The Indian rupee (symbol ₹; code: INR) is the official currency in India. The rupee is subdivided into 100 paise (Hindi pl; singular: paisa). The issuance of the currency is controlled by the Reserve Bank of India. The Reserve Bank manages currency in India and derives its role in currency management on the basis of the Reserve Bank of India Act, 1934.

Etymology

Pāṇini (6th to 4th century BCE) mentions  (). While Shankar Goyal mentions it is unclear whether Panini was referring to coinage, other scholars conclude that
Panini uses the term rūpa to mean a piece of precious metal (typically silver) used as a coin, and a rūpya to mean a stamped piece of metal, a coin in the modern sense. Arthashastra, written by Chanakya, prime minister to the first Maurya emperor Chandragupta Maurya (), mentions silver coins as . Other types of coins, including gold coins (), copper coins (), and lead coins (), are also mentioned. The immediate precursor of the rupee is the rūpiya—the silver coin weighing 178 grains minted in northern India, first by Sher Shah Suri during his brief rule between 1540 and 1545, and later adopted and standardized by the Mughal Empire. The weight remained unchanged well beyond the end of the Mughals until the 20th century.

History

The history of the Indian rupee traces back to ancient India in circa 6th century BCE: ancient India was one of the earliest issuers of coins in the world, along with the Chinese wen and Lydian staters.

Arthashastra, written by Chanakya, prime minister to the first Maurya emperor Chandragupta Maurya (c. 340–290 BCE), mentions silver coins as rūpyarūpa, other types including gold coins (suvarṇarūpa), copper coins (tamrarūpa) and lead coins (sīsarūpa) are mentioned.  means 'form' or 'shape'; for example, in the word :  'wrought silver' and  'form'.

The Gupta Empire produced large numbers of silver coins clearly influenced by those of the earlier Western Satraps by Chandragupta II. The silver Rūpaka () coins were weighed approximately 20 ratis (2.2678g).

In the intermediate times there was no fixed monetary system as reported by the Da Tang Xi Yu Ji.

During his five-year rule from 1540 to 1545, Sultan Sher Shah Suri issued a coin of silver, weighing 178 grains (or 11.53 grams), which was also termed the rupiya. During Babur's time, the brass to silver exchange ratio was roughly 50:2. The silver coin remained in use during the Mughal period, Maratha era as well as in British India. Among the earliest issues of paper rupees include; the Bank of Hindustan (1770–1832), the General Bank of Bengal and Bihar (1773–1775, established by Warren Hastings), and the Bengal Bank (1784–91).

1800s

Historically, the rupee was a silver coin. This had severe consequences in the nineteenth century when the strongest economies in the world were on the gold standard (that is, paper linked to gold). The discovery of large quantities of silver in the United States and several European colonies caused the panic of 1873 which resulted in a decline in the value of silver relative to gold, devaluing India's standard currency. This event was known as "the fall of the rupee". In Britain the Long Depression resulted in bankruptcies, escalating unemployment, a halt in public works, and a major trade slump that lasted until 1897.

India was unaffected by the imperial order-in-council of 1825, which attempted to introduce British sterling coinage to the British colonies. India, at that time, was controlled by the British East India Company. The silver rupee coin continued as the currency of India through the British Raj and beyond. In 1835, British India adopted a mono-metallic silver standard based on the rupee coin; this decision was influenced by a letter written by Lord Liverpool in 1805 extolling the virtues of mono-metallism.

Following the First war of Independence in 1857, the British government took direct control of India. From 1851, gold sovereigns were produced en masse at the Royal Mint in Sydney. In an 1864 attempt to make the British gold sovereign the "imperial coin", the treasuries in Bombay and Calcutta were instructed to receive (but not to issue) gold sovereigns; therefore, these gold sovereigns never left the vaults. As the British government gave up hope of replacing the rupee in India with the pound sterling, it realised for the same reason it could not replace the silver dollar in the Straits Settlements with the Indian rupee (as the British East India Company had desired). Since the silver crisis of 1873, several nations switched over to a gold exchange standard (wherein silver or banknotes circulate locally but with a fixed gold value for export purposes), including India in the 1890s.

India Council Bill
In 1870, India was connected to Britain by a submarine telegraph cable.
Around 1875, Britain started paying India for exported goods in India Council (paper) Bills (instead of silver).
If, therefore, the India Council in London should not step in to sell bills on India, the merchants and bankers would have to send silver to make good the (trade) balances. Thus a channel for the outflow of silver was stopped, in 1875, by the India Council in London.

The great importance of these (Council) Bills, however, is the effect they have on the Market Price of Silver : and they have in fact been one of the most potent factors in recent years in causing the diminution in the Value of Silver as compared to Gold.

The Indian and Chinese products for which silver is paid were and are, since 1873–74, very low in price, and it there fore takes less silver to purchase a larger quantity of Eastern commodities. Now, on taking the several agents into united consideration, it will certainly not seem very mysterious why silver should not only have fallen in price

The great nations had recourse to two expedients for replenishing their exchequers,  first, loans, and, second, the more convenient forced loans of paper money۔

Fowler Committee (1898)

The Indian Currency Committee or Fowler Committee was a government committee appointed by the British-run Government of India on 29 April 1898 to examine the currency situation in India. They collected a wide range of testimony, examined as many as forty-nine witnesses, and only reported their conclusions in July 1899, after more than a year's deliberation.
The prophecy made before the Committee of 1898 by Mr. A. M. Lindsay, in proposing a scheme closely similar in principle to that which was eventually adopted, has been largely fulfilled. "This change," he said, "will pass unnoticed, except by the intelligent few, and it is satisfactory to find that by this almost imperceptible process the Indian currency will be placed on a footing which Ricardo and other great authorities have advocated as the best of all currency systems, viz., one in which the currency media used in the internal circulation are confined to notes and cheap token coins, which are made to act precisely as if they were bits of gold by being made convertible into gold for foreign payment purposes. The committee concurred in the opinion of the Indian government that the mints should remain closed to the unrestricted coinage of silver, and that a gold standard should be adopted without delay...they recommended (1) that the British sovereign be given full legal tender power in India, and (2) that the Indian mints be thrown open to its unrestricted coinage (for gold coins only).
These recommendations were acceptable to both governments, and were shortly afterwards translated into laws. The act making gold a legal tender was promulgated on 15 September 1899; and preparations were soon thereafter undertaken for the coinage of gold sovereigns in the mint at Bombay.

Silver, therefore, has ceased to serve as standard; and the Indian currency system of to-day (that is 1901) may be described as that of a "limping" gold standard similar to the systems of France, Germany, Holland, and the United States.

The Committee of 1898 explicitly declared themselves to be in favour of the eventual establishment of a gold currency.This goal, if it was their goal, the Government of India have never attained.

1900s

In 1913, John Maynard Keynes writes in his book Indian Currency and Finance that during financial year 19001901, gold coins (sovereigns) worth £6,750,000 were given to the Indian people in the hope that they would circulate as currency. But against the expectation of Government, not even half of that was returned to Government, and this experiment failed spectacularly, so Government abandoned this practice (but did not abandon the narrative of the gold standard). Subsequently, much of the gold held by the Government of India was shipped to the Bank of England in 1901 and held there.

Problems caused by the gold standard

At the onset of the First World War, the cost of gold was very low and therefore the pound sterling had high value. But during the war, the value of the pound fell alarmingly due to rising war expenses. At the end of the war, the value of the pound was only a fraction of what it had been before the war. It remained low until 1925, when the then Chancellor of the Exchequer (finance minister) of the United Kingdom, Winston Churchill, restored it to pre-war levels. As a result, the price of gold fell rapidly. While the rest of Europe purchased large quantities of gold from the United Kingdom, there was little increase in her gold reserves. This dealt a blow to an already deteriorating British economy. The United Kingdom began to look to its possessions as India to compensate for the gold that was sold.

However, the price of gold in India, on the basis of the official exchange rate of the rupee around 1s. 6d., was lower than the price prevailing abroad practically throughout; the disparity in prices made the export of the metal profitable; and this continued for almost a decade. Thus, in 1931–32, there were net exports of 7.7 million ounces, valued at Rs. 57.98 crore. In the following year, both the quantity and the price rose further: net exports totalled 8.4 million ounces, valued at Rs. 65.52 crore. In the ten years ended March 1941, total net exports were of the order of 43 million ounces (1337.3 tons) valued at about Rs. 375 crore, or an average price of Rs. 32-12-4 per tola.

In the autumn of 1917 (when the silver price rose to 55 pence), there was danger of uprisings in India (against paper currency) which would handicap seriously British participation in the war. Inconvertibility (of paper currency into coin) would lead to a run on Post Office Savings Banks. It would prevent the further expansion of (paper currency) note issues and cause a rise of prices, in paper currency, that would greatly increase the cost of obtaining war supplies for export; to have reduced the silver content of this historic [rupee] coin might well have caused such popular distrust of the Government as to have precipitated an internal crisis, which would have been fatal to British success in the war.

From 1931 to 1941, the United Kingdom purchased large amounts of gold from India and its many other colonies just by increasing price of gold, as Britain was able to pay in printable paper currency. Similarly, on 19 June 1934, Roosevelt made Silver Purchase Act (which increased the price of silver) and purchased about 44,000 tons of silver, paying with paper silver certificates.

In 1939, Dickson H. Leavens wrote in his book Silver Money: "In recent years the increased price of gold, measured in depreciated paper currencies, has attracted to the market (of London) large quantities (of gold) formerly hoarded or held in the form of ornaments in India and China".

In their respective former colonies, the Indian rupee replaced the Danish Indian rupee in 1845, the French Indian rupee in 1954 and the Portuguese Indian escudo in 1961. Following the independence of India in 1947 and the accession of the princely states to the new Union, the Indian rupee replaced all the currencies of the previously autonomous states (although the Hyderabadi rupee was not demonetised until 1959). Some of the states had issued rupees equal to those issued by the British (such as the Travancore rupee). Other currencies (including the Hyderabadi rupee and the Kutch kori) had different values.

The values of the subdivisions of the rupee during British rule (and in the first decade of independence) were:

 In 1957, the rupee was decimalised and divided into 100 naye paise (Hindi for "new paise"); in 1964, the initial naye was dropped.
 Many still refer to 25-, 50- and 75-paise coins as 4, 8, and 12 annas, respectively; compare the expression "two bits" in colloquial American English for a quarter-dollar coin.

New currency sign for the Indian rupee
In 2010, a new rupee sign () was officially adopted. As its designer explained, it was derived from the combination of the Devanagari consonant "र" (ra) and  the Latin capital letter "R" without its vertical bar. The parallel lines at the top (with white space between them) are said to make an allusion to the flag of India, and also depict an equality sign that symbolises the nation's desire to reduce economic disparity. The first series of coins with the new rupee sign started in circulation on 8 July 2011. Before this, India used "₨" and "Re" as the symbols for multiple rupees and one rupee, respectively.

Digitization of Indian rupee

Legal framework

British East India Company (EIC) was given right in 1717 CE to mint coins in the name of the Mughal emperor Farrukhsiyar on the island of Bombay. By 1792 CE the EIC demonatized all other coins till they were reduced to only 3 types of coins, i.e. EIC, Mughal & Maratha coins. After EIC expanded its control over India, it brought the "Coinage Act of 1835" and started to mint coins in the name of British king. EIC rule was replaced by British Crown raj which brought the "Paper Currency Act of 1861" and the "Uniform Coinage Act of 1906".

After 2021, the government of independent India amended "The Coinage Act, 2011", the "Foreign Exchange Management Act (FEMA), 1999," the "Information Technology Act, 2000" and the "Crypto-currency and Regulation of Official Digital Currency Bill, 2021".

Coins

Pre-independence issues

East India Company, 1835
The three Presidencies established by the British East India Company (Bengal, Bombay and Madras) each issued their own coinages until 1835. All three issued rupees and fractions thereof down to - and -rupee in silver. Madras also issued two-rupee coins.

Copper denominations were more varied. Bengal issued one-pie, -, one- and two-paise coins. Bombay issued 1-pie, -, -, 1-, 1-, 2- and 4-paise coins. In Madras there were copper coins for two and four pies and one, two and four paisa, with the first two denominated as  and one dub (or  and ) rupee. Madras also issued the Madras fanam until 1815.

All three Presidencies issued gold mohurs and fractions of mohurs including , ,  in Bengal,  (a gold rupee) and  (pancia) in Bombay and ,  and  in Madras.

In 1835, a single coinage for the EIC was introduced. It consisted of copper ,  and  anna, silver ,  and 1 rupee and gold 1 and 2 mohurs. In 1841, silver 2 annas were added, followed by copper  pice in 1853. The coinage of the EIC continued to be issued until 1862, even after the company had been taken over by the Crown.

Regal issues, 1862–1947
In 1862, coins were introduced (known as "regal issues") which bore the profile of Queen Victoria and the designation "India". Their denominations were  anna,  pice,  and  anna (all in copper), 2 annas, ,  and one rupee (silver), and five and ten rupees and one mohur (gold). The gold denominations ceased production in 1891, and no -anna coins were issued after 1877.

In 1906, bronze replaced copper for the lowest three denominations; in 1907, a cupro-nickel one-anna coin was introduced. In 1918–1919 cupro-nickel two-, four- and eight-annas were introduced, although the four- and eight-annas coins were only issued until 1921 and did not replace their silver equivalents. In 1918, the Bombay mint also struck gold sovereigns and 15-rupee coins identical in size to the sovereigns as an emergency measure during the First World War.

In the early 1940s, several changes were implemented. The  anna and  pice ceased production, the  anna was changed to a bronze, holed coin, cupro-nickel and nickel-brass -anna coins were introduced, nickel-brass was used to produce some one- and two-annas coins, and the silver composition was reduced from 91.7 to 50 percent. The last of the regal issues were cupro-nickel -, - and one-rupee pieces minted in 1946 and 1947, bearing the image of George VI, King and Emperor on the obverse and an Indian lion on the reverse.

Post-independence issues

Independent pre-decimal issues, 1950–1957
India's first coins after independence were issued in 1950 in denominations of 1 pice, , one and two annas, ,  and one-rupee. The sizes and composition were the same as the final regal issues, except for the one-pice (which was bronze, but not holed).

Independent decimal issues, 1957–present

The first decimal-coin issues in India consisted of 1, 2, 5, 10, 25 and 50 naye paise, and 1 rupee. The 1 naya paisa was bronze; the 2, 5, and 10 naye paise were cupro-nickel, and the 25 naye paise (nicknamed chawanni; 25 naye paise equals 4 annas), 50 naye paise (also called athanni; 50 naye paise equalled 8 old annas) and 1-rupee were nickel. In 1964, the words naya/naye were removed from all coins. Between 1957 and 1967, aluminium one-, two-, three-, five- and ten-paise coins were introduced. In 1968 nickel-brass 20-paise coins were introduced, and replaced by aluminium coins in 1982. Between 1972 and 1975, cupro-nickel replaced nickel in the 25- and 50-paise and the 1-rupee coins; in 1982, cupro-nickel two-rupee coins were introduced. In 1988 stainless steel 10-, 25- and 50-paise coins were introduced, followed by 1- and 5-rupee coins in 1992. Five-rupee coins, made from brass, are being minted by the Reserve Bank of India (RBI).

In 1997 the 20 paise coin was discontinued, followed by the 10 paise coin in 1998, and the 25 paise in 2002.

Between 2005 and 2008 new, lighter fifty-paise, one-, two-, and five-rupee coins were introduced, made from ferritic stainless steel. The move was prompted by the melting-down of older coins, whose face value was less than their scrap value. The demonetisation of the 25-paise coin and all paise coins below it took place, and a new series of coins (50 paise – nicknamed athanni – one, two, five, and ten rupees with the new rupee sign) were put into circulation in 2011. In 2016 the 50 paise coin was last minted. Coins commonly in circulation are one, two, five, ten, and twenty rupees. Although it is still legal tender, the 50-paise (athanni) coin is rarely seen in circulation.

The coins are minted at the four locations of the India Government Mint. The 1, 2, and 5 coins have been minted since independence. The Government of India is set to introduce a new 20 coin with a dodecagonal shape, and like the 10 coin, also bi-metallic, along with new designs for the new versions of the 1, 2, 5 and 10 coins, which was announced on 6 March 2019.

Minting

The Government of India has the only right to mint the coins and one rupee note. The responsibility for coinage comes under the Coinage Act, 1906 which is amended from time to time. The designing and minting of coins in various denominations is also the responsibility of the Government of India. Coins are minted at the four India Government Mints at Mumbai, Kolkata, Hyderabad, and Noida. The coins are issued for circulation only through the Reserve Bank in terms of the RBI Act.

Commemorative coins

After independence, the Government of India Mint, minted numismatics coins imprinted with Indian statesmen, historical and religious figures. In the years 2010 and 2011, for the first time ever, 75, 150 and 1000 coins were minted in India to commemorate the Platinum Jubilee of the Reserve Bank of India, the 150th birth anniversary of the birth of Rabindranath Tagore and 1000 years of the Brihadeeswarar Temple, respectively. In 2012, a 60 coin was also issued to commemorate 60 years of the Government of India Mint, Kolkata. 100 coin was also released commemorating the 100th anniversary of Mahatma Gandhi's return to India. Commemorative coins of 125 were released on 4 September 2015 and 6 December 2015 to honour the 125th anniversary of the births of Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan and B. R. Ambedkar, respectively.

Banknotes

Post-independence issues

After independence, new designs were introduced to replace the portrait of George VI. The government continued issuing the Re1 note, while the Reserve Bank of India (RBI) issued other denominations (including the 5,000 and 10,000 notes introduced in 1949). All pre-independence banknotes were officially demonetised with effect from 28 April 1957.

During the 1970s, 20 and 50 notes were introduced; denominations higher than 100 were demonetised in 1978. In 1987, the 500 note was introduced, followed by the 1,000 note in 2000 while 1 and 2 notes were discontinued in 1995.

The design of banknotes is approved by the central government, on the recommendation of the central board of the Reserve Bank of India. Currency notes are printed at the Currency Note Press in Nashik, the Bank Note Press in Dewas, the Bharatiya Reserve Bank Note Mudran (P) Ltd at Salboni and Mysore and at the Watermark Paper Manufacturing Mill in Narmadapuram. The Mahatma Gandhi Series of banknotes are issued by the Reserve Bank of India as legal tender. The series is so named because the obverse of each note features a portrait of Mahatma Gandhi. Since its introduction in 1996, this series has replaced all issued banknotes of the Lion Capital Series. The RBI introduced the series in 1996 with 10 and 500 banknotes. The printing of 5 notes (which had stopped earlier) resumed in 2009.

As of January 2012, the new '' sign has been incorporated into banknotes of the Mahatma Gandhi Series in denominations of 10, 20, 50, 100, 500 and 1,000. In January 2014 RBI announced that it would be withdrawing from circulation all currency notes printed prior to 2005 by 31 March 2014. The deadline was later extended to 1 January 2015. The dead line was further extended to 30 June 2016.

On 8 November 2016, the RBI announced the issuance of new 500 banknotes in a new series after demonetisation of the older 500 and 1000 notes.The new 500 banknote has a stone grey base colour with an image of the Red Fort along with the Indian flag printed on the back. Both the banknotes also have the Swachh Bharat Abhiyan logo printed on the back. The banknote denominations of 200, 100 and 50 have also been introduced in the new Mahatma Gandhi New Series intended to replace all banknotes of the previous Mahatma Gandhi Series. On 13 June 2017, RBI introduced new 50 notes, but the old ones continue being legal tender. The design is similar to the current notes in the Mahatma Gandhi (New) Series, except they will come with an inset 'A'.

On 8 November 2016, the Government of India announced the demonetisation of 500 and 1,000 banknotes with effect from midnight of the same day, making these notes invalid. A newly redesigned series of 500 banknote, in addition to a new denomination of 2,000 banknote is in circulation since 10 November 2016.

From 2017 to 2019, the remaining banknotes of the Mahatma Gandhi New Series were released in denominations of 10, 20, 50, 100 and 200. The 1,000 note has been suspended.

Current circulating banknotes

As of 20 May 2023, current circulating banknotes are in denominations of5, 10, 20, 50 and 100 from the Mahatma Gandhi Series and in denominations of ₹10, ₹20, ₹50, 100, 200, 500 from the Mahatma Gandhi New Series.

Micro printing

The new Indian banknote series feature a few micro printed texts on various locations. The first one lies on the inner surface of the left temple of Gandhi's spectacles that reads "भारत" (Bhārata) which means India. The next one (which are printed only on 10 and 50 denominations) is placed on the outer surface of the right temple of Gandhi's spectacles near his ear and reads "RBI" (Reserve Bank of India) and the face value in numerals "10" or "50". The last one is written on both sides of Gandhi's collar and reads "भारत" and "INDIA" respectively. Currency notes have 17 languages on the panel which appear on the reverse of the notes.

Pre-independence issues

In 1861, the Government of India introduced its first paper money: 10 note in 1864, 5 note in 1872, 10,000 note in 1899, 100 note in 1900, 50 note in 1905, 500 note in 1907 and 1,000 note in 1909. In 1917, 1 and 2 notes were introduced. The Reserve Bank of India began banknote production in 1938, issuing 2, 5, 10, 50, 100, 1,000 and 10,000 notes while the government continued issuing 1 note but demonetized the 500 and 2  notes.

Convertibility

Officially, the Indian rupee has a market-determined exchange rate. However, the Reserve Bank of India trades actively in the USD/INR currency market to impact effective exchange rates. Thus, the currency regime in place for the Indian rupee with respect to the US dollar is a de facto controlled exchange rate. This is sometimes called a "managed float". On 9 May 2022, Indian Rupee traded at ₹77.41 against the US dollar, hitting an all-time low. Other rates (such as the EUR/INR and INR/JPY) have the volatility typical of floating exchange rates, and often create persistent arbitrage opportunities against the RBI. Unlike China, successive administrations (through RBI, the central bank) have not followed a policy of pegging the INR to a specific foreign currency at a particular exchange rate. RBI intervention in currency markets is solely to ensure low volatility in exchange rates, and not to influence the rate (or direction) of the Indian rupee in relation to other currencies.

Also affecting convertibility is a series of customs regulations restricting the import and export of rupees. Legally, only up to 25000 can be imported or exported in cash at a time, and the possession of 200 and higher notes in Nepal is prohibited. The conversion of currencies for and from rupees is also regulated.

RBI also exercises a system of capital controls in addition to (through active trading) in currency markets. On the current account, there are no currency-conversion restrictions hindering buying or selling foreign exchange (although trade barriers exist). On the capital account, foreign institutional investors have convertibility to bring money into and out of the country and buy securities (subject to quantitative restrictions). Local firms are able to take capital out of the country to expand globally. However, local households are restricted in their ability to diversify globally. Because of the expansion of the current and capital accounts, India is increasingly moving towards full de facto convertibility.

There is some confusion regarding the interchange of the currency with gold, but the system that India follows is that money cannot be exchanged for gold under any circumstances due to gold's lack of liquidity; therefore, money cannot be changed into gold by the RBI. India follows the same principle as Great Britain and the US.

Reserve Bank of India clarifies its position regarding the promissory clause printed on each banknote:

"As per Section 26 of Reserve Bank of India Act, 1934, the Bank is liable to pay the value of banknote. This is payable on demand by RBI, being the issuer. The Bank's obligation to pay the value of banknote does not arise out of a contract but out of statutory provisions. The promissory clause printed on the banknotes i.e., "I promise to pay the bearer an amount of X" is a statement which means that the banknote is a legal tender for X amount. The obligation on the part of the Bank is to exchange a banknote for coins of an equivalent amount."

Chronology
 1991 – India began to lift restrictions on its currency. A number of reforms removed restrictions on current account transactions (including trade, interest payments and remittances and some capital asset-based transactions). Liberalised Exchange Rate Management System (LERMS) (a dual-exchange-rate system) introduced partial convertibility of the rupee in March 1992.
 1997 – A panel (set up to explore capital account convertibility) recommended that India move towards full convertibility by 2000, but the timetable was abandoned in the wake of the 1997–1998 East Asian financial crisis.
 2006 – Prime Minister Manmohan Singh asked the Finance Minister and the Reserve Bank of India to prepare a road map for moving towards capital account convertibility.
 2016 – the Government of India announced the demonetisation of all ₹500/- and ₹1,000/- banknotes of the Mahatma Gandhi Series. The government claimed that the action would curtail the shadow economy and crack down on the use of illicit "black money" and counterfeit cash to fund illegal activity and terrorism.
 2023 – Reserve Bank of India issued a circular on 19 May stating currency notes of ₹ 2000 denomination will be withdrawn from circulation The reason given for this withdrawal is the decline in the number of currency notes in circulation. According to the circular there were only 10.8% of Notes in Circulation on March 31, 2023.

Exchange rates

Historic exchange rates

Pre-Independence

For almost a century following the Great Recoinage of 1816, and adoption of the Gold Standard, until the outbreak of World War I, the silver backed Indian rupee lost value against a basket of Gold pegged currencies, and was periodically devalued to reflect the then current gold to silver reserve ratios, see above. In 1850 the official conversion rate between a pound sterling and the rupee was £0 / 2s / 0d (or £1:₹10), while between 1899 and 1914 the official conversion rate was set low at £0 / 1s / 4d (or £1:₹15), for comparison during this period the US dollar was pegged at £1:$4.79. However, this was just half of market exchange rates during 1893–1917.

The gold/silver ratio expanded during 1870–1910. Unlike India, Britain was on the gold standard. To meet the Home Charges (i.e., expenditure in the United Kingdom) the colonial government had to remit a larger number of rupees and this necessitated increased taxation, unrest and nationalism.

Between the wars the rate improved to 1s 6d (or £1:₹13.33), and remained pegged at this rate for the duration of the Breton Woods agreement, to its devaluation and pegging to the US dollar, at $1:7.50, in 1966.

Post-Independence
Post Independence India followed Par value system of exchange until 1971. The country switched to pegged system in 1971 and graduated to basket peg againstfive major currencies from 1975. After the 1991 Economic liberalisation in India the currency exchange rates became market controlled.

The first major impact on exchange rate after Independence was the devaluation of sterling against the US dollar in 1949, this impacted currencies that maintained a peg to the sterling, such as the Indian rupee. The next major episode was in 1966 when Indian rupee was devaluated by 57% against United States dollar. Correspondingly the rates against Pound sterling too suffered depreciation. In 1971 August, when the Bretton Woods system India initially announced that it will maintain a fixed rate of US$1 = Rs. 7.50 and leave Pound sterling floating. However, by the end of 1971, following Smithsonian Agreement and subsequent devaluation of United States dollar, India pegged Indian rupee with Pound sterling once again with a rate of £1 = Rs. 18.9677. In the above period India had a non - commercial exchange rate with Soviet Union. The Ruble - Rupee rates were announced by Soviet Union since Ruble was not a freely traded currency and the commercial trade between both nations use to take place in rupee trade account following the India–Soviet Trade Treaty 1953.

In September 1975, exchange rate of Indian rupee started to be determined on the basis of basket peg. The details of currencies which forms the basket and its weightage were kept confidentially by Reserve Bank of India and the exchange rate of rupee on the basis of market fluctuation of these currencies were periodically announced by RBI.

The next major change that occurred to Indian Rupee was devaluation by about 18% in July 1991 following the Balance of payment crisis. Thereafter, in March 1992, Liberalized Exchange Rate Management System was introduced.

Current exchange rates

Worldwide rupee usage

As the Straits Settlements were originally an outpost of the British East India Company, the Indian rupee was made the sole official currency of the Straits Settlements in 1837, as it was administered as part of British India. This attempt was resisted by the locals. However, Spanish dollars continued to circulate and 1845 saw the introduction of coinage for the Straits Settlements using a system of 100 cents = 1 dollar, with the dollar equal to the Spanish dollar or Mexican peso. In 1867, administration of the Straits Settlements was separated from India and the Straits dollar was made the standard currency, and attempts to reintroduce the rupee were finally abandoned.

After the Partition of India, the Pakistani rupee came into existence, initially using Indian coins and Indian currency notes simply overstamped with "Pakistan". Previously the Indian rupee was an official currency of other countries, including Aden, Oman, Dubai, Kuwait, Bahrain, Qatar, the Trucial States, Kenya, Tanganyika, Uganda, the Seychelles and Mauritius.

The Indian government introduced the Gulf rupee as a replacement for the Indian rupee for circulation outside the country with the Reserve Bank of India (Amendment) Act of 1 May 1959. The creation of a separate currency was an attempt to reduce the strain on India's foreign reserves from gold smuggling. After India devalued the rupee on 6 June 1966, those countries still using it – Oman, Qatar, and the Trucial States (which became the United Arab Emirates in 1971) – replaced the Gulf rupee with their own currencies. Kuwait and Bahrain had already done so in 1961 with Kuwaiti dinar and in 1965 with Bahraini dinar, respectively.

The Bhutanese ngultrum is pegged at par with the Indian rupee; both currencies are accepted in Bhutan. The Nepalese rupee is pegged at 0.625; the Indian rupee is accepted in Bhutan and Nepal, except 500 and 1000 banknotes of the Mahatma Gandhi Series and the 200, 500 banknotes of the Mahatma Gandhi New Series, which are not legal tender in Bhutan and Nepal and are banned by their respective governments, though accepted by many retailers. On 29 January 2014, Zimbabwe added the Indian rupee as a legal tender to be used.

See also

 Coinage of India
 Rupee
 History of the rupee
 Paisa
 Indian paisa
 History of the taka
 Coins of British India
 Great Depression in India
 Coins of the Indian rupee
 Indian anna
 Indian pie
 Zero rupee note
 Fake Indian currency note
 The Standard Reference Guide to Indian Paper Money
 Reserve Bank of India
 Reserve Bank of India Act, 1934
 RBI Monetary Museum
 Digital rupee

Notes

References

Citations

Sources

External links

 A gallery of all Indian currency issues

 The banknotes of India
 Banknotes catalog of India

Currencies of India
Currencies of the British Empire
Currencies of the Commonwealth of Nations
Currencies of Zimbabwe

Indian rupee


Franz Otto Theodor Hoffmann, depuis 1883 von Hoffmann (né le  à Wriezen et mort le  à Berlin) est un avocat administratif prussien.

Biographie
Hoffmann étudie le droit et entre au service judiciaire en 1854 dans le district de la  en tant qu'auscultateur. Il commence sa carrière dans l'administration prussienne en 1856 comme stagiaire du gouvernement à Stettin. À partir de 1859, il travaille comme assistant du gouvernement et ouvrier non qualifié au ministère des Finances, en 1868 comme conseiller du gouvernement, en 1869 comme conseiller financier secret, en 1872 comme conseiller financier principal secret.

Pendant la guerre austro-prussienne, il combat en tant que premier lieutenant dans la Landwehr et reçoit l'ordre de l'Aigle rouge de 4e classe avec épées.

Le 4 août 1876, il est nommé président du district de Dantzig et, en 1878, président de district d'Aix-la-Chapelle. Par diplôme royal du 30 juillet 1883, il est élevé à la pairie prussienne héréditaire. Enfin, en 1892, il est nommé président de l'administration principale prussienne des dettes publiques (en tant que successeur de Friedrich Hermann Sydow, avec le titre de vrai conseiller privé et avec le titre d'excellence) et à partir de 1900 de l'administration de la dette du Reich. Il occupe ce poste jusqu'à sa mort.

Hoffmann décède en 1905 le jour de son 72e anniversaire à Berlin et est enterré dans l'ancien cimetière Saint-Matthieu à Schöneberg. Au cours du nivellement du cimetière réalisé par les nationaux-socialistes en 1938/1939, les restes d'Hoffmann sont réinhumés au cimetière de Stahnsdorf près de Berlin.

Hoffmann est marié à Johanna Schütte (née en 1853) depuis 1873; le mariage produit huit enfants, dont le capitaine de la marine Otto von Hoffmann (1880-1958).

Publications
 Die preußische Hauptverwaltung der Staatsschulden vom Jahre 1820 bis 1895, urkundlich dargestellt. Berlin 1896.

Bibliographie
 Albrecht Wien: Die preussische Verwaltung des Regierungsbezirks Danzig (1870–1920). , S. 19.
 Berlin und die Berliner. Karlsruhe 1905, S. 41
 Die Woche. 7. Jg. Nr. 39 (vom 30. September 1905), S. 1684 und 1686 (Port.).
 Biographisches Jahrbuch. 10. Bd. (1905), Berlin 1907, Sp. 186. (Totenliste).
 Gothaisches Genealogisches Taschenbuch der briefadeligen Häuser. Jg. 2 (1908), S. 500–501.
 Adelslexikon. Band V, Limburg 1984, S. 278.
 Acta Borussica. Protokolle des Preußischen Staatsministeriums, NF Bd. 8/II (1890–1900), Hildesheim 2003, S. 551.
 , : . Druck Metz, Aachen 1964, S. 183.

Références

Liens externes

Président du district de Dantzig
Président du district d'Aix-la-Chapelle
Oberleutnant prussien
Personnalité de la guerre austro-prussienne
Personnalité prussienne anoblie
Récipiendaire de l'ordre de l'Aigle rouge de 4e classe
Naissance en septembre 1833
Naissance à Wriezen
Naissance dans la province de Brandebourg
Décès en septembre 1905
Décès à Berlin
Décès à 72 ans

Otto von Hoffmann (homme politique)


فاسيلي ميخائيلوفيتش إيفانتشوك  18 مارس 1969 أستاذ كبير أوكراني.
لاعب دخل أفضل عشرة منذ 1988  حيث كان مصنفا رقم 2 ثلاث مرات (جويلية 1991، جويلية 1992، أكتوبر 2007) لكن نتائجه الغريبة جعلت ترتيبه يسقط إلى الرتبة 30 في جويلية 2009،  قبل أن يعود إلى أفضل 10 في القائمة الموالية.

فاز إيفانتشوك ببطولات ليناريس، ويك آن زي (تاتا ستيل)، ذكرى تال، جبل طارق، طوفيا. وكان بطل العالم في الشطرنج الخاطف سنة 2007  وفاز ببطولة ميلودي أمبر في 1992 وتشارك مع كارلسون على اللقب في 2010.

في 2011 وتطبيقا لمرسوم من الرئيس الأوكراني تم منح إيفانتشوك منح وسام الأمير ياروسلاف الحكيم من الدرجة 4.

روابط خارجية

مراجع

أبطال شطرنج أوروبية
أساتذة كبار في الشطرنج
أشخاص على قيد الحياة
لاعبو شطرنج أوكرانيون
لاعبو شطرنج سوفيتيون
لاعبو ضامة أوكرانيون
متنافسون في أولمبياد الشطرنج
مواليد 1969
مواليد في بيريجاني

فاسيلي إيفانتشوك


Crkva sv. Nikole je rimokatolička crkva u Gradu Jastrebarskom, zaštićeno kulturno dobro.

Opis dobra
Crkva je smještena na povišenom platou usred grada Jastrebarskog. Povijest crkve seže u srednji vijek, međutim od najstarijeg sloja nije sačuvan supstrat. Prva poznata veća obnova odvija se 1757. kada je drveni zvonik zamijenjen većim zidanim s baroknom kapom. Godine 1788. dovršena je izgradnja nove crkve. Nastaje dvoranska jednobrodna građevina, svođena nizom čeških svodova, s nešto užim svetištem zaključenim stiješnjenom apsidom. Godine 1880. crkva je bila ozbiljno oštećena u potresu, pa se potreba za obnovom iskoristila za preoblikovanje pročelja u tada aktualnom stilu historicizma. Svojim oblikovnim kvalitetama, te povijesnom vrijednošću značajan je spomenik jastrebarskog kraja.

Zaštita
Pod oznakom Z-1452 zavedena je kao nepokretno kulturno dobro – pojedinačno, pravna statusa zaštićena kulturnog dobra, klasificirano kao "sakralna graditeljska baština".

Izvori

Zaštićene sakralne građevine u Zagrebačkoj županiji
Građevine u Jastrebarskom
Katoličke crkve u Hrvatskoj
Jastrebarsko

Crkva sv. Nikole u Jastrebarskom


Fox's U-bet chocolate syrup is a commercial chocolate syrup originally made by H. Fox & Company in Brooklyn, New York starting in 1900. The product is most associated with the egg cream fountain beverage.  H. Fox & Company was acquired by US Westminster Foods in 2016.

Fox's is often cited in recipes for egg creams in the New York area. Both U-Bet and Bosco, another brand with NY/NJ roots, use real cocoa.

See also
 List of syrups

References

Cuisine of New York City
Brand name chocolate
Syrup
Products introduced in 1900
Kosher food

Fox's U-bet chocolate syrup


236170 Cholnoky este un asteroid din centura principală de asteroizi.

Descriere
236170 Cholnoky este un asteroid din centura principală de asteroizi. A fost descoperit pe  la Piszkesteto de Krisztián Sárneczky. Asteroidul prezintă o orbită caracterizată de o semiaxă mare de 2,27 ua, o excentricitate de 0,13 și o înclinație de 4,8° în raport cu ecliptica.

Vezi și
 Lista planetelor minore: 236001-237000
 Centura de asteroizi

Referințe

Obiecte astronomice descoperite în 2005
Centura de asteroizi

236170 Cholnoky


Events in the year 1985 in the Republic of India.

Incumbents
 President of India – Zail Singh
 Prime Minister of India – Rajiv Gandhi
 Vice President of India – R. Venkataraman
 Chief Justice of India – Yeshwant Vishnu Chandrachud (until 11 July), Prafullachandra Natwarlal Bhagwati

Governors
 Andhra Pradesh – Shankar Dayal Sharma (until 26 November), Kumud Ben Joshi (starting 26 November)
 Assam – Bhishma Narain Singh
 Bihar – Akhlaqur Rahman Kidwai (until 15 March), P. Venkatasubbaiah (starting 15 March)
 Gujarat – Braj Kumar Nehru
 Haryana – Saiyid Muzaffar Husain Burney
 Himachal Pradesh – Hokishe Sema
 Jammu and Kashmir – Jagmohan Malhotra
 Karnataka – Ashoknath Banerji
 Kerala – P. Ramachandran
 Madhya Pradesh – K.M Chandy
 Maharashtra –
 until 16 April: Idris Hasan Latif
 19 April-30 May: Pir Muhammad
 starting 31 May: Kona Prabhakara Rao
 Manipur – K. V. Krishna Rao
 Meghalaya – Bhishma Narain Singh
 Nagaland – K. V. Krishna Rao
 Odisha – Bishambhar Nath Pande
 Punjab –
 until 14 March: Kershasp Tehmurasp Satarawala
 14 March-14 November: Arjun Singh
 14 November-26 November: Hokishe Sema
 starting 26 November: Shankar Dayal Sharma
 Rajasthan – Om Prakash Mehra (until 4 January), Vasantdada Patil (starting 20 November)
 Sikkim –
 until 30 May: Kona Prabhakar Rao
 30 May-20 November: Bhishma Narain Singh
 starting 20 November: T.V. Rajeswar
 Tamil Nadu – Sundar Lal Khurana
 Tripura – K. V. Krishna Rao
 Uttar Pradesh – Chandeshwar Prasad Narayan Singh (until 31 March), Mohammed Usman Arif (starting 31 March)
 West Bengal – Uma Shankar Dikshit

Events
 National income - 2,845,341 million
 16 January - Coomar Narain an employee of SLM Maneklal Industries and certain personal staff of Principal Secretary to the Prime Minister of India were arrested in connection with leaking of classified documents to foreign agents under Official Secrets Act (India).
 10 March - India won the first World Championship of Cricket held at Australia by defeating Pakistan in the final.
 30 March - The Special Protection Group is created
 10 April – Chakravarty Committee was set up by the RBI to review the working of monetary system. Its recommendations had far reaching consequences eventually removing India from the 500-year-old silver standard
 5 June - R. Balakrishna Pillai,  a minister from Kerala resigns following controversial speech (Punjab Model needed for Kerala) from him that encourage terrorism.
 23 June – Air India Flight 182, a Boeing 747, blows up 31,000 feet (9,500 m) above the Atlantic Ocean, south of Ireland, killing all 329 aboard.
 By mid-1985, the statutory preemption on banks' resources in the form of the Statutory Liquidity Ratio and the Cash Reserve Ratio exceeded 45%.
 KS Oils company is founded.
 Texas Instruments, a multinational corporation, starts its India operations in Bangalore and helps create infrastructure to export software via satellite communications from India for the first time.

Law
 24 May - Terrorist and Disruptive Activities (Prevention) Act is came into effect after presidential assent.
 2 September - Indira Gandhi National Open University is established by an Act of Indian Parliament.
 14 November - The Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances Act is passed by Parliament came into force.
 The Administrative tribunals in Delhi, Mumbai, Calcutta and Allahabad were established by Administrative Tribunals Act, 1985.

Births

16 January - Sidharth Malhotra , actor and former model
17 February  Sivakarthikeyan, actor, producer, lyricist, TV anchor.
22 February – Bombayla Devi Laishram, archer.
5 March  Varalaxmi Sarathkumar, actress
9 March - Parthiv Patel, cricketer
26 March – Kedar Jadhav, Cricketer.
27 March  Ram Charan, actor and producer.
6 April – Jai, actor.
23 April – Annies Kanmani Joy, IAS.
9 May – Neha Bamb, actress.
15 May – Tathagata Mukherjee, actor.
1 June – Dinesh Karthik, cricketer.
19 June – Kajal Aggarwal, actress.
20 June – RJ Balaji, radio jockey, actor, television presenter, comedian and film director.
25 June – Durga Shakti Nagpal, Indian bureaucrat.
22 July  Yogi Babu, actor and comedian.
7 September – Radhika Apte, actress.
18 September  Vignesh Shivan, film director, lyricist and producer.
23 September – Ambati Rayudu, cricketer.
18 October - Sourabhee Debbarma, singer.
26 October – Asin Thottumkal, actress.
1 November – Anand Ambani, Business Magnet.
2 November – Diana Penty, actress.
11 November – Robin Uthappa, cricketer.
5 December – Shikhar Dhawan, cricketer.
21 December  Andrea Jeremiah, actress and singer.

Deaths
31 October – Hardit Malik, diplomat, civil servant and cricketer (born 1894)
6 November – Sanjeev Kumar, actor (born 1938).
3 December - Satya Bhakta, founders of Communist Party of India (b.1897)

See also
 Bollywood films of 1985

References

India
Years of the 20th century in India
1980s in India
India

1985 in India


Podsavezna nogometna liga Rijeka (također i kao Riječka podsavezna liga, Liga Riječkog nogometnog podsaveza, Riječko-istarska zona – Riječka skupina) je bila liga trećeg stupnja nogometnog prvenstva Jugoslavije u sezoni 1964./65.
Sudjelovalo je ukupno 12 klubova, a prvak je bio "Orijent" iz Rijeke

Ljestvica

Rezultatska križaljka

 Izvori:

Za prvaka Riječko-istarske zone

Kvalifikacije za 2. liga 1965./66.

Povezani članci
 Druga savezna liga 1964./65.
 Gradsko-kotarska liga Rijeka 1964./65.
 Istarska liga 1964./65.

Vanjske poveznice

Izvori

 Izidor Matovinovć: Pola stoljeća "Orijenta", Rijeka, 1970., UDK: 796.332:061.2(497.5 Rijeka)"1919/1969"(067.5), str. 183.
 Obrad Maleš i dr.: Nogometni klub "Opatija", Opatija : 1911-1981., Opatija, 1981., UDK: 796.332::061.2](497.5 Opatija)"1911/1981"(082), str. 71–72.
 Ante Kuntić i dr.: Sedamdeset i pet godina nogometa u gradu pod Nehajem 1920-1995, Senj, 1996., str. 75–77.
 Marijan Milevoj: Četrdeset zelenih proljeća : NK Rudar - Labin, Labin, 1986., UDK: 796.332(497.13 Labin)"1945/1985"(067.5), str. 79–84.
 Petar Pavlić: Crikvenička nogometna kronika : naših '90 let, Crikvenica, 2009., UDK: 796.332(497.5), str. 72–74, 214.
 "Sportske novosti", 1965. godina
 "Sportske novosti", br. 2325, izdano 3. lipnja 1965., str. 6
 kvarnerski.com, RIJEČKI NOGOMET 1955.-1970. (SPORT jučer&danas – 2), objavljeno 13. rujna 2013., pristupljeno 21. prosinca 2019.
 kvarnerski.com, SAMO NA KVARNERSKOM: NOGOMET RIJEKE i OKOLICE dio 1. (1945-1991), objavljeno 25. srpnja 2013., pristupljeno 1. prosinca 2019.
 Marinko Lazzarich, Neka Bude Orijent 1919. – 2019., str. 359.

1964-65 1
1964-65 Rijeka
Rijeka
1964-65 Rijeka

Podsavezna nogometna liga Rijeka 1964./65.


175365 Carsac este un asteroid din centura principală de asteroizi.

Descriere
175365 Carsac este un asteroid din centura principală de asteroizi. A fost descoperit pe  la Saint-Sulpice de Bernard Christophe. Asteroidul prezintă o orbită caracterizată de o semiaxă mare de 3,48 ua, o excentricitate de 0,02 și o înclinație de 9,4° în raport cu ecliptica.

Vezi și
 Lista planetelor minore: 175001-176000
 Centura de asteroizi

Referințe

Asteroizi Cybele

Obiecte astronomice descoperite în 2005
Centura de asteroizi

175365 Carsac


Johann Hüglin, auch Johannes Hüglin, Hans Hüglin, Johannes Heuglin, Johann Heuglin, Hanns Heuglin, Johannes Hügelin, Johannes Hügli, Johann Hügli, Johann Heuglein oder Johann Heugelin, im Englischen mitunter John Heuglin, im Französischen entsprechend Jean Heuglin, im Niederländischen Jan Heuglin geschrieben (* vor 1490 in Lindau (Bodensee); † 10. Mai 1527 in Meersburg), war Frühmessner (Pfarrer) in dem am Bodensee gelegenen Pfarrdorf Sernatingen (heute Bodman-Ludwigshafen, damals zur Reichsstadt Überlingen gehörig). Er gilt als evangelischer Märtyrer.

Leben
Johann Hüglin wurde als Sohn eines Scherers in Lindau geboren. Er erhielt das Amt eines Frühmessners in Sernatingen und setzte sich zu Beginn der Bauernkriege für die Bauern seiner Gemeinde ein. Im Überlinger Gebiet, überhaupt am Nordufer des Bodensees nahm der Aufstand beträchtliche Ausmaße an; die "Bodenseer" waren nach den "Baldtringern" und den "Algeuern" der dritte organisierte Haufen der Bauern.

Der Bauernaufstand wurde 1526 niedergeworfen. Kaiser Karl V. ordnete an, dass Geistliche, die sich der Reformation oder dem Bauernaufstand angeschlossen hatten, hart bestraft werden sollten. In dieser Zeit der Denunziationen und Anklagen wurde auch Hüglin, möglicherweise von dem gegenreformatorisch engagierten Überlinger Pfarrer Dr. Johann Schlupf (Amtszeit 1506–1527), als Ketzer angezeigt. Johann Hüglin wurde dementsprechend zusammen mit drei weiteren Geistlichen, die sich ebenso wie Hüglin positiv über die Reformation geäußert hatten, von der Überlinger Obrigkeit festgenommen und vor dem Gericht des Bischofs von Konstanz wegen angeblicher Beteiligung am Bauernaufstand und reformatorischer Umtriebe angeklagt. Die Voruntersuchung in Sernatingen wurde durch den Überlinger Ratsherrn Kaspar Dornsperger geführt. Der amtliche Bericht an den Hofmeister des Bischofs, Hans von Fridingen in Meersburg, enthielt unter anderem die Anschuldigung, Hüglin habe, obwohl keine Not bestand, an Fastentagen Fleisch gegessen. Außerdem wurde er beschuldigt, mit ketzerischen und aufrührerischen Reden im Wirtshaus die Bauern aufgehetzt zu haben.

Die anderen Festgenommenen schworen der lutherischen Lehre ab und wurden nach kurzer Haft in Meersburg freigelassen, während Hüglin, gegen den die schwersten Anschuldigungen vorlagen, in einem der Türme des Meersburger Schlosses interniert wurde. Einigen Anschuldigungen widersprach er, andere, seine evangelischen Lehren betreffend, gab er zu. Trotz Überredungsversuchen durch den bischöflichen Generalvikar und Dominikaner Wendelin Fabri (Lebenszeit um 1465–1533) und den Predigermönch Antonius Pirata sowie Folter ließ er sich nicht dazu bewegen, sich negativ über Martin Luthers Lehre zu äußern oder sich zu Anschuldigungen zu bekennen, die er von sich gewiesen hatte. Die Gelehrten des Bischofs versuchten erfolglos, ihn mit angeblichen biblischen Argumenten zu überzeugen. Hüglin wurde auch von dem im Schloss residierenden Bischof von Konstanz, Hugo von Hohenlandenberg, persönlich verhört.

Am 10. Februar 1527 ließ Hüglins Schwester Katharina, die Ehefrau des Goldschmieds Ulrich Heim, wohnhaft in Baden im Aargau, vom Badener Schultheiß und Rat eine Eingabe an den Bischof schreiben, um Hüglins Freilassung zu erwirken.

Am 6. Mai 1527 wurde in Konstanz vom Rat der Stadt den letzten römisch-katholischen Predigern ihre Tätigkeit verboten. Das harte Vorgehen des Bischofs mag mit diesen Vorgängen zusammenhängen, über die er die Kontrolle verloren hatte.

Prozess
Johann Hüglin wurde am Freitag vor Jubilate, dem 10. Mai 1527, auf dem Meersburger Marktplatz öffentlich vor Gericht gestellt. Dazu war dort eigens ein Gerüst aufgebaut worden. Den Vorsitz führte der Weihbischof in Konstanz und Titularbischof von Ascalon Melchior Fattlin (Amtszeit 1518–1548), der mit einem feierlichen Messgewand bekleidet war; ferner waren die geistlichen Räte des bischöflichen Konsistoriums anwesend: zur Linken des Weihbischofs der Abt von Petershausen, Gebhart II. Dornsperger (Amtszeit 1526–1556), zur Rechten der Abt von Kreuzlingen und päpstliche Exekutor Peter Babenberg (Amtszeit 1497–1545), ferner Wendelin Fabri, Oswald Wendelin, Antonius Pirata, Peter Speyser, mittlerweile bischöflicher Generalvikar, und der Meersburger Pfarrer Christoph Golter. Als weltlicher Richter fungierte der bischöfliche Vogt von Meersburg, Kilian Reichlin von Meldegg (gestorben 1529). Auf die Anklage durch einen Notar, er sei ein Ketzer, antwortete Hüglin, er lehre und halte nichts Anderes als die Lehre Christi und Pauli, und ließe sich nur aufgrund der Bibel überzeugen, wenn er geirrt habe. Er wurde angewiesen, nur mit "Ja" oder "Nein" zu antworten, da es sich nicht gehöre, vor dem Volk über solche Dinge zu reden. Hüglin rief daraufhin laut Gott um Hilfe an. Danach verlas der Kläger die Anklageschrift auf Deutsch.

Anklagepunkte
Die 21 Anklagepunkte, die sich aus der Folter ergeben hatten, waren:
 Ablehnung jeglicher Obrigkeit
 Lehre von der Freiheit des Christenmenschen, Ablehnung von Steuerleistungen
 Ablehnung aller Sakramente außer Taufe und Abendmahl
 Ablehnung der Werkgerechtigkeit
 Ablehnung des Fastens und anderer Kirchenbräuche
 Lektüre von Schriften Martin Luthers, darunter Von der babylonischen Gefangenschaft der Kirche und eines über die Psalmen, ferner Lektüre von Werken des Johannes Bugenhagen
 Hören von lutherischen und nicht-lutherischen Predigten, wobei ihm die lutherischen mehr zugesagt hätten
 Besitz der Übersetzung des Neuen Testaments Martin Luthers, in dem er hunderte Verfälschungen göttlichen Wortes vorgenommen habe
 Missachtung von Festtagen mit Ausnahme des Sonntags und der Marienfeste
 Ablehnung der Lehre vom Messopfer
 Befürwortung der Kelchkommunion
 Ablehnung des Zölibats, er sei nur aus Angst vor der Obrigkeit unverheiratet
 Ablehnung der Lehre vom Fegefeuer
 Mithilfe beim Verfassen der Zwölf Artikel der aufrührerischen Bauern
 Verfassen von Briefen zur Unterstützung des Aufstands, unter anderem an Johann Benkler, den Anführer des Hegauerhaufens der Bauern
 Ablehnung von Requien und Jahrzeiten
 Zulassung der Entfernung von Bildern
 Ablehnung von Konzilsbeschlüssen
 Unterredungen mit lutherischen Predigern über die Bauernartikel, wobei er diese gut geheißen habe
 Ablehnung des Evangeliums sowie von kirchlichen Satzungen und Verordnungen
 Mangelnder Glaube an die Wirksamkeit von Seelenmessen

Verteidigung
Zu seiner Verteidigung führte Hüglin an, dass
 (zu 1) er die Bauern während des Aufstandes zum Gehorsam gegenüber der Obrigkeit aufgerufen habe, was auch die Bibel lehre und woran auch er selbst sich dem Bischof gegenüber gehalten habe
 (2) er mit der Freiheit des Christenmenschen nur die Gewissensfreiheit gemeint habe; bei seiner schriftlichen Bitte um Erlaß von Steuerleistungen für die Bauern sei er auf deren Drängen hin nur auf ein Angebot des Rates von Überlingen eingegangen, das für den Fall gemacht wurde, dass die Sernatinger Bauern sich nicht dem Aufstand anschließen würden; er habe damit die Obrigkeit schützen und nicht den Aufstand unterstützen wollen; allein Gott wisse, ob er sich damit versündigt habe; er vertraue aber auf die Vergebung Gottes
 (3) er die übrigen Sakramente außer Taufe und Abendmahl für entbehrlich halte, da man auch selig werden könne, ohne beispielsweise die letzte Ölung oder die Priesterweihe erhalten zu haben oder verheiratet zu sein, wie auch die römisch-katholische Kirche lehre, er rief aber nicht zur Abschaffung der entbehrlichen Sakramente auf

Hüglins geschickte Argumentation brachte den Gerichtshof in Verlegenheit, deshalb wurde seine Rede an dieser Stelle von der Aufforderung des Vikars unterbrochen, nicht zu "disputieren", sondern auf Lateinisch zu antworten, und zwar nur mit "credo" (ich glaube es) oder "non credo" (ich glaube es nicht); diesem kam er aber nicht nach, da er meinte, es müssten immer beide Seiten gehört werden, da seine Worte sonst verfälscht würden, und berief sich auf göttliches und kaiserliches Recht. Er betonte, dass er nicht aufgrund seines persönlichen Glaubens, sondern nur aufgrund seiner Lehre verurteilt werden dürfe, selbst Hannas habe Christus nicht wegen seines Glaubens, sondern aufgrund seiner Lehren verurteilt. Er warnte seine Richter, nicht vorschnell zu urteilen, damit sie nicht den Zorn Gottes auf sich zögen. Er fuhr fort, dass

 (weiter zu 3) er schon unter Folter gesagt habe, dass seine Auffassung zu den Sakramenten sich auf der Bibel gründe, nicht auf Luthers Meinung
 (4) er der Meinung sei, dass gute Werke nur Blendwerk seien, wenn sie nicht aus Glauben erwüchsen, wie Christus selbst lehrte
 (5) er Fleisch an Fastentagen erlaubtermassen aus einer Notlage heraus gegessen habe; jeder müsse sich in dieser Frage aber aufgrund seines Gewissens nur vor Gott verantworten; er verwerfe die guten Bräuche aber nicht
 (6) er die fraglichen lutherischen Schriften schon vor drei Jahren vom Pfarrherrn von Bodman erhalten habe und das bloße Lesen nicht als Verbrechen betrachte, die Bibel selbst sage: Prüfet alles
 (7) er lutherischen Predigten nicht zugestimmt habe, weil sie von Luther seien, sondern weil er ihre Aussagen für wahr und dem Wort Gottes entsprechend hielte, er sei gar nicht gelehrt genug, um nach anderen Kriterien darüber zu urteilen
 (8) er zwar eine Übersetzung des Neuen Testaments durch Luther besessen habe, ihm darin aber weder Übersetzungsfehler aufgefallen seien, noch dass es er selbst Änderungen am Wort Gottes vorgenommen habe
 (9) er nicht die Festtage, sondern deren Missbrauch zu unchristlichen Vergnügungen ablehne
 (10) er nur der Lehre des Paulus folge, wenn er sage, dass Christus nur einmal, nämlich am Kreuz, geopfert wurde, und kein weiteres Opfer notwendig sei, und er eine Abendmahlslehre, die über das hinausgehe, was aus den Einsetzungsworten folge, ablehne
 (11) er die Spendung des Abendmahlssakraments in beiderlei Gestalt befürworte, da dies aus den Einsetzungsworten Christi und auch den Schriften des Paulus folge, es sei der Wille Gottes
 (12) er das Zölibat in der Tat nicht für notwendig hielte
 (13) er keine endgültige Meinung zum Thema des Fegefeuers habe; er folge der Lehre der Bibel, die nichts darüber aussage, und wolle nicht dem Konzil von Nicäa widersprechen; unter der Folter habe er bereits gesagt, diese sei ihm schon ein Fegefeuer
 (zu 14 und 15) es sich bei seiner für die Bauern verfassten Schrift lediglich um eine Bittschrift gehandelt habe, zu welcher der Rat von Überlingen aufgefordert habe
 (16 und 21) die Existenz des Fegefeuers nicht nachweisbar und damit auch kein Opfer für die Toten notwendig sei.

Hüglin brach in Tränen aus, wie auch einige Zuschauer der Verhandlung, womit er den Spott des Vikars auf sich zog. Hüglin meinte, er selbst sei des Auslachens nicht wert, der Vikar solle aber über sich selbst lachen, da er nicht wisse, was er tue. Der Vikar errötete. Hüglin bat das Gericht, nicht vorschnell zu urteilen, und flehte erneut Gott um Hilfe und die Umstehenden um Fürbitte an. Er schloss seine Verteidigungsrede damit, dass er sich in den Willen Gottes ergebe, der seine Hoffnung und Zuversicht sei.

Zeugenverhör
Danach folgte das Zeugenverhör. Als die beiden Zeugen vereidigt werden sollten, lehnte Hüglin dies ab, er vertraue darauf, dass sie die Wahrheit sagen würden. So wurde auf die Vereidigung verzichtet. Der zweite Zeuge gab an, einige der behaupteten Aussagen von Hüglin gehört zu haben, aber in der Form, wie er es in seinen Antworten vor Gericht ausgeführt habe.

Urteil
Obwohl die Anklage nicht bewiesen werden konnte, wurde Hüglin vom Vikar in lateinischer Sprache als Ketzer, Sünder gegen die Kirche und Zerstörer des Glaubens verurteilt. Seine Priesterwürde wurde ihm aberkannt. Ferner wurde er der weltlichen Obrigkeit, vertreten durch Reichlin von Meldegg, überantwortet. Es folgte ein Ritual zur Aberkennung der Priesterwürde:

Hüglin wurde vom Notar dem Weihbischof Fattlin vorgeführt, der auf Lateinisch anordnete, man solle Hüglin ein Priestergewand anlegen und ihn dann wieder vorführen. Hüglin betete laut, während er sich entsprechend kleidete, wobei er Gott dankte, dass er sich als frommer Priester gehalten habe; danach sprach er Psalmworte: "In dich, HERR, habe ich gehoffet." Fattlin zog ihm das Priestergewand aus, entfernte sich von ihm und beschimpfte ihn. Anschließend wurde ihm der Kopf geschoren. Dann wurden ihm mit einem Messer die Finger geschabt, um symbolisch den Chrisam seiner Priesterweihe zu entfernen. Danach bat der Weihbischof den üblichen Formalitäten entsprechend in seinem eigenen Namen und dem etlicher Äbte bei der weltlichen Obrigkeit um Gnade für Hüglin.

Anschließend klagte von Meldegg Hüglin als Verführer, Aufrührer und Ketzer an und verhängte als weltlicher Richter formell das Todesurteil durch Verbrennen über ihn.

Hinrichtung

Nach dem Urteilsspruch soll Hüglin zum Himmel gesehen und laut gerufen haben:

(Vergleiche das Kreuzeswort  und Alexandre Roussel.) Die Anwesenden sollen in Tränen ausgebrochen sein. Weiter soll er gesagt haben:

Hüglin bedankte sich einer handschriftlichen Chronik der Stadt Lindau und der im Kapitel "Literatur" angegebenen Flugschrift von Johannes Stumpf zufolge bei allen, die ihn versorgt hatten, und auch beim Bischof für die gute Verpflegung, die ihm im Gefängnis zuteilgeworden war. Danach soll er für seine Henker um Vergebung gebetet haben.

Er wurde dann durch das Obertor zur Hinrichtungsstätte außerhalb der Stadtmauern geführt, wobei er Psalmen gesprochen haben soll. Auf dem Scheiterhaufen soll Johann Hüglin, ebenso wie es auch von Jan Hus berichtet wird, das Gloria in excelsis, das Te Deum laudamus und das Magnificat gesungen haben, sein letztes Wort soll gewesen sein:

Zitat

 (Siehe auch sola scriptura.)

Rezeption

Frühe Wirkungen und Behauptungen
Der Prozess gegen Hüglin war vor dem Einsetzen der Täuferverfolgung im Jahre 1527 neben den Prozessen gegen Caspar Tauber, Heinrich von Zütphen und Leonhard Kaiser einer der vier letzten Inquisitionsprozesse gegen Lutheraner im Heiligen Römischen Reich, die mit einem Todesurteil endeten und reichsweit Beachtung fanden. Gustav Schwab vermutete, dass Hüglins Schicksal mit zur erfolgreichen Verbreitung der Reformation in Lindau beigetragen habe.

Gegner behaupteten nach Hüglins Tod, er habe zuletzt widerrufen und darum gebeten, eine Totenmesse für ihn abzuhalten. Von diesen wurde sogar die Behauptung aufgestellt, Hüglin habe sexuellen Umgang mit seiner Mutter gehabt.

Zwei bekannte Flugschriften und deren Rezeption
Über den Fall Hüglin wurden bald zwei Flugschriften herausgegeben, eine davon in vier Auflagen. Johannes Stumpf beschrieb die Ereignisse aus evangelischer Sicht in der Schrift

Warhafft hystori von dem frommen zügen und marterer Christi Johannes Hügelin vonn Lindow, so dann umb christlicher warhait willen durch den bischoff von Costentz zu Merspurg verbrennt ist worden uff den zehnden tag mayens im tusend fünffhundert siben und zwaintzgesten jar

(Link zur freien Online-Version im Kapitel "Literatur"), die in vier Auflagen erschien und als Augenzeugenbericht geschrieben war. Es handelte sich dabei um den ältesten gedruckten Bericht. Die Artikel, zu denen sich Hüglin laut dieser Flugschrift in seinem Prozess bekannt hatte, deckten sich im Wesentlichen mit den theologischen Grundüberzeugungen der lutherischen Reformation.

Heinrich Bullinger zitierte diese Flugschrift in seiner Reformationsgeschichte, die er im Jahre 1567 abschloss, verlegte dabei das Ereignis auf 1526 vor und schuf einen unzutreffenden Zusammenhang zur Badener Disputation, indem er der römisch-katholischen Seite vorwarf, nicht ernsthaft verhandeln zu wollen, und deutete an, dass dort Ulrich Zwinglis Leben gefährdet gewesen wäre. Er ging dabei wohl von einem geflügelten Wort aus, das spekulierte, Zwingli wäre es ein Jahr früher in Baden ebenso ergangen; der Fehler ergab sich wohl aus dem großen zeitlichen Abstand. Leopold von Ranke übernahm 1840 Bullingers Irrtum in seine Deutsche Geschichte im Zeitalter der Reformation.

Johannes Kessler übernahm das Wesentliche aus der Flugschrift in seine Sabbata, Ludwig Rabus zitierte sie bereits im 16. Jahrhundert in seinen Historien der Märtyrer, später erschien sie in Johann Jacob Ulrichs Miscellanea Tigurina. Der Konstanzer Schultheiß stützte sich in seiner Bistumschronik auf die Schrift. Diese Quellen bestätigen, ebenso wie der noch erhaltene Bittbrief von Hüglins Schwester, 1527 als Jahr der Ereignisse. Schriften von Walchner und Vierordt zum Thema sind dem Kapitel "Literatur" zu entnehmen.

Peter Speyser und Christoph Golter, die an dem Prozess beteiligt waren, beschrieben die Ereignisse in

Warhafft verantwurttung über dz lugenhafft schmachbuechlin so in kurtzuerschinen tagen außgangen ist von wegen Hannsen Heüglins von Lindaw woelcher dann wmb seiner auffruerischen ketzerischen und falschen leer willen zu Moerspurg am Bodensee ist verbrendt worden auff den zehenden tag des meyen im siben und zweintzigsten jare

(herausgegeben von Ulrich Morhart d. Ä. in Tübingen, wohl im Jahre 1527) aus römisch-katholischer Sicht. Dieser Schrift zufolge bat Hüglin um eine nicht tödliche Körperstrafe. Ein Nachdruck dieses Werkes fand nicht statt. Der Unterschied in der Auflagenstärke stützt die verbreitete Auffassung, dass anti-lutherische Flugschriften sich geringerer Popularität erfreuten.

War Hüglin (Mit-)Autor der Zwölf Artikel?
Ob es sich bei Hüglin um einen Mitverfasser der Zwölf Artikel der Bauern handelte, ist kontrovers diskutiert worden; Alfred Stern argumentierte beispielsweise in einer Schrift von 1868 (siehe Kapitel "Literatur"), dass aus der Verteidigungsrede Hüglins hervorgehe, dass er nur die Bitten der Sernatinger Bauern verschriftlicht habe, die der Überlinger Rat angefordert habe, und bei denen es sich nicht um die bekannten Zwölf Artikel gehandelt habe, sondern um eine Schrift von lokaler Bedeutung, die vielleicht nur ein paar hundert Personen bekannt wurde. Als Kriterien für die Zwölf Artikel führte Stern die Zwölfzahl, den Druck und die Autorschaft durch einen politischen Anführer der Bauern an, keines dieser Kriterien sei bei Hüglins Artikeln zutreffend. Dass ein Pfarrer Bittschriften für Bauern verfasst habe, sei nicht ungewöhnlich, da er am besten alphabetisiert war. Stern meinte, Hüglin hätte sich dazu bekannt, wenn er der Verfasser der bekannten Zwölf Artikel gewesen sei.

Wilhelm Zimmermann gestand schon 1841 in seiner Allgemeinen Geschichte des großen Bauernkrieges zu, dass Hüglin nur die Bitten der Sernatinger Bauern verschriftlicht hatte, dass aber eine Hauptforderung der Zwölf Artikel, die Aufhebung des Todfalls (Artikel 11), schon in den Sernatinger Artikeln enthalten war, und dass die älteste Ausgabe der Zwölf Artikel noch den Stil einer Bittschrift hatte. Es sei also möglich, dass die entsprechende Forderung aus Hüglins Sernatinger Artikeln in die Zwölf Artikel aller Bauern eingeflossen war.

Ehrungen
Der Johannes-Hüglin-Weg in Meersburg und der Johann-Hüglin-Weg in Bodman-Ludwigshafen sind nach Johann Hüglin benannt, ebenso der Johannes-Hüglin-Saal der Evangelischen Kirchengemeinde Ludwigshafen am See (heutiger Name von Sernatingen).

Gedenktag
10. Mai im Evangelischen Namenkalender.

Der Gedenktag wurde vor der Einführung des offiziellen Namenkalenders bereits geführt in:

 Theodor Fliedner: Buch der Märtyrer. Kaiserswerth 1849/1859, Band 4, S. 1399–1404
 Ferdinand Piper: Evangelischer Kalender. In Zeugen der Wahrheit. Berlin 1874/1875, Band 1, S. 14–25
 Preußischer Evangelischer Oberkirchenrat: Namenkalender für das deutsche Volk. Berlin 1876
 Jörg Erb: Die Wolke der Zeugen, Kassel 1951/1963, Band 4, S. 508–520

Ein Gedenktag an einem anderen Datum fand sich in:

 Kasper Goltwurm: Kirchen-Kalender. Frankfurt 1559

Literatur
 Ernst Baur: Der Frühmesser von Sernatingen. See-Verlag, Friedrichshafen 1924.

 Guntram Brummer: Johannes Hüglin, ein Zeuge der Reformation am Bodensee. In: Glaserhäusle 1990, 11, S. 13–26.
 Casimir Bumiller: Sernatingen im Bauernkrieg 1525 und der Ketzereiprozeß gegen den Frühmesser Johannes Hüglin. In: Ludwigshafen am Bodensee. Bodman-Ludwigshafen 1996, S. 61–82.
 Peter Burschel: Sterben und Unsterblichkeit. Zur Kultur des Martyriums in der frühen Neuzeit (= Ancien Régime, Aufklärung und Revolution, Band 35). Oldenbourg Wissenschaftsverlag, München 2004, ISBN 3-486-56815-9 (Rezension).
 Emil Egli: Eine Berichtigung zu Bullingers Reformationsgeschichte
 C. L. Herm. Fick: Die Märtyrer der Evangelisch-Lutherischen Kirche. Niedner, St. Louis 1854, Kapitel IV: Johannes Heuglin., S. 12 ff.

 Hildegard Hebenstreit-Wilfert: Märtyrerflugschriften der Reformationszeit. In: Flugschriften als Massenmedium der Reformationszeit. Stuttgart 1981, ISBN 3-12-911630-3, S. 397–446.
 Christian Moser: Die Dignität des Ereignisses – Studien zu Heinrich Bullingers Reformationsgeschichtsschreibung, ISBN 9789004229785. – Diese Quelle enthält eine kurze Beschreibung des Prozesses gegen Hüglin, die von Bullinger verfasst wurde.
 Leopold von Ranke: Deutsche Geschichte im Zeitalter der Reformation. Band 3, Berlin 1840, S. 96.
 Frieder Schulz, Gerhard Schwinge (Hrsg.): Synaxis: Beiträge zur Liturgik. Vandenhoeck und Ruprecht, Göttingen 1997, ISBN 3-525-60398-3.
 Gustav Schwab: Der Bodensee nebst dem Rheinthale von St. Luziensteig bis Rheinegg. Stuttgart / Tübingen 1827, S. 235 ().
 Alfred Stern: Über die zwölf Artikel der Bauern. Verlag von S. Hirzel, Leipzig 1868.
 Johannes Stumpf: Warhafft hystori von dem frommen zügen und marterer Christi Johannes Hügelin vonn Lindow, so dann umb christlicher warhait willen durch den bischoff von Costentz zu Merspurg verbrennt ist worden uff den zehnden tag mayens im tusend fünffhundert siben und zwaintzgesten jar. Christoph Froschauer d. Ä., Zürich 1527.
 Karl Friedrich Vierordt: Geschichte der evangelischen Kirche im Großherzogtum Baden. Band 1, S. 281 ff.
 Kasimir Walchner: Johann Heuglin von Lindau. Vortrag vom 2. Mai 1827. In: Freiburger Geschichtsverein: Schriften, Band 1, S. 67 ().
 Ludwig Wien: Evangelium am See. Hrsg. von der Evangelischen Kirchengemeinde Meersburg (Digitalisat des relevanten Abschnittes). Diese Quelle beschreibt den Prozess von einem betont evangelischen Standpunkt aus.
 Wilhelm Zimmermann: Allgemeine Geschichte des großen Bauernkrieges, 1. Teil, Franz Heinrich Köhler, Stuttgart 1841 (books.google.de).
 Johannes Hüglin – ein Priester zwischen Bauernkrieg und Reformation. In: Meersburger Spuren. Verlag Robert Gessler, Friedrichshafen 2007, ISBN 3-86136-124-8, S. 49–53.

Weblinks

 Johann Hüglin. In: Ökumenisches Heiligenlexikon
 Johann Hüglin. In: Ökumenischer Namenkalender
 Artikel über Johann Hüglin. In: Südkurier
 Karl Schweizer: Bauernkrieg Lindau. (PDF; 1,8 MB) Edition-Inseltor-Lindau.de, S. 16

Einzelnachweise

Märtyrer (Christentum)
Person der Reformation
Person des Christentums (Baden-Württemberg)
Evangelischer Geistlicher (16. Jahrhundert)
Person im Deutschen Bauernkrieg
Hingerichtete Person (16. Jahrhundert)
Hingerichtete Person (Heiliges Römisches Reich)
Geboren im 15. Jahrhundert
Gestorben 1527
Mann
Person des evangelischen Namenkalenders

Johann Hüglin


Franz Kanik (Wolin, 30. lipnja 1863. – Marianske Lazne, 18. ožujka 1931.) je bio austrougarski general i vojni zapovjednik. Tijekom Prvog svjetskog rata obnašao je dužnost načelnika pozadinskog odjela Glavnog stožera, te je zapovijedao X. korpusom na Istočnom bojištu.

Vojna karijera
Franz Kanik je rođen 30. lipnja 1863. u Wolinu. Osnovnu školu pohađa u Winterbergu, nakon čega od 1877. pohađa vojnu kadetsku školu u Pragu koju završava 1881. godine. Od srpnja 1880. služi u 28. pješačkoj pukovniji, nakon čega je u prosincu 1882. premješten na službu u 88. pješačku pukovniju. U svibnju 1884. je promaknut u čin poručnika, dok od 1887. pohađa Ratnu školu u Beču koju završava 1889. godine. U međuvremenu je, u studenom 1888., unaprijeđen u čin natporučnika. U studenom 1889. raspoređen je u stožer vojnog zapovjedništva u Zadru i to do travnja 1890. kada je premješten na službu u stožer 2. brdske brigade smještene u Trebinju. U prosincu 1891. imenovan je načelnikom stožera 10. pješačke brigade sa sjedištem u Troppauu koju dužnost obnaša do travnja 1893. od kada služi u stožeru IX. korpusa. Te iste godine, u svibnju, promaknut je u čin satnika. Od svibnja 1895. radi kao kartograf u 22. vojnom odjelu za mape u Stanislavu, da bi potom od veljače 1896. bio raspoređen na službu u stožer zapovjedništva tvrđave Krakow. U studenom 1897. postaje zapovjednikom 6. satnije 88. pješačke pukovnije sa sjedištem u Pragu, dok od rujna 1898. zapovijeda 11. satnijom u istoj pukovniji. Od siječnja 1899. predaje kartografiju u Ratnoj školi u Beču i Glavnom stožeru. Te iste godine, u svibnju, unaprijeđen je u čin bojnika, dok čin potpukovnika dostiže u siječnju 1903. godine.

U studenom 1904. postaje zapovjednikom 1. bojne 6. landverske divizije smještene u Egeru tijekom koje službe je u siječnju 1906. promaknut u čin pukovnika. Od ožujka 1906. obnaša dužnost načelnika stožera X. korpusa na kojoj dužnosti se nalazi do listopada 1907. kada je imenovan voditeljem izobrazbe časnika Landwehra. U listopadu 1911. postaje zapovjednikom 11. brdske brigade u Tuzli uz istodobno promaknuće u čin general bojnika. Potom je u prosincu 1912. premješten na službu u Glavni stožer da bi u travnju 1913. bio raspoređen na službu u ministarstvo rata gdje se nalazi do siječnja 1914. kada je ponovno raspoređen na službu u Glavni stožer.

Prvi svjetski rat
Tijekom Prvog svjetskog rata Kanik obnaša dužnost načelnika pozadinskog odjela Glavnog stožera. Na navedenoj dužnosti nalazi se do siječnja 1916. kada je pozadinski odjel reorganizacijom prestao postojati. U međuvremenu je, u siječnju 1915. promaknut u čin podmaršala. Od rujna 1916. raspoređen je na službu u ministarstvo rata da bi u siječnju 1917. bio imenovan glavnim inspektorom žandarmerije. Navedenu dužnost obnaša do veljače 1918. kada je imenovan zapovjednikom X. korpusa, koju dužnost obnaša kratko, do travnja te iste godine, kada je X. korpus raspušten. U svibnju 1918. unaprijeđen je u čin generala pješaštva

Poslije rata
Nakon završetka rata Kanik je sa 1. siječnjem 1919. umirovljen. Međutim, stupio je u čehoslovačku vojsku gdje je imao čin umirovljenog generala 3 klase. Reorganizacijom vojnih činova u čehoslovačkoj vojsci, od prosinca 1927. imao je čin generala armije. Preminuo je 18. ožujka 1931. u 68. godini života u Marianskim Laznima.

Izvori

Literatura
 Tibor Balla, A Nagy Háború osztrák–magyar, Tábornagyok, vezérezredesek, gyalogsági és lovassági tábornokok, táborszernagyok, Argumentum, Budapest, 2010., str. 174-175

Vanjske poveznice
     Franz Kanik na stranici Biographien.ac.at
      Franz Kanik na stranici Armedconflicts.com

Austrougarski vojni zapovjednici u Prvom svjetskom ratu

Franz Kanik


Knjige u 1997. godini.

Stranica obuhvaća samo važne odnosno značajne umjetničke, znanstvene, kronike, zakonske i sl. knjige.
Obuhvaća i ako je objavljen prijevod i/ili pretisak nakon više desetljeća, stoljeća i tisućljeća.
Može se posebno navesti kad je napisana i kad je objavljena, jer nije rijetko veliko vremensko odstupanje dok je važna knjiga bila samo u rukopisu do vremena tiskane objave.

Hrvatska i u Hrvata
 Bijeg od sigurnosti, Richard Bach. Prevoditelj: Blanka Hrvat. Nakladnik: Zagrebačka naklada. Broj stranica: 216. Duhovna literatura i Self-Help.

Svijet

Izvori

Godine 20. stoljeća
1997.

Knjige u 1997.


Ester Kustovna Mägi (født 10. januar 1922 i Tallinn, Estland, død 14. maj 2021) var en estisk komponist og lærer.

Mägi er Estlands mest anerkendte kvindelige komponist indenfor klassisk musik. Hun studerede komposition på musikkonservatoriet i Tallinn og senere på Moskva musikkonservatorium hos Vissarion Sjebalin. Hun skrev en symfoni, orkesterværker, kammermusik, koncerter for mange instrumenter etc. Mägi var senere lærer i komposition på musikkonservatoriet i Tallinn. Hun var i sin kompositionsstil inspireret at estisk folklore og russisk klassisk musik.

Udvalgte værker

 Symfoni (1968) - for orkester
 Klaverkoncert (1953) - klaver og orkester
 Violinkoncert (1958) - for violin og orkester
 "Vesper"(1998) - for strygeorkester

Referencer

Kilde
 Om Ester Mägi på www.musicweb-international.com

Komponister fra Estland
Lærere

Ester Mägi


An Aristida rauliolii in uska species han Liliopsida nga ginhulagway ni René Charles Maire. An Aristida rauliolii in nahilalakip ha genus nga Aristida, ngan familia nga Poaceae. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Aristida

Aristida rauliolii


3. NL – Jug (Treća nogometna liga – Jug) od sezone 2022./23. predstavlja ligu četvrtog stupnja hrvatskog nogometa, te je zamijenila dotadašnju 3. HNL – Jug.
U ligi sudjeluje 16 klubova s područja Dalmacije (odnosno četiri župsnije koje pripadaju "Nogometnom središtu Split" HNS-a.
Prvak je postao klub "Zagora" iz Unešića.

Sustav natjecanja
16 klubova igra dvokružnu ligu (30 kola).

Sudionici

Ljestvica

Raspored i rezultati utakmica

''Ažurirano: 30. svibnja 2023. (kraj sezone)

Najbolji strijelci
Izvori:

Strijelci 10 i više pogodaka:

 Ažurirano: 3. lipnja 2023.

Povezani članci
 3. NL – Jug
 2. NL 2022./23.
 3. NL – Centar 2022./23.
 1. ŽNL Dubrovačko-neretvanska 2022./23.
 1. ŽNL Splitsko-dalmatinska 2022./23.
 ŽNL Šibensko-kninska 2022./23.
 1. ŽNL Zadarska 2022./23.

Vanjske poveznice
 hns-cff.hr, 3. NL Jug
 hns-cff.hr, Središte Split
 dalmatinskinogomet.hr, 3. NL

Izvori

 hns-cff.hr, 3. NL Jug (2022./23.), wayback arhiva od 3. lipnja 2023.
 , objavljeno 31. svibnja 2023., preuzeto 3. lipnja 2023.
  int.soccerway.com, Croatia -> Third NL -> 2022/23 -> South
  sofascore.com, 3. NL – Jug
 dalmatinskinogomet.hr, RASPORED I REZULTATI 3. NL
 dalmatinskinogomet.hr, LJESTVICA 3. NL
 dalmatinskinogomet.hr, STRIJELCI 3. NL jug
  rsssf.org, Croatia 2022/23 — Fourth Level
  sofascore.com, 3. NL - Jug
  tipsscore.com/, Football / Croatia Amateur / 3. NL – Jug – 2022-2023
 hr-nogomet.hr, 3. Nogometna Liga / 3. NL Jug
 sportnet.hr, Statistika — Nogomet — 2022/23 — Treća nogometna liga Jug

2022-23
3 NL Jug

3. NL – Jug 2022./23.


The Berkshires () are a highland region located in western Massachusetts and northwestern Connecticut in the United States. Generally, "Berkshires" may refer the range of hills in Massachusetts that lie between the Housatonic and Connecticut Rivers. Highlands of northwest Connecticut may be seen as part of the Berkshires and sometimes called the Northwest Hills or Litchfield Hills. The segment of the Taconic Mountains in Massachusetts is often considered a part of the Berkshires, although they are geologically separate and are a comparatively narrow range along New York's eastern border.

Also referred to as the Berkshire Highlands, Berkshire Hills, Berkshire Mountains, and Berkshire Plateau, the region enjoys a vibrant tourism industry based on music, arts, and recreation. Geologically, the mountains are a range of the Appalachian Mountains.

The Berkshires were named among the 12 Last Great Places by The Nature Conservancy.

Definition
The term "The Berkshires" has overlapping but non-identical political, cultural, and geographic definitions.

Political
Politically, Berkshire County, Massachusetts, was formed as a governmental unit in 1761.  It includes the western extremity of the state, with its western boundary bordering New York and its eastern boundary roughly paralleling the watershed divide separating the Connecticut River watershed from the Housatonic River and Hoosic River watersheds. However, like most other counties in Massachusetts, the active governmental role of Berkshire County has been abolished, so has no legal or governmental function.

Cultural

Culturally, the term "Berkshires" includes all of the highland region in western Massachusetts west of the Connecticut River and lower Westfield River. The cultural region also includes the Taconic Mountains bordering New York, which are geologically distinct from the Berkshires orogeny. Southwest Vermont and the Taconic region of New York are occasionally grouped with the Berkshires cultural region.

Sir Francis Bernard, the royal governor (in office 1760–1769), named the area "Berkshire" to honor his home county in England. In the present, the name of the modern American region is pronounced differently (BERK-sheer, -shər) to the modern English County (BARK-sheer, -shər).

Geographic

Geologically and physically, the Berkshires are the southern continuation of the Green Mountains of Vermont, distinct from them only by their lower average elevation and by virtue of what side of the border they fall on. In physical geography, the Berkshires extend from the Housatonic River and Hoosic River valleys in western Massachusetts, to the Connecticut River valley in north-central Massachusetts, and to the foot of the lower Westfield River valley in south-central Massachusetts. In Connecticut, where they are referred to as the Litchfield Hills, they extend east from the upper Housatonic River valley in the northwest part of the state.

Geologically, the Berkshires are bordered on the west by the Taconic Mountains, the south by the Hudson Highlands, and to the east, they are bordered by the Metacomet Ridge. They are on the average  lower and less prominent than the Green Mountains of Vermont, and form a broad, dissected plateau punctuated by hills and peaks and cut by river valleys. The Berkshires topography gradually diminishes in profile and elevation from west to east and from north to south, except where rivers have cut deep gorges and sharp bluff faces into the Berkshire plateau.

Formation
The Berkshires and related Green Mountains formed over half a billion years ago when Africa collided with North America, pushing up the Appalachian Mountains and forming the bedrock of the Berkshires. Erosion over hundreds of millions of years wore these mountains down to the hills that we see today.

Elevation
The average regional elevation of the Berkshires ranges from about . One of the high points is Spruce Mountain, at . The highest point in the Berkshires physiographic region is Crum Hill, , in the town of Monroe.

Rivers
The Housatonic River, Hoosic River, Westfield River, and Deerfield River watersheds drain the Berkshire region in Massachusetts; in Connecticut the main river drainages are the Farmington River, the Naugatuck River, the Shepaug River, and the Housatonic River.

Counties
The Berkshire hills runs through:
Berkshire County, Massachusetts (far Western Massachusetts)
Hartford County, Connecticut  (Hartland, Granby)
Franklin County, Massachusetts (Leyden, Colrain, Shelburne, Conway, Charlemont, Heath, Buckland, Hawley, Ashfield, Rowe, Monroe)
Hampden County, Massachusetts  (Tolland, Chester, Granville, Blandford, Russell, Montgomery)
Hampshire County, Massachusetts (Chesterfield, Goshen, Williamsburg, Westhampton, Huntington, Worthington, Cummington, Middlefield, Plainfield)
Litchfield County, Connecticut  (County South of Massachusetts border.)

Municipalities
The largest municipalities associated with the Berkshires cultural region include Pittsfield, North Adams, Great Barrington, Williamstown, Stockbridge, Lee, and Lenox, Massachusetts.

History
During the American Revolution a Continental Army force under Henry Knox brought captured cannons from Fort Ticonderoga by ox-drawn sleds south along the west bank of the Hudson River from the fort to Albany, where he then crossed the Hudson. Knox and his men continued east through the Berkshires and finally arrived in Boston.  This feat, known as the "Noble train of artillery", was accomplished in the dead of winter, 1775–1776.
The Berkshires is also home to Hancock Shaker Village, which is the oldest continuously working farm in the Berkshires of Western Massachusetts. Hancock Shaker Village is a landmark destination of 750 acres, 20 historic Shaker buildings, and over 22,000 Shaker artifacts. On the National Historic Register, it is one of the most comprehensively interpreted Shaker sites in the world.

Ecology

The Berkshires lie within the New England/Acadian forests ecoregion.

Similarly, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency in Massachusetts (Griffith et al. 1994) has defined six ecoregions within this area: Taconic Mountains, Western New England Marble Valleys, Lower Berkshire Hills, Berkshire Highlands, Vermont Piedmont, and Berkshire Transition. Each region is distinct from the others, providing a unique habitat assemblage.

Much of the Hoosic and Housatonic River valleys have underlying bedrock limestone and marble which contribute to calcareous wetlands unique in Massachusetts. The alkaline pH waters support a diversity of plants and animals intolerant of more acidic waters, some of which are state-listed rare or endangered. Combined with the rich mesic forests ranging from the northern hardwood to the taiga or sub-alpine, the Berkshires have a valuable, biologically diverse ecosystem.

The classic study of the vegetation of the Berkshire Highlands was Egler's 1940 monograph, covering the flora of an area stretching roughly from Pittsfield, Massachusetts, in the west to Hatfield, Massachusetts, in the east, and from Goshen, Connecticut, in the south to the Vermont border in the north.

Today, efforts are being made by many organizations to preserve and manage this region for biological diversity and sustainable human development.

Tourism
The Berkshires have numerous shops, motels, hotels, museums, and trails, including part of the Appalachian Trail, large tracts of wilderness and parks Berkshire Botanical Garden and Hebert Arboretum The area includes Bash Bish Falls, the tallest waterfall in Massachusetts.

The Berkshire region is noted as a center for the visual and performing arts, many institutions which are associated with Williams College. The art museums include the Norman Rockwell Museum, the Clark Art Institute, the Massachusetts Museum of Contemporary Art (Mass MoCA), Berkshire Museum, Hancock Shaker Village, and the Williams College Museum of Art (WCMA). Performing-arts institutions in the Berkshires include Tanglewood Music Center and Boston University Tanglewood Institute in Lenox, the summer home of the Boston Symphony Orchestra; the Bang on a Can Summer Festival for contemporary music in North Adams; Shakespeare & Company in Lenox; summer stock theatre festivals such as the Williamstown Theatre Festival in Williamstown, Barrington Stage Company in Pittsfield, the Berkshire Theatre Festival in Stockbridge, and Berkshire Playwrights Lab in Great Barrington; and America's first and longest-running dance festival, Jacob's Pillow, in the town of Becket.

See also
 BerkShares
 Famous Berkshire Cottages:
 Naumkeag
 Edith Wharton's The Mount
 Ventfort Hall Mansion and Gilded Age Museum
 Litchfield Hills
 Taconic Mountains
 Williams College
 Massachusetts College of Liberal Arts
 Geography of Massachusetts
 List of mountains in Massachusetts
 Berkshire, England
 Berkshire County

References

External links

 Berkshire Visitors Bureau
 Massachusetts State Parks in the Berkshires

Subranges of the Appalachian Mountains
Mountain ranges of Connecticut
Mountain ranges of Massachusetts
Landforms of Litchfield County, Connecticut
Landforms of Berkshire County, Massachusetts
Regions of Connecticut
Regions of Massachusetts
Tourist attractions in Litchfield County, Connecticut
Tourist attractions in Berkshire County, Massachusetts

Berkshires