Recke est le nom d'une ancienne famille noble du comté de La Marck. Les seigneurs von der Recke, également von der Reck, appartiennent à la noblesse westphalienne. Les membres de la famille sont organisés en association familiale.

Histoire
La famille est mentionnée pour la première fois dans un document en 1265 avec le ministériel Bernhardus de Reke. En 1320, Adolf von der Recke est nommé écuyer des comtes de Mark et au cours des années suivantes, d'autres homonymes de la famille sont également confirmés comme châtelain du comté de La Marck. Les seigneurs de Recke vivent à Kamen et les plus anciennes possessions de la famille se trouvent également dans la région. Cependant, le  n'est pas le siège ancestral de la famille, car il s'appelait à l'origine zur Heide et ne reçoit que plus tard le nom de Reck d'après la famille propriétaire.

C'est également dans cette région que se sont formées les deux grandes lignées Heeren et Reck, qui se sont à leur tour divisées en de nombreuses branches et se sont fortement étendues vers l'est et l'ouest. À l'est, elles parviennent jusqu'en Livonie, puisque les Recke ayant, avec les , pris la plus grande part dans la colonisation de la région de la mer Baltique par la noblesse westphalienne. Les différentes lignées familiales portent le nom de leurs possessions d'origine, notamment Heeren et . Le  près de Hamm fait également partie de leurs fiefs pendant plus de 300 ans, jusqu'en 1775. Goddert II von der Recke de la lignée de Heeren épouse en 1414 Neyse (Agnes) von Volmestein, la fille héritière des nobles seigneurs de . Les lignées de  et Heessen ont pu se développer sur le riche domaine de Volmarstein, dont la branche de  s'installe plus tard dans le comté de Ravensberg et en Silésie. Dans le sillage de la Réforme, la plupart des lignées se convertissent à la foi protestante ; les lignées de Heessen et de Steinfurt du Münsterland se convertissent toutefois à nouveau au catholicisme au XVII siècle. Johann V. von der Recke, de la brache de Steinfurt, rédige en 1651 un volumineux mémoire de conversion pour justifier cette démarche.

Le titre de baron du Saint-Empire est acquis par des membres des lignées ou des lignées secondaires de Reck en 1623, Kurl en 1653, Horst en 1677,  en 1677, Witten en 1708, Wenge-Offenberg en 1709 et Steinfurt en 1717. Les lignées et branches de Heessen, Stockhausen et  obtiennent le titre de baron selon le droit coutumier ou par un ukase du Sénat. Une branche de la lignée Stockhausen est élevée au rang de comte prussien en 1817 avec le nom de von der Recke von Volmerstein.

La famille produit de nombreux membres importants. Entre autres, le maître livonien de l'ordre teutonique et le prince impérial  de la branche de Heeren (mort en 1551) et le prince-évêque de Paderborn Dietrich Adolf von der Recke de la branche de Kurl (en fonction de 1650 à 1661). Maria-Bernardine von der Recke-Steinfurt (1733–1784) est la grand-mère de la poétesse Annette von Droste-Hülshoff.  (1791-1878) est l'un des cofondateurs de la diaconie et Eberhard von der Recke von der Horst (1847-1911) ministre prussien de l'Intérieur.

Branche balte
En 1525,  (mort en 1580), issu de la branche de Heiden, se rend en Livonie. Ses parents sont Thierry XIII von der Recke zu Kamen (mort en 1538) et Elisabeth von Hiesfeld. Matthias entre dans l'Ordre Teutonique et devient commandeur de Doblen en 1551. Il épouse Sophia von  (morte en 1598) en 1564, ils ont quatre enfants.

Le fils aîné, Matthias II (1565-1638) est élevé en Westphalie, il s'installe dans le duché de Courlande et de Zemgale en 1592. Pendant un certain temps, il est également officier de l'électeur de Brandebourg. De 1617 à 1638, il est  et donc conseiller principal du duc de Courlande, Gotthard Kettler.

Son fils Friedrich Johann (1606-1671) hérite des domaines de Blieden et de Sturhof et est intendant du duché de Courlande et de Zemgale de 1649 à 1671. Son arrière-petit-fils George (1692-1760) est l'héritier de Neuenburg et de Blieden. De 1727 à 1760, il est capitaine en chef à Mitau et donc responsable de l'administration et de la cour de son district. Il se marie avec Anna Dorothea von der Recke de la branche de Bieden et a deux fils. Le fils aîné Diederich Casimir (1713-1765) nomme son fils Magnus (1739-1795) pour hériter de Neuenburg. En 1771, il épouse Elisa, la comtesse impériale von Medem, qui devient célèbre en tant que poète. Magnus n'ayant pas de descendance, son frère Christophe (1758-1844) hérite de lui Neuenburg. Cela estsuivi par une division répétée de l'héritage et des propriétés foncières entre les descendants.

Un nouveau regroupement et plusieurs héritages permettent à la famille noble, avec le maréchal d'arrondissement de Tuckum, August von der Recke auf Neuenburg (1807-1861), de revendiquer une vaste propriété foncière en Courlande. Il s'agit notamment de Neuenburg avec Georgenhof, Neuhof, Dorotheenhof, Paueneck et Marienhof. Il a également acheté le domaine d'Ohseln et fondé le fidéicommis de Neuenburg. La famille von Recke fait partie des familles les plus anciennes et les plus respectées de Courlande. En 1912, les membres de la famille possédaient huit propriétés totalisant 25461 hectares. Après l'expropriation en 1919, ils se sont retrouvés avec de petits biens résiduels. Les nationaux-socialistes font expulser tous les allemands du Courlande en 1939. L'expulsion est volontaire. Les propriétaires de domaines reçoivent des possessions dans le Warthegau, dont les anciens propriétaires polonais ont été expulsés après l'annexion allemande. Suite la fuite et à l'expulsion, ces biens sont à nouveau perdus avec la fin de la Seconde Guerre mondiale.

Blason

 Les armoiries de la famille montrent une barre d'argent en bleu, surmontée de trois pieux rouges. Le casque est orné d'un vol ouvert bleu avec l'écu sur chaque aile. Les coques du casque sont bleues et argentées à droite et rouges et argentées à gauche.
 La branche de Steinfurt adopte les armoiries de Volmerstein, de sorte que les armoiries sont combinées avec les armoiries de la famille von Recke. Ces armoiries sont écartelées et sont encore portées aujourd'hui par les descendants descendant de la branche de Stockhausen.
 Les armoiries des comtes de 1817 sont écartelées et surmontées d'un écusson en forme de cœur bordé d'or, dans lequel se trouve une croix d'or flottante. Les champs 1 et 4 montrent les armoiries de la famille, les champs 2 et 3 d'argent une boule d'or piquée de trois oreilles de buffle dans une croix en éventail (). Trois casques avec des couvertures bleu-argent-rouge de chaque côté, à droite le casque tronc, sur celui du milieu une aigle noire couronnée, sur celui de gauche la boule avec les oreilles de buffle entre deux cornes de buffle d'argent (Volmerstein). En guise de porte-écusson, deux « hommes sauvages », regardant vers l'intérieur, avec des couronnes vertes autour des reins, appuyés sur une massue.

Armoiries historiques

Droits souverains
En tant que propriétaires de biens de la chevalerie, les Recke font partie de la noblesse de la chevalerie dans le comté de la Marck, de la principauté épiscopale de Münster, de la principauté de Minden et du duché de Courlande faisaient partie de la chevalerie rurale. Outre le patronage, les seigneurs von der Recke possèdent des domaines fiscaux et juridiques largement indépendants du souverain. En faisaient partie :

 la seigneurie de Haaren ;  (appartenant à la famille de 1393 à 1990)
 la seigneurie de Reck ;  (appartenant à la famille du  jusqu'en 1787)
 la seigneurie de Stiepel ;  (appartenant à la famille de 1414 à 1647)
 le comté de Volmestein ;  (à partir de 1100 environ, le siège des seigneurs de Volmestein, à partir de 1429 de la famille von der Recke, qui possède des biens jusqu'au ).
 la seigneurie de Heessen ;  (depuis le début du , propriété des Volmestein, propriété de la famille de 1429 à 1775 ou 1810)
 la seigneurie de Steinfurt ;  (à partir de 1325 fief des Volmestein, de 1429 à 1739 propriété de la famille)
 le  (appartenant à la famille de 1437 à 1921)
 la seigneurie de Wulfsberg ;  à Lüdinghausen (appartenant à la famille de 1537 à 1788)
 , /Courlande (appartenant à la famille de 1576 à 1919)
 Schmucken, arrondissement de Tuckum/Courlande (appartenant à la famille de 1576 à 1732)
 Elisenhof, arrondissement de Tuckum/Courlande (appartenant à la famille de 1576 à 1919)
 Berghof-Brotzen, près de Frauembourg, /Courlande (propriété de la famille de 1576 à 1919)
 la seigneurie de Horst ; voir le château d'Horst (appartenant à la famille de 1607 à 1706)
 le  (appartenant à la famille de 1628 à 1979)
 la seigneurie de Heeren ; château de Heeren (aux , propriété de la famille)
 le  (appartenant à la famille depuis 1818 jusqu'à ce jour)
 le manoir de Kraschnitz, en Silésie (appartenant à la famille de 1845 à 1945)
 Durben près de Tuckum/Courlande (appartenant à la famille de 1848 à 1919)
 Paulsgnade près de Mitau/Courlande (appartenant à la famille de 1848 à 1919)
 , près de Tuckum/Courlande (appartenant à la famille de 1848 à 1919)
 le château de Mansfeld, (appartenant à la famille de 1849 à 1945)
 le manoir de Schlesisch Halbau (appartenant à la famille depuis 1862)
 Parchau, /Silésie (propriété familiale de 1892)

Membres notables de la famille
  (né vers 1480; mort en 1551), maître livonien de l'ordre teutonique
  zu Heeren (mort en 1567), évêque de Dorpat (1544-1551)
  zu Neuenburg (mort en 1580), commandant de Doblen
  (mort en 1591), commandant du bailliage de l'Ordre Teutonique de Westphalie
 Johann von der Recke zu Reck (mort en 1647), président du conseil aulique
 Dietrich Adolf von der Recke (1601-1661), prince-évêque de Paderborn
  (1672–1739), sénéchal
 , chef du
  (1794–1873), député du
  (1713–1762) sénéchal de la principauté épiscopale de Münster
  (1741–1819), major général prussien
  (morte en 1780), abbesse de l' (1750–1780)
 Elisa von der Recke, née comtesse von Medem (1754–1833), écrivain
  (mort en 1840), député du
  (1785–1857), administrateur de l'
  (1817–1891), député du
 Waldemar Ariel von der Recke von Volmerstein (1831–1879), architecte
  (1791–1878), réformateur
  (1744–1816), ministre prussien de la Justice
 Leopold von der Recke-Volmerstein (1835–1925), député de la chambre des seigneurs de Prusse
  (1845–1927), administrateur de l'
 Eberhard von der Recke von der Horst (1847–1911), ministre prussien de l'Intérieur
  (1847–1920), président du district de Köslin et administrateur de l'
  (1854–1923), ministre d'État de Schwarzbourg-Rudolstadt
 Kurt Karl Franz Freiherr von der Recke (1871–1915), garde forestier en chef sur le Darß
  (né en 1930), major général allemand
 Christian von der Recke (né en 1960), entraîneur de galop allemand et plusieurs fois entraîneur de champions

Bibliographie

 Constantin von der Recke-Volmerstein, Otto von der Recke: Geschichte der Herren von der Recke. Breslau 1878 (Digitalisat, Digitalisat).
 Otto Hupp: Münchener Kalender 1931. Buch u. Kunstdruckerei AG, München/Regensburg 1931.

 Genealogisches Handbuch des Adels, Adelslexikon Band XI, Band 122 der Gesamtreihe, C. A. Starke Verlag, Limburg (Lahn) 2000,
 Bastian Gillner: "Bei der Religion unvergewaltiget …"? Konfessionelle Entwicklungen im münsterischen Adel am Beispiel der Herren von der Recke zu Steinfurt. In: Jahrbuch für Westfälische Kirchengeschichte 104 (2008), S. 121–149.
 Die sogenannte menschenfreundliche Anstalt des Grafen Reck-Volmarstein zu Düsselthal bei Düsseldorf. Kranzbühler, Speyer 1827 (Digitalisierte Ausgabe der ).
 Ernst Heinrich Kneschke, Neues allgemeines Deutsches adels-lexicon, Band 7, S.382ff
 Wilhelm Freiherr von der Recke, Vom Burgherrn zum Bürger. 750 Jahre Freiherrn und Barone von der Recke sowie der Grafen von der Recke von Volmerstein. Eine Familiengeschichte 1265–2015. Heidelberg, 2015.

Liens externes

 Page d' accueil de la famille von der Recke
 Documents des archives du château d'Uentrop, propriété du baron von der Recke / Digital Westphalian Document Database (DWUD)
 Regesta de documents des archives du château de Höllinghofen avec des fonds pour le château de Heessen / Base de données de documents numériques de Westphalie (DWUD)
 Manuel généalogique des chevaliers baltes Partie 3.1: Kurland Görlitz o. J

Références

Liens externes

Famille noble allemande
Noblesse balte
Noblesse prussienne

Famille von der Recke


La pardela patirrosa o fardela blanca (Ardenna creatopus) es una especie de ave procelariforme de la familia Procellariidae propia del Pacífico oriental. Esta ave marina anida únicamente en las islas Juan Fernández (isla Robinson Crusoe, y isla Santa Clara) y en la isla Mocha en Chile. Desde estas islas suele migrar hacia el norte para pasar el invierno (abril a noviembre) en las aguas al oeste de América del Norte y de Perú. No tiene subespecies reconocidas.

Referencias

Enlaces externos

Creatopus
Aves del océano Pacífico
Animales descritos en 1864
Taxones descritos por Elliott Coues
Aves de Chile
Aves del archipiélago Juan Fernández

Ardenna creatopus


Beli Orao ("Águia Branca" em servo-croata) foi um iate real construído em 1938–39 para a Marinha Real Jugoslava que pretendia servir como navio patrulha, escolta ou navio de guarda em tempos de guerra. Após a sua conclusão, foi colocada em serviço como o iate do almirantadousado por almirantes seniores para transporte e para analisar exercícios de frota. Ela foi capturada em abril de 1941 pelos italianos durante a Segunda Guerra Mundial, na invasão da Jugoslávia. A Marinha Real Italiana substituiu os seus canhões e usou a embarcação como uma canhoneira para proteção de portos e funções de escolta costeira, brevemente como Alba e depois Zagabria. Ela foi então usada para treinar especialistas em guerra anti-submarina da base naval de La Spezia.

Após o armistício italiano com os Aliados em setembro de 1943, Zagabria escapou da captura pelos alemães e foi devolvida à Marinha Real Jugoslava no exílio em dezembro daquele ano. Reformada, e sob o seu nome original de Beli Orao, ela tornou-se um navio de apoio para uma flotilha de canhoneiras a motor que havia sido emprestada à Marinha Real Jugoslava no exílio pela Marinha Real Britânica. Nessa função, operou na Colónia da Coroa Britânica de Malta e no Mar Tirreno, na costa oeste da Itália, e mais tarde no Mar Adriático, na costa jugoslava. Após a guerra, permaneceu nas mãos da Jugoslávia sob os nomes de Biokovo e depois Jadranka, servindo como iate naval e como iate presidencial para o presidente da Jugoslávia, Josip Broz Tito, e também como barco de despacho. Em 1978 ainda estava em serviço como iate, mas foi sucateada logo depois.

Antecedentes, descrição e construção
O Beli Orao foi encomendado ao Cantieri Riuniti dell'Adriatico (CRDA) em Trieste, Itália, em 1938, originalmente projetado como um navio de guarda para a Guarda Financeira Jugoslava. Durante a sua construção, os planos foram alterados várias vezes pelo governo jugoslavo, de modo que a embarcação foi concluída como um iate real para uso do príncipe-regente Paulo em tempos de paz. Em tempo de guerra, ela deveria ser usada como barco de patrulha, escolta, ou navio de guarda. O desenho final deu-lhe a aparência de um iate a motor ou de um navio de passageiros veloz.

As fontes variam sobre o comprimento de fora a fora da Beli Orao; os valores 60,45 metros e 65 metros são referidos. Tinha um comprimento entre perpendiculares de sessenta metros, uma boca de 7,95 metros ou oito metros, e um calado de 2,8 metros ou 2,84 metros. Ela teve um deslocamento padrão de 567 toneladas, e deslocou cerca de 660 toneladas em plena carga. A embarcação era movida por dois motores a diesel CRDA-Sulzer acionando a duas hélices. As fontes variam relativamente à potência dos seus motores. Conway's All the World's Fighting Ships 1922–1946 afirma que eles geraram 1 900 bhp (1 400 kW), mas o historiador naval Zvonimir Freivogel atribui uma produção superior, de . Os motores foram projetados para conduzi-la a uma velocidade de cruzeiro de 17 nós, ou 31 km/h, e uma velocidade máxima de 18,5 nós, ou 34,3 km/h. O tamanho da sua tripulação é desconhecido. Para o serviço de guerra, ela deveria estar armada com dois canhões antiaéreos de quarenta milímetros, e duas metralhadoras de  ou . Beli Orao, em homenagem à águia branca de duas cabeças no brasão jugoslavo, viu o batimento da quilha a 23 de dezembro de 1938, foi lançada a 3 de junho de 1939 e concluída a 29 de outubro daquele ano, após a Segunda Guerra Mundial ter estourado.

Histórico de serviço
Quando Beli Orao foi concluída, a Jugoslávia ainda não havia sido atingida pela guerra, mas foi imediatamente contratada para substituir o iate do almirantado Vila, que era usado por almirantes seniores para transporte e análise de exercícios da frota. Isto mudou com a invasão do país pelo Eixo, liderado pela Alemanha Nazi, em abril de 1941. No momento da invasão, Beli Orao estava localizada na principal base da frota da marinha na Baía de Kotor. Quando a nau capitânia da frota, o obsoleto cruzador leve Dalmacija, foi incumbido de participar num ataque contra o enclave italiano de Zara, o pessoal da frota foi transferido para a Beli Orao. Após os italianos capturarem Kotor, o comandante-chefe da frota, o contra-almirante Emil Domainko, que estava a bordo da Beli Orao ancorada em Krtole na baía, foi convocado para se encontrar com um general italiano cujas tropas estavam a ocupar Kotor. Beli Orao então sediou as negociações entre o pessoal da frota e a Marinha Real Italiana sobre a rendição da frota. Domainko foi autorizado a navegar na Beli Orao para Herceg Novi na foz da baía, mas voltou para Kotor para entregar o navio.

Ela foi colocada em serviço com a Marinha Real Italiana como canhoneira, inicialmente como Alba (Amanhecer), embora o seu nome tenha sido logo alterado para Zagabria (o nome italiano de Zagreb), provavelmente para compensar o facto de o contratorpedeiro jugoslavo Zagreb ter sido afundado por dois dos seus oficiais em vez de ser rendido. Os dois canhões de 40 mm da Zagabria foram substituídos por dois canhões Oerlikon de . Na época, ela era uma das maiores canhoneiras operadas pelos italianos. Como outras canhoneiras italianas, ela foi empregue apenas na proteção do porto e nas funções de escolta costeira.

Zagabria foi então anexada à escola de guerra antissubmarina (GAS) em La Spezia, no Mar da Ligúria, onde foi equipada com hidrofones para detectar submarinos. Até ao armistício italiano com os Aliados em setembro de 1943, ela foi usada para treinar especialistas em GAS para serviço em corvetas, contratorpedeiros e torpedeiros. Na época do armistício, Zagabria escapou da iminente captura alemã navegando para Augusta, na Sicília. No dia 19 de setembro, partiu para Valletta na Colónia da Coroa Britânica de Malta com as corvetas Folaga e Gru da classe Gabbiano, mas tiveram que voltar para trás para entregar o almirante italiano Aimone, Duque de Aosta, a Taranto, no sul da Itália, pois os termos do armistício não permitiam que ele deixasse o país. A 7 de dezembro daquele ano, Zagabria foi devolvida pelos italianos à Marinha Real Jugoslava no exílio e retomou o nome de Beli Orao. Logo após o seu retorno, ela foi visitada em Malta por Pedro II, o rei da Jugoslávia, que vivia exilado no Reino Unido com o seu governo.

Após a reforma em Taranto, Beli Orao foi usada como um navio de apoio para uma flotilha de canhoneiras a motor que havia sido emprestada à Marinha Real Jugoslava no exílio pela Marinha Real Britânica. Em 1944 e 1945, ela estava estacionada em Malta, onde a Marinha Real Britânica expulsou os "monarquicos" restantes da flotilha, substituindo esse pessoal por uma tripulação politicamente confiável e leal aos guerrilheiros Jugoslavos liderados pelo Partido Comunista Jugoslavo. A flotilha estava estacionada então em Livorno, na costa ocidental da Itália, enquanto operava no Mar Tirreno. A flotilha realizou operações no Adriático no final da guerra, sob o comando do comandante Konstantin Jeremić, baseado em Ancona, na costa leste da Itália, a partir de 1 de abril de 1945. Em meados de abril, quatro canhoneiras a motor da flotilha apoiaram a captura da ilha de Rab pelas tropas guerrilheiras, mas a desconfiança permaneceu entre a Marinha Guerrilheira local e os remanescentes da Marinha Real Jugoslava no exílio, e até mesmo os britânicos aparentemente limitaram as informações que eles compartilhariam com a flotilha. Beli Orao continuou em serviço até ao fim da guerra. Na era comunista do pós-guerra, os historiadores Jugoslavos criticaram ou ignoraram as operações da flotilha, e pouca pesquisa histórica foi realizada sobre o assunto.

Após a guerra, a embarcação foi renomeada para Biokovo e, em 1949, para Jadranka, servindo como iate armado na Marinha Jugoslava e também como iate presidencial para o presidente da Jugoslávia, Josip Broz Tito. Em 1969, servia como barco de despacho, e foi excluída do registo naval em 1976 ou 1977, período após o qual um novo Jadranka foi construído como iate presidencial. Em 1978, o Jadranka original ainda estava em serviço como um iate, mas foi descartado logo depois. O sino do seu navio, a roda do leme e o brasão Jugoslavo que ela carregava durante o seu serviço, estão preservados no Museu Marítimo Croata em Split.

Bibliografia

Navios auxiliares da Segunda Guerra Mundial
Navios construídos em Trieste
Navios de 1939
Canhoneiras
Navios do Reino da Jugoslávia
Navios da Jugoslávia

Beli Orao


الملك الأشرف علاء الدين كجك بن الناصر محمد بن قلاوون (ولد بالقاهرة 1334 - توفى بسرياقوس 1345). ثاني من تربع على عرش السلطنة من أبناء السلطان الناصر محمد بن قلاوون ورابع عشر سلاطين الدولة المملوكية. نصبه الأمراء في عام 1341 بزعامة الأمير قوصون الناصري  بعد أن خلعوا أخيه سيف الدين أبو بكر، وكان عمره ما بين الخمس والسبع سنين ، وبقى على تخت السلطنة نحو خمسة شهور. اسمه «كجك» لفظ تركي يعنى صغير.

الأصل
كان إبناً للسلطان الناصر محمد  وحفيداً للسلطان المنصور قلاوون. أمه مغولية الجنس كان اسمها «أردو». بعد أن خلع الأمير قوصون أخيه أبو بكر وقبض عليه وعلى إخوته الستة وسجنهم في قوص إتفق مع الأمراء على تنصيب كجك سلطاناً للبلاد بلقب «الملك الأشرف». وأراد الأمراء منح الأمير أيدغمش منصب نائب السلطنة إلا أنه رفض، فلما عرضوا المنصب على الأمير قوصون قبله ولكن بشرط أن تكون إقامته في قلعة الجبل  وليس في دار النيابة خارج القلعة فوافقوا وصار نائباً للسلطان الصغير وأتابكاً للعسكر.

الأمير قوصون
أصبح الأمير قوصون الحاكم الفعلى للبلاد والسلطان الصغير مجرد دمية يمسك قوصون بيدها فيسيرها أثناء التوقيع على المراسيم. قام قوصون بالقبض على الأمراء ورجال الدولة المواليين للسلطان المخلوع أبو بكر وأحل محلهم المماليك المواليين له بعد أن أغدق عليهم بالعطاء وجعلهم أمراءً .. العامة التي كانت تمقت قوصون تعست بما هو جارى في البلاد حتى أن بعض الشعراء قال: «سلطاننا اليوم طفل والأكابر في خلف». إلا أن الأمير أحمد، الأخ الأكبر للسلطان المخلوع أبو بكر والسلطان الحالى كجك، والذي كان يقيم بالكرك ، كان هو مصدر التهديد الرئيسى لقوصون مما جعله يسعى لإحضاره إلى مصر ليتمكن من القبض عليه وإيداعه في السجن مع إخوته الستة المسجونين. أرسل قوصون الأمير طوغان إلى الكرك ليطلب من الأمير أحمد الحضور إلى القاهرة. إلا أن الأمير أحمد الذي ظن أن قوصون أراده في مصر لتنصيبه سلطانا أجاب بأنه لن يحضر إلى مصر الا إذا أطلق سراح إخوته المسجونين وأرسل الأمراء الكبار إلى الكرك للحلف له. فكتب له قوصون يُعلمه أنه لم يطلب منه الحضور إلى القاهرة لتنصيبه سلطانا بل للنظر في أمر شكوى أمراء الكرك منه وحاول إغرائه بالحضور بإخباره أنه ينتظره لتقديم بعض الهدايا إليه. وقام البعض بتحذير الأمير أحمد ونُصح بعدم الذهاب إلى مصر. فلما علم قوصون وأمراءه بامتناعه عن الحضور قاموا بإرسال قوة إلى الكرك للقبض عليه.

اضطرابات وصراعات
فجاءة ومن حيث لم يدر قوصون نشب خلاف حاد تطور إلى أزمة كبرى بينه وبين مماليك السلطان المتوفى الناصر محمد (المماليك الناصرية) حين حاول إقناعهم الراحل الناصر محمد فأبى المماليك، وبدأت علاقتهم بقوصون تتدهور إلى أن أعلنوا جهراً أنهم ليسوا مماليكه بل مماليك السلطان فحسب. وأحس قوصون أن المماليك السلطانية. قد خططوا لقتله فهرع إلى كبار الأمراء يشكوا لهم حاله ويظهر لهم ندمه على قبوله منصب نيابة السلطنة. وبينما كان الأمراء يطمئنون قوصون ويؤكدون له على تأييدهم الكامل وحمايتهم له، كان المماليك قد ارتدوا زى القتال وتجمعوا بأسلحتهم داخل القلعة. أما خارج القلعة فقد احتشدت أعداد غفيرة من عامة الناس في ميدان القلعة وراحت تهتف «يا ناصرية» تأييداً للماليك الناصرية داخل القلعة. ولما رأى قوصون والأمراء أن العامة الثائرة قد بدأت تهاجم إصطبله. قاموا بالالتحام بهم وقتلوا منهم العديدين بينما وقف المماليك والأمراء الناصرية فوق سطح القلعة يرمون قوصون وأمراءه بالنشاب وهم يردون عليهم إلى أن سقط من الجانبين عدد كبير من القتلى وانتهت المعركة بهزيمة المماليك الناصرية والعامة. وقام قوصون بمعاقبة العديد من المماليك الناصرية عقاباً شديداً وأغدق على العديد من مماليك الطباق. بالإقطاعات ورفعهم إلى درجة أمير.

وصلت الأنباء إلى القاهرة من دمشق بأن الأمير أحمد المقيم بالكرك قد تحالف مع أمير حلب طشتمر حمص أخضر وبعض نواب السلطان في سوريا وأنه قد نوى السير إلى مصر لتنصيب نفسه سلطاناً للبلاد. فقام قوصون، على غير رغبة الأمراء في مصر، بإرسال الأمير قطلوبغا الفخرى على رأس قوة إلى الكرك للقبض على الأمير أحمد.إلا أن قطلوبغا والأمراء الذين صحبوه إلى الكرك، بدلا من القبض على الأمير أحمد قاموا بتأدية يمين الولاء له ولقبوه باللقب السلطانى «الملك الناصر». غضب قوصون فقام بالاستيلاء على ممتلكات قطلوغبا والأمراء المصاحبين له وطلب من الأمير الطنلبوغا الصالحى أمير سوريا بمهاجمة طشتمر حمص أخضر أمير حلب ففر طشتمر إلى قيصرية البيزنطية وأستولى قطلوغبا على حلب وممتلكات طشتمر بها. في ذات الأثناء قام الأمير قطلوغبا بالهجوم على دمشق واستولى عليها وعلى ممتلكات قوصون بها وكتب إليه يعنفه على قتله السلطان أبو بكر الذي قال قوصون أنه بأنه مرض ومات في قوص، وعلى قبضه على إخوته أبناء الناصر محمد وأعلمه أنه والأمراء قد إتفقوا على تنصيب الأمير أحمد شهاب الدين سلطاناً على البلاد.

سقوط قوصون وخلع كجك
جن جنون قوصون فراح يغدق على الأمراء والمماليك السلطانية بالهدايا والأموال والألقاب لأجل إغرائهم بتأييده والانضمام إلى صفه. إلا أن الأمراء، وكان من ضمنهم أيدغمش، كانوا غاضبين عليه بسبب أفعاله وتدبيره لقتل خشداشه الأمير بشتك الناصرى ثم الملك المنصور أبو بكر. ولما وصلتهم أخبار انتصارات قطلوغبا في سوريا واستيلائه على دمشق تشجعوا على مناوءة قوصون والخروج عليه. إتفق كبار الأمراء على عدم الانتظار وبضرورة التحرك قبل أن يفوت الأوان ويقوم قوصون بتنصيب نفسه سلطاناً على البلاد، فقاموا تحت زعامة أيدغمش، ومعهم العديد من المماليك وأعداد غفيرة من عامة الناس، بمحاصرة القلعة. نشب قتال عنيف في الشوارع المحيطة بالقلعة بعد أن نادى أيدغمش العامة بمهاجمة إصطبل صائحاً: «يا كسابة ! عليكم بإصطبل قوصون». في خلال بضعة ساعات كانت العامة قد نهبت خيول قوصون وذهبه الذي كان مُخزناً في الإصطبل، وراح قوصون يضرب يداً على يد ويقول: «يا أمراء ! هذا تصرف جند ! ينهب هذا المال جمعه». لم يتمكن قوصون وأمرائه من الصمود فاستسلموا وقبض عليهم ورُحلوا أثناء الليل إلى الإسكندرية -لحمايتهم من الجماهير الثائرة- وهم مقيدون بالأغلال. نهب الناس ممتلكات قوصون والأمراء والنبلاء وكانوا إذا أرادوا نهب أحد ينعتونه بأنه قوصونى وينهبوا ماله. وقالت الشعراء في طوسون: «قوصون قد كانت له رتبة تسمو على بدر السما الزاهر..فحطه في القيد أيدغمش من شاهق عال على الطائر»  وصنعت الحلاونية دمى من الحلوى على شكله.

خُلع السلطان الصغير كجك بحجة صغر سنة بعد أن جلس على تخت السلطنة نحو خمسة أشهر  بلا حول ولا قوة أو كما قال ابن إياس: «كالعصفور في يدي النسور». واُفرج عن أبناء الناصر محمد الذين سجنهم قوصون في قوص. قام الأمير أيدغمش بأمر الدولة وأرسل بيبرس الأحمدى مع بعض الأمراء إلى الكرك لإحضار السلطان الجديد الملك الناصر شهاب الدين أحمد. بقى كجك بعد خلعه في القلعة تحت كنف والدته ثم قتل على فراشه وهو في سرياقوس في عام 1345 وهو في نحو الثانية عشرة من عمره. (أنظر شهاب الدين أحمد).

نقود علاء الدين كجك
بضعة عملات بقيت من عهد علاء الدين كجك نقشت عليها ألقابه التالية: «السلطان الملك الأشرف علاء الدنيا والدين».

اصطلاحات مملوكية وردت في المقال:
 أتابك: القائد العام للجيش.
 أستاذ: ولى نعمة المملوك أي سلطانه أو أميره الذي يدين له بالولاء.
 نائب السلطنة: نائب السلطان بالقاهرة وكان من ألقابه «كافل الممالك الشريفة الإسلامية الأمير الأمرى» مما يوضح سمو منصبه.
 خشداش: مفرد خشداشية وهم مماليك ينتمون إلى نفس السلطان أو الأمير.
 نائب: أمير ينصبه السلطان نائبا عنه في مدينة أو منطقة. كنائب الكرك أو نائب الشوبك. وهو ليس نائب السلطنة الذي كان يقيم بالقاهرة.
 دار النيابة: مكان عمل ومكاتب نائب السلطان.

انظر أيضا
 سيف الدين أبو بكر
 شهاب الدين أحمد

فهرس وملحوظات

المصادر والمراجع
 ابن إياس: بدائع الزهور في وقائع الدهور، مدحت الجيار (دكتور)، الهيئة المصرية العامة للكتاب، القاهرة 2007.
 ابن تغرى: النجوم الزاهرة في ملوك مصر والقاهرة، الحياة المصرية، القاهرة 1968.
 جمال الدين الشيال (أستاذ التاريخ الإسلامي): تاريخ مصر الإسلامية، دار المعارف، القاهرة 1966.
 المقريزى: السلوك لمعرفة دول الملوك، دار الكتب، القاهرة 1996.
 المقريزى: المواعظ والاعتبار بذكر الخطط والأثار، مطبعة الأدب، القاهرة 1968.
 قاسم عبده قاسم (دكتور): عصر سلاطين المماليك - التاريخ السياسى والاجتماعى، عين للدراسات الإنسانية والاجتماعية، القاهرة 2007.
 شفيق مهدى (دكتور): مماليك مصر والشام، الدار العربية للموسوعات، بيروت 2008.

أشخاص من أصل تتاري
حكام أطفال في العصور الوسطى
حكام خلعوا أثناء الطفولة
مماليك بحرية
مواليد 1334
مواليد 1336
مواليد في القاهرة
وفيات 1345
وفيات 746 هـ
وفيات في القاهرة

الأشرف علاء الدين كجك


Actul de împuternicire (în germană Ermächtigungsgesetz) din 1933, cunoscut și sub denumirea oficială Gesetz zur Behebung der Nu von Volk und Reich vom 24. März 1933 ("Legea pentru remedierea situației oamenilor și a imperiului din 24 martie 1933") a fost o lege germană care i-a conferit lui Adolf Hitler dreptul de a guverna prin decret, adică de a promulga proiecte legislative fără nicio procedură parlamentară.

Actul a fost adoptat pe 23 martie 1933 de către Reichstag, cu 444 de voturi pentru și 94 împotrivă. Toate partidele de extermă dreapta, de dreapta și de centru au votat pentru, socialiștii au votat împotrivă, iar comuniștii, fiind interziși, nu au putut participa la vot.

Promulgat a doua zi de președintele Paul von Hindenburg pentru o perioadă de patru ani ce se putea reînnoi, actul a rămas în vigoare până la căderea regimului nazist în mai 1945. După Reichstagsbrandverordnung ("Decretul privind incendierea Reichstag-ului"), el a constituit a doua etapă legislativă a Gleichschaltung ("fazare"), care a dus la instaurarea sistemului totalitar nazist.

Context juridic
Constituția de la Weimar nu prevedea posibilitatea adoptării unor legi care să dea putere deplină Executivului. Cu toate acestea, între 1919 și 1923, Reichstag-ul a adoptat legi-cadru limitate în timp ce acopereau în esență domeniile economice și financiare; acestea se desfășoară cel mai adesea sub controlul comisiilor parlamentare sau al comisiilor mixte ale Reichstag-ului și Reichsrat-ului1.

Cu toate acestea, Constituția prevede, la articolul 48, alineatul 2, posibilitatea de președinte al Reich-ului să ia ordonanțe de urgență (Notverordnung), ceea ce face șeful statului "legiuitor substitut." Această posibilitate este utilizat pe scară largă de către președintele Friedrich Ebert, care semnează decrete 116 în octombrie 1919 până în ianuarie 1925, urmat de președintele Paul von Hindenburg, în special din iulie 1930. În cursul acestei a doua perioade, decretele nu răspund logicii și nu se mai concentrează asupra măsurilor economice și financiare; este de datoria presedintelui si a guvernului de a impune o legislatie respinsa de Reichstag, desfiintata progresiv de functiile sale1. Inițiat de cancelarul Brüning și sistematizate de Franz von Papen și Kurt von Schleicher, adoptarea de legi prin decret rămâne în cadrul constituțional și puncte de consens între președinte, ministerul și parlamentar majoritar.

Legislația germană
Republica de la Weimar
1933
Acte normative

Actul de împuternicire din 1933


"Carolina" é uma canção gravada pela cantora e compositora norte-americana Taylor Swift para a trilha sonora do filme Where the Crawdads Sing (2022). Composta e produzida pela artista com auxílio de Aaron Dessner na produção, foi lançada como single promocional em 24 de junho de 2022 através da Republic Records. O tema, cujo título é uma referência à região das Carolinas nos Estados Unidos, deriva musicalmente dos gêneros americana e bluegrass. A obra recebeu análises geralmente positivas de críticos musicais, os quais prezoaram sua composição.

Antecedentes e lançamento
O primeiro trailer do filme Where the Crawdads Sing, dirigido por Olivia Newman e vagamente baseado no romance homônimo de Delia Owens, foi lançado em 22 de março de 2022, e apresentava "Carolina" sendo reproduzida em segundo plano, revelando também que a canção foi escrita e interpretada pela cantora e compositora estadunidense Taylor Swift. A data de lançamento do tema foi divulgado na conta oficial da película no Instagram, em 22 de junho, com sua estreia ocorrendo dois dias depois.

Estrutura musical e conteúdo
"Carolina" é uma faixa composta por Swift com auxílio de Aaron Dessner na produção, com quem a artista trabalhou em grande parte de Folklore e Evermore. De acordo com Reese Witherspoon, Swift compôs a faixa no desenvolvimento de Folklore. A cantora disse gostar do romance de Owens, e quando soube que uma adaptação cinematográfica estava a ser desenvolvida, queria fazer parte de sua trilha sonora.

Recepção crítica
Em geral, "Carolina" foi recebida com opiniões positivas pelos críticos especialistas em música contemporânea. O jornalista Jack Irvin, da People, descreveu "Carolina" como uma "balada assustadora" de música downtempo. Chris Willman, para a revista Variety, declarou que a canção recorda o estilo musical dos álbuns Folklore e Evermore em sua forma mais folk. Emily Zemler e Kat Bouza ao Rolling Stone, comentaram que a faixa evoca ao cenário misterioso do filme Where the Crawdads Sing, e elogiaram os vocais da intérprete. Enquanto, Will Lavin, da NME, os descreveu como "estranhos". Fazendo uma resenha para a revista Clash, Robin Murray afirmou que o tema é uma "grande realização" e o maior exemplo da capacidade de Swift. Destacando os seus vocais "minimalistas mas potentes" e a instrumentação "inata".

Alinhamento de faixas
 Download digital e streaming
 "Carolina"  — 4:24
 "Carolina"  — 2:44

Créditos
Lista-se abaixo os profissionais envolvidos na elaboração de "Carolina", de acordo com o Tidal:

Equipe
 Taylor Swift: vocalista principal, composição, produção
 Aaron Dessner: engenharia de produção, engenheiro, violão, banjo, baixo, bandolim, piano, sintetizadores
 Reid Jenkins: fiddle
 Randy Merrill: masterização
 Jonathan Low: mixagem, engenharia

Desempenho nas tabelas musicais

Histórico de lançamento

Canções compostas por Taylor Swift
Canções de 2022
Canções em inglês
Canções gravadas por Taylor Swift

Carolina (canção de Taylor Swift)


El AN/SLQ-25 Nixie y sus variantes son señuelos de torpedo remolcado utilizados en buques de guerra americanos y aliados.

Descripción

Consiste en un dispositivo de señuelo remolcado y un generador de señales a bordo. El señuelo emite señales para dibujar una ruta diferente de la de su objetivo previsto.
El Nixie intenta desviar un torpedo por sonar pasivo emitiendo la simulación del ruido del barco, como la hélice y el ruido del motor, que son los más atrayentes para los sensores del torpedo.

Variantes

El AN/SLQ-25A Nixie es un diseño empezado desde cero en comparación con el AN/SLQ-25 Nixie. Aparte de algunos pequeños componentes mecánicos, no comparten partes comunes. El AN/SLQ-25A utiliza un cable de remolque de fibra óptica (FOTC) y un cabrestante de doble tambor de 10 caballos de fuerza RL-272C. Varios cambios de ingeniería en equipos de amplia utilización llevaron a la reducción de costes (COTS). Se puede iniciar un programa de diagnóstico localmente o desde la estación de control remoto y hacer pruebas de todas las funciones electrónicas.

El AN/SLQ-25B incluye equipos del AN/SLQ-25A e incorpora un sensor de matriz remolcado para detectar submarinos y torpedos acercándose. El AN/SLQ-25B también incorpora otros señuelos para sonar activo, recibiendo, amplificando y devolviendo la señal desde el torpedo, presentando un objetivo mayor falso para el torpedo.

El sistema AN/SLQ-25C es una actualización del sistema AN/SLQ-25A. El AN/SLQ-25C incorpora contramedidas de torpedo de superficie mejorada con la adición de nuevos modos de contramedida a lo largo de un cable de remolque más largo y más funcional.

Normalmente, las naves más grandes pueden tener dos sistemas Nixie montados en la parte trasera para permitir la operación individualmente o en parejas mientras los barcos más pequeños pueden tener un único sistema.

Futuro

Bajo un memorando de entendimiento entre UK/US, el Ministerio de Defensa del Reino Unido y el Departamento de Defensa de Estados Unidos están fomentando sistemas de supervivencia contra torpedos. Estados Unidos está trabajando actualmente en un programa de Fuente Activa denominado programa DCL Demostrador de Tecnología y el Reino Unido ha desarrollado y puesto en servicio el sistema de defensa de Torpedo de Superficie S2170.

Referencias

 Descripción.

Armas contramedidas

AN/SLQ-25 Nixie


Hugo Wallace Weaving (d. 4 Nisan 1960, İbadan), Avustralyalı film ve tiyatro oyuncusu.

Özgeçmiş

İlk yıllar
Hugo Weaving İngiliz Wallace ve Anne çiftinin çocukları olarak Nijerya'da dünyaya geldi. Çocukluğunu Güney Afrika'da geçiren Weaving, ilk gençlik yıllarında Birleşik Krallık'a taşındı. İngiltere'de prestijli bir yatılı okul olan Queen Elizabeth's Hospital'a gitti. 1976'da Avustralya'ya taşındı, Sidney'deki Knox Grammar School okuluna devam etti. 1981 yılında National Institute of Dramatic Art'tan mezun oldu.

Kariyer yılları
Weaving'in ilk önemli rolü, 1984'te Bodyline adlı TV dizisinde canlandırdığı, İngiliz kriket takım kaptanı Douglas Jardine karakteridir. 1988'de The Dirtwater Dynasty adlı mini-dizide küçük bir rol almış, daha sonra 1989 yapımı Bangkok Hilton filminde Nicole Kidman'la birlikte oynamıştır. 1991 yapımı düşük bütçeli bir film olan Proof'taki performansıyla Australian Film Institute tarafından "En İyi Erkek Oyuncu" seçilmiştir. Weaving aynı zamanda, "Sir John" rolüyle 1993 Yahoo Serious komedisinde ve Avustralya'nın ünlü kanun kaçağı Ned Kelly'yi hicveden Reckless Kelly filminde yer almıştır. Fakat, Weaving ancak The Adventures of Priscilla, Queen of the Desert filmindeki performansının ardından Avustralya dışında da ilgi görmeyi başardı. 1998'de Montreal Film Festivali'nde The Interview filmindeki performansıyla "En İyi Erkek Oyuncu" ödülünü aldı. Odyssey Destanı'ndan uyarlanan mini-dizide Deniz Tanrısı Poseidon'u canlandırdı. Bunların yanında, Weaving 'The Magic Pudding' adlı çizgi filmde seslendirme sanatçısı olarak görev almaktaydı.

Weaving'in dünya çapında ilgi görmesi, 1999 yılının hit filmi olan Matrix'teki Ajan Smith rolüyle gerçekleşti. Matrix üçlemesinin diğer iki filminde de (The Matrix Reloaded ve The Matrix Revolutions) Weaving Ajan Smith rolüyle kamera karşısına geçti.
Peter Jackson'ın 2001-2003 yılları arasında gösterilen Yüzüklerin Efendisi (kitap) uyarlamasındaki Elrond rolü de Weaving'in popülaritesini daha da arttırdı.

Weaving, Andrew Kotatko'nun 2004 yapımı Everything Goes filminde başrol oynamış, Wachowski Kardeşler'le yeniden bir araya geldiği 2006 yapımı V for Vendetta filminde de film boyunca maskesiyle görünen "V" karakterini canlandırmıştır.
Daha önceden "V" rolü için seçilen James Purefoy'un, -film boyunca maske takma zorunluluğunun yarattığı rahatsızlıktan dolayı- çekimler başladıktan altı hafta sonra ekipten ayrılması sonucu, Weaving bir son dakika kararıyla "V" rolünü almıştır. Filmin büyük kısmında Weaving'in canlandırdığı "V" olsa da,  Purefoy'un "V"si de filmin birkaç sahnesinde kullanılmıştır. Purefoy'un filmde kullanılacak sahnelerini Weaving yeniden seslendirmiştir.

Weaving ayrıca, The Lord of the Rings: The Battle for Middle-Earth II adlı video oyununda seslendirme yapmaktadır.

Film kariyerinin yanı sıra, Weaving Sydney Theatre Company'nin oyunlarında düzenli olarak aldığı rollerle tiyatro oyuncusu olarak da çalışmalarını sürdürmektedir, bu kapsamda 2006 yılında Hedda Gabler isimli'' oyunda Cate Blanchett'la birlikte sahne almıştır.

Özel hayatı
Weaving, kız arkadaşı Katrina Greenwood ve çocukları Harry ve Holly ile birlikte Sidney'de yaşamaktadır. Bazı kaynaklarda Weaving'in Greenwood'la evli olduğu söylense de, Weaving'in röportajlarında evlilik kurumundan hoşlanmadığını belirtmesi bunu yalanlar gözüküyor.

Bir röportajında, arada sırada sigara içtiğini; nadiren de alkollü içki tükettiğini söylemiştir.

15 yaşlarındayken, Weaving'e epilepsi teşhisi konmuş ; fakat Weaving, sahnede nöbet geçirmesiyle ilgili bir anekdot dışında nadiren bu durumdan söz ediyor. Bu hastalığı yüzünden Weaving ehliyet alamamıştır.

Filmografi

Kaynakça

1960 doğumlular
Avustralyalı erkek sinema oyuncuları
Avustralyalı tiyatro oyuncuları
Avustralyalı seslendirme sanatçıları
Yaşayan insanlar
Ekran Oyuncuları Derneği Ödülü sahipleri
Epilepsi olan kişiler
En İyi Oyuncu Kadrosu SAG Ödülü sahipleri
En İyi Yardımcı Erkek Oyuncu AACTA Ödülü sahipleri
En İyi Erkek Oyuncu AACTA Ödülü sahipleri
Satellite Ödülü sahipleri

Hugo Weaving


Galerija Studin, umjetnička galerija u Kaštelima.

Prva je muzejsko–galerijska ustanova na području Kaštela. Početni fond činila je zbirka skulptura kipara Marina Studina. Zbirka je 1983. godine prenesena iz ondašnjeg splitskog Muzeja revolucije u Studinov rodni Kaštel Novi. Godine 1988. osnovana je Galerija Studin. Godine 1992. dobila je novi status i postala je Zavičajni muzej Kaštela. Godine 1999. preregistrirana je u Muzej grada Kaštela. Od tada je nova lokacija muzeja u kaštelu Vitturiju u Kaštel Lukšiću.

Izvori

Kaštel Novi
Umjetnički muzeji i galerije u Hrvatskoj

Galerija Studin


Hrvatska ljekarnička komora, strukovna komora u Hrvatskoj. Samostalna je i neovisna strukovna organizacija koja predstavlja i zastupa ljekarničku struku i ljekarničku djelatnost u Republici Hrvatskoj. Zadaća joj je u granicama pozitivnih propisa preko svojih tijela, zastupati i štiti ljekarničke interese, čuvati ugled i prava ljekarničke struke, te održavati stegu unutar struke i djelatnosti radi unaprjeđenja ljekarničke djelatnosti radi očuvanja zdravlja i interesa pučanstva. Suosnivači komore su Farmaceutsko-biokemijski fakultet i Hrvatsko farmaceutsko društvo Odlukom o osnivanju Komore, donijeto 17. i 25. svibnja 1994. godine. Od 27. siječnja 1995. godine djeluje samostalno i članica je Pharmaceutical Group of the European Union (PGEU). Ured Komore nalazi se u Zagrebu u Martićevoj 27. Temeljem Zakona o zdravstvenoj zaštiti koji je stupio na snagu 1. srpnja 2013. (Narodne novine 82/2013) Hrvatska ljekarnička komora nadležna je za poslove priznavanja inozemnih stručnih kvalifikacija magistara farmacije. U Komoru se obvezno učlanjuju magistri farmacije koji rade na području Republike Hrvatske na neposrednim poslovima zdravstvene zaštite obavljanjem ljekarničke djelatnost. Pod magistrom farmacije podrazumijevaju se zdravstveni radnici koji su stekli diplomu o završenom diplomskom sveučilišnom studiju farmaceutskog usmjerenja (magistri farmacije, diplomirani farmaceuti, diplomirani inženjeri farmacije i osobe kojima je priznata stručna inozemna kvalifikacija za obavljanje ljekarničke djelatnosti po posebnim propisima), a koji obavljaju ljekarničku djelatnost.

Izvori

Vanjske poveznice
Službene stranice

Farmacija
Organizacije u Hrvatskoj

Hrvatska ljekarnička komora


Arganil  belediyesi, Portekiz'in Centro bölgesine bağlı Pinhal Interior Norte altbölgesinin belediyelerinden biridir.

Bucaklar
Belediyede 18 bucak (Por.: freguesia) yer almaktadır.

 Anceriz
 Arganil
 Barril de Alva
 Benfeita
 Celavisa
 Cepos
 Cerdeira
 Coja
 Folques
 Moura da Serra
 Piódão
 Pomares
 Pombeiro da Beira
 São Martinho da Cortiça
 Sarzedo
 Secarias
 Teixeira
 Vila Cova de Alva

Pinhal Interior Norte belediyeleri

Arganil


بيجن أو بيزن أو بيژن بطل من الأبطال في الشاهنامة وذكر اسمه في الأساطير الإيرانية الدينية والتاريخية. ابن بنت رستم، وامرأة رستم أم ابنه فرامرز هي أخت جيو أي بنت جوذرز وعمة بيجن. ويكثر في الشعر الفارسي والعربي الرمز إلى حبس بيجن في البئر.

بيجن ومنيجة

بيجن ومنيجة (باللغة الفارسية: بيژن ومنيژه) إحدى قصص العشق الطويلة في الشاهنامه، وهي ثلاث قصص. هذه وقصة زال وروذابة التي تقدّمت، والثالثة قصة كشتاسب وكتايون بنت ملك الروم. ويرى جول مول أن هذه القصة مما نظم الشاعر في صباه.

استغاث الأرمانيون بكيخسرو، بيجن وجرجين ذهبا لقتل الخنازير. فذكر لبيجن جرجين أن ابنة أفراسياب التي تسمى منيجة تخرج في كل سنة في فصل الربيع إلى الحديقة. فذهب بيجن لرؤية منيجة ابنة أفراسياب. فأمرت منيجة بحمل بيجن في مهد إلي قصرها. ثم حمل كرسيوز لبيجن وأخذه إلى أفراسياب. أمر افراسياب بصلب بيجن ولكن طلب بيران من أفراسياب إبقاء بيجن حيا فألقي بيجن إلي السجن.و أثقل بيجن بالأغلال والقيود والسلاسل.

رجع جرجين إلى إيران وكذب على بيجن. وأحضر جيو لجرجين إلى الملك كيخسرو. رفع الملك كيخسرو الجام الذي تُرى فيه الكائنات في الأقاليم السبعة، وأفتش فيه عن بيجن. فرأى بيجن مقيدا بالسلاسل والأغلال محبوسا في البئر. فاستحضر الملك الكاتب وأمره فكتب إلى رستم رسالة ثم ذكر كيخسرو فيها حال بيجن وما حل به ما في بلاد توران.

فذهب رستم إلي إيران واختار من العسكر ألف فارس من المفردين وسبعة من المقدّمين مثل جرجين وزنكه وكستهم وزوارة وفرهاد ورهام وأشكس وسار حتى قرب من حدود توران في مدينة ختن. فأشار على العسكر بأن يلازموا ذلك المكان واستصحب منهم الأمراء السبعة فألقوا مناطقهم وخلعوا يلامقهم وتزيوا بزى التجار فلبسوا الجوخ وملابس الصوف. جاءت منيجة إلي رستم ولم تعرفه. جاءت منيجة إلى رأس البئر وألقت الطعام إلى بيجن فلما رأى بيجن الخاتم بين الطعام ورأى عليه اسم رستم استبشر وعلم بمجيء رستم. فأخرج رستم لبيجن من البئر. ثم ذهب رستم علي إيوان أفراسياب وجاء أفراسياب لحرب رستم. عندما انهرم أفراسياب وجنوده أمام الإيرانيين هرب إلي ويسشهر. فرجع رستم إ‌لي الملك كيخسرو وبيجن وصاحبته منيجة معه في نهاية القصة. بيجن هو الذي قتل بلاشان وهومان وروئين في موقعة يازدهرخ.

مراجع

أدب فارسي
شخصيات من الشاهنامة

بيجن


Aderus angusticollis é uma espécie de inseto besouro da família Aderidae. Foi descrita cientificamente por Maurice Pic em 1904.

Distribuição geográfica
Habita em Madagascar.

Referências

angusticollis
Insetos descritos em 1904
Coleópteros de Madagascar
Espécies descritas por Maurice Pic

Aderus angusticollis


Chewa (also known as Nyanja, ) is a Bantu language spoken in Malawi and a recognised minority in Zambia and Mozambique. The noun class prefix chi- is used for languages, so the language is usually called  and  (spelled  in Portuguese). In Malawi, the name was officially changed from Chinyanja to Chichewa in 1968 at the insistence of President Hastings Kamuzu Banda (himself of the Chewa people), and this is still the name most commonly used in Malawi today. In Zambia, the language is generally known as Nyanja or  '(language) of the lake' (referring to Lake Malawi).

Chewa belongs to the same language group (Guthrie Zone N) as Tumbuka, Sena and Nsenga.

Throughout the history of Malawi, only Chewa and Tumbuka have at one time been the primary dominant national languages used by government officials and in school curriculums. However, the Tumbuka language suffered a lot  during the rule of President Hastings Kamuzu Banda, since in 1968 as a result of his one-nation, one-language policy it lost its status as an official language in Malawi. As a result Tumbuka was removed from the school curriculum, the national radio, and the print media. With the advent of multi-party democracy in 1994, Tumbuka programmes were started again on the radio, but the number of books and other publications in Tumbuka remains low.

Distribution
Chewa is the most widely known language of Malawi, spoken mostly in the Central and Southern Regions of that country. It is also spoken in  Eastern Province of  Zambia, as well as in Mozambique, especially in the provinces of Tete and Niassa. It was one of the 55 languages featured on the Voyager spacecraft.

History
The Chewa were a branch of the Maravi people who lived in the Eastern Province of Zambia and in northern Mozambique as far south as the River Zambezi from the 16th century or earlier.

The name "Chewa" (in the form Chévas) itself is first recorded by António Gamitto, who at the age of 26 in 1831 was appointed as second-in-command of an expedition from Tete to the court of King Kazembe in what is now Zambia. His route took him through the country of King Undi west of the Dzalanyama mountains, across a corner of present-day Malawi and on into Zambia. Later he wrote an account including some ethnographic and linguistic notes and vocabularies. According to Gamitto, the Malawi or Maravi people (Maraves) were those ruled by King Undi south of the Chambwe stream (not far south of the present border between Mozambique and Zambia), while the Chewa lived north of the Chambwe.

Another, more extensive, list of 263 words and phrases of the language was made by the German missionary Sigismund Koelle who, working in Sierra Leone in West Africa, interviewed some 160 former slaves and recorded vocabularies in their languages. He published the results in a book called Polyglotta Africana in 1854. Among other slaves was one Mateke, who spoke what he calls "Maravi". Mateke's language is clearly an early form of Nyanja, but in a southern dialect. For example, the phrase  "two years" was  in Mateke's speech, whereas for Johannes Rebmann's informant Salimini, who came from the Lilongwe region, it was . The same dialect difference survives today in the word  or  "(to) plant".

Apart from the few words recorded by Gamitto and Koelle, the first extensive record of the Chewa language was made by Johannes Rebmann in his Dictionary of the Kiniassa Language, published in 1877 but written in 1853–4. Rebmann was a missionary living near Mombasa in Kenya, and he obtained his information from a Malawian slave, known by the Swahili name Salimini, who had been captured in Malawi some ten years earlier. Salimini, who came from a place called Mphande apparently in the Lilongwe region, also noted some differences between his own dialect, which he called , the "language of the plateau", and the  dialect spoken further south; for example, the Maravi gave the name  to the tree which he himself called .

The first grammar, A Grammar of the Chinyanja language as spoken at Lake Nyasa with Chinyanja–English and English–Chinyanja vocabulary, was written by Alexander Riddel in 1880. Further early grammars and vocabularies include A grammar of Chinyanja, a language spoken in British Central Africa, on and near the shores of Lake Nyasa by George Henry (1891) and M.E. Woodward's A vocabulary of English–Chinyanja and Chinyanja–English: as spoken at Likoma, Lake Nyasa (1895). The whole Bible was translated into the Likoma Island dialect of Nyanja by William Percival Johnson and published as  in 1912. Another Bible translation, known as the , was made in a more standard Central Region dialect about 1900–1922 by missionaries of the Dutch Reformed Mission and Church of Scotland with the help of some Malawians. This has recently (2016) been reissued in a revised and slightly modernised version.

Another early grammar, concentrating on the Kasungu dialect of the language, was Mark Hanna Watkins' A Grammar of Chichewa (1937). This book, the first grammar of any African language to be written by an American, was a work of cooperation between a young black PhD student and young student from Nyasaland studying in Chicago, Hastings Kamuzu Banda, who in 1966 was to become the first President of the Republic of Malawi. This grammar is also remarkable in that it was the first to mark the tones of the words. Modern monographs on aspects of Chichewa grammar include Mtenje (1986), Kanerva (1990), Mchombo (2004) and Downing & Mtenje (2017).

In recent years the language has changed considerably, and a dichotomy has grown between the traditional Chichewa of the villages and the language of city-dwellers.

Phonology

Vowels

Chewa has five vowel sounds: a, ɛ, i, ɔ, u; these are written a, e, i, o, u. Long or double vowels are sometimes found, e.g. áákúlu 'big' (class 2), kufúula 'to shout'. When a word comes at the end of a phrase, its penultimate vowel tends to be lengthened, except for non-Chewa names and words, such as  or , in which the penultimate vowel always remains short. The added 'u' or 'i' in borrowed words such as  'laptop' or  'internet' tends to be silent or barely pronounced.

Consonants

Chewa consonants can be plain (i.e. followed by a vowel), labialised (i.e. followed by w), or palatalised (i.e. followed by or combined with y):

ba, kha, ga, fa, ma, sa etc.
bwa, khwa, gwa, fwa, mwa, swa etc.
bza, tcha, ja, fya, nya, sha etc.

In this scheme, the place of bya is taken by the palatalised affricate bza, and the place of gya is taken by ja, and sya is replaced by sha.

Another way of classifying the consonants is according to whether they are voiced, unvoiced, aspirated, nasal, or approximant:
ba, da, ga
pa, ta, ka
pha, tha, kha
ma, na, ng'a
wa, la, ya

Voiced and aspirated consonants, as well as [f] and [s], can also be preceded by a homorganic nasal:
mba, ngwa, nja, mva, nza etc.
mpha, , , mfa, nsa etc.

The possible consonant combinations can thus be arranged on a table as follows:

The spelling used here is that introduced in 1973, which is the one generally in use in the Malawi at the present time, replacing the Chinyanja Orthography Rules of 1931.

Notes on the consonants

In most words, Chewa b and d (when not prenasalised) are pronounced implosively, by sucking slightly. However, there is also a plosive b and d, mostly found in foreign words, such as  'bar',  'expensive' (from Afrikaans ) (in contrast to the implosive b and d in native words such as  'wound' and  'which cuts'). A plosive d is also found in  'to stamp (a document)' and  'confident step'.
The affricate sounds bv and pf were formerly commonly heard but are now generally replaced by v and f, e.g.  'problem',  'bone'. In the  dictionary produced by the University of Malawi, the spellings bv and pf are not used in any of the headwords, but bv is used two or three times in the definitions.
The combination bz is described by Atkins as an "alveolar-labialised fricative". The combination sounds approximately as  or . Similarly ps is pronounced approximately as  or .
The sounds written ch, k, p and t are pronounced less forcibly than the English equivalents and generally without aspiration. Stevick notes that in relaxed speech, the first three are sometimes replaced with the voiced fricatives ,  and , and t can be heard as a voiced flap. In the combination -ti (e.g.  'how many'), t may be lightly aspirated.
h is also used in Chewa but mostly only in loanwords such as  'hotel',  'horse',  'monthly allowance given to chiefs'.
j is described by Scotton and Orr as being pronounced "somewhat more forward in the mouth" than in English and as sounding "somewhere between an English d and j".
l and r are the same phoneme, representing a retroflex tap , approximately between  and . According to the official spelling rules, the sound is written as 'r' after 'i' or 'e', otherwise 'l'. It is also written with 'l' after a prefix containing 'i', as in  'tongue'.
m is syllabic  in words where it is derived from mu, e.g.  'relative' (3 syllables),  'teacher' (4 syllables),  'he gave him' (5 syllables). However, in class 9 words, such as  'gift',  'plate', or  'witch', and also in the class 1 word  'cat', the m is pronounced very short and does not form a separate syllable. In Southern Region dialects of Malawi, the syllabic m in words like  'lion' is pronounced in a homorganic manner, i.e.  (with three syllables), but in the Central Region, it is pronounced as it is written, i.e. .
n, in combinations such as nj, , nkh etc., is assimilated to the following consonant, that is, it is pronounced  or  as appropriate. In words of class 9, such as  'snake' or  'minister' it is pronounced very short, as part of the following syllable. However, [n] can also be syllabic, when it is contracted from ndi 'it is' or ndí 'and', e.g.  'and to go'; also in the remote past continuous tense, e.g.  'he used to go'. In some borrowed words such as  or  the combinations nk and nt with non-syllabic n can be found but not in native words.
ng is pronounced  as in 'finger' and ng' is pronounced  as in 'singer'. Both of these consonants can occur at the beginning of a word:  'kudu',  'cow or ox'.
w in the combinations awu, ewu, iwu, owa, uwa (e.g.  'voice',  'road',  'sound',  'enter',  'flower') although often written is generally not pronounced. Combinations such as gwo or mwo are not found; thus  (short for ) 'he is good' but  (short for ) 'he is bad';  'stone' but  'fire'.
ŵ, a "closely lip-rounded  with the tongue in the close-i position", was formerly used in Central Region dialects but is now rarely heard, usually being replaced by 'w'. ("It is doubtful whether the majority of speakers have  in their phoneme inventory" (Kishindo).) The symbol 'ŵ' is generally omitted in current publications such as newspapers. In the dialects that use the sound, it is found only before a, i, and e, while before o and u it becomes . To some linguists (e.g. Watkins) it sounds similar to the Spanish .
zy (as in  'be upside down like a bat') can be pronounced .

Tones

Like most other Bantu languages, Chewa is a tonal language; that is to say, the pitch of the syllables (high or low) plays an important role in it. Tone is used in various ways in the language. First of all, each word has its own tonal pattern, for example:
  'person' (Low, Low)
  'dog' (Rising, High)
  'goat' (Falling, Low)
  'maize' (High, Low, Low)

Usually there is only one high tone in a word (generally on one of the last three syllables), or none. However, in compound words there can be more than one high tone, for example:
  'food' (High, High, High; derived from  + , 'a thing of eating')

A second important use of tone is in the verb. Each tense of the verb has its own characteristic tonal pattern (negative tenses usually have a different pattern from positive ones). For example, the present habitual has high tones on the initial syllable and the penultimate, the other syllables being low:
 'I (usually) help'
 'I (usually) go'

The recent past continuous and present continuous, on the other hand, have a tone on the third syllable:
 'I was helping'
 'I was going'
 'I am helping'
 'I am going'

Tones can also indicate whether a verb is being used in a main clause or in a dependent clause such as a relative clause:
 'the week has ended'
 'the week which has ended (i.e. last week)'

A third use of tones in Chewa is to show phrasing and sentence intonation. For example, immediately before a pause in the middle of a sentence the speaker's voice tends to rise up; this rise is referred to as a boundary tone. Other intonational tones are sometimes heard, for example a rising or falling tone at the end of a yes–no question.

Grammar

Noun classes
Chewa nouns are divided for convenience into a number of classes, which are referred to by the Malawians themselves by names such as "Mu-A-", but by Bantu specialists by numbers such as "1/2", corresponding to the classes in other Bantu languages. Conventionally, they are grouped into pairs of singular and plural. However, irregular pairings are also possible, especially with loanwords; for example,  'bank', which takes the concords of class 9 in the singular, has a plural  (class 6).

When assigning nouns to a particular class, initially the prefix of the noun is used. Where there is no prefix, or where the prefix is ambiguous, the concords (see below) are used as a guide to the noun class. For example,  'possessions' is put in class 1, since it takes the class 1 demonstrative  'this'.

Some nouns belong to one class only, e.g.  '' (class 1),  'beer' (class 3),  '' (class 6),  '' (class 14), and do not change between singular and plural. Despite this, such words can still be counted if appropriate:  'two tomatoes',  'two beers',  'one shirt',  'one mosquito'.

Class 11 (Lu-) is not found in Chewa. Words like  'razor' and  'skill' are considered to belong to class 5/6 (Li-Ma-) and take the concords of that class.

Mu-A- (1/2):  pl.  'person';  pl.  'teacher';  pl.  'child'(1a/2):  pl.  'dog'. Class 1a refers to nouns which have no  prefix.The plural  is used only for humans and animals. It can also be used for respect, e.g.  'our teacher'(1a/6):  pl.  'key';  pl.  'dance'(1a):  '';  'luggage, furniture';  'fertilizer' (no pl.)
Mu-Mi- (3/4):  pl.  'village';  pl.  'tree';  pl.  'life';  pl.  'village'(3):  'beer';  'fire';  '' (no pl.)
Li-Ma- (5/6):  pl.  'name';  pl.  'problem';  pl.  'hoe';  pl.  'eye'Often the first consonant is softened or omitted in the plural in this class.(6):  'water',  'medicine',  'place' (no sg.)
Chi-Zi- (7/8):  pl.  'thing';  pl.  'year'(7):  'maize';  'love' (no pl.)
I-Zi- (9/10):  pl.  'house';  pl.  'goat'(10):  'beard';  'relish';  'intelligence' (no sg.)(9/6):  pl.  'bank'
Ka-Ti- (12/13):  pl.  'baby';  pl.  'small thing'(12):  'method of taking care';  'way of dancing' (no pl.)(13):  'sleep' (no sg.)
U-Ma- (14):  'night time';  'farming';  '' (no pl.)(14/6):  pl.  'bow'

Infinitive class:
Ku- (15):  'to see, seeing'

Locative classes:
Pa- (16):  'mouth'
Ku- (17):  'neck'
Mu- (18):  'inside the mouth'

Concords
Pronouns, adjectives, and verbs have to show agreement with nouns in Chichewa. This is done by means of prefixes, for example:
 'this is my child' (class 1)
 'these are my children' (class 2)
 'this is my maize' (class 7)
 'this is my house' (class 9)

Class 2 (the plural of class 1) is often used for respect when referring to elders. According to Corbett and Mtenje, a word like  'father', even though it is singular, will take plural concords (e.g.  'my father is walking, I see him'); they note that to use the singular object-marker  would be 'grossly impolite'.

The various prefixes are shown on the table below:

There are 17 different noun classes, but because some of them share concords there are in fact only 12 distinct sets of prefixes.

Examples of the use of concords
In the examples below, the concords are illustrated mainly with nouns of classes 1 and 2.

Demonstratives 'this' and 'that'
 'who is this?';  'who are these?' (or: 'who is this gentleman?' (respectful))
 () 'this child';  () 'these children'
 () 'that child';  () 'those children'

The shortened forms are more common.

Pronominal ,  etc.
Prefixed by a supporting vowel, or by  'with' or  'it is', these make the pronouns 'he/she' and 'they':
 'he/she';  'they' (or 'he/she' (respectful))
 'with him/her';  'with them' (or 'with him/her' (respectful))
 'it is he/she';  'it is they'

For classes other than classes 1 and 2, a demonstrative is used instead of a freestanding pronoun, for example in class 6  or . But forms prefixed by  and  such as  and  are found.

, ,
The three pronominal adjectives  'all',  'alone',  'that same' (or 'who') have the same pronominal concords  and , this time as prefixes:
 'the whole of Malawi'
 'all the children'
 'on his/her own'
 'on their own'
 'that same child'
 'those same children'

In classes 2 and 6,  often becomes  (e.g.  for  etc.).

The commonly used word  'every' is compounded from the verb  'who is' and  'all'. Both parts of the word have concords:
 'every child'
 'every two children'
 'every house' (class 4)
 'every year' (class 7)

Subject prefix
As with other Bantu languages, all Chewa verbs have a prefix which agrees with the subject of the verb. In modern Chewa, the class 2 prefix (formerly ) has become , identical with the prefix of class 1:
 'the child will go';  'the children will go'

The perfect tense ( 'he/she has gone',  'they have gone') has different subject prefixes from the other tenses (see below).

'who'
The relative pronoun  'who' and demonstrative  use the same prefixes as a verb:
 'the child who'
 'the children who'
 'that child'
 'those children'
 'that house'
 'those houses'

Object prefix
The use of an object prefix is not obligatory in Chewa (for example,  means 'I have bought (them)'). If used, it comes immediately before the verb root, and agrees with the object:
 'I have seen him/her';  'I have seen them' (sometimes shortened to ).

The object prefix of classes 16, 17, and 18 is usually replaced by a suffix:  'I have seen inside it'.

The same prefix with verbs with the applicative suffix  represents the indirect object, e.g.  'I have written to him'.

Numeral concords
Numeral concords are used with numbers  'one',  'two',  'three',  'four',  'five', and the words  'how many',  'several':
 'one child';  'two children';  'how many children?'

The class 1 prefix  becomes  before :  'two tomatoes'.

The number  'ten' has no concord.

Demonstratives  and
The demonstrative pronouns  'that one you know' and  'this one we are in' take the concords  and  in classes 1 and 2. For semantic reasons, class 1  is rare:
 'that child (the one you know)';  'those children' (those ones you know)
 'this month (we are in)' (class 3);  'these days';  'here in Malawi (where we are now)' (class 17).

Perfect tense subject prefix
The same concords  (derived from ) and , combined with the vowel , make the subject prefix of the perfect tense. In the plural the two prefixes  combine into a single vowel:
 'the child has gone;  'the children have gone'

Possessive concord
The concords  (derived from ) and  are also found in the word  'of':
 'Mphatso's child';  'Mphatso's children'

The same concords are used in possessive adjectives  'my',  'your',  'his/her/its/their',  'our',  'your (plural or respectful singular),  'their'/'his/her' (respectful):
 'my child';  'my children'

 'their' is used only of people ( is used for things).

 'of' can be combined with nouns or adverbs to make adjectives:
 'an intelligent child';  'intelligent children'
 a good child';  'good children'

In the same way  'of' combines with the  of the infinitive to make verbal adjectives.  +  usually shortens to , except where the verb root is monosyllabic:
 'a beautiful child';  'beautiful children'
 'a thieving child';  'thieving children'

'other' and  'real'
The same  and  concords are found with the words  'other' and  'real'. In combination with these words the plural concord  is converted to :
 'a certain child, another child';  'certain children, other children'
 'a real child';  'real children'

Double-prefix adjectives
Certain adjectives ( 'big',  'small';  'male',  'female';  'long', 'tall',  'short';  'fresh') have a double prefix, combining the possessive concord () and the number concord ( or ):
 'a big child';  'big children'
 'a small child';  'little children'
 'a male child';  'male children'
 'a female child';  'female children'

Historic changes
Early dictionaries, such as those of Rebmann, and of Scott and Hetherwick, show that formerly the number of concords was greater. The following changes have taken place:
Class 2 formerly had the concord  (e.g.  'these people'), but this has now become  for most speakers.
Class 8, formerly using  (Southern Region) or  (Central Region) (e.g.  'two years'), has now adopted the concords of class 10.
Class 6, formerly with  concords (e.g.  'these eggs'), now has the concords of class 2.
Class 11 () had already been assimilated to class 5 even in the 19th century, although it still exists in some dialects of the neighbouring language Tumbuka.
Class 14, formerly with  concords (e.g.  'my flour'), now has the same concords as class 3.
Class 13 () had  in Rebmann's time (e.g.  'these small knives'). This prefix still survives in words like  'sleep'.

In addition, classes 4 and 9, and classes 15 and 17 have identical concords, so the total number of concord sets (singular and plural) is now twelve.

Verbs

Formation of tenses
Tenses in Chichewa are differentiated in two ways, by their tense-marker (a tense–aspect–mood prefix), and by their tonal pattern. Sometimes two tenses have the same tense-marker and differ in their tonal pattern alone. In the following examples, the tense-marker is underlined:
 'I am buying'
 'I usually buy'
 'I was buying', 'I used to buy'
 'I will buy (tomorrow or in future)'
 'I will buy (when I get there)'

One tense has no tense-marker:
 'I will buy (soon)'

Tenses can be modified further by adding certain other prefixes, called 'aspect-markers', after the tense-marker. These are  'always, usually'  'go and',  'come and' or 'in future', and  'only', 'just'. These prefixes can also be used on their own, as tense-markers in their own right (compare the use of  and  in the list of tenses above). For example:
 'I am always buying'
 'I went and bought'
 'I just usually buy'

Compound tenses, such as the following, are also found in Chichewa:
 'I have been buying'

Subject-marker
Chichewa verbs (with the exception of the imperative mood and infinitive) begin with a prefix agreeing grammatically with the subject. This prefix is referred to by some grammarians as the 'subject-marker'.
 'we are going'
 (for *) 'the tree has fallen'

The subject-marker can be:
Personal:  'I',  'you (singular)',  'he, she',  'we',  'you (plural or polite)',  'they'; 'he/she (respectful or polite). (In the perfect tense, the subject-marker for 'he, she' is :  'he has gone'.)
Impersonal:  (class 1, 2 or 6),  (class 3 or 14),  (class 4 or 9),  (class 5), etc.
Locative: , ,

An example of a locative subject-marker is:
 'in the water there are fish'

Both the 2nd and the 3rd person plural pronouns and subject-markers are used respectfully to refer to a single person:
 'you are going' (plural or respectful)
 'they have gone' or 'he/she has gone' (respectful)

Except in the perfect tense, the 3rd person subject marker when used of people is the same whether singular or plural. So in the present tense the 3rd person subject-marker is a-:
 'he/she is going'
 'they are going', 'he/she is going' (respectful)

But in the perfect tense wa- (singular) contrasts with a- (plural or respectful):
 'he/she has gone'
 'they have gone', 'he/she has gone' (respectful)

When the subject is a noun not in class 1, the appropriate class prefix is used even if referring to a person:
 'the chief is going' (class 9)
 'the babies are going' (class 13)

Object-marker
An object-marker can also optionally be added to the verb; if one is added it goes immediately before the verb-stem. The 2nd person plural adds  after the verb:
 'I love you' ( = 'I',  = 'you')
 'I love you' (plural or formal)

The object-marker can be:
Personal:  'me',  'you',  or  'him, her',  'us',  or  'them', 'him/her (polite)'.
Impersonal:  (class 1),  (class 2),  (class 3 or 14), etc.
Locative: e.g.  'you know the inside of the house'; but usually a locative suffix is used instead:  'I have seen inside it'
Reflexive:  'himself', 'herself', 'themselves', 'myself', etc.

When used with a toneless verb tense such as the perfect, the object-marker has a high tone, but in some tenses such as the present habitual, the tone is lost:
 'I have seen him'
 'I usually see him'

With the imperative or subjunctive, the tone of the object-marker goes on the syllable following it, and the imperative ending changes to -e:
 'could you give me some rice?'
 'help me!'
 'you should help him'

Variety of tenses

Chewa has a large number of tenses, some of which differ in some respects from the tenses met with in European languages. The distinction between one tense and another is made partly by the use of prefixes, such as  and , and partly by the intonation of the verb, since each tense has its own particular tonal pattern.

Near vs. remote
There are five time-frames (remote past, near past, present, near future, and remote future). The distinction between near and remote tenses is not exact. The remote tenses are not used of events of today or last night, but the near tenses can sometimes be used of events of earlier or later than today:
 'I bought (yesterday or some days ago)' (remote perfect)
 'I have bought (today)' (perfect)
 'I am buying (now)' (present)
 'I'll buy (today)' (near future)
 'I'll buy (tomorrow or later)' (remote future)

Perfect vs. past
Another distinction is between perfect and past. The two perfect tenses imply that the event described had an outcome which still obtains now. The two past tenses usually imply that the result of the action has been reversed in some way:

Recent time (today):

 'I have bought it' (and still have it) (Perfect)
 'I bought it (but no longer have it)' (Recent Past)

Remote time (yesterday or earlier):

 or  'I bought it' (and still have it) (Remote Perfect)
 or  'I bought it (but no longer have it)' (Remote Past)

When used in narrating a series of events, however, these implications are somewhat relaxed: the Remote Perfect is used for narrating earlier events, and the Recent Past for narrating events of today.

Perfective vs. imperfective
Another important distinction in Chewa is between perfective and imperfective aspect. Imperfective tenses are used for situations, events which occur regularly, or events which are temporarily in progress:

 'I used to buy', 'I was buying (a long time ago)'
 'I was buying (today)', 'I used to buy (a long time ago)'
 'I will be buying (regularly)'

In the present tense only, there is a further distinction between habitual and progressive:

 'I buy (regularly)'
 'I am buying (currently)'

Other tenses
One future tense not found in European languages is the  future, which 'might presuppose an unspoken conditional clause':

 'I will buy' (if I go there, or when I get there)

There are also various  subjunctive and potential mood tenses, such as:

 'I should buy'
 'I should be buying'
 'I should buy (in future)'
 'I can buy'
 'I would have bought'

Negative tenses
Negative tenses, if they are main verbs, are made with the prefix . They differ in intonation from the positive tenses. The negative of the  tense has the ending  instead of :
 'I don't buy'
 'I didn't buy'

Tenses which mean 'will not' or 'have not yet' have a single tone on the penultimate syllable:
 'I won't buy'
 'I haven't bought (it) yet'

Infinitives, participial verbs, and the subjunctive make their negative with , which is added after the subject-prefix instead of before it. They similarly have a single tone on the penultimate syllable:
 'I should not buy'
 'not to buy'

Dependent clause tenses
The tenses used in certain kinds of dependent clauses (such as relative clauses and some types of temporal clauses) differ from those used in main clauses. Dependent verbs often have a tone on the first syllable. Sometimes this change of tone alone is sufficient to show that the verb is being used in a dependent clause. Compare for example:
 'he is buying'
 'when he is buying' or 'who is buying'

Other commonly used dependent tenses are the following:
 'after I bought/buy'
 'before I bought/buy'

There is also a series of tenses using a toneless  meaning 'when' of 'if', for example:
 'when/if I buy'
 'if in future I buy'
 'whenever I buy'
 'if I had bought'

Verb extensions
After the verb stem one or more extensions may be added. The extensions modify the meaning of the verb, for example:
 'buy'
 'buy for' or 'buy with' (applicative)
 'buy for one another' (applicative + reciprocal)
 'get bought', 'be for sale' (stative)
 'cause to get bought, i.e. sell' (causative)
 'be sold (by someone)' (causative + passive)

The extensions  and its intransitive form  are called 'reversive'. They give meanings such as 'open', 'undo', 'unstick', 'uncover':
 'open (something)'
 'become open'
 'break something off'
 'get broken off'
 'undo, loosen'
 'become loose, relaxed'

Most extensions, apart from the reciprocal  'one another', have two possible forms, e.g. , , , , , . The forms with  and  are used when the verb stem has , , or . u can also follow e:
 'fail to happen'
 'cook for someone'
 'sell'
 'melt (transitive)'
 'open'

The forms with  are used if the verb stem is monosyllabic or has an  or  in it:
 'eat with'
 'repeat'
 'come from'

Extensions with o are used only with a monosyllabic stem or one with o:
 'get broken off'
 'remove grains of corn from the cob'

The extension  with a low tone is causative, but when it has a high tone it is intensive. The high tone is heard on the final syllable of the verb:
 'look carefully'
 'try hard'

The applicative  can also sometimes be intensive, in which case it has a high tone:
 'carry on, keep going'

Verbs with  when they have a stative or intransitive meaning also usually have a high tone:
 'happen'
 'melt (intransitive), get melted'

However, there are some low-toned exceptions such as  'seem' or  'set off'.

Literature

Story-writers and playwrights
The following have written published stories, novels, or plays in the Chewa language:
William Chafulumira
Samuel Josia Ntara or Nthala
John Gwengwe
E.J. Chadza
Steve Chimombo
Whyghtone Kamthunzi
Francis Moto
Bonwell Kadyankena Rodgers
Willie Zingani
Barnaba Zingani
Jolly Maxwell Ntaba

Poets
Jack Mapanje
E.J. Chadza
Benedicto Wokomaatani Malunga
Innocent Masina Nkhonyo

Town Nyanja (Zambia)

An urban variety of Nyanja, sometimes called Town Nyanja, is the lingua franca of the Zambian capital Lusaka and is widely spoken as a second language throughout Zambia. This is a distinctive Nyanja dialect with some features of Nsenga, although the language also incorporates large numbers of English-derived words, as well as showing influence from other Zambian languages such as Bemba. Town Nyanja has no official status, and the presence of large numbers of loanwords and colloquial expressions has given rise to the misconception that it is an unstructured mixture of languages or a form of slang.

The fact that the standard Nyanja used in schools differs dramatically from the variety actually spoken in Lusaka has been identified as a barrier to the acquisition of literacy among Zambian children.

The concords in Town Nyanja differ from those in Chichewa described above. For example, classes 5 and 6 both have the concord ya- instead of la- and a-; class 8 has va- instead of za-; and 13 has twa- instead of ta-. In addition, the subject and object marker for "I" is ni- rather than ndi-, and that for "they" is βa- (spelled "ba-") rather than a-.

Sample phrases

Sample paragraph in Chichewa (Mboni za Yehova)
Ndife anthu ochokera m'mitundu, zikhalidwe ndiponso zinenero zosiyanasiyana, koma ndife ogwirizana kwambiri chifukwa cholinga chathu n'chimodzi. Cholinga chathu chachikulu n'kulemekeza Yehova, Mulungu wotchulidwa m'Baibulo ndiponso Mlengi wa zinthu zonse. Timayesetsa kutsanzira Yesu Khristu ndipo timanyadira kutchedwa Akhristu. Nthawi zonse aliyense wa ife amathera nthawi yake pothandiza ena kuphunzira Baibulo ndiponso za Ufumu wa Mulungu. Timatchedwa kuti Mboni za Yehova chifukwa choti timachitira umboni, kapena kuti kulalikira za Yehova Mulungu ndi Ufumu wake.

Translation

We are people from different races, cultures and languages, but we are very united because we have the same goal. Our main goal is to honor Jehovah, the God mentioned in the Bible and the Creator of all things. We try to imitate Jesus Christ and we are proud to be called Christians. Each of us always spends our time helping others learn the Bible and about the Kingdom of God. We are called Jehovah's Witnesses because we testify, or preach about Jehovah God and his Kingdom.

References

Bibliography

Atkins, Guy (1950) "Suggestions for an Amended Spelling and Word Division of Nyanja" Africa: Journal of the International African Institute, Vol. 20, No. 3
Batteen, C. (2005). "Syntactic Constraints in Chichewa/English code-switching."
Bickmore, Lee (2021). "Town Nyanja Verbal Tonology".
Chirwa, Marion N. (2008). Trill Maintenance and Replacement in Chichewa (M.A. thesis, University of Cape Town)
Corbett, G.G.; Al D. Mtenje (1987) "Gender Agreement in Chichewa". Studies in African Linguistics Vol 18, No. 1.
Downing, Laura J.; Al D. Mtenje (2017). The Phonology of Chichewa. Oxford University Press.
Goodson, Andrew, (2011). Salimini's Chichewa In Paas, Steven (2011). Johannes Rebmann: A Servant of God in Africa before the Rise of Western Colonialism, pp. 239–50.

Henry, George, (1904). A grammar of Chinyanja, a language spoken in British Central Africa, on and near the shores of Lake Nyasa.
Hullquist, C.G. (1988). Simply Chichewa.
Hyman, Larry M. & Sam Mchombo (1992). "Morphotactic Constraints in the Chichewa Verb Stem". Proceedings of the Eighteenth Annual Meeting of the Berkeley Linguistics Society: General Session and Parasession on The Place of Morphology in a Grammar (1992), pp. 350–364.
Hyman, Larry M. & Al D. Mtenje (1999a). "Prosodic Morphology and tone: the case of Chichewa" in René Kager, Harry van der Hulst and Wim Zonneveld (eds.) The Prosody-Morphology Interface. Cambridge University Press, 90–133.
Hyman, Larry M. & Al D. Mtenje (1999b). "Non-Etymological High Tones in the Chichewa Verb", Malilime: The Malawian Journal of Linguistics no.1.
Katsonga-Woodward, Heather (2012). Chichewa 101. .
Kanerva, Jonni M. (1990). Focus and Phrasing in Chichewa Phonology. New York, Garland.
Kishindo, Pascal, (2001). "Authority in Language": The Role of the Chichewa Board (1972–1995) in Prescription and Standardization of Chichewa. Journal of Asian and African Studies, No. 62.
Kiso, Andrea (2012). "Tense and Aspect in Chichewa, Citumbuka, and Cisena". Ph.D. Thesis. Stockholm University.
Kunkeyani, Thokozani (2007). "Semantic Classification and Chichewa Derived Nouns". SOAS Working Papers in Linguistics Vol.15 (2007): 151–157.

Lehmann, Dorothea (1977) An outline of Cinyanja Grammar. Zambia
Mapanje, John Alfred Clement (1983). "On the Interpretation of Aspect and Tense in Chiyao, Chichewa, and English". University College London PhD Thesis.
Marwick, M.G., (1963). "History and Tradition in East Central Africa Through the Eyes of the Northern Rhodesian Cheŵa", Journal of African History, 4, 3, pp. 375–390.
Marwick, M.G., (1964). "An Ethnographic Classic Brought to Light" Africa: Journal of the International African Institute, Vol. 34, No. 1, pp. 46–56.
Maxson, Nathaniel (2011). Chicheŵa for English Speakers: A New and Simplifed Approach. .

Mchombo, S. (2006). "Nyanja". In The Concise Encyclopedia of Languages of the World (Elsevier).
Missionários da Companhia de Jesus, (1963). Dicionário Cinyanja–Português. Junta de Investigaçôes do Ultramar.
: The first Chinyanja/Chichewa monolingual dictionary (c.2000). Blantyre (Malawi): Dzuka Pub. Co. (Also published online at the website of the "Centre for Language Studies of the University of Malawi".)
Mtenje, Al D. (1986). Issues in the Non-Linear Phonology of Chichewa part 1. Issues in the Non-Linear Phonology of Chichewa part 2. PhD Thesis, University College, London.
Mtenje, Al D. (1987). "Tone Shift Principles in the Chichewa Verb: A Case for a Tone Lexicon", Lingua 72, 169–207.
Newitt, M.D.D. (1982) "The Early History of the Maravi". The Journal of African History, vol 23, no. 2, pp. 145–162.
Paas, Steven, (2016). Oxford Chichewa–English, English–Chichewa Dictionary. Oxford University Press.
Rebman, John (= Johannes Rebmann), (1877). A Dictionary of the Kiniassa Language. Church Missionary Society (reprinted Gregg, 1968).

Salaun, N. (1993) [1978]. Chicheŵa Intensive Course. Likuni Press, Lilongwe.
Scott, David Clement & Alexander Hetherwick (1929). Dictionary of the Nyanja Language.
Scotton, Carol Myers & Gregory John Orr, (1980). Learning Chichewa, Bk 1. Learning Chichewa, Bk 2. Peace Corps Language Handbook Series. Peace Corps, Washington, D.C. (For recordings, see External links below.)
Simango, Silvester Ron (2000). "'My Madam is Fine': The Adaptation of English loanwords in Chichewa". Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development, vol 12, no. 6.
Stevick, Earl et al. (1965). Chinyanja Basic Course. Foreign Service Institute, Washington, D.C. (Recordings of this are available on the internet.)
Wade-Lewis, Margaret (2005). "Mark Hanna Watkins". Histories of Anthropology Annual, vol 1, pp. 181–218.
Watkins, Mark Hanna (1937). A Grammar of Chichewa: A Bantu Language of British Central Africa, Language, Vol. 13, No. 2, Language Dissertation No. 24 (Apr.-Jun., 1937), pp. 5–158.
Woodward, M.E., (1895). A vocabulary of English–Chinyanja and Chinyanja–English as spoken at Likoma, Lake Nyasa. Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge.

External links

 Omotola Akindipe, George Kondowe, Learn Chichewa on Mofeko
 Online English–Chichewa Dictionary
 My First Chewa Dictionary kasahorow
 Chichewa at Omniglot
 English / Chichewa (Nyanja) Online Dictionary
  Bible, 1922 version digitalized
 Complete Bible (, 1922, revised 1936) in Nyanja, chapter by chapter
 Buku Lopatulika Bible, 2014 version
 Johnson's 1912 translation of Genesis 1–3 into the Likoma dialect, in various formats
 Johnson's translation of the Book of Common Prayer in the Likoma dialect (1909).
 Holy Quran in Chichewa
 Recordings of pages of Scotton & Orr's Learning Chichewa
 Willie T. Zingani,  "Come and see" Chichewa book in pdf form.
 Bonwell Kadyankena Rodgers, . Agoloso Presents – Nkhokwe ya Zining'a za m'Chichewa.pdf.
 Bonwell Kadyankena Rodgers, . Agoloso Presents – Mikuluwiko ya Patsokwe.pdf.
 OLAC resources in and about the Nyanja language
Zodiak Radio live radio in English and Chichewa
M.V.B. Mangoche A Visitor's Notebook of Chichewa Elementary phrasebook.
Complete recording of  New Testament (without text)

Nyasa languages
Languages of Malawi
Languages of Mozambique
Languages of Zambia
Languages of Zimbabwe

Chewa language


Sir Robert Wallace Best, né le  à Melbourne et mort le  dans cette même ville, est un homme politique australien.

Biographie
Fils d'un fermier né en Irlande, il commence à travailler à l'âge de 13 ans pour une imprimerie. Il étudie ensuite le droit à l'université de Melbourne et est admis à travailler comme solliciteur en 1881. Il est élu conseiller municipal à  (près de Melbourne) en 1883, et en devient le maire en 1888. En 1889 il est élu député de Fitzroy à l'Assemblée législative du Victoria. De 1894 à 1899 il est le ministre des Terres et des Travaux publics du Victoria, dans le gouvernement de George Turner. À cette fonction, il mène l'introduction des politiques protectionnistes du gouvernement. Il s'intéresse aux questions de politique sociale, et visite la Nouvelle-Zélande pour y étudier les politiques mises en œuvre par le gouvernement libéral de Richard Seddon et de William Pember Reeves  en faveur des ouvriers. Sportif durant sa jeunesse, il est un temps président de l'Association de cricket du Victoria et président de l'Association de football du Victoria.

Favorable à l'unification des six colonies britanniques d'Australie en une fédération, il quitte le Parlement du Victoria en 1901 pour participer aux premières élections sénatoriales fédérales, au scrutin direct, et est élu au Sénat australien comme membre du Parti protectionniste. De juillet 1907 à novembre 1908 il est vice-président du Conseil exécutif et ministre chargé des relations avec le Sénat dans le gouvernement d'Alfred Deakin ; il mène ainsi l'adoption par le Sénat de nouvelles politiques commerciales protectionnistes. Consciencieux, soucieux des détails et de comportement agréable mais ferme, il est un ministre apprécié. En 1908 il est fait chevalier commandeur de l'ordre de Saint-Michel et Saint-Georges. Il négocie pour les protectionnistes la fusion du parti avec le Parti anti-socialiste pour former un nouveau gouvernement mené par Alfred Deakin de juin 1909 à avril 1910 ; il y est le ministre du Commerce extérieur et des Douanes.

Il perd de peu son siège de sénateur aux élections de 1910, mais entre à la Chambre des représentants grâce à une élection partielle dans la circonscription de Kooyong, dans la banlieue de Melbourne, peu après. Il est réélu jusqu'à sa courte défaite aux élections de 1922, à l'issue desquelles il quitte la vie politique.

Références

Naissance en juin 1856
Décès en mars 1946
Ministre australien du Commerce extérieur
Chevalier commandeur de l'ordre de Saint-Michel et Saint-Georges
Étudiant de l'université de Melbourne
Personnalité politique australienne du XIXe siècle
Personnalité politique australienne du XXe siècle
Naissance à Melbourne
Décès à 89 ans

Robert Best


Kenan Tevfik Erim, (13 Şubat 1929 – 3 Kasım 1990), ismi Afrodisias (Aydın'ın Karacasu ilçesi Geyre beldesi) kazıları ile özdeşleşmiş Türk arkeoloğudur.

Bir diplomatın oğlu olarak dünyaya gelmiştir. İsviçre'de başladığı eğitiminden sonra, babası Tevfik Erim'in Türkiye'nin Birleşmiş Milletler Daimi Temsilciliği'nde göreve başlaması nedeniyle 1948'den itibaren New York Üniversitesi'nde devam etmiştir. 1953'te bu üniversiteden Klasik Arkeoloji bilim dalında mezun olduktan sonra, Princeton Üniversitesi'nde yüksek lisans ve doktora yapmıştır. Princeton'dan bir ekip tarafından Sicilya'da Morgantina sitinde yürütülen kazılarda ünlü arkeolog Profesör Karl Erik Sjoquist'in asistanlığını yapmıştır.

Afrodisias ekolü olarak tanımlanan heykeltıraş sanatçıların eserlerine duyduğu ilgi zamanla derinleşmiştir. 1961'de şahsi girişimleri ile bizzat organize ettiği bir keşif ve kazı programı ile Afrodisias'ta çağdaş araştırmaların başlamasını sağlamıştır. New York Üniversitesi'nde Klasik Çağ Profesörlüğü ve Afrodisias kazılarının başkanlığı görevlerini ölümüne dek sürdürmüştür. Gezi, yazı ve konuşmaları ile Afrodisias'ın dünya çapında üne kavuşmasında ve kazılar için özellikle ABD kaynaklı finansman temin edilmesinde de en büyük katkıyı sağlamış kişidir. Yine sahsi çabalarıyla New York, Paris, Londra, İzmir ve İstanbul (Geyre Vakfı) Aphrodisias Sevenler Derneklerini kurdurarak çalışmalara katkı sağlamıştır. Günümüzde de Geyre Vakfı Aphrodisias Müzesine ek bir salon yaptırmış ve Sebasteion restorasyonunu parasal olarak desteklemektedir. Kazılarda ortaya çıkarılan yapılar ve buluntular ve özellikle de heykel sanatı ürünleri, göz kamaştırıcıdır ve artık yetersiz kalmaya başladığı için Geyre Vakfının desteğiyle yenilenecek ve büyütülecek olan Geyre Müzesi'nde ve Aydın Müzesi'nde sergilenmektedir.

3 Kasım 1990'da ölmüştür. Mezarı, Aphrodias Antik kentinde ölmeden 3 hafta önce restorasyonu bitirilen Anıtsal Tören Kapısı'nın güney tarafındandır. Kendi deyimiyle "sevgilisinin koynunda" yatmaktadır. Ömrünün yarısını bu kentin ortaya çıkarılmasına harcayan Kenan Erim'in Aphrodias Müzesi'nde bir büstü bulunmaktadır. Afrodisias kazıları ise günümüzde de sürmektedir.

Ödül ve unvanları

 1986: "New York City" Özgürlük Madalyası
 1988: "National Geographic Society" Yüzüncü Yıl Madalyası

Bibliyografi

 'Morgantina', American Journal of Archaeology 62 (1958), sayfa 79-90 (Yeniden basım Morgantina Studies II, Princeton University Press, 1989)
 'Two inscriptions from Aphrodisias', Papers of the British School at Rome 37 (1969), 92-5
 'A letter of Gordian III from Aphrodisias in Caria' (J. Reynolds ile birlikte), Journal of Roman Studies 59 (1969), 56-58
 'The copy of Diocletian's Edict on Maximum Prices from Aphrodisias in Caria' (J. Reynolds ile birlikte), Journal of Roman Studies 60 (1970), 120-140
 'Diocletian's Currency Reform, a new inscription from Aphrodisias' (J. Reynolds & M. Crawford ile birlikte), Journal of Roman Studies 61 (1971), 171-77
 'A portrait sculpture of Domitian from Aphrodisias, Opuscula Romana 9 (1973), 135-42
 'The Aphrodisias copy of Diocletian's Price Edict' (J. Reynolds ile birlikte), Journal of Roman Studies 63 (1973), 99-110
 'Aphrodisias' (J. Reynolds ile birlikte, Inan, Alföldi edisyonunda), Römische und frühbyzantinische Porträtplastik aus der Turkei (Mainz, 1979), nos. 173-209
 'A relief showing Claudius and Britannia from Aphrodisias', Britannia 13 (1982), 277-81
 'Sculptors from Aphrodisias: some new inscriptions' (C. Roueché ile birlikte), Papers of the British School at Rome 50 (1982), 102-15
 Aphrodisias, City of Venus Aphrodite, 1986
 Aphrodisias Bibliography (J. de la Genière ile birlikte) Aphrodisias de Carie: Colloque Lille 1985, Paris, 1987, 159-165
 'Sculptors of Aphrodisias in the inscriptions of the city', Festschrift J. Inan (Istanbul, 1989, 1991'de piyasaya çıktı), 517-538.

Kaynakça

Dış bağlantılar
 Prof. Dr. Kenan Tevfik Erim

1929 doğumlular
1990 yılında ölenler
Türk şövalyeler
Türk arkeologlar
İstanbul doğumlu bilim insanları
Ankara'da ölenler
New York Üniversitesinde öğrenim görenler
New York Üniversitesi öğretim üyeleri

Kenan Erim


Magkeilfjorden (nordsamisk: Mahkilvuotna) er en fjord på nordsiden af Nordkinnhalvøen i Gamvik kommune i Troms og Finnmark fylke i Norge. Fjorden går  6 kilometer mod sydvest til Kobbvågen inderst i fjorden og ligger lige øst for Kinnarodden, det nordligste punkt i Norge og Europa på fastlandet.

Fjorden har indløb  mellem Magkeilspiret i nord og Smørbringen i syd. På nordsiden ligger Vesterbotn og på sydsiden Kobbvågen.

Det er ingen bebyggelse ved fjorden.

Kilder og henvisninger

Fjorde i Troms og Finnmark
Gamvik

Magkeilfjorden


Un caballo alado es un caballo que posee un par de alas, generalmente de plumas, e inspirados de aquellas de las aves, mucho más raramente de cuero, como las de los murciélagos. Esta forma fantástica de caballo está presente en el arte y los relatos de mitos, leyendas y tradiciones de folclor de numerosos pueblos, el caballo alado está presente tanto en China, como en Grecia, Italia, África o incluso América del Norte, antes de la colonización por los europeos.

Asocia el simbolismo del caballo, descrito como un animal ctónico y psicopompo, con la del pájaro, vinculado a la ligereza y a la elevación. El origen de la iconografía y las tradiciones que lo mencionan está relacionado con la domesticación del caballo y a la sensación de libertad y de potencia guerrera ganada por los caballeros, pero también a prácticas chamánicas, donde el chamán monta un animal alado para pasar por diferentes estados de consciencia. Pegaso es el caballo alado más conocido, su nombre designa por extensión a este tipo de criatura. Igualmente, es una figura heráldica imaginaria bastante frecuente. En las obras modernas de fantasía, cómics o juegos de rol, también se encuentran caballos alados.

Construcción de la figura

Al igual que la esfinge, el centauro o incluso el grifo, un caballo alado está compuesto de elementos que existen realmente, es decir, de un caballo y de alas de un ave. El proceso de invención de la figura consistió en la combinación de elementos existentes para formar un ser imaginario. Así, aunque no existe un caballo alado en el mundo físico, posee una forma de realidad en el dominio del sueño, de lo sobrenatural y de la mitología. Esta teoría también destaca el hecho de que la realidad física es un elemento constitutivo de la realidad interna.

El caballo alado es extremadamente común en los mitos, leyendas y tradiciones de Eurasia.

Mitologías indoeuropeas
Como lo señala el historiador del caballo Marc-André Wagner, las primeras representaciones de caballos alados se remontan al , en los proto-hititas. Posiblemente, este mito se propagó a los asirios luego; después, habría llegado a Asia Menor y a Grecia. Los caballos alados de la Antigua Grecia son mencionados en numerosas obras literarias, se encuentran representaciones en el arte, así como en la alfarería y monedas como en la escultura. Pegaso es el más conocido, pero esta figura no está necesariamente relacionada. Cuando Platón describió el templo de Poseidón en la mítica isla de la Atlántida, dijo que la estatua del dios estaba de pie en un carro tirado por seis caballos alados. El héroe Pélope recibió del mismo dios un carro tirado por dos caballos alados y fueron dos Nereidas en un carro tirado por caballos con alas de oro las que entregaron la armadura de Patroclo a Tetis.

En el Rig-veda, los caballos de la carroza de Indra son caballos alados con un pelaje negro brillante y con patas blancas. Sus ojos brillan como el sol, se enganchan a su carro de guerra de oro. Su rapidez supera el pensamiento. Numerosas representaciones de los valquirias de la mitología nórdica remplazaron a los lobos alados que ellas montaban según ciertos textos antiguos por caballos voladores o «caballos de la nube», pero raramente alados.

Pegaso

Pegaso es una de las criaturas fantásticas más célebres de la mitología griega, de naturaleza divina representado generalmente en blanco. Nació con su hermano Crisaor de sangre de la gorgona Medusa decapitado por el héroe Perseo. Los poetas greco-romanos decían que montó al cielo después de su nacimiento y se puso al servicio de Zeus, el rey de los dioses, quien le encarga llevarle el relámpago y el trueno sobre el monte Olimpo. Amigo de las musas, Pegaso es el creador del manantial Hipocrene que hizo brotar de un golpe de casco. Fue capturado por el héroe griego Belerofonte, cerca de la fuente Pirene, gracias a la ayuda de Atenea y de Poseidón. Pegaso permitió que este héroe lo montara a fin de vencer a un monstruo, la Quimera. No obstante, su caballero fue víctima de su orgullo y cayó de su lomo al intentar alcanzar el monte Olimpo. Pegaso se encuentra con Zeus quien termina por transformarlo en una constelación y ubicarlo en el cielo.

Quizás descendiente de un antiguo dios de las tormentas en la mitología hitita, porta el epíteto de Pihassassa, una parte de su mito habría pasado de los pueblos luvitas a los antiguos griegos; sin embargo, otras teorías evocan la observación de las fuerzas naturales, del agua, del rayo o de las aves o incluso la domesticación del caballo por los antiguos griegos. Este mito tuvo una gran difusión en el mundo antiguo: retomado por los romanos, fue parcialmente cristianizado y fue objeto de comentarios, de teorías y de reconstituciones desde la Edad Media.

Símbolo de sabiduría y sobre todo de renombre desde la Edad Media hasta el Renacimiento, se convirtió en el de la poesía y el creador de fuentes en las cuales los poetas iban a sacar su inspiración, particularmente, en el , donde numerosos poemas exaltaron esta función. Pegaso es objeto de una iconografía muy rica, principalmente a través de la cerámica griega antigua, las pinturas y las esculturas del Renacimiento.

En los siglos XX y XXI, hace su aparición en el cine, en la literatura fantástica, en los videojuegos y en los juegos de rol, donde el nombre de «Pegaso» se ha convertido en nombre común que designa a todos los caballos alados del bestiario fantástico.

Referencias

Bibliografía

Enlaces externos

Alado
Quimeras

Caballo alado


An Rhynchospora paranaensis in uska species han Liliopsida nga ginhulagway ni A.C.Araújo ngan William Wayt Thomas. An Rhynchospora paranaensis in nahilalakip ha genus nga Rhynchospora, ngan familia nga Cyperaceae. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Rhynchospora

Rhynchospora paranaensis