, 2001–2003
 National Coordinator for Security, Infrastructure Protection, and Counter-terrorism, 1998–2001
 Chairman of the Counter-terrorism Security Group, 1992–2003

Clinton administration
During the Rwandan genocide of 1994, Clarke advised Madeleine Albright, then–US Ambassador to the United Nations, to request the UN to withdraw all UN troops from the country. She refused, and permitted Lieutenant-General Roméo Dallaire to keep a few hundred UN troops; his forces saved tens of thousands from the genocide.

Later Clarke told Samantha Power, "It wasn't in American's national interest. If we had to do the same thing today and I was advising the President, I would advise the same thing." He supervised the writing of PDD-25, a classified Executive Order that established criteria for future U.S. participation in U.N. peacekeeping operations. It also proposed a reduced military and economic role for the United States in Rwanda.

After Islamists took control in Sudan in a 1989 coup d'état, the United States had adopted a policy of disengagement with the authoritarian regime throughout the 1990s. After the September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks, however, some critics charged that the U.S. should have moderated its policy toward Sudan earlier. The influence of Islamists there waned in the second half of the 1990s, and Sudanese officials began to indicate an interest in accommodating US concerns related to Osama bin Laden. He lived in Sudan until he was expelled in May 1996. (He was later revealed to be the planner of 9/11.)

Timothy M. Carney, U.S. ambassador to Sudan between September 1995 and November 1997, co-authored an op-ed in 2002 claiming that in 1997, Sudan offered to turn over its intelligence on bin Laden to the US, but that Susan Rice, as National Security Council (NSC) Africa specialist, together with NSC terrorism specialist Richard A. Clarke, successfully lobbied for continuing to bar U.S. officials, including the CIA and FBI, from engaging with the Khartoum government. Similar allegations (that Susan Rice joined others in missing an opportunity to cooperate with Sudan on counter-terrorism) were made by David Rose, Vanity Fair contributing editor, and Richard Miniter, author of Losing Bin Laden.

Clarke was involved in supervising the investigation of Ramzi Yousef, one of the main perpetrators of the 1993 World Trade Center bombing, who had traveled to the United States on an Iraqi passport. Yousef is the nephew of Khalid Sheikh Mohammed, a senior al-Qaeda member. Many in the Clinton administration and the intelligence community believed Yousef's ties were evidence linking al-Qaeda's activities and the government of Iraq.

In February 1999, Clarke wrote the Deputy National Security Advisor that a reliable source reported Iraqi officials had met with Bin Laden and may have offered him asylum. Clarke advised against surveillance flights to track bin Laden in Afghanistan: he said that anticipating an attack, "old wily Usama will likely boogie to Baghdad," where he would be impossible to find.  That year Clarke told the press in official statements that "Iraqi nerve gas experts" and al-Qaeda were linked to an alleged joint-chemical-weapons-development effort at the Al-Shifa pharmaceutical factory in Sudan.

Michael Scheuer is the former chief of the bin Laden Unit at the Counterterrorist Center at the CIA. Matthew Continetti wrote:

Scheuer believes that Clarke's risk aversion and politicking negatively impacted the hunt for bin Laden prior to September 11, 2001. Scheuer stated that his unit, codename "Alec," had provided information that could have led to the capture and or killing of Osama bin Laden on ten occasions during the Clinton administration, only to have his recommendations for action turned down by senior intelligence officials, including Clarke.

Operation Orient Express

In 1996, Clarke entered into a secret pact with Madeleine Albright, then U.S. ambassador to the UN, Michael Sheehan, and James Rubin, to overthrow U.N. Secretary-General Boutros Boutros-Ghali, who was running unopposed for a second term in the 1996 selection. They dubbed the pact "Operation Orient Express" to reflect their hope "that many nations would join us in doing in the UN head." However, every other member of the Security Council voted for Boutros-Ghali. Despite severe criticism, Clarke and Sheehan prevailed upon President Clinton to resist international pressure and continue the US's solo veto. After four deadlocked meetings of the Security Council, Boutros-Ghali suspended his candidacy. He is the only U.N. Secretary-General ever to be denied a second term by a Security Council member veto.

The United States fought a four-round veto duel with France, forcing it to back down and accept the selection of US-educated Kofi Annan as the next Secretary-General. In his memoirs, Clarke said that "the entire operation had strengthened Albright's hand in the competition to be Secretary of State in the second Clinton administration."

Bush administration
On April 8, 2004, Condoleezza Rice was publicly interviewed by the 9/11 investigatory commission. She discussed Clarke and his communications with the Bush administration regarding bin Laden and associated terrorist plots targeting the United States. Clarke had written a memo dated January 25, 2001, to Rice. He urgently requested a meeting of the NSC's Principals Committee to discuss the growing al-Qaeda threat in the greater Middle East, and suggested strategies for combating al-Qaeda that might be adopted by the new Bush administration.

In his memoir, Against All Enemies, Clarke wrote that Condoleezza Rice decided that the position of National Coordinator for Counterterrorism should be downgraded. By demoting the office, he believed that the Administration sent a signal to the national security bureaucracy that reduced the salience of terrorism. No longer would Clarke's memos go to the President; instead they had to pass through a chain of command of National Security Advisor Condoleezza Rice and her deputy Stephen Hadley, who bounced every one of them back.

Within a week of the inauguration, I wrote to Rice and Hadley asking 'urgently' for a Principals, or Cabinet-level, meeting to review the imminent Al-Qaeda threat. Rice told me that the Principals Committee, which had been the first venue for terrorism policy discussions in the Clinton administration, would not address the issue until it had been 'framed' by the Deputies.

The 9/11 Commission reported, in its eighth public hearing:
Clarke asked on several occasions for early principals meetings on these issues and was frustrated that no early meeting was scheduled.

No Principals Committee meetings on al-Qaeda were held until September 4th, 2001.

At the first Deputies Committee meeting on terrorism, held in April 2001, Clarke strongly suggested that the U.S. put pressure on both the Taliban and al-Qaeda by arming the Northern Alliance and other groups in Afghanistan. Simultaneously, he said that the US should target bin Laden and his leadership by restoring flights of the MQ-1 Predators. Deputy Secretary of Defense Paul Wolfowitz responded, "Well, I just don't understand why we are beginning by talking about this one man bin Laden." Clarke replied that he was talking about bin Laden and his network because it posed "an immediate and serious threat to the United States." According to Clarke, Wolfowitz turned to him and said, "You give bin Laden too much credit. He could not do all these things like the 1993 attack on New York, not without a state sponsor. Just because the FBI and CIA have failed to find the linkages does not mean they don't exist."

Clarke wrote in Against All Enemies that in the summer of 2001, the intelligence community was convinced of an imminent attack by al-Qaeda, but could not get the attention of the highest levels of the Bush administration.
At a July 5, 2001, White House gathering of the FAA, the Coast Guard, the FBI, Secret Service and INS, Clarke said that "something really spectacular is going to happen here, and it's going to happen soon."

Cyberterrorism and cybersecurity
Appointed in 2001 as Special Advisor to the President on Cybersecurity, Clarke spent his last year in the Bush administration focusing on cybersecurity and the threat of terrorism against the critical infrastructure of the United States. At a security conference in 2002, after citing statistics that indicated that less than 0.0025 percent of corporate revenue on average is spent on information-technology security, Clarke was heard to say, "If you spend more on coffee than on IT security, then you will be hacked. What's more, you deserve to be hacked."

9/11 Commission
On March 24, 2004, Clarke testified at the public 9/11 Commission hearings. He initially offered an apology to the families of 9/11 victims and said: "...your government failed you. Those entrusted with protecting you failed you. And I failed you. We tried hard, but that doesn't matter because we failed. And for that failure, I would ask, once all the facts are out, for your understanding and for your forgiveness."

Clarke's testimony during the hearings was consistent with his account in his memoir. Clarke said that before and during the 9/11 crisis, many in the administration were distracted from taking action against Osama bin Laden's al-Qaeda organization because of an existing pre-occupation with Iraq and Saddam Hussein. Clarke wrote that, on September 12, 2001, President Bush "testily" asked him and his aides to try to find evidence that Saddam was connected to the September 11 attacks. In response, Clarke wrote a report stating there was no evidence of Iraqi involvement: all relevant agencies, including the FBI and the CIA, signed off on this conclusion. The paper was quickly returned by a deputy with a note saying, "Please update and resubmit." In April 2004, the White House at first denied Clarke's account of meeting with Bush but reversed its denial when others who had been present backed Clarke's version of the events.

Supporting Clarke's claim that intelligence forewarning of attacks had been delivered to the president prior to 9/11, former Deputy Attorney General Jamie Gorelick, the sole member of the 9/11 Commission permitted (under an agreement with the Bush administration) to read the President's Daily Brief, said that these had contained "an extraordinary spike" in intelligence warnings of al-Qaeda attacks that had "plateaued at a spike level for months" before 9/11.

Criticism

Before and after Clarke appeared before the 9/11 Commission, some critics tried to attack his credibility. They impugned his motives, claiming he was a disappointed job-hunter, that he sought publicity, and that he was a political partisan. They charged that he exaggerated perceived failures in the Bush administration's counterterrorism policies while exculpating the former Clinton administration from its perceived shortcomings.

According to some reports, the White House tried to discredit Clarke in a move described as "shooting the messenger." The New York Times economics columnist Paul Krugman was more blunt, calling the attacks on Clarke "a campaign of character assassination."

Some Republicans inside and outside the Bush administration questioned both Clarke's testimony and his tenure during the hearings. Senate Republican Majority Leader Bill Frist took to the Senate floor to make a speech alleging Clarke told "two entirely different stories under oath", pointing to congressional hearing testimony Clarke gave in 2002 and his 9/11 Commission testimony. Frist later speculated to reporters Clarke was trading on his former service as a government insider with access to the nation's most valuable intelligence to sell a book.

Clarke was criticized for his suggestions in 1999 of intelligence indicating a link between Saddam Hussein and al-Qaeda, despite the fact Clarke and others concluded after investigations by 2001 that no link had been established. In Against All Enemies Clarke writes, "It is certainly possible that Iraqi agents dangled the possibility of asylum in Iraq before bin Laden at some point when everyone knew that the U.S. was pressuring the Taliban to arrest him. If that dangle happened, bin Laden's accepting asylum clearly did not," (p. 270). In an interview on March 21, 2004, Clarke claimed that "there's absolutely no evidence that Iraq was supporting al-Qaeda, ever." Clarke claimed in his book that this conclusion was understood by the intelligence community at the time of 9/11 and the ensuing months, but top Bush administration officials were preoccupied with finding a link between Iraq and 9/11 in the months that followed the attack, and thus, Clarke argued, the Iraq war distracted attention and resources from the war in Afghanistan and hunt for Osama bin Laden.

Fox News, allegedly with the Administration's consent, identified and released a background briefing that Clarke gave in August 2002, at the Administration's request, to minimize the fallout from a Time magazine story about the President's failure to take certain actions before 9/11. In that briefing on behalf of the White House, Clarke stated "there was no plan on Al-Qaeda that was passed from the Clinton administration to the Bush administration," and that after taking office President Bush decided to "add to the existing Clinton strategy and to increase CIA resources, for example, for covert action, fivefold, to go after Al-Qaeda." At the next day's hearing, 9/11 Commission member James Thompson challenged Clarke with the 2002 account, and Clarke explained: "I was asked to make that case to the press. I was a special assistant to the President, and I made the case I was asked to make... I was asked to highlight the positive aspects of what the Administration had done and to minimize the negative aspects of what the Administration had done. And as a special assistant to the President, one is frequently asked to do that kind of thing. I've done it for several Presidents."

Another point of attack was Clarke's role in allowing members of the bin Laden family to fly to Saudi Arabia on September 20, 2001. According to Clarke's statements to the 9/11 Commission, a request was relayed to Clarke from the Saudi embassy to allow the members of the bin Laden family living in the U.S. to fly home. Clarke testified to the commission that he passed this decision in turn to the FBI via Dale Watson, and that the FBI at length sent its approval of the flight to the Interagency Crisis Management Group. However, FBI spokesman John Iannarelli denied that the FBI had a role in approving the flight: "I can say unequivocally that the FBI had no role in facilitating these flights."

Clarke has also exchanged criticism with Michael Scheuer, former chief of the Bin Laden Issue Station at the CIA. When asked to respond to Clarke's claim that Scheuer was "a hothead, a middle manager who really didn't go to any of the cabinet meetings," Scheuer returned the criticism as follows: "I certainly agree with the fact that I didn't go to the cabinet meetings. But I'm certainly also aware that I'm much better informed than Mr. Clarke ever was about the nature of the intelligence that was available against Osama bin Laden and which was consistently denigrated by himself and Mr. Tenet."

On March 28, 2004, at the height of the controversy during the 9/11 Commission Hearings, Clarke went on NBC's Sunday morning news show Meet the Press and was interviewed by journalist Tim Russert. In responding to and rebutting the criticism, Clarke challenged the Bush administration to declassify the whole record, including closed testimony by Bush administration officials before the commission.

As of August 2017, Clarke had been obtaining large amounts of funds, notably $20 million for the Middle East Institute via the Emirates Center for Strategic Studies and Research (ECSSR), an Abu Dhabi-based think tank. The Middle East Institute had been propagating Emirati agendas in Washington and was mentioned in mail leaks of Yousef Al Otaiba, the Emirati ambassador to the US. The Intercept reported that Saif Mohamed Al Hajeri, CEO of Tawazun Holding L.L.C., had been sanctioning the money, larger than the annual budget of the Middle East Institute, on orders of Otaiba.

Post government career
Clarke is currently Chairman of Good Harbor Consulting and Good Harbour International, two strategic planning and corporate risk management firms; an on-air consultant for ABC News, and a contributor to the Good Harbor Report, an online community discussing homeland security, defense, and politics. He is an adjunct lecturer at the Harvard Kennedy School and a faculty affiliate of its Belfer Center for Science and International Affairs. He has also published two novels: The Scorpion's Gate (2005) and, Breakpoint (2007).

Clarke wrote an op-ed for The Washington Post, titled "The Trauma of 9/11 Is No Excuse" (May 31, 2009) harshly critical of other Bush administration officials. Clarke wrote that he had little sympathy for his fellow officials who seemed to want to use the excuse of being traumatized and were caught unaware by Al-Qaeda's attacks on the USA because their being caught unaware was due to their ignoring clear reports a major attack on U.S. soil was imminent. Clarke particularly singled out former Vice President Dick Cheney and former Secretary of State Condoleezza Rice.

In April 2010, Clarke released his book on Cyber War. In April 2012, he wrote a New York Times op-ed addressing cyber attacks. In stemming cyber attacks carried out by foreign governments and foreign hackers, particularly from China, Clarke opined that the U.S. government should be authorized to "create a major program to grab stolen data leaving the country" in a fashion similar to how the U.S. Department of Homeland Security currently searches for child pornography that crosses America's "virtual borders." Moreover, he suggested that the US president could authorize agencies to scan Internet traffic outside the US and seize sensitive files stolen from within the United States. Clarke then stated that such a policy would not endanger privacy rights through the institution of a privacy advocate, who could stop abuses or any activity that went beyond halting the theft of important files. The op-ed did not offer evidence that finding and blocking files while they are being transmitted is technically feasible.

In September 2012, Clarke stated that Middle Eastern governments were likely behind hacking incidents against several banks. During the same year, he endorsed Barack Obama's reelection for President of the United States.

Following the 2013 high-speed fatal car crash of journalist Michael Hastings, a vocal critic of the surveillance state and restrictions on the press freedom under the Obama Administration tenure, Clarke was quoted as saying, "There is reason to believe that intelligence agencies for major powers—including the United States—know how to remotely seize control of a car. So if there were a cyber attack on the car—and I'm not saying there was, I think whoever did it would probably get away with it."

In 2013, Clarke served on an advisory group for the Obama administration, as it sought to reform NSA spying programs following the revelations of documents released by Edward Snowden. The report mentioned in 'Recommendation 30' on page 37, "...that the National Security Council staff should manage an interagency process to review on a regular basis the activities of the US Government regarding attacks, that exploit a previously unknown vulnerability in a computer application." Clarke told Reuters on 11 April 2014 that the NSA had not known of Heartbleed.

In a 2017 interview, Clarke described Russia's recent cyberattack against Ukraine that spread worldwide, via the exPetr virus that posed as ransomware. He warned confidently that Russia would be back to interfere with the 2018 and 2020 U.S. elections as the vulnerabilities demonstrated in the 2016 election still exist.

In August 2021, Clarke was named as a member of American facial recognition company Clearview AI's advisory board.

Written works
 Against All Enemies: Inside America's War on Terror—What Really Happened (2004). . Non-fiction book critical of past and present administrations for the way they handled the war on terror both before and after September 11, 2001. The book focuses much of its criticism on Bush for failing to take sufficient action to protect the country in the elevated-threat period before the September 11, 2001 attacks. Clarke also feels that the 2003 invasion of Iraq greatly hampered the war on terror and was a distraction from the real terrorists.
Defeating the Jihadists: A Blueprint for Action (2004). . Non-fiction book in which Clarke outlines his idea of a more effective U.S. counterterrorism policy.
The Scorpion's Gate (2005) . Novel
Breakpoint (2007) . Novel
Your Government Failed You: Breaking the Cycle of National Security Disasters (2008). . Non-fiction book
Cyber War: The Next Threat to National Security and What to Do About It (2010), with Robert K. Knake. . Non-fiction book
"How China Steals Our Secrets" (2012) The New York Times. Op-ed.
Sting of the Drone (2014). Thomas Dunne Books. . Novel
Pinnacle Event (2015). Thomas Dunne Books. . Novel
Warnings: Finding Cassandras to Stop Catastrophes (2017), with R. P. Eddy. HarperCollins. . Non-fiction book
The Fifth Domain: Defending Our Country, Our Companies, and Ourselves in the Age of Cyber Threats (2019), with Robert K. Knake. . Non-fiction book

See also
Blue sky memo
Ramzi Yousef

References

External links

1950 births
American anti–Iraq War activists
American Book Award winners
Boston Latin School alumni
Counterterrorism theorists
Harvard Kennedy School staff
Living people
MIT Sloan School of Management alumni
People from Boston
Psychological warfare theorists
Terrorism theorists
The Century Foundation
United States National Security Council staffers
University of Pennsylvania alumni

Richard A. Clarke


Karl af Valois () (født 12. marts 1270, død 16. december 1325) var en fransk prins og greve af Valois, Anjou, Maine samt titulær konge af Aragonien.

Forældre
Karl af Valois var søn af kong Filip den Dristige af Frankrig og Isabella af Aragonien.

Familie
I sit første ægteskab med Margrete af Anjou-Sicilien fik Karl af Valois seks børn. Sønnen Filip blev den første franske konge af dynastiet Valois.

I sit andet ægteskab med Katherina de Courtenay, markgrevinde af Namur fik Karl fire børn.

I sit tredje ægteskab med Matilda de Châtillon fik Karl fire børn. En af døtrene blev gift med Karl 4., der var konge af Bøhmen og tysk-romersk kejser.

Konger af Aragonien
Huset Valois
Grever fra Frankrig

Karl af Valois


49469 Emilianomazzoni este un asteroid din centura principală de asteroizi.

Descriere
49469 Emilianomazzoni este un asteroid din centura principală de asteroizi. A fost descoperit pe  la Monte Agliale de Saura Donati. Asteroidul prezintă o orbită caracterizată de o semiaxă mare de 3,20 ua, o excentricitate de 0,10 și o înclinație de 7,9° în raport cu ecliptica.

Vezi și
 Lista planetelor minore: 49001-50000
 Centura de asteroizi

Referințe

Obiecte astronomice descoperite în 1999
Centura de asteroizi

49469 Emilianomazzoni


يبدأ تاريخ كوريا الجنوبية رسميًا بتأسيسها في 15 أغسطس 1948.

تم تقسيم كوريا إدارياً في عام 1945، في نهاية الحرب العالمية الثانية. بما أن كوريا كانت تحت الحكم الياباني خلال الحرب العالمية الثانية، فقد كانت كوريا رسميًا محاربة ضد الحلفاء بحكم كونها أراضي يابانية. أدى الاستسلام غير المشروط لليابان إلى تقسيم كوريا إلى منطقتي احتلال (على غرار المناطق الأربع في ألمانيا)، مع إدارة الولايات المتحدة للنصف الجنوبي من شبه الجزيرة وإدارة الاتحاد السوفياتي للمنطقة شمال خط العرض 38. كان من المفترض أن يكون هذا التقسيم مؤقتًا (كما كان في ألمانيا) وكان يهدف أولاً إلى إعادة كوريا الموحدة إلى شعبها بعد أن تتمكن الولايات المتحدة والمملكة المتحدة والاتحاد السوفيتي وجمهورية الصين من ترتيب حكومة واحدة لشبه الجزيرة.

لم يتمكن الطرفان من الاتفاق على تنفيذ الوصاية المشتركة على كوريا. وقد أدى هذا في عام 1948 إلى إنشاء حكومتين منفصلتين -جمهورية كوريا الشعبية الديمقراطية المتحالفة مع الشيوعية (جمهورية كوريا الشعبية الديمقراطية) وجمهورية كوريا الأولى المتحالفة مع الغرب- تدعي كل منهما أنها حكومة شرعية لكوريا كلها. في 25 يونيو 1950 اندلعت الحرب الكورية. بعد الكثير من الدمار، انتهت الحرب في 27 يوليو 1953 مع استعادة الوضع الراهن لعام 1948، حيث لم تنجح كوريا الديمقراطية ولا الجمهورية الأولى في غزو الجزء الآخر من كوريا المقسمة. جرى تقسيم شبه الجزيرة من قبل المنطقة الكورية منزوعة السلاح واستقرت الحكومتان المنفصلتان في الكيانات السياسية القائمة في كوريا الشمالية والجنوبية.

يتميز تاريخ كوريا الجنوبية اللاحق بفترات متناوبة من الحكم الديمقراطي والاستبدادي. تُرقّم الحكومات المدنية بشكل تقليدي من الجمهورية الأولى لسينغمان ري إلى الجمهورية السادسة المعاصرة. أصبحت الجمهورية الأولى، التي يمكن القول أنها كانت ديمقراطية في بدايتها، استبدادية بشكل متزايد حتى انهيارها في عام 1960. وكانت الجمهورية الثانية ديمقراطية بقوة، لكنها أطيح بها في أقل من عام واستبدلت بنظام عسكري استبدادي. كانت الجمهوريات الثالثة والرابعة والخامسة ديمقراطية اسمياً، ولكن نُظر إليها على نطاق واسع على أنها استمرار للحكم العسكري. مع الجمهورية السادسة، استقرت البلاد تدريجياً إلى ديمقراطية ليبرالية.

شهدت كوريا الجنوبية منذ نشأتها تطوراً كبيراً في التعليم والاقتصاد والثقافة. منذ الستينيات، تطورت البلاد من إحدى أفقر دول آسيا إلى إحدى أغنى دول العالم. توسع التعليم، لا سيما على مستوى التعليم العالي، بشكل كبير. ويقال إنها أحد «النمور الأربعة» للدول الآسيوية الصاعدة إلى جانب سنغافورة وتايوان وهونغ كونغ.

الإدارة العسكرية الأمريكية 1945-1948
أعلن الإمبراطور هيروهيتو استسلام إمبراطورية اليابان إلى دول الحلفاء في 15 أغسطس 1945. صاغ الأمر العام رقم 1 لاستسلام اليابان (أعده رؤساء الأركان المشتركة للقوات العسكرية الأمريكية وجرت الموافقة عليه في 17 أغسطس 1945) المنصوص عليه بشكل منفصل إجراءات الاستسلام للقوات اليابانية في كوريا الشمالية والجنوبية من خط العرض 38. بعد استسلام اليابان للحلفاء (جرت صياغته في 2 سبتمبر 1945)، كان الانقسام في خط العرض 38 هو بداية الاحتلال السوفييتي والأمريكي للشمال والجنوب على التوالي. كان من المفترض أن يكون هذا التقسيم مؤقتًا، ليحل محله وصاية من الولايات المتحدة والمملكة المتحدة والاتحاد السوفيتي وجمهورية الصين التي تستعد لاستقلال كوريا. تمت مناقشة الوصاية في مؤتمر يالطا في فبراير 1945. هبطت القوات الأمريكية في إنتشون في 8 سبتمبر 1945 وشكلت حكومة عسكرية بعد ذلك بوقت قصير. تولى اللفتنانت جنرال جون ر. هودج، قائدهم، مسؤولية الحكومة. في مواجهة السخط الشعبي المتزايد، في أكتوبر 1945، أنشأ هودج المجلس الاستشاري الكوري. وأرسلت الحكومة المؤقتة لجمهورية كوريا، التي كانت تعمل من الصين، وفداً مع ثلاثة مترجمين شفويين إلى هودج، لكنه رفض الاجتماع معهم. وبالمثل، رفض هودج الاعتراف بجمهورية كوريا الشعبية المشكلة حديثًا ولجانها الشعبية، وحظرها في 12 ديسمبر. بعد ذلك بعام، أُنشئ مجلس تشريعي مؤقت وحكومة مؤقتة، برئاسة كيم كيو شيك وسينجمان ري على التوالي. أصابت الفوضى السياسية والاقتصادية -الناشئة عن مجموعة متنوعة من الأسباب- البلاد في هذه الفترة. بقيت آثار الاستغلال الياباني في الجنوب، كما في الشمال. بالإضافة إلى ذلك، كان الجيش الأمريكي غير مستعد إلى حد كبير لتحدي إدارة البلاد، حيث وصل دون معرفة اللغة أو الثقافة أو الوضع السياسي. وهكذا كان للعديد من سياساتهم آثار مزعزعة للاستقرار غير مقصودة. زادت موجات اللاجئين من كوريا الشمالية والعائدين من الخارج من الاضطراب.

في ديسمبر 1945، عقد مؤتمر في موسكو لمناقشة مستقبل كوريا. نوقشت الوصاية لمدة 5 سنوات، وأُنشئت لجنة مشتركة بين الولايات المتحدة والاتحاد السوفيتي. اجتمعت اللجنة بشكل متقطع في سيول لكنها وصلت إلى طريق مسدود بشأن مسألة إنشاء حكومة وطنية. في سبتمبر 1947، من دون حل في الأفق، قدمت الولايات المتحدة المسألة الكورية إلى الجمعية العامة للأمم المتحدة.

دعا القرار الصادر عن الجمعية العامة للأمم المتحدة إلى إجراء انتخابات عامة تحت إشراف الأمم المتحدة في كوريا، ولكن بعد رفض الشمال لهذا الاقتراح، أُجريت انتخابات عامة للجمعية الدستورية في الجنوب فقط، في مايو 1948. اعتُمد دستور يحدد شكلًا رئاسيًا للحكومة ومدة أربع سنوات للرئاسة. ووفقاً لأحكام الدستور، جرت انتخابات رئاسية غير مباشرة في يوليو/ تموز. وتولى ري سينغمان رئاسة الجمعية الجديدة وأعلنت جمهورية كوريا (كوريا الجنوبية) في 15 أغسطس 1948.

الجمهورية الأولى 1948-1960
في 15 أغسطس 1948، أُنشئت جمهورية كوريا رسميًا، مع سينغمان ري كأول رئيس. مع إنشاء حكومة ري، انتقلت السيادة القانونية أيضًا إلى الحكومة الجديدة. في 9 سبتمبر 1948، أعلن النظام الشيوعي، جمهورية كوريا الشعبية الديمقراطية (كوريا الشمالية) تحت كيم إل سونغ. ومع ذلك، في 12 ديسمبر 1948، بموجب القرار 195 في الجمعية العامة الثالثة، اعترفت الأمم المتحدة بجمهورية كوريا باعتبارها الحكومة القانونية الوحيدة لكوريا.

في عام 1946، نفذ الشمال إصلاحات الأراضي من خلال مصادرة الممتلكات الخاصة والمنشآت والمصانع المملوكة لليابانيين والموالين لليابان، ووضعها تحت ملكية الدولة. ازداد الطلب على إصلاح الأراضي في الجنوب بقوة، وسُنّ في نهاية المطاف في يونيو 1949. واضطر الكوريون الذين يمتلكون أراضي كبيرة إلى التخلي عن معظم أراضيهم. أصبح حوالي 40 بالمئة من إجمالي الأسر الزراعية من ملاك الأراضي الصغار. ومع ذلك، ولأن الحقوق الاستباقية مُنحت للأشخاص الذين كانوا على صلة بملاك الأراضي قبل التحرير، حصلت العديد من الجماعات الموالية لليابان على ممتلكات أو احتفظت بها.

انقسمت البلاد الآن، وتحولت العلاقة بين الكوريتين إلى مزيد من العداء مع مرور الوقت. بعد انسحاب القوات السوفيتية في عام 1948، ضغطت كوريا الشمالية على الجنوب لطرد قوات الولايات المتحدة، لكن ري سعى إلى مواءمة حكومته بقوة مع أمريكا، وضد كل من كوريا الشمالية واليابان. على الرغم من أن المحادثات حول تطبيع العلاقات مع اليابان جرت، إلا أنها لم تحقق سوى القليل. في غضون ذلك، حصلت الحكومة على مبالغ هائلة من المساعدات الأمريكية، بمبالغ قريبة من الحجم الإجمالي للميزانية الوطنية في بعض الأحيان. كما واصلت الحكومة القومية العديد من ممارسات الحكومة العسكرية الأمريكية. في عام 1948، قمعت حكومة ري الانتفاضات العسكرية في جيجو، سون تشون ويوسو. خلال التمرد وقمعه، قُتل 14000 إلى 60.000 شخص في جميع المعارك. جدير بالذكر أن نظام الرئيس ري لم يكن متسامحًا مع المعارضة. كان الحدث الشهير الذي سلط الضوء على ذلك هو اعتقال وإدانة الرئيس المستقبلي بارك تشونغ هي بتهمة التآمر الشيوعي في عام 1948.

كانت السياسة الرئيسية لجمهورية كوريا الجنوبية الأولى مناهضة للشيوعية و«التوحيد من خلال التوسع شمالًا». لم يكن جيش الجنوب مجهزًا بشكل كافٍ، لكن إدارة ري كانت مصممة على إعادة توحيد كوريا بالقوة العسكرية بمساعدة من الولايات المتحدة. ومع ذلك، في الانتخابات البرلمانية الثانية التي أجريت في 30 مايو 1950، ذهبت أغلبية المقاعد إلى المستقلين الذين لم يؤيدوا هذا الموقف، ما أكّد نقص الدعم وحالة الشعب الهشة.

عندما هاجم الجيش الشيوعي من الشمال في يونيو/ حزيران، أعدمت القوات الكورية الجنوبية المنسحبة عشرات الآلاف من الشيوعيين أو المتعاطفين المشتبه بهم، إما في السجن أو في حركة إعادة التدريب، فيما يعرف باسم مذبحة عصبة بودو.

تواريخ مهمة

عام 2333 قبل الميلاد : تأسست كوتشوسون (وتعني بالكورية أرض الصباح الهاديء) وكانت عاصمتها بيونج يانج.

القرن الرابع الميلادي : تطورت القبائل المتناثرة في منطقة شبه الجزيرة الكورية ومنشوريا وشكلت ثلاث ممالك هي: مملكة كوجوريو في الشمال (التي اشتملت على جزء من أراضي الصين) ومملكة بايك جي في الجنوب الغربي، ومملكة شيلا في الجنوب الشرقي.

676 م. : تمكنت مملكة شيلا من هزيمة الدول المجاورة ووحدت شبه الجزيرة الكورية وأسست عاصمتها جيونج جو.

918 م. : تأسست مملكة كوريو، وكانت عاصمتها جايسونج، وكلمة «كوريو» تعني «الجبال المرتفعة» و«البحار المتلألئة»، وهي الأصل الذي تحول بعد ذلك على يد البرتغاليين إلى «كورو»، ومنه أصبح الاسم بالإنجليزية «كوريا».

1392 م. : بدأ استخدام اسم جوسون كإسم للمملكة الجديدة، والتي تبنت الكونفوشوسية الجديدة كفلسفة للدولة.

1910 م. : بدأت اليابان احتلالها لكوريا وضمتها إليها.

1945 : انتهت الحرب العالمية الثانية، وتحررت كوريا من قبضة الاحتلال الياباني.

1948 : انقسمت كوريا إلى جمهوريا كوريا في الجنوب تحت قيادة الرئيس سونج مان لي وجمهورية كوريا الديمقراطية الشعبية في الشمال تحت قيادة الرئيس كيم إيل سونج.

1950 : غزت كوريا الشمالية كوريا الجنوبية لتبدأ الحرب الكورية

1953 : وقعت الكوريتان على اتفاق الهدنة

1960 : قدم الرئيس لي استقالته عقب المظاهرات الطلابية التي اندلعت احتجاجا على التلاعب في نتائج الانتخابات.

1961 : قاد الجنرال بارك سونج هي انقلابا عسكريا ضد الحكومة الديمقراطية لرئيس الوزراء تشانج ميون (جون إم. تشانج)، بدأ العمل في خطط للتنمية الاقتصادية.

1979 – 1980 : تولى الجنرال تشون دو هوان السلطة

1980 - 1988 : بدأت فترة رئاسة تشون دو هوان

1987 : أجريت انتخابات رئاسية مباشرة تحت ضغط المظاهرات الشعبية للمطالبة بالديمقراطية.

1988 : تولى الرئيس روه تاي وو الحكم بعد فوزه في أول انتخابات ديمقراطية، وفي العام نفسه، نظمت كوريا دورة الألعاب الأوليمبية الصيفية في سيول.

1993 – 1998 : ولاية الرئيس كيم يونج سام

1998 – 2003 : ولاية الرئيس كيم داي جونج

2000 : انعقد أول لقاء قمة بين الرئيس الكوري الجنوبي كيم داي جونج وكيم جونج إيل رئيس لجنة الدفاع الوطني بكوريا الشمالية، وعن هذا الحدث نال الرئيس كيم جائزة نوبل للسلام.

2002 : استضافت كوريا مع اليابان بطولة كأس العالم لكرة القدم.

2003 – 2008 : ولاية الرئيس روه مو هيون

نوفمبر 2005 : استضافت كوريا اجتماع قادة منظمة «أبيك»

أكتوبر 2007 : عقد الرئيس روه مو هيون لقاء قمة مع كيم جونج إيل رئيس لجنة الدفاع الوطني بكوريا الشمالية، وتم خلاله إصدار «إعلان عن تطوير العلاقات بين كوريا الجنوبية وكوريا الشمالية وعن السلام والرخاء».

ديسمبر 2007 : فاز الرئيس لي ميونج باك بالانتخابات الرئاسية

فبراير 2008 : تسلم الرئيس لي مقاليد الحكم.

مراجع

انظر أيضًا
 التسلسل الزمني لأحداث الحرب الباردة
 نصب حرب كوريا التذكاري

وصلات خارجية

 منظمة أبحاث التاريخ الكوري
 معهد الدراسات التاريخية

تاريخ كوريا الجنوبية


Tiberiu Ricci (n. 1913 - d. 12 aprilie 2000, Germania) a fost un arhitect român. A făcut studiile universitare la Institutul de Arhitectură "Ion Mincu" din București, acolo unde mai târziu a îndeplinit funcția de profesor. A realizat mai multe proiecte în colaborare cu Ignace Șerban, Horia Maicu și Leon Garcia. Împreună cu tatăl său, Mihail Ricci, a realizat proiectul Sălii Palatului și Palatului Televiziunii Române. În anul 1977 a emigrat în Republica Federativă Germania împreună cu soția sa Marie Louise Yvona Zottu, fiica vitregă a pictorului Dimitrie Știubei și a soției acestuia Louise Vallerie Schmidt.

Proiecte realizate
1945 - 1947 - Sala Palatului Republicii Socialiste România (in colaborare cu Horia Maicu și Ignace Șerban), București;
1960 - Palatul Radiodifuziunii, București;
1968 - 1970 - Palatul nou al Televiziunii, București;
? - Blocuri de locuințe din panouri mari, Calea Griviței, București.

Scrieri
 Ricci, Tiberiu și Ricci, Mihail: Introducere în acustica arhitecturală, Editura Tehnică, București, 1974.

Premii și distincții
 1962 - Premiul de Stat al Republicii Populare Romane pe anul 1962, obținut pentru lucrarea "Sala Palatului Republicii Populare Române".
 1971- Ordinul Steaua Republicii Socialiste România clasa a III-a "pentru merite deosebite în opera de construire a socialismului, cu prilejul aniversării a 50 de ani de la constituirea Partidului Comunist Român"

Referințe

Bibliografie
 Album București, Institutul Proiect București;
 CDCAS (coordonator Ing. DOBRESCU Aurelia);
 Dicționarul Constructorilor Români, CDCAS, București, 2000.

Legături externe
 www.e-arhitecture.ro: Comentariu critic  - accesat 30 ianuarie 2019

Nașteri în 1920
Decese în 2000
Arhitecți români
Decese pe 12 aprilie
Români din secolul al XX-lea
Arhitecți din secolul al XX-lea

Tiberiu Ricci


Paul Richard "Richie" Ginther (Kalifornija, SAD, 5. kolovoza, 1930. – Francuska, 20. rujna 1989.) je bivši američki vozač automobilističkih utrka.

Rezultati u Formuli 1

Izvori

Vanjske poveznice
Richie Ginther na Racing Reference

Američki vozači Formule 1

Richie Ginther


لون 8-بت هي طريقة لتخزين معلومات الصور في ذاكرة الحاسب أو في ملف الصورة، بحيث أن كل بكسل يمثل باستخدام 8 بت أو 1 بايت. من الممكن تمثيل عدد أعظمي من الألوان يساوي 256 لون في هذا النوع من التخزين.

مراجع

عمق لوني

لون 8-بت


O Caso Maria Alice Seabra refere-se ao crime de estupro e assassinato de Maria Alice Seabra, de 19 anos, em junho de 2015 em Pernambuco. Gildo da Silva Xavier, padrasto da jovem, foi condenado pelo crime em maio de 2018.

"É um dos crimes mais cruéis, mais bárbaros que eu já investiguei", disse a delegada responsável pelo caso, Gleide Ângelo.

Biografia
Maria Alice era filha de Maria José de Arruda. Seu pai biológico havia falecido quando ela era pequena, sendo que Gildo foi viver com a mãe da jovem quando ela tinha quatro nos de idade. Gildo, um mestre de obras, e Maria José, também tiveram outra filha. Além disto, Maria Alice tinha uma irmã mais velha chamada Maria Angélica Seabra.

Uma semana antes do crime, Maria Alice descobriu que Gildo traía a mãe e resolveu sair de casa, tendo ido morar com a irmã mais velha, Maria Angélica. Ela também fez uma tatuagem no antebraço com o nome de seu falecido pai em hebraico.

"Não dá certo eu conviver com Gildo na mesma casa, porque é briga direto", havia confidenciado Maria Alice a um amigo poucas semanas antes.

O crime
Então com 19 anos de idade e à procura de trabalho, Maria foi atraída por Gildo com uma oferta de emprego na cidade de Gravatá, no Agreste de Pernambuco. Segundo a delegada Gleide Ângelo no canal Operação Policial, ele ligou para a mãe da jovem no dia anterior ao assassinato para dizer que na tarde de 19 de junho levaria Maria Alice até Gravatá.

No entanto, em depoimentos após ser preso pelo crime ele disse que vinha planejando o estupro da enteada há cerca de dois meses. Investigações também indicaram que ele havia ficado com ódio de Maria Isabel por ela ter saído de casa e tatuado um nome no braço, que segundo Gleide Ângelo Gildo acreditou ser de um namorado. A delegada reportou ao Operação Policial que o pedreiro sentia um "ciúme excessivo" de Maria Alice.

No dia em que levou a jovem, ele pediu um adiantamento ao patrão, dinheiro que depois usou para alugar um carro e colocar película escura nas janelas do veículo. "Ele disse que estava com muita pressa, pois já era quase meio-dia", relatou o atendente da oficina em seu depoimento.

No dia 19 de junho, Maria foi até a casa da mãe, onde Gildo a buscou por volta das 13 horas. Ele posteriormente relatou que quando tomou uma rota diferente da prevista, quando estavam perto da localidade de Sítio do Pica Pau, eles teriam iniciado uma discussão sobre a mudança de trajeto e sobre a tatuagem. Ele então a teria agredido e a colocado no banco de trás para estuprá-la.

Gildo acabou descoberto porque a mãe de Maria ligou para o telefone da filha para saber sobre a entrevista de emprego. O pedreiro, que acreditando que ela estivesse desacordada no banco de trás do veículo, atendeu o telefone, momento em que Maria conseguiu pedir "socorro" à mãe.

Depois de desligar o telefone, Gildo enforcou Maria Alice com o cinto de segurança e a espancou (ela perdeu dois dentes da frente). Depois dirigiu até uma localidade chamada Sítio Burro Velho, em Itapissuma, onde a estuprou e decepou a parte do braço esquerdo onde a tatuagem havia sido feita. Ele a deixou seminua, apenas vestida com sua própria calça.

Após cometer o crime, Gildo fugiu para o estado do Ceará, usando o carro que havia alugado.

Motivação
Segundo as investigações, Gildo sentia atração sexual por Maria Alice desde que ela tinha 16 anos de idade.

Investigação e prisão
Após o pedido de socorro, a mãe se dirigiu imediatamente à delegacia. Ao Operação Policial a delegada Gleide disse: "quando na escada da delegacia a mãe me relatou sobre o pedido de socorro eu já sabia que se tratava de algo grave". Ela também disse que as buscas foram feitas ainda como a situação sendo tratada como "desaparecimento".

Cleide conseguiu contato com Gildo via Whatsapp e ele informou no dia 23 que havia deixado a jovem em Goiana, na Zona da Mata Norte de Pernambuco, mas sem explicar se ela estaria morta ou viva. A delegada seguiu até a cidade, mas disse que as indicações que ele havia dado levavam a um canavial. "Ficamos buscando pelo mato até às 3 horas da madrugada", disse ela.

"Eu não queria Gildo. Eu queria a Maria Alice", disse Gleide ao Operação Policial, mas na noite de 23 de junho o pedreiro foi preso e encaminhado ao Centro de Triagem de Abreu e Lima (Cotel).

Sem encontrar nada, no dia 24 de junho os policiais continuaram as buscas na região, desta vez com a ajuda do criminoso. O corpo da vítima foi encontrado na tarde deste dia num canavial localizado no Engenho Burro Velho, entre as cidades de Itapissuma e Goiana.

Julgamento e pena
Gildo foi julgado em 22 maio de 2018 por homicídio quadruplamente qualificado (por motivação torpe, uso de asfixia e meio cruel), sequestro e cárcere privado, estupro e destruição, subtração e ocultação de cadáver.

Na chegada ao fórum a mãe e a irmã da vítima chamaram o criminoso de "monstro". "Nunca desconfiamos da monstruosidade que ele tinha por dentro", disse Maria José.

No depoimento a delegada disse: "A forma simplista de justificar: 'eu tinha um desejo sexual e, para ter, eu faço qualquer coisa, inclusive matar, não interessa se eu criei como pai'. Por isso, estou revoltada sobre a forma bárbara que ele a matou, tudo premeditado. A gente tem toda a cronologia do crime, está tudo provado. Ele vai ter que pagar por tudo que fez".

Após dez horas de deliberação, Gildo da Silva Xavier foi considerado culpado pelos crimes de homicídio qualificado  (por motivação torpe, asfixia, e meio cruel), sequestro, estupro e ocultação de cadáver e condenado a 35 anos de prisão.

Ele cumpre pena no Presídio de Igarassu, Grande Recife, local onde, enquanto aguardava julgamento, conheceu uma nova namorada, com quem teve outra filha.

Referências

Ligações externas

 Lista de notícias sobre o caso no JC (Jornal do Commercio) - UOL
 Lista de notícias sobre o caso no G1 - Pernambuco

Crimes em Pernambuco
Estupro no Brasil
Homicídios
Crimes contra a pessoa

Caso Maria Alice Seabra


Tanning oil can refer to :

Oils used in leather tanning
 Indoor tanning lotion, oils and lotions that enhance tanning in a tanning bed or outdoors
 Sunscreen, oils and lotions that block ultraviolet sun rays to protect skin from sunburn

Tanning oil


O blênio-pérsico (Ecsenius midas), também conhecido como blênio-midas, blênio-cauda-de-lira ou blênio-dourado, é uma espécie de blênio do gênero Ecsenius, da família Blenniidae. É uma das poucas espécies de blênios que podem habitar a coluna d'água, pois a grande maioria dos membros da família Blenniidae, preferem habitats bentônicos.

Etimologia
A etimologia de Ecsenius não é explicada, talvez ec -, de ec-qui , realmente; senio , seis cada, referindo-se à fileira lateral de 6-7 dentes cardiiformes, que se estendem para trás na mandíbula, considerado seu principal caráter distintivo. Já Midas, é uma homenagem ao rei Midas, da mitologia grega, que transformava tudo o que tocava em ouro, referindo-se à cor dourada de seu corpo.

Aparência
Um pequeno peixe de corpo comprido, que possui a coloração dourada em todo o corpo, além de possuir um contorno azul nos olhos.

Biologia
Vivem em recifes de corais de águas calmas e rasas, por possuir a coloração dourada, facilmente se infiltram nos cardumes de anthias-dourados (Pseudanthias squamipinnis) para se alimentarem de plâncton, além de receberem a proteção de estarem no cardume. Os jovens vivem próximos aos bentos, se escondendo entre corais e rochas.

Distribuição
São nativos do Indo-Pacífico, dês do Golfo de Aqaba até o sudeste da África, para as Ilhas Marquesas, Palau e Tonga.

Usos humanos
Frequentemente são capturados para o comércio de peixes ornamentais.

Referências

Blenniidae
Peixes do Oceano Pacífico
Peixes do Oceano Índico
Peixes de Palau

Blênio-pérsico


Lysithea, rod crvenih algi u porodici Bangiaceae. Jedina je vrsta morska alga L. adamsiae u vodama Novog Zelanda

Vrsta je nekadda uključivana u rod Porphyra iz kojega je izdvojena i uključena u novi rod Lysithea, opisan 2011. godine.

Sinonimi
 Porphyra adamsiae W.A.Nelson 1993

Izvori

Bangiaceae

Lysithea


اليوم الذي تبقى فيه  صامدة  فيلم من أفلام الخيال العلمي وهو إعادة كتابة وتمثيل للفيلم الذي يحمل نفس الاسم والذي أخرج بالعام 1951م، وهو مقتبس من رواية من العام 1941م باسم "Farewell to the Master".

قصة الفيلم
في العام 1928م متسلق جبال والذي يقوم بدوره الممثل كيانو ريفز يجد كرة مشعة بين الثلوج وعندما يحاول لمسها يفقد الوعي لمدة من الوقت وبعدها يستعيد وعيه ليجد أن الكرة أختفت وأنه بخير وهناك علامة على يده فقط.

تنتقل بعدها أحداث الفيلم لوقتنا الحاضر حيث تقوم الدولة بجمع مجموعة من العلماء في الولايات المتحدة الأمريكية ومن ضمنهم بطلة الفيلم عالمة الأحياء د.هيلين والتي تلعب دورها الممثلة جنيفر كونلي وتعيش في مدينة مانهاتن الأمريكية.

يبدأ اجتماع طارئ يضم قادة الدولة العسكريين باشراف وزيرة الدفاع الأمريكية وبمشاركة من العلماء ويقدمون عرض خطير عن وصول جسم من  الخارجي والذي يسير بسرعة خارقة ويتجه باتجاه الأرض إلى نفس المدينة مانهاتن وسيصل خلال حوالي 78 دقيقة. وأن هذا الجسم سيحدث انفجار سيودي بحياة حوالي 8 ملايين شخص كما أنه لا يوجد وقت لإخلاء السكان.

تبدأ الأحداث عندما يخترق الجسم غلاف الأرض ويصل إلى مكان الانفجار المتوقع ويفاجئ الجميع بانه بدل أن ينفجر يتوقف في الحديقة المركزية للمدينة Central Park.

يخرج من الكرة كائن غريب يُكتشف بعدها بأنه كائن فضائي موجود ضمن غلاف عضوي حماية وهو موجود في جسم مستنسخ من متسلق الجبال من العام 1928م والذي يقوم بدوره كيانو ريفز.

تكون مهمة هذا الكائن هي حماية الأرض من ساكنيها لأن،  أصبحوا يقتلون الأرض. لذلك سيكون هناك إبادة كاملة لجميع المخلوقات على الأرض والحضارات والمباني. وستتم إعادة الأرض لتشفي نفسها بنفسها.

مهمة د.هيلن هي اقناع هذا الكائن بأن هناك فرصة للبشر بأن يتغيروا، وأن الإنسان يبدأ بالتغير عند الوصول إلى الحافة.

مراجع

وصلات خارجية

أفلام باللغة الإنجليزية في عقد 2000
أفلام آليون أمريكية
أفلام آيماكس
أفلام أخرجها سكوت ديركسون
أفلام أسترالية
أفلام أمريكية
أفلام أمريكية في عقد 2000
أفلام أمريكية معادة
أفلام إنتاج 2008
أفلام باللغة الإنجليزية
أفلام بيئية
أفلام تقع أحداثها في مدينة نيويورك
أفلام تقع أحداثها في نيو جيرسي
أفلام توينتيث سينتشيري فوكس
أفلام خيال
أفلام خيال علمي أمريكية
أفلام خيال علمي إنتاج عقد 2000
أفلام خيال علمي في 2008
أفلام خيال علمي كندية
أفلام سجلها تايلر بيتس
أفلام صنعت باستخدام صور الحاسوب
أفلام عن الحياة خارج الأرض
أفلام غزوات الكائنات الفضائية
أفلام كندية
أفلام كندية في عقد 2000
أفلام مبنية على كتب
أفلام مصورة في فانكوفر
أفلام مصورة في ولاية نيويورك
أفلام نهاية العالم
تقنية النانو في الأعمال الخيالية
سفينة نوح في الأفلام
لاقط الحركة في الأفلام

اليوم الذي تبقى فيه الأرض صامدة (فيلم 2008)


Andrei Iancu (n. aprilie 1968 la București) este un inginer și avocat american de origine română, specializat pe domeniul proprietății intelectuale.

A absolvit University of California, Los Angeles și inițial a fost inginer al companiei Hughes Aircraft.

În prezent, este partener comanditat la firma de avocatură Irell & Manella LLP, ce are sediul în Los Angeles și se ocupă în mod deosebit de procese de proprietate intelectuală.
Ca avocat, a reprezentat clienți din domenii ca: testarea genetică, mediul online, echipamente medicale, telefonie, televiziune, sisteme de jocuri video.
De asemenea, predă un curs despre legea brevetelor în cadrul prestigioasei universităti din Los Angeles, unde este profesor adjunct.

L-a apărat pe Donald Trump în cadrul unui proces cu Mark Burnett Productions și compania NBC pentru drepturi de autor ale show-ului de televiziune "The Apprentice" ("Ucenicul").
Apreciindu-i valoarea, în august 2017, președintele american l-a nominalizat pentru funcția de director al Oficiului pentru Brevete și Mărci (United States Patent and Trademark Office).

Legături externe
  profit.ro: "Românul Andrei Iancu a preluat șefia Oficiului pentru Brevete și Mărci al SUA și devine principalul consilier în domeniu al lui Trump"
  United States Patent and Trademark Office: "Andrei Iancu Under Secretary of Commerce for Intellectual Property and Director of the United States Patent and Trademark Office "

Nașteri în 1968
Americani din secolul al XX-lea
Americani din secolul al XXI-lea
Avocați americani
Americani de origine română

Andrei Iancu


Termenul rezidență fiscală reprezintă un concept de bază pentru determinarea competențelor tributare ale oricăreia dintre țari. Astfel, țările sunt capacitate să impună tributuri pe bunurile sau pe veniturilor obținute de către oricare dintre rezidenții lor fiscali, în orice alta țară din lume, sau, de asemenea, de a stabili tributuri pe veniturile obținute în respectiva țară de către non-rezidenți, dar în nici un fel de caz, o țară, nu poate impune tributuri pe venituri obținute de non-rezidenți fiscali, în afara respectivei țări.
Statele au tendința de a stabili criterii generale ample, pentru a acapara un număr cât mai mare de rezidenți fiscali, cărora sa le poată impună tributuri. În aceasta nemăsurată dorință a statelor de a colecta cât mai multe tributuri, apare destul de probabila, posibilitatea ca o aceeași persoană sa se trezească a fi rezident fiscal în mai mult de o țară în același timp.. Dovada de reședință este o problemă complexă și a condus la cazuri interesante, cum ar fi Sentința instituției Audiencia Nacional din Spania in cazul premiului Nobel José Saramago.

Rezidență fiscală în diferite țări

Determinarea rezidenței fiscale în Spania
În cazul persoanelor fizice, oricare dintre acestea vor fi considerate "rezidente fiscal" dacă îndeplinesc oricare dintre următoarele cerințe:
 își au reședința în Spania mai mult de 183 de zile din an.
 isi au centrul lor de interese economice în Spania
 isi au soțul / soția și copiii minori rezidenți în Spania
Vor fi luate în considerare ca rezidente fiscal persoanele juridice (companii, întreprinderi...) care îndeplinesc oricare dintre aceste următoare cerințe:
 constituirea lor s-a făcut în conformitate cu legislația spaniolă
 își au sediul social în Spania
 își au sediul conducerii efective în Spania
În cazul spaniol, rezidența fiscală se suprapune perfect pe conceptul an fiscal, ani care coincid cu anii naturali compleți. De aici rezultă că, o persoană ori este rezidenta fiscal în Spania toate zilele anului, ori, în caz contrar, nu este rezidenta fiscal pentru nici o zi a anului. În Spania nu este posibil ca cineva să fie rezident fiscal o parte a anului și o altă parte a aceluiași an, nu. La asta adaugăm si faptul ca, verificarea țării de reședință trebuie să fie făcuta în fiecare an, reședința de anul anterior nu o presupune pe cea din anul următor.

Conflict de rezidență. Determinarea reședinței în acordurile privind evitarea dublei impuneri.
Atunci când (în conformitate cu reglementările interne) o aceeași persoană este considerată rezident fiscal de mai multe țări deodată (în același timp), se produce un conflict de dublă rezidență fiscală.
Conflictele de dublă rezidență sunt rezolvate (în caz de existență ale lor) prin convenția pentru evitarea dublei impuneri, cu aplicarea clauzei privind rezidența fiscală. Clauza de rezidență fiscală în convențiile model OCDE, prevede că o persoană va fi un rezident al țării în care se îndeplinește primul criteriu. Criteriile (tie-breaker rules) sunt aplicate într-o ordine strictă, și primul criteriu care se îndeplinește singur, pentru vreo țară, va stabili că rezidența fiscală a persoanei in cauza se afla în țara respectiva. Aceste criterii sunt:
 țara în care acea persoană dispune de un loc care sa fie utilizabil ca locuință permanentă (în proprietate, în chirie, atribuit,...)
 țara în care i se află centrul intereselor economice (patrimoniu, venituri, pensii...) și personale (familie, prieteni, colegi,...)
 țara în care rezidează legal mai mult de 183 zile pe an
 țara în care își are naționalitatea.juridica
 în caz ca nu corespunde nici uneia din cele de mai sus, există un mecanism prin care țările, de comun acord ajung a indica rezidența persoanei în discuție..

De vazut, de asemenea,
 Dubla impozitare

Referințe

Fiscalitate

Rezidență fiscală


Yüzüncü Yıl Üniversitesi, 20 Temmuz 1982 tarih ve 41 sayılı kanun hükmünde kararname ile kurulmuştur.

Üniversite Van Gölü'nün kuzey kıyısında ve Erciş yolu 15. km'de yerleşmiştir. Yaklaşık 30 bin öğrencisi bulunan üniversite 23 Ekim 2011 tarihinde yaşanan Van Depremi nden dolayı eğitime bir süre ara vermiştir. 2011-2012 akademik yılını zorluklar içerisinde tamamlayan üniversitede, 2012-2013 akademik takvim yılı açılışı Tıp Fakültesi haricinde 30 Ekim 2012 tarihine kadar ertelenmiştir.

Akademik Birimler

Fakülteler
 Denizcilik Fakültesi
 Diş Hekimliği Fakültesi
 Eczacılık Fakültesi
 Edebiyat Fakültesi
 Eğitim Fakültesi
 Erciş İşletme Fakültesi
 Fen Fakültesi
 Güzel Sanatlar Fakültesi
 İktisadi ve İdari Bilimler Fakültesi
 İlahiyat Fakültesi
 Mimarlık ve Tasarım Fakültesi
 Mühendislik Fakültesi
 Müzik ve Sahne Sanatları Fakültesi
 Sağlık Bilimleri Fakültesi
 Su Ürünleri Fakültesi
 Tıp Fakültesi
 Turizm Fakültesi
 Veteriner Fakültesi
 Ziraat Fakültesi

Enstitüler
 Eğitim Bilimleri Enstitüsü
 Fen Bilimleri Enstitüsü
 Sağlık Bilimleri Enstitüsü
 Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü
 Yaşayan Diller Enstitüsü

Yüksek Okullar
 Beden Eğitimi ve Spor Yüksek Okulu
 Sağlık Yüksek Okulu
 Turizm ve Otel İşletmeciliği Yüksek Okulu
 Yabancı Diller Yüksek Okulu

Meslek Yüksek Okulları
 Başkale Meslek Yüksekokulu
 Çaldıran Meslek Yüksekokulu
 Erciş Meslek Yüksekokulu
 Erciş Sağlık Hizmetleri Meslek Yüksekokulu
 Gevaş Meslek Yüksekokulu
 Muradiye Meslek Yüksekokulu
 Özalp Meslek Yüksekokulu
 Van Güvenlik Meslek Yüksekokulu
 Van Meslek Yüksekokulu
 Van Sağlık Hizmetleri Meslek Yüksekokulu

Araştırma Merkezleri

Araştırma ve Uygulama Merkezleri
 Aile Araştırmaları ve Eğitimi Merkezi
 Atatürk İlkeleri ve İnkılap Tarihi Araştırma ve Uygulama Merkezi
 Bilgisayar Bilimleri Araştırma ve Uygulama Merkezi
 Çevre Sorunları Araştırma ve Uygulama Merkezi
 Deneysel Tip Araştırma ve Uygulama Merkezi
 Kadın Sorunları Araştırma ve Uygulama Merkezi
 Sert Kabuklu Meyve Türleri Araştırma ve Uygulama Merkezi
 Temiz Enerji Araştırma ve Uygulama Merkezi
 Türk El Sanatları Araştırma ve Uygulama Merkezi
 Türk Kültürünü Araştırma ve Uygulama Merkezi
 Uzaktan Algılama Merkezi
 Van Kedisi Araştırma ve Uygulama Merkezi
 Van Gölü Araştırma ve Uygulama Merkezi
 Van Gölü Çevresi Tarihi Eserleri ve Kültür Değerlerini Araş.ve Uyg.Mrk.

Kaynakça

Dış bağlantılar
 Yüzüncü Yıl Üniversitesi Resmi Sitesi
 Yüzüncü Yıl Üniversitesi Resmi Öğrenci Sitesi
 Yüzüncü Yıl Üniversitesi Bilgisayar Bilimleri Araştırma Ve Uygulama Merkezi
 Yüzüncü Yıl Üniversitesi Web Haber Merkezi Sitesi
 Yüzüncü Yıl Üniversitesi Öğrenci Bilgi Sitesi
 Yüzüncü Yıl Üniversitesi Ferit Melen Merkez Kütüphanesi

Türkiye'deki devlet üniversiteleri
Van ilindeki yapılar
Tuşba

Van Yüzüncü Yıl Üniversitesi


Dagmar Lassander, pe numele real Dagmar Regine Hader, () este o actriță germană.

Biografie
Fiica unui francez și a unei femei germano-chiliană, a început să lucreze ca designer de costume, colaborând, printre altele, la Opera din Berlin. După ce a luat lecții de actorie de la Claus Holm, a obținut primul său rol în 1966 într-un film regizat de Will Tremper. Frumoasa actriță a fost distribuită apoi în roluri de femei seducătoare, iar din 1969 a început să devină cunoscută în cinematografia internațională, fiind solicitată să apară în special în filme italiene. În anii 1970 și 1980 a jucat într-un număr mare de filme erotice, polițiste și de groază, apărând, de asemenea, în Piedone africanul alături de Bud Spencer. Vocea ei a fost aproape întotdeauna dublată, putând fi ascultată totuși în filmul W la foca și în serialele de televiziune I ragazzi della 3ª C și I ragazzi del muretto.

Filmografie

Filme de cinema

 Sperrbezirk, regie: Will Tremper (1966)
 Il club degli assassini (Der Mörderclub von Brooklyn), regie: Werner Jacobs (1967)
 Straßenbekanntschaften auf St. Pauli, regie: Werner Klinger (1968)
 Andrée - l'esasperazione del desiderio nell'amore femminile, regie: Hans Schott-Schöbinger (1968)
 Quartett im Bett, regie: Ulrich Shamoni (1968)
 Femina ridens, regie: Piero Schivazappa (1969)
 Pelle su pelle, regie: Hans Schott-Schöbinger (1969)
 Un caso di coscienza, regie: Giovanni Grimaldi (1969)
 Il rosso segno della follia, regie: Mario Bava (1970)
 Le foto proibite di una signora per bene, regie: Luciano Ercoli (1970)
 Alibi nella luce rossa, regie: José Gutiérrez Maesso (1970)
 L'iguana dalla lingua di fuoco, regie: Riccardo Freda (1971)
 Guardami nuda, regie: Italo Alfaro (1972)
 Il consigliori, regie: Alberto De Martino (1973)
 Adolescenza perversa, regie: José Bénazéraf (1974)
 Basta con la guerra... facciamo l'amore, regie: Andrea Bianchi (1974)
 Una donna per sette bastardi, regie: Roberto Bianchi Montero (1974)
 La donna che violentò se stessa, regie: Roberto Bianchi Montero (1974)
 Verginità, regie: Marcello Andrei (1974)
 Il torcinaso - Quando il sangue diventa bollente, regie: Giancarlo Romitelli (1975)
 Peccati di gioventù, regie: Silvio Amadio (1975)
 Il vizio ha le calze nere, regie: Tano Cimarosa (1975)
 Lo stallone, regie: Tiziano Longo (1975)
 Frittata all'italiana, regie: Alfonso Brescia (1976)
 L'adolescente, regie: Alfonso Brescia (1976)
 La lupa mannara, regie: Rino Di Silvestro (1976)
 Il comune senso del pudore, regie: Alberto Sordi (1976)
 Gli amici di Nick Hezard, regie: Fernando Di Leo (1976)
 Emanuelle nera 2, regie: Bitto Albertini (1976)
 Classe mista, regie: Mariano Laurenti (1976)
 Atti impuri all'italiana, regie: Oscar Brazzi (1976)
 Puttana galera - Colpo grosso al penitenziario, regie: Gianfranco Piccioli (1976)
 Prima notte di nozze, regie: Corrado Prisco (1976)
 Corsarul negru, regie: Sergio Sollima (1976)
 Sfida sul fondo, regie: Melchiade Coletti (1976)
 Ritornano quelli della calibro 38, regie: Giuseppe Vari (1977)
 Niñas... al salón, regie: Vicente Escrivá (1977)
 I gabbiani volano basso, regie: Giorgio Cristallini (1978)
 Piedone africanul, regie: Steno (1978)
 Zucchero, miele e peperoncino, regie: Sergio Martino (1980)
 Black Cat (Gatto nero), regie: Lucio Fulci (1981)
 Quella villa accanto al cimitero, regie: Lucio Fulci (1981)
 W la foca, regie: Nando Cicero (1982)
 S.A.S. à San Salvador, regie: Raoul Coutard (1983)
 Occhio, malocchio, prezzemolo e finocchio, regie: Sergio Martino (1983)
 Delitto in Formula Uno, regie: Bruno Corbucci (1984)
 Shark - Rosso nell'oceano, regie: Lamberto Bava (1984)
 Il piacere, regie: Joe D'Amato (1985)
 Das Wunder, regie: Eckhardt Schmidt (1985)
 La famiglia, regie: Ettore Scola (1987)
 L'ingranaggio, regie: Silverio Blasi (1987)
 Topo Galileo, regie: Francesco Laudadio (1987)
 Tommaso, regie: Kim Rossi Stuart (2016)
 Due piccoli italiani, regie: Paolo Sassanelli (2018)

Filme de televiziune

 Orgel und Raketen - film TV (1967)
 Zavrashtane ot Rim - serial TV (1977)
 I racconti fantastici di Edgar Allan Poe, regie: Daniele D'Anza - miniserial TV (1979)
 ...e la vita continua, regie: Dino Risi - film TV (1984)
 Aeroporto internazionale, regie: Enzo Tarquini - serial TV (1985)
 Affari di famiglia, regie: Marcello Fondato - film TV (1986)
 Caracatița 2, regie: Florestano Vancini - miniserial TV (1986)
 I ragazzi della 3ª C - serial TV (1987)
 Cerco l'amore, regie: Paolo Fondato - miniserial TV (1988)
 Passi d'amore, regie: Sergio Sollima (1989)
 I ragazzi del muretto - serial TV (1991)
 A cavallo della fortuna - serial TV (1994)

Actrițe italiene care i-au dublat vocea
 Solvejg D'Assunta în Occhio, malocchio, prezzemolo e finocchio, Zucchero, miele e peperoncino
 Paila Pavese în Delitto in Formula Uno
 Rita Savagnone în Il corsaro nero, Classe mista
 Anna Teresa Eugeni în Peccati di gioventù
 Germana Dominici în Black Cat (Gatto nero)
 Maria Pia Di Meo în Quella villa accanto al cimitero
 Vittoria Febbi în Piedone l'africano

Note

Legături externe

 Dagmar Lassander, pe AllMovie, All Media Network.
 Dagmar Lassander, pe filmportal.de.
  Filmografia e foto dell'attrice.

Nașteri în 1943
Nașteri pe 16 iunie
Actrițe germane

Dagmar Lassander


Ramona Lubo (1865–1922) foi uma cesteira de Cahuilla conhecida como a "verdadeira Ramona" que ganhou popularidade por sua associação com o romance Ramona de Helen Hunt Jackson .

Vida e carreira
Lubo casou-se com um tosquiador de ovelhas Cahuilla chamado Juan Diego, e eles moraram na área a oeste de Bautista Canyon na Califórnia, que hoje é conhecida como Juan Diego Flats. Eles tiveram dois filhos que morreram quando eram jovens. Diego tinha uma doença mental e, às vezes, tinha um comportamento fora do padrão. Em março de 1883, Diego pegou o cavalo de um homem branco chamado Sam Temple para voltar para casa de San Juacinto . Temple perseguiu Diego e atirou nele 5 vezes, com Lubo como testemunha ocular. Temple relatou a morte ao juiz local Samuel Tripp, alegando que foi legítima defesa e que Diego tinha uma faca. Lubo afirmou que ele não tinha uma faca, mas ela não foi autorizada a testemunhar no julgamento porque ela era uma indígena nativa. A Lei de Casos Civis da Califórnia proibia pessoas negras e indígenas de testemunhar em casos envolvendo brancos. Temple foi absolvido por " homicídio justificável".

Após a morte de Diego, Lubo mudou-se para a Reserva Indígena Cahuilla perto de Anza e mais tarde teve um filho chamado Condino com um homem branco chamado Hopkins. Ela fazia cestos para guardar água e debulhar grãos. Para os Cahuilla e outras tribos da Califórnia, as cestas eram úteis para preparar e armazenar alimentos, eram dadas como presentes para fortalecer os laços de parentesco e também eram uma forma de arte. As cestas tinham significado simbólico, representando a relação do povo indígena com a terra, e eram uma forma de autoexpressão, com cada tecelão tendo um estilo distinto. George Wharton James mostrou uma das cestas de Lubo em uma palestra sobre "Poesia e o simbolismo da cestaria indiana" em outubro de 1903. Lubo ganhava dinheiro vendendo as cestas que fazia, lavando roupas e colhendo damascos.

Romance e seus efeitos
Helen Hunt Jackson baseou seu romance Ramona (1884) em relatos de jornais sobre a morte de Juan Diego. O romance é uma história romantizada sobre um homem nativo chamado Alessandro que é assassinado na frente de sua esposa Ramona depois que eles são forçados a deixar suas casas por colonos brancos. Durante sua pesquisa, Jackson visitou muitas reservas na área, mas nunca conheceu Lubo, só a descobrindo quando o romance estava parcialmente escrito. O romance pretendia chamar a atenção para a injustiça que os indígenas experimentaram, especificamente as maneiras como os brancos os maltrataram na Califórnia.

Jackson acreditava que um romance teria mais probabilidade de chamar a atenção das pessoas do que uma obra de não-ficção, afirmando em uma carta a seus amigos em Los Angeles escrita em 8 de novembro de 1883: "Vou escrever um romance para apresentar algumas experiências indígenas de forma a comover o coração das pessoas." No entanto, essa visão não se concretizou, pois Jackson morreu de câncer logo após a publicação de Ramona e o romance acabou servindo mais para contribuir para uma visão romantizada da Califórnia do que para chamar a atenção para a experiência dos povos indígenas. O romance foi extremamente popular e trouxe muitos turistas para a área, incluindo Rancho Camulos, uma residência particular que um artigo de 1886 identificou como o cenário do romance, e a residência de Estudillo, que o jornal San Diego Union chamou de "Lugar de Casamento de Ramona" em 1887.

Junto com os turistas veio o escritor George Wharton James, que enquanto pesquisava para seu livro Através do país de Ramona (1908) reconheceu Juan Diego como a inspiração para o personagem Alessandro e queria encontrar a esposa de Diego. Moradores nativos lhe disseram para procurar Ramona Lubo, que ele encontrou na Reserva Indígena Cahuilla. Após o encontro, Lubo o levou ao túmulo de seu marido, onde James tirou uma foto dela chorando que ele produziu e vendeu como cartões postais. Os cartões postais e o livro conscientizaram o público sobre a existência de Lubo, e James a intitulou como a "verdadeira Ramona".

Com a fama, Lubo ganhou dinheiro vendendo cestas para turistas, posando para fotos e aparecendo em eventos no sul da Califórnia, como feiras e shows de laranja, mas ela continuou pobre. O capitão Antonio Apache a contratou para aparecer no Indian Village em Eastlake Park em Los Angeles; o San Jacinto Register descreveu como sua presença foi amplamente divulgada, observando que "enquanto muitos estavam céticos quanto a ela ser a genuína Ramona, do livro de Helen Hunt Jackson, ela provou ser um cartão de visitas para o Village e milhares de pessoas foram lá para vê-la ." Nessas aparições públicas, ela às vezes era acompanhada por uma mulher mais jovem para representar a personagem "do período Helen Hunt Jackson", já que os leitores esperavam a jovem e bela mulher do romance, não uma mulher velha e pobre. Relatos de jornais frequentemente descreviam Lubo como uma mulher feia, vulgar e oportunista e destacavam o contraste entre o romance e a realidade de Lubo. A Ramona Pageant Association planejava trazer Lubo para sua apresentação ao ar livre do romance em Hemet, Califórnia, mas ela morreu menos de um ano antes do concurso abrir em 1923.

Em 1900, James fotografou Sam Temple e o gravou com um gramofone contando o assassinato de Juan Diego. Temple disse a ele: "Eu joguei a arma na posição e puxei o gatilho, coloquei 22 tiros no peito do homem. Você poderia ter coberto cada um deles com sua mão. Não teve mais efeito em parar aquele homem do que se você tivesse soprado sua respiração contra ele." Como Lubo, Temple ganhou fama por sua associação com o romance. Algumas fontes afirmaram que ele apareceu na World's Columbian Exposition de 1893 e na Louis and Clark Exposition de 1904 enquanto outros afirmaram que ele planejava participar, mas decidiu não participar depois de perceber que a popularidade era negativa. Algumas pessoas simpatizaram com ele, no entanto, como o San Diego Union, que se referiu a ele como um "bom sujeito à sua maneira".

Lubo era conhecida por ser tímida e relutante em falar sobre seu passado. Sua amiga e vizinha Fanny Contreras disse: "Quando você falava com ela e perguntava sobre seu passado, ela não queria falar sobre isso, ela apenas chorava. Você não conseguia nada com ela. Era só isso, acho que ela se sentia  mal."

Falecimento
Em fevereiro de 1922, Lubo contraiu pneumonia quando apareceu no National Orange Show em San Bernardino para promover o Vale Hemet-San Jacinto. Ela morreu cinco meses depois, em 20 de julho de 1922, aos 69 anos. Ela foi enterrada na Reserva Cahuilla ao lado de seu marido. Cada túmulo foi marcado com uma pequena cruz de madeira. Em 1931, a Ramona Pageant Association iniciou um esforço para colocar monumentos nas sepulturas e, em 10 de abril de 1938, a lápide de Lubo foi revelada. Lê-se "Ramona" e foi desenhada e esculpida por moradores locais. A lápide de Diego foi erguida em 1956, onde se lê "Alessandro, esposo martirizado de Ramona".

Referências

Personagens de literatura
História da Califórnia
Mortos em 1922
Nascidos em 1865

Ramona Lubo


ජපානයේ කෙටිම ලිපි ශාලාව

එක්-stroke බුද්ධත්වය  ජපානයේ කෙටිම ලිපි ශාලාව ( එක්-යකතා stroke ජපානය කෙටි ලිපිය වාර්තා), යනු ජපානයේ කෙටිම ලිපිය සහිත පුස්තකාලයක් වන අතර එය ෆුකුයි ප්‍රාන්තයේ සකායි නගරයේ මරුඕකා-චෝ හි පිහිටා ඇත.

දළ විශ්ලේෂණය
ලිපිය "ආකෘතියක් ලෙස හැඳින්වේ," එය ගින්නෙන් පරෙස්සම් වන්න සිට ආරම්භ වන බව ලිපියක් " .හොන්ඩා ශගෙසුගු ජින්චූ සිට ඔහුගේ බිරිඳ අමතා කරන ලදී. "ඔසෙන්" යනු එචිසන් මරුඕකා සකායි නිර්මාතෘගේ පළමු හිමිකරු බැවින් හිටපු මරුඕකා නගරයේ කාර්ය මණ්ඩල සාමාජිකයෙකු වූ ඔගුරා මසනාරිගේ යෝජනාව  සමඟ 1993 දී "මව" වෙත ලිපියක් ලෙස "එක් stroke බුද්ධත්වය" ප්‍රසිද්ධියේ පිරිනැමීම ආරම්භ කරන ලදී . මෙය ලිපියක් ලෙස මෙම තෝරාගත් කෘති නැරඹිය හැක්කේ කලින් ප්‍රකාශයට පත් කරන ලද පොත් වල පමණි , නමුත් ස්ථිර ප්‍රදර්ශනය සඳහා නිර්මාණය කරන ලද්දේ මෙම කෞතුකාගාරයයි   .

තට්ටු දෙකේ ව්‍යුහයක් (අර්ධ වශයෙන් තට්ටු තුනේ) 2015 අගෝස්තු 23 දින විවෘත විය ( හෙයිසෙයි 27 යුගය). ආරම්භක දිනය වූයේ "ෆුමි" යන වචනය වචනයට එකතු කර දින 23 කට පසුවය  . අතීත ජයග්‍රාහී කෘති පළමු මහලේ ප්‍රදර්ශනය කෙරේ  . මෙම කෘති දිය ඇලි මෙන් පෙනෙන රූප සමඟ ඉදිරිපත් කෙරේ   . සෑම වසරකම බොහෝ කෘති ලබා ගන්නා "ජපානයේ කෙටි ලිපිය එක් stroke ප්‍රබුද්ධතා සම්මානය" ආරම්භ වූයේ හොන්ඩා සුකාසා සකමන් විසින් ලියන ලද ලිපියේ අරමුණෙනි . මානව සබඳතා දුර්වල යැයි කියනු ලබන වර්තමානයේ ජපානයේ අකුරු සංස්කෘතිය යලි ස්ථාපිත කිරීමට පටන් ගත් "එක් stroke බුද්ධි ප්‍රදානය" යි, නමුත් අකුරු 40 කින් යුත් කෙටි වාක්‍යයක අඩංගු සිතුවිලි බොහෝ දෙනෙකුගේ මනස චලනය කරයි. ඉන්පසුව, පසුගිය අවුරුදු විස්ස තුළ බොහෝ දෙනාගේ සිතුවිලි එකට එකතු වී ඇති අතර, "ජපානයේ කෙටිම ලිපි මන්දිරය මෙලෙස බිහිවිය"  .

"එක්- එක් stroke ප්‍රබුද්ධ ත්‍යාගය" සුමිටෝමෝ සමූහයේ "පුද්ගලයාගෙන් පුද්ගලයාට වැදගත් දේ" යන පණිවුඩය සපුරාලන අතර සකායි සිටි මරුඕකාචෝ සුමිටෝමෝ පවුලේ පළමු සුමිටෝමෝ මැසැටෝගේ උපන් ස්ථානය වන අතර සම්බන්ධතාවය ගැඹුරු ය. 1994 සිට මෙම තරඟයට අනුග්‍රහය ලබා දී ඇත (හෙයිසෙයි 6 යුගය).

ඉතිහාසය

 1993 ( හෙයිසෙයි 5 යුගය ) - "එක්-stroke බුද්ධි ප්‍රදානය" (32,236 සඳහා පළමු අයදුම්පත) සඳහා අයදුම්පත් විවෘත කරන්න.
 1994 (හෙයිසෙයි 6 යුගය) - මරුඕකා නගර සංස්කෘතික ප්‍රවර්ධන ඒජන්සියේ ආරම්භය  .
 2013 අප්රිල් 1 වන දින- නම මරුඕකා සංස්කෘතික පදනම ලෙස වෙනස් කරන ලදි  .
 සැප්තැම්බර් 2013 (2013 සැප්තැම්බර්) - මරුඕකා කාසල් හි හිටපු සායන භූමිය බටහිර දෙසින් ඉදිකිරීම් ස්ථානයක් බවට පත් කිරීමේ ප්‍රතිපත්තියක් ප්‍රකාශයට පත් කළ නමුත්, මරුඕකා කාසල් හි උතුරු පැත්තේ පිහිටි මරුඕකා සංස්කෘතියට පහර දීමෙන් දේශීය අනුමැතිය ලබා ගත නොහැක. පදනම් අඩවියට වෙනස් කරන ලදි  [සටහන 1] [සටහන 2] .
 2014 (2014) ජුනි මස 6 - මරුඕකා කාසල් නිනෝමාරු හි ඉෂිගාකි මරුඕකා සංස්කෘතික පදනමේ භූමියෙන් කැණීම් කරන විට, අපි මරුඕකා පුස්තකාලයේ උතුරු පැත්තේ වාහන නැවැත්වීමේ ස්ථානය වෙනස් කළෙමු (දෙවන වෙනස) .
 අගෝස්තු 23, 2015-විවෘත කිරීම  .

සෑම කාලයකම තේමාව සහ විනිශ්චය කරන්නා

එක්- stroke ප්‍රබුද්ධ ත්‍යාගය

නව එක්- stroke ප්‍රබුද්ධ ත්‍යාගය

 ලී දෙකේ තට්ටු
 මුළු බිම් ප්‍රමාණය වර්ග මීටර් 700 කි
 ස්ථිර ප්‍රදර්ශන කාමරය .... ත්‍යාගලාභී කෘති එක්- එක් strokeප්‍රබුද්ධ ත්‍යාගයේ ඉතිහාසය සමඟ ඔබට දැක ගත හැකිය.
 ප්‍රදර්ශන කාමරය සැලසුම් කිරීම ... ... සයියෝ නගරයේ කමබෝකෝ මණ්ඩලයේ පින්තූරයක්, එහයිම් ප්‍රාන්තය සහ ජපානයේ කෙටිම ලිපිය ප්‍රදර්ශනය කෙරේ.
 පැරණි කාසල් ප්‍රදර්ශන කාමරය ... එය මරුඕකා කාසල් කුළුණේ තුන්වන මහලට සමාන ප්‍රදේශයක් වන අතර ඔබට සකායි නගරය පිළිබඳ වීඩියෝවක් නැරඹිය හැකිය.
 ෆුමිනෝ වත්ත .... කැෆේ

විවෘත කාලය

 9: 00-17: 00 (16:30 දක්වා)

සංවෘත දිනය

 අලුත් අවුරුදු දිනය  (දෙසැම්බර් 29-ජනවාරි 3)
 දර්ශන වෙනස් කිරීම සඳහා සංවෘත දිනයක් ඇත

 ජේ.ආර්. ෆුකුයි දුම්රිය ස්ථානයෙන් මිනිත්තු 40 ක් කෙයිෆුකු බස් රථයෙන් "මරුඕකා ලයින්" මරුඕකා කාසල් බස් නැවතුම්පොළෙන් විනාඩි 8 ක් පයින් යන්න.
 මිනිත්තු 20 ක් ජේ.ආර් කාසල් පිවිසුම් බස් නැවතුම්පොළෙන් විනාඩි 10 ක් පයින් යන්න.
 හොකුරිකු අධිවේගී මාර්ගයෙන් මාරූකා අන්තර් හුවමාරුවෙන් විනාඩි 5 ක්

විවරණය

මූලාශ්රය

වටපිටාව

 සකායි සිටි මරුඕකා පුස්තකාලය - ලිපි ශාලාවට යාබදව. නකානෝ ෂිගෙහාරු අනුස්මරණ පත්‍රිකාව අමුණා ඇත.

අදාළ අයිතමය

 බහු බහුවිධ පොත- ජපානයේ කෙටිම ලිපියේ කතුවරයා
 මරුඕකා කාසල් - සාසන් ලෙස හැඳින්වූ හොන්ඩා ෂිගෙරු අධිපතියා බවට පත්විය.

බාහිර සබැඳිය

 එක්- stroke ජපානයේ කෙටිම අකුරු පුස්තකාලය - නිල වෙබ් අඩවිය පිළිබඳ අවබෝධයක් ලබා දෙයි

 මරුඕකා සංස්කෘතික පදනම
Coordinates on Wikidata

ජපානයේ කෙටිම ලිපි ශාලාව


La  (Compagnie Électrique du Saguenay) fut une compagnie de production d'électricité au Québec de sa création en 1927 jusqu'à sa nationalisation en 1963. Elle était une filiale d'Alcan.

Le territoire desservi par la compagnie se composait des municipalités du Saguenay-Lac-Saint-Jean.

Histoire

L'essor de l'industrialisation

Les débuts de l'électrification de la région suivent les développements industriels du Saguenay-Lac-Saint-Jean. Vers 1899, la Compagnie de pulpe de Jonquière est mise sur pied pour produire du papier journal. Pour répondre aux besoins énergétiques de l'usine, des petites centrales sont mises sur pied. Les surplus de ces centrales hydrauliques sont vendus à la municipalité de Jonquière et celles environnantes.

À la même époque, les premières entreprises de production et distribution de l'électricité voient le jour dans la ville de Chicoutimi. Est alors fondée la Compagnie des eaux et d'éclairage de Chicoutimi vers 1905 qui deviendra la Société d'éclairage et d'énergie électrique du Saguenay en 1913.

En 1901, William Price s'intéresse au potentiel de la région et décide d'acheter la Compagnie de pulpe de Jonquière et ses installations hydrauliques. Il fait construire vers 1912 le moulin de la Chute-Murdock et de la Chute-Bésy pour alimenter la papeterie de la ville de Kénogami. Vers 1914, par référendum, les citoyens du village de Jonquière décident d'acheter le Pouvoir d'eau no 2 (une centrale de 500 kW) sur la Rivière aux Sables de la Compagnie de pulpe de Jonquière ainsi que le réseau d'éclairage et de distribution municipal. Cet achat constitue les débuts d'Hydro-Jonquière qui produira son électricité avec la centrale qu'elle comblera avec des achats à Price à partir des années 1920.

James Buchanan Duke, un industriel du tabac de la Virginie décide d'investir dans la région vers 1913 en créant la Québec Development Corporation. Price décide de faire alliance avec Duke qui obtient 25% des parts de la compagnie. La compagnie est renommée Duke-Price Power Company vers 1917 et commence à planifier la construction d'un barrage hydroélectrique à l'Isle Maligne qui commencera en 1923. La construction est complétée en 1926, et le barrage alimente la nouvelle papeterie de Price à River-Bend et l'aluminerie d'Arvida. Une ligne de transmission est en outre construite dans le Parc des Laurentides pour alimenter la ville de Québec .

À la complétion du barrage en 1926 de l'Isle Maligne, Alcoa (renommée Alcan en 1925) rachète la Duke-Price Power Company qui possède six centrales le long de la rivière Saguenay. Cette dernière fonde la Saguenay Transmission Co. Ltd. en 1926 et la Saguenay Power (Cie Électrique du Saguenay) en 1927 pour se charger de la vente et la distribution des surplus des centrales de la compagnie.

La même année, la Saguenay Power absorbe les actifs de production et distribution d'électricité de la North American Pulp and Paper Companies en faillite depuis 1924, qui était alors propriétaire de la Société d'éclairage et d'énergie électrique du Saguenay.

L'électrification rurale

Afin de répondre aux besoins grandissant en électricité des alumineries, Alcan, par l'entremise de sa filiale Saguenay Power, va faire construire les centrales Shipshaw 1 (Chute-à-Caron) entre 1926 et 1931 et Shipshaw 2 entre 1941 et 1943. Elle finance ses projets en levant des fonds notamment sur les marchés canadiens et américains.

Les municipalités avoisinantes achètent alors la production de surplus à Saguenay Power et aux centrales restants de la Price. Vers la fin des années 1940, l'Office d'Électrification Rurale du Québec fait pression sur les grandes compagnies électriques régionales pour augmenter la couverture du réseau et l'électrification rurale. Le manque d'enthousiasme des oligopoles électriques pousse l'Office de faire construire une centrale sur la Rivière du Petit Saguenay en 1949. Cette centrale de 225 kW est terminée en 1950 et dessert les municipalités de Petit-Saguenay et de l'Anse-Saint-Jean, puis Rivière-Éternité et Saint-Félix-d'Otis. Cette centrale fermera en 1963 et le réseau sera réabsorbé dans celui de la Saguenay Power.

Entre 1951 et 1954, la ville de Chicoutimi est mécontente du service et des prix qu'offrent Saguenay Power. En avril 1954, une résolution du conseil municipal de la ville de Chicoutimi demande d'entrer en négociation pour racheter le réseau municipal, mais cette municipalisation du réseau ne voit finalement pas le jour.

En 1950, la Saguenay Power a un bénéfice net de plus de 108 000 dollars et dessert en outre 66 municipalités de la région.

Vers la nationalisation

En avril 1944, le gouvernement d'Adélard Godbout vote la loi qui crée la Commission hydroélectrique du Québec, ou Hydro-Québec. C'est à ce moment que la Montréal Light, Heat and Power est nationalisée. Il faudra attendre la deuxième vague de la nationalisation de l'électricité pour voir la Saguenay Power se faire absorber par Hydro-Québec.

En effet, le 28 décembre 1962, juste après l'élection du gouvernement de Jean-Lesage, la Commission fait une offre de 43 dollars par action à l'Alcan pour l'achat de la Saguenay Power. Elle sera partiellement nationalisée en 1963 - le réseau de distribution ainsi que deux centrales hydroélectriques seront cédées à Hydro-Québec.

Au moment de la nationalisation, les deux centrales suivantes sont ajoutées au réseau d'Hydro-Québec:

 Chute-Garneau (1928) - 2,5 MW
 Belle-Rivière (1927) - 0,7 MW

Alcan conservera les centrales hydroélectriques suivantes :

 Isle Maligne (1926) - 402 MW
 Chute à Caron (Shipshaw 1) (1941) - 223 MW
 Shipshaw (1943) - 894 MW
 Chute du Diable (1953) - 205 MW
 Chute à la Savane (1954) - 212 MW
 Chute des passes (1961) - 745 MW

Notes et références

Entreprise fondée en 1927
Entreprise disparue en 1963
Compagnie d'électricité ayant son siège au Canada
Entreprise de l'énergie ayant son siège au Québec
Entreprise nationalisée par Hydro-Québec

Saguenay Power


Peekskill station is a commuter rail stop on the Metro-North Railroad's Hudson Line, located in Peekskill, New York.

The former station building built by the New York Central and Hudson River Railroad in 1874 still stands, although it is no longer staffed.

History

Rail service in Peekskill began on September 29, 1849 with the Hudson River Railroad. The freight depot, was the site of a February 19, 1861 visit by Abraham Lincoln who stopped there during his train trip to his inauguration. The railroad was acquired by the New York Central and Hudson River Railroad in November 1869, and they rebuilt the passenger station in 1874. NYC&HR rebuilt the freight depot around 1890 and today it is on the National Register of Historic Places, as is the Standard House which served the railroad, as well as ships on the Hudson River.

A 1943 New York Central schedule lists Peekskill as the northern terminus of its Hudson Division commuter service. Trains continuing north of Peekskill were "long distance" trains, continuing not just to Poughkeepsie but also to Albany and other destinations.

With the railroads in decline during the post-WW II era, New York Central merged with their long time rival Pennsylvania Railroad in 1968 and the station became a Penn Central station. Amtrak took over intercity passenger service in 1971, but Peekskill station continued to serve only the expanded Penn Central Hudson Division trains which by that time ran to Poughkeepsie and were subsidized by the MTA. Conrail took over Penn Central in 1976 and ran Hudson Branch trains as far north as Albany until 1981 when they reverted to Poughkeepsie where it has remained ever since. MTA assigned the station to the newly established Metro-North Commuter Railroad in 1983.

Station layout
The station has four tracks and two high-level side platforms each six cars long. Tracks 4 and 6 terminate at the north end of the station while tracks 1 and 2 continue on. The station is located just south of a grade crossing.

References

External links

Peekskill Metro-North Hudson Line Station (Road and Rail Pictures)
 Entrance from Google Maps Street View

Metro-North Railroad stations in New York (state)
Former New York Central Railroad stations
Railway stations in Westchester County, New York
Buildings and structures in Peekskill, New York
Railway stations in the United States opened in 1849
U.S. Route 9
1849 establishments in New York (state)

Peekskill station


Kosuke Ota (født 23. juli 1987) er en japansk fodboldspiller.

Japans fodboldlandshold

|-
|2010||1||0
|-
|2011||0||0
|-
|2012||0||0
|-
|2013||0||0
|-
|2014||3||0
|-
|2015||3||0
|-
!Total||7||0
|}

Eksterne henvisninger

 Japan National Football Team Database

Fodboldspillere fra Japan

Kosuke Ota


Church Slavonic, also known as Church Slavic, New Church Slavonic, New Church Slavic or just Slavonic (as it was called by its native speakers), is the conservative Slavic liturgical language used by the Eastern Orthodox Church in Belarus, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, North Macedonia, Montenegro, Poland, Ukraine, Russia, Serbia, the Czech Republic and Slovakia, Slovenia and Croatia. The language appears also in the services of the Russian Orthodox Church Outside of Russia, the American Carpatho-Russian Orthodox Diocese, and occasionally in the services of the Orthodox Church in America.

In addition, Church Slavonic is used by some churches which consider themselves Orthodox but are not in communion with the Orthodox Church, such as the Montenegrin Orthodox Church and the Russian True Orthodox Church. The Russian Old Believers and the Co-Believers also use Church Slavonic.

Church Slavonic is also used by Greek Catholic Churches in Slavic countries, for example the Croatian, Slovak and Ruthenian Greek Catholics, as well as by the Roman Catholic Church (Croatian and Czech recensions).

In the past, Church Slavonic was also used by the Orthodox Churches in the Romanian lands until the late 17th and early 18th centuries, as well as by Roman Catholic Croats in the Early Middle Ages.

Historical development
Church Slavonic represents a later stage of Old Church Slavonic, and is the continuation of the liturgical tradition introduced by two Thessalonian brothers, Saints Cyril and Methodius, in the late 9th century in Nitra, a principal town and religious and scholarly center of Great Moravia (located in present-day Slovakia). There the first Slavic translations of the Scripture and liturgy from Koine Greek were made.

After the Christianization of Bulgaria in 864, Saint Clement of Ohrid and Saint Naum of Preslav were of great importance to the Eastern Orthodox faith and the Old Church Slavonic liturgy in the First Bulgarian Empire. The success of the conversion of the Bulgarians facilitated the conversion of the East Slavs. A major event was the development of the Cyrillic script in Bulgaria at the Preslav Literary School in the 9th century. The Cyrillic script and the liturgy in Old Church Slavonic, also called Old Bulgarian, were declared official in Bulgaria in 893.

By the early 12th century, individual Slavic languages started to emerge, and the liturgical language was modified in pronunciation, grammar, vocabulary and orthography according to the local vernacular usage. These modified varieties or recensions (e.g. Serbian Church Slavonic, Russian Church Slavonic, Ukrainian Church Slavonic in Early Cyrillic script, Croatian Church Slavonic in Croatian angular Glagolitic and later in Latin script, Czech Church Slavonic, Slovak Church Slavonic in Latin script, Bulgarian Church Slavonic in Early Cyrillic and Bulgarian Glagolitic scripts, etc.) eventually stabilized and their regularized forms were used by the scribes to produce new translations of liturgical material from Koine Greek, or Latin in the case of Croatian Church Slavonic.

Attestation of Church Slavonic traditions appear in Early Cyrillic and Glagolitic script. Glagolitic has nowadays fallen out of use, though both scripts were used from the earliest attested period.

The first Church Slavonic printed book was the Missale Romanum Glagolitice (1483) in angular Glagolitic, followed shortly by five Cyrillic liturgical books printed in Kraków in 1491.

Recensions

The Church Slavonic language is actually a set of at least four different dialects (recensions or redactions; , izvod), with essential distinctions between them in dictionary, spelling (even in writing systems), phonetics, and other aspects. The most widespread recension, Russian, has several local sub-dialects in turn, with slightly different pronunciations.

These various Church Slavonic recensions were used as a liturgical and literary language in all Orthodox countries north of the Mediterranean region during the Middle Ages, even in places where the local population was not Slavic (especially in Romania). In recent centuries, however, Church Slavonic was fully replaced by local languages in the non-Slavic countries. Even in some of the Slavic Orthodox countries, the modern national language is now used for liturgical purposes to a greater or lesser extent.

The Russian Orthodox Church, which contains around half of all Orthodox believers, still holds its liturgies almost entirely in Church Slavonic. However, there exist parishes which use other languages (where the main problem has been a lack of good translations). Examples include:
 According to the decision of the All-Russian Church Council of 1917–1918, service in Russian or Ukrainian can be permitted in individual parishes when approved by church authorities.
 Parishes serving ethnic minorities in Russia use (entirely or in part) the languages of those populations: Chuvash, Mordvinic, Mari, Tatar (for Keräşens), Sakha (Yakut), etc.
 Autonomous parts of the Russian Orthodox Church prepare and partly use translations to the languages of the local population, as Ukrainian, Belarusian, Romanian (in Moldova), Japanese, and Chinese.
 Parishes in the diaspora, including ones of the Russian Orthodox Church Outside Russia, often use local languages: English, French, Spanish, German, Dutch, Portuguese, etc.

What follows is a list of modern recensions or dialects of Church Slavonic. For a list and descriptions of extinct recensions, see the article on the Old Church Slavonic language.

Russian (Synodal) recension

The Russian recension of New Church Slavonic is the language of books since the second half of the 17th century. It generally uses traditional Cyrillic script (); however, certain texts (mostly prayers) are printed in modern alphabets with the spelling adapted to rules of local languages (for example, in Russian/Ukrainian/Bulgarian/Serbian Cyrillic or in Hungarian/Slovak/Polish Latin).

Before the eighteenth century, Church Slavonic was in wide use as a general literary language in Russia. Although it was never spoken per se outside church services, members of the priesthood, poets, and the educated tended to slip its expressions into their speech. During the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, it was gradually replaced by the Russian language in secular literature and was retained for use only in church.  Although as late as the 1760s, Lomonosov argued that Church Slavonic was the so-called "high style" of Russian, during the nineteenth century within Russia, this point of view declined. Elements of Church Slavonic style may have survived longest in speech among the Old Believers after the late-seventeenth century schism in the Russian Orthodox Church.

Russian has borrowed many words from Church Slavonic. While both Russian and Church Slavonic are Slavic languages, some early Slavic sound combinations evolved differently in each branch. As a result, the borrowings into Russian are similar to native Russian words, but with South Slavic variances, e.g. (the first word in each pair is Russian, the second Church Slavonic):  /  ( / ),  /  ( / ),  /  ( / ),  /  ( / ).  Since the Russian Romantic era and the corpus of work of the great Russian authors (from Gogol to Chekhov, Tolstoy, and Dostoevsky), the relationship between words in these pairs has become traditional.  Where the abstract meaning has not commandeered the Church Slavonic word completely, the two words are often synonyms related to one another, much as Latin and native English words were related in the nineteenth century: one is archaic and characteristic of written high style, while the other is found in common speech.

Standard (Russian) variant
In Russia, Church Slavonic is pronounced in the same way as Russian, with some exceptions:
 Church Slavonic features okanye and yekanye, i.e., the absence of vowel reduction in unstressed syllables. That is, о and е in unstressed positions are always read as  and ~ respectively (like in northern Russian dialects), whereas in standard Russian pronunciation they have different allophones when unstressed.
 There should be no de-voicing of final consonants, although in practice there often is.
 The letter е  is never read as ё ~ (the letter ё does not exist in Church Slavonic writing at all). This is also reflected in borrowings from Church Slavonic into Russian: in the following pairs the first word is Church Slavonic in origin, and the second is purely Russian: небо / нёбо (nebo / nëbo), надежда / надёжный (nadežda / nadëžnyj).
 The letter Γ can traditionally be read as voiced fricative velar sound  (just as in Southern Russian dialects); however, occlusive  (as in standard Russian pronunciation) is also possible and has been considered acceptable since the beginning of the 20th century. When unvoiced, it becomes ; this has influenced the Russian pronunciation of Бог (Bog) as Boh [box].
The adjective endings -аго/-его/-ого/-яго are pronounced as written (, , , ), whereas Russian -его/-ого are pronounced with  instead of  (and with the reduction of unstressed vowels).

Ukrainian and Rusyn variants
A main difference between Russian and Ukrainian variants of Church Slavonic as well as the Russian "Civil Script" lies in the pronunciation of the letter yat (ѣ).  The Russian pronunciation is the same as е ~ whereas the Ukrainian is the same as и . Greek Catholic variants of Church Slavonic books printed in variants of the Latin alphabet (a method used in Austro-Hungary and Czechoslovakia) just contain the letter "i" for yat. Other distinctions reflect differences between palatalization rules of Ukrainian and Russian (for example,  is always "soft" (palatalized) in Russian pronunciation and "hard" in the Ukrainian one), different pronunciation of letters  and , etc.
Another major difference is the use of Ґ in the Rusyn variant. Г is pronounced as h and Ґ is pronounced as G. For example, Blagosloveno is Blahosloveno in Rusyn variants.

Typographically, Serbian and Ukrainian editions (when printed in traditional Cyrillic) are almost identical to the Russian ones. Certain visible distinctions may include:
 less frequent use of abbreviations in "nomina sacra";
 treating digraph  as a single character rather than two letters (for example, in letter-spacing or in combination with diacritical marks: in Russian editions, they are placed above , not between  and ; also, when the first letter of a word is printed in different color, it is applied to  in Russian editions and to the entire  in Serbian and Ukrainian).

Old Moscow recension

The Old Moscow recension is in use among Old Believers and Co-Believers. The same traditional Cyrillic alphabet as in Russian Synodal recension; however, there are differences in spelling because the Old Moscow recension reproduces an older state of orthography and grammar in general (before the 1650s). The most easily observable peculiarities of books in this recension are:
 using of digraph  not only in the initial position,
 hyphenation with no hyphenation sign.

Serbian recension

The variant differences are limited to the lack of certain sounds in Serbian phonetics (there are no sounds corresponding to letters ы and щ, and in certain cases the palatalization is impossible to observe, e.g. ть is pronounced as т etc.). The medieval Serbian recension of Church Slavonic was gradually replaced by the Russian recension since the early 18th century.

Nowadays in Serbia, Church Slavonic is generally pronounced according to the Russian model.

Croatian recension

This is in limited use among Croatian Catholics. Texts are printed in the Croatian Latin alphabet (with the addition of letter  for yat) or in Glagolitic script. Sample editions include:
Missale Romanum Glagolitice
 Ioseph Vais, Abecedarivm Palaeoslovenicvm in usvm glagolitarvm. Veglae, [Krk], 1917 (2nd ed.). XXXVI+76 p. (collection of liturgical texts in Glagolitic script, with a brief Church Slavonic grammar written in Latin language and Slavonic-Latin dictionary)
Rimski misal slavĕnskim jezikom: Čin misi s izbranimi misami..., Zagreb: Kršćanska sadašnjost, 1980 (The ISBN specified even at the publisher 978-953-151-721-5 is bad, causing a checksum error) (in Croatian Latin script)

Czech recension
Church Slavonic is in very limited use among Czech Catholics. The recension was developed by Vojtěch Tkadlčík in his editions of the Roman missal:
 Rimskyj misal slověnskym jazykem izvoljenijem Apostolskym za Arcibiskupiju Olomuckuju iskusa dělja izdan. Olomouc 1972.
 Rimskyj misal povelěnijem svjataho vselenskaho senma Vatikanskaho druhaho obnovljen... Olomouc 1992.

Grammar and style
Although the various recensions of Church Slavonic differ in some points, they share the tendency of approximating the original Old Church Slavonic to the local Slavic vernacular. Inflection tends to follow the ancient patterns with few simplifications. All original six verbal tenses, seven nominal cases, and three numbers are intact in most frequently used traditional texts (but in the newly composed texts, authors avoid most archaic constructions and prefer variants that are closer to modern Russian syntax and are better understood by the Slavic-speaking people).

In Russian recension, the fall of the yers is fully reflected, more or less to the Russian pattern, although the terminal ъ continues to be written.  The yuses are often replaced or altered in usage to the sixteenth- or seventeenth-century Russian pattern.  The yat continues to be applied with greater attention to the ancient etymology than it was in nineteenth-century Russian. The letters ksi, psi, omega, ot, and izhitsa are kept, as are the letter-based denotation of numerical values, the use of stress accents, and the abbreviations or titla for nomina sacra.

The vocabulary and syntax, whether in scripture, liturgy, or church missives, are generally somewhat modernised in an attempt to increase comprehension.  In particular, some of the ancient pronouns have been eliminated from the scripture (such as етеръ  "a certain (person, etc.)" → нѣкій in the Russian recension). Many, but not all, occurrences of the imperfect tense have been replaced with the perfect.

Miscellaneous other modernisations of classical formulae have taken place from time to time.  For example, the opening of the Gospel of John, by tradition the first words written down by Saints Cyril and Methodius, (искони бѣаше слово) "In the beginning was the Word", were set as "искони бѣ слово" in the Ostrog Bible of Ivan Fedorov (1580/1581) and as въ началѣ бѣ слово in the Elizabethan Bible of 1751, still in use in the Russian Orthodox Church.

See also
 Outline of Slavic history and culture
 List of Slavic studies journals
 List of Glagolitic books
 List of Glagolitic manuscripts
 Old Church Slavonic

Notes

References

External links

 Old Church Slavonic and the Macedonian recension of the Church Slavonic language, Elka Ulchar
 What Languages are Actually Spoken in Ukraine 2023-05-15
 Orthodox Christian Liturgical Texts in Church Slavonic
 Bible in Church Slavonic language (Wikisource), (PDF) , (iPhone), (Android)
 Problems of computer implementation
 Slavonic - the input tool for Church Slavonic

 Church Slavonic Virtual Keyboard
 CyrAcademisator Transliteration tool for Church Slavonic including a virtual keyboard.
 Slavonic Computing Initiative
 The textbook of the Church Slavonic language "Literacy" - online version (with soundtrack).

Eastern Orthodox liturgy
Christian liturgical languages
Eastern South Slavic

Church Slavonic