ආර්සිනෝයි IV (ග්‍රීක: Ἀρσινόη, ක්‍රි.පූ. 65 සහ 58 අතර – ක්‍රි.පූ. 41 දක්වා) යනුවෙන් හැඳින්වෙන්නේ ටොලමි XII ඕලීට්ස් රජුගේත් එම රැජිනියගේත් ලාබාලතම දියණියයි. ඇය ක්‍රි.පූ. 48-47 අතර කාලයේ ඊජිප්තුවේ සම-අනුරාජයා වශයෙන් කටයුතු කළා ය. ඇය පුරාතන ඊජිප්තුවේ ටොලමියානු රාජවංශයේ අවසන් සාමාජිකයන් අතුරින් අයෙකු යැයි සැලකේ. IVවන ආර්සිනෝයි යනු VIIවන ක්ලියෝපැට්රාගේ අර්ධ සොහොයුරියයි. එසේම XIIIවන ටොලමිගේ ද සොහොයුරියකි.

ඉතිහාසය
ක්‍රි.පූ. 51දී XIIවන ටොලමි මියයන විට, ඔහු විසින් සිය දරුවන් වූ ටොලමි සහ ක්ලියෝපැට්රා ඊජිප්තුවේ හවුල් පාලකයින් ලෙස පත්කොට තිබිණි. නමුත් මඳ කලෙකින්ම සොහොයුරා විසින් ක්ලියෝපැට්රාව සිහසුනෙන් නෙරපා ඇලෙක්සැන්ඩ්‍රියාවෙන් පලායාමට බලකළේ ය. ක්‍රි.පූ. 48දී ජුලියස් සීසර් ඇලෙක්සැන්ඩ්‍රියාවට පැමිණ ක්ලියෝපැට්රාගේ පාර්ශ්වයට සහාය දැක්වීමත් සමග, ආර්සිනෝයි සිය උපදේශකයා වූ පණ්ඩක ගැනිමීඩිස් සමග අගනුවරින් පලාගියා ය. ඇය ඇකිලාස් යටතේ ඇලෙක්සැන්ඩ්‍රියාව වැටලූ ඊජිප්තු හමුදාව සමග එක්වූවා ය. අනතුරුව ඇකිලාස් විසින් පාරාවෝ යන පදවිය ආරූඪ කරගන්නා ලදී. ඇකිලාස් සහ ගැනිමීඩිස් අතර ගැටුම් ඇතිවූ අවස්ථාවේ, ආර්සිනෝයි විසින් ඇකිලාස්ට දඬුවම් පමුණුවා ගැනිමීඩිස්ව හමුදාවේ ප්‍රධානියා ලෙස පත්කරන ලදී. ආරම්භයේ දී ගැනිමීඩිස් රෝමවරුන්ට එරෙහිව යම් සාර්ථකත්වයක් අත්කරගත්ත ද, ප්‍රධාන ඊජිප්තු නිලධාරීන් ඔහුට එතරම් ප්‍රිය කළේ නැත. සාමය ඇතිකරගැනීමේ ව්‍යාජ රැවටිල්ලක් මත ඔවුහු XIIIවන ටොලමි සමග ආර්සිනෝයිව හවුමාරු කරගන්නට සීසර් සමග කතිකා කරගත්හ. පසුව ටොලමි නිදහස් කෙරිණි. කෙසේනමුත් රෝමවරුන් විසින් ඊජිප්තුවරුන්ට එරෙහිව තීරණාත්මක ජයක් ලබාගන්නා තෙක්ම ටොලමි යුද්ධය ගෙනගියේ ය.

ප්‍රාණඇපකරුවකු වශයෙන් ආර්සිනෝයිව රෝමය වෙත ගෙනගිය අතර, ක්‍රි.පූ. 46දී ඇයට සීසර්ගේ විජයග්‍රහණයේ සංකේතයක් ලෙස පෙනීසිටීමට බලකෙරිණි. විජයග්‍රාහී උත්සව අවසානයේ ප්‍රමුඛ සිරකරුවන්ගේ ගෙල සිරකොට මරණයට පත්කිරීම එකල සම්ප්‍රදාය වුවත්, සීසර්ගේ බලපෑම මත ආර්සිනෝයි මුදාහැර ඇයට එෆීසස්හි ආර්ටෙමිස් දෙවොලේ දේවස්ථානයක් ප්‍රදානය කෙරිණි. වසර කිහිපයක් එහි වාසය කළ ආර්සිනෝයි සිය සොහොයුරිය වූ ක්ලියෝපැට්රා කෙරෙහි විමසිල්ලෙන් පසුවූවා ය. ක්ලියෝපැට්රා විසින් ආර්සිනෝයි සිය බලයට තර්ජනයක් ලෙස සැලකීම එයට හේතුවයි. ක්‍රි.පූ. 41දී ක්ලියෝපැට්රාගේ පෙළඹවීම මත මාක් ඇන්ටනි විසින් ආර්සිනෝයිහට දෙවොලේ පියගැට මත දී මරණ දඬුවම ලබාදෙන ලෙස නියෝග කරන ලදී. මෙම සැහැසි ක්‍රියාව රෝමය තැත්ගැන්වී ය. දෙවොලට පැමිණි ආර්සිනෝයිව රැජිනක ලෙස පිළිගත් පණ්ඩක පූජකවරයා (මෙගාබයිසස්) හට පමණක් ක්ලියෝපැට්රා වෙත යැවුණු එෆීසස් තානාපති පෙත්සමක් මගින් සමාව හිමිවිණි.

එෆීසස්හි ඇගේ සොහොන්ගැබ

1990 දශකයේ එෆීසස් මධ්‍යයේ පිහිටි අෂ්ටාස්‍රාකාර ස්මාරකයක් ආර්සිනෝයිගේ සොහොන්ගැබ විය හැකි බවට ඔස්ට්‍රියානු විද්‍යා ඇකඩමියේ හිල්ක් තූර් විසින් යෝජනා කරන ලදී. මෙම සොහොන්ගැබේ කිසිදු ශිලාලේඛනයක් නොපැවතිණි. එය ක්‍රි.පූ. 50 සහ 20 අතර කාලයට කාලනිර්ණය කළ හැකි විය. 1926දී එහි භූමදාන කුටීරයේ තිබී වයස අවුරුදු 15–20 පමණ යැයි සිතිය හැකි කාන්තා ඇටසැකිල්ලක් හමු විය. තූර් විසින් මෙම ඇටසැකිල්ල හඳුනා ගැනීම පිණිස භාවිතා කළ නිර්ණායක වූයේ සොහොන්ගැබේ හැඩය (ඇලේසැන්ඩ්‍රියානු ප්‍රදීපාගාරය මෙන් අෂ්ටාස්‍රාකාර), අස්ථිවල කාබන් කාලනිර්ණය (ක්‍රි.පූ. 200- 20 අතර), සැකිල්ලේ ලිංගය, සහ කාන්තාව මියයන විට ඇගේ වයස වැනි සාධකයි. එම සොහොන්ගැබෙහි "පැපිරස්-කළඹ" කුළුණු වැනි ඊජිප්තු මෝස්තර පැවති බව ද සඳහන් වේ.

සෙස්සන් මෙම අනන්‍යතාව පිළිබඳදරන්නේ අවිනිශ්චිත මතයකි. උදාහරණයක් ලෙස ඇලෙක්සැන්ඩ්‍රියාවට සීසර් පැමිණි සමයේ ඇගේ වයස අවුරුදු 8ත් 14ත් අතර යැයි සැලකීමෙන් ඇය රෝමය එරෙහිව නැගී සිටීමට තරම් ලාබාල වැඩි බව පෙනී යයි. ඉන් පසුව ඇති වූ කෙටිකාලීන යුධ සමයේ ඇගේ ක්‍රියාමාර්ග හේතුවෙන් ඇය ඊට වඩා වැඩිමහල් විය හැකි බව යෝජනා වී ඇත. ඇය සිතුවාට වඩා වැඩිමහල් ය යන මුල්කාලීන අදහස අනුව ඇගේ උපන්දිනය ක්‍රි.පූ. 68 සහ 62 අතර කාලයට අයත් යැයි සිතිය හැක. එවිට අෂ්ටාස්‍රාකාර සොහොන්ගැබෙහි භූමදානය කළ ස්ත්‍රිය ඇය විය නොහැකි යැයි යෝජනා වී ඇත. ආර්සිනෝයිගේ උපත සිදුවූ වර්ෂය නොදන්නා හෙයින්, කෙසේනමුත්, ඇය පෙර යෝජනා කළාට වඩා ලාබාල බව සැලකීමේ දී, ඇය යුද්ධයේ දී සක්‍රීයව දායක වූවකු නොව, ඇයව කිසිවකු විසින් මෙහෙයවන ලද බව සිතිය හැක. ද ටයිම්ස්හි කතුවරයෙක් මෙම ඇටසැකිල්ල පිළිබඳ විස්තර කරන්නේ "නිශ්චිතභාවයට වඩා අනුමාන විජයග්‍රහණයක්" ලෙසයි.

IIවන ලෝක යුධ සමයේ ජර්මනියේ දී මෙහි හිස්කබල අතුරුදන් විය. කෙසේනමුත්, වර්තමානයේ දක්නට නොමැති හිස්කබලේ පැරණි වාර්තා සහ ඡායාරූප අධ්‍යයනය කළ හිල්ක් තූර් නිගමනය කළේ එහි අප්‍රිකානු සහ ඊජිප්තු පෙළපත සමග සම්භාව්‍ය ග්‍රීක ලක්ෂණ සම්මිශ්‍රණයක් දක්නට ලැබෙන බවයි. නමුත් බොවස්, ග්‍රේව්ලී, බර්නාඩ් සහ ලෙනාඩ් ඇතුළු සෙස්සන් විසින් හිස්කබලේ මිනුම් අධ්‍යයනය ජාතිය හඳුනාගැනීමේ විශ්වසනීය දර්ශකයක් නොවන බව පවසා ඇත.

මෙම ස්මාරකය සැබැවින්ම ආර්සිනෝයිගේ සොහොන්ගැබ නම්, මෘතශරීරය අනාවරණය කරගත් එකම ටොලමියානු රාජවංශ සාමාජිකයා ඇය වනු ඇත. ඇටසැකිල්ලේ සම්භවය සහ සොහොන්ගැබ පිළිබඳ වෝහාරික විද්‍යා/පුරාවිද්‍යාත්මක විශ්ලේෂණ තවදුරටත් සිදුවෙමින් පවතියි.

මූලාශ්‍ර සහ ප්‍රභව
මූලාශ්‍ර

ප්‍රභව
බ්‍රිටනිකා විශ්වකෝෂය, 2003 සංස්කරණය

බාහිර සබැඳි

 www.livius.org: ආර්සිනෝයි IV
 ක්‍රිස්ටෝෆර් බෙනට් විසින් සිදුකළ චරිතාපදානය: ආර්සිනෝයි IV
 පොක්ලී. එස්: 2012 නොවැම්බර් මස IVවන ආර්සිනෝයිගේ උඩුකය රුවක් පිටපත් කරන අයුරු පිළිබඳ වීඩියෝව ආර්සිනෝයි IV

පෙළපත
ඊජිප්තුවේ IVවන ආර්සිනෝයිගේ පූර්වජයන්

ක්‍රි.පූ. 1වන සියවසේ උපත්
ක්‍රි.පූ. 41 මරණ
ක්ලියෝපැට්රා
ඊජිප්තු රාජ්‍ය කරන රැජිනියන්
ටොලමියානු රාජවංශයේ පාරාවෝවරුන්
ටොලමියානු කුමරියන්
ක්‍රි.පූ. 1වන සියවසේ රාජ්‍ය පාලිකාවන්
ක්‍රි.පූ. 1වන සියවසේ ග්‍රීක ජනයා
ඊජිප්තුවේ ක්‍රි.පූ. 1වන සියවස

ඊජිප්තුවේ IVවන ආර්සිනෝයි


Glazba u 1981. godini.

Svijet

Izdanja
Objavljeni studijski, koncertni i kompilacijski albumi, singlovi, maksi singlovi, EP-ovi.
Za poznate glazbenike koje su tad objavili djelo, ali nisu ga objavili nosaču zvuka kod izdavačke kuće, nego u vlastitom izdanju, to ulazi ovdje. Isto vrijedi i za one glazbenike koji (ni)su djelovali u doba kad nije bilo nosača zvuka, nego su djelo objavili u pisanom obliku.

Koncertne turneje
Održane koncertne turneje.
 Ozzy Osbourne – Diary of a Madman Tour,  1981. – 1982.
  Simon and Garfunkel – Summer Evening Tour,  1981. – 1983.

Istaknuti koncerti
Povijesno važni koncerti, prvi povijesni koncert nekog glazbenog subjekta ili posljednji (oproštajni) koncert nekog glazbenog subjekta.

Europska natjecanja
Europska glazbena natjecanja.

 Pjesma Eurovizije:

Osnivanja
Osnivanja poznatih izdavačkih kuća, sastava, prvi glazbeni angažman, glazbenih emisija na radiju, televiziji, glazbenih časopisa ili portala, pokretanje glazbene manifestacije, izgradnja poznate koncertne dvorane ili otvaranje poznatog glazbenog kluba, pojava (nastanak ili dolakak) glazbenog pravca i sl.

Metallica

Gašenja i raspuštanja
Gašenja ili preuzimanja poznatih izdavačkih kuća, sastava, glazbenih emisija na radiju, televiziji, glazbenih časopisa ili portala, glazbene manifestacije, raspuštanja glazbenih subjekata i sl.

Rođenja
Rođenja poznatih glazbenika i osoba u svezi s glazbom.
 25. siječnja – Alicia Keys
 31. siječnja – Justin Timberlake
 17. veljače – Paris Hilton
 27. veljače – Josh Groban
 5. svibnja – Craig David
 12. rujna – Jennifer Hudson
 26. studenoga –  Natasha Bedingfield
 2. prosinca – Britney Spears
 13. prosinca – Amy Lee

Smrti
Smrti poznatih glazbenika i osoba u svezi s glazbom.

Ostalo
Uvođenje novih nosača zvuka, medijskog servisa i distribucijskog kanala i sl.

Hrvatska i u Hrvata

Kandidiranje za europska i svjetska natjecanja
Hrvatski kandidat za Pjesmu Eurovizije na Jugoviziji.

Festivali

Nagrade

Izdanja
Objavljeni studijski, koncertni i kompilacijski albumi, singlovi, maksi singlovi, EP-ovi.
Za poznate glazbenike koje su tad objavili djelo, ali nisu ga objavili nosaču zvuka kod izdavačke kuće, nego u vlastitom izdanju, to ulazi ovdje. Isto vrijedi i za one glazbenike koji (ni)su djelovali u doba kad nije bilo nosača zvuka, nego su djelo objavili u pisanom obliku.

Osnivanja
Osnivanja poznatih izdavačkih kuća, udruga, sastava, prvi glazbeni angažman, glazbenih emisija na radiju, televiziji, glazbenih časopisa ili portala, pokretanje glazbene manifestacije, izgradnja poznate koncertne dvorane ili otvaranje poznatog glazbenog kluba, pojava (nastanak ili dolakak) glazbenog pravca i sl.

Gašenja i raspuštanja
Gašenja ili preuzimanja poznatih izdavačkih kuća, sastava, glazbenih emisija na radiju, televiziji, glazbenih časopisa ili portala, glazbene manifestacije, raspuštanja glazbenih subjekata i sl.

Rođenja
Rođenja poznatih glazbenika i osoba u svezi s glazbom.

Smrti
Smrti poznatih glazbenika i osoba u svezi s glazbom.

Ostalo
Uvođenje novih nosača zvuka, medijskog servisa i distribucijskog kanala i sl.

Izvori

1981.
Godine 20. stoljeća

Glazba u 1981.


El archipiélago de Solor o islas Solor () es un grupo de islas de las Islas Menores de la Sonda, en Indonesia, al este de la isla de Flores y al oeste del estrecho de Alor y el archipiélago de Alor.  Administrativemente, pertenecen a la provincia de las Nusatenggara Oriental y son compartidas entre el kabupaten de Flores Oriental y el kabupaten de Lembata.

Al norte de las islas está la parte oeste del mar de Banda, mientras que al sur, atravesando el mar de Savu, se encuentra la isla de Timor.  Las islas más grandes son, de oeste a este, Solor, Adonara y Lembata (anteriormente conocida como Lomblen), aunque hay muchas islas pequeñas también.

Lembata

Lembata tiene una longitud de unos 80 km, en dirección SO-NE, y una anchura de unos 30 km, de E-O. Culmina a 1.533 m. Es la isla más grande del archipiélago.

Adonara

Adonara es una isla volcánica localizada al este de la isla de Flores. Su volcán, el Ili Boleng, se eleva hasta los 1.659 m y es el punto más alto del archipiélago.

La tradición local habla de la fundación de un estado hacia 1650. Las personalidades y notables de Adonara dicen descender d sobernaos o raja  de Adonara.

Solor

Solor, que ha dado su nombre al archipiélago, es una isla volcánica, que cuenta con cinco volcanes, de 40 km de largo y 6 km de ancho. Es parte del archipiélago del mismo nombre.

Su población ha practicada durante siglos la caza de ballenas. Los idiomas hablados son el adonara y el lamaholot, ambos de la familia de las lenguas austronesias.

En 1520, los portugueses establecieron en la costa este de la isla, en el pueblo de Lamakera, un puesto como una parada entre las Molucas y Malaca, ambos bajo su control. Después de un período de conflicto, la Compañía Neerlandesa de las Indias Orientales (VOC) se anexionó la isla en 1653.

Enlaces externos

Archipiélagos e islas de las islas menores de la Sonda

Archipiélago de Solor


Alles oder nichts ist der Titel von
 Alles oder nichts (Quizsendung), deutsche Fernsehshow
 Alles oder nichts (Seifenoper), eine deutsche Seifenoper
 All in – Alles oder nichts, US-amerikanische Filmkomödie
 Alles oder nichts (Film), tschechoslowakischer Jugendfilm

Siehe auch:
 Alles oder nix
 Alles-oder-nichts-Gesetz
 Alles-oder-nichts-Prinzip
 007: Alles oder Nichts

Alles oder nichts


පුබුදු චතුරංග (12 නොවැම්බර් 1982) යනු ශ්‍රී ලාංකික වේදිකා සහ චිත්‍රපට රංගන ශිල්පියෙකු වේ.

සිනමාගමනය

1982 උපත්
ජීවත්වන්නෝ

පුබුදු චතුරංග


An Eleocharis arseniflora in uska species han Liliopsida nga ginhulagway ni S.González, Tena ngan T.Alarcón. An Eleocharis arseniflora in nahilalakip ha genus nga Eleocharis, ngan familia nga Cyperaceae. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Eleocharis

Eleocharis arseniflora


بلدية المَحْرَث أو (نقحرة: الماراز) ، هي بلدية تقع في مقاطعة قصرش والتي تقع في منطقة إكستريمادورا، غرب إسبانيا.

يبلغ عدد سكانها 1.425 نسمة وفقاً لإحصائية سنة (2002).

مراجع

أماكن ذات اسم عربي الأصل في شبه الجزيرة الإيبيرية
أماكن مأهولة في قصرش
بلديات قصرش

الماراز


Baðmullarverksmiðja er hús þar sem  band er spunnið eða efni ofin úr baðmull. Á tímum Iðnbyltingarinnar voru baðmullarverksmiðjur mikilvægur þáttur í verksmiðjuþróun. Flestar slíkar verksmiðjur voru reistar á árunum  1775 til  1930.

Flestar af fyrstu baðmullarverksmiðjunum voru reistar í sveitum við straumharðar ár og voru vatnshjól notuð til að knýja vélar verksmiðjunnar. Gufuvél sem Boulton and Watt þróuðu leiddi til þess að eftir 1781 var farið að byggja stærri, gufuknúnar verksmiðjur sem voru staðsettar í iðnaðarborgum. Árið 1802 voru yfir 50 baðmullarverksmiðjur í Manchester og Salford.
Iðnbyltingin
Framleiðsla

Baðmullarverksmiðja


Igor Jovićević (født 30. november 1973) er en tidligere kroatisk fodboldspiller.

Eksterne henvisninger

Fodboldspillere fra Kroatien

Igor Jovićević


الواد الأخضر مدينة وبلدية تابعة إقليميا إلى دائرة اولاد ميمون ولاية تلمسان الجزائرية.

الجغرافيا

الموقع الجغرافي
تقع بلدية الواد الأخضر شرق مدينة تلمسان تحدها شرقا بلدية اولاد ميمون وبلدية عين يسر وجنوبا بلدية سبدو وغربا بلدية عين فزة ومن الشمال تحدها بلدية سيدي السنوسي

التضاريس
تمتاز بوعورة جبالها الشاهقة التي كانت مسرحا للثورة وملاذا امنا لهم ويمتد على طولها من الجنوب إلى الشمال واد يشطرها إلى شطرين سميت باسمه

أحياء وقرى البلدية
بني غزلي.يبدر الحلة. اولادسيدي الحاج. يبدر الدشرة. مزوغن. بني يعقوب. بني حماد.

التاريخ
تعتبر من المناطق الريفية التي مر بها الأمير عبد القادر وحط رحاله فيها وأثناء الثورة تحتضنت الثوار واقدمت القوافل من الشهداء إذ كانت منطقة عبور واجتماعات صانعي الثورة التحريرية ومن أشهر الذين مروا من هناك الراحل الرئيس الهواري بومدين والرئيس عبد العزيز بوتفليقة وغيرهم كثير كما لا ننسى بان جمعية العلماء المسلمين قد بنت في سنة 1943 مدرسة للتعليم بقرية اولاد سيدي الحاج صارت قبلة لطالبي العلم تخرج منها أشهر الفقهاء في الدين والعلم وصاروا من صانعي ثورة التحرير فيمابعد.

السكان
هجرها سكانها في العشرية السوداء واما اليوم فيتمركزون بصفة خاصة في مقر البلادية بيبدر الحلة وبيبدر الدشرة واما في بقية القرى فالسكان قليلون.

الاقتصاد
البلدية كلها أراضي فلاحية ورعوية اكثرها اشجار وحقول وتشتهر خاصة بشجر الكرز (حب الملوك) وهو مصدر شهرتها ومنبع ثروتها إلى جانب بعض الفواكه الأخرى والخضر المتنوعة.

المصادر

بلديات ولاية تلمسان

الواد الأخضر


المُرتدّة  المُتردِّدة هي آلة نفخ نحاسية الاسم ترومبون مصدره الإيطالية ويعني «بوق كبير».

كما هو الحال مع جميع الآلات النحاسية، يتم إنتاج الصوت عندما تتسبب شفاه اللاعب المهتزة (الزخرفة) في اهتزاز عمود الهواء داخل الجهاز. على عكس معظم الآلات النحاسية الأخرى، التي تحتوي على صمامات، عند الضغط عليها، تغير نغمة الآلة، فإن الترومبون بدلاً من ذلك لديها آلية انزلاق متداخلة تغير طول الجهاز لتغيير درجة الصوت. ومع ذلك، تحتوي العديد من نماذج الترومبون الحديثة أيضًا على مرفق صمام يقلل من حدة صوت الأداة. المتغيرات مثل الصمام الترومبون و superbone لها ثلاثة صمامات مماثلة لتلك الموجودة على البوق.

انظر أيضاً

 بوق

المراجع

آلات نفخ نحاسية
بيس (صوت)
قوالب آلات موسيقية

مترددة (آلة موسيقية)


Pan, amor y fantasía (Pane, amore e fantasia) es una película italiana del género de comedia romántica filmada en blanco y negro y dirigida por Luigi Comencini a partir de su propio guion, escrito en colaboración con Ettore Maria Margadonna. Los actores principales fueron Vittorio De Sica y Gina Lollobrigida.

La película se estrenó en Italia el 22 de diciembre de 1953.

Sinopsis

Antonio Carotenuto (Vittorio De Sica), un oficial de carabineros de mediana edad asignado a un remoto pueblo de montaña en Italia llamado Sagliena (en la realidad, Castel San Pietro Romano, en el Lazio), decide casarse y elige para ello a la joven Maria De Ritis (Gina Lollobrigida), pero ella ya está de novia con el carabinero Pietro Stelluti (Roberto Risso), su subordinado. Antonio, confundiendo el comportamiento liberal de Maria con promiscuidad, le hace proposiciones pero es rechazado, por lo cual dirige su propósito hacia una vecina de mediana edad, Annarella Mirziano (Marisa Merlini), quien parece corresponderle.

Valoración

Se suele considerar esta película como el ejemplo más logrado de neorrealismo rosa, y muchos críticos opinan que fue la mejor actuación de Gina Lollobrígida, y la más natural.

Reparto

 Vittorio De Sica	... 	El mariscal de carabineros Antonio Carotenuto
 Gina Lollobrigida	... 	Maria De Ritis, apodada 'La Bersagliera'
 Marisa Merlini	... 	Annarella Mirziano, la comadrona
 Virgilio Riento	... 	Don Emidio, el párroco
 Tina Pica	... 	Caramella, la empleada doméstica
 Maria Pia Casilio	... 	Paoletta, la sobrina del cura
 Roberto Risso	... 	El carabinero Pietro Stelluti
 Memmo Carotenuto	... El carabinero Sirio Baiocchi
 Vittoria Crispo	... 	Maria Antonia De Ritis, madre de la 'Bersagliera'
 Guglielmo Barnabò	... 	Don Concezio, el intendente
 Gigi Reder	... 	Ricuccio
 Fausto Guerzoni	... 	El hombre con el catalejo
 Nino Vingelli	... 	Don Vincenzino, el vendedor ambulante
 Attilio Torelli	... 	Rumbumbù, el traficante de productos alimenticios
 Checco Rissone	... 	El peluquero
 Alfredo Rizzo	... 	El brigadier Squinzi
 Giulio Battiferri	... 	El vice brigadier Bolognini
 Mario Meniconi	... 	Matteo
 Violetta Gragnani	... 	Giulia Squinzi
 Yvonne Sanson
 Ada Colangeli	 ... Una vecina intrigante
 Marcella Melnati	... 	La abuela de Riccucio
 Amalia Pellegrini	... 	La abuela de Matteo
 Nietta Zocchi	 ... Una vecina intrigante

Premios y candidaturas
Por esta película Luigi Comencini fue el ganador del Premio Oso de Plata a la mejor dirección en el Festival Internacional de Cine de Berlín de 1954 y Ettore Maria Margadonna fue candidato al Premio Óscar al mejor argumento el mismo año.
También en 1954 Gina Lollobrigida recibió el premio Nastro d'argento (Cinta de plata en español), concedido anualmente por el Sindacato Nazionale Giornalisti Cinematografici Italiani (SNGCI) (Sindicato Nacional Italiano de Periodistas de Cine) como mejor actriz protagonista.

En la British Academy of Film and Television Arts BAFTA el filme fue candidato en 1955 al premio a la mejor película y en 1954 fue candidato a la mejor película extranjera en el National Board of Review.

Comentarios

El filme tuvo varias secuelas, también con Vittorio De Sica:

 1954: Pan, amor y celos (Pane, amore e gelosia), con la misma Gina Lollobrigida y dirigida también por Luigi Comencini.
 1955: Pan, amor y... (Pane, amore e...), con Sophia Loren y dirigida por Dino Risi.
 1959: Pan, amor y... Andalucía, con Carmen Sevilla y dirigida por Javier Setó.

También se considera como otra secuela, sin Vittorio De Sica, Tuppe tuppe, Marescià! o È permesso Maresciallo?, de 1958, con Peppino De Filippo y Giovanna Ralli, y dirigida por Carlo Ludovico Bragaglia.

Notas

Enlaces externos

 Reclamo oficial:
 Copia en italiano, con subtítulos en francés.

 Presentación de la película y buena parte del coloquio sobre ella en el programa de La 2 (TVE) ¡Qué grande es el cine!, dirigido por José Luis Garci.
 Una copia:
 Presentación, sin sonido en uno de los altavoces: 1; 2.
 Buena parte del coloquio: 1; 2; 3; 4; 5.
 Otra copia: 1; 2; 3; 4; 5; 6.

 Sobre la película, con una secuencia; en italiano.

Películas en blanco y negro
Películas del neorrealismo italiano
Películas ambientadas en Italia
Cultura de Abruzos
Películas rodadas en Italia

Pan, amor y fantasía


José Manuel Alberto López, também conhecido como Flaco López (San Lorenzo, 6 de dezembro de 2000), é um futebolista argentino que atua como atacante pelo Palmeiras.

Carreira
Filho de uma dona de casa e um pescador, López começou sua carreira aos sete anos de idade no Club El Progreso de Saladas. Seis meses depois, foi observado por olheiros do Boca Juniors, mas não agradou aos xeneizes. Aos nove anos, López foi para o Independiente, onde chegou a treinar com o elenco principal comandado por Ariel Holan. Durante seu tempo no Independiente, López pensou em abandonar o futebol por conta de uma lesão na cintura que quase o impossibilitava de andar. Nessa época, recebeu o apelido de El Flaco (O Magro), devido ao seu físico esguio.

Foi dispensado em 2016, e estava praticamente acertado para vestir a camisa do Estudiantes, mas o atacante optou pelo Lanús, inicialmente atuando nas categorias de base. Sem chances na categoria principal, López foi emprestado pelo clube granate para o Colegiales de Tres Arroyos, equipe das Ligas Regionais Argentinas. Pelo Colegiales, López foi o artilheiro da equipe e o principal destaque na conquista do título da Liga Regional Tresarroyense.

Retornou ao Lanús para ser integrado ao elenco principal no final de 2020. Seu porte físico e habilidade no jogo aéreo foram elogiados pelo técnico do clube, Luis Zubeldía; segundo ele, Flaco López tem características ideais para jogar em grandes equipes do futebol alemão. Após ficar no banco de reservas contra Aldosivi e Defensa y Justicia. Lópéz fez sua estreia profissional em 3 de janeiro de 2021, atuando por 25 minutos contra o Patronato. Seis dias depois, em sua segunda partida, fez seu primeiro gol, na vitória por 2 a 0 sobre o Rosario Central.

López balançou as redes em 22 oportunidades em 57 jogos pelo Lanús. Considerado uma grande promessa do futebol argentino pela imprensa local, seu desempenho chamarou a atenção de Boca e River Plate, mas o seu destino foi o futebol brasileiro. Em 16 de junho de 2022, o Palmeiras comprou 70% dos direitos econômicos do atleta por um valor que supera a marca de US$ 10 milhões.

López estreou pelo Palmeiras em 21 de julho de 2022, contra o América-MG, em Belo Horizonte. O atacante argentino saiu do banco de reservas no início do segundo tempo e recebeu um cartão amarelo nos minutos finais da partida. Nove dias depois, marcou seu primeiro gol pelo Verdão, na vitória por 2 a 1 sobre o Ceará pelo Campeonato Brasileiro. Em abril de 2023, López marcou o quarto e último gol da vitória palmeirense por 4–0 sobre o  na partida de volta da final do Campeonato Paulista e ajudou a equipe a conquistar o 25º torneio estadual da sua história.

Estatísticas
Atualizado em 8 de outubro de 2023.

Títulos

 Palmeiras
 Campeonato Brasileiro: 2022
 Supercopa do Brasil: 2023
 Campeonato Paulista: 2023

Ligações externas

Futebolistas da Argentina
Futebolistas do Club Atlético Lanús
Futebolistas da Sociedade Esportiva Palmeiras
Argentinos expatriados no Brasil

José Manuel López (futebolista)


Anayasal iktisat teorisi devletin gücü ve yetkilerinin nasıl sınırlandırılabileceğini ve nasıl sınırlandırılması gerektiğini inceleyen bir disiplindir. James M. Buchanan ve Anthony Downs, anayasal iktisadı şu şekilde tanımlamaktadır:
Anayasal iktisat...ekonomik ve politik birimlerin tercihlerini ve faaliyetlerini sınırlayan alternatif yasal-kurumsal ve anayasal kurallar bütününün işleyiş özelliklerini açıklamaya çalışır.

Felsefi temelleri

Anayasal politik iktisat teorisinin felsefi temellerini sosyal sözleşme teorisi (ing: social contract theory) oluşturur. Sosyal sözleşme, toplumda birlikte yaşayan bireylerin, temel hak ve özgürlükleri ile toplumun içerisinde uyulması gerekli olan kuralları içeren informel kurallar üzerinde görüş birliğine varmalarını ifade eder. İyi bir toplumsal düzenin temelleri, sosyal sözleşme içerisinde oluşturulmuş kural ve kurumlara dayalıdır. Sosyal sözleşme anayasal demokrasinin normatif ilkelerini içerir.

Sosyal sözleşme anayasalardan başlıca şekil ve amaç yönünden ayrılır:
 Anayasalar, yazılı üst hukuk kurallarıdır. Buna karşın, sosyal sözleşme ilkelerinin yazılı olması gerekmez.
 Anayasalar iyi bir toplumsal düzenin politik ve ekonomik ilkelerini açıklar. Sosyal sözleşme, anayasalar gibi belirli kurumlar oluşturmaz. Kolektif kararların alınacağı çerçeveyi ve prosedürleri normlar olarak saptamaz. Bunun yerine sosyal sözleşme, temel insani değerleri ortaya koymaya çalışır.
 Anayasal politik iktisat, iyi bir toplum düzeni oluşturacak politik kuralların ve kurumların sosyal sözleşme teorisine dayalı olarak belirlenmesini savunur. Ancak, anayasal politik iktisat, toplumun hem hukuki hem de kuramsal yapısını yönlendirecek anayasaların, vatandaşların bilinçli gayretleri ile ideal şeklini alacağını kabul eder. Bu düşünce litaratürde sözleşmeci anayasacılık (ing: contractarian constitutionalism) olarak adlandırılır. Bu yönüyle sözleşmeci anayasacılık veya sözleşmeli anayasal iktisat aynı zamanda yapıcı rasyonalizm (ing: constructive rationalism) ilkesine dayanır. Bu ilkenin karşıtı görüş ise sosyal düzeni belirleyen kural ve kurumların zaman içinde kendiliğinden, yani spontan olarak oluştuğunu iddia eden evrimci rasyonalizm (ing: evolutionary rationalism) dir. Spontan düzenler tarihi evrim süreci içerisinde kendiliğinden gelişmiş, soyut ve belli amaçlara yönelik olmayan kural ve kurumlardır. Örneğin; Fizyokratların "Doğal Düzen"i, Adam Smith'in "Görünmez El"i spontan sosyal düzeni açıklamaktadır.  Günümüzde yapıcı rasyonalizmin, yani sosyal düzeni oluşturan kural ve kurumların kendiliğinden değil, sözleşmeci bir perspektifle anayasal düzeyde belirlenmesini savunanların başında Buchanan gelmektedir. Buchanan'a göre yapıcı rasyonalizm, sözleşmeci anayasacılığın temelini teşkil eder.

Teorik temelleri

Kamu tercihi teorisi, esasen anayasal iktisat teorisinin alt yapısını oluşturmaktadır. Kamu tercihi teorisinin gelişimi II. Dünya Savaşı'nı takip eden 1940'lı ve 1950'li yıllara rastlarken, anayasal iktisadın bir disiplin olarak doğuşu ve önem kazanması 1970'li yılların sonlarına rastlamaktadır.

Anayasal iktisat teorisi içerisinde devletin meşrutiyeti konusu felsefi düzeyde incelenmekte, bu çerçevede devletin bireylerin can ve mal güvenliğinin korunmasına karşılık, onun hak ve özgürlüklerine ne tür sınırlamalar getirebileceği konuları irdelenmektedir. Devletin egemenlik hakkının bir sonucu olarak bireyin politik hak ve özgürlükleri yanı sıra ekonomik hak ve özgürlüklerine hangi türde sınırlamalar getirebileceği ve bunların neler olması gerektiği konusu tartışılmaktadır. Örneğin; devletin vergi almak koymak ve değiştirmek, para basmak vb. yetkileri bu çerçevede inceleme konusu yapılmaktadır.

Kaynakça
 Coşkun Can Aktan, Politik İktisat, İzmir, Anadolu Matbaacılık, 2000.
 Coşkun Can Aktan, Anayasal İktisat, İstanbul: İz Yayınları, 1998.
 Coşkun Can Aktan, Ekonomik Anayasa, Ankara: TİSK Yayınları.

Anayasa hukuku
Ekonomi

Anayasal iktisat


Not Fragile er den canadiske rockgruppe Bachman-Turner Overdrives tredje studiealbum, udsendt i august 1974. Albummet består af iørefaldende rock-musik. På albummet findes gruppens største hit, "You Ain't Seen Nothing Yet".
Guitaristen Tim Bachman havde forud for indspilningen af albummet forladt bandet og var blevet erstattet af Blair Thornton.

Eksterne henvisninger

Album fra 1974
Album fra Canada

Not Fragile


Olaylar
 İkinci Efes Konsili toplandı.

Doğumlar
 İmparator Ninken, Japonya'nın geleneksel veraset düzenine göre 24. imparatoru (ö. 498)

Ölümler

449


Pikmin 3 er et strategispil udviklet og udgivet af Nintendo til Wii U i 2013. Spillet er efterfølgeren til Pikmin 2 og det tredje spil i Pikmin-serien. Pikmin 3 bevarer de spilmekanikker der blev introduceret i tidligere Pikmin-spil og tilføjer nye funktioner, herunder nye spilbare karakterer, nye typer af pikmin og downloadbart indhold.

I singleplayer-kampagnen styrer spilleren tre rumvæsener, der udforsker overfladen af en planet kendt som "PNF-404" på jagt efter kultiverbare frugtsfrø for at redde deres hjemplanet, Koppai, fra hungersnød. De møder og vender sig til pikmin, som hjælper dem.

Referencer

Ekstern henvisning
 Officiel Pikmin hjemmeside

Computerspil fra 2013
Strategispil
Wii U-spil

Pikmin 3


An Juncus xiphioides in uska species han Liliopsida nga ginhulagway ni Ernst Meyer. An Juncus xiphioides in nahilalakip ha genus nga Juncus, ngan familia nga Juncaceae. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Mga sumpay ha gawas

Juncus

Juncus xiphioides


Les élections dans le Royaume de Grande-Bretagne étaient principalement des élections générales et des élections partielles à la Chambre des communes de Grande-Bretagne. Les élections générales n'avaient pas de date fixe, le parlement étant convoqué et dissous dans le cadre de la prérogative royale, bien que sur l'avis des ministres de la Couronne. La première de ces élections générales fut celle de 1708, et la dernière celle de 1796.

En 1801, le Royaume-Uni de Grande-Bretagne et d'Irlande a remplacé le Royaume de Grande-Bretagne et le Royaume d'Irlande. Pour la période postérieure à 1801, voir Élections au Royaume-Uni.

Élections

Pour plus de détails sur les élections nationales de Grande-Bretagne, voir :

Élections générales de 1707
Élections générales de 1708
Élections générales de 1710
Élections générales de 1713
Élections générales de 1715
Élections générales de 1722
Élections générales de 1727
Élections générales de 1734
Élections générales de 1741
Élections générales de 1747
Élections générales de 1754
Élections générales de 1761
Élections générales de 1768
Élections générales de 1774
Élections générales de 1780
Élections générales de 1784
Élections générales de 1790
Élections générales de 1796

Factions politiques

La politique en Grande-Bretagne était dominée par les Whigs et les Tories, bien que ni l'un ni l'autre ne soient des partis politiques au sens moderne du terme, mais des alliances lâches d'intérêts et d'individus. Les Whigs comprenaient bon nombre des principales dynasties aristocratiques qui étaient les plus engagées dans la colonisation protestante du trône, avec plus tard le soutien des intérêts industriels émergents et des riches marchands de la ville, tandis que les conservateurs étaient associés à la noblesse terrienne, l'Église d'Angleterre et l'Église d'Écosse.

Les Membres du Parlement devaient faire appel à un électorat beaucoup plus restreint qu'aujourd'hui, surtout dans les boroughs. Dans le cas des Borough pourris et de poche, la majorité des voix était généralement contrôlée par une seule personne, ou par un petit groupe. Cela a donné moins de pouvoir aux partis politiques organisés et plus à des individus influents, dont certains se sont fait élire dans les circonscriptions qu'ils contrôlaient. Ces sièges ont également été vendus contre de l'argent comptant. Ainsi, de nombreux députés étaient fondamentalement indépendants, même s'ils se sont attachés à tel ou tel parti au cours de leur carrière parlementaire

Membre du Parlement et circonscriptions parlementaires

Les circonscriptions qui ont élu des membres en Angleterre et au pays de Galles sont restées inchangées tout au long de l'existence du Parlement de Grande-Bretagne.

Tableau des circonscriptions parlementaires et des sièges à la Chambre des communes

Légende: BC – Circonscription de Borough ou Burgh, CC – Circonscription de comté, UC – Circonscription universitaire, Total C – Total circonscription, BMP – Borough/Burgh membres du parlement, CMP – Comté membres du parlement, UMP – Université membres du parlement.

Élections locales

Il y avait peu d'élections locales dans le Royaume de Grande-Bretagne tel que le concept est maintenant compris. Le gouvernement local n'existait que sous des formes rudimentaires et une grande partie de l'administration civile des comtés était assurée par les Court of quarter sessions et par des magistrats. Dans la City de Londres, des élections annuelles ont eu lieu à la Corporation of London, mais au suffrage limité, et certains commissaires à l'amélioration ont été élus par les contribuables, sinon cooptés, tandis que les corporations de borough et de city n'étaient généralement pas élues directement.

Pour plus d'informations sur les corporations locales pendant cette période, voir la réforme de la Municipal Corporations Act 1835.

Références

Articles connexes

Liste des Parlements de Grande-Bretagne
Histoire de la constitution britannique
Liste des comtés et des boroughs de la Chambre des communes non réformée en 1800
Liste des circonscriptions parlementaires de Grande-Bretagne et du Parlement britannique en Écosse à partir de 1707
Circonscriptions écossaises de Westminster
Système électoral
Agent électoral
Agent de vote
Agent de comptage
Circonscription universitaire
Borough pourri

Élections en Grande-Bretagne


Shirley Waldemar Baker (1836 - 16 de novembro de 1903) foi uma missionária metodista em Tonga. Ele foi o fundador da Igreja Livre de Tonga, fazendo uma cisão junto a Igreja Metodista, e desfrutou de influência significativa durante o reinado de George Tupou I, que o fez primeiro-ministro em 1880.

Em 1860, Baker foi ordenado ministério Wesleyano para ir a Tonga como missionário. Surgiu um desacordo com as autoridades wesleyanas em Sydney em 1879, e Baker fundou um órgão independente e separado chamada de "Igreja Livre de Tonga" alguns anos depois.

Após esse desentendimento em 1879, Baker retornou a Tonga no ano seguinte, sendo colocado no cargo de primeiro-ministro pelo rei Tupou I e renunciou ao ministério Wesleyano. Sob sua administração, as finanças tonganesas foram reorganizadas, as leis de terra foram revisadas e um sistema nacional de educação foi criado. Uma disputa se desenvolveu com os Wesleyanos que teve seu auge no ano de 1885, quando Baker estabeleceu a Igreja Livre de Tonga, sem o controle australiano.

O rei ordenou que todos os tonganeses se juntassem à nova igreja; aqueles que se recusaram foram espancados por seus chefes e despojados de seus bens. Em 1887, foi feita uma tentativa de atentado contra a vida de Baker. Os distúrbios sociais levaram à um aumento da intervenção britânica em Tonga, sendo que em 1890 o alto comissário Sir John Thurston ordenou a deportação de Baker.

Baker foi deportado para Auckland, Nova Zelândia e retornou a Tonga em 1897. Com a morte do rei Tupou I perdeu toda sua influencia e força politica e religiosa. Morreu em idade avançada em 16 de novembro de 1903 na ilha de Haʻapai.

Ver também
 Lista de primeiros-ministro de Tonga

Naturais de Londres
Nascidos em 1836
Mortos em 1903
Primeiros-ministros de Tonga
Missionários cristãos na Oceania

Shirley Waldemar Baker


Den catalanske vej (Via Catalana på catalansk) eller Den catalanske vej til selvstændighed (Via Catalana cap a la Independència) var en 48 mil lang menneskekæde, som dannedes gennem Catalonien den 11. september 2013. Den blev organiseret i forbindelse med den årlige markering af Cataloniens nationaldag og til støtte for catalansk selvstændighed fra Spanien. Inspirationen var hentet fra Den baltiske kæde.

Kæden strakte sig langs den antikke vej Via Augusta, fra Le Perthus i Languedoc-Roussillon til Alcanar ved Cataloniens grænse til regionen Valencia. Skønsmæssigt deltog 1,6 millioner mennesker i (eller i tilslutning til) kæden, heraf 500.000 i Barcelona.

Noter

Eksterne henvisninger
"La Via Catalana, minut a minut" (ara.cat, 11. september 2013)

Catalonien
Begivenheder i 2013
Spaniens historie

Den catalanske vej


Granville Sharp (10 November 1735 – 6 July 1813) was a British scholar, devout Christian, philanthropist and one of the first campaigners for the abolition of the slave trade in Britain. Born in Durham, he initially worked as a civil servant in the Board of Ordnance. His involvement in abolitionism began in 1767 when he defended a severely injured slave from Barbados in a legal case against his master. Increasingly devoted to the cause, he continually sought test cases against the legal justifications for slavery, and in 1769 he published the first tract in England that explicitly attacked the concept of slavery.

Granville Sharp's efforts culminated in 1772 when he was instrumental in securing Lord Mansfield's ruling in Somerset v Stewart, which held that slavery had no basis in English law. In 1787, Sharp and Thomas Clarkson founded the Society for Effecting the Abolition of the Slave Trade. The continuing campaigns of Sharp, Clarkson and William Wilberforce led to the abolition of slave trade through the Slave Trade Act 1807. Sharp died in 1813, two decades before the Slavery Abolition Act 1833, which abolished slavery in most of the British Empire.

In addition to his abolitionist cause, Sharp also championed the creation of a free colony in Sierra Leone, which encouraged black people in Britain to settle in west Africa. His efforts led to the founding of the Province of Freedom and later Freetown. He was also an advocate for the American colonists, parliamentary reform and the legislative independence of Ireland. An accomplished classicist and biblical scholar, Sharp was also one of the founders of the British and Foreign Bible Society.

Life
Granville Sharp was the son of Judith Wheler (d. 1757) and Thomas Sharp (1693–1759), Archdeacon of Northumberland, prolific theological writer and biographer of his father, John Sharp, Archbishop of York. Judith was the daughter of travel writer George Wheler and Grace née Higgons, who grew up in the political household of Sir Thomas Higgons.

Sharp was born in Durham in 1735. He had eight older brothers and five younger sisters. Five of his brothers survived their infancy and by the time Sharp had reached his midteens the family funds set aside for their education had been all but depleted, so Sharp was educated at Durham School but mainly at home.

He was apprenticed to a London linen-draper at the age of fifteen.  Sharp loved to argue and debate, and his keen intellect found little outlet in the mundane work in which he was involved.  However, one of his fellow-apprentices was Socinian (a Unitarian sect that denied the divinity of Christ), and in order better to argue, Sharp taught himself Greek.  Another fellow apprentice was Jewish, and so Sharp learned Hebrew in order to be able to discuss theological matters with his colleague. Sharp also conducted genealogical research for one of his masters, Henry Willoughby, who had a claim to the barony of Willoughby de Parham, and it was through Sharp's work that Willoughby was able to take his place in the House of Lords.

Sharp's apprenticeship ended in 1757, and both his parents died soon after. That same year he accepted a position as Clerk in the Ordnance Office at the Tower of London. This civil service position allowed him plenty of free time to pursue his scholarly and intellectual pursuits.

Sharp had a keen musical interest. Four of his siblings – William, later to become surgeon to George III, James, Elizabeth and Judith – had also come to London, and they met every day.  They all played musical instruments as a family orchestra, giving concerts at William's house in Mincing Lane and later in the family sailing barge, Apollo, which was moored at the Bishop of London's steps in Fulham, near William's country home, Fulham House. The fortnightly water-borne concerts took place from 1775–1783, the year his brother James died. Sharp had an excellent bass voice, described by George III as "the best in Britain", and he played the clarinet, oboe, flageolet, kettle drums, harp and a double-flute which he had made himself. He often signed his name in notes to friends as G♯.

Sharp died at Fulham House on 6 July 1813, and a memorial of him was erected in Westminster Abbey.  He lived in Fulham, London, and was buried in the churchyard of All Saints', Fulham. The vicar would not allow a funeral sermon to be preached in the church because Sharp had been involved with the British and Foreign Bible Society, which was Nonconformist.

Abolitionism
Sharp is best known for his untiring efforts for the abolition of slavery, although he was involved in many other causes, fired by a dislike of any social or legal injustice.

Sharp's first involvement: Jonathan Strong
Sharp's brother William held a regular surgery for the local poor at his surgery at Mincing Lane, and one day in 1765 when Sharp was visiting, he met Jonathan Strong. Strong was a young black slave from Barbados who had been badly beaten by his master, David Lisle, a lawyer, with a pistol to the head. This left him close to blindness and as a result he had been cast out into the street as useless. Sharp and his brother tended to his injuries and had him admitted to Barts Hospital, where his injuries were so bad they necessitated a four-month stay. The Sharps paid for his treatment and, when he was fit enough, found him employment as an errand runner with a Quaker apothecary friend of theirs.

In 1767, Lisle saw Strong in the street and planned to sell him to a Jamaica planter named James Kerr for £30. Two slave catchers captured Strong with the intention to ship him to the Caribbean where he would work on Kerr's plantation. Strong was able to get word to Sharp, who went directly to the Lord Mayor who in turn convened those laying claim to Strong. In court, Macbean, Kerr's attorney, produced the bill of sales from when Lisle sold Strong to Kerr. That was not enough to convince the Lord Mayor because Strong was imprisoned without clear cause, and so he liberated Strong. Afterwards, a West India Captain named David Laird grabbed Jonathan Strong's arm and claimed he would take him as James Kerr's property. Sharp, at the suggestion of Thomas Beech, the Coroner of London, threatened to charge Laird with assault should he attempt to take Strong by force. Laird let go of Strong and everyone who had been summoned departed without further dispute.

Afterwards, David Laird instituted a court action against Sharp claiming £200 damages for taking their property, and Lisle challenged Sharp to a duel—Sharp told Lisle that he could expect satisfaction from the law. Sharp consulted lawyers and found that as the law stood it favoured the master's rights to his slaves as property: that a slave remained in law the chattel of his master even on English soil. Sharp said "he could not believe the law of England was really so injurious to natural rights."  He spent the next two years in  study of English law, especially where it applied to the liberty of the individual.

Lisle disappeared from the records early, but Kerr persisted with his suit through eight legal terms before it was dismissed, and Kerr was ordered to pay substantial damages for wasting the court's time. Jonathan Strong was free, even if the law had not been changed, but he only lived for five years as a free man, dying at 25.

Increasing involvement

The Strong case made a name for Sharp as the "protector of the Negro" and he was approached by two more slaves, although in both cases (Hylas v Newton and R v Stapylton) the results were unsatisfactory, and it became plain that the judiciary – and Lord Mansfield, the Chief Justice of the King's Bench (the leading judge of the day) in particular – was trying very hard not to decide the issue. By this time, Great Britain controlled the largest share in the transatlantic slave trade, and the triangular trade based on slavery was important to the British economy.

In 1769 Sharp published A Representation of the Injustice and Dangerous Tendency of Tolerating Slavery ..., the first tract in England attacking slavery. Within it, he argues that "the laws of nature" grant equality to all humans regardless of any artificial laws imposed by society. He also condemns slave contracts because the liberty of a man cannot be matched in value by anything. Sharp's work attracted the attention of James Oglethorpe, who had long been concerned with slavery as a moral issue. The two men remained close until Oglethorpe's death in 1785.

Somerset v Stewart
(Also called Somersett's case.) On 13 January 1772, Sharp was visited and asked for help by James Somerset, an indigenous person of Africa who had been brought to America to be sold in the Colony of Virginia. He was then taken to England with his master Charles Stewart in 1769, where he was able to run away in October 1771. After evading slave hunters employed by Stewart for 56 days, Somerset had been caught and put in the slave ship Ann and Mary, to be taken to Jamaica and sold. This was the perfect case for Sharp because, unlike the previous cases, this was a question of lawful slavery rather than of ownership. Three Londoners had applied to Lord Mansfield for a writ of habeas corpus, which had been granted, with Somerset having to appear at a hearing on 24 January 1772. Members of the public responded to Somerset's plight by sending money to pay for his lawyers (who in the event all gave their services pro bono publico), while Stewart's costs were met by the West Indian planters and merchants.

Having studied English law for several years by this point, Sharp called on his now-formidable knowledge of the law regarding individual liberty and briefed Somerset's lawyers. Mansfield's deliberate procrastination stretched Somerset's Case over six hearings from January to May, and he finally delivered his judgment on 22 June 1772. It was a clear victory for Somerset, Sharp and the lawyers who acted for Somerset. Mansfield acknowledged that English law did not allow slavery, and only a new Act of Parliament ("positive law") could bring it into legality.  However, the verdict in the case is often misunderstood to mean the end of slavery in England. It was no such thing: it dealt only with the question of the forcible sending of someone overseas into bondage; a slave becomes free the moment they set foot on English territory. It was one of the most significant achievements in the campaign to abolish slavery throughout the world, more for its effect than for its actual legal weight.

The Zong massacre
In 1781 the crew of the over-capacity slaver ship Zong massacred an estimated 132 slaves by tossing them overboard; an additional ten slaves threw themselves overboard in defiance or despair and over sixty people had perished through neglect, injuries, disease and overcrowding.

The Zongs crew had mis-navigated her course and overestimated water supplies; according to the maritime law notion of general average, cargo purposely jettisoned at sea to save the remainder was eligible for insurance compensation. It was reasoned that as the slaves were cargo, the ship's owners would be entitled to the £30 a head compensation for their loss if thrown overboard: were the slaves to die on land or at sea of so-called "natural" causes, no compensation would be forthcoming.

The ship's owners, a syndicate of merchants based in Liverpool, filed their insurance claim; the insurers disputed it. In this first case the court found for the owners. The insurers appealed.

Sharp was visited on 19 March 1783 by Olaudah Equiano, a famous freed slave and later to be the author of a successful autobiography, who told him of the horrific events aboard the Zong. Sharp immediately became involved in the court case, facing his old adversary over slave trade matters, the Solicitor General for England and Wales, John Lee. Lee notoriously declared that "the case was the same as if assets had been thrown overboard", and that a master could drown slaves without "a surmise of impropriety".

The judge ruled that the Zongs owners could not claim insurance on the slaves: the lack of sufficient water demonstrated that the cargo had been badly managed. However, no officers or crew were charged or prosecuted for the deliberate killing of the slaves, and Sharp's attempts to mount a prosecution for murder never got off the ground.

The Society for Effecting the Abolition of the Slave Trade

Sharp was not completely alone at the beginning of the struggle: the Quakers, especially in America, were committed abolitionists. Sharp had a long and fruitful correspondence with Anthony Benezet, a Quaker abolitionist in Pennsylvania. However, the Quakers were a marginal group in England, and were debarred from standing for Parliament, and they had no doubt as to who should be the chairman of the new society they were founding, The Society for Effecting the Abolition of the Slave Trade. On 22 May 1787, at the inaugural meeting of the committee – nine Quakers and three Anglicans (who strengthened the committee's likelihood of influencing Parliament) – Sharp's position was unanimously agreed. In the 20 years of the society's existence, during which Sharp was ever-present at committee meetings, such was Sharp's modesty that he would never take the chair, always contriving to arrive just after the meeting had started to avoid any chance of having to take the meeting. While the committee felt it sensible to concentrate on the slave trade, Sharp felt strongly that the target should be slavery itself. On this he was out-voted, but he worked tirelessly for the Society nevertheless.

Correspondence with Benjamin Rush
The correspondence between Granville Sharp and Anthony Benezet inspired Benjamin Rush, a physician in Philadelphia who would later become one of the founding fathers, to contact Sharp as well. This led to a connection by letter between the two that lasted 36 years. In the first letter, written May 1, 1773, Rush attests to the increasing compassion within the colonies towards the suffering of the slaves. He makes mention of the clergy publicly arguing that slavery is a violation of both "the laws of nature" and Christian belief. This detail is noteworthy because Sharp was of the belief that laws should follow both "the laws of nature" and that which is given in Judeo-Christian scripture. Another letter, written February 21, 1774, has Sharp providing Rush with several pamphlets, written by himself and his brothers William and James, to be shared with friends and eventually to Lord Dartmouth. Many similar exchanges of pamphlets occur throughout their correspondence, which allowed them to inspire one another and refine their arguments against slavery. The final letter of their correspondence was written June 20, 1809, four years prior to the death of both figures in 1813.

Abolition
When Sharp heard that the Act of Abolition had at last been passed by both Houses of Parliament and given Royal Assent on 25 March 1807, he fell to his knees and offered a prayer of thanksgiving.  He was now 71, and had outlived almost all of the allies and opponents of his early campaigns. He was regarded as the grand old man of the abolition struggle, and although a driving force in its early days, his place had later been taken by others such as Thomas Clarkson, William Wilberforce and the Clapham Sect. Sharp, however, did not see the final abolition as he died on 6 July 1813.

The Province of Freedom

Although no reliable figures exist, it is thought that in the early 1780s there were around 15,000 black people in Britain, most of them without employment. Ideas were formulated for a settlement in Africa where they could return "home". Henry Smeathman, a plant collector and entomologist who had visited Sierra Leone, propounded to the Committee for the Relief of the Black Poor that the country would be an excellent location.  Worried black people came to see Sharp, concerned that they might be re-enslaved in such a place.Simon Schama, Rough Crossings (London: BBC Books, 2005), pp. 183-5.

Sharp took to the idea with alacrity: he saw it as a perfect opportunity to create a new model society from scratch. He drew up plans and regulations, and persuaded the Treasury to finance the ships and pay £12 a head to each embarking settler. He named the new, egalitarian, peaceful Christian society-to-be "The Province of Freedom".

The utopian ideal quickly went sour in the face of tremendous logistical difficulties; fire broke out even before the ships had left London. Sharp's friend, Olaudah Equiano, highlighted corruption in the process of stocking the ships, and was dismissed as a result; 411 people sailed for Africa, including some 60 white women without Sharp's knowledge, married to the male settlers. It is unclear how many were previously betrothed and how many married in preparation for the journey; traditionally these women have been characterized as prostitutes from Deptford. However, historians have since dismissed that description as false.Michael Siva, Why did Black Londoners not join the Sierra Leone Resettlement Scheme 1783-1815? (London: Open University, 2014), p. 28-33, 40-3. The settlers arrived in May 1787, at the onset of the five-month rainy season, and a settlement of sorts was built, named Granville Town. The commander of the naval escort that had brought the settlers concluded that they were unfit for the complex challenge of founding a new settlement in a potentially hostile environment. One of the settlers whom Granville had rescued from a slave ship left the settlement to work in the slave trade, much to Sharp's despair. By the end of 1788 Sharp had poured £1,735 18s 8d of his own money into the settlement. In 1789 Granville Town was burned to the ground by a local Temne chief; this may have been in retaliation for the burning of a Temne by a slave-trader.

Through The Society for Effecting the Abolition of the Slave Trade, in 1790 Granville came into contact with Thomas Peters, a former American slave who fought with the British during revolution in return for freedom. Sharp was instrumental in helping Peters to establish Freetown, Sierra Leone. Sharp is considered to be one of the founders of Sierra Leone alongside Thomas Peters and the Clarkson brothers (Thomas Clarkson and John Clarkson).

Other activism
Sharp ardently sympathized with the revolt of the American colonists. He believed in peace in America, but he also believed they were entitled to "Equitable Representation", an idea repeated in the famous phrase "No taxation without representation". When he realised his job in the Ordnance Office meant sending equipment to British forces fighting the colonists, he took leave of absence. As the war continued, he wrote to his employers "I cannot return to my ordnance duty whilst a bloody war is carried on, unjustly, against my fellow-subjects." Eventually in 1776 he resigned, never to have paid employment again and supported willingly by his brothers, who were happy to see him dedicate his time to his various causes.

Sharp also advocated parliamentary reform and the legislative independence of Ireland, and agitated against the impressment of sailors for the Navy. It was through his efforts that bishops for the United States of America were consecrated by the Archbishop of Canterbury in 1787.  He also argued for the reform of Parliament based on Magna Carta and to back this up he devised the doctrine of accumulative authority. This doctrine stated that because almost innumerable parliaments had approved Magna Carta it would take the same number of Parliaments to repeal it. Like many others, Sharp accepted the supremacy of Parliament as an institution, but did not believe that this power was without restraint, and thought that Parliament could not repeal Magna Carta.

Sharp was also one of the founders and the first President of the British and Foreign Bible Society and of the Society for the Conversion of the Jews.

Classical grammarian
One of Granville's letters written in 1778 (published in 1798), propounded what has come to be known as The Granville Sharp Rule (in actuality only the first of six principles that Sharp articulated involving the Greek article):

"When the copulative kai connects two nouns of the same case, if the article ho, or any of its cases, precedes the first of the said nouns or participles, and is not repeated before the second noun or participle, the latter always relates to the same person that is expressed or described by the first noun or participle ..."

This rule, if true, has a profound bearing on Unitarian doctrine, which led to a 'celebrated controversy', in which many leading divines took part, including Christopher Wordsworth.

For a full discussion of Sharp's Rule and its application to passages in the New Testament which teach the deity of Christ, see the series "The Greek Article and the Doctrine of Christ's Deity," by Clifford Kuehne. This series appeared in several issues of the Journal of Theology of the Church of the Lutheran Confession, and it is available for reading at the following web site: http://jot.clclutheran.org/christs-deity/ This series also discusses the application of Colwell's Rule to John 1:1.

Daniel B. Wallace says about Sharp:

"His strong belief in Christ's deity led him to study the Scriptures in the original in order to defend more ably that precious truth ... As he studied the Scriptures in the original, he noticed a certain pattern, namely, when the construction article-noun-και-noun involved personal nouns which were singular and not proper names, they always referred to the same person. He noticed further that this rule applied in several texts to the deity of Jesus Christ."

But Wallace claims that this rule is often too broadly applied. "Sharp's rule Number 1" does not always work with plural forms of personal titles. Instead, a phrase that follows the form article-noun-"and"-noun, when the nouns involved are plurals, can involve two entirely distinct groups, two overlapping groups, two groups of which is one a subset of the other, or two identical groups. In other words, the rule is of very specific and limited application.

Of Granville Sharp's most successful critic, Calvin Winstanley, Wallace says:

"Winstanley conceded 'There are, you say, no exceptions, in the New Testament, to your rule; that is, I suppose, unless these particular texts [i.e. the ones Sharp used to adduce Christ's deity] be such ... it is nothing surprising to find all these particular texts in question appearing as the exceptions to your rule, and the sole exceptions ... in the New Testament' – an obvious concession that he could find no exceptions save for the ones he supposed exist in the christologically pregnant texts."

What Wallace neglects by use of ellipses (...) is the flow of Winstanley's argument as well as the character of his theology.  Winstanley's quote argued that one could not apply Sharp's rule to the possible exceptions unless it could be shown that extra-biblical literature also followed Sharp's rule. Through multiple examples Winstanley showed that in classical Greek and in patristic Greek – all the literature surrounding the New Testament, the rule simply did not apply consistently. Wallace's quote comes from the end of Winstanley's argument in which he clearly is not conceding the point. To complete Winstanley's argument:

"There are, you say, no exceptions, in the New Testament, to your rule; that is, I suppose, unless these particular texts be such; which you think utterly improbable.  You would argue, then, that if these texts were exceptions, there would be more.  I do not perceive any great weight in this hypothetical reasoning.  But, however plausible it may appear, the reply is at hand.  There are no other words so likely to yield exceptions; because there are no other words, between which the insertion of the copulative, would effect so remarkable a deviation from the established form of constructing them to express one person; and of course, would so pointedly suggest a difference of signification."

Winstanley was Trinitarian, but cautioned that a rule that held true only in the New Testament in all but the disputed cases was too flimsy a ground on which to try to prove the divinity of Christ to the Socinians (Unitarians). Instead he said, "[I think] there are much more cogent arguments in reserve, when [Sharp's] rule of interpretation shall be abandoned." His biggest criticisms of Sharp's rule rest in the fact that 1) the early church fathers do not follow it and 2) the early church fathers never invoked this rule to prove the divinity of Christ (though it would have been an obvious tool against such heresy).  He concludes, "Hence it may be presumed that the doctrine then rested on other grounds."

However, just because Wallace exaggerates Winstanley's concession does not mean that he has no evidence to refute Winstanley. Wallace argues that, for various reasons, the only two passages from Granville's eight that truly follow Sharp's rule (for textual reasons, among others) are Titus 2:13 and 2 Peter 1:1. Wallace interacts in depth with Winstanley's critiques of Sharp and shows from grammatical, textual, linguistic, and Patristic evidence that Sharp's rule is truly valid across Classical, Biblical, Papyrological, and Patristic Greek – with some slight modification to the rules. Here is how Wallace restates the issue:

"In native Greek constructions (i.e., not translation Greek), when a single article modifies two substantives connected by καί (thus, article-substantive-καί-substantive), when both substantives are (1) singular (both grammatically and semantically), (2) personal, (3) and common nouns (not proper names or ordinals), they have the same referent."This essay by Wallace is a summary of his dissertation and he has developed it further by publishing the argument as a book: Granville Sharp's Canon and its Kin

Legacy

After his death on 6 July 1813, Granville Sharp was buried at All Saints' Church, Fulham, beside his brother William Sharp and sister Elizabeth Prouse.  The inscription on his tomb states:

"Here by the Remains
of the Brother and Sister whom he tenderly loved
lie those of
GRANVILLE SHARP Esqr.
at the age of 79 this venerable Philanthropist
terminated his Career
of almost unparalleled activity and usefulness
July 6th 1813
Leaving behind him a name
That will be Cherished with Affection and Gratitude
as long as any homage shall be paid to those principles
of JUSTICE HUMANITY and RELIGION
which for nearly half a Century
He promoted by his Exertions
and adorned by his Example"

A reredos erected a generation later in All Saints' Church, Fulham, reads: "This reredos was erected in 1845 to the honor of God and in memory of William Sharp of Fulham House, Surgeon to King George III, Catherine his wife, daughter of Thomas Barwick, Granville Sharp, his brother..."

Sharp's portrait was made many times, both during his life and afterwards. The National Portrait Gallery, London holds seven portraits, including the large oil of The Sharp Family by Johann Zoffany and six pencil drawings, etchings and engravings. An oil portrait of Sharp by Mather Brown is in a private collection.

As well as Granville Town in Sierra Leone, the free village of Granville in Jamaica was named after Sharp.

A memorial to Sharp was erected in Westminster Abbey, and he features in carved bas-relief on the side of the Clarkson Memorial, Wisbech, a memorial to fellow-abolitionist Thomas Clarkson (1760–1846).

In 2007, the Royal Mail issued a set of stamps to commemorate the 200th anniversary of the abolition of slavery in the United Kingdom. Sharp featured on the 50p stamp.

In 2007, Sharp's tomb in the graveyard of All Saints', Fulham was also restored to coincide with the anniversary. In recognition of Sharp's historical importance and preparation for the anniversary, the tomb was listed as Grade II on 16 March 2007, only three months after the application was made to English Heritage and the Department of Culture, Media and Sport.  The tomb was restored in June 2007 and a ceremony to mark the completion of the work was held in the church, attended by many notable figures including Professor Simon Schama.  Speaking at the service, Schama said that "Sharp's great contribution was to 'lower the threshold of shame' in society."

Granville Sharp's papers are deposited at the Gloucestershire Archives, reference D3549.  There is also a substantial collection of his letters at York Minster Library.

Works
Notable publications are in bold.
1765 An Answer to the Rev. Dr. Kennicot's Charge of Corruptions in the Hebrew Texts of Ezra and Nehemiah
1767 A Short Introduction to Vocal Musick1767 On the Pronunciation of the English Tongue1768 Remarks on Several Important Prophecies ...1769 A Representation of the Injustice and Dangerous Tendency of Tolerating Slavery ..., the first tract in England attacking slavery
1771 An Appendix to the Representation, reinforcing his case against slavery
1771 Remarks Concerning Encroachments on the River Thames1773 Remarks ... against Duelling1774 A Declaration of the People's Natural Right to a Share in the Legislature, in support of the American colonists
1775 A Declaration of the People's Natural Right ..., in support of both Americans and Irish
1776 The Law of Retribution1776 The Just Limitation of Slavery in the Laws of God1776 The Laws of Passive Obedience1776 The Laws of Liberty1777 preface to General James Oglethorpe's The Sailor's Advocate, an attack on press gangs
1777 The Laws of Nature1777 The Case of Saul1778 An Address to the People of England ... stating the Illegality of impressing Seamen1779 The Doctrine of 'Nullum Tempus occurrit Regi' Explained ...1780 seven tracts on The Legal Means of Political Reformation1781 seven tracts on Free Militia1784 An Account of the Ancient Division of the English Nation into Hundreds and Tythings1784 Congregational Courts and the ancient English Constitution of Frankpledge1784 A Tract on the Election of Bishops1786 An English Alphabet for the Use of Foreigners1786 Regulations for a New Settlement of Sierra Leone1790 Free English Territory in Africa1790 Plan of a Public Charity1791 A Letter ... (on) the State of the London Workhouse1792 Causes des Calamités publiques qui régnent à présent par toute l'Étendue de L'Empire Romain1792 A Collection of Political Papers, with Remarks on the Accomplishment of Prophecies1793 A Letter to a Gentleman in Maryland respecting the extreme Wickedness of tolerating the Slave Trade ...1794 A General plan for laying out Towns and Townships in new-acquired Lands ...1798 Remarks on the Uses of the Definitive Article in the Greek Text of the New Testament, Containing Many New Proofs of the Divinity of Christ, from Passages Which Are Wrongly Translated in the Common English Version, which contains the grammatical principle still known as "Sharp's Rule"
1801 The Child's First Book improved, with a Preface addressed to Mothers and Teachers1801 An Answer to an anonymous Letter on Pre-Destination and Free-will, with a Postscript on Eternal Punishments1801 Extract of a Letter on Land-Carriages, Roads, and profitable Labour of Oxen1804 three tracts on The Syntax and Pronunciation of the Hebrew Tongue1805 An Inquiry whether the Description of Babylon ... agrees perfectly with Rome, as a City etc. ...1805 A Letter ... respecting the proposed Catholic Emancipation1805 Serious Reflections on the Slave Trade and Slavery Addressed to the Peers of Great Britain1806 A Dissertation on the supreme Divine Dignity of the Messiah1806 Remarks on the two last Petitions in the Lord's Prayer ...1807 The System of Colonial Law compared with the eternal Laws of God, and with the Indispensable Principles of the British Constitution1807 A Letter in Answer to some of the leading Principles and Doctrines of the People called Quakers1807 The Case of Saul, to which is added a short tract wherein the Influence of Demons is further illustrated1808 Jerusalem ... respecting the Etymology of that Word1810 Melchisedec; or an Answer to a Question respecting the Reality of Melchisedec's Existence, as King of Salem and priest of the Most High God1811 Modus Decimandi1812 Remarks on an important Passage, Matt. xxi. 18, which has long been perverted by the Church of Rome in Support of her vain Pretensions to supreme Dominion over all other Episcopal ChurchesSee also
 List of abolitionist forerunners
 Mary Sharp

Notes

References
 Hoare, Prince, Memoirs of Granville Sharp, Esq., Composed from his own Manuscripts and Other Authentic Documents in the Possession of his Family and of the African Institution London, 1820 (2nd edition of 1828 online at
Hochschild, Adam,  Bury the Chains: Prophets and Rebels in the Fight to Free an Empire's Slaves (Boston, Houghton Mifflin, 2006), 467 pp., paperback:
 Lascelles, Edward Charles Ponsonby, 1928, Granville Sharp and the Freedom of the Slaves in England Oxford University Press
 Nadelhaft, Jerome, 1966,  "The Somersett Case and Slavery: Myth, Reality, and Repercussions" in Journal of Negro History, Vol. 51, No. 3 (Jul., 1966), pp. 193–208
 Pollard, Albert Frederick,
 Stuart, Charles, 1836, A Memoir of Granville Sharp  New York: The American Anti-Slavery Society
 Winstanley, Calvin. A Vindication of Certain Passages in the Common English Version of the New Testament: Addressed to Granville Sharp, Esq. Cambridge University Press, 1819 (2nd ed).  Online at: .
 Wise, Steven M., 2005, Though The Heavens May Fall: The Landmark Trial That Led To The End Of Human Slavery External links

BBC biography
Granville Sharp – Short Biography by Carey Brycchan
Granville Sharp and the Zong
Spartacus Schoolnet on Granville Sharp
The complete Granville Sharp Rule Number 1 and examples of plural nouns that agree with Rule number 1
Read or download Granville Sharp's Book
In Favorem Libertatis: The Life and Work of Granville Sharp, by Carl Watner, in The Journal of Libertarian Studies'', Vol. IV. No. 2 (Spring 1980)

The False Gospel of Granville Sharp

English abolitionists
Clapham Sect
1735 births
1813 deaths
People educated at Durham School
History of Sierra Leone
Sierra Leone Creole history
Burials at All Saints Church, Fulham

Granville Sharp


Reichstag (; resmi adı: Deutscher Bundestag – Reichstagsgebäude ; ), Berlin'de bulunan ve Alman Federal Meclisi'ne (Bundestag) ev sahipliği yapan tarihi bir devlet binasıdır.

Bina, mimar Paul Wallot tarafından 1884 ile 1894 yılları arasında Spree nehrinin kenarında, Tiergarten semtinde neo-rönesans tarzında inşa edilmiştir. Hem Alman İmparatorluğu, hem de Weimar Cumhuriyeti meclisleri de bu binada toplandı.

1933 yılında meydana gelen Reichstag Yangınından ve İkinci Dünya Savaşı'nda oluşan ağır hasarın ardından, bina 1960'lı yıllara kadar atıl hâlde durdu. 1960'lı yıllarda Almanya Demokratik Cumhuriyeti döneminde bina tamir edilerek sergi ve özel etkinlikler için kullanıldı.

1991 yılında binanın parlamento binası olarak kullanılması kararı alındı. 1995'ten 1999'a kadar İngiliz mimar Norman Foster tarafından baştan aşağı yeniden tasarlandı.

Tarihçe

Alman İmparatorluğu

1870'li yıllara kadar çeşitli bölgelerde birçok bina Almanya Parlamentosu olarak hizmet verdiyse de doğan ihtiyaçtan dolayı 1882 yılında bir mimarlık yarışması düzenlendi. 189 aday arasından Frankfurt kökenli bir mimar olan Paul Wallot yarışmayı kazandı. 1884 yılında başlanan inşaat 1894 yılında tamamlandı.

Reichstag yangını ve Nasyonal Sosyalizm dönemi

30 Ocak 1933'te Alman İmparatorluğu Cumhurbaşkanı Paul von Hindenburg, Nasyonal Sosyalist Alman İşçi Partisi lideri Adolf Hitler'i "İmparatorluk şansölyesi" olarak atadı. Adolf Hitler, 1 Şubat'ta meclisi feshetti. 28 Şubat 1933 gecesi meclis binası Reichstag'ın kubbesi alev aldı. Büyük toplantı salonu ve çevresindeki bazı odalar yandı. Yangının bir kundaklama sonucu meydana geldiği açıktı. Olayın fâili ise hiçbir zaman aydınlatılamadı.

Nasyonal Sosyalistler, yangın olayını suistimal ederek siyasi amaçları doğrultusunda kullandılar. Aynı gece siyasi muhaliflere yönelik, büyük bir tutuklama faaliyeti başlatıldı. Cumhurbaşkanı von Hindenburg, yangının ertesi günü halkın ve devletin korunması gerekçesi ile Reichstag yangın yönetmeliğini imzalamak mecburiyetinde bırakıldı. Bu yönetmeliğin birinci maddesi, temel hakları geçici olarak askıya alıyordu. Beşinci madde ise siyasi suçlara vatana ihanet gerekçesi ile izin verdi.

21 Mart 1933'te yeni parlamentonun açılış oturumu, Potsdam Günü adıyla Reichstag Yangınından sonra gerçekleşti. Yaygın tekrar edilen yanlış bilginin aksine, Hitler Reichstag Binasında hiç konuşma yapmadı. Hitler, meclise hitab ettiği tüm konuşmalarını yangından sonra parlamento binası olarak kullanılmaya başlanan Kroll Opera Binasında yaptı.

1933 yılının mayıs ayında, Hollandalı ve bir komünist olan Marinus van der Lubbe, Bulgar Georgi Dimitroff ve Komünist Partinin önde gelen diğer üyeleriyle birlikte yangının fâilleri olarak tutuklandılar. Savcılık, yangını silahlı bir darbenin habercisi olarak göstermeye çalıştı. Siyasi bir gösteriye dönüştürülen dava duruşmalarında Marinus van der Lubbe, şüpheli bir itiraf ile ölüm cezasına çarptırıldı. Bu esnada idam cezasını düzenleyen kanun, alelacele değiştirildi ve van der Lubbe 1934 yılı Ocak ayında idam edildi. Diğer davalılar, delil yetersizliği gerekçesi ile beraat etti.

İkinci Dünya Savaşı sırasında, pencereleri duvar örülerek kapatılmış olan bina, hava saldırılarına karşı bir sığınak olarak kullanıldı. AEG orada elektron tüpleri üretti. Binada bir hastane kuruldu ve 1943'ten 1945'e kadar yakındaki Charité Tıp Fakültesinin kadın hastalıkları ve doğum bölümü burada barındırıldı. Yaklaşık 60 ile 100 kadar çocuğun Reichstag binasında doğduğu tahmin ediliyor.

II. Dünya Savaşı sonrası
II. Dünya Savaşı'nda harap olan binaya savaşın sonlarına doğru SSCB tarafından Zafer Sancağı çekildi. Soğuk Savaş döneminde Batı Berlin sınırları içinde kaldı.

Paul Baumgarten adlı bir mimarın öncülüğünde 1960'lı yıllarda restorasyon çalışmalarının yapıldığı yapı Almanya 3 Ekim 1990'da birleşmesinin hemen ardından ilk sembolik meclis toplantısına sahiplik yaptı.

1995 yılında ünlü Enstalasyon (Yerleştirme) sanatçıları Christo ve Jeanne-Claude tarafından paketlendi.

20 Haziran 1991 tarihinde Berlin'in yeniden Almanya Cumhuriyeti'nin başkenti olmasıyla Reichstag da yeniden Almanya Federal Meclis binası oldu. Açılan mimarlık yarışmasını kazanan ünlü mimar Norman Foster'in öncülüğünde yeniden restore edilen bina Nisan 1999'da meclis binası olarak kullanıma açıldı.

Cam kubbe

Norman Foster'ın restorasyonu sırasında eklenen cam kubbe, binanın üzerinde yer alan geniş bir cam bölümdür. 360 derecelik bir bakış açısına sahiptir. Hemen aşağısında parlamento ana salonu yer alır. Gün ışığını doğrudan doğruya parlamento içerisine yansıtır. Ziyarete açık olan kubbe pek çok turistin ilgisini çekmektedir.

Resim Galerisi

Kaynakça

Dış bağlantılar
 Reichstag ile ilgili Bundestag'ta (Almanya Federal Parlamentosu) İngilizce yer alan bilgiler
 Christo ve Jeanne Claude'un web sitesinden paketlenmiş Reichstag fotoğrafları

Almanya'daki merkezî yerler
Berlin'deki yapılar
Parlamento binaları
Kubbeler
Almanya'daki saraylar
Norman Foster'ın eserleri
Almanya tarihi
1894'te tamamlanan yapılar
1890'larda tamamlanan hükûmet binaları

Reichstag


Súsana Alímívna Dzjamaladínova (f. 27. ágúst 1983), betur þekkt undir sviðsnafninu Jamala, er úkraínsk söngkona, leikkona og lagahöfundur. Hún tók þátt í og sigraði Söngvakeppni evrópskra sjónvarpsstöðva 2016 fyrir Úkraínu með laginu "1944". Árin 2017, 2018 og 2019 var hún í dómnefnd Vidbir, undankeppni Eurovision í Úkraínu.

Jamala er Krímtatari og í laginu "1944" fjallaði hún um nauðungarflutninga Krímtarara frá Krímskaga sem skipaðir voru af stjórn Stalíns árið 1944. Lagið olli nokkrum deilum þar sem Rússar töldu það vera dæmi um pólitískan áróður sem samræmdist ekki reglum Eurovision. Lagið var víða talið fela í sér gagnrýni á nýafstaðna atburði, nánar tiltekið innlimun Rússa á Krímskaga árið 2014.

Útgefið efni

Breiðskífur

Stúdíó
 For Every Heart (2011)
 All or Nothing (2013)
 Подих (Podykh) (2015)
 1944 (2016)
 Крила (Kryla) (2018)
 Ми (My) (2021)

Beint
 For every heart. Live at Arena Concert Plaza (2012)

Samantekt
 10 (2019)
 Свої (Svoi) (2020)

Remix
 Solo (2019)

Stuttskífur
 Thank You (2014)
 1944 (2016)
 5:45 (2021)

Neðanmálsgreinar

Tilvísanir

Úkraínskir tónlistarmenn
Þátttakendur í söngvakeppni evrópskra sjónvarpsstöðva

Jamala


Brigadier General Cornelius "Neily" Vanderbilt III (September 5, 1873 – March 1, 1942) was an American military officer, inventor, engineer, and yachtsman. He was a member of the Vanderbilt family.

Early life
Born in New York City to Cornelius Vanderbilt II and Alice Claypoole Gwynne, he was educated by private tutors and at St. Paul's School in Concord, New Hampshire. Vanderbilt attended Yale University and graduated with a Bachelor of Arts degree in 1895. Against his father's wishes, in August 1896 he married Grace Graham Wilson, the youngest child of New York banker Richard Thornton Wilson Sr., and Melissa Clementine Johnston. As a consequence, his father disinherited him. Vanderbilt continued to study at Yale, and earned a Bachelor of Philosophy degree in 1898 and a Master of Engineering degree in mechanical engineering in 1899.

Inheritance
Upon his father's death in 1899 Vanderbilt received $500,000 in cash and the income from a $1 million trust fund. The bulk of his father's $70 million estate went to Vanderbilt's brother Alfred, who then transferred $6 million to Vanderbilt. However, as a result of his parents' attitude towards his marriage, it would be 27 years after his father's death before he finally reconciled with his aging mother. Vanderbilt and his wife Grace remained married until his death and had two children, Cornelius IV (1898–1974), who would marry seven times, and Grace (September 25, 1899 – January 28, 1964).

Interests
Neily Vanderbilt was an inveterate tinkerer with all things mechanical and patented more than thirty inventions for improving locomotives and freight cars, including several which brought him a significant royalty income. Some of the most important were a corrugated firebox for locomotives that resulted in a substantial increase in fuel efficiency, a cylindrical styled tank car for the transport of bulk oil, and a revolutionary type of locomotive tender. In addition, on his travels to London and Paris he saw the potential for adapting their subway systems for use in New York City and partnered with August Belmont Jr. to establish the Interborough Rapid Transit Company for the construction of the city's first subway.

In 1906 he was admitted as an hereditary member of the Rhode Island Society of the Cincinnati by right of his descent from Surgeon Henry Collins Flagg of the Continental Army.

Yachting
As with other members of the Vanderbilt family, yachting was one of Vanderbilt's favorite pastimes as an escape from a busy life that included a seat on the boards of directors of a number of major American corporations. He was a member of the nine-member syndicate that built the yacht Reliance, the largest racing yacht in history with a crew of 70, for the successful defense of the America's Cup in 1903.

He was commodore of the New York Yacht Club from 1906 to 1908. In 1910, he skippered his 65-foot sloop Aurora to victory in the New York Yacht Club's race for the King Edward VII Cup in Newport, RI.

Prior to the First World War, Vanderbilt's personal yacht was the North Star in which he and his family toured Europe and hosted many distinguished guests including King Edward VII, Kaiser Wilhelm II and Czar Nicholas II.  The North Star was in British waters at the outbreak of the First World War in 1914, and was seized by the British government for use as a hospital ship with the promise it would be returned after the war.  The North Star was damaged in action and was used after the war as a merchant ship trading with China.

On April 29, 1930, Vanderbilt's yacht, the Winchester, was set ablaze following an explosion.  No one was injured as the crew were all eating in the galley, up front, but her owner's suite and guest suite's sustained $500,000 of damage.

Military service

In 1901, he was commissioned a second lieutenant in the 12th Infantry Regiment of the New York National Guard and he remained a member of the National Guard for 33 years. He was promoted to first lieutenant in December 1902 and served as an aide-de-camp to the Governor of New York from September 1903 to December 1904. He was promoted to captain in June 1907 and served as an aide to the division commander from October 1908 until being promoted to lieutenant colonel and inspector general in June 1912.

Along with most of the National Guard, Vanderbilt was mobilized on 30 June 1916 and served on the Mexican border. When the United States declared war on Germany and entered World War I in April 1917. Vanderbilt was promoted to colonel on 20 July 1917 and placed in command of the 22nd Engineer Regiment of the New York National Guard. The regiment was re-designated as the 102nd Engineer Regiment on 1 October 1917 and became part of the newly organized 27th Division, which was composed of activated units of the New York National Guard. The 27th Division departed New York for Camp Wadsworth in Spartanburg, South Carolina in September 1917 and was shipped overseas to France in May and June 1918.

In July 1918, shortly after his arrival in France, Vanderbilt was promoted to brigadier general.  Shortly thereafter, he returned from France to the United States and was assigned to Camp Lewis in Washington state, where he arrived on August 20 and assumed command of the 25th Brigade, which was part of the 13th Division of which he was acting commander from August 20 to September 11, 1918. As most new recruits and draftees were being sent to France to replace casualties, the 13th Division never reached full strength until November 1, 1918, which was just nine days before the armistice with Germany which ended hostilities, and, therefore, it was never sent overseas.  General Vanderbilt was reassigned on December 20, 1918, and was discharged from the army on January 3, 1919.

Military awards
For his services during the war, General Vanderbilt was decorated with the Army Distinguished Service Medal by the War Department and the New York State Conspicuous Service Cross (recipient #190).  He was also made a commander of the Order of the Crown of Belgium and was awarded that country's Croix de Guerre. The government of France invested him as a Commander of the Legion of Honor.  He was also a recipient of the Mexican Border Service Medal and World War I Victory Medal.

His citation for the Army Distinguished Service Medal, awarded in 1919, is as follows:

The President of the United States of America, authorized by Act of Congress, July 9, 1918, takes pleasure in presenting the Army Distinguished Service Medal to Brigadier General Cornelius Vanderbilt, United States Army, for exceptionally meritorious and distinguished services to the Government of the United States, in a duty of great responsibility during World War I. As Commanding Officer, 102d Engineers, and as Engineer Officer of the 27th Division, General Vanderbilt's marked qualities of leadership and thorough training and instruction developed a high state of military efficiency in his command, as demonstrated throughout its entire service.

Post war service
After the war, Vanderbilt remained active in the New York National Guard and Organized Reserve.  He commanded the 77th Infantry Division of the Organized Reserve Corps from May 1922 to January 1929, and from November 1929 until relinquishing command in January 1935.

Postwar life

Following the First World War, Vanderbilt and his wife frequently returned to Europe, becoming friends and guests of numerous members of European royalty including former Kaiser Wilhelm II of Germany, and his brother, Prince Henry of Prussia,  King Albert I of Belgium, Crown Prince Olav of Norway, Queen Marie of Romania, Reza Pahlavi of Iran, and every British monarch since Queen Victoria.

Residences
In 1914, Vanderbilt inherited a spacious mansion located at 640 Fifth Avenue in New York City from his uncle George Washington Vanderbilt II. Built in 1880 by William Henry Vanderbilt, the mansion was originally one of two sharing that block designed with identical exteriors and together known as the "Twin Mansions." It was to be his permanent residence for the rest of his life, because although he sold the mansion in 1940 to members of the Astor family, he and his family retained occupancy of the house for three years after his death in 1942. Neily's wife Grace lived there until 1944, when she moved into the William Starr Miller House at 1048 Fifth Avenue which still stands today as the Neue Galerie.

Vanderbilt also had a summer residence in Newport, Rhode Island named Beaulieu which was designed by Calvert Vaux. The mansion is located on fashionable Bellevue Avenue and is adjacent to the Marble House which was built by Vanderbilt's uncle William K. Vanderbilt. Vanderbilt's widow retained Beaulieu as her summer residence until her death, after which it was sold to Ambassador Wiley T. Buchanan, Jr. (1913-1986).

Death
Brigadier General Cornelius Vanderbilt III died aboard his yacht from a cerebral hemorrhage while vacationing in Miami Beach, Florida in 1942.

Grace Vanderbilt died on January 7, 1953.  She was entombed beside her husband in the Vanderbilt Family Mausoleum in New Dorp on Staten Island, New York.

Dates of rank
2nd Lieutenant, 12th Infantry, New York National Guard - 20 September 1901
1st Lieutenant - 2 December 1902
Captain - 11 June 1907
Major - never held
Lieutenant Colonel (Inspector General, Headquarters, New York National Guard) - 1 June 1912
Colonel (Commanding officer, 22nd Engineers) - 4 December 1916
Colonel (Commanding officer, 102nd Engineers), National Army - 1 October 1917
Brigadier General, National Army - 12 July 1918
Honorably discharged from active service - 3 January 1919

See also

 Legion of Honour
 List of Legion of Honour recipients by name (V)
 List of foreign recipients of the Legion of Honour by country
 Legion of Honour Museum

References

External links

Cornelius Vanderbilt Papers (MS 1181). Manuscripts and Archives, Yale University Library.

1873 births
1942 deaths
St. Paul's School (New Hampshire) alumni
American socialites
United States Army generals of World War I
United States Army generals
Cornelius III
American people of Dutch descent
American people of English descent
American people of Welsh descent
Commanders of the Order of the Crown (Belgium)
Recipients of the Croix de guerre (Belgium)
Recipients of the Distinguished Service Medal (US Army)
Commanders of the Legion of Honour
New York (state) Republicans
Florida Republicans
Psi Upsilon
Burials at the Vanderbilt Family Cemetery and Mausoleum
Wilson family of New York

Cornelius Vanderbilt III


Dean Koontz (Everett, 9. srpnja 1945.), američki je književnik. Njegovi su romani po tematici najčešće trileri te nerijetko sadrže elemente horora, znanstvene fantastike, misterije i satire. Brojne su se Koontzove knjige pojavile na vrhu ljestvica čitanosti New York Timesa, a neke su zauzele i prvo mjesto. Koontz se na početku svoje karijere koristio brojnim pseudonimima, a zanimljivo je da je dosad prodano čak 450 milijuna primjeraka njegovih knjiga. Članom je Republikanske stranke i preobraćeni je rimokatolik.

Životopis
Rođen je u Everettu u Pennsylvaniji kao sin Florence i Raymonda Koontza. Veliku ulogu u Koontzovu zanimanju za pisanje imao je njegov otac, inače alkoholičar, koji ga je redovito zlostavljao, a jačim ga je činila majčina hrabrost jer se njegovu ocu uspijevala suprotstaviti.

Na zadnjoj godini studija engleskog jezika i književnosti na Sveučilištu Shippensberg, Koontz je pobijedio na natjecanju u pisanju znanstvene fantastike koje je tada sponzorirao časopis The Atlantic. Nakon što je diplomirao 1967. godine, počeo je raditi kao profesor engleskog jezika i književnosti u srednjoj školi u Mechanicsburgu.

Tijekom šezdesetih radio je za Appalachian Poverty Program, inicijativu koju je financirala država te je njezina svrha bila pomoć siromašnoj djeci.

Karijera
U slobodno vrijeme napisao je svoj prvi roman, Star Quest, koji je objavljen 1968. godine. Na katoličanstvo se preobratio tijekom studija jer je smatrao da mu daje odgovore na sva životna pitanja. Kako je i sam kazao, u katoličanstvu je pronašao misteriju i čudo te je bio opčinjen "intelektualnom strogoćom" kakvu mu je nova vjera pružala.

Bibliografija (izabrano)
Oči tame (1981.) - pojedini mediji i pojedinci smatraju da je Koontz u ovome romanu predvidio pojavu koronavirusa
Hladna vatra (1991.) - hrvatski prijevod: Tomislav Pisk i Goran Vujasinović
Ubojica (1993.) - hrvatski prijevod: Andrea Pongrac
Jedini preživjeli (1997.) - hrvatski prijevod: Marija Pavlin
Iskoristi noć (1998.) - hrvatski prijevod: Nataša Ozmec
Čudni Thomas (2003.) - hrvatski prijevod: Suzana Sesvečan
Lice (2003.) - hrvatski prijevod: Suzana Sesvečan
Očekivani životni vijek (2004.) - hrvatski prijevod: Mihaela Velina

Izvori

Američki književnici

Dean Koontz


Suillus granulatus (Carl von Linné (1753) ex  Elias Magnus Fries, 1821) Otto Kuntze, 1898), sin. Boletus circinatus (Christian Hendrik Persoon, 1801), din încrengătura Basidiomycota în familia Suillaceae și de genul Suillus, este o ciupercă comestibilă care coabitează, fiind un simbiont micoriza (formează micorize pe rădăcinile arborilor). Buretele este numit în popor pitoașcă sau cozărei de brad și se dezvoltă foarte des în România, Basarabia și Bucovina de Nord pe sol calcaros în păduri de conifere nisipoase precum la marginea lor sub pini, chiar și prin pășuni în grupuri mici în apropierea unui pom simbiont, din iunie până în octombrie (noiembrie).

Descriere

 Pălăria: are un diametru de 4-10 (13) cm, este cărnoasă și regulată, fiind inițial emisferică, apoi convexă și în sfârșit aplatizată. Cuticula, a cărei culoare tinde de la gălbui-ocru, peste brun-gălbui până la brun-cărămiziu, este în stare uscată lucioasă, la umezeală foarte vâscoasă și lipicioasă. Ea poate fi îndepărtată ușor de picior.
 Tuburile și porii: sporiferele sunt gălbuie, lungi, aderate la picior sau ușor decurente. Porii sunt la început galbeni și înguști, dar se lărgesc după câtva timp, devenind brun-gălbui până brun-măslinii. Ei emit în tinerețe picături (lăcrimioare) alb-lăptoase.
 Piciorul: are o înălțime de 5-7 (9) cm și o lățime de 1-1,5 (2) cm, este cilindric respectiv un pic neregulat, plin, tare precum prevăzut spre vârf cu granule fine crem-gălbuie care cu timpul devin brune. Coloritul tijei este inițial de un galben palid, preluând mai târziu maroniul murdar al pălăriei.
 Carnea: este la început tare și compactă, dar se înmoaie cu maturitatea avansată, fiind  de culoare albicios-gălbuie sau gălbuie. Carnea nu se decolorează după tăiere. Mirosul este fructuos și plăcut, gustul dulceag.
 Caracteristici microscopice: are spori netezi și fusiformi, pulberea lor fiind maronie, având o mărime de 9,5-10 x 3,5-4,5 microni.
 Reacții chimice: Buretele se decolorează cu acid sulfuric ocru-portocaliu, cu Hidroxid de amoniu mai întâi roz, apoi mov, cu Hidroxid de potasiu lila până violet-purpuriu, cu sulfat de fier gri-albăstrui și cu tinctură de Guaiacum gri.

Confuzii
Buretele poate fi confundat cu alte specii din genul Suillus precum soiuri foarte apropiate, cu toate comestibile, cum sunt:
Boletus rubellus, sin. Hortiboletus rubellus, Chalciporus piperatus, sin. Boletus piperatus, Gyrodon lividus, Suillus bovinus, Suillus bresadolae, Suillus collinitus, Suillus flavidus, Suillus grevillei, Suillus luteus sin. Boletus suillus, Suillus placidus, Suillus plorans, Suillus variegatus, Suillus viscidus comestibil, (se dezvoltă sub larici),
Xerocomus badius, Xerocomellus chrysenteron sin. Xerocomus chrysenteron, Boletus ferrugineus sin. Xerocomus ferrugineus, sau Boletus subtomentosus.

Specii asemănătoare

Valorificare
Acest burete este foarte gustos. Deși ceva mai mic, el poate fi pregătit în bucătărie ca hribul murg. La exemplare umede se îndepărtează cuticula lipicioasă (cel mai bine deja în pădure), la cele mai bătrâne și porii. El nu se potrivește pentru uscat.

Note

Bibliografie
 Marcel Bon: "Pareys Buch der Pilze", Editura Kosmos, Halberstadt 2012, ISBN 978-3-440-13447-4
 Bruno Cetto: vol. 1-3, 7 (vezi sus)
 Rose Marie și Sabine Maria Dähncke: "700 Pilze in Farbfotos", Editura AT Verlag, Aarau - Stuttgart 1979 și 1980, ISBN 3-85502-0450
 Jean-Louis Lamaison & Jean-Marie Polese: "Der große Pilzatlas", Editura Tandem Verlag GmbH, Potsdam 2012, ISBN 978-3-8427-0483-1
 J. E. și M. Lange: "BLV Bestimmungsbuch - Pilze", Editura BLV Verlagsgesellschaft, München, Berna Viena 1977, ISBN 3-405-11568-2
 Hans E. Laux: "Der große Pilzführer, Editura Kosmos, Halberstadt 2001, ISBN 978-3-440-14530-2
 Meinhard Michael Moser: " Röhrlinge und Blätterpilze - Kleine Kryptogamenflora Mitteleuropas", ediția a 5-ea, vol. 2, Editura Gustav Fischer, Stuttgart 1983

Legături externe

 Pitoașcă, film

Suillus
Micoriză
Ciuperci comestibile
1753 în știință

Suillus granulatus