Korčula (, ) is a Croatian island in the Adriatic Sea. It has an area of , is  long and on average  wide, and lies just off the Dalmatian coast. Its 15,522 inhabitants (2011) make it the second most populous Adriatic island after Krk. The population are almost entirely ethnic Croats (95.74%). The island is twinned with Rothesay in Scotland. It is known for Grk, a white wine that is only produced here and not exported due to limited production.

Geography

The island of Korčula belongs to the central Dalmatian archipelago, separated from the Pelješac peninsula by a narrow Strait of Pelješac, between  wide. It stretches in the east–west direction, in length of ; on average, it is  wide. With an area of , it is the sixth largest Adriatic island. The highest peaks are Klupca,  and Kom,  high.

Main settlements on the island are towns of Korčula,  Blato and Vela Luka.  Villages along the coast are Brna, Račišće, Lumbarda and Prižba; Žrnovo, Pupnat, Smokvica and Čara are located inland. The island is divided into municipalities of Korčula, Smokvica, Blato and Lumbarda. The climate is Mediterranean; an average air temperature in January is  and in July ; the average annual rainfall is . The island is largely covered with Mediterranean flora including extensive pine forests.

The main road runs along the spine of the island connecting all settlements from Lumbarda on the eastern to Vela Luka on the western end, with the exception of Račišće, which is served by a separate road running along the northern coast. Ferries connect the town of Korčula with Orebić on the Pelješac peninsula. Another line connects Vela Luka with Split and the island of Lastovo. Fast passenger catamarans connect those two ports with Split, Dubrovnik and the islands of Hvar, Lastovo and Mljet.

History

Ancient history
According to legend, the island was founded by Trojan hero Aeneas or his friend Antenor.

The island was first settled by Mesolithic and Neolithic peoples. There is archaeological evidence at the sites of Vela Spila and at Jakas Cave near the village of Žrnovo. The findings at Vela Spila are on display at the Center for Culture in Vela Luka. The fate of these peoples is not known but the sites do provide a window into their way of life.

The second wave of human settlement was by Illyrians. It is believed that the Illyrians arrived to the Balkans approximately 1,000 BC. They were semi-nomadic tribal people living from agriculture. There are numerous old stone buildings and fortresses (gradine) left behind by the Illyrians.

Melaina Korkyra () was the ancient Cnidian Greek colony founded on Korčula. Greek colonists from Corfu formed a colony on the island in the 6th century B.C. The Greeks named it "Black Korkyra" after their homeland and the dense pine-woods on the island. Greek artifacts, including carved marble tombstones can be found at the local Korčula town museum.

A stone inscription found in Lumbarda (Lumbarda Psephisma) and which is the oldest written stone monument in Croatia, records that Greek settlers from Issa (Vis) founded another colony on the island in the 3rd century BC. The two communities lived peacefully until the Illyrian Wars (220 BC to 219 BC) with the Romans.

The island became part of the Roman province of Illyricum after the Illyrian Wars. Roman migration followed and Roman citizens arrived on the island. Roman villas appeared through the territory of Korčula and there is evidence of an organised agricultural exploitation of the land. There are archaeological remains of Roman Junianum on the island and old church foundations.

In 10 AD, Illyricum was split into two provinces, Pannonia and Dalmatia. Korčula became part of the ancient Roman province of Dalmatia.

Middle Ages
In the 6th century it came under Byzantine rule. The Great Migrations of the 6th and 7th centuries brought Slavic invasions into this region. Along the Dalmatian coast the Slavic peoples poured out of the interior and seized control of the area of the Neretva Delta, as well as the island of Korčula, which protects the river mouth. The Christianisation of the Croats began in the 9th century, but the early Croatian rural inhabitants of the island may well have fully accepted Christianity only later; in the early Middle Ages the Croatian population of the island was grouped with the pagan Narentines or Neretvians, who quickly learned maritime skills in this new environment and became known as pirates.

Initially, Venetian merchants were willing to pay an annual tribute to keep their shipping safe from the infamous Neretvian pirates of the Dalmatian coast. After the 9th century, the island was briefly under nominal Byzantine suzerainty. In 998 the Principality of Pagania came under Venetian control. Doge Pietro II Orseolo launched a naval expedition along the coast and assumed the title Duke of Dalmatia. Afterwards Korčula came under the control of the Great Principality of Zachlumia.

In the 12th century Korčula was conquered by a Venetian nobleman, Pepone Zorzi, and incorporated briefly into the Republic of Venice. Around this time, the local Korčula rulers began to exercise diplomacy and legislate a town charter to secure the independence of the island, particularly with regard to internal affairs, given its powerful neighbors.

The brothers of Stephen Nemanja, Miroslav and Stracimir, launched an attack on the island on 10 August 1184, raiding its fertile western part. The island's inhabitants called for help from the Republic of Ragusa (Dubrovnik), which in turn captured all of Stracimir's galleys.

The Statute of Korčula was first drafted in 1214. It guaranteed the autonomy of the island, apart from her outside rulers: the semi-independent Grand Principality of Zachlumia, the Grand Principality of Serbia, and the Republics of Ragusa and Venice. Captains were created for each of the island's five settlements for organized defence. Korčula had fewer than 2,500 inhabitants at that time.

In 1221, Pope Honorius III gave the island to the Princes of Krka (the Šubićs). During the 13th century the hereditary Counts of Korčula were loosely governed in turn by the Hungarian crown and by the Republic of Genoa, and also enjoyed a brief period of independence; but, in 1255, Marsilio Zorzi conquered the island's capital and razed or damaged some of its churches in the process, forcing the Counts to return to Venetian suzerainty.

What is more definite is that the Republic of Genoa defeated Venice in the documented Battle of Curzola off the coast of Korčula in 1298 and a galley commander, Marco Polo, was taken prisoner by the victors to eventually spend his time in a Genoese prison writing of his travels. However, some Italian scholars believe that he may have been captured in a minor clash near Ayas.

After the writings of Pope Martin IV in 1284 and Pope Honorius IV in 1286 to the Archbishop of Ragusa, the Archbishop installed a certain Petar as Bishop of Ston and Korčula – stacnensis ac Crozolensis. In 1291, Ivan Kručić was in Korčula's city as the Bishop of Korčula. Kručić contested his overlord, the Archbishop of Hvar, and wanted to unite Ston with his church domain. In 1300, Pope Boniface VIII finally founded the Korčula Bishopric under the Archbishopric of Ragusa. In 1333, as the Republic of Ragusa purchased Ston with Pelješac from the Serbian Empire, the suzerainty of Ston's Roman Catholic Church with the peninsula was given to the Bishopric of Korčula.

Curzola, as the Venetians called the island, surrendered to the Kingdom of Hungary in 1358 according to the Treaty of Zadar, but it surrendered to the Bosnian King Stephen Tvrtko I in the summer of 1390. However the Kingdom of Hungary restored rule of the island, and in December 1396 Croatian-Hungarian King Sigismund gave it to Đurađ II Stracimirović of the Balšić dynasty of Zeta, who kept it up to his death in 1403, when it was returned under the Hungarian crown. In 1409 it again became a part of the Republic of Venice, purchased by the neighbouring Republic of Venice in 1413–1417, it still declared itself subjected to Venice in 1420. In 1571 it defended itself so gallantly against the Ottoman attackers at the Battle of Lepanto that it obtained the designation Fidelissima from the Pope.

Venetian and Austrian rule

Korčula had for years supplied the timber for the wooden walls of Venice, and had been a favourite station of her fleets. From 1776 to 1797 Korčula succeeded Hvar as the main Venetian fortified arsenal in this region. According to the Treaty of Campo Formio in 1797 in which the Republic of Venice was divided between the French Republic and the Habsburg monarchy, Korčula passed on to the Habsburg monarchy.

The French Empire invaded the island in 1806, joining it to the Illyrian Provinces. The Montenegrin Forces of vladika Petar I Petrović-Njegoš conquered the island with Russian naval assistance in 1807 during his attempt to construct another Serbian Empire. The defeat of Austria however at the Battle of Wagram in 1809 had put most of the Adriatic under French control. On 4 February 1813 however, British troops and naval forces under Thomas Fremantle captured the island from the French. This short period of British rule left an important mark on the island; the new stone West quay was built, as well as a semi-circular paved terrace with stone benches on the newly built road towards Lumbarda, and a circular Martello tower, "forteca" on the St. Blaise's Hill above the town. According to the terms of the Congress of Vienna, the British left the island to the Austrian Empire in 1815 on 19 July in terms of the Congress of Vienna. Korčula accordingly became a part of the Austrian crown land of Dalmatia. From 1867, Korčula was in the Cisleithanian part of Austria-Hungary.

20th century
During the World War I, the island (among other territorial gains) was promised to the Kingdom of Italy in the 1915 Treaty of London in return for Italy joining the war on the side of Great Britain and France. However, after the war, Korčula became a part (with the rest of Dalmatia) of the State of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs in 1918. It was ruled by Italy from 1918 to 1921, after which it was incorporated into the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes, known from 1929 on as the Kingdom of Yugoslavia. It became part of the Province of Dalmatia, before becoming part of the Dubrovnik Oblast in 1922. The island became part of the Littoral Banovina in 1929, and finally, in 1939, it became a part of the autonomous Banovina of Croatia.

After the Axis invasion of Yugoslavia in April 1941, Italy annexed the island. After the Armistice of Cassibile between Italy and the Allied powers in September 1943, it was briefly held by the Yugoslav Partisans who enjoyed considerable support in the region. Korčula was then occupied by German forces which controlled the island until their withdrawal in September 1944. With the liberation of Yugoslavia in 1945, the Federal People's Republic of Yugoslavia was formed, and Korčula became a part of the People's Republic of Croatia, one of the six Yugoslav republics. The state changed the name to Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia in 1953, and so did the Republic to Socialist Republic of Croatia. From 1963 to 1974, the island hosted the Korčula Summer School, a ten-day gathering of the European left. After 1991, the island became a part of the independent Republic of Croatia.

Culture
The 17th century saw the rise of Petar Kanavelić who wrote love songs, occasional epic poems and dramas. He also translated from Italian the major poetic works of that time. He is regarded as one of the greatest Croatian writers of 17th century. In 1673 he became the representative of the Korčula community in Venice. There is a primary school named after him in the town of Korčula.

Moreška is a traditional sword dance from the town of Korčula. It is one of the many proud traditional sword dances that are performed on the island. It arrived in Korčula around the 16th century. Korčula has a rich musical history of klape groups. Klapa is a form of a cappella style of singing. The tradition goes back centuries, but the style as we know it today, originated in the 19th century. Oliver Dragojević is a famous Croatian pop singer who comes from the island.

Korčula has a tradition of stonemasonry, which reached its peak during the rule of the Republic of Venice (1420–1797). The island also has a very strong art tradition.

Festivals

Korkyra Baroque Festival
The Korkyra Baroque Festival is an annual international event, launched in 2012. The festival showcases a selection of the world's leading ensembles and soloists specialized in Baroque music. Over ten days a series of concerts and supporting events focus on Baroque music, promoting the richness of Korčula's cultural monuments and the whole town as a unique architectural treasure.

Notable residents
 Arneri family were landowners from 15th century, who built the Palace Arneri in the town of Korčula
 Meri Cetinić (b. 1953), singer from Blato
 Oliver Dragojević (1947–2018), singer from Vela Luka
 Željko Franulović (b.1947), tennis player, runner-up at the 1970 French Open
 Frano Kršinić (1897–1981), sculptor, from Lumbarda.
 Boško Lozica (b.1952), water polo player, silver medalist at the 1980 Summer Olympics
 Sir Fitzroy Maclean, (1911–1996), soldier, writer and politician, from Scotland.
 Ivan Milat Luketa (1922–2009), painter, from Blato.
 Blessed Marija Petković (1892–1966), founder of the Daughters of Mercy Catholic order, from Blato.
 Bill Rancic (b. 1971), is a Croatian American entrepreneur who was hired by the Trump Organization at the conclusion of the first season of the reality television show, The Apprentice, and owns a villa on the island.
 Petar Šegedin (1909–1998), writer, from Žrnovo.
 Zvonimir Šeparović (1928–2022), legal scholar, former diplomat, from Blato.
 Matko Talovac (about 1400–1445), ban of Slavonia from 1435 to 1445, from the town of Korčula.
 Dinko Tomašić (1902–1975), sociologist, from Smokvica.
 Maksimilijan Vanka (1889–1963), Croatian American painter who had a home in Korčula
 Ante Žanetić (1936–2014), Croatian football player and Olympic gold medalist, from Blato.
 Domenica Žuvela (b. 1992), singer

Transport

Korčula is linked to the mainland by a regular ferry service that runs between Dominče, just outside the town of Korčula and Orebić. There are numerous other local ferry services including one linking Vela Luka and Lastovo. The main Croatian ferry operator Jadrolinija runs a service linking Korčula Town with Rijeka, Split, Hvar, Mljet, Dubrovnik and (from May to September) Bari. An operator Linijska Nacionalna Plovidba runs a seasonal service linking Korčula with Drvenik.

There are also bus services that link the island to major cities on the mainland, which reach Korčula using the Orebić ferry service.

Korčula town also has mooring facilities. The western harbour gives shelter from wind though not against the bora and north-westerlies. Boat owners are advised to shift to the eastern harbour or to Luka Cove. The port is open to international seaborne traffic as a permanent port of entry; it offers all types of repairs to hulls and engines at the Brodograditelj Shipyard.

See also
 Corfu
 Croatia
 Dalmatia
 Dubrovnik-Neretva County
 Republic of Venice
 Tentative list of World Heritage Sites in Croatia

References

Notes

Bibliography

External links

 Korčula photos

Islands of Croatia
Islands of the Adriatic Sea
Landforms of Dubrovnik-Neretva County
Cities in ancient Illyria
Illyrian Croatia
Trojan colonies
Greek colonies in Illyria
Corcyraean colonies
Former populated places in the Balkans

Korčula


Somoni (TJS) er Tadsjikistans valuta.
1 somoni svarer ca. til 0,70 danske kroner (per 2019). Valutaen er opkaldt efter faderen af Tadsjikistan, Isma'il ibn Ahmad (også kendt som Ismoil Somoni).

referencer

Møntenheder fra Asien
Tadsjikistan

Somoni


الزينة الملحقة بالأزياء هي زينة غرضها التكميل. وتُسمَّى التوابع أو اللواحق أو المُلحقات أو اللوازم. تشمل اللواحق المجوهرات والقفازات والحقائب والقبعات والأحزمة والأوشحة والساعات والنظارات الشمسية والدبابيس والجوارب والطماق وغيرها. ومع أن للواحق مهمة محددة مثل (التدفئة التغطية والمحافظة وغير ذلك) إلا أنها تهدف أيضًا إلى تجميل المظهر بإضافة لون أو طراز للملابس وخلق مظهر معين. وقد أدرجت مؤخرا أشياءٌ في فئة اللواحق لم تكن من قبل ولا تُعد جزءًا من الملابس، مثل الهواتف المحمولة أو مشغلات إم بي 3 MP3. لغوياً تأتى كلمة إكسسوارات من أصل الكلمة الإنجليزية Accessories والتي تعنى إضافات أو ملحقات.

مراجع

زينة ملحقة
ملابس

زينة ملحقة بالأزياء


استاد الإسماعيلية هو ملعب رياضي متعدد الاستخدامات يقع في مدينة الإسماعيلية في مصر. وهو يستضيف مباريات العودة لنادي الإسماعيلي لكرة القدم. وهو واحد من ستة ملاعب اُستُخدِمَت في كأس الأمم الأفريقية لكرة القدم 2006 التي عقدت في مصر، وقد كان أيضًا من الملاعب التي استضافت مباريات كأس العالم للشباب 2009 بمصر. تبلغ سعته 18,525 متفرج، ويقع في وسط المدينة حيث يحده أربعة شوارع مدرج الدرجة الأولى والمقصورة تقع في شارع رضا ومدرج الدرجة التانية وسط تقع في شارع شبين وهذه أبرز الشوارع بالمدينة، كما يضم أيضًا ملعبًا فرعيًّا وملعبي تنس وحمام سباحة وبه موقف للسيارات يتسع لـ 15 سيارة فقط، وهذا العدد القليل لأن الملعب يقع في وسط المدينة ويستطاع الوصول له بأي وسيلة مواصلة بالبلد أو حتى بالسير على الأقدام.

يعتبر من أقدم الملاعب في التاريخ أنشئ عام 1939 م، واستضاف مباريات كثيرة، وهو مخصص لمباريات النادي الإسماعيلي الرياضي بالإسماعيلية.

مراجع

تأسيسات سنة 1934
محافظة الإسماعيلية
ملاعب كرة قدم في مصر
النادي الإسماعيلي
استادات كأس الأمم الإفريقية لكرة القدم 2019

استاد الإسماعيلية


A Legião de Tropas Ligeiras de São Paulo, oficialmente a Legião de Voluntários Reais de São Paulo, foi uma milícia paulista, criada em 1775 pelo capitão-general da Capitania de São Paulo, Martim Lopes Lobo Saldanha, para reconquistar o território correspondente ao atual Rio Grande do Sul, ocupado pelos espanhóis desde 1763. Foi criada, baseada na fama dos paulistas (como bandeirantes) de grandes guerreiros e exploradores. Foi a partir de seu estabelecimento, que as tropas luso-brasileiras ganharam maior organização e disciplina.

História

Reconquista do Rio Grande do Sul
Em 1763, a Capitania do Rio Grande de São Pedro (atual Rio Grande do Sul) foi invadida pelo litoral pelo governador de Buenos Aires, Pedro de Cevallos, e, em 1773, pela Campanha, por outro governador de Buenos Aires, o mexicano Juan José de Vértiz y Salcedo. Invasões que chegaram a controlar cerca de dois terços do território sul-rio-grandense. Para expulsar o invasor, Portugal concentrou em São José do Norte o Exército do Sul ao comando do tenente-general Henrique Bohn. Os espanhóis controlavam o território ocupado da Vila de Rio Grande e dos fortes de São Martinho, ao norte de Santa Maria e em Santa Tecla, atual Bagé. Para este esforço de guerra, a Capitania de São Paulo enviou, por mar, de Santos até Ilha de Santa Catarina, e desta ilha por terra até Porto Alegre, o Regimento de Infantaria de São Paulo e, por terra ao longo do caminho das Tropas até Porto Alegre a Legião de Voluntários Reais de São Paulo. No total, São Paulo enviou 2,000 soldados paulistas.

Epidemia
Uma epidemia de varíola que começou a grassar em São Paulo desde abril de 1775, além de atingir sua população, fez grande número de mortos entre os soldados do Regimento de Infantaria e da Legião de São Paulo ali reunidos, antes de partir para o Rio Grande do Sul.

Do Regimento de São Paulo faleceram em Porto Alegre, em decorrência da epidemia, de 2 março a 9 de novembro de 1776, 89 militares e mais 6 da Legião de São Paulo, além de 4 civis paulistas num total de 99 paulistas. Entre os soldados do Regimento de São Paulo registrou-se o óbito do soldado Bernardo Nunes, de 12 anos de idade, e outros sete soldados com 16 anos de idade. A maioria dos óbitos ocorreram entre os soldados com cerca de 20 anos e média.

Batalhas

Século XVIII

 Batalha do Forte de Santa Tecla (1776)

Século XIX

 Primeira Campanha da Cisplatina (1811—1812)
 Guerra contra Artigas (1816—1820)
 Batalha de Ybirocaí
 Batalha de Carumbé
 Batalha de Catalão
 Batalha de Tucuarembó
 Guerra da Cisplatina (1825—1828)
 Guerra do Prata (1851—1870)
 Cerco de Paysandú (1864—1865)
 Guerra da Tríplice Aliança (1864—1870)
 Batalha de Estero Bellaco (1866)
 Batalha de Tuiuti (1866)
 Batalha de Curupaiti (1866)
 Passagem de Humaitá (1868)
 Batalha de Avaí (1868)
 Batalha de Lomas Valentinas (1868)
 Rendição de Angostura (1868)
 Dezembrada (1868)

História do Rio Grande do Sul
História do estado de São Paulo

Legião de Tropas Ligeiras de São Paulo


Mjaðurtarlús (fræðiheiti: Macrosiphum cholodkovskyi) er blaðlús sem lifir aðallega á mjaðurtarættkvísl (Filipendula).

Tilvísanir

Skordýr
Aphididae
Skordýr á Íslandi

Mjaðurtarlús


Prințesa Carolyne zu Sayn-Wittgenstein (8 februarie 1819 - 9 martie 1887) a fost o aristocrată poloneză care a avut timp de patruzeci de ani o relație cu pianistul maghiar Franz Liszt. Ea a fost, de asemenea, o jurnalistă și eseistă amatoare și se presupune că a avut o contribuție importantă asupra operei lui Liszt, mai ales asupra scrierii biografiei Viața lui Chopin. Ea a întreținut o imensă corespondență cu Liszt și cu multe alte personalități ale vremii, care are un interes istoric ridicat. Ea l-a admirat și l-a încurajat pe Hector Berlioz, după cum reiese din vasta lor corespondență. Berlioz i-a dedicat prințesei Carolyne opera Les Troyens. Ea a fost portretizată de Capucine în filmul Song Without End (1960).

Biografie

Karolina Elżbieta Iwanowska s-a născut în Woronińce (astăzi Voronivți (Воронівці), Ucraina), la una dintre numeroasele moșii ale părinților ei din Polonia de est, pe atunci o provincie a Imperiului Rus. Pe 26 aprilie 1836, la doar două luni după ce a împlinit vârsta de 17 ani (și la presiunea tatălui ei), Carolyne s-a căsătorit cu prințul Nikolaus zu Sayn-Wittgenstein-Berleburg-Ludwigsburg (1812-1864), un ofițer în Armata Rusiei, care era, de asemenea, un membru al unei vechi familii nobiliare și fiul lui Peter Wittgenstein. Au avut o singură fiică, Marie Pauline Antoinette (1837-1920), care s-a căsătorit mai târziu cu prințul Konstantin zu Hohenlohe-Waldenburg-Schillingsfürst (fratele prințului Chlodwig zu Hohenlohe-Schillingsfürst, ministrul de externe al Regatului Bavaria până la unificarea acestuia cu Imperiul German).

Prințesa Carolyne l-a întâlnit pe Franz Liszt în anul 1847, în timpul unui turneu muzical în Rusia. Prințesa, o credincioasă ferventă romano-catolică, se înstrăinase pe atunci de la soțul ei de ceva vreme. Ea și Liszt au început să trăiască împreună la Weimar din 1848. În cele din urmă, ea a dorit să-și reglementeze situația și să se căsătorească cu Liszt, dar din moment ce soțul ei era încă în viață, a trebuit să convingă autoritățile ecleziastice romano-catolice că mariajul ei era nelegal. După un proces complicat, care a implicat două audiențe la Papă, ea a avut temporar succes (septembrie 1860), și cuplul a plănuit să se căsătorească la Roma pe 22 octombrie 1861, cu prilejul celei de-a cincizecea aniversări a lui Liszt. Compozitorul a ajuns la Roma în ziua anterioară, doar pentru a afla că prințesa era în imposibilitatea de a se căsători cu el. Se pare că atât soțul ei, cât și țarul Rusiei au reușit să anuleze permisiunea de căsătorie acordată la Vatican. Guvernul rus i-a confiscat, de asemenea, mai multe moșii (ea deținea mii de iobagi), ceea ce făcea căsătoria ei ulterioară cu Liszt, sau cu oricine altcineva, nerealizabilă. În plus, scandalul a afectat grav șansele de căsătorie ale fiicei sale — în mod clar principalul motiv pentru care prințul a pus capăt recăsătoririi programate a soției sale.

Ulterior, relația ei cu Liszt a devenit o prietenie platonică, mai ales după ce el a primit ordinele minore ale Bisericii Catolice și a devenit abate. Carolyne a trăit mai multe decenii la Roma, unde a scris în particular (și foarte critic) despre chestiunile bisericești. Ea a fost devastată de moartea lui Liszt și i-a supraviețuit doar câteva luni, murind pe 9 martie 1887, la Roma.

Lucrări
Carolyne zu Sayn-Wittgenstein a fost o scriitoare prolifică, dar cele mai multe dintre lucrările ei au fost tipărite pe propriile cheltuieli; principala lucrare este Des  causes intérieures de la faiblesse extérieure de l'Église (titlul ar putea fi tradus ca "Motivele interioare ale slăbiciunii exterioare a Bisericii"), o carte masivă alcătuită din 24 de volume. Cartea a fost plasată în Index librorum prohibitorum, lista cărților interzise ale Bisericii Catolice.

O publicație postumă  a fost La vie chrétienne au milieu du monde et en notre siècle. Entretiens pratiques recueillis et publiés par Henri Lasserre, Paris, 1895.

Referințe

Lectură suplimentară
 Francesco Barberio, Liszt e la Principessa de Sayn-Wittgenstein, Roma: Unione Editrice 1912.
  Hector Berlioz, Lettres à la princesse, Paris: L'Herne 2001 (correspondence with the princess Sayn-Wittgenstein).
 Briefe von Hector Berlioz an die Fürstin Caroline Sayn-Wittgenstein (hrsg. v. La Mara), Leipzig: Breitkopf & Härtel 1903.
 Ideale Freundschaft und romantische Liebe. Briefe an die Fürstin Carolyne Sayn-Wittgenstein und Frau Estelle Fornier (hrsg. v. La Mara; = Literarische Werke, Bd. 5), a.d. Frz. v. Gertrud Savić, Leipzig: Breitkopf & Härtel 1903.
 Marcel Herwegh, Au Soir des dieux ; Des derniers reflets Wagneriens à la mort de Liszt , Paris: Peyronnet 1933.
 La Mara (i.e. Marie Lipsius, Hrsg.), Franz Liszt's Briefe an die Fürstin Carolyne Sayn-Wittgenstein, Leipzig: Breitkopf & Härtel 1899 fr
 La Mara (i.e. Marie Lipsius, Hrsg.), Aus der Glanzzeit der Weimarer Altenburg. Bilder und Briefe aus dem Leben dem Fürstin Carolyne Sayn-Wittgenstein, Leipzig: Breitkopf & Härtel 1906.
 La Mara (i.e. Marie Lipsius, Hrsg.), An der Schwelle des Jenseits. Letzte Erinnerungen an die Fürstin Carolyne Sayn-Wittgenstein, die Freundin Liszts, Leipzig: Breitkopf & Härtel 1925.
 Émile Ollivier, Correspondance. Emile Ollivier et Carolyne de Sayn-Wittgenstein, Paris: Presse univérsitaire 1984.
 Sammlung von Handzeichnungen aus dem Besitze der Fürstin Carolyne Sayn-Wittgenstein (1819-1889), München: Emil Hirsch, Antiquariat, 1922.
 Adelheid von Schorn (Hrsg.), Zwei Menschenalter. Erinnerungen und Briefe, Berlin: S. Fischer 1901.

Nașteri în 1819
Decese în 1887
Polonezi din secolul al XIX-lea
Compozitori din secolul al XIX-lea
Scriitoare din secolul al XIX-lea
Casa de Sayn-Wittgenstein
Nobili polonezi

Carolyne zu Sayn-Wittgenstein


TV Rio Turiaçu é uma emissora de televisão brasileira sediada em Santa Helena, cidade do estado do Maranhão. Opera nos canais 11 VHF analógico e 28 UHF digital, e é afiliada à RecordTV. Pertence ao Sistema Rio Turiaçu de Comunicação, que também controla na cidade a Santa Helena FM.

História
A TV Rio Turiaçu entrou no ar em 14 de abril de 2011, operando em caráter experimental, sem programação local. A emissora era inicialmente afiliada à Rede Mirante e à Rede Globo.

A emissora estreia seu primeiro programa local em 24 de março de 2012. Entra na grade o SHTV, telejornal vespertino exibido aos sábados, no lugar do programa Esporte 10. Era ancorado por Nonato Costa.

Em janeiro de 2013, a emissora deixa a Rede Globo e passa a ser afiliada à TV Cidade e à Rede Record. Em 5 de janeiro, estreia, no lugar do SHTV, o Balanço Geral SH, apresentado por Nelson Costa.

Em 19 de janeiro de 2016, a torre da TV Rio Turiaçu desaba, atingindo uma casa vizinha. O motivo teria sido a falta de manutenção na torre da emissora.

Sinal digital

A TV Rio Turiaçu recebeu a outorga para operar no canal 28 UHF digital em 13 de outubro de 2014, e ativou o sinal quase seis anos depois, em 18 de agosto de 2021.

Programas
Atualmente, além de retransmitir a programação nacional da RecordTV e estadual da TV Cidade, a TV Rio Turiaçu produz e exibe os seguintes programas:

 Balanço Geral SH: Jornalístico, com Nelson Costa;
 Capim a Voz do Povo: Jornalístico, com Antônio Abreu (Capim);

Diversos outros programas compuseram a grade da emissora, e foram descontinuados:

 Agitação Mix
 SHTV
 Só Balada

Equipe

Membros atuais

 Antônio Abreu
 Karlilson Costa
 Nelson Costa

Membros antigos

 Carlos Mirley
 Gleicy Ferreira
 Helen de Oliveira
 Hellen Mendes
 Jovane Dias (hoje na Sucesso FM)
 Luiz Lázaro (hoje na Santa Helena FM)
 Nonato Costa
 Paulinho Castro
 Wagner Ferraz
 Zeca Mendes (hoje na Pinheiro FM)

Ver também

 RecordTV
 Rede Mirante
 TV Cidade (São Luís)
 TV Globo

Ligações externas

Canais de televisão fundados em 2011
Emissoras da RecordTV
Santa Helena (Maranhão)

TV Rio Turiaçu


Beatboxing (also beat boxing) is a form of vocal percussion primarily involving the art of mimicking drum machines (typically a TR-808), using one's mouth, lips, tongue, and voice. It may also involve vocal imitation of turntablism, and other musical instruments. Beatboxing today is connected with hip-hop culture, often referred to as "the fifth element" of hip-hop, although it is not limited to hip-hop music. The term "beatboxing" is sometimes used to refer to vocal percussion in general.

Origins
Techniques similar to beatboxing have been employed in diverse American musical genres since the 19th century, such as early rural music, both black and white, religious songs, blues, ragtime, vaudeville, and hokum. Examples include the Appalachian technique of eefing and the blues song Bye bye bird by Sonny Boy Williamson II.

Additional influences may perhaps include forms of African traditional music, in which performers utilize their bodies (e.g., by clapping or stomping) as percussion instruments and produce sounds with their mouths by breathing loudly in and out, a technique used in beatboxing today.

Many well-known performers used vocal percussion occasionally, even though this was not directly connected to the cultural tradition that came to be known as beatboxing. Paul McCartney's "That Would Be Something" (1969) includes vocal percussion. Pink Floyd's "Pow R. Toc H." (1967) also includes vocal percussion performed by the group's original lead vocalist, Syd Barrett. Jazz singers Bobby McFerrin and Al Jarreau were very well known for their vocal styles and techniques, which have had great impact on techniques beatboxers use today. Michael Jackson was known to record himself beatboxing on a dictation tape recorder as a demo and scratch recording to compose several of his songs, including "Billie Jean", "The Girl Is Mine", and others. In contrast, the English progressive rock band Jethro Tull adopted beatboxing on at least one track on their 2003 Christmas album. Gert Fröbe, a German actor most widely known for playing Auric Goldfinger in the James Bond film Goldfinger, "beatboxes" as Colonel Manfred von Holstein (simultaneously vocalizing horned and percussive instruments) in Those Magnificent Men in Their Flying Machines, a 1965 British comedy film.

Contribution to hip-hop
Modern beatboxing first began as a way to assist or backup the MC. When drum machines were unavailable or unaffordable, communities in the inner city of New York began to mimic the sounds with their voices in cyphers. The term "beatboxing" is derived from the mimicry of early drum machines, then known as beatboxes, particularly the Roland TR-808. The term "beatbox" was used to refer to earlier Roland drum machines such as the TR-55 and CR-78 in the 1970s. They were followed by the TR-808, released in 1980, which became central to hip hop music and electronic dance music. It is the TR-808 that human beatboxing is largely modeled after.

"Human beatboxing" in hip-hop originated in the 1980s. Its early pioneers include Doug E. Fresh, the self-proclaimed first "human beatbox" (and arguably its most famous practitioner); Swifty, the first to implement the inhale sound technique; Buffy, who helped perfect many beatboxing techniques; and Wise, who contributed significantly to beat boxing's proliferation. Wise inspired an entire new fan base of human beatboxers with his human turntable technique. Other pioneers of beatboxing include Rahzel well known for his realistic robotic sounds and for his ability to sing and beatbox simultaneously, Scratch a beatboxer and musician well known for further revolutionizing the use of vocal scratching in beatboxing, Kenny Muhammad The Human Orchestra, a beatboxer known for his technicality and outstanding rhythmic precision, who pioneered the inward k snare, a beatbox technique that imitates a snare drum by breathing inward, and Emanon, an early protegee of Doug E. Fresh associated with Ice T and Afrika Islam. Many refer to beatboxing as the unofficial 5th element of hip-hop.

Modern beatboxing

The Internet has played a large part in the popularity of modern beatboxing. Alex Tew (aka A-Plus) started the first online community of beatboxers in 2000 under the banner of HUMANBEATBOX.COM. An early example of modern beatboxing was seen in the 2001 South Korean romantic comedy film My Sassy Girl. In 2001, Gavin Tyte, a member of this community created the world's first tutorials and video tutorials on beatboxing. In 2003, the community held the world's first Human Beatbox Convention in London featuring beatbox artists from all over the world.

Beatboxing's current popularity is due in part to releases from artists such as Rahzel, RoxorLoops, Reeps One and Alem. In the Pacific, American beatboxer of Hawaii Chinese descent Jason Tom co-founded the Human Beatbox Academy to perpetuate the art of beatboxing through outreach performances, speaking engagements and workshops in Honolulu, the westernmost and southernmost major U.S. city of the 50th U.S. state of Hawaii.

Sometimes, modern beatboxers will use their hand or another part of their body to extend the spectrum of sound effects and rhythm. Some have developed a technique that involves blowing and sucking air around their fingers to produce a very realistic record scratching noise, which is commonly known as the "crab scratch." Another hand technique includes the "throat tap," which involves beatboxers tapping their fingers against their throats as they throat sing or hum. Beatboxers today can produce up to 2 different sounds at the same time.

Modern beatboxing has also evolved with the advent of technology such as live looping. Many beatboxers like Beardyman, KRNFX, and The Petebox use modern looping devices such as the Boss RC-505 to sample or layer their beatboxing sounds live on stage, in addition to traditional solo beatboxing. Such adaptation has allowed modern beatboxers to perform entire musical compositions much like DJ's but with their mouths.

Today there is an increase in the variety in which we see beatboxing throughout musical culture. People have gone as far as adding beatboxing in with different instruments to create a completely different sound unlike any other. Artist Greg Patillo goes as far as adding in beatboxing while playing the flute to very iconic songs. Beatbox has become modernized and has even been seen in popular movies such as Pitch Perfect and Pitch Perfect 2. These movies showcase classical songs performed with a cappella covers in which all of the beats to the songs are done completely using the idea and technique of beatboxing to complete the sound capable to imitate the original song.

Notation

As with other musical disciplines, some form of musical notation or transcription may sometimes be useful in order to describe beatbox patterns or performances. Sometimes this takes the form of ad hoc phonetic approximations, but is occasionally more formal.  is usually the bass drum,  is usually the snare drum, and  () is usually the hi-hat (in : 𝄆b-ts-k-ts-b-ts-k-ts𝄇).

Standard Beatbox Notation (SBN) was created by Mark Splinter and Gavin Tyte of Humanbeatbox.com in 2006 as an alternative to International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) transcription, which had been used sparingly before then.

In a research study published in 2013 and based on real-time MRI imaging of a beatboxer, the authors propose a notation system which combines the International Phonetic Alphabet with musical staff notation, in part motivated by their observation that many beatboxing sounds can be adequately represented by the IPA.

Phonology
Each beatboxer can produce a very large number of unique sounds, but there are three distinct linguistic categories of sound within beatboxing. Ejectives are the strong puffs of air from the voice box that give intensity to percussive sounds. The "t", "p", and "k" sounds can all be made into ejectives. "Ch" and "j" are examples of ejective affricates.

Nonstandard fricatives are the mechanical sounds such as snare drums, cymbals, and other buzzing noises in beatboxing that are made with fricatives. Certain sounds, such as velar lateral fricatives, bilabial lateral fricatives, and linguolabial fricatives, and velar trills are all judged impossible according to the IPA but are technically possible and are sounds that are commonly used in beatboxing.

Coarticulation is the act of controlling a sound in two places at once. A common example of this is the sound created by rolling an "r" sound while saying a "v" sound. This is called a voiced alveolar trill with labiodental articulation. Similarly, epenthesis is the sound created when beatboxers sing and do percussion at the same time. Contrary to what the sound suggests, their tongue is not in two places at once. This effect is created by placing percussive sounds in the middle of words.

Multi-vocalism
Multi-vocalism is a form of vocal musicianship conceptualized by British Beatboxer and vocalist Killa Kela. It describes Beatboxers who incorporate other vocal disciplines and practices into their routines and performances such as singing, rapping, sound mimicry and other vocal arts. Beardyman is a well known multi-vocalist.

World records
According to the Guinness World Records, the current record for the largest human beatbox ensemble was set by The Hong Kong Federation of Youth Groups, with  6,430 participants, in celebration of the 20th anniversary of the establishment of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region on 26 June 2017.

Prior to this, the record was set by Booking.com employees with 4,659 participants. It was achieved by Booking.com employees together with beatboxers at the RAI Amsterdam in Amsterdam, Netherlands, on 10 December 2013 during their annual company meeting.

The previous largest human beatbox ensemble involved 2,081 participants and was achieved by Google (Ireland), Shlomo (UK) and Testament (UK) at The Convention Centre, Dublin, Ireland on 14 November 2011.

Before Shlomo's record, the previous record for the largest human beatbox ensemble involved 1,246 participants and was achieved by Vineeth Vincent and Christ University (India) in Bangalore, Karnataka, India, on 5 February 2011.

Selected discography
This list is a selected discography of commercial releases which are mostly/entirely beatbox-based or are otherwise notable/influential records in the history of beatboxing and its popularization.

1980s
Michael Winslow – Police Academy (1984)
Fat Boys – "Human Beat Box" from "Fat Boys" (1984)
Doug E. Fresh – "The Show" & "La Di Da Di" (1985)
UTFO - "Bite It (UTFO song)" (1985)
Emanon - "The Baby Beatbox" (1986)
Roxanne Shante & Biz Markie - "Def Fresh Crew / Biz Beat" 12" (1986)
Just-Ice – Back to the Old School (1986)
Wise – Just Say Stet (1985), Faye (1986) & Stet Troop 88 (1988)
Biz Markie – Goin' Off (includes beatbox track "Make The Music With Your Mouth, Biz") (1988)
Vanilla Ice – Havin' a Roni – from To The Extreme (1990)
Snap! – Only Human – B-side on Mary Had A Little Boy 12" (1990)

1990s
Rahzel – Make The Music 2000 (1999)

2000s
Kyle "Scratch" Jones – The Embodiment of Instrumentation (2002)
Killa Kela – The Permanent Marker (2002)
Esham – Out Cold (2003)
Justin Timberlake – "Rock Your Body" (2003)
Rahzel – Rahzel's Greatest Knock Outs (2004)
Björk – Medúlla (2004)
Joel Turner – "These Kids" (2004)
Matisyahu – "Live at Stubb's" (2005)
Biz Markie – Make the Music with Your Mouth, Biz (2006)
Poizunus – A.D.D. (Active Dreaming Disorder) (2007)
Kid Beyond – Amplivate (2004)
Blake Lewis – A.D.D. (Audio Day Dream) (2007)
Dub FX – "Everythinks a Ripple" (2009)

2010s
Beardyman – I Done A Album (2011)
Hopsin – "Lunch Time Cypher" (2013)
Reeps One – "Move" (2013)
Berywam - "Berywam" (2017)
NaPoM – "Lips" (2018)

2020s
Show-Go - "Silver" (2022)
D-low - "LanigirO" (2022)
Stitch - "Stay With Me" (2022)
Den - "Moments I had" (2022)

In popular culture
When asked to beatbox, Siri will repeat the phrase "Boots and Cats" to mimic beatboxing. Teen Vogue called it "perhaps the most entertaining mid-day pick-me-up ever created." Hamilton: An American Musical used some BeatBoxing in "Aaron Burr, Sir".

Beatboxing can often be seen in national advertisements. A GEICO radio commercial, featuring a supermarket employee beatboxing various announcements over a store intercom ("Cleanup on aisle 14" with beats interspersed), won the Westwood One Sports Sounds Awards Media Choice Award for best commercial heard during the radio network's coverage of Super Bowl LII. A 2021 national M&M's commercial seen in Times Square features American beatbox looping champion SungBeats.

See also

List of beatboxers
Grand Beatbox Battle
Beatbox Battle World Championship
Mouth drumming
Konnakol
Scat singing
Puirt a beul
Breath Control: The History of the Human Beat Box
Beatrhyming
Incredibox

References

External links

Beatboxing-Communities supporting the scene for more than 10 years:
 Swissbeatbox.com - World's largest Beatbox Platform.
 Beatboxbattle.tv - Organizer of the World Beatbox Championship.
 Humanbeatbox.com - One of the first Beatboxing Online-Communities.

Vocal skills
Vocal percussion

Beatboxing


Mary J. Blige (n. 11 ianuarie 1971) este o cântăreață, compozitoare și actriță americană, care a primit nouă premii Grammy.

Discografie
Albume

1992: What's the 411?
1994: My Life
1997: Share My World
1999: Mary
2001: No More Drama
2003: Love & Life
2005: The Breakthrough
2007: Growing Pains
2009: Stronger with Each Tear
2011: My Life II... The Journey Continues (Act 1)
2013: A Mary Christmas
2014: The London Sessions
2017: Strenght of a Woman

Filmografie
 Prison Song (2001)
 I Can Do Bad All By Myself (2009)
 Rock of Ages (2012)
 Black Nativity (2013)
 Champs (2014)
 Mudbound (2017)
 Sherlock Gnomes (2018)	ca	Irene (voce)
 Pink Skies Ahead (2020)	ca	Doctor Monroe
 Trolls World Tour (2020)	ca	Queen Essence (voce)
 Body Cam (2020)	ca	Renee
 The Violent Heart (2020)	ca	Nina;	Post-producție
 Respect (2020)

Note

Legături externe

 Site oficial

Nașteri în 1971
Nașteri pe 11 ianuarie
Actrițe americane din secolul al XX-lea
Actrițe americane din secolul al XXI-lea
Cântărețe americane din secolul al XX-lea
Cântărețe americane din secolul al XXI-lea
Femei afro-americane
Muzicieni ai Geffen Records
Muzicieni americani
Compozitori americani
Oameni în viață

Mary J. Blige


Michihiro Tsuruta (født 4. januar 1968) er en tidligere japansk fodboldspiller.

Han har spillet for flere forskellige klubber i sin karriere, herunder Nagoya Grampus Eight og Ventforet Kofu.

Eksterne henvisninger

Fodboldspillere fra Japan

Michihiro Tsuruta


Play FM São Paulo foi uma estação de rádio brasileira concessionada em Mogi das Cruzes e sediada em São Paulo, respectivamente cidade e capital do estado homônimo. Operava em 92,1 MHz e era a geradora da Play FM. Seus estúdios ficavam no 3.º andar do Edifício Sir Winston Churchill, no Espigão da Paulista, e sua antena de transmissão estava no alto da Serra do Itapeti, em Mogi das Cruzes.

História
A frequência de FM 92,1 MHz é uma concessão pertencente a família Sanzone, cujos membros são donos de emissoras como a Metropolitana FM, outorgada na cidade de São Paulo, e a Rádio Metropolitana, oriunda de Mogi das Cruzes. A concessão em FM desta rádio foi outorgada em 14 de agosto de 1980.

Inicialmente, a frequência transmitiu a programação da Metropolitana FM local, depois virou a 92 FM, até a mudança da rádio Líder FM de 104,1 MHz (frequência que hoje abriga a Top FM) para 92,1 MHz em 1995. A rádio encerrou as suas atividades no dia 13 de outubro de 1999, quando a frequência passou a ser arrendada para o Grupo Record, que no lugar da emissora lançou a Emoção FM, com programação popular. Após o término do projeto da Emoção FM, a frequência foi novamente arrendada, dessa vez para a Igreja Pentecostal Deus É Amor.

Com o sucesso da Oi FM - rede de rádio com naming rights da operadora Oi - o Grupo Bandeirantes de Comunicação decidiu se aventurar no mercado lançando uma nova emissora com naming rights da seguradora SulAmérica, ao lado da empresa de publicidade MPM Propaganda. O resultado final da parceria colocou no ar a Rádio SulAmérica Trânsito, primeira emissora especializada em informações do trânsito no Brasil, que teve a sua estreia em 12 de fevereiro de 2007.

A parceria que mantinha os naming rights da SulAmérica na rádio foi encerrada em 1.º de julho de 2016, quando a rádio passou a se identificar apenas como "Rádio Trânsito". A rádio voltou a ter naming rights em novembro, após fechar uma parceria com a distribuidora Caçula de Pneus, fazendo com que a emissora passasse a se identificar como "Rádio Trânsito Caçula de Pneus". Por não renovar o contrato com o Grupo Bandeirantes, a Caçula de Pneus deixou de fazer parte do nome da rádio, que voltou a se identificar apenas como "Rádio Trânsito" em maio de 2018.

Em fevereiro de 2020 a emissora chegou a mudar de nome, identificando-se apenas como "92.1 FM" porém em 9 de março ela voltou a se chamar "Rádio Trânsito".

Devido ao crescente uso dos aplicativos de rota, a emissora encerrou suas atividades no dia 22 de julho de 2020 e foi substituída pela Play FM, novo projeto de rádio do Grupo Bandeirantes. Chamadas de expectativa foram veiculadas até o dia 31 de julho de 2020, quando a nova emissora entrou no ar. Desde então passou a ser a geradora da nova rede.

Em 14 de dezembro de 2022, foi anunciado que a emissora seria encerrada no dia 31, sendo substituída pela rádio gospel Feliz FM à meia-noite de 01 de janeiro de 2023.

Play FM São Paulo
São Paulo
Estações de rádio fundadas em 2020

Play FM São Paulo


Ryu So-yeon (en ), née le  à Séoul, est une golfeuse sud-coréenne.

Liens externes

Golfeuse sud-coréenne
Naissance à Séoul
Naissance en juin 1990

Ryu So-yeon


Hakea lorea, é um espécie de arbusto ou pequena árvore da família Proteaceae, encontrado no centro e norte da Austrália. Tem folhas em forma de agulha, suas flores são amarelas e seu  tronco é rígido.

Descrição
H. lorea cresce como uma árvore retorcida até aproximadamente 10 metros de altura, ou como um arbusto de 1 a 5 metros de altura e forma um lignotúber. Os ramos e folhas são densamente cobertos de pelos achatados e macios. Os pelos permanecem nas folhas, mas eventualmente os ramos tornam-se lisos. As folhas em forma de agulha são simples ou bifurcadas e medem de 15 a 70 centímetros de comprimento e de 1 a 2.5 milímetros largura. A inflorescência consiste de 15 a 200 pequenas flores amarelas, brancas ou verdes. A floração ocorre principalmente de abril a setembro. A raque é densamente coberto com pelos curtos e macios. O perianto tem de 5 a 12 milímetros comprimento. Os frutos tem de 2,5 a 5,4 centímetros de comprimento e 0,9 a 2,8 centímetros de largura, possui um bico longo, curvo e afilado.

Taxonomia e nomeação
A espécie foi formalmente descrita pela primeira vez por Robert Brown como Grevillea lorea em 1810 em "Prodromus Florae Novae Hollandiae et Insulae Van Diemen" após ser coletada em Shoalwater Bay, Queensland em setembro de 1802, antes de reclassificá-la no gênero Hakea em 1830, em seu livro "Supplementum primum prodromi florae Novae Hollandiae" . Seu nome lorea é derivado do latim "feito de finas tiras de couro" e está relacionado às suas folhas. Pertence a um grupo de espécies relacionadas conhecidas como corkbarks, dentro do gênero Hakea, sendo a maioria encontradas no interior árido da Austrália. Duas subespécies são atualmente reconhecidas. A subespécie nomeada lorea é encontrada em grande parte do centro e norte da Austrália, enquanto a subespécie borealis é encontrada em Kimberley e no norte do Território do Norte. A espécie como está atualmente inclui quatro espécies descritas no centro e norte da Austrália que se misturam umas nas outras uniformemente H. lorea, H. suberea, H. cunninghamii e a rara H. fraseri.

Distribuição e habitat
A H. lorea estende-se pelo interior do centro e do norte da Austrália, desde o sul da Península do Cabo York até ao nordeste, ao sul de Darling Downs, ao sudeste até o norte da Austrália Meridional e Pilbara no oeste.

É uma planta de crescimento lento, mas atraente no cultivo, suas folhas e casca são características. Sol pleno e boa drenagem são essenciais em seu desenvolvimento.

Galeria

Referências

Plantas descritas em 1810
Flora da Austrália

Hakea lorea


Doctrina militară este expresia modului în care forțele militare contribuie la campanii, operațiuni mari, bătălii și angajamente.

Este un ghid pentru acțiune, mai degrabă decât reguli dure și rapide. Doctrina oferă un cadru comun de referință în cadrul armatei. Aceasta ajută la standardizarea operațiunilor, facilitând pregătirea prin stabilirea unor modalități comune de a îndeplini sarcinile militare.

Doctrina leagă teoria, istoria, experimentarea și practica. Obiectivul său este de a încuraja inițiativa și gândirea creativă. Doctrina oferă armatei un corp autoritar de declarații privind modul în care forțele militare desfășoară operațiuni și oferă un lexicon comun pentru a fi folosit de către planificatorii și liderii militari.

Definirea doctrinei
Definirea NATO a doctrinei, folosită nemijlocit de multe națiuni membre, este:

"Principiile fundamentale prin care forțele militare își ghidează acțiunile în sprijinul obiectivelor. Este autoritară, dar necesită o judecată în aplicare."

Armata canadiană declară:

"Doctrina militară este o expresie formală a cunoștințelor și a gândirii militare, pe care armata le acceptă ca fiind relevante la un moment dat, care acoperă natura conflictului, pregătirea armatei pentru conflicte și metoda de implicare în conflict pentru a obține succes ... este mai degrabă descriptivă decât prescriptivă, care necesită judecată în aplicare. Nu stabilește dogma sau oferă o listă de proceduri, ci este mai degrabă un ghid autoritar, descriind modul în care armata se gândește la luptă și nu la cum se luptă. Ca atare, ea încearcă să fie suficient de definită pentru a ghida activitatea militară, dar suficient de versatilă pentru a se adapta la o mare varietate de situații."</blockquote>

Un studiu al personalului universitar al Forțelor Aeriene din SUA în 1948 a definit funcțional doctrina militară ca "acele concepte, principii, politici, tactici, tehnici, practici și proceduri esențiale pentru eficiență în organizarea, instruirea, dotarea și angajarea unităților sale tactice și de serviciu."

Gary Sheffield, de la Departamentul de Studii de Apărare al King's College London / JSCSC, a citat o definiție a doctrinei lui JF C Fuller din 1923 drept "ideea centrală a unei armate".

Dicționarul sovietic al termenilor militari de bază a definit doctrina militară ca fiind "sistemul oficial acceptat al unui punct de vedere științific bazat pe natura războaielor moderne și pe utilizarea forțelor armate în ele. ... Doctrina militară are două aspecte: militar-tehnic". Partea social-politică "cuprinde toate chestiunile legate de metodologia, bazele economice și sociale, scopurile politice ale războiului, partea definitorie și cea mai stabilă". Cealaltă parte, militaro-tehnică, trebuie să respecte obiectivele politice. Aceasta include "crearea structurii militare, echiparea tehnică a forțelor armate, formarea acestora, definirea formelor și mijloacelor de desfășurare a operațiunilor și războiul în ansamblu".

Vezi de asemenea: ediția comună a aliaților  (AJP)-01(D)  (delta) emisă la 21 decembrie 2010 (doctrina NATO).

Referințe

Legături externe
 Joint Electronic Library
 UK Development, Concepts and Doctrine Centre
 Navy Warfare Development Command (NWDC)
 Military Analysis Network
 Air War College accessed 27 septembrie 2006 – literally thousands of online texts and links to off-site sources
 Quadrennial Defense Review Report. 30 septembrie 2001
US Military Doctrine since the Cold War accessed 24 iunie 2009
Fred Kaplan "The Doctrine Gap. Reality vs. the Pentagon's new strategy."
Pentagon Rethinking Old Doctrine on 2 Wars- The New York Times, 14 martie 2009.
Joint Doctrine Ontology: A Benchmark for Military Information Systems Interoperability, Semantic Technology for Intelligence, Defense and Security, 2015

Doctrine militare
Știință militară

Doctrina militară


Orhan Kırlı (d. 18 Kasım 1946, Muğla, Türkiye), Türk bürokrat.

Ankara Üniversitesi Siyasal Bilgiler Fakültesi'ni bitirdi. İngiltere Manchester Üniversitesi'nde Kamu yönetimi konusunda ve İstanbul Üniversitesi İktisat Fakültesi'nde turizm konusunda master yaptı. Doğanhisar, Havsa ve Çardak Kaymakam vekillikleri, Ardeşen, Seyitgazi, Hozat, Kuyucak, Çay, Gaziosmanpaşa, Yenimahalle kaymakamlıkları, Kastamonu, Bursa, Isparta, Ankara Vali Yardımcılıkları, Hukuk Müşavirliği, Artvin Valiliği yaptı. 31 Aralık 2005 tarihi itibarıyla Çanakkale Valisi oldu ve 2008'e dek bu görevi sürdürdü. Evli ve bir çocuk babasıdır.

1946 doğumlular
Ankara Üniversitesi Siyasal Bilgiler Fakültesinde öğrenim görenler
Muğla doğumlular
Yaşayan insanlar

Orhan Kırlı


Beuel-Ost, Almanya'nın batısında Kuzey Ren-Vestfalya eyaleti Bonn kentine bağlı bölge. Beuel'in merkez kesimini meydana getirir. Kuzeyinde Villich-Müldorf yer alır.

Beuel-Ost


Ioan Bocșan () a fost un pilot român de aviație, as al Aviației Române din cel de-al Doilea Război Mondial.

Locotenentul av. Ioan Bocșan a fost decorat cu Ordinul Virtutea Aeronautică de război cu spade, clasa Crucea de Aur (19 septembrie 1941) "pentru curajul cu care s'a angajat în luptă la 8 August 1941, în zona Sud-Vest, Mihailowca (Ucraina) cu un număr de avioane mult superioare patrulei lor, doborând fiecare câte un avion de vânătoare sovietic", clasa Crucea de Aur cu 1 baretă (4 noiembrie 1941) "pentru eroismul dovedit în luptele aeriene dela Manheim și Duboșari, doborînd 2 avioane inamice. Pentru curajul arătat în cele 72 misiuni pe front." și clasa Crucea de Aur cu 2 barete (1 iulie 1942) "pentru eroismul arătat în luptă aeriană angajată cu aviația bolșevică, când a doborât al 3-lea avion inamic".

Decorații
  Ordinul "Virtutea Aeronautică" de război cu spade, clasa Crucea de aur (19 septembrie 1941)
  Ordinul "Virtutea Aeronautică" de Război cu spade, clasa Crucea de Aur cu 1 baretă (4 noiembrie 1941)
  Ordinul "Virtutea Aeronautică" de război cu spade, clasa Crucea de Aur cu 2 barete (1 iulie 1942)

Note

Nașteri în secolul al XX-lea
Decese în secolul al XX-lea
Ași ai aviației române din cel de-al Doilea Război Mondial
Decorați cu Ordinul Virtutea Aeronautică

Ioan Bocșan


الفحم الخشبي هو مخلفات مكونة من كربون صرف تنتج من عملية نزع الماء من المواد النباتية.

طريقة تحضيرة تُسمّى بالتقطير الاتلافي (الحرق بمعزل عن الهواء) الطريقة المسماة عند العرب المردومة.

إن وجود الأنسجة النباتية في الفحم الخشبي والحجري يدل على أنهما من أصل نباتي. والفحم الخشبي يصنعه الإنسان بتسخين الخشب لدرجة حرارة معينة، ولونه الأسود سببه وجود عنصر الكربون، أما كون الفحم الخشبي أخف من الخشب فالسبب في ذلك يعود إلى أنّ الخشب يفقد كمية من الماء عند تحويله إلى فحم خشبي و تزداد نسبة المسامات فيه. والماء في الخشب هو المسؤول أيضاً عن الدخان الكثيف عند حرقه. أما كون الفحم الحجري أثقل من الفحم الخشبي فيرجع إلى المكونات المعدنية التي توجد في الفحم الحجري ولا توجد في الفحم الخشبي.

كيفية صنع الفحم النباتي
الفحم الخشبي شكل آخر من أشكال الكربون غير النقي، يُجمع الخشب في أكوام ويُغطى بالتراب ويُسخن عشرة أيام تقريباً. ويتم التسخين بحرق جزء قليل من الخشب بسبب دخول كمية قليلة من الهواء. ويزود هذا الجزء المحترق بقية الخشب بالحرارة اللازمة لتسخينه وتحويله إلى فحم نباتي.

ولتحويل الخشب إلى فحم نباتي يلزم التخلص من الأوكسجين والهيدروجين الموجودين في مركبات الخشب العضوية (السليلوز). ويتم ذلك بتفاعل كيميائي بحيث ينزع الأوكسجين والهيدروجين من السليلوز فيتحول إلى مركب عضوي جديد يحتوي على كمية أقل من الأوكسجين والهيدروجين، فتزداد نسبة الكربون فيه.

كيف يتم تفحيم الخشب
يُجمع الخشب في أكوام ويُغطى بالتراب ويُسخن عشرة أيام تقريباً. ويتم التسخين بحرق جزء قليل من الخشب بسبب دخول كمية قليلة من الهواء. ويزود هذا الجزء المحترق بقية الخشب بالحرارة اللازمة لتسخينه وتحويله إلى فحم نباتي.

ولتحويل الخشب إلى فحم نباتي يلزم التخلص من الأوكسجين والهيدروجين الموجودين في مركبات الخشب العضوية (السليلوز). ويتم ذلك بتفاعل كيميائي بحيث ينزع الأوكسجين والهيدروجين من السليلوز فيتحول إلى مركب عضوي جديد يحتوي على كمية أقل من الأوكسجين والهيدروجين، فتزداد نسبة الكربون فيه.

مراحل تكون الفحم
يتم تسخين الخشب في الفرن حيث تمر عبر مراحل محددة في طريقها إلى التحول إلى فحم. وقد درس تشكيل الفحم تحت ظروف المختبر والتي تم الاعتراف بها في المراحل التالية من عملية التحويل.

من 20 إلى 110 درجة C
الخشب يمتص الحرارة ليجف والتخلص من رطوبتها كما بخار الماء (بخار). تبقى درجات الحرارة عند 100 درجة مئوية حتى يتحول الخشب إلى التصلب.

في 110-270 درجة مئوية
يتم التخلص  النهائي من المياه ويبدأالخشب  في التحلل وينتج بعض أول أكسيد الكربون وثاني أكسيد الكربون وحامض الخليك والميثانول.

في 270-290 درجة مئوية
هذه هي النقطة التي يبدأ تحلل الخشب  والانهيار يستمر من تلقاء نفسه، الخشب لا يبرد تحت درجة الحرارة هذه. تواصل الغازات المختلطة والأبخرة بالتصاعد جنبا إلى جنب مع بعض القطران.

في 290-400 درجة مئوية
مع استمرار انهيار هيكل الخشب، والأبخرة المنبعثة تتكون الغازات القابلة للاحتراق غاز أول أكسيد الكربون، والهيدروجين والميثان مع غاز ثاني أكسيد الكربون وأبخرة قابلة للتكثيف الماء وحامض الخليك، والميثانول، والأسيتون وغيرها، والقطران التي تبدأ في التصاعد مع ارتفاع درجة الحرارة.

في 400-500 درجة مئوية
في 400 °C تحول الخشب إلى فحم اكتمل عمليا. الفحم في درجة الحرارة هذه لا يزال يحتوي على كميات ملحوظة من القطران، وربما 30٪ من وزنه والمحاصر في الهيكل.  وبالتالي  نسبة الكربون ثابتة من الفحم إلى حوالي 75٪ وهو أمر طبيعي للفحم التجارية ذات نوعية جيدة. لتخلص نهائيامن  القطران ترفع درجة حرارة الفحم حوالي 500 درجة مئوية لمدة معقولة.

مواصفات الفحم الجيد
وهناك عوامل كثيرة تحدد جودة الفحم المنتج بواسطة أي طريقة لإنتاجه وهذه العوامل هي :-
 نوعية الأخشاب المستخدمة: حيث لنوع الخشب أهمية كبري لجودته ومنذ قديم الأزل يعرف الفلاح المصري هذه المعلومة فمثلا في مصر والدول العربية يفضلون الفحم الناتج من خشب أشجار الحمضيات مثل شجر البرتقال والجوافة والمانجو وهي أفضل الأنواع لإنتاج فحم جيد وهذا يرجع لمكونات السيليوز المكون الرئيسي للخشب وتفاوت نسب امتصاصه لمكونات التربة.
 نسبة الكربون :ودرجات الحرارة لها أهميه كبري في جوده الفحم المنتج وكلما زادت درجات الحرارة عن 400 درجة مئوية قلت جودة الفحم الناتج حيث ينخفض الكربون وهو المكون الرئيسي للفحم الجيد.
 نسبة الرطوبة في الفحم : وهي أيضا من عوامل جوده الفحم فكلما زادت نسبة الرطوبة قلت جودته.
 كمية الرماد الناتج ولونه :ويحدده أيضا المكون الرئيسي للخشب المستخدم وكمية الأملاح والمكونات التي تتخلل السليوز.
 حجم الفحم :ينتج عن صناعة الفحم وتداوله ونقلة من مكان إلى أخر ينتج عن ذلك تكسر نسبة لا بأس بها من الفحم الذي لا يصلح للاستخدام فللحجم المناسب أهمية أيضا.

استعمالات الفحم النباتي
يستعمل الفحم النباتي في الحرق المباشر للحصول على الطاقة. وعادة ما يقتصر على استعماله بعض الأغراض المنزلية كالتدفئة أو الطهو أو الشواء.في المكسيك وبيرو وأسبانيا والأرجنتين وباراجواي وبلاد لاتينية أخرى كان الفحم النباتي يستخدم لقرون كوقود لمدافئ البراسيرو.

أما البلاد التي يوجد فيها فائض من خشب الغابات، فيمكن تحويله إلى فحم نباتي ثم استعماله في بعض المشاريع الكبيرة كتوليد الكهرباء. وكما أنّ زمن احتراق كمية من الفحم النباتي أطول من زمن احتراق كمية مماثلة من الخشب، فللفحم النباتي قيمة حرارية أكبر من الخشب.

ويُستخدم شكل من أشكال الفحم الخشبي يدعى الكربون المنشط في المرشّحات وأقنعة الغاز لإزالة الأبخرة السامة. فهو يضم ثقوباً صغيرة لا تحصى على سطحه وهي مثالية لحبس الأبخرة ويُصنع بالسماح للفحم الخشبي بالاحتراق لفترة وجيزة مع الأكسجين في نهاية عملية صنع الفحم الخشبي.
وغالباً ما يستخدم الفحم الخشبي كوقود للشواء ويمكن تشكيله في عيدان ليستخدم مادة للرسم.
وحيث أن الفحم النباتي المنشّط ذو قدرة امتزازية عالية، أي أنه يجتذب المواد إلى سطحه، فيمكنه بذلك إزالة الغازات السامة والروائح الكريهة من الهواء.. لذا يستخدم هذا الفحم في ومنظومات التهوية في العربات الفضائية وكمامات مواقد المطبخ، كما يستخدم أيضاً في تنقية السوائل، كالماء في أحواض السمك. فيمر ماء الحوض المتسخ فوق الفحم النباتي المنشّط لإزالة أوساخه، ثم يُعاد نقياً إلى الحوض..
و يمكن وضعه في الثلاجة إذا كان بها روائح كريهة فتخلصك من الروائح الكريهة التي توجد في الثلاجة..

مواصفات الفحم الجيد
وهناك عوامل كثيرة تحدد جودة الفحم المنتج بواسطة أي طريقة لإنتاجه وهذه العوامل هي :-
 نوعية الأخشاب المستخدمة: حيث لنوع الخشب أهمية كبري لجودته ومنذ قديم الأزل يعرف الفلاح المصري هذه المعلومة فمثلا في مصر والدول العربية يفضلون الفحم الناتج من خشب أشجار الحمضيات مثل شجر البرتقال والجوافة والمانجو والزيتون وهي أفضل الأنواع لإنتاج فحم جيد وهذا يرجع لمكونات السيليوز المكون الرئيسي للخشب وتفاوت نسب امتصاصه لمكونات التربة.
 نسبة الكربون: ودرجات الحرارة لها أهمية كبري في جوده الفحم المنتج وكلما زادت درجات الحرارة عن 400 درجة مئوية قلت جودة الفحم الناتج حيث ينخفض الكربون وهو المكون الرئيسي للفحم الجيد.
 نسبة الرطوبة في الفحم: وهي أيضا من عوامل جوده الفحم فكلما ذادت نسبة الرطوبة قلت جودته.
 كمية الرماد الناتج ولونه: ويحدده أيضا المكون الرئيسي للخشب المستخدم وكمية الأملاح والمكونات التي تتخلل السليوز.
 حجم الفحم: ينتج عن صناعة الفحم وتداوله ونقلة من مكان إلي آخر ينتج عن ذلك تكسر نسبة لا بأس بها من الفحم الذي لا يصلح للاستخدام فللحجم المناسب أهمية أيضا.

التأثيرات الصحية الناتجة عن صناعة الفحم
ينجم الضرر الرئيسي على صحة الإنسان من استنشاقه للغازات المنبعثة من عملية الحرق. وتتسبب هذه الغازات بأمراض تنفسية عديدة تختلف بحسب نوع الغاز المستنشق. فمن المعروف بأن أكاسيد الكبريت تؤدي إلى تفاعلات التهابية في القصبات الهوائية (Emphysema). في حين تؤدي الغازات الهيدروكربونية، مثل تلك المنبعثة عن عوادم السيارات والمولدات، إلى أمراض سرطانية. أما غاز أول أكسيد الكربون فإن له قدرة على الاتحاد مع الهيموجلوبين 200 مرة أكثر من الأكسجين، وبالتالي فإنه يؤدي إلى التسمم الحاد والصداع والدوخة والغثيان والفشل التنفسي. وفي حالة ارتفاع تركيز الغاز واستمرار تعرض الجسم له فإنه يؤدي لعوارض مزمنة، مثل ضعف الذاكرة، نقص الإنتاجية في العمل، اضطرابات في النوم وفي السلوك، وارتفاع في مستوى الكولسترول.

أما بالنسبة لغاز ثاني أكسيد الكربون فإن تواجده في الجو بتركيز منخفض قد يؤدي إلى تسارع في التنفس والصداع والتشويش الذهني والشلل الارتخائي. أما إذا زاد تركيزه عن 5% فإنه يؤدي إلى فقدان الوعي والوفاة.

وهنالك أيضاً أضراراً صحية تنجم عن أكسيد الكبريت، إذ أن هذا الغاز يتحول إلى حامض الكبريتيك عند ملامسته للسطوح الرطبة للأغشية المخاطية، وينجم عن ذلك التهابات وأمراض مزمنة في الجهاز التنفسي. كما تتسبب أكاسيد النيتروجين بتهييج للحويصلات الهوائية في الرئتين، في حين يمكن أن يؤدي تراكم الغبار فيهما إلى التليف والوفاة.

ويتضح مما تقدم أن المشكلة في صناعة الفحم هي الآثار السلبية لها على الصحة العامة وعلى البيئة، حيث تنبعث منها غازات كثيرة مثل أول أكسيد الكربون وثاني أكسيد الكربون وثاني أكسيد الكبريت وبعض المخلفات الأخرى التي تؤثر على الثروة الزراعية والمائية. وتكون أكثر خطورة إذا كانت مناطق إنتاج الفحم قريبة من التجمعات السكنية، حيث تؤثر هذه الغازات والأبخرة ليس على العاملين في الإنتاج فقط بل وعلى سكان المنطقة بأسرها.

انظر أيضًا

 الفحم المضغوط
 غبار فحم
 صناعة الفحم
 الفحم النفطي
 فحم حجري
 وقود
 قائمة الدول حسب إنتاج الفحم
 جمر

وقود التقانة النارية
أشكال الكربون
فحم
محسنات التربة
مشويات
مصادر طاقة
مواد فنية
وقود
وقود حيوي
وقود صلب

فحم نباتي


Agrilus impressipennis é uma espécie de inseto do género Agrilus, família Buprestidae, ordem Coleoptera.

Foi descrita cientificamente por Thomson, em 1879.

Referências

impressipennis

Agrilus impressipennis


Aksiyon, aşağıdaki anlamlara gelebilir:

 Aksiyon (dergi)
 Aksiyon (edebiyat)
 Aksiyon (fizik)
 Aksiyon (parçacık)
 Aksiyon oyunu
 Aksiyon-macera oyunu
 Aksiyon resmi
 Aksiyon filmi

Aksiyon


Function theory may refer to:

 Theory of functions of a real variable, the traditional name of real analysis, a branch of mathematical analysis dealing with the real numbers and real-valued functions of a real variable
 Theory of functions of a complex variable, the historical name for complex analysis, the branch of mathematical analysis that investigates functions of complex numbers
 Constructive function theory, the study of the connection between the smoothness of a function and its degree of approximation
 Geometric function theory, the study of geometric properties of analytic functions

Function theory


Le boulevard Père-Lelièvre est une artère d'orientation est-ouest située à Québec.

Situation et accès
Le boulevard débute à l'est à son intersection avec le boulevard Wilfrid-Hamel. Son tracé est très sinueux, longeant la rivière Saint-Charles dans l'ouest du quartier de Vanier puis dans Duberger–Les Saules. À mi-parcours, le boulevard est surplombé par l'autoroute Robert-Bourassa. Avant de se terminer en cul-de-sac, le boulevard rencontre perpendiculairement les boulevards Neuvialle et Masson. Sa longueur approximative est de 5,6 km.

Origine du nom
Il rend mémoire au père Victor Lelièvre, un missionnaire français. Cet oblat de Marie-Immaculée immigre au Québec en 1903. Il est vicaire dans la paroisse de Saint-Sauveur durant une cinquantaine d'années. Il participe à la popularisation du symbole du Sacré-Cœur de Jésus au Québec. En 1923, il fonde la Maison Jésus-Ouvrier, situé sur l'actuel boulevard.

L'odonyme est officialisé par la Commission de toponymie le 25 juin 1987.

Historique
L'ancêtre du boulevard, le « chemin de la Petite-Rivière », en référence au village de La Petite-Rivière, l'ancien nom de Duberger, est tracé au 17e siècle. Ce chemin, dont le boulevard Wilfrid-Hamel est aussi un hérité, permettait de relier Québec à Notre-Dame-de-Lorette.

Devenu boulevard, il prend son nom actuel le 16 mars 1964.

Références

Père-Lelièvre

Boulevard Père-Lelièvre


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Hasankeyf, Batman ilinin ilçesidir. İki yakasını Dicle'nin ayırdığı, tarihi bir ilçedir. 1981'de doğal koruma alanı ilan edilmiştir. Ilısu Barajının su tutması sonucunda tarihi yerleşim 2020 yılı Mayıs ayında sular altında kalmıştır.

Etimoloji
Kayalara oyulmuş konutları nedeniyle, Süryânice Kifo (kaya) kelimesinden türetilmiş Kifos ve Cepha / Ciphas isimleriyle bahsedilen şehir "Mağaralar Şehri" ya da "Kayalar Kenti" anlamına Arapça ve "Hısnı Keyfa" denilmiştir. "Hısn-ı keyfa" adı Osmanlılar zamanında Hısnıkeyf, halk arasında da Hasankeyf şekline dönüşmüştür.

Tarihçe
Hasankeyf'in ne zaman kurulduğu kesin olarak bilinmemekle birlikte tarihi antik döneme kadar dayanmaktadır.
Hasankeyf höyüğünde yapılan çalışmalarda 3.500 yıldan 12.000 yıl öncesine kadar arkeolojik buluntulara rastlanılmıştır. Yerleşim, Yukarı Mezopotamya'dan Anadolu'ya geçiş yolu üzerinde ve Dicle Nehrinin kenarında kurulmuş olması nedeniyle stratejik bir öneme sahipti. MS 2. ve 3. yüzyıllarda sınır yerleşimi olarak Bizanslılarla Sasaniler arasında el değiştirmiştir. Diyarbakır ve çevresini ele geçiren Roma İmparatoru II. Constantius, bölgeyi Sasanilerden korumak amacıyla iki sınır kalesi inşa ettirmiştir. MS 363 yılında inşa edilen kale uzun süre Roma ve Bizans egemenliğinde kaldı. Hristiyanlığın bölgede 4. yüzyıldan itibaren yayılmaya başlamasından sonra yerleşim Süryani piskoposluğunun merkezi durumuna geldi. Kadıköy Konsili tarafından MS 451 yılında Hasankeyf'teki piskoposluğa Kardinal unvanı verilmiştir. Hasankeyf 640 yılında, Halife Ömer döneminde İslâm ordusu tarafından ele geçirildi. Emeviler, Abbasiler, Hamdaniler ve Mervaniler egemenliğinde kalan yerleşim 1102 yılında Artuklular tarafından ele geçirilmiştir. Artuklu Beyliği'nin 1102-1232 yılları arasında başkentliğini yapan Hasankeyf, en parlak dönemini bu tarihlerde yaşamıştır. Artuklular döneminde imar edilerek kale kasabası özelliğinden kurtulup şehir haline geldi. 1232 yılında Eyyubiler tarafından ele geçirilen yerleşim, 1260 Moğollarca ele geçirildi ve tahrip edildi. Hasankeyf'in Eyyubi hakimi Hülagü'ye bağlılığını bildirerek şehirdeki egemenliğini devam ettirebildi. Hasankeyf, 14. yüzyılda önemli bir şehir olma özelliğini korumakla birlikte eski parlak günlerine kavuşamadı. 1462 yılında Uzun Hasan tarafından ele geçirilen şehir Akkoyunlu topraklarına katıldı. Akkoyunlular'ın zayıflamasıyla 1482 yılında Hasankeyf'te Eyyubi emirlerinin yönetimi yeniden başlamıştır. Bir süre sonra Safeviler'in denetimine geçen yerleşim, 1515 tarihinde Osmanlı topraklarına katılmıştır. 1524 yılına kadar Osmanlı yönetimine bağlı Eyyubi yöneticiler tarafından idare edilen Hasankeyf, bu tarihten itibaren Osmanlı idarecileri tarafından yönetilmeye başlamıştır. 17. yüzyıldan itibaren ana ticaret yollarının değişmesi ve Osmanlı-İran savaşları sonucunda ticarette görülen duraklama neticesinde şehir önemini yitirdi. 1867 yılından sonra Mardin Midyat'a bağlı olan yerleşim, 1926 yılında Gerçüş ilçesine bağlanmıştır. 1960 yılında karşıyakası ile bağlantısı kurulup ulaşımı sağlansın diye eski taş köprünün aşağı mevkiinde yeni betonarme köprü yapılmıştır. 1972'de daha önce Kalebaşı'nda kalan yerlileri eski aşağı şehirde inşa edilen yeni konutlara yerleştirilmiştir. 1990 yılında Batman'ın il olmasıyla ilçe bu şehre bağlanmıştır. Ilısu Barajının yapılması kararlaştırılınca tarihi yerleşimin sular altında olacak olması nedeniyle 3 km uzaklıkta yeni yerleşim kuruldu. Bu esnada tarihi yerleşimdeki Artuklu Hamamı, Sultan Süleyman Koç Camisi, İmam Abdullah Zaviyesi, Er-Rızık Camisi ve minaresi, Zeynel Abidin Türbesi, Eyyubi (Kızlar) Camisi ve kale giriş orta kapısı gibi büyük ölçekli yapılar ile türbe ve zaviye gibi tarihi yapılarda Dicle Nehri kıyısında kurulan Kültürel Park'a taşındı. 2019 yılı Kasım ayında Ilısu Barajı'nın su tutmasıyla 2020 yılı Şubat ayından itibaren su altında kalmaya başlamıştır. Koruma altına alınan Yukarıkale ise yapılan çalışmalar sonucu su altında kalmaktan ve zarar görmekten korunmuştur.

Nüfus
1526 yılında Hasankeyf'te 1301 hane bulunmakta olup, bunlardan 787 hanede Hıristiyanlar, 494 hanede Müslümanlar ve 20 hanede de Yahudiler yaşamaktaydı. 16. yüzyılın ikinci yarısında yerleşim daha da büyümüş ve 1006'sı Hristiyanlara, 694'ü Müslümanlara ait olmak üzere hane sayısı 1700'e yükselmiştir. 1935 yılında 1425 kişiden oluşan nüfus, 1990 sayımına göre 4399'a yükselmiştir. 1975 nüfus sayımlarına göre ilçe nüfusu 13.823 olan Hasankeyf'in, sürekli verdiği göçler nedeniyle 2000 yılında nüfusu 7493'e düşmüştür.

Günümüzde; ilçenin çoğunluğunu Kürtler oluşturmak üzere Araplar ve Türkler beraber yaşamaktadır. Hasankeyf'in merkezinde yaşayanların çoğu Arapça ve Kürtçe, köylerinde yaşayanlar ise genellikle Kürtçe konuşmaktadır.

Turizm
Tarihi ve doğal güzellikleriyle önemli turizm merkezlerinden biri olan Hasankeyf, yerli ve yabancı turistlerce ziyaret edilmektedir. Kalkerli yapısı nedeniyle kayalık tepelerde ve derin kanyonlarda, doğanın ve insanların oluşturduğu ve sayısı binlerce olan "Hasankeyf Mağaraları", Roma döneminden kalma Hasankeyf kalesi Köprüsüne girişte soldaki tepe üzerinde bulunan ve İslam ordularının Hasankeyf'i kuşatması sırasında hayatını kaybeden İmam Abdullah için yapılmış İmam Abdullah Türbesi, Artuklular tarafından yapıldığı düşünülen ve günümüze kadar önemli kısmı yıkılan Hasankeyf Dicle Köprüsü, Akkoyunlu hükümdarı Uzun Hasan'ın Otlukbeli Savaşı'nda hayatını kaybeden oğlu için yaptırdığı Zeynel Bey Türbesi, Akkoyunlular tarafından yapılan ve son halini Eyyubiler döneminde alan Ulu Cami, 1328 yılında Eyyubiler tarafından yapılan Küçük Saray, günümüze harabesi ulaşan ve Akkoyunlu dönemine tarihlenen Büyük Saray, 15. yüzyılda yapılan Mescid-i Ali Cami, Eyyubiler döneminde yapılan Rızık Cami, Süleyman Cami, Koç Cami, Kızlar Cami ve Küçük Cami, Eyyubilerden kalma Kale Kapısı, halk arasında "Yolgeçen Hanı" olarak adlandırılan doğal mağarası yerleşimin önemli tarihi eserlerini oluşturmaktadır.

Ilısu Barajı
Hasankeyf, Dicle üzerinde yapılması planlanan Ilısu Barajı ve Hidroelektrik Santrali baraj gölü nedeniyle sular altında kalma ve tüm kültürel hazinesini yitirme tehlikesi ile karşı karşıyadır. Bu nedenle Ilısu barajı suları altında kalmadan önce Hasankeyf'te kurtarma kazıları ile tarihi eserlerin taşınmasıyla ilgili çalışmalar yapılmıştır.

İklim
Hasankeyf'in iklimi şehrin içinden akan Dicle Nehrinden etkilenir. karasal iklim.(kişin ilçe merkezi aşırı soğuk olmamakla beraber yazın ise aşırı sıcaktır.)

Hasankeyf'in çeşitli görüntüleri

Kaynakça

 Blue Guide, Turkey, (ISBN 0-393-32137-1),p. 590

Dış bağlantılar

 Hasankeyf Kaymakamlığı
 Turizm Bakanlığı - Hasankeyf
 Ekopotamya Net - İran, Iraq ve Türkiye
 2015 yılında BBC'de yayınlanan değerlendirme yazısı
Amerikalı yazar Joanne Leedom-Ackerman tarafından hazılanmış Hasankeyf değerlendirilmesi

İlçe taslakları

Hasankeyf


La ligne d'Alexandrie à Plaisance est une ligne de chemin de fer italienne qui dessert trois régions : l'Émilie-Romagne, la Lombardie et le Piémont.

D'une longueur totale de 96 km, elle est gérée par RFI, et classée parmi les lignes dites fondamentale (principales) .

Elle relie le nœud ferroviaire d'Alexandrie à celui de Plaisance, et dessert sur son parcours les villes de Tortone, Voghera et Stradella.

Historique
La réalisation d'une ligne de chemin de fer entre Alexandrie et Stradella est décidée par une loi promulguée par le Royaume de Sardaigne en 1854. En conséquence, trois sociétés sont constituées pour mener à bien les travaux : la Società Sarda Centrale créée à Gênes en 1855 avec le soutien du sénateur Francesco Sauli, une société anonyme d'origine anglaise dirigée par l'ingénieur Ralph Bonfil, et la Società Anonima della Strada Ferrata da Alessandria ai confini di Piacenza e di Lombardia, créée à Voghera en octobre 1855. C'est finalement cette dernière qui obtient la concession de la ligne en janvier 1956, après de nombreuses controverses impliquant certains parlementaires du royaume. La durée de concession était fixée à 85 ans, l'État ayant cependant la possibilité de devenir propriétaire de l'infrastructure après 30 ans de concession. Au cours des négociations, le conseil de la province de Voghera soutient la nécessité de prolonger la ligne de Stradella à Plaisance.

Les travaux sont autorisés à démarrer le 16 janvier 1856. Le projet initial prévoyait la construction du tracé principal d'Alexandrie à Stradella, ainsi que d'une antenne de Tortone à Novi Ligure. Le contrat de concession prévoit l'achèvement de la ligne sous deux ans. Le 3 mai, le Ministère des Travaux publics approuve le tracé projeté, permettant aux travaux, confiés à la société Pianezza & Mazza, de débuter au cours du mois de juillet.

Malgré quelques ralentissements dus à des désaccords avec l'entreprise chargée de la construction, le premier essai entre Alexandrie, Tortone et Voghera a lieu au cours de l'été 1857. La ligne reçoit son autorisation de mise en service le 30 octobre 1857 et est officiellement inaugurée le lendemain, en présence du roi Victor-Emmanuel II, du président du Conseil Camillo Cavour, et des ministres Urbano Rattazzi et Pietro Paleocapa. La ligne est ouverte au trafic régulier deux jours après la cérémonie. Le tronçon de Voghera à Casteggio est inaugurée le 25 janvier 1858, et la partie restante pour atteindre Stradella est ouverte au trafic en juillet de la même année.

Pendant ce temps, en mai 1857, des banquiers placentins obtiennent la concession pour une durée de 68 ans d'une ligne reliant Plaisance aux frontières de la Sardaigne via Castel San Giovanni ; ils créent dans ce but le 6 juillet 1857 la Società delle ferrovie di Piacenza. En avril 1858, la société sarde et son homologue de Plaisance signent un accord afin de réunir leurs infrastructures respectives. En juin 1858 la Chambre ratifie le décret autorisant cette union.

En 1859, le territoire du Duché de Parme et de Plaisance est rattaché aux Provinces-Unies d'Italie Centrale puis annexé par le Royaume de Sardaigne à la suite du plébiscite du 12 mars 1860. En juillet 1859, la société piacentine cède sa concession à l'État sarde, qui met en service le dernier tronçon de la ligne, du pont sur la Trebbia à Plaisance, le 19 janvier 1860.

Initialement à voie unique, la ligne est doublée dans les années 1890.

À partir de juillet 1905, à la suite de la ratification de la loi n° 137 du 22 avril 1905, la ligne passe sous le contrôle de l'État, à travers l'Agence autonome pour l'exploitation des chemins de fer italiens (Azienda autonoma per l'esercizio delle Ferrovie italiane) nouvellement créée et administrée par le ministère des Travaux publics.

Durant la nuit du 31 mai 1962, un accident se produit dans la gare de Voghera : un train de marchandises en provenance de Milan heurte par l'arrière un train de passagers à destination de Gênes stationné sur la voie n°3. L'accident provoque 60 victimes et 40 blessés, dont 4 décèdent sur le trajet vers l'hôpital, portant le nombre total de décès à 64.

Au cours des années 2020 et 2021, la plupart des gares de la ligne, en particulier celles de Casteggio, Santa Giuletta, Stradella, Arena Po, Sarmato et Rottofreno sont transformées afin d'accueillir des services publics ou des entreprises dans leurs locaux. À terme, l'ensemble des gares intermédiaires de la ligne subiront cette transformation, et seront dès lors commandées à distance depuis le poste de commande Dirigente Centrale Operativo de Milan - Greco Pirelli.

Caractéristiques
La ligne est à double voie à écartement de 1435 mm, et est électrifiée en courant continu 3000V. Elle peut supporter une charge maximale à l'essieu de 22,5 tonnes, et ne compte pas de pentes supérieures à 6‰.

Tracé

Trafic
La ligne est parcourue par des trains de voyageurs appartenant à différents opérateurs. Les trains régionaux de Lombardie, opérés par Trenord, sont présents via la ligne D29, qui effectue le trajet Voghera - Broni - Plaisance, et la ligne D23 Milan - Pavie - Stradella - Plaisance. Les trains régionaux du Piémont, opérés par une branche locale de Trenitalia, desservent le tronçon Voghera - Alexandrie.

Jusqu'en 2013, la ligne était également desservie par des trains régionaux de l'Émilie Romagne, qui parcouraient l'intégralité du tracé et continuaient ensuite vers Turin. Jusqu'en 2018, la ligne était aussi empruntée dans son intégralité par des trains Frecciabianca reliant Turin à Bologne, Lecce et Rome.

Notes et références

Voir aussi
 sur Wikimedia Commons

Transport ferroviaire en Italie

Ligne de Alexandrie à Plaisance


Den lille kilebensvinge er to tynde triangulære plader, der rejser sig fra den øvre og anteriore del af kroppen, og fortsætter lateralt, og ender i skarpe punkter.

Referencer

Skelet

Den lille kilebensvinge


Proba de bob dublu masculin de la Jocurile Olimpice de iarnă din 2018 de la Pyeongchang, Coreea de Sud a avut loc în perioada 18-19 februarie 2018 la Alpensia Sliding Centre.

Program
Orele sunt orele Coreei de Sud (ora României + 7 ore).

Rezultate
Primele două runde au avut loc pe 18 februarie, ultimele două runde au avut loc pe 19 februarie.

Note

Bob la Jocurile Olimpice de iarnă din 2018

Bob la Jocurile Olimpice de iarnă din 2018 - Dublu (masculin)


Víkar er en fraflyttet bygd på Færøerne, der ligger på den nordlige del af øen Vágar. Den blev - i lighed med en række andre bygder på Færøerne - grundlagt som en niðursetubygd i 1800-tallet (Víkar i 1833) grundet pladsmangel for den voksende befolkning. Jorden tilhørte bygden Gásadalur længere sydpå, som der fortsat går en sti til. Selv om både landskabet og jorden var velegnet til landbrug, var bygden så isoleret fra omverdenen, at den blev affolket allerede i 1910. Den deler derfor skæbne med Slættanes, som blev grundlagt i samme periode. De tilbageværende huse er i privat eje, og bruges som fritidsboliger.

Rasmus Rasmussen blev født i Víkar.

Eksterne henvisninger

 Om Víkar  hos Vágars turistinformasjon

Fraflyttede bygder på Færøerne
Vágar

Víkar


Kişi adları:
 Brittany (isim) - ABD ve Avrupa'da yaygın bir kadın adı. (Brittney, Britney, Britany, Brittani, Brittanie, Brittni, Britni, Brittaney, Brittny, Brittnee, Britny, Brittnie, Brittnay ve Bryttney olarak da yazılır veya okunabilirler)
 Britney Spears - Pop şarkıcısı
 Brittany Murphy - Aktris
 Brittany Daniel - Aktris
 Brittany Snow - Aktris
 Brittny Gastineau - Televizyoncu.

Coğrafya:
 "Britanny": Kuzey-batı Fransa'da bulunan bir yarımada olan bir eski eyalet Bretonya'nin İngilizce yazılımı. Fransızca Bretagne.

Brittany


Frank Raberg (né en 1964 à Ibbenbüren) est un historien et politologue allemand.

Biographie
Raberg étudie à l'Université de Stuttgart. Ses recherches portent sur l'histoire de l'État et la géographie politique du Wurtemberg. Outre de nombreux essais d'histoire régionale et biographiques, il rédige un ouvrage de référence biographique complet sur les membres des  et du  (2001) ainsi que sur des personnalités de l'histoire d'Ulm des  (2010). Un travail biographique similaire sur la Haute-Souabe est en préparation. Il édite plusieurs volumes de l'édition des protocoles de cabinet de l'état de Wurtemberg-Hohenzollern. De 1997 à 2003, l'auteur est collaborateur de projet pour la  et parfois indépendant à la maison d'édition du journal officiel du Bade-Wurtemberg.

Raberg vit à Neresheim.

Travaux
Monographies :
 Biographisches Handbuch der württembergischen Landtagsabgeordneten 1815–1933. (= Veröffentlichungen der Kommission für Geschichtliche Landeskunde in Baden-Württemberg). Kohlhammer, Stuttgart 2001
 Eugen Bolz. Zwischen Pflicht und Widerstand. DRW, Leinfelden-Echterdingen 2009 .
 Biografisches Lexikon für Ulm und Neu-Ulm. Hrsg. von den Stadtarchiven Ulm und Neu-Ulm. Süddeutsche Verlagsgesellschaft Ulm im Jan Thorbecke Verlag, Ostfildern 2010  (enthält etwa 1.000 biografische Artikel und 1.750 Skizzen zu Personen, die von 1802 bis 2009 verstorben sind)

En tant qu'éditeur :
 Die Protokolle der Regierung von Württemberg-Hohenzollern.
 Bd. 1: Das Erste und Zweite Staatssekretariat Schmid 1945–1947. Kohlhammer, Stuttgart 2004 .
 Bd. 2. Das Kabinett Bock 1947–1948. Kohlhammer, Stuttgart 2008
 Bd. 3: Die geschäftsführende Regierung Müller 1948–1949. Mit einer Einleitung von Klaus-Jürgen Matz. Kohlhammer, Stuttgart 2013 .
 Gouverneursbesprechungen. Die deutschen Protokolle der Besprechungen zwischen Vertretern der Regierung von Württemberg-Hohenzollern und der französischen Militärregierung in Tübingen 1945–1952. (= Documenta Suevica; Bd. 13). Hrsg. von Edwin Ernst Weber. Edition Isele, Konstanz und Eggingen 2007 .

Documents universitaires :
 Die Großmachtpolitik Kaiser Karls VI. unter besonderer Berücksichtigung des Mittelmeerraumes. Magisterarbeit, Universität Stuttgart 1988

Essais (sélection):
 Emilie Hiller. Sozialdemokratische Politikerin, 1871–1943. In: Lebensbilder aus Baden-Wuerttemberg. Band 21. Kohlhammer, Stuttgart 1995 , S. 436–456
 Vom Härtsfeld in die "große Politik".  (1825–1899). Ein konservativer Katholik als Parlamentarier im Königreich Württemberg. In: Aalener Jahrbuch 1996, S. 95–132
 Vom Bauernhof ins Ministerium.  (1892–1954). Annäherungen an einen "vergessenen" Politiker. In: Württembergisch-Franken, 80. Jg. 1996, S. 223–295
 "Vielleicht wird ein Höherer unsere Arbeit segnen".  und die politische Neuordnung in Württemberg 1945. In: Zeitschrift für württembergische Landesgeschichte. 55. Jg. 1996, S. 313–361
  (1890–1970). Ein christlicher Demokrat in der Landes- und Parteipolitik des deutschen Südwestens. In: Ulm und Oberschwaben. 50. Jg. 1996, S. 243–306
 . Ein "hohenzollerischer" Parlamentarier zwischen Bebenhausen und Stuttgart 1946-1953. Ein Beitrag zu seiner Biographie. In: Zeitschrift für hohenzollerische Geschichte. 32. Jg. 1996, S. 229–300
  (1885–1968). In: Rainer Lächele, Jörg Thierfelder (Hrsg.): Wir konnten uns nicht entziehen. 30 Porträts zu Kirche und Nationalsozialismus in Württemberg. Quell-Verlag, Stuttgart 1998 , S. 189–205
 Das Ende des Württembergischen Landtags 1933. In: Zeitschrift für württembergische Landesgeschichte. 58. Jg. 1999, S. 273–292
 Staatssekretär  1945 bis 1948. Ein Beamter als Politiker im Staatsministerium Württemberg-Baden und auf US-zonaler Ebene. In: Zeitschrift für württembergische Landesgeschichte, 56. Jg. 1997, S. 375–433
 Wirtschaftspolitiker zwischen Selbstüberschätzung und Resignation. Oswald Lehnich, württembergischer Wirtschaftsminister, In: Michael Kißener, Joachim Scholtyseck (Hrsg.): Die Führer der Provinz. UVK, Konstanz 1997 , S. 333–359
 Das Aushängeschild der Hitler-Regierung: Konstantin Freiherr von Neurath, Außenminister des Deutschen Reiches (1932–1938). In: Michael Kißener, Joachim Scholtyseck (Hrsg.): Die Führer der Provinz. UVK, Konstanz 1997 , S. 503–538
 Die Esslinger Landtagsabgeordneten in den Ständeversammlungen und in der Kammer der Abgeordneten des Königreichs Württemberg sowie in den Landtagen des Freien Volksstaates Württemberg. Ein biographisch-politischer Überblick. In: Esslinger Studien. Bd. 39 (2000), S. 143–223
 Zur politischen Biographie  (1911–1975). Teil I. In: Esslinger Studien. Bd. 45 (2006), S. 183–242
 Für "die wohlerworbenen Rechte des Adels". Die Vertretung der Ritterschaft des Donaukreises im Württembergischen Landtag. In: Adel im Wandel. Oberschwaben von der Frühen Neuzeit bis zur Gegenwart. Band 2. Thorbecke, Stuttgart 2006, S. 605–618
 Ulm. Untergang und Neuanfang in doppelter Randlage. In: Die Zeit nach dem Krieg. Städte im Wiederaufbau. Landeszentrale für politische Bildung, Stuttgart 2008 bzw. Kohlhammer, Stuttgart 2008 , S. 399–415
 Konrad Dietrich Hassler und das Ulmer Münster. Württembergs erster Landeskonservator rettete als "Reisender für das größte Haus Deutschlands" das Wahrzeichen der Donaustadt. In: Denkmalpflege in Baden-Württemberg, 38. Jg. 2009, Heft 2, S. 59–67 (PDF)
 , Präsident des Reichsgerichts in Leipzig, 1844–1905. In: Lebensbilder aus Baden-Württemberg. Band 23, Kohlhammer, Stuttgart 2010, S. 216 ff.
 zahlreiche Artikel in den Baden-Württembergischen Biographien (online bei LEO-BW)
 mehrere Artikel in der Neuen Deutschen Biographie

Liens externes

 Bibliographie nationale du Bade-Wurtemberg (recherche de Raberg, Frank dans le champ auteur/personnes participantes)

Références

Historien allemand
Politologue
Lexicographe du XXe siècle
Lexicographe du XXIe siècle
Naissance en 1964
Naissance à Ibbenbüren

Frank Raberg


Die Presburger-Arithmetik ist eine in der Prädikatenlogik erster Stufe formulierte mathematische Theorie der natürlichen Zahlen mit Addition.
Sie ist benannt nach Mojżesz Presburger, der sie im Jahre 1929 einführte.
Die Signatur der Presburger-Arithmetik enthält nur Addition, nicht jedoch die Multiplikation.
Zum Axiomensystem gehört auch ein Axiomenschema der vollständigen Induktion.

Die Presburger-Arithmetik ist erheblich schwächer als die Peano-Arithmetik, in der sowohl Addition als auch Multiplikation formalisiert werden.
Im Gegensatz zur Peano-Arithmetik ist die Presburger-Arithmetik eine entscheidbare Theorie, d. h., es lässt sich für jede in der Sprache der Presburger-Arithmetik formulierte Aussage effektiv entscheiden, ob sie aus den Axiomen der Theorie beweisbar ist oder nicht.
Allerdings ist die asymptotische Laufzeit eines entsprechenden Algorithmus laut einer Arbeit von Fischer und Rabin doppelt exponentiell.

Definition
Die Sprache der Presburger-Arithmetik enthält Konstanten 0 und 1 sowie eine binäre Operation +, die als Addition zu interpretieren ist.
In dieser Sprache lauten die Axiome der Presburger-Arithmetik wie folgt:

 Sei  eine Formel in der Sprache der Presburger-Arithmetik mit freien Variablen . Dann ist folgende Aussage ein Axiom:

Letzteres ist ein Axiomenschema der vollständigen Induktion und steht für unendlich viele Einzelaxiome. Diese dem Schema (6) entsprechenden Axiome lassen sich nicht durch endlich viele Axiome ersetzen, so dass die Presburger-Arithmetik insgesamt nicht endlich axiomatisierbar ist.

Beschreibung
Die Presburger-Arithmetik kann Konzepte wie Teilbarkeit oder Primzahlen nicht formalisieren, geschweige denn die Multiplikation, denn dann müsste die Presburger-Arithmetik wie die Peano-Arithmetik unvollständig und unentscheidbar sein.
Individuelle Instanzen der Teilbarkeit können aber durchaus formalisiert werden, etwa " ist gerade" durch ; hiermit ausdrückbare wahre Aussagen wie

 ("Die Summe zweier gerader Zahlen ist gerade")
sind dann beweisbare Sätze.

Eigenschaften
Mojżesz Presburger wies folgende Eigenschaften seiner Arithmetik nach:
 Konsistenz: Es gibt keine in ihrer Sprache formulierte Aussage , für die sowohl  als auch  aus den Axiomen hergeleitet werden kann.
 Vollständigkeit: Für jede in der Sprache der Presburger-Arithmetik formulierte Aussage  ist entweder  oder die Verneinung  aus den Axiomen herleitbar.
 Entscheidbarkeit: Es gibt einen Algorithmus, der zu jeder gegebenen Aussage der Presburger-Arithmetik entscheiden kann, ob sie wahr oder falsch ist.

Die Entscheidbarkeit der Presburger-Arithmetik lässt sich durch Quantorenelimination und die Betrachtung arithmetischer Kongruenzen nachweisen.

Die Peano-Arithmetik, also Presburger-Arithmetik zuzüglich Multiplikation, ist dagegen nicht entscheidbar.
Gemäß Gödels Unvollständigkeitssatz ist sie auch unvollständig und ihre Konsistenz nicht (intern) beweisbar.

Das Entscheidungsproblem für die Presburger-Arithmetik ist ein interessantes Beispiel der Komplexitätstheorie. Sei  die Länge einer Aussage der Presburger-Arithmetik. Dann hat der Entscheidungsalgorithmus für die Presburger-Arithmetik laut einer Arbeit von Fischer und Rabin mindestens doppelt-exponentielle Laufzeit, d. h., im worst case beträgt die Laufzeit mindestens  für eine gewisse positive Konstante .
Andererseits gibt es eine dreifach-exponentielle obere Abschätzung für die Laufzeit.
Es handelt sich also um ein Entscheidungsproblem, das nachweislich nicht in exponentieller (geschweige denn polynomieller) Zeit gelöst werden kann.
Fischer und Rabin zeigten auch, dass für jede (in einem von ihnen präzisierten Sinne) vernünftige Axiomatisierung Sätze beliebiger Länge existieren, deren kürzester Beweis von doppelt-exponentieller Länge ist. Intuitiv bedeutet dies, dass es praktische Grenzen für Computerbeweise gibt.
Aus der Arbeit von Fischer und Rabin ergibt sich ferner, dass mit der Presburger-Arithmetik Formeln definiert werden können, die einen beliebigen Algorithmus korrekt nachbilden, solange die Eingaben gewisse – verhältnismäßig hohe – Grenzen nicht überschreiten. Diese Grenzen können durch den Übergang zu anderen Formeln jeweils noch erhöht werden.

Anwendungen
Es existieren auch tatsächlich Computerbeweissysteme, die Algorithmen zur Entscheidung von Formeln in Presburger-Arithmetik gebrauchen.
Beispielsweise enthält Coq Beweistaktiken in dieser Richtung.
Die doppelt-exponentielle Komplexität begrenzt zwar die praktische Einsetzbarkeit für komplizierte Formeln, jedoch tritt dieses Verhalten nur bei verschachtelten Quantoren auf: Oppen und Nelson beschreiben ein auf dem Simplex-Verfahren beruhendes automatisches Beweissystem für eine erweiterte Presburger-Arithmetik ohne verschachtelte Quantoren. Die Worst-case-Laufzeit des Simplexverfahrens ist (einfach) exponentiell. Tatsächlich wird exponentielle Laufzeit sogar nur für speziell konstruierte Fälle beobachtet, während es in Alltagsfällen erheblich effizienter arbeitet. Hierdurch ist dieser Ansatz durchaus für den praktischen Einsatz geeignet.

Die Presburger-Arithmetik lässt sich um die Multiplikation mit Konstanten erweitern, da es sich hierbei um wiederholte Addition handelt.
In der Programmiertechnik betrifft dies beispielsweise die Berechnung von Feldindizes.
Dieser Ansatz ist Grundlage von mindestens fünf Systemen für den Korrektheitsbeweis von Computerprogrammen, angefangen beim Stanford Pascal Verifier aus den späten 1970er Jahren bis hin zu Microsofts Spec# von 2005.

Literatur

Weblinks
 Philipp Rümmer: Princess, ein Computerbeweissystem für Presburger-Arithmetik (englisch).

Einzelnachweise

Zahl
Logik
Beweis (Mathematik)
Modelltheorie

Presburger-Arithmetik


Bijele Vode su naseljeno mjesto u gradu Zenici, Federacija Bosne i Hercegovine, BiH.

Stanovništvo

1991.

Nacionalni sastav stanovništva 1991. godine, bio je sljedeći:

 Srbi - 84 (98,82%)
 Hrvati - 1 (1,18%)

2013.

Na popisu stanovništva 2013. godine bilo je bez stanovnika.

Izvori

Naselja u Zeničko-dobojskoj županiji
Zenica

Bijele Vode (Zenica, BiH)


Richard Adolf Zsigmondy (; 1 April 1865 – 23 September 1929) was an Austrian-born chemist. He was known for his research in colloids, for which he was awarded the Nobel Prize in chemistry in 1925, as well as for co-inventing the slit-ultramicroscope, and different membrane filters. The crater Zsigmondy on the Moon is named in his honour.

Biography

Early years
Zsigmondy was born in Vienna, Austrian Empire, to a Hungarian gentry family. His mother Irma Szakmáry, a poet born in Martonvásár, and his father, Adolf Zsigmondy Sr., a scientist from Pressburg (Pozsony, today's Bratislava) who invented several surgical instruments for use in dentistry. Zsigmondy family members were Lutherans. They originated from Johannes () Sigmondi (1686–1746, Bártfa,  Kingdom of Hungary) and included teachers, priests and Hungarian freedom-fighters. Richard was raised by his mother after his father's early death in 1880, and received a comprehensive education. He enjoyed hobbies such as climbing and mountaineering with his siblings. His elder brothers, Otto (a dentist) and Emil (a physician), were well-known mountain climbers; his younger brother, Karl Zsigmondy, became a notable mathematician in Vienna. In high school Richard developed an interest in natural science, especially in chemistry and physics, and experimented in his home laboratory.

He began his academic career at the University of Vienna Medical Faculty, but soon moved to the Technical University of Vienna, and later to the University of Munich, to study chemistry under Wilhelm von Miller (1848–1899). In Munich he conducted research on indene and received his PhD from the University of Erlangen in 1889.

Career
In 1885 Zsigmondy published his very first article as a joint publication with his Viennese professor Rudolf Benedikt on a method of determining glycerin. His 1887 article Neue Lüster und Farben auf Glas (about colours on glass) marked the beginning of a research area on which he would work for another 30 years. Zsigmondy left organic chemistry to join the physics group of August Kundt at the University of Berlin.

In July 1892 Zsigmondy held a colloquium at Graz University of Technology assessed among others by Albert von Ettingshausen and Friedrich Emich in order to qualify as assistant professor.  There he also completed his habilitation in 1893. Because of his knowledge about glass and its colouring, in 1897 the Schott Glass factory offered him a job which he accepted. He invented the Jenaer Milchglas and conducted some research on the red Ruby glass. Lecturing activities in Graz were documented until 1899.

Zsigmondy left Schott Glass in 1900, but remained in Jena as private lecturer to conduct his research. Together with the optical instrument manufacturer Zeiss, he developed the slit ultramicroscope. His scientific career continued in 1908 at the University of Göttingen, where he stayed for the rest of his professional career as professor of inorganic chemistry. In 1925, Zsigmondy received the Nobel Prize for Chemistry for his work on colloids and the methods he used, such as the ultramicroscope upon which based his investigation on the Purple of Cassius.

Before Zsigmondy finished his PhD thesis in organic chemistry, he published research on colouring glass with silver salts and dissolved silver particles, which he recovered by dissolving the glass in hydrofluoric acid.

During his stay in Graz, Zsigmondy accomplished his most notable research work, on the chemistry of colloids. The exact mechanism which yields the red colour of the Cranberry or Ruby glass was a result of his studies of colloids.

In later years he worked on gold hydrosols and used them to characterize protein solutions. While in Jena he developed the slit ultramicroscope together with Henry Siedentopf. After moving to Göttingen, Zsigmondy improved his optical equipment for the observation of finest nanoparticles suspended in liquid solution. As a result, he introduced the immersion ultramicroscope in 1912.

Together with Wilhelm Bachmann, Zsigmondy developed a new membrane filter (1916). He later transferred his patents to a company established by him, other shareholders and Sartorius AG which was incorporated to Sartorius in the late 1970s.

Private life

In 1903 Zsigmondy married Laura Luise Müller, with whom he had two daughters, Annemarie and Käthe.

Richard Zsigmondy died due to his arteriosclerosis only a few months after retiring from his university position in Göttingen in early March.

He was a cousin of the architect Frigyes Schulek, whose mother was Auguszta Zsigmondy. He is also related to the violinist Dénes Zsigmondy.

Ancestry

{| class="wikitable"
|+Zsigmondy
|-
|-
| rowspan="8" align="center"| Richard Zsigmondy, Vienna (A) 1862–Göttingen (D) 1929 scientist, Nobel Prize Winner in chemistry 1925
| rowspan="4" align="center"| Father:Adolf ZsigmondyPressburg/ Pozsony, (HUN) 1816– Vienna (A) 1880
| rowspan="2" align="center"| Grandfather:Sámuel ZsigmondyPilis, (HUN) 1788–1833 Pressburg/ Pozsony (HUN)
| align="center"| Great-grandfather:G. Zsigmondy Körmöcbánya (HUN) 1748-Pilis (HUN) 1799
| align="center"| Great-great-grandfather:J. Zsigmondy Bártfa (HUN) ca 1700-Körmöcbánya(HUN) 1765
| align="center"| Great-great-grandmother:Zsuzsanna KossovitsBesztercebánya (HUN) ? -Lónyabánya (HUN) 1790
|-
| align="center"| Great-grandmother:Judit Polereczky Alberti (Now Albertirsa) (HUN) 1756–1833 Pressburg/Pozsony (HUN)
|-
| rowspan="2" align="center"|  Grandmother:Friderika Fábry1793 Pressburg/ Pozsony (HUN)–1868 Pressburg/Pozsony (HUN)
| align="center"| grandmother's father:István Fábry Hrussó (HUN) 1751 – Pressburg/ Pozsony (HUN) 1817
|-
| align="center"| grandmother's mother:Terézia Bayer
|-
| rowspan="4" align="center"| Mother:Irma von SzakmáryMartonvásár (HUN) 1835Vienna 1900
| rowspan="2" align="center"| Mothers father:N.N. von Szakmáry(1818–1888)
| align="center"| Mother's grandfather :
|-
| align="center"|N.N.:
|-
| rowspan="2" align="center"| Mothers mother:Mária Gegus von Kisgessény  ? 1800  Pressburg/ Pozsony (HUN) 18 September 1883
| align="center"| N.N. :Sámuel Gegus
|-
| align="center"| NN:''''|}

Honours
 Nobel Prize in Chemistry (1925, awarded in 1926)
 Member of the Göttingen Academy of Sciences and Humanities, Göttingen (since 1914)
 Corresponding member of the Academia de Ciencias de Zaragoza, the Austrian Academy of Sciences and academies/academic societies in Valencia and Harlem.
 Honorary doctorates of TU Wien (1917), Graz University of Technology (1928), and the medical faculty of the University of Königsberg.

Selected publications

See also
Gold number

References

Further reading

 External links

  including the Nobel Lecture, December 11, 1926 Properties of Colloids''

1865 births
1929 deaths
20th-century Austrian chemists
20th-century Hungarian chemists
20th-century Hungarian physicists
Hungarian inventors
Microscopists
Optical physicists
Academic staff of the University of Göttingen
Nobel laureates in Chemistry
Hungarian Nobel laureates
Austrian Nobel laureates
Nobel laureates from Austria-Hungary
Austrian people of Hungarian descent
Scientists from Vienna
University of Vienna alumni
TU Wien alumni
University of Erlangen-Nuremberg alumni
Academic staff of the Humboldt University of Berlin
Academic staff of the Graz University of Technology
Chemists from Austria-Hungary

Richard Adolf Zsigmondy