Singanalluru Puttaswamaiah Muthuraj (24 April 1929 – 12 April 2006), better known by his stage name Dr. Rajkumar, was an Indian actor and singer who worked in Kannada cinema. Regarded as one of the greatest actors in the history of Indian cinema and a versatile actor, he is considered a cultural icon and holds a matinée idol status in the Kannada diaspora, among whom he is popularly called as Nata Saarvabhouma (Emperor of Actors), Bangarada Manushya (Man of Gold), Vara Nata (Gifted actor), Gaana Gandharva (Celestial singer), Rasikara Raja (King of connoisseurs), Kannada Kanteerava and Rajanna/Annavru (Elder brother, Raj). He was honoured with Padma Bhushan in 1983 and Dadasaheb Phalke Award in 1995. He is the only lead actor to win National Award for singing. His 35 movies have been remade 58 times in 9 languages by 34 actors making him the first actor whose movies were remade more than fifty times  and the first actor whose movies were remade in nine languages. He was the first actor in India to enact a role which was based on James Bond in a full-fledged manner. The success of his movie Jedara Bale is credited to have widely inspired a Desi bond genre in other Indian film industries. On the occasion of the "Centenary of Indian Cinema" in April 2013, Forbes included his performance in Bangaarada Manushya on its list of "25 Greatest Acting Performances of Indian Cinema".
Upon his death, The New York Times had described him as one of India's most popular movie stars.

Rajkumar entered the film industry after his long stint as a dramatist with Gubbi Veeranna's Gubbi Drama Company, which he joined at the age of eight before he got his first break as a lead in the 1954 film Bedara Kannappa. He went on to work in over 205 films essaying a variety of roles and excelling in portraying mythological and historical characters in films such as Bhakta Kanakadasa (1960), Ranadheera Kanteerava (1960), Satya Harishchandra (1965), Immadi Pulikeshi (1967), Sri Krishnadevaraya (1970), Bhakta Kumbara (1974), Mayura (1975), Babruvahana (1977) and Bhakta Prahlada (1983). 13 of his films have received National Film Award for Best Feature Film in Kannada (Rajat Kamal) within a span of 15 years from 1954 to 1968. 17 of his films have received Karnataka State Film Awards in five different categories.

Trained in classical music during his theatre days, Rajkumar also became an accomplished playback singer. He mostly sang for his films since 1974. The songs Yaare Koogadali, Huttidare Kannada, Hey Dinakara, Hrudaya Samudra, Manikyaveena and Naadamaya became widely popular. For his rendition of the latter song, he was awarded the National Film Award for Best Male Playback Singer.

He is the only Indian actor to be awarded the Kentucky Colonel, the highest honour bestowed by the Commonwealth of Kentucky in the United States. Well known for his highly disciplined and simple lifestyle in both personal and professional fronts, Rajkumar was also an avid Yoga, Pranayama, and Carnatic music performer. In 2000, he was kidnapped from his farmhouse at Gajanur by Veerappan and was released after 108 days. He died of cardiac arrest at his residence in Bangalore on 12 April 2006 at the age of 76. His eyes were donated as per his last wish.

In his film career, Rajkumar received eleven Karnataka State Film Awards, including nine Best Actor and two Best Singer awards, eight Filmfare Awards South and one National Film Award. He holds the record of receiving Filmfare Award for Best Actor – Kannada and Karnataka State Film Award for Best Actor the highest number of times. He received the NTR National Award in 2002. He was awarded an honorary doctorate from the University of Mysore, and is a recipient of the Padma Bhushan (1983) and the Dadasaheb Phalke Award (1995) for lifetime contribution to Indian cinema. He was also the first Indian actor to be bestowed with an honorary doctorate for acting. A mega icon and a socio-cultural symbol of Kannada, he has been credited with redefining Kannada cinema and also putting the Kannada cinema on the national map. He was the first actor to play the lead role in 100 as well as 200 Kannada movies. His 1986 movie Anuraga Aralithu was the first Indian movie to be remade in seven other languages.

Early life
Singanalluru Puttaswamaiah Muthuraj was born in a Kannada-speaking family on 24 April 1929 in Dodda Gajanur, a hamlet in the Talavady taluk. His father Puttaswamayya and mother Lakshmamma were impoverished theatre artists from Singanalluru. His mother tongue was Kannada. Puttaswamayya was good at playing mythological roles such as Kamsa, Ravana, and Hiranyakashipu. Muthuraj left school at eight and was later discovered by film producers, who cast him in small roles that he played till he was 25.

He was named Muthuraj, after Muthaththi Raya (a name for the Hindu deity Hanuman), which is a temple deity located in Muthathi, a settlement on the banks of river Kaveri in present-day Karnataka.

Career

As actor
Muthuraj started his acting career with his father in a drama troupe led by Gubbi Veeranna and later joined the drama company of Subbaiah Naidu. In 1953, he was spotted by film director H. L. N. Simha, who was on the lookout for well-built, pleasant-faced man for the starring role in film, Bedara Kannappa. Simha eventually signed Muthuraj for the film and named him Rajkumar.

Prior to Bedara Kannappa, Rajkumar had appeared as a child artist in the 1942 film Bhakta Prahlada in a small role and also in the 1952 film, Sri Srinivasa Kalyana, as Sage Agasthya, one of the Saptarishis (seven sages). It was an insignificant role in which his scene was over even before he recognized himself.

He acted only in Kannada movies throughout his career apart from one Telugu movie, Kalahasti Mahatyam, which was a remake of his debut Kannada movie Bedara Kannappa.

He had lead roles in 205 movies. He owned a production company called Sri Vajreshwari Combines under the banner Dakshayani Combines. Bhagyada Bagilu was his 100th film, Devatha Manushya was his 200th film and Shabdavedhi was his last film.

His character depictions ranged from mythological, historical, devotional, James Bond styled spies to romantic, rural, action roles and portrayals of contemporary social causes in the span of over five decades. Rajkumar along with his contemporaries Udaya Kumar and Kalyan Kumar were referred as the Kumara Thrayaru of Kannada cinema. He acted in 36 films with Udaya Kumar and in 5 films with Kalyan Kumar.

His historical movies such as Ranadheera Kanteerava, Immadi Pulikeshi, Sri Krishnadevaraya and Mayura presented a populist version of Karnataka's history, focusing on the Karnataka kingdoms such as Mysore royalty, The Chalukyas, The Vijayanagara Empire and The Kadambas respectively - thereby making him the only Indian actor to have portrayed the role of four prominent kings of Indian history - Kanthirava Narasaraja I, Pulakeshin II, Krishnadevaraya and Mayurasharma. He also appeared as Bijjala II in Jagajyothi Basveshwara and as Raja Mallasarja in Kittur Chennamma.

The other prominent historical characters portrayed by him include Purandara Dasa in Navakoti Narayana, Kanaka Dasa in Bhakta Kanakadasa, Tukaram in Santha Thukaram, Kabir Das in Mahathma Kabir, Kālidāsa in Kaviratna Kalidasa, Gora Kumbhar in Bhakta Kumbara, Sri Raghavendra Swamy in Mantralaya Mahatme, Sarvajna in Sarvagna Murthy, Chetha in Bhakta Chetha, Kaivara Narayanappa in Kaiwara Mahathme, Pundarika in Hari Bhakta, Appanna in Sanaadi Appanna and Santhoba Pavar in Bhakta Vijaya.

He also has the rare distinction of having portrayed the mythological roles of both Devas and Asuras in an almost equal number on the Indian on-screen. While he has played Lord Ram in Sri Ramanjaneya Yuddha, Lord Vishnu in Sri Srinivasa Kalyana, Lord Krishna in Sri Krishna Rukmini Satyabhama, Lord Shiva in Gange Gowri, Narada in Mooroovare Vajragalu, he has also played the role of Ravana in Bhookailasa, Hiranyakashipu in Bhakta Prahlada, Shishupala in Dashavathara, Bhasmasura in Mohini Bhasmasura and Mahishasura in Mahishasura Mardini. His other prominent mythological characters include Kannappa in Bedara Kannappa, Chandrahasa in Chandrahasa, Harishchandra in Satya Harishchandra, Satyavan in Sathi Savithri, Vasishtha in Mahasathi Arundathi, Valmiki in Valmiki, Chyavana Maharshi in Sathi Sukanya and Dushyanta in Kaviratna Kalidasa. Further, he also holds the distinction of being the only actor to play the role of Arjuna and his two sons. While he appeared as Arjuna in Shree Krishna Gaarudi, he appeared in the role of Nagarjuna in Nagarjuna and as Babruvahana in Babruvahana.

His movies were also noted to include drama sequences where he performs various mythological, historical or literary characters such as Romeo and Babruvahana in Amma (1968), Gautama Buddha in Uyyale (1969), Echchamanayaka in Bhale Jodi (1970)  and as Bhima in Havina Hede(1981).

He has acted in around 50 movies based on novels, plays and short stories, which is the highest for any actor in India. He made movies from Kannada novels and made movies against perceived social evils in movies like Jeevana Chaitra (on evils of drinking) and Shabdavedhi (on drug abuse).

Between 1954 and 1969, Kannada film industry produced 207 movies within a span of 15 years and Rajkumar starred in 100 of those. While the early 60s saw him appearing in fantasy genre movies such as Rani Honnamma (1960), Aasha Sundari (1960), Devasundari (1962), Bala Nagamma(1966) and Devara Gedda Manava(1967), he was also noted for doing swashbuckler films such as Vidhivilasa (1962), Veera Kesari (1963), Katari Veera (1966), Madhu Malathi (1966), Simha Swapna (1968), Jaga Mecchida Maga (1972), Bahaddur Gandu (1976) and Huliya Haalina Mevu (1979) at regular intervals in the 1960s and the 1970s.

When Rajkumar appeared as CID 999 in Jedara Bale, he became the first Indian actor to enact a spy role modelled on James Bond in a full-fledged manner  and was called the James Bond of India. The success of this movie led to three sequels: Goa Dalli CID 999, Operation Jackpot Nalli C.I.D 999 and Operation Diamond Racket. The CID 999 Franchise was the first Indian movie franchise to have four installments and CID 999 was the first character based trilogy in India.

He acted with heroines of southern cinema such as Jayanti (38 films), Pandaribai (18 films), Leelavathi (28 films), Bharati (26 films), Kalpana (19 films), Aarathi (13 films), B. Saroja Devi (12 films), Rajasree (10 films), Harini (11 films), Krishna Kumari (8 films), Madhavi (7 films), Manjula (7 films), Jayamala (6 films), Lakshmi (5 films), Geetha (5 films), Saritha (5 films) and Jaya Prada (4 films). Actress Rekha made her debut in a lead role with his movie Operation Jackpot Nalli C.I.D 999. Sri Lankan based actress Sabeetha Perera also made her Indian movie debut with his film Goa Dalli CID 999. Chi. Udaya Shankar has written dialogues and songs for 85 of his movies. G. K. Venkatesh has scored music for over 50 of his movies. He also has the distinction of having worked with more than 75 directors.

His movie Operation Diamond Racket was shot in Nepal and became the first Kannada movie to be shot outside India. His movie Ondu Muttina Kathe was reported to be the first ever Indian film to have an underwater action sequence shot in an ocean outside India without the help of oxygen mask.

Rajkumar's 1971 movie Kasturi Nivasa was colorized and released in 2014. Even close to a decade after his death, the movie garnered a grand opening with the actor's life-size cutout being immersed in milk. The colorized release also performed well at the box office over taking other Kannada movies released at the time. His 35 movies have been remade 58 times in nine languages by 34 actors.

As singer
Rajkumar trained in classical music when he was with Gubbi Veeranna's theatre troupe. The track "Om Namaha Shivaya" from the 1956 film Ohileshwara, which he also starred in, was his first song for a film. He subsequently sang "Thumbithu Manava", a duet with S. Janaki, for the movie Mahishasura Mardini (1959). However, he became a full-fledged singer only in 1974 when he sang in place of P. B. Sreenivas for Sampathige Savaal, who had till then sung for most songs picturised on Rajkumar, fell ill. Rajkumar sang the energetic "Yaare Koogadali" for the film which became widely popular during the time and is considered one of his best songs.

Rajkumar has been credited for having sung across various genres and each rendition according to the mood of the scene in the film. In "Yaaru Tiliyaru Ninna" for Babruvahana (1977), a prosodic form of Kannada poetry that required the tone to be a combination of sarcasm and anger, he blended the twin skills of theatrics and music. For Nee Nanna Gellalare (1981), he sang two songs—"Jeeva Hoovagide" and "Anuraga Enaytu"—beginning both with the refrain "I love you", that is full of Carnatic gamakas. After the same tone in the refrain, they take on a life of their own with the form according to love and happiness in the former and love but a discord in the latter. He is known widely for his rendition of "Nadamaya" for Jeevana Chaitra (1992), a song based on the raga of Todi and with complex graces and strings other ragas as it progresses. He switches ragas with ease, and sings complex swara patterns like a professional classical artiste. For the rendition, he was awarded the National Film Award for Best Male Playback Singer. His frequent collaboration with the composer duo of Rajan–Nagendra gave musical hits such as Bangarada Hoovu (1967), Nyayave Devaru (1971), Swayamvara (1973), Sri Srinivasa Kalyana (1974), Nanobba Kalla (1979) and Chalisuva Modagalu (1982).

Rajkumar's duets are mostly recorded with S. Janaki and Vani Jairam. Other female singers who sang with him are P. Susheela, Bangalore Latha, H. P. Geetha, K. S. Chitra, Swarnalatha, Manjula Gururaj, B. R. Chaya, Kasturi Shankar, Rathnamala Prakash, Sulochana and others.

During his career, Rajkumar sang and performed for songs about Kannadigas, the Kannada language and culture, such as "Jenina Holeyo" from Chalisuva Modagalu, "Maanavanagi Huttidmele" from Jeevana Chaitra and "Huttidare Kannada" from the film Aakasmika. He sang a complete English song called "If You Come Today" ("Tick Tick Tick") in the movie Operation Diamond Racket in 1978. This song became an internet meme in India following Rajkumar's demise in 2006.

In later years, he lent his voice to a few actors and sang background solos. For the song Deepavali Deepavali  from Muddina Maava, he provided playback to S. P. Balasubrahmanyam. This was a rare occasion. "Hrudaya Samudra Kalaki" from Ashwamedha and "Hey Dinakara" from Om are the two other popular songs sung by Rajkumar for other actors. He also sang Kalidasa shlokas such as "Maanikya Veena" and ghazal-based songs such as "Sadaa Kannale", "Kanneera Dhaare" and "Yaava Kaviyu".

Rajkumar recorded many devotional songs beginning in the 1970s for Columbia Recording Company starting with "Mantralayakke Hogona" in 1972. His widely popular LP record "Guruvara Bantamma" was also recorded during the time. In 1979, Sangeetha Cassettes became India's first licensed pre-recorded cassettes. Rajkumar sang the devotional songs glorifying the saint Raghavendra and the Hindu deity Hanuman.

Apart from performing in about 75 musical nights, he has sung 300 movie songs and about 200 folk and devotional songs, the proceeds of which were given away to charity.

It was also noted that his versatility and diction contributed immensely to his popularity as a singer since he was able to sing songs of any style - be it qawwali, ghazal, bhajan or English songs - apart from handling a range of emotions - vivacious, romance, devotion or  sarcasm.

Personal life

Family
At the age of 24, Rajkumar married his 14-year-old cousin, Parvathamma, on 25 June 1953 in Nanjangud. This was in accordance with the betrothal that their fathers made following the latter's birth. Together, they had five children: sons Shiva, Raghavendra and Puneeth, and daughters Lakshmi and Poornima. Having lived a "hand to mouth existence" after marriage in a joint family that included 24 children in Madras, the family moved to Bangalore in 1972, after Rajkumar began getting multiple film offers.

Abduction

On 30 July 2000, Rajkumar, his son-in-law Govindaraju and two others were abducted by Veerappan from the actor's palatial house at Gajanur. Veerappan demanded the release of his gang members who were being held in jail under a defunct anti-terrorism law. The event prompted a massive manhunt and threw the Karnataka government into crisis. The Supreme Court of India opined that it was "unpardonable" on the part of the government of Tamil Nadu for not providing security to Rajkumar, although they had information a year earlier that he faced a threat of being kidnapped by Veerappan. A Special Task Force (STF) set up to capture Veerapan had earlier warned Rajkumar against visiting the farmhouse, and his son Raghavendra later acknowledged that his father had not taken the threat seriously.

After a total of 108 days in captivity, Rajkumar was released unharmed on 15 November 2000. His abduction and the manner in which his release was secured remains a mystery.

Death and memorial

On 12 April 2006, Rajkumar returned to his Sadashivanagar residence after his regular 20-minute walk and had a general medical check-up by 11:30 a.m. (IST). At 1:50 pm (IST), as he sat on a sofa, he asked a member of his family to slow the fan down and immediately collapsed. His personal physician Ramana Rao was called for, who rushed within three minutes, and performed external cardiac massage and mouth-to-mouth resuscitation. Rajkumar was then taken to MS Ramaiah Memorial Hospital and was administered intracardiac injections. Efforts to revive him failed and he was pronounced dead at 2:05 pm (IST). His death occurred 12 days before his 77th birthday. His eyes were donated to two visually impaired persons the same day.

Rajkumar's death triggered an outpouring of grief. There was major shutdown in the city of Bengaluru. An unofficial bandh (closure of all shops and other establishments) was observed. Several people attempted suicide after hearing the news; most of them were rescued. The funeral cortège the next day started from Sree Kanteerava Stadium to Kanteerava Studios a few minutes before 12:30 pm (IST), a distance of . Around two million people followed his remains. However, the entire procession was marked with violence with mourners attacking public property, and police, who resorted to lathi-charge and tear gas. Passing through Krishna Raja Circle, Palace Road, T. Chowdiah Road, Sadashivanagar, Yeswanthpur and Goraguntepalya localities, the cortège reached the Studios at 4:45 pm (IST). His body was buried with State honors at 5:45 p.m (IST) at the premises of the studios. The last rites were performed by his eldest son Shiva, guided by priests from the city's ISKCON and the Gayathri Temples.

The then President of India, A.P.J. Abdul Kalam had condoled his death. In the condolence message, he had praised his versatility and everlasting contributions to the Indian cinema.

On 19 April, the government of Karnataka announced that a memorial would be made in Rajkumar's honor at Kanteerava Studios in association with the Karnataka Film Chamber of Commerce at the cost  100 million. The blueprint of the memorial was cleared by a panel comprising members of Rajkumar's family, representatives of the Kannada film industry and the state government. After a delay over allocation of funds and land, it was finally opened in November 2014, after a sum of  70 million was used in developing it over an area of . It included "an open-air auditorium, mini-water body, landscaping and a bust" of Rajkumar. 40 photographs of selected films of Rajkumar were kept on display at the inauguration. A permanent exhibition on the history of Rajkumar's films that included his photographs, trophies and souvenirs, alongside a stock of dialogue, scripts, songs and other memorabilia associated with him were put on display. An annual calendar for 2012 was released containing photographs of Rajkumar and stills from his films. His fan clubs conduct blood donation and eye donation camps on the occasion of his birth and death anniversaries every year.

After his death, two audio companies - Saregama India Limited and Mars Recording Private Limited - were pitted against each other over the copyright of his songs as per Section 52(j) of The Copyright Act, 1957.

Acting versatility
It was observed that after 15 years into his career, in the mid sixties, when new young filmmakers were searching for actors who were less theatrical, Rajkumar had to undergo a transformation in his acting style and succeeded in proving that he could handle roles which were subtle, mellow and soft without the need for theatrical histrionics. He went on to be known for portraying versatile roles with elan.

He was also praised for his ability to integrate actors' virtues with the power of a superstar without letting one erase the other by acting as a gulf between mainstream popular movies and artistic cinemas. It was also noted that it was his subtle acting prowess, spontaneous style and his flair to give the reel characters a real credibility which singled him out to the top and helped him to never be out of the running by withstanding the onslaught of time, age and the ever changing demands of celluloid world.

Jnanapith awardee U. R. Ananthamurthy had noted that movies of Rajkumar were less melodramatic than the movies of his counterparts at that time in other languages—MGR, Sivaji Ganesan and NTR.

Amitabh Bachchan had praised Rajkumar's simplicity and his ability to perform any role to perfection. Anil Kapoor called him the "emperor of all the actors" and a pride of Indian film industry.

Girish Kasaravalli had called him a great actor by any standards. Jayanth Kaikini had said that the variety and intensity which Rajkumar had managed as an actor was unmatched world over.

When Rajkumar completed 200 movies in lead roles in Kannada films, P. Lankesh edited a special issue of Lankesh Patrike in 1988 titled Innooru Chitragala Raja dedicating to him.

Social themes of movies
Rajkumar made movies against perceived social evils throughout his career. His debut movie Bedara Kannappa (1954) addressed social discrimination. The 1957 movie Rayara Sose speaks against the evil practice of dowry. The 1958 movie Shree Krishna Gaarudi, which narrates the bickering and squabbling among the Pandavas for portfolios, allegorizes the politics in the then newly formed Mysore state.

The 1962 movie Bhoodana was based Vinoba Bhave's Bhoodan movement and speaks about the religious conversion of the marginalized. The 1964 movie Naandi was acclaimed for capturing the real-time plights of those with hearing impairments. The 1967 movie Bangarada Hoovu spoke about misconceptions about leprosy - especially the notion that leprosy is a consequence of one's past sins. The 1968 movie Hannele Chiguridaga deals with the empowerment of women in education and widow marriage. The 1968 movie Mannina Maga depicted the difficulty of sustaining community life in a city resulting in turn away from it in favour of a village. The 1969 movie Uyyale presents a delicate tale of the extra-marital love of a woman neglected by her husband  reflecting the social and moral laws of married life. The 1969 movie Mayor Muthanna had a sub-plot of salvaging of the sub-standard grain and black marketing.

The 1971 movie Kasturi Nivasa charts the rise of modern manufacturing techniques and the ill effects of orthodox approach towards upgradation of technology. The 1971 movie Sakshatkara speaks about superstitions and manipulation of beliefs. The central theme of 1972 movie Bangaarada Manushya - returning to one's ancestral village - inspired youth to take up agriculture. The film also touched on very important topics like rural development, modern agricultural practices and co-operative movement. The 1973 movie Bidugade speaks about capital punishment based on circumstantial evidence be done away with. The 1973 movie Gandhada Gudi was reported to be the first Indian movie made on the concept of protection of forest and wildlife conservation with a focus on the need to preserve the flora and fauna at a time when the CITES treaty was signed with an aim to reduce the economic incentive to poach endangered species. The 1974 movie Sampathige Savaal speaks subtely about the abolishment of Zamindar system  by portraying the rich versus poor in a rural backdrop.

The 1985 movie Jwaalamukhi speaks about marks card forgery. The 1985 movie Dhruva Thare speaks about the oppression by the higher class and the need for the minimum wages. The 1986 movie Anuraga Aralithu speaks about the implementation of labour reforms in factory. The 1987 movie Shruthi Seridaaga made a strong statement against believing horoscope blindly. The 1987 movie Ondu Muttina Kathe was a narration on how the value of objects differ across the social strata, especially among the literate and the illiterate.

The 1992 movie Jeevana Chaitra instigated many villages to ban arrack shops. The 1993 movie Aakasmika was about woman trafficking and prostitution racquet.

His last movie Shabdavedhi (2000) was about drug abuse and its ill effects on the youth.

Mass appeal and popularity
Veteran journalist and writer Patil Puttappa had described Rajkumar as a natural strength of Kannada whose mass appeal was much more than any leader in Indian politics. He was also praised for confining himself to the Kannada cinema through a conscious decision. His movies were praised for showing consistent interest in building a Kannada society and not a Kannada nation as such. His presence was reported to have filled the void between the state and the nation which neither the littérateurs nor the politicians could accomplish.

Some observers are of the opinion that his star appeal helped bring together the diverse regions of Karnataka. The state was carved out in 1956, bringing together different regions like Hyderabad Karnataka, which were areas ruled by the erstwhile Nizam of Hyderabad; Mumbai Karnataka, which has a strong Marathi influence; Old Mysore region ruled by the Mysore royal family and the hilly regions and coastal belt. Each region has a distinct identity within the state and Rajkumar was accepted as a Kannada icon across all regions. He spoke Kannada in a distinct way which had a universal appeal across the state. This was an important aspect since his career played out when the state's identity was still evolving. Rajkumar's movies were largely credited for creating a unified Kannada cultural space after the formation of the state. It was reported that before linguistic reorganization of the states, the default state border for the Kannada speaking population was the last point where Rajkumar films were distributed.

He was considered as a strong symbol of Kannada identity.
Bollywood actor Prithviraj Kapoor had requested Rajkumar to act with him in a Hindi movie but Rajkumar had refused the offer in spite of Hindi movies having wider market than Kannada. Later, Prithviraj Kapoor went on to share the screen with him in the Kannada movie Sakshatkara directed by Puttanna Kanagal. He had also refused to appear in a cameo for Amitabh Bachchan's 1983 Hindi movie Coolie as he did not want to appear in a non-Kannada movie. Further, he thought that it would not be good for an actor to look down on another actor as the scene involved Amitabh touching the feet of Rajkumar's character - a sequence which appeared before the introduction song of Amitabh's character. In spite of having appeared only in Kannada movies, he was reasonably popular amongst the non- Kannadigas too. His films have inspired many non-Kannadigas to learn the language.  In spite of strong Kannada conservatism in his movies, they were noted to have transcended the barriers of language to connect with the ethos of the nation.

Kuvempu considered him to be the most suitable ambassador to propagate his idea of Universal Human (Vishwamanava). His 1972 movie Bangaarada Manushya was credited for inspiring the urban youth to take up farming by popularizing modern farming technology.

Bollywood actor Anil Kapoor had called him "The emperor of all actors". Rana Daggubati had revealed that he had referred Rajkumar's performance in the 1983 movie Bhakta Prahlada for his preparation for the role of Hiranyakashipu.

During the interview for promotions of 2.0, Rajinikanth had said that 10 MGRs were equal to 1 Rajkumar. He has also remarked that the only autograph he has ever taken in his life is of Rajkumar. Rajinikanth had also said that Rajkumar was a combination of MGR and Sivaji Ganesan.

The  Pampa Award for writers was instituted by the Government of Karnataka on his behest. The cash prize of ₹1,00,000 which he received with the Dadasaheb Phalke Award was given as donation to Kannada Sahitya Parishat. He gave away the proceeds of 57 musical night programmes as donations to build stadiums in 21 districts of Karnataka.

After Rajkumar's eyes were donated as per his last wish, the eye donation in Karnataka was reported to have increased by 400%. The  director of the 2021 Kannada movie Akshi which won the National Film Award for Best Feature Film in Kannada at the 67th National Film Awards had revealed that the act of eye donation by Rajkumar was the inspiration for the plot of his movie.

The initial move to shift the operations of the Kannada cinema gradually from Madras to Bangalore has been credited to Rajkumar's home productions.

As of April 2016, 71 books and 9 souvenirs have been published on Rajkumar. In 2015, after 15 years of research, Doddahulluru Rukkoji released a two-volume, 2,148 page book chronicling Rajkumar's life and achievements.

On the occasion of Rajkumar's 90th birthday, an audio-visual musical extravaganza fund raiser programme titled Raj Vaibhava was conducted in Greater Boston for the benefit of a retirement home in Mumbai. In 2012, an entertainment programme called Dr.Raj Vaibhava based on his movies and songs was conducted in Kuwait in his honour.

In 2018, in the run up to the relaunch of Jawa motorbikes, the marketing team of Mahindra & Mahindra used the climax bike stunt sequence of his 1976 movie Naa Ninna Mareyalare as a part of their promotion strategy.

The tableau of Krishnadevaraya at the 2021 Delhi Republic Day parade was reported to be modelled on Rajkumar. The team of the Kannada movie Dardevil Musthafa released an animation song as a tribute to Rajkumar based on the popular theatre song Ninnanthor Yaaru Ilvallo composed by B. V. Karanth in the honor of Mysore King Kanthirava Narasaraja I whose role was portrayed by Rajkumar in the 1960 movie Ranadheera Kanteerava. Flower show conducted at Lal Bagh as a tribute to him on the occasion of 75th Independence Day in August 2022 was attended by 8.34 lakh people generating a revenue of ₹3.33 crore.

Politics
Political analyst MK Bhaskar Rao had revealed that the Janata Party's J. H. Patel and George Fernandes had approached Rajkumar to contest against Indira Gandhi in the 1978 Chikkamagaluru Lok Sabha byelection but he refused saying he wanted to remain apolitical.

The Hindu had reported that Rajkumar could have swept any poll effortlessly but had decided that the affection and love of the people should not be used to attain power. It was also reported that Rajkumar declined to enter politics despite immense pressure as he did not want to be used only as a weapon to defeat anyone and not for any positive contribution. He shunned publicity and politics all his life. He was also credited for protecting and promoting the Kannada language without opting for a political career.

Lifestyle
Rajkumar was known for being a highly disciplined man in both his personal and professional lives. He practised Carnatic music for an hour each day in the morning and in the evening. He was referred to as Gaanagandharva (translation: a heavenly singer). His punctuality is another noted aspect. Waking up every morning at 4 am, he performed Yoga and Pranayama, which is said to be the reason behind his physical and mental fitness. His Yoga performances can be seen in the first clips of his film Kaamana Billu. His waist size was 32 at the time of his death. This fitness is attributed to his practice of Yoga. Actor John Kokken had revealed that Rajkumar was the inspiration behind him performing Yoga every day.

He shunned smoking and drinking both on screen and off. To avoid setting a precedent among his fans, he made sure that the roles he accepted did not require him to smoke or drink or utter swear words, and extended this decision to real life. His dress code always consisted of a simple white dhoti and shirt. He spent most of his vacations in his hometown, Gajanur, near the forest area where he was later abducted.

He would always refer to his movie-producers as Anna Daataru (food providers) and adored fans as Abhimaani Devarugalu (Fan Gods). He was a devotee of Raghavendra Swami. In 1961, he led a movement to collect funds for drought relief.

Girish Kasaravalli had praised his simplicity, humility, innocence and straight-forwardness. Singeetam Srinivasa Rao called him as one of the two funniest people he has come across in his life. S. P. Balasubrahmanyam had praised his courteous and down to earth nature.

Reminiscing his old days, Kannada director J.G.Krishna had revealed that Rajkumar was responsible for light boys being served food by the film production team after he discovered that they were not being served food on the sets and took initiative to make it mandatory for all Kannada film producers to bear the food cost of the light boys treating them on par with the employees of the production house.

In 2001, he started Shaktidhaama - a rehabilitation home for 800 destitute women who were rescued from prostitution. He endorsed Karnataka Milk Federation's Nandini brand of milk for free.

A touching testimonial to his commitment to lead by example was that he had pledged his eyes in 1994 at the time of inauguration of  Dr. Rajkumar Eye Bank and he rightly did so after his death in 2006. His act of eye donation was likened to the role in his debut movie Bedara Kannappa where he plucks his eyes in the climax to replace the bleeding eyes of the Shivalinga.

Kannada language movement

Although Rajkumar rejected numerous offers to don the political mantle, he was able to influence the State's political fortunes without ever being officially involved in politics. Despite his apolitical outlook, he was able to protect and espouse the cause of Kannada and Karnataka. He continually advocated the cause of seeking primacy for Kannada, was asked to lead a movement to make Kannada a compulsory language for primary education based on the "Gokak report", popularly known as Gokak Varadhi. He became actively involved in the movement and soon became the force behind the Gokak movement. He led rallies from Belagavi to Bengaluru and gave speeches about the importance of Kannada Gokak agitation. Millions of people gathered for the opportunity to have a glimpse of Rajkumar and listen to his speeches. The power of this movement caused the government to relent and make Kannada a compulsory language of education in Karnataka.

Filmography

Awards and honors

Rajkumar was awarded numerous State, National and International awards. He was a recipient of the Padma Bhushan, a doctorate from Mysore University and the Karnataka Ratna, the highest civilian honour of the State of Karnataka, recognising him as a Jewel of Karnataka State.

In 1985, he was honoured with the Kentucky Colonel award. In 1995, he received the Dadasaheb Phalke Award for his outstanding contributions to the Kannada film industry.

In 2011, during the 83rd birth anniversary of Rajkumar, the Chief Minister of Karnataka announced that the state government recommended that he be awarded a Bharat Ratna, the highest civilian award of the country, for his outstanding contributions to the film industry. He was reported to be the first actor whose first movie won the National Award for Best Picture ( Certificate of Merit). He was also the first actor to complete 100 movies in the lead role in Kannada.

International recognition
 Kentucky Colonel, an honorary order from the governor of Kentucky, United States in 1985  - the only Indian actor to receive the award.
 The British daily newspaper The Guardian praised him for his subtle acting and described him as a humble, modest being who was a symbol of Kannada consciousness.
 The New York-based American newspaper The New York Times described him as "an epitome of good character not just in movies but also in real life".
 The California-based daily newspaper East Bay Times praised him for never having smoked cigarettes on screen and never playing a drunkard after his early days.
 ABC News - the news division of Walt Disney Television - acknowledged him as one of the greatest actors of his time and called him The Gentle Giant of Karnataka.
 The Rome-headquartered global news agency Inter Press Service(IPS) observed that Rajkumar epitomised the breaking away of the Kannada cinema from the older Tamil cinema which then had an overarching influence in the southern India.
 The Washington, D.C.-based American media organization NPR called him "a role model, community leader and an aesthete".
 The Irish daily newspaper The Irish Times called him a veteran matinee idol and a cultural icon beloved by all.
 The Dubai based English daily newspaper Gulf News called him "a polite man, a philanthropist, who led a simple life".
 The British broadcaster BBC called him an Indian film legend who was one of the best-loved figures in southern India.
 The U.S. based multimedia agency Voice of America (VOA) called him one of southern India's most famous actors known for never smoking cigarettes or playing a drunkard on-screen.
 WarnerMedia owned CNN recognised him as one of southern India's most famous film stars.
 The British news publisher The Independent called him one of India's best-loved actors and the biggest star the Kannada film industry has ever produced.
 A biographical book on Rajkumar compiled by Puneeth Rajkumar titled Dr. Rajkumar:The Person Behind The Personality was officially handed over to British Library, London.

National level recognition
 1983 – Padma Bhushan
 1992 – Best Male Playback Singer for the song Naadamaya Ee Lokavella from the movie Jeevana Chaitra  - Only Indian actor to receive it for singing.
 1995 – Dadasaheb Phalke Award - First person to receive it for his work in Kannada movies.
 2002 – NTR National Award - First Kannada actor to receive it.
 On 1 November 2009, postal stamp bearing the actor's likeness was issued by the Central Government of India - First Kannada actor to receive that honour.
 In April 2013, Forbes India had included Rajkumar's performance in Bangarada Manushya in its list of 25 Greatest Acting Performances of Indian Cinema on the eve of the centenary celebrations of Indian cinema.
  Dr. Rajkumar Samagra Charithre - a two-volume book by film critic D.Rukkoji on the life and achievements of Rajkumar won the Swarna Kamal Award at the 63rd National Film Awards under the National Film Award for Best Book on Cinema category.
 In 2016, the Maharashtra State Government had prescribed the biography of the actor for its class VIII students detailing his achievements and contributions to the Kannada culture under the title Natasarvabhouma.
 On 24 April 2017, Google India dedicated a Google Doodle in his honor. - Second Indian actor to receive that honour.

Recognition by the state
 Honoured with the title: Nata Saarvabhouma in 1967 from the Government of Karnataka.
 Rajyotsava Award in 1973.
 An honorary doctorate from the Mysore University in 1976.
 Karnataka Ratna in 1992 - First recipient of the award along with Kuvempu.
 The State Government established Dr. Rajkumar Award in 1993–94 to be given for lifetime achievement towards contributions to Kannada cinema - making him the first Indian actor in whose name a State Government established an award while he was still alive.
 A  road was named Dr. Rajkumar Road on 27 January 1994. The road stretches from the government soap factory and World Trade Center (Orion mall) in Yeshwanthpur to Prasanna theater, Magadi road in Bangalore.
 The Nadoja Award, an honorary doctorate from Hampi University in 1999.
 He was felicitated by the Karnataka State Government on completion of 50 years in the Kannada film industry for his rich contributions to the celluloid world.
 In 2010, the Karnataka State Government had announced to build a film city in memory of Rajkumar and Vishnuvardhan based on the model of Ramoji Film City.
 The 11.5 km road connecting Nayandahalli Junction and Tumkur Road titled as Dr.Rajkumar Punyabhoomi Raste where it passes through (Kanteerava studio) Raj's Monument.
 In 2017, the Karnataka State Government had prescribed his biography and contributions to Kannada cinema for its Class V students and a mention of his contributions to Kannada culture for its Class VI students.
 A garden depicting sequences from his movies through sculptures had been established at Gotagodi, Haveri.
 In August 2022, on the occasion of 75th Independence Day, flower show themed on the life journey of Rajkumar and his son Puneeth Rajkumar was conducted at Lal Bagh as a tribute to them which included the bust of the actor along with 205 portraits of his films.

Filmfare Awards South

Rajkumar holds the record of winning eight South Filmfare Awards in the Best Actor category in Kannada cinema.

Below is the list of films for which he received the Best Actor awards:

 Gandhada Gudi in 1973
 Mayura in 1975
 Shankar Guru in 1978
 Keralida Simha in 1981
 Shravana Banthu – 1984
 Ade Kannu – 1985
 Bhagyada Lakshmi Baramma – 1986
 Aakasmika in 1993

Total of 8 Filmfare awards in the Best Actor category.

Karnataka State Film Awards

 Rajkumar has won 11 Karnataka State Film Awards (9 for best actor, 2 for best singer)

Best Actor
 1967–68 – Bangaarada Hoovu
 1970–71 – Kula Gourava
 1974–75 – Bhakta Kumbara
 1976–77 – Babruvaahana
 1981–82 – Hosa Belaku
 1982–83 – Haalu Jenu
 1988–89 – Devatha Manushya
 1992–93 – Jeevana Chaitra
 1993–94 – Odahuttidavaru

Best Singer
 1993–94 – Aakasmika – "Huttidare Kannada"
 1994–95 – Thayi Illada Thavaru – "Arishina Kumkuma"

Other awards and honours

 More than 1,100 statues of Rajkumar are placed in Karnataka.
 Vishwa Maanava named by Kannada poet Kuvempu
 ETV Kannadiga of the Year Award in 2003
 In 2020, on the occasion of Karnataka Rajyotsava, gold and silver coins engraved with his face on one side and the Karnataka State symbol Gandaberunda engraved on the other side were released in his memory.

Sarthaka Suvarna

In July 2005, the government of Karnataka captioned by N. Dharam Singh, the Chief Minister of Karnataka conducted a felicitation ceremony for honoring Rajkumar for his (50 years of) service to Karnataka at Bangalore Palace named Sarthaka Suvarna (Significant Gold). This ceremony was attended by the entire Kannada film industry marking respect and tribute to the legend, and could be called an official celebration of Golden Jubilee of Rajkumar's works and services to the Kannada film industry. A Biography on Rajkumar, written by A.N.Prahlada Rao, was released on the occasion.

See also
List of kidnappings
Kannada cinema

Notes

References

External links

 Farewell, Dr Rajkumar Rediff.com

1929 births
2000s missing person cases
2006 deaths
20th-century Indian male actors
20th-century Indian singers
20th-century Indian male singers
Best Male Playback Singer National Film Award winners
Dadasaheb Phalke Award recipients
Filmfare Awards South winners
Formerly missing people
Indian male film actors
Indian male playback singers
Kannada male actors
Kannada playback singers
Kidnapped Indian people
Kidnappings in India
Male actors from Bangalore
Male actors in Kannada cinema
Missing person cases in India
People from Erode district
Recipients of the Karnataka Ratna
Recipients of the Padma Bhushan in arts
Singers from Bangalore
Rajkumar family

Dr. Rajkumar


Bucklandiella macounii (Syn.: Racomitrium macounii Kindb., deutsch Macoun-Zackenmützenmoos) ist eine Laubmoos-Art aus der Familie Grimmiaceae.

Merkmale
Die mittelgroßen Moospflanzen bilden lockere bis dichte, rötlich grüne, olivgrüne bis bräunliche, im inneren rotbraune bis schwärzliche Polster oder Rasen. Die niederliegenden bis aufrechten, bis etwa 6 Zentimeter langen Stämmchen sind einfach oder wenig verzweigt. Die Blätter sind trocken aufrecht-anliegend, gerade bis deutlich verdreht, feucht aufrecht abstehend bis abstehend, schmal lanzettlich, etwa 0,5 bis 0,8 Millimeter breit und 2,2 bis 3 Millimeter lang und allmählich in die Spitze verschmälert. Sie tragen gewöhnlich eine kurze, bis 0,2 mm lange, steife, länglich runde, rötlich oder gelblich hyaline, stachelspitzige, nicht herablaufende Glasspitze. Die Blattränder sind zumindest auf einer Seite zurückgebogen und im mittleren und oberen Blattbereich in den äußeren zwei bis vier Zellreihen zwei-, manchmal dreizellschichtig.

Die robuste, auf der Unterseite konvexe Rippe reicht bis zur Blattspitze. Im unteren Teil ist sie 60 bis 100 (150) µm breit, vierzellschichtig, ventral (oberseitig) mit 3 bis 6 größeren Zellen; im oberen Teil 40 bis 70 µm breit, drei- oder vierzellschichtig, mit (2) 3 bis 5 Zellen an der Oberseite.

Die Laminazellen sind an der Blattbasis rechteckig und haben knotig verdickte Wände, im mittleren Blattbereich sind sie unregelmäßig isodiametrisch bis kurz-rechteckig. Blattflügelzellen sind nicht besonders differenziert. Der basale Blattrand weist 15 bis 40 kurze, mehr oder weniger deutlich durchsichtige, nicht oder wenig buchtige Zellen auf.

Die braune Seta ist 4 bis 7 Millimeter lang, die ebenfalls braune Kapsel leicht glänzend und eiförmig-zylindrisch, der Deckel konvex-konisch bis kurz geschnäbelt. Die lanzettlichen Peristomzähne sind 330 bis 450 µm lang und aus einer ziemlich kurzen Basalmembran unregelmäßig in ein bis drei Äste aufgeteilt oder perforiert bis ungeteilt. Sporen sind 12 bis 14 µm groß.

Unterarten
Von Bucklandiella macounii gibt es zwei Unterarten:

 Bucklandiella macounii (Kindb.) Bednarek-Ochyra & Ochyra subsp. macounii: Pflanzen ziemlich kräftig, mit bis 0,1 Millimeter langer und stark stacheliger Glasspitze, an der Basis breiterer (80 µm und mehr) Rippe, Peristomzähne bis 330 µm lang.

 Bucklandiella macounii subsp. alpina (E.Lawton) Bednarek-Ochyra & Ochyra: weniger kräftige Pflanzen, Glasspitze bis 0,2 Millimeter lang und mäßig stachelig, Rippe an der Basis schmäler (60 bis 85 µm), Peristomzähne 380 bis 450 µm lang.

Standortansprüche und Verbreitung
Das Moos wächst in montanen bis subalpinen Höhenlagen auf kalkfreiem bis schwach kalkhaltigem Gestein in und entlang von Bächen, an Wasserfällen und in Schneetälchen, weiters auf nassem tundraähnlichem Brachland oder manchmal auf sandigen Lehm.

Vorkommen gibt es in Europa, Nordamerika und in Teilen von Asien (Nordost-Türkei, Japan). In Deutschland, Österreich und der Schweiz sind die Vorkommen auf die Alpen beschränkt, in Deutschland ist es extrem selten.

Quellen
 Jan-Peter Frahm, Wolfgang Frey: Moosflora (= UTB. 1250). 4., neubearbeitete und erweiterte Auflage. Ulmer, Stuttgart 2004, ISBN 3-8252-1250-5.
 Bucklandiella macounii in www.eFloras.org – Flora of North America.

Weblinks

Grimmiaceae (Familie)
Grimmiaceae

Bucklandiella macounii


මෛත්‍රිපාල සේනානායක (ඉංග්‍රීසි: Maithripala Senanayake) (7 ජූලි 1916 – 12 ජූලි 1998) යනු, ශ්‍රී ලාංකික දේශපාලනඥයෙක් සහ උතුරු මැද පළාතේ ආණ්ඩුකාරවරයාද විය. ඔහු පළමුව උගෙනුම ලද්දේ අනුරාධපුරයේ ශාන්ත ජෝසප් විද්‍යාලයේ වූ අතර  ඉන් පසුව යාපනයේ  ශාන්ත ජෝන් විද්‍යාලයේ උගෙනුම ලබමින් දෙමළ භාෂාව පිළිබඳ හසලත්වයක් ලද අතර පසුව  කොළඹ නාලන්දා විද්‍යාලයෙහි උගෙනුම ලැබීය.  ඔහු ප්‍රතම බ්‍රිතාන්‍ය ලංකාව (එවකට සිලෝන්) පාර්ලිමේන්තුව ලාංකික පාර්ලිමේන්තු මැතිවරණය, 1947 මන්ත්‍රී වරයෙකි.

ජීවන සටහන්

ආශ්‍රිත

කොළඹ නාලන්දා විද්‍යාලයයේ ආදි සිසු දේශපාලනඥයින්

 Pinbara Udesana (පින්බර උදෑසන) | 2017-02-12 | 8.30 AM (නාලන්දා විද්‍යාලය (කොළඹ 10))

චරිත කතා
ශ්‍රී ලාංකිකයෝ
ආදි නාලන්දියයෝ
ලංකික දේශපාලනඥයෝ
ශ්‍රී ලාංකික බෞද්ධයෝ
සිංහලයෝ
1916 උපත්
1998 මරණ

මෛත්‍රීපාල සේනානායක


Gertruda Magaš (Vinjerac, 27. siječnja 1897. – Pag, 2. srpnja 1974.), krštenog imena Serafina Anđela, hrvatska koludrica, opatica, crkvena odgojiteljica u predškolskom i školskom odgoju, karitativna djelatnica, kršćanska humanitarka. Osnovala i vodila Zabavište sv. Anđela Čuvara i obdanište Malu školu.

Djelovala od 1920-ih do 1970-ih u paškom samostanu sv. Margarite, samostanu benediktinki. U samostan ušla s 21 godnom života i u njemu boravila 57 godina, sve do smrti. Predvodila je brojna vjerska događanja. Bila je voditeljica Počasne straže Srca Isusova. Za vrijeme talijanske okupacije 1942. godine postala je poglavaricom samostana. Promicala je hrvatsku nacionalnu svijest. U samostankoj je crkvi tih ratnih godina propovijedala uz dopuštenje šibenskog biskupa Jerolima Milete svjedočeći snažnu duhovnost i mudrost. S don Josom Felicinovićem, paškim župnim vikarom, postavila osnove karitativnoj djelatnosti u Pagu. Organizirala je prehranu dvjesta paške djece i vodila pučku kuhinju Caritasa koja je dijelila 700 obroka dnevno. Tako je već u 24 godine službovanja kao opatica postala na paškom području najpoznatija osoba i vrlo utjecajna. Upravljala je dječjim vrtićem sv. Anđela čuvara.

Citati

Priznanja
Odlikovana za zasluge u spašavanju djece u Drugom svjetskom ratu.

Izvori

Životopisi, Pag
Crkveno školstvo u Hrvatskoj
Hrvatski benediktinci

Gertruda Magaš


Sebk-i Hindi, edebiyatta (özellikle divan edebiyatında) Hint tarzı, Hint biçemi demektir. Türk edebiyatında bir edebi akım (bazı akademisyenler tarafından akım olarak kabul edilmez) olarak ortaya çıkmıştır. Hindistan'da, Babürlü Hint-Türk hükümdarlarının saraylarında Farsça yazan ozanlarca geliştirilmiştir. Edebiyatımızda XVII.yüzyıldan başlamak üzere etkisini göstermeye başlamış kimi şairlerimizde bütün özellikleri görülürken kimi şairlerimizi kısmen etkilemiştir. Sebk-i Hindi'nin edebiyatımıza ses, kafiye ve yeni kelime bulma yönünden etkileri olmuştur.

XVII. yüzyıl divan sanatçılarından Nef'i, Naili, Neşati, Fehim-i Kadim, Kamil  gibi ozanlar, bütünüyle bu akım içinde yer almamakla birlikte ondan etkilenmişlerdir. Nabi hikemi üslup içerisinde yer almakla birlikte bu akımdan etkilenmiştir ancak onun şairliği hikemî tarzda daha baskındır ve bu yönüyle bilinir. Bu akımın 18. yüzyıldaki en önemli temsilcisi Divan edebiyatının son ve en büyük şairi Şeyh Galip'tir.

Böylece, Sebk-i Hindi'nin, "Bilmeceyi andıran karmaşık mazmun ve anlatımlar, hayal oyunları, güçlükle anlaşılır, beklenmedik ve alışılmamış benzetmeler, sentetik bir şiir dili" (Fahir İz) olarak sıralanabilecek özellikleri, divan şiirinin kalıplarını kırmak yerine bu kalıplarla oynamak ustalığına yol açmıştır denilebilir.

Bir bakıma bu, şiiri bütünüyle zihinsel çalışmanın ürünü yapıyor, çevreden, yaşamdan kopararak düşünceyle sınırlıyordu. Şiirde bilgece tutumun, atasözlerini kullanmanın, özdeyiş niteliği taşıyan dizeler düzmenin yaygınlaşması da bunun sonucudur.

Kaynakça

 Sebk-i Hindi (TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi)

Edebi akımlar
Divan edebiyatı terimleri

Sebk-i Hindi


Samir Qotb  (), a veces transliterado como Quotb o Kottb, (nacido el 16 de marzo de 1938 en Alejandría; fallecido el 28 de junio de 2006) era un futbolista egipcio, se desempeñaba como centrocampista ofensivo.

Carrera como jugador

Jugó 12 temporadas en el Zamalek Sporting Club de El Cairo. Concretamente desde la 1955-56, hasta la 1966-67. Con este equipo ganó 3 ligas y 5 copas, una de ellas, la de 1958, compartida con el máximo rival de su club, el Al-Ahly.

Selección nacional

Con la selección nacional ganó la 1ª edición de la Copa Africana de Naciones disputada en Sudán, en 1957, de la Copa Africana de Naciones. También participó en la 3ª edición, la de 1962 celebrada en Etiopía. En esta ocasión perdieron la final contra los anfitriones. Jugó todos los partidos de su combinado en las dos ediciones. Fueron 4 partidos en total.

Con el equipo de fútbol de Egipto, disputa dos olimpiadas, la de Roma en 1960 y la de Tokio en 1964. En la de Tokio, Egipto llega a las semifinales y su compañero Rifaat El-Fanageely es elegido mejor defensa de la competición.

Participaciones internacionales

Clubes

Palmarés

Copas nacionales

Copas internacionales

Referencias

Enlaces externos
 Ficha del jugador en Football Database.
 Resultados y alineaciones de la CAN 1957 en la RSSSF

nacidos en Alejandría
centrocampistas de fútbol
futbolistas del Zamalek Sporting Club
one Club Man
Futbolistas de la selección de fútbol de Egipto en los años 1960
futbolistas de República Árabe Unida en los Juegos Olímpicos de Roma 1960
futbolistas de Egipto en los Juegos Olímpicos de Tokio 1964
futbolistas de la Copa Africana de Naciones 1957
futbolistas de la Copa Africana de Naciones 1962
egipcios del siglo XX

Samir Qotb


"" (; ) is the official anthem of Åland, an autonomous Swedish-speaking province of Finland. Adopted in 1922, the anthem's words are by John Grandell, and the music was composed by Johan Fridolf Hagfors. The song was first performed during the song festival in Mariehamn 1922. In Åland, the song is mostly sung on Midsummer's Eve and on the national day of Åland on 9 June. The song originally had four verses, but the third verse has been omitted for a long time when the song is sung and often when it appears in print.

Lyrics

See also
 National anthem of Finland
 National Anthem of Sweden

Notes

References

External links
Ålänningens sång MP3

History of Åland
Finnish music
European anthems
Åland society
Swedish-language songs

Ålänningens sång


Ordovician, usa nga geologic period ngan systema, an ikaduha san unom na Paleozoic na Era, ngan nasaklaw san panahon tikang sa 485.4 ± 1.9 milyones tubtob sa 443.4 ± 1.5 miltones katuig an nakalabay. Nagsusunod ini sa Cambrian period ngan ginsusundan sa Silurian period.

mga kasarigan

Ordovician


.ව්ලදිමීර් ගරින් (රුසියන්: Владимир Владимирович Гарин) (උපත:1987 ජනවාරි 28 ශාන්ත පීටර්ස්බර්ග් හිදී, මරණය: 2003 ජුනි 24 සොස්නොවෝ ගම්මානය අසල දී)  යනු රුසියානු රංගන ශිල්පියෙකි.  ඔහු ද රිටර්න් නමැති රුසියානු චිත්‍රපටයේ ප්‍රධාන චරිතයක් රඟපෑවේය. චිත්‍රපටයේ මංගල දර්ශනයට පෙර දින ඔහු අවාසනාවන්ත ලෙස විල් දියෙහි ගිලී මිය ගියේය. 2003 ගිජොන් උළෙලේ හොඳම නළුවාට හිමි සම්මානය හිමි කර ගත්තේය

රුසියානු ජාතිකයෝ

ව්ලදිමීර් ගරින්


Jelena Svilar (Zagreb, 1974.) hrvatska je kazališna, televizijska i filmska autorica, kulturna kritičarka, novinarka i književna prevoditeljica.

Životopis

Diplomirala je komparativnu književnost i opću lingvistiku na Filozofskom fakultetu u Zagrebu. Kao novinarka surađuje s brojnim nezavisnim internet portalima, HRT-om, a na Radio Studentu radi kao suvoditeljica i glazbena urednica emisije Ravno Do Sna.

Kao scenaristica surađivala je na brojnim televizijskim serijama i telenovelama, a značajnija autorska ostvarenja su serija Ponos Ratkajevih (2007. – 2008.) i Dome, slatki dome (2010.). Napisala je i scenarij za kratki film Easter Eggs (2012.) koji se te godine našao u konkurenciji za najbolji kratki film na Tribeca Film Festivalu, te u istoj kategoriji pobijedio na Mexico Film Festivalu 2013. godine.

Koautorstvo najčešće potpisuje s kazališnom redateljicom Moranom Foretić, s kojom je osim navedenih serija napisala i dramski tekst za Dream of Life, predstavu o Patti Smith koju je 2014. režirao Ivica Buljan za kazalište Hotel Bulić.

Piše i povremeno objavljuje prozu i poeziju.

Izvori

Vanjske poveznice

 Kritike Jelene Svilar

Hrvatski filmski scenaristi
Hrvatski pjesnici
Hrvatski novinari
Hrvatski kritičari

Jelena Svilar


An Puccinellia macropus in uska species han Liliopsida nga ginhulagway ni Lev Melkhisedekovich Kreczetowicz. An Puccinellia macropus in nahilalakip ha genus nga Puccinellia, ngan familia nga Poaceae. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Puccinellia

Puccinellia macropus


Carvoeiro adını taşıyan Portekiz'de yerleşim birimleri:

 Carvoeiro - Mação belediyesinde bucak.
 Carvoeiro - Viana do Castelo belediyesinde bucak.

ayrıca

 Praia do Carvoeiro - Lagoa belediyesinde bucak.
 Cabo Carvoeiro - Carvoiero Burnu, Portekiz.
 Mono-carvoeiro - Brachyteles arachnoides 'e verilen bir ad. Yalnızca Brezilya'da yaşayan bir çeşit maymun türü.

Carvoeiro


Segmentation in biology is the division of some animal and plant body plans into a linear series of repetitive segments that may or may not be interconnected to each other. This article focuses on the segmentation of animal body plans, specifically using the examples of the taxa Arthropoda, Chordata, and Annelida. These three groups form segments by using a "growth zone" to direct and define the segments. While all three have a generally segmented body plan and use a growth zone, they use different mechanisms for generating this patterning. Even within these groups, different organisms have different mechanisms for segmenting the body. Segmentation of the body plan is important for allowing free movement and development of certain body parts. It also allows for regeneration in specific individuals.

Definition
Segmentation is a difficult process to satisfactorily define. Many taxa (for example the molluscs) have some form of serial repetition in their units but are not conventionally thought of as segmented. Segmented animals are those considered to have organs that were repeated, or to have a body composed of self-similar units, but usually it is the parts of an organism that are referred to as being segmented.

Embryology

Segmentation in animals typically falls into three types, characteristic of different arthropods, vertebrates, and annelids. Arthropods such as the fruit fly form segments from a field of equivalent cells based on transcription factor gradients. Vertebrates like the zebrafish use oscillating gene expression to define segments known as somites. Annelids such as the leech use smaller blast cells budded off from large teloblast cells to define segments.

Arthropods

Although Drosophila segmentation is not representative of the arthropod phylum in general, it is the most highly studied. Early screens to identify genes involved in cuticle development led to the discovery of a class of genes that was necessary for proper segmentation of the Drosophila embryo.

To properly segment the Drosophila embryo, the anterior-posterior axis is defined by maternally supplied transcripts giving rise to gradients of these proteins. This gradient then defines the expression pattern for gap genes, which set up the boundaries between the different segments. The gradients produced from gap gene expression then define the expression pattern for the pair-rule genes. The pair-rule genes are mostly transcription factors, expressed in regular stripes down the length of the embryo. These transcription factors then regulate the expression of segment polarity genes, which define the polarity of each segment. Boundaries and identities of each segment are later defined.

Within the arthropods, the body wall, nervous system, kidneys, muscles and body cavity are segmented, as are the appendages (when they are present). Some of these elements (e.g. musculature) are not segmented in their sister taxon, the onychophora.

Annelids: Leech
While not as well studied as in Drosophila and zebrafish, segmentation in the leech has been described as "budding" segmentation. Early divisions within the leech embryo result in teloblast cells, which are stem cells that divide asymmetrically to create bandlets of blast cells. Furthermore, there are five different teloblast lineages (N, M, O, P, and Q), with one set for each side of the midline. The N and Q lineages contribute two blast cells for each segment, while the M, O, and P lineages only contribute one cell per segment. Finally, the number of segments within the embryo is defined by the number of divisions and blast cells. Segmentation appears to be regulated by the gene Hedgehog, suggesting its common evolutionary origin in the ancestor of arthropods and annelids.

Within the annelids, as with the arthropods, the body wall, nervous system, kidneys, muscles and body cavity are generally segmented. However, this is not true for all of the traits all of the time: many lack segmentation in the body wall, coelom and musculature.

Chordates

Although perhaps not as well understood as Drosophila, the embryological process of segmentation has been studied in many vertebrate groups, such as fish (Zebrafish, Medaka), reptiles (Corn Snake), birds (Chicken), and mammals (Mouse). Segmentation in chordates is characterized as the formation of a pair of somites on either side of the midline. This is often referred to as somitogenesis.

In vertebrates, segmentation is most often explained in terms of the clock and wavefront model. The "clock" refers to the periodic oscillation in abundance of specific gene products, such as members of the Hairy and Enhancer of Split (Hes) gene family. Expression starts at the posterior end of the embryo and moves towards the anterior, creating travelling waves of gene expression. The "wavefront" is where clock oscillations arrest, initiating gene expression that leads to the patterning of somite boundaries. The position of the wavefront is defined by a decreasing posterior-to-anterior gradient of FGF signalling. In higher vertebrates including Mouse and Chick, (but not Zebrafish), the wavefront also depends upon an opposing anterior-to-posterior decreasing gradient of retinoic acid which limits the anterior spreading of FGF8; retinoic acid repression of Fgf8 gene expression defines the wavefront as the point at which the concentrations of both retinoic acid and diffusible FGF8 protein are at their lowest. Cells at this point will mature and form a pair of somites. The interaction of other signaling molecules, such as myogenic regulatory factors, with this gradient promotes the development of other structures, such as muscles, across the basic segments. Lower vertebrates such as zebrafish do not require retinoic acid repression of caudal Fgf8 for somitogenesis due to differences in gastrulation and neuromesodermal progenitor function compared to higher vertebrates.

Other taxa
In other taxa, there is some evidence of segmentation in some organs, but this segmentation is not pervasive to the full list of organs mentioned above for arthropods and annelids. One might think of the serially repeated units in many Cycloneuralia, or the segmented body armature of the chitons (which is not accompanied by a segmented coelom).

Origin
Segmentation can be seen as originating in two ways. To caricature, the 'amplification' pathway would involve a single-segment ancestral organism becoming segmented by repeating itself. This seems implausible, and the 'parcellization' framework is generally preferred – where existing organization of organ systems is 'formalized' from loosely defined packets into more rigid segments. As such, organisms with a loosely defined metamerism, whether internal (as some molluscs) or external (as onychophora), can be seen as 'precursors' to eusegmented organisms such as annelids or arthropods.

See also

References

Developmental biology

Segmentation (biology)


An Koellensteinia in uska genus han Liliopsida. An Koellensteinia in nahilalakip ha familia nga Orchidaceae.

An kladograma hini sumala ha Catalogue of Life:

Mga kasarigan

Mga sumpay ha gawas

Koellensteinia

Koellensteinia


Hedevig Bagger (født d. 18. juni 1842 på Christianshavn, død d. 24. august 1926 i Søllerød), var seminarielærerinde og en af Danmarks første børnehavelærerinder.

Hedevig Bagger var uddannet som institutbestyrer med fransk som hovedfag ved Københavns Universitet, men er i dag mest kendt for hendes store arbejde med at indføre pædagogiske grundprincipper og almene børnehaver i Danmark.

I 1880 oprettede hun en af landets første børnehave (Fru Hedevig Baggers Børnehave), som pt. er Danmarks ældste, eksisterende børnehave (den ligger i dag på Frederiksborgvej i Københavns Nordvestkvarter).

Hedevig Bagger var stærkt inspireret af Friedrich Fröbel, der med sine banebrydende idéer om pædagogik, var med til at forme vor tids tanker om børneopdragelse og pædagogik.

I 1885 begyndte hun at tilbyde kurser til børnehavelærerinder, og de næste syv år uddannede hun 27 børnehavepædagoger.
I 1904 fik blev kurserne til en decideret uddannelse, da Hedevig Bagger oprettede Frøbelseminariet, som stadig eksisterer.

Det var særligt med udgangspunkt i Fröbels idéer, at Hedevig Bagger sammen med sin mand i 1899 stiftede Dansk Fröbelforening. Formålet med foreningen var at udbrede Fröbels tanker og idéer i Danmark.

Hedevig Bagger døde i 1926, og ligger begravet ved siden af sin mand Sophus Bagger på Vestre Kirkegård i København.

Referencer

Lærere fra Danmark

Hedevig Bagger


කොන්ටිකි යනු සංවේදක ජාල සඳහා භාවිතා කරන නිදහස් විවෘත මෙහෙයුම් පද්ධතියකි. කොන්ටිකි මෙහෙයුම් පද්ධතිය වීථි පහන්, ශබ්ද අධීක්‍ෂණ පද්ධති, විකිරණ නිරීක්‍ෂණ පද්ධති, අනතුරු ඇගවීමේ සංඥා සඳහා භාවිතා කර ඇත. ඇඩම් ඩන්ක්ලස් (Adam Dunkels)  2002 වසරෙදී කොන්ටිකි නිර්මාණය් කරන ලද අතර Texas Instruments, Atmel, Cisco, ENEA, ETH Zurich, Redwire, RWTH Aachen University, Oxford University, SAP, Sensinode, Swedish Institute of Computer Science, ST Microelectronics, Zolertia, ඇතුලු බොහො දෙනෙක් එහි වැඩි දියුණුවට දායක වී ඇත. කොන්ටිකි නාමය Thor Heyerdahl ගෙ Kon-Tiki පහුර හා සබැදී ඇත.

සම්පූර්ණ අන්තර් ජාල සමුති ස්තරයන් සහිත බහු කාර්ය මෙහෙයුම් පද්ධතියක් වුවත් කොන්ටිකි සදහා අවශ්‍ය වන්නෙ කිලෝ බයිට 10ක සසම්භාවී-ප්‍රවේශ මතකය (RAM )  සහ කිලෝ බයිට 30ක කියවීමට පමනක් හැකි මතකය (ROM) පමනි. චිත්රක පරිශීලක අතුරුමුහුණත (Graphical User Interface) සහිත පද්ධතිය සදහා අවශ්‍ය වන්නෙ කිලෝ බයිට 30 පමණ වූ  RAM මතකය පමනි.

දෘඩාංග
කොන්ටිකි නිර්මාණය කර ඇත්තෙ ඉතා සීමිත වූ මතකය (memory), සැකසීමේ බලය, ජාල ධාරිතාව, සහ බලය (power) සහිත දෘඩාංග මත ධාවනය වීමට හැකි අයුරිනි. සාමාන්‍ය කොන්ටිකි පද්ධතියක කිලො බයිට ගනනක මතකයක් ඇති අතර එය මිලි වොට් ගනනක විදුලි බලය භාවිතා කරයි. එසෙම එවැනි ප්ද්ධතියක සැකසීමේ වෙගය මෙගා හර්ට්ස් මගින් දැක්විය හැකි අතර තත්පරයකට කිලො බිට් ගනනක වෙගයකින් සන්නිවෙදනය කරයි. කොන්ටිකි භාවිතා කරන මෙවැනි පද්ධති අතර කාවැද්දූ  පද්ධති සහ බිට් 8 ක පරිගණ්ක ද ඇත.

ජාල
කොන්ටිකි මගින් තුන් අයුරකින් ජාල නිමවිය හැක. IPv4 ජාල සදහා වන uIP TCP/IP ඇසිරුම භාවිතා කිරීම එක් ක්‍රමයකි. uIPv6 ඇසිරුම හාවිතයෙන් IPv6 ජාල තැනිය හැක. අඩු බලැති රැහැන් රහිත ජාල සදහාම වු සැහැල්ලු සම්මුති එකතුවක් වු රයිම් (Rime) ඇසිරුම භවිතා කිරිම තුන්වන ක්‍රමයයි. IPv6 ඇසුරුම කොන්ටිකි සදහා ලබා දෙන ලද්දෙ Cisco සමාගම වන අතර එම වකවානුව වන විට IPv6 සදහා සුදානම් බවට සහතිකලත් (IPv6 Ready) කුඩාම IPv6 ඇසිරුම විය. The IPv6 ඇසුරුම තුල  RPL යනුවෙන් දක්වන දුබල IPv6 ජාල සදහා වන මංහැසුරුම් සම්මුතිය ද,    6LoWPAN ශීර්ෂ හැකිලුම් ක්‍රමයද,   IEEE 802.15.4 සබැඳි සදහා අනුවර්තන ස්ථරයක් ද ඇතුළත් වෙ.

IPv4 හො IPv6 ඇසිරුම් යොදා ගැනීමේ බරපැන වැඩි වන අවස්ථාවලදී රයිම් ඇසිරුම විකල්පයක් ලෙස භාවිතා කල හැක. එය අඩු බලයක් සහිත රැහැන් රහිත ජාල තුල සන්නිවෙදනය සදහා පහසුකම් සපයයි. රයිම් හී ඇතී පෙරනිමි සන්නිවෙදන පහසුකම් අතර එක් අදියරකින් එක් ග්‍රාහකයකු වෙත විකාශනය ද (single-hop unicast), එක් අදියරකින් සියලු මංසල් වෙත විකාශනය ද (single-hop broadcast), අදියර කිහිපයකින් එක් ග්‍රාහකයකු වෙත විකාශනය ද (multi-hop unicast), ජාලය සිසාරා ගලා යන ලෙස විකාශනය ද (network flooding), මංසල් නම් නොකර එම මංසල් වෙතින් දත්ත එක් තැනකට එකතු කිරිම ද (address-free data collection) ඇත. මෙම පහසුකම් තනි තනි ව හො එකිනෙක හා එකතු කර නිම්වූ සංකීර්ණ සම්මුති ලෙස හො භාවිතා කල හැක.

අඩු බලයක් අවශ්‍ය ක්‍රියාකාරිත්වය
කොන්ටිකි යොදාගන්නා බොහො පද්ධති බල ගැන්වෙන්නෙ ඉතා සිමිත වූ බල සැපයුම්වලිනි. බැටරි බලයෙන් ක්‍රියාකරන රැහැන් රහිත සංවේදක වසර ගනනාවක් පුද්ගල මැදිහත්වීමකින් තොරව සේවාව ලබා දිය යුතුය. මෙවැනි සංවේදකයන්හී බැටරි මාරු කිරීම හො නැවත ආරොපනය කිරීම ඉතා අපහසු කටයුත්තකි.  මෙම ප්‍රශ්නයට පිළිතුරක් ලෙස බල ශක්තිය අඩුවෙන් සහ අරපරිස්සමින් යොදා ගැනිමට යාන්ත්‍රණයක් කොන්ටිකි තුල ඇත. ගුවන් විදුලි පද්ධතිය භාවිතා කරන බලය අවම කිරීමට යොදා ගන්නා යාන්ත්‍රණය ContikiMAC නම් වෙ. ContikiMAC භාවිතා කිරීමෙන් අඩු බලයක් වැයකොට පනිවුඩ හුවමාරු කර ගැනීමෙ හැකියාව මංසල්වලට ලැබෙ.

අනුරූපනය
කොන්ටිකි පද්ධතිය තුල ජාල අනුරූපනය කිරීමට Cooja නම්වූ වැඩසටහනක් ඇත. Cooja යොදාගනිමින් කොන්ටිකි මංසල්වලින් යුතු වූ ජාලයක් පරිගණකයක් තුල අනුරූපනය කල හැක. මෙහිදී සිදුවන්නෙ සත්‍ය ලෝකයෙ පවතින හො පැවතිය හැකි ජාලයක අනුරුවක් මෘදුකාංග උපකාරයෙන් පරිගණකයක් තුල නිමවීමයි. Cooja තුල වර්ග තුනක මංසල් අනුරූපනය කල හැක. එක් වර්ගයක් මංසල් දෘඩාංග සම්පූර්නයෙන්ම අනුකරණය කරයි ( emulated nodes). දෙවන වර්ගය වන්නෙ අනුරූපනය ධාවනය වන පරිගණකය සදහාම කොන්ටිකි ක්‍රම ලේඛනය සම්පාදනය කිරීමයි. එවැනි මංසල් Cooja nodes ලෙස හැදින්වෙ. මංසලෙ ක්‍රියාකාරිත්වය ජාවා පංතියක් (Java Class) මගින් නැවත ගොඩනැගීම (Java nodes) තුන්වන ක්‍රමයයි. Cooja අනුරූපනයක් තුල මෙම තුන් වර්ගයම පැවතිය හැක. කොන්ටිකි නොවන මංසල් ද අනුකරණය කිරීමෙ ක්‍රමය තුලින් අනුරූපනයක තිබිය හැක.

කොන්ටිකි 2.6 තුල TI MSP430 සහ Atmel AVR  ක්‍ෂුද්‍රපාලක සදහා අනුකරණ ඇත.

වැඩසටහන් සම්පාදනය කිරීමෙ ආකෘතිය
ඉතා අඩු මතකයක් සහිත පද්ධති තුල කාර්යක්ෂමව ධාවනය වීම සදහා කොන්ටිකි protothreads යොදාගන්නා වැඩසටහන් සම්පාදනය කිරීමෙ ආකෘතියක් භාවිතා කරයි. එකිනෙකින් ස්වායත්තව සහ සමගාමීව ධාවනය කිරීම සදහා තෝරා ගතහැකි ක්‍රියාවලි (පොට) කොන්ටිකි තුල දක්වන්නෙ protothread මගිනි. බහුපොට හා සිද්ධි ධාවිත ආකාරය මුහුන් වූ  ආකාරයකට අඩු මතකයක් යොදාගෙන කාර්යක්ෂම ලෙස ක්‍රමලේඛණය කිරිමට සහය protothread ලබා දෙයි. බාහිර හෝ අභ්‍යන්තර සිද්ධි සඳහා ප්‍රතිචාරයක් ලෙස මෙභෙයුම් පද්ධතිය ක්‍රියාවලියකට අදාල protothread පොට ක්‍රියාත්මක කරයි. අභ්‍යන්තර සිද්ධි සඳහා උදාහරන ලෙස මුහුර්තකයක් ක්‍රියා  කිරීම සහ වෙනත් ක්‍රියා වලියකින් පනිවුඩයක් ලැබීම දැක්විය හැක. බාහිර සිද්ධි සඳහා උදාහරන ලෙස සංවේදක ක්‍රියා  කිරීම සහ අසලක ඇති මංසලකින් පනිවුඩයක් ලැබීම දැක්විය හැක.

Protothread කිහිපයක් එකිනෙක හා සහයෝගීව වරින් වර ස්වේච්ඡාවෙන් මෙහෙයුම් පද්ධතියට පාලනය බාර දෙමින් වැඩ කරයි. කොන්ටිකි ක්‍රියාවලියක් යම් සිද්ධියක් බලාපොරොත්තු වන්නෙනම් ඒ සඳහා විශෙෂ Protothread පොටක් අරඹා එම සිද්ධිය වන තුරු මෙහෙයුම් පද්ධතියට පාලනය බාර දෙයි.

විශේෂාංග

විවිධ් පද්ධතිවලට සුදුසු සේ යලි සැකසීම් (Ports)

කොන්ටිකි  මෙහෙයුම් පද්ධතිය පහත සඳහන් පද්ධති සඳහා සකස්කොට හෝ සකස්කෙරෙමින් හෝ පවති.

Microcontrollers
 :en:Atmel – ARM, AVR
 :en:NXP Semiconductors – LPC1768, LPC2103, MC13224
 Microchip – dsPIC, PIC32 (PIC32MX795F512L)
 :en:Texas Instruments – MSP430, CC2430, CC2538, CC2630, CC2650
 :en:STMicroelectronics – STM32 W

Computers
 Apple – II series
 :en:Atari – 8-bit, ST, Portfolio
 :en:Casio – :en:Pocket Viewer
 Commodore – PET, VIC-20, 64, 128
 :en:Tangerine Computer Systems – :en:Oric
 :en:NEC – PC-6001
 Sharp – Wizard
 :en:Intel, AMD, VIA, many others – :en:x86-based :en:Unix-like systems, atop :en:GTK+, or more directly using an :en:X Window System

Game consoles
 Atari – Jaguar
 :en:Game Park – :en:GP32
 :en:Nintendo – :en:Game Boy, :en:Game Boy Advance, Entertainment System (NES)
 NEC – :en:TurboGrafx-16 Entertainment SuperSystem (PC Engine)

සටහන්

මූලාශ්‍ර

කොන්ටිකි


Jean-Frédéric Lugeon (Chevilly (Vaud), 4 de agosto de 1898 — Lausanne, 21 de fevereiro de 1976), meteorologista suíço. Estudou engenharia civil na École polytechnique fédérale de Lausanne onde recebeu diploma de engenheiro civil em 1922. Em 1928 doutorou-se na ETH Zurich. De 1940 a 1968 foi professor de meteorologia, a partir de 1948 professor adjunto na ETH Zurich. Fundador da Union Radio-Scientifique International, desenvolveu, com Guido Nobile, um radiogoniógrafo para localização a longa distância de trovoadas e para investigação da ionosfera, tendo aperfeiçoado novos métodos de previsão do tempo. Recebeu um doutoramento honorário da Universidade Técnica de Varsóvia.

Biografia
Em 1922 graduou-se em engenharia pela Universidade de Lausanne. Em seguida, começou a trabalhar no Instituto Suíço de Meteorologia, onde nos anos de 1945-1963 foi diretor.

Em 1927, com base em uma tese sobre o balanço hidráulico de barragens de acumulação, obteve o doutorado em ciências técnicas, especializando-se em hidráulica e hidrologia.

A fim de obter as melhores medições para completar o mapa meteorológico, em 1928 ele organizou uma expedição ao Mont Blanc. Nos anos 1929-1935 foi vice-diretor e depois diretor do Instituto Nacional de Meteorologia da Polônia.

Em 1932, ele organizou uma expedição polar polonesa à Ilha dos Ursos.

Em 1936 ele retornou à Suíça, onde assumiu o cargo de chefe do Serviço Meteorológico Suíço. Em 1939, organizou e liderou o lançamento dos dois primeiros balões com sondas de Zuriberg. Em 1942 tornou-se presidente do grupo de trabalho de radiossonda da Comissão de Instrumentos da Organização Meteorológica Internacional em Payerne.

Em 1950 e 1956, ele comparou com sucesso as duas primeiras gravações de radiossonda.

Em 1951, graças ao trabalho e esforços principalmente de J.F.Lugeon, Genebra foi escolhida como sede da Organização Meteorológica Internacional. Ele foi co-organizador da expedição sueco-finlandesa-suíça à Baía de Murchison em Spitzbergen.

J.F.Lugeon foi o fundador, então presidente e membro honorário do Comitê Nacional Suíço da URSI (Union Radio-Scientifique Internationale). Nos anos 1932-1963 foi o presidente da Comissão de Eletricidade Atmosférica.

Em 1946 tornou-se professor titular da Politécnica de Zurique.

Foi agraciado com o título de doutor honoris causa pela Universidade de Tecnologia de Varsóvia 1957[3].

O professor Jean Frédéric Lugeon faleceu em 1976[1].

Referências

Ligações externas

 Jean Lugon, ein Schweizerischer Pionier des Wetterdienstes. In: Die Berner Woche, 8. Februar 1946

Cientistas da Suíça
Climatologistas da Suíça

Jean Lugeon


خوسيه رامون أليكزانكو ، من مواليد 5 مايو 1956 ، لاعب كرة قدم إسباني سابق. لعب مع منتخب إسبانيا لكرة القدم ولعب مع نادي برشلونة

روابط خارجية

مراجع

لاعبو كرة قدم رجالية إسبان
مدافعو كرة قدم رجالية
أشخاص على قيد الحياة
رياضيون من باراكالدو
لاعبو أتلتيك بيلباو
لاعبو أتلتيك بيلباو ب
لاعبو الدوري الإسباني الدرجة الثالثة
لاعبو الدوري الإسباني الدرجة الثانية
لاعبو الدوري الإسباني
لاعبو برشلونة
لاعبو بطولة أمم أوروبا 1980
لاعبو ديبورتيفو ألافيس
لاعبو كأس العالم 1982
لاعبو كرة قدم إسبان
لاعبو كرة قدم باسكيون
لاعبو منتخب إسبانيا تحت 21 سنة لكرة القدم
لاعبو منتخب إسبانيا لكرة القدم
لاعبو منتخب منطقة إقليم الباسك لكرة القدم
مدربو كرة قدم إسبان
مواليد 1956
مواليد في باراكالدو
لاعبو كرة قدم من باراكالدو

خوسيه رامون أليكزانكو


Kalyke , also known as , is a retrograde irregular satellite of Jupiter. It was discovered by a team of astronomers from the University of Hawaii led by Scott S. Sheppard in 2000, and given the temporary designation .

From infrared thermal measurements by the WISE spacecraft, Kalyke's albedo is measured at 2.9%, corresponding to a diameter of 6.9 kilometres. It orbits Jupiter at an average distance of 23,181,000 km in 766.61 days, at an inclination of 166° to the ecliptic (165° to Jupiter's equator), in a retrograde direction and with an eccentricity of 0.2140.

It was named in October 2002 after the Greek mythological figure Kalyke or Calyce.

It belongs to the Carme group, made up of irregular retrograde moons orbiting Jupiter at a distance ranging between 23 and 24 Gm and at an inclination of about 165°. Kalyke is redder in color (B−V=0.94, V−R=0.70) than other moons of the Carme group, suggesting that it is a captured centaur or TNO, or a remnant of such an object that collided with the Carme group progenitor.

References

Carme group
Moons of Jupiter
Irregular satellites
Discoveries by Scott S. Sheppard
Astronomical objects discovered in 2000
Moons with a retrograde orbit

Kalyke


Manuel Ibáñez Escofet (Barcelona, 2 de agosto de 1917 - ibídem, 15 de diciembre de 1990) fue un periodista y escritor español.

Biografía
Se inició en el periodismo en 1938, como redactor del diario El Matí, de ideología católica, políticamente vinculado a la Unión Democrática de Cataluña. En 1952 fue nombrado subdirector del diario carlista El Correo Catalán, promoviendo su modernización y su giro hacia el catalanismo moderado. Dirigió el diario Tele/eXprés entre 1968 y 1975, siendo uno de los diarios que estuvieron a favor de los sectores democráticos, abriendo las puertas a las nuevas generaciones de periodistas tras la Postguerra, como Manuel Vázquez Montalbán, Francisco Candel, Pere Oriol Costa. Cesó en 1975, incorporándose al periódico La Vanguardia, formando parte del equipo directivo. Fue también asesor de los presidentes de la Generalitat Josep Tarradellas y Jordi Pujol. Dirigió el programa televisivo Les nostres coses (Nuestras cosas) y La nostra Gent (Nuestra gente).

Alguna de sus obras son: La cuerda floja (1971) y Las raíces y las hojas (1985). Poco antes de su muerte se publicaron sus memorias.

Referencias
  - Manuel Ibáñez I Escofet. El país,14-01-2001
  - Manuel Ibáñez I Escofet. El País, 17-12-1990.
  -
  - Enciclopedia Universal Ilustrada Espasa Calpe suplemento 1991-1992, Página 144.

Nacidos en Barcelona
Fallecidos en Barcelona
Periodistas de Barcelona
Periodistas de España del siglo XX
Escritores de Barcelona
Escritores en español del siglo XX
Galardonados con la Creu de Sant Jordi

Manuel Ibáñez Escofet


Cayo Alacranes es el nombre de una isla que pertenece al país caribeño de Cuba y que se localiza en las coordenadas geográficas   al oeste de las bahía de las Mulatas, Cayo Catalanes y Cayo Ratón, al sur de Cayo Casiguas y Cayo Médano de Casiguas, y al este del Estero Reduan y Cayo Levisa. Administrativamente pertenece al provincia cubana de Pinar del Río.

Referencias

Véase también
 Geografía de Cuba
 Geografía de América

Enlaces externos
 Mapa de Localización

Archipiélagos e islas de Cuba

Cayo Alacranes


الحَبكة هي مصطلح أدبي يقصد به مجموعة من الأحداث المتتابعة والمتسلسلة التي تتكون منها قصة ما، مع التأكيد على علاقة الأحداث ببعضها، وذلك من أجل توليد أثر عاطفي أو فني لدى المتابع.

أصل الكلمة
حبكة (بفتح الحاء) من حَبك حَبكا أي الشد الوثيق، وحبك الشيء- شده شداً وثيقاً. وفي المعجم الوجيز: أي أحكمه ويقال حَبَك الأمر أحسن تدبيره والثوب ثنى طرفه وخاطه. وفي مختار الصحاح: عن ابن الأعرابي "أن كل شيء قد أحكمته وأحسنت عمله فقد (احتبكته)".

تعريف الحبكة
ـ الحبكة: وهي التي تعطي كاتب القصة تصوّراً عاماً عن الكيفية التي يريد من خلالها أن يقدم الحدث الذي في القصة (أو الرواية'') للقرّاء كيفية تسلسل الاحداث مثل: الفلاش باك يختار الحدث الذي يريد تقديمه أو تأخيره لزوم التشويق أو الدراماتيكية.

وتعتبر بداية الصراع هي بداية الحبكة، والحادث المبدئي هو المرحلة الأولى في الصراع (بعد المقدمات والتعريف بالشخصيات طبعاً) ونهاية الصراع هي نهاية الحبكة، وبناء الحبكة يشبه جانبي هرم متقابلين حيث تبدأ المقدمة من أحد جانبي الهرم، والحدث المبدئي هو نقطة التسلق، وتعقد الأحداث هو منتصف الطريق وصولاً إلى الأزمة في قمة الهرم وذروته وهي نقطة التحول والهبوط على الجانب المقابل، ومعالم الانفراج بين ذروة الهرم ومنتصف طريق الهبوط حيث ختام الحبكة عندما يمس الجانب المقابل من الهرم الأرض، ويبرز هذا جلياً في المسرحيات ذات الفصول الثلاثة حالياً أو ذات الفصل الواحد.

أشكال الحبكة

إذا كنت قد قرأت رواية فولكنر ابسالوم، اباسلوم ورواية جين ريس بحر سارجاسو الواسع فربما تكون قد صدمت من أن القصص في كلتا الروايتين متشابهة بشكل بارز (يمكنك ان تتأكد من ذلك إذا رغبت بكتابتهما حسب ترتيبهما التاريخي) لكن الحبكتين مختلفتان جدا، بحيث ان التشابه في القصص لا يظهر بشكل فوري.

أيضا، إذا كنت قد قرأت رواية جوزيف كونراد نوسترومو (1904) فسوف تعرف ان فيها حبكة معقدة جدا، فالرواية كان بإمكانها ان تكون مروية بطريقة التسلسل التاريخي المستقيم والسهل للغاية. لكن لماذا رواها كونراد بطريقة كهذه معقدة وغير متسلسلة تاريخيا؟ وفي تلك الحالة، لماذا لم تشأ إيميلي برونتي ان تروي لنا مرتفعات ويذرينج بسحبة واحدة مسلسلة تسلسلا تاريخيا ملائما ــ ربما عن طريق جعل نيلي دين يقصها في اجتماع واحد مع لوكوود؟

من المفترض أن يكون الجواب على أسئلة كهذه معقدا. إن الروائي يبني الحبكة بطريقة خاصة لكي يجذب الانتباه إلى أشياء محددة ربما كانت ستغيب عن الملاحظة ولكي يحدث أثرا مختلفا على القارئ، وهكذا. إن إحدى نتائج تعقيد حبكة , على سبيل المثال، هي أن كونراد يقتل عمدا ما يجاهد لاجله العديد من الروائيين، أي عنصري التوتر وتوقع القارئ، إننا نعرف من بداية الرواية ما هي النتيجة النهائية التي سيصل إليها الصراع السياسي والعسكري في كوستاجونا، فلماذا يقوم كونراد بذلك؟ من المحتمل أن يكون السبب هو أنه في الوقت الذي يكون على القارئ أن يكرس أقل انتباه أو توقع عن ماذا سيحدث فإنه (القارئ) سيتمكن من تكريس الكثير الكثير لماذا وكيف يحدث.

ربما يجعلنا التوتر نقرأ بسرعة، وبعدم اهتمام، وقلقين لمعرفة ماذا يحدث. إن قراءة كهذه هي قراءة محبطة بالطريقة المبنية فيها  بينما هي على العكس قراءة مشجعة بالطريقة المبنية فيها معظم روايات ديكنز، إن ديكنز يريد أن يثير قلقنا العاطفي ولهذا نجده يضع الألغاز ويخلق الغموض بحيث تكون قراءتها موجهة لحلها.

لو تخلى روائي ما عن التسلسل التاريخي الدقيق فيكف يمكنه أن يحافظ على تماسك الرواية ويجعل عناصرها متضافرة؟

إن السببية هي طريقة مهمة وممكنة كما أشار إلى ذلك فورستر. والمتعة لا تفارقنا طوال قراءتنا الفصول الأخيرة من رواية , لأننا نرى لماذا تحدث الأشياء بالطريقة التي تحدث فيها، إن الرواية السببية تظل واضحة بالنسبة لنا.

بعيدا عن السببية، يستطيع الروائي أن يقيم توازيات وتشابهات بين الشخصيات والمواقف والأحداث بحيث تكون الرواية متماسكة حتى لو كانت حبكاتها غير متسلسلة تاريخيا ولا ترتبطها علاقات سببية. وهذا كاف لدرجة معينة بحيث نعتقد بأن تجارب الجيل الثاني من الشخصيات في مرتفعات ويذرينج هي ناجمة عن حياة وافعال الجيل الأول من الشخصيات، لكن التوازيات (مع التعدد) والتشابهات بين الشاب كاثي ولينتون هيثكليف، وهاريتون ايرنشو وآبائهم يجعلنا نشعر بأن هذا الجزء الثاني يتبع موضوعات واستقصاءات من الجزء الأول للرواية.

وعدا عن ذلك يمكن أن تكون الرواية متضافرة بشخصية عامة أو حدث عام، فالرواية الصعلوكية متضافرة بشخصية الصعلوك، مثلا. إنه شكل غير ناضج نسبيا من الوحدة، وقد بدأ عموما غير كاف للعديد من الروايات التي أتت بعده.

يجب القول إنه مع الحداثة، وما بعد الحداثة قد تم اخضاع السؤال الذي يتعلق بوحدة الرواية لشك مريب وكبير. ولقد وقفت فرجينيا وولف ضد الحبكة (بمعنى الحبكة التقليدية، والمحكمة البناء، والواقعية), كواحدة من عدد من الأعراف المشوهة وذلك في مقالتها  (1919) ورواية  لألان روب جرييه تفتقر بالتأكيد إلى العناصر التوحيدية بالمعنى التي أوجزناها فيه. إن الإنكار الفعلي للسلبية، كمبدأ يعول عليه من قبل العديد من الروائين الحداثويين، وما بعد الحداثويين، قد أثر بصورة حتمية على الطريقة التي يبنون فيها رواياتهم.

يمكننا أن نصف حبكات الرواية بطريقتين: إما تبعا لسيطرة النشاطات الإنسانية التي تشكل المبدأ التحفيزي فيها أو النشاطات الإنسانية التي تجذب القارئ من خلالها، أو تبعا لطرق أكثر تقنية. في الصنف الأول يمكن أن نضم حبكات مبنية حول (الصراع) كما هو حال حبكة ، وحول  كما في معظم أعمال الإنجليزي تشارلز ديكنز الروائية،  أو  كما في رواية  لفرانس كافكا، وحول (رحلة) كما هي  لجوناثان سويفت أو أخيرا، حول (اختبار) مثل رواية جوزيف كونراد .

إن هذه التوصيفات هي بالطبع توصفيات مبسطة ونريد أن نقول إن جميع هذه الروايات مبنية حول قضايا أكثر تعقيدا من الموضوعات الأحادية التي أشرنا إليها، لكن مما يفيد تذكره أن رواية ما غلابا ما تكون قوية ومتماسكة بسيطرة عنصر معين مثل واحد من هذه النماذج المتاحة للحبكة، فرواية (خط الظل) هي أكثر بكثير من مجرد اختبار، لكن موضوعة الاختبار هي شكل لأساس راسخ بنموذج اسمى داخل المنطق التنظيمي للحبكة.

أما تصنيف الحبكات وفقا لطرق أكثر تقنية فسيزودنا بمصطلحات مثل (حبكة صعلوكية حديثة), (حبكة جيدة الصنع) (وهي الحبكة الواقعية التقليدية للقرن التاسع عشر), (حبكة متعددة) (ففي العديد من الروايات هناك خطان أو أكثر للحبكة، يتشابكان أحيانا), ومن المهم جدا التمكن من فصل الحبكة الرئيسية عن حبكاتها الفرعية المرافقة لها، بهدف التحليل.

إن الحبكة والقصة تقومان بأنواع مختلفة من الوظائف في مختلف الروايات، وتبعا لجونسون فان القصة في رواية ما لريتشاردسون هي قائمة فقط لاتاحة فرصة للعاطفة، في روايات أخرى يشغل كل من التوتر والترقب المتعلقان برغبتنا في معرفة (ماذا يحدث بعد) جزءا متمما لجاذبية العمل. عندما ينبهنا الراوي الخارجي في (قلب الظلام) (بصورة غير مباشرة) أننا سنسمع عن واحدة من تجارب مارلو غير المقنعة بعدها نحتاج لان نعدل توقعاتنا بشأن حبكة هذه الرواية القصيرة.

علينا ألا نتوقع حبكة جيدة الصنع مع توتر متطور إلى اقصاه من ذورة وحل نهائي يحل كل الأشياء كما في روايات ديكنز النمطية. إن الادب الروائي الحديث نمطيا ينطوي على نهايات غير قطعية، نهايات تترك القارئ ربما محتارا وغير راض، لكن محتارا وغير راض بحدود تنتج مزيدا من الأفكار، علينا الا نرفض حبكات كهذه لمجرد أنها لا تعطينا ذلك الرضى الذي تعطينا إياه حبكة رواية مثل رواية (صديقنا المشترك) (1864 ـ 1865) إن لروايات ديكنز طرقها الخاصة لتحقيق عدم الرضى (ربما الآلية السهلة جدا في حل المشاكل، والعقاب الذي لامناص منه للشخص الرديء ومكافأة الشخص الجيد). والتي معها ربما نصبح مدركين بشكل متزايد فأكثر لاعمال نقرأها مثل روايتي قلب الظلام والقلعة.

الحبكة في الدراما

الحبكة في المسرح أو التلفزيون درامياً هي من أهم الأسس التي يقوم عليها موضوع المسرحية أو التمثيلية، وللحبكة بناء قائم بذاته يمكننا معرفتها من خلالهِ، وهذا البناء يعتمد أساسا على الصراع، إذ لا حبكة بدون صراع، وللصراع صور شتى، ولكي لا نذهب بعيداً فإن أبسط المسرحيات، التي تجد فيها الصراع قائماً بين الخير والشر (البطل وغريمه) وقد يقوم الصراع بين البطل والقدر، أو بين البطل وقوانين المجتمع كما في مسرحية (الصندوق الفضي The Silver box) للكاتب الإنكليزي جان جانزورزي الحائز على جائزة نوبل للآداب حيث يظهر بناء الحبكة فيها على أروع ما يكون.

مصادر

تقنيات سردية
حبكة (سرد)
مصطلحات أدبية

حبكة


Biserica de lemn din cătunul Curtișoara al satului Negomir, comuna Negomir, județul Gorj, a fost construită în anul 1813. Are hramul "Sfântul Ierarh Nicolae". Biserica se află pe noua listă a monumentelor istorice sub codul LMI: .

Istoric
Conform tradiției orale a fost construită în anul 1678, lucru confirmat de elementele sale constructive și decorative. În vecinătatea altarului se află un stejar ce amintește de pădurea de pe loc, din care s-au confecționat bârnele masive ale pereților, îmbinate în coadă de rândunică.

În 1813 a avut loc o prefacere a bisericii, ctitorii, Dumitrașcu Grivei, Ion Ceaușu și protopopul Dincă Negomireanu, au construit o biserică de lemn tipică, în formă de navă, din bârne mari de stejar, acoperită cu blăni de stejar, la vremea aceea bătute în cuie de lemn. Această lucrare a ținut până în anul 1884, când a fost acoperită din nou, cu scândură de stejar, bătută cu cuie de fier de data aceasta. În partea dinspre nord și cea dinspre vest s-a introdus o talpă prin săltare. Biserica era pardosită cu cărămidă, care e înlocuită în 1894 cu pardoseală de stejar. În 1909, i s-a făcut împrejur temelie din piatră de munte și s-a tencuit în interior cu var și nisip, pereții rămânând, ca și în prezent, fără pictură; tot atunci s-au mărit ferestrele. În 1951 s-a acoperit cu blană de stejar, iar în 1954 s-a reparat temelia. În anul 1999 s-a refăcut din nou acoperișul, iar în 2001 s-a refăcut acoperișul și la clopotnița făcută din cărămidă și lemn, situată în apropiere de lăcas, servind și ca poartă de intrare în curtea bisericii.

Lăcașul de cult e impresionant prin pereții construiți din bârne cu lățimi între 60 si 90 cm, temelia înaltă, care are capetele ieșite în afară un metru, precum și plastica arhitecturală a consolelor care sunt tăiate în formă de cap de cal.

Trăsături
Biserica cu hramul "Sfântul Nicolae" are dimensiuni mici, specifice secolului al XVII-lea, păstrând neschimbat modelul acelei vremi și în ceea ce privește acoperișul cu pante mari, învelit în șiță, neîntrerupt de adăpostul clopotului. Clopotnița actuală este o construcție de dată mai recentă, aflată la vest de biserică, cu parter de cărămidă și etaj de lemn.

Biserica este înălțată pe o temelie din piatră, pereții înscriu o navă dreptunghiulară și un altar decroșat, poligonal, cu cinci laturi. Elevația interiorului cuprinde o boltă în leagăn peste navă și intersecția de fâșii curbe peste altar.

Stâlpii prispei, de pe latura de vest, au fusul segmentat prin brățări, ornate în dinte de lup. Ancadramentul intrării are montanții largi, cu șiraguri din alveole, iar în partea superioară a acestora sunt incizați și pictați Sfântul Gheorghe, omorând balaurul, și Sfântul Dimitrie, creații care datează de la începutul secolului al XIX-lea.

Catapeteasma e formată din icoane mobile pe lemn, cu pictură în ulei. Tâmpla a fost realizată de Gheorghe zugravul în anul 1831, semnătura acestuia și data aflându-se pe una din icoanele împărătești: Maria Platitera (cu arhanghelii în spatele tronului).

În registrul superior al tâmplei se află Crucea Răstignirii și moleniile, însoțite de panourile pe care sunt reprezentați cei doi tâlhari.

Ușile împărătești, cu Buna Vestire în decor arhitectural și busturile regilor David și Solomon, întregesc pictura tâmplei; se mai păstrează și una din ușile diaconești, cu chipul Sfântului Petru.

Alte icoane se mai află în pronaos (Arhanghelii Mihail și Gavriil, Maria Platitera, Deisis, Sfântul Gheorghe cu Sfântul Nicolae) și în altar, avându-l drept autor pe același Gheorghe zugravul.

Note

Bibliografie
Studii regionale

Vezi și
 Negomir, Gorj

Legături externe
 Fișă de monument
Monumente istorice din România Fișă de monument

Galerie de imagini

Negomir-Curtișoara
Monumente istorice din județul Gorj
Biserici din secolul al XIX-lea din România
Biserici cu hramul Sfântul Nicolae

Biserica de lemn din Negomir-Curtișoara


Color Wonder is a product made by Crayola, primarily intended for use by younger children, in which the special clear-ink marker only appears on the Color Wonder paper. Originally made with markers and paper, Color Wonder has also made specialty products including paints, etc. The Color Wonder products debuted in 1993. Color Wonder paints and fingerpaints, as well as Color Wonder coloring books of popular characters such as Disney Pixar's Cars and Disney Princess also exist.

The 'magic' clear-ink products were designed so that toddlers and young children don't stain their clothes, paint on the walls, etc.  Crayola has a patent under Binney & Smith relating to this kind of mess-free marking system. An applicator, such as a felt pen, uses a composition containing a colorless leuco dye that changes to color in the presence of acid. The substrate in the Color Wonder paper contains zinc ions which trigger the development of color in the dyes when the marker inks are applied. The zinc ions act as Lewis acids to drive the color-changing chemical reaction.

Crayola has also another line similar to this one marketed towards older children, called Color Explosion. It is like Color Wonder, except that instead of chemicals on paper revealing the hidden color of the marker ink, the chemicals in the marker reveal stripes, dots, and swirls of color on the page. Depending on the package you get (Fire & Ice, Twisted Tropicals, etc.) the colors hidden in the paper are different. Color Explosion is also available in black and white paper.

References

Picture of system
Product Page Patent

Crayola

Color Wonder


An Polystachya humbertii in uska species han Liliopsida nga ginhulagway ni Joseph Marie Henry Alfred Perrier de la Bâthie. An Polystachya humbertii in nahilalakip ha genus nga Polystachya, ngan familia nga Orchidaceae.

Mabibilngan ini ha Madagascar. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Polystachya

Polystachya humbertii


La Ruta de Illinois 145, y abreviada IL 145 (en inglés: Illinois Route 145) es una carretera estatal estadounidense ubicada en el estado de Illinois. La carretera inicia en el oeste desde la  hacia el este en la . La carretera tiene una longitud de 70 km (43.47 mi).

Mantenimiento
Al igual que las autopistas interestatales, y las rutas federales y el resto de carreteras estatales, la Ruta de Illinois 145 es administrada y mantenida por el Departamento de Transporte de Illinois por sus siglas en inglés IDOT.

Véase también

Referencias

Enlaces externos

 Página oficial  de IDOT

 Lista de Autopistas por estado
 Lista de sitios web de carreteras para cada estado

Carreteras estatales de Illinois

Ruta de Illinois 145


Hassānīya (  ; also known as , , , , and Maure) is a variety of Maghrebi Arabic spoken by Mauritanian Arabs and the Sahrawi. It was spoken by the Beni Ḥassān Bedouin tribes of Yemeni origin who extended their authority over most of Mauritania and Morocco's southeastern and Western Sahara between the 15th and 17th centuries. Hassānīya Arabic was the language spoken in the pre-modern region around Chinguetti.

The language has completely replaced the Berber languages that were originally spoken in this region. Although clearly a western dialect, Hassānīya is relatively distant from other Maghrebi variants of Arabic. Its geographical location exposed it to influence from Zenaga-Berber and Wolof. There are several dialects of Hassānīya, which differ primarily phonetically. Today, Hassānīya is spoken in Algeria, Libya, Morocco, Mauritania, Mali, Niger, Senegal and the Western Sahara.

Phonology

The phonological system of Hassānīya is both very innovative and very conservative. All phonemes of Classical Arabic are represented in the dialect, but there are also many new phonemes. As in other Bedouin dialects, Classical /q/ corresponds mostly to dialectal ;  and  have merged into ; and the interdentals  and  have been preserved. The letter ج  is realised as .

However, there is sometimes a double correspondence of a classical sound and its dialectal counterpart. Thus, classical  is represented by  in  'to take' but by  in  'scissors'. Similarly,  becomes  in  'laugh (noun)', but  in  'to be sick'. Some consonant roots even have a double appearance:  'heavy (mentally)' vs.  'heavy (materially)'. Some of the "classicizing" forms are easily explained as recent loans from the literary language (such as  'law') or from sedentary dialects in case of concepts pertaining to the sedentary way of life (such as  'scissors' above). For others, there is no obvious explanation (like  'to be sick'). Etymological  appears constantly as , never as .

Nevertheless, the phonemic status of  and  as well as  and  appears very stable, unlike in many other Arabic varieties.  Somewhat similarly, classical  has in most contexts disappeared or turned into  or  ( 'family' instead of ,  'insist' instead of  and  'yesterday' instead of ). In some literary terms, however, it is clearly preserved:  'suffering (participle)' (classical ).

Consonants

Hassānīya has innovated many consonants by the spread of the distinction emphatic/non-emphatic. In addition to the above-mentioned,  and  have a clear phonemic status and  more marginally so. One additional emphatic phoneme  is acquired from the neighbouring Zenaga Berber language along with a whole palatal series  from Niger–Congo languages of the south. At least some speakers make the distinction /p/–/b/ through borrowings from French (and Spanish in Western Sahara). All in all, the number of consonant phonemes in Hassānīya is 31, or 43 counting the marginal cases.

On the phonetic level, the classical consonants  and  are usually realised as voiced  (hereafter marked ) and . The latter is still, however, pronounced differently from , the distinction probably being in the amount of air blown out (Cohen 1963: 13–14). In geminated and word-final positions both phonemes are voiceless, for some speakers /θ/ apparently in all positions. The uvular fricative  is likewise realised voiceless in a geminated position, although not fricative but plosive: . In other positions, etymological  seems to be in free variation with  (etymological , however varies only with ).

Vowels

Vowel phonemes come in two series: long and short. The long vowels are the same as in Classical Arabic , and the short ones extend this by one: . The classical diphthongs  and  may be realised in many different ways, the most usual variants being  and , respectively. Still, realisations like  and  as well as  and  are possible, although less common.

As in most Maghrebi Arabic dialects, etymological short vowels are generally dropped in open syllables (except for the feminine noun ending  < ):  >  'you (f. sg.) write',  >  >  'he wrote'. In the remaining closed syllables dialectal /a/ generally corresponds to classical , while classical  and  have merged into . Remarkably, however, morphological  is represented by  and  by  in a word-initial pre-consonantal position:  'I stood up' (root w-g-f; cf.  'I wrote', root k-t-b),  'he descends' (subject prefix i-; cf.  'he writes', subject prefix jə-). In some contexts this initial vowel even gets lengthened, which clearly demonstrates its phonological status of a vowel:  'they stood up'. In addition, short vowels  in open syllables are found in Berber loanwords, such as  'man',  'calves of 1 to 2 years of age', and  in passive formation:  'he was met' (cf.  'he met').

Code-switching

Many educated Hassaniya Arabic speakers also practice code-switching. In Western Sahara it is common for code-switching to occur between Hassaniya Arabic, Modern Standard Arabic, and Spanish, as Spain had previously controlled this region; in the rest of Hassaniya-speaking lands, French is the additional language spoken.

Orthography
Hassaniya Arabic is normally written with an Arabic script. However, in Senegal, the government has adopted the use of the Latin script to write the language, as established by Decree 2005–980 of October 21, 2005.

Speakers distribution
According to Ethnologue, there are approximately three million Hassaniya speakers, distributed as follows:

 Mauritania: 2,770,000 (2006)
 Western Sahara and the southern area of Morocco, known as the Tekna zone: 200,000+ (1995)
 Mali: 175,800 – 210,000 (2000)
 Algeria: 150,000 (1985)
 Libya: 40,000 (1985)
 Niger: 10,000 (1998)

See also

Varieties of Arabic
Nemadi dialect
Imraguen people

References

 "Hassaniya, the Arabic of Mauritania", Al-Any, Riyadh S. / In: Linguistics; vol. 52 (1969), pag. 15 / 1969
 "Hassaniya, the Arabic of Mauritania", Al-Any, Riyadh S. / In: Studies in linguistics; vol. 19 (1968), afl. 1 (mrt), pag. 19 / 1968
 "Hassaniya Arabic (Mali) : Poetic and Ethnographic Texts", Heath, Jeffrey; Kaye, Alan S. / In: Journal of Near Eastern studies; vol. 65 (2006), afl. 3, pag. 218 (1) / 2006
 Hassaniya Arabic (Mali) : poetic and ethnographic texts, Heath, Jeffrey / Harrassowitz / 2003
 Hassaniya Arabic (Mali) – English – French dictionary, Heath, Jeffrey / Harrassowitz / 2004
Taine-Cheikh, Catherine. 2006. Ḥassāniya Arabic. In Kees Versteegh (ed.), Encyclopedia of Arabic Language and Linguistics, 240–250. Leiden: E.~J.~Brill.

External links

Hassaniya Arabic at Omniglot

Arabic languages
Languages of Algeria
Languages of Mali
Languages of Mauritania
Languages of Niger
Languages of Western Sahara
Languages written in Latin script
Maghrebi Arabic
Sahrawi culture

Hassaniya Arabic