Undine is a fairytale novella (Erzählung) by Friedrich de la Motte Fouqué in which Undine, a water spirit, marries a knight named Huldbrand in order to gain a soul. Published in 1811, it is an early German romance, which has been translated into English and other languages.

Plot summary
A knight named Huldbrand comes across a fisherman's hut in the forest, and is welcomed in by the fisherman and his wife. He also meets their capricious eighteen-year-old foster daughter, Undine. The fisherman explains that years ago, their young daughter was lost in the lake and apparently drowned, but that same day, Undine appeared on their doorstep. Since then, they have raised her as their own.

Undine asks Huldbrand what he's doing in the forest. He explains that he was participating in a tournament when he met Bertalda, a duke's foster daughter. As they flirted, she promised to give him her glove if he would explore the haunted forest. He did so, encountering strange and threatening spirits until he reached the fisherman's home.

A storm arrives and a flood surrounds the house, stranding the group. During their time together, Huldbrand and Undine fall in love, although she continues to behave erratically and can seemingly control the weather. An elderly priest, Father Heilmann, arrives after being washed overboard from a ferry. Huldbrand suggests that the priest marry him and Undine, and they hold the ceremony immediately.

The morning after the wedding, Undine suddenly acts like a completely different person, kind and gentle. She explains to Huldbrand that elemental beings exist and she is a water-spirit. Her kind does not have immortal souls or any sense of morals, but can gain them by marrying humans. She was sent to live among humans by her parents, who hoped she would earn a soul in this way, and with her marriage to Huldbrand she's accomplished this. She fears that Huldbrand will leave now that he knows what she is, but he swears never to abandon her.

With the flood receding, Huldbrand and Undine depart for his home. On the way they encounter Kuhleborn, a shapeshifting water-spirit and Undine's uncle. She is now frightened of him and begs him to leave, and Huldbrand tries to attack him, only for him to vanish into a waterfall.

In the city, everyone welcomes Huldbrand back. Bertalda is deeply disappointed when she learns that he is now married, but becomes friends with Undine. One day Kuhleborn visits Undine briefly, warning her of Bertalda. She rejects his warning but reveals at dinner that he told her who Bertalda's true parents are - Undine's own foster parents, the fisherman and his wife, whom she has brought to meet her. Bertalda is the child who they believed had drowned. Instead of the joyful reunion Undine expects, Bertalda feels humiliated to realize that she was born a peasant. She publicly reviles them and calls Undine a witch, but her identity is proven by her birthmarks.

Bertalda's behavior causes both her foster parents and biological parents to disown her. Destitute, she begs Undine for forgiveness. Undine immediately takes her into her home, but Bertalda remains fearful of her, and Huldbrand's attraction to Bertalda resurfaces, leading to tension.

Undine orders the servants to seal up a fountain in their castle's courtyard. Bertalda, who uses the water for her complexion, argues with her and complains to Huldbrand. He harshly demands an explanation. Undine explains that she is protecting their home from the malicious Kuhleborn, who would be able to enter through the fountain. She then asks Huldbrand never to speak angrily to her while they are near water, or her relatives will take her away. He contritely agrees.

Bertalda flees the castle in shame, and Huldbrand goes to rescue her. Kuhleborn, in different forms, torments and tricks the pair. He is about to drown them with a flood when Undine arrives, calms the waters, and carries them to safety.

The three live in peace for a while, until they decide to take a trip along the Danube to Vienna. While on the river, Kuhleborn continually torments them with storms, waves and frightening apparitions. The sailors and servants become suspicious of Undine as she magically stops these attacks, and Huldbrand begins to resent her. When a water-spirit steals Bertalda's golden necklace, Undine immediately offers her a coral necklace to replace it. Seeing this as a sign that Undine is colluding with the spirits, Huldbrand throws the coral necklace overboard and accuses her of being a sorceress. As she predicted, Undine disappears into the river, but not before sadly warning him to remain true to her.

Huldbrand grieves her loss, but as time goes on, decides to marry Bertalda. He even asks Father Heilmann to perform the wedding, but he refuses. The priest has received messages from Undine and cautions Huldbrand against breaking his wedding vows by taking another wife while Undine still lives. Huldbrand himself dreams of Undine and Kuhleborn talking beneath the sea, saying that if Huldbrand marries another, Undine will be compelled to kill him. Undine says that she has protected the castle by sealing the fountain, so no water-spirits including herself can go there, but Kuhleborn points out that Huldbrand will be doomed if he ever unseals the fountain or leaves the castle.

Despite these warnings, Huldbrand continues with the wedding. Immediately after the ceremony, Bertalda wishes for water from the sealed fountain. The servants uncover the fountain, only for the veiled and weeping Undine to rise from it. She enters the castle and kisses Huldbrand, drowning him with her tears. She appears once more during his funeral and transforms into a stream encircling his grave, so that she is eternally embracing him.

Inspirations
The story was inspired by the works of the occultist Paracelsus, who coined the term "undine (from Lithuanian language word Vandene (water=vanduo))." Paracelsus's Book on Nymphs states that undines can gain an immortal soul by marrying a human. It mentions the French legend of Melusine, in which a water-sprite marries a knight on condition that he shall never see her on Saturdays, when she resumes her mermaid shape, and the German story of Peter von Staufenberg, in which a fairy kills her human lover when he marries another woman.

Fouqué may have been more directly influenced by the Comte de Gabalis, a Rosicrucian novel which adapted Paracelsus's ideas. Another model was probably the 1798 opera Das Donauweibchen, which - like Undine - is set around the Danube and features a love triangle between a man, a woman, and a water nymph.

Success and influence

During the nineteenth century the book was very popular and was, according to The Times in 1843, "a book which, of all others, if you ask for it at a foreign library, you are sure to find engaged".

An unabridged English translation of the story by William Leonard Courtney and illustrated by Arthur Rackham was published in 1909. George MacDonald thought Undine "the most beautiful" of all fairy stories, while Lafcadio Hearn referred to Undine as a "fine German story" in his essay "The Value of the Supernatural in Fiction". The references to Undine in such works as Charlotte Mary Yonge's The Daisy Chain and Louisa Alcott's Little Women show that it was one of the best loved of all books for many 19th-century children.

The first adaptation of Undine was E. T. A. Hoffmann's opera in 1816. It was a collaboration between Hoffmann, who composed the score, and Friedrich de la Motte Fouqué who adapted his own work into a libretto. The opera proved highly successful, and Carl Maria von Weber admired it in his review as the kind of composition which the German desires: "an art work complete in itself, in which partial contributions of the related and collaborating arts blend together, disappear, and, in disappearing, somehow form a new world".

In the 1830s, the novella was translated into Russian dactylic hexameter verse by the Romantic poet Vasily Zhukovsky.  This verse translation became a classic in its own right and later provided the basis for the libretto to Tchaikovsky's operatic adaptation.  The novella has since inspired numerous similar adaptions in various genres and traditions.

Hans Christian Andersen was influenced by the portrayal of souls in Undine while writing The Little Mermaid. In one of his letters he stated, "I have not, like de la Motte Fouqué in Undine, allowed the mermaid's acquiring of an immortal soul to depend upon an alien creature, upon the love of a human being. I'm sure that's wrong! It would depend rather much on chance, wouldn't it? I won't accept that sort of thing in this world. I have permitted my mermaid to follow a more natural, more divine path."

The breathing disorder known as central hypoventilation syndrome, when first identified in 1962, was nicknamed "Ondine's curse." This was based on a scene in Jean Giraudoux's 1938 play adaptation, Ondine, in which the dying love interest describes his difficulty breathing. Medical literature frequently misunderstood the play and thus confused the symptoms of the disorder, leading to criticism of the name.

Adaptations

Opera
 Undine, E. T. A. Hoffmann, 1816
 Undine, , 1830
 Undine, Albert Lortzing, 1845
 Undina, Alexei Lvov, 1846
 Undina, Pyotr Tchaikovsky, 1869
 Rusalka, Antonín Dvořák, 1901 (incorporating elements from Hans Christian Andersen's Little Mermaid)
 , unfinished opera by Sergei Prokofiev, 1904–1907

Music
 Sonata Undine, a Romantic sonata for flute and piano (in E-minor) by Carl Reinecke, 1882
 "Ondine", a movement in Gaspard de la nuit by Maurice Ravel, 1908, channeling the poetic interpretation by Aloysius Bertrand (see "Literature")
 "Ondine", a piano prelude by Claude Debussy, 1911–1913
 "Undine", track 9 from the album Once I was an Eagle by Laura Marling, 2013
 "Watuaga Lake Song", track 3 from the album "Tennessee Love Songs" by Jonathan I Bogan, 2023, channelling a translation of Jean Giraudoux's Ondine
 "Undine", track 8 from the album The Waeve by The Waeve, 2023

Ballet

 Ondine, composed by Cesare Pugni and choreographed by Jules Perrot, 1843
 Coralia, or the Inconstant Knight, choreographed by Paul Taglioni, 1847
 Undine, composed by Hans Werner Henze and choreographed by Frederick Ashton, 1958

Film
 Undine, a 1916 silent film
 The Loves of Ondine, a film by Andy Warhol
 Ondine, a film by Neil Jordan
 Undine, a 2020 film by Christian Petzold

Literature
 Ondine, ou la Nymphe des Eaux, a play by René-Charles Guilbert de Pixerécourt, 1830
 Undina, a verse translation by Vasily Zhukovsky, 1837
 Ondine, a prose poem by Aloysius Bertrand, 1842
 Undine, an autobiographical book by Olive Schreiner, 1928
 Ondine, a play by Jean Giraudoux, 1939
 Undine geht, by Ingeborg Bachmann
 Haunted Waters, an adaptation for teen readers, by Mary Pope Osborne, 1994 (reissued 2006)

Art

 Undine and Huldbrand, a painting by Henry Fuseli, 1819–1822
 Undine, a painting by Moritz Retzsch, 1830
 Undine, a painting by John William Waterhouse, 1872
 Ondine, a painting by Paul Gauguin, 1889
 Undine, a painting by Henri Fantin-Latour
 Undine, a painting by Daniel Maclise
 Undine, a painting by J. M. W. Turner
 Undine, illustrations by Arthur Rackham
 Ondine de Spa, sculpture in , Spa, Belgium
 Undine with harp, a sculpture by Ludwig Michael von Schwanthaler, 1855

References

External links
English-language editions
 , translated by William Leonard Courtney, illustrated by Arthur Rackham, 1909
 , introduced by Charlotte M. Yonge
 , translated by Fanny Elizabeth Bunnett
 , Told to the Children by Mary Macgregor
 , unknown translation (also German)

Works based on Undine (novella)
Novels by Friedrich de la Motte Fouqué
1811 German novels
German romance novels
German-language novels
1810s fantasy novels
German novels adapted into films
Books illustrated by Arthur Rackham
German novels adapted into plays
Novels adapted into operas
Novels adapted into ballets

Undine (novella)


Lars Eskesen (født 25. maj 1946 i København) er en dansk erhvervsmand.

Lars Eskesen blev født i København som søn af toldforvalter Søren Grønborg Eskesen og Anna Sophie Eskesen, f. Vestergaard.

Han blev student fra Slagelse Gymnasium i 1965 og cand.polit. fra Københavns Universitet i 1970.

Han var 1970-73 økonom i Sparekassen SDS og i Danmarks Sparekasseforening.

1974–79 opbyggede Lars Eskesen den økonomiske afdeling i Sparekassen SDS.

I 1979 blev han direktør for Sparekassen SDS' sydjyske område. I 1981 rykkede han til Aarhus som direktør for SDS' aktiviteter i Jylland og på Fyn og indtrådte samtidig i direktionen for Sparekassen SDS, hvor han i 1988 blev udnævnt til ordførende direktør.

1989-98 var Lars Eskesen næstformand for direktionen i Unibank – en fusion mellem Privatbanken, Andelsbanken og Sparekassen SDS.

Tillidsposter
1981-89 var Lars Eskesen medlem af bestyrelsen for Danmarks Sparekasseforening, og han stod som formand i perioden 1985-89 i spidsen for arbejdet hen mod lovgivningen, der gav sparekasserne adgang til omdannelse til aktieselskaber. Han var tillige i denne periode i bestyrelsen/formand for bl.a. Pengeinstitutternes Betalingssystemer, Lønmodtagernes Dyrtidsfond og Den Europæiske Bankforening.

Siden 1999 har Lars Eskesen været medlem af en række bestyrelser, bl.a. formand for Nordea Invest, the Board of Advisors of Nordic Mezzanine Funds I-III, for biotech-venturefonden Nordic Biotech, Stiftelsen for Sorø Akademi, Nationalbankens Jubilæumsfond og næstformand for ARKEN, Museum for Moderne Kunst.

Referencer

Erhvervsfolk fra Danmark
Danskere i 1900-tallet
Danskere i 2000-tallet
Personer i Kraks Blå Bog

Lars Eskesen


දක්නය යනු ආයුධයක් හෝ වෙනත් උපකරණයක් ඉලක්ක ගත කිරීමට උපකාර කිරීමට භාවිතා වන ප්‍රකාශ උපකරණයකි.

ප්‍රකාශ උපකරණ
ගිනිඅවි කොටස්

දක්නය (උපකරණය)


A runestone is typically a raised stone with a runic inscription, but the term can also be applied to inscriptions on boulders and on bedrock. The tradition began in the 4th century and lasted into the 12th century, but most of the runestones date from the late Viking Age. Most runestones are located in Scandinavia, but there are also scattered runestones in locations that were visited by Norsemen during the Viking Age. Runestones are often memorials to dead men. Runestones were usually brightly coloured when erected, though this is no longer evident as the colour has worn off. The vast majority of runestones are found in Sweden.

History

The tradition of raising stones that had runic inscriptions first appeared in the 4th and 5th century, in Norway and Sweden, and these early runestones were usually placed next to graves. The earliest Danish runestones appeared in the 8th and 9th centuries, and there are about 50 runestones from the Migration Period in Scandinavia. Most runestones were erected during the period 950–1100 CE, and then they were mostly raised in Sweden, and to a lesser degree in Denmark and Norway.

The tradition is mentioned in both Ynglinga saga and Hávamál:

What may have increased the spread of runestones was an event in Denmark in the 960s. King Harald Bluetooth had just been baptised and in order to mark the arrival of a new order and a new age, he commanded the construction of a runestone. The inscription reads

The runestone has three sides of which two are decorated with images. On one side, there is an animal that is the prototype of the runic animals that would be commonly engraved on runestones, and on another side there is Denmark's oldest depiction of Jesus. Shortly after this stone had been made, something happened in Scandinavia's runic tradition. Scores of chieftains and powerful Norse clans consciously tried to imitate King Harald, and from Denmark a runestone wave spread northwards through Sweden. In most districts, the fad died out after a generation, but, in the central Swedish provinces of Uppland and Södermanland, the fashion lasted into the 12th century.

Distribution

There are about 3,000 runestones among the about 6,000 runic inscriptions in Scandinavia. There are also runestones in other parts of the world as the tradition of raising runestones followed the Norsemen wherever they went, from the Isle of Man (Manx Runestones) in the west to the Black Sea in the east (Berezan' Runestone), and from Jämtland in the north to Schleswig in the south.

The runestones are unevenly distributed in Scandinavia: Denmark has 250 runestones, Norway has 50 while Iceland has none. Sweden has as many as between 1,700 and 2,500 depending on definition. The Swedish district of Uppland has the highest concentration with as many as 1,196 inscriptions in stone, whereas Södermanland is second with 391.

Outside of Scandinavia, the Isle of Man stands out with its 30 runestones from the 9th century and early 11th century. Scattered runestones have also been found in England, Ireland, Scotland and the Faroe Islands. With the exception of the runestone on Berezan', there are no runestones in Eastern Europe, which probably is due to a lack of available stones and the fact that the local population probably did not treat the foreigners' stones with much respect.

Runestones were placed on selected spots in the landscape, such as assembly locations, roads, bridge constructions, and fords. In medieval churches, there are often runestones that have been inserted as construction material, and it is debated whether they were originally part of the church location or had been moved there. In southern Scania, runestones can be tied to large estates that also had churches constructed on their land. In the Mälaren Valley, the runestones appear to be placed so that they mark essential parts of the domains of an estate, such as courtyard, grave field, and borders to neighbouring estates. Runestones usually appear as single monuments and more rarely as pairs. In some cases, such as the Hunnestad Monument, they are part of larger monuments together with other raised stones.

Although scholars know where 95% of all runestones were discovered, only about 40% were discovered in their original location. The remainder have been found in churches, roads, bridges, graves, farms, and water routes. On the other hand, scholars agree that the stones were not moved very far from their original sites.

Effect of religion

In many districts, 50% of the stone inscriptions have traces of Christianity, but, in Uppland, which has the highest concentration of runic inscriptions in the world, about 70% of the 1,196 stone inscriptions are explicitly Christian, which is shown by engraved crosses or added Christian prayers, and only a few runestones are not Christian.

Scholars have suggested that the reason why so many Christian runestones were raised in Uppland is that the district was the focal point in the conflict between Norse paganism and the newly Christianized King of Sweden. It is possible that the chieftains tried to demonstrate their allegiance to the king and to display their Christian faith to the world and to God by adding Christian crosses and prayers on their runestones. What speaks against this theory is the fact that Norway, Denmark, and Götaland did not have any corresponding development in the runestone tradition. Moreover, not a single runestone declares that there was any relationship towards the king. Additionally, the runestones appear to show that the conversion was a rather peaceful process.

According to another theory, it was a social fashion that was popular among certain clans, but not among all of them. Once some clans in southern Uppland had begun to raise runestones, neighbouring clans emulated them. However, in parts where these clans were less influential, the runestone raising did not reach the same popularity. Several scholars have pointed out the long Viking expeditions and the considerable amassment of wealth in the district. At this time, Swedish chieftains near Stockholm had created considerable fortunes through trade and pillaging both in the East and in the West. They had seen the Danish Jelling stones or they had been inspired by Irish high crosses and other monuments.

The runestones show the different ways in which Christianity changed Norse society, and one of the greatest changes involved no longer burying the deceased on the clan's grave field among his ancestors. Instead, he was buried in the cemetery of the church, while the runestone would serve as a memorial at the homestead, but for certain families, there was less change as they had churches built adjoining the family grave field.

Inscriptions

The main purpose of a runestone was to mark territory, to explain inheritance, to boast about constructions, to bring glory to dead kinsmen and to tell of important events. In some parts of Uppland, the runestones also appear to have functioned as social and economical markers.

Virtually all the runestones from the late Viking Age make use of the same formula. The text tells in memory of whom the runestone is raised, who raised it, and often how the deceased and the one who raised the runestone are related to each other. Also, the inscription can tell the social status of the dead person, possible foreign voyage, place of death, and also a prayer, as in the following example, the Lingsberg Runestone U 241:

Stone raisers
Most runestones were raised by men and only one runestone in eight is raised by a single woman, while at least 10% are raised by a woman together with several men. It is common that the runestones were raised by sons and widows of the deceased, but they could also be raised by sisters and brothers. It is almost only in Uppland, Södermanland, and Öland that women raised runestones together with male relatives. It is not known why many people such as sisters, brothers, uncles, parents, housecarls, and business partners can be enumerated on runestones, but it is possible that it is because they are part of the inheritors.

Those commemorated

A vast majority, 94%, are raised in memory of men, but, contrary to common perception, the vast majority of the runestones are raised in memory of people who died at home. The most famous runestones and those that people tend to think of are those that tell of foreign voyages, but they comprise only c. 10% of all runestones, and they were raised in usually memory of those not having returned from Viking expeditions and not as tributes to those having returned. These runestones contain roughly the same message as the majority of the runestones, which is that people wanted to commemorate one or several dead kinsmen.

Expeditions in the East

The first man who scholars know fell on the eastern route was the East Geat Eyvindr whose fate is mentioned on the 9th century Kälvesten Runestone. The epitaph reads:

It is unfortunate for historians that the stones rarely reveal where the men died. On the Smula Runestone in Västergötland, we are informed only that they died during a war campaign in the East: "Gulli/Kolli raised this stone in memory of his wife's brothers Ásbjôrn and Juli, very good valiant men. And they died in the east in the retinue". Another runemaster in the same province laconically states on the Dalum Runestone: "Tóki and his brothers raised this stone in memory of their brothers. One died in the west, another in the east".

The country that is mentioned on the most runestones is the Byzantine Empire, which at the time comprised most of Asia Minor and the Balkans, as well as a part of Southern Italy. If a man died in the Byzantine Empire, no matter how he had died or in which province, the event was noted as "he died in Greece". Sometimes an exception could be made for Southern Italy, which was known as the land of the Lombards, such as Inga's Óleifr who, it is presumed, was a member of the Varangian Guard, and about whom the Djulafors Runestone in Södermanland says: "Inga raised this stone in memory of Óleifr, her ... He ploughed his stern to the east, and met his end in the land of the Lombards."

Other Norsemen died in Gardariki (Russia and Ukraine) such as Sigviðr on the Esta Runestone who his son Ingifastr reported had fled in Novgorod (Holmgarðr): "He fell in Holmgarðr, the ship's leader with the seamen." There were others who died not as far from home and it appears that there were close contacts with Estonia due to many personal names such as Æistfari ("traveller to Estonia"), Æistulfr ("Wolf of Estonians") and Æistr ("Estonian"). One of the runestones that report of deaths in Estonia is the Ängby Runestone which tells that a Björn had died in Vironia (Virland).

There were many ways to die as reported by the runestones. The Åda Runestone reports that Bergviðr drowned during a voyage to Livonia, and the Sjonhem Runestone tells that the Gotlander Hróðfúss was killed in a treacherous way by what was probably a people in the Balkans. The most famous runestones that tell of eastern voyages are the Ingvar Runestones which tell of Ingvar the Far-Travelled's expedition to Serkland, i.e., the Muslim world. It ended in tragedy as none of the more than 25 runestones that were raised in its memory tells of any survivor.

Expeditions in the West

Other Vikings travelled westwards. The Anglo-Saxon rulers paid large sums, Danegelds, to Vikings, who mostly came from Denmark and who arrived to the English shores during the 990s and the first decades of the 11th century. What may be part of a Danegeld has been found submerged in a creek in Södra Betby in Södermanland, Sweden. At the location, there is also a runestone with the text: "[...] raise the stone in memory of Jôrundr, his son, who was in the west with Ulfr, Hákon's son." It is not unlikely that the voyage westwards is connected with the English silver treasure. Other runestones are more explicit with the Danegelds. Ulf of Borresta who lived in Vallentuna travelled westwards several times, as reported on the Yttergärde Runestone:

Tosti may have been the Swedish chieftain Skoglar Tosti who is otherwise only mentioned by Snorri Sturluson in Heimskringla and who Snorri reports to have been a "great warrior" who "was out for long periods of time on war expeditions". Þorketill was Thorkell the Tall, one of the most famous Viking chieftains, and who often stayed in England. Knútr is no one else but Canute the Great, who became king of England in 1016.

Canute sent home most of the Vikings who had helped him conquer England, but he kept a strong bodyguard, the Þingalið. It was considered to be a great honour to be part of this force, and, on the Häggeby Runestone in Uppland, it is reported that Geiri "sat in the Assembly's retinue in the west", and the Landeryd Runestone mentions Þjalfi "who was with Knútr". Some Swedish Vikings wanted nothing else but to travel with Danes such as Thorkell and Canute the Great, but they did not make it to their destinations. Sveinn, who came from Husby-Sjuhundra in Uppland, died when he was half-way to England, as explained on the runestone that was raised in his memory: "He died in Jútland. He meant to travel to England". Other Vikings, such as Guðvér did not only attack England, but also Saxony, as reported by the Grinda Runestone in Södermanland:

There are in total about 30 runestones that tell of people who went to England, see the England Runestones. Some of them are very laconic and only tell that the Viking was buried in London, or in Bath, Somerset.

Conversion
Swedish men who travelled to Denmark, England, or Saxony and the Byzantine Empire played an important part in the introduction of Christianity in Sweden, and two runestones tell of men baptized in Denmark, such as the runestone in Amnö, which says "He died in christening robes in Denmark." A similar message is given on another runestone in Vallentuna near Stockholm that tells that two sons waited until they were on their death beds before they converted: "They died in (their) christening robes." Christening robes or baptismal clothes, hvitavaðir, were given to pagan Scandinavians when they were baptized, and in Uppland there are at least seven stones that tell of convertees having died in such robes.

The language used by the missionaries appears on several runestones, and they suggest that the missionaries used a rather uniform language when they preached. The expression "light and paradise" is presented on three runestones, of which two are located in Uppland and a third on the Danish island Bornholm. The runestone U 160 in Risbyle says "May God and God's mother help his spirit and soul; grant him light and paradise." and the Bornholm runestone also appeals to Saint Michael: "May Christ and Saint Michael help the souls of Auðbjôrn and Gunnhildr into light and paradise."

Christian terminology was superimposed on the earlier pagan, and so Paradise substituted Valhalla, invocations to Thor and magic charms were replaced with Saint Michael, Christ, God, and the Mother of God. Saint Michael, who was the leader of the army of Heaven, subsumed Odin's role as the psychopomp, and led the dead Christians to "light and paradise". There are invocations to Saint Michael on one runestone in Uppland, one on Gotland, on three on Bornholm and on one on Lolland.

There is also the Bogesund runestone that testifies to the change that people were no longer buried at the family's grave field: "He died in Eikrey(?). He is buried in the churchyard."

Other types of runestones
Another interesting class of runestone is rune-stone-as-self promotion.  Bragging was a virtue in Norse society, a habit in which the heroes of sagas often indulged, and is exemplified in runestones of the time.  Hundreds of people had stones carved with the purpose of advertising their own achievements or positive traits. A few examples will suffice:
 U 1011: "Vigmund had this stone carved in memory of himself, the cleverest of men. May God help the soul of Vigmund, the ship captain. Vigmund and Åfrid carved this memorial while he lived."
 Frösö Runestone: "Östman Gudfast's son made the bridge, and he Christianized Jämtland"
 Dr 212: "Eskill Skulkason had this stone raised to himself.  Ever will stand this memorial that Eskill made;"
 U 164: "Jarlabanki had this stone put up in his own lifetime.  And he made this causeway for his soul's sake.  And he owned the whole of Täby by himself.  May God help his soul."

Other runestones, as evidenced in two of the previous three inscriptions, memorialize the pious acts of relatively new Christians.  In these, we can see the kinds of good works people who could afford to commission runestones undertook.  Other inscriptions hint at religious beliefs.  For example, one reads:
 U 160: "Ulvshattil and Gye and Une ordered this stone erected in memory of Ulv, their good father. He lived in Skolhamra. God and God's Mother save his spirit and soul, endow him with light and paradise."

Although most runestones were set up to perpetuate the memories of men, many speak of women, often represented as conscientious landowners and pious Christians:
 Sö 101: "Sigrid, Alrik's mother, Orm's daughter made this bridge for her husband Holmgers, father of Sigoerd, for his soul"
as important members of extended families:
 Br Olsen;215: "Mael-Lomchon and the daughter of Dubh-Gael, whom Adils had to wife, raised this cross in memory of Mael-Muire, his fostermother. It is better to leave a good fosterson than a bad son"

and as much-missed loved ones:
 N 68: "Gunnor, Thythrik's daughter, made a bridge in memory of her daughter Astrid.  She was the most skilful girl in Hadeland."

As sources
The only existing Scandinavian texts dating to the period before 1050 (besides a few finds of inscriptions on coins) are found amongst the runic inscriptions, some of which were scratched onto pieces of wood or metal spearheads, but for the most part they have been found on actual stones. In addition, the runestones usually remain in their original form and at their original locations, and so their importance as historical sources cannot be overstated.

The inscriptions seldom provide solid historical evidence of events and identifiable people but instead offer insight into the development of language and poetry, kinship, and habits of name-giving, settlement, depictions from Norse paganism, place-names and communications, Viking as well as trading expeditions, and, not least, the spread of Christianity. Though the stones offer Scandinavian historians their main resource of information concerning early Scandinavian society, not much can be learned by studying the stones individually. The wealth of information that the stones provide can be found in the different movements and reasons for erecting the stones, in each region respectively. Approximately ten percent of the known runestones announce the travels and deaths of men abroad. These runic inscriptions coincide with certain Latin sources, such as the Annals of St. Bertin and the writings of Liudprand of Cremona, which contain valuable information on Scandinavians/Rus' who visited Byzantium.

Imagery

The inscription is usually arranged inside a band, which often has the shape of a serpent, a dragon or a quadruped beast.

Norse legends
It appears from the imagery of the Swedish runestones that the most popular Norse legend in the area was that of Sigurd the dragon slayer. He is depicted on several runestones, but the most famous of them is the Ramsund inscription. The inscription itself is of a common kind that tells of the building of a bridge, but the ornamentation shows Sigurd sitting in a pit thrusting his sword, forged by Regin, through the body of the dragon, which also forms the runic band in which the runes are engraved. In the left part of the inscription lies Regin, who is beheaded with all his smithying tools around him. To the right of Regin, Sigurd is sitting and he has just burnt his thumb on the dragon's heart that he is roasting. He is putting the thumb in his mouth and begins to understand the language of the marsh-tits that are sitting in the tree. They warn him of Regin's schemes. Sigurd's horse Grani is also shown tethered to the tree.

Another important personage from the legend of the Nibelungs is Gunnarr. On the Västerljung Runestone, there are three sides and one of them shows a man whose arms and legs are encircled by snakes. He is holding his arms stretched out gripping an object that may be a harp, but that part is damaged due to flaking. The image appears to be depicting an older version of the Gunnarr legend in which he played the harp with his fingers, which appears in the archaic eddic poem Atlakviða.

Norse myths

The Norse god who was most popular was Thor, and the Altuna Runestone in Uppland shows Thor's fishing expedition when he tried to capture the Midgard Serpent. Two centuries later, the Icelander Snorri Sturluson would write: "The Midgarth Serpent bit at the ox-head and the hook caught in the roof of its mouth. When it felt that, it started so violently that both Thor's fists went smack against the gunwale. Then Thor got angry, assumed all his godly strength, and dug his heels so sturdily that his feet went right through the bottom of the boat and he braced them on the sea bed." (Jansson's translation). The Altuna Runestone has also included the foot that went through the planks.

It appears that Ragnarök is depicted on the Ledberg stone in Östergötland. On one of its sides it shows a large warrior with a helmet, and who is bitten at his feet by a beast. This beast is, it is presumed, Fenrir, the brother of the Midgard Serpent, and who is attacking Odin. On the bottom of the illustration, there is a prostrate man who is holding out his hands and who has no legs. There is a close parallel from an illustration at Kirk Andreas on the Isle of Man. The Manx illustration shows Odin with a spear and with one of his ravens on his shoulders, and Odin is attacked in the same way as he is on the Ledberg stone. Adding to the stone's spiritual content is a magic formula that was known all across the world of the pagan Norsemen.

On one of the stones from the Hunnestad Monument in Scania, there is an image of a woman riding a wolf using snakes as reins. The stone may be an illustration of the giantess Hyrrokin ("fire-wrinkled"), who was summoned by the gods to help launch Baldr's funeral ship Hringhorni, which was too heavy for them. It was the same kind of wolf that is referred to as the "Valkyrie horse" on the Rök runestone.

Colour

Today, most runestones are painted with falu red, since the colour red makes it easy to discern the ornamentation, and it is appropriate since red paint was also used on runes during the Viking Age. In fact, one of the Old Norse words for "writing in runes" was fá and it originally meant "to paint" in Proto-Norse (faihian). Moreover, in Hávamál, Odin says: "So do I write / and colour the runes" and in Guðrúnarkviða II, Gudrun says "In the cup were runes of every kind / Written and reddened, I could not read them".

There are several runestones where it is declared that they were originally painted. A runestone in Södermanland says "Here shall these stones stand, reddened with runes", a second runestone in the same province says "Ásbjörn carved and Ulfr painted" and a third runestone in Södermanland says "Ásbjôrn cut the stone, painted as a marker, bound with runes". Sometimes, the original colours have been preserved unusually well, and especially if the runestones were used as construction material in churches not very long after they had been made. One runestone in the church of Köping on Öland was discovered to be painted all over, and the colour of the words was alternating between black and red.

The most common paints were red ochre, red lead, soot, calcium carbonate, and other earth colours, which were bound with fat and water. It also appears that the Vikings imported white lead, green malachite and blue azurite from Continental Europe. By using an electron microscope, chemists have been able to analyse traces of colours on runestones, and in one case, they discovered bright red vermilion, which was an imported luxury colour. However, the dominating colours were white and red lead. There are even accounts where runes were reddened with blood as in Grettis saga, where the Völva Þuríðr cut runes on a tree root and coloured them with her own blood to kill Grettir, and in Egils saga where Egill Skallagrímsson cut ale runes on a drinking horn and painted them with his own blood to see if the drink was poisoned.

Preservation and care
The exposed runestones face several threats to the inscribed rock surface.

In Sweden, lichen grows at approximately  per year. In more ideal conditions it can grow considerably faster. Many runestones are placed alongside roads and road dust causes lichen to grow faster, making lichen a major problem. The lichen's small root strands break through the rock, and blast off tiny pieces, making the rock porous, and over time degrade the inscriptions. Algae and moss also cause the rock to become porous and crumble.

Water entering the cracks and crevices of the stone can cause whole sections to fall off either by freezing or by a combination of dirt, organic matter, and moisture, which can cause a hollowing effect under the stone surface.

Proper preservation techniques slow down the rate of degradation. One method to combat the lichen, algae and moss problem is to smear in fine-grained moist clay over the entire stone. This is then left to sit for a few weeks, which suffocates the organic matter and kills it.

See also

Notes

References
 Bellows, Henry A. (1936). The Poetic Edda. Princeton University Press, Princeton, New York.
 Harrison, D. & Svensson, K. (2007). Vikingaliv. Fälth & Hässler, Värnamo.
 Nationalencyklopedin (1995), volume 16, pp. 91–92.

 Larsson, Mats G. (1999). Svitjod – Resor till Sveriges Ursprung. Atlantis.
 Page, Raymond I. (1995). Runes and Runic Inscriptions: Collected Essays on Anglo-Saxon and Viking Runes. Parsons, D. (ed). Woodbridge: Boydell Press.
 Pritsak, O. (1987). The Origin of Rus'. Cambridge, Mass.: Distributed by Harvard University Press for the Harvard Ukrainian Research Institute.
 Sawyer, Birgit. (2000). The Viking-Age Rune-Stones: Custom and Commemoration in Early Medieval Scandinavia. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
 Sawyer, P. (1997). The Oxford Illustrated History of the Vikings. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
 Snaedal, T. & Åhlen, M. (2004). Svenska Runor. Riksantikvarieämbetet, 33 & 34.

External links

 The Jelling Project – Information about Jelling and the runestones
 Photos of runestones and image stones from Gotland

Rock art in Europe
Stone monuments and memorials
History of Scandinavia
Viking art
Archaeological terminology (Germanic)
Vendel Period
Early Germanic literature

Runestone


Helmut Läpple (* 4. April 1916; † 23. September 2005 in Weinsberg) war ein deutscher Unternehmer.

Leben
Läpple war Mitinhaber des von seinem Vater August Läpple gegründeten Unternehmens Läpple mit Sitz in Heilbronn, in das er im Alter von 18 Jahren eintrat. Ab 1940 war er Läpple-Gesellschafter und hatte die unternehmerische Leitung inne, während sein Bruder Erich die technische Leitung übernahm. In die Jahrzehnte seiner Tätigkeit an der Vorstandsspitze fielen die Verlagerung des Unternehmenssitzes von Weinsberg nach Heilbronn im Jahr 1950, die Gründung mehrerer ausländischer Läpple-Werke, die Übernahme des vom Konkurs bedrohten Unternehmens Fibro mit Werken in Weinsberg und Haßmersheim 1974 sowie die Übernahme der Maxhütte in Teublitz im Jahr 1990. Erst 2004 wechselte er in den Läpple-Aufsichtsrat.

In seiner Heimatstadt Weinsberg förderten Läpple und seine Frau Brigitte viele Vereine und Institutionen im kulturellen, sportlichen und sozialen Bereich. Am 27. September 2005, vier Tage nach seinem Tod, wurde er auf dem Weinsberger Friedhof beerdigt.

Auszeichnungen
Helmut Läpple erhielt zahlreiche Auszeichnungen, darunter 1990 das Bundesverdienstkreuz 1. Klasse und 2001 die Verdienstmedaille des Landes Baden-Württemberg, außerdem die Staufermedaille und den Bayerischen Verdienstorden. Auf kommunaler Ebene wurde er 1992 Ehrenbürger der Stadt Weinsberg, 1998 Ehrenbürger der Stadt Carlow in Irland und 2003 Ehrenbürger der Stadt Maxhütte-Haidhof. Zudem erhielt er die Goldene Münze der Stadt Heilbronn (1986), die Goldene Münze der Stadt Weinsberg und die Goldmedaille (Bürgermedaille in Gold) der Stadt Teublitz.

Einzelnachweise

Literatur
 Jahrbuch für die Stadt Weinsberg 1993. Röck, Weinsberg 1993, , S. 38–43
 Jahrbuch für die Stadt Weinsberg 2005. Stadt Weinsberg, Weinsberg 2005, , S. 96–97

Weblinks
 Stadtarchiv Heilbronn, Zeitgeschichtliche Sammlung Signatur ZS-14048, Eintrag zu Helmut Läpple in der Datenbank HEUSS

Träger des Bayerischen Verdienstordens
Träger des Verdienstordens des Landes Baden-Württemberg
Träger des Bundesverdienstkreuzes 1. Klasse
Träger der Staufermedaille
Ehrenbürger in Irland
Ehrenbürger im Landkreis Schwandorf
Maxhütte-Haidhof
Ehrenbürger von Weinsberg
Unternehmer (Heilbronn)
Industrieller
Deutscher
Geboren 1916
Gestorben 2005
Mann

Helmut Läpple


أُقيم دوري الأبطال السعودي 2008 في الفترة ما بين 18 أبريل و14 مايو.

النتائج

ربع النهائى

نصف النهائي

المركز الثالث

النهائي

قائمة الهدافين

هوامش

أحداث أبريل 2008 الرياضية
أحداث مايو 2008 الرياضية
كأس خادم الحرمين الشريفين
كرة القدم السعودية في 2007-08
كؤوس كرة قدم محلية 2007–08
مواسم كأس الملك

كأس خادم الحرمين الشريفين للأبطال 2008


Lucky Chan-sil est un film coréen semi-autobiographique sorti en 2019 et réalisé par Kim Cho-hee, ancienne productrice de Hong Sang-soo.

Synopsis
Lee Chan-sil est une productrice de films qui se retrouve sans emploi après la mort soudaine du réalisateur avec lequel elle travaillait depuis des années. Elle commence à travailler comme femme de ménage pour une actrice et rencontre le professeur de français de son nouvel employeur (qui l'attire), ainsi que le fantôme de Leslie Cheung, qui lui apparaît en sous-vêtements.

Fiche technique
 Titre original : , romanisation révisée du coréen : Chansilineun Bokdo Manji
 Titre international : Lucky Chan-sil
 Réalisation : Kim Cho-hee, pseudonyme de Kim Kyoung Hee.
 Scénario : Kim Cho-hee
 Musique : Jung-Yeop Jeong
 Photographie : Sang-bin Ji
 Durée : 96 minutes
 Dates de sortie

 , Festival international du film de Busan
 ,
 , sortie nationale

Distribution

 Youn Yuh-jung

 Anastasiia Sokolova

Production
 Youn Yuh-jung a participé à ce film sans être rémunérée

 La réalisatrice est l'ancienne productrice de Hong Sang-soo et a étudié pendant plusieurs années le cinéma en France.

Recettes
Au 3 décembre 2021, le Conseil du film coréen comptabilisait pour ce film environ 30 000 entrées en Corée du Sud

Critiques
 Vincent Ostria, L'Humanité : « Les vicissitudes drolatiques d'une productrice au chômage plongée dans les affres de la quarantaine. »

 Éric Moreault, Le Soleil : « Le jeu, parfois exagéré, des acteurs peut s'avérer un brin agaçant. Mais l'esthétique du réalisateur, notamment son sens du cadre, sa mise en scène assurée et l'utilisation de l'humour pour dédramatiser, nous fait rapidement oublier les irritants. »

 Projected Figures : « Lucky Chan-sil is Kim's semi-autobiographical film à clef. After all, her protagonist Lee Chan-sil (Kang Mal-geum) is just like Kim: a short-haired, forty-something producer who has been cast adrift when her long-term collaboration with an indie film director comes to an abrupt end »

 Adriana Rosati, Asian Movie Pulse, « Kim Cho-hee has put to good use her insider knowledge of the industry, without exceeding in movie snobbism, to create a humorous character in turmoil and a story of transition and hope. »

Références

Liens externes

Film sud-coréen sorti en 2019
Comédie sud-coréenne
Film autobiographique sud-coréen
Film sur le cinéma

Lucky Chan-sil


Leslie Howarth ( - ) est un mathématicien britannique qui s'occupe de dynamique des fluides et d'aérodynamique.

Biographie

Howarth fait ses études à la Accrington Grammar School, d'où il déménage pour l'université de Manchester avec Sydney Goldstein, puis à l'université de Cambridge (Caius and Gonville College) avec une licence en 1933 puid un doctorat en 1936, avec une thèse intitulée « Problems Of Fluid Flow ». Leslie épouse Eva Priestley alors qu'il est encore étudiant en recherche. Par la suite, il est chargé de cours au King's College de Cambridge. En 1937-1938, il est avec Theodore von Kármán à Caltech. Pendant la Seconde Guerre mondiale, il travaille d'abord en balistique et à partir de 1942 au Département de recherche sur l'armement. Après la guerre, il est maître de conférences au St John's College de Cambridge, où Abdus Salam est l'un de ses étudiants, et à partir de 1949, professeur de mathématiques appliquées à l'université de Bristol. En 1964, il devient professeur Henry Overton Wills et directeur de la faculté de mathématiques. De 1957 à 1960, il est doyen de la Faculté des sciences. En 1976, il devient professeur émérite.

Recherches
Haworth s'est particulièrement occupé de la théorie des couches limites. Un travail avec Theodore von Kármán en 1938 portait sur la turbulence isotrope, en relation avec Geoffrey Ingram Taylor.

Prix et distinctions
En 1935, Haworth reçoit le Prix Smith et en 1951 le Prix Adams. En 1950, il devient membre de la Royal Society. En 1955, il est décoré de l'Ordre de l'Empire britannique.

Publications
 Laminar Boundary Layers, in Flügge, Truesdell (éd.) Handbuch der Physik VIII/1, Strömungsmechanik 1, Springer Verlag 1959.
 Modern developments in fluid dynamics: high speed flow, Clarendon Press 1953.

Vie privée
En 1934, Howarth épouse Eva Priestley, avec qui il a deux fils.

Références

Voir aussi
 Keith Stewartson
 Sydney Goldstein

Liens externes

Membre de la Royal Society
Étudiant de Gonville and Caius College
Étudiant de l'université de Manchester
Mathématicien britannique du XXe siècle
Dynamicien des fluides
Décès en septembre 2001
Naissance en mai 1911
Lauréat du prix Adams
Lauréat du prix Smith
Décès à 90 ans

Leslie Howarth


Akamas () ist ein Thraker der griechischen Mythologie.

In Homers Ilias ist er ein Sohn des Eussoros. Im Trojanischen Krieg ist er der Anführer der Thraker und zeichnet sich durch seine Schnelligkeit und Tapferkeit aus, wird aber von Aias dem Telamonier getötet. Bei Dictys Cretensis stirbt er von der Hand des Idomeneus.

Literatur

Anmerkungen

Person der griechischen Mythologie
Person (Trojanischer Krieg)

Akamas (Sohn des Eussoros)


Castleton Township ist der Name folgender Townships in den Vereinigten Staaten:

 Castleton Township (Kansas)
 Castleton Township (Michigan)

Castleton Township


Hermann Lang (* 30. April 1954) ist ein ehemaliger deutscher Fußballspieler.

Hermann Lang kam vom FC Reutlingen zum SSV Reutlingen 05. In der 2. Bundesliga Süd war er in der Saison 1975/76 in 8 Zweitligapartien für den SSV im Einsatz. Nach dem Abstieg am Ende dieser Spielzeit wurde Hermann Lang mit dem SSV Reutlingen in der 1. Amateurliga Schwarzwald-Bodensee 1976/77 Meister. Nachdem er am 7. Mai 1977 beim 2:1-Sieg seiner Reutlinger gegen den SSV Ulm 1846 im Finale um die Württembergische Amateurmeisterschaft über die volle Spieldistanz im Einsatz war, wurde Hermann Lang auch in der anschließenden erfolglosen Aufstiegsrunde zur 2. Bundesliga für den SSV eingesetzt. In der Amateurligasaison 1977/78 verteidigte er mit Reutlingen den Titel des Schwarzwald-Bodensee-Meisters und scheiterte mit dem SSV erneut in der folgenden Aufstiegsrunde. Die Spielzeit 1978/79 beendete Hermann Lang mit dem SSV Reutlingen in der neuen Oberliga Baden-Württemberg nach 36 Saisoneinsätzen in denen ihm ein Treffer gelang auf dem letzten Tabellenplatz. In der Saison 1979/80 qualifizierte er sich mit den Reutlingern in der Verbandsliga Württemberg als Vizemeister für die Aufstiegsspiele zur Oberliga. Im entscheidenden Spiel um den Aufstieg gegen den FV Lauda erzielte Hermann Lang am 8. Juni 1980 in der 104. Spielminute den Treffer zum 2:1-Endstand und sorgte damit für die Rückkehr des SSV Reutlingen in die damals dritthöchste deutsche Fußballspielklasse.

Literatur
 Matthias Weinrich: Zweitliga-Almanach. Alle Spieler. Alle Vereine. Alle Ergebnisse. AGON Sportverlag, Kassel 2001, ISBN 3-89784-190-8, S. 126.

Einzelnachweise

Fußballspieler (SSV Reutlingen 05)
Deutscher
Geboren 1954
Mann

Hermann Lang (Fußballspieler)


The White Album er en dansk folkpopgruppe fra Danmark fra 2011. Bandet består af Jakob Eilsø (sang, guitar), Claus Arvad (sang, guitar, mandolin) og Frederik Vedersø (sang og guitar), og alle tre stammer fra Fyn. Vedersø er også sanger i bandet indiepopgruppen The Eclectic Moniker.

I 2012 udgav gruppen deres debut-EP kaldet Conquistador, og den modtog fem ud af seks stjerner på musiksiden Soundvenue.
Gruppens debutalbum, The Quiet Strum, udkom i september 2014, og det modtog fire ud af seks stjerner i musikmagasinet GAFFA. Det toppede som nummer fire på Album Top-40 i Danmark.

I 2013 var gruppen nomineret til Odense Live Talentprisen.
Den 20. november 2015 udgav gruppen deres første julesang kaldet "The Snow". Samme år modtog gruppen også hovedprisen ved Odense Live Prisen.

Gruppens andet studiealbum, Songs from the Sun, udkom i februar 2017, og det modtog tre ud af seks stjerner i GAFFA. Gruppen var nomineret til hovedprisen ved Odense Live Prisen, men vandt ikke.

Diskografi
 Conquistador (2012, EP)
 The Quiet Strum (2014)
 Songs from the Sun (2017)
 Colorama (2020)

Referencer

Eksterne henvisninger

Folkemusikgrupper fra Danmark
Musikgrupper fra 2011

The White Album (band)


Wetton es una parroquia civil y un pueblo del distrito de Staffordshire Moorlands, en el condado de Staffordshire (Inglaterra).

Geografía
Según la Oficina Nacional de Estadística británica, Wetton tiene una superficie de 9,09 km².

Demografía
Según el censo de 2001, Wetton tenía 157 habitantes (47,77% varones, 52,23% mujeres) y una densidad de población de 17,27 hab/km². El 31,21% eran menores de 16 años, el 65,61% tenían entre 16 y 74, y el 3,18% eran mayores de 74. La media de edad era de 33,81 años. Del total de habitantes con 16 o más años, el 30,56% estaban solteros, el 50,93% casados, y el 18,52% divorciados o viudos.

El 96,25% de los habitantes eran originarios del Reino Unido. El resto de países europeos englobaban al 1,88% de la población, mientras que el 1,88% había nacido en cualquier otro lugar. Todos los habitantes eran blancos. El cristianismo era profesado por el 79,62%, mientras que el 12,1% no eran religiosos y el 8,28% no marcaron ninguna opción en el censo.

Había 61 hogares con residentes, 5 vacíos, y 10 eran alojamientos vacacionales o segundas residencias.

Referencias

Enlaces externos

Localidades de Staffordshire
Parroquias civiles de Staffordshire

Wetton (Staffordshire)


La serie Wasp de motores aeronáuticos de Pratt & Whitney fue una exitosa serie de motores radiales de aviación fabricada por la compañía estadounidense Pratt & Whitney a lo largo de varias décadas. El primer motor de la serie empezó a funcionar en 1925, mientras que el último (también un R-1340, el modelo que inició la serie) fue fabricado en 1960.

Modelos de la serie

 Pratt & Whitney R-1340 Wasp, 9 cilindros.
 Pratt & Whitney R-985 Wasp Junior, 9 cilindros, versión reducida del R-1340.
 Pratt & Whitney R-1830 Twin Wasp, 14 cilindros en dos filas.
 Pratt & Whitney R-1535 Twin Wasp Junior, 14 cilindros en dos filas, versión reducida del R-1830.
 Pratt & Whitney R-2000 Twin Wasp, 14 cilindros en dos filas, versión aumentada del R-1830.
 Pratt & Whitney R-2180 Twin Wasp, 14 cilindros en dos filas.
 Pratt & Whitney R-2800 Double Wasp, 18 cilindros en dos filas.
 Pratt & Whitney R-4360 Wasp Major, 28 cilindros en cuatro filas.

Referencias

Enlaces externos

 Historia de la serie Wasp en The Aviation History Online Museum (en inglés)

Motores aeronáuticos de pistón
Motores aeronáuticos de Pratt & Whitney

Serie Wasp de Pratt & Whitney


The Delfinen-class submarines were the first class of submarines constructed for the Royal Danish Navy following World War II. They were designed and built within Denmark, with first three boats of the class financed by Denmark. The fourth was financed by the United States (where it was known as SS-554) under the Cost Share program. Constructed between 1956 and 1963, the class comprising four submarines (, ,  and ) entered service in 1961 and the last taken out of service in 1990. Replaced by the Norwegian , three of them were scrapped while a fourth was converted into a museum ship and remains on display at the Aalborg Maritime Museum.

Description
The Delfinen class had a standard displacement of  and  when submerged. They measured  long with a beam of  and a draught of . The submarines were propelled by two shafts powered by two B&W  diesel engines and two BBC  electric motors. The submarines had a maximum speed of  both surfaced and submerged and a range of  at . The submarines were equipped with passive and active sonar and a schnorkel. The Delfinen class were armed with four  torpedo tubes located in the bow. They had a complement of 33.

Ships

Construction and service
Following World War II, the Royal Danish Navy which had lost the majority of its fleet during the German invasion, was restocked with ex-British Royal Navy submarines on loan and salvaged Danish submarines that had been scuttled during the war. Denmark joined NATO and was assigned the defence of the Baltic Sea which led to an emphasis on submarines. The Delfinen class marked the Royal Danish Navy's first new submarines in the post war era. Designed by the Danish and constructed at the Naval Shipyard in Copenhagen, the first three vessels in the class were paid for the Danish and were constructed between 1956 and 1961. The fourth submarine of the class, Springeren, was financed by the United States and known as SS-554.

The class remained in service until the beginning of the 1980s, when the Royal Danish Navy intended to replace them with former Norwegian s in 1986. Only three Kobben-class units were acquired due to a lack of funds and Springeren remained in service until 1990. Springeren is preserved as a museum ship at the Naval Museum in Aalborg.

Notes

Citations

References

Submarine classes

Ships built in Denmark

Delfinen-class submarine


Die Welsh International 2008 im Badminton fanden vom 27. November bis zum 30. November 2008 in Cardiff statt.

Medaillengewinner

Weblinks
 http://tournamentsoftware.com/sport/tournament.aspx?id=9499BDAB-A65C-4CCC-A9D6-9C3B177A2995

Badminton 2008
2008
Badmintonwettbewerb in Cardiff
BE Circuit 2008/09

Welsh International 2008


Kontrol şu anlamlara gelebilir:

Teknoloji
 Kontrol mühendisliği
 Kontrol sistemi - Elektriksel, kimyasal, mekanik, biyolojik, çevresel vb. sistemleri istenilen çalışma şartlarında çalışmalarını sağlama özelliği.
 Kontrol teorisi, dinamik sistemleri zaman veya frekans özelliklerini göz önünde bulundurarak matematiksel olarak kontrol etme teorisi.
 Bilgisayar klavyesindeki Kontrol tuşu

Yönetim
 Kontrol etme

Kontrol


1. ŽNL Virovitičko-podravska u sezoni 2007./08. je predstavljala ligu prvog stupnja županijske lige u Virovitičko-podravskoj županiji, te ligu petog stupnja hrvatskog nogometnog prvenstva.
Sudjelovalo je 14 klubova, a ligu je osvojio "Turanovac".

Ljestvica

Rezultatska križaljka

 Izvori:

Povezani članci
 1. ŽNL Virovitičko-podravska

Vanjske poveznice
 znsvpz.hr, Županijski nogometni savez Virovitičko-podravske županije

Izvori

 znsvpz.hr, 1. ŽNL Virovitičko-podravska
 library.foi.hr, "Virovitički list : Virovitičko-podravski tjednik", ISSN 0042-6849
 library.foi.hr, "Virovitički list : Virovitičko-podravski tjednik", br. 2595, god. LVI, objavljeno 5. lipnja 2008., str. 18 (Sport; 1. ŽNL - 26. kolo i konačna ljestvica), preuzeto 1. studenog 2021.

2007-08
Virovitičko-podravska-1

1. ŽNL Virovitičko-podravska 2007./08.


Jack Frost (también conocido como el Padre Invierno o Jack Frío) es una figura élfica legendaria perteneciente al folclore del norte de Europa; se cree que este mito proviene de los anglosajones y nórdicos.

En términos generales y a pesar de su inespecífica apariencia, es una personificación de las heladas, el hielo, la nieve, el aguanieve, el invierno y el frío helado. Concretamente, su trabajo consiste en hacer que caiga nieve o crear las condiciones típicas de invierno, de las heladas y de morder en la nariz y dedos de los pies en ese clima, colorear el follaje en otoño y dejar escarcha en las ventanas en invierno.

A partir de la literatura de finales del siglo XIX, las caracterizaciones más desarrolladas de Jack Frost lo representan como un personaje parecido a un sprite, que a veces aparece como un siniestro malicioso o como un héroe. Este personaje ha aparecido en distintas películas. La película Jack Frost de 1979, la película Jack Frost de 1998, en la película de animación de DreamWorks El origen de los guardianes de 2012, entre otras.

También aparece en la saga de videojuegos Shin Megami tensei y en su spin-off, "Persona". El mismo es la mascota oficial de la compañía Atlus.

Fondo
Se dice tradicionalmente que Jack Frost deja los patrones helados, como helechos, en las ventanas en las frías mañanas de invierno (heladas en las ventanas o helechos) y corta las extremidades en climas fríos. Con el tiempo, la escarcha en las ventanas se ha vuelto menos frecuente en el mundo moderno debido al avance del doble acristalamiento, pero Jack Frost sigue siendo una figura conocida en la cultura popular. A veces se lo describe o representa con un pincel y un cubo para colorear el follaje otoñal rojo, amarillo, marrón y naranja. A veces se lo retrata como un gigante peligroso:Los hindúes derivan el nombre de Hindú Kush de la tradición de que un gigante solía estar allí al acecho para matar ( kesh ) a todos los hindúes que pasaban por allí. Este gigante probablemente era el mismo que nosotros, en las Regiones del Ártico, solíamos llamar "Old Zero", más conocido en Inglaterra como "Jack Frost". Los horrores de los desechos nevados probablemente dieron origen a la tradición".Rollo's Museum. Jacob Abbott. Boston, Weeks, Jordan, and Company. 1839, p. 185.

Historias
Puede provenir de las costumbres de invierno anglosajonas y nórdicas y tiene un capítulo entero que lleva su nombre en Kalevala, la epopeya nacional finlandesa compilada a partir de su antigua tradición oral.

En Rusia, sin embargo, adoptó una forma diferente como Abuelo Escarcha, y en Alemania, en cambio, hay una entidad completamente diferente conocida como la Sra. Holle. Hay varios otros seres mitológicos que asumen un papel similar pero que tienen un folklore único.

Jack Frost es mencionado en muchas películas, por ejemplo, en la canción de invierno "The Christmas Song" (alias "Chestnuts Roasting on an Open Fire"). Ha sido presentado como un villano en algunos medios y un héroe en otros.

En cultura popular

Literatura
 El poema "The Frost" de Hannah Flagg Gould (1789-1865) presenta a una traviesa responsable de los fenómenos más tranquilos del invierno y los aires nevados, hermosas pinturas sobre hielo en las ventanas, pero que también se enojó por la falta de regalos y causó que el frío se rompiera y arruinara las cosas.
 En "Birdie y sus hadas amigos" de Margaret T. Canby (1874), hay una historia corta titulada "Las hadas heladas". En esta historia, Jack Frost es el rey de los espíritus de invierno y se lo describe como un tipo amable que quiere ayudar a los niños, mientras que el rey de un reino vecino, el Rey Invierno, es cruel con ellos. La historia cuenta los orígenes de cómo Jack Frost comenzó a supervisar la coloración de las hojas del bosque en otoño.
 En 1891, Helen Keller hizo su propia reproducción de la historia, titulada The Frost King.
 En "Little Jack Frost" de Charles Sangster, publicado en The Aldine, (Vol.7, No.16, 1875) Jack Frost es un ser juguetón que corre jugando bromas y "mordiéndose la nariz", cubriendo lugares con nieve antes siendo perseguido por Dame Nature para la primavera.
 En The Life and Adventures of Santa Claus (1902) de L. Frank Baum, Jack Frost es el hijo de la otra manera no identificado Frost King. Le agrada morder "decenas de narices, orejas y dedos de los pies", pero Santa Claus, a quien le gusta Jack (a quien ve como un "pícaro alegre") aunque desconfía de él, le pide que perdone a los niños. Jack dice que lo hará, si puede resistir la tentación.. El mismo Jack aparece en "The Runaway Shadows", una historia corta de Baum. En esta historia, tiene el poder de congelar las sombras, separándolas de sus dueños, convirtiéndolas en sus propias entidades vivientes.
 En la serie Meredith Gentry de Laurell K. Hamilton, un personaje emerge como el original de Jack Frost. Jack Frost ha aparecido como un personaje secundario en las historias de Rupert Bear.
 En los libros Rainbow Magic de Daisy Meadows, Jack Frost es un antagonista que causa problemas en Fairyland. Lo acompañan molestos duendes que roban los objetos importantes de las hadas e intentan sabotearlos.
 Jack Frost también aparece en "First Death in Nova Scotia", un poema de Elizabeth Bishop.
 En la novela Papá Puerco de Terry Pratchett, Jack se cansa de los "patrones de helecho" y pinta cuadros más elaborados en las ventanas.
 Jack Frost aparece en la trilogía de novelas The Veil de Christopher Golden.
 The Man Jack, un enigmático asesino, se hace llamar Jack Frost en The Graveyard Book de Neil Gaiman.
 The Stranger, un libro ilustrado de Chris Van Allsburg, protagonizado por Jack Frost como un extraño solitario con amnesia.

Cómics
 En los cómics, Jack Frost aparece como un superhéroe en obras publicadas por Timely Comics (ahora Marvel Comics) en la década de 1940.
 Marvel Comics tuvo un segundo Jack Frost, el primer alias del Ventisca original.
 Jack Frost es el alias de Dane McGowan, uno de los personajes principales de la serie de vértigo de los 90 Los Invisibles.
 En Jack of Fables (un spin-off de Fables) el personaje titular se convirtió en Jack Frost por un período de tiempo. Un segundo Jack Frost ("Jack también, o Jack dos") aparece como el hijo de Jack Horner y La Reina de las Nieves.

Películas
 Jack Frost, una película rusa de 1964, tiene el título Morozko, el equivalente ruso de Jack Frost.
 En la película de 1997, Jack Frost, Scott MacDonald interpreta a un asesino en serie que se convierte en un muñeco de nieve y continúa su alboroto. Esta película generó una secuela en 2000: Jack Frost 2: Revenge of the Mutant Killer Snowman.
 En la película de 1998, Jack Frost, Michael Keaton interpreta a un humano convertido en un hombre de hielo llamado Jack Frost.
 Jack Frost aparece como el principal antagonista en The Santa Clause 3: The Escape Clause interpretado por Martin Short.
 Jack Frost aparece como el protagonista de El origen de los guardianes, basado libremente en la serie Guardians of Childhood de William Joyce, con la voz de Chris Pine.

Radio, animación y televisión
 Jack Frost aparece en la serie de radio infantil The Cinnamon Bear.
 Jack Frost aparece como el personaje principal en el corto animado de 1934 de Ub Iwerks, Jack Frost, en la serie ComiColor Cartoons.
 Jack Frost es el personaje principal (con la voz de Robert Morse) de un especial de TV de Rankin / Bass producido en 1979. El personaje (con la voz de Paul Frees) también aparece en el especial de televisión de Navidad Frosty's Winter Wonderland y en Rudolph and Frosty's Christmas in Julio, expresado nuevamente por Paul Frees.

Videojuegos
Jack Frost ha aparecido en muchos videojuegos, incluidos:

 Megami Tensei
 Shin Megami Tensei (serie, que incluye muchos spin-offs)
 Jack Bros. (un spin-off de Shin Megami Tensei protagonizado por Jack Frost como personaje jugable)
 Persona (serie) (serie, en sí misma un spin-off de Shin Megami Tensei)
 Adventure Quest
 City of Villains
 Granado Espada
 Guild Wars
 Killing Floor
 Ragnarok Online
 El Origen de los Guardianes: El videojuego (que se basa en la película del mismo nombre)
 RuneScape
 Scribblenauts Unlimited
 Los Sims FreePlay

Jack Frost es la mascota corporativa oficial de la compañía japonesa de videojuegos Atlus.

Música
 Jethro Tull tiene una canción titulada "Jack Frost and the Hooded Crow".
 Saint Vitus representan a Jack Frost como un espíritu maligno de invierno en su álbumV.
 La estación de radio WRHS-FM 89.7 en Norridge, Illinois, marca su formato de música navideña "Jack Frost".
 El nombre ha sido empleado como seudónimo por los músicos Bob Dylan y Jack Dempsey.
 Jack Frost es una banda de doom metal de Austria.
 La canción "Chestnuts Roasting on a Open Fire" de Nat King Cole tiene la letra "Jack Frost mordiendo tu nariz".

Véase también
 Frau Holle
 Padre Frost (cuento de hadas)
 Heikki Lunta
 Snow Miser
 Yuki-onna
 General Winter, también conocido como General Frost
 Ded Moroz

Referencias

Enlaces externos

IMDb: Jack Frost (1979)

Folklore nórdico
Mitología de navidad
Personajes navideños
Personificaciones
Invierno en la cultura
Jack Frost

Jack Frost (folclore)


Le Association Sportive Batna (en ), plus couramment abrégé en AS Batna, était un club algérien de football situé dans la ville de Batna

Fondé en 1905 puis disparu en 1962, il évoluait au stade Municipal de Batna.

Histoire

L'Association Sportive Batna est créée en 1905 dans la ville de Batna, par des colons européens qui étaient des amateurs de sport et de football.

L'AS Batna participe au championnat de France amateur 1961-1962.

Après l'indépendance de l'Algérie, le club est remplacé par le MSP Batna.

Palmarès

Personnalités du club

Présidents du club

Entraîneur du club

Anciens joueurs du club
Quelques joueurs qui ont marqué l'histoire de l'AS Batna.

Références

Liens externes

Club de football fondé en 1905
Club de football disparu en 1962
Club de football disparu en Algérie
Sport à Batna

Association Sportive Batna


Kuriakose Bharanikulangara (Karippassery, 1º de fevereiro de 1959) é arcebispo ad personam de Faridabad.

Kuriakose Bharanikulangara foi ordenado sacerdote em 18 de dezembro de 1983. Papa Bento XVI nomeou-o Arcebispo ad personam de Faridabad em 6 de março de 2012.

O Arcebispo Maior de Ernakulam-Angamaly, George Cardeal Alencherry, o consagrou em 26 de maio do mesmo ano; Os co-consagradores foram Vincent Michael Concessao, Arcebispo de Delhi, e Thomas Chakiath, Bispo Auxiliar de Ernakulam-Angamaly.

Ver também

Arcebispos católicos da Índia

Kuriakose Bharanikulangara


La demografía del Imperio romano comprende tanto las estimaciones de población total en cada territorio, así como su estructura social, su lengua y diversos aspectos culturales de dicha población. Debido a la ausencia de estadísticas fiables, muchas de las cifras, son estimaciones probables, y no existe un acuerdo unánime entre los estudiosos sobre las mismas.

Demográficamente, el Imperio fue un típico estado premoderno. Una alta tasa de mortalidad infantil, baja edad de contraer matrimonio y alta natalidad dentro del matrimonio. Tal vez la mitad de los individuos morían con menos de 5 años. De los que alcanzaban los 10, la mitad moría a la edad de 50. Las mujeres tenían un promedio de 6 a 9 hijos.

En su apogeo, antes de la peste antonina la población pudo alcanzar los 50 o 60 millones, con una densidad de 16 personas por kilómetro cuadrado. Cerca de la mitad de sus habitantes vivían en sus territorios europeos, pero las provincias más densamente pobladas eran Asia, Siria, Chipre y Cirenaica. En contraste con las sociedades europeas de los períodos clásico y medieval, Roma tenía tasas de urbanización inusualmente altas. Durante el , la ciudad de Roma tenía más de un millón de habitantes. Ninguna ciudad occidental tendría tantas como antes hasta el . Alejandría, Antioquía y Cartago tenían trescientos mil cada una y Pérgamo doscientos mil. Otras grandes urbes eran Éfeso, Atenas, Corinto y varias más.

Población por territorios

La población del Imperio romano aumentó debido a su propia expansión que llegó a su máxima extensión (cinco millones de km²) con Trajano en 117. Desde la monumental y aún vigente aportación de Beloch en el ,
se han realizado diversas estimaciones de la población del Imperio romano, que van desde los 46
a los 120 millones.

Estimaciones publicadas en 1886 del historiador alemán Karl Julius Beloch (1854-1929) sobre la población romana y la extensión del Imperio al morir Augusto (en el 14 d. C.):

Población y densidad demográfica del Imperio estimada por el economista e historiador Angus Maddison (2007) al morir Augusto (basado en extensión de Beloch):

Análisis del historiador demográfico John D. Durand del imperio durante la época de Augusto dividida por continente:

Téngase en cuenta que apenas unos seis millones serían ciudadanos romanos con derechos plenos. Los esclavos bien pudieron ser del 10 a 20% de la población, especialmente en Italia. El historiador Lo Cascio dice que en el 28 a. C. pudo haber hasta 13 millones de ciudadanos, incluyendo dos a tres millones en las provincias y el resto en Italia, aunque el cálculo es un poco exagerado porque sólo se estaría contando a los varones libres adultos. Otros análisis han rebajado a un millón novecientos mil ciudadanos en la península itálica cuando muere Augusto.

Cálculos de Bruce W. Frier (2000) para la población entre el ascenso de Tiberio y los últimos años de Antonino Pio:

Población del imperio en el 165:

Estimaciones de Colin McEvedy y Richard M. Jones en su Atlas of World Population History (1978). Es un estudio de las variaciones de población entre el  y el .

Las siguientes regiones tenían las siguientes poblaciones al momento de ser conquistadas según McEvedy y Jones: Britania con 600 000, Dacia 800 000, Tracia 260 000 y Osroene y Arabia 1 000 000.

Pueblos vecinos
Las tribus germánicas vieron crecer sus números de uno a dos millones al comienzo de la «Edad de Hierro romana» () a más de tres antes del período de las grandes migraciones, quizás hasta cuatro en torno cuando comenzó al quinta centuria.

Su mayor rival, el Imperio sasánida tenía una población en el clímax de su poder, a comienzos del , de 25 millones, un quinto de ellos en Mesopotamia. Hacia el 550 tenía una extensión de tres millones y medio de kilómetros cuadrados.

Mucho antes, el Imperio aqueménida, el primer y mayor Estado persa, tuvo, en su época de gloria, el control sobre cinco millones y medio de kilómetros cuadrados hacia el 500 a. C.. Le poblaban unos treinta a treinta y cinco millones de seres humanos.

El Egipto ptomelaico pudo crecer de cinco a seis millones en el reinado de Ptolomeo I Sóter hasta siete cuando lo conquistaron los romanos. A mediados del  bien pudo llegar a ocho.

La tribus de la península arábiga sumaban otro par de millones de almas poco antes del nacimiento del Islam.

Lenguas del Imperio romano
Se tiene constancia de más de 60 lenguas diferentes habladas en los territorios que alguna vez formaron parte del Imperio romano. El proceso de romanización que tuvo lugar en los territorios controlados de manera prolongada por el Imperio Romano comportó en muchos de ellos un proceso de sustitución lingüística que llevó a la desaparición de las lenguas autóctonas. Sin embargo, este proceso no fue siempre de corta duración y típicamente se prolongó durante diversas generaciones e incluso siglos, en los que el bilingüismo con el latín o incluso el multilingüismo fue frencuente.

La mayor parte de lenguas en la parte europea del Imperio romano eran lenguas indoeuropeas de los grupos anatolio, celta, germánico, greco-armenio e itálico, además de algunas otras lengua indoeuropeas más difíciles de clasificar (a veces llamadas lenguas paleobalcánicas). Aunque también están testimoniadas lenguas no indoeuropeas autóctonas como el aquitano y las lenguas tirsénicas, cuyo principal representante es el etrusco. En el norte de África y Oriente Próximo, también tienen presencia muchas ramas de las lenguas afroasiáticas (egipcio, bereber y semítico). La siguiente es una lista de lenguas habladas en el interior del imperio romano:

Notas

Referencias

Bibliografía

 Ruiz y Manuel Molinos, Arturo (2000). Los Iberos. Ed. Crítica.
 Burilla Mozota, Francisco (1998). Los celtíberos: etnias y estados. Ed. Crítica.

Demografía histórica
Sociedad de la Antigua Roma

Demografía del Imperio romano


الفنتازيا هي تناول الواقع الحياتي من رؤية غير مألوفة، ما يعني أن هنالك شكاً في عالم الرواية إن كان ينتمي إلى الواقع أم يرفضه، وفي نفس الوقت هو معالجة ابداعية خارجة عن المألوف للواقع المعاش، حيث تُعد الفانتازيا نوعاً أدبياً يعتمد على السحر وغيره من الأشياء الخارقة للطبيعة كعنصر أساسي للحبكة الروائية، والفكرة الرئيسية، وأحياناً للإطار الروائي. وتدور أحداث كثير من أعمال هذا النوع في فضاءات وهمية أو كواكب ينتشر بها السحر. وتختلف الفنتازيا، بصفة عامة، عن الخيال العلمي والرعب في توقع خلوها من العلم والموت، على التوالي، كفكرة أساسية، على الرغم من وجود قدر كبير من التداخل بين الثلاثة (التي تُعد أنواعاً أدبية مُتفرعة من الخيال التأملي).

وفي الثقافة الشعبية، يسيطر على نوع الفنتازيا الأدبي طابع العصور الوسطى، وخاصة منذ النجاح العالمي الذي حققته سيد الخواتم للكاتب لجيه آر آر تولكن. ومع ذلك تضم الفانتازيا، بأوسع معانيها، أعمال كثير من الكتاب، والفنانين، والسينمائيين، والموسيقيين، من الأساطير والخرافات القديمة إلى كثير من الأعمال الحديثة ذات الشعبية الواسعة اليوم.

سمات الفانتازيا
تتلخص الصفات المميزة للفانتازيا في إدراج العناصر الخيالية داخل إطار متماسك ذاتياً (متناسق بالداخل)، حيث يظل الإلهام النابع من الأساطير والفولكلور فكرة أساسية منسقة. بداخل هذا الشكل، ويمكن تحديد أي مكان لعنصر الخيال: فقد يكون مُخبأ، أو قد يتسرب إلى ما قد يبدو إطاراً لعالم حقيقيّ، كما يمكن أن ترسم الشخصيات في عالم باستخدام هذه العناصر، أو قد توجد كاملة في إطار لعالم خيالي، حيث تكون هذه العناصر جزءاً من هذا العالم.

و غالباً ما تتسم الفانتازيا الفرنسية، بدءاً من القصص التي اختارها جون دابليو كامبل الابن لتُنشر في مجلة المجهول (أن نون)، بالمنطقية الداخلية، أي أن أحداث القصة من المستحيل أن تتحقق، إلا أنها تتبع «قوانين» السحر، ولها إطار مُنسق داخلياً.

التاريخ

طالما كانت العناصر الأسطورية وغيرها التي تُميز الفانتازيا ومختلف فروعها جزءاً من أعرق الأعمال الأدبية وأكثرها شهرة، وذلك غالباً بدءاً من ملحمة جلجاميش، وأولى الوثائق التي عرفتها البشرية؛ وطالما ألهمت العوالم السرية الغامضة أعداد كبيرة من الجماهير؛ من الأودِسة لبيو وولف، ومن ماهابهاراتا لألف ليلة وليلة، ومن رامايانا إلى رحلة إلى الغرب، ومن أسطورة آرثر والرومانسية في العصور الوسطى إلى الشعر الملحمي مثل الكوميديا الإلهية، والمغامرات الخيالية التي ترصد شجاعة الأبطال والبطلات، والوحوش القاتلة، والعوالم السرية المهجورة. من هذا المنظور، نجد أن كل من تاريخ الفنتازيا وتاريخ الأدب جزءاً لا يتجزأ من الآخر.

وهناك العديد من الأعمال التي لا تتضح فيها العلاقة بين الفنتازيا وغيرها من الأعمال؛ فعلى سبيل المثال تجعل الحيرة في معرفة إذا كان الكاتب يعتقد في وجود الأشياء والظواهر العجيبة الموجودة في حلم ليلة في منتصف الصيف أو سير جوين والفارس الأخضر، تجعل من الصعب تحديداً معرفة متى بدأت الفنتازيا بمعناها الحديث.

وعلى الرغم من أن كتاب جون راسكين، ملك النهر الذهبي قد أرخ من قبل، إلا أن أدب الفنتازيا الحديثة دائماً ما يُؤرخ بداية من جورج ماكدونالد، الكاتب الأسكتلندي صاحب روايات مثل الأميرة والجني وفانتاستس (1858)، وتُعد الأخيرة أول رواية خيالية للكبار. ويمثل ماكدونالد تأثيراً كبيراً على كل من جيه آر آر تولكين وسي اس لويس. أما ويليام موريس، فيُعد الكاتب الكبير الآخر لهذه الحقبة، وهو شاعر إنجليزي ذو شعبية كبيرة. ألف العديد من الروايات في أواخر القرن، منهم البئر الموجود بنهاية العالم.

وعلى الرغم من تأثير مكدونالدز على في الجزء الخلفي من رياح الشمال (1871)، وشعبية موريس بين معاصريه، لم يبدأ يتكون جمهور للفنتازيا قبل مطلع القرن التاسع عشر حيث قام اللورد دإنساني بتأسيس شعبية هذا النوع الأدبي في شكلي الرواية والقصة القصيرة، كما بدأ كثير من الكتاب ذو شعبية كبيرة والمتبعون لهذا الاتجاه السائد في التوجه إلى الكتابات الخيالية في ذلك الوقت. ومن هؤلاء إيتش رايدر هاجارد، وروديارد كيبلنج، وإيدجر رايس بوروز.قام هؤلاء الكتاب، ومعهم أبراهام ميريت، بتأسيس ما يُعرف بنوع «العالم المفقود» الأدبي الفرعي، والذي كان يُعد النوع الأدبي الفرعي الأكثر شهرة للفنتازيا في أوائل القرن العشرين، على الرغم من أن العديد من قصص الأطفال الخيالية القديمة كبيتر بان والساحر أوز ظهروا في هذا الوقت تقريباُ.

وبالفعل، كانت تُعد فنتازيا الأحداث أكثر قبولا من الفنتازيا الموجهة للكبار، الأمر الذي جعل الكتاب الراغبون في كتابة فنتازيا يجعلون أعمالهم تناسب الأطفال. وقد كتب ناثانييل هوثورن كثير من الأعمال الأولى القريبة من الفنتازيا، إلا أن كتاب العجائب للبنات والبنين، الذي كتبته للأطفال، كان مُصنف على أنه خيالي. ولسنوات عدة، كان ذلك، بالإضافة إلى ما تلاه كمغامرات أليس في بلاد العجائب (1865)، سبباً في تصنيف كل الأعمال الخيالية، بما فيها ملك الخواتم، على أنها أدب أطفال.

وفي عام 1923، صدرت أول مجلة خيالية كاملة، تحت اسم حكايات غريبة. تلى ذلك صدور كثير من المجلات المماثلة، من أهمها مجلة الفنتازيا والخيال العملي. وكان شكل المجلة من الداخل في أوج شهرته في ذلك الوقت، كما كان سبباً في حشد عدد كبير من الجماهير حول القصص الخيالي في كل من الولايات المتحدة الأمريكية وبريطانيا. كانت هذه المجلات أيضاً سبباً في نهوض الخيال العلمي، والذي تزامن معه بدء ارتباط النوعين الأدبيين.

وبحلول عام 1950، بدأت قصص «السيف والسحر» في جذب جمهور كبير، وذلك بنجاح كونان البربري التي كتبها روبرت إي هوارد، وفافهرد التي كتبها فريتز لايبر، وقصص مصيدة الفئران الرمادية. ومع ذلك، كان ظهور الخيال الواسع، والأهم من ذلك كله شهرة كتابي جيه آر آر تولكين، ذا هوبت وملك الخواتم في أواخر الستينينات، كان السبب وراء دخول الفنتازيا التيار السائد. كما ساعدت العديد من السلاسل الأخرى، مثل أحداث نارنيا لسي إس لويس، وكتب الأرض والسماء لأورسولا كيه لي جوين.

وقد استمرت شعبية الفنتازيا في التزايد في القرن ال21، وأكبر دليل على ذلك أن هاري بوتر لجي كيه رولنج كان يُعد الأكثر مبيعاً. وقد حققت العديد من أفلام الخيال المستمدة من كتب الخيال مراكز كبيرة، من أهمها ثلاثية "ملك الخواتم" التي أخرجها بيتر جاكسون.

ووفقاً لبعض الانتقادات الموجهة إلى الفنتازيا، تُعد الفنتازيا أدباً من «الدرجة الثانية»؛ ولكن تيري بروكس دفع ذلك بإجابته عن سؤال على موقعه الرسمي على الإنترنت:

وسائل الإعلام

أنتج السوريون كثيرا من مسلسلات الفنتازيا منها الجوارح والكواسر والبواسل والموت القادم إلى الشرق التي أخرجها نجدة إسماعيل أنزور.

تُعد الفنتازيا نوعاً أدبياً ذو شعبية، وذلك لأنه تمكن من إيجاد مكاناً في كل الأوساط تقريباً. وعلى الرغم من تزايد شعبية الفنون والأفلام الخيالية مؤخراً، إلا أن أدب الخيال طالما كان الوسط الرئيسي لهذا النوع الأدبي.

كما تنتشر ألعاب تمثيل الأدوار الخيالية، تنتشر عبر العديد من وسائل الإعلام المختلفة، وتُعد لعبة تمثيل الأدوار التي تُلعب بالورقة والقلم، دانجونز ودراجونز، أولهم وأكثر نجاحاً وتأثيراً، كما طالما كانت لعبة تمثيل الأدوار عن الخيال العلمي، فاينال فنتاسي، رمزاً للوحة تحكم نوع لآر بي جي الأدبي.

الأنواع الأدبية الفرعية

كما أنتجت الفنتازيا الحديثة، التي تتضمن الفنتازيا الحديثة الأولى، كثير من الأنواع الأدبية الفرعية التي تنقصها نظائر واضحة في الأساطير والفولكلور، على الرغم من أن الإلهام النابع من الأساطير والفولكلور يُعد موضوعاً متناسقاً. وتتعدد وتختلف فروع الفنتازيا، وكثيراً ما تتداخل مع أشكال أخرى من الخيال التأملي تقريباً في كل وسط يتم إنتاجهم فيه. ويمكن ضرب مثلان على ذلك بالخيال العلمي والخيال المظلم الذين يُعدان نوعين فرعيين، وتشاركهما الفنتازيا مع الخيال العلمي والرعب على حد سواء.

ثقافة فرعية
يجتمع المتخصصون مثل الناشرون والمحررون والكتاب والفنانون والعلماء في إطار الفنتازيا سنوياً في المؤتمر العالمي للفنتازيا، ويتم توزيع جوائز الفنتازيا العالمية في المؤتمر.وقد أقيم أول مؤتمر عالمي للفنتازيا عام 1975، ومن ذلك الحين وهو يقام كل عام.ويُعقد المؤتمر كل عام في مدينة مختلفة.

بالإضافة إلى ذلك، تقوم كثير من مؤتمرات الخيال العلمي، مثل برنامج إف إكس الذي يُبث من فلوريدا، وميجا كون، تقوم بتلبية حاجات معجبي الفنتازيا والرعب. وتتميز مؤتمرات أنيمي، مثل أوهايوكون أو أنيمي إكسبو بعروضها الفنتازية الكثيرة، والخيال العلمي، ومسلسلات وأفلام الفنتازيا المُظلمة، مثل ماجوتسوشي أورفن (فنتازيا)، والقمر البحار (فنتازيا علمية)، وبيرسيرك (فنتازيا مُظلمة)، والاختطاف الغامض (فنتازيا). كما تقوم كثير من مؤتمرات الخيال/الفنتازيا والأنيمي أيضاً بالتفرد حصرياُ أو تلبية احتياجات واحدة أو أكثر من الثقافات الفرعية العديدة داخل الثقافات الأساسية، بما في ذلك الثقافة الفرعية المؤثرة (حيث يصمم و/أو يرتدي الناس الأزياء المصممة على أساس الشخصيات الموجودة أو التي تخلق نفسها، وأحياناً ما يقومون بتمثيل مشاهد ومسرحيات أيضاً)، وثقافة أدب معجبي الفنتازيا الفرعية، وثقافة قصص معجبي فيد وإيه إم في الفرعية، بالإضافة إلى ثقافة الإنترنت الفرعية الضخمة المخصصة لقراءة وكتابة الخيال النثري و/أو الدوجينشي سواء أكان جزءاً من الثقافة أو متعلقاً بتلك الأنواع الأدبية.

الفنتازيا في الأدب العربي
تسمى أيضا أدب الخيال ويعرف بأنه فن يقوم بالأساس على الخيال الواسع والأساطير والخرافات ذات الشعبية الواسعة لدى الجمهور، والتي تتمتع بجاذبية قوية بسبب قدرتها على أخذ المشاهدين في رحلة جميلة في فضاء الخيال، والأساطير التي طالما سمع بها على مدار التاريخ، ويتميز هذا النوع من الفن بقدرته على التشويق والإثارة القائمين على الغموض، ويعتبر أبو عمر مصطفى من أبرز رواد هذا النوع من الأدب في العالم العربي.

انظر أيضا
 أدب فانتازي
 قصص الرعب
 الخيال العلمي
 فنتازيا بانغزية

المراجع

الروابط الخارجية
 كرمت معظم كتب الخيال في كتاب حوليات جائزة
 في الصفحة سادس في مشروع غوتنبرغ من أستراليا
 المحرمات والاستعارة في أدب الخيال

أنواع الفانتازي
خيال تأملي
فانتازيا

فنتازيا


Arenas de Iguña, İspanya'nın on yedi özerk bölgesinden, ülkenin kuzey sahilinde Kantabria Denizi olarak da anılan Atlas Okyanusu'nun Fransa ile İspanya arasındaki bölümüne kıyısı bulunan, Kantabria otonom bölgesine bağlı belediye. Arenas de Iguña belediyesinin nüfusu 2002 yılı nüfus sayımlarına göre 1.984 kişidir.

Kaynakça

Kantabria'nın belediyeleri

Arenas de Iguña


Alan Vydra ist ein tschechischer Regisseur. Er wurde in den 1970er Jahren bekannt. Als das Pornografieverbot in Deutschland fiel, drehte er eine Reihe von Pornofilmen für den Versandhandel von Beate Uhse. In späteren Jahren drehte er hauptsächlich Werbefilme.

Weblinks

Filmregisseur
Tscheche
Tschechoslowake
Geboren im 20. Jahrhundert
Mann

Alan Vydra


Juan de Fucastrædet () er et sund i Stillehavet ved Britisk Columbias sydøstlige kyst. Sundets midte danner  grænsen mellem Canada og USA.

Geografi
Juan de Fucastrædet løber mellem sydkysten af den canadiske Vancouver Island og den nordlige kyst af den amerikanske Olympic Peninsula i delstaten Washington. Sundet forbinder både Admiralty Inlet, Haro Strait, Rosario Strait, Puget Sound samt Georgiastrædet med Stillehavet.

Strædet er cirka 165 km langt og mellem 18 og 30 km bredt, dybden varierer mellem cirka 275 m mod havet i vest til cirka 90 m i øst. Langs kysten findes flere mindre fjorde, vige og småøer.

Større byer ved strædet er Victoria i Canada och Port Angeles i USA. Dele af sundet er et parkområde.

Historie
Juan de Fucastrædet har navn efter den græske søfarer Ioánnis Phokás (på spansk Juan de Fuca) som ifølge en  legende fra  1592 opdagede Strait of Anián. Muligvis navngaves sundet i 1787 af den  engelske kaptajn Charles William Barkley på fartøjet "Imperial Eagle"  eller i 1788 af den  engelske kaptajn John Meares på fartøjet "Felice".

I årene 1789 til 1791 udforskedes strædet af flere spanske ekspeditioner.

1846 fastlagdes  grænsen mellem Canada og USA gennem Juan de Fucastrædet med , men uklarheder
omkring øgruppen San Juan Islands førte i 1859 til en konflikt der blev kaldt Svinekrigen.

1934 blev det nuværende navn antaget af "Geographic Board of Canada" og  1979 af "United States Board on Geographic Names".

Referenser

 Detaljeret kort over sundområdet
 Om parkområdet

Britisk Columbia
Washington (delstat)
Stræder (farvand)
Farvande i Canada

Juan de Fucastrædet


Eggersham ist der Name folgender Orte:

 Eggersham (Pocking), Ortsteil der Stadt Pocking, Landkreis Passau, Bayern
 Eggersham (Gemeinde Brunnenthal), Ortschaft von Brunnenthal, Bezirk Schärding, Oberösterreich

Eggersham


'Princesse de Béarn' est un cultivar de rosier obtenu en 1885 par le rosiériste français Louis Lévêque. Il rend hommage à la princesse de Béarn, née Cécile-Charlotte-Marie de Talleyrand-Périgord (1854-1890), personnalité mondaine de l'époque, et épouse de Laure-Henri-Gaston de Galard de Béarn 1840-1893), comte de Béarn, prince de Béarn et Viana, marquis de Brassac.

Description
Il s'agit d'un hybride remontant présentant un buisson au feuillage dense et vert foncé bleuâtre pouvant atteindre 120 cm de hauteur, et au bois peu aiguillonné. Ses fleurs sont grosses (10 cm), très pleines et doubles (26-40 pétales) en forme de coupe. Elles sont de couleur rouge foncé à rouge vermillon et modérément parfumées. La floraison, le plus souvent en fleurs isolées, est légèrement remontante. Cette variété résiste à des températures hivernales de -15° C/-20° C.

Ce rosier était à la mode à la Belle Époque, surtout pour les fleurs en vase. On peut l'admirer dans plusieurs grandes roseraies publiques, notamment en Allemagne, comme à la roseraie de Sangerhausen.

Cette variété est issue d'un semis de 'Duc Decazes' (Touvais, 1860). Elle est très rarement commercialisée.

Descendance
'Carmen' (Lambert, 1905) est un croisement de Rosa rugosa var. rosea et 'Princesse de Béarn'. Le croisement du semis ['Frau Karl Druschki' (Lambert, 1895/1901) × 'Captain Hayward'] avec le pollen 'Princesse de Béarn' a donné l'hybride remontant 'Barbarossa' (Welter, 1906).
Le croisement du semis 'Princesse de Béarn' × pollen ['Pharisäer' × 'Madame Caroline Testout' (Pernet-Ducher, 1890)] a donné naissance à 'Professor J. Vendel' (Geduldig, 1907).

Notes et références

Bibliographie
François Joyaux, Nouvelle Encyclopédie des roses anciennes, 2015, Ulmer, p. 234

Cultivar de rosier
Hybride remontant

Princesse de Béarn


Alto Lucero (formally: Alto Lucero de Gutiérrez Barrios) is a city and municipality in the Mexican state of Veracruz. It is located at , some 35 km from state capital Xalapa. The Laguna Verde nuclear power plant, Mexico's only such facility,
was built near the town of Punta Limón in Alto Lucero municipality during the 1970s.

Demographics
As 2020 the municipality had a population of 28,184 inhabitants in 137 localities. Alto Lucero, the municipal seat, had a population of 5,243 inhabitans, other localities includes Mesa de Guadalupe (3,439 hab.), Palma Sola (3,227 hab.), Blanca Espuma (1,580 hab.) and La Reforma (1,335 hab.).

References

External links
 Alto Lucero municipal webpage
  Municipal Official Information
Photos with narrative of Alto Lucero, surroundings, and some wildlife

Populated places in Veracruz

Municipalities of Veracruz

Alto Lucero


أسينوفو هي مدينة في مقاطعة جامبول في بلغاريا.
 أسينوفو هي مدينة في مقاطعة بليفين في بلغاريا.
 أسينوفو هي مدينة في مقاطعة فيليكو تارنوفو في بلغاريا.

صفحات توضيح أسماء أماكن

أسينوفو (توضيح)


1931 වසරේ සර්වජන ජන්ද බලය හිමි වු පළමු අවස්ථාවේ දීම කුරුණෑගල මන්ත්‍රිවරයා ලෙස මෙතුමා තේරී පත් විය. 1939 මැතිවරණයෙන් පසු මං මාවත් හා ප්‍රසිද්ධ කර්මාන්ත ඇමතිවරයා ලෙස කටයුතු කළේ ය. ණය දෙන සමූපකාර සමිති ඇරඹීම, ඉඩම් ලබා දීම, දුෂ්කර ප්‍රදේශවලට මාර්ග ලබා දීම, පේරාදෙණිය විශ්ව විද්‍යාලයය ඇරඹිම යන කටයුතුවල දී මෙතුමා පුරෝගාමි මෙහෙවරක් ඉටු කළේ ය.1953 ඩබ්ලිව්. සේනානායක මහතා අගමැති තනතුරින් ඉල්ලා අස්විමෙන් පසු 1953 ඔක්තෝබර් 12 දා සිට 1956 දක්වා එම නතතුරේ කටයුතු කරමින් විශාල මෙහෙවරක් ඉටු කළේ ය. ජෝන් කොතලාවල මැතිතුමා අභාවප්‍රාප්ත  වූයේ 1980 සැප්තැම්බර් 03 වැනිදා ය.

1895 උපත්
1980 මරණ
චරිත කතා
ශ්‍රී ලාංකිකයෝ
ලාංකික සිංහලයෝ
ශ්‍රී ලාංකික බෞද්ධයෝ
ලංකික දේශපාලනඥයෝ
එක්සත් ජාතික පක්ෂයෙහි දේශපාලනඥයන්

ජෝන් කොතලාවල


A realeza budista refere-se às crenças e práticas em relação aos reis e rainhas nas sociedades budistas tradicionais, conforme informado pelos ensinamentos budistas. Isso é expresso e desenvolvido na literatura pāli e sânscrita, inicial, posterior, bem como vernacular, e evidenciado em achados epigráficos. Formas de realeza que poderiam ser descritas como realeza budista existiam pelo menos desde o tempo do imperador Açoca (). Conceitos importantes que foram usados em relação à realeza budista são mérito (; ), pāramī (; ), 'pessoa de mérito' () 'monarca que gira a roda' (; ), e Bodisatva (). Muitas dessas crenças e práticas continuam a inspirar e informar a realeza atual nos países budistas contemporâneos. Desde os anos 2000, os estudos também começaram a se concentrar no papel das rainhas budistas na história asiática.

Origens
Em uma sociedade budista tradicional como a Tailândia, o papel do rei na sociedade e a posição na hierarquia eram definidos pela cosmografia budista, que considerava o papel e a posição de alguém o resultado do carma acumulado ao longo de muitas vidas. No Tipiṭaka (; escrituras budistas), as ideias sobre boa governança são enquadradas em termos do ideal do Cakkavati, o rei que governa com justiça e não-violência de acordo com o Dharma. Seus papéis e deveres são discutidos extensivamente, especialmente no Mahasudassana Sutta e no Cakkavatti-sihanada Sutta. O Cakkavatti deve ser um exemplo moral para o povo e possuir bastante mérito espiritual e sabedoria. É por meio disso que ele ganha sua soberania, em vez de apenas herdá-la. Além disso, ele é descrito como afetando significativamente a moral da sociedade.

Além do Tipitaka, crônicas páli, como o Mahāvaṃsa e o Jinakālamālī, contribuíram para as ideias da realeza budista. Além disso, o próprio Buda nasceu como um príncipe e também foi um rei (Vessantara) em uma vida anterior. E também, o imperador Açoca é apresentado nas obras páli posteriores como um importante patrono apoiando a Sangha. Nas crônicas tradicionais, muitos dos reis mencionados em obras páli posteriores foram considerados parte da mesma dinastia. Esta dinastia de reis meritórios se estendeu até o início do éon atual (; ), e nas obras vernaculares em páli e nas tradições pré-modernas, os reis das sociedades budistas estavam ligados à mesma dinastia, através de "laços de encarnação" (Jory). Os reis nas sociedades budistas se identificavam com os reis tradicionais nos textos budistas, e essa identificação era expressa por meio de discursos e rituais.

Realeza e criação de mérito
No sul e sudeste da Ásia, a realeza e a criação de mérito andavam juntas. A criação de mérito não era apenas uma prática para a massa, mas também era praticada por reis e rainhas. Em obras vernáculas em páli, são dados exemplos de realeza realizando atos meritórios, às vezes como uma forma de arrependimento por delitos cometidos anteriormente. Por causa dessas tradições, os reis tiveram um papel importante na manutenção da Sangha e realizaram grandes atos de mérito publicamente, como é testemunhado por evidências epigráficas do sul e sudeste da Ásia. No Sri Lanka, a partir do século X EC, os reis assumiram o papel de protetores leigos da Sangha, bem como os reis tailandeses, durante os períodos de Sucotai e Aiutaia (séculos XIV a XVIII). De fato, vários reis no Sri Lanka, Tailândia e Birmânia se descreveram como Bodhisattas, pois epítetos e linguagem real foram estabelecidos de acordo. Na Tailândia, o rei era considerado um Phu Mi Bun ( ; literalmente, 'uma pessoa que tem mérito'), que possuía o maior mérito de todas as pessoas no reino e cuja felicidade estava ligada à do reino. A partir da década de 1960, essa crença ainda era comum entre os agricultores tailandeses em relação ao rei Bhumibol. Em suma, a realeza nas sociedades budistas tradicionais estava ligada à Sangha como um campo de mérito: o rei desempenhava um papel exemplar como doador da Sangha, e a Sangha legitimava o rei como líder do estado. A monarquia facilitou a Sangha e foi necessária para legitimar e fortalecer seu direito de governar. Em tempos de fome ou outras dificuldades, acreditava-se tradicionalmente que o rei estava falhando, e o rei normalmente realizava atividades meritórias em grande escala. Desta forma, o rei seria capaz de melhorar as condições do reino, através de seu "carma de transbordamento".

Um papel semelhante foi desempenhado por rainhas. Além do papel de uma pessoa meritória ser semelhante ao dos reis, os reis e rainhas budistas também tinham papeis simbióticos mutuamente dependentes. A rainha era considerada subserviente como uma boa esposa do rei, mas o rei também dependia da sabedoria e da realização espiritual da rainha.

Vessantara Jataka
Nos últimos sete séculos na Tailândia, a Vessantara Jātaka desempenhou um papel significativo na legitimação da realeza na Tailândia, através de um festival anual conhecido como 'Pregação da Grande Vida' ( ). A criação de méritos e pāramīs foram muito enfatizados neste festival, através da história sobre a generosidade do Príncipe Vessantara. Inicialmente, o festival foi uma forma importante para a dinastia Chakri se legitimar, pois Vessantara era o príncipe modelo que se tornou rei pelo poder de seus méritos e sacrifícios. Durante o período de reforma de Rama IV, no entanto, como o budismo tailandês estava sendo modernizado, o festival foi descartado por não refletir o verdadeiro budismo. Sua popularidade diminuiu muito desde então. No entanto, o uso do mérito pela monarquia e governo tailandês para solidificar sua posição e criar unidade na sociedade continuou até o século XXI.

Reinado e ordenação
O papel de alguns reis como budistas exemplares foi exemplificado por sua ordenação antes de serem entronizados. Um exemplo bem conhecido disso foi o rei tailandês Mongkut, que se ordenou por vinte e sete anos antes de se tornar rei. O rei Mongkut enfatizou uma abordagem racional do budismo, que poderia ser reconciliada com a ciência. Essa abordagem o ajudou a legitimar sua posição como rei. Parte da coroação do monarca tailandês inclui o rei indo para a capela real (o Wat Phra Kaew) para jurar ser um "Defensor da Fé" na frente de um capítulo de monges, incluindo o Supremo Patriarca da Tailândia.

Como tema de conversa
O budismo desencoraja conversas sobre reis e ministros de estado.

Ver também

 Açoca
 Chakravarti
 Dasavidha-rajadhamma
 Devaraja
 Rei filósofo

Bibliografia

Leitura adicional

 Rao, N. (2016). Royal religious beneficence in pre-modern India: social and political implications. International Journal of Dharma Studies, 4 (1), 1-14.

Práticas budistas
Monarquia

Realeza budista


The year 1876 in architecture involved some significant architectural events and new buildings.

Buildings and structures

Buildings opened
 February 2 – Church of St Mary the Virgin, Bury, England, designed by J. S. Crowther.
 August – The Bayreuth Festspielhaus, designed by Gottfried Semper.
 Hotel Sacher in Vienna, Austria.

Buildings completed

 R. and F. Cheney Building, Hartford, Connecticut, designed by Henry Hobson Richardson, considered to be "one of Richardson's greatest buildings"
 Great Zlatoust Church, Yekaterinburg, Russia, designed by Vasily Morgan.
 Government House, Melbourne, Australia, designed by William Wardell.
 Kaahumanu Church, Hawai'i, built by Rev Edward Bailey.
 Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts, Philadelphia, designed by Frank Furness and George Hewitt.
 Swan House (Chelsea Embankment), London, designed by Richard Norman Shaw.
 Nádasdy Mansion, Nádasdladány, Hungary, designed by István Linzbauer and Alajos Hauszmann.
 The Midland Grand Hotel at St Pancras railway station in London, designed by George Gilbert Scott, is fully completed.

Awards
 RIBA Royal Gold Medal – Joseph-Louis Duc.
 Grand Prix de Rome, architecture: Paul Blondel.

Births
 March 27 – A. E. Lefcourt, born Abraham Elias Lefkowitz, English-born New York real estate developer (died 1932)
 May 18 – Thorvald Astrup, Norwegian industrial architect (died 1940)
 June 26 – Vincent Harris, English architect (died 1971)
 October 24 – Paul Philippe Cret, French-American architect and industrial designer (died 1945)
 November 24 – Walter Burley Griffin, American architect and landscape architect (died 1937)

Deaths
 May 7 – David Bryce, Scottish architect (b. 1803),
 August 21 – Ildefons Cerdà, Catalan Spanish urban planner (born 1815)
 date unknown – Jean-Baptiste Schacre, French architect (b. 1808)

References

Architecture
Years in architecture
19th-century architecture

1876 in architecture


Asal çarpan, bir sayının asal olan çarpanlarına denir. Örnek olarak 72 sayısının asal çarpanları 2 ve 3'ken (23∙32), 4, 6, 8, 9, 12, 18, 24, 36, 72 asal çarpan değildir. Aritmetiğin temel teoremine göre bütün bileşik sayılar, asal çarpanların çarpımı olarak yazılabilmektedir. Asal çarpanlardan her biri birden fazla kullanılabilir. Mesela

iken

'dur.

Asal sayılar

Asal çarpan