Pazar (), Karadeniz bölgesindeki Rize'nin bir ilçesidir. Rize'nin 37 km doğusundadır.

Tarih

MÖ 64 yılında Pompeius tarafından Athenae adıyla kurulmuştur. İlçenin eski ismi Yunanca bir sözcüktür; akıl güzellik ve hikmet anlamına gelmektedir. 1888 tarihli Trabzon vilayeti salnamesine göre, Atina kazasında halk pagan tanrısı "Antas"a tapıyordu ve kasabanın adı da bu pagan tanrısından gelir. Bu tarihte Trabzon vilayetinin Trabzon sancağına bağlı olan Atina'nın nüfusu 2.313 hane ve 37.279 kişi olarak kaydedilmiştir. Kazanın ekonomisi tarım ve hayvancılığa dayanıyordu. Buğday, arpa, mısır, pirinç, fasulye, fındık ve keten tarımı yapılıyordu. Rençberlikle uğraşan halkın dışında ticaret ve esnaf erbabı da vardı. Denizde yunus avcılığı yapılıyor ve yakalanan yunusların yağı çıkarılarak dışarıya satılıyordu. Hayvancılık sığır, koyun ve keçi yetiştiriciliğine dayanıyordu. Atina kasabasında cuma günleri pazar kuruluyordu. Atina, keten ve yünden dokunan şalıyla da ünlüydü. Irmaklarda yakalanan alabalıktan havyar çıkarılıyordu.

İlçenin adı 1928 tarihli Osmanlıca köy listesine Atina olarak geçer. Adı kısa bir süre sonra "Pazar" olarak değiştirilmiştir. Nitekim 1935 yılı genel nüfus sayımında Pazar olarak kaydedilmiştir.

Coğrafya

Pazar, yüksek iç dağlarla kıyılara paralel uzanan bir Karadeniz sahil şerididir. Bu sahil, sıcak yazlarıyla ılımlı bir iklime sahiptir. (22 °C Ağustos'ta) ve serin kışlarıyla (7 °C Ocakta, kıyıda nadiren kar yağar), ancak çok ıslak ve nemlidir, yazın başlangıcından ayrı olarak (Nisan–Mayıs–Haziran) yıl boyunca yoğun yağışlıdır. Yılda ortalama 50 gün güneşli geçer. Karadeniz rüzgarı sonbaharda soğuk, yazın ise ıslak ve nemlidir.

Tüm bu yağışlarla birlikte alan çok daha yeşil bir bölgeye sahip oluyor. Pazar Deresi da dahil olmak üzere Karadeniz dağlarından gelen yağmur suyu ve kar erimi ile oluşan birçok akışla bölgeye daha fazla su gelir.

Burası tepelik bir bölgedir ve ana ekonomik faaliyeti çay yetiştiriciliğidir. Aynı zamanda Pazar ilçesinde balıkçılık, ticaret ve hafif sanayi (çay işleme)si bulunur. Çay, 1944 yılında ilçede dikilmiş ve şu anda mahsulü işlemek için Pazar'da üç fabrika bulunmaktadır. Pazar'daki ekilebilir arazinin% 65'i çay yetiştirmek için kullanılır. Çay dikimine başlanmadan önce, turunçgiller ve elmalar yetiştirildi, ancak günümüzde çoğunlukla durdu. İnsanların sebze ve kümes hayvanlarını yetiştirdikleri aile bahçelerindeki ağaçlar dışında, tütün, mısır, patates ve fasulye gibi bitkilerin ekimi için küçük alanlar vardır.
Pazar, yüksek otlak alanlarında yaz otlatma de dahil olmak üzere otlak arazisine (yayla) sahiptir. Daha yüksek rakımlarda ağaç dikmek daha zordur.

Günümüzde Pazar bir pazar kasabası ve yerel çay ticaretinin merkezi konumundadır. Balıkçılık bir zamanlar ilçedeki önemli faaliyetlerden biriydi. Karadeniz kirlendiğinde geleneksel hamsi, kefal ve kırmızı kefal dahil olmakla birlikte birçok balık türü soyunun tükenme tehlikesiyle karşı karşıya kaldı.

Çay ekimi başlayana kadar bu bölgedeki insanlar fakirleşmeye başladı ve yeni nesil daha iyi bir hayat için Avrupa ya da İstanbul'a göç etmeye başladı.  Hayat ilçede hala zordur ve insanlar yaz aylarında çay hasadı olmasına rağmen ilçeyi hala terk etmektedir.

Dağlar
İlçenin en yüksek dağı 3737 metre yüksekliğiyle güneydeki Kaçkar dağıdır. Diğer önemli yükseltiler Verçenik, Altıparmak ve Hipot'tur. Bu dağlar arasında yollar patikadan ibarettir. Kaçkar dağının üzerinde sürekli "buzul" vardır.

Yaylalar
İlçede yaylacılık doğal şartların sonucu olarak asırlardır sürdürülen ekonomik bir faaliyettir. Özellikle orta kesim ile kıyı kesiminde yer alan bazı köylerin sakinleri yaz aylarında hayvan otlatmak ve ürünlerini saklamak amacıyla Fırtına Deresi'nin yukarı çığırında yer alan yaylalara gitmektedirler. Bu yaylaların en önemlileri: Kito, Ambarlı, Kızılhaç, Çelmeç, Verçenbek, Kaleibala, Başyayla, Çiçekli, Elevit, Kelevit, Palovit ve Samistal'dır.

Kıyılar
Dağlar kıyıya paralel uzandığından düz, tabiî ve kuytu limanlardan mahrum olan boyuna kıyılar sınıfındandır.

Akarsular
Bütün akarsular "Daimi" akarsular olup, geçtikleri yerler fazla eğimli ve rejimleri düzensizdir. Yıl boyu fazla çekilme göstermez, yağmurlarla birlikte dağlarda kar suları da eklendiğinde kabarırlar. İlçe topraklarının büyük bir kısmını içine alan Pazar Deresi, dar, fakat derin bir vadi içinde akar. Güney-Kuzey yönünde akan doğudaki Fırtına Deresi ilçenin doğu sınırını oluşturur.
Çakalkaya Tepesinden doğarak ilçeyi ikiye böldükten sonra denize dökülen Pazar deresinden başka Merdivenli bölgesinden denize dökülen Melyat Deresi vardır.

Ekonomi
İlçe ekonomisinde en büyük payı çay alır. Bunun yanında balıkçılık ticaret, sanayi, bankacılık ve tarımda ekonomik kaynak yaratıcı işler olarak yapılmaktadır. Çayın halkın geçiminde bu kadar önemli olması yöredeki az kireçli toprağın bu bitki için ideal olmasından kaynaklanmaktadır.

Çay
1944 yılında Hisarlı, Örnek, Merdivenli, Kuzayca, Sivrikale ve Subaşı köylerindeki 50,5 dekarlık alanın "Çay Bahçesi" olarak ayrılmasıyla başlayan çay tarımı ilçede tarımda yeni bir sayfa açılmasını sağlamıştır. 1945 yılında Güney ve Tektaş köylerinde de başlayan çaycılık günümüzde tarımın tek ürüne "Uzmanlaşma" gelmesini yaratmıştır. 1980'de 4.073 dekarlık dikim alanı ile %11,2'lik bir paya sahip durum da olan ilçe Rize Merkez ve Çayeli dışında "En büyük çay alanlarına" sahipti. Hektarda 9.449 kilo verim ile merkezden sonra 2. durumda olan ilçenin çay üretimindeki payı %10.8 düzeyindedir. İlin en eski çay bahçelerine sahip olan ilçede tekniğe uygun koşullarda işlenmeye de önem verilmektedir. Bunun için çay teknolojisinin her evresinde teknik ve ekonomik gereksinim karşılanması ve tekdüze bir uygulamanın gerçekleştirilmemesi gerektiği ifade edilmekte ve işleme evreleri şöyle sıralanmaktadır:
 Soldurma
 Kıvırma
 Fermantasyon
 Kurutma
 Tasnif
 Ambalaj

Bu evreler gerektiği gibi yapıldığında elde edilen ürün kaliteli olmakta ve iyi demlenmeyle "Gerçek Çay İçme zevki" alınmaktadır.

Çay fabrikaları

Kirazlık Çay Fabrikası
Kirazlık Çay Fabrikası, 1939 yılında elma kurutma ve konserve fabrikası olarak kullanılan tesisi 1955 yılında çay işleme atölyesine dönüştürülmüştür. 1979 yılında ise üretim kapasitesi artırılarak bağımsız bir fabrika haline gelmiştir. 1984'te de "Kirazlık Çay fabrikası" adıyla modernize edilerek hizmete açılmıştır. Çay üretimi günlük 140 tondur. Fabrikaya bağlı köy sayısı: 16, çaylık alan: 18.000 dekar, Üretici Sayısı ise 4.885'tir.

Pazar Çay Fabrikası
Çay üretiminin artması sonucu atölye biçiminde varlığını sürdürürken, Kirazlık Çay Fabrikasının yetersiz kalışı yüzünden 1973 yılında kurulmuştur. Rize-Hopa karayolu üzerindeki fabrikanın günlük çay işleme kapasitesi 140 tondur. Fabrikaya bağlı köy sayısı: 31, Çaylık alanı: 21.523 dekar, Üretici Sayısı ise 6.510'dür.

Melyat Çay Fabrikası
Pazar'ın batısında Rize karayolu üzerinde 1979 yılında yapımına başlanmış ve 1983 yılında üretime geçmiştir. Günlük çay işleme kapasitesi 140 tondur. Fabrikaya bağlı köy sayısı: 23, Çaylık alan: 21.000 dekar, üretici sayısı ise 6.510'dür.

Taşlıdere Çay Fabrikası
Pazar - Hemşin Karayolu'nun 3. kilometresinde bulunmaktadır. Haziran 2017 tarihinde faaliyete geçmiştir. Günlük çay işleme kapasitesi yaklaşık 140 tondur.

Tarım

Bağ-bahçe
Kıyıda oldukça verimli olan toprak iç kesimlere gidildikçe bu özelliği kaybeder. yağışın bol, arazinin ise % 80-90 engebeli oluşu yüzünden ekonomik değerde tarım ürünleri yetiştiriciliğin yapılamadığı ilçede 5100 çiftçi ailesi vardır. Tarım kesiminin uğraş konularına göre dağılımı ise şöyledir:
 Çay tarımı: % 65
 Hayvancılık: % 20
 Tarla ziraatı: % 8
 Tütüncülük: % 4
 Bağ-Bahçe ziraatı: % 3

İlçe ekonomisinde en büyük payı çayın alması yüzünden tarla ziraatı ve bağ-bahçecilik çok küçük alanlarda, aile ihtiyacının karşılanma ihtiyacına yönelik yapılmaktadır. Cumhuriyetin ilk dönemlerinde ilçede büyük alan kaplayan mandalina ve portakal bahçeleri ile elmalık günümüzde çok azalmıştır. 1939 yılında ürünlerinin değerlendirilmesi için kurulan elma kurutma ve konserve fabrikası da ha sonra çayın devreye girmesiyle ekonomik olarak devreden çıkmıştır. 10-15 yıl gibi uzun sürede meyve vermeye başlayan ve şeker oranının düşük olma özelliğine sahip bulunan Laz elma (Demir elma) gibi "İzebella" adı ile anılan kokulu siyah üzümler iklim şartları yüzünden zamanında olgunlaşamamaktadır.

Günümüzde bağcılık çaylık alanların yanında, armut ve elma ağaçları ile birlikte aile ihtiyacı için sürdürülmektedir. Trabzon hurması olarak adlandırılan meyve ise konserve ve pekmez yapılmak üzere Erzurum'a yollanmaktadır.

Tarla
Tarla ziraatına ayrılan 2.000 hektarlık alanda mısır, fasulye ve patates ekilmektedir.

Mısır: İlçenin çaydan sonra gelen en önemli bitkisidir. Eskiden çok geniş alanlarda ekimi yapılırken günümüzde sadece 450 hektarlık bir alanda üretilmektedir.

Fasulye: Genellikle bahçe kenarlarında yetiştirilir, toplam ekim alanı 20 dekarla sınırlıdır.

Hayvancılık
Arazinin engebeli, çayır ve mer'anın az olduğu, çay bahçeleri nedeniyle yem bitkilerinin ekilmemesi yüzünden hayvancılık "ahır hayvancılığı" şeklinde yapılmaktadır. Kıyı kesimlerdeki bu durumun aksine yüksek yerleşimlerde hayvancılık asıl uğraş olarak dikkat çekmektedir. Kıyı kesimde az sayıda aile kendi süt ihtiyacını karşılamak amacıyla Jersey inek türü beslemektedir. Hayvansal ürünü satmak amacıyla yetiştiren aile sayısı oldukça azdır. Hayvancılık yapanlar yem ihtiyacını Doğu Anadolu Bölgesinden ot getirerek ya da suni yem alarak karşılamaktadır. Koyun ve keçi ise çaylık alanlarda hiç bakılmakta, yüksek alanlardaki yayla ve mer'alarda ise küçük sürüler halinde görülmektedir. İlçenin et ihtiyacının %85'i Doğu Anadolu Bölgesinden karşılanmaktadır.

İlçe tarım müdürlüğünün kuluçka makinelerinde üretilen ve vatandaşa maliyetine verilen civcivler ise aile ihtiyacının karşılanması için yetiştirilmektedir. Bazı aileler tarafından küçük işletmeler tarafından sürdürülen tavukçuluk da yöre ihtiyacını karşılamaktan uzaktır. Gerek mahalle, gerekse köy yollarının yapılması yüzünden eskiden taşımacılıkta kullanılan at ve katır yetiştiriciliği de ortadan kalkmıştır. sahil kesiminde rutubetin çok olması yüzünden iç kısımlardaki dağlık ve yaylalık alanlarda yapılan arıcılık 3600 civarında fenni ve iptidai kovanla sürdürülmektedir.

Ormancılık
Pazar Orman İşletme Müdürlüğü 1967 yılında kurulmuştur. Bünyesinde oluşturduğu Orman İşletme Şeflikleri ile çalışmalarını sürdüren müdürlüğün sorumlu olduğu alan 198,673,5 hektardır. 8171,5 hektarlık alandaki ladin, göknar, kayın, kızılağaç ve diğer türlerden oluşan ormanarın bakımını sürdüren işletme 56.702,2 hektarlık alanda ağaçlandırma, 2.072 hektar alanda da temsil çalışması sürdürmektedir.

Ormanlık alanların çok sarp ve engebeli, yağışların ise sürekli ve çok olması yüzünden ağaçlandırma çalışmaları istenene düzeyde sürdürülememektedir. Planlanan orman içi yolarlı da olumsuzlukların çokluğu yüzünden planlandığı şekilde gerçekleştirilememektedir. Ormanlık alanlarda halkın "Komar" olarak adlandırdığı ormangülü bitkisi topluluk olarak bulunmaktadır.

Tütüncülük
İlçede biri kokulu kıyım tütünü diğeri puro tütünü olmak üzere iki tür tütün yetiştirilmektedir. Puro tütünü Pazar adıyla anılan puroların yapımında kullanılmaktaydı. Puro tütünü ilk kez 1950'li yıllarda Küba'dan getirilmiştir. Toprak yapısı gereği yalnızca 26 köyde ekimine izin verilmiştir. Puro tütününü diğer tütünlerden ayıran en büyük özellik yapraklarının 1 metre civarında oluşudur. Diğer tütünler gibi kıyılmayan bu tütün "iç sargılık", "Dış sargılık" ve "Dolguluk" olarak üç aşamada kullanılır. Puro tütünün 1991'de 139 üreticisi vardı ve yıllık 8590 kg üretilmişti. 1999'da ise üretici sayısı 3'e, üretim miktarı 139 kilograma düşmüştü.

İlçede kurulan fideliklerde kaliteli tütün fideleri yetiştirilerek çiftçi ihtiyacı karşılanmaktadır Son zamanlarda kurutma yerlerinin ilkel olması yüzünden düşen üretim teknik ve sağlık işletmelerin kurulması halinde yeniden canlandırılabilecektir. Günümüzde ise Pazar ilçesinde puro tütünü yok denecek kadar azalmış bunun yerini çay üretimi almıştır.

Balıkçılık
İlçenin gelir getiren kaynaklarından biri de balıkçılıktır. Pazar'lı denile bütünleşmiş gibidir, onsuz yapamaz. Fakat deniz kirliliği yüzünden balıkçılık eski önemi ve yerini kaybetmektedir.

Eskiden Pazar'lı hem balığı tutar yerdi,hem de satarak geçimini sürdürürdü. Bu gün dededen kalma mesleği sürdüren 150-200 civarındaki balıkçı ailesi geçim sıkıntısı içinde yaşama savaşı vermektedir.

Bundan 10-15 yıl öncesi hamsi, kefal, barbun, kalkan balığı, karagöz, yelken, mezgit, palamut, istavrit gibi deniz ürünleri bakımından zengin olan Karadeniz'de denetimsiz, bilinçsiz avlanma ve çevre kirliliği yüzünden ortaya çıkan bu durum gerçekten içler acısıdır.

Balıktan umduğunu bulamayan Pazar'lı deniz özlemini küçük balıkçı tekneleri ile lüks yat yapımını sürdürerek gidermektedir. Bahçedeki daracık alanlarda yöre insanının becerisi ve bir keser-testere yardımıyla sürdürülen tekne yapımı önemli bir ekonomik değer yaratmaktadır. Deniz balıkçılığı yanında tatlı su balıkçılığı da ilçede önemli bir yer tutmaktadır. Alabalık yanında son zamanlarda salmon yetiştiriciliği önemli bir faaliyet alanıdır.

Karadeniz'de salmon
Karadeniz'de oksijenin yatay ve dikey dağılımı yanında doymuşluk oranının yüksekliği salmon üreticiliği için son derece elverişli bir ortam yaratmaktadır. İlçedeki geniş alanların varlığı ve müteşebbis vatandaşların hevesi ile bu bakımdan da büyük bir üretim değerine ulaşılacağına mutlak gözü ile bakılmaktadır.

Ticaret ve sanayi
Eskiden beri oldukça canlı olan ticarette en büyük payı çay alırken bunu deri ve kereste izlemektedir. İlçe adının "Pazar" oluşu da ticaretin odak noktası olmasından gelmektedir.

Her türlü bakkaliye, manifatura, tuhafiye, kavafiye, züccaciye, mensucat yanında sebze-meyve ve ot ilçe dışından getirilmektedir.
Yöre insanının en önemli ihtiyacını karşılayan çay makası, teleferik, yayık makinesi gibi küçük sanayi ürünleri ilçede yapılıp kullanılmakta, çevre ilçelere de yollanmaktadır. Ayrıca mobilyacılıkta ilçede çok gelişmiştir. El becerisi ve zevkin kaynaşması ile ortaya çıkan birbirinden güzel mobilyalar dayanıklıkları ile tanınmaktadır.

Kültür

Yaşam
Etnik köken olarak Hemşinliler ve Lazlar vardır. Yaygın olarak Lazca ve Türkçe konuşulur. Ulus-devlet politikaları sebebiyle Lazca yok olma tehlikesi altındadır.
İlçenin en belirgin yanı dış çevreyle sürekli ve yoğun ilişkidir. Yörede "Gurbetçilik" denen göç olgusu çeşitli biçimlerde etkinliğini sürdürmektedir.
Toplumsal yapıda köklü değişiklikler yaratan çay ekimi öncesinde deniz; ana geçim kaynağıydı. Daha sonra taşımacılı gibi hizmetlerde denize açılan ilçe insanı öteden beri "Ev dışı" bir yaşama biçimine yönelmiştir. Başsız, erkeksiz kalan ailenin öbür bireylerindeyse içine kapanık bir yaşama düzeni görülmüştür. Yörenin dağınık yerleşim düzeni de içe kapanmayı yaratmaktadır. Kapalı yapıda toplumsal değerler ve ilişkiler, büyük ölçüde geleneksel-dinsel düşüncelerle biçimlenmektedir.
Nüfus yoğunluğu ve toprakların yetersizliği yüzünden göç sürmüştür. (Çaylığı bu alanda yarattığı değişim, il dışına çalışmaya gidenlerin yaz aylarında ilçeye dönmesidir.) Aynı etkenler ailenin parçalanmasını ve ölüm sonuçlanan etkenler çatışmaları ve yöre yaşamının tipik özellikleri haline getirmektedir.
Dağ ve iklim koşularından kaynaklanan, taş ve ahşaba dayalı özgün ev yapısı bile yerini kırsal kesimde betonarmeye bırakmıştır. Dağınık yerleşme anlayışı sürdürülürken, bomboş alanlarda birkaç katlı, villa tipi evler geçim düzeyinin bir göstergesi olmuştur. Çay gelirleriyle il dışında ya da işinde yatırıma yönelirken tüketim eğilimi de giderek yükselmiştir. Ancak tarıma dayalı uğraşlarla biçimlenen geleneksel değerler, toplumsal ilişkilerde günlük yaşamı belirleyiciliğini korumaktadır.

Giyim
İlçe insanını geleneksel giyim, kuşamında Lazlığın etkisi belirgindir. Daha çok içlik "fanile" gibi iç giysilerde kullanılan Rize bezi" ve keten dokumaları yöremize özgüdür. Başlıkların iklim koşullarınca biçimlendiği bir gerçek. "Laz için başlık, bir süsü değil bir şemsiyedir. Şık olmak kaygısı ile değil, fesinin etrafına sardığı mendil, fırtına ve rüzgara karşı yeterli olmadığı zaman başını korumak için başlığını kullanır. Erkek giyiminde geleneksel özellikler yitmekte, çağdaş giyim kuşam belirmektedir. Kadın giyiminde değişim çok kısıtlıdır. Çarşaf kalktıktan sonra aynı örtünme biçimi atkı ya da peştamalle sürdürülmüştür. Entariler oldukça uzun ve bol dikimlidir. Keşan ve Peştamal; desen biçiminde bir parça bele sarılır, öbürüde başa alınır. ilçenin yüksek kesimde veya eskiden benimsenen bu giyside, çevre etkilerinin yoğunluğundan kaynaklanan bir değişme görülmektedir. Hazır giysiler kadın giyim-kuşamına giymiştir. Bunların dışında takılarda ilçenin kadın giyim-kuşamında değişmeyen öğelerdir.

Sanat
Geçmişte ilçede dokumacılık önemli bir yer tutardı. Öyle ki sepet, sandalye örücülüğü gelişmişti. En gelişmiş dokuma türü bezdi. Kenevir ipliğinden dokunan bezler iç çamaşırı yapımında kullanılırdı. Sepet ve sandalye örücülüğü günümüzde de sürdürülmektedir. Sepetlerin el sepeti, Gamal-kaşıklık gibi türleri vardır. Meyve sepeti incedir, uzundur, koni biçimindedir. "Gamal" ise daha çok Trabzon da yaygın olmasına karşın ilçe insanı tarafından genellikle kola takılarak taşınır. Yavuz, Tütüncüler köylerinde örgü koltuk, sandalye ve iskemle yapımı yaygındır. Bu sandalyelerin örgülerinde mısır kosanı yaprağı ya da sarmaşık, ayaklarında fındık dalları kullanılır.

Nüfus

Politika

Yerel seçimler

İklim
Pazar'da okyanusal iklim (Köppen: Cfb) görülmektedir.

Kaynakça

Dış bağlantılar
 T.C.Rize Valiliği
 Rize belediyesi

Pazar, Rize


Harriets himmelfærd er et radiodrama af den danske dramatiker og forfatter Line Knutzon. Det blev sendt på Danmarks Radio i 1995. Det er det første radiodrama, i hvilket de to antihelte Måvens og Peder figurerer. Radiodramaet er instrueret af Emmet Feigenberg med teknik af Erik Holmen.

Handling

En kvinde (Ditte Gråbøl) banker på Himmerigets port. Hun præsenterer sig som Harriet og forklarer, at hun efter at have været til et selskab så alle sine ting svæve rundt oppe på himlen, hvorefter hun ved et uheld fløj til himmels. Da hun ikke er død, nægtes hun adgang til Himmeriget og kastes ud. Hun lander i Måvens' (Mikael Birkkjær) slikbutik, netop som han har skrevet i sin dagbog, at han vil begå selvmord. Efter 441 dage uden en kunde i butikken er han overbevist om, at verden finder ham frastødende. Måvens bliver først begejstret, da han tror, Harriet er en kunde, men senere skeptisk, da hun ikke kan fremvise et indkøbsnet. Harriet forklarer, at alle hendes ting befinder sig oppe i himlen og viser, at hun kan flyve. Måvens bliver forskrækket og tror, hun er et genfærd, men det benægter hun. Hun fortæller, at hun til et selskab råbte ud i natten, at hun ikke havde mere at sige, og at hendes udbrud gjorde en mand så forskrækket, at han tabte alle sine tårer. Hun viser Måvens en perlekæde dannet af alle mandens tårer, og Måvens synes, der er noget bekendt ved den.

Måvens foreslår, at Harriet bliver fast kunde i hans slikbutik, men hun fortæller, at hun allerede har et arbejde som udstillingsmodel i et glasskab på en togstation. Derefter flyver hun sin vej.

Måvens ringer til Peder (Søren Sætter-Lassen), og de mødes efterfølgende i Peders lejlighed. Efter en snak om deres tid i folkeskolen, som de begge savner, fortæller Peder, at han ikke har været i stand til at græde, siden alle hans tårer frøs til is under en spadseretur en frostklar nat. Måvens fortæller derefter om Harriet og beder om hjælp til at finde hende, så hun kan blive "hans faste". Peder bliver pludselig åndsfraværende, men indvilliger dog.

De går ned på den lokale beverding. Peder spørger, hvad der skal ske med ham, når Harriet bliver Måvens' "faste", hvortil Måvens svarer, at hun også kan blive hans faste. Peder, der ikke er klar over, at Måvens mener "faste kunde", bliver vred og afviser idéen, hvorpå han siger, at han allerede kender meningen med alting, når alt er sagt, og der ikke er mere at sige. Måvens beder ham uddybe, og da Peder svarer, at meningen med alting er kærlighed, styrter beverdingen sammen, og de bliver nødt til at flygte. Under flugten letter de pludselig og flyver.

Fra luften får de øje på en togstation og lander i et nærliggende pæretræ. På perronen opdager de Harriet, der sidder i et glasskab. Måvens befrier hende ved at knuse glasset, blot for at få at vide at hun slet ikke vil befries. Slukøret vender Måvens tilbage til Peder, der i mellemtiden er kravlet op i pæretræet. Peder fortæller, at han allerede kender Harriet fra den aften, han gik en tur og tabte sine tårer, og at han elsker hende, men ikke har villet sige det, fordi han troede, Måvens også elskede hende. Måvens svarer, at han blot ønskede, hun skulle komme fast i slikbutikken, og skynder sig tilbage for at hente Harriet. Hun genkender Peder og giver ham perlekæden med hans tårer, så han igen bliver i stand til at græde, hvorpå de står i et stykke tid uden at sige noget til hinanden.

Afvigelser mellem radioversion og trykt version
I forhold til den trykte udgave er dialogen i radiodramatiseringen visse steder forkortet, det gælder f.eks. dialogen mellem Harriet og stemmerne i Himmeriget og den afsluttende dialog mellem Harriet, Måvens og Peder; hvor radiodramatiseringen ender med, at de tre står i et stykke tid uden at sige noget til hinanden, ender den trykte version i et mindre skænderi.

Referencer

Litteratur
 Knutzon, Line. Samlede Knutzon. Bind 2. Måvens & Peder – Line Knutzons udgivelser på Forlaget Drama 1995-2007, s. 7-46. DRAMA, 2014. .

Se også
 Måvens og Peder på kanotur
 Måvens og Peder i mediernes søgelys
 Måvens og Peder møder Måvens og Peder
 Måvens og Peder mister mælet
 Måvens og Peder får samtalekøkken
 Måvens og Peder på Herrens mark

Radiodramaer fra Danmark

Harriets himmelfærd


An Oncidium luteum in uska species han Liliopsida nga ginhulagway ni Robert Allen Rolfe. An Oncidium luteum in nahilalakip ha genus nga Oncidium, ngan familia nga Orchidaceae. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Oncidium

Oncidium luteum


A Corrida Internacional de São Silvestre de 2022 foi a 97º edição da prova de rua, no dia 31 de dezembro de 2022, no centro da cidade de São Paulo, a prova teve a organização da Fundação Casper Líbero.

A largada do evento foi na Avenida Paulista e a chegada também na Avenida Paulista em frente ao Edifício Cásper Líbero.

No masculino foi vencida por Andrew Kwemoi e no feminino por Catherine Reline.

2022
2022 no atletismo
2022 em São Paulo


Hero With A 1000 Eyes es una canción de Steve Lukather, el guitarrista de Toto.

Canción
Resulta ser la primera pista de su segundo disco, Candyman, en el cual participan varios integrantes de Toto y Los Lobotomys, la banda de Lukather.

La canción resulta ser una de las más conocidas por los fanes de Lukather. En esta canción encontramos un sonido Hard Rock unido al rock neoprogresivo, junto a complementos del jazz fusion y otros géneros presentes en el resto del disco.

La canción fue escrita por Lukather junto a David Garfield Y Fee Waybill, los cuales escribieron varias de las pistas del disco.

Fue tocada en varias de las giras de Lukather, como el Candyman World Tour y el Ever Changing Times Tour.

Músicos
Steve Lukather: Voz, guitarra eléctrica, guitarra acústica, coros.
Simon Phillips: Batería.
Lenny Castro: Percusión.
Fee Waybill: Coros.
Richard Page: Coros.
Kevin Curry: Coros.
John Peña: Bajo.
David Garfield: Teclados.

Canciones de Steve Lukather

Hero with a 1000 Eyes


Santa Gertrudes es un municipio brasileño del estado de São Paulo. Se localiza a una latitud 22º27'24" sur y a una longitud 47º31'49" oeste, estando a una altitud de 595 metros. Su población, en el censo de 2010, era de 21.644 habitantes.

Historia
Tuvo su origen en la parcela de tierra denominada Naranja Azeda que perteneció a la parcela de la Colina Azul y que fue adquirida el 18 de junio de 1821 por el brigadier Manuel Rodrigues Jordão y su esposa Gertrudes Galvão de Oliveira Lacerda, progenitores del Barón de São João de Río Claro: Amador Rodrigues de Lacerda Jordão.

El 24 de diciembre de 1948 el distrito se emancipó de Río Claro y pasó a denominarse municipio de Santa Gertrudes.

Referencias

Enlaces externos

 Página de la prefectura

Localidades de São Paulo

Santa Gertrudes (São Paulo)


Policotomía (de poli-, "varios", y -tomos "cortar", "dividir") es un término usado en el contexto de la taxonomía para referirse a la forma de clasificación por divisiones y subdivisiones sucesivas, cada una de ellas en un número de partes superior a tres. Como adjetivo se usa policótomo y policotómico.

Cuando el número es de dos, se habla de dicotomía. Cuando el número es de tres se habla de tricotomía.

Enlaces externos
Uso bibliográfico en Google books

Epistemología

Policotomía


An Dichanthium sericeum in uska species han Liliopsida nga syahan ginhulagway ni Robert Brown, ngan ginhatag han pagkayana nga asya nga ngaran ni Aimée Antoinette Camus. An Dichanthium sericeum in nahilalakip ha genus nga Dichanthium, ngan familia nga Poaceae.

Subspecies

Ini nga species ginbahin ha masunod nga subspecies:

 D. s. humilius
 D. s. polystachyum

Mga kasarigan

Mga sumpay ha gawas

Dichanthium

Dichanthium sericeum


La Christuskirche () en Maguncia, Alemania, es una iglesia luterana de arquitectura historicista. Arquitectónicamente, es una de las iglesias más destacadas de Maguncia y una significativa muestra de los edificios religiosos del luteranismo. Es un edificio alto de piedra arenisca y tiene una cúpula de cobre que, al reflejar los rayos solares, convierte a este edificio en uno de los más hermosos de Maguncia-Neustadt.

Historia
Fue construida entre 1896 y 1903 y diseñada por Eduard Kreyßig. Durante la Segunda Guerra Mundial fue totalmente destruida a causa del bombardeo de Maguncia en 1945. Su reconstrucción comenzó en 1952, finalizando ésta en 1954.

Galería de imágenes

Iglesias de Alemania del siglo XX
Iglesias neorrenacentistas
Christuskirche
Iglesias luteranas de Alemania
Arquitectura neorrenacentista de Alemania
Arquitectura de 1903
Arquitectura de 1954
Alemania en 1903
Alemania en 1954
Iglesias de Alemania del siglo XX reconstruidas
Iglesias dedicadas a Jesucristo

Christuskirche (Maguncia)


Chipper Lowell is an American comedian and magician. Lowell was born in Massachusetts, United States, to a circus-travelling family. At the age of 17, he began performing solo shows.  Lowell's influences include vaudeville, stand-up comedy, and improvisational comedy. In addition to performing live shows, he is a writer, producer and consultant for theater, television and film projects.

References

External links
 Official website

21st-century American comedians
Living people
Year of birth missing (living people)

Chipper Lowell


Udo von Osnabrück († 28./29. Juni 1141) (häufig auch Udo von Steinfurt genannt) war von 1137 bis 1141 Bischof von Osnabrück.

Leben
Die ältere Literatur spricht davon, dass Udo aus dem Haus Steinfurt stammte. Dieses ist aber nicht gesichert. Vor seiner Erhebung zum Bischof war er Propst von St. Moritz in Hildesheim.

Investiert wurde er vermutlich von Konrad III. Möglicherweise war er bei dessen Wahl 1138 in Koblenz anwesend. Diesem war er in der Folge auch treu. Am königlichen Hof ist er 1138 in Köln und Bamberg, 1139 in Goslar  und 1140 in Worms   als Zeuge verschiedener Rechtsakte nachweisbar. Möglicherweise hat er beim Hoftag in Goslar dazu beigetragen, dass Heinrich dem Stolzen das Herzogtum Bayern genommen wurde.

Er begann die Stiftung des Klosters Gertrudenberg bei Osnabrück. Vollendet wurde die Gründung erst von seinem Nachfolger. Zu seiner Zeit sind auch die beiden Türme am Dom in Osnabrück begonnen und damit der Wiederaufbau abgeschlossen worden.

Einzelnachweise

Literatur
Wolfram Ziegler: König Konrad III. (1138-1152). Hof, Urkunden und Politik. Wien u. a., 2008 284f.
C. Stüve: Geschichte des Hochstifts Osnabrück bis zum Jahr 1508. Osnabrück, 1853 S. 17

Römisch-katholischer Bischof (12. Jahrhundert)
Bischof von Osnabrück
Geboren im 11. oder 12. Jahrhundert
Gestorben 1141
Mann

Udo von Osnabrück


The Bay of San Miguel () is a bay of the Gulf of Panama, located on the Pacific coast of Darién Province in eastern Panama.

The bay is located at .

It is fed by the Tuira River. At its southern end is Cape Garachiné (also known as Point Garachina), and at its northern end is Punta San Lorenzo (a.k.a. Cape Gardo).

See also

San Miguel
San Miguel, Panama
Landforms of Darién Province
Gulf of Panama
Panamanian coasts of the Pacific Ocean

Bay of San Miguel


Satipatthana (; ) is a central practice in the Buddha's teachings, meaning "the establishment of mindfulness" or "presence of mindfulness", or alternatively "foundations of mindfulness", aiding the development of a wholesome state of mind. In Theravada Buddhism, applying mindful attention to four domains, the body, feelings, the mind, and key principles or categories of the Buddha's teaching (dhammās), is thought to aid the elimination of the five hindrances and the development of the seven aspects of wakefulness.

The Satipatthana Sutta is probably the most influential meditation text in modern Theravada Buddhism, on which the teachings of the Vipassana movement are based. While these teachings are found in all Buddhist traditions, modern Theravada Buddhism and the Vipassana Movement are known especially for promoting the practice of satipaṭṭhāna as developing mindfulness to gain insight into impermanence, thereby reaching a first state of liberation. In the popular understanding, mindfulness has developed into a practice of bare awareness to calm the mind.

Etymology

is a compound term that has been parsed (and thus translated) in two ways, namely  and . The separate terms can be translated as follows:
 Sati – Pali; Sanskrit smṛti. Smṛti originally meant "to remember", "to recollect", "to bear in mind", as in the Vedic tradition of remembering the sacred text; the term sati also means "to remember". According to Sharf, in the Satipațțhāna-sutta the term sati means to remember the wholesome dhammās, whereby the true nature of phenomena can be seen, such as the five faculties, the five powers, the seven awakening-factors, the Noble Eightfold Path, and the attainment of insight. Usually, sati is interpreted as observing and watching various phenomena or domains of experience, being aware and attentive of them in the present moment.
  (Sanskrit: upasthāna) – "attendance, waiting on, looking after, service, care, ministering"
   – "setting forth, putting forward"; in later Buddhist literature also "origin", "starting point", "cause".

The compound terms have been translated as follows:
 – "presence of mindfulness" or "establishment of mindfulness" or "arousing of mindfulness", underscoring the mental qualities co-existent with or antecedent to mindfulness.
 – "foundation of mindfulness", underscoring the object used to gain mindfulness.

While the latter parsing and translation is more traditional, the former has been given etymological and contextual authority by contemporary Buddhist scholars such as Bhikkhu Analayo and Bhikkhu Bodhi.

Anālayo argues from an etymological standpoint that, while "foundation [] of mindfulness" is supported by the Pāli commentary, the term  (foundation) was otherwise unused in the Pāli nikayas and is only first used in the Abhidhamma. In contrast, the term  (presence or establishment) can in fact be found throughout the nikayas and is readily visible in the Sanskrit equivalents of the compound Pāli phrase  (Skt.,  or ). Thus Anālayo states that "presence of mindfulness" (as opposed to "foundation of mindfulness") is more likely to be etymologically correct.

Like Anālayo, Bodhi assesses that "establishment [] of mindfulness" is the preferred translation. However, Bodhi's analysis is more contextual than Anālayo's. According to Bodhi, while "establishment of mindfulness" is normally supported by the textual context, there are exceptions to this rule, such as with SN 47.42 where a translation of "foundation of mindfulness" is best supported. Soma uses both "foundations of mindfulness" and "arousing of mindfulness."

The term sati (Sanskrit: smṛti), which is often translated as mindfulness, also means memory and recollection, and it is often used in that sense in the early discourses, which sometimes define sati as "the ability of calling to mind what has been done or said long ago." According to Sharf, in the Satipaṭṭhāna Sutta, the term sati means to remember the dharmas, which allows one to see the true nature of phenomena.

According to Anālayo, sati does not literally mean memory, but "that which facilitates and enables memory." This is particularly applicable in the context of satipaṭṭhāna, in which sati does not refer to remembering past events, but an "awareness of the present moment", and to remember to stay in that awareness (especially if one's attention wanders away). Anālayo states that it is this clear and awake state of presence is that allows one to easily remember whatever is experienced. He also states that sati is a detached, uninvolved and non-reactive observation which does not interfere with what it is observing (such an active function is instead associated with right effort, not mindfulness). This allows one to clearly attend to things in a more sober, objective and impartial manner. Regarding upaṭṭhāna, Anālayo writes that it means "being present" and "attending" in this context. He further states: "Understood in this way, "satipaṭṭhāna" means that sati "stands by", in the sense of being present; sati is "ready at hand", in the sense of attending to the current situation. Satipaṭṭhāna can then be translated as "presence of mindfulness" or as "attending with mindfulness."

Paul Williams (referring to Frauwallner) states that satipaṭṭhāna practice refers to "constantly watching sensory experience in order to prevent the arising of cravings which would power future experience into rebirths."

Rupert Gethin, who argues that satipaṭṭhāna is derived from sati+upaṭṭhāna, sees satipaṭṭhāna as "the activity of observing or watching the body, feelings, mind and dhammas," as well as "a quality of mind that 'stands near'" (the literal meaning of upaṭṭhāna) or "serves' the mind," and even "presence of mind". Gethin further notes that sati ('mindfulness') refers to "remembering" or "having in mind" something. It is keeping something in mind without wavering or losing it.

Bhikkhu Bodhi writes that sati is "a presence of mind, attentiveness or awareness" as well as "bare attention, a detached observation of what is happening within us and around us in the present moment [...] the mind is trained to remain in the present, open, quiet, alert, contemplating the present event." He also states that sati is "what brings the field of experience into focus and makes it accessible to insight." According to Bodhi, to be mindful, "all judgements and interpretations have to be suspended, or if they occur, just registered and dropped."

Bhante Gunaratana explains satipaṭṭhāna practice as bringing full awareness to our present moment bodily and mental activities.

According to Sujato, mindfulness is "the quality of mind which recollects and focuses awareness within an appropriate frame of reference, bearing in mind the what, why, and how of the task at hand."

Textual accounts

Early Buddhist texts
In the Pāli Tipitaka, the four satipaṭṭhānas are found throughout the  (SN, Chapter 47) which contains 104 of the Buddha's discourses on the . Other saṁyuttas in SN also deal with satipaṭṭhāna extensively, such as the Anuruddha-saṁyutta. They can also be found in the  (MN 10), as well as in DN 22 which is mostly the same with the addition of the four noble truths.

The Sarvāstivāda Saṃyukta Āgama (SĀ, Taisho Tripitaka #99) contains an entire section devoted to smṛtyupasthāna, which parallels the Pali Satipaṭṭhāna-samyutta. According to Sujato, the Sarvāstivāda Smṛtyupasthāna Sūtra seems to emphasize samatha or calm abiding, while the Theravadin version emphasizes vipassana or insight.

The Chinese Tripitaka also contains two parallels to the Satipaṭṭhāna sutta; Madhyama Āgama (MĀ) No. 98 (belonging to the Sarvāstivāda) and the Ekottara Āgama 12.1, Ekāyana Sūtra (possibly from the Mahāsaṅghika school). Their presentation of the satipaṭṭhāna formula has some significant differences with the Theravada version. For example, MĀ 98 lists the four jhanas and the 'perception of light' under mindfulness of the body as well as listing six elements instead of four. However they generally share the same structure and several basic practices.

Scholastic and Abhidhamma texts
The four satipaṭṭhāna are analyzed and systematized in the scholastic and Abhidharma works of the various Buddhist schools. In these later texts, various doctrinal developments can be seen. The satipaṭṭhānas can be found in the Vibhaṅga (a book of the Theravada Abhidhamma Pitaka) in a form which differs from that in the Satipaṭṭhāna Sutta. According to Johannes Bronkhorst and Bhikkhu Sujato, the satipaṭṭhāna formulation in the Vibhaṅga is actually an earlier version of the formula (it includes less elements than the Satipaṭṭhāna Sutta). The Sarvāstivāda Abhidharma text called the Dharmaskandha also contains a passage with the smṛtyupasthāna schema. According to Sujato, this is very similar to the passage from the Vibhaṅga. The Śāriputrābhidharma, an Abhidharma text of the Dharmaguptaka school, also contains a passage with the smṛtyupasthānas.

In his history of satipaṭṭhāna, Bhikkhu Sujato writes that:
In the early teachings satipaṭṭhāna was primarily associated not with vipassanā but with samatha. Since for the Suttas, samatha and vipassanā cannot be divided, a few passages show how this samatha practice evolves into vipassanā. In later literature the vipassanā element grew to predominate, almost entirely usurping the place of samatha in satipaṭṭhāna.

Tse-fu Kuan agrees, noting that "the tendency to dissociate satipaṭṭhāna from samatha is apparently a rather late development." According to Sujato, various canonical texts which show sectarian Theravada elements consistently depict satipaṭṭhāna as more closely aligned with vipassanā practice. However, in the canonical Abhidhamma, satipaṭṭhāna is still said to be associated with jhana as well. For example, according to Kuan, the Vibhanga "says that when a monk attains the first jhāna and contemplates the body (feelings,  etc.) as a body (feelings, etc.), at that time sati, anussati, etc. are called 'satipaṭṭhāna.'" Meanwhile, the canonical Abhidharma texts of the Sarvāstivāda tradition consistently interpreted the smṛtyupasthānas as being a practice that was associated with samadhi and dhyana. This can be seen in the Mahāvibhāṣa Śāstra, which contains a section on how to practice the smṛtyupasthānas in the context of the four dhyanas and the formless attainments.

In the later texts of the Theravada tradition, like the Visuddhimagga, the focus on vipassanā is taken even further. Some of these works claim that one may reach awakening by practicing dry insight meditation (vipassanā without jhana) based on satipaṭṭhāna. Through this practice, one is said to be able to reach a "transcendental jhana" which lasts for one mind moment prior to realization. According to Sujato this is a "grave distortion of the suttas".

The same kind of trend can be seen in some later, post-canonical Sarvāstivāda Abhidharma works, such as the Abhidharmasāra of Dharmaśrī. This text, unlike the canonical Sarvāstivāda Abhidharma, treats the four smṛtyupasthānas as mainly vipassanā practices. This presentation influenced later works like the Abhidharmakośa (4th century CE), which "defines satipaṭṭhāna not as 'mindfulness', but as 'understanding' (paññā)." However, this practice is only undertaken after having practiced samādhi based on ānāpānasati or contemplation of the body and so is not equivalent to the dry insight approach of the later Theravada.

Mahayana texts
Mahayana Buddhist texts also contain teachings on the four smṛtyupasthānas. These include the Pratyutpanna Samādhi Sūtra, Asanga's Abhidharmasamuccaya, the Yogācārabhūmi, Vasubandhu's Madhyāntavibhāgabhāṣya, the Avataṁsaka Sūtra, and Santideva's Śikṣāsamuccaya. Furthermore, Nagarjuna's Letter to a Friend contains a passage which affirms the early Buddhist understanding of the four smṛtyupasthānas as closely connected with samādhi: "he persevering practice (of smṛtyupasthāna) is called 'samādhi'." Another parallel passage of the satipaṭṭhāna schema can be found in the Pañcavimsatisāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā sutra. Another passage is found in the Śrāvakabhūmi.

Elements in the early texts
The various early sources for satipaṭṭhāna provide an array of practices for each domain of mindfulness. Some of these sources are more elaborate and contain more practices than others. The table below contains the main elements found in the various early Buddhist sources on the satipaṭṭhānas.

Various scholars have attempted to use the numerous early sources to trace an "ur-text" i.e. the original satipaṭṭhāna formula or the earliest sutta. Bronkhorst (1985) argues that the earliest form of the satipaṭṭhāna sutta only contained the observation of the impure body parts under mindfulness of the body, and that mindfulness of dhammas was originally just the observation of the seven awakening factors. Sujato's reconstruction similarly only retains the contemplation of the impure under mindfulness of the body, while including only the five hindrances and the seven awakening factors under mindfulness of dhammas. According to Analayo, mindfulness of breathing was probably absent from the original scheme, noting that one can easily contemplate the body's decay taking an external object, that is, someone else's body, but not be externally mindfull of the breath, that is, someone else's breath.

Connection with other Buddhist teachings

Gradual training
The satipaṭṭhānas are one of the seven sets of "states conducive to awakening" (Pāli bodhipakkhiyādhammā) identified in many schools of Buddhism as means for progressing toward bodhi (awakening). The early sources also contain passages in which the Buddha is said to refer to satipaṭṭhāna as a path which is "ekā-yano" for purification and the realisation of nirvana. The term ekāyano has been interpreted and translated in different ways including "the only path" (Soma), "direct path," (Analayo, B. Bodhi), "path to convergence" i.e. to samādhi (Sujato) and the "comprehensive" or "all-inclusive" path where all practices converge (Kuan).{{refn|group=note|See the Satipatthana sutta (MN 10; DN 22); as well as SN 47.1, 47.18 and 47.43. These five discourses are the only canonical sources for the phrase, "ekāyano ... maggo" (with this specific declension).The Pāli phrase "ekāyano ... maggo'" has been translated as:
 "direct path" (Bodhi & Gunaratana, 2012, p. 12; Nanamoli & Bodhi, 1995;  Thanissaro, 2008)
 "one-way path"(Bodhi, 2000, pp. 1627–8, 1647–8, 1661)
 "the only way" (Nyanasatta, 2004; Soma, 1941/2003)
 "the one and only way" (Vipassana Research Institute, 1996, pp. 2, 3)}} According to Sujato, in the context of the graduated path to awakening found in numerous early texts, the practice of the satipaṭṭhānas is closely connected with various elements, including sense restraint, moderate eating, wakefulness, clear comprehension, seclusion, establishing mindfulness and abandoning the hindrances.

The place of satipaṭṭhāna in the gradual training is thus outlined by Sujato as follows:

Johannes Bronkhorst has argued that in the early texts there are two kinds of mindfulness, the preliminary stage of "mindfulness in daily life" (often called clear comprehension) and the practice of mindfulness meditation proper (the actual practice of satipaṭṭhāna as a formal meditation). According to Sujato, these two forms of mindfulness are so closely connected that they gradually came to be subsumed under the heading of satipaṭṭhāna.

Jhana

In the schema of the Noble Eightfold Path, they are included in sammā-sati (right mindfulness), which culminates in the final factor of the path, sammā-samādhi (a state of luminous awareness, but also interpreted as deep meditative absorption). This is confirmed by texts like MN 44.12 which state "the four satipaṭṭhānas are the basis for samādhi." The close connection between satipaṭṭhāna and samādhi can also be seen in texts which discuss the three trainings (such as MN 44.11/MA 210) which list satipaṭṭhāna under samādhi. Thus, according to Bhikkhu Sujato, "all of the basic statements on the function of satipaṭṭhāna in the path confirm that its prime role is to support samādhi, that is, jhāna." Rupert Gethin also affirms the close connection between satipaṭṭhāna and the jhanas, citing various discourses from the Pali Nikayas (such as SN 47.10 and SN 47.8).

In the oldest texts of  Buddhism, dhyāna (Sanskrit) or jhāna (Pāḷi) is the training of the mind, commonly translated as meditation, to withdraw the mind from the automatic responses to sense-impressions, and leading to a "state of perfect equanimity and awareness (upekkhā-sati-parisuddhi)." Dhyāna may have been the core practice of pre-sectarian Buddhism, in combination with several related practices which together lead to perfected mindfulness and detachment, and are fully realized with the practice of dhyana. In the later commentarial tradition, which has survived in present-day Theravāda, dhyāna is equated with "concentration," a state of one-pointed absorption in which there is a diminished awareness of the surroundings. Since the 1980s, scholars and practitioners have started to question this equation, arguing for a more comprehensive and integrated understanding and approach, based on the oldest descriptions of dhyāna in the suttas.

According to Anālayo, writing from a more traditional perspective, "several discourses testify to the important role of satipaṭṭhāna as a basis for the development of absorption" (jhana). This includes suttas like the Dantabhūmi Sutta and the Cūḷavedalla Sutta (which speaks of satipaṭṭhāna as the "cause" of samādhi, samādhinimitta). Anālayo also writes that satipaṭṭhāna is not purely a concentration (samādhi) exercise, noting that sati "represents an enhancement of the recollective function," in which the breadth of attention is expanded. During absorption, "sati becomes mainly presence of the mind," but in a more focused way.

Anālayo cites SN 47.10 in which the Buddha states that if one is distracted and sluggish while practicing satipaṭṭhāna, one should switch one's meditation towards a calm (samatha) meditation, in order to cultivate joy and serenity. Once the mind has been calmed, one can then return to satipaṭṭhāna. Anālayo argues that the distinction that is made in this sutta between "directed" and "undirected" forms of meditation suggest that satipaṭṭhāna is not the same as samatha meditation. However, the sutta also shows that they are closely interrelated and mutually supporting.

Thanissaro Bhikkhu, citing various early sources (SN 47:40, MN 118, AN 4:94, AN 4:170, Dhp 372 etc.), similarly states that "developing the frames of reference [satipaṭṭhāna] is a precondition for jhana" and that "the proper development of the frames of reference necessarily incorporates, in and of itself, the practice of jhana."

 As four domains of mindfulness

The four domains
In the early Buddhist texts, mindfulness is explained as being established in four main ways:
 mindfulness of the body (Pāli: kāyagatā-sati; Skt. kāya-smṛti),
 mindfulness of feelings (Pāli vedanā-sati; Skt. vedanā-smṛti),
 mindfulness of the mind (Pāli citta-sati; Skt. citta-smṛti)
 mindfulness of principles or phenomena (Pāli dhammā-sati; Skt. dharma-smṛti).

Rupert Gethin translates (from the Pali) the basic exposition of these four practices (which he calls the "basic formula") that is shared by numerous early Buddhist sources as follows:

According to Grzegorz Polak, the four upassanā have been misunderstood by the developing Buddhist tradition, including Theravada, to refer to four different foundations. According to Polak, the four upassanā do not refer to four different foundations of which one should be aware, but are an alternate description of the jhanas, describing how the samskharas are tranquilized:
 the six sense-bases which one needs to be aware of (kāyānupassanā);
 contemplation on vedanās, which arise with the contact between the senses and their objects (vedanānupassanā);
 the altered states of mind to which this practice leads (cittānupassanā);
 the development from the five hindrances  to the seven factors of enlightenment (dhammānupassanā).

 Mindfulness of the body
The various early sources show considerable variation in the practices included under mindfulness of the body. The most widely shared set of meditations are the contemplation of the body's anatomical parts, the contemplation of the elements, and the contemplation of a corpse in decay. Anālayo notes that the parallel versions of the Satipaṭṭhāna Sutta "agree not only in listing these three exercises, but also in the sequence in which they are presented." According to Sujato's comparative study of satipaṭṭhāna, the original mindfulness of the body practice focused on contemplating various parts of the body, while the other practices later came to be added under mindfulness of the body.

Body parts
The practice of mindfulness of anatomical parts is described in the Satipaṭṭhāna Sutta as follows: "one examines this same body up from the soles of the feet and down from the top of the hair, enclosed by skin and full of many kinds of impurity." Following this instruction is a list of various body parts, including hair, skin, teeth, numerous organs as well as different kinds of bodily liquids. According to Anālayo, this meditation, which is often called the meditation on "asubha" (the unattractive), is supposed to deconstruct notions of bodily beauty and to allow us to see that bodies are "not worth being attached to" (as the Ekottarika-āgama version states). Ultimately, according to Anālayo, "the principal aim of contemplating the anatomical constitution of the body is the removal of sensual desire." Sujato similarly states that the basic purpose of these three meditations "is to rise above sensuality," and to deprive "the addiction to sensual gratification" of its fuel.

According to U Sīlānanda, first one should memorize the 32 parts of the body by reciting them, then one learns the color, shape and location of each part. After achieving mastery in this, one is ready to contemplate the unattractiveness of each part in meditation. Bhikkhu Bodhi notes that this practice is done "using visualization as an aid." This practice is described with a common simile in the early discourses: one is mindful of each body part in the same way one is mindful when looking through various kinds of beans (or grains) in a bag (i.e. in a detached way). This indicates that the goal is not to become disgusted with the body but to see it in a detached manner. Bhante Gunaratana similarly notes that this practice "opens the mind to accepting our body as it is right now, without our usual emotional reactions. It helps us overcome pride and self-hatred and regard our body with the balanced mind of equanimity." Similarly, Thanissaro Bhikkhu argues that this practice, far from creating a negative self-image, allows us to develop a healthy understanding of the reality that all bodies are equal (and thus none is superior or inferior in terms of beauty, since such a concept is ultimate relative to one's frame of reference).

Elements
The practice of mindfulness of the elements or properties mainly focuses on four physical attributes (mahābhūta): earth (solids), water (liquids), air (gases moving in and outside the body, as well as breathing) and fire (warmth/temperature). The early texts compare this to how a butcher views and cuts up a slaughtered cow into various parts. According to Anālayo this second exercise focuses on diminishing the sense of identification with the body and thus, on seeing anatta (not-self) and undoing the sense of ownership to the body. Buddhaghosa states that through this practice a monk "immerses himself in voidness and eliminates the perception of living beings." The practice of contemplating these four properties is also described in more detail in the Mahāhaṭṭthipadopama Sutta, the Rāhulovāda Sutta, and the Dhātuvibhaṅga Sutta.

Corpse

The practice of mindfulness of death is explained as contemplating a corpse various progressive stages of decay (from a fresh corpse to bone dust). According to Anālayo, the sources indicate that the practice could have been done in a charnel ground with real corpses but also indicate that one may visualize this as well. Bodhi writes that this practice can be done in the imagination, through using pictures or by viewing an actual formerly living human corpse.

The various early sources all indicate that one should contemplate how one's own body is of the same nature as the corpse. The Ekottarika-āgama version states that one is to contemplate how "my body will not escape from this calamity", "I will not escape from this condition. My body will also be destroyed," and "this body is impermanent, of a nature to fall apart." This practice allows one to gain insight into our own impermanence, and therefore also leads to letting go. In numerous early sources, contemplating the inevitability of death is also said to lead to increased motivation to practice the path.

Overall direction
Anālayo sums up the overall direction of mindfulness of the body as "detachment from the body through understanding its true nature." The early discourses compare mindfulness of the body to a strong pillar which can be used to tie up numerous wild animals (which are compared to the six senses). This simile shows that mindfulness of the body was seen as a powerful centering practice and as a strong anchor for maintaining the guarding of the senses. The Kāyagatāsati-sutta and its Madhyama-āgama parallel also list various others benefits from practicing mindfulness of the body, including how it helps to give rise to mental balance and detachment and allows one to endure many physical discomforts.

 Mindfulness of feelings
This satipaṭṭhāna focuses on the contemplation of "feelings" (vedanā, affect, valence or hedonic tones), which mainly refers to how one perceives feelings as pleasant, unpleasant or neutral. According to Anālayo, mindfulness of feelings "requires recognizing the affective tone of present-moment experience, before the arisen feeling leads to mental reactions and elaborations." It also requires that "one does not get carried away by the individual content of felt experience and instead directs awareness to the general character of experience." The early discourses contain similes which compare feelings to various types of "fierce winds that can suddenly arise in the sky" as well as to "various types of people who stay in a guest house." These similes illustrate the need to remain calm and non-reactive in respect to feelings.

In most early sources, feelings are also distinguished between those which are sensual or worldly (lit. "carnal") and those that are not sensual  or spiritual in nature. This introduces an ethical distinction between feelings that can lead to the arising of defilements and those that lead in the opposite direction." Thus, while pleasant feelings associated with sense pleasures lead to unwholesome tendencies, pleasant feelings associated with mental concentration lead towards wholesome states. Meanwhile, a worldly painful feeling might lead to the arising of unwholesome mental states, but it need not do so if one is mindfully aware of it without reacting. Furthermore, certain painful feelings, like those caused by the sadness of knowing one has not yet reached liberation, are considered spiritual unpleasant feelings and can motivate one to practice more. As such, they are commendable.

The Madhyama-āgama version of the Satipaṭṭhāna Sutta also adds the additional categories of bodily and mental feelings, which refers to feelings that arise either from physical contact or from the mind (a distinction which does appear in other early discourses like the Salla-sutta SN 36.6 and its parallels). Furthermore, according to Sujato, the Ānāpānasati Sutta section on vedanā also adds "rapture" and "mental activities" (cittasankhāra, feeling and perception), which "seems to broaden the scope of feelings here as far as 'emotions', 'moods'." Gunaratana similarly states that vedanā "includes both physical sensations and mental emotions."

Furthermore, Anālayo argues that "the central role that feelings have in this respect is particularly evident in the context of the dependent arising (paṭiccasamuppāda) of dukkha, where feeling forms the crucial link that can trigger the arising of craving." The fact that dependent origination can be contemplated through mindfulness of feelings is supported by SĀ 290. The early discourses also state that practicing mindfulness of feeling can be a way of dealing with physical pain and disease.

Bhikkhu Bodhi notes that feelings arise due to sense contact (phassa) and thus another way of analyzing feeling is into six types depending on the six sense bases: eye, nose, tongue, ear, body, and mind.

 Mindfulness of the mind
In all early sources, the contemplation of the mind or cognition (citta) begins with noticing the presence or absence of the three unwholesome roots (lust, anger, and delusion). This practice is similar to that found in other early discourses in which the Buddha looks into his mind by applying a basic distinction between wholesome and unwholesome thoughts (and reflecting how unwholesome thoughts are harmful, which allows him to abandon them). This can be seen in the Dvedhāvitakka-sutta and its parallels such as MĀ 102. Other suttas like the Vitakkasaṇṭhāna-sutta and its parallels, provide several ways of dealing with unwholesome thoughts, such as replacing an unwholesome thought with a wholesome one or contemplating the drawbacks of unwholesome thoughts.

Reflecting on the absence of unwholesome states is also important, as it allows one to rejoice in this positive state and become inspired by it. It also encourages one to protect this mental state, as can be seen in the simile of the bronze dish found in the Anaṅgaṇa-sutta (MN 5) and its parallels such as EĀ 25.6. In this simile, a person who buys a bronze dish but takes no care to clean it from time to time is compared to someone who is unaware of having a mind free of unwholesome states. In this case, the dish (mind) will eventually get dirty. In the other hand, someone who has reached some degree of purity and is mindful of this is more likely to protect and maintain this mental state.

Anālayo writes that this way of contemplating the mind is a middle path that avoids two extremes: one extreme is seeing only what is bad within oneself and consequently getting frustrated, succumbing to feelings of inadequacy. As a result of this, inspiration can get lost and one no longer engages fully in the practice. The other extreme is pretending to oneself (and in front of others) that one is better than one really is, at the cost of ignoring one's own dark sides, those areas of the mind that are in need of purification. Such ignoring allows those dark sides to gather strength until they are able to overwhelm the mind completely. Steering a balanced middle path between these two extremes becomes possible through the simple but effective element of honest recognition, introduced through mindfulness of the present condition of one's mind, which sees both one's shortcomings and one's virtues equally well. This mindfulness is also extended into being aware of the level of mindfulness (or distraction) and concentration present in the mind (from contraction or a lesser mind to higher states such as samadhi and liberation). Anālayo states that the basic task here is "recognizing the degree to which one's practice has developed and realizing if more can be done."

Therefore, the terms such as a "small", "lower", "contracted" or "distracted" mind indicate a mind which lacks development in the qualities of mindfulness and samadhi. Other terms such as the "developed," "exalted" and "liberated" mind are referring to a mind that has achieved some level of samadhi and mindfulness (and in some cases, has been at least temporarily liberated from the hindrances through meditation). Sujato states that the terms associated with higher states of mind refer to the jhanas (he cites MN 54.22–24, MN 53.20–22 as support). Anālayo further notes that this element of contemplation of the mind shows that in early Buddhism "enquiring if one has reached some degree of attainment is considered an integral part of knowing the nature of one's own mental condition."

In the early discourses (SĀ 1246 and AN 3.100), the gradual process of removing unwholesome thoughts and cultivating wholesome mental states is compared to the gradual refining of gold ore which is initially covered over with rock, sand and fine dust (which represent the various gross and subtle aspects of mental defilement).

Mindfulness of dhammas

 Five hindrances and seven aspects of wakefulness
This last set of exercises show considerable variation in the various early Buddhist sources. Only two sets of dhammas ("principles" or "mental categories") are shared by all early sources: the five hindrances and the seven factors of awakening, and Anālayo considers these two as integral elements of the fourth satipaṭṭhāna. Sujato's comparative study concludes that these two groups of dhammas constituted the original subjects of meditation in this satipaṭṭhāna, while the other elements are later additions. Thanissaro Bhikkhu states that it is not possible to decide the question of what the original version may have been, but he concludes that there is a good case for stating that "the early tradition regarded the abandoning of the hindrances and the development of the factors for Awakening as encompassing all the factors that might be included under this heading."

 Dhamma
"Dhammā" is often translated as "mental objects" but Anālayo argues that this translation is problematic for multiple reasons. The three prior satipatthāna (body, sensations, mind) can become mental objects in themselves, and those objects, such as the hindrances, aggregates and sense bases, identified under the term dhamma are far from an exhaustive list of all possible mental objects. Anālayo translates dhammā as "mental factors and categories," "classificatory schemes," and "frameworks or points of reference to be applied during contemplation". Thanissaro Bhikkhu argues that the fourth satipaṭṭhāna "denotes the qualities of mind that are developed and abandoned as one masters the meditation."

Sujato argues that dhammā here refers to a "distinctive and more profound aspect of meditation: the understanding of the causal principles underlying the development of samādhi." According to Anālayo, this satipaṭṭhāna focuses on phenomena which lead to awakening when cultivated and therefore, it is soteriologically oriented.Anālayo 2006 p. 183, nn. 2, 3 Anālayo states that the "main thrust" of the fourth satipaṭṭhāna is the path to awakening and therefore, "contemplation of dharmas is somewhat like a shorthand description of the path." He further adds that "the task of mindfulness in the context of contemplation of dharmas would thus be to supervise the mind on the path to awakening, ensuring that the hindrances are overcome and the awakening factors are well established."

 Five hindrances
According to U Sīlānanda, a proponent of the New Burmese method, the five hindrances are those mental states that hinder or block the mind's progress to deeper concentration and liberation. In the early discourses (see MN 43.20, MN 68.6), the attainment of jhana is associated with the abandonment of the five hindrances, which are said to "choke the mind, robbing understanding of its strength". Through the simile of refining gold, the early discourses state that as long as the hindrances have not been removed "the mind is not soft, nor workable, nor radiant, but is brittle" (AN 5.13).

The Satipaṭṭhāna sutta indicates that one is to be mindful of the presence or absence of each of the five hindrances (sense desire, ill will, sloth-and-torpor, restlessness-and-worry and doubt). The sutta and the MA parallel also state that one should know how a hindrance arises, how it can be removed and how it can be prevented from arising. The fact that mindfulness of the hindrances is also connected to remembering the instructions on how to remove and prevent the hindrances (not just watch it mindfully) is supported by other early discourses like the Gopakamoggallāna-sutta and its parallels (like MĀ 145). Anālayo thus sees this practice as twofold: the receptive mode of just being aware of the hindrances and the more active mode of understanding how the hindrance arises and how it can be abandoned through a skillful deployment of right effort.

According to U Sīlānanda, various hindrances can arise from inappropriate attention/reflection (ayoniso manasikāra) and that proper or wise attention (yoniso manasikāra) can prevent their arising. Another way to prevent their arising is simply to be mindful of the hindrances. Various early discourses like SĀ 715 provide specific instructions on how to weaken and counter the hindrances. Desire is said to be countered with the contemplation of unattractiveness, ill will is countered with loving-kindness, sloth-torpor is countered with energetic thoughts or perceiving light (or being in a well lit place), restlessness-worry is countered with thoughts that bring calmness and doubt can be countered by contemplating dependent origination or contemplating what is wholesome and what is unwholesome. Suttas like the Saṅgārava-sutta mention that one benefit of removing the hindrances is an increased ability to learn and to remember what one has learned. The suttas also state that being mindful of the absence of the hindrances leads to joy, an important element of meditation.

 Seven factors of awakening
The other main contemplation shared by all versions of the satipaṭṭhāna formula is mindfulness of the seven factors of awakening (satta bojjhaṅgā). The contemplation is similar to that of the hindrances. First, one is aware of the presence or absence of each of these factors. Then one also contemplates how these factors arise, how they can be maintained and how they can be further developed, that is to say, one develops an "awareness to the conditions that are related to their presence or absence."

Early sources such as SĀ 729 and SN 46.27 state that one cultivates these awakening factors "supported by seclusion, supported by dispassion, and supported by cessation, culminating in letting go." This indicates that a successful cultivation of these factors leads to awakening if they each one is cultivated while being supported by three elements: seclusion from unwholesome actions, dispassion as the fading away of craving, and the gradual cessation of dukkha.

The awakening factors are positive qualities associated with wisdom that stand in opposition to the hindrances (associated with darkness and lack of wisdom, see SN 46.40 and SĀ 706). The Aggi-sutta and its parallel at SĀ 714 indicate that particular awakening factors (investigation of dhammas, energy, joy) can be used as antidotes to sluggishness while other factors (tranquillity, concentration, equanimity) are antidotes for agitation. This does not work the other way around, that is to say, awakening factors that are useful against agitation are not useful to cultivate when one is sluggish and vice versa. The awakening factor of mindfulness meanwhile is useful in all circumstances. Indeed, according to Kaṭukurunde Ñāṇananda, "mindfulness stands in the middle and orders the other faculties, here too it comes to the forefront and marshals those factors that are behind it."

Furthermore, the hindrance of doubt is also countered by the factor of investigation. When all hindrances are absent, one is then able to cultivate all seven factors at once. SĀ 718 and SN 46.4 indicate that mastering the awakening factors requires learning how to make use of each one of them in different circumstances. These suttas illustrate this with the simile of a king that dresses in various clothes throughout the day according to his needs.

Various discourses including SĀ 715 and SN 46.51 discuss how the seven awakening factors are to be nourished and developed.  For example, mindfulness is nourished by the four satipaṭṭhānas, investigation is nourished by distinguish wholesome things from unwholesome things, and energy is nourished through the four right efforts.

Furthermore, according to the Anāpānasati-sutta and its Saṃyukta-āgama parallel, the sequence in which the factors are listed seems to correspond to how they unfold through practice. According to Analayo, "this sequence reflects an underlying progression in which the factor mentioned earlier supports the arising of the factor that comes next." However, this progression is not a strict one. Kaṭukurunde Ñāṇananda states that "it does not mean that one has to develop the first category first and then after a time the next category and so on. But still there is a certain order in the development – an ascending order, one may say."

Practice

Process view

According to Sujato, Satipaṭṭhāna is "a prescription of how to practice," which "introduces certain specific objects of meditation." Likewise, according to Thanissaro Bhikkhu, the "four frames of reference" (satipaṭṭhāna) are "a set of teachings that show where a meditator should focus attention and how."

Anālayo and Sujato both note that these four meditation subjects provide a progressive refinement of contemplation from coarse elements (the body) to increasingly subtler and more refined subjects.Anālayo (2006), p. 19. Likewise, Gethin writes that there is "a movement from clear awareness of the more immediately accessible realms of experience to an awareness of what the Nikayas see as subtler and deeper realms."

However, Anālayo also argues that this pattern "does not prescribe the only possible way of practising satipaṭṭhāna," since this would "severely limit the range of one's practice." This is because, "a central characteristic of satipaṭṭhāna is awareness of phenomena as they are, and as they occur. Although such awareness will naturally proceed from the gross to the subtle, in actual practice it will quite probably vary from the sequence depicted in the discourse." Anālayo sees the four satipaṭṭhānas as flexible and mutually supportive practices. Therefore, according to Anālayo "the sequence in which they are practised may be altered in order to meet the needs of each individual meditator." All four may even be combined into a single practice, as documented by the Ānāpānasati Sutta.

Thanissaro Bhikkhu argues that an element of mindfulness practice includes learning how to maximize skillful qualities and how to minimize unskillful qualities, which might require one to "manipulate and experiment" with different mental qualities and meditation methods. Therefore, Thanissaro argues that mindfulness meditation can also be an active process of learning various skillful ways of directing the mind by cultivating certain perceptions and ideas (such as asubha). Thanissaro compares this process to how "one learns about eggs by trying to cook with them, gathering experience from one's successes and failures in attempting increasingly difficult dishes." Eventually, as one gains mastery of the mind, one is able to transcend even the need for skillful manipulation of mental qualities.

 Practice instructions
The Satipaṭṭhāna Sutta states that one first goes to a secluded place, like a forest or an empty hut. U Sīlānanda states that a place away from human habitation and the noises of towns and cities is the most suitable place for satipaṭṭhāna meditation.

The definition of how one practices satipaṭṭhāna in the early texts uses the term anupassanā which refers to "sustained observation" of each subject of meditation. Anālayo defines this term which is derived from the verb "to see" (passati) as meaning "to repeatedly look at", that is, "to contemplate" or "to closely observe." Furthermore, he interprets this as referring to "a particular way of meditation, an examination of the observed object from a particular viewpoint" which "emphasize how the object is to be perceived" (such as seeing the body as unattractive or impermanent for example). Thanissaro translates anupassanā as "remaining focused" and "keeping track," which "denotes the element of concentration in the practice, as one tries to stay with one particular theme in the midst of the welter of experience."

All versions of the Satipaṭṭhāna Sutta also indicate that each satipaṭṭhāna is to be contemplated first "internally" (ajjhatta), then "externally" (bahiddhā), and finally both internally and externally.Anālayo (2013), pp. 12–15. This is generally understood as observing oneself and observing other persons, an interpretation which is supported by Abhidharma works (including the Vibhaṅga and the Dharmaskandha) as well as by several suttas (MN 104, DĀ 4, DĀ 18 and DN 18).Anālayo (2013), pp. 15–19. Others interpret this passage as referring to mental (internal) phenomena and to phenomena associated with the senses (external), which according to Anālayo, does have some support from the suttas.

According to Gethin, the passage refers to observing ourselves and other persons: "the bhikkhu, then, first watches his own body, feelings, mind and dhammas, next those of others, and finally his own and those of others together." One example which indicates how this is to be understood is the practice of death meditation, which can be done in a charnel ground by looking at dead bodies (external contemplation) and also by contemplating the death of one's own body (internal). According to Gethin, this practice leads to "the blurring of distinctions between self and other" which arises as one begins to understand the world as being made up of impermanent and insubstantial processes. Anālayo concurs, stating that this contemplation can lead to the abandoning of the boundary between "I" and "other", "leading  to  a  comprehensive  vision  of  phenomena  as such, independent of any sense of ownership."

Regarding the question of how one is supposed to observe the feelings and mental states of other people, Anālayo argues that one can cultivate this by "carefully observing their outer manifestations" since feelings and mental states do influence the facial expression, tone of voice, and physical posture. He cites suttas such as DN 28 as evidence that the early discourses hold that one may infer the mental state of others by watching their external manifestations. Anālayo also notes that balancing internal and external contemplation is important because it can prevent a one sided awareness focused on one domain (self-centredness or lack of introspection respectively). Balancing both fields of mindfulness can thus "achieve a skilful balance between introversion and extroversion."

Thanissaro Bhikkhu outlines how all the different elements of mindfulness meditation come together as follows:"Mindful" (satima) literally means being able to remember or recollect. Here it means keeping one's task in mind. The task here is a dual one—remaining focused on one's  frame of reference [satipaṭṭhāna], and putting aside the distractions of greed and distress that would come from shifting one's frame of reference back to the world. In other words, one tries to stay with the phenomenology of immediate experience, without slipping back into the narratives and world views that make up one's sense of the world. In essence, this is a concentration practice, with the three qualities of ardency, alertness, and mindfulness devoted to attaining concentration. Mindfulness keeps the theme of the meditation in mind, alertness observes the theme as it is present to awareness, and also is aware of when the mind has slipped from its theme. Mindfulness then remembers where the mind should be focused, and ardency tries to return the mind to its proper theme—and to keep it there—as quickly and skillfully as possible. In this way,  these three qualities help to seclude the mind from sensual preoccupations and unskillful mental qualities, thus bringing it to the first jhana.

 Auxiliary qualities
In the early texts, the satipaṭṭhānas are said to be practiced with specific mental qualities. This is listed in the Pali version in what Sujato calls the "auxiliary formula" which states that one contemplates (anupassī) each satipaṭṭhāna with the following four qualities: ardency or diligence (ātāpī), clear comprehension (sampajāna), mindfulness (sati), and "free from desires and discontent (vineyya abhijjhādomanassa)" (with some variation across the different sources).Anālayo (2006), pp. 34–35. In many of the alternative forms of the auxiliary formula, samādhi is mentioned as the result of the practice (e.g. in DN 18.26/DA 4 and in SN 47.8/SA 616).

The term ātāpī is associated with the concept of tapas (ascetic power) and it is said to be related to heroic strength, effort or energy (viriya) in the Nettipakarana. It is thus associated with skillful effort and wholesome desire or resolve. It is best understood as a "balanced but sustained application of energy" according to Anālayo. Thanissaro Bhikkhu defines it as "the factor of effort or exertion...which contains an element of discernment in its ability to distinguish skillful from unskillful mental qualities." U Sīlānanda glosses ātāpī as "you must be energetic, put forth effort to be mindful."

The second quality, sampajāna, means to know something clearly or thoroughly so that one has "the ability to fully grasp or comprehend what is taking place". This can refer to basic forms of knowing (such being aware of one's posture) as well as more discriminative forms of understanding (such as comprehending the five hindrances). According to Thanissaro, this "means being clearly aware of what is happening in the present."

According to Gethin, "having removed covetousness and aversion for the world" is associated with the abandoning of the five hindrances as well as with the attainment of the jhanas as can be seen in suttas like MN 125 which directly associate these elements of the path. According to U Sīlānanda, this passage refers to a temporary removal of the five hindrances as a preliminary for meditation." The Ekottarika-āgama version states that one practices satipaṭṭhāna while "removing evil thoughts and being free from worry and sorrow, one experiences joy in oneself." Anālayo also associates this element with the development of samādhi. This is supported by the Nettippakarana (Nett 82) as well as by various suttas which contain a variation of the auxiliary formula which explicitly mentions samadhi such as SN 47.4).

Anālayo also notes that the abandonment of covetousness and aversion is associated with the practice of restraint of the senses in the early discourses (such as in MN 39). This is a stage of practice prior to formal meditation, in which "the meditator guards the sense doors in order to prevent sense impressions from leading to desires and discontent." The goal in the initial stages of practice is to develop a sense of "inner equipoise within which desires and discontent are held at bay." Anālayo further notes that "although sense-restraint precedes proper meditation practice in the gradual path scheme, this does not imply that sense-restraint is completed at an exact point in time, only after which one moves on to formal practice. In actual practice the two overlap to a considerable degree." Likewise, Sujato associates this element with "the preliminary subduing" of the five hindrances through sense restraint to prepare the mind for mindfulness meditation.

 Contemplation of impermanence
The Theravada Satipaṭṭhāna Sutta, as well as the Ekottarika-āgama version preserved in Chinese contain instructions to contemplate the arising and disappearance of the meditation subject (i.e. impermanence, anicca). The Madhyama-āgama version does not contain this instruction, but does mention that on practicing mindfulness "one is endowed with knowledge, vision, understanding, and penetration." Sujato thinks that this instruction to practice contemplation of impermanence reflects a later sectarian development that began to associate satipaṭṭhāna more closely with vipassanā. Analayo on the other hand thinks that contemplation of impermanence (aniccasaññā) "should be considered an integral aspect of satipaṭṭhāna practice." He cites the Śāriputrābhidharma and the Ānāpānasati-sutta (and its parallels) as other sources which indicate that contemplation of impermanence is a part of satipaṭṭhāna practice.

Furthermore, Anālayo states that awareness of impermanence (which is an aspect of right view) also leads to insight into anatta and dukkha. Gethin notes that the practice of observing the arising and falling of phenomena is "particularly associated with the gaining of the insight that leads directly to the destruction of the asavas, directly to awakening." He also notes how various other suttas state that the practice of the four satipaṭṭhānas are directly linked with the destruction of the asavas.Influence

Modern Theravāda
The four satipaṭṭhānas are regarded as fundamental in modern Theravāda Buddhism and the Vipassana or Insight Meditation Movement. In the Pali Canon, mindfulness meditation and satipaṭṭhāna are seen as ways to develop the mental factors of samatha ("calm", "serenity") and vipassana ("insight").

According to Bhikkhu Sujato, there is a particularly popular interpretation of mindfulness meditation in modern Theravāda which he calls the vipassanāvāda (the vipassanā-doctrine). According to Sujato, this widespread modernist view can be summarized as follows: The Buddha taught two systems of meditation, samatha and vipassanā. Samatha was taught before the Buddha (so is not really Buddhist), it is dangerous (because one can easily get attached to the bliss), and it is unnecessary (because vipassanā alone can develop the access samādhi necessary to suppress the hindrances). Vipassanā is the true key to liberation taught by the Buddha. This method was pre-eminently taught in the Satipaṭṭhāna Sutta, the most important discourse taught by the Buddha on meditation and on practice in everyday life. The essence of this practice is the moment-to-moment awareness of the rise and fall of all mind-body phenomena. Thus satipaṭṭhāna and vipassanā are virtually synonyms.Tse-fu Kuan also writes that it is a "widely held opinion in Theravada Buddhism that serenity meditation is not essential for the realization of Nirvana". Kuan cites Theravada authors such as Ven. Rahula, Ven. Silananda and Nyanaponika as figures who support some version of this view. In contrast to this, Kuan argues that "there is probably no explicit indication in the Canon that one can achieve liberation by the practice of sati alone without the attainment of the jhānas."

According to Kuan, this "bare insight" view arose due to "the tendency in the tradition to redefine "liberation by wisdom" (paññāvimutti) as being liberated by insight alone without high meditative attainments, although "liberation by wisdom" originally did not mean so." That liberation by wisdom did not originally mean liberation without jhana has also been argued by Cousins and Gombrich.

Anālayo writes that certain modern Theravada meditation teachers "emphasize the "dry insight" approach, dispensing with the formal development of mental calm." He writes that some teachers of this dry insight approach describe the practice of mindfulness as "attacking" its object or "plunging into it". He cites U Pandita who writes that satipaṭṭhāna practice means to "attack the object without hesitation ... with violence, speed or great force ... with excessive haste or hurry." Analayo thinks this mistaken understanding of mindfulness "arose because of a misreading or misinterpretation of a particular term". This is related to the interpretation of the Abhidhamma term apilāpeti (plunging) in the Theravada commentaries. Analayo agrees with Gethin, who argues instead for a reading of apilapati (or abhilapati) which means "reminding".

Furthermore, even though the early discourses support the idea that one can attain stream entry without having developed the jhanas (mainly by listening to a discourse by the Buddha), Anālayo argues that "for satipaṭṭhāna to unfold its full potential of leading to non-returning or full awakening [arahantship], the development of absorption is required."

Sujato notes that not all modern Theravāda meditation traditions accept this dichotomy of samatha and vipassanā. According to Sujato, the teachers of the Thai forest tradition instead emphasize how samatha and vipassanā are complementary factors which must be practiced together. This is closer to how these two aspects of meditation are understood in the early Buddhist texts.

Similarly, Thanissaro Bhikkhu notes that: Although satipaṭṭhāna practice is often said to be separate from the practice of jhāna, a number of suttas—such as MN 125 and AN 8:63—equate the successful completion of this first stage [of satipaṭṭhāna practice] with the attainment of the first level of jhāna. This point is confirmed by the many suttas—MN 118 among them—describing how the practice of satipaṭṭhāna brings to completion the factors for awakening, which coincide with the factors of jhāna.According to Buddhadasa Bhikkhu, the aim of mindfulness is to stop the arising of disturbing thoughts and emotions, which arise from sense-contact.

According to the theory of Theravada Buddhism,in the period of 5000 years after the parinirvana of Buddha,we can still attain Sotāpanna or even Arhat through practicing Satipatthana,and Satipatthana is the only way out.

 In Indo-Tibetan Buddhism
The four establishments of mindfulness also known as "the four close placements of mindfulness" (dran-pa nyer-bzhag) are also taught in Indo Tibetan Buddhism as they are part of the 37 factors leading to a purified state (byang-chub yan-lag so-bdun). They are discussed in Tibetan commentaries on Śāntideva's Bodhicaryāvatāra, such as Pawo Tsugla Trengwa Rinpoche's 16th century commentary and Kunzang Pelden's (1862–1943) commentary The Nectar of Manjushri's Speech.

The Tibetan canon also contains a True Dharma Application of Mindfulness Sutra (Tohoku Catalogue # 287, dam chos dran pa nyer bzhag, saddharmasmṛtyupasthānasutra). This sutra is cited by various Tibetan Buddhist figures, such as Atisha (in his Open Basket of Jewels) and the Third Dzogchen Rinpoche (1759–1792).Dzogchen Rinpoche (2008) Great Perfection: Outer and Inner Preliminaries. Shambhala Publications It is also cited as a sutra of the first turning by Khedrup Je (1385–1438 CE).

This sutra is a large text that dates from between the second and fourth centuries CE. It survives in Tibetan, Chinese and Sanskrit manuscripts. It is a complex and heterogeneous Mulasarvastivada text with various topics, such as long descriptions of the various realms in Buddhist cosmology, discussions of karma theory, meditation and ethics. The earliest layer of the text, which can be found in chapter two, contains the core meditation teachings of the text, which include an extensive exposition of six elements (dhatus) meditation, meditations on feeling (vedana), meditations on the skandhas and ayatanas, meditation on the mind and impermanence, and other meditation topics organized into a structure of ten levels (bhumi).

According to Jigme Lingpa's (1730–1798) Treasury of Precious Qualities, the four applications of mindfulness are emphasized during the path of accumulation and in Mahayana are practiced with a focus on emptiness:"If one practices according to the Hinayana, one meditates on the impurity of the body, on the feelings of sufferings, on the impermanence of consciousness and on the fact that mental objects are "ownerless" (there is no self to which they belong). If one practices according to the Mahayana, during the meditation session one meditates on the same things as being spacelike, beyond all conceptual constructs. In the post-meditation period one considers them as illusory and dreamlike."The general presentation of this practice in the Indo-Tibetan Buddhist tradition focuses on cultivating śamatha first, and then practicing vipaśyanā. Examples of contemporary figures in Indo-Tibetan Buddhism that have taught this practice include Chogyam Trungpa who often taught these practices in the USA and Dzogchen Ponlop Rinpoche, a contemporary Tibetan lama.Dzogchen Ponlop. The Four Foundations Of Mindfulness, Excerpted from a teaching in Vermont, 1996. Originally published in Bodhi Magazine, Issue 3. They have also been taught by the 14th Dalai Lama and students of his like Alexander Berzin and Thubten Chodron.

The four applications of mindfulness are also discussed by Nyingma scholars like as Rong-zom-pa (eleventh century), Longchenpa (1308–1364), and Ju Mipham (1846–1912). These authors describe specifically Vajrayana modes of the four smṛtyupasthānas, which have been adapted to the Vajrayana philosophy.

These four "mantric" smṛtyupasthānas described by Mipham are summarized by Dorji Wangchuk as follows: (1) Contemplating (blo bzhag pa) the physical bodies of oneself and others as being characterized by primordial or intrinsic purity (dag pa), on the one hand, and by emptiness (stong pa nyid), freedom from manifoldness (spros bral), great homogeneity (mnyam pa chen po), and integrality (zung du 'jug pa), on the other, is called kāyasmṛtyupasthāna.

(2) Transforming "conceptual constructions whose occurrence one feels/senses (or is aware of)" (byung  tshor  gyi rtog pa) into gnosis characterized by great bliss (bde ba chen po'i ye shes) is called vedanāsmṛtyupasthāna.

(3) Channelling or containing/constraining (sdom pa) all kinds of manifoldness associated with mind and mental factors into/in/to the innate sphere of the luminous nature of the mind is called cittasmṛtyupasthāna.

(4) Conducting oneself in a way (or with an attitude) that all saṃsāric and nirvāṇic, universal and  particular phenomena are pure and equal and hence beyond adoption or rejection, is dharmasmṛtyupasthāna.

See also

 Satipatthana Sutta, also called the Four Satipatthanas
 Metta Sutta Kayagatasati Sutta Anapanasati Sutta Bodhipakkhiya dhamma
 Buddhist meditation
 Kammatthana
 Kōan
 Metta
 Mindfulness
 Samatha
 Buddhist paths to liberation
 Vipassana

Notes

Subnotes

References

Sources

Printed sources

Web-sources

Further reading

Theravada
 Bodhi, Bhikkhu (2000). The Connected Discourses of the Buddha: A Translation of the Samyutta Nikaya. Somerville, MA: Wisdom Publications. .
 Nanamoli, Bhikkhu and Bhikkhu Bodhi (trans.) (1995), The Middle Length Discourses of the Buddha: A Translation of the Majjhima Nikaya. Somerville: Wisdom Pubs .
 Nyanasatta Thera (2004). Satipatthana Sutta: The Foundations of Mindfulness (MN 10).
 Olendzki, Andrew (2005). Makkata Sutta: The Foolish Monkey (SN 47.7).
Patton, Charles S., III. The Abodes of Mindfulness 念處 (MN 98)
 Soma Thera (1941; 6th ed. 2003). The Way of Mindfulness – The Satipatthana Sutta and Its Commentary.  Kandy: BPS. .
Sujato, Bhante. Linked Discourses on Mindfulness Meditation (Satipaṭṭhāna-samyutta, SN chapter 47).
 Thanissaro Bhikkhu (1997). Sakunagghi Sutta (The Hawk) (SN 47.6).
 Thanissaro Bhikkhu (1997a). Sedaka Sutta: At Sedaka (The Acrobat) (SN 47.19).
 Thanissaro Bhikkhu (1997b). Sedaka Sutta: At Sedaka (The Beauty Queen) (SN 47.20).
 Thanissaro Bhikkhu (2008). Satipatthana Sutta: Frames of Reference (MN 10).
 Vipassana Research Institute (trans.) (1996). Mahāsatipaṭṭhāna Sutta: The Great Discourse on Establishing Mindfulness. Seattle, WA: Vipassana Research Publications of America..

Zen
 Nhat Hanh, Thich (trans. Annabel Laity) (2005). Transformation and Healing : Sutra on the Four Establishments of Mindfulness .  Berkeley, CA: Parallax Press. .
Nhất Hạnh, Thích; Laity, Annabel. Ekottarikāgama 12.1 – The One Way In Sūtra.Scholarly

External links

-related discourses in the Pāli Canon:
 (Digha Nikaya 22) (in Pāli)
 (Majjhima Nikaya 10)
 (Samyutta Nikaya 47 [selected discourses])
 Commentary on the Satipatthana sutta
 Link to free online class on  given by Sayadaw U Silananda
 "Agendas of Mindfulness," by Thanissaro Bhikkhu, a discourse on Satipaṭṭhāna
 "Satipatthana Vipassana" or "Insight through Mindfulness,"  by Mahasi Sayadaw
 Global Online Satipatthana Recitation
 Saddhamma Foundation Information about practicing Satipatthana meditation.
 The Four Foundations of Mindfulness – from the Satipatthana Sutta: D.22Satipatthana — The Direct Path to Realization by Bhikkhu AnalayoFoundations Of Mindfulness: Satipatthana Sutta'' by Nyanasatta Thera

Buddhist meditation
Mindfulness (Buddhism)
Philosophy of religion
Buddhist philosophical concepts

Satipatthana


Virt (), rutin hâlinde devamlı çekilen zikirdir.

Tasavvufta belirli sayıda Allah denilerek kalbin Allah'ı zikretmesi hedefleyen zikir çeşidine denir. Kalbin ilacı 'zikir', nefsin tezkiyesi (terbiyesi) zikir', Nakşibendî tarikatında gizli zikir esasken Kādirî tarikatı açıktan zikri tercih etmiştir. Sâdât-ı Kirâm'ın ismini ezberlemeden İhlas suresi zikri yapılır. İsimler ezberlendikten sonra günde 5.000'den başlayan kalp zikri, 21.000'den sonra letâif zikri, 101.000'den sonraysa nefy-u ispat zikrine başlanır, yani "la ilahe illallah" denir. Bâzı kollarda nefy-u ispat zikrine geçmeden önce, bazılarında ise ondan sonra hatme-i tehlîl denilen "la ilahe illallah" zikri yapılır. Bu zikre genellikle hayat boyu devam edilir. Mürşitlerin vefatlarına kadar günde 30.000, 50.000 gibi yüksek sayılarda hatme-i tehlil yaptığı bilinmektedir.

Kalp zikri
Kalp zikrine 5.000 lafza-i celâl (Allah) diyerek başlanır, belirli zamanlarda 2.000 arttırılır. Bu zikirde dil damağa yapıştırılır, sükûnet içinde bulunularak ve sessiz olarak "Allah, Allah" denir. Bu zikirle ruhun güzel özellikleri ortaya çıkar, nefs yavaş yavaş ölür. Bu zikir yapılırken bâzı şartlara riayet etmek gerekir. Bunlar, vukuf-u kalbî (dikkati kalp bölgesinde toplamak), vukuf-u adedî (zikrin sayısına riayet etmek), nigahdaşt-ı havâtır (kalbe gelen düşünceleri kovmak) ve bâz-ı geşt'tir (her 100 adette bir "ilahî ente maksudî ve rizake matlubî" demek). Kalp zikrinden letâif zikrine geçmenin çeşitli belirtileri vardır. Bunlardan en yaygını kalp bölgesinde sancı ve şiddetli yanma olmasıdır. Ancak bu belirtilerin olması, kişinin kendi kendisine letâif zikrine geçmesini gerektirmez, mutlaka mürşidin izni ve talimatıyla geçmek gerekir.

Letaif zikri, kalp dersi 5.000'de başlar ve her artırma dört ayda 2.000 olmak üzere 21.000'e kadar gelir. 21.000'den sonra 23.000'e atlanır ve letâif zikri başlar. Letâif zikri 101.000'de son bulur (düzenli olarak artırılırsa 3 yılda kalp zikrinden letaif zikrine geçilir ve düzenli olarak arttırılırsa letaif zikri de 13 yılda tamamlanarak toplam 16 yılda seyr-i sulük tamamlanır).

Kalp dersi yapılırken sağ el kalbin üzerinde durur. Letaif zikrinde ise kalp de dahil olmak üzere altı bölgede bulundurulur. Bu altı bölgeyi kısaca şöyle belirtebilir: Kalp, ruh, sır, hafa, ahfa ve nefstir. Bunların yerleri ise şöyledir: Kalp, sol memenin dört parmak altında, ruh sağ memenin dört parmak altında, sır sol memenin iki parmak üzerinde, hafa sağ memenin iki parmak üzerinde, ahfa gırtlak çukurunun iki parmak altında, nefs ise iki kaşın ortasındadır. Meselâ salik 37.000 çekiyor bu sayıyı altı letaifesi üzerinde tamamlar ve 101.000'e yaklaştığında bu letaifeler "Allah!" demeye, 101.000'e geldiğinde ise vücudunun her yeri "Allah!" diyerek zikretmeye başlar. Buna sultânî zikir denilir. Sultânî zikir hasıl olduktan sonra sâlike nefyu ispat zikri telkin olunur. Bu zikir şekli, Nakşibendî'nin Hâlidiye koluna aittir.

Nefy-u isbat zikri

Letâif zikrinde başarılı olan müride nefy-u ispat zikri tarif edilir. Bu zikir, zikirlerin en faziletlisi olan "lâ ilâhe illallah, muhammed-ür rasulullah" zikridir. Çekilişinde "lâ" derken göbekten yukarıya, "ilâhe" derken buradan sağ omza, "illallah" derken buradan da kalbe giden bir hat tasavvur edilir, nihayet lafza-i celâl kalbe vurulur. Nefy-u ispat zikri yaparken bâzı hususlara dikkat etmek gerekir. Haps-i nefes, vukuf-u adedî bunlardan bazılarıdır.

Kaynakça

Tasavvuf uygulamaları

Virt (din)


Diese Episodenliste enthält alle Episoden der US-amerikanischen Dramaserie Good Wife, sortiert nach der US-amerikanischen Erstausstrahlung. Zwischen 2009 und 2016 entstanden in sieben Staffeln insgesamt 156 Episoden mit einer Länge von jeweils etwa 42 Minuten.

Übersicht

Staffel 1
Die Erstausstrahlung der ersten Staffel war vom 22. September 2009 bis zum 25. Mai 2010 auf dem US-amerikanischen Sender CBS zu sehen. Die deutschsprachige Erstausstrahlung sendete der deutsche Free-TV-Sender ProSieben vom 31. März bis zum 6. Oktober 2010.

Staffel 2
Die Erstausstrahlung der zweiten Staffel war vom 28. September 2010 bis zum 17. Mai 2011 auf dem US-amerikanischen Sender CBS zu sehen. Die deutschsprachige Erstausstrahlung sendete der deutsche Free-TV-Sender Kabel eins vom 11. März bis zum 19. August 2011.

Staffel 3
Die Erstausstrahlung der dritten Staffel war vom 25. September 2011 bis zum 29. April 2012 auf dem US-amerikanischen Sender CBS zu sehen. Die deutschsprachige Erstausstrahlung sendete der Pay-TV-Sender FOX vom 11. Dezember 2012 bis zum 9. April 2013.

Staffel 4
Die Erstausstrahlung der vierten Staffel war vom 30. September 2012 bis zum 28. April 2013 auf dem US-amerikanischen Sender CBS zu sehen. Die deutschsprachige Erstausstrahlung sendete der Pay-TV-Sender FOX vom 28. Januar bis zum 8. April 2014.

Staffel 5
Die Erstausstrahlung der fünften Staffel war vom 29. September 2013 bis zum 18. Mai 2014 auf dem US-amerikanischen Sender CBS zu sehen. Die deutschsprachige Erstausstrahlung der ersten 18 Episoden sendete der Pay-TV-Sender FOX vom 6. Januar bis zum 3. März 2015. Die restlichen Episoden wurden vom 4. bis zum 11. März 2015 vom Free-TV-Sender sixx erstausgestrahlt.

Staffel 6
Die Erstausstrahlung der sechsten Staffel war vom 21. September 2014 bis zum 10. Mai 2015 beim US-amerikanischen Sender CBS zu sehen. Die deutschsprachige Erstausstrahlung sendete der Pay-TV-Sender FOX vom 19. Januar bis zum 29. März 2016.

Staffel 7
Die Erstausstrahlung der siebten Staffel war vom 4. Oktober 2015 bis zum 8. Mai 2016 beim US-amerikanischen Sender CBS zu sehen. Die deutschsprachige Erstausstrahlung sendete der deutsche Pay-TV-Sender FOX Channel vom 10. Januar bis zum 21. März 2017.

Weblinks

Einzelnachweise

Good Wife

Good Wife/Episodenliste


Aimi Kunitake (født 10. januar 1997) er en japansk fodboldspiller. Hun er medlem af Japans kvindefodboldlandshold.

Japans fodboldlandshold

Referencer

Eksterne henvisninger

Kvindelige fodboldspillere fra Japan

Aimi Kunitake