පොදු ජාත්‍යන්තර නීතියට ව්‍යවස්ථාවක් සැකසීම සඳහා එක්සත් ජාතීන්ගේ සංවිධානය නිර්මාණය කිරීමේ අදහස දෙවන ලෝක යුද්ධ සමයේදී ඇති වූවකි.

ජාත්‍යන්තර නීතිය ලෙසින් හැඳින්වෙන්නේ ජාතික රාජ්‍යයන් ප්‍රකාශිතව හා ව්‍යංගයෙන් පිලිගත් වටිනාකම් හා ප්‍රමිතීන්ට ගරුකරමින් කටයුතු කරන ගිවිසුම් පද්ධතියකි. පුද්ගලික තැනැත්තන් වෙනුවට ජාතික රාජ්‍යයන් සම්බන්ධයෙන් අදාලවන බැවින් එය අනෙක් නීති පද්ධතීන්ගෙන් වෙනස් වෙයි. කෙසේ වෙතත් ජාත්‍යන්තර නීතිය යන යෙදුම එකිනෙකට වෙනස් දැනුම් පද්ධතීන් තුනක් විසින් යොදාගනු ලැබේ.

 එක්සත් ජාතීන්ගේ සමුද්‍රිය නීතිය, ජාත්‍යන්තර අපරාධ නීතිය සහ ජිනීවා සම්මුති ඇතුලත් වන පොදු ජාත්‍යන්තර නීතිය
කිසියම් නඩුවක් විභාග කළයුතු අධිකරණ බලය
අදාල අධිකරණ බලයන් තුලදී අදාල කරගත යුතු නීතිය කුමක්ද යන ප්‍රශ්නවලට පිලිතුරු සපයන පුද්ගලික ජාත්‍යන්තර නීතිය හෝ නීති අතර ගැටුම
ප්‍රජාතික නෛතික පද්ධතියක් සමඟ කටයුතු කිරීමේදී ජාතික රාජ්‍යයන්ගේ නීති පද්ධතීන් පිලිගත නොහැකි තත්වයට පත්වීම සුවිශේෂ ලක්‍ෂණයක් වන වර්තමාන කලාපීය ගිවිසුම් සම්බන්ධයෙන් අවධානයක් යොමු කරන ප්‍රජාතික නීතිය හෝ ප්‍රජාතික සංවිධානයන් පිලිබඳ නීතිය

ආශ්‍රිත

 List of International Court of Justice cases
 List of international public law topics
 List of treaties
 Consular law
 Aviation law and Space law
 Centre for International Law (CIL)
 Comparative law
 Diplomatic law and Diplomatic recognition
 Global administrative law
 Global policeman
 International litigation
 International community
 International constitutional law
 International regulation
 International relations
 INTERPOL
 Prize law
 Refugee law
 Third World Approaches to International Law (TWAIL)
 UNIDROIT
 Rule of Law in Armed Conflicts Project (RULAC)

මූලාශ්‍ර

භාහිර සබැඳි

 United Nations Rule of Law, the United Nations' centralised website on the rule of law
 Treaty Collection at the United Nations
 Audiovisual Library of International Law at the United Nations
 Legal Research Guides at the United Nations Library and Archives in Geneva
 Public International Law, Research Guide at the Peace Palace Library
 Guide to Electronic Resources for International Law at the American Society of International Law
 Official website of the International Court of Justice

ජාත්‍යන්තර නීතිය
International trade law
International
International relations
Cultural globalization
 නීතිය

ජාත්‍යන්තර නීතිය


චොංජු යං වංශයේ අධිරාජකීය බොක්න්‍යොං ග්වයි-ඉන් බිසව (1882 සැප්තැම්බර් 27 – 1929 මැයි 30) (복녕당 귀인 양씨) යනුවෙන් හැඳින්වෙන්නේ කොරියානු රජ සහ අධිරාජයා වූ කොරියාවේ ගෝජොංගේ බිසවකි. ඇගේ සම්පූර්ණ නාමය වූයේ යං චුන්-ගි (양춘기) ය.

ඇය 1905 මාර්තු 10 දින පරිවාර ස්ත්‍රියක ලෙසින් දොක්සුගුං මාලිගයට පිවිසියා ය. දොක්හ්යේ කුමරියට උපත ලබාදීමෙන් පසු, ඇයට "බොක්න්‍යොං" (福寧) යන නාමය ලබාදෙන ලදී.

දරුවන්
දොක්හ්යේ කුමරිය (1912 මැයි 25 – 1989 අප්‍රේල් 21) (덕혜옹주)

ආශ්‍රේයයන්

1882 උපත්
1929 මරණ
කොරියානු උපබිසෝවරු
ජොසොන් රාජවංශයේ රාජකීය බිසෝවරු
ජොසොන් රාජවංශ අන්තඃපුරය

අධිරාජකීය බොක්න්‍යොං ග්වයි-ඉන් බිසව


Superliga je predstavljala prvi razred odbojkaškog prvenstva Hrvatske za muškarce u sezoni 2020./21.
U "Superligi" je sudjelovalo 11 klubova, a prvak je postala "Mladost" iz Zagreba.

Sustav natjecanja
Natjecanje u "Superligi" se igralo u dva dijela:
 Prvi dio – 11 klubova je igralo dvokružnu ligu (22 kola, 20 utakmica po momčadi)
 Doigravanje – igraju prve 4 ekipe iz "Prvog dijela", poluzavršnica i završnica na dvije pobjede

Sudionici

 Centrometal – Črečan, Nedelišće
 Kitro Varaždin – Varaždin
 Marsonia – Slavonski Brod
 Mladost – Zagreb
 Mursa – Osijek – Osijek
 Ribola Kaštela – Kaštel Lukšić, Kaštela
 Rijeka – Rijeka
 Rovinj – Rovinj
 Sisak – Sisak
 Split – Split
 Zadar – Zadar

Ljestvice i rezultati

Prvi dio

Ljestvica

Rezultatska križaljka

Doigravanje za prvaka
 – domaća utakmica za klub1
 – gostujuća utakmica za klub1

Povezani članci
 Prvenstvo Hrvatske u odbojci
 Kup Hrvatske 2020./21.

Vanjske poveznice
 m.superliga.hr
 hos-cvf.hr, Hrvatski odbojkaški savez
 natjecanja.hos-cvf.hr
 odbojka.hr

Izvori

 natjecanja.hos-cvf.hr, SUPERLIGA – seniori (2020./21.), pristupljeno 6. lipnja 2021.
 natjecanja.hos-cvf.hr, SUPERLIGA – seniori (2020./21.), wayback arhiva
 m.superliga.hr, Poredak – Prvi krug natjecanja, wayback arhiva

2020-21

Superliga Hrvatske u odbojci za muškarce 2020./21.


Lovitura de stat din Bolivia din 1920 a fost o preluare de putere fără vărsare de sânge în Bolivia de către Partidul Republican la 12 iulie 1920, lovitură care a răsturnat guvernul Partidului Liberal și l-a adus pe Bautista Saavedra în funcția de președinte din 1920 până în 1925.

Republicanii au fost mai puțin uniți de o ideologie unică decât de o largă alianță a foștilor liberali și a unor elite conservatoare care de obicei aveau unele conflicte personale cu liberalii conducători și doreau să preia puterea pentru ei înșiși. Curând după lovitura de stat, republicanii s-au împărțit în două noi partide grupate în jurul a doi lideri - Bautista Saavedra împreună cu Partidul Socialist Republican și Daniel Salamanca, care a înființat Partidul Republican Autentic.

Saavedra a legalizat dreptul la grevă și a introdus arbitrajul guvernamental în litigiile de muncă. În 1922 a provocat o grevă generală după interzicerea taxiurilor de noapte. Greviștii au câștigat și serviciile de taxi au fost reluate, iar federația feroviară a fost recunoscută ca reprezentantă a lucrătorilor feroviari. Asta nu a înseamnat sfârșitul violenței. În 1923, o grevă a minerilor din Uncia a fost reprimată cu forța. O revoltă nativă în altiplano condusă de Jesus de Machacha a fost, de asemenea, reprimată în același an. Abundența de staniu s-a încheiat în 1925, astfel că au început problemele economice.

Saavedra l-a ales pe succesorul său, Hernando Siles Reyes, unul dintre liderii republicani, care a fost ales președinte în 1926 și a fost forțat să demisioneze în 1930 după ce a candidat pentru a fi ales pentru al doilea mandat. Daniel Salamanca și-a asumat atunci președinția cu ajutorul Partidului Liberal și a condus țara în dezastruosul Război Chaco.

Referințe

Istoria Boliviei
1920 în America de Sud
Lovituri de stat

Lovitura de stat din Bolivia din 1920


Zima (în ) este un oraș din Regiunea Irkutsk, Rusia, fiind centrul administrativ al raionului Ziminsk. În 2013 aici locuiau 31.936 persoane. Zima este situat în sudul Siberiei, la 230 km nord-vest de Irkutsk. Prin el trece râul Oka (afluent al râului Angara). În Zima se află o stație a căii ferate transsiberiene situată la 4 934 km de Moscova, și 3 354 km de Vladivostok.

Bibliografie
 Зима. Город, который нам дорог. Красноярск 2013

Legături externe
 Site-ul oficial al orașului Zima
 Зима (город) pe situl irkipedia.ru

Regiunea Irkutsk

Zima


2. udgave af La Madrid Challenge by La Vuelta fandt sted den 11. september 2016. Det var det seneste løb i UCI Women's World Tour 2016. Løbet foregik samme dag som mændenes 21. etape af Vuelta a España 2016, der endte i Madrid.

Jolien D'Hoore fra Wiggle High5 vandt spurten foran holdkammeraten Chloe Hosking og Marta Bastianelli fra Alé-Cipollini.

Hold

Resultater

2016
Cykelløb i 2016

La Madrid Challenge by La Vuelta 2016


රංගනය
ජීවන් කුමාරතුංග - බිම්බිසාර රජු
සබීතා පෙරේරා
ගයාන් වික්‍රමතිලක - අජාසත් කුමරු
හෂිනි ගෝනගල
පාලිත සිල්වා - දෙව්දත් ථෙර
රොබින් ප්‍රනාන්දු

මහරජ අජාසත්


Julien Guinand (né le  à Lyon) est un artiste photographe faisant partie de la scène française de l'art contemporain.

Biographie
Julien Guinand est diplômé de l'École nationale supérieure de la photographie d'Arles. En 2016, il est lauréat d'une commande nationale du Cnap: Les Regards du Grand Paris. En 2017, il a été résident à la Villa Kujoyama à Kyoto, et a bénéficié du soutien de la Fondation des artistes pour ce projet mené au Japon.

Son dernier livre : Two Mountains, est sorti en 2021 aux éditions Hatje Cantz. Julien Guinand est le cofondateur de l'école de photographie Bloo qu'il a codirigée de 2009 à 2018.

Il intervient à l'École nationale supérieure des beaux-arts de Lyon depuis 2005.

Expositions
Julien Guinand est présenté depuis plus de vingt ans dans des centres d'art, galeries et foires internationales. Il a participé à plus de 50 expositions personnelles et collectives en France et à l'international. Il est représenté par la Galerie Françoise Besson (Lyon) depuis 2015.

En 2022, son travail Two Mountains fait l'objet d'une exposition personnelle au Musée des Beaux-Arts de Chambéry, dont le commissaire d'exposition est Jean-Françoise Chevrier.

Liste non exhaustive :
 2022 : « Regards du Grand Paris », Magasins généraux, musée Carnavalet, Grand Paris
 2022 : « Un monde flottant », Hermès, Pantin
 2022 : « Two Mountains », Musée des Beaux-Arts, Chambéry
 2021 : Paris Photo, Grand Palais Éphémère Paris, avec la Galerie Françoise Besson
 2021 : « Two Mountains », Le Bleu du ciel, Lyon
 2019 : « Monts parégoriques », Centre hospitalier Métropole Savoie, Chambéry
 2019 : « Two Mountains, Costal Motifs », avec Tadashi Ono, Villa Noailles, Hyères
 2019 : Art Fair, Tokyo, Japon
 2018 : « ¡ Viva Villa ! », Villa Méditerranée, Marseille

Voir aussi

Bibliographie
 Julien Guinand, Two Mountains (avec une discussion entre Jean-François Chevrier, Hidetaka Ishida et Jean-Christophe Valmalette), Éditions Hatje Cantz Verlag, 2021, 220 p.
 Julien Guinand, Monts parégoriques, édition monographique, 2019, dans le cadre de la résidence-mission Culture et Santé, Centre Hospitalier Métropole Savoie, Chambéry, 2018
 Julien Guinand, Michel Poivert, Forces, réalisée à l'initiative et avec le concours de la DRAC Rhône-Alpes, Textes de Michel Poivert, Éditions deux-cent-cinq, 2011, 96 p.
 Julien Guinand, NatureXL, Éditions deux-cent-cinq, 2010

Livres, catalogues
 Mara Hoberman, 461. Dix ans d'art contemporain, Éditions Dilecta, mars 2022, 224 p.
Gilles Verneret, Le discours sur la fenêtre, Éditions Loco, 2020, 152 p.
 Michel Poivert, 50 ans de photographie Française, Éditions Textuel, 2019, 416 p.
 Collectif, Qu'avez-vous fait de la photographie ?, 30 ans de l'École nationale supérieure de la photographie d'Arles, Actes Sud, 2012, 400 p.
 Catalogue Month of photography, Bratislava, 2009
 Face à face, Mois de l'image, Département de coopération et d'action culturelle du Consulat de France, Ho Chi Minh Ville, Vietnam, 2007
 Catalogue Paris Photo 2007
 25, Galerie le Réverbère, Éditions de l'Œil, 2006, 24 p.
 Michel Poivert, La région humaine, des corps dans la ville, catalogue du Septembre de la photographie à Lyon, Filigrane Éditions, 2006, 250 p.
 Catalogue du salon Jeune Création, Paris
 Paysages interstitiels, Collection le traitement contemporain, Le Bleu du ciel éditions, 2004
 Azimuts 18/19, catalogue de la Biennale du Design de Saint-Étienne, 2000

Collections
 Fonds national d'art contemporain, Paris
 École nationale supérieure de la photographie, Arles
 Mairie de Lyon
 Arthotèque de Lyon
 Arthotèque d'Annecy
 Musée des Beaux-Arts de Chambéry
 Renault Trucks, Saint-Priest
 Fondation Hermès

Notes et références

Liens externes

 Dossier d'artiste publié sur Documents d'artistes Auvergne-Rhône-Alpes

Naissance à Lyon
Naissance en avril 1975
Photographe français
Élève de l'École nationale supérieure de la photographie

Julien Guinand


A Super Copa Noroeste de 2023 (por questões de patrocínio Super Copa Hillo Noroeste) foi a 5ª edição da Super Copa Noroeste, torneio amador no Noroeste Fluminense, organizado pela Associação Esportiva Noroeste - AEN. Foi a edição com o maior número de equipes participantes: 24, sendo 23 do estado do Rio de Janeiro e 1 de Minas Gerais . A competição iniciou no dia 5 de março  e foi encerrado no dia 7 de junho, com a declaração do Palmeiras como campeão sem a realização das partidas finais, já que o AEN entendeu que o Floresta, outro finalista, deu causa à não realização das partidas no município de Cambuci, perdendo, assim, por W.O.. Além disso, a entidade suspendeu o Floresta por três anos de suas competições.

Em 2023, a competição teve o naming rights da empresa Hillo, indústria de produtos para higiene dental, sediada em Aperibé.

Regulamento
Na primeira fase, as 24 equipes foram divididas em 6 chaves de 4 equipes, cada. Os dois primeiros de cada grupo mais os quatro melhores terceiros colocados avançaram para as oitavas de final da competição.

Critérios de desempate
 Maior número de pontos;
 Maior número de vitórias;
 Maior número de saldo de gols;
 Maior número de gols marcados;
 Confronto direto (entre duas equipes);
 Menor número de cartões;
 Sorteio.

Participantes

Primeira fase

Grupo A

Grupo B

Grupo C

Grupo D

Grupo E

Grupo F

|}

 [exc]: O Itaperuna foi excluído da competição na 4ª rodada e seus resultados, a partir de então, foram considerados como W.O. (1x0) a favor do adversário.

Ordenação para as oitavas-de-final
Para a composição para as oitavas-de-final, as equipes são divididas em quatro blocos, de acordo com a sua posição dentro do grupo. Primeiro os campeões do grupo, depois os segundos colocados, depois os terceiros e depois os quartos colocados. Após a classificação, as equipes são rankeadas de 1 a 16 e, assim, é feito o cruzamento (1 x 16; 2 x 15; 3 x 14, e assim por diante).

Fases finais

 Em itálico os times que jogam a primeira partida em casa.

 Obs.: Os clubes continuam somando pontos para determinar cruzamentos e mandos de campo. A partir das quartas-de-final, é considerada a classificação geral, com a soma de todos os pontos obtidos durante a primeira fase e mata-mata e o chaveamento pode ser alterado.

 [elim]: O Floresta foi suspenso pela AEN por ser o responsável pela não realização das finais contra o Palmeiras. Com isso, o Palmeiras foi declarado campeão e o Ponte Nova vice-campeão.

Premiação

2023 no futebol
Futebol do estado do Rio de Janeiro

Super Copa Noroeste de 2023


Arapaçu-de-bico-de-cunha (nome científico: Glyphorynchus spirurus) é uma ave passeriforme da família dos furnariídeos (Furnariidae). Provavelmente se divide em mais de uma espécie.

Etimologia

Arapaçu é um termo de origem tupi, derivado de arapa'su e utilizado em sentido pela primeira vez em 1949 para designar várias aves brasileiras.

Distribuição

As numerosas subespécies do arapaçu-de-bico-de-cunha estão distribuídas, às vezes de forma desarticulada, do sul do México, passando por Belize, Guatemala, Honduras, Nicarágua, Costa Rica, Panamá, Colômbia, ao leste pela Venezuela, Guiana, Suriname e Guiana Francesa, ao sul pelo Equador, Peru, quase toda a Amazônia brasileira, até o centro da Bolívia, e uma população isolada no leste do Brasil, no bioma da Mata Atlântica. É principalmente uma espécie residente, mas pode se dispersar localmente. Por exemplo, um indivíduo migratório foi observado em 12 de maio de 1998 em Cerro Campana, El Salvador, o primeiro registro da espécie naquele país. Esta espécie é considerada comum e amplamente disseminada em seu habitat natural: na vegetação rasteira de florestas úmidas, principalmente nas planícies até mil metros de altitude, algumas podem chegar a dois mil metros.

Descrição

O arapaçu-de-bico-de-cunha distingue-se facilmente de seus parentes por seu pequeno tamanho, já que é o menor dentre os membros do gênero Glyphorynchus, e seu bico distinto. Geralmente tem cerca de 14 a 15 centímetros de comprimento e pesa cerca de 14 a 16 gramas. A parte superior do corpo é marrom, com listras finas em ambos os lados da cabeça, um supercílio amarelo e uma garupa castanha. A garganta também é amarela e o resto do lado de baixo é castanho mosqueado, especialmente no peito. Quando voa, mostra uma faixa castanha sob as asas. Os jovens apresentam um tom mais apagado e uniforme e com menos marcas. O bico curto é muito diferente em forma deus parentes, em forma de cunha e arrebitado, quase como Xenops. As penas da cauda terminam em espigas salientes muito longas, proporcionalmente as mais longas entre os Glyphorynchus.

Sistemática

A espécie G. spirurus foi descrita pela primeira vez pelo naturalista francês Louis Jean Pierre Vieillot em 1819 sob o nome científico Neops spirurus; sua localidade tipo é: "América do Sul = "Caiena"". O gênero monotípico Glyphorynchus foi proposto pelo naturalista alemão Maximilian zu Wied-Neuwied em 1831. O nome masculino do gênero Glyphorynchus é composto pelas palavras gregas γλυφις (gluphis) e γλυφιδος (gluphidos), "cinzel", e ῥυγχος (rhunkhos), "bico", que significa "com um bico como um cinzel"; O nome da espécie spirurus é composto pelas palavras gregas σπειρα (speira), espiral, e ουρος (ouros), "cauda", que significa "com a cauda em espiral".

Conservação

Sua população é estimada dentro da faixa de 500 mil a cinco milhões de indivíduos e está, pelas projeções, em declínio devido à perda de habitat. Apesar disso, dada sua ampla distribuição, é considerado como pouco preocupante na Lista Vermelha da União Internacional para a Conservação da Natureza (UICN / IUCN). Em 2005, foi classificado como vulnerável na Lista de Espécies da Fauna Ameaçadas do Espírito Santo; E em 2018, como pouco preocupante na Lista Vermelha do Livro Vermelho da Fauna Brasileira Ameaçada de Extinção do Instituto Chico Mendes de Conservação da Biodiversidade (ICMBio).

Taxonomia

As diferenças marcantes nos vários tipos de cantos e as plumagens bem diferenciadas sugerem a existência de mais de uma espécie no presente; entretanto, dados moleculares mostram fluxo gênico entre subespécies vizinhas morfologicamente distintas. Uma análise recente de espécimes de 63 localidades em oito áreas de endemismo na Amazônia separadas por grandes rios indica a existência de linhagens alopátricas com alto grau de diferenciação genética nas margens opostas desses grandes rios, com alto nível de diferenciação genética e de parafilia evidente dentro das subespécies atualmente reconhecidas. As análises de vocalização indicam quatro grupos distintos de subespécies: o "grupo pectoralis" (Mesoamérica/Chocó); o "grupo spirurus" (oeste e norte da Amazônia/Guianas); o monotípico «grupo albigularis» (sudoeste da Amazônia); e o "grupo cuneatus" (sudeste da Amazônia a leste do rio Madeira). A subespécie proposta G. s. sublesto (J. L. Peters, 1929) (do sul da América Central) está incluído em pectoralis.

Subespécies

Segundo as classificações do Congresso Ornitológico Internacional (IOC) e a lista de Clements / eBird v.2019, são reconhecidas treze subespécies, divididas em quatro grupos, com sua distribuição geográfica correspondente:

 Grupo politípico pectoralis, arapaçu-de-bico-de-cunha-do-norte:
 Glyphorynchus spirurus pectoralis (P. L. Sclater & Salvin, 1860) – do sul do México (sul de Veracruz, norte de Oaxaca, Chiapas, principalmente na encosta do Caribe), centro da Guatemala (encosta do Caribe, raramente em Petén) e Belize ao sul da Costa Rica (ambas as encostas) e centro e oeste do Panamá (na encosta caribenha de leste a leste de Colón, na encosta do Pacífico a oeste de Chiriquí).
 Glyphorynchus spirurus pallidulus (Wetmore, 1970) – leste do Panamá (encosta caribenha do sudeste de Colón a leste através de São Blas, encosta do Pacífico do leste da província do Panamá ao norte de Darién) e adjacente ao noroeste da Colômbia (norte de Chocó).
 Glyphorynchus spirurus subrufescens (Todd, 1948) – Litoral pacífico do sudeste do Panamá (vale do rio Jaqué no sudoeste de Darién), oeste da Colômbia (norte de Chocó e Antioquia ao sul de Narinho, também nos vales superiores do Atrato e São João) e oeste do Equador (ao noroeste de Guaias e sudeste de El Oro).
 Glyphorynchus spirurus integratus (J. T. Zimmer, 1946) – norte da Colômbia (alto rio Sinú a leste até o médio vale do Madalena e sul a oeste de Boiacá, também a leste dos Andes de Norte de Santander ao sul de Arauca) e oeste da Venezuela (Zúlia, ao sul de Táchira, a oeste de Mérida, a noroeste de Barinas, a sudeste de Lara).

 Grupo politípico spirurus, arapaçu-de-bico-cunha-central:
 Glyphorynchus spirurus rufigularis (J. T. Zimmer, 1934) – noroeste da Amazônia ao norte do rio Amazonas, do centro da Colômbia (sul de Meta e Vichada) e sul da Venezuela (sul de Bolívar, Amazonas) do sul ao nordeste do Equador (alto rio Napo) e noroeste do Brasil (leste até a margem leste do alto rio Negro e à margem oeste do baixo rio Negro).
 Glyphorynchus spirurus amacurensis (Phelps, Sr & Phelps, Jr, 1952) – nordeste da Venezuela (Sucre, Delta Amacuro).
 Glyphorynchus spirurus spirurus (Vieillot, 1819) – nordeste da Amazônia ao norte do rio Amazonas, no leste da Venezuela (nordeste de Bolívar), nas Guianas e no norte do Brasil (do baixo rio Negro a leste até o Amapá).
 Glyphorynchus spirurus coronobscurus (Phelps, Sr & Phelps, Jr, 1955) – Pico da Neblina (acima de  metros), no sul da Venezuela (sudoeste do Amazonas).
 Glyphorynchus spirurus castelnaudii (Des Murs, 1856) – Amazônia ocidental ao sul do rio Amazonas e rio Napo, no leste e nordeste do Peru (sul de Junim) e oeste do Brasil (leste do rio Madeira).
 Grupo monotípico albigularis, arapaçu-de-bico-de-cunha-do-sul:
 Glyphorynchus spirurus albigularis (Chapman, 1923) – sudoeste da Amazônia no sudeste do Peru (Puno) e norte da Bolívia (sul de La Paz, Cochabamba).
 Grupo politípico Cuneatus, Arapaçu-de-bico-de-cunha-oriental:
 Glyphorynchus spirurus inornatus (J. T. Zimmer, 1934) – sul da Amazônia brasileira (sul do Amazonas, do Madeira a leste até o Tapajós e sul ao sudoeste de Mato Grosso) e nordeste da Bolívia (nordeste de Santa Cruz).
 Glyphorynchus spirurus paraensis (Pinto, 1974) – sudeste da Amazônia brasileira ao sul do Amazonas, Tapajós leste ao norte do Maranhão (incluindo a ilha de Marajó).
 Glyphorynchus spirurus cuneatus (M. H. C. Lichtenstein, 1820) – costa leste do Brasil (norte da Bahia até o norte do Espírito Santo).

Aves do México
Aves de Belize
Aves da Nicarágua
Aves da Guatemala
Aves de Honduras
Aves do Panamá
Aves de El Salvador
Aves da Costa Rica
Aves da Venezuela
Aves da Colômbia
Aves de Guiana
Aves do Suriname
Aves da Guiana Francesa
Aves do Equador
Aves da Bolívia
Aves do Peru
Furnariídeos
Fauna da Amazônia
Fauna da Mata Atlântica
Aves do Espírito Santo (estado)
Aves da Bahia
Aves de Minas Gerais
Aves do Pará
Aves de Mato Grosso
Aves de Rondônia
Aves de Roraima
Aves do Acre
Aves do Amazonas
Aves do Amapá
Espécies citadas no Livro Vermelho da Fauna Brasileira Ameaçada de Extinção
Espécies citadas na Lista de Espécies da Fauna Ameaçadas do Espírito Santo

Arapaçu-de-bico-de-cunha


15 Pegasi (15 Peg) es una estrella en la constelación de Pegaso.
Tiene magnitud aparente +5,53 y se encuentra a 90 años luz de distancia del sistema solar.

15 Pegasi es una estrella blanco-amarilla, posiblemente subgigante, de tipo espectral F6IV-V.
No muy distinta a Syrma (ι Virginis), tiene una temperatura efectiva de 6316 ± 64 K.
Brilla con una luminosidad 4,2 veces superior a la luminosidad solar.
Su diámetro angular, de 0,565 segundos de arco, permite estimar su radio, siendo éste un 70% más grande que el del Sol.
Gira sobre sí misma con una velocidad de rotación proyectada de 7 km/s.
Muestra un contenido metálico notablemente inferior al solar ([Fe/H] = -0,63).
Además del hierro —cuya abundancia relativa es una cuarta parte de la existente en el Sol—, níquel y titanio son igualmente escasos. Otros elementos procedentes de captura neutrónica como itrio y bario muestran igual tendencia.

15 Pegasi tiene una masa un 10% mayor que la masa solar y su edad se estima entre 3300 y 4840 millones de años.
Pese a su bajo contenido metálico, su cinemática indica que, como el Sol, es una estrella del disco fino.

Referencias

Subgigantes
Constelación de Pegaso

15 Pegasi


Kapitala (lat. capitalis, od caput: glava; naslov poglavlja), naziv za latinsko majuskulno pismo. Ime je dobila po naslovima poglavlja u kodeksima koji su bili pisani velikim slovima, tj. kapitalom, dok je tekst bio pisan minuskulom. Kapitala kojom su pisani natpisi na kamenim spomenicima naziva se epigrafska, a ona kojom su pisani tekstovi u kodeksima knjižna. Najstariji spomenik epigrafske kapitale, tzv. Crni kamen (Lapis niger) iz 6. st. pr. Kr., pronađen je u Rimu 1899. i taj se tip kapitale naziva arhajska kapitala.

Razvila su se dva tipa epigrafske kapitale: kvadratna (capitalis quadrata) i rustična (capitalis rustica). Kod prve su slova jednake visine i širine, a kod druge su slova nešto izduljena. Oba tipa prešla su i u kodekse. U estetskom pogledu epigrafska je kapitala doživjela vrhunac u Augustovo doba.

Vrela
 Natuknica kapitala u mrežnom izdanju LZMK hrvatske enciklopedije

Pismo

Kapitala


Ditassa oberdanii é uma espécie de planta do gênero Ditassa e da família Apocynaceae.

Taxonomia
A espécie foi descrita em 1998 por Miriam Cristina Alvarez e Jorge Fontella.

Forma de vida
É uma espécie terrícola e trepadeira.

Conservação
A espécie faz parte da Lista Vermelha das espécies ameaçadas do estado do Espírito Santo, no sudeste do Brasil.

Distribuição
A espécie é endêmica do Brasil e encontrada no estado brasileiro de Espírito Santo. A espécie é encontrada no domínio fitogeográfico de Mata Atlântica, em regiões com vegetação de floresta ombrófila pluvial.

Ligações externas

 Ditassa oberdanii no projeto Flora e Funga do Brasil

Ditassa
Plantas descritas em 1998
Flora do Espírito Santo (estado)
Espécies citadas na Lista Vermelha de Ameaça da Flora Brasileira
Espécies citadas na Lista de Espécies da Flora Ameaçadas do Espírito Santo

Ditassa oberdanii


Bakü Futbol Kulübü (), Azerbaycan'ın başkenti Bakü'de kurulmuş bir Azeri futbol kulübüydü.

2004-05 sezonunda FK Bakü Azerbaycan Kubokunı kazandı.

2005-06 sezonunda UEFA Kupası'da ilk turda elenen kulüp, aynı sezonda Azerbaycan şampiyonu oldu.

2014 yılında kulüp sahibi Hafız Memmedov'un mali sıkıntıları, birçok oyuncu ve personeli yeni kulüp aramaya zorladı ve kulübün geleceğini belirsiz bıraktı. Kulüp, 2014-15 sezonunda Premier Lig'den küme düşmüş, 2015-16 sezonunda ise Azerbaycan Birinci Liginde mücade etmişti. Kulüp gelecek yıl profesyonel bir kulüp olarak feshedildi.

Avrupa Kupaları Tarihi
Agustos 2012 itibarıyla.

Başarılar
 Azərbaycan Premyer Liqası Şampiyon: 2
2005/06, 2008/09

 Azerbaycan Kuboku Şampiyon: 3
2004-05, 2009-10, 2011-12

Kaynakça

Dış bağlantılar
 Resmî Ağsayfası
 UEFA.COM Sayfası
 Azeri ve Dünya futbolu hakkında her şey

Bakü'deki futbol kulüpleri
Azerbaycan'daki futbol kulüpleri
1997'de kurulan futbol kulüpleri
2018'de feshedilen futbol kulüpleri

Bakı FK


Le voyageur de l'au-delà este un roman științifico-fantastic de Philippe Ebly publicat în Franța în 1978. Este al doilea roman (după Les trois portes) dintr-o serie de nouă romane denumită Les évadés du temps.

Prezentare

În timp ce călătoresc prin Cévennes, Thierry, Didier și Kouroun sunt anunțați de un tânăr de la un magazin de cafenea despre o râpă unde se ascund forțe necunoscute și periculoase. Pentru a dovedi că de fapt nu există nimic misterios acolo, Thierry le sugerează însoțitorilor săi să facă o tabără în râpă.

Odată ajunși acolo, ei descoperă un cerc incomplet de pietre lungi și un avertisment pe jumătate șters gravat în peretele de piatră. Noaptea trece relativ fără evenimente, dar a doua zi, soarele pur și simplu nu a mai răsărit, iar râpa a fost înghițită într-o ceață groasă. Cu toate acestea, cei trei prieteni încearcă să continue pe drumul lor, doar pentru a afla în curând că râpa i-a prins.

După ce încearcă zadarnic să scape, se resemnează și fac ceea ce se așteapta în mod evident de la ei: completează cercul de pietre lungi și așteaptă să vadă ce urmează ...

Note

Romane din 1978
Romane belgiene
Romane franceze
Romane științifico-fantastice

Le voyageur de l'au-delà


جيرارد بليسيرز ، من مواليد 30 مارس 1959 ، لاعب كرة قدم بلجيكي سابق.

لعب مع منتخب بلجيكا لكرة القدم.

مسيرته الكروية
لعب جيرارد بليسيرز خلال مسيرته الاحترافية مع 4 أندية في سبعة عشر موسمًا وسجل خلالها 26 هدفًا ضمن 383 مباراة. حيث فاز في موسمين بالكأس وفي موسمين بالدوري.

خاض جيرارد بليسيرز مسيرته مع نادي ستاندارد لييج في موسم 1975–76 ليلعب معه تسعة مواسم، مشاركًا في 191 مباراة سجل خلالها 14 هدفًا. ثم انتقل إلى نادي هامبورغ في موسم 1984–85 ليلعب معه أربعة مواسم، حيث شارك في 85 مباراة سجل خلالها 6 أهداف. لينتقل بعدها إلى نادي جينك في موسم 1988–89 لمدة موسم واحد، مشاركًا في 28 مباراة سجل خلالها 4 أهداف. ثم انتقل إلى نادي كورتريك في موسم 1989–90 واستمر معه طيلة ثلاثة مواسم، مشاركًا في 79 مباراة سجل خلالها هدفين.

روابط خارجية

مراجع

لاعبو كرة قدم رجالية بلجيكيون
أشخاص على قيد الحياة
رياضيون بلجيكيون مغتربون في ألمانيا
لاعبو الدوري الألماني
لاعبو الدوري البلجيكي للمحترفين
لاعبو بطولة أمم أوروبا 1980
لاعبو ستاندارد لييج
لاعبو كأس العالم 1982
لاعبو كرة قدم بلجيكيون
لاعبو كرة قدم بلجيكيون مغتربون
لاعبو كرة قدم رجالية بلجيكيون مغتربون
لاعبو كرة قدم رجالية مغتربون في ألمانيا
لاعبو كرة قدم مغتربون في ألمانيا
لاعبو كرة قدم من ليمبورغ (بلجيكا)
لاعبو كورتريك
لاعبو منتخب بلجيكا لكرة القدم
لاعبو نادي جينك
لاعبو هامبورغ
مدافعو كرة قدم رجالية
مدربو كرة قدم بلجيكيون
مدربو نادي تورنهاوت
مواليد 1959

جيرارد بليسيرز


White Island ist eine unbewohnte Insel der Scilly-Inseln. Sie ist die nördlichste der Scillys und kann bei Ebbe über einen Tombolo von St. Martin's aus zu Fuß erreicht werden.

Geschichte
Ein bronzezeitliches Steingrab (Entrance Grave) befindet sich am höchsten Punkt des nur 0,15 km² großen Eilandes, welches 21 m über dem Meeresspiegel liegt. Daneben kommen aber auch noch andere frühgeschichtliche Stätten vor, wie z. B. mehrere Cairns, darunter ein Chambered Cairn. Weiter südlich liegen im Schutz des Hügels noch sechs kleinere Mounds oder Cairns. Zwei erhaltene Mauern mit dazugehörigen Gräben dürften zu ehemaligen eingefriedeten Feldern gehören. Die Untersuchung eines der Cairns ergab, dass er rund drei Meter breit und auf seiner Nordseite wahrscheinlich von einer Doppelmauer eingefasst war. Für ein Hüttenfundament (Hut Circle) war er nicht groß genug. Nur ein Teil der Insel ist bisher als Ancient Monument unter Denkmalschutz gestellt, der aber auf das gesamte Eiland ausgedehnt werden soll.

Geologie
White Island besteht aus demselben grobkörnigen, reichhaltig porphyrischen Granit des Isles of Scilly Pluton wie auch der Nordteil von St. Martin's (Fazies G 1a). An der Nordostspitze erscheint derselbe Granit, jedoch zusätzlich in nicht porphyrischer Ausbildung. Diese spezielle Fazies unterlagert hier den reichhaltig porphyrischen Granit mit horizontalem, aber welligen Kontakt. Ausgebildete engstehende Kluftscharen verlaufen parallel zum Kontakt, verlieren sich aber in der überlagernden Hauptfazies.

Im Süden der Insel queren zwei feinkörnige Granitgänge, einer von ihnen wird 1,5 Meter breit und streicht Nordost-Südwest. Letzterer führt gerundete, aber auch unregelmäßige Einschlüsse des Wirtsgranits. Dies lässt darauf schließen, dass bei Eindringen des Gangs der grobkörnige, reichhaltig porphyrische Granit noch nicht vollständig verfestigt war. Der andere Gang streicht in etwa Nordwest-Südost, seine Kontaktverhältnisse sind scharf und er dürfte daher auch jünger sein.

Fragmentarisch fanden sich an der Nordostspitze Reste der metamorphen Wirtsgesteine – der so genannten Killas. In der die Insel beinahe teilenden Spalte der Chad Grit stehen spätpleistozäne Sedimente an, weswegen die Insel auch als Site of Special Scientific Interest ausgewiesen wurde. Spuren des Quartärs sind eine gehobene Brandungsplattform, Gerölle mit Solifluktionsstrukturen und aus der Irischen See herausgeblasenem Löß sowie zwei anstehende Brekzienvorkommen.

Flora und Fauna
Die Insel ist auch wegen ihrer vielfältigen Tier- und Pflanzenwelt zu einem SSSI ernannt worden. Auf dem von Entisol geprägten Eiland sind eine Vielzahl von Pflanzen heimisch. So unter anderem Adlerfarn, Besenheide, Brombeeren, Dickblattgewächse, Echtes Löffelkraut, Englische Fetthenne, Gewöhnlicher Hornklee, Gewöhnlicher Rot-Schwingel, Graue Heide, Harzer Labkraut, Krähenfuß-Wegerich, Stechginster, Strand-Grasnelke, Waldgeißblatt und Wilde Rübe. Zudem sind auf White Island mehrere Möwenarten gesichtet worden. Unter anderem Mantelmöwen, Heringsmöwen, Silbermöwen, Dreizehenmöwe und Eissturmvögel.

Weblinks

 Informationen über die Natur der Insel (engl.; PDF; 6 kB)
 White Island auf www.megalithic.co (engl.)

Einzelnachweise

Insel (England)
Insel (Keltische See)
Insel (Europa)
Insel der Scilly-Inseln
Site of Special Scientific Interest in England

White Island (Scilly-Inseln)


The Administration of West Prussia before 1919 consisted of the following officials:

Danzig Region

Regional Presidents of Danzig - Regierungspräsidenten von Danzig
1869–1876 — Paul Friedrich Heinrich Gustav von Diest
1876–1878 — Franz Otto Theodor von Hoffmann
1878–1879 — Heinrich Karl Julius von Achenbach
1879–1880 — Karl Adolf August Ernst von Ernsthausen
1881–1882 — Wilhelm A. Theodor von Wiendowski "von Saltzwedell"
1883–1887 — Konrad Anton Robert Rothe
1887–1890 — Adolf Eduard von Heppe
1890–1902 — Friedrich Heinrich Ehrenreich
1902–1902 — Hans von Holwede
1902–1908 — Jaroslaw von Jarotzky
1909–1918 — Lothar Foerster

Due to Treaty of Versailles of 1919 the Danzig Region ceased to exist and was ceded in 1920 to the Free City of Danzig, the Polish Pomeranian Voivodeship and the Prussian Province of East Prussia.

Berent County

Supervisors/Landräte:
1853–1896 — ... Engler
1896–1919 — ... Trüstedt

Danzig City County

Lord Mayors/Oberbürgermeister:
1862–1890 — Leopold von Winter
1891–1896 — Karl Adolf von Baumbach
1896–1903 — Clemens G. Ernst Delbruck
1903–1910 — Heinrich Otto Ehlers
1910–1918 — Heinrich Scholtz
1919–1920 — Heinrich Friedrich Wilhelm Martin Sahm

Danzig-Land (Rural) County

Supervisor/Landrat:
1867–1887 - Archibald August von Gramatzki

In 1887, Kreis Danzig Land was divided into Danziger Höhe, Danziger Niederung and Dirschau.

Danziger Höhe County (created in 1887)

Supervisors/Landräte:
1887–1904 — ... Maurach
1904–1915 — Emil Venske
1916–1919 — ... von Unger

Danziger Niederung County (created in 1887)

Supervisors/Landräte:
1887–1895 — Archibald August von Gramatzki
1895–1919 — ... Brandt

Dirschau County (created in 1876)

Supervisors/Landräte:
1876–1887— ... von Sanden
1887–1908 — ... Döhn
1909–1919 — ... von Kries

Elbing-Land (Rural) County

Supervisors/Landräte:
1868–1879 — ... Bax
1879–1883 —  ... Birkner
1883–1888 — Eugen Karl Hugo Dippe
1888–1907 — Rüdiger Etzdorf
1907–1925 — Arthur Adolph Graf von Posadowski-Wehner, after 1919 only for the part that remained German

Karthaus County

Supervisors/Landräte:
1833–1851 — Georg Kaspar Otto von Kleist
1875–1884 — Werner Freiherr von Schleinitz
1885            — Ernst Ferdinand Julius Bruno von Schwichow*
1885–1893 — ... von Krosigk
1893–1901 — ... Keller
1901–1910 — Gottfried Hagemann
1911–1914 — ... Römhild
1915–1919 — ... Simon

Marienburg County

Supervisors/Landräte:
1871–1877 — Gustav Gottfried Keil
1877–1890 — ... Doehring
1890–1895 — ... von Zander
1895–1901 — ... von Glasennapp
1901–1910 — ... Freiherr Senfft von Pilsach
1910–1918 — Gottfried Hagemann
1918–1920 — ... von Rönne*, since 1919 only for the part that remained German

Neustadt County

Supervisors/Landräte:
1868–1879 — Friedrich Eberhard Vormbaum
1879–1881 — ... Wenzel*
1881–1893 — ... Gumprecht
1893–1907 — Robert Graf von Keyserlingk-Cammerau
1907–1919 — Theodor Christian Traugott Graf von Baudissin

Marienwerder Region

Regional Presidents of Marienwerder - Regierungspräsidenten von Marienwerder
West Prussia

Due to Treaty of Versailles of 1919 the Marienwerder Region ceased to exist and its territory was ceded partially to the Polish Pomeranian Voivodeship and the Prussian Provinces of East Prussia and Posen-West Prussia.


Der Lerchenfeldgletscher liegt in der Antarktis und fließt in westlich-nordwestlicher Richtung zwischen den Bertrab-Nunataks und den Littlewood-Nunataks. Er verschmilzt mit der Südflanke des Schweitzergletschers. Zusammen münden die Gletscher in die Vahselbucht.

Entdeckt wurde der Gletscher während der Zweiten Deutschen Antarktisexpedition (1911–1912) unter der Leitung von Wilhelm Filchner, der den Gletscher nach Graf Hugo von und zu Lerchenfeld-Köfering (1843–1925) benannte, einem Unterstützer der Forschungsreise.

Einzelnachweise

Gletscher in Antarktika
Prinzregent-Luitpold-Land

Lerchenfeldgletscher


Albert Behrens (* 7. Oktober 1891 in Hannover; † 6. April 1976 in Wennigsen) war ein deutscher Politiker (SPD).

Leben
Albert Behrens wurde als Sohn eines Bäckers geboren. Nach dem Besuch der Volksschule in Hannover absolvierte er eine Lehre als Metallarbeiter und war anschließend in diesem Beruf tätig. Er trat in die SPD ein, war Anfang der 1930er Jahre Vorsitzender des SPD-Bezirkes Hannover und von 1932 bis 1933 Gauleiter des Hannoverschen Reichsbanners Schwarz-Rot-Gold. Außerdem war er nichtständiges Mitglied des Reichsversicherungsamtes.

Im Mai 1928 wurde er als Abgeordneter in den Preußischen Landtag gewählt, dem er ohne Unterbrechung bis Juni 1933 angehörte. Im Parlament vertrat er den Wahlkreis 16 (Süd-Hannover).

Während der Zeit des Nationalsozialismus war Behrens politischer und staatspolizeilicher Repression ausgesetzt. Er wurde 1933 kurzzeitig in "Schutzhaft" genommen und nach seiner Entlassung von der Gestapo überwacht. Im August 1944 wurde er im Rahmen der "Aktion Gitter" erneut verhaftet, zunächst in das Gestapo-Gefängnis Ahlem gebracht und von dort aus in das KZ Neuengamme überstellt.

1965 verlegte er seinen Wohnsitz von Hannover nach Wennigsen.

Literatur
 Beatrix Herlemann, Helga Schatz: Biographisches Lexikon niedersächsischer Parlamentarier 1919–1945 (= Veröffentlichungen der Historischen Kommission für Niedersachsen und Bremen. Band 222). Hahnsche Buchhandlung, Hannover 2004, ISBN 3-7752-6022-6, S. 38.
 Ernst Kienast (Hrsg.): Handbuch für den Preußischen Landtag. Ausgabe für die 5. Wahlperiode. R. v. Decker's Verlag (G. Schenck), Berlin 1933, S. 307.

Weblinks

Mitglied des Preußischen Landtags (Freistaat Preußen)
SPD-Mitglied
Mitglied im Reichsbanner
Häftling im KZ Neuengamme
Person (Wennigsen (Deister))
Deutscher
Geboren 1891
Gestorben 1976
Mann

Albert Behrens


Borovoi (en , en , en ) est une municipalité du raïon de Kalevala en république de Carélie.

Géographie
Borovoi .
La municipalité de Borovoi a une superficie de .

Elle est bordée au nord-ouest par Luusalmi et au nord-est Jyskyjärvi du raïon de Kalevala, Sosnavitsa du raïon de Belomorsk à l'est, Lietmajärvi du raïon de Mujejärvi au sud, et Kostamus à l'ouest.
La majeure partie de son territoire est forestière et lacustre.

Le village est desservi par l'autoroute 86K-38 (Borovoy-Luusalmi).

Démographie
Recensements (*) ou estimations de la population

Bibliographie

Références

Voir aussi

Articles connexes

Liens externes

Village dans la république de Carélie
Raïon de Kalevala

Borovoi


NGC 287 este o galaxie lenticulară, posibil spirală, situată în constelația Peștii. A fost descoperită în 22 noiembrie 1827 de către John Herschel.

Note

Vezi și
 NGC 286
 NGC 288

Legături externe
 NGC 287 pe spider.seds.org
 NGC 287 pe WikiSky

Galaxii
Obiecte NGC
Constelația Peștii
Obiecte astronomice descoperite în 1827
Obiecte astronomice descoperite de John Herschel

NGC 287


Troldkirken  er en langdysse fra fra Yngre stenalder (bondestenalder fra omkring 3950 f.Kr.). Den ligger  ca. 700 meter nordøst for  landsbyen Sønderholm i Himmerland ca. 15 km vest for Aalborg midt mellem Nibe (6 km. mod vest) og Frejlev (5 km. mod øst). Troldkirken  går for at være en af Danmarks smukkeste dysser, bl.a. på grund af den høje beliggenhed i landskabet. Den er ca. 50 m lang og omgivet af 47 randsten. Omtrent i midten ligger et sekskantet dyssekammer med en stor, flad dæksten over. Der er flere folkesagn om Troldkirken. Ifølge ét af dem skulle en mand engang have overværet, at "de underjordiske" holdt en form for gudstjeneste i dyssen. Troldkirken var et af de første danske oldtidsminder, der blev fredet. Det skete allerede i 1809, men fredningen blev først tinglyst i 1850.

Kilder og henvisninger

Stenalder
Fredede fortidsminder i Danmark
Gravhøje i Danmark
Aalborg Kommunes historie

Troldkirken


Ührde ist der Name folgender Orte in Niedersachsen:
 Ührde (Osterode am Harz), Stadtteil von Osterode am Harz
 Uehrde, Landkreis Wolfenbüttel

Ührde


විශාඛා (; ), මිගාරාමතා ලෙසද හඳුන්වනු ලබන ඇය ගෞතම බුදුරදුන්ගේ කාලයේ විසූ ධනවත් රදළ කාන්තාවක්. ඇය බුදුරදුන්ගේ ප්‍රධාන කාන්තා අනුශාසකවරිය ලෙස සැලකේ. විශාඛා දේවමාලිගාව Migāramātupāsāda ( "Migaramata මාළිගයේ" යන අර්ථය) පිහිටුවන Savatthi ඓතිහාසික බුද්ධ කාලයේ දී වඩාත් වැදගත් විහාරස්ථාන දෙකක් ලෙස සැලකෙන, තවත් උප ජේතවන අසපුව .

පාලි ග්‍රන්ථයට අනුව පදුමත්තර බුදුන් දවස විශාඛාව උපන්නේ එම බුදුන්ගේ ප්‍රධාන අනුගාමිකයෙකු වූ ගිහි කාන්තාවකගේ යෙහෙළියක් වශයෙනි. ඒ ජීවිත කාලයෙහිම පදුමත්තර බුදුරජාණන් වහන්සේ ගිහි කාන්තාවක් තම ගිහි ශ්‍රාවිකාව පරිත්‍යාගශීලී බව ප්‍රකාශ කරන බව එම කාන්තාව දුටුවාය. මෙය ඇසූ කාන්තාව අනාගත බුදුන් වහන්සේ නමකගේ පරිත්‍යාගශීලීභාවයෙන් අග්‍ර වූ ගිහි ශ්‍රාවිකාව වීමට අධිෂ්ඨාන කරගෙන, බුදුවන අපේක්ෂාවෙන් ජීවිත ගණනාවක් පින්කම් කළාය.  ගෞතම බුදුරදුන් වැඩ සිටි කාලයේ ඇය නැවත විශාඛාව ඉපදී මේ පැතුම ඉටු විය.

බෞද්ධ විශ්වාසයට අනුව, පූර්ණ බුද්ධත්වයට පත් බුදුන් වහන්සේ නමක් ලොව පහළ වූ විට, ඔහුට සෑම විටම විවිධ භූමිකාවන් ඉටු කරන ප්‍රධාන ශ්‍රාවකයින් පිරිසක් සිටිති. ගෞතම බුදුරදුන්ගේ අග්‍ර ශ්‍රාවකයන් වන සාරිපුත්ත, මොග්ගල්ලාන, උන්වහන්සේගේ අග්‍ර ශ්‍රාවක ඛේමා, උප්පලවණ්ණා වැනි අග්‍ර රහතන් වහන්සේලාගේ ශ්‍රාවක යුගලය මත සියලුම බුදුවරුන්ට ප්‍රධාන අනුශාසකවරු පිරිසක්ද සිටිති. ගෞතම බුදුරදුන්ගේ ප්‍රධාන පුරුෂ අනුශාසක වූයේ අනාථපිණ්ඩික වන අතර, උන්වහන්සේගේ ප්‍රධාන කාන්තා අනුශාසකවරිය විශාඛා ය.

චරිතාපදානය

ඇගේ පියා ධනංජය නම් වූ අතර මව සුමනා නම් වූවාය.  විශාඛාව ගෞතම බුදුන් හමුවූයේ වයස අවුරුදු හතේදී උන්වහන්සේ ඇගේ උපන් නගරයට වැඩම කළ අවස්ථාවේදීය. බුදුන් වහන්සේ ඇයට දහම් දෙසූ ළවිට ඇය සෝතාපන්න වූවාය. ඊළඟ දෙසතිය තුළ බුදුන් වහන්සේට සහ උන්වහන්සේගේ භික්ෂූන්ට දිනපතා තම නිවසට ආහාර ගැනීමට ආරාධනා කළේය.

විශාඛාවට වයස අවුරුදු දහසය වන විට මිගාර නම් ධනවත් භාණ්ඩාගාරිකයෙක් තම පුත් පූර්ණ වර්ධනට බිරිඳක් සොයා දීමට කැමති විය. කෙසේ වෙතත්, පුන්නවද්දන්න විවාහ වීමට අකමැති වූ අතර ඔහු විවාහ වන එකම කාන්තාව ලෙස සොයා ගැනීමට නොහැකි යැයි සිතූ රූමත් කාන්තාවක් විස්තර කළේය. මේ නිසා මිගර පූර්ණ වර්ධනට විස්තරය හමුවූ කාන්තාවක් සොයා ගැනීමට බ්‍රාහ්මණයන් සෙට් එකක් කුලියට ගත්තේය. බ්‍රාහ්මණයෝ සාකේත නගරයේ උත්සවයක් සොයා ගන්නා තෙක් බොහෝ නගර සෙවූහ. උත්සවයේ වැස්ස වහින්නට පටන් ගත් විට, විශාකා හැර අන් සියල්ලන්ම ආවරණය සඳහා දිව ගිය අතර, සෙමෙන් ආවරණය කිරීමට ඇවිද ගියහ. බ්‍රාහ්මණයෝ මෙය දුටු විට පළමුව ඇය කම්මැලි යැයි උපහාස කළහ. කෙසේ වෙතත්, විශාඛා ඔවුන්ට පැහැදිලි කළේ තමා දිව නොගියේ රජුන්ට, රාජකීය ඇතුන්ට, භික්ෂූන්ට සහ කාන්තාවන්ට දිවීම අශෝභන නිසා බවයි. තෙත ඇදුම් සවි කළ හැකි බැවින් තමාට තුවාල කර ගැනීමට අවශ්‍ය නැති බවත්, නමුත් විවාහ වන වයසේ සිටින කාන්තාවක් අතපය කැඩී ගියහොත් ඇයට විවාහ වීමට නොහැකි බවත්, එය ඇගේ දෙමාපියන්ට ගැටලුවක් බවත් ඇය පැහැදිලි කළාය. [note 2] මෙම සංවාදය අතරතුර, පූර්ණවර්ධනට විස්තර කළ සියලුම ගති ලක්ෂණ විශාඛා සතුව ඇති බව බ්‍රාහ්මණයන් දුටු අතර, ඔවුන් ඔහු වෙනුවෙන් ඇය වෙත යෝජනා කළ අතර, එය විශාඛාව පිළිගත්තා.

විශාකා තම සැමියාගේ නිවසට ගිය පසු ජෛන ආගමේ අනුගාමිකයෙකු වූ ඇගේ මාමණ්ඩිය විශාඛාගේ බුද්ධාගම කෙරෙහි ඇති දැඩි විශ්වාසය නිසා දැඩි කෝපයට පත් විය. අවසානයේදී ඇගේ මාමණ්ඩිය තම පුතා සහ විශාකා අතර විවාහය කඩාකප්පල් කිරීමට පටන් ගත්තේය. දිනක් භික්‍ෂුවක් දානයක් ඉල්ලා නිවසට ඇතුළු වූ විට මිගාර ඔහුව නොසලකා හැරියේය. "ස්වාමීනි, මගේ මාමණ්ඩිය පරණ කෑම කනවා" යැයි විශාඛාව පොළඹවා ඇත. මෙය ඇයගෙන් මිදීමට අවස්ථාවක් ලෙස දුටු ඇගේ මාමණ්ඩිය විශාකාව ගෙදරින් නෙරපා හරින ලෙස ඉල්ලා සිටියේය. බේරුම්කරුවන් කැඳවූ නමුත් විශාඛා විස්තර කළේ තම මාමණ්ඩිය විසින් ආහාර අනුභවයෙන් සහ අනාගතයට පින් නොකරමින්, ඔහු අතීත කුසල් පුරවාගෙන, වැඩිය නොපිහිටීම නිසා එය හරියට පරණ කෑම කනවා වැනි බවය. විශාඛා කියන්නේ අගෞරවයක් නොවන බව මේක අහලා එකඟ වුණා. විශාඛාව පසුව මිගාරට බුදුන් වහන්සේ දැකීමට ඒත්තු ගැන්වීමෙන් ඔහු බුද්ධත්වයේ අවධියක් වන සෝතාපන්න වෙත ළඟා විය.   මිගාර විශාඛා ඔහුට උපකාර කිරීම සඳහා කෘතඥ විය අවබෝධ කරගත් අදියර වෙත ළඟා ඔහු සුරතල් නම Migāramāta, හෝ "මිගාර මව" ඇය උපයන ඇගේ ඔහුගේ ආත්මික මව ප්රකාශ කලේ ය.   [note 3] කාලයාගේ ඇවෑමෙන්, ඇය ක්‍රමක්‍රමයෙන් ඇගේ මුළු පවුලම සැදැහැවත් බෞද්ධයන් බවට පත් කළාය.

විශාඛාට දරුවන් විස්සක්, පුතුන් දස දෙනෙක් සහ දියණියන් දස දෙනෙක් සිටි අතර, ඇගේ සෑම දරුවෙකුටම සමාන විශාල දරුවන් සංඛ්‍යාවක් සිටියහ.

බෞද්ධ ග්‍රන්ථවලට අනුව විශාඛා බුදුරදුන්ගේ ප්‍රධාන අනුශාසක වූ අතර, අනාථපිණ්ඩික සමඟ සංඝයා වහන්සේලාට අවශ්‍ය පහසුකම් සැපයීමේ වගකීම ද විය. ප්‍රධාන අනුග්‍රාහකයන් දෙදෙනාද සාමාන්‍ය ජනතාව සමඟ ගනුදෙනු කිරීමේදී ගෞතම බුදුන්ගේ මූලික සහායකයින් වූ අතර, ඔහු බොහෝ විට ප්‍රජාව සමඟ යමක් සකස් කිරීමට අවශ්‍ය වූ විට ඔවුන් දෙදෙනාගෙන් කෙනෙකු වෙත හැරී ගියේය.   විශාඛා බුදුන් වහන්සේ සැවැත් නුවර වැඩ වසන සෑම අවස්ථාවකම දහවල් කාලයේදී ධර්ම දේශනා සඳහා උන්වහන්සේ වැඩම කළ අතර දිනපතා විශාල භික්ෂූන් වහන්සේලාට ඇයගේ නිවසට ආහාර ලබා දුන්නේය.     නිවසින් පිටව යන විට, විශාඛා ඇය වෙනුවට දානය දීමට ඇගේ මිණිබිරියකට පැවරුවාය.  බුදුන් වහන්සේ විශාකාගේ දන් දීමට ඇති ඇල්ම ආදර්ශමත් ලෙස හැඳින්වූ අතර, දන් දීමේ ඇල්ම සහ දීමට බහුල ධනය යන දෙකම ඇති පරමාදර්ශී දානපතිනියකගේ ආදර්ශයක් ලෙස ඇය පෙන්වා දුන්හ. ඔහු මෙය ධනය ඇති නමුත් නොදෙන, නුවණ නැති අය ලෙස හැඳින්වූ අතර බොහෝ මල් ඇති නමුත් හොඳ මල් මාල සෑදීමට කුසලතා නොමැති මල් මාල සාදන්නන්ට උපමා කළේය.

විශාඛා බොහෝ විට ආරාමවලට ඇගේ හොඳම ඇඳුම් සහ සුවඳ විලවුන් පැළඳ සිටියාය, නමුත් පසුව ඇය තපස් වල වටිනාකම් පිළිබඳ අවබෝධයක් වර්ධනය කර ගත් අතර ඇගේ සියුම් ඇඳුම අත්හැරීමට තීරණය කළාය.  දිනක් විශාකාට ආභරණ අහිමි වූ අතර එය ආනන්ද විසින් ඇය වෙනුවෙන් ඉවත දැමීය. සිදුවූයේ කුමක්දැයි වටහාගත් විශාඛා එම ආභරණ විකුණා එයින් ලැබෙන මුදලින් පින් කිරීමට තීරණය කළාය. එහෙත් එම ආභරණ කිසිවකුට මිලදී ගත නොහැකි තරම් මිල අධික වූ බැවින් ඇය සතු වත්කම්වලින් එය තමා විසින්ම මිල දී ගෙන සැවැත් නුවර ආසන්නයේ ආරාමයක් ඉදිකිරීමට මුදල් වෙන් කළාය.     ආරාමය ඉදිකිරීම ආරම්භ කිරීමට විශාඛාව සූදානම් වන විට, ඇය බුදුන් වහන්සේට සැවැත් නුවර වැඩ සිටින ලෙස ඉල්ලා සිටියාය, කෙසේ වෙතත්, බුදුන් වහන්සේ වෙනත් තැනක ඉගැන්වීමට අවශ්ය වූ අතර, ඉදිකිරීම් සඳහා ඇය සමඟ වැඩ සිටීමට භික්ෂුවක් තෝරා ගැනීමට ඉඩ දුන්නාය. විශාඛා තෝරා මහා මුගලන් ප්රමුඛතම, බුදු රජාණන් වහන්සේ ශ්රාවකයා තමන් සතුව අධ්යාත්මික බලයන් ඇය සමඟ ඉන්න හා ඉදිකිරීම් අධීක්ෂණය කිරීම සඳහා. මහා මොග්ගල්ලාන මහරහතන් වහන්සේ ගේ අධීක්‍ෂණයට සහ අධ්‍යාත්මික බලය යොදා ගනිමින් ඉදිකිරීම් සඳහා උපකාර කිරීම නිසා මාස නවයක් තුළ දෙමහල් විහාරය ඉදිකරන ලදී.  මෙම විහාරය හඳුන්වනු ලැබුවේ පුබ්බරාම ආරාමය ලෙසින් වන අතර, බොහෝ විට මිගාරාමතුපාසාද (වචනාර්ථයෙන්, "මිගාරමාතාගේ මාලිගාව") ලෙස හැඳින්වේ.    ආරාමය ගොඩනැගීමෙන් පසු, බුදුන් වහන්සේ සැවැත් නුවර වැඩ වසන සෑම විටම, තම ප්‍රධාන ශ්‍රාවකයා වූ අනාථපිණ්ඩික විසින් කරවන ලද මිගාරමාතුපාසාදය සහ ජේතවනය යන ආරාමය අතර මාරුවෙන් මාරුවට වැඩම කළහ.    සමස්තයක් වශයෙන් ගත් කල, බුදුන් වහන්සේ විශාඛා ආරාමයේ මුළු වර්ෂා ඍතු හයක් ගත කළ අතර, එය ජේතවනය පමණක් අභිබවා ගිය ආරාම අතරින් දෙවන ස්ථානය විය.

විශාඛාව බුද්ධ කාලයේ සිටි ප්‍රමුඛතම ගිහි කාන්තා චරිතයක් ලෙස සලකනු ලබන අතර මුල් බුදුදහමේ කාන්තාවන් කෙරෙහි දක්වන ආකල්ප තීරණය කිරීමේදී බෞද්ධ ග්‍රන්ථවල ඇයගේ භූමිකාව බොහෝ විට සඳහන් කර ඇත. ආගමික අධ්‍යයන විශාරද නැන්සි ෆෝක් පවසන්නේ "බෞද්ධ කතා කලාවේ මහා වීරවරිය කන්‍යා සොහොයුරියන්ගේ නිර්මාතෘ මහාපජාපති නොව විශාඛා බවයි. [  , කන්‍යා සොහොයුරියන්ගේ දිවුරුම් නොගත් මුල් ප්‍රජාවට අයත් දියණියක් සහ භාර්යාවක්"

ආශ්‍රිත ලිපි

 Anathapindika
 Dāna
 Khujjuttarā
 Velukandakiya

සටහන්

මූලාශ්‍ර

භාහිර සබැඳි
 "Buddhist Women in the Time of the Buddha and Theravada Women Today 2003" by Dion Peoples
"Visakha: The Chief Female Lay Benefactor" (Archived) from the "Paw Center."
 "Life of the Buddha: Visakha, Great Female Supporter" by Rev. Siridhamma (1983; 2004) from "BuddhaNet."
 "Visākhā"(5) from "Buddhist Dictionary of Pali Proper Names."
 "Migāramātupāsāda" from "Buddhist Dictionary of Pali Proper Names.
Visakha Migaramata — Migara's Mother
Early Buddhist Women Stories

Foremost disciples of Gautama Buddha
Buddhism and women
5th-century BC Indian people

විශාකා උපාසිකාව


Le largage d'ours en peluche de 2012 à Minsk est survenu le 4 juillet 2012 en Biélorussie. Un avion, affrété par l'agence de publicité suédoise , est entré illégalement dans l'espace aérien biélorusse le 4 juillet et a parachuté plusieurs centaines d'ours en peluche avec des notes portant des messages pro-démocratie. Après avoir nié pendant trois semaines que l'incident ait eu lieu et qualifié les images du largage diffusées par Studio Total de canular, le gouvernement biélorusse a finalement reconnu le 26 juillet 2012 que le largage d'ours en peluche avait bien eu lieu.

L'événement a beaucoup irrité le président biélorusse Alexandre Loukachenko, qui y voyait un échec important en matière de sécurité nationale. Loukachenko a limogé deux grands généraux, les chefs des gardes-frontières biélorusses et de la défense aérienne, pour ne pas avoir intercepté l'avion de Studio Total. Le largage a conduit à une escalade de la crise diplomatique dans les relations entre la Biélorussie et la Suède. Le 3 août 2012, la Biélorussie a expulsé l'ambassadeur de Suède, , et a ensuite ordonné au personnel restant de l'ambassade de Suède de quitter la Biélorussie d'ici la fin du mois. La Biélorussie a également retiré son ambassadeur et tout le personnel de son ambassade de Suède.

Largage
Le 4 juillet 2012, un petit avion, affrété par l'agence de publicité suédoise Studio Total et avec deux personnes à bord, a décollé d'un aérodrome en Lituanie et est entré illégalement dans l'espace aérien biélorusse, traversant la frontière biélorusse depuis la Lituanie. L'avion a largué plusieurs centaines d'ours en peluche, portant des cartes et des notes avec des messages pro-démocratie, pro-liberté d'expression et de protestation, au-dessus de la ville biélorusse d'Ivianets, près de Minsk. Les organisateurs du largage avaient initialement prévu de larguer certains des ours en peluche au-dessus des bâtiments du gouvernement de l'État à Minsk, mais les incertitudes concernant l'approvisionnement en carburant et le fait que l'avion avait été contacté par les contrôleurs aériens biélorusses ont entraîné la décision de laisser tomber les ours sur Ivianets puis de repartir. L'avion a retraversé la frontière avec la Lituanie sans rencontrer aucune interférence de l'armée biélorusse. Per Cromwell, le fondateur de Studio Total, était dans une voiture au sol à Ivianets lors du largage. Divers reportages évaluent le nombre total d'ours en peluche à environ 800.

L'opération de largage a été baptisée "Teddybear Airdrop Minsk 2012" par ses organisateurs du Studio Total.

L'un des pilotes de l'avion de Studio Total impliqué dans le largage, Tomas Mazetti, a déclaré que l'idée d'utiliser des ours en peluche venait d'activistes pro-démocratie biélorusses, qui avaient été arrêtés à plusieurs reprises par les autorités et avaient commencé à porter des ours en peluche avec des slogans réclamant la liberté d'expression en guise de protestation. Les ours en peluche étaient régulièrement confisqués par la police et le parachutage de Studio Total se voulait être un geste de solidarité : "nous avons fait voler des ours en peluche et les avons largués pour soutenir les ours en peluche arrêtés". Studio Total soutient qu'aucun militant de la démocratie biélorusse n'a été impliqué dans la planification du largage aérien d'ours en peluche. Selon Mazetti, le vol à l'intérieur de l'espace aérien biélorusse a duré environ une heure et demie, à une altitude d'environ 50 mètres.

Les deux personnes à bord de l'avion, Tomas Mazetti et Hannah Frey, ont passé environ un an à se préparer pour l'opération de largage. Leurs préparatifs comprenaient l'achat d'un avion Jodel à trois places et l'apprentissage de son pilotage, dépensant l'équivalent d'environ 184 500 dollars américains dans le processus.

Réaction de la Biélorussie
Après le largage, Studio Total a publié plusieurs courts clips vidéo de l'opération. Un certain nombre de vidéos, réalisées par des biélorusses qui ont observé la chute d'ours en peluche parachutés ont été publiées sur YouTube et sont devenues virales. Cependant, la réaction initiale des médias suédois et des médias d'État biélorusses aux affirmations de Studio Total concernant le largage a été sceptique.

Premiers démentis officiels
Les autorités biélorusses ont d'abord émis des démentis rigoureux selon lesquels le largage aérien d'ours en peluche n'avait jamais eu lieu et qu'il n'y avait pas eu d'intrusion non autorisée dans l'espace aérien biélorusse le 4 juillet. Les responsables du gouvernement biélorusse ont affirmé que la vidéo de Studio Total du largage était fausse et l'a qualifiée de canular destiné à embarrasser le gouvernement biélorusse. Environ une semaine après le largage, Studio Total a publié environ 90 minutes de séquences vidéo brutes non éditées prises pendant le vol du 4 juillet. Radio Free Europe a examiné les images et a conclu qu'elles semblaient authentiques. Néanmoins, le gouvernement de Biélorussie a continué à nier que le parachutage s'est produit.

Arrestations de journalistes
Le 13 juillet, les autorités biélorusses ont arrêté un étudiant journaliste de 20 ans, , qui a publié sur son site Internet, Bnp.by, certaines des premières photos liées au parachutage d'ours en peluche. Suryapin a écrit sur son site Internet qu'il avait reçu les photos par e-mail d'un des résidents locaux qui avait observé la chute. Plusieurs jours avant l'arrestation de Suryapin, la police de Minsk a arrêté un agent immobilier, Syarhei Basharimau, qui avait loué un appartement dans la capitale à deux suédois liés à Studio Total. Les représentants de Studio Total affirment que ni Suryapin ni Basharimau n'étaient en aucune façon impliqués dans la planification et la réalisation du largage et ont appelé à leur libération. Plusieurs organisations de défense des droits humains, dont Amnesty International, ont également appelé à la libération de Suryapin. Suryapin et Basharimau, qui ont été officiellement inculpés, ont été libérés sous caution le 17 août 2012 et risquent jusqu'à sept ans d'emprisonnement. Le gouvernement biélorusse a publiquement levé les conditions de libération sous caution et annoncé que l'affaire pénale était close le 28 juin 2013.

Début août 2012, deux journalistes, Irina Kozlik et Yulia Doroshkevich, qui ont pris des photos d'ours en peluche en solidarité avec Suryapin et Basharimau, ont été arrêtées à Minsk puis reconnues coupables de "violation de la loi sur les manifestations" et condamnées à une amende de plusieurs centaines de dollars américains.

Reconnaissance du largage
Après trois semaines de démentis par les autorités biélorusses que l'événement se soit réellement produit, le 26 juillet, le président biélorusse Alexandre Loukachenko a finalement reconnu que le largage aérien de l'ours en peluche du 4 juillet avait bien eu lieu.

Limogeage de responsables militaires biélorusses

Le président Loukachenko aurait été très irrité par le largage aérien d'ours en peluche et par l'échec de l'armée biélorusse à l'intercepter, ce qu'il considérait comme un manquement important à la sécurité nationale. Il a indiqué que les responsables de ce manquement seront sanctionnés : "Cet avion a été découvert à temps, mais pourquoi les autorités (de la défense aérienne) n'ont-elles pas intercepté le vol? [...] Allez les gars. Nous sommes tous adultes. Le coupable il faut en répondre."

Le mardi 31 juillet 2012, le gouvernement biélorusse a annoncé que le président Loukachenko avait limogé deux grands généraux, le chef de la défense aérienne Dmitry Pakhmelkin et le chef des gardes-frontières Igor Rachkovsky "pour ne pas avoir correctement exercé leurs fonctions de sauvegarde de la sécurité nationale biélorusse."

Le président Loukachenko a chargé le nouveau chef des gardes-frontières d'abattre tout futur intrus illégal dans l'espace aérien biélorusse : "Les violations illégales des frontières de l'État ne doivent pas être autorisées. Elles doivent être arrêtées par tous les moyens, y compris les armes, indépendamment de tout."

Actions gouvernementales ultérieures
Le 11 août, le KGB biélorusse a sommé les trois organisateurs suédois du largage, Tomas Mazetti, Hannah Frey et Per Cromwell, de se rendre en Biélorussie pour un interrogatoire sur l'opération dans les 10 jours. La convocation a été publiée sur le site Web du KGB biélorusse et remise à Studio Total par e-mail et a déclaré que le non-respect pourrait entraîner "des travaux correctionnels pouvant aller jusqu'à deux ans ou une peine d'emprisonnement pouvant aller jusqu'à six mois." Studio Total a refusé de se conformer à la convocation et a plutôt proposé de discuter de l'opération de largage directement avec le président Loukachenko s'il se rendait en Suède.

La Biélorussie a également envoyé une demande officielle au gouvernement lituanien pour obtenir de l'aide "pour enquêter sur une éventuelle violation de la frontière nationale lorsqu'un avion léger piloté par la Suède a traversé la frontière lituanienne-biélorusse". Le président Loukachenko a été cité par Interfax disant que "la Lituanie ne devrait pas être assise comme des souris sous un balai. Ils doivent nous répondre pourquoi ils ont fourni leur territoire pour violation des frontières nationales. S'il y a quelqu'un qui ne trouvera pas cela drôle, c'est bien la Lituanie."

Querelle diplomatique avec la Suède
Le 3 août, le ministre suédois des Affaires étrangères, Carl Bildt, a annoncé que la Biélorussie avait "expulsé" l'ambassadeur de Suède en Biélorussie, Stefan Eriksson, qui était alors en vacances en Suède lorsqu'il a été informé qu'il ne serait pas autorisé à retourner en Biélorussie. Le gouvernement biélorusse a contesté la caractérisation suédoise des événements, déclarant : "La partie biélorusse n'a pas expulsé l'ambassadeur suédois. La décision a été prise de ne pas prolonger son accréditation." La Biélorussie a justifié sa décision en disant que les "activités de l'ambassadeur de Suède ne visaient pas le renforcement des relations entre la Biélorussie et la Suède, mais leur érosion."

En réponse, le gouvernement suédois a annoncé que le nouvel ambassadeur biélorusse en Suède ne serait pas autorisé à entrer dans le pays et que deux autres diplomates biélorusses étaient expulsés. Par la suite, la Biélorussie a ordonné à tout le personnel diplomatique suédois restant de quitter la Biélorussie avant le 30 août.

L'Union européenne a tenu une réunion urgente de ses diplomates le vendredi 10 août 2012 à Bruxelles pour discuter de la réponse de l'UE à la querelle croissante entre la Biélorussie et la Suède. Les diplomates de l'UE ont exprimé leur ferme soutien à la Suède dans le différend mais n'ont pris aucune mesure concrète contre la Biélorussie. Des rapports antérieurs indiquaient que la réunion devait aboutir à un rappel massif des ambassadeurs de l'UE en Biélorussie dans leur pays d'origine.

Notes et références

Juillet 2012
2012 en Biélorussie
Mouvement démocratique biélorusse

Largage d'ours en peluche de 2012 à Minsk


Malcolm Kemp Savidge (born 9 May 1946 in Surrey, England) is a politician in the United Kingdom.  He was Labour Party Member of Parliament (MP) for Aberdeen North, in Scotland, from the 1997 general election until he stood down at the 2005 general election.

Early life
Educated at Wallington County Grammar School and then Aberdeen University, he was previously a maths teacher for 24 years and was a member of Aberdeen District Council. In 1991, he unsuccessfully contested the Kincardine and Deeside by-election, where he finished in fourth place, and he was defeated again fighting the same seat at the general election the following year.

Parliamentary career
He was elected for Aberdeen North in 1997, with a 47.9% share of the vote and a majority of 10,010 votes over Brian Adam of the SNP.

The Sunday Working (Scotland) Act 2003 was the result of a Private Member's Bill raised by Savidge during 2003. The Act extended to Scotland the rights enjoyed by shopworkers in England and Wales to refuse to work on a Sunday.

When the number of Parliamentary constituencies in Scotland was reduced for the 2005 general election, the former Aberdeen Central constituency was mostly absorbed into an expanded Aberdeen North. The Aberdeen Central MP Frank Doran was selected as the Labour candidate for Aberdeen North, and Savidge did not contest the 2005 general election.

After Parliament
Since leaving Westminster he has been a member of the British American Security Information Council , and has been a consultant to the Oxford Research Group.

External links

 TheyWorkForYou.com – Malcolm Savidge
 bio at Oxford Research Group

1946 births
Living people
Councillors in Aberdeen
Scottish Labour councillors
Politicians from Surrey
Scottish Labour MPs
Members of the Parliament of the United Kingdom for Aberdeen constituencies
Scottish schoolteachers
UK MPs 1997–2001
UK MPs 2001–2005
Alumni of the University of Aberdeen
People educated at Wallington County Grammar School

Malcolm Savidge


Amstel Gold Race 1997 var den 32. udgave af det årligt tilbagevendende cykelløb Amstel Gold Race. Løbet blev holdt søndag den 26. april 1997 i den hollandske provins Limburg. Løbet strakte sig over 258 kilometer og startede i Heerlen og sluttede i Maastricht. I alt deltog 191 ryttere hvoraf 80 gennemførte. Bjarne Riis vandt løbet efter et soloudbrud på 40 kilometer.

Endeligt resultat

Noter

Eksterne links
Løbets hjemmeside
Resultater

1997
Cykelløb i 1997

Amstel Gold Race 1997


Játvarðstímabilið er tímabil í sögu Bretlands sem nær frá lokum Viktoríutímans 1901 til 1910 og stundum allt að upphafi Fyrri heimsstyrjaldar 1914. Tímabilið dregur nafn sitt af Játvarði 7. sem tók við völdum eftir lát móður sinnar, Viktoríu Bretadrottningar. Þetta tímabil einkenndist af töluverðu frjálsræði í tísku og viðmóti miðað við Viktoríutímabilið, auknum pólitískum áhrifum lágstéttanna, einkum eftir umbætur Frjálslyndra eftir 1906, og trú á Breska heimsveldið. Konur voru teknar að berjast fyrir kosningarétti kvenna en stjórnmálamenn innan Frjálslynda flokksins stóðu gegn því.

Játvarðstímabilið var síðasta tímabilið í sögu Bretlands sem nefnt var eftir ríkjandi einvaldi. Georg 5. og Georg 6. tóku við eftir lát hans, en valdatíð þeirra er samt ekki nefnd Georgstímabilið, því það heiti hefur verið notað yfir tímabilið frá 1714 til um 1830.

Saga Bretlands
1901-1910

Játvarðstímabilið


Apollonius redivivus seu restituta Apollonii Pergaei Inclinationum geometria (hrvatski: Oživljeni Apolonije ili obnovljena geometrija priklona Apolonija iz Perge) djelo je u dva sveska hrvatskoga matematičara i fizičara iz Dubrovnika Marina Getaldića. Napisao ga je na latinskom jeziku. Objavio ga je 1607. – 1613. godine.

U ovom je djelu obnovio djelo Apolonija iz Perge o priklonima. Primijenio je sintetičku metodu da bi obnovljeno djelo bilo što vjernije izgubljenom izvorniku.

Izvori

Matematika u Hrvatskoj
Knjige
Marin Getaldić


Takanori Nakajima (født 9. februar 1984) er en japansk fodboldspiller.

Han har spillet for flere forskellige klubber i sin karriere, herunder Shonan Bellmare, Yokohama FC, Avispa Fukuoka, Kashiwa Reysol og Gainare Tottori.

Eksterne henvisninger

Fodboldspillere fra Japan

Takanori Nakajima


The vertical-cavity surface-emitting laser, or VCSEL , is a type of semiconductor laser diode with laser beam emission perpendicular from the top surface, contrary to conventional edge-emitting semiconductor lasers (also in-plane lasers) which emit from surfaces formed by cleaving the individual chip out of a wafer.  VCSELs are used in various laser products, including computer mice, fiber optic communications, laser printers, Face ID, and smartglasses.

Production advantages

There are several advantages to producing VCSELs, in contrast to the production process of edge-emitting lasers.  Edge-emitters cannot be tested until the end of the production process.  If the edge-emitter does not function properly, whether due to bad contacts or poor material growth quality, the production time and the processing materials have been wasted.  VCSELs however, can be tested at several stages throughout the process to check for material quality and processing issues.  For instance, if the vias, the electrical connections between layers of a circuit, have not been completely cleared of dielectric material during the etch, an interim testing process will flag that the top metal layer is not making contact to the initial metal layer. Additionally, because VCSELs emit the beam perpendicular to the active region of the laser as opposed to parallel as with an edge emitter, tens of thousands of VCSELs can be processed simultaneously on a three-inch gallium arsenide wafer.  Furthermore, even though the VCSEL production process is more labor and material intensive, the yield can be controlled to a more predictable outcome.

Structure

The laser resonator consists of two distributed Bragg reflector (DBR) mirrors parallel to the wafer surface with an active region consisting of one or more quantum wells for the laser light generation in between. The planar DBR-mirrors consist of layers with alternating high and low refractive indices.  Each layer has a thickness of a quarter of the laser wavelength in the material, yielding intensity reflectivities above 99%. High reflectivity mirrors are required in VCSELs to balance the short axial length of the gain region.

In common VCSELs the upper and lower mirrors are doped as p-type and n-type materials, forming a diode junction. In more complex structures, the p-type and n-type regions may be embedded between the mirrors, requiring a more complex semiconductor process to make electrical contact to the active region, but eliminating electrical power loss in the DBR structure.

In laboratory investigation of VCSELs using new material systems, the active region may be pumped by an external light source with a shorter wavelength, usually another laser. This allows a VCSEL to be demonstrated without the additional problem of achieving good electrical performance; however such devices are not practical for most applications.

VCSELs for wavelengths from 650 nm to 1300 nm are typically based on gallium arsenide (GaAs) wafers with DBRs formed from GaAs and aluminium gallium arsenide (AlxGa(1-x)As). The GaAs–AlGaAs system is favored for constructing VCSELs because the lattice constant of the material does not vary strongly as the composition is changed, permitting multiple "lattice-matched" epitaxial layers to be grown on a GaAs substrate. However, the refractive index of AlGaAs does vary relatively strongly as the Al fraction is increased, minimizing the number of layers required to form an efficient Bragg mirror compared to other candidate material systems.  Furthermore, at high aluminium concentrations, an oxide can be formed from AlGaAs, and this oxide can be used to restrict the current in a VCSEL, enabling very low threshold currents.

The main methods of restricting the current in a VCSEL are characterized by two types: ion-implanted VCSELs and oxide VCSELs.

In the early 1990s, telecommunications companies tended to favor ion-implanted VCSELs.  Ions, (often hydrogen ions, H+), were implanted into the VCSEL structure everywhere except the aperture of the VCSEL, destroying the lattice structure around the aperture, thus inhibiting the current.  In the mid to late 1990s, companies moved towards the technology of oxide VCSELs.  The current is confined in an oxide VCSEL by oxidizing the material around the aperture of the VCSEL.  A high content aluminium layer that is grown within the VCSEL structure is the layer that is oxidized.  Oxide VCSELs also often employ the ion implant production step.  As a result, in the oxide VCSEL, the current path is confined by the ion implant and the oxide aperture.

The initial acceptance of oxide VCSELs was plagued with concern about the apertures "popping off" due to the strain and defects of the oxidation layer.  However, after much testing, the reliability of the structure has proven to be robust.  As stated in one study by Hewlett Packard on oxide VCSELs, "The stress results show that the activation energy and the wearout lifetime of oxide VCSEL are similar to that of implant VCSEL emitting the same amount of output power."
A production concern also plagued the industry when moving the oxide VCSELs from research and development to production mode.  The oxidation rate of the oxide layer was highly dependent on the aluminium content.  Any slight variation in aluminium would change the oxidation rate sometimes resulting in apertures that were either too big or too small to meet the specification standards.

Longer wavelength devices, from 1300 nm to 2000 nm, have been demonstrated with at least the active region made of indium phosphide. VCSELs at even higher wavelengths are experimental and usually optically pumped.  1310 nm VCSELs are desirable as the dispersion of silica-based optical fiber is minimal in this wavelength range.

Special forms
Multiple active region devices (aka bipolar cascade VCSELs) Allows for differential quantum efficiency values in excess of 100% through carrier recycling

VCSELs with tunnel junctions Using a tunnel junction (n+p+), an electrically advantageous n-n+p+-p-i-n configuration can be built that also may beneficially influence other structural elements (e.g. in the form of a Buried Tunnel Junction (BTJ)).

Tunable VCSELs with micromechanically  movable mirrors (MEMS) (either optically  or electrically pumped )

Wafer-bonded or wafer-fused VCSEL Combination of semiconductor materials that can be fabricated using different types of substrate wafers

Monolithically optically pumped VCSELs Two VCSELs on top of each other. One of them optically pumps the other one.

VCSEL with longitudinally integrated monitor diode A photodiode is integrated under the back mirror of the VCSEL. VCSEL with transversally integrated monitor diode: With suitable etching of the VCSEL's wafer, a resonant photodiode can be manufactured that may measure the light intensity of a neighboring VCSEL.

VCSELs with external cavities (VECSELs) VECSELs are optically pumped with conventional laser diodes.  This arrangement allows a larger area of the device to be pumped and therefore more power can be extracted - as much as 30W.  The external cavity also allows intracavity techniques such as frequency doubling, single frequency operation and femtosecond pulse modelocking.

Vertical-cavity semiconductor optical amplifiers VCSOAs are optimized as amplifiers as opposed to oscillators. VCSOAs must be operated below threshold and thus require reduced mirror reflectivities for decreased feedback. In order to maximize the signal gain, these devices contain a large number of quantum wells (optically pumped devices have been demonstrated with 21–28 wells) and as a result exhibit single-pass gain values which are significantly larger than that of a typical VCSEL (roughly 5%). These structures operate as narrow linewidth (tens of GHz) amplifiers and may be implemented as amplifying filters.

Characteristics
Because VCSELs emit from the top surface of the chip, they can be tested on-wafer, before they are cleaved into individual devices. This reduces the fabrication cost of the devices. It also allows VCSELs to be built not only in one-dimensional, but also in two-dimensional arrays.

The larger output aperture of VCSELs, compared to most edge-emitting lasers, produces a lower divergence angle of the output beam, and makes possible high coupling efficiency with optical fibers.

The small active region, compared to edge-emitting lasers, reduces the threshold current of VCSELs, resulting in low power consumption. However, as yet, VCSELs have lower emission power compared to edge-emitting lasers. The low threshold current also permits high intrinsic modulation bandwidths in VCSELs.

The wavelength of VCSELs may be tuned, within the gain band of the active region, by adjusting the thickness of the reflector layers.

While early VCSELs emitted in multiple longitudinal modes or in filament modes, single-mode VCSELs are now common.

High-power VCSELs
High-power vertical-cavity surface-emitting lasers can also be fabricated, either by increasing the emitting aperture size of a single device or by combining several elements into large two-dimensional (2D) arrays. There have been relatively few reported studies on high-power VCSELs. Large-aperture single devices operating around 100 mW were first reported in 1993. Improvements in the epitaxial growth, processing, device design, and packaging led to individual large-aperture VCSELs emitting several hundreds of milliwatts by 1998. More than 2 W continuous-wave (CW) operation at -10 degrees Celsius heat-sink temperature was also reported in 1998 from a VCSEL array consisting of 1,000 elements, corresponding to a power density of 30 W/cm2. In 2001, more than 1 W CW power and 10 W pulsed power at room temperature were reported from a 19-element array.  The VCSEL array chip was mounted on a diamond heat spreader, taking advantage of diamond's very high thermal conductivity.  A record 3 W CW output power was reported in 2005 from large diameter single devices emitting around 980 nm.

In 2007, more than 200 W of CW output power was reported from a large (5 × 5mm) 2D VCSEL array emitting around the 976 nm wavelength, representing a substantial breakthrough in the field of high-power VCSELs.  The high power level achieved was mostly due to improvements in wall-plug efficiency and packaging.  In 2009, >100 W power levels were reported for VCSEL arrays emitting around 808 nm.

At that point, the VCSEL technology became useful for a variety of medical, industrial, and military applications requiring high power or high energy. Examples of such applications are:
 Medical/cosmetics: laser hair removal, laser wrinkle removal
 Infrared illuminators for military/surveillance
 Pumping of solid-state lasers and fiber lasers
 High-power/high-energy second harmonic generation (blue/green light)
 Laser machining: laser cutting, laser drilling, laser ablation, laser engraving

Applications
 Optical fiber data transmission
 Analog broadband signal transmission
 Absorption spectroscopy (TDLAS)
 Laser printers
 Computer mouse
 Biological tissue analysis
 Chip scale atomic clock
 Lidar for cellphone cameras
 Structured light (e.g. the "dot projector" for iPhone Face ID)
 Lidar for automobile collision avoidance

History
The surface emission from a bulk semiconductor at ultra-low temperature and magnetic carrier confinement was reported by Ivars Melngailis in 1965. The first proposal of short cavity VCSEL was done by Kenichi Iga of Tokyo Institute of Technology in 1977. A simple drawing of his idea is shown in his research note. Contrary to the conventional Fabry-Perot edge-emitting semiconductor lasers, his invention comprises a short laser cavity less than 1/10 of the edge-emitting lasers vertical to a wafer surface. In 1979 a first demonstration on a short cavity VCSEL was done by Soda, Iga, Kitahara and Suematsu, but devices for CW operation at room temperature were not reported until 1988.  The term VCSEL was coined in a publication of the Optical Society of America in 1987. In 1989, Jack Jewell led a Bell Labs / Bellcore collaboration (including Axel Scherer, Sam McCall, Yong Hee Lee and James Harbison) that demonstrated over 1 million VCSELs on a small chip. These first all-semiconductor VCSELs introduced other design features still used in all commercial VCSELs. "This demonstration marked a turning point in the development of the surface-emitting laser. Several more research groups entered the field, and many important innovations were soon being reported from all over the world". Andrew Yang of the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) quickly initiated significant funding toward VCSEL R&D, followed by other government and industrial funding efforts.  VCSELs replaced edge-emitting lasers in applications for short-range fiberoptic communication such as Gigabit Ethernet and Fibre Channel, and are now used for link bandwidths from 1 to 400 gigabits per second or greater.

See also
Optical interconnect
Interconnect bottleneck
Optical fiber cable
Optical communication
Parallel optical interface
Optical cavity
Optical microcavity

References

External links
 Long Wavelength Surface Emitting Lasers: Introduction
 Britney's Guide to Semiconductor Physics: VCSELs

Semiconductor lasers

Vertical-cavity surface-emitting laser


Aljaž Bedene (* 18. Juli 1989 in Ljubljana) ist ein ehemaliger britisch-slowenischer Tennisspieler. Nachdem er zwischenzeitlich für Großbritannien angetreten war, spielte er ab 2018 wieder unter slowenischer Flagge.

Leben
Bedene wurde in Ljubljana geboren und lebte dort, ehe er 2008 nach Welwyn Garden City in Großbritannien zog. Sein Zwillingsbruder Andraž Bedene spielte auch Tennis (höchste Weltranglistenplatzierung 840). Seit dem 31. März 2015 besitzt er auch die britische Staatsangehörigkeit. Er heiratete 2016 und zog anschließend nach Ljubljana.

Karriere
Bedene war bis 2012 vor allem auf der Challenger Tour aktiv und erfolgreich. Im Einzel gewann er bisher sechs Titel, einen weiteren im Doppel. Seit 2013 ist Bedene vermehrt auf der World Tour unterwegs. Durch die jüngsten Erfolge auf der Challenger Tour und erste Erfolge auf der Main Tour konnte er sich mit Rang 71 zu seiner bisher besten Notierung in der Weltrangliste vorarbeiten. Seine besten Resultate erzielte er bislang mit dem Einzug ins Viertelfinale in Wien 2012 sowie mit dem Halbfinaleinzug in Chennai 2013.

Zwei Jahre später gelang ihm in Chennai sein erster Finaleinzug auf der World Tour. Im Endspiel unterlag er Stan Wawrinka. Sein zweites Endspiel erreichte er in der Saison 2017 in Budapest, wo er Lucas Pouille unterlag.

Nachdem er drei Jahre lang für Großbritannien antrat, spielte Bedene ab dem 1. Januar 2018 wieder unter slowenischer Flagge. Er begründete diesen Schritt damit, dass er dadurch wieder spielberechtigt für Davis Cup und Olympischen Spiele sei. Trotz seiner Staatsangehörigkeit hatte ihm die ITF verweigert, für Großbritannien im Davis Cup anzutreten, da er für Slowenien bereits in drei Partien zum Einsatz kam, in denen er aber jeweils nur Matches absolvierte, die für den Ausgang der Partie nicht mehr von Belang waren.

Nach der Saison 2022 beendete er seine Karriere, um ein Fußballagent zu werden. Sein letztes Match spielte er für Slowenien im Davis Cup.

Erfolge

Einzel

Turniersiege

Finalteilnahmen

Doppel

Turniersiege

Abschneiden bei Grand-Slam-Turnieren

Einzel

Doppel

Weblinks

 Persönliche Homepage (englisch, slowenisch)

Einzelnachweise

Davis-Cup-Spieler (Slowenien)
Tennisspieler (Großbritannien)
Brite
Slowene
Geboren 1989
Mann

Aljaž Bedene


Hiba (lat. Thujopsis nom. cons.), monotipski rod crnogoričnog drveta ili grma iz porodice čempresovki. Vrsta Thujopsis dolabrata  Japanski je endem a ima dvije podvrste.

Podvrste
 Thujopsis dolabrata var. dolabrata
 Thujopsis dolabrata var. hondae Makino

Izvori

Čempresovke

Hiba


David Patrick Maxwell Fyfe, 1st Earl of Kilmuir,  (29 May 1900 – 27 January 1967), known as Sir David Maxwell Fyfe from 1942 to 1954 and as Viscount Kilmuir from 1954 to 1962, was a British Conservative politician, lawyer and judge who combined an industrious and precocious legal career with political ambitions that took him to the offices of Solicitor General, Attorney General, Home Secretary and Lord High Chancellor of Great Britain.

One of the prosecuting counsels at the Nuremberg Trials, he subsequently played a role in drafting the European Convention on Human Rights. As Home Secretary he led a crackdown against homosexuals in the UK in the 1950s, and declined to commute Derek Bentley's death sentence for the murder of a police officer. His political ambitions were ultimately dashed in Harold Macmillan's cabinet reshuffle of July 1962.

Early life
Born in Edinburgh, the only son of William Thomson Fyfe, Headmaster of Aberdeen Grammar School, by his second wife Isabella Campbell, daughter of David Campbell, of Dornoch, co. Sutherland, he was educated at George Watson's College and Balliol College, Oxford, where, perhaps owing to his interest in politics, he achieved a third-class degree in Greats. Whilst at Oxford, he was a member of the Stubbs Society. His academic education was paused during his service in the Scots Guards in 1918–19, at the end of the World War I.  After graduation, he worked for the British Commonwealth Union as political secretary to Sir Patrick Hannon MP, studying law in his spare time. He entered Gray's Inn and was called to the bar in 1922. He became a pupil of George Lynskey in Liverpool then joined his chambers to practise.

Not pausing before beginning his political career in earnest, he stood as a Conservative for Wigan in 1924, an unwinnable parliamentary seat. He cultivated the more winnable Spen Valley until 1929 when the party resolved not to oppose sitting Liberal Member of Parliament (MP) Sir John Simon while he was absent on the Simon Commission in India. Maxwell Fyfe was eventually elected to Parliament in Liverpool West Derby in a by-election in July 1935.

Meanwhile, Maxwell Fyfe's legal career had prospered. In 1934 he became King's Counsel. He was Recorder of Oldham from 1936 to 1942.

Early political career
Maxwell Fyfe, along with Patrick Spens, Derrick Gunston and others, backed the National Government over the Hoare–Laval Pact, and he supported Neville Chamberlain over the Munich Agreement. However, after the German occupation of Czechoslovakia in March 1939, Maxwell Fyfe joined the Territorial Army and, at the outbreak of World War II in September, he was deployed to the Judge Advocate-General's department with rank of major. He was badly injured in an air raid in September 1940. In May 1941 Maxwell Fyfe became deputy to Rab Butler's chairmanship of a Conservative Party committee to analyse forthcoming post-war problems, taking over from Butler in July 1943.

Into government and on to Nuremberg

In March 1942, Sir Winston Churchill, on the advice of Brendan Bracken, appointed Maxwell Fyfe Solicitor-General. At the same time he was knighted and sworn of the Privy Council. He applied himself to his work in the wartime coalition government with enormous industry and began some of the thinking and planning about how the leaders of the Nazi regime in Germany might be brought to account after the war. As part of his duties, on 8 April 1945, he attended an Anglo-American discussion over the war crimes trial, at which, says the historian Richard Overy, "he presented the standard British argument for summary execution." Whether Maxwell Fyfe believed such executions were the best method of dealing with the Nazis may be doubted, in view of his later work at the Nuremberg Trials; at the time, however, as a member of the government he had little choice but to follow the lead of the Prime Minister, Churchill, who repeatedly urged that summary justice be visited upon the Nazi leaders. When the war in Europe ended and the coalition was dissolved in May 1945, Maxwell Fyfe was briefly Attorney-General in Churchill's caretaker government.

The Labour Party won a landslide victory in the United Kingdom general election of 1945 and Sir Hartley Shawcross became Attorney General and took responsibility as Britain's chief prosecutor in the Nuremberg Trials. Shawcross, to emphasise the non-partisan nature of the trials, appointed Maxwell Fyfe his deputy. Shawcross was largely committed to his political duties in Westminster and played little part other than delivering the opening and closing speeches. Maxwell Fyfe took on most of the day-to-day responsibilities as "capable lawyer, efficient administrator and concerned housemaster". There were misgivings in some quarters as to how Fyfe would perform, cross-examination not being regarded as one of his strengths. However, his cross-examination of Hermann Göring was one of the most noted cross-examinations in history.

Opposition
After Nuremberg, Maxwell Fyfe returned to Parliament to shadow the Minister of Labour while simultaneously pursuing a full, busy and prominent career at the Bar, for example defending serial murderer John George Haigh in 1949. Reputedly, he would arrive at the House of Commons at around 5.00 pm, often stay throughout debates that lasted all night then, after a quick shave and breakfast, leave for court. He was assisted in his punishing schedule by his wife Sylvia, herself a Conservative Party worker.

Maxwell Fyfe played a leading role in drafting the party's Industrial Charter of 1947 and chaired the committee into Conservative Party organisation that resulted in the Maxwell Fyfe Report (1948–49). The report shifted the balance of electoral funding from the candidate to the party, with the intention of broadening the diversity of MPs. In practice, it may have had the effect of lending more power to constituency parties and making candidates more uniform.

Maxwell Fyfe was a champion of European integration and a member of the Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe from August 1949 to May 1952, becoming the Chair of the Assembly's Committee on Legal and Administrative Questions, and rapporteur on the committee drafting the European Convention on Human Rights. In his memoirs he criticised Sir Anthony Eden for a negative stance that derailed the UK's opportunity to become a leader in Europe. Eden always rejected this and considered a libel action against Maxwell Fyfe.

Return to government

Home Secretary
Shortly before the United Kingdom general election of 1951, Maxwell Fyfe caused a stir when he appeared to hint in a radio interview that a Conservative government might legislate to curb the power of trade unions. When the Conservative Party was returned to power in the election, Churchill thought it unwise to appoint him Minister of Labour, and Maxwell Fyfe became both Home Secretary and cabinet minister for Welsh affairs. He was responsible for guiding several complicated pieces of legislation through the Commons, in particular those that established commercial television. He gained a reputation as a hard-working, thorough and reliable cabinet member.

In 1952, the Director General of MI5 (DG) was made directly answerable to the Home Secretary rather than the Prime Minister. Given this novel responsibility, Maxwell Fyfe issued the Maxwell Fyfe Directive which became the de facto constitution of the Security Service until the Security Service Act 1989 set it on a statutory basis. When Sir Percy Sillitoe resigned as DG in 1953, Maxwell Fyfe delegated the shortlisting of a successor to a committee of civil servants chaired by Sir Edward Bridges. The committee put forward Dick White and Sir Kenneth Strong. Maxwell Fyfe endorsed the committee's preference for White, observing to Churchill that an internal appointment would be good for the morale of the service.

Fyfe's assumption of office as Home Secretary heralded a reign of fear for male homosexuals. A stern advocate of existing legislation criminalising homosexual acts, he started a campaign to "rid England of this male vice … this plague" by dramatically increased arrests of male homosexuals through police surveillance and entrapment via the use of agents provocateurs, tapped telephones, forged documents and the absence of warrants. From 1,276 in prosecutions in 1939 for actual or attempted sodomy or gross indecency, a year after he had assumed the office of Home Secretary prosecutions had soared to 5,443. Fyfe subsequently sanctioned the establishment of the Wolfenden Report into homosexuality, but had he known its findings would recommend decriminalisation, it is unlikely he would have done so.

A conservative on the death penalty, Kilmuir was likewise conservative on the issue of homosexual rights, and led the opposition in the House of Lords to the implementation of the Wolfenden Committee report, which had recommended the decriminalisation of homosexual acts between consenting adults.

This was ironic, says Geraldine Bedell, since it was he, while Home Secretary, who had set up the committee to consider whether the law should be changed. As Bedell also notes: "Perhaps he thought, by handing over to a committee, to shelve the issue. Perhaps he assumed Wolfenden would find against, in which case, he chose a curious chairman, because Wolfenden had a gay son, Jeremy." Kilmuir still opposed liberalisation when a bill was introduced in the Lords (by Lord Arran) in 1965. Says Bedell: "For the opposition, Lord Kilmuir warned against licensing the 'buggers' clubs' which he claimed were operating behind innocent-looking doors all over London." Maxwell Fyfe told the Conservative backbencher Sir Robert Boothby, who was known in parliamentary circles to be bisexual, that it was not his intention to legalise homosexuality: "I am not going down in history", he told Boothby, "as the man who made sodomy legal."

During his tenure as Home Secretary, he was embroiled in the controversy surrounding the hanging of Derek Bentley. Maxwell Fyfe had controversially refused to grant a reprieve to Bentley despite the written petitions of 200 MPs and the claim that Bentley was mentally retarded allegedly having a mental age of only 11. However, on most issues he was on the progressive wing of the Conservative Party, opposing the proposals in 1953 for the re-introduction of corporal punishment.

Lord Chancellor
Maxwell Fyfe remained ambitious and a Daily Mirror opinion poll in 1954, on the popular favourite to succeed Churchill as Party leader and prime minister, had him behind Eden and Butler but well ahead of Macmillan. However, once it was clear that Eden was to be Churchill's successor, he sought the office of Lord Chancellor.

On 19 October 1954 he was raised to the peerage as Viscount Kilmuir, of Creich in the County of Sutherland, and moved to the House of Lords and the "woolsack". Lord Kilmuir was a political Lord Chancellor, not restricting himself to his judicial role. He worked on many government issues including the constitution of Malta, which he wanted to become part of the UK, and the creation of the Restrictive Practices Court. In his eight years in the post he only sat as a judge on 24 appeals to the House of Lords. Lord Kilmuir opposed Sydney Silverman's 1956 private member's bill to abolish capital punishment. He described it as "an unwise and dangerous measure, the presence of which on the statute book would be a disaster for the country and a menace to the people". However, Kilmuir chaired the cabinet committee that recommended limiting the death penalty's scope and which led to the Homicide Act 1957. He feared the consequences of immigration to the United Kingdom and presented a report to the cabinet in 1956. Lord Kilmuir contended that the military intervention in the 1956 Suez Crisis was justified under the self-defence provisions of Article 51 of the United Nations Charter.

He continued in this office in the governments of Anthony Eden and Harold Macmillan until Macmillan's 1962 "Night of the Long Knives", when he was abruptly replaced by Sir Reginald Manningham-Buller, the Attorney-General. Kilmuir was made Baron Fyfe of Dornoch, of Dornoch in the County of Sutherland, and Earl of Kilmuir on 20 July 1962 to cushion the blow of retirement. He is said to have complained to Macmillan that he was being sacked with less notice than would be given to a cook, to which Macmillan replied that it was easier to get Lord Chancellors than good cooks.

After government
After government, Kilmuir joined the board of directors of Plessey but his health soon declined. He died at Withyham, Sussex, on 27 January 1967 and was cremated. His ashes were buried at the church of St Michael and All Angels at Withyham. His wealth at death was £22,202. His titles, which could pass only to sons, became extinct, as he had fathered only daughters.

Family and personality
He married Sylvia Harrison in 1925 and they had three daughters, one of whom pre-deceased him. Lalage Fyfe (b. 1926, d. 1944) and Pamela Maxwell Fyfe (b. 1928). His brother-in-law was the actor Sir Rex Harrison.

Kilmuir was a formidable parliamentary presence on behalf of his party, and his remarkable memory compensated for a dull speaking style, though he was capable of passion when the circumstances were right. In appearance, "His body was pear-shaped, and beneath a large square bald head there were dark heavy eyebrows and a face of middle-eastern pallor and swarthiness".

As Home Secretary, he often travelled to Wales, and in the valleys of South Wales he was nicknamed Dai Bananas, Fyffes being, then as now, one of Britain's major importers of the fruit.

Honours
Among his honours were:
 King's Counsel (KC) (1934)
 Knighthood (Kt) (1942)
 Privy Councillor (PC) (1945)
 Viscount Kilmuir (1954)
 Earl of Kilmuir (1962)
 Knight Grand Cross in the Royal Victorian Order (GCVO) (1953);
Honorary degrees including:
University of Oxford;
University of Manitoba (LL.D) 1954.
University of Edinburgh  (LL.D) 1955.
University of Wales;
University of Ottawa (LL.D) 16 September 1960.
Visitor of St Antony's College, Oxford (1953); and
Rector of the University of St Andrews (1956).

Portrayal in drama
David Maxwell Fyfe has been portrayed by the following actors in film, television and theatre productions;
 Iain Cuthbertson in the 1991 British/French film Let Him Have It
 Christopher Plummer in the 2000 Canadian/U.S. TV production Nuremberg
Julian Wadham in the 2006 British television docudrama Nuremberg: Nazis on Trial
Mel Smith in the 2007 British television drama Consenting Adults
John Warnaby in Nicholas de Jongh's stage play, Plague Over England (London, 2009)
There is also a film being made about him called Under an English Heaven by his grandson Tom Blackmore.
Zdzisław Mrożewski in the Polish film Epilog norymberski

References

Bibliography
Obituaries:
The Times, 28 January 1967
The Guardian, 28 January 1967

Dutton, D. J. (2004)"Fyfe, David Patrick Maxwell, Earl of Kilmuir (1900–1967)", Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Oxford University Press, accessed 4 Aug 2007

Lord Kilmuir (1964) Political Adventure

Tusa, A. & Tusa, J. (1983) The Nuremberg Trial

External links

The Papers of Lord Kilmuir held at Churchill Archives Centre

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1900 births
1967 deaths
Alumni of Balliol College, Oxford
Maxwell Fyfe, David
British Anglicans
Maxwell Fyfe, David
Earls in the Peerage of the United Kingdom
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Ministers in the Churchill caretaker government, 1945
Ministers in the Churchill wartime government, 1940–1945
Ministers in the Eden government, 1955–1957
Ministers in the Macmillan and Douglas-Home governments, 1957–1964
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Earls created by Elizabeth II
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David Maxwell Fyfe, 1st Earl of Kilmuir


سان جوان باوتيستا  هي إحدى مدن مقاطعة سان بينيتو، كاليفورنيا. تم إعطاءها لقب مدينة في 4 مايو، 1896.

التركيبة السكانية
حدّد مكتب تعداد الولايات المتحدة بيانات التركيبة السكانية لسان جوان باوتيستا في تعداد الولايات المتحدة. في ما يلي، التركيبة السكانية حسب تعدادي 2000 و2010.

تعداد عام 2000
بلغ عدد سكان سان جوان باوتيستا 1,549 نسمة بحسب تعداد عام 2000، وبلغ عدد الأسر 567 أسرة وعدد العائلات 389 عائلة مقيمة في المدينة. في حين سجلت الكثافة السكانية . وبلغ عدد الوحدات السكنية 615 وحدة بمتوسط كثافة قدره .
وتوزع التركيب العرقي للمدينة بنسبة 62.30% من البيض و1.36% من الأمريكيين الأفارقة و1.23% من الأمريكيين الأصليين و2.65% من الأمريكيين ذوي الأصول الآسيوية و0.52% من سكان جزر المحيط الهادئ و25.24% من الأعراق الأخرى و6.71% من عرقين مختلطين أو أكثر و47.32% من الهسبانيون أو اللاتينيون من أي عرق.

بلغ عدد الأسر 567 أسرة كانت نسبة 38.4% منها لديها أطفال تحت سن الثامنة عشر تعيش معهم، وبلغت نسبة الأزواج القاطنين مع بعضهم البعض 50.1% من أصل المجموع الكلي للأسر، ونسبة 13.4% من الأسر كان لديها معيلات من الإناث دون وجود شريك، بينما كانت نسبة 5.1% من الأسر لديها معيلون من الذكور دون وجود شريكة وكانت نسبة 31.4% من غير العائلات. تألفت نسبة 23.6% من أصل جميع الأسر من عدة أفراد يعيشون في نفس المنزل ونسبة 9% كانت تتألف من شخص يعيش بمفرده يبلغ من العمر 65 عاماً أو أكثر. وبلغ متوسط حجم الأسرة المعيشية 2.73، أما متوسط حجم العائلات فبلغ 3.24.

بلغ العمر الوسطي للسكان 35.9 عاماً. وكانت نسبة 27.9% من القاطنين تحت سن الثامنة عشر، وكانت نسبة 7.4% بين الثامنة عشر والرابعة والعشرين عاماً، ونسبة 29.6% كانت واقعةً في الفئة العمرية ما بين الخامسة والعشرين والرابعة والأربعين عاماً، ونسبة 24.3% كانت ما بين الخامسة والأربعين والرابعة والستين، ونسبة 10.9% كانت ضمن فئة الخامسة والستين عاماً فما فوق. يوجد لكل 100 أنثى 98.1 ذكر، ويوجد لكل 100 أنثى في الثامنة عشر من عمرها فما فوق 99.5 ذكر.

بلغ متوسط دخل الأسرة في المدينة 43,355 دولارًا، أما متوسط دخل العائلة فبلغ 47,656 دولارًا. وكان متوسط دخل الذكور 40,089 دولارًا مقابل 27,063 دولارًا للإناث. وسجل دخل الفرد الخاص بالمدينة 19,882 دولارًا. وكانت نسبة 12.7% من العائلات ونسبة 15.5% من السكان تحت خط الفقر، وكان من هؤلاء نسبة 23.7% تحت سن الثامنة عشر ونسبة 12.2% في الخامسة والستين من العمر وما فوق.

تعداد عام 2010
بلغ عدد سكان سان جوان باوتيستا 1,862 نسمة بحسب تعداد عام 2010، وبلغ عدد الأسر 681 أسرة وعدد العائلات 479 عائلة مقيمة في المدينة. في حين سجلت الكثافة السكانية . وبلغ عدد الوحدات السكنية 745 وحدة بمتوسط كثافة قدره .
وتوزع التركيب العرقي للمدينة بنسبة 60.42% من البيض و0.64% من الأمريكيين الأفارقة و3.11% من الأمريكيين الأصليين و2.79% من الأمريكيين ذوي الأصول الآسيوية و0.11% من سكان جزر المحيط الهادئ و26.53% من الأعراق الأخرى و6.39% من عرقين مختلطين أو أكثر و48.71% من الهسبانيون أو اللاتينيون من أي عرق.

بلغ عدد الأسر 681 أسرة كانت نسبة 33.6% منها لديها أطفال تحت سن الثامنة عشر تعيش معهم، وبلغت نسبة الأزواج القاطنين مع بعضهم البعض 50.7% من أصل المجموع الكلي للأسر، ونسبة 12.6% من الأسر كان لديها معيلات من الإناث دون وجود شريك، بينما كانت نسبة 7% من الأسر لديها معيلون من الذكور دون وجود شريكة وكانت نسبة 29.7% من غير العائلات. تألفت نسبة 23.1% من أصل جميع الأسر من عدة أفراد يعيشون في نفس المنزل ونسبة 7% كانت تتألف من شخص يعيش بمفرده يبلغ من العمر 65 عاماً أو أكثر. وبلغ متوسط حجم الأسرة المعيشية 2.73، أما متوسط حجم العائلات فبلغ 3.21.

بلغ العمر الوسطي للسكان 38.7 عاماً. وكانت نسبة 23.1% من القاطنين تحت سن الثامنة عشر، وكانت نسبة 9.6% بين الثامنة عشر والرابعة والعشرين عاماً، ونسبة 25.6% كانت واقعةً في الفئة العمرية ما بين الخامسة والعشرين والرابعة والأربعين عاماً، ونسبة 29.9% كانت ما بين الخامسة والأربعين والرابعة والستين، ونسبة 11.9% كانت ضمن فئة الخامسة والستين عاماً فما فوق. وتوزع التركيب الجنسي للسكان بنسبة 48% ذكور و52% إناث.

أعلام
 إد ووكر
 ستيف هورن

مراجع

مدن في مقاطعة سان بينيتو (كاليفورنيا)
مدن كاليفورنيا

سان جوان باوتيستا (كاليفورنيا)


Åboland (finnska: Turunmaa) er landsvæði við suðvesturströnd Finnlands. Það er kennt við borgina Åbo á sænsku, þó borgin sjálf sé ekki á landsvæðinu.

Íbúar voru um 21.700 árið 2020. Við ströndina eru flestir sænskumælandi og teljast í hópi Finnlandssvía, en innanlands er meirihluti íbúa Finnar.

Þetta landsvæði er að mestu myndað úr fyrrum sveitarfélögum: Dragsfjärd, Houtskär, Iniö, Kimito, Korpo, Nagu, Pargas og Västanfjärd, sem eru öll í eyjaklasunum í kringum Turku. Þessi eyjaklasasveitarfélög voru sameinuð í Väståboland og Kimitoön þann 1. janúar, 2009. Åboland er meðal þéttbýlustu Finnlandssvíasvæða, með Austurbotni, suður Nýlandi og Álandseyjum.

Eina borgin er Pargas, þar sem meira en helmingur fólksfjöldans býr. Það eru meira en 20.000 eyjur í Åbolandi.

Landafræði Finnlands

Åboland


Lordre de l'Hermine est un ordre de chevalerie du Royaume d'Aragon institué en 1464 par Ferdinand , roi de Naples.

Description

L'insigne est un collier en or auquel est suspendue une hermine avec la devise : .

Notes et références

Liens externes

Ordre de chevalerie
Royaume d'Aragon

Ordre de l'Hermine (Royaume d'Aragon)