ඈත අතීතයේදී මිනිසා ගණනයන් කිරීම සඳහා අතෙහි හා පාදයෙහි ඇගිලි යොදාගන්නා ලදි. නමුත් කල්යාමත් සමගම සංඛ්‍යාවලට සංකේත  ආදේශ කිරීමත් සමග තමන්ට වඩා පුළුල් පරාසයක වැඩකිරීමේ හැකියාවක් ඇතිබව තේරැම්ගන්නා ලදි.  එමනිසා සංඛ්‍යා හා ඉලක්කම් ලෝකයට බිහිවිය. මෙවායින් හින්දු අරාබි ඉ‍ලක්කම් හා රෝම ඉලක්කම් අදවනවිටද භාවිතයේ ඇත. අංක ක්‍රමයත් සමග මිනිසා විශාල පරිමාණයේ ගණිත කර්ම (Mathematical Operations) කිරීම ආරමභ කරනලදි. එවානම් එකතුකිරීම, අඩුකිරීම, බෙදීම, ගුණකිරීම ලෙසවේ. මෙම ගණිත කර්ම දියුණුවත්ම මිනිසා මේවා පහසුකර ගැනීම සදහා විවිධ උපකරණ නිර්මාණයට උනන්දුවිය. මෙලෙස අවුරැදු 5000 පමණ  ඈත අතීතයේ දී ඇබකසය (ABACUS) නමි උපකරණය බිහිවිය.
මෙහි Beads නමින් හදුන්වන කුඩා කොටස් සිරස් කූරු මත ඇති අතර යම් ක්‍රමවේදයක් අනුගමණය කරමින් ඉතා ඉක්මනින් ගණනය කිරීම් කරගත හැක. මෙ මගින් එකතුකිරීම, අඩුකිරීම, බෙදීම, ගුණකිරීම කිරීමට සමත්විය.

1600-1900 දක්වා.
1642 දී Blaise Pascal විසින්  Adding Machine නැමැති apa උපකරණය නිපදවාගන්නා ලදි. මෙය ලොව පළමුවන යාන්ත්‍රීක ගණික කර්ම කරන උපකරණය වෙයි. මෙහිදී පැස්කල් රෝද වැනි උපාංග භාවිතා කරමින් ගණනය කිරීම් කර ඇත.
1674 Gottfried Wilhelm Von Leibnitz විසින් Pascal ගේ මෙම උපකරණය වැඩිදියුණු කර ඇත. මෙම වැඩිදියුණු කිරීමත් සමගම බෙදීම, ගුණකිරීම වඩා පහසුවෙන් කරගත හැකි විය.

කාර්මීකරණ වීමත් සමග Joseph Jacquard නම් ප්‍රංශ ජාතික විද්‍යාඥයා Punch Card System මගින් ක්‍රියාකරණු ලබන රෙදිවියන යන්ත්‍රයක් නිර්මාණය කරණ ලදි. මෙහි Punch Card වෙනස් කිරීම මගින් රෙදි විවීමේ රටාව වෙනස් කිරීමේ හැකියාවක් තිබුනි. මෙම Punch Card මත සිදුරු තිබූ අතර ඒවා වෙනස් කිරීම මගින් රටාව වෙනස් කරගැනීමට හැකි විය. මෙය Jacquard loom (ජැකාර්ඩ් අළුව) ලෙස නම් කරණ ලදි
මෙම පන්ච් කාර්ඩ් සංකල්පය ඉංග්‍රීසි ගණිතඥයකුවන Charles Babbage ට අසන්නට ලැබුනි. ඔහු එම සංකල්පය භාවිත කර Analytical Engine නම් උපකරණය නිර්මාණය කිරීම පටන්ගන්නා ලදි. නමුත් එම වකවානුව තුල තාක්ෂණය පහල මට්ටමකට පිහිටි බැවින් මෙම උපකරණය නිමාකිරීමට ඔහුට නොහැකි විය. මෙම උපකරණයට ගණිතකර්ම කිරීම එවා මතකයේ තැන්පත් කර තබාගැනීම හා තාර්කිකව සැසඳීම කිරීමේ හැකියාව තිබිනි. මෙහුගේ මෙම සංකල්පය පරිගණකයේ දියුණුවට ඉවහල් වීම නිසා මොහු පරිගණකයේ පියා ලෙsa hadunwai

1900-1945 දක්වා

Harvard University හි Howard Aiken විසින් 1937දී Babbage ගේ උපකරණය නිපදවීමට කාලය එලඹ ඇති බව තීරණය කරණ ලදි. Harvard විශ්ව විද්‍යාලයේ තම සගයන් සමග හා IBM සමාගමේ සහය ඇතිව Automatic Sequence Control Calculator යන උපකරණය 1944 දී නිපදවන ලදි මෙය MARK I ලෙස නම් කෙරිනි. MARK I හට මූලික ගණිත කර්ම 4 සිදුකිරීමේ හැකියාව තිබිbabxjabxනි. මෙහි පාළනය සදහා යතුරු තිබුණු අතර යතුරු පුවරු වකට සමිබන්ධ කිරීම මගින් Punch Card මත පිලිතුරු සටහන් කරණ ලදි. මෙහි විද්‍යුත් යාන්ත්‍රික රිලේස් ((Electro Mechanical Relays) 3000 ක් පමණ පැවති අතර ටොන් 50 ක් පමණ බර විය. අවුරුදු 15 ක් පමණ මෙය භාවිතයේ පැවතුනි.

1946-1960 දක්වා (Vacuum Tubes)

ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator Analyzer and Computer)   යනු පලමු ඩිජිටල් පරිගණකය වේ. ඒය 1946 පෙන්සිල්වේනියා  විශ්ව විද්‍යාලයේ Moore School of Electrical Engineering මගින් නිර්මාණය කරණ ලදි. මෙහි යාන්ත්‍රිකව චලනය වන කොටස් නොතිබුනු අතර කේතනය කිරීමේ හැකියාව තිබිනි. තවද මෙහි ගණනය කරණ පියවර (Calculation Steps) ගබඩාකර තබා ගැනීමෙ හැකියාව තිබිනි. මෙම උපකරණය Vacuum Tubes භාවිත කරණ ලද අතර එවා 18,000  ක් පමණ මෙහි දක්නට තිබුනි. මෙය පලමු යුගයේ (First Generation ) පරිගණකයක් යැයි කියනු ලැබේ.  මෙය තත්පරයට ගණනය කිරීම් 5,000 ක් පමණ සිදුකරනූ ලැබේ. ඒකතුකිරීම මිලි තත්පර 0.2 කදී සිදුකරණු ලබයි. මෙහි ප්‍රධානම ගැටළුවනමි එහි විශාලත්වය හා දත්ත විෂ්ලේෂනය කිරීමේ ( Data Processing) හැකියාව වෙයි. ඒය වර්ග අඩි 1,500 ක් පමන ඉඩ ප්‍රමාණයක් ගන්නාලද අතර එකවර එක කාර්යයක් කිරීමේ හැකියාවෙන් යුක්ත විය. 1951 දී Remington Rand නැමැති ආයතනය විසින්  UNIVAC I (Universal Automated Calculator) යන උපකරණය නිපදවන ලදි මෙම උපකරණයට තත්පරයට එකතු කිරීම් 10,000 ක් පමණ කරගැනීමේ හැකියාව තිබිණි. 1957 දී IBM(International Business Machine) සමාගම විසින් IBM 704 යන උපකරණය නිපදවන ලදි. මෙයට තත්පරයට එකතුකිරීම් 100,000 ක් පමණ කිරීමේ හැකියාව තිබිනි.

ට්‍රාන්සිස්ටර් යුගය (Transistor)

1948 දී ජෝන් බාර්ඩීන්, විල්ලියම් ශොක්ලි හා වෝල්ටර් බ්‍රිට්න් විසින් ට්‍රාන්සිස්ටර් නිර්මාණය කරන ලදී. Transistor යනු Vacuum Tube මගින් සිදු කළ කාර්යයම සිදු කළ හැකි ඝන තත්ත්ව (Solid State) උපාංගයකි. මේ නිසා (චලනය වන කොටස් නොමැති නිසා) Vacuum Tube වලට සාපෙක්ෂව Transistor වල ක්‍රියාකාරීත්වය නිවැරදි සහ වේගවත් විය. මේ සමගම මෙපමන කල් තිබූ Vacuum Tubes ට්‍රාන්සිස්ටර් මගින් ප්‍රතිස්තාපනය විය. ට්‍රාන්සිස්ටර් සමන්විත පරිගණකයක් තත්පරයට ගණිතකර්ම 200,000 – 250,000 අතර ප්‍රමාණයක් සිදුකරණ ලදි. මෙය පරිගණකයේ දෙවන යුගය (Second Generation) ලෙස හැදින්වෙයි.

මයික්‍රෝකම්පියුටර් යුගය (Microcomputer)

1975 MITS ආයතනය විසින් ALTAIR 8800 හදුන්වාදීමත් සමග මෙය ආරම්භවිය. මෙය යතුරු (Switches) මගින්  Program කිරීමෙ හැකියාව තිබිණූඅතර ඩොලර් දහස් ගනනින් අලවිවිය. එබැවින් සාමාන්‍ය ජනතාවට ලබාගැනීමට ඉතා අපහසුවිය. 1977 දී Commodore හා Radio Shack යන සමාගමි වලින් පුද්ගලික පරිගණක (Personal Computers)  නිපදවනබවට ප්‍රකාෂකරණ ලදි. 1979 දී Apple පරිගණකය විෂාල වෂයෙන් නිපදවූ අතර 1981 දී එය හොදින් අලවිවන පුද්ගලික පරිගණකය විය.

පරිගණක යුගයන් (Computer Generations)

 පලමු පරම්පරාව - (1940 - 1956)
 දෙවන පරම්පරාව  - (1956 - 1963)
 තුන්වන පරම්පරාව - (1964 - 1971)
 හතරවන පරම්පරාව -  (1971- 1989)
 පස්වන පර්ම්පරාව -  (1989 - වර්තමානය)

පළමු පරම්පරාවේ පරිගණක (First Generation Computers) (1940-1956) - රික්ත නල

පලමු යුගයේ පරිගණක සදහා රික්ත නල (Vacuum Tube)  හා මතකය (Memory) සදහා චුම්බක බෙර යොදා ගන්නා ලදි. මේවා කාමර පුරා පැතිරුණ  විශාල පරිගණක විය. තවද විද්‍යුත් පරිභෝජනය ඉතා ඉහල විය. එමනිසා ඉතා ඉහල මුදලක් විදුලිය සදහා වැයවිය.  ඉතා විශාල තාප ප්‍රමානයක් පිටකරණ ලදි Program කිරීම සදහා machine Language බාවිත කරණ ලදි. එක් වරකට එක ගැටළුවක් පමණක් විසදීමේ හැකියාව තිබිනි. දත්ත ඇතුලත් කිරීමට (Input) Punch Cards හා Magnatic tape භාවිතා කරණ ලදි. මෙහි ප්‍රතිදානය (Output) මුදිත මාද්‍යයෙන් ලාබාදෙන ලදි. (Printouts) ඒමෙන්ම Storage සදහා Magnetic drums භාවිතා කරන ලදි.

පලමු පරම්පරාවේ පරිගණක වල අංග ලක්ෂන
 රික්ත නල භාවිත කරයි
 විශ්වාසයෙන් තොරයි
 මැශින් භාශාව පමණක් භාවිත කරයි
 මිලෙන් අධිකවෙයි
 හැසිරවීම අපහසු වේ
 විශාල තාපයක් නිපදවයි
 ආදාන හා ප්‍රතිදාන උපාංග සෙමින් ක්‍රියාකරයි
 ප්‍රමාණයෙන් විෂාල වේ
 වායුසමීකරනය කිරීම අවශ්‍යවේ
 එහා මෙහා ගෙන යා නොහැක
සෙමින් ක්‍රියා කරයි
 විදුලිය විශාල වශයෙන් පරිභෝජනය කරයි
භාවිතා කරන ලද මෘදුකාංග

 Machine language
 Assmbly language

නිර්මාණය වූ පද්ධති

 ENIAC
 EDVAC
 EDSAC
 UNIVAC
 IBM 701

දෙවන පරම්පරාවේ  පරිගණක (Second Generation) (1956-1963) - Transistors

1959 වර්ෂයේ සිට 1963 වර්ෂය දක්වා බිහිවුණ පරිගණක මෙම පරම්පරාවට අයත් වේ. ට්‍රාන්සිස්ටර් හි පැමිණීමත් සමග Vacuum Tubes(රික්ත නල) අභාවයට යන ලදි. ට්‍රාන්සිස්ටර් එකක් මගින් vacuum Tubes(රික්ත නල) විශාල සංඛ්‍යාවක කාර්යයන් ඉටුකරගැනීමට හැකිවිය. එබැවින් Vacuum Tubes(රික්ත නල) වෙනුවට ට්‍රාන්සිස්ටර් ආදේෂවිය. මෙවා පලමු යුගයේ පරිගණකවලට වඩා වේගවත් විය,  ලාබදායීවිය,  විදුලි පරිබෝජලය සාපේකෂව අඩු විය. විස්වාසය (Reliable ) ඉහල අගයක් විය. නමුත් විෂාල ප්‍රමාණයෙන් තාපය පිටකරණ ලදි. Input Device ලෙස Punch Card, Output Device ලෙස මුද්‍රණ යන්ත්‍ර වලින් මුද්‍රිත පිටපත් ද Storage සදහා Magnetic tape, Floppy Disk  භාවිතා කරන ලදි. භාවිතා කරණ ලදි Assembly Language පරිගණක කේතනය සදහා භාවිතා කරණ ලදි. High Level Programing Language වල පලමු වැඩසටහන් බිහිවිය. (FORTRAN, COBOL). උපදෙස් (Instructions) මතකයේ ගබඩාකල පලමු පරිගණකය විය.

දෙවන පරම්පරාවේ පරිගණක වල ලක්ෂන

 ට්‍රාන්සිස්ටර් යොදාගනී
 පළමු පරම්පරාවට සාපේක්ෂව විෂ්වාසදායී වෙයි.
 පළමු පරම්පරාවට සාපේක්ෂව ප්‍රමාණයෙන් කුඩා වෙයි.
 පළමු පරම්පරාවට සාපේක්ෂව අඩු තාප ප්‍රමාණයක් නිපදවයි
 පළමු පරම්පරාවට සාපේක්ෂව අඩු විදුලි පරිබෝජනයක් ඇත
 පළමු පරම්පරාවට වඩා වේගවත් වෙයි
 මිලෙන් අධිකවෙයි
 වායුසමීකරණය කිරීමට අවෂ්‍ය වෙයි
 මැෂීන් භාෂාව හා එසෙම්බ්ලි භාශාව භාවිත කරයි.
Magnetic tape භාවිතය
Floppy Disk භාවිතය

තුන්වන පරම්පරාවේ පරිගණක  (Third Generation) (1964-1971) - Integrated Circuits
ට්‍රාන්සිස්ටර් කිහිපයකින් සැදු පරිපතයක් කුඩා සිලිකන් චිපයක් මත ඇදගැනිමෙන් අනුකලිත පරිපථ/Integrated Circuits (IC) බිහිවිය. 1964 වර්ෂයේ සිට 1971 වර්ෂය දක්වා කාලය තුල නිදවන ලද පරිගණක මෙම පරම්පරාවට අයක් වේ. IC හෙවත් Integrated Circuits තාක්ෂනය මේවායේ භාවිතා කරන ලදි. මෙසේ එක සිලිකන් චිපයක් මත ට්‍රාන්සිස්ටර් දහස් ගනනක් නිර්මාණය කිරීමට හැකිවිය. ඒමනිසා ට්‍රාන්සිස්ටර් ඉවත්වි IC කරලියට පැමිනෙන ලදි. මෙමගින් පරිගණකය වඩාත් කාර්යක්ෂම හා වේගවත් විය. Punch Card වෙනුවට Input Device ලෙස යතුරුපුවරුව (Keyboard) හා මූසිකය (Mouse) හා output Device ලෙස (Monitors) පැමිනෙනලදි. පරිගණකය ක්‍රියා කරවීම සදහා මෙහෙයුම් පද්ධති (Operating Systems) බිහිවිය. මේවායින් බොහොමක් command-line interface (CLI) කින් සමන්විත වේ. මෙමගින් විවිධ වර්ගයේ මෘදුකාංග පරිගනකය තුල ධාවනය (Run) කරගැනීමේ හැකියාව ලැබුනි. ඉතා කුඩා වූ අතර ලාභදායී විය.

තුන්වන පරම්පරාවේ පරිගණකවල ලක්ෂන

 අනුකලිත පරිපථ (IC) යොදාගන්නා ලදි
 වඩා විශ්වාසදායී විය
 විශාලත්වය දෙවන පරම්පරාව හා සැසඳීමේදී කුඩාය.
 දෙවන පරම්පරාවට සාපෙක්ෂව අඩු තාප ප්‍රමාණයක් නිපදවයි.
 දෙවන පරම්පරාවට සාපෙක්ෂව වේගවත් වේ
 දෙවන පරම්පරාවට සාපෙක්ෂව නඩත්තුවක් අවශ්‍යවිය
 මිලෙන් අධික විය
මෙහෙයුම් පද්ධති භාවිතය
High Level computer languages
වැඩිදියුණු වු High Level programming languages
 වායුසමීකරණ අවශ්‍යවිය
 දෙවන පරම්පරාවට සාපෙක්ෂව අඩු විදුලි පරිබෝජනයක් ඇත
 high level පරිගණක භාශා මගින් දෙවන පරම්පරාවට සාපෙක්ෂව කරහැකිවිය
විධාන පේලි අතුරු මුහුනත කින් සමන්විත වේ (CLI)
අඩු විදුලි පරිභොජනයක්  ඇත

හතරවන පරම්පරාවේ පරිගණක (4th Generation) (1971-1989) - Microprocessor

1971 වර්ෂයේ සිට වර්ථමානය දක්වා නිර්මාණය කල හා නිර්මාණය කරන ලබන පරිගණක මේම පරම්පරාවට අයත් වේ. මෙහිදි Microprocessor තාක්ෂනය භාවිතා කරන ලදි. මෙතෙක් පැවති පරිගණක වලට එක් වරකට ක්‍රියාත්මක කළ හැකි වුයේ එක් වැඩසටහනක් පමනි. නමුත් මෙම පරම්පරාවේ පරිගණක සදහා එක් වරකට වැඩසටහන් එකකට වඩා වැඩි ප්‍රමානයක් ක්‍රියාත්මක කිරීමේ හැකියාවක් තිබුණි.  LSIC  ( Large Scale Integrated Circuits) හා VLSIC  (Very Large Scale Integrated Circuits බිහි විය. තාක්ෂණය දිගුවක් ලෙස සිලිකන් චිපයක සෑදුන ක්ෂුද්‍ර සකසන (Micro Processor) හදුන්වා දෙන ලදි. මේමගින් පරිගණකයේ භෟෙතික ප්‍රමාණය අඩු කර ගැනීමට හැකියාව ලැබින.  මෙමගින් පරිගණකය වඩා කුඩාවූ අතර එහි වේගය වැඩිවිය. මෙම කාලය තුල  (Graphical User Interface) බිහිවිය. එනම් පරිගණකයෙන් කාර්යයක් කරගැනීම සදහා විදාන Type කිරීම වෙනුවට කුඩා පින්තුර මත මවුසය මගින් ක්ලික් කිරීමෙන් කාර්යය කරගැනී මේ හැකියාව ලැබින. මේම පරම්පරාවේදි දෘඩ තැටි (Hrad Disk), නම්‍ය තැටි (Floppy Disk), ප්‍රකාශ තැටි (Optical Disk) භාවිතයට පැමිනෙන ලදි. පරිගණකය සදහා මුල්වරට චිත්‍රක පරිශිකල අතුරුමුහුණතක් GUI (Graphycal User interface ) හා පරිගණක ජාලකරනය (computer Network) මෙම පරම්පරාවේ පරිගණක සමග හදුන්වා දෙන ලදි. පෞද්ගලික භාවිතය සදහා පරිඝකන භාවිතයට පැමිණියේ මේම යුගයේදි වේ.

හතරවන පරම්පරාවේ පරිගණකවල ලක්ෂන

 Microprocessor තාක්ෂනය භාවිතා වේ
 පිරිවැය අඩුය
 ඔනෙෑම තැනක ගෙනයා හැකිය
ප්‍රමාණයෙන් කුඩා විම
 ඉතාමත් අඩු විදුලි පරිභොජනයක් ඇත
 විශාලත්වය තුන්වන පරම්පරාව හා සැසඳීමේදී කුඩාය
 තෙවන පරම්පරාවට සාපෙක්ෂව කාර්යක්ෂම වේ
 මිලෙන් දෙවන පරම්පරාවට සාපෙක්ෂව ඉතා අඩුවේ
 විධාන පේලි අතුරු මුහුනතකින්  (CLI - Command line interface) හා චිත්‍රක පරිශිකල අතුරු මුහුණතකින් (GUI- Graphical user interface) කින් සමන්විත වේ.
වේගවත් පරිගණක ජාල
යාවත්කාලින (Upgraded) කිරිම පහසුය
Floppy Disk භාවිතය
Optical Disk භාවිතය
උකුල මත තබා භාවිතා කර හැකි Laptop පරිඝනක

පස්වන පරම්පරාවේ පරිගණක (5th Generation) (1989 - Present) - Artificial Intelligence

1981 වසරේ දි IBM සමාගමත් 1984 දි Apple සමාගමත් නිවසේ පරිහරණයට සුදුසු පුද්ලගික පරිගණක හදුන්වා දෙන ලද්දේ මෙම කාලය තුල වේ. පස්වන පරම්පරාවේ භාවිතා වන්නේ UISl (අතිවිශාල ප්‍රමාණයේ අනුකුලිත පරිපත /  Ultra Large Scale Inegration) තාක්ෂණය යි. එම නිසා මෙම තාක්ෂණය භාවිතයෙන් මිලියන ගනනක් ඉලෙක්ට්‍රොනික පරිපථ සහිත ක්ෂුද්‍ර සකසන (silicon Chips) නිපදවීමට හැකියාව ලැබී තිබේ. මෙය AI (Artificial Intelligence) ද කෘතිම බුද්ධිය මත පදනම්වී ඇත සමහර මෘදුකාංගවල දැනට සුළුවශයෙන් යොදා ගැනෙයි. තව නම් විශාල ධාරිතාවක් සහිත Hard Disk, Opical Disk භාවිතය, නමි හඩ හදුනාගැනිම (Voice Recognition),අකුරු හදුනාගැනීම (Character Recognition ), අකුරු කියවීමට (Text To Speech), අත් අකුරු හදුනා ගැනීම සදහා (Hand writing Recognition Systems) හා අන්තර්ජාලය  වේ.

පස්වන පරම්පරාවේ පරිගණකවල ලක්ෂන

 කෘතීම බුද්ධිය භාවිතා වේ
 Machine learning භාවිතා වේ
ආරක්ෂාව ඉහල වේ
දියුණු  චිත්‍රක පරිශිකල අතුරු මුහුණතකින් සමත්විත වේ (GUI)
භාවිතා කිරිමට වෘත්තිය දැනුමක් අවශය නොවීම
ප්‍රමාණය - අතේ ගෙනයාහැකි තරම් කුඩා වේ
වේගය හා කාර්යක්ෂමතාවය අතිශය ඉහල වේ
අන්තර්ජාල හා බහු මාධය භාවිතය
අඩුවියදම් සහිතය
ප්‍රමාණයෙන් ඉතා කුඩාය
හැසිර වීම පහසුය
විශ්වාසවන්ත භාවය ඉහලය

පරිගණක විද්‍යාව පස්වන පාරම්පාරව

පරිගණක ඉතිහාසය


An Loxocarya in uska genus han Liliopsida. An Loxocarya in nahilalakip ha familia nga Restionaceae.

An kladograma hini sumala ha Catalogue of Life:

Mga kasarigan

Loxocarya

Loxocarya


Alcalde (; ) is the traditional Spanish municipal magistrate, who had both judicial and administrative functions. An alcalde was, in the absence of a corregidor, the presiding officer of the Castilian cabildo (the municipal council) and judge of first instance of a town.  Alcaldes were elected annually, without the right to reelection for two or three years, by the regidores (council members) of the municipal council. The office of the alcalde was signified by a staff of office, which they were to take with them when doing their business. A woman who holds the office is termed an Alcaldesa.

In New Spain (Mexico), alcaldes mayores were chief administrators in colonial-era administrative territories termed alcaldías mayores; in colonial-era Peru the units were called corregimientos.

Alcalde was also a title given to Indigenous (Native American) leaders inside the Spanish missions, who performed a large variety of duties for the Franciscan missionaries.

Medieval origins
The office of the alcalde evolved during the Reconquista as new lands were settled by the expanding kingdoms of León and Castile. As fortified settlements in the area between the Douro and Tagus rivers became true urban centers, they gained, from their feudal lords or the kings of Leon and Castile, the right to have councils. Among the rights that these councils had was to elect a municipal judge (iudex in Latin and juez in Spanish). These judges were assisted in their duties by various assistant judges, called alcaldes, whose number depended on the number of parishes the town had. The title alcalde was borrowed from the Arabic al qaḍi (قاضي), meaning "the judge."

The word alcalde originally was used for simple judges, as in Andalusian Arabic. Only later was it applied to the presiding municipal magistrate. This early use continued to be reflected in its other uses, such as alcaldes del crimen, the judges in the audiencias; Alcaldes de la Casa y Corte de Su Majestad, who formed the highest tribunal in Castile and also managed the royal court; alcaldes mayores, a synonym for corregidor; and alcaldes de barrio, who were roughly the equivalent of British parish constables.  Because of this, the municipal alcalde was often referred to as an alcalde ordinario.

The classic cabildo, fifteenth to nineteenth centuries
By the end of the fourteenth century the definite form of the Castilian municipal council, the ayuntamiento or cabildo, had been established. The council was limited to a maximum of twenty-four members (regidores), who may be appointed for life by the crown, hold the office as an inherited possession or be elected by the citizens (vecinos) of the municipality. (Many cabildos had a mix of these different types of regidores.) The number of magistrates, now definitely called alcaldes, was limited to one or two, depending on the size of the city and who were elected annually by the regidores. To ensure control over cabildos, the Castilian monarchs often appointed a corregidor, who took over the role of the presiding officer of the council. The cabildo was taken to the Americas and Philippines by the Spanish conquistadors. Towns and villages in the Americas with the right to a council (villas and lugares in the Recopilación de las Leyes de Indias, 1680) had one alcalde. Cities (ciudades) had two, which was the maximum number anywhere. Early in the conquest, adelantados had the right to appoint the alcaldes in the districts they settled, if they could attract the legally specified number of settlers to the area. This right could be inherited for one generation, after which the right of election returned to the municipal council.

Modern usage
In modern Spanish, the term alcalde is equivalent to a mayor, and is used to mean the local executive officer in municipalities throughout Spain and Latin America. For example, the title alcalde continued to be used in the Spanish-speaking American Commonwealth of Puerto Rico after the occupation of the island during the Spanish–American War in 1898. In the autonomous Spanish cities of Ceuta and Melilla, however, the alcaldes-presidentes have greater powers than their peninsular colleagues.

Because the United States incorporated parts of the former Viceroyalty of New Spain, the office had some influence in the local political and legal developments of those areas and is mentioned in judicial cases.  This title continued to be in use in the Southwest United States after the Mexican–American War until a permanent political and judicial system could be established. Alcaldes were notorious for their support for rule of law and opposition to vigilantes. In nineteenth-century California, Stephen Johnson Field, later an associate justice of the U.S. Supreme Court, once served as the only alcalde of Marysville, California, a town established in 1850 during the Gold Rush by immigrants, who temporarily used the Spanish and Mexican form of municipal government. In Texas, the position of county judge was based on that of the alcalde which had existed in the state prior to the Texas Revolution.  Like the alcaldes before them, county judges under the Texas Constitution wield both judicial and chief executive functions. Although in larger counties today the county judge usually functions solely as county chief executive, in smaller counties, the role of the county judge continues to have many of the combined judicial and administrative functions of the alcalde.

The city of Sonoma, California has a tradition to name an honorary title of Alcalde/Alcaldesa, to preside over ceremonial events of the city, with "mayor" being the official position of city governor.

In Belize, any rural community may appoint an alcalde. The alcalde serves both judicial and administrative functions and is paid a small stipend by the government. The alcalde is responsible for managing communal land, judging disputes, and determining punishment for petty crimes. This type of local government is most commonly used by Maya communities in southern Belize.

See also
 Alcalde ordinario
 Presidente municipal
 Mayor
 Sargento mayor
 Corregidor
 Cabildo
 Regidor
 Síndico
 Chief of the King's Guard (Portugal and Castile)
 Ayuntamiento
 Teniente a guerra
 Corregimiento
 Santa Hermandad

References

Sources

"Alcalde" in the Diccionario de la Real Academia Española.
 Corominas, Joan and José A Pascual. Diccionario crítico etimológico castellano e hispánico, 7 vols. Madrid, Editorial Gredos, 1981.
 Haring, C. H., The Spanish Empire in America. New York, Oxford University Press, 1947.
 O'Callaghan, Joseph F. A History of Medieval Spain. Ithaca, Cornell University Press, 1975.

Arabic words and phrases
Spanish words and phrases
Heads of local government

Alcalde


Diane DiMassa (born 1959) is an American feminist artist, noted as creator of the alternative cartoon character Hothead Paisan, Homicidal Lesbian Terrorist, whose wild antics have been described as rage therapy for the marginalised. DiMassa is also active in oil painting and street art.

Hothead Paisan
Hothead Paisan made its debut in 1991, and was initially published four times a year by Giant Ass Publishing (Stacy Sheehan and Diane DiMassa). The series was part of an underground 'zine explosion which happened in the early 1990s, and instantly snared a loyal cult following. DiMassa published Hothead Paisan from 1991–1996; the whole series has been collected into the anthology The Complete Hothead Paisan, published by Cleis Press. It contains all 21 issues, plus 20 extra pages. (The original issues are still available on the Hothead Paisan website.)

Hothead Paisan is rage therapy for the marginalized and disaffected, the fed up, and anyone sickened by society's ills. Her readers comprise a full spectrum of gender, orientation, race and class. Hothead literally started out as journal material to vent and deal with anger issues by DiMassa when first entering into drug and alcohol recovery. The first issue, published as a mini-comic, was twelve pages long and elicited a roaring response, giving rise to the ongoing series, and soon after, a line of merchandise called "Groovy Crapola" which included shirts, mugs, hats, rubber stamps, etc.

Hothead has no filter and reacts viscerally and violently to the injustices of the world. Her acting out of the fantasies that "normal" people have but would never act on holds her appeal; she does it for us unapologetically and uproariously. Her cat Chicken brings in a more spiritual, wise (and wise-cracking) element. Hothead's best friend Roz is an older psychic blind woman who is a pacifist and almost endlessly patient with Hothead. These and other characters make Hothead Paisan a well-rounded experience which speaks to the many facets of the reader's emotional landscape.

According to DiMassa, the themes reflected in Hothead Paisan are "less about anything particularly lesbian, and more about a slant on how unbalanced society is" and represents a "matter of astuteness among [her] fans than really gayness .. although ninety percent of them are gay." This societal imbalance is explained in the Gabrielle Dean's feminist analysis of the comic strip which postulates that Hothead is a "phallicized dyke" who is "at the mercy of her own rage against society, which she expresses by castrating men who are exaggerated stand-ins for the patriarchal order.

In 2002, a candy bar named after Hothead Paisan — the "Homicidal Lesbian Terrorist" booster bar — sold out quickly in San Francisco, where DiMassa was living at the time.

Other work
DiMassa illustrated the Pussycat Fever chapbook by the late Kathy Acker, along with Freddie Baer (AK Press, 1995); My Gender Workbook by Kate Bornstein; and Sexing the Body by Anne-Fausto Sterling. DiMassa illustrated Jokes and the Unconscious, a graphic novel written by poet and writer Daphne Gottlieb, which was published by Cleis Press in 2006.

DiMassa has contributed to numerous comic/literary anthologies from the early 1990s to the present, the most recent being Live Through This (Seven Stories Press), which is a collection of prose and art by women describing the role that art has played in dealing with issues such as addiction.

Current work
DiMassa currently does a bit of cartooning/illustrating, but focuses mainly on oil painting and street art pieces often based on Hothead Paisan and Chicken.

Personal life
DiMassa grew up in West Haven, Connecticut.

Bibliography
 Hothead Paisan: Homicidal Lesbian Terrorist, Pittsburgh, Pa. : Cleis Press, 1993.
 "A Day with Chicken", 3 p. in Gay Comics #22 (Summer 1994).
 "Mightier than the Sorehead: Drawing Pens and Politics", p. 45-54, The Nation, v. 258, no. 2 (Jan. 17, 1994).
 The Revenge of Hothead Paisan, Homicidal Lesbian Terrorist, Pittsburgh, Pa. : Cleis Press, 1995.
 "Born Queer", p. 60 in Gay Comics #25 (Spring 1998).

 Jokes and the Unconscious, with Daphne Gottlieb (2006). San Francisco: Cleis Press. .

In popular culture
Her name appears in the lyrics of the Le Tigre song "Hot Topic."

Notes

References
 Dana A. Heller, "Hothead Paisan : Clearing a Space for a Lesbian Feminist", Folklore, p. 27-44, New York Folklore, v. 19, no. 1/2, 1993.
 Roz Warren (ed.), Dyke Strippers: Lesbian Cartoonists A-Z, Pittsburgh, Cleis Press, 1995.
 Kathleen Martindale, "Back to the Future with Dykes to Watch out For and Hothead Paisan", p. 55-76 in Un/Popular Culture, Albany : State University of New York Press, 1997.
 Keridwen Luis, "Words, Culture, and the Boundaries of Sanity in the Works of Diane DiMassa, Charlotte Perkins Gilman, and Sylvia Plath", Feminista!, 1997.
 Trina Robbins, From Girls to Grrrlz: A History of ♀ Comics from Teens to Zines, San Francisco: Chronicle Books, 1999.

External links

 "Jokes and the Unconscious: An Interview with Daphne Gottlieb and Diane DiMassa
 Diane DiMassa Fine Art Site

1959 births
Living people
American writers of Italian descent
Female comics writers
American female comics artists
Feminist artists
Lesbian feminists
LGBT comics creators
LGBT people from Connecticut
Artists from New Haven, Connecticut
Underground cartoonists
21st-century American LGBT people
American lesbian artists

Diane DiMassa


La Piedad de Santa Liestra (katalanisch La Pietat de Santa Llestra) ist die Kapelle einer Einsiedelei in Santaliestra y San Quílez, einer Gemeinde in der spanischen Provinz Huesca der Autonomen Region Aragonien; sie wurde im 12./13. Jahrhundert errichtet. Die Kirche, einen Kilometer außerhalb des Ortes in Richtung Benasque, ist ein geschütztes Baudenkmal (Bien de Interés Cultural).

Beschreibung
Die der Schmerzensmutter (Pietà) geweihte Kirche ist einschiffig und schließt mit einer halbrunden Apsis. Die kleine romanische Kirche besitzt einen offenen Glockengiebel (Espadaña) (ohne Glocken), der  kurioserweise seitlich an die Kirche angebaut wurde. Normalerweise sitzt ein solcher Glockengiebel auf der Fassade auf, seltener auf dem Dach der Kirche.

Weblinks

 La Piedad de Santa Liestra bei romanicoaragones (spanischer Text, mit vielen Fotos)

Einzelnachweise

Marienkirche
Kirchengebäude in Aragonien
Kirchengebäude im Bistum Barbastro-Monzón
Bauwerk der Romanik in Aragonien
Kulturdenkmal in der Provinz Huesca
Erbaut im 12. Jahrhundert
Romanische Kirche
LaPiedad
Kirchengebäude in Europa
Bauwerk in der Provinz Huesca
Santaliestra

La Piedad de Santa Liestra


Lukácsháza é um município da Hungria, situado no condado de Vas. Tem  de área e sua população em 2015 foi estimada em 1.086 habitantes.

Localidades de Vas (Hungria)

Lukácsháza


Jakob von Tullian (* vermutlich 1672 in Großostheim; † 13. März 1729 in Dirmstein) war ein deutscher Adeliger und hoher Verwaltungsbeamter der weltlichen Regierung im Hochstift Worms.

Familie
Laut Aufschrift auf seinem in Dirmstein erhaltenen Grabstein stammte Jakob von Tullian aus Großostheim im heutigen Unterfranken. Dort war ein Johann Jakob von Tullian († 1661) ansässig, welcher der Großvater des Dirmsteiner Tullian gewesen sein dürfte. Dieser Vorfahr diente im Dreißigjährigen Krieg als bayerischer Obristleutnant, verteidigte 1645 erfolgreich die Festung Friedberg (Hessen) und wirkte ab 1654 als Kurmainzer Amtmann des Bachgaus in Großostheim.

Nach der Grabinschrift war der Amtmann Jakob von Tullian "vornehmer und berühmter" Abstammung und 1729, zum Zeitpunkt seines Todes, 56 Jahre alt. Laut Dirmsteiner katholischem Kirchenbuch hieß seine ihn überlebende Gattin Katharina. Gemeinsam hatten sie drei in Dirmstein getaufte Kinder: Anna Martha von Tullian (* 19. Mai 1721), Johann Christoph Joseph Severius von Tullian (25. Oktober 1722 – 27. Januar 1723) und Sophia von Tullian (* 13. März 1725). Der Doppeladler-Herzschild des Familienwappens ähnelt dem Stadtwappen von Friedberg in Hessen und könnte infolge der Tätigkeit des Vorfahren als Kommandant und Verteidiger der Stadt in das Familienwappen aufgenommen worden sein. Das Kleeblatt im Schnabel des Vogels stammt aus dem Familienwappen der in Großostheim einst bedeutenden Familie Clebiz von Nalsbach und ist auch in das Ortswappen des unterfränkischen Marktes eingegangen.

Leben und Wirken
Jakob von Tullian fungierte als fürstbischöflicher Amtmann des Amtes Dirmstein, eines der wenigen weltlichen Territorien des alten Hochstifts Worms. Es umfasste die pfälzischen Ortschaften Dirmstein, Beindersheim, Laumersheim, Neuleiningen und Hettenleidelheim, welche zur Erinnerung an die frühere gemeinsame Landesherrschaft allesamt den Schlüssel bzw. die Kreuze des Wormser Bistumswappens in ihre heutigen Gemeindewappen übernommen haben.

Der Amtmann residierte im Bischöflichen Schloss in Dirmstein, welches Dorf bis 1705 ein Kondominium mit der Kurpfalz bildete, das in jenem Jahr zugunsten des Hochstifts Worms aufgelöst wurde. Zur Zeit seines Todes war Jakob von Tullian der einzige in Dirmstein residierende Amtmann und besaß die alleinige Zuständigkeit. Er vertrat als Amtmann seinen Landesherrn, den bedeutenden Wormser Bischof Franz Ludwig von Pfalz-Neuburg, Bruder des Pfälzer Kurfürsten Johann Wilhelm sowie der frommen Kaiserin Eleonore Magdalene.

Tod und Begräbnisstätte
Der Amtmann starb 1729 im Alter von 56 Jahren und wurde auf dem damals einzigen Friedhof in Dirmstein beigesetzt, der nahe dem bischöflichen Schloss liegt und heute Alter Friedhof heißt. Nach dessen Auflassung in den 1850er Jahren wurde der Grabstein zu einem nicht genau bekannten Zeitpunkt auf den Neuen Friedhof verbracht und dort innen an der Umfassungsmauer befestigt.

Literatur
  Michael Martin: Dirmstein – Adel, Bauern und Bürger, Verlag der Stiftung zur Förderung der pfälzischen Geschichtsforschung, Neustadt an der Weinstraße, 2005, ISBN 3-9808304-6-2, Seiten 417 und 418.

Einzelnachweise

Adliger
Amtmann (Deutschland)
Person (Dirmstein)
Deutscher
Geboren im 17. Jahrhundert
Gestorben 1729
Mann

Jakob von Tullian


Liu Shouxiang ( – ) est un aquarelliste chinois et professeur à l'Institut des beaux-arts du Hubei. Son travail remporte de nombreux prix et est exposé dans de nombreux musées d'art. Il est également membre de la Ligue démocratique de Chine.

Biographie
Liu est né à Wuhan. En 1981, il est diplômé de l'Institut des Beaux-Arts du Hubei dans le Département des Beaux-Arts, spécialisé dans l'enseignement. Il reste à l'école et est directeur du Département de l'éducation des beaux-arts. En 1987, il fonde le Département de peinture à l'aquarelle du Département des enseignants de l'Institut de technologie du Hubei. En 2009, il crée un département de peinture à l'aquarelle et occupe le poste de chef du département. Il est la première personne à créer un département de peinture à l'aquarelle dans une école d'art chinoise. La technique de Liu, en particulier sa capacité à nuancer les couleurs, atteint la même profondeur et la même diversité d'échelle que celles observées dans de nombreuses peintures à l'huile. Selon Fan Feng, directeur du Wuhan Art Museum, les peintures de Liu ont un agencement intelligent de l'espace et des formes qui les rend « pleines de mouvement et d'un sens du rythme » ; pour lui, Liu . Il a pris sa retraite en 2018. La même année, l'Université du Hubei a embauché Liu en tant que professeur distingué.

Le 17 janvier 2020, Liu se rend à Zhuhai pour une exposition, ne sachant pas qu'il a contracté la maladie à coronavirus 2019. Le 13 février à 5 heures du matin, Liu Shouxiang est décédé des suites d'un coronavirus à l'hôpital Jinyintan de Wuhan à l'âge de 61 ans. Sa fille et son gendre ont également été hospitalisés à cause du virus.

Références

Peintre chinois du XXIe siècle
Peintre chinois du XXe siècle
Décès en février 2020
Naissance en avril 1958
Mort de la maladie à coronavirus 2019 en Chine
Décès à 61 ans

Liu Shouxiang


The Charles F. Adams class is a ship class of 29 guided-missile destroyers (DDG) built between 1958 and 1967. Twenty-three were built for the United States Navy, three for the Royal Australian Navy, and three for the West German Bundesmarine. The design of these ships (known as project SCB 155) was based on that of s, but the Charles F. Adams class were the first class designed to serve as guided-missile destroyers.  of length was added to the center of the design of the Forrest Sherman class to carry the ASROC launcher. The Charles F. Adams-class were the last steam turbine-powered destroyers built for the U.S. Navy. Starting with the succeeding Spruance-class, all U.S. Navy destroyers have been powered by gas turbines. Some of the U.S. Charles F. Adams class served during the blockade of Cuba in 1962 and during the Vietnam War; those of the Royal Australian Navy served during the Vietnam War and Gulf War.

New threat update program and decommissioning
Although designed with cutting-edge technology for the 1950s, by the mid-1970s it was clear to the Navy that the Charles F. Adams-class destroyers were not prepared to deal with modern air attacks and guided missiles. To reduce this vulnerability, the U.S. Navy began the New Threat Upgrade (NTU) program. This consisted of a number of sensor, weapons and communications upgrades that were intended to extend the service lives of the ships. Under the NTU, these destroyers received improved electronic warfare capability through the installation of the AN/SLQ-32(V)2 EW Suite.

The upgraded combat system would include the MK86 Gun Fire Control System with AN/SPQ-9 radar, the Hughes AN/SPS-52C 3D radar, the AN/SPG-51C (Digital) Fire Control Radars, and the Naval Tactical Data System (NTDS). These ships were also planned to have the ability to launch several Harpoon anti-ship missiles, which were to be installed in their MK-11 or MK-13 Tartar missile launcher.

During the 1980s, the Reagan Administration chose to accelerate production of the  guided-missile cruisers and build the  guided-missile destroyers, both classes with the Aegis Combat System that was considered more effective than NTU-upgraded ships, to gradually replace all existing destroyer and cruiser classes (especially the expensive nuclear-powered cruisers). The result of this was that only three of Charles F. Adams-class destroyers, , , and  received the full upgrade. Other ships, of the class, such as Charles F. Adams, received only partial upgrades, which included the AN/SLQ-32 and Harpoon Missile upgrades, that were intended to extend their service lives until the Arleigh Burke class could reach operational capability.

The United States Navy decommissioned its last Charles F. Adams destroyer, Goldsborough, on 29 April 1993. The Australian and German navies decommissioned their last ships of this class by 2003. Four ships of this class were transferred to the Hellenic Navy in 1992, but those have also been decommissioned.

 was originally planned to open as a museum ship sometime in 2018, but those plans were put on hold and the ship was sent to be scrapped in 2020. The  was made into a museum ship, but all of the other destroyers in the class have been sunk as targets, sunk for diving wrecks or sold for scrap.

Ships in class

Hellenic Navy
Four destroyers were transferred to the Hellenic Navy;

 (formerly USS Semmes)
 (formerly USS Waddell)
 (formerly USS Joseph Strauss)
 (formerly USS Berkeley)

Lütjens class

The  was a modification of the Charles F. Adams class for the Bundesmarine (the Navy of West Germany). It differed from the Charles F. Adams class in the layout of the crew accommodations, the location of the bow sonar, a second large aerial mast and different funnels.
  (scrapped)
  (Museum ship)
  (scrapped)

Perth class

The Royal Australian Navy had three Charles F. Adams-class units constructed to their own specifications (these ships were designated the ). Although broadly similar to the US Navy's vessels, the Australian ships were fitted with the Ikara system instead of the ASROC that was fitted to the American units. The three ships were:
  (sunk as a dive wreck)
  (sunk as a dive wreck)
  (sunk as a dive wreck)

Notes

References

External links

 Mölders (D 186), Deutsches Marine Museum, Wilhelmshaven, Germany
 HMAS Perth (DDG-38), Artificial Dive Reef, Albany Australia
 USS Charles F. Adams (DDG-2), Jacksonville Historic Naval Ship Association, Jacksonville Florida
 Charles F. Adams-class Veterans Association
 Charles F. Adams-class guided missile destroyers at Destroyer History Foundation

Destroyer classes
 Charles_F._Adams-class_destroyer

Charles F. Adams-class destroyer


Tizian Jost (* 8. August 1966 in Kassel als Hans-Christian Jost) ist ein deutscher Jazzpianist und -Vibraphonist.

Leben und Wirken
Jost erhielt seinen ersten Klavierunterricht im Alter von sechs Jahren; weiter lernte er Cello und Orgel.
Auch nahm er privaten Unterricht bei Pepsi Auer, Paul Grabowsky und Mal Waldron.
Seit seinem Umzug nach München 1985 ist er dort als professioneller Jazzmusiker aktiv.
Zuerst hatte er Engagements bei dem Trompeter und Komponisten Franz-David Baumann, als Pianist der Bigband von Harald Rüschenbaum und von 1987 bis 1991 als Hauspianist des Jazzclubs Allotria in der Münchner Türkenstraße.
Dort spielte er mit Musikern wie Mark Murphy, Dusko Goykovich, Roman Schwaller, Thomas Stabenow, Tony Lakatos u. a.
Von 1987 bis 2000 arbeitete er mit dem Tenorsaxophonisten Günther Klatt zusammen.
Diese Zusammenarbeit führte die beiden auf ausgedehnte Tourneen durch Süd- und Mittelamerika, den indischen Subkontinent und eine Vielzahl europäischer Länder.
Von 1990 bis 2002 war er Co-Leader der brasilianischen Band Domundo, zusammen mit der Sängerin Lygia Campos und dem Schlagzeuger Claudio Wilner.

Er ist auch auf Alben von Claus Reichstaller/Axel Kühn, Johanna Schneider und Sophie Wegener zu hören.
Auch spielte er vier Trio-CDs unter eigenem Namen für das japanische Platten-Label Atelier Sawano ein. 2012 erschien seine CD Afternoon in Rio mit Paulo Morello, Erivelton Silva, Wolfgang Lackerschmid und Hendrik Meurkens.

Seit 1995 ist er Dozent und seit 2015 Professor im Hauptfach Jazz-Klavier, bis 2008 am Richard-Strauss-Konservatorium, und seitdem – nach Fusion des Konservatoriums mit der Münchner Musikhochschule – an der Hochschule für Musik und Theater München.
Zu seinen ehemaligen Schülern und Studenten zählen u. a. Benedikt Jahnel, Chris Gall, Marc Schmolling, Antje Uhle, Andrea Hermenau und Tim Allhoff.

Seit Dezember 2012 hat Tizian Jost den Vorsitz der Landesarbeitsgemeinschaft Jazz in Bayern e.V. inne.

Weblinks
 www.tizian-jost.de
 Biographie (HMT München)

Lexikalische Einträge
 Jürgen Wölfer: Jazz in Deutschland. Das Lexikon. Alle Musiker und Plattenfirmen von 1920 bis heute. Hannibal, Höfen 2008, ISBN 978-3-85445-274-4.

Einzelnachweise

Jazz-Pianist
Jazz-Vibraphonist
Hochschullehrer (Hochschule für Musik und Theater München)
Musiker (Deutschland)
Deutscher
Geboren 1966
Mann

Tizian Jost


The common myna or Indian myna (Acridotheres tristis), sometimes spelled mynah, is a bird in the family Sturnidae, native to Asia. An omnivorous open woodland bird with a strong territorial instinct, the common myna has adapted extremely well to urban environments.

The range of the common myna is increasing at such a rapid rate that in 2000 the IUCN Species Survival Commission declared it one of the world's most invasive species and one of only three birds listed among "100 of the World's Worst Invasive Species" that pose a threat to biodiversity, agriculture and human interests. In particular, the species poses a serious threat to the ecosystems of Australia, where it was named "The Most Important Pest/Problem" in 2008.

Taxonomy
In 1760, the French zoologist Mathurin Jacques Brisson included a description of the common myna in his Ornithologie, based on a specimen that he mistakenly believed had been collected in the Philippines. He used the French name Le merle des Philippines and the Latin Merula Philippensis. Although Brisson coined Latin names, they do not conform to the binominal system and are not recognised by the International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature.

When the Swedish naturalist, Carl Linnaeus, updated his Systema Naturae in 1766, for the 12th edition, he added 240 species that had been previously described by Brisson. One of them was the common myna. Linnaeus included a brief description, coined the binominal name Paradisea tristis and cited Brisson's work. The type location was subsequently corrected to Pondicherry in southern India. The specific name tristis is Latin for "sad" or "gloomy". This species is now placed in the genus Acridotheres that was introduced by the French ornithologist Louis Jean Pierre Vieillot in 1816. The generic name Acridotheres is from the Greek ακριδος (akridos), meaning locust, and θηρας (theras), meaning hunter.

Two subspecies are recognised:
 the Indian myna (A. t. tristis) (Linnaeus, 1766) – It is found from southern Kazakhstan, Turkmenistan and eastern Iran to southern China, Indochina, the Malay Peninsula and southern India. It has also been introduced to Hawaii and North America. Populations from the northwest of its range have sometimes been separated as a distinct subspecies, A. t. neumanni, while populations from Nepal and Myanmar have been described as A. t. tristoides.
 the Sri Lankan myna (A. t. melanosternus) Legge, 1879 – Sri Lanka
The Sri Lankan subspecies melanosternus is darker than the Indian subspecies tristis and has half-black and half-white primary coverts and a larger yellow cheek-patch.

Description
The common myna is readily identified by the brown body, black hooded head and the bare yellow patch behind the eye. The bill and legs are bright yellow. There is a white patch on the outer primaries and the wing lining on the underside is white. The sexes are similar and birds are usually seen in pairs.

The common myna obeys Gloger's rule in that the birds from northwestern India tend to be paler than their darker counterparts in southern India.

Vocalization
The calls includes croaks, squawks, chirps, clicks, whistles and 'growls', and the bird often fluffs its feathers and bobs its head in singing. The common myna screeches warnings to its mate or other birds in cases of predators in proximity or when it is about to take off flying. Common mynas are popular as cage birds for their singing and "speaking" abilities. Before sleeping in communal roosts, common mynas vocalise in unison, which is known as "communal noise".

Morphometry
Morphometry.
 Body length:

Distribution and habitat
The common myna is native to Asia, with its initial home range spanning Iran, Pakistan, India, Nepal, Bhutan, Bangladesh and Sri Lanka, Afghanistan, Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Myanmar, Malaysia, Singapore, peninsular Thailand, Indochina, Japan (both mainland Japan and the Ryukyu Islands) and China.

The common myna has been introduced to many other parts of the world such as Canada, Australia, Israel, New Zealand, New Caledonia, Fiji, the United States (South Florida only), South Africa, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan Uzbekistan, the Cayman Islands, islands in the Indian Ocean (the Seychelles – from which it was subsequently eradicated at great expense, Mauritius, Réunion, Madagascar, the Maldives, the Andaman and Nicobar Islands and the Lakshadweep archipelago) and also in islands of the Atlantic (such as Ascension and Saint Helena, Pacific Ocean and Cyprus February 2022. The range of the common myna is increasing to the extent that in 2000 the IUCN Species Survival Commission declared it among 100 of the world's worst invasive species.

It is typically found in open woodland, cultivation and around habitation. Although it is an adaptable species, its population is abnormal and very much considered a pest in Singapore (where it is locally called as gembala kerbau, literally 'buffalo shepherd') due to competition with the related introduced Javan myna.

The common myna thrives in urban and suburban environments; in Canberra, for instance, 110 common mynas were released between 1968 and 1971. By 1991, common myna population density in Canberra averaged 15 birds per square kilometer. Only three years later, a second study found an average population density of 75 birds per square kilometer in the same area.

The bird likely owes its success in the urban and suburban settings of Sydney and Canberra to its evolutionary origins; having evolved in the open woodlands of India, the common myna is pre-adapted to habitats with tall vertical structures and little to no vegetative ground cover, features characteristic of city streets and urban nature preserves.

The common myna (along with common starlings, house sparrows, and feral rock doves) is a nuisance to city buildings; its nests block gutters and drainpipes, causing water damage to building exteriors.

Behaviour

Breeding

Common mynas are believed to pair for life. They breed through much of the year depending on the location, building their nest in a hole in a tree or wall. They breed at elevations of  in the Himalayas.

The normal clutch size is 4–6 eggs. The average size of the egg is . The incubation period is 17 to 18 days and fledging period is 22 to 24 days. The Asian koel is sometimes brood parasitic on this species. Nesting material used by common mynas includes twigs, roots, tow and rubbish. Common mynas have been known to use tissue paper, tin foil and sloughed off snake-skin.

During the breeding season, the daytime activity-time budget of the common myna in Pune in April to June 1978 has been recorded to comprise the following: nesting activity (42%), scanning the environment (28%), locomotion (12%), feeding (4%), vocalisation (7%) and preening-related activities, interactions and other activities (7%).

The common myna uses the nests of woodpeckers, parakeets, etc. and easily takes to nest boxes; it has been recorded evicting the chicks of previously nesting pairs by holding them in the beak and later sometimes not even using the emptied nest boxes. This aggressive behaviour contributes to its success as an invasive species.

There is also some evidence that shows that in introduced environments, the species chooses to nest in more modified and artificial structures than in natural tree cavities when compared to native species.

Food and feeding
Like most starlings, the common myna is omnivorous. It feeds on insects, arachnids, crustaceans, reptiles, small mammals, seeds, grain and fruits and discarded waste from human habitation. It forages on the ground among grass for insects, and especially for grasshoppers, from which it gets the generic name Acridotheres, "grasshopper hunter". It, however, feeds on a wide range of insects, mostly picked from the ground. It is a cross-pollinator of flowers such as Salmalia and Erythrina. It walks on the ground with occasional hops and is an opportunistic feeder on the insects disturbed by grazing cattle as well as fired grass fields. Living in close proximity to human-made habitats, common mynas may also appear near roadsides to feed on roadkill.

Roosting behaviour
Common mynas roost communally throughout the year, either in pure or mixed flocks with jungle mynas, rosy starlings, house crows, jungle crows, cattle egrets and rose-ringed parakeets and other birds.  The roost population can range from less than one hundred to thousands. The time of arrival of mynas at the roost starts before and ends just after sunset. The mynas depart before sunrise. The time and timespan of arrival and departure, time taken for final settlement at the roost, duration of communal sleep, flock size and population vary seasonally.

The function of communal roosting is to synchronise various social activities, avoid predators, exchange information about food sources.

Communal displays (pre-roosting and post-roosting) consist of aerial maneuvers which are exhibited in the pre-breeding season (November to March). It is assumed that this behaviour is related to pair formation.

Invasive species
The IUCN declared the common myna as one of only three birds among the world's 100 worst invasive species (the other two being the red-vented bulbul and the common starling).
The French introduced it in the 18th century from Pondicherry to Mauritius with the aim of controlling insects, even levying a fine on anyone persecuting the bird. It has since been introduced widely elsewhere, including adjacent areas in Southeast Asia, Madagascar, the Middle East, South Africa, the United States, Argentina, Germany, Spain and Portugal,  the United Kingdom, Australia, New Zealand and various oceanic islands in the Indian and Pacific Oceans, including prominent populations in Fiji and Hawaii.

The common myna is regarded as a pest in South Africa, North America, the Middle East, Australia, New Zealand and many Pacific islands.  It is particularly problematic in Australia.  Several methods have been tried to control the bird's numbers and protect native species.

Australia

In Australia, the common myna is an invasive pest.  They are often the predominant bird in urban areas along the whole east coast.  In a 2008 popular vote, the bird was named "The Most Important Pest/Problem" in Australia. They have earned the nickname "flying rats", due to their numbers and their scavenging behaviour. They are also known as "the cane toad of the sky". However, there is little scientific consensus concerning the extent of its impact on native species.

The common myna was first introduced to Australia between 1863 and 1872, in Victoria, to control insects in the market gardens of Melbourne. The bird is likely to have spread to New South Wales (where it is currently most populous) at around the same time, but documentation is uncertain. The bird was later introduced to Queensland as a predator of grasshoppers and cane beetles. Common myna populations in Australia are now concentrated along the eastern coast around Sydney and its surrounding suburbs, with sparser populations in Victoria and a few isolated communities in Queensland. During 2009 several municipal councils in New South Wales began trials of catching myna birds in an effort to reduce numbers.

The myna can live and breed in a wide range of temperatures, ranging from the frosty winters of Canberra to the tropical climate of Cairns. Self-sustaining populations have been found in regions with a mean monthly highest temperature no less than  and a mean monthly lowest temperature no less than , implying that the common myna could spread from Sydney northwards along the eastern coast to Cairns, and westwards along the southern coast to Adelaide, but not to Tasmania, Darwin or the arid outback regions.

Europe
In 2019, common mynas were added to the List of Invasive Alien Species of Union concern. They have established in Spain and Portugal and were introduced to France, where they occasionally bred.

New Zealand
The common myna was introduced to both the North Island and South Island of New Zealand in the 1870s. However, the cooler summer temperatures in the South Island appear to have impeded the breeding success rate of the southern populations, preventing the proliferation of the species, which was largely non-existent there by the 1890s. In contrast, the North Island population was able to breed more successfully and large portions of the North Island are now populated. However, in the southern reaches of the North Island, the cooler summer temperatures, like those of the South Island, have prevented the establishment of large myna populations. Since the 1950s, mynas have spread northwards and presently inhabit beyond the Waikato region, leading to a majority of its successful population thriving upon lower latitude regions due to the warmer climate. At present, mynas have become especially common in regions of lower latitude, particularly the Northland region, but rarely found south of Whanganui.

South Africa
In South Africa where it escaped into the wild in 1902, it has become very common and its distribution is greater where human populations are greater or where there is more human disturbance. The bird is also notorious for being a pest, kicking other birds out of their nests and killing their young due to the myna's strong territorial instinct. In South Africa it is considered somewhat of a major pest and disturbance of the natural habitat; as a result, it has been declared an invasive species, requiring it to be controlled.

Morphological studies show that the process of spatial sorting is at work on the range expansion of A. tristis in South Africa. Dispersal-relevant traits are significantly correlated with distance from the range core, with strong sexual dimorphism, indicative of sex-biased dispersal. Morphological variations are significant in wing and head traits of females, suggesting females as the primary dispersing sex. In contrast, traits not related to dispersal such as those associated with foraging show no signs of spatial sorting but are significantly affected by environmental variables such as vegetation and intensity of urbanisation.

The United States
In Hawaii, it is out-competing many native birds for food and nesting areas.

To study the invasion genetics and landscape-scale dynamics of A. tristis, scientists have recently developed 16 polymorphic nuclear microsatellite markers  using the next generation sequencing (NGS) approach.

Effect on ecosystems and humans

Threat to native birds
The common myna is a hollow-nesting species; that is, it nests and breeds in protected hollows found either naturally in trees or artificially on buildings (for example, recessed windowsills or low eaves). Compared to native hollow-nesting species, the common myna is extremely aggressive, and breeding males will actively defend areas ranging up to 0.83 hectares in size (though males in densely populated urban settings tend to only defend the area immediately surrounding their nests).

This aggressiveness has enabled the common myna to displace many breeding pairs of native hollow-nesters, thereby reducing their reproductive success. In Australia, their aggressiveness has enabled them to chase native birds as large as galahs out of their nests.

The common myna is also known to maintain up to two roosts simultaneously; a temporary summer roost close to a breeding site (where the entire local male community sleeps during the summer, the period of highest aggression), and a permanent all-year roost where the female broods and incubates overnight. Both male and female common mynas will fiercely protect both roosts at all times, leading to further exclusion of native birds.

Threat to crops and pasture
The common myna (which feeds mostly on ground-dwelling insects, tropical fruits such as grapes, plums and some berries and, in urban areas, discarded human food) poses a serious threat to Australian blueberry crops, though its main threat is to native bird species.

In Hawaii, where the common myna was introduced to control pest armyworms and cutworms in sugarcane crops, the bird has helped to spread the robust Lantana camara weed across the islands' open grasslands. It also has been recorded as the fourth-ranking avian pest in the fruit industry by a 2004 survey of the Hawaiian Farm Bureau and the sixth in number of complaints of avian pests overall.

Common mynas can cause considerable damage to ripening fruit, particularly grapes, but also figs, apples, pears, strawberries, blueberries, guava, mangoes and breadfruit. Cereal crops such as maize, wheat and rice are susceptible where they occur near urban areas. Roosting and nesting commensal with humans create aesthetic and health concerns. Common mynas are known to carry avian malaria and exotic parasites such as the Ornithonyssus bursia mite, which can cause dermatitis in humans. The common myna can help spread agricultural weeds: for example, it spreads the seeds of Lantana camara, which has been classed as a Weed of National Significance because of its invasiveness. Common mynas are regularly observed to usurp nests and hollows, destroy the eggs and kill the young of native bird species, including seabirds and parrots. There is evidence that common mynas have killed small land
mammals such as mice, squirrels and possums, but further research on these occurrences is under consideration.

Control

The common myna, being a major agricultural pest and posing a threat to native species in non-native countries, is controlled by various factors. Mynas are either killed or chased away as control. Poison, shooting, cage traps, and bird-scaring devices are currently used for control.

== In culture==
In Sanskrit literature, the common myna has a number of names, most are descriptive of the appearance or behaviour of the bird. In addition to saarika, the names for the common myna include kalahapriya, which means "one who is fond of arguments" referring to the quarrelsome nature of this bird; chitranetra, meaning "picturesque eyes"; peetanetra (one with yellow eyes) and peetapaad (one with yellow legs).

The bird called śārikā () seems to refer to the common myna, though there are other candidates.

Gallery

Explanatory notes

References

Citations

Sources

Further reading

External links

Common Myna videos, photos & sounds on the Internet Bird Collection
(Indian Myna =) Common Myna - Species text in The Atlas of Southern African Birds.
Indian Myna Control Handbook

Common Myna video on Wild Sri Lanka
ANU Indian Common Myna page about mynas as an invasive species in Australia and what can be done to control them

common myna
common myna
Birds of Southern Africa
Birds of South Asia
Birds of Southeast Asia
Birds of the Indian Ocean
Birds of the Middle East
Birds of Hawaii
Talking birds
common myna
Taxa named by Carl Linnaeus

Common myna


Witness Bonjisi  es un escultor de Zimbabue conocido por sus tallas en piedra, nacido en el año 1975 en Mudzi, Mutoko.

Datos biográficos
Nativo de la localidad de Mudzi, en Mutoko, Witness Bonjisi fue el segundo de los hermanos de la familia; creció en la población de Domboshoava, en Chinamhora. Allí completó sus estudios en la escuela primaria antes de trasladarse a Mabvuku, en las afueras de Harare, y completar su educación secundaria.

Witness Bonjisi empezó a esculpir el año 1992, trabajando con su hermano y con su hermano Lameck y con Nicholas Mukomberanwa; su hermano Tafunga es también artista. En 1997 comenzó a trabajar por su cuenta, y desde entonces ha asistido a talleres en los Estados Unidos y Suiza.

Notas y referencias

Notas

Enlaces externos

Escultores de Zimbabue
Escultores del siglo XX
Escultores del siglo XXI
Zimbabuenses del siglo XX
Zimbabuenses del siglo XXI

Witness Bonjisi


دانييلي دي فيزي  (مواليد 9 يناير 1980 في روما - إيطاليا) لاعب كرة قدم إيطالي يلعب حاليا لصالح نادي الدرجة الأولى باري الإيطالي منذ 2008 في مركز الوسط المدافع .

روابط خارجية

مراجع

لاعبو وسط كرة قدم رجالية
لاعبو كرة قدم من روما
أشخاص على قيد الحياة
رياضيون من روما
لاعبو أسكولي
لاعبو الدوري الإيطالي
لاعبو باري
لاعبو باليرمو
لاعبو تورينو
لاعبو جنوى
لاعبو الدوري الإيطالي الدرجة الثانية
لاعبو روما
لاعبو فيورنتينا
لاعبو كرة قدم إيطاليون
لاعبو منتخب إيطاليا لكرة القدم للشباب
لاعبو نادي بينيفينتو
لاعبو نادي ريجينا 1919
لاعبو نادي ليفورنو
لاعبو نادي مسينا
مواليد 1980
مواليد في روما
لاعبو يو أس بركوليتزه 1932

دانييلي دي فيزي


Roger Mortimer, 3rd Baron Mortimer of Wigmore, 1st Earl of March (25 April 1287 – 29 November 1330), was an English nobleman and powerful Marcher Lord who gained many estates in the Welsh Marches and Ireland following his advantageous marriage to the wealthy heiress Joan de Geneville, 2nd Baroness Geneville. Her mother was of the Royal House of Lusignan.

In November 1316, he was appointed Lord Lieutenant of Ireland. He was imprisoned in the Tower of London in 1322 for having led the Marcher lords in a revolt against King Edward II in what became known as the Despenser War.

He later escaped to France, where he was joined by Edward's queen consort Isabella, where they may have begun an affair. After he and Isabella led a successful invasion and rebellion, Edward was deposed; Mortimer allegedly arranged his murder at Berkeley Castle.

For three years, Mortimer was de facto ruler of England before being himself overthrown by Edward's eldest son, Edward III. Accused of assuming royal power and other crimes, Mortimer was executed by hanging at Tyburn.

Early life
Mortimer, grandson of Roger Mortimer, 1st Baron Mortimer of Wigmore, and Maud de Braose, was born at Wigmore Castle, Herefordshire, England, the firstborn of Marcher Lord Edmund Mortimer, 2nd Baron Mortimer of Wigmore, and Margaret de Fiennes. Through his mother Margaret, he was a great-grandson of John of Brienne, Emperor of Constantinople and King of Jerusalem. Mortimer's G/G/G grandfather was John, King of England and  his G/G grandfather was Llywelyn the Great.

Roger was born on 25 April 1287, the Feast of Saint Mark, a day of bad omen. He shared this birthday with King Edward II, which would be relevant later in life.

Edmund Mortimer was a second son, intended for minor orders and a clerical career, but on the sudden death of his elder brother Ralph, Edmund was recalled from Oxford University and installed as heir. According to his biographer Ian Mortimer, Mortimer was possibly sent as a boy away from home to be fostered in the household of his formidable uncle, Roger Mortimer de Chirk. It was this uncle who had carried the severed head of Llywelyn ap Gruffudd of Wales to King Edward I in 1282. Ironically Mortimer was a cousin of Llywelyn via his great-grandmother, Gwladus Ddu.

Mortimer attended the Coronation of Edward II on 25 February 1308 and carried a table bearing the royal robes in the ceremony's procession.

Marriage
Like many noble children of his time, Mortimer was betrothed at a young age, to Joan de Geneville (born 1286), the daughter of Sir Peter de Geneville, of Trim Castle and Ludlow. They were married on 20 September 1301 when he was aged fourteen. Their first child was born in 1302.

Through his marriage, Mortimer not only acquired numerous possessions in the Welsh Marches, including the important Ludlow Castle, which became the chief stronghold of the Mortimers, but also extensive estates and influence in Ireland. However, Joan de Geneville was not an "heiress" at the time of her marriage. Her grandfather Geoffrey de Geneville, at the age of eighty in 1308, conveyed most, but not all, of his Irish lordships to Mortimer, and then retired: he finally died in 1314, with Joan succeeding as suo jure 2nd Baroness Geneville. During his lifetime Geoffrey also conveyed much of the remainder of his legacy, such as Kenlys, to his younger son Simon de Geneville, who had meanwhile become Baron of Culmullin through marriage to Joanna FitzLeon. Mortimer, therefore, succeeded to the eastern part of the Lordship of Meath, centred on Trim and its stronghold of Trim Castle. He did not succeed, however, to the Lordship of Fingal.

Military adventures in Ireland and Wales
Mortimer's childhood came to an abrupt end when his father was mortally wounded in a skirmish near Builth in July 1304. Since Mortimer was underage at the death of his father, he was placed by King Edward I under the guardianship of Piers Gaveston, 1st Earl of Cornwall. However, on 22 May 1306, in a lavish ceremony in Westminster Abbey with two hundred and fifty-nine others, he was knighted by Edward and granted livery of his full inheritance.

His adult life began in earnest in 1308, when he went to Ireland in person to enforce his authority. This brought him into conflict with the de Lacys, who turned for support to Edward Bruce, brother of Robert Bruce, King of Scots. Mortimer was appointed Lord Lieutenant of Ireland by Edward II on 23 November 1316. Shortly afterwards, at the head of a large army, he drove Bruce to Carrickfergus and the de Lacys into Connaught, wreaking vengeance on their adherents whenever they were to be found. He returned to England and Wales in 1318 and was then occupied for some years with baronial disputes on the Welsh border.

Opposition to Edward II

Mortimer became disaffected with his king and joined the growing opposition to Edward II and the Despensers. After the younger Despenser was granted lands belonging to him, he and the Marchers began conducting devastating raids against Despenser property in Wales. He supported Humphrey de Bohun, 4th Earl of Hereford, in refusing to obey the king's summons to appear before him in 1321 as long as "the younger Despencer was in the King's train." Mortimer led a march against London, his men wearing the Mortimer uniform which was green with a yellow sleeve. He was prevented from entering the capital, although his forces put it under siege. These acts of insurrection compelled the Lords Ordainers led by Thomas, 2nd Earl of Lancaster, to order the king to banish the Despensers in August. When the king led a successful expedition in October against Margaret de Clare, Baroness Badlesmere, after she had refused Queen Isabella admittance to Leeds Castle, he used his victory and new popularity among the moderate lords and the people to summon the Despensers back to England. Mortimer, in company with other Marcher Lords, led a rebellion against Edward, which is known as the Despenser War.

In January 1322, Mortimer attacked and burnt Bridgnorth but, being heavily outnumbered, was forced to surrender to the king at Shrewsbury. Mortimer joined Lancaster at the Battle of Boroughbridge in March 1322 and warrants for his arrest were issued in July.

A death sentence was passed upon Mortimer but this was commuted to life imprisonment and he was consigned to the Tower of London. On 1 August 1323, Mortimer, aided by Gerald de Alspaye, the sub-lieutenant or valet of the Tower's Constable,  drugged the warders during a feast, allowing Mortimer to escape. He attempted to capture Windsor and Wallingford Castles to free imprisoned Contrariants. Mortimer eventually fled to France, pursued by warrants for his capture dead or alive.

In the following year Queen Isabella, anxious to escape from her husband, obtained his consent to her going to France to use her influence with her brother, King Charles IV, in favour of peace. At the French court, the queen found Mortimer, who became her lover soon afterwards. At his instigation, she refused to return to England so long as the Despensers retained power as the king's favourites.

Historians have speculated as to the date at which Mortimer and Isabella actually became lovers. The modern view is that the affair began while both were still in England, and that after a disagreement, Isabella abandoned Mortimer to his fate in the Tower. His subsequent escape became one of medieval England's most colourful episodes. However, almost certainly Isabella risked everything by chancing Mortimer's companionship and emotional support when they first met again at Paris four years later (Christmas 1325). King Charles IV's protection of Isabella at the French court from Despenser's would-be assassins played a large part in developing the relationship.

In 1326, Mortimer moved as Prince Edward's guardian to Hainault, but only after a furious dispute with the queen, demanding she remain in France.

Isabella retired to raise troops in her County of Ponthieu; Mortimer arranged the invasion fleet supplied by the Hainaulters and an army supplied by his supporters back in England, who had been sending him aid and advice since at least March 1326.

Invasion of England and defeat of Edward II

The scandal of Isabella's relations with Mortimer compelled them both to withdraw from the French court to Flanders, where they obtained assistance for an invasion of England from Count William of Hainaut, although Isabella did not arrive from Ponthieu until the fleet was due to sail. Landing in the River Orwell on 24 September 1326, they were accompanied by Prince Edward and Henry, Earl of Lancaster. London rose in support of the queen, and Edward took flight to the west, pursued by Mortimer and Isabella. After wandering helplessly for some weeks in Wales, the king was taken prisoner on 16 November, and was compelled to abdicate in favour of his son. Though the latter was crowned as Edward III of England on 1 February 1327, the country was ruled by Mortimer and Isabella. On 21 September that same year, Edward II died in captivity. The suspicious death of Edward II has been the subject of many conspiracy theories, including that Mortimer's men killed him, but none has been proven.

Powers won and lost
Following the removal of the Despensers, Mortimer set to work in restoring the status of his supporters, primarily in the Marches, and hundreds of pardons and restorations of property were made in the first year of the new king's reign. Rich estates and offices of profit and power were heaped on Mortimer. He was made constable of Wallingford Castle and in September 1328 he was created Earl of March. However, although in military terms he was far more competent than the Despensers, his ambition was troubling to all. His own son Geoffrey, the only one to survive into old age, mocked him as "the king of folly" deriding his ambitious extravagance of "rich clothes ot of manner resoun, both of shaping and wearing". During his short time as ruler of England he took over the lordships of Denbigh, Oswestry and Clun (the first of which belonged to Despenser, the latter two had been the Earl of Arundel's). He was also granted the marcher lordship of Montgomery by the queen. During the War of Saint Sardos, the Regent and his queen spent over £60,000 bankrupting the Treasury, even after the proscriptions of Arundel and the Despensers. The Lancastrian opposition were incensed by this casual display of irresponsible government.

The jealousy and anger of many nobles were aroused by Mortimer's use of power, which in many ways was tenuous. In 1328 Simon de Mepham, reportedly a Lancastrian at court, was elected Archbishop of Canterbury without controversy. However, the feuding would not stop. The day Parliament opened on 15 October Thomas of Lancaster's nemesis, Sir Robert Holland was murdered by highway robbers. Whereupon March swore on Mepham's cross that he knew nothing of it. Nonetheless, the King decreed an indictment; he would be judged at law against the standards of the Magna Carta. With Parliament adjourned on 31 October, he was able to slip away to his estates on the Marches. The two earls' lethal enmity, and enforced absence from the King's presence, rendered their motives almost equally suspect to rowdy Londoners. The young king would have to raise an army of archers if he was to defend his throne from a northern rebellion controlled by Lancaster. In charge of the army, Lancaster blamed Mortimer and his queen for the debacle, and the highly contentious Treaty of Edinburgh–Northampton with the Scots.

Henry, Earl of Lancaster, one of the principals behind Edward II's deposition, tried to overthrow Mortimer, but the action was ineffective as the young king passively stood by. Then, in March 1330, Mortimer ordered the execution of Edmund, Earl of Kent, the half-brother of Edward II. After this execution Henry Lancaster prevailed upon the young king, Edward III, to assert his independence. In October 1330, a Parliament was summoned to Nottingham, just days before Edward's eighteenth birthday, and Mortimer and Isabella were seized by Edward and his companions from inside Nottingham Castle. In spite of Isabella's entreaty to her son, "Fair son, have pity on the gentle Mortimer", Mortimer was conveyed to the Tower. Accused of assuming royal power and of various other high misdemeanours, he was condemned without trial and hanged at Tyburn on 29 November 1330, his vast estates forfeited to the crown. His body hung at the gallows for two days and nights in full view of the populace. Mortimer's widow Joan received a pardon in 1336 and survived until 1356. She was buried beside Mortimer at Wigmore, but the site was later destroyed.

In 2002, the actor John Challis, the owner of the remaining buildings of Wigmore Abbey, invited the BBC programme House Detectives at Large to investigate his property. During the investigation, a document was discovered in which Mortimer's widow Joan petitioned Edward III for the return of her husband's body so she could bury it at Wigmore Abbey. Mortimer's lover Isabella had buried his body at Greyfriars in Coventry following his hanging. Edward III replied, "Let his body rest in peace". The king later relented, and Mortimer's body was transferred to Wigmore Abbey, where Joan was later buried beside him.

Children
The marriages of Mortimer's children (three sons and eight daughters) cemented Mortimer's strengths in the West.
 Sir Edmund Mortimer (1302/1303 – 16 December 1331), married Elizabeth de Badlesmere; they produced Roger Mortimer, 2nd Earl of March, who was restored to his grandfather's title.
 Margaret Mortimer (1304 – 5 May 1337), married Thomas de Berkeley, 3rd Baron Berkeley
 Roger Mortimer (1305 – 1328), married Joan Butler
 Maud Mortimer (1307 – after 1345), married John de Charlton, Lord of Powys
 Geoffrey Mortimer (1308/1309 – 1372/1376), who inherited the French seigneurie of Couhé as the assigned heir of his grandmother Joan of Lusignan, and founded a branch of the family based in France.
 John Mortimer (c. 1310 – 1328)
 Joan Mortimer (c. 1311/1312 – 1337/1351), married James Audley, 2nd Baron Audley
 Isabel Mortimer (c. 1313 – after 1327)
 Katherine Mortimer (c. 1314 – 4 August 1369), married Thomas de Beauchamp, 11th Earl of Warwick
 Agnes Mortimer (c. 1317 – 25 July 1368), married Laurence Hastings, 1st Earl of Pembroke
 Beatrice Mortimer (c. 1319 – 16 October 1383), who married firstly, Edward of Norfolk (died before 9 August 1334), son and heir apparent of Thomas of Brotherton, by whom she had no issue, and secondly, before 13 September 1337, Thomas de Brewes (died 9 or 16 June 1361), by whom she had three sons and three daughters.
 Blanche Mortimer (c. 1321 – 1347), married Peter de Grandison, 2nd Baron Grandison

Descendants

Through his son Sir Edmund Mortimer, he is an ancestor of the last Plantagenet monarchs of England from kings Edward IV to Richard III. By Edward IV's daughter, Elizabeth of York, the Earl of March is an ancestor to King Henry VIII of England and King James V of Scotland, and therefore to all subsequent Scottish, English and British monarchs.

On the British television series Who Do You Think You Are, which traces the ancestry of famous celebrities, it was revealed that Courteney Cox is the nineteenth great-granddaughter of Roger Mortimer.

Ancestry

In fiction
Mortimer appears in Christopher Marlowe's play Edward II (c. 1592), the Restoration tragedy Edward III (1690), as well as Bertolt Brecht's The Life of Edward II of England (1923). In Derek Jarman's film Edward II (1991), based on Marlowe's play, he is portrayed by Nigel Terry.

Mortimer is also a character in Les Rois maudits (The Accursed Kings), a series of French historical novels by Maurice Druon. He was portrayed by Claude Giraud in the 1972 French miniseries adaptation of the series, and by Bruno Todeschini in the 2005 adaptation. Mortimer is also briefly mentioned in the 2001 film A Knight's Tale as a contestant in a joust.

Mortimer is also a character in World Without End played by Hannes Jaenicke.

Notes

References

  Lines: 10–31, 29–32, 29–33, 39–31, 47B-33, 71–33, 71A-32, 120–133, 176B-32, 263-231
  (MS 10,208, National Library, Dublin)

External links

 Wigmore Castle
 BBC "House Detectives at Large" Press Release

1287 births
1330 deaths
British and English royal favourites
Mortimer
English rebels
Escapees from the Tower of London
People executed under the Plantagenets
Male lovers of royalty
14th-century English people
Executed people from Herefordshire
People executed by the Kingdom of England by hanging
Marcher lords
Roger
People executed at Tyburn
Burials in Herefordshire
People knighted at the Feast of the Swans
Leaders ousted by a coup
Lords Lieutenant of Ireland
14th-century executions by England
Peers created by Edward III

Roger Mortimer, 1st Earl of March


20. yüzyıl, Gregoryen takvimine göre 1 Ocak 1901'de başlayıp 31 Aralık 2000'de sona eren yüzyıldır. İkinci binyılın onuncu ve son yüzyılıdır.

Olaylar

1900

 Sigmund Freud'un Rüyalar ve Yorumları adlı kitabı yayımlandı.
 Mısır'da ilk tren Kahire - Hartum demiryolu tamamlandı ve ilk tren yolculuğu gerçekleştirildi.
 Amerikalı Dwight Filly Davis, Davis kupası tenis turnuvasını başlattı.
 Tarihe Boxer Ayaklanması olarak geçen, Çin'deki bütün yabancıları ülkeden çıkarmayı amaçlayan ve devletçe de desteklenen köylü ayaklanması başladı. Elçiler, aileleri, elçilik görevlileri ve yüzlerce Hristiyan, elçilik binaları ve Pekin'deki katolik katedralinde mahsur kaldı. Ayaklanma 7 Eylül 1901'de sona erdi.
 Dünyanın ilk metrosu Paris'te hizmete girdi.

1901

 İlk okyanus aşırı radyo yayını yapıldı.
 Hubeert Cecil Booth, elektrik süpürgesini icat etti.
 Pablo Picasso'nun eserleri ilk defa sergilendi.
 Amerika Birleşik Devletleri'nin 25. Başkanı William McKinley, Leon Czolgosz adlı bir terörist tarafından öldürüldü.
 İsveç Kralı ve Norveç Parlamentosu Nobel Komitesi ilk Nobel Ödüllerini dağıttı. Kızılhaç'ın kurucusu İsviçreli Jean Henry Dunant'a Nobel Barış Ödülü verildi.

1902

 Boer İsyanı bitti. İngilizler Güney Afrikalıların isyanını bastırdı. Komutanlar hapse mahkûm edildi.
 Türk şair Nâzım Hikmet doğdu.
 Martinik'te Pele Yanardağı patladı: 30 bin kişi öldü.
 Bağımsızlık Hareketi Sinn Fein kuruldu.
 Real Madrid Futbol Kulübü Kuruldu.

1903

 Wright Kardeşler uçağı icat etti.
 İstanbul depreminde 2000 kişi öldü.
 Panama, Amerika Birleşik Devletleri'nin desteğiyle Kolombiya'dan bağımsızlığını ilan etti.
 Uranyumun radyoaktivite etkisi bulundu.
 Beşiktaş kuruldu

1904

 Rus-Japon Savaşı başladı. Bu savaşta Rus Çarlığı yenildi.
 Francis Younghusband komutasındaki İngiliz kuvvetleri, Tibet'in başkenti Lhasa'yı ele geçirdi.
 Bağdat Demiryolu'nun Konya, Ereğli - Malatya, Bulgurlu arasındaki ilk bölümü işletmeye açıldı.
 New York metrosu ilk seferini yaptı.
 İskoç elektrik uzmanı John Ambrose Fleming, Birleşik Krallık'ta diyot lambayı tanıtmıştır.

1905

 Albert Einstein görelilik kuramını açıkladı.
 Rus Devrimi patlak verdi.
 Chelsea FC kuruldu.
 Norveç, İsveç'ten bağımsızlığını ilan etti.
 Galatasaray SK kuruldu

1906

 San Fransisco ili, 7.7 büyüklüğünde 50 saniye süren deprem ve onu izleyen yangınlarla yerle bir oldu. 28 bin bina yıkıldı, yaklaşık 500 kişi öldü, 100 bin kişi evsiz kaldı.
 SOS uluslararası acil yardım sinyali olarak kabul edildi.
 Dünyadaki ilk uzun metrajlı filmi olan "The Story of the Kelly Gang" gösterime girdi.
 Rus Çarı demokratları yanına alarak, komünistlerle baş edebilmek için meşrutiyet ilan etti.
 Osmanlı Devleti'nde özgürlükçü hareketler yeniden hızlandı. Selanik'te Osmanlı Hürriyet Cemiyeti kuruldu.

1907

 Auguste ve Louis Lumiére renkli fotoğrafçılığı geliştirdi.
 Paul Cornu helikopteri icat etti.
 Yeni Zelanda, Birleşik Krallık'tan bağımsızlığını ilan etti.
 Amerika Birleşik Devletleri merkezli uluslararası bankacılık krizi başladı. Bu kriz esnasında yüzlerce Amerikan bankası battı.
 Osmanlı Hürriyet Cemiyeti, İttihat ve Terakki Cemiyeti ile birleşti.
 Fenerbahçe SK kuruldu.

1908

 II. Meşrutiyet ilan edildi. Osmanlı'da Meclis yeniden açıldı.
 Çin'de 2 yaşındaki Puyi tahta çıktı.
 Kadın sporcular ilk kez Olimpiyat Oyunları'na katıldılar.
 Sicilya'nın Messina kentindeki depremde 555 kişi yaşamını yitirdi.

1909

 İstanbul'da 31 Mart Ayaklanması başladı.
 Osmanlı Devleti'nde azınlıklardan alınan ve askerlik bedeli olan cizye kaldırıldı.
 Amerika Birleşik Devletleri'nin, Washington ve Kaliforniya eyaletleri zekâ engelli, sağır ya da körlerin zorla kısırlaştırılmasını öngeren öjenik yasayı kabul etti.
 Fransa, ilk radyoloji uzmanlarını toplum hizmetine sunmuştur.

1910

 MKE Ankaragücü spor kulübü kuruldu.
 Halley kuyruklu yıldızı Dünya'nın yakınından geçti. (önceki: 1835; sonraki: 1986)
 Meclis-i Mebûsan binası olarak kullanılan Çırağan Sarayı yandı.
 Corinthians, Brezilya futbol kulübü kuruldu.

1911

 Trablusgarp Savaşı başladı.
 Roald Amundsen Güney kutbuna varan ilk insan oldu.
 Çin Devrimi'yle Qing Hanedanı'na son verilir.
 Meksika'da 1877'den beri iktidarda olan Porfirio Dias devrilerek yerine Frane Cisco Madero geçti.

1912

 I. Balkan Savaşı başlar.
 Trablusgarp,Uşi Antlaşması ile İtalyanlara verildi.
 Titanik bir buzdağına çarparak battı.
 Çin Cumhuriyeti resmî olarak kuruldu.
 Karadağ, Osmanlı Devleti'ne savaş ilan etti.Böylece Birinci Balkan Savaşı başladı.

1913

 II. Balkan Savaşı başladı.
 Ford Model T'nin seri üretimine başlandı.
 Paslanmaz çelik ilk olarak Sheffield, İngiltere'de icat edildi.
 II. Balkan Savaşı'ndan sonra, Yunanistan ile Osmanlı Devleti arasında Atina Antlaşması imzalandı.
 Panama Kanalı'ndan ilk gemi geçiş yaptı.

1914

 I. Dünya Savaşı başladı.
 İlk trafik ışığı Cleveland, Ohio'da kullanıldı.
 İngiliz donanmasının izlemesinden kaçan Almanların, Goeben ve Bresleau adlı zırhlıları, Çanakkale Boğazı'ndan geçerek, Türkiye'ye sığındı.Bu gemiler satın alınmış gösterilip, Türk bayrağı çekildi.Adları Yavuz ve Midilli olarak değiştirilmelerine rağmen gemilerin yönetimi Alman denizcilerde kaldı.
 Osmanlı Devleti, itilaf devletlerine (Birleşik Krallık, Rusya, Fransa) resmen savaş ilan etti.
 Sarıkamış Harekatı başladı.

1915

 Isıya dayanıklı cam icat edildi.
 New York ile San Fransisco arasında ilk telefon görüşmesi yapıldı.
 Avezzano'da (İtalya) meydana gelen depremde 29.800 kişi öldü.
 Zeplinlerin kullanıldığı ilk hava saldırısı Alman İmparatorluğu tarafından Birleşik Krallık'ta yapıldı.
 Çanakkale cephesinde Kara Muharebeleri başladı.

1916

 Tank, ilk kez I. Dünya Savaşı'nda kullanıldı.
 I. Dünya Savaşı'nda belirleyici rol oynayan Verdun (Fransa) çatışmaları başladı. Verdun'u saldıran Almanlara karşı savunan Fransa 362 bin, Almanya ise 336 bin kayıp verirken, 1917'de Fransızlar, Verdun'u Alman işgalinden tümüyle kurtardı.
 Bitlis, Muş, Van ve Hakkâri Ruslar tarafından işgal edildi.
 Hicaz, bağımsızlığını ilan ederek Osmanlı İmparatorluğu'ndan ayrıldı.

1917

 Ekim Devrimi başladı. Rusya'da sosyalistler yönetime el koydu. Çar ve Romanov Hanedanı kurşuna dizilerek öldürüldü. 300 yıllık Romanov hanedanı sona erdi.
 Finlandiya Rusya'dan bağımsızlığını ilan etti.

1918

 I. Dünya Savaşı bitti. İtilaf Devletleri savaşı kazanırken İttifak Devletleri çok ağır bir yenilgiye uğradı.
 Alman denizaltısı U 19, HMS Calgarian'ı Kuzey İrlanda'da Rathlin Adası açıklarında batırdı
 Sovyet Rusya'nın başkentı Petrograd'dan Moskova'ya aktarıldı.
 Azerbaycan Demokratik Cumhuriyeti kuruldu.
 Bahçe, Islahiye, Hassa, Mamure ve Osmaniye, Fransızlar tarafından işgal edildi.

1919

 Türk Kurtuluş Savaşı başladı.
 Almanya'da gerçekleşen ihtilal sonucu Weimar Cumhuriyeti kuruldu.
 Tıp Bayramı ve Mekteb-i Tıbbiye-i Şahane'nin kuruluş yıldönümü. Hikmet Boran önderliğinde, tıp camiasının emperyalist güçlerin karşısına resmen çıkışı nedeniyle bugün Tıp Bayramı olarak kutlanmaktadır.
 Sivas Kongresi başladı.

1920

 Hafif Makineli tüfek icat edildi.
 Nazi Partisi kuruldu.
 Misak-ı Milli kabul edildi.
 TBMM açıldı.
 Türkiye ile Ermenistan arasında Gümrü Anlaşması imzalandı.
 Çin'de meydana gelen 8.6 şiddetindeki depremde 100 bin kişi öldü.

1921

 Sakarya Meydan Muharebesi gerçekleşti.
 Ankara Antlaşması imzalandı.
 İtalya Anadolu'daki işgalden vazgeçti ve tamamen çekildi.

1922

 Kurtuluş Savaşı kazanıldı ve yeni Türk devletinin temelleri atıldı. Gazi Mustafa Kemal Paşa saltanatı kaldırdı.

20. yüzyılda etkin olan kişiler

Liderler

Avrupa
 II. Wilhelm (Alman İmparatorluğu)
 Konrad Adenauer (Almanya Federal Cumhuriyeti)
 Willy Brandt (Almanya Federal Cumhuriyeti)
 Heinrich Brüning (Almanya-Weimar Cumhuriyeti)
 Friedrich Ebert (Almanya-Weimar Cumhuriyeti)
 Ludwig Erhard (Almanya Federal Cumhuriyeti)
 Paul von Hindenburg (Almanya-Weimar Cumhuriyeti)
 Adolf Hitler (Almanya)
 Hans-Dietrich Genscher (Almanya)
 Erich Honecker (Doğu Almanya)
 Kurt Georg Kiesinger (Almanya Federal Cumhuriyeti)
 Helmut Kohl (Almanya Federal Cumhuriyeti)
 Karl Liebknecht (Almanya)
 Rosa Luxemburg (Almanya)
 Helmut Schmidt (Almanya Federal Cumhuriyeti)
 Gustav Stresemann (Almanya-Weimar Cumhuriyeti)
 Enver Hoca (Arnavutluk)
 Clement Attlee (Birleşik Krallık)
 Neville Chamberlain (Birleşik Krallık)
 Winston Churchill (Birleşik Krallık)
 Anthony Eden (Birleşik Krallık)
 II. Elizabeth (Birleşik Krallık)
 Harold Macmillan (Birleşik Krallık)
 Prenses Diana (Birleşik Krallık)
 Margaret Thatcher (Birleşik Krallık)
 Todor Jivkov (Bulgaristan)
 Alexander Dubček (Çekoslovakya)
 Urho Kekkonen (Finlandiya)
 Jacques Chirac (Fransa)
 Valéry Giscard d'Estaing (Fransa)
 Charles de Gaulle (Fransa)
 François Mitterrand (Fransa)
 Jean Monnet (Fransa)
 Robert Schuman (Fransa)
 Francisco Franco (İspanya)
 I. Juan Carlos (İspanya)
 Olof Palme ()
 Giulio Andreotti (İtalya)
 Silvio Berlusconi (İtalya)
 Benito Mussolini (İtalya)
 Janos Kadar (Macaristan)
 Imre Nagy (Macaristan)
 III. Rainier (Monako)
 Lech Wałęsa (Polonya)
 Karol Józef Wojtyła (Papa II. Ioannes Paulus, Polonya ve Vatikan)
 Salazar (Portekiz)
 Nicolae Ceauşescu (Romanya)
 Leonid Brejnev (Sovyetler Birliği)
 Nikita Kruşçev (Sovyetler Birliği)
 Mihail Gorbaçov (Sovyetler Birliği)
 Vladimir Lenin (Sovyetler Birliği)
 Josef Stalin (Sovyetler Birliği)
 Lev Troçki Sovyetler Birliği)
 Boris Yeltsin (Rusya)
 II. Nikolay (Rus İmparatorluğu)
 Mustafa Kemal Atatürk (Türkiye)
 Celâl Bayar (Türkiye)
 II.Abdülhamid (Osmanlı İmparatorluğu)
 Enver Paşa (Osmanlı İmparatorluğu)
 V. Mehmet (Osmanlı İmparatorluğu)
 İsmet İnönü (Türkiye)
 Josip Broz Tito (Yugoslavya)
 Elefterios Venizelos (Yunanistan)

Amerika
 George Bush (Amerika Birleşik Devletleri)
 Bill Clinton (Amerika Birleşik Devletleri)
 Dwight D. Eisenhower (Amerika Birleşik Devletleri)
 Lyndon Johnson (Amerika Birleşik Devletleri)
 John F. Kennedy (Amerika Birleşik Devletleri)
 Martin Luther King (Amerika Birleşik Devletleri
 Henry Kissinger (Amerika Birleşik Devletleri)
 George Marshall (Amerika Birleşik Devletleri)
 Joseph Raymond McCarthy (Amerika Birleşik Devletleri)
 Richard Nixon (Amerika Birleşik Devletleri)
 Milo Raduloviç (Amerika Birleşik Devletleri)
 Ronald Reagan (Amerika Birleşik Devletleri)
 Franklin D. Roosevelt (Amerika Birleşik Devletleri)
 Theodore Roosevelt (Amerika Birleşik Devletleri)
 Harry S. Truman (Amerika Birleşik Devletleri)
 Woodrow Wilson (Amerika Birleşik Devletleri)
 Malcolm X (Amerika Birleşik Devletleri)
 François Duvalier (Haiti)
 Fulgencio Batista (Küba)
 Fidel Castro (Küba)
 Ernesto Che Guevara (Küba)
 Lázaro Cárdenas del Río (Meksika)
 Emiliano Zapata (Meksika)
 Somoza Ailesi (Nikaragua)
 Salvador Allende (Şili)
 Augusto Pinochet (Şili)

Ortadoğu ve Kuzey Afrika
 Ahmed Bin Bella (Cezayir)
 Huari Bumedyen (Cezayir)
 Yaser Arafat (Filistin)
 Saddam Hüseyin (Irak)
 Humeyni (İran)
 Muhammed Musaddık (İran)
 Muhammed Rıza Pehlevi (İran)
 Menahem Begin (İsrail)
 David Ben-Gurion (İsrail)
 Golda Meir (İsrail)
 İzak Rabin (İsrail)
 Ariel Şaron (İsrail)
 Şimon Peres (İsrail)
 İdris I (Libya)
 Muammer Kaddafi (Libya)
 Hüsnü Mübarek (Mısır)
 Cemal Abdünnasır (Mısır)
 Enver Sedat (Mısır)
 Hafız Esad (Suriye)
 Habib Burgiba (Tunus)

Asya
 Deng Xiaoping (Çin)
 Çu En-lay (Çin)
 Çan Kay Şek (Çin Cumhuriyeti)
 Sun Yat-sen (Çin Cumhuriyeti)
 Mao Zedong (Çin)
 Suharto (Endonezya)
 Sukarno (Endonezya)
 Bhimrao Ramji Ambedkar (Hindistan)
 Mahatma Gandhi (Hindistan)
 Indira Gandhi (Hindistan)
 Jawaharlal Nehru (Hindistan)
 Lon Nol (Kamboçya)
 Pol Pot (Kamboçya)
 Norodom Sihanouk (Kamboçya)
 Kim Il-sung (Kuzey Kore)
 Askar Akayev (Kırgızistan)
 Zülfikar Ali Butto (Pakistan)
 Benazir Butto (Pakistan)
 Muhammed Ali Cinnah (Pakistan)
 Mustafa Kemal Atatürk (Türkiye)
 Ziya ül Hak (Pakistan)
 Tenzin Gyatso (XIV. Dalai Lama, Tibet)
 Ho Chi Minh (Vietnam)

Afrika
 Haile Selassie (Etiyopya)
 Kwame Nkrumah (Gana)
 Ahmed Sékou Touré (Gine)
 Pieter Willem Botha (Güney Afrika Cumhuriyeti, Aparthayd)
 Frederik Willem de Klerk (Güney Afrika Cumhuriyeti)
 Nelson Mandela (Güney Afrika Cumhuriyeti, Afrika Ulusal Kongresi)
 Balthazar Johannes Vorster (Güney Afrika Cumhuriyeti, Aparthayd)
 Joseph Kasavubu (Kongo)
 Patrice Lumumba (Kongo)
 Mobutu Sese Seko (Kongo)
 Jomo Kenyatta (Kenya)
 Daniel arap Moi (Kenya)
 Jean-Bédel Bokassa (Orta Afrika Cumhuriyeti)
 Julius Nyerere (Tanzanya)
 İdi Amin (Uganda)
 Gnassingbé Eyadéma (Togo)

Bilim insanları
 Niels Bohr
 Albert Einstein
 Enrico Fermi
 Howard Walter Florey
 Sigmund Freud
 Kurt Gödel
 Fritz Haber
 Werner Karl Heisenberg
 Andrey Nikolaevich Kolmogorov
 Linus Pauling
 Erwin Schrödinger
 John von Neumann
 Alan Turing

İş Adamları
 John Maynard Keynes
 John Kenneth Galbraith
 Milton Friedman
 Henry Ford
 Thomas J. Watson
 Bill Gates

Uzay Araştırmacıları
 Robert Goddard
 Wernher Von Braun
 Neil Armstrong
 Louis Bleriot
 Yuri Gagarin
 Vladimir Mikhailovich Komarov
 Freddie Laker
 Charles Lindbergh
 Ron McNair
 Ellison Onizuka
 Herman Potočnik Noordung
 Alan Shepard
 Valentina Tereshkova
 Wright Brothers

Askerî Liderler
 Charles de Gaulle
 Dwight D. Eisenhower
 Sir Bernard Freyberg
 Douglas Haig
 Douglas MacArthur
 Rudolf Maister
 Bernard Montgomery
 Chester Nimitz
 George Patton
 Erwin Rommel
 Franc Rozman Stane
 Leon Trotsky
 Mao Zedong
 Georgy Zhukov

Din Adamları
 Grigori Rasputin
 Papa XXIII. Ioannes
 Papa II. Ioannes Paulus
 Papa XII. Pius
 Rahibe Teresa
 The 13th Dalai Lama of Tibet, Thubten Gyatso
 The 14th Dalai Lama of Tibet, Tenzin Gyatso
 The Rev. Martin Luther King Jr.
 The Rev. Billy Graham
 Mahatma Gandhi
 Prabhupada A.C. Bhaktivedanta

Sanatçılar
 Constatin Brancusi
 George Braque
 Salvador Dalí
 Marcel Duchamp
 Jacob Epstein
 Juan Gris
 Wassily Kandinsky
 Henri Matisse
 Joan Miró
 Amedeo Modigliani
 Piet Mondrian
 Henry Moore
 Pablo Picasso
 Jackson Pollock
 Andy Warhol

Göstericiler
 The Beatles
 Bob Dylan
 Bob Marley
 Charlie Chaplin
 Elvis Presley
 Frank Sinatra
 Groucho Marx
 Jimi Hendrix
 Kraftwerk
 Louis Armstrong
 Lucille Ball
 Marilyn Monroe
 Michael Jackson
 Pink Floyd
 Queen
 Spike Jones
 Spike Milligan
 The Velvet Underground
 Metallica

Yazarlar ve Şairler
 Louis Aragon
 Samuel Beckett
 Jorge Luis Borges
 André Breton
 Robert Brooke
 Basil Bunting
 Albert Camus
 Noam Chomsky
 Gillian Clarke
 Cid Corman
 Hart Crane
 Robert Creeley
 e. e. cummings
 T. S. Eliot
 Paul Eluard
 Gabriel García Márquez
 Allen Ginsberg
 Alamgir Hashmi
 Seamus Heaney
 Ernest Hemingway
 H.D.
 Orrick Johns
 James Joyce
 Franz Kafka
 Jack Kerouac
 Philip Larkin
 Mina Loy
 Hugh MacDiarmid
 Antonio Machado
 Andre Malraux
 Marianne Moore
 Sean O'Casey
 Charles Olson
 George Oppen
 George Orwell
 Wilfred Owen
 Ezra Pound
 Marcel Proust
 Thomas Pynchon
 Ayn Rand
 Charles Reznikoff
 Dorothy Richardson
 Jean-Paul Sartre
 Antoine de Saint-Exupéry
 Gary Snyder
 Gertrude Stein
 Wallace Stevens
 John Millington Synge
 J. R. R. Tolkien
 William Carlos Williams
 Virginia Woolf
 W. B. Yeats
 Louis Zukofsky

Sporcular
 Babe Ruth
 Muhammad Ali
 Wilfred Benitez
 Larry Bird
 Sir Donald Bradman
 Roberto Clemente
 Fausto Coppi
 Angel Cordero
 Naim Süleymanoğlu
 Wilfredo Gomez
 Wayne Gretzky
 Sir Edmund Hillary
 Magic Johnson
 Michael Jordan
 Martina Navratilova
 Diego Maradona
 Jack Nicklaus
 Pelé
 Jackie Robinson
 Martin Strel
 Mark Todd
 Mike Tyson
 Ted Williams

Ayrıca bakınız
 20. yüzyıl buluşları listesi

20. yüzyıl


Bertoldo IV (muerto el 12 de agosto de 1204) fue conde de Andechs (desde 1172) y primer duque de Merania, en la costa de Dalmacia (desde 1183), de la casa de Andechs. Fue el hijo de Bertoldo I de Istria y Eduviges de Wittelsbach. En 1175 fue nombrado margrave de Istria y desde 1180 hasta 1182 fue duque de Croacia.

En 1175, fue elevado el margraviato de Istria y luego años después (1185) se hizo duque de la región llamada «Merania» en el Mar Adriático (mare en latín significa «mar»). Merania abarcó la misma zona que el antiguo margraviato, pero ahora su gobernante ganó mucho prestigio con su nuevo título.

En 1186, acompañó al emperador Enrique VI al reino de Sicilia. En 1189, dirigió la tercera división del ejército imperial y fue su abanderado en la Tercera Cruzada. En 1195, se presentó como el defensor de la Abadía de Tegernsee. Después de la muerte de Enrique en 1197, tomó partido por el reclamante Felipe de Suabia. En este punto, el duque de Merania estaba en el apogeo de su poder e influencia. Poseía tierras desde Franconia hasta el Adriático.

Bertoldo murió en 1204 y fue enterrado en el monasterio agustino de Diessen.

Es el padre de Santa Eduviges de Andechs y, a través de su hija Gertrudis, el abuelo materno de Santa Isabel de Hungría.

Matrimonio y descendencia

Bertoldo se casó con Inés de Rochlitz, y tuvieron los hijos siguientes:

 Otón, quien sucedió a su padre
 Egberto, obispo de Bamberg
 Enrique, margrave de Istria
 Eduvigis, se casó con Enrique I el Barbudo, duque de Silesia
 Gertrudis, se casó con Andrés II de Hungría
 Inés, se casó con Felipe II de Francia
 Bertoldo, patriarca de Aquileia
 Matilde, abadesa de Klitzingen

Una hija anónima casada un miembro de la dinastía Nemanjić de Serbia.

Enlaces externos

Referencias

Duques de Merania
Margraves de Istria
Casa de Andechs
Participantes cristianos en la Cruzada de 1197
Nobles de Alemania del siglo XII
Nobles de Alemania del siglo XIII
Fallecidos en Baviera

Bertoldo IV de Merania


Ingeborg Drewitz, née Ingeborg Neubert le  à Berlin et morte le  dans la même ville, était une écrivaine et universitaire allemande.

Biographie
Ingeborg Neubert entreprend des études universitaires d'allemand, d'histoire et de philosophie et obtient son doctorat le  à l'Université Friedrich-Wilhelm, aujourd'hui Université Humboldt de Berlin, sa thèse portant sur le poète Erwin Guido Kolbenheyer.

En 1946, elle épousa son ami d'enfance Bernhard Drewitz, avec qui elle eut trois filles.

En tant qu'auteure, elle se considère comme engagée dans les idées progressistes du siècle des Lumières. Elle aborde l'histoire de l'Allemagne d'après-guerre ainsi que de la position sociale des femmes dans le passé et le présent. Selon le Lexikon der Weltliteratur de Knaur ( de 1995),

En 1955, elle créait une pièce dramatique "Alle Tore waren bewacht" (Toutes les portes étaient gardées), qui fut la première pièce allemande à traiter des conditions dans les Camps de concentration nazis.

En 1966, elle est élue présidente de l'Association de protection des écrivains allemands (Schutzverband deutscher Schriftsteller). Elle était cofondatrice de l'Association des écrivains allemands (Verband deutscher Schriftstellerinnen und Schriftsteller).

En 1973, elle a été cofondatrice de l'association des auteurs berlinois (Neue Gesellschaft für Literatur) et a organisé le premier congrès des associations d'écrivains européens à Berlin en 1977. Elle fut vice-président du centre PEN Club allemand. Elle fut cofondatrice d'une librairie d'auteurs à Berlin.

En plus de nombreuses tournées littéraires à travers l'Europe, l'Afrique et les États-Unis, elle a été également de 1973 à 1980 chargé de cours à l'Institut de journalisme de l'Université libre de Berlin.

En 1978, est publié son roman le plus connu "Gestern war heute: Hundert Jahre Gegenwart" (Hier c'était aujourd'hui : cent ans de présence), qui relate l'histoire de trois générations de femmes au . Elle tire son engagement socio-politique de sa critique sociale en tant qu'auteur.

Elle était membre du jury du concours Ingeborg Bachmann à Klagenfurt.

En 1979, elle était jurée au Troisième Tribunal Russell à Francfort-Harheim, qui a dénoncé les violations des droits de l'homme en République fédérale d'Allemagne. Elle s'engagea au sein d'Amnesty International ainsi que dans des projets littéraires de détenus.

En 1981, elle a écrit l'introduction du volume de poésie de Gunther Tietz, "Die Verteidigung der Schmetterlinge" (La Défense des papillons).

En 1985, elle a contribué à l'exégèse des textes de Paul du Nouveau Testament au Congrès de l'Église protestante à Düsseldorf.

Elle a reçu les plus hautes distinctions et distinctions posthumes pour son œuvre littéraire, notamment celui de l'Ordre du Mérite de la République fédérale d'Allemagne.

Ingeborg Drewitz est décédée à Berlin en 1986 à l'âge de  des suites d'un cancer. Sa tombe est dans le cimetière de Zehlendorf. En 1990 par décision du Sénat de Berlin, le dernier lieu de repos d'Ingeborg Drewitz a été consacré comme tombe honorifique de l'État de Berlin. Cette consécration a été prolongée en 2016 au-delà de la durée habituelle de vingt ans.

La bibliothèque privée d'Ingeborg Drewitz est hébergée à l'Académie des arts de Berlin

Deux fondations de prix portent le nom d'Ingeborg Drewitz .
Ingeborg-Drewitz-Literaturpreis für Gefangene, Prix de la littérature carcérale Ingeborg-Drewitz.
Ingeborg-Drewitz-Preis (le Prix Ingeborg-Drewitz) fait preuve d'un engagement particulier envers la dignité humaine.

Sources

Liens externes

Femme de lettres allemande
Écrivain allemand du XXe siècle
Dramaturge allemand du XXe siècle
Universitaire allemand du XXe siècle
Professeur à l'université libre de Berlin
Personnalité d'Amnesty International
Officier de l'ordre du Mérite de la République fédérale d'Allemagne
Naissance en janvier 1923
Naissance à Berlin
Décès en novembre 1986
Décès à Berlin
Décès à 63 ans

Ingeborg Drewitz