ද ලිට්ල් මර්මේඩ් (ඉංග්‍රීසි: The Little Mermaid) යනු Walt Disney Feature Animation විසින් නිෂ්පාදනය කරනු ලැබූ, 1989 දී නිකුත් වූ ඇමරිකානු සජීවීකරණ චිත්‍රපටයකි.

යොමු

1989 සජීවිකරණ චිත්‍රපට
1980s ඇමරිකානු සජීවිකරණ
ඇමරිකානු සජීවිකරණ චිත්‍රපට

ද ලිට්ල් මර්මේඩ් (1989 චිත්‍රපටය)


Anophthalmus hitleri (slovenski: Hitlerjev brezokec) endemična je vrsta špiljskoga kornjaša koja je prisutna u samo pet vlažnih špilja u Sloveniji. Pripada rodu Anophthalmus s još 41 vrsta i 95 podvrsta. Članove podvrste Trechinae i roda Carabidae, kojima pripada ova vrsta, su predatori, stoga se smatra da su odrasle jedinke i ličinke ove vrste predatori te da se hrane manjima stanovnicima špilja.

Ime
Znanstveno ime ovoj vrsti, Anophthalmus hitleri, dao je austrijski inženjer i amaterski entomolog Oskar Scheibel 1937. godine. Njemu je prodan primjerak ove vrste 1933. godine kada još nije bila opisana. Scheibel je imenovao vrstu u čast Adolfa Hitlera. Ime roda kojem ova vrsta pripada, Anophthalmus, znači bez očiju, odakle dolazi slovenski naziv Hitlerjev brezokec. Hitler je doznao za imenovanje ove vrste te je Scheibelu poslao pismo u kojem mu se zahvaljuje. Unatoč snažnim političkim asocijacijama, prema taksonomskoj tradiciji dvoimena nazivlja ne bi se smjela mijenjati, osim zbog vjerskih naziva, koja su također obeshrabrena.

Ova vrsta ne posjeduje nikakve značajne razlikovne karakteristike, poput neobičnih boja ili ticala, a jedino pruža interes skupljačima nacističkih uspomena i kornjaša zbog znanstvenog imena vrste. Zbog toga ovoj vrsti prijeti izumiranje.

Nakon Drugoga svjetskoga rata, Međunarodna komisija za zoološku nomenklaturu (engleski: International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature) odbila je preimenovati vrstu. Pošto je znanstveno ime ove vrste već registrirano, danas je nemoguće promijeniti ime ove vrste, osim ako je prekršila neko pravilo prilikom njene prvobitne registracije u sustav.

Izvori

Vidi još
 Popis organizama nazvanih po poznatim osobama

Vanjske poveznice

 Anophthalmus hitleri Scheibel, 1937, BioLib
 Anophthalmus hitleri Scheibel 1937, Encyclopedia of Life
 Anophthalmus hitleri Scheibel 1937, Fauna Europaea

Trčci
Životinjske endemske vrste
Endemska fauna Slovenije
Adolf Hitler

Anophthalmus hitleri


الجمعية الشرعية لتعاون العاملين بالكتاب والسنة المحمدية أحد الجمعيات التي تقوم بالعمل الخيري في مصر والعالم الإسلامي وقد نالت جائزة الملك فيصل العالمية لخدمة الإسلام من الملك فيصل في العام 2009 / 1430هـ وللجمعية مجلة دورية باسم «التبيان».

التاريخ
أنشأها الشيخ محمود محمد خطاب السبكي في غرة المحرم 1331هـ - 1912م. الجمعية الشرعية جمعية دعوية إصلاحية اختطت لنفسها خط الوسط والاعتدال. شهدت الجمعية في الربع الأخير من عمرها طفرة نوعية من حيث تعدد أنشطتها وتنوع أساليب دعوتها إلى الله. عملت الجمعية جاهدة على ترسيخ مفهوم الدعوة إلى الله ليست بالقول فحسب ولكن بالعمل أيضًا، وأن الامة لن تقوم لها قائمة إلا بعمل دؤوب لإقامة فروض الكفاية وقضاء حاجات أهل الحاجة.

مسارات الجمعية الشرعية
اتخذت الدعوة في الجمعية أربعة مسارات هي:
 المسار الأول: الدعوة القولية: مثل الدروس والخطب والندوات ومعاهد اعداد الدعاة، ويقوم بها هيئة علماء الجمعية التي تتكون من 400 عالم من هيئة تدريس جامعة الازهر بالإضافة إلى 2000 واعظ و200 واعظة على مستوى الجمهورية.
 المسار الثاني: الدعوة العملية:
 الدعوة العملية: وهي العمل الصالح الذي ينقسم بدوره إلى قسمين:
 المشروعات الاجتماعية: مثل كفالة اليتيم وتحفيظ القرآن الكريم...، وهي تعمل على تخليص الامة من الفقر والجهل.
 المشروعات الطبية: وذلك من خلال إقامة مراكز طبية عملاقة تهدف إلى علاج الامراض المستعصية مجانا لغير القادرين، دونما تقيد بالنطاق الجغرافي أو تمييز بين المسلم وغير المسلم، وهي بذلك تعمق وترسخ المفهوم الصحيح لإقامة فروض الكفاية.
 المسار الثالث: الدعوة من خلال الإغاثة الخارجية والداخلية:
وتعتبر الإغاثة الخارجية ترجمة عملية لقول الله (إنما المؤمنون إخوة) وترسيخا لمفهوم الامة الواحدة (كمثل الجسد الواحد). وتقدم الجمعية من خلال لجنة الإغاثة العون المناسب للمسلمين المتضررين جراء أي كارثة في أي بقعة في العالم وقد اكتسب نشاطها الإغاثي قوة وحيوية بعد حصولها على عضوية المجلس الإسلامي العالمي للدعوة والاغاثة. وتقو لجنة إدارة الأزمات بتقديم الإغاثة العاجلة داخل حدود الوطن كمسار مواز للإغاثة الخارجية.

ويجمع المسار الثاني والثالث كونهما دعوة إلى الله من خلال العمل، وبذلك تتكامل أساليب الدعوة في الجمعية من خلال القول والعمل والقدوة الحسنة.
 المسار الرابع: التنمية: الهدف من هذا المسار هو تحويل الايدي العاطلة إلى أيدي منتجة، وتحويل الاسرة الفقيرة التي تتلقى المساعدات إلى أسر ذات دخل يغنيهاعن السؤال، وهذا المسار باب من أبواب معالجة مشكلة البطالة المستعصية في المجتمع.

أنشأت الجمعية أيضا خلال العام الهجري 1428هـ إدارة للوافدين لرعاية الطلبة الوافدين من البلاد الإسلامية الدارسين في الأزهر رعاية مادية وعلمية ومعنوية لمساعدتهم على أداء أدوارهم الدعوية إلى بلادهم، ويجمع هذا العمل بين الدعوة والعمل الاجتماعي الخيري، فمن حيث أن الطالب الوافد يكون عالما شرعيا عند عودته إلى بلاده إن شاء الله فهذه دعوة، ومن حيث الرعاية المادية والمعنوية التي تقدم له طوال فترة الدراسة في بلدنا فهذا مشروع اجتماعي خيري.

أئمة الجمعية
 الإمام الأول المؤسس الشيخ/ محمود محمد خطاب السبكي.
 الإمام الثاني الشيخ/ أمين محمود خطاب – المدرس بكلية الشريعة.
 الإمام الثالث الشيخ/ يوسف أمين خطاب.
 الإمام الرابع الشيخ/ عبد اللطيف مشتهري إبراهيم.
 الإمام الخامس الشيخ/ محمود عبد الوهاب فايد.
 الإمام السادس الأستاذ الدكتور/ فؤاد علي مخيمر.
 الإمام السابع فضيلة الأستاذ الدكتور/ محمد المختار محمد المهدي.

من علماء الجمعية
 الشيخ الدكتور منير جمعة.
 الشيخ أ.د. عبد الرحمن البر.
 الشيخ أ.د. طلعت عفيفي وزير الأوقاف السابق.
 الشيخ مصطفى إسماعيل.
 الأستاذ الدكتور محمد أحمد علي سحلول.
 الاستاذ الدكتور محمد المختار محمد المهدي

وصلات خارجية
 الموقع الرسمي
 تكريم الجمعية الشرعية الرئيسية رائدة العمل الاجتماعى في مصر، الشيخ مصطفي إسماعيل، مجلة التبيان العدد 48، يوليو 2008 م
 «الجمعية الشرعية».. صفحة من العمل الأهلي: (في ذكرى إنشائها: 1 من المحرم 1331 هـ)، إسلام أون لاين، 8 أغسطس 2007 م
 جمعية شرعية.. وتنموية، أون إسلام، 16 يناير 2003

جمعيات إسلامية
جمعيات خيرية إسلامية
حائزون على جائزة الملك فيصل العالمية في خدمة الإسلام
منظمات خيرية مقرها في مصر

الجمعية الشرعية


O WTA de Essen – ou Faber Grand Prix, na última edição – foi um torneio de tênis profissional feminino, de categoria WTA Tier II.

Realizado em Essen, no oeste da Alemanha, estreou em 1992 e durou quatro edições. Os jogos eram disputados em quadras de carpete cobertas durante o mês de fevereiro. Após 1996, foi substituído por Hanover.

Finais

Simples

Duplas

Essen
Essen

WTA de Essen


El purataruru de Tahití (Crateva religiosa) es un pequeño árbol silvestre o cultivado que se encuentra en la India, el Sudeste Asiático y varias islas del Pacífico. A menudo se encuentran a lo largo de los arroyos, también en formaciones profundas secas en el Sub-Himalaya.

Descripción
Son árboles que alcanza los 3-15 m de altura, y un diámetro del tronco de 40 cm. Las ramitas de color verdoso a verde amarillento cuando se seca, con lenticelas alargadas grises. Pecíolo de 6-7 (-10) cm, adaxialmente con glándulas triangulares diminutas cerca del raquis, venas secundarias 5-10 en cada lado del nervio central, ápice acuminado a abruptamente acuminado. Inflorescencias en racimos o corimbos. Las flores se abren cuando las hojas emergen. Pedicelo 2-5 [-9?] Cm. Sépalos ovados, 2-4.5 × 1.5-3 mm, ápice acuminado. Pétalo blanco a amarillo, garra 3.5-5 mm, hoja 1.5 a 2.2 cm. Estambres 16-22 [-30]; filamentos de 3-6 cm; anteras de 2-3 mm. Fruto ovoide a obovoide, 1.8 a 2.6 [-3,5] cm; pericarpio 5-10 mm de espesor. Semillas 25-30 por fruto, de color marrón oscuro, 1.2 a 1.8 cm, tubérculos. Fl. Mar-mayo, fr. Julio-agosto (a octubre). Tiene un número de cromosomas de 2 n = 26.

Distribución y hábitat
Se encuentra en los bordes de caminos, campos, a una altitud por debajo de los 200 metros en Guangdong, Hainan, Taiwán, Bhután, Camboya, India, Indonesia, Myanmar, Nepal, Filipinas, Sri Lanka, Tailandia, Vietnam, e islas del Pacífico.

Usos

Las flores se observan que son fragantes. La especie se planta a menudo como planta ornamental en S China y otros países asiáticos del S y SE. Su fruto seco se utilizan en China como planta medicinal.
Medicinales
La corteza seca se utiliza como droga cruda en los sistemas tradicionales de la medicina en la India, como Ayurveda, Siddha. etc. La decocción de la corteza se administra internamente para curar enfermedades como los cálculos renales, disuria, helmintiasis, inflamaciones y abscesos. Las acciones exposiciones decocción como carminativo, laxante, termogénico, diurético, expectorante y emoliente. La hoja y la corteza del tronco han sido evaluadas por su actividad antioxidante y la inhibición de las enzimas clave de interés para la hiperglucemia.

Taxonomía
Crateva religiosa fue descrita por Georg Forster y publicado en Dissertatio...De Plantis Esculentis Insularum Oceani Australis 45–46. 1786.
Sinonimia
 Crateva brownii Korth. ex Miq.
 Crateva hansemannii K.Schum.
 Crateva macrocarpa Kurz
 Crateva magna (Lour.) DC.
 Crateva membranifolia Miq.
 Crateva religiosa var. nurvula (Buch.-Ham.) Hook. f. & Thomson
 Crateva speciosa Volkens

Referencias

Enlaces externos

Plantas medicinales
Capparaceae

Crateva religiosa


أسامة محمد الفزاني (مواليد 23 فبراير عام 1978) لاعب كرة قدم من ليبيا، كان يلعب كمهاجم صريح مع نادي الأهلي طرابلس الذي يلعب بالدوري الليبي الممتاز واعتزل اللعب في 2014 وهو الآن محلل في قنوات ليبية وبي إن سبورت.

روابط خارجية

مراجع

لاعبو كرة قدم رجالية مغتربون في لبنان
لاعبو كرة قدم رجالية مغتربون في الأردن
لاعبو كرة قدم رجالية مغتربون في البحرين
مهاجمو كرة قدم رجالية
أشخاص على قيد الحياة
لاعبو دوري الدرجة الأولى الليبي
لاعبو كرة قدم ليبيون
لاعبو كرة قدم ليبيون مغتربون
لاعبو كرة قدم مغتربون في الأردن
لاعبو كرة قدم مغتربون في البحرين
لاعبو كرة قدم مغتربون في لبنان
لاعبو منتخب ليبيا لكرة القدم
لاعبو نادي الرفاع الشرقي
لاعبو نادي النجمة (لبنان)
لاعبو نادي الوحدات
لاعبو نادي أهلي طرابلس
لاعبو نادي رفيق
ليبيون في القرن 21
مواليد 1398 هـ
مواليد 1978

أسامة الفزاني


Gait analysis is the systematic study of animal locomotion, more specifically the study of human motion, using the eye and the brain of observers, augmented by instrumentation for measuring body movements, body mechanics, and the activity of the muscles. Gait analysis is used to assess and treat individuals with conditions affecting their ability to walk. It is also commonly used in sports biomechanics to help athletes run more efficiently and to identify posture-related or movement-related problems in people with injuries.

The study encompasses quantification (introduction and analysis of measurable parameters of gaits), as well as interpretation, i.e. drawing various conclusions about the animal (health, age, size, weight, speed etc.) from its gait pattern.

History
The pioneers of scientific gait analysis were Aristotle in De Motu Animalium (On the Gait of Animals) and much later in 1680, Giovanni Alfonso Borelli also called De Motu Animalium (I et II). In the 1890s, the German anatomist Christian Wilhelm Braune and Otto Fischer published a series of papers on the biomechanics of human gait under loaded and unloaded conditions.

With the development of photography and cinematography, it became possible to capture image sequences that reveal details of human and animal locomotion that were not noticeable by watching the movement with the naked eye. Eadweard Muybridge and Étienne-Jules Marey were pioneers of these developments in the early 1900s. For example, serial photography first revealed the detailed sequence of the horse "gallop", which was usually misrepresented in paintings made prior to this discovery.

Although much early research was done using film cameras, the widespread application of gait analysis to humans with pathological conditions such as cerebral palsy, Parkinson's disease, and neuromuscular disorders, began in the 1970s with the availability of video camera systems that could produce detailed studies of individual patients within realistic cost and time constraints. The development of treatment regimes, often involving orthopedic surgery, based on gait analysis results, advanced significantly in the 1980s. Many leading orthopedic hospitals worldwide now have gait labs that are routinely used to design treatment plans and for follow-up monitoring.

Development of modern computer based systems occurred independently during the late 1970s and early 1980s in several hospital based research labs, some through collaborations with the aerospace industry. Commercial development soon followed with the emergence of commercial television and later infrared camera systems in the mid-1980s.

In 2018 there is a new proposal for a kinetic summary measure, the Gait Kinetic Index.

Process and equipment

A typical gait analysis laboratory has several cameras (video or infrared) placed around a walkway or a treadmill, which are linked to a computer. The patient has markers located at various points of reference of the body (e.g., iliac spines of the pelvis, ankle malleolus, and the condyles of the knee), or groups of markers applied to half of the body segments. The patient walks down the catwalk or the treadmill and the computer calculates the trajectory of each marker in three dimensions. A model is applied to calculate the movement of the underlying bones. This gives a complete breakdown of the movement of each joint. One common method is to use Helen Hayes Hospital marker set, in which a total of 15 markers are attached on the lower body. The 15 marker motions are analyzed analytically, and it provides angular motion of each joint.

To calculate the kinetics of gait patterns, most labs have floor-mounted load transducers, also known as force platforms, which measure the ground reaction forces and moments, including the magnitude, direction and location (called the center of pressure). The spatial distribution of forces can be measured with pedobarography equipment. Adding this to the known dynamics of each body segment enables the solution of equations based on the Newton–Euler equations of motion permitting computations of the net forces and the net moments of force about each joint at every stage of the gait cycle. The computational method for this is known as inverse dynamics.

This use of kinetics, however, does not result in information for individual muscles but muscle groups, such as the extensor or flexors of the limb. To detect the activity and contribution of individual muscles to movement, it is necessary to investigate the electrical activity of muscles. Many labs also use surface electrodes attached to the skin to detect the electrical activity or electromyogram (EMG) of muscles. In this way it is possible to investigate the activation times of muscles and, to some degree, the magnitude of their activation—thereby assessing their contribution to gait. Deviations from normal kinematic, kinetic or EMG patterns are used to diagnose specific pathologies, predict the outcome of treatments, or determine the effectiveness of training programs

Factors and parameters
The gait analysis is modulated or modified by many factors, and changes in the normal gait pattern can be transient or permanent. The factors can be of various types:
 Extrinsic: such as terrain, footwear, clothing, cargo
 Intrinsic: sex, weight, height, age, etc.
 Physical: such as weight, height, physique
 Psychological: personality type, emotions
 Physiological: anthropometric characteristics, i.e., measurements and proportions of body
 Pathological: for example trauma, neurological diseases, musculoskeletal anomalies, psychiatric disorders

The parameters taken into account for the gait analysis are as follows:
 Step length
 Stride length
 Cadence
 Speed
 Dynamic base
 Progression line
 Foot angle
 Hip angle
 Squat performance

Techniques

Gait analysis involves measurement, where measurable parameters are introduced and analyzed, and interpretation, where conclusions about the subject (health, age, size, weight, speed, etc.) are drawn. The analysis is the measurement of the following:

Temporal / spatial

It consists of the calculation of speed, the length of the rhythm, pitch, and so on. These measurements are carried out through:
 Stopwatch and marks on the ground.
 Walking on a pressure mat.
 Range laser sensors scanning a plane a few centimeters above the floor.
 Inertial sensors and software to interpret 3D gyroscopes and 3D accelerometric data.

Kinematics
 Chronophotography is the most basic method for recording of movement. Strobe lighting at known frequency has been used in the past to aid in the analysis of gait on single photographic images.
 Cine film or video recordings using footage from single or multiple cameras can be used to measure joint angles and velocities. This method has been aided by the development of analysis software that greatly simplifies the analysis process and allows for analysis in three dimensions rather than two dimensions only.
 Passive marker systems, using reflective markers (typically reflective balls), allows for accurate measurement of movements using multiple cameras (typically five to twelve cameras), simultaneously. The cameras utilize high-powered strobes (typically red, near infrared or infrared) with matching filters to record the reflection from the markers placed on the body. Markers are located at palpable anatomical landmarks. Based on the angle and time delay between the original and reflected signal, triangulation of the marker in space is possible. Software is used to create three dimensional trajectories from these markers that are subsequently given identification labels. A computer model is then used to compute joint angles from the relative marker positions of the labeled trajectories. These are also used for motion capture in the motion picture industry.
 Active marker systems are similar to the passive marker system but use "active" markers. These markers are triggered by the incoming infra red signal and respond by sending out a corresponding signal of their own. This signal is then used to triangulate the location of the marker. The advantage of this system over the passive one is that individual markers work at predefined frequencies and therefore, have their own "identity". This means that no post-processing of marker locations is required, however, the systems tend to be less forgiving for out-of-view markers than the passive systems.
 Inertial (cameraless) systems based on MEMS inertial sensors, biomechanical models, and sensor fusion algorithms. These full-body or partial body systems can be used indoors and outdoors regardless of lighting conditions.

Markerless gait capture
 Markerless gait capture systems utilize one or more color cameras or 2.5D depth sensors (i.e. Kinect) to directly calculate the body joint positions from a sequence of images. The markerless system allows non-invasive human gait analysis in a natural environment without any marker attachment. Eliminating markers can expand the applicability of human gait measurement and analysis techniques, considerably reduce the preparation time, and enable efficient and accurate motion assessment in all kinds of applications. Currently, the main markerless system is the video-based motion capture with monocular camera or multiple camera studio. Nowadays, the depth sensor-based gait analysis for clinical applications becomes more and more popular. Since depth sensors can measure the depth information and provide a 2.5D depth image, they have effectively simplified the task of foreground/background subtraction and significantly reduced pose ambiguities in monocular human pose estimation.

Pressure measurement
Pressure measurement systems are an additional way to measure gait by providing insights into pressure distribution, contact area, center of force movement and symmetry between sides. These systems typically provide more than just pressure information; additional information available from these systems are force, timing and spatial parameters. Different methods for assessing pressure are available, like a pressure measurement mat or walkway (longer in length to capture more foot strikes), as well as in-shoe pressure measurement systems (where sensors are placed inside the shoe). Many pressure measurement systems integrate with additional types of analysis systems, like motion capture, EMG or force plates to provide a comprehensive gait analysis.

Kinetics
Is the study of the forces involved in the production of movements.

Dynamic electromyography
Is the study of patterns of muscle activity during gait.

Applications
Gait analysis is used to analyze the walking ability of humans and animals, so this technology can be used for the following applications:

Medical diagnostics
Pathological gait may reflect compensations for underlying pathologies, or be responsible for causation of symptoms in itself. Cerebral palsy and stroke patients are commonly seen in gait labs. The study of gait allows diagnoses and intervention strategies to be made, as well as permitting future developments in rehabilitation engineering.  Aside from clinical applications, gait analysis is used in professional sports training to optimize and improve athletic performance.

Gait analysis techniques allow for the assessment of gait disorders and the effects of corrective orthopedic surgery. Options for treatment of cerebral palsy include the artificial paralysis of spastic muscles using Botox or the lengthening, re-attachment or detachment of particular tendons. Corrections of distorted bony anatomy are also undertaken (osteotomy).

Chiropractic and osteopathic uses
Observation of gait is also beneficial for diagnoses in chiropractic and osteopathic professions as hindrances in gait may be indicative of a misaligned pelvis or sacrum. As the sacrum and ilium biomechanically move in opposition to each other, adhesions between the two of them via the sacrospinous or sacrotuberous ligaments (among others) may suggest a rotated pelvis. Both doctors of chiropractic and osteopathic medicine use gait to discern the listing of a pelvis and can employ various techniques to restore a full range of motion to areas involved in ambulatory movement. Chiropractic adjustment of the pelvis has shown a trend in helping restore gait patterns as has osteopathic manipulative therapy (OMT).

Comparative biomechanics
By studying the gait of non-human animals, more insight can be gained about the mechanics of locomotion, which has diverse implications for understanding the biology of the species in question as well as locomotion more broadly.

Gait as biometrics
Gait recognition is a type of behavioral biometric authentication that recognizes and verifies people by their walking style and pace.  Advances in gait recognition have led to the development of techniques for forensics use since each person can have a gait defined by unique measurements such as the locations of ankle, knee, and hip.

Surveillance
In 2018, there were reports that the Government of China had developed surveillance tools based on gait analysis, allowing them to uniquely identify people, even if their faces are obscured.

Popular media
 G. K. Chesterton premised one of his Father Brown mysteries, "The Queer Feet", on gait recognition.
 Cory Doctorow makes much of gait recognition as a security technique used in a high school in his book Little Brother.
 Arthur Conan Doyle has Sherlock Holmes use gait analysis to identify the height of the Rache killer in A Study in Scarlet.
 The movie Mission: Impossible – Rogue Nation features gait analysis, in a scene where Benji Dunn must infiltrate a facility that uses gait analysis software as part of its security protocol.

See also
 Biometric points
 Gait Analysis: Normal and Pathological Function, Second Edition
 Gait Abnormality Rating Scale
 Gait deviations
 Multilinear principal component analysis
 Multilinear subspace learning
 Pattern recognition
 Terrestrial locomotion in animals
 Comparison of orthotics

References

Further reading
 Gait Analysis: Normal and Pathological Function, Second Edition. Authors: Jacquelin Perry and Judith M. Burnfield
 Biomechanics and Motor Control of Human Movement. Author: David A. Winter, Fourth Edition. Published by John Wiley & Sons, New York.
 Gait Analysis. Authors: David F. Levine, Jim Richards, and Michael Whittle.
 Observational Gait Analysis. Author: Los Amigos Research and Education Center
 Gait Analysis: Theory and Application. Authors: Rebecca L. Craik and Carol S. Oatis,
 "The Treatment of Gait Problems in Cerebral Palsy" Clinics in Developmental Medicine No. 164-165, edited by James R. Gage, 2004.
 Forensic Gait Analysis: Principles and Methods. Editors: Birch I. Nirenberg M, Vernon W, and Birch M. CRC Press, Taylor & Francis Group, 2020.

External links

 Clinical Gait Analysis

Terrestrial locomotion
Orthopedic surgical procedures
Rehabilitation medicine
Neurology procedures
Biometrics
Forensic disciplines
Forensic techniques

Gait analysis


النجمة الخماسية (☆) هي رمز مشهور جداً في أنحاء العالم. هندسياً، إذا رسمت بأضلاع متساوية الطول ستكون زاوية كل رأس من رؤوسها مساوية 36°.

يطلق عليها أحياناً اسم النجمة الذهبية، تسخدم هذه النجمة بكثرة في السحر والأساطير. كما من أشهر استخداماتها هو في أعلام الدول والرتب العسكرية في الجيش.

أعلام
الكثير من الدول تضع نجمة خماسية في أعلامها.

انظر أيضاً
 نجم البحر
 نجمة سداسية

مراجع

5 (عدد)
أشكال درعية
حمولات درعية
رموز الولايات المتحدة الوطنية
مضلعات

نجمة ذات خمس فروع


إسرائيل سييف  (1889-1972) من رجال التجارة والصناعة البريطانيين، وقد كان سكرتيرا للجنة الصهيونية التي ذهبت إلى فلسطين عام 1918 برئاسة وايزمان. أسس سييف عام 1934 معهد دافيد سييف للبحوث الذي تطور عنه معهد وايزمان للعلوم بعد قيام إسرائيل. وقد ساهمت زوجته في تأسيس التنظيم النسائي للمنظمة الصهيونية العالمية.

مراجع

أشخاص متعلمون في مدرسة مانشستر للقواعد
أصحاب أعمال إنجليز في القرن 20
أصحاب أعمال إنجليز في مجال التجزئة
أصحاب أعمال بريطانيون
أصحاب أعمال من مانشستر
إنجليز من أصل يهودي ليتواني
خريجو جامعة مانشستر
سياسيون بريطانيون
مواليد 1889
مواليد في مانشستر
نبلاء مدى الحياة في حزب المحافظين (المملكة المتحدة)
وفيات 1972
وفيات في لندن الكبرى
يهود إنجليز

إسرائيل سييف


Barbara Noske ist eine niederländische Kulturanthropologin und Philosophin. Sie verteidigt ein Verständnis von Tierproduktion im Kontext einer politischen Ökonomie des Kapitalismus und prägte dafür das Konzept des Tierindustriellen Komplexes.

Noske studierte an der York University und schloss ein Masterprogramm an der Universität von Amsterdam ab, wo sie auch in Philosophie promoviert wurde. Ihre Schriften fallen thematisch in die kritischen Human-Animal Studies und den tiefenökologischen Ökofeminismus. Sie war als Research Fellow an der Universität Sydney tätig.

Werke (Auswahl)

 Die Entfremdung der Lebewesen. Die Ausbeutung im tierindustriellen Komplex und die gesellschaftliche Konstruktion von Speziesgrenzen. Wien 2008. ISBN 978-3-900782-46-7.
Artikel
 (de; PDF; 87 kB)

 (de; PDF; 59 kB)
 (de; PDF; 110ckB)

Weblinks

Anthropologe (21. Jahrhundert)
Niederländer
Anthropologe (20. Jahrhundert)
Geboren im 20. Jahrhundert
Frau

Barbara Noske


Åbyfjorden er en lille fjord i Bamble kommune i i Vestfold og Telemark  fylke i Norge. Den er omkring 3 km lang og har indløb fra den større Rognsfjorden som ligger yderst i Langesundsbugten. Åbyfjorden går ind til Åbyelva ved Åby, og den største ø i  fjorden er Skokleøya. Vinjestrand ligger også i fjorden.

Yderst på nordsiden af fjorden ligger et af Norsk Hydro største hytteområder: «Hydrostranda».

Kilder og henvisninger

Fjorde i Vestfold og Telemark
Bamble

Åbyfjorden (Bamble)


Los poblados dirigidos fueron una iniciativa urbanística en Madrid para la construcción de casas baratas, realizada en los años cincuenta en respuesta a la creciente llegada de inmigrantes procedentes del entorno rural a la ciudad. La iniciativa se enmarcaba dentro del Plan Nacional de la Vivienda del año 1955 y en ella tomaron parte un grupo de arquitectos al despertar de la arquitectura moderna en España. La iniciativa concedía la capacidad autoconstructiva de las viviendas de baja altura a los propietarios, siempre bajo la tutela de los técnicos del Ayuntamiento y de los arquitectos de la época. Se construyeron un total de siete poblados en la periferia de Madrid.

Historia

El efecto llamada que desde la ciudad se realizaba recaía sobre el mundo rural provocando una gran cantidad de afluencia de campesinos a la ciudad. Esta población a mediados de la década de los años cincuenta se instalaba en la periferia de Madrid creando los primeros núcleos chabolistas.

Primeros intentos
El Instituto Nacional de la Vivienda  intentó frenar la afluencia, pero finalmente tuvo que aceptar el problema, se crearon los poblados de absorción dedicados a absorber población de áreas diseminadas y caracterizados por la baja calidad constructiva. Estas iniciativas no llegaron a ejecutarse debido a los problemas presupuestarios que afrontaba la economía española en este periodo de posguerra.

Se crea la Comisaría de Ordenación Urbana de Madrid (COUM), dirigida por Carlos Trías, ofreciendo periodos de amortización de cincuenta años, en los que las cuotas mensuales resultaban ser muy pequeñas. Sin embargo, a la firma del contrato, se debía abonar el 20% del precio de la vivienda, algo imposible para la gran mayoría de los demandantes. La solución autoconstructiva parecía ser la única viable en este periodo autárquico.

Ejecución

El primero de los poblados dirigidos fue el de Entrevías, diseñado en 1956, situado en uno de los asentamientos informales más densamente poblados de la capital: El Pozo del Tío Raimundo. El arquitecto Francisco Javier Sáenz de Oiza diseña un poblado con viviendas de 60 metros cuadrados de superficie construida. Se crean cooperativas de chabolistas que , asistidos por técnicos de construcción, vigilan las labores constructivas que los propios dueños realizaban. Los trabajos más específicos requerían de la contratación de empresas especializadas que solían preparar el trabajo de las cuadrillas. Las cuadrillas compuestas de los propios chabolistas se componían de un par de decenas de personas que trabajaban los fines de semana: se denominaban los domingueros por este hábito.

En 1956 se iniciaban las obras de los poblados de Fuencarral (diseño del arquitecto Luis Romany), Canillas (diseño de Luis Cubillo de Arteaga inspirado en el neoplasticismo holandés y del arquitecto Arne Jacobsen) y Orcasitas (diseño de Rafael Leoz y Joaquín Ruiz Hervás inspirándose en los modelos espina de pez de Hilberseimer para Chicago).

El 18 de julio de 1956 se inauguraron los Poblados de Fuencarral A de Francisco Javier Sáenz de Oiza y Fuencarral B de Alejando de la Sota. Los bloques de Orcasitas estuvieron edificados hasta 1984 en el que problemas con las arcillas expansivas empleadas agrietaron estructuras vitales.

En 1957 se planificaron dos nuevos poblados dirigidos: Manoteras (diseño de Manuel Ambrós Escanellas) y Caño Roto (de José Luis Íñiguez de Onzoño y Antonio Vázquez de Castro), a la vez que se comenzaba a proyectar Almendrales (en un trabajo coordinado de Javier Carvajal, José María García de Paredes y José Antonio Corrales y Ramón Vázquez Molezún). El de Manoteras comenzó a construirse en 1958. El poblado de Caño Roto se convirtió en el paradigma de las soluciones constructivas posteriores al incluir servicios sociales y religiosos en la construcción.

Evolución posterior
El empleo de materiales de baja calidad debido a las carencias de la época ha causado con el tiempo el derribo preventivo de algunas de las viviendas. En otras ocasiones el excesivo idealismo de los arquitectos no atendió a la los usos de la vida cotidiana de los habitantes , sufriendo habituales cambios estructurales a algunos de los edificios. Algunos poblados no existen como es el caso del Orcasitas.

Características
La idea principal de estos poblados era la modulación, la modulación del espacio permitía un abaratamiento de costes, a la vez que permitía el desarrollo del estilo constructivo de la época.

Véase también
 Autoconstrucción

Referencias

Bibliografía

 2014 Calvo del Olmo, José Manuel. El Poblado Dirigido de Caño Roto. Dialéctica entre morfología urbana y tipología edificatoria
 2021 Luis Moya González, Carlos Fernández Salgado y Fernando Escamilla Valencia, Atlas de la vivienda pública. Madrid 1940-2010.

Urbanismo de Madrid
Años 1950 en España

Poblados dirigidos


Wolfgang Vater ist der Name folgender Personen:

* Wolfgang Vater (Politiker) (1942–2021), deutscher Politiker (CDU)
 Wolfgang Vater (Tischtennisspieler) (* 1949), deutscher Tischtennisspieler

 Wolfgang Vater (Autor) (* 1940), deutscher Schriftsteller

Wolfgang Vater


Združena braća (eng. Band of Brothers) je američka ratna miniserija koja se temelji na istoimenoj knjizi povjesničara Stephena E. Ambrosea iz 1992. godine. Kreirali su je Steven Spielberg i Tom Hanks, koji su također izvršni producenti. Epizode su se prvi put emitirale na HBO-u, počevši od 9. rujna 2001.

Radnja
Združena braća detaljno prati stvarne pothvate satnije E tokom Drugog svjetskog rata kroz 10 epizoda, počevši od padobranske obuke u kampu Toccoa pa sve do kapitulacije Njemačke. U prvom su planu iskustva poručnika Richarda Wintersa kroz koja prolazi dok pokušava svoju satniju održati sigurnom i na okupu. Iako u seriji glumi veoma brojna glumačka postava, svaka od 10 epizoda uglavnom se fokusira na jednog člana satnije i na njihove akcije tokom određenih operacija (npr. u bitki za Bastogne ili Operaciji "Market Garden").

Pošto je serija zasnovana na stvarnim događajima, sudbina likova jednaka je sudbini stvarnih članova satnije E. Brojni likovi ili poginu ili budu ranjeni, zbog čega neki budu poslani kući, a neki napuste bolnicu kako bi se ponovo pridružili suborcima na frontu. Sva ova iskustva i moralne, psihičke i fizičke prepreke koje vojnici moraju savladati ključni su za seriju.

Uloge

 Kirk Acevedo kao stožerni narednik Joe Toye
 Eion Bailey kao privatnik prve klase David Kenyon Webster
 Michael Cudlitz kao stožerni narednik Denver "Bull" Randleman
 Dale Dye kao pukovnik Robert Sink
 Rick Gomez kao narednik George Luz
 Scott Grimes kao narednik Donald Malarkey
 Frank John Hughes kao stožerni narednik William "Wild Bill" Guarnere
 Damian Lewis kao poručnik Richard "Dick" Winters
 Ron Livingston kao kapetan Lewis Nixon
 James Madio kao Frank Perconte
 Neal McDonough kao natporučnik Lynn "Buck" Compton
 Rene L. Moreno kao Joseph Ramirez
 David Schwimmer kao kapetan Herbert Sobel
 Richard Speight, Jr. kao narednik Warren "Skip" Muck
 Donnie Wahlberg kao potporučnik Carwood Lipton
 Matthew Settle kao kapetan Ronald Speirs
 Douglas Spain kao Antonio C. Garcia
 Rick Warden kao poručnik Harry Welsh
 Marc Warren kao vojnik Albert Blithe
 Shane Taylor kao Eugene "Doc" Roe
 Dexter Fletcher kao stožerni narednik John "Johnny" Martin
 Colin Hanks kao poručnik Henry S. Jones
 Ross McCall kao Joseph Liebgott

Američke serije

Združena braća


Hristos Vlahakos ya da sahne adıyla  Hristos Dantis (26 Eylül 1966, Atina), Yunan şarkıcı. 1990'larda meşhur olmuş, 2000'lerde de bu ününü pekiştirmiştir.

Dış bağlantılar
 https://web.archive.org/web/20070112032534/http://www.christosdantis.com/

Yaşayan insanlar
1966 doğumlular
Yunan erkek şarkıcılar
Yunan söz yazarları
Yunan besteciler
Yunan pop şarkıcıları
Yunan rock şarkıcıları
Atina doğumlu şarkıcılar

Hristos Dandis


An Tillandsia fasciculata in uska species han Liliopsida nga ginhulagway ni Olof Swartz. An Tillandsia fasciculata in nahilalakip ha genus nga Tillandsia, ngan familia nga Bromeliaceae.

Subspecies

Ini nga species ginbahin ha masunod nga subspecies:

 T. f. clavispica
 T. f. densispica
 T. f. fasciculata
 T. f. laxispica

Mga kasarigan

Mga sumpay ha gawas

Tillandsia

Tillandsia fasciculata


Behaviorism (also spelled behaviourism) is a systematic approach to understanding the behavior of humans and other animals. It assumes that behavior is either a reflex evoked by the pairing of certain antecedent stimuli in the environment, or a consequence of that individual's history, including especially reinforcement and punishment contingencies, together with the individual's current motivational state and controlling stimuli. Although behaviorists generally accept the important role of heredity in determining behavior, they focus primarily on environmental events.

Behaviorism emerged in the early 1900s as a reaction to depth psychology and other traditional forms of psychology, which often had difficulty making predictions that could be tested experimentally, but derived from earlier research in the late nineteenth century, such as when Edward Thorndike pioneered the law of effect, a procedure that involved the use of consequences to strengthen or weaken behavior.

With a 1924 publication, John B. Watson devised methodological behaviorism, which rejected introspective methods and sought to understand behavior by only measuring observable behaviors and events. It was not until the 1930s that B. F. Skinner suggested that covert behavior—including cognition and emotions—is subject to the same controlling variables as observable behavior, which became the basis for his philosophy called radical behaviorism. While Watson and Ivan Pavlov investigated how (conditioned) neutral stimuli elicit reflexes in respondent conditioning, Skinner assessed the reinforcement histories of the discriminative (antecedent) stimuli that emits behavior; the technique became known as operant conditioning.

The application of radical behaviorism—known as applied behavior analysis—is used in a variety of contexts, including, for example, applied animal behavior and organizational behavior management to treatment of mental disorders, such as autism and substance abuse. In addition, while behaviorism and cognitive schools of psychological thought do not agree theoretically, they have complemented each other in the cognitive-behavior therapies, which have demonstrated utility in treating certain pathologies, including simple phobias, PTSD, and mood disorders.

Branches of behaviorism
The titles given to the various branches of behaviorism include:
 Behavioral genetics: Proposed in 1869 by Francis Galton, a relative of Charles Darwin.
 Interbehaviorism: Proposed by Jacob Robert Kantor before B. F. Skinner's writings.
 Methodological behaviorism: John B. Watson's behaviorism states that only public events (motor behaviors of an individual) can be objectively observed. Although it was still acknowledged that thoughts and feelings exist, they were not considered part of the science of behavior. It also laid the theoretical foundation for the early approach behavior modification in the 1970s and 1980s.
 Psychological behaviorism: As proposed by Arthur W. Staats, unlike the previous behaviorisms of Skinner, Hull, and Tolman, was based upon a program of human research involving various types of human behavior. Psychological behaviorism introduces new principles of human learning. Humans learn not only by animal learning principles but also by special human learning principles. Those principles involve humans' uniquely huge learning ability. Humans learn repertoires that enable them to learn other things. Human learning is thus cumulative. No other animal demonstrates that ability, making the human species unique.
 Radical behaviorism: Skinner's philosophy is an extension of Watson's form of behaviorism by theorizing that processes within the organism—particularly, private events, such as thoughts and feelings—are also part of the science of behavior, and suggests that environmental variables control these internal events just as they control observable behaviors. Although private events cannot be directly seen by others, they are later determined through the species' overt behavior. Radical behaviorism forms the core philosophy behind behavior analysis. Willard Van Orman Quine used many of radical behaviorism's ideas in his study of knowledge and language.
 Teleological behaviorism: Proposed by Howard Rachlin, post-Skinnerian, purposive, close to microeconomics. Focuses on objective observation as opposed to cognitive processes.
 Theoretical behaviorism: Proposed by J. E. R. Staddon,  adds a concept of internal state to allow for the effects of context. According to theoretical behaviorism, a state is a set of equivalent histories, i.e., past histories in which members of the same stimulus class produce members of the same response class (i.e., B. F. Skinner's concept of the operant). Conditioned stimuli are thus seen to control neither stimulus nor response but state. Theoretical behaviorism is a logical extension of Skinner's class-based (generic) definition of the operant.
Two subtypes of theoretical behaviorism are:
 Hullian and post-Hullian: theoretical, group data, not dynamic, physiological
 Purposive: Tolman's behavioristic anticipation of cognitive psychology

Modern-day theory: radical behaviorism

B. F. Skinner proposed radical behaviorism as the conceptual underpinning of the experimental analysis of behavior. This viewpoint differs from other approaches to behavioral research in various ways, but, most notably here, it contrasts with methodological behaviorism in accepting feelings, states of mind and introspection as behaviors also subject to scientific investigation. Like methodological behaviorism, it rejects the reflex as a model of all behavior, and it defends the science of behavior as complementary to but independent of physiology. Radical behaviorism overlaps considerably with other western philosophical positions, such as American pragmatism.

Although John B. Watson mainly emphasized his position of methodological behaviorism throughout his career, Watson and Rosalie Rayner conducted the infamous Little Albert experiment (1920), a study in which Ivan Pavlov's theory to respondent conditioning was first applied to eliciting a fearful reflex of crying in a human infant, and this became the launching point for understanding covert behavior (or private events) in radical behaviorism. However, Skinner felt that aversive stimuli should only be experimented on with animals and spoke out against Watson for testing something so controversial on a human.

In 1959, Skinner observed the emotions of two pigeons by noting that they appeared angry because their feathers ruffled. The pigeons were placed together in an operant chamber, where they were aggressive as a consequence of previous reinforcement in the environment. Through stimulus control and subsequent discrimination training, whenever Skinner turned off the green light, the pigeons came to notice that the food reinforcer is discontinued following each peck and responded without aggression. Skinner concluded that humans also learn aggression and possess such emotions (as well as other private events) no differently than do nonhuman animals.

Experimental and conceptual innovations

As experimental behavioural psychology is related to behavioral neuroscience, we can date the first researches in the area were done in the beginning of 19th century.

Later, this essentially philosophical position gained strength from the success of Skinner's early experimental work with rats and pigeons, summarized in his books The Behavior of Organisms and Schedules of Reinforcement. Of particular importance was his concept of the operant response, of which the canonical example was the rat's lever-press. In contrast with the idea of a physiological or reflex response, an operant is a class of structurally distinct but functionally equivalent responses. For example, while a rat might press a lever with its left paw or its right paw or its tail, all of these responses operate on the world in the same way and have a common consequence. Operants are often thought of as species of responses, where the individuals differ but the class coheres in its function-shared consequences with operants and reproductive success with species. This is a clear distinction between Skinner's theory and S–R theory.

Skinner's empirical work expanded on earlier research on trial-and-error learning by researchers such as Thorndike and Guthrie with both conceptual reformulations—Thorndike's notion of a stimulus-response "association" or "connection" was abandoned; and methodological ones—the use of the "free operant", so-called because the animal was now permitted to respond at its own rate rather than in a series of trials determined by the experimenter procedures. With this method, Skinner carried out substantial experimental work on the effects of different schedules and rates of reinforcement on the rates of operant responses made by rats and pigeons. He achieved remarkable success in training animals to perform unexpected responses, to emit large numbers of responses, and to demonstrate many empirical regularities at the purely behavioral level. This lent some credibility to his conceptual analysis. It is largely his conceptual analysis that made his work much more rigorous than his peers, a point which can be seen clearly in his seminal work Are Theories of Learning Necessary? in which he criticizes what he viewed to be theoretical weaknesses then common in the study of psychology. An important descendant of the experimental analysis of behavior is the Society for Quantitative Analysis of Behavior.

Relation to language
As Skinner turned from experimental work to concentrate on the philosophical underpinnings of a science of behavior, his attention turned to human language with his 1957 book Verbal Behavior and other language-related publications; Verbal Behavior laid out a vocabulary and theory for functional analysis of verbal behavior, and was strongly criticized in a review by Noam Chomsky.

Skinner did not respond in detail but claimed that Chomsky failed to understand his ideas, and the disagreements between the two and the theories involved have been further discussed. Innateness theory, which has been heavily critiqued, is opposed to behaviorist theory which claims that language is a set of habits that can be acquired by means of conditioning. According to some, the behaviorist account is a process which would be too slow to explain a phenomenon as complicated as language learning. What was important for a behaviorist's analysis of human behavior was not language acquisition so much as the interaction between language and overt behavior. In an essay republished in his 1969 book Contingencies of Reinforcement, Skinner took the view that humans could construct linguistic stimuli that would then acquire control over their behavior in the same way that external stimuli could. The possibility of such "instructional control" over behavior meant that contingencies of reinforcement would not always produce the same effects on human behavior as they reliably do in other animals. The focus of a radical behaviorist analysis of human behavior therefore shifted to an attempt to understand the interaction between instructional control and contingency control, and also to understand the behavioral processes that determine what instructions are constructed and what control they acquire over behavior. Recently, a new line of behavioral research on language was started under the name of relational frame theory.

Education

Behaviourism focuses on one particular view of learning: a change in external behaviour achieved through using reinforcement and repetition (Rote learning) to shape behavior of learners. Skinner found that behaviors could be shaped when the use of reinforcement was implemented. Desired behavior is rewarded, while the undesired behavior is not rewarded. Incorporating behaviorism into the classroom allowed educators to assist their students in excelling both academically and personally. In the field of language learning, this type of teaching was called the audio-lingual method, characterised by the whole class using choral chanting of key phrases, dialogues and immediate correction.

Within the behaviourist view of learning, the "teacher" is the dominant person in the classroom and takes complete control, evaluation of learning comes from the teacher who decides what is right or wrong. The learner does not have any opportunity for evaluation or reflection within the learning process, they are simply told what is right or wrong.
The conceptualization of learning using this approach could be considered "superficial", as the focus is on external changes in behaviour, i.e., not interested in the internal processes of learning leading to behaviour change and has no place for the emotions involved in the process.

Operant conditioning

Operant conditioning was developed by B.F. Skinner in 1937 and deals with the management of environmental contingencies to change behavior. In other words, behavior is controlled by historical consequential contingencies, particularly reinforcement—a stimulus that increases the probability of performing behaviors, and punishment—a stimulus that decreases such probability. The core tools of consequences are either positive (presenting stimuli following a response), or negative (withdrawn stimuli following a response).

The following descriptions explains the concepts of four common types of consequences in operant conditioning:
 Positive reinforcement: Providing a stimulus that an individual enjoys, seeks, or craves, in order to reinforce desired behaviors. For example, when a person is teaching a dog to sit, they pair the command "sit" with a treat. The treat is the positive reinforcement to the behavior of sitting. The key to making positive reinforcement effect is to reward the behavior immediately.
 Negative reinforcement: Removing a stimulus that an individual does not desire to reinforce desired behaviors. For example, a child hates being nagged to clean his room. His mother reinforces his room cleaning by removing the undesired stimulus of nagging after he has cleaned. Another example would be putting on sunscreen before going outside. The negative effect is getting a sunburn, so by putting on sunscreen, the behavior in this case, you avoid the stimulus of getting a sunburn.
 Positive punishment: Providing a stimulus that an individual does not desire to decrease undesired behaviors. An example of this would be spanking. If a child is doing something they have been warned not to do, the parent might spank them. The undesired stimulus would be the spanking, and by adding this stimulus, the goal is to have that behavior avoided. The key to this technique is that even though the title says positive, the meaning of positive here is "to add to." So, in order to stop the behavior, the parent adds the adverse stimulus (spanking). The biggest problem with this type of training though is that the trainee does not usually learn the desired behavior, rather it teaches the trainee to avoid the punisher.
 Negative punishment: Removing a stimulus that an individual desires in order to decrease undesired behaviors. An example of this would be grounding a child for failing a test. Grounding in this example is taking away the child's ability to play video games. As long as it is clear that the ability to play video games was taken away because they failed a test, this is negative punishment. The key here is the connection to the behavior and the result of the behavior.

Classical experiment in operant conditioning, for example, the Skinner Box, "puzzle box" or operant conditioning chamber to test the effects of operant conditioning principles on rats, cats and other species. From the study of Skinner box, he discovered that the rats learned very effectively if they were rewarded frequently with food. Skinner also found that he could shape the rats' behavior through the use of rewards, which could, in turn, be applied to human learning as well.

Skinner's model was based on the premise that reinforcement is used for the desired actions or responses while punishment was used to stop the responses of the undesired actions that are not. This theory proved that humans or animals will repeat any action that leads to a positive outcome, and avoiding any action that leads to a negative outcome. The experiment with the pigeons showed that a positive outcome leads to learned behavior since the pigeon learned to peck the disc in return for the reward of food.

These historical consequential contingencies subsequently lead to (antecedent) stimulus control, but in contrast to respondent conditioning where antecedent stimuli elicit reflexive behavior, operant behavior is only emitted and therefore does not force its occurrence. It includes the following controlling stimuli:
 Discriminative stimulus (Sd): An antecedent stimulus that increases the chance of the organism engaging in a behavior. One example of this occurred in Skinner's laboratory. Whenever the green light (Sd) appeared, it signaled the pigeon to perform the behavior of pecking because it learned in the past that each time it pecked, food was presented (the positive reinforcing stimulus).
 Stimulus delta (S-delta): An antecedent stimulus that signals the organism not to perform a behavior since it was extinguished or punished in the past. One notable instance of this occurs when a person stops their car immediately after the traffic light turns red (S-delta). However, the person could decide to drive through the red light, but subsequently receive a speeding ticket (the positive punishing stimulus), so this behavior will potentially not reoccur following the presence of the S-delta.

Respondent conditioning

Although operant conditioning plays the largest role in discussions of behavioral mechanisms, respondent conditioning (also called Pavlovian or classical conditioning) is also an important behavior-analytic process that needs not refer to mental or other internal processes. Pavlov's experiments with dogs provide the most familiar example of the classical conditioning procedure. In the beginning, the dog was provided meat (unconditioned stimulus, UCS, naturally elicit a response that is not controlled) to eat, resulting in increased salivation (unconditioned response, UCR, which means that a response is naturally caused by UCS). Afterward, a bell ring was presented together with food to the dog. Although bell ring was a neutral stimulus (NS, meaning that the stimulus did not have any effect), dog would start to salivate when only hearing a bell ring after a number of pairings. Eventually, the neutral stimulus (bell ring) became conditioned. Therefore, salivation was elicited as a conditioned response (the response same as the unconditioned response), pairing up with meat—the conditioned stimulus)   Although Pavlov proposed some tentative physiological processes that might be involved in classical conditioning, these have not been confirmed. The idea of classical conditioning helped behaviorist John Watson discover the key mechanism behind how humans acquire the behaviors that they do, which was to find a natural reflex that produces the response being considered.

Watson's "Behaviourist Manifesto" has three aspects that deserve special recognition: one is that psychology should be purely objective, with any interpretation of conscious experience being removed, thus leading to psychology as the "science of behaviour"; the second one is that the goals of psychology should be to predict and control behaviour (as opposed to describe and explain conscious mental states); the third one is that there is no notable distinction between human and non-human behaviour. Following Darwin's theory of evolution, this would simply mean that human behaviour is just a more complex version in respect to behaviour displayed by other species.

In philosophy

Behaviorism is a psychological movement that can be contrasted with philosophy of mind. The basic premise of behaviorism is that the study of behavior should be a natural science, such as chemistry or physics.  Initially behaviorism rejected any reference to hypothetical inner states of organisms as causes for their behavior, but B.F. Skinner's radical behaviorism reintroduced reference to inner states and also advocated for the study of thoughts and feelings as behaviors subject to the same mechanisms as external behavior.  Behaviorism takes a functional view of behavior. According to Edmund Fantino and colleagues: "Behavior analysis has much to offer the study of phenomena normally dominated by cognitive and social psychologists. We hope that successful application of behavioral theory and methodology will not only shed light on central problems in judgment and choice but will also generate greater appreciation of the behavioral approach."

Behaviorist sentiments are not uncommon within philosophy of language and analytic philosophy. It is sometimes argued that Ludwig Wittgenstein defended a logical behaviorist position (e.g., the beetle in a box argument). In logical positivism (as held, e.g., by Rudolf Carnap and Carl Hempel),  the meaning of psychological statements are their verification conditions, which consist of performed overt behavior. W. V. O. Quine made use of a type of behaviorism, influenced by some of Skinner's ideas, in his own work on language. Quine's work in semantics differed substantially from the empiricist semantics of Carnap which he attempted to create an alternative to, couching his semantic theory in references to physical objects rather than sensations. Gilbert Ryle defended a distinct strain of philosophical behaviorism, sketched in his book The Concept of Mind.  Ryle's central claim was that instances of dualism frequently represented "category mistakes", and hence that they were really misunderstandings of the use of ordinary language. Daniel Dennett likewise acknowledges himself to be a type of behaviorist, though he offers extensive criticism of radical behaviorism and refutes Skinner's rejection of the value of intentional idioms and the possibility of free will.

Law of effect and trace conditioning
 Law of effect: Although Edward Thorndike's methodology mainly dealt with reinforcing observable behavior, it viewed cognitive antecedents as the causes of behavior, and was theoretically much more similar to the cognitive-behavior therapies than classical (methodological) or modern-day (radical) behaviorism. Nevertheless, Skinner's operant conditioning was heavily influenced by the Law of Effect's principle of reinforcement.
 Trace conditioning: Akin to B.F. Skinner's radical behaviorism, it is a respondent conditioning technique based on Ivan Pavlov's concept of a "memory trace" in which the observer recalls the conditioned stimulus (CS), with the memory or recall being the unconditioned response (UR). There is also a time delay between the CS and unconditioned stimulus (US), causing the conditioned response (CR)—particularly the reflex—to be faded over time.

Molecular versus molar behaviorism
Skinner's view of behavior is most often characterized as a "molecular" view of behavior; that is, behavior can be decomposed into atomistic parts or molecules. This view is inconsistent with Skinner's complete description of behavior as delineated in other works, including his 1981 article "Selection by Consequences". Skinner proposed that a complete account of behavior requires understanding of selection history at three levels: biology (the natural selection or phylogeny of the animal); behavior (the reinforcement history or ontogeny of the behavioral repertoire of the animal); and for some species, culture (the cultural practices of the social group to which the animal belongs). This whole organism then interacts with its environment. Molecular behaviorists use notions from melioration theory, negative power function discounting or additive versions of negative power function discounting.

Molar behaviorists, such as Howard Rachlin, Richard Herrnstein, and William Baum, argue that behavior cannot be understood by focusing on events in the moment. That is, they argue that behavior is best understood as the ultimate product of an organism's history and that molecular behaviorists are committing a fallacy by inventing fictitious proximal causes for behavior. Molar behaviorists argue that standard molecular constructs, such as "associative strength", are better replaced by molar variables such as rate of reinforcement. Thus, a molar behaviorist would describe "loving someone" as a pattern of loving behavior over time; there is no isolated, proximal cause of loving behavior, only a history of behaviors (of which the current behavior might be an example) that can be summarized as "love".

Theoretical behaviorism

Skinner's radical behaviorism has been highly successful experimentally, revealing new phenomena with new methods, but Skinner's dismissal of theory limited its development. Theoretical behaviorism recognized that a historical system, an organism, has a state as well as sensitivity to stimuli and the ability to emit responses.  Indeed, Skinner himself acknowledged the possibility of what he called "latent" responses in humans, even though he neglected to extend this idea to rats and pigeons.  Latent responses constitute a repertoire, from which operant reinforcement can select.  Theoretical behaviorism links between the brain and the behavior that provides a real understanding of the behavior, rather than a mental presumption of how brain-behavior relates.

Behavior analysis and culture
Cultural analysis has always been at the philosophical core of radical behaviorism from the early days (as seen in Skinner's Walden Two, Science & Human Behavior, Beyond Freedom & Dignity, and About Behaviorism).

During the 1980s, behavior analysts, most notably Sigrid Glenn, had a productive interchange with cultural anthropologist Marvin Harris (the most notable proponent of "cultural materialism") regarding interdisciplinary work. Very recently, behavior analysts have produced a set of basic exploratory experiments in an effort toward this end. Behaviorism is also frequently used in game development, although this application is controversial.

Behavior informatics and behavior computing
With the fast growth of big behavioral data and applications, behavior analysis is ubiquitous. Understanding behavior from the informatics and computing perspective becomes increasingly critical for in-depth understanding of what, why and how behaviors are formed, interact, evolve, change and affect business and decision. Behavior informatics and behavior computing deeply explore behavior intelligence and behavior insights from the informatics and computing perspectives.

Criticisms and limitations

In the second half of the 20th century, behaviorism was largely eclipsed as a result of the cognitive revolution. This shift was due to radical behaviorism being highly criticized for not examining mental processes, and this led to the development of the cognitive therapy movement.
In the mid-20th century, three main influences arose that would inspire and shape cognitive psychology as a formal school of thought:
 Noam Chomsky's 1959 critique of behaviorism, and empiricism more generally, initiated what would come to be known as the "cognitive revolution".
 Developments in computer science would lead to parallels being drawn between human thought and the computational functionality of computers, opening entirely new areas of psychological thought. Allen Newell and Herbert Simon spent years developing the concept of artificial intelligence (AI) and later worked with cognitive psychologists regarding the implications of AI. The effective result was more of a framework conceptualization of mental functions with their counterparts in computers (memory, storage, retrieval, etc.).
 Formal recognition of the field involved the establishment of research institutions such as George Mandler's Center for Human Information Processing in 1964. Mandler described the origins of cognitive psychology in a 2002 article in the Journal of the History of the Behavioral Sciences

In the early years of cognitive psychology, behaviorist critics held that the empiricism it pursued was incompatible with the concept of internal mental states. Cognitive neuroscience, however, continues to gather evidence of direct correlations between physiological brain activity and putative mental states, endorsing the basis for cognitive psychology.

Behavior therapy

Behavior therapy is a term referring to different types of therapies that treat mental health disorders. It identifies and helps change people's unhealthy behaviors or destructive behaviors through learning theory and conditioning. Ivan Pavlov's classical conditioning, as well as counterconditioning are the basis for much of clinical behavior therapy, but also includes other techniques, including operant conditioning—or contingency management, and modeling (sometimes called observational learning). A frequently noted behavior therapy is systematic desensitization (graduated exposure therapy), which was first demonstrated by Joseph Wolpe and Arnold Lazarus.

behavior analysis

Applied behavior analysis (ABA)—also called behavioral engineering—is a scientific discipline that applies the principles of behavior analysis to change behavior. ABA derived from much earlier research in the Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, which was founded by B.F. Skinner and his colleagues at Harvard University. Nearly a decade after the study "The psychiatric nurse as a behavioral engineer" (1959) was published in that journal, which demonstrated how effective the token economy was in reinforcing more adaptive behavior for hospitalized patients with schizophrenia and intellectual disability, it led to researchers at the University of Kansas to start the Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis in 1968.

Although ABA and behavior modification are similar behavior-change technologies in that the learning environment is modified through respondent and operant conditioning, behavior modification did not initially address the causes of the behavior (particularly, the environmental stimuli that occurred in the past), or investigate solutions that would otherwise prevent the behavior from reoccurring. As the evolution of ABA began to unfold in the mid-1980s, functional behavior assessments (FBAs) were developed to clarify the function of that behavior, so that it is accurately determined which differential reinforcement contingencies will be most effective and less likely for aversive punishments to be administered. In addition, methodological behaviorism was the theory underpinning behavior modification since private events were not conceptualized during the 1970s and early 1980s, which contrasted from the radical behaviorism of behavior analysis. ABA—the term that replaced behavior modification—has emerged into a thriving field.

The independent development of behaviour analysis outside the United States also continues to develop. In the US, the American Psychological Association (APA) features a subdivision for Behavior Analysis, titled APA Division 25: Behavior Analysis, which has been in existence since 1964, and the interests among behavior analysts today are wide-ranging, as indicated in a review of the 30 Special Interest Groups (SIGs) within the Association for Behavior Analysis International (ABAI). Such interests include everything from animal behavior and environmental conservation, to classroom instruction (such as direct instruction and precision teaching), verbal behavior, developmental disabilities and autism, clinical psychology (i.e., forensic behavior analysis), behavioral medicine (i.e., behavioral gerontology, AIDS prevention, and fitness training), and consumer behavior analysis.

The field of applied animal behavior—a sub-discipline of ABA that involves training animals—is regulated by the Animal Behavior Society, and those who practice this technique are called applied animal behaviorists. Research on applied animal behavior has been frequently conducted in the Applied Animal Behaviour Science journal since its founding in 1974.

ABA has also been particularly well-established in the area of developmental disabilities since the 1960s, but it was not until the late 1980s that individuals diagnosed with autism spectrum disorders were beginning to grow so rapidly and groundbreaking research was being published that parent advocacy groups started demanding for services throughout the 1990s, which encouraged the formation of the Behavior Analyst Certification Board, a credentialing program that certifies professionally trained behavior analysts on the national level to deliver such services. Nevertheless, the certification is applicable to all human services related to the rather broad field of behavior analysis (other than the treatment for autism), and the ABAI currently has 14 accredited MA and Ph.D. programs for comprehensive study in that field.

Early behavioral interventions (EBIs) based on ABA are empirically validated for teaching children with autism and has been proven as such for over the past five decades. Since the late 1990s and throughout the twenty-first century, early ABA interventions have also been identified as the treatment of choice by the US Surgeon General, American Academy of Pediatrics, and US National Research Council.

Discrete trial training—also called early intensive behavioral intervention—is the traditional EBI technique implemented for thirty to forty hours per week that instructs a child to sit in a chair, imitate fine and gross motor behaviors, as well as learn eye contact and speech, which are taught through shaping, modeling, and prompting, with such prompting being phased out as the child begins mastering each skill. When the child becomes more verbal from discrete trials, the table-based instructions are later discontinued, and another EBI procedure known as incidental teaching is introduced in the natural environment by having the child ask for desired items kept out of their direct access, as well as allowing the child to choose the play activities that will motivate them to engage with their facilitators before teaching the child how to interact with other children their own age.

A related term for incidental teaching, called pivotal response treatment (PRT), refers to EBI procedures that exclusively entail twenty-five hours per week of naturalistic teaching (without initially using discrete trials). Current research is showing that there is a wide array of learning styles and that is the children with receptive language delays who initially require discrete trials to acquire speech.

Organizational behavior management, which applies contingency management procedures to model and reinforce appropriate work behavior for employees in organizations, has developed a particularly strong following within ABA, as evidenced by the formation of the OBM Network and Journal of Organizational Behavior Management, which was rated the third-highest impact journal in applied psychology by ISI JOBM rating.

Modern-day clinical behavior analysis has also witnessed a massive resurgence in research, with the development of relational frame theory (RFT), which is described as an extension of verbal behavior and a "post-Skinnerian account of language and cognition." RFT also forms the empirical basis for acceptance and commitment therapy, a therapeutic approach to counseling often used to manage such conditions as anxiety and obesity that consists of acceptance and commitment, value-based living, cognitive defusion, counterconditioning (mindfulness), and contingency management (positive reinforcement). Another evidence-based counseling technique derived from RFT is the functional analytic psychotherapy known as behavioral activation that relies on the ACL model—awareness, courage, and love—to reinforce more positive moods for those struggling with depression.

Incentive-based contingency management (CM) is the standard of care for adults with substance-use disorders; it has also been shown to be highly effective for other addictions (i.e., obesity and gambling). Although it does not directly address the underlying causes of behavior, incentive-based CM is highly behavior analytic as it targets the function of the client's motivational behavior by relying on a preference assessment, which is an assessment procedure that allows the individual to select the preferred reinforcer (in this case, the monetary value of the voucher, or the use of other incentives, such as prizes). Another evidence-based CM intervention for substance abuse is community reinforcement approach and family training that uses FBAs and counterconditioning techniques—such as behavioral skills training and relapse prevention—to model and reinforce healthier lifestyle choices which promote self-management of abstinence from drugs, alcohol, or cigarette smoking during high-risk exposure when engaging with family members, friends, and co-workers.

While schoolwide positive behavior support consists of conducting assessments and a task analysis plan to differentially reinforce curricular supports that replace students' disruptive behavior in the classroom, pediatric feeding therapy incorporates a liquid chaser and chin feeder to shape proper eating behavior for children with feeding disorders. Habit reversal training, an approach firmly grounded in counterconditioning which uses contingency management procedures to reinforce alternative behavior, is currently the only empirically validated approach for managing tic disorders.

Some studies on exposure (desensitization) therapies—which refer to an array of interventions based on the respondent conditioning procedure known as habituation and typically infuses counterconditioning procedures, such as meditation and breathing exercises—have recently been published in behavior analytic journals since the 1990s, as most other research are conducted from a cognitive-behavior therapy framework. When based on a behavior analytic research standpoint, FBAs are implemented to precisely outline how to employ the flooding form of desensitization (also called direct exposure therapy) for those who are unsuccessful in overcoming their specific phobia through systematic desensitization (also known as graduated exposure therapy). These studies also reveal that systematic desensitization is more effective for children if used in conjunction with shaping, which is further termed contact desensitization, but this comparison has yet to be substantiated with adults.

Other widely published behavior analytic journals include Behavior Modification, The Behavior Analyst, Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions, Journal of Contextual Behavioral Science, The Analysis of Verbal Behavior, Behavior and Philosophy, Behavior and Social Issues, and The Psychological Record.

Cognitive-behavior therapy

Cognitive-behavior therapy (CBT) is a behavior therapy discipline that often overlaps considerably with the clinical behavior analysis subfield of ABA, but differs in that it initially incorporates cognitive restructuring and emotional regulation to alter a person's cognition and emotions.

A popularly noted counseling intervention known as dialectical behavior therapy (DBT) includes the use of a chain analysis, as well as cognitive restructuring, emotional regulation, distress tolerance, counterconditioning (mindfulness), and contingency management (positive reinforcement). DBT is quite similar to acceptance and commitment therapy, but contrasts in that it derives from a CBT framework. Although DBT is most widely researched for and empirically validated to reduce the risk of suicide in psychiatric patients with borderline personality disorder, it can often be applied effectively to other mental health conditions, such as substance abuse, as well as mood and eating disorders.

Most research on exposure therapies (also called desensitization)—ranging from eye movement desensitization and reprocessing therapy to exposure and response prevention—are conducted through a CBT framework in non-behavior analytic journals, and these enhanced exposure therapies are well-established in the research literature for treating phobic, post-traumatic stress, and other anxiety disorders (such as obsessive-compulsive disorder, or OCD).

Cognitive-based behavioral activation (BA)—the psychotherapeutic approach used for depression—is shown to be highly effective and is widely used in clinical practice. Some large randomized control trials have indicated that cognitive-based BA is as beneficial as antidepressant medications but more efficacious than traditional cognitive therapy. Other commonly used clinical treatments derived from behavioral learning principles that are often implemented through a CBT model include community reinforcement approach and family training, and habit reversal training for substance abuse and tics, respectively.

Related therapies

 Acceptance and commitment therapy
 Applied animal behavior
 Behavioral activation
 Behavior modification
 Behavior therapy
 Biofeedback
 Clinical behavior analysis
 Contingency management
 Desensitization
 Dialectical behavior therapy
 Direct instruction
 Discrete trial training
 Exposure and response prevention
 Exposure therapy
 Eye movement desensitization and reprocessing
 Flooding (psychology)
 Functional analytic psychotherapy
 Habit reversal training
 Organizational behavior management
 Pivotal response treatment
 Positive behavior support
 Prolonged exposure therapy
 Social skills training
 Systematic desensitization

List of notable behaviorists

 Nathan Azrin
 Don Baer
 Albert Bandura
 Dermot Barnes-Holmes
 Vladimir Bekhterev
 Sidney W. Bijou
 Hans Eysenck
 Charles Ferster
 Jacque Fresco
 Edwin Ray Guthrie
 Betty Hart
 Steven C. Hayes
 Richard J. Herrnstein
 Clark L. Hull
 Brian Iwata
 Alan E. Kazdin
 Fred S. Keller
 Robert Koegel
 Jon Levy
 Marsha M. Linehan
 Ole Ivar Lovaas
 F. Charles Mace
 Jack Michael
 Neal E. Miller
 O. Hobart Mowrer
 Charles E. Osgood
 Ivan Pavlov
 Murray Sidman
 B. F. Skinner
 Kenneth W. Spence
 J. E. R. Staddon
 Edward Thorndike
 Edward C. Tolman
 John B. Watson
 Montrose Wolf
 Joseph Wolpe

See also

 Behavior analysis of child development
 Behavioral change theories
 Behavioral economics
 Behavioral neuroscience
 Cognitive inhibition
 Dog behaviorist
 Ethology
 Functionalism (philosophy of mind)

 Operationalization

 Perceptual control theory
 Professional practice of behavior analysis

Reference in APA 7th edition format

Further reading

 Baum, W.M. (1994) Understanding behaviorism: Behavior, Culture and Evolution. Blackwell.
 Cao, L.B. (2013) IJCAI2013 tutorial on behavior informatics and computing.
 Cao, L.B. (2014) Non-IIDness Learning in Behavioral and Social Data, The Computer Journal, 57(9): 1358–1370.
 Ferster, C.B. & Skinner, B.F. (1957). Schedules of reinforcement. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts.
 Malott, Richard W. (2008) Principles of Behavior. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall. Print.
 Mills, John A. (2000) Control: A History of Behavioral Psychology, Paperback Edition, New York University Press.
 Lattal, K.A. & Chase, P.N. (2003) "Behavior Theory and Philosophy". Plenum.

 Rachlin, H. (1991) Introduction to modern behaviorism. (3rd edition.) New York: Freeman.
 Skinner, B.F. Beyond Freedom & Dignity, Hackett Publishing Co, Inc 2002.

 Klein, P. (2013) "Explanation of Behavioural Psychotherapy Styles". .
 Watson, J.B. (1913). Psychology as the behaviorist views it. Psychological Review, 20, 158–177. (on-line).
 Watson, J.B. (1919). Psychology from the Standpoint of a Behaviorist.
 Watson, J.B. (1924). Behaviorism.
 Zuriff, G.E. (1985). Behaviorism: A Conceptual Reconstruction , Columbia University Press.

External links

Philosophy of psychology
Psychological theories
Theory of mind
Management cybernetics

Behaviorism


An Rudolfiella in uska genus han Liliopsida. An Rudolfiella in nahilalakip ha familia nga Orchidaceae.

An kladograma hini sumala ha Catalogue of Life:

Mga kasarigan

Mga sumpay ha gawas

Rudolfiella

Rudolfiella


UEFA Europa League finalen 2020 er en fodboldkamp der skal spilles 27. maj 2020. Kampen skal afvikles på Stadion Energa Gdańsk i den polske by Gdańsk, og skal finde vinderen af UEFA Europa League 2019-20. Den er kulminationen på den 49. sæson i Europas næststørste klubturnering for hold arrangeret af UEFA, og den elvte finale siden turneringen skiftede navn fra UEFA Cup til UEFA Europa League.

Det vil være anden gang, at finalen i Europa League skal afvikles i samme uge som finalen i Champions League.

Spillested
For anden gang nogensinde blev der den 22. september 2017 startet en åben budproces af UEFA, så landes nationale fodboldforbund kunne byde ind på lokaliteter til afvikling af finalerne i klubkonkurrencefinalerne. (UEFA Champions League, UEFA Europa League, UEFA Women's Champions League og UEFA Super Cup). Forbundene havde indtil 31. oktober 2017 for at udtrykke interesse.

UEFA meddelte den 3. november 2017, at følgende to lokaliteter indgav bud på værtskab af finalen.

 Stadion Energa Gdańsk, Gdańsk
 Estádio do Dragão, Porto

Værtsskabet blev afgjort af UEFAs eksekutiv-komité på et møde i Kyiv den 24. maj 2018, hvor polske Stadion Energa Gdańsk blev valgt.

Se også
 UEFA Champions League finalen 2020

Referencer

Eksterne henvisninger
 UEFA Europa League på UEFAs hjemmeside

2020
Finalen 2020
Fodbold i 2020
Begivenheder i 2020
Sport i Gdańsk

UEFA Europa League finalen 2020


Les relations Hasse-Davenport, introduites par Davenport et Hasse (1935), sont deux identités liées aux sommes de Gauss, l'une de relèvement et l'autre de produit. La relation de relèvement de Hasse-Davenport est une égalité en théorie des nombres reliant les sommes de Gauss sur différents corps. Weil (1949) les utilisa pour calculer la fonction zêta d'une hypersurface de Fermat sur un corps fini, ce qui a motivé les conjectures de Weil.

Les sommes de Gauss sont des analogues de la fonction gamma sur des corps finis, et la relation produit de Hasse-Davenport est l'analogue de la formule de multiplication de Gauss

En fait, la relation de produit de Hasse-Davenport découle de la formule de multiplication analogue pour les fonctions gamma <i id="mwFg">p</i>-adiques ainsi que de la formule de Gross-Koblitz & Koblitz (1979) .

Relation de redressement de Hasse-Davenport
Soit F un corps fini à q éléments, et F s le corps tel que [Fs : F ] = s, c'est-à-dire que s est la dimension de l'espace vectoriel F s sur F.

Soit  un élément de , et  un caractère multiplicatif de F.

Soit  la norme de  sur  définie par

Soit  le caractère multiplicatif sur  qui est la composition de  avec la norme de F s sur F, c'est-à-dire

Soient enfin ψ un caractère additif non trivial de F, et  le caractère additif  qui est la composition de  avec la trace de F s sur F, c'est-à-dire

et

la somme de Gauss sur F, et soit  la somme de Gauss sur .

La relation de redressement de Hasse-Davenport montre que

Relation produit de Hasse-Davenport
La relation de produit Hasse-Davenport stipule que

où ρ est un caractère multiplicatif d'ordre m divisant q –1 et χ est un caractère multiplicatif et ψ est un caractère additif non trivial.

Références

Corps cyclotomiques

Relation de Hasse–Davenport


Veľké Bierovce este o comună slovacă, aflată în districtul Trenčín din regiunea Trenčín. Localitatea se află la , se întinde pe o suprafață de  și în 2017 număra 705 locuitori.

Istoric
Localitatea Veľké Bierovce este atestată documentar din 1332.

Note

Legături externe

Localități din Slovacia

Veľké Bierovce


Sekundærrute 231 er en rutenummereret landevej på Sjælland.

Ruten strækker sig fra Ugerløse til Vindekilde.

Rute 231 har en længde på ca. 31 km.

Kilder

231

Sekundærrute 231


«وات كايند أوف فول»  أو «أي نوع من الحمقى (سمع كل هذا من قبل)» هي أغنية للفنانة الأسترالية كايلي مينوغ، من ألبوم أفضل الأعمال غريتيست هيتس (1992). وهي من تأليف مايك ستوك، وكايلي مينوغ وبيت واترمان، ومن إنتاج ستوك وواترمان.

وكانت هذه آخر أغنية منفردة أصلية تصدرها مينوغ على شركة PWL، وكانت آخر أغنية تصدر لها على الشركة هي «سليبريشن» والتي كانت مقلدة. أصدرت المنفردة في 10 أغسطس 1992 في شكل سي دي، ولقيت استقبالا إيجابيا من نقاد الموسيقى. بلغت الأغنية المركز 17 في أستراليا و 14 في المملكة المتحدة.

مراجع

أغان منفردة في 1992
أغاني 1992
أغاني كايلي مينوغ

أغان كتبتها كايلي مينوغ

وات كايند أوف فول


نيويورك بوست  هي الصحيفة الثالثة عشرة الأقدم في الولايات المتحدة الأمريكية وهي تعد أقدم صحيفة استمرت في الصدور يومياً منذ تأسيسها. وتعود ملكية الصحيفة منذ العام 1993 لشركة نيوز كوربوريشن التي يملكها روبرت مردوخ والوليد بن طلال.
وهي سادس أكبر صحيفة في أمريكا من ناحية التوزيع والنسخ المطبوعة.

تاريخ
تأسست صحيفة نيويورك بوست عام 1801 وكانت تعرف بداية ياسم "نيويورك إيفنينج بوست"، وقام بتأسيسها ألكساندر هاميلتون, برأس مال بلغ مقداره 10,000 دولار أمريكي كان قد حصل عليه من مجموعة من المستثمرين وكان ذلك في خريف عام 1801. وكان السيد ويليام كولمان أول محرر للصحيفة، إلا أن أشهر محرر عمل في الصحيفة وتسلم رئاسة التحرير في القرن التاسع عشر هو ويليام كولين برايانت، حيث توسعت شهرة الصحيفة في عهده وزادت مبيعاتها وامتدحها الفيلسوف الإنجليزي جون ستيوارت ميل عام 1864م.
قام رجل الإعلام الشهير روبرت مردوخ بشراء الصحيفة عام 1976 بمبلغ 30 مليون دولار أمريكي.

الانتقادات
تعرضت النيويورك بوست للانتقادات بعدما استحوذ روبرت مردوخ عليها لاستخدامها لنمط الصحافة الإثارية والعناوين اللافتة وتحيزها لليمين المحافظ. وتناقلت تقارير صحفية عام 2017 أنه نيويورك بوست كانت الصحيفة المفضلة للرئيس الأمريكي دونالد ترامب، حيث أن ترامب كان على علاقة جيدة مع مالكها روبرت مردوخ.

تنتقد القناة في بعض الأوساط لإستهدافها للمسلمين والتهجم عليهم. كما أثارت تغطية الصحيفة لجريمة قتل المطور العقاري اليهودي الحاسيديمي ميناشيم ستارك غضب زعماء الأقلية اليهودية والشخصيات العامة بنيويورك.

مراجع

وصلات خارجية

 الموقع الرسمي للصحيفة

ألكسندر هاميلتون
إعلام مدينة نيويورك
تأسيسات سنة 1801 في ولاية نيويورك
صحف أمريكية
عناوين
فروع نيوز كوربوريشن
منشورات أسست في 1801

نيويورك بوست


An Puccinellia skottsbergii in uska species han Liliopsida nga syahan ginhulagway ni Pilg., ngan ginhatag han pagkayana nga asya nga ngaran ni Parodi. An Puccinellia skottsbergii in nahilalakip ha genus nga Puccinellia, ngan familia nga Poaceae. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Puccinellia

Puccinellia skottsbergii


is a town located in Nishiusuki District, Miyazaki Prefecture, Japan. , the town has an estimated population of 3260 in 1400 households, and a  population density of 12 persons per km².  The total area of the town is . Located next to the religio-historically significant town of Takachiho, Hinokage is known primarily for its three large bridges, traditional Kagura dances, and the work of Kazuo Hiroshima, a traditional weaver of bamboo baskets.

Geography
Hinokage is located in northern Miyazaki Prefecture in the Kyushu Mountains. It measuring approximately 9 kilometers  from east-to-west and 30 kilometers from north-to-south, with approximately 90% of the area being forest. The Gokase River flows through the center of the town from east-to-west. Many valleys flow into the Gokase River, forming deep V-shaped valleys with sheer cliffs 50 to 100 meters high, on top of which, cultivated land has been opened in a step-like manner, and many large and small hamlets have formed.

Neighbouring municipalities
Miyazaki Prefecture
 Nobeoka
 Takachiho
 Misato
 Morotsuka
Oita Prefecture
  Saiki
 Bungo-Ōno

Climate
Hinokage has a humid subtropical climate (Köppen Cfa) characterized by warm summers and cool winters with light to no snowfall.  The average annual temperature in Hinokage is 12.7 °C. The average annual rainfall is 2169 mm with September as the wettest month. The temperatures are highest on average in August, at around 23.2 °C, and lowest in January, at around 1.7 °C.

Demographics
Per Japanese census data, the population of Hinokage is less than a third of what it was 50 years ago. Like many districts in rural Japan, the area has been struggling with an aging population and an exodus of young people to Tokyo and other major cities. The town's population peaked in the 1950s at 16,199 people, (Cort & Nakamura, 1994) but has steadily declined since the closure of the Mitate mine in March, 1970. (記念編纂部会, 1997)  Between 2000 and 2005 four area elementary and middle schools were closed, and more closures are planned in the future.

History
The area of Hinokage was part of ancient Hyūga Province. The area has been settled since the Japanese Paleolithic period, and the place name of "Hinokage" is found in the Nihon Shoki and other ancient texts as having been given to this area by the elder brother of Emperor Jimmu. During the Edo period, it was part of the holdings of Nobeoka Domain. The villages of Nanori (七折村), and Iwaikawa (岩井川村), within Nishiusuki District, Miyazaki were established on April 1, 1889 with the creation of the modern municipalities system. The two villages merged on January 1, 1951 to form the town of Hinokage.

Government
Hinokage has a mayor-council form of government with a directly elected mayor and a unicameral town council of eight members. Hinokage, collectively with the towns of Gokase and  Takachiho contributes one member to the Miyazaki Prefectural Assembly. In terms of national politics, the town is part of the Miyazaki 2nd district of the lower house of the Diet of Japan.

Economy
The main industry of Hinokage is agriculture and forestry. Tin was once mined at the Mitate Mine in the northern part of town, but it was closed in 1963. Local specialities include bamboo crafts, processed fruit products and dried shiitake mushrooms.

Education
Hinokage has three public elementary schools and one public junior high school operated by the town government. The town does not have a high school.

Transportation

Railways
Hinokage has no passenger rail service. The nearest train station is  on the JR Kyushu Nippō Main Line. The town was formerly served by the 50.0 Takachiho Railway, which ran from Nobeoka to Takachiho Station, with six intermediate stations within Hinokage. Services were discontinued on September 6, 2005, after flooding triggered by Typhoon Nabi washed away two bridges on the line, halting all operations.  Efforts to obtain funding for rebuilding were unsuccessful, and the company was liquidated in 2009..

Highways
  Kyushu Chūō Expressway

References
Cort, Louise Allison and Kenji Nakamura (1994). A Basketmaker in Rural Japan. Washington: Smithsonian Institution. .
記念誌編纂部会 (1997).  大空に翔ける: 日之影町立日之影中学校創立50周年記念誌  日之影町:創立50周年記念事業実行委員会.

External links

Hinokage official website
Hinokage-town Sightseeing Guide

Towns in Miyazaki Prefecture

Hinokage, Miyazaki


සම්මාසංකප්ප

"........තත්ථ කතමං සම්මා සංකප්පෝ නෙක්ඛම්ම සංකප්පෝ අව්‍යාපාද සංකප්පෝ අවිහිංසා  සංකප්පෝ
අයං වුච්චති සම්මාසංකප්පෝ........."

මෙය ත්‍රිවිධාකාරය.

නෙක්ඛම්ම සංකප්ප -නෙක්ඛම්ම යනු නික්මීමයි. වෙන් වීමයි. ඈත් වීමයි. එනම් පඤ්ච කාම
සම්පත්තියෙන් නික්මීමයි. රූප, ශබ්ද, ගන්ධ, රස, ආදී පස් කම් සැපතින් ඈත් වීමේ කල්පනාවයි.
අව්‍යාපාද සංකප්ප -ව්‍යාපාදයෙන් හෙවත් ද්වේශයෙන් තොර වීමේ කල්පනාවයි.
අවිහිංසා  සංකප්ප -හිංසාවෙන් තොර වීමේ කල්පනාවයි.

සම්මා සඞ්කප්ප


عامر عبد الرحمن عبد الله حسين الحمادي من مواليد 3 يوليو ,1989 في أبوظبي ,الإمارات.
وهو لاعب كرة قدم إماراتي يلقب بزيدان الإمارات ويلعب لنادي العين ومنتخب الإمارات لكرة القدم ويعتبر من أفضل لاعبين خط الوسط في الإمارات لقدرته علي الاحتفاظ بالكرة ولتمريراته الدقيقة وصناعة اللعب.

مسيرته الدولية
بدأ عامر مسيرته مع منتخب الإمارات لكرة القدم عندما تم استدعائه للمرة الأولى للمباراة الودية ضد فريق مانشستر سيتي في يوم 12 نوفمبر 2009 وشارك في الشوط الثاني، لكن لم يلعب بمستوي جيد وانتهت المباراة بفوز منتخب الإمارات 1-0. وبقى في تشكيلة المنتخب لبطولة الإمارات الرباعية الدولية الودية ولعب ضد منتخب التشيك وفازت الإمارات بضربات الترجيح 3-2 ولعب ضد منتخب العراق في المباراة النهائية وانتهت 0-1 لمنتخب العراق. ويوم 16 ديسمبر 2009 لعب مباراة اعتزال اللاعب علي عبد الرضا ضد المنتخب الكويتي وانتهت 0-0.

كأس العالم للشباب 2009
بعد المستوى الرائع الذي قدمه في بطولة كأس آسيا للشباب 2008 في السعودية تم استدعائه لبطولة كأس العالم للشباب 2009 في مصر، لعب عامر خمس مباريات وصنع هدف واحد ووصل مع منتخب الإمارات إلى الدور ربع النهائي، وكان ضمن أفضل 10 لاعبين في البطولة.

كأس الخليج للمنتخبات الأولمبية في قطر 2010
لعب عامر المباراة الأولى للإمارات ضد السعودية التي انتهت 1-0 للإمارات وكان أحد أسباب الفوز وحصل على أفضل لاعب في المباراة بعد تقديمه أداء ممتاز. ولعب المبارة الثانية والأخيرة من مباريات دور المجموعات ضد الكويت التي انتهت 1-1 وكان أيضاً عامر قد قدم مستوى رائع في المبارة وصنع الهدف الوحيد للإمارات في المباراة لأحمد خليل لتتأهل الإمارات لنصف النهائي وهي متصدرة المجموعة الثانية ب4 نقاط. ولعب مباراة النصف النهائي ضد المنتخب القطري والتي انتهت لصالح الإمارات بنتجية 3-1 وظهر عامر بمستوى رائع في المباراة.
واستدعي عامر عبد الرحمن إلى مباراه خيره ضد الفقر إلى جانب زيدان وعدة من نجوم العالم وقدم مستوى جيد...

مسيرته الرياضية
لعب في نادي بني ياس و إنتقل من نادي بني ياس إلى نادي العين عام 2016 و انتقل إلى نادي الجزيرة في عام 2019 و عاد إلى نادي بني ياس مطلع عام 2021.

الإنجازات

الاندية

بني ياس

الدوري الإماراتي - الدرجة الأولى 2008/2009.

المنتخب
تحت 20 سنة

كأس آسيا للشباب :2008 (بطل)

كأس العالم للشباب تحت 20 سنة :2009 (الربع النهائي)

فردية
كأس العالم للشباب 2009 :أفضل 10 لاعبين في مونديال الشباب.

أفضل لاعب واعد عربي لعام 2009 (مجلة الحدث الرياضية اللبنانية)

أفضل خامس لاعب صاعد في العالم 2009 (مجلة وورلد سوكر)

مراجع

وصلات خارجية

 عامر عبد الرحمن فيفا سجل المسابقات
 عامر عبد الرحمن بيانات وأهداف على موقع كوووة.كوم
 موقع سماوي.نت

لاعبو كرة قدم رجالية إماراتيون
لاعبو وسط كرة قدم رجالية
أشخاص على قيد الحياة
أشخاص من أبو ظبي
حائزون على ميداليات في الألعاب الآسيوية في كرة القدم
حائزون على ميداليات في دورة الألعاب الآسيوية 2010
فائزون بميداليات فضية في الألعاب الآسيوية للإمارات العربية المتحدة
لاعبو الدوري الإماراتي
لاعبو دوري الدرجة الأولى الإماراتي
لاعبو كأس آسيا 2011
لاعبو كأس آسيا 2015
لاعبو كأس آسيا 2019
لاعبو كرة قدم أولمبيون إماراتيون
لاعبو كرة قدم إماراتيون
لاعبو كرة قدم في الألعاب الأولمبية الصيفية 2012
لاعبو كرة قدم في دورة الألعاب الآسيوية 2010
لاعبو منتخب الإمارات العربية المتحدة لكرة القدم
لاعبو منتخب الإمارات العربية المتحدة لكرة القدم للشباب
لاعبو نادي الجزيرة (الإمارات)
لاعبو نادي العين
لاعبو نادي بني ياس
مواليد 1409 هـ
مواليد 1989
مواليد في أبو ظبي

عامر عبد الرحمن


Alexander Gennadyevich Zaitsev (, born 16 June 1952 in Leningrad) is a retired pair skater who represented the Soviet Union. With partner Irina Rodnina, he is a two-time (1976, 1980) Olympic champion, six-time World champion and seven-time European champion. They were coached by Stanislav Zhuk and later Tatiana Tarasova in Moscow.

From 1973 to 1980 they won every event they entered and are, to date, the most decorated pair team of all time.

Career
In April 1972, Zaitsev was recommended by Stanislav Zhuk to Irina Rodnina as a potential partner. She was already a four-time World champion and 1972 Olympic gold medalist with her previous partner Alexei Ulanov, who had left her to skate with Lyudmila Smirnova. Zaitsev was three years younger than Rodnina and was much less seasoned but learned quickly. He was from Leningrad (Saint Petersburg) while she was from Moscow.

Rodnina / Zaitsev's music stopped during their short program at the 1973 World Championships, possibly due to a Czech worker acting in retaliation for the suppression of the Prague Spring. Known for intense concentration, they finished the program in silence, earning a standing ovation and a gold medal upon completion, ahead of Smirnova / Ulanov, whom they again defeated in 1974.

In 1974, Rodnina / Zaitsev left Zhuk, with whom the working relationship had become strained, to train with Tatiana Tarasova. They won six consecutive World titles together, as well as seven European gold medals, and won their first Olympic title together in 1976. Rodnina / Zaitsev did not compete during the 1978–79 season because she was pregnant with their son, who was born on February 23, 1979. They returned in 1980 to capture their second Olympic title together and Rodnina's third. They then retired from competitive skating. In 2023, Zaitsev's medal for the 1980 Olympics was sold at the RR Auction auction house for $93,000 (including the buyer's premium). Zaitsev himself said that he had nothing to do with the sale, the medal was kept by the parents of his ex-wife.

After retiring from competition, Zaitsev became a coach and for a time was involved in the administration of the sport.

Personal life
Rodnina and Zaitsev were married in April 1975. Their son, also named Alexander, was born in 1979. The pair later divorced.

Results

Pairs with Irina Rodnina

See also
 USSR at the Winter Olympics

References

External links
 Rodnina and Zaitsev pair profile

Navigation

1952 births
Living people
Communist Party of the Soviet Union members
Honoured Masters of Sport of the USSR
Recipients of the Order of the Red Banner of Labour
Russian male pair skaters
Soviet male pair skaters
Olympic figure skaters for the Soviet Union
Figure skaters at the 1976 Winter Olympics
Figure skaters at the 1980 Winter Olympics
Olympic gold medalists for the Soviet Union
Figure skaters from Saint Petersburg
Olympic medalists in figure skating
World Figure Skating Championships medalists
European Figure Skating Championships medalists
Medalists at the 1976 Winter Olympics
Medalists at the 1980 Winter Olympics

Alexander Zaitsev (pair skater)


Gug Boldklub eller Gug BK er en dansk idrætsforening, hjemhørende i Aalborgforstaden Gug. Foreningen blev grundlagt i 1954, på ruinerne af en tidligere klub med samme navn. Klubben havde oprindeligt håndbold og bordtennis på programmet, men tilføjede fodbold i slut-50'erne.

Klubbens bedste fodboldhold spillede i 2017-18 i  Jyllandsserien.

Referencer

Fodboldklubber under DBU Jylland
Boldklub Af 1954
Etableret i 1954

Gug Boldklub Af 1954


Adena may refer to:

Archaeology
Adena culture, a mound-building Native American culture
Adena Mound, a type site for the Adena culture, near Chillicothe, Ohio, US

People
Adena (name), or Adeena, including a list of people with the name
Adena (musician), Romanian singer-songwriter

Places
Adena, Colorado, US
Adena, Ohio, US, in Harrison and Jefferson Counties
Adena Pointe, Ohio, US, in Union County
Adena, Berikh, a village in Berikh Subregion, Central Region, Eritrea
Adena, Logo Anseba, a village in Logo Anseba Subregion, Gash-Barka Region, Eritrea

Structures
Adena Court Apartments, Zanesville, Ohio, US
Adena High School, Frankfort, Ohio, US
Adena Mansion, Chillicothe, Ohio, US

Other uses
Adena Springs, a Thoroughbred horse breeding operation in Paris, Kentucky, US
Adena Springs Ranch, a former cattle ranch in Marion County, Florida, US

See also

Adena