Clan MacLeod ( ;  ) is a Highland Scottish clan associated with the Isle of Skye. There are two main branches of the clan: the MacLeods of Harris and Dunvegan, whose chief is MacLeod of MacLeod, are known in Gaelic as  ("seed of Tormod"); the Clan MacLeod of Lewis and Raasay, whose chief is MacLeod of The Lewes (), are known in Gaelic as  ("seed of Torcall"). Both branches claim descent from Leòd, who lived in the 13th century.

Today, Clan MacLeod of The Lewes, Clan MacLeod of Raasay, and Clan MacLeod are represented by "Associated Clan MacLeod Societies", and the chiefs of the three clans. The association is made up of ten national societies across the world including: Australia, Canada, England, France, Germany, New Zealand, Scotland, South Africa, Switzerland, and the United States.

History

Origins
The surname MacLeod means 'son of Leod'. The name Leod is an Anglicization of the Scottish Gaelic name Leòd, which is thought to have been derived from the Old Norse. Clann means "children of the family, offspring, descendants, clan", while mhic is the genitive of mac, the Gaelic for "son", and Leòid is the genitive of Leòd. The whole phrase Clan McLeod therefore means "The children/offspring/descendants of the son of Leod".

The Clan MacLeod of Lewis claims its descent from Leod, who according to MacLeod tradition was a younger son of Olaf the Black, King of Mann (r.1229–1237). However, articles have been published in the Clan MacLeod magazine which suggest an alternative genealogy for Leod, one in which he was not son of Olaf, but a 3rd cousin (some removed) from Magnus the last King of Mann. In these alternative genealogies, using the genealogy of Christina MacLeod, great granddaughter of Leod, who married Hector Reaganach (McLean/McLaine). These articles suggest that the relationship to the Kings of Mann was through a female line, that of Helga of the beautiful hair. The dating of Christina's genealogy and the ability to line it up with known historical facts lend a great deal of authenticity to the claims of the authors.

MacLeod tradition is that Leod, who had possession of Harris and part of Skye, married a daughter of the Norse seneschal of Skye, MacArailt or Harold's son who held Dunvegan and much of Skye. Tradition stated that Leod's two sons, Tormod and Torquil, founded the two main branches of the Clan MacLeod, Siol Tormod and Siol Torquil. Torquil was actually a grandson of Tormod; Torquil's descendants held the lands of the Isle of Lewis until the early seventeenth century when the Mackenzies successfully overthrew the Lewismen, partly with the aid of the Morrisons, and the MacLeods of Harris (Siol Tormod). Younger branches of Siol Torquil held the mainland lands of Assynt and Cadboll longer, and the Isle of Raasay until 1846. Siol Tormod held Harris and Glenelg on the mainland, and also the lands of Dunvegan on the Isle of Skye.

Leod, according to tradition, died around 1280 and was buried on the holy island of Iona, where six successive chiefs of the clan found a last resting-place after him.

14th century
Tormod, son of Leod, does not appear in contemporary records; though according to MacLeod tradition preserved in the 19th century Bannatyne manuscript, he was a noted soldier of his era and was present at the Battle of Bannockburn. Tormod's son and successor, Malcolm, is the first of the clan to appear in contemporary record when both he and his kinsman, Torquil, are recorded as "Malcolme, son to Tormode M'Cloyde", and "Torkyll M'Cloyd", in a royal charter dating to about 1343, during the reign of David II (r. 1329–1371).
Malcolm was succeeded by his eldest child, Iain Ciar, as fourth chief of the clan. R.C. MacLeod dated this event to about 1330. Iain Ciar appears in MacLeod tradition as the most tyrannical chief of the clan; his wife is also said to have been just as cruel as he. Clan tradition states that he was wounded in an ambush on Harris, and soon after died from these wounds at the church at Rodel. R.C. MacLeod dated his death to 1392. Tradition has it that the Lord of the Isles made another attack on Skye in 1395, but Iain's grandson William MacLeod met the MacDonalds at Sligachan (Sligichen) and drove them back to Loch Eynort (Ainort). There they found that their galleys had been moved offshore by the MacAskills, and every invader was killed. The spoils were divided at Creag an Fheannaidh ('Rock of the Flaying') or Creggan ni feavigh ('Rock of the Spoil'), sometimes identified with the Bloody Stone in Harta Corrie.

15th-century clan conflicts

The Battle of Harlaw was fought in 1411 where the MacLeods fought as Highlanders in support of Domhnall of Islay, Lord of the Isles, chief of Clan Donald.

The Battle of Bloody Bay was fought in 1481 where the Clan MacLeod supported John of Islay, Earl of Ross, chief of Clan Donald against his bastard son Angus Og Macdonald. William Dubh MacLeod, chief of Clan MacLeod was killed in the battle.

16th-century clan conflicts

During the 16th century the Clan MacLeod feuded heavily with the Clan Macdonald of Sleat.

In 1588 William MacLeod of Dunvegan, the 13th chief, bound himself and his heirs in a bond of manrent to "assist, maintain, and defend, and concur with Lachlan Mackintosh of Dunachton, Captain and Chief of the Clan Chattan, and his heirs."

17th century – peace among the clans and Civil War

The Battle of Coire Na Creiche in 1601 on Skye saw the MacLeods defeated by Clan MacDonald of Sleat on the northern slopes of the Cuillin hills. In 1608 after a century of feuding which included battles between the MacDonalds, the Clan Mackenzie and Clan MacLean, all of the relevant Chiefs were called to a Lee lr meeting with Lord Ochiltree who was the King's representative. Here they discussed the future Royal intentions for governing the Isles. The Chiefs did not agree with the King and were all thrown into prison. Donald the Chief of the Clan MacDonald of Sleat was incarcerated in the Blackness Castle. His release was granted when he at last submitted to the King. Donald died in 1616 and then Donald Gorm Org MacDonald, 9th Chief, 1st Baronet of Sleat, his nephew succeeded as the chief and became the first Baronet of Sleat. Clan MacDonald of Sleat continues to hold title to Trotternish and Sleat on Skye from that day until the present.

During the Civil War, after the Battle of Carbisdale in 1650 the defeated James Graham, 1st Marquess of Montrose surrendered himself to Neil MacLeod of Assynt at Ardvreck Castle. MacLeod' wife, Christine Munro, tricked Montrose into the castle dungeon and sent for troops of the Covenanter Government, and as a result Montrose was captured and executed.

During the Civil War as many as 500 MacLeods fought as royalists at the Battle of Worcester in 1651.

18th century and Jacobite risings

The MacLeods having supported the Jacobite rising of 1715, General Wade's report on the Highlands in 1724, estimated the clan strength at 1,000 men.

During the Jacobite rising of 1745 the chief of the Clan MacLeod, Norman MacLeod of Dunvegan, did not support the Jacobites and instead raised several Independent Highland Companies in support of the Government forces. The chief led 500 men of the MacLeod Independent Highland Companies in support of the Government at the Battle of Inverurie, on 23 December 1745, where they were defeated.

The Macleods of Raasay, a branch of the MacLeods of Lewis, fought at the Battle of Culloden as part of the Glengarry Regiment, in retribution, the MacLeods of Dunvegan, under their chief, Norman MacLeod, burned and pillaged the Island of Raasay, harassing its inhabitants for many weeks in the late summer of 1746. As a result, Norman MacLeod became known as "The Wicked Man". In 1745, MacLeod of Dunvegan was said to have been able to "bring out" 700 men.

19th, 20th and 21st centuries

The eldest son of Norman MacLeod of MacLeod (1812–1895), Norman Magnus (1839–1929), succeeded as the 26th chief. The 26th chief died without male issue. Norman MacLeod of MacLeod's second eldest son, Torquil Olave (1841–1857) had earlier died without issue as well. Norman Magnus MacLeod of MacLeod was, therefore, succeeded by Norman MacLeod of MacLeod's third son, Sir Reginald MacLeod of MacLeod (1847–1935), as the 27th chief of Clan MacLeod. Sir Reginald MacLeod of MacLeod had no sons, but two daughters. Dame Flora MacLeod succeeded her father and was followed by her grandson John MacLeod.  In 2007, Hugh Magnus MacLeod became the 30th Chief of the Clan MacLeod.  For the following events see Chiefs of Clan MacLeod.

Clan societies and parliament
There are ten clan societies affiliated with the Associated Clan MacLeod Societies (ACMS), based in Edinburgh, Scotland. The ACMS is international body which coordinates the ten affiliated national societies around the world. The national societies are Australia (established 1912; re-established 1951), Canada (est. 1936), England (est. 1937), France (est. 1981), Germany (est. 2003), Switzerland ( est. 2013), New Zealand (est. 1954), Scotland (est. 1891), South Africa (est. 1960) and The United States of America (est. 1954). Membership to many of these societies are open to anyone who bears the surname Macleod; anyone who is descended from people bearing the surname MacLeod, connected by marriage; anyone who is a member of the septs of the clan; anyone with an interest in the affairs of the clan, whether or not they are related to the MacLeods. In some societies, memberships are available at a price; with yearly memberships to 15-year memberships (Scotland). Every four years members of the national societies gather together at a clan parliament. The last clan parliament was held at the end of July 2014 and took place at Dunvegan.

Castles associated with the clan

Castles that have been owned by the Clan MacLeod have included amongst others:
Dunvegan Castle, a mile north of the village of Dunvegan on the Skye, dates from the fourteenth century and originally stood on an island. It is the seat of the chief of Clan MacLeod. The castle includes a massive keep or tower, as well as the famous Fairy Tower, as well as a hall block and many more later extensions.
Cadboll Castle, near Tain, Ross-shire is a now ruinous L-plan tower house. It was originally held by the Clyne family, then the MacLeods of Cadboll, but later passed to the Clan Sinclair.
Knock Castle (Isle of Skye), also known as Caisteal Camus and Casteal Chamius, was held by the MacLeods in the fifteenth century but later passed to the Clan MacDonald. In 1515, in an attempt to resurrect the Lordship of the Isles the castle was unsuccessfully besieged by Alastair Crotach MacLeod.
Casteal Mhicleod, near to Shiel Bridge in Lochaber, is a ruinous castle that was once held by Alastair Crotach MacLeod and was still in use in the sixteenth century.
Dunscaith Castle, also known as Dun Sgathaich, near Armadale, Sleat, Isle of Skye, is a now ruinous castle on a rock by the sea. It was originally held by the MacAskills (a sept of the MacLeods of Lewis), but passed to the MacLeods in the fourteenth century. The MacLeods managed to defend themselves against the MacDonald Lord of the Isles in 1395 and 1401, however the castle passed to the MacDonalds sometime during the fifteenth century.
Duntulm Castle, near Uig, Skye was built on the site of an Iron Age stronghold and was once held by the MacLeods. In 1540 the castle was visited by James V of Scotland but in the seventeenth century it passed to the MacDonalds.
Eilean Ghrudidh, Loch Maree, near Kinlochewe, in Wester Ross, is the site of a castle on an island, that was originally held by the MacBeaths in the thirteenth century, but was held by the MacLeods from about 1430 to 1513.
Gunnery of MacLeod, near to Borve, on the Isle of Berneray, North Uist is the site of a castle once held by the MacLeods. Norman MacLeod of Berneray, who was the laird of the island, was born there. He was a famous scholar and fought at the Battle of Worcester in 1651.
See also: Castles of the Clan MacLeod of Lewis.

Clan heirlooms

There are several notable heirlooms belonging to the chiefs of the clan and held at their seat of Dunvegan Castle. Possibly the best known is the Fairy Flag which has numerous traditions attributed its origins and supposed magical powers. It was said to have had the power, when unfurled, to save the clan on three separate occasions. Another heirloom is a wooden and silver ceremonial cup, known as the Dunvegan Cup, which was made in Ireland and dates back to 1493. The cup is thought to have passed into the possession of the Macleods sometime in the 16th or 17th century, during which time the Macleods sent aid to certain Irish chieftains in their warring against English-backed forces. Another heirloom is Sir Rory Mor's Horn, named after the 15th chief of the clan. Clan tradition states that the male heir of the clan must quaff a drink from the horn in one go.

Clan symbols

Members of Clan Macleod are entitled to wear a crest badge to show their allegiance to their clan chief. Macleod of Lewis Dress Tartan Kilt is selected a range of some of the most popular Macleod of Lewis Tartans, As it is usually available in variations in which ancient and modern are most popular. This crest badge contains the heraldic crest and heraldic motto of the clan chief. These elements, like the chief's coat of arms, are the heraldic property of the chief alone. The crest within the crest badge is blazoned a bull's head cabossed sable, horned Or, between two flags gules, staved at the first; and the motto is hold fast. Members of Clan Macleod of The Lewes are entitled to wear a different crest badge, derived from the arms of the chief of that clan.

Members of Clan Macleod may also wear a sprig of juniper, as a clan badge. Clan badges are usually worn on a bonnet behind the crest badge, or attached at the shoulder of a lady's tartan sash.

Clan tartan

Clan chief

Clan septs
Septs are clans or families who were under the protection of a more powerful clan or family. Scottish clans were largely collections of different families who held allegiance to a common chief. The following names, according to the Associated Clan MacLeod Societies, are attributed as septs of Clan Macleod (of Dunvegan and Harris); there are also a number of other septs attributed to Clan Macleod of The Lewes.

In fiction
The Clan MacLeod is featured prominently in the Highlander franchise, with four major characters - Connor, Duncan, Colin and Quentin MacLeod - all being members.

See also

Clan MacLeod of Lewis, a separate branch traditionally centred on the Isle of Lewis.
MacCrimmon (piping family), hereditary pipers to the chiefs of Clan MacLeod.
MacLeod, Scott GK. 2011. - MacLeod Piping Stories and Traditions and some of PM Donald MacLeod's Bagpipe Music. Academia.edu

Notes

Sources

External links
http://www.clanmacleod.org/ – Associated Clan MacLeod Societies
http://www.macleodgenealogy.org/ – Associated Clan MacLeod Societies
http://www.clan-macleod-scotland.org.uk/ - Clan MacLeod Society of Scotland

Norse-Gaels
MacLeod
Isle of Skye
Gaelic families of Norse descent

Clan MacLeod


ساحل الأمير هارلد () هو جزء من ساحل أرض الملكة مود تشمل خليج لوتزو هولم، بين شبه جزيرة ريزر لارسن، في 34 شرقا، والمدخل الشرقي من جهة خليج لوتزو هولم، والتي تمثلت في الزاوية الساحلية عند 40 درجة شرقا وكان قد اكتشف خلال رحلة في 4 فبراير 1937، من فيجو ويدرو ، نيلس رومنايس، والسيدة انغريد كريستنسن من بعثة لارس كريستنسن ، 1936-1937، وسمي على اسم طفلها الرضيع هارالد الخامس من أولاف الخامس من النرويج ولي عهد النرويج.

مراجع

أرض الملكة مود

ساحل الأمير هارلد


Anastasios Soulis (auch Stasse genannt; * 8. Januar 1987 in Stockholm) ist ein schwedischer Filmschauspieler.

Biographie
Anastasios Soulis wurde am 8. Januar 1987 in Stockholm geboren und wuchs dort auf. Seine Eltern sind der Grieche Georgios Soulis und die Finnin Katariina Nerg. Er spricht Schwedisch, Griechisch, Finnisch und Englisch fließend. Die Kamerafrau Josefin Owe und er sind ein Paar.

Als Schauspieler feierte Soulis im Jahre 2000 seinen Durchbruch mit dem Film Den bästa sommaren (), für den er 2001 den Olympia Film Festival Award erhielt, und 2006 mit dem Film Underbara älskade (), in dem er die Rolle "Jonas" darstellte. Dieser Film erhielt 2007 bei den 42. Guldbagge Awards den Cinema Audience Award. Auf dem Internationalen Filmfestival von Stockholm 2009 erhielt Soulis den Rising Star Award. Für die Rolle des "Felix Rydell" in den Johan Falk-Filmen wurde er wohlbekannt.

Im Jahre 2007 trat er in der Sendung Klick! auf und seit 2013 spielt er verschiedene Rollen in der Humorsendung Partaj auf Kanal 5, darunter "Kapitän Schweden".

Preise
Soulis gewann im Jahre 2001 den Olympia Film Festival Award in der Kategorie "Bester männlicher Jungschauspieler" für die Rolle "Mårten" im Film Den bästa sommaren ().

Filmografie (Auswahl)
 2000: Liebe in Blechdosen (Den bästa sommaren)
 2001: Dorn im Auge (Øyenstikker)
 2001: Hem ljuva hem
 2002: Alla älskar Alice
 2002: Det brinner!
 2003: Emma und Daniel (Emma & Daniel – Mötet)
 2004: Tre solar
 2006: Underbara älskade
 2007: Kommissar Beck – Die neuen Fälle (Beck, Fernsehserie, eine Folge)
 2008: Wir sind alle erwachsen (Les grandes personnes – De vuxna)
 2009, 2012: GSI – Spezialeinheit Göteborg (Johan Falk, Fernsehreihe, acht Folgen)
 2009: Prinsessa
 2009: De halvt dolda (Miniserie, vier Folgen)
 2009: Bröllopsfotografen
 2010: Maria Wern, Kripo Gotland: Totenwache (Maria Wern – Alla de stillsamma döda, Fernsehserie, zwei Folgen)
 2015: Eine schöne Bescherung (En underbar jävla jul)
 2016–2019: Gåsmamman (Fernsehserie, 26 Folgen)
 2020: Solo für Weiss – Schlaflos (Fernsehreihe)
 2021: Red Dot

Weblinks

Einzelnachweise

Filmschauspieler
Schwede
Geboren 1987
Mann

Anastasios Soulis


Grof Stjepan Niczky (mađ. Niczky István; ?, 1747. – Varaždin, 17. prosinca 1777.), bio je hrvatski društveni djelatnik i plemić iz mađarske obitelji Niczky. Uz grofa Ivana Draškovića, jedan je od najzaslužnijih za pojavu organiziranoga slobodnog zidarstva u Hrvatskoj u 18. stoljeću.

Životopis
Roden je 1747. godine kao sin grofa Kristofera (Kristóf) Niczkyja i grofice Julije (Katalin) Janković Bribirske. Otac mu je bio utjecajni habsburški dužnosnik za vrijeme Marije Terezije i Josipa II. U dobi od 26 godina Niczky je već visoki državni službenik, banski savjetnik, predsjednik u Ministarstvu financija, komornik i kraljevski namjesnik u Križevcima. Bio je veliki župan Križevačke županije od 1775. godine pa do svoje smrti.

Bio je oženjen groficom Annom Esterházy (1757. – 1820.), kćerkom grofa Franje Esterházyja koji je 1783. godine imenovan hrvatskim banom. Niczky je umro 1777. godine, u svojoj 30-oj godini. Njegov brat Juraj (György) također je bio mason.

Slobodno zidarstvo
Niczky je postao mason 1768. godine u Budimpešti u jednoj neredovitoj loži po pozivu francuskog pukovnika La Clairea. U jednom danu primio uz sva tri osnovna stupnja još i škotski i nekoliko visokih francuskih stupnjeva. Pseudonim mu je bio Hieronymus. U Varaždinu je 1772. godine utemeljena Loža "Savršeni savez" u kojoj je Niczky izabran za prvog starješinu. On je na ovoj dužnosti ostao do svoje smrti. Niczky je 1773. godine osnovao Ložu "Budnost" u Osijeku te u ložu u Križevcima nepoznatog imena. Bio je vjerojatno i prvi starješina lože u Osijeku. Godine 1775. u dvorcu Brezovica četiri lože proglasile su neovisnost nove Velike lože Hrvatske u kojoj je Niczky izabran za zamjenika velikog majstora, dok je veliki majstor bio grof Ivan Drašković. Kao zamjenik velikog majstora Niczky je veliku ložu predstavljao na društvenim prigodama, dok ju je Drašković predstavljao na vojnim dužnostima.

Vidi još
 Povijest slobodnog zidarstva u Hrvatskoj

Izvori

Vanjske poveznice
 Slika Stjepana Niczkog

Hrvatski grofovi
Hrvatski masoni do 1940.
Mađarski grofovi

Stjepan Niczky


හිමායනාගෝලය ගෝලයේ හිම

හිමායනගෝලයේ දෙවැනියට වැඩිම ප්‍රදේශයක් ආවරණය කරන්නේ හිම වැස්මයි. එය සාමාන්‍යනේ උපරිම මිලියන 47 km2  ක් පමණ ප්‍රදේශයක පැති පවතී. පෘථිවියේ හිමෙන් වැඩී පවතින ප්‍රාදේශවලින් වැඩි කොටසක් උතුර අර්ධගෝලයේ පවතින අතර සෘතු වක්‍රයට අනුව එහි ප්‍රමාණය තාවකාලික වේ.  උතුර අර්ධගෝලයෙ හිමබ වැස්ම ජනවාරි මාසයේදී මිලියන 46.5 km2 ක ප්‍රමාණයක සිට අගෝස්තු වලදී. මිලියන 3.8 km2 (රොබින්සන් සහ පිරිස 1993) ප්‍රමාණයක් දක්වා වෙනස් වේ. උතුරැ ඇමරිකාවේ ශීත සෘතුවෙන් හිමෙන් වැසුනු ප්‍රදේශය ප්‍රමාණය දමෙම ශතවර්ෂයේදී ක්‍රමයෙන් වර්ධයනයත් පෙන්නුම් කරන අතර (බ්‍රවුන් සහ ගූඩිසන් 1996,Hughe හා පිරිස, 1996) මෙය වර්ෂාපතනයේ ඉහළ යාමට අනුකූලව සිදුවේ. (Groisman සහ Easterling 1994) නමුත් චන්ද්‍රිකා මගින් ලබාගත් දත්ත වට අනුව 1972-1996 කාල පරිච්ඡේදය තුළ ධ්‍රැව ප්‍ර‍දේශවල වාර්ෂික ශීත සෘතුවේ හිම වැස්සුම් ප්‍රමාණයේ සැලකියි යුතු වෙනස්විමක් දක්නට නොලැබේ. උත්ත ධ්‍රැව ප්‍රදේශ වලජ නවාරි මාසය සදහා විචලතා සංග්‍රණකය (= සම්මත අපගමනය/ මධ්‍යයනය) 00.04 ට වඩා අඩු අගයක් ගනී. Groisman ඇතුළු විද්‍යාඥයින්ට අනුව (19449) මෙම ශතවර්ෂයේ උතුරැ අර්ධ ගෝලයේ වසන්ත සමයේ උෂ්ණත්වය ක්‍රමයෙන් ඉහළ යාමට අනුරෑපව එම සමයේදී හිම වැස්මේ ප්‍රමාණය අඩුවේ යැයි බලාපො‍ෙරාත්තු විය යුතුයි. නමුත් ඉතිහාසය දත්ත වලින් ලබාගත් ඇස්තමේන්තු වලට මෙම තත්ත්වය වාර්තා ව්නනේ යුරේඩියාවෙන් පමණි. උතුරැ ඇමරිකාවේ වසන්ත හිම වැස්ම මෙම ශතවර්ෂ පුරාවට වර්ත්මානයේ පෙන්වන අගයන්ට සමාන අගවයකින් පැවතුණි. (බ්‍රවුන් 1997) චන්ද්‍රකි චත්ත ලබාගත් කාලය තුළ (IPCC1990) උතුරැ අර්ධගෝලයේ වායු උෂ්ණත්වය හා හිම වැස්මේ ප්‍රමාණය අතර දක්නටලැබුනු සමීප සම්බන්ධතාවය තිත දේශගුණික විපර්යාස හදුනාගැනීම හා නිරීක්ෂණය සදහා උතුරැ අර්ධෂ ගෝලීය හිම වැස්මේ  ප්‍රමාණය නිරීක්ෂණය කෙරෙහි සැලකිය යුතු අවදානමක් යොමු වී ඇත.

හිම වැස්ම ජල සමතුලිතතාව සදහා ජලය ගබඩාකිරීමේදි අතිශය වැදගත් කාර්යයන් ඉටු කරයි. ලෝකයේ කදුකර ප්‍රදේශවල සෘතුම හිමවැස්ම මේ අතිරින් විශේෂ වේ. ප්‍රමාණයෙන් සිමා සහිත වුවද කදුකර හිම වැස්ම ඇළ මාර්ග වලට හා මධ්‍ය දේශාංශය ප්‍රදේශ රාශියක භූගත උල්පත් වලට ජලය සැපයිමේ ප්‍රධානතම ම්‍රලාශ්‍රයයි. මෙයට නිදසුනක් ලෙස කොලරා‍ෙඉා් ගංගාව දැක්විය හැක. එහි වර්ෂිකව ගලායන ජල ප්‍රමාණයෙන් 85% පමණ හිම දියවීමෙන් ලැබුණු ජලය වේ. කදුකරයෙන් ගලාඑන දියුණු එහිම ගංගාවන් ට එකතුවී එමගින් ඔලියනකටත් වැඩි ජනතාවන් තම ජල අවශ්‍යතා සපුරා ගැනීමට භාවිතා වන ජලධර 40% ක්ම කදුකරයේ පවතින අතර මේවා ජෛව පද්ධතියේ වටිනාකම හා මිනුස්නට විනෝදාස්වාදය සපයන ප්‍රදේශ ලෙස වැදගත් ප්‍රදේශ වේ. උෂ්ණත්වය ඉහළ යාම නිසා හිම පතනයේ හා වර්ෂාපතනයේ, හිමදිවමී ගතවන කාලයේද බරපතල වෙන්කම් ඇතිවේ යැයිබලපොරොත්ත වන නිසා ජලය පරිහමරණය හා කලමණාකරණය පිළිබද සැලකිලිමත් විය යුතු වේ. මෙමගින් කාලතුරැව් හා අවකාශය අනුව පසේ තෙතමනය හා සාගරවලට එකතුවන ජල ප්‍රාණයේ සිදුවන වෙනස්විම් හරහා දශක ගණනාවයක් හෝ ඊටත් වැඩි කාලයකින් දෙශගුණ පද්ධතිය බලපෑ හැක (වොල්ස් 1995) හිම වැස්මේ සිට සාගරයට එකතුවනප ජල ප්‍රමාණය වැගත් ව්නනේ ලවණනික කදුනා කුඩා කැබලි  වශයෙන් සාගරයේ  පවතින අයිස් ප්‍රදේශවල ජල ප්‍රමාණයට මෙය සාමන විය හැකි බැවිනි (Prinseberg 1998)

හිමායනාගෝලය ගෝලයේ හිම


Epistola (din , epistolē, "literă") este o specie literară care ilustrează genul liric de nuanță didactică specifică clasicismului denumind o scriere literară în versuri care respectă canonul unei scrisori, putând fi, convențional, adresată unui destinatar real sau fictiv și care se distinge printr-un conținut filosofic și atitudine satirică, operele alcătuite sub formă de scrisori ilustrând genul epistolar.

În lumea elenistică, genul epistolar s-a dezvoltat în secolul al IV-lea înainte de Hristos, implică o compoziție literară complexă, atentă, destinată unui auditoriu larg și expune un subiect polemic, o dezbatere complexă a unei anumite teme.

În lumea arabă, Abd al-Hamid Al-Katib este considerat primul care a făcut din epistolă un gen literar.

În Scrisori către fiul meu, Gabriel Liiceanu opinează că "epistola e-o stratagemă și adresantul trucat, destinatarul fiind, de fapt, cititorul".

Autori: Grigore Alexandrescu, exemplu Epistolă către Voltaire.

Note

Legături externe

Epistolă


Dwain Anthony Chambers (born 5 April 1978) is a British track sprinter. He has won international medals at World and European levels and is one of the fastest European sprinters in the history of athletics. His primary event is the 100 metres, with a best of 9.97 seconds, which ranks him fifth on the British all-time list. He is the Former European record holder for the 60 metres and 4×100 metres relay events with 6.42 seconds and 37.73 s respectively.

Chambers ran a 100 m world junior record of 10.06 s in 1997 and became the youngest ever world medallist in the event at the 1999 World Championships, taking the bronze. On his Olympic début at the 2000 Sydney Olympics he was the best European performer in fourth place. He broke the 10-second barrier twice at the 2001 World Championships.  In 2003 he received a two-year athletics ban after testing positive for THG, a banned performance-enhancing drug and was stripped of the 100 m European title and record he achieved in 2002.

Chambers returned to competition in June 2006 and won gold with his teammates in the 4×100 m at the 2006 European Championships. He tried other sports, including a spell with the Hamburg Sea Devils of the NFL Europa league and a rugby league trial with Castleford. Sprinting success came over 60 m when he won silver at the 2008 World Indoor Championships, gold at the 2009 European Indoors, and became world champion at the 2010 World Indoor Championships.

Due to his doping ban, he was barred from the Olympics, Commonwealth Games, and much of the European racing circuit, from 2006 to 2012. The Court of Arbitration for Sport overturned his lifetime Olympic ban, deeming it non-compliant with the World Anti-Doping Code, and he competed in the 2012 London Olympics. He produced a ghost-written autobiography with writer Ken Scott, Race Against Me, in 2009. He is of Afro-Caribbean- Jamaican descent and has two sons with his partner Leonie Daley.

Biography

Early life and career
Chambers was born in Islington, and raised in Finsbury Park, London. Running was a part of his family life: his older sister Christine won the senior 100 metres Finals at the English Schools Championships in 1986 and 1987 and competed in the European Athletics Junior Championships. As a schoolboy he was coached by Selwyn Philbert who devoted himself to the young sprinter. Chambers first athletic success came at the 1994 English Schools' Athletic Association Championships, where he won the boys' intermediate 100 m race with a time of 10.64 seconds. International medals followed at the 1995 European Junior Championships, at which he won the 100 m and the 4×100 metres relay. He defended these titles at the 1997 European Junior Championships, and set a then world junior record in the 100 m with a time of 10.06 s.

Chambers transitioned into the senior ranks soon after, taking the 100 m silver medal behind his British teammate Darren Campbell at the 1998 European Championships. He achieved a new personal best in September at the 1998 IAAF World Cup with a run of 10.03 s for third place and won a relay gold medal. At the 1998 Commonwealth Games he was a 100 m semi finalist and set a games record as part of the 4×100 m relay team. His ability attracted the attention of former sprinter and Commonwealth Games gold medallist Mike McFarlane, who became his coach. He came first in the 100 m in the 1999 European Cup, then at a meet in Nuremberg he became only the second European sprinter (after Linford Christie) to break the ten second barrier with a time of 9.99 s. Fellow British sprinter Jason Gardener scored a time of 9.98 s in Lausanne soon after, becoming the third Briton to break the barrier. In spite of this, Chambers remained some distance behind his North American counterparts.

Seville World Championships to Sydney Olympics
In his first major outing on the world stage, Chambers attained a new personal best at the 1999 World Championships in Seville, registering a time of 9.97 s for third place in the 100 m final. This made the 21-year-old the youngest ever World Championships 100 m medallist. North Americans dominated the event as Maurice Greene and Bruny Surin took first and second place respectively, with record runs of 9.80 s and 9.84 s, respectively. The British sprint team Chambers, Gardener, Campbell and Marlon Devonish performed well in the 4×100 metres relay event as runners-up in a time of 37.73 s behind the US team led by Greene. World record holder Maurice Greene was hitting his peak, winning three gold medals in Seville. However, at 21 years old, Chambers had achieved more than Greene had at that age: Greene's best was 10.08 s in 1996 and he had never reached a major final.

With the 2000 Sydney Olympics approaching, Chambers studied the technique of other sprinters. In an interview with BBC journalist Tom Fordyce, Chambers commented on the stamina Greene and Surin had gained from running in the 200 metres event and Jason Gardener's improved acceleration through running the 60 metres event. He experimented with distances at the beginning of 2000, sprinting over 50, 60 and 200 m in various competitions. He set a personal best of 6.55 s in the 60 m event in Ghent in February. A hamstring injury caused him to miss six-weeks of training and when he returned his 100 m performances were lacklustre. He finished ninth at the Golden Gala in Rome with a slow time of 10.41 s and was seventh in a tame 10.30 s at the London Grand Prix, results that led him to consider quitting the season altogether. A late rejuvenation at the British Olympic trials guaranteed his selection as he snatched first place with 10.11 s (just one hundredth of a second ahead of Darren Campbell). Victory against in-form world record holder Maurice Greene in Gateshead raised Chambers' confidence and he stated his aim to take home a medal from the Games.

The 2000 Sydney Olympics saw Chambers come close to the podium. He easily qualified through the heat stages and achieved a season's best of 10.08 s in the 100 m final finishing fourth behind Greene, Ato Boldon and Obadele Thompson. Chambers was the best European 100 m performer, but after disqualification in the relay he left the games without a medal.

Edmonton World championships
He made his fastest opening to a season in 2001 by winning the 100 m for his club Belgrave Harriers at the European Clubs Cup with a meet record time of 10.12 s. At the Amateur Athletics Association (AAA) trials in Birmingham his run of 10.01 s was the fastest ever wind-legal time recorded in Britain by a British sprinter. Chambers ran with consistency in the summer of 2001: he won at the Seville Grand Prix in 10.01 s and finished third in ten seconds flat at the Athletissima meet. In the run up to the 2001 IAAF Edmonton World Championships Chambers compared his own performances to the British record holder: "I am very consistent in the 10.00s this year, and that bodes well for the Worlds. If you are running as fast as Linford Christie in his prime, it gives you a lot of confidence."

Chambers also competed over 200 m and a personal best run of 20.31 s earned him selection in both sprints for the World Championships. In an interview with Tom Fordyce, Chambers stated that Maurice Greene's strong presence and mind games undermined the competition both physically and mentally. "You have to get out in front of him and hold on for dear life" he said of the world record holder.

Chambers broke the ten second barrier twice in the 2001 World Championships with a personal best of 9.97 s in the quarter-finals and a run of 9.99 s in the final. This was not enough for a medal in a strong race which featured five sprinters running under ten seconds and saw Greene defend his title. Chambers was later upgraded to fourth place after silver medallist Tim Montgomery tested positive for banned substances. A hamstring injury in the final ruled him out of the 200 m event. Chambers ended his season at the 2001 Goodwill Games in Brisbane, and finished in first place in the absence of an injured Greene, who commentated on his European rival's victory.

2002 European champion
Chambers' coach Mike McFarlane struggled with the workload of full-time training. Frustrated by the distance between himself and the top sprinters, Chambers decided to relocate to California to work with Ukrainian coach Remi Korchemny and nutritionist Victor Conte. After parting ways with American sprinter Tim Montgomery, Conte looked to Chambers to fill the athlete's berth. In the run up to the year's major events, Chambers was in fine form and recorded a 200 m personal best of 20.27 s in Athens on 10 June 2002. Montgomery, impressed by Chambers' training regime, tipped the Briton to win the gold at the forthcoming 2002 Commonwealth Games in Manchester, England.

He won the 100 m at the Commonwealth Games trials in a season's best of 10.03 s, then equalled Linford Christie's record of 10.04 s at European Cup, where he led the British team to victory as team captain. Victories over Maurice Greene followed at Oslo's IAAF Golden League meeting and in Sheffield with a wind-assisted 9.95 s. He was the favourite for the 2002 Commonwealth Games, but Chambers faced stiff competition from British newcomer Mark Lewis-Francis who was finishing fractions of a second behind him. Chambers won all his preliminary races and reached the final, along with Lewis-Francis and Jason Gardener, but he suffered a cramp mid-race and ended up in last place. The English sprinters had the three slowest times in the final, with Lewis-Francis also beset by injury.

After Commonwealth disappointment on home turf, Chambers won gold medals in the 100 m and 4×100 m relay at the 2002 European Championships in Munich, setting a championship record of 9.96 s. Chambers recorded a time of 9.94 s at the Weltklasse Zürich meeting, again beating world record holder Greene. He finished the season by equalling Linford Christie's European record at the 2002 IAAF Grand Prix Final. His run of 9.87 s with a maximum allowable wind of +2.0 m/s left him second to Tim Montgomery, who set a world record of 9.78 s. Chambers received the 2002 European Athlete of the Year trophy for his achievements on the track that year.

2003 World championships
Chambers began the 2003 season with a grandiose statement – namely that he would lower the 100 m record to 9.65 s. After recovering from a minor injury he suffered in January, Despite claims he could also beat the 60 m indoor record, his form was poor and he failed to pass the heats at the 2003 British Grand Prix, finishing fourth in a time of 6.68 s. He was beaten by Mark Lewis-Francis by a hundredth of a second at the trials for the IAAF World Indoor Championships, narrowly missing out on selection with a time of 6.59 s.

Chambers announced that he was to part with trainer Mike McFarlane in favour of a permanent relationship with Ukrainian coach Remi Korchemny. The sprinter started the 100 m season modestly, finishing third and fourth in Modesto and Eugene, respectively. Chambers beat Montgomery in Glasgow in June, running a stadium record of 10.15 s into a headwind, and qualified for the World Championships by winning the AAA trials.

His season's best came under unusual circumstances at the British Grand Prix – due to a system malfunction he was initially timed by hand at dead on ten seconds, which was amended to 9.96 s after video evidence was consulted. He could not match that form at the World 100 m final: Kim Collins, Darrel Brown, Darren Campbell, and Chambers all finished within a split second of each other and Chambers was adjudged to have finished fourth. Chambers squandered his anchoring lead in the 4×100 m relay, allowing Joshua J. Johnson of the United States team to beat him to the finish line. In spite of his close fourth and a relay silver medal, there was a sense of disappointment in the press that Chambers' record breaking claims and gold medals had not materialised.

Doping ban
A sample for an out-of-competition drugs test that Chambers had provided in Germany on 1 August 2003 was re-examined in October and subsequently tested positive for banned substances. The United States Anti-Doping Agency (USADA) were investigating the Bay Area Laboratory Co-operative (BALCO); the workplace of both Chambers' coach Remi Korchemny, and nutritionist Victor Conte. Both men faced charges of distributing illegal drugs to athletes in the United States. The BALCO Scandal uncovered drug use in a wide range of sportsmen and women, including sprinters Marion Jones and Tim Montgomery.

Chambers claimed that his new coach had introduced him to Conte as a way of providing him with specialised 'nutritional supplements' – which he took by putting a few drops of liquid under his tongue. Conte had helped develop a type of anabolic steroid called THG, or tetrahydrogestrinone, at BALCO. After Chambers discovered that he had tested positive for drugs he sent his lawyer to meet Conte and make inquires about the supplement he had been ingesting. Conte assured him that all the substances were IAAF compliant.

After further investigation, it was revealed on 22 October 2003 that Chambers had tested positive for the banned steroid THG. Analysis of his backup sample also tested positive and the outcome was confirmed on 7 November 2003, making Chambers the first person to test positive for the new drug. Chambers was suspended the same day with an independent UK Athletics tribunal pending. The disciplinary hearing on 24 February 2004 resulted in a two-year ban from athletics, backdated to begin on 7 November 2003. He was also banned for life from the Olympics, and stripped of the medals he had won since mid-2002, after admitting that he had taken THG from that date. Chambers' 2002 relay gold medal performance was erased, costing teammates Darren Campbell, Marlon Devonish and Christian Malcolm their medals in the process. Chambers was also ordered by the IAAF to pay back his earnings from the period of his athletics career that was affected by his drug abuse.

Conte claimed that rival coach Trevor Graham had revealed the drug to US testers, acting "purely out of competitive jealousy" as Chambers was challenging Graham's trainees; Montgomery and Greene. Chambers denied that he had any knowledge that the substance he was taking was banned and claimed he was deceived by Conte over its true use. However, he contradicted his statement in a later interview, saying that he had major suspicions that he was using banned substances but was too naïve and lacking in self-respect to act otherwise. By Chambers' own admission in 2008, in a letter by his supplier Conte to British anti-doping chief John Scott, THG was not the only substance he had used during his career. In his confession he admitted to the use of epitestosterone cream, EPO, HGH, insulin lispro, modafinil and liothyronine.

Banned from competition, Chambers sought alternative commercial outlets for his athletic prowess. He had an unsuccessful American football try-out with the San Francisco 49ers, hoping to emulate Renaldo Nehemiah. He drifted on to the celebrity circuit, appearing on British reality television series Hell's Kitchen in May 2004. However, Chambers had little interest in the show and soon chose to leave. He appeared in neither sporting events nor television programmes for 18 months.

Return to athletics
Chambers began training in Jamaica in late 2005 in preparation for the athletics season. He faced new challengers in the 100 m as Maurice Greene was no longer a dominant force and Jamaican Asafa Powell was the new world record holder. Chambers began working with Glen Mills, coach of Caribbean sprinters Kim Collins and Usain Bolt. The drug suspension had expired in November but he needed to pass four mandatory drugs tests in order to gain clearance to compete with the IAAF. His comeback was further delayed as he gave an interview with the BBC revealing he began using drugs at the beginning of 2002, not since August 2003, as he had claimed to the IAAF. After further disclosure (that took away his European 100 m gold medal and invalidated his European record of 9.87 s), Chambers was cleared to compete on 10 June 2006, although his return was dependent on an agreement to repay prize money he won while using banned substances. He returned to competition on 11 June 2006 at the British Grand Prix and took third in 10.07 s, behind Asafa Powell who equalled his own world record. Chambers stated that his training regime with Bolt had helped him make a strong opening performance despite a long absence from competition. The result placed Chambers at the top of the British rankings and was the second fastest time by a European sprinter in 2006.

Chambers lamented the effects of his drug use and noted the irony that the drugs did not do much to improve the consistency of his performances. On his return to international competition his times were significantly worse than he achieved prior to drug use: in the 100 m final at the 2006 European Championships, Chambers ran a sub-par 10.24 s and finished in fifth place. He was part of the gold medal-winning British 4×100 m team, but Darren Campbell, who was angry about losing his 2002 and 2003 relay medals due to Chambers' ban, refused to join the team in a celebratory lap. After the competition, Chambers again expressed an interest in switching to American football, and completed a week-long NFL Europa training camp in Cologne that November.

American Football
Chambers signed for BAFA National Leagues side Farnham Knights in 2005, After attending a series of NFL Europe training camps, he gained a contract with German NFL Europa side Hamburg Sea Devils in March 2007. Following news that Chambers was receiving new, legal nutritional supplements from Victor Conte, the Hamburg Sea Devils confirmed that Chambers would undergo a vigorous drug testing regime.

Chambers reflected on drug use in athletics in an interview with Olympic gold medallist Sir Matthew Pinsent for the BBC's Inside Sport programme. Chambers claimed there would always be athletes using performance-enhancing drugs because drug testers did not keep pace with advances in science and that athletes who took drugs had an immense advantage over those who remained clean. Chambers was roundly condemned for his comments in the interview by both the press and his former colleagues in the athletics world, including Sir Steve Redgrave, Mo Farah, and Sebastian Coe.

Chambers' American football career was brought to a standstill when a stress fracture injury on his right foot ruled him out for the season. The situation worsened further when the NFL closed the European league on 29 June 2007 leaving Chambers jobless. He returned as a TV personality on reality television show Cirque de Celebrité in October but was unpopular with the public and subsequently voted off.

Athletics again and rugby league
Following the collapse of the NFL Europa franchise, Chambers made a second return to athletics in early 2008. Competing in the 60 m indoor final at the Birmingham Games in February 2008, he finished with a time of 6.60 s, setting a new meeting record. UK Athletics chief executive Niels de Vos initially banned Chambers from competing in the trials for the 2008 IAAF World Indoor Championships but, after the IAAF overruled the decision, Chambers won the event and selection. UK Athletics stated that committee was "unanimous in its desire not to select Dwain" but were forced to by the selection criteria, saying they would have preferred to send younger athletes eligible for the Olympics.

At the World Indoor Championships 60 metres final, Chambers won a silver medal and recorded a new personal best of 6.54 s to take second behind Olusoji Fasuba. The performance did not sway opinion: Chambers continued to encounter extensive criticism within athletics. Promoters did not invite him to key athletics events, Eddie Kulukundis – who had supported Chambers earlier in his career – refused to sponsor the sprinter, and the British Olympic Association (BOA), prevented him from competing in the 2008 Summer Olympics in Beijing. To return to the track Chambers had to rely on the money he received from his partner, Leonie Daley, a civil servant whom he met at the Miss Jamaica UK competition. The couple now had a child, a boy named Skye who was born in September 2005. He amassed a selection of cuttings about his fall from grace and the BALCO Scandal in order to show his son the risks of drug abuse.

Chambers tried to fashion himself as a living example of the dangers of drugs, sporting a T-shirt in Valencia with an anti-drugs slogan of "Just Say No!". He also expressed regret about previous comments suggesting that drug use was necessary to reach the upper echelons of athletics and set about presenting himself as a changed, clean athlete – devoid of the bravado that had marked his earlier career. Chambers' reinvention was met with a mixed reaction and the acceptance of a proven drug user on the track was not palatable to some. Dame Kelly Holmes, and parts of the British press called for Chambers to retire from the Great Britain athletics team.

Chambers' return to athletics took an unusual turn when he confirmed in March 2008 that he had joined English rugby league team Castleford Tigers on trial; a move which surprised and angered in equal measure given the fact he had never played the sport before. The Rugby Football League did not object to the move, in spite of his drug-damaged reputation, but stated much improvement was needed prior to any appearance for Castleford in the Super League competition. At a rugby press conference, Chambers expressed a desire to compete in the Beijing Olympics, casting doubt on his dedication to his new career. Chambers officially registered as a player with the Rugby Football League, and Martin Offiah declared that he was prepared to mentor Chambers. He completed training with the Castleford Tigers first-team squad and made his début in a reserve game against York City Knights, but Castleford announced that they would not be offering him a contract.

High Court challenge

In May 2008 Chambers announced that he was challenging his Olympic ban at the High Court of Justice. Chambers returned to sprinting in June and, in his first 100 m race since August 2006, he won the Papaflessia meet with a time of 10.26 s. He achieved the "A" Standard for the 2008 Beijing Olympics in June and won the British Olympic trials in ten seconds flat in July. Public opinion on an Olympic appearance remained split.

His performance at the Olympic trials was in vain as Mr. Justice Mackay upheld the BOA ban in the High Court of Justice and stated that a right to work was not sufficient reason to remove it. The BOA chairman, Lord Moynihan, was satisfied with the outcome, stating that those abusing drugs did not deserve to represent Great Britain at the Olympics. However, he lamented that a sprinter of Chambers' calibre had in effect excluded himself from the competition.

The effort of the High Court challenge and the Olympic ban took its toll on Chambers, but he had no intention to retire and set an appearance in the 2012 London Olympics as his main goal, aiming to prove he could perform without the use of drugs. Lord Moynihan objected to this, saying it would sully the reputation of both the Great Britain athletics team and the London Olympics. In late 2008 Chambers signed a book deal, covering his athletics career and drug usage, and stated his desire to become a sprint coach when his track career was finished. He had his second child, a boy named Rocco, that November.

Charles van Commenee's appointment as head coach of UK Athletics brought a change of approach towards Chambers as both the new coach and Niels De Vos welcomed him back to compete internationally. The pair judged that he had served his sentence – van Commenee was especially complimentary, stating: "He is a likeable guy and a damned fine athlete". That month Chambers appeared at a "Tackling Doping in Sport" conference and told of the damage drugs had caused to his career, health, and finances. The Olympic ban remained in place, however, and London 2012 chairman Sebastian Coe said: "I am clear cut on the Chambers case – I don't think there is room for drugs cheats in sport".

Race Against Me
Chambers ceased legal action to overturn his Olympic ban and instead aimed to finish his career on a high. He intensively studied the technique of Usain Bolt to improve his own times, seeing Bolt as the new generation's Maurice Greene. Though he was still banned from Euromeetings-organised events, he set a new personal best of 6.52 s in the 60 m at the Birmingham Indoor Grand Prix, then became the UK Indoor Champion, equalling Mike Rodgers' world leading time of 6.51 s. At the 2009 European Indoor Championships he broke Ronald Pognon's European 60 m record with a 6.42 s run in the semi-finals, then won the gold medal with a time of 6.46 s in the final. British head coach van Commenee stated that Chambers had undergone vigorous testing and that his performance sent "a message that you can win and break European records in the proper way."

The record-breaking performance brought him an invite from the Berlin IAAF Golden League meet, although organising group Euromeetings condemned the move. Revelations in Chambers' autobiography Race Against Me brought further controversy as the book had in-depth accounts of his past drug abuse and claimed drug use remained rife in athletics, estimating that half the American Olympic athletes in Beijing had used illegal substances. Chambers signed a statement with UK Sport, verifying that he believed the information to be true, which brought a close to the organisation's inquiries into his drug use. An IAAF investigation concluded that the book demanded no further action on their part. Olympic gold medallist and anti-drugs campaigner Ed Moses gave his support, saying that Chambers admissions provided a useful insight, but that athletes and administrators remained in denial about the high levels of doping in athletics.

Invites to Golden League meets never materialised, but he continued to run at smaller events. He ran a European leading time of 10.06 seconds at Papaflessia in Greece, and won the 100 m and 200 m races at the 2009 European Team Championships. He was the fastest entrant at the national championships but 2008 runner-up Simeon Williamson won the final by some distance. The result took Chambers by surprise and he said that limited opportunities to race had made him complacent. He later withdrew from the 200 m race citing exhaustion.

At the World Championships Chambers finished sixth in 100 m final with a season's best of 10.00 seconds. He was the only sprinter from outside the Americas in the final and was some distance behind Bolt who ran a world record of 9.58 seconds. However, he was very pleased with his performance and said he was happy just to be involved in the fastest 100 m race ever. He pulled out of the 200 m with a calf injury and called an end to his season.

World indoor champion

The following year, he began by focusing on the 2010 IAAF World Indoor Championships, and he won the 60 m at the UK trials in 6.50 seconds (a time only he had bettered in the previous two seasons). His closest competitor, Ivory Williams, received a ban for marijuana usage, leaving Chambers as a strong favourite. He was the fastest in all rounds of World 60 m competition, and surged ahead of Mike Rodgers in the final to win his first world title with a time of 6.48 seconds. Banned from the 2010 Commonwealth Games, he set his sights on making the team for the 2010 European Athletics Championships.

At the start of the outdoor season he had wins in Maringá in Brazil and at the Cezmi Or Memorial. He beat Christophe Lemaitre to win the 100 m at the 2010 European Team Championships, helping Great Britain to second place in the tournament and recording 9.99 seconds – the first sub-10 time by a European athlete in almost four years. Lemaitre and Chambers were seen as the only gold medal contenders for the 100 m final at the European Athletics Championships, but the event defied expectations in terms of times and placings. The Frenchman won in 10.11 seconds into a headwind while a tight finish between the four following athletes (all 10.18) saw Chambers finish fifth.

2011–2012: World and Olympic semi-finalist
The start of his 2011 season saw him take a fourth consecutive national title over 60 m with a European-leading time. At the 2011 European Athletics Indoor Championships the following month he was beaten to the line by Obikwelu, although he was pleased with the silver medal as he had changed his training to focus towards the 100 m for that season. Four straight wins on the Brazilian Athletics Tour came at the beginning of his outdoor season in May, including a season's best of 10.01 seconds, and he took his fifth national title at the British trials. At the 2011 World Championships he reached the 100 m semi-finals but fell foul of the IAAF's new false start rule: he twitched in his blocks and was immediately disqualified.

He won his fifth national title in the 60 m in 2012 with a season's best of 6.58 m. A third consecutive podium finish came at the 2012 IAAF World Indoor Championships, where he pipped Trell Kimmons to the bronze medal. Chambers was given the chance to return to the Olympic stage after the Court of Arbitration for Sport (CAS) decided in favour of the World Anti-Doping Agency over the validity of British Olympic Association's (BOA) Olympic ban by-law. CAS agreed that the law was non-compliant with the World Anti-Doping Code, to which the BOA was signatory due to its connection with the International Olympic Committee. Chambers ran a 150 m-straight best of 15.27 seconds at the Great City Games in May then won the 100 m Olympic trial race, holding off emerging teenager Adam Gemili. His absence from the major track circuit came to an end with a run at the Diamond League London Grand Prix, although he did not achieve the Olympic "A" standard time there.

Chambers was named in the British squad for the 2012 London Olympics after the selectors took into account his trials win and his times from the previous year. Given the abrupt turnaround in his fortunes, he said: "For me representing my country in an Olympics is a privilege that should never be taken for granted. To be given the opportunity to do so in my home town has been a dream that at times has seemed very distant and is now a reality." He returned to the British relay team at the 2012 European Athletics Championships after a six-year absence but a botched baton change saw the team disqualified. At the Olympics he won his 100 metres heat in a season's best of 10.02 seconds, with a legal 2.0 m/s following wind, in his first Olympic race in twelve years. He was drawn in the same semi-final as Usain Bolt but Chambers' run of 10.05 seconds for fourth meant he did not make the final. His Olympics came to an end in the 4×100 metres relay heats as the British team made an illegal baton exchange.

2013–2014
Chambers began his 2013 season with a 60 m win in Glasgow with a run of 6.58 seconds. A back injury affected his preparations for the 2013 European Indoor Championships, where he was eliminated in the heats. Outdoors, he won his fourth consecutive British Championship title, running 10.04. A month later at the World Championships in Moscow, he ran 10.14 in his heat to reach the semi-finals, where he was eliminated running 10.15.

Chambers began 2014 by finishing second in the 60 m at the British Indoor Championships, before going on to finish sixth in the 60 m final at the World Indoor Championships in a time of 6.52s. This was the fastest time he had run the 60m in since 2010. In his first three 100 m races of the outdoor season he failed to break 10.20, before hitting form during the British Championships. Going into the event, he was only ranked 10th in the UK, but he won the 100 m final, defeating Chijindu Ujah, who had broken 10 seconds three weeks earlier. Chambers' victory guaranteed him selection for the European Championships as his winning time was 10.12 secs, inside the European qualifying mark of 10.20. This was his fifth consecutive win at the British Championships. Chambers won his final medal in international competition at the 2014 IAAF World Relays in May. At the 2014 European Championships in August, Chambers missed out on a final individual medal by 0.02 seconds, finishing 4th in the 100m final in 10.24. This would be his last appearance at a major championships.

Later career
Chambers attended just two meets in 2015. He had a more active 2016, winning his heat and semi-final in the 60m at the British Indoor Championships but only managed seventh in the final. At the outdoor national championships in June, he made the final of the 100m in which he ran a heavily wind assisted (+3.0 m/s) 10.11, which once again saw him finish seventh. In 2017, Chambers came third at the national indoor championships in 6.62 but was not selected for the 2017 European Indoor Championships. He could only reach the national semi-finals outdoors in July in the 100m, and announced his retirement the following month.

In December 2018, 40-year-old Chambers returned at a low-key meet in London. He then entered the national indoor championships in February 2019. He progressed from his heat, but was disqualified after a false start in the semi-final. In February 2020, Chambers once again returned to the British Indoor Championships. He finished last in his semi-final after coming through the heats.

Chambers entered the 100m at the British Championships in 2021 and 2022 but failed to progress from the heats on both occasions.

Statistics

Chambers' performances at tournaments in the 100 metres event make him one of the fastest European sprinters in the history of recorded athletics. His personal best of 9.97 s set at the 1999 Seville World Championships places him as the seventh fastest European in the 100 m and the sixth fastest Briton behind Linford Christie (9.87 s), James Dasaolu (9.91 s), Zharnel Hughes (9.91 s), Chijindu Ujah (9.96 s) and Joel Fearon (9.96 s). Chambers' annulled 9.87 s finish at the Paris Grand Prix in 2002 would have made him the joint fastest British 100 m sprinter with Christie and the joint second fastest European in the event.

Amongst his British contemporaries Chambers ranks top with two 9.97 s finishes; the first in 1999 in Seville, Spain and the second in 2001 in Edmonton, Canada. Compatriot Mark Lewis Francis also scored a personal best of 9.97 s at the Edmonton World Championships. Great Britain teammate Jason Gardener's personal best of 9.98 s falls just short of Chambers'. None of his British contemporaries have broken the ten second barrier on more than one occasion; Chambers has done so five times.

Chambers is the current European record holder in the 60 m with 6.42 s and is the fourth fastest sprinter in the history of the event after Christian Coleman Andre Cason, and Maurice Greene. Chambers shares the British and European records for the 4×100 metres relay with Gardener, Darren Campbell and Marlon Devonish with their 37.73 s finish at the 1999 Seville World Championships. It is also the fastest time recorded by a team outside of the IAAF's North, Central American and Caribbean region.

Personal bests

 Excludes times nullified due to Chambers' positive drugs tests and subsequent ban – All information taken from IAAF profile.

International competition record

 †Amended from fifth after Tim Montgomery tested positive for banned substances
 Excludes results nullified due to Chambers' positive drugs tests and subsequent ban.

See also
 James Dasaolu
 List of doping cases in athletics

Notes

References

External links

Chambers' annulled performances and revised standings

1978 births
Living people
AAA Championships winners
American football wide receivers
Athletes (track and field) at the 1998 Commonwealth Games
Athletes (track and field) at the 2000 Summer Olympics
Athletes (track and field) at the 2002 Commonwealth Games
Athletes (track and field) at the 2012 Summer Olympics
Athletes from London
Athletes stripped of World Athletics Championships medals
Black British sportsmen
British Athletics Championships winners
British male sprinters
Castleford Tigers players
Commonwealth Games competitors for England
Commonwealth Games gold medallists for England
Commonwealth Games gold medallists in athletics
Competitors at the 2001 Goodwill Games
Doping cases in athletics
English male sprinters
English people of Jamaican descent
English players of American football
English rugby league players
English sportspeople in doping cases
European Athlete of the Year winners
European Athletics Championships medalists
European Athletics Championships winners
European Athletics Indoor Championships winners
Goodwill Games medalists in athletics
Hamburg Sea Devils players
IAAF Continental Cup winners
Olympic athletes for Great Britain
Olympic male sprinters
Sportspeople from Islington
Rugby league players from London
World Athletics Championships medalists
World Athletics Indoor Championships medalists
World Athletics Indoor Championships winners
Medallists at the 1998 Commonwealth Games

Dwain Chambers


Vinchiaturo ist eine italienische Gemeinde (comune) mit  Einwohnern (Stand ) in der Provinz Campobasso in der Region Molise. Die Gemeinde liegt etwa 10 Kilometer südwestlich von Campobasso.

Geschichte
Nach dem Kriegseintritt Italiens im Juni 1940 errichtete das faschistische Regime in Vinchiaturo ein Internierungslager (campo di concentramento) für Frauen. Es befand sich in einem privaten Wohnhaus im Ortskern, an der via Libertà. Ausländische Frauen stellten die größte Gruppe, zudem ausländische Jüdinnen und Jugoslawinnen aus den von Italien besetzten oder annektierten Gebieten.
Das Haus verfügte über kein Bad, die Räume waren nicht beheizbar und entsprechend kalt. Die erzwungene Kohabitation sehr unterschiedlicher Frauen, die Isolation und die Langeweile hatten Niedergeschlagenheit und Depression zur Folge; es sind zwei Suizidversuche nachgewiesen.

Verkehr
Durch die Gemeinde führen die Strada Statale 17 dell'Appennino Abruzzese e Appulo Sannitica von Antrodoco nach Foggia und die Strada Statale 87 Sannitica von Benevento nach Termoli. Der Bahnhof von Vinchiaturo liegt an der Bahnstrecke Benevento–Campobasso bzw. an der Bahnstrecke von Isernia nach Campobasso.

Weblinks

Einzelnachweise

Ort in Molise
Weinbauort in Italien

Vinchiaturo


Robert Prygiel est un joueur polonais de volley-ball né le  à Radom. Il joue attaquant.

Palmarès

Clubs
Championnat de Pologne:
  1997
  1994, 1995, 1996, 2002, 2009
Challenge Cup:
  2009
Championnat de Pologne D2:
  2013

Liens externes
  Profil PlusLiga
  Profil Volleybox

Notes et références

Naissance en avril 1976
Naissance à Radom
Joueur polonais de volley-ball

Robert Prygiel


Lignocarpa es un género de plantas fanerógamas de la familia de las apiáceas. Comprende 2 especies descritas.

Taxonomía
El género fue descrito por John Wyndham Dawson y publicado en New Zealand Journal of Botany 5: 400. 1967. La especie tipo es: Lignocarpa carnosula (Hook.f.) J.W.Dawson

Especies
A continuación se brinda un listado de las especies del género Lignocarpa aceptadas hasta septiembre de 2012, ordenadas alfabéticamente. Para cada una se indica el nombre binomial seguido del autor, abreviado según las convenciones y usos.
Lignocarpa carnosula (Hook.f.) J.W.Dawson
Lignocarpa diversifolia (Cheeseman) J.W.Dawson

Referencias

Aciphylleae

Lignocarpa


USS Watseka (YTM-387) was a medium harbor tug of the YTM-192 class in the service of the United States Navy during World War II. The Naval Historical Center lists the namesake as: "Possibly a variant spelling of Watsaghika, a former village of the Iruwaitsu Shasta Indian tribe of northern California, at the extreme west end of Scott Valley."

Watseka was purchased in 1943 from Ira S. Bushey and Sons of Brooklyn, New York, and assigned to the 8th Naval District, New Orleans, Louisiana, as YT-387. On 15 May 1944, her designation was changed from YT-387 to YTB-387. While in reserve, she was redesignated YTM-387 in February 1962.

Placed in reserve, out of service, and berthed with the Columbia River, Oregon, group of the Pacific Reserve Fleet from March 1946, she was subsequently sold on 1 July 1972. As a civilian tug, she operated under the names Deborah W, Beaver, Seahorse, SB IX, Seahorse, and Glen Cove.

References

Tugs of the United States Navy
Ships built in New York (state)

USS Watseka


María Teresa Gallego Morales (n. 1972) es una brióloga española. Es investigadora, y profesora en el Departamento de Botánica, de la Facultad de Biología, Universidad de Murcia.

Algunas publicaciones
 . 2008. Novedades corológicas para la flora briofítica ibérica. III

 . 2002. Revisión taxonómica del género Syntrichia Brid. (Pottiaceae, Musci) en al área circunmediterránea y Macaronesia. Editor	Universidad de Murcia, 291 pp.

 --------------------------------, . 1997. El género Aloina (Bryophyta, Musci) en el País Vasco. En: Boletín de la Sociedad Española de Briología, ISSN 1132-8029, N.º11, pp.1-5 artículo en línea

 . 1996. Bryophytes from the Republic of Equatorial Guinea (West - Central Africa). I. Introduction and preliminary checklist. Tropical Bryology 12:
41-58

Referencias

Enlaces externos

Botánicos de España del siglo XX
Botánicos de España del siglo XXI
Briólogos de España
Curadores de España
Profesores de España
Profesores de la Universidad de Murcia

María Teresa Gallego


An Amphipogon debilis in uska species han Liliopsida nga ginhulagway ni Robert Brown. An Amphipogon debilis in nahilalakip ha genus nga Amphipogon, ngan familia nga Poaceae. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Amphipogon (Poaceae)

Amphipogon debilis


Pridražići su naseljeno mjesto u sastavu općine Zenice, Federacija Bosne i Hercegovine, BiH. Nalaze se podno uzvisine Gradine (593 m). U blizini je rudnik ugljena Zenica, a s druge strane željezara Zenica. Kroz Pridražiće prolazi cesta R403/R445.

Povijest
Vrelo u kojem se prvi put spominju je Opširni popis sandžaka Bosne iz 1604. godine. Na popisu 1895. Popisani su skupa sa Zapodom (Zapadom). Tad je bilo 36 naseljenih kuća s 211 stanovnikom. Ime je slavensko i dolazi od glagola pridražiti - nadražiti, probuditi.

Godine 1981. pripojeni su naselju Gradišću (Sl.list SRBiH 28/81 i 33/81)

Stanovništvo
Prema popisu 1981. ovdje su živjeli:

 Muslimani - 2118
 Hrvati - 244
 Srbi - 380
 Albanci - 4
 Romi - 4
 Crnogorci - 3
 Makedonci - 1
 Jugoslaveni - 148
 ostali i nepoznato - 24
 UKUPNO: 2926

Izvor

Naselja u Zeničko-dobojskoj županiji
Zenica

Pridražići


Satoshi Yoneyama (født 27. juni 1974) er en tidligere japansk fodboldspiller.

Han har spillet for flere forskellige klubber i sin karriere, herunder Yokohama Flügels.

Eksterne henvisninger

Fodboldspillere fra Japan

Satoshi Yoneyama


Regionalne kvalifikacije za Hrvatski rukometni kup za žene za sezonu 2020./21.
Igrane su u pet regija - "Istok", "Jug", "Sjever", "Središte" i "Zapad".

 Regija Istok
Klubovi iz županija:
 Brodsko-posavska
 Osječko-baranjska
  Požeško-slavonska
 Vukovarsko-srijemska

 1. kolo

 Regija Jug
Klubovi iz županija:
 Dubrovačko-neretvanska
 Splitsko-dalmatinska
  Šibensko-kninska
 Zadarska

 1. kolo

 2. kolo

 3. kolo

 4. kolo

 Regija Sjever
Klubovi iz županija:
 Bjelovarsko-bilogorska
 Koprivničko-križevačka
 Međimurska
  Varaždinska
 Virovitičko-podravska

 1. kolo

 2. kolo

 Regija Središte
Klubovi iz županija:
 Karlovačka
  Krapinsko-zagorska
  Sisačko-moslavačka
 Zagrebačka
 Grad Zagreb

 1. kolo
{| class="wikitable" style="font-size: 90%"
!datum !!mjesto odigravanja !!par !!rez. !!napomene !!izvještaj
|-
|<small> 26. siječnja 2021. ||Samobor ||Samobor - Dugo Selo '55 ||<center> 27:34 ||<small> ||<small>
|-
|<small> 31. siječnja 2021. ||Velika Gorica ||Udarnik Velika Gorica - Zaprešić ||<center> 39:14 ||<small> ||<small>
|-
|<small> 9. veljače 2021. ||Sveti Ivan Zelina ||Trešnjevka Zagreb - Zelina (Sveti Ivan Zelina) ||<center> 45:19 ||<small> ||<small>
|-
|<small> 11. veljače 2021. ||Ivanić-Grad ||Ivanić (Ivanić-Grad) - Š.R. Karlovac ||<center> 34:22 ||<small> ||<small>
|-
|}

 2. kolo
{| class="wikitable" style="font-size: 90%"
!datum !!mjesto odigravanja !!par !!rez. !!napomene !!izvještaj
|-
|<small> 17. veljače 2021. ||Dugo Selo ||Dugo Selo '55 - Trešnjevka Zagreb ||<center> 24:36 ||<small> "Trešnjevka" se plasirala u osminu završnice Hrvatskog kupa ||<small>
|-
|<small> 18. veljače 2021. ||Ivanić-Grad ||Udarnik Velika Gorica - Ivanić (Ivanić-Grad) ||<center> 21:26 ||<small> "Ivanić" se plasirao u osminu završnice Hrvatskog kupa ||<small>
|-
|}

 Regija Zapad
Klubovi iz županija:
 Istarska
 Ličko-senjska
 Primorsko-goranska

 1. kolo
{| class="wikitable" style="font-size: 90%"
!datum !!mjesto odigravanja !!par !!rez. !!napomene !!izvještaj
|-
|<small> || ||Senia Senj - Murvica Crikvenica ||<center> 0:10 b.b. ||"Crikvenica" prošla bez borbe ||<small>
|-
|<small> 25. studenog 2020. ||Opatija ||Liburnija-Opatija - Zamet Rijeka ||<center> 18:30 ||<small> ||<small>
|-
|<small> 9. veljače 2021. ||Pula ||Arena Pula - Rudar Labin ||<center> 18:31 ||<small> ||<small>
|-
|}

 2. kolo
{| class="wikitable" style="font-size: 90%"
!datum !!mjesto odigravanja !!par !!rez. !!napomene !!izvještaj
|-
|<small> 16. veljače 2021. ||Labin ||Rudar Labin - Umag ||<center> 22:25 ||<small> "Umag" se plasirao u osminu završnice Hrvatskog kupa ||<small>
|-
|<small> 17. veljače 2021. ||Rijeka ||Zamet Rijeka - Murvica Crikvenica ||<center> 30:24 ||<small> "Zamet"'' se plasirao u osminu završnice Hrvatskog kupa ||<small>
|-
|}

Povezani članci
 Hrvatski rukometni kup za žene
 Hrvatski kup 2020./21.
 1. HRL 2020./21.
 2. HRL za žene 2020./21.

Vanjske poveznice
 hrs.hr, Hrvatski rukometni savez
 Natjecanje / Hrvatski kup - Žene
 hrs.hr, Kup Hrvatske

Izvori

 hrs.hr, Natjecanje / Hrvatski kup - Žene (2020./21.), pristupljeno 15. listopada 2021.
 hrs.hr, Natjecanje / Hrvatski kup - Žene (2020./21.), wayback arhiva

kvalifikacije 2020-21
ž-kup-k

Hrvatski rukometni kup za žene – kvalifikacije 2020./21.


Fox Umbrellas ist ein britischer Hersteller von Regenschirmen. Das 1868 von Thomas Fox gegründete Geschäft fertigt heute Regenschirme im Londoner Stadtteil Croydon. Der ursprüngliche Laden in 118 London Wall mit seiner Schaufensterfront von 1937 ist heute ein herausragendes Beispiel modernen Schaufensterdesigns in der City of London.

Regenschirme

Die Regenschirme von Fox werden heute noch handgefertigt. Zu den bekannten Kunden zählten beispielsweise das britische Königs- und das japanische Kaiserhaus, Winston Churchill und John F. Kennedy. Fiktionale Träger waren John Steed aus der britischen Fernsehserie Mit Schirm, Charme und Melone oder Mycroft Holmes in der britischen Fernsehserie Sherlock. Heute stellt das Unternehmen etwa 15.000 Schirme im Jahr her und fertigt Sondereditionen für Modefirmen wie Alfred Dunhill oder Ralph Lauren in Großbritannien oder Mitsukoshi, Isetan, Sogo und Tomorrowland in Japan.

Laden London Wall

Der Laden in 118 London Wall ist Ursprungsort des Herstellers und verkauft weiterhin Regenschirme. Während die Inneneinrichtung zeitgenössisch mit Regalen aus kanadischer Walnuss ist, stammt die Fassade noch von 1937. Die von Pollard hergestellte Fassade aus schwarzem Vitrolite-Glas, rostfreiem Stahl und Neonschrift ist laut Pevsner herausragend.

Seit 1990 ist das Geschäft ein Grade II Listed Building. Das Magazin Time Out bezeichnete ihn als Londons seltsamsten und wunderbarsten Laden.

Geschichte

Thomas Fox verlor seinen Laden aus ungeklärten Umständen nach wenigen Jahren an die Familie Dixon. Nachdem die Firma im Zweiten Weltkrieg auch Fallschirme aus Nylon herstellte, war sie schnell von den Vorteilen des Materials überzeugt. Als erster Hersteller von Regenschirmen stellte sie Schirme mit Nylon- statt Seidenbezug 1947 auf der Ausstellung Britain Can Make It vor.

Ursprünglich besaß Thomas Fox neben dem Schirmgeschäft noch einen Friseursalon und eine Schneiderei, wobei zahlreiche Kunden die Gelegenheit nutzten, sich die Haare schneiden zu lassen, während sie auf eine Schirmreparatur oder eine Arbeit des Schneiders warteten. Bis 1985 wurden die Schirme im Keller des Ladens in der Londoner City handgefertigt, 1985 zog die Fertigung nach Sutton und 2006 nach Croydon um.

Im Juni 2000 trennten sich Hersteller und Laden, als der Manager Ray Garrett die Regenschirmproduktion von der Familie Dixon kaufte. Während er diese in Sutton und Croydon ausbaute und stark auf das Internetgeschäft setzte, wechselte der Laden mehrfach den Eigentümer und bot auch zeitweise weitere Accessoires sowie Maßanzüge an. Seit 2003 besitzt Fox Umbrellas ein eigenes Tochterunternehmen in Japan mit eigenem Laden.

Weblinks
 Website von Fox Umbrellas
 Once was England: Fox's Umbrellas
 Quintin Lake: Fotos aus dem Laden

Anmerkungen

Unternehmen (London Borough of Croydon)

Fox Umbrellas


Isla Horsburgh (en inglés: Horsburgh Island; en malayo: Pulo Luar o Pulu Luar) es una de las Islas Cocos (Keeling), un territorio externo de Australia. Su superficie es de 1,04 kilómetros cuadrados. Hay una pequeña laguna en el interior de la isla hacia el noreste.
Esta isla debe su nombre a James Horsburgh, hidrógrafo de la Compañía de la Indias occidentales (East India Company).

Referencias

 Divehiraajjege Jōgrafīge Vanavaru. Muhammadu Ibrahim Lutfee. G.Sōsanī, Male' 1999.
 Xavier Romero-Frías, The Maldive Islanders, A Study of the Popular Culture of an Ancient Ocean Kingdom. Barcelona 1999.

Véase también
 Organización territorial de Australia
 Geografía de Australia

Enlaces externos
 Mapa de Localización

Archipiélagos e islas de las Islas Cocos

Isla Horsburgh


An Zeugites sagittatus in uska species han Liliopsida nga ginhulagway ni William Hartley. An Zeugites sagittatus in nahilalakip ha genus nga Zeugites, ngan familia nga Poaceae. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Zeugites

Zeugites sagittatus


L' équilibre de Sverdrup, ou relation de Sverdrup, est une relation théorique entre la tension du vent exercée à la surface de l'océan ouvert et le transport méridional intégré verticalement (nord-sud) de l'eau océanique.

Histoire
Outre les mouvements oscillatoires associés aux marées, il existe deux principales causes de flux à grande échelle dans l'océan :
 les processus thermohalines, qui induisent le mouvement de masses d'eau en introduisant des changements à la surface de la température et de la salinité, et donc de la densité de l'eau de mer ;
 le forçage du vent.
Dans les années 1940, lorsque Harald Sverdrup envisageait de calculer les caractéristiques brutes de la circulation océanique, il a choisi de considérer  le forçage dû au vent. Comme il le dit dans son article de 1947, dans lequel il présente la relation de Sverdrup, c'est probablement la plus importante des deux. Après avoir fait l'hypothèse que la dissipation par frottement est négligeable, Sverdrup a obtenu le résultat simple que le transport de masse méridien (le transport de Sverdrup ) est proportionnel au rotationnel de la tension du vent. C'est ce qu'on appelle la relation de Sverdrup ;

  .

Ici,

 β est le taux de variation du paramètre de Coriolis, f, avec la latitude;
 V est le transport de masse méridional intégré verticalement comprenant le transport de masse intérieur géostrophique et le transport de masse d'Ekman ;
 k est le vecteur unitaire dans la direction z (verticale);
  est le vecteur de contrainte du vent.

Dérivation

La relation de Sverdrup peut être dérivée de l'équation de vorticité barotrope linéarisée pour un mouvement constant :

  .

Ici  est la composante géostrophique y (vers le nord) et  est la composante z (vers le haut) de la vitesse de l'eau. En mots, cette équation dit que lorsqu'une colonne d'eau verticale se déplace vers l'équateur, elle est écrasée ; à mesure qu'elle se déplace vers le pôle, elle est étirée. En supposant, comme l'a fait Sverdrup, qu'il existe un niveau en dessous duquel le mouvement cesse, l'équation de vorticité peut être intégrée à partir de ce niveau jusqu'à la base de la couche de surface d'Ekman pour obtenir :

  ,

où  est la masse volumique de l'eau de mer,  est le transport de masse méridien géostrophique et  est la vitesse verticale à la base de la couche d'Ekman.

La force motrice derrière la vitesse verticale  est le transport d'Ekman, qui dans l'hémisphère nord (sud) est à droite (gauche) de la tension du vent ; ainsi, un champ de contrainte avec une boucle positive (négative) conduit à la divergence d'Ekman (convergence), et l'eau doit monter par en dessous pour remplacer l'eau de l'ancienne couche d'Ekman. L'expression de cette vitesse de pompage d'Ekman est

  ,

qui, lorsqu'elle est combinée avec l'équation précédente et en ajoutant le transport d'Ekman, donne la relation de Sverdrup.

Développement à partir du concept
En 1948 , Henry Stommel a proposé une circulation pour toute la profondeur de l'océan en commençant par les mêmes équations que Sverdrup mais en ajoutant le frottement du fond, et a montré que la variation du paramètre de Coriolis avec la latitude entraîne un courant de frontière ouest étroit dans les bassins océaniques. Walter Munk en 1950 a combiné les résultats de Rossby (viscosité turbulente), Sverdrup (écoulement poussé par le vent dans l'océan supérieur) et Stommel (écoulement du courant à la frontière ouest) et a proposé une solution complète pour la circulation océanique.

Liens externes

 Glossaire de l'océanographie physique et des disciplines connexes Équilibre de Sverdrup

Océanographie physique

Courant marin

Relation de Sverdrup