كهف شاندر هو كهف قديم من عصور ما قبل التاريخ يقع في شمال العراق في منطقة إقليم كردستان. وجد في الكهف بقايا عشرٍ من النياندرتال يرجع تاريخهم إلى 65-35 ألف عام. يحتوي الكهف أيضًا على مقبرتين تعودان إلى العصر الحجري الحديث الخزفي السابق، يرجع تاريخ إحداها إلى 10,600 سنة ويحتوي على 35 فردًا.

يُعتبر شاندر 1 الأكثر شهرة من النياندرتال المكتشف، الذي نجى من العديد من الإصابات خلال حياته، وربما يرجع ذلك إلى دفاع أعضاء قبيلته عنه، وشاندر 4، الذي يرقد جسده بجانب زهرة والتي يمكن تفسيرها كدليل على ممارسة النياندرتال لطقوس الدفن أو ربما تكون مجرد تلوث حيواني.

بقايا النياندرتال
وجدت الهياكل العشر من نياندرتال في الموقع خلال طبقة موستيرية كانت تحتوي على مئات الأدوات الحجرية منها رماح ومكشطة جانبية وعظام حيوانات كالماعز البري والسلحفاة مهمازية الورك.

أول تسعة من النياندرتال المكتشف (شاندر 1-9) كشف عنهم رالف سوليكي وفريق من جامعة كولومبيا بين 1957 و1961. حُمل هيكل شاندر 3 في مؤسسة سميثسونيان. وحُفظ الآخرون (شاندر 1 و2 و4-8) في العراق وربما فقدوا خلال غزو العراق عام 2003، إلا أن بعض القوالب لاتزال موجودة في سميثسونيان. في عام 2006، اكتشفت مليندا زيدير ساقًا بينما كانت تبوِّب تشكيلة العظام الحيوانية من الموقع في سميثسونيان، كانت تلك الساق وعظام القدم تعود إلى النياندرتال العاشر والمعروف حاليًا بـ«شاندر 10».

شاندر 1
شاندر 1 هو نياندرتال ذكر بدائي معروف باسم «ناندي» كما أطلق عليه مستكشفوه. كان عمره يتراوح بين 40 إلى 50 عامًا، وهو مُسن بالنسبة إلى النياندرتال، بما يعادل 80 عامًا اليوم، وأظهر العديد من علامات التشوه. كان واحدًا من أربع هياكل كاملة من الكهف أظهرت عاهات سببتها الإصابات الجسدية. وفي حالته كانت تلك الإصابات معيقة للحياة لدرجة أنها جعلت حياته اليومية مؤلمة.

عانى شاندر 1 في فترة ما في حياته من الضرب العنيف على الجانب الأيسر من الوجه، مما تسبب في إصابة كسرية في محجر العين الأيسر وأدى إلى عمى كامل أو جزئي لعينه اليسرى. أظهر التحليل أن شاندر 1 عانى من صمم عميق، لأن مجرى الأذن اليسرى كان مسدودًا جزئيًّا وأذنه اليمنى كانت مسدودة بالعرن. كما أنه كان يعاني من أضرارًا في ذراعه اليمنى حيث انكسرت مرات عديدة وعاودت الالتئام، ولكن ذلك تسبب في النهاية في فصل أسفل الذراع واليد. يُعتقد أن ذلك بسبب خلل وراثيّ أو من مرض في الطفولة أو بسبب البتر في فترة متأخرة في الحياة. التئم الجرح ولكن الإصابة ربما تسببت في شلل على الجانب الأيمن، مما أدى إلى تشوهات في ساقيه وقدميه أدت إلى أن يمشي بعرج مؤلم.

اكتُسبت كل تلك الإصابات قبل الوفاة بفترة طويلة، نظرًا لما يظهر من التئام واسع، ويُستخدم ذلك للاستدلال على أن النياندرتال اعتنوا بالمرضى والمسنين، مما يظهر انتشار التعاون الاجتماعي بينهم.

شاندر 2
كان شاندر 2 لذكر بالغ، مات في حادثة وقوع الصخور في الكهف، مما تسبب في كسر جمجمته وعظامه. يوجد دليل على أن شاندر 2 قد تلقى جنازة وداع بعد وفاته، حيث وجدت حزمة من الأحجار بها بعض الأحجار المصنوعة المدببة فوق قبره. كما كان هناك إشعالًا للنار في مكان الدفن.

شاندر 3
كان شاندر 3 ذكر نياندرتال عمره بين 40 و50 عامًا، وجد في نفس مقبرة شاندر 1 وشاندر 2. تقترح الإصابة الموجودة على ضلعه الأيسر التاسع أنه مات نتيجة طعنة بأداة حادة في الصدر. يشير نمو العظام حول الجرح أن شاندر عاش بعد الطعنة على الأقل لمدة 3 أسابيع مع وجود الأداة الحادة في صدره. تستبعد تلك الطعنة محاولة إيذاء النفس، وتقترح أنه تعرض لحادثة أو إلى طعن عمدي على يد فرد آخر. تقترح الأبحاث الأخيرة أن هذه الإصابة حدثت بسبب الطعن برمح واسع المدى. ربما يُعتبر ذلك من الأمثلة الأولى على العراك الثنائي في الحفريات البشرية وهو المثال الوحيد بين النياندرتال. إن وجود الإنسان الحديث الأول، والذي كان مسلحًا بالأسلحة القاذفة، في غرب آسيا في نفس الحقبة الزمنية، يقترح قيام الصراع بينهما. عانى شاندر 3 من الداء المفصلي التنكسي في قدمه نتيجة كسر أو تمزق، مما أدى إلى تحديد حركته وألم في المفصل. يُعرض الهيكل في صالة الأصول الإنسانية في المتحف الوطني للتاريخ الطبيعي في واشنطن.

شاندر 4 (المقبرة المزهرة)
اكتُشف هيكل شاندر 4، لذكر بالغ عمره بين 30 و45 عامًا، في سوليكي عام 1960، موضوعًا على جانبه الأيسر في وضع جنيني جزئي.

أعتُقد للعديد من السنوات أن شاندر 4 يوفر دليلًا على انتشار طقوس الدفن بين النياندرتال. جُمعت عينات التربة المحيطة بالجثمان وحُللت حبوب اللقاح في محاولة لإعادة بناء المناخ القديم والتاريخ الخضري للموقع، وحُللت جميعها بعد 8 سنوات من الاكتشاف. في عينتين من التربة بالتحديد، اكتشف أرليت لوري غورهان كُتلًا من حبوب اللقاح علاوة على حبوب اللقاح المكتشفة في الموقع، مما يقترح وجود النباتات المزهرة (أو على الأقل الرؤوس) وأنها كانت جزءً من بقايا القبر. كما تقترح دراسة أجريت على أنواع الزهور أنها كانت مختارة لأجل خصائص دوائية محددة. وجد في عينات فحص حبوب اللقاح أدلة على وجود النباتات التالية: قيصوم ألفي الأوراق وقنطريون صيفي ونوع من زهرة الشيخ والخطمية، وجميعها معروف بالقدرات العلاجية حيث تُستخدم كمدرات للبول ومحفزات ومادة قابضة علاوة على خواصها المضادة للالتهاب. يدعم ذلك اقتراحًا؛ أن هذا الفرد كان يقوم بدور الطبيب في جماعته وأنه اتسم بالقدرات الشامانية.

تقترح الأعمال الحديثة أن حبوب اللقاح دخلت التربة بفعل تأثير الحيوانات، حيث وجدت نماذج لقوارض تشبه حيوان الجربوع يُعرف بالجرذ الفارسي. كان الجرذ معروفًا بتخزين كمية كبيرة من البذور والأزهار في الجحور، استُخدمت تلك الحجة بالإضافة إلى حجة الافتقار إلى العلاج الطقوسي لبقية الهياكل العظمية في الكهف لاقتراح أن شاندر 4 دُفن بطريقة طبيعية وليست طقوسية الأصل. صرَّح بول ب. بيتيت أن «الوضع العمدي للزهور على القبر دُحض الآن تمامًا» مشددًا على أن «الفحص الحديث للبقايا الحيوانية من الطبقات التي انتزع منها القبر تقترح أن حبوب اللقاح كانت موضوعة بفعل الجرذ الفارسي، وهو أمر شائع في البقايا الحيوانية مع شاندر، ويمكننا ملاحظة نشاط الجحور اليوم». بالرغم من استنتاجاته عن عدم الوضع العمدي للأزهار، يستنتج بيتيت أن دفن شاندر، لأنه حدث منذ زمن بعيد للغاية، يمثل ممارسات جنائزية لنياندرتال.

موقعه
يوجد هذا الكهف على جانب جبل برادوست ضمن جبال زاكروس ضمن إقليم كردستان بشمال العراق وقد تمّ التنقيب عن الكهف بين عامي 1957-1961 من قبل رالف سوليكي وفريقه من جامعة كولومبيا وأثمر عملهم عن الهياكل العظمية النياندرتالية البالغة الأولى في العراق العائدة إلى 80,000 سنة قبل الميلاد.
نتج التنقيب في هذه المنطقة عن تسع هياكل عظمية نياندرتالية لأعمار مختلفة وفي حالات مختلفة من الحفظ والكمال وحُفظت وصنفت حسب الأرقام
من شاندر1 - شاندر 9.
الفرد العاشر أُكتُشِفَ مؤخراً وقد كان هذا النياندرتال العاشر مدفوناً وفق مراسم جنائزية.

هيكل عظمي واحد مع قوالب لبقية الهياكل هي كل ما تبقى في المعهد من النتائج حيث أن الهياكل العظمية الأخرى تشتت وتفرقت في العراق.

محتوياته
في كهف شاندر عُثر على دفنة مهمة وملفتة للنظر، اشتملت على عظام حيوانية وجماجم لحوالي 15 من الماعز، وعظام وريش نسور وصقور بلغت حوالي 17 طائراً. فُصلت العظام ورتبت بوضعية مقصودة، مما ولا شك يدعو للتساؤل عن سبب الاهتمام بدفن النسور والصقور مع جماجم الماعز.

انظر أيضاً

 المواقع الأثرية في العراق (كتاب).

المصادر

وصلات خارجية
 صفحات شاندر السمشسونية بالإنجليزية

مزيد من الإطلاع
 Solecki, Ralph S.; Anagnostis P. Agelarakis (2004). The Proto-Neolithic Cemetery in Shanidar Cave. Texas A&M University Press. ISBN 1-58544-272-0.

العصر الحجري الحديث
تاريخ العراق القديم
علم الآثار
كهوف العراق
محافظة أربيل
مواقع أثرية في العراق
مواقع النياندرتال
مواقع جذب سياحي في كردستان العراق
نياندرتالات

كهف شاندر


A steel can, tin can, tin (especially in British English, Australian English, Canadian English and South African English), steel packaging, or can is a  container for the distribution or storage of goods, made of thin metal.  Many cans require opening by cutting the "end" open;  others have removable covers. They can store a broad variety of contents: food, beverages, oil, chemicals, etc.  Steel cans are made of tinplate (tin-coated steel) or of tin-free steel. In some dialects, even aluminium cans are called "tin cans".

Steel cans are highly recyclable, with around 65% of steel cans being recycled.

History
The tin canning process was conceived by the Frenchman Philippe de Girard, who had British merchant Peter Durand patent the idea in 1810.  The canning concept was based on experimental food preservation work in glass containers the year before by the French inventor Nicholas Appert. Durand did not pursue food canning, but, in 1812, sold his patent to two Englishmen, Bryan Donkin and John Hall, who refined the process and product, and set up the world's first commercial canning factory on Southwark Park Road, London.  By 1813 they were producing their first tin canned goods for the Royal Navy. By 1820, tin canisters or cans were being used for gunpowder, seeds, and turpentine.

Early tin cans were sealed by soldering with a tin–lead alloy, which could lead to lead poisoning.

In 1901 in the United States, the American Can Company was founded, at the time producing 90% of the tin cans in the United States.

Canned food in tin cans was already quite popular in various countries when technological advancements in the 1920s lowered the cost of the cans even further. In 1935, the first beer in metal cans was sold; it was an instant sales success.

Description
Most cans are right circular cylinders with identical and parallel round tops and bottoms with vertical sides. However, in cans for small volumes or particularly-shaped contents, the top and bottom may be rounded-corner rectangles or ovals. Other contents may suit a can that is somewhat conical in shape.

Fabrication of most cans results in at least one rim—a narrow ring slightly larger than the outside diameter of the rest of the can.  The flat surfaces of rimmed cans are recessed from the edge of any rim (toward the middle of the can) by about the width of the rim; the inside diameter of a rim, adjacent to this recessed surface, is slightly smaller than the inside diameter of the rest of the can.

Three-piece can construction results in top and bottom rims. In two-piece construction, one piece is a flat top and the other a deep-drawn cup-shaped piece that combines the (at least roughly) cylindrical wall and the round base. Transition between wall and base is usually gradual.  Such cans have a single rim at the top. Some cans have a separate cover that slides onto the top or is hinged.

Two piece steel cans can be made by "drawing" to form the bottom and sides and adding an "end" at the top:  these do not have side seams.  Cans can be fabricated with separate slip-on, or friction fit  covers and with covers attached by hinges.  Various easy opening methods are available.

In the mid-20th century, a few milk products were packaged in nearly rimless cans, reflecting different construction; in this case, one flat surface had a hole (for filling the nearly complete can) that was sealed after filling with a quickly solidifying drop of molten solder.  Concern arose that the milk contained unsafe levels of lead leached from this solder plug.

Advantages of steel cans
A number of factors make steel cans ideal containers for beverages. Steel cans are stronger than cartons or plastic, and less fragile than glass, protecting the product in transit and preventing leakage or spillage, while also reducing the need for secondary packaging.

Steel and aluminium packaging offer complete protection against light, water and air, and metal cans without resealable closures are among the most tamper-evident of all packaging materials. Food and drink packed in steel cans has equivalent vitamin content to freshly prepared, without needing preserving agents. Steel cans also extend the product's shelf-life, allowing longer sell-by and use-by dates and reducing waste.

As an ambient packaging medium, steel cans do not require cooling in the supply chain, simplifying logistics and storage, and saving energy and cost. At the same time, steel's relatively high thermal conductivity means canned drinks chill much more rapidly and easily than those in glass or plastic bottles.

A World Steel Association initiative, Choose Steel, is encouraging the use of steel for beverage cans.

Materials
No cans currently in wide use are composed primarily or wholly of tin; that term rather reflects the nearly exclusive use in cans, until the second half of the 20th century, of tinplate steel, which combined the physical strength and relatively low price of steel with the corrosion resistance of tin.  Depending on contents and available coatings, some canneries still use tin-free steel.

In some local dialects, any metal can, even aluminium, might be called a "tin can".  Use of aluminium in cans began in 1957. Aluminium is less costly than tin-plated steel but offers the same resistance to corrosion in addition to greater malleability, resulting in ease of manufacture; this gave rise to the two-piece can, where all but the top of the can is simply stamped out of a single piece of aluminium.

A can traditionally has a printed paper or plastic label glued to the outside of the curved surface, indicating its contents. Some labels contain additional information, such as recipes, on the reverse side. More recently labels are sometimes printed directly onto the metal before or after the metal sheet is formed into the individual cans.

In November 1991, US can manufacturers voluntarily eliminated lead seams in food cans.  However, imported food cans continued to include lead soldered seams. In 1995, the US FDA issued a rule prohibiting lead soldered food cans, including both domestic and imported food cans.

In modern times, the majority of food cans in the UK have been lined with a plastic coating containing bisphenol A (BPA). The coating prevents acids and other substances from corroding the tin or aluminium of the can, but leaching of BPA into the can's contents was investigated as a potential health hazard.

Standard sizes

Cans come in a variety of shapes and sizes.  Walls are often stiffened with rib bulges, especially on larger cans, to help the can resist dents that can cause seams to split.

Can sizes in the United States have an assortment of designations and sizes. For example, size 7/8 contains one serving of half a cup with an estimated weight of 4 ounces; size 1 "picnic" has two or three servings totalling one and a quarter cups with an estimated weight of 10 ounces; size 303 has four servings totalling 2 cups weighing 15 ounces; and size 10 cans, most widely used by food services selling to cafeterias and restaurants, have twenty-five servings totalling 13 cups with an estimated weight of 103 ounces (size of a roughly 3 pound coffee can). These are U.S. customary cups, not British Imperial standard.

In the United States, cook books sometimes reference cans by size. The Can Manufacturers Institute defines these sizes, expressing them in three-digit numbers, as measured in whole and sixteenths of an inch for the container's nominal outside dimensions: a 307 × 512 would thus measure 3 and 7/16" in diameter by 5 and 3/4" (12/16") in height. Older can numbers are often expressed as single digits, their contents being calculated for room-temperature water as approximately eleven ounces (#1 "picnic" can), twenty ounces (#2), thirty-two ounces (#3), fifty-eight ounces (#5), and one-hundred-ten ounces (#10 "coffee" can).

In parts of the world using the metric system, tins are made in 250, 500, 750 ml (millilitre) and 1 L (litre) sizes (250 ml is approximately 1 cup or 8 ounces).  Cans imported from the US often have odd sizes such as 3.8 L (1 US gallon), 1.9 L (1/2 US gallon), and 946 ml (2 US pints / 1 quart).

In the UK and Australia, cans are usually measured by net weight. A standard size tin can holds roughly 400 g; though the weight can vary between 385 g and 425 g depending on the density of the contents. The smaller half sized can holds roughly 200 g, typically varying between 170 g and 225 g.

Fabrication of cans
Rimmed three-piece can construction involves several stages;
 Forming a tube and welding or soldering the seam of the sides
 Joining the bottom end to the tube
 Printing or attaching labels to the can
 Filling the can with content;  sterilization or retorting is required for many food products
 Joining the wall and top "end".

Double seam rims are crucial to the joining of the wall to a top or bottom surface. An extremely tight fit between the pieces must be accomplished to prevent leakage; the process of accomplishing this radically deforms the rims of the parts. Part of the tube that forms the wall is bent, almost at its end, turning outward through 90 degrees, and then bent further, toward the middle of the tube, until it is parallel to the rest of the tube, a total bend of 180 degrees.

The outer edge of the flat piece is bent against this toward the middle of the tubular wall, until parallel with the wall, turning inward through 90 degrees.  The edge of bent portion is bent further through another 90 degrees, inward now toward the axis of the tube and parallel to the main portion of the flat piece, making a total bend of 180 degrees. It is bent far enough inward that its circular edge is now slightly smaller in diameter than the edge of the tube. Bending it yet further, until it is parallel with the tube's axis, gives it a total bend of 270 degrees. It now envelops the outward rim of the tube.

Looking outward from the axis of the tube, the first surface is the unbent portion of the tube. Slightly further out is a narrow portion of the top, including its edge. The outward-bent portion of the tube, including its edge, is still slightly further out. Furthest out is the 90-degree-bent portion of the flat surface.

The combined interacting forces, as the portion of the flat surface adjacent to the interior of the tube is indented toward the middle of the tube and then outward forward the axis of the tube, and the other bent portions of the flat piece and the tube are all forced toward the axis of the tube, drives these five thicknesses of metal against each other from inside and out, forming a "dry" joint so tight that welding or solder is not needed to strengthen or seal it.  Illustrations of this process can be found on pages 20–22 of the FAO Fisheries Technical Paper 285 "Manual on fish canning" located here.

Design and manufacture

Steel for can making
The majority of steel used in packaging is tinplate, which is steel that has been coated with a thin layer of tin, whose functionality is required for the production process. The tin layer is usually applied by electroplating.

Two-piece steel can design
Most steel beverage cans are two-piece designs, made from 1) a disc re-formed into a cylinder with an integral end, double-seamed after filling and 2) a loose end to close it. Steel cans are made in many different diameters and volumes, with opening mechanisms that vary from ring pulls and tab openers, to wide open mouths. Modern can making lines may produce up to 1000 cans per minute.

Drawn-and-ironed (DWI) steel cans
The process of re-forming sheet metal without changing its thickness is known as 'drawing'. Thinning the walls of a two-piece can by passing it through circular dies is called 'ironing'. Steel beverage cans are therefore generally referred to as drawn-and-ironed, or DWI, cans (sometimes D&I). The DWI process is used for making cans where the height is greater than the diameter, and is particularly suited to making large volumes of cans of the same basic specification.

Steel can wall thicknesses are now 30% thinner and weigh 40% less than 30 years ago, reducing the amounts of raw materials and energy required to make them. They are also up to 40% thinner than aluminium.

Magnetic properties
Steel is a ferrous metal and is therefore magnetic. For beverage packaging this is unique. This allows the use of magnetic conveyor systems to transfer empty cans through the filling and packing processes, increasing accuracy and reducing potential spillage and waste. In recycling facilities, steel cans may be readily separated from other waste using magnetic equipment including cross-belt separators, also known as overband magnets, and drum magnets.

Opening cans
The first cans were heavy-weight containers that required ingenuity to open, with implements such as knives. Not until several years  later, after can manufacturers started using thinner metal sheets, were any dedicated can openers developed.

While beverage cans or cans of fluid such as broth can merely be punctured to remove the product, solid or semisolid contents require removing one end of the can. This can be accomplished with a heavy knife or other sharp tool—but can openers are much more convenient.

Some cans, such as those used for sardines, have a specially scored lid so that the user can break out the metal by the leverage of winding it around a slotted twist-key or church key. Until the mid-20th century, some sardine tins had solder-attached lids, and the twist-key or church key worked by forcing the solder joint apart.

The advent of pull tabs in beverage cans spread to the canning of various food products, such as pet food or nuts (and non-food products such as motor oil and tennis balls). The ends are known as easy open lids because they open without any tools or implements. An additional innovation developed for specifically for food cans uses a tab that is bent slightly upwards, creating a larger surface area for easier finger access.

Cans can be made with easy open features. Some cans have screw caps for pouring liquids and resealing.  Some have hinged covers or slip-on covers for easy access. Paint cans often have a removable plug on the top for access and for reclosing.

Recycling and re-use
Steel from cans and other sources is the most recycled packaging material. Around 65% of steel cans are recycled. In the United States, 63% of steel cans are recycled, compared to 52% of aluminium cans. In Europe, the recycling rate in 2016 is 79.5%.
Most can recycling occurs at the smelters, but individual consumers also directly reuse cans in various ways. For instance some people use two tin cans to form a camp or survival stove to cook small meals.

Sustainability and recycling of steel beverage cans

Steel recycling

From an ecological perspective, steel may be regarded as a closed-loop material: post-consumer waste can be collected, recycled and used to make new cans or other products. Each tonne of scrap steel recycled saves 1.5 tonnes of CO2, 1.4 tonnes of iron ore and 740 kg of coal. Steel is the world's most recycled material, with more than 85% of all the world's steel products being recycled at the end of their life: an estimated 630 million tonnes of steel scrap were recycled in 2017, saving 945 million tonnes of CO2.

Steel can recycling
A steel can can be recycled again and again without loss of quality; however, for the food grade steel it's required to remove tin from the scrap metal, which is done by way of electrochemistry: the tin is leached from a high pH solution at low negative voltage.

Recycling a single can saves the equivalent power for one laundry load, 1 hour of TV or 24 hours of lighting (10W LED bulb).

Steel beverage cans are recycled by being melted down in an electric arc furnace or basic oxygen furnace.

Most steel cans also carry some form of recycling identification such as the Metal Recycles Forever Mark  Recyclable Steel  and the Choose Steel campaign logo. There is also a campaign in Europe called Every Can Counts, encouraging can recycling in the workplace

Smaller carbon footprint
All beverage packaging creates CO2 emissions at every stage in the production process, from raw material extraction, processing and manufacture through to recycling. However, steel cans are an ecological top performer, as cans can always be recycled. The steel industry needs the used cans and will use them in the production of new steel product. By recycling the cans and closing the loop, CO2 emissions are dramatically reduced. There is also the potential for higher global steel recycling rates as consumers become more aware of the benefits.

Health issues

Dissolution of tin into the food
Tin is corrosion resistant, but acidic food like fruits and vegetables can corrode the tin layer. Nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea have been reported after ingesting canned food containing 200 mg/kg of tin. A 2002 study showed that 99.5% of 1200 tested cans contained below the UK regulatory limit of 200 mg/kg of tin, an improvement over most previous studies largely attributed to the increased use of fully lacquered cans for acidic foods, and concluded that the results do not raise any long term food safety concerns for consumers. The two non-compliant products were voluntarily recalled.

Evidence of tin impurities can be indicated by color, as in the case of pears, but lack of color change does not guarantee that a food is not tainted with tin.

Bisphenol-A

Bisphenol-A (BPA) is a controversial chemical compound present in commercially available tin can plastic linings and transferred to canned food. The inside of the can is coated with an epoxy coating, in an attempt to prevent food or beverage from coming into contact with the metal. The longer food is in a can, and the warmer and more acidic it is, the more BPA leaches into it. In September 2010, Canada became the first country to declare BPA a toxic substance. In the European Union and Canada, BPA use is banned in baby bottles.
The FDA does not regulate BPA (see BPA controversy#Public health regulatory history in the United States).  Several companies, like Campbell's Soup, announced plans to eliminate BPA from the linings of their cans, but have not said which chemical they plan to replace it with. (See BPA controversy#Chemical manufacturers reactions to bans.)

See also

 Albion metal
Can collecting
 Drink can
 Oil can
 Tin box
 Tin can wall

References

General references, further reading

 Guide to Tinplate

 Soroka, W, Fundamentals of Packaging Technology, Institute of Packaging Professionals (IoPP), 2002,
 Yam, K. L., Encyclopedia of Packaging Technology, John Wiley & Sons, 2009,

External links

Steeluniversity Packaging Module
Steel industry fact sheet on food cans
Standard U.S. can sizes at GourmetSleuth

Containers
Packaging
Food storage containers
British inventions
1810 introductions
Food packaging
Steel
19th-century inventions
Metallic objects

Steel and tin cans


Der Gerichtsbezirk Windischgarsten war ein dem Bezirksgericht Windischgarsten unterstehender Gerichtsbezirk im politischen Bezirk Kirchdorf (Bundesland Oberösterreich).

Geschichte
Der Gerichtsbezirk Windischgarsten wurde als Gerichtsbezirk Spital durch einen Erlass des k.k. Oberlandesgerichtes Linz am 4. Juli 1850 geschaffen und umfasste ursprünglich die zwölf Steuergemeinden Edlbach, Fahrenberg, Gleinkerau, Hinterstoder, Pichl, Ponkratz, Rading, Rosenau, Roßleithen, Spital, Vorderstoder und Windischgarsten.

Erst später wurde der Gerichtssitz von Spital am Pyhrn nach Windischgarsten verlegt.

Der Gerichtsbezirk Windischgarsten bildete im Zuge der Trennung der politischen von der judikativen Verwaltung
ab 1868 gemeinsam mit den Gerichtsbezirken Kirchdorf und Grünburg den Bezirk Kirchdorf.

Nachdem mit der Bezirksgerichts-Verordnung der Österreichischen Bundesregierung am 12. November 2002 die Auflösung des Gerichtsbezirks Grünburg beschlossen worden war, kam es im Sinne der Verwaltungsreform sowie Budgeteinsparungen zur Entscheidung, den Gerichtsbezirk Windischgarsten aufzulösen. Das zuständige Bezirksgericht Windischgarsten hatte 2012 nämlich weniger als eine volle Richterplanstelle und gehörte damit zu den drei kleinsten Bezirksgerichten Oberösterreichs. Die Auflösung des Gerichtsbezirks Windischgarsten wurde schließlich im Juni 2012 verordnet und wurde per 1. Jänner 2013 amtswirksam. Der Gerichtsbezirk Windischgarsten wurde vollständig in den Gerichtsbezirk Kirchdorf eingegliedert, wodurch dieser den gesamten Bezirk Kirchdorf abdeckt.

Gerichtssprengel
Der Gerichtssprengel umfasste nach mehreren Gemeindezusammenlegungen mit den zuletzt acht Gemeinden Edlbach, Hinterstoder, Rosenau am Hengstpaß, Roßleithen, St. Pankraz, Spital am Pyhrn, Vorderstoder und Windischgarsten den südlichen Teil des Bezirkes Kirchdorf.

Literatur

Weblinks
 Statistik Austria: Ortsverzeichnis Oberösterreich 2005

Einzelnachweise

Bezirk Kirchdorf
Windischgarsten
Windischgarsten
Gegründet 1850
Aufgelöst 2013

Gerichtsbezirk Windischgarsten


Ertapenem (cu denumirea comercială Invanz) este un antibiotic din clasa carbapenemelor, fiind utilizat în tratamentul unor infecții bacteriene. Printre acestea se numără: pneumonie (comunitară dobândită), infecții complicate intra-abdominale, infecții ginecologice acute și infecții complicate cutanate și ale țesuturilor moi (la pacienții diabetici). Căile de administrare disponibile sunt intravenoasă și intramusculară.

Note

Vezi și
 Imipenem
 Meropenem
 Doripenem

Carbapeneme
Acizi benzoici
Anilide
Pirolidine
Tioeteri

Ertapenem


Borceac este un sector reprezentativ cu vegetație silvică în raionul Cahul, Republica Moldova. Este amplasat în ocolul silvic Congaz, Borceac, parcela 32, subparcela 2; parcela 31, subparcela 5. Are o suprafață de 11,3 ha. Obiectul este administrat de Gospodăria Silvică de Stat Iargara.

Referințe

Borceac
Raionul Cahul

Pădurea Borceac (arie protejată)


Aue () ist ein Ortsteil der Stadt Schmalkalden im Landkreis Schmalkalden-Meiningen in Thüringen.

Lage
Der Ortsteil Aue befindet sich am Westende der Stadt Schmalkalden, die in dem 500 Meter breiten, dicht besiedelten Tal in der Schmalkaldeaue bei 284 Meter über NN liegt. Verkehrsmäßig ist die Stadt über die Landesstraßen 1026 und 1118 sowie die Bundesstraße 19 angeschlossen.

Geschichte
Aue bei Schmalkalden ist im Kloster Veßra am 18. Januar 1333 erstmals urkundlich genannt worden. Der Ort gehörte zum Amt Schmalkalden der hessischen Herrschaft Schmalkalden.

1597 wurde eine Frau – Catharina Peternell – in einem Hexenprozess verurteilt und verbrannt.

In den Unterlagen der ehemaligen Gemeinde werden dann mehrere spätere aktenkundliche Nachweise über die Entwicklung im Dorf gegeben. Am Beispiel von ausgewählten Daten ist Aufschluss über die gesellschaftliche Entwicklung möglich. 1585 lebten im Dorf 40 Personen, 1827 waren es 432, 1936 waren es 836 und 2012 804 Personen. Am 1. Januar 1957 wurde Aue aus der Gemeinde Mittelschmalkalden, der es seit dem 1. Juli 1950 angehörte, herausgelöst und nach Schmalkalden umgegliedert.

Literatur

Weblinks

Einzelnachweise

Ort im Landkreis Schmalkalden-Meiningen
Geographie (Schmalkalden)
Ehemalige Gemeinde (Landkreis Schmalkalden-Meiningen)
Ersterwähnung 1333
Gemeindeauflösung 1950

Aue (Schmalkalden)


Marele Premiu al Belgiei din 2019 (cunoscut oficial ca Formula 1 Johnnie Walker Belgian Grand Prix 2019) a fost o cursă de Formula 1 care s-a desfășurat între 30 august și 1 septembrie 2019 la Spa-Francorchamps, Belgia. Cursa a fost cea de-a treisprezecea etapă a Campionatului Mondial de Formula 1 din 2019, fiind pentru a cincizeci și doua oară când s-a desfășurat o etapă de Formula 1 în Belgia.

Cursa a marcat prima victorie a echipei Ferrari din acest sezon, prin pilotul monegasc, Charles Leclerc.

Pneuri

Pneurile programate de Pirelli pentru cursă

Cele mai folosite pneuri

Clasament

Calificări

Note
  – Hülkenberg și Ricciardo au primit fiecare câte o penalizare de cinci locuri pe grila de start pentru folosirea elementelor adiționale de Power Unit, Sainz 15 locuri.
  – Stroll, Albon, Kveat și Giovinazzi trebuie să plece de pe ultima poziție de pe grila de start pentru schimbarea elementelor de Power Unit.
  - Kveat, Giovinazzi și Kubica au primit fiecare câte o penalizare de cinci locuri pe grila de start pentru schimbarea neanunțată a cutiei de viteze.
  - Kubica concurează la discreția comisariilor de cursă după ce nu au stabilit timpul de calificare, și trebuie să pornească de la linia boxelor pentru efectuarea modificărilor la mașină sub restricția Parc Ferme.

Cursa

Note
 - Norris și Giovinazzi nu au terminat cursa, însă au fost clasați deoarece au parcurs mai mult de 90% din cursă.

Clasament campionat după cursă

Clasament piloți

Clasament constructori

 Notă: În ambele clasamente sunt prezentate doar primele cinci locuri.

Referințe

Belgia
2019 în sport
Marele Premiu al Belgiei

Marele Premiu al Belgiei din 2019


Slavoljub (Eduard) Kantoci (Pregrada, 25. rujna 1869. – Zagreb, 12. rujna 1953.), hrvatski klasični filolog, srednjoškolski i fakultetski profesor

Životopis
Rođen u Pregradi. Školovao se u Zagrebu gdje je završio klasičnu gimnaziju te studij klasične filologije na Mudroslovnom fakultetu. Na toj ustanovi doktorirao tezom O Eshilovoj Prometiji. Službovao je u Sveučilišnoj knjižnici u Zagrebu 1897. Predavao u srednjim školama u Zagrebu i Sarajevu u gimnazijski profesor. U Banjoj Luci obnašao dužnost ravnatelja Realne gimnazije. Ravnatelj u Sisku, gdje je skinut s direktorstva u Sisku jer je bio zazoran srbofilima što je materijalno pomagao buntovne hrvatske rodoljubne sveučilištarce. Na latinskom odjelu Staroklasičnoga seminara Filozofskog fakulteta u Zagrebu bio honorarni (1927.) pa izvanredni profesor (1929.). Zauzeo se za privatnog liječnika u Podsusedu, Ota Horetzkog da dobije počasno arijstvo, jer je štitio proganjane i zatočene hrvatske domoljube, primao ih kod sebe kući, i kao potpuni filantrop hrvatskog duha pomogao novčanom pripomoći, da su mogli sebi sagraditi dom.

Sin Bogumil Kantoci bio je potpredsjednik Kulturno-akademskog društva August Šenoa te pozdravio novoimenovanoga zagrebačkog nadbiskupa dr. Alojzija Stepinca na dan njegova biskupskog posvećenja (24. lipnja 1934.), ističući vrijednost nacionalizma i važnost Katoličke crkve za hrvatski narod.

Priredio latinsku gramatike za srednje škole. Objavio tezu o Prometiji gdje je istražio najstarije indoeuropske mitske izvore o Prometeju i branio stajalište o trilogijskom jedinstvu i autentičnosti sačuvanih dijelova te dokazivao superiornost Eshilove s obzirom na ostale obradbe mita. Rasprava O epigramskom pjesništvu kod Rimljana sadrži bogat prikaz od vremena imitacije grčkih uzora do Marcijala te njegovih utjecaja u sljedećim stoljećima.

Izvori

Životopisi, Zagreb
Odgoj i obrazovanje u Hrvatskoj
Hrvatski filolozi

Slavoljub Kantoci


Tecumseh's War or Tecumseh's Rebellion was a conflict between the United States and Tecumseh's Confederacy, led by the Shawnee leader Tecumseh in the Indiana Territory. Although the war is often considered to have climaxed with William Henry Harrison's victory at the Battle of Tippecanoe in 1811, Tecumseh's War essentially continued into the War of 1812 and is frequently considered a part of that larger struggle. The war lasted for two more years, until 1813, when Tecumseh and his second-in-command, Roundhead, died fighting Harrison's Army of the Northwest at the Battle of the Thames in Upper Canada, near present-day Chatham, Ontario, and his confederacy disintegrated. Tecumseh's War is viewed by some academic historians as the final conflict of a longer-term military struggle for control of the Great Lakes region of North America, encompassing a number of wars over several generations, referred to as the Sixty Years' War.

Background

The two principal adversaries in the conflict, Tecumseh and William Henry Harrison, had both been junior participants in the Battle of Fallen Timbers at the close of the Northwest Indian War in 1794. Tecumseh was not among the signers of the Treaty of Greenville that ended that war and ceded much of present-day Ohio, long inhabited by the Shawnees and other Native Americans, to the United States. However, many Indian leaders in the region accepted the Greenville terms, and for the next ten years, pan-tribal resistance to American hegemony faded.

After the Treaty of Greenville, most of the Ohio Shawnees settled at the Shawnee village of Wapakoneta on the Auglaize River, where they were led by Black Hoof, a senior chief who had signed the treaty. Little Turtle, a war chief of the Miamis, who had also participated in the earlier war and signed the Greenville Treaty, lived in his village on the Eel River. Both Black Hoof and Little Turtle urged cultural adaptation and accommodation with the United States.

The tribes of the region participated in several treaties, including the Treaty of Grouseland and the Treaty of Vincennes that gave and recognized American possession of most of southern Indiana. The treaties resulted in an easing of tensions by allowing settlers into Indiana and appeasing the Indians with reimbursement for the lands the settlers were inhabiting by squatting.

Religious revival

In May 1805, Lenape Chief Buckongahelas, one of the most important native leaders in the region, died of either smallpox or influenza. The surrounding tribes believed his death was caused by a form of witchcraft, and a witch-hunt ensued, leading to the death of several suspected Lenape witches. The witch-hunts inspired a nativist religious revival led by Tecumseh's brother Tenskwatawa ("The Prophet"), who emerged in 1805 as a leader among the witch hunters. He quickly posed a threat to the influence of the accommodationist chiefs, to whom Buckongahelas had belonged.

As part of his religious teachings, Tenskwatawa urged Indians to reject European American ways, such as liquor, European-style clothing, and firearms. He also called for the tribes to refrain from ceding any more lands to the United States. Numerous Indians, who were inclined to cooperate with the United States, were accused of witchcraft, and some were executed by followers of Tenskwatawa. Black Hoof was accused in the witch-hunt but was not harmed. From his village near Greenville, Tenskwatawa compromised Black Hoof's friendly relationship with the United States, leading to rising tensions with settlers in the region. Black Hoof and other tribal leaders began to put pressure on Tenskwatawa and his followers to leave the area to prevent the situation from escalating.

By 1808, tensions with whites and the Wapakoneta Shawnees compelled Tenskwatawa and Tecumseh to retreat further northwest and establish the village of Prophetstown near the confluence of the Wabash and Tippecanoe Rivers, land claimed by the Miami. Little Turtle told the Shawnee that they were unwelcome there, but the warnings were ignored. Tenskwatawa's religious teachings became more widely known as they became more militant, and he attracted Native American followers from many different nations, including Shawnee, Iroquois, Chickamauga, Meskwaki, Miami, Mingo, Ojibwe, Odawa, Kickapoo, Lenape, Mascouten, Potawatomi, Sauk, Tutelo,  and Wyandot.

In 1808, Tecumseh began to be seen as a leader by his community. In 1808, the British in Canada approached him to form an alliance, but he refused. The Americans first took notice of him in 1810. Tecumseh eventually emerged as the leader of the confederation, but it was built upon a foundation established by the religious appeal of his younger brother.

Prophetstown came to be the largest Native American community in the Great Lakes region and served as an important cultural and religious center. It was an intertribal, religious stronghold along the Wabash River in Indiana for 3000 Native Americans; it was known as Prophetstown to whites. Led by Tenskwatawa initially, and later jointly with Tecumseh, thousands of Algonquin-speaking Indians gathered at Tippecanoe to gain spiritual strength.

Indiana Territory

Meanwhile, in 1800, William Henry Harrison had become the governor of the newly formed Indiana Territory, with the capital at Vincennes. Harrison sought to secure title to Indian lands to allow for American expansion; in particular, he hoped that the Indiana Territory would attract enough white settlers so as to qualify for statehood. Harrison negotiated numerous land cession treaties with American Indians.

In 1809, Harrison began to push for the need of another treaty to open more land for settlement. The Miami, Wea, and Kickapoo were vehemently opposed to selling any more land around the Wabash River. To influence those groups to sell the land, Harrison decided, against the wishes of President James Madison, to first conclude a treaty with the tribes willing to sell and use them to help influence those who held out. In September 1809, he invited the Potawatomi, Lenape, Eel Rivers, and Miami to a meeting in Fort Wayne. In the negotiations, Harrison promised large subsidies and payments to the tribes if they would cede the lands for which he was asking.

Only the Miami opposed the treaty; they presented their copy of the Treaty of Greenville and read the section that guaranteed their possession of the lands around the Wabash River. They then explained the history of the region and how they had invited other tribes to settle in their territory as friends. The Miami were concerned that the Wea leaders were not present, although they were the primary inhabitants of the land being sold. The Miami also wanted any new land sales to be paid for by the acre, and not by the tract. Harrison agreed to make the treaty's acceptance contingent on approval by the Wea and other tribes in the territory being purchased, but he refused to purchase land by the acre. He countered that it was better for the tribes to sell the land in tracts so as to prevent the Americans from only purchasing their best lands by the acre and leaving them only poor land on which to live.

After two weeks of negotiating, the Potawatomi leaders convinced the Miami to accept the treaty as reciprocity to the Potawatomi who had earlier accepted treaties less advantageous to them at the request of the Miami. Finally, the Treaty of Fort Wayne was signed on September 30, 1809, selling the United States over 3,000,000 acres (about 12,000 km2), chiefly along the Wabash River north of Vincennes. During the winter, Harrison was able to obtain the acceptance of the Wea by offering them a large subsidy. The Kickapoo were closely allied with the Shawnee at Prophetstown, and Harrison feared they would be difficult to sway. He offered the Wea an increased subsidy if the Kickapoo would also accept the treaty, causing the Wea to pressure the Kickapoo leaders to accept. By the spring of 1810, Harrison had completed negotiations and the Treaty of Fort Wayne was finalized.

Conflict

Tecumseh was outraged by the Treaty of Fort Wayne, and thereafter he emerged as a prominent political leader. Tecumseh revived an idea advocated in previous years by the Shawnee leader Blue Jacket and the Mohawk leader Joseph Brant, that American Indian land was owned in common by all tribes, and thus no land could be sold without agreement by all. Tecumseh knew that such "broad consensus was impossible", but that is why he supported the position. Not yet ready to confront the United States directly, Tecumseh's primary adversaries were initially the Native American leaders who had signed the treaty, and he threatened to kill them all.

Tecumseh began to expand on his brother's teachings that called for the tribes to return to their ancestral ways, and began to connect the teachings with the idea of a pan-tribal alliance. Tecumseh began to travel widely, urging warriors to abandon the accommodationist chiefs and to join the resistance at Prophetstown.

Harrison was impressed by Tecumseh and even referred to him in one letter as "one of those uncommon geniuses". Harrison thought that Tecumseh had the potential to create a strong empire if he went unchecked. Harrison suspected that he was behind attempts to start an uprising, and feared that if he were able to achieve a larger tribal federation, the British would take advantage of the situation to press their claims to the Northwest.

Confrontation at Grouseland

In August 1810, Tecumseh and 400 armed warriors traveled down the Wabash River to meet with Harrison in Vincennes. The warriors were all wearing war paint, and their sudden appearance at first frightened the soldiers at Vincennes. The leaders of the group were escorted to Grouseland, where they met Harrison. Tecumseh insisted that the Fort Wayne treaty was illegitimate. He asked Harrison to nullify it and warned that Americans should not attempt to settle the lands sold in the treaty. Tecumseh acknowledged to Harrison that he had threatened to kill the chiefs who signed the treaty if they carried out its terms, and that his confederation was rapidly growing. Harrison responded to Tecumseh that the Miami were the owners of the land and could sell it if they so chose. He also rejected Tecumseh's claim that all the Indians formed one nation, and insisted that each nation could have separate relations with the United States. As proof, Harrison told Tecumseh that the Great Spirit would have made all the tribes to speak one language if they were to be one nation.

Tecumseh launched an "impassioned rebuttal", but Harrison was unable to understand his language. A Shawnee who was friendly to Harrison cocked his pistol from the sidelines to alert Harrison that Tecumseh's speech was leading to trouble. Finally, an army lieutenant who could speak Tecumseh's language warned Harrison that he was encouraging the warriors with him to kill Harrison. Many of the warriors began to pull their weapons and Harrison pulled his sword. The entire town's population was only 1,000 and Tecumseh's men could have easily massacred the town, but once the few officers pulled their guns to defend Harrison, the warriors backed down. Chief Winnemac, who was friendly to Harrison, countered Tecumseh's arguments to the warriors and instructed them that because they had come in peace, they should return in peace and fight another day. Before leaving, Tecumseh informed Harrison that unless the treaty was nullified, he would seek an alliance with the British.

Rising tensions

Tensions continued to rise in the following year. Four settlers were murdered on the Missouri River, and in another incident, a boatload of supplies was seized by natives from a group of traders. Harrison summoned Tecumseh to Vincennes to explain the actions of his allies. In August 1811, Tecumseh met with Harrison at Vincennes, assuring him that the Shawnee brothers meant to remain at peace with the United States. Tecumseh then traveled to the south on a mission to recruit allies among the "Five Civilized Tribes".  Most of the southern nations rejected his appeals, but a faction among the Creeks, who came to be known as the Red Sticks, answered his call to arms, leading to the Creek War, which also became a part of the War of 1812. Tecumseh delivered many passionate speeches and convinced many to join his cause.

Having heard from intelligence that Tecumseh was far away, Governor Harrison sent this report to the Department of War, concerning Vincennes's meeting, saying Tecumseh "is now upon the last round to put a finishing stroke upon his work. I hope, however, before his return that that part of the work which he considered complete will be demolished and even its foundation rooted up". Thereafter he acted accordingly.

As tensions rose, Harrison openly denounced Tenskwatawa as a fraud and a fool, enraging him. Tecumseh ordered his brother to take no action, but his brother continued to call for the death of Harrison. Tenskwatawa lifted the ban on firearms and was able to quickly procure them in large quantities from the British in Canada. Tecumseh made a strategic error by leaving him alone to travel to the south. Tenskwatawa took his brother's absence as an opportunity to raise tensions even higher by further stirring up his followers.

Expedition to the Prophetstown

While Tecumseh was still in the south, Governor Harrison marched his army north along the Wabash River from Vincennes with more than 1,000 men on an expedition to intimidate the Prophet and his followers. His stated goal was to force them to accept peace, but he acknowledged that he would launch a pre-emptive attack on the natives if they refused. His army stopped near present-day Terre Haute to construct Fort Harrison to guard an important position on the Wabash River. While at Fort Harrison, Harrison received orders from Secretary of War William Eustis authorizing him to use force if necessary to disperse the Indians at Prophetstown.

On November 6, 1811, Harrison's army arrived outside Prophetstown, and Tenskwatawa agreed to meet Harrison in a conference to be held the next day. Tenskwatawa, perhaps suspecting that Harrison intended to attack the village, decided to risk a pre-emptive strike, sending out about 500 of his warriors against the American encampment. Before the dawn of the next day, the Indians attacked, but Harrison's men held their ground, and the Indians withdrew from the village after the battle. Despite the surprise attack, the victorious Americans burned Prophetstown the following day and returned to Vincennes. This ordeal is known as the Battle of Tippecanoe.

Aftermath

Harrison—and many subsequent historians—claimed that the Battle of Tippecanoe was a deathblow to Tecumseh's confederacy.  Harrison, thereafter nicknamed "Tippecanoe", eventually became the President of the United States largely on the memory of this victory. The battle was a severe blow for Tenskwatawa, who lost prestige and the confidence of his brother. Although it was a significant setback, Tecumseh began to secretly rebuild the alliance upon his return from the south.

By December, most of the major American papers began to carry stories on the battle. Public outrage quickly grew and many Americans blamed the British for inciting the tribes to violence and supplying them with firearms. Andrew Jackson was among the forefront of men calling for war, claiming that Indians were "excited by secret British agents". Other western governors called for action; William Blount of Tennessee called on the government to "purge the camps of Indians of every Englishmen to be found..." Acting on popular sentiment, Congress passed resolutions condemning the British for interfering in American domestic affairs. Tippecanoe fueled the worsening tension with Britain, culminating in a declaration of war only a few months later.

As the Americans went to war with the British, Tecumseh found British allies in Canada. Canadians would subsequently remember Tecumseh as a defender of Canada, but his actions in the War of 1812—which would cost him his life—were a continuation of his efforts to secure Native American independence from outside dominance. Tecumseh continued the struggle until his death in the 1813 Battle of Thames.

See also
Indian Removal Act
Indian Wars
Indiana in the War of 1812
List of Indian massacres
Tecumseh's Curse

References

Further reading

 as read to the Filson Club.

External links
Article on the Tippecanoe campaign

War of 1812
Shawnee history
Native American history of Indiana
Indiana in the War of 1812
War
Wars between the United States and Native Americans
Anti-Americanism
Wars involving the indigenous peoples of North America
William Henry Harrison
1810s in the United States
History of the Midwestern United States

Tecumseh's War


Carl Habel (* 19. Oktober 1915 in Oslo; † 7. August 1979 ebenda) war ein norwegischer Schauspieler.

Leben
Habel war von 1949 bis 1956 am Trøndelag Teater engagiert und war später am Det Norske Teatret und Riksteatret tätig.  Habel debütierte 1940 im Film Godvakker-Maren. In der umstrittenen norwegischen Kriegsproduktion von 1944 und Kriminalfilm Villmarkens lov übernahm er die Hauptrolle des Direktors "Terje Vik". Seinen letzten Auftritt im Film hatte er 1975, wo er auch in dem  Film Olsenbanden møter Kongen & Knekten aus der norwegischen Reihe um die Olsenbande zu sehen war. Habel wurde auf dem Osloer Friedhof Vestre Gravlund begraben.

Filmografie
 1940: Godvakker-Maren
 1944: Villmarkens lov
 1944: Brudekronen
 1958: Salve sauegjeter
 1964: Alle tiders kupp
 1974: Olsenbanden møter Kongen & Knekten

Weblinks

 Habel bei filmfront.no (mit Bild)

Einzelnachweise

Filmschauspieler
Norweger
Geboren 1915
Gestorben 1979
Mann

Carl Habel (Schauspieler)


An Chionochloa rubra in uska species han Liliopsida nga ginhulagway ni Victor Dmitrievich Zotov. An Chionochloa rubra in nahilalakip ha genus nga Chionochloa, ngan familia nga Poaceae.

Subspecies

Ini nga species ginbahin ha masunod nga subspecies:

 C. r. cuprea
 C. r. occulta
 C. r. inermis

Mga kasarigan

Chionochloa

Chionochloa rubra


Urgineeae, tribus iz porodice šparogovki, dio je potporodice Scilloideae. Ime dolazi po rodu Urginea Steinheil (morski luk), sinonim za Drimia Jacq.

Rodovi
 Bowiea Harv. ex Hook.f., bovijea
 Drimia Jacq.
 Fusifilum Raf.
 Schizobasis Baker

Izvori

Scilloideae

Urgineeae


El USS Wolverine (IX-64) fue un portaaviones de entrenamiento de agua dulce de la Armada de los Estados Unidos durante la Segunda Guerra Mundial. Fue la conversión de un vapor de ruedas laterales, y máquinas alimentadas con carbón, que fue utilizado para el entrenamiento avanzado de los pilotos aeronavales en  la realización de despegues y apontajes sobre la cubierta de un portaaviones.

Historial

Conversión

El Wolverine, fue construido originalmente como un vapor de ruedas de recreo en 1913, nombrado Seeandbee, un nombre otorgado por sus propietarios de la empresa Cleveland and Buffalo Transit Co. Fue construido por American Ship Building Company de Wyandotte, Michigan. La armada, lo adquirió el 12 de marzo de 1942 designándolo como auxiliar no clasificado, IX-64. La conversión en portaaviones comenzó el 6 de mayo de 1942. El nombre Wolverine fue aprobado el 2 de agosto de 1942, y fue dado de alta el 12 de agosto de 1942. Destinado a operar en el lago Míchigan, el IX-64 recibió su nombre debido a que el estado de Míchigan es conocido como el estado Wolverine.

Nuevas capacidades
Equipado con una cubierta de vuelo de 167,44 m, el Wolverine comenzó a desempeñar sus nuevas funciones en enero de 1943, y junto al  desde mayo del mismo año. Operaban varias aeronaves de la base naval de Glenview, en los dos portaaviones de ruedas, realizaban no solo los entrenamientos para los pilotos, sino también los de los oficiales de señales para aterrizaje. Estaba equipado con todo lo necesario para que los aviones, pudieran realizar despegues y aterrizajes, y su tarea, fue vital en el entrenamiento de miles de pilotos durante la duración de la contienda mundial.

Problemas
Los Sable y Wolverine estaban lejos de ser portaaviones de línea de la Armada, pero eran muy necesarios para proporcionar a la armada personal de refresco cualificado en operaciones de vuelo desde portaaviones. Los dos buques, tenían ciertas limitaciones, como la de carecer de elevadores o hangar bajo la cubierta de apontaje.

Otro de los problemas, era el referido al viento sobre cubierta (WOD, acrónimo en inglés de wind over deck). Se requiere un mínimo de WOD para conseguir que despeguen aeronaves como los F6F Hellcat, F4U Corsair, TBM Avenger y SBD Dauntless desde una cubierta de 150 metros, que  el Wolverine, no era capaz de generar por sí mismo, debido a su escasa velocidad, por lo que dependía de que hubiera viento en el área del lago Míchigan, para navegar contra este y así conseguir el WOD necesario. Cuando no había viento o este era escaso en el lago Míchigan, las operaciones de vuelo debían suspenderse.

Ocasionalmente, cuando las condiciones de escaso viento persistían durante varios días y la cantidad de pilotos en espera para obtener la cualificación aumentaba, se usaba el método alternativo para las cualificaciones, el avión de entrenamiento SNJ Texan, aunque los pilotos no hubiesen utilizado los SNJ en cuatro o cinco meses.

Final de su carrera
Una vez que la Guerra llegó a su fin, también lo hizo su vida operativa. El  Wolverine fue puesto en reserva el 7 de noviembre de 1945. Tres semanas después, el 28 de noviembre, fue dado de baja en el registro naval de buques. Fue transferido a la comisión marítima el 26 de noviembre de 1947 para su enajenación. Fue vendido para desguace en 1947 en la ciudad de Cleveland, Ohio.

Véase también

Referencias

Este artículo incluye textos del dominio público procedente del diccionario norteamericano de buques de guerra (DANFS, acrónimo de Dictionary of American Naval Fighting Ships, en inglés).

Enlaces externos

history.navy.mil: USS Wolverine
navsource.org: USS Wolverine
Sunken Corsair pulled from Lake Michigan  http://www.chicagobreakingnews.com/2010/11/world-war-ii-fighter-plane-lake-michigan-recovery-waukegan.html

Portaaviones de entrenamiento de los Estados Unidos

USS Wolverine (IX-64)


Engelbrekt Engelbrektsson (sandsynligvis født i 1390'erne, død 4. maj 1436) var en svensk frihedskæmper, minearbejder og rikshøvedsmann. Engelbrekt ledte Engelbrektoprøret i 1434 mod kong Erik af Pommern. Den 11. januar 1435 blev Engelbrekt under herredagen i Arboga valgt til rikshøvedsmann. Engelbrekt blev myrdet på en ø i Hjälmaren den 4. maj 1436 af Magnus Bengtsson. På grund af Engelbrektskrøniken blev Engelbrekt i eftertid set på som en martyr.

Liv og virke

Baggrund

Engelbrekt Engelbrektsson var af en oprindelig tysk slægt, som senest i 1360-tallet var udvandret til Sverige i 1360'erne. Faderen (Engelbrekt Englikoson) nævnes som frälseman i 1392 og som bosat på Norberg i 1367, farfaderen antages at have anlagt det nuværende Ängelsberg, tidligere Englikobenning. Slægtens våbenskjold viser et af tre halve liljer dannet triangel.

Engelbrekt var væbner. Historikeren Vilhelm Moberg mener, at Dalarna og Västmanland har ført en "egen Engelbrektsfejde" om hans fødested.

Oprørsleder
Den viden om administration og de militære færdighedern som Engelbrekt udviste,tyder,på at han havde skaffet sig erfaringer som professionel militær, sandsynligvis under Erik af Pommerns felttog mod tyske fjender. I 1426 optræder Engelbrekt i kilderne, og omkring ti år senere blev han leder for det oprør, der var begyndt, og som senere skulle blive kaldt Engelbrektoprøret. Oprøret udspillede sig mod baggrund af Kalmarunionen under Erik af Pommerns styre. I senere historieskrivning skulle Engelbrekt stilles over for kongens foged i Västerås, Jösse Eriksson, som fik skylden for den nød og overlast, som minearbejderne fik under hans styre. Engelbrekt fik deres støtte og skulle fremlægge sagen for kongen i København, og indså efterfølgende at sagen ikke kunne vindes uden kamp. I 1433 udvalgte dalkarlene Engelbrekt til høvedsmand, og samme år drog Engelbrekt i spidsen for et en gruppe oprørere mod Västerås. Oprøret lagde sig, efter at et antal rådsherrer havde bedt om fred, og men hele historien gentog sig allerede foråret efter.

Engelbrekt og de, som støttede ham, synes atter at have mistet forhåbningerne om en fredelig løsning til forbedring i forsommeren 1434, og ved midsommer begyndte et egentligt oprør, der i eftertidens historieskrivning er blevet kaldt frihedskrig. På bare tre måneder overtog Engelbrekt kontrollen stort set over hele Sverige. Svenska rådets medlemmer sluttede sig til oprøret, og kong Erik erklæredes afsat.

Myten om Sveriges første rigsdag
Herredagene i Arboga, eller Arboga møde, fandt sted i januar 1435, blev i senere nationalistisk historieskrivning ophøjet til at have været den første rigsdag afholdt i Sverige. Dette byggede på den fejlagtige antagelse, at almuen (bønderne) skulle ha været repræsenteret ved mødet. Senere forskning af Gottfrid Carlsson, Erik Lönnroth og Herman Schück har imidlertid klart vist, at antagelsen var fejlagtig og byggede på en kombination af ønsketænkning og gætværk om eventuelle skriverfejltagelser i visse af Engelbrektskrønikens versioner.

Herremødet i Arboga var egentlig den første samling for at prøve at rette op på det kaos, som Engelbrekts oprør havde ført til. Et antal biskopper, riddere og væbnere, sammenlagt 30-40 personer, mødtes i Arboga for at konstituere et nyt rigsråd, som kunne overtage regeringsmagten. Mødet indgår egentlig i en serie, hvor Engelbrekt spillede en dominerende rolle, med start i Vadstena 16. august 1434, hvor han mere eller mindre tvang deltagerne til at slutte sig til oprøret. Mødet i Arboga blev fulgt af et i Uppsala i juni 1435 og et andet møde i Arboga i januar 1436.

Engelbrekts politiske dominans ved disse møder blev først brudt ved valget af rikshøvitsmann i Stockholm i 1436, da marsken Karl Knutsson næsten enstemmigt blev valgt, men Engelbrekt og Erik Puke med våbenmagt tiltvang sig delt høvitsmannaskab. Dette arrangement blev imidlertid kortvarigt, eftersom Engelbrekt kort efter blev myrdet efter at have ledet et krigstogt gennem det sydlige Sverige og de da danske områder Skåne, Blekinge og Halland.

Mordet på Engelbrekt
Det opgives, at Engelbrekt var for svag til at sætte sig op på en hest, men at, da han blev kaldt til et rådsmøde, straks drog afsted. Rejsen skulle foregå ad søvejen fra Örebro slott, som Engelbrekt havde i forlening, til Stockholm, men ved et ophold på en ø i Hjälmaren, nuværende Engelbrektsholmen, blev han myrdet den 4. maj af Måns Bengtsson. Morderens far, Bengt Stensson, skal efter sigende have brændt et lübsk fartøj af, selvom der var fred med Hansaen. Engelbrekt havde udstedt en straf for dette, men nogle dage før mordet var et forlig blevet indgået.

Referencer

Se også
 Engelbrektskyrkan

Litteratur
 Harrison, Dick Sveriges historia medeltiden (Stockholm: Liber. 2002)
 Moberg, Vilhelm Min svenska historia, II. Från Engelbrekt till och med Dacke (Stockholm: Norstedt. 1971)
 Larsson, Lars Olof Engelbrekt Engelbrektsson och 1430-talets svenska uppror (P.A. Norstedt. 1984)
 Lindkvist, Thomas Sveriges medeltid (Solna: Almqvist & Wiksell, 1990)
 Lönnroth, Erik Från svensk medeltid (Stockholm: Aldus/Bonniers, 1961)

Eksterne henvisninger

Svenskere i 1400-tallet

Engelbrekt Engelbrektsson


Çakallar, Antalya ilinin Alanya ilçesine bağlı bir mahalledir.

Tarihçe
Mahalleye ilk yerleşen kişinin adı nedeniyle Çakallar Köyü denildiği rivayet edilmektedir. Alarahan ve Alara kalesi bu köy sınırlarında bulunmaktadır.

Coğrafya
Antalya iline 119 km, Alanya ilçesine 37 km uzaklıktadır.

Nüfus

Dış bağlantılar

Alanya'nın mahalleleri

Çakallar, Alanya


Guaviare es uno de los treinta y dos departamentos que forman la República de Colombia. Su capital es San José del Guaviare. Con 92,281 hab. según estimaciones del DANE, es el quinto departamento menos poblado —por delante de Amazonas, San Andrés y Providencia, Guainía y Vaupés— y con 1,72 hab/km², el quinto menos densamente poblado, por delante de Vaupés, Amazonas, Vichada y Guainía, el menos densamente poblado.

Fue creado el 4 de julio de 1991 por la nueva Constitución Política de Colombia. Hasta ese día era un territorio nacional con carácter de Comisaría, la cual había sido segregada de la entonces también Comisaría del Vaupés, el 23 de diciembre de 1977. Todos sus municipios forman parte de los territorios focalizados PDET.

Historia

Desde los tiempos de la conquista hasta los primeros años de la república, el Guaviare hizo parte de la provincia de Popayán; entre 1821 y 1830 perteneció al departamento de Boyacá de la Gran Colombia; luego de la disolución de ese país y hasta 1857, formó parte del Territorio del Caquetá, el cual más tarde quedó integrado al Estado Soberano (posterior departamento) del Cauca; en 1910 se creó la comisaría especial del Vaupés, y dentro de ella quedaron comprendidos los territorios del Guaviare, e incluso, el pueblo de Calamar, que fue su primera capital; la ley 55 del 23 de diciembre de 1977 segregó de la comisaría del Vaupés el territorio que creó la comisaría del Guaviare, con capital en San José del Guaviare; y por último, el 4 de julio de 1991, la Asamblea Nacional Constituyente, elevó la sección a la categoría de departamento.

La colonización del Guaviare, con diferentes motivos, se debió principalmente a las enormes riquezas naturales de su suelo y a la explotación derivada de estas: balata, caucho, comercio de pieles de animales salvajes, venta de plantas originarias de la región y de peces ornamentales; y por último, el cultivo ilícito de coca.

Conflicto armado

El 3 de julio de 2008, el Ejército Nacional de Colombia llevó a cabo la Operación Jaque en la cual se rescató a la política colombo-francesa Íngrid Betancourt, tres norteamericanos y once militares y policías colombianos secuestrados por las FARC para presionar el acuerdo humanitario.

Geografía

Límites
Guaviare limita con los siguientes departamentos:

Fisiografía

Abarca una superficie de 52.927 km² cuadrados (otras fuentes oficiales ofrecen 55.391 km² de extensión). Predominan las tierras planas o ligeramente onduladas, que en su mayoría corresponden a la llanura Amazónica, salvo una franja al norte, que hace parte de los Llanos Orientales, en cual se destaca la Sabana de la Fuga. Los suelos son bastante arenosos. Algunos sistemas montañosos sobresalen y entre ellos están las sierras rocosas de Chiribiquete, La Lindosa, San José y Tunahí y los cerros de la Cerbatana, Santa Ana, Paloma, Campana y Otare, con alturas cercanas a los 800

Hidrografía

Sus suelos son bañados por numerosos ríos y una red de caños, divididos principalmente en dos cuencas:

 Cuenca del río Orinoco, al norte, que desagua a través del río Guaviare, con ríos que nacen en la cordillera en los que predominan las aguas "amarillas", ricas en nutrientes minerales y en pesca, destacándose al respecto el río Guayabero que con el Ariari forma el Guaviare. Hay también en esta cuenca ríos y caños "negros", siendo el más importante el Inírida y sus afluentes, el río Caparroal (en el límite con el departamento de Guainía) y el río Papunaua, que corre en los límites con el departamento del Vaupés.

 Cuenca del río Amazonas, naciente en las selvas, con ríos en los que predominan las aguas "negras" o "cristalinas", con bajo contenido de nutrientes minerales y poca pesca. En esta cuenca sobresalen los ríos Apaporis, Tunía o Macayá, y los dos que forman las fuentes del río Vaupés: el río Itilla y el río Unilla.

Clima

Por su conformación topográfica, los terrenos, en su mayoría presentan el piso térmico cálido y su clima es de transición entre el de la sabana periódicamente húmedo de la Orinoquía y el súper húmedo de la selva ecuatorial del Amazonas, encontrándose una época seca en los meses de diciembre a febrero, y otra lluviosa en el resto del año (especialmente abril-julio y octubre-noviembre). La precipitación anual oscila entre los 2000 y los 3500 mm. La temperatura en el día alcanza 25° a 30 °C, bajando en las noches inclusive a los 12 °C entre julio y agosto.

División político-administrativa

 Calamar: se encuentra localizado sobre la margen derecha del río Unilla, aproximadamente a 80 km al sur de San José del Guaviare.
 El Retorno: Aproximadamente a 35 km al sur de San José del Guaviare. Posee el territorio tradicional Puinave.
 Miraflores: Unos kilómetros más abajo de donde se unen las aguas de los ríos Itilla y Unilla para formar el Vaupés, aproximadamente a 150 km al sureste de la ciudad de San José del Guaviare. En territorio de este municipio, hay varios resguardos indígenas de la familia Tucano y el Carijona de Puerto Nare.
 'San José del Guaviare: capital del departamento, localizado al norte del mismo, aproximadamente a 400 km al sur de la ciudad de Bogotá. Su población es de 65 mil habitantes, de los cuales 39 mil viven en el área urbana. El municipio se extiende en una franja desde el extremo occidental hasta el extremo oriental del departamento entre los ríos Guaviare e Inírida, incluidos resguardos indígenas Guayabero, Sikuani y el Nukak.

Demografía

Desde la época prehispánica el actual territorio del departamento de Guaviare ha estado ocupado por indígenas nukak y puinave, de la familia lingüística puinave-makú; guayaberos y sikuani de la familia lingüística guahibo; cubeos, piratapuyos, desanos y tucanos de la familia tucano; y carijonas, de la familia caribe. También hay kurripakos de la familia arawak en estos territorios. Estos pueblos viven en la actualidad en resguardos cuya propiedad colectiva es reconocida por el Estado. La población indígena supera las cuatro mil personas. En cambio, se extinguieron los tinigua que habitaban al noroccidente del departamento en límites con Meta y Caquetá.

La región ha sido poblada por colonos en varias etapas. Tanto durante el final del  y las dos primeras décadas del , como está plasmado en la novela de José Eustasio Rivera, La Vorágine, como durante la II Guerra Mundial, cuando Calamar era la capital del Vaupés, se explotó el caucho en las selvas de este territorio. Pasadas estas "bonanzas", quedó una reducida población no indígena. Otra cosa distinta ocurrió cuando en la década de 1960 se promovió la colonización para establecer ganadería vacuna y plantaciones de cacao y fomentar la pesca. Este poblamiento significativo dio origen a la creación del municipio de San José en 1976 y al año siguiente de la Comisaría. La siguiente ola de poblamiento, mucho mayor fue la colonización para cultivar la coca, la cual ha signado la vida y la historia del Guaviare desde entonces. La población actual total se acerca a los 100 mil habitantes.

Etnografía

 Mestizos & blancos (90,09%)
 Negros o Afrocolombianos (5,86%)
 Amerindios o Indígenas (4,05%)
 Gitanos (0,00%)

Economía

La economía del departamento del Guaviare gira alrededor del sector agropecuario. Sin embargo el cultivo más importante durante los últimos 25 años ha sido la hoja de coca, cultivo declarado ilegal por el estado colombiano, lo que ha motivado enfrentamientos entre la Fuerza Pública de Colombia que busca su erradicación y los grupos al margen de la ley, quienes buscan el control de esta actividad ilícita. Las actividades que siguen en importancia son la ganadería y la pesca y luego, los cultivos legales entre los cuales se destacan plátano, yuca, cacao, maíz, arroz, chontaduro, arazá, copoazú, uva caimarona, guaitutu o anón amazónico, cocona, seje, nuez de inchi y palma africana.

Una obra llamada a transformar la economía regional es el puente de 913,8 metros que cruza sobre el río Guaviare y une al departamento con el Meta por vía terrestre y despeja la vía de 383 kilómetros a Bogotá. Entidades internacionales y el estado colombiano han diseñado varios proyectos que buscan que el departamento del Guaviare sustituya sus plantaciones ilegales por cultivos comerciales, cuyas cosechas tendrían asegurada la venta en los mercados nacionales.

Grandes perspectivas tiene hacia el futuro la actividad turística. Se destacan como importantes sitios turísticos: los balnearios de Agua Bonita y Villa Luz; las pinturas rupestres, entre otras las del río Guayabero y del caño Dorado, con vivos colores; el imponente raudal del Guayabero; hermosos puentes naturales; la "ciudad de piedra", complejos rocosos; aguas termales, únicas en la Orinoquía y Amazonía; el río Inírida; los Parques nacionales naturales del Chiribiquete y Nukak; y un sinnúmero de lagos y lagunas donde abundan los delfines rosados y la pesca. La fauna y la flora que configuran una abundante biodiversidad son el gran atractivo del Guaviare.

Referencias

Véase también
 Organización territorial de Colombia

Enlaces externos

 Gobernación del Guaviare - Web oficial
 Sistema de Información Ambiental Territorial de la Amazonia Colombiana - SIAT-AC

Guaviare


ඔක්ටවියන් තම සතුරන් පරාද කර ඔගස්ටස් යන නම ඈඳා ගත්තේය. ඔහු මහා බලයක් ආරෝපණය කොට ගෙන සමූහාණ්ඩු ජන රජයක් මවා පාමින් රට පාලනය කරන්නට විය. ඔහුගෙන් පසු පැමිණි පදවි ප්‍රාප්තිකයා වූ ටයිබීරියස් ක්‍රි.පූ 68 නීරෝගේ අභාවය දක්වා පැවති ජුලියෝ - ක්ලෝඩියානු රාජ වංශය පිහිටුවමින් මහා විරෝධයකින් තොරව බලය ලබා ගත්තේය. අධිරාජයෝ කිහිප දෙනෙකුගේ දූෂිත පාලනයන් හැරුණු විට රෝම අධිරාජ්‍යය බල ප්‍රදේශය පුළුල් වූ අතර ආරක්ෂාවද හොඳ හැටි තිබිණ. (උදා - කලිගුලා උමතු වූවෙක් බවට මත ඉදිරිපත්ව ඇති අතර දරුණු බව හා රාජ්‍යය  කටයුතුවලට වඩා තම පුද්ගලික කටයුතුවලට වැඩි ආශාවක් දැක්වූවෙක් ලෙස නීරෝ ප්‍රසිද්ධියක් උසුලයි). පසුව පැමිණි ෆ්ලෙවින් රාජ වංශය ද අනුගමනය කළේ එම නීතිමය. යහපත් අධිරාජය්‍යයවරු  පස් දෙනාගේ කාලයේදී  (96 – 180) අධිරාජ්‍යය භූමි ප්‍රමාණයෙන් , ආර්ථික වශයෙන් හා සංස්කෘතික වශයෙන් ඉහළ හිණි පෙත්තටම සංවර්ධනය විය. රට අභ්‍යන්තර හා බාහිර තර්ජනවලින් රාජ්‍යය ආරක්ෂා වූ අතර පැක්ස් රෝමානා (රෝම සමය) අතර තුර අධිරාජ්‍යය වඩ වඩාත් දියුණු විය. ට්‍රාජන් රාජ්‍යය කාලය තුළ සිදු වූ ඩේසියා විජිතයත් සමගම අධිරාජ්‍යයේ  බල ප්‍රදේශය උපරිම විය. රෝම අධිරාජ්‍යයයේ   විශාලත්වය වර්ග සැතපුම් මිලියන 2.5   ක් (වර්ග කි.මී 6.5 ක් ) වේ.

193 සිට 235 දක්වා කාලය තුළ සෙවරන් රාජ වංශය බල පැවැත්වුණු අතර එකළ එලගබලුස් වැනි අදක්ෂ පාලකයන් දැකිය හැකි විය. මෙය සහ රාජකීය පරම්පරාව වෙත තිබූ වැඩිවන හමුදා බලය ,3 වන සියවසේ අරගලය ලෙස කියවෙන බාහිර ආක්‍රමණවලට සහ රාජකීය බිඳවැටීමට හේතු විය. මෙම අර්බුදය නිමාවට පත් වූණේ ඩයෝ ක්ලිටියන්ගේ දක්ෂ පාලනය යටතේය. ඔහු 293 දී සම - අධිරාජ්‍යවරු දෙදෙනෙක්ගෙන් හා ඔවුන්ගේ ජ්‍යෙෂ්ඨ සහකරුවන් දෙදෙනෙක්ගෙන් සමන්විත ප්‍රාදේහීය රජ ක්‍රමයකට රට පාලනය කිරීමට අධිරාජ්‍යය පෙරදිග හා අපරදිග භාග දෙකකට බෙදීය. වසර 50 කට වැඩි කාලයක් තිස්සේ විවිධ සම - පාලකවරු ආධිපත්‍යය ලබා ගැනීමට සටන් කළහ. 330 මැයි 11 වන දින කොන්ස්ටන්‍ටයින් I අධිරාජ්‍යයා රෝම අධිරාජ්‍යයේ අග නගරය කොන්ස්තන්තිනෝපලය ලෙස නම් වෙනස් කිරීමක් කරන ලදී. 395 දී අධිරාජ්‍යය ස්ථිර ලෙස පෙර දිග රෝම අධිරාජ්‍යය හා අපරදිග රෝම අධිරාජ්‍යය ලෙස බෙදන ලදී. පෙරදිග රෝම අදිරාජ්‍යය හා අපරදිග රෝම අධිරාජ්‍යය ලෙස බෙදන ලදී. පෙරදිග රෝම අධිරාජ්‍යය පසු කලෙක බයිසන්ටයින් අධිරාජ්‍යය ලෙස හැඳින්විණි.

අපරදිග අධිරාජ්‍යය නිරන්තරයෙන් බාබේරියානු ආක්‍රමණවලින් පීඩා විඳි අතර ශත වර්ෂ ගණනාවක් පුරාවට රෝම අධිරාජ්‍යය ක්‍රමයෙන් පසුබැසීමට ලක් විය. ක්‍රි.පූ 4 වන  ශතවර්ෂයේදී හන්වරුන්ගේ බටහිර දෙසට සිදු වූ සංක්‍රමණය නිසා විසිගොත්වරුන්ට රෝම අධිරාජ්‍යයයේ මායිම්වල සරණ සොයන්නට සිදු විය. 410 දී ඇලරික් I ගේ නායකත්වය යටතේ විසිගොත්වරු රෝම නගරය පැහැරූහ. වැන්ඩල් වරු ගෝල්, ස්පාඥඤය සහ උතුරු අප්‍රිකාවේ වූ රෝමයට අයත් පළාත් ආක්‍රමණය කළ අතර 455 දී රෝමය පැහැරූහ. 476 හි සැප්තැම්බර් 4 වන දින ජර්මානු නායක ඔඩෝසර්, අපරදිග රෝම අධිරාජ්‍යයේ අවසාන පාලකයා වූ රොමියුලස් ඔගස්ටස් හට රජකම අත හරින ලෙස බල කළේය. මෙලෙස වසර 1200 කට ආසන්න කාලයක් පැවති අපර දිග රෝම පාලනය අවසානයට පත් විය.

පෙරදිග අධිරාජ්‍යයටද අත්වූයේ එවැනිම ඉරනමකි. නමුත් අපරදිග අධිරාජ්‍යයට අත් වූ ඉරණම තරම් උග්‍ර එකක් නොවේ. ජස්ටීනියම් ඉතාලිය හා උතුරු අප්‍රිකා‍ව ක්ෂණිකව යටත් කර ගත්තේය. නමුත් අපරදිග වූ බයිසන්ටයින් හි බල ප්‍රදේශ ජස්ටීනියන්ගේ මරණයෙන් වසර කීපයකට පසු දකුණු ඉතාලිය හා  සිසිලිය දක්වා අඩු විය. පෙර දිගෙහි ඉස්ලාම් නැගීමත් සමග බයිසන්ටයින්වරුන්ට තර්ජන එල්ලවන්නට විය. ඉස්ලාම් අනුගාමිකයින් සීඝ්‍රයෙන් සිරියාවේ හා ඊජිප්තුවේ බල ප්‍රදේශ යටත් කර ගෙන ඉක්මණින්ම කොන්ස්තන්තිනෝපලයට ඍජු ලෙස තර්ජන ඉදිරිපත් කිරීමට සමත් විය. කෙසේ වෙතත් ක්‍රි.පූ 8 වන සියවස තුළදී බයිසන්ටයින්වරු  තම භූමි ප්‍රදේශයෙන් ඉස්ලාම් පැතිරීම නවත්වා ගත් අතර 9 වන සියවස ආරම්භයේදී යටත් වී තිබූ භූමි නැවත මුදා ගත්හ. නැවත ක්‍රි.ව : 1000 දී පෙරදිග අධිරාජ්‍යය එහි උපරිමයේ සිටියේය. බැසිලියස් II වන බල්ගේරියාව හා ආමේනියාව නැවත පැරද්ද වූ අතර සංස්කෘතිය හා වෙළඳාම සමෘද්ධිමත් වුණි. නමුත් 1071 ඇති වූ මැන්සිකර්ට් යුද්ධය නිසා මෙම ප්‍රදේශ පුළුල් කිරීම එකවර නැවතුණි. මෙම අධිරාජ්‍යය පුදුමාකාර ලෙස පසුබෑමට හේතු විය. අභ්‍යන්තර අර්බුද හා ටර්කික් ආක්‍රමණ සහිත ශතවර්ෂ ගණනාවකට පසු ඇලෙක්සියස්  I කොම්නෙසස් අධිරාජ්‍යයා 1095 දී අපරදිගින් උපකාර ඉල්ලීය. අපරදිග රෝම අධිරාජ්‍යය ඊට ප්‍රතිචාර දැක්වූයේ කුරුස යුද්ධය ඇති කරමිණි. අවසානයේ IV වන කුරුස යුද්ධයට සහභාගී වූවන් කොන්ස්තන්තිනෝපලය පැහැරූහ. 1024 කොන්ස්තන්තිනෝපලය පැරදවීම , අධිරාජ්‍යයේ ඉතිරි වූ කුඩා කොටස පදවි ප්‍රාප්තිකයන්ගේ ආණ්ඩු බවට පත් වෙමින් කැඩී බිඳී යාමක් ලෙස දැකිය හැක. එයි අවසාන ජයග්‍රාහකයා වූයේ නිකායීයාය. රාජකීය හමුදාව විසින් කොන්ස්තන්තිනෝපලය නැවත අත්පත් කර ගැනීමෙන් පසු රෝම අධිරාජ්‍යයා ඊජියන් වෙරළ තීරයට කොටු වූ ග්‍රීක ආණ්ඩුවකට වඩා මදක් වැඩි අධිරාජ්‍යයක් බවට පත් විය. 1453 මැයි 29 දින මේහ්මඩ් II වන කෝන්ස්තන්තිනෝපලය නැවත පැරදවීමෙන් පසු පෙරදිග අධිරාජ්‍යය නිමාවට පත්විය.

References
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Rome#Empire

අධිරාජ්‍යය


Archway is a London Underground station at the intersection of Holloway Road, Highgate Hill, Junction Road and Archway Road in Archway, north London, directly underneath the Vantage Point building. It is on the High Barnet branch of the Northern line, between Highgate and Tufnell Park stations, in Zones 2 and 3.

Location

When constructed, the area was simply the northern end of Holloway Road and had no specific name but, in the hope of attracting patronage, the terminus was originally named Highgate after the village up the hill. At the time of the station's construction the first cable tramway in Europe operated non-stop up Highgate Hill to the village from outside the Archway Tavern, and this name was also considered for the station. The main station entrance now lies beneath Archway Tower (now renamed Vantage Point) on Junction Road while the side entrance is on Highgate Hill.

History

The Leslie Green designed station opened on 22 June 1907, under the name Highgate faced in Green's standard ox-blood glazed brick. It was opened as one of the northern terminals of what was then the Charing Cross, Euston & Hampstead Railway (CCE&HR).

The station was renamed Archway (Highgate) on 11 June 1939 (after the nearby road bridge over the deep cutting containing Archway Road). On 3 July 1939, the line was extended to the Great Northern Railway's station at Highgate and East Finchley station as part of the New Works Programme. The station was renamed Highgate (Archway) on 19 January 1941, before becoming just Archway in December 1947 with the Highgate name being reassigned to the new station constructed beneath the London and North Eastern Railway (LNER) high-level station of the same name.

On 2 June 2006, a train derailed while entering the reversing siding at the station.

Design
In 1930 the station was upgraded with escalators to replace the original lifts and the secondary entrance was replaced with a modern design by Charles Holden, virtually identical to the one he built at the same time at Hammersmith. Holden's station was replaced in the 1970s.

The platform walls once featured the distinctive and elegantly simple tiling schemes used by Holden on the underground stations constructed at this time. Cream tiles were used throughout with the station name band formed of letter shaped tiles inset into a background of cream tiles incised to accept the lettering. Similar tiling schemes can be seen at the neighbouring Highgate station, as well as at Bethnal Green and the stations on the tunnelled section of the Hainault branch of the Central line (for example Gants Hill). All were built in the late 1930s/early 1940s. The tiles at Archway were replaced several years ago during retiling works.

, the station has escalators descending to the platforms. Alternatively, passengers can use the 113 steps to get down to the platforms.

Crossover and siding

When the original section of the Northern Line from Charing Cross to Golders Green and Archway (then Highgate) was opened in 1907, the terminus at Archway was provided with a scissors crossover just south of the station and the running lines beyond the north end of the platforms continued as separate dead-end sidings. When the line was extended to Highgate and East Finchley in 1939, the 'northbound' siding was extended as the northbound road while the 'southbound' siding was retained as a dead-end siding, extended at the north end with the new southbound line from Highgate joining it just before the southbound platform and a new connection from the northbound line to the siding, thus turning the old 'southbound' siding into a central reversing siding. The crossover south of the station was subsequently converted to a single trailing crossover but was decommissioned on 15 October 1967, when Archway was converted to programme-machine control from Cobourg Street. The signal box closed on 25 June 1961 when Archway became remote-controlled.

The enlarged crossover tunnel remains although cable runs extend down its centre between the two tracks for most of its length. The layout of the platforms and the underground passenger areas still reflect the station's former role as a terminus.

Services
Northern line trains generally operate between Morden or Kennington to Edgware, High Barnet or Mill Hill East via the Charing Cross or the Bank branch. Occasionally and during disruptions or engineering works, trains can terminate at Archway. Train frequencies vary throughout the day, but generally operate every 3–7 minutes between 05:58 and 00:19 in both directions.

Connections
London Buses routes 4, 17, 41, 43, 134, 143, 210, 234, 263, 390, C11, W5 and night routes N20, N41 and N271 serve the station.
London Underground maps and maps in London Overground trains show the station as 450m from Upper Holloway station on the Gospel Oak to Barking line. Interchange within twenty minutes is allowed between the two stations.

Notes and references

Notes

References

External links

 London Transport Museum Photographic Archive

 Archway station on Multimap
 Design drawing by Charles Holden and photograph, 1930s from Royal Institute of British Architects

Northern line stations
Tube stations in the London Borough of Islington
Former Charing Cross, Euston and Hampstead Railway stations
Railway stations in Great Britain opened in 1907
London Underground Night Tube stations

Archway tube station


Dizçek (İng. Greave), savaşçının dizlerini korumak için bacakların diz ve baldır kismına takılan zırhın bir parçasıdır. Çoğunlukla metal plakalardan yapılır. Bazı dizçekler kalçalara kadar uzanır. Dizçekler çoğunlukla piyadeler tarafından kullanılmıştır. Örnek olarak Grek Hoplitleri her bacağı için bronz dizçekler kullanmıştır. Triariiler, Roma Cumhuriyeti'nin erken döneminde görev yapan teçhizat alabilecek kadar zengin birlikler, Antik Grekler'in kullandığı dizçeklere benzer dizçekler kullanmışlardır. Principes ve Hastatiler sadece sol bacaklarına dizçek giydiler ya da hiç giymediler. Orta Çağ'da ise dizçekler çok gelişti ve dizin tamamını koruyacak türden yapılandırıldı.

Orta Çağ zırhları
Antik Yunanistan askerî tarihi
Antik dönemde askerî teçhizat
Aletler
Ateşsiz silahlar
Antik silahlar

Dizçek


Roberto Sošić, hrvatski rukometaš, nekadašnji reprezentativac. Igrao za Kvarner i Zamet.

Izvori

Hrvatski rukometaši

Roberto Sošić


Margaritaria nobilis est une espèce de petit arbres de la famille des Phyllanthaceae (anciennement des Euphorbiaceae).

On le connaît sous les noms de Ojo de grulla au Venezuela, Boesi kofi tiki au Suriname.

Description
Margaritaria nobilis est un arbustes semi-caduques, ou de petits arbres de sous-bois, haut de , avec de petits rameaux glabres lenticellées blanchâtres.

Les feuilles sont longues de  pour  de larges, de forme elliptique ou lancéolée elliptique, acuminées ou cuspidées-acuminées, à base aiguë, subaiguë, ou décurente sur les pétioles, fermement membraneuses à chartacées, glabres, à marges entières.
Les pétioles sont longs de , canaliculés.
On compte 8-12(14) nervures latérales, arquées, indistinctement bouclées, de part et d'autre de la nervure médiane.

Les fleurs sont dioïques :
Les fleurs mâles sont en panicules fasciculés longs de , longuement pédicellées (), à 4 sépales arrondis ou elliptiques, à disque annulaire charnu adhérent aux sépales, et à 4 étamines, libres.
Les fleurs femelles sont solitaires ou groupées par 2 à 4 à l'aisselle des feuilles, portent un pédicelle épais, longs de , le même calice (les sépales un peu plus étroits) et le même disque chez les fleurs mâles, avec un ovaire à 4-5 loges et 4-5 styles épais, longs de , unis connés à la base et courtement bifides à l'apex, réfléchis.

Le fruit est une capsule verte, glabre, mesurant environ , à 4-5 lobes, de forme subglobuleuse, à péricarpe d'abord charnu, puis déhiscent en se desséchant, et à styles persistants, étalés.
Les pédicelles fructifères sont longs de .
Les graines sont trigones, complainées, recouvertes d'un fin tégument externe charnu, de couleur vert olive à  bleu métallisé foncé, longues de près de .

Répartition
Margaritaria nobilis est présent du Mexique à l'Argentine, en passant par l'Amérique centrale, les Antilles, la Colombie, le Venezuela (Delta Amacuro, Bolívar, Amazonas), le Guyana, le Suriname, la Guyane, l'Équateur, le Pérou, le Brésil, la Bolivie, et le Paraguay.

Écologie
Margaritaria nobilis pousse dans les forêts sempervirentes ou semi-caduques de plaine à basse montagne, et les forêts riveraines, depuis le niveau de la mer jusqu'à  d'altitude au Venezuela.

Margaritaria nobilis pousse dans les zones perturbées, et fructifie en janvier, février, mars, août en Guyane.

La couleur bleu-vert métallisé des graines de Margaritaria nobilis n'est pas liée à un quelconque pigment, mais est une  iridescence (couleur physique) liée à la structure hélicoïdale de la paroi cellulosique des cellules du péricarpe.

Les graines de Margaritaria nobilis présentent deux phases de dispersion : l'autochorie puis l'ornithochorie (au lieu de la myrmécochorie comme les autres espèces de la famille). Les graines couvertes d'une coque bleu métallisé attirent les oiseaux.
Dans l'État de São Paulo (Brésil), le Merle leucomèle (Turdus leucomelas) est le seule oiseau à avaler les graines directement sur l'arbre.
Le Gros bec fuligineux (Pitylus fuliginosus) et la Pione de Maximilien (Pionus maximiliani) consomment la pulpe et laissant tomber les graines sous l'arbre.
Au sol, les diaspores bleues sont consommées par le Geai acahé Cyanocorax chrysops, la Pénélope péoa (Penelope superciliaris)), la Colombe rouviolette (Geotrygon montana) et les pécaris à collier (Pecari tajacu).
Ces graines présentent des caractéristiques de « fruits mimétiques » imitant des fruits charnus ornithochores : présence d'un endocarpe peu nutritif, couleurs vives, longue dormance, protection par des métabolites secondaires.

Usages
Margaritaria nobilis contient un alcaloïde (phyllanthidine) qui présente des effets intéressants sur Leishmania amazonensis (L.).

Notes et références

Voir aussi

Liens externes

Phyllanthaceae
Espèce d'Angiospermes (nom scientifique)

Margaritaria nobilis


Agrilus ampliatus é uma espécie de inseto do género Agrilus, família Buprestidae, ordem Coleoptera.

Foi descrita cientificamente por Kerremans, 1900.

Referências

ampliatus

Agrilus ampliatus


Brændemærket er en dansk kortfilm fra 1991 instrueret af Ove Nyholm efter eget manuskript.

Handling
Novellefilm om den stempling, der klæber sig fast til unge, der har været kriminelle.

Medvirkende

 Jeppe Kaas, Jan
 Tina Nielsen, Lene
 Malene Clante, Berit
 Ole West Madsen, Jans far
 Ea Mannov, Jans mor
 Hanne Jørna, Erhvervsvejleder
 Eddie Karnil, Værkfører
 Christian Nielsen, Motorcyklist
 Kasper Bremer, Motorcyklist
 Mitte Svendsen, Skolesekretær
 Inge Larsen, Kontordame

Referencer

Eksterne henvisninger

Kortfilm fra Danmark
Danske film fra 1991

Brændemærket (film fra 1991)


Vojna ljekarna ili vojna apoteka (grč. ἀποθήκη, apoteka, skladište, spremište) je zdravstvena ustanova koja je bavi farmaceutskim uslugama kao što su nabava, izrada te ispitivanje lijekova i drugih sanitetskih materijala. Osim toga apoteka njima opskrbljava stanovništvo i druge zdravstene ustanove.

Uloga vojne ljekarne
Vojna apoteka je sanitetska ustanova za nabavu, izradu i ispitivanje lijekova i drugog sanitetskog materijala kojim opskrbljuje jedinice i vojne sanitetske ustanove (bolnice, ambulante i dr.) i pripadnike vojske, a u miru i članove njihovih obitelji. Mirnodopske i ratne vojne apoteke nalaze se u sastavu određenih sanitetskih ustanova i jedinica ili funkcioniraju kao samostalne ustanove. Između pojedinih vrsta mirnodopskih i ratnih vojnih ljekarni postoje razlike u pogledu zadataka, obima i uvjeta rada, strukture osoblja, opreme i rezervi sanitetskog materijala kojima raspolažu. U nekim vojskama (Francuska, SAD) vojne ljekare izdaju samo lijekove, a opskrbu ostalim sanitetskim materijalom obavljaju drugi organi (grane) sanitetske službe.

Povijesni razvoj
Već u najstarijim vremenima ljekarnici su pratili vojske s malim priručnim apotekama. Prve vojne apoteke ustrojavaju se 1427. u Brandenburgu i 1487. u španjolskoj vojsci. Međutim, sve do 18. stoljeća broj vojnih ljekarni je veoma mali, u mnogim vojskama ih i nema.

Od 18. do 20. stoljeća
U ruskoj vojsci uvodi ih Petar I. Veliki, u svaku diviziju po dvije, a u armiji jednu poljsku ljekarnu. U Njemačkoj, na osnovu Pravila o pruskim poljskim bolnicama iz 1787., poljske apoteke s potrebnim stručnim osobljem i sredstvima formirane su u sastavu svih bolnica. Sličan tip ljekarne (Feldapotheken) oformljen je i u austrougarskoj vojsci, s tim što su apoteke u Vojnoj krajini potpale su pod vojno zapovjedništvo u Zagrebu. U Kneževini Srbiji,1836. godine je u Kragujevcu otvorena Dvorska i vojna ljekarna, a 1862. u sastavu Glavne vojne bolnice u Beogradu osnovana je prva bolnička ljekarna.

Od druge polovice 19. stoljeća pa do Prvog svjetskog rata, a naročito u ratu, broj vojnih apoteka povećan je gotovo u svim vojskama. U francuskoj vojsci ima ih svaka divizija, u austrougarskoj su formirane i u garnizonima, a po uzoru na francusku vojsku. U srpskoj vojsci, poslije reorganizacije na Krfu (Κέρκυρα), ustrojene su ljekarne u divizijama, armijskim poljskim bolnicama i rezervnim vojnim bolnicama.

20. stoljeće
Poslije Prvog svjetskog rata u većini vojski formirane su vojne apoteke u bolnicama svih vrsta. U Kraljevskoj jugoslavenskoj vojski, npr. postojale su ljekarne u sastavu stalnih i privremenih bolnicama. U većim bolničkim ljekarnama stručni rad širi se i na medicinsko-biokemijska, bromatološka i toksikološko-kemijska ispitivanja.

Tijekom Drugog svjetskog rata na području obuhvaćenom NOB-om prva vojna ljekarna pokrenuta je tijekom srpnja 1942. u selu Stabni, oko 8 km zapadno od sela Plužina (Apoteka Vrhovnog štaba) a već u rujnu, Statutom sanitetske službe NOV i POJ, propisuje se njihovo uvođenje i u ostale jedinice. Od 1943. formiraju se bolničke, teritorijalne (vojna područja) i druge ljekarne, a u brigadama i odredima ustrojene su priručne apoteke.

Poslije Drugog svjetskog rata u pogledu funkcioniranja vojne farmaceutske službe učinjene su mnoge promjene u odnosu na ranija razdoblja. Mirnodopske vojne ljekarne zadržavaju raniju namjenu i organizacijsku strukturu, ali je zato povećan broj drugih vrsta apoteka i proširena njihova djelatnost. U sastavu stalnih vojnih bolnica i ambulanti, ljekarne su formirane kao zasebne organizacijske jedinice, a u teritorijalnim organima (područja, okruzi, garnizoni) kao samostalne sanitetske institucije. Zbog ograničenih mogućnosti izrade lijekova, mnoge vojske predviđaju da u ratnim uvjetima umjesto ratnih vojnih apoteka formiraju u operativnim jedinicama posebni odjeli za sanitetsku opskrbu koji bi izdavali gotove lijekove. Ratne vojne apoteke zadržale bi se, uglavnom, u određenim sanitetskim ustanovama operativne vojske i, posebno, kao vojnoteritorijalne ljekarne.

Vrste vojnih ljekarni
Prema pripadnosti, strukturi, zadacima, vrsti i obimu stručnog rada, u suvremenim vojskama postoji više vrsta vojnih ljekarni:

 Ljekarne jedinica operativne vojske (divizija, brigada) opskrbljuju sanitetskim materijalom svoje jedinice, divizijsku (brigadnu) sanitetsku ustanovu i lica iz svog sastava. U divizijama (brigadama) gdje ne postoje formacijske apoteke, njihovu funkciju u miru obavljaju teritorijalne (garnizonske) vojne ljekarne, a u ratu formacijske jedinice za sanitetsku opskrbu (npr. Section de ravitaillement sanitaire u francuskoj, a Division Medical Supply Section u armiji SAD). U pukovnijama i nižim jedinicama ne postoje formacijske ljekarne u miru i u ratu, već samo određene količine lijekova i drugog sanitetskog materijala kojim rukuju ljekarnici, farmaceutski tehničari ili drugo srednje medicinsko osoblje.
 Brodska ljekarna je priručno skladište lijekova i ostalog sanitetskog materijala za prvu pomoć i liječenje oboljelih i povrijeđenih članova posade. Pripada većem plovnom objektu koji ima brodsku bolnicu ili ambulantu. Radi osiguranja lijekova u slučaju oštećenja pojedinih dijelova broda, brodske apoteke na ratnim brodovima smještaju se u dva ili više skladišta, a lijekove, zavoje i drugi sanitetski materijal čuvaju u tipiziranoj ambalaži.
 Bolnička ljekarna je organizacijski dio bolnice sa zadatkom da opskrbljuje sve njezine dijelove materijalom za zbrinjavanje povrijeđenih i oboljelih te je opremljen za laboratorijski rad. U tim apotekama stručni farmaceutski rad zastupljen je u većem opsegu (izrađuju se galenski pripravci, sterilne otopine i dr.). Veće bolničke ljekarne u miru imaju i posebnu galenski laboratorij i laboratorij za kontrolu lijekova. Rad i struktura bolničkih apoteka u ratu zavisi od zadataka i uvjeta u kojima radi ustanova u čijem se sastavu ona nalazi.
 Garnizonska ljekarna opskrbljuje lijekovima i sanitetskim materijalom ambulantu i jedinice garnizona, a u miru i pripadnike vojske i članove njihovih obitelji.
 Teritorijalna ljekarna (vojnog okruga, područja i dr.) opskrbljuje sanitetskim materijalom vojnosanitetske ustanove i jedinice koje su joj dane na opskrbu, a po potrebi obavlja funkciju i garnizonske apoteke. U nekim vojskama (SAD i Francuske) teritorijalne ljekarne su viši tip apoteka, jer, osim opskrbe one proizvode i ispituju lijekove.
 Priručna ljekarna je specijalno odabran i upakiran asortiman lijekova i drugog sanitetskog materijala, namijenjen, prvenstveno za ukazivanje prve pomoći pojedincu ili grupi (posadi) Postoje, npr. priručne apoteke za letačko osoblje, posade manjih brodova, čamaca, motornih vozila, tenkova, padobrance i dr.

Literatura

 "Apoteka", U: Vojna enciklopedija, sv. 1., Beograd: Izdanje redakcije Vojne enciklopedije, 1970., str. 186.
 G. Gillyboeuf, Le Service de Santé des Armées, Paris, 1965.

Farmacija

Vojna ljekarna


Mesut Uçakan (1953, Kırıkkale) Türk yönetmen, senarist ve yapımcı.

İstanbul İktisadi ve Ticari İlimler Akademisi Gazetecilik ve Halkla İlişkiler Yüksek Okulu Sinema Televizyon Bölümü mezunudur. 1997 yılında Mutlak Fikir Estetiği ve Sinema adlı dergisini altı sayı çıkardı. 2003 yılında yayın hayatına başlayan Sonsuzkare sinema dergisini ise on sayıdan beri yönetmektedir. Bir şiir kitabı (Sıkı Tut Ellerimi), bir de sinema kitabı (Türk Sinemasında İdeoloji) yazarıdır. Hakkında yayınlanan diğer kitap; Necip Tosun'un yaptığı söyleşileri kapsayan" Mesut Uçakan'la Söyleşiler" kitabıdır.

Filmleri

Uzun metraj filmleri
 1978: Lanet
 1980: Rahmet Ve Gazap
 1984: Öç (film)
 1985: Sessiz Ölüm
 1986: Yapayalnız
 1987: Zeynepler Ölmesin
 1988: Reis Bey - T.C. Kültür Bak. başarı ödülü - T.C. Yazarlar Birliği en iyi film
 1990: Yalnız Değilsiniz
 1991: Sonsuza Yürümek
 1992: Çöküş
 1992: Sevdaların Ölümü
 1993: İskilipli Atıf Hoca / Kelebekler Sonsuza Uçar - Antalya Altın Portakal Halk Jürisi ödülü - T.C. Yazarlar Birliği en iyi yönetmen ödülü - BİRSAD en iyi film
 1995: Ölümsüz Karanfiller
 2005: Anne ya da Leyla
 2006: Anka Kuşu

Televizyon dizileri
 1987: Kavanozdaki Adam - TRT (5 bölümlük dizi)
 1989: İnsanlar Yaşadıkça - Diyanet İşleri Başkanlığı (8 bölüm dizi)
 2005: Otel İstanbul -TRT
 2016: Sevda Kuşun Kanadında (31 bölüm Dizi) (Yapımcı) -TRT 1

Dramatik belgesel filmleri
 1986: Ahmet Hamdi Tanpınar - TRT
 1996: İstiklâl Marşı Şairi Mehmet Âkif Ersoy - T.C. Kültür Bakanlığı
 2000: Deprem ve Merkez Üssü Gölcük - Gölcük Belediyesi
 2003: Hacc Sonsuza Doğru - Kanal 7
 2005: Gönül Dosta Gider - Beyza Müzik
 2011: Tuna Nehri Aksam Diyor

Ödüller
 2019: Cumhurbaşkanlığı Kültür ve Sanat Büyük Ödülü

Kaynakça

Dış bağlantılar
 Resmî site

Türk film yönetmenleri
Türk senaristler
Türk film yapımcıları
1954 doğumlular
Kırıkkale doğumlular
Yaşayan insanlar

Mesut Uçakan


ميسلون فيلم شركة سورية وواحدة من أهم الشركات الرائدة والمتخصصة في مجال الإنتاج التلفزيوني في الجمهورية العربية السورية

أعمال الشركة

 مسلسل باب الحارة: 3-9 مسلسل شامي
 مسلسل الزعيم : مسلسل شامي 2011
 مسلسل سوق الحرير

مراجع

وصلات خارجية

شركات إنتاج تلفزيوني
شركات سورية

ميسلون فيلم