Toowoomba ( , nicknamed 'The Garden City' and 'T-Bar') is a city in the Toowoomba Region of the Darling Downs, Queensland, Australia. It is  west of Queensland's capital city Brisbane by road. The urban population of Toowoomba as of the  was 142,163, having grown at an average annual rate of 1.45% over the previous two decades. Toowoomba is the second-most-populous inland city in the country after the nation's capital of Canberra, and hence the largest city on the Darling Downs. It is the third largest regional centre in Queensland, often referred to as the capital of the Darling Downs.

Toowoomba is one of the oldest inland cities in Australia having been founded in 1849 on the lands of the Giabal and Jarowair. Its location was a key meeting place along the ancient pathways that led to Australia's largest Indigenous festival in the sacred Bunya Mountains. Toowoomba's centre streets were named after the history of the House of Stuart, and the city later became the viceregal summer retreat of Queensland's governors. It was the scene of several major events during Australia's Victorian period, such as the War of Southern Queensland and Battle of One Tree Hill, and during the Federation period becoming a major artistic and cultural centre with the emergence of the Austral Society.

A cathedral and university city, Toowoomba is known for its preserved Victorian-era and traditional Queenslander architecture, historic churches and gardens, food and coffee culture, street art and laneways, and numerous nature trails. The city experiences a distinct four seasons and is home to festivals including the Autumn Feast and the Carnival of Flowers. Toowoomba is also a centre of higher learning in the country and its institutions include the University of Southern Queensland. Prominent landmarks include Queens and Laurel Bank Park, the Empire Theatre, St James' Palace, and Mt Meewah. The surrounding region of the Darling Downs is known for its rolling hills and pastures, agricultural produce, and historic homesteads.

Etymology
The exact origin of the city's current name is unknown, although it is widely accepted that the name derives from an Aboriginal language.

When Toowoomba was first discovered by Europeans, it was named "Drayton Swamp" (in reference to the Toowoomba Swamp) and was often nicknamed "The Swamp". One theory is that after European settlement, the local Aboriginal people referred to it as "Tawampa", which is borrowed from "The Swamp".

Another theory is that it derives from the name "Toogoom". This theory was first proposed by author Steele Rudd in a letter to the Toowoomba City Council. He claimed that his father told him that in 1848, he first saw Toowoomba and that he assisted in laying it out the following year. He believed that it derived from the native name "Toogoom" because of the reeds that grew in the area. Rudd also wrote that he remembered that the original Aboriginal name for "The Swamp" was Chinkery Yackan meaning "water like the stars".

Another theory was proposed by the wife of pioneer Toowoomba resident Thomas Alford. She claimed to have asked the Aboriginals what they called the area; they replied with "Woomba Woomba", meaning "the springs and the water underneath". However, she claimed that the Alfords thought this would not be a suitable name for their house and store, so they added the prefix "too-" and omitted one "Woomba" (as this would be a synonym of "two Woomba"), hence "Toowoomba".

In 1875, William Henry Groom wrote an account of Toowoomba. He stated that "Toowoomba" derived from the Aboriginal term "great in the future". However, he did not provide a source for his information.

Another theory was proposed by botanist Archibald Meston in a book titled A Geographical History of Queensland. He wrote:

While this melon still exists and can be found in areas along the Balonne and Warrego Rivers, as well as in areas closer to Toowoomba, there is no evidence that the melon grew near the Toowoomba swamps.

A man named Enoggera Charlie proposed another theory in a news story he wrote for the Sydney Morning Herald. He claimed that when he was looking for work as a tar boy, he camped overnight near the Toowoomba Swamp. He claimed that when he asked a shepherd about the naming of the Toowoomba Swamp, he was told that near the junction of the East and West Swamps, there was a log with an inscription informing swagmen of the way to a well-known homestead where food rations were available. He claimed that the inscription read "To Woombrah".

A man named Ardlaw Lawrence put forward his theory shortly after Enoggera Charlie. He suggested that the name was an Anglicised form of "Boowoomga", which comes from the term for "thunder" in the dialect spoken by the Aboriginal tribe inhabiting areas along the Upper Burnett River (including the town of Gayndah). However, it is highly unlikely that this theory is correct, as this dialect was not spoken in the Darling Downs region (but rather in the Wide Bay-Burnett region) and Lawrence did not state why he transferred the name to the Darling Downs. In fact, the distance between Toowoomba and Gayndah is just over 218 kilometres as the crow flies.

In 1899, George Essex Evans published his theory in a pamphlet. He wrote that "Toowoomba" was an Aboriginal word meaning "meeting of the waters", although no evidence was provided to support this claim.

Geography

Toowoomba is on the crest of the Great Dividing Range, around  above sea level. A few streets are on the eastern side of the edge of the range, but most of the city is west of the divide.

The city occupies the edge of the range and the low ridges behind it. Two valleys run north from the southern boundary, each arising from springs either side of Middle Ridge near Spring Street at an altitude of around 680 m. These waterways, East Creek and West Creek, flow together just north of the CBD to form Gowrie Creek.

Gowrie Creek drains to the west across the Darling Downs and is a tributary of the Condamine River, part of the Murray–Darling basin. The water flowing down Gowrie Creek makes its way some  to the mouth of the Murray River near Adelaide in South Australia. Rain which falls on the easternmost streets of Toowoomba flows east to Moreton Bay a distance of around .

The rich volcanic soil in the region helps maintain the 150 public parks that are scattered across the city. Jacaranda, camphor laurel and plane trees line many of the city streets. The city's reputation as 'The Garden City' is highlighted during the Australian Carnival of Flowers festival held in September each year. Deciduous trees from around the world line many of the parks, giving a display of autumn colour.

Suburbs
The City of Toowoomba includes the following suburbs:

 Centenary Heights
 Cotswold Hills2
 Cranley
 Darling Heights
 Drayton

 East Toowoomba
 Glenvale2
 Harlaxton
 Harristown

 Kearneys Spring
 Middle Ridge
 Mount Kynoch
 Mount Lofty
 Newtown

 North Toowoomba
 Prince Henry Heights
 Rangeville
 Redwood
 Rockville

 South Toowoomba
 Toowoomba City (the city centre)
 Torrington2
 Wilsonton
 Wilsonton Heights

2 - from former Shire of Jondaryan

History

Traditional owners
Giabal and Jarowair are recognised as the two main Aboriginal language groups of the Toowoomba  with Giabal extending south of the city while Jarowair extends north of the city. The Jarowair (also known as Yarowair, Yarow-wair, Barrunggam, Yarrowair, Yarowwair and Yarrow-weir) language region includes the landscape within the local government boundaries of the Toowoomba Regional Council, particularly Toowoomba north to Crows Nest and west to Oakey.

This traditional landscape changed dramatically from 1840 with the incursion of British pastoralists into the region. Those Aboriginal Australians that survived the frontier conflict of this time were pushed to the fringe of society in camps and later moved to missions such as Deebing Creek, Durundur and later Barambah (now Cherbourg). Some local Aboriginal Australians were utilised as a cheap form of labour on the properties around Toowoomba in this contact period. Ceremonies such as the Bonye Bonye festival remained active until the late 19th century – groups from south east and south west Queensland as well as northern New South Wales gathered at Gummingurru, near Gowrie (west of Toowoomba) prior to attending the festival. The Gummingurru site is being restored and remains an important ceremonial place for not only the traditional groups but neighbouring groups.

British exploration
Toowoomba's colonial history traces back to when English botanist and explorer Allan Cunningham arrived in Australia from Brazil. He conducted an inland expedition north from the New England region and in June 1827 encountered  of rich farming and grazing land, which he named as the Darling Downs, bordered on the east by the Great Dividing Range and  west of the settlement of Moreton Bay.

British colonisation
In 1840, Patrick Leslie (second son of the ninth Laird of Warthill) and Peter Murphy established Toolburra Station  south-west of Toowoomba, being the first British pastoralists to take land on the Downs. Later that same year, Eton College graduate, Arthur Hodgson, together with Gilbert Elliot and Cocky Rogers established "Eton Vale" on land which included "The Swamp", now known as Toowoomba.

In forming Eton Vale, Hodgson's brother Christopher Pemberton Hodgson, later described the "constant skirmishes with the natives" to wrest control of the area off the local Aboriginal people. He wrote that hundreds of Aborigines were killed in a bitter war that lasted three years from the time they arrived in the area. The interior of Eton Vale homestead was decorated with spears and boomerangs and other spoil which the Hodgsons had collected after hard fought battles with "the blacks". Hodgson wrote "who would not rather put a ball in their hearts to rid themselves of their ceremonials and presence at once?"

The general mode of attack by the colonists would involve an early morning raid on the Aboriginal camps. The Hodgsons would "generally employ our [black] boys from distant tribes to act as trackers" to locate defiant groups of Aboriginal people. Sometimes a prisoner was taken and "ordered to conduct us to his own camp on risk of his life" and once at this camp, "we rushed to attack it and we had, notwithstanding, ample revenge". Hodgson describes how Aborigines would try to recover "the corpses of those who had fallen victims to the white man's gun in defiance of a sentry on the lookout". Those who were at peace with the Hodgson brothers, were kept in line with methods such as the taking of young boys from the tribe as hostages. Hodgson claimed that if the local Aboriginal people were to be considered a species of simia acaudata or tail-less monkey, they had to be "hunted down and exterminated".

Town of Toowoomba

Towards the end of the 1840s, closer settlement was occurring and the nearby township of Drayton had grown to the point where it had its own newspaper, general store, trading post and the Royal Bull's Head Inn, which was built by William Horton and still stands today. The first Britishers began to live at "The Swamp" (Toowoomba) from 1849, where Josiah Dent, William Shuttleworth and William Gurney were employed to cut reeds and timber for use at Drayton. Dent was said to have "lived in a tent, and with his axe, he killed the blacks".

In 1852, Thomas Alford established the first store at Toowoomba. Land for the town of Toowoomba at "The Swamp" was first surveyed in 1849, then again in 1853.
By 1858 Toowoomba was growing fast. It had a population of 700, three hotels and many stores. Land selling at  in 1850 was by then . Governor Bowen granted the wish of locals and a new municipality was proclaimed on 24 November 1860.

The first town council election took place on 4 January 1861 and William Henry Groom won. The railway from Ipswich was opened in 1867, bringing with it business development. In 1892, the Under Secretary of Public Land proclaimed Toowoomba and the surrounding areas as a township and in 1904 Toowoomba was declared a city. Pastoralism replaced agriculture and dairying by the 1900s.

In July 1902, 80 subdivided allotments of "The Lilley Estate" owned by the late Sir Charles Lilley, were advertised to be auctioned by Scholefield & Godsall. A map advertising the auction shows that the estate was bordered by Bridge, Mary and Lindsay Streets and overlooking and adjoining the Royal Agricultural Society's Showgrounds.

The Rotary Club of Toowoomba was established in 1930.

During World War II, Toowoomba was the location of RAAF No.7 Inland Aircraft Fuel Depot (IAFD), completed in 1942 and closed on 29 August 1944. Usually consisting of 4 tanks, 31 fuel depots were built across Australia for the storage and supply of aircraft fuel for the RAAF and the US Army Air Forces at a total cost of £900,000 ($1,800,000).

Toowoomba was named as Australia's Tidiest Town in 2008.

On 10 January 2011, Toowoomba suffered a catastrophic flash flood. Unusually heavy rainfall had occurred in the preceding days, causing the city's waterways to become swollen. Around midday, an intense storm moved in from the northeast, completely overwhelming East Creek and West Creek which run through the CBD.  fell in one day
with rainfall peaking at  over one 10-minute interval. The flood caused damage to properties and infrastructure, and resulted in the deaths of 2 people in Toowoomba.

At the , the Urban Centre of Toowoomba recorded a population of 100,032 people.  Of these:
 Age distribution: Residents had a similar distribution of ages to the country overall.  The median age was 38 years, the same as the national median of 38 years. Children aged under 15 years made up 19.1% of the population (national average is 18.7%) and people aged 65 years and over made up 13.1% of the population (national average is 10.7%).
  Ethnic diversity : 79.1% were born in Australia, compared to the national average of 66.7%; the next most common countries of birth were England 1.9%, New Zealand 1.4%, India 1.2%, Philippines 0.8% and South Africa 0.6%. At home, 84.6% of residents only spoke English; the next most common languages spoken at home were Arabic 0.8%, Mandarin 0.8%, Dinka 0.4%, Tagalog 0.3% and Punjabi 0.3%.
 Finances: The median household weekly income was $1,206, compared to the national median of $1,438. This difference is also reflected in real estate, with the median mortgage payment being $1,517 per month, compared to the national median of $1,755.
 Housing: The majority (76.3%) of occupied private dwellings were separate houses, 16.1% were semi-detached (row or terrace houses, townhouses etc.), and 6.4% were flats, units or apartments. The average household size was 2.4 people.
 Transport: On the day of the Census, 0.8% of employed people travelled to work on public transport, and 77.9% by car (either as driver or as passenger).

Climate
Toowoomba has a warm humid subtropical climate (with warm summers and cool winters). Compared to other parts of Queensland, Toowoomba experiences more frequent high winds, hail, frost and fog and is considered cooler than many other towns and cities in Queensland. The city is rather sunny, receiving 107.2 clear days annually.

Daily maximum temperatures in Toowoomba average  in summer and  in winter. Unlike most of inland Queensland, summer temperatures above  are uncommon, whilst winter days rarely warm above . Winter nights seldom drop below freezing; however, in a situation unique among Queensland cities, snow has been reported on the higher parts of the city on several occasions. Light frost will be experienced several nights each winter in the city centre, more often in the western suburbs.
According to the Bureau of Meteorology, the highest temperature ever recorded in Toowoomba was  on 12 February 2017, while the lowest was  on 12 July 1965.

Average annual rainfall, according to the Bureau of Meteorology, is , which peaks in the warm season. Rainfall in the eastern suburbs along the Great Dividing Range nudges  per year. The majority of Toowoomba's rain falls from November to March, with January and February being the peak rainy months. Like most of south-east Queensland, severe thunderstorms can be a threat and Toowoomba may occasionally be affected by ex-tropical cyclones.

Architecture and Heritage

Toowoomba's history has been preserved in its buildings. Examples of architecture drawing from the city's wealthy beginnings include Toowoomba City Hall which was Queensland's first purpose-built town hall, the National Trust Royal Bull's Head Inn and many examples in the heritage-listed Russell Street. Immediately to the east of the CBD is the Caledonian Estate, an area of turn-of-the-20th-century housing, ranging from humble workers cottages to large stately homes, in the classic wooden Queenslander style.

Toowoomba is also home to the Empire Theatre, which was originally opened in June 1911, as a silent movie house. In February 1933, fire broke out, almost completely destroying the building. However, the Empire was rebuilt and reopened in November 1933. The architectural styling of the new Empire Theatre was art deco, in keeping with the trend of the 1930s. After years of neglect, the Empire Theatre was extensively renovated in the late 1990s, but retains much of its art deco architecture and decorations, especially the proscenium arch. Able to seat approximately 1,500 people, the Empire Theatre is now the largest regional theatre in Australia.

The city also is home to the Cobb & Co Museum, hailing to the famous mail company's beginnings as a small mail run in the 1800s to transport mail and passengers to Brisbane and beyond. It also houses Australia's largest collection of horse-drawn vehicles. The museum has undergone a A$8 million redevelopment before reopening in September 2010.

Heritage listings

Toowoomba has many heritage-listed sites, with over fifty on the Queensland Heritage Register in addition to listings on other local heritage registers.

Governance

Toowoomba is the seat of the Toowoomba Region local government area. The city is represented in the Parliament of Queensland by three seats: Toowoomba North, Toowoomba South and Condamine. In the Commonwealth Parliament, Toowoomba forms part of the Division of Groom, which is held by Garth Hamilton for the Liberal National Party of Queensland.

The current Mayor of the Toowoomba Region is Geoff McDonald, who succeeded Paul Antonio after his retirement in July 2023.

Crime
Toowoomba has had a large amount of crime over the past years, but is still on average less than other parts of Queensland. In 2018, the Royal Automobile Club of Queensland described Toowoomba as "one of Queensland's car theft hot spots", noting that there were insurance claims for over 3,000 cars stolen over a three-year period from Harristown alone.

Economy
The Australian Defence Force is also present in the local community, with the city providing housing and amenities for many of the personnel based at the Oakey Army Aviation Centre (in Oakey,  NW of Toowoomba) and Borneo Barracks at Cabarlah to the city's North. The headquarters of Heritage Bank, which is Australia's largest mutual bank, FK Gardners and Wagners are located in Toowoomba. Toowoomba itself, acts as the service centre for an economic area that reaches from the Western edge of Ipswich in the East, to Northern New South Wales in the south and the QLD Border to the west.

Education

Toowoomba is a major education centre with a strong presence of boarders from Western Queensland attending Schools such as Toowoomba Grammar, Fairholme College, Downlands College and The Glennie School.

Primary

State
 Darling Heights State School
 Drayton State School is the oldest school in Toowoomba.
 Fairview Heights State School
 Gabbinbar State School
 Glenvale State School
 Harlaxton State School
 Harristown State Primary School
 Middle Ridge State School
 Newtown State School
 Rangeville State School
 Rockville State School
 Toowoomba East State School
 Toowoomba North State School
 Toowoomba South State School is the oldest school in Toowoomba proper.
 Wilsonton State School

Private/Religious
 Christian Outreach College Toowoomba
 Concordia Lutheran College (2 campuses)
 Darling Downs Christian School
 Downlands College independent Catholic Co-educational Day and Boarding school
 Fairholme College
 The Glennie School
 Grammar Junior
 Glenvale Christian School
 Holy Name Catholic Primary School
 Mater Dei
 Our Lady of Lourdes School
 Sacred Heart School
 St Anthony's Primary School Toowoomba
 St Thomas More's School
 St Saviours Primary School
 Toowoomba Anglican College and Preparatory School
 Toowoomba Christian College

Secondary

State
 Centenary Heights State High School
 Toowoomba Flexi School (annexe of Centenary Heights State High School)
 Clifford Park Special School
 Harristown State High School
 Toowoomba State High School
 Wilsonton State High School

Private/Religious
 Christian Outreach College Christian co-educational school.
 Concordia College
 Darling Downs Christian School
 Downlands College independent Catholic Co-educational Day and Boarding school
 Fairholme College a Presbyterian Church of Queensland school.
 The Glennie School- Anglican day and boarding school
 St Joseph's College
 St. Mary's College
 St Saviour's, Toowoomba's oldest Catholic school
 St Ursula's College Independent Catholic day and boarding school for girls
 Toowoomba Anglican College and Preparatory School
 Toowoomba Christian College
 Toowoomba Grammar School, independent grammar school (est.1875).
 Mary Mackillop Secondary College- forms part of the existing primary campus in Highfields, opened in 2016

Tertiary
 University of Southern Queensland
 TAFE Queensland South West (Formerly SQIT) has extensive campuses to the east of the CBD.
 University of Queensland has a small centre in Toowoomba.
 Griffith University has a small health training facility in Toowoomba.

Culture

Festivals

Toowoomba is nationally renowned for the annual Carnival of Flowers, held each year in September. Many of the city's major parks and gardens are especially prepared for the carnival, including an important home garden competition and parade of flower floats. Buses bring people from around the nation, and a popular way to arrive at the carnival from Brisbane is on chartered antique steam and diesel trains, which captures the yester-year aspect of travel to Toowoomba with 19th-century wooden carriages.

In 1953 the Carnival of Flowers was the subject of a sponsored film produced by the Queensland Minister for Lands and Irrigation. The Carnival of Flowers depicts the floral parade, the home gardens competition and the crowning of the Floral Queen and is a wonderful portrait of life in 1950s Queensland.

In 2009 as part of the Q150 celebrations, Carnival of Flowers was announced as one of the Q150 Icons of Queensland for its role as an "Events and festivals".

The Toowoomba Carnival of Flowers received the Gold Award for Major Festival and Event at the Queensland Tourism Awards in 2015, 2016 & 2017, and Australian Tourism Awards in 2016 & 2017. In 2017, 255,639 people recorded as having attended the event

Toowoomba also hosts 'First Coat Art and Music Festival'. First Coat is a street art festival, held annually in May. As a result of the festival, over 50 pieces of large-scale, public art exist throughout the Toowoomba CBD, which has led to a transformation of previously underutilised lane and alleyways, as well as a reduction in costs associated with graffiti management.

Toowoomba was previously home to Easterfest (which was held annually over the Easter weekend.) The event has not continued after 2015.

The "Food and Wine Festival", which usually spans 3 days, happens every year at Carnival of flowers time. It provides entertainment, food and drinks and is a spectacle of the Carnival.

Food
Toowoomba is home to the Weis Bar (until 2020 when production ceases and moves to Minto, NSW), Home Ice Cream, Homestyle Bake and possibly the Lamington. Toowoomba has a thriving cafe and restaurant scene that is often compared to Melbourne in its maturity and depth.

Sport

Rugby league is a popular sport in Toowoomba. A team representing Toowoomba used to compete in the Bulimba Cup tournament. Toowoomba currently does not host a team in any of the major national competitions but was home to the Toowoomba Clydesdales in the Queensland Cup state league.
The Clydesdales were the feeder team for Brisbane Broncos in the National Rugby League (NRL) from 1999 to 2006. The Clysedales dropped out of the Queensland Cup after the 2006 season due to financial difficulties and are no longer a feeder club for the Brisbane Broncos. Toowoomba Sports Ground (Clive Berghofer Stadium) has hosted trial National Rugby League (NRL) matches since 2003 and premiership matches have been played since 2018 with an average attendance of 7,559 and a record crowd of 10,000 in 2004.

Toowoomba features a semi-professional football club, South West Queensland Thunder, that has a large following within the community.  Toowoomba is the headquarters of Football Darling Downs which administers football in Toowoomba and surrounding towns and regions.  Toowoomba is home to 12 clubs including South West Queensland Thunder - Fairholme College, Garden City Raiders, Highfields, Rockville Rovers, St Albans, South Toowoomba Hawks, St Ursula's College, University of Southern Queensland, West Wanderers and Willowburn. A-League pre-season matches have been held at Toowoomba Sports Ground since 2006 with a record crowd of 4,571.

Australian rules football is played by four senior teams in the AFL Darling Downs competition: Coolaroo, Toowoomba Tigers, University of Southern Queensland and South Toowoomba. The sport has gained popularity amongst juniors with eleven clubs in the region. The four Senior Toowoomba clubs compete with five other clubs in towns such as Dalby, Gatton, Goondiwindi, Highfields and Warwick. In 2006, Brad Howard became the first draftee from Toowoomba to the Australian Football League (AFL). Despite the code's popularity, Toowoomba has never hosted an AFL match, even with a capacity upgrade in 2022, the city's premier venue Rockville Park is not currently up to AFL standard.

Toowoomba has clubs for other sports including cricket (Toowoomba Cricket Inc), archery, swimming, tennis, softball, baseball, netball (Toowoomba Netball Association), hockey (Toowoomba Hockey Association), gridiron (Chargers) and basketball (Toowoomba Basketball Association). The city is also home to the Toowoomba Mountaineers basketball team, which participates in the Queensland Basketball League (QBL).

Toowoomba also shares two prestigious golf courses; Toowoomba Golf Club Middle Ridge, and City Golf Club Toowoomba. These two clubs, as well as several other clubs in the district, conduct an annual Pennant season. Each club take on each other in Match play and in several different divisions to be crowned the Pennant winners of the Year. City Golf Club also hosted the Queensland PGA Championship from 2009 to 2013.

Sport at both junior and senior level in Toowoomba and surrounding areas is promoted by Sports Darling Downs, a non-profit organisation based in Toowoomba.

Toowoomba is home to Clifford Park Racecourse. Clifford Park Racecourse was acquired as a  block in 1861.

The Toowoomba Turf Club was formed in 1882 and the first recorded Toowoomba Cup was run in 1919. In 1992, the club made Australian racing history by staging the first race ever run under electric lights: the Fosters Toowoomba Cup, which was won by Waigani Drive. In 1996 the club staged the first night race meeting in Australia.

Toowoomba has a number of rugby union teams, including University of Southern Queensland Rugby Union Club, Toowoomba Rangers Rugby Union Club, Toowoomba City Rugby Club, which compete in the Darling Downs Rugby Union competition, against such teams as the Roma Echidnas, the Condamine Cods, the Dalby Wheatmen, the Goondiwindi Emus, the Warwick Water Rats and the University of Queensland Rugby Union Club (Gatton Campus).

Cycling is a popular sport in Toowoomba. The Tour of Toowoomba in 2010 became a round of the Subaru National Road Series and attracted 15 teams. A proposal to stage a National Road Series event in Toowoomba was first presented to the Toowoomba Cycling Club in late 2009 by John Osborne OAM, a lifelong cycling enthusiast. The inaugural FKG Tour of Toowoomba was won by Patrick Shaw riding for the Virgin Blue RBS Morgan team. Patrick was later named Cycling Australia's Road Cyclist of the Year – 2010.

Founded in 1950, the Toowoomba Auto Club ran races at the nearby Leyburn Airfield and Lowood Airfield Circuits in the 1950s and 1960s, and also ran races on the streets of Middle Ridge as part of the Carnival of Flowers in 1958, 1960 and 1961, with the feature races won by Glynn Scott, Alec Mildren and Arnold Glass respectively. The club built the Echo Valley facility, initially as a hillclimbing venue officially opened on 18 September 1966, with the facility now operating as a motocross track. The Australian Hillclimb Championship was held on Prince Henry Drive in 1955 and 1961. From 1923 to 1928 racing for both motorcycle speedway and for cars was held at Werrington Park Speedway on a site south of the Toowoomba City Aerodrome.

Toowoomba is home to four parkrun events: Toowoomba (founded 2013 at Queens Park), Highfields (founded 2015), South Toowoomba (founded 2018) and Picnic Point (founded 2023). Toowoomba's parkrun events are some of the best attended in Australia with as many as 500 participants.

Community groups
The Toowoomba branch of the Queensland Country Women's Association meets at 263 Margaret Street and the Toowoomba City Business Women's branch meets at 161 Margaret Street.

There are 6 Rotary clubs operating within Toowoomba. All are active within the community raising funds annually in excess of $200,000. The Rotary Cub of Toowoomba meets at Burke and Wills Hotel, 554 Ruthven Street.

Media

Print
 The Darling Downs Gazette (June 1858 to October 1922)
 The Chronicle (since July 1861)
 High Country Herald
 The Coffee Gazette (since October 2014)
 Darling Downs Star (July 1955 to September 2003)
 Toowoomba's Mail (since September 2003)
 Toowoomba Telegraph (October 2012 to July 2013)

Television
Toowoomba is serviced by three commercial national network stations and two national non-commercial network stations. These are Seven Queensland, SCA 10 (Network 10), WIN Television (Nine Network), ABC Television and Special Broadcasting Service.  Each broadcasts television services in digital format, with analogue transmissions having been deactivated on 6 December 2011.
 Seven Queensland (STQ), 7two, 7mate, 7Bravo, 7flix, 7Bravo: Seven Network owned and operated channels.
 WIN Television, 9Gem, 9Go!, 9Life: Nine Network affiliated channels.
 SCA 10, 10 Bold, 10 Peach, 10 Shake, Sky News Regional: Network 10 affiliated channels.
 Special Broadcasting Service, SBS, SBS Viceland, SBS Food, SBS World Movies, SBS WorldWatch and NITV
 Australian Broadcasting Corporation, ABC TV, ABC TV Plus, ABC Kids, ABC Me, ABC News
Of the three commercial networks, Seven Queensland and WIN Television both air 30-minute local news bulletins at 6pm each weeknight, produced from newsrooms in the city but broadcast from studios in Maroochydore and Wollongong respectively. Southern Cross Nine aired a regional Queensland edition of Nine News from Brisbane, featuring local opt-outs for Toowoomba and the Darling Downs from August 2017 to February 2019.

Brisbane metropolitan commercial channels BTQ-7 (Seven Network), QTQ-9 (Nine Network) and TVQ-10 (Network Ten) broadcasting from transmission towers at Mount Coot-tha can also be received in some parts of Toowoomba.

Radio
Toowoomba has many different radio stations including FM and AM channels. Below is a list of some stations available in Toowoomba.

 Hit 100.7 Darling Downs (100.7 FM)
 Triple M Darling Downs 864 (864 AM)
 ABC Southern Queensland (747 AM)
 92.9 Voice FM  (92.9 FM)
 River949 (94.9 FM)
 ABC News Radio (96.7 FM)
 Power FM (88.0 FM)
 Community Radio (101.7 FM)
 Triple J (103.3 FM / 104.1 FM)
 ABC Local Radio Queensland (104.9 FM)
 ABC Classic FM (107.3 FM)
 4WK (963 AM)
 4AK (1242 AM)
 The Breeze (1620 AM)

Transport
There is a suburban bus service operated by Bus Queensland Toowoomba throughout the city. This is a Translink service. Stonestreets Coaches operate many school services in the city.

There are frequent inter-city bus services between Toowoomba and Brisbane, and other centres operated by Greyhound Australia and Murrays. Toowoomba was the headquarters for McCafferty's Coaches that operated a national long-distance coach network until its sale to Greyhound Australia in 2004.

Toowoomba station has a twice-weekly rail service from Brisbane to Charleville and return on Queensland Rail's The Westlander.  Toowoomba is criss-crossed by several railway lines that are used for freight, and idle railway stations can be found in the suburbs (including Ballard, Drayton, Harlaxton and Harristown), dating to when these localities were separate centres.

Toowoomba is served by Toowoomba Wellcamp Airport, which is serviced by Bonza, QantasLink and Regional Express Airlines, with flights to Brisbane, Sydney, Melbourne, Townsville, Whitsundays and destinations west of the city.

Toowoomba City Aerodrome is located in Toowoomba's outer suburb of Wilsonton (). The city's former airport is now primarily used by the Royal Flying Doctor Service, LifeFlight and the Darling Downs Aero Club.

Infrastructure

Health
Toowoomba is serviced by four hospitals: Toowoomba Base Hospital, which is a public hospital and one of the largest hospitals in regional Australia, this will soon be replaced via a redevelopment at the Baillie Henderson Hospital site; a specialist psychiatric hospital called Baillie Henderson Hospital; and two private hospitals: St. Andrew's Toowoomba Hospital and St. Vincents Hospital. There is also the Toowoomba Hospice which is a community-based private healthcare facility which provides palliative care to the terminally ill.

Water
Toowoomba's third water storage Cressbrook Dam was completed in 1983 and supplied water to Toowoomba in 1988. It has a full capacity of about  bringing total capacity of the three dams, Cooby, Perseverance, and Cressbrook, to .  The city also has underground supplies in fractured basalt of the rock unit known as the Main Range Volcanics. Toowoomba also sits above the eastern edge of the Great Artesian Basin and to the west underground water is available beneath unconsolidated alluvium.

Rainfall during the period from 1998 to 2005 was 30% below the long term average, consistent with a prolonged drought; with this trend continuing through to the spring of 2007. In mid-2005, the water situation for the city was becoming critical with water supply levels below 30%. Environmental flows from Cressbrook Dam into Cressbrook Creek were allowed to cease as Toowoomba approached level five water restrictions. During March 2006 the surface water storage in the dams fell below 25% of full capacity, falling further to 12.8% on 10 March 2008 and reaching an all-time low of 7.7% in December 2009.

The former Toowoomba Mayor Di Thorley proposed a controversial potable reuse project under the Toowoomba Water Futures plan which would result in water reclaimed from the Wetalla Sewage Treatment Plant being returned to Cooby Dam to provide 25% of the potable water supply for Toowoomba. Other water supply options include importing water from Oakey Creek Groundwater Management Area (average TDS 1660 mg/L), importing water from Condamine Groundwater Management Area (average TDS 740 mg/L), and water from coal seam gas production (TDS 1200–4300 mg/L).

On 29 July 2006, Toowoomba City Council conducted a poll of Toowoomba residents on the proposal to use this multi-barrier filtration system for filtering sewage for drinking purposes. The poll question was: "Do you support the addition of purified recycled water to Toowoomba's water supply via Cooby Dam as proposed by Water Futures – Toowoomba?" 38% of voters supported the proposal and 62% opposed. This meant that despite dams reaching critical levels, the city rejected the use of recycled water in a plebiscite. Since the public rejection in 2006 of adding recycled sewage to the drinking water supply, water conservation measures have included harvesting stormwater for use in public parks and adding filtered groundwater to the town water supply. The city was under level 5 water restrictions as of 26 September 2006. This prohibits residents from using town water on their lawns, gardens or cars, and residents are strongly urged to cut down on water consumption.

In 2007, the Toowoomba City Council commenced a bore drilling program to augment the dwindling dam supplies and constructed several subartesian bores across the city and one artesian bore at Wetalla in the city's north. Many of the subartesian bores provided potable water with a reliable yield and have been developed into production however the artesian bore's water quality was very poor, prohibiting development as a potable source. This was an expensive setback for the city as the cost was over A$2 million for drilling to over . In January 2008, yield testing had been stalled due to the unavailability of appropriate pumping equipment. The Toowoomba Regional Council began supplementing the city's water supply with bore water from the Great Artesian Basin in September 2009. Groundwater has become a significant contributor to the city's water supply needs and now constitutes one third of the total volume of water treated for reticulated supply ( per week).

The state government has built a $187 million pipeline from Wivenhoe Dam to Toowoomba. Water pumping along the  pipeline to Cressbrook Dam began in January 2010.

Notable people

Sister cities
Toowoomba has sister city relations with three international cities: Whanganui, New Zealand; Takatsuki, Japan; and Paju, South Korea.

Religion
The  recorded the following statistics for religious affiliation in Toowoomba: No religion 32.5%; Catholic 20.2%; Anglican 14.2%; Other Christian 5.1%.

Toowoomba Wesleyan Methodist Church is at 267 North Street, Wilsonton Heights (). It is part of the Wesleyan Methodist Church of Australia.

Toowoomba Chinese Wesleyan Methodist Church is at 21 Kookaburra Court, Glenvale (). It is part of the Wesleyan Methodist Church of Australia.

Harrison (2006) has noted the appeal of Toowoomba as 'fertile ground' for fundamentalist Christian movements, particularly those with a religio-political outlook.  This was exemplified by the Logos Foundation under the leadership of Howard Carter in the 1980s.

References

Attribution

Further reading
  Knowles, J. (1959) Toowoomba as a Railway Centre, Australian Railway Historical Society Bulletin, January 1959 pp. 10–16.

External links

Toowoomba.org – Toowoomba's Homepage
Toowoomba Tourist Information
Toowoomba Historical Society Inc newsletter archive, State Library of Queensland
Peter Fischmann Toowoomba photographs 1985-1989, State Library of Queensland
Qld Open House Toowoomba website archive, State Library of Queensland
Toowoomba Art Society newsletter archive, State Library of Queensland
Toowoomba Carnival of Flowers Photographs, State Library of Queensland
Toowoomba Railway goods shed archival record, State Library of Queensland

Darling Downs
Towns in the Darling Downs
1849 establishments in Australia
Populated places established in 1849

Toowoomba


Hawaiian Pidgin (alternately, Hawaiʻi Creole English or HCE, known locally as Pidgin) is an English-based creole language spoken in Hawaiʻi. An estimated 600,000 residents of Hawaii speak Hawaiian Pidgin natively and 400,000 speak it as a second language. Although English and Hawaiian are the two official languages of the state of Hawaiʻi, Hawaiian Pidgin is spoken by many Hawaiian residents in everyday conversation and is often used in advertising targeted toward locals in Hawaiʻi. In the Hawaiian language, it is called ōlelo pai ai – "hard taro language". Hawaiian Pidgin was first recognized as a language by the U.S. Census Bureau in 2015. However, Hawaiian Pidgin is still thought of as lower status than the Hawaiian and English languages.

Despite its name, Hawaiian Pidgin is not a pidgin, but rather a full-fledged, nativized and demographically stable creole language. It did, however, evolve from various real pidgins spoken as common languages between ethnic groups in Hawaiʻi.

Although not completely mutually intelligible with Standard American English, Hawaiian Pidgin retains a high degree of mutual intelligibility with it compared to some other English-based creoles, such as Jamaican Patois, in part due to its relatively recent emergence.

There is also tendency for many Hawaiian Pidgin speakers to mix the language with standard English. This has led to a distinction between pure "heavy Pidgin" and mixed "light Pidgin". Heavier Pidgin is more common in rural areas and in older speakers.

History
Hawaiian Pidgin originated on sugarcane plantations in 1835 as a form of communication used between Hawaiian speaking Native Hawaiian residents, English speaking residents, and foreign immigrants. It supplanted, and was influenced by, the existing pidgin that Native Hawaiians already used on plantations and elsewhere in Hawaiʻi. Since such sugarcane plantations often hired workers from many different countries, a common language was needed in order for the plantation workers to communicate effectively with each other and their supervisors. Hawaiian Pidgin has been influenced by many different languages, including Portuguese, Hawaiian, American English, and Cantonese. As people of other backgrounds were brought in to work on the plantations, Hawaiian Pidgin acquired even more words from languages such as Japanese, Ilocano, Okinawan and Korean.

The article Japanese loanwords in Hawaii lists some of those words originally from Japanese. Hawaiian Pidgin has also been influenced to a lesser degree by Spanish spoken by Puerto Rican settlers in Hawaiʻi. As there were eventually more immigrant families who brought their children to the plantations, these children learned the language from their parents as well as English at school. Over time, a new pidgin language developed from all of the different language backgrounds which became many of the children's first language. This was the origin of Hawaiian Pidgin, which was used and is still used by many Hawaiian and non-Hawaiian people who live there.

Hawaiian Pidgin was created mainly to provide communication and facilitate cooperation between the foreign laborers and the English-speaking Americans in order to do business on the plantations. Even today, Hawaiian Pidgin retains some influences from these languages. For example, the word "stay" in Hawaiian Pidgin has a form and use similar to the Hawaiian verb "noho", Portuguese verb "ficar" or Spanish "estar", which mean "to be" but are used only when referring to a temporary state or location.

In the 19th and 20th centuries, Hawaiian Pidgin started to be used outside the plantation between ethnic groups. In the 1980s, two educational programs were established which were taught in Hawaiian Pidgin to help students learn Standard English. Public school children learned Hawaiian Pidgin from their classmates and parents. Living in a community mixed with various cultures led to the daily usage of Hawaiian Pidgin, which caused the language to expand. It was easier for school children of different ethnic backgrounds to speak Hawaiian Pidgin than to learn another language. Children who grew up learning and speaking this language expanded Hawaiian Pidgin as it was their first language, or mother tongue. For this reason, linguists generally consider Hawaiian Pidgin to be a creole language.

Hawaiian Pidgin is said to have since been decreolized (Romaine, 1994), especially in Oahu, Hawaiʻi which holds the largest population of the islands. This is due to capitalism and economic changes on the islands that were implemented by the United States. Furthermore, tourism and technology have made the English language more utilized in Hawaii, which has led to the endangerment of Hawaiian Pidgin. Hawaiian Pidgin was also not taught in public education nor does it have its own writing system. Consequently, Hawaiian Pidgin was thought of as a "low social status" and is only a memory of the plantations that many want to forget. This brought upon racial discrimination to those who spoke the language, which excluded children from school who spoke Hawaiian Pidgin. Even though people were against Hawaiian Pidgin, the language has since been strengthened and supported by young people who honor Hawaiian Pidgin and its origins.

Demographics and status
A five-year survey that the U.S. Census Bureau conducted in Hawaiʻi revealed that many people spoke Hawaiian Pidgin as an additional language. As a result of this, the U.S. Census Bureau in 2015 added Hawaiian Pidgin to the list of official languages in the state of Hawaiʻi.

In the last few decades, many Hawaiian residents have moved to the US mainland due to economic issues. As a result, thousands of Pidgin speakers can be found in the other 49 states.

Historically, teachers and policymakers have debated whether growing up speaking Hawaiʻi Creole English hinders the learning of Standard English.

Phonology
Hawaiian Pidgin has distinct pronunciation differences from standard American English (SAE). Long vowels are not pronounced in Hawaiian Pidgin if the speaker is using Hawaiian loanwords. Some key differences include the following:

Th-stopping:  and  are pronounced as  or  respectively—that is, changed from a fricative to a plosive (stop). For instance, think  becomes , and that  becomes . An example is "Broke da mout" (tasted good).
L-vocalization: Word-final l  is often pronounced  or . For instance, mental  is often pronounced ; people is pronounced [pipo].
 Hawaiian Pidgin is non-rhotic. That is, r after a vowel is often omitted, similar to many dialects, such as Eastern New England, Australian English, and British English variants. For instance, car is often pronounced cah, and letter is pronounced letta. Intrusive r is also used. The number of Hawaiian Pidgin speakers with rhotic English has also been increasing.
 Hawaiian Pidgin has falling intonation in questions. In yes/no questions, falling intonation is striking and appears to be a lasting imprint of Hawaiian (this pattern is not found in yes/no question intonation in American English). This particular falling intonation pattern is shared with some other Oceanic languages, including Fijian and Samoan (Murphy, K. 2013).
In certain words, the sound /ts/ assimilates to /s/. Examples include: what's  becoming wass  and it's  becoming iss . This feature is also found in African-American Vernacular English.

Others include: , ,      and .

Grammatical features

Hawaiian Pidgin has distinct grammatical forms not found in SAE, although some of them are shared with other dialectal forms of English or may derive from other linguistic influences.

Forms used for SAE "to be":
Generally, forms of English "to be" (i.e. the copula) are omitted when referring to inherent qualities of an object or person, forming in essence a stative verb form. Additionally, inverted sentence order may be used for emphasis. (Many East Asian languages use stative verbs instead of the copula-adjective construction of English and other Western languages.)
 Da behbeh cute. (or) Cute, da behbeh.
 The baby is cute.

Note that these constructions also mimic the grammar of the Hawaiian language. In Hawaiian, "nani ka pēpē" is literally "beautiful the baby" retaining that specific syntactic form, and is perfectly correct Hawaiian grammar with equivalent meaning in English, "The baby is beautiful."

When the verb "to be" refers to a temporary state or location, the word stay is used (see above). This may be influenced by other Pacific creoles, which use the word stap, from stop, to denote a temporary state or location. In fact, stop was used in Hawaiian Pidgin earlier in its history, and may have been dropped in favor of stay due to influence from Portuguese estar or ficar (ficar is literally translated to English as 'to stay', but often used in place of "to be" e.g. "ele fica feliz" he is happy).

 Da book stay on top da table.
 The book is on the table.

 Da watah stay cold.
 The water is cold.

For tense-marking of verb, auxiliary verbs are employed:
 To express past tense, Hawaiian Pidgin uses wen (went) in front of the verb.
 Jesus wen cry. ("Da Jesus Book", John 11:35)
 Jesus cried.

 To express future tense, Hawaiian Pidgin uses goin (going), derived from the going-to future common in informal varieties of American English.
 God goin do plenny good kine stuff fo him. ("Da Jesus Book", Mark 11:9)
 God is going to do a lot of good things for him.

 To express past tense negative, Hawaiian Pidgin uses neva (never). Neva can also mean "never" as in Standard English usage; context sometimes, but not always, makes the meaning clear.
 He neva like dat.
 He didn't want that. (or) He never wanted that. (or) He didn't like that.

 Use of fo (for) in place of the infinitive particle "to". Cf. dialectal form "Going for carry me home."
 I tryin fo tink. (or) I try fo tink.
 I'm trying to think.

Regional Varieties
The grammar and vocabulary of Hawaiian Pidgin is largely uniform though there are slight changes depending on the region it's spoken in.

For instance, while standard Pidgin uses "wen" as a past tense verb marker, Kauai speakers are more likely to use "had".
She had go awready. (Kauai)
She wen go awready. (Standard)
She went already.
Another example is shave ice being "ice shave" on the Big Island.

Sociolinguistics
The language is highly stigmatized in formal settings, for which American English or the Hawaiian language are preferred. Many researchers believe the continued delegitimization of this creole is rooted in the language's origin story and colonial past, as it was once a plantation language. Therefore, its usage is typically reserved for everyday casual conversations. Studies have proven that children in kindergarten preferred Hawaiian Pidgin, but once they were in grade one and more socially conditioned they preferred Standard English. Hawaiian Pidgin is often criticized in business, educational, family, social, and community situations as it might be construed as rude, crude, or broken English among some Standard English speakers. However, many tourists find Hawaiian Pidgin appealing – and local travel companies favor those who speak Hawaiian Pidgin and hire them as speakers or customer service agents.

Most linguists categorize Hawaiian Pidgin as a creole, as a creole refers to the linguistic form "spoken by the native-born children of pidgin-speaking parents". However, many locals view Hawaiian Pidgin as a dialect. Other linguists argue that this "standard" form of the language is also a dialect. Based on this definition, a language is primarily the "standard" form of the language, but also an umbrella term used to encapsulate the "inferior" dialects of that language.

The Pidgin Coup, a group of Hawaiian Pidgin advocates, claims that Hawaiian Pidgin should be classified as a language. The group believes that the only reason it is not considered a language is due to the hegemony of English. "Due to the hegemony of English, a lack of equal status between these two languages can only mean a scenario in which the non-dominant language is relatively marginalized. Marginalization occurs when people hold the commonplace view that HCE and English differ in being appropriate for different purposes and different situations. It is this concept of 'appropriateness' which is a form of prescriptivism; a newer, more subtle form." These Hawaiian Pidgin advocates believe that by claiming there are only certain, less public contexts in which Hawaiian Pidgin is only appropriate, rather than explicitly stating that Hawaiian Pidgin is lesser than Standard English, masks the issue of refusing to recognize Hawaiian Pidgin as a legitimate language. In contrast, other researchers have found that many believe that, since Hawaiian Pidgin does not have a standardized writing form, it cannot be classified as a language.

Literature and performing arts
In recent years, writers from Hawaiʻi such as Lois-Ann Yamanaka, Joe Balaz, and Lee Tonouchi have written poems, short stories, and other works in Hawaiian Pidgin. A Hawaiian Pidgin translation of The Bible (called Da Good an Spesho Book) has also been created, in 2020, by Wycliffe Bible Translators, Inc. Also an adaptation of William Shakespeare's Twelfth Night, or What You Will, titled in Hawaiian Pidgin "twelf nite o' WATEVA!"

Several theater companies in Hawaii produce plays written and performed in Hawaiian Pidgin.  The most notable of these companies is Kumu Kahua Theater.

The 1987 film North Shore contains several characters, particularly the surfing gang Da Hui, that speak Hawaiian Pidgin.  This leads to humorous misunderstandings between the haole protagonist Rick Kane and several Hawaiian locals, including Rick's best friend Turtle, who speaks Hawaiian Pidgin.

Hawaiian Pidgin has occasionally been featured on Hawaii Five-0 as the protagonists frequently interact with locals. A recurring character, Kamekona Tupuola (portrayed by Taylor Wiley), speaks Hawaiian Pidgin. The show frequently displays Hawaiian culture and is filmed at Hawaii locations.

Another film that features Hawaiian Pidgin is Netflix's Finding 'Ohana, a film that depicts the story of a brother and sister duo from Brooklyn who embark on a journey to reconnect with their Hawaiian heritage, this includes learning about Hawaiian Pidgin, as it was integral to their family history.

Milton Murayama's novel All I asking for is my body uses Hawaiʻi Pidgin in the title of the novel. R. Zamora Linmark employs it extensively in his semi-autobiographical novel Rolling the R's; two of the major characters speak predominately in Pidgin and some chapters are narrated in it. The novel also includes examples of Taglish.

Two books, Pidgin to Da Max and Pidgin to Da Max: Hana Hou, humorously portray Hawaiian Pidgin through prose and illustrations.

As of March 2008, Hawaiian Pidgin has started to become more popular in local television advertisements as well as other media. When Hawaiian Pidgin is used in advertisements, it is often changed to better fit the targeted audience of the kamaāina.

See also

 Da kine
 Maritime Polynesian Pidgin, a Hawaiian-, Tahitian- and Maori-based pidgin that predated pidgin English in the Pacific.

Citations

References
 Da Jesus Book (2000).  Orlando: Wycliffe Bible Translators. .
 Murphy, Kelly (2013). Melodies of Hawaiʻi: The relationship between Hawaiʻi Creole English and ʻŌlelo Hawaiʻi prosody. University of Calgary PhD dissertation.
 Sakoda, Kent & Jeff Siegel (2003). Pidgin Grammar: An Introduction to the Creole Language of Hawaii. Honolulu: Bess Press. .
 Simonson, Douglas et al. (1981). Pidgin to da Max.  Honolulu:  Bess Press.  .
 Tonouchi, Lee (2001).  Da Word.  Honolulu:  Bamboo Ridge Press.  .
 "Pidgin:  The Voice of Hawai'i".  (2009) Documentary film.  Directed by Marlene Booth, produced by Kanalu Young and Marlene Booth.  New Day Films.
 Suein Hwang "Long Dismissed, Hawaii Pidgin Finds A Place in Classroom" (Cover story) Wall Street Journal – Eastern Edition, August 2005, retrieved on November 18, 2014.
 Digital History, Digital History, http://www.digitalhistory.uh.edu/disp_textbook.cfm?smtid=2&psid=3159 2014, retrieved on November 18, 2014.
 Eye of Hawaii, Pidgin, The Unofficial Language, http://www.eyeofhawaii.com/Pidgin/pidgin.htm   retrieved on November 18, 2014.

 Jeff Siegel, Emergence of Pidgin and Creole Languages (Oxford University Press, 2008), 3.
 Hawaiian Pidgin, Hawaii Travel Guide http://www.to-hawaii.com/hawaiian-pidgin.php retrieved on November 18, 2014.

Further reading

 Murphy, Kelly (2013). Melodies of Hawaiʻi: The relationship between Hawaiʻi Creole English and ʻŌlelo Hawaiʻi prosody. University of Calgary PhD dissertation.

External links

 Pidgins and Creoles in Education (PACE) Newsletter
 e-Hawaii.com Searchable Pidgin English Dictionary
 The Charlene Sato Center for Pidgin, Creole and Dialect Studies, a center devoted to pidgin, creole, and dialect studies at the University of Hawaii at Mānoa, Hawaii.  Also home of the Pidgin Coup, a group of academics and community members interested in Hawaii Pidgin related research and education
 Position Paper on Pidgin by the "Pidgin Coup"
 Da Hawaii Pidgin Bible (see Da Jesus Book above)
"Liddo Bitta Tita" Hawaiian Pidgin column written by Tita, alter-ego of Kathy Collins.  Maui No Ka 'Oi Magazine Vol.12 No.1 (January 2008).
"Liddo Bitta Tita" audio file
Collection of Hawaii Creole  English recordings available through Kaipuleohone

Pidgin
English-based pidgins and creoles
Languages of Hawaii
Languages of Oceania

Hawaiian Pidgin


أليكسي بريزيفتسكي ، من مواليد 20 يونيو 1982 في موسكو في روسيا، لاعب كرة قدم روسي.

يلعب مع نادي سيسكا موسكو منذ عام 2001.

بدأ باللعب مع منتخب روسيا لكرة القدم في عام 2003.

مراجع

روابط خارجية

لاعبو كرة قدم رجالية روس
أشخاص على قيد الحياة
أظهرة كرة قدم
توائم روس
توأم رياضي
رياضيون من موسكو
قلوب دفاع كرة قدم
لاعبو الدوري الروسي الممتاز
لاعبو أف سي موسكو
لاعبو بطولة أمم أوروبا 2008
لاعبو بطولة أمم أوروبا 2012
لاعبو بطولة أمم أوروبا 2016
لاعبو سسكا موسكو
بريزيفتسكي
لاعبو كرة قدم من موسكو
لاعبو منتخب روسيا تحت 21 سنة لكرة القدم
لاعبو منتخب روسيا لكرة القدم
لاعبون فائزون بكأس الاتحاد الأوروبي
مدربو الدوري الروسي الممتاز
مدربو سسكا موسكو
مدربو كرة قدم روس
مدربو كرة قدم روس مغتربون
مدربو كرة قدم مغتربون في هولندا
بريزيفتسكي
مواليد في موسكو

أليكسي بيريزوتسكي


දස පණත (බයිබලීය හෙබ්‍රෙව් עשרת הדברים \ עֲשֶׂרֶת הַדְּבָרִים, aséret ha-dvarím, lit. The decalogue', The decalogue. මිෂ්නයික් හෙබ්‍රෙව් עשרת הדיברות \ עֲשֶׂרֶת הַדִּבְּרוֹת, aséret ha-dibrot, lit. The Decalogue, The Ten Words'') යනු යුදෙව් ආගමේ සහ ක්‍රිස්තියානි ධර්මයේ මූලික කාර්යභාරයක් ඉටු කරන ආචාර ධර්ම හා නමස්කාරයට අදාළ බයිබලීය මූලධර්ම සමූහයකි. දස පනතේ පාඨය හෙබ්‍රෙව් බයිබලයේ දෙවරක් දිස්වේ: නික්මයාම පොතේ 20:2–17 සහ ද්විතීය නීති සංග්‍රහය පොතෙහි 5:6–21.

ටෝරාහි නික්මයාම පොතට අනුව, බයිබලානුකුල සීනයි කන්දේදී මෝසෙස්ට දස පනත් හෙළි කරන ලද අතර ගිවිසුම් පෙට්ටියේ තබා ඇති ගල් පුවරු දෙකක දෙවියන් වහන්සේගේ ඇඟිල්ලෙන් කොටා ඇත.

දස පනත ලියා ඇත්තේ කවදාද සහ කවුරුන් විසින්ද යන්න පිළිබඳව විද්වතුන් එකඟ නොවෙති, සමහර නවීන විද්වතුන් යෝජනා කරන්නේ ඒවා හිත්තයිට් සහ මෙසපොතේමියානු නීති සහ ගිවිසුම් මත ආදර්ශයට ගත් ඒවා විය හැකි බවයි.

දස පණත


Parapterois heterura, o blackfoot firefish, é uma espécie de peixe marinho pertencente à família Scorpaenidae, os escorpiões. É amplamente distribuído na costa sudeste da África, bem como no Japão e na Indonésia, onde geralmente é encontrado em baías costeiras abrigadas com um fundo macio, como areia fina ou lama. É encontrado em profundidades que variam de . Esta espécie é um peixe sedentário e pode até se enterrar no substrato. P. heterura pisca suas barbatanas peitorais de cores vivas para assustar os predadores e escapar, mas também pode usar essas barbatanas para encurralar a presa. Esse comportamento foi demonstrado em outros peixes-leão. Esta espécie pode ser encontrada no comércio de aquários.

Taxonomia
Parapterois heterura foi formalmente descrito pela primeira vez como Pterois heterurus em 1856 pelo médico holandês, herpetólogo e ictiólogo Pieter Bleeker com a localidade tipo dada como Ilha Ambon.  É a espécie tipo do gênero Parapterois que Bleeker descreveu em 1876.  Algumas autoridades consideram que a população no sudoeste do Oceano Índico, que foi descrita como Pterois nigripinnis pelo ictiólogo sul-africano nascido na Escócia John Dow Fisher Gilchrist em 1904 da foz do rio Ohlanga em KwaZulu-Natal na África do Sul, é uma espécie válida Parapterois nigripinnis. O nome específico heterura significa "cauda diferente" uma alusão à cauda longa e alargada com o raio superior tendo uma extensão filamentosa.

Descrição
Parapterois heterura cresce até um comprimento máximo de , no entanto, a maioria dos espécimes são muito menores do que isso e os adultos geralmente têm cerca  de comprimento. A barbatana dorsal deste peixe tem treze espinhos com longos filamentos nas pontas e nove raios moles. As barbatanas anais têm dois espinhos e sete a oito raios moles. Os raios externos da nadadeira caudal também possuem extensões filamentosas.

Parapterois heterura é muito semelhante em aparência ao Parapterois macrura. As duas espécies diferem pelo fato de P. heterura ter escamas em um buraco entre as narinas posteriores, enquanto P. macrura não (exceto por uma população de P. heterura encontrada nas costas da Índia Ocidental, África do Sul e Moçambique, que pode ser uma espécie diferente). Essas espécies não diferem muito na espinha da barbatana, raio da barbatana, contagem de rastros branquiais e na maioria das proporções do corpo. Suas diferenças estão em uma pequena diferença nas proporções da cabeça. Além disso, em adultos, a margem superior do olho de P. heterura está abaixo da base do primeiro espinho da nadadeira dorsal, enquanto está acima em P. macrura (esta característica não é consistente em juvenis, nos quais a margem do olho pode ser abaixo em ambas as espécies).

Distribuição
Este peixe parece ter dois intervalos separados. Um fica na costa de Natal, no sudeste da África, e o outro, no Indo-Pacífico central, abrangendo Japão, Indonésia, Nova Guiné e Austrália.

Comportamento
Parapterois heterura é em grande parte noturno e pode se enterrar parcialmente no substrato durante o dia, tornando-o difícil de detectar. As barbatanas peitorais de cores vivas são alargadas se o peixe for perturbado e podem assustar os predadores, mas seu principal objetivo parece ser ajudar a encurralar a presa durante a caça. Este peixe se alimenta de pequenos peixes e invertebrados que vivem no fundo.

Referências

Ligações externas

Peixes descritos em 1856
Scorpaenidae

Parapterois heterura


والتر دي غريف ، من مواليد 13 نوفمبر 1957 ، لاعب كرة قدم بلجيكي سابق.

لعب مع منتخب بلجيكا لكرة القدم.

روابط خارجية

مراجع

لاعبو كرة قدم رجالية بلجيكيون
لاعبو وسط كرة قدم رجالية
أشخاص على قيد الحياة
رياضيون فلاميشيون
فلمنكيون
لاعبو بطولة أمم أوروبا 1984
لاعبو كرة قدم بلجيكيون
لاعبو كرة قدم من ليمبورغ (بلجيكا)
لاعبو منتخب بلجيكا لكرة القدم
لاعبو نادي أندرلخت
لاعبو نادي فينر
لاعبو نادي لوكيرين
لاعبون فائزون بكأس الاتحاد الأوروبي
مواليد 1957

والتر دي غريف


Labbaye Saint-Faron de Meaux est une ancienne abbaye bénédictine située à Meaux, en Île-de-France. Fondée en 628 par saint Fiacre, appelé localement Faron, elle est alors située dans les faubourgs nord  de la ville.

Elle est vendue à la Révolution comme bien national et partiellement détruite à ce moment-là. Une partie des bâtiments est à nouveau occupée par une congrégation religieuse au début du . Les dernières traces de l'abbaye disparaissent définitivement en 1992-1993 avec la construction du lycée Bossuet. Parallèlement, la connaissance de l'ancien monastère s'accroît à cette période avec plusieurs plusieurs campagnes successives des fouilles.

Histoire

Fondation
L'abbaye est fondée au  par saint Faron, alors évêque de Meaux, qui la place dans la filiation de l'abbaye de Luxeuil. La date exacte est incertaine, mais les deux dates de 628 et 660 sont citées par les historiens. Fiacre place l'abbaye sous le vocable de la Sainte Croix et de Saint Jean-Baptiste. À sa mort, le fondateur choisit d'être inhumé dans l'abbaye qu'il a fondée.

Un poète anonyme décrit au  les fresques de l'abbatiale : .

Développement et sépultures aux

À la suite de la renommée posthume croissante du fondateur et de sa canonisation, l'abbaye prend le nom de Saint-Faron pour honorer le fondateur. En 1026, le comte Eudes II fait réformer l'abbaye ; quelques années plus tard, le prieuré Saint-Pierre de Cornillon est rattaché à l'abbaye Saint-Faron.

Durant le , un certain Gaufroi est abbé de Saint-Faron ; il dresse un catalogue des livres de l'abbaye, catalogue qui a par la suite été perdu.

À la fin du , Adèle de Valois, épouse de Thibaud III de Blois, est créditée de la reconstruction du sanctuaire. Elle choisit également de se faire enterrer dans l'abbaye qu'elle a favorisée. Ogier de Danemarche, dit « Ogier le Danois », est également enterré dans l'abbaye au  ; cependant, la véracité historique de ce fait est remise en cause à la fin du .

Reconstruction au
Au , l'abbaye connaît à nouveau une importante campagne de construction, sous l'abbatiat de Renaud selon la tradiction. C'est en particulier l'époque de l'édification des chapelles rayonnantes du chœur de l'église abbatiale, mais aussi des nouveaux cloître et réfectoire de grandes dimensions.

Destructions et reconstructions du  au
La Guerre de Cent Ans endommage fortement l'abbaye, qui met plus d'un siècle à s'en relever. Au début du , le logis abbatial est rebâti. Mais les guerres de Religion sont à nouveau le théâtre de destructions importantes dans l'édifice.

Renouveau de la communauté aux
La communauté de Saint-Faron rejoint la congrégation de Saint-Maur en 1618, ce qui entraîne un renouveau qui se traduit notamment par des campagnes de travaux. Pierre de Bullion, abbé de 1632 à 1659, réaménage par exemple le cloître et le logis abbatial. En 1702 et 1703, le prieur Jacques Houdart fait rénover le sanctuaire, avec l'installation d'un nouveau maître-autel. Un bâtiment voué à servir d'hôtellerie et d'infirmerie est construit en 1715. Enfin, à partir de 1751, l'église abbatiale est reconstruite sous la direction de l'architecte Jean-Baptiste-Alexandre Totin, la première pierre du nouvel édifice étant posée le .

Lors de cette dernière reconstruction, le monument d'Ogier le Danois est démoli.

La Révolution et la disparition de l'abbaye
À la Révolution, l'abbaye Saint-Faron est vendue comme bien national en deux lots, en 1791 et 1797. Le premier lot comprend l'abbatiale et les bâtiments conventuels. Très rapidement, tous les bâtiments en sont détruits. Le second lot comprend le logis abbatial. Il est préservé et devient en 1921 un couvent de Visitandines. Les religieuses ajoutent en 1931 une aile perpendiculaire à l'ancien logis abbatial.

Disparition des dernières traces de l'abbaye et fouilles récentes
La fin du  est paradoxalement à la fois la période de la disparition totale de l'abbaye dans le paysage meldois et l'époque d'une meilleure connaissance archéologique du site. En effet, l'institution Sainte-Geneviève, dont une partie des locaux réutilisait les volumes de l'abbaye, fait place en 1992-1993 au lycée Bossuet, bâtiment moderne qui fait place nette des bâtiments préexistants. Seule une cave voûtée du  et une dépendance à pan de bois témoignent de l'ancienne abbaye.

Toutefois, en parallèle, plusieurs campagnes de fouilles archéologiques sont menées, respectivement par le SRAIF en 1990-1991, sous la direction de Danielle Magnan, par l'INRAP en 2012 sous la direction d'Erwan Bergot, enfin par la Direction régionale des Affaires culturelles Île-de-France de juillet à décembre 2016.

Architecture

Notes et références

Voir aussi

Bibliographie

Abbaye détruite en France
Abbaye en Seine-et-Marne
Abbaye fondée au VIIe siècle
Fondation en 628
Meaux

Abbaye Saint-Faron de Meaux


Tankograd er en dokumentarfilm fra 2010 instrueret af Boris Benjamin Bertram efter manuskript af Boris Benjamin Bertram.

Musikken er skrevet af Ghost Society og Sara Savery.

Handling
'Tankograd' følger et professionelt dansekompagni i en af verdens mest radioaktivt forurenede byer, Chelyabinsk, hvor gennemsnitslevealderen er blot 51 år. Om dagen lever danserne deres drømme ud gennem moderne dans. Om natten overlever de ved at forvandle sig til sexede gogo-dansere på natklubben The Black Hole, der ejes af den russiske mafia. Det er en film om fortrængning og tilgivelse, om håb og overlevelse i et hastigt forandrende Rusland, hvor den menneskelige ytringsfrihed bliver begrænset dag for dag.

Referencer

Eksterne henvisninger

Dokumentarfilm fra Danmark
Danske film fra 2010

Tankograd


II. Hrvatska nogometna liga – Sjever (također i kao Druga hrvatska nogometna liga – Sjever, Druga hrvatska republička nogometna liga – Sjever, Hrvatska republička nogometna liga – Sjever, Hrvatska regionalna liga – Sjever) je bila jedna od četiri skupine Druge Hrvatske nogometne lige u sezoni 1988./89., te je predstavljala ligu četvrtog stupnja natjecanja nogometnog prvenstva Jugoslavije.
Sudjelovalo je 16 klubova, a prvak je bila "Trešnjevka" iz Zagreba.

Ljestvica

 U slučaju neodlučenog rezultata su se izvodili jedanaesterci, nakon kojih bi pobjednik dobio 1 bod, a poraženi ne bi osvojio bod.

Rezultatska križaljka

 Izvori:

Unutrašnje poveznice
 3. stupanj prvenstva Jugoslavije 1988./89.
 II. Hrvatska liga – Jug 1988./89.
 II. Hrvatska liga – Zapad 1988./89.
 Regionalna liga Zagreb – Jug 1988./89.
 Regionalna liga Zagreb – Sjever 1988./89.

Vanjske poveznice

Izvori
 library.foi.hr, "Glas Podravine"
 library.foi.hr, "Varaždinske vijesti"
 library.foi.hr, "Glas Podravine", br. 22, god. XLIV, zdano 9. lipnja 1989., str. 11 ("Sport"), preuzeto 17. rujna 2019.
 Ivica Vukotić: "VŽ nogomet", Varaždin 1990., str. 101
 Branko Pleše, Goran Čičin-Mašansker: "Nogometni klub Slaven Belupo, Koprivnica : 1907. – 2007.", Koprivnica, 2007., , str. 102-103

1988-89 Sjever
1988-89 Sjever
 Sjever

II. Hrvatska nogometna liga – Sjever 1988./89.


Det Gamle Slot kan henvise til flere artikler:

 Det Gamle Slot (Athen) () – et tidligere kongeslot i Athen i Grækenland
 Det Gamle Slot (Beograd) () – et tidligere kongeslot i Beograd i Serbien
 Eski Saray () – et tidligere slot i Istanbul i Tyrkiet
 Det Gamle Slot (Stuttgart) () – et tidligere kongeslot i Stuttgart i Tyskland

Se også
 Det Nye Slot

Det Gamle Slot


Grå toko () er en næsehornsfugl, der lever i Afrika og det sydvestlige Arabiske Halvø.

Kilder
 Avibase - the world bird database

Eksterne henvisninger

Afrikas fugle
Fugle fra Arabien
Næsehornsfugle

Grå toko


The Second Battle of Copenhagen (or the Bombardment of Copenhagen) (16 August – 7 September 1807) was a British bombardment of the Danish capital, Copenhagen, in order to capture or destroy the Dano-Norwegian fleet during the Napoleonic Wars. The incident led to the outbreak of the Anglo-Russian War of 1807, which ended with the Treaty of Örebro in 1812. The attack on Denmark, a neutral country, was heavily criticized internationally.

Britain's first response to Napoleon's Continental System was to launch a major naval attack on Denmark. Although neutral, Denmark was under French pressure to pledge its fleet to Napoleon. In September 1807, the Royal Navy bombarded Copenhagen, seizing the Danish fleet and assured use of the sea lanes in the North Sea and Baltic Sea for the British merchant fleet. A consequence of the attack was that Denmark did join the Continental System and the war on the side of France, but without a fleet it had little to offer.

The attack gave rise to the term to Copenhagenize.

Background
Despite the defeat and loss of many ships in the first Battle of Copenhagen in 1801, Denmark-Norway, possessing Jutland, Norway, Greenland, Schleswig-Holstein, Iceland and several smaller territories, still maintained a considerable navy. The majority of the Danish Army, under the Crown Prince, was at this time defending the southern border against possible attack from the French.

There was concern in Britain that Napoleon might try to force Denmark to close the Baltic Sea to British ships, perhaps by marching French troops into Zealand. The British believed that access to the Baltic was "vitally important to Britain" for trade as well as a major source of necessary raw materials for building and maintaining warships and that it gave the Royal Navy access to help Britain's allies Sweden and (before Tilsit) Russia against France. The British thought that after Prussia had been defeated in December 1806, Denmark's independence looked increasingly under threat from France. George Canning's predecessor as Foreign Secretary, Lord Howick, had tried unsuccessfully to persuade Denmark into a secret alliance with Britain and Sweden.

On 21 January 1808, Lord Hawkesbury told the House of Lords that he had received information from someone on the Continent "that there were secret engagements in the Treaty of Tilsit to employ the navies of Denmark and Portugal against this country". He refused to publish the source because he said it would endanger their lives.

The reports of French diplomats and merchants in northern Europe made the British government uneasy, and by mid-July, the British believed that the French intended to invade Holstein in order to use Denmark against Britain. Some reports suggested that the Danes had secretly agreed to this. The Cabinet decided to act, and on 14 July Lord Mulgrave obtained from the King permission to send a naval force of 21 to 22 ships to the Kattegat for surveillance of the Danish navy in order to pursue "prompt and vigorous operations" if that seemed necessary. The Cabinet decided on 18 July to send Francis Jackson on a secret mission to Copenhagen to persuade Denmark to give its fleet to Britain. That same day, the Admiralty issued an order for more than 50 ships to sail for "particular service" under Admiral James Gambier. On 19 July, Lord Castlereagh, the Secretary of State for War and the Colonies, ordered General Lord Cathcart at Stralsund to go with his troops to the Sound where they would get reinforcements.

During the night of 21/22 July, Canning received intelligence from Tilsit that Napoleon had tried to persuade Alexander I of Russia to form a maritime league with Denmark and Portugal against Britain. Spencer Perceval, the Chancellor of the Exchequer, wrote a memorandum setting out the government's case for sending forces to Copenhagen: "The intelligence from so many and such various sources" that Napoleon's intent was to force Denmark into war against Britain could not be doubted. "Nay, the fact that he has openly avowed such intention in an interview with the Emperor of Russia is brought to this country in such a way as it cannot be doubted. Under such circumstances it would be madness, it would be idiotic... to wait for an overt act". Historian Hilary Barnes notes that Canning had no knowledge of the secret articles of the Treaty of Tilsit. He argues that Canning's decision was "rash, calamitous, and lacking in understanding of the Danes and of Danish foreign policy."

The British assembled a force of 25,000 troops, and the vanguard sailed on 30 July; Jackson set out the next day. Canning offered Denmark a treaty of alliance and mutual defence, with a convention signed for the return of the fleet after the war, the protection of 21 British warships and a subsidy for how many soldiers Denmark kept standing. On 31 July, Napoleon ordered Talleyrand to tell Denmark to prepare for war against Britain or else Jean-Baptiste Bernadotte would invade Holstein. Neither Talleyrand nor Jackson persuaded the Danes to end their neutrality, so Jackson went back to the British fleet assembled in the Sound on 15 August. The British published a proclamation demanding the deposit of the Danish fleet; the Danes responded with "what amounted to a declaration of war".

As the first move in the campaign a division of twenty-nine vessels under Commodore Richard Goodwin Keats was detached to the great belt with instructions to seal the island of Zealand off from Funen and the west. Within a week some 200 miles of coast had been secured and the Danish army in Holstein prevented from passing into Zealand to lend support. The city of Copenhagen was left to its own resources to defend itself from a British force of 25,000.

On 12 August, the 32-gun Danish frigate Friderichsværn sailed for Norway from Elsinor. Admiral Lord Gambier sent the 74-gun third-rate  and the 22-gun sixth-rate  after her, even though war had not yet been declared. Comus was much faster than Defence in the light winds and so outdistanced her. On 15 August, Comus caught Friderichsværn off Marstrand and captured her. The British took her into service as HMS Frederikscoarn.

Bombardment

The British troops under General Lord Cathcart were organised as follows:
 Cavalry Brigade: Major General Charles, Baron Linsingen, 1st, 2nd, 3rd Light Dragoons King's German Legion
 Artillery & Engineers: Major General Thomas Blomefield, 84 field guns and 101 siege guns
 John May's Company, 1st Battalion, Royal Artillery
 James Cockburn's Company, 1st Battalion, Royal Artillery
 Robert Birch's Company, 2nd Battalion, Royal Artillery
 John Taylor's Company, 3rd Battalion, Royal Artillery
 Charles Younghusband's Company, 3rd Battalion, Royal Artillery
 John Kattlewell's Company, 3rd Battalion, Royal Artillery
 Peter Fyers' Company, 3rd Battalion, Royal Artillery
 P. Meadow's Company, 8th Battalion, Royal Artillery
 First Division: Lieutenant General Sir George Ludlow
 Guards Brigade: Major General Edward Finch, 1/Coldstream Regiment of Foot Guards, 1/3rd Regiment of Foot Guards
 1st Brigade: Brigadier General Warde, 1/28th (North Gloucestershire) Regiment of Foot, 1/79th Regiment of Foot (Cameron Highlanders)
 Second Division: Lieutenant General Sir David Baird
 2nd Brigade: Major General Thomas Grosvenor, 1/4th (The King's Own) Regiment of Foot, 1/23rd Regiment of Foot (Royal Welsh Fusiliers)
 3rd Brigade: Major General Brent Spencer, 1/32nd (Cornwall) Regiment of Foot, 1/50th (Queen's Own) Regiment of Foot, 1/82nd Regiment of Foot (Prince of Wales's Volunteers)
 4th Brigade: Colonel Robert Henry MacFarlane, 1/7th Regiment of Foot (Royal Fusiliers), 1/8th (The King's) Regiment of Foot
 Reserve: Major General Sir Arthur Wellesley
 Colonel Richard Stewart, 1/43rd (Monmouthshire) Regiment of Foot, 2/52nd (Oxfordshire) Regiment of Foot, 1/92nd (Gordon Highlanders) Regiment of Foot, 5 coys. 1/95th Rifles, 2/95th Rifles
 KGL Division: Major General Frederick, Baron Dreschel
 1st Brigade: Colonel Colonel Peter du Plat, 6th, 7th, 8th Line Batts.
 2nd Brigade: Colonel George de Drieburg, 3rd, 4th, 5th Line Batts.
 3rd Brigade: Colonel Adolphus, Baron Barsse, 1st and 2nd Line Batts.
 4th Brigade: Colonel Charles, Baron Alten, 1st and 2nd Light Batts.

The Danish forces in the city amounted to 5,000 regular troops and a similar number of militias. Most of the civilian inhabitants of Copenhagen were evacuated in the few days before Copenhagen was completely invested.

On 26 August, General Wellesley was detached with his reserve and two light brigades of British artillery, as well as one battalion, eight squadrons and one troop of horse artillery from the King's German Legion (KGL) to disperse a force which had been sent to relieve the beleaguered city. On 29 August, at the rivulet of Køge, this significant British force swiftly overpowered the Danish troops, which amounted to only three or four regular battalions and some cavalry (see Battle of Køge).

The Danes rejected British demands, so the Royal Navy fleet under the command of Admiral Gambier bombarded the city from 2 to 5 September. In addition to the military casualties incurred by the Danish army, the bombardment killed roughly 195 civilians and injured 768.

The bombardment included 300 Congreve rockets, which caused fires. Due to the civilian evacuation, the normal firefighting arrangements were ineffective; over a thousand buildings were burned.

On 5 September, the Danes sued for peace, and the capitulation was signed on 7 September. Denmark agreed to surrender its navy and its naval stores. In return, the British undertook to leave Copenhagen within six weeks.

Ernst Peymann, the Danish Commander, had been under orders from the Crown Prince to burn the Danish fleet, which he failed to do, though the reason for his failure is unknown.

Thus, on 7 September Peymann surrendered the fleet (eighteen ships of the line, eleven frigates, two smaller ships, two ship-sloops, seven brig-sloops, two brigs, one schooner and twenty-six gunboats). In addition, the British broke up or destroyed three 74-gun ships of the line on the stocks, along with two of the ships-of-the-fleet and two elderly frigates.

After her capture, one ex-Danish ship of the line, Neptunos, ran aground and was burnt on or near the island of Hven. Then, when a storm arose in the Kattegat, the British destroyed or abandoned twenty-three of the captured gunboats. The British added the fifteen captured ships of the line that reached Britain to the British Navy but only four—Christian VII 80, Dannemark 74, Norge 74 and Princess Carolina 74—saw subsequent active service.

On 21 October, the British fleet left Copenhagen for the United Kingdom. However, the war continued until 1814, when the Treaty of Kiel was signed.

Aftermath

The news of what happened did not reach Canning until 16 September. He wrote to Rev. William Leigh: "Did I not tell you we would save Plumstead from bombardment?" One week later he wrote: "Nothing ever was more brilliant, more salutary or more effectual than the success [at Copenhagen]" and Perceval expressed similar sentiments. The Times said that the confiscation of the Danish fleet was "a bare act of self-preservation" and noticed the short distance between Denmark and Ireland or north-east Scotland. William Cobbett in his Political Register wrote that it was "vile mockery" and "mere party cavilling" to claim that Denmark had the means to preserve her neutrality. MP William Wilberforce said the expedition could be defended on grounds of self-defence. Thomas Grenville wrote to his brother Lord Grenville that he could not help feeling "that in their [the government's] situation we should very probably have given the same order without being able to publish to Parliament the grounds on which we had believed in the hostile mind of Denmark". Lord Erskine condemned it by saying "if hell did not exist before, Providence would create it now to punish ministers for that damnable measure".

The opposition claimed the national character was stained and Canning read out in Parliament the previous administration's plans in 1806 to stop the Portuguese navy falling into the hands of France. Canning and Castlereagh wished to hold Zealand and suggested that when the British evacuated it as part of the peace they should immediately occupy it again. This was strongly opposed by Sir Arthur Wellesley, however, and it did not happen. The opposition claimed that the attack had turned Denmark from a neutral into an enemy. Canning replied by saying that the British were already hated throughout Europe and so Britain could wage an "all-out maritime war" against France without worrying who they were going to upset.

The opposition did not at first table a vote of censure on the battle and instead, on 3 February 1808, demanded the publication of all the letters sent by the British envoy in Denmark on information regarding the war-readiness of the Danish navy. Canning replied with a three-hour speech which Lord Palmerston described as "so powerful that it gave a decisive turn to the debate". The three motions on this subject were heavily defeated and on 21 March the opposition tabled a direct motion of censure on the battle. It was defeated by 224 votes to 64 after Canning made a speech "very witty, very eloquent and very able".

The British bombardment frustrated the first attempt to publish a modern edition of the Anglo-Saxon poem Beowulf as the subsequent fire destroyed the 20-year work of scholar Grímur Jónsson Thorkelin. Two manuscripts, however, were recovered and Thorkelin eventually published the poem in 1815.

A horse foaled in 1808 (the year following the battle) was named "Copenhagen" in its honour, and was eventually sold to Wellesley and became his favoured mount, most notably at the Battle of Waterloo.

Danish privateers
Within one week of the British forces departing Copenhagen, King Christian VII's government promulgated the Danish Privateers Regulations (1807). Denmark was now at war with Britain, and a part of the Anglo-Danish conflict would be taken up by privateers.
Kaperbreve (letters of marque) were issued in Denmark and Norway from 1807 to 1813—copies of original letters of marque for the two ships Odin and Norges Statholder are included in this reference. Danish shipping companies donated suitable ships (brigs, schooners and galleases) to the state which could then equip the ships for their new privateering role. One such ship was the brig Admiral Juel which ranged the North Sea before her capture by the British off Scarborough.

Ships involved
One hundred and twenty-six ships, large and small, were involved at Copenhagen, included those named below.
In addition to those named here, there were another three dozen smaller frigates, sloops, bomb vessels, gun-brigs and schooners (e.g. HMS Rook attached to the British fleet), and a very large number of merchant or requisitioned ships carrying troops or supplies.

The following ships sailed with Gambier from England on 26 July 1807:
 Prince of Wales 98 (flag of Admiral James Gambier, 1st Captain Sir Home Riggs Popham, 2nd Captain Adam Mackenzie)
 Pompee 74 (Vice-Admiral Henry Edwyn Stanhope, Captain *Richard Dacres)
 Centaur 74 (Commodore Sir Samuel Hood, Captain William Henry Webley)
 Ganges 74 (Commodore Richard Goodwin Keats, Captain Peter Halkett)
 Alfred 74 (Captain John Bligh)
 Brunswick 74 (Captain Thomas Graves)
 Captain 74 (Captain Isaac Wolley)
 Goliath 74 (Captain Peter Puget)
 Hercule 74 (Captain John Colville)
 Maida 74 (Captain Samuel Hood Linzee)
 Orion 74 (Captain Sir Archibald Collingwood Dickson)
 Resolution 74 (Captain George Burlton)
 Spencer 74 (Captain Robert Stopford)
 Vanguard 74 (Captain Alexander Fraser)
 Dictator 64 (Captain Donald Campbell)
 Nassau 64 (Captain Robert Campbell)
 Ruby 64 (Captain John Draper)
 Surveillante 38 (Captain George Collier)
 Sibylle 38 (Capt. Clotworthy Upton)
 Franchise 36 (Capt. Charles Dashwood)
 Nymphe 36 (Capt. Conway Shipley)

The following vessels joined on 5 August off Helsingør:
 Superb 74 (Captain Donald M'Leod) (to which Commodore Richard Goodwin Keats shifted his flag)

The following further vessels joined on 7 August off Helsingør:
 Minotaur 74 (Rear-Admiral William Essington, Captain Charles John Moore Mansfield)
 Valiant 74 (Captain James Young)
 Inflexible 64 (Captain Joshua Rowley Watson)
 Leyden 64 (Captain William Cumberland)

The following vessels joined on 8 August or later:
 Defence 74 (Captain Charles Ekins)
 Mars 74 (Captain William Lukin)
 Agamemnon 64 (Captain Jonas Rose)
 Africaine 32 (Capt. Richard Raggett)

Lieutenant-General Lord Cathcart arrived in the Africaine on 12 August to take command of the ground forces.

Ships surrendered
The Danes surrendered the following warships on 7 September under the terms of the capitulation following the attack:

Ships of the line
 Christian den Syvende 84 – sailed to Britain, added to Royal Navy as Christian VII 80
 Neptunus 80 – sailed for Britain but wrecked and burned en route
 Valdemar 80 – sailed to Britain, added to Royal Navy as Waldemar 80
 Danmark 76 – sailed to Britain, added to Royal Navy as Danmark 74
 Norge 78 – sailed to Britain, added to Royal Navy as Norge 74
 Fyen 70 – sailed to Britain, added to Royal Navy as Fyen 74
 Kronprins Friderich 70 – sailed to Britain, added to Royal Navy as Kron Princen 74
 Tre Kroner 74 – sailed to Britain, added to Royal Navy as Tree Kronen 74
 Arveprins Friderich 70 – sailed to Britain, added to Royal Navy as Heir Apparent Frederick 74
 Skjold 70 – sailed to Britain, added to Royal Navy as Skiold 74
 Odin 74 – sailed to Britain, added to Royal Navy as Odin 74
 Justitia 74 – sailed to Britain, added to Royal Navy as Justitia 74
 Kronprinsesse Maria 70 – sailed to Britain, added to Royal Navy as Kron Princessen 74
 Prindsesse Sophia Frederica 74 – sailed to Britain, added to Royal Navy as Princess Sophia Frederica 74
 Prindsesse Caroline 66 – sailed to Britain, added to Royal Navy as Princess Carolina 74
 Ditsmarsken 60 – not sailed to Britain; deemed useless and burnt
 Mars 64 – not sailed to Britain; deemed useless and burnt on Saltholm
 Sejeren 64 – sailed to Britain, added to Royal Navy as Syeren 64

Frigates
 Perlen 46 – sailed to Britain, added to Royal Navy as Perlen 38
 Rota 40 – sailed to Britain, added to Royal Navy as Rota 38
 Freja 40 – sailed to Britain, added to Royal Navy as Freya 36
 Iris 40 – sailed to Britain, added to Royal Navy as Iris 36
 Najaden 44 – sailed to Britain, added to Royal Navy as Nyaden 36
 Havfruen 40 – sailed to Britain, added to Royal Navy as Hasfruen 36
 Nymfen 36 – sailed to Britain, added to Royal Navy as Nymphen 36
 Venus 36 – sailed to Britain, added to Royal Navy as Venus 36
 Friderichsstein 26 – sailed to Britain, added to Royal Navy as HMS Frederickstein 32
 St Thomas 22 – not sailed to Britain, but deemed useless and burnt
 Triton 24 (+6 howitzers) – not sailed to Britain, but deemed useless and burnt on Saltholm or the Swedish coast
 Lille Belt 20 – sailed to Britain, added to Royal Navy as  20
 Fylla 22 – sailed to Britain, added to Royal Navy as Fylla 20
 Eyderen 18 – sailed to Britain, added to Royal Navy as Eyderen 18
 Elven 18 – sailed to Britain, added to Royal Navy as Elvin 18
 Glückstadt 12 – sailed to Britain, added to Royal Navy as Gluckstadt 16

Brigs
  18 – sailed to Britain, added to Royal Navy as HMS Nid Elven 16
 Sarpen 18 – sailed to Britain, added to Royal Navy as Sarpen 18
 Glommen 18 – sailed to Britain, added to Royal Navy as Glommen 16
 Mercurius 18 – sailed to Britain, added to Royal Navy as  16
 Delphinen 18 – sailed to Britain, added to Royal Navy as  16
 Allart 18 – sailed to Britain, added to Royal Navy as Allart 16
 Brevdrageren 18 – sailed to Britain, added to Royal Navy as  12
 Flyvende Fiske 14 (brig-rigged cutter) – sailed to Britain, added to Royal Navy as  14
 Ørnen 10 (schooner) – sailed to Britain, added to Royal Navy as  12

Gunboats
 Stege 2 (gunboat) – sailed to Britain, added to Royal Navy as HMS Warning

There were a further 25 gunboats similar to the Stege, of which 23 were lost in the October storm in the Kattegat or destroyed rather than sailed to Britain. These lost were:
 Aalborg, Arendal, Assens, Christiansund, Flensborg, Frederiksund, Helsingør, Kallundborg, Langesund, Nakskov, Middelfart, Odense, Roskilde, Rødbye, Saltholmen, Staværn, Svendborg and Wiborg.
 The Norwegians or Danes recovered and returned to naval service six gunboats (Faaborg, Holbek, Kjerteminde, Nestved, Nysted and Nykjøbing) abandoned or stranded in the Kattegat.
 Stubbekjøbing had been destroyed at Svanemølle Bay on 26 August by mortar fire from the land.

Gun barges
Four barges (stykpram), floating gun platforms each with 20 cannon, were incapable of being moved far and so the British scuttled the barges during their brief occupation of Copenhagen. Of these four barges (Hajen, Kiempen, Lindormen and Sværdfisken) only Hajen was not raised and refurbished by the Danes after the British departure. A further "unsinkable" floating battery (Flaadebatteri No 1) of twenty-four 24-pound cannon was rendered inoperable and decommissioned the following year.

See also
 List of ships captured in the 19th century

Notes

Citations

References

 Major Francis Duncan, History of the Royal Regiment of Artillery, Volume I, 1879 London John Murray.
 Major Francis Duncan, History of the Royal Regiment of Artillery, Volume II, 1873 London John Murray.

  cites:

 J Marcussen for a private website listing all Danish merchant ships from the year dot. Listed alphabetically (nb: Æ, Ø and Å come at the end of the Danish alphabet)
 Individual record cards in Danish for ships of the Danish Royal Navy can often be found on the internet at Orlogmuseet Skibregister
 The Royal Danish Naval Museum website listing for ships is available here linking to a page of ships' names for which there is data.

The following website in Danish or in English gives the list of ships, as recorded by the Danes, "forcefully taken" by the British in September 1807 at Copenhagen. The references, in Danish, are as follows

  OCLC World Catalogue Number: 741989841

Further reading

External links
 The Bombardment of Copenhagen in 1807; by Jens Rahbek Rasmussen; translated by David Frost, British Ambassador in Copenhagen

Copenhagen
Copenhagen 1807
King's German Legion
1807 in Denmark
19th century in Copenhagen
August 1807 events
September 1807 events
1800s in Copenhagen

Battle of Copenhagen (1807)


في الرياضيات، يطلق على مجموعة جزئية من الفضاء الإقليدي اسم فضاء متراص إذا كانت مغلقة ومحدودة. على سبيل المثال في مجموعة الأعداد الحقيقية R تكون المجموعة الجزئية [0, 1] هي مجموعة متراصة ولكن ذات المجموعة في مجموعة الأعداد الصحيحة لا تكون متراصة (لأنها ليست محدودة).

بتعريف أكثر حداثة، يطلق على فضاء طوبولوجي اسم فضاء متراص إذا كان كل من أغطيته المفتوحة لها غطاء جزئي منتهي.

انظر أيضًا
 فضاء ليندلوف

مراجع

وصلات خارجية

خصائص الفضاءات الطوبولوجية
طوبولوجيا
طوبولوجيا عامة

فضاء متراص


Anvar Ginghisoglu (în azeră: Ənvər Çingizoğlu; ) a fost un prozator și istoric azer, redactor-șef al postului TV AzTV.

Biografie
Anvar Ginghisoglu s-a născut în Cabrail, Azerbaidjan la 10 mai 1962, și a fost student la Universitatea Statală Azeră.

Scrieri
Hacılılar ("Hajilu tribe"), Baku, 2004.
Səfikürdlülər ("Safikyurdlu"), Baku, 2005.
Qarabağ xanlığı (" Hanatul Karabah"), Baku, 2008.
Qacar kəndi və qacarlar (Qajar village and Qajars), Baku, 2008.
Avșarlar ("Afshar tribe"), Baku, 2008.
Zülqədər eli ("Zulkadir tribe"), Baku, 2011.
Qaradağ xanlığı ("Hanatul Karadah"), Baku, 2011.
Șəmșəddil sultanlığı ("Shamshaddil Sultanate"),Baku, 2013.
Baharlılar ("Baharlu"), Baku, 2013.
Püsyan eli ("Pessian tribe"), Baku, 2013.
Sərab xanlığı (" Hanatul Sarab"), Baku, 2013.
Urmiya xanlığı ("Hanatul Urmia"), Baku, 2013.
Marağa xanlığı ("Hanatul Maragheh"), Baku, 2013.
Ərdəbil xanlığı (" Hanatul Ardabil"), Baku, 2014.
Cavanșir eli:Sarıcalılar ("Javanshir tribe: Sarujalins"), Baku, 2015.
Zəncan xanlığı ("Hanatul Zanjan"), Baku, 2015.

Scenarii de film
 Scenariu la filmul Avșarlar - 1996
 Scenariu la filmul Xurșidbanu Natəvan - 2012
 Scenariu la filmul Zəngəzur qartalı - 2012
 Scenariu la filmul Ucalıq düsturu - 2012

Note

Legături externe

Nașteri în 1962
Scriitori azeri
Nuveliști azeri
Istorici azeri
Folcloriști azeri
Genealogiști azeri
Publiciști azeri
Editori azeri
Producători de televiziune azeri
Decese în 2022

Anvar Ginghisoglu


Westenhanger Castle er en befæstet herregård, der tidligere var i det det engelske kongehus' eje.

Herregården ligger ved siden af Westenhanger railway station og Folkestone Væddeløbsbane i Kent i Sydengland.

Slottet har overlevet en periode med konstant nedgang til nær ruin i de seneste år, men de nuværende ejere har påbegyndt konsolidering, bevaring og restaurering. Slottet og de tilstødende bygninger blev i 2015 anvendt til konferencer og bryllups-arrangementer.

Se også
 Liste over borge og slotte i England

Referencer

Slotte i Kent

Westenhanger Castle


The Straits of Florida, Florida Straits, or Florida Strait () is a strait located south-southeast of the North American mainland, generally accepted to be between the Gulf of Mexico and the Atlantic Ocean, and between the Florida Keys (U.S.) and Cuba. It is 93 mi (150 km) wide at the narrowest point between Key West and the Cuban shore, and has been sounded to a depth of 6,000 feet (1,800 m). The strait carries the Florida Current, the beginning of the Gulf Stream, from the Gulf of Mexico.

Oil and gas
Five wells were drilled in state waters south of the Florida Keys from 1947 to 1962.  Gulf Oil drilled three wells in federal waters south of the Florida Keys in 1960 and 1961.  All the wells were dry holes.

The boundary between the Exclusive Economic Zones of the US and Cuba is halfway between Cuba and Florida, as determined by the 1977 Cuba–United States Maritime Boundary Agreement.

Offshore Cuba
Cuba has three producing offshore oil fields within 5 km of its north coast opposite Florida.  The US Geological Survey estimates that the North Cuba Basin contains  of undiscovered petroleum liquids and 9.8 trillion cubic feet of natural gas, almost all in the offshore part of the basin.

The issue of allowing oil and gas exploration offshore Florida became a hotly contested topic in the 2008 US elections.  In a column published 5 June 2008, syndicated columnist George Will wrote that a Chinese oil company was then drilling in Cuban waters  from the Florida coast, a claim that was repeated by candidates in favor of offshore drilling.  In fact, no drilling was then taking place in that part of Cuban waters.

In 2004 the Spanish oil company Repsol drilled in deep Cuban waters between Cuba and the Florida Keys, and found an oil deposit; the deposit was judged noncommercial, and the hole was plugged. In October 2008, Cuba signed an agreement with the Brazilian state oil company Petrobras, which provides for Petrobras to drill for oil and gas in deep waters off the north shore of Cuba.  In July 2009, Cuba signed an agreement with the Russian government giving the Russian oil company Zarubezhneft oil exploration rights off the north shore of Cuba. By May 2011 Petrobas had withdrawn from the 2008 agreement due to poor prospects.

Offshore Bahamas
In 2009 the Falkland Islands-registered company Bharat Petroleum Company Ltd. and Norwegian company Statoil announced a joint venture to drill for oil in Bahamian waters north of Cuba and southeast of Florida. The government of the Bahamas has indicated that applications for offshore drilling are on hold pending negotiations with Cuba, the United States, and the Turks and Caicos Islands on the exact boundaries between their respective Exclusive Economic Zones.

Crossing
The swim across the strait was performed by Australian Susie Maroney (with Shark cage diving) in 1997 and American Diana Nyad (without shark cage) in 2013. The latter took, at 64 years old, 52 hours and 54 minutes to cover the  between Havana and Key West .

See also

 Florida Straits, an action-adventure film starring Fred Ward.
 Cay Sal Bank

References

Bodies of water of Cuba
Bodies of water of the Bahamas
Florida
Bahamas–United States border
Cuba–United States border
Seas of North America
Seas of the United States

Straits of Florida


بطليموس التاسع «سوتر لاتيروس» أو (المنقذ الحمص) 116 - 107 ق.م حكم مشاركة مع والدته الملكة كليوباترا الثالثة 116 - 101 ق.م. كانت والدته كيلوباترا الثالثة لا تريد أن توليه العرش بعد والده بطليموس الثامن وكانت تريد تولية أخيه بطليموس العاشر ولكن بعد تدخل وغضب من الشعب وبعض الأمراء تولى العرش رغما عن إرادة أمه.

مراجع

أشخاص من الإسكندرية
حكام القرن 1 ق م في إفريقيا
حكام القرن 2 ق م في إفريقيا
فراعنة البطالمة
مصريون في القرن 1 ق م
مصريون في القرن 2 ق م
مواليد القرن 2 ق م
وفيات 80 ق م
وفيات 81 ق م
يونانيون في القرن 1 ق م

بطليموس التاسع