A normal school or normal college is an institution created to train teachers by educating them in the norms of pedagogy and curriculum. In the 19th century in the United States, instruction in normal schools was at the high school level, turning out primary school teachers. Many such schools are now called teacher training colleges or teachers' colleges, but in Mexico, continue to be called normal schools, with student-teachers being known as normalistas. Many schools currently require a high school diploma for entry, and may be part of a comprehensive university. Normal schools in the United States, Canada, and Argentina trained teachers for primary schools, while in Europe, the equivalent colleges typically educated teachers for primary schools and later extended their curricula to also cover secondary schools.

In 1685, St. Jean-Baptiste de La Salle, established the Institute of the Brothers of the Christian Schools, founded what is generally considered the first normal school, the École Normale, in Reims, Champagne, France. The term "normal" in this context refers to the goal of these institutions to instill and reinforce particular norms within students. "Norms" included historical behavioral norms of the time, as well as norms that reinforced targeted societal values, ideologies and dominant narratives in the form of curriculum.

The first public normal school in the United States was founded in Concord, Vermont by Samuel Read Hall in 1823 to train teachers. In 1839, the first state-supported normal school was established by the Commonwealth of Massachusetts on the northeast corner of the historic Lexington Battle Green; it evolved into Framingham State University. The first modern teacher training school in China was established by educator Sheng Xuanhuai in 1895 as the normal school of the Nanyang Public School (now Shanghai Jiao Tong University) in Shanghai during the Qing dynasty.

Many comprehensive public or state-supported universities—such as UCLA in the United States and Beijing Normal University in China—were established and operated as normal schools before they expanded their faculties and transformed themselves into research universities. Some of these universities, particularly in Asia, retain the word "Normal" in their name to highlight their historical purpose. In Canada, most normal schools were eventually assimilated into a university as its faculty of education, offering a one or two-year Bachelor of Education degree. Such a degree requires at least three, but usually four, years of prior undergraduate study.

Etymology
The term "normal school" originated in the early 16th century from the French école normale. The French concept of an "école normale" was to provide a model school with model classrooms to teach model teaching practices to its student teachers. The children being taught, their teachers, and the teachers of the teachers were often together in the same building. Although a laboratory school, it was the official school for the children—primary or secondary.. Alternatively, the name derives from the objective of the institution to teach the practice or norms of pedagogy i.e, teaching.

Europe
Educating teachers was of great importance in the newly industrialized European economies which needed a reliable, reproducible and uniform work force. The process of instilling such norms within students depended upon the creation of the first uniform, formalized national educational curriculum. Thus, normal schools, as the teacher training schools, were tasked with both developing this new curriculum and developing the techniques through which teachers would instill these ideas, behaviors and values in the minds of their students.

Germany
In Germany, schools of education only exist in the state of Baden-Württemberg. These schools prepare teachers for Grundschule (primary school) and secondary schools like Hauptschule and Realschule (Mainschool and Realschool). Teachers for the Gymnasium are educated at universities.

Finland
In Finland, normal schools are under national university administration, whereas most schools are administered by the local municipality. Teacher aspirants do most of their compulsory trainee period in normal schools and teach while being supervised by a senior teacher.

France
In France, a two-tier system developed since the Revolution: primary school teachers were educated at départemental écoles normales, high school teachers and university professors at the écoles normales supérieures. Nowadays all teachers are educated in  (Graduate School of Teaching and Education). The écoles normales supérieures in France now mainly train researchers.

Italy
In Italy, Normal Schools now are called Liceo delle Scienze Umane.
The Scuola Normale Superiore di Pisa now focus mainly on training researchers.

Lithuania
In Lithuania, Lithuanian University of Educational Sciences (LEU), former Vilnius Pedagogical University (VPU) is the main teachers' training institution, established in 1935.

Serbia
In Serbia, the first public normal school was founded in Sombor, Vojvodina, by Avram Mrazović in 1778 to train teachers.
In 2018, the Faculty of Education in Sombor celebrated 240 years since the founding of the first school for the education of Serbian teachers called Norma. It was a teacher training college at the beginning called Norma college before it was closed in 1811 and another school was opened in its place in 1812 in Szentendre under the Declaratory Rescript of the Illyrian Nation. The new institution was named Regium Pedagogium Nationis Illiricae or Royal Pedagogium Of The Illyrian-Serbian Nation (also referred to in Latin as Preparandium or Preparadija in Serbian) which eventually was relocated back to Sombor in 1816. The Normal school - Teachers College is generally considered the first normal school or École normale in Sombor. The term "normal" in this case refers to "the goal of the institution to instill and reinforce particular norms within students". Also, these "norms included historical behavioral norms of the time, as well as norms that reinforced targeted societal values, ideologies and dominant narratives in the form of curriculum". For the longest time, this was the only academy for teachers' training in Serbian. The first woman academician of the Serbian Academy of Sciences and Arts Isidora Sekulić, the poet Jovan Dučić, the composers Petar Konjović and Josif Marinković are just some of the alumni of Norma.

United Kingdom
In the United Kingdom, teacher training colleges were once named as such, and were independent institutions. Following the recommendation of the 1963 Robbins Report into higher education, teacher training colleges were renamed "Colleges of Education". Later in the 20th century some became a "College of Higher Education" or an "Institute of Higher Education".. For information about academic divisions devoted to this field outside of the United States and Canada, see Postgraduate Training in Education (disambiguation).

A restructuring of higher education in the UK during the first two decades of the 21st century resulted in some establishments taking the status of "university". The University of Chester, founded by the Anglican church traces its roots back to 1839 as the earliest training college in the United Kingdom. Others were also established by religious institutions and most were single-sex until World War II. Since then, they have either become multi-discipline universities in their own right (e.g. Bishop Grosseteste University; University of Chester; Edge Hill University; St Mary's University, Twickenham; Newman University, Birmingham; Plymouth Marjon University; University of Winchester; University of Worcester; York St John University) or merged with another university to become its faculty of education (e.g. Moray House).

In Wales, there were at least three institutions which included the word "Normal" in their name: Normal School, Brecon, subsequently relocated to become Normal College Swansea (where the academic and mathematician John Viriamu Jones was educated); and Normal College, Bangor (founded 1858), which survived until 1996, when it became part of University of Wales Bangor. The latter was one of the last institutions in the UK to retain the word "Normal" in its name.

Asia

Mainland China

In Mainland China, the "normal school" terminology is still preserved in the official English names of former normal schools established in the late 19th and early 20th century. The Chinese term normal university (, abbreviated 师大; shīdà) refers to a modern comprehensive university established as a normal school in the early twentieth century. These "normal universities" are usually controlled by the national or provincial government.

In 1895, Qing banking tycoon and educator Sheng Xuanhuai gained approval from the Guangxu Emperor to establish the Nanyang Public School in Shanghai, China. This comprehensive institution included the first normal school on the Chinese mainland. Since 1949, many former normal schools in China have developed into comprehensive research universities. As of 2012, Beijing Normal University and East China Normal University, both members of the national government's Project 985 program, have been ranked the top two among the mainland Chinese universities that originated as normal schools.

Indonesia
In Indonesia, there were specialised higher institutions to train teacher by educating them in the norms of pedagogy and curriculum. Indonesian government created crash program around 1950 as B-I/B-II/PGSLP course. In year 1954, the government opened the Teacher Education Higher Education Institutions (, PTPG) in Batusangkar, Manado, Bandung, and Malang by Education and Culture Ministerial Decision No. 382/Kab Year 1954. Both courses were integrated to Teaching and Pedagogy Faculty at nearby university. Government Decision No. 51 Year 1958 integrate Pedagogy Faculty into Teaching and Pedagogy Faculty. In year 1962, Ministry of Basic Education established Teacher Education Institute (, IPG) for middle school teacher. In year 1963, B-I and B-II courses and IPG were merged into Teaching and Pedagogy Faculty under Ministry of Higher Education. In year 1963-1964, Teaching and Pedagogy Faculties were established as separate higher education institutions which were known as Teaching and Education Institutes (, IKIP). Presidential Decision No. 93 Year 1999 allowed IKIP to develop non-educational sciences and marked the end of specialised teacher education higher institutions in general.

Japan

In Japan, the normal school (師範学校) was established at Yushima Seido, Tokyo in 1872. Eventually, prefectural normal schools for primary teachers were established in all prefectures. Japanese-style normal schools were also established in the colonies of Taiwan, Korea, and Manchukuo under Japanese rule.

In 1886, the Normal School Order (師範学校令) was promulgated and the Higher Normal School (高等師範学校) was established in Tokyo to train secondary teachers.

In 1929, Tokyo Arts and Sciences University (Tsukuba University) and Hiroshima Arts and Sciences University (Hiroshima University) were established for Normal School graduates.

During the postwar educational reform, normal schools were reorganized into universities' education faculties, arts and sciences faculty or universities of education.

Malaysia

In Malaysia, the Ministry of Education runs a total of 27 Institutes of Teacher Education (ITEs), which were formerly known as Teacher Training Colleges. These ITEs function primarily to educated both undergraduate and postgraduate teacher trainees. The ministry bureau responsible for overseeing them is the Teacher Education Division. The ITEs also run in-service teacher training and continuous professional development among qualified teachers.

Philippines
In Naga City, the Philippines, one can find the oldest normal school for girls in the Far East, the Universidad de Santa Isabel. It is a sectarian school run by the Daughters of Charity. The first secular normal school was founded in 1901 by the Thomasites, the Philippine Normal School. It was converted into a college in 1949 and was elevated to its present university status in 1992 as the Philippine Normal University. In 2009, it was named National Center of Excellence for Teacher Education by virtue of Republic Act 9647. In Iloilo City, the West Visayas State University was originally established as a normal school in 1902; in 1994, it was recognized by the Philippines government as a Center for Teaching Excellence.

Taiwan

In Taiwan, three universities served as national normal universities historically. Located in Taipei, Changhua, and Kaohsiung, the schools prepared secondary school teachers; these schools' missions have expanded since to make them de facto liberal arts universities.

Ten Taiwanese normal schools (, abbreviated 師院; shīyuàn, "normal colleges") were established under Japanese rule and at the end of World War 2, serving for primary school teacher's education. These were promoted as teachers' colleges and later granted university status in 2000s. Some of these were merged with comprehensive university, such as National Hualien University of Education, which were merged with National Dong Hwa University in 2007.

Oceania

New Zealand
In New Zealand, the term normal school can refer to a primary or intermediate school used for teacher training, such as the Epsom Normal Primary School (in Auckland), Kelburn Normal School, Palmerston North Intermediate Normal School, Papakura Normal School, Central Normal School in Palmerston North or Tahuna Normal Intermediate School. They were associated with a teachers' training college, such as the Auckland College of Education and the Dunedin College of Education, which became colleges of education that trained secondary as well as primary and intermediate school teachers.

North and South America

Canada

Alberta
The Calgary Normal School in Calgary was initially located at 412 – 7 Street SW in Calgary in what is called the McDougall School founded shortly after Alberta became a province in 1905. Its history is part of the founding of the University of Calgary in 1966. Another Normal school was founded at Camrose (also called Rosehaven Normal school) in 1912. The Edmonton Normal School, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada was opened in 1920 in Edmonton, Alberta.

In 1945 all normal schools in Alberta were merged into the University of Alberta's faculty of education.

British Columbia
In 1901, the first Provincial Normal School in British Columbia was opened in Vancouver. Classes commenced on 9 January 1901. In January 1909, the Provincial Normal school moved into a new facility and its own building located at 11th and Cambie (now part of City Square Mall). In 1915 a second Provincial Normal School opened in Victoria. Trainee teachers from greater Vancouver and the lower Mainland attended the Normal School in Vancouver. Students from Vancouver Island and students outside the Lower Mainland, that is, from the Upper Fraser Valley and communities in the interior of the province – enrolled in the Normal School in Victoria. That school was originally located in Victoria High School and later in its own building which is now part of Camosun College. In 1956 the responsibility for provincial teacher training was transferred to The University of British Columbia.

Manitoba

Central Normal School was founded in 1882 in Winnipeg. In 1905–06 a new building was constructed at 442 William Avenue. It was one of six Normal Schools in Manitoba, along with Brandon Normal School (1129 Queens Street, Brandon), Dauphin, Manitou, Portage la Prairie, and St. Boniface. Central Normal School moved to a facility in southwest Winnipeg in 1947. In the autumn of 1958, it was renamed the Manitoba Teachers' College. It was moved to the University of Manitoba in 1965, becoming its Faculty of Education.

New Brunswick
The New Brunswick Teachers' College was a normal school in Fredericton, New Brunswick which granted teaching certificates. It was founded on February 10, 1848, as the Provincial Normal School with Joseph Marshall de Brett Maréchal, Baron d'Avray as the first principal. In 1947, the institution changed its name to the New Brunswick Teachers' College. It closed in 1973, and its staff were integrated into the faculties of education at the Université de Moncton and the University of New Brunswick.

Newfoundland and Labrador
The Wesleyan Normal Day School was founded in 1852 by the Wesleyans under the Newfoundland School Society. This institution continued until 1901. In 1910, a normal school was established in St. John's by the Church of England which continued for a number of years. In 1921 the first non-denominational normal school was initiated and was discontinued in 1932. It was reorganized in 1934 as a department of the Memorial University College. In 1949, the institution's name was changed to Memorial University of Newfoundland.

Nova Scotia
The Nova Scotia Teachers College in Truro began in 1855 as the Provincial Nova Scotia Normal School opened in Truro, Nova Scotia. The school was closed in 1997 and the program essentially consolidated with other provincial universities including Acadia University, Mount St. Vincent, St. Francis Xavier, and Sainte-Anne.

Ontario
Thanks largely in part to the effort of education reformer Egerton Ryerson, the Ontario Normal School system came into being beginning in Toronto in 1847.

The London Normal School was located at 165 Elmwood Avenue in London, Ontario and commenced classes on February 1, 1900. By 1958, the building was no longer adequate and was moved to a new location on Western Rd. In 1973, London Teachers' College (as it was then called) (Elborn) merged with Althouse College to form the Faculty of Education at the University of Western Ontario. The building is now a prominent area landmark.

The North Bay Normal School, a teacher training school, was established in 1909 in North Bay Ontario to meet the needs of teacher education in Ontario's North. The school was renamed North Bay Teachers' College in 1953, and became Nipissing University College's faculty of education in August 1973. After the university received a prestigious award in 2010, the Faculty of Education was renamed the Schulich School of Education. See Nipissing University.

A school of pedagogy was formed in association with Toronto Normal School, offering advanced level courses suitable for high-school teachers. In 1897, the school was moved to Hamilton and renamed Ontario Normal College. The college closed in 1906 and the training was taken over by the faculties of education at the University of Toronto and Queen's University in Kingston.

The Ottawa Normal School was built in 1874 and opened in 1875. It was located at 195 Elgin Street. It was renamed the Ottawa Teachers' College in 1953, and was subsequently merged into the Faculty of Education of the University of Ottawa in 1974.

The Peterborough Normal School in Peterborough was officially opened on September 15, 1908, and operated until the late 1960s.

The Stratford Normal School was founded at 270 Water Street in 1908 in Stratford, Ontario. Its emphasis was primarily for training teachers for rural conditions. Its name was changed to Stratford Teachers' College in 1953 and closed its doors in 1973 having trained close to 14,000 teachers. The site was maintained, and was home to the Stratford Perth Museum for a number of years, being renamed the Discovery Centre. The museum moved to another location, however, and the building is now leased by the Stratford Shakespeare Festival, and has been named once again the Normal School Building.

Prince Edward Island
The Prince Edward Island Normal School has its origin in 1856 on the grounds of Prince of Wales College in Charlottetown, P.E.I.

Quebec
The first three École normales were established in 1857, two for French speakers in Montréal and Laval, and a third one in Montréal for English speakers. Additional institutions were added over the following century, until the system was finally phased out between 1963 and 1974.

Saskatchewan
The Saskatchewan Normal School, also once known as the Regina Normal School, was founded as early as 1890 in Regina moving into its first permanent structure in January, 1914. In 1964 it was transferred to University of Saskatchewan Regina Campus and in 1974 becoming part of the University of Regina. Another normal school was founded in the early 1920s in Moose Jaw and was later transferred into the Regina campus in 1959.

The Saskatoon Normal School in Saskatoon was founded in 1912 and served until 1953. It has now been integrated with the Faculty of Education at University of Saskatchewan.

Jamaica
Mico University College is the oldest teacher training institute in the English-speaking world outside of Europe. It was founded under Lady Mico Charity in 1834 by Sir Thomas Fowell Buxton "to afford the benefit of education and training to the black and coloured population." Today, it offers undergraduate and graduate degrees in a variety of education and liberal arts disciplines.

Latin America

Argentina
In Argentina, normal schools were founded starting in 1852, and still exist today and carry that name. Teachers' training is considered higher education and requires a high school diploma, but normal schools have the particularity of granting five-year teacher degrees for primary school or four year degrees for kindergarten, while at the same time hosting secondary, primary school students, and kindergarten and pre-school. Teachers-to-be do intense practical training in the schools annexed to the higher education section. This is the main difference with other teachers' training institutions called Instituto de Formación Docente and with universities that grant teaching degrees.

Chile
Perhaps the oldest continually operating normal school in Latin America is the Escuela Normal Superior José Abelardo Núñez, founded in Santiago, Chile, in 1842 as the Escuela de Preceptores de Santiago under the direction of the emininent Argentine educator, writer, and politician Domingo Faustino Sarmiento. The first normal school in the Dominican Republic was founded in 1875 by Puerto Rican educator and activist Eugenio María de Hostos.

Mexico
Mexico founded early normal schools, such as the Escuela Normal de Enseñanza Mutua de Oaxaca (1824), the Escuela Normal Mixta de San Luis Potosí (1849), the Normal de Guadalajara (1881), and the Escuela Normal para Profesores de Instrucción Primaria (1887). The Mexican normal school system was nationalized and reorganized in the period after the Mexican Revolution (1910–1920) by the Secretaría de Educación Pública (Secretariat of Public Education) under José Vasconcelos in 1921. Many normal schools were founded in the postrevolutionary period to train the sons and daughters of peasants as teachers. In the 1960s, normal school students joined in the widespread student agitation to create systemic change in Mexico. The 2014 mass kidnapping of normal school students from Ayotzinapa Rural Teachers' College was a major scandal in Mexico.

Panama
In Panama, the Escuela Normal Juan Demóstenes Arosemena was founded in Santiago de Veraguas, Panama in 1938. In Colombia, normal schools were primarily associated with women's religious schools although in modern times have admitted men, thus forming escuelas normales mixtas (mixed normal schools). In Paraguay, they are known as Instituto de Formación Docente.

United States

In the United States, the former normal schools that survive in the 21st century have become colleges, usually requiring a high school diploma for entrance. Before the American Civil War public schools were elementary schools, and a normal school provided high school-level instruction as part of preparation for teaching the elementary grades. Many American universities began as normal schools.

New England
1823 – Columbian School in Concord, Vermont

In 1823, Reverend Samuel Read Hall founded the first normal school in the United States, the Columbian School in Concord, Vermont. Influenced by similar academies in Prussia and elsewhere in Europe, American normal schools were intended to improve the quality of the burgeoning common school system by producing more qualified teachers. Hall also founded the first normal schools in Massachusetts and New Hampshire. The school was renamed Concord Academy before closing after seven years.

1839 – Lexington Normal School, Lexington, Massachusetts

Sixteen years after Columbian School had been founded in Vermont, the first state-funded normal school was founded in the neighboring state of Massachusetts, thanks largely to the efforts of education reformers such as Horace Mann and James G. Carter. In 1844 that school moved from its original site of Lexington to West Newton, and then in 1853 to Framingham. Today, Framingham State University is recognized as the oldest continuously operated public normal school in the United States. Anna Brackett attended this university and was a teacher – later to become the first woman principal of a teachers' college.

1849 – State Normal School, New Britain, Connecticut

In 1849, the Connecticut General Assembly established a State Normal School, a training school for teachers. In 1850, a new building to house the Normal School was built in New Britain. In 1933, the school became the Teachers College of Connecticut and in 1959 it became Central Connecticut State College, and finally in 1983 renamed Central Connecticut State University. CCSU is the oldest publicly-funded higher education institution in Connecticut.

1854 – Rhode Island State Normal School, Bristol, Rhode Island

When the college was established in 1854 as the Rhode Island State Normal School, its goal was to provide teacher preparation to young people from Rhode Island. With the dedication of a new building in 1898, the institution began a period of steady growth, evolving first into a teachers' college, the Rhode Island College of Education. In the 1958–59 academic year the college moved to its current Mount Pleasant campus, and in 1959 was renamed Rhode Island College to reflect its new purpose as a comprehensive institution of higher education. With an enrollment predominantly from Rhode Island and nearby Massachusetts and Connecticut, the institution historically has served as a "College of Opportunity" for first-generation college students.

1854 – Salem Normal School, Salem, Massachusetts

Salem Normal School, now Salem State University, was founded in 1854 as the fourth Normal School in Massachusetts. In 1853, the General Court authorized the founding of a normal school in Essex County. Proposals were received from Salem, Chelsea, Groveland, and North Andover. Salem was selected due to many factors including the city's historical and commercial significance and need for local teacher education.

Prior to the founding of the normal school, Salem women had few opportunities to receive teacher training and the Salem school system was replete with funding, attendance, and teacher compensation problems. It was assumed that by training women as teachers, they could be hired at a lower salary than male teachers, thus alleviating the city's public school budget and teacher compensation challenges.

The original location was at the corner of Broad and Summer Streets, with the building's dedication held on September 14, 1854. Richard Edwards, a graduate of Bridgewater Normal School (now Bridgewater State University), was the first president of Salem Normal School.

1864 – Farmington State Normal School, Farmington, Maine
Established in 1864, Farmington State Normal School was the first public establishment of higher education in the state of Maine. In 1945, the school was renamed "Farmington State Teachers College". The Farmington State Teachers College was acquired by the University of Maine system in 1968 and is today the University of Maine at Farmington.

Northeast
1855 – Millersville Normal School, Millersville, Pennsylvania
Millersville Normal School was founded in 1855 as the first normal school in Pennsylvania. Over the years it has changed its name a number of times eventually becoming Millersville University of Pennsylvania.

1855 – The Paterson City Normal School, Paterson, New Jersey
A land grant institution founded as the Paterson City Normal School in the industrial city of Paterson, NJ to train teachers for NJ schools. In 1951, the school moved to the present campus in Wayne, NJ which was purchased by the State in 1948 from the family of Garret Hobart, twenty-fourth vice president of the United States and renamed Paterson State Teachers College. In 1971, it was renamed William Paterson College of New Jersey in honor of William Paterson (judge), a United States Supreme Court Justice appointed by President George Washington, after the legislative mandate to move from a teachers' college to a broad-based liberal arts institution. The New Jersey Commission on Higher Education granted William Paterson university status in June 1997 and it is now known as The William Paterson University of New Jersey (WPUNJ). The second oldest public university in the state; Rutgers (public) and Princeton (private) being older and pre-colonial.

1855 – New Jersey State Normal School, Trenton, New Jersey
Founded in 1855, the college was located in Trenton until 1928, when it moved to Ewing Township, where four year baccalaureate degrees began to be offered. The college exists today as The College of New Jersey.

1861 – Oswego Primary Teachers School, Oswego, New York

Established as Oswego Normal School, the Oswego State Normal School was founded by Edward Austin Sheldon, and recognized as a state school in 1866 by New York State becoming the Oswego State Normal and Training School. The school was part of the training program Sheldon devised to introduce the Pestalozzi method of education to the schools of the city of Oswego, the first time the method had ever been used in the United States. Sheldon's school became Oswego State Teachers College in 1942, and was upgraded again to a liberal arts college in 1962, becoming known as Oswego State University.

1865 – Baltimore Normal School for Colored Teachers, Baltimore, Maryland
Established in 1865 by The Baltimore Association for the Moral and Educational Improvement of the Colored People, School #1 opened on January 9, 1865, in the African Baptist Church in Crane's Building on the corner of Calvert and Saratoga streets. In 1867, with the aid of the Freedmen's Bureau, the Quakers of England and others, the Baltimore Association purchased and renovated the Old Friends Meeting House at the corner of Saratoga and Courtland streets to house the Baltimore Normal School for Colored Teachers. The school moved to Bowie, MD in 1911, changing its name to the Maryland Normal and Industrial School at Bowie in 1914. Today, this school exists as Bowie State University.

1866 – Keystone State Normal School, Kutztown, Pennsylvania
On September 15, 1866, the Keystone State Normal School was established on what is now the site of Kutztown University's Old Main. The needs of a burgeoning industrialization in the region placed more and more demands on teacher preparation, and in 1928, the institution was designated Kutztown State Teacher's College and authorized to confer the bachelor's degree.

1866 – Maryland State Normal School, Baltimore, Maryland
While the state created the Maryland State Normal School in the state constitution of 1864, MSNS wouldn't open its doors in Baltimore until January 15, 1865. The school was moved to Towson, Maryland in 1915. In 1935, it was renamed the State Teachers College at Towson, and by 1963 it was changed to a liberal arts school and was renamed Towson State College. In 1976 it was renamed Towson State University and by 1997 it was Towson University.

1871 – Normal School, Buffalo, New York

Buffalo State was founded in 1871 as the Buffalo Normal School before becoming the State Normal and Training School (1888–1927), the State Teachers College at Buffalo (1928–1946), the New York State College for Teachers at Buffalo (1946–1950), SUNY, New York State College for Teachers (1950–1951), the State University College for Teachers at Buffalo (1951–1959), the State University College of Education at Buffalo (1960–1961), and finally the State University College at Buffalo in 1961.

Midwest
1853 – Michigan State Normal School, Ypsilanti, Michigan

The first normal school west of the Appalachian Mountains in the United States was the Michigan State Normal School, now Eastern Michigan University. It was created by legislative action in 1849 and opened in Ypsilanti, Michigan, in 1853.

1857 – Illinois State Normal University, Normal, Illinois

The State of Illinois passed an act to establish a normal school on 18 February 1857, and proposals were submitted to locate the new school in Batavia, Bloomington, Peoria, and Washington (in Tazewell County). Bids were opened by the State Board of Education in Peoria on 7 May 1857 and the offer from Bloomington, Illinois, was accepted. The normal school was located near the village of North Bloomington, which later was renamed Normal in honor of the school. The school, originally known as Illinois State Normal University (ISNU), and also known as the Illinois State Teachers College, is now known as Illinois State University.

1857 – Harris Teachers College, St. Louis, Missouri

Harris–Stowe State University, now a state university in Missouri, was founded by the St. Louis public school system in 1857 and claims to be the oldest normal school west of the Mississippi River.

The modern university is the result of the merger of the two normal schools in the area, Harris Teachers College, the older of the two institutions and segregated for white people only, and Stowe Teachers' College, which was segregated for black people only, following the Brown vs. BOE decision in 1954.

1858 – Winona State Normal School, Winona, Minnesota
The first state-authorized normal college to open west of the Mississippi River was Winona State Normal School, now called Winona State University, which opened in 1858. Its creation was one of the first acts of the newly formed Minnesota Legislature.

1863 – Kansas State Normal Schools, Kansas

In 1863, the Kansas Legislature passed an act to establish the Kansas State Normal Schools, starting with the first in Emporia, Kansas, which eventually became Emporia State University Teachers College. From 1870 through 1876, Leavenworth Normal School operated in Leavenworth, Kansas and from 1874 through 1876 Concordia Normal School operated in Concordia, Kansas, but the "miscellaneous appropriations bill of 1876" caused Leavenworth and Concordia to close and consolidated operations at the Emporia location. Other normal schools were opened in Kansas including in 1902 the Western Branch of the Kansas Normal in Hays, Kansas, eventually becoming Fort Hays State University. In 1904, a branch in Pittsburg, Kansas was opened as the Manual Training Auxiliary School, which eventually became Pittsburg State University.

1865 – Indiana State Normal School, Terre Haute, Indiana
Established by the Indiana General Assembly on December 20, 1865; as the State Normal School, its core mission was to educate elementary and high school teachers. The school awarded its first baccalaureate degrees in 1908 and the first master's degrees in 1928. In 1929, the Indiana State Normal School was renamed the Indiana State Teachers College, and in 1961, was renamed Indiana State College due to an expanding mission. In 1965, the Indiana General Assembly renamed the college as Indiana State University in recognition of continued growth.

1866 – Platteville Normal School, Platteville, Wisconsin

1867 – Nebraska State Normal School, Peru, Nebraska

Nebraska State Normal School was chartered on June 20, 1867. The action by the Nebraska legislature made it the first state-supported college in Nebraska with the first classes held on October 24, 1867. The name changed to Nebraska State Teachers College at Peru in 1921, and in 1949 it changed to Peru State Teachers College. The current name of Peru State College was adopted in 1963.

1868 – Mankato Normal School, Mankato, Minnesota

Mankato Normal School was the second normal school in Minnesota. Students were usually 17–19 years old when they entered. The student body, which peaked at about 900 in 1920–21, was approximately three-fourths female. In 1921 the school evolved into Minnesota State University, Mankato.

1869 – Third State Normal School, St. Cloud, Minnesota

Located in St. Cloud, the Third State Normal School was the third normal school established in Minnesota. It welcomed 50 students (40 women and 10 men) as well as 70 children for the model school. Ira Moore was the school's first principal (later president). It graduated its first class, numbering 15, in June 1871. It trained mostly teachers through the end of World War II and then branched out into other disciplines. It is today's St. Cloud State University.

1876 – Iowa State Normal School, Cedar Falls, Iowa
Opened as Iowa State Normal School in 1876, the school took over the facilities that the state of Iowa originally built to be home to orphans of its Civil War Veterans. The school changed to Iowa State Teachers College in 1909, then State College of Iowa in 1961 before becoming the University of Northern Iowa in 1967.

1888 – Moorhead Normal School, Moorhead, Minnesota
Minnesota State Senator Solomon Comstock introduced a bill to the Minnesota State Legislature in 1885, declaring "…[a normal school] would be a fine thing for the Red River Country and especially for Moorhead."
Comstock then donated six acres of land and the next session of the Legislature appropriated $60,000 for the construction of Main Hall, which included classrooms, administrative offices and a library. When The Moorhead Normal School opened in the fall of 1888, President Livingston Lord presided over five faculty members and a class of 29 students. As the school expanded over the years, it went through several name changes, eventually becoming Minnesota State University Moorhead in 2000.

1894 – Springfield Normal School, Springfield, Missouri
The Springfield Normal School was founded in 1894 in Springfield, Missouri, to train teachers for public schools in southwest Missouri. This private school offered a Masters of Pedagogy as a two-year post high school degree.  Students also participated in a variety of extra curricular activities. Enrollment was as high as 700 students.

In 1906, the private school merged with the new state normal school becoming the Fourth District Normal School. The school moved to its current site with the completion of the building now called Carrington Hall in 1909.  The school has evolved into a research university and is now Missouri State University.

1899 – Ellendale State Normal and Industrial School

This was one of the schools of higher learning provided for in North Dakota's 1889 constitution. Courses included American citizenship, cooking, woodworking, physical education, and others that together were offered as "a living symbol of democracy".

Ohio
In 1871, the Northwestern Ohio Normal School, which later became Ohio Northern University, was founded in Ada, Ohio. The Lowry Normal School Bill of 1910 authorized two new normal schools in Ohio—one in the northwestern part of the state (now Bowling Green State University) and another in the northeastern part (now Kent State University).

South
1868 – Storer Normal School, Harpers Ferry, West Virginia

It served primarily African-American students; teachers were desperately needed after the Civil War, with large numbers of freed slaves to teach reading, writing, and arithmetic to. The school was part of Storer College, although in the 19th century it did not provide college-level instruction. The school closed in 1955.

1872 – Florence Normal School, Huntsville, Alabama
Florence Normal School is one of many state normal schools that developed into four-year state teachers' colleges and eventually into comprehensive state universities. This is the site of the first state-supported normal school established south of the Ohio River and now part of the University of North Alabama.

1873 – State Normal School, Normal, Alabama
In 1873, the State Normal School and University for the Education of the Colored Teachers and Students, informally called the Huntsville Normal School, was founded at a site which is today part of Huntsville, Alabama. In 1878, the name changed to State Normal and Industrial School. In 1885 the name was changed again, to State Normal and Industrial School of Huntsville. In 1890, the post office of Normal, Alabama was established. In 1896, its name was changed to The State Agricultural and Mechanical College for Negroes, and in 1919, the State Agricultural and Mechanical Institute for Negroes. In 1948 it was renamed the Alabama Agricultural and Mechanical College, in 1949 Alabama A&M College, and in 1969 Alabama A&M University.

1876 – Glasgow Normal School and Business College, Glasgow, Kentucky
In 1876, local businessman A. W. Mell opened a private normal school and business college in the small South Central Kentucky town of Glasgow. The institution changed its name to Southern Normal School and Business College when it moved to the larger city of Bowling Green. In 1906, after the Kentucky General Assembly (state legislature) authorized the creation of state-sponsored normal schools, the Southern Normal School was sold to the state, while the business school was sold privately, becoming Bowling Green Business University and later the Bowling Green College of Commerce. The normal school's facilities and student body became the new Western Kentucky State Normal School, which moved within Bowling Green in 1911 to the former site of Potter College, a women's college that had closed in 1909. Once the normal school was authorized by the state to offer four-year degrees in 1922, it was renamed Western Kentucky State Normal School and Teachers College. It changed its name twice more in the next 30 years, first to Western Kentucky State Teachers College in 1930 and Western Kentucky State College in 1948. WKSC merged with Bowling Green Commerce in 1963, with the latter becoming a constituent college of WKSC. The current institutional name of Western Kentucky University was adopted in 1966.

1877 – Summer Normal School of the University of North Carolina
In accordance with an act of the North Carolina General Assembly, the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill opened a normal school in the summer of 1877. North Carolina was the first state in America to open a normal school under the control of an already-established university. The program was also the first university summer school in the United States. Coeducational from the beginning, it was the first example of public funds supporting education for women in North Carolina. One of the teachers, Emily M. Coe, was the first female teacher of classes at the university.

1879 – Sam Houston Normal Institute, Huntsville, Texas

The first normal school in what is now considered the Southwest was opened in 1879 as Sam Houston Normal Institute (now Sam Houston State University).

1882 – Virginia Normal and Collegiate Institute (now Virginia State University) was founded, Petersburg, Virginia.

1884 – Louisiana State Normal School, Natchitoches, Louisiana
From its founding in 1884 until 1944, Northwestern State University of Louisiana at Natchitoches was the Louisiana State Normal School until 1918, Louisiana State Normal College from 1918 to 1944.

1886 – Winthrop Training School, Rock Hill, South Carolina

In 1886, the Peabody Education Board of Massachusetts, headed by Robert C. Winthrop, provided $1,500 to form the "Winthrop Training School" for white women teachers. That year the school opened its doors to twenty-one students in Columbia, South Carolina. Nine years later in 1895 it moved to Rock Hill. The school's name had changed in 1893 to "Winthrop Normal and Industrial College of South Carolina", reflecting its mission to prepare some students for industrial jobs.

The college was segregated until 1964. It became fully coeducational in 1974. Evolving from a training school to a college with a four-year full curriculum, it also developed a graduate division. By 1992 it reflected this development, changing its name to Winthrop University.

1886 – State Normal School for Colored Persons, Frankfort, Kentucky

Chartered in 1886 as a state-supported school for training black teachers for the black schools of Kentucky, the school opened in 1887 with three teachers and 55 students. The school went through a series of changes of name and purpose, including becoming a land-grant college in 1890, in 1902 it was renamed Kentucky Normal and Industrial Institute for Colored Persons, in 1926 Kentucky State Industrial College for Colored Persons, in 1938 Kentucky State College for Negroes, in 1952 Kentucky State College, and finally in 1972 it became what it is known today as Kentucky State University.

1887 – Croatan Normal School, Pembroke, North Carolina
The school was established March 7, 1887 by the North Carolina General Assembly to train Lumbee Indian teachers. Today, it is The University of North Carolina at Pembroke.

1887 – Morehead Normal School, Morehead, Kentucky
In 1887, Morehead Normal School was founded as a private institution in Morehead, Kentucky. It continued to operate as such until 1922, when it was taken over by the state and became Morehead State Normal School. After name changes to Morehead State Normal School and Teachers College (1926), Morehead State Teachers College (1930), and Morehead State College (1948), it adopted its current name of Morehead State University in 1966.

1887 – State Normal College for Colored Students, Tallahassee, Florida
Also in 1887, the State Normal College for Colored Students was founded in Tallahassee, Florida; Tallahassee was chosen because it had the state's highest proportion of black people, having been the center of Florida's slave trade before the Civil War. The founding date reflects the Florida Constitution of 1885, in effect until 1967, which prohibed racial integration in education. In 1891 the legislature changed its name to State Normal and Industrial College for Colored Students, and in 1909 to Florida Agricultural and Mechanical College for Negroes. Today it is the Florida Agricultural and Mechanical University, commonly known as FAMU.

1899 – Appalachian State Normal School, Boone, North Carolina
A normal school founded as Watauga Academy in 1899, the institution was named Appalachian State Normal School in between 1925 and 1929. Today, it is known as Appalachian State University and has evolved into a comprehensive four-year university, including the Reich College of Education.

1906 – Eastern Kentucky State Normal School No. 1, Richmond, Kentucky
The same Kentucky law that authorized the state to take over the school now known as Western Kentucky University (see 1876 above) also led to the creation of a second normal school in Richmond. Much like the predecessor to WKU, the Richmond institution, originally known as Eastern Kentucky State Normal School No. 1, took over the campus of an earlier institution, though under somewhat different circumstances. The Eastern Normal School was established in 1906 on the former campus of Central University, an institution that had been founded in 1874 but fell into financial difficulty, and consolidated itself with Centre College in 1901. The Normal School went through several name changes in the following decades—first to Eastern Kentucky State Normal School and Teachers College (1922), Eastern Kentucky State Teachers College (1930), Eastern Kentucky State College (1948), and finally Eastern Kentucky University (1966).

1922 – Murray State Normal School, Murray, Kentucky
A Kentucky law enacted in 1922 authorized the creation of two new state-run normal schools in addition to those already operating in Bowling Green and Richmond (the institutions now known respectively as Western Kentucky University and Eastern Kentucky University). A normal school in Murray was created alongside one in Morehead (now Morehead State University). Unlike the three aforementioned schools, the Murray State Normal School was created from scratch, and had no buildings of its own when it began operation. The first classes were held in 1923 at the then-current campus of Murray High School, but the Normal School soon had its own facilities. The Normal School went through several name changes in the following decades—first to Murray State Normal School and Teachers College (1922), Murray State Teachers College (1930), Murray State College (1948), and finally Murray State University (1966).

West
1857 – California State Normal School, San Jose, California
The first state-run normal school on the West Coast was the Minns Evening Normal School, created in 1857 to train teachers for San Francisco's schools. It was taken over by the State of California in 1862 and became the California State Normal School (now San Jose State University).

1890 – Colorado State Normal School, Greeley, Colorado
The Colorado legislature passed the controversial Senate Bill 104 to establish the State Normal School of Colorado, which Governor Job Adams Cooper signed into law on April 1, 1889. Located in Greeley, Colorado, the school opened on October 6, 1890, to train qualified teachers for the state's public schools, with a staff of four instructors and 96 students, offering certification after completing a two-year course. In 1911, the school's name was changed to Colorado State Teachers College and offered bachelor's degrees after completion of a four-year course. In 1935, the name changed again to Colorado State College of Education, recognizing the graduate program started in 1913. In 1957, the name was shortened to Colorado State College to recognize the further growth of programs and offerings. Finally, in 1970, the name was changed to the current University of Northern Colorado, with satellite centers in Loveland, Colorado Springs and the Lowry neighborhood of Denver.

1910 – Western State College of Colorado, Gunnison, Colorado

State Senator A. M. Stevenson, Colorado, 1885 introduced a bill for a State Normal School. The bill was rejected. The bill revived in 1896. State Representative C. T. Rawalt succeeded in appropriating $2,500 for land in 1901. Gov. James B. Orman approved the bill April 16, 1901. Trustees were elected and plans made in Gunnison, Colorado in the northeast part of town. Grounds were surveyed and fenced, shade trees added, drives laid out, and the lawns seeded. 12 cents remained of the $2,500 dollars allotted. In 1903 a bill for $18,000 for maintenance was vetoed by Gov. J. H. Peabody. On May 5, 1909, $50,000 was appropriated. On October 25, 1910 the cornerstone of North Hall was laid for the State Normal School of Colorado. C. A. Hollingshead was principal of the two year normal advanced and four year normal elementary (High school). In 1916 the name was changed to Western State College of Colorado. On August 1, 2012, John Hickenlooper enacted the new name Western State Colorado University, and in 2018 the current name of Western Colorado University was adopted.

Other normal schools in the USA

 1861 – Edinboro State Normal School, later Edinboro University of Pennsylvania
 1862 – Mansfield State Normal School, later Mansfield University of Pennsylvania
 1862 – California State Normal School, later San José State University in San Jose and the University of California, Los Angeles in Los Angeles
 1867 – State Normal School of Marshall College, later Marshall University of West Virginia
 1869 – Southern Illinois State Normal School, later Southern Illinois University Carbondale
 1871 – Buffalo Normal School opened September 13 later State University of New York College at Buffalo also known as Buffalo State College
 1882 – Normal School at Cheney, later Eastern Washington University
 1882 – Virginia Normal and Collegiate Institute, then Virginia Normal and Industrial Institute, later Virginia State University
 1886 – Washington State Normal School at Bellingham or Northwest Normal School or State Normal School at Whatcom, later Western Washington University
 1867 – Fredonia Normal College, established as Fredonia Academy in 1826, became a normal school Dec. 2, 1867. In 1948 it became State University of New York at Fredonia
 1887 – Northern Branch of the California State Normal School, later California State University, Chico
 1889 – State Normal School at Cheney, later Eastern Washington University
 1889 – State Normal School of Colorado, in Greeley, Colorado later University of Northern Colorado, and in 1911 in Gunnison, Colorado later Western Colorado University
 1889- Slippery Rock State Normal School, later Slippery Rock University of Pennsylvania
 1890 – State Normal School at Valley City, later Valley City State University of North Dakota
 1890 – Territorial Normal School, later University of Central Oklahoma
 1891 – Washington State Normal School in Ellensburg, later Central Washington University
 1891 – State Normal School (Athens, Georgia), later University of Georgia
 1892 – Lowell Normal School, later University of Massachusetts Lowell
 1895 – Duluth State Normal School, later University of Minnesota Duluth
 1895 – Northern Illinois State Normal School, later Northern Illinois University
 1895 – Eastern Illinois State Normal School, later Eastern Illinois University
 1898 – San Diego Normal School, later San Diego State University
 1899 – Western Illinois State Normal School, later Western Illinois University
 1899 – Southwest Texas State Normal School, later Texas State University
 1899 – San Francisco State Normal School, later San Francisco State University
 1903 – Western State Normal School, later Western Michigan University
 1910 – West Texas State Normal College, later West Texas A&M University
 1910 – Mississippi Normal College, later University of Southern Mississippi
 1923 – Durham State Normal School, later North Carolina Central University
 1925 – Maryland State Normal School, later Salisbury University

See also

 Female seminary
 List of normal schools by country
 Normal, Alabama
 Normal, Illinois
 Normal Station, Memphis

References

Bibliography

External links

Education by subject
History of education
School types
Teacher training
Types of university or college

fr:École normale

Normal school


عبد الرحمن الخريجي (23 أغسطس 1944 - 8 يوليو 2015 )، ممثل سعودي.

حياته
عقيد بالقوات الجوية سابقًا شارك العديد مسلسلات الدراما والكوميديا وكما إنه شارك في العديد من المسلسلات البدوية في الأردن وفي السعودية مثل مسلسل عيال مشهور ومسلسل نمر بن عدوان ومسلسل الدمعة الحمراء.

أعماله

المسلسلات
 وجوه محرمة 2015
 أيام وليالي  2011
 الصراع 2010
 وعد لزام 2010
 العودة إلى الحياة  2009
 قلب أبيض  2009
 عذاب 2009
 غلطة نوف  2008
 بيني وبينك 2 2008
 نمر بن عدوان  2007
 ماكو فكة  2006
 إخواني أخواتي (مسلسل) 2005
 عندما تغيب الحقيقة  2005
 امرأة لا تشبه القمر (مسلسل)  2005
 المتقاعد 2002
 قلوب من ورق 2001
 جروح باردة 2001
 طاش ما طاش الجزء 8 2000
 أساطير شعبية  2000
 خيمة على الطريق 1996
 الأبناء  1996
 نوادر العرب 1996
 الغربال 1994
 السراج 1994
 تحت ظلال السيوف  1991
 الدمعة الحمراء 1980
 العراف 1980
 فارس من الجنوب 1979
 الجفاف يقتل الندى 1979
 شمعة تحترق 1979
 الفارس الحمد انيسابور ملك الفرس 1969
 عيال مشهور
 النخوة
 الليل والشموع
 أخو شامة

السهرات التلفزيونية
 الدكاترة سعد  1992
 مثايل

المسرحيات
 ثلاثة النكد 1984
 البرهان المفقود 1973
 محاكمة الحطيئة 1968

الأفلام
 الديرة

وفاته
توفي الفنان عبد الرحمن الخريجي في يوم الأربعاء 21 رمضان 1436هـ الموافق 8 يوليو 2015 في مدينة الطائف بعد أن تعرض لأزمه قلبية حادة مفاجئة وتم دفنه في مكة المكرمة .

روابط خارجية

المراجع

أشخاص من الرياض
ممثلون سعوديون
مواليد 1363 هـ
مواليد 1944
مواليد رمضان
وفيات 1436 هـ
وفيات 2015
وفيات بسبب أمراض قلبية وعائية

عبد الرحمن الخريجي


تأثير مابيمبا هو ملاحظة ان الماء الأكثر سخونة يتجمد أسرع من الماء الابرد عند ظروف معينة.

قصة الاكتشاف
سمى هذه التأثير باسم طالب في المدرسة الثانوية التنزانية ارستو مابيمبا، مابيمبا واجه هذه الظاهرة في عام 1963 أثناء تجميده خليط من المثلجات الساخنة وملاحظته تجمدها قبل الخليط البارد.

الأسباب
بعد البحث وجد الطالب ارستو مابيمبا ومعلمه أن درجة حرارة سطح الماء في أي وعاء هي أكبر من درجة حرارتها في القعر وهذا التناغم يبقى على حاله نتيجة حمل (فيزياء). كما أن عزل سطح الماء بواسطة عازل قد يؤثر بشكل دراماتيكي على عملية التبريد.

للأسف هذه الظاهرة تتناقض مع الديناميكا الحرارية وهذا ما أدى إلى فهم غير كامل لهذه الظاهرة فهناك الكثير من النطريات ومنها:
 إن عملية تجمد المياه ترتبط بشكل وثيق مع كمية الماء المراد تجميده وعليه فإن كمية الماء الساخن هي أقل من كمية الماء البارد نتيجة التبخر فهذا يفسر لماذا الماء الساخن يتجمد قبل الماء البارد.
 إن عملية تسخين الماء يؤثر على كمية الأملاح المعدنية وبتالي تنعدم تأثير هذه الأملاح على عملية التجمد وهذا ما يسرع من تجمد المياه.

مراجع

انظر أيضا
 تأثير ليدنفروست

تنزانيا في 1969
العلوم والتكنولوجيا في تنزانيا
تغيرات الطور
تلاكؤ
ديناميكا حرارية
ظاهرة فيزيائية
مسائل غير محلولة في الفيزياء
مفارقات فيزيائية

ظاهرة مابيمبا


Homoeomeria este un gen de molii din familia Lymantriinae.

Specii
Câteva specii din acest gen sunt:

Homoeomeria cretosa (Saalmüller, 1884)
Homoeomeria euryptena Collenette, 1960
Homoeomeria flavicapilla (Wallengren, 1860)
Homoeomeria haploa Collenette, 1958
Homoeomeria hololeuca (Hampson, 1910)
Homoeomeria hypsoides Collenette, 1960
Homoeomeria iroceraea (Collenette, 1959)
Homoeomeria nivea	Aurivillius, 1909

Referințe

Legături externe
  Baza de date a genului Lepidoptera la Muzeul de istorie naturală

Lymantriidae
Molii
Genuri de insecte

Homoeomeria


Portekiz ya da resmî adıyla Portekiz Cumhuriyeti (), Avrupa'nın güneybatısında İber Yarımadası üzerinde yer alan, Avrupa Kıtası'nın en batısındaki ülkedir. Portekiz kuzeyden ve doğudan İspanya ile, güneyden ve batıdansa Atlas Okyanusu ile çevrilidir. Atlas Okyanusu'nun kuzey yarım küredeki bölümünde bulunan Azorlar ve Madeira takımadaları özerk yönetimleriyle birlikte Portekiz'in birer parçasıdır.

Geçen 3.100 yıl boyunca Portekiz toprakları, ülkenin kültürünü, tarihini, dilini ve etnik yapısını etkileyen ve içlerinde Fenikeliler, Yunanlar, Romalılar, Cermenler ve Endülüs Emevileri'nin de bulunduğu çeşitli medeniyetlerin geçişine tanık olmuştur. 5. yüzyılda Portekiz ülkesi Douro Nehri'nin ağzındaki Portu (günümüzdeki Porto şehri) ile Cale (günümüzdeki Vila Nova de Gaia) şehirlerine istinaden Latince Terra Portucalis diye anılıyordu.

1093 yılında Kastilya ve Leon Kralı VI. Alfonso, krallığının güneybatısındaki toprakları Henrique de Borgonha'ya vererek Portus Cale Kontluğu'nu kurdu. Comes Portucalensis denen bu kontluk sonraki yıllarda bağımsız bir krallığın doğuşuna sahne olmuştur. 15. ve 16. yüzyıllarda Brezilya'dan Filipinler'e uzanan Portekiz İmparatorluğu dünyanın önde gelen ekonomik, politik ve kültürel güçlerinden biriydi. 20. yüzyılda imparatorluğun sona ermesiyle birlikte Portekiz Avrupa'ya dönmüştür ve günümüzde dengeli demokratik yapısıyla Avrupa Birliği'nin bir parçasını oluşturmaktadır.

Tarihçe

Portekiz, 5 Ekim 1143'te Kastilya ve León Kralı VII. Alfonso'nun Portekiz Kontluğu'nun bağımsızlığını tanıması ve I. Afonso'yu Portekiz Kralı olarak kabul etmesiyle bağımsız bir ülke olarak kurulmuştur. Günümüzdeki topraklarının yarısı kadar bir alanda kurulduktan sonra Afonso ve kendisinden sonra gelen krallar Hristiyan tarikatlarının askerî desteğiyle Endülüslüler'den daha fazla toprak koparabilmek için sürekli güneye doğru ilerlemişlerdir. 1249 yılında Algarve'nin güney kıyılarına ulaştıktan sonra Portekiz Reconquistası (Fetih) sona ermiştir.

1383 yılında erkek vâris bırakmadan ölen Portekiz Kralı'nın kızıyla evli olan Kastilya Kralı Portekiz tahtında hak iddia edince ortaya çıkan halk ayaklanması 1383-1385 Krizi'ne yol açtı. Sonradan I. João olarak Portekiz tahtına geçen Avizli João ve general Nuno Álvares Pereira yönetimindeki bir kısım soyludan ve halktan oluşan birlikler Aljubarrota Savaşı'nda Kastilya birliklerini yendi. Bu savaş hâlâ komşu İspanya ile olan bağımsızlık mücadelesinin bir sembolü olarak görülmekte ve Portekiz tarihinin en ünlü savaşı olarak değerlendirilmektedir.

1373 yılında İngiltere ile yapılan ittifak günümüzde de devam etmekte ve muhtemelen tarihin en uzun ittifakı sayılmaktadır. Bu ittifakı izleyen yıllarda Portekiz Dünya'nın keşfi için öncülük yapmış ve Keşif Çağı'nı başlatmıştır. Kral I. João'nun oğlu Prens Infante Henrique o Navegador (Denizci Henrique), bu çağın başlangıcında büyük rol oynamış ve keşif gezilerinin ana destekleyicisi olmuştur.

1415 yılında bir Portekiz filosunun Kuzey Afrika'daki zengin ticaret merkezi Ceuta'yı ele geçirmesiyle Portekiz İmparatorluğu başlamıştır. Bunu Atlas Okyanusu'ndaki ilk keşifler izlemiş, Azorlar ve Madeira'nın keşfiyle ilk sömürgecilik hareketleri başlamıştır.

15. yüzyıl boyunca Portekizli kâşifler, Avrupa'da çok aranan değerli baharatların ülkesi Hindistan yolunu ararken Afrika kıyıları boyunca güneye doğru seyahat ettiler ve yol boyunca ticaret noktaları kurdular. Sonunda 1498 yılında Vasco da Gama deniz yoluyla Hindistan'a ulaştı ve günümüzün onda biri olan bir milyon nüfusa sahip Portekiz için refah dönemi başladı.

1500 yılında Brezilya'ya ayak basan Pedro Álvares Cabral burayı Portekiz topraklarına kattı. On yıl sonra Afonso de Albuquerque, Hindistan'daki Goa'yı, Basra Körfezi'ndeki Hürmüz'ü ve günümüz Malezya'sındaki Malakka'yı işgal etti. Dolayısıyla Portekiz İmparatorluğu Hint Okyanusu ve Güney Atlas Okyanusu'ndaki ticaret yollarının egemenliğini eline geçirdi.

1580 yılından 1640 yılına kadar Portekiz'in bağımsızlığı bir süre sekteye uğradı. Fas'taki Osmanlı Fas kuvvetleriyle yaptığı Vadisseyl Muharebesi sırasında ölen Portekiz Kralı I. Sebastião ardında erkek vâris bırakmayınca İspanya Kralı II. Felipe taht üzerinde hak iddia etti ve Portekiz Kralı I. Filipe olarak tahta geçti. Bu savaş Portekiz'i büyük devletler sınıfından çıkardığı gibi Kuzey Afrika'ya ve Fas'a tehdidi ortadan kaldırmış, Osmanlı devletini Kuzey Afrika'nın tartışmasız hakimi haline getirmiştir. Ancak bundan hoşnut kalmayan Portekiz soylularının desteğiyle ayaklanma başlatan IV. João 1640 yılında kral ilan edilerek Bragança hanedanını başlattı. Aynı dönemde Büyük Britanya ve Hollanda, Portekiz İmparatorluğu'nun denizaşırı topraklarını ele geçirmek için saldırmaktaydı ve Portekiz özellikle 1822'de Brezilya'nın bağımsızlığını kazanmasıyla birlikte, 20. yüzyıla kadar sürecek olan bir çöküş dönemine girdi.

5 Ekim 1910 tarihindeki cumhuriyetçi devrim Portekiz monarşisini ortadan kaldırdı. Ama devam eden kaos ortamı ve I. Dünya Savaşı'na askerî katılımın artırdığı önemli ekonomik problemler 28 Mayıs 1926'daki askerî darbeye neden oldu. Bu darbe sonucunda António de Oliveira Salazar ekonomik dengeyi ve toplumsal düzeni sağlayarak 1933 yılına kadar sürecek olan sağ eğilimli askerî diktatörlük tarafından başa getirildi. Gelenekçi otoriter bir rejim olan ve faşizme yakınlığıyla tanınan Estado Novo (Yeni Devlet) yeni bir anayasanın kabulüyle Salazar tarafından kuruldu. II. Dünya Savaşı'nda İttifak Devletleri'ne yaptığı yardımlar nedeniyle bu rejim ayakta kalmaya devam etti. 1961 yılında Angola'da, 1963 yılında Portekiz Ginesi'nde ve 1964 yılında Mozambik'te başlayan bağımsızlık hareketleri Portekiz Sömürge Savaşları'na yol açarak yönetimdeki rejimi zayıflattı. 1968 yılında Salazar yönetimden ayrıldı ve yerine Marcelo Caetano geçti. 25 Nisan 1974 tarihindeki kansız solcu askerî darbe Afrika sömürgelerine bağımsızlıklarını verdiği gibi günümüzün demokratik rejiminin kurulmasına da önayak oldu. Avrupa Birliği'ne tam üyeliğe 1986 yılında kabul edilen Portekiz 1999 yılında da Euro para birimini kullanmaya başladı.

Devlet yapısı

Portekiz 1976 yılında kabul edilen anayasaya göre yönetilen demokratik bir cumhuriyettir.

Cumhurbaşkanı, Cumhuriyet Meclisi (Assembleia da República), Hükûmet ve Mahkemeler; Portekiz devletinin dört ana organını oluşturur. Yasama, yürütme ve yargı erklerinin ayrılığı; Portekiz Anayasası'nda temel alınmıştır.

Beş yıllık görev süresi için halk oylamasıyla seçilen Cumhurbaşkanı'nın yürütme görevi yoktur ve Devlet Başkanlığı görevini yerine getirir. Cumhuriyet Meclisi; dört yıllık görev süresi için halk oylamasıyla seçilen 230 milletvekilinden oluşan yasama organı görevini icra eden parlamentodur.

Yürütme organı olan hükûmet; kendi Bakanlar Kurulunu ve onların müsteşarlarını seçen başbakan tarafından yönetilir. Ulusal ve bölgesel hükûmetlerde iki siyasi partinin çoğunluğu görülmektedir: Sosyalist Parti ve Sosyal Demokrat Parti.

Mahkemeler; ceza, idari ve malî olarak üçe ayrılır. Yüksek Mahkeme, temyiz kararlarında son karar verici mekanizmadır. Dokuz üyeli Anayasa Mahkemesi, yasaların anayasaya uygunluğunu gözetir.

Uluslararası ilişkiler ve askerî yapı

Portekiz 1949 yılından beri NATO'ya, 1986'dan beri Avrupa Birliği'ne ve 1996'dan itibaren de Portekizce Konuşan Ülkeler Topluluğu'na üyedir. Brezilya ile dostluk ve çifte vatandaşlık antlaşması vardır. Amerika Birleşik Devletleri, Birleşik Krallık ve Çin ile (Makao nedeniyle) olduğu gibi Latin Avrupa ülkeleriyle (İspanya, İtalya, Fransa ve Romanya) de iyi ilişkilere sahiptir. Fas ile yüzyıllardan beri süregelen yakın diplomatik bağları bulunur.

Portekiz'in tek uluslararası anlaşmazlığı, Badajoz Antlaşması sonucunda 1801 yılında İspanya buyruğu altına giren Olivenza belediyesi ile ilgilidir. 1814-1815 yılları arasında yapılan Viyana Kongresi'ne istinaden Portekiz tarafından bu belediye geri alınmak istenmektedir. Yine de Avrupa Birliği üyesi iki ülke arasındaki ilişkiler gergin değildir.

Portekiz Silahlı Kuvvetleri üç ana kuvvetten oluşur: Ordu, Donanma, ve Hava Kuvvetleri. Portekiz 20. yüzyılda iki önemli askerî harekâta katılmıştır: I. Dünya Savaşı ve Sömürge Savaşı (1961-1974). Portekiz kendi sınırları dışında birçok barış gücüne asker göndermiştir: Doğu Timor, Bosna, Kosova, Afganistan, Irak ve Lübnan. Zorunlu askerlik hizmeti 2003 yılında kaldırılmıştır.

İdarî yapı

Portekiz idarî yapısı temel olarak 308 belediyeye (Portekizce: concelho) dayanır. Bu belediyeler bucak adı verilen (Portekizce: freguesia) 4.000'den fazla bölüme ayrılır. Belediyeler idarî açıdan alt bölge ve bölgelere bağlanır. 1976 yılından beri en üst idarî yapı "Anakara Portekizi" ile Azorlar ve Madeira özerk bölgeleridir.

Coğrafya

Portekiz toprakları, İber Yarımadası üzerindeki alanı (Portekizlerin çoğu tarafından kıta olarak anılır) ve Atlantik Okyanusu'ndaki iki takımadayı içerir: Madeira ve Azor takımadaları. Portekiz, 30° ve 42° K enlemleri ile 32° ve 6° B boylamları arasındadır.

Azor Adaları ve Madeira Orta Atlas Okyanusu üzerindedir. Bu adaların bazıları 1957 yılı gibi yakın geçmişe kadar volkanik olarak etkindi.

Portekiz'in anakaradaki toprakları, en büyük nehri olan Tejo Nehri ile ikiye bölünür. Kuzey kısmı içeride düzlükler barındıran ve dört yerde kesintiye uğrayarak tarıma elverişli alanlar yaratan dağlık bir bölgedir.

Tejo Nehri ile Algarve arasındaki güney kısmı genelde serin ve yağmurlu bir iklime sahip kuzeyden daha ılık ve kuru bir iklime sahip ovalardan oluşur. Alentejo'dan dağlarla ayrılan Algarve bölgesi ise Fas ve Güney İspanya'ya benzer bir Akdeniz iklimine sahiptir.

Portekiz'in en yüksek noktası Pico Adası'nda bulunan 2.351 m. yüksekliğinde eski bir yanardağ olan Pico Dağı'dır.

İklim
Portekiz, Akdeniz iklimine sahiptir. Avrupa'nın en sıcak ülkelerinden biri olan Portekiz'in ana karadaki topraklarında yıllık ortalama sıcaklık kuzeyde 15 °C ve güneyde 18 °C'dir. Madeira ve Azor Adaları sıcaklık aralığı daha dardır. Bahar ve yaz mevsimlerinde güneşli, sonbahar ve kış mevsimlerinde yağmurlu ve rüzgârlıdır.

Toplamda, ülke yüzölçümü 92.090 km² kapsar.

Ekonomi

Portekiz 1986 yılında Avrupa Birliği'ne katıldı ve kararlı bir ortamda uyum çalışmalarına başladı, sağlıklı bir büyüme düzeyine erişti. Hükûmetler reformlar uygulayarak birçok devlet teşekkülünü özelleştirdi ve ekonominin önemli alanlarını liberalleştirdi. Portekiz 1999 yılında Euro kullanımına geçen ülkelerden biridir.

Başlıca endüstriler içinde petrol rafinerileri, çimento, otomotiv, kâğıt, tekstil, ayakkabı, koltuk ve şişe mantarı üretimi (Dünya lideri) sayılabilir. Tarım artık ekonominin en büyük kısmını oluşturmasa da Portekiz şarapları, özellikle Porto şarabı ve Madeira şarabı dünya çapında pazarlanmaktadır. Özellikle Algarve ve Madeira bölgelerinde turizm de önemli bir geçim kaynağıdır.

Turizmden önemli derecede gelir elde edilmesinin yanında, Portekiz tarım ve sanayi gibi alanlarda diğer Avrupa ülkelerine oranla çok daha düşük verim alabilmektedir. AET ülkeleri arasında en yoksul ülke olan Portekiz'de, özellikle tarımda geleneksel yöntemlerin kullanılmaya devam edilmesi ve hâlâ son teknoloji aletlerine geçilememesi tarımdan verim alma şansını düşürmektedir. Ülkedeki malların çoğu ithal bulunmaktadır. Özellikle Güney Amerika ülkelerinden bölgeye özgü meyve ve sebze çeşitlerinin ithali gerçekleşmektedir.

Portekiz'de pirinç, buğday, mısır, patates gibi ürünler yetiştirilir. iklimine rağmen incir, badem, portakal gibi ürünler de yetiştirilir. En çok ekilen tarım ürünleri ise mısır, üzüm, çavdar ve zeytindir. Akdeniz bölgesine özgü kültür bitkileri ise buğdaydır. Ayrıca Portekiz'de dış satımı en çok olan ürün porto şarabıdır. F.F.F. kelimeleri Portekiz'in kısaca ünlü olan şeylerini özetler. 1. F FADO SADNESS SONGS 2. F FUTBALL 3. F DE FİESTA

Portekiz Golden Visa programı, yabancı yatırımcılara yönelik sunulan bir yatırım programıdır ve ayrıca ARI (Authorization for Residency by Investment) olarak da bilinir. Program, AB vatandaşı olmayan yatırımcılara Portekiz'de oturma izni sağlar ve Ekim 2012'de başlatılmıştır. Programın amacı, 2008 krizinden sonra Portekiz'e uluslararası sermaye çekmektir. Program, başlangıcından bu yana 6 milyar Euro'dan fazla yatırım çekmiş ve sürdürülebilirliği ve başarısı kanıtlanmıştır. Portekiz Golden Visa programının en büyük avantajlarından biri, başvuranlara ve aile bireylerine Portekiz'de yaşama, çalışma ve eğitim alma hakkı sağlamasıdır. Ayrıca program, beş yıl sonra Portekiz vatandaşlığına başvurma olanağı da sunar. 16 Şubat 2023'te Portekiz hükûmeti, ülkedeki konut kriziyle mücadele etmek için Golden Visa programının revize edilmesini veya olası olarak sona erdirilmesini içeren bir dizi önlemleri açıkladı.

Enerji, ulaşım ve iletişim

2006 yılı verilerine göre Portekiz, enerji üretiminin %55'ini kömür ve petrol ile çalışan enerji santrallerinden sağlamaktadır. Kalan %40 barajlar ve %5 de rüzgâr enerjisi ile sağlanmaktadır. Hükûmet rüzgâr ve güneş enerjisi gibi alternatif enerji kaynakları üzerine yatırım yapmaya çalışmaktadır.

Giderek artan otomobil kullanımı ve sanayileşme nedeniyle ulaşım 1990'larda öncelik kazanmıştır. Ülkenin 68.732 km.'lik karayolu ağının 2.000 km.'sini 44 otoyol oluşturmaktadır.

İki büyük şehirde, her biri 35 km.'yi geçen metro sistemi bulunmaktadır: Lizbon Metrosu ve Porto Metrosu. 2008 yılında yapımına başlanacak olan ve günümüzde kullanılan Pendolino trenlerinin yerine geçecek yüksek hızlı TGV tren hattı Porto'yu Lizbon'a ve Lizbon'u Madrid'e bağlayacaktır. Ota'ya Lizbon şehri için yeni bir havaalanı da inşa edilecektir.

Portekiz dünyanın en yüksek cep telefonu kullanım oranına sahiptir. Mart 2006 verilerine göre evlerin %30'unda yüksek hızlı internet hattı, şirketlerin %78'inde de internet bağlantısı vardır. Portekizlilerin büyük çoğunluğu televizyon kanallarını kablo üzerinden seyretmektedir (Haziran 2004: evlerin %73.6'sı).

En önemli havaalanları Lizbon'daki Portela Havaalanı, Faro, Porto'daki Francisco Sá Carneiro Havaalanı, Funchal (Madeira) ve Ponta Delgada'dır (Azorlar).

Nüfus yapısı

Portekiz, dil ve din açısından oldukça bağdaşık yapıda bir ülkedir. Portekiz halkı değişik etnik grupların karışımından oluşur: Roma öncesi İber ve Kelt kabileleri ile Eski Romalılar ve Cermen halkları.

2001 nüfus sayımı sonucunda %51,7'si kadın olan Portekiz'in nüfusu 10.356.117 olarak belirlenmiştir. 2003 yılı sonunda nüfusun %4,2'sini yasal göçmenler oluşturmaktaydı. En büyük göçmen toplulukları Ukrayna, Brezilya, Yeşil Burun Adaları ve Angola gibi ülkelerden olsa da Güney Amerika ve Doğu Avrupa'nın diğer ülkelerinden de göçmenler bulunmaktadır. Portekiz nüfusunun büyük çoğunluğu Katoliktir. En büyük metropolitan alanları Lizbon, Porto, Braga, Coimbra ve Aveiro'dur.

2010 yılında Portekiz'de eşcinsellere evlilik izni verildi ve böylece Portekiz, eşcinsel evliliğin yasal olduğu dünyanın sekizinci ülkesidir.

Eğitim
Portekiz'deki eğitim sistemi dört basamakta toplanır:

 Okul öncesi (altı yaş altı çocuklar için),
 Temel eğitim (6 ile 15 yaş arası çocuklar içindir ve zorunludur. Bu basamak üç aşamalı şekilde (4+2+3) dokuz yıl sürer. Birinci aşama dört yıl sürer ve esas olarak karakter gelişimi ve ileri çalışmalar için temel bilgi oluşturmaya odaklanılır. İkinci aşama iki yıldır ve disiplinlerarası çalışmalara giriş yapılır. Üçüncü ve sonuncu aşama üç yıl sürer ve bu eğitimin disiplinler arası hale geldiği aşamadır.)
 Orta öğretim (üç yıl sürer ve 2010 yılından itibaren zorunludur.)
 Yükseköğretim (üniversite ve politeknik okullarında okutulmaktadır.)

Portekiz üniversiteleri 1290 yılından beri eğitim vermektedir. Üniversiteler fakültelere bölünmüştür. 2011 yılından itibaren geçerli olmak üzere Bologna süreci uygulamasına geçilmektedir.

Emeklilik
2020'den itibaren Portekiz'de emeklilik yaşı hem erkekler hem de kadınlar için 66 yıl 5 aydır.

Hukuk sistemi
19. yüzyılın sonuna kadar başlıca Fransız yasalarından etkilenen hukuk sistemi o zamandan beri daha çok Alman yasalarından etkilenmeye başlamıştır. Başlıca yasalar arasında Anayasa (1976), Medeni Kanun (1966) ve Ceza Kanunu (1982) sayılabilir.

Kültür

Portekiz Akdeniz'den geçen çeşitli medeniyetlerin ve Keşif Çağı'nda dünyanın değişik bölgelerinde etkileştiği medeniyetlerin etkisiyle kendine özgü bir kültür geliştirmiştir.

Portekiz edebiyatı yazılı eserler ve şarkılarla gelişmiş olup Batı medeniyetinin en erken edebiyatlarından birini oluşturur. 1350 yılına kadar Portekizli ve Galiçyalı gezgin ozanlar tüm İber Yarımadası'na edebî etkilerini yaymıştır. Gil Vicente (1465 (?) - 1536 (?)) hem Portekiz hem de İspanyol drama geleneğinin kurucularındandır. Maceraperest ve şair Luís de Camões (yak. 1524 - 1580) Os Lusíadas adlı epik şiirini Virgil'in Aeneid adlı eserini temel alarak yazmıştır. Modern Portekiz şiirinin temeli, Fernando Pessoa'nın (1888 - 1935) eserlerinde görüldüğü üzere neoklasik ve çağdaş tarzlardadır. Günümüz Portekiz edebiyatının uluslararası alanda tanınmasında önde gelen edebiyatçılar arasında şu isimleri sayabiliriz: Almeida Garrett, Camilo Castelo Branco, Eça de Queirós, Sophia de Mello Breyner Andresen, António Lobo Antunes, ve 1998 yılında Nobel Ödülü kazanan José Saramago.

Portekiz müziği çeşitli tarzları barındırır. En tanınanı, genellikle Portekiz gitarı ile anılan ve saudade yani özlem ve hasret duyma duygusuyla özdeşleşen, melankolik şehir müziği Fado'dur. Fado'nun uluslararası alanda tanınmış yorumcuları arasında Amália Rodrigues, Mariza, Mísia, ve Madredeus'u sayabiliriz.
 :: Terreiro do Fado ::

Fado ve halk müziğinin yanı sıra Portekiz gençliği rock, pop ve Portekiz'deki büyük Afrikalı toplulukları tarafından yapılan hip-hop tuga gibi çağdaş müziklere de ilgi duymaktadır. Portekiz'de her yıl çeşitli müzik festivalleri düzenlenir: Zambujeira do Mar, Paredes de Coura, Rock in Rio Lisboa, 2005 yılında MTV Europe Music Awards.

Portekiz geleneksel mimarisi çeşitli etkilenmelerle ortaya çıktığı için farklılık taşır. Günümüzde Eduardo Souto de Moura ve Álvaro Siza Vieira gibi dünya çapında ünlü mimarları vardır. Görsel sanatlarda da dünya çapında adı duyulmuş Vieira da Silva ve Paula Rego adlı ressamlar sayılabilir.

1990'lardan beri, 1956'da kurulan Calouste Gulbenkian Vakfı'na Lizbon'daki Belém Kültür Merkezi ile Porto'daki Serralves Vakfı ve Müzik Evi'ni katarak kamuya açık kültürel kurumlarını artırmıştır.

Mutfak
Portekiz mutfağı, pirinç, patates, ekmek, et, deniz ürünleri ve balık kullanılan çeşitli tariflerle zengin bir mutfaktır. Portekizlilerin özellikle Morina balığından yapılmış yemekleri çok sevdikleri ve Portekiz'de bacalhau denen bu yemeklerin yılın her günü için farklı olmak üzere 365 değişik şekilde pişirildiği söylenir. Pastéis de Bacalhau, Bacalhau à Brás ve Bacalhau à Gomes de Sá en popüler tariflerdir. Diğer iki popüler balık tarifi ızgara sardalye ve soğan, sarımsak, defne yaprağı, patates, domates, biber, maydanoz veya kişniş karışımı ile birkaç balık türünden yapılan domatesli bir çeşit güveç olan caldeirada'dır.

Portekiz pasta sanatının kökeni ülkeye yayılmış birçok Orta Çağ Katolik manastırındadır. Çok az malzeme (çoğunlukla badem, vanilya, tarçın, un, yumurta ve biraz likör) kullanan bu manastırlar, olağanüstü geniş yelpazede farklı hamur işleri yaratmayı başardılar ki bunlardan Lizbon'un  pastéis de Belém (veya pastéis de Nata) ve Aveiro'nun Ovos-Moles gibi tatlı ve kekleri çok revaçtadır. Yumurtalı Portekiz turtası olarak da bilinen Pastéis de Nata'nın tarihi 17. yüzyıla kadar uzanır. Bu tatlı Jerónimos Manastırı'ndaki rahipler tarafından bulunmuştur.

Portekiz'in kendine özgü fast-food tarzı yemeği ise Porto'nun Francesinha'sı (Frenchie), yine Porto'dan geleneksel yemek "Tripas à moda do Porto" ve "bifanas" (ızgara domuz) veya ülke çapında iyi bilinen prego (ızgara dana eti) sandviç'ler yer alır.

Sığır, domuz, kuzu, keçi veya tavuktan yapılan tipik Portekiz et tarifleri arasında et, pirinç, patates ve diğer sebzelerin haşlanmasıyla yapılan Cozido à Portuguesa, et ve sosis parçaları ile kuru fasulyeden yapılan ve beyaz pirinçli pilav ile servis edilen Feijoada, Frango de churrasco, Leitão (süt domuzu kızartması), Chanfana ve Carne de porco à alentejana ve Espetadas bulunur.

Çok popüler bir kuzey yemeği Dobrada, beyaz fasulye ve havuçlu güveçli işkembedir ve genellikle buğulanmış beyaz pirinçle servis edilir. Peri-peri tavuk, pilav ve sebzelerle servis edilen, Portekiz'in her yerinde sevilen ancak en çok Algarve bölgesinde yaygın olan baharatlı bir közde tavuk yemeğidir.

Portekiz şarapları, Portekiz'i tanrıları Bacchus ile özdeş tutan Romalıların zamanından beri uluslararası olarak tanınmıştı. Günümüzde şarapseverler tarafından çok iyi tanınan birçok şarap çeşidi, uluslararası ödüller kazanmıştır. Tanınmış birçok Portekiz şarabı dünyanın en iyi şarapları arasında sayılır: Vinho Verde, Vinho Alvarinho, Vinho do Douro, Vinho do Alentejo, Vinho do Dão, Vinho da Bairrada ve tatlı Porto şarabı, Madeira şarabı ile Setúbal'ın Moscatel şarabı ile Favaios (Douro). Porto ve Madeira, özellikle dünya çapında çok çeşitli yerlerde takdir edilmektedir. Dünyada yaygın pazarlanan Porto şarabını Vinho Verde izler. Artan uluslararası talebe cevap verecek şekilde Vinho Verde ihracatı artış göstermektedir.

Portekiz mutfağı çok çeşitlidir ve farklı bölgelerin kendi geleneksel yemekleri vardır. Portekizliler iyi yemek kültürüne sahiptir ve ülke genelinde sayısız iyi restoran ve tipik küçük tasquinhalar vardır.

Spor

Futbol Portekiz'de en popüler spor dalıdır. Ekim 2011 itibarıyla Portekiz millî futbol takımı, FIFA üyesi 208 ülke millî takımları arasında, FIFA Dünya Sıralaması'nda 8. sıradadır. Efsanevi Eusébio hâlâ Portekiz futbolunun unutulmaz sembolüdür. Luís Figo, FIFA tarafından 2001'de yılın oyuncusu seçilmiştir. Rui Costa ve Cristiano Ronaldo önemli oyuncular arasında sayılır.

Vítor Baía tüm Avrupa kulüpler kupaları dahil olmak üzere tarihte en çok kupa kazanmış oyuncudur. Ayrıca José Mourinho futbol tarihinin en başarılı ve en çok kazanan teknik direktörlerinden sayılır. Portekiz'in en üst düzey futbol karşılaşmaları Superliga'da yapılmaktadır. Önemli futbol kulüpleri arasında Benfica, Porto ve Sporting sayılabilir. "2004 Avrupa Futbol Şampiyonası"'na ev sahipliği yapan Portekiz neredeyse kupayı da kazanıyordu. Final maçında Yunanistan sürpriz bir galibiyet kazanarak ilk defa Avrupa kupasını kazandı. Portekiz millî futbol takımı FIFA Dünya Kupası'nda iki kere yarı finale kaldı. İlki Eusebio'nun 9 golle gol kralı olduğu 1966'da, ikincisi de 2006'dadır. 2006 yılı yarı finalinde Fransa'ya yenilen Portekiz, daha sonra Almanya'ya da yenilerek dördüncü olabilmiştir. Son olarak 2016 yılında Fransa'da düzenlenen Euro 2016 turnuvasında ev sahibi Fransa'yı yenerek şampiyonluğa ulaşmıştır.

Futboldan başka basketbol, yüzme, atletizm, tenis, jimnastik, futsal, paten hokeyi (rink hokeyi), hentbol, voleybol ve ragbi gibi birçok branşta profesyonel spor karşılaşmaları ve şampiyonalar düzenlenmektedir. En önemli yarışı "Volta a Portugal" (Portekiz Bisiklet Turu) ile bisiklet sporu ve atletizm en popüler sporlar arasındadır. Paten hokeyinde Portekiz, 15 Dünya ve 20 Avrupa şampiyonluğuyla dünyanın en çok kupa kazanan ülkesidir. Ragbi'de de birçok kupa kazanan Portekiz Temmuz 2006 itibarıyla 5 Avrupa şampiyonası kazanmıştır. Güneşli Algarve bölgesinde yapılan "Algarve Open" golf turnuvası da önemli spor etkinliklerindendir. Lizbon yakınındaki Estoril'de bulunan Autódromo Fernanda Pires da Silva, içlerinde Dünya Motosiklet Şampiyonası ile A1 Grand Prix gibi birçok motor sporunun yapıldığı en önemli yarış pistidir. Portekiz Rallisi ve Madeira Rallisi ile birlikte Baja Portugal 1000 ve Lizbon-Dakar off-road yarışları da uluslararası alanda tanınır. Triatlon dalında Dünya Kupası lideri Vanessa Fernandes sayesinde önemli adımlar atılmaktadır. Judo ve boks branşlarında da Portekiz uluslararası karşılaşmalarda madalyalar kazanmıştır.

Ülkede "Jogo do Pau" (Portekiz Sopa Dövüşü) diye bilinen eski bir dövüş sanatı vardır. Kendini koruma amacıyla yapılan bu spor, genellikle genç kadınlar için çıkan anlaşmazlıkları çözmek isteyen delikanlıların yaptıkları düellolarda kullanılırdı. Doğuşu Orta Çağ'a dayanan Jogo do Pau'da silah olarak tahta sopalar kullanılır. "Jogos Populares" gibi diğer geleneksel sporlar da zevk için hâlâ yapılmaktadır.

Festivaller ve bayramlar
Portekiz'de yaz mevsiminde festivaller önemli yer tutar. Her şehrin ve kasabanın kendi festivali vardır. Özellikle Haziran ayı festivalleri çok popülerdir. Bu aydaki festivaller Santos Populares (popüler azizler) diye bilinen üç azize, Padovalı Antonio, Vaftizci Yuhanna ve Simun Petrus'a adanır ve tüm Portekiz'de yapılır. Pagan gelenekten gelen bu festivallerin azizlerle nasıl birleştirildiği bilinmemektedir. Büyük olasılıkla Hristiyanlık bölgeye yayılmadan önce bu eğlenceler Roma tanrıları ya da yerel tanrılar adına yapılmaktaydı. Festivallerin ortak özellikleri şarap, água-pé (bir çeşit sulandırılmış şarap), geleneksel ekmek ve sardalya, düğünler, geleneksel sokak dansları, ateş, havai fişekler ve kutlamalardır.

Yararlı bilgiler
 Resmî tarih yazılış şekli: YYYY/AA/GG (örn. 2006/06/20)
 Gündelik kullanım tarih yazılış şekli: GG/AA/YYYY (örn. 20/06/2006), tarihler şu şekilde yazılır: GG de AA de YYYY (örn. 1 de Janeiro de 2005)
 Ondalıkları ayırmak için virgül kullanılır: 123,45
 Binlikler resmî olarak boşluk bırakılarak ayrılır - 10 000 - ancak nokta da hâlâ kullanılır - 10.000.
 Para birimi Eurodur, (kısaltması €'dir). Avro 100 cêntimos 'a bölünür.
 Avro işareti tutardan önce ya da sonra kullanılabilir, kuruş bölümü nokta ya da virgül ile ayrılabilir: 10,95 € - € 10,95 - € 10.95 - 10.95 €
 Posta kodu: 4+3 rakamdan oluşur, arada tire (kısa çizgi) kullanılır (2000-100 gibi).

Kaynakça

Kullanılan Kaynaklar

Sources

Dış bağlantılar

 Portekiz fotoğrafları
 Portekiz haritası
 Hava tahmini

Akdeniz İçin Birlik ülkeleri
Portekizce konuşan bölgeler ve ülkeler
Güney Avrupa ülkeleri

Portekiz


Die Scottish Open 2005 fanden vom 24. bis zum 27. November 2005 in Glasgow statt. Der Referee war Keith Hawthorne aus England. Das Preisgeld betrug £ 4.000. Es war die 87. Austragung dieser internationalen Meisterschaften von Schottland im Badminton.

Austragungsort
 Kelvin Hall, Glasgow

Finalergebnisse

Weblinks
 badminton.de

2005
Badminton 2005
Badmintonwettbewerb in Glasgow
EBU Circuit 2005/06

Scottish Open 2005


අනුර ප්‍රියදර්ශි සොලමන් ඩයස් බණ්ඩාරනායක ( 1949 පෙබරවාරි 15 - 2008 මාර්තු 16 ) යනු ශ්‍රී ලංකාවේ සිටි ප්‍රවිණ දේශපාලනඥයෙක් වන අතර එමෙන්ම එතුමා ශ්‍රී ලංකා පාර්ලිමෙන්තුවේ විපක්ෂ නායකවරයා සහ පාර්ලිමේන්තුවේ කථානායකවරයා ලෙසද කටයුතු කලේය.

මුල්කාලින ජිවිතය

දේශපාලන ජිවිතය

වෙනත් කරුණු

ආශ්‍රිත ලිපි
 ශ්‍රී ලංකාවේ විපක්ෂ නායක
 ශ්‍රී ලංකාවේ පාර්ලිමේන්තුවේ කථානායක
 ශ්‍රී ලංකාවේ පාර්ලිමේන්තු කථානායක ලැයිස්තුව
 ශ්‍රී ලංකාවේ පාර්ලිමේන්තුව

මූලාශ්‍ර

බාහිර සබැඳි
  රත්වත්තේ පරපුර
1949 උපත්
2008 මරණ

අනුර බණ්ඩාරනායක


Ryutaro Shibata (født 25. november 1992) er en japansk fodboldspiller.

Han har spillet for flere forskellige klubber i sin karriere, herunder Matsumoto Yamaga FC.

Referencer

Eksterne henvisninger

Fodboldspillere fra Japan

Ryutaro Shibata


Den indre overflade af squama frontalis på pandebenet er konkav og præsenterer i den øvre den af den midterste linje en vertikal rille, den sagittale sulcus, kanterne på hvilke der mødes under for at danne en kam, den frontale kam.

Den er også en del af issebenet og nakkebenet.

Referencer

Hovedets anatomi

Sagittale sulcus


Bloons TD 6 é um jogo estilo tower defense (em português, "defesa de torres") de 2018 desenvolvido e publicado por Ninja Kiwi. É o sexto lançamento da série Bloons Tower Defense e foi lançado em 13 de junho de 2018 para iOS e Android. Foi posteriormente lançado para Microsoft Windows em 2018 e macOS em março de 2020 via Steam. Em fevereiro de 2022, Bloons TD 6+ foi lançado para Apple Arcade.

Jogabilidade
Bloons TD 6 é um jogo estilo tower defense com uma perspectiva 2.5D, ao contrário da perspectiva 2D do jogos anteriores da série Bloons Tower Defense, e utiliza computação gráfica 3D. No jogo, o jogador (que pode formar um time com até outros três jogadores em modo cooperativo) cria defesas consistindo de diversas variantes de macacos com habilidades, estruturas e armadilhas a fim de evitar que objetos em formato de balões conhecidos como "Bloons" cheguem à saída. TD 6 apresenta uma nova categoria de macacos, conhecidos como "heróis", que se tornam mais fortes ao longo do tempo. Cada macaco desempenha um papel diferente e pode afetar os Bloons de várias formas, inclusive estourando-os, diminuindo sua velocidade, ou aumentando o poder dos outros macacos. Quando destruídos, os Bloons concedem dinheiro ao jogador, que pode ser usado para comprar defesas adicionais ou melhorar as existentes (macacos melhorados ganham acesso a novas habilidades). Os Bloons são criados em diversas ondas e percorrem um caminho predeterminado. Os grupos de ondas são separados em rodadas, cada uma consistindo de um número estabelecido de Bloons, que se tornam mais fortes ao longo do tempo e podem ter propriedades combatidas apenas por certas defesas. Cada rodada é jogada em um mapa específico, que contém obstáculos e pode ser jogado em várias opções de dificuldade.

O jogador pode ganhar vários tipos de moedas internas através do jogo. Recebe-se "Dinheiro de Macaco" ao se vencer rodadas ou se completar desafios e permite que características adicionais sejam desbloqueadas no jogo, "Pontos de Conhecimento Símio" são concedidos através do jogo e podem ser usados para melhorar os macacos permanentemente através de uma árvore de habilidades, e "Troféus" são um tipo raro de moeda obtido apenas através de eventos semanais, e é utilizado para desbloquear cosméticos especiais.

História
Bloons TD 6 foi anunciado pela primeira vez em PRLog em 28 de março de 2017 e inicialmente estava programado para ser lançado em 2017. De acordo com o mesmo artigo postado em PRLog, um "longo período de teste e balanceamento" foi necessário devido à "imensa escala e profundidade estratégica do jogo".

O jogo foi lançado na iOS App Store e Google Play Store em 14 de junho de 2018. Uma versão para Microsoft Windows foi lançada através do Steam em 17 de dezembro de 2018. Diferentemente dos jogos anteriores da série, Bloons TD 6 é o primeiro jogo da série Bloons TD que não tem um equivalente em Flash.

Em 11 de fevereiro de 2022, Bloons TD 6 foi lançado na Apple Arcade como Bloons TD 6+.

Recepção
Bloons TD 6 foi bem recebido de forma geral pela crítica. Stephen Knightly, secretário da NZ Game Developers Association, elogiou a profundidade do jogo em Bloons TD 6, especialmente o apelo visual para um público geral e o nível de complexidade para jogadores mais experientes. "É divertido e amigável, então é acessível, mas no fundo é bem complicado". Embora o jogo tenha sido elogiado pela sua extensa variedade de jogabilidade, foi também criticado pela falta de rejogabilidade. Já que Bloons TD 6 é um aplicativo pago contando com compras internas que podem ser usadas para desbloquear características mais rapidamente, alguns críticos argumentam que o jogo parece rodar em um modelo freemium.

Harry Slater da Pocket Gamer descreve a jogabilidade central como excessivamente dependente da mecânica de jogos mais antigos da série, que ele alega não fornecer impacto suficiente para os jogadores que querem jogar a longo prazo. Por outro lado, Dennis Zirkler da GameStar acredita que há conteúdo suficiente no jogo para manter uma variedade de estilos diferentes de jogo enquanto ainda se mantém a jogabilidade central, e diz que a presença de compras internas em um jogo pago são completamente opcionais para o jogo e têm pouco impacto na diversão geral do jogo como um todo. Embora ele critique a necessidade de se jogar repetidamente para se ganhar acesso a características desbloqueáveis, ele elogia a inclusão do "CHIMPS", um modo de jogo em que a maioria das características desbloqueáveis são restritas e consequentemente limita os jogadores a se concentrarem no conceito subjacente de se criar combinações otimizadas de torres em cada estágio do jogo. Nathan Snow de The Spectrum disse que, ainda que seja repetitivo depois de um tempo, o jogo se atém a um conceito comprovado da séries Bloons.

O visual cartunesco usado no jogo foi elogiado pelo seu apelo a um público mais amplo, especialmente através da combinação de jogabilidade e complexidade. Os críticos notaram o uso de caracterização das torres e o sucesso a longo prazo dos jogos Bloons TD anteriores como fatores para o sucesso de Bloons TD 6. Notaram-se a complexidade e a mecânica que acompanha o jogo; PCGamesN descreve que a complexidade de Bloons TD 6 recebe um "plano viciante totalmente novo" no que se refere a integrar o foco destacado de interagir com os personagens dos macacos com a jogabilidade principal, enquanto outros críticos dizem que a implementação dessas características pode parecer infantil demais ou então fazer com que o jogo pareça genérico demais ou dependente de microtransações.

O modelo de negócios de Bloons TD 6 recebeu avaliações mistas. Simon Hill da Wired considera que o modelo de negócios do jogo leva em consideração tanto o mercado premium quanto o mercado freemium: "É um jogo premium que justifica totalmente seu preço, mas também oferece uma grande variedade de microtransações, incluindo as melhorias cosméticas comuns, aumento de jogabilidade, e acesso ilimitado a eventos especiais". Ele também elogia o equilíbrio entre rejogabilidade e complexidade, principalmente através da progressão aprofundada e desenvolvimento da estratégia em um contexto de defesa de torres. Mais atenção foi dada em relação ao convensional mercado de dispositivos móveis, que geralmente conta com o modelo freemium como fonte primária de renda, e ressaltou que Bloons TD 6 não tem anúncios de terceiros, mas utiliza compras internas opcionais no jogo. Outros são mais críticos e negativos quanto ao modelo de negócios em Bloons TD 6. Um crítico da MetaCritic argumenta que o jogo tem uma quantidade esmagadora de conteúdo que carece de rejogabilidade suficiente e utiliza uma mistura duvidosa dos estilos de comercialização premium e freemium.

Vendas
Bloons TD 6 foi o aplicativo mais vendido na primeira semana do seu lançamento. De acordo com Catherine Harris da Stuff.co.nz, o jogo Bloons TD 6 está consistentemente entre os aplicativos pagos mais vendidos do mundo, incluindo o "aplicativo pago mais comprado do mundo" em 2018. Ela argumenta que o sucesso do jogo entre outros aplicativos da Ninja Kiwi ajudou a moldar o sucesso da indústria de jogos da Nova Zelândia. Dustin Bailey da PCGamesN notou a crescente popularidade da versão Steam de Bloons TD 6 e a maior presença do jogo no Twitch. Ele atribuiu o maior sucesso do jogo tanto pelo baixo preço de US$1 na versão Steam quanto pelo fator de nostalgia para os jogadores que haviam jogado anteriormente os jogos mais antigos em Flash da série Bloons TD.

Kotaku notou que a receita da indústria de jogos da Nova Zelândia ultrapassou a da indústria de jogos da Austrália em 2019, sendo Bloons TD 6 uma das principais fontes, e as outras sendo Path of Exile da Grinding Gear Games e Valleys Between da Little Lost Fox.

Legado
O jogo é atualizado regularmente incluindo constantes alterações quanto ao balanceamento e conteúdo adicional. Ben "RidiculousHat" Goodman da PC Gamer elogia o desenvolvimento contínuo de Bloons TD 6, que refina regularmente o balanceamento do jogo através de atualizações a fim de promover uma variedade de jogabilidade.

O sucesso da franquia Bloons TD havia recebido elogios da companhia de investimentos digitais Modern Times Group, com atenção especial ao trabalho contínuo da Ninja Kiwi como "pioneira" no gênero defesa de torres em um formato economicamente viável mas de alta qualidade.

Referências

Ligações externas

 Site oficial
Sequências de jogos eletrônicos
Jogos de Tower defense
Jogos para Macintosh
Jogos para iOS
Jogos para Windows
Jogos para Android
Jogos eletrônicos de 2018

Bloons TD 6


අන්තර්ජාතික නිරීක්ශණයක්, අන්තර්ජාතික කැප කිරීමක් නැතිනම් අන්තර්ජාතික සැමරුමක්යනු ජාත්‍යන්තර වශයෙන් අවදානයක් ලැබූ ගැටළුවක් පිළිබදව නිරීක්ශණයට වෙන් කල කලාන්තරයකි.මෙය අනුස්මරණ,ප්‍රචාරණ හා ක්‍රියාමාර්ග ගැනීම කඩිනම් කිරිම සදහා යොදා ගැනෙයි.මෙම කාල සී මා බොහොමයක් ස්ථාපිත කර ඇත්තෙ එක්සත් ජාතීන්ගෙ පොදු සමුළුව  (UN), ආර්ථික හා සමාජ කවුන්සිලය, එක්සත් ජාතීන්ගේ අධ්‍යාපනිකUnited Nations Educational,විද්‍යාත්මක  හා සන්ස්ක්‍රුතික ස0විධානය විසිනි>  (UNESCO), World Health Organization (WHO) and other United Nations bodies including the International Telecommunication Union (ITU), Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO), United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), International Maritime Organization (IMO) and the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO). In this case, the lead agency for a particular international observance uses the symbolism of the United Nations (UN), perhaps a specially designed logo for the year, and the UN infrastructure to coordinate events worldwide. It also presents a written report about the event. This summarizes the activities that took place around the world under the auspices of the international observance, and makes recommendations for the future.

අන්තර්ජාතික දින හා සති


Klinička bolnica Sveti Duh hrvatska je zdravstvena ustanova. Nalazi se na Svetom Duhu u Zagrebu. Najstarija je hrvatska bolnica.

Povijest
Bolnca je s radom započela 1804. godine, te ima neprekinutu tradiciju.

Ustroj
Bolnica ima kapacitet od 500 bolesničkih kreveta za odrasle i 70 kreveta za novorođenčad, te oko 120 ambulanti i dijagnostičkih službi.
Bolnica je ustrojena kao jedinstvena tehnološka cjelina s devet stacionarnih djelatnosti i šesnaest specijalističko-konzilijarnih i dijagnostičkih djelatnosti organiziranih u šest klinika i osam zavoda i Središnji hitni prijam.

Bolnica je članica sustava znanosti i visoke naobrazbe. Klinike, zavodi i referalni centri nastavna su baza Medicinskog fakulteta Sveučilišta u Zagrebu, Medicinskog fakulteta Sveučilišta u Osijeku, Medicinskog fakulteta Sveučilišta u Splitu i Medicinskog fakulteta Sveučilišta u Mostaru.

Klinike i zavodi
 Klinika za unutarnje bolesti
 Klinika za kirurgiju
 Klinika za ginekologiju i porodništvo
 Klinika za neurologiju
 Klinika za anesteziologiju, reanimatologiju i intenzivno liječenje
 Klinika za očne bolesti
 Zavod za otorinolaringologiju i kirurgiju glave i vrata
 Zavod za urologiju
 Zavod za ortopediju
 Zavod za fizikalnu medicinu, rehabilitaciju i reumatologiju
 Zavod za radiologiju
 Zavod za medicinsko laboratorijsku dijagnostiku
 Zavod za patologiju i citologiju
 Zavod za kliničku mikrobiologiju i hospitalne infekcije
 Središnji hitni prijam
 Ljekarna bolnice

Knjižnica
 Medicinska knjižnica bolnice

Bolnička kapelica
 Bolnička kapelica Blažene Djevice Marije

Izvori
Bilješke i literatura

 Opći podaci, www.kbsd.hr arhivirano 12. studenoga 2021., pristupljeno 7. prosinca 2021.
 Ustroj KBSD, ww.kbsd.hr, arhivirano 12. studenoga 2021., pristupljeno 7. prosinca 2021.

Vanjske poveznice
Mrežna mjesta
 Klinička bolnica Sveti Duh, službeno mrežno mjesto

Bolnice u Zagrebu

Klinička bolnica Sveti Duh


Boragininae, podtribus biljaka, dio tribusa Boragineae, potporodica Boraginoideae. Postoji 15 rodova. Tipični je Borago a poznatija vrsta je boražina (B. officinalis)

Rodovi
 Subtribus Boragininae
 Trachystemon D. Don (1 sp.)
 Brunnera Stev. (3 spp.)
 Phyllocara Gusul. (1 sp.)
 Hormuzakia Gusul. (3 spp.)
 Gastrocotyle Bunge (3 spp.)
 Cynoglottis (Gusul.) Vural & Kit Tan (2 spp.)
 Lycopsis L. (2 spp.)
 Anchusella Bigazzi, E. Nardi & Selvi (2 spp.)
 Anchusa L. (29 spp.)
 Melanortocarya Selvi, Bigazzi, Hilger & Papini (1 sp.)
 Pulmonaria L. (20 spp.)
 Nonea Medik. (46 spp.)
 Symphytum L. (29 spp.)
 Pentaglottis Tausch (1 sp.)
 Borago L. (5 spp.)

Izvori

Boragineae

Boragininae


Gafanha da Encarnação Portekiz'de Ílhavo belediyesine bağlı olan, 11,70 km2 yüzölçümüne sahip, 4.907 nüfuslu (2001) bir bucaktır (Portekizce: freguesia).

Ílhavo'nun bucakları

Gafanha da Encarnação


Heleta bezeichnet:
 alternativ die französische Gemeinde Hélette

Heleta ist der Familienname von

 Uasilaʻa Heleta (* 1987), amerikanisch-samoanischer Fußballnationalspieler

Heleta


Aechmophorus é um género de aves da família Podicipedidae, vulgarmente conhecidas como mergulhões.

Este género contém duas espécies:

 Mergulhão-americano-ocidental (Aechmophorus occidentalis)
 Mergulhão-de-clark (Aechmophorus clarkii)

Podicipedidae
Aechmophorus
Géneros de aves

Aechmophorus


Belgiens Grand Prix er et Formel 1-løb som bliver kørt på Spa-Francorchamps-banen. Det er også blevet afholdt på Zolder og Nivelles-Baulers-banen.

Vindere af Belgiens Grand Prix

Eksterne henvisninger

 Officielle hjemmeside

Belgiens Grand Prix