The Second Anglo-Maratha War (1803–1805) was the second conflict between the British East India Company and the Maratha Empire in India. It resulted in major loss of territory for the Marathas, including regions around Delhi and in present-day Gujarat falling into direct Company rule.

Background
The British had supported the "fugitive" Peshwa Raghunathrao in the First Anglo-Maratha War, continued with his "fugitive" son, Baji Rao II.  Though not as martial in his courage as his father, the son was "a past master in deceit and intrigue".  Coupled with his "cruel streak", Baji Rao II soon provoked the enmity of Yashwant Rao Holkar when he had one of Holkar's relatives killed.

The Maratha Empire at that time consisted of a confederacy of five major chiefs: the Peshwa (Prime Minister) at the capital city of Poona, the Gaekwad chief of Baroda, the Scindia chief of Gwalior, the Holkar chief of Indore, and the Bhonsale chief of Nagpur. The Maratha chiefs were engaged in internal quarrels among themselves. Lord Mornington, the Governor-General of British India had repeatedly offered a subsidiary treaty to the Peshwa and Scindia, but Nana Fadnavis refused strongly.

In October 1802, the combined armies of Peshwa Baji Rao II and Scindia were defeated by Yashwantrao Holkar, ruler of Indore, at the Battle of Poona. Baji Rao fled to British protection, and in December the same year concluded the Treaty of Bassein with the British East India Company, ceding territory for the maintenance of a subsidiary force and agreeing to treaty with no other power. The treaty would become the "death knell of the Maratha Empire".

War

This act on the part of the Peshwa, their nominal overlord, horrified and disgusted the Maratha chieftains; in particular, the Scindia rulers of Gwalior and the Bhonsale rulers of Nagpur and Berar contested the agreement.

The British strategy included Maj. Gen. Arthur Wellesley securing the Deccan Plateau, Lt. Gen. Gerard Lake taking Doab and then Delhi, Powell entering Bundelkhand, Murray taking Badoch, and Harcourt neutralizing Bihar.  The British had available over 53,000 men to help accomplish their goals.

With the logistic assembly of his army complete (24,000 men in total) Wellesley gave the order to break camp and attack the nearest Maratha fort on 8 August 1803. On the same day he took the walled Pettah of Ahmednagar (town adjacent to the fort) by escalade.

The Ahmednagar Fort surrendered on 12 August after an infantry attack had exploited an artillery-made breach in the wall. With the pettah and fort now in British control Wellesley was able to extend control southwards to the river Godavari.

In September 1803, Scindia forces lost to Lake at Delhi and to Wellesley at Assaye. On 18 October, British forces took the pettah of Asirgarh Fort with a loss of two killed and five wounded. The fort's garrison subsequently surrendered on the 21st after the attackers had erected a battery. British artillery pounded ancient ruins used by Scindia forces as forward operating bases, eroding their control. In November, Lake defeated another Scindia force at Laswari, followed by Wellesley's victory over Bhonsle forces at Argaon (now Adgaon) on 29 November 1803.

Conclusion
On 17 December 1803, Raghoji II Bhonsale of Nagpur signed the Treaty of Deogaon in Odisha with the British after the Battle of Argaon and gave up the province of Cuttack (which included Mughal and the coastal part of Odisha, Garjat/the princely states of Odisha, Balasore Port, parts of Midnapore district of West Bengal).

On 30 December 1803, the Daulat Scindia signed the Treaty of Surji-Anjangaon with the British after the Battle of Assaye and Battle of Laswari and ceded to the British, Hisar, Panipat, Rohtak, Rewari, Gurgaon, Ganges-Jumna Doab, the Delhi-Agra region, parts of Bundelkhand, Broach, some districts of Gujarat and the fort of Ahmmadnagar.

The British started hostilities against Yashwantrao Holkar on 6 April 1804. Yashwantrao was somewhat  successful as he harassed the British forces by guerilla warfare. However, he didn't receive the expected help from Scindia who had already signed a treaty with the British. He went to Punjab and sought Ranjeet Singh's help with no success. The lack of resources compelled him to come to terms with British.

The Treaty of Rajghat, signed on 24 December 1805, forced Holkar to give up Tonk, Rampura, and Bundi to the British.

See also
 Ahmednagar Fort
 Alexander Adams
 List of Maratha dynasties and states
 Pettah of Ahmednagar
 Third Anglo-Maratha War

References

Further reading

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 – historical fiction describing the war

Second Anglo-Maratha War
Conflicts in 1803
Conflicts in 1804
Conflicts in 1805
Wars involving the British East India Company
Wars involving the Maratha Empire
History of Gujarat
1803 in British India
1804 in British India
1805 in British India

Second Anglo-Maratha War


Claude-Étienne Savary (Vitré (Ille-et-Vilaine), 2 de septiembre de 1750 - 4 de febrero de 1788) fue un orientalista, pionero de la egiptología y traductor francés.

Partió en 1776 para Egipto y después de pasar temporadas sucesivamente en Alejandría, Rosetta y El Cairo, transitó dos años por las islas griegas sobre todo por Rodas y Candía, de las que informó con mucho detalles sobre su vida cotidiana y su población.  Al hablar árabe, sus informessobre Egipto ofrecen una descripción más rica que la que hizo Volney dos años más tarde

Su traducción al francés del Corán respeta el estilo del original y la división de versículos como indica en el prefacio al contrario que la traducción anterior de André du Ryer.

Publicaciones
 Le Coran, traduit de l'arabe, accompagné de notes, et précédé d'un abrégé de la vie de Mahomet, tiré des écrivains orientaux les plus estimés, París, Ámsterdam, Leyde, etc., 1782–1783 — Livre numérisé (réédition de 1821) disponible sur Wikisource

 Morale de Mahomet, ou Recueil des plus pures maximes du Coran. On ne trouvera dans cet abrégé que des pensées probres à élever l'âme, & à rappeler à l'homme ses devoirs envers la Divinité, envers soi-même & envers ses semblables, Goldschnitt, París, Lamy, Libraire, Quai des Augustins, 1784, Dresde, Walther, 1786

 Lettres sur la Grèce, faisant suite de celles de l'Égypte, Onfroi, Paris, 1788.

 Lettres sur l'Égypte, où l'on offre le parallèle des mœurs anciennes & modernes de ses habitans, où l'on décrit l'état, le commerce, l'agriculture, le gouvernement, l'ancienne religion du pays, & la descente de S. Louis à Damiette, tirée de Joinville & des Auteurs Arabes. 1ª edición , Onfroi, Paris, 1785-1786; 2ª, Ámsterdam, Leiden, Róterdam y Utrecht, 1787; 3ª, Bleuet, 1798.

 Grammaire de la langue arabe vulgaire et littérale ; póstumo, París, l'Imprimerie Impériale, 1813.

Lingüistas de Francia del siglo XVIII
Egiptólogos de Francia
Traductores de Francia del siglo XVIII
Escritores de Francia del siglo XVIII
Escritores en francés del siglo XVIII
Nacidos en Vitré (Ille y Vilaine)

Claude-Étienne Savary


Pater Roman Hofer (weltlicher Name: Paul Hofer) OSB (* 24. März 1942 in Basel; † 5. Oktober 2011 in Engelberg), dipl. mus. sacr., war ein Schweizer Benediktinerpater, Kirchenmusiker, Musikbibliothekar und Lehrer.

Leben
Nach der Matura an der Stiftsschule Engelberg trat er 1962 in Engelberg ins Noviziat ein. Am 29. September 1963 legte er die Profess ab, nahm den Ordensnamen Roman an und wurde am 3. Mai 1967 zum Priester geweiht. Von 1968 bis 1974 studierte er in München Kirchenmusik (Orgel, Chor- und Orchesterleitung). Während des Studiums übernahm er die Vertretung des Domkapellmeisters in Limburg an der Lahn und leitete die Limburger Domsingknaben und den Domchor. 1974 kehrte er ins Kloster Engelberg zurück und wurde von Abt Leonhard Bösch zum Stiftskapellmeister ernannt. Daneben wirkte er auch als Choralmagister, Musikbibliothekar und Lehrer für Musik, Deutsch und Religion an der Stiftsschule. Ausserdem wirkte er als Mitverfasser bei der deutschen Übersetzung des benediktinischen Antiphonale mit.

Werke

Veröffentlichungen als Komponist, Editor und Dirigent:

 Das jüngere Engelberger Osterspiel aus dem Codex 314 der Stiftsbibliothek Engelberg. Diplomarbeit Richard-Strauss-Konservatorium München 1970.
 Fünf Antiphonen für Streichquartett ("Pfingsten"), Partitur, Kompositionsauftrag der Genossenschaft Migros Luzern. Luzern 1989
 Musik auf dem Kloster Engelberg: 150 Jahre Stiftsschule Engelberg. Stans-Oberdorf : Magnon, 2009. 1 CD&Booklet. Enthält: Benediktmesse; Capriccio; die Chinesische Mauer; Ostern; Verwandlungen. Dirigent: P. Roman Hofer
 Sinfonia (Kantate BWV 29) -- Introduktion und Fuge über "Nun lobet Gott im hohen Thron" (1972) – Engelberger Te Deum: Liturgische Suite in sechs Sätzen (Orgelfassung 1999) -- Variationen über ein Thema von Haydn op. 56 -- Grave (1951) -- Sonaten K 201, K 159, K 175 / J.S. Bach ; arr. Marcel Dupré – Roman Hofer – Johannes Brahms ; arr. Lionel Rogg -- Henry Dillon -- Domenico Scarlatti – Concerto Engelberg. Freiburger Musik Forum, CD&Booklet 2002.

Weblinks
 Lebenslauf bei Biographia Benedictina

Einzelnachweise

Chorleiter
Kirchenmusiker
Person (Gregorianischer Choral)
Benediktiner
Kloster Engelberg
Künstler (Kanton Obwalden)
Schweizer
Geboren 1942
Gestorben 2011
Mann

Roman Hofer (Kirchenmusiker)


Vilhelmine af Hessen-Darmstadt (), i Rusland kaldet Natalja Aleksejevna (; ), (født 25. juni 1755 i Prenzlau i Brandenburg, død 15. april 1776 i Sankt Petersborg i Rusland) var en tysk prinsesse af Hessen-Darmstadt, der blev gift med Storfyrsttronfølger Paul Petrovitj af Rusland (den senere Paul 1. af Rusland) i 1773. Hun døde allerede som 20-årig i 1776 og blev derfor aldrig kejserinde af Rusland. Hendes forældre var landgreve Ludvig 9. af Hessen-Darmstadt og Henriette Karoline af Pfalz-Zweibrücken. Hendes mand giftede sig efter hendes død med Sophie Dorothea af Württemberg.

Eksterne links

Huset Hessen-Darmstadt
Kongelige fra Rusland
Personer fra Prenzlau
Tyskere i 1700-tallet

Vilhelmine af Hessen-Darmstadt


Paa maa og faa er en film med ukendt instruktør.

Handling
Telefon foreningen

Referencer

Eksterne henvisninger

Danske film fra 1933
Dokumentarfilm fra Danmark

Paa maa og faa


La bataille de Rhodes est un affrontement de la campagne du Dodécanèse en septembre 1943 ayant opposé les forces italiennes et allemandes pour le contrôle de l'île grecque de Rhodes, dans les îles du Dodécanèse, alors détenues par les Italiens dans la mer Égée.

Contexte
Au moment de l'annonce de l'armistice de Cassibile, le 8 septembre 1943, l'amiral Inigo Campioni est gouverneur du Dodécanèse italien, des Cyclades et des Sporades du Nord ; siégeant à Rhodes. Le commandant militaire des forces italiennes dans ces archipels est le contre-amiral .

En l'absence d'ordres des hauts commandements et du manque d'informations sur la situation générale des forces armées italiennes, le haut commandement des forces armées italiennes en mer Égée (Egeomil), dont le quartier général est à Rhodes, doit trancher entrer choisir entre continuer à combattre aux côtés des forces allemandes ou rester fidèle à Victor-Emmanuel III. Comme beaucoup d'autres commandements, les commandements italiens en mer Égée décident de considérer les Allemands comme des ennemis, conduisant ainsi à l'invasion allemande des îles.

Dispositions italienne face à une attaque imminente
L'annonce de l'armistice surprend complètement les dirigeants et les soldats italiens à Rhodes ; le mémorandum contenant les instructions du commandement suprême italien à Egeomil devait être envoyé par avion, mais le mauvais temps l'avait empêché et le messager était toujours à Pescara le 9 septembre.

Dans la soirée du 8 septembre, Campioni demande au général Forgiero de contacter Ulrich Kleemann pour l'exhorter à ne pas donner d'ordres pouvant provoquer des réactions italiennes, celui-ci réagit calmement, déclarant coopérer. Vers 20 h 30, peu après l'arrivée de la nouvelle de l'armistice, Campioni tient une réunion au Palais du Grand Maître ; cependant, ne disposant d'aucun ordre précis sur la façon d'agir, aucune décision n'est prise. Le lieutenant-colonel Marcello Fossetta, responsable de la base aérienne de Maritsa, informe le commandement que les troupes allemandes gardant l'aéroport sont rassemblées sans armes et regardent un film. Bien qu'une attaque soudaine serait facile à mener, il ne reçoit aucun ordre d'attaque, sur la base des promesses précédentes de Kleeman. Campioni ne dispose que de la proclamation de Badoglio, qui avait été diffusée dans les autres îles du Dodécanèse, mettant en évidence la dernière phrase, qui ordonnait aux forces italiennes de réagir « à d'éventuelles attaques de toute autre source [que les Alliés] ».

L'amiral Daviso donne des ordres différents : tous les navires en mer doivent se diriger vers Leros, à l'exception du MAS et des vedettes lance-torpilles, qui doivent rester à Rhodes ; tous les navires de l'île reçoivent l'ordre d'être prêts à se déplacer à court préavis (sauf la canonnière Caboto, immobilisé à la suite d'une panne de moteur). Les batteries côtières sont alertées, la garde du commandement naval de Rhodes est renforcée et la force de débarquement navale est préparée ; les commandements navals de Syros, Leros et Astypalée sont informés de la situation. Toute action agressive des forces allemandes doit être combattue par les armes. Ces instructions s'avéreront plus tard conformes aux directives émises par la Supermarina (l'état-major de la marine italienne) le 9 septembre. À minuit, Kleeman, désormais bouleversé, demande à Forgiero la permission de déplacer librement ses forces afin de pouvoir s'opposer rapidement à un éventuel débarquement britannique, mais reçoit un refus catégorique.

La bataille

9 septembre
Au cours de la nuit, Campioni et Kleemann ont une vive dispute sur la disposition des troupes allemandes sur l'île. Selon certains (il n'y a pas de consensus sur ce qui a été décidé), il est convenu que la division Rhodes doit prendre position près de Campochiaro, tandis que les troupes allemandes sur les bases aériennes doivent rester en dehors de leurs périmètres, et tout mouvement de troupes allemandes nécessite l'autorisation du commandement italien. Selon d'autres, il est décidé que les Allemands doivent rester à l'intérieur des bases aériennes et aucun désarmement ne sera effectué si aucune unité italienne ne quitte Rhodes.

Pendant ce temps, un avion britannique au-dessus de Rhodes largue des milliers de tracts signés par le général Henry Maitland Wilson, chef du Commandement du Moyen-Orient, ordonnant aux Italiens de prendre le contrôle des positions allemandes et de déplacer leurs navires et avions vers les bases britanniques ; Campioni, cependant, n'obtempère pas, estimant l'origine des tracts douteux.

À 09 h 00, un officier allemand se rend au port de Rhodes (que les Italiens ont fermé) et demande à l'occuper. Il essuie un refus du commandant du port, le capitaine Francesco Bagnus. Le capitaine du vapeur allemand Taganrog, chargé de munitions et amarré dans le port, demande l'autorisation de décharger et de quitter l'île. L'amiral Daviso refuse l'autorisation et poste des sentinelles pour garder le navire. Après plusieurs minutes, cependant, le port est ouvert, et les Allemands déchargent les caisses contenant les munitions.

Les premières attaques allemandes débutent vers midi, provoquant une riposte des Italiens. Une action rapide contre la division Regina conduit à la capture du général Scaroina, qui ordonne à ses hommes de se rendre. Le commandement militaire de Rhodes est sur les événements et Forgiero reçoit l'ordre de se déplacer vers la ville de Rhodes pour éviter la capture complète de son commandement. Certains véhicules de son escorte sont interceptés par les forces allemandes et Forgiero n'atteint la ville que vers 15 h 00, une demi-heure après la prise de la base aérienne de Maritsa par les Allemands. Daviso propose de déployer le destroyer Euro, ancré à Leros, pour bombarder la base aérienne avec ses canons, mais la suggestion est rejetée ; le général Briganti obtient cependant de Campioni l'autorisation d'utiliser l'artillerie. Ces tirs détruisent les chars allemands occupant l'aéroport, tout en touchant les avions italiens s'y trouvant encore. Lorsque le bruit des bombardements se fait entendre dans le port, le capitaine Bagnus ordonne la capture du Taganrog. Le navire dispose d'un équipage mixte grec et allemand ; les Grecs sont libérés, tandis que les Allemands sont faits prisonniers et amenés en ville. Un nouvel équipage italien est placé à bord du navire, appareillant le lendemain pour Symi.

La batterie Bianco inflige des pertes aux véhicules allemands sur la base aérienne de Maritsa, mais est à son tour gravement endommagée et doit être abandonnée. La batterie Dandolo est encerclée et se défend pendant une courte période, après quoi son personnel est fait prisonnier. Les artilleurs se libèrent cependant dans l'après-midi du 10 septembre.

10 septembre
Dans la nuit du 9 au 10 septembre, les majors britanniques Julian Dolbey (qui parle italien et sert d'interprète) et George Jellicoe et un sergent muni d'une radio portative sont parachutés sur Rhodes ; ils sont amenés au Palais du Grand Maître, où ils rencontrent Campioni. D'après lui, il faut au moins une semaine avant que des renforts britanniques n'arrivent. Campioni suggère des frappes aériennes et des débarquements dans la partie sud de l'île pour détourner l'attention des Allemands de la ville de Rhodes, mais Dolbey répond qu'il n'y a aucun moyens suffisants pour répondre à ces demandes. À 13 h 00, Dolbey, qui a été blessé lors de l'atterrissage avec son parachute, reçoit une lettre de Campioni à Wilson demandant de l'aide, et est évacué vers Symi sur un bateau lance-torpilles.

Tôt le matin du 10 septembre, une formation motorisée allemande se déplace vers Maritsa, bien que son avance sera ralentie par les tirs d'artillerie du mont Paradiso et du mont Fileremo, où des unités isolées de l'armée italienne demeurent en action. À 09 h 00, un avion allemand largue des tracts offrant un passage sûr vers l'Italie en échange d'une reddition. Une heure plus tard, le destroyer Euro arrive avec 200 renforts de Kos. Comme des unités de l'intérieur de l'île renforcent déjà la garnison de la ville de Rhodes, l'Euro est renvoyé à Kos avec ses hommes. Dans l'après-midi, la batterie Maritsa, qui fait feu sur les chars occupant la base aérienne de Maritsa, fait face à quelques canons AA de 88 mm allemands. Avec l'aide de la batterie Melchiori et quelques mortiers, l'artillerie italienne fait taire les canons allemands, infligeant de lourdes pertes et perdant six hommes.

Dans la soirée, les troupes allemandes capturent les positions sur le mont Paradiso et le mont Fileremo, et plus tard, d'autres positions sont prises. À 19 h 45, Jellicoe et le sergent britannique, ainsi que le colonel italien Fanizza et un major italien, sont envoyés à Kastelorizo, où ils doivent discuter de la situation et de l'envoi de renforts à Rhodes.

Au cours de la nuit, Campioni est informé de la reddition des forces italiennes en Grèce et en Crète, ce qui affaiblira encore plus sa position.

11 septembre
À 07 h 00, les frappes aériennes allemandes endommagent la batterie Majorana et mettent la station radio de la Marine hors d'état. Un colonel britannique arrive et rencontre immédiatement Campioni, qui demande une fois de plus des actions de diversion et des chasseurs pour s'opposer à la Luftwaffe. Le colonel demande s'il croit à une attaque allemande imminente sur la ville de Rhodes et combien de temps la garnison italienne serait capable de résister ; avant d'être raccompagné au port et envoyé à Kastelorizo. Peu de temps après, à 08 h 00, un officier de la division Regina, escorté par un officier allemand de la division Rhodes, arrive avec un message du général Scaroina, demandant la fin des combats dans la partie sud de l'île. Campioni répond que la bataille continuerait, en attendant une réunion avec Kleemann. À 10 h 30, deux autres officiers allemands informent le commandement italien des conditions de reddition dictées par l'OKW : la cessation des hostilités dans toute l'île, la libération des prisonniers allemands et la reddition inconditionnelle des forces italiennes. L'un des officiers allemands ajoute que les conditions finales doivent être convenues avec Kleemann. Campioni a une demi-heure pour se décider, et sans réponse émise de sa part, la ville de Rhodes sera bombardée.

Campioni fait le point avec son personnel ; aucun renfort britannique ne devant arriver bientôt, la situation militaire demeure critique. Bien que les unités de l'armée continuent à résister et que la ville et le port sont toujours aux mains des Italiens, seules quatre batteries d'artillerie (la batterie Majorana et trois unités antiaériennes) restent en action, et un bombardement allemand de la ville fera certainement de nombreuses victimes civiles. Il décide alors de négocier une capitulation.

Pendant ce temps, de faux rapports circulent selon lesquels des chars allemands entrent dans la ville, de sorte que certains navires quittent le port de leur propre initiative et sont suivis par d'autres, croyant exécuter des ordres qui ne pouvaient pas être reçus. L'amiral Daviso leur ordonna plus tard de naviguer pour Leros (selon d'autres, ils reçurent l'ordre de quitter Rhodes par Campioni ou par le lieutenant-commandant Corradini).

À 15 h 30, Campioni, Forgiero et Daviso rencontrent Kleemann près de la ville. Selon les négociations, Campioni conserve son poste de gouverneur ; les unités italiennes ne sont pas dissoutes, mais seulement désarmées, à l'exception des officiers, autorisés à conserver leurs armes. Le commandement allemand reste en dehors de la ville de Rhodes et aucune unité allemande n'y pénétrera, sauf conditions spécifiques. Les Italiens détruisent des livres de codes et documents secrets, mais gardent une station de radio secrète dans une ferme ; le gouvernement italien de Brindisi est informé.

Les troupes italiennes réagissent avec colère et incrédulité à la nouvelle de la capitulation, car dans certaines régions, elles parviennent à contenir les attaques allemandes, pensant que celles-ci manqueront à terme de carburant et de munitions. Certains soldats auraient supposé que les nouvelles faisaient référence à une capitulation allemande, tel était leur avantage apparent sur l'ennemi. Certaines unités allemandes avaient été contraintes de se rendre pendant la bataille et avaient été emprisonnées dans les casernes italiennes ; ils étaient maintenant libérés et prendront leurs armes, à la grande indignation des soldats italiens qui avaient combattu contre eux. Beaucoup ont manifesté leur mécontentement, estimant que Rhodes avait été  ou que leurs commandants étaient , accusant Campioni d'être pro-allemand et brisant la crosse de leurs fusils avant de les jeter en tas.

Conséquences
La capitulation italienne confronte les Allemands au problème de savoir comment gérer un si grand nombre de prisonniers, sans navires disponibles pour leur évacuation immédiate. Les contingents de la Marine et de l'Air sont désarmés en premier, car ils sont fermement déterminés à ne pas coopérer et donc potentiellement plus dangereux que l'Armée de terre, dont certains officiers montrent des signes d'amitié envers les Allemands. Kleemann demande à Campioni d'ordonner à la garnison de Karpathos de se rendre, menaçant de bombarder l'île autrement ; cependant, lorsqu'il lui ordonne de donner les mêmes ordres à Kos et Leros, le leader italien refuse cette requête. Les Allemands s'installeront ensuite au sein du commandement italien et les officiers italiens, Campioni inclus, seront évacués.

Au cours de cette période, de nombreux Italiens tentent de fuir par la mer pour échapper à la captivité, mais souvent les fugitifs meurent en mer ou sont découverts par les Allemands. Certains réussissent cependant et parviennent à atteindre Kos et Leros. La garnison d'Alimia, commandée par le sous-lieutenant Cinicola, reçoit l'ordre de se rendre par un général italien, mais refuse ; Cinicola rassemble ses hommes et un certain nombre de soldats dispersés ayant atteint la petite île, et se déplacent vers Leros avec leurs armes, munitions et provisions.

Le 19 septembre 1943, entre 1 584 et 1 835 prisonniers italiens, tous membres du personnel de la marine et de l'armée de l'air, sont rassemblés sur le navire à moteur italien capturé Gaetano Donizetti, qui rejoindra la Grèce continentale. Pendant le voyage, le navire est intercepté et coulé avec corps et biens par le , ignorant sa cargaison humaine. Le 12 février 1944, le vieux vapeur Oria, bondé de plus de 4 000 prisonniers venus de Rhodes, s'échoue lors d'une tempête et coule au large du cap Sounion ; seulement 21 prisonniers sont sauvés, tandis qu'au moins 4 062 personnes meurent dans le naufrage.

Certains soldats reçoivent des vêtements civils de leurs officiers, pour éviter d'être capturés, et se mélangent à la population locale. Un petit nombre adhère à la cause allemande ou à la République sociale italienne (RSI). Au total, environ 1 580 soldats italiens réussissent à s'échapper de Rhodes après la capitulation ; 6 520 sont portés disparus après la guerre. La plupart d'entre eux sont morts dans le naufrage des navires qui les transportaient en Grèce, d'autres sont morts de faim dans les camps de prisonniers allemands de l'île (la famine a également gravement touché la population civile de Rhodes entre 1944 et 1945). Quatre-vingt-dix ont été exécutés après la reddition, dont quarante sans jugement. L'amiral Campioni, initialement emprisonné dans un camp de prisonniers de guerre en Pologne, fut ensuite remis aux autorités de la RSI, jugé et exécuté pour avoir défendu Rhodes contre l'invasion allemande.

Des épisodes isolés de résistance se poursuivent pendant l'occupation allemande, tant par des civils grecs que par des Italiens ayant échappé à la capture ; le sergent Pietro Carboni de la marine italienne, aidé d'un civil italien et d'un carabinier, s'est caché dans la partie intérieure de l'île et a commis plusieurs actes de sabotage contre les forces allemandes, jusqu'à ce qu'il soit découvert et tué le 20 décembre 1944 (il est décerné à titre posthume la Médaille d'or de la vaillance militaire).

Notes et références

Voir aussi

Articles connexes
 Campagnes d'Afrique, du Moyen-Orient et de Méditerranée
 Histoire militaire de l'Italie pendant la Seconde Guerre mondiale
 Campagne de la Méditerranée

Bibliographie
 Aldo Levi, Avvenimenti in Egeo dopo l'armistizio (Rodi, Lero e isole minori), Rome, Direction historique de la marine italienne, 1993.
 Luciano Alberghini Maltoni, Rodi 1943, dans Storia Militare N° 105 (juin 2002), pp. 25 – 43

Septembre 1943
1943 en Grèce
Bataille de 1943
Rhodes
Rhodes
Théâtre méditerranéen de la Seconde Guerre mondiale
Histoire de la Grèce pendant la Seconde Guerre mondiale

Bataille de Rhodes (1943)


Teoria reprezentării este o ramură a matematicii care studiază  abstracte reprezentând elementele acestora sub forma unor transformări liniare de spații vectoriale și studiază  peste aceste structuri algebrice abstracte. În esență, o reprezentare face un obiect algebric abstract mai concret prin descrierea elementelor sale prin matrici și prin operații algebrice în termeni de adunări și înmulțiri de matrice. Printre obiectele algebrice care fac obiectul unei astfel de descrieri se numără grupuri,  și . Cea mai proeminentă dintre ele (și istoric prima) este teoria reprezentării grupurilor, în care elementele unui grup sunt reprezentate prin matrice inversabile astfel încât operația grupului este o înmulțire matriceală.

Teoria reprezentării este o metodă utilă deoarece reduce problemele din algebra abstractă la probleme de algebră liniară, un subiect mai bine înțeles. În plus, spațiul vectorial pe care este reprezentat un grup (de exemplu) poate fi infinit-dimensional și, permițându-i-se să fie, de exemplu, un spațiu Hilbert, metodele de analiză pot fi aplicate teoriei grupurilor. Teoria reprezentării este importantă și în fizică, deoarece, de exemplu, ea descrie modul în care grupul de simetrie al unui sistem fizic afectează soluțiile ecuațiilor care descriu acest sistem.

Teoria reprezentării este larg răspândită în domeniile matematicii, din două motive. În primul rând, aplicațiile teoriei reprezentării sunt diverse:  pe lângă impactul său asupra algebrei, teoria reprezentării:

 iluminează și generalizează  prin analiză armonică,
 este conectată la geometrie prin  si prin ,
 are impact asupra teoriei numerelor prin  și prin .

În al doilea rând, există diverse abordări ale teoriei reprezentării. Aceleași obiecte pot fi studiate folosind metode din geometria algebrică, , , geometria diferențială, ,  și topologie.

Succesul teoriei reprezentării a dus la numeroase generalizări. Unul dintre cele mai generale este în teoria categoriilor. Obiectele algebrice la care se aplică teoria reprezentării pot fi privite ca anumite tipuri de categorii, iar reprezentările ca functori de la categoria obiect la . Această descriere indică două generalizări evidente: în primul rând, obiectele algebrice pot fi înlocuite cu mai multe categorii generale; în al doilea rând, categoria țintă a spațiilor vectoriale poate fi înlocuită de alte categorii bine înțelese.

Note

Bibliografie

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 Yurii I. Lyubich. Introduction to the Theory of Banach Representations of Groups. Traducere în engleză din ediția 1985 în rusă (Harkov, URSS). Birkhäuser Verlag. 1988.
;  (2nd ed.);  (ed. a treia)
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Reprezentării, teoria

Teoria reprezentării


Dragons Lair er en butikskæde som specialiserer sig i salg af spil og udstyr til spil. Kæden er også kendt for at afholde spilrelaterede events. Den første butik blev grundlagt i 1996 i Roskilde.

Sortimentet spænder over rollespil, både Live Action Roleplay og mere traditionelt bordrollespil, brætspil, kortspil (som Magic, Yu-Gi-Oh! og Pokémon) og figurspil. Kæden sælger hardballspil via salgsnavnet Airsoft Armoury.

Kæden har en butik i Aarhus og en i Odense. Tidligere butikker i Roskilde, Esbjerg og Aalborg er lukket.

I 2019 fusionerede kæden Dragons Lair med den lignende butikskæde Faraos Cigarer under Faraos Cigarers brand.

Eksterne henvisninger
 Dragons Lairs hjemmeside
 Airsoft Armourys hjemmside

Spilbutikskæder i Danmark
Etableret i 1996
Rollespil
Brætspil
Magic: The Gathering

Dragons Lair


In anatomy, the adenoid, also known as the pharyngeal tonsil or nasopharyngeal tonsil, is the superior-most of the tonsils. It is a mass of lymphatic tissue located behind the nasal cavity, in the roof of the nasopharynx, where the nose blends into the throat. In children, it normally forms a soft mound in the roof and back wall of the nasopharynx, just above and behind the uvula.

The term adenoid is also used to represent adenoid hypertrophy, the abnormal growth of the pharyngeal tonsils.

Structure
The adenoid is a mass of lymphatic tissue located behind the nasal cavity, in the roof of the nasopharynx, where the nose blends into the throat. The adenoid, unlike the palatine tonsils, has pseudostratified epithelium.  The adenoids are part of the so-called Waldeyer ring of lymphoid tissue which also includes the palatine tonsils, the lingual tonsils and the tubal tonsils.

Development
Adenoids develop from a subepithelial infiltration of lymphocytes after the 16th week of embryonic life. After birth, enlargement begins and continues until aged 5 to 7 years.

Function
Part of the immune system, adenoids trap and recognize pathogens such as bacteria and viruses. In response, the adenoid produces T cells and B cells to combat infection, contributing to the synthesis of IgA immunoglobulins, assisting in the body's immunologic memory.

Microbiome
Species of bacteria such as lactobacilli, anaerobic streptococci, actinomycosis, Fusobacterium species, and Nocardia are normally present by 6 months of age. Normal flora found in the adenoid consists of alpha-hemolytic streptococci and enterococci, Corynebacterium species, coagulase-negative staphylococci, Neisseria species, Haemophilus species, Micrococcus species, and Stomatococcus species.

Clinical significance

Enlargement

An enlarged adenoid, or adenoid hypertrophy, can become nearly the size of a ping pong ball and completely block airflow through the nasal passages. Even if the enlarged adenoid is not substantial enough to physically block the back of the nose, it can obstruct airflow enough so that breathing through the nose requires an uncomfortable amount of work, and inhalation occurs instead through an open mouth. The enlarged adenoid would also obstruct the nasal airway enough to affect the voice without actually stopping nasal airflow altogether.

Symptomatic enlargement between 18 and 24 months of age is not uncommon, meaning that snoring, nasal airway obstruction and obstructed breathing may occur during sleep. However, this may be reasonably expected to decline when children reach school age, and progressive shrinkage may be expected thereafter.

Adenoid facies
Enlargement of the adenoid, especially in children, causes an atypical appearance of the face, often referred to as adenoid facies. Features of adenoid facies include mouth breathing, an elongated face, prominent incisors, hypoplastic maxilla, short upper lip, elevated nostrils, and a high arched palate.

Removal
Surgical removal of the adenoid is a procedure called adenoidectomy. Adenoid infection may cause symptoms such as excessive mucus production, which can be treated by its removal. Studies have shown that adenoid regrowth occurs in as many as 19% of the cases after removal. Carried out through the mouth under a general anaesthetic (or less commonly a topical), adenoidectomy involves the adenoid being curetted, cauterized, lasered, or otherwise ablated. The adenoid is often removed along with the palatine tonsils.

See also

 Waldeyer's tonsillar ring

References

External links

Adenoids: What They Are, How To Recognize Them, What To Do For Them
 Histology at usuhs.mil
 Histology at udel.edu
 /drtbalu otolaryngology online

Lymphatics of the head and neck
Tonsil
Pharynx

Adenoid


In 1981, BBC Radio 4 produced a dramatisation of J. R. R. Tolkien's The Lord of the Rings in 26 half-hour stereo instalments. The novel had previously been adapted as a 12-part BBC Radio adaptation in 1955 and 1956 (of which no recordings are known to have survived), and a 1979 production by The Mind's Eye for National Public Radio in the USA.

Like the novel on which it is based, the radio series tells the story of an epic struggle between the Dark Lord Sauron of Mordor, the primary villain of the work, and an alliance of heroes who join forces to save the world from falling under his shadow.

Development

Early stages and commissioning

The BBC entered negotiations with The Saul Zaentz Company to obtain the radio rights to adapt The Lord of the Rings in 1979, following the release of the Ralph Bakshi animated film. J. R. R. Tolkien had sold the film, stage and merchandising rights to United Artists in 1969, who had subsequently sold them to The Saul Zaentz Company in 1976. The negotiations were protracted but ironically entirely unnecessary as the radio rights had never passed to the film company and were still controlled by the Tolkien estate.

Brian Sibley was a young scriptwriter who had written a number of radio features for the BBC, but lacked experience adapting works of literature, having previously only adapted a short fantasy by James Thurber. In 1979, Sibley submitted an idea for an original radio drama to Head of Drama Script Unit, Richard Imison, but was rejected. In his rejection letter, Imison asked Sibley to suggest a list of novels he would like to see adapted. Sibley submitted "about a baker's dozen" suggestions, and added The Lord of the Rings in a postscript, declaring it "the one book I would really like to adapt for radio."
Some weeks later in a chance meeting on a corridor in Broadcasting House, Imison asked Sibley how he had learned that the BBC were in negotiations to obtain the rights. Sibley stated that he had not been aware, and had suggested the book because he was "simply in love with [it]", having read it for the first time during an extended hospital stay a few years earlier. The BBC commissioned the adaptation and offered it to Sibley as the lead writer. The commissioners had determined that it should comprise 26 half-hour episodes (6 months' worth of weekly broadcasts), and that scriptwriting should be divided between two writers. Michael Bakewell was brought in as the second writer – a former producer and writer whose previous credits included a radio adaptation of Tolstoy's War and Peace.

Writing

Sibley and Bakewell began the process of adapting the books by arranging the core storyline into 26 episode synopses, each with its own conventional narrative structure and ending on a natural 'cliffhanger'. From these synopses, the full episode scripts would be developed. The source material presented a variety of challenges to the adaptation process. Sibley recalls pacing difficulties due to the book's fluctuations between "sections rich in description, others containing lengthy historical resumés, some having an abundance of dialogue, while others are almost entirely narrative." These challenges led to decisions to omit sections and characters that were deemed not to meaningfully advance the core plot. As such, the serial omits several sequences, most notably those in Book 1 in which the hobbits come to Crickhollow, enter the Old Forest, and encounter the Barrow-wights, Old Man Willow, and ultimately Tom Bombadil. On the latter, Sibley has stated he considers Bombadil to be a character Tolkien created independently of The Lord of the Rings, and that it was preferable to "excise one large episode than to dramatically reduce several others." On the decision to excise some minor characters who appeared for only a few lines of the book, Sibley stated he felt it preferable to remove the character altogether than the alternative, "which would have been to fabricate dialogue for them."
The adaptation radically restructured the chronology of the chapters in Books 3-6, flattening out Tolkien's interlacing by splicing the journey of Frodo and Sam with events in the West. This aligned them with the timeline of events provided by Tolkien in the Appendices, and kept more of the actors employed for more of the episodes.

The script attempts to be as faithful as possible to the original novel with many sections of dialogue lifted directly from the source material, such as the conversations between Frodo, Sam and Faramir in The Window on the West. The script also includes an arc where Wormtongue is waylaid by the Ringwraiths, as narrated in Unfinished Tales, a newly-published volume at that time. In the final episode, Bilbo's Last Song, a Tolkien poem which does not appear in the novel, is used to flesh out the sequence at the Grey Havens. The author's son and editor Christopher Tolkien reviewed and approved the final scripts for each episode. He recorded an audio cassette of correct pronunciations for Middle-earth words and names to assist the cast during recordings.

Recording

Recording took place at BBC Broadcasting House over two months in 1980. One-and-a-half days was allotted for each of the 26 episodes to be rehearsed and recorded. Sibley recalls the recording sessions having "quite a lot of laughter, quite a few tears, and a number of frazzled tempers". Gandalf-actor Michael Hordern recalled the sessions as "a bit of a slog".

Elizabeth Parker of the BBC Radiophonic Workshop produced the sound effects. The composer Stephen Oliver, who had previously scored the RSC's successful production of Nicholas Nickleby, scored the music, with over 100 cues through the original 26-episode serial. The series was directed by Jane Morgan and Penny Leicester. Morgan stated she was anxious to avoid sound effects that were "too literal", and wished to incorporate music in complex battle scenes.

Episodes

 *1.4–1.8 on Crickhollow, Fatty Bolger, the Old Forest, Barrow-wights and Tom Bombadil omitted

Broadcasts and release

The serial was first broadcast from 8 March to 30 August 1981 on BBC Radio 4 on Sundays from 12 noon to 12:30pm; each episode was repeated on the following Wednesday from 10:30pm to 11:00pm. A soundtrack album featuring a re-recorded and in some cases expanded suite of Stephen Oliver's music was released in 1981.

The 26-part series was edited into 13 hour-long episodes broadcast from 17 July to 9 October 1982, restoring some dialogue originally cut for timing.  Following the success of Peter Jackson's The Lord of the Rings film trilogy in the early 2000s, the BBC reissued its radio series in three sets (audiobooks) corresponding to the three original volumes (The Fellowship of the Ring, The Two Towers and The Return of the King). This version omitted the original episode divisions, and included new opening and closing monologues for the first two sets, and an opening monologue only for the last, written by Sibley and performed by Ian Holm as Frodo Baggins. The soundtrack with Stephen Oliver's music, digitally remastered, was included with The Return of the King set, with a demo of John Le Mesurier singing Bilbo's Last Song as a bonus track.

Analysis

Sibley thought the casting of Ian Holm as Frodo "simply inspired", his performance "of unswerving determination, tempered always with humour and vulnerability." He felt that Hordern managed to "become" Gandalf, "by intuition or some other theatrical magic ... by turn wise, stern and compassionate, a force for good, a constant light in an ever-darkening storm." As for John Le Mesurier's Bilbo, the comic actor who had played Sergeant Wilson in Dad's Army gave the part "a weary melancholy".

The scholar of humanities Brian Rosebury sets out criteria for adapting a complex work like The Lord of the Rings. The adaptation, he writes, must not simply use characters and names to relabel some existing formula, or rewrite the story into a generic style; it must retain as much as possible of the original when translating the narrative into a drama; it must keep the presentation fresh, avoid repetition, and retain plausibility; and it must especially retain the coherent feeling of a Middle-earth under threat, along with the book's momentum, coherence, moral conviction, and subtlety. Rosebury states that a radio production is "fundamentally hampered" by not being able to "suggest the physical and cultural presence of Middle-earth", other than through the limited medium of sound effects. In his view, the few passages of narration in the production "give tantalising glimpses of [Tolkien's] breadth of vision which fades painfully as the studio-bound dialogues resume." He finds the dialogue well delivered by the actors, admiring especially Peter Woodthorpe's "fine Gollum", and the abridgement skilful though subtly flattening Tolkien's text "in the direction of an adventure story." The version's strength, Rosebury writes, is in its rather faithful and almost complete rendering of the book's events, though as in Ralph Bakshi's animated version and Peter Jackson's live-action version, without Tom Bombadil.

The Tolkien scholar Christina Scull thought it a "masterly adaptation", that stayed faithful to Tolkien's story, presented most of the characters "as he depicted them", and especially "caught the spirit of the books". She found the handling of the Battle of the Pelennor Fields with alliterative verse "a brilliant idea", and praised Gerard Murphy's narration. Comparing the production with Jackson's interpretation, she felt that her "happiness with the BBC production made [her] even less happy with Jackson than I might have been without it", disliking the films' additional material, violence, and "the weakening of almost all the characters". In her view, the BBC dramatisation presented "the characters I [met] in the book", whereas the film version did not.

Peter Woodthorpe (Gollum/Sméagol) and Michael Graham Cox (Boromir) had previously voiced the same roles in Bakshi's film in 1978. Ian Holm, who voiced Frodo Baggins in the radio serial, went on to play Bilbo Baggins in Jackson's film trilogy in the early 2000s.

Cast and credits

The Lord of the Rings was dramatised for radio by Sibley and Michael Bakewell.
The music was composed by Stephen Oliver.
Radiophonic sound was provided by Elizabeth Parker.
The series was produced and directed by Jane Morgan and Penny Leicester.

The cast for the production was:

 Narrator (UK version): Gerard Murphy
 Narrator (American version): Tammy Grimes
 Frodo Baggins: Ian Holm
 Gandalf the Grey/Gandalf the White: Michael Hordern
 Aragorn (Strider): Robert Stephens
 Sam Gamgee: Bill Nighy (credited as William Nighy)
 Meriadoc Brandybuck (Merry): Richard O'Callaghan
 Peregrin Took (Pippin): John McAndrew
 Legolas: David Collings
 Gimli: Douglas Livingstone
 Boromir: Michael Graham Cox
 Galadriel: Marian Diamond
 Celeborn: Simon Cadell
 Arwen Evenstar: Sonia Fraser
 Saruman the White: Peter Howell
 Elrond: Hugh Dickson
 Bilbo Baggins: John Le Mesurier
 Gollum/Sméagol: Peter Woodthorpe
 Théoden: Jack May
 Gríma Wormtongue: Paul Brooke
 Éowyn: Elin Jenkins
 Éomer: Anthony Hyde
 Faramir: Andrew Seear
 Treebeard: Stephen Thorne
 Denethor: Peter Vaughan
 Lord of the Nazgûl: Philip Voss
 The Mouth of Sauron: John Rye
 Glorfindel/An Elf lord of the house of Elrond half-elven : John Webb
 Haldir/Nazgûl/Nob/Minstrel: Haydn Wood
 Gamling: Patrick Barr
 Ceorl: Michael McStay
 Háma/A Nazgûl: Michael Spice
 Éothain/Otho Sackville-Baggins/Ruffian: John Livesy
 Halbarad: Martyn Read
 Beregond/The Black Rider/Guard: Christopher Scott
 Ioreth: Pauline Letts
 Gwaihir: Alexander John
 Radagast the Brown: Donald Gee
 Gaffer Gamgee: John Church
 Ted Sandyman/Snaga: Gordon Reid
 Rosie Cotton: Kathryn Hurlbutt
 Daddy Twofoot: Leonard Fenton
 Farmer Maggot/Ruffian: John Bott
 Lobelia Sackville-Baggins: Diana Bishop
 Farmer Cotton: Alan Dudley
 Proudfoot/Orc: Sean Arnold
 Elanor Gamgee: Harry Holm
 Barliman Butterbur: James Grout
 Uglúk: Brian Haines
 Shagrat: Christopher Fairbank
 Gorbag: David Sinclair
 Déagol/Bill Ferny/Orc Captain: Graham Faulkner
 Shelob: Jenny Lee, BBC Radiophonic Workshop
 Singer (Dream Voice/Bilbo's Last Song): Matthew Vine
 Singer (The Bard): Oz Clarke
 Singer (The Eagle/Voice of Lothlórien): David James

References

External links

 Description and episode list
 Archive.org recordings

Radio programmes based on Middle-earth
1981 radio dramas
Fantasy radio programs
BBC Radio 4 programmes
Works based on The Lord of the Rings

The Lord of the Rings (1981 radio series)


Mads Kamp Thulstrup (født 9. maj 1975) er en dansk filminstruktør. Han er uddannet fra Den Danske Filmskoles instruktørlinje i 2005. I 2008 havde han spillefilms debut med dokumentarfilmen ...og det var Danmark, som modtog en Gulddok for bedste lange dokumentarfilm. Han har ligeledes medvirket som instruktør til den danske tv-serie Bedrag (2016).

Referencer

Eksterne henvisninger

Filminstruktører fra Danmark

Mads Kamp Thulstrup


Der Scharbower See liegt im  Norden der Sternberger Seenlandschaft im Landkreis Ludwigslust-Parchim, Mecklenburg-Vorpommern, auf dem Gemeindegebiet Mustin. Er befindet sich etwa 1,5 Kilometer östlich von Ruchow, einem Ortsteil von Mustin. Am Nordufer befindet sich eine kleine Wochenend- und Feriensiedlung. Das wenig gegliederte Gewässer hat eine maximale Länge von etwa 700 Metern und eine maximale Breite von 270 Metern. Die Uferhänge sind bis auf das Westufer steil und bewaldet. Im Westen geht der See in das Scharbowbruch über. Hier befindet sich auch der Abfluss in Richtung Mildenitz.

Einzelnachweise

See im Landkreis Ludwigslust-Parchim
SScharbower See
Mustin (Mecklenburg)
See in Europa

Scharbower See


El caballero avaro (título original en ruso, Скупой рыцарь, Skupói rýtsar, Op. 24) es una ópera en un acto con música de Serguéi Rajmáninov, con el libreto basado en el drama de Aleksandr Pushkin.  El compositor decidió esencialmente poner música al texto de Pushkin tal como está escrito, y tenía a Fiódor Chaliapin en mente para el papel del Barón. Se estrenó el 24 de enero (antiguo calendario: 11 de enero) de 1906 en el Teatro Bolshói de Moscú, con el propio compositor dirigiendo, en un programa doble con otra ópera de Rajmáninov escrita de forma contemporánea, Francesca da Rimini.

Personajes

Referencias

Notas

Licencia

Enlaces externos

 Página de Boosey & Hawkes sobre The Miserly Knight
Fundación Juan March, argumento en el programa de mano

Óperas de Serguéi Rajmáninov
Óperas en ruso
Óperas de 1906
Óperas estrenadas en Moscú
Adaptaciones de obras de Aleksandr Pushkin

El caballero avaro


Manaus () is the capital and largest city of the Brazilian state of Amazonas. It is the seventh-largest city in Brazil, with an estimated 2020 population of 2,219,580 distributed over a land area of about . Located at the east centre of the state, the city is the centre of the Manaus metropolitan area and the largest metropolitan area in the North Region of Brazil by urban landmass. It is situated near the confluence of the Negro and Amazon rivers. It is one of the only cities in the Amazon Rainforest with a population of over 1 million people, alongside Belém.

The city was founded in 1669 as the Fort of São José do Rio Negro. It was elevated to a town in 1832 with the name of "Manaus", an altered spelling of the indigenous Manaós peoples, and legally transformed into a city on October 24, 1848, with the name of Cidade da Barra do Rio Negro, Portuguese for "The City of the Margins of the Black River". On September 4, 1856, it returned to its original name.

Manaus is located in the center of the world's largest rainforest, and home to the National Institute of Amazonian Research, being the most important center for scientific studies in the Amazon region and for international sustainability issues. It was known at the beginning of the century as Heart of the Amazon and City of the Forest. Currently, its main economic engine is the Industrial Park of Manaus, a Free Economic Zone. The city has a free port and an international airport. Its manufactures include electronics, chemical products, and soap; there are distilling and ship construction industries. Manaus also exports Brazil nuts, rubber, jute, and rosewood oil. It has a cathedral, opera house, zoological and botanical gardens, an eco-park, and regional and native peoples museums.

The Solimões and Negro rivers meet just east of Manaus and join to form the Amazon River (using the Brazilian definition of the river; elsewhere, Solimões is considered the upper part of the Amazon). Rubber made it the richest city in South America during the late 1800s. Rubber also helped Manaus earn its nickname, the Paris of the Tropics. Many wealthy European families settled in Manaus and brought their love for sophisticated European art, architecture, and culture with them. Manaus was one of the twelve Brazilian host cities of the 2014 World Cup, as well as one of the five subsections of the 2016 Summer Olympics.

Etymology
The name Manaus comes from the native people called Manaós, which means Mother of the Gods.

History

Early settlement of Manaus
The history of the European colonization of Manaus began in 1499 with the Spanish arrival at the mouth of the Amazon River. The Spanish then continued to colonize the region north of Brazil. Development continued in 1668–1669 with the building of the Fort of São José da Barra do Rio Negro by the Portuguese in order to ensure its predominance in the region, especially against the Dutch, at that time headquartered in what is today Suriname. The fort was constructed in rock and clay, with four cannons guarding the curtains. It continued to function for more than 100 years. Next to the fort there were many indigenous mestizos, who helped in its construction and began to live in the vicinity.

The population grew so much that, in 1695, the missionaries (Carmelite, Jesuit, Franciscan) built a nearby chapel dedicated to Nossa Senhora da Conceição (Our Lady of the Conception), who, in time, became the patron saint of the city. A Royal Charter of March 3, 1755 created the captaincy of São José do Rio Negro, with capital in Mariuá (now Barcelos), but with the governor, Lobo D'Almada, fearing a Spanish invasion, the seat went back to Lugar de Barra in 1791. Being located at the confluence of the Rio Negro and Amazon Rivers, it was a strategic point. On November 13, 1832, Lugar da Barra was elevated to town status and named Manaus. On October 24, 1848, under Law 145 of the Provincial Assembly of Para, it was renamed the City of Barra do Rio Negro. On September 4, 1856, the governor, Herculano Ferreira Pena, finally gave it the name "Manaus".

Cabanagem

The Cabanagem was the revolt in which blacks, Native Americans, and mestizos fought against the white political elite and took power in 1835. The Cabanagem reduced the population of the then state of Grão-Pará from about 100,000 to 60,000. The involvement of rebels from the Upper Amazon (Manaus today) in what was originally a movement based in Belém was crucial for the birth of the current state of the Amazon. During the brief period of revolution, the Cabanos of the Upper Amazon, bands of rebels, roamed throughout the region, occupying Manaus twice, and, in most settlements, their arrival was greeted by the non-white population spontaneously joining their ranks, leading to a greater number of adherents to the movement. With that there was an integration of people in the region thus forming the state.

Rubber boom
Manaus was at the center of the Amazon region's rubber boom during the late 19th century. For a time, it was "one of the gaudiest cities of the world". Historian Robin Furneaux wrote of this period, "No extravagance, however absurd, deterred" the rubber barons. "If one rubber baron bought a vast yacht, another would install a tame lion in his villa, and a third would water his horse on champagne." The city built a grand opera house, with vast domes and gilded balconies, and using marble, glass, and crystal, from around Europe. The opera house cost ten million (public-funded) dollars. In one season, half the members of one visiting opera troupe died of yellow fever. The opera house, called the Teatro Amazonas, was effectively closed for most of the 20th Century. However it was used in scenes of the Werner Herzog film Fitzcarraldo (1982). After a gap of almost 90 years, it reopened to produce live opera in 1997 and is now attracting performers from all over the world.

When the seeds of the rubber tree were smuggled out of the Amazon region to be cultivated on plantations in Southeast Asia, Brazil and Peru lost their monopoly on the product. The rubber boom ended abruptly, many people left its major cities, and Manaus fell into poverty. The rubber boom had made possible electrification of the city before it was installed in many European cities, but the end of the rubber boom made the generators too expensive to run. The city was not able to generate electricity again for years.

Free zone
In the 1960s during the establishment of the military dictatorship in Brazil, the newly installed government concerned about the "demographic gap in Brazil", began to introduce numerous projects in the interior of the country, especially in the Amazon region, with the introduction of the Manaus free trade zone in 1967, and with the opening of new roads within the region, the city had a wide period of investments in financial and economic capital, both national and international, attracted by the tax incentives granted by the free zone, in this period, Manaus had enormous demographic growth becoming one of the most populous cities in Brazil.

Recent events
Manaus was one of the host cities of the 2014 FIFA World Cup and one of the seats of some Olympic football games. It was the only host city in the Amazon rainforest and the most geographically isolated, being further north and west than any of the other host cities. A massive prison riot occurred in January 2017, having begun in Manaus and later spreading to two additional cities in Brazil, thus unleashing security problems within the country.

During the COVID-19 pandemic in Brazil, an estimated 76% of the population of Manaus was infected with coronavirus, and the possibility of herd immunity was discussed. However, a second outbreak infected people in Manaus, this time with the Lineage B.1.1.248 variant starting in early January 2021.

Geography

The largest city in northern Brazil, Manaus occupies an area of , with a density of . It is the neighboring city of Presidente Figueiredo, Careiro, Iranduba, Rio Preto da Eva, Itacoatiara, and Novo Airão.

Vegetation
Manaus is located in the middle of the Amazon Rainforest. The Amazon represents over half of the planet's remaining rainforests and comprises the largest and most species-rich tract of tropical rainforest in the world. Wet tropical forests are the most species-rich biome, and tropical forests in the Americas are consistently more species-rich than the wet forests in Africa and Asia. As the largest tract of tropical rainforest in the Americas, the Amazonian rainforests have unparalleled biodiversity. More than one-third of all species in the world live in the Amazon rainforest.

Green areas

Despite being located in the Amazon, Manaus is densely developed and has few green areas in the city. The largest green areas are:
 Mindu Park, located in the center-south of the city, the district Park 10. The Park of Mindú, established in 1989, is one of the largest and most visited parks in the city.
 Bilhares Park, established in 2005, located in the south-central region of Manaus, in the neighborhood of  ("plateau").
 Area of the green hill of Aleixo, created in the 1980s, located in the east of the city and is one of the largest urban green areas.
 Sumaúma State Park, a state park located in the north of Manaus, in the New Town district. It is the smallest state park of the Brazilian Amazon Basin.
 Castanheiras Pied Tamarin Wildlife Refuge, a  refuge created in 1982 to protect a population of endangered pied tamarins.
 Adolfo Ducke Forest Reserve, a biological reserve established in 1963, and covers an area of 100 square kilometres (10,000 hectares, 39 square miles). The Reserve is managed by INPA (Instituto Nacional de Pesquisas da Amazonia—National Institute for Amazon Research).
 Part of the Anavilhanas National Park, a  conservation unit that was originally an ecological station created in 1981.
 About 75% of the Rio Negro Left Bank Environmental Protection Area, a  sustainable use conservation area created in 1995.
 The  Tupé Sustainable Development Reserve, created in 2005, about  west of the city.
 The  Rio Negro State Park South Section, created in 1995, about  by boat to the northwest of the city.

Climate
Manaus has a humid tropical rainforest climate (Af) according to the Köppen climate classification system, just wet enough in its driest month to not be a tropical monsoon climate, with the average annual compensated temperature of  and high air humidity, with a rainfall index around  annually. The seasons are relatively well defined with respect to rain: July to September is relatively dry, and December to May is very rainy. Thunderstorms are frequent every day in the summer, but they can occur at any time of the year. There have been occasional occurrences of hail in the city.

Due to the city's proximity to the equator, the heat is constant in the local climate. There are no cold days in winter, and rarely very intense polar air masses in the South-Central part of Brazil and in the southwest of the Amazon have some effect on the city, as occurred in August 1955. But although they are rare, they influence the climate, causing the temperature to drop to  or below. The proximity to the forest usually avoids extremes of heat and makes the city wet.

According to the National Institute of Meteorology (INMET), the highest temperature registered in the city was , in 2015 and the lowest was  in 1989.

On November 26, 2009, a case of acid rain was recorded in Manaus. Air pollution, caused in large part by the accumulation of smoke from burning, associated with the carbon dioxide emitted by cars, was the cause of this phenomenon. Although the incidence of acid rain is common in some Brazilian capitals where there is a great concentration of cars, in Manaus and other cities of the Amazonas the situation is aggravated by the prolonged period of drought with the smoke from forest fires.

Hydrology
The urban area covers all or part of four river basins, all tributaries of the Rio Negro. The São Raimundo and Educandos streams are completely contained in the city. The Tarumã Açu forms the western boundary of the city in its lower reaches, and is fed by several tributaries that originate in the Ducke Reserve and run through the north and west of the city. The Puraquequara forms the east boundary of the urban area in its lower section.

Demographics

According to the IBGE in 2019, there were 2,182,763 people residing in the city, and 2,676,936 people in the Metropolitan Region of Manaus. The population density was .

 Total population: 2,145,444 inhabitants (87% urban, 13% rural, 52.07% women and 47.93% men)
 Population density:

Manaus is the seventh largest city in Brazil, after São Paulo, Rio de Janeiro, Salvador, Brasília, Fortaleza and Belo Horizonte.

The city's population growth is above the national average, and 10% above the average for the capital (Brasilia). Most of the population is located in the North and East regions of the city, and the New Town (northern area) the neighborhood is the most populous, with more than 260,000 residents.

According to the results of the last census, the city's population increased from 343,038 inhabitants in 1960 to 622,733 in 1970. By 1990, the population grew to 1,025,979 inhabitants, increasing its density to .

According to a 2013 genetic study, the ancestry of the inhabitants of Manaus is 45.9% European, 37.8% Native American, and 16.3% African.

Religion

The city has been influenced by Catholicism since the time of European colonialism, and the majority of Manauenses are Catholic—there are nevertheless dozens of different Protestant denominations in the city. Judaism, Candomblé, Islam, and spiritualism, among others, are also practised. The city's Catedral Metropolitana Nossa Senhora da Conceição is the seat of the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Manaus.

The city has a very diverse presence of Protestant or Reformed faiths, such as the Presbyterian Church, Calvary Chapel, For Christ International Church of Grace of God, Pentecostal Church of God in Brazil, Methodist Church, the Anglican Episcopal Church, the Baptist Church, an Assembly of God Church, the Seventh-day Adventist Church, the Universal Church of the Kingdom of God, and the Jehovah's Witnesses among others. These churches are experiencing considerable growth, mainly in the outskirts of the city. The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints also has a large presence, with a LDS temple having been built in the city, the sixth in Brazil.

Districts and regions

Metropolitan region
The Metropolitan Region of Manaus (RMM) is a metropolitan area that comprises eight cities of the Amazonas state, but without conurbation.

Regions
Manaus is divided into seven regions: North, Southern, Central-South, East, West, Mid-West, and Rural area. The eastern region of the city is the most populated, with approximately 600,000 inhabitants (2007). The northern region of the city has had the highest rate of population growth in recent years, and has the largest neighborhood of the city, the Nova Cidade neighborhood. The Center-South region has the highest per capita income. The Eastern Zone is known for having a large number of hills.

Neighborhoods

The first neighborhood (bairro) established in Manaus was Educandos. From there, other areas of the city began to be occupied since the arrival of migrants from other regions of Brazil.

Manaus has the largest neighborhood in Latin America, the neighborhood of Cidade Nova, which has 264,449 inhabitants, but it is estimated that the population exceeds 300,000 inhabitants. Cidade Nova is larger than all the cities inside the Amazonas state. With the permanence and the strengthening of Free Economic Zone of Manaus, the city began to receive investments and constant migration of people from many parts of the state and northern Brazil.

The wealthiest neighborhood in Manaus is Adrianópolis, located in the Central-South Area of the city. Downtown Manaus is located in the Southern area of the city, next to Rio Negro River. After years of development, the historical center has been neglected by the authorities and it has become an area mostly for commerce and poor housing. There is a plan to restore the city centre to its former glory by removing beggars and irregular sellers from sidewalks and by doing that provide more safety for tourists and locals who are trying to walk in the historical areas of the city. All these plans were prompted by the 2014 World Cup.

Economy

Manaus is the sixth-largest economy in Brazil. According to IBGE in 2014, its GDP was R$67,5 billion. The per capita income for the city was R$33,446. Although the main industry of Manaus through much of the 20th century was rubber, its importance has declined. Given its location, fish, wild fruits like Açaí and Cupuaçu, and Brazil nuts initiate important trades, as do petroleum refining, soap manufacturing, and chemical industries. Over the last decades, a system of federal investments and tax incentives has turned the surrounding region into a major industrial center (the Free Economic Zone of Manaus).

The mobile phone companies LG, Nokia, Samsung, Siemens, Sagem, Gradiente, and BenQ-Siemens operate mobile phone manufacturing plants in Manaus. Plastic lens manufacturer Essilor also has a plant here. The Brazilian sport utility vehicle manufacturer Amazon Veiculos is headquartered in Manaus. Two airlines, MAP Linhas Aéreas and Manaus Aerotáxi, have headquarters on the grounds of Eduardo Gomes International Airport in Manaus.

Free Trade Zone

The initial idea of a Free Trade Port in Manaus came from Deputy Francisco Pereira da Silva and was subsequently formalized by Law No. 3.173 on June 6, 1957. The project was approved by the National Congress on October 23, 1951, under No. 1.310 and regulated by Decree No. 47.757 on February 2, 1960. It was then amended by rapporteur Maurício Jopper, an engineer, who by agreement with the original author, justified the creation of a Free Trade Zone instead of a Free Trade Port.

For the first ten years, the ZFM (Manaus Free Trade Zone) was located in a warehouse rented from Manaus Harbour, in the Port of Manaus, and relied on federal funds. It was perhaps due to this lack of its own resources that there was little credibility in the project. On February 28, 1967, President Castelo Branco signed Decree-Law No. 288, which redefined the Manaus Free Trade Zone in more concrete terms. The new Decree-Law stipulated that the Manaus Free Trade Zone would have a radius of  with an industrial center as well as an agricultural center and that these would be given the economic means to allow for regional development in order to lift the Amazon out of the economic isolation that it had fallen into at that time.

On August 28, 1967, the Manaus Free Trade Zone Authority, SUBFRAME, was created. SUBFRAME is an independent body with its own legal status and assets and has financial and administrative autonomy. Tax incentives and the subsequent complementary legislation created comparative advantages in the region with respect to other parts of the country and as a result the Manaus Free Trade Zone attracted new investment to the area. These incentives constituted tax exemptions administered federally by SUBFRAME and SUDAM.

Government and politics

There is a prison, Anisio Jobim Penitentiary Complex.

Education, science and technology

Manaus has research centers, technology and public and private universities.

 Federal University of Amazonas—Universidade Federal do Amazonas;
 University of the State of Amazonas—Universidade do Estado do Amazonas;
 National Institute of Amazonian Research—Instituto Nacional de Pesquisas da Amazônia;
 Sidia Institute of Science and Technology—Sidia Instituto de Ciência e Tecnologia;
 Federal Institute of Education, Science and Technology—Instituto Federal de Educação, Ciência e Tecnologia do Amazonas;
 Centro Universitário do Norte—UNINORTE;
 Lutheran University of Brazil—Universidade Luterana do Brasil;
 Centro de Educação Integrada Martha Falcão;
 Unilasalle—Faculdade La Salle;
 Universidade Nilton Lins;
 Centro Universitário de Educação Superior do Amazonas—CIESA;
 Escola Superior Batista do Amazonas;
 Faculdade Boas Novas;
 Faculdade Metropolitana de Manaus;
 Universidade Paulista.

Transportation

Airports

Eduardo Gomes International Airport is the airport serving Manaus. The airport has two passenger terminals, one for scheduled flights and the other for regional aviation. It also has three cargo terminals.

Eduardo Gomes International Airport is Brazil's third largest in freight movement, handling the import and export demand from the Manaus Industrial Complex. For this reason, Infraero invested in the construction of the third cargo terminal, opened on December 14, 2004. TAM Airlines also inaugurated its own cargo terminal near the airport in 2008, which claims to be the largest cargo terminal in Brazil. The country's major dedicated freight route is between Manaus and Viracopos International Airport, which is operated by wide-body jets. Other freight routes include North America and Europe.

The passenger terminal had been fully refurbished and expanded in time for the 2014 FIFA Football World Cup, which held 4 games in Manaus. The airport currently operates daily international flights to Miami and Orlando, United States, by American Airlines and LATAM Airlines Brasil; to the city of Panama, by Copa Airlines; and to Barcelona, Venezuela, by Avior Airlines. The airport has direct flights to all major airports in Brazil, operated by the three major carriers: Gol Transportes Aéreos, TAM Airlines, and Azul Brazilian Airlines. The airport's IATA code is MAO.

Manaus Air Force Base - ALA8, one of the most important bases of the Brazilian Air Force, is located in Manaus at the former Ponta Pelada Airport.

Apart from the Eduardo Gomes International Airport and Ponta Pelada Airport, Manaus still has an operational airstrip used by small propeller aircraft and helicopters about  north of the city centre, simply known as the "Aeroclube" ("airclub"). On Sundays, it is used for parachuting and where flying classes can be hired. Due to the fact that it is surrounded by residential areas, and has a recent history of crashes, it is under constant pressure to be moved.

Highways

There are two federal highways that intersect Manaus. There is a paved road heading North (BR-174) connecting Manaus to Boa Vista, the capital of the State of Roraima and to Venezuela. Strictly speaking, Manaus is connected by road to the rest of Brazil, as it is possible to drive continuously from Manaus into Venezuela, and then reenter Brazil through the BR-364 in Acre and its capital, Rio Branco, therefore passing through the countries of Colombia, Ecuador, and Peru. As such a route is impractical for most motorists, the vast majority of transportation to and from Manaus is by boat or plane, except for journeys to Roraima. The Independent noted that "there are still no roads to Manaus" from the rest of the country.

The BR-319 heads South connecting Manaus to Porto Velho, the state capital of Rondônia. However, access to this highway requires a ferry crossing to Careiro, across the Rio Negro and Amazon River, which takes about 40 minutes, and then is only paved for about another  to Castanho. After that, the highway is not paved, and cannot be used. Various governments have promised to recover this land-link with the rest of the country, but environmental issues, high costs and complicated logistics have impeded any progress so far.

The two major state highways are the AM-010 and the AM-070. The AM-010 heads east, to Itacoatiara, Amazonas at the banks of the Amazon River, which is the third largest city of the state. The AM-070 heads south, starting on the other side of the new Rio Negro Bridge at Manaus, and reaching Manacapuru, which lies at the banks of the Solimoes River, also known as the upper River Amazon, and which is the fourth largest city of the state. Both roads are paved and operate all year round.

Port

Ships dock at the main port in Manaus directly downtown on the banks of the Negro River. The terraced city is home to a network of bridged channels that divide it into several compartments. Several mobile phone companies have manufacturing plants in the port area, and other major electronics manufacturers also have plants there. Major exports going through the port include Brazil nuts, chemicals, petroleum, electrical equipment, and forest products.

Taxis
Regular Manaus taxis are white and can be stopped anywhere. They are organized into separate cooperatives, each with their own contact phone numbers. All taxis are metered, which does not necessarily mean the meter will be used.

The 'special' taxi cars are typically black and of a higher quality than the white taxis, and will charge a fixed rate for all journeys or daily hire. Most can only be booked locally; however, the reputable Brazil Airport Transfers has recently started providing airport transfer and general transportation services in Manaus.

Bus
The bus system in Manaus is quite extensive and there are buses and vans that go to most destinations, including the popular tourist destinations. There is a very simple bus website that permits the planning of routes.

Events and holidays

The annual calendar of festivals in Manaus starts in late February / early March. The Manaus carnival (carnaval) celebrations are a good start to upcoming events and include traditional processions and samba dancing at the Sambódromo in the Centro de Convenções (Convention Centre). May is a popular time to pay a visit to Manaus, since the city hosts both the Ponta Negra Music and the Amazonas de Opera festivals during this month. Staged at the Teatro Amazonas, the Opera Festival lasts around three weeks and usually runs into early June. The Floclorico do Amazonas (Amazonas Folklore Festival) is in June, and this has grown to become a major event, involving a huge array of folk dancing and music, culminating in the Procissao Fluvial de São Pedro (St. Peter River Procession), when hundreds of riverboats sail along the Rio Negro, honouring the patron saint of fishermen.

October 24 was the day in 1848 that Manaus legally became a city. This anniversary is always cause for a party, culminating in fireworks at the end of the day. In November is the week-long Amazonas Film Festival, with films and documentaries often emphasising ecology, ethnology and human relationships.

 February—Amazonas Carnival—samba schools parade at the "sambódromo" in the Convention Center
 May—Ponta Negra's Music Festival
 May—Amazonas Opera Festival
 June—Amazonas Folklore Festival
 June 29—São Pedro Fluvial Procession
 July—Amazonas Jazz Festival
 September 5—Elevation of Amazonas to the category of Brazilian Province
 October 24—Anniversary of Manaus
 December 31—Ponta Negra's New Year's Eve Party

Sights and attractions

Because of Manaus' location within the Amazon rainforest, it attracts a substantial number of Brazilian and foreign tourists, who come to see wildlife on land and in the rivers. It is also home to one of the most endangered primates in Brazil, the pied tamarin.

Tour boats leave Manaus to see the Meeting of the Waters, where the black waters of the Negro River meet the brown waters of the Solimoes River, flowing side by side without mixing for about . Visitors can also explore river banks and "igarapes", swim and canoe in placid lakes, simply walk in the lush forest or stay at hotels in the jungle.

About  from downtown is Ponta Negra beach, a neighbourhood that has a beachfront and popular nightlife area. A luxurious hotel is located at the west end of Ponta Negra; its zoo and orchid greenhouse as well as preserved woods and beach are open for public visits.

The Mercado Adolpho Lisboa, founded in 1882, is the city's oldest marketplace, trading in fruit, vegetables, and especially fish. It is a copy of the Les Halles market of Paris. Other interesting historical sites include the customs building, of mixed styles and medieval inspiration; the Rio Negro Palace cultural center; and the Justice Palace, right next to the Amazonas Opera House.

Manaus has also many large parks with native forest preservation areas, such as the Bosque da Ciência and Parque do Mindú. The largest urban forest in the world is located within the Federal University of Amazonas, which was founded on January 17, 1909, and is the oldest federal university in Brazil.

Manaus also has several Malls such as Manauara Shopping, Amazonas Shopping Center, Millennium Shopping, Shopping Ponta Negra, Studio 5 Festival Mall, Shopping Cidade Nova, Manaus Plaza Shopping, Shopping Sao José, and other small Shopping Areas. Most of these malls include large food courts and movie theaters.

Culture
The city's cultural calendar throughout the year includes the Opera, Theater, Jazz, and Cinema festivals, as well as Boi Manaus (usually held around Manaus' anniversary on the 24th of October), which is a great celebration of Northern Brazilian culture through Boi-Bumbá music.

Amazonas Opera House

The Amazonas Opera House, inaugurated in 1896, has 700 seats and was constructed with bricks brought from Europe, French glass, and Italian marble. Several important opera and theater companies, as well as international orchestras, have already performed there. The theater is home to the Amazonas Philharmonic orchestra which regularly rehearses and performs there along with choirs, jazz bands, dance performances, and more.

Parks

Ponta Negra Cultural, Sport, and Leisure Park

Ponta Negra beach, located  from downtown Manaus, is one of the city's most important tourist attractions. It also has an amphitheater with a capacity of 15.000 people.

Adolpho Ducke Botanical Garden

The Adolpho Ducke Botanical Garden, inside a  ecological reserve, holds a huge number of plant and animal species.

Mindu Municipal Park

It is located in an urban area, in the November 10 Park district. It was created in 1992 to be an area of ecological interest. It covers an area of  of forest remaining from the Township, and is used for scientific, educational, cultural and tourist activities. It is one of the last habitats for the pied tamarin, a species of monkey that only inhabits the Manaus region and is considered to be at high risk of extinction. It is possible to walk through four distinct ecosystems in the park: land covered by secondary growth, firm ground brush, sandbanks and degraded areas that were illegally cleared in 1989. It also has an amphitheater for 600 people, gardens planted with medicinal and aromatic herbs, an orchid nursery, aerial trails, and signs aiming to develop environmental education programs.

Public swimming areas
The Tarumã, Tarumãzinho, and Cachoeira das Almas bayous (branches of rivers), located near the city, are leisure spots for the population on weekends. Manaus has several public swimming areas that are being remodeled and urbanized lately. There are also many private clubs that can be visited.

Meeting of Waters

The Meeting of Waters (Portuguese: Encontro das Àguas) is a natural phenomenon caused by the confluence of the Rio Negro's dark water and the Solimões River's muddy brown water that come together to form the Amazonas River. For  or more, both rivers' waters run side by side without mixing. The reason for this is not clear, although it is likely that the main factors are differences in the speed of the current, the volumes of water and the different densities of the two rivers. It is not thought that other differences between the two rivers (temperature and acidity) affect the mixing process significantly. The Negro River flows approximately  at , while the Solimões River flows  at .

CIGS Zoo
The zoo is open to the public. It is managed by the Brazilian Army and has approximately 300 species of animals from the Amazon fauna.

Beaches and waterfalls
For outings to beaches and parks situated near the city, it is often necessary to use boats. The beaches are formed right after the river water level starts dropping, which lasts from August to November. Starting in December, as the river rises, the waters invade the sand and the woods on the banks. The Paricatuba Waterfall, located on the right bank of the Negro River, along a small tributary, is formed by sedimentary rocks, surrounded by abundant vegetation. Access is by boat. The best time to visit is from August to February. Love Cascade located in the Guedes bayou, with cold and crystal clear water, is accessible only by boat and, then, hiking through the forest.

Tupé Beach is approximately  from Manaus. This beach is well frequented by bathers on holidays and weekends. It is accessible only by boat. Moon Beach is located on the left bank of the Negro River,  from Manaus. It is accessed only by boat. The beach is shaped like a crescent moon and is surrounded by rare vegetation. Lion Waterfall is located on km 34 of the AM-010 highway (Manaus-Itacoatiara).

Sports

Football
The most successful club in Manaus is Nacional Futebol Clube, founded on 13 January 1913. Formerly a participant of the highest division several times between 1970 and 1990, Nacional are 40-time state champions, which makes them the highest-ranked Amazonian football club in the CBF ranking, the national state championships record holder, and the state record holder for the most championship titles.

The city has quite a few other clubs with distinguished histories such as Atlético Rio Negro Clube, also founded in 1913, but in November, who have won the  state championship 17 times. National Fast Club, founded after a split from Nacional Clube, have won six state championships, in addition to being Northern Region champions and Northeastern Championship runners-up in 1970. São Raimundo EC, founded on November 18, 1918. They have won the state championship six times and the North Cup 3 times. Sul América Esporte Clube, founded on 1 of May, 1932. They have won the state championship twice in 1992 and 1993. Finally, Atlético Clipper Clube who have twice finished as runners-up in the state championship in 1996 and 2002.

2014 FIFA World Cup

Manaus was chosen in 2009 to be a host city for the 2014 FIFA World Cup, after a competition to represent the North Region of Brazil with neighboring Pará state capital, Belém.

Manaus was restructured in order to host such a big event. A new airport was built, streets throughout the city were repaved and new and improved sidewalks were built. The communications infrastructure of the city was improved with 4G networks installed by the biggest mobile phone carriers in Brazil.

The Vivaldão, previously the largest stadium in Manaus, was inaugurated in 1970 by the Brazilian national team in their last game in the country before they headed to their victorious 1970 World Cup in Mexico. It was demolished to be replaced by the 44,000 seater Arena Amazônia for the 2014 World Cup.

The first 2014 World Cup match held in Manaus was England vs Italy on June 14. The second match was Cameroon vs Croatia on June 18, to be followed by USA vs Portugal on June 22. The last was Honduras vs Switzerland on June 25. Manaus, known for its intense heat and humidity, was the site of the World Cup's first-ever official water break on June 22 in the match between Portugal and the United States.

Brazilian jiu-jitsu
Manaus is the origin of several world-champion Brazilian jiu-jitsu black belts, mixed martial artists and submission grapplers. Champions such as Fredson Paixão, Wallid Ismail, Saulo Ribeiro, Cristiane De Souza, Alexandre Ribeiro, Ronaldo Souza, Diogo Reis, Micael Galvão, Fabricio Andrey, and Bibiano Fernandes hail from Manaus. Brazilian jiu-jitsu is a major component of MMA (mixed martial arts). José Aldo (born September 9, 1986) is a black belt in Brazilian jiu-jitsu and a notable UFC fighter. Aldo defeated Mike Brown at WEC 44 to win the title and has since successfully defended his WEC title against Urijah Faber & Manvel Gamburyan. He later became the UFC Featherweight champion, with title defenses against such notable fighters as Mark Hominick and Kenny Florian.

International relations

Twin towns – sister cities

Manaus is twinned with:

Notable people

 José Aldo, UFC featherweight champion
 Antônio Pizzonia, Formula 1 and Champion Car World Series driver
 Daynara de Paula, Brazilian swimmer
 Fredson Paixão, 4× BJJ world champion, UFC & WEC Featherweight (MMA)
 Diego Brandão, Ultimate Fighter Season 14 featherweight winner
 Vinicius Cantuária, bossa nova musician
 Bibiano Fernandes, jiu-jitsu competitor
 Marcelo Gomes, principal dancer with American Ballet Theatre
 Sandro Viana, brazilian sprinter, Olympic medallist
 Wallid Ismail, jiu-jitsu black belt, UFC competitor
 Francisco Lima Govinho, football player
 Priscilla Meirelles, Miss Brazil Earth 2004, Miss Earth 2004
 Mister No, comic book character
 Cristiano Moraes Oliveira, football player
 Fábio Pereira de Oliveira, known as Fábio Bala, Brazilian football player
 Jefferson Peres, politician
 Eliana Printes, MPB singer and composer
 Larissa Ramos, Miss Brazil Earth 2009, Miss Earth 2009
 Raimar, footballer
 Eduardo Piccinini, swimmer
 Saulo Ribeiro, jiu-jitsu world champion
 Xande Ribeiro, jiu-jitsu world champion
 Malvino Salvador, actor
 Cláudio Santoro, conductor and composer of classical music
 Ronaldo Souza, jiu-jitsu world champion, ADCC Submission Wrestling World Championship and UFC competitor

See also

 Benjamin Constant Bridge
 Provincial Palace

Explanatory notes

References

Citations

General bibliography

External links

1660s establishments in South America
1669 establishments in the Portuguese Empire
Municipalities in Amazonas (Brazilian state)
Populated places established in 1669

Populated places on the Amazon
Populated places on the Rio Negro (Amazon)
Port cities in Brazil
State capitals in Brazil

Manaus


Grote Prijs Jean-Pierre Monseré 2019 er den 8. udgave af cykelløbet Grote Prijs Jean-Pierre Monseré. Løbet er en del af UCI Europe Tour-kalenderen og bliver arrangeret 10. marts 2019.

Hold og ryttere

Danske ryttere
 Nicolai Brøchner kører for
 Tobias Kongstad kører for
 Mathias Norsgaard Jørgensen kører for
 Andreas Stokbro kører for
 Torkil Veyhe kører for
 Rasmus Bøgh Wallin kører for

Resultater

Eksterne henvisninger

2019
UCI Europe Tour 2019

Grote Prijs Jean-Pierre Monseré 2019


Golubak je uzvisina iznad Zenice. Najviša kota je na 406 metara nadmorske visine. Nalazi se sa zapadne strane. Okružuju ju Briznik, Mala Broda, Krivače i Zenica.

Potječe iz miocena i nalazi se do aluvijskog dijela na kojem se većim dijelom nalazi grad Zenica, do uskog pojasa glavne ugljene zone (gline, pješčenjaci i lapori),u povlatnoj vapnenačkoj zoni s povlatnim slojevima ugljena.

Izvori

Brda u Bosni i Hercegovini
Zenica

Golubak


John St John,  baronnet ( - 1648) de Lydiard Tregoze dans le comté anglais du Wiltshire, est député et royaliste éminent pendant la guerre civile anglaise. Il est créé baronnet le 22 mai 1611.

Biographie
Il est le deuxième fils de John St John (d. 1594) de Lydiard Tregoze et de sa femme Lucy, la fille de . À la mort de son père en 1594, la plupart des domaines familiaux, dans le Wiltshire, reviennent à son frère aîné Walter ; John reçoit le manoir de Garsington, dans l'Oxfordshire, et se voit promettre 200 £ à sa majorité. Il est d'abord placé sous la tutelle d'un parent éloigné, John St John,  baron St John de Bletso, mais Lord St John meurt en 1596, et la tutelle passe ensuite à l'oncle de John, Oliver St John (1er vicomte Grandison). Oliver s'arrange pour l'éducation de John: il l'inscrit à Trinity College, Oxford le 3 avril 1601 et il est admis à Lincoln's Inn en 1604. Pendant ce temps, le frère de John Walter se noie près de Castle Cornet en août 1597 quand il est auprès de Thomas Leighton, gouverneur de Guernesey. De lui, John hérite de Lydiard Tregoze et du reste des domaines familiaux du Wiltshire. Sa mère meurt en 1598, lui laissant ses propriétés conjointes de Purley Park, Berkshire, et Hatfield Peverel, Essex. Thomas Leighton achète sa tutelle en 1602, et reçoit la permission de régler divers domaines sur sa fille Anne, qui épouse St John le 9 juillet 1604 à l'âge de 12 ans. Le couple a neuf fils, dont seulement deux lui survivent, et quatre filles, dont trois lui survivent. Anne est décédée le 19 septembre 1628.

Il est fait chevalier à Whitehall, le 2 février 1608, et est créé baronnet à la première institution de cet ordre, le 22 mai 1611, étant le dix-septième dans l'ordre de préséance. Au début des années 1630, il hérite de Lord Grandison, son oncle, ses domaines de Battersea et Wandsworth .

St John est député du Wiltshire de 1624 à 1625 et haut shérif du Wiltshire de 1632 à 1633.

Pendant la guerre civile anglaise, St John et sa famille soutiennent la cause royaliste. Trois de ses fils sont tués au service du roi Charles  : Guillaume, son second fils, est tué lors de la prise de Cirencester, dans le Gloucestershire, sous le prince Rupert ; Edward, le troisième fils, à la bataille de Newbury, dans le Berkshire ; et Jean, le cinquième fils, au nord .

Seuls deux de ses huit fils lui survivent, et c'est son sixième fils, Walter St John (3e baronnet), qui devient son héritier. Walter fonde ensuite l'école Sir Walter St John à Battersea.

Famille
Il est le troisième enfant et fils aîné de John St John (1560-1594) et de Lucy Hungerford (1560-1627), fille de Walter Hungerford (Chevalier de Farley) et petite-fille de Walter Hungerford,  baron Hungerford de Heytesbury.

Il se marie deux fois, à Anne Leighton (morte le 18 septembre 1628 en couches), une fille de Thomas Leighton de Feckenham dans le Worcestershire, gouverneur de Jersey et Guernesey, et Elizabeth Knollys, et se remarie à Margaret Whitmore, la veuve de Richard Grubham. Avec sa première femme, il a treize enfants. Il est le beau-frère d'Allen Apsley.

St John lui-même est l'ancêtre des vicomtes Bolingbroke et des vicomtes St John, tandis que son oncle, Oliver St John, est créé le premier vicomte Grandison en 1620.

 Oliver St John (1612/1613 - novembre 1641 ou 1642) épouse Catherine Vere, fille d'Horace Vere (1er baron Vere de Tilbury), et de Mary Tracy, et à John St John,  baronnet, en 1638 (mort en 1657)
 Anne St John, comtesse de Rochester (5 novembre 1614 - 18 mars 1696), épouse Francis Henry Lee,  baronnet de Ditchley, et en secondes noces Henry Wilmot (1er comte de Rochester)
 John St John (né le 24 mars 1615) épouse Dorothy Ayloffe.
 William St John (né en 1616)
 Edward St John (26 février 1617 - mort à la deuxième bataille de Newbury, 1645)
 Barbara St John (née en 1618)
 Nicholas St John (29 mars 1620 – 18 avril 1639)
 Lucy St John (née en 1621)
 Sir Walter St John, 3e baronnet de Lydiard Tregoze et de Battersea (1622 - 3 juillet 1708) épouse en 1651 sa cousine germaine Johanna St John, fille d'Oliver St John de Longthorpe
 Francis St John (1623-1624)
 Elizabeth St John (1624-1629)
 Thomas St John (1625-1630)
 Henry St John, de Tandragee (juillet 1628 - septembre 1679) épouse sa cousine au second degré Catherine St John, fille d'Oliver St John, de Longthorpe

Références

Liens externes

Étudiant de Trinity College (Oxford)
Baronnet
Décès en 1648
Naissance en novembre 1585

John St John (1er baronnet)