Itihasa () refers to the collection of written descriptions of important events in Hinduism. It includes the Mahabharata, the Puranas and the Ramayana. The Mahabharata includes the story of the Kurukshetra War and preserves the traditions of the Lunar dynasty in the form of embedded tales. The Puranas narrate universal history – the books discuss in depth the topics of cosmogony, myth, legend and history. The Ramayana contains the story of Rama and is incidentally related to the legends of the Solar dynasty. A story is considered to be itihasa only when the author of the story has himself witnessed or is part of the story. Vyasa, who wrote the Mahabharata, is himself a character in the story. Similarly, Valmiki, who wrote the Ramayana, was also a character in the story. Many classical Indian poets derive the plots of their poetry and drama from the Itihasa. The tradition of itihāsa is generally understood to be developed by the bardic tradition of Sūtas and Cāraṇas whose duties consisted of composing royal eulogies.

Etymology
The Sanskrit term itihāsa (इतिहास) was derived from the phrase iti ha āsa , which means "so indeed it was".

Hindu tradition

Cosmogony

According to the Hindu texts, time is cyclic. The history of mankind is divided into four ages—Satya Yuga, Treta Yuga, Dvapara Yuga and Kali Yuga—collectively forming one Maha Yuga. Seventy-one Maha Yugas form a Manvantara ("age of Manu"), a period of time over which a "Manu" presides. For the duration of his period, each Manu is the archetypal first man, the progenitor of humanity, and also the first king and lawgiver. Along with a Manu, every Manvantara also has its own set of Indra, gods and the seven sages. Fourteen Manus reign in Kalpa, (a single day in the life of) Brahma), an equivalent of 1,000 Maha Yugas, at the end of which, the creation is destroyed and is followed by a Pralaya (dissolution) of equal length. The creation starts again, in the next Kalpa in an endless cycle of creations and dissolutions.

The traditions relate that the present Kalpa is called Varaha. Out of the fourteen manvantaras in this Kalpa, six have passed. The current Manvantara is called Vaivasvata after the Manu who presides over it. It is to Vaivasvata Manu that the royal genealogies of the Itihasa trace their origin. It was in the Chakshusha manvantara, which immediately preceded the present manvantara, that king Prithu, the great grandson of Chakshusha Manu, leveled the earth, built cities and villages and developed agriculture, trade, pasture and cattle-breeding. This cycle ended after only eight more generations with the Great Flood.

The Satya Yuga

The Great Flood at the end of Chakshusa manvantara wipes away all life forms. Only Vaivasvata Manu is saved by Lord Vishnu, in the avatar of a fish, Matsya to repopulate the earth in the next cycle.  All royal lines in the present cycle are traced in the itihasas from Manu Vaivasvata's sons and his only daughter Ila. Ikshvaku, the eldest son of Manu, establishes the Solar Line (from Vivasvan, the sun-god, the father of Vaivasvata Manu) at Ayodhya in Kosala. Iksvaku's younger son Nimi migrates a little further east and founds the house of Videha. Its capital Mithila is established by his son Mithi,  also called Janaka which later becomes the generic name for the kings of Videha.

The lunar line is established at about the same time, at Pratisthana (identified with a suburb of modern day Allahabad) in Madhyadesha (the doab between Ganga and Yamuna rivers) by Pururavas, the son of Ila and Budha, the illegitimate child of Soma, the moon-god. The tale of his love for the nymph Urvasi is a tale that has caught the Indian imagination for generations. It is the subject of a famous classical work by Kalidasa called Vikramorvasiyam. While Ayus, the elder son of Pururavas ascends the throne after him, his younger brother, Amavasu founds another dynasty that reigned over a kingdom, centred around Kanyakubja (modern Kannauj).

The lunar line again splits into two after the reign of Ayus, the eldest son of Pururavas. Nahusa, the eldest son of Ayus, succeeds him, but obtains the position of Indra in the heaven but is banished from there when he lusts after Sachi, the wife of Indra. Ksatravrddha, another son of Ayus, establishes the dynasty of Kashi (Varanasi). His descendants were called Kaseyas.

Nahusa's son and successor Yayati was a renowned conqueror and was reckoned as a cakravartin. He had two sons named Yadu and Turvasu from Devayani, the daughter of Sukra, the preceptor of asuras. He also had three other sons, Druhyu, Anu and Puru from Sarmistha, the daughter of asura king Vrsaparva. Yayati installs Puru, the youngest. but the most dutiful son as his successor in the ancestral sovereignty in Pratisthana. The elder sons obtain the outlying areas. From the sons of Yayati, descend the five famous royal lines of the Yadavas, the Turvasus, the Druhyus, the Anavas and the Pauravas, together called the Pancha Jana or the Five Tribes.

Immediately after Yadu, the Yadava dynasty is bifurcated – the main line continued by Krosti and the independent line of Haihayas led by Sahasrajit.  The Yadava branch first develops a great principality under king Sasabindu, who becomes a cakravrtin. King Mandhata, the son of Yuvansva, the king of Ayodhya marries his daughter Bindumati and rises to eminence. He follows in the footsteps of his father-in-law, extends his sway very widely and becomes a cakravrtin himself. His son Purukutsa marries Narmada, the river goddess. Another son, also a famous king, called Mucukunda builds and fortifies a town on the bank of that river; it was Mahismati.

Soon thereafter, the Druhyu king Gandhara retires to the northwest (modern Khyber-Pakhtunkhwa) and establishes the kingdom of Gandhara there. His descendants scatter into the regions beyond India and establish many mleccha principalities. Later, the Anavas divide into two branches under Usinara and Titiksu. The sons of Usinara establish separate tribes of the Yaudheyas, Ambasthas, Navarastras, Krimilas and Sivis in eastern Punjab. Sivi, the son of Usinara and the originator of the Sivis in Sivapura, is celebrated in the Indian mythology for his generosity. His sons set up the kingdoms of Vrsadarbhas, Madrakas, Kaikayas and Sauviras, and occupy the whole Punjab. The other branch of the Anavas under Titiksu moved east and founded the principalities of Anga, Banga, Kalinga, Suhma and Pundra.

The Haihaya king Krtavirya had the Bhargavas as his priests and enriched them. His kinsmen tried to recover the wealth but the Bhargavas resisted. The Haihayas then maltreated them due to which they fled to different countries. Gadhi was then king of Kanyakubja and had a daughter Satyavati. The Bhargava rsi Rcika marries her and begets a son Jamadagni. About the same time Gadhi has a son Visvamitra.

In the solar line, Trayyaruna, a near contemporary of Gadhi and Krtavirya, ruled the kingdom of Ayodhya at this time. On the counsel of his priest Vasistha, he exiles his son Satyavrata, also called Trisanku. After Trayyaruna, Vasistha refuses to perform Trisanku's consecration.  A little later, Visvamitra of Kanyakubja tries to obtain the wishing cow Nandini of Vasistha. A fierce combat follows between the two, in which Visvamitra is defeated. Convinced of the superiority of brahmins, he resolves to become a brahmarsi and relinquishes his throne.  When engaged in austerities, Visvamitra is befriended by Trisanku. He then champions Trisanku's cause, performs his royal consecration and on his death elevates him in his living body to heaven.

The rivalry of Visvamitra and Vasistha continues even during the reign of Hariscandra, Trisanku's son. Hariscandra had a son Rohita, whom he had vowed to sacrifice to Varuna. He postponed the sacrifice for many years due to which he is afflicted with dropsy. Rohita, on Vasistha's advice, to propitiate Varuna, buys Ajigarta's son Sunahsepa (who is Visvamitra's grandnephew) as sacrificial victim in his stead. When about to be killed, Sunahsepa chants the varunamantra, taught to him by Visvamitra. Varuna appears, grants the boy his freedom and the king a cure from the disease. Visvamitra then adopts the boy as his chief son with the name Devarata. A number of Visvamitra's sons, who protest against the status given to Devarata, are cursed by their angry father to become outcastes. They become the ancestors of Dasyu tribes, such as the Andhras, Mutibas, Pulindas, etc. Visvamitra, subsequently, obtains the position of a brahmarsi.

In the Haihaya line, Krtavirya was succeeded by his son Arjuna Kartavirya, who was a mighty king. After a long reign he has dissension with Jamadagni. As a result, Parasurama, the son of Jamadagni by Renuka, the daughter of a minor Iksvaku king, kills Kartavirya Arjuna, whereupon Kartavirya's son's kill Jamadagni. In revenge, Parasurama resolves to slaughter the entire class of warriors (kshatriyas), and so far succeeds that only five survive to continue the great dynasties.

After Kartavirya, the Haihayas divided into five collateral tribes – the Talajanghas, the Vitihotras, the Avantyas, Tudikeras and Jatas. They attack Ayodhya and drive king Bahu from the throne. They also attack, defeat and drive the Kasi king Divodasa from Varanasi. Pratardana, the son of Divodasa subdues the Vitihotras and recovers the throne. A little later, Bahu begets a son Sagara, and Sagara defeats all those enemies, regains his kingdom and destroys the Haihaya power for good.

Sagara had sixty thousand sons who insult Kapila rsi and are, in turn, reduced to ashes by him. Therefore, Sagara is succeeded by his grandson Amsuman on the throne of Ayodhya. With the reign of Sagara, the Satya Yuga comes to an end.

The Treta Yuga

Bhagiratha, the great grandson of Sagara brings down the divine river Ganges to earth to expiate the sins of the sons of Sagara. Rtuparna is the next prominent king in the dynasty made famous by his association with Nala, the king of Nisadas. Nala married Damayanti, the daughter of Bhima, the Yadava king of Vidarbha. The delightful story of their marriage and the unhappy sequel of his subsequent temporary loss of his kingdom and destitution through gambling, is in the Mahabharata told to Yudhishthira suffering in similar circumstances.

After a long eclipse (corresponding to the ascendency of the solar dynasty under Mandhata), the Paurava line is revived by Dusyanta, a near contemporary of Bhagiratha. He marries Sakuntala, the daughter of Visvamitra and begets Bharata. Bharata is crowned as a cakravartin and later gives his name to the dynasty, to the great fratricidal war between the Kauravas and Pandavas, and to India itself (i.e. Bharatavarsa). His fifth successor Hastin shifts the capital to a place in the upper doab and calls it Hastinapura, after himself.

Soon after Hastin, the Bharata dynasty is divided into four separate lines – the most well-known being the main Paurava line and the Pancala line. The Pancala king Divodasa is celebrated as the destroyer of 99 forts of the dasyu Sambara. His sister was Ahalya, the wife of Gautama. She was deceived by Indra and expelled into the forest by her husband on account of her infidelity.

The solar line once again ascends under the benevolent kingship of Raghu, Aja and Dasharatha. The story of Rama, Dasharatha's son, forms the subject of the poem Ramayana by Valmiki. The intrigues of his stepmother Kaikeyi result in the exile of Rama, his wife Sita and his brother Laksmana to the forest. In the forest, Sita is abducted by Ravana, the king of raksasas and imprisoned in Lanka, his capital. Rama forms an alliance with the monkeys and the bears of the forest and lays a siege of Lanka. Ravana is ultimately defeated and slain by Rama. He then returns to Ayodhya with his wife Sita and ascends the throne.

With Rama's disappearance, the Treta Yuga comes to a close and the Dvapara Yuga commences. After Rama the solar dynasty goes into permanent decline.

The Dvapara Yuga

The Yadava line is once again split into two separate lines after the reign of Bhima, the son of Satvat by his sons Andhaka and Vrsni, who style their dynasties after their respective names. Ugrasena, the father of Kamsa was an Andhaka while Vasudeva Anakadundubhi, the father of Krishna was a Vrsni.

The Pancala Bharata dynasty under its king Srnjaya now rises to prominence. His son Cyavana-Pijavana was a great warrior and the latter's son, Sudas, annexed several kingdoms. A confederacy of the kings of the Pauravas, the Yadavas, the Sivis, the Druhyus, the Matsyas, the Turvasus and others, is formed against Sudas, who defeats them in a great battle near the river Parusni. This is called the Battle of the Ten Kings.  The bulk of hymns (Book II-IX) represents only 5 to 6 generations of kings (and of contemporary poets) of this dynasty.

The Paurava line continues through Ajamidha, the son of Hasti. In his line, king Samvarana was defeated and exiled to the forests on the bank of river Sindhu by the Pancalas. Pargiter identifies this Pancala king as Sudas but the exact relationship between the dynasties, chronological and political, is not recorded. Later, Samvarana reobtains his capital from the Pancalas and marries Tapati, a daughter of the Sun. The playwright Kulasekhara (c. 900AD) has immortalized their story in his play Tapatisamvarana. Their son was Kuru and his descendants were called Kauravas. The line continues through Kuru's second son Jahnu.

Vasu, a descendant of Kuru conquers the Yadava kingdom of Cedi, and establishes himself there. His eldest son, Brhadratha founds Girivraja in Magadha as his capital. His son Jarasandha extends his power up to Mathura (ruled by Andhaka king, Kamsa, who acknowledged him as overlord) in the north and Vidarbha in the south. Kamsa was a tyrant. He had imprisoned his father and usurped the throne. His nephew Krishna kills him and restores the old king to his throne. This rouses Jarasandha's wrath and he attacks Mathura. Krishna along with the Andhakas and Vrsnis migrate to the West coast and build a new capital Dvaravati (Dvaraka) in Saurastra. Krishna then abducts Rukmini, the princess of Vidarbha, defeating her brother and marries her.  In later life, Krishna becomes the friend of the Pandavas.

The next famous king in the Kaurava line is Pratipa. His son, Santanu supersedes his elder brother Devapi to the throne, whereupon no rain falls for twelve years. Devapi then acts as a Hotr (chief priest) and performs sacrifice for his brother and obtains rain.

Santanu's grandsons were Dhrtarastra and Pandu. The former being blind, the latter ascends the throne. Dhrtarastra has many sons of whom Duryodhana is the eldest; and Pandu has five sons, Yudhishthira, Bhima, Arjuna, Nakula and Sahadeva. The sons of Dhrtarastra belonging to the elder branch were called Kauravas and Pandu's sons, the Pandavas. The question of succession to the throne results in a feud between the two families culminating in the appalling slaughter in the Bharata War. All the old kshatriya dynasties of India, it is said, took part in the great battle, fighting on one side or the other. In the battle, which lasts for eighteen days, the ruses of Krishna enable the hard pressed Pandavas to win. The Mahabharata narrates the story of this feud in detail.

Subsequently, the Yadavas are themselves engulfed in civil war, and Krishna withdraws to the life of an ascetic in the forest. Here he is accidentally shot and killed by a hunter. His grandson is re-established at Indraprastha by the Pandavas. Soon the Pandavas themselves crown Pariksita, the grandson of Arjuna on the throne of Hastinapura and retire to the forest. The Dvapara Yuga closes with the departure of Krishna.

The Kali Yuga

Pariksita, on a hunting expedition, disrespects rsi Samika and is in turn, cursed by his son Srngin to die from snake Taksaka's poison within seven days. Taksaka buys off Kasyapa, the only person who has an antidote to the poison. At the end of seven days, Pariksit dies from Taksaka's bite. His son Janamejaya, who was a minor then, later hears his father's death from his ministers, and resolves on revenge. He organizes a rite (sarpasatra) to destroy all snakes. The snakes enter the sacrificial fire by the power of the rite.  Astika, (a half snake from his mother's side) who was begotten to save them, enters the rite and wins a boon of his choice by singing the praises of Janamejaya. He demands the proceedings be halted. Janamejaya cannot refuse and concludes the rite.  It is during this rite that Vaisampayana, a disciple of Vyasa narrates the Mahabharata to Janamejaya.

Nicaksu, sixth in line from Pariksita, transfers his capital from Hastinapura to Kausambi in Vasta as the former city is ravaged by a flood of the Ganges. The line continues for many generations till Udayana, the famous king of Vatsa (and a contemporary of Buddha) who carries off Vasavadatta, the princess of Avanti. Their tale is celebrated first by Gunadhya in his novel Brhatkatha and later by Bhasa and Shudraka in their dramas Svapnavasavadatta and Vinavasavadatta, respectively.

In Magadha, the descendants of Brhadratha and Jarasandha retain the throne till they are replaced by the Sisunaga dynasty, which among others include the famous kings Bimbisara and Ajatashatru. Mahapadma Nanda usurps the throne from the last king of the Sisunaga line. He overthrows all old kshatriya dynasties - the Iksvakus, the Pancalas, the Kaseyas, the Haihayas, the Kalingas, the Asmakas, the Kurus, the Maithilas, the Surasenas and the Vitihotras – and subdues the whole central India.  The Puranas, hence, call him the 'destroyer of all kshatriyas' and 'monarch of the whole earth which was under his sole sway'. After the sisunaga dynasty Magadha rule was carry on by the Maurya Dynasty .

According to the Mahabharata, the Kali Yuga will close with the coming of Kalki, at which point the Satya Yuga will recommence.

Conclusion
This lengthy history of kings and sages is rounded off by the bards with a hint of cynicism regarding the ephemeral nature of fame:

Jaina tradition

The Jainas have their own version of traditional history, brought into line with their legends of the 24 Jinas who from time to time have refounded their religion on earth. Rama, whom the Jainas call Padma, appears as a divine hero and a Baladeva, in a variant version of his life, whilst Krsna is similarly a Vasudeva (and his brother Balarama, a Baladeva). There are nine each of these Baladeva and Vasudeva heroes, and their nine enemies (Prativasudevas), including Ravana and Jarasandha. With the Jinas and the twelve universal emperors cakravartins this makes up the sixty-three 'great men' of their tradition. The emperors include Bharata and Sagara, and Brahmadeva or Brahmadatta who is familiar also to the Buddhists, but the others are not familiar elsewhere. Three of them, including Santi, became Jinas also. The Jaina traditions seem to draw in part on ancient sources independent of those of the brahmanas, as do the Buddhists also, and are not merely corruptions of Brahmanical traditions. It is noticeable that their legends are much more schematic and regular than the others.

Buddhist tradition

The Buddhists preserve another different version of the traditional history. According to them, in the beginning of the cosmic cycle mankind lived on an immaterial plane where there was no need of food and clothing and no private property, family, government or laws. Then gradually the process of cosmic decay sets in and mankind becomes earthbound and feel the need of food and shelter. As men lose their primeval glory distinctions of class (varna) arise and they enter into agreements with one another, accepting the institutions of private property and the family. With this theft, murder, adultery and other crime begin. So, the people meet together and decide to appoint one man among them to maintain order in return for a share of the produce of their fields and herds. This, then, was the first king called Mahasammata ('the great chosen one'). He receives the title of raja because he pleased the people. The first cakravartin, Mandhata is sixth in descent from Mahasammata. Mandhata is followed by a long succession of kings – the most famous among them include Sudarsana, Sagara, Bharata and Rama Dasarathi (the last three known to the Brahmanical and Jain Traditions).

In this line was born a king called Karnika who had two sons Gautama and Bharadvaja. Bharadvaja ascends the throne after his father's death, but dies without any issue. On the other hand, two children are born from eggs, which were formed from coagulated blood and semen of Gautama and hatched by the sun. From one of the eggs comes the famous Iksvaku (Pali 'Okkaka'), who succeeds Bharadvaja and founds the solar dynasty.

The four sons and four daughters of Iksvaku are exiled to the foothills of the Himalayas due to the machinations of their stepmother. They intermarry amongst themselves to maintain the purity of their blood and later establish the towns of Kapilavastu and Koli. Their descendants were called Sakyas. The famous Prince Visvantara (Pali 'Vessantara') was a near descendant of Okkaka. Later, the Buddha is born in this dynasty.

Influence on classical Indian poetry
The rules of classical Indian poetics prescribe that the themes of the mahakavyas (ornate epics) and natakas (drama) should primarily be selected from the itihasa. In accordance, great mahakavyas such as Kalidasa's Raghuvamsa, Kumaradasa's Janaki-harana, Bhatti's Ravanavadha (or Bhattikavya)  have drawn their themes from the Ramayana, and Bharavi's Kiratarjuniya, Magha's Sisupalavadha and Sriharsa's Naisadhiyacarita from the Mahabharata.

See also
 Hindu mythology
 Buddhist mythology
 Jain cosmology
 History of India
 Hindu epics
 Ramayana
 Mahabharata
 Puranas
Historicity of the Mahabharata

References

Notes

Primary Sources (Sanskrit, Pali, Prakrit and Tamil)

Vyasa, Mahabharata. See translation at www.sacred-texts.com
 Harivamsa
Valmiki, Ramayana. See translation at www.sacred-texts.com
Rigveda
Atharvaveda
Satapatha Brahmana
Puranas
Vishnu Purana
Vayu Purana
Matsya Purana
Devi Bhagavata Purana
Manu Smriti
Tripitaka
Mahavastu
Lalitavistara
Bhagavati Sutra
Hemacandra, Trisastisalakapurusacaritra
Kalidasa
Abhijnanasakuntalam
Raghuvamsa
Vikramorvasiyam
Bhasa
Svapnavasavadatta
Pratijnayaugandharayana
Balacarita
Karnabhara
Dutavakya
Urubhanga
Madhyamavyayoga
Pancaratra
Dutaghatotkacha
Pratimanataka
Abhishekanataka
Sarvasena, Harivijaya
Panini, Jambavativijaya
Ksemendra, Sasivamsa
Mentha, Hayagiva vadha
Bhavabhuti
Mahaviracarita
Uttararamacarita
Bhattanarayana, Venisamhara
Jayadeva, Gitagovinda
Venkatanatha Vedanta Desika, Yadavabhyudaya
Murari, Anargha Raghava
Pratapa Rudra Deva, Yayati Caritra
Rajasekhara, Pracanda Pandava
Damodar Misra, Hanumananataka
Asvaghosa
Buddhacarita
Saudarananda
Vimala Suri, Pauma cariya
Pravarasena, Setubandha
Silacharya, Caupanna mahapurisa cariya
Jinasena, Harivamsa purana

Further reading

Pargiter, F.E.
Ancient Indian Historical Tradition. Delhi. 1972.
The Purana Text of the Dynasties of the Kali Age. Oxford. 1913.
Winternitz, M. History of Indian Literature. Vol. I-II. Delhi. 1987.
Rapson, E.J. The Cambridge History of India. Vol. I Cambridge. 1922.
Warder, A.K. Indian Kavya Literature, Vol. I-VII. Delhi. 2004.
Smith, R. Morton Dates and dynasties in earliest India: translation and justification of a critical text of the Purana dynasties, Shastri, J. L. (ed.). Delhi. Motilal Banarasidass. 1973.
Smith, Mary Carroll The core of India's great Epic. Harvard University. 1972.
Thapar, Romila
"Puranic Lineages and archaeological cultures" in Ancient Indian Social History: some interpretations. New Delhi. Orient Longmans. 1978.
"Origin Myths and the early Indian historical tradition" in Ancient Indian Social History: some interpretations. New Delhi. Orient Longmans. 1978.
"Genealogy as a source of social history" in Ancient Indian Social History: some interpretations. New Delhi. Orient Longmans. 1978.

Indian poetics
History of literature in India
Sanskrit literature
Epic poetry
E

Itihasa


اليوميات هي عبارة عن سجل (على هيئة كتاب) حيث يحتوي على مداخل منفصلة مرتبة على حسب تاريخ الإبلاغ عن ما حدث خلال يوم أو أي فترة أخرى فاليوميات من أجل المؤسسات تلعب دورا في العديد من الجوانب الإنسانية، بما فيها السجلات الحكومية على سبيل المثال (هانسارد) والأعمال التجارية ودفاتر الحسابات والسجلات العسكرية.فقد تحتاج المدارس وأولياء الأمور لتعليم أولادهم الحفاظ على اليوميات من أجل تشجيعهم على التعبير عن مشاعرهم، وتعزيز الفكر.

عموما فاليوم يستخدم المصطلح للدلالة للمذكرات شخصية، والتي يمكن أن الكاتب حيث يذكر بالتفصيل المزيد من المعلومات الشخصية، بغرض أن تظل خاصة أو أن يتداولها عدد من الأصدقاء أو الأقارب.لفظة «مجلة» قد يكون في بعض الأحيان تستخدم في «يوميات» ولكن بشكل عام واحد يكتب في صحيفة يومية، في حين أن مجلة يمكن كتابة أقل تواترا.

فيما يكن اليوميات ممكن أن توفر معلومات حول مذاكرات في السيرة الذتية، فعموما تكتب بغرض النشر ولكن تصبح لاستخدامات الكاتب الخاصة. في السنوات الأخيرة هناك بعض الأدلة عن وجود اليوميات (مثل تلك التي كتبها آلان كلارك، وتوني بن أو سيمون جراي) وحيث كتبت مع مراعاة أن تنشر في نهاية المطاف للدفاع عن أنفسهم قبل أو بعد الوفاة، أو لمجرد الربح.

اليوميات متنوعة للغاية من عمل والترميزات لقوائم طقس الأحداث اليومية والشخصية، والاستكشافات الداخلية للإنسان الوجدان، التعبير عن الذات من أعمق لسجلات والأفكار.

استطرادا يوميات مصطلح يستخدم أيضا لتعني المطبوعة نشر كتابي اليوميات، ويمكن أيضا أن أشير إلى غير ذلك من حيث الأشكال الإلكترونية بما في مجلة (مثل بلوق).

التاريخ

كلمة اليوميات يأتي من اللاتينية diarium («البدل اليومي»، من وفاة «اليوم»)، وجدت في أغلب الأحيان في صيغة الجمع diaria. مجلة الكلمة تأتي من نفس الجذر (diurnus «النهار») وذلك من خلال الفرنسية القديمة jurnal (الحديثة الفرنسية ليوم جور).

وحتى بوغ القرن العشرون ومع انتشار ظاهرة المحو الأمية في جميع أنحاء العالم، كانت كتابة اليوميات عادة ممارسة من قبل مجتمعات الطبقة الوسطى والعليا.

أقدم موجودة من اليوميات الشرق الأوسط وern شرق آسيا ن الثقافات، حتى وإن كان في وقت سابق من العمل لنفسي (Τὰ εἰς ἑαυτόν)، كتبت في اليونانية من قبل الإمبراطور الروماني ماركوس أوريليوس في النصف الثاني من القرن 2nd، سبق أن تعرض العديد من الخصائص المميزة لليوميات.بيلوبوك من ق اليابان تمتاز مذكرة السفر بأنها تعرض جوانب نادرة لهذا النوع من الكتابات بالرغم من أنها تقتصر على السجلات اليومية.على سبيل المثال، احتفظ العالم لي أ (القرن التاسع من الميلاد) يوميات عن رحلته عبر جنوب الصين.

في العصور الوسطى في الشرق الأدنى العربية، كتبت اليوميات من قبل القرن العاشر، وبالرغم من اليوميات الناجية حتى عصرنا هذا هي لابن البنا والتي كتبت في القرن الحادي عشر وهي مشابه لمى علية اليوميات الحديثة.أحدث مذكراته هي أقرب من المعروف أن لترتيب موعد لل) ta'rikh باللغة العربية)، يشبه إلى حد كبير يوميات الحديثة.

نشرت يوميات

العديد من يوميات الشخصيات البارزة تم نشرها ومن عناصر السيرة الذاتية الأدب.

صمويل بيبس (1633-1703) هو من أقدم كاتب اليوميات معروف اليوم، تحفظ يومياته في كلية ماغدالين كامبردج، حيث تم نسخها ونشرت لأول مرة في عام 1825.كان بيبس من بين الأوائل الذين من قام بأخذ اليوميات أبعد من مجرد كتابة عن الصفقات التجارية إلى أبعد من مجرد التأشير، في عالم الشخصية.يشبه المعاصرجون إفيلن ببيبس حيث احتفظ باليوميات.

بدأت ممارسة نشر مذكرات الشخصيات البارزة والأدبية في القرن التاسع عسر من الميلاد.على سبيل المثال، فإن «مجلة» دوروثي وردزورث (1771-1855) ونشرت في عام 1897 ؛ والمجلات من فاني بورني (1752-1840) ونشرت في عام 1889 ؛ ومذكرات هنري Crabb روبنسون (1776-1867) ونشرت في عام 1869.

المهم بين الولايات المتحدة والحرب الأهلية هي تلك اليوميات جورج تيمبلتون قوي، نيويورك المحامي والكستناءة ماري، زوجة أحد الحليف موظف.

فمنذ القرن التاسع عشر أصبح نشر المذكرات مؤلوفاً لدى الكتاب، ولاسيما في أوساط إلياسيين وذلك بغرض البحث عن مبررات وأيضاً بين أوساط الفنانين والأدباء وغيرهم.نشرت بريطانية في أواخر القرن العشرون مذكرة سياسية كتلك التي شارك فيها ريتشاد كروسمان، وطوني بين، وألان كلارك حيث لم تكن مثل المذكرات التقليدية وإنما أخذت شكل شرائح تشانون.أما في مجال الفنون نشر كلاً من جيمس لي ميلن روي سترونغ وبيتر هول مذكرات ملحوظة.

واحدة من أشهر المذكرات الحيثة، وقرأت على نطاق واسع وترجمت هي «مذكرات فتاة شابة» لأن فرانك التي كتبتها خلال اختبائها من الجيش الألماني أثناء احتلال أمستردام في 1940s حرر أتو فرانك مذكرة ابنته ورتبها لنشرها بعد الحرب العالمية.

كتابة اليوميات كما تمارس في كثير من الأحيان من القرن 20th فصاعدا بوصفه عملا واعيا لاستكشاف الذات (أكبر أو أقل من الصدق) -- أمثلة من اليوميات كارل يونغ، Aleister كراولي وAnaïs نين  ومن المهم قبل اليوميات 20th القرن الأدباء هي تلك فرانز كافكا وادموند ويلسون.

آثار نفسية قوية قد تنشأ عن وجود قرأ عند قرأت هذه المذكرات التي تعبر عن النفس، حتى وإن كان هذا المذكرة كتبت لقرأتة لنفسه—ولا سيما في الشدائد.أن فرانك تخطت الواقع لتسميت مذكراتها «كيتي».فريدريش كيلنر مسؤول قضائي في ألمانيا النازية صنفت مذكرة كسلاح لمحاربة أي طغاة، وإرهاب مستقبلية فأطلق على مذكرته Mein Widerstand بلادي المعارضة وكان فيكتور كلمبرر معنينا بتسجيل لأي طغيان وإرهاب مستقبلي ضد ألمانية النازية وألمانيا الشرقية في مذكراتة.في أي حالة من هذه الحالات إلا أن المؤلفين لم توقع في وقت مبكر—أو أي—نشر.

مجلة كتابة البرمجيات

وإذا كان البعض يستخدام برامج معالجة النصوص للحفاظ على المجلات الإلكترونية أو اليوميات الموجود في جهاز الحاسب الالي، حيث هناك برامج صممت خصيصاً لكتابة المجلات.العديد لها من نماذج الصفحات العشوائية اليومية والأسبوعية والشهرية.هذه البرامج قد صممت للسماح للمجلة وكتاب يوميات لطرح فكرهم، وكذلك الصور والروابط وغيرها من المعلومات بسهولة وملحوظ في مكان واحد.كل هذه البرامج، على المساعدات في بطبيعة الحال حفظ إصدار مجلة أو اليوميات وليس الفعلي خلق منه.وهناك عدد من البرامج لها القدرة على عرض لمجلة مداخل بلوق s.وبعض البرامج مثل (أوتبوك، وغوبيندر) لها القدرة لعمل صفحات المذكرة

مذكرات الإنترنت

و عندما أصبح الأنترنت متوفر للجميع، معظم الناس تبنوا فكرة أن الأنترنت وسيط لعرض مذكراتهم للعامة بشكل متكرر.أول اليوميات على الانترنت يعتقد أن كلاوديو Pinhanez المفتوحة «يوميات»، نشرت في مختبر معهد ماساتشوستس للتكنولوجيا وسائل الإعلام على الإنترنت في الفترة من 14 تشرين الثاني / نوفمبر 1994 حتى عام 1996. أخرى في وقت مبكر على شبكة الإنترنت تتضمن diarists جوستين هول الذي بدأ أحد عشر عاما الشخصية كتابة اليوميات على الإنترنت في عام 1994 ، كارولين بيرك، التي بدأت في نشر «يوميات كارولين» في 3 كانون الثاني / يناير 1995 ، وBryon ساذرلاند، الذي أعلن مذكراته إن وجود شبه Bryon في يوزنت الإخبارية في 19 نيسان / أبريل 1995.

خدمات على شبكة الإنترنت يبدو قريبا من أجل تبسيط وأتمتة أصيح خدمالنشر الإلكتروني، ولكن الانفجار الكبير الذي جاء في رواية القصص الشخصية مع ظهور بلوق s.في حين أن الصيغة الأولى ركزت على الروابط الخارجية والتعليق على الموضوع، وعلى نطاق واسع سرعان ما أستخدمت أدوات البلوق لإنشاء منتديات، وباختصار، يعمل على إدخال صفحات عفوية بدلا من وضع مقالات.

أشكال أخرى من اليوميات

مجلات السفر

مجلة السفر، يوميات السفر، أو مجلة الطريق، من وثائق رحلة أو سلسلة من الرحلات.

تدريب المجلات

تجريب المجلة، أو عملية تعقب، هي مجلة حيث يقوم الشخص بتسجيل الأمور المتعهد بها، بما فيها طول التجريب وغيرها من التعليقات.

يوميات النوم

مذكرة النوم أو سجل النوم هي أداة تستخدم في تشخيص وعلاج اضطرابات النوم.

السمعية والمجلات

مجلة صوت تسجيل الكلمة بدلا من الكلمة المكتوبة.بعض الناس يستخدام أجهزة التسجيل أو لتسجيل الصوت لتوثيق حياتهم.كما أن هناك شركة تدعى لايف أون ريكورد التي تتيح للناس لعمل صفحة مجلة وذلك عن طريق مكالمة هاتفية من أي هاتف.هذه السجلات يمكن الحفاظ عليها على شكل الأقراص المضغوطة

تاغبوش

الألمانية تاغبوخ (الترجمة الحرفية 'كتاب اليوم') وعادة ما يطلق عليها يوميات باللغة الإنكليزية، على الرغم من أن هذا يمكن أن تشمل الكتب الواجبات أو مجلات العمل وكذلك يوميات، فعلى سبيل المثال، الحاسب المحمول للكاتب النمساوي روبرت موسيل.

يوميات غير عادية

بعض الضابط طالبا في الكلية العسكرية الملكية في كندا وكتب على اليوميات في الهند حبر على مربع ر ق؛ أمثلة من هذه 1880s الاحتفاظ في كلية متحف.

يوميات خيالية

وهناك أمثلة عديدة يوميات خيالية.واحدة من أولى مذكرات مطبوعة روائي هو فكاهي يوميات أحد من قبل جورج Grossmith وشقيقه Weedon. 20th القرن الأمثلة على ذلك البث الإذاعي (مثل السيدة ديل يوميات) ونشر عدة كتب (مثل يوميات ادريان الخلد). ودفعت السابق منذ فترة طويلة الساخرة ميزة في المجلة برايفت، المعنون السيدة ويلسون يوميات.

انظر أيضا

 مذكرات

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أعمال عن التاريخ

يوميات


قطع الغيار هي مجموعة المكونات والقطع التي تكون جهازا ما أو آلة والتي يمكن استبدالها عند تضررها دون الحاجة إلى استبدال الجهاز كاملا. ويعتبر عدد قطع الغيار محددا لمدى تعقيد تركيب الجهاز أو الآلة . مثلا يعتبر المكوك الفضائي أكثر الالات تعقيدا وتركيبا حيث يبلغ قطع غياره مليوني قطعة تكونه وتؤلفه حتى يؤدي وظيفته.

أشهر استعمال للكلمة هو مجال السيارات ، حيث يراعى أثناء اقتناء السيارة توفر كل قطع غيارها قصد ايجادها بسهولة في صورة تعطلها لتغييرها.

مراجع

بضاعة موجودة
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صيانة
هندسة الأنظمة

قطع غيار


Die Kosmonautensee () ist ein Randmeer des Südlichen Ozeans, entlang der Kronprinz-Olav-Küste und des Enderbylandes in der Antarktis. Sie ist 699.000 km² groß und grenzt im Osten an die Kooperationssee und im Westen an die Riiser-Larsen-See.

Weblinks
 The Cosmonauts See auf lighthouse-foundation.org
 Kosmonavtov, more im Composite Gazetteer of Antarctica (englisch)

Einzelnachweise

Meer (Südlicher Ozean)

Kosmonautensee


Çepni boyu, Oğuz Kağan Destanı'na göre Oğuzların 24 boyundan biri ve Kaşgarlı Mahmud'a göre yirmi iki Oğuz bölüğünden Divân-ı Lügati't-Türk'te; "Yirmibirincisi: "جآپنِ Çepni"lerdir. Belgeleri şudur :  şeklinde tanımladığı bir Oğuz boyudur. Boyun genel özelliği asi, atılgan, cesur, mert ve savaşçı olmalarıdır. Çepni kelimesi düşmanla savaşan, mert, yiğit, asi, cesur anlamında kullanılmıştır.

Günümüzde Rumeli ve Anadolu'da yaşayan Oğuz/Türkmen boylarından biridir. Karadeniz bölgesindekiler çoğunlukla Sünni olmakla birlikte, Alevi olan gruplara da rastlanır. Prof. Dr. Irene Melikoff, Hacı Bektaşi Veli ve onun ilk müritlerinden olan Kadıncık Ana ve Abdal Musa'nın da Çepni olduğunu yazar.

Ayrıca Prof. Dr. Faruk Sümer Oğuzlar/Türkmenler isimli eserinde Çepnilerin, Hacı Bektaşi Veli'nin müritlerinden olduklarını ve Anadolu'nun değişik yerlerinde yaşadıklarını, Giresun, Gümüşhane, Ordu, Trabzon, Bayburt olmak üzere Karadeniz Bölgesi'nde yoğun olarak yaşayan Çepnilerin ise çoğunlukla Sünni olduğunu, ancak zamanında Alevi olduklarını ve sonradan Sünnileştiklerini yazar.

Anadolu'ya gelmeden önce Türkistan ve Horasan'da öbür boylarla birlikte yaşayan Çepniler, Selçuklular'a katılıp Anadolu'ya geldiler. Başta Karadeniz olmak üzere Anadolu'nun Türkleşmesinde önemli rol oynadılar. 1515 yılındaki tahrir defterlerine göre Şimdiki Giresun ve civarındaki iller Vilayeti
Çepni isimli bir idari bölge olarak gösterilmiştir.

Vilayet-nameye göre Kırşehirin Suluca Kara-Hüyük köyüne gelen Hacı Bektaş-ı Veli'nin ilk müridleri Çepni'den idiler. Bu husus aynı zamanda bu boyun mensuplarından mühim bir kısmının niçin Alevi olduğunu izah edebilir. Çepnilerin mühim bir kısmı 1240'taki Baba İshak Türkmenleri'nin isyanına katılmıştır.

Tarihte Çepni Boyu
Oğuz, Türkmen Çepni boyu, Üçoklar kolundan (sol kolundan) Oğuz Kağan'ın oğlu Gök Han'ın soyundan geldikleri kabul edilir. Çepniler, Doğu Karadeniz'in Türkleşmesinde önemli bir rol oynamışlardır. Çepniler; 1071'de Anadolu'nun, 1277 yılından itibaren de Sinop'tan Trabzon'a kadar olan Karadeniz Bölgesi'nin fethedilmesinde başta Güvenç Abdal olmak üzere çok aktif görevler üstlendiler. 1277 yılında Sinop'a saldıran Trabzon İmparatorluğu ordusunu bozguna uğrattılar. Güvenç Abdal'ın makamı Gümüşhane, Kürtün, Güvendi yaylasında bulunur. Çepnilerin mühim bir kısmının 1277 yılında Sinop çevresinde yaşadığı görülüyor. 1404 yılında Timur'a giden İspanyol elçisi Clavijo Ordu ve Giresun'un 10.000 kişilik bir Çepni kuvvetine sahip Hacıemiroğulları Beyliği'nin kurucusu olan Hacı Emir Bey'in oğlu Hacı Süleyman Bey'in elinde olduğunu yazar.

Çepni boyunun özelliği "nerde yağu görse orda savaşır" olarak anlatılmaktadır. Onların haksızlıklara karşı gelen ve savaşçı karakterleri, önemlerini günümüze yansıtacak kalıcı sanatsal ürünler meydana getirmelerini engellemiştir. Çepnilere ait kabileler, değişik tarihlerde farklı cephelerde savaşmışlar ve ordu ile gittikleri bölgelere yerleşmişler. Savaşlarda nüfusları azalmıştır.

Türkmen Safevi İmparatoru Şah İsmail'in şahsi muhafızlarının Çepnilerden olduğu gibi Gazi Mustafa Kemal Atatürk'ün de özel muhafızları ve bu muhafızların komutanı Giresunlu Topal Osman Çepnidir.

Rumeli ve Balkanlar'da Çepniler
Osmanlı devleti kurulmadan önce Sarı Saltuk ve İzzeddin Keykavusla birlikte Deliorman ve Dobruca bölgelerine geçen Türkmenler Çepni boyundandır. Deliorman ve Dobrucadaki bu Çepniler hem yerel Kıpçak ve Peçenek halklarıyla hem de daha sonra gelen diğer Türkmen boylarıyla karışmışlar ve Çepnililik bilincini yitirmişlerdir. Ancak Çepni inancı olan Bektaşiliği devam ettirmektedirler. Birçoğu'da Batı Anadolu'ya geri göçerek bugünkü Batı Anadolu Çepnilerini oluşturmuştur. Dobruca'da bulunan Türkler kendilerinin Türkmen olduklarını ve inanç önderlerinin Sarı Saltuk olduğunu söyleyerek bu gün bile Camilerde ve Tekkelerde onun adına dualar ederler.

Romanya ve Moldova'daki İzzeddin Keykavus taraftarı bir grup Çepni ise Hristiyanlığa geçmiştir. Keykavustan dolayı bu Çepnilere Gagavuz dendiği ileri sürülür. İlginç olanı Gagavuz Türklerinin Trabzon ağzıyla konuştuğu tespit edilmiştir. Örneğin geçen sene yerine Ordu-Giresun-Trabzon ağzında kullanılan Bıldır kelimesi kullanılır. Daha bunun gibi birçok örnek kelime bulunmaktadır.

Kurtuluş Savaşı
Rum ve Ermeni Çetecilere karşı savaşıp doğu Karadeniz'de asayişi sağlamışlardır. Atatürk 19 Mayıs 1919'da Samsun'a çıktığında Giresun Çepnilerinden olan Topal Osman Ağa ve arkadaşlarını milli mücadeleye davet etmiş ve Kazım Karabekir'in de tavsiyesiyle de kendisine Giresun, Trabzon Çepnilerinden oluşan bir muhafız kıtası seçmiştir. Topal Osman ve Giresun Çepnileri bu şerefli görevi başarıyla yerine getirmiş ve Cumhuriyetin ilanına kadar Atatürk'ün en yakın silahlı unsurları olmuşlardır.

Sivas kongresinden sonra Atatürk'e karşı Padişah yanlısı muhalefet artınca Kazım Karabekir Topal Osman ve arkadaşlarından oluşan Muhafız kıtasının sayısının artırılmasını ve Atatürk'e karşı olan muhalefetin kuvvetle bastırılmasını emretmiştir. Şöhreti belli Çepni muhafızları gören muhalefet sinmek zorunda kalmıştır.
Giresun, Trabzon Çepnilerinden oluşan Mustafa Kemal Atatürk'ün muhafız kıtası bugünkü TBMM deki muhafız bölüğünün ve Cumhurbaşkanlığı muhafız alayının temelini oluşturur. Kurtuluş savaşı esnasında TBMM deki localarında oturan Giresunlu Muhafızların yerinde bugün askeri erkan oturur.

Günümüz
Giresun ili ve yöresi Vilayet-i Çepni olarak tarihte anılmaktadır. Trabzon, Kürtün (Kürtün-i Bala), Doğankent (Harşit, Kürtün-i Zir), Tirebolu, Ordu, Ünye, Mesudiye, Gürgentepe, Koyulhisar, Suşehri, Akıncılar, Canik, Espiye, Görele, Çavuşlu, Eynesil, Beşikdüzü, Çorum ili Kargı ilçesi Göletçetmi, Kargı köyü Şalpazarı'nda, Çaykara'nın Yukarıkumlu, Şahinkaya, Ataköy, Akdoğan, Soğanlı, Maraşlı ve Araklı'nın (Ayvadere, Yassıkaya,  Kaymaklı, Yeniköy, Yeşilköy, Yolgören, Karatepe, Ayven, Çapan, Küçükdere,  Çamlıktepe, Samayer, Pervane, Hasköy, Halilli, Yeşilyurt,  Yenice, Birlik, Kestanelik,  Özgen, Kalecik, Dulköy)   birçok köyünde  yoğun olarak Çepni boyları yaşamaktadır.  Bugün bile Rize'nin Merkez, İkizdere, Kalkandere ilçeleri ile Giresun ve Trabzon'da Güvendi, Gündoğdu, Atmaca, Erbaş, Hacıhasanoğlu, Hasanoğlu, Karahasan, Aygün, Şahin, Tenk, Türkmen, Çebi, Hamzaçebi, Sevindik, Suiçmezoğulları, Yetimoğlu, Çolakoğlu, Alemdar, Baydere, Bayraktar, Sancaktar, Ulusoy, Çep, Kandemir, Kantek, Kemaloğlu, Kemal, Kodalak, Atalar soyadı ile anılan kalabalık sülaleler vardır ve bunların Çepni Oğuzlarından olduğu ileri sürülmektedir. Öte yandan; Trabzon, Gümüşhane, Giresun, Tirebolu, Doğankent (Harşit), Görele, Espiye, Eynesil başta olmak üzere birçok yüksek köyde Çepniler yaşamaya ve geleneklerini sürdürmeye devam etmektedir. Batı Karadeniz'de Kastamonu'nun Tosya ve Çatalzeytin ilçesinde "Çepni" adında bu boydan gelen insanların yaşadığı köy de bulunmaktadır. Ayrıca yine Kastamonu'nun Pınarbaşı ilçesine bağlı Urva köyünde yaşayan ve Karasoy ismi ile anılan ailenin Çepni boyundan olan Karahasan soyundan geldiği ve Karahasanoğulları olarak anıldığı bilinmektedir. Karadeniz Çepnileri makamı, Gümüşhane Kürtün (Kürtün-i Bala), Güvendi yaylasında bulunan Güvenç Abdal Ocağına bağlıdırlar. Bu soydan olanlar Güvendi soyadını almıştır. Ayrıca Şanlıurfa'da Yaslıca beldesi adında tamamen Çepni Türkmenlerinden oluşan bir belde vardır.

Çepniler ayrıca; Ege bölgesinde Manisa, İzmir, Denizli; Marmara'da Çanakkale ve Balıkesir'de yaşarlar. Ayrıca Sivas'ta da Çepni köyleri vardır. Erzurum ili Narman ilçesi Alacayar Köyünde de Çepniler yaşamaktadır. Çanakkale Küçükkuyu'da bulunan Büyük Çetmi ve Küçük Çetmi köylerinin ve civar köylerin halkının önemli bir bölümü Çepni kökenlidir. Bolu Merkez ve Mudurnu ilçesinde de birer tane Çepni köyü bulunmaktadır. Bursa'nın Mudanya ilçesinde de bir Çepni köyü bulunmaktadır.

Yozgat ili uzun yıllar Bozok Sancağı adı ile anılan ve Kayseri'yi de içine alan sancağın merkezi kazanın şimdiki Akdağmadeni Çepni köyü olan Karahisar Beyramşah kazasına bağlı göstermektedir. Boğazlıyan köyleri Dereçepni ve Yazıçepni köyleri de bulunmaktadır.

Çepni boyundan gelenler yaşadıkları bölgelere göre; "Çepni", "Çetme", "Çetmi", "Çitme" olarak anılagelmiş, Anadolu'nun birçok yerinde yerleştikleri belde ve köylere de bu adları vermişlerdir.

Ayrıca bakınız
Çepnice
Hacıemiroğulları Beyliği
Türk Boylarının Tamgaları
Saltuklular
Canikoğulları
Canik
Pervaneoğulları Beyliği
Sarı Saltuk
Türkmen
Oğuz
Yörük

Kaynakça

Üçoklar
Türkiye Türkmenleri

Çepniler


Archaeolithothamnion, rod crvenih alga u porodici Sporolithaceae. Taksonomski status mu ju nesiguran. Woelkerling (1988: 220) detaljno raspravlja o ovom rodu, ističući, između ostalog, da naziv "Archaeolithothamnium" nije valjano objavio Rothpletz (1891: 310) jer ga je predložio kao privremeno ime, a sam ga nije prihvatio. Sadašnje ime potvrdio je Foslie (1898.), ali nakon uspostavljanja roda Sporolithon Heydrich.

Uz četiri fosilne u njega je uključena i jedna ekstantna vrsta kod otočja Galapagos, A. crosslandii.

Vrste
 †Archaeolithothamnion affine M.Howe 1919
 Archaeolithothamnion crosslandii Me.Lemoine 1929
 †Archaeolithothamnion intermedium Raineri 1924
 †Archaeolithothamnion keenanii M.Howe 1934
 †Archaeolithothamnion rude Me.Lemoine 1925

Izvori

Sporolithales

Archaeolithothamnion


Eva-Maria Görgen (auch: Goergen; * 26. November 1929 in Düsseldorf; † November 1998 in München) war eine deutsche Opern-, Operetten- und Musicalsängerin in der Stimmlage Mezzosopran.

Leben und Wirken
Nach ihrer Gesangsausbildung ging sie an das Stadttheater von Krefeld. Es folgten Engagements an den Musikbühnen von Wiesbaden, Frankfurt und Mannheim. 1958 wurde die Künstlerin  Ensemblemitglied am Staatstheater am Gärtnerplatz, dem sie 35 Jahre angehörte. Dort brillierte sie in vielen Opern, Operetten und einigen Musicals. Görgen sang u. a. den Ramiro in La  finta giardiniera, die Nicklausse in Hoffmanns Erzählungen, die Titelrolle in Mignon, die Königin in Schwanda, der Dudelsackpfeifer, die Czipra in Der Zigeunerbaron und  die Palmatica in Der Bettelstudent. Unvergesslich ist ihre Rolle der Knusperhexe in Hänsel und Gretel. Die Oper wurde 1970 für das ZDF inszeniert.

Neben ihrer Bühnenpräsenz war Görgen noch rege als Lied- und Konzertsängerin tätig. Ferner gab die zur Bayerischen Kammersängerin ernannte Künstlerin privaten Gesangsunterricht und wirkte in einigen TV-Filmen mit.

Görgen starb 1998 an den Folgen eines Verkehrsunfalls. Beerdigt wurde sie auf dem Waldfriedhof Solln (Grabstätte Nr. 8-2-30a).

Literatur
 Bayerisches Staatstheater am Gärtnerplatz (Hrsg.): Festschrift 100 Jahre Theater am Gärtnerplatz. München 1965.
 Karl-Josef Kutsch, Leo Riemens: Großes Sängerlexikon. Ergänzungsband II. Bern 1994, Sp. 423.

DVD
 Falstaff. Arthaus Musik, 2010.

Weblinks

Opernsänger
Mezzosopran
Bayerischer Kammersänger
Deutscher
Geboren 1929
Gestorben 1998
Frau

Eva-Maria Görgen


La Chapelle-Saint-Sépulcre is a commune in the Loiret department in north-central France. It is part of the canton of Courtenay and of the arrondissement of Montargis.

See also
Communes of the Loiret department

References

Chapellesaintsepulcre

La Chapelle-Saint-Sépulcre


245158 Thomasandrews este un asteroid din centura principală de asteroizi.

Descriere
245158 Thomasandrews este un asteroid din centura principală de asteroizi. A fost descoperit pe  la Vail-Jarnac de Tom Glinos și David H. Levy. Asteroidul prezintă o orbită caracterizată de o semiaxă mare de 2,19 ua, o excentricitate de 0,23 și o înclinație de 3,8° în raport cu ecliptica.

Vezi și
 Lista planetelor minore: 245001-246000
 Centura de asteroizi

Referințe

Obiecte astronomice descoperite în 2004
Centura de asteroizi

245158 Thomasandrews


Achados incidentais são definidos como resultados de um exame, procedimento ou teste que fogem do esperado pelo objetivo original do teste ou procedimento. No contexto de testes genéticos, achados incidentais resultam de alterações genéticas presentes no indivíduo testado que não eram esperados a partir do objetivo primário do teste. Os achados incidentais em testes genéticos podem criar uma série de desafios práticos, legais e éticos para os indivíduos testados e para os profissionais. Alguns achados incidentais podem contribuir para a saúde, incluindo situações em que a informação pode salvar vidas, mas também podem causar angústia sem qualquer melhoria na saúde ou no bem-estar.

A Comissão de Bioética dos Estados Unidos, em documento Ethical Management of Incidental and Secondary Findings in the Clinical, Research, and Direct-to-Consumer Contexts, no entanto, usa uma definição de descobertas incidentais mais específica: informações coletadas de pesquisa de sequenciamento de genoma completo ou prática clínica que não era o pretendido ou associado do objetivo esperado. Além disso, essa Comissão Bioética divide os achados incidentais em duas categorias: achados antecipáveis e não antecipáveis. Os incidentes antecipáveis são achados que são conhecidos por estarem associados com o teste ou procedimento submetido pelo indivíduo, ou seja, há já uma probabilidade de descoberta conhecida. Já os não antecipáveis consistem em achados que não são esperados e de conhecimento da comunidade científica.

Conceitos associados
Muitas pessoas confundem os achados incidentais com os achados secundários. Enquanto os achados incidentais são aqueles encontrados em uma busca exploratória ou não relacionada a saúde (por exemplo, encontrar uma não paternidade em um teste de ancestralidade), os achados secundários são variantes patogênicas associadas a doenças não investigadas (por exemplo, encontrar uma variante de suscetibilidade a câncer num paciente com exoma completo encaminhado para diagnóstico de doenças neuromusculares). Diferentemente dos incidentais, as descobertas secundárias são ativamente buscadas por uma equipe médica sem ser o alvo principal. Os profissionais podem buscar ativamente os achados secundários pela recomendação de especialistas ou pelo consenso de profissionais, como ético e clinicamente relevante.

Os testes genéticos podem ser realizados pela análise do exoma completo, que corresponde à parte do genoma que é potencialmente transcrita e abriga os trechos codificantes de proteína (dogma central da biologia). O sequenciamento do exoma completo é relevante para a busca de mutações que podem estar associadas à doenças genéticas, já que grande parte das doenças genéticas monogênicas estão associadas a essa porção do genoma. Recentemente, o sequenciamento do genoma completo, processo que determina as bases de nucleotídeos virtualmente de todo o genoma, tem se apresentado promissor como teste diagnóstico na busca por mutações de doenças sem causas conhecidas . Contudo, é necessário entender as complexidades e oportunidades que surgem pela implementação de tecnologias genômicas para permitir que estratégias e políticas de implementação adequadas sejam projetadas para os diferentes contextos, dado que ambos sequenciamento de genoma e de exoma completos produzem uma série de resultados maior do que o que se busca primariamente.

Contexto Ético
Achados incidentais em qualquer teste ligado à saúde humana podem causar implicações éticas. Uma vez que os testes genéticos surgem de métodos mais recentes, a conduta ainda é menos regulamentada que outras áreas da medicina e promovem questões frequentemente subjetivas, o que dificulta uma resposta padronizada. Alguns pontos emergem dessa discussão: falsos-positivos, achados incidentais sem importância clínica, risco poligênico, variação de penetrância e conflitos de interesse.

Um primeiro ponto são os falsos-positivos, ou seja, variantes apontadas no resultado do teste como patogênicas para uma determinada condição, mas cuja atribuição é incorreta. Cada vez mais as companhias que oferecem testes genéticos aumentam sua cobertura de variantes ao longo do genoma, potencialmente gerando um maior número de falsos-positivos. Por exemplo, para variantes com grande impacto clínico, associadas a condições de herança monogênica (em famílias), como variantes de alto risco para câncer de mama hereditário, os falso-positivos podem levar à gastos elevados para o indivíduo testado por conta de testes clínicos desnecessários, além do desgaste mental.

No caso de variantes associadas a condições multifatoriais, onde a penetrância de cada variante é relativamente baixa, o conceito de falso-positivo pode ser ainda mais crítico, uma vez que o risco de manifestação da doença no contexto da presença ou não da variante depende de dezenas, centenas ou milhares de outras variantes, provendo um risco poligênico, além de fatores ambientais. É interessante ressaltar que a prevalência de doenças associadas à componentes genéticos pode ser diferente em diferentes populações, sendo assim, a informação da presença ou ausência de uma variante deveria vir associada com o risco daquela variante ser clinicamente relevante dependendo do grupo étnico ou composição de ancestralidades da pessoa testada. O especialista que encaminhou o pedido do teste genético, em posse dessas informações, pode auxiliar na interpretação destes resultados, com apoio de um serviço de aconselhamento genético. Porém, atualmente, muitos testes são vendidos pela internet diretamente aos consumidores, e não estão associados ao acompanhamento do geneticista, logo, a pessoa que o comprou recebe apenas um resultado de presença/ausência da variante e uma pequena descrição de suas associações, que pode gerar dúvidas, tomadas de decisão sem embasamento clínico e até desconforto ou pânico.

Outro ponto são os conflitos de interesse para geneticistas, clínicas e laboratórios de testes genéticos. O profissional que pediu o teste para investigar uma determinada questão, por exemplo a presença de mutação no gene associado a uma doença, pode encontrar uma variante associada à outra doença, por exemplo à predisposição a problemas cardíacos, sendo esta variante de baixa penetrância associada à etiologia multifatorial. Nesse caso, duas opções emergem: reportar ao solicitante e ao paciente, potencialmente adicionando tensão e incentivo a dedicar tempo e recursos em outros testes clínicos; ou não contar, e assim correr o risco de estar ocultando um fato de potencial importância clínica, ainda que dependente de outros fatores, que pode resultar em danos à saúde do paciente. Este conflito de interesse existe pois contar ao paciente pode trazer retorno financeiro ao geneticista, à clínica ou ao laboratório, uma vez que ele pode vir a fazer outros testes, mas ao mesmo tempo, pode não ter relevância clínica, e então ter levado à gastos e pânico desnecessário do paciente. Como no Brasil não há uma legislação que regulamente essas questões, fica a cargo do profissional, o que pode gerar até mesmo encargos judiciais. As consultas de aconselhamento genético pré-teste podem antecipar este tipo de situação, esclarecendo ao paciente e ao médico solicitante os potenciais achados decorrentes do teste. A consulta de aconselhamento genético pós-teste pode auxiliar na interpretação dos achados.

Ademais, nem todo achado incidental tem importância clínica, mas pode ter importância na vida do paciente, como por exemplo questões de paternidade e ancestralidade, o que dificulta ainda mais a decisão do profissional. Muitas vezes em famílias com histórico de doenças monogênicas (aquelas causadas por alterações em um único gene), pessoas procuram clínicas para entender riscos de ocorrência ou de recorrência, ou seja, se seus filhos podem vir a apresentar a condição. Isto leva o geneticista a pedir exames para vários membros daquele grupo familiar, traçando assim um heredograma que vai ajudar a responder a questão. Nesse tipo de situação, o profissional pode encontrar incongruências na relação familiar, como paternidades mal atribuídas (falsas paternidades), eventos de adoção ou até trocas de recém nascidos na maternidade. Notícias como essas podem ou não ter implicações clínicas, mas certamente poderão causar grandes impactos na família. Nesse âmbito, além do dilema de contar ou não contar, ainda existe outra questão: pra quem contar? As consultas de aconselhamento genético podem esclarecer em parte estas questões, antes mesmo da investigação ser iniciada

Aconselhamento genético
É importante ressaltar a função e importância do aconselhamento genético na tomada de decisões a cerca de testes genéticos. Como já foi citado, resultados de testes comprados na internet, como os de ancestralidade que também incluem variantes associadas à saúde, apresentam poucas informações sobre as variantes analisadas, o que pode levar è dúvidas e/ou desconfortos, ou então não ser informativa, para pessoas leigas ou com pouco esclarecimento em genética.

Por isso, é interessante que a realização destes testes seja acompanhada por um profissional geneticista, que poderá avaliar a necessidade do teste no contexto, o real risco por trás da presença/ausência de alguma variante genética e fazer um encaminhamento correto, caso necessário. Ademais, quando há uma consulta pré-teste, o profissional pode explicar ao paciente dos riscos de achados incidentais, e o que eles podem informar, colocando uma cláusula contratual se o paciente deseja ou não saber de todos os possíveis resultados, tirando aqui o caráter de subjetividade da decisão do geneticista.

Reportar achados: linhas de pensamento
A escolha de revelar ou não achados incidentais em testes genéticos é um problema com ramificações complexas, e cuja resolução é cada vez mais urgente especialmente no contexto clínico. Tendo isso em mente, dois tipos gerais de recomendações são majoritariamente encontrados na literatura, sendo esses a "divulgação qualificada", que argumenta que os achados incidentais devem ser divulgados quase sempre, com exceção de alguns casos específicos; e o outro tipo de recomendação é de que a divulgação desses resultados deve ser feita com muita cautela e ponderação. Existem tentativas de listar genes acionáveis, isto é, que podem ser alvo de algum tipo de ação terapêutica para prevenir patologias, e que, portanto, sempre devem ser divulgados. Uma dessas tentativas é a recomendação oficial do American College of Medical Genetics and Genomics, mas esse tipo de lista é reconhecidamente limitada, e cada caso requer um nível distinto de cuidado pelo clínico responsável . Uma paternidade atribuída erroneamente, por exemplo, é uma informação que não tem relevância clínica imediata, mas que muitos pacientes gostariam de ter conhecimento, e esse tipo de situação dificulta assumir uma recomendação absoluta para todos os cenários.

Um dado significativo para o debate é que a maioria dos pesquisadores, quando questionados a respeito da divulgação ou não de achado incidentais, citam o princípio bioético da beneficência, argumentando que se um dano à saúde do paciente pode ser prevenido ao divulgar esses achados, então eles devem certamente ser divulgados. Apesar disso, muitos desses mesmos pesquisadores demonstram ceticismo em relação a confiabilidade de possíveis associações genéticas entre doenças e certos genótipos, e esse seria um fator importante na tomada de decisões por parte do pesquisador/clínico frente aos resultados obtidos.

Uma forma de circunavegar todas essas questões seria através da obtenção de consentimento prévio do paciente em relação a divulgação de achados incidentais através de uma consulta de aconselhamento genético pré-teste. Entretanto, isso requer um nível de conhecimento sobre os possíveis achados por parte do paciente, e não é prático ou sequer possível tratar de absolutamente todos os resultados possíveis de forma a obter um consentimento informado do paciente. Tendo isso em mente, alguns autores propõem métodos de "filtragem", que consistem em sistemas de tomada de decisão, cujo propósito seria livrar o pesquisador e o paciente da sobrecarga de informação necessária para decidir se um dado achado deve ou não ser revelado, além de sistematizar e uniformizar o processo Esses sistemas, apesar de complexos, reduziriam o tempo, dinheiro e conhecimento necessários para tomar decisões, mas significariam uma perda, ao menos parcial, da autonomia tanto do paciente como do pesquisador/clínico, e, por isso, ainda que sejam uma forma eficaz de operacionalizar a divulgação de achados, muito se debate se são de fato a melhor solução para o problema.

Achados incidentais em teste genético


Glen Flora ist der Name folgender Orte in den Vereinigten Staaten:

 Glen Flora (Texas)
 Glen Flora (Wisconsin), im Rusk County

Glen Flora


The District of Alaska was the federal government's designation for Alaska from May 17, 1884, to August 24, 1912, when it became Alaska Territory. Previously (1867–1884) it had been known as the Department of Alaska, a military designation.

The designation as a district meant that Alaska became an incorporated but unorganized territory with a civil government. The governor of the District of Alaska was appointed by the president of the United States.

Prelude to District status
At the time of the 1867 Alaska Purchase, legislators in Washington, D.C., were occupied with post–Civil War reconstruction issues, and had little time to dedicate to Alaska. As a department, Alaska was handled as a strategic military area, variously under the jurisdiction of the U.S. Army (until 1877), the United States Department of the Treasury (from 1877 until 1879) and the U.S. Navy (from 1879 until 1884).

By 1884, the civilian population had grown to the point where President Chester A. Arthur signed off on the First Organic Act, and appointed a civil government.

History while a District

It was the discovery of gold in the Yukon in 1896 that brought attention to the United States' northern possession. A wave of fortune hunters clamored for passage to the Klondike, but the Klondike was in Yukon Territory, Canada, not Alaska as many a would-be miner believed. Still, the easiest route was by ship to Skagway, or Dyea, in Southeast Alaska. Miners had their choice of two passes across the mountains to the Yukon fields: The Chilkoot Trail, an old Native route, started in Dyea, and the White Pass, also called Dead Horse Trail, was in Skagway. The Chilkoot Trail was a shorter trip but had a considerably steeper climb. The White Pass took a little longer but was at a lower elevation. Skagway and the White Pass trail also had a severe crime problem, organized and led by the infamous badman, Soapy Smith. Smith was killed in Skagway at the Shootout on Juneau Wharf.

Alaska still had plenty of gold of its own, and many who had failed to make their fortunes in the Klondike strike came back to look for it. An earlier strike had established Juneau in Southeast Alaska, and gold was found in Nome in 1899. For several years a prospector named Felix Pedro had been searching in the Tanana Hills of the Interior for a gold-rich creek he had stumbled upon years earlier but had been forced to abandon. As the summer of 1901 drew to a close, Pedro was about to embark with his partner on a 165-mile walk to Circle City for supplies. He met up with E.T. Barnette, who had been forced to disembark from the steamer Lavelle Young with his entire load of supplies, some of which he sold to Pedro.

Replenished with supplies, Pedro continued his search in the area, and he finally struck gold in July 1902. Shortly afterward, Barnette's outpost was transformed into a booming town. Named Fairbanks in honor of U.S. Senator Charles W. Fairbanks, the settlement grew as more miners and new businesses arrived. The town had shanties on the fringes, but the center offered many of the economic conveniences of the rest of the U.S. Traffic came through the river, and an overland route to Valdez cut days off a trip to the contiguous United States. Eventually, the Tanana Mining District became a huge gold producer, and the metal attracted Americans and Europeans alike. In 1903 the predecessor to the Alaska Railroad began to be built, which would connect from Seward to Fairbanks by 1923, though Alaska still has no railroad connecting it to the lower 48 states.

Many people in Alaska found ways to profit from the gold rushes without actually panning for the metal themselves. At Ruby Creek, a strike in 1907, and a more substantial one in 1910 brought the rush of miners to the area and created the town of Ruby. The steamers the newcomers used required large quantities of wood to keep them moving, and residents along the river supplemented their trapping and fishing by maintaining profitable wood lots. Ruby grew from a tent city in 1911 to a river port and then had running water in summer, a theater, shops, and cafés. By 1917, at the height of the rush, creeks south of Ruby had yielded $875,000 worth of gold.

Other precious and semiprecious metals were being mined in Alaska, too, particularly copper. In 1910, the richest copper mine in the world started operation at Kennicott in the Wrangell-St. Elias Mountains. The mine extracted more than 591,535 tons of copper ore from the earth, and at its peak employed more than 800 workers.

The more traditional ways of life, fishing, in particular, also provided a livelihood for many Alaskans, particularly after canning was introduced. In 1878 businessmen built the first two canneries at Klawock and Sitka. In 1883 the Arctic Pack Company established a cannery at Nushagak Bay in Southwest Alaska, where they were able to exploit the immense runs of salmon. In 1880, two years later, the Alaska Packing Company opened a cannery across the bay, and by 1908, 10 canneries ringed Nushagak Bay in Southwest Alaska. Kodiak's first canneries were built in the late 19th century when word of phenomenal fish runs became widespread.

By the turn of the 20th century, commercial fishing was gaining a foothold in the Aleutian Islands. Packing houses salted cod and herring, and salmon canneries were opened. Another traditional occupation, whaling, continued with no regard for over-hunting. They pushed the bowhead whales to the edge of extinction for the oil in their tissue (though in recent years, due to a decline in commercial whaling, their populations have rebounded enough for Natives to harvest many each year without affecting the population). The Aleuts soon suffered severe problems due to the depletion of the fur seals and sea otters which they needed for survival. As well as requiring the flesh for food, they also used the skins to cover their boats, without which they could not hunt. The Americans also expanded into the Interior and Arctic Alaska, exploiting the furbearers, fish, and other game on which Natives depended.

References

1884 establishments in the United States
1912 disestablishments in Alaska
Former regions and territories of the United States
 4
History of the American West

District of Alaska


David John McIntyre (né le ), plus connu sous son nom de scène Dave Mac (stylisé en DAVE MAC), est un acteur et musicien canadien originaire de Port Perry, Ontario, Canada.

Son album Turn My Back présente des collaborations avec des artistes hip-hop canadiens bien connus tels que Madchild, Swollen Members, Choclair, The Deans List et Dilated Peoples. McIntyre a également joué aux côtés d'artistes hip-hop notables tels que Machine Gun Kelly, Thrust, Sean Brown et Slaine.

Premières années
Né David John McIntyre, Dave Mac est le fils de Deborah McIntyre et de Joseph McIntyre, qui était le chanteur du groupe de rock canadien des années 1970 Yesteryear.

McIntyre a grandi à Port Perry, en Ontario, où il a commencé à rapper à l'âge de . Il a enregistré sa propre musique avec la vieille interface d'enregistrement de son père.

McIntyre a fréquenté le Loyalist College de Belleville, en Ontario, et le Durham College d'Oshawa, en Ontario. Après l'obtention de son diplôme, son père a été tué dans un accident de moto impliquant un conducteur ivre, ce qui l'a inspiré à écrire de nombreuses chansons de motivation.

Carrière
En plus de rapper, McIntyre est également producteur, auteur-compositeur et graphiste Il est affilié à Peter Jackson et 90 Nickel Entertainment, une société basée à Oshawa, Ontario, Canada.

En 2016, il a sorti son deuxième E.P. "Trouble", un album de dix titres avec sept visuels. La récente traction de son hommage à Ed the Sock a incité HMV Canada à effectuer une vente exclusive de week-end de Dave Mac's Trouble. L'album Trouble a été écrit à la suite des expériences personnelles de Dave et des difficultés réelles de l'amour éternel et des ruptures tragiques. L'album Trouble a également reçu des éloges de l'industrie de la part de l'icône du hip-hop canadien Moka Only. Le single de l'album met en vedette un artiste de Détroit appelé Roze.

McIntyre a également travaillé pour le syndicat Buc (Buc Union) à Newmarket, en Ontario.

The Update est son troisième album, sorti en 2017. Il s'agit d'un album de treize titres qui comporte des participations d'invités tels que Mark Battles Hendersin, ainsi que Roze et Dubby.

En novembre 2017, il a été présenté sur la couverture du magazine Boss Code. En février 2018, Dave Mac a été présenté sur la couverture de Focus On Scugog, un magazine basé dans le canton de Scugog.

En septembre 2019, Dave Mac a accordé une interview à Respect Magazine En 2019, il a également sorti l'album de  Anything.

Discographie

Albums
 Turn My Back (2015)
 Trouble (2016)
 The Update (2017)
 Anything (2019)
 Leader (2019)
 Bad Boy (2020)
 You Don't Know Me (2021)
 Energy (2021)
 Impressions (2022)

Singles

 People Say (2013)
 Love Or Money (2013)
 Fire featuring Madchild, Choclair et Thrust (2014)
 Last (2014)
 Sins (2014)
 Dreams ft. PG (2014)
 Power of Music NBM (2014)
 Live it Up ft. JoKen (2014)
 If I Could (2015)
 Realness (2015)
 Rookie ft. Hi Rez (2015)
 Medic ft. RoZe (2015)
 My Day Dream ft. RoZe (2015)
 Fans (2015)
 Changes (2015)
 So Long ft. Abstract et Cam Meekins (2015)
 They Say ft. Abstract et Dubby
 Facts ft. Sean Brown (2015)
 Turn My back (2015)
 Forgive (2015)
 Bop (2015)
 Shots ft. Tray Jack (2015)
 Trouble ft. Roze (2016)
 Remember (2016)
 Reason Why (2016)
 Faded ft. Kimani (2016)
 Love me (2016)
 Jumpstart (2016)
 Come Up (2016)
 Work ft. Maurice Weeks (2016)
 Aftershock Prod by Clutch (2016)
 Can't Go Wrong ft. Roze (2017)
 Echo ft. Roze & Mark Battles (2017)
 What I Like ft. Roze & Dubby (2017)
 Grow Up ft. Hendersin (2017)

Vidéographie
 People Say (2013)
 Medic ft. RoZe (2015)
 Facts ft. Sean Brown (2015)
 Turn My back (2015)
 Trouble ft. RoZe (2016)
 Faded ft. Kimani (2016)
 Aftershock (2016)

Références

Voir aussi

Articles connexes
 Swollen Members
 Dilated Peoples

Liens externes

Naissance en septembre 1989
Chanteur canadien du XXIe siècle

Dave Mac


Susan Carol Burke, plus connue sous le nom de Sue Burke, née le , est une écrivaine, traductrice, journaliste et éditrice américaine. Elle a écrit le roman de science-fiction Semiosis, remarqué par la critique, et sa suite Interference. Elle a également traduit en anglais Prodigios, d'Angélica Gorodischer, autrice argentine de science-fiction et de fantasy.

Biographie
Susan Carol Burke a grandi à Milwaukee dans le Wisconsin et a fréquenté l'Université du Wisconsin. Elle a déménagé avec son mari, un homme d'affaires trilingue, à Madrid, en Espagne, en décembre 1999  puis à Chicago en juillet 2016.

Œuvre
Semiosis, qualifié de « roman fouillé et savant », évoque la colonisation d'une exoplanète, Pax, par des humains envoyés là-bas pour y recréer la vie. L'autrice y évoque la survie des colons et propose un « voyage formidable au cœur de la faune et la flore d'une planète lointaine ». Le roman, qui fait la part belle notamment à la botanique, a été décrit comme un « bel essai de réflexion sur notre rapport à la nature, aux anciens et aux autres espèces ».

Œuvres

Série Semiosis

Romans indépendants

Nouvelles

Traductions
 Amadis of Gaul Book I (janvier 2012, BurglarHouse Books) - traduction de l'espagnol dAmadís de Gaula (1508) par Garci Rodríguez de Montalvo
 Prodigies (2015, Small Beer Press), traduction de Prodigios par Angelica Gorodischer
 Confusion of Confusions (décembre 2016, Comisión Nacional del Mercado de Valores ) - traduction de l'espagnol de Confusión de Confusiones (1688) par Joseph de la Vega
 Amadis of Gaul Book II (septembre 2017, BurglarHouse Books) - traduction de l'espagnol dAmadís de Gaula (1508) par Garci Rodríguez de Montalvo
 Amadis of Gaul Book III (janvier 2018, BurglarHouse Books) - traduction de l'espagnol dAmadís de Gaula (1508) par Garci Rodríguez de Montalvo
 Canción Antigua - An Old Song: Anthology of Poems (avril 2018) - avec Christian Law, traduction de l'espagnol de poèmes de Vicente Núñez
 Amadis of Gaul Book IV (novembre 2018, BurglarHouse Books) - traduction de l'espagnol dAmadís de Gaula (1508) par Garci Rodríguez de Montalvo

Prix et distinctions
 En 2017, Burke a reçu le Alicia Gordon Award de l'American Translators Association pour sa traduction en anglais d'un extrait de Confusión de confusiones de Joseph de la Vega, écrit en espagnol en 1688. Le livre, toute première analyse des marchés boursiers, était une commande de Bolsas y Mercados Españoles.
 En 2020, Semiosis faisait partie de la sélection du prix Julia-Verlanger

Références

Liens externes

Naissance en 1955
Romancière américaine du XXIe siècle
Nouvelliste américain du XXIe siècle
Écrivain américain de science-fiction
Écrivain américain de fantasy
Écrivain américain d'horreur

Sue Burke


El término Latasa puede hacer referencia a:

 Latasa (Imoz), localidad y concejo del municipio y valle de Imoz en  Navarra (España)
 Latasa (Odieta), localidad y concejo del municipio y valle de Odieta en  Navarra (España)

Latasa


An Tripogon vellarianus in uska species han Liliopsida nga ginhulagway ni A.K.Pradeep. An Tripogon vellarianus in nahilalakip ha genus nga Tripogon, ngan familia nga Poaceae. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Tripogon

Tripogon vellarianus


L'ordre de Skanderbeg (en albanais : Urdhëri i Skënderbeut) est un ordre chevaleresque du royaume d'Albanie et a ensuite fait partie du patrimoine du Royaume d'Italie lorsque l'Albanie est devenue une colonie. Après 1943, il est devenu un ordre dynastique de la Maison Zogu, puis un ordre de la République d'Albanie

Historique
L'Ordre a été fondé en 1925 par le président albanais de l'époque, Ahmed Bey Zogu (qui se proclamera roi des Albanais le 1er septembre 1928, prenant le nom de Zog Ier d'Albanie). L'Ordre est dédié au héros national albanais Giorgio Castriota Scanderbeg (1414-1468), qui a libéré son pays de la domination turque. Au moment de sa fondation, l'ordre comptait quatre classes : Chevalier de Grande-croix, Grand Officier, Commandeur et Chevalier.

En 1939, l'Italie de Mussolini attaque et conquiert le royaume d'Albanie, l'incorporant à l'Empire italien. En 1940, l'ordre a été modifié et une cinquième classe a été ajoutée : Officier.

De 1946, à la fin de la Seconde Guerre mondiale, à 1990, l'Albanie est devenue un État national-communiste extrêmement isolationniste, stalinien et antirévisionniste, dirigé par le dictateur Enver Hoxha, de 1946 à 1985, et par Ramiz Alia, jusqu'en 1992. L'Ordre changea complètement, ne comportant plus que trois classes et prenant l'apparence des étoiles classiques des ordres de chevalerie soviétiques.

Après la chute du régime communiste, l'Albanie a créé un nouvel ordre de Skanderbeg, qui est toujours décerné aujourd'hui.

Décorations

Royaume d'Albanie
 Chevalier : La médaille représente un aigle bicéphale albanais, doré et émaillé en rouge, avec un disque central doré. Le centre du disque est émaillé de bleu et chargé du casque doré de Scanderbeg, et entouré d'une guirlande de feuilles émaillées de vert. La médaille est accrochée à un ruban et placée sur le côté gauche de la poitrine.
 Commandeur  : La médaille présente les mêmes caractéristiques que la médaille de Chevalier, à l'exception de la présence d'une étoile d'or entre les deux têtes de l'aigle. La médaille est accrochée à un ruban et portée autour du cou.
 Grand Officier : La médaille est portée sur un ruban, autour du cou, et présente les mêmes caractéristiques que la médaille de Commandeur. En plus de la médaille, il y a également une plaque composée d'une étoile blanche chargée sur une guirlande de feuilles émaillées vertes. Au centre de la guirlande se trouvent deux cimeterres croisés. L'étoile comporte un disque central en or représentant un aigle à deux têtes. La plaque est surmontée du casque d'or de Scanderbeg, avec quatre drapeaux latéraux.
 Chevalier de Grand-Croix : la médaille est accrochée à un brassard d'épaule, de droite à gauche. En plus de la ceinture, il y a une plaque d'étoile à huit branches chargée, au centre, d'un disque ayant les mêmes caractéristiques que le disque central de la médaille.

Royaume d'Albanie italien
 Chevalier : La médaille est représentée par un aigle bicéphale albanais, doré et émaillé de rouge, avec un disque central doré. Le centre du disque est émaillé de bleu et chargé du casque d'or de Scanderbeg, tourné horizontalement par rapport aux insignes du Royaume d'Albanie, et entouré d'un cercle émaillé de vert et chargé d'une couronne de nœuds de Savoie. La médaille est accrochée à un ruban et placée sur le côté gauche de la poitrine.
 Officier : La médaille est la même que celle du Chevalier. A la médaille s'ajoute une plaque composée d'une étoile blanche chargée sur une guirlande émaillée en vert et chargée de nœuds de Savoie, des lettres FERT et de deux licteurs croisés, à la base du cercle. Au centre de la guirlande figurent deux cimeterres croisés. L'étoile comporte un disque central représentant un aigle bicéphale. La plaque est surmontée du casque de Scanderbeg, tourné horizontalement par rapport aux insignes du Royaume d'Albanie, et comporte quatre drapeaux latéraux.
 Commandeur : La médaille présente les mêmes caractéristiques que la médaille de Chevalier, à l'exception de la présence d'une étoile d'or entre les deux têtes de l'aigle. La médaille est accrochée à un ruban et portée autour du cou.
 Grand Officier : La médaille est portée sur un ruban, autour du cou, et présente les mêmes caractéristiques que la médaille du Commandeur. En plus de la citation, il y a aussi la plaque utilisée par la classe des officiers.
 Chevalier Grand-Croix : La médaille est suspendue à une ceinture, de droite à gauche. En plus de l'écharpe, il y a une plaque d'étoile à huit branches chargée, au centre, d'un disque qui a les mêmes caractéristiques que le disque central de la médaille.

République d'Albanie
 Troisième classe : la plaque est composée de deux étoiles à cinq branches chargées l'une sur l'autre, formant une étoile à dix branches. La plaque de l'étoile est chargée d'une étoile avec un disque au centre représentant le profil de Scanderbeg. L'étoile avec le disque a une couronne de feuilles qui dépasse entre les cinq points. La plaque entière est argentée.
 Deuxième classe : la plaque a le même aspect que la plaque de troisième classe, à la différence que l'étoile centrale est émaillée en rouge foncé et que la couronne de feuilles entre les cinq pointes de l'étoile est dorée.
 Première classe : la plaque présente les mêmes caractéristiques que la plaque de troisième classe, à la différence qu'elle est entièrement dorée, sauf que le disque central, représentant Scanderbeg, est argenté.

Notes et références

Source

Articles connexes
 Liste des ordres, décorations et médailles de l'Italie

Liens externes
  http://www.ordersandmedals.net

Ordre militaire
Décoration militaire italienne
Distinction fondée en 1939

Ordre de Skanderbeg


Christine Graffigne () é uma matemática francesa, conhecida por sua pesquisa pioneira em campos aleatórios de Markov para análise de imagens.

Formação e carreira
Graffigne obteve um duplo doutorado, em 1986 pela Universidade Paris-Sul com a tese Applications des statistiques au traitement d'images, orientada por Dominique Picard, e em 1987 pela Universidade Brown com a tese Experiments In Texture Analysis And Segmentation, orientada por Stuart Geman.

É professora no Laboratório MAP5 (Matemática Aplicada em Paris 5), anteriormente na Universidade Paris Descartes e agora parte da Universidade de Paris. Na Universidade Paris Descartes dirigiu a Unidade de Treinamento e Pesquisa em Tecnologia da Informação e Matemática (UFR de Mathématiques et Informatique) até 2019, quando foi sucedida neste cargo por David Janiszek.

Foi palestrante convidada do Congresso Internacional de Matemáticos em Berkeley (1986, com Stuart Geman: Markov random field image models and their applications to Computer vision).

Referências

Ligações externas
Página pessoal

Matemáticos da França
Matemáticas da França
Alunos da Universidade Brown
Pessoas vivas

Christine Graffigne


Aderus abnormipes es una especie de coleóptero de la familia Aderidae. Fue descrita científicamente por Rudolf F. Heberdey en 1936.

Distribución geográfica
Habita en Sumatra (Indonesia).

Referencias

abnormipes
Coleópteros de Sumatra
Insectos descritos en 1936
Taxones descritos por Rudolf F. Heberdey

Aderus abnormipes


මැදින් යනු චන්ද්‍ර මාසයකි.
 බෞද්ධ දිනදසුන අනුව අවුරුද්දේ ?? වැනි මාසය වේ.
 සිංහල දිනදසුන අනුව අවුරුද්දේ ?? වැනි මාසය වේ.
 ඉස්ලාම් දිනදසුන අනුව අවුරුද්දේ ?? වැනි මාසය වේ.

චන්ද්‍ර මාස
මැදින්

මැදින්


Le Circuit de la Sarthe 2022 est la  édition de cette course cycliste masculine sur route. Il a eu lieu du 5 au  dans les Pays de la Loire, en France, et fait partie du calendrier UCI Europe Tour 2022 en catégorie 2.1. La course avait été annulée en 2020 et 2021 en raison de la pandémie de Covid-19. Le circuit est remporté par le jeune Néerlandais Olav Kooij de l'équipe Jumbo-Visma.

Présentation

Parcours

Équipes

Étapes

Déroulement de la course

étape

étape

étape

étape

Classements finals

Classement général final

Classements annexes

Classement par points

Classement de la montagne

Classement du meilleur jeune

Classement par équipes

Notes et références

Liens externes

2022
Cyclisme en France en 2022
Cyclisme sur route en 2022
Cyclisme en avril 2022
Sport en France en avril 2022

Circuit de la Sarthe 2022


Crkva sv. Ivana Krstitelja je rimokatolička crkva u Podmilačju. Ovo je najstarije katoličko svetište u Bosni i Hercegovini, i u ovom dijelu Europe.

Podmilačje je poznato prije svega po svetištu sv. Ivana Krstitelja u crkvi izgrađenoj 1416. Po svojim stilskim obilježjima bliska je tadašnjoj europskoj sakralnoj arhitekturi kontinentalnoga tipa, ali joj je kasnogotički portal načinjen u nekoj radionici hrvatskoga priobalja. Crkva je duga 15,85 m i široka 8,50 m. Koncem 1992. godine crkvica je, zajedno sa župnom crkvom u koju je bila ugrađena, minirana i potpuno srušena. Obnova je završena 2000. godine.

Već u 18. stoljeću ima pisanih spomena o hodočašćenju, a vjerojatno se radi o znatno duljoj hodočasničkoj tradiciji. Krajem 19. stoljeća spominju se brojke od 7,000 do 8,000 hodočasnika za blagdan sv. Ivana Krstitelja. U razdoblju između dva rata hodočastilo je u prosjeku oko desetak tisuća, dok se sedamdesetih i osamdesetih godina okupljalo više desetaka tisuća vjernika.

Izvori

Vanjske poveznice
Facebook Župa i svetište svetog Ivana Krstitelja u Podmilačju
YouTube Turističko-promotivni film: "SVETI IVO U PODMILAČJU", Produkcija: Turistička zajednica SBK/KSB, Srednjabosna.ba

Ivana Krstitelja, crkva
Ivana Krstitelja, crkva
Podmilačje

Franjevačka crkva sv. Ivana Krstitelja u Podmilačju


An Habenaria bractescens in uska species han Liliopsida nga ginhulagway ni John Lindley. An Habenaria bractescens in nahilalakip ha genus nga Habenaria, ngan familia nga Orchidaceae. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Habenaria

Habenaria bractescens


An Triglochin gaspensis in uska species han Liliopsida nga ginhulagway ni Lieth ngan Doris Benta Maria Löve. An Triglochin gaspensis in nahilalakip ha genus nga Triglochin, ngan familia nga Juncaginaceae. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Triglochin

Triglochin gaspensis


1628 (MDCXXVIII) cumartesi günü başlayan bir artık yıldır.

Olaylar
 25 Ocak - Şah Cihan Babür İmparatoru oldu.

Doğumlar
 10 Mart - Marcello Malpighi, İtalyan biyolog ve hekim (ö. 1694)

Ölümler
 8 Haziran - Rudolph Goclenius, Alman filozof (d. 1547)
 30 Eylül - Fulke Greville, İngiliz yazar (d. 1554)
 16 Ekim - François de Malherbe, Fransız şair ve eleştirmen (d. 1555)
 16 Kasım - Paolo Quagliati, İtalyan besteci (d. 1555)

Artık yıllar

1628


زاوية الطور في الكهرباء هي الفرق الجبري بين زاوية الجهد وزاوية التيار وهي في دوائر التيار المستمر تساوي صفرا. ذلك لأن الجهد والتيار متحاذيان في الطور (لا يوجد بينهما فرق في الطور). يمكن وجود فرق الطور بين الجهد والتيار في حالة التيار المتردد. وكما هو موضح في الشكل فإن ازدياد انفراج زاوية الطور بين الجهد والتيار ينتج عنه ازدياد في القدرة غير الفعالة، وبالتالي انخفاض القدرة الفعالة لنفس القيمة من القدرة الظاهرية.

تعريف
يمكن أن تكتب الدالة الجيبية كالآتي:

حيث:

 متغير فيزيائي مع الزمن، مثل التيار الكهربائي المتردد،

 و ( مطال التيار الكهربائي، أي القيمة العظمى له (وتقاس بالأمبير).

كما تعرّف المقادير التالية:

 زاوية الطور  وهي متغير خطي بالنسبة للزمن،
 تردد زاوي  وهو ثابت بالنسبة إلى التردد  أو زمن الدورة ,
 زاوية الطور الصفرية   وهي زاوية الطور عند النقطة الزمنية .

ويرتبط بها في حالة موجتين جيبيتين بنفس التردد:

 فرق الطور  وهي الزاوية بين الطورين، وهي تكون مقدارا ثابتا لا يتغير بالنسبة للزمن.

مثال توضيحي: نفترض أن لدينا سلكين يمر في كل واحد منهما تيار متردد بنفس التردد (وليكونا من مصدرين مختلفين). ونفترض أن أوصلنا طرفي السلكين بسلك ثالث، فهناك احتمال كبير أن يكون التياران المترددان في السلك الثالث منزاحين عن بعضهما البعض بمقدار 12 -  ، وهذا هو فرق الطور  بين التيارين.

أمثال تلك المسائل تواجهنا في الهندسة الكهربائية عند التعامل مع التيار المتردد وعمل المحركات الكهربائية والمحولات الكهربائية والمولدات الكهربائية. كما أن موجات الصوت تتداخل مع بعضها البعض بنفس الطريقة، ولهذا فيمكن حسابها.

مؤشر دوار

يمكن تمثيل منحنى هزاز توافقي بواسطة «مؤشر» يدور بسرعة زاوية ثابتة ω حول مركز الإحداثيات (انظر الشكل). فعندما نسقط مسقطا للمؤشر على الاتجاه الأفقي، فإن نهاية المسقط تتغير طبقا لحركة اهتزاز توافقية. وتكون الزاوية بين «المؤشر» والاتجاه الأفقي هي زاوية الطور φ .

اقرأ أيضًا

 طور موجة
 تردد فراغي
 طول موجة
 العدد الموجي
 تداخل
 قياس التداخل
 تذبذب
 صوت
 محرك كهربائي

مراجع

زوايا
صوت
كميات فيزيائية
كهرباء
ميكانيكا موجية
هندسة الكهرباء

زاوية الطور


جامع النبي دانيال في كركوك ، العراق
 جامع النبي دانيال في الأسكندرية، مصر.

جامع النبي دانيال (توضيح)


Inspiring Fifty est une initiative, organisée depuis 2013 par le réseau EQL:HER, dont le but est de promouvoir, dans chaque pays participant, cinquante femmes qui se sont particulièrement distinguées dans les secteurs de la science, technologie, ingénierie et mathématiques (STEM). Figurer sur la liste des cinquante femmes inspirantes est non seulement une reconnaissance pour les femmes, entrepreneures, managers, professeures d'université, chercheuses et représentantes d'institutions, mais aussi et surtout une référence, un modèle pour les nouvelles générations. L'objectif de l'initiative est d'encourager les femmes à occuper des postes à responsabilité dans des secteurs technologiques, où elles sont traditionnellement sous-représentées et y accroître la diversité.

Fonctionnement
Inspiring Fifty est fondée en 2013 par Janneke Niessen et Joelle Frijters et constituée en association sans but lucratif, établie aux Pays-Bas.

Le projet est organisé sous forme de plateforme et propose des événements, des publications et des ateliers. Il démarre aux Pays-Bas. En 2022, des listes de cinquante femmes inspirantes sont établies dans huit pays supplémentaires, Canada, Belgique, Italie, Royaume-Uni, Danemark, Finlande, Suède, Afrique du Sud, pour leur accorder une reconnaissance et servir de modèles et d'inspiration à toutes les femmes. Le projet soutient également les médias et les organisateurs de conférence et les aide à identifier des interlocutrices.

En général, après un appel à candidatures, une liste de nominées est établie. Un jury composé de personnalités du secteur technologique analyse cette liste et décide de la liste finale de cinquante noms.

Afrique du Sud
La première liste de  inspirantes d'Afrique du Sud est publiée en 2017, sur base d'une liste de . Aisha Pandor de SweepSouth, Lindiwe Matlali, fondatrice et PDG d'Africa Teen Geeks, Rapelang Rabana fondatrice et PDG de Rekindle Learning, Ellen Fischat, directrice générale de Silicon Cape, Nunu Ntshingila, responsable de Facebook Afrique et Yolisa Kani, responsable des politiques publiques d'Uber SA, sont parmi les lauréates de cette première édition.

Belgique
Le projet est initié en Belgique en 2019 par Elke Kraemer, et Joëlle Frijters. La première liste de femmes inspirantes est adoptée par le jury en 2020. Elle comprend des femmes occupant des postes de direction, y compris des PDG, de grandes entreprises, des universitaires, de fondatrices de start-up, etc. Parmi ces femmes figurent notamment Ilham Kadri (Solvay) et Geertrui Mieke De Ketelaere (IMEC), Christine Van Broeckhoven (Centre de neurologie moléculaire de l'Université d'Anvers), Heidi Rakels (Guardsquare), Ingrid Daubechies (Duke University), Pattie Maes (MIT). La liste inclut aussi bien des femmes diplômées en science, technologie, ingénierie et mathématiques (STEM) que des femmes qui ne le sont pas. Une deuxième sélection a lieu en 2022. En Belgique, à peine 4,7 % des femmes dans le secteur des technologies occupent des postes de direction.

Deep Tech Benelux
À la liste de femmes belges de 2020, s'ajoute une liste Inspiring Fifty Deep Tech Benelux, qui vise les femmes ayant une expertise dans la Deep Tech, des innovation technologiques particulièrement innovantes, aux Pays-Bas et en Belgique. Parmi les lauréates de 2022, figure Hanneke Schuitemaker qui a été impliquée dans la mise au point de nombreux vaccins dont celui contre le SARS-CoV2.

Europe
Une liste spécifique à l'Europe est établie en 2022, sur laquelle on trouve Anne Boden, Anne-Marie Imafidon, Christine Van Broeckhoven, Edwina Dunn, Emma Sinclair, , Ilham Kadri, Joanna Shields, Kathryn Parsons, , , , Nadine Khouzam, , , , , Sheree Atcheson, Sonali De Rycker et Sonya Barlow.

France
En France, Inspiring Fifty est organisé dès 2017, en collaboration avec la publication The Innovator. Céline Lazorthes et Axelle Lemaire font partie des lauréates 2017, Céline Lazorthes et Marie Ekeland de celles de 2018.

Italie
En Italie, Inspiring Fifty commence en 2018 avec 200 candidates.

La seconde édition a lieu en 2021 et est organisée en collaboration avec Eni, Dazn and Klecha & Co. et le Corriere della Sera.

Pays nordiques
En 2016, Sara Öhrvall,  et  sont parmi les lauréates de la section Ispiring Fifty Nordic.

Royaume-Uni
Au Royaume-Uni, le projet Inspiring Fifty est conduit par accelerateHER et établit sa première liste en 2021. Le prix Inspiring Fifty est organisé dans le cadre de la London Tech Week. Parmi les lauréates figure Sonya Barlow, fondatrice de Like Minded Females Network.

Liens externes
 Inspiring Fifty Belgium
 Inspiring Fifty Canada
 Inspiting Fifty DACH
 Inspiring Fifty Deep Tech
 Inspiring Fifty Europe
 Inspiring Fifty Italy
 Inspiring Fifty Nordic
 Inspiring Fifty South Africa
 Inspiring Fifty The Netherlands
 Inspiring Fifty United Kingdom
 Site internet de EQL:HER

Références

Organisation non gouvernementale
Technologie
Place des femmes dans les sciences
Éducation

Inspiring Fifty


Bornholm rundt kan have flere betydninger:

 Bornholm Rundt (cykelrute) - en del af Danmarks nationale cykelruter
 Bornholm Rundt (cykelløb) - Cykelløb der foregår på Bornholm
 Bornholm rundt (film) - Turistfilm fra 1942

Bornholm rundt


El castillo de Talamanca es un antiguo castillo románico situado en Talamanca (Bages). En el  fue desmantelado y convertido en una casona fortificada.

Es mencionado por primera vez el año 967, y actualmente queda un trozo de torre redonda con almenas, restaurada y modificada, y restos de muros de defensa que rodean el edificio principal, reconstruido tras ser destruido en el  a consecuencia de las represalias de Felipe V contra los que participaron en la Guerra de Sucesión.

Historia
En el testamento sacramental del año 1086 de Ramón Folc, vizconde de Cardona, aparece el castillo de Talamancha como propiedad familiar.

En el  ya consta en varios documentos la existencia de la familia Talamanca. Parece que un tal Guillermo de Talamanca se casó con Dulce de Santa Coloma, insertándose así este último apellido. En 1288, Berenguer de Talamanca era el señor. En los años que van de 1365 a 1370 aparece el Castillo de Talamancha, de Ramón de Talamanca, XXX fuegos. En esta época entró en su patrimonio el castillo y la baronía de Calders.

En 1406 Andrea de Talamanca se casó con Joan Aymerich. En el mismo siglo se introduce también por boda el apellido de Planella, familia que tenía los señoríos del Castellnou de Moyá y Granera. En 1668 María Francisca se casó con Juan de Amat y Despalau, señor de Castellbell. Del matrimonio nació el hijo que se convirtió en el primer marqués de Castellbell, señor, entre otras, de las baronías de Calders, Granera y Talamanca y del castillo fronterizo del Castellnou de la Plana, en Moyá.

En 1714 las tropas austracistas del ejército catalán del interior, capitaneadas por el Marqués de Poal, usaron en varias ocasiones el castillo como base de operaciones. El castillo fue desmantelado casi por completo, en cumplimiento de las órdenes de derribo contra todos los castillos y casas fuertes catalanas dictadas por Felipe V como represalia por la Guerra de Sucesión. Fue reconstruido en parte más tarde, aunque sus piedras sirvieron para edificar la casa conocida como El castillo o El castillo del Marqués (por alusión a la familia marquesal de los Castellbell), y sirvió de granja para el cultivo de las tierras del castillo.

Véase también
 Bienes de interés cultural de la provincia de Barcelona

Referencias

Enlaces externos

 Ficha del castillo en la web del Ayuntamiento de Talamanca

Talamanca
Castillos de Cataluña del siglo X

Castillo de Talamanca


Palmaria nom. rejic., rod crvenih algi iz porodice Palmariaceae, dio reda Palmariales. Postoji šest priznatih vrsta unutar ovog roda koji je trenutno priznat, ali je njegovo ime potrebno odbaciti.

Vrste
 Palmaria decipiens (Reinsch) R.W.Ricker
 Palmaria georgica (Reinsch) R.W.Ricker
 Palmaria hecatensis M.W.Hawkes
 Palmaria integrifolia Selivanova & Zhigadlova
 Palmaria moniliformis (E.Blinova & A.D.Zinova) Perestenko
 Palmaria palmata (Linnaeus) F.Weber & D.Mohr

Izvori

Palmariaceae

Palmaria (rod)


الأوتوقراطية  هي شكل من أشكال الحكم، تكون فيه السلطة السياسية بيد شخص واحد بالتعيين لا بالانتخاب. كلمة «أوتوقراطي» أصلها يوناني وتعني (الحاكم الفرد، أو من يحكم بنفسه).

«استبدادية» هنا معنى اصطلاحي ناتج عن تعريب الكلمة، وقد تعرّب أحيانا بالدكتاتورية لكن في الواقع، هناك فرق في المعنى بين هذه المفردات، فالأوتوقراطية ليست مرادفة للشمولية، حيث أن هذه الفكرة اختلقت للتفريق بين الأنظمة الحديثة التي ظهرت في عام 1923 وبين الدكتاتوريات التقليدية. بالإضافة إلى ذلك، الأوتوقراطية ليست مرادفة ل الدكتاتورية العسكرية، فهنالك مثلا الأوتوقراطيات الليبرالية التي تحترم حقوق وحريات الأفراد.

مصطلح الملكية أيضا يختلف عن الأوتوقراطية في أنه يعكس صفة توريث الحكم هذا بالرغم من أن بعض الملكيات السلافية، بالأخص الأباطرة الروس كانوا يحملون لقب «أوتوقراطي». تاريخيا، العديد من الملوك حكموا بشكل أوتوقراطي ولكن في نهاية الأمر ضعف نفوذهم وتلاشى بعد أن كتبت وأقرت الدساتير التي أعطت الشعوب القوة لصناعة القرارات بأنفسهم من خلال ممثليهم في الحكومة.

يحتاج الأوتوقراطي إلى نوع من مساعدة أفراد نافذين ومؤسسات في المجتمع من أجل أن يستطيع أن يحكم سيطرته على الشعب. قلة هم الحكام الذين تمكنوا من أن يبسطوا نفوذهم عن طريق الحضور أو الكاريزما أو المهارات فقط، من غير مساعدة الآخرين. أغلبية الأوتوقراطيين اعتمدوا على طبقة النبلاء، والعسكر، أو الزعماء الدينيين أو آخرون، الذين بدورهم قد ينقلبون على الحاكم أو يقتلونه. لذا، قد يصعب معرفة الفرق بشكل واضح بين الأوتوقراطية والأوليغارشية التي تعني حكم القلة.

أنواع الأوتوقراطية
يميز موريس دي فرجيه بين نوعين من الأوتوقراطية:
 أولاً: الأوتوقراطية المعلنة، التي هي استثناء؛ ومن؟أمثلتها الأحزاب الفاشية أو الشبيهة بها، حيث تحل «رغبة الحاكم» محل الانتخاب كأساس للشرعية.
 ثانياً: الأوتوقراطية المقنعة، التي هي القاعدة، وهي إخفاء تعيين أوتوقراطي تحت مظاهر مختلفة الدرجة من الديمقراطية.وقد يعتبر النظام الاوتوقراطي ذاته بمثابة الحكم؛ لإنه مستقل عن الاحزاب، وفوق الأحزاب.

مصادر

انظر أيضًا
 القانون الحديدي للمؤسسات
 الثيوقراطية
 أنوقراطية
 شمولية
 استبداد
 استقطاب سياسي

نظم الحكومات
ديكتاتورية
سلطوية

أوتوقراطية


In Canada, federal budgets are presented annually by the Government of Canada to identify planned government spending and expected government revenue, and to forecast economic conditions for the upcoming year. They are usually released in February or March, before the start of the fiscal year.

All the Canadian provinces also present budgets. Since provincial finances depend on funds from the federal government, they are usually released after the federal budget.

Budget process
The budget is announced in the House of Commons by the Minister of Finance, who traditionally wears new shoes while doing so. The Budget is then voted on by the House of Commons.  Budgets are a confidence measure, and if the House votes against it the government can fall, as happened to Prime Minister Joe Clark's government in 1980.  The governing party strictly enforces party discipline, usually expelling from the party caucus any government Member of Parliament (MP) who votes against the budget.  Opposition parties almost always vote against the budget.  In cases of minority government, the government has normally had to include major concessions to one of the smaller parties to ensure passage of the budget.

Historically the official opposition used to prepare a complete alternative budget and present this alternative to the Canadian people along with the main budget.  In recent years, opposition parties are more likely to pick only certain aspects to criticize.  The Reform Party revived this practice for a time, however. A complete alternative budget is today produced each year by the Canadian Centre for Policy Alternatives, a non-partisan think-tank.

Traditionally, the budget process was immensely secretive with little consultation.  Under Prime Minister Louis St. Laurent, the Finance Minister famously would type the entire budget himself so that no secretary could read it.  This secrecy was felt to be needed for inside information could enable individuals to profit from upcoming government decisions.  The secrecy also had a large political component, as it would help undermine the response by the opposition.

Under Prime Minister Jean Chrétien and his Finance Minister Paul Martin, this changed considerably.  Most of the budget would be released well before its announcement, especially any major changes so as to get feedback from the populace and the market.

The process of creating the budget is a complex one which begins within the working ranks for the Federal Government. Each year, the various departments that make up the Government (for example, Health, Transportation, Foreign Affairs, National Defence, Industry, CRA, etc.) submit what are called 'The Main Estimates' to The Treasury Board Secretariat. These documents identify the planned expenditure of each department, linking these proposed expenses to programs, to objectives and ultimately to the priorities of the current ruling Government. The Treasury Board Secretariat combines these budget estimates and compiles an initial proposed budget.  From there, the Cabinet and Prime Minister's Office adjust the budget based on a series of economic, social and political factors. In reality, decisions are usually made with the primary intent of re-election and so often include advantages for key regions and lobby groups.

Following the budget, Parliament (the Canadian Parliament) will pass an Appropriation Act (called the 'Interim Supply') which will allow individual departments to spend 3/12th of their annual budget. (The Government of Canada Fiscal Year runs from April 1 to March 31.) This partial authority enables Parliament to spend more time in examining the Estimates documents. In June, Parliament appropriates the full supply.

Summary of budgets

See also
 Taxation in Canada
 Canadian public debt

International:
 Government budget by country

Notes and references

Notes

References

Budget

Canadian federal budget


Mitostemma margaritae je biljka iz porodice Passifloraceae, roda Mitostemma. Sinonim je Dilkea margaritae Cervi.

Raste u Brazilu u gornjem rasponu od pokrajine Mato Grosso do donjeg raspona u Reserva do Cabaçal.

Nije svrstana u IUCN-ov popis ugroženih vrsta.

Izvori

Vanjske poveznice
Mitostemma na Germplasm Resources Information Network (GRIN) , SAD-ov odjel za poljodjelstvo, služba za poljodjelska istraživanja.

Mitostemma

Mitostemma margaritae


O USS Salem é um cruzador pesado que foi operado pela Marinha dos Estados Unidos e a segunda embarcação da Classe Des Moines, depois do  e seguido pelo . Sua construção começou em julho de 1945 na Bethlehem Shipbuilding e foi lançado ao mar em março de 1947, sendo comissionado em maio de 1949. É armado com uma bateria principal de nove canhões de 203 milímetros montados em três torres de artilharia triplas, tinha um deslocamento de mais de 21 mil toneladas e alcançava uma velocidade máxima de 33 nós.

O Salem serviu durante toda sua carreira na Frota do Atlântico. Ele alternava períodos na Costa Leste dos Estados Unidos realizando treinamentos e exercícios de rotina com viagens de serviço quase anuais para o Mar Mediterrâneo, muitas vezes atuando como capitânia da Sexta Frota. Durante uma destas viagens ao Mediterrâneo realizou patrulhas na Crise do Líbano de 1958. Foi descomissionado em janeiro de 1959 e mantido inativo na reserva até 1994, quando foi transformado em um navio-museu na cidade de Quincy, estando aberto para visitação desde 1995.

Ligações externas

Classe Des Moines
Navios de 1947
Navios construídos em Massachusetts
Navios construídos pela Bethlehem Shipbuilding
Cruzadores da Marinha dos Estados Unidos
Navios-museu nos Estados Unidos

USS Salem (CA-139)


මන්මෝඩි ලෙන් (मानमोडी लेणी) යනුවෙන් හැඳින්වෙන්නේ ඉන්දියාවේ ජුන්නර් නගරයට 3 km පමණ දකුණින් පිහිටි කනින ලද ලෙන් සමූහයකි. ජුන්නර් ලෙන් වටා පිහිටි අනෙක් ලෙන් වන්නේ: තුල්ජා ලෙන්, ශිව්නේරි ලෙන් සහ ලෙන්‍යාද්‍රි ලෙන් ය.

ආශ්‍රේයයන්

බාහිර සබැඳි

 Kevin Standage, An Indian Travel Photography Blog (Manmodi caves)

මහාරාෂ්ට්‍රයේ ලෙන්
ඉන්දියාවේ බෞද්ධ ආරාම
ඉන්දියාවේ බෞද්ධ ලෙන්
ඉන්දියානු ශෛලමය ගෘහනිර්මාණ ශිල්පය
ඉන්දියාවේ පැරණි ජනාවාස පැවති ස්ථාන
ඉන්දියාවේ බෞද්ධ වන්දනා ස්ථාන
ඉන්දියාවේ බෞද්ධ විහාර
ඉන්දියාවේ ගෘහනිර්මාණ ශිල්පය

මන්මෝඩි ලෙන්