Flower Drum Song was the eighth musical by the team of Rodgers and Hammerstein. It is based on the 1957 novel, The Flower Drum Song, by Chinese-American author C. Y. Lee. It premiered on Broadway in 1958 and was then performed in the West End and on tour. It was adapted for a 1961 musical film.

After their extraordinary early successes, beginning with Oklahoma! in 1943, Richard Rodgers and Oscar Hammerstein II had written two musicals in the 1950s that did not do well and sought a new hit to revive their fortunes. Lee's novel focuses on a father, Wang Chi-yang, a wealthy refugee from China, who clings to traditional values in San Francisco's Chinatown. Rodgers and Hammerstein shifted the focus of the musical to his son, Wang Ta, who is torn between his Chinese roots and assimilation into American culture. The team hired Gene Kelly to make his debut as a stage director with the musical and scoured the country for a suitable Asian – or at least, plausibly Asian-looking – cast. The musical, much lighter-hearted than Lee's novel, was profitable on Broadway and was followed by a national tour.

After the release of the 1961 film version, the musical was rarely produced, as it presented casting issues and fears that Asian-Americans would take offense at how they are portrayed. When it was put on the stage, lines and songs that might be offensive were often cut. The piece did not return to Broadway until 2002, when a version with a plot by playwright David Henry Hwang (but retaining most of the original songs) was presented after a successful Los Angeles run. Hwang's story retains the Chinatown setting and the inter-generational and immigrant themes, and emphasizes the romantic relationships. It received mostly poor reviews in New York and closed after six months but had a short tour and has since been produced regionally.

Background

Novel

C.Y. Lee fled war-torn China in the 1940s and came to the United States, where he attended Yale University's playwriting program, graduating in 1947 with an M.F.A. degree.  By the 1950s, he was barely making a living writing short stories and working as a Chinese teacher, translator and journalist for San Francisco Chinatown newspapers.  He had hoped to break into playwriting, but instead wrote a novel about Chinatown, The Flower Drum Song (originally titled Grant Avenue).  Lee initially had no success selling his novel, but his agent submitted it to the publishing house of Farrar, Straus and Cudahy.  The firm sent the manuscript to an elderly reader for evaluation.  The reader was found dead in bed, the manuscript beside him with the words "Read this" scrawled on it.  The publishing house did, and bought Lee's novel, which became a bestseller in 1957.

Lee's novel centers on Wang Chi-yang, a 63-year-old man who fled China to avoid the communists.  The wealthy refugee lives in a house in Chinatown with his two sons.  His sister-in-law, Madam Tang, who takes citizenship classes, is a regular visitor and urges Wang to adopt Western ways.  While his sons and sister-in-law are integrating into American culture, Wang stubbornly resists assimilation and speaks only two words of English, "Yes" and "No".   Wang also has a severe cough, which he does not wish to have cured, feeling that it gives him authority in his household.  Wang's elder son, Wang Ta, woos Linda Tung, but on learning that she has many men in her life, drops her; he later learns she is a nightclub dancer.  Linda's friend, seamstress Helen Chao, who has been unable to find a man despite the shortage of eligible women in Chinatown, gets Ta drunk and seduces him.  On awakening in her bed, he agrees to an affair, but eventually abandons her, and she commits suicide.

Impatient at Ta's inability to find a wife, Wang arranges for a picture bride for his son.  However, before the picture bride arrives, Ta meets a young woman, May Li, who with her father has recently come to San Francisco.  The two support themselves by singing depressing flower drum songs on the street.  Ta invites the two into the Wang household, with his father's approval, and he and May Li fall in love.  He vows to marry her after she is falsely accused by the household servants of stealing a clock, though his father forbids it.  Wang struggles to understand the conflicts that have torn his household apart; his hostility toward assimilation is isolating him from his family.  In the end, taking his son's advice, Wang decides not to go to the herbalist to seek a remedy for his cough, but walks to a Chinese-run Western clinic, symbolizing that he is beginning to accept American culture.

Genesis of the musical

Rodgers and Hammerstein, despite extraordinary early successes, such as Oklahoma!, Carousel and South Pacific, had suffered back-to-back Broadway relative failures in the mid-1950s with Me and Juliet and Pipe Dream.  While Oklahoma! had broken new ground in 1943, any new project in the late 1950s would have to compete with modern musicals and techniques, like the brutal realism in West Side Story, and with other Broadway musical hits such as The Music Man, My Fair Lady and The Pajama Game.  Rodgers and Hammerstein had made it their rule to begin work on their next musical as soon as the last opened on Broadway, but by the start of 1957, six months after Pipe Dream closed, the pair had no new stage musical in prospect.  They had, however, been working since 1956 on the popular television version of Cinderella, which was broadcast on CBS on March 31, 1957.  Rodgers was still recovering from an operation for cancer in a tooth socket, and he was drinking heavily and suffering from depression.  In June 1957, Rodgers checked himself into Payne Whitney Psychiatric Clinic, and he remained there for twelve weeks.  According to his daughters, Mary and Linda, this did not put a stop to his drinking.

Hammerstein, meanwhile, was in Los Angeles at the filming of South Pacific.  While at the commissary, he met longtime friend, Joe Fields, who mentioned that he was negotiating for the rights to The Flower Drum Song.  Intrigued by the title, Hammerstein asked for a copy of the novel, and decided that it had potential as a musical – the lyricist described it as "sort of a Chinese Life with Father".   Hammerstein consulted with Rodgers, and they agreed to make it their next work, to be written and produced in association with Fields.  Hammerstein began work in mid-1958.  In July, however, he fell ill and was hospitalized for a month.  This forced him to hurry his writing, as the production team had hoped to have the show in rehearsal by the start of September; this was postponed by two weeks.  In interviews, however, Hammerstein pointed out that he had, when necessary, written songs for previous shows while in rehearsals for them.

The musical retained Lee's "central theme – a theme coursing through much 20th-century American literature: the conflict between Old World immigrants and their New World offspring".  Hammerstein and Fields shifted the focus of the story, however, from the elder Wang, who is central to Lee's novel, to his son Ta.  They also removed the darker elements of Lee's work, including Helen Chao's suicide after her desperate fling with Ta, added the festive nightclub subplot and emphasized the romantic elements of the story.  According to David Lewis in his book about the musical, "Mr. Hammerstein and his colleagues were evidently in no mood to write a musical drama or even to invest their comedic approach with dramatic counterpoint of the sort that Jud Fry had given Oklahoma! ... [They] took the safest commercial route by following the eldest son's search for love – the most popular theme at the time with Broadway audiences."  Lewis notes that Chao's role, though diminished in the musical, nevertheless gives it some of its darkest moments, and she serves much the same purpose as Jud Fry:  to be, in Hammerstein's words, "the bass fiddle that gives body to the orchestration of the story".  Though the new story was less artistically adventurous than the earlier Rodgers and Hammerstein hits, it was innovative, even daring in its treatment of Asian-Americans, "an ethnic group that had long been harshly caricatured and marginalized in our mainstream pop culture."

1958 plot

Act I:
Wang Ta, a young Chinese-American man living in his father's house in San Francisco's Chinatown, discusses the problems of finding a wife with his aunt, Madam Liang ("You Are Beautiful") before hurrying off on a blind date.  Nightclub owner Sammy Fong arrives with an offer for Ta's immigrant father, Master Wang, a very old-fashioned Chinatown elder.  Sammy's picture bride has just arrived from China, illegally, but the shy Mei Li is clearly the wrong girl for Sammy, who already has an assertive girlfriend, a characteristic he likes.  Sammy offers to sign the contract over to the Wang family:  this would free Sammy from the contract and arrange a suitable wife for Ta.  Sammy has taken the liberty of bringing the girl and her father with him; Wang is charmed ("A Hundred Million Miracles") and invites them to live in his home on the understanding that if the proposed marriage falls through, Fong will still be bound to marry Mei Li.

Ta's blind date proves to be the thoroughly Americanized Linda Low, who we will learn is Sammy Fong's girlfriend and a stripper at his club.  On the date with Ta ("I Enjoy Being a Girl"), Linda lies to Ta about her career and family.  Ta, knowing that Chinese-Americans with college degrees find it hard to get a job befitting their education, plans to go to law school, postponing the likely career struggle by three years.  The impetuous Ta asks Linda to marry him.  She agrees, but she needs family consent and lies, saying that she has a brother who will approve the marriage.  Ta returns home and meets Mei Li, who is immediately attracted to him ("I Am Going to Like It Here"), though Ta is unimpressed.  That changes when Ta sees her in a Western dress ("Like a God").

Linda comes to Madam Liang's graduation party from citizenship school with Linda's "brother" (actually the comedian from Sammy's nightclub) and presents herself as Ta's intended, with her "brother" giving his consent for the marriage.  The extroverted, Americanized woman is not what Wang has in mind for his elder son, and Wang and Ta argue.  Sammy Fong arrives and quickly penetrates Linda's scheme: Linda, frustrated by the five years she has been seeing Sammy, is determined to marry someone, and if Sammy won't step forward, she will settle for Ta.  Sammy quickly strikes back by inviting the Wangs, Mei Li and her father to watch the show at his "Celestial Bar" ("Fan Tan Fannie").  Linda does her striptease, realizing too late who is sitting at the best table.  Sammy's special guests storm out, except for Ta, who is so humiliated that he does not know what to do.  He is led away by childhood friend Helen Chao, a seamstress who fits Linda's costumes for her, and whose love for Ta is unrequited.  Linda, goaded beyond endurance when Sammy raises his glass to her, dumps a champagne bucket over his head.

Act II:
The drunken Ta spends the night at Helen's apartment ("Ballet"). In the morning, Mei Li delivers Master Wang's coat for Helen to mend and is distressed to see Ta's dinner jacket there.  Mei Li jumps to conclusions and leaves horrified.  Ta leaves the lonely Helen, totally oblivious to her attempts to interest him.  Wang wants the bar and its "evil spirits" shut down; his sister-in-law informs him that free enterprise cannot be shut down, and the two wonder at the foibles of the younger generation ("The Other Generation").  Ta arrives home to admit that his father was right, Mei Li is the girl for him.  But now, Mei Li wants nothing to do with him, and the Lis leave the Wang home.  Sammy Fong and Linda decide to get married ("Sunday"), but when he goes to the Three Family Association (a benevolent association) to announce Linda as his bride, he finds Mei Li and her father there, and the elders insist that he honor his betrothal to the immigrant girl.

Ta brings Mei Li a wedding gift of a pair of his mother's earrings that she wore on her wedding day and tries unsuccessfully to hide the fact that he is now deeply in love with her.  The wedding procession moves down San Francisco's Grant Avenue with the bride, heavily veiled, carried on a sedan chair ("Wedding Parade").  Sammy drinks from the traditional wedding goblet, then offers the goblet to his new bride.  Unveiled, Mei Li confesses to Sammy's mother that she cannot marry Sammy as she is an illegal alien – a tactic she learned by watching American television.  The contract is void, and that gives both Sammy and Ta the opportunity to marry their true loves, Linda and Mei Li.

Casting and tryouts
According to Rodgers biographer Meryle Secrest, Rodgers, Hammerstein and Fields had hoped to engage Yul Brynner as director.  Brynner, who had gained fame in the team's 1951 hit, The King and I, was an accomplished director.  However, he was busy starring in The Sound and the Fury, and they could not negotiate his release from Twentieth-Century Fox.  Instead, they hired actor and dancer Gene Kelly, who had never directed on stage before.  Kelly felt that the work would not be one of Rodgers and Hammerstein's best, but "as long as I crammed the show brim-full of every joke and gimmick in the book, I could get it to work".

The three producers sought Chinese, or at least Asian, actors to fill the cast, an idea that was, at the time, considered "very risky".  In the 1950s, there were relatively few Asian-American actors; Rodgers believed that Asians avoided acting because of shyness.  Critics note, in any case, that Asian-Americans "had found few opportunities in mainstream theatre."  Joshua Logan recommended a young Japanese actress, Miyoshi Umeki, whom he had discovered and cast the previous year opposite Marlon Brando in the film Sayonara (for which she won the Best Supporting Actress Oscar); she was cast as Mei Li.  They cast Keye Luke, well known as Charlie Chan's Number One Son, as Master Wang.  Rodgers and Hammerstein considered young talent from The King and I who might fit the parts, and came up with teenager Patrick Adiarte, a Filipino-American who had played several of the young princes as he grew up, before finishing as the crown prince, Chulalongkorn.  A talented dancer, he was cast as Wang San, Ta's thoroughly Americanized younger brother.  Pat Suzuki, a Japanese-American who had been interned during World War II, was a recent arrival in New York who had made strong positive impressions for her singing on such television programs as The Tonight Show (with Jack Paar) and The Ed Sullivan Show.  She became the first Linda Low, as Ta's nightclub love interest was renamed.

The team found it difficult to fill the remaining places in the company with Asian performers, especially in the chorus.  Four other shows with Asian themes had opened or were in rehearsal in New York, and the demand for the few Asian actors was strong.   Kelly and the show's choreographer, Carol Haney, journeyed to cities across the country to seek out talent.  Agents were sent to other cities; in Honolulu, they found nightclub singer and native Hawaiian Ed Kenney, who would originate Wang Ta.  Meanwhile, in New York, the three producers were visiting dance schools.  An advertisement in New York Chinatown newspapers received one response.  No formal audition was held in San Francisco's Chinatown, and the only find was Forbidden City nightclub comedian Goro "Jack" Suzuki (who soon changed his name to Jack Soo), who was cast as Frankie Wing, comedian at Sammy Fong's Celestial Bar.  The role of Fong proved difficult to cast.  Initially, it was given to Larry Storch, a nightclub comic, but during the Boston tryouts, it was given to another Caucasian, Larry Blyden, who was married to Carol Haney, the show's choreographer.  The role of Madam Liang, Master Wang's sister-in-law, fell to Juanita Hall, a light-skinned African American who had played a Tonkinese (Vietnamese) woman, Bloody Mary, in South Pacific. Another African-American performer, Diahann Carroll, was considered for the cast but not hired.  Rodgers later wrote, "what was important was that the actors gave the illusion of being Chinese.  This demonstrates one of the most wonderful things about theatre audiences.  People want to believe what they see on a stage, and they will gladly go along with whatever is done to achieve the desired effect.  Ask them to accept Ezio Pinza as a Frenchman [in South Pacific], Yul Brynner as Siamese and they are prepared to meet you nine tenths of the way even before the curtain goes up."

When rehearsals began in September 1958, Hammerstein was absent, still recuperating from his surgery.  Rodgers was present, but kept falling asleep.  Hammerstein was told by his son James that Kelly was ineffective as a director, and began attending rehearsals.  A number of changes were made to the songs.  "My Best Love", a song for Master Wang, was at first thought better suited to his sister-in-law, but when Juanita Hall could not make it work, the song was cut entirely.  Rodgers and Hammerstein transformed a song entitled "She Is Beautiful" into "You Are Beautiful".  The team decided to include a song for Sammy Fong to explain to Mei Li that they should not wed.  In the span of a few hours, they wrote the lyrics and music to "Don't Marry Me".  Once the songs were finalized, Robert Russell Bennett, who had orchestrated several of the creators' most successful previous shows, did the same for the score of Flower Drum Song.

The musical opened for tryouts on October 27, 1958, at Boston's Shubert Theatre.  The audience gave it an enthusiastic response, causing Rodgers to leave his seat repeatedly and race to the back of the theatre, looking for someone to hug.  The Boston critics thought well of the work, stating that after the show was polished, it was likely to be a hit.  Shortly after the Boston opening, Fields suffered a heart attack, and, after his release from the hospital, he had to return to New York to recuperate.  Author C. Y. Lee, who had quietly watched the rehearsals, recalled that, at the Boston performances, Hammerstein would have a secretary mark on the script any sound of the chairs squeaking, as indicating that the audience was restless.  Hammerstein rewrote some of the book to expand the focus from Ta himself to the romantic relationships of the two couples.

Productions

Original Broadway production

After the Boston tryouts, Flower Drum Song opened on Broadway at the St. James Theatre on December 1, 1958.   Sets were designed by Oliver Smith, costumes by Irene Sharaff and lighting by Peggy Clark.

C.Y. Lee sat in the audience on the first night; he later stated that he had been nervous and was "bowled over" by the positive audience reaction.   The show attracted considerable advance sales; even when these were exhausted, sales remained strong and sellouts were the norm.  Cast album sales were similar to previous Rodgers and Hammerstein hits.  The show received six Tony Award nominations, but won only one Tony (Best Conductor and Musical Director, for Salvatore Dell'Isola).  It was overshadowed that year by Redhead, which though it received only slightly better reviews than Flower Drum Song and had a considerably shorter run, dominated the Tony Awards in the musical categories.  Flower Drum Song ran for 600 performances, a longer run than any of the shows with which it had competed for Asian performers.

Midway through the run, Larry Blyden left the show and was replaced in the role of Sammy Fong by Jack Soo, with Larry Leung assuming the role of Frankie Wing.  The production returned $125,000 profit to its backers on an investment of $360,000.  Attendance began to decline in December 1959, though it continued to draw at above the 70% of capacity level which a Broadway play then needed to meet expenses.  With the summer approaching, generally a bad time for attendance, it was decided to close the show, and the last Broadway performance was given on May 7, 1960.

In his autobiography, Rodgers wrote of the effect the success of Flower Drum Song had on his state of mind:
The entire experience of working on Flower Drum Song was rewarding in many ways, not the least of which was that it convinced me that I had overcome all traces of my depression.  My only thought was to keep on doing what I was doing, and I saw nothing in the future that could stop me.

Subsequent productions
The show opened in London's  Palace Theatre on March 24, 1960, and ran for 464 performances.  Fewer Asian performers were used in London; the West End production starred Yau Shan Tung as Mei Li, Kevin Scott as Ta, George Minami as Wang, Harriet Yamasaki ("Yama Saki") as Linda Low, Tim Herbert as Sammy Fong and Ida Shepley as Madam Liang. The production used Haney's choreography, Bennett's orchestrations and the Broadway set and costume designs, but was directed and supervised by Jerome Whyte.  Both the production and the London cast album were well received.

Following the closure of the Broadway production, a U.S. national tour began on May 10, 1960, in Detroit.  Four of the New York leads, Hall, Soo, Kenney and Luke, joined the tour.  By this time, Hammerstein was in his final illness (he died in August 1960), and none of the three producers accompanied the show on the road.  After three weeks in Detroit, the show moved to Los Angeles, where the premiere attracted a star-studded audience, including three Scandinavian princesses.  San Francisco gave the show a rapturous reception when it opened at the Curran Theatre on August 1.  Lee and Fields, both present for the local premiere, were given ovations.  Geary Street, on which the theatre is located, was decorated with Chinese lanterns, and a marching band of "Chinese girl musicians" played outside.  The tour continued to be successful, spending 21 weeks in Chicago alone.  It closed on October 14, 1961, in Cleveland, a month before the film of the musical opened.

Lewis calls the 1961 film version of Flower Drum Song, starring Umeki, Soo, Hall and Suzie Wong star Nancy Kwan, "a bizarre pastiche of limping mediocrity".  He comments that since the 1958 version of the musical was rarely revived, the film "would in future years come to stand for the stage musical it so crassly misrepresented" and would serve as the version that academics and latter-day theatre critics would judge when they analyzed the musical.  The film was the only Hollywood adaptation of a Rodgers and Hammerstein musical to lose money.  Nevertheless, it was nominated for five Academy Awards and featured choreography by Hermes Pan.  As early as mid-1961, the musical was licensed for local productions.  That summer, the San Diego Civic Light Opera filled the 4,324-seat Balboa Park Bowl to overflowing for a highly successful run of the musical.  It was less successfully revived by that company five years later; though it still attracted large crowds, local critics complained that Hammerstein's view of Asians was outdated.  Other early productions included successful revivals by the St. Louis Municipal Opera in 1961 and 1965 and revivals in the San Francisco area in 1963 and 1964, both times with Soo as Sammy Fong.

The musical proved difficult to produce for amateur and school groups, however, because it requires a cast either Asian or made up as Asian.  Even professional companies found it difficult to round up an entire cast of Asian singer-dancer-actors. By the late 1960s, the musical was rarely staged, and was often relegated to dinner theater productions. The Rodgers & Hammerstein Organization, which licenses the partnership's works, believes that the work's loss of popularity was due in part to increased racial sensitivity in the U. S. after the civil rights movement.  In addition, producers found the show to be thinly plotted, and the songs not integrated as organically with the characters and story, as compared with Rodgers and Hammerstein's most popular musicals.

Flower Drum Song came to be seen by some as stereotypical and patronizing towards Asians, and that it was "inauthentic, even offensive in its relentlessly upbeat picture of a big-city Chinatown".  In 1983, the announcement that it would be produced in San Francisco started a furor; the producers pointedly stated that the show would be set in the 1930s and would have "a greater sensitivity toward the Chinese immigration problems at that time".  They added a scene in which Mei Li listens apprehensively to a radio broadcast warning about the dangers to the United States caused by Asian immigration.  Many lines of dialogue were cut, and producer Fred Van Patten stated that "[w]hat we've done is cut things in the show that Asians said to make white people laugh."  The song "Chop Suey" was deleted, as was Master Wang's line that all white men look alike (based on a line in C. Y. Lee's novel, in which Wang states that all foreigners look alike).  The author gave a rare public interview to defend his novel and the musical adaptation.  The production, which had been scheduled for a three-week run, closed early.  A well-attended production in Oakland in 1993 adhered strictly to the 1958 script, though part of the ballet was cut for lack of rehearsal time; a more heavily censored 1996 production in San Mateo also did well at the box office.

2002 revival
In 1996, while attending the successful revival of The King and I, Chinese-American playwright David Henry Hwang considered whether other Rodgers and Hammerstein shows could be revived and decided to work on Flower Drum Song.  To Chinese Americans, the musical "represented political incorrectness incarnate.  But [Hwang] had a secret soft spot for the movie version. 'It was kind of a guilty pleasure ... and one of the only big Hollywood films where you could see a lot of really good Asian actors onscreen, singing and dancing and cracking jokes.'"  Ted Chapin, president of the Rodgers & Hammerstein Organization, announced that an unnamed "Asian playwright" had approached him about revising Flower Drum Song.  Chapin called the musical "a naive, old fashioned, anti-feminist story with a truly great score. ... It's one that ... needs changes."  Rodgers' will urged his heirs to do what they believed he would have agreed to (Hammerstein's instructions are unknown), but during her lifetime, his widow Dorothy had refused to countenance major changes in the plays.  Hwang's involvement was soon revealed, and in 1997, C. Y. Lee announced that the rewrite had his approval.

Hwang was given a free hand with dialogue; he was not allowed to change lyrics.  Hwang was inexperienced at writing musicals, and the producers hired veteran Robert Longbottom to direct the production and collaborate on the new script, "really a new musical which has a pre-existing score."  Only the character names, the San Francisco Chinatown setting and some of the relationships were retained, but the pair sought to be faithful to the spirit of both Lee's novel and the musical's original concept of old-world and older generation values struggling with new-world temptations and the desires of the younger generation.  This concept is reflected in the struggle for survival of Wang's Chinese opera company, as it competes with the more modern, Americanized night club run by Ta.  The role of Mei-li (as spelled in the revision) was expanded.  The character of Madam Liang was changed "from the wise-owl aunt" to a "savvy career woman" in show business.  Chinatown is portrayed as a more gritty and difficult place for new immigrants, and the pursuit of material success is given a more cynical face, especially in Act II.  The song "The Other Generation" was deleted; "My Best Love", which had been cut in tryouts in 1958, was restored in its place, and "The Next Time It Happens" was imported from Pipe Dream.  New orchestrations were by Don Sebesky and music director David Chase.  According to The New York Times, Hwang "has reshaped the story to elucidate two of his own abiding thematic interests: the idea of the theater as a prism for society and the generational clashes of diversely assimilated immigrants."

In September 2000, after development through a series of workshops, the new version was presented at two well-attended workshops for potential backers.  The show failed to raise enough money for an immediate Broadway run, but Hwang hoped that an extended Los Angeles run would lead to raising additional funds.  The revival was originally planned for the 2,000-seat Ahmanson Theatre in Los Angeles, but to save money he moved it to the nearby 739-seat Mark Taper Forum.  Producer Gordon Davidson engaged an all-Asian cast, including Broadway star Lea Salonga as Mei-li.  When it finally opened on October 14, 2001, the production received rave reviews from the Los Angeles critics.  The show regularly sold out and was so popular it became the first show at the Taper to extend its scheduled run.  It finally closed on January 13, 2002.

The success of the Los Angeles run sparked sufficient investment to move the show to Broadway.  Half the cast was dismissed after the Los Angeles run for unstated reasons. Mary Rodgers later commented that Randall Duk Kim replaced Tzi Ma as Wang because she had admired Kim's performance as the Kralahome in the 1996 revival of The King and I, but Kim was unavailable for the Los Angeles run.  Hwang considerably altered and trimmed his long script during Broadway rehearsals and previews; "The Next Time It Happens" was removed from the show.  During the runup to the Broadway opening, the show received mostly positive publicity.

Opening night at the Virginia Theatre on October 17, 2002, was attended by veterans of the film and 1958 production.  Though it received warm applause from the audience, the critics mostly panned it.  Attendance was near-capacity during the first month of the run, but then dropped off precipitously.  The producers hoped the show could hold out long enough to get a boost from the Tony Awards  (though nominated for three, including best book, it won none), but in February, they announced that the show would close on March 16, 2003, after 169 performances.  The show's backers lost their entire investment.

The production was directed and choreographed by Longbottom, with scenic design by Robin Wagner, costume design by Gregg Barnes and lighting design by Natasha Katz.  Critic Karen Wada, in her afterword to the published script, blamed "the sluggish economy, post-September 11 jitters, the New York Times mixed review, and unusually bitter winter weather" for the unexpectedly short run.  Lee also felt that the influential Times review had hurt the show's acceptance, but commented that Hwang added some dialogue to Act II after the Los Angeles run that Lee felt slowed the show down.  The closing was followed by a national tour that garnered mixed reviews, although Hwang stated that it was well received in every city except New York.

Subsequent productions have favored the Hwang script, although the older version remains available for license and has received occasional revivals, including a 2006 staged concert as part of Ian Marshall Fisher's Lost Musicals series.  A review in London's The Times compared this production with "the much grander production of Show Boat currently docked at the Albert Hall" and judged that "Flower Drum Song makes the more stimulating experience."

 2002 plot Prologue:In 1960, Wu Mei-li, a performer in Chinese opera, flees China with a flower drum after her father dies in prison for defying the Communists ("A Hundred Million Miracles").Act I:On arrival in the United States, Mei-li goes to the Golden Pearl Theatre in San Francisco's Chinatown, where little-attended Chinese opera is presented by her father's old friend Wang Chi-yang and Wang's foster brother Chin.  One night a week, Wang's son Ta turns the theater into a nightclub, starring the very assimilated Linda Low, a Chinese-American stripper from Seattle.  Linda's constant companion is a gay costume designer, Harvard (so named by his success-obsessed Chinese parents).  The nightclub is profitable; the Chinese opera is not.  Mei-li joins the opera company ("I Am Going to Like It Here") and is soon attracted to the indifferent Ta, who favors Linda.  Mei-li is fascinated by Linda, who urges her to adopt the American lifestyle ("I Enjoy Being a Girl").  Linda is soon signed by talent agent Rita Liang, who pushes Wang to turn the theater into a club full-time ("Grant Avenue"), and he reluctantly opens Club Chop Suey.

Ta slowly is becoming attracted to Mei-li, who now serves as a waitress, but he has competition from fortune cookie factory worker Chao, whom Mei-li met on the slow journey from China, and who is rapidly becoming discontented with America.  Wang is also unhappy, despite the club's success, and it is no consolation the crowd is having a good time – after all, in the old country, no crowd ever came to his theater expecting to enjoy themselves.  Outraged at Harvard's poor acting skills, Wang takes the stage in his place, his stage instincts take over ("Gliding Through My Memories"), and he is soon an enthusiastic supporter of the change, taking the stage name Sammy Fong.  Linda advises Mei-li to put on one of her old stripper dresses to attract Ta, but the stratagem backfires, since Ta is attracted to Mei-li because of her wholesomeness.  Ta and Mei-li quarrel; she takes her flower drum and leaves Club Chop Suey.Act II:Several months pass, and Club Chop Suey has become even flashier ("Chop Suey").  Ta can not forget Mei-li, and his uncle Chin (a janitor under the new regime) advises Ta to pursue her ("My Best Love").  He finds her in a fortune cookie factory working alongside Chao.  Mei-li tells Ta that she and Chao have decided to return to China together, or at least to Hong Kong, then administered by the British.  Meanwhile, Wang now finds himself attracted to Madam Liang, and the two have dinner together, though they decide not to marry ("Don't Marry Me").  They marry anyway.

Linda announces that she is leaving for Los Angeles, as Wang's "Sammy Fong" act has effectively taken over the show, and she has received a better offer.  Ta intercepts Mei-li at the docks and persuades her to remain in America; Ta leaves Club Chop Suey and the two become street performers as Chao departs for Hong Kong.  Harvard announces his intention to return home and attempt a reconciliation with his disappointed parents.  Despite his irritation at Ta, Wang allows him to marry Mei-li at the club (which now features Ta's Chinese opera one day a week), as the company celebrates how Chinese and American cultures have converged to create this happy moment (Finale:  "A Hundred Million Miracles").

 Critical reception
 Original productions
Of the seven major New York newspaper drama reviewers, five gave the show very positive reviews.  For example, New York Journal American critic John McClain stated, "Flower Drum Song is a big fat Rodgers and Hammerstein hit, and nothing written here will have the slightest effect on the proceeds."  The New York Daily Mirror termed it, "Another notable work by the outstanding craftsmen of our musical theatre ... a lovely show, an outstanding one in theme and treatment."  Less enthusiastic, however, was the longtime New York Times critic, Brooks Atkinson, who repeatedly described it as merely "pleasant".  UPI's drama critic, Jack Gaver, scored it as "well north of Me and Juliet and Pipe Dream" but "well south" of Oklahoma!, Carousel, South Pacific and even the team's first flop, Allegro.  Ward Morehouse applauded Suzuki for having "a brassy voice and the assurance of a younger Ethel Merman" and termed the production "an excellent Broadway show" though "[p]erhaps it doesn't belong in the same world ... as The King and I and Carousel."  Critic Kenneth Tynan, in The New Yorker magazine, alluded to the show The World of Suzie Wong in dismissing Flower Drum Song with the spoonerism, "a world of woozy song".

When the national tour of the show visited the city of its setting, most San Francisco reviewers gave the show very positive reviews, though the Oakland Tribune critic described the musical as one "which has little by way of witty dialogue, outstanding songs or vigorous choreography".  Nevertheless, she called the touring production superior to the Broadway one.

 2002 revival
Michael Phillips of the Los Angeles Times called the show "wholly revised and gleefully self-aware ... a few tons short of a mega-musical – no fake helicopters here, no power ballads saccharine enough to stop Communism in its tracks."  The Hollywood Reporter thought the revival was, "while not perfect, an exhilarating accomplishment".  Variety called it "a bold theatrical operation, an artistic success".

Critics reviewing the New York production generally gave it poor reviews.   Ben Brantley of The New York Times applauded the creative team's "honorable intentions" in bringing back a work thought to be "terminally out-of-date", but felt both the new Mei-li and the show in general lacked personality.  Howard Kissel of the New York Daily News termed it "an entertaining, albeit vulgar revival", and Clive Barnes of the New York Post found it no more memorable than the earlier version.  The review in Talkin' Broadway is scathing, criticizing Hwang's use of the songs and characters, and the orchestrations, and commenting: "Hwang's book lacks much of the charm, warmth, and wit of the original, and never takes the high road where the low road will do. ... Hwang felt it necessary to reduce the original, uniquely colorful story into just another backstager with a love triangle and lame jokes."  Michael Kuchwara commented in his lukewarm review for Associated Press:  "Then there's Linda Low's gay confidante, Harvard.  Talk about stereotypes.  If you are going to perpetuate one at least give him better jokes."   On the other hand, both USA Today and Time magazine gave it positive reviews.  The CurtainUp review was mostly positive and observed that Hwang and Longbottom "were able to keep numbers like 'Chop Suey' and milk it for its razzle-dazzle fun while using its condescending stereotyping as a springboard to satirize attitudes towards Asians."  Brantley disagreed, writing, "because the show's satiric point of view is so muddled, there's no verve in such numbers, no joy in the performing of them."

In 2006, David Lewis compared the original script to Hwang's version:
History never completely goes away.  Hwang's champions are unlikely to fade away, either, in rhetorical defeat.  Dick and Oscar and Joe mined C. Y. Lee's novel for the generational conflict and for the three women who substantiated Ta's honorable search for love.  Those themes, like it or not, still resonate today.

 Music and recordings

Rodgers and Hammerstein sought to give the new work an Eastern flavor, without using existing oriental music.  According to Ben Brantley in his review of the 2002 Broadway revival, the use by Rodgers "of repetitive Eastern musical structures gives the numbers a sing-song catchiness that, for better or worse, exerts a sticky hold on the memory."  The most oriental-sounding song in the work is "A Hundred Million Miracles", which provides the eight-note drumbeat which is the musical signature of the work from overture to curtain.  Hammerstein wrote Mei Li's first act song, "I Am Going to Like It Here", in a Malaysian poetic form called pantoum in which the second and fourth lines of each stanza become the first and third lines of the next.Lewis, p. 70  One critic thought that the 2001 version's orchestrations "boast more Asian accents and a jazzier edge than the original", but another felt that they "pale in comparison" to Bennett's typically lilting sound.

As with many of Rodgers and Hammerstein's musicals, the work features a ballet at the start of the second act, choreographed in the original production by Carol Haney.  The ballet dramatizes the confused romantic longings of Wang Ta towards the women in his life, and ends as he awakens in Helen Chao's bed.  Thomas Hischak, in his The Rodgers and Hammerstein Encyclopedia, notes that the ballets in Oklahoma! and Carousel (choreographed by Agnes de Mille) broke new ground in illustrating facets of the characters beyond what is learned in songs and dialogue, but describes the ballet in Flower Drum Song as "pleasant but not memorable".  Although Hischak describes Rodgers as "the greatest waltz composer America has ever seen", Flower Drum Song was the first Rodgers and Hammerstein musical not to feature one.

Several of the characters are given "I am" songs that introduce them to the audience, allowing the character to express his dreams or desires and for onlookers to establish empathy with the character.  Linda Low, for example, expresses her self-confidence with "I Enjoy Being a Girl"; we learn Mei Li's hopes with the quieter "I Am Going to Like It Here".  Although not a formal musical number, the brief "You Be the Rock, I'll Be the Roll", sung and danced by Linda and by Wang San, Ta's Americanized teenage brother, was described by Lewis as "virtually the first self-consciously rock and roll ditty ever sung" in a Broadway musical.  Patrick Adiarte, who originated the role of Wang San, however, saw it as "corny stuff ... put in there to get a laugh".  Helen Chao's sad "Love, Look Away" is described by Lewis as "arguably the most tautly crafted blues song Dick and Oscar ever wrote".

Having decided that record companies were profiting more from the sales of their cast albums than they were, Rodgers and Hammerstein formed their own record company to produce the cast recording for the original production of Flower Drum Song.  The album sold a relatively modest 300,000 copies, compared with sales of over a million copies for Rodgers and Hammerstein's next and final musical, The Sound of Music.  Still, it was certified as a gold record for having at least a million dollars in sales, and it spent 67 weeks in the U.S. Top 40, three of them at number 1, and also did well in the UK when the show opened there in 1960.  The original cast album is relatively complete, even including parts of the Wedding Parade, though it does not include the ballet.

In 1960, the London cast recording was released.  According to Hischak, the individual performers do not sing as well as the New York cast; the London recording's strong points are the nightclub numbers.  The 1961 album from the film uses a larger orchestra and, according to Hischak, has a fuller sound than the Broadway recording.  It features dubbing by the opera singer Marilyn Horne ("Love, Look Away") and band singer B. J. Baker (for Linda Low's songs).  A cast album for Hwang's revision was released in 2002 featuring strong performances from Lea Salonga as Mei-li and Jose Llana as Wang Ta.  This was nominated for a Grammy, though it did not win.  Hischak notes that it is unfair to compare the later version with its earlier predecessors, as Hwang's version "has some of the dark corners and richness of a musical play".

 Musical numbers (original version) Act I Overture
 You Are Beautiful – Ta and Madam Liang
 A Hundred Million Miracles – Mei Li, Dr. Li, Wang, Madam Liang and Liu Ma
 I Enjoy Being a Girl – Linda and Company
 I Am Going to Like It Here – Mei Li
 Like a God – Ta
 Chop Suey – Madam Liang, Wang and Ensemble
 Don't Marry Me – Sammy Fong and Mei Li
 Grant Avenue – Linda and Ensemble
 Love, Look Away – Helen
 Fan Tan Fannie – Frankie and Girls
 Gliding Through My Memories – Frankie and Girls
 Finale: Grant Avenue – Linda and GirlsAct II'
 Ballet
 Love, Look Away (Reprise) – Helen
 The Other Generation – Madam Liang and Wang
 Sunday – Linda and Sammy Fong
 The Other Generation  (Reprise) – Wang San and Children
 Wedding Parade – Mei Li and Dancers
 Finale – Company

The 2002 revival restored "My Best Love", a song that was cut from the original production, which is sung by Chin.  "The Other Generation" was cut from the revival.

Cast
The principal casts of major productions of the musical (and of the film) have been as follows:

*Linda Low's singing voice was dubbed by B. J. Baker, and Chao's "Love, Look Away" was dubbed by Marilyn Horne.
Dashes indicate roles cut from 2002 production.  The 2002 production also featured Alvin Ing as Chin, Allen Liu as Harvard and Hoon Lee as Chao.

Awards and nominations

Original Broadway production

2002 Broadway revival

References

Notes

Bibliography

External links

 Flower Drum Song (1958 production) at R&H Theatricals website
 Flower Drum Song (2002 synopsis) at R&H Theatricals website
 Feature on the 1958 Playbill for Flower Drum Song
 NPR news, January 2002, feature about Hwang's script
 Review of the book Flower Drum Songs: The Story of Two Musicals by David H. Lewis (2006)
 Playbill article on 50th Anniversary of Flower Drum Song
 Flower Drum Song (1958 staging) still images at the New York Public Library

1958 musicals
Asian-American issues
Asian-American plays
Broadway musicals
Musicals by Rodgers and Hammerstein
Musicals based on novels
Musicals set in San Francisco
Chinatown, San Francisco in fiction
Tony Award-winning musicals

Flower Drum Song


Der Tod Highway ist eine Fernstraße im Süden des australischen Bundesstaates South Australia. Er verbindet den Eyre Highway in Kyancutta mit dem Flinders Highway nordwestlich von Port Lincoln an der Spitze der Eyre-Halbinsel.

Die Straße teilt die Eyre-Halbinsel in der Mitte und wurde nach Robert Tod, der die Gegend 1839 erforschte, benannt.

Verlauf
Der Tod Highway zweigt in Kyancutta vom Eyre Highway (NA1) nach Süden ab und führt vornehmlich durch landwirtschaftlich genutztes Gebiet, in dem Weizen und Gerste angebaut und Schafe gezüchtet werden. Erste Stadt an der Route ist Lock in der Mitte der Halbinsel, wo der Birdseye Highway (B91) kreuzt. Weiter verläuft der Tod Highway nach Süden, durch die Stadt Cummins, bis sie 21 km nordwestlich von Port Lincoln auf den Flinders Highway (B100) trifft.

Straßenzustand
Der Tod Highway ist auf seiner gesamten Länge befestigt und zweispurig ausgebaut.

Literatur
Steve Parish: Australian Touring Atlas. Steve Parish Publishing. Archerfield QLD 2007. ISBN 978-1-74193-232-4. S. 70

Straße in South Australia
Straße in Australien und Ozeanien

Tod Highway


Mehmet, İslam peygamberi olan Muhammed'in adından türemiş Arapça kökenli bir erkek adıdır. İsim önce Mehemmed olmuş, sonra Mehmed, ondan sonra ise Mehmet olarak okunmaya başlanmıştır. Türkiye'de en çok kullanılan erkek adıdır. Mehmet ismi Muhammed ismi'nin kısaltılmış halidir. Mehmet isminin anlamı yerde ve gökte övülen demektir ve anlamı Muhammed ismiyle aynıdır.

Kaynakça

Türk isimleri
İsimler
Erkek isimleri
Soyadları
Türkçe soyadları
Türkçe erkek isimleri

Mehmet


L'Ayema FC est un club de football béninois basé à Porto-Novo. Il joue actuellement dans le championnat de la première division du Bénin.

Histoire

Stade
L'équipe joue au stade de Saint-Louis, ayant une capacité de 3 000 places.

Références

Liens externes

Club de football au Bénin
Club de football fondé en 2008

Ayema Football Club


Nitraria, biljni rod iz porodice Nitrariaceae, red sapindolike. Rasprostranjen je po svim kontinentima, a najzastupljeniji je po Euroaziji. Unutar roda postoji osam priznatih vrsta. Australska vrsta N. billardierei, lokalno poznata kao Nitrebush, autohtona je u Australiji, a važan je izvor hrane i utočište za ptice, guštere i manje sisavce. U domorodačko doba njezini plodovi služili su Aboridžinima Južne Asutralije kao hrana. jestivi su i plodovi vrste N. schoberi

Vrste
 Nitraria billardierei  DC.
 Nitraria komarovii  Iljin & Lava ex Bobrov
 Nitraria pamirica  L.I.Vassiljeva
 Nitraria retusa  (Forssk.) Asch.
 Nitraria roborowskii Kom.
 Nitraria schoberi  L.
 Nitraria sibirica Pall.
 Nitraria sphaerocarpa Maxim.
 Nitraria tangutorum Bobrov

Izvori

Nitrariaceae

Nitraria


Fidelis Bentele (* 5. April 1830 in Tettnang; † 27. März 1901 in Stuttgart) war ein deutscher Tier-, Historien- und Kirchenmaler.

Leben und Wirken

Fidelis Bentele wurde von 1846 bis 1849 an der Münchner Akademie und ab 1850 bei Bernhard von Neher an der Stuttgarter Kunstschule malerisch ausgebildet. Er bekam ein Stipendium und lebte von 1856 bis 1859 in Rom. 1859 wurde er zum Professor für Ornament- und Landschaftszeichnen an der Baugewerkeschule in Stuttgart ernannt.

Zusammen mit Hans Martin und Wilhelm Waldraff führte er 1858–1860 im Rahmen der Restaurierungsarbeiten an der Tettnanger Stadtpfarrkirche die Innenausmalung aus. In Oberschwaben machte er sich einen Namen als Kirchenmaler und schuf Genrestücke, Porträts und Vorlagen zu Glasfenstern. Wichtige Gemälde sind "Christus am Kreuz" in der Pfarrkirche St. Jodok in Ravensburg, der "Barmherzige Samariter" in der Staatsgalerie Stuttgart und "Amor und Psyche" in Privatbesitz. Weitere Werke sind heute im Tettnanger Montfort-Museum ausgestellt.

Familie

Er war Sohn des Tierarztes Josef Bentele in Tettnang und der Franziska Günther. In Stuttgart heiratete er 1863 Ulrike Mathilde Mährle (* 6. August 1827 Lustnau; † 13. Februar 1912 in Rottweil). Er war katholisch und wurde in Stuttgart auf dem Fangelsbachfriedhof beerdigt.

Bekannte Schüler

 Antonie Boubong (1842–1908), Porträt-, Genre- und Landschaftsmalerin.

Sonstiges
Seit 1884 war er Ehrenmitglied der katholischen Studentenverbindung AV Guestfalia Tübingen.

Literatur
 Statistisches Amt der Stadt Stuttgart (Hrsg.): Chronik der Kgl. Haupt- und Residenzstadt Stuttgart 1901. Greiner & Pfeiffer, Stuttgart 1901, S. 11f. (Digitalisat).

 Karl Heinz Burmeister: Geschichte der Stadt Tettnang. UVK, Konstanz 1997, ISBN 3-87940-595-6, S. 206, 246 f., 373.

Einzelnachweise

Maler (Deutschland)
Künstler (Württemberg)
Historienmaler
Württemberger
Korporierter im CV
Person (Tettnang)
Deutscher
Geboren 1830
Gestorben 1901
Mann

Fidelis Bentele (Maler)


The Neo Buddhist movement (also known as the  Buddhist movement For Dalits, Ambedkarite Buddhist movement or Modern Buddhist movement) is a religious as well as a socio-political movement among Dalits in India which was started by B. R. Ambedkar. It re-interpreted Buddhism and created a new school of Buddhism called Navayana. The movement has sought to be a socially and politically engaged form of Buddhism.

The movement was launched in 1956 by Ambedkar when nearly half a million Dalits – formerly untouchables – joined him and converted to Navayana Buddhism. It rejected Hinduism, challenged the caste system in India and promoted the rights of the Dalit community. The movement also rejected the teachings of  Mahayana, Theravada and Vajrayana traditions of Buddhism, instead the movement claims to be a form of engaged Buddhism as taught by Ambedkar.

History
Buddhism originated in ancient India and grew after Ashoka adopted it. By the 2nd century CE, Buddhism was widespread in India and had expanded outside of India into Central Asia, East Asia and parts of Southeast Asia. During the Middle Ages, Buddhism slowly declined in India, while it vanished from Persia and Central Asia as Islam became the state religion.

According to Randall Collins, Buddhism was already declining in India by the 12th century, but with the pillage by Muslim invaders it nearly became extinct in India. In the 13th century, states Craig Lockard, Buddhist monks in India fled to Tibet to escape Islamic persecution, while the monks in western India, states Peter Harvey, escaped persecution by moving to south Indian Hindu kingdoms that were able to resist the Muslim power.

Efforts to revive Buddhism in India began in the 19th century, such as with the efforts of Sri Lankan Buddhist leader Anagarika Dharmapala who founded the Maha Bodhi Society. The Maha Bodhi Society, according to Bhagwan Das, was not a Dalit movement however, because it mainly attracted upper-caste Hindus to Buddhism.

Northern India

The two Adi Dharma movements – those that rejected Hinduism in favor of Buddhism – were launched by Swami Achhutanand Harihar in Uttar Pradesh and Babu Mangu Ram in Punjab.

Born in an untouchable family, Achhutanand joined the Arya Samaj suddhi reform movement and worked there for about eight years (1905–1912). He felt Arya Samaj practiced untouchability in subtle ways, and subsequently left it to launch the socio-political Bharitiya Achhut Mahasabha movement. Achhutanand published the Adi-Hindu magazine, wherein he called on Dalits to return to Adi-Dharma as the "original religion of Indians." Achhutanand formulated his philosophy on the basis of a shared cultural and ethnic identity. He presented it to an audience beyond just Dalits, including tribal societies as well. He opposed Mahatma Gandhi's non-cooperation movement and fasts as well as the Indian National Congress, stating that Brahmins were "as foreign to India as were the British", according to Anand Teltumbde.

Babu Mangu Ram was also born in an untouchable family of Punjab with a flourishing leather trade. Mangu Ram arrived in the United States in 1909 at the age of 23 and worked in California. There, he joined the Ghadar Party and smuggled weapons from California to India in order to oppose British rule. In 1925, he shifted his focus onto Dalit freedom, launching the "Ad Dharm" movement as well as a weekly newspaper titled Adi-Danka to spread his ideas. According to Teltumbde, Mandu Ram's religious movement failed to materialize, and Mangu Ram later joined the Ambedkarite movement.

In 1914, Prakash was ordained as a Bodhanand Mahastavir in Calcutta, and began preaching Buddhism in Lucknow. He founded the Bharatiye Buddh Samiti in 1916, and set up a vihara in 1928.

Southern India
In 1898, Pandit Iyothee Thass founded the Sakya Buddhist Society also known as Indian Buddhist Association in Tamil Nadu. He presented Buddhism as a religious alternative to Hinduism for Dalits. Thass's efforts led to the creation of a broader movement amongst Tamil Dalits in South India until the 1950s. The first president of the Indian Buddhist Association was Paul Carus. Unlike the Ambedkarite movement, the Indian Buddhist Association adopted the Theravada Buddhism tradition founded in Sri Lanka (where Thass had received his training and initiation in Buddhism).

B. R. Ambedkar

Ambedkar was an Indian leader, influential during the colonial era and post-independence period of India. He belonged to a Dalit community, traditionally the most oppressed and marginalized group in Indian society. He was the fourteenth child in an impoverished Maharashtra Dalit family, who studied abroad, returned to India in the 1920s and joined the political movement. His focus was social and political rights of the Dalits.

During 1931–32, the Mahatma Gandhi led Indian independence movement held discussions with the British government over the Round Table Conferences. They sought constitutional reforms as a preparation to the end of colonial British rule, and begin the self-rule by Indians. The British side sought reforms that would keep the Indian subcontinent as a colony. The British negotiators proposed constitutional reforms on a British Dominion model that established separate electorates based on religious and social divisions. They invited Indian religious leaders, such as Muslims and Sikhs, to press their demands along religious lines, as well as B. R. Ambedkar as the representative leader of the untouchables. Gandhi vehemently opposed a constitution that enshrined rights or representations based on communal divisions, because he feared that such a constitution would not bring people together but divide them, perpetuate their status and divert the attention from India's struggle to end the colonial rule.

After Gandhi returned from Second Round Table conference, he started a new satyagraha. He was immediately arrested and imprisoned at the Yerwada Jail, Pune. While he was in prison, the British government enacted a new law that granted untouchables a separate electorate. It came to be known as the Communal Award. In protest, Gandhi started fast-unto-death, while he was held in prison. The resulting public outcry forced the government, in consultations with Ambedkar, to replace the Communal Award with a compromise Poona Pact.

Ambedkar accepted the Poona Pact under public pressure, but disagreed with Gandhi and his political methods. He dismissed Gandhi's ideas as loved by "blind Hindu devotees", primitive, influenced by spurious brew of Tolstoy and Ruskin, and "there is always some simpleton to preach them".

Ambedkar concluded that Dalits must leave Hinduism and convert to another religion, and announced his intent to leave Hinduism in 1935. He considered Islam, Christianity, Sikhism, Zoroastrianism and Buddhism. Ambedkar was approached by various leaders of different denominations and faiths. On 22 May 1936, an "All Religious Conference" was held at Lucknow. It was attended by prominent Dalit leaders including Jagjivan Ram, though Ambedkar could not attend it. At the conference, Muslim, Christian, Sikh, and Buddhist representatives presented the tenets of their respective religions in an effort to win over Dalits. Ambedkar rejected the other religions and chose Buddhism. However, Ambedkar remained a Hindu for the next 20 years, studied then re-interpreted Buddhism, and adopted Neo-Buddhism or Navayana few weeks before his death.

The Italian Buddhist monk Lokanatha visited Ambedkar's residence at Dadar on 10 June 1936. Later in an interview to the press, Lokanatha said that Ambedkar was impressed with Buddhism.

Navayana Buddhism

According to Ambedkar, several of the core beliefs and doctrines of traditional Buddhist traditions such as the Four Noble Truths and Anatta were flawed and pessimistic, and may have been inserted into the Buddhist scriptures by wrong-headed Buddhist monks of a later era. These should not be considered as Buddha's teachings in Ambedkar's view. Other foundational concepts of Buddhism such as Karma and Rebirth were considered by Ambedkar as superstitions.

Navayana as formulated by Ambedkar and at the root of Dalit Buddhist movement abandons mainstream traditional Buddhist practices and precepts such as the institution of monk after renunciation, ideas such as karma, rebirth in afterlife, samsara, meditation, nirvana and Four Noble Truths. Ambedkar's new sect of Buddhism rejected these ideas and re-interpreted the Buddha's religion in terms of class struggle and social equality.

Ambedkar called his version of Buddhism Navayana or Neo-Buddhism. His book, The Buddha and His Dhamma is the holy book of Navayana or Dalit Buddhists. According to Junghare, for the followers of Navyana, Ambedkar has become a deity and he is worshipped in its practice.

Ambedkar's conversion

After publishing a series of books and articles arguing that Buddhism was the only way for the Untouchables to gain equality, Ambedkar publicly converted on 14 October 1956, at Deekshabhoomi, Nagpur, over 20 years after he declared his intent to convert. Around 365,000 of his followers converted to Buddhism at the same ceremony. On this occasion, many upper caste Hindus too accepted Buddhism. After Nagpur, on 16 October 1956, Ambedkar again gave Buddhism to more than 300,000 of his followers at Chandrapur, since the place is also known as Deekshabhoomi. Inspired by this Ambedkar's conversion, 5,000 Tamils of Myanmar had accepted Buddhism in Rangoon under the leadership of Chan Htoon, the justice of the Supreme Court of the Union of Burma on 28 October 1956.

The conversion ceremony was attended by Medharathi, his main disciple Bhoj Dev Mudit, and Mahastvir Bodhanand's Sri Lankan successor, Bhante Pragyanand. Ambedkar asked Dalits not to get entangled in the existing branches of Buddhism (Theravada, Mahayana and Vajrayana), and called his version Navayana or 'Neo-Buddhism'. Ambedkar would die less than two months later, just after finishing his definitive work on Buddhism.

Many Dalits employ the term "Ambedkar(ite) Buddhism" to designate the Buddhist movement, which started with Ambedkar's conversion. Many converted people call themselves "-Bauddha" i.e. Buddhists.

Twenty-two vows

After Ambedkar's death
The Buddhist movement was somewhat hindered by Ambedkar's death so shortly after his conversion. It did not receive the immediate mass support from the Untouchable population that Ambedkar had hoped for. Division and lack of direction among the leaders of the Ambedkarite movement have been an additional impediment. According to the 2011 census, there are currently 8.44 million Buddhists in India, at least 6.5 million of whom are Marathi Buddhists in Maharashtra. This makes Buddhism the fifth-largest religion in India and 6% of the population of Maharashtra, but less than 1% of the overall population of India.

The Buddhist revival remains concentrated in two states: Ambedkar's native Maharashtra, and Uttar Pradesh – the land of Bodhanand Mahastavir, Acharya Medharthi and their associates.

Developments in Uttar Pradesh

Acharya Medharthi retired from his Buddhapuri school in 1960, and shifted to an ashram in Haridwar. He turned to the Arya Samaj and conducted Vedic yajnas all over India. After his death, he was cremated according to Arya Samaj rites. His Buddhpuri school became embroiled in property disputes. His follower, Bhoj Dev Mudit, converted to Buddhism in 1968 and set up a school of his own.

Rajendranath Aherwar appeared as an important Dalit leader in Kanpur. He joined the Republican Party of India and converted to Buddhism along with his whole family in 1961. In 1967, he founded the Kanpur branch of "Bharatiya Buddh Mahasabha". He held regular meetings where he preached Buddhism, officiated at Buddhist weddings and life cycle ceremonies, and organised festivals on Ambedkar's Jayanti (birth day), Sambuddhatva jayanthi, Diksha Divas (the day Ambedkar converted), and Ambedkar Paranirvan Divas (the day Ambedkar died).

The Dalit Buddhist movement in Kanpur gained impetus with the arrival of Dipankar, a Chamar bhikkhu, in 1980. Dipankar had come to Kanpur on a Buddhist mission and his first public appearance was scheduled at a mass conversion drive in 1981. The event was organised by Rahulan Ambawadekar, an RPI Dalit leader. In April 1981, Ambawadekar founded the Dalit Panthers (U.P. Branch) inspired by the Maharashtrian Dalit Panthers. The event met with severe criticism and opposition from Vishva Hindu Parishad and was banned.

The number of Buddhists in the Lucknow district increased from 73 in 1951 to 4327 in 2001. According to the 2001 census, almost 70% of the Buddhist population in Uttar Pradesh is from the scheduled castes background.

In 2002, Kanshi Ram, a popular political leader from a Sikh religious background, announced his intention to convert to Buddhism on 14 October 2006, the fiftieth anniversary of Ambedkar's conversion. He intended for 20,000,000 of his supporters to convert at the same time. Part of the significance of this plan was that Ram's followers include not only Untouchables, but persons from a variety of castes, who could significantly broaden Buddhism's support. But, he died 9 October 2006 after a lengthy illness; he was cremated as per Buddhist tradition.

Another popular Dalit leader, Uttar Pradesh Chief Minister and Bahujan Samaj Party leader Mayawati, has said that she and her followers will embrace Buddhism after the BSP forms a government at the Centre.

Maharashtra

Japanese-born Surai Sasai emerged as an important Buddhist leader in India. Sasai came to India in 1966 and met Nichidatsu Fujii, whom he helped with the Peace Pagoda at Rajgir. He fell out with Fuji, however, and started home, but, by his own account, was stopped by a dream in which a figure resembling Nagarjuna appeared and said, "Go to Nagpur". In Nagpur, he met Wamanrao Godbole, the person who had organised the conversion ceremony for Ambedkar in 1956. Sasai claims that when he saw a photograph of Ambedkar at Godbole's home, he realised that it was Ambedkar who had appeared in his dream. At first, Nagpur folk considered Surai Sasai very strange. Then he began to greet them with "Jai Bhim" (victory to Ambedkar) and to build viharas.  In 1987 a court case to deport him on the grounds that he had overstayed his visa was dismissed, and he was granted Indian citizenship. Sasai and Bhante Anand Agra are two of main leaders of the campaign to free the Mahabodhi Temple at Bodh Gaya from Hindu control.

A movement originating in Maharashtra but also active in Uttar Pradesh, and spread out over quite a few other pockets where Neo Buddhists live, is Triratna Bauddha Mahāsaṅgha (formerly called TBMSG for Trailokya Bauddha Mahasangha Sahayaka Gana). It is the Indian wing of the UK-based Triratna Buddhist Community founded by Sangharakshita. Its roots lie in the scattered contacts that Sangharakshita had in the 1950s with Ambedkar.  Sangharakshita, then still a bhikshu, participated in the conversion movement from 1956 until his departure to the UK in 1963.

When his new ecumenical movement had gained enough ground in the West, Sangharakshita worked with Ambedkarites in India and the UK to develop Indian Buddhism further. After visits in the late 1970s by Dharmachari Lokamitra from UK, supporters developed a two-pronged approach: social work through the Bahujan Hitaj (also spelled as Bahujan Hitay) trust, mainly sponsored from the general public by the British Buddhist-inspired Karuna Trust (UK), and direct Dharma work. Currently the movement has viharas and groups in at least 20 major areas, a couple of retreat centres, and hundreds of Indian Dharmacharis and Dharmacharinis.

Funding for movement's social and dharma work has come from foreign countries, including the Western countries and Taiwan. Some of the foreign-funded organisations include Trailokya Bauddha Mahasangha Sahayaka Gana and Triratna (Europe and India). Triratna has links with the 'Ambedkarite' Buddhist Romanis in Hungary.

Organized mass conversions

Since Ambedkar's conversion, several thousand people from different castes have converted to Buddhism in ceremonies including the twenty-two vows.

1957
In 1957, Mahastvir Bodhanand's Sri Lankan successor, Bhante Pragyanand, held a mass conversion drive for 15,000 people in Lucknow.

2001
A prominent Indian Navayana Buddhist leader and political activist, Udit Raj, organised a large mass conversion on 4 November 2001, where he gave the 22 vows, but the event met with active opposition from the government.

2006, Hyderabad
A report from the UK daily The Guardian said that some Hindus have converted to Buddhism. Buddhist monks from the UK and the U.S. attended the conversion ceremonies in India. Lalit Kumar, who works for a Hindu nationalist welfare association in Andhra Pradesh, asserted that Dalits should concentrate on trying to reduce illiteracy and poverty rather than looking for new religions.

2006, Gulbarga
On 14 October 2006, hundreds of people converted from Hinduism to Buddhism in Gulburga (Karnataka).

2006
At 50th anniversary celebrations in 2006 of Ambedkar's deeksha. Non-partisan sources put the number of attendees (not converts) at 30,000. The move was criticised by Hindu groups as "unhelpful" and has been criticised as a "political stunt."

2007, Mumbai
On 27 May 2007, tens of thousands of Dalits from Maharashtra gathered at the Mahalakshmi racecourse in Mumbai to mark the 50th anniversary of the conversion of Ambedkar. The number of people who converted versus the number of people in attendance was not clear. The event was organised by the Republican Party of India leader Ramdas Athvale.<ref>Nithin Belle. "Thousands of Dalits in 'mass conversion'" , Khaleej Times, 28 May 2007</ref>

Critique

Prerna Singh Bindra argued a mass-conversion of Hindus to Ambedkarite Buddhism under Udit Raj to be a political stunt.

Distinctive interpretation

According to Gail Omvedt, an American-born and naturalised Indian sociologist and human rights activist :

According to Omvedt, Ambedkar and his Buddhist movement deny many of the core doctrines of Buddhism. All the elements of religious modernism, state Christopher Queen and Sallie King, may be found in Ambedkar Buddhism where his The Buddha and His Dhamma abandons the traditional precepts and practices, then adopts science, activism and social reforms as a form of Engaged Buddhism. Ambedkar's formulation of Buddhism is different from Western modernism, states Skaria, given his synthesis of the ideas of modern Karl Marx into the structure of ideas by the ancient Buddha.

Criticism of the movement

Critics have argued that Neo-Buddhism does not have a strong influence, especially after the death of Ambedkar.

Some critics also argue that Neo-Buddhism deviates too much from traditional Buddhism. Even though traditional Buddhism emphasizes equality among people, it does not deny the caste system. In addition, its emphasis on people's liberation in the religious sense does not deny social distinctions as the norm of organizations in society, as the Buddha himself was the founder of a monastic order. A number of critics also argue that there is no moral foundation for the political practices that are based on Neo-Buddhist notions, since religion is totally voluntary, and Neo-Buddhism may thus violate democratic principles by restricting its followers to abide to certain non-religious rules.

Navayana as a political movement
The mass conversions to Buddhism are also seen as a political stunt rather than a genuine spiritual movement. Politicians such as Udit Raj, Ramdas Athawale, Kanshi Ram and Mayawati have also been involved in staging or planning to stage mass conversions—these politicians are members of either the Bahujan Samaj Party or the Republican Party of India.

According to Janet Contursi, Ambedkar re-interprets Buddhist religion and with Navayana "speaks through Gautama and politicizes the Buddha philosophy as he theologizes his own political views".

Ambedkar's reinterpretations
Ambedkar not only rejected Hinduism but also the most popular Buddhist schools. Ambedkar considered all ideas in Theravada, Vajrayana and Mahayana Buddhism that relate to an individual's merit and spiritual development as insertions into Buddhism, and something that "cannot be accepted to be the word of the Buddha". Buddhism, to Ambedkar, must have been a social reform movement. Ambedkar's radical reinterpretations of the faith rejected many of the main tenets of mainstream Buddhism such as renunciation, meditation, Samsara, Karma, reincarnation and even the Four Noble Truths, which Ambedkar claims to have been invented by wrong-headed monks.

Ambedkar reinvents the traditional story of The Buddha and the Great Renunciation in order to try and gain mass appeal from Dalits by giving the impression that The Buddha founded Buddhism as a social reform movement rather than a spiritual movement. Virginia Hancock writes about Ambedkar's reinterpretations as turning the Buddha into a politician.

Scholars broadly accept that the depictions of the Buddha as a social reformer are inaccurate. Gombrich (2012), states that there is no evidence that the Buddha began or pursued social reforms, rather his aim was at the salvation of those who joined his monastic order. Modernist interpreters of Buddhism, states Gombrich, keep picking up this "mistake from western authors", a view that initially came into vogue during the colonial era.

Empirical evidence outside of India, such as in the Theravada Buddhist monasteries of the Sinhalese society, suggests that class ideas have been prevalent among the sangha monks, and between the Buddhist monks and the laity. In all canonical Buddhist texts, the khattiyas (warrior class) are always mentioned first and never other classes such as brahmans, vessas, suddas.

See alsoThe Buddha and His DhammaMarathi Buddhists
Buddhist Society of India
Lord Buddha TV
Namantar Andolan
Chaitya Bhoomi
Bhadant Anand Kausalyayan
Bhadant Nagarjun Arya Surai Sasai
Buddhism in India
Buddhism in Nepal
Buddhism in Sri Lanka
Buddhist modernism
Humanistic Buddhism
List of converts to Buddhism from Hinduism

 Notes

References

Bibliography

External linksThe Buddha and His Dhamma'', B. R. Ambedkar

B. R. Ambedkar
Buddhist new religious movements
Buddhism amongst Tamils
Buddhism and politics
Dalit history
Navayana
Social movements in India
Buddhism in Maharashtra
Religious conversion in India
Dalit

Dalit Buddhist movement


Podul Terzijski (în , în , în ), numit uneori Podul Croitorilor, este situat în apropiere de satul Bistražin de lângă orașul Gjakova din Kosovo. El este un exemplu important de pod otoman construit în Kosovo. A fost construit peste râul Erenik, probabil la sfârșitul secolului al XV-lea, și a fost modificat în secolul al XVIII-lea. Lucrările au fost finanțate de breasla Terzija din Gjakova, de la care a primit numele său. Lucrări de reconstrucție majoră și de restaurare a aspectului inițial au avut loc între anii 1982 și 1984. Astăzi, podul este protejat de Republica Serbia, fiind declarat în 1990 un monument de cultură de importanță excepțională.

Istoric
Nu se știe exact când a fost construit podul, dar acesta este considerat a data de la sfârșitul secolului al XV-lea. Această opinie se bazează pe faptul că podul a fost clădit pe un drum medieval, care lega orașele Gjakova și Prizren, precum și pe faptul că podul a fost extins ulterior, ca urmare a modificărilor de debit ale râului Erenik. În secolul al XVIII-lea au fost realizate importante modificări, care au făcut ca podul să aibă aspectul actual. Aceste lucrări au fost finanțate de breasla Terzija din Gjakova, fapt ce este menționat într-o inscripție gravată în limba turcă pe pod.

Podul a fost construit din pietre șlefuite și împodobite, în culorile gri închis și ocru. Lungimea sa depășește 190 de metri, lățimea pavajului original era de peste 3,5 metri, iar podul este format din 11 arcuri rotunde, de-a lungul cărora sunt încorporate nișe.

Referințe

Terzijski

Podul Terzijski


ස්ලෝවැකියාව මධ්‍යම යුරෝපයේ පිහිටි රටකි. ජනගහනය මිලියන 5 ක් හා වර්ග ප්‍රමාණය වර්ග කි. මී. 49,000 (වර්ග සැතපුම් 19,000) කි. ස්ලෝවැකියාව මායිම් වන්නේ බටහිරින් චෙක් සමුහාණ්ඩුව හා ඔස්ට්‍රියා, උතුරින් පෝලන්තය, නැගෙනහිරින් යුක්රේන් හා දකුණින් හංගේරියාවටය.

අගනුවර හා විශාලතම නගරය වන්නේ බ්‍රැට්ස්ලාවාය. දෙවන විශාලතම නගරය කෝසියෙස්ය. ස්ලොවැනියා යුරෝපියානු සංගමය, නේටෝ, එක්සත් ජාතීන්ගේ සංවිධානය, ආර්ථික සහයෝගය හා සංවර්ධනය පිළිබඳ සංවිධානය(OECD), ලෝක වෙළඳ ආයතනය(WTO), යුනෙස්කෝ හා අනෙකුත් අන්තර්ජාතික සංවිධානවල සාමාජිකයෙකි.

5 වන හා 6 වන ශතවර්ෂවලදී වහල් සේවය සඳහා වහලුන් එරටට පැමිණි අතර පුරාණයේ දී අද ස්ලෝවැකියා ප්‍රදේශයට අයිති බොහොමයක් ප්‍රදේශ සාමෝස් අධිරාජ්‍යයට, මොරාවියාවට, හන්ගේරියානු අධිරාජ්‍යයට, ඔස්ට්‍රෝ හංගේරියානු රාජ්‍යයට හා චෙ‍කොෆ්ලෝවෙනියාවට අයත්ව තිබුණි. 2 වන ලෝක යුද්ධයේ දී ස්ලෝවැකියා රාජ්‍ය බිඳ නොවැටී පැවතුණ අතර 1939 – 1944 කාලයේ දී එය ජර්මානු නාට්සින් යටතේ පැවතිණි. 1945 සිට සොල්වැකියාව නැවතත් චෙකොස්ලෝවෙකියාවේ ප්‍රදේශයක් විය.

1993 ජනවාරි 1 වනදා ස්ලෝවැකියාව නිදහස් රාජ්‍යයක් විය. ස්ලෝවැකියාවේ ඇත්තේ ඉහල ආදායම් ආර්ථිකයක් වන අතර එය යුරෝපියානු සංගමයේ (EU) හා ආර්ථික සහයෝගය හා සංවර්ධනය පිළිබඳ සංවිධානයේ(OECD) වේගවත්ම වර්ධන අනුපාතය වේ. එරට 2004 වර්ෂයේ දී යුරෝපියානු සංගමය(EU) හා 2009 ජනවාරි 01 වනදා යුරෝපීය කලාපය සමඟ එක් විය. යුරෝපියානු සංගමය, යුරෝපීය කලාපය, ස්චෙන්ගන් ප්‍රදේශය හා නේටෝ හි එකම කොමියුනිස්ට් රාජ්‍යය ස්ලෝවැකියාව වේ.

ස්ලෝවැකියාව


Vratislav Lokvenc, (d. 27 Kasım 1973, Náchod) mevkiisi forvet olan Çek futbolcudur. Spor hayatına 7 yaşında yani 1980'de TJ Najhod takımının altyapısında başlamıştır. 1986'da SK Hradec Královéda takımına geçmiştir.

Profesyonel Futbol Hayatı

1992'de SK Hradec Králové'de profesyonel olmuştur. 1992-1994 yılları arası 46 maçta 5 gol ve 3 asist ile oynamıştır. 1994'te Sparta Praha'a geçmiştir. 2000 yılına kadar bu takımda oynayan Vratislav Lokvenc 163 karşılaşmada 74 gol ve 48 asist ile Sparta Prag'ın gelmiş geçmiş en büyük futbolcularından biri olmuştur. 2000'de 1.Kaiserslautern'e transfer olan Lokvenc, 2004'e kadar bu takımda oynadı. 116 maçta 35 gol ve 32 asist ile 1. Kaiserslautern'in en iyi oyuncularından biri olmuştur. 2004-2005 sezonunu Bochum'da geçiren yıldız futbolcu 32 maçta 10 gol ve 3 asist ile takımı kurtaramamıştır.

Millî takım

İlk millî takım serüvenine 1995'te başladı. Hâlen millî takım kadrosunda yer alan Çek futbolcu 74 kez giydiği millî takım formasıyla 14 gol ve 20 asist ile oynamaktadır. Ayrıca 2006 FIFA Dünya Kupası'nda da boy gösteren Lokvenc, takımının 2. tura yükselmesinde de pay sahibi olmuştur.

Yaşayan insanlar
1973 doğumlular
Çek futbolcular
Çekya millî futbol takımı futbolcuları
FC Hradec Králové futbolcuları
AC Sparta Praha futbolcuları
1. FC Kaiserslautern futbolcuları
VfL Bochum futbolcuları
FC Red Bull Salzburg futbolcuları
FC Basel futbolcuları
FC Ingolstadt 04 futbolcuları
Çek gurbetçi futbolcular
Almanya'daki gurbetçi futbolcular
Avusturya'daki gurbetçi futbolcular
İsviçre'deki gurbetçi futbolcular
Almanya'daki Çek gurbetçiler
Avusturya'daki Çek gurbetçiler
İsviçre'deki Çek gurbetçiler
1. liga futbolcuları
Bundesliga futbolcuları
Bundesliga (Avusturya) futbolcuları
Super League futbolcuları
1997 FIFA Konfederasyonlar Kupası futbolcuları
2000 Avrupa Futbol Şampiyonası futbolcuları
2004 Avrupa Futbol Şampiyonası futbolcuları
2006 FIFA Dünya Kupası futbolcuları
Forvet futbolcular

Vratislav Lokvenc


An Sartidia vanderystii in uska species han Liliopsida nga syahan ginhulagway ni De Wild., ngan ginhatag han pagkayana nga asya nga ngaran ni De Winter. An Sartidia vanderystii in nahilalakip ha genus nga Sartidia, ngan familia nga Poaceae. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Sartidia

Sartidia vanderystii


Ešinantus (lat. Aeschynanthus), rod vazdazelenog bilja iz Kine i tropske Azije. Pripada mu između 170 i 180 vrsta trajnica, polugrmova, grmova, penjačica i puzačica iz porodice gesnerijevki (Gesneriaceae).

Vrste

 Aeschynanthus acuminatissimus W.T.Wang
 Aeschynanthus acuminatus Wall. ex A.DC.
 Aeschynanthus albidus (Blume) Steud.
 Aeschynanthus amboinensis (Merr.) Mendum
 Aeschynanthus amoenus C.B.Clarke
 Aeschynanthus andersonii C.B.Clarke
 Aeschynanthus angustifolius (Blume) Steud.
 Aeschynanthus angustioblongus W.T.Wang
 Aeschynanthus apicidens Hance
 Aeschynanthus arctocalyx Mendum & Madulid
 Aeschynanthus arfakensis C.B.Clarke
 Aeschynanthus argentii Mendum
 Aeschynanthus asclepioides (Elmer) B.L.Burtt & P.Woods
 Aeschynanthus atrorubens Schltr.
 Aeschynanthus atrosanguineus Van Houtte ex C.B.Clarke
 Aeschynanthus batakiorum Mendum & Madulid
 Aeschynanthus batesii Mendum
 Aeschynanthus brachyphyllus S.Moore
 Aeschynanthus bracteatus Wall. ex A.DC.
 Aeschynanthus breviflorus (S.Moore) K.Schum.
 Aeschynanthus burttii Mendum
 Aeschynanthus buxifolius Hemsl.
 Aeschynanthus calanthus Schltr.
 Aeschynanthus cambodiensis D.J.Middleton
 Aeschynanthus camiguinensis Kraenzl.
 Aeschynanthus candidus Hend. ex C.B.Clarke
 Aeschynanthus cardinalis (H.F.Copel. ex Merr.) Schltr.
 Aeschynanthus caudatus C.B.Clarke
 Aeschynanthus celebicus Koord.
 Aeschynanthus ceylanicus Gardner
 Aeschynanthus chiritoides C.B.Clarke
 Aeschynanthus chorisepalus Orr
 Aeschynanthus chrysanthus P.Woods
 Aeschynanthus citrinus Mendum & S.M.Scott
 Aeschynanthus copelandii (Merr.) Schltr.
 Aeschynanthus cordifolius Hook.
 Aeschynanthus crassifolius (Elmer) Schltr.
 Aeschynanthus cryptanthus C.B.Clarke
 Aeschynanthus cuernosensis (Elmer) Schltr.
 Aeschynanthus curtisii C.B.Clarke
 Aeschynanthus curvicalyx Mendum
 Aeschynanthus dasycalyx Hallier f.
 Aeschynanthus dempoensis S.Moore
 Aeschynanthus dischidioides (Ridl.) D.J.Middleton
 Aeschynanthus dischorensis Schltr.
 Aeschynanthus ellipticus K.Schum. & Lauterb.
 Aeschynanthus elmeri Mendum
 Aeschynanthus elongatus C.B.Clarke
 Aeschynanthus everettianus Kraenzl.
 Aeschynanthus fecundus P.Woods
 Aeschynanthus firmus Kraenzl.
 Aeschynanthus flammeus Schltr.
 Aeschynanthus flavidus Mendum & P.Woods
 Aeschynanthus forbesii (S.Moore) K.Schum.
 Aeschynanthus foxworthyi Kraenzl.
 Aeschynanthus fruticosus Ridl.
 Aeschynanthus fulgens Wall. ex R.Br.
 Aeschynanthus garrettii Craib
 Aeschynanthus geminatus Zoll. & Moritzi
 Aeschynanthus gesneriflorus S.Moore
 Aeschynanthus gjellerupii Schltr.
 Aeschynanthus glomeriflorus Kraenzl.
 Aeschynanthus gracilis C.S.P.Parish ex C.B.Clarke
 Aeschynanthus guttatus P.Woods
 Aeschynanthus hartleyi P.Woods
 Aeschynanthus hians C.B.Clarke
 Aeschynanthus hispidus Schltr.
 Aeschynanthus hookeri C.B.Clarke
 Aeschynanthus horsfieldii R.Br.
 Aeschynanthus hosseusii Pellegr.
 Aeschynanthus humilis Hemsl.
 Aeschynanthus impar Schltr.
 Aeschynanthus intermedia Teijsm. & Binn.
 Aeschynanthus intraflavus Mendum
 Aeschynanthus irigaensis (Merr.) B.L.Burtt & P.Woods
 Aeschynanthus janowskyi Schltr.
 Aeschynanthus jouyi D.J.Middleton
 Aeschynanthus kermesinus Schltr.
 Aeschynanthus kingii C.B.Clarke
 Aeschynanthus lancilimbus W.T.Wang
 Aeschynanthus lasianthus W.T.Wang
 Aeschynanthus lasiocalyx W.T.Wang
 Aeschynanthus lepidospermus C.B.Clarke
 Aeschynanthus leptocladus C.B.Clarke
 Aeschynanthus leucothamnos Kraenzl.
 Aeschynanthus levipes C.B.Clarke
 Aeschynanthus ligustrinus Schltr.
 Aeschynanthus linearifolius C.E.C.Fisch.
 Aeschynanthus lineatus Craib
 Aeschynanthus littoralis (Merr.) Schltr.
 Aeschynanthus lobaticalyx Mendum
 Aeschynanthus loheri Kraenzl.
 Aeschynanthus longicaulis Wall. ex R.Br.
 Aeschynanthus longiflorus (Blume) A.DC.
 Aeschynanthus macrocalyx C.B.Clarke
 Aeschynanthus madulidii Mendum
 Aeschynanthus magnificus Stapf
 Aeschynanthus mannii Kurz ex C.B.Clarke
 Aeschynanthus marginatus Ridl.
 Aeschynanthus masoniae Kurz ex C.B.Clarke
 Aeschynanthus medogensis W.T.Wang
 Aeschynanthus membranifolius (Costantin) D.J.Middleton
 Aeschynanthus mendumiae D.J.Middleton
 Aeschynanthus mengxingensis W.T.Wang
 Aeschynanthus meo K.Schum.
 Aeschynanthus micranthus C.B.Clarke
 Aeschynanthus microcardius B.L.Burtt & R.A.Davidson
 Aeschynanthus microphyllus C.B.Clarke
 Aeschynanthus microtrichus C.B.Clarke
 Aeschynanthus miniaceus B.L.Burtt & P.Woods
 Aeschynanthus miniatus Lindl.
 Aeschynanthus minutifolius D.J.Middleton
 Aeschynanthus mollis Schltr.
 Aeschynanthus monetarius Dunn
 Aeschynanthus moningerae (Merr.) Chun
 Aeschynanthus montisucris P.Royen
 Aeschynanthus musaensis P.Woods
 Aeschynanthus myrtifolius Schltr.
 Aeschynanthus nabirensis Kaneh. & Hatus.
 Aeschynanthus nervosus (Elmer) Schltr.
 Aeschynanthus nummularius (Burkill & S.Moore) K.Schum.
 Aeschynanthus obconicus C.B.Clarke
 Aeschynanthus ovatus (Merr.) Schltr.
 Aeschynanthus oxychlamys Mendum
 Aeschynanthus pachyanthus Schltr.
 Aeschynanthus papuanus (Schltr.) B.L.Burtt
 Aeschynanthus parasiticus (Roxb.) Wall.
 Aeschynanthus parviflorus (D.Don) Spreng.
 Aeschynanthus pedunculatus D.J.Middleton
 Aeschynanthus pergracilis Kraenzl.
 Aeschynanthus perrottetii A.DC.
 Aeschynanthus phaeotrichus Schltr.
 Aeschynanthus philippinensis C.B.Clarke
 Aeschynanthus planipetiolatus H.W.Li
 Aeschynanthus podocarpus C.B.Clarke
 Aeschynanthus poilanei Pellegr.
 Aeschynanthus polillensis Kraenzl.
 Aeschynanthus praelongus Kraenzl.
 Aeschynanthus pseudohybridus Mendum
 Aeschynanthus pulcher (Blume) G.Don
 Aeschynanthus pullei Schltr.
 Aeschynanthus radicans Jack
 Aeschynanthus rarus Schltr.
 Aeschynanthus rhododendron Ridl.
 Aeschynanthus rhodophyllus Kraenzl.
 Aeschynanthus roseoflorus Mendum
 Aeschynanthus roseus Schltr.
 Aeschynanthus rubiginosus Teijsm. & Binn.
 Aeschynanthus sanguineus Schltr.
 Aeschynanthus serpens Kraenzl.
 Aeschynanthus setosus Kraenzl.
 Aeschynanthus sinolongicalyx W.T.Wang
 Aeschynanthus siphonanthus C.B.Clarke
 Aeschynanthus sojolianus Mendum & L.E.R.Galloway
 Aeschynanthus solomonensis P.Woods
 Aeschynanthus speciosus Hook.
 Aeschynanthus stenocalyx Kraenzl.
 Aeschynanthus stenosepalus J.Anthony
 Aeschynanthus stenosiphon Schltr.
 Aeschynanthus suborbiculatus S.Moore
 Aeschynanthus superbus C.B.Clarke
 Aeschynanthus tenericaulis Diels
 Aeschynanthus tengchungensis W.T.Wang
 Aeschynanthus tenuis Hand.-Mazz.
 Aeschynanthus teysmannianus Miq.
 Aeschynanthus tirapensis Bhattacharyya
 Aeschynanthus torricellensis Schltr.
 Aeschynanthus trichocalyx Kraenzl.
 Aeschynanthus tricolor Hook.
 Aeschynanthus truncatus (Elmer) Schltr.
 Aeschynanthus tubiflorus C.B.Clarke
 Aeschynanthus tubulosus J.Anthony
 Aeschynanthus verticillatus C.B.Clarke
 Aeschynanthus vinaceus P.Woods
 Aeschynanthus viridiflorus Teijsm. & Binn.
 Aeschynanthus volubilis Jack
 Aeschynanthus wallichii R.Br.
 Aeschynanthus wardii Merr.
 Aeschynanthus warianus Schltr.
 Aeschynanthus zamboangensis Kraenzl.

Izvori

Vanjske poveznice

Gesnerijevke

Ešinantus


Youssef Ben Ali (en ), né le  à Albi en France, est un footballeur franco-marocain évoluant avec l'équipe de l'IR Tanger.

Biographie

Carrière en club
Natif d'Albi en France, Youssef Ben Ali débute le football dans les clubs amateurs du Gaillac FC, de l'US du Gaillacois et de l'US Albigeoise avant d'intégrer le centre de formation du Toulouse FC.

Le 28 octobre 2014, il fait ses débuts en Ligue 1 avec le Toulouse FC en entrant en jeu face aux Girondins de Bordeaux (défaite, 1-3). Il comptabilise au total cinq matchs avec le club toulousain en Ligue 1. Le 8 avril 2015, il signe son premier contrat professionnel avec le Toulouse FC.

Le 29 août 2016, il s'engage pour deux saisons au Chabab Rif Al Hoceima en première division marocaine. Le 25 septembre 2016, il dispute son premier match en Botola Pro face au Kawkab de Marrakech (victoire, 1-2). Le 17 novembre 2017, il marque son premier but avec le club à l'occasion d'un match de championnat face au Moghreb de Tetouan (victoire, 0-2).

Le 1er juin 2018, il retourne en France pour signer un contrat avec Concarneau en National 1.

Le 20 octobre 2020, il signe à Bourges Foot 18 en National 2. Il dispute seulement un match.

Le 19 août 2021, il retourne au Maroc en signant un contrat d'une saison à l'Ittihad Riadhi de Tanger et dispute la saison en tant que titulaire. Il marque son premier but avec le club tangérois le 2 octobre 2021 face à la JS Soualem (victoire, 0-2).

Notes et références

Liens externes

Naissance à Albi
Footballeur marocain
Footballeur français
Personnalité française née d'un parent marocain
Naissance en février 1995
Joueur du Toulouse FC
Joueur de l'Ittihad de Tanger

Youssef Ben Ali


Det Tyske Fædrelandsparti () var i en kort periode i slutningen af 1. Verdenskrig  et  højreekstremistisk parti i det tyske Rige. Det spillede en afgørende rolle i skabelsen af Dolkestødslegenden og bagvaskelsen af visse politikere som "November-Kriminelle".

Med støtte fra det Altyske Forbund blev partiet grundlagt i september 1917 og repræsenterede konservative, nationalistiske, antisemitiske og nationalromantiske (völkische) politiske kredse, som var forenede i deres modstand mod den fredsresolution, som blev vedtaget af den tyske rigsdag i juli 1917. Partiets ledere var Wolfgang Kapp (mest kendt for Kappkuppet) og admiral Alfred von Tirpitz (marineminister og leder af partiet efter krigen). Walter Nicolai, chef for den militære efterretningstjeneste, var også en af støtterne.  Aviskongen baron Alfred Hugenberg var også et fremtrædende medlem. Partiets politiske indflydelse var på sit højeste i sommeren 1918, hvor det havde omkring 1.250.000 medlemmer. Dets vigtigste kilde til finansiering var hærledelsen under Paul von Hindenburg.

Partiet blev officielt opløst ved novemberrevolutionen den 10. december 1918. De fleste af dens medlemmer tilsluttede sig senere det Tysknationale Folkeparti (DNVP), det store højreorienterede parti under Weimarrepublikken.

Et medlem, Anton Drexler, dannede et lignende parti, det tyske arbejderparti, som senere blev til det nationalsocialistiske tyske arbejderparti (NSDAP), der kom til magten i 1933 under Adolf Hitler.

Referencer

 Bibliografi
  (Udgivet i Tyskland som Pullach Intern, 1971, Hoffman og Campe Verlag, Hamburg)
 Historisches Lexikon Bayerns: Deutsche Vaterlandspartei, 1917/18 (Sarah Hadry)

Eksterne henvisninger

 Kort oversigt

Etableret i 1917
Ophørt i 1918
Fædrelandsparti
Højreekstremisme

Tyske Fædrelandsparti


Arthur Edeson (24. oktober 1891 – 14. februar 1970) var en amerikansk filmfotograf født i New York City.
Hans karriere startede i den tidlige filmindustri i New York, og arbejdede gennem stumfilmsæraen i Hollywood og derefter med tonefilm i 1930'erne og 1940'erne.
Hans arbejde omfattede mange store film i filmhistorie, inklusivt Tyven fra Bagdad (1924), Frankenstein (1931), Ridderfalken (1941) og Casablanca (1942).

Han var en af stifterne af American Society of Cinematographers, og var nomineret til tre Oscar i sin karriere.

Karriere
Edeson startede som stillfotograf, men begyndte at arbejde med film i 1911 som kameraopertør hos det amerikanske Éclair Studio i Fort Lee, New Jersey da det og mange andre tidlige filmstudier i USAs første filmindustri, var baseret her i begyndelsen af det 20. århundrede.

Da Éclair Studio blev reorganiseret som World Film Company, blev han forfremmet til cheffotograf, og arbejdede sammen med stjernen Clara Kimball Young.
gennem 1920'erne, filmede Edeson en del vigtige film blandt andet Douglas Fairbanks' Robin Hood (1922), Tyven fra Bagdad (1924) og den banebrydende special effects-film Den forsvundne Verden (1925).

I tonefilmens begyndelse, eksperimenterede Edeson med at camouflere mikrofonerne i optagelser udenfor. In Old Arizona, den første tonefilm der blev filmet uden for et studio, beviste overfor Hollywood-cheferne at tonefilm ikke var begrænset af et lydstudio. Westernfilmen Mod lykkens land, der havde John Wayne i sin første hovedrolle, blev også filmet af Edeson i den 70mm widescreen-proces kaldet "Fox Grandeur".

I begyndelsen af 1930'erne hans, måske, mest mindeværdige kreative partnerskab dannet med instruktør James Whale
for hvem han filmede de første tre af Whales horrorfilm-kvartet: Frankenstein (1931), The Old Dark House (1932) og Den usynlige mand (1933).

I 1919, var Edeson en af stifterne af American Society of Cinematographers.

Arthur Edeson døde 14. februar 1970, 78 år gammel, i Agoura Hills, California.

Referencer

Eksterne henvisninger

Filmfotografer fra USA
Personer fra New York City

Arthur Edeson


Venezuela es uno de los países que ha participado ininterrumpidamente en los Juegos Panamericanos desde su primera realización en 1951. Está representada por el Comité Olímpico Venezolano.

Hasta ahora, ha albergado una única edición de los juegos en el año de 1983, con sede en la ciudad de Caracas. En dicho certamen participaron 36 países con un total de 3426 atletas.

Hasta la fecha, suma 103 medallas de oro, 222 de plata y 296 de bronce, ubicándose en el octavo lugar a nivel histórico, y séptimo en número de medallas totales. Su mejor desempeño en términos de posición en el medallero fue justamente en 1983, cuando ocupó el 4° puesto con 76 medallas, su máximo récord. En términos de medallas, su mejor registro fue en Santo Domingo 2003, donde obtuvo 16 preseas de oro.

Medallero

Medallas

Medallas por deporte
La siguiente tabla muestra las medallas obtenidas por deporte, ordenadas por preseas de oro, plata y bronce.

Véase también
 Medallero histórico de los Juegos Panamericanos
 Venezuela en los Juegos Olímpicos
 Venezuela en los Juegos Centroamericanos y del Caribe
 Venezuela en los Juegos Sudamericanos

Referencias

Venezuela en los Juegos Panamericanos