In North America, a bowl game, or simply bowl, is one of a number of postseason college football games that are primarily played by teams belonging to the NCAA's Division I Football Bowl Subdivision (FBS). For most of its history, the Division I Bowl Subdivision had avoided using a playoff tournament to determine an annual national champion, which was instead traditionally determined by a vote of sports writers and other non-players. In place of such a playoff, various cities across the United States developed their own regional festivals featuring postseason college football games. Prior to 2002, bowl game statistics were not included in players' career totals. Despite attempts to establish a permanent system to determine the FBS national champion on the field (such as the Bowl Coalition from 1992 to 1994, the Bowl Alliance from 1995 to 1997, the Bowl Championship Series from 1998 to 2013, and the College Football Playoff from 2014 to the present), various bowl games continue to be held because of the vested economic interests entrenched in them.

Bowl games originally featured the very best teams in college football, with strict bowl eligibility requirements for teams to receive an invitation to a bowl game in a particular year; as of 1971, there were only 10 team-competitive (as compared to all-star) bowl games. The number of bowl games has grown, reaching 20 games by the 1997 season, then rapidly expanding beyond 30 games by the 2006 season and 40 team-competitive games (not including the College Football Playoff National Championship) by the  2015 season. The increase in bowl games has necessitated a significant easing of the NCAA bowl eligibility rules, since reduced to allow teams with non-winning 6–6 records (numerous teams since 2002 season) and even losing 5–6 and 5–7 seasons (10 teams since the 2001 season) to fill some of the many available bowl slots.

The term "bowl" originated from the Rose Bowl stadium, site of the first postseason college football games. The Rose Bowl Stadium, in turn, takes its name and bowl-shaped design from the Yale Bowl, the prototype of many football stadiums in the United States. The term has since become almost synonymous with any major American football event, generally collegiate football with some significant exceptions. Two examples are the Egg Bowl, the name of the annual matchup between the Mississippi State Bulldogs and the Ole Miss Rebels, and the Iron Bowl, a nickname given to the annual game between the Alabama Crimson Tide and the Auburn Tigers. In professional football, the names of the National Football League (NFL)'s Super Bowl and Pro Bowl are references to college football bowl games.

The use of the term has crossed over into professional and collegiate Canadian football. A notable example is the annual Banjo Bowl between the Winnipeg Blue Bombers and Saskatchewan Roughriders of the Canadian Football League (CFL). In Canadian university football, which has determined its national champions on the field for several decades, the "bowl games" are the two semi-final games that determine the participants in the Vanier Cup national championship game, since 2002 these have been the Uteck Bowl and the Mitchell Bowl. The matchups are determined on a conference rotation basis, with the Uteck Bowl being played at the easternmost host team, while the Mitchell is at the westernmost host team.

History

The history of the bowl game began with the 1902 Tournament East-West football game, sponsored by the Tournament of Roses Association between Michigan and Stanford, a game which Michigan won 49-0. The Tournament of Roses eventually sponsored an annual contest starting with the 1916 Tournament East-West Football Game. With the 1923 Rose Bowl it began to be played at the newly completed Rose Bowl stadium, and thus the contest itself became known as the Rose Bowl game. The name "bowl" to describe the games thus comes from the Rose Bowl stadium. Other cities saw the promotional value for tourism that the Tournament of Roses parade and Rose Bowl carried and began to develop their own regional festivals which included college football games. The label "bowl" was attached to the festival name, even though the games were not always played in bowl-shaped stadiums.

The historic timing of bowl games, around the new year, is the result of two factors—warm climate and ease of travel.  The original bowls began in warm climates such as Southern California, Louisiana, Florida, and Texas as a way to promote the area for tourism and business. Since commercial air travel was either non-existent or very limited, the games were scheduled well after the end of the regular season to allow fans to travel to the game site.  While modern travel is more convenient, all but 5 of 41 bowl games (as of 2016-17) are still located in cities below approximately 36° N.

Currently, college football bowl games are played from mid-December to early January. As the number of bowl games has increased, the number of games a team would need to win to be invited to a bowl game has decreased. With a 12-game schedule, a number of teams with only 5 wins have been invited to a bowl game.

As of the completion of the 2018 season, the University of Alabama has played in more bowl games than any other school, with 69 appearances (counting College Football Playoff semifinals and finals). Alabama also holds the record for most bowl victories with 41 under that same metric. As of the 2019 season, the Virginia Tech Hokies holds the official NCAA-recognized record of consecutive bowl berths, along with the longest active streak of consecutive bowl appearances, at 26 straight bowls.

Florida State held the record of consecutive bowl berths at 36 bowl appearances from 1982 until 2017. However, it is not recognized by the NCAA due to the NCAA vacated FSU's 2006 Emerald Bowl victory over UCLA due to an academic issue.

The Rose Bowl was the only major college bowl game in 1930. By 1940, there were five major college bowl games: the Rose Bowl, the Sugar Bowl (1935), the Cotton Bowl Classic (1937), the Orange Bowl (1935), and the Sun Bowl (1935). By 1950, the number had increased to eight games. This figure of eight bowl games persisted through 1960, but by 1970 the number had increased again, to 11 games. The number continued to increase, to 15 games in 1980, to 19 games in 1990, 25 games in 2000, 35 games in 2010, and 41 games by 2015 (40 games plus two teams playing a second game to determine the National Champion). Up until around the 1950s, the small number of games were played solely on New Year's Day, with the only major exception being the holiday occurring on a Sunday.  The tradition of not playing bowl games on Sunday initially started from the Rose Parade and Rose Bowl not being held on Sundays for fear of spooking horses tied at churches, but in later years was done to avoid conflict with NFL games. For the 2016–17 bowl season, the 41 games require a little over three weeks, starting December 17 and ending on January 9. While bowl games were originally exclusive to warm cities thought of as winter vacation destinations, indoor stadiums allow games to be played in colder climates.

The attendance of 106,869 for the 1973 Rose Bowl set the Rose Bowl Stadium record, as well as the NCAA bowl game attendance record. The Rose Bowl stadium still is the largest capacity stadium and the Rose Bowl game has the highest attendance for postseason bowl games.

In the 1990s, many bowl games began to modify or abandon their traditional names in favor of selling naming rights. While some include the traditional name in some form (e.g. the Rose Bowl Game presented by Northwestern Mutual), others have totally eliminated their traditional name in favor of solely using their corporate sponsor's name (e.g. the former Citrus Bowl became the Capital One Bowl for some time after the financial services company Capital One bought the naming rights; it later reverted to its original name in 2015).

Prior to 1992 most bowls had strict agreements with certain conferences. For example, the Rose Bowl traditionally invited the champions of the Pac-10 and the Big Ten conferences. The Sugar Bowl invited the SEC champion and the Orange Bowl hosted the Big 8 conference champion.  These conference tie-ins led to situations where the top-ranked teams in the country could not play each other in a bowl game. The national championship was decided after the bowls, solely by voters for various media polls, who tried to decide which team was best, sometimes based on wins against far inferior teams. As a result, there could be multiple championship titles and no single champion. This led to the term "Mythical National Championship", which is still used to describe high school national champions, since high school sports have state championship tournaments but not national.

Attempts to determine a national champion

Because of the vested economic interests entrenched in the various bowl games, the longer regular season compared to lower divisions of college football, and a desire not to have college players play several rounds of playoff games during final exams and winter recess, the Division I Bowl Subdivision long avoided instituting a playoff tournament to determine an annual national champion. Instead, the National Champion in the Football Bowl Subdivision has traditionally been determined by a vote of sports writers and other non-players.

In 1995, the Bowl Alliance, formed by the major bowls and conferences, put in place a system where the two highest ranked teams would play each other, even if they were each affiliated with a different bowl. However, the Pac-10 and Big Ten and the Rose Bowl did not participate.  Number 1 vs Number 2 bowl match-ups became far more likely, but were not guaranteed. After the 1997 season, undefeated Michigan was ranked first in both major polls, but as the Big Ten champion, they played eighth-ranked Pac-10 champion Washington State in the Rose Bowl. The top Bowl Alliance team, #2 and unbeaten Nebraska, faced one-loss, third-ranked Tennessee in the Orange Bowl.  Michigan won by five on New Year's Day and the next night, Nebraska beat Tennessee (playing with an injury-hobbled Peyton Manning) by 25.  The AP kept Michigan as the champion, but the Coaches' Poll jumped Nebraska, playing its final game for retiring coach Tom Osborne, in part because of their more lopsided victory against a more highly ranked opponent.

The following season, the Rose Bowl, Pac-10, and Big Ten joined the other bowls and major conferences to form the Bowl Championship Series.  The BCS attempted to match the two highest ranked teams in the country based upon calculations from various sources, including statistics and coaches' polls, with one of the four bowl games in the consortium (the Rose Bowl, Fiesta Bowl, Sugar Bowl, and Orange Bowl) rotating the role of "national championship", or beginning in 2006, a dedicated BCS Championship Game rotated among the BCS venues. The BCS Championship Game, while separate from the four main bowls, was still rotated among their sites. The Coaches Poll was contractually obligated to recognize the winner of the game as its national champion. However, other polls such as the AP Poll may deviate and pick a different team, particularly in years when multiple teams were equally worthy of reaching the game.  For example, in 2003, one-loss LSU won the BCS National Championship over Oklahoma, but the AP crowned one-loss USC champion after its Rose Bowl win.

For the 2014-15 season, the BCS was replaced by a new consortium, the College Football Playoff (CFP). The new system uses a four-team single-elimination tournament, with its participants selected and seeded by a committee; the semi-final games are rotated between pairs of the six member bowls yearly (Rose Bowl and Sugar Bowl, then Orange Bowl and Cotton Bowl Classic, and then the Fiesta Bowl and Peach Bowl). The winners from the two semi-final bowls advance to the College Football Playoff National Championship, which is played at a neutral site determined using bids. Members of the "New Year's Six" that are not hosting semi-final games revert to their traditional tie-ins. Like its predecessors, and in contrast to the officially sanctioned NCAA tournaments at lower levels, the College Football Playoff is not officially recognized as an NCAA championship.

Professional bowl games
The National Football League also used the name "bowl" for some of its playoff games. While the NFL Championship was not named a Bowl initially, the league instituted the Pro Bowl as the name of its all-star game in 1951, and introduced the Bert Bell Benefit Bowl (also known as the Playoff Bowl) as a matchup of the two second-place teams in each division from 1960 to 1969.

When the professional football AFL-NFL merger occurred in 1970, the AFL-NFL World Championship Game became the NFL's championship and is now known as the Super Bowl, as it has been named since 1968 (the name was coined by Lamar Hunt after watching his daughter play with a super ball). There has also been the American Bowl, a preseason match held overseas, and various one-time games informally nicknamed bowls, such as the Bounty Bowl, Ice Bowl, Snow Bowl, Freezer Bowl, Fog Bowl, Mud Bowl, Tuna Bowl, Manning Bowl, Harbaugh Bowl and the proposed (but ultimately canceled) China Bowl.

As a result, other professional football leagues used or use the name Bowl for their championships, such as the World Football League (World Bowl), NFL Europe (World Bowl), Arena Football League (ArenaBowl), Indoor Football League (United Bowl), Great Lakes Indoor Football League (Great Lakes Bowl) and American Indoor Football Association (AIFA Championship Bowl). The Canadian Football League nicknames one of their rivalries as the Banjo Bowl and another QEW Bowl (also known as the Battle of Ontario); like most Canadian sports leagues, however, the CFL's championship is instead known as a cup (in the CFL's case, the Grey Cup).

Bowl games today

Postseason bowls

At the NCAA top level of football, the Division I Football Bowl Subdivision (FBS, previously known as Division I-A from 1978 through 2005), teams must earn the right to be bowl eligible, generally by winning at least six games and by not having a losing record at the end of their regular season schedule. They can then be invited to a bowl game based on their finishing placement in their conference, and tie-ins that their conference has to various bowl games. Alternately, a bowl-eligible team may receive an at-large invitation to a bowl game, independent of conference tie-ins.

Bowls are popular among coaching staffs because the NCAA allows college teams going to bowl games extra weeks of practice they would otherwise not have, and bowl games pay the teams for their participation.  Teams belonging to a conference split the money with their conference mates. For the 2010 season, 70 of the 120 Division I FBS teams played in a bowl game.

An association of the bowl games themselves, independent of the NCAA, has existed since at least 1989. Originally known as the Football Bowl Association, the organization announced a rebranding as "Bowl Season" in October 2020. It aims to work "with all existing bowls to promote the benefits of the entire bowl system".

NCAA bowl season generally lasts from mid-December to early January with the first week of bowl games usually featuring teams from the Group of Five conferences (American Athletic Conference, Conference-USA, Mid-American Conference, Mountain West Conference, Sun Belt Conference and FBS Independents with the exception of Notre Dame) with bowl games featuring mainly teams from the Power Five conferences (ACC, Big Ten, Big 12, Pac-12, SEC and FBS Independent Notre Dame) coming in the second week.

Non-FBS bowl games
At lower levels, teams play in playoff tournaments with a national championship game at a neutral site, making invitational bowl games less popular than in the Football Bowl Subdivision (FBS).

The Division I Football Championship Subdivision (FCS) features only one bowl game, the Celebration Bowl (formerly the Heritage Bowl). It invites the top teams from historically black colleges and universities, one from the SWAC and one from the MEAC. (The SWAC has historically had a longer regular season that extends past Thanksgiving weekend, preventing its teams from participating in the FCS tournament and more closely mirroring the FBS.)

At the Division II level there are currently four postseason bowls for teams that did not qualify for the DII playoffs: the Live United Texarkana Bowl, Heritage Bowl, America's Crossroads Bowl, and Mineral Water Bowl (currently on hiatus). All four of the Division II bowls are played on the same day, the first Saturday of December.

At the Division III level, all bowls that are currently played are recent developments (starting in 2008 or later). For the 2017 season, 10 bowls are scheduled to be played by teams that did not qualify for the DIII playoffs: a six-bowl series organized for ECAC teams, a two-bowl series organized between the Centennial Conference and MAC, the New York State Bowl (between Liberty League and Empire 8), and the New England Bowl (between the ECFC, MSCAC, CCC and NEWMAC). Prior to 2008, the ECAC also held the ECAC Bowl (1989–2003) for Division I-AA and the North Atlantic Bowl (2007), the last of which is now integrated into the conference's six-bowl series. Additionally, the Division III championship game has historically been known as the Amos Alonzo Stagg Bowl.

Outside the NCAA, the Victory Bowl is sponsored by the NCCAA, a group that does not restrict its membership to either NCAA or NAIA. The NAIA does not have any invitational postseason bowl games. Starting with the now defunct Wheat Bowl, the NAIA found it easier to schedule bowl games early in the season rather than late—this allowed the schedule to accommodate large college bowl games and high school sports; one such extant example is the College Fanz First Down Classic, a pre-season bowl game for NAIA teams.

All-star bowl games
Following traditional bowl games, a series of all-star bowl games round out the postseason schedule. These games seek to showcase the best departing college players, just as the NFL showcases its all-stars in the annual postseason Pro Bowl. Such college all-star games include the East–West Shrine Bowl, the Senior Bowl, the Hula Bowl, and the NFLPA Collegiate Bowl.

Special games and rivalries
There have also been pre-season and regular-season games carrying the "bowl" moniker, including the Mirage Bowl and the Glasnost Bowl.

Examples of bowl games that are not part of the postseason include the Iron Bowl and the Egg Bowl.

Recently, the term "bowl" has been added to other games that have some special note or sub-plot to the actual game, in college or the National Football League. An example of this is the Bowden Bowl given to games where Florida State and Clemson were coached by the father-son duo of Bobby Bowden, and Tommy Bowden respectively.

Any games between two very poor teams and/or of a very poor standard of play have been jokingly referred to as a Toilet Bowl.

Outside North America

Brazil
The championship game of the Superliga Nacional de Futebol Americano is known as the Brasil Bowl.

European Football League
In the European Football League (EFL), a European Cup style tournament for European American Football teams affiliated to EFAF (European Federation of American Football), the final game of the EFL is called the Eurobowl, and has been held annually since 1986.

Denmark
In Denmark, the national championship game is called Mermaid Bowl, named after the Hans Christian Andersen fairy tale.

Finland
In Finland, the national championship game is called Vaahteramalja ("Maple Bowl") and was first held in 1980.

Germany
In Germany, the national championship game in American football is called the German Bowl and was first held in 1979. Apart from the German Bowl, a Junior Bowl has also been contested in Germany since 1982 and a Ladies Bowl was introduced in 1990. Other, related, national championship games in Germany include the German Flag Bowl (est. 2000), German Junior Flag Bowl (1999) and a German Indoor Flag Bowl (2000).

Great Britain
The annual championship game of the British American Football Association National Leagues is known as the Britbowl.

Ireland
The championship game of the American Football Ireland Premier Division is called the Shamrock Bowl. It is generally held around July or August each year and has been played every year since 1986 except for 2000 & 2020.

Israel
The winner of the Israeli Football League is determined every year in the Israel Bowl. The first to lift the Becker Trophy was the Jerusalem Lions in 2008.

Japan
The championship game between the East Japan and West Japan champions in college football, is known as the Koshien Bowl. The top middle school teams also compete in the Koshien Bowl. While the pro football championship is known as the Japan X Bowl. The winners of the Koshien and Japan X bowls play each other for the Japan National Championship in the Rice Bowl. The annual high school football championship game is the Christmas Bowl.

Netherlands
The championship game of the Dutch AFBN First (or Premier) Division is called the Tulip Bowl. The first edition was held in 1986.

Switzerland
The championship game of the Swiss Nationalliga A is called the Swiss Bowl. It was first held in 1986.

See also

 List of college bowl games
 List of announcers of major college bowl games
 Bids to college bowl games
 Bowl Coalition
 Bowl Alliance
 Bowl Championship Series
 List of NCAA football bowl records
 AP Poll - Bowl game results were not included in the AP championship until the 1968 season (1974 season for the UPI championship)

References

Citations

Sources

Further reading

External links
 Bowl Season (formerly, the Football Bowl Association)

American football bowls

Bowl game


Éric Boucher (born December 1, 1958 in Le Bouscat, France) is a former professional footballer.

Career
After beginning his career with French Division 2 side Lyon, Boucher joined Niort. He helped the club gain promotion to the French Division 1, and he scored his first top-flight goal in the 1987–88 season against AS Saint-Étienne.

After he retired from playing football, Boucher was the mayor of Fraisnes-en-Saintois.

References

External links
Eric Boucher profile at chamoisfc79.fr

1958 births
Living people
French men's footballers
Men's association football defenders
FC Girondins de Bordeaux players
Olympique Lyonnais players
Chamois Niortais F.C. players
Ligue 1 players
Ligue 2 players

Eric Boucher


Johann Martin Bernatz (1802-1878), paysagiste allemand
  (1800-1882), hydrotechnicien allemand
  (1831-1898), architecte allemand

Bernatz


USS Fechteler (DD-870), named for Rear Admiral Augustus Francis Fechteler USN (1857–1921) and/or his son Lieutenant Frank Casper Fechteler (1897-1922), was a  laid down by the Bethlehem Steel Corporation at Staten Island in New York on 12 April 1945, launched on 19 September 1945 by Miss Joan S. Fechteler, granddaughter of Rear Admiral Fechteler and niece of Lieutenant Fechteler, she was also the sponsor of the first USS Fechteler and commissioned on 2 March 1946.

Fechteler operated with the Seventh Fleet in support of United Nations Forces during the Korean War, underwent conversion to a radar picket destroyer from 1 April to 1 December 1953, alternated operations along the west coast and in Hawaiian waters with deployments to the western Pacific with the Seventh Fleet, and participated in Sea Dragon and Market Time operations, patrolled on search and rescue duties and carried out naval gunfire support missions during the Vietnam War.

Fechteler was decommissioned and stricken from the Naval Vessel Register on 11 September 1970 and sold for scrap on 28 June 1972.

Service history

Before the Korean War

Her home port was Norfolk, Virginia. Fechteler operated with carriers in the Virginia Capes area, and made a brief winter cruise to Argentia, Newfoundland. On 6 January 1947 she sailed from Norfolk for the west coast, and on 26 May sailed from San Diego for her first tour of duty in the Far East. Serving in the occupation, she called at several Chinese ports, as well as at Okinawa, Hong Kong, Yokosuka, and Guam. She returned to San Diego 22 January 1948, to resume west coast training operations.

Korean War
Fechteler completed a second tour of duty in the Far East in 1949, and in June 1950, when the Korean War broke out, was at sea off San Francisco on exercises. At once she sailed for Pearl Harbor, where she stood by in preparation for the possible spreading of the conflict, and on 14 July returned to San Diego to prepare for Korean service. She served in the Far East on two war-time deployments, the first from 13 November 1950 to 8 August 1951, the second from 23 February 1952 to 29 September 1952. During both of these, she screened TF 77 in its air operations, sailed with the escort and patrol force, and gave bombardment and close gunfire support to the troops ashore.

Radar picket destroyer

Fechteler was decommissioned and placed in reserve 1 April 1953, for conversion to a radar picket destroyer. Recommissioned 1 December 1953, she sailed 10 May 1954 for duty in the Far East until 6 September, when she sailed on westward to join the Atlantic Fleet at Newport, arriving 27 October. In addition to participating in the Atlantic schedule of east coast and Caribbean exercises, she also joined in a midshipman cruise in the summer of 1955, voyaging to Málaga, Spain; Plymouth, England; and Guantánamo Bay, Cuba.

Once more assigned to the Pacific Fleet, Fechteler sailed from Newport 14 May 1956 for Long Beach, which she reached 28 June. In 1956, 1957–58, 1958–59, and 1960, she cruised in the Far East on duty with the 7th Fleet, serving both on the Taiwan Patrol, and with carrier task forces as a radar warning ship.

FRAM
In 1963, Fechteler entered the Long Beach Naval Shipyard and received the FRAM I modernisation. She was redesignated DD-870 and operated off Vietnam in the second half of the 1960s.

The destroyer was stricken on 11 September 1970. On 28 June 1972, she was sold to Zidell Explorations Inc. at Portland, Oregon and broken up for scrap.

Fechteler received five battle stars for Korean War service.

References

Cold War destroyers of the United States
Korean War destroyers of the United States
Vietnam War destroyers of the United States
Ships built in Staten Island
1945 ships
Gearing-class destroyers of the United States Navy

USS Fechteler (DD-870)


Shoegazing (sau shoegaze, inițial cunoscut ca dream pop) este un gen al rock-ului alternativ și indie care a apărut în Marea Britanie la sfârșitul anilor 1980. Se caracterizează prin amestecul eteric de sunete obscure, distorsiuni de chitară și efecte, feedback audio și volum copleșitor.

Rock alternativ
Indie rock

Shoegazing


Dropline is a commercial fishing device.

Dropline may also refer to:

 Dropline GNOME, software

See also

 Drip line (disambiguation)

Dropline (disambiguation)


Christian Altenburger (né le  à Heidelberg) est un violoniste autrichien.

Vie et carrière

Christian Altenburger, fils du violoniste Alfred Altenburger, a étudié à l'Académie de musique et des arts du spectacle de Vienne alors qu'il était encore à l'école. Après avoir obtenu son diplôme, il a commencé à étudier à la Juilliard School de New York dans la classe de Dorothy DeLay sur la recommandation de Zubin Mehta. Il a fait ses débuts en tant que soliste au Wiener Musikverein en 1976. D'autres engagements en tant que soliste ont suivi dans des concerts avec des orchestres tels que l'Orchestre philharmonique de Vienne, l'Orchestre philharmonique de Berlin, l'Orchestre symphonique de Londres, l'Orchestre philharmonique de New York et l'Orchestre symphonique de Chicago dirigés par des chefs tels que Claudio Abbado, Bernard Haitink, James Levine, Zubin Mehta et Wolfgang Sawallisch. Altenburger participe régulièrement à des festivals internationaux de musique de chambre tels que ,   et Stavanger, et au Festival Pablo Casals à Prades. Il est en outre l'organisateur de divers événements de musique de chambre.

De 1990 à 2001, il a enseigné comme professeur de violon à la Hochschule für Musik, Theater und Medien Hannover. De 1999 à 2005, il a été directeur artistique du  avec son épouse d'alors l'actrice Julia Stemberger, dont il a eu une fille,  . Le professeur Altenburger est actuellement marié à la violoniste britannique Lydia Altenburger (née Westcombe-Evans). Le couple s'est marié en 2010 et a eu 2 fils, Nicolas (né en 2011) et Séverin (en 2012).

En 2001, il a obtenu une chaire de professeur à l'Université de musique de Vienne. Depuis 2003, il est directeur artistique du festival de musique de chambre Schwäbischer Frühling, et depuis 2006 de la Loisiarte à Langenlois.

Récompenses
 2018 :  - Prix de reconnaissance dans la catégorie Musik.

Références

Liens externes

Violoniste autrichien
Étudiant de l'académie de musique et des arts du spectacle de Vienne
Professeur à l'académie de musique et des arts du spectacle de Vienne
Naissance à Heidelberg
Naissance en septembre 1957

Christian Altenburger


Miss Universo 1953, la segunda edición del concurso de belleza Miss Universo, se realizó en el Long Beach Municipal Auditorium en Long Beach, California, Estados Unidos el .

Veintiséis candidatas, representantes de igual número de países y territorios, compitieron por el título en esta versión del certamen. Al final del evento —y debido a que Armi Kuusela, Miss Universo 1952, de Finlandia, había abandonado el título para casarse—, la actriz estadounidense Julie Adams coroná a Christiane Martel, de Francia. Elegida por un jurado, la ganadora, de 17 años, se convirtió en la primera representante de su país en obtener el título de Miss Universo.

Previamente, señoritas de los Estados Unidos habían competido por el título de Miss Estados Unidos de América, las cuales convivieron con las delegadas internacionales en espera de saber cuál de ellas representaría a la nación anfitriona. Myrna Hansen, representante del estado de Illinois, resultó vencedora.

El conductor de la velada fue Bob Russell.

Resultados

Clasificación final

Premios especiales
Los premios de Miss Simpatía y Miss Fotogénica fueron otorgados a las siguientes candidatas:

Concursantes
Las candidatas al título de Miss Universo 1953 fueron las siguientes:

Referencias

Concursos de belleza en 1953
1953
Estados Unidos en 1953
Francia en 1953

Miss Universo 1953


Steiff is a German-based plush toy company, founded in 1880, with headquarters in Giengen, Germany. The company claims to have made the world's first factory-made teddy bear.

History

Steiff was founded in 1880 by Margarete Steiff, a seamstress. She began making fabric elephants that were sold in her shop as pincushions. However, children began playing with them, and in the years following she went on to design many other animal-themed toys for children, such as monkeys, donkeys, horses, camels, pigs, mice, dogs, cats, rabbits, and giraffes.

In 1893, Margarete's felt fabric factory was founded in Giengen, Germany. In 1895, the first Steiff products to be sold outside Germany were sold at Harrods in London, England.

Earliest Steiff teddy bears

In 1897, Margarete's nephew, Richard Steiff, joined the company and gave it an enormous boost by creating stuffed animals from drawings made at the zoo. Richard attended the School of Applied Arts in Stuttgart and studied in England. He designed the world's first plush bear with movable arms and legs, known as "55 PB."

In 1903, a 3,000-piece order was placed by a buyer in America after the "teddy bear" craze began due to a popular cartoon of President Theodore "Teddy" Roosevelt and a young cub in The Washington Post in 1902.

By 1907, Steiff manufactured 974,000 bears, and the company has been increasing its output ever since.

Titanic teddy bears

In 1912, in the aftermath of the Titanic disaster that left Britain in mourning, a British toy retailer ordered black Steiff teddy bears to bring comfort to the public. They did not sell very well and production was soon halted, with just 494 made in five different sizes. Today, they are highly coveted by collectors due to their historical relevance and scarcity.

Company growth to present day

In 1909, when Margarete died of pneumonia, Richard continued his aunt's legacy and further expanded the toy and plush line. He also became the largest stockholder of the company.

In 1925, the Steiff company started using assembly line production to keep up with the high demand. In 1931, Steiff partnered with Disney to manufacture the well-known Disney characters.

By the 1960s, Stieff was known as the largest stuffed toy maker in the world. By 1968, according to Time, the company had 2,100 employees and generated $14 million annually.

In 1980, the Steiff Museum opened in Giengen. This event marked the 100th year anniversary of the company. The museum has many artifacts from Margarete Steiff's life.

In 2017, Steiff had revenues of €45 million, or $51 million according to the average exchange rate for the year.

Luxury teddy bears

In 2008, Steiff launched a limited-edition Karl Lagerfeld teddy bear with a price of €1,000. In 2018, Steiff and Tiffany & Co. collaborated to offer a luxury teddy bear. The 10.5-inch, caramel-colored mohair teddy bear retailed for $375.

Notable auctions

Vintage Steiff teddy bears are prized by collectors, and depending on the type can bring significant sums at auction. In a 1994 auction, the Steiff "Teddy Girl" made in 1904 sold for a record $165,000.

In 2000, a Steiff Louis Vuitton Teddy Bear, with eyes made of sapphire and diamonds, and with gold parts, sold at an auction in Monaco for $2.1 million.

In May 2001, at a London Christie's auction of vintage teddy bears, a pair of Steiff teddy bears made in 1908 went for sale with an estimated value of about $20,000.

In December 2002, "Edwin", a 5 1/2-inch Steiff teddy bear that accompanied a British soldier, Percy Kynnersley-Baddlely, killed in the Battle of the Somme in 1916, was sold for £4,230.

In 2010, a 1925 Steiff Harlequin teddy bear sold at a London Christie's auction for £46,850.

Craftsmanship

The Steiff company motto, as styled by Margarete Steiff, is "Only the best is good enough for children". The company uses natural fibers such as mohair in their products. Steiff products are subject to meticulous testing and inspection. They are required to be highly flame resistant, and, among other things, smaller pieces such as eyes must be able to resist considerable tension, wear, and tear. A large amount of the work is done by hand. It takes eight to 12 months of training for a seamstress to develop the skills to make Steiff bears that meet the company's strict quality standards.

The iconic "button in ear" tag was devised in 1904 by Margarete's nephew Franz to keep counterfeits from being passed off as authentic Steiff toys. It is made of metal. The button is still used to distinguish authentic Steiff toys from fakes. The tag originally had the symbol of an elephant, and it was later replaced by the name "Steiff".

References

External links
 Steiff Website in English
 Steiff USA Official Site

Companies based in Baden-Württemberg
Toy companies of Germany
Teddy bear manufacturers
Toy companies established in the 19th century
Manufacturing companies established in 1880
German companies established in 1880

Steiff


Die Route nationale 700, kurz N 700 oder RN 700, war eine französische Nationalstraße, die von 1933 bis 1973 zwischen Pons und Archiac verlief. Ihre Länge betrug 20 Kilometer.

Weblinks
 Route nationale française 700 auf WikiSara (französisch)

700

Route nationale 700


Tunul "Krupp" de 75 mm, model 1904 a fost un tun de câmp cu tragere rapidă, de fabricație germană. A reprezentat o variantă constructivă a modelului 7.7 cm FK 96 n.A. singura diferență fiind reprezentată de calibrul țevii (75 în loc de 77 mm).

Tunul s-a aflat în înzestrarea regimentelor de artilerie de câmp din Armata României, fiind piesa de bază în artileria de câmp română în Primul Război Mondial. La începutul campaniei din anul 1916 erau în evidență un număr de 636 de bucăți.

Principii constructive
Tunul era destinat în principal pentru distrugerea forței vii a inamicului pe câmpul de luptă. Țeava era ghintuită, fiind construită din oțel forjat. Mecanismul de închidere era prevăzut cu închizător de tip "pană".  Proiectilele erau explozive sau încărcate cu șrapnele. Tunul era montat pe un afet mobil cu două roți cu spițe din lemn, pentru transport montându-se un antetren cu roți identice.

Note

Bibliografie
 Stroea, Adrian (colonel); Băjenaru Gheorghe (lt. col.), Artileria română în date și imagini, Editura Centrului Tehnic-Editorial al Armatei, București, 2010. ISBN 978-606-524-080-3

Vezi și
 Armamentul Armatei României în Primul Război Mondial

Legături externe

 Krupp 75mm field gun M. 1904

Armata României
Armamentul de artilerie al Armatei României din Primul Război Mondial
 Arme din Primul Război Mondial
 Tunuri
Cioturi din proiectul România în Primul Război Mondial

Tun „Krupp” de 75 mm, model 1904


El Análisis Hidráulico de Sistemas de Distribución (Conocido también como Modelación Hidráulica de Redes), es en esencia la implementación de un método numérico asociado a redes malladas para la resolución de un sistema de ecuaciones de Carga (o de Alturas Piezométricas) y de Caudal.

Los sistemas de distribución (también conocidos como Acueductos) son sistemas mallados o redes cerradas diseñadas de una manera redundante donde el agua para abastecer un usuario puede seguir diversos caminos para abastecer un usuario cualquiera o un área cualquiera del sistema puede ser servida por más de una tubería simultáneamente. Lo anterior con el objeto de brindar a los usuarios una mayor confiabilidad del servicio y que la rotura y posterior reparación de un tramo del sistema no implique necesariamente la suspensión del servicio.

Esta configuración genera un sistema indeterminado de ecuaciones, donde generalmente los datos conocidos son los diámetros y rugosidades de las tuberías que conforman el sistema, los valores estimados o proyectados de caudal demandado por el sistema y al menos el valor de una frontera de carga conocida (por ejemplo el nivel del agua en un Embalse). El resultado final del proceso matemático iterativo (hasta alcanzar para el conjunto de ecuaciones una convergencia numérica mínima predefinida por el modelador), es la obtención de los caudales que circulan por las tuberías y las diferentes presiones en los nodos del sistema.

Generalidades de la Formulación
La formulación matemática del análisis de sistemas de distribución se basa en esencia en dos principios básicos (y muy antiguos) que se deben cumplir independientemente de la configuración y elementos que componen el sistema o Red Hidráulica, estos son:
 Ecuación de Conservación de Masa en Nodos
 Ecuación de Conservación de Energía aplicadas a un flujo incompresible a través de un sistema a Presión (Principio de Bernoulli)

En la práctica, la representación y análisis hidráulico de los sistemas o redes de distribución se realiza a través de un Modelo Computacional o Modelo Hidráulico que permita la solución matemática de las incógnitas del sistema de ecuaciones. Este modelo no solamente está representado por tuberías sino también por Tanques de Almacenamiento, Embalses (Reservorios), Válvulas de Regulación, Bombas, Medidores, Accesorios, entre otros elementos.

Las variables del modelo (algunas conocidas) son entonces:
 Los Caudales "q" internos que circulan por las líneas
 Los Caudales "QD" externos demandados por los nodos
 La altura piezométrica "H" y/o Presión "P" en los nodos del sistema
 Lss pérdidas de carga "h" en cada línea relativas a fricción o pérdidas localizadas.

El conjunto de ecuaciones conformado por ecuaciones de carga o altura y de caudal (generalmente asociadas a circuitos internos), queda representado por un sistema de expresiones matemáticas no lineal e indeterminado que precisa la adopción de metodologías matemáticas de naturaleza iterativa que permitan finalmente determinar las distintas incógnitas del sistema.

Métodos de Análisis
Si bien los principios o formulación del conjunto de ecuaciones básicas, son compartidos por todos los métodos de análisis, las diferentes aproximaciones numéricas que buscan determinación de la incógnitas en el Análisis de Redes de Distribución se pueden agrupar en dos grandes familias:
 Metodologías basadas en técnicas iterativas de Gauss-Seidel y Jacobi (resolución del problema efectuando en cada iteración una resolución secuencial de cada una de las ecuaciones). Ejemplo: Métodos de Cross y sus derivados.
 Metodologías de Equilibrio Simultáneo de las Variables (resolución basada en técnicas de linealización de las ecuaciones). Ejemplo: Métodos del Nodo y Circuito Simultáneos.

En resumen, los métodos de análisis de redes de distribución más significativos que abarcan un extenso periodo de desarrollo son los siguientes:
 Método(s) de Hardy Cross
 Método del Nodo Simultáneo (Conocido también como el método clásico de Newton Raphson)
 Método del Circuito Simultáneo
 Método de la Teoría Lineal
 Método del Gradiente Hidráulico (Conocido también como Método de la Red Simultánea)

Software de Modelación Hidráulica de Redes de Distribución
Existen diversos programas computacionales para el análisis de redes de distribución. La gran mayoría de ellos cuentan con el Método de Gradiente Hidráulico como base de su algoritmo de cálculo. Dentro de estos programas (algunos de código abierto) y algunos comerciales se pueden destacar:
 Epanet
 WaterCAD
 WaterGEMS
 H2OMap

Enlaces externos
 Página web EPANET
 WaterCAD HomePage
 WaterGEMS HomePage
 Historia de los Métodos de Análisis de Redes de Distribución

Acueductos

Análisis de sistemas de distribución


Metrópole de Belgrado () foi uma circunscrição eclesiástica da Igreja Ortodoxa que existiu entre 1831 e 1920, com jurisdição sobre o território do Principado e Reino da Sérvia. Foi formada em 1831, quando o Patriarcado de Constantinopla concedeu autonomia eclesiástica às suas eparquias no Principado da Sérvia. Ampliação territorial e autocefalia canônica completa foram conquistados em 1879. A metrópole de Belgrado existiu até 1920, quando foi fundida com o Patriarcado de Karlovci e outras províncias eclesiásticas sérvias para formar a Igreja Ortodoxa Sérvia unida. A sede da metrópole era em Belgrado, na Sérvia.

A metrópole e todas as suas eparquias sofreram perdas significativas durante a Primeira Guerra Mundial (1914-1918), particularmente depois de 1915, durante a ocupação da Sérvia pelas Potências Centrais.

Estrutura
Incluiu as seguintes eparquias:

 Eparquia de Belgrado - Anteriormente chamada de diocese sérvia, agora arcebispado de Belgrado e Karlovci;
 Eparquia de Žiča - Eparquia de Užice até 26 de junho de 1884. Agora com cátedra em Kraljevo;
 Eparquia de Šabac - Parte da eparquia de Belgrado de 1886 a 1898;
 Eparquia de Timok - Formada depois de 1833. Parte da eparquia de Niš de 1886 a 1891;
 Eparquia de Niš - Adicionada em 1879. Eparquia de Nišava (com sede em Pirot) abolida e fundida com a eparquia de Niš em 1º de novembro de 1880;
 Eparquia de Raška e Prizren - Desde 1912;
 Eparquia de Skopje - Desde 1912;
 Eparquia de Debar e Kičevo - Desde 1912.

Metropolitas (1831–1920)

 Melêncio (1831–1833) - Primeiro metropolita sérvio de Belgrado;
 Pedro (1833–1859);
 Miguel (1859–1881) - Primeiro mandato;
 Moisés (1881–1883) - Nomeado pelo governo sérvio austrófilo;
 Teodósio (1883–1889);
 Miguel (1889–1898) - Segundo mandato;
 Inocêncio (1898–1905);
 Demétrio (1905–1920) - Elevado a patriarca.

Ver também

 Patriarcado de Karlovci
 Igreja Ortodoxa Sérvia
 Lista de primazes da Sérvia

Referências
Cristianismo na Sérvia
Dioceses do Patriarcado Ecumênico de Constantinopla
Igreja Ortodoxa Sérvia
Igrejas Ortodoxas autocéfalas históricas

Metrópole de Belgrado


Olaf Roggensack (29 de maio de 1997) é um remador alemão, medalhista olímpico.

Carreira

Roggensack conquistou a medalha de prata nos Jogos Olímpicos de Verão de 2020 em Tóquio com a equipe da Alemanha no oito com masculino, ao lado de Johannes Weißenfeld, Laurits Follert, Torben Johannesen, Jakob Schneider, Malte Jakschik, Richard Schmidt, Hannes Ocik e Martin Sauer, com o tempo de 5:25.60.

Remadores olímpicos da Alemanha
Remadores nos Jogos Olímpicos de Verão de 2020
Medalhistas nos Jogos Olímpicos de Verão de 2020

Olaf Roggensack


Die Algerische Nationale Front (, ) ist eine Partei in Algerien. Sie ist im politischen Spektrum rechts der Mitte positioniert.

Bei den Parlamentswahlen vom 30. Mai 2002 erhielt die Algerische Nationalfront 1,6 % der Wählerstimmen und gewann acht von 380 Sitzen in der Nationalen Volksversammlung. Ihren Wähleranteil konnte die algerische Algerische Nationale Front erhöhen, als sie bei den Parlamentswahlen von 2007 4,18 % der Stimmen und 13 Sitze errang.

Weblinks
 Website der Algerischen Nationalfront

Nationalistische Partei
Konservative Partei
Partei (Algerien)
Gegründet in den 1990er Jahren

Front National Algérien


António Coelho Pinto (22 Mart 1966, Vila Garcia, Amarante) emekli bir Portekizli uzun mesafe koşucusudur .

Pinto, 1992, 1997 ve 2000 yıllarında Londra Maratonu'nu ve Macaristan'ın başkenti Budapeşte'de düzenlenen 1998 Avrupa Atletizm Şampiyonası'nda 10.000 metre finalini kazandı. Pinto'nun maratondaki en iyi zamanı 2:06:36'dır. 1988'den başlayarak kendi ülkesi için arka arkaya dört kez Yaz Olimpiyatları'nda yarıştı. Ayrıca 1998 Lizbon Yarı Maratonu'nu kazandı. 2002 yılında emekli oldu.

Başarılar

Kaynakça

Dış bağlantılar

Berlin Maratonu erkek şampiyonları
Avrupa Atletizm Şampiyonası madalyalı atletler
Portekizli Olimpiyat atletleri
2000 Yaz Olimpiyatları atletleri
1996 Yaz Olimpiyatları atletleri
1992 Yaz Olimpiyatları atletleri
1988 Yaz Olimpiyatları atletleri
Londra Maratonu erkek şampiyonları
Yaşayan insanlar
1966 doğumlular

António Pinto


An Pelexia collocaliae in uska species han Liliopsida nga ginhulagway ni Dariusz Lucjan Szlachetko. An Pelexia collocaliae in nahilalakip ha genus nga Pelexia, ngan familia nga Orchidaceae.

Mabibilngan ini ha Paraguay. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Pelexia

Pelexia collocaliae


بموجب الدستور الفنزويلي، رئيس فنزويلا هو رأس الدولة ورئيس الحكومة الفنزويلية . بصفته رئيسًا للسلطة التنفيذية ووجهًا للحكومة ككل، فإنه صاحب هي أعلى منصب سياسي في البلاد. الرئيس هو أيضا القائد العام للقوات المسلحة البوليفارية الوطنية لفنزويلا. ينتخب الرئيس مباشرة من خلال تصويت شعبي لمدة ست سنوات. منذ الاستفتاء على الدستور عام 2009، يمكن انتخاب أي شخص للمنصب لعدد غير محدد من المرات. عند وفاة الرئيس الحالي أو استقالته أو إقالته من منصبه، يتولى نائب الرئيس مهام منصبه. يجب أن يكون عمر الرئيس 30 عامًا على الأقل، ويجب أن يكون مواطنًا فنزويليًا، ولا يمكن أن يحمل أي جنسية أخرى.

تشمل هذه القائمة فقط الأشخاص الذين أدوا اليمين الدستورية بعد إنشاء دولة فنزويلا المستقلة في 13 يناير 1830. شغل أربعة وخمسون شخص منصب الرئاسة.

رؤساء فنزويلا منذ الاستقلال (1830 حتى الآن)
تتضمن القائمة أدناه الرؤساء والرؤساء المؤقتون.

دولة فنزويلا (1830-1864)

الولايات المتحدة الفنزويلية (1864–1953)

جمهورية فنزويلا (1953-1999)

جمهورية فنزويلا البوليفارية (1999 حتى الآن)

هوامش

مراجع

رؤساء فنزويلا
ف
قوائم متعلقة بالسياسة
قوائم متعلقة بفنزويلا
قوائم أصحاب مناصب سياسية في فنزويلا

قائمة رؤساء فنزويلا


The Force de frappe (English: Strike Force), or Force de dissuasion (English: Deterrence Force) after 1961, is the French nuclear deterrence force. The Force de dissuasion used to be a triad of air-, sea- and land-based nuclear weapons intended for dissuasion, the French term for deterrence. Following the end of the Cold War, France decommissioned all its land-based nuclear missiles, thus the Force de dissuasion today only incorporates an air- and sea-based arsenal.

The French Nuclear Force, part of the French military, is the fourth largest nuclear-weapons force in the world, after the nuclear triads of the United States, the Russian Federation and the People's Republic of China.

On 27 January 1996, France conducted its last nuclear test in the South Pacific and then signed the Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty (CTBT) in September 1996. In March 2008, French President Nicolas Sarkozy confirmed reports giving the actual size of France's nuclear arsenal and he announced that France would reduce its French Air Force-carried nuclear arsenal by 30%, leaving the Force de Frappe with 290 warheads.

In addition to its nuclear military programme, France has a large peaceful nuclear programme and ranks as one of the world's largest generators of nuclear power.

History

The decision to arm France with nuclear weapons was made in 1954 by the administration of Pierre Mendès-France under the Fourth Republic. President Charles de Gaulle, upon his return to power in 1958, solidified the initial vision into the well-defined concept of a fully independent Force de Frappe that would be capable of protecting France from a Soviet or other foreign attack and independent of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization, which de Gaulle considered to be too dominated by the United States. In particular, France was concerned that in the event of a Soviet invasion of Western Europe, the US, already bogged down in the Vietnam War and afraid of Soviet retaliation against the United States, would not come to the aid of its allies in Western Europe. De Gaulle felt that France should never entrust its defense and therefore its very existence to a foreign-and thus unreliable-protector.

The strategic concept behind the Force de Frappe is one of countervalue, the capacity to inflict so much damage on a potential (and more powerful) adversary's population that the potential adversary will be deterred from attacking, no matter how much destruction it can inflict (mutual assured destruction).  This principle is usually referred to in French political debate as dissuasion du faible au fort ("deterrence from the weak to the strong") and was summarized in a statement attributed to de Gaulle himself:

{{quote|Within ten years, we shall have the means to kill 80 million Russians. I truly believe that one does not light-heartedly attack people who are able to kill 80 million Russians, even if one can kill 800 million French, that is if there were 800 million French.<ref>Serge Gadal, (2009). Forces aériennes stratégiques: histoire des deux premières composantes de la dissuasion nucléaire française. Economica. p.86. . Quote: "Dans dix ans, nous aurons de quoi tuer 80 millions de Russes. Eh bien je crois qu'on n'attaque pas volontiers des gens qui ont de quoi tuer 80 millions de Russes, même si on a soi-même de quoi tuer 800 millions de Français, à supposer qu'il y eût 800 millions de Français." </ref>
}}

General Pierre Marie Gallois said, "Making the most pessimistic assumptions, the French nuclear bombers could destroy ten Russian cities; and France is not a prize worthy of ten Russian cities".

In his book La paix nucléaire (1975), French Navy Admiral Marc de Joybert explained deterrence:

While not referred to as such, the French nuclear posture of the time bears some significant similarities to other common policies of the era such as mutually assured destruction and massive retaliation. It remains unknown whether the French government ever seriously considered its policy different from other NATO member strategies or if their public statements were more aimed to improve morale and confidence in the French population.

It may seem that on the surface, an avowed policy of attacking civilians was a significant departure from the typical nuclear policies of the time, but it was common for states to refer to their nuclear abilities in terms of numbers of cities destroyed. Moreover, hydrogen bombs are so powerful that if used to their full potential high civilian casualties and related collateral damage would be inevitable, thus making it unclear as to whether targeting military forces would produce a meaningfully different result
compared to targeting population centres. Perhaps the most significant difference in French strategy is that it includes the option of a first strike attack, even in response to non-nuclear provocation.

France carried out its first test of an atomic bomb in Algeria in 1960 and some operational French nuclear weapons became available in 1964. Then, France executed its first test of the much more powerful hydrogen bomb over its South Pacific Ocean test range in 1968.

De Gaulle's vision of the Force de Frappe featured the same triad of air-based, land-based and sea-based weapons that were deployed by both the United States and the Soviet Union. Work on the components had started in the late 1950s and was accelerated as soon as de Gaulle became the president.

 Air
Initially, the Force de Frappe had an airbase component of the Strategic Air Forces Command (Commandement des Forces Aeriennes Strategique (CFAS)) of the French Air Force, established in 1955 and operating 40 Sud Aviation Vautour IIB bombers. They were considered marginal for a strategic bomber role, and work began almost immediately on a replacement resulting in the Mirage III.

In May 1956, a requirement for what became the Dassault Mirage IV bomber was drawn up; the bomber was designed to carry AN-11 nuclear gravity bombs over targets in the Eastern bloc at supersonic speeds and was declared operational in October 1964. It has since been modernized and converted to carry its successor, the AN-22 bomb. The Mirage IV-P version was later armed with the ASMP missile and entered service in 1986. All bomber versions of the Mirage IV retired in 1996.

From 1973 to 2003, the CFAS also operated SEPECAT Jaguars, limited nuclear capable of using the tactical AN-52 nuclear bomb, which were certified for supersonic flight. A total of 100 were built in 1972 to 1982. They were compatible with modified Mirage III fighters and later with the standard Jaguar. The Mirage 2000 was theorically capable of carrying it but never did so. The AN-52's were deactivated and placed into storage in 1991.

The Mirage 2000N entered service in 1988 and can carry gravity bombs, the ASMP and the new longer-ranged ASMP-A missile, which entered service 2009. The Mirage 2000N was being replaced by the Dassault Rafale F3 as of 2011.

 Land

The land-based component of the French nuclear triad was added in August 1971, when 18 silo-based S2 medium-range ballistic missiles, which achieved operational readiness at French Air Force Aerial Base 200 Saint Christol Albion, in Vaucluse, southern France. Later, the land-based component was augmented with the mobile shortrange Pluton missile and Hadès missile, which were designed to be launched from the front lines at any approaching foreign army. To defend against a Soviet-Warsaw Pact invasion of West Germany, they could be deployed with the French Army in the French Zone of Germany, in Western Germany.

Since the French military judged a full-scale invasion of Western Europe by the Soviet Union and its Warsaw Pact Allies to be unlikely to be stopped by conventional armaments, the short-range nuclear missiles were meant as a "final warning" (ultime avertissement in French), which would tell the aggressor that any further advances would trigger a nuclear armageddon upon its major cities and other important targets.

The Pluton missile, introduced in 1974, was retired from service and scrapped beginning in 1993, and its successor, the Hadès missile, was produced in limited numbers during the early 1990s and then withdrawn from the army and placed in arsenal storage in 1995. Next, the French government decided to eliminate all of those missiles, and the last Hadès was dismantled on 23 June 1997. That was the end of the French mobile land-based nuclear missiles.

The French fixed S3 IRBMs at the Plateau d'Albion, which were considered to be approaching obsolescence and also deemed to be no longer necessary following the fall of the Soviet Union and so also were disposed of. The silos have been imploded and the missile base closed in 1999, eliminating the landbased missile leg of the French nuclear triad.

 Sea
The ocean-based, mobile component of the French nuclear triad entered service in December 1971, with the commissioning of its first ballistic missile submarine, the nuclear submarine Le Redoutable, which initially carried 16 M1 intermediate-range ballistic missiles, similar to the former US Polaris missiles.

Since then, the ocean-based French nuclear weapons arsenal has been expanded to a squadron of four submarines, one of which is always on patrol. Since 1985, some of the French ballistic missile subs have become obsolete. The subs have been retired and replaced by newer subs that also have 16 missile tubes apiece and carry the more advanced French M45 missile. A new submarine, the Le Terrible, was put into service on 20 September 2010, armed with the M51 missile, which is similar to the US Trident II.

The Aeronavale or French Naval Aviation has operated a fleet of nuclear-armed aircraft since 1962, with the Dassault Etendard IV on its Clemenceau-class aircraft carriers. The Etendard could be armed with AN-52 nuclear gravity bombs. In 1978, the Dassault Super Etendard entered service, giving the Aeronavale a stand-off nuclear strike ability via its Air-Sol Moyenne Portée (ASMP) nuclear missiles. As the Clemenceau class retired from 1997 to 2000, the Super Etendard remained in service on the succeeding R91 Charles-de-Gaulle. Since 2010 it carries Rafale F3 fighters armed with the upgraded ASMP-A nuclear missiles.

 Components

 Land-based component
France no longer possesses land-based nuclear missiles. The IRBM base aérienne 200 Apt-Saint-Christol at the Plateau d'Albion, (Vaucluse) was deactivated in 1996 and its missiles scrapped. All French Army units equipped with short-range missiles such as the Pluton and the Hadès were disbanded, their missiles scrapped and their fissile nuclear materials recycled.

 Sea-based component

The French Navy includes a nuclear strategic branch, the Force Océanique Stratégique, which has contained as many as 6 nuclear-powered ballistic missile submarines in service at one time. Up to 2022, the ten SSBNs built for the French Navy are:
 6 Redoutable class submarines, armed with 16 M4 IRBMs entered service between 1971 and 1985. The last of these, L'Inflexible (S 615), was retired from service in 2008.
 Le Terrible (S 619) commissioned in 2010, armed with 16 of the more modern M51 missile, successfully tested in 2010.
 3 Triomphant-class SSBNs: Le Triomphant (S 616), Le Téméraire (S 617), Le Vigilant (S 618), armed with 16 of the less modern M45 missile. They will be upgraded to the new M51 missile by 2018, Le Vigilant will be the first to be upgraded, starting in 2011.

 Air-based component

The Armée de l'air et de l'espace has 75 ASMP medium-range air-to-ground missiles with nuclear warheads at its disposal, of which:
 Appx 50 could arm the Air Force to be carried by Mirage 2000N long-range multirole fighters. Strike detachments of these aircraft are based at Luxeuil - Saint-Sauveur Air Base, Istres Air Base and Avord Air Base. Since 1 July 2010, a new squadron of Rafale N (N for Nuclear) has been declared fully operational as Escadron de Chasse 1/91 Gascogne in Saint-Dizier – Robinson Air Base (BA 113).
 About 15 more could be armed by the Aviation navale to be carried by the French Navy's Rafale (M version, for Marine). These aircraft are landbased at Landivisiau Naval Air Base and on the aircraft carrier Charles de Gaulle when at sea. Thus they can be operated flexibly. The Rafale M is also certified to operate from United States Navy aircraft carriers.
 10 ASMP's are permanently in overhaul and form the reserve.

The locations of the nuclear missiles are secret (although many storage facilities are already known to the public, the number of warheads inside is classified and changes frequently).  The range of strike aircraft is extended currently by the KC-135 and in the future by the forthcoming Airbus A330 MRTT aerial refueling fleet.

 Nuclear ordnance security Gendarmerie

The Nuclear ordnance security Gendarmerie (French: Gendarmerie de la sécurité des armements nucléaires GSAN) was created in 1964 and is one of the five specialized branches of the French Gendarmerie. It is placed under the supervision the Ministry of Armed Forces and plays a major role in the security chain of the nuclear devices.

The main mission of this specific branch is to secure the government's control over all the nuclear forces and weapons.

More specifically, the gendarmes of this unit are responsible for ensuring the protection and the readiness of the different kinds of missiles used by the French Navy and Air Force.

In order to do so, the GSAN is composed of its own units and of units from other branches of the gendarmerie, temporarily placed under its command like squadrons of the Mobile Gendarmerie to protect the convoys of nuclear weapons components.

 Jupiter Command Post
The Jupiter Command Post is a structure in the bunker of the Élysée Palace. It is equipped with means of communication and protection to enable the French president and his advisers to manage crisis situations and to be in contact at all times with other government entities, military command posts and foreign governments. The bunker was built for President Albert Lebrun in 1940 during the Phoney War, and President Valéry Giscard d'Estaing installed its command post in 1978.

 See also
 History of France's civil nuclear program
 History of France's military nuclear program
 France and weapons of mass destruction (includes more detailed discussion of nuclear testing)
 List of states with nuclear weapons
 List of nuclear weapons tests
 Foreign policy of Charles de Gaulle
 Nuclear weapon
 Gaullism

 References

 Bibliography
  Jean-Hugues Oppel, Réveillez le président !'', Éditions Payot et rivages, 2007 (). The book is a fiction about the nuclear weapons of France; the book also contains about ten chapters on true historical incidents involving nuclear weapons and strategy  (during the second half of the twentieth century).

Deterrence theory during the Cold War

Nuclear history of France
Strategic forces

Force de dissuasion


Die Trigonalidae sind eine Familie der Hautflügler. Sie gehören dort zu den ursprünglicheren Vertretern der Taillenwespen, die früher als "Legimmen" oder Parasitica zusammengefasst wurden. Die weltweit verbreitete Familie hat etwa 90 Arten, von denen eine auch in Deutschland vorkommt. Die Familie ist wegen ihrer besonderen Lebensweise bemerkenswert.

Merkmale
Trigonalidae sind kleine bis mittelgroße Hautflügler (etwa 5 bis 15 mm, ausnahmsweise auch kleiner, bis 3 mm), die in ihrer Gestalt an Grabwespen, manchmal auch an große Schlupfwespen, oder an Faltenwespen erinnern. Sowohl die Gestalt wie auch die Färbung sind vielgestaltig, es kommen schlanke, grazil gebaute wie auch gedrungenere Arten vor, sie sind in der Grundfarbe meist schwarz, aber häufig sehr kontrastreich mit weißen, gelben und roten Zeichnungselementen gezeichnet. Besonderes Kennzeichen ist u. a. ein Feld aus spezialisierten weißen Haaren oder Schuppen an der Fühlergeißel des Weibchens. Die meisten Arten sind darüber hinaus leicht kenntlich durch sehr große, asymmetrisch gebaute Mandibeln, sehr lange, sechssegmentige Maxillartaster und dem besonderen Bau des Hinterleibs bei den Weibchen. Hier ist der Legebohrer rückgebildet und nur rudimentär erhalten und von außen nicht sichtbar. Das Ende der letzten Bauchplatte (Sternum) des Weibchens ist dafür in einen dornartigen Fortsatz ausgezogen, der "Ahle" genannt wird und der anstelle des Legebohrers bei der Eiablage verwendet wird. Die Sterna zwei und manchmal auch drei des Weibchens sind bei den meisten Arten sehr auffallend nach unten in eine Kante oder Spitze verlängert. Die meist bauchwärts herabgezogene "Ahle" und die Kante des zweiten Sternits bilden so ein zangenförmiges Gebilde. Die Trigonalidae haben ein sehr vollständig ausgebildetes, reiches Flügelgeäder mit einer großen Radialzelle (nach anderen Autoren: Costalzelle) nahe der Spitze des Vorderflügels und meist noch neun anderen, geschlossenen Zellen, sowie mindestens zwei geschlossenen Zellen im Hinterflügel. Durch diesen relativ ursprünglichen Bau der Flügel sind sie unter Umständen mit Stechimmen verwechselbar. Sie sind aber von diesen leicht durch die langen Fühler mit zahlreichen Gliedern (meist 18 bis 28 Antennensegmente) unterscheidbar. Ein weiteres Merkmal fast aller Arten ist der Bau des Schenkelrings (Trochanter) der Hinterbeine. Dieser ist nicht nur, wie bei vielen Hautflüglern, in zwei Teile geteilt, sondern der hintere Abschnitt (Trochantellus genannt) ist noch einmal diagonal geteilt, so dass der Abschnitt insgesamt dreigliedrig erscheint. An allen Beinen sind die Krallen längs gespalten. Die Flügel sind klar, oft mit dunklen Flecken und Abzeichen.

Lebensweise
Alle Arten, deren Lebensweise bisher bekannt geworden ist, entwickeln sich als Parasitoide, meist von anderen Hautflüglern, seltener von Raupenfliegen (Tachinidae). Von sehr wenigen Ausnahmen abgesehen ist die belegte Wirtsart selbst bereits ein Parasitoid, so dass es sich um den Parasiten eines Parasiten, genannt: einen Hyperparasiten, handelt. Die Art der Parasitierung ist dabei bemerkenswert und im Tierreich fast einzigartig. Das Weibchen der Trigonalidae belegt nämlich seinen zukünftigen Wirt gar nicht selbst mit Eiern, sondern nutzt zu diesem Zweck den Wirt oder die Beute seiner eigentlichen Wirtsart als Vektor aus.

Weibchen der Trigonalidae legen ihre Eier auf der Unterseite von Blättern ab. Das Weibchen sitzt dabei auf der Blattoberseite und biegt seinen Hinterleib um den Blattrand herum, so dass entlang des unteren Blattrands ein schmaler Saum von Eiern entsteht. Die Eiablage erfolgt außerordentlich schnell (beobachtet wurde bei einer Art ein Ei in etwa zwei Sekunden) und sehr zahlreich. Gefangene Weibchen legten in kurzer Folge etwa zehntausend Eier, in ihrer Lebensspanne im Freiland sind eventuell noch mehr möglich. Jedes Ei ist mit ca. 0,1 Millimetern Länge winzig klein, die Eier sind abgeplattet und weisen meist auffallende Kanten oder Grate auf. Belegt wird fast wahllos eine Vielzahl von Pflanzenarten. Die Eier entwickeln sich auf der Blattfläche nicht weiter. Dies erfolgt nur, wenn sie, mitsamt dem Blatt, von einem Pflanzenfresser gefressen werden. Bei den bisher untersuchten Arten kommen dafür entweder Schmetterlingsraupen oder Blattwespenlarven ("Afterraupen") in Frage. Für die Entwicklung ist sowohl mechanische Beschädigung der Eihülle beim Fressakt wie auch das besondere, alkalische Darmmilieu erforderlich. Die ausschlüpfende Erstlarve bohrt sich durch die Darmwand in die Leibeshöhle der Raupe ein. Hier erfolgt aber keine Weiterentwicklung (Ausnahme: bei der australischen Gattung Taeniogonalos erfolgt die Weiterentwicklung bei einer oder zwei Arten fakultativ auch direkt in Blattwespenlarven der Familie Pergidae). Ist die belegte Raupe aber bereits von einem Parasitoiden (entweder einer "Schlupfwespe" i. w. S. oder einer Raupenfliege) befallen, bohrt sich die Trigonalidenlarve in diese ein (ist keiner vorhanden, wartet sie in der Raupe ab). Die Larve frisst nun von innen an dem Parasitoiden. Nach der dritten Häutung wandelt sich die bis dahin fast wurmförmige und schwach sklerotisierte Larve, die außer einigen kammartigen Borsten kaum Merkmale aufweist, in ein auffallendes Stadium mit großem Kopf und langen, säbelartigen Mandibeln. In diesem Stadium kämpft sie, wie bei vielen Schlupfwespenlarven, gegen andere möglicherweise vorhandene (Hyper-)Parasitoidenlarven im selben Wirt, einschließlich von Artgenossen, so dass letztlich pro Wirt immer nur eine Trigonalide schlüpft. Die belegte Schlupfwespenlarve verlässt schließlich die befallen Raupe und legt im Boden ein Gespinst an, um sich zu verpuppen. In diesem Stadium verlässt die Trigonalidenlarve ihren Wirt (entweder die Puppe selbst oder die als "Präpuppe" verpuppungsbereite Altlarve), oft durch das Auge. Die Wirtslarve wird dabei immer abgetötet. Im vierten und fünften Larvenstadium frisst die Trigonalidenlarve von außen an der Leiche ihres Opfers weiter. Schließlich verpuppt sie sich neben diesem. Das fertige Insekt (die Imago) schlüpft meist erst nach einer Diapause, die fast immer mehrere Monate lang ist, bei einigen Arten vermutlich bei einem Teil der Population mehrere Jahre andauern kann ("überliegende" Puppenruhe). Bei in Raupenfliegen parasitierenden Arten überwintert die Trigonalide im Puparium.

Abweichend von dem oben geschilderten Lebenszyklus gibt es noch eine zweite Entwicklungsmöglichkeit, die bei denselben Arten fakultativ, bei einigen Arten aber immer (obligat) an dessen Stelle tritt. Raupen sind eine gewöhnliche Beute von jagenden sozialen Faltenwespen, die sie in ihr Nest eintragen und an ihre Larven verfüttern. Wird eine Raupe verfüttert, die von Trigonalidenlarven befallen ist, wird diese mit verfüttert und entwickelt sich diese anschließend als Brutparasit in der Wespenlarve weiter. Wirte sind zahlreiche Arten der Gattungen Vespa, Vespula und Dolichovespula. Auch hier verlässt die Larve im vierten Stadium die Wirtslarve, nachdem diese sich gerade verpuppt hat und frisst (innerhalb der Zelle in der Wabe) an deren Überresten weiter. Sie verpuppt sich anschließend in der Zelle, wobei sie einen zweiten gesponnenen Deckel einzieht. Bei der eigenen Verpuppung bildet sie außerdem meist eine Zwischenwand, um sich von den verwesenden Überresten der unvollständig gefressenen Wespenlarve fernzuhalten. Nach Beobachtungen wird die ausgeschlüpfte Imago von den Wespen ignoriert und nicht bekämpft.

Trigonalidae sind den bisherigen Beobachtung nach nicht wirtsspezifisch. Anscheinend wird fast jeder Parasitoid der Raupen bzw. eine Vielzahl sozialer Faltenwespen je nach Angebot genutzt. Einige Arten sind sogar sowohl aus Tachinidae wie aus Ichneumonidae bekannt. Die meisten Arten gelten als sehr selten und werden fast immer nur vereinzelt gefunden. In einzelnen Wespennestern lag der Parasitierungsgrad bei etwa 20 %. Daneben existierten aber in derselben Region zahlreiche Nester ganz ohne Parasitierung.

In der Regel vermehren sich Trigonalidae zweigeschlechtlich. Von der australischen Taeniogonalos venatoria sind jedoch nur ausnahmsweise Männchen bekannt geworden (Geschlechterverhältnis etwa 1:250). Diese Art vermehrt sich überwiegend durch (thelytoke apomiktische) Parthenogenese.

Taxonomie und Systematik
Für die Familie ist in der älteren Literatur sehr häufig der Name Trigonalyidae zu finden. Früher waren noch weitere Schreibvarianten in Gebrauch. Dies rührte von der Unsicherheit der Ableitung des Gattungsnamens Trigonalis her, dessen Wortstamm von verschiedenen Autoren unterschiedlich interpretiert worden war (nach Oehlke wäre eigentlich "Trigonalydidae" grammatisch korrekt gewesen).

Die Familie ist durch zahlreiche apomorphe Merkmale gekennzeichnet und innerhalb der Hautflügler isoliert, so dass sie als einzige Familie (monotypisch) in einer eigenen Überfamilie Trigonaloidea geführt wird. Ihre Stellung innerhalb der Hymenoptera ist umstritten. Zahlreiche ältere Autoren vermuteten engere Beziehungen zu den Aculeata, die auch heute noch durchaus möglich erscheint. Heute wird die (Über-)Familie meist aufgrund zahlreicher ursprünglicher Merkmale (Plesiomorphien) als eine der basalsten Linien der Taillenwespen angesehen, wobei aber ihr Schwestergruppenverhältnis ungeklärt bleibt. In vielen Analysen ergeben sich Beziehungen zu den Hungerwespenartigen (Evaniomorpha). Eine mögliche Schwestergruppe ist nach einem molekularen Stammbaum auf Basis von vier Genregionen die Familie Megalyridae.

Die Familie wird in zwei Unterfamilien gegliedert.
Unterfamilie Orthogonalinae mit nur einer Gattung (Orthogonalys)
Unterfamilie Trigonalinae mit 15 Gattungen

Verbreitung
Die Trigonalidae sind weltweit verbreitet und haben ihr Verbreitungszentrum in den Tropen. Auch einige Gattungen sind beinahe weltweit anzutreffen. Nach Norden zu wird die Familie seltener. In Europa ist nur eine einzige Art der Familie verbreitet, Pseudogonalos hahnii (alternativ als "hahni" geschrieben). Diese Art ist in Deutschland weit verbreitet und in allen Landesteilen anzutreffen, sie kommt auch in den Niederlanden vor.

Fossile Überlieferung
Fossilien, die der Familie zugeordnet worden sind, treten seit der Kreide auf. Die sehr frühen Vertreter sind aber in der Zuordnung teilweise problematisch. Möglicherweise handelt es sich um Stammgruppenvertreter, oder sie gehören heute ausgestorbenen Familien mit ähnlicher Merkmalskombination wie den ausgestorbenen Maimetshidae an. Zweifelsfrei zuzuordnende Fossilien aus dem Tertiär stammen beispielsweise aus dem baltischen Bernstein. In Deutschland wurden sie in der Fossillagerstätte Rott (bei Bonn) gefunden.

Quellen
David Carmean & Lynn Kimsey (1998): Phylogenetic revision of the parasitoid wasp family Trigonalidae (Hymenoptera). Systematic Entomology, 23: 35–76.
Curtis P. Clausen (1929): Biological Studies on Poecilogonalos thwaitesii (Westw.), Parasitic in the Cocoons of Henecospilus (Hymenoptera: Trigonalidae). Proceedings of the Entomological Society of Washington 31: 67-79.
Curtis P. Clausen (1931): Biological Notes on the Trigonalidae (Hymenoptera). Proceedings of the Entomological Society of Washington 33: 72-81.

Weblinks
E. Fred Legner: Discoveries in Natural History & Exploration, Hymenoptera Trigonalidae (Trigonaloidea) abgerufen am 1. März 2017.

Einzelnachweise

Taillenwespen
Apocrita

Trigonalidae


جلول عزونة ولد في 20 جانفي/كانون الثاني 1944 بمدينة منزل تميم، أستاذ جامعي وكاتب تونسي.

مساره
 درس بمسقط رأسه ثم التعليم الثانوي بالمدرسة الصادقية والتحق بعد حصوله على الباكالوريا بدار المعلمين العليا بالعاصمة التونسية، ثم واصل دراسته بفرنسا.
 درّس بالجامعة التونسية اللغة والآداب الفرنسية.

في الجمعيات
نشط منذ صغره في العديد من الجمعيات وقد تحمل في صلبها العديد من المسؤوليات:
 الشبيبة المدرسية، بصفته مندوبا عن المدرسة الصادقية فيما بين 1962 و1964.
 أحد مؤسسي الشبيبة المدرسية والطالبية بمسقط رأسه عام 1964 وتولى كتابتها العامة إلى عام 1967.
 الاتحاد العام لطلبة تونس: حيث شارك في عدد من مؤتمراته.
 عضو بنادي القصة منذ تأسيسه عام 1964.
 تحمل جلول عزونة عديد المسؤوليات في اتحاد الكتاب التونسيين فيما بين 1986 و1996.
 أسس رابطة الكتاب الأحرار عام 2001، ورغم عدم الاعتراف بها فقد بقي رئيسا لها.

في السياسة
 انضم إلى طلبة الحزب الاشتراكي الدستوري الحاكم وتولى رئاسة شعبة دار المعلمين العليا. كما تولى الكتابة العامة لشعبة الطلبة بدار تونس بالعاصمة الفرنسية في عام 1970-1971. ثم بعد عودته إلى تونس تولى الكتابة العامة للشعبة الترابية بمسقط رأسه. لينتهي به المطاف بالاستقالة من الحزب عام 1974.
 التحق في تلك السنة بحركة الوحدة الشعبية ثم كان أحد مؤسسي حزب الوحدة الشعبية في جانفي 1981. دخل في نهاية الثمانينات في خلاف مع محمد بلحاج عمر، أمين عام الحزب، الذي تبنى توجه مساند للرئيس زين العابدين بن علي. وفي عام 1988 تولى عزونة الأمانة العامة لمجموعة منشقة إلا أنه لم يعترف بها من قبل السلطات، وفي أوت 1989 حكم على عزونة بالسجن لمدة عام بتهمة «المس بكرامة رئيس الدولة» قبل أن يخرج بعفو رئاسي بعد بضعة أشهر. بعد الثورة التونسية، اسس الحزب الشعبي للحرية والتقدم الذي ترشح على رأس قائمته في دائرة نابل 1 متحصلا على 0.91%.

الكاتب
لجلول عزونة العديد من الكتابات، خاصة وأنه بدأ بالنشر منذ تولى إصدار نشرية بدارالمعلمين العليا. وله ثلاث مجموعات قصصية:
 ويبقى السؤال، 1981.
 الخبز والحب والهذيان، 1991.
 عشقي لمن يبقى؟، 1998.
كما أن له: العار والجراد والقردة (رواية)؛ دراسة عن القصة والرواية بتونس: الفن القصصي، 1990؛ في الموسيقى التونسية ؛ منزل تميم تقارع الاستعمار ؛ منزل تميم عاصمة الدخلة ؛ دراسات حضارية عن تونس ؛ متعة الألباب فيما لا يوجد في كتاب، (تحقيق لكتاب التيفاشي القفصي)؛ ديوان سيدي أحمد بن عروس (تحقيق) 2004 وله بالفرنسية: L'attente et autres nouvelles, 2008

مراجع

أعضاء المجمع التونسي للعلوم والآداب والفنون
أعلام منزل تميم
أكاديميون تونسيون
خريجو المدرسة الصادقية
سياسيون تونسيون
كتاب وكاتبات تونسيون
مواليد 1363 هـ
مواليد 1944
مواليد في منزل تميم
كتاب بالعربية في القرن 20
كتاب بالعربية في القرن 21

جلول عزونة


Batrachospermum, rod crvenih algi iz porodice Batrachospermaceae, dio reda Batrachospermales. Postoji 60 priznatih vrsta a tipična je slatkovodna alga B. gelatinosum.

Vrste

 Batrachospermum aestivale Bory
 Batrachospermum alcyonideum Bory
 Batrachospermum alpinum Nägeli
 Batrachospermum americanum L.D.von Schweinitz ex C.Agardh
 Batrachospermum androgyne L.H.Flint ex T.J.Entwisle
 Batrachospermum androinvolucrum Sheath, M.L.Vis & K.M.Cole
 Batrachospermum annulatum Skuja
 Batrachospermum araiasakame Skuja
 Batrachospermum aristatum Skuja
 Batrachospermum ariston Skuja
 Batrachospermum atrichum Skuja
 Batrachospermum bangladeshianum Islam & P.Reis
 Batrachospermum beraense Kumano
 Batrachospermum breutelii Rabenhorst
 Batrachospermum capillaceum Skuja
 Batrachospermum carpocontortum Sheath, Morison, K.M.Cole & Vanalstyne
 Batrachospermum claviceps Kützing
 Batrachospermum crassiusculum Bory
 Batrachospermum dapsile I.S.Chapuis & M.L.Vis
 Batrachospermum desikacharyi V.Sankaran
 Batrachospermum diaphanum Skuja ex O.Necchi
 Batrachospermum elegans Sirodot
 Batrachospermum equisetifolium Montagne
 Batrachospermum faciferum Skuja ex T.J.Entwisle
 Batrachospermum gelatinosum (Linnaeus) De Candolle
 Batrachospermum graibussoniense Sirodot
 Batrachospermum guianense (Montagne) Kützing
 Batrachospermum heteromorphum Z.X.Shi, Z.Y.Hu & S.Kumano
 Batrachospermum hypogynum S.Kumano & M.Ratnasabapathy
 Batrachospermum islandrinum L.H.Flint ex T.J.Entwisle
 Batrachospermum julianum G.Arcangeli
 Batrachospermum khaoluangensis W.Chankaew, Y.Peerapornpisal & S.Kumano
 Batrachospermum lamprogyne Skuja ex T.J.Entwisle
 Batrachospermum lochmodes Skuja
 Batrachospermum loefgrenii Skuja
 Batrachospermum mascomi L.H.Flint
 Batrachospermum medium Starmach
 Batrachospermum microspermum Skuja ex T.J.Entwisle
 Batrachospermum miniatum Bory
 Batrachospermum naiadis I.S.Chapuis & M.L.Vis
 Batrachospermum nova-guineense Kumano & Johnstone
 Batrachospermum pengzhouense S.-L.Xie & Z.-X.Shi
 Batrachospermum pozoazulense Chapuis & Vis
 Batrachospermum protimum Skuja
 Batrachospermum pulchrum Sirodot
 Batrachospermum pullum Skuja ex T.J.Entwisle
 Batrachospermum qujingense K.-P.Fang, F.-R.Nan & S.L.Xie
 Batrachospermum rivularioides Bory
 Batrachospermum serendipidum Entwisle & M.L.Vis
 Batrachospermum shanxiense S.L.Xie, I.S.Chapuis & M.L.Vis
 Batrachospermum sinense C.C.Jao
 Batrachospermum skujae Geitler
 Batrachospermum szechwanense C.-C.Jao
 Batrachospermum torridum Montagne
 Batrachospermum trichocontortum Sheath & Vis
 Batrachospermum trichofurcatum Sheath & Vis
 Batrachospermum triste Bory
 Batrachospermum ulandrium Skuja
 Batrachospermum yunnanense S.-L.Xie & Z.-X.Shi
 Batrachospermum zostericola Bory

Izvori

Batrachospermaceae

Batrachospermum


Tekolďany este o comună slovacă, aflată în districtul Hlohovec din regiunea Trnava. Localitatea se află la , se întinde pe o suprafață de  și în 2017 număra 132 de locuitori.

Istoric
Localitatea Tekolďany este atestată documentar din 1310.

Note

Legături externe

Localități din Slovacia

Tekolďany


Boca del Cufré ist eine Ortschaft in Uruguay.

Geographie und Lage
Boca del Cufré befindet sich auf dem Gebiet des Departamento San José in dessen Sektor 5 am Ufer des Río de la Plata. Der Ort liegt im äußersten Südwesten San Josés an der Grenze zum Nachbardepartamento Colonia, die dort vom bei Boca del Cufré mündenden Arroyo Cufré gebildet wird. Unmittelbar westlich befindet sich in Colonia der Ort Brisas del Plata. Weitere Ansiedlungen in der Nähe sind im Nordosten Ecilda Paullier und Scavino.

Geschichte
An der Örtlichkeit, an der sich der heutige Ort Boca del Cufré befindet, sowie in Puerto Arazatí traf im Dezember 1531 der portugiesische Seefahrer Pedro Lópes de Souza auf die Exarúas bzw. Charrúas.

Infrastruktur

Verkehr
Nördlich des Ortes verläuft in einigen Kilometern Entfernung die Ruta 1, an die etwa auf Höhe des Kilometerpunktes 100 eine Straßenanbindung Boca del Cufrés besteht. Es existiert zudem eine über Ecilda Paullier führende regelmäßige Busanbindung an die Departamento-Hauptstadt San José.

Tourismus
Das ursprünglich als Fischerdorf entstandene Boca de Cufré hat sich mittlerweile auch dem Tourismus verschrieben. Im Rahmen des touristischen Angebots hält der Ort einen, ehemals von der Intendencia, mittlerweile privat betriebenen Campingplatz und Ferienhäuser vor. Ein gastronomisches Angebot ist ebenfalls vorhanden. Neben Wassersportaktivitäten bietet sich vor Ort auch die Möglichkeit des Angelns sowohl im Arroyo Cufré als auch im Río de la Plata. Ferner verfügt die mit einem umfangreichen Pinienbestand aufwartende Ortsumgebung über breite Sandstrände, die zum wiederholten, insgesamt vierten Male von der LATU als zertifizierter umweltschonend bewirtschafteter Naturstrand (Playa Natural de Gestión Ambiental Certificada) ausgezeichnet wurden. Auch eine kleine, mit derjenigen in Ecilda Paullier zusammenarbeitende Poliklinik ist nahe dem Campingplatz vorhanden.

Einwohner
Die Einwohnerzahl von Boca del Cufré beträgt 28 (Stand: 2011), davon 13 männliche und 15 weibliche. Mit 38 Einwohnern war der Ort beim Census 2004 der gemessen an der Einwohnerzahl kleinste des Departamentos.

Quelle: Instituto Nacional de Estadística de Uruguay

Weblinks
 Stadtplan von Boca del Cufré (PDF; 100 kB)

Einzelnachweise

Ort im Departamento San José

Boca del Cufré


Jednogodišnja vlasnjača (vlasnjača godišnja, lat. Poa annua), vrsta trave iz roda vlasnjača. Autohtona je u Euroaziji i uvezene u Sjevernu i Južnu Ameriku i Australiju. Raste i u Hrvatskoj.

Sinonimi
Za vrstu postoje brojni sinonimi:
 Aira pumila Pursh
 Catabrosa pumila (Pursh) Roem. & Schult.
 Festuca tenuiculmis Tovar
 Ochlopoa annua (L.) H.Scholz

Izvori

Poinae

Jednogodišnja vlasnjača