Herrin der Welt ist ein zweiteiliger deutsch-französisch-italienischer Abenteuerfilm von Wilhelm Dieterle aus den Jahren 1959/1960. Die Hauptrollen spielen Martha Hyer und Carlos Thompson.

Handlung
Dem schwedischen Physiker Professor Johanson, Leiter des kernphysikalischen Instituts, ist es mit seinen geheimen Forschungen gelungen, aus Kernverschmelzung gebündelte Energie zu gewinnen. Diese Formel könnte die Welt revolutionieren, mit ihr ließen sich ungeheure Mengen Energie freisetzen. Schwedens Geheimdienst schickt seinen Top-Agenten Peter Lundström los, um den Wissenschaftler zu beschatten und eventuell vor Entführern zu schützen. Lundström heftet sich an die Fersen von Johanson, dabei lernt er dessen attraktive, blonde Tochter Karin kennen, die als Assistentin ihres Vaters arbeitet. Nachdem die Durchschlagskraft des Johanson'schen Verfahrens bei einer Explosion erstmals bewiesen werden kann und infolge der flächendeckenden Zerstörung Johanson verletzt ins Krankenhaus überführt werden muss, beginnt eine Gruppe finsterer, internationaler Profiteure und Verschwörer reges Interesse an dieser Erfindung zu entwickeln. Professor Johanson ist in größter Gefahr.

Karin führt nunmehr die Forschungen ihres Vaters weiter und gerät dadurch gleichfalls in das Fadenkreuz der geheimnisvollen Gegner. Johanson selbst zieht sich in ein kambodschanisches Kloster zurück, um so aus dem Schussfeld der Gangster zu geraten und wieder zu genesen. Den internationalen Verbrechern gelingt es indes, die Johanson'sche Energieformel zu stehlen. Daraufhin heftet sich Karin an die Fersen der Diebe, unterstützt von Lundström. Doch der verfolgt auch eigene Ziele. Die Jagd führt die beiden rund um den Globus. Bald stellt sich heraus, dass hinter den finsteren Machenschaften eine gewisse Madame Latour steckt. Schließlich fällt ihr der alte Johanson in die Hände. In Südostasien kommt es zwischen den Entführern sowie Lundström und Karin zum Showdown.

Produktion
Der Film orientiert sich lose an Joe Mays 1919 entstandenem Monumentalfilm Die Herrin der Welt.

Die Entstehungszeit des Films waren die Monate September 1959 bis Februar 1960. Drehorte waren die Umgebung von Bangkok, Hongkong, Macau, Kambodscha, Nepal, Schweden, Nizza und Neapel. Als Studio dienten die CCC-Studios Berlin-Spandau.

Die umfangreichen Filmbauten wurden von Willi Schatz und Helmut Nentwig gestaltet. Die Kostüme stammen von Claudia Herberg. Harald G. Petersson verfasste das Drehbuch, das von seinem amerikanischen Kollegen Jo Eisinger umgeschrieben (und modernisiert) werden musste. Kameramann Richard Angst hat bei einigen Szenen ungenannt auch Regie geführt. Er führte den Film nach einem Zerwürfnis zwischen Dieterle und Brauner zu Ende.

Die Gesamtkosten von Herrin der Welt beliefen sich laut Der Spiegel auf nahezu fünf Millionen DM. Damit war er einer der teuersten deutschen Spielfilme der (frühen) Nachkriegszeit. Artur Brauner produzierte mit Herrin der Welt innerhalb von anderthalb Jahren nach dem rund vier Millionen Mark teuren Zweiteiler Der Tiger von Eschnapur und Das indische Grabmal ein weiteres ebenso exotisches wie aufwendiges Mammutprojekt.

Die Uraufführung des ersten Teils war am 14. April 1960, der zweite, auch Herrin der Welt – Angkor-Vat genannt, lief am 26. April 1960 an. Erstaufführungsort war Hamburg, der erste Teil im Kino City, der zweite im Massenstart. Die französische Erstaufführung erfolgte am 12. Oktober 1960 in sechs Pariser Kinos.

Kritik
Das große Personenlexikon des Films nannte den Film "einen exotischen Abenteuerzweiteiler".

Der Spiegel sprach von einem "Spektakulum" mit einer "abstrusen Story".

Das Lexikon des Internationalen Films schrieb über den ersten Teil: "Aufregend bunt inszeniert" und urteilte über den zweiten: "Auch der kostspielige Aufwand entschädigt nicht für die zunehmend alberne Handlung."

Cinema kam zu folgendem Schluss: "Trotz exotischer Schauplätze wie Kambodscha sehr hausbacken".

Weblinks

Einzelnachweise

Filmtitel 1960
Deutscher Film
Französischer Film
Italienischer Film
Science-Fiction-Film
Abenteuerfilm
William Dieterle

Herrin der Welt


Aderus corsicus é uma espécie de inseto besouro da família Aderidae. Foi descrita cientificamente por Maurice Pic em 1928.

Distribuição geográfica
Habita na Córcega (França).

Referências

corsicus
Insetos da França
Insetos descritos em 1928
Espécies descritas por Maurice Pic

Aderus corsicus


was a town located in Tsuna District, Hyōgo Prefecture, Japan.

As of 2003, the town had an estimated population of 16,395 and a density of 296.90 persons per km2. The total area was 55.22 km2.

On April 1, 2005, Tsuna, along with the towns of Awaji, Higashiura, Hokudan and Ichinomiya (all from Tsuna District), was merged to create the city of Awaji and no longer exists as an independent municipality.

Points of interest
 Kiseki No Hoshi Greenhouse

External links
 Official website of Awaji in Japanese

Dissolved municipalities of Hyōgo Prefecture
Awaji, Hyōgo

Tsuna, Hyōgo


This is a list of fictional Jewish comic book characters. Characters on this list range from secular with Jewish parentage to fully practicing. These are characters specific to comic-book universes; characters from TV or film universes are not present on this list, nor are characters from autobiographical/memoir comics such as Maus and American Splendor.

DC Comics

 Alice
 Atom Smasher
 Batwoman
 Colossal Boy
 Dr Fate (Eric & Linda Strauss)
 Doctor Manhattan
 Green Lantern (Hal Jordan)
 Harley Quinn
 The Monolith
 Morgan Edge
 Nite Owl II/Daniel Dreiberg
 Nyssa Raatko
 Ragman
 Sandman (Golden Age)
 Seraph
 Whistle

Marvel Comics
 Benjamin Grimm
 Bernie Rosenthal
 Blue Bullet
 Doc Samson
 Dominic Fortune
 Gertrude Yorkes
 Iceman
 Izzy Cohen
 Justice
 Legion
 Magneto
 Moon Knight
 Polaris
 Quicksilver
 Sabra
 Sasquatch
 Scarlet Witch
 Kitty Pryde
 Shadow Knight
 Songbird
 Two-Gun Kid
 Volcana
 White Tiger (Kasper Cole)
 Wiccan

Other comic presses
  Dark Horse Comics
 The Escapist
 First Comics
 Reuben Flagg
 Image Comics:
 Masada
 Judaica Press
 Dreidel Maidel
 Kippah Kid
 Magen David
 Matzah Woman
 Menorah Man
 Minyan Man
 Shabbos Queen
 Malibu Comics
 Prime
 Mendy Enterprises/The Golem Factory
 Mendy Klein
 Rivkie Klein
 Yaakov Klein
 Sara Klein
 Reb Zushe
 New England Comics
 Arthur
 Wildstorm Comics
 Sublime

See also
 List of comic creators

References

External links
 The Jewish Supers List
 Jews in Comics bibliography
 Jewish Comics blog
 Thwak! To Our Enemies

Superheroes
Jewish

List of Jewish comic book characters


Ceremonial Oath je švedski death metal-sastav.

Povijest sastava
Sastav je osnovan 1988. godine pod imenom Striker. Godine 1989. promijenio ime u Desecrator, te 1991. u Ceremonial Oath. U početku su svirali death metal, no kasnije prelaze na melodični death metal. Sasav je objavio dva studijska albuma, The Book of Truth i Carpet prije nego što je raspušten 1996. godina. Međutim, ponovno su aktivni od 2012. godine. Autor logotipa sastava je Mikael Stanne, pjevač sastava Dark Tranquillity.

Članovi sastava
Sadašnja postava
Jesper Strömblad – bas-gitara (1991. – 1993., 2012.-danas)
Markus Nordberg – bubnjevi (1991. – 1996., 2012.-danas)
Anders Iwers – gitara (1991. – 1996., 2012.-danas)
Oscar Dronjak – gitara, vokal (1991. – 1993., 2012.-danas)
Bivši članovi
Thomas Johansson – bas-gitara (1993. – 1996.)
Mikael Andersson – gitara (1993. – 1996.)
Anders Fridén – vokal (1993. – 1996.)

Diskografija
Studijski albumi
The Book of Truth (1993.)
Carpet (1995.)
EP-ovi
Lost Name of God (1992.)
Demo uradci
Promo 1991 (1991.)
Split izdanja
Carpet / Gardens of Grief (1996.)

Izvori

Švedski sastavi heavy metala
Sastavi melodičnog death metala

Ceremonial Oath


Gherila galactică (1976) (titlu original Guérillero galactique) este un roman al scriitorului francez Pierre Barbet publicat sub pseudonimul David Maine.   A fost tradus în limba română de  Angela și Petru Pagu  și a fost publicat în 1992 la Editura Porus.

Intriga

Proaspătul absolvent al Facultății de Medicină, Minguera, ajunge plin de entuziasm pe planeta Zarnoï. El este îngrozit de tratamentul inuman aplicat nefericiților care lucrează în minele planetei. Revoltat, medicul duce acțiuni de gherilă, dar nu are pregătirea necesară și este rapid capturat. În curând ajunge în mâinile Tchaleks, dușmani ai imperialilor, și va trece prin școala dură a războiului partizanilor. De acum înainte, numele Minguera va fi temut de toți cei care exploatează oamenii în numele dictaturii imperiale. După multe isprăvi, el va primi cea mai mare distincție de la Tchaleks. Apoi dorește să se retragă din luptă, dar gherilele galactice se bazează pe experiența sa...

Personaje

Note

Legături externe
 Istoria publicării romanului Gherila galactică pe isfdb.org

Vezi și
1976 în literatură

Cărți din 1976
Romane din 1976
Romane franceze
Romane de Pierre Barbet

Gherila galactică


Cronos castrando a su padre Urano es una obra al fresco del pintor Giorgio Vasari, realizada en 1564, que se encuentra en la Sala di Cosimo, en el Palazzo Vecchio de Florencia, Italia.

La obra representa el episodio de la castración de Urano por su hijo Cronos. En el antiguo mito registrado por Hesíodo en su Teogonía, Cronos ambicionaba el poder de su padre y gobernante del universo, Urano. Éste se había ganado la enemistad de Gea, madre de Cronos y los demás Titanes, cuando escondió a sus hijos gigantes menores, los Cíclopes y los Hecatónquiros, en el Tártaro para que no vieran la luz. Gea creó una gran hoz de pedernal y reunió a Cronos y sus hermanos para convencerlos de que matasen a Urano. Sólo Cronos estuvo dispuesto a cumplir su voluntad, así que Gea le dio la hoz y le hizo tender una emboscada. Cuando Urano se encontró con Gea, Cronos le atacó con la hoz y le castró.

Este cuadro es una de las pocas representaciones de Urano con la apariencia de hombre, ya que por lo general se le representa como techo de bronce, bóveda celeste o sujetado por el titán Atlas.

Véase también

 Cronos
 Pintura manierista

Referencias

Mitología griega en la pintura
Palazzo Vecchio
Pintura de Italia del siglo XVI
Cuadros de 1564
Obras de arte en Florencia

Crono castrando a su padre Urano


Muilla,  biljni trod u porodici šparogovki (Asparagaceae) i redu šparogolike (Asparagales), dio je potporodice Brodiaeoideae.

Postoji četiri priznate vrste, to su lukovičasti geofiti koji prvenstveno rastu u pustinjskim ili suhim biomima grmlja: Kalifornija, poluotok Kalifornija, sjeverozapdna Sonora, Nevada

Vrste
 Muilla coronata Greene
 Muilla lordsburgana P.J.Alexander
 Muilla maritima (Torr.) S.Watson ex Benth., tipična
 Muilla transmontana Greene

Izvori

Brodiaeoideae

Muilla


Tvrđava na u Gornjoj Bandi u Sućurju, ul. Fortica 11, predstavlja zaštićeno kulturno dobro.

Opis dobra
Tvrđava je sagrađena 1613. god. u Gornjoj Bandi, značajna za vrijeme Kandijskog i Morejskog rata u 17. st. Spominje se ime graditelja Antonia Civrana. Sačuvao se natpis s pročelja kule s grbom mletačkog upravitelja Minia. Tvrđava se sastojala od kvadratne kule na dva kata s krovom na četiri vode i obzidanog dvorišta. Na južnom pročelju je u sredini zidina izbačena u obliku kvadratnog bastiona s pokosom, s uskim puškarnicama i tri topovska otvora. U 2. svjetskom ratu kula je bombardirana i srušena do temelja, kao i sjeverna zidina tvrđave.

Zaštita
Pod oznakom Z-5155 zavedena je pod vrstom "nepokretna kulturna baština - pojedinačna", pravna statusa zaštićena kulturnog dobra, klasificirano kao "vojne i obrambene građevine".

Izvori

Zaštićene vojne i obrambene građevine u Splitsko-dalmatinskoj županiji
Utvrde u Hrvatskoj
Građevine u Sućurju

Sućurska tvrđava


Pretrpanost informacijama, prekrcanost informacijama, preplavljenost informacijama, višak informacija pojava u informacijskom okružju koju karakterizira obilje svih vrsta informacija, koje je korisniku teško kvalitetno pretražiti i probrati, odnosno u razumno kratkom vremenu pronaći informaciju dostatne kakvoće. Problem je "koja je od njih prava?".

Može se dogoditi informacijski jaz, pa korisnik ne dolazi do kvalitetne informacije, premda su tražene informacije u pretraživanom skupu i dostatne kakvoće. Da bi se došlo do traženih informacija u što kraćem vremenu i smanjilo količinu informacija koju se treba pretresti, za upravljati prekrcanošću informacijama služimo se tražilicama.

U poduzetništvu, pretrpanost informacijama karakterizira stabilnu i složenu okolinu.

Izvori

Računarstvo

Prekrcanost informacijama


Maksim Alexeievici Purkaiev (în , ) a fost un lider militar sovietic, care a ajuns la gradul de general de armată.

Biografie
Purkaiev a fost mobilizat în Armata Imperială Rusă  în 1915 și a ajuns la gradul de praporgic (ofițer inferior) înainte de a se alătura Armatei Roșii în 1918. A devenit membru al Partidului Comunist Sovietic în 1919. În timpul Războiului Civil Rus el a servit în calitate de comandant de companie și de batalion, iar după terminarea cursului Vîstrel (în ) de instruire a ofițerilor  în 1923, a ocupat funcția de comandant de regiment (Divizia a 24-a de pușcași), ofițer de stat major și comandant al unei divizii până în 1936, moment în care a început studiile la Academia Militară Frunze.

Din 1938, Purkaiev a fost șeful Statului Major al Districtului Militar Belarus, în calitate de atașat militar sovietic la Berlin la începutul celui de-al doilea război mondial în 1939, și a participat la planificarea invaziei sovietice a Poloniei. Din iulie 1940, Purkaiev a ocupat funcția de șef al Statului Major al Districtului Militar Kiev și de la începutul războiului sovieto-german (Operațiunea Barbarossa),  șef al Statului Major al Frontului de Sud-Vest (iunie-iulie 1941), iar mai târziu al armatei a 60-a și al armatei a 3-a de șoc  (în ). În 1942-43 a ocupat funcția de comandant al Frontului Kalinin și din aprilie 1943, comandant al Frontul Orientului Îndepărtat (din anul 1945, comandant al Celui de al Doilea Front al Orientului Îndepărtat). Din septembrie 1945 până în ianuarie 1947 Purkaiev a servit ca ofițer comandant al districtului militar din Orientul Îndepărtat, timp în care a fost nominalizat la titlul de cel mai mare sovietic al URSS (1946-1950).

Din iunie 1947, Purkaiev a fost șeful Statului Major și primul adjunct al comandantului șef al Forțelor Orientale Externe. Din iulie 1952 până la moartea sa, Purkaiev a servit ca șef al Direcției pentru Învățământul Superior al Ministerului Apărării al URSS.

Onoruri și premii
Maksim Purkaiev a fost decorat cu două ordine Lenin (inclusiv  la 14 noiembrie 1943, "Pentru realizarea exemplară a conducerii mobilizării, formării, achiziționării și formării unităților și formațiunilor Armatei Roșii"), patru Ordine ale Steagului Roșu, Ordinul Suvorov (clasa I), Ordinul  Kutuzov (clasa I) și numeroase medalii.

Surse
 Zalessky, KA, Imperiul lui Stalin: Dicționar enciclopedic biografic, Moscova, Veche, 2000, (în )

Note

Nașteri în 1894
Decese în 1953
Militari sovietici
Generali sovietici
Bolșevici
Decorați cu Ordinul Steagul Roșu
Decorați cu Ordinul Lenin

Maksim Purkaiev


Roderick Spode, 7th Earl of Sidcup, often known as Spode or Lord Sidcup, is a recurring fictional character in the Jeeves novels of English comic writer P. G. Wodehouse. In the first novel in which he appears, he is an "amateur dictator" and the leader of a fictional fascist group in London called the Saviours of Britain, also known as the Black Shorts. He leaves the group after he inherits his title.

He has a low opinion of Jeeves's employer Bertie Wooster, whom he believes to be a thief. A large and intimidating figure, Spode is protective of Madeline Bassett to an extreme degree and is a threat to anyone who appears to have wronged her, particularly Gussie Fink-Nottle.

Life and character
Spode is a friend of Sir Watkyn Bassett, being the nephew of Sir Watkyn's fiancée Mrs. Wintergreen in The Code of the Woosters, though she is not mentioned again. He is intensively protective of Sir Watkyn's daughter, Madeline Bassett, having loved her for many years without telling her. A violent man, he threatens to tear Bertie's head off and make him eat it. Spode is a large and intimidating figure, with a powerful, square face. When he first sees Spode, Bertie describes him:

In Bertie's eyes, Spode starts at seven feet tall, and seems to grow in height, eventually becoming nine feet seven. Bertie immediately thinks of Spode as "the Dictator" even before he learns of Spode's political ambitions. As Bertie says, "I don't know if you have even seen those pictures in the papers of Dictators with tilted chins and blazing eyes, inflaming the populace with fiery words on the occasion of the opening of a new skittle alley, but that was what he reminded me of." Bertie learns how accurate his initial impression of Spode was when Gussie tells him that Spode is the leader of a fascist group called the Saviours of Britain, also known as the Black Shorts. Gussie says of Spode, "His general idea, if he doesn't get knocked on the head with a bottle in one of the frequent brawls in which he and his followers indulge, is to make himself a Dictator."

Like Bertie, Spode had been educated at Oxford; during his time there, he once stole a policeman's helmet. While the leader of the Black Shorts, he is also secretly a designer of ladies' underclothing, being the proprietor of Eulalie Soeurs of Bond Street. Bertie's Aunt Dahlia is a customer at Eulalie Soeurs and remarks that the shop is very popular and successful. Spode later inherits a title on the death of his uncle, becoming the seventh Earl of Sidcup. After being elevated to the peerage, he sells Eulalie Soeurs. At some point, he leaves the Black Shorts. Bertie says in Stiff Upper Lip, Jeeves that before Spode succeeded to his title, he had been "one of those Dictators who were fairly common at one time in the metropolis", but "he gave it up when he became Lord Sidcup". Despite Spode becoming Lord Sidcup, Bertie usually thinks of him as Spode, at one point addressing him as "Lord Spodecup".

In The Code of the Woosters, most of which takes place at Sir Watkyn's country house, Totleigh Towers, Spode is the leader of the Black Shorts. He quickly starts to think of Bertie as a thief, believing that Bertie was trying to steal Sir Watkyn's umbrella and also the silver cow-creamer from a shop. Spode threatens to beat Bertie to a jelly if he steals the cow-creamer from Sir Watkyn. Spode also antagonizes Gussie, for two reasons. First, Spode thinks Gussie is not devoted enough to Madeline, who is engaged to Gussie. Second, Gussie has insulted Spode in a notebook, writing that Spode's mustache was "like the faint discoloured smear left by a squashed blackbeetle on the side of a kitchen sink", and that the way Spode eats asparagus "alters one's whole conception of Man as Nature's last word." With help from Jeeves and the Junior Ganymede club book, Bertie learns the word "Eulalie", and tells Spode that he knows all about it. Spode, who does not want his followers to learn about his career as a designer of ladies' lingerie, is forced not to bother Bertie or Gussie. Spode is also blackmailed into taking the blame for the theft of Constable Oates's helmet. Bertie does not learn the true meaning of "Eulalie" until the end of the story.

In Jeeves and the Feudal Spirit, which takes place at Aunt Dahlia's country house, Brinkley Court, Spode has recently become Lord Sidcup. Bertie and his Aunt Dahlia plan to blackmail Spode with knowledge of "Eulalie" to keep Spode, who is a jewellery expert, from revealing that Aunt Dahlia's pearl necklace is a fake (she pawned the real one to raise money for her magazine, Milady's Boudoir). However, the blackmail plan is unsuccessful, because, as Spode tells Aunt Dahlia, he has sold Eulalie Soeurs. Aunt Dahlia ends up using a cosh she found on the ground to knock out Spode, which allows her to retrieve her fake necklace from a safe in order to hide it so it cannot be appraised. Later in the story, Spode identifies a different pearl necklace, one belonging to the Liverpudlian socialite Mrs. Trotter, as fake.

In Stiff Upper Lip, Jeeves, which takes place at Totleigh Towers, Spode is as protective of Madeline as ever and threatens to break Bertie's neck when he thinks that he has caused Madeline to cry (she was shedding a tear because she thought Bertie was lovesick and could not stay away from her). Spode, seeing Gussie kiss Emerald Stoker, threatens to break Gussie's neck as well and calls him a libertine. Harold Pinker steps forward to protect Gussie, and after Spode hits Pinker on the nose, Pinker, an expert boxer, knocks him out. Spode soon wakes up, but is knocked out again, by Emerald. Gussie leaves Madeline for Emerald, and Spode proposes to Madeline. She says that she must marry Bertie to reward his love for her, but Spode and Jeeves convince her that Bertie came to Totleigh to steal Sir Watkyn Bassett's black amber statuette, not out of love for her. Madeline accepts Spode's proposal.

In Much Obliged, Jeeves, which takes place at Brinkley Court, Spode has been invited by Bertie's Aunt Dahlia to Brinkley for his skills as an orator. He gives speeches in support of the Conservative candidate for Market Snodsbury, Harold "Ginger" Winship. As Spode's fiancée, Madeline goes with him. After the success of his speeches, Spode considers standing for election himself for the House of Commons, which would require him to relinquish his title. Madeline, who wanted to gain the title Lady Sidcup, breaks their engagement, and says she will marry Bertie instead. After being hit by a potato at a lively candidate debate, Spode changes his mind about standing for Parliament and decides to retain his title, leading to a reconciliation between him and Madeline. They are still engaged at the end of the novel.

Although Spode regularly threatens to harm others, he is generally the one who gets injured. In The Code of the Woosters, when Spode advances to attack Gussie, Gussie manages to hit him on the head with an oil painting. Spode's head goes through the painting, and while he is briefly stunned, Bertie envelops him in a sheet. Bertie then hits Spode with a vase, but gets grabbed by Spode; Bertie frees himself by burning Spode with a cigarette. In other novels, Spode is knocked out three times: he is hit with a cosh by Bertie's Aunt Dahlia in Jeeves and the Feudal Spirit, he is punched by Harold Pinker in Stiff Upper Lip, Jeeves, and Emerald Stoker smashes a china basin on his head in the same book. He is also hit in the eye with a potato at a candidate debate in Much Obliged, Jeeves.

Appearances
Spode is featured in:
 The Code of the Woosters (1938)
 Jeeves and the Feudal Spirit (1954)
 Stiff Upper Lip, Jeeves (1963)
 Much Obliged, Jeeves (1971)

Spode is mentioned in:
 Aunts Aren't Gentlemen (1974) (ch. 7 and 15)

The Black Shorts

The Saviours of Britain, nicknamed the Black Shorts, is a fictional fascist group led by Roderick Spode. Spode is modelled after Sir Oswald Mosley, leader of the British Union of Fascists (1932–1940), who were nicknamed the Blackshirts. In The Code of the Woosters, Spode is an "amateur dictator" who leads a farcical group of fascists called the Saviours of Britain, better known as the Black Shorts. Spode adopted black shorts as a political uniform because, as Gussie Fink-Nottle says, "by the time Spode formed his association, there were no shirts left". This alludes to various radical groups: Mussolini's Blackshirts, Hitler's Brownshirts, the French Blueshirts and Greenshirts, the Irish Blueshirts and Greenshirts, the South African Greyshirts, Mexico's Gold shirts, and the American Silver Shirts.

When Bertie Wooster rebukes Spode in The Code of the Woosters (1938), he mocks Spode's black shorts, calling them "footer bags" (football shorts):

"It is about time", I proceeded, "that some public-spirited person came along and told you where you got off. The trouble with you, Spode, is that just because you have succeeded in inducing a handful of half-wits to disfigure the London scene by going about in black shorts, you think you're someone. You hear them shouting 'Heil, Spode!' and you imagine it is the Voice of the People. That is where you make your bloomer. What the Voice of the People is saying is: 'Look at that frightful ass Spode swanking about in footer bags! Did you ever in your puff see such a perfect perisher?'"

Like Mosley, Spode inherited a title upon the death of a relative; unlike Mosley, who inherited his baronetcy in 1928 (which entitled him to be called Sir) before forming his fascist group, Spode did not inherit his earldom (which made him Lord Sidcup) until after forming his group. Spode leaves the Black Shorts after gaining his title.

In the television series Endeavour (series five episode four – "Colours"), there is a reference to "Spode and Webley" being shot as fascists. (Webley is another fictional fascist leader, from Aldous Huxley's Point Counter Point, and unlike Spode does end up being assassinated.)

Adaptations

Television

 In the 1990–1993 television series Jeeves and Wooster, Spode was portrayed by John Turner. In this series, Spode is depicted as having an appearance somewhat similar to Mussolini as the leader of the Black Shorts. The Black Shorts are portrayed as a tiny group of around a dozen men and teenage boys dressed in uniforms like those of the Sturmabteilung. They also have the same flag colour scheme as the National Socialists. Their flag is similar in design to the flag of the British Union of Fascists (which used the party's symbol, the Flash and Circle). Members of the Black Shorts comprise the small, enthusiastic audience to whom Spode makes loud, dramatic Hitler-like speeches in which he announces bizarre statements of policy, such as giving each citizen at birth a British-made bicycle and umbrella. He also makes several statements revolving around root vegetables. In the original stories, none of Spode's speeches are depicted and no other members of his group make an appearance. In both the television series and Wodehouse novels, Spode has a secret recorded in the Junior Ganymede club book involving a women's lingerie shop named Eulalie.

Stage
 In the 1975 musical Jeeves, Spode was portrayed by John Turner, who also played Spode in the television series Jeeves and Wooster. Differing from the novels, Spode is referred to as Sir Roderick Spode in the musical. The character was dropped from the 1996 rewrite titled By Jeeves, in which the closest equivalent character is Cyrus Budge III Jnr, who is original to the musical.
 In the 2013 play Jeeves and Wooster in Perfect Nonsense, in which the events of The Code of the Woosters are reenacted by Bertie, Jeeves, and Aunt Dahlia's butler Seppings, Spode is portrayed by Seppings.

Radio
 In the 1973–1981 radio drama series What Ho! Jeeves, Spode was voiced by James Villiers (The Code of the Woosters) and Paul Eddington (Stiff Upper Lip, Jeeves). Spode is mentioned in the What Ho, Jeeves! adaptation of Jeeves and the Feudal Spirit but does not have a speaking role. His actions are described by other characters.
 In the 1997 L.A. Theatre Works radio adaptation of The Code of the Woosters, Spode was voiced by Martin Jarvis. Jarvis also voiced Jeeves in the same production, which was recorded live before an audience.
 In BBC Radio 4's 2006 adaptation of The Code of the Woosters for its Classic Serial series, Spode was voiced by Jack Klaff.
 Adam Godley voiced Spode in the 2018 BBC radio adaptation of Stiff Upper Lip, Jeeves.

See also
 List of Jeeves characters, an alphabetical list of Jeeves characters
 List of P. G. Wodehouse characters in the Jeeves stories, a categorized outline of Jeeves characters
 List of Jeeves and Wooster characters, a list of characters in the television series

References
Notes

Bibliography

P. G. Wodehouse characters
Fictional earls
Fictional politicians
Fictional characters based on real people
Literary characters introduced in 1938
Cultural depictions of Oswald Mosley
Male literary villains

Roderick Spode


The 49th (West Riding) Infantry Division was an infantry division of the British Army. The division fought in the First World War in the trenches of the Western Front, in the fields of France and Flanders. During the Second World War, the division fought in the Norwegian Campaign and in North-western Europe. After the Second World War, it was disbanded in 1946, then reformed in 1947. It remained with Northern Command until finally disbanded in 1967.

Formation
The Territorial Force (TF) was formed on 1 April 1908 following the enactment of the Territorial and Reserve Forces Act 1907 (7 Edw.7, c.9) which combined and re-organised the old Volunteer Force, the Honourable Artillery Company and the Yeomanry. Originally designated the West Riding Division, the division was composed of the 1st, 2nd and 3rd West Riding Brigades, each with four infantry battalions, along with supporting units. The division was one of fourteen divisions that made up part of the peacetime TF. In peacetime, the divisional headquarters was, from 1912, at Tower Street in York.

First World War
Elements of the division had, by the outbreak of the First World War in August 1914, just departed for their annual summer camp and were mobilised for war service on 5 August, the day after Britain entered the war. According to the Territorial and Reserve Forces Act 1907, men of the TF were not obligated to serve overseas without their permission and so, on 31 August, the division was ordered to form a second-line reserve unit, the 2nd West Riding Division, formed mainly from those men who, for various reasons, choose not to volunteer for overseas service. The division, under the command of Major General Thomas Baldock, who had been in command since 1911, moved to the South Yorkshire/Lincolnshire area for concentration and spent the next few months engaged in training.

By late March 1915, training had progressed to the point where the division was warned for a potential move overseas. By mid-April, the division was in France, and was to remain on the Western Front as part of the British Expeditionary Force (BEF) for the rest of the war. Soon after arrival the division, although unfamiliar with trench warfare, was assigned to Lieutenant General Sir Henry Rawlinson's IV Corps of the BEF, and played a relatively minor role in the Battle of Aubers Ridge, where Major General Baldock, the divisional commander, was wounded in action. The division was redesignated the 49th (West Riding) Division on 15 May 1915 and given the White Rose of York as its insignia. The division's three brigades were also redesignated, the 1st, 2nd and 3rd West Riding Brigades becoming the 146th (1st West Riding), 147th (2nd West Riding) and 148th (3rd West Riding) Brigades, respectively. After Aubers Ridge, the division, now commanded by Major General Edward Perceval, was not engaged in any major battles until 19 December 1915, when the division, now part of Lieutenant General John Keir's VI Corps, participated in the first Phosgene attack but suffered comparatively few losses.

The first few months of 1916 were not spent in any major actions and the division held a relatively quiet sector of the Western Front. As part of Lieutenant General Thomas Morland's X Corps, the division fought in the Battle of the Somme, fighting in the Battle of Albert, followed by the Battle of Bazentin Ridge. Transferring to Lieutenant General Charles Fergusson's II Corps, the division then took part in the Battle of Pozières. Rested throughout August, the division then fought in the Battle of Flers–Courcelette and the Battle of Thiepval Ridge.

Again moved to a quieter sector of the front, the division spent, as it had in 1916, the first few months of 1917 uneventfully in the Ypres Salient, not being employed in any major offensives until the division was to take part in Operation Hush. However, the division was not employed in the operation and instead fought in the final stages of the Passchendaele offensive, in the Battle of Poelcappelle.

In early 1918, the division, now commanded by Major General Neville Cameron, was again holding a quiet sector of the Western Front. Throughout January and February, due to a severe shortage of manpower in the BEF, many of the division's infantry battalions were either disbanded, merged with other understrength units or posted elsewhere. The manpower shortage compelled the reduction of each of the division's three infantry brigades from four to three battalions. In the latter half of 1918, the division, mostly unaffected by the German Army's Spring Offensives, fought in all the major battles of the Lys offensive, and in the Hundred Days Offensive, which saw the war turn in favour of the Allied powers, come to an end on 11 November 1918.

Order of battle
The 49th Division was constituted as follows during the war:

 146th (1st West Riding) Brigade
 1/5th Battalion, Prince of Wales's Own (West Yorkshire Regiment)
 1/6th Battalion, Prince of Wales's Own (West Yorkshire Regiment)
 1/7th (Leeds Rifles) Battalion, Prince of Wales's Own (West Yorkshire Regiment)
 1/8th (Leeds Rifles) Battalion, Prince of Wales's Own (West Yorkshire Regiment) (until January 1918)
 146th Machine Gun Company, Machine Gun Corps (from 27 January 1916, moved to 49th Battalion, Machine Gun Corps 1 March 1918)
 146th Trench Mortar Battery (from 12 June 1916)

 147th (2nd West Riding) Brigade
 1/4th Battalion, Duke of Wellington's (West Riding Regiment)
 1/5th Battalion, Duke of Wellington's (West Riding Regiment) (until January 1918)
 1/6th Battalion, Duke of Wellington's (West Riding Regiment)
 1/7th Battalion, Duke of Wellington's (West Riding Regiment)
 147th Machine Gun Company, Machine Gun Corps (from 26 January 1916, moved to 49th Battalion, Machine Gun Corps 1 March 1918)
 147th Trench Mortar Battery (from 12 June 1916)

 148th (3rd West Riding) Brigade
 1/4th Battalion, King's Own (Yorkshire Light Infantry)
 1/5th Battalion, King's Own (Yorkshire Light Infantry) (until February 1918)
 1/4th (Hallamshire) Battalion, York and Lancaster Regiment
 1/5th Battalion, York and Lancaster Regiment
 148th Machine Gun Company, Machine Gun Corps (from 6 February 1916, moved to 49th Battalion, Machine Gun Corps 1 March 1918)
 148th Trench Mortar Battery (from 12 June 1916)

 Divisional Troops
 1/3rd Battalion, Monmouthshire Regiment (joined as pioneer battalion April 1915, left August 1916)
 19th (Service) Battalion, Lancashire Fusiliers (3rd Salford Pals) (joined as a pioneer battalion August 1916)
 199th Machine Gun Company, Machine Gun Corps (joined 19 December 1916, left 29 October 1917)
 254th Machine Gun Company, Machine Gun Corps (joined 26 November 1917, moved to 49th Battalion, Machine Gun Corps 1 March 1918)
 49th Battalion Machine Gun Corps (formed 1 March 1918)

 Divisional Mounted Troops
 C Squadron, 1/1st Yorkshire Hussars (left 8 May 1916)
 F Squadron, North Irish Horse (briefly between April and June 1916)
 West Riding Divisional Cyclist Company, Army Cyclist Corps (left 26 May 1916)

 49th (West Riding) Divisional Artillery
 CCXLV (I West Riding) Brigade, Royal Field Artillery
 CCXLVI (II West Riding) Brigade, Royal Field Artillery
 CCXLVII (III West Riding) Brigade, Royal Field Artillery (broken up 28 February 1917)
 CCXLVIII (IV West Riding) (Howitzer) Brigade, Royal Field Artillery (broken up 18 October 1916)
 West Riding Heavy Battery, Royal Garrison Artillery (a battery of four 4.7-inch guns, which left the division to join VIII Brigade, II Group HA on 24 April 1915; returned to division 13 May 1915, and finally left on 28 June 1915, rejoining VIII Brigade)
 49th Divisional Ammunition Column, Royal Field Artillery
 W.49, V.49 Heavy Trench Mortar Batteries, Royal Field Artillery (formed by 17 May 1916; V absorbed W by 7 June 1917; left for X Corps on 7 February 1918)
 X.49, Y.49 and Z.49 Medium Mortar Batteries, Royal Field Artillery (formed by 4 April 1916 from former 34, 37 and 48 TMB's; by 9 February 1918, Z broken up and batteries reorganised to have six 6-inch weapons each)

 Royal Engineers
 1st West Riding Field Company, Royal Engineers (left 6 February 1915, later retitled 455th)
 456th (2nd West Riding) Field Company, Royal Engineers
 458th (2/1st West Riding) Field Company, Royal Engineers (joined June 1915)
 57th Field Company, Royal Engineers (joined July 1915)
 49th Divisional Signals Company, Royal Engineers

 Royal Army Medical Corps
 1st West Riding Field Ambulance, Royal Army Medical Corps
 2nd West Riding Field Ambulance, Royal Army Medical Corps
 3rd West Riding Field Ambulance, Royal Army Medical Corps
 49th Sanitary Section, Royal Army Medical Corps (left 2 April 1917)

 Other Divisional Troops
 49th Divisional Train, Army Service Corps (retitled from the West Riding Divisional Transport and Supply Column, and the units also retitled as 463, 464, 465 and 466 Companies, Army Service Corps)
 1st West Riding Mobile Veterinary Section, Army Veterinary Corps
 49th Divisional Ambulance Workshop (absorbed into Divisional Supply Column 4 April 1916)
243rd Divisional Employment Company (joined 16 June 1917)

Between the wars
The division was disbanded after the war but was reformed, now as the 49th (West Riding) Infantry Division, when the old TF was itself reconstituted as the Territorial Army (TA) in 1920, with the same composition as pre-1914. The division was stationed in Northern Command. During the interwar period, particularly in the late 1930s, many of the division's units were converted into other roles, mostly into artillery, searchlight or armoured regiments so that, by the time war broke out in September 1939, the division's composition, which included units from the disbanded 46th (North Midland) Division, was much changed from what it was in 1914. Of note, Bernard Montgomery, who was later to have association with the 49th Division, served with this division in 1923, when he was a General Staff Officer Grade 2 (GSO2). Upon the doubling of the size of the TA in mid-1939 the division, as it had in the First World War, raised a second-line duplicate formation, the 46th Infantry Division, when another European conflict, most likely with Nazi Germany, was becoming increasingly inevitable.

Second World War

Mobilisation and early months
Shortly after the outbreak of the Second World War on 3 September 1939, the division, under Major General Pierse Mackesy, was mobilised for full-time war service and, with conscription having been introduced in the United Kingdom some months earlier, and with many units understrength after having to post officers and men to the second-line units, the division absorbed many conscripts. Although war was declared, the division, serving under Northern Command, still with the 146th, 147th and 148th Infantry Brigades under command, was initially engaged in static defensive duties, guarding vital points and little time was allotted for training. However, training began soon afterwards with the overall intention being that the division, once fully trained, would join the British Expeditionary Force (BEF) in France. In the event, this was not to happen as, in February 1940, the division received orders to form part of "Avonforce" and be sent to Finland, via Norway, and aid the Finnish Army during its Winter War with the Soviet Union. On 12 March, however, the Finnish, severely outnumbered by the Russians, surrendered, thus cancelling the order.

On 4 April, the 49th Division ceased to function and the 146th and 148th Brigades (with the 147th Brigade remaining in England), both very poorly trained and equipped, took part in the short and ill-fated Norwegian Campaign, that were intended to retake the ports of Trondheim and Narvik from the German Army. The 146th Brigade came under command of "Mauriceforce", with the 148th under "Sickleforce". The poorly planned campaign was a complete disaster and the two brigades, fighting as two different brigade groups, and widely scattered from each other, withdrew from Norway in May 1940. One consolation, however, was that they gained the distinction of being amongst the very first British troops to fight the enemy in the Second World War, and certainly the first Territorials to do so. The brigades returned to the United Kingdom, where, on 10 June, the division was reconstituted in Scottish Command under Major General Henry Curtis. Curtis, the new General Officer Commanding (GOC), had commanded the division's sister formation, the 46th Division, during the Battle of France and in the BEF's subsequent retreat to Dunkirk, where it was evacuated to England, albeit with very heavy casualties. The 148th Brigade, which had suffered well over 1,400 casualties in Norway, did not rejoin the division, later becoming an independent formation.

Service in Iceland, 1940−42
The division, now with only the 146th and 147th Infantry Brigades left, departed for Iceland, the 146th arriving there on 8 May, the 147th on 17 May, and the divisional HQ arriving on 23 June, when it was redesignated HQ Alabaster Force and, in January 1941, Iceland Force before finally being redesignated HQ British Troops Iceland. Both brigades were thereafter stationed in Iceland until 1942. As a result, a new divisional insignia, featuring a polar bear standing on an ice floe, was adopted. Also stationed there from late October 1940 was the 70th Independent Infantry Brigade. In 1941, at the request of British Prime Minister, Winston Churchill, the division was trained in mountain warfare and also in arctic warfare. By April 1942, responsibility for Iceland had been handed over to the United States, with the arrival in July the previous year of the 1st Provisional Marine Brigade and the three brigades began to be relieved, and Major General Curtis suggested the Marines wear the polar bear insignia. A junior officer of the 1st Tyneside Scottish wrote of the experience in Iceland: "Iceland had given us so much. More than anything it had forged a firm and abiding link between all who wore the Polar Bear".

Reconstitution and training for Overlord
On 26 April 1942, the division HQ was again reconstituted, this time in South Wales, serving under Western Command, commanded by Major General Curtis. The division initially had only the 147th Brigade under command, although the 70th Brigade became part of the division on 18 May, followed on 26 August by the 146th Brigade, and numerous other supporting units which later joined the division. The division then spent the next few months engaged in training throughout Wales and England, with the intention of catching up with the latest training methods. In March 1943, the division, abandoning the mountain and arctic warfare roles, participated in Exercise Spartan, the largest military exercise held in England. In April 1943, the division was assigned to I Corps, under Lieutenant General Gerard Bucknall, and was earmarked as an assault division for the invasion of Normandy, scheduled for spring the following year. On 30 April the division received a new GOC, Major General Evelyn "Bubbles" Barker. A highly competent officer and a decorated veteran of the First World War, Major General Barker ordered the divisional sign to be changed from its current emblem of a polar bear with its head lowered, which the GOC believed to be a sign of a lack of martial intent, into a more "aggressive" sign. "That Bear is too submissive. I want a defiant sign for my division, lift up its head and make it roar", Barker wrote. Subsequently the 49th Division was issued with a new "aggressive" insignia, now featuring a Polar Bear with its head facing upwards, roaring.

In July, as the division was selected to be one of the three divisions to spearhead the Normandy invasion, then scheduled for the following year, the 49th was sent to Scotland, where it began strenuous training in amphibious warfare and combined operations, which continued throughout 1943 and into 1944. However, in early 1944, when General Sir Bernard Montgomery took over command of the 21st Army Group, which commanded all Allied land forces in the upcoming invasion, Major General Douglas Graham's 50th (Northumbrian) Infantry Division, which had fought with distinction in North Africa and Sicily, was chosen by Montgomery as one of the two British assault divisions – the other being Major General Tom Rennie's 3rd Division – and the 49th Division, despite training for the role for many months, was instead relegated to a backup role, causing great disappointment to all ranks. In January 1944, the division moved to East Anglia, where, on 2 February, it was transferred from Lieutenant General John Crocker's I Corps, with which it had served since April 1943, to XXX Corps, under Lieutenant General Gerard Bucknall, and continued training for the invasion.

Northwestern Europe, 1944−45

On 13 June 1944, most of the 49th Division, after just over two years of training, landed in Normandy as part of Operation Overlord. The division arrived too late to take part in the Battle of Villers-Bocage, where the veteran 7th Armoured Division suffered a serious setback, but was involved in the numerous attempts to capture the city of Caen. The division, after landing, was only involved in relatively small-scale skirmishes, most notably on 16 June around Tilly-sur-Seulles, where the 6th Battalion, Duke of Wellington's Regiment, of the 147th Brigade, suffered some 230 casualties − 30% of its war establishment strength − in a two-day battle whilst attempting to capture Le Parc de Boislonde. The position was eventually taken by the 7th Battalion, Dukes, under Lieutenant Colonel John Wileey. The 49th's first major action as a division came during Operation Martlet, the first phase of Operation Epsom, the British attempt to capture Caen. Although Lieutenant General Sir Richard O'Connor's VIII Corps made the main effort, XXX Corps, with the 49th Division under control, was to protect VIII Corps' right flank by seizing the Rauray ridge.

The operation commenced on 25 June, and the division, supported by elements of the 8th Armoured Brigade and a massive artillery barrage from over 250 guns, initially went well, with the first phase objective, the town of Fontenay, being captured by the end of the first day against units of two German panzer divisions (the 2nd and 9th). However, capturing Rauray itself proved more difficult although, after hard fighting, much of it in close quarters, it eventually fell to the 70th Brigade on 27 June which, for the next few days, had to ensure a series of very fierce counterattacks, with the 1st Battalion, Tyneside Scottish and 11th Battalion, Durham Light Infantry bearing the brunt of the German attacks, which were repulsed with heavy losses on both sides, although the Germans suffering by far the greater. It was during this period of the fierce fighting in Normandy that the Nazi propaganda broadcaster, Lord Haw-Haw, referred to the division as "the Polar Bear Butchers", alleging that British soldiers wearing a Polar Bear flash had massacred SS tank crew who were trying to surrendering. Some units had been issued with the order "NPT below rank major", meaning that they were not to take prisoners below that rank. The 49th's GOC, Major General "Bubbles" Barker, explained it in his diary on 2 July, "Yesterday the old 49 Div made a great name for itself and we are all feeling very pleased with ourselves. After being attacked on my left half, all day by infantry and tanks, we were in our original positions after a small scale counter attack by the evening. We gave him a real bloody nose and we calculate having knocked out some 35 tanks mostly Panthers. One of my Scots Battns distinguished themselves particularly. We gave him a proper knockout with our artillery with very strong concentration on any point where movement was expected".

The division, by now known widely as, "Barker's Bears", then held the line for the next few weeks, absorbing reinforcements and carrying out patrols until its participation in the Second Battle of the Odon, before, on 25 July, transferring from Bucknall's XXX Corps, in which the division had served nearly six months, to Lieutenant General John Crocker's I Corps. The corps was now part of the First Canadian Army and the 49th Division, on the corps' left flank, in August, took part in the advance towards the Falaise Pocket, where the Germans were attempting to retreat to, capturing thousands of Germans in the process. It was during this time that the division lost the 70th Brigade, which as a junior, 2nd line territorial formation, was broken up to provide reinforcements to other units. However, substituting the 70th Brigade was the 56th Brigade, formerly an independent formation comprising entirely Regular Army units, that had landed in Normandy on D-Day.

The division reached the River Seine in the late August, and, upon crossing the river, turned towards the capture of Le Havre, which was captured on 12 September (see Operation Astonia) with very light casualties to the 49th Division and its supporting units − 19 killed and 282 wounded − and capturing over 6,000 Germans in the process. Major General "Bubbles" Barker, the GOC, wrote in his diary that it "will be a memorable day for the Div[ision] and myself". However, the division then had all its transport sent forward to other units then advancing into Belgium, temporarily grounding the "Polar Bears", although giving the division a few days rest, deservedly so after having endured almost three months of action since landing in Normandy and suffered over 5,000 casualties.

The division received the order to move, arriving, after travelling some 200 miles, in the south of the Netherlands at a concentration area on 21 September, ten miles south of the Antwerp-Turnhout Canal. Over the next few days, the division liberated Turnhout and crossed the Antwerp-Turnhout Canal. It was during this period that the division was awarded its first and only Victoria Cross (VC) of the Second World War, belonging to Corporal John Harper of the Hallamshire Battalion, York and Lancaster Regiment. The division, after being on the offensive since landing in Normandy, then spent the next few weeks on the defensive along the Dutch frontier, before returning to the offensive. Operation Pheasant commenced in the third week of October, with the objective, after Tilburg and Breda had fallen to the 49th, being the capture of the town of Roosendaal, which fell after ten days of vicious fighting. Major General Barker described the town as "not much of a place, bombed by USAF early in the year... We have crossed 20 miles in 10 days and had to fight every inch of it". Further fighting continued until the division ended up at Willemstad at the Hollandsche Diep. The division then transferred from Lieutenant General Crocker's I Corps to Lieutenant General Neil Ritchie's XII Corps and helped in the clearing of the west bank of the River Maas, along the Dutch border, fighting in very wet and muddy conditions.

In late November, the division suffered a blow when its GOC, Major General "Bubbles" Barker, who had continuously commanded the 49th since April 1943, succeeded Lieutenant General O'Connor as the GOC of VIII Corps and left the division. Barker's handling of the 49th "Polar Bears" Division, most notably during Operation Epsom in Normandy, had clearly impressed his superiors. He later wrote that "My fortune was to command the Polar Bears whose achievements were made possible by its great efficiency at all levels, its high morale and the marvellous team work..... It was a splendid fighting machine". Barker's successor was Major General Gordon "Babe" MacMillan, formerly the GOC of the 15th (Scottish) Infantry Division. Like his predecessor, MacMillan was a distinguished veteran of the First World War.

After the new GOC's assumption of command, the next few months for the division, now serving as part of II Canadian Corps, commanded by Lieutenant General Guy Simonds, were spent mainly in small-scale skirmishing, including numerous patrols in attempts to dominate no man's land, and garrisoning the area between the River Waal and the Lower Rhine, also known as "The Island", created in the aftermath of the failed Operation Market Garden. However, in late March 1945, the division, commanded now by Major General Stuart Rawlins after MacMillan was ordered to become GOC of the 51st (Highland) Division, received orders to clear "The Island", which, after much hard fighting but relatively light casualties, was cleared in early April, before advancing north-eastwards towards Arnhem. The 49th Division's last major contribution to the Second World War was the liberation of Arnhem and the fierce battles that led to it. The division, now part of I Canadian Corps, under Lieutenant General Charles Foulkes, and supported by Canadian tanks of the 5th Canadian Armoured Division, liberated the city at a cost of less than 200 casualties, but over 4,000 Germans became casualties.

Just after the German surrender on 7 May 1945, the 49th Division played a part in the liberation of Utrecht, with the 49th Reconnaissance Regiment entering first, followed by Canadian troops. There is a monument dedicated to the Polar Bears at a spot on Biltstraat in the city. During the course of the Second World War, from Normandy to Arnhem, the 49th Division had suffered 11,000 officers and men wounded or missing, with 1,642 of these being killed in action.

Order of battle
The 49th Infantry Division was constituted as follows during the war:

146th Infantry Brigade
 4th Battalion, Lincolnshire Regiment
 1/4th Battalion, King's Own Yorkshire Light Infantry
 Hallamshire Battalion, York and Lancaster Regiment

147th Infantry Brigade
 1/5th Battalion, West Yorkshire Regiment (left 7 September 1942)
 1/6th Battalion, Duke of Wellington's Regiment (left 6 July 1944)
 1/7th Battalion, Duke of Wellington's Regiment
 147th Infantry Brigade Anti-Tank Company (formed 20 March 1940, disbanded 1 August 1941)
 11th Battalion, Royal Scots Fusiliers (from 8 September 1942)
 1st Battalion, Leicestershire Regiment (from 6 July 1944)

148th Infantry Brigade (left 4 April 1940)
 1/5th Battalion, Leicestershire Regiment
 1/5th Battalion, Sherwood Foresters (until December 1939)
 8th Battalion, Sherwood Foresters
 2nd Battalion, South Wales Borderers (from 18 December 1939)

70th Infantry Brigade (from 18 May 1942, disbanded 20 August 1944)
 10th Battalion, Durham Light Infantry
 11th Battalion, Durham Light Infantry
 12th Battalion, Durham Light Infantry (until February 1940) when converted to 1st Battalion, Tyneside Scottish (Black Watch (Royal Highland Regiment))

56th Infantry Brigade (from 20 August 1944)
 2nd Battalion, South Wales Borderers (left 27 April 1945, rejoined 14 June 1945)
 2nd Battalion, Gloucestershire Regiment
 2nd Battalion, Essex Regiment
 7th (Merionethshire & Montgomeryshire) Battalion, Royal Welch Fusiliers (from 28 April 1945, left 13 June 1945)

Divisional Troops
 2nd Battalion, Princess Louise's Kensington Regiment (from 7 June 1943, joined as divisional support battalion, became machine gun battalion 28 February 1944)
 49th Reconnaissance Regiment, Reconnaissance Corps (formed 5 September 1942, became 49th Reconnaissance Regiment, Royal Armoured Corps 1 January 1944)
 49th (West Riding) Divisional Signals Regiment, Royal Corps of Signals
60 Field Security Section , Intelligence Corps

Royal Artillery
 69th (West Riding) Field Regiment, Royal Artillery
 70th (West Riding) Field Regiment, Royal Artillery (until 6 August 1940)
 71st (West Riding) Field Regiment, Royal Artillery (until 6 August 1940)
 79th Field Regiment, Royal Artillery (from 8 until 23 June 1940)
 80th Field Regiment, Royal Artillery (from 8 until 23 June 1940)
 143rd (Kent Yeomanry) Field Regiment, Royal Artillery (from 26 April 1942)
 178th Field Regiment, Royal Artillery (from 15 May 1942 until 28 December 1942)
 185th Field Regiment, Royal Artillery (from 24 December 1942, disbanded 29 November 1944)
 74th Field Regiment, Royal Artillery (from 30 November 1944)
 58th (Duke of Wellington's) Anti-Tank Regiment, Royal Artillery (until 23 June 1940)
 88th Anti-Tank Regiment, Royal Artillery (from 17 June 1942 until 24 July 1943)
 55th (Suffolk Yeomanry) Anti-Tank Regiment, Royal Artillery (from 26 July 1943)
 118th Light Anti-Aircraft Regiment, Royal Artillery (from 5 July until 8 December 1942)
 89th Light Anti-Aircraft Regiment, Royal Artillery (from 29 December 1942)
Royal Engineers
 228th (West Riding) Field Company, Royal Engineers (until 30 September 1939)
 229th (West Riding) Field Company, Royal Engineers (until 4 April 1940)
 230th (West Riding) Field Company, Royal Engineers (until 4 April 1940)
 231st (West Riding) Field Park Company, Royal Engineers (until 4 April 1940)
 294th Field Company, Royal Engineers (from 26 April 1942)
 756th Field Company, Royal Engineers (from 26 April 1942)
 757th Field Company, Royal Engineers (from 26 April 1942)
 289th Field Park Company, Royal Engineers (from 26 April 1942)
 23rd Bridging Platoon, Royal Engineers (from 1 November 1943)

Royal Army Medical Corps

 146th Field Ambulance, Royal Army Medical Corps
 160th Field Ambulance, Royal Army Medical Corps
 187th Field Ambulance, Royal Army Medical Corps
 16th Field Dressing Station, Royal Army Medical Corps
 17th Field Dressing Station, Royal Army Medical Corps
 35th Field Hygiene Section, Royal Army Medical Corps

Postwar

The division was disbanded in Germany in 1946, but reformed in the TA in 1947, having been renamed the 49th (West Riding) Armoured Division. It was based in Nottingham, consisting of (on 1 April 1947):

 8 (Yorkshire) Armoured Brigade
 146 (West Riding) Infantry Brigade
 147 (Midland) Lorried Infantry Brigade
 Artillery included 269 and 270 Field Regiments Royal Artillery

In 1956, it was renamed the 49th (West Riding and Midland) Infantry Division, its base moved to Leeds, and the 8th Armoured Brigade was removed from its order of battle. Finally, it underwent its last major change in 1961, when it was renamed to the 49th (West Riding and North Midland) Division/District, and the 147th Infantry Brigade was removed from its composition. The Division/District finally disbanded in 1967, becoming simply East Midlands District.

The polar bear flash was last worn by 49th Brigade, Under Army 2020, 49 (E) Brigade was merged with 7th Armoured Brigade to become 7th Infantry Brigade on 13 February 2015.

General officers commanding
The following officers commanded the division at various times:

Victoria Cross recipients
 Corporal Samuel Meekosha, 1/6th Battalion, West Yorkshire Regiment, Great War
 Corporal George Sanders, 1/7th (Leeds Rifles) Battalion, West Yorkshire Regiment, Great War
 Private Arthur Poulter, 1/4th Battalion, Duke of Wellington's (West Riding Regiment), Great War
 Corporal John Harper, Hallamshire Battalion, York and Lancaster, Second World War

Memorial

At the Site John McCrae just outside Ypres there is a memorial to the 49th (West Riding) Infantry Division. It is located is immediately behind Essex Farm Commonwealth War Graves Commission Cemetery, on top of the canal bank. It is shaped like an obelisk and accessed via a flight of stairs leading up the canal bank from the cemetery.

See also

 List of British divisions in World War I
 List of British divisions in World War II
 British Army Order of Battle (September 1939)
 Berenkuil (traffic), a type of traffic circle that may have been named after the division
 46th Infantry Division 2nd Line duplicate during World War II

Notes

References

Bibliography

External links
The British Army in the Great War: The 49th (West Riding) Division
Regiments.org Summary and Lineage
Composition of the 49th Division
Generals of World War II
49th (West Riding) Infantry Division Polar Bear Association

Further reading

Infantry divisions of the British Army in World War I
Infantry divisions of the British Army in World War II
Military units and formations established in 1908
Military units and formations disestablished in 1967
1908 establishments in the United Kingdom

49th (West Riding) Infantry Division


Gušarka (toranjka, guštarka, vrizak, lat. Arabis), biljni rod iz porodice krstašica kojemu pripada stotinjak vrsta trajnica. Ime Arabis upučuje na arapske zemlje, ili zbog podrijetla, ili zbog prilagodbe da rastu na sličnim suhim i pjeskovitim tlima.

Gušarke u Hrvatskoj su planinska gušarka (A. alpina), zidna gušarka (A. collina), oštrodlakava gušarka (A. hirsuta), kamenjarska gušarka (A. nova), šumska gušarka (A. planisiliqua), bijela gušarka (A. procurrens), gušarka strieličasta (A. sagittata), Skopolijeva gušarka (A. scopoliana), proljetna gušarka (A. verna), Arabis hornungiana

U ovaj rod nekada su uključivane malocvjetna toranjka, Fourraea alpina (L.) Greuter & Burdet (sin. Arabis brassica);  gola, Turritis glabra L. (sin. Arabis glabra); tornjasta toranjka Pseudoturritis turrita (L.) Al-Shehbaz (sin. Arabis turrita). One ne pripadaju u gušarke ili toranjke, a ime im je ostalo jer su nekada bile klasificirane u taj rod.

Vrste

 Arabis aculeolata Greene
 Arabis adpressipilis (M.Hopkins) Al-Shehbaz
 Arabis alanyensis H.Duman
 Arabis allionii DC.,  Allijonieva toranjka
 Arabis alpina L., planinska toranjka
 Arabis amplexicaulis Edgew.
 Arabis androsacea Fenzl
 Arabis aubrietioides Boiss.
 Arabis aucheri Boiss.
 Arabis auriculata Lam.
 Arabis axillaris Kom.
 Arabis balansae Boiss. & Reut.
 Arabis beirana P.Silveira, J.Paiva & N.Marcos
 Arabis bijuga G.Watt
 Arabis blepharophylla Hook. & Arn.
 Arabis borealis Andrz. ex C.A.Mey.
 Arabis brachycarpa Rupr.
 Arabis bryoides Boiss.
 Arabis caerulea All.
 Arabis carduchorum Boiss.
 Arabis caucasica Willd.
 Arabis christiani N.Busch
 Arabis ciliata Clairv., trepavičava toranjka
 Arabis colchica Kolak.
 Arabis collina Ten.,  zidna toranjka
 Arabis conringioides Ball
 Arabis cretica Boiss. & Heldr.
 Arabis crucisetosa Constance & Rollins
 Arabis cypria Holmboe
 Arabis davisii H.Duman & A.Duran
 Arabis deflexa Boiss.
 Arabis doberanica Parsa
 Arabis doumetii Coss.
 Arabis elegans Tineo ex Lojac.
 Arabis elgonensis Al-Shehbaz
 Arabis erecta Y.Y.Kim & C.G.Jang
 Arabis erikii Mutlu
 Arabis erubescens Ball
 Arabis eschscholtziana Andrz.
 Arabis farinacea Rupr.
 Arabis ferdinandi-coburgii Kellerer & Sünd.
 Arabis flagellosa Miq.
 Arabis furcata S.Watson
 Arabis gegamica Mtschvet.
 Arabis georgiana Harper
 Arabis graellsiiformis Hedge
 Arabis hirsuta (L.) Scop., oštrodlakava toranjka
 Arabis hornungiana Schur
 Arabis humbertii Quézel
 Arabis ionocalyx Boiss.
 Arabis josiae Jahand. & Maire
 Arabis juressi Rothm.
 Arabis kandingensis Y.H.Zhang
 Arabis kaynakiae Daşkin
 Arabis kazbegi Mtzchvet.
 Arabis kennedyae Meikle
 Arabis ligulifolia Nakai
 Arabis lycia Parolly & P.Hein
 Arabis macdonaldiana Eastw.
 Arabis margaritae Talavera
 Arabis modesta Rollins
 Arabis nepetifolia Boiss.
 Arabis nipponica (Franch. & Sav.) H.Boissieu
 Arabis nordmanniana Rupr.
 Arabis nova Vill., kamenjarska toranjka
 Arabis nuristanica Kitam.
 Arabis nuttallii B.L.Rob.
 Arabis olympica Piper
 Arabis oregana Rollins
 Arabis ottonis-schulzii Bornm. & Gauba
 Arabis paniculata Franch.
 Arabis parvula Dufour
 Arabis patens Sull.
 Arabis planisiliqua (Pers.) Rchb., šumska toranjka
 Arabis procurrens Waldst. & Kit., bijela toranjka
 Arabis pterosperma Edgew.
 Arabis pubescens (Desf.) Poir.
 Arabis pumila Jacq.
 Arabis purpurea Sm.
 Arabis pycnocarpa M.Hopkins
 Arabis sachokiana (N.Busch) N.Busch
 Arabis sadina (Samp.) Cout.
 Arabis sagittata (Bertol.) DC., strieličasta toranjka
 Arabis scabra All.
 Arabis scopoliana Boiss., Skopolijeva toranjka
 Arabis serpyllifolia Vill.
 Arabis serrata Franch. & Sav.
 Arabis soyeri Reut. & A.Huet.
 Arabis stelleri DC.
 Arabis stellulata Bertol.
 Arabis stenocarpa Boiss. & Reut.
 Arabis subflava B.M.G.Jones
 Arabis sudetica Tausch
 Arabis surculosa N.Terracc.
 Arabis tanakana Makino
 Arabis tianschanica Pavlov
 Arabis tunetana Murb.
 Arabis venusta H.Hara
 Arabis verdieri Quézel
 Arabis verna (L.) W.T.Aiton, proljetna toranjka
 Arabis vochinensis Spreng.

Sinonimi
 Abasicarpon (Andrz. ex Rchb.) Rchb. in Handb. Nat. Pfl.-Syst.: 260 (1837)
 Abazicarpus Andrz. ex DC. in Syst. Nat. 2: 213 (1821), not validly publ.
 Altriarabis Y.Z.Zhao; Collect. Works Zhao Yizhi 209 (2018)
 Arabidium Spach in Hist. Nat. Vég. 6: 436 (1838)
 Caulopsis Fourr.; Ann. Soc. Linn. Lyon, N. S. 16: 332 (1868)
 Lomaspora (DC.) Steud.; Nomencl. Bot., ed. 2, 2: 65 (1841)
 Parryodes Jafri in Notes Roy. Bot. Gard. Edinburgh 22: 207 (1957)
 Psilarabis Fourr.; Ann. Soc. Linn. Lyon, N. S. 16: 332 (1868)
 Shortia Raf.; Autikon Botanikon, 16 (1840), Pennell in Bull. Torr. Bot. Cl. 48: 92 (1921)

Vanjske poveznice

Izvori

Arabideae

Gušarka


Norwalk virüsü, bağırsak enfeksiyonuna neden olan bir virüstür. 27-40 nm boyundadır, genetik materyali RNA'dan oluşur.

Yiyecekler aracılığıya vücuda girerek, şiddetli kusma, ishal yapar. Bulaşıcıdır, 4 yaş altındaki bebeklerin bu enfeksiyona yakalanma olaslıkları yüksektir. Temizlik kurallarına uyularak koruma sağlanır.

RNA virüsleri
Grup IV: pozitif polariteli tek iplikli RNA virüsleri

Norwalk virüsü


Spøgelser er det femte studiealbum fra det danske rockband Malurt, der blev udgivet i marts 1992 på Genlyd. Det var bandets første studiealbum siden Tour de Force (1983) og deres opløsning i 1984, samt det første album, hvor både Pete Repete og Peter Viskinde medvirkede. Det er produceret af Thomas Helmig og indspillet i Easy Sound Recording Studio i København. Spøgelser fik positive anmeldelser ved udgivelsen og har solgt 32.000 eksemplarer.

Spor

Medvirkende
Malurt
 Michael Ehlert Falch –  vokal, guitar
 Peter Viskinde – guitar, kor
 Pete Repete – keyboards, kor
 Dia Nielsen – bas, kor
 Peter Mors – trommer, kor

Øvrige musikere
 Uffe Fink Isaksen – percussion

Produktion
 Thomas Helmig – producer
 Niels Erik Lund – lydtekniker, lydmiksning
 Martin Careca Karaoglan – lydtekniker
 Mand Over Bord – artwork
 Henrik Brahe – fotograf

Referencer

Litteratur

Eksterne henvisninger

Malurt-album
Album fra 1992

Spøgelser (album)


Olaylar
 İlhanlılar hükümdarı Abaka Han, Herat yakınlarında yapılan savaşta Çağatay Devleti hükümdarı Barak Han'ı yenilgiye uğrattı.
 Sekizinci Haçlı Seferi sona erdi.

Doğumlar
 Haziran - II. Henri, Kudüs ve Kıbrıs Kralı (ö. 1324)
 tarihi bilinmeyen
 Metokhites, Bizanlı filozof, yazar (ö. 1332)

Ölümler
 3 Mayıs - IV. Béla, Macaristan ve Hırvatistan Kralı (d. 1206)
 25 Ağustos - IX. Louis, Fransa Kralı (d. 1214)
 tarihi bilinmeyen
 VII. Davit, Bagrationi hanedanına mensup Gürcü Kralı (d. 1215)
 İbn Ebî Useybia, Arap hekim ve tarihçi (d. 1203)
 İbni Sebin, Endülüs'lü filozof (d. 1219)
 Musa ibn Nahman, Katalonyalı bir haham, filozof, doktor, Kabbalist ve Tora yorumcusu (d. 1198)

1270


Luís Carlos de Oliveira Preto (født 17. september 1965) er en tidligere brasiliansk fodboldspiller.

Eksterne henvisninger

Fodboldspillere fra Brasilien

Luís Carlos de Oliveira Preto


Kosmos 2507, ruski komunikacijski satelit iz programa Kosmos. Vrste je Strijela-3M (Rodnik S br. 23 L).

Lansiran je 23. rujna 2015. godine s kozmodroma Pljesecka u Rusiji, s mjesta 133/3. Lansiran je u nisku orbitu oko planeta Zemlje raketom nosačem Rokot/Briz-KM. Orbita mu je 1497 km u perigeju i 1506 km u apogeju. Orbitna inklinacija mu je 82,50°. Spacetrackov kataloški broj je 40920. COSPARova oznaka je 2015-050-A. Zemlju obilazi u 116,01 minutu. Mase je 225 kg.

Ovo je vladin-vojni komunikacijski satelit sustava "pohrani-ispusti". Napaja se iz solarnih ćelija i baterija.

Nekoliko satelita Rodnika-S poslano je u istoj misiji. Razgonski blok Briz-KM se odvojio tijekom misije i ostao je u orbiti.

Izvori
А.Железняков. Энциклопедия "Космонавтика". Хроника освоения космоса. (rus.)
Heavens-above (engl.)
NASA (engl.)
Planet4589.org Tablični prikaz podataka o satelitima (engl.)
N2YO Satellite Database - Tehnical Details - Real Time Satellite Tracking and Predictions (engl.)
Gunter's Space Page Strela-3M (Rodnik-S, 14F132) (engl.)

Vanjske poveznice
N2YO.com Search Satellite Database
Celes Trak SATCAT Format Documentation (engl.)
Kunstman  Satellites in Orbit (engl.)

Sateliti Kosmos

Kosmos 2507


Andreas Ludwig Jacob Michelsen (* 31. Mai 1801 in Satrup; † 11. Februar 1881 in Schleswig) war ein deutscher Historiker, Jurist, Journalist, Politiker und Mitglied der Frankfurter Nationalversammlung.

Leben
Andreas Ludwig Jacob war der Sohn des Diakons Franz Michelsen (* April 1766 in Flensburg; † 15. Januar 1806 in Oeddis) und dessen Frau Johanna Henriette von Born (27. März 1782 in Kopenhagen; † 1861). Seine Kindheit erlebte er in Altona und besuchte ab Ostern 1816 das Gymnasium Christianeum. 1819 begann er an der Christian-Albrechts-Universität zu Kiel ein Studium der Rechtswissenschaften, Geschichte und Philosophie und wurde Mitglied der Alten Kieler Burschenschaft. Dieses Studium setzte er 1821 an der Universität Göttingen fort. 1823 hatte er sein juristisches Staatsexamen bestanden und absolvierte mit Hilfe eines staatlichen Stipendiums 1824/25 eine Studienreise, die ihn nach Berlin, Heidelberg, Paris und Kopenhagen führte und in deren Zug er Deutschland, die Schweiz, Frankreich, Holland und Dänemark bereiste. Am 20. November 1824 wurde er mit der Arbeit De exceptione rei venditae et traditae in Berlin zum Doktor der Rechte promoviert. Er ließ sich dann in Kopenhagen nieder, wo er sich mit der Geschichte Schleswig-Holsteins beschäftigte. Er wurde Mitglied der isländischen Literaturgesellschaft, der königlichen Gesellschaft für vaterländische Geschichte und Sprache und der Königlich Norwegischen Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften. Nachdem er eine Reihe von geschichtlichen Arbeiten publiziert hatte, erhielt er am 11. August 1829 als Nachfolger Friedrich Christoph Dahlmanns eine außerordentliche Professur der Geschichte an der Universität Kiel. Auch hier verfasste er einige historische Arbeiten, erhielt 1833 die Ehrendoktorwürde der Philosophie, wurde 1834 korrespondierendes Mitglied der Gesellschaft für pommerische Geschichte und 1835 der Gesellschaft für Mecklenburgische Geschichte. 1837 wurde er ordentlicher Professor in Kiel, wurde im selben Jahr Mitglied der Kurländischen Gesellschaft für Literatur und Kunst, 1838 des Nassauischen Vereins für Geschichte und 1839 der Gesellschaft für friesische Geschichte in Leeuwarden.

Ab 1842 bis 1861 war er als Professor des Staats- und Völkerrechts in Jena tätig, außerdem 1843 als Hof- und Justizrat und 1845 als Geheimer Justizrat. Von 1844 bis 1848 war er außerdem Redakteur bei der Neuen Allgemeinen Jenaer Literaturzeitung. Ab 1844 war er juristischer Berater des Herzogs Christian August von Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Augustenburg. 1851 wurde er Mitdirektor des staatswissenschaftlichen Seminars in Jena, 1855 Oberappellationsrat und im selben Jahr Mitglied der 'Königlichen Akademie der Wissenschaften in München. Zudem beteiligte er sich an den organisatorischen Aufgaben der Hochschule und war in den Sommersemestern 1850, 1855 Rektor der Alma Mater. 1856 wurde er Mitglied der Königlich Sächsischen Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften in Leipzig, 1857 der Gesellschaft für niederländische Literatur in Leiden und der Judical Society in London. 1858 wurde Michelsen Ehrenmitglied des voigtländischen Altertumsforschenden Vereins, 1861 Ehrenbürger der Stadt Jena. Er erhielt 1864 das Komturkreuz des großherzoglich Oldenburgischen Haus- und Verdienstordens und 1865 das Komturkreuz des Herzoglich sachsen-ernestinischen Hausordens. 1845 wurde er Vorsitzender des Vereins für Thüringische Geschichte und von 1863 bis 1864 war er Erster Vorstand des Germanischen Nationalmuseums in Nürnberg. 1863 bis 1866 war er wiederum als Berater für Herzog Christian August von Augustenburg in Frankfurt am Main und Kiel tätig. Nach 1867 war er als Privatgelehrter und wissenschaftlicher Schriftsteller in Schleswig tätig.

In den Revolutionsjahren 1848/49 war er Abgeordneter für den Wahlkreis 1, Schleswig (Fehmarn) im Paulskirchenparlament. Er schloss sich der Fraktion Casino an und war Mitglied des Gesetzgebungsausschußes. 1848 war er als Sonderbeauftragter der provisorischen schleswig-holsteinischen Regierung in Berlin tätig. 1849 war er Abgeordneter im Gothaer Nachparlament.

Am 2. Oktober 1840 verheiratete sich Michelsen mit der Komtesse Ernestine Sophie Friedericke von Brockdorf. Die Ehe blieb kinderlos.

Werke (Auswahl)
 Dissertatio inauguralis de exceptione rei venditae et traditae. Schade, Berlin 1824 (Online).
 Nordfriesland im Mittelalter. Eine historische Skizze. Königliches Taubstummen-Institut, Schleswig 1828 (Online).
 Archiv für Staats- und Kirchengeschichte der Herzogthümer Schleswig, Holstein, Lauenburg. Mehrere Bände seit 1833 (Band 1 Online, Band 2 Online und Band 4 Online).
 (Hrsg.) Urkundenbuch zur Geschichte des Landes Dithmarschen. Hammerich, Altona 1834 (Online).
 Der ehemalige Oberhof zu Lübeck und seine Rechtssprüche. Hammerich, Altona 1839 (Online)
 Ueber die ehemaligen Landestheilungen in Schleswig-Holstein unter dem Oldenburgischen Hause. Mohr, Kiel 1839 (Online).
 (Hrsg.): Urkundensammlung der Schleswig-Holstein-Lauenburgischen Gesellschaft für vaterländische Geschichte. Königliche Schulbuchdruckerei, Kiel 1839 (Online).
 Entstehung und Begründung der Predigerwahl in Schleswig-Holstein als protestantischer Norm. Mohr, Kiel 1841 (Online).
 (Hrsg.): Sammlung altdithmarscher Rechtsquellen. Hammerich, Altona 1842 (Online).
 Polemische Erörterung über die schleswig-holsteinische Staatssucession mit bisher ungedruckten Urkunden. Weidmann, Leipzig 1844 (Online).
 Acta iudicialia in causa quae inter comites Holsatiae et consules Hamburgenses, medio saeculo XIV Agitata est de Libertate civitatis Hamburgensis Publica. Frommann, Jena 1844 (Online).
 Zweite polemische Erörterung über die Schleswig-Holsteinische Staatssuccession. Weidmann, Leipzig 1846 (Online).
 Über die Genesis der Jury, Wigand, Leipzig, 1847 (Online).
 Die vier wichtigsten Actenstücke der schleswigschen Ständeversammlung von 1846. Frommann, Jena 1847 (Online).
 Specimen codicis diplomatici Jenensis. Frommann, Jena 1852 (Online).
 Ueber die Ehrenstücke und den Rautenkranz als historische Probleme der Heraldik, Frommann, Jena 1854 (Digitalisat).
 Codex Thuringiae diplomaticus. Sammlung ungedruckter Urkunden zur Geschichte Thüringens. Frommann, Jena 1854 (Bd. 1 Online).
 Die Hausmarke. Eine germanistische Abhandlung. Frommann, Jena 1855 (Online).
 Ueber die festuca notata und die germanische Traditionssymbolik. Frommann, Jena 1856 (Online).
 Urkundlicher Ausgang der Grafschaft Orlamünde. Hauptsächlich nach Urkunden der Hofmann-Heydenreichischen Handschrift. Frommann, Jena 1856 (Online).
 Die ältesten Wappenschilde der Landgrafen von Thüringen. Frommann, Jena 1857 (Online).
 Johann Friedrich der Grossmüthige Stadtordnung für Jena. Frommann, Jena 1858 (Online).
 Frisiae septemtrionalis vetus jus aggerale. Frommann, Jena 1859 (Online).
 Urkundlicher Beitrag zur Geschichte der Landfrieden in Deutschland. Germanisches Museum, Nürnberg 1863 (Online).
 Über Schleswig-Holsteinische Staatserbfolge. E. F. Thienemann, Gotha 1864.
 Schleswig-Holsteinische Kirchengeschichte, 3 Bde. Homann, Kiel 1873–1877 (Online).

Literatur

 Helge Dvorak: Biographisches Lexikon der Deutschen Burschenschaft. Band I: Politiker. Teilband 4: M–Q. Winter, Heidelberg 2000, ISBN 3-8253-1118-X, S. 109–111.
 Karl Jordan, Erich Hofmann: Geschichte der Philosophischen Fakultät. Teil 2 (= Geschichte der Christian-Albrechts-Universität Kiel 1665–1965. Band 5,2). Karl Wachholtz, Neumünster 1969, S. 35–41.
 Peter Kaupp: Burschenschafter in der Paulskirche. Broschüre der Gesellschaft für burschenschaftliche Geschichtsforschung, 1999, S. 77.
 Rainer Koch (Hrsg.): Die Frankfurter Nationalversammlung 1848/49. Ein Handlexikon der Abgeordneten der deutschen verfassungsgebenden Reichs-Versammlung. Kunz, Kelkheim 1989, ISBN 3-923420-10-2.

 C. Fr. Carstens: Geheimrat Michelsen. Nekrolog. In: Zeitschrift der Gesellschaft für Schleswig-Holstein-Lauenburgische Geschichte. Kiel 1882, 12. Bd., S. 301 f.

Weblinks

 Nachlass LASH Abt. 399.36

Historiker
Hochschullehrer (Christian-Albrechts-Universität zu Kiel)
Rektor (Friedrich-Schiller-Universität Jena)
Ehrenbürger von Jena
Mitglied des Gothaer Nachparlaments
Hochschullehrer (Friedrich-Schiller-Universität Jena)
Mitglied der Bayerischen Akademie der Wissenschaften
Mitglied der Kongelige Norske Videnskabers Selskab
Mitglied der Sächsischen Akademie der Wissenschaften
Komtur des Oldenburgischen Haus- und Verdienstordens des Herzogs Peter Friedrich Ludwig
Träger des Herzoglich Sachsen-Ernestinischen Hausordens (Komtur I. Klasse)
Mitglied der Frankfurter Nationalversammlung
Burschenschafter (19. Jahrhundert)
Deutscher
Geboren 1801
Gestorben 1881
Mann

Andreas Ludwig Jacob Michelsen


Der er flere regenter med navnet Ferdinand 2. Se:

 Ferdinand 2. af Aragonien (1452-1516) – konge af Aragonien 1452-1516
 Ferdinand 2. (Tysk-romerske rige) (1578-1637) – tysk-romersk kejser 1619-1637
 Ferdinand 2. af Begge Sicilier (1810-1859) – konge af Begge Sicilier 1830-1859
 Ferdinand 2. af Portugal (1816-1885) – kongegemal af Portugal 1837-1853

Ferdinand 2.


Heteroseksizam je sustav stavova, pristranosti i diskriminacije u korist seksualnosti i odnosa suprotnog spola. Može uključivati pretpostavku da su drugi ljudi heteroseksualni ili da su privlačnosti i odnosi suprotnog spola jedina norma i stoga superiorni.

Iako je heteroseksizam u internetskim izdanjima American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language i Merriam-Webster Collegiate Dictionary definiran kao anti-homoseksualna diskriminacija ili predrasuda "od strane heteroseksualnih ljudi" odnosno "od strane heteroseksualnih osoba", ljudi bilo koje seksualne orijentacije mogu imati takve stavove i pristranost i mogu činiti dio internalizirane mržnje prema nečijoj seksualnoj orijentaciji.

Heteroseksizam kao diskriminacija svrstava homoseksualce, lezbijke, biseksualce i druge seksualne manjine u drugorazredne građane s obzirom na različita zakonska i građanska prava, ekonomske mogućnosti i socijalnu jednakost u mnogim svjetskim jurisdikcijama i društvima. Često je povezano s homofobijom.

Pozadina
Iako Merriam-Webster Collegiate Dictionary napominje da je pojam heteroseksizam prvi put korišten 1972. godine, taj je pojam 1971. prvi put objavio aktivist za homoseksualna prava Craig Rodwell.

Etimologija i upotreba
Slični pojmovi uključuju "heterocentrizam" i "heteroseksualizam". Iako se dobro utvrđeni pojam heteroseksizam često objašnjava kao kovanica po uzoru na seksizam, izvođenje njegovog značenja više upućuje na (1.) heteroseks ( ualni ) + -izam nego (2.) hetero- + seksizam. Zapravo se riječ heteroseksualizam koristila kao ekvivalent seksizmu i rasizmu.

S obzirom na nedostatak semantičke transparentnosti, istraživači, terenski radnici, kritički teoretičari i LGBT aktivisti predložili su i koristiti pojmove kao što su institucionalizirana homofobija, državno-sponzorirana homofobija, seksualne predrasude, anti-gay fanatizam, heteroseksualne privilegije, heteroseksualni um (zbirka eseja francuskog pisca Monique Wittig), heteroseksualna pristranost, obvezna heteroseksualnost ili mnogo manje poznati izrazi heterocentrizam, homonegativnoat, i od rodne teorije i queer teorije, heteronormativnost. Međutim, nisu svi ovi deskriptori sinonimi za heteroseksizam.

Izvori

Predrasude i diskriminacija LGBT osoba

Heteroseksizam


Die Lawlers-Goldmine befindet sich 23 km südwestlich von Leinster in Western Australia, Australien.

Betrieben wird der Bergbau seit  2008 von Barrick Gold als Teil seiner Yilgarn South Operation, die aus zwei weiteren Bergbauen besteht, der Darlot-Centenary-Goldmine und Granny-Smith-Goldmine.

Geschichte

Gold wurde in dieser Region im Jahr 1894 von Patrick Lawler entdeckt und die Stadt Lawlers nach ihm benannt, die in der Nähe des Bergbaus gegründet wurde, als in dem nahegelegenen Bach Gold gefunden wurde. Lawlers ist heute eine Geisterstadt und erhalten geblieben ist nur noch die Baulichkeit der Polizeistation.

1986 begann der Tagebau. Das Bergbaugebiet befand sich zunächst im Eigentum von Plutonic Resources, ein frühes und bedeutendes australisches Unternehmen, das Lagerstättenerkundung betrieb. Homestake Mining Company übernahm Plutonic im April 1998 und Homestake wurde von Barrick Gold im Jahr 2001 übernommen.

Goldlager

Das Bergwerk befindet sich im Norseman-Wiluna-Grünsteingürtel.

Gold wird in Sedimenten und ultramafischen Gesteinen gefunden, wie auch in Quarzadern, die mit Sandstein verbunden sind. Die Adern haben eine Mächtigkeit von 2 bis 15 Metern.

Bergbaubetrieb und Umwelt

Eine Zerkleinerungsanlage bereitet das Erzgestein vor, das auf einer Strecke von 4 Kilometern aus dem Untergrund transportiert wird. Nach der Zerkleinerung werden Teile des Goldes entsprechend seinem Gewicht gewonnen und einem Carbon-in Leach-Verfahren unterzogen, um weiteres Gold zu gewinnen, ein Cyanidlaugen-Verfahren. Barrick Gold betont, dass sie ein sicheres Verfahren im Umgang von Cyanid beherrscht und verweist auf eine Zertifizierung.

Im Prozess der Cyanidlaugung wird Gold chemisch in hochgiftigen Sickerwässern gebunden. Nach Filtration und Ausfällung entsteht brauner Schlamm, aus dem nach Waschen und Trocknen durch Reduktion zu Rohgold wird. In diesem Prozess entstehen Blausäure und Cyanide, die trotz Wiederverwendung der Lauge in die Umwelt entweichen können. Dies kann u. a. durch Unfälle, Undichtigkeiten und Katastrophen geschehen. Alle in diesem Prozess entstehenden Stoffe sind giftig. Diese werden zwar leicht in der Natur zersetzt und abgebaut, dennoch können die entstehenden großen Abraumhalden und Cyanid-Stäube durch Wind und Wasser unkontrolliert verteilt werden, Giftstoffe unkontrolliert in die Umwelt gelangen und schwere ökologische Schäden verursachen.

Goldproduktion

Einzelnachweise

Goldmine in Australien
Barrick Gold
Tagebau
Geologie Australiens
Rohstoffvorkommen
Wirtschaft (Western Australia)
Bergwerk in Australien und Ozeanien

Lawlers-Goldmine


Ombo er en ø i Boknafjorden i Ryfylke i Rogaland fylke i Norge. Den har et areal på 57,51 km² og er den næststørste ø i fylket. Ombo er delt mellem kommunerne Hjelmeland og Finnøy og ligger nord for Randøy. Højeste punkt er Bandåsen, 515 moh.

Rundt om Ombo ligger Ombofjorden mod øst, Gardssundfjorden mod syd, Vestre Ombofjorden mod vest og Jelsafjorden mod  nord.

Efter at vejen på Ombo blev bygget blev en særegen fjeldformation synlig fra den nye vej. Formationen ser ud som et ansigt i profil og blev oprindelig kaldt Adam, eller blandt de lokale indbyggere «Ombo-Gubben».

Ombo har flere småsteder, blandt andet Jørstadvåg, Tuftene, Skipavik, Skår, Vestersjø, Atlatveit og Eidssund.

Naturforhold
Med sit forholdsvis store areal og beskedne befolkning er Ombo den eneste af øerne i Rogaland som har et vist vildmarkspræg. Det indre af øen er for en stor del dækket af fyrreskov, men rigere løvskov forekommer også. Øen har flere store søer. Dyrelivet er forholdsvis rigt, med en lille  stamme af elg men også  kronhjort og rådyr.

Færge og hurtigbåd
For at komme til Ombo må man tage færge eller hurtigbåd til Eidssund eller Skipavik.
Der går færge til Eidssund fra Judaberg, Halsnøy, Helgøy, Nord-Hidle, Nedstrand, Hebnes, Foldøy og Jelsa.
Der går færge til Skipavik fra Nesvik og Hjelmeland.

Ombo har også gode hurtigbådsforbindelser med anløb  flere gange daglig.

Kilder og henvisninger

 Ombo
 Ombo Skule
 Ombo på snl.no

Øer i Rogaland
Hjelmeland
Finnøy

Ombo


Godin ist ein Einschlagkrater auf der Mondvorderseite südöstlich des Sinus Medii, südlich des Kraters Agrippa.
Die Kraterform ist unregelmäßig und das Innere uneben.

Der Krater wurde 1935 von der IAU nach dem französischen Astronomen Louis Godin offiziell benannt.

Weblinks

 Godin auf The-Moon Wiki

Einzelnachweise

Einschlagkrater (Mond)

Godin (Mondkrater)


An Myoxanthus conceicionensis in uska species han Liliopsida nga ginhulagway ni M.Frey ngan N.Sanson. An Myoxanthus conceicionensis in nahilalakip ha genus nga Myoxanthus, ngan familia nga Orchidaceae. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Myoxanthus

Myoxanthus conceicionensis


වෛද්‍යවෙදයේ දී ඔක්සිජන් සන්තෘප්තිය () යනු රුධිරයේ ඇති ඔක්සිජන්-සන්තෘප්ත හිමොග්ලොබීන්, මුළු හිමොග්ලොබීන් ප්‍රමාණයට (අසන්තෘප්ත + සන්තෘප්ත) දරන අනුපාතය වේ. මිනිස් සිරුර මෙම අගය නියත අගයක තබාගැනීම සඳහා උත්සාහ කරයි. මිනිසා සඳහා සාමාන්‍ය arterial blood oxygen saturation levels අගය සියයට 95–100 අතර වේ. එම අගය 90% ට වඩා පහළට ගියහොත් එය hypoxemia නම් තත්ත්වය ලෙස එනම් නියමිත ප්‍රමාණයට අඩු අගයක් ලෙස සලකයි. Arterial blood oxygen levels අගය 80% ට වඩා අඩු විට හදවත, මොළය වැනි ඉන්ද්‍රීය ක්‍රියාවලි අඩපණ වීමට ඉඩ ඇති බැවින් ප්‍රතිකාර කළයුතු තත්ත්වයක් වේ. තවදුරටත් මෙම අගය අඩුවීම respiratory හෝ cardiac arrest තත්ත්වයට යාම සිදුවේ. රුධිරගත ඔක්සිජන් ප්‍රමාණය ඉහල නැංවීමට Oxygen therapy උපකාරය භාවිතා කරයි. ඔක්සිජනීකරණය (Oxygenation) සිදුවන්නේ දේහ පටක තුළට ඔක්සිජන් අණු () ඇතුල්වීම මගින් ය. උදාහරණයක් ලෙස රුධිරය ඔක්සිජනීකරණය වන්නේ පෙණහලු තුලදී වාතයේ ඇති ඔක්සිජන් අණු රුධිරය තුලට ඇතුල්වීමේ දි වේ.

අර්ථ දැක්වීම

මිණුම්

ආශ්‍රිත
 Arteriovenous oxygen difference

මූලාශ්‍ර

භාහිර සබැඳි
 Interactive hemoglobin saturation graph

Aquatic ecology
ලේ
Diagnostic intensive care medicine
Water quality indicators
ඔක්සිජන්
Pulmonology
Medical terminology

ඔක්සිජන් සන්තෘප්තිය (වෛද්‍යවේදය)


Matematiksel mantık biçimsel mantığın matematiğe uygulanmasıyla ilgilenen bir matematik dalıdır. Metamatematik, matematiğin temelleri ve kuramsal bilgisayar bilimi alanlarıyla yakınlık gösterir. Matematiksel mantığın temel konuları biçimsel sistemlerin ifade gücünün ve biçimsel ispat sistemlerinin tümdengelim gücünün belirlenmesidir.

Matematiksel mantık kümeler kuramı, model kuramı, hesaplanabilirlik kuramı ve tanıtlama kuramı alanlarına ayrılır. Bu alanlar mantığın, özellikle birinci-derece mantık ve tanımlanabilir küme konularındaki, temel sonuçlarını paylaşır.

Tarihçe
Çağdaş mantığın ve çağdaş felsefenin kurucusu Alman mantıkçısı Gottlob Frege, "Matematik mantığın uygulama alanıdır." görüşünden hareketle matematiğin, mantığın aksiyomatik sistemi üzerine kurulabileceğini düşünmüştür. Bu düşünceden hareket ederek aritmetiğin temelleri konusundaki felsefi çalışmaları için bir mantık sistemi geliştirmişti.

Daha sonra, Frege'nin çalışmalarına dayanarak, Bertrand Russell ve Alfred North Whitehead 1910-1913 yılları arasında Principia Mathematica adını verdikleri eserde matematiği mantığa indirgeyerek formel bir sistem haline getirmeye çalıştılar. Fakat matematiğin formel hale getirilemeyeceğini Kurt Gödel 1933'te yayınladığı bir kitabındaki (Über formal unentscheidbare Sätze der Principia Mathematica und verwandter Systeme) meşhur teoremiyle gösterdi.

John Alan Robinson, 1967'de çözülüm teorem ispatlama yöntemini geliştirdi. Bu yöntem 1972'de A. Colmaurer tarafından ilk mantık programlama dilinin (Prolog) geliştirilmesine yol açtı. Bu dil 1975'te D. Warren tarafından "Warren Abstract Machine" (WAM) olarak uygulandı. Kişisel bilgisayarlar üzerinde ilk uygulamalar 1980'lerde ortaya çıktı.

Önermeler Mantığı

Formel sistemler şu elemanlardan meydana gelir:

 Tanımlanmamış terimler
 Tanımlar
 Türetme kuralları
 Aksiyomlar
 Teoremler

Formel mantığın tanımlanmamış terimleri olarak, basit önerme (P) ve mantık bağlaçları (değil, ve, veya, eğer-ise, eğer ve ancak-ise) gösterilebilir.

Tanımlanan terimlere örnek olarak bileşik önerme kavramını gösterilebilir. Aslında yukarıda verilen mantıksal bağlaçlar bir tek mantıksal bağlaç yardımıyla tanımlanabilir.

Önerme

Doğru ya da yanlış kesin hüküm bildiren ifadelere önerme denir. Bir önerme hem doğru hem de yanlış olamaz ama bazı önermelerin doğruluk değerleri (Doğru önermelerin doğruluk değeri 1, Yanlış önermelerin doğruluk değeri 0'dır) değişebilir. Mesela "Dün hava yağmurluydu" önermesinin doğruluk değeri günden güne değişebilir ama her önermenin doğruluk değeri değişmez "1+1=2" önermesi her zaman doğrudur. Aşağıdaki cümleler önermelere örnektir:

Dün hava güneşliydi.
3 asal sayıdır.

Duygu 21 yaşındadır.

3 asal sayı değildir.

Derya 21 yaşında değildir.

Bir gün 24 saattir.

Sıfır doğal sayıdır.

Mantıksal bağlaçlar kullanarak basit önermelerden başka önermeler kurulabilir, ki bunlara "bileşik önermeler" denir. Önerme matematikte kesin bir hüküm bildiren ifadelere denir.

Olumsuzu
Bir önerme "değil" eki ile karşıt ifadeye çevrilebilir; buna olumsuzunu alma denir.

Bir hafta 7 gün'dür. Bir hafta 7 gün değildir. Olumsuz olacak harfin önüne - ifadesi eklenir.

Birleşim

İki veya daha fazla önermeden "ve, veya, ise" mantıksal bağlaçlarını kullanarak bileşik önermeler kurulabilir. Örnek olarak: "Bugün hava açık ve sıcak" cümlesini verebilir. Doğal dilde bazen "fakat" bağlacını da kullanıyoruz.

'Örnek': "bugün gemiler 9'da veya 10'da sefer yapacak."

"arkadaşlarım sınıftadır veya arkadaşlarım bahçededir."

değili A' olarak gösterilir.

Ayrılım

İki veya daha fazla basit önermeden "veya" (ya da) mantıksal bağını kullanarak bileşik önermeler kurulabilir.

Örnek: "Bugün Arçelik veya Tedaş'tan ziyaretçiler gelecek."

Şartlı cümle

Aynı şekilde, iki veya daha fazla sayıda önermeden (eğer-ise) bağını kullanarak şartlı önermeler kurulabilir.

Örnek: "Eğer yağmur yağıyor ise, hava bulutludur."

Bazen "eğer-ise" bağı yerine doğal dilde "gerektirir" bağını da kullanabiliyoruz.

Örnek: "Yağmurun yağıyor olması havanın bulutlu olmasını gerektirir."

Ancak ve ancak
Yine, "eğer ve ancak-ise" bağını kullanarak birden fazla önermeden çift şartlı önermeler kurulabilir. Bu tür önermeler doğal dilde daha az kullanılmasına rağmen, fizik ve matematikte sık sık kullanılmaktadır.

Örnek: "Eğer ve ancak çalışanlar ücretlerde aşırı artış talep ederlerse enflasyon düşmez."

Aynı cümle şu şekilde de ifade edilebilir: "Eğer, çalışanlar ücretlerde aşırı artış talep ederlerse enflasyon düşmez, ve eğer enflasyon düşmezse çalışanlar ücretlerde aşırı artış talep ederler."

Cebirde olduğu gibi, sembolik veya matematiksel mantıkta da, önermeler yerine önermesel değişkenler kullanılır (P, Q, R, S, T harfleri gibi).

Mantıksal Bağlaçlar

Mantıksal bağlaçlar aşağıdaki sembollerle gösterilir:

: değil
: ve
: veya
: eğer-ise
: ancak ve ancak

Böylece şu ifadeler, önerme formülleri olacaktır:

, , , ,

Örnek: "Eğer sendika veya fabrika yöneticileri inada devam ederlerse, grev ancak ve ancak hükûmet bir kararname çıkarır ve fabrikaya polis göndermezse önlenir."

P: Sendika inada devam eder
Q: Fabrika yöneticileri inada devam eder
R: Grev önlenir
S: Hükûmet kararname çıkartır
T: Hükûmet fabrikaya polis göndermez

> ise bu şekilde de gösterilir <> ancak ve ancak bu şekilde de gösterilir.

Doğruluk cetvelleri

Mantıkta önermeler doğru ya da yanlış olabilir, fakat hem doğru hem yanlış olamaz. Bir önermeye yüklenen bu doğru ve yanlış yüklemlerine onun doğruluk değeri denir.

, , , ,

"Değil" sözcüğünün anlamından hareketle, eğer bir P önermesi doğru ise onun değillemesi, yani  yanlıştır, ve bunun tersi. Mesela, P önermesi "Ay dünyanın uydusudur" cümlesi yerine geçiyorsa, bunun değillemesi olan  yanlıştır.

Genel, kural olarak iki veya daha fazla önermenin birleşimi, ancak birleşen bütün önermelerin doğru olması halinde doğrudur. Mesela, "3 asal sayıdır ve 2+2=5'tir" yanlış bir bileşik önermedir.

Yine kural olarak, ayrık önermelerin doğru olabilmesi için bileşenlerden birinin doğru olması yeterlidir. Ayrık önermeler ancak bunları meydana getiren bileşenlerin hepsinin birden yanlış olduğu halde yanlış sayılır.

Bileşik önermeler için doğruluk tabloları şu şekilde verilebilir:

D: doğru, Y: yanlış

Eşdeğerlikler

Karşıtlıklar

Totoloji Bir önermesel formülün (veya bileşik önermenin) doğruluk cetvelindeki son değerlendirme sütunundaki bütün değerler "doğru" çıkıyorsa, bu önermesel formüle "totoloji" denir.

Çelişki Bir önermesel formülün (veya bileşik önermenin) doğruluk cetvelindeki son değerlendirme sütunundaki bütün değerler "yanlış" çıkıyorsa bu önermesel formüle "çelişki" denir.

Bazen doğruluk Bir önermesel formülün (veya bileşik önermenin) doğruluk cetvelindeki son değerlendirme sütunundaki değerlerden bazıları "doğru" bazıları "yanlış" çıkıyorsa bu önermesel formüle "bazen doğru" denir.

Tutarlılık Bir bileşik önermeye "ve" ekiyle başka bir önerme eklendiği zaman bir çelişki ortaya çıkmıyorsa, eklenen önerme öncekiyle tutarlıdır denir.

Geçerlilik Bir A1, A2, ..., An önerme dizisindeki bütün A'lar doğru olduğu zaman bir B hükmü de doğru oluyorsa B'ye A1, A2, ..., An önermelerinin geçerli sonucudur denir. Geçerlilik şu şekilde gösterilir:

A1, A2, ..., An |= B.

Mantıksal İçerik Bir bileşik önermeyi yanlış yapan şartların sayısının bütün şartların sayısına oranı ne kadar büyükse, o önermenin mantıksal içeriği o kadar fazladır. Çelişkinin mantıksal içeriğinden bahsedilemez (çünkü yoktur.).(-->bu durumda çelişki için mantıksal içerik 1/1 olması beklenir. buna göre ilk cümle ile bahsedilen tanım tersi olarak düşünülmesi gerekmektedir =>düzeltmedir, şayet hata yok ise siliniz?)

Yüklemler Mantığı

Önermeler mantığının türetim kuralları matematik için yeterli olmadığı gibi gündelik dil için de yeterli değildir. Mesela, klasik mantıkta "Her asal sayı bir doğal sayıdır" ve "3 asal sayıdır" öncüllerinden, "3 doğal sayıdır" sonucunu çıkarabiliyoruz. Fakat bu akıl yürütmenin doğruluğu, önermeler mantığının kuralları çerçevesi içinde kanıtlanamaz. Bunun nedeni de şudur: Önermeler mantığı bileşik önermeler içindeki basit önermeler arasındaki mantıksal bağlaçlara ve basit önermelerin doğruluk değerlerine göre bileşik önermelerin doğruluklarını inceler. Diğer bir deyişle, önermeler mantığı bir önermeyi birçok maksat için yeterli ayrıntıda analiz etmez.

İşte, terimler, yüklemler ve niceleyiciler diye isimlendireceğimiz mantıksal kavramlar yardımıyla gündelik dili ve matematiğin dilini büyük ölçüde sembolize edebiliriz.

Yüklemler mantığında da aynı matematikte olduğu gibi, sabitler ve değişkenler kullanılır. Biraz önce bahsedilen "terimleri" iki sınıfa ayırabiliriz: Bireysel değişkenler, bireysel sabitler. Bireysel sabitlere örnek olarak birey olduğunu bildiğimiz varlıkları sayabiliriz: "Gökhan", "Tekir", "gül" gibi. Bunlar yerine de "insan", "hayvan", "bitki" kavramlarının çerçeveleri içinde olmak üzere x, y, z, değişken sembollerini kullanabiliyoruz.

Matematikte değişkenler genellikle sayılar veya fonksiyonlar olabilir. Yüklemler mantığında ise bireysel terimler değişken olabildiği gibi, yüklemler de sabit veya değişken olabilir. Yüklemsel sabitlere örnek olarak önermeler içinde yer alan yüklemleri gösterebiliriz: "sayı", "meyve", "uydu", "sert" gibi. Buna göre,

7 bir asal sayıdır.
Elma bir tür meyvedir.
Miranda, Neptün'ün uydusudur.
Demir sert bir metaldir.

...cümleleri içinde "7", "Elma", "Miranda", "Neptün" ve "demir" bireysel sabitler, "asal sayı, "meyve", "uydu" ve "sert metal" de yüklemsel sabitlerdir.

Yüklemsel ifadelerde yüklemler yukarıdaki örneklerde görüldüğü gibi bir veya iki terimli (veya argümanlı) olabildiği gibi, daha fazla sayıda argüman da içerebilirler. Mesela: "Beril, Akın ve Şebnem'nin önünde oturuyor" dediğimiz zaman, burada "önünde oturuyor" ifadesini yüklem olarak; Beril, Akın ve Şebnem isimlerini de bireysel sabitler olarak almış oluyoruz.

Yüklemsel ifadeler yüklemin aldığı terim sayısına göre şu genel biçimlerde gösterilebilirler:

P(a), Q(b,c), R(d,e,f), ...

Bu ifadelerde, hemen görülebileceği gibi, bireysel sabitler yerine x, y, z gibi değişkenler koyarsak,

P(x), Q(b,y), R(z,e,f)

...gibi değişken terimli yüklemsel ifadeler elde ederiz.

Eşdeğerlik ve karşıtlık

A(x) yüklemsel bir formül olsun. Şu ifadeleri göz önüne alalım:

a)
b)
c)
d)

Bunları doğal dile çevirirsek:

a) Her şey A yüklemine (özelliğine) sahiptir.
b) Bazı şeyler A yüklemine (özelliğine) sahiptir.
c) Hiçbir şey A yüklemine (özelliğine) sahip değildir.
d) Bazı şeyler A yüklemine (özelliğine) sahip değildir.

Burada görüldüğü gibi, d, a'nın karşıtı (değillemesi), c de b'nin karşıtıdır. Şu halde,  yerine  kullanabiliriz, çünkü bunlar mantıksal olarak özdeştir, aynı şekilde  yerine  ifadesini kullanabiliriz.

Yüklemsel ifadelerde değilleme ve niceleyicilerin yeri, anlam bakımından önemlidir. Örneğin:

, "her sayı asal değildir" anlamına gelirken,
 ise "hiçbir sayı asal değildir" anlamına gelir.

Eşdeğerlikler

Karşıtlıklar

Çok Çözülüm Teorem İspatlama

Çözülüm teorem ispatlama, mantık teoremlerinin ispatlanması için A. Robinson tarafından geliştirilmiş bir tekniktir. Bu tekniğin esası şudur:

Eğer "veya" bağı ile bağlı P1, ..., Pn önermelerinden bir Q önermesi dedüktif olarak çıkarılabiliyorsa, o zaman Q'nun değillemesini bu önermelere "ve" bağı ile kattığımız zaman bir çelişki elde ederiz. Sembollerle gösterecek olursak:

...çıkarımı geçerli ise,

...bir çelişkidir.

Bu yöntemin kullanılabilmesi için, P1, ..., Pn önermelerinin, eşdeğerlik dönüşümleri kullanılarak "birleşimli normal biçim" denilen bir biçime getirilmesi gerekir. Bu biçim sadece "değil", "ve" ve "veya" mantıksal bağlaçlarını içerir.

Örnek 1:
    P -> Q   ~P V Q  ~P V Q
    P   P   P
    ------   ------  ~Q
    Q   Q  ------

Bu örnekte  şartlı önermesi yerine, eşdeğeri  konulmuştur ki bu,  önermesinin normal biçimidir.

Örnek 2:
   A -> B   ~A V B   ~A V B
   B -> C   ~B V C   ~B V C
   A   A  A
    --------   --------- ~C
   C   C  ---------

Çözülüm teorem ispatlama yöntemi, yüklemler mantığının teorem ispatlama problemlerinde de uygulanmaktadır. Yüklemler mantığında teorem ispatı sırasında bireysel sabitlerin değişkenlerin yerine konulmasına "birleştirme" denilir.

Örnek 3:
   P(x,y) -> Q(x)   ~P(x,y) V Q(x)  ~P(a,y) V Q(a)
   P(a,y)    P(a,y)  P(a,y)
   --------------   --------------- ~Q(a)
   Q(a)    Q(a)   ---------------

Bulanık Mantık

Bulanık mantık 1960'ların ortalarında Lotfi Zadeh tarafından iki değerli mantık ve olasılık teorisine alternatif olarak geliştirilmiştir. Bulanık mantıkçılara göre iki değerli mantık ve kümeler teorisi daha genel çok değerli bir teorinin özel halidir. Zadeh (1965) bulanık kümeleri ve bulanık mantığı şu şekilde tanımlamaktadır: "Bulanık sistemlerde temel düşünce bulanık mantıkta doğruluk değerleri (veya bulanık kümelerde üyelik değerleri) 0 ile 1 arasında değişen değerlerdir ki burada 0 mutlak yanlış, 1 de mutlak doğru olmaktadır."

Doğal dilde kullandığımız birçok cümlede "az", "çok", "orta" gibi kalitatif niceleyiciler kullanıyoruz. Bu tür cümleleri bulanık mantığın gösterimi ile ifadelendirmek daha kolay olmaktadır. Bulanık mantıkta "Ahmet yaşlıdır" ve "Bugün hava sıcaktır" cümlelerindeki "yaşlı" ve "sıcak" ifadelerine iki değerli mantıktaki gibi "doğru" veya" yanlış" yerine 0 ile 1 arasında değer verilebilmektedir.

Bulanık mantığın formel tanımları

X, elemanları x'ler olan bir nesneler kümesi olsun, yani X = (x). X'in içinde bir A bulanık kümesi bir üyelik fonksiyonu mA(x) ile karakterize edilir. Bu fonksiyon X içindeki her nesneyi, 0 ile 1 arasındaki bir reel sayıya [0,1] tekabül ettirir. Yukarıdaki örnekte A, yaşlı insanlar kümesi olabilir. Ahmet de X insanlar genel kümesinin bir üyesi olarak yaşlı insanlardan biri olabilir, ki A'daki üyelik derecesine göre üyelik değeri [0,1] reel sayılar aralığında yer alır.

mA(x) değeri 1'e yaklaştığında x'in A içindeki "üyelik derecesi" artar. Bütün x'ler için mA(x) = 0 ise, A boş bir küme olur ve bütün x'ler için mA(x) = mB(x) olduğunda da A=B olur. Bulanık kümelerle ilgili tarifler de şöyledir:

 m(karşıt A) = 1 – mA.

Eğer X'in bütün x'leri için mC(x) = MAX[mA(x), mB(x)] ise, C, A ve B'nin birleşimidir.

Eğer X'in bütün x'leri için mC(x) = MIN[mA(x), mB(x)] ise, C, A ve B'nin arakesitidir.

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Kaynakça

Teorik bilgisayar bilimi

Matematiksel mantık