The nucleus accumbens (NAc or NAcc; also known as the accumbens nucleus, or formerly as the nucleus accumbens septi, Latin for "nucleus adjacent to the septum") is a region in the basal forebrain rostral to the preoptic area of the hypothalamus. The nucleus accumbens and the olfactory tubercle collectively form the ventral striatum. The ventral striatum and dorsal striatum collectively form the striatum, which is the main component of the basal ganglia. The dopaminergic neurons of the mesolimbic pathway project onto the GABAergic medium spiny neurons of the nucleus accumbens and olfactory tubercle. Each cerebral hemisphere has its own nucleus accumbens, which can be divided into two structures: the nucleus accumbens core and the nucleus accumbens shell.  These substructures have different morphology and functions.

Different NAcc subregions (core vs shell) and neuron subpopulations within each region (D1-type vs D2-type medium spiny neurons) are responsible for different cognitive functions. As a whole, the nucleus accumbens has a significant role in the cognitive processing of motivation, aversion, reward (i.e., incentive salience, pleasure, and positive reinforcement), and reinforcement learning (e.g., Pavlovian-instrumental transfer); hence, it has a significant role in addiction. In addition, part of the nucleus accumbens core is centrally involved in the induction of slow-wave sleep. The nucleus accumbens plays a lesser role in processing fear (a form of aversion), impulsivity, and the placebo effect. It is involved in the encoding of new motor programs as well.

Structure
The nucleus accumbens is an aggregate of neurons which is described as having an outer shell and an inner core.

Input
Major glutamatergic inputs to the nucleus accumbens include the prefrontal cortex (particularly the prelimbic cortex and infralimbic cortex), basolateral amygdala, ventral hippocampus, thalamic nuclei (specifically the midline thalamic nuclei and intralaminar nuclei of the thalamus), and glutamatergic projections from the ventral tegmental area (VTA).  The nucleus accumbens receives dopaminergic inputs from the ventral tegmental area, which connect via the mesolimbic pathway. The nucleus accumbens is often described as one part of a cortico-basal ganglia-thalamo-cortical loop.

Dopaminergic inputs from the VTA modulate the activity of GABAergic neurons within the nucleus accumbens. These neurons are activated directly or indirectly by euphoriant drugs (e.g., amphetamine, opiates, etc.) and by participating in rewarding experiences (e.g., sex, music, exercise, etc.).

Another major source of input comes from the CA1 and ventral subiculum of the hippocampus to the dorsomedial area of the nucleus accumbens. Slight depolarizations of cells in the nucleus accumbens correlates with positivity of the neurons of the hippocampus, making them more excitable. The correlated cells of these excited states of the medium spiny neurons in the nucleus accumbens are shared equally between the subiculum and CA1. The subiculum neurons are found to hyperpolarize (increase negativity) while the CA1 neurons "ripple" (fire > 50 Hz) in order to accomplish this priming.

The nucleus accumbens is one of the few regions that receives a high density of histaminergic projections from the tuberomammillary nucleus (the sole source of histamine neurons in the brain).

Output
The output neurons of the nucleus accumbens send axonal projections to the basal ganglia and the ventral analog of the globus pallidus, known as the ventral pallidum (VP). The VP, in turn, projects to the medial dorsal nucleus of the dorsal thalamus, which projects to the prefrontal cortex as well as back to the ventral and to dorsal striatum. Other efferents from the nucleus accumbens include connections with the tail of the ventral tegmental area, substantia nigra, and the reticular formation of the pons.

Shell
The nucleus accumbens shell (NAcc shell) is a substructure of the nucleus accumbens.  The shell and core together form the entire nucleus accumbens.

Location: The shell is the outer region of the nucleus accumbens, and – unlike the core – is considered to be part of the extended amygdala, located at its rostral pole.

Cell types: Neurons in the nucleus accumbens are mostly medium spiny neurons (MSNs) containing mainly D1-type (i.e., DRD1 and DRD5) or D2-type (i.e., DRD2, DRD3, and DRD4) dopamine receptors.  A subpopulation of MSNs contain both D1-type and D2-type receptors, with approximately 40% of striatal MSNs expressing both DRD1 and DRD2 mRNA.  These mixed-type NAcc MSNs with both D1-type and D2-type receptors are mostly confined to the NAcc shell. The neurons in the shell, as compared to the core, have a lower density of dendritic spines, less terminal segments, and less branch segments than those in the core. The shell neurons project to the subcommissural part of the ventral pallidum as well as the ventral tegmental area and to extensive areas in the hypothalamus and extended amygdala.

Function: The shell of the nucleus accumbens is involved in the cognitive processing of reward, including subjective "liking" reactions to certain pleasurable stimuli, motivational salience, and positive reinforcement. That NAcc shell has also been shown to mediate specific Pavlovian-instrumental transfer, a phenomenon in which a classically conditioned stimulus modifies operant behavior. A "hedonic hotspot" or pleasure center which is responsible for the pleasurable or "liking" component of some intrinsic rewards is also located in a small compartment within the medial NAcc shell. Addictive drugs have a larger effect on dopamine release in the shell than in the core.

Core
The nucleus accumbens core (NAcc core) is the inner substructure of the nucleus accumbens.

Location: The nucleus accumbens core is part of the ventral striatum, located within the basal ganglia.
Cell types: The core of the NAcc is made up mainly of medium spiny neurons containing mainly D1-type or D2-type dopamine receptors. The D1-type medium spiny neurons mediate reward-related cognitive processes, whereas the D2-type medium spiny neurons mediate aversion-related cognition. The neurons in the core, as compared to the neurons in the shell, have an increased density of dendritic spines, branch segments, and terminal segments. From the core, the neurons project to other sub-cortical areas such as the globus pallidus and the substantia nigra. GABA is one of the main neurotransmitters in the NAcc, and GABA receptors are also abundant.

Function: The nucleus accumbens core is involved in the cognitive processing of motor function related to reward and reinforcement and the regulation of slow-wave sleep. Specifically, the core encodes new motor programs which facilitate the acquisition of a given reward in the future. The indirect pathway (i.e., D2-type) neurons in the NAcc core which co-express adenosine A2A receptors activation-dependently promote slow-wave sleep. The NAcc core has also been shown to mediate general Pavlovian-instrumental transfer, a phenomenon in which a classically conditioned stimulus modifies operant behavior.

Cell types
Approximately 95% of neurons in the NAcc are GABAergic medium spiny neurons (MSNs) which primarily express either D1-type or D2-type receptors; about 1–2% of the remaining neuronal types are large aspiny cholinergic interneurons and another 1–2% are GABAergic interneurons.
Compared to the GABAergic MSNs in the shell, those in the core have an increased density of dendritic spines, branch segments, and terminal segments. From the core, the neurons project to other sub-cortical areas such as the globus pallidus and the substantia nigra. GABA is one of the main neurotransmitters in the NAcc, and GABA receptors are also abundant. These neurons are also the main projection or output neurons of the nucleus accumbens.

Neurochemistry
Some of the neurotransmitters, neuromodulators, and hormones that signal through receptors within the nucleus accumbens include:

Dopamine: Dopamine is released into the nucleus accumbens following exposure to rewarding stimuli, including recreational drugs like substituted amphetamines, cocaine, nicotine and morphine.

Phenethylamine and tyramine: Phenethylamine and tyramine are trace amines which are synthesized in neurons that express the aromatic amino acid hydroxylase (AADC) enzyme, which includes all dopaminergic neurons. Both compounds function as dopaminergic neuromodulators which regulate the reuptake and release of dopamine into the Nacc via interactions with VMAT2 and TAAR1 in the axon terminal of mesolimbic dopamine neurons.

Glucocorticoids and dopamine: Glucocorticoid receptors are the only corticosteroid receptors in the nucleus accumbens shell.  L-DOPA, steroids, and specifically glucocorticoids are currently known to be the only known endogenous compounds that can induce psychotic problems, so understanding the hormonal control over dopaminergic projections with regard to glucocorticoid receptors could lead to new treatments for psychotic symptoms.  A recent study demonstrated that suppression of the glucocorticoid receptors led to a decrease in the release of dopamine, which may lead to future research involving anti-glucocorticoid drugs to potentially relieve psychotic symptoms.

GABA: A recent study on rats that used GABA agonists and antagonists indicated that GABAA receptors in the NAcc shell have inhibitory control on turning behavior influenced by dopamine, and GABAB receptors have inhibitory control over turning behavior mediated by acetylcholine.

Glutamate: Studies have shown that local blockade of glutamatergic NMDA receptors in the NAcc core impaired spatial learning. Another study demonstrated that both NMDA and AMPA (both glutamate receptors) play important roles in regulating instrumental learning.

Serotonin (5-HT): Overall, 5-HT synapses are more abundant and have a greater number of synaptic contacts in the NAcc shell than in the core.  They are also larger and thicker, and contain more large dense core vesicles than their counterparts in the core.

Function

Reward and reinforcement
The nucleus accumbens, being one part of the reward system, plays an important role in processing rewarding stimuli, reinforcing stimuli (e.g., food and water), and those which are both rewarding and reinforcing (addictive drugs, sex, and exercise). The predominant response of neurons in the nucleus accumbens to the reward sucrose is inhibition; the opposite is true in response to the administration of aversive quinine.  Substantial evidence from pharmacological manipulation also suggests that reducing the excitability of neurons in the nucleus accumbens is rewarding, as, for example, would be true in the case of μ-opioid receptor stimulation.  The blood oxygen level dependent signal (BOLD) in the nucleus accumbens is selectively increased during the perception of pleasant, emotionally arousing pictures and during mental imagery of pleasant, emotional scenes.  However, as BOLD is thought to be an indirect measure of regional net excitation to inhibition, the extent to which BOLD measures valence dependent processing is unknown. Because of the abundance of NAcc inputs from limbic regions and strong NAcc outputs to motor regions, the nucleus accumbens has been described by Gordon Mogensen as the interface between the limbic and motor system.

The nucleus accumbens is causally related to the experience of pleasure.  Microinjections of μ-opioid agonists, δ-opioid agonists or κ-opioid agonists in the rostrodorsal quadrant of the medial shell enhance "liking", while more caudal injections can inhibit disgust reactions, liking reactions, or both.  The regions of the nucleus accumbens that can be ascribed a causal role in the production of pleasure are limited both anatomically and chemically, as besides opioid agonists only endocannabinoids can enhance liking.  In the nucleus accumbens as a whole, dopamine, GABA receptor agonist or AMPA antagonists solely modify motivation, while the same is true for opioid and endocannabinoids outside of the hotspot in the medial shell.  A rostro-caudal gradient exists for the enhancement of appetitive versus fearful responses, the latter of which is traditionally thought to require only D1 receptor function, and the former of which requires both D1 and D2 function.  One interpretation of this finding, the disinhibition hypothesis, posits that inhibition of accumbens MSNs (which are GABAergic) disinhibits downstream structures, enabling the expression of appetitive or consummatory behaviors.  The motivational effects of AMPA antagonists, and to a lesser extent GABA agonists, is anatomically flexible.  Stressful conditions can expand the fear inducing regions, while a familiar environment can reduce the size of the fear inducing region.  Furthermore, cortical input from the orbitofrontal cortex (OFC) biases the response towards that of appetitive behavior, and infralimbic input, equivalent to the human subgenual cingulate cortex, suppresses the response regardless of valence.

The nucleus accumbens is neither necessary nor sufficient for instrumental learning, although manipulations can affect performance on instrumental learning tasks.  One task where the effect of NAcc lesions is evident is Pavlovian-instrumental transfer (PIT), where a cue paired with a specific or general reward can enhance instrumental responding.  Lesions to the core of the NAcc impair performance after devaluation and inhibit the effect of general PIT.  On the other hand, lesions to the shell only impair the effect of specific PIT.  This distinction is thought to reflect consummatory and appetitive conditioned responses in the NAcc shell and the NAcc core, respectively.

In the dorsal striatum, a dichotomy has been observed between D1-MSNs and D2-MSNs, with the former being reinforcing and enhancing locomotion, and the latter being aversive and reducing locomotion.  Such a distinction has been traditionally assumed to apply to the nucleus accumbens as well, but evidence from pharmacological and optogenetics studies is conflicting.  Furthermore, a subset of NAcc MSNs express both D1 and D2 MSNs, and pharmacological activation of D1 versus D2 receptors need not necessarily activate the neural populations exactly.  While most studies show no effect of selective optogenetic stimulation of D1 or D2 MSNs on locomotor activity, one study has reported a decrease in basal locomotion with D2-MSN stimulation.  While two studies have reported reduced reinforcing effects of cocaine with D2-MSN activation, one study has reported no effect.  NAcc D2-MSN activation has also been reported to enhance motivation, as assessed by PIT, and D2 receptor activity is necessary for the reinforcing effects of VTA stimulation.  A 2018 study reported that D2 MSN activation enhanced motivation via inhibiting the ventral pallidum, thereby disinhibiting the VTA.

Maternal behavior
An fMRI study conducted in 2005 found that when mother rats were in the presence of their pups the regions of the brain involved in reinforcement, including the nucleus accumbens, were highly active. Levels of dopamine increase in the nucleus accumbens during maternal behavior, while lesions in this area upset maternal behavior. When women are presented pictures of unrelated infants, fMRIs show increased brain activity in the nucleus accumbens and adjacent caudate nucleus, proportionate to the degree to which the women find these infants "cute".

Aversion
Activation of D1-type MSNs in the nucleus accumbens is involved in reward, whereas the activation of D2-type MSNs in the nucleus accumbens promotes aversion.

Slow-wave sleep

In late 2017, studies on rodents which utilized optogenetic and chemogenetic methods found that the indirect pathway (i.e., D2-type) medium spiny neurons in the nucleus accumbens core which co-express adenosine A2A receptors and project to the ventral pallidum are involved in the regulation of slow-wave sleep. In particular, optogenetic activation of these indirect pathway NAcc core neurons induces slow-wave sleep and chemogenetic activation of the same neurons increases the number and duration of slow-wave sleep episodes. Chemogenetic inhibition of these NAcc core neurons suppresses sleep. In contrast, the D2-type medium spiny neurons in the NAcc shell which express adenosine A2A receptors have no role in regulating slow-wave sleep.

Clinical significance

Addiction
Current models of addiction from chronic drug use involve alterations in gene expression in the mesocorticolimbic projection.  The most important transcription factors that produce these alterations are ΔFosB, cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP) response element binding protein (CREB), and nuclear factor kappa B (NFκB). ΔFosB is the most significant gene transcription factor in addiction since its viral or genetic overexpression in the nucleus accumbens is necessary and sufficient for many of the neural adaptations and behavioral effects (e.g., expression-dependent increases in self-administration and reward sensitization) seen in drug addiction. ΔFosB overexpression has been implicated in addictions to alcohol (ethanol), cannabinoids, cocaine, methylphenidate, nicotine, opioids, phencyclidine, propofol, and substituted amphetamines, among others. Increases in nucleus accumbens ΔJunD expression can reduce or, with a large increase, even block most of the neural alterations seen in chronic drug abuse (i.e., the alterations mediated by ΔFosB).

ΔFosB also plays an important role in regulating behavioral responses to natural rewards, such as palatable food, sex, and exercise. Natural rewards, like drugs of abuse, induce ΔFosB in the nucleus accumbens, and chronic acquisition of these rewards can result in a similar pathological addictive state through ΔFosB overexpression. Consequently, ΔFosB is the key transcription factor involved in addictions to natural rewards as well; in particular, ΔFosB in the nucleus accumbens is critical for the reinforcing effects of sexual reward. Research on the interaction between natural and drug rewards suggests that psychostimulants and sexual behavior act on similar biomolecular mechanisms to induce ΔFosB in the nucleus accumbens and possess cross-sensitization effects that are mediated through ΔFosB.

Similar to drug rewards, non-drug rewards also increase the level of extracellular dopamine in the NAcc shell. Drug-induced dopamine release in the NAcc shell and NAcc core is usually not prone to habituation (i.e., the development of drug tolerance: a decrease in dopamine release from future drug exposure as a result of repeated drug exposure); on the contrary, repeated exposure to drugs that induce dopamine release in the NAcc shell and core typically results in sensitization (i.e., the amount of dopamine that is released in the NAcc from future drug exposure increases as a result of repeated drug exposure). Sensitization of dopamine release in the NAcc shell following repeated drug exposure serves to strengthen stimulus-drug associations (i.e., classical conditioning that occurs when drug use is repeatedly paired with environmental stimuli) and these associations become less prone to extinction (i.e., "unlearning" these classically conditioned associations between drug use and environmental stimuli becomes more difficult).  After repeated pairing, these classically conditioned environmental stimuli (e.g., contexts and objects that are frequently paired with drug use) often become drug cues which function as secondary reinforcers of drug use (i.e., once these associations are established, exposure to a paired environmental stimulus triggers a craving or desire to use the drug which they've become associated with).

In contrast to drugs, the release of dopamine in the NAcc shell by many types of rewarding non-drug stimuli typically undergoes habituation following repeated exposure (i.e., the amount of dopamine that is released from future exposure to a rewarding non-drug stimulus normally decreases as a result of repeated exposure to that stimulus).

Depression
In April 2007, two research teams reported on having inserted electrodes into the nucleus accumbens in order to use deep brain stimulation to treat severe depression. In 2010, experiments reported that deep brain stimulation of the nucleus accumbens was successful in decreasing depression symptoms in 50% of patients who did not respond to other treatments such as electroconvulsive therapy. Nucleus accumbens has also been used as a target to treat small groups of patients with therapy-refractory obsessive-compulsive disorder.

Ablation
To treat addiction and in an attempt to treat mental illness radiofrequency ablation of the nucleus accumbens has been performed. The results are inconclusive and controversial.

Placebo effect
Activation of the NAcc has been shown to occur in the anticipation of effectiveness of a drug when a user is given a placebo, indicating a contributing role of the nucleus accumbens in the placebo effect.

Additional images

See also
Septal nuclei

References

External links

The role of the nucleus accumbens in the reward circuit.  Part of "The Brain From Top to Bottom." at thebrain.mcgill.ca
Nucleus Accumbens – Cell Centered Database

Limbic system
Addiction
Basal ganglia

Nucleus accumbens


Zarechni () es un posiólok del raión de Výselki del krai de Krasnodar, en Rusia. Está situado en la orilla derecha del río Beisuzhok Primero, afluente del río Beisug, 17 km al norte de Výselki y 90 km al nordeste de Krasnodar, la capital del krai. Tenía 1 761 habitantes en 2010

Pertenece al municipio Berezánskoye.

Transporte

Por la localidad pasa la carretera federal M4 Don.

Enlaces externos y referencias

Este artículo contiene datos geográficos extraídos de Google Earth y el mapa de Rusia de Yandex.ru, accesible desde este enlace.
Este artículo es en parte una traducción de su correspondiente en la edición en ruso de Wikipedia, Заречный (Выселковский район).
Mapa en maps.vlasenko.net .
 .

Localidades del raión de Výselki del krai de Krasnodar

Zarechni (Výselki, Krasnodar)


ملك روحي مسلسل مصري إنتاج 2003 بطولة يسرا وأحمد عز وحسن حسني من إنتاج شركة العدل جروب.

مسلسلات حسن حسني
مسلسلات مجدي أبو عميرة
مسلسلات نشوى مصطفى

ملك روحي (مسلسل)


Det sovjetiske mesterskab i ishockey 1946-47 var det første sovjetiske mesterskab i ishockey for klubhold. Turneringen havde deltagelse af 12 hold, der først spillede en indledende runde i tre puljer med fire hold i hver, hvorefter de tre puljevindere gik videre til finalerunden, hvor mesterskabet blev afgjort.

De tre hold i finalerunden var alle fra Moskva, og de tre hold endte alle med to sejre og to nederlag, så mesterskabet blev afgjort på målkvotient, og på denne parameter var Dynamo Moskva bedst foran CDKA Moskva og Spartak Moskva. Dynamo havde ellers tabt de to første kampe i finalespillet men fik taget revanche i de sidste to, hvor det også blev afgørende for målkvotienten, at holdet formåede at besejre Spartak i de to holds anden indbyrdes kamp med hele 6−1. Mesterskabet blev afgjort i turneringens sidste kamp, der blev spillet den 26. januar 1947 mellem CDKA Moskva og Dynamo Moskva. Dynamo skulle bruge en sejr for at blive mestre, mens alle andre resultater ville sende mesterskabet i favnen på CDKA. Og Dynamo-spillerne leverede den påkrævede sejr ved at vinde kampen med 2−1 og dermed det første sovjetiske mesterskab i ishockey.

Alle kampene blev spillet udendørs på naturis, og holdene bestod primært af tidligere bandy- eller fodboldspillere, der havde valgt at prøve kræfter med ishockey, men mange bandyspillere var skeptiske og ønskede ikke at skifte til ishockey. Selvom mesterskabet blev arrangeret med kort varsel, blev kampene overværet af tusindvis af tilskuere, fordi de allerede kendte mange af spillerne, f.eks. Vsevolod Bobrov, fra bandy eller fodbold.

Hold

Turneringen havde deltagelse af 12 hold fra otte byer i den vestlige del af landet.

Stillinger og resultater

Format

Turneringen havde deltagelse af 12 hold, som var inddelt i tre grupper med fire hold i hver. Hver gruppe spillede en enkeltturnering alle-mod-alle, og de tre gruppevindere gik videre til finalerunden om mesterskabet, mens de tre toere og den bedste treer gik videre til placeringsrunden om 4.- til 7.-pladsen. I finalrunden spillede de tre hold en dobbeltturnering alle-mod-alle om fordelingen af medaljesættene, mens de fire hold i placeringsrunden spillede en enkeltturnering alle-mod-alle.

Kampene blev spillet i 3 × 15 minutter. En sejr gav 2 point, uafgjort 1 point, mens et nederlag gav 0 point.

Indledende runde

Den indledende runde blev spillet i perioden 22. - 30. december 1946.

Gruppe A

Kampene i gruppe A blev spillet i Moskva.

Gruppe B

Kampene i gruppe B blev spillet i Leningrad.

Gruppe C

Kampene i gruppe C blev spillet i Arkhangelsk.

Placeringsrunde

Placeringsrunden havde deltagelse af de tre toere og den bedste treer fra den indlendende runde. De fire hold spillede en enkeltturnering alle-mod-alle om placeringerne 4-7.

Finalerunde

Finalerunden havde deltagelse af de tre puljevindere fra den indlendende runde, der spillede en dobbeltturnering alle-mod-alle om mesterskabet. Kampene blev spillet i Moskva i perioden 20. - 26. januar 1947.

Medaljevindere

De tre medaljevindende hold bestod af nedenstående spillere.

Flere af medaljevinderne fik senere store karrierer inden for fodbold, f.eks. Spartak Moskvas målmand, Valentin Granatkin, der senere blev formand for Sovjetunionens fodboldforbund og 1. vicepræsident for FIFA, Dynamos Mikhail Jakusjin, der tidligere havde vundet tre sovjetiske mesterskaber i fodbold for Dynamo Moskva, og som senere blev en stor fodboldtræner, der bl.a. i to perioder var landstræner i Sovjetunionen, og CDKA's back Vladimir Nikanorov, der nogle måneder forinden havde vundet det første af sine fem sovjetiske mesterskaber med CDKA Moskvas fodboldhold.

Andre spillere opnåede imponerende trænerkarrierer inden for ishockey. Dynamo Moskvas spillende træner, Arkadij Tjernysjov, blev senere cheftræner for holdet i 27 år (1948-75), og fra 1954 var han endvidere assisterende landstræner. I 1961 blev han forfremmet til sovjetisk landstræner, og i hans arbejde med landsholdet i perioden 1954-72 vandt holdet fire olympiske guldmedaljer og 11 verdensmesterskaber, herunder ni i træk fra 1963 til 1971. Turneringens topscorer, Anatolij Tarasov, skiftede efter sæsonen fra VVS MVO Moskva til CDKA, hvor han i rollen som træner eller assistenttræner i løbet af de næste knap 30 år vandt 17 sovjetiske mesterskaber i ishockey, samtidig med at han i perioderne 1958-60 og 1963-72 ligeledes bestred hvervet som sovjetisk landstræner henholdsvis assisterende landstræner for Arkadij Tjernysjov.

Statistik

Topscorere

Kilder / eksterne henvisninger
Hockey Archives - Championnat d'URSS 1946/47
Conway's Russian Hockey Blog - In the Beginning... (Part 1)
Conway's Russian Hockey Blog - In the Beginning... (Part 2)
VK - Чемпионат СССР 1946-47
Чемпионат - Наша история. Часть 1. 1946-1947
Звезды русского хоккея - I чемпионат СССР
YouTube - Spartak-CDKA, 25.1.1947

Noter

1946-47
Ishockey i 1946
Ishockey i 1947

Sovjetisk mesterskab i ishockey 1946-47


Barok müzik ( veya ), Batı Avrupa kökenli yaklaşık 1600 ile 1750 yılları arasında Batı klasik müziği'nin bir dönemi veya tarzıdır. Bu dönemi Rönesans müzik dönemi izledi, ardından Klasik dönem takip etti ve galant stili Barok ve Klasik dönemler arasındaki geçişi sağladı. Barok dönemi üç ana aşamaya ayrılmıştır: erken, orta ve geç. Zamanla örtüşecek şekilde bu üç dönem, geleneksel olarak 1580'den 1650'ye, 1630'dan 1700'e ve 1680'den 1750'ye dek olan süreçleri kapsar. Barok müzik, "klasik müzik" kanonu'nun önemli bir bölümünü oluşturur ve şu anda yaygın olarak çalışılmakta, çalınmakta ve dinlenmektedir.

Etimoloji ve tanım
"Barok" terimi, "şekilsiz inci" anlamına gelen Portekizce "barroco" kelimesinden gelir.

Jean Jacques Rousseau'ya göre "barok müzik, armoninin açık seçik olmadığı, modülasyonlar ve uyumsuzlukla dolu entonasyonları güç ve hareketi zor olan müziktir". Yapı sanatı ile ilgili ilk tanımla 1788 yılında Encyclopédie méthodiquete karşılaşılmaktadır: "Mimarlıkta barok, tuhaflığın bir nüansıdır". Öyle anlaşılıyor ki bu isim, dönemin başlangıcında resim ve heykel çalışmalarındaki değişikliklere gösterilen şaşırmış reaksiyon sonucu çıkmıştır.

Barok müzik dönemi eserleri batı klasik müziği içinde çok önemli bir yer almakta ve dönemimizde de popüler olarak çalınmakta ve dinlenmektedir.

Barok müzik dönemi Johann Sebastian Bach, Antonio Vivaldi, Jean-Baptiste Lully, Arcangelo Corelli, Claudio Monteverdi, Jean-Philippe Rameau ve Henry Purcell gibi bestecilerin eserlerini kapsamaktadir. Barok müzik dönemi müzikteki başlıca büyük yeniliği "fonksiyonel tonalite" kavramının çok geliştirilmesindedir. Bu dönemdeki besteciler ve çalgıcılar çok daha ayrıntılı ve incelikli müziksel süsler uygulamaya başlamışlar; müziksel notasyon şeklini değiştirmişler ve müziksel çalgıları yeni teknikler kullanarak çalmaya başlamışlardır. Barok müziği döneminde müziksel çalgılarla müzik icra edilmesinin ebadı, kapsam genişliği ve karmaşıklığı artmıştır. Barok müzik dönemi opera görsel sanatının kurulup, geliştirilip ve yaygınlaştırılması dönemidir. Bugün kullanılan müzik terimleri ve kavramlarının çoğunluğu barok müzik doneminde ortaya çıkartılmış ve o zamandan beridir kullanılagelmiştir.

Tarihçe

Müzikte barok dönem, 1600 ile 1750 yılları İtalya'daki opera denemeleriyle başlamış; Johann Sebastian Bach'ın ölümüyle sona ermiş ve tüm müzik türlerinde günümüze kadar kalıcı olan değişikliklerin oluşmasına neden olmuştur. Rönesans müzik dönemi, tüm sanat dallarında sadelik, temizlik ve saflık dürtülerini güçlendirmesine ve duyguları daha yumuşak bir anlatımla ifade etmesine karşın, özellikle müzik alanında, sürekli kullandığı tekdüzelikten dolayı giderek sıkıcı olmaya başlamıştır. O kadar ki, rönesans dönemi bestelerinin en belirgin özelliği, çalgıların aynı anda başlayıp aynı anda eseri bitirmeleri olarak anlatılabilir.

Barok dönemle birlikte, müzik "kontrast" kavramı ile tanışır. Aynı tınılardaki çalgılar birbirleriyle savaşırcasına, birbirleri ile karşıtlık oluşturarak eserde yerlerini alırlar. Klasik Dönem sanatçıları dahi, her ne kadar Barok dönem eserlerini karmaşık, süslü, zevksiz ve abartılı olarak adlandırsalar ve "Barok" kelimesini aşağılayıcı manada kullansalar da kendi kullandıkları ve günümüze kadar uzanan birçok armoni kuralını bu dönemin ustalarından öğrenmişler ve yer yer kopyalamışlardır. 150 yıla yayılan bir süreci etkileyen Barok akımı, kimi müzik tarihçilerine göre 2, kimine göre 3 evreli bir dönemdir. Herkesin kabul ettiği ortak düşünce ise "Olgun Barok" olarak adlandırılan son dönemde Johann Sebastian Bach'ın önemli bir yere sahip olduğudur.

Barok müziğinin yapısında en belirgin özellik, müzikte "kontrast"lar kullanılması olmuş ve bununla birlikte konçertolar devri başlamıştır. Müziksel ifadeyi güçlendirmek için kullanılan ses düzeyinin alçalıp yükselmesi Barok dönemde keşfedilen ve gelişen işaretlerle başlar. Orta Çağ ve Rönesans'ta ses şiddeti, hep aynı seviyede kullanılmaktaydı. Barok dönemde piyano (düşük ses) ve forte (gür ses) terimleri ile eserlerde ses şiddetinin önemi ve katkısı görülmeye başlar.

Barok dönemin bir diğer yeniliği, bu döneme kadar olan müzikal yapıda bulunmayan ve eserin başka bir bölüme geçeceğini veya bittiğini belirten bir olgunun kullanılmasıdır. Eserlerde kapanışlar ve geçişler daha güçlü yer alır.

Kontrastlar üzerine kurulan Barok müzikte ritmik yapıda da büyük gelişmeler olur. Rönesans'tan Barok müziğe sıçrayan, metine bağlı müzikal anlatım, konuşma dilindeki vurguların abartılmasına neden olur. Barok dönemde doğan opera ve kantatlar günümüzde de aynı kurala bağlı kalınarak abartılı bir dilde seslendirilirler. Barok dönemle beraber çalgı müziği büyük ilerleme gösterir. Yalnız çalgılar için bestelenen yapıtlar çoğalır.
Ses müziği ve çalgı müziğinin birleştirilmesi de Barok dönemde filizlenir. Eşlik görevi gören sürekli bas çalgıları ve insan sesi birleşir. Kontrast oluşturmak amacıyla eşlik çalgıları tekdüze hareket ederken, vokal hareketli ve süslü davranır.

16. yüzyılın sona ermesiyle birlikte İtalyan besteciler madrigal adını verdikleri, şiirler üzerine yazdıkları çok sesli müzikler üzerine yoğunlaşmaya başlamıştı.

Monteverdi'nin opera eserleri ve madrigalleri, barok dönemin ilk zamanlarının zirve noktası olmuş ve daha sonra gelecek müziğe liderlik etmiştir. Dinsel bir tema üzerine kurulu dramatik eserler olan oratoryolar, kökünü Roma'dan alır. Avrupa'ya yayılması ise Alman-İngiliz besteci George Frideric Handel sayesinde olmuştur. Handel, ünlü Messiah oratoryosunu İngiltere'de bestelemiştir (1741).

Sonat, kendini barok dönemin ilk zamanlarında bulmuş bir başka müzik formudur. İtalya'da sonat, yavaş ve hızlı dans parçalarından oluşan eser veya yavaş-hızlı kontrastlarıyla gelişen eserlere denirdi (daha sonra bu tarz kiliselerde de kullanılmıştır). Arcangelo Corelli gibi her iki tarzda da müzik yapan besteciler olmuştur.
İtalya'nın dışında ise süit adı verilen dans parçaları besteleniyordu. Barok dönemde sonatlar kadar yaygın olan süit formu, zamanla popülaritesini yitirmiş ve sonat formu kadar kalıcı olamamıştır. Süitler, kantatlarda olduğu gibi tek bir çıkış noktasından hareketle iki veya üç bölümlü forma ulaşırdı (örneğin Domenico Scarlatti'nin klavye sonatları gibi, Bach'ın bestelediği birden çok formlu eserler gibi). İlk sonatlar, ya tek bir enstrüman ya da küçük bir grup için yazılırdı.
17. yüzyılın sonlarına doğru (barok dönemin ortaları), bu sonat formu konçerto grosso şekline dönüştü. Solist grup ise genellikle konçertino (iki keman ve continuo) olurdu. Daha sonra ise konçerto durumuna dönüştü. Şüphesiz ki Bach'ın Brandenburg Konçertoları konçerto grosso stilinin bu dönemdeki en iyi örneklerinden birisidir. Ayrıca Antonio Vivaldi'nin solo konçertoları da bu dönemin en önemli modellerinden olmuştur.

Sonat, konçerto ve vokal formları gelişiminin ortalarında, barok dönemin bir başka önemli özelliği ortaya çıkmaya başladı: Tonalite. 16. yüzyılın ortalarında eski kilise modları, yeni anahtar bağları konseptiyle yer değiştirmeye başladı. Barok dönemle birlikte besteciler bir anahtardan diğerine atlamaya başlamıştı. Zamanın kromatik müziğini üretmeye başlamışlardı.

Zamanla, anahtarlar arasındaki bağ ve geçişler bir sistem halini aldı. Bach'ın İyi Düzenlenmiş Klavye (das wohltemperierte klavier) adlı eseri bu bağı anlamak için iyi bir örnektir. Bu eser ayrıca bir başka iki önemli barok formu yapısı içinde barındırmaktadır: prelüd ve füg.

Barok dönemin en gözde çalgılarından biri klavsen (harpsikort)'di. Klavsen, seslerin hafif veya kuvvetli çıkmasına olanak sağlamayan bir düzeneğe sahipti. Yine de dönemin favori enstrümanı olmuş, gerek solo gerek eşlik göreviyle pek çok eserde kullanılmıştır.

Barok dönemde icat edilmesine karşın dönemin bestecileri piyano için eser yazmamıştır. Klavsene göre cılız bir sese ve sert tuşeye sahip piyanoya eser veren ilk besteci Muzio Clementi'dir. 1773'de daha on sekizindeyken piyano için üç sonat yazmış, çalgıyı popüler hale getirmiştir. Barok dönem bestecilerinin günümüzde piyanoda çalınan eserleri aslında piyano için yazılmamıştır. Dolayısıyla piyano ve forte gibi nüanslar ve staccato gibi çalım tekniklerinin hiçbiri eserlerin aslında yoktur veya çok azdır.

Bütün bu değişiklikler birbirlerine paralel olarak gelmiş ve barok dönemi oluşturmuştur. Eski kurallardan ve polifonik takıntılardan kurtulunması, yeni bir tarz ve kural geleneği yapma gereğini doğurdu. Bu da, kadanslar veya armonik geri planlar üzerine doğal olarak solistlik yapan, melodiyi ortaya çıkardı. Bu armoniler içinde sequence'ı (zincirleme) getirdi ve tüm bu armonik gelişimler bir yandan da ritmik gelişmeleri doğurdu. Bas bölümleri, Orta Avrupa dans müziğinin tipik ritimleriyle kaynaştı ve tüm bunlar barok müziğini barok müzik yaptı.

Barok dönemde müzik, modern müzikal dilin gelişiminde kuşkusuz en önemli kilometre taşı olmuştur. Bu 1,5 yüzyıl içerisinde, müzikal formlar değişip geliştikçe bir yandan da daha sonrasının ve bugünün müzik standartlarını belirlemeye başlamıştı. Tonalite ve akor tonlaması çok büyük önem taşımaktadır.

18. yüzyıl, bilindiği gibi, Avrupa'da müziğin Barok yüzyılıdır. Händel gibi, Bach gibi, Barok müziğin büyük ustaları eserlerini bu yüzyılda vermişlerdir. Ancak Barok müzik, diğer sanatlarda olduğu gibi, feodal aristokrasiye hizmet eden bir yapı sergilemektedir.

Salon müzik ilişkisine örnek: Barok dönemde besteciler kiliselerde, belediye ve saraylarda veya bir operada görevliydiler. Bu yerlerin ortak özellikleri küçük olmaları idi. Genellikle dikdörtgen şeklinde yansıtıcı yüzeylere sahiptiler. Bu akustik çevrelerdeki yankılanma süresi kısadır. Böyle bir çevrede çalınan müzik çok parlak olur ancak seslerin dolgunluğu azdır.
Klasik dönem Haydn, Mozart, Beethoven, bu dönemdeki orkestrada 40 kadar çalgıcı bulunuyordu. Yaylı, ağaç üflemeli, pirinç üflemeli, vurmalı çalgılar kullanılıyordu. O zamanki konser salonları şimdikilerden küçük, dinleyiciler ise 300-400 kişi kadardı. Bu salonlar, tümüyle doluyken yankılanma süresi 1,5 saniye olmaktadır. 19. yüzyılda daha büyük yapılar inşa edildi ve süre 1,5 - 1,8 saniye aralığına uzadı. Bugün Klasik dönem müzikleri için en iyi yankılanma süresi 1,5 – 1,7 saniye arasında kabul edilmektedir.
Romantik devir daha kişiseldir. Bestecinin duygularının anlatımı önemlidir. Brahms, Wagner, Çaykovski, Debussy gibi bestecilerin dönemidir. Daha dolgun seslere ve daha uzun yankılanma sürelerine ihtiyaç duyulur. Bu dönemde yankı süreleri 2 saniyeye kadar uzamıştır. Bugün romantik müzikler için yankılanma süresi 1,9 - 2,2 saniye arasında kabul edilmektedir.

Kaynakça

Bibliyografya

Dış bağlantılar
 Jean-Philippe Rameau / Discography

Klasik Batı müziği
Aydınlanma Çağı

Barok müzik


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شتاوة


ධර්ම සංගායනා වල මූලික අරමුණ වී ඇත්තේ බෞද්ධ සංඝ සමාජය හා බුදු දහම කෙරෙහි ශ්‍රමණ වේශධාරීන්ගෙන් පැමිණි උවදුරු සමනය කොට සංඝයාත් බුද්ධ ධර්මයත් පාරිශුද්ධියට පත් කරලීමය..

ප්‍රථම ධර්ම සංගායනාව

විනය සංගීති නමින්ද මෙම සංගායනාව හඳුන්වයි.සම්බුද්ධ පරිනිර්වාණයෙන් තෙමසකට පසුව මෙම සංගායනාව පවත්වා ඇත.මෙහි අරමුණ වූයේ විසිරී ඇති ධර්ම විනය ඒකරාශී කොට වෙනස්කම් වලට භාජනය වීමට ඉඩ නොදී ආරක්ෂා කර තබා ගැනීමය.

ප්‍රථම ධර්ම සංගායනාව පැවැත්වීමට හේතුව;
චුල්ලවග්ගයේ එන වාර්තාව  අනුව ප්‍රථම සංගීතියට මුලික ලෙස හේතු දෙකක් පාදක වී ඇත.

 සුභද්‍ර භික්ෂුවගේ වගකීමෙන් තොර ප්‍රකාශය. බුදු රජාණන් වහන්සේගේ පිරිනිවීම අසා සොවින් වැළපෙන පෘතග්ජන භික්ෂුන් අස්වැසීමට සුභද්ද භික්ෂුව කළ ප්‍රකාශය වුයේ "ඇවැත්නි; සෝක නොකරව්, නොවැලපෙව් ඵ් මහා ශ්‍රමණයාගෙන් අපි හොඳින් මිදුනෙමු. මේ තොපට කැපය. මේ අකැපයැයි ඹහුගේ නීති පැනවීමෙන් අපි පීඩා වින්දෙමු. දැන් අපි යමක් කැමති නම් ඵය කරන්නෙමු. යමක් අකමැතිනම් ඵය නොකරන්නෙමු."යි යන්නය.(ශාසන ඉතිහාසය,2007)

 ධර්මය හා විනය  අනාගතයෙහිදී පිරිහී අධර්මය,අවිනය රජ වෙතැයි ඇතිවූ භීතිය, බුද්ධ භාෂිත ලෙස බොරු සූත්‍ර සකස් කර ධර්මයට වැරදි අර්ථ විවරණ ඉදිරිපත් කෙරෙනු ඇතැයි ද එකළ තෙරවරු බිය වූහ.

මහා සාංඝික, මහීසාසක, ධර්මගුප්තික හා සර්වාස්තිවාදී සම්ප්‍රදායන්ට අයත් විනය ග්‍රන්ථ වලද ප්‍රථම ධර්ම සංගායනාවට හේතු මෙලෙස සඳහන්වේ.මෙම මුලික හේතුවට අමතරව තවත් හේතු රාශියක් පළමු සංගායනාව පැවැත් විමට හේතු වු බව මුලාශ්‍ර වළ හදුනාගත හැකිය.ඒ අතර මුලික වන්නේ බුදුන් ජිවමාන කලයේදි සංඝ සමාජය තුල විවිද ගැටලු පැවති අතර ඒම ගැටලු උන්වහනසේගෙන් පසුව තව තවත් බහුල විය හැකි නිසා සංගායනාවක් පවත්වන්නට අවශ්‍ය වන්නට ඇත.මන්ද සුභද්ද වුව ඉහත ආකාරයේ ප්‍රකාශයක් බුද්ධ පරිනිර්වාණයත් සමගම සිදු කිරිම බුදුන් ජිවමාන කාලයේ පැවති ගැටලු වල ප්‍රතිඵලක් බව සිතිය හැකිය.

පළමු සංගායනාවේ ප්‍රතිඵල:

- ඛුද්දානු ඛුද්දක ශික්ෂා පද පිළිබඳව තිබු ගැටළුව විසඳීම

- ධර්ම විනය ආගමේ ශාස්ත්‍රවරයා ලෙස ස්ථාපිත වීම

- ආනන්ද හිමියන්ට එල්ල වී තිබූ චෝදනා වලින් නිදහස් වීම

- ආනන්ද හිමියන්ගේ ධර්ම භාණ්ඩාගාරය හෙළි වීම

- චන්න හිමියන්ට බ්‍රහ්ම දණ්ඩනය නියම වීම

- භානක පරම්පරාවක් බිහි වීම

- විසිරුණු ධර්මය ඒකරාශි වීම

සංගායනාව සඳහා සහභාගිත්වය,
මහරහන් වහන්සේලා 500 නමකගේ සහභාගිත්වය තිබූ අතර මුලිකත්වය ගෙන කටයුතු කළේ මහාකාශ්‍යප මහරහතන් වහන්සේය.(භික්ෂුන් වහන්සේලා පන්සිය නමකගේ සහභාගීත්වයෙන් පැවති මෙම සංගායනාවට පංචසතිකා සංගීතිකා යැයි ද කියනු ලැබෙ.)

සංගායනාව පැවැත්වු ස්ථානය
ථෙරවාදී මුලාශ්‍රවල සඳහන් පරිදි රජගහ නුවර වේහාර පර්වත ප්‍රාන්තයෙහි සප්තපර්ණී ගුහාද්වාරය.

සංගායනාව සඳහා රාජඅනුග්‍රහය
වංශ කථාවන්හි හා සමන්තපාසාදිකා විනය අටුවාවේ සඳහන් පරිදි මගධාධීපති බිම්බිසාර රජුගේ පුත් අජාසත් රජතුමාගෙනි.

සංගායනාව පැවැත්වූ ආකාරය
සත් මසක් මුළුල්ලේ පැවති මෙම ධර්ම සංගායනාවේදි උපාලි හිමියන්ගෙන් පළමුව විනය ප්‍රශ්න විචාළහ. නිදාන පුග්ගල, වස්තු, ප්‍රඥප්ති,අනුප්‍රඥප්ති, ආපත්ති, අනාපත්ති යනාදී විස්තර සහිතව  භික්ෂු භික්ෂුණී ප්‍රාතිමෝක්ෂ ශික්ෂා පද  සියල්ලම පුජ්ජාවිස්සජ්න  ක්‍රමයෙන් විනය සංගායනා කළහ.
අනතුරුව, ධර්ම සංගායනා කළහ. ප්‍රශ්නෝත්තර ක්‍රමය මේ සඳහා යොදා ගත්හ. අනඳ තෙරණුවන් ලවා පංචනිකායම සංගායනා කළහ.සුත්‍ර පිටකය හා අභිධර්මය මෙහිදී සංගායනාවට භාජනය විය.

ඛුද්දානු ඛුද්දක ශික්ෂාපද පිළිබඳව සාකච්ජා කළහ.සංගායනාවෙන් පසුව  ඡන්න තෙරුන්ට බ්‍රහ්ම දණ්ඩය පැනවීය.

අනඳ තෙරුන්ට එරෙහිව චෝදනා 5ක් සංගීතිය අවසානයේඑල්ල වූ අතර තමන් එයට නිර්දෝශී වීමට හේතු සාධකද අනඳ තෙරුන් විසින් ඉදිරිපත් කළහ.

1.ඛුද්දානු ඛුද්දක ශික්ෂා පද බුදුන්ගෙන් නොවිචාරීම.
බුදු රදුන් ඛුද්දානු ඛුද්දක ශික්ෂා පද පිළිබඳව ප්‍රකාශ කරන අවස්ථාවේදී තමන් ඉතා ශෝකාතුරව සිටි නිසා අසා දැන ගැනීමට නොහැකිවූ බව.

2.බුදු රදුන්ගේ වැසි සළුව පයින් මැඩ ගෙන මැසීම.
සිවුර මසද්දී සහාය වීමට කිසිවෙකු නොසිටි බැවින් එසේ කරන්නට සිදු විය.

3.බුද්ධ ශරීරය පළමුව කාන්තාවන් ලවා වැන්ද වීම.
බුදු රදුන්ගේ ශ්‍රි දේහයට බුහුමන් දැක්වීමට පැමිණි මහා ජනකාය බහුල වීම නිසා කාන්තාවන්ට කල්වේලා ඇතිව නිවෙස් වලට යාමට ඉඩ සැලැස්වීම.

4චේතියේ දී බුදුන් පිරිනිවි පාන බව අඟවද් දී කල්පයක් ඡීවත් වන ලෙසට බුදුන් වහන්සේට  ආරාධනා නොකිරීම.
තමන්ගේ සිත ද එවෙළෙහි මරුට වසඟව තිබු හෙයින් එසේ ඉල්ලා සිටීමට නොහැකි වීම.

5.තථාගත ශාසනයේ ස්ත්‍රීන්ට පැවිද්ද ලබා දීමට උත්සාහවත්වීම.
ප්‍රජාපතී ගෝතමිය කෙරෙහි තිබූ මහත් ගෞරවය නිසා එලෙස කිරීම.

අනඳ හිමියන්ට එරෙහිව පැවති චෝදනා 5ට අතිරේකව ටිබෙට් දුල්වා ග්‍රන්ථයෙහි තවත් චෝදනා 2ක් දක්වා ඇත.
පිරිනිවන් පෑමට සිටියදී බුදුරදුන් පිපාසිතව වතුර ස්වල්පයක් ඉල්ලූ අවස්ථාවෙහි පැන් නොදී සිටීම.

පළමු සංගායනාවේ ප්‍රතිඵල:
1.එක් එක් ධර්ම කොටස් භික්ෂු පරම්පරාවන්ට ආරක්ෂා කොට පවත්වා ගෙන යාම සඳහා පැනවීම.
දීඝ නිකාය- ආනන්ද හිමි ඇතුළු ශිෂ්‍යානුශිෂ්‍ය පරම්පරාවට
සංයුත්ත නිකාය- මහා කාෂ්‍යප හිමි ඇතුළු ශිෂ්‍යානු ශිෂ්‍ය පරම්පරාවට
අංගුත්තර නිකාය -අනුරුද්ධ හිමි ඇතුළු ශිෂ්‍යානු ශිෂ්‍ය පරම්පරාවට
මජ්ඣිම නිකාය- සැරියුත් හිමි ඇතුළු ශිෂ්‍යානු ශිෂ්‍ය පරම්පරාවට
ඛුද්දක නිකාය -සියලුම වහන්සේලා එක්ව මුඛ පරම්පරාගතව

2.ඛුද්දානු ඛුද්දක ශික්ෂා පද වෙනස් නොකිරීම.

3.අනඳ තෙරුන්ට තිබූ චෝදනා වලින් නිදහස් වීම

දෙවන ධර්ම සංගායනාව.

බුද්ධ පරිනිර්වාණයෙන් වසර 100කට පසුව මෙම සංගායනාව පවත්වා ඇත.
දෙවන ධර්ම සංගායනාව පැවැත්වීමට හේතුව;
වජ්ජිපුත්තක භික්ෂූන් විසින් ඉදිරිපත් කළ දස අකැප වස්තුව
චුල්ලවග්ග පාලියේ සඳහන් දස අකැප වස්තුව
සිංගිලෝන කප්ප-ආහාර වලට මිශ්‍රකර ගැනීම සඳහා අඟක දමා ලුණු තබා ගැනීම සුදුසුය.
ද්වංගුල කප්ප-ඉර හැරී සෙවනැල්ල අඟල් දෙකක් වන තුරුත්  ආහාර වැළදීම කැපය.
ගාමන්තර කප්ප-එක් ගමකින් තව ගමකට ආහාර රැගෙන යාම කැපය.
ආවාස කප්ප-මහා සීමාව තුළ පිහිටි කුඩා කුඩා ආවාසයන්හි වෙන වෙනම පොහොය කිරීම කැපය.
අනුමති කප්ප-එක සීමාවක් ඇතුළත වාසය කරන භික්ෂූන්ගේ කැමැත්ත නොගෙන වෙන් වෙන්ව පොහොය කොට නැවත කැමැත්ත ගැනීම කැපය.
ආචිණ්ණ කප්ප-කැප අකැප දෙයක් ගැන නොසලකා චිරාගත දේ පිළිගැනීම කැපය.
අමථිත කප්ප-කිරිත් නොවූ දීත් නොවූ කිරි වැළදීම කැපය.
ජලෝගි කප්ප-රා බවට නොපැමිණි මීරා බීම කැපය.
අදසක නිසීදන කප්ප-දාවලු නැති ඇතිරිලි පරිහරණය කැපය.
ජාත රූප රජත කප්ප-රන් , රිදී හා කහවණු  පිළිගැනීම කැපය.
මහාසාංඝික දශ වස්තුව
අලල යයි කීම කැපය;
තමාම විනෝද වීම කැපය;
තමාම පොළව සෑරීම කැපය;
දුර හුදෙකලාවාසීන්ට ලුණු තැන්පත් කිරීම කැපය;
තම ආරාමයෙන් යොදුන් අඩ යොදුන් දුර ගමන් යන භික්ෂුවට ආහාර ගෙනයාම කැපය;
ඉර අවරට ගොස් සෙවනැල්ල අගල් දෙකක් ගිය පසු වැළදීම කැපය;
රෝගීන්ට මධ්‍යපානය කැපය;
කිරිත් නොවු දීත් නොවූ කිරි බීම කැපය;
දාවලු නැති ඇතිරිලි කැපය;
රන් රිදී මසු කහවනු කැපය;
සර්වාස්ථිවාදීන්ගේ විනය ක්ෂුද්‍රක ග්‍රන්ථයෙහි දශ වස්තුව මෙලෙස දක්වා ඇත.
යාවජීවක ලුණු යාවකාලික ආහාර හා මිශ්‍රකර වැළදීම කැපය;
අතිරික්ත නොවූ ආහාර ඇඟිලි දෙකින් ගෙන වැළදීම කැපය;
යොදුනක් හෝ අඩ යොදුනක්  හෝ ගොස් එකට ආහාර ගැනීම කැපය;
කිරි ද්‍රෝනයක් පමණ ගෙන දී කිරි හා මිශ්‍ර කර විකාලයේ වැළදීම කැපය;
ලෙඩකුට කූඩැල්ලන්සේ උරා සුරා පානය කිරීම කැපය;
පැරණි නිසීදනයේ සුගත් වියතක් පමණ කෑල්ලක් නොඅළලා අලුත් ඇතිරිල්ලක් පරිභෝග කිරීම කැපය;
සුවඳවත් කළ පාත්‍රයක්  මහාජනයා නිතර ගැවසෙන තැනක තබා පින් පිණිස රන් රිදී වලින් පාත්‍රය පුරවන ලෙස දන්වා සිටීම කැපය;
සියතින් පොළව කැණීම කැපය;
ආගමික කාර්යයන් කිරීමෙන් පසු පැමිණි සංඝයා ඒ පිළිබඳ සතුටුවන ලෙස පෙළඹවීම කැපය.
ආගමික කාර්යයන්ගෙන් පසු "අහෝ" යයි හඬ නඟා ප්‍රකාශ කිරීම කැපය;

මෙලෙස ථෙරවාද, මහාසාංඝික, මූලසාර්වස්ථිවාදී යන සම්ප්‍රධායන්වල දශ වස්තුව අතර සුළු සුළු වෙනස්කම් පැවතියද මේවායෙහි එක්තරා පොදු බවක් විද්‍යමාන වෙයි.

සංගායනාව පැවැත්වූ ස්ථානය,විස්තර
විශාලා මහනුවර වාලුකාරාමයේදී

සංගායනාව සඳහා සහභාගිත්වය
ධර්මධර, විනයධර තෙරවරුන් 700නමකගේ සහභාගිත්වය ඇතුව සබ්බකාමී මහරහතන්වහන්සේ ප්‍රධානත්වය ගෙන ක්‍රීයා කළහ.(භික්ෂූන් වහන්සේලා හත්සිය නමකගේ සහභාගීත්වයෙන් පැවති මෙම සංගායනාවට සත්තසතිකා සංගීති යැයි ද කියනු ලැබෙ.)

රාජ අනුග්‍රහය
කාලාශෝක රජතුමා දෙවන ධර්ම සංඝායනාවට රාජ අනුග්‍රහය ලබා දුන්නේ ය.
සංගායනාව පැවැත්වීම හා ප්‍රතිඵල
අට මසක් පුරාවට පැවැත්වූ මෙම සංගායනාවේ ප්‍රතිඵල වූයේ සංඝ සමාජය ප්‍රථම වතාවට නිකායවලට බෙදීම.

මුල්ම සංඝ සමාජය  ථෙරවාදී හා මහා සාංඝික ලෙස ප්‍රධාන නිකායන් දෙකකට බෙදුණි.පසුව මෙය තවත් අනු නිකායන් කිහිපයකට බෙදී ගියහ.එය පහත සටහනින් නිරූපණයවේ............

තුන්වන ධර්ම සංගායනාව

බුද්ධ පරිනිර්වාණයෙන් වසර දෙසීය තිස්හයකට  පසුව (බු.ව.236)'' ධර්මාශෝක මහරජතුමාගේ අනුග්‍රහයෙන් මාස නවයක් පුරා සිදු කළහ.

ධර්ම සංගායනාව පැවැත්වීමට හේතු,
සංඝයා අතර අසමගිය ඇතිවීම හා ලාභ අපේක්ෂාවෙන් අන්‍යතීර්ථකයන් සසුනට ඇතුළුවීම.( ලබ අපේක්ෂාවෙන් දුසිල් බික්ෂුන් සසුන් ගත වීම )

සංගායනාව පැවැත්වූ ස්ථානය
පැළලුප් නුවර අශෝකාරාමය

සංගායනාව සඳහා සහභාගිත්වය
රහතන් වහන්සේලා දහස් නමකගේ සහභාගිත්වය ඇතිව මොග්ගලීපුත්ත තිස්ස මහරහතන් වහන්සේගේ මූලිකත්වයෙනි.(රහතන් වහන්සේලා 1000 නමකගේ සහභාගීත්වයෙන් පැවැත්වුණු බැවින් මෙයට සාහස්සිකා සංගීති යැයි ද කියනු ලැබෙ)

ධර්ම සංගායනාවේ ප්‍රතිඵල
 මොග්ගලීපුත්ත තිස්ස මහරහතන් වහන්සේ විසින් කථාවත්ථුප්පකරණය රචනා කිරීම.
 අභිධර්ම පිටකය සප්තප්‍රකරණයෙන් යුතුව සම්පූර්ණ කිරීම.
 ථෙරවාද සම්ප්‍රදාය සතු පාලි ත්‍රිපිටකය සම්පූර්ණ කිරීම.
 ධර්ම දූත සේවාව ආරම්භ කිරීම.
ධර්ම විනයධර ප්‍රබල තෙර නමකගේ නායකත්වය යටතේ රටවල් නවයකට ධර්මදුත පිරිස් පිටත්කර යැවූ බව වංස කතාවල සඳහන් වෙයි.
රට ප්‍රධානත්වය සුත්‍රය
කාශ්මීර ගන්ධාර -මජ්ඣන්තික තෙරණුවෝ-ආසිවිසෝපම සූත්‍රය
මහිස මණ්ඩලය- මහාදේව තෙරණුවෝ-දේවදූත සූත්‍රය
වනවාස දේශය -රක්ඛිත තෙරණුවෝ-අනමතග්ග සංයුත්තය
අපරන්ත දේශය- යෝනක ධම්මරක්ඛිත තෙරණුවෝ-අග්ගික්ඛන්ධෝපම සූත්‍රය
මහාරට්ඨය -මහාධම්ම රක්ඛිත තෙරණුවෝ-මහානාරද කස්සප ජාතකය
යෝනක දේශය- මහාරක්ඛිත තෙරණුවෝ-කාලකාරාම සූත්‍රය
හිමවන්ත ප්‍රදේශය -මජ්ඣිම තෙරණුවෝ- ධම්මචක්කප්පවත්තන සූත්‍රය
ස්වර්ණභූමිය-සෝණ,උත්තර යන තෙරුන් වහන්සේලා-බ්‍රහ්මජාල සූත්‍රය
තම්බපණ්ණිය(ශ්‍රී ලංකාව)-මිහිඳු මහ රහතන් වහන්සේ- චූලහත්ථිපදපම සූත්‍රය

මුලාශ්‍ර
 "ශාසන ඉතිහාසය",බෞද්ධ කටයුතු දෙපාර්තමේන්තුව,රජයේ මුද්‍රණ දෙපාර්තමේන්තුව,පාදුක්ක.
 Dinamina
 " චුල්ලවග්ග පාලිය- පඤ්ච සතිකක්ඛන්ධකය (නැදිමාල: බෞද්ධ සංස්කෘතික මධ්‍යස්ථානය,2005)
 දහම් පාසල් පොත් (6-13)

සබැදි පිටු
 බෞද්ධ ධර්ම සංගායනා

ධර්ම සංගායනා
බුදු දහම
බුද්ධාගම

ධර්ම සංගායනා


Nata Albot () este o jurnalistă, blogger, activist civic, fostă producător de televiziune și manager media din Republica Moldova.

A absolvit facultatea de drept a Universității de Stat din Moldova. A început să lucreze la radio la vârsta de 16 ani. A lucrat ca jurnalistă la Pro TV și a fost directorul Pro FM Moldova.

În iunie 2011, Nata Albot se alătură echipei televiziunii Jurnal TV în calitate de producător general. În vara anului 2013, Nata pleacă de la Jurnal TV și se mută în străinătate împreună cu Andrei Bolocan.

Albot este organizatoarea unui șir de festivaluri, precum "Balul Brazilor de Crăciun", "Mai Dulce", "IaMania" și "Lavender Fest", și inițiatoarea unor proiecte precum "Klumea" și "Koolture Tricolore". În 2015, a lansat cartea Moldova din bucătăria mamei mele.

Albot a fost căsătorită cu avocatul Roman Uskov, cu care a avut doi copii. În 2013, se mută cu traiul în Canada împreună cu fostul coleg de la Jurnal TV Andrei Bolocan., împreună au 2 copii (Magdalena si Noah ).

Nata Albot a fost declarată Femeia anului 2010 de revista VIP Magazin. În 2011, misiunea ONU în Moldova a premiat un grup de jurnaliști, printre care și Nata Albot, pentru desfășurarea unei campanii media împotriva intoleranței față de copiii cu dizabilități fizice.

Referințe

Legături externe
 Blog personal

Nașteri pe 26 octombrie
Nașteri în 1979
Jurnaliști moldoveni
Bloggeri români
Femei din Republica Moldova
Oameni din Chișinău

Nata Albot


الأصحاح 53 من سفر إشعياء هو الأغنية الآخيرة عن العبد المعاني في سفر إشعياء. اشتهر هذا المقطع بسبب تفسير عدد من المسيحيين له كنبؤة عن مجيء يسوع كتبت قبل أكثر من سبعة قرون من ولادته. يرفض اليهود هذا التفسير حيث يعتقد معظم علمائهم أن العبد المشار إليه هو شعب إسرائيل، بينما يعتقد كثير من المسيحيين أن المقطع يشير للمعاناة التي واجهها المسيح ولغفر الذنوب بموته. تذكر 52:6 كُلُّنا ضَلَلنا كَالغَنَمِ،
وَكُلُّ واحِدٍ ذَهَبَ فِي طَرِيقِهِ.
لَكِنَّ اللهَ وَضَعَ عَلَيهِ عِقابَ آثامِنا جَمِيعاً
53: 5 وهو مجروح لأجل معاصينا مسحوق لأجل آثامنا، تأديب سلامنا عليه وبحبره شفينا

يوافق علماء اليهود والمسيحيين على أن 52: 13 هو البداية الطبيعية للمقطع لأن الأصل العبري لم يكن مقسما إلى أصحاحات.

مَنْ يُصَدِّقُ ما سَمِعناهُ؟
وَلِمَنْ أُظهِرَتْ قُوَّةُ اللهِ؟
2 نَما كَنَبتَةٍ صَغِيرَةٍ أمامَهُ،
وَمِثلَ جَذرٍ فِي أرْضٍ جافَّةٍ.
لَمْ يَكُنْ لَهُ جَمالٌ أوْ بَهاءٌ حَتَّى نَنظُرَ إلَيهِ،
وَلا كانَ فِي هَيئَتِهِ شَيءٌ جَذّأبٌ حَتَّى نَشتَهِيَهِ.
3 احتَقَرَهُ النّاسُ وَتَرَكُوهُ.
هُوَ رَجُلُ آلامٍ كَثِيرَةٍ،
وَخَبِيرٌ بِالمُعاناةِ.
احتَقَرَهُ النّاسُ كَمَنْبُوذٍ
يَخَبِّئُونَ وَجُوهَهُمْ لِكَي لا يَرَوْهُ،
وَنَحنُ لَمْ نَهْتَمَّ بِهِ.
4 لَكِنَّهُ رَفَعَ اعتِلالاتِنا،
وَحَمَلَ أمراضَنا.
وَنَحْنُ ظَنَنّا أنَّ اللهَ يَضرِبُهُ وَيُذِلُّهُ.
5 لَكِنَّهُ جُرِحَ بِسَبَبِ مَعاصِينا،
وَسُحِقَ بِسَبَبِ آثامِنا.
وَقَعَتْ عَلَيهِ عُقُوبَتُنا فَنَعُمْنا بِالسَّلامِ.
وَشُفِينا بِسَبِبِ جُرُوحِهِ.
6 كُلُّنا ضَلَلنا كَالغَنَمِ،
وَكُلُّ واحِدٍ ذَهَبَ فِي طَرِيقِهِ.
لَكِنَّ اللهَ وَضَعَ عَلَيهِ عِقابَ آثامِنا جَمِيعاً.

7 عُومِلَ بِقَسوَةٍ وَعانَى،
وَلَكِنَّهُ لَمْ يُدافِعْ عَنْ نَفسِهِ.
مِثلَ شاةٍ تُقادُ إلَى الذَّبحِ،
وَمِثلَ نَعجَةٍ صامِتَةٍ أمامَ جازِّيها.
8 أُخِذَ بالقُوَّةِ وَأُدِينَ ظُلماً.
وَلا أحَدَ فِي جِيلِهِ اكتَرَثَ
بِأنَّهُ قُطِعَ مِنْ أرْضِ الأحياءِ،
وَعُوقِبَ بِسَبَبِ شَرِّ شَعبِهِ.

9 جَعَلُوا قَبرَهُ مَعَ الأشرارِ،
وَمَدفَنَهُ مَعَ غَنِيٍّ.
مَعَ أنَّهُ لَمْ يَظلِمْ أحَداً،
وَلَمْ يَكُنْ فِي فَمِهِ أيُّ كَذِبٍ.
10 وَلَكِنَّ اللهَ رَضِيَ بِسَحقِهِ تَحْتَ الألَمِ.
وَبَعدَ أنْ قَدَّمَ نَفسَهُ ذَبِيحَةَ خَطِيَّةٍ، [a]
سَيَرَى نَسلَهُ وَتَطُولُ أيّامُهُ،
وَسَيَنجَحُ فِي تَحقِيقِ إرادَةِ اللهِ.
11 سَيَرَى ثَمَرَ مُعاناتِهِ
وَسَيُرْضِيهِ أنْ يَعرِفَ ذَلِكَ.

«لأنَّ عَبدِي البارَّ سَيُبَرِّرُ كَثِيرِينَ،
وَسَيَحمِلُ ذُنُوبَهُمْ.
12 لِذَلِكَ سَأُعطِيهِ نَصِيباً بَينَ العُظَماءِ،
وَسَيقسِمُ الغَنِيمَةَ مَعَ الأقوِياءِ،
لأنَّهُ سَكَبَ نَفسَهُ لِلمُوتِ
وَحُسِبَ مَعَ المُرتَدِّينَ.
وَهُوَ حَمَلَ خَطِيَّةَ الكَثِيرِينَ،
وَشَفَعَ فِي المُذنِبِينَ.»
Footnotes

مراجع

الكتاب العبري
لاهوت العهد القديم
ميسيانية مسيحية
نقد كتابي

إشعياء 53


John Archibald Banks  (born 2 December 1946) is a New Zealand former politician. He was a member of Parliament for the National Party from 1981 to 1999, and for ACT New Zealand from 2011 to 2014. He was a Cabinet Minister from 1990 to 1996 and 2011 to 2013. He left Parliament after being convicted of filing a false electoral return – a verdict which was later overturned.

In between his tenures in Parliament, he served as Mayor of Auckland City for two terms, from 2001 to 2004 and from 2007 to 2010. When seven former smaller councils were combined into one to run the Auckland 'supercity' in 2010, Banks unsuccessfully ran for mayor again. The electoral return that he filed after that campaign, detailing donations received and campaign expenses, was the subject of Banks' conviction and eventual acquittal. After new evidence came to light, it was decided in May 2015 that there would be no retrial.

Early life
Banks was born in Wellington in 1946. When he was a young child, his parents Archibald (Archie) and Kitty were imprisoned for procuring abortions. His father was a career criminal and his mother an alcoholic. From the age of two he was raised by an aunt and uncle, alongside "many foster children". When John was 14, Archie was released from prison. They moved to Auckland and John attended Avondale College.

He grew up in poverty. In a 2014 speech to Parliament he recalled

Before politics
In his career before entering politics, Banks worked as a market researcher in the pharmaceutical industry, as a commercial property developer, and as a restaurant owner. He served for a time as Chairman of the New Zealand Licensed Restaurant and Cabaret Association.

Banks began his political career in local-body politics with election to the Birkenhead Borough Council in 1977. In 1980 he was elected a member of the Auckland Regional Authority for Birkenhead.

Member of Parliament

In the 1978 general election, Banks stood as the National Party candidate for the Roskill electorate, but was unsuccessful. Banks ran against Labour Party incumbent Arthur Faulkner, seeing the electorate as an opportunity to enter parliament, due to Faulkner's small majority in 1975 and the electorate's newly redrawn boundaries. Banks campaigned full-time in the Roskill electorate, driving a Holden HQ during his campaign (instead of his Jaguar), and caused major controversies when making comments about Polynesian New Zealanders. In the 1981 election, he stood in a different seat, Whangarei, and won. He would retain this seat for the remainder of his parliamentary career with the National Party.

Cabinet minister
When National won the 1990 election, Banks entered Cabinet, becoming Minister of Police, Minister of Tourism, and Minister of Sport.

Banks said in 2019 after the Christchurch mosque shootings that he was "haunted" by not being able to persuade his cabinet colleagues to ban semi-automatic guns after the Aramoana massacre in 1990.

While Minister of Police, he was fined $750 for answering his cell phone on a commercial flight in 1991.

Stance on homosexual law reform
On the final reading of New Zealand's 1986 Homosexual Law Reform, John Banks said that "This day will be remembered as a sad and sickening day for New Zealand. A very black cloud tonight and those members who[...]vote for legalised sodomy at the age of 16 should be thoroughly ashamed of themselves," and voted against the Bill.

When debating New Zealand's 1993 Human Rights Act, which would prohibit discrimination against gays and lesbians based on sexuality, Banks said that "The problem with this homosexual business we've now made legal in his country...and parliament is soon going to legislate... to allow sexual deviants or people with sexual alternatives to work... with immunity."

Radio Pacific talkback host
Banks gained a position as the host of a talkback radio programme on Radio Pacific in August 1992, taking over the Sunday afternoon timeslot from former Prime Minister Sir Robert Muldoon, for whom he had occasionally substituted during 1991 and 1992. In 1995, his fellow National Party Member of Parliament John Carter rang his programme impersonating a workshy Māori called Hone, which caused widespread offence.
He left the station in 2007 when it reformatted to a sports talkback format.

Leaving Cabinet and Parliament
In 1996, he resigned from Cabinet, becoming a backbencher, after he refused to be in the same cabinet as New Zealand First leader and coalition partner Winston Peters.

Banks retired from Parliament at the 1999 election, returning in 2011.

Mayor of Auckland City

First term 2001–2004
In 2001, he contested and won the Auckland City mayoralty, defeating the incumbent Christine Fletcher (herself also a former National MP). Banks remained controversial in his new role, although often regarding financial and management issues rather than social policy. He governed with the support of the traditional incumbent ticket at Auckland City, Citizens and Ratepayers Now. Banks brought in a streamlined decision making process at council, kept spending increases within inflation, sold half of the Auckland International Airport shares to pay off Auckland City's increasing debt, and proposed massive transport projects such as the Eastern Transport Corridor. Banks' personal style, coupled with his mayoral agenda, polarised many Aucklanders. In 2001 he was caught speeding on a jet ski close to the beach, not long after criticising boy racers.

He also said Asian immigrants had filthy habits such as spitting on footpaths.

2004 mayoralty campaign
A serious and ultimately successful challenge to Banks' mayoralty came from cereal-maker Dick Hubbard in late August 2004. Six weeks before the election, Hubbard was the more popular candidate in opinion polls.

The mayoral campaign gained notoriety as one of the "nastiest" and hardest-fought in memory. In September 2004, Banks's campaign manager, Brian Nicolle, resigned amidst allegations of "gutter politics" after he ordered distribution of copies of a National Business Review article highly critical of Hubbard to hundreds of letterboxes in Auckland. Nicolle at first denied ordering the article distribution, but eventually admitted it. That he'd acted without the authorisation of Banks as the candidate made the story even more controversial during the campaign.

On 9 October 2004, Hubbard was elected as Mayor of Auckland. In early interviews after his election loss, Banks stated that he would look after his varied business interests, both in New Zealand and Australia.

Post-2004 election
For a time, rumours suggested that he might return to national politics, standing as a candidate either for the National Party or ACT New Zealand. Several meetings took place between Banks and senior ACT members. In the end, however, Banks declined to become an ACT candidate.

In February 2005, Banks returned to talkback radio reprising his "Breakfast with Banksie" early morning radio show on Radio Pacific.

While on the talkback show, a caller said that "six inches of barbed wire shoved up gay mens arses" which John Banks retorted, would be a waste of "good barbed wire." In 2006, Banks said on his talk back radio show that he had "...never seen so many dead beat losers in one photograph in all my life, that is outside a Labour Party conference, as these Māori Warriors for Safe Sex." This was in relation to a safe sex advertisement that was targeted at Māori men who have same-sex relations.

Re-election in 2007
In October 2006, Banks announced he was giving serious consideration to standing for the Auckland mayoralty again. He indicated that if he did become mayor again, he would practise a more inclusive style of leadership with a firmer focus on financial matters. He also indicated qualified support for the proposed 2007 "Hero Parade", which was an annual gay parade held in the 1990s prior to his becoming mayor. Banks ditched the controversial Eastern Corridor proposal that caused a split in his voting base.

In July 2007 Banks announced his intention to stand for mayor in the October 2007 local body election, running on a platform of "affordable progress" and transparency in council meetings. Polls soon showed him in a clear lead. In 2010, Banks campaigned for and negotiated with the government to help owners of 'leaky homes' meet the costs of repairs.

On 13 October 2007, Banks was re-elected as Mayor of Auckland, becoming only the second mayor in Auckland City's history to have come back to the mayoralty after defeat, after Dove-Myer Robinson in 1968.

Second term 2007–2010

Upon his successful re-election, Banks indicated a number of initial changes and spending cuts in order to meet his goal of keeping future rates increases at affordable levels. Banks and the Citizens and Ratepayers council majority re-introduced a streamlined council structure, bringing in five super-committees instead of the previous 14 committees.

Banks has also campaigned on job creation and economic development initiatives, such as a film friendly policy for Auckland, to attract television, movie and commercial filming. The benefits of the film industry was reported as almost $900 million in GDP activity for Auckland region.

His personality, especially during his first mayoral term, has been called that of a bully, "raised by Sir Robert Muldoon in the ways of the bear pit". However, it has been commented that his leadership style became much less brusque and confrontative in his second term, something he himself ascribes to the "long, cold shower" he received in being defeated by political newcomer Dick Hubbard in the 2004 elections.

Auckland Council
Banks supported the creation of a unitary authority or a "supercity". After the Royal Commission on Auckland Governance recommended and the Government confirmed it would introduce a single council for the Auckland region, Banks stood in the 2010 Auckland mayoral election for the new Auckland Council. Banks has been critical of some of the aspects of the new supercity, favouring increased powers to the local boards that would represent people at the grassroots level.

Banks was unsuccessful, with Len Brown elected the first "supercity" mayor. Brown's margin over Banks was more than 65,000 votes. Banks declared as "anonymous" donations to his campaign that had been made by Kim Dotcom. He is accused of knowing that Dotcom had made them, leading to ongoing court action – see false electoral return accusation.

Return to Parliament
On 18 May 2011, Mr Banks moved back to national politics by joining the ACT New Zealand Party. He stood in the Epsom electorate in that year's general election, becoming the sole MP for the party, and subsequently its leader. In parliament, he supported the National Government and was appointed as a Minister. Before the end of the parliamentary term, he was found guilty of filing a false electoral return in 2010. In 2013 John Banks voted in favour of the Marriage (Definition of Marriage) Amendment Act 2013, which allowed same sex couples to marry within New Zealand. He resigned as an MP on 13 June 2014.

Teapot tapes
Two weeks before the 2011 election, Banks and Prime Minister John Key had a very public cup of tea together in a cafe in Newmarket. This was seen as an endorsement of Banks by Key as the pseudo-National candidate for Epsom. Numerous members of the media covered the meeting but were eventually asked to leave so Banks and Key could talk in private. Journalist Bradley Ambrose left a recording device on the table, and subsequently gave the recording of the politicians' conversation to the Herald on Sunday newspaper. The recording allegedly contained comments about the leadership of ACT and disparaging remarks about elderly New Zealand First supporters. There was intense media interest in what was on the recording but the Herald refused to publish the recording – which became known as the Teapot Tape.

Election results
The ACT Party attracted only 1.07% of the party vote in the election. However, Banks won the Epsom electorate and become the party's sole MP. Party leader Don Brash resigned shortly thereafter and in February 2012, Banks was unanimously voted ACT party leader by the ACT board.

Minister in Fifth National Government
Banks served as Minister of Regulatory Reform, Minister for Small Business, Associate Minister of Commerce and Associate Minister of Education in the Fifth National Government until resigning the ministerial portfolios on 16 October 2013.

Resignations
When Banks was committed to trial in October 2013 over his false 2010 electoral return (for the Auckland mayoralty), he resigned his Ministerial positions. He remained as an MP and leader of the Act Party. In December 2013, he announced his intention to step down as Act leader (his replacement, Jamie Whyte, was elected by the party in February 2014). After being found guilty in June 2014, he resigned from Parliament.

False electoral return accusation
Banks was accused of filing a false electoral return after the 2010 Auckland mayoralty campaign. A High Court trial in 2014 found him guilty, but new evidence saw the Court of Appeal overturn his conviction later that year. A retrial was initially ordered by the Solicitor-General, but after new evidence came to light the Court of Appeal ruled against a retrial.

High Court verdict (2014, since overturned)
The High Court found that Banks knew that two donations of $25,000, both declared as anonymous, were from Kim Dotcom. Dotcom had offered a single $50,000 donation, but Banks requested two cheques of $25,000 – this being the maximum amount allowed as an anonymous donation at the time under the Local Electoral Act 2001. Banks resigned from Parliament on 13 June, ahead of sentencing on 1 August 2014.

Sequence of events
This sequence of events is drawn from the judgement in Banks' 2014 trial.

Dotcom meetings and donation
Kim Dotcom and John Banks first met in April 2010, when Dotcom flew Banks to his mansion in a helicopter. They "discussed ... Mr Dotcom's goals. He hoped to undertake venture capital investment in this country. There was also a short discussion about Mr Dotcom's residence application and Mr Banks offered to assist in this regard". Banks, with his wife Amanda, visited the mansion again on 5 June. Over lunch, they discussed fundraising for his campaign. Dotcom offered $50,000 towards the campaign.

Kim, his wife Mona Dotcom, and their head of security Wayne Tempero all gave evidence that Banks asked for the donation to be split and remain anonymous. All three told the court that Banks explained this would make it easier for him to "help" Dotcom in the future. Justice Wylie found each of them to be "reliable and credible" witnesses.

Amanda Banks initially denied any discussion of the campaign or donations at the same lunch, but this changed under cross-examination. John Banks' evidence was different again, suggesting that they discussed donations of amounts up to $200,000, or even funding for the entire campaign, but not in great detail. Banks claimed to have suggested a single $25,000 donation, which could remain anonymous.

Later, Banks thanked Dotcom for his support over the phone. He never discussed Dotcom's donation with his campaign team.

Mayoral results and filing of election return
Results were declared on 14 October, confirming Banks' loss to Len Brown. After the campaign Lance Hutchison, JP, a volunteer member of Banks' campaign team, completed the electoral return. Hutchison decided which donations to record as anonymous, including all five of the $25,000 donations the campaign received. Unlike Banks, Hutchison had no way of knowing about Dotcom's donations. Banks signed the return on 9 December without reading the listed donations.

2011 Parliamentary election
Having failed in his bid to become Mayor of Auckland, Banks returned to national politics, re-entering Parliament as the Member for Epsom in the November 2011 general election. He was ACT's only MP. Dotcom had refused to support the ACT Party's campaign.

Dotcom arrest
In January 2012, police raided Kim Dotcom's mansion, seized a range of assets, and arrested him on suspicion of copyright violation. He was held in Mt Eden Prison, in John Banks' Epsom electorate. The bedding aggravated his bad back and he wanted his own mattress from his mansion. He had his solicitor, Gregory Towers, contact Mr Banks for help.

Towers and Banks spoke on the phone for half an hour. Notes that Towers made at the time showed that Banks was unwilling to publicly support Dotcom in case "it b/comes known about election support etc". This note became an important piece of evidence, being accepted by Justice Wylie to refer to the $50,000 given by Dotcom, and to show that Banks knew it was not public knowledge.

2012 investigation
In April 2012, allegations surfaced about donations to Banks' 2010 mayoral campaign. Labour MP Trevor Mallard laid a complaint about a $15,000 donation from SkyCity, listed as anonymous by Banks. Days later, Dotcom himself told The New Zealand Herald and TV3's Campbell Live program about his own donations, saying that the $50,000 was split at Banks' request, that the cheques were written out in the presence of Banks, and that Banks called him a few days later to thank him. Two complaints, including another from Mallard, were made to the police about the Dotcom donations. (Like Mallard, the second complainant had also raised the SkyCity donations.)

The Police subsequently investigated, interviewing a number of people including Banks and Dotcom. In July 2012, Assistant Commissioner Malcolm Burgess announced that there was insufficient evidence to prosecute Banks and that the complaint was laid outside the statutory six month time limit.

Private prosecution
After the Police declined to charge Banks in relation to the donations, retired accountant Graham McCready brought a private prosecution against him instead. This went to court in December 2012. In April 2013 the judge found in favour of McCready, ruling that there was "sufficient evidence" for the case to go to trial. Banks subsequently resigned as a Minister of the Crown, but not as an MP. About a week after the ruling, the Solicitor General took over the prosecution from McCready. Banks then sought and lost a judicial review of the judge's decision.

The trial began on 19 May 2014, with the guilty verdict delivered on 5 June.

Conviction, sentence, appeal and exoneration
Justice Edwin Wylie convicted Banks on 1 August 2014. He was sentenced to two months' community detention and 100 hours of community work. The community detention essentially works as a curfew from 7pm to 7am on Thursday, Friday, Saturday and Sunday nights during which he must remain in his residence.

Within a week, Banks filed an appeal, claiming that new "watertight" evidence would exonerate him. His sentence was placed on hold and the Court of Appeal heard his appeal on 29 October. Signed affidavits from two new witnesses, American businessmen David Schaeffer and Jeffery Karnes, stated that they were at the lunch on 5 June 2010, and that there was no discussion about splitting the $50,000 donation into two parts. Kim and Mona Dotcom had both denied that the men were at the lunch in question. The Court of Appeal reserved its decision until late November, when it overturned Banks' conviction and ordered a retrial so the American businessmen's affidavits could be considered. In May 2015, the Court of Appeal reversed its decision to order a retrial when a new document was disclosed. The document included the affidavits from the two witnesses, confirming that Kim Dotcom and his then-wife Mona had fabricated their version of the events when giving evidence.

Local Electoral Amendment Bill
An amendment to local electoral laws nicknamed the 'John Banks bill' passed its first reading in November 2012. It tightens restrictions on campaign donations, and was directly inspired by the 'anonymous' donations to Banks' 2010 mayoralty campaign. The Local Electoral Amendment Bill passed its third reading and became law in June 2013. Local Government Minister Chris Tremain said "The Bill limits anonymous donations that a candidate can keep to $1500, clarifies and tightens the definition of 'anonymous donation', increases disclosure obligations and requires electoral officers to publish candidate returns of their donations and expenses." The bill also increased penalties for non-compliance.

Honours and awards
In 1990, Banks was awarded the New Zealand 1990 Commemoration Medal. He was appointed a Companion of the Queen's Service Order for public services in the 2000 New Year Honours, and a Companion of the New Zealand Order of Merit, for services to local-body affairs, in the 2011 Queen's Birthday Honours.

Personal life
In 2014, Banks had an apartment in central Auckland, having previously lived in Remuera.

He married Amanda Medcalf in December 1987. They adopted three children from a Saint Petersburg orphanage in 1995, a girl and two boys. They separated over the stress created by Mr Banks' 2014 trial and Amanda moved to central Otago.

He holds a private pilot's licence, for fixed-wing aircraft and helicopters. He is also an avid motorcar and motorcycle enthusiast, owning a Harley Davidson motorbike.

Banks has stated that he believes the first chapters of the Book of Genesis, describing the creation of the world in six days, are literally true.

In late January 2021, Banks was sacked as a talkback host from the MagicTalk radio network, after agreeing with a racist caller that Māori were a "stone age" people

Paternity case

In 2016 Antony Shaw, an English language teacher living in Japan, launched legal proceedings against Banks as a paternity claim.

In the High Court proceedings, Shaw said his mother Pamela Mayes told him he was conceived during a relationship she had with Banks in 1969, and that when she told Banks she was pregnant that he had ended the relationship. In a sworn affidavit, Mayes alleged that Banks procured drugs that would make her miscarry, and pressured her into taking the necessary dosage, which she refused to do.

In 1999 Mayes told Shaw his real father was John Banks. First Mayes and later Shaw contacted Banks to request confirmation of paternity but this was denied. Banks also denied the request for a DNA test.

After hearing evidence in the High Court case, Judge Courtney declared that Banks is the birth father of Antony Brett Shaw.

References

Biographies
Paul Goldsmith: John Banks: A Biography: Auckland: Penguin: 2001: (Updated. Originally published 1997):
Noel Harrison: Banks: Behind the Mask: Wellington: Estate of Lyndsay Rae Gammon: 2002:

External links

Profile of John Banks on NZ Parliament website

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1946 births
Companions of the New Zealand Order of Merit
Companions of the Queen's Service Order
Living people
Mayors of Auckland
New Zealand National Party MPs
Members of the Cabinet of New Zealand
ACT New Zealand MPs
ACT New Zealand leaders
Members of the New Zealand House of Representatives
New Zealand MPs for Auckland electorates
New Zealand MPs for North Island electorates
Government ministers of New Zealand
Christian creationists
Unsuccessful candidates in the 1978 New Zealand general election
People educated at Avondale College
21st-century New Zealand politicians
Auckland regional councillors

John Banks (New Zealand politician)


Athabasca Falls er et vandfald i Jaspers National Park ved den øvre del af Athabasca River, omkring 30 kilometer syd for byen Jasper, i provinsen Alberta i Canada, lige vest for Icefields Parkway. Det kraftige Athabasca Falls er ikke så meget kendt for sin faldhøjde (24 meter), som for den store mandmængde der falder ned i en kløft. Vandfaldet kan ses og fra forskellige vinkler fra platforme og vandrestier omkring. Man kan starte White water rafting lige neden ffor faldene og fortsætte ned af Athabasca River til Jasper.

Det er et Class 5 vandfald, med et fald på 24 meter, og en bredde på 18 meter

Det højeste punkt i nærheden er Mount Kerkeslin, der er 2.956 meter over havet, 3,7 km øst for Athabasca Falls. Området er tyndt befolket og der er ingen byer i nærheden. I området omkring Athabasca Falls er der usædligt mange navngivne søer.

Galleri

Eksterne kilder og henvisninger

 Explore Jasper. Athabasca Falls

Canadas geografi
Vandfald
Alberta

Athabasca Falls


An Cyanella aquatica in uska species han Liliopsida nga ginhulagway ni Anna Amelia Obermeyer ngan G.Scott. An Cyanella aquatica in nahilalakip ha genus nga Cyanella, ngan familia nga Tecophilaeaceae. Ginklasipika han IUCN an species komo nadudultan. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Cyanella

Cyanella aquatica


ගවේශනාත්මක පත්‍රකලාවේදනය

ගවේශනාත්මක පත්‍රකලාවේදනය යනු අපරාධ දේශපාලනය දූෂන හෝ වෙනත් ගැටලුවක් සම්බන්ධනයෙන් දැඩි ගවේශන සිදු කර වාර්තා කරන ක්‍රමයකි.

ඩිබර්ක් ( 2006 ) පවසන ආකාරයට ගවේශනාත්මක පත්‍රකලාවේදියෙකු යනු සත්‍ය සොයා සැබෑ ලෝකයේ එය ක්‍රියාත්මක නොවන අවස්ථා වාර්තා කරන පුද්ගලයෙකි. එම ක්‍රියාව ගෙවශනාත්මක පත්‍රකලාවේදනය ලෙස හැදින්වෙන අතර පොලිසිය, නිතිඥයන්, විගණන නිලධාරීන් හෝ නිත ක්‍රියාත්මක කරන වෙනත් ආයතන මගින් සිදු කෙරෙන ගවේශණයන් ගෙන් මෙය වෙනස්වේ. මෙහ අරමුණ සිමිත නොවන අතර නියතක පදනමක් නැත. ප්‍රචාරණය බෙහෙවින් සම්බන්ධය.

සාමාන්‍ය ෙෙදයනික හෝ සති අන්ත පුවත් පත් වාර්තා කරුවන් ක්ෂණිකව පුවත් රචනා කළද ගවේෂනාත්මක කලාවේදීන් සිය ගැටළුව විමර්ශනනයට හා වාර්තා සකස් කිරීමට සෑහෙන කාලයක් අැත්නම් විට මාස හෝ වසර ගණනක් ගත කරයි. සාමාන්‍යෙන් ද ගවේෂනාත්මක කටයුතු සිදු කරන්නේ පුවත් පතක් හෝ නිදහස් මාධ්‍ය වේදීන්‍්‍ය. අවසාන වාර්තාව හෙළිදරව්වන ස්වරෑපයක් ගනි.

ගවේෂණාත්මක පත්‍රකලාවේදනය


Divizia 17 Infanterie a fost o mare unitate de nivel tactic care s-a constituit la 27 august 1916, prin transformarea Comandamentului capului de pod Turtucaia în comandament de tip divizie.

Divizia  a făcut parte din organica Armatei 3. La intrarea în război, Divizia 17 Infanterie a fost comandată de generalul de brigadă Constantin Teodorescu. Divizia a participat la acțiunile militare pe frontul românesc, în două perioade: între 14/27 august 1916 – 24 august/6 septembrie 1916 și 1/13 noiembrie 1916 – 20 decembrie 1916/3 ianuarie 1917.

Participarea la operații

Campania anului 1916

Ordinea de bătaie la mobilizare

Divizia 17 Infanterie nu era prevăzută a se înființa la mobilizare. La declararea mobilizării, la 27 august 1916, Marele Cartier General a decis ca trupele aflate în capul de pod Turtucaia să fie constituite într-o divizie de infanterie de sine stătătoare, în subordinea directă a Armatei 3, comandată de generalul de divizie Mihail Aslan.Ordinea de bătaie a diviziei era următoarea:
Divizia 17 Infanterie
Brigada 18 Infanterie
Regimentul 36 Infanterie
Regimentul 76 Infanterie
Brigada 39 Infanterie
Regimentul 79 Infanterie
Batalionul IV/Regimentul 40 Infanterie
Batalionul IV/Regimentul 75 Infanterie
Batalionul IV/Regimentul 80 Infanterie
Batalionul de miliții Buzău
Batalionul de miliții Prahova
Batalionul de miliții Vasile Lupu
Batalionul de miliții Mircea
2 baterii din Regimentul 3 Artilerie
2 baterii din Regimentul 5 Obuziere
2 baterii de 53 mm
21 baterii de poziție

Reorganizări pe perioada războiului
După înfrângerea din  Bătălia de la Turtucaia, Divizia 17 Infanterie a fost capturată iar personalul făcut prizonier. Marele Cartier General a decis desființarea ei la 24 august/6 septembrie 1916. Divizia a fost reînființată 1/13 noiembrie 1916 – sub comanda colonelului Constantin Neculcea, funcționând până la 20 decembrie 1916/3 ianuarie 1917, când a fost desființată definitiv. În perioada noiembrie-decembrie 1916, divizia a avut următoarea ordine de bătaie:
Divizia 17 Infanterie
Regimentul 1 combinat
Batalionul IV/Regimentul 16 Infanterie
Batalionul IV/Regimentul 15 Infanterie
Batalionul IV/Regimentul 27 Infanterie
Regimentul 2 combinat
Batalionul IV/Regimentul 75 Infanterie
Batalionul IV/Regimentul 79 Infanterie
 Regimentul 56 Infanterie
Regimentul 28 Artilerie
1 divizion din Regimentul 7 Artilerie
1 divizion din Regimentul 5 Obuziere
Escadron de cavalerie

Comandanți
Pe perioada desfășurării Primului Război Mondial, Divizia 17 Infanterie a avut următorii comandanți:

Note

Bibliografie
 Falkenhayn, Erich von, Campania Armatei a 9-a împotriva românilor și a rușilor, Atelierele Grafice Socec & Co S.A., București, 1937
 Kirițescu, Constantin, Istoria războiului pentru întregirea României, Editura Științifică și Enciclopedică, București, 1989
 Ioanițiu Alexandru (Lt.-Colonel), Războiul României: 1916-1918,vol 1, Tipografia Geniului, București, 1929
  ***, România în războiul mondial 1916-1919, Documente, Anexe, Volumul 1, Monitorul Oficial și Imprimeriile Statului, București, 1934
 ***, Marele Cartier General al Armatei României. Documente 1916 – 1920, Editura Machiavelli, București, 1996
 ***, Istoria militară a poporului român, vol. V, Editura Militară, București, 1989
 ***, România în anii primului Război Mondial, Editura Militară, București, 1987
 ***, România în primul război mondial, Editura Militară, 1979

Vezi și
Participarea României la Primul Război Mondial
Ordinea de bătaie a Armatei României (1916)
Bătălia de la Turtucaia
Comandanți de mari unități ale Armatei României

Unități militare române din Primul Război Mondial

Divizia 17 Infanterie (1916-1918)


Dasylirion texanum, sotol de Texas, es una especie  de planta fanerógama de la familia Asparagaceae, anteriormente de las ruscáceas. Es nativa de Texas y el estado de Coahuila en el nordeste de México, incluido el desierto de Chihuahua.

Descripción

Es una planta herbácea que normalmente es más pequeña que otras especies de Dasylirions, con pequeñas coronas y con los troncos, por lo general, con menos de 1,5 metros de longitud, con uu largo follaje que alcanza los 75 - 150 cm de longitud.

Usos

Alimento
Los indios del suroeste lo secaban al horno y lo convertían en harina para hacer pan.

Cultivo
Dasylirion texanum se cultiva en viveros y está disponible como una planta ornamental de plantas nativa, tolerantes a la sequía, para paisaje, jardines del hábitat , y para la restauración ecológica de proyectos.

Taxonomía
Dasylirion texanum fue descrita por George Heinrich Adolf Scheele y publicado en Linnaea 23: 140–143, en el año 1850.
Etimología
Dasylirion: nombre genérico compuesto que deriva de la palabra griega: dasys para "rugosa" , "descuidada" y leirion de "lirio", que probablemente fue elegido debido a las hojas largas y desordenadas.

texanum: epíteto geográfico que alude a su localización en Texas.
Sinonimia
Dasylirion texanum var. aberrans Trel.

Referencias

Enlaces externos

 USDA Plant Profile: Dasylirion texanum (Texas sotol)
 Flora of North America - Dasylirion texanum
 Lady Bird Johnson Center: Dasylirion texanum treatment and photos

texanum
Flora de México
Flora de Estados Unidos
Flora del Desierto de Chihuahua
Plantas descritas en 1850
Plantas descritas por Scheele

Dasylirion texanum


An Cyrtopodium macedoi in uska species han Liliopsida nga ginhulagway ni João Aguiar Nogueira Batista ngan Bianch.. An Cyrtopodium macedoi in nahilalakip ha genus nga Cyrtopodium, ngan familia nga Orchidaceae. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Cyrtopodium

Cyrtopodium macedoi


In marketing, a coupon is a ticket or document that can be redeemed for a financial discount or rebate when purchasing a product.

Customarily, coupons are issued by manufacturers of consumer packaged goods or by retailers, to be used in retail stores as a part of sales promotions.  They are often widely distributed through mail, coupon envelopes, magazines, newspapers, the Internet (social media, email newsletter), directly from the retailer, and mobile devices such as cell phones.

The New York Times reported "more than 900 manufacturers' coupons were distributed" per household, and that "the United States Department of Agriculture estimates that four families in five use coupons. "Only about 4 percent" of coupons received were redeemed. Coupons can be targeted selectively to regional markets in which price competition is great.

Most coupons have an expiration date, although American military commissaries overseas honor manufacturers' coupons for up to six months past the expiration date.

Pronunciation
The word is of French origin, pronounced . In Britain, the United States, and Canada it is pronounced  . A common alternate American pronunciation is  .

History

Origin
During the great famine of 18 AH (638 CE), Umar, the second ruler of the Islamic Caliphate, introduced several reforms such as the introduction of food rationing using coupons, which were given to those in need and could be exchanged for wheat and flour.

Coca-Cola's 1888-issued "free glass of" is the earliest documented coupon. Coupons were mailed to potential customers and placed in magazines. It is estimated that between 1894 and 1913 one in nine Americans had received a free Coca-Cola, for a total of 8,500,000 free drinks. By 1895 Coke was served in every state in the United States.

In 1929, Betty Crocker began a loyalty points program and began issuing coupons that could be used to redeem for premiums like free flatware. In 1937 the coupons were printed on the outside of packages. The loyalty program ended in 2006, one of the longest loyalty programs.

In Australia consumers first came in contact with couponing when a company called Shopa Docket promoted offers and discounts on the back of shopping receipts in 1986.

Types and uses
Coupons offer different types of values, such as discounts, free shipping, buy-one get-one, trade-in for redemption, first-time customer coupons, free trial offer, launch offers, festival offers, and free giveaways. Similarly, there are varied uses of coupons which include: to incentivize a purchase, reduce a price, provide a free sample, or to aid marketers in understanding the demographics of their customer.

Function
Coupons can be used to research the price sensitivity of different groups of buyers (by sending out coupons with different dollar values to different groups). Time, location and sizes (e.g. five pound vs. 20 pound bag) affect prices; coupons are part of the marketing mix. So is knowing about the customer.

Grocery coupons
Grocery coupons come in two major types:
 store coupons: issued by the store itself. Some stores will also accept store coupons issued by competitors.
 Coupons issued by the manufacturer of a product may be used at any coupon-accepting store that carries that product. Part of their function is to advertise their offerings and attract new customers.

Some grocery stores regularly double or even triple the value of coupons to bring customers into their stores. Periodic special events double or triple coupon values on certain days or weeks.

Conveyance
Coupons exist in more than one form, and are acquired by customers in a variety of ways.

Paper
Historically, verifying the discount offered has been via presenting coupons clipped from newspapers or received in the mail. Some retailers and companies use verification methods such as unique barcodes, coupon ID numbers, holographic seals, and watermarked paper as protection from unauthorized copying or use. Other than newspapers, there are also coupon book publishers and retailers who compile vouchers and coupons into books, either for sale or free.

Electronic
By the mid-1990s, "couponing had also moved to the internet." An early term was . Later on the term "downloadable coupons" came into use. Options include:
 Internet coupons: Online retailers often refer to these as "coupon codes", "promotional codes", "promotion codes", "discount codes", "keycodes", "promo codes", "surplus codes", "portable codes", "shopping codes", "voucher codes", "reward codes", "discount vouchers", "referral codes" or "source codes". These are typed in before the sale is finalized. Marketers can use different codes for different channels or groups in order to differentiate response rates. Free shipping and cashback are additional inducements.

 Mobile: Smartphone based, these are often distributed via WAP Push over SMS or MMS, and presented at the store or online. These also have advertising benefits even after their expiration date.
 Apps: Related to classic coupons are loyalty cards; these have increasingly been superseded by mobile apps.

Iranian government national rations has a mobile app.

Taxation
Depending on the jurisdiction, coupons may or may not reduce the sales tax which must be paid by the consumer. The most consumer-friendly tax situation taxes the actual price paid, including when the store does double and triple coupon reductions.

The above applies when the retailer is the source of the coupon, since the product is offered at the post-coupon price. In jurisdictions seeking to tax more, if the coupon is issued by the manufacturer, the original price is still paid but some of the price is covered by the manufacturer instead of the consumer and the full price remains taxable.

Trading
Coupon manufacturers may or may not place restrictions on coupons limiting their transferability to ensure the coupons stay within the targeted market. Since such restrictions are not universal and are difficult and/or costly to enforce, limited coupon trading is tolerated in the industry. Organized coupon exchange clubs are commonly found in regions where coupons are distributed.
Often coupons are available for purchase at some online sites, but since most coupons are not allowed to be sold, the fee is considered to be for the time and effort put into cutting out the coupons.

Some types of coupons may be sold. The New York Times not only said "the traffic is legal" regarding selling airline discount coupons, but wrote "check the commercial notices column in The New York Times or the classified advertising section under 'Miscellaneous') in The Wall Street Journal.

During war time or economic hardships, trading or selling ration coupons is an economic crime.

See also
Canadian Tire money
Coupon (bond)
Drug coupon
Extreme Couponing
Trading stamp
Split payment

References

External links

Sales promotion
Paper products

Coupon


Sisters (ofte stiliserede som S!sters) er en duo, der repræsenterede Tyskland i Eurovision Song Contest 2019 i Tel Aviv med sangen "Sister" efter at have vundet den tyske nationale finale "Unser Lied für Israel" i februar 2019. De sluttede på en 25. plads med 24 point.

Referencer

Eksterne henvisninger

Popgrupper fra Tyskland
Deltagere ved Eurovision Song Contest 2019
Tysklands Eurovision Song Contest-deltagere

S!sters


Billetmærke 26527 er en kortfilm fra 2002 instrueret af Emma Balcázar efter eget manuskript.

Handling
En magisk realistisk fortælling om en alenemor; Laila,der med håbet om at finde den eneste ene, indrykker en kontaktannonce i avisen. Blandt mange breve får hun et fra en der virker som den perfekte mand. Lailas fantasi bliver tændt på brevene og hun fylder sin ensomhed med magiske kærlighedsforestillinger.

Referencer

Eksterne henvisninger

Kortfilm fra Danmark
Danske film fra 2002

Billetmærke 26527


Ellhöft (Danca: Ellehoved), Almanya'nın kuzeyinde Schleswig-Holstein eyaletinde, Nordfriesland iline bağlı yerleşim yeri. 7,82 km² yüzölçümüne sahiptir. Nüfusu, 31 Aralık 2015 itibarıyla yaklaşık 111 olarak tespit edilmiştir. Kilometrekare başına yaklaşık 14 kişilik bir nüfus yoğunluğuna sahiptir. Belediye Başkanlığı Jörg Thomsen tarafından yürütülmektedir.

Dış bağlantılar
 www.amtsuederluegum.de

Kaynakça

Nordfriesland iline bağlı yerleşim birimleri

Ellhöft