The Aleutian tern (Onychoprion aleuticus) is a migratory bird living in the subarctic region of the globe most of the year. It is frequently associated with the Arctic tern, which it closely resembles. While both species have a black cap, the Aleutian tern may be distinguished by its white forehead (although juvenile Arctic terns also have white foreheads). During breeding season, the Arctic terns have bright red bills, feet, and legs while those of the Aleutian terns are black.

Onychoprion aleuticus has not been thoroughly studied yet. If its winter migratory range was completely unknown until the late 1980s; it is now known that many Aleutian terns spend the winter near the Equator in the western Pacific. The Aleutian tern breeds in wide-ranging coastal colonies only in Alaska and eastern Siberia. Although Alaskan and Siberian populations are not well monitored, both are thought to be in significant decline.

Taxonomy
The Aleutian tern, Onychoprion aleuticus (Baird, 1869) is a bird in the family Laridae, a family of seabirds in the order Charadriiformes that includes the gulls, terns and skimmers. The generic name is from Ancient Greek onux, "claw" or "nail", and prion, "saw". The specific epithet aleuticus refers to the Aleutian Islands.

It was formerly named Sterna aleutica.. Indeed, in his 1758 Systema Naturae, Linnaeus placed the terns in the genus Sterna. However, a phylogenetic analysis found that the species in the Onychoprion clade, which includes O. aleuticus, O. fuscatus (Sooty tern), and O. anaethetus (Bridled tern), are related only distantly to the "typical" terns retained in a much-restricted Sterna. Still, in broader terms the genera Onychoprion and Sterna are sisters. Relationships between various tern species, and between the terns and the other Charadriiformes, were formerly difficult to resolve because of a poor fossil record and the misidentification of some finds.

Description
The Aleutian tern is medium-sized tern ( long), with a  wingspan, a short pointed bill and a long, deeply forked tail. It weighs 84–140 g (2.9–5.0 oz).

Plumage
Breeding adult and juvenile are the only plumages likely to be encountered in North America. Breeding adult (definitive alternate plumage) has a white forehead, a black cap, a mid-grey mantle with darkish grey underparts, and white rump and tail. Its underwing is whitish, with dark-tipped primaries and a diagnostic dark bar on the secondaries. The Aleutian tern has a black bill as well as black legs. There are no significant differences between the male and the female.

The plumage of the non-breeding adult (definitive basic plumage) is poorly known. It is thought to be similar to plumage of breeding adult. It has white underparts, a white speckled crown, and a gray tail with white sides. Whereas the forehead bar disappears in winter, the dark secondary bar remains.

Lee described juveniles with a white collar, extensive white forehead, white underparts, and gray tail with white outer web of outer tail-feather. They usually do not have clear dark bar on their secondaries.

Molt strategies are very poorly known in Aleutian tern but are presumably similar to other medium-sized, northern-breeding, migratory terns such as much better-studied Common tern. The Aleutian tern exhibits a Complex Alternate Strategy:

Voice
The Aleutian tern is associated with different calls reported in the literature. Their call can be distinguished from the Common tern ones, since it has a higher pitch and is characterized by a soft and rolling whistled tone.

The most distinctive sound is the choppy "chif-chif-chu-ak" described by Olsen and Larsson in 1995, less harsh than the sustained note of the Arctic tern. Another distinctive sound of the Aleutian tern is a prolonged "whee-hee-hee-hee" stressed on the first syllable. Aleutian terns also have a call that is similar to call of Red-necked Phalarope (Phalaropus lobatus), which is a short, sharp "chit" , possibly uttered during social contact.

The Aleutian tern is generally silent while incubating.

Distribution and habitat

During breeding season, the colonies gather along Pacific coastlines of Alaska and Russia. More precisely, breeding colonies have been located along the coast of Chukchi Sea (western Alaska), on the Seward Peninsula and Yukon-Kuskokwim River Delta along the Alaska Peninsula, in the Aleutian Island, in the Kodiak Archipelago, on the Kenai Peninsula and Copper River delta, and along the Gulf of Alaska. The current worldwide minimum breeding population has been estimated at approximately 31 000 birds, with most colonies occurring in the Siberian region of Russia (25 602 birds in 89 colonies) and the remaining 18% occurring in Alaska (5 529 birds in 111 colonies). However, within the last decade, there have been reports of colony declines and disappearances at individual sites in Alaska.

This species is strongly migratory, and although the wintering range is poorly known, it is believed to lie off Indonesia and Malaysia. Small flocks of the species have been increasingly sighted in coastal areas around Hong Kong in spring and fall, around Singapore and Indonesia between October and April, and in coastal waters of Java, Bali and Sulawesi during December. The regular appearance of Aleutian terns in fall off Hong Kong suggests one possible route for southbound migrants. The Aleutian tern stands out from its congeners because it is the only species to show an annual migratory behaviour between a subarctic breeding zone and tropical wintering areas in the South Pacific. Only a very small number of Charadriiformes breeding in Alaska appear to have a connection to East Asia. In December 2017, they were spotted for the first time on Australia's eastern coast.

Habitat
The Aleutian tern usually lives in partially vegetated sandy beaches and grassy meadows, mossy boglands and marshes, either on isolated rocky islands or along coasts, often near river mouths. The Aleutian tern is pelagic when it is not breeding.

Status
Trends in the Aleutian tern distribution indicates that overall, the species seems to undergo rapid declines over generations. Indeed, the numbers at known colonies in Alaska have declined 8.1% annually since 1960, which corresponds to 92.9% over three generations, with large colonies experiencing greater declines than small colonies. The Aleutian tern has therefore been listed as a "Vulnerable" species. Precise factors of declines are unclear but likely include habitat modification, predation, egg harvesting and human disturbance. Moreover, wintering area in Southeast Asia could be related to breeding population declines because this region undergoes several ecological stresses from unregulated fishing, coastal development, and pollution. Aleutian terns are very sensitive to disturbance at colonies and may seasonally or even permanently abandon their colonies in response to human disturbance.

Conservation
The Aleutian tern has been designated as a species of concern by several agencies and NGOs (Alaska Department of Fish and Game, Audubon Alaska, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, The North American Waterbird Conservation Plan). In 2007, an Aleutian tern Working Group was organized in Alaska in order to examine the necessity to develop an accurate population estimation method and therefore prioritizing the management of the species and the identification of its migration pathway. In 2010, they began to deploy geolocators on Aleutians terns from colonies in Alaska. The lack of data on breeding biology and ecological behaviours limits the development of conservation actions for the species. Further research should focus on the monitoring of populations and colonies in Alaska, Russia and South Pacific regions and the understanding of the main causes of the recent decline of the species.

Behaviour

Breeding and Parental Behaviour
Aleutian terns breed in colonies, and are site-faithful if their habitat is sufficiently stable. Pairs form on the breeding area, shortly after arrival. The pairs build the nest during the last half of May and first half of June, shortly before egg-laying. The typical clutch size is 2 eggs (occasionally 1 or 3). The nest is a shallow depression usually built on low vegetation such as mosses, lichens, field horsetail, cottongrass, hairgrass or coastal bluegrass. Both parents incubate the eggs and feed the chicks, although the female does more incubating and less fishing than her partner. Aleutian terns are reported to spend less time brooding chicks than do Arctic terns; consequently, Aleutian tern mortality rate is higher during the chick stage.

The eggs typically have an elongate ovate shape and range from  length. Their color ranges from a clay/olive green to a honey yellow, they tend to be darker than eggs of other terns. Distinctive large and smaller black spots are irregularly marked over the egg. After a three-week incubation period, the eggs hatch from early June until late July. Several days after hatching, young birds move to taller vegetation before moving with adults to staging areas along coast (semiprecocial juvenils). After 4–5 weeks, the chicks start fledging.

Aleutian terns are easily disturbed from nests. As soon as an intrusion is detected, the adults fly off the nest. They are much slower at returning to nests after being disturbed than are Arctic terns, taking up to 30 min to return.  It sometimes nests among Arctic terns, which, like most white terns, are fiercely defensive of their nest and young and will attack large predators. The Aleutian tern, however, is not aggressive in defence of its nests or young.

Courtship
The courtship display of the Aleutian tern has never been thoroughly described, but all terns are thought to display the same strategies of courtship: ceremonial "fish flight," "low flight," "high flight," and ground "parade".

The Aleutian tern pre-courtship flights have been described in literature. Beginning on May, several terns participate in a synchronous ascending spiral flight, before the beginning of courtship in early June. Pairs do not always copulate at the colony; indeed, Mickelson et al. observed Aleutian terns that were courting on surrounding beaches of the Copper River Delta (Alaska), away from colonies.

Diet and Foraging
Aleutian terns primarily feed on small fish, but their diet also includes crustaceans, insects and zooplankton. They forage mostly by flying, hovering low over water and swooping down or surface-dipping into the water to take their food from the surface. Only contact- and surface-dipping have been observed, even in places where other species have been seen plunge-diving. Indeed, terns are considered as poor swimmers because of their small webs and short legs. Aleutian terns usually forage in shallow water, including tidal rips, along rivers, and over inshore marine waters. Occasionally adults and fledgling juveniles catch insects by hawking over freshwater ponds. This species can forage in nearshore marine waters up to  offshore from Seward Peninsula, and up to  offshore from other colonies.  Individuals occasionally attempt to steal fish from other adults bringing fish to chicks. Aleutian terns are skilled flyers and can take insects out of the air while flying.

Flight
Aleutian terns fly very gracefully; their flight is strong and undeviating, and their wing beats are slower than those of Arctic and Common terns. They mostly fly above the ocean rather than above mainland. Similarly to other terns species, the Aleutian tern walks relatively slowly because of its short legs.

Social behaviour
Aleutian terns are highly social. Usually, their nests are settled within loose mixed-species colonies. Monospecific colonies or isolated pairs are rare. Colony size usually ranges from 4–150 pairs, but up to 700 pairs on Sakhalin Island (Siberia). The Aleutian terns frequently nests with Arctic Terns in Alaska and Common Terns in Siberia. It also happens that colonies of Mew Gull (Larus canus) are close to the Aleutian tern nests.

Less aggressive than Arctic terns; Onychoprion aleuticus is frequently chased at colonies and often excluded from mixed-species foraging areas by Arctic terns. The latter can also jeopardize the Aleutian tern foraging activity by stealing its food.

Predators and parasites
Eggs and chicks of the Aleutian tern have been reported to be preyed on by the following list of predators:

 Arctic fox (Vulpes lagopus)
 Coyote (Canis latrans), Dogs (Canis familiaris),
 River otters (Lutra canadensis),
 Weasels (Mustela spp.),
 Brown bears (Ursus arctos),
 Norway rats (Rattus norvegicus),
 Bald Eagles (Haliaeetus leucocephalus),
 Parasitic Jaegers (Stercorarius parasiticus),
 Glaucous-winged Gulls (Larus glaucescens),
 Short-eared Owls (Asio flammeus),
 Black-billed Magpies (Pica pica),
 Northwestern Crows (Corvus caurinus),
 Common Ravens (Corvus corax)

If Aleutian terns frequently fly high over the colony when disturbed by humans, they can nonetheless aggressively chase avian predators (but not as aggressively as Arctic terns do). Some chicks may also be killed by Arctic terns; however, breeding success in the species is lower in the absence of Arctic terns as they often rely on their aggressivity to chase potential predators from the colony.

See also
 Wildlife of Alaska

References

External links

 The North American Waterbird Conservation Plan)

Onychoprion
Native birds of Alaska
Birds of the Aleutian Islands
Aleutian tern
Aleutian tern
Birds of North Asia

Aleutian tern


The Federal Art Project (1935–1943) was a New Deal program to fund the visual arts in the United States. Under national director Holger Cahill, it was one of five Federal Project Number One projects sponsored by the Works Progress Administration (WPA), and the largest of the New Deal art projects. It was created not as a cultural activity, but as a relief measure to employ artists and artisans to create murals, easel paintings, sculpture, graphic art, posters, photography, theatre scenic design, and arts and crafts. The WPA Federal Art Project established more than 100 community art centers throughout the country, researched and documented American design, commissioned a significant body of public art without restriction to content or subject matter, and sustained some 10,000 artists and craft workers during the Great Depression. According to American Heritage, "Something like 400,000 easel paintings, murals, prints, posters, and renderings were produced by WPA artists during the eight years of the project's existence, virtually free of government pressure to control subject matter, interpretation, or style."

Background

The Federal Art Project was the visual arts arm of Federal Project Number One, a program of the Works Progress Administration, which was intended to provide employment for struggling artists during the Great Depression. Funded under the Emergency Relief Appropriation Act of 1935, it operated from August 29, 1935, until June 30, 1943. It was created as a relief measure to employ artists and artisans to create murals, easel paintings, sculpture, graphic art, posters, photographs, Index of American Design documentation, museum and theatre scenic design, and arts and crafts. The Federal Art Project operated community art centers throughout the country where craft workers and artists worked, exhibited, and educated others. The project created more than 200,000 separate works, some of them remaining among the most significant pieces of public art in the country.

The Federal Art Project's primary goals were to employ out-of-work artists and to provide art for nonfederal municipal buildings and public spaces. Artists were paid $23.60 a week; tax-supported institutions such as schools, hospitals, and public buildings paid only for materials. The work was divided into art production, art instruction, and art research. The primary output of the art-research group was the Index of American Design, a mammoth and comprehensive study of American material culture.

As many as 10,000 artists were commissioned to produce work for the WPA Federal Art Project, the largest of the New Deal art projects. Three comparable but distinctly separate New Deal art projects were administered by the United States Department of the Treasury: the Public Works of Art Project (1933–1934), the Section of Painting and Sculpture (1934–1943), and the Treasury Relief Art Project (1935–1938).

The WPA program made no distinction between representational and nonrepresentational art. Abstraction had not yet gained favor in the 1930s and 1940s, so was virtually unsalable. As a result, the Federal Art Project supported such iconic artists as Jackson Pollock before their work could earn them income.

One particular success was the Milwaukee Handicraft Project, which started in 1935 as an experiment that employed 900 people who were classified as unemployable due to their age or disability. The project came to employ about 5,000 unskilled workers, many of them women and the long-term unemployed. Historian John Gurda observed that the city's unemployment hovered at 40% in 1933. "In that year," he said, "53 percent of Milwaukee's property taxes went unpaid because people just could not afford to make the tax payments." Workers were taught bookbinding, block printing, and design, which they used to create handmade art books and children's books. They produced toys, dolls, theatre costumes, quilts, rugs, draperies, wall hangings, and furniture that were purchased by schools, hospitals, and municipal organizations for the cost of materials only. In 2014, when the Museum of Wisconsin Art mounted an exhibition of items created by the Milwaukee Handicraft Project, furniture from it was still being used at the Milwaukee Public Library.

Holger Cahill was national director of the Federal Art Project. Other administrators included Audrey McMahon, director of the New York Region (New York, New Jersey, and Philadelphia); Clement B. Haupers, director for Minnesota; George Godfrey Thorp (Illinois), and Robert Bruce Inverarity, director for Washington. Regional New York supervisors of the Federal Art Project have included sculptor William Ehrich (1897–1960) of the Buffalo Unit (1938–1939), project director of the Buffalo Zoo expansion.

Notable artists

Some 10,000 artists were commissioned to work for the Federal Art Project. Notable artists include the following:

 William Abbenseth
Berenice Abbott
 Ida York Abelman
 Gertrude Abercrombie
 Benjamin Abramowitz
 Abe Ajay
 Ivan Albright
 Maxine Albro
Charles Alston
 Harold Ambellan
 Luis Arenal
 Bruce Ariss
 Victor Arnautoff
 Sheva Ausubel
 Jozef Bakos
 Henry Bannarn
 Belle Baranceanu
 Patrociño Barela
 Will Barnet
 Richmond Barthé
 Herbert Bayer
 William Baziotes
 Lester Beall
 Harrison Begay
Daisy Maud Bellis
 Rainey Bennett
 Aaron Berkman
 Leon Bibel
 Robert Blackburn
 Arnold Blanch
 Lucile Blanch
 Lucienne Bloch
 Aaron Bohrod
 Ilya Bolotowsky
 Adele Brandeis
 Louise Brann
 Edgar Britton
 Manuel Bromberg
 James Brooks
 Selma Burke
 Letterio Calapai
 Samuel Cashwan
 Giorgio Cavallon
 Daniel Celentano
 Dane Chanase
 Fay Chong
 Claude Clark
 Max Arthur Cohn
 Eldzier Cortor
 Arthur Covey
 Alfred D. Crimi
 Francis Criss
 Allan Crite
 Robert Cronbach
 John Steuart Curry
 Philip Campbell Curtis
 James Daugherty
Stuart Davis
 Adolf Dehn
 Willem de Kooning
 Burgoyne Diller
 Isami Doi
 Mabel Dwight
 Ruth Egri
 Fritz Eichenberg
 Jacob Elshin
 George Pearse Ennis
 Angna Enters
 Philip Evergood
 Louis Ferstadt
 Alexander Finta
 Joseph Fleck
 Seymour Fogel
 Lily Furedi
 Todros Geller
 Aaron Gelman
 Eugenie Gershoy
 Enrico Glicenstein
 Vincent Glinsky
 Bertram Goodman
 Arshile Gorky
 Harry Gottlieb
 Blanche Grambs
 Morris Graves
 Balcomb Greene
 Marion Greenwood
 Waylande Gregory
Philip Guston
 Irving Guyer
 Abraham Harriton
 Marsden Hartley
 Knute Heldner
 August Henkel
 Ralf Henricksen
 Magnus Colcord Heurlin
 Hilaire Hiler
 Louis Hirshman
 Donal Hord
 Axel Horn
 Milton Horn
 Allan Houser
 Eitaro Ishigaki
 Edwin Boyd Johnson
 Sargent Claude Johnson
 Tom Loftin Johnson
William H. Johnson
 Leonard D. Jungwirth
 Reuben Kadish
 Sheffield Kagy
 Jacob Kainen
 David Karfunkle
 Leon Kelly
 Paul Kelpe
 Troy Kinney
 Georgina Klitgaard
 Gene Kloss
 Karl Knaths
 Edwin B. Knutesen
 Lee Krasner
 Kalman Kubinyi
Yasuo Kuniyoshi
Jacob Lawrence
 Edward Laning
 Michael Lantz
 Blanche Lazzell
 Tom Lea
 Lawrence Lebduska
 Joseph Leboit
 William Robinson Leigh
 Julian E. Levi
 Jack Levine
 Monty Lewis
 Elba Lightfoot
 Abraham Lishinsky
 Michael Loew
 Thomas Gaetano LoMedico
 Louis Lozowick
 Nan Lurie
 Guy Maccoy
 Stanton Macdonald-Wright
 George McNeil
 Moissaye Marans
 David Margolis
 Kyra Markham
 Jack Markow
 Mercedes Matter
 Jan Matulka
 Dina Melicov
 Hugh Mesibov
 Katherine Milhous
 Jo Mora
 Helmuth Naumer
 Louise Nevelson
 James Michael Newell
 Spencer Baird Nichols
 Elizabeth Olds
 John Opper
 William C. Palmer
 Phillip Pavia
 Irene Rice Pereira
 Jackson Pollock
 George Post
 Gregorio Prestopino
 Mac Raboy
 Anton Refregier
Ad Reinhardt
 Misha Reznikoff
 Mischa Richter
 Diego Rivera
 José de Rivera
 Emanuel Glicen Romano
 Mark Rothko
 Alexander Rummler
 Augusta Savage
 Concetta Scaravaglione
 Louis Schanker
 Edwin Scheier
 Mary Scheier
 Carl Schmitt
 William S. Schwartz
 Georgette Seabrooke
 Ben Shahn
 William Howard Shuster
 Mitchell Siporin
 John French Sloan
 Joseph Solman
 William Sommer
 Isaac Soyer
 Moses Soyer
 Raphael Soyer
 Ralph Stackpole
 Cesare Stea
 Walter Steinhart
 Joseph Stella
 Harry Sternberg
 Sakari Suzuki
 Albert Swinden
 Rufino Tamayo
 Elizabeth Terrell
 Lenore Thomas
 Dox Thrash
 Mark Tobey
 Harry Everett Townsend
 Edward Buk Ulreich
Charles Umlauf
 Jacques Van Aalten
 Stuyvesant Van Veen
 Herman Volz
Mark Voris
 John Augustus Walker
 Andrew Winter
 Jean Xceron
 Edgar Yaeger
 Bernard Zakheim
 Karl Zerbe

Community Art Center program

The first federally sponsored community art center opened in December 1936 in Raleigh, North Carolina.

Index of American Design

The Index of American Design program of the Federal Art Project produced a pictorial survey of the crafts and decorative arts of the United States from the early colonial period to 1900. Artists working for the Index produced nearly 18,000 meticulously faithful watercolor drawings, documenting material culture by largely anonymous artisans. Objects surveyed ranged from furniture, silver, glass, stoneware and textiles to tavern signs, ships's figureheads, cigar-store figures, carousel horses, toys, tools and weather vanes. Photography was used only to a limited degree since artists could more accurately and effectively present the form, character, color and texture of the objects. The best drawings approach the work of such 19th-century trompe-l'œil painters as William Harnett; lesser works represent the process of artists who were given employment and expert training.

"It was not a nostalgic or antiquarian enterprise," wrote historian Roger G. Kennedy. "It was initiated by modernists dedicated to abstract design, hoping to influence industrial design — thus in many ways it parallelled the founding philosophy of the Museum of Modern Art in New York."

Like all WPA programs, the Index had the primary purpose of providing employment. Its function was to identify and record material of historical significance that had not been studied and was in danger of being lost. Its aim was to gather together these pictorial records into a body of material that would form the basis for organic development of American design — a usable American past accessible to artists, designers, manufacturers, museums, libraries and schools. The United States had no single comprehensive collection of authenticated historical native design comparable to those available to scholars, artists and industrial designers in Europe.

"In one sense the Index is a kind of archaeology," wrote Holger Cahill. "It helps to correct a bias which has tended to relegate the work of the craftsman and the folk artist to the subconscious of our history where it can be recovered only by digging. In the past we have lost whole sequences out of their story, and have all but forgotten the unique contribution of hand skills in our culture."

The Index of American Design operated in 34 states and the District of Columbia from 1935 to 1942. It was founded by Romana Javitz, head of the Picture Collection of the New York Public Library, and textile designer Ruth Reeves. Reeves was appointed the first national coordinator; she was succeeded by C. Adolph Glassgold (1936) and Benjamin Knotts (1940). Constance Rourke was national editor. The work is in the collection of the National Gallery of Art in Washington, D.C.

The Index employed an average of 300 artists during its six years in operation. One artist was Magnus S. Fossum, a longtime farmer who was compelled by the Depression to move from the Midwest to Florida. After he lost his left hand in an accident in 1934, he produced watercolor renderings for the Index, using magnifiers and drafting instruments for accuracy and precision. Fossum eventually received an insurance settlement that made it possible for him to buy another farm and leave the Federal Art Project.

In her essay,'Picturing a Usable Past,' Virginia Tuttle Clayton, curator of the 2002-2003 exhibition, Drawing on America's Past: Folk Art, Modernism, and the Index of American Design, held at the National Gallery of Art noted that "the Index of American Design was the result of an ambitious and creative effort to furnish for the visual arts a usable past."

Poster Division

The WPA Poster Division was headed by Richard Floethe. The WPA Poster Division is thought to have produced upward of 35,000 designs and printed some two million posters, originally by hand but quickly transitioning to widespread adoption of the silkscreen process. The Poster Division began in New York City and by 1938 had artists in 18 states; the Chicago unit was the second-most productive after New York. According to preeminent New Deal art historian Francis V. O'Connor, only about 2,000 surviving examples of WPA poster art are held in the nation's library and museum print collections.

WPA Art Recovery Project

Hundreds of thousands of artworks were commissioned under the Federal Art Project. Many of the portable works have been lost, abandoned, or given away as unauthorized gifts. As custodian of the work, which remains federal property, the General Services Administration (GSA) maintains an inventory and works with the FBI and art community to identify and recover WPA art. In 2010, it produced a 22-minute documentary about the WPA Art Recovery Project, "Returning America's Art to America", narrated by Charles Osgood.

In July 2014, the GSA estimated that only 20,000 of the portable works have been located to date. In 2015, GSA investigators found 122 Federal Art Project paintings in California libraries, where most had been stored and forgotten.

See also
List of Federal Art Project artists
Section of Painting and Sculpture
Public Works of Art Project
Farm Security Administration which employed photographers.

References

Further reading
 DeNoon, Christopher. Posters of the WPA (Los Angeles: Wheatley Press, 1987).
 Grieve, Victoria. The Federal Art Project and the Creation of Middlebrow Culture (2009) excerpt

 Kelly, Andrew, Kentucky by Design: American Culture, the Decorative Arts and the Federal Art Project's Index of American Design, University Press of Kentucky, 2015,
 Russo, Jillian. "The Works Progress Administration Federal Art Project Reconsidered." Visual Resources 34.1-2 (2018): 13-32.

External links

The Living New Deal research project and online public archive at the University of California, Berkeley
Recovering America's Art for America (2010), General Services Administration short documentary about efforts to recover WPA art
 Posters for the People, online archive of WPA posters
WPA Posters collection at the Library of Congress
New Deal Art Registry
wpamurals.com  – links to each state, with examples of WPA art in each
Federal Art Project Photographic Division collection at the Smithsonian Archives of American Art
"1934: A New Deal for Artists" Exhibition at the Smithsonian American Art Museum
"Art Within Reach": Federal Art Project Community Art Centers at George Mason University
WPA Murals and American Abstract Artists at American Abstract Artists
WPA Prints and Murals in New York
Collection: "Art of the Works Progress Administration WPA" from the University of Michigan Museum of Art
WNYC and the WPA Federal Art Project

New Deal projects of the arts
Works Progress Administration
New Deal agencies
American art
Murals in the United States
1935 establishments in Washington, D.C.
Government agencies established in 1935
Cultural history of the United States
Public art in the United States
Modern art
1943 disestablishments in Washington, D.C.

Federal Art Project


Das Zytglogge Theater ist ein Berner Kellertheater. Das Theater bestand ab 1949 unter dem Namen Theater der Untern Stadt an der Kramgasse 70 in Bern (); 1962 erhielt es den Namen Theater am Zytglogge. Zusammen mit der Junkere 37 stellte es für Berner Nonkonformisten einen beliebten Treffpunkt dar. 1992 schloss das Theater, aber der Trägerverein der Chäller-Kumedi eröffnete zwei Jahre später am Kornhausplatz 10 ein neues Aufführungslokal unter dem Namen Zytglogge Theater (). Darin wurden Eigenproduktionen aufgeführt; es funktionierte auch als Gastspielbetrieb. Während seiner 60-jährigen Geschichte fanden im Zytglogge Theater vor allem Sprechtheater und Kleinkunstveranstaltungen statt.

Literatur

Einzelnachweise

Kunst (Bern)
Kleinbühne
Mundartbühne
Theater (Schweiz)

Zytglogge Theater


Aylin Fazelian (Gotemburgo, ) é uma política sueca.  que serve como membro do Riksdag, representando o distrito eleitoral do Condado de Västra Götaland Ocidental.

Nascidos em 1992
Pessoas vivas
Políticos da Suécia

Aylin Fazelian


An Eulophia parvula in uska species han Liliopsida nga syahan ginhulagway ni Alfred Barton Rendle, ngan ginhatag han pagkayana nga asya nga ngaran ni Victor Samuel Summerhayes. An Eulophia parvula in nahilalakip ha genus nga Eulophia, ngan familia nga Orchidaceae. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Eulophia

Eulophia parvula


Milletlerarası Ahvali Şahsiye Komisyonu (veya Uluslararası Kişi Halleri Komisyonu / La Commission Internationale de l'État Civil / International Commission on Civil Status) uluslararası alandaki gelişmelerin, bireylerin vatandaşlık ve nüfus kayıtlarında meydana gelecek değişikliklerin izlenmesi, bununla ilgili sorunların çözümü konusunda işbirliğini zorunlu hale getirmesi sonucu, (CIEC) 25 Eylül 1950 yılında İsviçre'nin Bern şehrinde Fransa, Belçika, Lüksemburg, Hollanda ve İsviçre arasında imzalanan bir protokol ile kurulmuştur.

Devletler arasında ekonomik, siyasi, idari ve kültürel ilişkiler teknolojideki hızlı gelişmelerle birlikte giderek yoğunlaşmış, bunun bir sonucu olarak ülkeler arasındaki nüfus hareketleri de önemli bir şekilde artmıştır. Ahvali şahsiye kayıtları, bir yandan vatandaşların sosyal ve hukuki haklarını belirlerken diğer yandan devletlerin saygınlığını ilgilendirmesi nedeniyle etkin, güvenilir ve süratli bir şekilde yerine getirilmesi gereken önemli bir kamu hizmeti haline gelmiştir.

Komisyon üyeliğine sırası ile 24 Eylül 1953'te Türkiye, 27 Eylül 1956'da Almanya, 4 Eylül 1958'de İtalya, 3 Eylül 1958'de Yunanistan, 14 Eylül 1961'de Avusturya, 13 Eylül 1973'te Portekiz ve 13 Eylül 1974 yılında İspanya alınmıştır.

Komisyon Türkiye, Almanya, İtalya, Yunanistan, Avusturya, İspanya, Portekiz, İngiltere, Macaristan, Hırvatistan ve Polonya'nın da katılımıyla büyümüş ve önemli bir uluslararası kuruluş haline gelmiştir. Vatikan, İsveç, Rusya, Litvanya, Slovenya ve Kıbrıs ise Komisyon'a gözlemci ülkelerdir.

Komisyonun resmi dili Fransızca olup, merkezi Fransa'nın Strazburg kentindedir.

Türkiye Komisyon'a 1953 yılında katılarak sonradan üye olan ilk ülkedir. Aynı zamanda bugüne kadar Komisyon tarafından imzaya açılan sözleşmelerde en fazla imza ve onaya sahiptir. Bugüne kadar imzaya açılan 31 sözleşmenin 27'sini imzalamış, 24'ünü onaylamış olup, 22'si yürürlüğe girmiştir.

Amacı ve Görevi

Milletlerarası Ahvali Şahsiye Komisyonunun temel amacı, şahısların durumuna, aileye ve vatandaşlığa ilişkin konularda komisyona üye devletlerin hukukunu inceleyerek, ahvali şahsiye ile ilgili üye devletlerde yürürlükte bulunan hükümleri ahenkleştirmeye yönelik çalışmalar yapmak, üye devletlerin nüfus idarelerindeki teknikleri geliştirip iyileştirmektir.

Yapılan Sözleşmeler
 I Nolu Sözleşme: Yabancı Memleketlerde Kullanılmak Üzere Verilecek Nüfus (Ahvali Şahsiye) Kayıt Hülasası Suretleri Hakkındaki Anlaşma
 II Nolu Sözleşme: Ahvali Şahsiye ile İlgili Belge Örneklerinin Parasız Verilmesi ve Tasdikten Muaf Tutulması Hakkındaki Sözleşme
 III Nolu Sözleşme: Ahvali Şahsiye Konusunda Milletlerarası Malumat Teatisi Hakkında Sözleşme
 IV Nolu Sözleşme: Ad ve Soyadlarının Değişikliğine İlişkin Sözleşme
 V Nolu Sözleşme: Evlilik Dışı Çocukların Tanınmalarını Kabule Yetkili Makamların Yetkilerinin Genişletilmesi Hakkındaki Sözleşme
 VI Nolu Sözleşme: Meşru olmayan Çocukların Ana Bakımından Nesebinin Tesisine Ait Sözleşme
 VII Nolu Sözleşme: Yabancı Memleketlerde Yapılan Evlenme Merasiminin Kolaylaştırılmasına Dair Sözleşme
 VIII Nolu Sözleşme: Vatandaşlığın Kazanılması Konusunda Karşılıklı Bilgi Verilmesi Hakkında Sözleşme
 IX Nolu Sözleşme: Kişi Halleri İşlemlerinin Düzeltilmesi Kararlarıyla İlgili Sözleşme
 X Nolu Sözleşme: Bazı Ölümlerin Tespitine Ait Sözleşme
 XI Nolu Sözleşme: Evlilik Bağına İlişkin Kararların TanınmasıHakkında Sözleşme
 XII Nolu Sözleşme: Evlenme ile Nesep Düzeltilmesi Hakkında Sözleşme
 XIII Nolu Sözleşme: Vatansızlık Halleri Sayısının Azaltılmasına Dair Sözleşme
 XIV Nolu Sözleme: Ad ve Soyadlarının Nüfus Kütüklerine Yazılış Şekline İlişkin Sözleşme
 XV Nolu Sözleşme: Uluslararası Bir Aile Cüzdanı İhdasına İlişkin Sözleşme
 XVI Nolu Sözleşme: Çok Dilde Nüfus Kayıt Örnekleri Verilmesine İlişkin Sözleşme
 XVII Nolu Sözleşme: Bazı İşlem ve Belgelerin Tasdikten Muaf Tutulmasına Dair Sözleşme
 XVIII Nolu Sözleşme: Evlilik Dışında Doğan Çocukların Tanınmasına Dair Sözleşme
 XIX Nolu Sözleşme: Ad ve Soyadlarına Uygulanacak Kanuna İlişkin Sözleşme
 XX Nolu Sözleşme: Evlenme Ehliyet Belgesi Verilmesine Dair Sözleşme
 XXI Nolu Sözleşme: Farklı Soyadı Belgesi Verilmesine İlişkin Sözleşme
 XXII Nolu Sözleşme: Mültecileri İdari Yardım Konusunda Milletlerarası İşbirliğine Dair Sözleşme
 XXIII Nolu Sözleşme: Ahvali Şahsiye Konusunda Milletlerarası Bilgi Alışverişi Hakkında Sözleşmeye Ek Protokol
 XXIV Nolu Sözleşme: Ahvali Şahsiye Cüzdanlarının Tanınmasına ve Güncelleştirilmesine İlişkin Sözleşme
 XXV Nolu Sözleşme: Ahvali Şahsiye Belgelerinde Yer Alan Bilgilerin Kodlanmasına İlişkin Sözleşme
 XXVI Nolu Sözleşme: Kişi Halleri Konusunda Karşılıklı Bilgi Verilmesine İlişkin Sözleşme
 XXVII Nolu Sözleşme: Yaşam Belgesi Verilmesine Dair Sözleşme
 XXVIII Nolu Sözleşme: Vatandaşlık Belgesi Verilmesine İlişkin Sözleşme
 XXIX Nolu Sözleşme: Cinsiyet Değiştirilmesine İlişkin Kararların Tanınması Sözleşmesi
 XXX Nolu Sözleşme: Elektronik Yolla Ahvali Şahsiye Konusunda Uluslararası Bilgi İletişimine İlişkin Sözleşme
 XXXI Nolu Sözleşme: Soyadının Tanınması Hakkında Sözleşme

Kaynakça
 Nüfus ve Vatandaşlık İşleri Genel Müdürlüğü
 Uluslararası Kişi Halleri Komisyonu (Fransızca)
 Uluslararası Kişi Halleri Komisyonu (İngilizce)

Uluslararası kuruluşlar

Milletlerarası Ahvali Şahsiye Komisyonu


Demjata este o comună slovacă, aflată în districtul Prešov din regiunea Prešov. Localitatea se află la , se întinde pe o suprafață de  și în 2017 număra 1.071 de locuitori. Se învecinează cu comuna .

Istoric
Localitatea Demjata este atestată documentar din 1330.

Note

Legături externe

Localități din Slovacia

Demjata


Daily Me is a term that describes a virtual daily newspaper customized for an individual's tastes. This term was popularized by MIT Media Lab founder Nicholas Negroponte. The term has also been associated with the phenomenon of individuals customizing and personalizing their news feeds, resulting in their being exposed only to content they are already inclined to agree with.

The Daily Me is a term popularized by MIT Media Lab founder Nicholas Negroponte to describe a virtual daily newspaper customized for an individual's tastes. Negroponte discusses it in his 1995 book, Being Digital, referencing a project under way at the Media Lab, Fishwrap. Designed by Pascal Chesnais and Walter Bender and implemented by Media Lab students, the system allowed a greater deal of customization than commercially available systems in 1997.

Fred Hapgood, in a 1995 article in Wired, credited the concept and phrase to Negroponte's thinking in the 1970s.

In Steven Johnson's book Emergence: The Connected Lives of Ants, Brains, Cities, and Software, which concerns emergent properties, Johnson addresses some of Negroponte's fears with homeostasis and feedback systems in mind. He argues that a newspaper tailored to the tastes of a person on a given day will lead to too much positive feedback in that direction, and people's choices for one day would permanently affect their viewings for the rest of their lives. Since the book's release, in 2001, many customer-oriented websites, such as Amazon.com and Half.com, regularly utilize a customer's past views and purchases to determine what merchandise they believe will entice the customer's interest.

The term has also been associated with the phenomenon of individuals customizing and personalizing their news feeds, resulting in their being exposed only to content they are already inclined to agree with. The Daily Me can thus be a critical component of the "echo chamber" effect, defined in an article in Salon by David Weinberger as "those Internet spaces where like-minded people listen only to those people who already agree with them."

Cass Sunstein, a law professor at the University of Chicago, analyzes the implications of the Daily Me in his book Republic.com. Daily me and echo chambers have been suggested as one of the extremes of society induced by technology, the other being Tyranny of the majority.

Zite was a popular application that was similar to the Daily Me concept. It was available on iOS, Android, and Windows Phone. FeedSavvy.com is a similar service available on the web for PC and Mac users. noosfeer is addressing this issue by letting the users explore subjects with a wider range in the results, avoiding the filter bubble effect.

See also
Collaborative filtering
Filter bubble
Recommendation system

References

External links
The Daily Me, by Nicholas Kristof. The New York Times. March 18, 2009. Retrieved May 3, 2010.

1990s neologisms
News aggregators

Daily Me


În sinteza organică, reactivii sunt compuși sau amestecuri de compuși anorganici (sau organici) care au un anumit efect asupra unor compuși organici. Printre exemple se numără reactivul Schiff și reactivii Grignard. în chimia analitică, reactivii sunt compuși sau amestecuri de compuși care confirmă sau infirmă prezența unei anumite substanțe, de exemplu prin schimbarea culorii. Exemplele includ: reactivul Tollens, reactivul Fehling și reactivul Millon.

Un reactant este substanța care ia parte la o reacție chimică.  Într-o reacție pot intra unul sau mai mulți reactanți. De exemplu, la reacția de descompunere termică participă un reactant, iar la oxidarea magneziului doi reactanți:

CaSO4 → CaO + CO2
2Mg + O2 → 2MgO

Vezi și
 Produs de reacție
 Catalizator

Referințe

Reacții chimice

Reactiv


Sankarea (jap. ) ist ein romantisch-komischer Horror-Manga von Mitsuru Hattori, in dem es um die Liebe zu einem Zombie geht.

Handlung
Der Schüler Chihiro Furuya besucht die Shiyō-Jungenoberschule und ist ein großer Zombie-Fan, der davon träumt, ein "niedliches Zombie-Mädchen" als Freundin zu haben. Seit einigen Tagen geht er jede Nacht in ein verlassenes Gebäude und versucht dort mit Hilfe eines Rezeptes auf einer alten Schriftrolle, seine vor Kurzem überfahrene Katze Bābu als Zombie wiederzuerwecken. In dem verlassenen Gebäude begegnet er Rea Sanka von der benachbarten Sanka-Mädchenoberschule, die die Abgelegenheit des Hauses dazu nutzt, um sich ihren Frust darüber herauszuschreien, dass ihr zwanghafter Vater sie in einem "Goldenen Käfig" hält. Chihiro und Rea freunden sich bei dieser Gelegenheit an. Dadurch treffen sie sich dort öfters und versuchen zusammen, Bābu wiederzubeleben

Zusammen probieren die beiden eine Menge giftiger Pflanzen für das Rezept aus, darunter ein neues Rezept basierend auf Hortensien, was aber zunächst nicht zu funktionieren scheint. Zu Hause angelangt erwacht die Katze Bābu jedoch als Untote, während Rea zur gleichen Zeit versucht, sich mit dem Mittel das Leben zu nehmen. Ihr Selbsttötungsversuch schlägt zwar fehl, allerdings stürzt Rea später bei einem Streit mit ihrem Vater Dan'ichirō Sanka zu Tode, da dieser die Katze mit einer Peitsche schlagen wollte, erwacht dann aber kurz darauf als Zombie. Rea ist davon begeistert, da sie nun ein neues "Leben" als ein normales Mädchen führen kann, und zieht bei Chihiro ein. Chihiro entdeckt, dass bei ihr die Totenstarre einsetzt, was bedeutet, dass ihr Körper in einem Monat verrottet sein wird. Reas Zombieinstinkte erwachen und sie beißt Chihiro, der von seinem senilen Großvater in einem von dessen seltenen, klaren Momenten erfährt, dass Rea regelmäßig Hortensien essen und kühl gehalten werden muss, um den Verfall von Geist und Körper zu verlangsamen. Reas Vater lässt Chihiro entführen und fordert ihn zu einem Fechtduell um Rea auf. Chihiro provoziert den Vater und wird daraufhin von diesem erstochen. Dank Reas Biss, der ihn kurzzeitig zu einem halben Zombie gemacht hatte, überlebt er jedoch. Dan'ichirō will Rea von ihrem Zustand befreien, was sie aber ablehnt, da es hieße, Chihiro und ihre Freunde zu verlassen. Chihiro redet Dan'ichirō ins Gewissen, dass er aufhören solle, seine Ideale seiner Tochter aufzuzwingen und sie leben lassen solle, wie sie es will. Daraufhin vertraut Dan'ichirō sie tatsächlich Chihiro an.

Chihiros Cousine Ranko stellt sich vermeintlich scherzhaft Rea als seine Verlobte vor. Aber Rea erkennt, dass Ranko ihn wirklich liebt. Gleichzeitig erscheint bei Chihiro ein ausländisches Mädchen namens Darin Kurumiya, das seinen Großvater als "Professor Boil" bezeichnet und angibt, früher mit ihm Zombieforschung betrieben zu haben. Sie zieht daraufhin ebenfalls bei Chihiro ein, um Rea zu studieren. An Reas Körper wiederum erscheinen erste Verfallserscheinungen in Form von sich ablösender Haut an ihren Fingerkuppen. Chihiros kleine Schwester Mero erinnert sich an ihre verstorbene Mutter, die eine bandagierte Hand hatte, und dass Rea ihr ähnelt, auch in ihrem Verhalten. Im nächsten Kapitel erzählt Darin Rea, dass sie ihrer Erfahrung nach in etwa einer Woche ihre menschliches Verhalten verlieren wird. Rea kommentiert den Vorgang damit, dass dies nun ein noch viel größerer Grund als bisher sei, ihr Leben als Zombie zu genießen. Später erzählt sie, dass der Verlust des menschlichen Verhaltens damit einhergeht, dass für einen Zombie Zuneigung und Appetit identisch werden und sie daher ihre geliebten Menschen verzehren wird.

Ranko und Rea sprechen sich aus und Ranko sagt zu Rea, sie solle sich nicht ihretwegen bezüglich Chihiro zurückhalten, da sie beide Rivalinnen um seine Liebe sind. Bei einer gemeinsam verbrachten Gelegenheit will Rea Chihiro küssen. Aber dabei werden ihre Zombieinstinkte wach und sie beißt ihm ein Stück Fleisch aus dem Hals. Geschockt läuft sie weg. Chihiro hat während seiner Genesung einen Traum von seiner Mutter, in dem sie sagt, dass sie ihn und Mero verlassen muss, weil sie beide liebt. Chihiro findet Rea, die sich aus Angst, Chihiro nochmal zu verletzen, in Ketten gelegt hat. Reas Zombieinstinkte werden wieder wach und sie fängt an, seinen Arm zu verzehren. Chihiro appelliert an ihre Menschlichkeit und gesteht ihr, sie von Anfang an geliebt zu haben, als sie noch ein Mensch war. Sein letzter Wunsch sei, dass sie, nachdem sie ihn fertig verspeist habe, wieder zu ihm nach Hause geht. Dadurch erwacht Rea aus ihrer Trance. Chihiros Großvater und Darin sind darüber erstaunt, dass zum ersten Mal ein Zombie, nachdem er vollständig in die "Raubtierphase" eingetreten ist, wieder menschlich wurde. Ranko bezeichnet Chihiro gegenüber Rea als Monster, da er wegen Rea schon zweimal beinahe gestorben wäre, was sie nicht mehr aushält. Sie küsst ihn und nimmt dann Pillen aus einer Ampulle ein, die sie von Darin entwendet hat, und die sie zu einem Zombie machen sollen, damit Chihiro sie liebt. Es stellt sich heraus, dass Darin die Ampulle nur für Antihistaminika verwendet hat. Chihiro erkennt, dass Ranko ihn schon seit langem liebt und entschuldigt sich bei ihr, dies nicht bemerkt zu haben. Ranko sagt, ihr einziger Wunsch sei es, ihn weiterhin, wenn auch unerwidert, zu lieben.

Charaktere

 Chihiro ist ein Schüler im ersten Jahr der Oberschule (10. Klasse). Er ist von eher kleiner Statur und seine Frisur und seine Mimik haben teilweise katzenhaften Charakter. Als großer Zombiefan ist er erfreut darüber, dass mit Rea seine Träume von einem niedlichen Zombiemädchen wahr wurden. Seit seiner Kindheit ist er mit seiner Cousine Ranko befreundet, die er ständig aufzieht.

 Rea kommt aus einer reichen und angesehenen Familie. Ihr Vater Dan'ichirō liebt sie besessen und sie wächst sehr behütet und mit vielen Verboten auf, so dass ihr größter Wunsch ist, das Leben eines normalen Mädchens zu führen. Ihre leibliche Mutter ist kurz nach ihrer Geburt gestorben und ihre Stiefmutter behandelt sie abweisend. Durch einen Unfall wird sie zu einem Zombie, was sie einerseits mag, da es ihr dadurch erlaubt ist, ein freies Leben außerhalb des "Goldenen Käfigs" ihres Vaters zu führen – andererseits ist sie aber schockiert von ihren Zombieinstinkten, nach denen sie Chihiro essen will, womit er in ihr wäre, was sie als sehr romantisch empfindet. Als Zombie besitzt sie eine größere Körperkraft und kann leicht eine massive, hölzerne Parkbank anheben. Um den Verfall ihres Körpers zu verlangsamen, muss sie Hortensienblätter essen und trägt im Allgemeinen Packungen von Trockeneis unter ihrer Kleidung.

 Ranko, von Chihiro Wanko genannt, ist seine ein Jahr ältere Cousine. Ihre Familie betreibt eine Kaiseki-Gaststätte. Sie liebt Chihiro schon von klein auf und ist, wann immer es geht, in seiner Nähe. Von ihrem Verhalten ist sie eher burschikos, besitzt aber einen sehr weiblichen Körper, was sie teilweise auch subtil benutzt, um Chihiros Interesse an ihr zu erregen. Chihiro ist sich dessen nicht bewusst, da für ihn als Freundin nur ein Zombie in Frage kommt, und behandelt sie eher als besten Freund.

 Darin ist mit 14 Jahren etwas jünger als Chihiro und Ranka, hat aber bereits seit ihrem sechsten Lebensjahr aufgrund des Berufs ihres Vaters mit Zombies zu tun. Später folgte sie ihm in seiner Berufung und wurde ebenfalls Zombieforscherin, wobei ihre Spezialität das Neuzusammenbauen von Zombies ist, um diese ungefährlich zu machen. Da sie wegen ihres Vaters ständig umziehen musste und später ihren Vater und Chihiros Großvater bei deren Forschungen unterstützte, hatte sie nie Freunde. Im Laufe der Zeit werden sie und Rea jedoch sowas wie beste Freundinnen. Ihr Begleiter ist eine untote Eule, die aber mindestens zur Hälfte ein Roboter ist.

 Mero ist Furuyas 12-jährige kleine Schwester. Sie hat einen zurückhaltenden, ruhigen Charakter und, wenn sie redet, eine frühreife Ausdrucksweise. Mero liebt es, in der Herz-Sutra zu lesen, ihr Hobby ist es, Sutren handschriftlich zu kopieren und ihr Interesse gilt Geistern (Yūrei), was sich auch darin äußert, dass sie sich zu Hause wie einer anzieht, d. h. einen einfachen, weißen Kimono und eine dreieckige Stirnbedeckung (hitai eboshi) trägt.

 Jogorō ist Chihiros und Meros Großvater. Er ist dement und fast blind, weswegen er eine dicke Brille trägt. Beides kommt daher, dass er früher ein Wissenschaftler in der Zombieforschung war und während der Experimente deren Gift ausgesetzt war, das diese beim Beißen injizieren. Gelegentlich hat er jedoch seine klaren Momente und hilft Chihiro. Er bezeichnet Rea aus unbekannten Gründen als Sada, die wieder zum Leben erwacht ist. Von Darin, die bei seinen Forschungen damals dabei war, wird er Professor Boil (, Boiru-kyōju) genannt.

 Er ist Sankas Vater und wird ihr gegenüber als äußerst obsessiv beschrieben. Dies äußert sich darin, dass er sie, als er erfährt, dass Rea sich mit Chihiro trifft, von der Schule nimmt und die Anweisung gibt, Chihiro zu kastrieren. Auch lässt er zu jedem Geburtstag von Rea ein Nacktbild von ihr anfertigen, vorgeblich um ihre Entwicklung aufzuzeichnen. Sehr zum Frust seiner Frau Aria hat er kein Interesse an erwachsenen Frauen und die einzige, die er neben Rea liebte, war deren leibliche Mutter, die damals 15 Jahre alt war, als sie Rea bekam und er noch ein Student war.

Veröffentlichung
Der Manga erschien in Kōdanshas Manga-Magazin Bessatsu Shōnen Magazine vom 9. Dezember 2009 (Ausgabe 1/2010) bis 9. September 2014 (Ausgabe 10/2014). Die Kapitel wurden in elf Sammelbänden (Tankōbon) zusammengefasst:
 Band 1: 16. Juli 2010, ISBN 978-4-06-384341-5
 Band 2: 9. Dezember 2010, ISBN 978-4-06-384412-2
 Band 3: 9. März 2011, ISBN 978-4-06-384453-5
 Band 4: 9. August 2011, ISBN 978-4-06-384529-7
 Band 5: 9. Februar 2012, ISBN 978-4-06-384623-2 (normal), ISBN 978-4-06-358382-3 (limitiert mit Hörspiel-CD)
 Band 6: 8. Juni 2012, ISBN 978-4-06-384682-9 (normal), ISBN 978-4-06-358389-2 (limitiert mit OVA-DVD)
 Band 7: 9. November 2012, ISBN 978-4-06-384762-8 (normal), ISBN 978-4-06-358390-8 (limitiert mit OVA-DVD)
 Band 8: 7. Juni 2013, ISBN 978-4-06-384873-1 (normal), ISBN 978-4-06-362253-9 (limitiert)
 Band 9: 9. Januar 2014, ISBN 978-4-06-394977-3
 Band 10: 9. Juni 2014, ISBN 978-4-06-395062-5
 Band 11: 7. November 2014, ISBN 978-4-06-395231-5

Bis zum August 2011 wurden von den ersten drei Bänden 50.000 Exemplare verkauft.

Der Manga wird auf Chinesisch in Taiwan unter dem Titel Jiāngshī nǎ yǒu nàme méng? () bei Tongli veröffentlicht. In den USA wurde der Manga als Sankarea: Undying Love von Kodansha Comics USA lizenziert, wobei der erste Band am 11. Juni 2013 erschien. Eine deutschsprachige Ausgabe wurde zwischen April 2014 und Februar 2016 bei Egmont Manga veröffentlicht.

Anime
Am 6. September 2011 wurde im Blog des Bessatsu Shōnen Magazine bzw. in Ausgabe 10/2011 vom 9. September bekanntgegeben, dass der Manga als Anime-Serie umgesetzt werden soll.

Der Anime wurde unter der Regie von Mamoru Hatakeyama von Studio Deen animiert. Das Character Design stammt von Kyūta Sakai. Die 12 Folgen wurden vom 6. April bis 29. Juni 2012 kurz nach Mitternacht (und damit am vorigen Fernsehtag) erstmals auf TBS in der Region Kantō ausgestrahlt und mit jeweils vier bzw. vierzehn Tagen Versatz auf MBS in der Region Kinki und CBC im Großraum Nagoya. Die ersten 11 Folgen entsprechen dabei den ersten beiden Manga-Bänden, während die letzte Folge an den ersten beiden Kapiteln von Band 4 angelehnt ist. Die Folgen wurden vom 29. Juni bis 30. November 2012 auf sechs DVD bzw. Blu-Rays herausgebracht, wobei die letzte zusätzlich noch eine 13. nicht ausgestrahlte Folge enthielt. Daneben erschienen als Beilage zu den limitierten Ausgaben der Manga-Bände 6 und 7 noch zwei DVDs: am 8. Juni 2012 eine Folge 0 als Prolog und am 9. November 2012 eine 14. Folge.

Die Musik stammt von Yukari Hashimoto.

Am 6. April 2012 gab Funimation bekannt, die Serie für Nordamerika lizenziert zu haben, die dann als Simulcast auf deren Website sowie dem Partnerportal Niconico ausgestrahlt werden sollen.

Im September 2015 gab der deutsche Publisher FilmConfect bekannt, sich die Rechte an der Anime-Serie gesichert zu haben. Die Serie erscheint hierzulande unter dem Titel Sankarea: Undying Love ab November 2015 auf drei DVD- bzw. Blu-ray-Volumes.

Synchronisation
Die deutsche Sprachfassung wird von der Berliner TNT Media GmbH erstellt. Für die Synchronregie zeichnet Heinz Burghardt verantwortlich.

Roman
Ryō Suzukaze schrieb basierend auf dem Manga den Roman Sankarea: All Night Rea Long (, Sankarea: Ōru Naito Rea Rongu), der am 2. Juli 2013 ISBN 978-4-06-375286-1 bei Kōdansha erschien.

Weblinks

 Website des Manga bei Kōdansha (japanisch)
 Website des Anime bei TBS (japanisch)
 Eintrag zum Manga und Anime im Anime News Network (englisch)

Einzelnachweise

Manga (Werk)
Anime-Fernsehserie
Comedy-Fernsehserie
Zeichentrickserie
Fernsehserie der 2010er Jahre

Sankarea


Silje Vige (Jørpeland, 24 de mayo de 1976) es una cantante noruega, conocida por su participación en el Festival de la Canción de Eurovisión 1993.

Vige ganó el Melodi Grand Prix (preselección noruega para elegir el representante en el Festival de Eurovisión) con una balada étnica escrita por su padre. La victoria le permitió competir representando a Noruega en el Festival de Eurovisión de 1993. Su participación en el certamen con su canción "Alle mine tankar" ("Todos mis pensamientos") se saldó con una quinta posición de un total de 25 participantes.

Discografía
 Alle mine tankar (Sencillo, 1993)
 Alle mine tankar (Álbum, 1994)

Referencias

Cantantes femeninas de Noruega
Cantantes en noruego
Representantes de Noruega en Eurovisión
Participantes en Eurovisión 1993
Participantes en el Melodi Grand Prix 1993
Artistas ganadores del Melodi Grand Prix

Silje Vige


El Malmö Flygindustri MFI-9 Junior fue un avión biplaza para uso deportivo y entrenamiento básico producida en Suecia en la década de 1960. El avión también fue fabricado bajo licencia con el nombre Bölkow Bo 208.

Historia y desarrollo

La firma A.B. Malmö Flygindustri comenzó la fabricación de aviones con el Malmö MFI-9 Junior, que derivaba del  Andreasson BA-7, diseñado por el ingeniero Björn Andreasson, quien voló el prototipo el 10 de octubre de 1958. Andreasson construyó este prototipo en su tiempo libre mientras trabajaba para Convair en Estados Unidos. Estaba propulsado por un motor Continental A-65, refrigerado con aire, que proporcionaba una potencia de 56 kW (65 cv) a una hélice bipala de paso variable. Las alas estaban ubicadas cerca a la cúspide del fuselaje proporcionando a los ocupantes de la aeronave una mejor visibilidad. Los prototipos de serie y los primeros ejemplares construidos por MFI a diferencia del BA-7, tenían las superficies de cola rediseñadas.
El primer ejemplar de producción voló el 9 de agosto de 1962 y, para entonces esta empresa formaba parte de SAAB.
El MFI-9, era un monoplano de ala alta arriostrada, con tren de aterrizaje fijo y triciclo, cabina cerrada para dos plazas en asientos lado a lado y estaba propulsado por un motor Rolls-Royce Continental O-200 con más potencia que el anterior. Esta versión fue producida, bajo licencia en Alemania por la empresa Messerschmitt-Bölkow-Blohm, que denominó el avión MBB 208C Junior y del que construyó 200 unidades. MFI solamente produjo 25 ejemplares de este modelo, pasando a continuación a fabricar 43 unidades del más desarrollado MFI-9B Trainer; este tipo incorporaba modificaciones de los empenajes de cola y otras mejoras de detalle, estando disponible como el anterior con trenes opcionales de flotadores y patines. La variante final de este modelo fue la MFI-9 Militrainer, de la que dos prototipos fueron evaluados por las Fuerzas Aéreas de Suecia; estos aparatos se diferencian principalmente por la instalación de soportes subalares para cohetes y/o misiles. Además en 1969 se evaluaron los prototipos de dos versiones agrandadas del MFI-9, las MFI-15 yMFI-15B.

Esta aeronave (MFI-9B Militrainer) es reconocida, por una de sus variantes ideada por el conde sueco Carl Gustaf von Rosen, la cual demostró que en el contexto de una guerra de baja intensidad como la Guerra de Biafra, incluso una aeronave pequeña y poco armada, podría ser capaz de jugar un papel significativo.

Variantes
 MFI-9 - aeronave de 2 tripulantes de entrenamiento. 25 construidos.
 Bölkow Bo 208 - MFI-9 fabricados bajo licencia por MBB en Alemania. 200 construidos.
 MFI-9B Trainer - aeronave de 2 tripulantes de entrenamiento. 43 construidos.
 MFI-9B Militrainer - aeronave de 2 tripulantes de entrenamiento, aeronave de ataque ligera. Dos prototipos construidos. Diez aeronaves utilizados por la Fuerza Aérea Sueca entre 1966-68 para evaluación como entrenamiento básico solamente
 Biafra Baby - Cinco MFI-9B armados con contenedores de seis cohetes Matra AP SNEB tipo 155 franceses de 68 mm (2.68") no guiados bajo cada ala

Operadores militares
  Biafra
 Usado por la Fuerza Aérea de Biafra durante la guerra de Guerra de Biafra.

 Diez MFI-9B de entrenamiento militar por la Fuerza Aérea Sueca.

Especificaciones (MFI-9B Trainer)

Referencias

 'Fleas versus Falcons over Biafra' (retrieved February 23, 2008)

Aviación de Suecia
Aviones entrenadores militares de Suecia de los años 1960
Aeronaves de ala semialta
Aeronaves de ala en flecha invertida

Malmö MFI-9


An Carex luctuosa in uska species han Liliopsida nga ginhulagway ni Adrien René Franchet. An Carex luctuosa in nahilalakip ha genus nga Carex, ngan familia nga Cyperaceae. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Carex

Carex luctuosa


Jonathan Tetelman, né en 1988 à Castro au Chili, est un chanteur d'opéra de tessiture ténor. Quelques rôles du répertoire lyrique, l'ont fait remarquer des plus grandes scènes internationales. Il a signé il y a quelques mois, un contrat d'exclusivité avec Deutsche Grammophon et a enregistré son premier CD solo.

Biographie

Formation et débuts
Le jeune Jonathan Tetelman est adopté à l'âge de sept mois par des parents américains qui l'élèvent à Princeton dans le New Jersey. Son talent vocal est remarqué par un de ses professeurs de musique qui lui donne ses premières leçons de chant à l'American Boychoir School de Princeton. Et c'est comme baryton qu'il obtient son premier diplôme à la Manhattan School of Music où il étudie de 2007 à 2011avec Maitland Peters. Poursuivant ses études à la Mannes School of Music, il devient progressivement ténor. Il trouve la conversion très difficile et renonce un temps aux études de chant pour occuper un poste de DJ dans les boites de nuit à New York. Mais il reprend sa formation, en dehors d'un cadre universitaire et travaille les rôles de ténor pour finalement choisir cette tessiture. Son professeur, Mark Schnaible, l'aide à poursuivre son développement et est encore à ce jour son mentor.

En 2016, il remporte le prix du public au concours Mildred Miller de Pittsburg.

Il début sur scène dans le cadre du programme de la fondation Martina Arroyo. Il interprète Eisenstein dans die Fledermaus au Kaye Playhouse at Hunter college de New York en juillet 2016. C'est le signal du début d'une carrière professionnelle, il signe un contrat avec l'agence Guy Barzilay Artists et obtient peu après son premier contact avec le Metropolitan Opera de New York.

Carrière
Enchainant d'abord les rôles de ténor romantique les plus demandés comme Rodolfo dans la Bohême, Pinkerton dans Madame Butterfly, Cavaradossi dans Tosca, Jonathan Tetelman est remarqué par les critiques. Camille De Rijck, pour Forum Opera, le qualifie ainsi à l'Opéra de Lille en 2021 : .

Il chante également le duc de Mantoue dans Rigoletto ou Alfredo dans la Traviata et fait ses débuts sur de grandes scènes internationales (English National Opera de Londres, Liceu de Barcelone, Opéra de Montpellier, Teatro Regio Torino, Semperoper de Dresde, Teatro Colon).

Confronté aux difficultés des jeunes artistes durant la pandémie et ses restrictions généralisées conduisant à l'annulation de nombreux spectacles, Jonathan Tetelman se distingue malgré tout, lors d' une prise de rôle réussie sur la scène du Deutsche Oper de Berlin en 2021, celle de Paolo le Bello dans le Francesca da Rimini de Zandonai. Naxos sort un DVD de la représentation, à son tour  salué par les critiques. Il se lance ensuite dans une série de représentations du très rare Stiffelio de Verdi où il incarne le rôle principal de l'œuvre à l'Opéra du Rhin en octobre 2021, reprend le rôle du peintre Cavaradossi dans Tosca dans la très moderne mise en scène de Martin Kuzej au Theater an der Wien en janvier 2022, avant d'être  Jacopo Foscari, aux côtés de Plácido Domingo, dans I Due Foscari au Maggio Musicale Fiorentino en avril 2022.

Son premier enregistrement en tant que soliste, intitulé "Arias" est sorti en août 2022 avec des airs extraits d'œuvres de Puccini, Giordano, Massenet, Mascagni, Verdi, Zandonai, remportant le prix du meilleur album solo de l'Oper'Award 2023.

Il s'est également produit en janvier 2023 dans le cadre du concert des Grandes Voix organisé au Bozar de Bruxelles puis à la Philharmonie de Paris, pour la soprano Angela Gheorghiu. Durant l'été 2023, il se produit d'abord en récital piano au festival de Peralada puis il chante Macduff dans une nouvelle production de Macbeth sous la direction de Philippe Jordan, au festival de Salzbourg, mis en scène par Krzysztof Warlikowski, avec Vladislav Sulimsky et Asmik Grigorian, retransmise par la chaine ARTE. Sous la plume de Marie-Aude Roux, Le Monde note .

Il annonce son deuxième enregistrement solo pour septembre 2023, exclusivement consacré à des airs des opéras de Puccini.

CD et DVD

 Francesca da Rimini (Riccardo Zandonai) - Sara Jakubiak,  Jonathan Tetelman,  Charles Workman,  Ivan Inverardi - DVD et Blu Ray Naxos - Filmé au Deutsche Oper de Berlin en mars 2021 - Direction musicale Carlo Rizzi, Mise en scène de Christopher Loy - Parution en février 2022.

 Jonathan Tetelman : Arias - airs extraits d'œuvres de Puccini, Giordano, Massenet, Mascagni, Verdi, Zandonai - Orquesta Filarmónica De Gran Canaria sous la direction de Karel Mark Chichon- Deutsche Grammophon - 12 août 2022. Jonathan Tetelman obtient le prix du "jeune talent de l'année" à l'Opus Klassik de l'année 2023 pour cet album.
 Oratorio de noël - Camille Saint Saens -  Op. 12: No. 4, Domine, ego credidi - Jonathan Tetelman - Orquesta Filarmónica De Gran Canaria Capella Cracoviensis sous la direction de Karel Mark Chichon - Deutsche Grammophon - Septembre 2022.
 The Great Puccini - album solo des grands airs de Puccini, Jonathan Tetelman - PKF – Prague Philharmonia sous la direction de Carlo Rizzi -  Deutsche Grammophon - Septembre 2023.

Notes et références

Liens externes

Naissance en 1988
Naissance dans la région des Lacs
Ténor
Chanteur chilien du XXIe siècle
Chanteur classique

Jonathan Tetelman


A propósito de Sudán es un documental del año 2009 producida en España y Sudán, dirigida por Lidia Peralta y Salah Elmur.

Sinopsis
A través de cinco piezas de cinco minutos de duración cada una, "A propósito de Sudán" nos sumerge en algunas de las actividades más arraigadas en la vida cotidiana de los sudaneses. Una propuesta basada principalmente en la imagen y el sonido para acercarnos a temas como la ceremonia del café, las actividades en torno a un pozo de agua de 70 metros de profundidad, el río Nilo, el sufismo y un particular medio de transporte público de la capital sudanesa: la rackshaw. Pinceladas y curiosidades de un país cargado de sorpresas.

Referencias

Documentales de España

A propósito de Sudán


M17 est un protocole radio numérique développé par Wojciech Kaczmarski  SP5WWP et al..
M17 est conçu principalement pour permettre des communications vocales sur les bandes radioamateurs VHF et supérieures.

Général

M17 utilise 4800 symboles par seconde 4FSK avec un filtre de Nyquist à racine carrée appliqué sur le flux de bits. Les canaux sont de 9kHz de large, avec un espace inter-canaux de 12,5 kHz. Globalement le protocole offre un débit de 9600 bits par seconde, avec un débit effectif de 3200 bits/s. Le protocole offre un taux de transfert bas débit (au dessus de la voix), par exemple pour des données de géopositionnement GNSS. Il a été utilisé avec succès via les satellites géostationnaires EchoStar XXI et QO-100. M17 a reçu le prix d'innovation technique 2021 de l'. Il a aussi reçu un prix de la part de l'Amator Radio Digital Communications. La spécification du protocole est sous licence GNU General Public License.

Codage de la voix
M17 utilise  qui est un codec bas débit pour la voix développé par David Rowe VK5DGR et al.
 a été conçu pour être utilisé par les radioamateurs et les applications nécessitant une grande compression de la voix. Le protocole supporte les deux modes plein débit (full-rate) à 3200bits/s et mi-débit à 1600bits/s.

Contrôle d'erreur

Trois méthodes sont utilisées pour la correction d'erreur, Code de Golay,  et .

De plus, une opération ou exclusif est appliquée entre les bits de données et un flux de décorrélation pseudo-aléatoire. Ceci permet d'assurer un grand nombre de transitions de symboles dans la bande de base.

Matériel compatible
Les récepteurs radio-portatifs suivant TYT MD-380, MD-390 and MD-UV380 peuvent être re-flashés avec un firmware dédié, gratuit, et open source permettant le support de M17.

Lien avec d'autres modes
Il existe des passerelles vers les systèmes DMR et System Fusion.

M17 par IP
Des points d'accès et des répéteurs sont accessibles en IP via des réflecteurs. Il existe plus de 100 réflecteurs M17 mondialement en janvier 2022.

Notes et références

Voir aussi

Articles connexes
 NXDN
 D-STAR
 Codec

Liens externes
 M17 Project's website
 M17 Project on GitHub
 Twitter feed
 Robert Riggs' (WX9O) M17 baseband encoder/decoder library (C++, GPL)
 OpenWebRX - web based SDR by Jakob Ketterl (DD5JFK), includes M17 decoder
 SDR++ - free, open source SDR software with M17 support

Radioamateurisme
Vocabulaire radio propre à la technique

M17 (protocole radio)


Yerleşim yerleri
 Kaman, Bahçe - Osmaniye ili Bahçe ilçesine bağlı köy
 Kaman, Bartın - Bartın ili merkez ilçesine bağlı köy
 Kaman, Kırşehir - Kırşehir ili ilçesi
 Kaman, Pınarbaşı - Kayseri ili Pınarbaşı ilçesine bağlı mahalle
 Kaman, Yıldızeli - Sivas ili Yıldızeli ilçesine bağlı köy

Kaman


An Dendrobium finniganense in uska species han Liliopsida nga ginhulagway ni David Lloyd Jones. An Dendrobium finniganense in nahilalakip ha genus nga Dendrobium, ngan familia nga Orchidaceae.

Mabibilngan ini ha Queensland. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Mga sumpay ha gawas

Dendrobium

Dendrobium finniganense


A gas-filled tube, also commonly known as a discharge tube or formerly as a Plücker tube, is an arrangement of electrodes in a gas within an insulating, temperature-resistant envelope. Gas-filled tubes exploit phenomena related to electric discharge in gases, and operate by ionizing the gas with an applied voltage sufficient to cause electrical conduction by the underlying phenomena of the Townsend discharge.  A gas-discharge lamp is an electric light using a gas-filled tube; these include fluorescent lamps, metal-halide lamps, sodium-vapor lamps, and neon lights.  Specialized gas-filled tubes such as krytrons, thyratrons, and ignitrons are used as switching devices in electric devices.

The voltage required to initiate and sustain discharge is dependent on the pressure and composition of the fill gas and geometry of the tube. Although the envelope is typically glass, power tubes often use ceramics, and military tubes often use glass-lined metal. Both hot cathode and cold cathode type devices are encountered.

Gases in use

Hydrogen
Hydrogen is used in tubes used for very fast switching, e.g. some thyratrons, dekatrons, and krytrons, where very steep edges are required. The build-up and recovery times of hydrogen are much shorter than in other gases. Hydrogen thyratrons are usually hot-cathode. Hydrogen (and deuterium) can be stored in the tube in the form of a metal hydride, heated with an auxiliary filament;  hydrogen by heating such storage element can be used to replenish cleaned-up gas, and even to adjust the pressure as needed for a thyratron operation at a given voltage.

Deuterium
Deuterium is used in ultraviolet lamps for ultraviolet spectroscopy, in neutron generator tubes, and in special tubes (e.g. crossatron). It has higher breakdown voltage than hydrogen. In fast switching tubes it is used instead of hydrogen where high voltage operation is required. For a comparison, the hydrogen-filled CX1140 thyratron has anode voltage rating of 25 kV, while the deuterium-filled and otherwise identical CX1159 has 33 kV. Also, at the same voltage the pressure of deuterium can be higher than of hydrogen, allowing higher rise rates of current before it causes excessive anode dissipation. Significantly higher peak powers are achievable. Its recovery time is however about 40% slower than for hydrogen.

Noble gases

Noble gases are frequently used in tubes for many purposes, from lighting to switching. Pure noble gases are employed in switching tubes. Noble-gas-filled thyratrons have better electrical parameters than mercury-based ones. The electrodes undergo damage by high-velocity ions. The neutral atoms of the gas slow the ions down by collisions, and reduce the energy transferred to the electrodes by the ion impact. Gases with high molecular weight, e.g. xenon, protect the electrodes better than lighter ones, e.g. neon.
Helium is used in helium–neon lasers and in some thyratrons rated for high currents and high voltages. Helium provides about as short deionization time as hydrogen, but can withstand lower voltage, so it is used much less often.
Neon has low ignition voltage and is frequently used in low-voltage tubes. Discharge in neon emits relatively bright red light; neon-filled switching tubes therefore also act as indicators, shining red when switched on. This is exploited in the decatron tubes, which act as both counters and displays. Its red light is exploited in neon signage. Used in fluorescent tubes with high power and short length, e.g. industrial lighting tubes. Has higher voltage drop in comparison with argon and krypton. Its low atomic mass provides only a little protection to the electrodes against accelerated ions; additional screening wires or plates can be used for prolonging the anode lifetime. In fluorescent tubes it is used in combination with mercury.
Argon was the first gas used in fluorescent tubes and is still frequently used due to its low cost, high efficiency, and very low striking voltage. In fluorescent tubes it is used in combination with mercury. It was also used in early rectifier tubes; first thyratrons were derived from such argon-filled tubes.
Krypton can be used in fluorescent lamps instead of argon; in that application it reduces the total energy losses on electrodes from about 15% to 7%. The voltage drop per lamp length is however lower than with argon, which can be compensated by smaller tube diameter. Krypton-filled lamps also require higher starting voltage; this can be alleviated by using e.g. 25%–75% argon-krypton mixture. In fluorescent tubes it is used in combination with mercury.
Xenon in pure state has high breakdown voltage, making it useful in higher-voltage switching tubes. Xenon is also used as a component of gas mixtures when production of ultraviolet radiation is required, e.g. in plasma displays, usually to excite a phosphor. The wavelength produced is longer than with argon and krypton and penetrates the phosphors better. To lower the ionization voltage, neon-xenon or helium-xenon are used; above , helium has lower breakdown voltage than neon and vice versa. At concentrations of 1% and less of xenon, the Penning effect becomes significant in such mixtures, as most of xenon ionization occurs by collision with excited atoms of the other noble gas; at more than few percents of xenon, the discharge ionizes xenon directly due to most energy of the electrons being spent on direct ionization of xenon.
Radon, despite being a noble gas, is dangerously radioactive and its most stable isotope has a half-life of less than four days. Consequently, it is not commonly used in electronic devices.
Penning mixtures are used where lower ionization voltage is required, e.g. in the neon lamps, Geiger–Müller tubes and other gas-filled particle detectors. A classical combination is about 98–99.5% of neon with 0.5–2% of argon, used in, e.g. neon bulbs and in monochrome plasma displays.

Elemental vapors (metals and nonmetals)
Mercury vapors are used for applications with high current, e.g. lights, mercury-arc valves, ignitrons. Mercury is used because of its high vapor pressure and low ionization potential. Mercury mixed with an inert gas is used where the energy losses in the tube have to be low and the tube lifetime should be long. In mercury-inert gas mixtures, the discharge is initially carried primarily by the inert gas; the released heat then serves to evaporate enough mercury to reach the desired vapor pressure. Low-voltage (hundreds volts) rectifiers use saturated mercury vapor in combination with a small amount of inert gas, allowing cold start of the tubes. High-voltage (kilovolts and more) rectifiers use pure mercury vapor at low pressure, requiring maintenance of maximum temperature of the tube. The liquid mercury serves as a reservoir of mercury, replenishing the vapors that are used up during the discharge. Unsaturated mercury vapor can be used, but as it can not be replenished, the lifetime of such tubes is lower. The strong dependence of vapor pressure on mercury temperature limits the environments the mercury-based tubes can operate in. In low-pressure mercury lamps, there is an optimum mercury pressure for the highest efficiency. Photons emitted by ionized mercury atoms can be absorbed by nearby nonionized atoms and either reradiated or the atom is deexcited nonradiatively, too high mercury pressure therefore causes losses of light. Too low mercury pressure leads to too few atoms present to get ionized and radiate photons. The optimum temperature for low-pressure mercury lamps is at about 42 °C, when the saturated vapor pressure of mercury (present as a drop of about 1 mg of liquid mercury in the tube, as a reservoir compensating for losses by clean-up) reaches this optimum. In lamps intended for operation at higher ambient temperatures, and at a wider temperature range, mercury is present in the form of an amalgam with e.g. bismuth and indium; the vapor pressure above amalgam is lower than above liquid mercury. Mercury is used in fluorescent tubes as a source of visible and ultraviolet light for exciting the phosphor; in that application it is usually used together with argon, or in some cases with krypton or neon. Mercury ions deionize slowly, limiting the switching speed of mercury-filled thyratrons. Ion bombardment with mercury ions of even relatively low energies also gradually destroys oxide-coated cathodes.
Sodium vapors are used in sodium-vapor lamps.
Sulfur vapors are used in sulfur lamps.
Vapors of many metals, alone or together with a noble gas, are used in many lasers.

Other gases

Air can be used in some low-demanding applications.
Nitrogen at relatively high pressure tends to be used in surge arresters, due to its short build-up time, giving the tubes fast response time to voltage surges.
Halogens and alcohol vapors absorb ultraviolet radiation and have high electron affinity. When added to inert gases, they quench the discharge; this is exploited in e.g. Geiger–Müller tubes.

Insulating gases

In special cases (e.g., high-voltage switches), gases with good dielectric properties and very high breakdown voltages are needed. Highly electronegative elements, e.g., halogens, are favored as they rapidly recombine with the ions present in the discharge channel. One of the most popular choices is sulfur hexafluoride, used in special high-voltage applications. Other common options are dry pressurized nitrogen and halocarbons.

Gas-tube physics and technology

The fundamental mechanism is the Townsend discharge, which is the sustained multiplication of electron flow by ion impact when a critical value of electric field strength for the density of the gas is reached. As the electric field is increased various phases of discharge are encountered as shown in the accompanying plot. The gas used dramatically influences the parameters of the tube. The breakdown voltage depends on the gas composition and electrode distance; the dependencies are described by Paschen's law.

Gas pressure
The gas pressure may range between ; most commonly, pressures between 1–10 torr are used. The gas pressure influences the following factors:
breakdown voltage (also called ignition voltage)
current density
operating voltage
backfire voltage
tube lifetime (lower pressure tubes tend to have shorter lifetimes due to using up of the gas)
cathode sputtering, reduced at higher pressures

Above a certain value, the higher the gas pressure, the higher the ignition voltage. High-pressure lighting tubes can require a few kilovolts impulse for ignition when cold, when the gas pressure is low. After warming up, when the volatile compound used for light emission is vaporized and the pressure increases, reignition of the discharge requires either significantly higher voltage or reducing the internal pressure by cooling down the lamp. For example, many sodium vapor lamps cannot be re-lit immediately after being shut off; they must cool down before they can be lit up again.

The gas tends to be used up during the tube operation, by several phenomena collectively called clean-up. The gas atoms or molecules are adsorbed on the surfaces of the electrodes. In high voltage tubes, the accelerated ions can penetrate into the electrode materials. New surfaces, formed by sputtering of the electrodes and deposited on e.g. the inner surfaces of the tube, also readily adsorb gases. Non-inert gases can also chemically react with the tube components. Hydrogen may diffuse through some metals.

For removal of gas in vacuum tubes, getters are used. For resupplying gas for gas-filled tubes, replenishers are employed. Most commonly, replenishers are used with hydrogen; a filament made from a hydrogen-absorbing metal (e.g. zirconium or titanium) is present in the tube, and by controlling its temperature the ratio of absorbed and desorbed hydrogen is adjusted, resulting in controlling of the hydrogen pressure in the tube. The metal filament acts as a hydrogen storage. This approach is used in e.g. hydrogen thyratrons or neutron tubes. Usage of saturated mercury vapor allows using a pool of liquid mercury as a large storage of material; the atoms lost by clean-up are automatically replenished by evaporation of more mercury. The pressure in the tube is however strongly dependent on the mercury temperature, which has to be controlled carefully.

Large rectifiers use saturated mercury vapor with a small amount of an inert gas. The inert gas supports the discharge when the tube is cold.

The mercury arc valve current-voltage characteristics are highly dependent on the temperature of the liquid mercury. The voltage drop in forward bias decreases from about 60 volts at 0 °C to somewhat above 10 volts at 50 °C and then stays constant; the reverse bias breakdown ("arc-back") voltage drops dramatically with temperature, from 36 kV at 60 °C to 12 kV at 80 °C to even less at higher temperatures. The operating range is therefore usually between 18–65 °C.

Gas purity
The gas in the tube has to be kept pure to maintain the desired properties; even small amount of impurities can dramatically change the tube values; presence of non-inert gases generally increases the breakdown and burning voltages. The presence of impurities can be observed by changes in the glow color of the gas. Air leaking into the tube introduces oxygen, which is highly electronegative and inhibits the production of electron avalanches. This makes the discharge look pale, milky, or reddish. Traces of mercury vapors glow bluish, obscuring the original gas color. Magnesium vapor colors the discharge green. To prevent outgassing of the tube components during operation, a bake-out is required before filling with gas and sealing. Thorough degassing is required for high-quality tubes; even as little as 10−8 torr (≈1 μPa) of oxygen is sufficient for covering the electrodes with monomolecular oxide layer in few hours. Non-inert gases can be removed by suitable getters. For mercury-containing tubes, getters that do not form amalgams with mercury (e.g. zirconium, but not barium) have to be used. Cathode sputtering may be used intentionally for gettering non-inert gases; some reference tubes use molybdenum cathodes for this purpose.

Pure inert gases are used where the difference between the ignition voltage and the burning voltage has to be high, e.g. in switching tubes. Tubes for indication and stabilization, where the difference has to be lower, tend to be filled with Penning mixtures; the lower difference between ignition and burning voltages allows using lower power supply voltages and smaller series resistances.

Lighting and display gas-filled tubes
Fluorescent lighting, CFL lamps, mercury and sodium discharge lamps and HID lamps are all gas-filled tubes used for lighting.

Neon lamps and neon signage (most of which is not neon based these days) are also low-pressure gas-filled tubes.

Specialized historic low-pressure gas-filled tube devices include the Nixie tube (used to display numerals) and the Decatron (used to count or divide pulses, with display as a secondary function).

Xenon flash lamps are gas-filled tubes used in cameras and strobe lights to produce bright flashes of light.

The recently developed sulfur lamps are also gas-filled tubes when hot.

Gas-filled tubes in electronics
Since the ignition voltage depends on the ion concentration which may drop to zero after a long period of inactivity, many tubes are primed for ion availability:
 optically, by ambient light or by a 2-watt incandescent lamp, or by a glow discharge in the same envelope,
 radioactively, by adding tritium to the gas, or by coating the envelope inside,
 electrically, with a keep-alive or primer electrode

Power devices
Some important examples include the thyratron, krytron, and ignitron tubes, which are used to switch high-voltage currents. A specialized type of gas-filled tube called a Gas Discharge Tube (GDT) is fabricated for use as surge protectors, to limit voltage surges in electrical and electronic circuits.

Computing tubes
The Schmitt trigger effect of the negative differential resistance-region can be exploited to realize timers, relaxation oscillators and digital circuits with neon lamps, trigger tubes, relay tubes, dekatrons and nixie tubes.

Thyratrons can also be used as triodes by operating them below their ignition voltage, allowing them to amplify analog signals as a self-quenching superregenerative detector in radio control receivers.

Indicators
There were special neon lamps besides nixie tubes:
Tuneon early tuning indicator, a glass tube with a short wire anode and a long wire cathode that glows partially; the glow length is proportional to the tube current
Phosphored neon lamp
Luminescent trigger tube, used as latching indicators, or pixels of dot-matrix displays
Direct-glow trigger tube
Phosphored trigger tube

Noise diodes
Hot-cathode, gas-discharge noise diodes were available in normal radio tube glass envelopes for frequencies up to UHF, and as long, thin glass tubes with a normal bayonet light bulb mount for the filament and an anode top cap, for SHF frequencies and diagonal insertion into a waveguide.

They were filled with a pure inert gas such as neon because mixtures made the output temperature-dependent. Their burning voltage was under 200 V, but they needed optical priming by an incandescent 2-watt lamp and a voltage surge in the 5-kV range for ignition.

One miniature thyratron found an additional use as a noise source, when operated as a diode in a transverse magnetic field.

Voltage-regulator tubes
In the mid-20th century, voltage-regulator tubes were commonly used.

Elapsed-time measurement
Cathode sputtering is taken advantage of in the Time Totalizer, a metal-vapor coulometer-based elapsed time meter where the sputtered metal is deposited on a collector element whose resistance therefore decreases slowly.

List of -tron tubes

Mercury pool tubes
Excitron, a mercury pool tube
Gusetron or gausitron, a mercury arc pool tube
Ignitron, a mercury pool tube
Sendytron, a mercury pool tube
Trignitron, a trade name for a mercury pool tube used in electric welders
Capacitron, a mercury pool tube
Corotron, a trade name for a gas-filled shunt regulator, usually contains small quantities of radioactive materials to set the regulated voltage
Crossatron, a modulator tube
Kathetron or cathetron, a hot cathode gas-filled triode with grid outside of the tube
Neotron, a pulse generator
Permatron, a hot cathode rectifier with anode current controlled by magnetic field
Phanotron, a rectifier
Plomatron, a grid-controlled mercury-arc rectifier
Strobotron, a cold cathode tube designed for high current narrow pulses, used in high-speed photography
Takktron, a cold cathode rectifier for low currents at high voltages
Thyratron, a hot cathode switching tube
Trigatron, a high-current switch similar to a spark gap
Alphatron, a form of ionization tube for measuring vacuum
Dekatron, a counting tube (see also nixie tube and neon light)
Plasmatron, a hot cathode tube with controlled anode current
Tacitron, a low-noise thyratron with interruptible current flow
Krytron, a fast cold-cathode switching tube

See also
List of plasma physics articles

References

External links

Pulse Power Switching Devices – An Overview (both vacuum and gas-filled switching tubes)
Measurement of Radiation, Gas-Filled Detector
Gas discharge tubes

Electrical components
Glass applications

cs:Výbojka
hi:गैस नली
lv:Gazotrons

Gas-filled tube


O faisão-verde (Phasianus versicolor), também conhecido como faisão-verde-japonês ou faisão-versicolor é um ave do gênero Phasianus, pertencente à família Phasianidae. É uma ave nativa e endêmica do arquipélago do Japão. Algumas autoridades taxonômicas chegam a considerar ele como uma subespécie do Faisão-de-colar (Phasianus colchicus). Ele é a ave nacional do Japão.

Taxonomia e Sistemática
Alguns trabalhos dizem que o Faisão-verde é apenas uma subespécie do Faisão-de-colar, outros dizem que são espécies diferentes apesar de uma forte ligação. Foram descritas até nove subespécies do versicolor, porem apenas três são reconhecidas:

 P. v. versicolor - chamada de "Faisão-verde-do-sul" ou apenas Kiji.
 P. v. tamensis - chamado de "Faisão-verde-do-pacífico".
 P. v. robustipes - chamado de "Faisão-verde-do-norte".

Há também casos de hibridismo entre o Faisão-versicolor e o Faisão-de-colar com quem divide o gênero Phasianus e até faisão de outro gênero, o Faisão-de-Copper(Syrmaticus soemmerringii) do gênero Syrmaticus.

Descrição
O Faisão-versicolor é menor que o seu parente mais próximo, o Faisão-de-colar. O macho atinge entre 75 e 89 cm, sendo que sua cauda corresponde à cerca de 27 a 42,5 cm desse tamanho. Seu peso pode chegar a entre 900g e 1,1kg. A fêmea, por sua vez, é menor, chegando ter de 53 a 62 cm, com sua cauda, mais curta, podendo corresponder a de 21 a 28 cm. O peso dela é de 800 g a 900 g.

Nos machos a área ao redor dos olhos é nua e vermelha, possuindo algumas penas abaixo dos olhos que são de cor azul brilhante. O bico é branco amarelado e seus olhos possuem íris de cor amarelo acastanhado a âmbar. Assim como outros fasianídeos, os machos possuem um esporão em cada perna.

Plumagem
Os machos da subespécie P. v. versicolor costumam apresentar plumagem geral verde-escura, apresentando um capuz azul-arroxeado com penacho de orelha um tanto mais claros, sua barbela é de um vermelho vivo e sua cauda é longa de cor cinza-pálido. As fêmeas são menores, com a cauda mais curta tem plumagem de cor preto-acastanhada, com penas marrom-escuras manchadas com marrom-pálido. Já os machos da subespécie P. v. tamensis tem plumagem mais clara que o primeiro, com maior presença de roxo e azul. A terceira subespécie P. v. robustipes tem a plumagem mais clara com sua coroa e manto sendo mais para o bronze. As fêmeas das três subespécies costumam ser mais similares, embora, assim como os machos, as fêmeas de P. v. versicolor tenham uma coloração mais escura e as de P. v. robustipes tenham a mais clara.

Comportamento

Dieta
Quando em vida selvagem, estes costumam se alimentar de pequenos animais como minhocas e insetos, e também grãos e plantas. Em cativeiro são alimentados com sementes, plantas e pequenos animais vivos.

Reprodução

Sua época de reprodução começa entre Março e Abril e termina em Junho. Eles costumam iniciar sua vida reprodutiva quando estão por volta de um ano de idade. Uma ninhada pode ter entre 6 e 15 ovos que são incubados por um período de 23 a 25 dias. A espécie parece ter uma tendência mais monogâmica que polígama.

Na Cultura
No Japão, muitas pessoas costumam dizer que o Faisão-versicolor se assusta com terremotos e "gritam". Por lá eles são considerados a ave-nacional.

Habitat e distribuição
Ele é encontrado em toda a ilha de Honshu, Shikoku e Kyushu, além de algumas ilhas menores. Foi introduzido no Hawaii   e, ao contrário do Faisão-coleira, foi introduzido sem sucesso na América do Norte como ave de caça. É uma espécie comum e difundida em toda a sua área nativa, sendo que frequentemente visita fazendas e lugares de ocupação humana. As populações introduzidas no Havaí são estáveis.  As populações no oeste europeu ocasionalmente se reproduziram com Faisão-de-colar por um longo período e não mais existem Faisões-verdes ali há algum tempo. Ele também foi cruzado com faisões-coleira em fazendas na América do Norte.

Nas áreas onde são nativos, os faisões-versicolor tem populações maiores que as de faisão-coleira que foram introduzidas. Apesar da estreita familiaridade entre as duas espécies, elas possuem exigências ecológicas distintas, sendo que o faisão-coleira tem menor capacidade de adaptação nas áreas nativas do faisão-versicolor.

Ele habita florestas e bordas de florestas, arbustos, pastagens e parques, geralmente em planícies e colinas de até 1200m de altitude. De acordo com a IUCN seu estado de conservação encontra-se em baixo risco.

Galeria

Ligações externas

 gbwf.org - Faisão-versicolor (Phasianus versicolor)

Literatura
 MADGE, Steve; MCGOWAN, Philip.  Helm Identification Guides: Pheasants, Partridges & Grouse. Londres: Christopher Helm, 2002.
 RAETHEL, Heinz-Sigurd. Hühnervögel der Welt. Melsungen: Verlag J. Neumann-Neudamm GmbH & Co. KG, 1988.
 GLUTZ VON BLOTZHEIM, Urs N; BAUER, Kurt M. Galliformes–Gruiformes: Handbuch der Vögel Mitteleuropas. Volume 5. Wiesbaden: Aula-Verlag, 1994.

Phasianidae
Aves descritas em 1825

Faisão-versicolor


Gabriel Narutowicz (okunuşu: Gabriel Narutoviç), (d. 17 Mart 1865 - ö. 16 Aralık 1922), Polonyalı siyasetçi.

1918'de Polonya yeniden bağımsızlığını kazanınca Devlet İşleri Bakanlığı (1920-1921) ve 1922 yılında ise Dışişleri Bakanlığı yaptı. Bakanlığı sırasında Cumhurbaşkanlığına aday oldu. 11 Aralık 1922 tarihinde Polonya Cumhuriyeti'nin ilk Cumhurbaşkanı seçildi. Seçilmesinden 5 gün sonra ani bir şekilde öldü.

Kaynakça

1865 doğumlular
1922 yılında ölenler
Polonya cumhurbaşkanları
Polonyalı soylular
Polonyalı inşaat mühendisleri
1920'lerde suçlar
Suikast sonucu ölen devlet başkanları
Polonya'da cinayet sonucu ölenler
Ateistler

Gabriel Narutowicz


Ajmera (Urdu, Pashto: اجميره) es una ciudad, y uno de los veinte consejos sindicales en Battagram, distrito en la provincia de Jaiber Pajtunjuá de Pakistán.

Se compone de muchos pequeños pueblos. Estos incluyen Chappargram, Medan Baja, Noshehra, Tamai, Palango y Ajmera sí mismo. Está situado en 34°73°40'20N 1'10E y tiene una altura de 1068 metros (3507 pies).

Referencias

Battagram

Ajmera


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Ilsvikbanen war eine norwegische Eisenbahnstrecke, die von der Dovrebane abzweigte und in das Industriegebiet von Fagervika führte. Die Strecke wurde unter anderem für den Transport von Pyrit und Zink aus der Killingdal-Grube in Holtålen über die Rørosbanen zur Erzaufbereitungsanlage und zur Versandanlage in Fagervika von 1953 bis Schließung der Grube im Jahr 1986 benutzt. Darüber hinaus wurden über die Strecke die Pier in Ila und verschiedene Unternehmen in Ilsvika und Fagervika bedient.

Geschichte
Die Strecke war zweiteilig:

Die Ilasporet von Trondheim zweigte vor dem Bahnhof Skansen nach Fagervika ab. Sie war etwa 2,3 Kilometer lang und wurde 1884 erbaut. Die Strecke verlief entlang des Industriegebiets von Nedre Ila und an den Trondheimer Getreidesilos und dem Ila Pier vorbei. Dort traf die Strecke auf die von Marienborg kommende Steinbergsporet. Die beiden Strecken trafen sich östlich des Reserve-Kraftwerkes in Ilsvika, von wo aus sie zusammen bis Fagervika führten.

Die Steinbergsporet von Marienborg nach Fagervika war etwa 1,2 Kilometer lang und wurde während des Zweiten Weltkrieges angelegt. Die Strecke führte durch das Steinberget-Tunnel (612 Meter) und das Møllehaugen-Tunnel  (90 Meter), bevor sie auf die Ilasporet in Höhe des Reserve-Kraftwerkes in Ilsvika traf. Beide Streckenabschnitte wurden im Herbst 1995 geschlossen und komplett abgebaut. Auf dem Planum wurde zwischen 2004 und 2010 die Nördliche Entlastungsstraße von Trondheim errichtet.

Die um die ehemalige Strecke liegenden Gebiete wurden aufgrund der starken Verschmutzung mit Schwermetall im April / Mai 2010 mit Blick auf neue Naherholungsgebiete von der Stadt Trondheim gereinigt. Es existieren noch etwa 100 Meter Gleis im Tanklager in Fagervika, die frühere Bahntrasse von Ilsvika nach Fagervika ist heute ein Fuß- und Radweg.

Bilder

Literatur
Banedata 2004, Bjerke, Thor og Holom, Norsk Jernbanemuseum & Norsk Jernbaneklubb, Oslo / Hamar, ISBN 82-90286-28-7

Weblinks
 NRK.no – Slik blir nye Fagervika (norw.)

Bahnstrecke in Trøndelag
Verkehr (Trondheim)

Ilsvikbanen


Horace Parnell Tuttle (17. ožujka 1837. – 16. kolovoza 1923), američki astronom, veteran Američkog građanskog rata i brat astronoma Charlesa Wesleya Tuttlea (1. studenoga 1829. – 17. srpnja 1881.).

Izvori

Američki astronomi
Otkrivači kometa

Horace Parnell Tuttle


Marcus Jamal Hopson (født 18. juli 1985), bedre kendt som Hopsin, er en amerikansk rapper, producer og skuespiller fra Panorama City, Los Angeles, Californien.

Tidlige liv
Marcus Hopson blev født den 18. juli 1985 og opvoksede i Panorama Citys kvarter i Los Angeles. Han gik på James Monroe High School, hvor han blev placeret i special klasse. Hopsin har været en ivrig skateboarder siden en alder af tolv, som mange af hans musikvideoer har ham skateboarding.

Filmografi

Film

TV

Computerspil

Noter

Eksterne henvisninger

Rappere fra USA
Skuespillere fra USA
Musikproducere fra USA

Hopsin


An Traunsteinera globosa in uska species han Liliopsida nga syahan ginhulagway ni Carl von Linné, ngan ginhatag han pagkayana nga asya nga ngaran ni Heinrich Gottlieb Ludwig Reichenbach. An Traunsteinera globosa in nahilalakip ha genus nga Traunsteinera, ngan familia nga Orchidaceae. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Mga sumpay ha gawas

Traunsteinera

Traunsteinera globosa


Wapisiwisibiwininiwak (Waabiziiwiziibiwininiwag) /Swan Creek band,  "men of the swan river." ; u značenju "swan creek men", od wapisi, labud, sibi, rijeka i ininiwak, ljudi/, jedna od skupina Chippewa Indijanaca kojea je nekada živjela na Swan creeku, blizu jezera St. Clair u Michiganu.

Najveći dio svoje zemlje prodali su 1836. pa ih se dio preselio u Kansas gdje je utemeljen rezerrvat nešto zapadnije od Ottawe u okrugu Franklin, gdje su im se ostali priključili 1864. Zajedno s njima možda je bilo i pripadnika skupine Mekadewagamitigweyawininiwak. Na rezervatu su se ujedinili s Munseejima. Negdje do 1901 godine, prodali su svu svoju zemlju u Kansasu i otišli na Indijanski teritorij (Oklahoma).

Izvori

Literatura
Herring, Joseph B. "The Chippewa and Munsee Indians: Acculturation and Survival in Kansas, 1850s-1870." Kansas History 6 (Winter 1983/84): 212-220.
Chippewa

Wapisiwisibiwininiwak


Giuseppe Sciacca (Catania, 23 de fevereiro de 1955), é um  bispo católico italiano, atual presidente do Departamento do Trabalho da Sé Apostólica.

Presbitério

Em 7 de outubro de 1978 foi ordenado sacerdote e incardinado na diocese de Acireale. Estudou na Pontifícia Universidade Lateranense e no Angelicum. Depois de trabalhar na sua diocese, começou a trabalhar no Vaticano, desde 1999 como auditor da Rota Romana.

Episcopado

Em 3 de setembro de 2011, foi nomeado por Bento XVI secretário-geral do Governatorato do Estado da Cidade do Vaticano e bispo titular da diocese de Victoriana. Foi ordenado bispo em 8 de outubro de 2011 pelo Secretário de Estado, Tarcisio Bertone. Em 10 de novembro de 2012, o Papa mudou seu assento titular para Fundi.

Em 13 de fevereiro de 2013, foi nomeado auditor geral da Câmara Apostólica.

Em 24 de agosto de 2013 foi nomeado secretário auxiliar da Assinatura Apostólica, e em 16 de julho de 2016 foi nomeado seu secretário geral [4]. Entrou no cargo de secretário em 1 de setembro de 2016.

Em 26 de janeiro de 2022, foi nomeado presidente do Gabinete do Trabalho da Santa Sé.

Ver também

Bispos católicos da Itália

Giuseppe Sciacca


Juan Garrido (1480-1550) était un conquérant noir du XVI siècle. Né en Afrique, il est allé au Portugal, où il a adopté son nom. Pendant trente ans, il fut soldat espagnol.

Biographie
Garrido s'est converti au christianisme à Lisbonne, a traversé l'Atlantique comme homme libre en 1510 et a combattu au cours des diverses campagnes militaires espagnoles dans les Caraïbes. Il a notamment participé à la conquête de Cuba par Diego Velázquez et aux expéditions de Juan Ponce de León en Floride, Porto Rico, Guadeloupe et Dominique.

Plus tard, il s'est embarqué avec Hernán Cortés et a fait partie de son expédition. Peut-être faisait-il partie du cortège du conquérant Pedro Garrido, puisqu'il était courant que les Espagnols donnent leur nom à leur clientèle noire (esclave ou non, Juan Garrido n'ayant jamais été esclave). Il est possible qu'il ait appartenu au groupe de Juan Núñez Sedaño, de qui Bernal Díaz del Castillo mentionne qu'il avait à un noir dans ses soldats.

Après la conquête de l'Empire aztèque, Garrido devient fermier et aurait été le premier à cultiver du blé au Nouveau Monde, si l'on en croit Andrés de Tapia. Il se consacre à l'agriculture après avoir participé à l'expédition envoyée par Cortés au Michoacán, tout en participant au conseil municipal de la ville de Mexico, de 1524 à 1526. Par la suite, Garrido devint propriétaire d'esclaves noirs et participa à l'exploitation aurifère à Zacatula, probablement sans trop de succès.

Il participa également à l'expédition de Cortés en Californie en 1530. Le voyage fut un échec et Garrido revint à Mexico, où il se décrit lui-même, dans un rapport envoyé au roi, comme vivant pauvrement. Il meurt vingt ans plus tard, après s'être marié et avoir eu trois enfants.

Il n'est pas le seul « encomendero » noir ou « morisco », à l'instar de Benito el Negro ou Juan de Villanueva, qui possédaient des propriétés à Pánuco.

Références

Voir aussi

Bibliographie
 .
 .
 .

Liens externes
 .
 .
 .

Naissance en 1480
Décès en 1550
Explorateur de l'Amérique du Nord

Juan Garrido


An Asphodelus in uska genus han Liliopsida. An Asphodelus in nahilalakip ha familia nga Xanthorrhoeaceae.

An kladograma hini sumala ha Catalogue of Life:

Mga kasarigan

Mga sumpay ha gawas

Asphodelus

Asphodelus