In mathematical analysis, a family of functions is equicontinuous if all the functions are continuous and they have equal variation over a given neighbourhood, in a precise sense described herein.
In particular, the concept applies to countable families, and thus sequences of functions.

Equicontinuity appears in the formulation of Ascoli's theorem, which states that a subset of C(X), the space of continuous functions on a compact Hausdorff space X, is compact if and only if it is closed, pointwise bounded and equicontinuous.
As a corollary, a sequence in C(X) is uniformly convergent if and only if it is equicontinuous and converges pointwise to a function (not necessarily continuous a-priori).
In particular, the limit of an equicontinuous pointwise convergent sequence of continuous functions fn on either metric space or locally compact space is continuous. If, in addition, fn are holomorphic, then the limit is also holomorphic.

The uniform boundedness principle states that a pointwise bounded family of continuous linear operators between Banach spaces is equicontinuous.

Equicontinuity between metric spaces

Let X and Y be two metric spaces, and F a family of functions from X to Y. We shall denote by d the respective metrics of these spaces.

The family F is equicontinuous at a point x0 ∈ X if for every ε > 0, there exists a δ > 0 such that d(ƒ(x0), ƒ(x)) < ε for all ƒ ∈ F and all x such that d(x0, x) < δ.
The family is pointwise equicontinuous if it is equicontinuous at each point of X.

The family F is uniformly equicontinuous if for every ε > 0, there exists a δ > 0 such that  d(ƒ(x1), ƒ(x2)) < ε for all ƒ ∈ F and all x1, x2 ∈ X such that d(x1, x2) < δ.

For comparison, the statement 'all functions ƒ in F are continuous' means that for every ε > 0, every ƒ ∈ F, and every x0 ∈ X, there exists a δ > 0 such that d(ƒ(x0), ƒ(x)) < ε for all x ∈ X such that d(x0, x) < δ.

 For continuity, δ may depend on ε, ƒ, and x0.
 For uniform continuity, δ may depend on ε and ƒ.
 For pointwise equicontinuity, δ may depend on ε and x0.
 For uniform equicontinuity, δ may depend only on ε.

More generally, when X is a topological space, a set F of functions from X to Y is said to be equicontinuous at x if for every ε > 0,  x has a neighborhood Ux such that

for all  and ƒ ∈ F. This definition usually appears in the context of topological vector spaces.

When X is compact, a set is uniformly equicontinuous if and only if it is equicontinuous at every point, for essentially the same reason as that uniform continuity and continuity coincide on compact spaces.
Used on its own, the term "equicontinuity" may refer to either the pointwise or uniform notion, depending on the context.  On a compact space, these notions coincide.

Some basic properties follow immediately from the definition. Every finite set of continuous functions is equicontinuous.  The closure of an equicontinuous set is again equicontinuous.
Every member of a uniformly equicontinuous set of functions is uniformly continuous, and every finite set of uniformly continuous functions is uniformly equicontinuous.

Examples

A set of functions with a common Lipschitz constant is (uniformly) equicontinuous. In particular, this is the case if the set consists of functions with derivatives bounded by the same constant.
Uniform boundedness principle gives a sufficient condition for a set of continuous linear operators to be equicontinuous.
A family of iterates of an analytic function  is  equicontinuous on the  Fatou set.

Counterexamples

The sequence of functions fn(x) = arctan(nx), is not equicontinuous because the definition is violated at x0=0.

Equicontinuity of maps valued in topological groups

Suppose that  is a topological space and  is an additive topological group (i.e. a group endowed with a topology making its operations continuous).
Topological vector spaces are prominent examples of topological groups and every topological group has an associated canonical uniformity.

Definition: A family  of maps from  into  is said to be equicontinuous at  if for every neighborhood  of  in , there exists some neighborhood  of  in  such that  for every . We say that  is equicontinuous if it is equicontinuous at every point of .

Note that if  is equicontinuous at a point then every map in  is continuous at the point.
Clearly, every finite set of continuous maps from  into  is equicontinuous.

Equicontinuous linear maps

Because every topological vector space (TVS) is a topological group so the definition of an equicontinuous family of maps given for topological groups transfers to TVSs without change.

Characterization of equicontinuous linear maps

A family  of maps of the form  between two topological vector spaces is said to be   if for every neighborhood  of the origin in  there exists some neighborhood  of the origin in  such that  for all

If  is a family of maps and  is a set then let  With notation, if  and  are sets then  for all  if and only if

Let  and  be topological vector spaces (TVSs) and  be a family of linear operators from  into
Then the following are equivalent:
 is equicontinuous;
 is equicontinuous at every point of
 is equicontinuous at some point of
 is equicontinuous at the origin.
 that is, for every neighborhood  of the origin in  there exists a neighborhood  of the origin in  such that  (or equivalently, for every ).
for every neighborhood  of the origin in   is a neighborhood of the origin in
the closure of  in  is equicontinuous.
  denotes endowed with the topology of point-wise convergence.
the balanced hull of  is equicontinuous.

while if  is locally convex then this list may be extended to include:
the convex hull of  is equicontinuous.
the convex balanced hull of  is equicontinuous.

while if  and  are locally convex then this list may be extended to include:
for every continuous seminorm  on  there exists a continuous seminorm  on  such that  for all
 Here,  means that  for all

while if  is barreled and  is locally convex then this list may be extended to include:
 is bounded in ;
 is bounded in
  denotes endowed with the topology of bounded convergence (that is, uniform convergence on bounded subsets of

while if  and  are Banach spaces then this list may be extended to include:
 (that is,  is uniformly bounded in the operator norm).

Characterization of equicontinuous linear functionals

Let  be a topological vector space (TVS) over the field  with continuous dual space
A family  of linear functionals on  is said to be   if for every neighborhood  of the origin in  there exists some neighborhood  of the origin in  such that  for all

For any subset  the following are equivalent:
 is equicontinuous.
 is equicontinuous at the origin.
 is equicontinuous at some point of
 is contained in the polar of some neighborhood of the origin in
the (pre)polar of  is a neighborhood of the origin in
the weak* closure of  in  is equicontinuous.
the balanced hull of  is equicontinuous.
the convex hull of  is equicontinuous.
the convex balanced hull of  is equicontinuous.

while if  is normed then this list may be extended to include:
 is a strongly bounded subset of

while if  is a barreled space then this list may be extended to include:
 is relatively compact in the weak* topology on
 is weak* bounded (that is,  is bounded in ).
 is bounded in the topology of bounded convergence (that is,  is bounded in ).

Properties of equicontinuous linear maps

The uniform boundedness principle (also known as the Banach–Steinhaus theorem) states that a set  of linear maps between Banach spaces is equicontinuous if it is pointwise bounded; that is,  for each  The result can be generalized to a case when  is locally convex and  is a barreled space.

Properties of equicontinuous linear functionals

Alaoglu's theorem implies that the weak-* closure of an equicontinuous subset of  is weak-* compact; thus that every equicontinuous subset is weak-* relatively compact.

If  is any locally convex TVS, then the family of all barrels in  and the family of all subsets of  that are convex, balanced, closed, and bounded in  correspond to each other by polarity (with respect to ).
It follows that a locally convex TVS  is barreled if and only if every bounded subset of  is equicontinuous.

Equicontinuity and uniform convergence

Let X be a compact Hausdorff space, and equip C(X) with the uniform norm, thus making C(X) a Banach space, hence a metric space.  Then Arzelà–Ascoli theorem states that a subset of C(X) is compact if and only if it is closed, uniformly bounded and equicontinuous.
This is analogous to the Heine–Borel theorem, which states that subsets of Rn are compact if and only if they are closed and bounded.
As a corollary, every uniformly bounded equicontinuous sequence in C(X) contains a subsequence that converges uniformly to a continuous function on X.

In view of Arzelà–Ascoli theorem, a sequence in C(X) converges uniformly if and only if it is equicontinuous and converges pointwise. The hypothesis of the statement can be weakened a bit: a sequence in C(X) converges uniformly if it is equicontinuous and converges pointwise on a dense subset to some function on X  (not assumed continuous).

This weaker version is typically used to prove Arzelà–Ascoli theorem for separable compact spaces. Another consequence is that the limit of an equicontinuous pointwise convergent sequence of continuous functions on a metric space, or on a locally compact space, is continuous. (See below for an example.)
In the above, the hypothesis of compactness of X  cannot be relaxed.
To see that, consider a compactly supported continuous function g on R with g(0) = 1, and consider the equicontinuous sequence of functions  on R defined by ƒn(x) = .  Then, ƒn converges pointwise to 0 but does not converge uniformly to 0.

This criterion for uniform convergence is often useful in real and complex analysis. Suppose we are given a sequence of continuous functions that converges pointwise on some open subset G of Rn. As noted above, it actually converges uniformly on a compact subset of G if it is equicontinuous on the compact set. In practice, showing the equicontinuity is often not so difficult. For example, if the sequence consists of differentiable functions or functions with some regularity (e.g., the functions are solutions of a differential equation), then the mean value theorem or some other kinds of estimates can be used to show the sequence is equicontinuous. It then follows that the limit of the sequence is continuous on every compact subset of G; thus, continuous on G. A similar argument can be made when the functions are holomorphic. One can use, for instance, Cauchy's estimate to show the equicontinuity (on a compact subset) and conclude that the limit is holomorphic. Note that the equicontinuity is essential here. For example, ƒn(x) =  converges to a multiple of the discontinuous sign function.

Generalizations

Equicontinuity in topological spaces

The most general scenario in which equicontinuity can be defined is for topological spaces whereas uniform equicontinuity requires the filter of neighbourhoods of one point to be somehow comparable with the filter of neighbourhood of another point.  The latter is most generally done via a uniform structure, giving a uniform space.  Appropriate definitions in these cases are as follows:

A set A of functions continuous between two topological spaces X and Y is topologically equicontinuous at the points x ∈ X and y ∈ Y if for any open set O about y, there are neighborhoods U of x and V of y such that for every f ∈ A, if the intersection of f[U] and V is nonempty,  f[U] ⊆ O. Then A is said to be topologically equicontinuous at x ∈ X if it is topologically equicontinuous at x and y for each y ∈ Y. Finally, A is equicontinuous if it is equicontinuous at x for all points x ∈ X.

A set A of continuous functions between two uniform spaces X and Y is uniformly equicontinuous if for every element W of the uniformity on Y,  the set

is a  member of the uniformity on X

Introduction to uniform spaces

We now briefly describe the basic idea underlying uniformities.

The uniformity  is a non-empty collection of subsets of  where, among many other properties, every ,  contains the diagonal of  (i.e. ).
Every element of  is called an entourage.

Uniformities generalize the idea (taken from metric spaces) of points that are "-close" (for ), meaning that their distance is < .
To clarify this, suppose that  is a metric space (so the diagonal of  is the set )
For any , let

denote the set of all pairs of points that are -close.
Note that if we were to "forget" that  existed then, for any , we would still be able to determine whether or not two points of  are -close by using only the sets .
In this way, the sets  encapsulate all the information necessary to define things such as uniform continuity and uniform convergence without needing any metric.
Axiomatizing the most basic properties of these sets leads to the definition of a uniformity.
Indeed, the sets  generate the uniformity that is canonically associated with the metric space .

The benefit of this generalization is that we may now extend some important definitions that make sense for metric spaces (e.g. completeness) to a broader category of topological spaces.
In particular, to topological groups and topological vector spaces.

A weaker concept is that of even continuity

A set A of continuous functions between two topological spaces X and Y is said to be evenly continuous at x ∈ X and y ∈ Y if given any open set O containing y there are neighborhoods U of x and V of y such that f[U] ⊆ O whenever f(x) ∈ V. It is evenly continuous at x if it is evenly continuous at x and y for every y ∈ Y, and evenly continuous if it is evenly continuous at x for every x ∈ X.

Stochastic equicontinuity

Stochastic equicontinuity is a version of equicontinuity used in the context of sequences of functions of random variables, and their convergence.

See also

  - an analogue of a continuous function in discrete spaces.

Notes

References

 .

 .

Theory of continuous functions
Mathematical analysis

Equicontinuity


Das H-40 ist eine 12-Meter-Segelyacht aus der Feder des finnischen Konstrukteurs Hans Groop. Es wird seit 2011 bei der schwedischen Werft Utklippan Yachts gebaut. Der Entwurf des H-40 ist an Groops Artekno H-35 angelehnt: wie seinerzeit das H-35 ist das H-40 ein Kompromiss aus klassischen Linien eines Schärenkreuzers und dem Komfort einer modernen Freizeityacht. Das Klassenzeichen soll auf die Verwandtschaft zu früheren Groop-Booten hinweisen: Es besteht aus dem Zeichen von Groops H-Boot mit einer hinzugefügten 40. Der Neupreis mit Segeln wird auf 1.895.000 schwedische Kronen beziffert (ca. 215.000 €).

Geschichte
Die Idee für das H-40 hatten die schwedischen H-35-Segler Bengt Callmer, Henry Evers und Goran Ax. Sie finanzierten auch die ersten beiden, 2008 gebauten Prototypen. Ziel war, eine zeitgemäße, modernisierte Version des H-35 zu bauen. Die Modernisierungen richteten sich vor allem nach dem gesteigerten Bedürfnis nach Komfort. So erhielt das H-40 mehr Wohnraum, zwei zusätzliche Kojen, 1,90 Meter Stehhöhe, eine Duschkabine und eine Badeplattform. Die Werft plant, jährlich 5–7 Exemplare herzustellen.

Weblinks
Youtube-Video
venenetti.fi – Artikel auf finnisch
www.seilas.no – H-40 Testbericht, norwegisch

Einzelnachweise

Kielboot

H-40


Iodoformul (din greaca ioeides = violet, iod + latina formica = furnică) sau triiodmetanul este un compus organic halogenat cu iod, cu formula CHI3, mult utilizat în trecut ca antiseptic local sub formă de pastă în tratamentul rănilor și abceselor și ca tifon steril impregnat cu pastă pentru tamponarea cavităților după chirurgia orală și otorinolaringologică. Este o pulbere cristalină, de culoare galbenă, cu miros caracteristic, neplăcut și persistent, foarte puțin solubil în apă, solubil în alcool, cloroform, eter, glicerină, benzen și acetonă. Se obține sintetic din iodură de sodiu (NaI), acetonă și soluție de hipoclorit alcalin. A fost descoperit în 1822 de Georges Serullas. Iodoformul se folosește astăzi în stomatologie (sub formă de meșe sau paste iodoformate) și în medicina veterinară (pur sau amestecat cu alte substanțe) în aplicații externe în tratamentul plăgilor, ulcerelor, fistulelor și javartului cartilaginos la cabaline, bovine, ovine, caprine, suine, canide și păsări. Datorită reacțiilor adverse (encefalopatii, erupții cutanate eritematoase) în prezent este înlocuit cu antiseptice mai eficiente și mai puțin toxice.

Note

Bibliografie suplimentară
 Lim, P. V. M., R. G. M. Hughes, and J. Oates. "Hypersensitive allergic reactions to bismuth-iodoform-paraffin paste following ear surgery." The Journal of Laryngology & Otology 112.04 (1998): 335-337.
 Roest, M. A. B., S. Shaw, and D. I. Orton. "Allergic contact otitis externa due to iodoform in BIPP cavity dressings." Contact dermatitis 46.6 (2002): 360-360.
 Roy, P. M., et al. "Dangers of bismuth iodoform paraffin paste." The Lancet 344.8938 (1994): 1708.
 Farrell, RoyW R. "Dangers of bismuth iodoform paraffin paste." The Lancet 344.8937 (1994): 1637-1638.
 Youngman, Lisa, and Susie Harris. "BIPP madness; an iatrogenic cause of acute confusion." Age and ageing 33.4 (2004): 406-407.
 Wilson, A. P. R. "The dangers of BIPP." The Lancet 344.8933 (1994): 1313-1314.

Antiseptice

Iodoform


فخش (بالطاجيكية: Вахш; ڤخش) هي مدينة طاجيكية تقع في ولاية خاتلون جنوب البلاد، تبعد مدينة فخش عن العاصمة الطاجيكية دوشنبه حوالي 100 كم جنوبا. يبلغ عدد سكان المدينة نحو 17,202 نسمة.

أماكن مأهولة في طاجيكستان
ولاية خاتلون
مدن طاجيكستان

فخش


Abdul Qadeer Khan,  ( ; ; 1 April 1936 – 10 October 2021), known as A. Q. Khan, was a Pakistani nuclear physicist and metallurgical engineer who is colloquially known as the "father of Pakistan's atomic weapons program".

An émigré (Muhajir) from India who migrated to Pakistan in 1952, Khan was educated in the metallurgical engineering departments of Western European technical universities where he pioneered studies in phase transitions of metallic alloys, uranium metallurgy, and isotope separation based on gas centrifuges. After learning of India's "Smiling Buddha" nuclear test in 1974, Khan joined his nation's clandestine efforts to develop atomic weapons when he founded the Khan Research Laboratories (KRL) in 1976 and was both its chief scientist and director for many years.

In January 2004, Khan was subjected to a debriefing by the Musharraf administration over evidence of nuclear proliferation handed to them by the Bush administration of the United States. Khan admitted his role in running a nuclear proliferation network – only to retract his statements in later years when he leveled accusations at the former administration of Pakistan's Prime Minister Benazir Bhutto in 1990, and also directed allegations at President Musharraf over the controversy in 2008.

Khan was accused of selling nuclear secrets illegally and was put under house arrest in 2004. After years of house arrest, Khan successfully filed a lawsuit against the Federal Government of Pakistan at the Islamabad High Court whose verdict declared his debriefing unconstitutional and freed him on 6 February 2009. The United States reacted negatively to the verdict and the Obama administration issued an official statement warning that Khan still remained a "serious proliferation risk".

After his death on 10 October 2021, he was given a state funeral at Faisal Mosque before being buried at the H-8 graveyard in Islamabad.

Early life and education
Abdul Qadeer Khan was born on 1 April 1936, in Bhopal, a city then in the erstwhile British Indian princely state of Bhopal State, and now the capital city of Madhya Pradesh. He was a Muhajir of Urdu-speaking Pashtun origin. His father, Abdul Ghafoor, was a schoolteacher who once worked for the Ministry of Education, and his mother, Zulekha, was a housewife with a very religious mindset. His older siblings, along with other family members, had emigrated to Pakistan during the partition of India in 1947, who would often write to Khan's parents about the new life they had found in Pakistan.

After his matriculation from a local school in Bhopal, in 1952 Khan emigrated from India to Pakistan on the Sind Mail train, partly due to the reservation politics at that time, and religious violence in India during his youth had left an indelible impression on his world view. Upon settling in Karachi with his family, Khan briefly attended the D. J. Science College before transferring to the University of Karachi, where he graduated in 1956 with a Bachelor of Science (BSc) in physics with a concentration on solid-state physics.

From 1956 to 1959, Khan was employed by the Karachi Metropolitan Corporation (city government) as an Inspector of weights and measures, and applied for a scholarship that allowed him to study in West Germany. In 1961, Khan departed for West Germany to study material science at the Technical University in West Berlin, where he academically excelled in courses in metallurgy, but left West Berlin when he switched to the Delft University of Technology in the Netherlands in 1965.

In 1962, while on vacation in The Hague, he met Hendrina "Henny" Reternik – a British passport holder who had been born in South Africa to Dutch expatriates. She spoke Dutch and had spent her childhood in Africa before returning with her parents to the Netherlands where she lived as a registered foreigner. In 1963, he married Henny in a modest Muslim ceremony at Pakistan's embassy in The Hague. Khan and Henny together had two daughters, Dina Khan - who is a doctor, and Ayesha Khan.

In 1967, Khan obtained an engineer's degree in materials technology – an equivalent to a Master of Science (MS) offered in English-speaking nations such as Pakistan – and joined the doctoral program in metallurgical engineering at the Katholieke Universiteit Leuven in Belgium. He worked under Belgian professor Martin J. Brabers at Leuven University, who supervised his doctoral thesis which Khan successfully defended, and graduated with a DEng in metallurgical engineering in 1972. His thesis included fundamental work on martensite and its extended industrial applications in the field of graphene morphology.

Career in Europe
In 1972, Khan joined the Physics Dynamics Research Laboratory (or in Dutch: FDO), an engineering firm subsidiary of Verenigde Machinefabrieken (VMF) based in Amsterdam, from Brabers's recommendation. The FDO was a subcontractor for Ultra-Centrifuge Nederland of the, British-German-Dutch uranium enrichment consortium, URENCO which was operating a uranium enrichment plant in Almelo and employed gaseous centrifuge method to assure a supply of nuclear fuel for nuclear power plants in the Netherlands. Soon after, Khan left FDO when URENCO offered him a senior technical position, initially conducting studies on the uranium metallurgy.

Uranium enrichment is an extremely difficult process because uranium in its natural state is composed of just 0.71% of uranium-235 (U235), which is a fissile material, 99.3% of uranium-238 (U238), which is non-fissile, and 0.0055% of uranium-234 (U234), a daughter product which is also a non-fissile. The URENCO Group utilised the Zippe-type of centrifugal method to electromagnetically separate the isotopes U234, U235, and U238 from sublimed raw uranium by rotating the uranium hexafluoride (UF6) gas at up to ~100,000 revolutions per minute (rpm). Khan, whose work was based on physical metallurgy of the uranium metal, eventually dedicated his investigations on improving the efficiency of the centrifuges by 1973–74.

Frits Veerman, Khan's colleague at FDO, uncovered nuclear espionage at Almelo where Khan had stolen designs of the centrifuges from URENCO for the nuclear weapons programme of Pakistan. Veerman became aware of the espionage when Khan had taken classified URENCO documents home to be copied and translated by his Dutch-speaking wife and had asked Veerman to photograph some of them. In 1975, Khan was transferred to a less sensitive section when URENCO became suspicious and he subsequently returned to Pakistan with his wife and two daughters. Khan was sentenced in absentia to four years in prison in 1983 by the Netherlands for espionage but the conviction was later overturned due to a legal technicality. Ruud Lubbers, Prime Minister of the Netherlands at the time, later said that the General Intelligence and Security Service (BVD) was aware of Khan's espionage activities but he was allowed to continue due to pressure from the CIA, with the US backing Pakistan during the Cold War. This was also highlighted when despite Archie Pervez (Khan's associate for nuclear procurement in the US) being convicted in 1988, no action was taken against Khan or his proliferation network by the US government which needed the support of Pakistan during the Soviet–Afghan War.

, a Dutch engineer and businessman who had studied metallurgy with Khan at the Delft University of Technology, continued providing goods needed for enriching uranium to Khan in Pakistan through his company Slebos Research. Slebos was sentenced in 1985 to one year in prison but the sentence was reduced on appeal in 1986 to six months of probation and a fine of 20,000 guilders. Though Slebos continued to export goods to Pakistan and was again sentenced to one year in prison and a fine of around  was imposed on his company.

Ernst Piffl, was convicted and sentenced to three and a half years in prison by Germany in 1998 for supplying nuclear centrifuge parts through his company Team GmbH to Khan's Khan Research Laboratories in Kahuta. Asher Karni, a Hungarian-South African businessman was sentenced to three years in prison in the US for the sale of restricted nuclear equipment to Pakistan through Humayun Khan (an associate of A. Q. Khan) and his Pakland PME Corporation.

Scientific career in Pakistan

Smiling Buddha and initiation

Upon learning of India's surprise nuclear test, 'Smiling Buddha', in May 1974, Khan wanted to contribute to efforts to build an atomic bomb and met with officials at the Pakistani Embassy in The Hague, who dissuaded him by saying it was "hard to find" a job in PAEC as a "metallurgist". In August 1974, Khan wrote a letter which went unnoticed, but he directed another letter through the Pakistani ambassador to the Prime Minister's Secretariat in September 1974.

Unbeknownst to Khan, his nation's scientists were already working towards feasibility of the atomic bomb under a secretive crash weapons program since 20 January 1972 that was being directed by Munir Ahmad Khan, a reactor physicist, which calls into question of his "father-of" claim. After reading his letter, Prime Minister Zulfikar Ali Bhutto had his military secretary run a security check on Khan, who was unknown at that time, for verification and asked PAEC to dispatch a team under Bashiruddin Mahmood that met Khan at his family home in Almelo and directed Bhutto's letter to meet him in Islamabad. Upon arriving in December 1974, Khan took a taxi straight to the Prime Minister's Secretariat. He met with Prime Minister Bhutto in the presence of Ghulam Ishaq Khan, Agha Shahi, and Mubashir Hassan where he explained the significance of highly enriched uranium, with the meeting ending with Bhutto's remark: "He seems to make sense."

The next day, Khan met with Munir Ahmad and other senior scientists where he focused the discussion on production of highly enriched uranium (HEU), against weapon-grade plutonium, and explained to Bhutto why he thought the idea of "plutonium" would not work. Later, Khan was advised by several officials in the Bhutto administration to remain in the Netherlands to learn more about centrifuge technology but continue to provide consultation on the Project-706 enrichment program led by Mahmood. By December 1975, Khan was given a transfer to a less sensitive section when URENCO became suspicious of his indiscreet open sessions with Mahmood to instruct him on centrifuge technology. Khan began to fear for his safety in the Netherlands, ultimately insisting on returning home.

Khan Research Laboratories and atomic bomb program

In April 1976, Khan joined the atomic bomb program and became part of the enrichment division, initially collaborating with Khalil Qureshi – a physical chemist. Calculations performed by him were valuable contributions to centrifuges and a vital link to nuclear weapon research, but continue to push for his ideas for feasibility of weapon-grade uranium even though it had a low priority, with most efforts still aimed to produce military-grade plutonium. Because of his interest in uranium metallurgy and his frustration at having been passed over for director of the uranium division (the job was instead given to Bashiruddin Mahmood), Khan refused to engage in further calculations and caused tensions with other researchers. Khan became highly unsatisfied and bored with the research led by Mahmood – finally, he submitted a critical report to Bhutto, in which he explained that the "enrichment program" was nowhere near success.

Upon reviewing the report, Bhutto sensed a great danger as the scientists were split between military-grade uranium and plutonium and informed Khan to take over the enrichment division from Mahmood, who separated the program from PAEC by founding the Engineering Research Laboratories (ERL). The ERL functioned directly under the Army's Corps of Engineers, with Khan being its chief scientist, and the army engineers located the national site at isolated lands in Kahuta for the enrichment program as ideal site for preventing accidents.

The PAEC did not forgo their electromagnetic isotope separation program, and a parallel program was led by G. D. Alam at the Air Research Laboratories (ARL) located at Chaklala Air Force Base, even though Alam had not seen a centrifuge, and only had a rudimentary knowledge of the Manhattan Project. During this time, Alam accomplished a great feat by perfectly balancing the rotation of the first generation of centrifuge to ~30,000 rpm and was immediately dispatched to ERL which was suffering from many setbacks in setting up its own program under Khan's direction based on centrifuge technology dependent on URENCO's methods. Khan eventually committed to work on problems involving the differential equations concerning the rotation around fixed axis to perfectly balance the machine under influence of gravity and the design of first generation of centrifuges became functional after Khan and Alam succeeded in separating the 235U and 238U isotopes from raw natural uranium.

In the military circles, Khan's scientific ability was well recognised and was often known with his moniker "Centrifuge Khan" and the national laboratory was renamed after him upon the visit of President Muhammad Zia-ul-Haq in 1983. In spite of his role, Khan was never in charge of the actual designs of the nuclear devices, their calculations, and eventual weapons testing which remained under the directorship of Munir Ahmad Khan and the PAEC.

The PAEC's senior scientists who worked with him and under him remember him as "an egomaniacal lightweight" given to exaggerating his scientific achievements in centrifuges. At one point, Munir Khan said that, "most of the scientists who work on the development of atomic bomb projects were extremely 'serious'. They were sobered by the weight of what they don't know; Abdul Qadeer Khan is a showman." During the timeline of the bomb program, Khan published papers on analytical mechanics of balancing of rotating masses and thermodynamics with mathematical rigour to compete, but still failed to impress his fellow theorists at PAEC, generally in the physics community. In later years, Khan became a staunch critic of Munir Khan's research in physics, and on many occasions tried unsuccessfully to belittle Munir Khan's role in the atomic bomb projects. Their scientific rivalry became public and widely popular in the physics community and seminars held in the country over the years.

Nuclear tests: Chagai-I

Many of his theorists were unsure that military-grade uranium would be feasible on time without the centrifuges, since Alam had notified PAEC that the "blueprints were incomplete" and "lacked the scientific information needed even for the basic gas-centrifuges." Calculations by Tasneem Shah, and confirmed by Alam, showed that Khan's earlier estimation of the quantity of uranium needing enrichment for the production of weapon-grade uranium was possible, even with the small number of centrifuges deployed.

Khan produced the designs of the centrifuges from URENCO. However, they were riddled with serious technical errors, and while he bought some components for analysis, they were broken pieces, making them useless for quick assembly of a centrifuge. Its separative work unit (SWU) rate was extremely low, so that it would have to be rotated for thousands of RPMs at the cost of millions of taxpayers money, Alam maintained. Though Khan's knowledge of copper metallurgy greatly aided the  it was the calculations and validation that came from his team of fellow theorists, including mathematician Tasneem Shah and Alam, who solved the differential equations concerning rotation around a fixed axis under the influence of gravity, which led Khan to come up with the innovative centrifuge designs.

Scientists have said that Khan would have never got any closer to success without the assistance of Alam and others. The issue is controversial; Khan maintained to his biographer that when it came to defending the "centrifuge approach" and really putting work into it, both Shah and Alam refused.

Khan was also very critical of PAEC's concentrated efforts towards developing a plutonium 'implosion-type' nuclear devices and provided strong advocacy for the relatively simple 'gun-type' device that only had to work with high-enriched uranium – a design concept of gun-type device he eventually submitted to Ministry of Energy (MoE) and Ministry of Defense (MoD). Khan downplayed the importance of plutonium despite many of the theorists maintaining that "plutonium and the fuel cycle has its significance", and he insisted on the uranium route to the Bhutto administration when France's offer for an extraction plant was in the offing.

Though he had helped to come up with the centrifuge designs, and had been a long-time proponent of the concept, Khan was not chosen to head the development project to test his nation's first nuclear-weapons (his reputation of a thorny personality likely played a role in this) after India conducted its series of nuclear tests, 'Pokhran-II' in 1998. Intervention by the Chairman Joint Chiefs, General Jehangir Karamat, allowed Khan to be a participant and eye-witness his nation's first nuclear test, 'Chagai-I' in 1998. At a news conference, Khan confirmed the testing of the boosted fission devices while stating that it was KRL's highly enriched uranium (HEU) that was used in the detonation of Pakistan's first nuclear devices on 28 May 1998.

Many of Khan's colleagues were irritated that he seemed to enjoy taking full credit for something he had only a small part in, and in response, he authored an article, "Torch-Bearers", which appeared in The News International, emphasising that he was not alone in the weapon's development. He made an attempt to work on the Teller–Ulam design for the hydrogen bomb, but the military strategists had objected to the idea as it went against the government's policy of minimum credible deterrence. Khan often got engrossed in projects which were theoretically interesting but practically unfeasible.

Proliferation controversy

In the 1970s, Khan had been very vocal about establishing a network to acquire imported electronic materials from the Dutch firms and had very little trust of PAEC's domestic manufacturing of materials, despite the government accepting PAEC's arguments for the long term sustainability of the nuclear weapons program. At one point, Khan reached out to the People's Republic of China for acquiring the uranium hexafluoride (UF6) when he attended a conference there – the Pakistani Government sent it back to the People's Republic of China, asking KRL to use the UF6 supplied by PAEC. In an investigative report published by Nuclear Threat Initiative, Chinese scientists were reportedly present at Khan Research Laboratories (KRL) in Kahuta in the early 1980s. In 1996, the U.S. intelligence community maintained that China provided magnetic rings for special suspension bearings mounted at the top of rotating centrifuge cylinders. In 2005, it was revealed that President Zia-ul-Haq's military government had KRL run a HEU programme in the Chinese nuclear weapons program. Khan said that "KRL has built a centrifuge facility for China in Hanzhong city". China also exported some of DF-11's ballistic missile technology to Pakistan, where Pakistan's Ghaznavi and Shaheen-II borrowed from DF-11 technology.

In 1982, an unnamed Arab country reached out to Khan for the sale of centrifuge technology. Khan was very receptive to the financial offer, but one scientist alerted the Zia administration which investigated the matter, only for Khan to vehemently deny such an offer was made to him. The Zia administration tasked Major-General Ali Nawab, an engineering officer, to keep surveillance on Khan, which he did until 1983 when he retired from his military service, and Khan's activities went undetected for several years after.

Court controversy and U.S. objections
In 1979, the Dutch government eventually probed Khan on suspicion of nuclear espionage but he was not prosecuted due to lack of evidence, though it did file a criminal complaint against him in a local court in Amsterdam, which sentenced him in absentia in 1985 to four years in prison. Upon learning of the sentence, Khan filed an appeal through his attorney, S. M. Zafar, who teamed up with the administration of Leuven University, and successfully argued that the technical information requested by Khan was commonly found and taught in undergraduate and doctoral physics at the university – the court exonerated Khan by overturning his sentence on a legal technicality. Reacting to the suspicions of espionage, Khan stressed that: "I had requested for it as we had no library of our own at KRL, at that time. All the research work [at Kahuta] was the result of our innovation and struggle. We did not receive any technical 'know-how' from abroad, but we cannot reject the use of books, magazines, and research papers in this connection."

In 1979, the Zia administration, which was making an effort to keep their nuclear capability discreet to avoid pressure from the Reagan administration of the United States (U.S.), nearly lost its patience with Khan when he reportedly attempted to meet with a local journalist to announce the existence of the enrichment program. During the Indian Operation Brasstacks military exercise in 1987, Khan gave another interview to local press and stated: "the Americans had been well aware of the success of the atomic quest of Pakistan", allegedly confirming the speculation of technology export. At both instances, the Zia administration sharply denied Khan's statement and a furious President Zia met with Khan and used a "tough tone", promising Khan severe repercussions had he not retracted all of his statements, which Khan immediately did by contacting several news correspondents.

In 1996, Khan again appeared on his country's news channels and maintained that "at no stage was the program of producing 90% weapons-grade enriched uranium ever stopped", despite Benazir Bhutto's administration reaching an understanding with the United States Clinton administration to cap the program to 3% enrichment in 1990.

North Korea, Iran, and Libya

The innovation and improved designs of centrifuges were marked as classified for export restriction by the Pakistan government, though Khan was still in possession of earlier designs of centrifuges from when he worked for URENCO in the 1970s. In 1990, the United States alleged that highly sensitive information was being exported to North Korea in exchange for rocket engines. Pakistan's Ghauri missile was based entirely on North Korea's Rodong-1 as reflected in its technology. The project was supported by Benazir Bhutto who consulted for the project with North Korea and facilitated the technology transfer to Khan Research Laboratories in 1993.

On multiple occasions, Khan levelled accusations against Benazir Bhutto's administration of providing secret enrichment information, on a compact disc (CD), to North Korea; these accusations were denied by Benazir Bhutto's staff and military personnel.

Between 1987 and 1989, Khan secretly leaked knowledge of centrifuges to Iran without notifying the Pakistan Government, although this issue is a subject of political controversy. In 2003, the European Union pressured Iran to accept tougher inspections of its nuclear program and the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) revealed an enrichment facility in the city of Natanz, Iran, utilising gas centrifuges based on the designs and methods used by URENCO. The IAEA inspectors quickly identified the centrifuges as P-1 types, which had been obtained "from a foreign intermediary in 1989", and the Iranian negotiators turned over the names of their suppliers, which identified Khan as one of them. Heinz Mebus, a German engineer and businessman and college friend of Khan, was named as one of the suppliers - acting as a middleman for Khan.

In May 1998, Newsweek reported that Khan had sent Iraq centrifuge designs, which were apparently confiscated by the UNMOVIC officials. Iraqi officials said "the documents were authentic but that they had not agreed to work with A. Q. Khan, fearing an ISI sting operation, due to strained relations between two countries.

In 2003, merchant vessel BBC China was caught carrying nuclear centrifuges to Libya from Malaysia, the Scomi Group and Khan Research Laboratories were supplying nuclear parts to Libya through Khan's Dubai-based Sri Lankan associate Buhary Syed Abu Tahir. This was further revealed in the Scomi Precision Engineering nuclear scandal surrounding Scomi CEO Shah Hakim Zain and , son of former Malaysian Prime Minister Abdullah Ahmad Badawi.

Libya negotiated with the United States to roll back its nuclear program to have economic sanctions lifted, effected by the Iran and Libya Sanctions Act, and shipped centrifuges to the United States that were identified as P-1 models by the American inspectors. Ultimately, the Bush administration launched its investigation of Khan, focusing on his personal role, when Libya handed over a list of its suppliers. Friedrich Tinner, a nuclear engineer and friend of Khan since their days at the Leuven University, was one of the heads of Libya's nuclear programme and worked in nuclear enrichment for Libya and Pakistan. In 2008, German nuclear engineer  was convicted and sentenced to five years and six months in prison for procuring centrifuges for Libya from Khan, Lerch also acted as Khan's middleman for Iran. Alfred Hempel, a German businessman, arranged the shipment of gas centrifuge parts from Khan in Pakistan to Libya and Iran via Dubai.

The "A. Q. Khan network" involved numerous shell companies set-up by Khan in Dubai to obtain equipment necessary for nuclear enrichment.  of Iran's Defense Industries Organization was involved in nuclear proliferation for Iran and North Korea through China. Parts needed for nuclear enrichment in Pakistan were also imported by Khan from several Japanese companies.

Security hearings, pardon, and aftermath
Starting in 2001, Khan served as an adviser on science and technology in the Musharraf administration and had become a public figure who enjoyed much support from his country's political conservative sphere. In 2003, the Bush administration reportedly turned over evidence of a nuclear proliferation network that implicated Khan's role to the Musharraf administration. Khan was dismissed from his post on 31 January 2004. On 4 February 2004, Khan appeared on Pakistan Television (PTV) and confessed to running a proliferation ring, and transferring technology to Iran between 1989 and 1991, and to North Korea and Libya between 1991 and 1997. The Musharraf administration avoided arresting Khan but launched security hearings on Khan who confessed to the military investigators that former Chief of Army Staff General Mirza Aslam Beg had given authorisation for technology transfer to Iran.

On 5 February 2004, President Pervez Musharraf issued a pardon to Khan as he feared that the issue would be politicised by his political rivals. Despite the pardon, Khan, who had strong conservative support, had badly damaged the political credibility of the Musharraf administration and the image of the United States who was attempting to win hearts and minds of local populations during the height of the Insurgency in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa. While the local television news media aired sympathetic documentaries on Khan, the opposition parties in the country protested so strongly that the U.S. Embassy in Islamabad had pointed out to the Bush administration that the successor to Musharraf could be less friendly towards the United States. This restrained the Bush administration from applying further direct pressure on Musharraf due to a strategic calculation that it might cause the loss of Musharraf as an ally.
In December 2006, the Weapons of Mass Destruction Commission (WMDC), headed by Hans Blix, stated that Khan could not have acted alone "without the awareness of the Pakistan Government". Blix's statement was also reciprocated by the United States government, with one anonymous American government intelligence official quoted by independent journalist and author Seymour Hersh: "Suppose if Edward Teller had suddenly decided to spread nuclear technology around the world. Could he really do that without the American government knowing?".

In 2007, the U.S. and European Commission politicians as well as IAEA officials had made several strong calls to have Khan interrogated by IAEA investigators, given the lingering scepticism about the disclosures made by Pakistan, but Prime Minister Shaukat Aziz, who remained supportive of Khan and spoke highly of him, strongly dismissed the calls by terming it as "case closed".

In 2008, the security hearings were officially terminated by Chairman joint chiefs General Tariq Majid who marked the details of debriefings as "classified". In 2008, in an interview, Khan laid the whole blame on former President Pervez Musharraf, and labelled Musharraf as the "Big Boss" for proliferation deals. In 2012, Khan also implicated Benazir Bhutto's administration in proliferation matters, pointing to the fact as she had issued "clear directions in thi[s] regard." Khan also said that he was persecuted because he was a Muhajir.

Government work, academia, and political advocacy

Khan's strong advocacy for nuclear sharing of technology eventually led to his ostracisation by much of the scientific community, but Khan was still quite welcome in his country's political and military circles. After leaving the directorship of the Khan Research Laboratories in 2001, Khan briefly joined the Musharraf administration as a policy adviser on science and technology on a request from President Musharraf. In this capacity, Khan promoted increased defence spending on his nation's missile program to counter the perceived threats from the Indian missile program and advised the Musharraf administration on space policy. He presented the idea of using the Ghauri missile system as an expendable launch system to launch satellites into space.

At the height of the proliferation controversy in 2007, Khan was paid tribute by Prime Minister Shaukat Aziz on state television while commenting in the last part of his speech, Aziz stressed: "The services of [nuclear] scientist ... Dr. [Abdul] Qadeer Khan are "unforgettable" for the country".

In the 1990s, Khan secured a fellowship with the Pakistan Academy of Sciences – he served as its president in 1996–97. Khan published two books on material science and started publishing his articles from KRL in the 1980s. Gopal S. Upadhyaya, an Indian metallurgist who attended Khan's conference and met him along with Kuldip Nayar, reportedly described him as being a proud Pakistani who wanted to show the world that scientists from Pakistan are inferior to no one in the world. Khan also served as project director of Ghulam Ishaq Khan Institute of Engineering Sciences and Technology and briefly tenured as professor of physics before joining the faculty of the Hamdard University; where he remained on the board of directors of the university up until his death in 2021. Later, Khan helped established the A. Q. Khan Institute of Biotechnology and Genetic Engineering at Karachi University.

In 2012, Khan announced the formation of a conservative political advocacy group, Tehreek-e-Tahaffuz-e-Pakistan ('Movement for the Protection of Pakistan'). It was subsequently dissolved in 2013.

Illness and death
In August 2021, Khan was admitted to Khan Research Laboratories Hospital after testing positive for COVID-19. Khan died on 10 October 2021, at the age of 85, after being transferred to a hospital in Islamabad with lung problems. He was given a state funeral at the Faisal Mosque before being buried at the H-8 graveyard in Islamabad.

The Prime Minister of Pakistan, Imran Khan, expressed grief over his death in a tweet adding that "for the people of Pakistan he was a national icon". President of Pakistan Arif Alvi also expressed sadness adding that "a grateful nation will never forget his services".

Legacy

During his time in the atomic bomb project, Khan pioneered research in the thermal quantum field theory and condensed matter physics, while he co-authored articles on chemical reactions of the highly unstable isotope particles in the controlled physical system. He maintained his stance of the use of controversial technological solutions to both military and civilian problems, including the use of military technologies for civilian welfare. Khan also remained a vigorous advocate for a nuclear testing program and defence strength through nuclear weapons. He justified Pakistan's nuclear deterrence program as sparing his country the fate of Iraq or Libya. In an interview in 2011, Khan maintained his stance on peace through strength and vigorously defended the nuclear weapons program as part of the deterrence policy:

During his work on the nuclear weapons program and onwards, Khan faced heated and intense criticism from his fellow theorists, most notably Pervez Hoodbhoy who contested his scientific understanding in quantum physics. In addition, Khan's false claims that he was the "father" of the atomic bomb project since its inception and his personal attacks on Munir Ahmad Khan caused even greater animosity from his fellow theorists, and most particularly, within the general physics community, such as the Pakistan Physics Society.

Various motivations have been cited for Khan's role in the proliferation of nuclear weapons. According to the editor-in-chief of Foreign Policy, Moisés Naím, although his actions were certainly ideological or political in nature, Khan's motives remain essentially financial. This is evidenced, according to him, by his commercial maneuvers, his presence in North Korean trade as well as his real estate ownerships. For instance, Khan owned the Hendrina Khan Hotel in Timbuktu, named after his wife. It was one of dozens of his commercial enterprises. To build his hotel in Timbuktu, he reportedly used a Pakistan Air Force C-130 transport aircraft in the early 2000s to transport carved wooden furniture. The plane landed at Tripoli Airport in Libya and the cargo was then taken to Timbuktu by road as it was unable to land in Mali. Khan himself accompanied the furniture from Islamabad.<ref>Khan built hotel in Timbuktu. Times of India. 2004.</ref> His wife, two daughters and brother Abdul Quyuim Khan were all named in the Panama Papers in 2016 as owners of Wahdat Ltd., an offshore company registered in the Bahamas.

Bruno Tertrais, a senior researcher at the Foundation for Strategic Research states: "Khan's motivations were complex and evolving (...) The primary motivation seems to have been to ensure the legitimacy of his role in building Pakistan's nuclear force (...) The second motivation, which has become more important over time, is personal enrichment. Finally, the third important element of varying importance depending on the hypothesis: Khan's more or less diffuse desire to see other Muslim countries access nuclear power."

In spite of the proliferation controversy and his volatile personality, Khan remained a popular public figure and has been as a symbol of national pride with many in Pakistan who see him as a national hero. While Khan has been bestowed with many medals and honours by the federal government and universities in Pakistan, Khan also remains the only citizen of Pakistan to have been honoured twice with the Nishan-e-Imtiaz.Shabbir, Usman, Remembering Unsung Heroes: Munir Ahmed Khan, Defence Journal, 27 June 2004

Nishan-e-Imtiaz (1999)
Nishan-e-Imtiaz (1996)
Hilal-e-Imtiaz (1989)
Sir Syed University of Engineering and Technology
60 Gold medal from universities in the country.

University of Karachi
Baqai Medical University
Hamdard University
Gomal University
University of Engineering and Technology, Lahore

Publications
Selected research papers and patents
Nuclear and material physics
 Dilation investigation of metallic phase transformation in 18% Ni maraging steels, Proceedings of the International Conf. on Martensitic Transformations (1986), The Japan Institute of Metals, pp. 560–565.
 The spread of Nuclear weapons among nations: Militarization or Development, pp. 417–430. (Ref. Nuclear War Nuclear Proliferation and their consequences "Proceedings of the 5th International Colloquium organised by the Group De Bellerive Geneva 27–29 June 1985", Edited by: Sadruddin Aga Khan, Published by Clarendon Press-Oxford 1986).
 Flow-induced vibrations in Gas-tube assembly of centrifuges. Journal of Nuclear Science and Technology, 23(9) (September 1986), pp. 819–827.
Dimensional anisotropy in 18% of maraging steel, Seven National Symposium on Frontiers in Physics, written with Anwar-ul-Haq, Mohammad Farooq, S. Qaisar, published at the Pakistan Physics Society (1998).
 Thermodynamics of Non-equilibrium phases in Electron-beam rapid solidification, Proceedings of the Second National Symposium on Frontiers in Physics, written with A. Tauqeer, Fakhar Hashmi, publisher Pakistan Physics Society (1988).

Books

See also
 Dr. A. Q. Khan Institute of Computer Sciences and Information Technology
 Dr. A. Q. Khan Research Laboratories
 Pakistani missile research and development program
 Conservatism in Pakistan
 Nuclear espionage
 Nuclear arms race
 Nuclear Secrets, 2007 documentary series about the nuclear race and proliferation including Khan's role therein
 Anwar Ali (physicist), Pakistani physicist charged with nuclear proliferation
 Peter Finke, German physicist in the nuclear weapons programme of Pakistan

 Notes

References
Citations

Bibliography

 Burr, William. "The 'Labors of Atlas, Sisyphus, or Hercules'? US Gas-Centrifuge Policy and Diplomacy, 1954–60." The International History Review'' 37.3 (2015): 431–457.

Web links

Annotated bibliography for A.Q. Khan
The Physics war of Munir Khan and A.Q. Khan

"Kahuta Research Laboratories", Federation of American Scientists.

British Reporter Adrian Levy: The United States Secretly Helped Pakistan Build Its Nuclear Arsenal

External links

 Abdul Quadeer Khan at the Pakistan Academy of Sciences
 Prof. Abdul Qadeer Khan at the Islamic Academy of Sciences
 Why He Went Nuclear by Douglas Frantz and Catherine Collins

Written by Abdul Qadeer Khan
Heart disease Random thoughts 11 June 2012
More on thalassemia 4 June 2012
Memorable Karachi 28 May 2012
Great expectations 14 May 2012
Mass graves 30 April 2012
I saved my country 1 November 2012

Online books

|-

1936 births
2021 deaths
Deaths from the COVID-19 pandemic in Islamabad
People from Bhopal State
Indian emigrants to Pakistan
Muhajir people
D. J. Sindh Government Science College alumni
University of Karachi alumni
Pakistani physicists
Engineers from Karachi
20th-century Pakistani engineers
Pakistani expatriates in Germany
Pakistani expatriates in the Netherlands
Delft University of Technology alumni
Academic staff of the Delft University of Technology
Pakistani expatriates in Belgium
Catholic University of Leuven alumni
Theoretical chemists
Pakistani metallurgists
Project-706 people
Pakistani nuclear physicists
Weapons scientists and engineers
Materials scientists and engineers
Pakistani inventors
Pakistani spies
People from Islamabad
Founders of Pakistani schools and colleges
Academic staff of Hamdard University
Fellows of Pakistan Academy of Sciences
Theoretical physicists
Academic staff of Ghulam Ishaq Khan Institute of Engineering Sciences and Technology
Recipients of Hilal-i-Imtiaz
Recipients of Nishan-e-Imtiaz
Space and Upper Atmosphere Research Commission people
Recipients of Pakistani presidential pardons
Pakistani memoirists
Pakistani technology writers
Pakistani textbook writers
Pakistani columnists
Members of the Pakistan Philosophical Congress
Deaths from the COVID-19 pandemic in Pakistan
Nuclear proliferation
Nuclear weapons scientists and engineers
Presidents of the Pakistan Academy of Sciences
People from Karachi

Abdul Qadeer Khan


Vasile Scarlat (n. 1913 – d. 2005, Brașov) a fost ofițer în cadrul Batalionului 2 Vânători de Munte din Brașov.

A participat la campania de pe Frontul de Răsărit, fiind decorat pentru fapte de bravură cu ordinul Mihai Viteazul clasa a 3-a, Crucea de Fier clasa a 2-a, Scutul Crimeii(Krimschild) și insigna germană de asalt(Infanterie-Sturmabzeichen). A participat la luptele de la șanțul antitanc aflat în zona satului Timoșevka, unde vânătorii de munte din batalioanele 2 și 3 au ținut piept multiplelor atacuri ale Armatei Roșii, ce a atacat folosind inclusiv tancuri. Militarii români au rezistat 8 zile (7 nopți) în fața atacurilor și nu au părăsit poziția, chiar dacă nu dispuneau de armament antitanc. Luptele din zona acestei fortificații sunt descrise în cartea Viața și moartea în linia întâi - memoriile colonelului Vasile Scârneci.

Curajului și capacităților sale le stau mărturie baretele vizibile în fotografii, pe când acesta avea gradul de căpitan.

În ultimii ani din viață a fost cantor la biserica "Adormirea Maicii Domnului", din cadrul parohiei "Brașovul Vechi".

S-a stins din viață în 2005, având grad de general, și a fost înmormântat în Cimitirul Parohiei Ortodoxe Brașovul Vechi. Soția sa i s-a alăturat în anul 2014.

Note

Surse
http://www.edituramilitara.ro/istorie/4-viata-si-moartea-in-linia-intai-vasile-scarneci.html
Albumul de fotografii al Batalionului 2 Vânători de Munte din Brașov

Nașteri în 1913
Decese în 2005
Militari români
Români ai celui de-al Doilea Război Mondial

Vasile Scarlat


Judas é um próximo jogo de tiro em primeira pessoa desenvolvido e publicado pela Ghost Story Games. É o primeiro jogo de Ken Levine desde Bioshock Infinite: Burial at Sea em 2014. Será lançado em meados de 2026 para Microsoft Windows, PlayStation 5 e Xbox Series X/S.

Desenvolvimento
O conceito do jogo começou em 2014, quando Levine conversou e explicou ideias que eles gostariam de trabalhar durante a Game Developers Conference com "legos narrativos", uma ideia pela qual podem alterar os elementos da história, que podem usar para criar um jogo muito re-jogável, com múltiplos resultados. No ano seguinte, Levine afirmou que este jogo seria um jogo de ficção científica em primeira pessoa, semelhante à série System Shock. Middle-earth: Shadow of Mordor, em particular seu sistema Nemesis, foi citado como uma das inspirações do jogo. Levine acrescentou que o jogo seria uma experiência mais desafiadora quando comparado com BioShock e BioShock Infinite. No início de 2022, a Bloomberg News relatou que o jogo caiu no chamado inferno do desenvolvimento, com o estilo de trabalho de Levine levando ao esgotamento dos funcionários. No final do mesmo ano, durante os The Game Awards 2022, o jogo foi revelado com um trailer de anúncio, sendo recebido positivamente. O jogo será lançado para Windows através das plataformas Steam e Epic Games.

Referências

Ligações externas

Jogos de tiro em primeira pessoa
Jogos para PlayStation 5
Jogos para Xbox Series X e Series S
Jogos para Windows
Jogos eletrônicos desenvolvidos nos Estados Unidos
Jogos eletrônicos da Take-Two Interactive
Jogos eletrônicos para um jogador

Judas (jogo eletrônico)


هيربي  هي شخصية خيالية ظهرت في عدة أفلام من إنتاج شركة ديزني، وهي عبارة عن سيارة فولكس واجن خنفساء عليها الرقم 53، ولديها روح، وإحساس، ومشاعر، وتحب فعل الخير، ولكنها غير قادرة على النطق!

قائمة الأفلام التي ظهرت فيها هيربي
 The Love Bug عام (1968).
 Herbie Rides Again عام (1974).
 Herbie Goes to Monte Carlo عام (1977).
 Herbie Goes Bananas عام (1980).
 The Love Bug عام (1997).
 هيربي: فولي لوديد عام (2005) من بطولة ليندسي لوهان.

وصلات خارجية

 موقع لأفلام هيربي ومعجبيها حول العالم.
 موقع لهيربي من إعداد شركة ديزني.

مصادر
صفحة هيربي في ويكيبيديا الإنجليزية.

أفلام حولت إلى برامج تلفزيونية
أفلام كوميدية حسب السلسلة
أمريكيون خياليون
سائقو سباقات خياليون
سيارات تعمل بمحركات البوكسر
سيارات سباقات خيالية
سيارات فولكس واجن
شخصيات تجسيمية خيالية
شخصيات خيالية
فولكس فاغن بيتل

هيربي


Ophiopogon japonicus es una especie de plantas perennes pequeñas de la familia Asparagaceae. Es nativa de Japón.

Descripción
Es una planta de hoja perenne, cespitosa. Las hojas son lineales de 20-40 cm de largo. Las flores son de color blanco a lila pálido, que se producen en un corto racimo en un tallo de 5-10 cm. El fruto es en forma de bayas de color azul de 5 mm de diámetro.  Las raíces son estolones grandes con raíces tuberosas.

Propiedades
En la medicina tradicional china Ophiopogon japonicus es conocida como una hierba para tratar la deficiencia de yin. Según Chinese Herbal Medicine Materia Medica, la hierba es dulce, ligeramente amarga y ligeramente fría, entra en los canales de corazón, los pulmones y el estómago y nutre el yin del estómago, el bazo, el corazón y los pulmones, elimina el calor y la irritabilidad se tranquiliza. Se cree que es útil para cortar la tos seca, la lengua y boca seca y el estreñimiento. Liriope spicata se utiliza como un sustituto.

Cultivo
También se cultiva como planta ornamental, proporcionando una excelente cubierta vegetal . Varios cultivares han sido seleccionados, entre ellos 'Albus' (flores blancas), "Compactus" y "Kyoto Dwarf '(formas enanas, de no más de 4-5 cm de altura), y' Silver Mist" (variado, con rayas blancas en las hojas) . A menudo se vende como planta decorativa para acuarios de agua dulce, aunque no es una verdadera planta acuática, puede florecer por unos meses y luego mueren. Aunque resistente a temperaturas de aproximadamente -20 °C en estado latente en invierno al aire libre y en el suelo normal, cuando se mantienen totalmente sumergidas requieren temperaturas del agua de 18-25 °C. Crece bien a pleno sol o sombra parcial. La propagación se hace a partir de brotes laterales.

Taxonomía
Ophiopogon japonicus fue descrita por (Thunb.) Ker Gawl. y publicado en Botanical Magazine 27: pl. 1063, en el año 1807.
Etimología
Ophiopogon nombre genérico que deriva del griego ophis, "serpiente", y pogon, "barba", más probablemente refiriéndose a sus hojas.

japonicus: epíteto geográfico que alude a su localización en Japón.
Sinonimia
Anemarrhena cavaleriei H. Lév.
Convallaria graminifolia Salisb.
Convallaria japonica Thunb.
Convallaria japonica L. f.
Convallaria japonica var. minor Thunb.
Flueggea anceps Raf.
Flueggea angulata Raf.
Flueggea japonica (Thunb.) Rich.
Flueggea japonica var. minor (Thunb.)
Liriope gracilis (Kunth) Nakai
Mondo gracile (Kunth) Koidz.
Mondo gracile var. brevipedicellatum Koidz.
Mondo japonicum (Thunb.) Farw.
Mondo longifolium Ohwi
Mondo stolonifer (H. Lév. & Vaniot) Farw.
Ophiopogon argyi H. Lév.
Ophiopogon chekiangensis Koiti Kimura & Migo
Ophiopogon gracilis Kunth
Ophiopogon gracilis var. brevipedicellatus (Koidz.) Nemoto
Ophiopogon japonicus var. caespitosus Okuyama
Ophiopogon japonicus var. elevatus Kuntze
Ophiopogon japonicus var. umbrosus Maxim.
Ophiopogon merrillii Masam.
Ophiopogon ohwii Okuyama
Ophiopogon stolonifer H. Lév. & Vaniot
Polygonastrum compressum Moench
Slateria coerulea Siebold ex Miq.
Slateria japonica (Thunb.) Desv.
Tricoryne acaulis D.Dietr.
Tricoryne caulescens D.Dietr.

Referencias

Enlaces externos

japonicus
Plantas medicinales
Flora de Japón
Plantas usadas en la medicina tradicional china
Plantas descritas en 1807
Plantas descritas por Thunberg
Plantas descritas por Ker Gawl.

Ophiopogon japonicus


Os confrontos entre Armênia e Azerbaijão em setembro de 2022 foram uma série de combates que eclodiram entre as tropas armênias e do Azerbaijão em 12 de setembro de 2022, ao longo da fronteira Armênia-Azerbaijão, resultando em quase 300 mortes e dezenas de feridos de ambos os lados no terceiro dia do conflito. Ambos os lados culparam um ao outro pela escalada. O Ministério da Defesa da Armênia disse que o Azerbaijão atacou posições armênias perto das cidades de Vardenis, Goris, Sotk e Jermuk com artilharia e armas pesadas e que ocupou certas áreas de seu território, o que mais tarde foi confirmado por imagens de satélite da NASA. O Ministério da Defesa do Azerbaijão disse que a Armênia realizou "provocações em grande escala" perto das regiões de Dashkasan, Kalbajar e Lachin e que capturou várias alturas estratégicas na região fronteiriça dentro da Armênia.

Os confrontos ao longo da fronteira não demarcada decorrem principalmente do conflito do Alto Carabaque. A Rússia disse, em 13 de setembro, que havia negociado um cessar-fogo, mas ambos os lados confirmaram que foi quebrado minutos depois de entrar em vigor. Pelo menos 135 militares armênios foram mortos, de acordo com um relatório do primeiro-ministro armênio Nikol Pashinyan. O Azerbaijão reconheceu 80 mortes entre suas forças. Em 14 de setembro, a Armênia e o Azerbaijão negociaram um cessar-fogo.

O conflito eclodiu quando os militares russos recuaram durante a contra-ofensiva ucraniana de Kharkiv, enfraquecendo sua projeção de força na região. Os esforços da União Europeia para garantir mais gás do Azerbaijão para compensar a perda de importações da Rússia também enfraqueceram sua capacidade de mediar os confrontos.

Antecedentes

Em 12 de maio de 2021, soldados do Azerbaijão atravessaram vários quilômetros para a Armênia nas províncias de Syunik e Gegharkunik e ocuparam cerca de 41 km2 do território armênio. O Parlamento Europeu, Estados Unidos e França – dois dos três copresidentes do Grupo OSCE Minsk, pediram ao Azerbaijão que retire suas tropas do território armênio internacionalmente reconhecido.

Outros confrontos ocorreram em julho de 2021 e em novembro de 2021, com vítimas sendo relatadas de ambos os lados. Em uma declaração conjunta em 17 de novembro de 2021, os relatores da UE chamaram a operação militar lançada pelo Azerbaijão em 16 de novembro de 2021 a pior violação até o momento do acordo de cessar-fogo de Nagorno-Karabakh de 2020.

Cronologia

12 a 13 de setembro
Na noite de 12 de setembro, o Ministério da Defesa da Armênia informou que unidades das Forças Armadas do Azerbaijão começaram a disparar intensamente com artilharia e armas pesadas na direção de posições armênias e áreas civis em Goris, Artanish, Sotk, Jermuk, Kapan e Ishkhanasar. O MoD armênio também mencionou que o lado do Azerbaijão havia usado UAVs e estava realizando operações de avanço posicional em algumas direções. O Ministério da Defesa do Azerbaijão disse que a Armênia realizou "provocações em larga escala" perto das regiões de Dashkasan, Kalbajar e Lachin e colocou minas ao longo das estradas de abastecimento do exército. O MoD do Azerbaijão informou que estava tomando medidas para "suprimir os pontos de tiro das forças armadas armênias e impedir a expansão da escala do confronto".

A Rússia anunciou em 13 de setembro que havia negociado um cessar-fogo, mas ambos os lados confirmaram que foi quebrado minutos depois de entrar em vigor.

Em 13 de setembro às 14h00, horário local, o Ministério da Defesa armênio anunciou que a situação em algumas partes da fronteira armênio-azerbaijana continua extremamente tensa, pois o Azerbaijão continua tentando avanços posicionais, particularmente na direção de Nerkin Hand, Verin Shorzha, Artanish e Sotk. O MFA armênio também afirmou que, como resultado do bombardeio do Azerbaijão, muitas casas residenciais foram danificadas na aldeia de Kut, enquanto mulheres e crianças foram evacuadas. O Ministério da Saúde da Armênia afirmou que três civis ficaram feridos como resultado do bombardeio do Azerbaijão em áreas civis no primeiro dia do ataque. De acordo com o canal de mídia armênio Infoteka 24, mísseis do Azerbaijão atingiram um escritório russo do FSB na província de Gegharkunik. De acordo com o primeiro-ministro armênio Nikol Pashinyan, pelo menos 135 militares armênios foram mortos. O MoD do Azerbaijão anunciou a morte de 50 de seus militares, 42 dos quais eram membros do Exército do Azerbaijão, enquanto 8 eram do Serviço de Fronteiras do Estado.

14 a 16 de setembro
Na manhã de 14 de setembro, o MoD do Azerbaijão informou que as Forças Armadas Armênias dispararam morteiros e artilharia contra unidades do exército do Azerbaijão estacionadas nas direções Kelbajar e Lachin durante a noite e que o exército estava tomando "medidas de retaliação adequadas". O Ministério da Defesa armênio chamou isso de "outra desinformação" que "serve como base de informações para realizar agressões militares contra o território soberano da República da Armênia". O Ministério da Defesa armênio também informou que o Azerbaijão estava bombardeando Jermuk e Verin Shorzha, usando artilharia, morteiros e armas pequenas de grande calibre. Às 11 horas, horário local, o Ministério da Defesa do Azerbaijão e o Gabinete do Procurador-Geral emitiram uma declaração conjunta alegando que dois civis do Azerbaijão foram feridos como resultado do bombardeio das Forças Armadas Armênias.

Nikol Pashinyan disse que o Azerbaijão assumiu o controle de certas áreas do território armênio. Pashinyan acrescentou que a Armênia se candidatou ao artigo de defesa coletiva da CSTO pela primeira vez na história do país.

Nesse mesmo dia, um oficial de segurança armênio disse que eles concordaram em fazer um cessar-fogo entre a Armênia e o Azerbaijão.

De acordo com o The Moscow Times, Putin rejeitou o pedido de assistência militar do primeiro-ministro armênio Pashinyan: a Armênia é parte da Organização do Tratado de Segurança Coletiva liderada pela Rússia, cujos membros assumiram a obrigação de ajudar uns aos outros em caso de agressão militar.

Em 16 de setembro, o presidente do Azerbaijão, Ilham Aliyev, disse a Putin que a escalada foi estabilizada. De acordo com um parlamentar armênio, a Armênia recuperou o controle sobre seis posições anteriormente perdidas na fronteira.

Suposta má conduta
O Azerbaijão mantém pelo menos 7 prisioneiros de guerra armênios, mas evidências em vídeo sugerem que o número é maior.

As imagens que circulam no Telegram mostram uma soldada da Armênia que foi mutilada pelas forças do Azerbaijão. O vídeo mostra a mulher nua, com palavras escritas nos seios e na barriga. Uma pedra foi inserida em sua órbita ocular e um dedo decepado foi colocado em sua boca. O Estado-Maior Geral das Forças Armadas da Armênia afirma que "as forças armadas do Azerbaijão cometeram atrocidades depois de se infiltrar no território da Armênia; eles desmembraram uma mulher membro do serviço, cortaram suas pernas, dedos e a despiram".

Consequências

Eventos cancelados
No Azerbaijão, em conexão com a morte de militares das Forças Armadas do Azerbaijão, eventos solenes dedicados ao "Dia do Conhecimento" e "Dia Nacional da Música" foram cancelados, o Campeonato de Halterofilismo do Azerbaijão entre jovens foi adiado. O cantor ucraniano Max Barskih cancelou seu próximo show na capital do Azerbaijão, Bacu, afirmando que "qualquer país que lance agressão contra outro país não é lugar para meus concertos".

Protestos na Armênia
Em 14 de setembro, protestos eclodiram na capital da Armênia, Yerevan, e no Alto Carabaque pedindo a renúncia de Nikol Pashinyan por suas declarações sobre um possível acordo de paz com o Azerbaijão, acrescentando que o acordo faria com que eles fossem "criticados, amaldiçoados, chamados de traidores". Uma líder da oposição, Karin Tonoyan, pediu aos manifestantes que começassem a bloquear prédios do governo e também fizessem um apelo para uma greve nacional. Os manifestantes gritaram "Nikol, o traidor".

Os manifestantes tentaram derrubar a barreira de proteção e acessar o prédio do parlamento, mas foram impedidos pelas autoridades, que decidiram soldar o portão. Manifestantes perto do prédio do parlamento de Yerevan pediram aos deputados que viessem aos seus escritórios e impusessem Pashinyan. O ex-ministro da Defesa da Armênia, Seyran Ohanyan, informou que 35 parlamentares da oposição assinaram um documento para iniciar o processo de impeachment contra Pashinyan. Na noite de 15 de setembro, os deputados da oposição dirigiram-se ao edifício do parlamento para iniciar o processo de impeachment contra Pashinyan, aos quais se juntaram os manifestantes. Os protestos também foram realizados na segunda maior cidade da Armênia, Guiumri, porém foram muito menores e mais silenciosos.

Esportes
Em 15 de setembro, o Qarabağ FK solicitou à UEFA que um minuto de silêncio fosse observado em homenagem aos soldados do Azerbaijão caídos durante a partida da fase de grupos da Liga Europa contra o FC Nantes em Bacu. O chefe do serviço de imprensa do clube, Gunduz Abbaszadeh, afirmou que tal movimento não foi permitido pela UEFA. Em seguida, a maior torcida organizada do clube, İmarət Tayfa, publicou uma declaração pedindo a todos que observassem um minuto de silêncio após o apito inicial para respeitar as memórias dos soldados falecidos do Azerbaijão. Foi rapidamente distribuído para um grande número de usuários na rede social. Apesar da decisão da UEFA, aproximadamente 30000 espectadores ligaram as lanternas de seus telefones e observaram um minuto de silêncio após o apito inicial.

Danos à infraestrutura
De acordo com dados preliminares, como resultado do bombardeio do Azerbaijão, 192 casas residenciais foram danificadas nas províncias armênias de Siunique, Gegharkunik e Vayots Dzor, com 60 delas completamente danificadas. O Defensor dos Direitos Humanos da Armênia afirmou que mais de  pessoas foram deslocadas de suas casas. Um incêndio começou nas florestas de Jermuk como resultado dos tiros disparados pelo Azerbaijão. Em 14 de setembro, foi relatado que mísseis do Azerbaijão também atingiram um escritório russo do FSB na província de Gegharkunik.

Os bombardeios do Azerbaijão também causaram incêndios florestais em Jermuk. Em uma reunião do Conselho de Segurança das Nações Unidas, o representante permanente da Armênia, Mher Margaryan, condenou o ataque do Azerbaijão a Jermuk dizendo: "O bombardeio da cidade turística de Jermuk, que não tem absolutamente nenhum alvo militar, é nada menos que um crime de guerra, assim como os ataques contra o reservatório de água de Kechut, com impacto humano e ambiental potencialmente catastrófico". Em 16 de setembro, os chefes das missões diplomáticas e organizações internacionais credenciadas na Armênia chegaram a Jermuk para conhecer as consequências dos bombardeios.

Análise

Motivo
Asbarez, um jornal armênio-americano, informou que o objetivo do Azerbaijão era estabelecer um corredor terrestre para o enclave da República Autônoma do Naquichevão e a vizinha Turquia, efetivamente assumindo a Fronteira Arménia-Irã. O Irã alertou os líderes da Rússia e da Turquia de que se oporia a qualquer ação desse tipo para mudar sua fronteira com a Armênia.

Reações
O secretário de Estado dos Estados Unidos, Antony Blinken, expressou preocupação com os confrontos e exortou ambas as nações a encerrarem "imediatamente qualquer hostilidade militar", seguido por um telefonema com Ilham Aliyev para expressar preocupação "sobre a ação militar ao longo da fronteira Armênia-Azerbaijão, incluindo bombardeios em Armênia" e "exortou o presidente Aliyev a cessar as hostilidades".

O porta-voz do Departamento de Estado dos Estados Unidos, Ned Price, afirmou que os EUA estavam analisando evidências de bombardeios do Azerbaijão dentro da Armênia, que causaram "danos significativos à infraestrutura armênia", e enfatizou a necessidade de ambas as partes encerrarem as hostilidades e concordarem com um desescalada mais ampla.

Durante os confrontos, a presidente da Câmara dos Representantes dos Estados Unidos, Nancy Pelosi, visitou Yerevan, em 17 de setembro, encontrando Nikol Pashinyan e outros altos funcionários da Armênia. Ela anunciou uma visita à capital armênia de Yerevan como uma demonstração de apoio ao país.  Além disso, o governo armênio declarou que o último cessar-fogo foi alcançado em grande parte graças à intervenção dos Estados Unidos. Em entrevista à televisão, o presidente do parlamento da Armênia ressaltou a importância do papel dos EUA na estabilização da situação.

O ministro das Relações Exteriores da Turquia, Mevlüt Çavuşoğlu, acusou a Armênia de iniciar os combates e os conflitos, e expressou apoio a novas negociações.

O Ministério das Relações Exteriores da Rússia pediu a ambas as partes que aderissem ao cessar-fogo mediado pela Rússia de 13 de setembro. Absteve-se de dizer quem a Rússia considerava responsável pela escalada. Também afirmou que a disputa entre a Armênia e o Azerbaijão deve ser resolvida por meios puramente políticos e diplomáticos.

O presidente da França, Emmanuel Macron, pediu ao Azerbaijão que "retorne à observação do cessar-fogo" e "respeite a integridade territorial da Armênia". A França levantou o conflito como tema de discussão no Conselho de Segurança da ONU.

O Ministério das Relações Exteriores de Chipre condenou o "ataque desencadeado pelo Azerbaijão contra posições dentro do território da armênio".

O Ministério das Relações Exteriores da Índia convocou "o lado agressor a cessar imediatamente as hostilidades e os conflitos".

 O ministro das Relações Exteriores do Cazaquistão, Mukhtar Tleuberdi, divulgou um comunicado dizendo: "Devemos partir do fato de que a fronteira entre o Azerbaijão e a Armênia não é delimitada, por isso é difícil falar sobre qualquer violação da fronteira".

 O Representante Permanente da China na ONU, Zhang Jun, pediu moderação no conflito e pediu uma resolução da questão do Alto Carabaque com base no diálogo mútuo.

 O ministro das Relações Exteriores do Irã, Hossein Amir-Abdollahian, disse a um representante do Azerbaijão que a fronteira entre o Irã e a Armênia deve permanecer inalterada e pediu a ambos os lados que mostrem moderação.

O secretário-geral da Organização dos Estados turcos expressou preocupação e condenou a "provocação militar das Forças Armadas Armênias". Exortou também a Arménia a cumprir os acordos alcançados entre os dois países.

O Presidente da Delegação do Parlamento Europeu para as Relações com o Sul do Cáucaso (DSCA) emitiu uma declaração sobre a "agressão militar do Azerbaijão contra a República da Arménia", condenando veementemente o "ataque militar em larga escala do Azerbaijão contra múltiplos alvos no território da República da Armênia." Uma declaração conjunta dos principais eurodeputados condenou "os confrontos militares em larga escala" e instou "o Azerbaijão a interromper imediatamente sua ofensiva, a devolver suas tropas às suas posições iniciais e a respeitar plenamente a integridade territorial da Armênia".

O membro associado do programa Rússia e Eurásia do Chatham House, Laurence Broers, disse que o Azerbaijão foi o agressor, observando: "Acho que há um sentimento no Azerbaijão de que agora é a hora de implantar seu poder, sua vantagem militar e extrair o máximo que pode obter. Acho que o risco é o estabelecimento de novas zonas de amortecimento, zonas de segurança, uma espécie de fragmentação de pelo menos a parte sul da Armênia e uma impotência entre os atores externos para impedir que isso aconteça".

A Freedom House pediu ao Azerbaijão que "cessem seus ataques mortais ao território armênio" e que retornem às negociações de paz, afirmando que "os ataques militares a nações soberanas não têm lugar na ordem internacional baseada em regras".

 Nos dias 14 e 15 de setembro, pessoas na Armênia (Yerevan e Gyumri) saíram às ruas para exigir a renúncia do primeiro-ministro. Os manifestantes tentaram invadir o prédio do parlamento, mas foram impedidos. Os deputados da oposição pretendem destituir Pashinyan.

Ver também
 Relações Armênia-Azerbaijão

Conflito no Alto Carabaque
Fronteira Arménia-Azerbaijão
Batalhas envolvendo o Azerbaijão
2022 nas relações internacionais
2022 no Azerbaijão
2022 na Armênia

Confrontos entre Armênia e Azerbaijão em setembro de 2022


Djangos blutige Spur (Originaltitel: La lunga cavalcata della vendetta) ist ein 1972 entstandener Italowestern unter der Regie von Tanio Boccia. Der niedrig budgetierte Film wurde im deutschsprachigen Raum am 15. August 1986 im Privatfernsehen erstmals aufgeführt und dann auf Video veröffentlicht. Alternativtitel ist Djangos Spur.

Handlung
Deborah Carter muss auf Drängen der Eisenbahngesellschaft die Farm ihrer Eltern verkaufen; später wird sie von Mexikanern, die von Montana angeführt werden, ausgeraubt, vergewaltigt und ermordet. Ihr Bruder Jeff, der im Sezessionskrieg gekämpft hat, macht sich auf, sie zu rächen. Nachdem er drei von Montanas Männern getötet hat, benutzt er die schöne Jane, um ihm eine Falle zu stellen. Es stellt sich dann heraus, dass Deborahs Untergebener Jerome mit Montana gemeinsame Sache gemacht hat. Jeff tötet ihn, nimmt das Geld an sich und reitet davon.

Kritik
Die Segnalazioni Cinematografiche urteilten, der in Darstellung und Regie sehr bescheidene Film reduziere sich auf die Wiederholung sattsam bekannter Situationen und Motive. Auch das Lexikon des internationalen Films sah einen "handelsübliche(n) brutale(n) Italo-Western nach dem in diesem Genre gängigen stereotypen Geld- und Rache-Motiv." Genrekenner Christian Keßler, der den Film für sehr langweilig hält, merkt an, der spannendste Teil sei an den Anfang gestellt und der Rest dann in Rückblenden erzählt.

Anmerkungen
Mehrere Minuten des Films wurden in Der Ritt zur Hölle wiederverwendet.

Weblinks

 Der Film bei comingsoon
 Poster, Bilder etc. bei romologarroni.it

Einzelnachweise

Filmtitel 1972
Italienischer Film
Italowestern

Djangos blutige Spur


Malken Mierzynek was a subcamp of the German concentration camp Stutthof (Sztutowo) near Danzig (Gdańsk)  (now in Poland) during the Third Reich.

Nazi concentration camps in Poland

Malken Mierzynek


Em França, os concursos para a agregação do ensino secundário são concursos utilizados para recrutar professores associados para o ensino secundário,   ou nas faculdades.

Procedimento d concurso
Os concursos de recrutamento externo e interno são organizados por secções (disciplinas), que podem incluir opções. As secções e opções em que os concursos são abertos, bem como os procedimentos de organização dos concursos, são fixados anualmente por despacho conjunto do Ministro da Educação Nacional e do Ministro responsável pela Função Pública.

A agregação externa e interna

É feita uma distinção entre:

A agregação externa, para aqueles que não são funcionários públicos (por exemplo, estudantes que pretendem se tornar professores). Ela está aberta a residentes franceses ou europeus, titulares de um nível bac + 5.

A agregação interna, para aqueles que já são funcionários públicos (na maioria das vezes, os candidatos já são professores e estão procurando progredir em suas carreiras). Ela está reservada aos funcionários públicos que comprovem cinco anos de antiguidade ao serviço do Estado.

Provas
O concurso é composto de testes escritos de elegibilidade e de provas orais de admissão.

Lista de agregações do ensino secundário
Há um total de 19 seções, várias das quais divididas em especialidades (em particular a seção de línguas estrangeiras modernas), que dá 47 menções diferentes.

O ensino de línguas modernas

 Agregação de língua estrangeira viva :
 agregação alemã
 agregação em inglês
 Agregação árabe
 Agregação chinesa
 Agregação Espanhola
 Agregação Hebraica Moderna
 Agregação italiana
 Agregação Japonesa
 Agregação de polonês
 Agregação Portuguesa
 Agregação holandesa
 Agregação de russo
 Agregação de línguas da França, :
 Opção bretã (primeira competição em 2018)
 Opção da Córsega (primeira competição em 2018)
 Opção Occitan-Langue d'Oc (primeira competição em 2018)
 Opção basca (primeira competição prevista para 2019)
 Opção catalã (primeira competição prevista para 2019)
 Opção crioula (primeira competição prevista para 2020)
 Opção do Taiti (primeira competição prevista para 2020)

Ensino de letras e ciencias sociais

 Agregação Geográfica
 Agregação gramatical
 Agregação de histórico
 Agregação de clássicos
 Agregação de letras modernas
 Agregação de Filosofia
 Agregação de Ciências Econômicas e Sociais

Educação básica de ciências

 Agregação Matemática
 Agregação de Ciências da Vida - Ciências da Terra e do Universo
 Agregação de ciências físicas
 opção física
 opção de química
 opção física aplicada
 opção processos físico-químicos
 Agregação de computação

Educação em Ciências Aplicadas

 Agregação de bioquímica - engenharia biológica
 Agregação de economia e gestão :
 Opção A : administração e recursos humanos,
 Opção B : finanças e controle,
 Opção C : marketing,
 Opção D : sistema de informação,
 opção E : produção de serviços.
 Agregação de Ciências da Engenharia Industrial :
 opção de engenharia de construção
 opção de engenharia elétrica
 opção de engenharia mecânica
 opção de engenharia da computação
 Agregação de ciências médico-sociais

Ensinamentos de artes

 Agregação de artes :
 opção de artes aplicadas
 opção de artes visuais
 agregação de música

ensino de educação física

 Agregação de educação física e esportes

Notas e referências

Veja também

Bibliografia

 André Chervel, História da agregação : contribuição para a história da cultura escolar, Instituto Nacional de Pesquisa Educacional e ed. Kimé, Paris, 1993 ; 289 páginas, 24cm ; (NPRI), (Kime).

 Lucas Marco, A agregação das ciências da administração », Revista da História das Humanidades, n ., 2006, pág. 173-198.

Artigos relacionados

 sistema de ensino francês
 Certificado de aptidão para lecionar no ensino médio
 Certificado de aptidão para lecionar ensino técnico
 Certificado de aptidão para o ensino médio profissional
 Professor Associado do Ensino Médio
 serviço civil francês

Ligações externas

 História da agregação e lista de laureados de 1821 a 1950
 Resultados de concursos de ensino (agregação, CAPES, etc.) no publinet
 Estatuto dos professores associados em direito da função pública

Educação na França

Agregação do ensino secundário (França)


සදාහරිත වනාන්තර () යනු සදාහරිත ගස් වලින් සෑදුනු වනාන්තර වේ.

ආශ්‍රිත ලිපි
 තෙත් සදාහරිත වනාන්තර
Deciduous forest
Biomes
Ecoregion
Ecological land classification
List of terrestrial ecoregions (WWF)
 Temperate coniferous forest

මූලාශ්‍ර

භාහිර සබැඳි
Tropical Evergreen Forests.

Forests
Habitat
Habitats
Temperate coniferous forests
Tropical and subtropical coniferous forests
Tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests
Taiga and boreal forests
Ecoregions
Wildlife

සදාහරිත වනාන්තර


Osier may refer to:

 Willow or osiers, a genus of deciduous trees and shrubs
 Common osier (Salix viminalis), a species of willow
 Red osier (Cornus sericea), a species of flowering plant
Osier, Colorado, an unincorporated community along the Rio de Los Pinos river in Colorado
Osier, Michigan, a ghost town
Faith Osier, African immunologist
 Ivan Osier (1888–1965), Danish Olympic medalist

See also
Osiier, a surname
 Cornus, a genus of woody plants

Osier


Der Brigant heißen die Filme
 Der Brigant (1952), US-amerikanischer Abenteuerfilm
 Der Brigant (1961), italienischer Film des Neorealismus

Siehe auch:
 Brigant

Der Brigant


Eduard Kukan (26 December 1939 – 10 February 2022) was a Slovakian politician who served as Minister of Foreign Affairs from 1998 to 2006. He was a candidate in the presidential election held on 3 April 2004, and although pre-election polls had suggested he would come first, he actually came in third behind the eventual President Ivan Gašparovič and former prime minister Vladimír Mečiar, thus preventing him from contesting the run-off. He was elected Member of the European Parliament (MEP) in 2009, a position he held until 2019.

In 1999, Kukan was appointed United Nations Special Envoy on Kosovo by UN Secretary General Kofi Annan, a role he held alongside Carl Bildt.

Early life and education
Kukan graduated from The Moscow State Institute of International Relations in 1964, where he also gained a strong knowledge of the Swahili language. After graduation he received a Doctorate in Law from the Faculty of Law of the Charles University in Prague.

Diplomatic career
Since then his employments have included:

Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Czechoslovakia in Prague (began on 1 August 1964)
Headquarters in the Department of Sub-Saharan Africa (1964–1968)
Secretariat of the Minister (1973–1977)
Director of the Department of Sub-Saharan Africa (1981–1985)
Director of the Department of Latin America (1988–1990)
Czechoslovak Embassy in Lusaka (1968–1973)
Czechoslovak Embassy in Washington as Minister-Counsellor and Deputy Ambassador (1977–1981)
Czechoslovak Embassy in Addis Ababa as Ambassador (1985–1988)
Permanent Representative of Czechoslovakia to the United Nations in New York (1991)
Permanent Representative of Slovakia to the UN (1993)
UN Chairman of the Committee for Social, Humanitarian, and Cultural Affairs
Special Envoy for the Balkans (1991–2001)
Minister of Foreign Affairs of Slovakia (March 1994 – December 1994)
Minister of Foreign Affairs of Slovakia (October 1998 – 2006)
Special Envoy for the Balkans (1991–2001)

Member of the European Parliament, 2009–2019
Kukan has been a Member of the European Parliament since the 2009 European elections. In the election campaign, he led the list of candidates of the centre-right Slovak Democratic and Christian Union (SDKÚ).

Kukan has since been serving on the Committee on Foreign Affairs. In addition, he was a member of the Subcommittee on Human Rights between 2009 and 2014. In 2014, he moved to the Subcommittee on Security and Defence.

In 2010, Kukan joined the Friends of the EEAS, an unofficial and independent pressure group formed because of concerns that the High Representative of the Union for Foreign Affairs and Security Policy Catherine Ashton was not paying sufficient attention to the Parliament and was sharing too little information on the formation of the European External Action Service.

Kukan led the parliament's monitoring mission during the Ugandan general elections in 2016.

Other activities
 Global Panel Foundation, Member of the Board of Advisors
 He was a teacher at the Comenius University in Bratislava, Faculty of Law, Department of International Law and International Relations.

Personal life and death
Kukan was married and had two adult children. In addition to his native tongue and Swahili, he spoke English, Russian, and Spanish. In 1993, he was awarded an honorary law degree by the Upsala College in New Jersey.

He died from a heart attack in Bratislava on 9 February 2022, at the age of 82.

References

External links
Moscow State Institute of International Relations

1939 births
2022 deaths
Foreign Ministers of Slovakia
Slovak diplomats
Moscow State Institute of International Relations alumni
Permanent Representatives of Czechoslovakia to the United Nations
Permanent Representatives of Slovakia to the United Nations
Slovak Democratic and Christian Union – Democratic Party MEPs
MEPs for Slovakia 2009–2014
MEPs for Slovakia 2014–2019
Ambassadors of Czechoslovakia to Ethiopia
Candidates for President of Slovakia
People from Šaľa District
Members of the National Council (Slovakia) 1994-1998
Members of the National Council (Slovakia) 2006-2010

Eduard Kukan


Wara Wara es un largometraje boliviano dirigido por José María Velasco Maidana, basado en una obra teatral del escritor Antonio Díaz Villamil llamada "La voz de la quena", el largometraje se estrenó en la ciudad de La Paz en 1930.

La película cuenta la historia de amor de la princesa Wara Wara, hija de un nativo americano del reino de Jatun Colla con el capitán español Tristín de la Vega en la época de la conquista española.

Después de setenta años de su presentación original, el 23 de septiembre de 2010 en la Cinemateca Boliviana  se presentó una versión restaurada del filme, tras haber encontrado veinte años antes una copia de la película en un viejo baúl.

La versión restaurada, de una duración aproximada de 20 minutos, se estrenó en el cine Astor en la ciudad de Cochabamba el 28 de septiembre de 2010.
En la composición de la música original participó al compositor argentino Enrique Mario Casella (1891-1948), quien pocos años después comenzaría un proyecto de realizar óperas con influencias cinematográficas en la ciudad de Tucumán.

Referencias

Enlaces externos

 Wara Wara en www.frombolivia.com
 "Tras su restauración se reestrena Wara Wara" en el Portal Cultural del Gobierno Municipal de La Paz
   en www.cinemascine.net

Películas de Bolivia
Películas de 1930
Películas mudas
Películas redescubiertas
Películas rodadas en Bolivia

Wara Wara