Olaylar
 475 - Romulus Augustus Roma İmparatoru ilan edildi.
 644 - Ömer bin Hattab, kendisinden alınan verginin azaltılmasını isteyen, ancak talebi kabul edilmeyen Ebû Lü'lüe tarafından Medine'de sabah namazında hançerle saldırıya uğradı. Saldırgan intihar ederken, Ömer bin Hattab, 3 Kasım'da öldü.
 1517 - Martin Luther, Wittenberg'de 95 tezini kilise kapısına asarak Protestanlığı ilan etti.
 1831 - Takvim-i Vekayi yayına başladı.
 1864 - Nevada, ABD'nin 36. eyaleti oldu.
 1876 - Hindistan'da dev kasırga: 200 binden fazla kişi öldü.
 1892 - Sir Arthur Conan Doyle, Sherlock Holmes'un maceralarını yayınlamaya başladı.
 1918 - Güneydoğu Avrupa'da Banat bölgesinde kısa ömürlü Banat Cumhuriyeti kuruldu.
 1919 - Sütçü İmam, Kahramanmaraş'ta Fransız işgalcilere ilk kurşunu attı.
 1922 - Mussolini İtalya Başbakanı oldu.
 1924 - Mustafa Kemal Paşa, Cumhuriyet'in 1. yıl dönümünde, "Türk milletinin tabiat ve adetlerine en uygun olan idare, Cumhuriyet idaresidir" dedi.
 1951 - Yaya geçidi çizgileri ilk kez Birleşik Krallık'ın Berkshire kentinde kullanılmaya başlandı.
 1952 - ABD, ilk hidrojen bombası denemesini Marshall Adalarında yaptı.
 1956 - Süveyş Krizi: Birleşik Krallık ve Fransa, Süveyş Kanalı'nın tekrar açılmasını sağlamak için Mısır'ı bombalamaya başladı.
 1961 - Sovyetler Birliği Komünist Partisi 25. Kongresi'nde, geçmişteki hataları nedeniyle suçlanan Josef Stalin'in naaşı Moskova Kızıl Meydan'daki Lenin'in mozolesinden çıkarıldı ve Kremlin Duvarı Mezarlığına defnedildi.
 1963 - Askerî Yargıtay, Talat Aydemir, Fethi Gürcan, Osman Deniz ve Erol Dinçer'in idamını onayladı.
 1963 - 50. kez millî formayı giyen Fenerbahçeli futbolcu Lefter Küçükandonyadis'e şeref madalyası verildi.
 1967 - Kıbrıs Türklerinin, Rum çetelerinin saldırılarına maruz kaldığı günlerde, Rauf Denktaş gizlice Ada'ya girdi.
 1970 - Türkiye İşçi Partisi Büyük Kongresi Behice Boran'ı Genel Başkan seçti.
 1972 - Eskişehir yakınlarında bir yolcu treni ile bir yük treni çarpıştı, 30 kişi öldü, 60 kişi yaralandı.
 1984 - Hindistan Başbakanı İndira Gandhi, iki sih güvenlik görevlisinin düzenlediği suikast sonucu öldürülünce çıkan isyanlarda yaklaşık 2000 masum sih öldü.
 1989 - Turgut Özal, 263 oyla Türkiye'nin 8. Cumhurbaşkanı seçildi.
 1992 - Türk Silahlı Kuvvetleri, Irak'ın kuzeyindeki PKK üssü Haftanin kampını ele geçirdi.

 1992 - Vatikan, Dünyanın Güneşin çevresinde döndüğünü söyleyen Galileo'nun haklılığını teslim etti.
 1994 - Bir Amerikan yolcu uçağı İndiana'da düştü: 68 kişi öldü.
 1996 - Bir Brezilya yolcu uçağı Sao Paulo'da (Brezilya) düştü: 98 kişi öldü.
 1997 - Millî Güvenlik Kurulu toplantısında, 18 Kasım 1992 tarihli belge yerine kaim olmak üzere, yeniden düzenlenen Millî Güvenlik Siyaseti Belgesi uygun bulundu.
 1998 - Irak, BM silah denetleyicileri ile iş birliği yapmayacağını açıkladı.
 1999 - New York'tan Kahire'ye giden Mısır Hava Yollarına ait bir yolcu uçağı Massachusetts açıklarında düştü: 217 kişi öldü.
 2000 - Singapur Hava Yollarına ait Boeing 747 tipi bir yolcu uçağı kalkış sırasında düştü: 83 kişi öldü.
 2000 - Antonov tipi bir yolcu uçağı kalkıştan hemen sonra kuzey Angola'da infilak etti: 50 kişi öldü.
 2000 - Yatağan Termik Santrali çevresinde hava kirliliği sınır değerleri aştı, santralin 3 ünitesi durduruldu, ilçe halkına "sokağa çıkmayın" çağrısı yapıldı.
 2010 - Taksim'de bomba patladı. Taksim Meydanı'nda sürekli görev yapan çevik kuvvet ekibine saldırı düzenlendi.
 2011 - Sembolik olarak Dünya'nın 7 milyarıncı insanının doğumu.
 2012 - Taksim Yayalaştırma Projesi inşaatı başladı.
 2015 - Rus Metrojet Havayolları'na ait yolcu uçağı Mısır'dan Rusya'ya giderken havalandıktan 23 dakika sonra 214 yolcu ve 7 mürettebatla Sina Yarımadası'na düştü. 224 kişi acı olayda öldü.

Doğumlar
 1424 - III. Władysław, Polonya, Macaristan ve Hırvatistan kralı (ö. 1444)
 1451 - Kristof Kolomb, Cenovalı denizci ve kâşif (ö. 1506)
 1472 - Wang Yangming, Çinli hattat, filozof ve devlet adamı (ö. 1529)
 1599 - Denzil Holles, İngiliz asıllı yazar ve devlet adamı (ö. 1680)
 1620 - John Evelyn, İngiliz yazar (ö. 1706)
 1632 - Johannes Vermeer, Hollandalı ressam (ö. 1675)
 1638 - Meindert Hobbema, Hollandalı ressam (ö. 1709)
 1694 - Yeongjo, Joseon Hanedanlığı'nın 21. kralı (d. 1776)
 1705 - XIV. Clemens, 19 Mayıs 1769 ile 22 Eylül 1774 arasında papa (d. 1774)
 1760 - Hokusai, Japon sanatçı, ressam, oymabaskı ustası, tahta oymacısı ve ukiyo-e ressamı (ö. 1849)
 1795 - John Keats, İngiliz şair (ö. 1821)
 1815 - Karl Weierstrass, Alman matematikçi (ö. 1897)
 1828 - Joseph Wilson Swan, İngiliz fizikçi ve kimyager (ö. 1914)
 1835 - Adolf von Baeyer, Alman kimyacı ve Nobel Kimya Ödülü sahibi (ö. 1917)
 1841 - Charles B. Stoughton, Amerikalı subay ve alay komutanı (ö. 1898)
 1880 - Julia Peterkin, Amerikalı roman yazarı (ö. 1961)
 1880 - Mihail Tomski, Fabrika işçisi, sendikacı ve Bolşevik önder (ö. 1936)
 1887 - Çan Kay Şek, Çinli önder (ö. 1975)
 1892 - Aleksandr Alehin, Rus Dünya satranç şampiyonu (ö. 1946)
 1895 - Basil Liddell Hart, İngiliz asker, askeri teorisyen ve askeri tarihçi (ö. 1970)
 1896 - Ethel Waters, Amerikalı şarkıcı ve oyuncu (ö. 1977)
 1916 - Carl Johan Bernadotte, İsveç Kralı VI. Gustaf Adolf ile ilk eşi Connaught Prensesi Margaret'in dördüncü oğlu ve en küçük çocuğu (ö. 2012)
 1917 - William Hardy McNeill, Kanadalı yazar ve tarihçi (ö. 2016)
 1920 - Fritz Walter, Alman futbolcu (ö. 2002)
 1922 - Barbara Bel Geddes, Amerikalı aktris (ö. 2005)
 1922 - Norodom Sihanuk, Kamboçya Kralı (ö. 2012)
 1925 - John Pople, İngiliz matematikçi ve kimyager (ö. 2004)
 1929 - Bud Spencer, İtalyan yazar, oyuncu ve eski yüzücü (ö. 2016)
 1930 - Michael Collins, Amerikalı astronot (ö. 2021)
 1935 - David Harvey, İngiliz Coğrafya ve Antropoloji profesörü
 1936 - Michael Landon, Amerikalı sinema oyuncusu (ö. 1991)
 1939 - Ron Rifkin, Amerikalı tiyatro oyuncusu, oyuncu ve yönetmen
 1939 - Çiğdem Talu, Türk şarkı sözü yazarı (ö. 1983)
 1939 - Ali Farka Touré, Malili gitarist
 1940 - Craig Rodwell, Amerikalı gey hakları eylemcisi (ö. 1993)
 1941 - Sally Kirkland, Amerikalı film oyuncusu
 1947 - Carmen Alborch, İspanyol siyasetçi (ö. 2018)
 1942 - David Ogden Stiers, Amerikalı komedyen ve oyuncu (ö. 2018)
 1943 - Melendy Britt, Amerikalı seslendirme sanatçısı
 1945 - Barrie Keeffe, İngiliz oyun yazarı ve senarist (ö. 2019)
 1946 - Stephen Rea, İrlandalı oyuncu
 1947 - Deidre Hall, Amerikalı oyuncu
 1947 - Herman Van Rompuy, Flaman asıllı politikacı
 1950 - John Candy, Kanadalı sinema oyuncusu ve komedyen (ö. 1994)
 1950 - Zaha Hadid, İngiliz mimar (ö. 2016)
 1955 - Susan Orlean, Amerikalı gazeteci
 1959 - Neal Stephenson, Amerikalı roman ve makale yazarı
 1960 - Luis Fortuño, Porto Riko'nun eski valisi
 1960 - Rıza Pehlevi, İran'daki son hanedanlık olan sürgündeki Pehlevi Hanedanı'nın 27 Temmuz 1980'den beri şu anki başkanı
 1961 - Peter Jackson, Yeni Zelandalı film yapımcısı, senarist, yönetmen ve En İyi Yönetmen Akademi Ödülü sahibi
 1961 - Larry Mullen Jr., U2 grubunun İrlandalı kurucusu ve davulcusu
 1962 - Ayda Aksel, Türk tiyatro ve sinema oyuncusu
 1963 - Mikkey Dee, Yunan asıllı İsveçli müzisyen ve söz yazar
 1963 - Dunga, Brezilyalı eski futbolcu
 1963 - Dermot Mulroney, Amerikalı oyuncu ve yönetmen
 1963 - Rob Schneider, Amerikalı sinema oyuncusu
 1964 - Darryl Worley, Amerikalı country müzik şarkıcısı
 1968 - Vanilla Ice, Amerikalı müzisyen
 1964 - Marco van Basten, Hollanda millî takımında da oynayan emekli futbolcu ve teknik direktör
 1965 - Ruud Hesp, Hollandalı eski kaleci
 1965 - Denis Irwin, İrlandalı futbolcu
 1967 - Vanilla Ice, Amerikalı rapçi, şarkıcı ve oyuncu
 1967 - Adam Schlesinger, Amerikalı şarkıcı, söz yazarı, albüm yapımcısı ve gitarist (ö. 2020)
 1973 - Arzum Onan, Türk dizi oyuncusu
 1974 - Muzzy İzzet, Türk futbolcu
 1975 - Johnny Whitworth, Amerikalı oyuncu
 1976 - Guti Hernández, İspanyol futbolcu
 1976 - Piper Perabo, Amerikalı sinema oyuncusu
 1978 - Inka Grings, Alman teknik direktör ve eski futbolcu
 1978 - Marek Saganowski, Polonyalı millî futbolcu
 1979 - Simão Sabrosa, Portekizli futbolcu
 1980 - Samaire Armstrong, Japonya doğumlu Amerikalı aktris ve model
 1980 - Alejandro Rubén Capurro, Arjantinli futbolcu
 1981 - Frank Iero, Amerikalı müzisyen ve My Chemical Romance grubunun gitaristi
 1982 - Justin Chatwin, Kanadalı oyuncu
 1984 - Hanna Hilton, Amerikalılar porno yıldızı
 1985 - Stefani Morgan, Amerikalı porno yıldızı
 1988 - Cole Aldrich, Amerikalı profesyonel eski basketbolcu
 1988 - Sébastien Buemi, İsviçreli yarış pilotu
 1993 - Letitia Wright, Guyanalı oyuncu
 1994 - Sezgi Sena Akay, Türk oyuncu
 1995 - Predrag Rajković, Sırp futbolcu
 1996 - Musa Muhammed, Nijeryalı futbolcu
 1997 - Marcus Rashford, İngiliz futbolcu
 2005 - Leonor de Borbón, İspanya kralı VI. Felipe ve Letizia Ortiz'nın büyük çocuğu olarak İspanya tahtının varisi

Ölümler
 644 - Ebû Lü'lüe, Halife Ömer'i öldüren İranlı köle (d. yaklaşık 600)
 932 - Muktedir, 908-929 ile 929-932 dönemlerinde iki kez halife olmuştur (d. 895)
 1005 - Abe no Seimei, Japonya'da Heian döneminde önde gelen onmyōji (d. 921)
 1320 - Ricoldus de Monte Crucis, İtalyan Dominikan keşişi (d. 1243)
 1448 - VIII. İoannis, 1425 ile 1448 arasında, tek Bizans İmparatoru olarak hüküm sürmüştür (d. 1392)
 1617 - Alphonsus Rodríguez, İspanyol bir Cizvit (d. 1532)
 1659 - John Bradshaw, İngiliz hakim (d. 1602)
 1661 - Köprülü Mehmed Paşa, Osmanlı Sadrazamı (d. 1578)
 1732 - Viktor Amadeus II, Savoy Hanedanı'nın başı ve 1675'ten 1730'a kadar Savoy eyaletlerinin hükümdarıydı (d. 1666)
 1744 - Leonardo Leo, İtalyan barok besteci (d. 1694)
 1793 - Jacques Pierre Brissot, Girondistenlerin Fransız Meclisindeki sözcüsü (d. 1754)
 1806 - Kitagawa Utamaro, Japon ukiyo-e ustası (d. 1753)
 1879 - Jacob Abbott, Amerikalı çocuk kitapları yazarı (d. 1803)
 1879 - Joseph Hooker, Amerikalı general (d. 1814)
 1884 - Marie Bashkirtseff, Ukrayna doğumlu ressam ve heykeltıraş (d. 1858)
 1916 - Charles Taze Russell, Amerikalı restorasyoncu yazar ve pastör (d. 1852)
 1918 - Egon Schiele, Avusturyalı ressam (d. 1890)
 1925 - Mikhail Frunze, Sovyet askerlik teorisyeni ve Kızıl Ordu'nun kurucularından (d. 1885)
 1926 - Harry Houdini, Macar asıllı Amerikalı illüzyonist (d. 1874)
 1932 - Ali Rıza Paşa, Osmanlı İmparatorluğu Sadrazamı (d. 1860)
 1939 - Otto Rank, Avusturyalı psikanalist, yazar ve filozof (d. 1884)
 1943 - Max Reinhardt, Alman sinema yönetmeni (d. 1873)
 1945 - Henry Ainley, İngiliz sinema oyuncusu (d. 1879)
 1962 - Louis Massignon, Fransız Katolik bir İslam alimi ve Katolik-Müslüman karşılıklı anlayışının öncülerindendir (d. 1883)
 1963 - Mesut Cemil, Türk besteci (d. 1902)
 1963 - Henry Daniell, İngiliz oyuncu (d. 1894)
 1964 - Theodore Freeman, Amerikalı bir havacılık mühendisi, ABD Hava Kuvvetleri subayı, test pilotu ve NASA astronotuydu (d. 1930)
 1965 - Rita Johnson, Amerikalı oyuncu (d. 1913)
 1973 - Malik bin Nebi, Cezayirli yazar ve fikir adamı (d. 1905)
 1983 - George Halas, Amerikalı Amerikan futbolu oyuncusu, koçu ve takım sahibi (d. 1895)
 1983 - Şerif Raşidov, Özbek Sovyet Sosyalist Cumhuriyeti Komünist Parti lideri (d. 1917)
 1984 - İndira Gandhi, Hint siyasetçi (d. 1917)
 1985 - Nikos Engonopulos, Yunan şair ve ressam (d. 1910)
 1986 - Robert S. Mulliken, Amerikalı fizikçi, kimyacı ve Nobel Kimya Ödülü sahibi (d. 1896)
 1993 - Federico Fellini, İtalyan yönetmen (d. 1920)
 1993 - Berna Moran, Türk yazar (d. 1921)
 1993 - River Phoenix, Amerikalı sinema oyuncusu (d. 1970)
 1996 - Marcel Carné, Fransız sinema yönetmeni (d. 1906)
 2002 - Mihail Stasinopulos, Yunanistan Cumhuriyeti'nin 1. Cumhurbaşkan (d. 1903)
 2003 - Fuat Örer, Türk öykü ve oyun yazarı (d. 1939)
 2006 - Pieter Willem Botha, Güney Afrika'nın ilk Devlet Başkanı (d. 1916)
 2007 - Erdal İnönü, Türk bilim insanı ve siyasetçi (d. 1926)
 2010 - Evlin Bağçeban,  Türk müzisyen ve şarkıcı (d. 1928)
 2011 - Flórián Albert, Macar futbolcu (d. 1941)
 2014 - Ciguli, Türk müzisyen ve akordeon virtüözü (d. 1957)
 2016 - Silvio Gazzaniga, İtalyan heykeltıraş (d. 1921)
 2016 - Vladimir Zeldin, Rus tiyatro, sinema ve dizi oyuncusu (d. 1915)
 2017 - Mircea Drăgan, Rumen film yönetmeni (d. 1932)
 2017 - Abubakari Yakubu, Ganalı futbolcu (d. 1981)
 2019 - Ebrahim Abadi, İranlı tiyatro ve sinema oyuncusu (d. 1934)
 2019 - Enrico Braggiotti, Monakolu bankacı ve siyasetçi (d. 1923)
 2019 - Tarania Clarke, Jamaikalı millî futbolcu (d. 1999)
 2019 - Ann Crumb, Amerikalı oyuncu, şarkıcı ve hayvan hakları savunucusu (d. 1950)
 2019 - Geetanjali, Hint oyuncu (d. 1947)
 2019 - Florence Giorgetti, Fransız tiyatro ve sinema oyuncusu (d. 1944)
 2020 - Sean Connery, İskoç sinema oyuncusu ve Oscar ödülü sahibi (d. 1930)
 2020 - Charles Gordon, Amerikalı film yapımcısı (d. 1947)
 2020 - Necmeddin Kerim, Iraklı Kürt siyasetçi, doktor ve eski Kerkük valisi (d. 1949)
 2020 - Arturo Lona Reyes, Meksikalı piskopos (d. 1925)
 2020 - MF Doom, İngiliz-Amerikalı rap müzik sanatçısı (d. 1971)
 2020 - Marius Žaliūkas, Litvan millî futbolcu (d. 1983)
 2021 - Doğan Akhanlı, Türk yazar (d. 1957)
 2021 - Frank Farrar, Amerikalı siyasetçi ve hukukçu (d. 1929)
 2021 - Dorothy Manley, İngiliz kısa mesafe koşucusu (d. 1927)
 2021 - Antonia Terzi, İtalyan aerodinamikçi ve mühendis (d. 1971)
 2021 - Catherine Tizard, Yeni Zelandalı siyasetçi (d. 1931)
 2021 - António Topa, Portekizli mühendis ve siyasetçi (d. 1954)
 2021 - Andrzej Zaorski, Polonyalı aktör, seslendirmen ve kabare sanatçısı (d. 1942)

Tatiller ve özel günler
 Cadılar Bayramı

1031
31

31 Ekim


Pierre Paul Ferdinand Mourier de Neergaard (født 19. februar 1907, Nyborg, død 13. november 1987, København) var en dansk agronom og esperantist.

Neergaard betragtes som stamfaderen til frøpatologi, idet han sammen med Mary Noble udtænkte begrebet i 1940'erne.

Karriere
Neergaard fik en mellemskoleeksamen fra Herlufsholm i 1924 og herefter en realeksamen fra Østersøgades Gymnasium i København i 1925. Han fik efterfølgende en gartneruddanelse på Det kgl. danske Haveselskabs have på Frederiksberg 1925-28.

Efter endt uddannelse blev han ansat på Royers planteskole og handelsgartner Versailles 1929. Tilbage i København tog han en eksamen i hortonomi i 1932, og han blev lic.agro. i 1935 og efterfølgende Dr.agro. 1945.

I perioden 1936-51 var han ansat som forsøgsleder hos J. E. Ohlsens Enke 1936-51. Han var også konsulent for Ferrosan fra 1943-52. I 1956 blev han formand for Plantesygdomskomiteen hos International Seed Testing Association (ISTA), hvor han bl.a. hjalp med et etablerede standardiserede metoder til at detektere frøbårne snyltesvampe. Han var formand indtil 1974.
Neergaard tjente var leder for Frøpatologisk institut for udviklingslandene fra 1966-1982.

Neergaard skrev et 2-binds værk kaldet Seed Pathology (1977), som omhandlede en bred række plantepatologiske problemer, som bl.a. den økonomiske betydning af frøbårne sygdomme. Det har siden tjent som referenceværk og lærebog inden for frøpatologi over store dele af verden.

Neergard var professor på universiteter i Beirut (Lebanon) og Mysore.

Neergard var en aktiv fortaler for det internationale kunstsprog esperanto. Han var medlem af Esperanto Akademiet, og han udgav flere bøger på esperanto, om naturvidenskab og lingvistik.

Bibliografi
 Seed Pathology, to bind
 1.-15. Årsberetning fra J. E. Ohlsens Enkes plantepatologiske laboratorium.

På Esperanto
 Atakoj kontraŭ ĝardenplantoj
 La vivo de la plantoj (Planternes liv)
 Terminaro Hortikultura (På seks sprog)
 Eta Krestomatio
 Tra Densa Mallumo
 Fremdvortoj en Esperanto
 Scienco kaj Pseŭdoscienco pri Heredo kaj Raso
 La Esperantologio kaj ties Disciplinoj. Taskoj kaj Rezultoj

Referencer

Biologer fra Danmark
Agronomer fra Danmark
Professorer fra Danmark
Mykologer fra Danmark
Plantepatologer fra Danmark

Paul Neergaard


Lağımcılık, en basit anlamıyla, her türlü tahkimatı (siperler, kale duvarları ya da surlar) aşmak için kuşatmalarda kullanılan bir tekniktir. Bu teknikte lağımcılar, ucu tahkimata yönelen tüneller kazmak suretiyle ulaşırlar ve çoğu uygulamada patlayıcı madde kullanarak tahkimatta gedik açmaya çalışırlar. Zaman zaman da bu tüneller tahkimatın hemen önüne ya da hemen gerisine, değişen büyüklükte birlik aktarmak için kullanılır. Bu teknik günümüzde de savaşlarda kullanılmaktadır.

Ayrıca
 Lağımcı Ocağı

Savaş teknikleri

Lağımcılık


Tilenchidele (Tylenchida) este un ordin de nematozi paraziți la plante, din clasa Secernentea, de talie redusă, cu lungimea corpului în jur de 1 mm, rareori de câțiva milimetri. Gura este armată cu un stilet (stoma transformată într-un stomatostilet) protractil caracteristic. Esofagul în zona corpului prezintă un bulb median (valvular sau nevalvular) și unul bazal posterior în regiunea posterioară (istmul),  glandulară. Canalul excretor lateral este limitat la o singură coardă hipodermică. Majoritatea reprezentanților acestui ordin sunt paraziți pe plante (fitoparaziți) și într-o măsură redusă sunt forme foretice sau endoparazite la insecte. Cele mai des întâlnite specii din acest ordin sunt Anguina tritici (parazitează la grau), Heterodera schachtii (parazit la sfeclă), Meloidogyne incognita (produce gale ale rădăcinilor). Ordinul Tylenchida este reprezentat prin două subordine: Tylenchina (cu 3 suprafamilii Criconematoidea, Tylenchoidea și Sphaerulariina) și Aphelenchina (cu o singură  suprafamilie Aphelenchoidea). Aceste subordine se deosebesc prin poziția orificiului canalului glandei esofagiene dorsale, și anume în partea anterioară a esofagului și în apropierea bazei stiletului la Tylenchina, în timp ce la Aphelenchina se află în interiorul bulbului median. În unele clasificări subordinul Aphelenchina  este ridicat în rang de ordin, Aphelenchida.

Note

Tylenchida

Tilenchide


The Japanese macaque (Macaca fuscata), also known as the snow monkey, is a terrestrial Old World monkey species that is native to Japan. Colloquially, they are referred to as "snow monkeys" because some live in areas where snow covers the ground for months each year – no other non-human primate lives farther north, nor in a colder climate. Individuals have brownish grey fur, pinkish-red faces, and short tails. Two subspecies are known.

In Japan, the species is known as Nihonzaru (ニホンザル, a combination of Nihon 日本 "Japan" + saru 猿 "monkey") to distinguish it from other primates, but the Japanese macaque is very familiar in Japan — as it is the only species of monkey in Japan — so when Japanese people simply say saru, they usually have the Japanese macaque in mind.

Physical characteristics

The Japanese macaque is sexually dimorphic. Males weigh on average , while females average . Macaques from colder areas tend to weigh more than ones from warmer areas. The average height for males is , while the average female height is . The weight of their brain is approximately . Japanese macaques have short stumps for tails that average  in males and  in females. The macaque has a pinkish face and posterior. The rest of its body is covered in brown or greyish hair. The coat of the macaque is well-adapted to the cold and its thickness increases as temperatures decrease. The macaque can cope with temperatures as low as −20 °C (−4 °F).

Macaques mostly move on all fours. They are semiterrestrial, with females spending more time in the trees and males spending more time on the ground. Macaques are known to leap. They are very good swimmers and have been reported to swim a distance of more than half a kilometer. The lifespan of Japanese macaques is up to 32 years for females and up to 28 years for males, which is high when compared to what typically is seen in other macaque species.

Behavior

Group structure

Japanese macaques live in matrilineal societies, and females stay in their natal groups for life, while males move out before they are sexually mature. Macaque groups tend to contain adults of both sexes. In addition, a Japanese macaque troop contains several matrilines. These matrilines may exist in a dominance hierarchy with all members of a specific group ranking over members of a lower-ranking group. Temporary all-male groups also exist, composed of those who have recently left their natal groups and are about to transfer to another group. However, many males spend ample time away from any group, and may leave and join several groups.

Females of the troop exist in a stable dominance hierarchy and a female's rank depends on that of her mother. Younger females tend to rank higher than their older siblings. Higher-ranking matrilines have greater social cohesion. Strong relationships with dominant females can allow dominant males to retain their rank when they otherwise would not. Males within a group normally have a dominance hierarchy, with one male having alpha status. The dominance status of male macaques usually changes when a former alpha male leaves or dies. Other ways in which status of male hierarchy changes, is when an alpha male loses his rank or when a troop splits, leaving a new alpha male position open. The longer a male is in a troop, the higher his status is likely to be.

Females typically maintain both social relationships and hygiene through grooming. Grooming occurs regardless of climate or season. Females who are matrilineally related groom each other more often than unrelated individuals. Females will groom unrelated females to maintain group cohesion and social relationships between different kinships in a troop. Nevertheless, a female will only groom a limited number of other females, even if the group expands. Females will groom males, usually for hygienic purposes, but that behavior also may serve to attract dominant males to the group. Mothers pass their grooming techniques to their offspring, most probably through social rather than genetic means, as a cultural characteristic.

Documented female troop leadership
Yakei is a female who rose to leadership of her troop at Takasakiyama Natural Zoological Garden in 2021. Her troop consists of 677 Japanese macaque monkeys who live in a sanctuary that was established in 1952 at the zoological garden. At age nine, she overthrew the dominant males in her troop and displaced her high-ranking mother as well. She became the first female leader of the troop during its recorded history of seventy years. Yakei has retained her leadership position through her first breeding season that had been thought to be a time when she might have been challenged successfully. Both scientific and popular interest is leading to extensive coverage of Yakei's behavior.

Mating and parenting

A male and female macaque form a pair bond and mate, feed, rest, and travel together during the mating season, and on average, this relationship typically lasts 16 days. Females enter into consortships with an average of four males a season. Higher-ranking males have longer consortships than their subordinates. In addition, higher-ranking males try to disrupt consortships of lower-ranking males. Females may choose to mate with males of any rank. However, dominant males mate more frequently than others, as they are more successful in mate guarding. The female decides whether mating takes place. In addition, a dominant position does not mean a male will successfully mate with a female. Males may join other troops temporarily during the mating season and mate with those females.

During the mating season, the face and genitalia of males redden and their tails stand erect, and the faces and anogenital regions of females turn scarlet. Macaques copulate both on the ground and in the trees. Roughly one in three copulations leads to ejaculation. Macaques signal when they are ready to mate by looking backward over a shoulder, staying still, or walking backward toward their potential partner. A female emits a "squawk", a "squeak", or produces an atonal "cackle" during copulation. Males have no copulatory vocalizations.

Females engage in same-sex mounting unrelated to the mating season and therefore, are mounted more often by other females than by males. This behavior has led to proposals in literature that female Japanese macaques are generally bisexual, rather than preferentially homo- or heterosexual.

A macaque mother moves to the periphery of her troop to give birth in a secluded spot, unless the group is moving, when the female must stay with it. Macaques usually give birth on the ground. Infants are born with dark-brown hair. A mother and her infant tend to avoid other troop members. The infants consume their first solid food at five to six weeks old, and by seven weeks, can forage independently from their mothers. A mother carries her infant on her belly for its first four weeks. After this time, the mother carries her infant on her back, as well. Infants continue to be carried past a year. The mother may socialize again very slowly. However, alloparenting has been observed, usually by females who have not had infants of their own. Male care of infants occurs in some groups, but not in others; when they do, usually, older males protect, groom, and carry an infant as a female would.

Infants have fully developed their locomotive abilities within three to four months. When an infant is seven months old, its mother discourages suckling; full weaning happens by its eighteenth month.

In some populations, male infants tend to play in larger groups more often than females. However, female infants have more social interaction than their male counterparts, and female infants will associate with individuals of all ages and sexes. When males are two years old, they prefer to associate with other males around the same age.

Communication
During feeding or moving, Japanese macaques often emit sounds that are called "coos". These vocalizations most likely serve to keep the troop together and strengthen social relations among females. Macaques usually respond to coos with coos of their own. Coos also are uttered before grooming along with vocalizations identified as "girney" calls. Variants of the "girney" calls are made in different contexts. This call also serves as appeasement between individuals in aggressive encounters. Macaques have alarm calls for alerting to danger and other calls to signal estrus that sound similar to danger alerts. Threat calls are heard during aggressive encounters and are often uttered by supporters of those involved in antagonistic interactions. The individual being supported supports those callers in the future.

Intelligence and culture

The Japanese macaque is an intelligent species. Researchers studying this species at Koshima Island in Japan left sweet potatoes out on the beach for them to eat, then witnessed one female, named Imo (Japanese for yam or potato), washing the food off with river water rather than brushing it off as the others were doing, and later even dipping her clean food into salty seawater. After a while, other members of her troop started to copy her behavior. This trait was then passed on from generation to generation, until eventually all except the oldest members of the troop were washing their food and even seasoning it in the sea. Similarly, she was the first observed balling up wheat with air pockets and soil, throwing it all into the water, and waiting for the wheat to float back up free from the soil to consume it. An altered misaccount of this incident is the basis for the "hundredth monkey" effect. That behavior also spread among her troop members.

The macaque has other unusual behaviours, including bathing together in hot springs and rolling snowballs for fun. Also, in recent studies, the Japanese macaque has been found to develop different accents, similar to human cultures. Macaques in areas separated by only a few hundred miles may have very different pitches in their calls, their form of communication. The Japanese macaque has been involved in many studies concerning neuroscience and also is used in drug testing.

Ecology
The Japanese macaque is diurnal. In colder areas, from autumn to early winter, macaques feed in between different activities. In the winter, macaques have two to four feeding bouts each day, with fewer daily activities. In the spring and summer, they have two or three bouts of feeding daily. In warmer areas such as Yakushima, daily activities are more varied. The typical day for a macaque is 20.9% inactive, 22.8% traveling, 23.5% feeding, 27.9% social grooming, 1.2% self-grooming, and 3.7% other activities. Macaques usually sleep in trees, but they also sleep on the ground, as well as on or near rocks and fallen trees. During the winter, macaques huddle together for warmth on sleeping grounds. Macaques at Jigokudani Monkey Park are notable for visiting the hot springs in the winter to warm up.

Diet

The Japanese macaque is omnivorous and eats a variety of foods. More than 213 species of plants are included in the macaque's diet. They also eat insects, bark, and soil. On Yakushima Island, fruit, mature leaves, and fallen seeds are primarily eaten. The macaque also eats fungi, ferns, invertebrates, and other parts of plants. In addition, in Yakushima, their diets vary seasonally with fruits being eaten in the summer and herbs being eaten in the winter. Farther north, macaques mostly eat seasonal foods such as fruit and nuts to store fat for the winter, when food is scarce. On the northern island of Kinkasan, macaques mostly eat fallen seeds, herbs, young leaves, and fruits. When preferred food items are not available, macaques dig up underground plant parts (roots or rhizomes) or eat soil and fish.

Distribution and habitat
The Japanese macaque is the northernmost-living non-human primate. It is found on three of the four main Japanese islands, south of the Blakiston's Line: Honshu, Shikoku, and Kyushu. The northernmost populations live on the Shimokita Peninsula, the northernmost point of Honshu. Several of Japan's smaller islands are inhabited by macaques as well. The southernmost population living on Yakushima Island is a subspecies of the mainland macaques, M. fuscata yakui. A study in 1989 estimated the total population of wild Japanese macaques to be 114,431 individuals.

The Japanese macaque lives in a variety of habitats. It inhabits subtropical forests in the southern part of its range and subarctic forests in mountainous areas in the northern part of its range. It can be found in both warm and cool forests, such as the deciduous forests of central and northern Japan and the broadleaf evergreen forests in the southwest of the islands. Warm temperate evergreen and broadleaf forests and cool temperate deciduous broadleaf forests are the most important habitats for macaques.

In 1972, a troop of approximately 150 Japanese macaques was relocated from Kyoto to a primate observatory in southwest Texas, United States. The observatory is an enclosed ranch-style environment and the macaques have been allowed to roam with minimal human interference. At first, many perished in the unfamiliar habitat, which consists of arid brushland. The macaques eventually adapted to the environment, learned to avoid predators (such as eagles, coyotes, and rattlesnakes), and they learned to forage for mesquite beans, cactus fruits, and other foods. The surviving macaques flourished, and by 1995, the troop consisted of 500 to 600 individuals. In 1996, hunters maimed or killed four escaped macaques; as a result, legal restrictions were publicly clarified and funds were raised to establish a new  sanctuary near Dilley, Texas. In 1999, the Animal Protection Institute took over management of the sanctuary and began to rescue other species of primates. As of 2017, the troop cohabitated with six other species of macaque.

Relationship with humans

Traditional human behaviors that are threats to macaques have been slash-and-burn agriculture, use of forest woods for construction and fuel, and hunting. Since World War II, these threats have declined due to social and economic changes in Japan, but other threats have emerged. The replacement of natural forests with lumber plantations is the most serious threat. As human prosperity has grown, macaques have lost their fear of humans and have increased their presence in both rural and urban areas, with one macaque recorded living in central Tokyo for several months. In 2022 the city of Yamaguchi experienced aggression from the monkeys with at least 50 people attacked.

Cultural depictions

The Japanese macaque (snow monkey) has featured prominently in the religion, folklore, and art of Japan, as well as in proverbs and idiomatic expressions in the Japanese language.

In Shinto belief, mythical beasts known as raijū sometimes appeared as monkeys and kept Raijin, the god of lightning, company. The "three wise monkeys", who warn people to "see no evil, hear no evil and speak no evil", are carved in relief over the door of the famous Tōshō-gū shrine in Nikkō.

The Japanese macaque is a feature of several fairy tales, such as the tale of Momotarō and the fable about The Crab and the Monkey.

The monkey is part of the Chinese zodiac. That zodiac has been used for centuries in Japan and led to many representations of the macaque for that figure.

The creature was sometimes portrayed in paintings of the rich cultural epoch, the Edo period that flourished from 1603 to 1867, as a tangible metaphor for a particular year. The early nineteenth-century artist and samurai, Watanabe Kazan (1793-1841), created a painting of a macaque. The last great master of the ukiyo-e genre of woodblock printing and painting, Tsukioka Yoshitoshi, also featured the macaques in his prints. Also during the Edo period, numerous clasps for kimono or tobacco pouches (collectively called netsuke) were carved in the shape of macaques.

Spoken references to macaques abound in the history of Japan. Originating from before his rise to power, the famed samurai, Toyotomi Hideyoshi, was compared to a monkey in appearance and nicknamed Kozaru ("Little Monkey"). In modern Japanese culture, because monkeys are considered to indulge their libido openly and frequently (much the same way as rabbits are thought to in some Western cultures), a man who is preoccupied with sex might be compared to or metaphorically referred to as a monkey, as might a romantically involved couple who are exceptionally amorous.

References

Further reading

External links

Snow Monkey Resorts official site
Jigokudani Yaen-Koen info page
AcaPixus images of Japanese macaque
Primate info net Macaca fuscata factsheet
Human factors and activities around Jigokudani-Shigakogen Forest Park

Articles containing video clips
Primates of East Asia
Endemic mammals of Japan
Japanese macaque
Japanese macaque
Japanese macaque
Tool-using mammals

Japanese macaque


Fitness (), fiziksel uygunluk anlamına gelen, günlük hayatta daha çok zindelik ve fiziksel uygunluk için yapılan egzersizlerin bütünü için kullanılan terim.

Fitness ile vücut geliştirme () farklı kavramlardır. Vücut geliştirme profesyonel olarak müsabakalarda yarışmak için kas geliştirme iken fitness, zinde olmak ya da uğraşılan spora özgü fiziksel gereksinimleri sağlamak için vücudu fiziksel olarak hazırlamaktır.

Unutulmaması gereken şey fiziksel uygunluğun genel yanılgının aksine sadece kas gruplarını geliştirmekten ibaret olmadığıdır. Farklı sporlar ya da amaçlara göre fiziksel uygunluk kavramı da farklı anlamlara gelebilir. Örneğin bir futbolcunun fiziksel uygunluk, yani fitness düzeyi yaptığı iş gereği çeviklik, çabukluk, aerobik ve anaerobik enerji sistemlerinin gelişmiş olmasıyla meydana gelir. Bunun yanı sıra bir sumo güreşçisinin de fiziksel uygunluk düzeyi, onun yaptığı iş gereği bir futbolcuya göre daha yağlı bir vücut gerektirir. Yani ilgilenilmek istenilen alana bağlı olarak fitness farklı anlamlar ifade edebilmektedir.

Egzersizler
Her kişiye ve belirlenen amaca göre antrenman programları farklılık arz eder. Fitness sporunda kesin bir antrenman standardından söz edilemez. Yani her yaşın, her hayat tarzının ve vücut tipinin birbirinden farklı olarak; bir uzman tarafından takip edilen çalışma programı olmalıdır. Bu spor belirli kalıp ve hedefleri olmadığından dolayı her yaşta yapılabilir. Örneğin 16 yaşında ya da 55 yaşında bu spora başlanabilir.

Kardiyovasküler egzersizler
Kardiyovasküler egzersizler ya da kısaca kardiyo, yüksek kalp ritminde tekrarlayan hareketlerle yapılan egzersizlerdir. Bu tip egzersizlerde  kas liflerini geliştirme ana hedef değil dolaylı şekilde ve sınırlı erişilen bir sonuçtur. Kardiyo egzersizlerinin temel hedefi kalp-damar sisteminin (kardiyovasküler sistem) performansını artırmak, aerobik ve anaerobik egzersizlerle kasların dayanıklılığını ve kondisyonunu artırmaktır. Kardiyo egzersizlerine örnek olarak yüzme, koşu, yürüyüş, bisiklet, ip atlama vb. verilebilir.

Yüksek oksijene ihtiyaç duyulan zamanlarda kardiyovasküler sistem çalışma hızını artırarak kaslara daha fazla oksijen taşımak ve kaslarda biriken karbondioksidi daha hızlı şekilde vücuttan uzaklaştırmaya çalışır. Bazen (örneğin koşu yaparken) metabolizmadaki bu artış oksijen ihtiyacını karşılamaya yetmez ve kaslar yüksek oranda oksijensiz solunum yapmaya başlarlar. Bu aşamadan sonra kaslarda yorgunluk ve oksijensiz kalma gibi rahatsız edici durumlar gözlenmeye başlar. Kardiyo egzersizlerinin temel amacı kasları ve kardiyovasküler sistemin çalışma temposunu artırarak kas kondisyonunu ve dayanıklılığı artırmaktır.

Ağırlık antrenmanları
Ağırlık egzersizleri ile, belirli kas gruplarının ya da bütün kasların, tek tek ya da kas gruplarıyla beraber, aletli ya da aletsiz çalıştırılmasıyla sıkılaştırılması ve güçlendirilmesi amaçlanır. Esasen bütün sporlar dallarında fitnessta kullanılan egzersizler yer alır yahut bir spor dalına özel bir egzersiz fitnessta yer alabilir. Çünkü her spor dalında vücutta ağırlıklı kullanılan kas grupları vardır. Bu kas gruplarına kondisyon kazandırılması için yapılan egzersizlerin pek çoğu fitness egzersizleri olarak da kullanılmaktadır.

Squat, bench press ve deadlift temel üç ağırlık egzersizleridir. Ağırlık idmanları bu üç ana egzersiz üzerine kurulmuştur. Bu üç ana egzersiz vücudumuzun en büyük 3 kas grubunu çalıştırmaktadır: Bacak, sırt, göğüs..

Ağırlık idmanlarında önemli olan noktalar tekrar sayısı ve setler arasındaki dinlenme süresidir. Tekrar sayısı ve dinlenme süresi doğru kas gelişimini sağlar. Kasın büyümesi, sabit kalması veya yağ yakımı bu tekrar sayısı ve dinlenme süresine de bağlıdır. Ağırlık idmanları, beslenme ile desteklenerek istenilen sonuca ulaşır.

Ağırlık antrenmanları için pek çok farklı yöntem kullanılmaktadır. Bazı yöntemler ve eğitmenler vücudun kendi ağırlığını kullanırken bazıları salonlarda kullanılan makinelerle, daha izole bir çalışmayı tercih etmektedirler. Bu yöntemler arasında belirgin bir performans farkı bulunmamaktadır, seçim yapmak tamamen sporcunun kendi inisiyatifine ve imkanlarına kalmıştır.

Dikkat edilmesi gereken konular

Antrenmana başlamadan önce risklerini öğrenmek gerekir. Uygun kıyafet giyilmeli ve özellikle spor ayakkabı seçimine dikkat edilmelidir. Uzman eğitmenlerin vereceği antrenman programına uyulmalıdır. Sakatlanmamak için antrenman öncesi hafif hareketler veya fonksiyonel hareketlerle adalenin ısınması gerekmektedir. Ağırlık egzersizinde hareketlerin nizami yapılması önemlidir. Yeni başlanıyorsa hafif bir antrenman uygulanmalı zamanla ağırlıklar arttırılmalıdır. Ayrıca fitness sadece antrenmana dayanmaz, düzenli bir yaşamı ve kontrollü bir beslenmeyi de gerekli kılar. Beslenme konusu fitness yapanlar için çok önemlidir ve bu sporda başarının temel ayaklarından biridir.

Kaynakça

Ayrıca bakınız
 Egzersiz fizyolojisi
Vücut geliştirme
CPR
Olimpiyat Oyunları

Egzersiz
Fitness
Güç antrenmanı

Fitness


ملعب تورينو الأولمبي ملعب متعدد الاستخدامات لعدة رياضات يقع في مدينة تورينو الإيطالية. يعتبر الملعب الرئيسي لمباريات نادي تورينو. تم افتتاحه في 1933، ويتسع لحضور 27,994 متفرج.

مراجع

وصلات خارجية
  الموقع الرسمي

الرياضة في تورينو
ملاعب ألعاب القوى (المضمار والميدان) في إيطاليا
ملاعب أولمبية
ملاعب الألعاب الأولمبية الشتوية 2006
ملاعب الدوري الإيطالي
ملاعب بطولة أمم أوروبا 1980
ملاعب رياضية اكتملت في 1933
ملاعب رياضية في إيطاليا
ملاعب رياضية في بييمونتي
ملاعب كأس العالم 1934
أ
نادي تورينو
ملاعب رياضية في تورينو

ملعب تورينو الأولمبي


Hamaksya, Antalya il sınırları Alanya ilçesi yakınlarındaki antik kent.

Hamaksya, Alanya'ya 12 kilometre uzaktadır. Antik çağda Pamfilya bölgesi içindeki kent için dönemin coğrafyacısı Strabon, gemi yapımında kullanılan sedir ağaçlarının bol olduğunu yazar.

Kentin, Roma Dönemi öncesi yerleşime açıldığı sanılmaktadır. Dağlık arazideki kentin en tepe noktasında rektogonal taşlardan yapılmış bir kulenin varlığı söz konusudur. Helenistik dönemin özelliklerini de taşıyan kentin önemli kalıntıları arasında önünde havuzu ile antik bir çeşme vardır. Yarım daire planlı, oturma sıraları halen ayakta duran ve yazıtlarla donatılmış geniş bir eksedra, dini yapı kompeksi ve nekropol kentin öteki kalıntıları arasında sayılabilir. Kentte bulunan yazıtlardan birinde haberci tanrı Hermes'in sembolü Kaduceus'un işlenmiş olması, Hermes adına bir tapınağın varlığının göstermektedir. Kent, İsa'dan sonra 2. ve 3. yüzyıllarda Korakesion'a (Alanya) bağlı olarak varlığını sürdüren küçük yerleşimdir.

Ören yerine giriş ücretsizdir. Kentin deniz tarafına bakan yamacından Alanya manzarası çok güzeldir. Akdeniz'de pusun olmadığı havada 100 kilometreden uzun kıyı şeridinde Gazipaşa'dan Manavgat'a kadar uzanan bölgeyi seyretmek olasıdır.

Antalya ilindeki arkeolojik sitler
Alanya
Türkiye'deki antik kentler

Hamaksya


Jet Airways (India) Limited, trading as Jet Airways, was an Indian airline based in Delhi, with a training and developmental centre in Mumbai. Incorporated in April 1992 as a limited liability company, the airline began operations as an air taxi operator in 1993. It began full-fledged operations in 1995 with international flights added in 2004. The airline went public in 2005 and in 2007, when it acquired Air Sahara. It was the first and only privately owned Indian airline before the founding of Vistara in 2015. The airline is expected to re-commence its flight operations by the end of 2023, making it the first Indian airline to be revived after ceasing operations.

It grew to be one of the largest airlines in India, with a 21.2% passenger market share in February 2016. It operated over 300 flights daily to 74 destinations worldwide from its erstwhile main hub at Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj International Airport in Mumbai and secondary hubs at Chennai International Airport in Chennai, Indira Gandhi International Airport in New Delhi, Kempegowda International Airport in Bengaluru, Cochin International Airport in Kochi and Netaji Subhas Chandra Bose International Airport in Kolkata.

With its competitors, mainly SpiceJet and IndiGo, lowering ticket fares in the following years, it was forced to follow suit, hurting overall performance resulting in steep financial losses. It dropped to second place behind IndiGo in October 2017, with a passenger market share of 17.8%. The downward slide continued and resulted in bankruptcy in 2019. Jet Airways ceased operations in April 2019.

In 2020, Jet Airways was taken over by an investment company Kalrock with a view to restart operations in 2022, which however did not happen due to financial problems and ongoing proceedings with the National Company Law Tribunal (NCLT). The airline is now expected to restart operations in 2024, with Jalan-Kalrock's ownership retained.

History
The airline was granted a scheduled airline status on 14 January 1995. It entered into a marketing agreement with KLM the same year. In 1996, the airline placed a $375 million order for four 737-400 and six 737-800 aircraft from Boeing, which were delivered between 1997 and 2000. Jet Airways was the first airline in Southeast Asia to order the 737-800. In the financial year 1996–97, the airline carried 2.4 million passengers and had a market share of 20 percent, second highest after state-owned Indian Airlines. By this time, the airline had a fleet of twelve Boeing 737 aircraft, operating 83 daily flights to 23 domestic destinations. In 1997, the Cabinet Committee on Foreign Investment (CCFI) of the Government of India announced that foreign airlines would no longer be permitted to take an equity stake in joint ventures with Indian aviation companies, reversing the Government's earlier policy which had allowed carriers such as Gulf Air, Kuwait Airways and Lufthansa to hold a maximum 40% equity stake in their joint ventures with Indian partners. In October 1997, as per this directive, Naresh Goyal took back control of Trade Winds from its foreign investors.

At the Paris Air Show in June 1999, Jet Airways announced an order worth approximately $550 million for ten Boeing 737-800 aircraft. The airline purchased its first Boeing 737-400 simulator from CAE Inc. in 2001. By April 2001, the airline fleet had grown to 30 aircraft and was operating over 195 flights daily to 37 destinations within India. Jet Airways suffered losses for the first time since its establishment in financial year 2001–2002 as demand fell and costs increased. Jet Airways was announced as launch customer for the Embraer 175 at the Farnborough air show in 2002, with an order for ten aircraft and ten options worth $520 million. But the deal was postponed due to the airline's financial difficulties and eventually fell through.
In 2003, the Indian government decided to allow private carriers to operate international services to countries in south Asia, such as Bangladesh, Nepal, and Sri Lanka.
 and Jet began preparations to launch international services.
The airline launched its first international flight in March 2004 from Chennai to Colombo.

Jet Airways was listed on the Bombay Stock Exchange and became a public company on 28 December 2004. After the Government lifted the foreign ownership limits on Indian airlines to 49% from the previous 40%, the airline moved to raise funds via an IPO. The company's IPO in February 2005, which offered 20% of the airline's stock, saw strong interest from investors leading to oversubscription in retail, non-institutional and institutional tranches and raised Rs 18.9 billion, instantly making Naresh Goyal a paper billionaire. Towards the end of 2004, the government had announced that privately owned scheduled carriers meeting certain criteria could operate to all countries apart from those in the Middle East. Then in January 2005, the Ministry of Civil Aviation granted rights to Jet Airways to operate services to London Heathrow. The airline started its first international, long-haul flight to London in May 2005 with two-class Airbus A340-300s sub-leased from South African Airways.

Growth and expansion
In January 2006, Jet Airways announced its intention to acquire Air Sahara for  in an all-cash deal; however, the deal fell through in June 2006. On 12 April 2007, the deal was back on track with Jet Airways agreeing to pay . On 16 April 2007, Air Sahara was renamed as JetLite and was marketed between a low-cost carrier and a full-service airline. JetLite became a wholly owned subsidiary of Jet Airways. In August 2008, Jet Airways announced its plans to integrate JetLite into Jet Airways. In October 2008, Jet Airways laid off 1,900 of its employees, who were later re-instated due to intervention from the Ministry of Civil Aviation. In October 2008, Jet Airways entered into an alliance with rival Kingfisher Airlines for code-sharing on domestic and international flights, collaboration on frequent-flyer program and sharing crew and ground handling equipment. On 8 May 2009, Jet Airways launched another low-cost brand, Jet Konnect. It operated a fleet of Boeing 737 Next Generation and ATR 72 aircraft and operated on profitable short-haul routes with higher passenger load factors.

Consolidation
In the third quarter of 2010, Jet Airways became the largest airline in India with a passenger market share of 22.6%. In July 2012, the airline officially sought government approval to join Star Alliance. Jet Airways is not a member of Star Alliance as of 2017. In June 2011, it became the first domestic airline in India to ban meat products and liquids in check-in baggage. Jet Airways merged the JetLite brand into Jet Konnect on 25 March 2012 and started offering business-class seats after the demise of Kingfisher Airlines. In 2013, Etihad Airways planned to buy a stake in the airline following the government's announcement in September 2012 that foreign airlines could take a stake of up to 49% in Indian carriers. On 24 April 2013, Jet announced that it was ready to sell a 24% stake in the airline to Etihad for . The deal, which was expected to be signed in January 2013, was postponed and was completed on 12 November 2013.
Naresh Goyal retained 51% ownership of the stock.
In 2013, the airline lowered prices and entered into a fare war with low-cost carriers IndiGo and SpiceJet due to falling passenger demand. In February 2013, the airline's market value dropped by  due to falling share prices. Jet Airways made profits in the third quarter of the financial year 2013–14, after posting losses over the previous year. Jet Airways announced on 11 August 2014 that it would phase out Jet Konnect by the end of the year as part of plans to re-position itself as a uniform full-service operator. On 1 December 2014, Jet Konnect was fully merged with Jet Airways, making it the third full-service airline in India besides Air India and Vistara. In December 2015, Jet Airways announced the closure of its scissor hub at Brussels Airport by March 2016 and the opening of new hub at Amsterdam Schiphol Airport effective 27 March 2016. As of February 2016, it was the second-largest airline in India after IndiGo, with a 21.2% passenger-market share.

Bankruptcy and cessation of services
As of November 2018, Jet Airways has been reported to have a negative financial outlook due to increasing losses. In March 2019 it was reported that nearly a fourth of Jet Airways' aircraft were grounded due to unpaid lease rates. On 25 March 2019, Mr. Naresh Goyal and his wife Anitha Goyal stepped down from the board of directors.

On 5 April, Indian Oil Corporation stopped supplying fuel to the airline, citing non-payment of dues as the emergency funds have still not been credited. On 17 April, the airline suspended all flight operations, due to lenders rejecting Rs 4 billion of emergency funding and its membership in the International Air Transport Association (IATA) was suspended. On 17 June, after getting no acceptable offers from Etihad Airways and Hinduja Group, lenders to Jet Airways decided to refer the company to National Company Law Tribunal (NCLT) for bankruptcy proceedings with debt of $1.2 billion.

As the group faces insolvency proceedings in the Netherlands after failing to pay two creditors, NCLAT (National Company Law Appellate Tribunal) has allowed cross-border insolvency proceedings stating that the "Dutch Trustee (Administrator) will work in cooperation with the 'Resolution Professional of India."

In early 2020, Enso Group, tried to rescue the airline with Russian Far East Development Fund, and participated in talks for buying controlling stake in it from its committee of creditors(CoC), but talks fell through.

Restart
In 2020, entrepreneur Murari Lal Jalan and asset management firm Kalrock, part of the Fritsch Group, purchased Jet Airways with a view to restart air operations. It was expected that Jet Airways II would take to the skies in 2022 as a full-service domestic airline with a fleet of six aircraft. On 20 May 2022, Jet Airways received its Air Operator's Certificate. However, flights did not resume in 2022, and the company did not renew its Air Operator's Certificate in 2023, leading to speculations that the Jet Airways revival is failing. In August 2023, it was reported that Jet Airways has lost its IATA code, 9W, after all flights were grounded for more than four years. A Jet Airways spokesperson maintains that the IATA code is "currently under preservation with IATA" until recommencement of operations. As of September 2023, the airline is expected to restart operations in 2024, with Jalan-Kalrock's ownership retained.

Livery

The original livery was navy blue with light grey and chrome yellow. The top and bottom of the aircraft were painted in light grey with the flying sun logo in the navy blue background.

In 2007, a new livery was created by Landor Associates which added yellow and gold ribbons; the design retained the dark blue and gold-accented colour scheme along with the airline's "flying sun" logo. A new yellow uniform was simultaneously introduced, created by Italian designer Roberto Capucci. Jet Airways introduced its new identity in conjunction with a global brand re-launch which included new aircraft and seating.

Controversies

Safety
Asmin Tariq, a contractor working for the airline as a security agent at Heathrow airport was implicated in the foiled terror plot on 10 August 2006 to blow up several transatlantic airliners belonging to three different US airlines. Subsequently, the Governments of UK and Singapore requested security-related information from the Ministry of External Affairs on Jet Airways; clearance was further delayed to fly to the US. The US State Department gave the go-ahead for the airline to fly to the US on 15 November 2006.

In August 2014, two pilots of Jet Airways were suspended after a plane carrying 280 passengers dropped  mid-air en route from Mumbai to Brussels.

Customer care
On 2 December 2016, Jet Airways flight 9W7083 from Bhopal to Mumbai was held up by a large group of passengers headed for a wedding in Mumbai. There were allegations from other passengers that the wedding party was politically connected and attempted to coerce the cabin crew to disembark passengers so that additional members of their party could be accommodated. The airline claimed it was a technical glitch in their booking system which led to overbooking.

Corruption
In 2016, the airline was implicated in the Gupta family controversy in South Africa when it was alleged by former African National Congress MP Vytjie Mentor that members of the business family had offered her the position of Minister of Public Enterprises, on behalf of President Jacob Zuma, if she agreed to arrange for South African Airways to drop their India route so that Jet Airways could acquire it instead.

Links to organised crime
On 12 December 2001, an internal memo from the Indian intelligence agencies; R&AW and IB to the Indian home ministry stated that they had evidence that Jet Airways had intermittent contact with Dawood Ibrahim, Chota Shakeel and other gangs of the Indian underworld, related to financial transactions. This information was leaked to the media and parliament proceedings were stalled. Subsequently, in 2016, reports surfaced that the initial investment for Jet Airways itself had come through shell companies from the Isle of Man, and was heavily funded by the Indian underworld. This was documented in detail in the book A Feast of Vultures.

Destinations
According to its website, in 2016 Jet Airways served 57 destinations – 37 domestic and 20 international destinations in 15 countries across Asia, Europe, North America and Middle East. The airline had its primary hub in Mumbai and secondary bases in Delhi and Bangalore.

The airline's first international destination, introduced in March 2004, was Colombo, flown to from Chennai. London was the airline's first long-haul destination and was launched in 2005. Since 2007, Jet Airways has had a scissors hub at Brussels Airport for onward transatlantic connections to North America, which was replaced by Amsterdam Airport Schiphol from 27 March 2016.

In 2008, the airline was forced to discontinue international routes because these attracted losses due to global economic downturn; it terminated services to San Francisco and Shanghai. The airline planned to restore the Mumbai–Shanghai route by the end of 2011 but never did so. In 2012, the airline withdrew flights to New York City and closed the Delhi–Milan route in 2013. On 1 March 2016, the airline announced the integration of domestic and international operations in Mumbai airport and moved its entire operations to the newly constructed Terminal 2.

Codeshare agreements
Jet Airways had codeshare agreements with the following airlines before ceasing their operations:

 Aeroméxico
 Air Canada
 Air France
 Air Seychelles
 All Nippon Airways
 Bangkok Airways
 China Eastern Airlines
 Delta Air Lines
 Etihad Airways
 Fiji Airways
 Garuda Indonesia
 Hong Kong Airlines
 Jetstar Asia Airways
 Kenya Airways
 KLM
 Korean Air
 Malaysia Airlines
 Qantas
 Vietnam Airlines
 Virgin Atlantic

Fleet

Current fleet

After the airline was grounded due to financial reasons, the Jet Airways fleet consists of the following as of 2022:.

Fleet development
Jet Airways placed its first order for four Boeing 737-400 and 30 Boeing 737-800 aircraft on 11 December 1996; and the first aircraft was delivered on 12 November 1997. It placed its second order for six Boeing 737-700 and two Boeing 737-900 aircraft on 14 June 1999 with deliveries starting in May 2001. The airline launched its next round of fleet expansion in 2005 when it ordered 30 Aircraft at the Paris Air Show. The airline signed deals with Airbus for ten A330 aircraft and with Boeing for ten 737 and 777 aircraft each. Long-haul routes were served using its fleet of Airbus A330-200, Airbus A330-300 and Boeing 777-300ER. The airline placed an order for 10 Boeing 777-300ER aircraft on 29 September 2005 which were delivered in 2007. Jet Airways ordered 10 Boeing 787 Dreamliner on 29 December 2006 to operate on long-haul routes. On 5 January 2012, it inducted five ATR 72-600 series to operate on domestic regional routes. It placed a further order for 75 Boeing 737 MAX aircraft on 23 April 2013 as part of modernization of its fleet of 737s. In April 2018 and July 2018 the airline entered an agreement to acquire an additional 75 Boeing 737 MAX aircraft each, taking its order tally to 225 Boeing 737 MAX jets. After Jet Airways ceased their operations, Boeing cancelled all of Jet Airways' remaining 737 MAX 8 orders along with the Boeing 737 MAX 9 and 10 orders and Boeing 787-9 orders due to the financial problems and airline's collapse. As a part of the airline's relaunch, reports have emerged that the airline is in talks with leading aircraft manufacturer Airbus to procure 50 narrow body Airbus A220 aircraft. Some media reports indicates that Jalan-Kalrock is in talks with aircraft OEMs (original equipment manufacturers) to place an order of at least 200 aircraft of a mix of small, medium, and large narrow body jets at the Paris airshow in June 2023 for their growth plan for five years.

Former fleet
Jet Airways operated the following aircraft in the past:

Services

Cabin
Jet Airways had three classes of service: First, Première (Business) and Economy.
First class was available only in Boeing 777-300ER aircraft. The first class offered private suites; it featured seats convertible to a fully flat bed, personal LCD TVs and in-seat power supply.
Première class was available on long-haul international flights operated by Airbus A330-200 and Boeing 777-300ER aircraft featured recliner seats, fully flat beds with personal LCD TVs and in-seat power. Première class in domestic flights offered recliner seats with larger leg room in a 2-2 configuration.
Economy class on long-haul aircraft had a  seat pitch with a footrest and the cabin was configured in 2-4-2 on the Airbus A330-200 and 3-4-3 on the Boeing 777-300ER. Economy seats on the Airbus A330 and Boeing 777 had a personal  touchscreen LCD TV. Domestic flights operated by Boeing 737 aircraft had Première and Economy classes and the ATR 72 aircraft had an all-economy class configuration. Economy class on Boeing 737 had a  seat pitch with personal LCD behind each seat. Meals were served in economy class until recently. They introduced buy-on-board which was named Jet Bistro.

WiFi
On 1 February 2016, Jet Airways announced the introduction of an in-flight entertainment service for streaming of entertainment content directly to Wi-Fi enabled personal devices of the passengers.

Frequent Flyer Program

Jet Airways's frequent-flyer programme was called Jet Privilege. It was rebranded as Intermiles in 2019.

Accidents and incidents
1 July 2007: Jet Airways Flight 3307, an ATR 72-212A (registered VT-JCE), flying on the Bhopal-Indore route was involved in an accident caused by bad weather. There were no fatalities amongst the 45 passengers and four crew, but the aircraft was damaged beyond repair and written off.
18 August 2015: Jet Airways Flight 555, a Boeing 737-800 (registered VT-JFA), flying on the Doha-Cochin route was involved in an accident caused by bad weather. There were no fatalities amongst the 150 passengers and crew, but the plane was severely damaged in the incident.
27 December 2016: A Jet Airways Boeing 737-800, registration VT-JBG performing flight 9W-2374 from Goa to Mumbai (India) with 154 passengers and 7 crew, backtracked runway 26, lined up runway 26 and was accelerating the engines for takeoff when the aircraft continued to turn right, the crew rejected takeoff, the aircraft went off the right runway edge almost perpendicular, went over soft ground and across a road and came to a stop with the nose gear collapsed and both engines making ground contact. The aircraft was evacuated, 16 occupants received minor injuries as a result of the evacuation.
30 October 2017: Jet Airways 339, flying from Mumbai to Delhi, was subject of a bomb hoax/hijacking hoax. Birju Kishore Salla, a jeweller from Mumbai, left a note in the business class lavatory claiming that 12 hijackers were on board the flight and that explosives had been placed in the cargo area, and demanded that the plane be diverted to Pakistani-administered Kashmir. After the note was found, the plane was diverted for an emergency landing in Ahmedabad, whereupon bomb disposal units searched the aircraft and found that the note was a hoax. Salla was subsequently banned from flying on Jet Airways flights for five years, and was the first person to get added to the Indian No-Fly List.

See also
 List of airlines of India
 Transport in India

References

External links

Airlines of India
Airlines established in 1992
Airlines disestablished in 2019
Etihad Airways Partners
Indian brands
Companies based in Mumbai
Indian companies established in 1992
Indian companies disestablished in 2019
1992 establishments in Maharashtra
Companies listed on the National Stock Exchange of India
Companies listed on the Bombay Stock Exchange

Jet Airways


Somborska skupina, ime za skupinu hrvatskih samoorganiziranih diverzanata u Domovinskom ratu.

Uvodne okolnosti

Pokušali su onesposobiti Batinski most. Bio je glavna prometna cestovna komunikacija preko Dunava preko kojeg su se domaće pobunjeničke velikosrpske snage dodatno opskrbljivale, imale dodatnu pozadinu i logistiku i pojačanja. Preko tog mosta velikosrpska JNA i srbijanske paravojne postrojbe prešle su u Hrvatsku u Baranju, odakle su osvajali taj dio Hrvatske i stvarale preduvjete za borbena djelovanja prema Osijeku. Isto tako, taj je most bio važnim mjestom odstupnice. Preko njega su se srpske snage mogle povući i ne ostati odsječene na enklavi u slučaju uspješne hrvatske protuofenzive.

Preko mosta kod Batine dolazila je pomoć srpskoj vojsci i bio je jedina veza između Vojvodine i Baranje.

Tijek akcije

Skupina mladića organizirala se je samoinicijativno i odlučila srušiti taj most eksplozivom. Skupina diverzanata iz Osijeka Samostalna uskočka satnija pošla je minirati taj most. Akciju se još naziva "Akcija Batinski most".

Za to su morali prijeći preko okupiranog ozemlja Republike Hrvatske. Smjelost čina sastojala se u tome što su odlučili prijeći dalje na ozemlje države agresora, Srbije. Hrvatskoj je tad tek počeo veliki niz europskih međunarodnih priznanja, ali cijeli svijet još nije bio priznao Hrvatsku, među njima ni Rusija ni SAD. U velikosrpskom vojnom su vrhu JNA još uvijek nadali se vratiti Jugoslaviju i pred svijetom su nastupali predstavljajući nekakvu Jugoslaviju, poričući Hrvatskoj državnost i pravo na samoopredjeljenje. Jugoslavija je bila u procesu raspadanja. Njeke kvazisavezne funkcije još su funkcionirale, ali su jedna po jedna gašene ili ispadale na druge načine. Hrvatski su diverzanti planirali sa strane okupatora, Srbije, otići na most i minirati ga.
Smjelost čina razvidna je jer su komandosi morali zaći 60 kilometara u ozemlje pod neprijateljskim nadzorom.

Skupili su skupinu mladića koji su znali dobro govori srpskim jezikom i sa srbijanskim naglaskom. Zapovjednik akcije Ivica Krnjak preuzeo je identitet zapovjednika JNA koji je poginuo u agresiji na Hrvatsku rujna 1991. kod Osijeka, kapetana Jordana Jordanovića. Pošli su u odorama časnika i vojnika JNA. Zaputili su se amfibijskim vozilom JNA. Uz vojnike amfibija je prevozila 3750 kg eksploziva. Pošli su po vrlo nepovoljnim vremenskim prilikama.31. siječnja 1992. preko Kopačevskog rita ušli su duboko u područje pod nadzorom neprijateljskih snaga. Prešli su bojišnicu, ušli na okupirano ozemlje Republike Hrvatske. Nadzorne točke JNA i srpskih paravojnih postrojba prolazili su predstavljajući se kao posebna postrojba generala Blagoja Adžića.

Sa srpskim policajcima su se susreli tri kilometra pred granicom. Tada su se presvukli u hrvatske odore i razdvojili. Jedan je dio pošao ka mađarskoj granici, a dio ka Somboru i Apatinu.
Dalje su preko Hulovskog kanala i Dunava ušli u Srbiju, u Vojvodinu. Ipak, bili su sve sumnjiviji na svakoj daljnjoj nadzornoj točki. Amfibijsko vozilo veliki je potrošač goriva pa premda opskrbljeni nije bilo dovoljno te su usred Vojvodine, kod Apatina na zapadu Bačke ostali bez goriva. Uz to dogodio se i kvar na vozilu, pa rješavanje nestanka goriva krađom od vojske ili civila nije moglo pomoći. Pokušali su neki od njih još uvijek izvršiti akciju, a neki su već razmišljali o uzmaku na sigurno. Nakon dva dana postojanje skupine je otkriveno.Otkrio ih je jedan seljak.

Postojeće predstavljanje nije prolazilo, pa su otpraćeni do Sombora gdje su im namjeravali pouzdano utvrditi identitet. Kad su otkriveni, dali su se u bijeg. Dio skupine koja se je prije granice razdvojila i pošla ka mađarskoj granici, preživjela je vatreni okršaj. Jedan je pripadnik ranjen u natkoljenicu kod Bezdana pa su ga suborci nosili 20 kilometara do granice. Operiran je u Mađarskoj i oporavljao se u Osijeku.

Devetorica su diverzanata uspjela pobjeći i spasiti se preplivavši Dunav. Svi koji su pobjegli nisu preživjeli. Trojica su stradala. Dio skupine je zarobljen i u užem smislu "somborska skupina" odnosi se na njih. Osmorica zarobljenih osuđena je na višegodišnje zatvorske kazne za terorizam. Pojedinci iz skupine dobili su 20 godina zatvora, drugima je suđeno u odsutnosti te ni dan-danas ne smiju u Srbiju jer je za njima raspisana tjeralica zbog kaznenog djela terorizma još od 1992. godine, po optužnici javnog tužitelja iz Sombora.

Zatočeništvo

Tamnovali su u Somboru i Srijemskoj Mitrovici.
Nakon što su zarobljeni, njekoliko se puta pokušavalo isposlovati oslobađanje.

7. prosinca 1993. U povodu hrvatsko-srpskih pregovora u Ženevi o razmjeni ratnih zarobljenika, šef "jugoslavenske" delegacije Željko Simić najavio da je "jugoslavenska strana voljna osloboditi hrvatske komandose koji su pokušali srušiti most kod Batine, poznatije pod imenom "somborska skupina".

25. prosinca 1993. godine Predsjednik Republike Hrvatske dr. Franjo Tuđman primio u Zagrebu predsjednika Međunarodnog Crvenog križa Cornelija Sommarugu, s kojim je razgovarao o problemu nestalih osoba, te ga tom prilikom zamolio za pomoć u ubrzavanju procesa zamjene te skupine.
707 su dana bili u ratnome zarobljeništvu. Razmijenjeni su za srpsku terorističku skupinu Štit, koju su hrvatske snage zarobile u Turnju kod Karlovca.Zamijenjeno je 10 pripadnika somborske skupine te 5 drugih hrvatskih zarobljenika u srpskim tamnicama za 11 srpskih zatvorenika, uglavnom pripadnika terorističke grupe "Štit". Razmijenjeni su na UNPROFOR-ovoj nadzornoj točki kod Lipovca 12. siječnja 1994. godine.

Somborska skupina u umjetnosti

 Branko Vrbošić: 707 dana pakla : "Somborska skupina" od akcije i zatvora do slobode  [fotografije Josip Petrić], Matica hrvatska, Osijek (1. izd. 1994. 2. izd. 1995.)

Izvori

Vanjske poveznice

Akcija Batinski most, Dani ponosa - HRT

Dražen Krajcar: ZAROBLJENIŠTVO U SRPSKIM LOGORIMA: Hrvatski vojnici razmjenjeni nakon 707 dana pakla!, Dnevno.hr. 12. siječnja 2017.

Petar Horvatić: 31. siječnja 1992. Batina (Baranja) – tko su bili hrabri hrvatski diverzanti koji su htjeli srušiti najveći most na Dunavu?, Narod.hr. 31. siječnja 2017.
Somborska skupina, dokumentarni

Hrvatske postrojbe u Domovinskom ratu

Somborska skupina


Pixie (benannt nach Feen- und Kobold-Figuren aus der englischen Folklore) ist die Bezeichnung für eine Kurzhaarfrisur für Frauen. Typische Merkmale dieses Frisur-Typs sind variierende Haarlängen: am Hinterkopf und an den Seiten meist kurz, oben dafür länger; zusätzlich betont werden oft auch die Koteletten. In den 1960er-Jahren avancierte er zum Sinnbild für Emanzipation, Modebewusstheit sowie praktisches, zeitgemäßes Denken. Angestoßen durch eine Reihe weiblicher Stars und die damit verbundene Medienberichterstattung, erlebte er in den 2010er-Jahren ein größeres Comeback.

Merkmale
Der Name des Schnitts ist abgeleitet von "Pixie" – einem kleinen, frechen Fabelwesen aus der britischen Folklore ähnlich wie Elfen oder Kobolde. Vom Frisurtyp her ist der Pixie eine kürzere Version des Bob aus den 1920er-Jahren. Charakteristisches Merkmal sind vergleichsweise kurz geschnittene Seiten und Kopfhinterseiten – wobei die Haare auf etwa 5 cm gekürzt werden und eine fransige Schnittlinie erhalten. Die Nackenpartie ist entweder stufig gestaltet oder anrasiert. Die Ohren stehen frei. Typisch für diese Frisur sind auch die angedeuteten Koteletten in Form einer Haarsträhne auf der Vorderseite des Ohrs.

Das Deckhaar ist beim Pixie meist länger gehalten. Eine Pony-ähnliche Gestaltung der Stirnfransen ist ebenso möglich wie ein Seitenscheitel oder nach oben gebürstete Haare. Stefanie Ullmann vom Bund deutscher Haarformer charakterisierte den Pixie 2013 als einen sehr variablen Schnitt. Ein maskuliner Garçon-Look sei mit ihm ebenso umsetzbar wie ein wild-punkiges Erscheinungsbild. Das Livestyle-Portal erdbeerlounge.de beschreibt ihn im Rahmen seines Frisurenkatalogs als pflegeleicht und vielseitig. Er betone die Gesichtszüge der Trägerin und wirke so als "absoluter Hingucker". Wichtig bei der Umsetzung seien deutlich sichtbare Unterschiede zwischen Seiten und Oberkopf; bei der Stirnseite gingen sowohl lange als auch kurze Ponypartien. Ein weiterer Vorteil dieses Schnitts sei die Möglichkeit, das genaue Styling jeden Tag neu bestimmen zu können.

Geschichte

Stilistisch in der Tradition des Bob, Bubikopf und anderer moderner Kurzhaarschnitte stehend, trat der Pixie in den 1950ern erstmals in Erscheinung. Die (neue) Kurzhaarfrisur von Audrey Hepburn in den Filmen Roman Holiday (Ein Herz und eine Krone; 1953) und Sabrina (1954) wurde medienseitig stark mit Aufmerksamkeit bedacht. Zur Pionierin und Ikone des Pixie avancierte die französische Schauspielerin Jean Seberg. Ihre Auftritte in den Filmen Bonjour Tristesse (1958) und Außer Atem (1960) machten den neuen Kurzhaarschnitt international bekannt. Verbunden mit der anlaufenden Nouvelle-Vague-Welle, verlieh sie ihm ein frisches, unkonventionelles Image. Weitere bekannte Multiplikatorinnen waren das Model Twiggy sowie die Schauspielerinnen Shirley MacLaine und Barbra Streisand. Zu einem Medienereignis avancierte die Berichterstattung über Mia Farrows neuen Kurzhaar-Look in dem Roman-Polanski-Film Rosemaries Baby (1968). Der Londoner Starcoiffeur Vidal Sassoon gestaltete Farrows Haarschnitt zum Live-Event, so dass Farrows neuer Look bereits vor der Premiere des Films für Schlagzeilen sorgte.

In den 1970ern, 1980ern und 1990ern nutzte sich der Neuheitseffekt allmählich ab. Ungeachtet dessen trugen auch während dieser Periode eine Reihe Stars zeitweilig oder auch länger Kurzhaarschnitte im Pixie-Stil. Bekannte Beispiele: die Entertainerin Liza Minnelli, die Eurythmics-Sängerin Annie Lennox, die Schauspielerin Sharon Stone sowie – zu Beginn ihrer Karriere – Madonna. Modewellen-unabhängig bekannt für ihren Pixie-Kurzhaarschnitt ist die britische Schauspielerin Judi Dench.

In den 2010er-Jahren erlebten Pixie-Frisuren ein größeres Comeback. Auslöser waren mehr oder weniger spektakuläre Haarlook-Wechsel bekannter Stars. Ein Auslöser war der Umstieg von Harry-Potter-Darstellerin Emma Watson. Ihren Umstieg begründete Watson unter anderem damit, dass ihre Haarlänge während der Harry-Potter-Drehs vertraglichen Klauseln unterlegen habe. Weitere Promis, die Ende des 2000er-Jahrzehnts auf Pixie-ähnliche Kurzhaarschnitte umstiegen, waren der Serienstar Miley Cyrus (Hannah Montana), die Schauspielerinnen Anne Hathaway, Natalie Portman, Keira Knightley und Carey Mulligan sowie das Model Agyness Deyn. Medienseitig hochgehypt wurde auch der – unter anderem via Instagram öffentlich in Szene gesetzte – neue Pixie-Look von US-Sängerin Beyoncé Knowles und Promi-Model Tyra Banks. Lifestyle-Medien sowie Branchenpublikationen nahmen die in größerer Zahl erfolgten Promi-Haarschnittwechsel als Anlass, den Pixie zum neuen Frisuren-Trendsetter zu erklären.

Mode-Kontroversen
Verstärkt mediale Aufmerksamkeit als aktuell modische Frauen-Kurzhaarfrisur erhielt der Pixie ab der Jahreswende 2013/2014. Als klassischer Kurzhaarschnitt, so einige Medien, sei er modern und repräsentiere darum das neue Selbstverständnis von der Souveränität der Frau. Ralf Schwele, Creative Director im Vidal Sassoon Salon in Berlin wurde in der F.A.Z. mit der Aussage zitiert, jede Frau könne diese Frisur tragen, man müsse lediglich auf die Proportionen und die Form der Außenlinie achten. Der Tagesspiegel wiederum stellte einen durchgehenden Trend in Frage und charakterisierte die Akzeptanz bei der Kundschaft als eher durchwachsen. Eine Kundin in einem Salon in Berlin-Charlottenburg etwa konstatierte kritisch: "Oft schneiden sich Frauen die Haare ab. Und wenn sie sich verlieben, wollen sie sofort das lange Haar zurück." Angesagt – so der Beitrag resummierend – seien Kurzhaarfrisuren vor allem in der Fashion- und Gender-Elite. Zu dem Aspekt, dass nach wie vor ein gewisser Mut mit dazu gehöre, die Haare kurz zu tragen, zitierte der Beitrag eine 15-jährige Berliner Schülerin mit dem Statement: "Sich die Haare kurz zu schneiden, dazu braucht man Mut." Als Grund für ihre Vorbehalte gab sie die Befürchtung an, mit Kurzhaarschnitt für eine Lesbe gehalten zu werden.

Positiv bewertet wurde die Renaissance des Pixie von der britischen Tageszeitung The Guardian. Auf seiner Webseite präsentierte der Guardian nicht nur die besten Pixie-Vorbilder aller Zeiten. Die zeitlose Beliebtheit dieses Kurzhaarschnitt-Klassikers sei vor allem auf die Stilikone Jean Seberg zurückzuführen und den damit verbundenen Retro-Effekt. Die damit verbundene Vorbild-Funktion charakterisierte der Guardian mit der lapidaren Formulierung: "Wenn Sie auf der Straße eine Frau sehen mit einer Pixie-Frisur, steht die Chance hoch, dass diese Frau bereits unter den Einfluss des Seberg-Effekts kam, bevor sie im Friseursessel Platz nahm."

Weitere prominente Beispiele
Die Webseite des Frauenmagazins Elle stellte im März 2017 mehrere Dutzend bekannte Pixie-Trägerinnen in einer chronologisch sortierten Fotostrecke zusammen. Die folgende Auflistung enthält weitere Prominente, die zeitweilig oder auch für längere Zeit eine Pixie-Frisur trugen. Die Jahreszahl kennzeichnen den Zeitpunkt der medialen Erwähnung.

In den 2010er-Jahren: Janelle Monáe (2017), Katy Perry (2017), Kehlani (2016), Viola Davis (2017), Zendaya (2016), Jennifer Hudson (2016), Halsey (2016), Scarlett Johansson (2016), Lena Dunham (2015), Julianne Hough (2014), Pamela Anderson (2014), Jamie Lee Curtis (2014), Michelle Williams (2013), Angela Bassett (2013), Halle Berry (2013), Charlize Theron (2013), Rihanna (2012), Ginnifer Goodwin (2011), Erin O'Connor (2010) und Mia Wasikowska (2010).

In den 2000er-Jahren: Cécile De France (2009), Victoria Beckham (2008), Katie Holmes (2008), Audrey Tautou (2006), Sienna Miller (2006), und Kate Moss (2001).

In den 1970er- bis 1990er-Jahren: Keri Russell (1999), Gwyneth Paltrow (1997), Winona Ryder (1994), Nathalie Baye (1994) und Linda Evangelista (1989).

Vor 1970: Goldie Hawn (1968), Caterina Valente (1966), Cornelia Froboess (1966), Edie Sedgwick (1965), Leslie Caron (1955) und – als bekannter Vorläufer – Lya de Putti (1928).

Einzelnachweise

Weblinks

Frisur

Pixie (Frisur)


انتخابات مجلس الشعب المصري، تم إجراؤها على ثلاثة مراحل لتحديد عضوية مجلس الشعب المصري في عام 2005 في جمهورية مصر العربية. وهي الانتخابات البرلمانية الثامنة منذ اعتماد التعديل الدستوري سنة 1971. تنافس فيها أكثر من 7,000 مرشحا على 444 مقعدا في 222 دائرة انتخابية.

كانت تعتبر آنذاك اختبارا لموجة الإصلاح السياسي، وقد أقيمت بعد شهرين من أول انتخابات رئاسية متعددة. على الرغم من أن الحزب الوطني الديمقراطي (الحاكم) حافظ على الأغلبية والسيطرة التابعة للجمعية، وقد حققوا مكاسب كبيرة من قبل الآخرين على حساب الحزب الحاكم.

وعلاوة على ذلك يعلق أهمية هو أن هذه الانتخابات كحزب يجب تحقيق 5 ٪ من المقاعد في الجمعية في تقديم مرشح في انتخابات الرئاسة المصرية المقبلة عام 2011.

العملية الانتخابية

عملية الانتخابات جرت في المراحل الثلاث من 7 نوفمبر إلى 9 ديسمبر عام 2005 باستخدام التعددية عضو واحد، مع ما يزيد على 32 مليون ناخب مسجل في 222 دائرة. التسجيل الرسمي للمرشحين بدأ يوم 12 أكتوبر 2005.

دور الشرطة يقتصر على الحفاظ على السلام والنظام في مراكز الاقتراع دون أي تدخل في عملية التصويت أو دخول مراكز التصويت.

المرحلة الأولى

جرت يوم الأربعاء نوفمبر 9 وانتخابات الإعادة يوم الثلاثاء نوفمبر 15 مع ال 10.7 مليون ناخب مسجل وتشمل 8 محافظات: القاهرة، الجيزة، المنوفية -، بني سويف، أسيوط، المنيا، مطروح والوادي الجديد

المرحلة الثانية

جرت يوم الأحد 20 نوفمبر، انتخابات الإعادة يوم السبت 26 نوفمبر شارك فيها 10.5 مليون ناخب مسجل تشمل 9 محافظات مصر: الإسكندرية، السويس، الإسماعيلية، بور سعيد، والسويس، القليوبية، الغربية، الفيوم وقنا.

المرحلة الثالثة

جرت يوم الخميس 21 ديسمبر، مع انتخابات الإعادة يوم الأربعاء 7 ديسمبر مع ال 10.6 مليون ناخب مسجل تشمل 9 محافظات مصر: الدقهلية، الشرقية، كفر الشيخ، دمياط، سوهاج، أسوان، البحر الأحمر، جنوب سيناء وشمال سيناء.

إعلان النتائج على أساس الدوائر الانتخابية بعد فرز الأصوات.

نتائج الانتخابات

تكون المجلس من 454 مقعدا توزعت كالتالي:
 الحزب الوطني الديمقراطي (الحاكم) -- 330 «177 مقعد بالانتخاب والباقي عن طريق ضم المستقلين بعد انتهاء الانتخابات»
 مستقلون (إخوان مسلمون) —88
 حزب الوفد الجديد—5
 حزب التجمع الوطني التقدمي الوحدوي—1
 حزب الغد—1
 المستقلون—19
 الأعضاء غير المنتخبين—10

وتجدر الإشارة إلى أن الحزب الحاكم في البداية قد سجل 40 ٪ فقط من المقاعد «177 مقعد»، ولكن العديد من المستقلين حولوا انتمائاتهم السياسية إلى الحزب الحاكم ليحصل على أغلبية زائفة.

الحملات الانتخابية

رسميا، تبدأ الحملة الانتخابية مباشرة بعد الإعلان عن القائمة النهائية للمرشحين وتنتهي قبل يوم واحد من يوم الانتخابات. في حالة تشغيل للعمال، وإعادة تشغيله في اليوم التالي ليوم النتائج إلى نهاية اليوم قبل يوم الانتخابات.
نفقات الحملة تقتصر على 70,000 الجنيه ق، مع فرض قيود على أي مساعدات مالية أجنبية أو موافقات. كما وضعت قيودا على استخدام المرافق العامة (النقل، والمباني، وشركات القطاع العام، وكذلك مع الشركات المملوكة للحكومة سهم).

أحزاب المعارضة والجماعات

كانت هناك 8 أحزاب سياسية معترف بها تشمل طائفة واسعة السياسية وجماعات الضغط المختلفة مثل حركة كفاية وجماعة الإخوان المسلمين.

المراقبة

المسؤول مراقبين للانتخابات هي السلطة القضائية والحكومية المجلس الوطني لحقوق الإنسان (المجلس القومي). أكثر من 30 منظمة من منظمات حقوق الإنسان، المجتمع المدني والمجموعات والمنظمات غير الحكومية ق تعهد لمراقبة الانتخابات.

وطلب من السلطة القضائية ومنظمات المجتمع المدني لتشكيل «الهيئة الوطنية لمراقبة الانتخابات» التي من شأنها أن مراقبة الانتخابات. أيضا هذه السلطة سوف تحل محل خشبية صناديق الاقتراع دإط بأخرى شفافة (تم ذلك هذا العام)، وطرح كاميرا المراقبة ق داخل مراكز الاقتراع التي من شأنها أن توفر الرصد المستمر للعملية الانتخابية (وهي حاليا قيد الدراسة ويتم ذلك جزئيا عن طريق وسائل الإعلام)، وعلى الهواء لفرز الاصوات التلفزيون على الهواء مباشرة.

القضايا

مصدر القلق الرئيسي خلال الانتخابات لم تكن على برامج معينة أو الحملات الانتخابية، بل على مقدار المعارضات سيكتسب التي تدفع للمزيد من الإصلاح في المستقبل، وتمهد الطريق لمزيد من ميزان القوى في السياسة المصرية. أهمية انتخابات هذا العام لانتخابات 2011 الرئاسية يعطيها أهمية أكبر في الساحة السياسية المصرية. بعض القضايا الأخرى وتشمل التعديلات المحتملة وعدت للدستور، وإدخال المزيد من القوانين لإصلاح السياسي والاقتصادي.

نتائج الانتخابات

المرحلة الأولى

من أصل 164 مقعدا، حصل الحزب الوطني على 112 مقعدا (حوالى 75 ٪)، والأحزاب السياسية الأخرى على 5 مقاعد بالإضافة إلى 47 مقعدا للمستقلين. منها 34 مقعدا لجماعة الإخوان المسلمون المرشحين الذي يعتبر مفاجأة كبيرة في هذه الانتخابات. قبل هذا، ضاعفت جماعة الاخوان المسلمين وجودها في الجمعية إلا في المرحلة الأولى.
كما هو الحال في الانتخابات السابقة، والعديد من المستقلين تحولوا انتماءاتهم السياسية بعد الإعلان عن نتائج الانتخابات وانضم إلى قائمة الحزب الوطني. وفقا للسجلات الرسمية، 2.300.000 من الناخبين المسجلين قد أدلوا بأصواتهم، مما أدى إلى نسبة الإقبال بلغت نحو 23 ٪.

جولة الإعادة عقدت في 74 دائرة انتخابية على 133 مقعدا، مع عدد الناخبين المسجلين التوصل إلى 9.990.550 ناخبا مسجلا، مع نسبة الإقبال بلغت نحو 23 ٪.
جولة الإعادة أسفرت عن فوز 85 الحزب الوطني المرشحين (2)، حزب الوفد الجديد المرشحين (2)، التجمع الوطني التقدمي الوحدوي المرشحين، واحدة حزب الغد مرشح، و43 مرشحا مستقلا

هذه المرحلة قد أدى في أعقاب توزيع 164 مقعدا:
 الحزب الوطني—112 مقعدا
 حزب الوفد الجديد—2 مقاعد
 حزب التجمع الوطني التقدمي الوحدوي—2 مقاعد
 حزب الغد—1 مقعد
 المستقلون — 47 مقعدا
 (الإخوان المسلمين — 34 مقعداً من هؤلاء)

من السياسيين البارزين الذين خسروا في الانتخابات هم أيمن نور، حزب الغد زعيم ومرشح الرئاسة في الانتخابات الرئاسية المصرية في سبتمبر 2005، ومنذ القبض على الفساد، وأيضا الحزب الحاكم المصلح الرئيسية حسام بدراوي، أمين مبارك ومنذ زمن طويل خدمة فايدة كامل، والوفد الجديد أبرز قبطي الرقم جيم منير فخري عبد النور.

هناك 158 رسميا عن وقوع انتهاكات القانون الانتخابي. بيد أن مصادر أخرى لم تصدر أي تقارير عن العدد الفعلي للانتهاكات. كانت هناك حوادث العنف والرشوة، ولكن المنظمات غير الحكومية لم تصدر بيانات رسمية.

الثاني

1st الجولة التالية من الانتخابات يوم الأحد 20 نوفمبر ال، 23 مقعدا فقط كانوا مصممين بشكل قاطع، والباقي ذهب إلى جولة الإعادة. انها وقعت يوم السبت 26 نوفمبر عشر، عندما 242 مرشحا تنافسوا على 121 مقعدا في 68 دائرة انتخابية منها 53 دائرة انتخابية هما مقعد و15 مقعد واحد.

في جولة الإعادة كانت الانتخابات تنافسا وعنيفة، مع متظاهر واحد انصار الحزب الوطني والموتى. أكثر من 800 من أعضاء الاخوان المسلمين اعتقلوا، عندما حاولت الشرطة وقف أعمال العنف التي اندلعت بين أنصار مختلف المرشحين. ذكرت بعض التقارير أن العنف من الشرطة وصلت إلى الهيئات القضائية الذين تم رصد عملية التصويت. بعض الجماعات والأحزاب السياسية بل دعا إلى الجيش المصري للذهاب إلى الشوارع لحماية الانتخابات.

النتائج النهائية التي أعلنت يوم الاثنين، نوفمبر 28 عشر. وحصل الحزب الوطني على 90 مقعدا من مجموع (بعد بعض المرشحين الفائزين انضموا للحزب بعد انتصارهم)، 46 وحصل المرشحون المستقلون (منها 42 منتسبة إلى الإخوان المسلمون، ورفع الجماعة عدد المقاعد إلى ما مجموعه 76 مقعدا) و2 على مزيد من المقاعد للحزب الوفد الجديد الحزب.

كما أن الانتخابات قد أسفرت عن مفاجأة العديد من الانتصارات والخسائر.

مؤسس خالد محيي الدين من حزب التجمع خسر مقعده. خالد كان وقتا طويلا، وتخدم المشرع وهو رئيس سابق للمرشح في الانتخابات الرئاسية عام 2005 أمام الحزب لمقاطعة الانتخابات. أيضا اثنين من أكثر شخصيات الحزب القائد، البدرى فرغلى وأبو العز ElHarirri فقدت مقاعدها. الطرف المضمون أي مقاعد في هذه المرحلة.

الحزب الحاكم وزير الزراعة السابق والنائب السابق لرئيس الحزب الوطني الديمقراطي، يوسف، كما خسر مقعده.

مرشح الحزب الحاكم، منذ زمن طويل والتي تخدم عضو الجمعية المصرية للزعيم الاتحاد العمالي، سيد راشد. راشد هو معروف بتأييده متحمسة لزعيم الحزب الوطني الديمقراطي، حسني مبارك.

المصري السابق كرة القدم حارس المرمى والمعلق الرياضي، أحمد شوبير كما فاز مرشح الحزب الوطني في انتخابات الإعادة كذلك.

الثالث

في المرحلة النهائية من الانتخابات التي جرت يوم الخميس ديسمبر 1 الحادي والعشرين، على 136 مقعدا في 68 دائرة انتخابية؛ 9 مقاعد وقد قرر ما يلي: وامتناع 8 عن الحزب الوطني و1 لحزب الوفد الجديد. الحزب الوطني الحاكم قد حقق أكثر من نصف مقاعد البرلمان على الرغم من الأداء السيئ، والمضاربة لا تزال توقع أن الحزب سيحتفظ لا يقل عن 70 ٪ من مقاعد البرلمان الذي أخطأ.

جولة الإعادة أجريت الانتخابات يوم الأربعاء ديسمبر 7 على المقاعد ال 127 المتبقية. أحد عشر مقعدا ذهبت إلى جماعة الاخوان المسلمين والحزب الوطني استغرق 111 تاركا 5 لا يزال معلقا في الهواء.

النتائج في بعض الدوائر التي لم يعلن عنها لاحقا، وعلى 12 مقعدا سيتم التنافس عليها في تشغيل المزيد من العمال.

امتدت أعمال العنف خلال هذه المرحلة من الانتخابات، مما تسبب في العديد من الإصابات والوفيات 9 من أنصار المعارضة، وفقا لمصادر مستقلة.

المنظمة المصرية لحقوق الإنسان ان وفاة جاء ذلك خلال «اشتباكات مع قوات الأمن التي حاصرت عددا من اللجان الانتخابية لمنع الناخبين من التصويت».

عشرة مقاعد معينة

في 12 ديسمبر، 2005 الرئيس مبارك يمارس حقه الدستوري من خلال تعيين 10 من أعضاء الجمعية. للعين، والخمسة هم الرجال، وخمس المرأة والأربعة هم الأقباط.

وعين فيما يلي:
 محمد الدكروري، مستشار الرئيس
 أحمد عمر هاشم، الرئيس السابق للجامعة الأزهر
 جريدة ادوارد غالي الدهبي، المحامي
 رمزي الشاعر، الرئيس السابق لجامعة الزقازيق وأستاذ القانون الدستوري
 اسكندر غطاس، مساعد وزير العدل
 زينب رضوان، العميد السابق لجامعة القاهرة 'ق كلية العربية والدراسات الإسلامية (أصبح نائب رئيس مجلس النواب)
 جورجيت صبحي، وعضو المجلس القومي للمرأة
 إبراهيم حبيب، رئيس الكاتب العدل سلطة
 سيده إلهامي، علم الاجتماع
 سناء البنا، رئيس الشركة القابضة للبتروكيماويات

النتائج العامة

قضايا ما بعد الانتخابات

الشروط العامة

الإقبال المنخفض المعتادة في مراكز الاقتراع لا تزال مستمرة. إقبال الناخبين كانت تشير التقديرات إلى أن حوالي 25 ٪ -- ويقول البعض حتى أقل من ذلك. ظهور نوع جديد من غير مرشح سياسي—الأغنياء تسعى الانتخابات لأسباب لا علاقة لها بالسياسة وعلى استعداد لشراء الأصوات مقابل المال—لم تكن مشجعة على الإطلاق. كثير من اللوم على احتكار الحزب الوطني وشركة قبضة النظام السياسي لفقدان ثقة الشعب في أي تغيير حقيقي.

مكاسب جماعة الاخوان المسلمين

لعل واحدة من النتائج الأكثر إثارة للدهشة في الانتخابات هو حصاد الإخوان لخمس مقاعد البرلمان. حيث أصبحت أكبر كتلة معارضة في البرلمان. وقد خاض الاخوان الانتخابات تحت شعار «الإسلام هو الحل».

الدين والسياسة

العديد من الخبراء السياسيين والكتاب والقول بأن الاخوان الشعار الرئيسي ليكون انتهاكا للدستور المصري، الذي يضمن حرية الممارسة الدينية والمساواة بين المواطنين. في حين أن جماعة الإخوان المسلمين بشكل مستمر منذ ادعى أن الدستور يأخذ أحكام الشريعة الإسلامية باعتبارها واحدة من مصادر التشريع والإسلام باعتباره دين الدولة، ثم شعار يتماشى مع الدستور وليس انتهاكا.
على الرغم من أن الحزب الحاكم بشن حملات واسعة النطاق التي تهدف إلى خفض الدعم لهذا الشعار، ويدعون إلى الفصل بين الدين والدولة، الحزب الحاكم نفسه، فضلا عن غيرها من الجماعات التي تستخدم إما إسلامي أو قبطي الشخصيات الدينية في دعم برامجها.
ويخشى العديد من المحللين أن إدخال مثل هذا الدين في السياسة من شأنها أن تهدد الإصلاح نحو دولة علمانية ليبرالية، وكذلك احتمال ابعاد سكانها القبطية.

فشل العلمانية

والأحزاب السياسية الرسمية، وتحديدا اليسار الليبرالي فقدوا مقاعدهم بالإضافة إلى تأثيرها الأيديولوجي مع السكان التصويت. بالإضافة إلى شخصيات رمزية ويؤدي فقدان مقاعدهم، وفشل أفكارها، بالإضافة إلى افتقارها إلى التنقل والنشاط السياسي الحقيقي، وضعت أحزاب المعارضة الرئيسية مع ما لا يزيد عن 10 مقعدا وهي نسبة ضئيلة للغاية.
الأحزاب السياسية الرئيسية لتشكيل الجبهة الوطنية المتحدة من أجل التغيير (UNFC)، التي وفرت برامج غامضة للإصلاح السياسي والدستوري حتى الآن دون أي اتصال مع الدوائر الانتخابية على مستوى القاعدة، مما أسفر عن خسائر بالجملة لمرشحيها الميدان.
فشل سياسي لا تنطوي فقط على المعارضة، بل أيضا في الحزب الحاكم. الحزب الحاكم قد خسر ما يزيد على 100 من مقاعده مع بعض من كبار الشخصيات المؤثرة الإصلاح فضلا عن الخدمة الطويلة الشخصيات السياسية في هذه الانتخابات. الحزب الوطني الديمقراطي قد فشل أيضا في «الخروج للتصويت». نسبة المشاركة المتدنية التي تشير التقديرات إلى أن نحو 25 ٪، فضلا عن حقيقة أن ما يقرب من نصف الأصوات ميغابايت كانت أصوات الاحتجاج ضد الحزب الحاكم للسلطة احتكارية.
الحزب الوطني لا يزال يحتفظ عقد مريحة من 68 ٪ من مقاعد الجمعية، والذي يجب تمكينه من المضي قدما في برنامجها. ومع ذلك، يقول كثير من الآن أنه لن يكون سلسا كما كان من قبل.

الانتخابات الرئاسية 2011

الفشل في تحقيق عتبة 5 ٪ من قبل أحزاب المعارضة الرئيسية، سواء كانت مستقلة أو مجتمعة، والمهددة بالانقراض مشاركتها في الانتخابات الرئاسية المقبلة في عام 2011. تعديل المادة 76 من الدستور، مما سمح متعددة المرشحين في الانتخابات الرئاسية، ولكن القواعد الصارمة المفروضة على مرشحي الأحزاب، ويعتقد أن يكون في حاجة إلى تغيير لإزالة 5 ٪ قيود. بدون مثل هذا التغيير، فإن انتخابات 2011 الرئاسية أن ما يزيد قليلا على نسخة معدلة من مرشح واحد الاستطلاع كانت عليه منذ عقود 5 الماضية أو نحو ذلك.

إصلاح مستقبلي

نتائج الانتخابات أثارت نقاشا حادا حول مستقبل عملية الإصلاح، وهو الآن في أيدي شاذ من الأزواج السياسية، ورجال أعمال الحزب الوطني والكتلة الإسلامية. استبعاد اليسار هو بالأحرى مقلق للالمحللين السياسيين المصريين. ومع ذلك، فإن استمرار الحوار الوطني بين مختلف القوى السياسية وجماعات تعتبر حاسمة بالنسبة لإصلاح أكثر توازنا.
ويتوقع المحللون في اشتباكات لا مفر منه بين الحزب الوطني وعلى سياسة ميغابايت. ويجوز للجمعية سرعان ما يجد نفسه عاجزا، وفي هذه الحالة قد يكون للرئيس حل البرلمان. كانت هناك دعوات من مختلف ألوان الطيف السياسي أن السبيل الوحيد للخروج من المأزق الحالي هو لتأسيس حزب سياسي جديد قادر على ينتزعوا وسطى بين الحزب الوطني والإخوان.

http://weekly.ahram.org.eg

وهناك عدد من التعديلات ويعتقد أن يكون على رأس جدول أعمال الإصلاح. قلق بعض الممارسات السياسية، وقانون الأحزاب السياسية، وحقوق المواطنة، وإلغاء حالة الطوارئ القديمة والمزيد من الديمقراطية للعملية السياسية المصرية. شخصيا كانت هذه الإصلاحات التي أعلن عنها الرئيس مبارك، وكانت في مركز لمسؤول في الحزب الوطني الحملات الانتخابية الرئاسية والبرلمانية.

تغيير نظام التصويت

فشل الأحزاب في الحصول على عدد كبير من المقاعد، بالإضافة إلى انتشار النقود التي يسببها العنف والتصويت، وأدت إلى الاعتقاد بأن النظام الحالي للالتصويت غير مناسب في هذه المرحلة من أجل الإصلاح السياسي المصري. مزيد من النشطاء والسياسيين الذين هم الآن في مناقشة التغييرات على الانتخابات المقبلة.

ملخص للنتائج انتخابات مجلس الشعب المصري2005

انظر أيضا

 الكتلة البرلمانية لنواب الإخوان المسلمين في مصر (الدورة البرلمانية 2005 - 2010)

وصلات خارجية
 تقرير المنظمة المصرية لحقوق الإنسان
 ملف الأهرام في الانتخابات البرلمانية
 إسرائيل ومصر في الانتخابات
 برنامج الإخوان المسلمين

مصر في 2005
أحداث ديسمبر 2005
أحداث ديسمبر 2005 في إفريقيا
أحداث نوفمبر 2005
أحداث نوفمبر 2005 في إفريقيا
الانتخابات في مصر
انتخابات إفريقيا في 2005
انتخابات مجلس الشعب المصري

انتخابات مجلس الشعب المصري 2005


السرطان البري  هو الاسم الشائع الذي يطلق على أي حيوان قشري عشر قدمي ينتمي لعائلة السرطانات البرية "Gecarcinidae". السرطانات البرية تعد من السرطانات الحقيقية، وقد تكيفت للعيش في الأوساط البرية. كباقي السرطانات، للسرطانات البرية مجموعة من الخياشيم، ويتميز الدرع بتضخمه عند الأجزاء المغطية للخياشيم، نظراً لاحتوائه على أوعية دموية، حيث تقوم هذه الأعضاء على سحب الأكسجين من الهواء الجوي، ليكون بذلك نظيراً للرئات في الفقاريات. تعيش الحيوانات البالغة على البر، فيما عدا فترات التزاوج، حيث أنها تتزاوج في البحر، ومن ثم تتكون اليرقات. تتغذى السرطانات البرية على الحيوانات والنباتات، وقد تحدث ضرراً بالغاً للمحاصيل الزراعية.

مراجع

سرطانات الشواطئ
فصائل عشريات الأرجل

سرطان بري


Jaume Matas i Palou (* 5. Oktober 1954 in Palma) ist ein ehemaliger spanischer Politiker. Der studierte Wirtschaftswissenschaftler war von 1996 bis 1999 und von 2003 bis 2007 Präsident der Autonomen Gemeinschaft der Balearischen Inseln. Im März 2012 wurde er wegen Amtsmissbrauchs und Korruption zu einer Haftstrafe von sechs Jahren verurteilt.

Leben

Politische Laufbahn
Jaume Matas studierte bis 1978 Wirtschaftswissenschaften und Betriebswirtschaft an der Universität Valencia. Seine politische Karriere begann er 1989 als Generaldirektor des Haushalts im Ministerium für Wirtschaft und Finanzen der Balearen. Im Jahr 1993 wurde er Wirtschafts- und Finanzminister der Autonomen Gemeinschaft, bevor er im Juni 1996 das Amt des Präsidenten der balearischen Landesregierung von Cristòfol Soler i Cladera, wie Matas Mitglied der Partido Popular (PP), übernahm. Obwohl mit 43 Prozent stärkste Partei bei den Wahlen zum Regionalparlament der Balearen 1999, musste die PP die Regierungsgeschäfte einer Parteienkoalition unter Francesc Antich i Oliver von der PSIB-PSOE überlassen. Ab Juli 1999 Oppositionsführer, wurde Matas im Oktober 1999 zum Präsidenten der Partido Popular auf den Balearen gewählt.

Im April 2000 berief der spanische Ministerpräsident José María Aznar Jaume Matas als Umweltminister in die Zentralregierung nach Madrid, wo er die Nachfolge von Isabel Tocino Biscarolasaga antrat. Als im November 2002 der Öltanker Prestige vor der Küste Galiciens sank und eine Umweltkatastrophe an der Nordwestküste Spaniens verursachte, wurde dem Umweltministerium seitens der Öffentlichkeit eine verspätete Reaktion vorgeworfen. Im März 2003 gab Matas sein Ministeramt in der spanischen Regierung auf. Ab Juni 2003 war Jaume Matas erneut Präsident der Autonomen Gemeinschaft der Balearen, musste jedoch nach den für die PP verlorenen Wahlen vom 27. Mai 2007 wiederum Francesc Antich die Präsidentschaft übergeben, dem es gelang, eine Koalitionsregierung mehrerer Parteien zu bilden. Im September 2007 nahm Matas eine Stellung in der Barceló-Gruppe (Grupo Barceló) an, die er im Januar 2009 wieder verließ.

Während seiner Amtszeit als Balearenpräsident schaffte Matas die Öko- und die Erbschaftssteuer ab. Er förderte den Autobahnbau auf Mallorca und Ibiza und stieß damit wegen der damit verbundenen Umweltzerstörung auf erheblichen Widerstand. 2007 erhielt er zwar erneut bei den Wahlen die meisten Stimmen, aber es gelang ihm nicht, eine notwendige Koalitionsregierung zu bilden und erneut Präsident der Balearen zu werden.

Korruptionsaffäre
Im August 2008 wurde gegen Jaume Matas ein Strafverfahren wegen Verschwendung öffentlicher Mittel, Bestechung und Amtsmissbrauchs eröffnet. Am 30. März 2010 erging ein Haftbefehl gegen ihn; die Untersuchungshaft wurde gegen Zahlung einer Kaution von drei Millionen Euro ausgesetzt, die höchste Kautionssumme, die je in Spanien verhängt wurde. Die Partei PP schloss Matas daraufhin aus. Ihm werden rund ein Dutzend Delikte vorgeworfen, die laut Zeitungsangaben bei Verurteilungen theoretisch zu einer Haftstrafe von bis zu insgesamt 64 Jahren führen könnten. In die unsauberen Machenschaften von Matas soll Iñaki Urdangarin, Herzog von Palma und Schwiegersohn des spanischen Königs Juan Carlos I., verwickelt sein; auch er stand unter Anklage. Urdangarin wurde im Juni 2018 vom Obersten Spanischen Gericht (Tribunal Supremo) wegen Veruntreuung von sechs Millionen Euro Steuergeldern, Betrug, Urkundenfälschung und Geldwäsche zu einer Haftstrafe von fünf Jahren und zehn Monaten verurteile.

Im Zentrum aller Verfahren stand der Bau der Palma Arena, einer multifunktionalen Sporthalle mit Radrennbahn in Palma de Mallorca. Es bestand der Verdacht gegen Matas und andere Politiker, dass sie zur Abrechnung gefälschte erhöhte Rechnungen vorgelegt und die Differenz zu den wahren Kosten in die eigene Tasche gewirtschaftet hätten. Tatsächlich wuchsen die vermeintlichen Baukosten um mehr als das Doppelte von ursprünglich veranschlagten rund 48 auf letztlich rund 120 Millionen Euro. Die Mallorca Zeitung bezeichnete die Arena als "das größte Millionengrab auf Mallorca".

Im März 2012 wurde Jaume Matas in erster Instanz zu sechs Jahren Gefängnis verurteilt; dieser Prozess gegen insgesamt sechs Angeklagte, der von einem ungewöhnlich großen Interesse der Öffentlichkeit begleitet war, galt jedoch nur als Auftakt für rund zehn weitere Verfahren gegen Matas und behandelte nur einen Teilaspekt. Der Politiker wurde für schuldig befunden, in seiner zweiten Amtszeit als Balearen-Präsident mittels einer manipulierten Ausschreibung den Journalisten Antonio Alemany als Redenschreiber engagiert und ihm Geld für nicht geleistete Arbeiten gezahlt zu haben. Im Gegenzug verbreitete Alemany in seiner Online-Zeitung und seiner Nachrichtenagentur Lobeshymnen auf die Matas-Regierung. Die Zahlungen wurden über den Umweg einer PR-Agentur geleistet, um die Identität des Journalisten zu verschleiern. Der entstandene Schaden wird auf insgesamt 483.000 Euro beziffert. Da der Anwalt von Matas ankündigte, Rechtsmittel einzulegen, blieb sein Mandant zunächst auf freiem Fuß.

Im Juli 2013 senkte der Oberste Gerichtshof Spanien das Strafmaß für Matas von sechs Jahren auf neun Monate herab. Im Oktober 2013 wurde die gegen ihn verhängte Kaution in Höhe von 500.000 Euro aufgehoben. Sein Reisepass blieb jedoch eingezogen, da gegen ihn weitere 26 Ermittlungsverfahren liefen. Die gegen seine politische Weggefährtin, die ehemalige Inselpräsidentin Maria Antònia Munar (genannt Prinzessin von Mallorca), verhängte fünfeinhalbjährige Haftstrafe wurde indes vom Gerichtshof bestätigt.

Am 11. Juli 2014 wurde vom Obersten Gerichtshof das Gnadengesuch von Jaume Matas abgelehnt. Somit musste der Ex-President der Balearenregierung als erster hoher Politiker der PP für sechs Monate in das Gefängnis. Am 6. Februar 2017 beantragte der Staatsanwalt der Spanischen Antikorruptionsbehörte fünf Jahre Haft und neun Jahre Berufsverbot für Jaume Matas dafür, dass er in den Wahljahren 2003 und 2007 Wahlkampfkosten der PP mit Schwarzgeld unterstützte und die Firmen, die die Wahlkampagnen ausführten, mit Verträgen bedachte.

Im Januar 2018 ließ der Inselrat eine Tafel, die an die Einweihung des Sóller-Tunnels durch Matas im Jahr 1997 erinnerte, entfernen.

Im Juli 2019 wurde Jaume Matas, der inzwischen in Haft saß, zu einer weiteren Freiheitsstrafe von zehn Monaten wegen der Manipulation bei der Ausschreibung für das Krankenhaus Son Espases in Palma verurteilt. Der Bau dieses Krankenhauses war der teuerste jemals auf Mallorca vergebene Bauauftrag. Der Verdacht, Matas habe dafür Schmiergelder in Höhe von 30 Millionen Euro erhalten, konnte nicht erhärtet werden. Ab 2020 bekam er Freigang und arbeitete in der Apotheke seiner Tochter.

Weblinks

 Vorbei die süße Zeit der Frühverrentungen auf faz.net vom 22. März 2012

Einzelnachweise

Umweltminister (Spanien)
Landespolitiker (Spanien)
Mitglied des Partido Popular (Spanien)
Person (Palma)
Spanier
Geboren 1954
Mann

Jaume Matas