A stove or range is a device that burns fuel or uses electricity to generate heat inside or on top of the apparatus, to be used for general warming or cooking. It has evolved highly over time, with cast-iron and induction versions being developed. Stoves can be powered with many fuels, such as electricity, natural gas, gasoline, wood, and coal.

Due to concerns about air pollution, efforts have been made to improve stove design. Pellet stoves are a type of clean-burning stove. Air-tight stoves are another type that burn the wood more completely and therefore, reduce the amount of the combustion by-products. Another method of reducing air pollution is through the addition of a device to clean the exhaust gas, for example, a filter or afterburner.

Research and development on safer and less emission releasing stoves is continuously evolving.

Etymology
The term "stove" is derived from the Old English word stofa, indicating any individual enclosed space or room; "stove" may sometimes still be used in this sense. Until well into the 19th century, "stove" was defined as a single heated room.

History

Versions prior

Cooking was performed over an open fire since nearly two million years ago. It is uncertain how fires were started at these times; some hypotheses include the removal of burning branches from wildfires, spark generation through hitting rocks, or accidental lighting through the chipping of stone tools. During the Paleolithic era, approximately 200,000 to 40,000 years ago, primitive hearths were constructed, with stones arranged in a circle shape. Human homes centered around these hearths for warmth and food. Open fires were quite effective; most fires are 30% efficient on average, and heat is distributed positively, with no heat being lost into the body of a stove. An estimated three million people still cook their food today over open fires.

Pottery and other cooking vessels were later placed on open fire; eventually, setting the vessel on a support, such as a base of three stones, resulted in a stove. The three-stone stove is still widely used around the world. In some areas it developed into a U-shaped dried mud or brick enclosure with the opening in the front for fuel and air, sometimes with a second smaller hole at the rear.

Early designs

The earliest recorded stove was created in Alsace, France in 1490. It was entirely made out of brick and tile, including the flue pipe. In similar times, the Ancient Egyptian, Jewish and Roman people used stone and brick ovens, fueled with wood, in order to make bread and other culinary staples. These designs did not differ extremely from modern-day pizza ovens. Later Scandinavian stoves featured a long, hollow iron chimney with iron baffles constructed to extend the passage of the leaving gases and extract maximum heat. Russian versions are still frequently used today in northern nations, as they hold six thick-walled stone flues. This design is frequently positioned at the intersection of internal partition walls, with a piece of the stove and flue inside each of four rooms; a fire is kept until the stove and flues are hot, at which point the fire is extinguished and the flues are closed, storing the heat. During Colonial America, beehive-shaped brick ovens were used to bake cakes and other pastries. Temperature control was closely managed by burning the appropriate quantity of wood to ash and then testing by inserting hands inside, adding additional wood, or opening the door to allow cooling.

Cast-iron

In 1642, at Lynn, Massachusetts, the first cast-iron stove was constructed. This stove was little more than a cast-iron box with no grates. In 1735, the Castrol stove, or "stew stove", was developed by French designer Francois Cuvilliés. It was the earliest recorded wood-burning stove. Benjamin Franklin designed the "Pennsylvania fireplace" in 1740, which incorporated the fundamental concepts of the heating stove. The Franklin stove used a grate to burn wood and had sliding doors to control the draught, or flow of air, through it. Because of its compact size, the stove could be housed in a large fireplace or used free-standing in the middle of a room by connecting it to a chimney. Developed amid a wood shortage, it required one-quarter the quantity of fuel as a regular fireplace and could raise the room temperature more quickly. Throughout North America, the Franklin stove enjoyed widespread adoption, warming farmhouses, city residences, and frontier huts.

In 1795, Count Rumford created a particularly popular version, featuring a single fire source, but allowing for the temperature to be adjusted independently for numerous pots at once, all while heating the space. Its main disadvantage was that it was too large for most residential kitchens. Isaac Orr of Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, created the first circular cast-iron stoves with grates for cooking meals on them roughly five years later. The potbellied stove traces its origins to the early 1800s, inspired by the Franklin stove developed twenty years prior. Jordan A. Mott designed the base-burning stove for burning anthracite coal in 1833. In 1834, Philo Stewart created the Oberlin Stove, a small wood-burning cast-iron stove. It was a compact metal kitchen stove that was far more efficient than cooking in a fireplace due to its improved heating capacity and allowance for record cooking durations. It was a major commercial success because it could be formed into desired shapes and forms and could survive temperature fluctuations from hot to cold readily. These iron stoves evolved into specialized cooking machines with chimney flue pipes, oven openings, and water heating systems.

Usage of gas

The earliest reported use of gas for cooking, according to the Gas Museum in Leicester, England, was by a Moravian called Zachaus Winzler in 1802. The switch to gas was prompted by concerns about air pollution, deforestation and climate change, causing the general public to reconsider the usage of coal and wood stoves. Under common-use conditions, indoor NO2 from gas stoves can quickly exceed US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and World Health Organization (WHO) 1-h exposure benchmarks in kitchen air. NO2 pollution has been shown to harm human health. The first commercially produced gas stove, invented by Englishman James Sharp, did not enter the market for another three decades. By the end of the century, the stoves became popular because they were easier to control and required less maintenance than wood or coal stoves.

Electric stoves

Electric stoves became popular not long after the advent of home electricity. One early model was created by Thomas Ahearn, the owner of a Canadian electric company, whose marketing included a demonstration meal prepared entirely with electricity at Ottawa's Windsor Hotel in 1892.

As central heating became the standard in the developed world, cooking transitioned to the primary function of stoves in the twentieth century. Iron cooking stoves that used wood, charcoal, or coal tended to radiate much heat, which made the kitchen unbearably hot in the summer. They were superseded in the twentieth century by steel ranges or ovens fueled by natural gas or electricity.

Induction

The first patents for induction stoves date from the early 1900s. Demonstration stoves were shown by the Frigidaire division of General Motors in the mid-1950s on a touring GM showcase in North America. The induction cooker was shown heating a pot of water with a newspaper placed between the stove and the pot, to demonstrate the convenience and safety. This unit, however, was never put into production.

Modern implementation in the USA dates from the early 1970s, with work done at the Research & Development Center of Westinghouse Electric Corporation at Churchill Borough, near Pittsburgh. That work was first put on public display at the 1971 National Association of Home Builders convention in Houston, Texas, as part of the Westinghouse Consumer Products Division display. The stand-alone single-burner range was named the Cool Top Induction Range. It used paralleled Delco Electronics transistors developed for automotive electronic ignition systems to drive the 25 kHz current.

Westinghouse decided to make a few hundred production units to develop the market. Those were named Cool Top 2 (CT2) Induction ranges. The development work was done at the same R&D location by a team led by Bill Moreland and Terry Malarkey. The ranges were priced at $1,500 ($8,260 in 2017 dollars), including a set of high quality cookware made of Quadraply, a new laminate of stainless steel, carbon steel, aluminum and another layer of stainless steel (outside to inside).

Production took place in 1973 through to 1975 and stopped, coincidentally, with the sale of Westinghouse Consumer Products Division to White Consolidated Industries Inc. Modern-day induction stoves are sold by many manufacturers, including General Electric, LG Corporation, Whirlpool Corporation, IKEA, and Samsung.

Types

Purpose

Cooking

A kitchen stove, cooker, or cookstove is a kitchen appliance designed for the purpose of cooking food. Kitchen stoves rely on the application of direct heat for the cooking process and may also contain an oven underneath or to the side that is used for baking. Traditionally these have been fueled by wood; the earliest known example of such was the Castrol stove. More modern versions such as the popular Rayburn range offer a choice between using wood or gas.

Heating
Stoves are also used for heating purposes. Benjamin Franklin's invention in 1740 popularized the widespread usage of modern heating stoves and fireplaces. Today, wood stoves are commonly used for warming homes, and are credited for their cost-effectiveness compared to coal and gas, and connection to the practices of human ancestors.

Fuel

Wood-burning

A wood-burning stove (or wood burner or log burner in the UK) is a heating or cooking appliance capable of burning wood fuel and wood-derived biomass fuel, such as sawdust bricks. Generally the appliance consists of a solid metal (usually cast iron or steel) closed firebox, often lined by fire brick, and one or more air controls (which can be manually or automatically operated depending upon the stove). The first wood-burning stove was patented in Strasbourg in 1557, two centuries before the Industrial Revolution, which would make iron an inexpensive and common material, so such stoves were high end consumer items and only gradually spread in use. Wood-burning stoves are still commonly used today in less-developed countries.

Coal-burning
The most common stove for heating in the industrial world for almost a century and a half was the coal stove that burned coal. Coal stoves came in all sizes and shapes and different operating principles. Coal burns at a much higher temperature than wood, and coal stoves must be constructed to resist the high heat levels. A coal stove can burn either wood or coal, but a wood stove might not burn coal unless a grate is supplied. The grate may be removable or an "extra".

This is because coal stoves are fitted with a grate so allowing part of the combustion air to be admitted below the fire. The proportion of air admitted above/below the fire depends on the type of coal. Brown coal and lignites evolve more combustible gases than say anthracite and so need more air above the fire. The ratio of air above/below the fire must be carefully adjusted to enable complete combustion.

Coal, particularly anthracite coal, became a popular option during the 1800s in the United States because it burned at a high heat while also producing little soot. By 1860, as much as 90% of United States homes used anthracite coal as a solution for the fuel crisis that the United States faced. One major issue with the use of coal burning stoves in the 1800s was limitations of storing the material over time. A division between the wealthy and poor in using coal stoves was that many poor families could not afford to store the volumes of coal needed to heat homes for long periods of time. Therefore, while wealthy families could store large amounts of coal in cellars, poorer families often had to purchase coal in smaller quantities. Therefore, difficulties surrounding the storage of coal helped push the use and development of gas stoves.

Gas
Gas stoves were first introduced by Moravian Zachaus Winzler in 1802. Today, according to the US Energy Information Administration, 35% of American households use gas stoves. They are chosen as they offer better temperature control, durability, low cost, and speed of heating. In June 2023, Stanford researchers found combustion from gas stoves can raise indoor levels of benzene, a potent carcinogen linked to a higher risk of blood cell cancers. Gas-powered stoves are criticized for environmental concerns with methane emission and the usage of natural gas, the danger of carbon monoxide release, and difficulty in cleaning. For example, a January 2022 Stanford-led study reveals that the methane leaking from gas-burning stoves has a climate impact comparable to the carbon dioxide emissions from about 500,000 gasoline-powered cars.

Electricity

Induction stoves were first patented in the early 1900s. These stoves are praised for their cost-effectiveness, ease of cleaning, options to control low heat, and stable base for many types and sizes of pots and other cooking tools. Critics note that abrasive cleaners can damage induction stoves, that gas has more traditional culinary associations, and that induction stoves are unable to operate during power outages. Unlike gas stoves, induction stoves have no detectable benzene emissions and any benzene emissions could then be attributed to cooking food rather than to the cooktop or fuel used.

Efficiency
Compared to simple open fires, enclosed stoves can offer greater efficiency and control. In free air, solid fuels burn at a temperature of only about , which is too low a temperature for perfect combustion reactions to occur, heat produced through convection is largely lost, smoke particles are evolved without being fully burned and the supply of combustion air cannot be readily controlled.

By enclosing the fire in a chamber and connecting it to a chimney, draft (draught) is generated pulling fresh air through the burning fuel. This causes the temperature of combustion to rise to a point () where efficient combustion is achieved, the enclosure allows the ingress of air to be regulated and losses by convection are almost eliminated. It also becomes possible, with ingenious design, to direct the flow of burned gasses inside the stove such that smoke particles are heated and destroyed.

Enclosing a fire also prevents air from being sucked from the room into the chimney. This can represent a significant loss of heat as an open fireplace can pull away many cubic meters of heated air per hour. Efficiency is generally regarded as the maximum heat output of a stove or fire, and is usually referred to by manufacturers as the difference between heat to the room and heat lost up the chimney.

An early improvement was the fire chamber: the fire was enclosed on three sides by masonry walls and covered by an iron plate. Only in 1735 did the first design that completely enclosed the fire appear: the Castrol stove of the French architect François de Cuvilliés was a masonry construction with several fireholes covered by perforated iron plates. It is also known as a stew stove. Near the end of the 18th century, the design was refined by hanging the pots in holes through the top iron plate, thus improving heat efficiency even more.

In 1743, Benjamin Franklin invented an all-metal fireplace with an attempt to improve the efficiency. It was still an open-faced fireplace, but improved on efficiency compared to old-fashioned fireplaces.

Some stoves use a catalytic converter, which causes combustion of the gas and smoke particles not previously burned. Other models use a design that includes firebox insulation, a large baffle to produce a longer, hotter gas flow path. Modern enclosed stoves are often built with a window to let out some light and to enable the user to view progress of the fire.

While enclosed stoves are typically more efficient and controllable than open fires, there are exceptions. The type of water-heating "back boiler" open fires commonly used in Ireland, for instance, can achieve more than 80% absolute efficiency.

Material

Masonry heaters were developed to control air flow in stoves. A masonry heater is designed to allow complete combustion by burning fuels at full-temperature with no restriction of air inflow. Due to its large thermal mass the captured heat is radiated over long periods of time without the need of constant firing, and the surface temperature is generally not dangerous to touch.

Metal stoves came into use in the 18th century. An early and famous example of a metal stove is the Franklin stove, said to have been invented by Benjamin Franklin in 1742. It had a labyrinthine path for hot exhaust gases to escape, thus allowing heat to enter the room instead of going up the chimney. The Franklin stove, however, was designed for heating, not for cooking. Benjamin Thompson at the turn to the 19th century was among the first to present a working metal kitchen stove. His Rumford fireplace used one fire to heat several pots that were also hung into holes so that they could be heated from the sides, too. It was even possible to regulate the heat individually for each hole. His stove was designed for large canteen or castle kitchens, though. It would take another 30 years until the technology had been refined and the size of the iron stove been reduced enough for domestic use. Philo Stewart's Oberlin stove was a much more compact, wood-burning cast-iron stove, patented in the United States in 1834. It became a huge commercial success with some 90,000 units sold in the next 30 years. In Europe, similar designs also appeared in the 1830s. In the following years, these iron stoves evolved into specialised cooking appliances with flue pipes connected to the chimney, oven holes, and installations for heating water. The originally open holes into which the pots were hung were now covered with concentric iron rings on which the pots were placed. Depending on the size of the pot or the heat needed, one could remove the inner rings.

Modern designs
As concerns about air pollution, deforestation, and climate change have increased, new efforts have been made to improve stove design. The largest strides have been made in innovations for biomass-burning stoves, such as the wood-burning stoves used in many of the world's most populous countries. These new designs address the fundamental problem that wood and other biomass fires inefficiently consume large amounts of fuel to produce relatively small amounts of heat, while producing fumes that cause significant indoor and environmental pollutants. The World Health Organization has documented the significant number of deaths caused by smoke from home fires. Increases in efficiency allow users of stoves to spend less time gathering wood or other fuels, suffer less emphysema and other lung diseases prevalent in smoke-filled homes, while reducing deforestation and air pollution.

Corn and pellet stoves and furnaces are a type of biofuel stove. The shelled dry kernel of corn, also called a corn pellet, creates as much heat as a wood pellet, but generates more ash. "Corn pellet stoves and wood pellet stoves look the same from the outside. Since they are highly efficient, they don't need a chimney; instead, they can be vented outdoors by a four-inch (102 mm) pipe through an outside wall and so can be located in any room in the home."

A pellet stove is a type of clean-burning stove that uses small, biological fuel pellets which are renewable and very clean-burning. Home heating using a pellet stove is an alternative currently used throughout the world, with rapid growth in Europe. The pellets are made of renewable material — typically wood sawdust or off-cuts. There are more than half a million homes in North America using pellet stoves for heat, and probably a similar number in Europe. The pellet stove typically uses a feed screw to transfer pellets from a storage hopper to a combustion chamber. Air is provided for the combustion by an electric blower. The ignition is automatic, using a stream of air heated by an electrical element. The rotation speed of the feeder and the fan speeds can be varied to modulate the heat output.

Other efficient stoves are based on Top Lit updraft (T-LUD) or wood gas or smoke burner stove, a principle applied and made popular by Dr. Thomas Reed, which use small pieces of sticks, chips of wood or shavings, leaves, etc., as fuel. The efficiency is very high — up to 50 percent — as compared to traditional stoves that are 5 to 15 percent efficient on average.

Stoves fueled by alcohol, such as ethanol, offer another modern, clean-burning stove option. Ethanol-fueled stoves have been made popular through the work of Project Gaia in Africa, Latin America and the Caribbean.

Airtightness

An air-tight stove is a wood-burning stove designed to burn solid fuel, traditionally wood, in a controlled fashion so as to provide for efficient and controlled fuel use, and the benefits of stable heating or cooking temperatures. They are made of sheet metal, consisting of a drum-like combustion chamber with airflow openings that can be open and shut, and a chimney of a metre or more length.

These stoves are used most often to heat buildings in winter. Wood or other fuel is put into the stove, lit, and then air flow is regulated to control the burn. The intake airflow is either at the level where fuel is added, or below it. The exhaust (smoke) from the stove is usually several metres above the combustion chamber.

Most modern air-tight stoves feature a damper at the stove's outlet that can be closed to force the exhaust through an after burner at the top of the stove, a heated chamber in which the combustion process continues. Some air-tight stoves feature a catalytic converter, a platinum grid placed at the stove outlet to burn remaining fuel that has not been combusted, as gases burn at a much lower temperature in the presence of platinum.

Using an air-tight stove initially requires leaving the damper and air vents open until a bed of coals has been formed. After that, the damper is closed and the air vent regulated to slow down the burning of the wood. A properly loaded and controlled air-tight stove will burn safely without further attention for eight hours, or longer.

These features provide a more complete combustion of wood and elimination of polluting combustion products. It also provides for regulation of the intensity of fire by limiting air flow, and for the fire to create a strong draught or draw up the chimney. This results in highly efficient fuel usage.

Air-tight stoves are a more sophisticated version of traditional wood-burning stoves.

Emission regulation

Many countries legislate to control emissions.
Since 2015, the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) Phase III Woodstove Regulations in the United States require that all wood stoves being manufactured limit particulate emission to 4.5 grams per hour for stoves with after burners or 2.5 grams per hour for stoves with catalytic converters.

The burn temperature in modern stoves can increase to the point where secondary and complete combustion of the fuel takes place. A properly fired masonry heater has little or no particulate pollution in the exhaust and does not contribute to the buildup of creosote in the heater flues or the chimney. Some stoves achieve as little as 1 to 4 grams per hour. This is roughly 10% as much smoke than older stoves, and equates to nearly zero visible smoke from the chimney. This is largely achieved through causing the maximum amount of material to combust, which results in a net efficiency of 60 to 70%, as contrasted to less than 30% for an open fireplace. Net efficiency is defined as the amount of heat energy transferred to the room compared to the amount contained in the wood, minus any amount central heating must work to compensate for airflow problems.

SB 1256, a bill that would ban the sale of disposable, single-use propane cylinders in California, is set to be presented for approval to Governor Gavin Newsom. If signed into law, the ban would take effect in January 2023 and would be the first of its kind in the United States. SB 1256 aims to phase out the cylinders completely by 2028; the state Assembly and Senate both approved the legislation. Propane stoves are widely used by campers for cooking, lighting, and heating, and the spent gas canisters often pile up on the ground near dumpsters at campgrounds. The bill is sponsored by the California Product Stewardship Council, a nonprofit local government coalition, in an effort to reduce waste and cut down on the pile-ups of canisters. Worthington Industries, a manufacturer of propane cylinders, has objected to the bill on the grounds that it would be disruptive to campers and that it would not improve the recycling rate of propane cylinders. The company has also argued that refillable cylinders cost three times as much as single-use cylinders.

Research and development
The search for safer, cleaner stoves remains to many an important if low-profile area of modern technology. Cook stoves in common use around the world, particularly in Third World countries, are considered fire hazards and worse: according to the World Health Organization, a million and a half people die each year from indoor smoke inhalation caused by faulty stoves. An engineer's "Stove Camp" has been hosted annually since 1999 by Aprovecho Research Center (Oregon, US) with the intent of designing a cheap, efficient, and healthy cook stove for use around the world. Other engineering societies (see Envirofit International, Colorado, US) and philanthropic groups (see the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation, California) continue to research and promote improved cook stove designs. A focus on research and development on improved heating stoves is ongoing and was on display at the 2013 Wood Stove Decathlon in Washington, D.C.

See also

 Foot stove
 List of cooking appliances
 List of stoves
 Multi-fuel stove
 Pellet baskets
 Portable stove

References

Further reading
 Harris, Howell J., "Inventing the U.S. Stove Industry, c. 1815–1875: Making and Selling the First Universal Consumer Durable," Business History Review, 82 (Winter 2008), 701–33
 Harris, Howell, "Coping with Competition: Cooperation and Collusion in the U.S. Stove Industry, c. 1870–1930", Business History Review, 86 (Winter 2012), 657–692.
 Roth C., "Micro Gasification: Cooking with gas from biomass" 1st edition, released January 2011 Published by GIZ HERA – Poverty-oriented Basic Energy Service

External links

 Woodheat.org information on woodstoves
 Thomas "Electricity" Ahearn, Canada's Thomas Edison
 Early Chinese stoves
 Early Japanese stoves

Cooking appliances
Heating, ventilation, and air conditioning
Stoves

Stove


Olaylar
 Atina demokrasisi yok edildi.

Doğumlar

Ölümler
 7 Mart - Aristoteles, ya da kısaca Aristo, Antik Yunan filozof, klasik Yunan felsefesinin kurucularından Platon'un öğrencisi (d. MÖ 384)
 tarihi bilinmeyen
 I. Ariarathis, Hellenistik Kapadokya hükümdarı (d. MÖ 405 / MÖ 404)
 Dimosthenis, Atinalı ünlü politikacı (d. MÖ 384)

MÖ 322


ConnectU (originalmente HarvardConnection) es un sitio web de redes sociales lanzado el 21 de mayo de 2004, que fue fundada por los estudiantes de Harvard Tyler y Cameron Winklevoss, en diciembre de 2002.

Robo de idea
Los hermanos Tyler y Cameron Winklevoss, dos campeones de remo, y su amigo Divya Narendra estudiaron en Harvard, tal como narra la película The Social Network (2010), le pidieron a Zuckerberg que los ayudara a crear una red social para los estudiantes de la referida universidad.

El trío, que fundó una compañía llamada ConnectU, asegura que Zuckerberg les robó la idea y que deliberadamente retrasó el proyecto mientras trabajaba con las ideas robadas para su propio proyecto, Facebook.

A raíz de esto, los creadores de ConnectU, llevaron a cabo una denuncia   en 20 4 alegando una violación del contrato, apropiación de secretos comerciales y robo de los derechos intelectuales por parte de Zuckerberg. Sin embargo, este g declaró que no había sido firmado ningún contrato y que por lo tanto él no era un socio. Dijo además que lo que estaban buscando era un daño económico.

En febrero del 2010 hubo una alianza entre ConnectU y MySpace para superar el número de usuarios y así catalogarse como la red social de mayor demanda.

Referencias

 http://tecnologia.elpais.com/tecnologia/2011/02/08/actualidad/1297159267_850215.html
 http://www.bloomberg.com/quote/FB:US/income-statement
 http://www.facebooknoticias.com/2010/04/14/el-20-de-los-empleados-de-facebook-se-centra-en-la-seguridad-informtica/
 https://www.facebook.com/about/timeline
 http://sdpnoticias.com/columna/7714/La_Biografia_de_Facebook_no_sirve_pa_nada

Redes sociales

ConnectU


توشيكي كايفو  (2 يناير 1931 - 9 يناير 2022) سياسي ياباني شغل منصب رئيس الوزراء الياباني لمرتين.

مراجع

روابط خارجية

سياسيو الحزب الليبرالي الديمقراطي الياباني
أشخاص من ناغويا
حاصلون على وسام رايزينغ صن
خريجو جامعة تشوا
خريجو جامعة واسيدا
رؤساء وزراء اليابان
رؤساء وزراء اليابان القرن 20
سياسيون من محافظة آيتشي
سياسيون يابانيون في القرن 20
سياسيون يابانيون في القرن 21
مواليد 1931
مواليد في ناغويا
وزراء مالية يابانيون
وفيات الالتهاب الرئوي في اليابان

توشيكي كايفو


Događaji

 Zbog precesije Zemljine osi, najbliže polu Sjevernjača će biti 2102. god.

Rođenja

Smrti

Vanjske poveznice

2102.


Oryx and Crake is a 2003 novel by Canadian author Margaret Atwood. She has described the novel as speculative fiction and adventure romance, rather than pure science fiction, because it does not deal with things "we can't yet do or begin to do", yet goes beyond the amount of realism she associates with the novel form. It focuses on a lone character called Snowman, who finds himself in a bleak situation with only creatures called Crakers to keep him company. The reader learns of his past, as a boy called Jimmy, and of genetic experimentation and pharmaceutical engineering that occurred under the purview of Jimmy's peer, Glenn "Crake".

The book was first published by McClelland and Stewart. It was shortlisted for the 2003 Man Booker Prize for Fiction, as well as for the 2004 Orange Prize for Fiction. Oryx and Crake is the first of the MaddAddam trilogy, followed by The Year of the Flood (2009) and MaddAddam (2013).

Plot summary
The novel focuses on a character called "Snowman", living in a post-apocalyptic world near a small group of primitive and innocent human-like creatures whom he calls Crakers. Flashbacks reveal that Snowman was once a boy named Jimmy who grew up in a world dominated by multinational corporations that built privileged walled compounds to isolate and protect their employees and the employees' families from a degenerating outside society. The companies had operated by developing and marketing advanced technology products such as medical treatments and genetically engineered hybrid animals, but now no other humans are evident, and the compounds have become decaying ruins.

Near starvation, Snowman decides to return to the ruins of a compound named RejoovenEsense to search for supplies, even though his excursion risks encountering dangers including feral populations of the hybridized animals. He concocts an explanation for the Crakers, who regard him as a teacher, and begins his foraging expedition.

In Snowman's recollection of past events, Jimmy's family moves to the HelthWyzer compound, where his father works as a genetic engineer. Jimmy meets and befriends a brilliant science student named Glenn. Jimmy begins to refer to him as Crake when he uses that name in an online trivia game called Extinctathon. Jimmy and Crake spend much of their leisure time playing online games, smoking "skunkweed", and watching underground videos such as live executions, graphic surgery, Noodie News, frog squashing, and child pornography. During one of their child pornography viewings, Jimmy is very much lovestruck and horrified by the gazing eyes of a young girl seen in the porn known as Hott Tott.

After graduating from high school, Crake attends the highly respected Watson–Crick Institute, where he studies advanced bioengineering, but Jimmy ends up at the loathed Martha Graham Academy, where students study humanities, only valued for their propaganda applications. Jimmy gets a job writing ad copy, while Crake becomes a bioengineer at RejoovenEsense. Crake uses his prominent position to create the Crakers, peaceful, gentle, herbivorous humanoids, who have sexual intercourse only during limited polyandrous breeding seasons. His stated purpose for the Crakers, actually a deliberate deception, is to create "floor models" of all the possible options a family could choose in the genetic manipulation of their future children. Crake's bio-engineering team consists of the most expert players gathered from the online Extinctathon community.

Crake tells Jimmy about another very important project, a Viagra-like super-pill called BlyssPluss, which also promises health and happiness, but secretly causes sterilization in order to address overpopulation. Crake officially hires Jimmy to help market it. At the Rejoov compound, Jimmy notices a human in the Craker habitat and thinks he recognizes her as the girl from the pornographic video. Seemingly unaware of Jimmy's obsession with her, Crake explains that her name is Oryx and that he has hired her as a teacher for the Crakers. Oryx notices Jimmy's feelings for her and makes herself sexually available to him, despite also being Crake's romantic partner. As their relationship progresses, Jimmy becomes increasingly fearful that Crake has found out about it or has known all along. He also makes a promise to both Oryx and Crake that he will look after the Crakers if anything happens to them.

After Crake's wonder drug BlyssPluss is widely distributed, a global pandemic breaks out and begins wiping out the human race and causing mass chaos outside of the protected Rejoov compound. Realizing that the pandemic had been deliberately introduced by Crake and was distributed by including it within BlyssPluss, and sensing further immediate danger, Jimmy grabs a gun and goes to confront Crake, who is returning with Oryx from outside the compound and needs Jimmy to let them in. Crake presents himself to Jimmy with his arm around an unconscious Oryx, saying that he and Jimmy are immune to the virus. Jimmy lets them in, whereupon Crake slits Oryx's throat with a knife. Jimmy then immediately shoots Crake dead.

During Snowman's journey to scavenge supplies, he encounters aggressive hybrid animals and retreats into the RejoovenEsense compound. He finds some indications that other humans have survived seeing smoke on the horizon near the compound and briefly hearing voices on radio receivers in the compound. He carelessly breaks a scavenged bourbon bottle after binge drinking its content, and cuts his foot on a sliver of the glass. The cut becomes infected. His treatment of the wound with the medications he can find has some initial success, but the infection later gets worse again. He returns to the Crakers' camp and learns that three other humans have recently encountered the Crakers and are camping nearby. Snowman follows the smoke to where they are gathered around a campfire. Snowman is unsure of what to do, and considers killing them. Whether he introduces himself or quietly flees, and whatever happens afterwards, is left open to question at the end of the book.

Main characters
 Snowman, whose original name is Jimmy, is the main protagonist; the story is told from his perspective. The name "Snowman" is short for "abominable Snowman", a reference to the Yeti, a mythical ape-like creature of the Himalaya. For the online-game Extinctathon, Jimmy temporarily also has the animal code name "Thickney" (bush thick-knee or bush stone-curlew, Burhinus grallarius), which Crake chooses for Jimmy from an Australian bird known for inhabiting cemeteries (p. 81).
 Crake, whose original name is Glenn, is Jimmy's childhood friend; an excellent student in high school, he becomes a brilliant geneticist and eventual mad scientist. He devises a plan to rid the Earth of Homo sapiens and replace this destructive, poorly designed species with a more peaceful and environmentally friendly version. His player-name in  Extinctathon is from the red-necked crake, a small Australian bird. In Robin Elliott's essay on Atwood, he explains the parallels between Glenn and the famous pianist Glenn Gould: the novel states that Glenn is named after a famous pianist, and Atwood has explained that Glenn has Asperger syndrome, which Gould is suspected to have also had.
 Oryx is a mysterious woman, recognized by Jimmy and Crake as the waif-like girl from a child pornography site. Crake hires her for sexual services and as a teacher to the Crakers, but she secretly becomes Jimmy's lover as well. After the catastrophe, her memory continues to haunt Snowman. Her name is from the oryx, an African antelope: "It's not even her real name, which he'd never known anyway; it's only a word. It's a mantra" (p. 110). She is described as likely originating from the South or South-East Asian region.
 Sharon is Jimmy's mother. She once worked at OrganInc, like her husband, but stopped due to an untreated nervous breakdown related to her opposition to the bio-corporations' business. She is depressed and often fights with Jimmy's father. Jimmy vies for his mother's attention, but she spends much of her time sitting in her bathrobe and smoking. Eventually, Sharon runs away from the HelthWyzer compound, abandoning her son and taking his treasured genetically engineered pet rakunk [a genetic splice between a raccoon and a skunk] named "Killer". She takes up with various underground opposition groups and is hunted by the deadly CorpSeCorps corporate security services. Jimmy is haunted by his mother's absence and is visited often by CorpSeCorps inspectors attempting to track her whereabouts.
 Jimmy's father, unnamed in the book, works first for OrganInc and later for HelthWyzer as a scientist. He is heavily involved in the development of pigoons (genetically engineered pigs that produce organs for human transplants). He is more pragmatic about the morality of genetic splicing than his wife. After Jimmy's mother deserts the compound, he pursues a relationship with his laboratory technician, Ramona, and they eventually marry.
 Ramona is one of Jimmy's father's lab technicians at OrganInc. Ramona, Jimmy, and Jimmy's father frequently go out to eat together. When Jimmy's father leaves OrganInc to accept a new position at HelthWyzer, Ramona makes the move with him. After Jimmy's mother's mysterious departure, Ramona moves in and takes on a motherly role in Jimmy's life.

Beginnings

Margaret Atwood started writing the novel much earlier than she expected, while still on a book tour for her previous novel, The Blind Assassin. In March 2001, Atwood found herself in the Northern region of Australia, birdwatching with her partner during a break from the book tour. Here, while watching the red-necked crakes in their natural habitat, she was struck with inspiration for the story. However, Atwood explained that the work was also a product of her lingering thoughts on such a scenario throughout her life, as well as spending a great amount of time with scientists throughout her childhood. She stated

Several of my close relatives are scientists, and the main topic at the annual family Christmas dinner is likely to be intestinal parasites or sex hormones in mice, or, when that makes the non-scientists too queasy, the nature of the Universe.

Atwood continued to write the novel through the summer of 2001 while visiting the Arctic North, witnessing global warming's effect on the region. However, shaken by the September 11 attacks, she stopped writing for a few weeks in the autumn, saying, "It's deeply unsettling when you're writing about a fictional catastrophe and then a real one happens". However, with the looming questions of the end, Atwood finished the novel for release in 2003. These questions in Oryx and Crake, Atwood explained, are "simply, What if we continue down the road we're already on? How slippery is the slope? What are our saving graces? Who's got the will to stop us?"

Allusions and references

To other works

The cover of some editions contains a portion of the left panel of Hieronymous Bosch's painting The Garden of Earthly Delights.  The cover of other editions contains a modified portion of Lucas Cranach the Elder's painting The Fall.

The French translation of the title to "Le dernier homme" (The Last Man) is an allusion to Mary Shelley's work of the same name, both set in the apocalyptic genre as a plague results in the near-extinction of humanity.

In the first chapter, Snowman utters a reference from Kurt Vonnegut's Slaughterhouse Five:
"It is the strict adherence to daily routine that tends towards the maintenance of good morale and the preservation of sanity," he says out loud. He has the feeling he's quoting from a book, some obsolete, ponderous directive written in aid of European colonials running plantations of one kind or another.

One of Snowman's musings, "Now I'm alone [...] All, all alone. Alone on a wide, wide sea" is an allusion to part four of Samuel Taylor Coleridge's Rime of the Ancient Mariner.

In chapter 5 (subsection "Bottle") is "Out, out, brief candle" from Shakespeare's Macbeth.

Crake finds, as Hamlet does, that his father was probably killed by his mother and step father. Like Hamlet, he plots to avenge him.

To scientific history

The book alludes to green fluorescent protein multiple times in the book. The Children of Crake are described having green eyes from a jellyfish protein, indicating that Crake used this gene in their creation. Green rabbits are wild animals in this world, alluding to Alba, a rabbit created by the scientist Louis-Marie Houdebine with the gfp gene in order to glow green.

Reception
The book received mostly favourable reviews in the press. The Globe and Mail, Maclean's, and the Toronto Star ranked the novel high among Atwood's works and Helen Brown, for the Daily Telegraph, wrote "The bioengineered apocalypse she imagines is impeccably researched and sickeningly possible: a direct consequence of short-term science outstripping long-term responsibility. And just like the post-nuclear totalitarian vision of The Handmaid's Tale, this story is set in a society readers will recognise as only a few steps ahead of our own." For The New Yorker, Lorrie Moore called the novel "towering and intrepid". Moore wrote, "Tonally, 'Oryx and Crake' is a roller-coaster ride. The book proceeds from terrifying grimness, through lonely mournfulness, until, midway, a morbid silliness begins sporadically to assert itself, like someone, exhausted by bad news, hysterically succumbing to giggles at a funeral." Joyce Carol Oates noted that the novel is "more ambitious and darkly prophetic" than The Handmaid's Tale. Oates called the work an "ambitiously concerned, skillfully executed performance".

Joan Smith, writing for The Observer, faulted the novel's uneven construction and lack of emotional depth. She concluded: "In the end, Oryx and Crake is a parable, an imaginative text for the anti-globalisation movement that does not quite work as a novel."

In a review of The Year of the Flood, Ursula K. Le Guin defended the novel against criticism of its characters by suggesting the novel experiments with components of morality plays.

On 5 November 2019, the BBC News listed Oryx and Crake on its list of the 100 most influential novels.

Darren Aronofsky's company Protozoa Pictures were developing a television adaptation of the entire MaddAddam trilogy, under the working title MaddAddam.  Aronofsky was to serve as executive producer and possibly director, with the script written by playwright Eliza Clark. The project was formerly being developed for HBO; in 2016 Aronofsky said that the network was no longer attached, but confirmed that the scripts were written and the project was still underway. In January 2018, Paramount Television and Anonymous Content announced they had won the bidding war for rights to the trilogy and planned to bring the series to cable or video on demand. No network had yet agreed to carry the series.

Sequels

The Year of the Flood was released on 7 September 2009 in the United Kingdom, and 22 September 2009 in Canada and the United States. Though chronicling a different set of characters, the follow-up expands upon and clarifies the relationships of Crake with Oryx and Jimmy with his high school girlfriend Ren. Glenn makes a brief appearance. It also identifies the three characters introduced at the end of the original, and finishes the cliffhanger ending.

The third book in the series, MaddAddam, was published in August 2013.

See also
 Human genetic engineering
 Transhumanism
 Biological weapons
 Shaking the Habitual (2013 album by The Knife)

Notes

References

 Adami, Valentina. "Bioethics through Literature: Margaret Atwood's Cautionary Tales". WVR, 2011.
 Atwood, Margaret. Oryx and Crake. McClelland and Stewart, 2003.
 Atwood, Margaret. "The Handmaid's Tale and Oryx and Crake in Context". PMLA 119, 2004.
 DiMarco, Dannette. "Paradice Lost, Paradise Regained: Homo Faber and the Makings of a New Beginning in Oryx and Crake". Papers on Language and Literature 41(2), 2005.
 Howells, Coral Ann. "Margaret Atwood's Dystopian Visions: The Handmaid's Tale and Oryx and Crake". In Coral Ann Howells (Ed.) The Cambridge Companion to Margaret Atwood (161–75). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2006. 161–75.  (hardback)  (hardback)  (pbk.)  (pbk.)
 Ingersoll, Earl G. "Survival in Margaret Atwood's Novel Oryx and Crake". Extrapolation: A Journal of Science Fiction and Fantasy 45.2 (2004): 162–175.
 Machat, Sibylle. In the Ruins of Civilizations: Narrative Structures, World Constructions and Physical Realities in the Post-Apocalyptic Novel. WVT, Trier, 2013.  (pbk.)
 Mohr, Dunja M. "Transgressive Utopian Dystopias: The Postmodern Reappearance of Utopia in the Disguise of Dystopia". Zeitschrift für Anglistik und Amerikanistik 55.1 (2007): 5-24. [Oryx and Crake]
 Mundler, Helen E. "Heritage, Pseudo-Heritage and Survival in a Spurious Wor(L)D: Oryx and Crake by Margaret Atwood". Commonwealth Essays and Studies 27(1), 89–98, 2004.

External links
"Margaret Atwood, Transhumanism, and the Singularity" Includes a discussion of the novel's possible real-world allusions.
 "Adam Roberts' review of Oryx and Crake"

2003 Canadian novels
Canadian science fiction novels
2003 science fiction novels
Biopunk novels
Environmental fiction books
Bureaucracy in fiction
Dystopian novels
Post-apocalyptic novels
Satirical novels
Novels by Margaret Atwood
Bloomsbury Publishing books
McClelland & Stewart books
Climate change novels

Oryx and Crake


Rustom Khurshedji Karanjia (meist R. K. Karanjia oder Russi Karanjia; Gujarati:  ; * 15. September 1912 in Bombay; † 1. Februar 2008 ebenda) war ein indischer Journalist, Herausgeber und Buchautor.

Leben
Rustom Karanjia ist der älteste Sohn des Augenarztes Khurshedji Karanjia und dessen Frau Temina; einen Großteil seiner Kindheit verbrachte er bei seinen Großeltern mütterlicherseits, dem Geschäftsmann Burjorji Patel und dessen Frau Ruttonbai, in Quetta. Er absolvierte seine Ausbildung an der St. Xavier's School and College und dem Wilson College in Bombay. Noch während seiner College-Zeit begann er seine journalistische Tätigkeit und war in den 1930er Jahren als Redaktionsassistent bei The Times of India angestellt.

1941 gründete Karanjia nach Beratung mit den erfahrenen Herausgebern B. V. Nadkarni und Benjamin Guy Horniman das Wochenmagazin Blitz, das dem investigativen Journalismus verschrieben war. Während Japans Burmafeldzug war er als Kriegskorrespondent in Assam und Burma. Später übernahm er den Posten des Chefredakteurs von Blitz und veröffentlichte mehrere politjournalistische Bücher. Zu den mit Blitz verbundenen Autoren gehörten auch Khwaja Ahmad Abbas und der Ramon-Magsaysay-Preisträger P. Sainath. In den 1990er Jahren wurde die Zeitschrift eingestellt.

Seit 1976 war der Parse Karanjia Anhänger des Hindu-Gurus Sathya Sai Baba. Von 1991 bis 1997 war er Mitglied der Rajya Sabha. Sein Bruder ist der Filmjournalist B. K. Karanjia.

Bücher
 1952: China stands up and wolves of the Wild West
 1956: Seato Security or Menace?
 1958: Arab Dawn
 1960: The Mind of Mr. Nehru
 1961: Castro: Storm Over Latin America
 1966: The Philosophy Of Mr. Nehru
 1970: Round Germany with Hitler
 1977: Kundalini Yoga
 1977: Mind of a Monarch: Biography of the Shah of Iran ISBN 978-0-04-923069-9
 1997: God Lives In India ISBN 978-81-86822-27-2

Weblinks
 Remembering Russy Karanjia
 He launched Blitz on Feb 1, died on Feb 1-it's no coincidence in indianexpress.com vom 2. Februar 2008
 Unpredictable R K Karanjia Is No More
 Russy "Blitz" Karanjia – Free, frank and fearless all through life
 Biografie, geschrieben von Karl Mehta, R. K. Karanjias Schwiegersohn
 P. Sainath: R.K. Karanjia: Living through the Blitz in The Hindu vom 6. Februar 2008
 Veteran Journalist R.K. Karanjia Dies in Arab News vom 3. Februar 2008

Einzelnachweise

Journalist (Indien)
Herausgeber
Rajya-Sabha-Mitglied
Inder
Geboren 1912
Gestorben 2008
Mann

Rustom Khurshedji Karanjia


Ceylanpınar, Şanlıurfa ilinin bir ilçesidir.

Etimoloji
Tarihi 5000 sene öncesine kadar dayanan Ceylanpınar, Asuriler döneminde Vaşşugar olarak bilinirdi ve Mitanni Devleti'nin başkentiydi. Osmanlı İmparatorluğu döneminde günümüzde Suriye'de bulunan Resulayn (رأس العين) ilçesine bağlıydı. Resulayn bucağı, köyü ve istasyonunun adı, 16 Nisan 1946'da Ceylanpınar olarak değişti.

İlçenin Kürtçe adı Serêkânî, Arapça adı ise Ras el-Ayn'dır. Her iki isim de Türkçede pınarbaşı anlamına gelmektedir. İlçe ismini ceylanlardan ve bu ceylanların olduğu yerden geçen Habur Çayı'ndan almaktadır.

Tarihçe
18 Mart 1930 tarihinde Mardin ili Koçhisar ilçesine bağlı olan Resulayn nahiyesi Viranşehir'e bağlandı. 11 Nisan 1946 Resulayn bucağının adı "Ceylanpınar" olarak değiştirildi. 25 Mayıs 1959'da belediye statüsü alarak beldeye dönüştü.

Coğrafya
Ceylanpınar; Güneydoğu Anadolu bölgesinde Şanlıurfa iline bağlı 142 km uzaklıkta yer alan bir sınır ilçesidir. 14.01.1982 tarihinde çıkartılan 2585 Sayılı Kanun'la ilçe statüsüne kavuşan Ceylanpınar'ın komşu il ve ilçelere ulaşımı Karayolu ve Demiryolu ile sağlanmaktadır.

Nüfus

Eğitim
İlçede 9 lise vardır.
 Ceylanpınar Tarım lisesi
 Ceylanpınar Fen lisesi
 Ceylanpınar Mehmet Akif Ersoy Anadolu Lisesi
 Ceylanpınar Anadolu Teknik Lisesi Mesleki Ve Teknik Eğitim Merkezi
 Ceylanpınar Selahattin Eyyubi Lisesi
 Ceylanpınar Anadolu Lisesi
 Ceylanpınar Kız Teknik ve Meslek Lisesi
 Ceylanpınar Sağlık Meslek Lisesi
 İmam-Hatip Lisesi ile birlikte

İlçede 14 ilköğretim okulunu vardır.
 Ceylanpınar Alpaslan İlköğretim Okulu
 Ceylanpınar Atatürk İlköğretim Okulu
 Ceylanpınar Cengiz Topel İlköğretim Okulu
 Ceylanpınar Ceylan İlköğretim Okulu
 Ceylanpınar İMKB İlköğretim Okulu
 Ceylanpınar TOKİ İlköğretim Okulu
 Ceylanpınar Cumhuriyet İlköğretim Okulu
 Ceylanpınar Evrenpaşa İlköğretim Okulu
 Ceylanpınar Pınar İlköğretim Okulu
 Ceylanpınar Mevlana İlköğretim Okulu
 Ceylanpınar Başak İlköğretim Okulu
 Ceylanpınar Kepez ilköğretim Okulu
 Ceylanpınar Mehmet Akif Ersoy İlköğretim Okulu
 Ceylanpınar Şehit Mustafa Katırcı İlköğretim Okulu

Ekonomi
İlçede Türkiye'nin en büyük devlet üretme çiftliği olan TİGEM mevcuttur. TİGEM'de çalışanların çoğu ilçe halkı ve bölge halkından çok nadir de olsa kısmen de batı illerinden memurlar vardır. TİGEM'de büyükbaş hayvancılık, küçükbaş hayvancılık, buğday, pamuk, nohut, mercimek, ayçiçeği ve mısır üretilmektedir. Bu ürünler daha çok batı illerine gönderilerek orada işlenmektedir; ilçeye herhangi bir ekonomik girdisi olmamaktadır. TİGEM içerisinde 1500 (bin beş yüz) civarında ceylan da vardır. İlçede 30 temmuz 2000'de görülen 48,2 derecelik sıcaklık Türkiye'de görülen en yüksek sıcaklıklardan olmuştur.

Ulaşım
Ceylanpınar merkezden her saat başı Şanlıurfa'ya, Mardin-Kızıltepe'ye ve Viranşehir'e  hareket etmekte olan minibüsler hizmet vermektedir. Demir yolu ulaşımı da mevcuttur.

Yerel Yönetim
Ceylanpınar 2014 yerel seçimlerinde Menderes Atilla Belediye Başkanı seçilmiştir. 2019 yerel seçimlerinde Abdullah Aksak seçilmiştir. Aralık 2019'da YSK tarafından Aksak'ın mazbatası iptal edilmiş yerine Feyyaz Soylu seçilmiştir.

Kaynakça

Dış bağlantılar
 YerelNET
 Ceylanpınar Kaymakamlığı
 Ceylanpınar Belediyesi

Suriye-Türkiye sınırındaki bölünmüş şehirler
Türkiye'deki Önemli Kuş Alanları

Ceylanpınar


Nolina microcarpa es una especie de planta con rizoma perteneciente a la familia de las asparagáceas. Es originaria de  Norteamérica.

Descripción
Es una planta casi sin tallo, cespitosa, qur forma rosetas verticales, con caudices subterráneos, ramificados. Las hojas hirsutas, laxas, cóncavo-convexas, de 80-130 cm de longitud y 5-12 mm de ancho, glaucas, con los márgenes serrados y dientes cartilaginosos muy juntos; ápice lacerado. El escapo de 3-15 dm, 1.2-2.5 cm de diámetro. Inflorescencias paniculadas, de 4-12 dm × 10-30 cm, sobrepasando las hojas, brácteas caducas, rara vez persistentes. Las flores con los pétalos blancos. Los frutos en forma de cápsulas hialina, de pared delgada, inflada, con las semillas  comprimidas.

Distribución y hábitat
La floración se produce a finales de la primavera. Se encuentra en las laderas rocosas, los pastizales del desierto, bosques de roble y pino piñonero y enebro, a una altitud de 900 - 1900 metros en Arizona, Nuevo México y en México.

Taxonomía
Nolina microcarpa fue descrita por Sereno Watson y publicado en Proceedings of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences 14: 247, en el año 1879.
Citología
El número cromosomático es de: 2n = 38.
Etimología
Nolina: nombre genérico otorgado en honor del botánico francés  Abbé P. C. Nolin, coautor del trabajo publicado 1755 Essai sur l'agricultura moderne.

microcarpa: epíteto latíno que significa "con semillas pequeñas".
Sinonimia
Beaucarnea microcarpa (S.Watson) Baker
Nolina caudata Trel.

Referencias

Enlaces externos

microcarpa
Flora de México
Flora de Estados Unidos
Plantas descritas en 1879
Plantas descritas por S.Watson

Nolina microcarpa


معلومات عن قرية قصر البريج

الموقع
تقع في الجمهورية العربية السورية وتتبع لمحافظة حلب - منطقة الباب - ناحية تادف. وتبعد هذه القرية عن مدينة حلب حوالي 60 كم باتجاه الشرق محاذاة بطريق الباب ومروراَ بــ تادف وهي تابعة لناحية تادف وتبعد عن مطار حلب حوالي 50 كم على الخط السريع أوتوستراد حلب _ الرقة. نصف ساعة من مطار حلب الدولي إلى وسط القرية.

الزراعة
تشتهر بزارعة الزيتون وزيتها من أفضل الزيوت بالعالم وأيضاَ هناك زراعة أنواع أخرى من الأشجار مثل الفستق الحلبي والعنب والجوز والرمان بالأضافة إلى زراعة الشعير والقمح والكمون والعدس ويزرع فيها الخضار الموسمية كونها ولله الحمد أرض خصبة صالحة للزراعة.

الخدمات
تتوفر فيها جميع الخدمات مثل الكهرباء والهاتف ومياه الشرب ويصلها طريق أسفلتي يربطها بالقرى والمدن المحيطة.

التعليم
تحتوي على مدرسة للتعليم الأساسي وأخرى للتعليم الثانوي(ثانوية). ازداد الإقبال على التعليم مؤخراً، وأصبح عديد من أبناء القرية يحملون الشهادات العليا كالطب والهندسة والعلوم والأداب والحقوق والاقتصاد  ماجستير إدارة أعمال ومختلف الاختصاصات.

العمران
تشتهر هذه القرية بعمرانها الجميل بنظام الفلل المكسوة بالحجر السوري الرائع.

السكان
أهل هذه القرية 90% منهم مغتربين بين الخليج العربي ولبنان والأردن وأوروبا بقصد العمل أو الدراسة وأغلبهم تحديداً في المملكة العربية السعودية. يعمل أغلبهم  بمهنة تركيب البلاط أو يعملون في مجال المقاولات أو تجارة البلاط والسيراميك والرخام وهناك من هم بمهنة دكتور – مهندس – معلم - تاجر – رجل أعمال ( عبد الحي العلي ) في حلب – تجارة السيارات وجزء بسيط منهم يعمل في سورية.

اللغة
اللغة العربية 100% (اللهجة قريبة للعراقية).

العادات والتقاليد
عادات بدوية عربية أصيلة كالشهامة والنخوة والفزعة وإكرام الضيف.
الزي الرسمي للرجال: هو الثوب العربي (الجلابية) أضافة إلى الشماغ + الغترة (الجمدانة) والعقال، أضافة إلى البدلة الرسمية
ولبس النساء: الزي الريفي التقليدي
يجتمعون أهلها:
- في الأعياد (عيد الفطر السعيد وعيد الأضحى المبارك)
- وفي المناسبات أفراح الأعراس تقام الحفلات الموسيقة والأغاني الشعبية أو يجتمعون الرجال في ساحة على أيقاع الطبل والمزمار ،ويرقصون رقصات خاصة الدبكة (الولدة – القوصار).
- وفي مجالس العزاء لمدة 3 ثلاثة أيام يدفنون الميت سويأ وفقأ للدين الإسلامي والسنة المحمدية ويصنعون الطعام لاهل الميت
- وفي المساجد لصلاة الجمعة.

أحداث هامة
 صباح يوم 22 تموز 2015 ارتكب طيران النظام السوري مجزرة مروعة في قرية "قصر البريج" بعد ان استهدفها بأربع حاويات متفجرة من الطيران المروحي، خلفت 18 شهيد و35 جريح غالبيتهم العظمى من الأطفال.

وصلة خارجية

قرى محافظة حلب

قصر البريج


مسييه 91  أو م91   هي مجرة حلزونية قضيبية، تبعد عن الأرض نحو 63 مليون سنة ضوئية في كوكبة الهلبة. اكتشفها شارل مسييه عام 1781، ويقال أن وليام هرشل اكتشفها عام 1784 بدون معرفته عن اكتشاف مسييه لها. والمجرة مسييه 91 هي واحدة من تجمع مجرات العذراء.

مراجع

أجرام الفهرس العام الجديد
أجرام فلكية اكتشفت في 1781
أجرام فهرس أوبسالا العام
اكتشافات شارل مسييه
عنقود العذراء المجري
فهرس المجرات الرئيسية
فهرس مسييه
كوكبة الهلبة
مجرات حلزونية ضلعية
اكتشافات بواسطة شارل مسييه

مسييه 91


La fosfodiesterasa 8 (PDE8) () es una enzima que cataliza la reacción de hidrólisis del fosfato cíclico del adenosín monofosfato cíclico (cAMP) que es un regulador importante de procesos fisiológicos.

 cAMP + H2O  AMP

Las fosfodiesterasas cíclicas (PDEs) son una familia de enzimas relacionadas con las fosfohidrolasas que catalizan selectivamente la hidrólisis de los enlaces 3' fosfato cíclico en los 3',5' monofosfatos cíclicos de adenosina y/o guanina (cAMP y/o cGMP). Regulan los niveles celulares, localización y duración de la acción de estos mensajeros secundarios controlando su velocidad de degradación. Hay 11 tipos de PDEs, llamadas PDE1-11. La PDE4, 7 y 8 degradan selectivamente cAMP. La PDE5, 6 y 9 degradan selectivamente cGMP y la PDE1, 2, 3, 10 y 11 degradan los dos nucleótidos cíclicos. Cada tipo de PDE tiene una distribución de tejidos específica. Estas enzimas participan en muchas rutas de señalización y sus funciones incluyen la proliferación y contracción del músculo liso vascular, contractilidad cardiaca, agregación de plaquetas, secreción de hormonas, activación de células inmunes, y también participan en el aprendizaje y en la memoria.

En el ser humano se conocen dos isozimas de esta proteína según la siguiente tabla.

(*) Las isoformas se listan según el orden de número de isoforma de la base de datos UniProtKB. La primera isoforma listada es la secuencia canónica.

Referencias

Fosfodiesterasas
EC 3.1.4

Fosfodiesterasa 8


Mord er en dansk dokumentarfilm fra 2009 instrueret af Andreas Johnsen efter eget manuskript.

Handling
I Nicaragua er abort forbudt ved lov. Selv hvis en graviditet viser sig at kunne koste en kvinde livet, vil hun blive fængslet for at vælge en abort. Denne situation er resultatet af en pagt mellem Nicaraguas præsident, den tidligere socialistiske revolutionære Daniel Ortega og den magtfulde katolske kirke. Filmen bringer publikum helt tæt på de udsatte kvinder i Nicaragua og de modige mennesker, der forsøger at hjælpe kvinderne og bekæmpe konsekvenserne af dette politiske spil om magten.

Referencer

Eksterne henvisninger

Dokumentarfilm fra Danmark
Danske film fra 2009

Mord (dokumentarfilm)


Ferhat Abbas
Ferhat Arıcan
Ferhat Mehenni
Ferhat-pacha Sokolović
Ferhat Öztorun
Ferhat Göçer
Ferhat Pehlivan
Ferhat Tunç
Ferhat Challal
Ferhat Aït Ali
Ali Ait Ferhat
Zinedine Ferhat
Ayoub Ferhat

Ferhat


Au théâtre et à l'opéra
 La tempesta, opéra de Fromental Halévy, composé en 1850 sur un livret d'Eugène Scribe.

Au cinéma
 La tempesta, film italien d'Alberto Lattuada sorti en 1958 ;
 La tempesta, film italien de Giovanna Lenzi sorti en 1988 ;
 La tempesta, roman italien d' publié en 1993 ;
 La tempesta, film italien de Stefano Mordini sorti en 1998.

Voir aussi

La tempesta


Un papiro del Nuevo Testamento es una copia de una porción del Nuevo Testamento hecha en papiro. Hasta la fecha, son conocidos más de ciento veinte papiros. En general, se consideran los testimonios más antiguos y con el texto original del Nuevo Testamento.

Este estatus de élite entre los manuscritos del Nuevo Testamento no comenzó hasta el . La agrupación primero fue introducida por Caspar René Gregory, quién asignó a los textos en papiro la letra gótica  seguidas de un número sobrescrito. Antes, en 1900, solo 9 manuscritos en papiro eran conocidos, y únicamente uno había sido citado en una crítica (11 por Konstantin von Tischendorf). Esos 9 papiros eran tan solo fragmentos, excepto 15, el cual consistía todo en una hoja única. Los descubrimientos en el  trajeron los fragmentos más antiguos conocidos del Nuevo Testamento. Kenyon en 1912 conoció 14 papiros, Aland en su primera edición de Kurzgefasste... en 1963 enumeró 76 papiros, en 1989 fueron conocidos 96 papiros, y en 2008 124 papiros. Ahora son conocidos un total de 127 papiros.

También se hicieron descubrimientos de manuscritos más completos, lo que permitió a los eruditos examinar el carácter textual de los manuscritos antiguos.

No todos los manuscritos son textos simples del Nuevo Testamento: 59, 60, 63, 80 son textos con comentarios,2, ³, y 44, son leccionarios, 50, 55, 78 son talismanes, 42; 10, 12, 42, 43, 62, 99 pertenecen a otros textos misceláneos, tales como escritos, glosarios o canciones.

Cada papiro está citado en Nestle-Aland Novum Testamentum Graece.

Lista de todos los papiros registrados del Nuevo Testamento
 Los P-número son el sistema estándar de Gregory-Aland.
 Se estima que las fechas se aproximan con 50 años.
 El contenido se le da al capítulo más aproximativo; a veces los versículos están enlistados. Así, muchos de los papiros son pequeños fragmentos, no capítulos enteros. Por ejemplo  contiene 5 versículos de los 40 versículos del capítulo 18 de Juan.

Distribución basada en el contenido

Nota: Los manuscritos "Primitivos" son los manuscritos del  o más antiguos. Aproximadamente la mitad de los papiros son "primitivos". Algunos manuscritos contienen más de un libro del Nuevo Testamento, así que las cifras anteriores no corresponden directamente al número total de manuscritos.

Referencias

Anexos:Nuevo Testamento
Manuscritos del Nuevo Testamento en griego
Papiros
Papiros en idioma griego

Papiros del Nuevo Testamento


فأر الرمل الهزيل أو جرذ الرمل الهزيل  نوع من القوارض من عائلة الفأريات. يتواجد بالجزائر، ليبيا، وتونس، موئله الطبيعي هو أراضي الشجيرات المدارية الجافة والبحيرات المالحة المتقطعة.

انظر أيضا
 فأر الرمل السمين

مراجع

أصنوفات سماها أولدفيلد توماس
أنواع ناقصة البيانات حسب القائمة الحمراء للاتحاد الدولي لحفظ الطبيعة
ثدييات وصفت في 1925
فأر الرمل

فأر الرمل الهزيل


Christa Rossenbach (* um 1936 in Herne; † 1992) war eine deutsche Schauspielerin und Synchronsprecherin.

Leben
Die Schwester des Künstlers Gert Rossenbach war überwiegend als Schauspielerin auf der Bühne tätig. So spielte sie beispielsweise 1958/59 am Landestheater Kiel unter der Regie von Hans Christian Rudolph die "Ophelia" in Shakespeares Hamlet. Weitere Bühnenstationen waren Anfang der 1960er Bochum, in den späten 1960er Jahren das Berliner Schiller-Theater sowie die Ruhrfestspielen in Recklinghausen.

Gelegentlich trat Christa Rossenbach auch in Film- und Fernsehproduktionen auf wie neben Bernhard Minetti in der Serie Colomba, neben Uwe Friedrichsen in Kameraden nach August Strindberg und in Herbert Ballmanns Fernsehfilm Eugenie Marlitt oder Die Gartenlaube mit Cordula Trantow in der Titelrolle.

Daneben arbeitete sie umfangreich als Sprecherin für Hörspiel und Synchron. So sprach sie die "Wyoming Knott" in Heinz Dieter Köhler vierteiliger WDR-Produktion von Robert A. Heinleins Revolte auf Luna. Als Synchronsprecherin lieh ihre Stimme unter anderem Kate Nelligan als "Mercedes" in Der Graf von Monte Christo mit Richard Chamberlain in der Hauptrolle und Susan Howard in der Krimiserie Petrocelli.

Christa Rossenbach war mit dem Schauspielkollegen Walter Riss verheiratet. Der gemeinsame Sohn Peter Benedict ist ebenfalls Schauspieler geworden.

Filmografie (Auswahl)

 1969: Tagebuch eines Frauenmörders
 1970: Begegnungen auf dem Parnass
 1972: Das Kurheim
 1975: Colomba
 1975: Abschiedsparty
 1976: Direktion City – Die Unvollendete
 1981: Kameraden
 1982: Eugenie Marlitt oder Die Gartenlaube

Hörspiele (Auswahl)
1969: Der freundliche Herr Bengari, RIAS.
1971: Der geheime Privatrat, WDR.
1972: Revolte auf Luna, WDR.
1974: Kein Orpheus für die Unterwelt, RIAS.
1974: Die Massen von Hsunhi, WDR.
1974: Kalt angerichtet, SFB.
1974: Gemeinplatz, HR.
1975: Die Frau und anderes, RIAS.
1975: Das Schweigen des Ezra Pound, RIAS.
1975: Ich und ihr, die ich mal war, SFB.
1975: Macht über Leben und Tod, WDR.
1976: Alltag im Paradies, SFB.
1976: Zerbriggen, SWF.
1976: Die Bienenkönige, SDR.
1976: Trotzki in Coyoacan, RIAS.
1979: Televisionsfriede, RIAS.
1979: Der Teufel mit den drei goldenen Haaren, SWF.
1980: Der Mann aus Granada, SDR.
1981: Schießbefehl, HR.
1982: Die griechische Kassette, RIAS.

Weblinks

 Christa Rossenbach in der Synchrondatenbank von Arne Kaul

Anmerkungen

Filmschauspieler
Theaterschauspieler
Synchronsprecher
Deutscher
Geboren im 20. Jahrhundert
Gestorben 1992
Frau

Christa Rossenbach


West Frisian, or simply Frisian (  or ;  , also ), is a West Germanic language spoken mostly in the province of Friesland () in the north of the Netherlands, mostly by those of Frisian ancestry. It is the most widely spoken of the Frisian languages.

In the study of the evolution of English, West Frisian is notable as being the most closely related foreign tongue to the various dialects of Old English spoken across the Heptarchy, these being part of the Anglo-Frisian branch of the West Germanic family.

Name
The name "West Frisian" is only used outside the Netherlands, to distinguish this language from the closely related Frisian languages of Saterland Frisian and North Frisian spoken in Germany. Within the Netherlands, however, "West Frisian" refers to the West Frisian dialect of the Dutch language while the West Frisian language is almost always just called "Frisian" (in Dutch:  for the Frisian language and  for the Dutch dialect).  The unambiguous name used for the West Frisian language by linguists in the Netherlands is   (West Lauwers Frisian), the Lauwers being a border river that separates the Dutch provinces of Friesland and Groningen.

History

Old Frisian
In the early Middle Ages the Frisian lands stretched from the area around Bruges, in what is now Belgium, to the river Weser, in northern Germany. At that time, the Frisian language was spoken along the entire southern North Sea coast. Today this region is sometimes referred to as "Greater Frisia" or , and many of the areas within it still treasure their Frisian heritage, even though in most places the Frisian language has been lost.

Old Frisian bore a striking similarity to Old English. This similarity was reinforced in the late Middle Ages by the Ingvaeonic sound shift, which affected Frisian and English, but the other West Germanic varieties hardly at all. Both English and Frisian are marked by the suppression of the Germanic nasal in a word like us (), soft () or goose (): see Ingvaeonic nasal spirant law. Also, when followed by some vowels the Germanic k developed into a ch sound. For example, the West Frisian for cheese and church is  and , whereas in Dutch they are  and . Modern English and Frisian on the other hand have become very divergent, largely due to wholesale Norse and French imports into English and similarly heavy Dutch and Low German influences on Frisian.

One major difference between Old Frisian and modern Frisian is that in the Old Frisian period ( – ) grammatical cases still occurred. Some of the texts that are preserved from this period are from the 12th or 13th, but most are from the 14th and 15th centuries. Generally, these texts are restricted to legal documents. Although the earliest definite written examples of Frisian are from approximately the 9th century, there are a few runic inscriptions from the region which are probably older and possibly in the Frisian language. These runic writings, however, usually do not amount to more than single- or few-word inscriptions, and cannot be said to constitute literature as such. The Middle Frisian language period ( – ) is rooted in geopolitics and the consequent fairly abrupt halt in the use of Frisian as a written language.

Middle Frisian and New Frisian
Until the 16th century, West Frisian was widely spoken and written, but from 1500 onwards it became an almost exclusively oral language, mainly used in rural areas. This was in part due to the occupation of its stronghold, the Dutch province of Friesland (), in 1498, by Albert III, Duke of Saxony, who replaced West Frisian as the language of government with Dutch.

This practice was continued under the Habsburg rulers of the Netherlands (Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor, and his son Philip II, King of Spain). When the Netherlands became independent in 1585, West Frisian did not regain its former status, because Holland rose as the dominant part of the Netherlands and its language, Dutch, as the dominant language in judicial, administrative and religious affairs.

In this period the Frisian poet Gysbert Japiks (1603–1666), a schoolteacher and cantor from the city of Bolsward (), who largely fathered modern West Frisian literature and orthography, was an exception to the rule.

His example was not followed until the 19th century, when entire generations of Frisian authors and poets appeared. This coincided with the introduction of the so-called newer breaking system, a prominent grammatical feature in almost all West Frisian dialects, with the notable exception of . Therefore, the New Frisian period is considered to have begun at this time, around 1820.

Speakers

Most speakers of West Frisian live in the province of Friesland in the north of the Netherlands. Friesland has 643,000 inhabitants (2005), of whom 94% can understand spoken West Frisian, 74% can speak West Frisian, 75% can read West Frisian, and 27% can write it.

For over half of the inhabitants of the province of Friesland, 55% (), West Frisian is the native language. In the central east, West Frisian speakers spill over the province border, with some 4,000–6,000 of them actually living in the province of Groningen, in the triangular area of the villages Marum (West Frisian: ), De Wilp (), and Opende ().

Also, many West Frisians have left their province in the last 60 years for more prosperous parts of the Netherlands. Therefore, possibly as many as 150,000 West Frisian speakers live in other Dutch provinces, particularly in the urban agglomeration in the West, and in neighbouring Groningen and newly reclaimed Flevoland.

A Frisian diaspora exists abroad; Friesland sent more emigrants than any other Dutch province between the Second World War and the 1970s. Frisian is still spoken by some Dutch Canadians, Dutch Americans, Dutch Australians and Dutch New Zealanders.

Apart from the use of West Frisian as a first language, it is also spoken as a second language by about 120,000 people in the province of Friesland.

West Frisian is considered by UNESCO to be a language in danger of becoming extinct, officially listed as "vulnerable".

Status

In 1951, Frisian language activists, protesting at the exclusive use of Dutch in the courts, caused a riot in Leeuwarden. The resulting inquiry led to the establishment of a committee of inquiry. This committee recommended that the Frisian language should receive legal status as a minority language. Subsequently, the Use of Frisian in Legal Transactions Act of 11 May 1956 was passed, which provided for the use of Frisian in transactions with the courts.

Since 1956, West Frisian has an official status along with and equal to Dutch in the province of Friesland. It is used in many domains of Frisian society, among which are education, legislation, and administration. In 2010, some sixty public transportation ticket machines in Friesland and Groningen added a West Frisian-language option.

Although in the courts of law the Dutch language is still mainly used, in the province of Friesland, Frisians have the right to give evidence in their own language. Also, they can take the oath in Frisian in courts anywhere in the Netherlands.

Primary education in Friesland was made bilingual in 1956, which means West Frisian can be used as a teaching medium. In the same year, West Frisian became an official school subject, having been introduced to primary education as an optional extra in 1937. It was not until 1980, however, that West Frisian had the status of a required subject in primary schools, and not until 1993 that it was given the same position in secondary education.

In 1997, the province of Friesland officially changed its name from the Dutch form  to the West Frisian . So far 4 out of 18 municipalities (, , , ) have changed their official geographical names from Dutch to West Frisian. Some other municipalities, like Heerenveen and the 11 towns, use two names (both Dutch and West Frisian) or only a West Frisian name.

Within ISO 639 West Frisian falls under the codes fy and fry, which were assigned to the collective Frisian languages.

Relations with Dutch and English

With Dutch
The mutual intelligibility in reading between Dutch and Frisian is poor. A cloze test in 2005 revealed native Dutch speakers understood 31.9% of a West Frisian newspaper, 66.4% of an Afrikaans newspaper and 97.1% of a Dutch newspaper. However, the same test also revealed that native Dutch speakers understood 63.9% of a spoken Frisian text, 59.4% of a spoken Afrikaans text and 89.4% of a spoken Dutch text, read aloud by native speakers of the respective languages.

Folklore about relation to English

The saying "As milk is to cheese, are English and Fries" describes the observed similarity between Frisian and English. One rhyme that is sometimes used to demonstrate the palpable similarity between Frisian and English is "Bread, butter and green cheese is good English and good Fries", which does not sound very different from "".

Another rhyme on this theme, "" (; in English, "Butter, bread and green cheese, whoever can't say that is not a proper Frisian") was used, according to legend, by the 16th century Frisian rebel and pirate Pier Gerlofs Donia as a shibboleth that he forced his captives to repeat to distinguish Frisians from Dutch and Low Germans.

Language examples

Here is a short example of the West Frisian language in comparison with English, Old English, and Dutch.

Internal classification
Not all Frisian varieties spoken in Dutch Friesland are mutually intelligible. The varieties on the islands are rather divergent, and Glottolog distinguishes four languages:
Hindeloopen-Molkwerum Frisian
Schiermonnikoog Frisian
Westlauwers–Terschellings
Terschelling Frisian
Western Frisian (mainstream Mainland West Frisian)

The dialects within mainstream mainland West Frisian are all readily intelligible. Three are usually distinguished:
Clay Frisian (Klaaifrysk dialect)
Wood Frisian (Wâldfrysk dialect, incl. Westereendersk)
South or Southwest Frisian (Súdhoeksk dialect)

The  ("South Western") dialect, which is spoken in an area called  ("the Southwest Corner"), deviates from mainstream West Frisian in that it does not adhere to the so-called newer breaking system, a prominent grammatical feature in the three other main dialects.

The  ("Northern") dialect, spoken in the north eastern corner of the province, does not differ much from Wood Frisian.

By far the two most-widely spoken West Frisian dialects are Clay Frisian () and Wood Frisian (). Both these names are derived from the Frisian landscape. In the western and north-western parts of the province, the region where Clay Frisian is spoken, the soil is made up of thick marine clay, hence the name. While in the Clay Frisian-speaking area ditches are used to separate the pastures, in the eastern part of the province, where the soil is sandy, and water sinks away much faster, rows of trees are used to that purpose.  The natural landscape in which Wâldfrysk exists mirrors The Weald and North Weald areas of south-eastern England – the Germanic words wald and weald are cognate.

Although  and  are mutually very easily intelligible, there are, at least to native West Frisian speakers, a few very conspicuous differences. These include the pronunciation of the words  ("me"),  ("thee"),  ("he"),  ("she" or "they"),  ("we") and  ("by"), and the diphthongs  and .

Of the two,  probably has more speakers, but because the western clay area was originally the more prosperous part of the mostly agricultural province,  has had the larger influence on the West Frisian standardised language.

Dialectal comparison
There are few if any differences in morphology or syntax among the West Frisian dialects, all of which are easily mutually intelligible, but there are slight variances in lexicon.

Phonological differences

The largest difference between the Clay Frisian and Wood Frisian dialects are the words my ("me"), dy ("you"), hy ("he"), sy ("she" or "they"), wy ("we"), and by ("by"), which are pronounced in the Wood Frisian as mi, di, hi, si, wi, and bi and in Clay Frisian as mij, dij, hij, sij, wij, and bij.  Other differences are in the pronunciation of the diphthongs ei, ai, and aai which are pronounced ij, ai, and aai in Wood Frisian, but ôi, òi, and ôi in Clay Frisian. Thus, in Wood Frisian, there is no difference between ei and ij, whereas in Clay Frisian, there is no difference between ei and aai.

Other phonological differences include:

Lexical differences
Some lexical differences between Clay Frisian and Wood Frisian include:

Alphabet

West Frisian uses the Latin alphabet. A, E, O and U may be accompanied by circumflex or acute accents.

In alphabetical listings both I and Y are usually found between H and J. When two words differ only because one has I and the other one has Y (such as  and ), the word with I precedes the one with Y.

In handwriting, IJ (used for Dutch loanwords and personal names) is written as a single letter (see IJ (digraph)), whereas in print the string IJ is used. In alphabetical listings IJ is most commonly considered to consist of the two letters I and J, although in dictionaries there is an entry IJ between X and Z telling the user to browse back to I.

Phonology

Grammar

See also
 Frisia
 Frisian languages
 Frisian Islands
 Frisians
 Frisian literature
 Languages of the Netherlands
  Swadesh list with English and Frisian words

References

Further reading

External links

 ISO 639 code set entry for "fry" and for "fri" (active and retired language codes, respectively)
 Course West Frisian
 Wet gebruik Friese taal (2013). overheid.nl. - 2013 legislation concerning the Frisian language

Languages of the Netherlands
Culture of Groningen (province)

West Frisian language


St. Kamillus ist eine römisch-katholische Filialkirche in Neuss. Die Kirche liegt im Stadionviertel am Glehner Weg 41.

Geschichte
Bereits 1910 ließ der Kamillianer-Orden an dieser Stelle ein Pflegeheim und eine dazugehörige Klosteranlage errichten. Nach den Zerstörungen im Zweiten Weltkrieg wurde 1947 zunächst eine Notkirche gebaut, die 1973 der heutigen Kamilluskirche weichen musste. Diese wurde vom Architekten Wilhelm Schlombs geplant und am 8. September 1973 geweiht. Seit dem Weggang der letzten Patres 1997 ist sie Filialkirche der Pfarrei St. Marien.

Ausstattung

Der Innenraum der Kirche erinnert an ein schützendes Zelt. Die dominierenden Farben sind ein warmer Rotton und Orange, die dominierenden Materialien sind die roten Klinker, das Holz der Decke und das Buntglas der Fenster. Sie bewirken zusammen ein Gefühl von Geborgenheit und Schutz. Die von Dieter Hartmann geschaffenen Fenster zeigen in 14 Stationen den Kreuzweg. Im kleinen Turm hängen zwei Glocken (Kamillus- und Marienglocke), die 1973 von Petit & Gebr. Edelbrock gegossen wurden.

Bibelgarten
Seit 2010 existiert rund um die Kirche ein großzügiger Bibelgarten. Viele Pflanzen, die in den Evangelien erwähnt werden, sind dort angepflanzt zusammen mit kleinen Schildern, die auf die entsprechende Bibelstelle hinweisen.

Literatur
 Manfred Becker-Huberti (Hrsg.): Neusser Kirchen. Die katholischen Kirchen im Kreisdekanat Rhein-Kreis Neuss. 1. Auflage. Bachem Verlag. Köln 2006, ISBN 3-7616-1966-9.
 Stadtdekanat Neuss (Hrsg.): Katholische Kirchen im Neusser Raum laden ein. Neuss 1998.

Einzelnachweise

Weblinks

 St. Kamillus auf der Internetseite des Katholikenrates
 St. Kamillus auf der Internetseite der Mutterpfarrei St. Marien
 Gerhard Hoffs: Glockenmusik im Stadtdekanat Neuss. Eintrag über die Glocken von St. Kamillus S. 73.

Kamillus
Neuss Kamillus
Kamillus Neuss
Neuss
Stadionviertel
Neuss Kamillus
Neuss Kamillus

St. Kamillus (Neuss)


Sönnunarfærsla er ferlið við framlagningu sönnunargagna í dómsmáli, svo sem með skýrslutöku fyrir dómi eða framlagningu skjala. Tilgangur hennar er að sanna staðhæfingar um atburð eða staðreynd.

Tengt efni
 Útilokunarreglan

Réttarfar
Lögfræði

Sönnunarfærsla


Armando de Mattos Filho ( n. 1946) es un ingeniero agrónomo y botánico brasileño.

Trabaja, desde los años 1970, en el "Instituto de Botânica" del Jardín Botánico de Río de Janeiro, sobre anatomía de maderas

Algunas publicaciones

Libros
 . 1992. Contribuição ao conhecimento das floras do nordeste de Minas Gerais e da Bahia mediterrânea. Rio de Janeiro: MMA/JBRJ. Série estudos e contribuições Nº 9. 95 pp. ISBN 85-208-0126-9

 --------------------------------, ---------------------------------------. 1984. Nota sobre a floraçāo e frutificaçāo de Corypha umbraculifera L.''. Rodriguésia 36 (61 ): 49-50

Referencias

Enlaces externos

Botánicos de Brasil
Escritores en portugués
Agrónomos de Brasil

Armando de Mattos


Sighetu Marmației (, also spelled Sighetul Marmației;  or Siget; , ; ; ), until 1960 Sighet, is a city (municipality) in Maramureș County near the Iza River, in northwestern Romania.

Geography
Sighetu Marmației is situated along the Tisa river on the border with Ukraine, across from the Ukrainian town of Solotvyno.
Neighboring communities include: Sarasău, Săpânța, Câmpulung la Tisa, Ocna Șugatag, Giulești, Vadu Izei, Rona de Jos and Bocicoiu Mare communities in Romania, Bila Cerkva community and the Solotvyno township in Ukraine (Zakarpattia Oblast). The city administers five villages: Iapa (Kabolapatak), Lazu Baciului (Bácsiláz), Șugău (Sugó), Valea Cufundoasă (Mélypatak) and Valea Hotarului (Határvölgy).

Demographics

At the 2021 census, Sighetu Marmației had a population of 32,793. At the 2011 census, the city had 37,640 inhabitants; of those, 82.2% were Romanians, 13% Hungarians, 2.3% Ukrainians, and Roma,

According to the 1910 census, the city had 21,370 inhabitants; these consisted of 17,542 (82.1%) Hungarian speakers, 2,002 (9.4%) Romanian, 1,257 (5.9%) German, and 32 Ruthenian speakers. The number of Jews was 7,981; they were included in the Hungarian and German language groups. There were
5,850 Greek Catholics and 4,901 Roman Catholics. According to a 1920 estimate, the city had 23,691 inhabitants, 11,026 being Jews, 6,552 Hungarians, 4,964 Romanians, 149 Germans, and 1,000 of other ethnicities. The 1930 census numbered 27,270 inhabitants, 10,526 of them being Jews, 9,658 Romanians, 5,424 Hungarians, 1,221 Ukrainians, and 441 of other ethnicities.

Etymology
The municipality's name derives from Hungarian name which means "island in Máramaros". According to the legend, the place name comes from the Hungarian expression "mára már rossz" (too bad by now), referring to that the local tribes moved to Moldavia.

Inhabitants simply call to the city Sighet and similar abbreviations in their mother tongue.

History
Inhabited since the Hallstatt period, the populated area  lies in the Tisza Valley, an important route as being the only access to the otherwise mountainous, sparsely populated region. After 895 in the 10th century the area became part of Kingdom of Hungary. The first mention of a settlement dates back to the 11th century, and the city as such was first mentioned in 1326. In 1352, it was a free royal town and the capital of Máramaros comitatus, just outside Transylvania.

After the defeat at the Battle of Mohács and the death of Louis II of Hungary, in the ensuing struggle for the Hungarian throne, the kingdom was divided into Royal Hungary of Habsburg Ferdinand I, Holy Roman Emperor and the Eastern Hungarian Kingdom of John Zápolya the Voivode of Transylvania. In 1570 the Principality of Transylvania was formed which included Máramaros County. Transylvania, including Maramureș, became an autonomous principality within the Ottoman Empire from 1541. In 1711, King Charles III returned Máramaros County to his Hungarian domain.

1918 saw the dissolution of the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy. On November 22, 1918, in an assembly of Romanians from Maramureș took place in the town's central square, electing a national council and deciding to send a delegation to the Great National Assembly of Alba Iulia, which voted the union of Transylvania with Romania and the consequent establishment of Greater Romania. The Allied Powers accepted the Romanian demands and Transylvania including Máramaros County was formally ceded to Romania in the Treaty of Trianon in 1920.

In 1919, six Romanian schools opened in Sighet: a boys' high school, a girls' high school, a boys' elementary school, a co-ed commercial gymnasium, and two commercial high schools (one for boys, the other for girls). The Maramureș ethnographic museum opened in the cultural palace in 1926. During the interwar period, over twenty newspapers appeared in the town, as well as a number of literary reviews. As a result of the August 1940 Second Vienna Award during World War II, it came under Hungarian administration during the war.

A first deportation of Jews from Sighet took place in 1941. The second occurred after Passover 1944, so that by April, the town's ghetto contained close to 13,000 Jews from Sighet itself and the neighboring places of Dragomirești, Ocna Șugatag and Vișeu de Sus. Between May 16 and 22, the ghetto was liquidated in four transports, its inhabitants sent to Auschwitz concentration camp. Among the deportees was Sighet native and future Nobel Peace Prize laureate Elie Wiesel. In 1947, there were some 2,300 Jews in Sighet, including survivors and a considerable number of Jews from other parts of Romania. By 2002, the town had 20 remaining Jews.

The Treaty of Paris at the end of World War II voided the Vienna Awards, and Sighetu Marmației, administered by Romania since October 1944, formally returned to the country in 1947.

In 1948, the new Communist regime nationalized the city's factories, three publishing houses and banks. In 1950, with the counties replaced by regions, Sighet lost its status as an administrative center. In 1960, the building of neighborhoods with apartment blocks began. The same year, the town's name became Sighetul Marmației; the final "l" was dropped in 1968. 1962 saw the opening of a wood processing factory (Combinatul de Industrializare a Lemnului). Turning out furniture and other wood products, it had over 6,000 employees and played an important part in the city's economic development. After the Romanian Revolution of 1989, it gradually fell upon hard times, with nine private firms employing some 3500 in 2012. A second important employer during the Communist period was a textile factory.

In May 2014 a commemoration was held in honour of the 70th anniversary of the deportations in May 1944. Events included a Klezmer concert, Sabbath services in the one remaining synagogue, a memorial service at the Holocaust Monument at the site of the deportations, as well as an exhibit on life in Sighet prior to the deportations. The exhibit contained contributions by survivors and their families. Additionally, visits were organized to the Jewish Cemetery as well as the Holocaust Museum located in the childhood home of Elie Wiesel. On 3 August 2018, Wiesel's birthplace was vandalized.

Sighet Prison

After the establishment of the Romanian communist regime, the Securitate ran the Sighet Prison during the 1950s and 1960s as a place for the detention and political repression of public figures who had been declared "class enemies." The most prominent of these was the former prime minister Iuliu Maniu, who died in the prison in 1953. The former prison is operated as a museum, part of the Memorial of the Victims of Communism and of the Resistance.

International relations

Twin towns — Sister cities
Sighetu Marmației is twinned with:
  Khust, Ukraine
  Oława, Poland
  Kolomyia, Ukraine
 Naples, Italy
 Kiryat Yam, Israel

Notable inhabitants
 Marius Bilașco
 Dumitru Cernicica
 Géza Frid
 Hédi Fried
John Gassner, Yale University professor
 Zoltan Harmat (1900-1985), Israeli architect
 Simon Hollósy
 Monica Iagăr
 Alexandru Ivasiuc
 György Jakubinyi
 Hermann Kahan
 Amos Manor
 Gisella Perl
 Kornélia Prielle
 Edmund Bordeaux Szekely
 Joel Teitelbaum
 Moshe Teitelbaum
 Yekusiel Yehuda Teitelbaum (II)
 Simon Ungar
 Elie Wiesel

See also
 Night

Image gallery

References

External links

 Photos and Images of Sighetu Marmației
 Photos of Sighetu Marmației
 Sighetu Marmației
 Sighetu Marmației
 Sighetu Marmației Online News
 The Sighet Memorial of the Victims of Communism

Populated places in Maramureș County
Cities in Romania
Localities in Romanian Maramureș
Satmar (Hasidic dynasty)
Romania–Ukraine border crossings
Place names of Hungarian origin in Romania
Jewish communities in Romania
Capitals of former Romanian counties
Holocaust locations in Romania

Sighetu Marmației


Wisła Kraków (), Polonya'nın Kraków şehrinde kurulmuş futbol kulübü. Ev sahibi maçlarını 33.268 kişilik Miejski Stadı'nda oynarlar. Kırmızı-beyazlı takım 2010-11 sezonunda Polonya Ligi'nde 1. olmuştur. Kulübün maskotu ejderhadır.

Wisła, Polonya'nın en eski ve en başarılı kulüplerinden biridir. Şu ana kadar Polonya Ligi'ni 14 kez kazanmışlardır.

Kadrosu
Güncelleme: 26-03-2019 itibarıyla

Başarılar
 Ekstraklasa (Polonya Ligi): 13 (1927, 1928, 1949, 1950, 1978, 1999, 2001, 2003, 2004, 2005, 2008, 2009, 2011)
 Polonya Kupası (Puchar Polski): 4 (1926, 1967, 2002, 2003)
 Polonya Lig Kupası (Puchar ligi w polskiej piłce nożnej): 1 (2001)
 Polonya Süper Kupası (Superpuchar Polski): 1 (2001)

Dış bağlantılar

 Wisła Kraków  (90minut.pl)

Kaynakça

Polonya'daki futbol kulüpleri
1906'da kurulan futbol kulüpleri

Wisła Kraków


19 යන සියවස දක්වා ලක්දිව සිංහලේ ලෙස හැඳින්විනි  ක්‍රි.ව. 1815 මාර්තු දෙවන දින උඩරට ගිවිසුම සමග සිංහලේ පාලනය ඉංග්‍රීසි ජාතිකයන්ට බාරවිය. රාජධානියට නැවතතත් දේශීය රජෙකු පත්කරගැනීම සඳහා වූ ඌව වෙල්ලස්ස කැරැල්ලට ප්‍රතිචාරයක් ලෙස ක්‍රි.ව. 1817දී  සමස්ථ ලංකා දිවයිනම බ්‍රිතාන්‍ය ලංකාව ලෙස තනි පාලනයකට නතුකරගැනීමත් සමග  සිංහලේ අහෝසිවිය.
1948 නිදහස ලැබීමත් සමග අහෝසි වූ සිංහලේ නැවතත් (සිංහල රාජ්‍යය) ශ්රි ලංකාව ලෙස හැදින්වීමට පටන් ගැනුනි.

උඩරට රජතුමෙකු යටතේ එම ප්‍රදේශයෙහි වාසය කල රොබට් නොක්ස් ගේ පොතෙහි මෙම රාජ්‍යය සඳහා සිංහලෙ ලෙසින් සඳහන් නොවෙයි. ඔහු මෙම ප්‍රදේශයෙහි ජීවත්වූයේ දෙවන රාජසිංහ රජුගේ සමයෙහි වන අතර 1659 දී පමණ රජුගේ අත්අඩංගුවට පත්ව ඇත. ඔහුගේ ග්‍රන්ථයෙහි උඩරට රජු හැඳින්වීමට භාවිතා කරන්නේ කන්දෙ උඩ රජු වශයෙනි. (සිංහලේ අගනුවර පිහිටා ඇත්තේ මහනුවර බැවිනි) රජු විසූ කන්දෙ පළාත සහ යටනුවර පළාත් ප්‍රධාන පළාත් ලෙසින් නොක්ස් සඳහන් කරයි. මේ කාලය වන විට රටෙහි පහතරට ප්‍රදේශ ලන්දේසීන් යටතේ පැවතිණි.

2 වන සියවසෙහිදී ටොලමි විසින් නිර්මාණය කරන ලද ලෝක සිතියමෙහි  මෙරට හැඳින්වෙන්නේ තැප්‍රොබේන් ලෙසිනි. එය කිසිසේත් සිංහල හුරුවක් සහිත වචනයක් නොවන බැවින් එය එකල සිංහල දීපයට ඔහු තැබූ නමක් ලෙස උපකල්පනය කළ හැක.

වෙනත් භාෂා ඌරුවෙන් භාවිතා වූ පද

 පෘතුගීසි ඌරුව: සෙයිලාඹ්
 ලන්දේසි ඌරුව: සේලාන්
 ඉංග්‍රීසි ඌරුව: සිලෝන්

වෙනත් වදන්
සිංහලේ හැඳින්වීමට කට වහරේ සිංහල දේසේ යන වදනද භාවිතාවී ඇත. අතිතයේ ප්‍රාචීණ භෘෂා උරුවට යමින් සිංහල අකුරු ලිවීමෙදී ඒ ශබ්ධය සඳහා හල් කිරීම නොයෙදීමේ සම්ප්‍රදාය මත යමින් සමහර ලේඛණ වල සිංහලෙ ලෙස දක්වා ඇත. මෙම ලේඛණය තුල සිංහලේ සහ බ්‍රිතාන්‍යයන් ඒ වන විටත් යටත්කරගෙන තිබූ ප්‍රදේශ ඇතුලත් සමස්ත දිවයින හැඳින්වීමට ලංකාව යන වදන භවිතා වේ.
ඉතා ආදියේ "සීහල","සීහලක" ,"සිංහල" හා ඒ හා සම්බන්ධ නම් වලින්ම උපත ලද "සින්හලාන්", "සෙලාන්" ,"සේය්ලාන්" ,"සිලෝන්" හා "සිහෝල්" ආදී නම් වලින් හැඳින්විණි . සංස්කෘත පොත්වල සිංහල නාමය බහුලව යොදා ඇත .සමන්තපාසාදිකාව ආදී පාලි අටුවාවන්හි එය "සීහල" ලෙස සිටී.දෙමල පොත්වල "සිංගලම් " සහ "සීහලම්" ලෙසද සමහර තැනක  "ඊළම් " ලෙසද ඇත.අරාබීහු "සීහලදීපය" ලෙසවූ යෙදුම "සරන්දිබ්" , "සෙරන්ඩිබ්" සහ "සින්ගල්දිබ් " ලෙස යොදා ඇත.ටොලමි "සලිකේ "ලෙස යෙදුවේ ද සින්හලයමය.චීන ජාතිකයන් "සෙලාන්" ලෙසත් ඒ අනුව යමින් ජපන් ජාතිකයෝ "සේරෝන්" නමින් හඳුන්වති.කෞටිල්‍ය අර්ථශාස්ත්‍රයේ "සින්හලදීපේ මයුර ග්රාමේ කුලා නාම නදී" යනුවෙන් දෙපොලකම ඇත .

වදන යොදන අවස්ථා

සිංහලේ ලෙස
12 වන සියවසයේ ලීලාවතී රැජින,කල්‍යාණවතී රැජින සහ  6 වන පැරකුම්බා රජ දවස "ත්‍රි සිංහලේ " ලෙස ව්‍යවාහාර විය. එය ක්‍රි.ව 4 සියවසේ රචිත පළමු වංශ කතාව වන දීපවංශයේ  "ලන්කාදීපෝ අයං ආහු සීහෙන සින්හලා ඉති" ලෙස දක්වා තිබේ. එනම් ලංකා දිවයින සිංහයා නිසා සිංහලේ නමින් හැඳින්විණි යන්නයි. සිංහලය, සින්හලෙ සහ සිංහලේ යනු එකම ශබ්දයේ ව්‍යාකරණිය වූ ව්‍යවහාරයන්ය.

නීතිය

උඩරට ගිවිසුම
 ශ්‍රී ලංකාවේ පුද්ගල සිවිල් නීති ක්‍රමයක් වන උඩරට නීතියේ පාදස්ථ ලියවිල්ල වන උඩරට ගිවිසුමේ.
ක්‍රි.ව. 1815 වසරෙහිදී  අත්සන් කෙරුණු උඩරට ගිවිසුමේ සිංහල පිටපතට අනුව උඩරට විවිධ ප්‍රදේශ හඳුන්වා ඇත්තේ ඇත්තේ "සිංහලෙ" ලෙසිනි. එම ගිවිසුමේ 10 පලකම රටේ නම සිංහලේ ලෙස හදුන්වා ඇත.

කලා නිර්මාණ
 රත්නදීප ජන්ම භූමි ගීතයේ

සිංහල දේසේ ලෙස
චීන ජාතික සැන්සා හිමි යන්ගේ දේශාටන වාර්තාවේ (7 වන සියවස) "සින්චාලෝකෝ" හෙවත් "සිංහ දේශය" ලෙස හදුන්වා ඇත.  බුරුමයේ ධම්ම චේතියරජු(ක‍්‍රි ව 1459) විසින් පිහිටවන ලද කල්‍යාණි සෙල්ලිපියේ "සිහල දේශ" ලෙස හඳුන්වා ඇත.

සිංහලේ පිළිබදව හෙළ මතවාදය නම් අතීතයේ පටන් ලංකා දීපය හෙළ දීපය නමින් හැදින්වූ බවයි. හෙළ යනු සූර්යා යන අරුත ගෙන ඒ. මෙම හෙළ ගෝත්‍ර හතරකි එනම් යක්ෂ, අසුර, රක්ෂස හා නාග ලෙසිනි. මෙම ගෝත්‍ර හතර සිව් හෙළය නමින් හැදින්විය. සිව් හෙළ - සිහල -සිංහල යන ආකාරයෙන් පරිනාමය වී ඇත. විවිධ ආක්‍රමන හා සංක්‍රමන මැද සිව්හෙළ සිය අන්‍යතාවය පවත්වාගෙන ගියේය. නමුත් මහිංදාගමනයෙන් පසු සෑම හෙළගෝත්‍රයක්ම පොදුවේ බුදු දහම වැළද ගැනීම නිසා ගෝත්‍ර අන්‍යතාවය වියැකී ජාතියක් බවට පත්විය. එලාර ආක්‍රමනය මැඩලීමට සෑම හෙළයෙක්ම ගෝත්‍ර බේදය අතර හැර එක් ජාතියක් ලෙසින් එක්විය. දුටු ගැමුණු සමයෙන් පසු සියල්ලෝම එක් සිංහල ජාතියක් ලෙසින් සැලකින. එම නිසා සිංහලයන්ගේ ජාතික රාජ්‍යය යන අරුතෙන් සිංහලය, සිංහලේ, සිංහලද්ධීපය නමින් හැදින්වේ.

කලා නිර්මාණ
 ඔලිඳ තිබෙන්නේ ...  ජන කවිය
 සෙංකඩගල පුර දලදා බුදු රැස්... ගීතය

සිංහල දීපය ලෙස
මහාවංශයේ 72 පරිචේදයේ -135-138 ගාථා වල - "මට සිංහල කඩුවක් දෙව ,මේ කඩුව සිංහල පටුත්වය ඇත්තක් නොවේ,…… මා ඇත ආයුධ ගන්වන්ට සමර්තයෙක් මේ "සිංහලද්වීපයේ නැත". තවද එහි 104 ගතාවේ මෙසේ ඇත. "එරට ප්‍රතිපාදනය කොට සොලී දේශයෙන්ද පඬි රටින්ද ගන්නා ලද්දාවූ බොහෝ අසුන් හා මිනිසුන්ද ඇතුන්ද වහා සිංහල දීපයට එවීය" ලෙස සදහන්ය.
ඉන්දියාවේ සමුද්‍රගුප්ත රජුගේ(ක‍්‍රි ව 325 - 380) අලහාබාද් ප‍්‍රශස්තියේ  "සිංහල ද්විප" වශයෙන් මෙම දිවයිනට නම්දී ඇත. චීන ජාතික ඉජින් හිමියන් (7 වන සියවස) විසින් ලියා ඇති පොත්වල "සිහල ද්වීපය" ලෙස සටහන්ව ඇත.

උප බෙදීම්

මධ්‍යකාලීන යුගය
තුන් සිංහලේ
 රුහුණු රට
 පිහිටි රට
 මායා රට

සෙංකඩගල යුගය

සෙංකඩගල යුගයේදී සිංහල රාජධානිය උප පාලන කලාප 21කින් සමන්විත විය. ඉන් විශාල කලාප 12 දිසාවනි ලෙසත් කුඩා කලාප 9 රට ලෙසත් හැඳින්වුනි.

ආශ්‍රිත ලිපි
 ශ්‍රී ලංකාව
 සෙංකඩගල යුගය- සිංහලේ රාජධානිය
 උඩරට ගිවිසුම
 තුන් සිංහලේ
 ලක්දිව
 උඩරට
 පාතරට

මූලාශ්‍ර

සිංහලේ

සිංහලේ


Renwick  est une petite localité de la région de Marlborough, située dans l'Île du Sud de la Nouvelle-Zélande.

Situation
Elle est localisée tout près de la berge sud du fleuve Wairau,  sur le trajet de la route , à à l'ouest de la ville de Blenheim.
La ville de Havelock est située à  au nord.

Accès
La route  court vers le sud-ouest à partir de la localité de Renwick à travers la vallée du fleuve Wairau   .

Population
La population était de  en 2006 lors du  , en augmentation de  par rapport à celui de 2001.

Toponymie
La ville était initialement connue sous le nom de "Upper Wairau", et ensuite de "Renwicktown" d'après un des premiers propriétaires, Dr  .

Activités économiques
La ville de Renwick est localisée dans le centre de la région vinicole de Marlborough.
Le sauvignon blanc est la variété habituellement associée à ce secteur, et les fameuses marques de vins telles que «Isabel Estate» et «Forrest Estate» sont situées à proximité immédiate.
Le pinot gris (grey pinot) est aussi exporté.

Éducation
 L'école de «Renwick School» est une école mixte assurant tout le primaire, allant de l'année 1 à 8, avec un taux de décile de 8 et un effectif de plus de  en 2015.
La première école de Renwick a ouvert au début de l'année 1861  utilisant l'église presbytérienne comme salle de classe.
C'était la seconde école de la région de Marlborough.
L'école actuelle a ouvert en 1864.

Voir aussi

Liste des villes de Nouvelle-Zélande

Notes et références

Liens externes
 Renwick School website
 Giesen Sports and Events Centre

Ville en Nouvelle-Zélande
Région de Marlborough

Renwick (Nouvelle-Zélande)