Per Teodor Cleve (10 February 1840 – 18 June 1905) was a Swedish chemist, biologist, mineralogist and oceanographer. He is best known for his discovery of the chemical elements holmium and thulium.

Born in Stockholm in 1840, Cleve earned his BSc and PhD from Uppsala University in 1863 and 1868, respectively. After receiving his PhD, he became an assistant professor of chemistry at the university. He later became professor of general and agricultural chemistry. In 1874 he theorised that didymium was in fact two elements; this theory was confirmed in 1885 when Carl Auer von Welsbach discovered neodymium and praseodymium.

In 1879 Cleve discovered holmium and thulium. His other contributions to chemistry include the discovery of aminonaphthalenesulfonic acids, also known as Cleve's acids. From 1890 on he focused on biological studies. He developed a method of determining the age and order of late glacial and postglacial deposits from the types of diatom fossils in the deposits, and wrote a seminal text in the field of oceanography. He died in 1905 at age 65.

Early life

Cleve was born in Stockholm, Sweden, as the thirteenth child of his father, a merchant known as Fredrik Theodor Cleve. Cleve's ancestors on his father's side came from western Germany and settled in Sweden in the late 18th century.

Cleve showed interest in natural science and natural history from an early age. He attended the Stockholms Lyceum in 1858, studying chemistry and biology. He gained a Bachelor of Science degree from the University of Uppsala in 1863 and a PhD from the same university in 1868.

Career
In 1860, aged 20, Cleve became assistant professor of mineralogy at the University of Uppsala, and was appointed assistant professor of chemistry in 1868. He also taught at the Royal Institute of Technology between 1870 and 1874, and eventually became professor of general and agricultural chemistry at the University of Uppsala. He was the chair of chemistry at the University of Uppsala starting in 1874. He was also the president of the Nobel Committee for Chemistry.

Cleve's first work was Några ammoniakaliska chromföreningar (Some compounds of ammonia and chromium, 1861). He also wrote several more papers on complex compounds, including the compounds of platinum. Additionally, Cleve synthesized several hundred complex platinum compounds.

Cleve visited a number of laboratories in England, France, Italy, and Switzerland in the 1860s. While in Paris, he visited the laboratory of Charles-Adolphe Wurtz and also made a number of friends there.

Cleve worked on the synthesis of complex chemical compounds until 1872. He theorized in 1874 that the element didymium consisted of two elements. This theory was proven right with the discovery of praseodymium and neodymium in 1885 by Carl Auer von Welsbach. In 1879, Cleve proved that the newly discovered element scandium was an element predicted by Dmitri Mendeleev to be "eka-boron". He isolated a quantity of scandium in this same year and determined its atomic weight. He discovered the element holmium in 1879 by examining a sample of erbium oxide. While removing impurities from a sample of erbium oxide, Cleve discovered a brown substance and a green substance, and the brown substance was holmium oxide (the green substance was thulium oxide). However, this sample may have been impure. He separated thulium from an erbium oxide sample in 1879. Additionally, Cleve and Abraham Langlet discovered helium in the mineral cleveite in 1895.

Cleve discovered six forms of dichloronaphthalene and discovered  aminonaphthalenesulfonic acids, which are sometimes named after him. He prepared a number of nitrosulfonic acids as well. In 1883, Cleve was the first person to describe the plankton species Nitzschia seriata. In 1890, Cleve began to mainly focus on the  field of biology, mainly studying freshwater algae, diatoms, and plankton. Cleve participated in a Swedish expedition to Spitsbergen in 1898. While on this mission, he discovered a number of species of spumellarians, nassellarians, and phaeodarians.

Cleve, in collaboration with
Otto Höglund
prepared numerous previously-undiscovered salts of yttrium and erbium. The two also did work on the chemistry of the chemical elements thorium and lanthanum. By 1874, Cleve discovered that thorium was a quadrivalent element and also determined lanthanum to be trivalent. These findings were initially doubted by the scientific community.

Cleve was the first observer of isomerism in platinumamine derivatives.

Additionally, Cleve created a method of dating glacial and post-glacial deposits in the fossil record.

Cleve's PhD dissertation was "Mineral-analytiska under-sökningar". He wrote a paper on samarium in 1879 and The Seasonal Distribution of Atlantic Plankton Organisms in 1900. In 1883, he published Kemiskt Handlexicon, which translates to Chemical Handbook. Notable students of Cleve include Ellen Fries (the first Swedish woman to earn a PhD) and Svante Arrhenius (a winner of the Nobel Prize).

Cleve also studied hydrography and geology.

Personal life, family, and death
In 1874, Cleve married Carolina Alma "Caralma" Öhbom (known as Alma Cleve), a teacher and author; the couple had three daughters. The first daughter, Astrid Maria Cleve (born 22 January 1875), became a botanist. His son-in-law and grandson, Hans von Euler-Chelpin and Ulf von Euler, both won Nobel Prizes. Cleve was friends with Thomas Edward Thorpe. The second daughter, Agnes Cleve-Jonand (born Agnes Elisabet Cleve) (1876-1951), was a visual artist and pioneer of Modernism in Sweden. The third and last daughter, Célie Brunius (born Gerda Cecilia Afrodite Cleve) (1882-1980), was a journalist. His daughter Agnes was married to illustrator, set designer and artist John Jon-And. His daughter Célie was married to writer August Brunius and was the mother of artist Göran Brunius, journalist Clas Brunius and associate professor Teddy Brunius. The television host and politician Lisette Schulman was his great-granddaughter.

Per Teodore Cleve was a supporter of women's equality and Ellen Fries, the first Swedish woman to receive a PhD, was one of his students.

Cleve began experiencing pleurisy in December 1904 and it affected his heart. He thought that he had recovered by the spring of 1905, and he returned home to Uppsala, Sweden,. but he died there on 18 June 1905.

Awards and legacy
Cleve joined the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences in 1871. He received a Davy Medal in 1894 and 1904.

The mineral cleveite is named for Cleve.

References

External links

1840 births
1905 deaths
19th-century Swedish chemists
Burials at Uppsala old cemetery
Discoverers of chemical elements
Holmium
Members of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences
Scientists from Stockholm
Neodymium
Praseodymium
19th-century Swedish geologists
Swedish people of German descent
Thulium
Uppsala University alumni
Rare earth scientists

Per Teodor Cleve


Yusuf Kenan Işık (d. 1 Ekim 1947, Malatya), Türk oyuncu, sunucu, eski gazeteci ve eski ana haber sunucusu. Özellikle Kim Milyoner Olmak İster adlı televizyon programı ile tanınmaktadır.

Hayatı
Devlet Demiryolları'ndan emekli bir memurun çocuğu olan Kenan Işık ortaokul öğrenimi gerçekleştiği dönemde Malatya Halkevi'nde amatör tiyatro yapmaya başlamış, lise öğrenimini gerçekleştirdiği Ankara'da Ulaş Bardakçı ile aynı sınıfta okudu. Aynı zamanda bu dönem Meydan Sahnesi'ne girmiştir. Gazi Üniversitesi İktisadi ve İdari Bilimler Fakültesi, Kamu Yönetimi Bölümünden mezun olan Işık, 1972 yılında Devlet Tiyatroları Genel Müdürlüğü sanatçısı olmuştur.

Işık ayrıca, Şehir Tiyatroları Genel Sanat Yönetmenliği yapmıştır. Sanatçı devam eden kariyeri süresince çok sayıda tiyatro oyunu yazmıştır. Yeni Yüzyıl (1995-1998),Yeni Binyıl (2000) ve Akşam (2000-2002) gazetelerinde çalıştı. Televizyon ekranlarında başrollerini Gülben Ergen ve Haldun Dormen ile paylaştığı Dadı adlı diziyle boy göstermiştir. 2005 yılında Kenan Işık, Erdoğan Aktaş'la tanışıp 4 Nisan 2005 tarihinde Star Haber'i sunmaya başladı. 12 Haziran 2005 tarihinde haberi sunmayı bırakan Kenan Işık, 20 Ağustos 2005 tarihinde Star Haber'i bıraktı ve tekrar oyuncu oldu. Sanatçı ayrıca Türk televizyon programları arasında fenomenler arasına giren Kim 500 Bin İster yarışmasının sunuculuğunu yapmış, değişen yeni adı ile Kim Milyoner Olmak İster yarışmasının sunuculuğunu yapmaya devam etmiştir.

21 Mart 2014 günü spor sonrasında saunaya giren Işık'ın, sauna sonrasında fenalaşıp dengesini kaybederek kafasını yere çarptığı öğrenildi. Bilinci kapalı hâlde hastaneye kaldırılan ve beyin kanaması geçiren Işık, hemen ameliyata alındı. Ameliyatın 4 saat sürdüğü ve sanatçının hayati tehlikesi bulunduğu belirtildi. Olayın olduğu tarihten sonra bir müddet komada olan sanatçının tedavisi şu anda evinde devam etmektedir.

Filmografisi

Seslendirmeler
 1979 yılında Bir Ceza Avukatının Anıları: Emekli Başkan filminde Muhteşem Durukan'ı seslendirmiştir.

 1990 yılında Hanımın Çiftliği dizisinde Bulut Aras'ı seslendirmiştir.

 1990 yılında Sayın Başkan filminde Kadir İnanır'ı seslendirmiştir.

 1997 yılında Canısı dizisinde Murat Soydan'ı seslendirmiştir.

Tiyatro oyunları

Yönettiği oyunları
 Aşk Hastası : Kenan Işık - Ankara Devlet Tiyatrosu - 2012
 Ölümsüz Öykü : Karen Blixen\Kenan Işık - İstanbul Şehir Tiyatrosu - 2006
 İvan İvanoviç Var Mıydı Yok Muydu? : Nâzım Hikmet - Bakırköy Belediye Tiyatrosu - 2000
 Aşk Hastası : Şeyh Galib - İstanbul Şehir Tiyatrosu - 1999
 Huzur : Ahmet Hamdi Tanpınar - İstanbul Şehir Tiyatrosu - 1998
 Kıyamet Sularında : Civan Canova - İstanbul Devlet Tiyatrosu - 1995
 Olmayan Kadın : Kenan Işık - İstanbul Devlet Tiyatrosu - 1994
 Abdülcanbaz : Turhan Selçuk - İstanbul Devlet Tiyatrosu - 1993
 Macbeth : William Shakespeare - İstanbul Devlet Tiyatrosu - 1992
 Ahmetlerim : Necati Cumalı - İstanbul Devlet Tiyatrosu - 1990
 Yaşar Ne Yaşar Ne Yaşamaz : Aziz Nesin - İstanbul Devlet Tiyatrosu - 1989 - Ankara Devlet Tiyatrosu - 1992 - İstanbul Şehir Tiyatrosu - 2008-2013
 Bebek Uykusu : Kenan Işık - İstanbul Devlet Tiyatrosu - 1988 - Bursa Devlet Tiyatrosu - 1991
 Matmazel Helsinka : Georgas Astolas - Ankara Devlet Tiyatrosu - 1987
 Afife Jale : Nezihe Araz - Ankara Devlet Tiyatrosu - 1987 - İstanbul Devlet Tiyatrosu - 1991
 Türkmen Düğünü : Ali Yörük - Adana Devlet Tiyatrosu - 1986
 Öyle Bir Sevgiki : Loleh Bellon - Ankara Devlet Tiyatrosu - 1985
 Toroslardan Öteye : Orhan Asena - Ankara Devlet Tiyatrosu - 1984
 Bozkır Güzellemesi : Nezihe Araz - Ankara Devlet Tiyatrosu - 1983
 Bir Tavsiye Mektubu : Ephraim Kishon - Bursa Devlet Tiyatrosu - 1973
 Strindberg Oyunu : Friedrich Dürrenmatt - Bursa Devlet Tiyatrosu - 1973

Rol aldığı oyunları
 Bir Sabah Gülerek Uyan : Necati Cumalı - İstanbul Devlet Tiyatrosu - 1985
 Üç Kızkardeş : Anton Çehov - Ankara Devlet Tiyatrosu - 1982
 Kral Lear : William Shakespeare - Ankara Devlet Tiyatrosu - 1980
 O Güzelim Kaymaklı Dondurma Rengi Elbise : Ray Bradbury - Ankara Devlet Tiyatrosu - 1980
 Marius : Marcel Pagnol - Ankara Devlet Tiyatrosu - 1975

Yazmış olduğu senaryoları
 1991: Yarına Gülümsemek
 1991: Anadolu'nun Kadın Erenleri
 1992: Taşların Sırrı

Ödülleri
 2016: 53. Uluslararası Antalya Film Festivali - Yıldırım Önal Anı Ödülü
 GYTE Türkçe Topluluğu, "Türkçeyi Güzel ve Etkili Kullanma Ödülü", (2 Kasım 2009)

Kaynakça

Dış bağlantılar

Yeşilyurt, Malatya doğumlular
Kim Milyoner Olmak İster?
1947 doğumlular
Türk erkek dizi oyuncuları
Türk erkek tiyatro oyuncuları
Türk haber sunucuları
Ankara Atatürk Lisesinde öğrenim görenler
İstanbul Şehir Tiyatroları sanatçıları
Türk erkek sinema oyuncuları
Yaşayan insanlar
Malatya doğumlu sanatçılar
Resim aranan oyuncular
Resim aranan sunucular
İstanbul Şehir Tiyatroları genel sanat yönetmenleri
Devlet tiyatroları sanatçıları

Kenan Işık


La vida contra la muerte es un álbum recopilatorio de la facción chilena de la banda Quilapayún, lanzado en 2005 y que incluye canciones inéditas nunca antes publicadas en Chile.

Lista de canciones

Referencias

Álbumes recopilatorios de 2005
Álbumes recopilatorios de Quilapayún
Álbumes en español
Álbumes recopilatorios en español

La vida contra la muerte


O Aeronca C-3 é um monoplano leve derivado do projeto do Aeronca C-2 (de Jean A. Roché) e construído nos Estados Unidos pela Aeronca Aircraft. Com o objetivo de aumentar o apelo de seu modelo anterior C-2 de um único assento, a Aeronca lançou um derivado de dois lugares, o C-3. Como um arranjo em tandem teria excedido os limites do centro de gravidade do projeto original, a fuselagem foi alargada para acomodar outra pessoa em assentos lado a lado.

A aparência "característica" do C-3, semelhante à do C-2, fez com que mantivesse o apelido "Flying Bathtub" ("banheira voadora" quando visto lateralmente) e adicionou o "Airknocker" ("aldrava voadora" quando visto de frente); além disso, manteve o baixo custo operacional, permitindo um aluno-piloto fazer seu solo por US$ 35, obter sua licença por US$ 70 e voar com combustível e óleo que mal ultrapassavam um centavo por milha. Para todos os efeitos práticos, o Aeronca C-3 se tornou a primeira "aeronave esportiva leve" da América.

Projeto e desenvolvimento

Como o design do Aeronca C-3 foi derivado do Aeronca C-2, fez seu primeiro voo em 1931 e em março daquele mesmo ano foi colocado em produção e introduzido no mercado. O "C-3" tinha espaço para um passageiro sentado ao lado do piloto. Alimentado por um novo motor Aeronca E-113 de 36 hp (27 kW), a configuração dos assentos tornou o treinamento de vôo muito mais fácil e muitos proprietários do Aeronca frequentemente voavam com apenas cinco horas de instrução - principalmente por causa das características de vôo previsíveis do C-3 . Tanto o C-2 quanto o C-3 são frequentemente descritos como "planadores motorizados" por causa de sua capacidade de planar e velocidades de pouso suaves.

O design de linhas traseiras retas do C-3 foi drasticamente alterado em 1935 com a aparência do "C-3 Master" (arredondado). Mantendo a construção da estrutura tubular da fuselagem, o "C-3 Master" apresentava um estabilizador vertical menor e leme com um formato de fuselagem "preenchido" que criava a nova aparência "arredondada" e melhorava o fluxo de ar sobre a cauda. Com uma cabine fechada (freios e luz de asa ainda tinham um custo extra), o "C-3 Master" de 1935 custava apenas US$ 1.895 — apenas algumas centenas de dólares a mais que o primitivo "C-2" de 1930. O preço baixo gerou vendas significativas; 128 "C-3 Masters" foram construídos somente em 1935 (de 430 C-3 construídos ao todo), e a 500ª aeronave Aeronca também saiu da linha de montagem no mesmo ano.

Uma versão do C-3 com ailerons revestidos de tecido (em vez de metal), designada Aeronca 100, foi construída na Inglaterra sob licença pela "Light Aircraft Ltd." (operando como "Aeronautical Corporation of Great Britain Ltd."), mas as vendas esperadas nunca se materializaram - apenas 24 aeronaves de fabricação britânica foram produzidas antes que a produção fosse interrompida.

A produção do C-3 foi interrompida em 1937, quando a aeronave não atendia mais aos novos padrões do governo dos EUA para aeronavegabilidade. Muitas das peculiaridades do C-3 - uma asa estritamente externa com suporte de arame sem suportes rígidos conectando diretamente os painéis da asa com a fuselagem, construção de tecido extenso, motor de ignição única e falta de um indicador de velocidade no ar - não eram mais permitidas. Felizmente para a legião de proprietários dos Aeronca, uma cláusula "grandfather" ("avô") nos regulamentos federais permitia que seus aviões continuassem voando, embora não pudessem mais ser fabricados.

Variantes
C-3
Variante de produção
C-3 Master
Variante melhorada
Aeronca 100
Variante construída no Reino Unido impulsionada por um motor Aeronca JAP J-99 (versão licenciada do Aeronca E-113C), 21 construídos.
Aeronca 300
Variante britânica melhorada do Aeronca 100, um construído.
Ely 700
Variante britânica com fuselagem mais larga e duas portas, dois construídos.

Exemplares remanescentes
 A-125 - C-3 em exibição no Western North Carolina Air Museum em Hendersonville, Carolina do Norte.
 A-189 - C-3 em condições de voar no Western Antique Airplane & Automobile Museum em Hood River, Oregon. É um hidroavião e foi construído em 1931.
 A-194 - C-3 armazenado no Reynolds-Alberta Museum em Wetaskiwin, Alberta. Foi construído em 1931.
 A-215 - C-3 em condições de voar no Western Antique Airplane & Automobile Museum em Hood River, Oregon. Foi construído em 1932.
 A-246 - PC-3 em condições de voar no Eagles Mere Air Museum em Eagles Mere, Pensilvânia.
 A-258 - C-3 em exibição estática no San Diego Air & Space Museum em San Diego, Califórnia.
 A-288 - C-3 em restauração na Wright Experience em Warrenton, Virgínia.
 A-600 - C-3 aeronavegável com Paul A. Gliddon em Goathland, North Yorkshire.
 A-603 - C-3 em condições de voar com John Illsley. Foi transportado da Inglaterra para a África do Sul em 1936.
 A-610 - C-3 em condições de voar com Nicholas S. Chittenden em Lostwithiel, Cornualha.
 A-614 - C-3 em exibição no Yanks Air Museum em Chino, Califórnia.
 A-668 - C-3 em condições de aeronavegabilidade no EAA AirVenture Museum em Oshkosh, Wisconsin.
 A-673 - C-3B em condições de aeronavegabilidade no Port Townsend Aero Museum em Port Townsend, Washington. Foi construído em 1936.
 A-695 - C-3 em exibição estática no edifício do terminal do Aeroporto Lunken em Cincinnati, Ohio.
 A-717 - C-3 em condições de voar no Golden Age Air Museum no condado de Berks, Pensilvânia. Está marcado como NC17404.
 A-730 - C-3 em condições de voar no Frasca Air Museum em Urbana, Illinois.
 A-754 - C-3 em condições de voar no Old Rhinebeck Aerodrome de Cole Palen em Red Hook, Nova York. Está registrado como N17447.
 AB105 - Aeronca 100 aeronavegável com o Wingnut Syndicate em Warkworth, Auckland.
 526 - C-3 armazenado no Shannon Air Museum em Fredericksburg, Virgínia.
 623 - C-3 em condições de voar no Golden Wings Flying Museum em Blaine, Minnesota.
 ID desconhecido - C-3 em restauração no Aeronca Museum em Brighton, Michigan.
 ID desconhecido - C-3 em exibição no Wings of History Museum em San Martin, Califórnia.
 ID desconhecido - C-3 em restauração na Generations in Aviation em Jacksonville, Flórida. Construído em 1932. registrado NC12496
 ID desconhecido - C-3 em exibição estática no Florida Air Museum em Lakeland, Flórida.

Ver também
Desenvolvimentos comparáveis
 Welch OW-5M
 Stewart Headwind

Bibliografia

Ligações externas

 Aeronca C-3 Photos and Pictures
 Foto de: Aeronca C3 - Museu TAM
 Aeronca C-3 Piston Twin

Aeronaves da Aeronca Aircraft

Aeronca C-3


Los Vidrios Quebrados fue una banda precursora del rock chileno, formada en 1964. Tuvieron influencia de grupos ingleses como The Rolling Stones, The Yardbirds y The Beatles.

Historia
Formados primero con el nombre de "Los Lawyers", Álvaro Larraín, Héctor Sepúlveda, Cristián Larráin y Juan Enrique Garcés (los primeros dos estudiantes de Derecho en la Universidad Católica de Chile, Cristián Larraín de medicina en la misma UC y Garcés en Ingeniería de la Universidad Técnica del Estado) comenzaron a presentar reversiones de canciones de bandas anglosajonas. Al retirarse Álvaro Larraín el grupo se convirtió en el trío "Los Cuervos".

En 1966 se suma Juan Mateo O'Brien y el grupo pasa a denominarse "Los Vidrios Quebrados". Participaron con gran éxito en el Primer Festival de la Canción de la UC realizado en el Teatro Nataniel en Santiago, y con ello obtienen un contrato discográfico para el sello EMI Odeón, grabando su primer sencillo.

Al año siguiente grabaron para UES Producciones su primer y único álbum, titulado Fictions, con el cual alcanzaron gran popularidad, llegando a participar en los programas de televisión Gente joven y Juani en Sociedad.

El grupo se separó luego de que Juan Mateo O'Brien decidiera radicarse en París en 1968, Héctor Sepúlveda en Londres en 1969 y Juan Enrique Garcés en Estocolmo ese mismo año. Posteriormente Sepúlveda retornaría a Chile en 1971 para formar el grupo de jazz-rock Nuevas Direcciones.

En 2017, se publicó un libro sobre la banda, con una serie de fotografías inéditas de 1967 y un texto de O'Brien.

Integrantes
 Álvaro Larraín - voz (1964).
 Héctor Sepúlveda - voz, guitarra, armónica y flauta (1964 - 1969).
 Cristián Larraín - bajo y voz (1964 - 1969).
 Juan Enrique Garcés - batería y percusión (1964 - 1969).
 Juan Mateo O'Brien - voz y guitarra (1966 - 1969).

Discografía
LP
 Fictions (1967)

Sencillos
 «Friend / She'll Never Know in Blue» (1966)

Referencias

Enlaces externos
 Los Vidrios Quebrados en Enciclopedia del rock chileno

Vidrios Quebrados, Los
Vidrios Quebrados, Los
Vidrios Quebrados, Los

Los Vidrios Quebrados


Les Haramonadaceae sont une famille d'algues de l'embranchement des Ochrophyta  de la classe des Raphidophyceae et de l'ordre des  Chattonellales.

Étymologie
Le nom vient de l'ancien genre type Haramonas, dérivé du préfixe latin hara, « abris pour les animaux », et du suffixe latin monas, issu du grec et , « seul, solitaire, isolé ».

Description

Liste des genres
Selon  :
Aucun taxon subordonné.

Taxonomie
Depuis 2015, Kawai et Nakayama classent l'ancien genre type Haramonas dans  la famille des Vacuolariaceae.

Notes et références

Notes

Références

Références biologiques

Liens externes

Raphidophyceae
Famille d'algues (nom scientifique)

Haramonadaceae


Chrismukkah é um neologismo da cultura pop que se refere à fusão dos feriados do Natal do Cristianismo e do Hanukkah do Judaísmo. Surgiu pela primeira vez nos países de língua alemã entre os judeus de classe média do século XIX. Após a Segunda Guerra Mundial, o Chrismukkah tornou-se particularmente popular nos Estados Unidos, mas também é celebrado em outros países.

O termo foi popularizado a partir de dezembro de 2003 pelo drama de TV The OC, em que o personagem Seth Cohen cria o feriado para significar sua criação em uma família inter-religiosa com um pai judeu e uma mãe protestante. O feriado também pode ser adotado por famílias totalmente judaicas que celebram o Natal como um feriado secular.

História
A proximidade do início do festival de Hanukkah em 25 de Kislev (final de novembro/dezembro) com o Natal levou ao chamado "dilema de dezembro" para famílias judias que viviam em sociedades predominantemente cristãs. A história de uma fusão informal entre Hanukkah e Natal remonta ao século 19 na Alemanha e na Áustria. Em alemão é chamado de Weihnukka, uma combinação das palavras "Weihnachten" (Natal) e "Hanukkah".

No século XIX, o Natal havia se firmado nos países de língua alemã como uma festa em que, além do significado espiritual, valores como família e caridade estavam em primeiro plano. Os costumes natalinos, como a árvore de Natal, as decorações de Natal, os presentes ou a ceia de Natal, eram percebidos mais como uma tradição sazonal do que estritamente cristã. A proximidade do início do festival de Hanukkah com o Natal e a adoção de várias tradições, como uma árvore decorada ou presentes, levou a uma mistura de tradições que foram referidas como Weihnukka na época. As famílias judias modernas, em particular, adotaram elementos da tradição natalina no festival de Hanukkah. Por exemplo, presentes ou dinheiro de Hanukkah tornaram-se comuns no século XIX. Muitas famílias da burguesia judaico-alemã assimilada celebraram o Natal diretamente como um festival de inverno puramente secular. A primeira árvore de Natal historicamente documentada foi erguida em Viena em 1814 pela socialite judia Fanny von Arnstein, que trouxe esse costume de Berlim. O fundador do sionismo Theodor Herzl também comemorou o Natal ou pelo menos permitiu que uma árvore fosse montada em sua casa para seus filhos e sugeriu o nome "Árvore de Hanukkah". Elementos comuns desta festa secular de Natal e sua influência no festival de Hanukkah entre os judeus eram uma árvore de Hanukkah ou um arbusto de Hanukkah como contrapartida da árvore de Natal, o Hanukkah Man, que, como contrapartida do Papai Noel, trazia os presentes para as crianças, ou o calendário de Hanukkah com oito abas.

Após a Shoah e a quase extinção associada da vida judaica na Europa central, a vida cultural mudou cada vez mais para os Estados Unidos. Lá tornou-se comum celebrar ambos os festivais devido aos casamentos inter-religiosos entre judeus e cristãos e ao desejo associado de ambos os parceiros de manter seus respectivos festivais e costumes. O chamado "dilema de dezembro" surgiu nas famílias judias, nomeadamente o desejo de acrescentar algo semelhante à festa popular do Natal com as suas tradições, celebrações e presentes. Os presentes para o festival de Hanukkah em particular foram para realçar este festival e contrastar o Natal com algo de igual valor emocional.

Chrismukkah na mídia
Na década de 1990, a popular sitcom Friends frequentemente retratava os personagens judeus Rachel, Ross e Monica comemorando o Natal com seus amigos cristãos, significando muitos lares judeus americanos contemporâneos que celebram o Natal no sentido estritamente secular.

Chrismukkah foi assim nomeado pela primeira vez e apresentado com destaque no programa de televisão da FOX, The OC (2003–2007). O criador do programa, Josh Schwartz, usou o feriado (que os escritores quase chamaram de "Hanimas") para retratar, ele disse mais tarde,

Minha experiência como um garoto judeu da Costa Leste vindo para a USC, e sendo cercado por todos esses garotos de Newport Beach que eram jogadores de pólo aquático, e essas garotas muito loiras que só queriam namorá-los. Eu me senti muito como um estranho. Até mesmo tentar falar sobre Hanukkah com alguns deles era como vir de um planeta alienígena e falar sobre a vida lá. O programa é realmente sobre estranhos: Ryan era o estranho mais óbvio, assim como Seth. A ideia de uma família mista [meio judia, meio cristã] em Newport também contribuiria para o status de família de estranhos de Cohen. Essa parte de sua identidade sempre foi muito importante. Seth cunhou um feriado que celebraria e enfatizaria seu status de forasteiro em Newport. Isso nos levou a Chrismukkah.Em The OC, como forma de fundir as duas religiões de seus pais, Seth Cohen afirma ter "criado o maior superferiado conhecido pela humanidade" quando tinha seis anos de idade. A série incluía episódios anuais de Chrismukkah para cada temporada de sua execução. Detalhes de quando exatamente o feriado foi celebrado não foram fornecidos; Seth simplesmente disse no episódio de Chrismukkah da primeira temporada que foram "oito dias de presentes, seguidos por um dia de muitos presentes", com ênfase na palavra "muitos" (isso foi repetido no episódio de Chrismukkah da segunda temporada pelo novo irmão de Seth Ryan, com um "muitos" adicionado). As únicas referências de como foi comemorado, além da família exibindo uma árvore de Natal e uma menorá de Hanukkah, foi que os Cohens passaram o dia de Natal em casa comendo comida chinesa e assistindo a filmes como It's a Wonderful Life e Fiddler on the Roof em TV (ao contrário de sair para comer comida chinesa e ver um filme, como muitos judeus americanos fazem há anos). Chrismukkah mais tarde recebeu menção na série de televisão Grey's Anatomy.

Em 2004, Chrismukkah.com foi lançado por Ron e Michelle Gompertz, um casal judeu-cristão em Bozeman, Montana. O site deles pegou o Chrismukkah de The OC fictício e o trouxe à realidade, vendendo cartões humorísticos de Chrismukkah e divulgando detalhada mitologia sobre o feriado fictício. O site Chrismukkah.com foi amplamente creditado por popularizar Chrismukkah para um público que não assiste à televisão. Chrismukkah.com gerou polêmica no outono de 2004, quando a Liga Católica de Nova York emitiu um comunicado à imprensa nacional se opondo a Chrismukkah. Além disso, a Liga Católica e o Conselho de Rabinos de Nova York, em uma declaração conjunta, condenaram Chrismukkah como "insulto" para judeus e cristãos.

Em dezembro de 2004, Chrismukkah foi listado na revista Time como uma das palavras da moda do ano. Também foi relatado em um jornal escocês que Chrismukkah havia sido adicionado ao dicionário oficial "Chambers". Em 2005, o fundador do Chrismukkah.com, Ron Gompertz, escreveu um livro humorístico de receitas de Chrismukkah chamado Chrismukkah! O livro de receitas de férias Merry Mish-Mash. O livro seguinte de Gompertz, intitulado Chrismukkah - Everything You Need to Know to Celebrate the Hybrid Holiday (publicado por Stewart, Tabori e Chang) foi lançado em outubro de 2006. Um livro rival de Gersh Kuntzman, Chrismukkah: The Official Guide to the World's Best-Loved Holiday (Sasquatch Press), saiu na mesma época. Em "A Kosher Christmas: 'Tis the Season to Be Jewish", (Rutgers University Press, 2013), o autor rabino Joshua Eli Plaut, Ph.D discute o Chrismukkah e a criação do Festivus e outros feriados híbridos entre os judeus na América em dezembro. Em 2006, o USA Today descreveu Chrismukkah como "[o] mais novo feriado falso que as empresas estão usando para ganhar dinheiro nesta temporada". Chrismukkah também é celebrado como um feriado alternativo e irônico, muito parecido com o "Festivus" derivado de Seinfeld.

O Museu Judaico de Berlim realizou uma exposição especial sobre Weihnukka em 2005.

Coocorrência
Em 2005, o pôr do sol de 25 de dezembro coincidiu com 25 de Kislev, a primeira noite de Hanukkah, tornando o dia de Natal e o início de Hanukkah no mesmo dia. Isso não acontecerá novamente até 2024. Em 2016, o pôr do sol de 24 de dezembro coincidiu com 25 de Kislev, o primeiro dia de Hanukkah, tornando a véspera de Natal e o início de Hanukkah no mesmo dia. Isso não acontecerá novamente até 2027.

Ver também
 Judaísmo e Natal
 Festivus
 Judaísmo messiânico

Ligações externas
 Jewsmas

Efemérides não oficiais
Festas de dezembro
Tradições natalinas
The O.C.
Ecumenismo e diálogo inter-religioso

Chrismukkah


The Second Italo-Ethiopian War, also referred to as the Second Italo-Abyssinian War, was a war of aggression which was fought between Italy and Ethiopia from October 1935 to February 1937. In Ethiopia it is often referred to simply as the Italian Invasion (), and in Italy as the Ethiopian War (). It is seen as an example of the expansionist policy that characterized the Axis powers and the ineffectiveness of the League of Nations before the outbreak of the Second World War.

On 3 October 1935, two hundred thousand soldiers of the Italian Army commanded by Marshal Emilio De Bono attacked from Eritrea (then an Italian colonial possession) without prior declaration of war. At the same time a minor force under General Rodolfo Graziani attacked from Italian Somalia. On 6 October, Adwa was conquered, a symbolic place for the Italian army because of the defeat at the Battle of Adwa by the Ethiopian army during the First Italo-Ethiopian War. On 15 October, Italian troops seized Aksum, and an obelisk adorning the city was torn from its site and sent to Rome to be placed symbolically in front of the building of the Ministry of Colonies.

Exasperated by De Bono's slow and cautious progress, Italian Prime Minister Benito Mussolini replaced him with General Pietro Badoglio. Ethiopian forces attacked the newly arrived invading army and launched a counterattack in December 1935, but their poorly armed forces could not resist for long against the modern weapons of the Italians. Even the communications service of the Ethiopian forces depended on foot messengers, as they did not have radio. It was enough for the Italians to impose a narrow fence on Ethiopian detachments to leave them unaware of the movements of their own army. Nazi Germany sent arms and munitions to Ethiopia because it was frustrated over Italian objections to its attempts to integrate Austria. This prolonged the war and sapped Italian resources. It would soon lead to Italy's greater economic dependence on Germany and less interventionist policy on Austria, clearing the path for Adolf Hitler's Anschluss.

The Ethiopian counteroffensive managed to stop the Italian advance for a few weeks, but the superiority of the Italians' weapons (particularly heavy artillery and airstrikes with bombs and chemical weapons) prevented the Ethiopians from taking advantage of their initial successes. The Italians resumed the offensive in early March. On 29 March 1936, Graziani bombed the city of Harar and two days later the Italians won a decisive victory in the Battle of Maychew, which nullified any possible organized resistance of the Ethiopians. Emperor Haile Selassie was forced to escape into exile on 2 May, and Badoglio's forces arrived in the capital Addis Ababa on 5 May. Italy announced the annexation of the territory of Ethiopia on 7 May and Italian King Victor Emmanuel III was proclaimed emperor. The provinces of Eritrea, Italian Somaliland and Abyssinia (Ethiopia) were united to form the Italian province of East Africa. Fighting between Italian and Ethiopian troops persisted until 19 February 1937. On the same day, an attempted assassination of Graziani led to the reprisal Yekatit 12 massacre in Addis Ababa, in which between 1,400 and 30,000 civilians were killed. Italian forces continued to suppress rebel activity until 1939.

Italian troops used mustard gas in aerial bombardments (in violation of the Geneva Protocol and Geneva Conventions) against combatants and civilians in an attempt to discourage the Ethiopian people from supporting the resistance. Deliberate Italian attacks against ambulances and hospitals of the Red Cross were reported. By all estimates, hundreds of thousands of Ethiopian civilians died as a result of the Italian invasion, which have been described by some historians as constituting genocide. Crimes by Ethiopian troops included the use of dumdum bullets (in violation of the Hague Conventions), the killing of civilian workmen (including during the Gondrand massacre) and the mutilation of captured Eritrean Ascari and Italians (often with castration), beginning in the first weeks of war.

Background

State of East Africa

The Kingdom of Italy began its attempts to establish colonies in the Horn of Africa in the 1880s. The first phase of the colonial expansion concluded with the disastrous First Italo-Ethiopian War and the defeat of the Italian forces in the Battle of Adwa, on 1 March 1896, inflicted by the Ethiopian Army of Negus Menelik II, aided by Russia. In the following years, Italy abandoned its expansionist plans in the area and limited itself to administering the small possessions that it retained in the area: the colony of Italian Eritrea and the protectorate (later colony) of Italian Somaliland. For the next few decades, Italian-Ethiopian economic and diplomatic relations remained relatively stable.

On 14 December 1925, Italy's fascist government signed a secret pact with Britain aimed at reinforcing Italian dominance in the region. London recognised that the area was of Italian interest and agreed to the Italian request to build a railway connecting Somalia and Eritrea. Although the signatories had wished to maintain the secrecy of the agreement, the plan soon leaked and caused indignation by the French and Ethiopian governments. The latter denounced it as a betrayal of a country that had been for all intents and purposes a member of the League of Nations.

As fascist rule in Italy continued to radicalise, its colonial governors in the Horn of Africa began pushing outward the margins of their imperial foothold. The governor of Italian Eritrea, Jacopo Gasparini, focused on the exploitation of Teseney and an attempt to win over the leaders of the Tigre people against Ethiopia. The governor of Italian Somaliland, Cesare Maria de Vecchi, began a policy of repression that led to the occupation of the fertile Jubaland, and the cessation in 1928 of collaboration between the settlers and the traditional Somali chiefs.

Welwel Incident

The Italo-Ethiopian Treaty of 1928 stated that the border between Italian Somaliland and Ethiopia was 21 leagues parallel to the Benadir coast (approximately ). In 1930, Italy built a fort at the Welwel oasis (also Walwal, Italian: Ual-Ual) in the Ogaden and garrisoned it with Somali dubats (irregular frontier troops commanded by Italian officers). The fort at Welwel was well beyond the 21-league limit and inside Ethiopian territory. On 23 November 1934, an Anglo–Ethiopian boundary commission studying grazing grounds to find a definitive border between British Somaliland and Ethiopia arrived at Welwel.

The party contained Ethiopian and British technicians and an escort of around 600 Ethiopian soldiers. Both sides knew that the Italians had installed a military post at Welwel and were not surprised to see an Italian flag at the wells. The Ethiopian government had notified the Italian authorities in Italian Somaliland that the commission was active in the Ogaden and requested the Italians to co-operate. When the British commissioner Lieutenant-Colonel Esmond Clifford, asked the Italians for permission to camp nearby, the Italian commander, Captain Roberto Cimmaruta, rebuffed the request.

Fitorari Shiferra, the commander of the Ethiopian escort, took no notice of the  and Somali troops and made camp. To avoid being caught in an Italian–Ethiopian incident, Clifford withdrew the British contingent to Ado, about  to the north-east, and Italian aircraft began to fly over Welwel. The Ethiopian commissioners retired with the British, but the escort remained. For ten days both sides exchanged menaces, sometimes no more than 2 m apart. Reinforcements increased the Ethiopian contingent to about 1,500 men and the Italians to about 500, and on 5 December 1934, shots were fired. The Italians were supported by an armoured car and bomber aircraft. The bombs missed, but machine gunfire from the car caused about 110 Ethiopian casualties. 30 to 50 Italians and Somalis were killed. The incident led to the Abyssinia Crisis at the League of Nations. On 4 September 1935, the League of Nations exonerated both parties for the incident.

Ethiopian isolation

Britain and France, preferring Italy as an ally against Germany, did not take strong steps to discourage an Italian military buildup on the borders of Italian Eritrea and Italian Somaliland. Because of the German Question, Mussolini needed to deter Hitler from annexing Austria while much of the Italian Army was being deployed to the Horn of Africa, which led him to draw closer to France to provide the necessary deterrent. King Victor Emmanuel III shared the traditional Italian respect for British sea power and insisted to Mussolini that Italy must not antagonise Britain before he assented to the war. In that regard, British diplomacy in the first half of 1935 greatly assisted Mussolini's efforts to win Victor Emmanuel's support for the invasion.

On 7 January 1935, a Franco-Italian Agreement was made that gave Italy essentially a free hand in Africa in return for Italian co-operation in Europe. Pierre Laval told Mussolini that he wanted a Franco-Italian alliance against Nazi Germany and that Italy had a "free hand" in Ethiopia. In April, Italy was further emboldened by participation in the Stresa Front, an agreement to curb further German violations of the Treaty of Versailles. The first draft of the communique at Stresa Summit spoke of upholding stability all over the world, but British Foreign Secretary, Sir John Simon, insisted for the final draft to declare that Britain, France and Italy were committed to upholding stability "in Europe", which Mussolini took for British acceptance of an invasion of Ethiopia.

In June, non-interference was further assured by a political rift, which had developed between the United Kingdom and France, because of the Anglo-German Naval Agreement. As 300,000 Italian soldiers were transferred to Eritrea and Italian Somaliland over the spring and the summer of 1935, the world's media was abuzz with speculation that Italy would soon be invading Ethiopia. In June 1935, Anthony Eden arrived in Rome with the message that Britain opposed an invasion and had a compromise plan for Italy to be given a corridor in Ethiopia to link the two Italian colonies in the Horn of Africa, which Mussolini rejected outright. As the Italians had broken the British naval codes, Mussolini knew of the problems in the British Mediterranean Fleet, which led him to believe that the British opposition to the invasion, which had come as an unwelcome surprise to him, was not serious and that Britain would never go to war over Ethiopia.

The prospect that an Italian invasion of Ethiopia would cause a crisis in Anglo-Italian relations was seen as an opportunity in Berlin. Germany provided some weapons to Ethiopia although Hitler did not want to see Haile Selassie win out of fear of quick victory for Italy. The German perspective was that if Italy was bogged down in a long war in Ethiopia, that would probably lead to Britain pushing the League of Nations to impose sanctions on Italy, which the French would almost certainly not veto out of fear of destroying relations with Britain; that would cause a crisis in Anglo-Italian relations and allow Germany to offer its "good services" to Italy. In that way, Hitler hoped to win Mussolini as an ally and to destroy the Stresa Front.

A final possible foreign ally of Ethiopia was Japan, which had served as a model to some Ethiopian intellectuals. After the Welwel incident, several right-wing Japanese groups, including the Great Asianism Association and the Black Dragon Society, attempted to raise money for the Ethiopian cause. The Japanese ambassador to Italy, Dr. Sugimura Yotaro, on 16 July assured Mussolini that Japan held no political interests in Ethiopia and would stay neutral in the coming war. His comments stirred up a furor inside Japan, where there had been popular affinity for the fellow nonwhite empire in Africa, which was reciprocated with similar anger in Italy towards Japan combined with praise for Mussolini and his firm stance against the "gialli di Tokyo" ("Tokyo Yellows"). Despite popular opinion, when the Ethiopians approached Japan for help on 2 August, they were refused, and even a modest request for the Japanese government for an official statement of its support for Ethiopia during the coming conflict was denied.

Armies

Ethiopian forces

With war appearing inevitable, the Ethiopian Emperor Haile Selassie ordered a general mobilisation of the Army of the Ethiopian Empire:

Selassie's army consisted of around 500,000 men, some of whom were armed with spears and bows. Other soldiers carried more modern weapons including rifles, but many of them were equipment from before 1900 and so were obsolete. According to Italian estimates, on the eve of hostilities, the Ethiopians had an army of 350,000–760,000 men. Only about 25% of the army had any military training, and the men were armed with a motley collection of 400,000 rifles of every type and in every condition. The Ethiopian Army had about 234 antiquated pieces of artillery mounted on rigid gun carriages as well as a dozen 3.7 cm PaK 35/36 anti-tank guns.

The army had about 800 light Colt and Hotchkiss machine-guns and 250 heavy Vickers and Hotchkiss machine guns, about 100 .303-inch Vickers guns on AA mounts, 48 20 mm Oerlikon S anti-aircraft guns and some recently purchased Canon de 75 CA modèle 1917 Schneider  field guns. The arms embargo imposed on the belligerents by France and Britain disproportionately affected Ethiopia, which lacked the manufacturing industry to produce its own weapons. The Ethiopian army had some 300 trucks, seven Ford A-based armoured cars and four World War I era Fiat 3000 tanks.

The best Ethiopian units were the emperor's "Kebur Zabagna" (Imperial Guard), which were well-trained and better equipped than the other Ethiopian troops. The Imperial Guard wore a distinctive greenish-khaki uniform of the Belgian Army, which stood out from the white cotton cloak (shamma), which was worn by most Ethiopian fighters and proved to be an excellent target. The skills of the Rases, the Ethiopian generals armies, were reported to rate from relatively good to incompetent. After Italian objections to the Anschluss, the German annexation of Austria, Germany sent three aeroplanes, 10,000 Mauser rifles and 10 million rounds of ammunition to the Ethiopians.

The serviceable portion of the Ethiopian Air Force was commanded by a Frenchman, André Maillet, and included three obsolete Potez 25 biplanes. A few transport aircraft had been acquired between 1934 and 1935 for ambulance work, but the Air Force had 13 aircraft and four pilots at the outbreak of the war. Airspeed in England had a surplus Viceroy racing plane, and its director, Neville Shute, was delighted with a good offer for the "white elephant" in August 1935. The agent said that it was to fly cinema films around Europe. When the client wanted bomb racks to carry the (flammable) films, Shute agreed to fit lugs under the wings to which they could attach "anything they liked". He was told that the plane was to be used to bomb the Italian oil storage tanks at Massawa, and when the CID enquired about the alien (ex-German) pilot practices in it Shute got the impression that the Foreign Office did not object. However, fuel, bombs and bomb racks from Finland could not be got to Ethiopia in time, and the paid-for Viceroy stayed at its works. The emperor of Ethiopia had £16,000 to spend on modern aircraft to resist the Italians and planned to spend £5000 on the Viceroy and the rest on three Gloster Gladiator fighters.

There were 50 foreign mercenaries who joined the Ethiopian forces, including French pilots like Pierre Corriger, the Trinidadian pilot Hubert Julian, an official Swedish military mission under Captain Viking Tamm, the White Russian Feodor Konovalov and the Czechoslovak writer Adolf Parlesak. Several Austrian Nazis, a team of Belgian fascists, and the Cuban mercenary Alejandro del Valle also fought for Haile Selassie. Many of the individuals were military advisers, pilots, doctors or supporters of the Ethiopian cause; 50 mercenaries fought in the Ethiopian army and another 50 people were active in the Ethiopian Red Cross or nonmilitary activities. The Italians later attributed most of the relative success achieved by the Ethiopians to foreigners, or ferenghi. (The Italian propaganda machine magnified the number to thousands to explain away the Ethiopian Christmas Offensive in late 1935.)

Italian forces

There were 400,000 Italian soldiers in Eritrea and 285,000 in Italian Somaliland with 3,300 machine guns, 275 artillery pieces, 200 tankettes and 205 aircraft. In April 1935, the reinforcement of the Royal Italian Army (Regio Esercito) and the Regia Aeronautica (Royal Air Force) in East Africa (Africa Orientale) accelerated. Eight regular, mountain and blackshirt militia infantry divisions arrived in Eritrea, and four regular infantry divisions arrived in Italian Somaliland, about 685,000 soldiers and a great number of logistical and support units; the Italians included 200 journalists. The Italians had 6,000 machine guns, 2,000 pieces of artillery, 599 tanks and 390 aircraft. The Regia Marina (Royal Navy) carried tons of ammunition, food and other supplies, with the motor vehicles to move them, but the Ethiopians had only horse-drawn carts.

The Italians placed considerable reliance on their Corps of Colonial Troops (Regio Corpo Truppe Coloniali, RCTC) of indigenous regiments recruited from the Italian colonies of Eritrea, Somalia and Libya. The most effective of the Italian commanded units were the Eritrean native infantry (Ascari), which was often used as advanced troops. The Eritreans also provided cavalry and artillery units; the "Falcon Feathers" (Penne di Falco) was one prestigious and colourful Eritrean cavalry unit. Other RCTC units during the invasion of Ethiopia were irregular Somali frontier troops (dubats), regular Arab-Somali infantry and artillery and infantry from Libya.

The Italians had a variety of local semi-independent "allies" in the north, and the Azebu Galla were among several groups induced to fight for the Italians. In the south, the Somali Sultan Olol Dinle commanded a personal army, which advanced into the northern Ogaden with the forces of Colonel Luigi Frusci. The Sultan was motivated by his desire to take back lands that the Ethiopians had taken from him. The Italian colonial forces even included men from Yemen, across the Gulf of Aden.

The Italians were reinforced by volunteers from the so-called Italiani all'estero, members of the Italian diaspora from Argentina, Uruguay and Brazil; they formed the 221st Legion in the Divisione Tevere, which a special Legione Parini fought under Frusci near Dire Dawa. On 28 March 1935, General Emilio De Bono was named the commander-in-chief of all Italian armed forces in East Africa. De Bono was also the commander-in-chief of the forces invading from Eritrea on the northern front. De Bono commanded nine divisions in the Italian I Corps, the Italian II Corps and the Eritrean Corps. General Rodolfo Graziani was commander-in-chief of forces invading from Italian Somaliland on the southern front.

Initially, he had two divisions and a variety of smaller units under his command: a mixture of Italians, Somalis, Eritreans, Libyans and others. De Bono regarded Italian Somaliland as a secondary theatre, whose primary need was to defend itself, but it could aid the main front with offensive thrusts if the enemy forces were not too large there. Most foreigners accompanied the Ethiopians, but Herbert Matthews, a reporter and historian who wrote Eyewitness in Abyssinia: With Marshal Bodoglio's forces to Addis Ababa (1937), and Pedro del Valle, an observer for US Marine Corps, accompanied the Italian forces.

Hostilities

Italian invasion

At 5:00 am on 3 October 1935, De Bono crossed the Mareb River and advanced into Ethiopia from Eritrea without a declaration of war. Aircraft of the Regia Aeronautica scattered leaflets asking the population to rebel against Haile Selassie and support the "true Emperor Iyasu V". Forty-year-old Iyasu had been deposed many years earlier but was still in custody. In response to the Italian invasion, Ethiopia declared war on Italy.

At this point in the campaign, the lack of roads represented a serious hindrance for the Italians as they crossed into Ethiopia. On the Eritrean side, roads had been constructed right up to the border. On the Ethiopian side, these roads often transitioned into vaguely defined paths, and the Italian army used aerial photography to plan its advance, as well as mustard gas attacks.

On 5 October the Italian I Corps took Adigrat, and by 6 October, Adwa (Adowa) was captured by the Italian II Corps. Haile Selassie had ordered Duke (Ras) Seyoum Mangasha, the Commander of the Ethiopian Army of Tigre, to withdraw a day's march away from the Mareb River. Later, the Emperor ordered his son-in-law and Commander of the Gate (Dejazmach) Haile Selassie Gugsa, also in the area, to move back  from the border.

On 11 October, Gugsa surrendered with 1,200 followers at the Italian outpost at Adagamos. Italian propagandists lavishly publicised the surrender but fewer than a tenth of Gugsa's men defected with him. On 14 October, De Bono proclaimed the end of slavery in Ethiopia but this liberated the former slave owners from the obligation to feed their former slaves, in the unsettled conditions caused by the war. Much of the livestock in the area had been moved to the south to feed the Ethiopian army and many of the emancipated people had no choice but to appeal to the Italian authorities for food.

By 15 October, De Bono's forces had advanced from Adwa and occupied the holy capital of Axum. De Bono entered the city riding on a white horse and then looted the Obelisk of Axum. To Mussolini's dismay, the advance was methodical and on 8 November, the I Corps and the Eritrean Corps captured Makale. The Italian advance had added  to the line of supply and De Bono wanted to build a road from Adigrat before continuing. On 16 November, De Bono was promoted to the rank of Marshal of Italy (Maresciallo d'Italia) and in December was replaced by Badoglio to speed up the invasion.

Hoare–Laval Pact

On 14 November 1935, the National government in Britain, led by Prime Minister Stanley Baldwin, won a general election on a platform of upholding collective security and support for the League of Nations, which at least implied that Britain would support Ethiopia. However, the British service chiefs, led by the First Sea Lord, Admiral Sir Earle Chatfield, all advised against going to war with Italy for the sake of Ethiopia, which carried much weight with the cabinet. During the 1935 election, Baldwin and the rest of the cabinet had repeatedly promised that Britain was committed to upholding collective security in the belief of that being the best way to neutralise the Labour Party, which also ran on a platform emphasising collective security and support for the League of Nations. To square the circle caused by its election promises and its desire to avoid offending Mussolini too much, the cabinet decided upon a plan to give most of Ethiopia to Italy, with the rest in the Italian sphere of influence, as the best way of ending the war.

In early December 1935, the Hoare–Laval Pact was proposed by Britain and France. Italy would gain the best parts of Ogaden and Tigray and economic influence over all the south. Abyssinia would have a guaranteed corridor to the sea at the port of Assab; the corridor was a poor one and known as a "corridor for camels". Mussolini was ready to play along with considering the Hoare-Laval Pact, rather than rejecting it outright, to avoid a complete break with Britain and France, but he kept demanding changes to the plan before he would accept it as a way to stall for more time to allow his army to conquer Ethiopia. Mussolini was not prepared to abandon the goal of conquering Ethiopia, but the imposition of League of Nations sanctions on Italy caused much alarm in Rome.

The war was wildly popular with the Italian people, who relished Mussolini's defiance of the League as an example of Italian greatness. Even if Mussolini had been willing to stop the war, the move would have been very unpopular in Italy. Kallis wrote, "Especially after the imposition of sanctions in November 1935, the popularity of the Fascist regime reached unprecedented heights". On 13 December, details of the pact were leaked by a French newspaper and denounced as a sellout of the Ethiopians. The British government disassociated itself from the pact and British Foreign Secretary Sir Samuel Hoare was forced to resign in disgrace.

Ethiopian Christmas Offensive

The Christmas Offensive was intended to split the Italian forces in the north with the Ethiopian centre, crushing the Italian left with the Ethiopian right and to invade Eritrea with the Ethiopian left. Ras Seyum Mangasha held the area around Abiy Addi with about 30,000 men. Selassie with about 40,000 men advanced from Gojjam toward Mai Timket to the left of Ras Seyoum. Ras Kassa Haile Darge with around 40,000 men advanced from Dessie to support Ras Seyoum in the centre in a push towards Warieu Pass. Ras Mulugeta Yeggazu, the Minister of War, advanced from Dessie with approximately 80,000 men to take positions on and around Amba Aradam to the right of Ras Seyoum. Amba Aradam was a steep sided, flat topped mountain directly in the way of an Italian advance on Addis Ababa. The four commanders had approximately 190,000 men facing the Italians. Ras Imru and his Army of Shire were on the Ethiopian left. Ras Seyoum and his Army of Tigre and Ras Kassa and his Army of Beghemder were the Ethiopian centre. Ras Mulugeta and his "Army of the Center" (Mahel Sefari) were on the Ethiopian right.

A force of 1,000 Ethiopians crossed the Tekeze river and advanced toward the Dembeguina Pass (Inda Aba Guna or Indabaguna pass). The Italian commander, Major Criniti, commanded a force of 1,000 Eritrean infantry supported by L3 tanks. When the Ethiopians attacked, the Italian force fell back to the pass, only to discover that 2,000 Ethiopian soldiers were already there and Criniti's force was encircled. In the first Ethiopian attack, two Italian officers were killed and Criniti was wounded.

The Italians tried to break out using their L3 tanks but the rough terrain immobilised the vehicles. The Ethiopians killed the infantry, then rushed the tanks and killed their two-man crews. Italian forces organised a relief column made up of tanks and infantry to relieve Critini but it was ambushed en route. Ethiopians on the high ground rolled boulders in front of and behind several of the tanks, to immobilise them, picked off the Eritrean infantry and swarmed the tanks.

The other tanks were immobilised by the terrain, unable to advance further and two were set on fire. Critini managed to break-out in a bayonet charge and half escaped. Italian casualties were 31 Italians and 370 Askari killed and five Italians taken prisoner; Ethiopian casualties were estimated by the Italians to be 500, which was probably greatly exaggerated.

The news from the "northern front" was generally bad for Italy. However, foreign correspondents in Addis Ababa publicly took up knitting to mock their lack of access to the front. There was no way for them to verify reports that 4,700 Italians had been captured. The correspondents were told by the Ethiopians that Italian tanks had been stranded and abandoned and that Italian native troops were mutinying. Later, a report was issued that Ethiopian warriors had captured eighteen tanks, thirty-three field guns, 175 machine guns, and 2,605 rifles. In addition, this report indicated that the Ethiopians had wiped out an entire legion of the 2nd CC.NN. Division "28 Ottobre" and that the Italians had lost at least 3,000 men. Rome denied these figures.

The ambitious Ethiopian plan called for Ras Kassa and Ras Seyoum to split the Italian army in two and isolate the Italian I Corps and III Corps in Mekele. Ras Mulugeta would then descend from Amba Aradam and crush both corps. According to this plan, after Ras Imru retook Adwa, he was to invade Eritrea. In November, the League of Nations condemned Italy's aggression and imposed economic sanctions. This excluded oil, however, an indispensable raw material for the conduct of any modern military campaign, and this favoured Italy.

The Ethiopian counteroffensive managed to stop the Italian advance for a few weeks, but the superiority of the Italian's weaponry (artillery and machine guns) as well as aerial bombardment with chemical weapons, at first with mustard gas prevented the Ethiopians from taking advantage of their initial successes. The Ethiopians in general were very poorly armed, with few machine guns, their troops mainly armed with swords and spears. Having spent a decade accumulating poison gas in East Africa, Mussolini gave Badoglio authority to resort to Schrecklichkeit (frightfulness), which included destroying villages and using gas (OC 23/06, 28 December 1935). Mussolini was even prepared to resort to bacteriological warfare as long as these methods could be kept quiet. Some Italians objected when they found out but the practices were kept secret, the government issuing denials or spurious stories blaming the Ethiopians.

Second Italian advance

As the progress of the Christmas Offensive slowed, Italian plans to renew the advance on the northern front began as Mussolini had given permission to use poison gas (but not mustard gas) and Badoglio received the Italian III Corps and the Italian IV Corps in Eritrea during early 1936. On 20 January, the Italians resumed their northern offensive at the First Battle of Tembien (20 to 24 January) in the broken terrain between the Warieu Pass and Makale. The forces of Ras Kassa were defeated, the Italians using phosgene gas and suffering 1,082 casualties against 8,000 Ethiopian casualties according to an Ethiopian wireless message intercepted by the Italians.

From 10 to 19 February, the Italians captured Amba Aradam and destroyed Ras Mulugeta's army in the Battle of Amba Aradam (Battle of Enderta). The Ethiopians suffered massive losses and poison gas destroyed a small part of Ras Mulugeta's army, according to the Ethiopians. During the slaughter following the attempted withdrawal of his army, both Ras Mulugeta and his son were killed. The Italians lost 800 killed and wounded while the Ethiopians lost 6,000 killed and 12,000 wounded. From 27 to 29 February, the armies of Ras Kassa and Ras Seyoum were destroyed at the Second Battle of Tembien. Ethiopians again argued that poison gas played a role in the destruction of the withdrawing armies.

In early March, the army of Ras Imru was attacked, bombed and defeated in what was known as the Battle of Shire. In the battles of Amba Aradam, Tembien and Shire, the Italians suffered about 2,600 casualties and the Ethiopians about 15,000; Italian casualties at the Battle of Shire being 969 men. The Italian victories stripped the Ethiopian defences on the northern front, Tigré province had fallen most of the Ethiopian survivors returned home or took refuge in the countryside and only the army guarding Addis Ababa stood between the Italians and the rest of the country.

On 31 March 1936 at the Battle of Maychew, the Italians defeated an Ethiopian counter-offensive by the main Ethiopian army commanded by Selassie. The Ethiopians launched near non-stop attacks on the Italian and Eritrean defenders but could not overcome the well-prepared Italian defences. When the exhausted Ethiopians withdrew, the Italians counter-attacked. The Regia Aeronautica attacked the survivors at Lake Ashangi with mustard gas. The Italian troops had 400 casualties, the Eritreans 874 and the Ethiopians suffered 8,900 casualties from 31,000 men present according to an Italian estimate. On 4 April, Selassie looked with despair upon the horrific sight of the dead bodies of his army ringing the poisoned lake.

Following the battle, Ethiopian soldiers began to employ guerrilla tactics against the Italians, initiating a trend of resistance that would transform into the Patriot/Arbegnoch movement. They were joined by local residents who operated independently near their own homes. Early activities included capturing war materials, rolling boulders off cliffs at passing convoys, kidnapping messengers, cutting telephone lines, setting fire to administrative offices and fuel and ammunition dumps, and killing collaborators. As disruption increased, the Italians were forced to redeploy more troops to Tigre, away from the campaign further south.

Southern front

On 3 October 1935, Graziani implemented the Milan Plan to remove Ethiopian forces from various frontier posts and to test the reaction to a series of probes all along the southern front. While incessant rains worked to hinder the plan, within three weeks the Somali villages of Kelafo, Dagnerai, Gerlogubi and Gorahai in Ogaden were in Italian hands. Late in the year,  Ras Desta Damtu assembled up his army in the area around Negele Borana, to advance on Dolo and invade Italian Somaliland. Between 12 and 16 January 1936, the Italians defeated the Ethiopians at the Battle of Genale Doria. The Regia Aeronautica destroyed the army of Ras Desta, Ethiopians claiming that poison gas was used.

After a lull in February 1936, the Italians in the south prepared an advance towards the city of Harar. On 22 March, the Regia Aeronautica bombed Harar and Jijiga, reducing them to ruins even though Harar had been declared an "open city". On 14 April, Graziani launched his attack against Ras Nasibu Emmanual to defeat the last Ethiopian army in the field at the Battle of the Ogaden. The Ethiopians were drawn up behind a defensive line that was termed the "Hindenburg Wall", designed by the chief of staff of Ras Nasibu, and Wehib Pasha, a seasoned ex-Ottoman commander. After ten days, the last Ethiopian army had disintegrated; 2,000 Italian soldiers and 5,000 Ethiopian soldiers were killed or wounded.

Fall of Addis Ababa

On 26 April 1936, Badoglio began the "March of the Iron Will" from Dessie to Addis Ababa, an advance with a mechanised column against slight Ethiopian resistance. The column experienced a more serious attack on 4 May when Ethiopian forces under Haile Mariam Mammo ambushed the formation in Chacha, near Debre Berhan, killing approximately 170 colonial troops.

Meanwhile, Selassie conducted a disorganized retreat towards the capital. There, government officials operated without leadership, unable to contact the Emperor and unsure of his whereabouts. Realizing that Addis Ababa would soon fall to the Italians, Ethiopian administrators met to discuss a possible evacuation of the government to the west. After several days, they decided that they should relocate to Gore, though actual preparations for their departure were postponed. Addis Ababa became crowded with retreating soldiers from the front while its foreign residents sought refuge at various European legations. Selassie reached the capital on 30 April. That day his Council of Ministers resolved that the city should be defended and a retreat to Gore conducted only as a last resort.

The following day an ad hoc council of Ethiopian nobles convened to re-examine the decision, where Ras Aberra Kassa suggested that the Emperor should go to Geneva to appeal to the League of Nations for assistance before returning to lead resistance against the Italians. The view was subsequently adopted by Selassie and preparations were made for his departure. On 2 May, Selassie boarded a train from Addis Ababa to Djibouti, with the gold of the Ethiopian Central Bank. From there he fled to the United Kingdom, with the tacit acquiescence of the Italians who could have bombed his train, into exile (Mussolini had refused a request from Graziani to mount such an attack.)

Before he departed, Selassie ordered that the government of Ethiopia be moved to Gore and directed the mayor of Addis Ababa to maintain order in the city until the Italians' arrival. Imru Haile Selassie was appointed Prince Regent during his absence. The city police, under Abebe Aregai and the remainder of the Imperial Guard did their utmost to restrain a growing crowd but rioters rampaged throughout the city, looting and setting fire to shops owned by Europeans. Most of the violence occurred between looters, fighting over the spoils and by 5 May, much of the city lay in ruins. At 04:00 Badoglio drove into the city at the head of 1,600 lorries and patrols of Italian tanks, troops and Carabinieri were sent to occupy tactically valuable areas in the city, as the remaining inhabitants watched sullenly.

Subsequent operations

After the occupation of Addis Ababa, nearly half of Ethiopia was still unoccupied and the fighting continued for another three years until nearly 90% was "pacified" just before World War II, although censorship kept this from the Italian public. Ethiopian commanders withdrew to nearby areas to regroup; Abebe Aregai went to Ankober, Balcha Safo to Gurage, Zewdu Asfaw to Mulo, Blatta Takale Wolde Hawariat to Limmu and the Kassa brothers—Aberra, Wondosson and Asfawossen—to Selale. Haile Mariam conducted hit-and-run attacks around the capital. About 10,000 troops remaining under the command of Aberra Kassa had orders from Selassie to continue resistance. On 10 May 1936, Italian troops from the northern front and from the southern front met at Dire Dawa. The Italians found the recently released Ethiopian Ras, Hailu Tekle Haymanot, who boarded a train back to Addis Ababa and approached the Italian invaders in submission. Imru Haile Selassie fell back to Gore in southern Ethiopia to reorganise and continue to resist the Italians. In early June, the Italian government promulgated a constitution for Africa Orientale Italiana (AOI, Italian East Africa) bringing Ethiopia, Eritrea and Italian Somaliland together into an administrative unit of six provinces. Badoglio became the first Viceroy and Governor General but on 11 June, he was replaced by Marshal Graziani.

On 21 June Kassa held a meeting with Bishop Abune Petros and several other Patriot leaders at Debre Libanos, about  north of Addis Ababa. Plans were made to storm parts of the capital but a lack of transport and radio equipment prevented a co-ordinated attack. In July, Ethiopian forces attacked Addis Ababa and were routed. Numerous members of Ethiopian royalty were taken prisoner and others were executed soon after they surrendered. The exiled government in Gore was never able to provide any meaningful leadership to the Patriots or remaining military formations but sporadic resistance by independent groups persisted around the capital.

On the night 26 June, members of the Black Lions organization destroyed three Italian aircraft in Nekemte and killed twelve Italian officials, including Air Marshal Vincenzo Magliocco and aviator Antonio Locatelli, after the Italians had sent the party to parley with the local populace. Graziani ordered the town to be bombed in retaliation for the killings (Magliocco was his deputy). Local hostility forced out the Patriots and Desta Damtew, commander of the southern Patriots, withdrew his troops to Arbegona. Surrounded by Italian forces, they retreated to Butajira, where they were eventually defeated. An estimated 4,000 Patriots were reportedly killed in both engagements, 1,600 of whom—including Damtew—after being taken prisoner. On 19 December, Wondosson Kassa was executed near Debre Zebit and on 21 December, Aberra Kassa and Asfawossen Kassa were executed in Fikke. In late 1936, after the Italians tracked him down in Gurage, Dejazmach Balcha Safo was killed in battle. On 19 December, Selassie surrendered at the Gojeb river.

After the end of the rainy season, an Italian column left Addis Ababa in September and occupied Gore a month later. The forces of Ras Imru were trapped between the Italians and the Sudan border and Imru surrendered on 17 December. Imru was flown to Italy and imprisoned on the Island of Ponza, while the rest of the Ethiopian prisoners taken in the war were dispersed in camps in East Africa and Italy. A second column went south-west to attack Ras Desta and the Dejasmatch Gabre Mariam who had assembled military forces in the Great Lakes district. The Ethiopians were defeated on 16 December and by January, the Italians had established a measure of control over the provinces of Jimma, Kafa and Arusi. After another two months, the remaining Ethiopians were surrounded and fought on, rather than surrender. Mariam was killed. On 19 February 1937 the last battle of the war occurred when remnants of the Armies of Sidamo and Bale clashed with Italian forces at Gogetti, and were defeated.

Addis Ababa massacre

That same date, 19 February 1937 – Yekatit 12 according to the Ge'ez calendar – saw the attempted assassination of Marshal Graziani by Eritrean rebels Abraham Deboch and Mogos Asgedom in Addis Ababa. The campaign of reprisals visited by the Italians upon the population of Addis Ababa has been described as the worst massacre in Ethiopian history. Estimates vary on the number of people killed in the three days that followed the attempt on Graziani's life. Ethiopian sources estimated that 30,000 people were killed by the Italians, while Italian sources claimed that only a few hundred were killed. A 2017 history of the massacre estimated that 19,200 people were killed, 20 percent of the population of Addis Ababa. Over the following week, numerous Ethiopians suspected of opposing Italian rule were rounded up and executed, including members of the Black Lions and other members of the aristocracy. Many more were imprisoned, even collaborators such as Ras Gebre Haywot, the son of Ras Mikael of Wollo, Brehane Markos, and Ayale Gebre, who had helped the Italians identify the two men who made the attempt on Graziani's life.

According to Mockler, "Italian carabinieri had fired into the crowds of beggars and poor assembled for the distribution of alms; and it is said that the Federal Secretary, Guido Cortese, even fired his revolver into the group of Ethiopian dignitaries standing around him." Hours later, Cortese gave the fatal order:Comrades, today is the day when we should show our devotion to our Viceroy by reacting and destroying the Ethiopians for three days. For three days I give you ''carte blanche'' to destroy and kill and do what you want to the Ethiopians. Italians doused native houses with petrol and set them on fire. They broke into the homes of local Greeks and Armenians and lynched their servants. Some even posed on the corpses of their victims to have their photographs taken. The first day of the massacre has been commemorated as "Yekatit 12" (Ethiopian 19 February) by Ethiopians ever since. There is a Yekatit 12 monument in Addis Ababa in memory of these Ethiopian victims of Italian aggression.

Aftermath

Casualties

In 1968, Colonel A. J. Barker wrote that from 1 January 1935 to 31 May 1936, the Italian army and Blackshirt units lost  killed,  died of wounds and thirty-one missing; about  troops and  workmen were also killed, a total of  In a 1978 publication, Alberto Sbacchi wrote that these official Italian casualty figures of about  an underestimate. Sbacchi wrote that the official total of Italian casualties was unreliable, because the regime desired to underestimate Italian losses. Del Boca estimates the total Italian losses up to 31 December 1936 (including more than six months of guerrilla warfare after the end of the conflict) speak of 2,317 dead for the Italian army, 1,165 for the Blackshirts, 193 from the air force, 56 from the navy, 78 civilians in the Gondrand shipyard massacre, 453 factory workers and 88 merchant marines, for a total of 4,350 Italians killed. To these figures must be added approximately 9,000 injured and 18,200 repatriated due to illness. Estimates on the losses of the askaris, however very vague, he puts it at 4,500 killed. From 1936 to 1940, there was an additional  killed and  and wounded. Total Italian casualties from 1935 to 1940 according to these calculations were about 208,000 killed or wounded. Based on  killed in the first six months of 1940, Ministry of Africa figures for 6 May 1936 to 10 June 1940 are  killed, which Sbacchi considered to be fairly accurate.

There was a lack of reliable statistics because confusion during the invasion made it difficult to keep accurate records and the Statistical Bulletin had ceased to provide data on fatalities. Field hospital records had been destroyed, inventories dispersed, individual deaths were not reported and bodies were not repatriated to Italy. Unpublished reports listed  and civilian fatalities among  and from May 1936 to June 1940, there were another  and civilian fatalities in . The Italian estimation of Ethiopian losses are  killed in the Northern front and  killed in the Southern front for a total of . Conversely, in a memorandum submitted to the Paris conference in 1946, the Ethiopian government enumerated  killed in action,  killed in hostilities during the occupation from 1936 to 1941,  and children killed by bombing,  killed in the massacre of February 1937,  died in concentration camps,  killed in obedience to orders from summary courts,  died after their villages had been destroyed, a total of  However, Del Boca claims that these figures are unreliable and were likely exaggerated to extract more reparations. He asserts that the Italian estimation is more accurate.

Public and international reaction

Italy's military victory overshadowed concerns about the economy. Mussolini was at the height of his popularity in May 1936 with the proclamation of the Italian empire. His biographer, Renzo De Felice, called the war "Mussolini's masterpiece" as for a brief moment he had been able to create something resembling a national consensus both in favor of himself and his regime. When Badoglio returned to Italy, he received a snub as Mussolini made certain the honours he received fell short of those granted to an Italian "national hero" in order to present the victory as an achievement of the Fascist system rather an achievement of the traditional Italian elites of which Badoglio was a member. A sign of Mussolini's increased power and popularity after the war was his creation of a new military rank; First Marshal of the Italian Empire, which he promoted both himself and King Victor Emmanuel III to, thus putting the prime minister on a theoretical level of equality with the king.

Haile Selassie sailed from Djibouti in the British cruiser . From Mandatory Palestine Selassie sailed to Gibraltar en route to Britain. While still in Jerusalem, Haile Selassie sent a telegram to the League of Nations:

The Ethiopian Emperor's telegram caused several nations to temporarily defer recognition of the Italian conquest.

On 30 June, Selassie spoke at the League of Nations and was introduced by the President of the Assembly as "His Imperial Majesty, the Emperor of Ethiopia" ("Sa Majesté Imperiale, l'Empereur d'Ethiopie"). A group of jeering Italian journalists began yelling insults and were expelled before he could speak. In response, the Romanian chairman, Nicolae Titulescu, jumped to his feet and shouted "Show the savages the door!" ("À la porte les sauvages!"). Selassie denounced Italian aggression and criticised the world community for standing by. At the conclusion of his speech, which appeared on newsreels throughout the world, he said "It is us today. It will be you tomorrow". France appeased Italy because it could not afford to risk an alliance between Italy and Germany; Britain decided its military weakness meant that it had to follow France's lead. Selassie's resolution to the League to deny recognition of the Italian conquest was defeated and he was denied a loan to finance a resistance movement. On 4 July 1936, the League voted to end the sanctions imposed against Italy in November 1935 and by 15 July, the sanctions were at an end.

On 18 November 1936, the Italian Empire was recognised by the Empire of Japan and Italy recognised the Japanese occupation of Manchuria, marking the end of the Stresa Front. Hitler had supplied the Ethiopians with 16,000 rifles and 600 machine guns in the hope that Italy would be weakened when he moved against Austria. By contrast, France and Britain recognised Italian control over Ethiopia in 1938. Mexico was the only country to strongly condemn Italy's sovereignty over Ethiopia, respecting Ethiopian independence throughout. Including Mexico, only six nations in 1937 did not recognise the Italian occupation: China, New Zealand, the Soviet Union, Republican Spain and the United States. Three years later, only the USSR officially recognised Selassie and the United States government considered recognising the Italian Empire with Ethiopia included. The invasion of Ethiopia and its general condemnation by Western democracies isolated Mussolini and Fascist Italy until 1938. From 1936 to 1939, Mussolini and Hitler joined forces to support the fascist camp during the Spanish Civil War. In April 1939, Mussolini launched the Italian invasion of Albania. In May, Italy and Nazi Germany joined in the Pact of Steel. In September 1940, both nations signed the Tripartite Pact along with the Empire of Japan.

War crimes

Italian military forces used between 300 and 500 tons of mustard gas to attack both military and civilian targets, despite being a signatory to the 1925 Geneva Protocol banning the practice. This gas had been produced during World War I and subsequently transported to East Africa. J. F. C. Fuller, who was present in Ethiopia during the conflict, stated that mustard gas "was the decisive tactical factor in the war." Historian Walter Laqueur estimates that up to one-third of Ethiopian casualties of the war were caused by chemical weapons.

The Italians claimed that their use of gas was justified by the execution of Tito Minniti and his observer in Ogaden by Ethiopian forces. However, the use of gas was authorized by Mussolini nearly two months before Minniti's death on 26 December 1935, as evinced by the following order:

After Minniti's death, the order was expanded to use of gas "on a vast scale":

Military and civilian targets were gas bombed and on 30 December, a Red Cross unit was bombed at Dolo and an Egyptian ambulance was attacked at Bulale; a few days later an Egyptian medical unit was bombed at Daggah Bur. There were more attacks in January and February, then on 4 March 1936, a British Red Cross camp near Quoram appeared to be subject to the most deliberate attack of all, when low-flying Italian aircraft crews could not have missed the big Red Cross signs. Mustard gas was also sprayed from above on Ethiopian combatants and villages. The Italians tried to keep their resort to chemical warfare secret but were exposed by the International Red Cross and many foreign observers. The Italians claimed that at least 19 bombardments of Red Cross tents "posted in the areas of military encampment of the Ethiopian resistance", had been "erroneous".

The Italians delivered poison gas by gas shell and in bombs dropped by the Regia Aeronautica. Though poorly equipped, the Ethiopians had achieved some success against modern weaponry but had no defence against the "terrible rain that burned and killed".

In general, historians concluded that the use of chemical weapons was effective and devastating to morale and manpower, though some disagree and argue that they had negligible effect in battle. Historian Angelo Del Boca condemned the use of gas, but argued that it had only a minimal effect on Italian war aims. An analysis by the Stockholm International Peace Research Institute argued that the use of chemical weapons shifted the war in favor of the Italians, and dealt a major blow the Ethiopian morale.

American and British military analysis came to similar conclusions. The US military concluded that "Chemical weapons were devastating against the unprepared and unprotected Ethiopians." British Major General J. F. C. Fuller, assigned to the Italian army, noted that "In place of the laborious process of picketing the heights, the heights sprayed with gas were rendered unoccupiable by the enemy, save at the gravest risk. It was an exceedingly cunning use of this chemical."

Haile Selassie in his report to the League of Nations described it:

Ethiopian troops used Dum-Dum bullets, which had been banned by declaration IV, 3 of the Hague Convention (1899) and began mutilating captured Eritrean Askari (often with castration) beginning in the first weeks of war. Some hundreds of colonial Eritrean Ascari and dozens of Italians suffered these amputations, often done before death as allegedly happened to 17 Italian workers emasculated in Gondrand in February 1936.

Italian occupation

1936–1940

On 10 May 1936, Italian troops from the northern front and from the southern front met at Dire Dawa. The Italians found the recently released Ethiopian Ras, Hailu Tekle Haymanot, who boarded a train back to Addis Ababa and approached the Italian invaders in submission. On 21 December 1937, Rome appointed Amedeo, 3rd Duke of Aosta, as the new Viceroy and Governor General of Italian East Africa with instructions to take a more conciliatory line. Aosta instituted public works projects including  of new paved roadways, 25 hospitals, 14 hotels, dozens of post offices, telephone exchanges, aqueducts, schools and shops. The Italians decreed miscegenation to be illegal. Racial separation, including residential segregation, was enforced as thoroughly as possible and the Italians showed favouritism to non-Christian groups. To isolate the dominant Amhara rulers of Ethiopia, who supported Selassie, the Italians granted the Oromos, the Somalis and other Muslims, many of whom had supported the invasion, autonomy and rights. The Italians also definitively abolished slavery and abrogated feudal laws that had been upheld by the Amharas. Early in 1938, a revolt broke out in Gojjam, led by the Committee of Unity and Collaboration, made up of some of the young, educated elite who had escaped reprisals after the assassination attempt on Graziani. The general oversaw another wave of reprisals and had all Ethiopians in administrative jobs murdered, some by being thrown from aircraft, after being taken on board under the pretext of visiting the King in Rome, leading to the saying "He went to Rome".

The army of occupation had 150,000 men but was spread thinly; by 1941 the garrison had been increased to 250,000 soldiers, including 75,000 Italian civilians. The former police chief of Addis Ababa, Abebe Aregai, was the most successful leader of the Ethiopian guerrilla movement after 1937, using units of fifty men. On 11 December, the League of Nations voted to condemn Italy and Mussolini withdrew from the League. Along with world condemnation, the occupation was expensive, the budget for AOI from 1936 to 1937 required 19,136 billion lire for infrastructure, when the annual revenue of Italy was only 18,581 billion lire. In 1939 Ras Seyoum Mengesha, Ras Getachew Abate and Ras Kebede Guebret submitted to the Italian Empire and guerilla warfare petered out. In early 1940, the last area of guerilla activity was around Lake Tana and the southern Gojjam, under the leadership of the degiac Mengesha Gembere and Belay Zeleke.

East African campaign, 1940–1941

While in exile in United Kingdom, Haile Selassie had sought the support of the Western democracies for his cause but had little success until the Second World War began. On 10 June 1940, Mussolini declared war on France and Britain and attacked British and Commonwealth forces in Egypt, Sudan, Kenya and British Somaliland. In August 1940, the Italian conquest of British Somaliland was completed. The British and Selassie incited Ethiopian and other local forces to join a campaign to dislodge the Italians from Ethiopia. Selassie went to Khartoum to establish closer liaison with the British and resistance forces within Ethiopia. On 18 January 1941, Selassie crossed the border into Ethiopia near the village of Um Iddla and two days later rendezvoused with Gideon Force. On 5 May, Selassie and an army of Ethiopian Free Forces entered Addis Ababa. After the Italian defeat, the Italian guerrilla war in Ethiopia was carried out by remnants of Italian troops and their allies, which lasted until the Armistice between Italy and Allied armed forces in September 1943.

Peace treaty, 1947

The treaty signed in Paris by the Italian Republic (Repubblica Italiana) and the victorious powers of World War II on 10 February 1947, included formal Italian recognition of Ethiopian independence and an agreement to pay $25,000,000 in reparations. Since the League of Nations and most of its members had never officially recognized Italian sovereignty over Ethiopia, Haile Selassie had been recognized as the restored emperor of Ethiopia following his formal entry into Addis Ababa in May 1941. Ethiopia presented a bill to the Economic Commission for Italy of £184,746,023 for damages inflicted during the course of the Italian occupation. The list included the destruction of   the slaughter or theft of   and goats,  and mules and

See also

 List of Second Italo-Ethiopian War weapons of Ethiopia
 Ethiopian Air Force
 List of Second Italo-Ethiopian War weapons of Italy
 Censorship in Italy
 Faccetta Nera
 First Italo-Ethiopian War
 Paris Peace Treaties, 1947
 Timeline of the Second Italo-Ethiopian War

Notes

References

Sources

Books

Journals

Further reading

Books

Theses

External links

 Speech to the League of Nations, June 1936  (full text)
 British newsreel footage of Haile Selassie's address to the League of Nations
 Regio Esercito: La Campagna d'Etiopia
 Ethiopia 1935–36: mustard gas and attacks on the Red Cross (Full version in French) – Bernard Bridel,
 The use of chemical weapons in the 1935–36 Italo-Ethiopian War – SIPRI Arms Control and Non-proliferation Programme, October 2009
 Mussolini's Invasion and the Italian Occupation
 Mussolini's Ethiopia Campaign
 OnWar: Second Italo–Abyssinian War 1935–1936
 The Day the Angel Cried
 The Emperor Leaves Ethiopia
 Ascari: I Leoni di Eritrea/Ascari: The Lions of Eritrea. Second Italo-Abyssinian war. Eritrea colonial history, Eritrean ascari pictures/photos galleries and videos, historical atlas...
 Ross, F. 1937. The Strategical Conduct of the Campaign and supply and Evacuation Programmes

 Songs of 2nd Italo-Abyssinian War

Invasions of Ethiopia
Italo-Ethiopian War, Second
Italo-Ethiopian War, Second
1935 in Ethiopia
1935 in Italy
1936 in Ethiopia
1936 in Italy
Conflicts in 1935
Conflicts in 1936
Haile Selassie
Italo-Ethiopian War, Second
Italo-Ethiopian War, Second

African resistance to colonialism
Interwar period

Second Italo-Ethiopian War


68410 Nichols este un asteroid din centura principală de asteroizi.

Descriere
68410 Nichols este un asteroid din centura principală de asteroizi. A fost descoperit pe  la Anza, California de Michael Collins (astronom) și Minor White (astronom). Asteroidul prezintă o orbită caracterizată de o semiaxă mare de 2,68 ua, o excentricitate de 0,08 și o înclinație de 4,9° în raport cu ecliptica.

Vezi și
 Lista planetelor minore: 68001-69000
 Centura de asteroizi

Referințe

Obiecte astronomice descoperite în 2001
Centura de asteroizi

68410 Nichols


El III Batallón Aéreo de Reemplazo (III. Flieger-Ersatz-Abteilung) fue una unidad de la Luftwaffe de la Alemania nazi.

Historia
Fue formado en abril de 1942 en Fráncfort del Óder.

Comandantes
 Teniente Coronel Richard Lorenz (9 de abril de 1942 - ?)
 Mayor Georg Fitze (? - 12 de marzo de 1945)
 Teniente Coronel Friedrich Koch (12 de marzo de 1945 - 8 de mayo de 1945)

Referencias
 WW2 - III. Flieger-Ersatz-Abteilung

Luftwaffe (Wehrmacht)
Batallones aéreos de reemplazo
Unidades militares alemanas de la Segunda Guerra Mundial

III Batallón Aéreo de Reemplazo


Selkirk Shores State Park is a  state park located in the Town of Richland in Oswego County, New York. The park is located on the eastern shore of Lake Ontario.

Park description
Selkirk Shores State Park features a swimming beach on Lake Ontario, hiking trails, campsites and cabins. The park is associated with the nearby Pine Grove Boat Launch, which provides access for small boats to the lower Salmon River.

A "Bird Conservation Area" at the park protects breeding habitat for several regionally threatened bird species, including pied-billed grebes, American bitterns, least bitterns, and black terns.

See also
 List of New York state parks

References

External links
 New York State Parks: Selkirk Shores State Park
 New York State Parks: Pine Grove Boat Launch

State parks of New York (state)
Parks in Oswego County, New York

Selkirk Shores State Park


Jeg selv er icke mig er en dansk dokumentarfilm fra 1988 instrueret af Jørgen Roos.

Handling
En film om Christian 4. i anledning af 400-året for dennes kroning i 1588. Christian 4. steg hurtigt til magt og pragt. Han samlede tidens bedste musik - og bestilte malerier om de sære drømme, han havde. Det er ikke en film med historie som en skolebog - men om drama, håb og nederlag, om krige og kærlighedsforhold.

Referencer

Eksterne henvisninger

Dokumentarfilm fra Danmark
Danske film fra 1988

Jeg selv er icke mig