The  or Japanese rock garden, often called a Zen garden, is a distinctive style of Japanese garden.  It creates a miniature stylized landscape through carefully composed arrangements of rocks, water features, moss, pruned trees and bushes, and uses gravel or sand that is raked to represent ripples in water. Zen gardens are commonly found at temples or monasteries. A Zen garden is usually relatively small, surrounded by a wall or buildings, and is usually meant to be seen while seated from a single viewpoint outside the garden, such as the porch of the hojo, the residence of the chief monk of the temple or monastery. Many, with gravel rather than grass, are only stepped into for maintenance.  Classical Zen gardens were created at temples of Zen Buddhism in Kyoto during the Muromachi period. They were intended to imitate the essence of nature, not its actual appearance, and to serve as an aid for meditation.

History

Early Japanese rock gardens
Stone gardens existed in Japan at least since the Heian period (794–1185). These early gardens were described in the first manual of Japanese gardens, Sakuteiki ("Records of Garden Keeping"), written at the end of the 11th century by Tachibana no Toshitsuna (1028–1094). They adapted the Chinese garden philosophy of the Song dynasty (960–1279), where groups of rocks symbolized Mount Penglai, the legendary mountain-island home of the Eight Immortals in Chinese mythology, known in Japanese as Horai. The Sakuteiki described exactly how rocks should be placed. In one passage, he wrote:

"In a place where there is neither a lake or a stream, one can put in place what is called a kare-sansui, or dry landscape". This kind of garden featured either rocks placed upright like mountains, or laid out in a miniature landscape of hills and ravines, with few plants. He described several other styles of rock garden, which usually included a stream or pond,  including the great river style, the mountain river style, and the marsh style. The ocean style featured rocks that appeared to have been eroded by waves, surrounded by a bank of white sand, like a beach.

White sand and gravel had long been a feature of Japanese gardens. In the Shinto religion, it was used to symbolize purity, and was used around shrines, temples, and palaces. In Zen gardens, it represents water, or, like the white space in Japanese paintings, emptiness and distance. They are places of meditation.

Zen Buddhism and the Muromachi period (1336–1573)
The Muromachi period in Japan, which took place at roughly the same time as the Renaissance in Europe, was characterized by political rivalries which frequently led to wars, but also by an extraordinary flourishing of Japanese culture. It saw the beginning of Noh theater, the Japanese tea ceremony, the shoin style of Japanese architecture, and the Zen garden.

Zen Buddhism was introduced into Japan at the end of the 12th century, and quickly achieved a wide following, particularly among the Samurai class and war lords, who admired its doctrine of self-discipline. The gardens of the early Zen temples in Japan resembled Chinese gardens of the time, with lakes and islands. But in Kyoto in the 14th and 15th century, a new kind of garden appeared at the important Zen temples. These Zen gardens were designed to stimulate meditation. "Nature, if you made it expressive by reducing it to its abstract forms, could transmit the most profound thoughts by its simple presence", Michel Baridon wrote. "The compositions of stone, already common in China, became in Japan, veritable petrified landscapes, which seemed suspended in time, as in certain moments of Noh theater, which dates to the same period."

The first garden to begin the transition to the new style is considered by many experts to be Saihō-ji, "The Temple of the Perfumes of the West", popularly known as Koke-dera, the Moss Temple, in the western part of Kyoto. The Buddhist monk and Zen master Musō Kokushi transformed a Buddhist temple into a Zen monastery in 1334, and built the gardens. The lower garden of Saihō-ji is in the traditional Heian period style; a pond with several rock compositions representing islands. The upper garden is a dry rock garden which features three rock "islands". The first, called Kameshima, the island of the turtle, resembles a turtle swimming in a "lake" of moss. The second, Zazen-seki, is a flat "meditation rock," which is believed to radiate calm and silence;  and the third is the kare-taki, a dry "waterfall" composed of a stairway of flat granite rocks. The moss which now surrounds the rocks and represents water, was not part of the original garden plan;  it grew several centuries later when the garden was left untended,  but now is the most famous feature of the garden.

Muso Kokushi built another temple garden at Tenryū-ji, the "Temple of the Celestial Dragon". This garden appears to have been strongly influenced by Chinese landscape painting of the Song dynasty, which feature mountains rising in the mist, and a suggestion of great depth and height. The garden at Tenryū-ji has a real pond with water and a dry waterfall of rocks looking like a Chinese landscape. Saihō-ji and Tenryū-ji show the transition from the Heian style garden toward a more abstract and stylized view of nature.

The gardens of Ginkaku-ji, also known as the Silver Pavilion, are also attributed to Muso Kokushi. This temple garden included a traditional pond garden, but it had a new feature for a Japanese garden; an area of raked white gravel with a perfectly shaped mountain of white gravel, resembling Mount Fuji, in the center. The scene was called  ginshanada, literally "sand of silver and open sea". This garden feature became  known as kogetsudai, or small mountain facing the Moon, and similar small Mount Fuji made of sand or earth covered with grass appeared in Japanese gardens for centuries afterwards.

The most famous of all Zen gardens in Kyoto is Ryōan-ji, built in the late 15th century where for the first time the Zen garden became purely abstract. The garden is a rectangle of 340 square meters. Placed within it are fifteen stones of different sizes, carefully composed in five groups; one group of five stones, two groups of three, and two groups of two stones. The stones are surrounded by white gravel, which is carefully raked each day by the monks. The only vegetation in the garden is some moss around the stones. The garden is meant to be viewed from a seated position on the veranda of the hōjō, the residence of the abbot of the monastery.

The garden at Daisen-in (1509–1513) took a more literary approach than Ryōan-ji. There a "river" of white gravel represents a metaphorical journey through life; beginning with a dry waterfall in the mountains, passing through rapids and rocks, and ending in a tranquil sea of white gravel, with two gravel mountains.

The invention of the Zen garden was closely connected with developments in Japanese ink landscape paintings. Japanese painters such as Sesshū Tōyō (1420–1506) and Soami (died 1525) greatly simplified their views of nature, showing  only the most essential aspects of nature, leaving great areas of white around the black and gray drawings. Soami is said to have been personally involved in the design of two of the most famous Zen gardens in Kyoto, Ryōan-ji and Daisen-in, though his involvement has never been documented with certainty.

Michel Baridon wrote, "The famous Zen gardens of the Muromachi period showed that Japan had carried the art of gardens to the highest degree of intellectual refinement that it was possible to attain."

Later rock gardens
During the Edo period, the large promenade garden became the dominant style of Japanese garden, but Zen gardens continued to exist at Zen temples. A few small new rock gardens were built, usually as part of a garden where a real stream or pond was not practical.

In 1880, the buildings of Tōfuku-ji temple in Kyoto, one of the oldest temples in the city, were destroyed by a fire. In 1940, the temple commissioned the landscape historian and architect Shigemori Mirei to recreate the gardens. He created four different gardens, one for each face of the main temple building. He made one garden with five artificial hills covered with grass, symbolizing the five great ancient temples of Kyoto; a modern rock garden, with vertical rocks, symbolizing Mount Horai; a large "sea" of white gravel raked in a checkboard pattern; and an intimate garden with swirling sand patterns.

In the last century, Zen gardens have appeared in many countries outside Japan.

Selection and arrangement of rocks
Stone arrangements and other miniature elements are used to represent mountains and natural water elements and scenes, islands, rivers and waterfalls. Stone and shaped shrubs (karikomi, hako-zukuri topiary) are used interchangeably. In most gardens moss is used as a ground cover to create "land" covered by forest.

The selection and placement of rocks is the most important part of making a Japanese rock garden. In the first known manual of Japanese gardening, the Sakuteiki ("Records of Garden Making"), is expressed as "setting stones", ishi wo tateru koto; literally, the "act of setting stones upright." It laid out very specific rules for choice and the placement of stones, and warned that if the rules were not followed the owner of the garden would suffer misfortune. In Japanese gardening, rocks are classified as either tall vertical, low vertical, arching, reclining, or flat.

For creating "mountains", usually igneous volcanic rocks, rugged mountain rocks with sharp edges, are used. Smooth, rounded sedimentary rocks are used for the borders of gravel "rivers" or "seashores." In Chinese gardens of the Song dynasty, individual rocks which looked like animals or had other unusual features were often the star attraction of the garden. In Japanese gardens, individual rocks rarely play the starring role; the emphasis is upon the harmony of the composition. For arranging rocks, there are many rules in the Sakuteiki, for example:

Make sure that all the stones, right down to the front of the arrangement, are placed with their best sides showing. If a stone has an ugly-looking top you should place it so as to give prominence to its side. Even if this means it has to lean at a considerable angle, no one will notice. There should always be more horizontal than vertical stones. If there are "running away" stones there must be "chasing" stones. If there are "leaning" stones, there must be "supporting" stones.

Rocks are rarely if ever placed in straight lines or in symmetrical patterns. The most common arrangement is one or more groups of three rocks. One common triad arrangement has a tall vertical rock flanked by two smaller rocks, representing Buddha and his two attendants. Other basic combinations are a tall vertical rock with a reclining rock; a short vertical rock and a flat rock; and a triad of a tall vertical rock, a reclining rock and a flat rock. Other important principles are to choose rocks which vary in color, shape and size, to avoid rocks with bright colors which might distract the viewer, and make certain that the grains of rocks run in the same direction.

At the end of the Edo period, a new principle was invented: the use of suteishi, "discarded" or "nameless" rocks, placed in seemingly random places to add spontaneity to the garden. Other important principles of rock arrangement include balancing the number of vertical and horizontal rocks.

Gravel
Gravel is usually used in Zen gardens, rather than sand, because it is less disturbed by rain and wind. The act of raking the gravel into a pattern recalling waves or rippling water, known as  or , has an aesthetic function. Zen priests practice this raking also to help their concentration. Achieving perfection of lines is not easy. Rakes are according to the patterns of ridges as desired and limited to some of the stone objects situated within the gravel area. Nonetheless, often the patterns are not static. Developing variations in patterns is a creative and inspiring challenge. There are typically four raking patterns, line, wave, scroll, and check.

The gravel used in Japanese gardens is known as "suna" (sand) despite the individual particles being much bigger than those of what is regarded as normal sand.  These vary from 2 mm to up to even 30 to 50 mm in size.
Gardens in Kyoto have historically used "Shirakawa-suna", (白川砂利, "Shirakawa-sand") which is known for its rather muted colour palette. This type of muted black-speckled granite is a mix of three main minerals, white feldspar, grey quartz, and black mica which matches the aesthetic for most Zen gardens. Shirakawa-suna also has an eroded texture that alternates between jagged and smooth and is prized for its ability to hold raked grooves, with patterns that last weeks unless weather, animals or humans intervene.

As of 2018 in Kyoto alone there are 341 areas spread over 166 temples covering a surface area of over 29,000 m2 which have used "Shirakawa-suna". Gravel is used in the entrance, main garden, and corridor area and takes four forms, spread gravel, gravel terrace, gravel pile, and garden path. Typically in areas covering less than 100 m2, the gravel is 20 to 50 mm deep and has a particle size of 9 mm.
Among the gardens which used Shirakawa-suna have been Ryōan-ji and Daitoku-ji.

"Shirakawa-suna" was sourced from the upper reaches of the Shirakawa River. However, since the late 1950s the river has been a protected waterway and extraction of gravel from the river has been illegal.
Over time the gravel becomes weather-beaten and becomes finer, forcing gardeners to occasionally replenish it in order for the gravel to retain the patterns made in them.

Since the banning of extraction from the Shirakawa River the gravel used for both maintenance of existing gardens and the creation of new ones is sourced from quarried mountain granite of similar composition that is crushed and sieved. However the process of manufacturing creates rounded particles of the same size, lacking the pattern holding characteristics of true "Shirakawa-suna", which have corners and are not uniform in size. For instance the Portland Japanese Garden experimented with granite chips sourced from Canadian quarries to compensate for the loss of access to Shirakawa-suna.

Maintenance of the gravel in Japan is typically undertaken two to three times per month.

Symbolism
In the Japanese rock garden, rocks sometimes symbolize mountains (particularly Horai, the legendary home of the Eight Immortals in Taoist mythology); or they can be boats or a living creature (usually a turtle, or a carp). In a group, they might be a waterfall or a crane in flight.

In the earliest rock gardens of the Heian period, the rocks in a garden sometimes had a political message. As the Sakutei-ki wrote:
Sometimes, when mountains are weak, they are without fail destroyed by water. It is, in other words, as if subjects had attacked their emperor. A mountain is weak if it does not have stones for support. An emperor is weak if he does not have counselors. That is why it is said that it is because of stones that a mountain is sure, and thanks to his subjects that an emperor is secure. It is for this reason that, when you construct a landscape, you must at all cost place rocks around the mountain.

Some classical Zen gardens, like Daisen-in, have symbolism that can be easily read; it is a metaphorical journey on the river of life. Others, like Ryōan-ji, resist easy interpretation. Many different theories have been put forward about what the garden is supposed to represent, from islands in a stream to swimming baby tigers to the peaks of mountains rising above the clouds to theories about secrets of geometry or of the rules of equilibrium of odd numbers. Garden historian Gunter Nitschke wrote: "The garden at Ryōan-ji does not symbolize anything, or more precisely, to avoid any misunderstanding, the garden of Ryōan-ji does not symbolize, nor does it have the value of reproducing a natural beauty that one can find in the real or mythical world. I consider it to be an abstract composition of "natural" objects in space, a composition whose function is to incite meditation."

A recent suggestion by Gert van Tonder of Kyoto University and Michael Lyons of Ritsumeikan University is that the rocks of Ryōan-ji form the subliminal image of a tree. The researchers claim the subconscious mind is sensitive to a subtle association between the rocks. They suggest this may be responsible for the calming effect of the garden.

Landscape painting and the Zen garden critique

Chinese landscape painting was one of the many Chinese arts that came to Japan with Zen Buddhism in the fourteenth century. That the Buddhism of Zen influenced garden design was first suggested not in Japan, but in the West by a Hawaiian garden journalist Loraine Kuck in the 1930s and disputed as such by a scholar of Japanese garden history, Wybe Kuitert in 1988. This was well before scholars jumped on the bandwagon in the 1990s to deconstruct the promotion and reception of Zen. The critique comes down to the fact that Buddhist priests were not trying to express Zen in gardens. A review of the quotes of Buddhist priests that are taken to "prove" Zen for the garden are actually phrases copied from Chinese treatises on landscape painting. Secondary writers on the Japanese garden like Keane and Nitschke, who were associating with Kuitert when he was working on his research at the Kyoto University joined the Zen garden critique, like Kendall H. Brown, who took a similar distance from the Zen garden. In Japan the critique was taken over by Yamada Shouji who took a critical stance to the understanding of all Japanese culture, including gardens, under the nominator of Zen. Christian Tagsold summarized the discussion by placing perceptions of the Japanese garden in the context of an interdisciplinary comparison of cultures of Japan and the West.

Zen priests quote from Chinese treatises on landscape painting indicating that the Japanese rock garden, and its karesansui garden scenery was and still is inspired by or based on first Chinese and later also Japanese landscape painting. Landscape painting and landscape gardening were closely related and practiced by intellectuals, the literati inspired by Chinese culture. A primary design principle was the creation of a landscape based on, or at least greatly influenced by, the three-dimensional monochrome ink (sumi) landscape painting, sumi-e or suiboku-ga.

In Japan, the garden has the same status as a work of art. Though each garden is different in its composition, they mostly use rock groupings and shrubs to represent a classic scene of mountains, valleys and waterfalls taken from Chinese landscape painting. In some cases it might be as abstract as just a few islands in a sea. Any Japanese garden may also incorporate existing scenery outside its confinement, e.g. the hills behind, as "borrowed scenery" (using a technique called Shakkei).

List of shrines and temples with rock gardens

In Kyoto:
 Daitokuji
 Daisen-in
 Jishoji
 Jisso-in
 Myoshinji
 Rozan-ji
 Ryoanji
 Tofukuji

Outside Kyoto:
 An'yō-in (Kobe)
 Bingo-Ankokuji (Fukuyama)
 Harima Ankokuji (Kato, Hyogo)
 Jōmyō-ji (Kamakura)
 Kinbyōzan Zuisenji (Kamakura)
 Komyozenji (Fukuoka)
 Shitennoji (Osaka)

See also

 Adelaide Himeji Garden - Sea of Sand
 Japanese garden
 List of garden types
 Higashiyama Bunka in Muromachi period
 Rock garden
 Wabi-sabi

References

Bibliography

 , Éditions Robert Lafont, Paris, ()

Note
*The Sakuteiki is a garden book with notes on garden making that dates back to the late seventeenth century. Its oldest title is Senzai Hishõ, "Secret Extracts on Gardens", and was written nearly 1000 years ago, making it the oldest work on Japanese gardening. It is assumed that this was written in the 11th century by a noble man named Tachibana no Tichitsuna. In this text lies the first mention of the karesansui in literature. Only recently we saw an English modern translation of this gardening classic.

External links

 Photo Gallery of Japanese Zen Gardens
 Virtual tour of the Zen Gardens in and around Kyoto
 Geometrical concepts of Japanese rock garden

 Tsubo-en – A virtual tour of the karesansui garden in The Netherlands
 Study into the karesansui gardens of the Edo era – karesansui gardens of Traditional Samurai Residences
 Neuroscience unlocks secrets of Zen garden (Requires subscription)
 Neuroscience unlocks secrets of Zen garden (Mirror)
 Criticisms of the term "Zen Garden" - in Japanese Garden Journal

Buddhism in the Muromachi period
Types of garden
Rock garden
Rock art in Asia
Rock gardens
Zen art and culture
Zen gardens

Japanese dry garden


Kevin McNulty est un nom pouvant désigner:

Kevin McNulty (né en 1955), acteur canadien
 (né en 1954), juge américain dans le New Jersey

Voir aussi

McNulty, Kevin

Kevin McNulty


Achim Gercke (3 August 1902 – 27 October 1997) was a German politician.

Born in Greifswald, Gercke became a department head of the NSDAP in Munich on 1 January 1932. In April 1933 he was appointed to the Ministry of the Interior, where he served as an expert on racial matters.

Gercke devised the system of "racial prophylaxis", forbidding the intermarriage between Jews and Aryans. As a student, he had attempted to develop a card index listing all Jews in Germany. His articles outlined Nazi policy on what to do to the Jews during the early phase of the Third Reich, which included expulsion from Germany. He described the just-enacted Nuremberg Laws restricting Jews as provisional measures, which indicated the direction future measures would take. Gercke argued for defining "Jew" as including any person with one-sixteenth Jewish blood. Later in 1942, the Wannsee Conference ultimately defined "Jew" quite differently: Persons having one Jewish grandparent were mostly excluded and even certain persons with two Jewish grandparents might be excluded, if they followed the Christian faith.

In 1932, Nazi Gauleiter Rudolf Jordan claimed that SS Security Chief Reinhard Heydrich was not a pure "Aryan". Within the Nazi organisation such innuendo could be damning, even for the head of the Reich's counterintelligence service. Gregor Strasser passed the allegations on to Achim Gercke who investigated Heydrich's genealogy. Gercke reported that Heydrich was "... of German origin and free from any coloured and Jewish blood". He insisted that the rumours were baseless. Even with this report, Heydrich privately engaged SD member Ernst Hoffman to further investigate and deny the rumours.

In 1935, Gercke was dismissed following allegations of homosexuality. After the war, he worked as an archivist and town clerk.

References

Bibliography

The Order of the Death's Head, by Heinz Hoehne, pg. 161–162
The Course of Modern Jewish History, by Howard M. Sachar pg. 517
Das Reichssippenamt. Eine Institution nationalsozialistischer Rassenpolitik, by Diana Schulle
The Nazi Ancestral Proof: Genealogy, Racial Science, and the Final Solution, by Eric Ehrenreich

1902 births
1997 deaths
Nazi Party officials
Members of the Reichstag of Nazi Germany
People from Greifswald
University of Freiburg alumni
German genealogists

Achim Gercke


Arona se poate referi la:

 Arona, Piemont, comună din provincia Novara, Italia
 Arona, oraș spaniol situat în provincia Santa Cruz de Tenerife în sudul insulei Tenerife

Arona


Halimah Yacob (Singapur, 23. kolovoza 1954.), singapurska pravnica i političarka i trenutna predsjednica Singapura, prva žena na tom položaju u singapurskoj povijesti. Ujedno je i bila prva predsjednica Singapurskog parlamenta. Do stupanja na predsjedničku dužnost bila je članica centrističke Stranke ljudske akcije.

Životopis
Rođena je u obitelj oca Indijca i majke Malajke. Otac je bio nadglednik i umro je kada je imala osam godina, zbog čega je teret odgajanja pao isključivo na njezinu majku.

Pohađala je Singapursku kinesku školu za djevojke, nakon čega je upisala Nacionalno sveučilište Singapura. Na Sveučilištu je diplomirala pravo 1978. godine. Naslov magistrice prava stekla je 2001. godine obranom svoga magistarskog rada. Godine 2016. stekla je počasni doktorat Nacionalnog sveučilišta.

Izvori

Vanjske poveznice
 Službene stranice

Ostali projekti

Životopisi, Singapur
Pravnici
Predsjednici
Političari nakon 1989.
Politika Singapura

Halimah Yacob


NGC 7635 ili maglica Mjehur je emisijska maglica u H II području u zviježđu Kasiopeji.
Oznaka dolazi od mjehura zvjezdanog vjetra koji je nastao od zvjezdanog vjetra zvijezde O vrste oznake BD +60 2522 (SAO 20575).

Izvori

Vanjske poveznice

  Hartmut Frommert: Revidirani Novi opći katalog
  Izvangalaktička baza podataka NASA-e i IPAC-a
  Astronomska baza podataka SIMBAD
   VizieR
 DSS-ova slika NGC 7635
  Auke Slotegraaf: NGC 7635 Deep Sky Observer's Companion
  NGC 7635 DSO-tražilica
  Courtney Seligman: Objekti Novog općeg kataloga: NGC 7600 - 7649

7635

NGC 7635


Die Compagnia dei Bardi war im 14. und 15. Jahrhundert eine der bedeutendsten Privatbanken Europas mit Sitz in Florenz. Wichtigste Anteilseignerin war die Florentiner Patrizierfamilie Bardi. Mit dem spektakulären Bankrott der Compagnia 1345 verlor die Bankgesellschaft ihre internationale Bedeutung.

Geschichte
Die Familie Bardi verfügte mit ihrer um 1250 gegründeten Bankgesellschaft im 14. Jahrhundert über ein multinationales Unternehmen mit einem europäischen Filialnetz (neben zahlreichen italienischen Städten u. a. in Avignon, Barcelona, Brügge, Zypern, Mallorca, Marseille, Nizza, Paris und Sevilla sowie in Konstantinopel, Jerusalem und Tunis). Das italienische Bank- und Kreditwesen war bereits im 14. Jahrhundert stark ausdifferenziert und komplex; viele Praktiken und Begriffe des modernen Bankwesens gehen auf diese Zeit zurück.

Die Bardi finanzierten mit ihren Krediten zwischen 1250 und 1345 auch die Könige von Frankreich und England. Ihre Filialen handelten bei der Kreditvergabe flexibel und weitgehend unabhängig, jedoch bestand ein Haftungsverband. Große Kredite wurden meist von Compagnie, also Gesellschaften mit mehreren Anteilseignern finanziert. Gemeinsam mit anderen Bankhäusern brachten die Bardi 1325 und 1326 große Summen für Karl von Anjou, Herzog von Kalabrien und gewählter signore von Florenz, auf, von dem sich die bedrängte Florentiner Republik Schutz erhoffte. Durch die Koordinierung von finanziellen und politischen Aktivitäten wurde die Compagnia dei Bardi zu einem der führenden Bankhäuser in Europa. Sie organisierte auch die Verwaltung des päpstlichen Zehnten. Als in den 1330er Jahren Leon V., Herrscher des armenischen Königreichs von Kilikien Papst Benedikt XII. um Unterstützung gegen die Truppen des mamlukischen Sultans an-Nāsir und zugleich gegen die armenischen Gegner des Königs bat, kauften die Bardi-Filialen in Neapel und Bari Getreide im Wert von 10.000 Goldflorin auf und schifften es binnen zwei Wochen in Richtung Schwarzes Meer ein. Im 14. Jahrhundert waren neben den Bardi auch die Peruzzi, die Acciaiuoli und die Scali erfolgreich im Bankwesen engagiert.

1345 ging das Kreditinstitut bankrott. Die Unterstützung des englischen Königs Eduard III. (1327–1377) mit einem Kredit in Höhe von 900.000 Goldflorin im Hundertjährigen Krieg gegen Frankreich (1337–1453) erwies sich als Fehler, als der König seine Zins- und Tilgungszahlungen einstellte, die er aus den vergeblich erhofften Kriegsgewinnen zu begleichen versprach, zumal seine Kriegsgegner, die Könige von Frankreich und Neapel, ebenfalls ihre Zahlungen auf Bardi-Kredite einstellten, als sie von der englischen Kriegsfinanzierung erfuhren. Ein päpstlicher Vermittlungsversuch scheiterte. Ebenfalls betroffen war die Familie Peruzzi, die sich mit 600.000 Florin engagiert hatte. Laut dem Geschichtsschreiber und Peruzzi-Teilhaber Giovanni Villani wogen die ausgefallenen Kredite "ein Königreich auf" ("valea un reame").

Nach dem Zusammenbruch existierte das Bankhaus weiter, ohne jedoch an die früheren Erfolge anknüpfen zu können. Ende des 15. Jahrhunderts stellte es finanzielle Mittel für die Reisen von Christoph Columbus und John Cabot zur Verfügung.

Siehe auch
 Liste von Unternehmenszusammenbrüchen und -skandalen

Einzelnachweise

Wirtschaftsgeschichte (Italien)
Ehemaliges Kreditinstitut (Italien)
Unternehmen (Florenz)

Compagnia dei Bardi


Jean-Pierre Fritsch, est un joueur de pétanque français.

Biographie

Clubs

 ?-? : Amis de la Petite Boule Saint-Raphaël

Palmarès

Séniors

Championnats du Monde
 Troisième
 Triplette 1975 (avec Tony Caleca et Marcel Caleca) :  Équipe de France

Championnats de France
 Champion de France
 Triplette 1974 (avec Tony Caleca et Marcel Caleca) : Amis de la Petite Boule Saint-Raphaël

Références

Liens externes

Joueur français de pétanque
Champion de France de pétanque
Lieu de naissance inconnu
Article à illustrer Pétanque

Jean-Pierre Fritsch


Biserica romano-catolică "Sfinții Apostoli Petru și Pavel" (în ) este un monument istoric aflat pe teritoriul satului Sânpaul, comuna Sânpaul. În Repertoriul Arheologic Național, monumentul apare cu codul 119475.04.

Istoric
Parohia catolică din Sânpaul a fost menționată pentru prima dată documentar în 1332 ca "Ecclesia Sancti Pauli", iar satul este amintit după tradiție medievală ca "Ad Sanctum Paulum" după hramul bisericii. Biserica satului a fost construită în secolul al XIV-lea. Din această perioadă se datează fragmentele structurale în stil romanic din prezbiteriu.

În timpul reformei protestante biserica împreună cu locuitorii au trecut la religia reformată. Însă la intervenția contesei Klára Haller din 1740 edificiul a fost retrocedat, iar în 1741 biserica a fost reconstruită în stil baroc și a primit forma actuală. În această perioadă a fost construită poarta barocă cu statuile sfinților apostoli Petru și Pavel. În interiorul bisericii se află copia icoanei Fecioarei Maria de la Máriapócs cumpărată de familia Haller în 1737 pentru parohie.

Imagini

Note

Legături externe
 Parohia Romano-Catolică din Sânpaul

Monumente istorice din județul Mureș
Biserici romano-catolice din România
Biserici din județul Mureș
Biserici din secolul al XIV-lea din România

Biserica romano-catolică din Sânpaul


كيري إيمانوال عالم طقس أمريكي ولد في 21 أفريل 1955، ويعمل حاليا في معهد ماساتشوستس للتقنية ببوسطن، تعتبر بحوثه في فيزياء الغلاف الجوي من أهم البحوث المتعلقة بعلم الطقس. وهو مختص بالحمل الجوي والعوامل المؤدية إلى اشتداد الأعاصير.
في سنة 2007 تم انتخابه كعضو في الأكاديمية الوطنية الأمريكية للعلوم. كما أدرج ضمن قائمة مئة شخصية الأكثر تأثيرا في العالم لسنة 2006.

مراجع

انظر أيضًا
 فرانك هاجر بيجلو

معلمون من كامبريدج (ماساتشوستس)
كلية العلوم في معهد ماساتشوستس للتكنولوجيا
أساتذة معهد ماساتشوستس للتكنولوجيا
أشخاص على قيد الحياة
أشخاص من كامبريدج (ماساتشوستس)
أعضاء أجانب في الجمعية الملكية
أعضاء الأكاديمية الوطنية الأمريكية للعلوم
أعضاء الجمعية الفلسفية الأمريكية
خبراء أرصاد جوية أمريكيون
خريجو معهد ماساتشوستس للتكنولوجيا
مواليد 1955

كيري إيمانويل


Die DS Greif (die Abkürzung DS steht für Schiff mit Dampfmaschine) war der erste Halbsalondampfer, der auf dem Bodensee verkehrte. 1932 lief der Raddampfer, möglicherweise wegen einer ungünstig auf den Kompass platzierten metallenen Tabaksdose, vor Seefelden auf Grund. Es konnte wenige Tage danach freigeschleppt werden.

Geschichte
1877 wurde die Greif bei den Gebrüdern Sulzer im Auftrag der Badischen Staatseisenbahnen gebaut. Das 191.000 Reichsmark teure Schiff war im Gegensatz etwa zu der württembergischen DS Christoph von vornherein als Halbsalondampfer konzipiert, d. h. der Aussichtssalon war zur Hälfte in den Schiffsrumpf integriert. Diese Bauweise bot dem Wind weniger Widerstand als die auf anderen Gewässern damals üblichen Vollsalondampfer und wurde daher schnell Standard bei den Passagierschiffen auf dem Bodensee: Nach der Greif wurden bis zum Jahr 1913 noch 23 weitere Halbsalondampfer für den Bodenseeverkehr gebaut.
Das Mittelschiff der Greif wurde 1885 nach vorne abgeschlossen und der Dampfer erhielt ein Steuerhaus. Auch der um 1895 noch vorhandene Gaffelmast wurde später abgebaut.
Am späten Nachmittag des 19. Dezember 1932 strandete die Greif mit etwa 20 Passagieren an Bord auf dem Weg von Überlingen nach Unteruhldingen in der Mauracher Bucht in der Nähe von Seefelden. Der Kapitän befahl sofort, mit voller Kraft rückwärts zu fahren, doch saß das Schiff so fest auf dem Grund auf, dass es sich aus eigener Kraft nicht befreien konnte. Die Passagiere wurden daraufhin mit den beiden Rettungsbooten der Greif an Land gebracht. Die gegen Abend zu Hilfe gerufenen Dampfschiffe Zaehringen und Stadt Meersburg waren nicht in der Lage, den Dampfer freizuschleppen. Daraufhin wurde das Doppelschraubenmotorschiff Mainau eingesetzt, das Heck an Heck mit der gestrandeten Greif versuchte, die Sandbank mit seinem Propellerstrahl abzuhobeln. Am 23. Dezember gelang es auf diese Weise, die Greif wieder freizubekommen, die dann von den Dampfern Stadt Konstanz und Stadt Meersburg nach Konstanz geschleppt wurde. Untersuchungen auf der Werft ergaben, dass das Schiff bis auf einige Kratzer unversehrt geblieben war. Auch eine Kontrollfahrt brachte keine Erkenntnisse darüber, warum der Dampfer auf Grund gelaufen war.

Etliche Monate nach dieser Strandung allerdings lieferte der mittlerweile pensionierte damalige Steuermann der Greif in seiner Stammtischrunde die Erklärung für den Vorfall. Er hatte sich nach dem Ablegen in Überlingen eine Pfeife gestopft und seine stählerne Tabaksdose auf den Kompass des Schiffes gelegt. Dies hatte eine Abweichung der Kompassnadel um elf Grad nach Backbord bewirkt.

Die Greif wurde im Herbst 1933 aus dem Verkehr gezogen und abgewrackt. Ihre Nachfolgerin war ab 1935 die Baden.

Bilder

Literatur
 Karl F. Fritz: Abenteuer Dampfschiffahrt auf dem Bodensee. 2. Auflage, Meersburg 1990. ISBN 3-927484-00-8, S. 43–47.

Weblinks

Fußnoten

Passagierschiff (Deutschland)
Passagierschiff (Bodensee)
Radschiff
Dampfmaschinenschiff
Badische Staatseisenbahnen
Sulzer AG
Binnenschiff (Deutschland)

Greif (Schiff, 1877)


L'église Saint-Martin est une église située à Saint-Martin-de-Coux, dans le département français de la Charente-Maritime en région Nouvelle-Aquitaine.

Historique

L'église est classée au titre des monuments historiques par arrêté du .

Architecture

Intérieur

Extérieur

Galerie

Références

Voir aussi

Articles connexes
 Liste des monuments historiques de la Charente-Maritime
 Églises de la Charente-Maritime

Liens externes

Saint-Martin-de-Coux
Monument historique classé en 1911
Saint-Martin-de-Coux
Saint-Martin-de-Coux

Église Saint-Martin de Saint-Martin-de-Coux


الجبابرة هي إحدى بلديات ولاية البليدة وتتبع لـ دائرة مفتاح. تقع في الشمال الشرقي على بعد 50 كم من مقر الولاية وتبعد عن الجزائر العاصمة حوالي 37كم.

هي بلدية ريفية جبلية كان عدد سكانها  في عام 1998 ، وحسب إحصاءات عام 2008 فقد بلغ عدد سكان الجبابرة . تتواجد هذه البلدية بمرتفعات الأطلس البليدي وتقع بها قمة جبل تاشت الشاهقة والتي تفوق 1200 متر، كما أنها تشهد وتيرة نمو متسارعة من خلال مشاريع البناء والتهيئة والبنى القاعدية.

تتكون المدينة من الأحياء التالية :
 النقاقبة
 الجماعية
 القاليز
 أولاد ارجم
 الجبابرة التحاتة
 المعدن. سياخن. العمارشية.الردخة.الجبلبرة الفلقة. ماوري.حي 18 مسكن

مراجع

جبابرة

الجبابرة


Elly Nannenga-Bremekamp, geboren als Neeltje Elizabeth Bremekamp, (* 1916 in Surabaya, Indonesien; † 1996) war eine niederländische Botanikerin. Ihr Spezialgebiet waren die Myxogastria, ihr offizielles botanisches Autorenkürzel lautet "Nann.-Bremek.".

Leben
Beide Eltern waren Biologen, die Familie lebte zur Zeit von Ellys Geburt in Indonesien. Nach dem frühen Tod ihrer Mutter zog ihr Vater mit seiner Tochter wieder in die Niederlande, wo Bremekamp in Delft und Amsterdam die Grundschule besuchte, bevor ihr Vater eine Professur an der Universität Transvaal in Südafrika annahm. 1924 zog die Familie nach Pretoria, kurz darauf wieder nach Europa, wo Bremekamp in England zur Schule ging. Sie studierte Biologie in Utrecht und entdeckte dort als Interessengebiet die Taxonomie der Phanerogamen (Samenpflanzen). An der Universität Utrecht lernte sie auch ihren späteren Ehemann E.T. Nannenga kennen, mit dem sie vier Töchter hatte. Mit ihm zog Bremekamp nach Heelsum in Gelderland.

Der Schwerpunkt ihrer Arbeit waren wissenschaftliche Illustrationen von Muscheln, Schmetterlingen, Moosen und Pilzen. Nachdem sie im Zweiten Weltkrieg fast ihre gesamte Bibliothek und Sammlung mit ihrem Haus verloren hatte, war eines der wenigen Werke, das ihr noch blieb, die Monografie von Arthur und Guilielma Lister zu den Echten Schleimpilzen, den Myxogastria, und wandte sich dem Thema als neues Schwerpunktthema zu. Seit 1960 veröffentlichte sie ausführlich, insbesondere zur Myxomyzetenflora des Himalayas, Indiens und Japans, aber auch der Niederlande und erwarb sich international einen Ruf als Koryphäe. Sie führte ausführliche Sammlungen in Westeuropa wie in Afrika durch, zum Zeitpunkt ihres Todes umfasste ihr Herbarium über 17.000 Blätter, 11.500 mikroskopische Präparate sowie 6.500 Illustrationen. Die Sammlung wird heute vom Nationalen Botanischen Garten Belgiens verwahrt und digitalisiert.

Weblinks

Nachweise

Mykologe
Botaniker (20. Jahrhundert)
Namensgeber für eine Pilzart
Niederländer
Geboren 1916
Gestorben 1996
Frau

Elly Nannenga-Bremekamp


Esonía, en , est un ancien dème du district régional de Magnésie, en Thessalie, Grèce. Depuis 2010, il est fusionné au sein du dème de Vólos.

Selon le recensement de 2011, la population du dème compte .

Notes et références

Voir aussi

Liens externes

Dème en Thessalie
Ancien dème en Grèce

Esonía


Dirk Albert Hooijer (* 30. Mai 1919 in Medan, Sumatra; † 26. November 1993 in Leiden, Niederlande), häufig auch nur durch sein Autorenkürzel D. A. Hooijer bekannt, war ein niederländischer Paläontologe.

Leben und Wirken
Hooijer verbrachte seine Jugendzeit in Bogor auf Java. 1932 zog die Familie nach Den Haag, wo er 1937 seinen Gymnasialabschluss an der Dalton Den Haag machte. Anschließend studierte er Geologie an der Universität Leiden. 1941 wurde er am Rijksmuseum van Natuurlijke Historie in Leiden angestellt, wo das Hauptaugenmerk seiner Forschungsarbeit vor allem fossilen Flusspferden und Nashörnern galt. 1946 wurde er Kurator für die Sammlung von Eugène Dubois (1858–1940). Im selben Jahr promovierte er mit der Dissertation Prehistoric and fossil Rhinoceroses from the Malay Archipelago and India unter Professor Hilbrand Boschma (1893–1976) zum Doktor. Von 1950 bis 1951 war er mit einem Rockefeller-Stipendium Mitarbeiter am American Museum of Natural History. Von 1970 bis zu seinem Ruhestand im Jahre 1979 war er Professor an der University of California in Irvine.

Hooijer verfasste 267 wissenschaftliche Artikel über Wirbeltierfossilien aus Indonesien, Afrika, dem Nahen Osten (insbesondere Israel), den Niederlanden, den Antillen und Südamerika. Viele dieser Arbeiten beschäftigen sich mit fossilen Nashörnern, Katzen, Schweinen, Nagetieren, Primaten und Rüsseltieren. Er beschrieb sechs neue Gattungen, darunter Celebochoerus, Chilotheridium, Epileptobos, Paradiceros, Paulocnus und Spelaeomys und 47 neue Arten und Unterarten, darunter die ausgestorbene Hirscheberart Babyrousa bolabatuensis.

Hooijer war verheiratet und hatte zwei Töchter und einen Sohn.

Dedikationsnamen
1959 ehrte Leo Daniël Brongersma Hooijer im Artepitheton der fossilen Waranart Varanus hooijeri von der Insel Flores. 1995 wurde die fossile Orang-Utan-Art Pongo hooijeri und 2006 die fossile Pferdeart Eurygnathohippus hooijeri aus dem  Pliozän nach ihm benannt.

Literatur
 Lipke Bijdeley Holthuis: 1820 - 1958 Rijksmuseum van Natuurlijke Historie C.h.j.m. Fransen, C. van Achterberg, P.j. van Helsdingen (Hrsg.) Nationaal Natuurhistorisch Museum 1995 (PDF online) (niederländisch)

Weblinks
 Nachruf Dirk Albert Hooijer

Paläontologe
Kurator einer naturwissenschaftlichen Sammlung
Hochschullehrer (University of California, Irvine)
Niederländer
Geboren 1919
Gestorben 1993
Mann

Dirk Albert Hooijer


O Screen Actors Guild-American Federation of Television and Radio Artists (SAG-AFTRA) é um sindicato estadunidense que representa aproximadamente 160 mil atores de cinema e televisão, jornalistas, personalidades do rádio, músicos, cantores, dubladores, influenciadores da internet, modelos e outros profissionais de mídia em todo o mundo. A organização foi formada em 30 de março de 2012, após a fusão do Screen Actors Guild (SAG, criado em 1933) e da Federação Americana de Artistas de Rádio e Televisão (AFTRA, criada em 1937). O SAG-AFTRA é membro da AFL-CIO, a maior central sindical dos Estados Unidos.

Ken Howard foi o primeiro presidente do sindicato. Após sua morte, ele foi sucedido por Gabrielle Carteris. Em 2 de setembro de 2021, Fran Drescher foi eleita presidente. A SAG-AFTRA está sediada em Los Angeles, Califórnia e na cidade de Nova York, além de ter outros escritórios espalhados em todo os Estados Unidos.

Ver também
Prémios Screen Actors Guild

Ligações externas

Organizações fundadas em 2012
Sindicatos dos Estados Unidos
Screen Actors Guild

SAG-AFTRA


«French Kissing» (en español: «Beso francés») es una canción de la cantante alemana Sarah Connor y fue publicada como su segundo sencillo en los países de habla alemana el 20 de agosto de 2001.
Escrita y producida por Rob Tyger y Kay Denar, la canción incorpora un sample de la canción de Blackstreet de 1996, "No Diggity", la cual es interpretada en su versión original junto a Dr. Dre y Queen Pen. También incluye una Línea de bajo de la canción de Eminem del 2000, "Stan" interpretada junto a Dido.

La canción tuvo un éxito moderado llegando al Top 30 en Alemania y Austria, pero no logró posiciones importantes en ningún otro país. Hasta la fecha, "French Kissing" y la canción de 2008 "I'll Kiss It Away" son los únicos sencillos de Connor que no entraron en los veinte primeros de la lista alemana de sencillos.

Listado de canciones
Sencillo en CD europeo
 «French Kissing» (Radio/Video) – 3:36
 «French Kissing» (Divine Dance Rmx) – 3:59

Maxi sencillo en CD europeo
 «French Kissing» (Radio/Video) – 3:36
 «French Kissing» (Divine Dance Rmx) – 3:59
 «French Kissing» (Gena B. Good Rmx) – 3:46
 «French Kissing» (Xtended Version) – 5:02

Posición en las listas

Referencias

Sencillos de 2001
Sencillos de Sarah Connor

French Kissing


Pedro Jesús Pérez Montero (Linares, Jaén, 3 de enero de 1976) es un exárbitro de fútbol español de la Primera División de España. Pertenece al Comité de Árbitros de Andalucía.

Trayectoria
Tras 6 temporadas en Segunda división B (Actual Primera RFEF) asciende a Segunda División, como número 1 de España en la temporada 2006/2007 tras dirigir el partido de promoción de ascenso entre los equipos Hércules C.F. y la S.D. Ponferradina.

Dirigió el partido de ida de la promoción de ascenso a Primera División de 2011 entre el Real Valladolid Club de Fútbol y el Elche Club de Fútbol (1-0).

Consigue el ascenso a Primera División de España (como número 1 de España) junto al colegiado madrileño Carlos del Cerro Grande. Debutó en Primera División de España el 28 de agosto de 2011 en el partido Real Club Deportivo Mallorca contra el Real Club Deportivo Espanyol (1-0).

Tras cinco temporadas en la Primera División de España, desciende a la Segunda División de España en la temporada 2015/16. El último encuentro que dirigió en Primera División fue el Unión Deportiva Las Palmas-Athletic Club (0-0) el 8 de mayo de 2016.

Se retiró en la temporada 2016/17 en la cual, dirigió su último encuentro, que fue el partido de vuelta de la promoción de ascenso a Primera División entre el Getafe Club de Fútbol y la Sociedad Deportiva Huesca (3-0).

Desde la temporada 2017/2018 desempeña funciones como Delegado-Informador de la Real Federación Española de Fútbol en partidos de Primera y Segunda división.

En 2012 se inauguró una Asociación Deportiva Cultural, que lleva su nombre y en la que se organizan eventos solidarios y con fines sociales.

En julio de 2019, es nombrado Director Técnico del Comité Andaluz de Árbitros de la Real Federación Andaluza de Fútbol.

Premios

 Silbato de oro al mejor árbitro de España, concedido por Aficiones Unidas (1): 2009
 [Trofeo Vicente Acebedo como mejor árbitro de España, otorgado por el CTA de la Real Federación Española de Fútbol] (1): 2011

Referencias

Árbitros de fútbol de Andalucía
Árbitros de Primera División de España

Pedro Jesús Pérez Montero


Le SS Faja de Oro est un pétrolier construit en 1914. Il a navigué pour un certain nombre de compagnies et a passé sans encombre la Première Guerre mondiale, avant d'être torpillé et coulé par un sous-marin allemand pendant la Seconde Guerre mondiale alors qu'il naviguait sous pavillon mexicain dans le golfe du Mexique. Son naufrage a contribué à la décision du Mexique pour entrer en guerre aux côtés des Alliés.

Historique
Le Faja de Oro est construit à l'origine par la RW Hawthorn Leslie & Company d'Hebburn-on-Tyne sous le nom de Barneson, pour le service de la Bank Line Ltd (Andrew Weir & Co), de Glasgow. Le navire est vendu une première fois à la Andrew Weir & Co en 1915 et rebaptisé Oyleric, puis une seconde fois en 1937 à la société italienne Ditta GM Barbagelata, de Gênes, et rebaptisé Genoano. Il est saisi par le gouvernement mexicain alors qu'il est amarré à Tampico (Tamaulipas), le 8 décembre 1941 et rebaptisée Faja de Oro. Désormais exploité par la société Petróleos Mexicanos (Pemex), son port d'attache est Tampico.

En mai 1942, ayant appareillé de Marcus Hook, en Pennsylvanie, pour retourner à Tampico, le Faja de Oro naviguait sans escorte et ne transportait aucune cargaison sous le commandement de Alm Gustavo Martínez Trejo, lorsqu'il est aperçu par lU-106, commandé par le Kapitänleutnant Hermann Rasch. Le navire est torpillé à 4 h 21 le 21 mai 1942, alors qu'il navigue au large de Key West. L'attaque s'est déroulée malgré la neutralité mexicaine, vraisemblablement parce que la nationalité du navire avait été indiscernable dans l'obscurité. Le Faja de Oro est touché à l'avant par l'une des deux torpilles. LU-106 tire ensuite un coup de grâce à 04 h 33, mais celle-ci échoue; une deuxième salve est tirée 20 minutes plus tard, l'atteignant à son milieu et l'embrasant. Il coule peu de temps après en emportant 10 membres de son équipage. 27 survivants ont ensuite été secourus. L'attaque avait été observée par un autre sous-marin allemand, l'U-753, qui l'avait également poursuivi, mais en apercevant l'U-106, n'avait pas tenté d'attaque.

Le naufrage du Faja de Oro, survenu une semaine après le naufrage du pétrolier mexicain  le 14 mai par l'U-564 de Reinhard Suhren, contribuera à la déclaration de guerre du Mexique contre l'Allemagne le  juin 1942.

Notes et références

Voir aussi

Articles connexes

 Histoire militaire du Mexique pendant la Seconde Guerre mondiale
 Bataille des Caraïbes

Liens externes

Bateau lancé en 1913
Navire coulé en 1942
Bateau coulé par un sous-marin allemand
Épave de l'océan Atlantique
Pétrolier
Navire construit à Newcastle upon Tyne
Bateau mexicain
1942 au Mexique

SS Faja de Oro


العين السخنة هي منتجع سياحي واستثماري وصناعي على ساحل خليج السويس في البحر الأحمر وتتبع محافظة السويس في مصر، وتبعد 55 كيلومترا عن مدينة السويس وهي من أقرب منتجعات البحر الأحمر إلى القاهرة حيث تبعد عنها حوالي 88 كم من خلال طريق القاهرة - العين السخنة، ويتم حاليًا إنشاء مشروع قطار العين السخنة - مطروح السريع لربط العين السخنة بالعديد من المدن الأخرى.

السياحة
سميت بالعين السخنة لكثرة العيون الكبريتية الساخنة بها والتي تستخدم للاستشفاء. وبها شواطئ غير صخرية ذات رمال بيضاء، كما أنها تعتبر مصيفا طوال أشهر السنة صيفا وشتاء، ويوجد بها عدة مناطق وقرى سياحية تحوي فنادق وشاليهات ويعد فندق العين السخنة الذي أُنشئ في أوائل الستينيات أقدمها على الإطلاق، وقربها من القاهرة - حيث تبعد عنها بمسافة حوالي 140 كيلومترا تقريبا - جعلها مصيفا مفضّلا للمصريين خصوصا لرحلة اليوم الواحد، وإن كانت نسبة السياح الأجانب بها هي الغالبة، ويتم بمنطقة العين السخنة إنشاء عدة مشاريع سياحية لجذب الأعداد المتزايدة من السياح المصريين والأجانب.

عثرت البعثة الفرنسية للآثار بالعين السخنة في 8 فبراير 2006 م. على كنز أثري يرجع لفترة الدولتين الحديثة والوسطي في مصر يرجع عمره لأكثر من أربعة آلاف عام خلت وذلك بمنطقة جبل الجلالة كما اكتشفت بعثة ألمانية مشابهة تمثالا ضخما للملك أمنحوتب الثالث.

عقد بها في 29 نوفمبر 2007 م. مؤتمر حول مصر والتغيرات المناخية، نظمه مركز حابي للحقوق البيئية.

استثمار صناعي
يوجد بمنطقة العين السخنة حقول للبترول والغاز ومشاريع للتكرير وإسالة الغاز، إضافة لميناء السخنة البحري والذي تبلغ مساحته 22.3 كيلومتر مربع والذي من المتوقع أن يستوعب مليوني حاوية مكافئة سنويا والذي استحوذت عليه شركة موانئ دبي العالمية  ويوجد قرب الميناء مصفاة كبيرة لتكرير السكر والوقود النباتي ومصنع لإنتاج الأمونيا.

جبل الجلالة
جبل الجلالة امتداد وتحديث لمدينة العين السخنة حيث تم بناء مدينة على قمة الجبل وجامعات ومستشفيات وفنادق ويوجد طريق منحدر أسفل الجبل يصل بمدينة العين السخنة وتلفريك سريع يصل للشاطئ.

معرض صور

انظر أيضًا
 جبل الجلالة

مصادر

وصلات خارجية
 الهيئة العامة للاستعلامات

اكتشافات أثرية في 1999
ريفييرا البحر الأحمر
محافظة السويس
مدن ساحلية في مصر
مدن سياحية مصرية
منتجعات في مصر
مواقع أثرية في مصر
مواقع جذب سياحي في مصر
ينابيع حارة في مصر

العين السخنة


Victor Claude Alexandre Fanneau de Lahorie (Javron-les-Chapelles; 5 de janeiro de 1766 - Paris; 29 de outubro de 1812) foi um general francês, conspirador contra Napoleão e padrinho de Victor Hugo.

Biografia
Victor Fanneau de La Horie serviu à Primeira República Francesa no Exército do Reno com Joseph Hugo e tornou-se amigo íntimo do jovem. Ele era o padrinho e homônimo do filho de Joseph, Victor Hugo. Ele serviu nos exércitos revolucionários, mas amargando Napoleão se juntou à conspiração de Moreau. Quando o plano fracassou em 1801, ele foi proscrito e se escondeu na propriedade de Joseph Hugo. Lá o jovem Victor Hugo conheceu o general.

Depois de fugir para o exterior, ele voltou para a França em 1808 e foi preso e mantido na prisão de La Force. Ele foi libertado durante o golpe de Malet de 1812, mas após o fracasso do golpe foi recapturado e executado.

Referências

Fontes

História da França

Victor Fanneau de La Horie


Dipelta yunnanensis (sin. Linnaea yunnanensis), vrsta bjelogoričnog grma iz Yunnana u Kini. Pripada porodici kozokrvnica.

Sinonim
 Dipelta ventricosa Hemsl.
 Linnaea yunnanensis (Franch.) Christenh.

Izvori

Linnaeoideae
Endemska flora Kine
Flora Gansua
Flora Guizhoua
Flora Hubeija
Flora Shaanxija
Flora Sichuana
Flora Yunnana

Dipelta yunnanensis


تعرف الإشعاعية  على أنها كمية الطاقة الضوئية الصادرة في الثانية من 1 سم2 من سطح مصدر التي تنتقل في اتجاه معين، بشكل عمودي على سطح المصدر في اتجاه الانتقال لكل واحدة للزاوية الصلبة. وحدة الإشعاعية في النظام الدولي للوحدات هي واط لكل متر مربع لكل ستراديان (W·sr−1·m−2)، حيث أن المساحة (متر مربع) تكون عمودية على اتجاه انتقال الضوء.

إن توزع الضوء في الفراغ هو تابع للموقع والإتجاه. مثلاً، خذ مصباح جيب يطلق حزمة ضيقة من الضوء في غرفة مظلمة، يجب معرفة مكان المصباح والاتجاه الذي يضيء فيه حتى يمكننا وصف المصباح. هذا يعني أن مساحة صغيرة تطل على مصدر الضوء من الأمام تتلقى كمية أكبر من الطاقة بالمقارنة مع مساحة تكون شبه مماسة للضوء. بشكل مماثل فإن الإشعاعية هي تابع للمكان والاتجاه (مصباح الجيب هو أفضل مثال عليه حيث من الممكن تحريك المصباح في أماكن مختلفة والإشارة بالضوء إلى اتجاهات مختلفة).

من أهم خصائص الإشعاعية أنها تكون ثابتة القيمة على الخط المستقيم، وهذه الخاصية تـُستخدم كثيرا في تطبيقات البصريات.
ويمكن بواسطتها معرفة شدة تألق الشمس والنجوم. يكون من المناسب افتراض أن الضوء لا يتأثر بالوسط الذي ينتشر فيه (أي كأن الضوء ينتشر في الفراغ). بين نقطتين P1 و P2 تكون قيمة الإشعاعية التي تغادر النقطة P1 في اتجاه P2 مساوياً لقيمة الإشعاعية التي تصل إلى النقطة P2 من الاتجاه P1.

الحساب

يتم حساب الإشعاعية باستخدام العلاقة التالية:

حيث
التقريب يكون صالحاً لقيم صغيرة للزواية Ω،

L هو الإشعاعية (W·m-2·sr-1)،
Φ هو التدفق الإشعاعي للطاقة(W)،
θ هي الزاوية بين العمودي على السطح والإتجاه المعين،
A هي مساحة المنبع الضوئي(m2)،
 هي الزاوية الصلبة (sr).

انظر أيضاً
 تدفق إشعاعي
 شدة إشعاعية
 كثافة التدفق الإشعاعي
 كثافة التدفق الطيفي

مراجع

بصريات
قياس إشعاعي
كميات فيزيائية

إشعاعية


Radio Odžak RPO je lokalna radijska postaja čije je sjedište u Odžaku, Bosanska Posavina, BiH. Emitira na hrvatskom jeziku na 92,5 MHz i na internetu.
Programsku shemu čine vijesti i glazba.
Dok je postojao hrvatski Radio Soli, Radio postaja Odžak emitirala je s njime i zajednički program.

Izvori

Vanjske poveznice
 Službene stranice

Radijske postaje na hrvatskom jeziku u Bosni i Hercegovini
Odžak

Radio Odžak RPO


Jacob Fischer Friis (født 11. december 1976) er en dansk fodboldtræner, der er træner for Viborg.

Spillerkarriere
Friis var anfører for AaB's Danmarksseriehold, inden han blev erklæret fodboldinvalid i 2002-3.

Trænerkarriere
Friis startede sin karriere som træner i forbindelse med en ansættelse som assistent for AaB's Serie 3-hold. Han var herefter fortsat træner i AaB, i den sidste periode som assistenttræner for AaB's Danmarksseriehold, hvor han var frem til sommeren 2006.

I sommeren 2006 tog Friis til Mexico, hvor han dels skulle være lærer i engelsk samt være træner på privatskolens fodboldhold. Jobbet som fodboldtræner var dog ikke tilfredsstillende for Friis, og i stedet ordnede der sig en mulighed for, at Friis kunne være en del af trænerstaben omkring Monterreys universitetshold, UANL Tigres.

AaB's førstehold
Da Allan Kuhn sagde op som følge af nyt trænerjob i Malmö FF, blev han i januar 2016 ny assistenttræner i AaB under cheftræner Lars Søndergaard. Det var dog allerede planen, at han skulle rykkes op i Superligatruppen i sommeren 2016, men denne plan blev fremrykket.

Lars Søndergaard blev fyret i december 2016. Morten Wieghorst skrev under med AaB i starten af januar 2017., og her blev Friis førsteassistent under, således cheftræner Wieghorst, Friis som førsteassistent og Thomas Augustinussen som andenassistent dannede den fodboldfaglige del af AaB. Han skrev i slutningen af marts 2018 under på en fortløbende aftale.

AaB vandt blot over en periode på 12 kampe i efteråret 2018 blot én kamp, og Wieghorst blev den 26. november 2018 fyret. I stedet blev Friis ansat som midlertidig træner i efterårets tre resterende kampe i Superligaen. Friis' første kamp i Superligaen som cheftræner resulterede i en 1-4-sejr ude over Esbjerg fB den 1. december 2018. 2. kamp i spidsen for AaB endte med et 2-4-nederlag hjemme til AC Horsens den 9. december 2018, men alligevel blev det dagen efter offentliggjort, at AaB og Friis var blevet enige om en kontrakt for resten af 2018-19-sæsonen.

Uddannelse
Friis erhvervede sig i august 2015 titlen UEFA Pro Licence, også kendt som P-licensen, der er den højeste træneruddannelse. Opgaven havde titlen 'Afslutningsspil fra mellemrum - mod etableret forsvar'.

Han er ydermere uddannet som lærer.

Referencer

Eksterne henvisninger

Fodboldspillere fra Danmark
Fodboldspillere fra AaB
Fodboldtrænere fra Danmark
Fodboldtrænere fra AaB
Fodboldtrænere fra Viborg FF

Jacob Friis


Valmyndigheten er et svensk statligt forvaltningsorgan med ansvar for gennemførelse af valg, folkeafstemninger og folkeinitiativer. Valmyndigheten blev oprettet 1. juli 2001 og overtog sine opgaver fra Riksskatteverket.

Valmyndigheten er underlagt det svenske justitsministerium, og dets afgørelser kan indklages for Valprövningsnämnden.

Noter

Eksterne henvisninger

Svenske myndigheder

Valmyndigheten


Vindtoppur (fræðiheiti Lonicera morrowii) er runni af geitblaðsætt ættaður frá norðaustur Kína, suður Kóreu og Japan.  Hann verður um 2 m hár og álíka breiður. Blómin eru hvít og gulna með aldri og berin skærrauð, óæt.

Hann hefur reynst harðgerður á Íslandi.

Heimild

Geitblaðsætt

Vindtoppur


John de Beaumont, 4. Baron Beaumont KG (* 1361; † 9. September 1396 in Stirling) war ein englischer Adliger. Bereits im Alter von acht Jahren erbte er nach dem frühen Tod seines Vaters den Titel. Er war mit Catherine Evrigham verheiratet.

Karriere
Er diente schon früh am Hof und im militärischen Gefolge König Eduards III. und wurde bereits am 23. April 1377 zum Ritter geschlagen. Dann nahm er in der ersten Phase des Hundertjährigen Krieges am Feldzug gegen Frankreich und gegen die Anhänger des Papstes Clemens VII. teil. 1389 wurde er vom König in den Privy Council berufen und zum Warden of the Western Marches an der Grenze zu Schottland ernannt. Außerdem wurde ihm zusätzlich das Amt des Admirals of the North übertragen. Noch im selben Jahr wurde er Constable of Dover Castle und vom 13. November 1393 bis zu seinem Ableben Lord Warden of the Cinque Ports. Er erhielt das Writ of Summons zur Teilnahme an den Parlamentssitzungen vom 20. August 1383 bis zum 13. November 1393. Ebenfalls 1393 verlieh ihm König Richard II. den Hosenbandorden. Im Oktober 1395 war er Mitglied der englischen Gesandtschaft nach Frankreich, die für Richard II. um die Hand der Prinzessin Isabel anhalten sollte.

Nachkommen
Mit seiner Frau Katherine Everingham hatte Beaumont sechs Kinder.

 Elizabeth Beaumont († 20. Juli 1415)
 Richard Beaumont
 Eleanor Beaumont
 Margaret Beaumont
 Henry Beaumont, 5. Baron Beaumont (* um 1380; † Juni 1413)
 Thomas Beaumont, Seigneur de Basqueville (* nach 1381; † 1457)

Literatur
 George Edward Cokayne, G. H. White: The Complete Peerage. 2. Ausgabe. Band XII, 1982

Weblinks

Einzelnachweise

Baron Beaumont
Ritter des Hosenbandordens
Lord Warden of the Cinque Ports
John #Beaumont, 04 Baron Beaumont
Mitglied des House of Lords
Geboren 1361
Gestorben 1396
Mann

John Beaumont, 4. Baron Beaumont


Cell adhesion is the process by which cells interact and attach to neighbouring cells through specialised molecules of the cell surface. This process can occur either through direct contact between cell surfaces such as cell junctions or indirect interaction, where cells attach to surrounding extracellular matrix, a gel-like structure containing molecules released by cells into spaces between them. Cells adhesion occurs from the interactions between cell-adhesion molecules (CAMs), transmembrane proteins located on the cell surface. Cell adhesion links cells in different ways and can be involved in signal transduction for cells to detect and respond to changes in the surroundings. Other cellular processes regulated by cell adhesion include cell migration and tissue development in multicellular organisms. Alterations in cell adhesion can disrupt important cellular processes and lead to a variety of diseases, including cancer and arthritis. Cell adhesion is also essential for infectious organisms, such as bacteria or viruses, to cause diseases.

General mechanism

CAMs are classified into four major families: integrins, immunoglobulin (Ig) superfamily, cadherins, and selectins.  Cadherins and IgSF are homophilic CAMs, as they directly bind to the same type of CAMs on another cell, while integrins and selectins are heterophilic CAMs that bind to different types of CAMs.  Each of these adhesion molecules has a different function and recognizes different ligands. Defects in cell adhesion are usually attributable to defects in expression of CAMs.

In multicellular organisms, bindings between CAMs allow cells to adhere to one another and creates structures called cell junctions. According to their functions, the cell junctions can be classified as:

Anchoring junctions (adherens junctions, desmosomes and hemidesmosomes), which maintain cells together and strengthens contact between cells.
Occluding junctions (tight junctions), which seal gaps between cells through cell–cell contact, making an impermeable barrier for diffusion
Channel-forming junctions (gap junctions), which links cytoplasm of adjacent cells allowing transport of molecules to occur between cells
Signal-relaying junctions, which can be synapses in the nervous system

Alternatively, cell junctions can be categorised into two main types according to what interacts with the cell: cell–cell junctions, mainly mediated by cadherins, and cell–matrix junctions, mainly mediated by integrins.

Cell–cell junctions
Cell–cell junctions can occur in different forms. In anchoring junctions between cells such as adherens junctions and desmosomes, the main CAMs present are the cadherins. This family of CAMs are membrane proteins that mediate cell–cell adhesion through its extracellular domains and require extracellular Ca2+ ions to function correctly. Cadherins forms homophilic attachment between themselves, which results in cells of a similar type sticking together and can lead to selective cell adhesion, allowing vertebrate cells to assemble into organised tissues. Cadherins are essential for cell–cell adhesion and cell signalling in multicellular animals and can be separated into two types: classical cadherins and non-classical cadherins.

Adherens junctions

Adherens junctions mainly function to maintain the shape of tissues and to hold cells together. In adherens junctions, cadherins between neighbouring cells interact through their extracellular domains, which share a conserved calcium-sensitive region in their extracellular domains. When this region comes into contact with Ca2+ ions, extracellular domains of cadherins undergo a conformational change from the inactive  flexible conformation to a more rigid conformation in order to undergo homophilic binding. Intracellular domains of cadherins are also highly conserved, as they bind to proteins called catenins, forming catenin-cadherin complexes. These protein complexes link cadherins to actin filaments. This association with actin filaments is essential for adherens junctions to stabilise cell–cell adhesion. Interactions with actin filaments can also promote clustering of cadherins, which are involved in the assembly of adherens junctions. This is since cadherin clusters promote actin filament polymerisation, which in turn promotes the assembly of adherens junctions by binding to the cadherin–catenin complexes that then form at the junction.

Desmosomes
Desmosomes are structurally similar to adherens junctions but composed of different components. Instead of classical cadherins, non-classical cadherins such as desmogleins and desmocollins act as adhesion molecules and they are linked to intermediate filaments instead of actin filaments. No catenin is present in desmosomes as intracellular domains of desmosomal cadherins interact with desmosomal plaque proteins, which form the thick cytoplasmic plaques in desmosomes and link cadherins to intermediate filaments. Desmosomes provides strength and resistance to mechanical stress by unloading forces onto the flexible but resilient intermediate filaments, something that cannot occur with the rigid actin filaments. This makes desmosomes important in tissues that encounter high levels of mechanical stress, such as heart muscle and epithelia, and explains why it appears frequently in these types of tissues.

Tight junctions
Tight junctions are normally present in epithelial and endothelial tissues, where they seal gaps and regulate paracellular transport of solutes and extracellular fluids in these tissues that function as barriers. Tight junction is formed by transmembrane proteins, including claudins, occludins and tricellulins, that bind closely to each other on adjacent membranes in a homophilic manner. Similar to anchoring junctions, intracellular domains of these tight junction proteins are bound with scaffold proteins that keep these proteins in clusters and link them to actin filaments in order to maintain structure of the tight junction. Claudins, essential for formation of tight junctions, form paracellular pores which allow selective passage of specific ions across tight junctions making the barrier selectively permeable.

Gap junctions

Gap junctions are composed of channels called connexons, which consist of transmembrane proteins called connexins clustered in groups of six. Connexons from adjacent cells form continuous channels when they come into contact and align with each other. These channels allow transport of ions and small molecules between cytoplasm of two adjacent cells, apart from holding cells together and provide structural stability like anchoring junctions or tight junctions. Gap junction channels are selectively permeable to specific ions depending on which connexins form the connexons, which allows gap junctions to be involved in cell signalling by regulating the transfer of molecules involved in signalling cascades. Channels can respond to many different stimuli and are regulated dynamically either by rapid mechanisms, such as voltage gating, or by slow mechanism, such as altering numbers of channels present in gap junctions.

Adhesion mediated by selectins
Selectins are a family of specialised CAMs involved in transient cell–cell adhesion occurring in the circulatory system. They mainly mediate the movement of white blood cells (leukocytes) in the bloodstream by allowing the white blood cells to "roll" on endothelial cells through reversible bindings of selections. Selectins undergo heterophilic bindings, as its extracellular domain binds to carbohydrates on adjacent cells instead of other selectins, while it also require Ca2+ ions to function, same as cadherins. cell–cell adhesion of leukocytes to endothelial cells is important for immune responses as leukocytes can travel to sites of infection or injury through this mechanism. At these sites, integrins on the rolling white blood cells are activated and bind firmly to the local endothelial cells, allowing the leukocytes to stop migrating and move across the endothelial barrier.

Adhesion mediated by members of the immunoglobulin superfamily
The immunoglobulin superfamily (IgSF) is one of the largest superfamily of proteins in the body and it contains many diverse CAMs involved in different functions. These transmembrane proteins have one or more immunoglobulin-like domains in their extracellular domains and undergo calcium-independent binding with ligands on adjacent cells. Some IgSF CAMs, such as neural cell adhesion molecules (NCAMs), can perform homophilic binding while others, such as intercellular cell adhesion molecules (ICAMs) or vascular cell adhesion molecules (VCAMs) undergo heterophilic binding with molecules like carbohydrates or integrins. Both ICAMs and VCAMs are expressed on vascular endothelial cells and they interact with integrins on the leukocytes to assist leukocyte attachment and its movement across the endothelial barrier.

Cell–matrix junctions
Cells create extracellular matrix by releasing molecules into its surrounding extracellular space. Cells have specific CAMs that will bind to molecules in the extracellular matrix and link the matrix to the intracellular cytoskeleton. Extracellular matrix can act as a support when organising cells into tissues and can also be involved in cell signalling by activating intracellular pathways when bound to the CAMs.
Cell–matrix junctions are mainly mediated by integrins, which also clusters like cadherins to form firm adhesions. Integrins are transmembrane heterodimers formed by different α and β subunits, both subunits with different domain structures. Integrins can signal in both directions: inside-out signalling, intracellular signals modifying the intracellular domains, can regulate affinity of integrins for their ligands, while outside-in signalling, extracellular ligands binding to extracellular domains, can induce conformational changes in integrins and initiate signalling cascades. Extracellular domains of integrins can bind to different ligands through heterophilic binding while intracellular domains can either be linked to intermediate filaments, forming hemidesmosomes, or to actin filaments, forming focal adhesions.

Hemidesmosomes
In hemidesmosomes, integrins attach to extracellular matrix proteins called laminins in the basal lamina, which is the extracellular matrix secreted by epithelial cells. Integrins link extracellular matrix to keratin intermediate filaments, which interacts with intracellular domain of integrins via adapter proteins such as plectins and BP230. Hemidesmosomes are important in maintaining structural stability of epithelial cells by anchoring them together indirectly through the extracellular matrix.

Focal adhesions
In focal adhesions, integrins attach fibronectins, a component in the extracellular matrix, to actin filaments inside cells. Adapter proteins, such as talins, vinculins, α-actinins and filamins, form a complex at the intracellular domain of integrins and bind to actin filaments. This multi-protein complex linking integrins to actin filaments is important for assembly of signalling complexes that act as signals for cell growth and cell motility.

Other organisms

Eukaryotes
Plants cells adhere closely to each other and are connected through plasmodesmata, channels that cross the plant cell walls and connect cytoplasms of adjacent plant cells. Molecules that are either nutrients or signals required for growth are transported, either passively or selectively, between plant cells through plasmodesmata.

Protozoans express multiple adhesion molecules with different specificities that bind to carbohydrates located on surfaces of their host cells. cell–cell adhesion is key for pathogenic protozoans to attach en enter their host cells. An example of a pathogenic protozoan is the malarial parasite (Plasmodium falciparum), which uses one adhesion molecule called the circumsporozoite protein to bind to liver cells, and another adhesion molecule called the merozoite surface protein to bind red blood cells.

Pathogenic fungi use adhesion molecules present on its cell wall to attach, either through protein-protein or protein-carbohydrate interactions, to host cells or fibronectins in the extracellular matrix.

Prokaryotes
Prokaryotes have adhesion molecules on their cell surface termed bacterial adhesins, apart from using its pili (fimbriae) and flagella for cell adhesion. Adhesins can recognise a variety of ligands present on the host cell surfaces and also components in the extracellular matrix. These molecules also control host specificity and regulate tropism (tissue- or cell-specific interactions) through their interaction with their ligands.

Viruses
Viruses also have adhesion molecules required for viral binding to host cells. For example, influenza virus has a hemagglutinin on its surface that is required for recognition of the sugar sialic acid on host cell surface molecules. HIV has an adhesion molecule termed gp120 that binds to its ligand CD4, which is expressed on lymphocytes. Viruses can also target components of cell junctions to enter host cells, which is what happens when the hepatitis C virus targets occludins and claudins in tight junctions to enter liver cells.

Clinical implications
Dysfunction of cell adhesion occurs during cancer metastasis. Loss of cell–cell adhesion in metastatic tumour cells allows them to escape their site of origin and spread through the circulatory system. One example of CAMs deregulated in cancer are cadherins, which are inactivated either by genetic mutations or by other oncogenic signalling molecules, allowing cancer cells to migrate and be more invasive. Other CAMs, like selectins and integrins, can facilitate metastasis by mediating cell–cell interactions between migrating metastatic tumour cells in the circulatory system with endothelial cells of other distant tissues. Due to the link between CAMs and cancer metastasis, these molecules could be potential therapeutic targets for cancer treatment.

There are also other human genetic diseases caused by an inability to express specific adhesion molecules. An example is leukocyte adhesion deficiency-I (LAD-I), where expression of the β2 integrin subunit is reduced or lost. This leads to reduced expression of β2 integrin heterodimers, which are required for leukocytes to firmly attach to the endothelial wall at sites of inflammation in order to fight infections. Leukocytes from LAD-I patients are unable to adhere to endothelial cells and patients exhibit serious episodes of infection that can be life-threatening.

An autoimmune disease called pemphigus is also caused by loss of cell adhesion, as it results from autoantibodies targeting a person's own desmosomal cadherins which leads to epidermal cells detaching from each other and causes skin blistering.

Pathogenic microorganisms, including bacteria, viruses and protozoans, have to first adhere to host cells in order to infect and cause diseases. Anti-adhesion therapy can be used to prevent infection by targeting adhesion molecules either on the pathogen or on the host cell. Apart from altering the production of adhesion molecules, competitive inhibitors that bind to adhesion molecules to prevent binding between cells can also be used, acting as anti-adhesive agents.

See also
 Cell communication (biology)
 Epithelium
 Cytoskeleton
 Differential adhesion hypothesis
 Role of cell adhesions in neural development

References

External links

The Cell by G. Cooper (online textbook)
Molecular Cell Biology by Lodish et al. (online textbook)
Molecular Biology of the Cell by Alberts et al. (online textbook)
Cell Adhesion and Extracellular Matrix - The Virtual Library of Biochemistry, Molecular Biology and Cell Biology

Cell adhesion


Arc welding is a welding process that is used to join metal to metal by using electricity to create enough heat to melt metal, and the melted metals, when cool, result in a binding of the metals. It is a type of welding that uses a welding power supply to create an electric arc between a metal stick ("electrode") and the base material to melt the metals at the point of contact. Arc welding power supplies can deliver either direct (DC) or alternating (AC) current to the work, while consumable or non-consumable electrodes are used.

The welding area is usually protected by some type of shielding gas (e.g. an inert gas), vapor, or slag. Arc welding processes may be manual, semi-automatic, or fully automated. First developed in the late part of the 19th century, arc welding became commercially important in shipbuilding during the Second World War. Today it remains an important process for the fabrication of steel structures and vehicles.

Power supplies

To supply the electrical energy necessary for arc welding processes, a number of different power supplies can be used. The most common classification is constant current power supplies and constant voltage power supplies. In arc welding, the voltage is directly related to the length of the arc, and the current is related to the amount of heat input. Constant current power supplies are most often used for manual welding processes such as gas tungsten arc welding and shielded metal arc welding, because they maintain a relatively constant current even as the voltage varies. This is important because in manual welding, it can be difficult to hold the electrode perfectly steady, and as a result, the arc length and thus voltage tend to fluctuate. Constant voltage power supplies hold the voltage constant and vary the current, and as a result, are most often used for automated welding processes such as gas metal arc welding, flux cored arc welding, and submerged arc welding. In these processes, arc length is kept constant, since any fluctuation in the distance between the wire and the base material is quickly rectified by a large change in current. For example, if the wire and the base material get too close, the current will rapidly increase, which in turn causes the heat to increase and the tip of the wire to melt, returning it to its original separation distance. Under normal arc length conditions, a constant current power supply with a stick electrode operates at about 20 volts.

The direction of current used in arc welding also plays an important role in welding. Consumable electrode processes such as shielded metal arc welding and gas metal arc welding generally use direct current, but the electrode can be charged either positively or negatively. In general, the positively charged anode will have a greater heat concentration (around 60%). "Note that for stick welding in general, DC+ polarity is most commonly used. It produces a good bead profile with a higher level of penetration. DC- polarity results in less penetration and a higher electrode melt-off rate. It is sometimes used, for example, on thin sheet metal in an attempt to prevent burn-through." "With few exceptions, electrode-positive (reversed polarity) results in deeper penetration. Electrode-negative (straight polarity) results in faster melt-off of the electrode and, therefore, faster deposition rate." Non-consumable electrode processes, such as gas tungsten arc welding, can use either type of direct current (DC), as well as alternating current (AC). With direct current however, because the electrode only creates the arc and does not provide filler material, a positively charged electrode causes shallow welds, while a negatively charged electrode makes deeper welds. Alternating current rapidly moves between these two, resulting in medium-penetration welds. One disadvantage of AC, the fact that the arc must be re-ignited after every zero crossing, has been addressed with the invention of special power units that produce a square wave pattern instead of the normal sine wave, eliminating low-voltage time after the zero crossings and minimizing the effects of the problem.

Duty cycle is a welding equipment specification which defines the number of minutes, within a 10-minute period, during which a given arc welder can safely be used. For example, an 80 A welder with a 60% duty cycle must be "rested" for at least 4 minutes after 6 minutes of continuous welding. Failure to observe duty cycle limitations could damage the welder. Commercial- or professional-grade welders typically have a 100% duty cycle.

Consumable electrode methods

One of the most common types of arc welding is shielded metal arc welding (SMAW), which is also known as manual metal arc welding (MMAW) or stick welding. An electric current is used to strike an arc between the base material and a consumable electrode rod or stick. The electrode rod is made of a material that is compatible with the base material being welded and is covered with a flux that gives off vapors that serve as a shielding gas and provide a layer of slag, both of which protect the weld area from atmospheric contamination. The electrode core itself acts as filler material, making a separate filler unnecessary. The process is very versatile, requiring little operator training and inexpensive equipment. However, weld times are rather slow, since the consumable electrodes must be frequently replaced and because slag, the residue from the flux, must be chipped away after welding. Furthermore, the process is generally limited to welding ferrous materials, though specialty electrodes have made possible the welding of cast iron, nickel, aluminum, copper and other metals. The versatility of the method makes it popular in a number of applications including repair work and construction.

Gas metal arc welding (GMAW), commonly called MIG (for metal/inert-gas), is a semi-automatic or automatic welding process with a continuously fed consumable wire acting as both electrode and filler metal, along with an inert or semi-inert shielding gas flowed around the wire to protect the weld site from contamination. Constant voltage, direct current power source is most commonly used with GMAW, but constant current alternating current are used as well. With continuously fed filler electrodes, GMAW offers relatively high welding speeds; however the more complicated equipment reduces convenience and versatility in comparison to the SMAW process. Originally developed for welding aluminum and other non-ferrous materials in the 1940s, GMAW was soon economically applied to steels. Today, GMAW is commonly used in industries such as the automobile industry for its quality, versatility and speed. Because of the need to maintain a stable shroud of shielding gas around the weld site, it can be problematic to use the GMAW process in areas of high air movement such as outdoors.

Flux-cored arc welding (FCAW) is a variation of the GMAW technique. FCAW wire is actually a fine metal tube filled with powdered flux materials. An externally supplied shielding gas is sometimes used, but often the flux itself is relied upon to generate the necessary protection from the atmosphere. The process is widely used in construction because of its high welding speed and portability.

Submerged arc welding (SAW) is a high-productivity welding process in which the arc is struck beneath a covering layer of granular flux. This increases arc quality, since contaminants in the atmosphere are blocked by the flux. The slag that forms on the weld generally comes off by itself and, combined with the use of a continuous wire feed, the weld deposition rate is high. Working conditions are much improved over other arc welding processes since the flux hides the arc and no smoke is produced. The process is commonly used in industry, especially for large products. As the arc is not visible, it is typically automated. SAW is only possible in the 1F (flat fillet), 2F (horizontal fillet), and 1G (flat groove) positions.

Non-consumable electrode methods
Gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW), or tungsten/inert-gas (TIG) welding, is a manual welding process that uses a non-consumable electrode made of tungsten, an inert or semi-inert gas mixture, and a separate filler material. Especially useful for welding thin materials, this method is characterized by a stable arc and high quality welds, but it requires significant operator skill and can only be accomplished at relatively low speeds. It can be used on nearly all weldable metals, though it is most often applied to stainless steel and light metals. It is often used when quality welds are extremely important, such as in bicycle, aircraft and marine applications.

A related process, plasma arc welding, also uses a tungsten electrode but uses plasma gas to make the arc. The arc is more concentrated than the GTAW arc, making transverse control more critical and thus generally restricting the technique to a mechanized process. Because of its stable current, the method can be used on a wider range of material thicknesses than can the GTAW process and is much faster. It can be applied to all of the same materials as GTAW except magnesium; automated welding of stainless steel is one important application of the process. A variation of the process is plasma cutting, an efficient steel cutting process.

Other arc welding processes include atomic hydrogen welding, carbon arc welding, electroslag welding, electrogas welding, and stud arc welding.

Corrosion issues

Some materials, notably high-strength steels, aluminum, and titanium alloys, are susceptible to hydrogen embrittlement. If the electrodes used for welding contain traces of moisture, the water decomposes in the heat of the arc and the liberated hydrogen enters the lattice of the material, causing its brittleness. Stick electrodes for such materials, with special low-hydrogen coating, are delivered in sealed moisture-proof packaging. New electrodes can be used straight from the can, but when moisture absorption may be suspected, they have to be dried by baking (usually at ) in a drying oven. Flux used has to be kept dry as well.

Some austenitic stainless steels and nickel-based alloys are prone to intergranular corrosion. When subjected to temperatures around  for too long a time, chromium reacts with carbon in the material, forming chromium carbide and depleting the crystal edges of chromium, impairing their corrosion resistance in a process called sensitization. Such sensitized steel undergoes corrosion in the areas near the welds where the temperature-time was favorable for forming the carbide. This kind of corrosion is often termed weld decay.

Knifeline attack (KLA) is another kind of corrosion affecting welds, impacting steels stabilized by niobium. Niobium and niobium carbide dissolves in steel at very high temperatures. At some cooling regimes, niobium carbide does not precipitate, and the steel then behaves like unstabilized steel, forming chromium carbide instead. This affects only a thin zone several millimeters wide in the very vicinity of the weld, making it difficult to spot and increasing the corrosion speed. Structures made of such steels have to be heated in a whole to about , when the chromium carbide dissolves and niobium carbide forms. The cooling rate after this treatment is not important.

Filler metal (electrode material) improperly chosen for the environmental conditions can make them corrosion-sensitive as well. There are also issues of galvanic corrosion if the electrode composition is sufficiently dissimilar to the materials welded, or the materials are dissimilar themselves. Even between different grades of nickel-based stainless steels, corrosion of welded joints can be severe, despite that they rarely undergo galvanic corrosion when mechanically joined.

Safety issues

Welding can be a dangerous and unhealthy practice without the proper precautions; however, with the use of new technology and proper protection the risks of injury or death associated with welding can be greatly reduced.

Heat, fire, and explosion hazard
Because many common welding procedures involve an open electric arc or flame, the risk of burns from heat and sparks is significant. To prevent them, welders wear protective clothing in the form of heavy leather gloves and protective long sleeve jackets to avoid exposure to extreme heat, flames, and sparks. The use of compressed gases and flames in many welding processes also pose an explosion and fire risk; some common precautions include limiting the amount of oxygen in the air and keeping combustible materials away from the workplace.

Eye damage

Exposure to the brightness of the weld area leads to a condition called arc eye in which ultraviolet light causes inflammation of the cornea and can burn the retinas of the eyes. Welding goggles and helmets with dark face plates—much darker than those in sunglasses or oxy-fuel goggles—are worn to prevent this exposure. In recent years, new helmet models have been produced featuring a face plate which automatically self-darkens electronically. To protect bystanders, transparent welding curtains often surround the welding area. These curtains, made of a polyvinyl chloride plastic film, shield nearby workers from exposure to the UV light from the electric arc.

Inhaled matter
Welders are also often exposed to dangerous gases and particulate matter. Processes like flux-cored arc welding and shielded metal arc welding produce smoke containing particles of various types of oxides. The size of the particles in question tends to influence the toxicity of the fumes, with smaller particles presenting a greater danger. Additionally, many processes produce various gases (most commonly carbon dioxide and ozone, but others as well) that can prove dangerous if ventilation is inadequate.

Electrical safety
While the open-circuit voltage of an arc welding machine may be only a few tens of volts up to about 120 volts, even these low voltages can present a hazard of electric shock for the operators. Locations such as ship's hulls, storage tanks, metal structural steel, or in wet areas are usually at earth ground potential and operators may be standing or resting on these surfaces during operating of the electric arc. Welding machines operating off AC power distribution systems must isolate the arc circuit from earth ground to prevent insulation faults in the machine from exposing operators to high voltage. The return clamp of the welding machine is located near to the work area, to reduce the risk of stray current traveling a long way to create heating hazards or electric shock exposure, or to cause damage to sensitive electronic devices. Welding operators are careful to install return clamps so that welding current cannot pass through the bearings of electric motors, conveyor rollers, or other rotating components, which would cause damage to bearings. Welding on electrical buswork connected to transformers presents a danger of the low welding voltage being "stepped up" to much higher voltages, so extra grounding cables may be required.

Interference with pacemakers
Certain welding machines which use a high frequency alternating current component have been found to affect pacemaker operation when within 2 meters of the power unit and 1 meter of the weld site.

History

While examples of forge welding go back to the Bronze Age and the Iron Age, arc welding did not come into practice until much later.

In 1800 Humphry Davy discovered the short pulsed electric arcs. Independently, a Russian physicist named Vasily Petrov discovered the continuous electric arc in 1802 and subsequently proposed its possible practical applications, including welding. Arc welding was first developed when Nikolai Benardos presented arc welding of metals using a carbon electrode at the International Exposition of Electricity, Paris in 1881, which was patented together with Stanisław Olszewski in 1887. In the same year, French electrical inventor Auguste de Méritens also invented a carbon arc welding method, patented in 1881, which was successfully used for welding lead in the manufacture of lead–acid batteries. The advances in arc welding continued with the invention of metal electrodes in the late 19th century by a Russian, Nikolai Slavyanov (1888), and an American, C. L. Coffin. Around 1900, A. P. Strohmenger released in Britain a coated metal electrode which gave a more stable arc. In 1905 Russian scientist Vladimir Mitkevich proposed the usage of three-phase electric arc for welding. In 1919, alternating current welding was invented by C. J. Holslag but did not become popular for another decade.

Competing welding processes such as resistance welding and oxyfuel welding were developed during this time as well; but both, especially the latter, faced stiff competition from arc welding especially after metal coverings (known as flux) for the electrode, to stabilize the arc and shield the base material from impurities, continued to be developed.

During World War I welding started to be used in shipbuilding in Great Britain in place of riveted steel plates. The Americans also became more accepting of the new technology when the process allowed them to repair their ships quickly after a German attack in the New York Harbor at the beginning of the war. Arc welding was first applied to aircraft during the war as well, and some German airplane fuselages were constructed using this process. In 1919, the British shipbuilder Cammell Laird started construction of a merchant ship, the Fullagar, with an entirely welded hull; she was launched in 1921.

During the 1920s, major advances were made in welding technology, including the 1920 introduction of automatic welding in which electrode wire was continuously fed. Shielding gas became a subject receiving much attention as scientists attempted to protect welds from the effects of oxygen and nitrogen in the atmosphere. Porosity and brittleness were the primary problems and the solutions that developed included the use of hydrogen, argon, and helium as welding atmospheres. During the following decade, further advances allowed for the welding of reactive metals such as aluminum and magnesium. This, in conjunction with developments in automatic welding, alternating current, and fluxes fed a major expansion of arc welding during the 1930s and then during World War II.

During the middle of the century, many new welding methods were invented. Submerged arc welding was invented in 1930 and continues to be popular today. In 1932 a Russian, Konstantin Khrenov successfully implemented the first underwater electric arc welding. Gas tungsten arc welding, after decades of development, was finally perfected in 1941 and gas metal arc welding followed in 1948, allowing for fast welding of non-ferrous materials but requiring expensive shielding gases. Using a consumable electrode and a carbon dioxide atmosphere as a shielding gas, it quickly became the most popular metal arc welding process. In 1957, the flux-cored arc welding process debuted in which the self-shielded wire electrode could be used with automatic equipment, resulting in greatly increased welding speeds. In that same year, plasma arc welding was invented. Electroslag welding was released in 1958 and was followed by its cousin, electrogas welding, in 1961.

See also

References

Notes

Sources

Further reading
ASM International (2003). Trends in Welding Research. Materials Park, Ohio: ASM International.
Blunt, Jane and Nigel C. Balchin (2002). Health and Safety in Welding and Allied Processes. Cambridge: Woodhead. .
Hicks, John (1999). Welded Joint Design. New York: Industrial Press. .

External links
 Arc Flash Awareness video (25:39) from U.S. National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health

Electric arcs
Russian inventions
Articles containing video clips

Arc welding


Niels (, English exonym Nicholas;  – 25 June 1134) was the King of Denmark from 1104 to 1134. Niels succeeded his brother Eric Evergood and is presumed to have been the youngest son of King Sweyn II Estridson. King Niels actively supported the canonization of Canute IV the Holy and supported his son Magnus I of Sweden after he killed his rival for the succession, Knud Lavard. His secular rule was supported by the clergy. Niels was killed in an ensuing civil war and succeeded by Eric II Emune.

Early life
Niels was born around 1063, married in 1105, and died in 1134. His parents were King Sweyn II Estridson and an unknown concubine. Four of Niels' brothers ascended the throne before him. He is first mentioned in history in 1086 when he was sent to Flanders to take the place of his exiled brother, King Olaf I. When his brother Eric Evergood died in July 1103 during a pilgrimage, Niels, who was the last surviving brother, was elected king the following year ahead of Evergood's chosen deputy Harald Kesja. He married Margaret Fredkulla, the daughter of Inge I of Sweden. She was believed to have wielded considerable influence during his reign.

Policies and patronage
During the majority of Niels' reign, the country had internal peace. The contemporary Chronicon Roskildense describes him as mild and forthcoming, though not a competent ruler. He carried through reforms of his personal hird retinue, separating it into a military and an administrative branch responsible for tax collection. He placed family members as his jarls, including his son-in-law Jarl Ubbe and his nephews Eric (Emune) and Canute Lavard, who were the sons of Eric Evergood. Niels supported the canonization of his brother Canute IV the Holy by bestowing gifts on the clergy of Odense as he sought to enlarge the power and influence of the monarchy through the aid of the church. However, it is likely he did not win the full support of the magnates on Zealand. He also campaigned against the Wends in alliance with Poland. In 1125, Niels' son Magnus was named King of Sweden as Magnus I.

Civil war
His wife, Margaret, died in 1128 or 1129, and his son, Magnus, was forced from the Swedish throne in 1130. After 26 years of internal peace, conflict erupted between Magnus and his cousin Canute Lavard. Canute was popular in the Duchy of Schleswig where he was jarl and was seen as a potential successor to Niels. On 7 January 1131, Magnus slew Canute near Haraldsted just north of Ringsted. Niels initially condemned Magnus but eventually supported him, and a civil war ensued between Niels and the supporters of Canute's half-brother, Eric (Emune). Niels had his strongest base of support in Jutland, and the church also supported him. He secured support from the Holy Roman Empire by agreeing to subordinate the Danish Archdiocese of Lund in Scania to the German Archdiocese of Hamburg-Bremen, which prompted Archbishop Asser of Lund to support Eric.

Eric made little progress in Denmark and moved on to the battle for Scania in 1134. Niels and Magnus landed at Fotevik Bay in Scania in June 1134 seeking to deal Eric a decisive defeat. At the Battle of Fotevik on 4 June 1134, Niels and Magnus were taken by surprise by a contingent of German soldiers on horses. Niels escaped, while Magnus was slain. Niels sought refuge with Holy Roman Emperor Lothar III of Germany, but did not make it past the city of Schleswig. Niels ventured into the former city of Canute Lavard on 25 June 1134, despite warnings. "Should I fear tanners and shoemakers?," he supposedly remarked. He was greeted by the clergy, but he and his vanguard were slain before they could reach the royal palace as the townspeople turned against him. The almost sixty-year reign of Sweyn II Estridson's sons ended when Niels fell and Eric II Emune became king.

Issue
Niels married Margaret Fredkulla, daughter of king Inge I of Sweden. After Margaret's death in either 1128 or 1129, he married Ulvhild Håkansdotter, who had been married to Inge II of Sweden and later married Sverker I of Sweden. Niels had two children with Margaret, and one child out of wedlock.

 Inge Nielsen, who died as a child.
 Magnus I of Sweden
 Ingerd of Denmark was born out of wedlock, and eventually went on to marry Jarl Ubbe Esbernsen, a descendant of Canute the Great.

References

1060s births
1134 deaths
12th-century murdered monarchs
Danish Roman Catholics
House of Estridsen
Illegitimate children of Sweyn II
12th-century kings of Denmark

Niels, King of Denmark


Gilles Rampillon (født 28. juli 1953 i Aubiers, Frankrig) er en fransk tidligere fodboldspiller (midtbane).

Rampillon spillede 11 sæsoner hos FC Nantes, hvor han var med til at vinde tre franske mesterskaber (1973, 1977 og 1980) samt én Coupe de France-titel (1979). Han sluttede karrieren med et ophold hos AS Cannes.

Rampillon spillede desuden tre kampe for det franske landshold. Den første var en venskabskamp mod Vesttyskland 27. marts 1976, den sidste en venskabskamp mod Holland 26. marts 1980.

Titler
Ligue 1
 1973, 1977 og 1980 med Nantes

Coupe de France
 1979 med Nantes

Referencer

Eksterne henvisninger

Fodboldspillere fra Frankrig
Fodboldspillere fra FC Nantes
Fodboldspillere fra AS Cannes

Gilles Rampillon


An Eriocaulon ozense in uska species han Liliopsida nga ginhulagway ni Tetsuo Michael Koyama. An Eriocaulon ozense in nahilalakip ha genus nga Eriocaulon, ngan familia nga Eriocaulaceae. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Eriocaulon

Eriocaulon ozense


سفينة فري غزة (free Gaza) وتعني «غزة الحرة» هي إحدى السفينتين، إلى جانب سفينة ليبرتي، التين كسرتا الحصار المفروض على قطاع غزة منذ حزيران/يونيو 2007. وصلت السفينة إلى قطاع غزة في 23 أغسطس 2008 وكانت محملة بالمساعدات الإنسانية وعلى متنها عدد من المساندين للقضية الفلسطينية. ووصل الناشطون إلى محطتهم النهائية بعد انطلاقهم من اليونان وتوقفهم في رودس وكريت وقبرص. حذرت إسرائيل سابقا الناشطين من الدخول إلى المياه الإقليمية للقطاع لكنها سمحت لهم لاحقا بالمرور. تعود ملكية السفينة إلى بسياس فينيغيس وهو أكاديمي يوناني من مواليد الإسكندرية.

انظر أيضا
 حركة غزة حرة
 أسطول الحرية لغزة
 أهلا في فلسطين

مصادر

حصار غزة
سفن

سفينة غزة حرة


Daiki Takamatsu (født 8. september 1981) er en japansk fodboldspiller.

Japans fodboldlandshold

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Eksterne henvisninger

Japan National Football Team Database

Fodboldspillere fra Japan

Daiki Takamatsu