A residual-current device (RCD), residual-current circuit breaker (RCCB) or ground fault circuit interrupter (GFCI) is an electrical safety device that quickly breaks an electrical circuit with leakage current to ground. It is to protect equipment and to reduce the risk of serious harm from an ongoing electric shock. Injury may still occur in some cases, for example if a human receives a brief shock before the electrical circuit is isolated, falls after receiving a shock, or if the person touches both conductors at the same time.

If the RCD device has additional overcurrent protection integrated in the same device, it is referred to as RCBO. An earth leakage circuit breaker may be an RCD, although an older type of voltage-operated earth leakage circuit breaker (ELCB) also exists.

These electrical wiring devices are designed to quickly and automatically isolate a circuit when it detects that the electric current is unbalanced between the supply and return conductors of a circuit. Any difference between the currents in these conductors indicates leakage current, which presents a shock hazard. Alternating 60 Hz current above 20 mA (0.020 amperes) through the human body is potentially sufficient to cause cardiac arrest or serious harm if it persists for more than a small fraction of a second. RCDs are designed to disconnect the conducting wires ("trip") quickly enough to potentially prevent serious injury to humans, and to prevent damage to electrical devices.

RCDs are testable and resettable devices—a test button safely creates a small leakage condition, and another button resets the conductors after a fault condition has been cleared. Some RCDs disconnect both the energized and return conductors upon a fault (double pole), while a single pole RCD only disconnects the energized conductor. If the fault has left the return wire "floating" or not at its expected ground potential for any reason, then a single-pole RCD will leave this conductor still connected to the circuit when it detects the fault.

Purpose and operation

RCDs are designed to disconnect the circuit if there is a leakage current.  In their first implementation in the 1950s, power companies used them to prevent electricity theft where consumers grounded returning circuits rather than connecting them to neutral to inhibit electrical meters from registering their power consumption.

The most common modern application is as a safety device to detect small leakage currents (typically 5–30mA) and disconnecting quickly enough (<30 milliseconds) to prevent device damage or electrocution. They are an essential part of the automatic disconnection of supply (ADS), i.e. to switch off when a fault develops, rather than rely on human intervention, one of the essential tenets of modern electrical practice.

To reduce the risk of electrocution, RCDs should operate within 25–40 milliseconds with any leakage currents  (through a person) of greater than 30mA, before electric shock can drive the heart into ventricular fibrillation, the most common cause of death through electric shock. By contrast, conventional circuit breakers or fuses only break the circuit when the total current is excessive (which may be thousands of times the leakage current an RCD responds to). A small leakage current, such as through a person, can be a very serious fault, but would probably not increase the total current enough for a fuse or overload circuit breaker to isolate the circuit, and not fast enough to save a life.

RCDs operate by measuring the current balance between two conductors using a differential current transformer.  This measures the difference between current flowing through the live conductor and that returning through the neutral conductor. If these do not sum to zero, there is a leakage of current to somewhere else (to earth/ground or to another circuit), and the device will open its contacts. Operation does not require a fault current to return through the earth wire in the installation; the trip will operate just as well if the return path is through plumbing or contact with the ground or anything else. Automatic disconnection and a measure of shock protection is therefore still provided even if the earth wiring of the installation is damaged or incomplete.

For an RCD used with three-phase power, all three live conductors and the neutral (if fitted) must pass through the current transformer.

Application
Electrical plugs with incorporated RCD are sometimes installed on appliances that might be considered to pose a particular safety hazard, for example long extension leads, which might be used outdoors, or garden equipment or hair dryers, which may be used near a bath or sink. Occasionally an in-line RCD may be used to serve a similar function to one in a plug. By putting the RCD in the extension lead, protection is provided at whatever outlet is used even if the building has old wiring, such as knob and tube, or wiring that does not contain a grounding conductor.  The in-line RCD can also have a lower tripping threshold than the building to further improve safety for a specific electrical device.

In North America, GFI receptacles can be used in cases where there is no grounding conductor, but they must be labeled as "no equipment ground". This is referenced in the National Electric Code section 406 (D) 2, however codes change and someone should always consult a licensed professional and their local building and safety departments. The code is An ungrounded GFI receptacle will trip using the built-in "test" button, but will not trip using a GFI test plug, because the plug tests by passing a small current from line to the non-existent ground. It is worth noting that despite this, only one GFCI receptacle at the beginning of each circuit is necessary to protect downstream receptacles. There does not appear to be a risk of using multiple GFI receptacles on the same circuit, though it is considered redundant.

In Europe, RCDs can fit on the same DIN rail as the miniature circuit breakers; much like in miniature circuit breakers, the busbar arrangements in consumer units and distribution boards provides protection for anything downstream.

RCBO
A pure RCD will detect imbalance in the currents of the supply and return conductors of a circuit. But it cannot protect against overload or short circuit like a fuse or a miniature circuit breaker (MCB) does (except for the special case of a short circuit from live to ground, not live to neutral).

However, a RCD and a MCB often come integrated in the same device, thus being able to detect both supply imbalance and overload current. Such a device is called
 RCBO (for Residual-Current circuit Breaker with Overcurrent protection) in Europe and Australia;
 GFCI breaker (for ground fault circuit interrupter) in USA and Canada;

Typical design

The diagram depicts the internal mechanism of a residual-current device (RCD). The device is designed to be wired in-line in an appliance power cord. It is rated to carry a maximal current of 13A and is designed to trip on a leakage current of 30mA. This is an active RCD; that is, it latches electrically and therefore trips on power failure, a useful feature for equipment that could be dangerous on unexpected re-energisation. Some early RCDs were entirely electromechanical and relied on finely balanced sprung over-centre mechanisms driven directly from the current transformer. As these are hard to manufacture to the required accuracy and prone to drift in sensitivity both from pivot wear and lubricant dry-out, the electronically-amplified type with a more robust solenoid part as illustrated are now dominant.

In the internal mechanism of an RCD, the incoming supply and the neutral conductors are connected to the terminals at (1), and the outgoing load conductors are connected to the terminals at (2). The earth conductor (not shown) is connected through from supply to load uninterrupted.
When the reset button (3) is pressed, the contacts ((4) and another, hidden behind (5)) close, allowing current to pass. The solenoid (5) keeps the contacts closed when the reset button is released.

The sense coil (6) is a differential current transformer which surrounds (but is not electrically connected to) the live and neutral conductors. In normal operation, all the current down the live conductor returns up the neutral conductor. The currents in the two conductors are therefore equal and opposite and cancel each other out.

Any fault to earth (for example caused by a person touching a live component in the attached appliance) causes some of the current to take a different return path, which means that there is an imbalance (difference) in the current in the two conductors (single-phase case), or, more generally, a nonzero sum of currents from among various conductors (for example, three phase conductors and one neutral conductor).

This difference causes a current in the sense coil (6), which is picked up by the sense circuitry (7). The sense circuitry then removes power from the solenoid (5), and the contacts (4) are forced apart by a spring, cutting off the electricity supply to the appliance.  A power failure will also remove power from the solenoid and cause the contacts to open, causing the safe trip-on-power-failure behaviour mentioned above.

The test button (8) allows the correct operation of the device to be verified by passing a small current through the orange test wire (9). This simulates a fault by creating an imbalance in the sense coil. If the RCD does not trip when this button is pressed, then the device must be replaced.

RCD with additional overcurrent protection circuitry (RCBO or GFCI breaker)

Residual-current and over-current protection may be combined in one device for installation into the service panel; this device is known as a GFCI (Ground-Fault Circuit Interrupter) breaker in the US and Canada, and as a RCBO (residual-current circuit breaker with over-current protection) in Europe and Australia. They are effectively a combination of a RCD and a MCB. In the US, GFCI breakers are more expensive than GFCI outlets.

As well as requiring both live and neutral inputs and outputs (or, full three-phase), many GFCI/RCBO devices require a functional earth (FE) connection. This serves to provide both EMC immunity and to reliably operate the device if the input-side neutral connection is lost but live and earth remain.

For reasons of space, many devices, especially in DIN rail format, use flying leads rather than screw terminals, especially for the neutral input and FE connections. Additionally, because of the small form factor, the output cables of some models (Eaton/MEM) are used to form the primary winding of the RCD part, and the outgoing circuit cables must be led through a specially dimensioned terminal tunnel with the current transformer part around it. This can lead to incorrect failed trip results when testing with meter probes from the screw heads of the terminals, rather than from the final circuit wiring.

Having one RCD feeding another is generally unnecessary, provided they have been wired properly. One exception is the case of a TT earthing system, where the earth loop impedance may be high, meaning that a ground fault might not cause sufficient current to trip an ordinary circuit breaker or fuse. In this case a special 100mA (or greater) trip current time-delayed RCD is installed, covering the whole installation, and then more sensitive RCDs should be installed downstream of it for sockets and other circuits that are considered high-risk.

RCD with additional arc fault protection circuitry

In addition to ground fault circuit interrupters (GFCIs), arc-fault circuit interrupters (AFCI) are equally important as they offer added protection from potentially hazardous arc-faults resulting from damage in branch circuit wiring as well as extensions to branches such as appliances and cord sets. By detecting hazardous arc-faults and responding by interrupting power, AFCIs helps reduce the likelihood of the home's electrical system being an ignition source of a fire. Dual function AFCI/GFCI devices offer both electrical fire prevention and shock prevention in one device making them a solution for many rooms in the home, especially when replacing an existing standard receptacle or existing ungrounded receptacle.

Common features and variations

Differences in disconnection actions
Major differences exist regarding the manner in which an RCD-unit will act to disconnect the power to a circuit or appliance.

There are four situations in which different types of RCD-units are used:

 At the consumer power distribution level, usually in conjunction with an RCBO resettable circuit breaker;
 Built into a wall socket;
 Plugged into a wall socket, which may be part of a power-extension cable; and
 Built into the cord of a portable appliance, such as those intended to be used in outdoor or wet areas.

The first three of those situations relate largely to usage as part of a power-distribution system and are almost always of the 'passive' or 'latched' variety, whereas the fourth relates solely to specific appliances and are always of the 'active' or 'non-latching' variety.  'Active' means prevention of any 're-activation' of the power supply after any inadvertent form of power outage, as soon as the mains supply becomes re-established; 'latch' relates to a 'switch' inside the unit housing the RCD that remains as set following any form of power outage, but has to be reset manually after the detection of an error-condition.

In the fourth situation, it would be deemed to be highly undesirable, and probably very unsafe, for a connected appliance to automatically resume operation after a power disconnection, without having the operator in attendance – as such, manual reactivation of the RCD is necessary.

The difference between the modes of operation of the essentially two different types of RCD functionality is that the operation for power distribution purposes requires the internal latch to remain set within the RCD after any form of power disconnection caused by either the user turning the power off, or after any power outage; such arrangements are particularly applicable for connections to  refrigerators and freezers.

Situation two is mostly installed just as described above, but some wall socket RCDs are available to fit the fourth situation, often by operating a switch on the fascia panel.

RCDs for the first and third situation are most commonly rated at 30mA and 40ms. For the fourth situation, there is generally a greater choice of ratings available – generally all lower than the other forms, but lower values often result in more nuisance tripping.  Sometimes users apply protection in addition to one of the other forms, when they wish to override those with a lower rating. It may be wise to have a selection of type 4 RCDs available, because connections made under damp conditions or using lengthy power cables are more prone to trip-out when any of the lower ratings of RCD are used; ratings as low as 10mA are available.

Number of poles and pole terminology
The number of poles represents the number of conductors that are interrupted when a fault condition occurs. RCDs used on single-phase AC supplies (two current paths), such as domestic power, are usually one- or two-pole designs, also known as single- and double-pole. A single-pole RCD interrupts only the energized conductor, while a double-pole RCD interrupts both the energized and return conductors. (In a single-pole RCD, the return conductor is usually anticipated to be at ground potential at all times and therefore safe on its own).

RCDs with three or more poles can be used on three-phase AC supplies (three current paths) or to disconnect the neutral conductor as well, with four-pole RCDs used to interrupt three-phase and neutral supplies. Specially designed RCDs can also be used with both AC and DC power distribution systems.

The following terms are sometimes used to describe the manner in which conductors are connected and disconnected by an RCD:
 Single-pole or one-pole – the RCD will disconnect the energized wire only.
 Double-pole or two-pole – the RCD will disconnect both the energized and return wires.
 1+N and 1P+N – non-standard terms used in the context of RCBOs, at times used differently by different manufacturers. Typically these terms may signify that the return (neutral) conductor is an isolating pole only, without a protective element (an unprotected but switched neutral), that the RCBO provides a conducting path and connectors for the return (neutral) conductor but this path remains uninterrupted when a fault occurs (sometimes known as "solid neutral"), or that both conductors are disconnected for some faults (such as RCD detected leakage) but only one conductor is disconnected for other faults (such as overload).

Sensitivity
RCD sensitivity is expressed as the rated residual operating current, noted IΔn. Preferred values have been defined by the IEC, thus making it possible to divide RCDs into three groups according to their IΔn value:
 high sensitivity (HS): 5** – 10 – 30mA (for direct-contact or life injury protection),
 medium sensitivity (MS): 100 – 300 – 500 – 1000mA (for fire protection),
 low sensitivity (LS): 3 – 10 – 30A (typically for protection of machine).

The 5mA sensitivity is typical for GFCI outlets.

Break time (response speed)
There are two groups of devices. G (general use) instantaneous RCDs have no intentional time delay. They must never trip at one-half of the nominal current rating, but must trip within 200 milliseconds for rated current, and within 40 milliseconds at five times rated current.  S (selective) or T (time-delayed) RCDs have a short time delay. They are typically used at the origin of an installation for fire protection to discriminate with G devices at the loads, and in circuits containing surge suppressors. They must not trip at one-half of rated current. They provide at least 130 milliseconds delay of tripping at rated current, 60 milliseconds at twice rated, and 50 milliseconds at five times rated. The maximum break time is 500ms at rated current, 200ms at twice rated, and 150ms at five times rated.

Programmable earth fault relays are available to allow co-ordinated installations to minimise outage. For example, a power distribution system might have a 300mA, 300ms device at the service entry of a building, feeding several 100mA S type at each sub-board, and 30mA G type for each final circuit. In this way, a failure of a device to detect the fault will eventually be cleared by a higher-level device, at the cost of interrupting more circuits.

Type (types of leakage current detected)
IEC Standard 60755 (General requirements for residual current operated protective devices) defines three types of RCD depending on the waveforms and frequency of the fault current.
 Type AC RCDs trip on sinusoidal residual current.
 Type A RCDs, in addition to Type AC, also respond to pulsating or continuous direct current of either polarity.
 Type B RCDs, in addition to Type A, also respond to steady DC, and higher frequency current, or for combinations of alternating and direct current as may be found from single-phase or multi-phase rectifying circuits, like all the switching power supplies used at home, or for example washing machines etc., equipped with DC motors.
The BEAMA RCD Handbook - Guide to the Selection and Application of RCDs summarises this as follows:
 Type AC RCDs trip on alternating sinusoidal residual current, suddenly applied or smoothly increasing.
 Type A RCDs trip on alternating sinusoidal residual current and on residual pulsating direct current, suddenly applied or smoothly increasing.
 Type F RCDs trip in the same conditions as Type A and in addition:
 for composite residual currents, whether suddenly applied or slowly rising intended for circuit supplied between phase and neutral or phase and earthed middle conductor;
 for residual pulsating direct currents superimposed on smooth direct current.
 Type B RCDs trip in the same conditions as Type F and in addition:
 for residual sinusoidal alternating currents up to 1kHz;
 for residual alternating currents superimposed on a smooth direct current;
 for residual pulsating direct currents superimposed on a smooth direct current;
 for residual pulsating rectified direct current which results from two or more phases;
 for residual smooth direct currents whether suddenly applied or slowly increased independent of polarity.
and notes that these designations have been introduced because some designs of type A and AC RCD can be disabled if a DC current is present that saturates the core of the detector.

Surge current resistance
The surge current refers to the peak current an RCD is designed to withstand using a test impulse of specified characteristics. The IEC 61008 and IEC 61009 standards require that RCDs withstand a 200A "ring wave" impulse.   The standards also require RCDs classified as "selective"  to withstand a 3000A impulse surge current of specified waveform.

Testing of correct operation

RCDs can be tested with a built-in test button to confirm functionality on a regular basis. RCDs may not operate correctly if wired improperly, so they are generally tested by the installer. By introducing a controlled fault current from live to earth, the operating time and wiring can be tested. Such a test may be performed on installation of the device and at any "downstream" outlet. (Upstream outlets are not protected.) To avoid needless tripping, only one RCD should be installed on any single circuit (excluding corded RCDs, such as bathroom small appliances).

Limitations
A residual-current circuit breaker cannot remove all risk of electric shock or fire. In particular, an RCD alone will not detect overload conditions, phase-to-neutral short circuits or phase-to-phase short circuits (see three-phase electric power). Over-current protection (fuses or circuit breakers) must be provided. Circuit breakers that combine the functions of an RCD with overcurrent protection respond to both types of fault. These are known as RCBOs and are available in 2-, 3- and 4-pole configurations. RCBOs will typically have separate circuits for detecting current imbalance and for overload current but use a common interrupting mechanism. Some RCBOs have separate levers for residual-current and over-current protection or use a separate indicator for ground faults.

An RCD helps to protect against electric shock when current flows through a person from a phase (live / line / hot) to earth. It cannot protect against electric shock when current flows through a person from phase to neutral or from phase to phase, for example where a finger touches both live and neutral contacts in a light fitting; a device cannot differentiate between current flow through an intended load from flow through a person, though the RCD may still trip if the person is in contact with the ground (earth), as some current may still pass through the persons finger and body to earth.

Whole installations on a single RCD, common in older installations in the UK, are prone to "nuisance" trips that can cause secondary safety problems with loss of lighting and defrosting of food. Frequently the trips are caused by deteriorating insulation on heater elements, such as water heaters and cooker elements or rings. Although regarded as a nuisance, the fault is with the deteriorated element and not the RCD: replacement of the offending element will resolve the problem, but replacing the RCD will not.

RCDs are not selective, for example when a ground fault occurs on a circuit protected by a 30 mA IΔn RCD in series with a 300 mA IΔn RCD either or both may trip. Special time-delayed types are available to provide selectivity in such installations.

In the case of RCDs that need a power supply, a dangerous condition can arise if the neutral wire is broken or switched off on the supply side of the RCD, while the corresponding live wire remains uninterrupted. The tripping circuit needs power to work and does not trip when the power supply fails. Connected equipment will not work without a neutral, but the RCD cannot protect people from contact with the energized wire. For this reason circuit breakers must be installed in a way that ensures that the neutral wire cannot be switched off unless the live wire is also switched off at the same time. Where there is a requirement for switching off the neutral wire, two-pole breakers (or four-pole for 3-phase) must be used. To provide some protection with an interrupted neutral, some RCDs and RCBOs are equipped with an auxiliary connection wire that must be connected to the earth busbar of the distribution board. This either enables the device to detect the missing neutral of the supply, causing the device to trip, or provides an alternative supply path for the tripping circuitry, enabling it to continue to function normally in the absence of the supply neutral.

Related to this, a single-pole RCD/RCBO interrupts the energized conductor only, while a double-pole device interrupts both the energized and return conductors. Usually this is a standard and safe practice, since the return conductor is held at ground potential anyway. However, because of its design, a single-pole RCD will not isolate or disconnect all relevant wires in certain uncommon situations, for example where the return conductor is not being held, as expected, at ground potential, or where current leakage occurs between the return and earth conductors. In these cases, a double-pole RCD will offer protection, since the return conductor would also be disconnected.

History and nomenclature
The world's first high-sensitivity earth leakage protection system (i.e. a system capable of protecting people from the hazards of direct contact between a live conductor and earth), was a second-harmonic magnetic amplifier core-balance system, known as the magamp, developed in South Africa by Henri Rubin. Electrical hazards were of great concern in South African gold mines, and Rubin, an engineer at the company C.J. Fuchs Electrical Industries of Alberton Johannesburg, initially developed a cold-cathode system in 1955 which operated at 525V and had a tripping sensitivity of 250mA. Prior to this, core balance earth leakage protection systems operated at sensitivities of about 10A.

The cold cathode system was installed in a number of gold mines and worked reliably. However, Rubin began working on a completely novel system with greatly improved sensitivity, and by early 1956, he had produced a prototype second-harmonic magnetic amplifier-type core balance system (South African Patent No. 2268/56 and Australian Patent No. 218360). The prototype magamp was rated at 220V, 60A and had an internally adjustable tripping sensitivity of 12.5–17.5mA. Very rapid tripping times were achieved through a novel design, and this combined with the high sensitivity was well within the safe current–time envelope for ventricular fibrillation determined by Charles Dalziel of the University of California, Berkeley, USA, who had estimated electrical shock hazards in humans.  This system, with its associated circuit breaker, included overcurrent and short-circuit protection. In addition, the original prototype was able to trip at a lower sensitivity in the presence of an interrupted neutral, thus protecting against an important cause of electrical fire.

Following the accidental electrocution of a woman in a domestic accident at the Stilfontein gold mining village near Johannesburg, a few hundred F.W.J. 20mA magamp earth leakage protection units were installed in the homes of the mining village during 1957 and 1958.  F.W.J. Electrical Industries, which later changed its name to FW Electrical Industries, continued to manufacture 20mA single phase and three phase magamp units.

At the time that he worked on the magamp, Rubin also considered using transistors in this application, but concluded that the early transistors then available were too unreliable. However, with the advent of improved transistors, the company that he worked for and other companies later produced transistorized versions of earth leakage protection.

In 1961, Dalziel, working with Rucker Manufacturing Co., developed a transistorized device for earth leakage protection which became known as a Ground Fault Circuit Interrupter (GFCI), sometimes colloquially shortened to Ground Fault Interrupter (GFI). This name for high-sensitivity earth leakage protection is still in common use in the U.S.A.

In the early 1970s most North American GFCI devices were of the circuit breaker type. GFCIs built into the outlet receptacle became commonplace beginning in the 1980s. The circuit breaker type, installed into a distribution panel, suffered from accidental trips mainly caused by poor or inconsistent insulation on the wiring. False trips were frequent when insulation problems were compounded by long circuit lengths. So much current leaked along the length of the conductors' insulation that the breaker might trip with the slightest increase of current imbalance. The migration to outlet-receptacle–based protection in North American installations reduced the accidental trips and provided obvious verification that wet areas were under electrical-code–required protection. European installations continue to use primarily RCDs installed at the distribution board, which provides protection in case of damage to fixed wiring. In Europe socket-based RCDs are primarily used for retrofitting.

Regulation and adoption

Regulations differ widely from country to country. A single RCD installed for an entire electrical installation provides protection against shock hazards to all circuits, however, any fault may cut all power to the premises. A solution is to create groups of circuits each with a RCD, or to use RCBO for each individual circuit.

Australia
In Australia, residual current devices have been mandatory on power circuits since 1991 and on light circuits since 2000. In Queensland specifically, residual power devices have been compulsory for all new homes since 1992.

A minimum of two RCDs is required per domestic installation. All socket outlets and lighting circuits are to be distributed over circuit RCDs. A maximum of three subcircuits only, may be connected to a single RCD. In Australia, the RCD testing procedure must meet a set standard – this is the AS/NZS 3760:2010 in-service safety inspection and testing of electrical equipment.

Austria
Austria regulated residual current devices in the ÖVE E8001-1/A1:2013-11-01 norm (most recent revision). It has been required in private housing since 1980. The maximum activation time must not exceed 0.4 seconds. It needs to be installed on all circuits with power plugs with a maximum leakage current of 30mA and a maximum rated current of 16A.

Additional requirements are placed on circuits in wet areas, construction sites and commercial buildings.

Belgium
Belgian domestic installations are required to be equipped with a 300mA residual current device that protects all circuits. Furthermore, at least one 30mA residual current device is required that protects all circuits in "wet rooms" (e.g. bathroom, kitchen) as well as circuits that power certain "wet" appliances (washing machine, tumble dryer, dishwasher). Electrical underfloor heating is required to be protected by a 100mA RCD. These RCDs must be of type A.

Brazil
Since NBR 5410 (1997) residual current devices and grounding are required for new construction or repair in wet areas, outdoor areas, interior outlets used for external appliances, or in areas where water is more probable like bathrooms and kitchens.

Denmark
Denmark requires 30mA RCDs on all circuits that are rated for less than 20 A (circuits at greater rating are mostly used for distribution). RCDs became mandatory in 1975 for new buildings, and then for all buildings in 2008.

France
According to the NF C 15-100 regulation (1911 -> 2002), a general RCD not exceeding 100 to 300mA at the origin of the installation is mandatory. Moreover, all circuits must also include 30mA protections in the user's distribution board, with each RCD protecting up to 8 circuit breakers, usually on the same DIN rail (electric panels of 1 to 4 DIN rails are the norm for residential). Before 1991, this 30mA protection was mandatory only in rooms where there is water, high power or sensitive equipment (bathrooms, kitchens, IT...). The type of RCD required (A, AC, F) depends upon the type of the equipment that will be connected and the maximum power of the socket outlet. Minimal distances between electrical devices and water or the floor are described and mandatory.

Germany
Since 1 May 1984, RCDs are mandatory for all rooms with a bath tub or a shower. Since June 2007 Germany requires the use of RCDs with a trip current of no more than 30mA on sockets rated up to 32A which are for general use. (DIN VDE 0100-410 Nr. 411.3.3).
It isn't allowed to use type "AC" RCDs since 1987, to be used to protect humans against electrical shocks.
It must be Type "A" or type "B".

India
According to Regulation 36 of the Electricity Regulations 1990

a) For a place of public entertainment, protection against earth leakage current must be provided by a residual current device of sensitivity not exceeding 10mA.

b) For a place where the floor is likely to be wet or where the wall or enclosure is of low electrical resistance, protection against earth leakage current must be provided by a residual current device of sensitivity not exceeding 10mA.

c) For an installation where hand-held equipment, apparatus or appliance is likely to be used, protection against earth leakage current must be provided by a residual current device of sensitivity not exceeding 30mA.

d) For an installation other than the installation in (a), (b) and (c), protection against earth leakage current must be provided by a residual current device of sensitivity not exceeding 100mA.

Italy
The Italian law (n. 46 March 1990) prescribes RCDs with no more than 30mA residual current (informally called "salvavita"—life saver, after early BTicino models, or differential circuit breaker for the mode of operation) for all domestic installations to protect all the lines. The law was recently updated to mandate at least two separate RCDs for separate domestic circuits. Short-circuit and overload protection has been compulsory since 1968.

Malaysia
In the latest guidelines for electrical wiring in residential buildings (2008) handbook, the overall residential wiring need to be protected by a residual current device of sensitivity not exceeding 100mA. Additionally, all power sockets need to be protected by a residual current device of sensitivity not exceeding 30mA and all equipment in wet places (water heater, water pump) need to be protected by a residual current device of sensitivity not exceeding 10mA.

New Zealand
From January 2003, all new circuits originating at the switchboard supplying lighting or socket outlets (power points) in domestic buildings must have RCD protection. Residential facilities (such as boarding houses, hospitals, hotels and motels) will also require RCD protection for all new circuits originating at the switchboard supplying socket outlets. These RCDs will normally be located at the switchboard. They will provide protection for all electrical wiring and appliances plugged into the new circuits.

North America

In North America socket-outlets located in places where an easy path to ground exists—such as wet areas and rooms with uncovered concrete floors—must be protected by a GFCI. The US National Electrical Code has required devices in certain locations to be protected by GFCIs since the 1960s. Beginning with underwater swimming pool lights (1968) successive editions of the code have expanded the areas where GFCIs are required to include: construction sites (1974), bathrooms and outdoor areas (1975), garages (1978), areas near hot tubs or spas (1981), hotel bathrooms (1984), kitchen counter sockets (1987), crawl spaces and unfinished basements (1990), near wet bar sinks (1993), near laundry sinks (2005) and in laundry rooms (2014).

GFCIs are commonly available as an integral part of a socket or a circuit breaker installed in the distribution panelboard. GFCI sockets invariably have rectangular faces and accept so-called Decora face plates, and can be mixed with regular outlets or switches in a multi-gang box with standard cover plates. In both Canada and the US older two-wire, ungrounded NEMA 1 sockets may be replaced with NEMA 5 sockets protected by a GFCI (integral with the socket or with the corresponding circuit breaker) in lieu of rewiring the entire circuit with a grounding conductor. In such cases the sockets must be labeled "no equipment ground" and "GFCI protected"; GFCI manufacturers typically provide tags for the appropriate installation description.

GFCIs approved for protection against electric shock trip at 5mA within 25ms. A GFCI device which protects equipment (not people) is allowed to trip as high as 30mA of current; this is known as an Equipment Protective Device (EPD). RCDs with trip currents as high as 500mA are sometimes deployed in environments (such as computing centers) where a lower threshold would carry an unacceptable risk of accidental trips. These high-current RCDs serve for equipment and fire protection instead of protection against the risks of electrical shocks.

In the United States the American Boat and Yacht Council requires both GFCIs for outlets and Equipment Leakage Circuit Interrupters (ELCI) for the entire boat. The difference is GFCIs trip on 5mA of current whereas ELCIs trip on 30mA after up to 100ms. The greater values are intended to provide protection while minimizing nuisance trips.

Norway
In Norway, it has been required in all new homes since 2002, and on all new sockets since 2006. This applies to 32A sockets and below. The RCD must trigger after a maximum 0.4 seconds for 230V circuits, or 0.2 seconds for 400V circuits.

South Africa
South Africa mandated the use of Earth Leakage Protection devices in residential environments (e.g. houses, flats, hotels, etc.) from October 1974, with regulations being refined in 1975 and 1976.

Devices need to be installed in new premises and when repairs are carried out. Protection is required for power outlets and lighting, with the exception of emergency lighting that should not be interrupted. The standard device used in South Africa is indeed a hybrid of ELPD and RCCB.

Taiwan
Taiwan requires circuits of receptacles in washrooms, balconies, and receptacles in kitchen no more than 1.8 metres from the sink the use of earth leakage circuit breakers. This requirement also apply to circuit of water heater in washrooms and circuits that involves devices in water, lights on metal frames, public drinking fountains and so on. In principle, ELCBs should be installed on branch circuits, with trip current no more than 30mA within 0.1 second according to Taiwanese law.

Turkey
Turkey requires the use of RCDs with no more than 30mA and 300mA in all new homes since 2004. This rule was introduced in RG-16/06/2004-25494.

United Kingdom
The current (18th) edition of the IEE Electrical Wiring Regulations requires that all socket outlets in most  installations have RCD protection, though there are exemptions. Non armoured cables buried in walls must also be RCD protected (again with some specific exemptions). Provision of RCD protection for circuits present in bathrooms and shower rooms reduces the requirement for supplementary bonding in those locations. Two RCDs may be used to cover the installation, with upstairs and downstairs lighting and power circuits spread across both RCDs. When one RCD trips, power is maintained to at least one lighting and power circuit. Other arrangements, such as the use of RCBOs, may be employed to meet the regulations. The new requirements for RCDs do not affect most existing installations unless they are rewired, the distribution board is changed, a new circuit is installed, or alterations are made such as additional socket outlets or new cables buried in walls.

RCDs used for shock protection must be of the 'immediate' operation type (not time-delayed) and must have a residual current sensitivity of no greater than 30mA.

If spurious tripping would cause a greater problem than the risk of the electrical accident the RCD is supposed to prevent (examples might be a supply to a critical factory process, or to life support equipment), RCDs may be omitted, providing affected circuits are clearly labelled and the balance of risks considered; this may include the provision of alternative safety measures.

The previous edition of the regulations required use of RCDs for socket outlets that were liable to be used by outdoor appliances. Normal practice in domestic installations was to use a single RCD to cover all the circuits requiring RCD protection (typically sockets and showers) but to have some circuits (typically lighting) not RCD protected. This was to avoid a potentially dangerous loss of lighting should the RCD trip. Protection arrangements for other circuits varied. To implement this arrangement it was common to install a consumer unit incorporating an RCD in what is known as a split load configuration, where one group of circuit breakers is supplied direct from the main switch (or time delay RCD in the case of a TT earth) and a second group of circuits is supplied via the RCD. This arrangement had the recognised problems that cumulative earth leakage currents from the normal operation of many items of equipment could cause spurious tripping of the RCD, and that tripping of the RCD would disconnect power from all the protected circuits.

See also

 Domestic AC power plugs and sockets
 Electrical injury
 Insulation monitoring device
 Protective relay
 Arc-fault circuit interrupter
Isolation transformer

Notes

References

External links

GFCIs Fact Sheet (US Consumer Product Safety Commission)
Test of RCCB as per IEC 61008/61009 (Residual Current Device Testing)
 Why RCD is tripping? - Explanation of nuisance tripping causes

Electrical wiring
Safety switches
Electrical safety

Residual-current device


Caso Miguel ou Caso menino Miguel pode referir-se a:
Caso Miguel Otávio Santana da Silva (Recife)
Caso Miguel dos Santos Rodrigues (Imbé)

Caso Miguel


Pleurozia, rod jetrenjarki smještena u vlastitu porodicu Pleuroziaceae i red Pleuroziales. Porodici su bili pripisivani rodovi Eopleurozia R.M. Schust., Physiotium Nees (nelegitimno ime) i danas jedini priznati rod Pleurozia.

Postoji 12 priznatih vrsta.

Vrste
 Pleurozia acinosa (Mitt.) Trevis.
 Pleurozia articulata (Lindb.) Lindb. et Lackström
 Pleurozia caledonica  (Gottsche) Steph.
 Pleurozia conchifolia  (Hook. et Arn.) Austin
 Pleurozia curiosa B.M.Thiers
 Pleurozia gigantea (F.Weber) Lindb.
 Pleurozia heterophylla Steph. ex Fulford
 Pleurozia johannis-winkleri Herzog
 Pleurozia paradoxa  (J.B.Jack) Schiffn.
 Pleurozia pocsii  Frank Müll.
 Pleurozia purpurea  Lindb.
 Pleurozia subinflata (Austin) Austin

Izvori

Metzgeriidae

Pleurozia


Karl Ernst Schnell () a fost un politician sas, primar al Brașovului între anii 1911–1926.

Realizări
În data de 7 decembrie 1918 a întâmpinat în Piața Sfatului trupele românești în numele orașului Brașov. Consiliul Național Român i-a apreciat gestul și l-a lăsat în funcție.

Din inițiativa primarului Schnell a fost adoptată hotărârea de consiliu orășenesc prin care Cetatea Bran a fost donată la 1 decembrie 1920 reginei Maria a României.

Scrieri
Karl Ernst Schnell, Aus meinem Leben, Kronstadt [Brașov], 1936.

Memoria
O stradă din cartierul Blumăna (Blumenau) a purtat din perioada interbelică până în anul 1950 numele primarului Schnell. În 1950 strada respectivă a fost redenumită după scriitorul N. D. Cocea (1880-1949), nume pe care îl poartă până în prezent.

Note

Bibliografie
Dr. jur. Wilhelm Klein, So manche Klippe umschifft. Ein tüchtiger Beamter: Dr. jur. Karl Ernst Schnell, în: Neuer Weg, nr. 13.093, 18 octombrie 1991, p. 4.

Nașteri în 1866
Decese în 1939
Primari ai Brașovului
Germani din România
Memorialiști români
Sași transilvăneni
Brașoveni
Oameni din Austro-Ungaria
Decorați cu Ordinul Coroana României
Politicieni sași

Karl Ernst Schnell


O estaleiro Framnæs (Framnæs mekaniske Værksted) foi uma antiga empresa de construção e engenharia naval norueguesa com sede em Sandefjord, no condado de Vestfold, Noruega. Originalmente fortemente ligada à indústria baleeira, nos últimos anos entrou em construção naval mais versátil, incluindo plataformas e módulos para o negócio offshore. Foi constituída em 1898 e foi fechada em 1986.

Navios construídos
Os navios mais conhecidos hoje construídos no estaleiro incluem:

 Jason
 Godthaab
 Endurance
 Christian Radich
 Viking

Empresas extintas

Framnæs Mekaniske Værksted


Brydekamp er en film instrueret af Peter Elfelt.

Handling
Bryderen Magnus Bech-Olsens kamp mod franskmanden Poul Pons.

Referencer

Eksterne henvisninger

Danske film fra 1899
Brydning
Dokumentariske optagelser

Brydekamp mellem Bech-Olsen og Poul Pons


Kurów güneydoğu Polonya'da bir kasabadır. Puławy ve Lublin arasında, Kurówka nehri üzerinde yer alır. Lublin voyvodalığı (Lublin Voivodship) içinde ayrı bir gmina'nın merkezidir ve yaklaşık 2870 kişi (2013) yaşamaktadır.

Resimler

Polonya'daki şehirler

Kurów


Hasret Şükrü Gültekin (1 Mayıs 1971, İmranlı, Sivas - 2 Temmuz 1993, Sivas), Alevi Kürt kökenli Türk, halk ozanı, halk şairi, Türk halk müziği ses sanatçısı, müzisyen, bestekar, söz yazarı ve bağlama virtüözüydü.

6 yaşında bağlama çalmaya başlayan Hasret Gültekin, ilerleyen dönemlerde profesyonelliğe adım atarak şelpe tekniğini uygulamaya başlamıştır. 1980'lerin ortalarında çeşitli albümlerin yapımlarında yer alan Hasret Gültekin, 1987 yılında profesyonel olarak ilk albümünü çıkarmıştır. Ardından Kürtçe ve Kürtçe müziğinin söylenmesinin yasak olduğu bir dönemde bu yasağı delip Newroz adlı albüm serisini hazırlamıştır. Bu çalışmalarıyla birbirine yakın bir süreçte hazırladığı ikinci solo albümü Gece ile Gündüz Arasında ise onun ileride "Bağlama Devrimcisi" olarak anılmasına vesile olan bir yeniliği beraberinde getirir. 1991 yılında ise kendi tabiriyle ilerici müzik adını verdiği Rüzgarın Kanatları isimli albümünü dinleyicilerine sunmuştur. Albüm, Hasret Gültekin'in ilerici müziğinin yanı sıra "Derman Sendedir", "Çeke Çeke", "Yaralı Ceylan" gibi eserlere yaptığı yeni düzenleme ve introlardan, ezgilerde kullanılmış çok sesliliğe, yıllardır alışılagelmiş deyiş yapısını deyişlerin ana hatlarını, özünü bozmadan batı müziği ve ritmleriyle bir araya getirmesi, halk müziği adına bir devrim olarak nitelendirilmektedir.

2 Temmuz 1993 tarihinde Pir Sultan Abdal Şenlikleri için gittiği Sivas'ta son konserlerini vermiş ve Sivas Katliamında Madımak Otelide 33 kişi ile birlikte yakılarak öldürülmüştür.

Hayatı ve kariyeri
Sivas'ın İmranlı ilçesine bağlı Han köyünde dünyaya geldi. Süleyman ve Hacıhanım Gültekin'in üçüncü çocuğudur. Gültekin 6 yaşında iken bağlama çalmaya başladı. Girdiği Kadıköy Maarif Koleji ve Anadolu Lisesini yarıda bırakarak müzik hayatına başladı. Aynı zamanda siyasi bir kişiliğe de sahip olan Gültekin, İşçi Partisi üyesiydi. Sanatçı ilk resitalini Kadıköy Moda Sineması'nda verdi ve ilk albümü Gün Olaydıyı 16 yaşında çıkardı. Talip Özkan'ın öğrencisi oldu. 1989 yılında çıkardığı Gece ile Gündüz Arasında adlı albümü ile sadece sesi ile değil bağlama ve şelpe tekniğiyle de dikkatleri çekti. Çok sayıda sanatçının albümüne müzik yönetmeni olarak imza atmıştır. 1991'de Rüzgarın Kanatlarında adlı bir albüm daha çıkarmıştır.

Uluslararası festivallerde Türkiye'yi temsil eden Hasret Gültekin, 1991'de Yeter Gültekin'le evlendi. Bilimsel sosyalizmi benimsedi; önce Sosyalist Parti'nin, bu parti kapatılınca da İşçi Partisi'nin üyesi oldu. Pir Sultan Abdal Kültür Festivali'ne katılmak üzere gittiği Sivas'ta konakladığı Madımak Oteli'nin kundaklanması sonucu yaşanan katliamda 34 kişiyle birlikte yaşamını yitirdi. Bir buçuk ay sonra 13 Eylül 1993'te Roni Hasret adı verilen bir oğlu oldu. Ölümünün ardından Kalan Müzik tarafından Seçmeler adlı bir toplama albümü ve 1993 yılında Yunan rembetiko grubu Prosechos ile birlikte verdiği Ege'nin İki Yakası adlı konserdeki bazı şarkılardan oluşan ve aynı adı taşıyan albüm Hasret Gültekin Kültür ve Sanat Merkezi tarafından yayımlandı.

Kariyeri
Çocukluk zamanları İstanbul'da geçmiştir. 6 yaşında bağlama çalmaya ve çok sürmeden üretmeye başlar. Müzik her zaman için her şeyden daha önemlidir. Hatta müzik dışında akla gelebilecek hemen her şey ikinci plandadır. Kadıköy Anadolu Lisesini yarıda bırakmak zorunda kalmasının temelinde de yine aynı sebep yatmaktadır. Onun için sık sık okuldan kaçıp yanına gittiği Haydar Acardan Deli Derviş'i dinlemek daha önemlidir. Böyle yoğurur kendini adım adım böyle geliştirir ve yine o dönem "Dağlar Atamadım Sevdamı" ve "Sen Benim Başıma" gibi birbirinden önemli eserlerini üretir. 1987 yılında henüz 16 yaşında Gün Olaydı adını verdiği ilk albümünü çıkarır. Yine aynı gün albümü çıkan Lütfü Gültekin'le tesadüf eseri tanışırlar ve sağlam dost olurlar. Aynı yıl ilk resitalini de verir ve kendisi için aşılması zor basamakları aşmaya başlar. Ertesi yıl 1988 senesinde üç müzisyen dostunun daha yer aldığı Dostlar Muhabbeti albümünün yönetmenliğini üstlenir ve sazlarını çalar. Diğer sanatçıların albümlerini yönetme serüveninin de başladığı bir süreçtir. Devamı yine özellikle de Almanya'daki Netses firması bünyesinde önemli ozanlara ve daha birçok sanatçıya çaldığı albümlerle kendini geliştirir. Haydar Acar'dan, Talip Özkan'a, Musa Eroğlu'ndan, Arif Sağ'a birçok ustadan etkilenmiştir. Tar, kabak kemane, davul ve zurna gibi her türlü enstrümanı çalmaktadır. Bilim adamlarının bilimle yaptığını o müziğiyle yapar çoğu zaman. İnsanların eşit, özgür ve kardeşçe yaşaması ilkesi hayat felsefesidir. Kürtçe ve Kürtçe müziğinin söylenmesinin yasak olduğu bir dönemde ince zekâsıyla bu yasağı delip Newroz adlı albüm serisini hazırlamıştır. Bu çalışmalarıyla birbirine yakın bir süreçte hazırladığı ikinci solo albümü Gece ile Gündüz Arasında ise onun ileride Bağlama Devrimcisi olarak anılmasına vesile olan bir yeniliği beraberinde getirir. Kopuz ve ruzba'nın icadı kadar eski olan el ile çalma tekniğine farklı bir boyut kazandırıp albümdeki deyişleri bu teknikle sunar ve o döneme dek eşine pek rastlanmayan tezene bırakma cesaretini de yine Hasret Gültekin tereddüt etmeden gösterir. Sonraki süreçte ise Şelpe tekniğinin daha çok üstüne gider ve daha önceleri Zülfü Livaneli ve Arif Sağ'ın da denemeler yaptığı bağlama klavyesinde sistematik şelpe çalmaya büyük katkılar sunar. O yaşta biri biri için ancak dile kolaydır Hasret Gültekin için söylenenler. Hollanda Kültür Bakanlığı'nın daveti üzerine gittiği Genç Türküler festivalinde Türkiye'yi temsil etmiştir.

1991 yılında ise kendi tabiriyle ilerici müzik adını verdiği müziğinin zirvesi olan Rüzgarın Kanatları adını verdiği albümünü dinleyicilerine sunduğu dönemdir. Albüm, Hasret Gültekin'in ilerici müziğinin yanı sıra "Derman Sendedir", "Çeke Çeke", "Yaralı Ceylan" gibi eserlere yaptığı yeni düzenleme ve introlardan, ezgilerde kullanılmış çok sesliliğe, yıllardır alışılagelmiş deyiş yapısını deyişlerin ana hatlarını, özünü bozmadan batı müziği ve ritmleriyle bir araya getirmesine dek halk müziği adına bir devrim niteliği taşır ki bugün dahi benzerine zor rastlanır bir çalışmadır. O artık yaşına yönelik tabuları çoktan yıkmıştır yaptığı ve yapmakta olduğu birbirinden önemli çalışmalarla. Arif Sağ'dan Emekçi'ye birçok ustanın yer aldığı 1992 yılında yapımı Türküler Yalan Söylemez albümünde ustalarla beraber yer alması ya da o güne dek ancak kulislerde ve özel sohbetlerde bir araya geldiği Musa Eroğlu gibi ustalarla aynı sahneyi paylaşmaya başlaması özellikle de ustaların gözünde Hasret'in bu kulvarda rüştünü ispat etmesinin en önemli göstergesidir. Avrupa'da ve Türkiye'de verdiği sayısız konserlerin birbirini izlediği, Enel Hakk adını verdiği yeni albüm çalışmalarına başladığı bir dönemde Pir Sultan Abdal Şenlikleri için gittiği Sivas'ta son konserlerini verdi ve Madımak Oteli'nin yakılması ve katliamın büyümesi sonucu beraberindeki diğer 32 aydınla 2 Temmuz 1993 günü hayatını kaybetti. Öldükten sonra adına birçok saygı albümü ve toplama albümler çıkarıldı. 1995 yılında Rüzgarın Kanatlarında albümü tekrar piyasaya sürüldü ve albümün kapağında Yobaz Katliamı Şehidi yazısı eklendi. Türkiye'nin en iyi bağlama çalan sanatçısı olduğu söylenilmektedir ve genç yaşta hayatını kaybetmesine rağmen Alevi kültürünün en tanındık isimlerindendir.

Ölümü

Pir Sultan Abdal Şenlikleri kapsamında, pek çok sanatçı ve fikir insanı dönemin Sivas valisi Ahmet Karabilgin'in özel davetlisi olarak bu kente geldi. Kültür Merkezi içindeki karşıt grupla çıkan taşlı sopalı çatışma, polis tarafından fazla büyümeden, zor kullanılarak önlendi.

Binlerce kişiden oluşan karşıt grup, Kültür Merkezinden yeniden Hükûmet Meydanı'na geldi. Hükûmet Konağını taşlamaya ve slogan atmaya başlayan grup ardından Madımak Oteli civarına ulaşarak, slogan atmaya devam etti. Grup önce Madımak Oteli önündeki araçları ateşe verdi ve oteli taşladı. Madımak Oteli tutuşturulan perdeler ve alt katta bulunan eşyalarla birlikte yakıldı. Otele sığınmış olan kişilerden, aralarında Asım Bezirci, Nesimi Çimen, Muhlis Akarsu, Metin Altıok ve Hasret Gültekin'in de bulunduğu 35 kişi yanarak veya dumandan boğularak yaşamını yitirdi. Aralarında Aziz Nesin'in de bulunduğu 51 kişi de olaylardan kendi olanaklarıyla, ağır yaralarla kurtuldu. İtfaiye merdiveniyle kurtarılmaya çalışılan Aziz Nesin, merdivendeki görevli tarafından darp edilip, merdivenden itfaiye aracı etrafında toplanan karşıt görüşlü kalabalığa doğru itildi. Başından yaralanan Aziz Nesin'i linç girişiminden araya giren polisler kurtardı. Yaralılar, polis arabalarıyla Tıp Fakültesi Hastanesi'ne götürüldü.

Olaylar sonucunda 33 konuk, 2 otel görevlisi ve 2 gösterici yaşamını yitirdi. Akşam saatlerinde valilikçe ilan edilen "2 günlük sokağa çıkma yasağı" ile birlikte, güvenlik güçleri şehirde tam bir hakimiyet sağlayabildi.

Diskografi

Solo albümleri
 Gün Olaydı (1987)
 Gece İle Gündüz Arasında (1989)
 Rüzgarın Kanatlarında (1991)

Yer aldığı albümler
 Dostlar Muhabbeti (1988)
 Newroz I (1990)
Newroz II (1992)
 Türküler Yalan Söylemez (1990)

Katkıda bulunduğu albümler

 Abuzer Karakoç - Alvar Deyişleri (Yönetmen-Bağlama)
 Nurşani - Sen Sebep Oldun (Yönetmen - Bağlama)
 Efkari - Sevgi Üretir Öfke Tüketir (Yönetmen - Bağlama)
 Emekçi - Güle Barut Serdin Mi (Yönetmen - Bağlama)
 Baki Pınar - Süleyman Düzgün - Yüreğimizdeki Tutku (Yönetmen - Bağlama)
 Lütfü Gültekin - Aydınlıkta Uyandırın ve Hasretim Hasret Albümleri (Yönetmen - Bağlama)
 Güler Duman - Gül Yüzlü Sevdiğim (Bağlama ve Şelpesiyle dört esere katkı sunmuştur.)
 Gani Nar - Yaşam (Yönetmen - Bağlama)
 Hozan Şahin - Wui Daye Lemın (Yönetmen - Bağlama)
 Hayrettin Cançağlar - Özgürlüğün Çığırında (Yönetmen - Bağlama)
 Mustafa Küçük - Yaralı Keklik (Cura)
 Canan Başkaya - Merhamet Kıl (Cura)
 İhsan Güneş - Karayılan (Yönetmen-Bağlama)
 Necla Saygılı - Derman Sendedir (Yönetmen-Bağlama)
 Rahmi Saltuk - Hoy Nare (Yönetmen-Bağlama)
 Şiwan Perwer - Krivo ve Destan (Süpervizor)
 Nuray Hafiftaş - Atılmaz Sevda (Vokal)
 Yılmaz Çelik - Demmi Demmi (Yönetmen-Bağlama)
Nazım Tanca-Kızılkale ve Mayısın Gülleri (Yönetmen-Bağlama)

Kaynakça

Dış bağlantılar
 hasretgultekin.com
 Hasret Gültekin'in anısına açılan hayran sitesi

1971 doğumlular
İmranlı doğumlular
Sivas doğumlu müzisyenler
Esen Müzik sanatçıları
Raks Müzik sanatçıları
1993 yılında ölenler
Kürt asıllı Türkler
Alevi ozanları
Türk halk ozanları
Türk halk şairleri
20. yüzyıl Türk bestecileri
Türk bağlamacılar
Kadıköy Anadolu Lisesinde öğrenim görenler
Kürt asıllı Türk müzisyenler
Türk erkek şarkıcı-şarkı yazarları
Türk halk müziği ses sanatçıları
Türk halk müziği sanatçıları
Karşıyaka Mezarlığı'na defnedilenler
Kürt Aleviler
Yanarak ölenler
Türk söz yazarları
Madımak Katliamı kurbanları

Hasret Gültekin


Die Carte Vitale ist die elektronische Krankenversicherungskarte der gesetzlichen Krankenversicherung in Frankreich, die alleinig durch die Sozialversicherung getragen wird. Sie wurde ab 1998 als Chipkarte eingeführt, um eine elektronische Verrechnung der Kosten der Basisleistungen zu ermöglichen. Seit 2007 wird die zweite Generation, die "Carte Vitale 2" ausgegeben, die ein Lichtbild des Karteninhabers und einige weitere neu hinzugekommene Informationen enthält. Die Karte enthält keine Informationen zum Gesundheitszustand der Versicherten oder zu erbrachten medizinischen Leistungen.

Ausgabe der Carte Vitale

Die Carte Vitale wird an alle sozialversicherungspflichtigen französischen Staatsbürger und in Frankreich ansässigen sozialversicherungspflichtigen Ausländer ab einem Alter von 16 Jahren ausgehändigt. Versicherte Kinder werden auf Antrag auf den Karten eines oder beider Elternteile mit registriert.

Benutzung

Abrechnung von Leistungen

Bei der Inanspruchnahme medizinischer Leistungen legt der Versicherte die Karte dem Leistungserbringer (Arzt, Apotheker, Krankenhaus usw.) vor. Dieser verfügt über eine Einrichtung zum Auslesen der Karte und zur Übertragung der Daten zu den erbrachten Leistungen an die Primärkasse. Der Bediener des Ausleseterminals muss sich über eine ihm persönlich zugeordnete weitere Chipkarte (Carte de personnel d'établissement, CPE) ausweisen. Falls der Versicherte über eine private Zusatzversicherung (Mutuelle) verfügt und diese der Primärkasse bekannt ist, werden die Informationen auch der Zusatzversicherung automatisch zugestellt. Die Erstattung der Kosten erfolgt dann automatisch, und zwar sowohl für den von der Primärkasse getragenen als auch für den von der Mutuelle übernommenen Teil. Dies gilt sowohl für Fälle, in denen die Kosten zunächst vom Patienten ausgelegt werden und von den Kassen an diesen zurückerstattet werden (tiers garant), als auch für den Fall der direkten Erstattung von den Kassen an den Leistungserbringer (tiers payant). Die Erstattung von der Primärkasse an den Patienten soll innerhalb von fünf Tagen erfolgen.

Ersatzverfahren bei Defekt, Verlust oder Panne

Kann der Versicherte keine Carte Vitale vorweisen oder ist diese defekt, so kann er eine Krankenversicherungsbestätigung (Attestation de droits) von seiner Primärkasse (Caisse primaire d'assurance maladie) bekommen. Diese kann als Versicherungsnachweis dienen, ermöglicht aber bei der Inanspruchnahme medizinischer Leistungen nicht die automatische Erfassung und Weiterleitung an die Krankenkasse. Der Leistungserbringer muss in diesem Fall eine Behandlungsbestätigung (Feuille de soins) ausfüllen, die der Versicherte an seine Kasse versendet, um in den Genuss einer Kostenerstattung zu kommen. Dieses Verfahren kommt auch zum Einsatz, wenn die technischen Voraussetzungen zum elektronischen Auslesen der Karte und/oder zur Übertragung der Daten beim Leistungserbringer nicht vorliegen.

Aktualisierung der Daten auf dem Chip

Veränderungen der persönlichen Situation, die der Kasse mitgeteilt worden sind, können vom Karteninhaber selbst durch Aktualisierung der Karte an dafür vorgesehenen Terminals in den Datenbestand des Kartenchips übernommen werden. Die Terminals sind in den meisten Apotheken und Krankenhäusern vorhanden. Der Karteninhaber muss die Karte mindestens einmal jährlich auf diese Weise aktualisieren.

Verwendung außerhalb des Gesundheitswesens

Die Carte Vitale mit Lichtbild kann auch außerhalb des Gesundheitswesens als Ausweis genutzt werden, zum Beispiel bei Personenkontrollen durch die Polizei oder zum Identitätsnachweis bei der Stimmabgabe zu politischen Wahlen.

Gespeicherte Daten

Art und Umfang der auf der Carte Vitale 2 elektronisch gespeicherten Daten sind durch interministeriellen Beschluss vom 14. März 2007 festgelegt.

Hiernach enthält der elektronische Speicherchip auf der Karte neben einigen Informationen zur Karte selbst (Typ, Seriennummer, Datum der zuletzt erfolgten Aktualisierung) eine Reihe persönlicher Daten.

Zu diesen gehören Vor- und Zuname des Karteninhabers, dessen Geburtsdatum, Anschrift und ein nicht zur biometrischen Kontrolle geeignetes Lichtbild, zudem die
Identität eines ggfs. vom Karteninhaber gewählten behandelnden Arztes.

Für den Karteninhaber und jeden weiteren durch ihn mitversicherten und auf der Karte verzeichneten Anspruchsberechtigten (z. B. Kinder) enthält der Speicherchip zudem die Sozialversicherungsnummer und Informationen zur Art der Anspruchsberechtigungen, zu eventuellen Kostenbefreiungen und deren Gültigkeitszeitraum.

Weiterhin können nach gesetzlicher Grundlage Informationen zu bestehenden privaten Zusatzkrankenversicherungen und Versicherung gegen Arbeitsunfälle aller Anspruchsberechtigten auf der Karte gespeichert sein.

Schließlich können noch die Kontaktinformationen einer vom Karteninhaber benannten, im Notfall zu benachrichtigenden Person sowie ein Hinweis zu erfolgter Belehrung über die Regeln zur Organentnahme gespeichert werden.

Versicherungsnachweis im europäischen Ausland

Die Carte Vitale ist nur in Frankreich nutzbar. In einem Großteil des europäischen Auslands können Inhaber einer Carte Vitale ihre Versicherung mit der europäischen Krankenversicherungskarte (EKVK, frz. Carte européenne d'assurance maladie, CEAM) nachweisen; diese ist jedoch – anders als etwa bei den Krankenversicherungskarten in Deutschland und Österreich – nicht in die Carte Vitale integriert und hat auch keinerlei elektronische Funktion. Sie wird separat und nur auf Anfrage ausgegeben. Im Unterschied zur Carte Vitale ist ihre Gültigkeit befristet auf maximal zwei Jahre, und jeder Anspruchsberechtigte (auch mitversicherte Kinder) benötigt eine eigene EKVK. Der Antrag auf Erneuerung kann erst nach Ablauf der Gültigkeit einer eventuell noch vorhandenen Karte gestellt werden.

Einzelnachweise

Ausweis
Chipkarte
Gesundheitswesen (Frankreich)
Krankenversicherungswesen

Carte Vitale


Jun Muramatsu (født 10. april 1982) er en tidligere japansk fodboldspiller.

Han har spillet for flere forskellige klubber i sin karriere, herunder Shimizu S-Pulse og Mito HollyHock.

Eksterne henvisninger

Fodboldspillere fra Japan

Jun Muramatsu


Flotsam and Jetsam is an American thrash metal band that was formed in Phoenix, Arizona, in 1981. Before settling on its current name in 1984, the band had existed under three different names, Paradox, Dredlox and Dogz. Their current lineup includes vocalist Eric "A.K" Knutson, guitarists Michael Gilbert and Steve Conley, bassist Bill Bodily, and drummer Ken Mary. Flotsam and Jetsam went through several lineup changes over the years, leaving Knutson as the only constant member. They are also notable for featuring a then-unknown Jason Newsted, who was Flotsam and Jetsam's bassist from 1981 to 1986, when he left the band shortly after the release of their debut album to join Metallica as the late Cliff Burton's successor.

Flotsam and Jetsam has released fourteen studio albums in their career, with the latest being 2021's Blood in the Water. Despite not achieving similar levels of commercial success as some of their thrash metal contemporaries, the band emerged as part of the second wave of the genre in the mid-to-late 1980s (along with Sepultura, Testament and Death Angel), and has enjoyed some moderate success in the United States, with two of their albums (1988's No Place for Disgrace and 1990's When the Storm Comes Down) entering the Billboard 200 chart, and their fourth album Cuatro (1992) cracking the top 30 on the Heatseekers chart.

Band history

1981–1986: Early days
The group was founded in 1981 under the name Paradox by drummer Kelly David-Smith and guitarists Pete Mello and Dave Goulder, who were later joined by bassist Jason Newsted. Newsted had answered an advertisement that David-Smith had placed in the local newspaper, looking for a bass player. Newsted came to Phoenix with his band Gangster, from Michigan, on their way to California, but Gangster broke up while in Phoenix. David-Smith got a call from a couple of his high school friends, Mark Vasquez and Kevin Horton, looking for some people to jam with playing covers of bands such as Iron Maiden, Judas Priest, MSG, and UFO. The band then morphed into Dredlox together with the new recruits, and Newsted was now the main vocalist.

David-Smith saw "A.K." (Eric A. Knutson) singing "The Goodbye Girl" at his high school talent show.  In 1982, they were in the same summer school class and David-Smith asked Knutson if he wanted to audition. They put him on two-week probation and he later joined the band. Due to the provisional nature of his membership, the band referred to Knutson as "the 2 weeker." Ed Carlson, from another local rival band called Exodus (not to be confused with the California Bay Area thrash metal band of the same name), also joined in 1983, after Horton's departure from the band. The name of the band changed into The Dogz, but it did not last long. Eventually the band renamed itself "Flotsam and Jetsam", after writing a song inspired by a chapter (Book II, chapter 9) from J. R. R. Tolkien's The Lord of the Rings, which bore the same name.

The band made its live debut in local clubs and in California and had the opportunity to play with bands such as Megadeth, Armored Saint, Alcatrazz, Malice, Exciter, Mercyful Fate, Riot, Autograph and Icon. In 1985, Mark Vasquez stepped out and 17-year-old Michael Gilbert joined the band. Flotsam and Jetsam released two demo tapes Iron Tears and Metal Shock in 1985.

They created their first video "Hammerhead" from  the Metal Shock demo: "We taped it in Jason and Ed's apartment living room. We also made a live video at the infamous Bootlegger in Phoenix", (owned by Gloria Cavalera, currently married to Max Cavalera) These videos and the band's demos made a good impression on record labels. After the band contributed to the Speed Metal Hell II and Metal Massacre VII compilations, they then signed a deal with Metal Blade Records.

1986–1989: Doomsday for the Deceiver and No Place for Disgrace
Flotsam and Jetsam recorded their debut album Doomsday for the Deceiver in Los Angeles, with producer Brian Slagel and engineer Bill Metoyer. The album was released on the July 4, 1986, and was the first in Kerrang!s history to achieve the 6K rating.

Newsted, who was also the band's main lyric writer, departed soon after to join Metallica, replacing their bassist Cliff Burton, who died in a bus accident. On Halloween night 1986, he played his last gig with Flotsam and Jetsam. The band had asked another local bassist Phil Rind of Sacred Reich to fill in for a short time. They then hired Michael Spencer from the Sacramento band Sentinel Beast. Flotsam and Jetsam inked a deal with Metallica's then-label Elektra Records before opening for Megadeth in 1987 on the Peace Sells tour in Europe and America. After touring with Megadeth, the band played selected shows in America with Slayer, Dark Angel, Possessed, Celtic Frost, Sacred Reich and Excel.

Michael Spencer left Flotsam and Jetsam shortly after a U.S. tour in the fall of 1987; his replacement was Troy Gregory. Their second studio album, No Place for Disgrace, was released in May 1988, and includes a cover of Elton John's hit "Saturday Night's Alright for Fighting", for which a music video was shot. The band toured heavily behind No Place for Disgrace throughout 1988 and 1989. They opened for King Diamond in America, and supported Megadeth, Testament and Sanctuary in Europe on the So Far, So Good... So What! tour. The band also toured or played shows with Testament, The Crumbsuckers, Fates Warning, Destruction, Metal Church, Death Angel, D.R.I., Acid Reign and Kreator, and landed a billing for festivals, such as Milwaukee Metalfest, and played at Aardschokdag twice (in May 1988 and April 1989).

1989–1995: MCA era
In 1989, Flotsam and Jetsam were signed to MCA Records and began work on their third album When the Storm Comes Down, which was released in May 1990. The band expected to gain recognition with this album, but it suffered from a variety of mixed reviews. A video made for "Suffer the Masses" did however receive heavy rotation on MTV's Headbangers Ball. Musically and lyrically, When the Storm Comes Down marked the beginning of at least two changes for Flotsam and Jetsam: it mirrored much of the occult and dark themes evidenced in the lyrical content of their previous two albums, instead focusing on politics and society in general, and saw the band expanding their thrash roots and using elements of the progressive and technical style of their later albums. The band toured for about a year and a half in support of When the Storm Comes Down; they co-headlined a U.S. tour with Prong, and subsequently toured or played selected shows with bands such as Testament, Savatage, Exodus, Vio-Lence, Sacred Reich, Wrathchild America and then-unknown Pantera.

Shortly after the When the Storm Comes Down tour ended, bassist Troy Gregory departed to join Prong. Holding auditions in Phoenix, the band hired Jason Ward to fill the role. With Ward as their new bassist, Flotsam and Jetsam released their fourth album Cuatro in October 1992. It marked an evolution in style and songwriting, moving from thrash to a slower, slightly more, melodic sound, while also continuing the progressive and technical song structures used on When the Storm Comes Down. The band released four singles this time, two of which ("Swatting at Flies" and "Wading Through the Darkness") were shot as music videos and both received regular rotation on Headbangers Ball. Flotsam and Jetsam promoted Cuatro with a year-long tour, playing with bands like Body Count, Sepultura, Testament, White Zombie, Nudeswirl and Damn the Machine, as well as doing a US tour with Mercyful Fate, Cathedral and Anacrusis.

Slowing down after the moderate success of their previous albums, it took nearly three years until Flotsam and Jetsam released their fifth album Drift in April 1995, which was dedicated to Jason's older brother Jeff Ward, former drummer of such bands as Nine Inch Nails, Ministry, Revolting Cocks and Lard, who died in 1993. Three singles were released off of the record, and one of them ("Smoked Out") had a music video. However, with Headbangers Ball already off the air in the U.S., and many heavy metal radio stations changing formats, Drift did not sell as well as the band's previous albums, and about the same time they toured the U.S. with Megadeth and Korn during the summer of 1995, MCA's six-year relationship with Flotsam and Jetsam had ended.

1996–2001: Return to Metal Blade
After taking a break in most of 1996 and resigning from MCA to Metal Blade, Flotsam and Jetsam resurfaced in 1997 with their sixth album High. The album's song titles were designed with the font types/logos of famous bands like Iron Maiden, Metallica, Kiss, Van Halen, AC/DC, Judas Priest, Misfits, etc. to pay homage to those whom came before and inspired the band while it was coming up the ranks. The music was more experimental than before, and the album also featured the Lard cover song Fork Boy. Music video was released, Monster to follow-up.

Michael Gilbert and Kelly Smith left the band after the release and were replaced by guitarist Mark Simpson and drummer Craig Nielsen (at the suggestion of then-Megadeth drummer Nick Menza). With the new line-up Flotsam and Jetsam toured in Europe together with Anvil and Exciter.

Unnatural Selection was released in 1999 and Mark Simpson took a short break. He joined the band again in 2000 to record a new album, My God released in May 2001. At that time Eric A.K. had founded a country band, the A.K. Corral.  He left the band for a short time to take a break from Metal and pursue his side project. (AK) "I had given Metal my life for a solid 15 years, I took some time to explore other musical flavors."  Though Flotsam and Jetsam did not disband, there was a long break at that time. They found a new singer, James Rivera, who took over vocal duties live. Later the band felt that no one other than Eric A.K. could be their singer and Rivera left the band soon after.

2002–2010: Live in Phoenix, Dreams of Death and The Cold

During 2002 and 2003 the band were active only sporadically, but Eric A.K. rejoined for live dates in the Phoenix and Los Angeles areas in 2003. Tory Edwards was a guest for this tour. A live recording of these shows was released in 2004 as a live concert DVD under the title Live in Phoenix. Signed to the Crash Music label in May 2004  and with Eric A.K. joining the band again officially, they hit the road with Overkill and Death Angel for a series of sold-out concerts in Japan.

Spring 2005 Flotsam and Jetsam returned to the studio to work on their new album. The lyrics were mostly inspired by Eric's nightmares. This resulted into a concept album entitled Dreams of Death – like track 2 of No Place for Disgrace. The album was released July 2005.

The live DVD Live in Japan was released in February 2006 and shows their concert in front of hundreds of screaming Japanese fans at the Citta Club in Tokyo 2004.

Doomsday for the Deceiver was re-released in November 2006 by Metal Blade Records to celebrate the album's twentieth anniversary. This set (2 CD and DVD) includes the original recording of Doomsday and a re-mixed and re-mastered(Digitized)version and also the two Flotsam and Jetsam demos. The bonus DVD includes rare live material, an interview filmed at David-Smith's High School and a photo slide-show.

In March 2008 Flotsam and Jetsam toured in Europe and played at the Metalmania Festival in Poland. This show was filmed and released as DVD Once in a Deathtime in July.
Midyear 2008 the band were signed to Driven Music Group, founded by former KORN guitarist Brian "Head" Welch.

After a tour in Europe with support act Neurasthenia in April 2010 Flotsam and Jetsam finished their album The Cold. It was released on September 14, 2010. It was the last album with Mark Simpson on guitar. He left the band in friendship  and was replaced by returning guitarist Ed Carlson, who had quit the band in March 2010, to be replaced by Michael Gilbert.

2011–2013: Ugly Noise
On September 19, 2011, Flotsam and Jetsam announced they had parted ways with Craig Nielson and reunited with founding drummer David-Smith. The band also announced a crowdfunding campaign on PledgeMusic to fund the recording of their next studio album.

On June 13, 2012, the band announced Ugly Noise as the title of the next album. In July, guitarist Michael Gilbert said the album would feature songwriting contributions from former bassist Jason Newsted. The album was released on December 21, 2012.

After tracking, Jason Ward was no longer able to commit to touring with the band any further due to his current personal commitments. He was replaced by Michael Spencer, who had previously replaced Jason Newsted in 1986.

During the tour, Edward Carlson started to have extreme physical pain in his lower back and numbness in his right arm. After the tour, an MRI revealed that he had bulging disks in his upper and lower back causing the dysfunction to occur. Flotsam and Jetsam then recruited guitarist Steve Conley of F5 to step in while they finished out their live commitments.

2013–2014: No Place For Disgrace 2014
No Place For Disgrace featured guest musicians Mark Simpson, Chris Poland and Tory Edwards. In June 2013, the band headlined at the Warriors of Metal Festival in Columbus Ohio.

Flotsam and Jetsam embarked on a 29-date European tour with Sepultura, Legion of the Damned and Mortillery. The tour kicked off on February 7, 2014, in Bochum, Germany.

Flotsam toured Europe 4 times in 2014 with a total of 40 shows in all. Returning home from Europe on August 11, the band planned to start writing for a new release in 2015. Michael Spencer and Steve Conley would be involved this time in the process. Spencer had written some material previously in 1987 that he took with him after his departure. Flotsam used at some of the archive material from Spencer.

2014–2021: Flotsam and Jetsam, The End of Chaos and Blood in the Water
In December 2014, drummer and founding member, David-Smith decided to leave the band due to unexpected family matters that required him to be home with his family. Handpicked by Smith to replace him on drums, was longtime friend and Shadows Fall drummer Jason Bittner. Bittner was present on Flotsam and Jetsam's self-titled twelfth studio album, which was released on May 20, 2016. The band did a world tour to support this album, including Europe with Destruction, Enforcer and Nervosa, North America with Helstar and Hatchet, and then back to Europe with Dew-Scented and Izegrim. They also opened for HammerFall on their spring/summer 2018 North American tour.

On July 6, 2017, it was announced that Flotsam and Jetsam were replacing Bittner (who had just joined Overkill) with Ken Mary (Fifth Angel, Alice Cooper, House of Lords, TKO, Chastain, Impellitteri), and that they had begun working on their thirteenth studio album The End of Chaos, which was initially reported to be released in November 2018; however, the album's release date was pushed back to January 18, 2019. In support of The End of Chaos, Flotsam and Jetsam (along with Destruction and Meshiaak) opened for Overkill on the European Killfest Tour in March 2019. A headlining US tour, titled Demolition of North America, was scheduled to take place in the spring of 2020, but it was postponed and then cancelled, due to the COVID-19 pandemic.

Less than a month after the release of The End of Chaos, frontman Eric "A.K." Knutson stated in an interview with Jesse Capps of Loudist that Flotsam and Jetsam would "probably start writing and recording" a follow-up album in November 2019.

On November 13, 2020, the band announced Bill Bodily had replaced Michael Spencer as their new bassist, and that the final mixes for their upcoming album were almost finished.

On April 1, 2021, Flotsam and Jetsam announced Blood in the Water as the title of their fourteenth studio album and June 4 as its release date. A week later, the band released a music video for the album's first single, "Burn the Sky". Flotsam and Jetsam promoted Blood in the Water with a headlining US tour, and they were slated to open for Accept on the European trek of their Too Mean to Die tour in January and February 2022 (along with Phil Campbell and the Bastard Sons), but "many factors" prompted the band to withdraw from the tour. Flotsam and Jetsam did, however, tour Europe in June 2022 as a headlining act.

2021–present: Upcoming fifteenth studio album
In an interview with AZ Central on June 5, 2021, the day after the release of Blood in the Water, frontman Eric "A.K." Knutson mentioned a follow-up album, revealing that he "probably [has] enough songs that didn't make it on the last two records to do two more records."

Members

Current members
 Eric "A.K." Knutson – vocals (1983–2001, 2003–present)
 Michael Gilbert – guitars (1985–1997, 2010–present)
 Steve Conley – guitars (2013–present)
 Ken Mary – drums (2017–present)
 Bill Bodily – bass (2020–present, touring 2016, 2019)

Touring musicians
 James Rivera – vocals (2001–2003)
 Jeff Barbaree – bass  (2013)

Session musicians
 Tory Edwards – violin (2001, 2014), mandolin (2014)

Former members
 Kelly David-Smith – drums (1981–1997, 2011–2014)
 Jason Newsted – bass (1981–1986)
 Mark Vazquez – guitars (1981–1985)
 Kevin Horton – guitars (1981–1983)
 Edward Carlson – guitars (1983–2013)
 Phil Rind – bass (1986)
 Michael Spencer – bass (1987–1988, 2013–2020)
 Troy Gregory – bass (1988–1991)
 Jason Ward – bass (1991–2013)
 Craig Nielsen – drums (1997–2011)
 Mark Simpson – guitars (1997–1999, 2000–2010)
 Jason Bittner – drums (2015–2017)

Timeline

Discography

Studio albums
 Doomsday for the Deceiver (1986)
 No Place for Disgrace (1988)
 When the Storm Comes Down (1990)
 Cuatro (1992)
 Drift (1995)
 High (1997)
 Unnatural Selection (1999)
 My God (2001)
 Dreams of Death (2005)
 The Cold (2010)
 Ugly Noise (2012)
 Flotsam and Jetsam (2016)
 The End of Chaos (2019)
 Blood in the Water (2021)

Live albums
 Live in Phoenix (2005)
 Once in a Deathtime (2008)

Singles/EPs
 Flotzilla (1987)
 Saturday Night's Alright for Fighting (1988)
 Suffer The Masses (1990)
 The Master Sleeps (1990)
 Selections from Cuatro/Never to Reveal (1992)
 Swatting at Flies (1992)
 Wading Through the Darkness (1992)
 Cradle Me Now (1992)
 Smoked Out (1995)
 Blindside (1995)
 Destructive Signs (1995)
 Life, Love, Death (2019)

DVDs
 Live in Phoenix (2004)
 Live in Japan (2006)
 Once in a Deathtime (2008)

References

External links

 Official website
 Band Myspace
 Jason Ward Myspace

1981 establishments in Arizona
American thrash metal musical groups
Articles which contain graphical timelines
Heavy metal musical groups from Arizona
Musical groups established in 1981
American musical quintets
Musical groups from Phoenix, Arizona
Metal Blade Records artists
American speed metal musical groups

Flotsam and Jetsam (band)


La saison 1938-1939 du Nîmes Olympique est la deuxième saison de l'histoire du club gardois en championnat de France de deuxième division. L'équipe est dirigée pour la deuxième saison consécutive par Harry Ward, qui occupe le poste d'entraîneur depuis 1937.

Avant saison

Objectif du club

Transferts

Préparation d'avant-saison

Compétitions

Championnat

Coupe de France

Matchs officiels de la saison
Le tableau ci-dessous retrace dans l'ordre chronologique les rencontres officielles jouées par le Nîmes Olympique durant la saison. Le club gardois a ainsi disputé quarante matchs de championnat et un tour de Coupe de France (dont un match à rejouer). Les buteurs sont accompagnés d'une indication sur la minute de jeu où est marqué le but et, pour certaines réalisations, sur sa nature (penalty ou contre son camp).

Le bilan général de la saison est de douze victoires, onze matchs nuls et dix-neuf défaites avec 53 buts marqués pour 86 encaissés. Les scores les plus fréquents sont le match nul 1-1 intervenus à sept reprises, la victoire 1-0 qui apparaît quatre fois à l'instar des défaites 0-1 et 0-2.

Joueurs et encadrement technique

Encadrement technique

Effectif professionnel

Statistiques individuelles

Équipe réserve

Notes et références

Notes

Références

Saison du Nîmes Olympique

Saison 1938-1939 du Nîmes Olympique