Rolo ist eine italienische Gemeinde (comune) mit  Einwohnern (Stand ) in der Provinz Reggio Emilia in der Emilia-Romagna. Die Gemeinde liegt etwa 27 Kilometer nordnordöstlich von Reggio nell'Emilia und grenzt an die Provinzen Modena und Mantua. Die Nachbargemeinden sind Carpi (MO), Fabbrico, Moglia (MN), Novi di Modena (MO) und Reggiolo.

Verkehr
Durch die Gemeinde führt die Autostrada A22 von Verona nach Modena. Ein Anschluss besteht allerdings nicht. Der Bahnhof von Rolo (Rolo-Novi-Fabbrico) liegt an der Bahnstrecke Verona-Mantua-Modena.

Weblinks

Einzelnachweise

Ort in der Emilia-Romagna
Weinbauort in Italien

Rolo (Emilia-Romagna)


Patronyme

 Benoît Moreillon (1993-), dit Diablox9, vidéaste et chroniqueur suisse ;
 Francine Moreillon (1969-), skieuse suisse.

Toponyme

 Moreillon, lieu-dit de Puidoux, dans le canton de Vaud en Suisse.

Moreillon (homonymie)


Tintin and the Lake of Sharks () is a 1972 French-Belgian animated adventure film based on The Adventures of Tintin, directed by Raymond Leblanc.  It was not written by Hergé (who merely supervised), but by the Belgian comics creator Greg (Michel Regnier), a friend of Hergé. It was later adapted into a comic book with still images from the film used as illustrations.

Plot
One night, in Brussels, Belgium, a pair of criminals discreetly break into the aquarium and steal a large priceless pearl.  As soon as the security guards on duty see the empty shell, they rush away to raise the alarm.  The criminals take advantage of the guards' absence by discreetly placing a fake pearl, the same size as the real one, in the shell.  When the guards return with the director and the director sees the fake pearl, he thinks the guards were making it up, but then has second thoughts about the incident as a similar case happened at another museum two weeks before.

Meanwhile, Tintin, Snowy and Captain Haddock arrive in Syldavia, a country in the Balkans. They have come to join their friend Professor Calculus who has rented a villa near a lake in order to build his latest invention. At the airport they run into Thompson and Thomson, who are also heading for Calculus on a special mission.

The four men and dog fly by hired plane to Calculus' house, but during the flight they get into some engine trouble and the pilot bails out with the only parachute. Tintin attempts to safely land the plane, but it ends up on the edge of a cliff and on fire. They are saved with the help of two local children, Niko and his sister Nushka, and their dog Gustav. But as it turns out, the crash was deliberately set up, as the pilot contacts his superior ("Mr. Big"/"King Shark") via a walkie-talkie, hidden in his binoculars, to inform him that the plan has failed.

The children give their new friends a lift in their wagon, but as they learn of their destination, they warn them that there is a curse on the lake, at the bottom of which is an old submerged town. The party finally arrives at Calculus' villa where he demonstrates his invention: a camera which can project holographic images. His ultimate aim is to create a machine which will make actual copies of physical objects. Later, over dinner, Thompson and Thomson explain that they are Calculus' bodyguards as they suspect that a criminal organization specializing in making art forgeries wants to steal his machine. Eventually, everybody goes to bed. In the middle of the night, Snowy wakes up Tintin at one point after hearing a noise outside, but Tintin shakes it off as bird calls. In fact, the noise is made by Calculus' housekeeper, Madame Flik, who is in league with "Mr. Big" as well.

Next morning, while Tintin explores the local country with Niko and Nushka (unaware that there are cameras spying on his every move), and the Captain and the detectives play a game of golf, Snowy runs into a frogman who has obtained from Madame Black some plans stolen from Calculus' laboratory. The frogman escapes by jumping into the lake, but Snowy manages to bite off a part of one of his flippers. After the Captain and the detectives tell Tintin what has happened, he gives the dogs the bitten-off flipper to sniff. While Gustav leads Haddock to a pile of abandoned tires, Tintin follows Snowy to a buried chain which, when pulled, opens a passage to a hidden cave where the criminals have stashed the stolen art. After getting sealed inside the cave, Tintin finds an underwater tunnel leading out to the lake. On his way through, Tintin gets trapped by a wire net, but Snowy (who remained outside the cave) dives in and chews through the net, saving Tintin from drowning.

Back at home, Calculus demonstrates his new invention to the children—a machine that can copy any object from a piece of special soap. Unfortunately the effects are as yet short-lived, as the copied objects shortly turn back into their original substance. The criminals attack Calculus and the detectives with laughing gas and take the children away. Tintin and Haddock pursue them but fail to rescue Niko and Nushka. The criminals leave behind a message on a tape player from their leader, "King Shark", who tells the heroes (with a voice which is startingly familiar to Tintin) that they will get the children back in return for Calculus' invention. Tintin himself is to do the exchange and is not to call the police.

Tintin, Haddock, Calculus and the detectives search the house for bugs, and Tintin discovers a secret passage that leads to Madame Black's walkie-talkie hidden in the empty well, catching Madam Black in the process. Tintin decides to contact the police and comes up with a ruse to cover his tracks. Tintin and Snowy set off to the local town and just happen to meet their old friend, the opera singer Bianca Castafiore, who gives him a lift in her car to the town and even helps him in getting to the police. The chief of police listens to his story, but he is limited in what he can do since half the lake is in the jurisdiction of Borduria, a rival nation, and there are thus risks of a diplomatic incident.

Two days pass before Tintin finally returns to Calculus' house with the shark-like submarine which Calculus built during the search for Red Rackham's Treasure. The plan is that Tintin will meet the crooks on the beach, and Haddock will follow him in the sub. At the meeting point, criminals pick Tintin up in a submarine, and they head underwater to the flooded city where their base is situated. The mastermind behind this operation is revealed to be none other than Tintin's nemesis Rastapopoulos, now calling himself "King Shark"/"Mr. Big". Rastapopoulos promises to set Niko and Nushka  free for the device, but, unaware of Tintin's arrival, the children escape from their cell and hijack an underwater tank.

Rastapopoulos takes over control of the tank with his computer, but he then notices Captain Haddock's sub on his monitor and uses the tank to fire torpedoes at Haddock, which provokes a fight between Tintin and the other gangsters as he attempts to stop Rastapopoulos. Haddock's mini-sub is hit, jamming its propulsion, and the tank is returned to the base by remote control. While waiting for the children to return, Rastapopoulos takes Tintin to his office and shows him his art collection, gloating that with Calculus' machine, they can make multiple copies of all the stolen masterpieces and sell them off for huge amounts of money.

Rastapopoulos tries out Calculus' machine by cloning a cigar box, but the imitation proves highly unstable and grows to monstrous size, almost crushing Rastapopoulos and his lieutenant. In a rage, Rastapopoulos locks Tintin and the children in a chamber, but then learns that police boats are patrolling the lake. He therefore decides to evacuate the base and orders his men to take all the art he has in the underwater city to the cave. He then floods the chamber Tintin and the children are in with water. As soon as the water has reached a device high on the wall, the base will self-destruct.

Haddock manages to regain control of the disabled submarine and makes his way to the surface, encountering Thompson and Thomson and the chief of the Syldavian police in a patrol boat. Down below, with all of his men having evacuated the base, Rastapopoulos and his lieutenant leave the base in the submarine. Tintin and the children manage to get free and escape through an airlock in life jackets, just before the base explodes. They then reach the surface and rejoin their friends and the police. The police have captured all of Rastapopoulos' men, but the mastermind himself has already crossed the border in his submarine. Since they are not Syldavian officials and therefore not bound by international conventions, Tintin and Haddock insist in going after Rastapopoulos in a motor boat.

In order to pass the border posts, Rastapopoulos tries to navigate the sub through an underwater tunnel, but forgets to lower the sub's periscope, which hits a low rock and breaks, causing the sub to crash and get flooded. The villains make for the surface, but they are captured by Tintin and Haddock as soon as they attempt to leave the wrecked vessel. In the end, the Thompsons, Calculus, Niko, Nushka, and Gustav welcome Tintin, Snowy and Haddock back from their submarine vessel mission. Finally, Rastapopoulos and his seamen are taken away to Klow Prison by Syldavian Police Officials. Tintin, Snowy and Haddock return to Calculus' villa and are welcomed by a huge party of villagers who want to celebrate the end of the terror imposed by the gang, and Bianca Castafiore, who makes Haddock flee the party. Haddock tries to have a quiet moment to drink some whiskey, but gets his bottle destroyed by the Thompson twins playing golf. Initially, the captain is annoyed but laughs over it with everyone.

Cast

Additional Voices
Georges Atlas
Jacques Balutin
Nadine Basile
Edmond Bernard
Jacqueline Brasseur
Jacques Ciron
Jacques Ferriere
Georges Hubert
Maurice Nasil
Nicolas Youmatoff

References

External links

Tintin and the Lake of Sharks, 44pp, first UK edition published by Methuen, 1973.

1972 films
1972 animated films
Belgian animated films
1970s French-language films
French animated feature films
Lake of Sharks
Lake of Sharks
Animated films based on Belgian comics
Films set in Brussels
Animated films set in Belgium
Animated films set in Europe
Films set in a fictional country
Belgian children's films
French children's films
Films adapted into comics
1970s French animated films
French-language Belgian films

Tintin and the Lake of Sharks


Elijah Mitchell, né le  à Erath en Louisiane, est un joueur professionnel américain de football américain.

Il joue au poste de running back pour la franchise des 49ers de San Francisco dans la National Football League (NFL) depuis 2021.

Biographie
Mitchell fait sa carrière universitaire à l'université de Louisiane à Lafayette. Avec les Ragin' Cajuns, il se fait remarquer, ce qui lui permet de se classer au  rang des meilleurs espoirs à sa position en prévision du draft de 2021. Choisit par les 49ers de San Francisco, il se fait remarquer dès la première semaine grâce à une bonne performance après la blessure à Raheem Mostert. Lors de cette saison recrue, il établit un record d'équipe pour les verges obtenus par une recrue en dépassant les 811 verges de Vic Washington en 1971.

Références

Liens externes

Naissance en mai 1998
Naissance dans la paroisse de Vermilion
Joueur américain de football américain
Running back
Joueur de football américain des Ragin' Cajuns de Louisiana-Lafayette
Choix de draft des 49ers de San Francisco
Joueur des 49ers de San Francisco

Elijah Mitchell


Volumele din Naruto, serie de manga, este scrisă de Masashi Kishimoto. Naruto, serie de manga, este publicată de Shueisha în Weekly Shonen Jump și a început să fie publicată pe data de 3 martie 2000 în Japonia.

Lista volumelor

Partea I
{| class="wikitable" style="width: 99%;"
|- style="border-bottom:3px solid #CCF;"
! style="width: 3%;" | Nr.
! Titlu
! style="width: 15%;" | Apariție
|-
| 1
|  Naruto Uzumaki
1. Naruto Uzumaki!

2. Konohamaru

3. Intră Sasuke!

4. Kakashi Hatake!

5. Nepregătirea este cel mai mare dușman

6. Nu Sasuke!

7. Decizia lui Kakashi
| 3 martie 2000
|-
| 2
| Cel Mai Rău Client
8. Sunteți descalificați!

9. Cel mai rău client

10. Al doilea animal

11. Debarcarea

12. Sfârșitul jocului!

13. Ninja!

14. Un plan secret...!

15. Apariția Sharinganului

16. Cine ești tu!?

17. Pregătiri pentru bătălie
| 2 iunie 2000
|-
| 3
| Visele
18. Antrenamentul începe

19. Un simbol al curajului

20. Țara care a avut un erou...!

21. Întâlnire în pădure...!

22. Un rival apare

23. Două asalturi...!

24. Viteză!

25. De dragul viselor...!

26. Sharinganul se năruiește...!

27. Trezirea
| 4 august 2000
|-

Naruto

Lista volumelor din Naruto


Biserica "Buna Vestire" este un lăcaș de cult ortodox aflat în satul Ormindea, județul Hunedoara. Se remarcă prin dimensiunile impunătoare, patrimoniul mobil valoros și pictura interioară realizată, în parte, de aviatorul pictor Ioan Stoica, colegul lui Aurel Vlaicu.

Istoric și trăsături
Lăcașul de cult din Ormindea, închinat praznicului Bunei Vestiri, a fost construit între anii 1908 și 1911, în timpul păstoririi preotului Nicolae Pop; planurile au fost întocmite de arhitectul Ioan Pamfilie din Sibiu.

Este un edificiu de plan triconc, cu absidele laterale semicirculare; altarul, nedecroșat, are formă pentagonală. În dreptul celor două intrări, de sud și de vest, au fost adosate mici pridvoare de zid. Cu excepția coifului amplu al turnului-clopotniță masiv (reconstruit în 1923), învelit în tablă, în rest, la acoperișul propriu-zis s-a folosit țigla. Biserica, renovată în anii 1953 și 1992, a fost împodobită iconografic în perioada 1911-1912 (decor mural reînnoit  în anul 1955), de pictorul local Ioan Stoica. Sfințirea s-a făcut în anul 1956.

Conscripțiile ecleziastice din 1733, 1750, 1761-1762, 1805 și 1829-1831, precum și harta iosefină a Transilvaniei (1769-1773), atestă prezenţa unei înaintaşe medievale, poate aceeaşi biserică în care slujise, în 1525, preotul Petru ("Peter pap"), menţionat în urbariul cetăţii Şiria.

Note

Bibliografie
Florin Dobrei - Bisericile ortodoxe hunedorene (Ed.Eftimie Murgu, Reșița 2011)

Vezi și
 Ormindea, Hunedoara

Imagini din exterior

Imagini din interior

Ormindea
Biserici din secolul al XX-lea din România
Biserici cu hramul Buna Vestire

Biserica Buna Vestire din Ormindea


Xerox (Ziraks diye okunur), ABD kökenli, Norwalk, Connecticut merkezli uluslararası bir teknoloji şirketi olarak faaliyet gösterir. 1906 yılında Joseph C. Wilson ve Chester Carlson tarafından kuruldu. Ürünlerinde daha çok fotokopi, tarayıcı ve yazıcılar donanım olarak ön plana çıkmakla birlikte bu ortamlarda çalışan özel yazılımlar da üretmektedir. En son ürettiği yazılım ise basılı kâğıt yüzeyinden kelime arayabilme üzerinedir. Büyük bir gelişmiş şirket olarak, sürekli olarak Fortune 500 şirketleri listesinde yer almaktadır.

Şirket, 2010 yılının başlarında 6.4 milyar dolara Affiliated Computer Services'i satın aldı. Ayrıca PARC şirketi de yan kuruluşu olan bir araştırma ve geliştirme şirketidir.

Kaynakça

Dış bağlantılar
 Xerox 'kâğıttan' arama motoru yaptı
 Xerox Türkçe site
 Xerox İngilizce site

Ayrıca banınız
 Xerox Alto

Amerikan markaları
Genelleşen markalar
Connecticut merkezli şirketler
Norwalk, Connecticut
Çokuluslu şirketler
Norwalk, Connecticut merkezli şirketler
Eski New York Borsası'ndaki şirketler
Baskı makinesi üreticileri
NASDAQ'daki şirketler
Peabody Ödülü sahipleri
Amerika Birleşik Devletleri merkezli çok uluslu şirketler
1906'da kurulan şirketler
1906'da New York eyaletinde kurulan oluşumlar
Yazıcı şirketleri
Amerika Birleşik Devletleri merkezli elektronik şirketleri
Ulusal Teknoloji Madalyası sahipleri
Fotokopi

Xerox


The history of Hawaii describes the era of human settlements in the Hawaiian Islands. The islands were first settled by Polynesians sometime between 1000 and 1200 AD forming the modern population of Native Hawaiians. Hawaiian civilization was isolated from the rest of the world for at least 500 years.

An expedition led by British explorer James Cook is usually considered to be the first group of Europeans to arrive in the Hawaiian Islands, which they did in 1778. However, Spanish historians and some other researchers state that the Spanish captain Ruy López de Villalobos was the first European to see the islands in 1542. The Spanish named these islands "Isla de Mesa, de los Monjes y Desgraciada" (1542), being on the route linking the Philippines with Mexico across the Pacific Ocean, between the ports of Acapulco and Manila, which were both part of New Spain.  Within five years after Cook's arrival, European military technology helped Kamehameha I, ruler of the island of Hawaii, conquer and unify the islands for the first time, establishing the Kingdom of Hawaii in 1795.  The kingdom was prosperous and important for its agriculture and strategic location in the Pacific.

American immigration, led by Protestant missionaries, and Native Hawaiian outmigration, mostly on whaling ships, began almost immediately after Cook's arrival. Americans set up plantations to grow sugar. Their methods of plantation farming required substantial labor. Waves of permanent immigrants came from Japan, China, and the Philippines to work in the fields. The government of Japan organized and gave special protection to its people, who comprised about 25 percent of the Hawaiian population by 1896.  The Hawaiian monarchy encouraged this multi-ethnic society, initially establishing a constitutional monarchy in 1840 that promised equal voting rights regardless of race, gender, or wealth.

The population of Native Hawaiians in Hawaii declined from an unknown number prior to 1778 (commonly estimated to be around 300,000), to around 142,000 in the 1820s based on the first census conducted by American missionaries, 82,203 in the 1850 Hawaiian Kingdom census, 40,622 in the last Hawaiian Kingdom census of 1890, 39,504 in the only census by the Republic of Hawaii in 1896, and 37,656 in the first census conducted by the United States in 1900 after the annexation of Hawaii to the United States in 1898.  Since Hawaii has joined the United States the Native Hawaiian population in Hawaii has increased with every census to 289,970 in 2010.

Americans within the kingdom government rewrote the constitution, severely curtailing the power of King "David" Kalākaua, and disenfranchising the rights of most Native Hawaiians and Asian citizens to vote, through excessively high property and income requirements. This gave a sizeable advantage to plantation owners. Queen Liliʻuokalani attempted to restore royal powers in 1893 but was placed under house arrest by businessmen with help from the United States military. Against the Queen's wishes, the Republic of Hawaii was formed for a short time. This government agreed on behalf of Hawaii to join the United States in 1898 as the Territory of Hawaii. In 1959, the islands became the state of Hawaii.

Ancient Hawaii

Discovery and settlement

The date of the first settlements of the Hawaiian Islands is a topic of continuing debate. Patrick Vinton Kirch's books on Hawaiian archeology, standard textbooks, date the first Polynesian settlements to about 300, with more recent suggestions by Kirch as late as 600. Other theories suggest dates as late as 700 to 800. The most recent survey of carbon-dating evidence puts the arrival of the first settlers at around A.D. 940–1130.

The history of the ancient Polynesians was passed down through genealogy chants that were recited at formal and family functions. The genealogy of the high chiefs could be traced back to the period believed to be inhabited only by gods. The pua aliʻi ("flower of royalty") were considered to be living gods.

By about 1000, settlements founded along the perimeters of the islands were beginning to cultivate food in gardens.

A Tahitian priest named Pā'ao is said to have brought a new order to the islands around 1200. The new order included new laws and a new social structure that separated the people into classes. The aliʻi nui was the king, with his ʻaha kuhina just below them. The aliʻi were the royal nobles with the kahuna (high priest) below them, the makaʻāinana (commoners) next with the kauā below them as the lowest ranking social caste.

The rulers of the Hawaiian islands (noho aliʻi o ko Hawaiʻi Pae ʻAina) are a line of Native Hawaiians who were independent rulers of various subdivisions of the islands of Hawaii. Their genealogy is traced to Hānalaʻanui and others. The aliʻi nui were responsible for making sure the people observed a strict kapu (a code of conduct relating to taboos). The system had rules regarding many aspects of Hawaiian social order, fishing rights and even where women could eat. After the death of Kamehameha I, the system was abolished, and the Hawaiian religion soon fell as the gods were abandoned.

By 1500 Hawaiians began to spread to the interiors of the islands and religion was more emphasized.

Prior to conquest by Kamehameha I, the islands did not have a single name, as each island was ruled as separate kingdoms known only by the island names.  The first recorded names of the island by Captain Cook reflect this fact.  Kamehameha I, as ruler of the island of Hawaii, imposed the name "Hawaii" on the islands.

Religion

There were atheists, known as 'aia, in Hawaii.  However, the dominant religion in Hawaii, similar to many other Polynesian societies, was the kapu or taboo religion, which has a theology, ritual and a code of conduct. There are many gods and heroes with many different people worshiping different gods in different ways.  In one tradition, Wākea, the Sky Father, wed Papahānaumoku, the Earth Mother. From their union came all others, including the other gods.  In another traditional genealogy named Pu-anue, Kumukumu-ke-kaa and her husband Paia-a-ka-lani were the mother and father of the earth and heavens.  Another genealogy declares that Ka-mai-eli and Kumu-honua were the mother and father.

The kapu religion in Hawaii was polytheistic, with four deities most prominent: Kāne, Kū, Lono and Kanaloa. Other notable deities include Laka, Kihawahine, Haumea, Papahānaumoku, and, most famously, Pele. In addition, each family is considered to have one or more guardian spirits or family gods known as ʻaumakua to protect them. One such god is Iolani, the god of alii families.

One breakdown of the Kapu pantheon in Hawaii consists of the following groups:
 four major gods (ka hā) – Kū, Kāne, Lono, Kanaloa
 forty male gods or aspects of Kāne (ke kanahā)
 four hundred gods and goddesses (ka lau)
 a multitude of gods and goddesses (ke kini akua)
 spirits (na unihipili)
 guardians (na aumākua)
Another breakdown consists of three major groups:
 four gods, or akua: Kū, Kāne, Lono, Kanaloa
 many lesser gods, or kupua, each associated with certain professions
 guardian spirits, aumakua, associated with particular families

Liloa, Hākau and ʻUmi a Līloa

 Liloa
Līloa was a legendary ruler of the island of Hawaii in the late 15th century. His royal compound was in Waipiʻo Valley. His line is traced to Hawaiian "creation".

Līloa had two sons; his firstborn Hākau from his wife Pinea, (his mother's sister), and his second son, ʻUmi a Līloa from his lesser ranking wife, Akahi a Kuleana. Upon his death,  elevated Hākau as ruler and delegated religious authority to ʻUmi. Akahi a Kuleana was of a lesser line of chiefs who Liloa had fallen in love with when he discovered her bathing in a river. The couple met when Liloa was visiting Hamakua. He claimed his right to her as King and she accepted.

Liloa's Kāʻei is his sacred feathered sash, now kept at the Bishop Museum.[|]

Līloa was the first born son of Kiha nui lulu moku, one of the noho aliʻi (ruling elite). He descended from Hāna laʻa nui. Līloa's mother, Waioloa, his grandmother, Neʻula and great-grandmother, Laʻa kapu were of the ʻEwa aliʻi lines of Oahu. Liloa's father ruled Hawaii as aliʻi nui and upon his death elevated Līloa. Kiha had had four other sons, Kaunuamoa, Makaoku, Kepailiula and Hoolana, whose descendants are the Kaiakea family of Molokai, distant relatives of Abraham Fornander's daughter.

In his book, David Malo described how Liloa originated the practice of moe āikane, the sexual relationship between males. The relationships had no social stigma and were accepted practice beginning with the alii and then copied by the other classes. Warriors engaged in the practice. The relationships cannot be defined as bisexuality. In many cases, the men involved felt it an honor and responsibility to honor their hana lawelawe.

 Hākau
Just before his death, Liloa bestowed on Hākau the succession as Chief, telling Umi that he was to serve as his "man" (Prime Minister) and that both were to respect the other and should either have issue with the other it would be for them to decide. At first a decent king, Hākau soon became brutal. To avoid his brother's anger, 'Umi exiled himself to another district.

Hākau refused to help Nunu and Ka-hohe, his father's two favorite, ailing Kahuna who had requested food. This was considered highly insulting. The two were of the priestly class of the god Lono. They resented their treatment and plotted to see the kingdom in someone else's hand. Hākau did not believe the priests to have any power and disrespected them as 'Umi was the spiritual authority This was a period in when no King could defy a Kahuna. Many had a royal bloodline, land and could leave their temples as warriors when needed, but could never relinquish their spiritual responsibilities. Through a messenger of Kaoleioku, of Waipunalei, the high-priest of the temple of Manini, at Koholalele the two priests contacted Umi's court. The two priests traveled to Waipunalei where they supported Umi's revolt.

When Hākau received news that his brother was preparing to war against him, he sent his main forces out to immediately prepare by seeking feathers to adorn their war regalia. After the warriors had left and Hākau was undefended, Umi's warriors came forward with a deception that they were there with bundles of offerings for the king. When the bundles were dropped to the ground they were filled with rocks they used to stone Hākau to death.

 ʻUmi-a-Līloa
ʻUmi-a-Līloa was a ruling aliʻi ai moku (district high chief of Hawai'i). He became chief after the death of his half brother Hākau and was considered a just ruler, religious and the first to unite almost all of the Big Island. The legend of ʻUmi-a-Līloa is one of the most popular hero sagas in Hawaiian history.

ʻUmi's wife was Princess Piʻikea, daughter of Piʻilani. They had one son, Kumalae and one daughter, Aihākōkō.

Liloa told Akahi that, if she were to have a male child, she should present the boy to him along with royal tokens he gave her as gifts, to prove her boy was the son of the king. Akahi hid the tokens from her husband and later gave birth to a son. At the age of 15 or 16, his stepfather was punishing the boy when his mother intervened and told the man not to touch him because the boy was his lord and chief. She uncovered the tokens to present to her husband to prove the high treason he would have committed. Akahi gave her son the royal malo and lei niho palaoa given to her by 'Umi's biological father. Only high chiefs wore these items. She sent 'Umi to Waipiʻo Valley to present himself to the king as his son.

Liloa's palace was guarded and attended by several Kahuna. The entire enclosure was sacred. Entering without permission carried the death penalty. Umi entered the enclosure with attendants afraid to stop someone wearing the royal insignia and walked straight to Liloa's sleeping quarters, waking him there. When Liloa asked who he was, he said "It is I, 'Umi your son". He then placed the tokens at his father's feet and Liloa proclaimed him to be his son. After learning of 'Umi, Hākau became upset. Liloa assured his first born that he would be king after his death and his brother would serve him. 'Umi was brought to court on an equal footing with Hākau. Living within Liloa's court alongside his brother, Umi found great favor from his father, increasing Hākau's dislike.

In exile, 'Umi took wives and began building forces and followers. Chiefs began to believe him to be of the highest chiefly nature from signs they observed. He gave food to people and became known for caring for all.

After Hākau's death the other aliʻi of the island claimed their districts for themselves. 'Umi took the advice of the two priests by marrying many woman of high noble rank, including his half sister Kapukini and the daughter of the ruler of Hilo, where he had been given sanctuary during Hākau's reign. Eventually Umi conquered the entire island.

After unifying the island of Hawaii, 'Umi was faithful to those who had supported him, and allowed his three most faithful companions, and the two Kahuna who had aided him, to help him govern.

AikāneAikāne relationships or (mostly male) homosexual or bisexual activity in the pre-colonial era was an accepted tradition. These relationships were accepted as part of ancient Hawaiian culture. Such sexual relationships may begin in the teens and continue thereafter, even though they have heterosexual partners. The Hawaiian aikāne relationship was a part of Hawaiian noble life, including that of Kamehameha I. Some myths refer to women's desires and therefore some women may have been involved in aikāne relationships as well.

Lieutenant James King stated that "all the chiefs had them" and recounts a tale that James Cook was actually asked by one chief to leave Lt. King behind, considering such offer a great honor. Members of Cook's crew related tales of the tradition with great disdain. American adventurer and sailor John Ledyard commented in detail about the tradition.

Land division system

Land was divided up in strict adherence to the wishes of the Ali'i Nui. The traditional system of land has four hierarchical levels:mokupuni (island)moku (subdivisions of an island)ahupuaʻa (subdivision of moku)ʻili (two or three per ahupuaʻa, but Kahoolawe for example had eight)
Some oral history relates that ʻUmi a Līloa created the ahupuaʻa system. The system exploited the fact that communities were already organized along stream systems. The community governance system of Kānāwai is attributed specifically to shared water usage.

The Hawaiian agricultural system contained two major classes; irrigated and rain-fed (dryland) systems. Irrigated systems mainly supported taro (kalo) cultivation. Rain-fed systems were known as the mala. There they cultivated uala (sweet potatoes), yams, and dryland taro along with coconuts (niu), breadfruit (ʻulu), bananas (maiʻa) and sugarcane (ko). The kukui tree (Aleurites moluccanus) was sometimes used as a shade to protect the mala from the sun. Each crop was carefully placed in an area most suitable to its needs.

Hawaiians had domesticated dogs, chickens and pigs. They also grew personal gardens at home. Water was a very important part of Hawaiian life; it was used for fishing, bathing, drinking, and gardening, and for aquaculture systems in the rivers and at the shore's edge.

Ahupuaʻa most frequently consisted of a section of an island that went from the top of the local mountain to the shore, often following the boundary of a stream. Each ahupuaʻa included a lowland mala and upland forested region. Ahupuaʻa varied in size depending on the economic means of the location and political divisions of the area. "As the native Hawaiians used the resources within their ahupuaʻa, they practiced aloha (respect), laulima (cooperation) and malama (stewardship) which resulted in a desirable pono (balance)". The Hawaiians believed that the land, the sea, the clouds and all of nature had a certain interconnectedness which is why they used all of the resources around them to reach the desired balance in life. Sustainability was maintained by the konohiki and kahuna: priests, who restricted the fishing of certain species during specific seasons. They also regulated the gathering of plants.

The term "ahupuaʻa" is derived from the Hawaiian words ahu "heap, cairn" and puaʻa "pig". The boundary markers for ahupuaʻa were traditionally heaps of stones used to hold offers to the island chief, which was often a pig.

Each ahupuaʻa was divided into smaller sections called ʻili and the ʻili were divided into kuleana. These were individual plots of land that were cultivated by commoners who paid labor taxes to the land overseer each week. These taxes went to support the chief. Two possible reasons for this subdivision have been offered:
travel: in many areas of Hawaiʻi, it is easier to travel up- and downstream than from stream valley to stream valley.
economy: having all climate and economic exploitation zones in each land division ensured that each could be self-sufficient for a large portion of its needs.

Governance

The Kingdom was administered by an ali'i chief. Divisions were under the control of other smaller chiefs and managed by a steward. The headman of a land division or ahupua`a is a konohiki. Mokus were ruled by an aliʻi ʻaimoku. Ahupua'as were run by a headman or chief called a Konohiki.[|]

 Konohiki

In Keelikolani vs Robinson, kononiki is defined as a Land Agent. In Territory vs Bishop Trust Co. LTD., when the agent was appointed by a chief, they were referred to as konohiki. The term could also be a designated area of land owned privately as compared to being owned by the government. A chief of lands retained life tenure on the land even after being discharged from the position, but a head man overseeing the same land had no such protection.

Often ali'i and konohiki are treated synonymously. However, while most konohiki were ali'i nobility, not all ali'i were konohiki. The Hawaiian dictionary defines konohiki as a headman of a land division, but also to describe fishing rights. Kono means to entice or prompt. Hiki refers to something that can be done. The konohiki was a relative of the ali'i and oversaw the property, managing water rights, land distribution, agricultural use and any maintenance. The konohiki also ensured that the right amounts of gifts and tribute were properly made at the right times.

As capitalism was incorporated into the kingdom, the konohiki became tax collectors, landlords and fishery wardens.

 Breaking of the Kapu
In a triumph for women's equality, Hawaiians overthrew the kapu religious theocracy in 1819 by themselves, before the arrival of American missionaries and without the support of western powers like Great Britain, France, or the United States. On October 4, 1819, Kamehameha II, who became king after the death of his father Kamehameha I (the founder of the Hawaiian Kingdom), ate dinner with Queen Ka'ahumanu, Kamehameha I's favored wife, and Queen Keopuolani, the mother of Kamehameha II. The prohibition on men and women eating together, the 'ai kapu, was one of the most ancient kapus or prohibitions: the penalty for its violation was death. Queen Ka'ahumanu, however, despised the prohibition as it prevented her from entering certain religious temples where men made political decisions over meals.  Queen Keopuolani also violated the prohibition even before the public breaking.  Violating the 'ai kapu at a public dinner, as Kamehameha II did, was a clear signal that the kapu system was abolished given Kamehameha II's status as King, Kahamumanu's status as Queen Regent, and Keopuolani's status as Queen.  The guests at the dinner cried out "'ai noa! " (free eating). Afterwards, Kamehameha II – with the support of his high priest Hewahewa – ordered the destruction of the ancient heiau temples.  After the breaking of the kapu, a brief civil war then broke out, with Kamehameha I's nephew, Kekuaokalani, opposing. Kekuaokalani's forces were defeated by Kamehameha II's at Kuamo'o. The victory by Kamehameha II's forces established, as a matter of Hawaiian political history, that no Hawaiian could impose kapu prohibitions on another ever again.

Contact

Captain James Cook (1728-1779) led three separate voyages (1768-1779) to chart unknown areas of the globe for Great Britain. On his third voyage he encountered Hawaii, first sighting the islands on 18 January 1778. He anchored off the coast of Kauai and met with the local inhabitants to trade and obtain water and food for his continued voyage. On 2 February 1778, Cook continued on to the coast of the North American continent, searching for a Northwest Passage for approximately nine months. He returned to the Hawaii chain to resupply, initially exploring the coasts of Maui and Hawaii Island to trade. He anchored in Kealakekua Bay in January 1779. After departing Kealakekua, he returned in February 1779 after a ship's mast broke in bad weather.

On the night of 13 February, while Cook's expedition lay anchored in the bay, Hawaiians stole one of his only two longboats (lifeboats used to ferry to/from ship/shore). In retaliation, Cook tried to kidnap the aliʻi nui of Hawaii Island, Kalaniʻōpuʻu. On 14 February 1779 Cook confronted an angry crowd. Kanaʻina approached Cook, who reacted by striking the royal attendant with the broad side of his sword. Kanaʻina picked up the navigator and dropped him while another attendant, Nuaa, killed Cook with a knife.

 Kingdom of Hawaii
The Kingdom of Hawaii lasted from 1795 until its overthrow in 1893 with the fall of the House of Kalakaua.

House of Kamehameha

The House of Kamehameha (Hale O Kamehameha), or the Kamehameha dynasty, was the reigning Royal Family of the Kingdom of Hawaii, beginning with its founding by Kamehameha I in 1795 and ending with the deaths of Kamehameha V in 1872 and William Charles Lunalilo in 1874.

The origins of the House of Kamehameha can be traced to half brothers, Kalaniʻōpuʻu and Keōua. Kalaniʻōpuʻu's father was Kalaninuiʻīamamao while Keōua's father was Kalanikeʻeaumoku, both sons of Keaweʻīkekahialiʻiokamoku. They shared a common mother, Kamakaʻīmoku. Both brothers served Alapaʻinui, the ruling King of Hawaii Island. Hawaiian genealogy notes that Keōua may not have been Kamehameha's biological father, and that Kahekili II might have been his biological father. Regardless, Kamehameha I's descent from Keawe remains intact through his mother, Kekuʻiapoiwa II, a granddaughter of Keawe. Keōua acknowledged him as his son and this relationship is recognized by official genealogies.

The traditional mele chant of Keaka, wife of Alapainui, indicates that Kamehameha I was born in the month of ikuwā (winter) around November. It is also said that Kamehameha was born during the passing of Halley's Comet. In Hawaiian culture a comet indicated an important birth. Hawaiian prophecy said that this baby would one day unite the islands by defeating all current chiefs. Alapai gave the young Kamehameha to his wife Keaka and her sister Hākau to care for after the ruler discovered the boy had lived. Samuel Kamakau, wrote, "It was during the time of the warfare among the chiefs of [the island of] Hawaii which followed the death of Keawe, chief over the whole island (Ke-awe-i-kekahi-aliʻi-o-ka-moku) that Kamehameha I was born". However, his general dating was challenged. Abraham Fornander wrote, "when Kamehameha died in 1819 he was past eighty years old. His birth would thus fall between 1736 and 1740, probably nearer the former than the latter". William De Witt Alexander lists the birth date as 1736. He was first named Paiea but took the name Kamehameha, meaning "The very lonely one" or "The one set alone".

Kamehameha's uncle Kalaniʻōpuʻu raised him after Keōua's death. Kalaniʻōpuʻu ruled Hawaii as did his grandfather Keawe. He had advisors and priests. When word reached the ruler that chiefs were planning to murder the boy, he told Kamehameha:

After Kalaniʻōpuʻu's death, Kīwalaʻō took his father's place as first born and ruled the island while Kamehameha became the religious authority. Some chiefs supported Kamehameha and war soon broke out to overthrow Kīwalaʻō. After multiple battles the king was killed and envoys sent for the last two brothers to meet with Kamehameha. Keōua and Kaōleiokū arrived in separate canoes. Keōua came to shore first where a fight broke out and he and all aboard were killed. Before the same could happen to the second canoe, Kamehameha intervened. In 1793 Captain George Vancouver sailed from Britain and presented the Union Flag to Kamehameha, who was still in the process of uniting the islands into a single state; the Union Jack flew unofficially as the flag of Hawaii until 1816, including during a brief spell of British rule after Kamehameha ceded Hawaii to Vancouver in 1794.

By 1795, Kamehameha had conquered all but one of the main islands.  For his first royal residence, the new King built the first western-style structure in the Hawaiian Islands, known as the "Brick Palace". The location became the seat of government for the Hawaiian Kingdom until 1845. The king commissioned the structure to be built at Keawa'iki point in Lahaina, Maui. Two ex-convicts from Australia's Botany Bay penal colony built the home. It was begun in 1798 and was completed after 4 years in 1802. The house was intended for Kaʻahumanu, but she refused to live in the structure and resided instead in an adjacent, traditional Hawaiian-styled home.

Kamehameha I had many wives but held two in the highest regard. Keōpūolani was the highest ranking aliʻi of her time and mother to his sons, Liholiho and Kauikeaouli. Kaʻahumanu was his favorite. Kamehameha I died in 1819, succeeded by Liholiho.

Kamehameha II

After Kamehameha I's death, Liholiho left Kailua for a week and returned to be crowned king. At the lavish ceremony attended by commoners and nobles he approached the circle of chiefs, as Kaʻahumanu, the central figure in the group and Dowager Queen, said, "Hear me O Divine one, for I make known to you the will of your father. Behold these chiefs and the men of your father, and these your guns, and this your land, but you and I shall share the realm together". Liholiho agreed officially, which began a unique system of dual-government consisting of a King and co-ruler similar to a regent. Kamehameha II shared his rule with his stepmother, Kaʻahumanu. She defied Hawaiian kapu by dining with the young king, separating the sexes during meals, leading to the end of the Hawaiian religion. Kamehameha II died, along with his wife, Queen Kamāmalu in 1824 on a state visit to England, succumbing to measles. He was King for 5 years.

The couple's remains were returned to Hawaii by Boki. Aboard the ship The Blond his wife Liliha and Kekūanaōʻa were baptized as Christians. Kaʻahumanu also converted and became a powerful Christian influence on Hawaiian society until her death in 1832. Since the new king was only 12 years old, Kaʻahumanu was now senior ruler and named Boki as her Kuhina Nui.

Boki left Hawaii on a trip to find sandalwood to cover a debt and was lost at sea. His wife, Liliha took the governorship of Maui and unsuccessfully attempted to whip up a revolt against Kaʻahumanu, who upon Boki's departure, had installed Kīnaʻu as a co-governor.

Kaʻahumanu

Kaʻahumanu was born on Maui around 1777. Her parents were aliʻi of a lower-ranking line. She became Kamehameha's consort when she was fourteen. George Vancouver states: "[O]ne of the finest woman we had yet seen on any of the islands". To wed the young woman, Kamehameha had to consent to make her children his heirs to the Kingdom, although she had no issue.

Before his death, Kamehameha selected Kaʻahumanu to rule along with his son. Kaʻahumanu had also adopted the boy. She had the highest political clout in the islands. A portrait artist remarked of her: "This Old Dame is the most proud, unbending Lady in the whole island. As the widow of [Kamehameha], she possesses unbound authority and respect, not any of which she is inclined to lay aside on any occasion whatsoever". She was one of Hawaii's most influential leaders.

 Kamehameha III

Kauikeaouli was the second son of Kamehameha I and was born in Keauhou Bay on the island of Hawai'i. Kauikeaouli's birthdate is not explicitly known but many historians  place his birth on March 17, 1814. He was about 14 years younger than his brother Liholiho (Kemehameha II). After his birth, Kuakini refused to take him because Kauikeaouli appeared to be lifeless. However, it was declared that the baby would live by a prophet of another chief. They cleaned the baby and put him on a sacred area where the seer fanned him and sprinkled him with water while reciting a prayer. As a result, the baby started to move and make sounds. Kaikioewa was chosen as the baby's guardian and took him away to be raised in a remote location.

Kauikeaouli became the King after the death of his brother in 1824. Kamehameha III began the writing of Hawaii's first formal laws and created a governmental structure. The action was prompted from increasing threat of colonization by foreign countries who were intrigued the strategic geographical location of the islands in the Pacific Ocean. Kamehameha III was advised by a William Richards, a former missionary. William Richards travelled to the United States in an attempt to learn more about Western politics and government structure. He taught Kamehameha III his findings and together they created the first constitution of Hawaii in 1840. Kamehameha III also enacted several laws that recognized human rights and a new new system for land ownership called Mahele. Another major political decision made was the move of the capital from Lahaina to Honolulu where it still holds the title.

In 1843, there was a five-month period in which British captain Lord George Paulet pressed Kamehameha III into giving control of the islands to him. Kamehameha III wrote a letter to London informing them of Paulet's actions. Great Britain then reestablished the islands independence on July 31, 1843. It was on this day that Kamehameha III uttered what became the Hawaiian motto, "Ua Mau ke Ea o ka ʻĀina i ka Pono," meaning, "The life of the land is perpetuated in righteousness." The day became a national holiday known as Lā Hoʻihoʻi Ea.Kamehameha III was married to Queen Kalama on February 14, 1837. Kamehameha had one son with his mistress Jane Lahilahi who survived to adulthood named Albert Edward Kūnuiakea. He had two kids with Queen Kalama that both died young: Prince Keaweaweʻulaokalani I and Prince Keaweaweʻulaokalani II. Alexander Liholiho, Kamehameha III's nephew, was taken in by the King and pronounced as the heir to the Hawaiian throne. In 1854 Alexander Liholiho became king as a result of a sudden death of Kamehameha III, likely by stroke.

 Kamehameha IV

Kamehameha III's adopted son, Alexander Liholiho, was born on February 9, 1834, in the capital of the country, Honolulu. It was 21 years later when he took the throne and became Kamehameha IV. His education took place at the Chiefs' Children's School and was taught French by Protestant missionaries. The princes did not have an overall happy experience at the school often being sent to bed hungry. Liholiho left the school when he was 14 and began studying law. In his late teens, Liholiho began traveling with his brother, Lot Kapuāiwa, in an attempt to make Hawaii's presence as an independent nation known. Among the places they travelled were the United States, France, and Panama. After a 1849 French attack by Admiral de Tromelin, Liholiho was tasked with trying to improve relations with France. Liholiho and Kapuaiwa were accompanied by Gerrit P. Judd to France with hopes of a treaty being signed. They ultimately failed after three months in France and returned to the islands. Following his return from France he was appointed to Kamehameha III's privy council in 1852.

After taking the throne in 1855, Kamehameha IV's main goal was to stop United States influence on the country. He almost immediately put a stop to the annexation of Hawaii to the United States. The annexation negotiations had been set into motion by Kamehameha III. In 1856 Kamehameha IV had an Anglican wedding with Emma Rooke. Emma Rook was the great-grandniece of King Kamehameha I and was a part of the ali'i class. Queen Emma had a very pro-British outlook due to her adoptive parents who were British. In 1858 the Queen and King had their first and only child Prince Albert Edward Kauikeaouli Kaleiopapa a Kamehameha. The prince had a short life but was described as a very kind and cheerful child. During the years of his child's life, Kamehameha IV established the Anglican church in Hawaii. His son died in 1862. Originally the cause of death for the prince was suspected to be meningitis but now it is believed to have been appendicitis. In the years following the death of his child Kamehameha IV blamed himself for the death. As a result, the Queen and the King made healthcare a big part of their reign because they thought diseases like leprosy and influenza were declining the Hawaiian population. The king's proposed healthcare plan was struck down because of a previous healthcare plan that had been set up in the Constitution of 1852 written by Kamehameha III.

The King's rule came to an end on November 30, 1863, when he died from chronic asthma. The King had been experiences deteriorating health for several months before the tragic passing. Kamehameha IV was succeeded by his brother Lot who became Kamehameha V. Queen Emma remained involved in politics until she ultimately lost the race to become the Kingdom's ruling monarch to David Kalakaua.

The Royal Election of 1874 and Sugar reciprocity

Sugar became a major export from Hawaii soon after Cook's arrival. The first permanent plantation began in Kauai in 1835. William Hooper leased 980 acres of land from Kamehameha III and began growing sugarcane. Within thirty years plantations operated on the four main islands. Sugar completely altered Hawaii's economy.

American influence in Hawaiian government began with U.S. plantation owners demanding a say in Kingdom politics. This was driven by missionary religion and sugar economics. Pressure from these plantation owners was  felt by the King and chiefs as demands for land tenure. After the brief 1843 takeover by the British, Kamehameha III responded to the demands with the Great Mahele, distributing the lands to all Hawaiians as advocated by missionaries including Gerrit P. Judd. Kamehameha III also tried to modernize Hawaii's legal system by replacing indigenous traditions with Anglo-American common law.

During the 1850s, the U.S. import tariff on sugar from Hawaii was much higher than the import tariffs Hawaiians were charging the U.S., and Kamehameha III sought reciprocity. The monarch wished to lower U.S. tariffs and make Hawaiian sugar competitive with other foreign suppliers. In 1854 Kamehameha III proposed a policy of reciprocity between the countries, but the proposal died in the U.S. Senate.

U.S. control of Hawaii was considered vital for the defense of its west coast. The military was especially interested in Pu'uloa, Pearl Harbor. The sale of one harbor was proposed by Charles Reed Bishop, a foreigner who had married into the Kamehameha family, had risen to be Hawaiian Minister of Foreign Affairs and owned a country home near Pu'uloa. He showed two U.S. officers around the lochs, although his wife, Bernice Pauahi Bishop, privately disapproved of selling Hawaiian lands. As monarch, William Charles Lunalilo, was content to let Bishop run most business affairs, but the ceding of lands became unpopular with Hawaiians. Many islanders thought that all the islands, rather than just Pearl Harbor, might be lost and opposed any cession. By November 1873, Lunalilo canceled negotiations but his health declined swiftly and he died on February 3, 1874, aged 39.

Lunalilo left no heirs. The legislature was empowered by the constitution to elect the monarch in these instances.  The legislature decided to hold a public referendum and to choose who the public voted for.  Queen Emma and David Kalākaua both declared their candidacy.  Kalākaua won the election.  However, Queen Emma and her supporters were not satisfied.  While the legislature was formally voting to certify Kalākaua as King pursuant to the public referendum, Queen Emma's supporters descended on the capitol and attacked the legislators.  13 legislators supporting Kalākaua were injured, including one who died after being tossed from a window.  The monarchy had no army and the police deserted, thus the Hawaiian government requested the support of American troops to quell the riot.  The legislature then duly elected Kalākaua as Lunalilo's successor.

The new ruler was pressured by the U.S. government to surrender Pearl Harbor to the Navy. Kalākaua was concerned that this would lead to annexation by the U.S. and to violating the traditions of the Hawaiian people, who believed that the land ('Āina) was fertile, sacred and not for sale. From 1874 through 1875, Kalākaua made a state visit to Washington DC to gather support for a new treaty. Congress agreed to the Reciprocity Treaty of 1875 for seven years in exchange for Ford Island (Pearl Harbor). After the treaty, sugar production expanded from 12,000 acres to 125,000 acres in 1891. At the end of the seven-year term, the United States showed little interest in renewal.

Rebellion of 1887 and the Bayonet Constitution

On January 20, 1887, the United States began leasing Pearl Harbor. Shortly afterwards, a group of mostly non-Hawaiians calling themselves the Hawaiian Patriotic League began the Rebellion of 1887. They drafted their own constitution on July 6, 1887. The new constitution was written by Lorrin Thurston, the Hawaiian Minister of the Interior who used the Hawaiian militia to threaten Kalākaua. Kalākaua was forced to dismiss his cabinet ministers and sign a new constitution that greatly lessened his power. It would become known as the "Bayonet Constitution" due to the threat of force.

Grover Cleveland was president at the time, and his secretary of state Thomas F. Bayard sent written instructions to the American minister George W. Merrill that in the event of another revolution in Hawaii, it was a priority to protect American commerce, lives and property. Bayard specified, "the assistance of the officers of our Government vessels, if found necessary, will therefore be promptly afforded to promote the reign of law and respect for orderly government in Hawaii." In July 1889, there was a small scale rebellion, and Minister Merrill landed Marines to protect Americans; the State Department explicitly approved his action.  Merrill's replacement, minister John L. Stevens, read those official instructions, and followed them in his controversial actions of 1893.

Although Kalākaua's signature alone had no legal power, the new constitution allowed the monarch to appoint cabinet ministers, but stripped him of the power to dismiss them without approval from the Legislature. Eligibility to vote for the House of Nobles was altered, requiring that both candidates and voters own property valued three thousand dollars or more, or have an annual income of six hundred dollars or more. This disenfranchised two thirds of native Hawaiians and other ethnic groups who had previously been eligible to vote. This constitution benefited the foreign plantation owners. With the legislature now responsible for naturalizing aliens, Americans and Europeans could retain their home country citizenship and vote as citizens of the kingdom. Along with voting privileges, Americans could hold office and still retain their American citizenship, something not afforded in any other nation and even allowed Americans to vote without becoming naturalized. Asian immigrants were no longer able to acquire citizenship or vote.

Wilcox Rebellion of 1888

The Wilcox Rebellion of 1888 was a plot to overthrow King David Kalākaua and replace him with his sister in a coup d'état. This was in response to increased political tension between the legislature and the king under the 1887 constitution. Kalākaua's sister, Princess Liliuokalani and wife, Queen Kapiolani returned from Queen Victoria's Golden Jubilee immediately after news reached them in Great Britain.

Kalākaua's distant cousin, a native Hawaiian officer and veteran of the Italian military, Robert William Wilcox returned to Hawaii at about the same time as Liliuokalani in October 1887 when the funding for his study program stopped. Wilcox, Charles B. Wilson, Princess Liliuokalani, and Sam Nowlein plotted to overthrow King Kalākaua and replace him with Liliuokalani. 300 Hawaiian conspirators hid in Iolani Barracks and an alliance was formed with the Royal Guard, but the plot was accidentally discovered in January 1888, less than 48 hours before the revolt. No one was prosecuted, but Wilcox was exiled. On February 11, 1888, Wilcox left Hawaii for San Francisco, intending to return to Italy with his wife.

Princess Liliuokalani was offered the throne several times by the Missionary Party who had forced the Bayonet Constitution on her brother, but she believed she would become a powerless figurehead like her brother and rejected the offers. In January 1891, Kalākaua traveled to San Francisco for his health, staying at the Palace Hotel. He died there on January 20. She then ascended the throne. Queen Liliuokalani called her brother's reign "a golden age materially for Hawaii".

 Liliuokalani's attempt to re-write Constitution

Liliuokalani assumed the throne in the middle of an economic crisis. The McKinley Act had crippled the Hawaiian sugar industry by removing the duties on sugar imports from other countries into the US, eliminating the previous Hawaiian advantage due to the Reciprocity Treaty of 1875. Many Hawaii businesses and citizens lost revenue; in response Liliuokalani proposed a lottery system to raise money for her government. Controversially, opium licensing was proposed. Her ministers and closest friends were all opposed to this plan; they unsuccessfully tried to dissuade her from pursuing these initiatives, both of which came to be used against her in the brewing constitutional crisis.

Liliuokalani's chief desire was to restore power to the monarch by abrogating the 1887 Bayonet Constitution and promulgating a new one. The 1893 Constitution would have extended suffrage by reducing some property requirements. It would have disenfranchised many non-citizen Europeans and Americans. The Queen toured several islands on horseback, talking to the people about her ideas and receiving overwhelming support, including a lengthy petition in support of a new constitution. However, when the Queen informed her cabinet of her plans, they withheld their support, uncomfortable with what they expected her opponent's likely response to be.

Liliuokalani's attempt to promulgate a new constitution on January 14, 1893, was the precipitating event leading to the overthrow of the Kingdom of Hawaii three days later. The conspirators' stated goals were to depose the queen, overthrow the monarchy, and seek Hawaii's annexation to the U.S. The conspirators were five American, one English and one German national.

Overthrow

The overthrow was led by Thurston, who was the grandson of American missionaries and derived his support primarily from the American and European business class and other supporters of the Reform Party of the Hawaiian Kingdom. Most of the leaders of the Committee of Safety that deposed the queen were American and European citizens who were Kingdom subjects. They included legislators, government officers and a Supreme Court Justice of the Hawaiian Kingdom.

On January 16, the Marshal of the Kingdom, Charles B. Wilson was tipped off by detectives of the planned coup. Wilson requested warrants to arrest the 13 Council members and put the Kingdom under martial law. Because the members had strong political ties with U.S. Government Minister John L. Stevens, the requests were repeatedly denied by Attorney General Arthur P. Peterson and the Queen's cabinet, fearing if approved, the arrests would escalate the situation. After a failed negotiation with Thurston, Wilson began to collect his troops for the confrontation. Wilson and Captain of the Royal Household Guard Samuel Nowlein rallied a force of 496 troops who were kept at hand to protect the Queen.

The overthrow began on January 17, 1893. A policeman was shot and wounded while trying to stop a wagon carrying weapons to the Honolulu Rifles, the paramilitary wing of the Committee of Safety. The Committee feared the shooting would bring government forces to rout the conspirators and stop the coup before it could begin. The Committee of Safety initiated the overthrow by organizing the Honolulu Rifles made of about 1,500 armed local (non-native) men. The Rifles garrisoned Ali'iolani Hale across the street from ʻIolani Palace and waited for the Queen's response.

As these events were unfolding, the Committee of Safety expressed concern for the safety and property of American residents in Honolulu.

United States military support
The coup efforts were supported by U.S. Government Minister John L. Stevens. The coup left the queen under house arrest at Iolani Palace. The Kingdom briefly became the Republic of Hawaii, before annexation by the United States in 1898. Advised about supposed threats to non-combatant American lives and property by the Committee of Safety,
Stevens summoned a company of uniformed U.S. Marines from the USS Boston and two companies of U.S. sailors to take up positions at the U.S. Legation, Consulate and Arion Hall on the afternoon of January 16, 1893. 162 armed sailors and Marines aboard the USS Boston in Honolulu Harbor came ashore under orders of neutrality. The sailors and Marines did not enter the Palace grounds or take over any buildings, and never fired a shot, but their presence intimidated royalist defenders. Historian William Russ states, "the injunction to prevent fighting of any kind made it impossible for the monarchy to protect itself."

 United States territory

 Annexation

In March 1897, William McKinley, a Republican expansionist, succeeded Democrat Grover Cleveland as U.S. president. He prepared a treaty of annexation but it lacked the needed 2/3 majority in the Senate given Democratic opposition. A joint resolution, written by Democratic Congressman Francis G. Newlands to annex Hawaii passed both the House and Senate; it needed only majority support.  The U.S. Supreme Court gave tacit recognition to the legitimacy of this annexation in De Lima v. Bidwell, 182 U.S. 1, 196 (1901). The Spanish–American War had broken out and many leaders wanted control of Pearl Harbor to help the United States to become a Pacific power and protect the West Coast. Kalākaua was concerned over a possible United States seizure of the Hawaiian Islands and, in Kalākaua's 1881 world tour held a secret meeting with the Japanese Emperor to bring Hawaii under the protective aegis. He proposed to unite the two nations with an arranged marriage between his 5-year-old niece Princess Kaʻiulani and 13-year-old Prince Yamashina Sadamaro. His proposal was rejected by Japan because Japan was concerned that accepting this offer will worsen the diplomatic conflict between Japan and the United States. In 1897 Japan sent warships to Hawaii to oppose annexation. The possibility of invasion and annexation by Japan made the decision even more urgent, especially since the islands' fourth population was Japanese who were largely sympathetic to their country's goal in doing so.

McKinley signed the Newlands Resolution annexing Hawaii on July 7, 1898, creating the Territory of Hawaii. On 22 February 1900 the Hawaiian Organic Act established a territorial government. Annexation opponents held that this was illegal, claiming the Queen was the only legitimate ruler. McKinley appointed Sanford B. Dole as territorial governor. The territorial legislature convened for the first time on February 20, 1901. Hawaiians formed the Hawaiian Independent Party, under the leadership of Robert Wilcox, Hawaii's first congressional delegate.

 Plantations

Sugarcane plantations in Hawaii expanded during the territorial period. Some companies diversified and came to dominate related industries including transportation, banking and real estate. Economic and political power was concentrated in what were known as the "Big Five".

A 1909 strike by Japanese farm workers led to a brief experiment importing Russian laborers, mostly from Siberia. False promises of land grants by a recruiter named A.W. Perelstrous resulted in strikes among the Russian workers as well. Experiencing many hardships including a measles outbreak, lack of ability to communicate with Hawaiians, and culture clashes, most Russians ended up moving to California, New York, or back to Russia (mostly after the 1917 Russian Revolution).

 World War II

 Attack on Pearl Harbor

Pearl Harbor was attacked on December 7, 1941, by the Imperial Japanese Navy, killing almost 2,500 people and sinking the main American battleship fleet. Fortuitously for the Americans, the four Pacific aircraft carriers were not in port and escaped damage. Hawaii was put under martial law until 1945. Unlike the West Coast of the United States in which 100,000 ethnic Japanese citizens were interned, the Japanese American population in Hawaii completely avoided such similar fate, though hundreds of pro-Japan leaders were arrested. Pearl Harbor was the U.S.' main forward base for the Pacific War. The Japanese tried to invade in summer 1942 but were defeated at the Battle of Midway. Hundreds of thousands of American soldiers, sailors, Marines, and airmen passed through on their way to the fighting.

Many Hawaii residents served in the 442nd Regimental Combat Team, a U.S. Army infantry regiment. The regiment was composed almost entirely of American soldiers of Japanese ancestry. The regiment fought primarily in Italy, southern France and Germany. The 442nd Regiment was the most decorated unit for its size and length of service in American history. Its 4,000 members had to be replaced nearly 2.5 times due to casualties. In total, about 14,000 Hawaiians served, earning 9,486 Purple Hearts. The unit was awarded eight Presidential Unit Citations (five in one month). Twenty-one of its members, including Hawaii U.S. Senator Daniel Inouye, were awarded Medals of Honor. Its motto was "Go for Broke".

 Democratic Party

In 1954 a series of non-violent industry-wide strikes, protests and other civil disobedience transpired. In the territorial elections of 1954 the reign of the Hawaii Republican Party in the legislature came to an abrupt end, replaced by the Democratic Party of Hawaii. Democrats lobbied for statehood and held the governorship from 1962 to 2002. The events also unionized the labor force, hastening the plantations' decline.

 Statehood

President Dwight D. Eisenhower signed the Hawaii Admission Act on March 18, 1959, which allowed for Hawaiian statehood. After a popular referendum in which over 93% voted in favor of statehood, Hawaii was admitted as the 50th state on August 21, 1959.

 Annexation legacy

For all of recorded history prior to annexation, including all census counts made during the Kingdom of Hawaii, the number of Native Hawaiians in Hawaii declined.  The lowest recorded number of Native Hawaiians in Hawaii was 37,656 in the first census conducted by the United States in 1900 after the annexation of Hawaii to the United States in 1898.  Since Hawaii has joined the United States the Native Hawaiian population in Hawaii has increased with every census to 289,970 in 2010.

For many Native Hawaiians, the manner in which Hawaii became a U.S. territory was illegal.  However, many Hawaiians are also proud to be Hawaiians and Americans and believe the manner in which Hawaii became a U.S. State was legal.  Hawaii Territory governors and judges were direct political appointees of the U.S. president. Native Hawaiians created the Home Rule Party to seek greater self-government. The 1960s Hawaiian Renaissance led to renewed interest in the Hawaiian language, culture and identity.

With the support of Hawaii Senators Daniel Inouye and Daniel Akaka, Congress passed a joint resolution called the "Apology Resolution" (US Public Law 103-150). It was signed by President Bill Clinton on November 23, 1993. This resolution apologized "to Native Hawaiians on behalf of the people of the United States for the overthrow of the Kingdom of Hawaii on January 17, 1893... and the deprivation of the rights of Native Hawaiians to self-determination." The implications of this resolution have been extensively debated.  The resolution's description of the history of Hawaii is also selective and inflammatory and has been thoroughly criticized, ignoring entirely, for example, the fact that the overthrow of the Hawaiian Kingdom was led by Hawaiian citizens on the Committee of Safety.  The resolution also fails to explain why it would only apply to Native Hawaiians as defined as people descended from persons living in Hawaii prior to Captain Cook's arrival in 1778, as opposed to all subjects of the Kingdom, since in theory all subjects would have been the victims of the overthrow because citizenship in the Kingdom was not limited to persons descended from people living in Hawaii prior to 1778.

In 2000, Akaka proposed what was called the Akaka Bill to extend federal recognition to those of Native Hawaiian ancestry as a sovereign group similar to Native American tribes. The bill did not pass before his retirement.

See also

 Women's suffrage in Hawaii
Legal status of Hawaii
 List of conflicts in Hawaii
 List of Missionaries to Hawaii
 National Register of Historic Places listings in Hawaii
 Timeline of Honolulu

References

Bibliography
 Beechert, Edward D. Working in Hawaii: A labor history (University of Hawaii Press, 1985).
 Craig, Robert D. Historical dictionary of Honolulu and Hawaiʻi (Scarecrow Press, 1998).

 Fuchs, Lawrence H. Hawaii Pono: 'Hawaii the Excellent': An Ethnic and Political History. (1961).
 Haley, James L. Captive Paradise: A History of Hawaii (St. Martin's Press, 2014).
 Kuykendall, Ralph Simpson, and Arthur Grove Day. Hawaii: a history, from Polynesian kingdom to American state (Prentice Hall, 1961) also online 1926 edition.
 La Croix, Sumner.  Hawai'i: Eight Hundred Years of Political and Economic Change (U of Chicago Press, 2019) 309 pp.  EH.net online review by Lee J. Alston
 La Croix, Sumner. "Economic history of Hawai'i." Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Economics and Finance (2021)
 Tabrah, Ruth M. Hawaii: a history (WW Norton & Company, 1984).

 Wyndette, Olive. Islands of Destiny: A History of Hawaii (1968).

 Specialty studies
 Aquino, Belinda. The Filipino Century in Hawaii: Out of the Crucible (2006).
 Brown, DeSoto and Anne Ellett. Hawaii goes to war: life in Hawaii from Pearl Harbor to peace (1989).
 Chapin, Helen. Shaping history: The role of newspapers in Hawai'i (University of Hawaii Press, 1996).
 Cochran, Thomas C. and Ray Ginger. "The American-Hawaiian Steamship Company, 1899–1919," Business History Review (1954). 28#4, pp. 342–365.
 Forbes, David W. Encounters with paradise: views of Hawaii and its people, 1778–1941 (Honolulu Academy of Arts, 1992).
 Greenlee, John Wyatt. "Eight Islands on Four Maps: The Cartographic Renegotiation of Hawai'i, 1876-1959." Cartographica 50, 3 (2015), 119–140. online
 MacLennan, Carol A. Sovereign Sugar, Industry and Environment in Hawaii (2014).
 Mak, James. "Creating 'Paradise of the Pacific': How Tourism Began in Hawaii." (No. 2015-1. 2015) online. 82pp
 Melendy, Howard Brett, and Rhoda E.A. Hackler. Hawaii, America's Sugar Territory, 1898–1959 (Lewiston, New York: Edwin Mellen Press, 1999).
 Melendy, Howard Brett. Walter Francis Dillingham, 1875–1963: Hawaiian Entrepreneur and Statesman (Lewiston, New York: Edwin Mellen Press, 1996).
 Morgan, William Michael. "The Anti-Japanese Origins of the Hawaiian Annexation Treaty Of 1897" Diplomatic History. (1982) 6#1 pp 23–44.
   See  online review by Kenneth R. Conklin, PhD

 Rohrer, Judy. Haoles in Hawai'i (2010), 124ff.; scholarly survey
 Russ, William Adam. The Hawaiian Revolution (1893-94) (1992)
 Russ, William Adam. The Hawaiian Republic (1894–98) and its struggle to win annexation (Susquehanna U Press, 1992).
 Schmitt, Robert C. Historical Statistics of Hawaii (University Press of Hawaii, 1977).
 Schmitt, Robert C. "Religious statistics of Hawaii, 1825-1972."  Hawaiian Journal of History (1973), Vol. 7, pp 41–47.
 Schmitt, Robert C. Demographic Statistics of Hawaii." Demographic Statistics of Hawaii (University of Hawaii Press, 2021).
 Siler, Julia Flynn. Lost Kingdom: Hawaii's Last Queen, the Sugar Kings and America's First Imperial Adventure (2012).
 Sumida, Stephen H. And the View from the Shore: Literary Traditions of Hawai'i (University of Washington Press, 2015).
 Teodoro, Luis V., ed. Out of this struggle: The Filipinos in Hawaii (U. University of Hawaii Press, 2019).
 Tregaskis, Richard. The warrior king: Hawaii's Kamehameha the Great (1973).

 Wilson, Rob. "Exporting Christian Transcendentalism, Importing Hawaiian Sugar: The Trans-Americanization of Hawai'i." American Literature 72#.3 (2000): 521–552. online

External links
 Audio of Dwight D. Eisenhower Hawaii Statehood Proclamation Speech
 Public Law 103-150
 Scots in Hawai`i
 How Spain Cast Its Spell On Hawai'i, by Chris Cook in The Islander Magazine History of Hawaii: The Pokiki: Portuguese Traditions in The Islander Magazine''
 Today in Hawai`i History

History of Hawaii


is a town located in Anpachi District, Gifu Prefecture, Japan. , the town had an estimated population of 9,910 in 3,183 households  and a population density of 439 persons per km2.The total area of the town is .

Geography
Wanouchi is located in the northwestern portion of the  Nōbi Plain in southwestern Gifu Prefecture. The kanji for Wanouchi (輪之内) literally translates to "within a circle." This name is derived from the fact that Wanouchi is situated between the Ibi River and the Nagara River. Historically, these two rivers ran together and the area known as Wanouchi today was one of many ring-levees in the middle of the river. Naturally, these levees were prone to frequent flooding and so the waters had to be diverted. Hence, Wanouchi's physical environment and history has been greatly shaped by the constant threat of floods. The town has a climate characterized by characterized by hot and humid summers, and mild winters  (Köppen climate classification Cfa).  The average annual temperature in Wanouchi is 15.4 °C. The average annual rainfall is 1828 mm with September as the wettest month.The temperatures are highest on average in August, at around 27.7 °C, and lowest in January, at around 4.1 °C.

Neighbouring municipalities
Gifu Prefecture
Ōgaki
Hashima
Kaizu
Yōrō
Anpachi

Demographics
Per Japanese census data, the population of Wanouchi has recently plateaued after a long period of growth.

History
The area around Wanouchi was part of traditional Mino Province. During the Edo period, it was mostly controlled by Ōgaki Domain. In 1754, the Tokugawa shogunate,  ordered the powerful Satsuma Domain from Kagoshima to build embankments in order to divert the rivers in the area for flood control and as a measure to drain off Satsuma Domain's wealth to reduce its potential as a threat to Tokugawa rule. This was later known as the Hōreki Age River Improvement Incident. The construction of these banks proved extremely dangerous and difficult, hampered both by nature and by obstruction from the Tokugawa shogunate. It is said that a human sacrifice was made in the Wanouchi area during the construction when a local retainer voluntarily gave his life by remaining under the rushing waters in order to keep a foundation pillar from moving until it could be secured from above. As well as aiding in the construction, this sacrifice was also treated as an offering to the gods ensuring the successful completing of the project. Several Satsuma samurai associated with the project committed "seppuku" (ritual suicide). The construction was completed in 1755. More than 80 people died. The graves of 8 of these men are located around Wanouchi, serving as a reminder of the sacrifices made so that people could live in a safer environment. Due to the construction of many banks over the last 200 years, the waters surrounding Wanouchi have become two separate rivers, the Ibi River and Nagara River. The area located between the two rivers is referred to as the "Waju-tei" (輪中堤 or Waju levee). The name Wanouchi originates from this word and means "the town in Waju-tei".

During the post-Meiji restoration cadastral reforms, the area was organised into Anpachi District, Gifu. In 1954, the three villages Niki, Fukuzuka, and Oyabu were merged to form the town of Wanouchi. In 1976, the Nagara River swelled and flooded Wanouchi's neighbouring towns, Anpachi, Gifu and Sunomata, Gifu. However, the people of Wanouchi were protected from the floods because of the strong embankments.

Economy
Wanouchi's main areas of employment is in the manufacturing industry. However, many citizens also derive income from agricultural activities.

Education
Wanouchi has three public elementary schools and one public middle school operated by the town government. The town does not have a high school.

Transportation

Railway
 Wanouchi has no passenger railway service.

Highway

Culture

Festivals
Kayu no Tsuke

For over 100 years, every January, a ritual has been performed to predict the coming year's rice harvest. In the dead of night, farmers gather at four shrines in Wanouchi to witness the ritual. Rice is steamed together with hollow, slender stalks of bamboo about 20 cm. in length. When the rice is ready, a priest slices the bamboo lengthwise. The amount of rice that has been cooked inside the stalk is believed to indicate the abundance of the next year's harvest.

Locations: Hakusan Shrine (白山神社), Kamo Shrine (加茂神社), Hachiman Shrine (八幡神社), and Hakusan Hime Shrine (白山比売神社)
Date: January 15

The Hoei no Mai Performance

This event occurs twice a year in memory of the Satsuma samurai. For over 200 years in the spring and autumn young girls have performed special dances and songs at the Chisui Shrine.

Location: Chisui Shrine (治水神社)
Dates: April 5 and October 5

The Zosui Festival

It is said, that over 400 years ago, a god was carried by a great flood, or "zosui", to the Gotago area of Wanouchi. Thus, the Zosui Festival honours this god who is believed to protect Wanouchi from floods. Since "zosui" is also the name of a rice and vegetable porridge, people offer this porridge to the god. During the festival, the Shinmei Shrine is decorated with paper lanterns. Festivities include taiko drumming and the Shirakawa dance.

Location: Shinmei Shrine (神明神社)
Date: July 16

Noryo Hometown Festival

During Japan's stifling hot and humid summer, the Noryo Hometown Festival gives the people of Wanouchi the chance to enjoy Obon dancing in the cool of the evening. This festival occurs in the middle of August in conjunction with the nationwide festival, Obon. During Obon it is customary for people to return to their hometown, don yukatas and join in the local festivities.

Location: Town Office (役場)
Date: August 15

Sangyo Festival

The Sangyo Festival is a yearly celebration of Wanouchi's thriving industries. It is a chance for farmers and manufacturers to peddle their wares. "Takoyaki," yakisoba," baked yams, beer, and confections are available at food booths. Various entertainment events such as lotteries, karaoke competitions and firework displays create a carnival-like atmosphere. The grand finale of the 2 day fair is the Rice Cake Toss when hundreds of rice cakes are hurled into the crowd and everyone scrambles for them. The Sangyo festival is a great way to meet people from all walks of life in Wanouchi.

Location: Town Office (役場)
Date: First weekend in October

The Gomando Festival

This Shinto festival, honoring the water god "Gomando", dates back to 1624. In the early evening, residents of Mirushinden gather at the Myoko Temple to acknowledge the community's founder, Kazuya Sozaemon. They then proceed to Tado shrine, nestled in a small pine grove. There, the sake flows, enhancing the pounding of taiko drums as people wearing "happi" (festival) coats and brightly decorated umbrella hats perform the Shirakawa dance. Paper flowers on the dancers' hands add to the colourful spectacle.

Location: Tada Shrine (多度神社)
Date: October 3

Wanouchi Autumn Festival

On the evening of October 10, the rhythm  of taiko drums echoes through Wanouchi. The Autumn Festival is a time for families to get together and enjoy a feast. Wanouchi's three traditional dances, the Dengarakashi dance, the Ondo dance and the Shirakawa dance can be seen at various Shinto shrines.

Location: Various Shrines in Wanouchi
Date: October 10

Local Dialect

The local dialect, called Wanouchi-ben, is a colourful mixture of Nagoya, Gifu and Kansai dialects.

Sister city relations
 - Hinton, Alberta, Canada, since 1998. This partnership is primarily for educational and cultural exchange. Every year, students from Wanouchi Junior High School travel to Hinton to learn about Canadian life and culture while living with a host family. Every 2 years, students from Hinton's Harry Collinge Junior High School visit Wanouchi and live with local families.

References

External links

Towns in Gifu Prefecture

Wanouchi, Gifu


Ücretli programları kırarak (crack) ücretsiz kullanılmasını sağlayan kişilerdir. Hacker ile Cracker birbirine karıştırılmamalıdır. Cracker programları kırmaz, yalnızca program üzerinde ayarlandığı gibi değişiklikler yaparak ücretsiz kullanım, tema, dil gibi değişiklikleri program üzerine kurarlar. Türkçede 'crack' yerine 'ilaç' sözcüğü de kullanılmaktadır.

Crack; program kırma eylemine ve ters mühendisliğe verilen isimdir. "Hack" ise kelime anlamı olarak "küçük parçalar koparmak" anlamındadır ve hacker'lerin algoritmik düşünme, nesnel bir topoloji oluşturma, istatistik (makul aralıklar içinde iterasyon yapma ve uyumu (korelasyon) yorumlama) yetenekleri tesadüfi gelişmiştir. düşük seviye programlama; donanım üzerinde sağlam geçmişleri ve iddiaları yoktur.

İnternet terimleri
Suçlar

Cracker


Tırtak (Delphinus delphis), Bayağı yunus olarak da bilinir, yunusgiller (Delphinidae) familyasından Türkiye'nin bütün denizlerinde bulunan ve bütün dünyada büyük okyanusların farklı kısımlarında yaygın olan bir yunus türü. Tırtak Yunusgiller familyasının asıl örnek türüdür. Afalina türünün "Flipper" dizisi ile dünyaca ünlü olup insanların aklına örnek yunus türü olarak yerleşmesinden önce dünyaca en çok tanınan yunus türüydü.

Özellikleri
Sırtı siyah ya da kahverengi ve karın kısmı beyazımsıdır. Yanlarında açık sarı renkten gri renge geçen uzun alanlar vardır. Yöresel olarak renklerinde farklar olabilir; bazılarının yanlarındaki sarı-gri alanlar tamamen eksiktir. Tırtak yunusu bütün yunusların ve hatta bütün balinaların arasında en renklisidir. Boyu 1,70-2,40 m olur.

Yaşam şekilleri

Bütün yunuslar gibi tırtak da balıklar ve ara sıra mürekkep balıkları ile beslenir. Çok hızlı bir yunusdur ve gemilerin önlerinde oluşan "Bıyık" denilen dalganın içinde yüzmeyi sever. Diğer yunuslar gibi, çok gelişmiş bir sosyal sistemin içerisinde yaşar. Oluşturdukları sürüler bazen 1.000 yunustan oluşur. Yazın bu topluluk küçük gruplara bölünür. Yunuslarda birbirine yardım etmek çok doğal bir şeydir. Örneğin, hasta yunusların diğer yunuslar tarafından taşınılıp nefes aldırmak için su yüzüne çıkarıldıkları izlenilmiştir.

Doğum
Eğer bir yunus doğum yapacaksa diğer yunuslar onun etrafında bir çember oluşturup o yunusu olası köpek balığı saldırılarına karşı korurlar. Yavru yunuslar annelerinden ilk önce kuyrukları ile çıkar. Hemen doğumdan sonra anne, yavrusunu su yüzüne itekleyerek, yavrunun ilk kez nefes almasını sağlar. Yavru yunus bir yıl boyunca emzirilir ve toplam 3 yıl boyunca annesinin yanında yaşar.

Korunmaları
Eskiden dünyanın bazı yerlerinde tırtaklar insanlar tarafından avlanılmıştır. Örneğin geçmişte Peru'da ve Karadeniz'de çok tırtak avlanılmıştır. 1960'lı yıllarda Akdeniz ve Karadeniz'de tırtak populasyonunda feci bir azalma olmuştur ama bunun nedenleri bugüne kadar aydınlatılamamıştır. Ama tırtakların hala bugüne kadar süren en büyük sorunları şunlardır: Gemilerin pervanelerine çarparak ölmeleri, balık ağlarına takılarak su altında boğulmaları ve günden güne azalan balıklar ve kirlenen denizsuyu.

Sınıflandırma
Tırtak denilen yunusların sadece tek bir türden mi yoksa birkaç tür ya da alt türlerden mi oluştuğu konusunda farklı görüşler vardır. Bazı bilimcilere göre Delphinus bairdii ve Delphinus tropicalis gibi diğer türleri vardır ama bunlar bilimcilerin çoğunluğu tarafından tanınmaz. Bunlar gibi şimdiye kadar 20 tırtak türü ortaya koyulup sonra tekrar vazgeçilmiştir.

1990'lı yıllardan beri Tırtak türünün ikiye ayrıldığı yeni bir görüş şeklini kabul eden zoologların sayısı günle artmaktadır:
 Uzun burunlu tırtak (Delphinus capensis)
 Kısa burunlu tırtak (Delphinus delphis)
Ama bunların iki ayrı tür mü, alt tür mü yoksa hatta sadece alttürlerin variyantları mı oldukları konusunda hala anlaşmazlıklar devam etmektedir.

Asgari endişe altındaki hayvanlar
Yunusgiller
Türkiye'deki memeliler
Atlas Okyanusu faunası
Büyük Okyanus'taki balinalar
1758'de tanımlanan omurgalılar
Carl Linnaeus tarafından adlandırılmış taksonlar

Tırtak


Louisiana (; Fransızca: La Louisiane, ), ABD'nin Güney eyaletlerinden birisidir.

İsmini Fransa kralı XIV. Louis'ten almıştır. Bölge (Mississippi ve Kayalık Dağlar arasındaki tüm topraklar), Napolyon liderliğindeki Fransızlar tarafından 1800 yılında İspanyollar'dan alındıktan üç yıl sonra (1803) Amerikalılar'a 80 milyon franka  satılmıştır. Amerikan tarihinde bu alışverişin büyük önemi vardır. Çünkü parayla alınan bu bölgenin sınırları, 1803 yılındaki Birleşik Devletler topraklarından daha büyüktür. Cazın doğum yeri burasıdır. Ülkede her yıl nisan ayında caz festivalleri düzenlenir.

Tarihçe

Avrupalılar tarafından keşif ve kolonizasyon

Louisiana'yı ziyaret eden ilk Avrupalı kaşifler, Pánfilo de Narváez liderliğindeki bir İspanyol seferinin Mississippi Nehri'nin ağzını bulduğu 1528'de geldi. 1542'de Hernando de Soto'nun seferi eyaletin kuzeyine ve batısına doğru ilerledi (Cado ve Tunica gruplarıyla karşılaştı) ve ardından 1543'te Mississippi Nehri'ni aşağıya Meksika Körfezi'ne takip etti. İspanya'nın Louisiana'ya olan ilgisi bir buçuk yüzyıl boyunca kayboldu.

17. yüzyılın sonlarında, egemen, dini ve ticari amaçları içeren Fransız ve Fransız Kanada seferleri, Mississippi Nehri ve Körfez Kıyısında bir dayanak oluşturdu. Fransa, ilk yerleşimleriyle Kuzey Amerika'nın geniş bir bölgesine hak iddia etti ve Meksika Körfezi'nden Kanada'ya uzanan bir ticari imparatorluk ve Fransız ulusu kurmaya başladı.

1682'de Fransız kaşif Robert Cavelier de La Salle, Louisiana bölgesini Fransa'nın Kral XIV.Louis onuruna adlandırdı. İlk kalıcı yerleşim yeri, Fort Maurepas (şu anda Ocean Springs, Mississippi, Biloxi yakınlarında), 1699'da Kanadalı Fransız subayı Pierre Le Moyne d'Iberville tarafından kuruldu. O zamana kadar Fransızlar, Mississippi'nin ağzında, Fransızca'da La Balise (veya La Balize), "deniz işareti" dedikleri yerleşim yerinde küçük bir kale inşa etmişlerdi.
1721'de nehirdeki gemileri yönlendirmek için burada  ahşap deniz feneri tipi bir yapı inşa ettiler.

Kraliyetin Illinois Ülkesi'nin yönetimini Kanada'dan Louisiana'ya devretmesinin ardından 1722 tarihli bir kraliyet düzenlemesi,  Great Lakes'in güneyinde Rocky Dağları ve Alleghenies arasında Fransa tarafından hak iddia edilen tüm topraklar" ifadesiyle Louisiana'nın en geniş tanımını içeriyor olabilir:

Bir nesil sonra, Kanada ve Louisiana arasındaki ticari çatışmalar, Fransız kolonileri arasında daha belirgin bir sınır oluşmasına yol açtı; 1745'te Louisiana valisi general Vaudreuil topraklarının kuzey ve doğu sınırlarını Wabash vadisi olarak Vermilion Nehri ağzına kadar belirledi (günümüzde Danville, Illinois yakını); oradan kuzeybatıdan Illinois Nehri üzerindeki le Rocher'a ve oradan batı Rock Nehri'nin ağzına (günümüzde Rock Island, Illinois) 'ya kadar. Böylece, Vincennes ve Peoria, Louisiana'nın erişiminin sınırıydı; Ouiatenon (günümüze yukarı Wabash'ta Lafayette, Indiana yakınları), Şikago, Fort Miami'deki ileri karakollar (günümüze Fort Wayne, Indiana yakınları) ve Prairie du Chien Wiskonsin Kanada'ya bağlı olarak faaliyet gösteriyordu.

Natchitoches (bugünkü kuzeybatı Louisiana'da Kızıl Nehir boyunca) yerleşimi Louis Juchereau de St. Denis tarafından 1714'te kuruldu ve onu Louisiana'nın modern eyaletinde en eski kalıcı Avrupa yerleşim yeri yaptı. Fransız yerleşiminin iki amacı vardı: Eski San Antonio Yolu üzerinden Teksas'ta İspanyollarla ticaret yapmak ve Louisiana'ya doğru İspanyol ilerlemelerini caydırmak. Yerleşim kısa sürede gelişen bir nehir limanı ve kavşak haline geldi ve nehir boyunca getirilen Afrikalı kölelerce işletilen geniş pamuk krallıklarına yol açtı. Zamanla, yetiştiriciler büyük tarlalar geliştirdi ve büyüyen kasabada güzel evler inşa etti.

Güneydeki emtia mahsulü öncelikle şeker kamışı olmasına rağmen, bu New Orleans ve diğer yerlerde tekrarlanan bir model haline geldi.

Louisiana'nın Fransız yerleşimleri, Mississippi kıyıları ve ana kolları boyunca yoğunlaşan, Louisiana'dan Illinois Ülkesi olarak adlandırılan bölgenin kuzeyine kadar, günümüzün St. Louis, Missouri'si  daha fazla keşfe ve karakola katkıda bulundu. İkincisi, Illinois'den Fransız sömürgecilerce yerleştirildi.

Başlangıçta Mobile ve ardından Biloxi, La Louisiane'nin başkenti oldu. Mississippi Nehri'nin ticari ve askeri çıkarlar için önemini kabul eden ve başkenti şiddetli kıyı fırtınalarından korumak isteyen Fransa, New Orleans'ı 1722'den itibaren Great Lakes'in güneyinde sivil ve askeri otoritenin merkezi olarak geliştirdi. O zamandan Amerika Birleşik Devletlerinin 1803'de Louisiana'nın Satın Alınışı ile bölgeyi ele geçirmesine kadar Fransa ve İspanya New Orleans'ın ve Mississippi'nin batısındaki toprakların kontrolü için yarıştı.

1720'lerde Alman göçmenler Mississippi Nehri boyunca Alman Sahili olarak adlandırılan bir bölgeye yerleştiler.

Fransa, Mississippi'nin doğusundaki topraklarının çoğunu 1763'te İngiltere'nin Yedi Yıl Savaşı'ndaki zaferi sonrasında Büyük Britanya'ya bıraktı (genellikle Kuzey Amerika'da Fransız ve kızıldereli Savaşı olarak anılır). Louisiana'nın geri kalanı, New Orleans çevresi ve Pontchartrain Gölü çevresindeki mahalleler de dahil olmak üzere, Fontainebleau Antlaşması (1762) ile İspanya'nın bir kolonisi haline gelmişti. Nehrin her iki yakasındaki güç aktarımı, on yıl sonrasına kadar ertelenecekti.

1765'te, İspanyol egemenliği sırasında, Fransız ve Kızılderili Savaşı'ndan sonra İngiliz hükûmetince Fransız kolonisinin Acadia'dan (şimdiki Nova Scotia, New Brunswick ve Prince Edward Adası)'ndan  kovulması ile birkaç bin Acadian Louisiana'ya doğru yola çıktı. Esasen şimdi Acadiana olarak adlandırılan güneybatı Louisiana bölgesine yerleştiler. Daha fazla yerleşimci kazanmaya hevesli olan vali Luis de Unzaga y Amézaga,  Louisiana'nın Cajunlarının ataları olan Akadyalıları memnuniyetle karşıladı.

Isleños denilen İspanyol Kanarya Adalıları, 1778 ve 1783 yılları arasında İspanya'nın Kanarya Adaları'ndan İspanyol tacı altında Louisiana'ya göç etti. 1800'de, Fransız Napolyon Bonapart iki yıl boyunca gizli tutulan bir düzenlemeyle San Ildefonso Antlaşmasında İspanya'dan Louisiana'yı geri aldı.

Kasabaları

 Caddo
 Bossier
 Webster
 Claiborne
 Union
 Morehouse
 West Carroll
 East Carroll
 Bienville
 Lincoln
 Ouachita
 Richland
 Madison
 De Soto
 Red River
 Jackson
 Caldwell
 Franklin
 Tensas
 Sabine
 Natchitoches
 Winn
 Grant
 La Salle
 Catahoula
 Concordia
 Vernon
 Rapides
 Avoyelles
 Beauregard
 Allen
 Evangeline
 St. Landry
 Pointe Coupee
 West Feliciana
 East Feliciana
 St. Helena
 Tangipahoa
 Washington
 St. Tammany
 Calcasieu
 Jefferson Davis
 Acadia
 Lafayette
 St. Martin
 Iberville
 West Baton Rouge
 East Baton Rouge
 Livingston
 Ascension
 St. James
 St. John the Baptist
 St. Charles
 Jefferson
 New Orleans
 St. Bernard
 Plaquemines
 Cameron
 Vermilion
 Iberia
 St. Mary
 Terrebonne
 Lafourche

Coğrafya

Louisiana, batıda Teksas, kuzeyde Arkansas, doğuda Mississippi ve güneyde Meksika Körfezi ile sınırlanmıştır. Eyalet, kuzeydeki yüksek araziler (Kuzey Louisiana bölgesi) ve kıyı boyunca uzanan alüvyon (Orta Louisiana, Acadiana, Florida mahalleleri ve Büyük New Orleans bölgeleri) olarak tam anlamıyla iki kısma ayrılabilir. Alüvyal bölge alçak bataklık alanları, kıyı bataklıkları ve plajları ve yaklaşık  kapsayan bariyer adalarını içerir. Bu alan esas olarak Meksika Körfezi ve eyaleti kuzeyden güneye doğru yaklaşık  kat eden ve Meksika Körfezine dökülen Mississippi Nehri boyunca uzanır; ayrıca eyalette Red River, Ouachita Nehri ve kolları ve diğer küçük akarsular da (bazıları bayous olarak adlandırılır) vardır.

Mississippi boyunca alüvyon bölgesinin genişliği 10–60 mil (15–100 km) ve diğer nehirler boyunca, alüvyon bölgesinin genişliği yaklaşık 10 mil (15 km) kadardır. Mississippi Nehri, doğal birikintilerinden (levee olarak bilinir) oluşan bir sırt boyunca akar, buradan topraklar, her milde ortalama altı fit (3m/km) düşüşle ötesindeki nehre doğru iner. Diğer akarsular boyunca uzanan alüvyal topraklar da benzer özellikler gösterir.

Eyaletin kuzey ve kuzeybatı kesimlerindeki yüksek ve bitişik tepe arazileri 'den fazla alanı vardır. Çayır ve ormanlık alanlardan oluşurlar. Deniz seviyesi üzerindeki rakımlar, kıyı ve bataklık arazilerde 10 fit (3m) ile kır ve alüvyon arazilerde 50–60 fit (15–18m) arasında değişir. Yaylalarda ve tepelerde, yükseklikler eyaletteki en yüksek nokta olan Driskill Dağı'na çıkar, deniz seviyesinden sadece 535 fit (163m) yüksekliktedir. 1932'den 2010'a kadar eyalet, deniz seviyesindeki yükselmeler ve erozyon nedeniyle 1,800 mil kare alan kaybetti. Louisiana Kıyı Koruma ve Restorasyon Kurumu (CPRA), Louisiana kıyı hattını ve arazisini hem federal hem de eyalet finansmanıyla desteklemek ve korumak için yılda yaklaşık 1milyar dolar harcar.

Halihazırda adlandırılan su yollarının yanı sıra, batı sınırını oluşturan Sabine; doğu sınırı Pearl; Calcasieu, Mermentau, Vermilion, Bayou Teche, Atchafalaya, Boeuf, Bayou Lafourche, Courtableau Nehri, Bayou D'Arbonne, Macon Nehri, Tensas, Amite Nehri, Tchefuncte, Tickfaw, Natalbany Nehri ve bir dizi başka küçük akarsu vardır,  uzunluğunda bir araya gelen, gezilebilir su yollarından oluşan doğal bir sistem oluşturur.

Eyaletin ayrıca Meksika Körfezindeki iç kıta sahanlığı karasının yaklaşık -genişliğindeki kısmında siyasi yargı yetkisi vardır. Amerika Birleşik Devletleri'nin siyasi coğrafyası bir özelliği nedeniyle bu, Louisiana gibi geniş Körfez kıyılarına sahip olan yakınlardaki Teksas ve Florida eyaletlerinin  genişliğinde yetki alanından önemli ölçüde daha azdır.

Amerika Birleşik Devletleri'ndeki Louisiana'nın güney kıyısı, dünyanın en hızlı kaybolan bölgeleri arasındadır. Bu, büyük ölçüde kıyıların insan tarafından yanlış idaresinden kaynaklanmıştır (bkz. Louisiana'nın Sulak Alanları). Bir zamanlar, Mississippi Nehri'nden gelen bahar taşkınlarına tortu eklediğinden ve bataklık büyümesini teşvik ettiğinde arazi eklendi; kara şimdi küçülüyor. Birden çok nedeni vardır.

Yapay setler, bataklıklara tatlı su ve tortu getirecek olan kaynak sel suyunu engeller. Bataklıklar, tuzlu suyun iç kısımlara taşınmasına izin veren kanallar ve hendekler bırakarak kapsamlı bir şekilde kütüklendi. Petrol ve gaz endüstrisi için açılan kanallar ayrıca fırtınaların deniz suyunun iç kesimlere taşınmasına ve bataklıklara ve bataklara zarar vermesine izin verir. Yükselen deniz suları sorunu daha da kötüleştirdi. Bazı araştırmacılar, devletin her gün 30 futbol sahasına eşdeğer bir kara kütlesi kaybettiğini tahmin ediyor. Mississippi'den gelen doğal taşkınları restore etmek de dahil olmak üzere, insan hasarını azaltarak kıyı bölgelerini kurtarmak için birçok öneri var. Böyle bir restorasyon olmadan, kıyı toplulukları kaybolmaya devam edecektir. Topluluklar ortadan kalktıkça, giderek daha fazla insan bölgeyi terk ediyor. Kıyı sulak alanlar ekonomik açıdan önemli bir kıyıyı balıkçılık desteklediğinden, sulak alanların kaybı bu sektörü olumsuz etkiliyor.

Louisiana kıyılarındaki Meksika Körfezi 'ölü bölge', Amerika Birleşik Devletleri'nde tekrarlanan en büyük hipoksik bölgedir. 2017'de kaydedilen en büyük sayı  idi.

Büyük şehirler

Louisiana, dört birleştirilmiş şehir-ilçe ve 304 şehir, kasaba ve köyden oluşan 308 birleşik belediye içermektedir. Louisiana'nın belediyeleri eyaletin toprak kütlesinin yalnızca %7.9'unu kapsar ancak nüfusunun %45.3'ü bu belediyelerde yaşamaktadır. Kentli Louisianalıların çoğunluğu kıyı boyunca veya kuzey Louisiana'da yaşıyor. Eyaletteki en eski kalıcı yerleşim yeri Nachitoches'dir. Eyalet başkenti Baton Rouge, eyaletteki en büyük ikinci şehirdir. En kalabalık şehir New Orleans'tır. ABD Sayım Bürosu tarafından tanımlandığı gibi Louisiana dokuz büyükşehir istatistik alanı içermektedir. Başlıca bölgeler arasında Büyük New Orleans, Büyük Baton Rouge, Lafayette ve Shreveport–Bossier Şehri bulunur.

Kaynakça

1812'de Amerika Birleşik Devletleri'nde kurulan oluşumlar
Eski Fransız koloniler
Eski İspanyol koloniler
Güney Amerika Birleşik Devletleri
1812'de kurulan bölgeler ve ülkeler
Amerika Konfedere Devletleri'nin eyaletleri
Amerika Birleşik Devletleri'nin eyaletleri

Louisiana


Allan Chapman (  - ) est un homme politique du Parti unioniste écossais .

Biographie
Chapman est le fils de H. Williams Chapman et fréquente le Queens' College de Cambridge. Il est élu aux élections générales de 1935 en tant que député pour la circonscription de Rutherglen dans le Lanarkshire. Il occupe le siège pendant les années de guerre, mais aux élections générales de 1945, il est battu par le candidat du Parti travailliste Gilbert McAllister .

Dans le gouvernement de coalition en temps de guerre, il est ministre adjoint des Postes de mars 1941 à mars 1942, puis sous-secrétaire d'État pour l'Écosse jusqu'à la dissolution du gouvernement de coalition en mai 1945. Dans le gouvernement intérimaire qui suit, il partage le poste avec Thomas Dunlop Galbraith jusqu'à ce que le nouveau gouvernement travailliste prenne ses fonctions fin juillet .

Il est marié à Béatrice Cox. Il est décédé à l'infirmerie royale de Dundee, à l'âge de 68 ans .

Références

Liens externes

Député du Parti unioniste (Écosse)
Député du 37e Parlement du Royaume-Uni
Représentant de l'Écosse à la Chambre des communes
Étudiant de Queens' College (Cambridge)
Décès en janvier 1966
Naissance en mars 1897
Décès à 68 ans

Allan Chapman (homme politique)