Jonah Woodson Hex is a fictional antihero appearing in American comic books published by DC Comics. The character was created by writer John Albano and artist Tony DeZuniga. Hex is a surly and cynical bounty hunter whose face is scarred on the right side. Despite his poor reputation and personality, Hex is bound by a personal code of honor to protect and avenge the innocent.

The character was portrayed by Josh Brolin in a self-titled film, Jim Cummings in the Jonah Hex Motion Comic and Johnathon Schaech in Legends of Tomorrow as well as voiced by Thomas Jane in DC Showcase: Jonah Hex.

Publication history

Debut
The character first appeared in a full-page in-house ad for All-Star Western #10 which was published in various November/December 1971-dated DC comics, including a few of DC's war comics line, as well as a half-page version of the same house ad in Batman #237. This house ad contains the first published images of Jonah Hex, as well as two dialogue-filled comic strip panels not used in his first full-story appearance.

His first full-story appearance was published a few weeks later in volume two of All-Star Western #10 (February–March 1972), which was renamed Weird Western Tales with its twelfth issue. Jonah Hex headlined the new title right up until issue #38, at which point Scalphunter took over the spotlight while Jonah Hex moved into his own self-titled series in 1977. The series lasted for 92 issues with Michael Fleisher as the main writer and Tony DeZuniga providing much of the art.

In a 2010 interview with Filipino journalist Anna Valmero, DeZuniga described the moment he first conceived the image that would become Jonah Hex: "When I went to my doctor, I saw this beautiful chart of the human anatomy. And I saw the anatomy of the figure was split in half, straight from head to toe. Half his skeleton was there, half his nerves and muscles. That's where I got the idea it won't be too bad if his distortion would be half."

Hex
Jonah Hex was canceled during Crisis on Infinite Earths in which Jonah also appeared along with Scalphunter and other western heroes in issue #3, but in the same year Jonah moved to a new eighteen-issue series titled Hex, also penned by Michael Fleisher. In a bizarre turn of events, Hex found that he had been transported to the 21st century and became somewhat of a post-apocalyptic warrior, reminiscent of Mad Max. The series had mediocre success in the United States but was critically acclaimed and well received in Great Britain, Italy, Spain and Japan.

Limited series
Three Jonah Hex miniseries have been published under DC's Vertigo imprint. These series, written by Joe R. Lansdale and drawn by Tim Truman, fit more into the western-horror genre, as Hex interacts with zombies ("Two-Gun Mojo" #1–5, 1993), a Cthulhoid monster ("Riders of the Worm and Such" #1–5, 1995) and spirit people ("Shadows West" #1–3, 1999).

Jonah Hex vol. 2
A new monthly Jonah Hex series debuted in November 2005 (cover date January 2006), written by Justin Gray and Jimmy Palmiotti with interior art by varying (and occasionally recurring) artists. In assorted postings on their message board, Gray and Palmiotti have stated their intent was to depict various adventures from across the full length of Hex's life and career. The main artistic difference is that the series is published without the external restraints of the Comics Code Authority which allows for harder-edged stories without having to keep with the Vertigo imprint's dark fantasy themes. Tony DeZuniga, the original Hex artist, returned to pencil two issues of the book (#5 and #9). John Higgins drew issue #28 and J. H. Williams III provided the art for Jonah Hex #35, expressing an interest in doing more: "I certainly want to do more issues myself or even a graphic novel if the opportunity and schedule presented itself."

To coincide with the release of the film Gray and Palmiotti wrote an original graphic novel, No Way Back, illustrated by Tony DeZuniga.

All-Star Western vol. 3
In September 2011, The New 52 rebooted DC's continuity. With this change, Jonah Hex volume 2 was canceled and Jonah transitioned as the lead story in All-Star Western volume 3 (November 2011). While Jonah Hex vol. 2 consisted of standalone stories, All-Star Western features an ongoing story arc that finds Jonah in Gotham City during the 1880s, teamed up with Amadeus Arkham.

Fictional character biography

Origins
Born on November 1, 1838, in northwestern Missouri to Woodson and Virginia Hex, Jonah was a regular victim of physical abuse inflicted by his father, an alcoholic. In 1851, Woodson sold his son as a slave to a local Apache tribe. They worked him constantly until he saved their chieftain from a puma; in gratitude, the chief took Jonah as his adopted son, but this angered his own son, Noh-Tante. Noh-Tante shared Jonah's affections for a young girl named White Fawn, so he betrayed his adopted brother during their manhood rite at the age of 16 and left Jonah to die at the hands of a party of Kiowa Indians. A patrol of American cavalrymen came to his aid, but when they saw him trying to help the Kiowa, the soldiers shot him as well. Jonah survived only when an old trapper scavenging the site found him clinging to life and nursed him back to health. Returning to his tribe's camp, he found that they had already left, leaving him without a family once again.

American Civil War
Jonah eventually returned to American civilization, becoming a cavalry scout in the United States Army. When the Civil War broke out in 1861, Jonah, feeling that the South was justified in seeking independence, joined the Confederate States Army and earned a commission as a lieutenant in the 4th Cavalry. It was during this time that he made his first friend, a fellow soldier named Jeb Turnbull.

As time went on, Hex found himself increasingly torn - he had become close with many of his fellow Confederates, but having once been a slave himself, he was unwilling to fight for the preservation of slavery. In September 1862, after learning about the Emancipation Proclamation, Jonah made up his mind and decided to surrender. He deserted his post and went to the nearest Union camp, Fort Charlotte, sneaking into the commander's quarters to surrender directly. He refused to tell the commander where his unit was stationed, but one of his aides was able to determine their location by studying the clay from the shoes of Jonah's horse. The Confederates were caught by surprise, and all of them were captured. The commander, humiliated by Jonah easily penetrating the fort's poor security, falsely praised him for his "assistance" in the attack. Hex punched him and was sentenced to solitary confinement.

Jonah discovered a shaft beneath his cell and used it to find where his comrades were being held. With Jeb's help, he rallied them and worked out a plan to use the shaft to sneak all of them out. What Hex did not realize was that the "escape tunnel" was a trap. The commander had run out of food to feed his captives, and had ordered the shaft to be dug in secret knowing that the prisoners would use it to try and escape. In an event that came to be known as the "Fort Charlotte Massacre", Union soldiers ambushed and gunned down nearly all of the fleeing Confederates, including Jeb. Jonah was shot himself, but managed to kill the treacherous commander before escaping. A handful of survivors, believing that Hex had betrayed them, returned home and told everyone they could find that Jonah Hex was a murderer and a traitor. Now hunted by both sides, Jonah patched himself up and moved out toward the Western territories to start over.

Mark of the Demon
Jonah came across his old tribe and found that Noh-Tante had since married White Fawn. He revealed Noh-Tante's betrayal to the chieftain, but the accusations were denied and it was decided that they would settle their dispute through combat. Noh-Tante sabotaged Jonah's tomahawk so it would break, forcing Jonah to stab him with a knife. Enraged that Jonah had killed his son and broken the rules of combat, the chieftain had him restrained and disfigured with the "mark of the demon" by scarring the right side of his face with a heated tomahawk. With the mark serving as proof of his wickedness, Jonah was banished from the tribe. Years later, when he and his partner Henri d'Aubergnon sought to rescue a white woman held captive by the tribe, Jonah saw the man he once considered his real father shoot White Fawn for trying to protect him. Without hesitation, he gunned down the elderly chieftain and slaughtered most of the Apaches.

Bounty hunter
Hex soon took up drinking to deal with the pain of his tribe's betrayal. One day, he stumbled out of a saloon to see a man beating his wife. Believing that the man was his father, Woodson Hex, Jonah shot him. A lawman informed him that the man was, in fact, Lucas "Mad Dog" McGill, an outlaw with a massive bounty on his head that no one had dared try to collect. Acknowledging that Hex had drawn his gun faster than any man he'd ever seen, the deputy gave him the bounty. Intrigued by the idea that he could get paid for killing bad men, Hex scattered his reward on the streets as he rode out of town. He then picked up his first job: hunting down an old army buddy named Eddie Cantwell. The job quickly went south when Hex was intercepted by Arbee Stoneham, a veteran manhunter who killed Cantwell, disarmed Hex, and stole his guns. Eight years later, they met again after Hex brought in the Jason Crowley gang and collected their bounties. He then found Stoneham, confined to a wheelchair after losing the use of his legs. Although he was tempted to take revenge, Hex instead shared a drink with Stoneham and left him in peace.

Hex was then hired by the town of Paradise Corners to kill the outlaw "Big" Jim. Hex grew fond of the town and decided to settle there, but the locals, disgusted by his appearance, forced him to leave. He rescued a man named Terry White from starvation in the desert and saved his life, but when White stole from him and fled, Hex hunted him down and killed him.

Weird Western Tales
Jonah befriended a wolf named Iron Jaws when he failed to stop white settlers from slaughtering the peaceful band of Pawnee Indians who had owned him. Gunfighter Windy Taylor, who had taught Hex everything he knew about shooting, asked him to help find his son, Tod Taylor, who had turned outlaw. Tod gunned down his father and Hex was forced to kill him. Iron Jaws died after venturing into the desert to rescue Hex after two criminals tied him up and left him to die of exposure. Hex dealt with a corrupt sheriff defrauding his constituents in one town, and then a corrupt hanging judge at the next. He was hired by the manager of a sideshow attraction to act as his bodyguard, then murdered the man when he tried to frame him for a heinous crime. Finding an escaped psychopath on the run, he killed the man after learning that he was a famous murderer known as the "Gentleman Killer". Fort Lang was seemingly attacked by an Indian tribe, but Hex saved them after uncovering a conspiracy by railroad interests to force them off their land so it could be illegally seized. When some bandits Hex had been pursuing injured an old lady who had shown him kindness, he paid for her medical treatment before chasing down and butchering the men who had hurt her.

During a hunt for criminal Blackjack Jorgis, Hex was ambushed by ex-Confederates sent by Quentin Turnbull, father of his deceased friend Jeb. Hex escaped death, but his friend and mentor, Hank Brewster, was shot dead and his first horse, the General, was killed by stray bullets. Briefly hired by the U.S. Secret Service, he toppled an assassination conspiracy against Ulysses S. Grant. Temporarily blinded from his injuries, he managed to take down an entire gang without his sight. He fought corrupt army officials in league with a greedy landowner who was organizing robbers to prey on traveling pioneers, and avenged the victims they had left to die.

Five Warriors from Forever
The Lord of Time assembled a team, known as the Five Warriors from Forever, when he believed that his time machine, the Eternity Brain, would end all existence. This team included Jonah Hex alongside Black Pirate, Enemy Ace, Miss Liberty, and the Viking Prince; to make them powerful enough to become a threat, they were each energized with a special force. Their purpose was to fight the Justice League and Justice Society to strengthen their resolve through defeat, which they succeeded in doing. Eventually, the Five Warriors rebelled against their master and assaulted the Palace of Eternity. Hex got into a gun-fight with a T-Rex, but he and his teammates were defeated and eventually returned to their own times using the Cosmic Treadmill.

He later encountered the Justice League separately, with several other Western heroes including Bat Lash, Cinnamon, and Scalphunter. The Lord of Time sent members of the League back to the 19th century as part of an absurd plot to rule the world. Jonah met an amnesiac Hal Jordan in the desert and nursed him back to health. The two teamed up with Elongated Man, Flash, and Zatanna to take down some robotic gunfighters while the League dealt with an anti-matter asteroid that threatened to destroy the Earth. In the present, Superman defeated the Time Lord and restored things to normal.

Crisis on Infinite Earths

Hex became involved in the first Crisis when he was summoned, along with several other heroes, to fight for the Monitor. Jonah Hex fought against the Shadow Demons alongside Bat Lash, Cyborg, Firebrand, John Stewart, Johnny Thunder, Nighthawk, Psimon, and Scalphunter. Alex Luthor and Harbinger gathered the heroes of several Earths to discuss strategy, and Hex was present in the crowd to witness Pariah's warnings.

Hex
Jonah Hex disappeared in a flash of light one night at a saloon in 1875. He was abducted from his own era by the villainous Reinhold Borsten (and with a little unintentional help from Access), who transported him into a post-apocalyptic Seattle, Washington in the 21st century. His intention was to force the legendary Hex to fight for him, but instead Jonah escaped and met a motorcycle gang named the Road Reapers. They immediately took him in after he rescued their warrior Stiletta, and he obtained a zonesuit to protect himself from radiation by killing their cowardly leader, Falcon, in self-defense. His next companions were a group of fellow time travelers, a unit of soldiers from the Vietnam War; the group was betrayed by a robotic duplicate of Stiletta and none survived except for a Cpt. Stanley Harris. Hex took a job as a guard for a drug dealer named Barnaby Blossom. When he discovered that Barnaby was getting kids hooked, he killed the man. The real Stiletta tracked him down, and they became stranded in the desert together without water after a roadside ambush. They survived by walking twelve miles to an oasis and fighting off killer mutant worms. Having attracted negative attention from the underworld organization known as the Conglomerate by disrupting their drug operations, Hex and Stiletta were hunted down by a mercenary named Chain, who they defeated in a confrontation in a junkyard. The Conglomerate then changed tactics, enlisting Hex to help them take down Borsten, and he allowed himself to be captured by Borsten in a fight, planning to use his time travel technology to return home. Stiletta and Harris broke into Borsten's complex to help him and Harris was sent home, but the equipment was destroyed before Hex could use it. He and Stiletta escaped as the building exploded, and Borsten apparently died in the blast.

Resigned to his fate, Hex got his hands on more advanced guns after he won a competition at a dangerous live-shooting gallery, but Stiletta was abducted and seemingly killed while he was distracted. He was then captured by a scientist named Dr. Adamant who planned to convert Hex into a cyborg for his "utopia" of artificial life, but Hex escaped and wiped him out along with his creations. His next challenge was an anti-sin cult called the Sin Killers, whom he dealt with while rescuing the kidnapped daughter of a local man. Borsten was later revealed to have survived the explosion. Briefly, Jonah met the Legion of Super-Heroes while they were traveling in their Time Bubble.

New York City's leading crime syndicate, the Combine, sent Hex after their greatest enemy, the Batman, by framing him for Stiletta's murder; the two men fought and nearly killed each other. Realizing that they were on the same side, Hex helped Batman stop the Combine from unleashing their war machines on the innocents of the city. Stiletta was discovered to still be alive, having been brainwashed and trained as a professional wrestler, under the name "Blonde Spitfire". Briefly, Jonah was captured by two cannibals and forced to escape through the sewers. He then began hunting down members of the Combine. The Road Reapers were captured by a group of warriors called the Dogs of War, who pressed them into slave labor for their master, an alien named S'ven Tarah. Jonah was forced to fight Stiletta, but he was able to free her from her wrestler persona after knocking her out.

Tarah revealed that he was also a time-traveler and that his slave camps were building a machine to thwart an alien invasion from the Xxggs. Hex was attacked by his old enemy Chain again in revenge for their last battle, but defeated him a second time. Having been made a slave by Tarah's ally Manta, Hex organized his fellow captives to escape and fought an enforcer named Starkad on his way out. Stanley Harris revealed that he was actually one of the Dogs of War, and enlisted Jonah's service. They fought against the Xxggs for the future of humanity and succeeded, but Tarah admitted that he was unable to return Hex to 1875. Hex chose to spend Thanksgiving Day with Stiletta. They went to a long-abandoned amusement park, where Hex found his own stuffed corpse in a display. Realizing that the body was from his own time in the past, Hex found comfort knowing that someday he would get to go home.

Two-Gun Mojo
Jonah met a fellow bounty hunter, Slow Go Smith, who became his friend and partner. Smith was killed by gun-toting zombies in a barn, and Hex was framed for his murder. Fleeing from the law, Hex investigated the origins of the zombies and learned that they were given life by snake oil merchant Doc "Cross" Williams. Williams, using his knowledge of voodoo from his travels in Haiti, had created an army of the dead to serve him, even reanimating the corpse of Wild Bill Hickok to be his personal bodyguard. Cross sought to do the same to Hex, but he escaped and confronted the Doc. Jonah put Hickok down again by beating him on the draw, then avenged his friend by leaving Williams to die a slow, brutal death at the hands of the Apaches whose dead he had desecrated.

Riders of the Worm and Such
After killing outlaw Stove Belly Jack and wiping out his gang, Hex met a giant worm in the desert. He teamed up with the inhabitants of a local ranch who'd been under attack by the creatures. It turned out that the monsters were actually sentient, the half-bred rape children of an underground race and a human woman, and that they called themselves the Autumn Brothers. Hex rallied the ranchers to take the offensive. He led them in an assault on the tunnel system where the rest of the worms lived, slaughtering them as they went and blowing up their queen with dynamite.

Shadows West
Jonah became a member of Buffalo Will's traveling Wild West Show after a trick-shooting midget named Long Tom saved his life. He reconnected with an old friend named Spotted Balls and met a local prostitute who gave birth to a Bear Boy. She claimed to have given birth after mating with a bear spirit. Hex decided to leave the camp with Spotted Balls and the squaw because he did not like the way things were run and feared that Will would try to exploit the Bear Boy. This infuriated the showman, who sent an armed posse led by Long Tom after them. Jonah killed most of his pursuers using carefully set traps, but Spotted Balls died in the final shootout. He was able to return the squaw and her cub to its father and his spirit people. Returning to Will's camp with Long Tom's corpse, he swore to the corrupt promoter that if he ever saw him again he would kill him.

Face Full of Violence
When a rich family hired him to track down their kidnapped son, Hex found the boy had become part of an underground dog-fighting ring and was forced to put him down when he contracted rabies. In a conflict involving a stolen gold crucifix, he burned an entire mining town to the ground. Bat Lash, a traveling gambler and vigilante, helped him take revenge against a corrupt lawman who tried to frame him. The mayor of a small town tried to have Hex hanged as a rapist to hide the incestuous rape of his mute daughter, but the townspeople lynched the politician instead when they learned the truth. While escorting a bounty on Christmas Day, he got into a gunfight, killing a dozen men who wanted to murder his quarry. In the town of Salvation, he met a local gang who disguised themselves as nuns to hide from the law; Hex took them down when they tried to kill him.

Death
Jonah Hex continued to work as a bounty hunter until he retired at the age of 66 in 1904, having settled down with a Native American woman named Tall Bird. A journalist, Michael Wheeler, visited Hex to write his biography. The entertainer L.B. Farnham also showed up, offering Hex a great deal of money to star in his "Wild West Revue" show, but Hex angrily turned him down, not wanting to spend his final years as a carnival attraction. Hex's last bounty was the gang of bank robber George Barrow; Barrow survived, and swore revenge. Playing cards in a Cheyenne saloon, Hex was murdered by Barrow with a double-barreled shotgun while fumbling to put on his spectacles. His death was immediately avenged by his friend, sheriff Hank Crawford, who gunned down the unarmed Barrow in cold blood. In his dying moments, Hex reflected on the life that he had lived.

Tall Bird and Wheeler attempted to give Jonah a proper Native American burial, but they were robbed at gunpoint by Farnham and an accomplice. Farnham had Wheeler shot and set fire to Tall Bird's house, leaving her to die. Hex's body was given to a taxidermist to be put in a gaudy outfit for display; Farnham and his associate were both killed by the "accidental" discharge (at point-blank range) of Jonah's hair-trigger guns while setting up the display and thieves stole the body after recognizing Hex. For years, the corpse changed hands and was moved by various owners, before finally ending up as a dummy at a Western-style theme park. Tall Bird was then revealed to have survived the fire; now an old woman, she protected her husband's body from further violation by claiming it for burial. While speaking with a young historian to fill in the missing details of Hex's life, a corrupt Western memorabilia collector threatened them, hoping to take the body for himself. The evil collector suddenly died after being shot from behind, and it is implied that Jonah Hex's vengeful spirit returned to protect his wife from beyond the grave.

Post mortem
Many years later, a supermodel and actress who happened to have the surname Hex seemed to become possessed when her right eye was cut out by members of a group called the Agenda. She assisted Superboy and displayed psionic powers when she repeatedly fired an unloaded energy weapon, but this change in consciousness seems to have been temporary. Eventually, she decided to become a bounty hunter like her predecessor, riding Grokk the Living Gargoyle as her trusty steed.

Jonah Hex was reanimated during Blackest Night as a zombie member of the Black Lantern Corps, wielding a power ring. He returned to plague Quentin Turnbull's last living descendant, Joshua Turnbull. Joshua attacked Hex with a rocket launcher, but failed to destroy him. The young man pleaded for his life to Hex, joined by a Black Lantern version of Quentin Turnbull, but Turnbull gunned down his descendant in cold blood. Both men were returned to their eternal rest when Hal Jordan defeated Nekron.

The New 52
During the 1880s in The New 52, psychologist Amadeus Arkham is recruited by Detective Lofton of the Gotham City Police Department to help solve the case of the Gotham Butcher. GCPD chief John Cromwell finds Arkham's theories of the crime repugnant, as well as his decision to recruit Jonah Hex, who had recently caused a stir by coming to town. Even so, recognizing Hex's experience as a tracker, Arkham suggests that the two of them join forces, performing a separate investigation into the case. Together, they uncover Gotham City's sect of the Religion of Crime, and its relation to the Butcher case. The solution of the Butcher case (revealed to be a conspiracy by several prominent Gotham citizens belonging to the Religion Of Crime) was simply the first of many dangerous cases the two approached in their partnership. During his time in Gotham, Hex runs afoul of the Court Of Owls, Vandal Savage, and Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde. He also rekindles his love affair with Tallulah Black, a fellow bounty hunter.

After ending things with Arkham and preparing to return to the western territories, Hex encounters a semi-amnesiac Booster Gold and is accidentally thrown into the 21st century where he is initially put in Arkham Asylum, believed to be a delusional imposter who has adopted the identity of the historical Jonah Hex. After taking the current administrator, Dr. Jeremiah Arkham, hostage to escape the asylum, he convinces Jeremiah that he is indeed the same Jonah Hex who knew his great-grandfather, and after helping to take down a crazed gunman attacking a crowd of people, secures the legal assistance of Bruce Wayne to get released from custody. He also meets and forms a relationship with a young woman named Gina.

After several adventures where Hex encounters other heroes such as John Constantine, Swamp Thing, and Superman while trying to find a way back home, Hex is horrified when he and Gina discover his preserved corpse on permanent display in a Wild West exhibition at the Metropolis Museum. Despodent and depressed, Hex is involved in a severe DUI accident that leaves him in a coma for over a month. Upon awakening, he finds that the doctors used 21st century medical technology to repair his ruined face and eye along with his injuries from the accident. Discharged from the hospital, Hex and Gina encounter Booster Gold, who is eager to undo his mistake. Although Hex tries to dissuade her, Gina insists on traveling with him to the 19th century. She soon dies while crossing the desert, and all Hex can do is bury her and move on.

Soon after, Hex once again meets Tellulah Black, and discovers that he has been missing for about a year, during which time another man with similar injuries as his original appearance has taken on Hex's identity and has been using his notoriety to commit crimes and form his own gang. Realizing that this is the same man whose preserved body he saw in the future, Hex adopts the identity of "George Barrow", the man who has been on record as Hex's killer, and kills "Hex" before letting a pair of carnival showmen run off with the body. He and Tallulah then ride off into the sunset together.

DC Rebirth
A robotic/alien version of Jonah Hex appears on a planet called Leone-5, modeled after the Wild West. He is introduced in the mini-series Adventures of the Super Sons, issue 9.

Jonah Hex made a brief appearance in the Batman Universe series.

He also is mentioned a few times by his great-great-granddaughter, Virginia "Jinny" Hex, who appears in Batman Universe and Young Justice, having taken up a career as a hero after learning that she inherited her ancestor's exceptional abilities.

Powers and abilities
In most of his stories, Jonah Hex displays no supernatural or superhuman powers; however, he does possess some exceptional abilities, acquired through a combination of talent and training.

Despite being blind in his right eye on account of his disfigurement, Hex is an outstanding marksman who rarely misses his target, having been trained by the legendary Windy Taylor. He is extremely fast on the draw and can be seen in many stories gunning down multiple foes before any of them can get off a shot, and can wield two guns at the same time with equal proficiency. He is also a resourceful combatant, often relying on stealth, tricks, and improvised weapons and traps to defeat enemies, similar to fellow DC comics character Deathstroke (who is also blind in his right eye). His reflexes are strong enough that he has proven to be faster on the draw than both Wild Bill Hickok and Batman. Already an experienced horseman, Hex became an expert at driving various motor vehicles during his time in the 21st century.

In the DC Universe, he is known as having almost superhuman-levels of skill and marksmanship with 19th-century weapons, such as revolvers and double-barrel shotguns. After Jonah Hex is transported to the future in Hex, he acquires a pair of Ruger Blackhawk .357 Magnums, largely because they are single action revolvers of the kind that he's familiar with. Even with such outdated weapons, he still manages to outshoot foes armed with more modern weaponry.

Hex is an exceptional tracker, able to follow trails several days old through rain and mud in spite of his quarry's best efforts to cover their tracks. He possesses a keen danger sense which warns him of ambushes and traps. This is not a supernatural ability, but rather an instinct honed through years of experience as a bounty hunter and by fighting enemies much more powerful and deadlier than himself. Hex is also extremely tough and has been known to continue fighting even after suffering torture or severe injury.

Jonah Hex has a reputation throughout the West as a ruthless and prolific killer, but like Batman, he is bound by a personal code of honor to protect and avenge the innocent, as well as protect women and children no matter the circumstances. On many occasions, his reputation by itself has proven enough to deter potential foes. Knowing that the infamous Jonah Hex is pursuing them often unnerves Hex's targets so badly that they make fatal mistakes, such as wasting ammunition, falling into traps, or turning and engaging Hex in a desperate stand-off that enables him to finish them easily.

In Superman/Batman #16 when the timeline of the DC Universe was changed by the Legion of Super-Villains, Batman & Superman ended up being catapulted to multiple alternate timelines to restore everything back in its original order. In one timeline, they end up in a modern-day Gotham City in which Western-themed superheroes act as law enforcement officers. While Superman was attending to a badly wounded Batman, Jonah Hex tracked them down and managed to kill the Man of Steel using Kryptonite bullets. Although Superman wasn't really killed, it was heavily implied that this was done primarily because in that story arc, the only way for Superman and Batman to be transported to another timeline is for them to die.

Jonah Hex has, in many timelines, met and fought Batman. In Superman/Batman #16, Hex overpowered Batman in hand-to-hand combat (albeit Batman had been heavily wounded and thus couldn't fight back with his usual ability). In Batman: The Return of Bruce Wayne, Hex and Batman face off in a showdown. Even though he has experience in disarming gunmen with his batarangs, Batman was still outdrawn by Hex, and Hex shoots him in the stomach. However, Batman at the time was suffering from amnesia and lacked most of his skills, including his hand-to-eye coordination.

The 2010 live-action movie gives Hex an additional power: due to his being brought back from the brink of death after being hung on a cross and tortured by Quentin Turnbull, he is shown to be able to raise the dead for a few moments and force them to speak truthfully. However, this power has not been seen in comics or any other media before or since the film.

Supporting cast
As he was not a traditional superhero, Jonah Hex never amassed a "rogues' gallery" comparable to that of other costumed comic-book heroes such as Batman or the Flash, though he had a few adversaries who returned from time to time. The first and most notable of these to date was Quentin Turnbull, who was initially known only as the "man with the eagle-topped cane". Turnbull was the father of Hex's oldest friend, Jeb Turnbull. During the American Civil War, Jonah, then a Confederate cavalryman, surrendered himself to the Union forces after the passage of the Emancipation Proclamation, but he refused to betray where his fellow Confederates were camped. A Union soldier was able to determine the location of their camp anyway by examining the dirt in the hooves of Jonah's horse. Jonah's comrades were all captured and then later massacred during the "Fort Charlotte Massacre", including Jeb. Believing the false rumors that Jonah had helped plan the massacre, Turnbull swore to avenge his son.

One such scheme involved Turnbull hiring an unnamed stage actor to impersonate Hex to try and frame him as a murderous outlaw. This actor, naming himself "The Chameleon", was eventually hideously scarred in a fire started by Hex, and he also swore revenge on the bounty hunter.

El Papagayo was a Mexican bandit running guns. Hex was hired by the United States Secret Service (actually a man hired by Turnbull to pose as a Secret Service agent) to infiltrate El Papagayo's band and bring him to justice. Hex was unsuccessful, and he and Papagayo met several more times over the years until Hex finally stabbed him dead in a confrontation.

Hex also had a number of allies and supporting characters during many of his adventures, but most wound up getting killed in the course of helping him. An exception is Tallulah Black, a character introduced in 2007. As a young woman, Tallulah was savagely raped and mutilated by the men who murdered her family. She was saved by Hex, who helped her gain vengeance. She would go on to become a bounty hunter herself and eventually Hex's lover. Tallulah eventually became pregnant by Hex, but their child, a girl, was killed before being born. (Jonah Hex vol. 2, #50).

Joshua Dazzleby is Jonah's half-brother and is introduced in the graphic novel Jonah Hex: No Way Back (2010) as a preacher and elected sheriff of a moralistic town that bans saloons and prostitution. Dazzleby is the opposite of Hex: he was raised properly, and as such, is respected and has risen to a position of leadership among his peers. He welcomes his half-brother when the latter tracks him down, but Hex ultimately chooses to leave when he realizes he doesn't belong. Nevertheless, the two brothers part on amicable terms.

Appearances

Core series

The following are publications in which Jonah Hex is the central character.

 All-Star Western (Vol. 2 #10–11; 1972)
 Weird Western Tales (#12–14, #16–38; 1972–1977)
 Jonah Hex (Vol. 1 #1–92; 1977–1985)
 DC Special Series #16 (1978/Fall)
 Hex (#1–18; 1985–1987)
 Secret Origins (Vol. 2 #21; )
 Jonah Hex: Two Gun Mojo (#1–5; 1993)
 Jonah Hex: Riders of the Worm and Such (#1–5; 1995)
 Jonah Hex: Shadows West (#1–3; 1999)
 Jonah Hex (Vol. 2 #1–70; 2005–2011)
 Jonah Hex: No Way Back (June 2010)
 All-Star Western (Vol. 3 #1–34; 2011–2014)

Other appearances
 Batman (#237; ): Jonah shown in an advertisement for All-Star Western comic (1st published appearance – contains 2 comic strip panels that pre-date All-Star Western #10) (full-page version of this ad in various DC war comics of the same month)
 Justice League of America (#159, 160, 198, 199; 1978–1982)
 Super Star Holiday Special: DC Special Series (Vol. 4 #21; 1980/Spring)
 Comic Reader (#194; )
 Crisis on Infinite Earths (#3–5; )
 Green Lantern (Vol. 2 #195–196; 1985)
 DC Challenge (#2–3, #11; 1985–1986)
 Swamp Thing (#46; )
 Legion Of Super-Heroes (#23; )
 Swamp Thing (#85; )
 Time Masters (#2–3; 1990)
 Justice League Europe Annual (#2; )
 Books of Magic (#4; )
 Armageddon: Alien Agenda (#3; 1992–01)
 Zero Hour (#0; )
 Kingdom Come (#4; 1997)
 Unlimited Access (#1; 1997)
 Superboy (#54–55, #71–75; 1998–2000)

In 1998, a female character named Hex was introduced in the pages of Superboy. She first appears as a temperamental supermodel until an agent of the Agenda slices the right side of her face, at which point she started claiming to be Jonah Hex. She adopts his voice and manner of speaking, and displays his sharpshooting skills with a pistol. She has the ability to shoot "psionic bullets" from any kind of gun when in her "Jonah Hex" mode; otherwise she was powerless. It was hinted that the Agenda had either performed experiments on her or that she had been created by them; but nothing has been confirmed. She was last seen flying out of Cadmus riding atop Grokk, the Living Gargoyle.

 Guns of the Dragon (#3; )
 The Kingdom (#2; 1998)
 The Kents (#8, #10; 1998)
 Wild Times: Deathblow ()
 World's Funnest (2000)
 Hawkman (#7; )
 Superman & Batman: Generations (Vol. 3 #8; )
 The Legion (#29; )
 Another Nail (#3; )
 Superman/Batman (#16; )
 Deadshot (#4; )
 Superman/Batman (#18; )
 Infinite Crisis (#6; )
 Justice League Unlimited (#19; )
 Uncle Sam and the Freedom Fighters (#3; )
Jonah Hex makes a cameo appearance, escorting the Navajo back to the Canyon DeChelly, after the Long Walk of the Navajo was over. It appears that Jonah is escorting the Navajo on to the Long Walk, but this was an artist error, as indicated by the author on his Forum

 Booster Gold (#2; ): Minor cameo at end of book
 Booster Gold (#3; )
 Weird Western Tales (#71; ): In the Weird Western Tales tie-in to the Blackest Night crossover, Jonah Hex was reanimated as a member of the Black Lanterns. Searching for a stolen Black Lantern Ring, he finds that the holder of such a prize is none other than the descendant of his old nemesis Quentin Turnbull. Alongside the resurrected Turnbull himself and a horde of angry Black Lanterns, he engages in a firefight against the younger Turnbull (who attempts to convince the elder to join forces with him to restore their power) until he is left between Hex and Quentin, at which point the elder Turnbull kills the younger.
 Batman: The Return of Bruce Wayne (#3; 2010): Hex appears at the end of the story as a lead-in to the next issue.
 Batman: The Return of Bruce Wayne (#4; 2010): Hex is hired to take down a mysterious stranger in 1800s Gotham.
 The All-New Batman: The Brave and the Bold (#11; 2011): Batman goes back in time to 1879 Gotham to stop an earthquake machine designed by Ra's Al Ghul. He teams up with Jonah who is trying to collect a bounty on Ubu.

Collected editions
Various trade paperback collections are being released, both of the ongoing second series and Jonah Hex' original appearances:
 Shadows West (written by Joe R. Lansdale; art by Timothy Truman and Sam Glanzman; collects the miniseries Jonah Hex: Two Gun Mojo #1–5, Jonah Hex: Shadows West #1–3, and Jonah Hex: Riders of the Worm and Such #1–5)
 Showcase Presents: Jonah Hex:
 Volume 1 (written by John Albano and Michael Fleisher; art by Tony DeZuniga, Doug Wildey, José Luís Garcia-López and others; 526 pages, collects All-Star Western #2–8 and #10–11, Weird Western Tales #12–14 and #16–33, November 2005, )
 Volume 2 (written Michael Fleisher; art by José Luís Garcia-López and others; 528 pages, collects Weird Western Tales #34–38 and Jonah Hex (vol. 1) #1–22, March 2014, )
 Jonah Hex: Welcome to Paradise (written by John Albano and Michael Fleisher; art by Tony DeZuniga, Dough Wildey, Noly Panaligan, George Moliterni, and Jose Louis Garcia-Lopez; 168 pages, collects All-Star Western #10; Weird Western Tales #14, 17, 22, 26, 29, 30; Jonah Hex #2 and 4, May 2010, )
 Jonah Hex (vol. 2):
 Face Full of Violence (written by Justin Gray and Jimmy Palmiotti; art by Luke Ross, and Tony DeZuniga; 144 pages, collects Jonah Hex #1–6, Titan Books, December 2006, , DC, September 2006, )
 Guns of Vengeance (written by Justin Gray and Jimmy Palmiotti; art by Luke Ross, Dylan Teague, Tony Dezuñiga, Phil Noto, David Michael Beck, Paul Gulacy, Jimmy Palmiotti, Giuseppe Camuncoli, and Art Thibert; 144 pages, collects Jonah Hex #7–12, DC, April 2007, )
 Origins (written by Justin Gray and Jimmy Palmiotti; art by Jordi Bernet, Phil Noto, and Val Semeik; 144 pages, collects Jonah Hex #13–18, DC, November 2007, )
 Only the Good Die Young (written by Justin Gray and Jimmy Palmiotti; art by Jordi Bernet, Phil Noto, and David Michael Beck; 144 pages, collects Jonah Hex #19–24, DC, April 2008, )
 Luck Runs Out (written by Justin Gray and Jimmy Palmiotti; art by Russ Heath, Giuseppe Camuncoli, Jordi Bernet, John Higgins, Stefano Landini, and Rafa Garres; 144 pages, collects Jonah Hex #25–30, DC, October 2008, )
 Bullets Don't Lie (written by Justin Gray and Jimmy Palmiotti; art by Darwyn Cooke, J.H. Williams III, Jordi Bernet, Rafa Garres, Paulo Siqueira, and Mark Sparacio; 144 pages, collects Jonah Hex #31–36, DC, April 2009, )
 Lead Poisoning (written by Justin Gray and Jimmy Palmiotti; art by Jordi Bernet, and David Michael Beck; 144 pages, collects Jonah Hex #37–42, DC, October 2009, )
 The Six Gun War (written by Justin Gray and Jimmy Palmiotti; art by Cristiano Cucina; 144 pages, collects Jonah Hex #44–49, DC, April 2010, )
 Counting Corpses (written by Justin Gray and Jimmy Palmiotti; art by Darwyn Cooke, Dick Giordano, Jordi Bernet, Paul Gulacy, and Billy Tucci; 160 pages, collects Jonah Hex #43, 50–54, DC, October 2010, )
 Tall Tales (written by Justin Gray and Jimmy Palmiotti; art by Vicente Alcazar, Phil Winslade, Jordi Bernet, Giancarlo Caracuzzo, and Brian Stelfreeze; 144 pages; collects Jonah Hex #55–60, DC, April 2011, )
 Bury Me in Hell (written by Justin Gray and Jimmy Palmiotti; art by Jordi Bernet and Eduardo Risso; 224 pages; collects Jonah Hex #61–70, DC, December 2011, )
 Jonah Hex: No Way Back (original graphic novel), (June 14, 2011, )

In other media

Television

Live-action
 In 2000, 20th Century Fox developed a one-hour adaptation based on the character Jonah Hex to television with producers Akiva Goldsman and Robert Zappia involved, but the project never made it into production.
 Jonah Hex appears in media set in the Arrowverse, portrayed by Johnathon Schaech:
 Hex makes a cameo appearance in the TV series The Flash episode "Welcome to Earth-2".
 Hex appears in the TV series Legends of Tomorrow. This version is an old friend of Rip Hunter and an occasional ally of the titular Legends.
 An alternate universe incarnation of Hex from Earth-18 makes a cameo appearance in the crossover "Crisis on Infinite Earths" as the guardian of a Lazarus Pit in a North Dakota mine.

Animation

 Jonah Hex appears in series set in the DC Animated Universe (DCAU).
 Hex first appears in the Batman: The Animated Series episode "Showdown", voiced by Bill McKinney. This version previously encountered Ra's al Ghul and the latter's son Arkady Duvall in the late 19th century while foiling their attempt to mount a terrorist attack via an airship. Though Ra's escaped, Hex left Duvall for American soldiers.
 Hex appears in the Justice League Unlimited episode "The Once and Future Thing Part One: Weird Western Tales", voiced by Adam Baldwin. He joins forces with El Diablo, Bat Lash, Sheriff Ohiyesa Smith, and the time-traveling Batman, Wonder Woman, and Green Lantern to defeat Tobias Manning after the outlaw steals Chronos' future technology.
 Jonah Hex appears in Batman: The Brave and the Bold, voiced by Phil Morris. This version is an associate of Cinnamon and enemy of the Royal Flush Gang.
 Jonah Hex appears in the Justice League Action episode "All Aboard the Space Train", voiced by Trevor Devall. This version was frozen in a block of ice hidden in the Rocky Mountains until the Justice League recover him in the present. After helping the League and Space Cabbie defeat Kanjar Ro, Hex chooses to stay on a desert planet with a horse-like alien.

Film
 The film Blind Justice is reportedly and partially inspired by Jonah Hex.
 Jonah Hex appears in a self-titled film, portrayed by Josh Brolin.
 Jonah Hex appears in DC Showcase: Jonah Hex, voiced by Thomas Jane.
 Jonah Hex makes a cameo appearance in Teen Titans Go! To the Movies.
 An illusionary Jonah Hex appears in Justice League: Warworld, voiced by Troy Baker.

Miscellaneous
 Jonah Hex appears in a series of self-titled motion comics, voiced by Jim Cummings.
 Jonah Hex appears in the novel DC Universe: Trail of Time, written by Jeff Mariotte and published by Warner Books in 2007.

Music
 In 2006, "The Ballad of Jonah Hex" was written by American multi-instrumentalist musician and singer-songwriter Ian Frazier and later recorded at Elevator Studios in Long Beach, California. According to Frazier, the inspiration for the song came from reading Jimmy Palmiotti and Justin Gray's take on the character in Jonah Hex vol. 2 and his own love for Sergio Leone's Man With No Name films. The song, which features Frazier on acoustic guitar and vocals, is in narrative form and contains a verse that relates Hex's origin story as told by Palmiotti and Gray in their three part "Retribution" storyline that ran from issues #13–15. Frazier and fellow Long Beach musician Robert Conrad performed the song live for Palmiotti at the inaugural Long Beach Comic Con in 2009. Due to copyright concerns, Frazier removed the song from iTunes in 2011.
 Ghoultown's album Tales from the Dead West features a song called "Death of Jonah Hex".
 Jonah Hex's alien abduction in Crisis on Infinite Earths #3 is adapted into "Westerner", a nine-minute song by French-Canadian electro-rock band Judge Rock.
 Jonah Hex is featured in the song "By the Gun", which is part of Nerdcore artist Dr. Awkward's EP New 52.

Lawsuit

In 1996, musicians Johnny and Edgar Winter filed suit against DC and the creators of the Jonah Hex: Riders of the Worm and Such limited series, claiming, amongst other things, defamation: two characters named the Autumn Brothers in the series strongly resemble the Winters. Writer Joe Lansdale said on the Comic Book Legal Defense Fund site:

The judge agreed and ruled in favor of the defendants, saying parody was covered by the First Amendment. The briefs were refiled in June 2002 through the National Organization for Albinism and Hypopigmentation and while the decision was upheld, the comic was deemed not to be "transformative" raising possible future problems for parody. In 2003, the Supreme Court of California sided with DC.

Reception
IGN ranked Jonah Hex as the 73rd Greatest Comic Book Hero of All Time stating that "his distinctive appearance and engrossing adventures set Hex apart from the rest of the cowboy crowd".

See also
 Jonah Hex: No Way Back
 Bat Lash
 Loveless
 High Moon
 Weird West

Notes

References

 Jonah Hex at the DC Comics Database

 Jonah Hex at Don Markstein's Toonopedia. Archived from the original on February 5, 2016.

External links
 Ongoing reviews and recaps of Jonah Hex appearances in various comics
 Ginger Mayerson's Jonah Hex reviews at Sequential Tart Jonah Hex reviews from All-Star Western #10 and up
 House ads with Jonah Hex's 1st appearance
 Winter v. DC Comics 2002

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tr:Jonah Hex (film)

Jonah Hex


Porostov este o comună slovacă, aflată în districtul Sobrance din regiunea Košice. Localitatea se află la , se întinde pe o suprafață de  și în 2017 număra 207 locuitori.

Istoric
Localitatea Porostov este atestată documentar din 1412.

Note

Legături externe

Localități din Slovacia

Porostov


Deeley est un patronyme porté notamment par :

 Cat Deeley (1976-), actrice, chanteuse, et présentatrice britannique ;
 Michael Deeley (1932-), producteur et scénariste britannique ;
 Norman Deeley (1933-2007), footballeur international anglais.

Deeley


La selección sexual es un concepto clave de la teoría de la evolución, acuñado por Charles Darwin en su libro El origen de las especies para explicar el desarrollo de caracteres sexuales secundarios en los seres vivos, que parecían no responder a la selección natural, es decir, a la supervivencia del mejor adaptado. En líneas generales, postula que ciertos rasgos presentes son el resultado de la competencia entre individuos de un mismo sexo por el acceso a la cópula (selección intrasexual) y de la selección por parte de uno de los sexos, usualmente las hembras, de individuos del sexo opuesto (selección intersexual).

Se relaciona directamente a este mecanismo evolutivo con el dimorfismo sexual y con la presencia de rasgos morfológicos exagerados. Muchos de estos rasgos morfológicos llegan a suponer una merma en las capacidades adaptativas y de supervivencia de los animales que los poseen. Para explicar su desarrollo, dentro de la selección sexual, se postulan dos hipótesis denominadas «de Fisher» y «del hándicap», concebidas por Ronald Fisher y Amotz Zahavi respectivamente. La primera de ellas explica este desarrollo exagerado de estructuras fisiológicas en un sexo por la identificación directa de estas con genomas superiores por parte de sus parejas sexuales. La segunda de las hipótesis indica que la presencia de rasgos morfológicos exagerados lastran la supervivencia de los organismos que los manifiestan; sus parejas sexuales sentirían preferencia por ellos por ser capaces de sobrevivir a pesar del hándicap que les suponen estos rasgos.

Generalidades

El desarrollo del concepto de selección sexual fue una parte importante de la obra de Charles Darwin El origen de las especies, publicada en 1859, donde el autor le daba una gran importancia dentro de la selección natural. Darwin explicaba mediante este mecanismo ciertos aspectos evolutivos tales como el desarrollo exagerado de estructuras anatómicas o la presencia de colores llamativos que parecían no ajustarse a la teoría de la selección natural donde los rasgos seleccionados para prevalecer a lo largo del tiempo eran aquellos que aumentaran las probabilidades de supervivencia. El naturalista británico conocía las ideas del anatomista John Hunter sobre las diferencias entre caracteres sexuales primarios, relacionados con la cópula, y los secundarios, relacionados con la atracción entre sexos. Basándose en ello definió la selección sexual de tal modo que pudiera explicar la presencia de estas características como resultado de una elección por parte de uno de los sexos, aunque no fue capaz de dar respuesta a por qué los individuos de este sexo mostraban predisposición hacia ese rasgo. El término fue ampliado por Darwin en otro libro, El origen del hombre y la selección en relación al sexo de 1871, ligándolo, además, a la evolución de la especie humana como explicación para la existencia de las diferentes razas.

La selección sexual fue reinterpretada en 1930 por el biólogo evolucionista Ronald Aylmer Fisher. La nueva definición dada suponía que ciertos rasgos que en la actualidad pueden parecer poco ventajosos para los organismos aparecieron siendo lo contrario. Así, en un primer momento, la elección de estas características tenía como único objetivo proveer a la descendencia de diversas ventajas en términos de supervivencia. Esta mayor tasa de supervivencia supondría que gradualmente las poblaciones naturales fueran diferenciándose por selección natural, un sexo a poseer el rasgo y el otro por tener predisposición hacia él. Con el paso del tiempo, ambos caracteres se vieron favorecidos al retroalimentarse uno de otro, llegando a superar el objetivo inicial.

Es razonable pensar que, al igual que en el resto de especies animales, la selección sexual haya actuado en la evolución del ser humano en mayor o menor medida. Ya Darwin señaló un probable origen de la variedad racial humana en la selección sexual, aunque hoy día se considera que este proceso ocupó un papel muy secundario debido a que los grupos humanos raramente se han encontrado aislados genéticamente y a que ha existido un alto mestizaje a lo largo de su evolución. También apuntó a la selección sexual como responsable de la pérdida de vello corporal de forma similar a lo ocurrido en otros primates. Diversas investigaciones actuales relacionan las pautas humanas de elección de pareja, conductas y preferencias físicas con la selección de caracteres que confieran ventajas genéticas a la descendencia o con rasgos identificables con estados de salud de la pareja.

Inversión parental

La selección sexual únicamente puede ser comprendida teniendo presente el concepto de inversión parental considerando este como el esfuerzo biológico llevado a cabo por una pareja de una especie para concebir y criar a un descendiente. El término fue ampliamente desarrollado por el investigador Robert Trivers, basándose en los trabajos previos sobre gasto parental de Ronald Fisher, para explicar la conducta sexual de especies animales.

En las especies con reproducción sexual heterogámica cada uno de los parentales contribuye de forma no proporcionada a la creación de gametos. Por lo general las hembras de estas especies producen una muy pequeña cantidad de óvulos, esto se traduce en una cantidad limitada de descendientes, ya que la disponibilidad de óvulos se convierte precisamente en el recurso limitante de la reproducción. De este modo, la inversión parental de cada uno de los sexos es desigual, así como la tasa potencial de reproducción, debido a que los costes de formación de los gametos femeninos y el desarrollo de los embriones son muy altos para las hembras en comparación con la producción de gametos masculinos. A esto habría que sumar que las hembras deben también invertir gran cantidad de recursos en la crianza de sus descendientes. Este esquema general es común en la mayoría de las especies animales y principalmente en las poligínicas, donde cada macho puede potencialmente reproducirse con varias hembras, mientras que los ejemplos de machos que realizan la mayor parte de los cuidados parentales se da en las especies poliándricas, donde son las hembras las que tienen acceso a varias parejas reproductoras. En las especies monógamas es usual que ambos parentales compartan los esfuerzos en la cría existiendo una cierta competencia entre sí para realizar el menor trabajo posible aumentando el esfuerzo del otro.

De este modo suele aceptarse que el esfuerzo parental, es decir la contribución conjunta de ambos sexos para el desarrollo de un descendiente, recae en mayor medida en uno de los sexos, usualmente, la hembra. Al mismo tiempo el otro sexo, por lo general el macho, contribuye principalmente en la etapa anterior invirtiendo en el esfuerzo de apareamiento, esfuerzo para tener la posibilidad de aparearse con las escasas hembras. En consecuencia suele admitirse que el parental que invierte más en la reproducción será el responsable de la elección de su pareja para asegurar su propia inversión mientras que el que invierte menos debe competir por el acceso a la cópula.

Proporciones sexuales

Otro factor a tener en cuenta para comprender la selección sexual es la proporción entre hembras y machos en las poblaciones naturales, el sex ratio, que suele ser cercano a 1:1 con igual número de descendientes de uno y otro sexo, y resumido en el Principio de Fisher (aunque las diferencias en la mortalidad entre machos y hembras modifica esta proporción con el paso del tiempo). El sex ratio influye decisivamente en la presión de la selección sexual en el sentido de que establece la intensidad de la competencia por la cópula dependiendo de la cantidad de parejas sexuales disponibles.

Resulta complicado comprender cómo la evolución no ha favorecido proporciones diferentes considerando que la capacidad reproductiva de los machos es superior a la de las hembras. Una cantidad mayor de hembras supondría mayor número de individuos en la siguiente generación dado que cada macho podría fecundar a varias de ellas. Diversos estudios han demostrado que un cambio en estas proporciones es, al contrario de lo que podría pensarse, desfavorable para las poblaciones debido a su inestabilidad a las mutaciones. Supongamos una especie en la que los machos y las hembras estuvieran en proporción 1:3, el triple de hembras que de machos, y cada apareamiento diera lugar a un único descendiente. En ella, cada macho podría tener al menos tres descendientes en la primera generación y cada hembra uno. En esta situación, una mutación cualquiera transmitida por un macho pasaría rápidamente a la población, reduciendo gradualmente su variabilidad genética.

Ronald Fisher propuso en 1930 que debían existir mecanismos que permitieran a una población con las proporciones sexuales desplazadas respecto a su óptimo evolucionar a través del tiempo hasta recuperarlas, independientemente del sistema de herencia del sexo que poseyera la especie, incluida la determinación del sexo ligado a las condiciones físicas durante el desarrollo del embrión. Experimentos desarrollados con Drosophila melanogaster han demostrado que efectivamente existen tales mecanismos, aunque se desconoce su funcionamiento, mediante el estudio de la evolución del sex-ratio en diferentes poblaciones. Igualmente debían existir mecanismos mediante los cuales las especies en las que su sex ratio óptimo fuese diferente a 1:1 lo mantuvieran a lo largo del tiempo.

Ejemplo de especies con sus proporciones desplazadas respecto de 1:1 puede ser las de aquellas afectadas por la competencia local por el apareamiento, mecanismo que tiene lugar entre los mismos hermanos por las hembras. Desde el punto de vista de los progenitores dado que sus descendientes varones van a competir entre ellos mismos por las hembras y sólo una parte de ellos podrá reproducirse resultará tanto más favorable concentrar los esfuerzos en producir hembras, todas las cuales se reproducirán.

Otro ejemplo podría ser el de la competencia local por los recursos. Ocurre con el primate Otolemur crassicaudatus, donde son los machos los que abandonan a sus padres, mientras que las hembras permanecen en el pequeño grupo familiar. En este caso los descendientes hembra compiten con sus parentales en la consecución de alimentos, el macho, por tanto, es más rentable.

Los sesgos en las proporciones entre machos y hembras no solo tienen lugar por la capacidad futura de los descendientes para aparearse, sino también por la capacidad de los mismos padres en generar hijos más competitivos. En el caso del ciervo europeo, Cervus elaphus, la capacidad para copular con las hembras está relacionada con la fuerza y salud física de los machos. Estos ciervos compiten entre ellos mediante luchas y demostraciones físicas. La fuerza de estos machos dependerá de la alimentación y cuidados que sus padres hayan podido darles. Se sabe que en esta especie existe un sesgo hacia la producción de machos cuando la hembra que los produce es la hembra dominante del grupo. En este caso, la hembra dominante producirá machos mejor desarrollados y el balance de esfuerzo en su cría será positivo al reproducirse estos con mayor probabilidad. Al mismo tiempo existe un sesgo hacia la producción de hembras en los casos en que sus madres no sean las dominantes, de este modo se aseguran la reproducción de sus descendientes.

Selección intrasexual frente a selección intersexual

Las diferencias en la inversión parental entre progenitores y en las proporciones sexuales tienen varias consecuencias. Por una parte, que el individuo del sexo que más invierte en la reproducción deba asegurarse de seleccionar una pareja sexual adecuada para optimizar su inversión. Por otra parte, que los individuos pertenecientes al sexo mayoritario en número o en capacidad reproductora deban competir entre sí por la cópula. La intensidad de la selección sexual es proporcional al grado de competencia entre los individuos por los apareamientos. Estas premisas son la base para la diferenciación de dos mecanismos dentro de la selección sexual que suelen actuar conjuntamente, la selección intrasexual y la selección intersexual. La selección intrasexual es aquella que favorece el éxito reproductivo de un sexo por competencia directa con individuos del mismo sexo, por ejemplo favoreciendo rasgos que den mayor capacidad para luchar. La selección intersexual es aquella que favorece los rasgos que aumentan el éxito reproductivo al aumentar la atracción sobre el otro sexo.

Selección intrasexual

Dentro de la competencia entre individuos del mismo sexo por el acceso a los del sexo contrario tienen especial importancia las luchas, bien sean reales mediante el uso de estructuras corporales a modo de armas o bien sean rituales, con la exposición ante el oponente de esas mismas armas, pero sin llegar al combate. Estos combates, por lo general llevados a cabo por los machos, pueden producirse por el acceso a las hembras o por el acceso a los lugares donde estas se encuentran y generalmente son más intensas conforme la hembra se va mostrando más receptiva. Aunque son muy llamativos los ejemplos combativos llevados a cabo por muchos grandes mamíferos, existen otras muchas variantes de esta competencia de manera menos sangrienta.

La competencia espermática es aquella en la que la propia cópula de un macho actúa impidiendo que los gametos de otros machos fecunden a la hembra. La competencia espermática parece ser la responsable de las marcadas diferencias entre los genitales de especies muy cercanas filogenéticamente, especialmente en insectos, y quizás por ello poseen un fuerte mecanismo de especiación. Existen numerosos ejemplos de este tipo de competencia dentro del mundo de los insectos. La libélula Orthetrum cancellatum, por ejemplo, tiene una particular forma de reproducción donde la hembra se aparea con varios machos, no siendo inmediatamente fecundada por ninguno de ellos y guardando una espermateca en su interior. Los machos de esta especie han desarrollado en su aparato reproductor una estructura preparada para extraer del cuerpo de la hembra la espermateca de los machos que la han fecundado con anterioridad. Otra especie similar, Crocethemus erythracea, inyecta su espermateca con gran fuerza dentro del cuerpo de la hembra gracias a un apéndice especial de su pene para situarla por delante de la de sus competidores.

Existen otros ejemplos dentro de los invertebrados de especies que cierran literalmente el orificio genital femenino como ocurre en el parásito acantocéfalo Moniliformes dubius. La competencia por las hembras puede llegar a ser tal que el macho de Xylocoris maculipennis, un hemíptero, copula con otros machos inyectándoles en sus tejidos esperma que se traslada hasta las gónadas para luego llegar a las hembras cuando tenga lugar la cópula.

Un caso muy particular de selección sexual por competencia intrasexual podría darse, de ser ciertas las consideraciones de ciertos autores, en las plantas con flores. Aunque en líneas generales se acepta que la evolución de los caracteres sexuales secundarios nada tiene que ver con factores de competencia y por tanto con selección sexual cabe la posibilidad de que sí ocurra así con caracteres sexuales primarios.
Según ciertas teorías el desarrollo de las flores, su variada morfología, colorido, posición, tamaño de su estigma y el estilo podría responder a la necesidad de las plantas que las poseen de atraer polinizadores. Caracteres como la presencia de néctares y periantos llamativos pueden haber evolucionado a partir de la competencia directa entre unos individuos y otros por aves e insectos que funcionaran como vehículo para el polen.

Selección intersexual

Dado que para las hembras el coste de la reproducción es muy grande en relación con el de los machos, la elección de estos es muy delicada para ellas. Los criterios que pueden tener estas hembras son muy variados. Las hembras de algunas especies deciden qué macho es más capaz atendiendo a la capacidad que tiene este de suministrarles alimento o cobijo. Otras lo hacen en función del tamaño de alguna parte de su cuerpo o de la complejidad de su ornamentación como ocurre con las hembras de Triturus vulgaris y su preferencia por machos con grandes crestas dorsales. Estos criterios tienen una base genética en tanto que supuestamente la capacidad de los machos para la caza o para la elaboración de nidos estará relacionada con la carga genética de estos y esas mismas capacidades serán trasmitidas a la prole.

La capacidad del parental para suministrar mejores recursos a la hembra y a sus descendientes está estrechamente relacionada con la capacidad de supervivencia que tendrá la descendencia. Se dan casos muy interesantes en aves donde se relacionan las capacidades del macho para proporcionar alimentos a la hembra durante el cortejo con la capacidad que tendrá después para suministrárselos a sus hijos. Ocurre así con la golondrina de mar (Sterna fuscata) donde muchas parejas reproductivas en años anteriores se separan si la hembra considera que el macho ha perdido esta capacidad para conseguir alimento un año concreto. Algunas ranas machos son seleccionadas por su canto más potente y duradero, carácter que puede estar revelando que el hábitat en el que viven —y en el que se desarrollarán sus crías— es más rico, ya que permite al macho una inversión tan importante.

Aunque es, de nuevo, en invertebrados donde se dan los más curiosos ejemplos de este tipo de selección. La hembra de la mosca colgante, Hylobittacus apicalis, seleccionará para el apareamiento al macho que le suministre como alimento un insecto de mayor tamaño. Es más, este insecto permitirá que la cópula sea más larga —y sean más los óvulos fecundados— en función del tamaño de la presa. Gana la hembra, pues podrá transformar el alimento en huevos y gana el macho que se reproduce. Pero no siempre se dan estas circunstancias, algunos machos de Hylobittacus apicalis son capaces de forzar a la hembra y aparearse con ella sin haberles llevado alimento. Esta situación es claramente desfavorable para la hembra que deberá buscar alimento y favorable para el macho que ganará tiempo respecto a otros congéneres para reproducirse.

Existen también experimentos que intentan demostrar la teoría de que algunas hembras de algunas especies son capaces de elegir al macho con mejor genética sin ningún tipo de demostración por parte de este, considerando que la mejor genética es aquella que aumenta la capacidad de supervivencia de los descendientes. En uno de estos experimentos tomaron varias hembras de Drosophila melanogaster y se las dividió en dos grupos. Uno de ellos era forzado a aparearse con un único macho tomado por los investigadores al azar mientras que al otro se les mostraban a las hembras varios machos para que pudiera aparearse con el que consideraran oportuno. Posteriormente, las crías de ambos grupos fueron sometidas a la presión de depredadores mostrando las de aquellas hembras que tuvieron libertad para aparearse mejor capacidad de supervivencia. Teóricamente, y suponiendo que no hubiera existido algún tipo de competencia intraespecífica entre los machos, las hembras que pudieron elegir tomaron a los machos mejor preparados y por ello sus descendientes eran capaces de sobrevivir a la depredación.

La selección sexual y los rasgos morfológicos exagerados

El desarrollo en machos de elementos ornamentales muy elaborados como caracteres sexuales secundarios es uno de los resultados de la selección sexual, estudiado desde hace años como el ejemplo más representativo de esta. Muchas de estas características se relacionan directamente con la competencia intraespecífica, tal es el caso del tamaño de cuernos y astas utilizados en combates. En otras ocasiones son claros ejemplos de selección por parte de las hembras de características morfológicas en los machos, como la presencia de largas plumas o colores vistosos. Muchos de estos adornos pueden parecer incluso desfavorables para la supervivencia de los mismos individuos que las poseen y de su descendencia por disminuir su capacidad de movimientos o de mimetismo. El caso paradigmático de adornos corporales sobredesarrollados se presenta en el pavo real (Pavo cristatus) donde el macho exhibe en su cola unas largas plumas con ocelos de color azul metálico. El estudio de la evolución de este carácter fue parte primordial de los primeros estudios sobre selección sexual llevados a cabo por Charles Darwin en El origen del hombre. Actualmente son dos las teorías más importantes que se han propuesto para explicar el desarrollo de ornamentos elaborados por selección de beneficios genéticos, la hipótesis de Fisher y la hipótesis del hándicap.

Fisherian runaway

La hipótesis de Fisher o Fisherian runaway, desarrollada por Ronald Fisher, postula que los ornamentos elaborados de los machos son seleccionados por las hembras, simplemente, porque son más atractivos para estas. Esta hipótesis, también llamada del buen gen, postula que la atracción por un determinado carácter estaría relacionada con que el rasgo en cuestión es la exteriorización de un genotipo superior.

El tamaño de la cola de algunas aves, por ejemplo en la viuda de cola larga (Euplectes progne), puede estar relacionado con la capacidad de vuelo de estas. Las hembras en un principio seleccionarían al macho con la cola más larga, mejor volador, y sus rasgos se transmitirían a su descendencia. De esta manera se aseguraría la hembra tener descendientes con mejores capacidades para el vuelo. El sistema se retroalimentaría, colas más largas, mayor éxito reproductivo, descendientes con la cola más larga. En las hembras mientras tanto la existencia de un gen que las predispusiera para seleccionar al macho con mayor cola también se vería beneficiado.

Finalmente dado que hubo una selección en las hembras para aparearse con machos de cola larga el rasgo más importante a trasmitirse dejará de ser el inicial, la capacidad de vuelo, para transmitirse el rasgo de ser más atractivo ante las hembras. Así, aunque el tamaño de la cola llegue a tal punto que comience a ser un rasgo desfavorable para la especie, esto ya no tendrá importancia. Las hembras de la viuda de cola larga, predispuestas ya a aparearse con machos atractivos, elegirán a estos para que sus descendientes sean más atractivos también ante otras hembras independientemente de su capacidad de vuelo.

El principio del hándicap

Por su parte el principio del hándicap, desarrollada por Amotz Zahavi, postula que algunas hembras seleccionan machos con ornamentos que suponen una desventaja en la supervivencia, precisamente por esto, porque son una desventaja, un hándicap. En el mismo ejemplo anterior, un macho de ave con una cola muy larga puede estar más expuesto a los depredadores que otro con la cola más corta. Que este macho se presente ante la hembra demostraría que su genética superior le ha permitido, a pesar del hándicap de su cola, sobrevivir en perfectas condiciones. Este macho sería mejor, por tanto, que otro macho de cola corta que ha tenido más fácil sobrevivir.

Se suelen diferenciar dos tipos de hándicaps, uno de ellos llamado hándicap revelador muestra que el macho es fuerte, ya que vive a pesar de la tara en contraposición a los machos que no tienen el rasgo. El otro tipo, el hándicap condicional, muestra que el macho se encuentra fuerte, ya que ha sido capaz de desarrollar la característica en contraposición a aquellos machos enfermos o mal alimentados, que no han podido desarrollar el rasgo. Un ejemplo puntual de este extremo es que la presencia de parásitos en aves tiene como principal síntoma externo una menor pigmentación en las plumas. El autor propone explicaciones basadas en la teoría del hándicap para un gran número de situaciones de dimorfismo sexual. Uno de los casos estudiados es el de especies en las que los rasgos expresados suponen una reducción en la visión. Ocurre en determinadas especies de primates, como el orangután (Pongo pygmaeus) donde los amplios repliegues cutáneos presentes alrededor de los ojos dificultan notablemente la capacidad de estos para relacionarse con su medio ambiente. Según las hipótesis de Zahavi la supervivencia de un macho con la visión reducida pondría de manifiesto, ante las hembras, una superioridad genética de este macho frente a otros que no tuvieran esa tara.

Véase también
Evolución del sexo

Referencias

Bibliografía

Estética
Sexualidad
Fertilidad
Selección

Atracción sexual

Selección sexual


{{Infobox Ligne ferroviaire
 | surtitre             = Ligne
 | nomligne             = 46
 | origine              = Pronsfeld (D)
 | destination          = Lommersweiler
 | via                  = Bleialf (D)
 | image                =
 | image-desc           =
 | carte                = Belgian Railway Line 46.png
 | pays                 = Belgique
 | pays2                = Allemagne
 | villes               =
 | mise en service      = 1888
 | électrification      =
 | fermeture            = 1999
 | fermeture2           = 2006
 | concessionnaire1     = Chemins de fer d'État de la Prusse
 | dateconc1            = 1904
 | concessionnaire2     = État belge
 | dateconc2            = 1920
 | concessionnaire3     = SNCB
 | dateconc3            = 1926
 | finconc3             = 1960
 | numéro               = 46
 | longueur             = 20,3 kmen territoire belge 2,9
 | vitesse              =
 | vitesse conception   =
 | écartement           = normal
 | électrifié           = non
 | pente                =
 | nombre de voies act  = 0
 | nombre de voies hist = 2
 | signalisation        =
 | propriétaire         =
 | exploitants          = Fermée et démontée
 | trafic               =
 | schéma               =

{{BSebis|exLSTR|||ligne 47|vers Saint-Vith}}

}}

La ligne 46 est une ancienne ligne de chemin de fer belgo-allemande qui reliait Pronsfeld et Bleialf (en Allemagne) à Lommersweiler (situé en Belgique depuis les années 1920). Se prolongeant par la ligne de Gerolstein à Pronsfeld, elle constituait le maillon final de la Vennbahn d'Aix-la-Chapelle à Gerolstein.

 Histoire
La région des Fagnes, proche de la frontière avec la Belgique et le Luxembourg, réclamait de longue date un chemin de fer la reliant au reste de l'Allemagne. La  reliant Cologne à Trèves est mise en service en 1870-1875 mais laisse de côté les communes à l'ouest de cet axe ferroviaire. Par la loi du , le gouvernement attribue aux Chemins de fer d'État de la Prusse la construction d'une ligne ferroviaire de  desservant les villes de Saint-Vith et Malmédy (cette dernière grâce à une ligne en impasse raccordée à la principale). Au sud de Saint-Vith, elle se scinderait en deux itinéraires : l'un vers Troisvierges au grand-duché de Luxembourg et l'autre, refermant la boucle, rejoignant Gerolstein sur la ligne de l'Eifel.

La ligne est entamée par ses deux extrémités ; la section Gerolstein - Prüm est livrée en premier à l'exploitation (le ) puis de Prüm à Bleialf le . Au nord, les travaux sont longs en raison de la distance à couvrir. C'est seulement en  que la gare de Saint-Vith est inaugurée. La section de Saint-Vith à Lommersweiler (gare de bifurcation où la ligne des Fagnes poursuit vers le Luxembourg) est livrée à l'exploitation en même temps que la ligne de Lommersweiler à Prüm le . À partir de 1889, Lommersweiler devient une bifurcation lorsque la section vers Troisvierges parachève la ligne des Fagnes.

La ligne de Lommersweiler à Prüm et celle vers Gerolstein sont alors considérées comme une seule entité, référencée sous le nom de  (ligne de l'Eifel occidental''). En 1907, la gare de Pronsfeld devient le point de départ de deux lignes en impasse vers Neuerburg et Waxweiler. L'augmentation du trafic justifie la mise à double voie de la ligne en 1910. Elle jouera un rôle certain pour les transports militaires vers le front de l'Ouest durant la Première Guerre mondiale.

À la suite du traité de Versailles, des cantons Allemands sont attribués à la Belgique. Toute la Vennbahn passe ainsi en territoire belge. Pour ce qui est de la ligne vers Gerolstein, la nouvelle frontière se trouve à  de Lommersweiler, entre Steinbruck et Ihren. Les deux administrations ferroviaires, futures SNCB et Deutsche Bahn, se partagent l'exploitation et un contrôle des passeports et marchandises est désormais nécessaire ; le modeste point d'arrêt de Steinebrück devient la dernière gare de la ligne sur le sol belge. La SNCB fait retirer la seconde voie en 1930 et le trafic recule graduellement.

L'occupant rattache à nouveau à l'Allemagne les cantons de l'Est. À la fin de la Seconde Guerre mondiale, les axes de communication stratégiques sont intensément bombardés par les Alliés ou sabotées par l'ennemi en retraite. Des ponts provisoires permettent à la ligne 46 (Lommersweiler - frontière allemande) et son prolongement vers Gerolstein de reprendre du service  les dégâts sont tels que la section Lommersweiler - Troisvierges de la ligne 47 est définitivement coupée en deux.

La SNCB maintient une desserte voyageurs entre Saint-Vith et Bleialf jusqu'au  ; les trains de marchandises  sont à leur tour supprimés sur ces deux sections quelques années après. Les rails de la ligne 46 et de ce qu'il restait de la ligne 47 (Saint-Vith - Lommersweiler) sont retirés en 1960. Du côté allemand, Bleialf restera desservi par des trains de voyageurs jusque 1965 et de marchandises jusqu'en 1987.

Caractéristiques

Notes et références

Voir aussi

Article connexe
 Vennbahn

Liens externes
  Archive pandora : ligne 46
  Paul Kevers - Spoorlijnen in Belgïe - Lijn 46

Ligne 46 (Infrabel)


Pajapita es un municipio del departamento de San Marcos de la región sur-occidente de la República de Guatemala.

Demografía
El municipio tiene una población aproximada, para el año 2021, de 23,171 habitantes según el Censo de Población del año 2018, con un porcentaje de 49.0% de hombres y un porcentaje de 51% de mujeres. Tiene un porcentaje de 99.10% de la población es ladina y un porcentaje de 1% de personas indígenas mayas.

Geografía física

El municipio de Pajapita tiene una extensión territorial de 84 km².

Clima

La cabecera municipal de Pajapita tiene clima tropical (Köppen: Am).

Ubicación geográfica

Pajapita está en el departamento de San Marcos, y está rodeada por municipios del mismo, exceptuando al sureste, en donde colinda con Coatepeque, municipio del departamento de Quetzaltenango:

 Norte: Catarina y El Tumbador
 Este: Nuevo Progreso
 Sur y sureste: Coatepeque, municipio del Departamento de Quetzaltenango
 Oeste: Ayutla
 Noroeste: Catarina

Gobierno municipal

Los municipios se encuentran regulados en diversas leyes de la República, que establecen su forma de organización, lo relativo a la conformación de sus órganos administrativos y los tributos destinados para los mismos.  Aunque se trata de entidades autónomas, se encuentran sujetas a la legislación nacional. Las principales leyes que rigen a los municipios en Guatemala desde 1985 son:

El gobierno de los municipios de Guatemala está a cargo de un Concejo Municipal mientras que el código municipal —que tiene carácter de ley ordinaria y contiene disposiciones que se aplican a todos los municipios de Guatemala— establece que «el concejo municipal es el órgano colegiado superior de deliberación y de decisión de los asuntos municipales […] y tiene su sede en la circunscripción de la cabecera municipal». Por último, el artículo 33 del mencionado código establece que «[le] corresponde con exclusividad al concejo municipal el ejercicio del gobierno del municipio».

El concejo municipal se integra con el alcalde, los síndicos y concejales, electos directamente por sufragio universal y secreto para un período de cuatro años, pudiendo ser reelectos.

Existen también las Alcaldías Auxiliares, los Comités Comunitarios de Desarrollo (COCODE), el Comité Municipal del Desarrollo (COMUDE), las asociaciones culturales y las comisiones de trabajo. Los alcaldes auxiliares son elegidos por las comunidades de acuerdo a sus principios, valores, procedimientos y tradiciones, estos se reúnen con el alcalde municipal el primer domingo de cada mes. Los Comités Comunitarios de Desarrollo y el Consejo Municipal de Desarrollo tiene como función organizar y facilitar la participación de las comunidades priorizando necesidades y problemas.

Historia

En la época del ferrocarril en Guatemala —1896 a 1968— el poblado fue beneficiado y desarrollado pues en él se encontraba la estación de Vado Ancho.  El municipio se desarrolló gracias al monopolio ferroviario que tenía la International Railways of Central America (IRCA) en el transporte de carga y pasajeros; sin embargo, tras la construcción de las autopistas de la Carretera Interamericana CA2, las antiguas vías férreas perdieron su importancia y fueron transferidas por IRCA al Estado de Guatemala, que formó la empresa gubernamental Ferrocarriles de Guatemala, FEGUA, la cual poco a poco fue perdiendo relevancia hasta desaparecer en 1996.  En el siglo  las instalaciones del ferrocarril se encuentran abandonadas y la estación de Vado Ancho está totalmente deshabitada.

El municipio de Pajapita fue fundado el 31 de marzo de 1920.

Economía
El municipio se caracteriza especialmente por su producción ganadera. Es llamado "La tierra de los Almendros" ya que es un municipio dedicado a la producción lechera y ganadera. Entre los diferentes productos están:
 Leche
 Queso
 Crema
 Res

Transporte

Ferrocarril Panamericano

El 18 de abril de 1902, por su excelente relación con el presidente Manuel Estrada Cabrera, el farmacéutico y escritor Antonio Macías del Real recibió la concesión del Ferrocarril Panamericano de Guatemala para construir el tramo entre Las Cruces, Retalhuleu y Vado Ancho en Pajapita; sin embargo, no pudo construir la vía hasta Coatepeque y tuvo que ceder sus derechos a la Compañía del Ferrocarril Central, la cual terminó el tramo. El contrato original con Macías del Real había sido firmado por el subsecretario general del Ministerio de Fomento, José Flamenco, y Macías del Real y aprobado por Estrada Cabrera; en el contrato se le autorizó el derecho exclusivo para construir y explotar el ferrocarril de vía estrecha entre Coatepeque y Caballo Blanco, Retalhuleu por veinticuatro años contados a partir en que el ferrocarril se abriera al público. Además, Macías del Real y sus descendientes habrían tenido noventa y nueve años para disfrutar de la explotación del ferrocarril si lo hubiera concluido, al cabo de los cuales la propiedad iba a pasar a manos del Estado; otro derecho era poder utilizar el agua de cualquier manantial para la construcción y obtener gratuitamente una finca de quinientas caballerías de terrenos baldíos cercanos a la línea férrea. Finalmente, se le exoneraba de impuestos a la importación de cualquier material relacionado con la construcción del ferrocarril y las instalaciones del mismo y servicio de correo gratuito. Macías del Real solo habría tenido que hacer un depósito de treinta mil pesos e iniciar las obras antes de dieciséis meses para no perder la concesión.

Véase también

 Elecciones municipales de Guatemala de 2015
 Historia Territorial de Guatemala
 Organización territorial de Guatemala

Notas y referencias

Referencias

Bibliografía

Municipios de San Marcos
Patronazgo de la Inmaculada Concepción

Pajapita


Yusuf Ziyaettin Ortaç (d. 23 Nisan 1895, İstanbul – ö. 11 Mart 1967, İstanbul), Türk şair, yazar, edebiyat öğretmeni, yayımcı ve siyasetçi.

Türk şiirinde Beş Hececiler olarak adlandırılan gruptan olup, Türk Edebiyatı'nın önemli mizah yazarlarındandır. Beş Hececiler grubunun üyelerinden Orhon Seyfi ile birlikte Türk dergicilik yaşamında önemli yeri olan siyasi-mizah dergisi Akbaba'yı yayın hayatına kazandırmış, bu dergideki yazılarıyla büyük bir hayran kitlesi edinmiştir.

VIII. ve IX. Dönem Ordu Milletvekili olarak Türkiye Büyük Millet Meclisi'nde görev yapmış bir siyasetçidir.

Yaşamı
1895'te İstanbul, Beylerbeyi semtinde dünyaya geldi. Babası, Konya'nın ileri gelenlerinden Hoca Hasan Efendi'nin oğlu mühendis Süleyman Sâmi Bey, annesi ise İzmir eşrafından İzzet Bey'in kızı Huriye Hanım'dır.

İstanbul Vefa İdadisi'nde okudu. Şiire lise yıllarında aruz vezni ile başladı. İlk şiiri 1914'te Kehkeşan dergisinde yayımlandı. Dr. Abdullah Cevdet Bey'le tanışınca, İçtihat dergisine şiirler göndermeye başladı. İçtihat'ta yayımlanan şiirleri sayesinde şair olarak kendisini kabul ettirmeyi başardı. Ailesinin Bebek semtine taşınmasından sonra, Rıza Tevfik Bey'le komşu olan Yusuf Ziya, onun aracılığı ile Ziya Gökalp ile tanıştı. Ziya Gökalp'in tavsiyesi üzerine hece vezni ile şiir yazmaya başladı. Hece vezni ile yazdığı ilk şiir olan "Gecenin Hamamı", Türk Yurdu dergisinde yayımlandı.

Mütareke yılları
1915'te liseden mezun olduktan sonra Darülfünun-ı Osmani'ni açtığı yeterlilik sınavını kazanarak edebiyat öğretmeni oldu. Çeşitli okullarda dersler verdi. Bir yandan da edebi faaliyetlerini sürdüren Yusuf Ziya, 1916'da "Akından Akına" adlı manzume kitabını yayımladı. Harbiye Nazırı Enver Paşa'nın talebi üzerine yazılıp bastırılan bu kitap, Ordu için yazdığı yirmi iki şiiri içermekteydi.

1918'de, Sedat Simavi'nin çıkardığı Diken dergisinde "Çimdik" takma adı ile mizahi yazılar yazarak hiciv ve mizah alanına, "Şair" isimli bir şiir dergisi çıkararak yayıncılık hayatına girdi. İlk sayısı 12 Aralık 1918 tarihinde çıkan Şair mecmuasının yayın hayatı 20 Mart 1919 tarihinde parasızlık sebebi ile sona ermiştir.

1919'da mizahi manzumeler içeren Şen Kitap; kahramanlık, vatan sevgisi üzerine sekiz şiir içeren Şairin Duası ile Aşıklar Yolu adlı şiir kitaplarını, 1920'de Cenk Ufukları adlı şiir kitabını yayımladı.

Şiirin yanı sıra tiyatro eserleri de verdi. Binnaz adlı  üç perdeli trajedi 7 Nisan 1917'de Darülbedayi sahnelerinde oynandı. Bu eser Türk tiyatro tarihinde heceyle yazılmış başarılı ilk manzum piyes olarak kabul edilir. Bu oyunu tek perdelik bir manzum komedi olan Nâme (1918), üç perdelik manzum piyes olan Kördüğüm (1918) izledi.

Akbaba dergisi
7 Aralık 1922'de itibaren Orhan Seyfi Orhon'la birlikte Akbaba mizah dergisini çıkarmaya başladı. Adı Akbaba dergisi ile özdeşleşen Yusuf Ziya, Akbaba'nın hem patronu, hem şâiri, hem başyazarı, hem Yazı İşleri Müdürü hem de en önemli espri kaynağı oldu.. Dergide, Çimdik ve İzci takma adlarıyla mizahi yazılar ve şiirler yayımladı. Akbaba 1928 yılında Latin harflerine geçilmesinden sonra tirajının düşmesi üzerine ve 1930'lu, 1940'lı yıllarda siyasi çalkantılar nedeniyle yayımına ara vermek zorunda kaldıysa da Ortaç, ölümüne kadar dergiyi çıkarmaya devam etti.

Meş'ale ve diğer dergiler
1928 yılının Nisan ayında Yedi Meşale adlı bir kitap çıkararak sanat hayatına giren gençleri bir arada tutmak ve yüreklendirmek üzere Meş'ale adlı sanat ve edebiyat dergisini çıkardı. Dergi, 1 Temmuz - 15 Ekim 1928 arasında yayımlandı. Dergi, yeni harflerin kabulünden sonra kapandı ve topluluk dağıldı.

Akbaba'yı çıkarmaya devam ederken Orhon Seyfi ile birlikte daha kısa ömürlü başka dergiler de çıkardı. İki bacanak, 1935-1937 arasında Ayda Bir adlı dergiyi, 20 Mart 1935'te siyaset ve iktisat dergisi olan Heray'ı, 1941-1948 arasında Türkçü fikir ve sanat dergisi Çınaraltı'yı çıkarmıştır.

1930'lardan sonraki yaşamı
1936 yılından itibaren bir süre İstanbul Sular İdaresi İdare Meclisi üyeliği yapan Ortaç, 1938'de Bir Selvi Gölgesi, 1946'da Kuş Cıvıltıları adlı kitaplarını yayımladı.  Zaman zaman öykü ve roman türünde eserler de ortaya koydu. "Kürkçü Dükkanı" (1931), "Şeker Osman" (1932), "Göç" (1943) ve "Üç Katlı Ev" (1953) gibi beğenilen eserler yayımladı. 1944- 1945'te bir Fransız lisesinde edebiyat öğretmenliği yaptı.

Öğretmenlikten, Çınaraltı dergisinden ve Sular İdaresi'nden ayrılıp siyasete atılan Ortaç, 1946-1954 arasında VIII. ve IX. Dönem Ordu Milletvekili olarak Türkiye Büyük Millet Meclisi'nde bulundu. Milletvekilliğinin sona ermesinden sonra, yeniden Akbaba'nın başına döndü.

1950 sonrasında, şiirden ziyade, ağırlıklı olarak, mizah, gezi, anı ve biyografi türlerinde yazdı. 1962'de Bir Rüzgâr Esti adlı şiir kitabını yayımladı. 11 Mart 1967'de İstanbul'da hayatını yitirdi. Cenazesi Zincirlikuyu Mezarlığı'na defnedildi.

Eserleri

Şiir
 Akından Akına (1916)
 Aşıklar Yolu (1919)
 Şairin Duası (1919)
 Şen Kitap (1919)
 Cenk Ufukları (1920)
 Yanardağ (1928)
 Bir Selvi Gölgesi (1938)
 Kuş Cıvıltıları (Çocuk şiirleri, 1938)
 Bir Rüzgâr Esti (1962)

Oyun
 Binnaz (1918)
 Name (1918)
  Kördüğüm (1919)
 Nikahta Keramet (1923)

Uzun Hikâye
 Kürkçü Dükkanı (1931)
 Şeker Osman (1932)

Antoloji ve İnceleme
Nedim (1932)
Seyranî (1933)
Halk Edebiyatı Antolojisi (1933)
Faruk Nafiz: Hayatı ve Eserleri (1937)
Ahmet Haşim: Hayatı ve Eserleri (1937)

Roman
 Dağların Havası (1925, manzum)
 Göç (1943, otobiyografik roman)
 Üç Katlı Ev (1953)
Sarı çizmeli Mehmet Ağa (1956)
Gün Doğmadan (1960)

Mizah
 Beşik (1943)
 Ocak (1943)
 Sarı Çizmeli Mehmed Ağa (1956)
 Gün Doğmadan (1960)

Gezi - Anı - Biyografi
 İsmet İnönü (1946)
 Göz Ucuyla Avrupa (1958)
 Portreler (1960)
 Bizim Yokuş (1966)

Kaynakça

1895 doğumlular
1967 yılında ölenler
İstanbul doğumlu yazarlar
Beş hececiler
Türk mizah yazarları
TBMM 8. dönem Ordu milletvekilleri
TBMM 9. dönem Ordu milletvekilleri
Vefa Lisesinde öğrenim görenler
Zincirlikuyu Mezarlığı'na defnedilenler
Cumhuriyet Halk Partisi mensubu siyasetçiler
20. yüzyıl Türk şairleri

Yusuf Ziya Ortaç


Căpitanul (Hector) Barbossa este un personaj fictiv în seria de filme Pirații din Caraibe, portretizat de actorul australian Geoffrey Rush. Barbossa apare în toate filmele seriei. Începând ca un pirat nemaipomenit de strigoi în Blestemul Perlei Negre (2003), personajul moare la sfârșitul filmului. Cu toate acestea, el este revelat că a fost readus la viață la sfârșitul filmului Dead Man's Chest (2006) și apare ca unul dintre cei nouă lorzi ai piraților în filmul La capătul lumii (2007), un corsar cu Royal Navy în filmul Pe ape și mai tulburi (2011), și în cele din urmă ca liderul bogat și influent al flotei sale de pirați în Răzbunarea lui Salazar (2017). De-a lungul seriei, personajul a fost conceptualizat ca un "trickster întunecat" și omologul său căpitanului Jack Sparrow. [1] Geoffrey Rush a visat să joace rolul lui Barbossa.

Johnny Depp a propus ca prenumele personajului să fie "Hector" pe platoul primului film, deși nu este menționat niciodată în film. Întrucât a apărut doar în comentariul DVD (audio comentariu), scriitorii Ted Elliott și Terry Rossio au crezut inițial că a fost fan-made (făcut de fani) atunci când l-au văzut pe internet și au decis să-l folosească.

Informațiile despre copilărie și tinerețe ale lui Barbossa provin din actorul Geoffrey Rush, care a inventat un backstory pentru personaj pentru a-l descrie mai convingător. Potrivit lui Rush, Barbossa s-a născut dintr-un tată necunoscut și a apărut din țara de vest a Angliei într-o nobilă irlandeză sărăcăcioasă, ceea ce se deduce și de Jack Sparrow, pe baza accentului său în The Price of Freedom. Dorind să scape de o viață de sărăcie, a fugit de acasă la vârsta de 13 ani pentru a-și desfășura viața de pirat. La început, Barbossa dorea să fie un marinar cinstit negustor, dar văzând măreția cabinelor căpitanilor pe navele pe care le servise, și-a dat seama că un bărbat de la postul său nu și-a putut permite niciodată un astfel de stil de viață, un marinar cinstit, alegând în schimb o viață de piraterie [11].

Nimic nu se știe despre exploatările sale timpurii ca un pirat înainte de Premiul Libertății. În roman, Barbossa, la începutul anilor '40, este căpitanul schiorului pirat Cobra. După ce a jefuit o barcă franceză din fildeș, nava lui este atacată și scufundată de o echipă de pirați necinstiți și este salvată de înec de membrii echipajului său Pintel și Ragetti. După ce a reușit să ajungă la Tortuga, Lordul de atunci al Piraților din Caraibe îi aduce la Shipwreck Cove pentru a raporta incidentul unui ansamblu de pirați [12]. Câteva luni mai târziu, Jack Sparrow descoperă că atacatorul este vechiul prieten al lui Barbossa, Boris Palachnik, Lordul Piraților din Marea Caspică. Atacatorii sunt aduși în fața unui tribunal de pirați care îl convine pe Davy Jones, care confirmă vinovăția lui Palachnik. Vizitându-l pe Palachink în închisoare, Barbossa i-a acordat în mod necunoscut titlul de Lord Pirat al Mării Caspice, deoarece Palachink îi da piesa lui Opt și nava lui. Cu toate acestea, înainte ca Barbossa să-și poată revendica noua sa navă, pirații necinstiți ies din închisoare și scapă pe nava lui. După aceea, el intenționează să se alăture partidului de vânătoare al căpitanului Teague și îi spune că are o bucată de Opt, sculptată într-un ochi de lemn, pentru echipajul său, mate Ragetti.La scurt timp după ce Jack Sparrow începe să dețină Perla Neagră, Barbossa se alătură drept primul său partener. În seria de cărți Legends of the Brethern Court, Tia Dalma(Calypso) îi îndeamnă să asigure șapte flacoane de aur de umbră pentru a opri răul Domnului Shadow de a dobândi controlul total asupra marilor, distrugând Curtea Fraților cu armata Shadow. Pe parcursul romanelor, ei sunt capabili să strângă toate flacoanele spulberate în întreaga lume prin alianța sau lupta împotriva celorlalți pirați. Ei îl pot învinge pe Lordul Umbrei cu eforturile combinate ale tuturor Lorzilor Pirați, cu promisiunea că Jack va naviga spre Tortuga pentru a recruta un nou echipaj. Barbossa îl oferă să se ocupe de el în locul lui, ceea ce înseamnă că el a recrutat pirați cu intenția de a-i revolta împotriva căpitanului său.

Cu zece ani înaintea evenimentelor din Blestemul Perlei Negre, Barbossa a condus o revoltă împotriva lui Jack Sparrow și l-a maronizat pe o insulă neînsuflețită. Sosind la comoara lui Isla de Muerta, 882 de piese identice de aur aztec, ei îl colectează și îl cheltuie pe tot. Aceștia își dau seama prea târziu că aurul blestemat i-a transformat în nemuritori. La scurt timp după revoltă, Barbossa a fost ucis de către Bootstrap Bill Turner, tatăl lui Will Turner și pirat din echipajul lui Davy Jones prin atașarea unei ghișee la picior și aruncându-l peste bord. Echipa petrece în următorii ani să recupereze aurul aztec și să adune o comoară, în imposibilitatea de a găsi ultima bucată de aur, așa cum l-a trimis Bootstrap Bill fiului său.

Note

Pirații din Caraibe
Personaje fictive
Pirați fictivi

Hector Barbossa


La Norma est une montagne de France située en Savoie, dans la vallée de la Maurienne, au-dessus de Modane, d'Avrieux, de Villarodin-Bourget et de la station de sports d'hiver de la Norma à qui elle doit son nom.

Références

Sommet des Alpes françaises
Sommet en Savoie
Maurienne
Massif du Mont-Cenis

La Norma (sommet)


Vojna obavještajna uprava (fra.: Direction du renseignement militaire, DRM) je vojna obavještajna služba Francuske Republike zadužena za potrebe Francuskih oružanih snaga. DRM djeluje unutar francuskog Ministarstva obrane. Vojna obavještajna uprava je osnovana 1992. godine na inicijativu Pierre Joxea, tadašnjeg ministra obrane s ciljem okupljanja raznih obavještajnih službi unutar Oružanih snaga. Nastala je nakon Zaljevskog rata jer se pokazalo se da je vojna obavještajna služba slaba, a njezine službe previše razbacane, pa je Francuska bila previše ovisna o američkim izvorima.

DRM je dio francuske obavještajne zajednice zajedno s vojnom sigurnosnom službom DRSD, obavještajnom službom DGSE i sigurnosnom službom DGSI.

Povijest

Ustroj

Ravnatelj Vojne obavještajne uprave je general ili admiral, koji je izravno odgovoran načelniku Glavnog stožera Oružanih snaga.

DRM prikuplja podatke od vojnog interesa, a odnose se na snage i borbene sustave potencijalnih protivnika.

Operativni proračun DRM-a je 126 milijuna eura.

Vojne obavještajna uprava je podijeljena u tri odjela:

 Istraživački odjel (SDR)
 Pododjel operacija (SDE)
 Podružnica za podršku (SDA)

Ravnatelji

Poveznice
 DGSE, francuska obavještajna služba
 DGSI, francuska sigurnosna služba
 DRSD, francuska vojna sigurnosna služba
 DI, britanska vojna obavještajna služba
 Aman, izraelska vojna obavještajna služba

Izvori

Vanjske poveznice

 Službena stranica

Sigurnosno-obavještajne službe
Politika Francuske

Vojna obavještajna uprava


Antonino Castrone (født 3. juli 1961) er en dansk nationaløkonom.

Uddannelse og karriere
Efter sin studentereksamen i 1980 fra Niels Steensens Gymnasium gennemførte Antonino Castrone Forsvarets sprogofficersuddannelse i russisk. Han har siden gjort karriere i Forsvarets Reserve og har været tilknyttet denne i en længere årrække.

I 1982 blev Antonino Castrone ansat ved den danske ambassade i Moskva, og fra 1985 til 1993 var han ansat hos Rigspolitiet. Samtidig med sin ansættelse hos Rigspolitiet færdiggjorde han sin cand.polit.-uddannelse ved Københavns Universitet.

Fra 1993 til 2007 var Antonino Castrone ansat ved A.P. Møller-Mærsk som bl.a. økonomidirektør i A.P. Møller-Mærsks Østeuropa-region.

I 2007 blev Antonino Castrone ansat som vice- og økonomidirektør ved Københavns Universitet. Fra 2014 til 2020 var han universitetsdirektør for Aalborg Universitet. Antonino Castrone har siden februar 2021 været administrationschef for Retsmedicinsk Institut på Københavns Universitet.
Antonino Castrone er Ridder af Dannebrogordenen.

Referencer

Ansatte ved Københavns Universitet
Ansatte ved Aalborg Universitet
A.P. Møller - Mærsk
Personer i Kraks Blå Bog

Antonino Castrone


15150 Salsa este un asteroid din centura principală de asteroizi.

Descriere
15150 Salsa este un asteroid din centura principală de asteroizi. A fost descoperit pe  în cadrul proiectului CSS. Asteroidul prezintă o orbită caracterizată de o semiaxă mare de 2,26 ua, o excentricitate de 0,16 și o înclinație de 3,9° în raport cu ecliptica.

Vezi și
 Lista planetelor minore: 15001-16000
 Centura de asteroizi

Referințe

Obiecte astronomice descoperite în 2000
Centura de asteroizi

15150 Salsa


Yekaterinburg, Rusya'nın ortabatı kesiminde, Sverdlovsk yönetim biriminin (oblast) yönetim merkezi olan kent. Yekaterinburg Rusya'nın önde gelen ağır sanayi merkezlerinden biridir. Urallar'daki en büyük kültür merkezi olan Yekaterinburg'ta Urallar A.M. Gorki Devlet Üniversitesi ile Rusya Bilimler Akademisi'nin Urallar kolu gibi yükseköğretim kurumları vardır. Nüfusu 1.495.066 (2021) olan kent Rusya'nın 4. büyük kentidir.

Kaynakça

1723'te kurulan oluşumlar

Yekaterinburg


12123 Pazin este un asteroid din centura principală de asteroizi.

Descriere
12123 Pazin este un asteroid din centura principală de asteroizi. A fost descoperit pe  la Visnjan de Observatorul din Višnjan. Asteroidul prezintă o orbită caracterizată de o semiaxă mare de 2,44 ua, o excentricitate de 0,20 și o înclinație de 2,3° în raport cu ecliptica.

Vezi și
 Lista planetelor minore: 12001-13000
 Centura de asteroizi

Referințe

Obiecte astronomice descoperite în 1999
Centura de asteroizi

12123 Pazin