AP Librae est un objet Bl Lac ou un blazar. Un objet Bl Lac signifie un type de blazar hyper-énergétique variable qui possède deux jets de matières et de très grandes raies d'émission ainsi qu'un signal polarisé. Son spectre d'émission se situe généralement entre  et 0.1 téra électron-volts (TeV). AP Lib se situe dans la constellation de la Balance (Librae) à environ  d'années-lumière de la Terre.

Histoire observationnelle
Cet objet a été identifié pour la première fois comme une étoile variable irrégulière par Martha D. Ashbrook en 1942, qui a noté que la luminosité changeait de manière irrégulière entre la magnitude apparente 15,0 à 16,0. Il a été constaté que la source variait de manière chaotique sur des échelles de temps de jours et même d'heures, comme un quasar OVV. Howard E. Bond et François Biraud ont noté en 1971 la coïncidence de cet objet avec la position de la source radio PKS 1514-24. En 1965, John G. Bolton et ses associés ont identifié cette dernière comme une galaxie elliptique de seizième magnitude, même si de récentes mesures optent pour une galaxie lenticulaire en transition. Glenn M. Frye et ses associés ont suggéré en 1971 qu'il pourrait s'agir d'une source de rayons gamma. La similitude de cet objet avec BL Lacertae a été notée, ce qui l'a conduit à être désigné comme un objet BL Lac.

Variabilité
La luminosité de AP Librae varie dans tous les spectres électromagnétiques avec des périodes courtes et irrégulières, la luminosité peut augmenter en quelques heures voire jours dans des intervalles irréguliers. Les variations de sa luminosité sont souvent nommées "éclatement", en raison de l'augmentation très violente et rapide de sa luminosité. En rayon gamma, il peut arriver que son émission atteigne des niveaux d'énergie de l'ordre du TeV, l'éclatement le plus violent a vu la luminosité gamma de AP Lib aller jusqu'à 20 TeV voire plus, même si les éclatements s'arrêtent généralement à 300 GeV. Sa variabilité X est très similaire à celle observée en rayon gamma, même si par conséquent, moins énergétique. Sa variabilité optique est souvent caractérisée par une oscillation de sa magnitude apparente de 16 à 17 en 3 heures ou 1 jour, mais il peut arriver que sa magnitude varie avec une amplitude de 0.6 ± 0.1 en une heure. Sa magnitude ultraviolette varie de 14.32 à 15.12 dans une période de quelques heures.

Jets astrophysiques
Le jet de AP Librae est une source quasi-ponctuelle de rayon gamma, X et ondes radio, s'étendant sur  soit , étant donc l'un des jets les plus longs jamais observés. Le jet de AP Lib est légèrement magnétisé.

Structure galactique
Ces jets émanent donc d'un quasar, le quasar qui se situe au centre de l'objet AP Librae possède un disque d'accrétion d'environ quelques kpc. Ap Librae est l'un des rares blazars à pic basse fréquence à détecter aux rayons gamma du TeV et le seul avec un jet de rayons X identifié. Les observations combinées de Fermi-LAT aux hautes énergies et celles du H.E.S.S. aux très hautes énergies ont révélé une propriété spectrale frappante d'Ap Librae ; la présence d'une large composante à haute énergie qui s'étend sur plus de neuf ordres de grandeur en énergie et est donc difficile à expliquer. La distribution d'énergie spectrale d'Ap Librae où l'émission de très haute énergie est supposée provenir d'une région compacte à l'échelle inférieure au parsec du jet. Il a aussi été observé que la galaxie hôte de AP Librae est en excès ultraviolet avec une magnitude ultraviolette absolue de -22.6, ce qui est trop par rapport à ce qui est attendu dans les galaxies elliptiques, en raison de l'âge de leurs étoiles et de la faible présence de poussière interstellaire.

Morphologie
La galaxie hôte de AP Lib est une galaxie elliptique / lenticulaire de type morphologique N/E, sa taille angulaire (0.323' x 0.278') corrélé avec sa distance montre qu'elle mesure ~ soit ~ de diamètre, soit 2.34 fois plus que la Voie lactée.

Rayonnement synchrotron
AP Librae émet une composante de rayonnement synchrotron à sa distribution d'énergie spectrale. La composante maximale de ce rayonnement se situe dans la bande infrarouge, ce qui en fait un BL Lac à crête basse fréquence. C'est l'une des rares crêtes basse fréquence connues à émettre des rayons gamma. La largeur de la composante haute énergie de sa distribution d'énergie spectrale est considérée comme extrêmement large pour les objets de cette classe, allant d'environ 0,1 keV jusqu'au niveau des énergies allant au TeV. En 1998–99, une émission radio étendue a été détectée à partir d'un jet unilatéral qui commence dans une direction sud-est à partir de la source avant de se pencher vers le nord-est. Ce jet non thermique s'étend à 15 arc-seconde de l'AP Lib (équivalent à ~ , avec la distance) et, en 2013, il a été découvert qu'il émettait des rayons X. Le jet peut être la source de l'émission de rayons gamma dans la gamme du TeV.

Disque circumstellaire
La large composante spectrale à haute énergie dans les blazars est généralement attribuée à divers processus de diffusion Compton inverse dans le jet relativiste, mais n'a pas été clairement identifiée dans la plupart des cas en raison de dégénérescences dans les modèles physiques. AP Librae produit de faibles pics synchrotron, comme celui détecté en 2015 par H.E.S.S. à très hautes énergies supérieurs à 0,5 TeV. Les modèles standard d'auto-Compton synchrotron ne parviennent généralement pas à reproduire l'émission de très haute énergie, ce qui a conduit à la suggestion qu'elle pourrait provenir non pas du noyau actif et du blazar. Avec l'imagerie du télescope spatial Hubble nouvellement obtenue et l'imagerie du Atacama Large Millimeter/submillimeter Array en haute résolution révèle une signature de disque de poussière résiduelle après soustraction du noyau, avec un spectre clairement thermique et une étendue sur ~ 500 pc, ce qui correspond à un disque de poussière chauffé par le jet et le blazar de AP Librae.

Trou noir supermassif
Le disque d'accrétion du trou noir de AP Librae est l'auteur de fortes raies d'émissions d'atomes doublement voir triplement ionisés, tels que O III, O II, Ca II et Ha, indiquant la présence d'oxygène, de calcium et d'hydrogène ionisé dans le disque d'accrétion et son voisinage proche. Les vitesses radiales des gaz du disque d'accrétion suggèrent que le trou noir qui siège au centre de AP Lib aurait une masse de 1 milliard de masses solaires. Une telle masse fait que ce trou noir pourrait contenir les trois quarts de notre système solaire. Son rayon de Schwarzschild est de 19.7 unités astronomiques soit un  diamètre de 39.4 unités astronomiques. Une étude basée sur sa luminosité bolométrique suggère que le trou noir aurait une masse de . Une autre étude basée sur la luminosité intrinsèque du disque d'accrétion opte vers un trou noir d'une masse de 10 .

Références

Blazar
Quasar
Constellation de la Balance
Source radio
Source X

AP Librae


L'Union malienne du Rassemblement démocratique africain (UM-RDA) est un parti politique malien. Il est fondé en 2010 de la fusion de l'Union soudanaise-Rassemblement démocratique africain et du Bloc pour la démocratie et l'intégration africaine.

Il remporte deux sièges aux élections législatives maliennes de 2013.

Aux élections législatives maliennes de 2020, un siège est remporté par l'UM-RDA.

Notes et références

Parti politique au Mali
Parti politique fondé en 2010


Un sistema adaptativo complejo o sistema complejo adaptable, (CAS, del inglés complex adaptive system) es un tipo especial de sistema complejo; es complejo en el sentido de que es diverso y conformado por múltiples elementos interconectados; y adaptativo, porque tiene la capacidad de cambiar y aprender de la experiencia. Consiste de un gran número de partes y agentes que interactúan y se entrelazan entre sí. Algunos ejemplos de un CAS son: las redes neuronales y sociales, los sistemas nervioso e inmunológico, culturas antiguas y modernas, idiomas, economía, ecología, mercado de valores, los insectos sociales (las colonias de hormigas), la biósfera, el ecosistema, el cerebro, el sistema inmune, las empresas y cualquier grupo social humano con cultura y con un sistema social. En general, este concepto de CAS se refiere a los mismos sistemas que pueden ser simulados y descritos por sistemas multi-agentes (SMA).

La expresión «sistema adaptativo complejo» (o «ciencia de la complejidad») fue acuñada en el interdisciplinario Santa Fe Institute por John H. Holland, Murray Gell-Mann y otros. Es a menudo usada para describir el campo académico libremente organizado que se ha desarrollado alrededor de estos sistemas. La ciencia de la complejidad no es una teoría única, ya que abarca más de un marco teórico, es sumamente interdisciplinaria y busca las respuestas a algunas preguntas fundamentales sobre los sistemas vivos, adaptables y cambiables.

Los ejemplos de sistemas adaptativos complejos incluyen el Ser humano, la bolsa de valores, las sociedades de insectos y colonias de hormigas, la biósfera y el ecosistema, el cerebro y el sistema inmunitario, las células y el desarrollo embrionario, negocios de fabricación y cualquier esfuerzo de grupos sociales humanos dentro de un sistema cultural y social dado, tales como partidos políticos o comunidades. Hay una estrecha relación entre el campo de los CAS y la vida artificial, en ambas áreas los principios emergentes y de autoorganización son muy importantes.

Definiciones
Es necesario hacer una caracterización precisa para poder distinguir a los Sistemas Complejos de los Sistemas Complicados o los Sistemas Caóticos. Un CAS es una compleja y autosimilar colección de agentes adaptativos interactuando. En un Sistema Complicado, los diversos elementos que lo conforman mantienen un grado de independencia unos de otros. Los Sistemas Complicados son reducibles, esto es, las propiedades del Sistema Complicado pueden entenderse y anticiparse mediante el estudio de los elementos constitutivos del Sistema (Page). En un Sistema Complicado o Caótico, una pequeña modificación en las condiciones del Sistema produce rápidamente resultados altamente desordenados e impredecibles. A diferencia de los Sistemas Complicados, en un Sistema Complejo el nivel de dependencia o interacción entre los elementos se vuelve importante. Las fuertes interacciones entre sus elementos provocan que los eventos presentes tengan una gran influencia en la probabilidad de ocurrencia de muchos tipos de eventos posteriores (Axelrod).

Los estudios de CAS se enfocan en la complejidad, las propiedades emergentes y macroscópicas de los sistemas. Distintos investigadores han esbozado varias definiciones:

Otra diferencia de los Sistemas Caóticos con respecto a los Sistemas Complejos, es que los primeros, se vuelven altamente desordenados; mientras que un Sistema Complejo es coherente frente a los cambios (Holland), las interacciones son altamente no lineales es imposible reducir el estudio del Sistema Complejo al estudio de sus elementos constitutivos (Page).

Propiedades de los CAS

Lo que distingue a los CAS de los SMA (sistemas multiagentes) puros es su enfoque de propiedades de alto nivel y característica, como autosimilitud, complejidad, emergencia, y autoorganización. Un SMA es definido simplemente como un sistema compuesto de múltiples agentes interactuando. En CAS los agentes así como los sistemas son adaptativos, el sistema es autosimilar. Un CAS es una compleja y autosimilar colectividad de interacciones de agentes adaptativos. Los CAS se caracterizan por un alto grado de capacidad adaptativa, lo que les proporciona resiliencia frente a la perturbación.

Otras propiedades importantes son la adaptación (homeostasis), comunicación, cooperación, especialización, organización espacial y temporal, y, por supuesto, reproducción. Ellos pueden organizarse en todos los niveles: las células se especializan, se adaptan y se reproducen a sí mismas tal como los organismos más grandes lo hacen. La comunicación y la cooperación toman lugar en todos los niveles, desde agentes hasta niveles de sistemas.

Dentro de la clase de los Sistemas Complejos conviene hacer una diferencia entre los que son Adptables y los que no lo son. De acuerdo con Axelrod, un Sistema Complejo Adaptable es un Sistema Complejo integrado por agentes o poblaciones que buscan adaptarse mediante una intervención planificada. Bajo esta definición un tornado es un Sistema Complejo no Adaptable (las partes no tienen una capacidad de intervención planificada), pero los peatones en una gran ciudad conforman un Sistema Complejo Adaptable (las personas tienen la capacidad de hacer intervenciones planificadas para evitar chocar con otros peatones). Axelrod propone que en un Sistema Complejo Adaptable hay tres procesos centrales: Variación, Interacción y Selección.
Para Mitchell un Sistema Complejo (Adaptable) es "Un sistema en el cual grandes redes de componentes sin control central y con reglas simples de operación origina un comportamiento colectivo complejo, procesamiento sofisticado de información y adaptación mediante aprendizaje o evolución." (Mitchell 2009:13). De acuerdo con Mitchell, esta definición contiene tres propiedades comunes de los Sistemas Complejos Adaptables:

1. Mitchell comparte la idea de Holland de que el comportamiento colectivo complejo, de patrones cambiantes y difíciles de predecir tiene su origen en la acción colectiva más que en las acciones individuales de los componentes del sistema.

2. Procesamiento de información y señales producidas tanto en el medio ambiente interno como en el externo.

3. Cambios adaptables del sistema a través del aprendizaje o procesos evolutivos. Uno de los autores fundamentales en el desarrollo de la Teoría de los Sistemas Complejos Adaptables es John H. Holland.

Para Holland un Sistema Complejo Adaptable es un sistema compuesto por una gran variedad de agentes distintos y componentes no estáticos que no mantienen una configuración fija, sin un órgano central de planeación o dirección pero que en conjunto desarrolla una identidad única y mantiene un patrón estable y coherente a lo largo del tiempo. En esta definición Holland expande el significado del término "adaptación" para incluir el aprendizaje y los procesos relacionados con éste.

Para Kevin Dooley un Sistema Complejo Adaptable se comporta/evoluciona de acuerdo a tres principios fundamentales: el orden es emergente en lugar de tener un nivel determinado (ej. redes neuronales), la historia del sistema es irreversible y el futuro del sistema es a menudo impredecible Los elementos básicos de SCA son los agentes; los cuales exploran su medio ambiente y desarrollan esquemas de interpretación y representación de las reglas de acción. Estos esquemas están sujetos al cambio y evolución (Fuente: K. Dooley, AZ State University).

Para Murray Gell-Mann un Sistema Complejo Adaptable adquiere información sobre su entorno en el que interactúa e identifica regularidades en la información obtenida, condensando esas regularidades en una especie de esquema o modelo y actúa en el mundo real sobre la base de ese esquema (Fuente: "The Quark and the Jaguar: Adventures in the Simple and the Complex", p.17).

Para Stephanie Forrest los Sistemas Complejos Adaptables se componen de elementos que interactúan y se adaptan en un entorno operativo. Los agentes de actúan y están influenciados por su entorno local. No hay control global sobre el sistema. Todos los agentes son sólo capaces de influir en otros agentes a nivel local. Cada agente es impulsado por mecanismos simples, por lo general las reglas de condición-acción, donde las condiciones son muy sensibles al entorno. (Fuente: Forrest, 1990).

Propiedades y Mecanismos de los Sistemas Complejos Adaptables

Holland menciona cuatro propiedades y tres mecanismos comunes a todos los SCA. Otras propiedades y mecanismos de los Sistemas complejos Adaptables pueden derivarse a partir de estos siete elementos básicos:

Agregación
La agregación puede usarse en dos formas. Primero, es una manera sencilla de simplificar los SCA agregando cosas similares en categorías. Una vez que se define una cuestión de interés, se ignoran los detalles irrelevantes y se agrupan en una categoría las cosas que difieren en esos detalles. Las categorías elaboradas se convierten en bloques de construcción que pueden combinarse para construir modelos.
Un segundo uso de la propiedad de agregación se relaciona con la emergencia de comportamientos complejos generados por la suma de las interacciones de agentes menos complejos. Los agregados (meta-agentes) actúan como agentes a un nivel superior y pueden exhibir comportamientos y capacidad de adaptación no presentes en los agentes individuales. En este sentido, la agregación proporciona una estructura jerárquica a los SCA.

No linealidad
A grandes rasgos podemos entender la linealidad como una propiedad que permite obtener un valor para el todo mediante una suma de los valores ponderados de sus partes. Cuando un sistema tiene la propiedad de linealidad, es fácil usar las matemáticas para crear modelos mediante el análisis de tendencias, métodos de muestreo o búsqueda de equilibrios. Desafortunadamente los SCA no tienen esta propiedad de linealidad, lo que hace que su estudio y el establecimiento de teorías sea particularmente difícil. En un SCA las interacciones no lineales casi siempre provocan que el comportamiento agregado sea más complejo que la simple suma de los comportamientos individuales.

Flujos
En los SCA los flujos ocurren a partir de una relación en la triada Nodo-Conector-Recurso. En términos generales los nodos son los agentes que llevan a cabo el procesamiento de recursos, mientras que los conectores son los canales de comunicación que determinan las posibles interacciones. En los SCA los flujos en la red varían a lo largo del tiempo como consecuencia del proceso de adaptación y aprendizaje. En este proceso, tanto los nodos como los conectores pueden aparecer o desaparecer dependiendo del éxito en su búsqueda de adaptación. Los marbetes casi siempre definen las interacciones principales al delimitar las redes y crear la estructura jerárquica. Los agentes con marbetes útiles se adaptan y propagan mientras que aquellos con marbetes inútiles terminan extinguiéndose.
Los flujos tienen dos propiedades principales:

1. El efecto multiplicador. El efecto de una acción inicial se propaga a través de la red de interacciones provocando cambios notables en todo el sistema. Este efecto que surge independientemente de la naturaleza particular del recurso, es evidente cuando ocurren cambios evolutivos.

2. El efecto reciclante. Este efecto es debido a los ciclos en las redes. El reciclaje con una misma cantidad de recursos iniciales puede alimentar a la red muchas veces provocando que el sistema retenga sus recursos y produciendo un mayor consumo de recursos en cada nodo, lo cual hace que los agentes prosperen en mayor medida.

Diversidad
Cada clase de agente ocupa una posición en el SCA, que es definida por las interacciones que se centran en él. Si se remueve una clase de agente, el sistema buscará adaptarse creando en el proceso otra clase de agente que proporcione las interacciones faltantes. En este sentido, la persistencia de cada agente individual depende del medio ambiente que en gran medida está constituido por otros agentes. También se crea diversidad cuando un agente exitoso se propaga generando nuevas oportunidades de interacción con otros agentes. En este proceso también se crea la oportunidad de la especialización lo cual incrementa todavía más la diversidad. En un SCA las interacciones perturbadas por la extinción de un tipo particular de agentes comúnmente se restablecen por la aparición de nuevos agentes que pueden ser diferentes a los extintos, de esta forma la diversidad es producto de las continuas adaptaciones del SCA.

Etiquetado
El marbeteado o etiquetado es un mecanismo "que facilita consistentemente la formación de agregados" (Holland 2004:28), es la base de la estructura jerárquica presente en un SCA. Además, el marbeteado facilita la interacción selectiva de un agente con otros agentes que sin el uso de este mecanismo serían indistinguibles. De esta forma el marbeteado constituye un mecanismo de supervivencia para la agregación y la formación de fronteras en los SCA (Holland, 2004). Este mecanismo permite romper las simetrías presentes en un SCA de tal forma que podemos observar y actuar sobre propiedades que no eran evidentes. Las interacciones basadas en marbetes proporcionan una base s´olida para la selección, la especialización y la cooperación.

Modelos Internos
El aprendizaje de los agentes en un SCA depende de su capacidad de anticiparse y predecir el resultado de sus acciones. El mecanismo de la anticipación es la generación de modelos internos.
La característica más importante de un modelo interno es que debe permitir hacer inferencias útiles sobre las consecuencias futuras de la situación que se está modelando.
El principio fundamental para la creación de modelos internos es la agregación en categorías. Para crear un modelo interno el agente debe seleccionar patrones a partir de la información que recibe del medio ambiente y generar cambios en su estructura interna o modelo interno. Entonces los cambios en el modelo deben permitir al agente anticiparse a los resultados que se obtienen cuando vuelve a aparecer el patrón. En los mamíferos superiores, los modelos internos dependen directamente de la experiencia sensorial.

En general distinguiremos dos clases de modelos internos:

1. Modelo interno tácito. Describe una acción actual motivada por la predicción implícita de algún estado futuro deseado, como en el caso de una amiba que se mueve en dirección del alimento.

2. Modelo interno manifiesto. Es la base para las exploraciones explícitas, pero internas, de las alternativas disponibles al agente. En todos los SCA se encuentran presentes tanto los modelos internos tácitos como los manifiestos. El proceso de evolución puede favorecer la generación y selección de modelos internos efectivos y eliminar los modelos ineficientes.

Bloques de Construcción
Los modelos internos se basan en muestras limitadas de un medio ambiente que está en constante cambio. Los modelos resultarán útiles en la medida en que descubramos ciertas regularidades que sean relevantes a la situación que se desea modelar y se omitan los detalles inútiles.
La búsqueda de bloques de construcción es una capacidad inversa a la agregación, se analiza una escena compleja tratando de identificar sus elementos componentes que sean reutilizables y que ya han sido probados por la selección natural y el aprendizaje.
Debido a que la construcción de modelos consume gran parte de los recursos limitados de los agentes, entonces la identificación de los bloques de construcción se convierte en una capacidad fundamental.
La agregación de bloques de construcción produce bloques de construcción para un nivel superior, como en el caso de quark/nucleón/átomo/molécula/organelo/célula... etc.
"Ganamos experiencia a través del uso repetido de los bloques de construcción, aun cuando estos no aparezcan más de dos veces en la misma situación" (Holland 2004:50) Por esta razón, cuando enfrentamos una situación nueva, podemos combinar bloques ya probados para modelar la situación, anticipar las posibles consecuencias y elegir la acción adecuada.
Cuando en un SCA se tienen modelos internos tácitos, el descubrimiento y combinación de los bloques de construcción está sujeto a la escala de tiempo determinada por la evolución del sistema; mientras que si el modelo es manifiesto, la escala de tiempo suele ser de menor magnitud.

Características de los Sistemas Complejos Adaptables

Una característica importante de muchos sistemas complejos adaptables es la aparición de características globales similares y estructuras en sistemas completamente diferentes. Los sistemas complejos adaptables se caracterizan como siguen y los más importantes son:

• El número de elementos es lo suficientemente grande que descripciones convencionales (por ejemplo, un sistema de ecuaciones diferenciales) no sólo son impracticables, pero dejan de ayudar en la comprensión del sistema, los elementos también tienen que interactuar y la interacción debe ser dinámica. Las interacciones pueden ser físicas o implican el intercambio de información.

• Tales interacciones son bastas, es decir, cualquier elemento del sistema se ve afectado por y afecta a otros sistemas.

• Las interacciones son no lineales que significa que pequeñas causas pueden tener grandes resultados.

• Las interacciones son principalmente pero no exclusivamente con los países vecinos y la naturaleza de la influencia es modulada.

• Cualquier interacción puede alimentarse a sí mismo directamente o después de una serie de etapas intermedias, tales comentarios pueden variar en calidad. Esto se conoce como "recurrency".

• Los sistemas son abiertos y puede ser difícil o imposible de definir el sistema.

• Los sistemas complejos adaptables operan lejos de las condiciones de equilibrio.

• Todos los sistemas complejos adaptables tienen una historia, evolucionan y su pasado es corresponsable de su comportamiento presente.

• Los elementos en el sistema ignoran el comportamiento de todo el sistema como un todo.

Ejemplos de Sistemas Complejos Adaptables

Los Sistemas Complejos Adaptables se pueden encontrar en la psicología cognitiva, inteligencia artificial, sociología, ecología, biología, economía y la genética. A continuación, algunos ejemplos de SCA con sus agentes correspondientes entre paréntesis:

• Mercados (comerciantes)

• Economías (compañías)

• Ecosistemas (organismos)

• Sistemas inmunes (anticuerpos)

• Células biológicas (proteínas)

• Sistemas sociales (personas)

• Sistemas políticos (partidos)

Otro ejemplo es el mercado de valores en los que los agentes adaptables (comerciantes) aprenden día a día y cambian sus acciones a medida que avanzan.
Otro buen ejemplo es el sistema inmunológico, que parte de lo simple, pero aprende a que uno prevenga enfermedades complejas.
Otros ejemplos de SCA incluyen los insectos sociales y las colonias de hormigas, la biosfera, el ecosistema, el cerebro, la célula y desarrollo de un embrión, la manufactura en los negocios y en general, cualquier grupo humano social, basado en la cultura y en un sistema social como los partidos políticos o redes sociales de comunidades.

Referencias

[1] Holland, John H. (2004). El Orden Oculto. Fondo de Cultura Económica.

[2] Holland, John H. (2006). Studying Complex Adaptive Systems, Journal of Systems Science and Complexity 19: http://hdl.handle.net/2027.42/41486.

[3] Axelrod, Robert. (2000). Harnessing Complexity. Basic Books.

[4] Mitchell, Melanie. (2009). Complexity a Guided Tour. Oxford University Press.

[5] Page, Scot E. and Miller, John H. (2007). Complex Adaptive Systems. Princeton University Press.

[6] http://wiki.cas-group.net/index.php?title=Complex_Adaptive_System

[7] Ozalp Babaoglu, University of Bologna

[8] Stephanie Forrest, University of New Mexico

[9] Melanie Mitchell, Portland State University

[10] Simon A. Levin, Princeton University

[11] John H. Holland, University of Michigan, Santa Fe Institute

[12] Murray Gell-Mann, Santa Fe Institute

[13] Lara Rivero, Arturo (UAM-Xochimilco)

[14] Alvarado López, Raúl (UAM-Xochimilco)

Bibliografía

Libros

Muchos de los libros recientes sobre complejidad y sistemas complejos adaptables tienen que ver con el modelo basado en los agentes (ABM por sus siglas en inglés) en las ciencias sociales o con el Instituto Santa Fe (SFI por sus siglas en inglés) y sus prestigiados investigadores: Stuart Kauffman, Murray Gell-Mann, John H. Holland y Chris Langton. La historia del Instituto Santa Fe es descrita por M. Mitchell en su libro titulado "Complejidad (Complexity)". De los muchos libros publicados por este Instituto tenemos:

• The Mind, The Brain, and Complex Adaptive Systems, ed. by Harold J. Morowitz, Jerome L. Singer, Santa Fe Institute Studies in the Sciences of Complexity, Addison-Wesley, 1995.

• Introduction to the theory of neural computation, John Hertz, Anders Krogh and Richard Palmer, Santa Fe Institute Studies in the Sciences of Complexity, Addison-Wesley, 1991.

• The Complexity of Cooperation: Agent-Based Models of Competition and Collaboration, Robert Axelrod, Princeton University Press, 1997.

• Emergence: Contemporary Readings in Philosophy and Science, Mark A. Bedau and Paul Humphreys (Eds.), MIT Press, 2007.

• Complexity: Life at the edge of chaos, Roger Lewin, University of Chicago Press, 2000.

• Early Civilizations, Bruce G. Trigger, The American University in Cairo Press, 1993.

• Origins of the modern mind, Merlin Donald, Harvard University Press, 1993.

• The origins of life - from the birth of life to the origins of language, John Maynard Smith and Eörs Szathmáry, Oxford University Press, 1999.

• How Nature works, Per Bak, Springer-Verlag, 1996.

• Complexity and Evolution, Max Pettersson, Cambridge Univ. Press, 1996.

• Generative Social Science: Studies in Agent Based Computational Modeling, Joshua M. Epstein, Princeton University Press, 2007.

• Complex Adaptive Systems: An Introduction to Computational Models of Social Life, John H. Miller & Scott E. Page, Princeton University Press, 2007.

• M. Waldrop, Complexity: The Emerging Science at the Edge of Order and Chaos, Simon & Schuster, 1992.

• Hidden Order: How Adaptation Builds Complexity, John Holland, Basic Books, 1996.

• Emergence: From Chaos To Order, John H. Holland, Basic Books, 1999.

• Más libros se pueden encontrar en la siguiente lista.

Artículos

• John H. Holland, Complex Adaptive Systems: A Primer.

• Ecosystems and the Bioshpere as Complex Adaptive Systems, Simon A. Levin, 1998.

• Complex Adaptive Systems: Exploring the known, the unknown and the unknowable, Simon A. Levin, 2002.

• Gaia as a complex adaptive system, Immune Systems and biological systems (Stephanie Forrest).

• Modeling complex adaptive systems with Echo, S. Forrest and T. Jones. In Complex Systems: Mechanism of Adaptation, R.J. Stonier and X.H. Yu (eds.), Amsterdam, The Netherlands: IOS Press, pp.3-21 (1994).

• Emergent Computation: Self-organizing, collective, and cooperative phenomena in natural and artificial computing networks, Stephanie Forrest, Physica D 42 (1990) 1-11.

Véase también
 Ingeniería de sistemas
 Sistemas complejos
 Teoría de sistemas
 Dinámica de sistemas
 Sistema dinámico
 Sistema complejo

Enlaces externos
A description Principia Cybernetica Web.

Inteligencia artificial
Teoría de sistemas
Teoría de sistemas complejos

Sistema adaptativo complejo


එංගලන්තයෙහි,  යෝර්ක් අසබඩ,  ෆුල්ෆර්ඩ් ගම්මානයෙහි  අවට ප්‍රදේශයෙහිදී 1066 සැප්තැම්බර් 20 දිනදී, ෆුල්ෆර්ඩ් සටන පිළිබඳ සටන් ඇතිවුනේ, හැරල්ඩ් හැඩ්රාඩා (පැරණි නෝර්ස් බසින් "හර්ඩරාඩි" යන්නෙහි අර්ථය වූයේ  "තද පාලකයා" යන්නයි) ලෙසින්ද හැඳින්වුනු, නෝර්වේහී තුන්වන හැරල්ඩ් රජ, සහ ඔහුගේ ඉංග්‍රීසි මිත්‍ර පාක්ෂික  ටොස්ටිග් ගොඩ්වින්සන් විසින්, උතුරුදිග අර්ල්වරුන් වූ එඩ්වින් සහ මොර්කාර් සමග සටන්වැදී ඔවුන් පරාජය කිරීමත් සමගය.

ටොස්ටිග් යනු හැරල්ඩ් ගොඩ්වින්සන් රජුගේ  පිටුවහල් කෙරුණු සහෝදරයා විය. නෝර්වේහී හැරල්ඩ් රජු සමග හා සමහරවිට  නෝර්මන්ඩියෙහි විලියම් ආදිපාදවරයා සමගද හෙතෙම මිත්‍රපාක්ෂික වූවද, ඔහුගේ ආක්‍රමණ පසුපස වූ හේතූව පිළිබඳ වාර්තා නොමැත. සටන වෙතින් වයිකිං හමුදාව වෙත  තීරණාත්මක  ජයග්‍රහණයක් ලැබ දුණි. යෝර්ක්හී අර්ල්වරුන්ට ඔවුන්ගේ නගරවල ප්‍රාකාර බිත්ති පිටුපස සැඟවීමට හැකියාව තිබුණද, ඔවුහූ ගඟ තරණය කොට පැමිණ වයිකිං හමුදාවට මුහුණ දුන්හ. දිනය පුරාවටම ඉංග්‍රීසීහු විසින් වයිකිංවරුන් විසින් සැදි  මිනිස් ආරක්ෂක පලිහ බිඳීමට ගත් දැඩි වෙහෙස ව්‍යර්ථ විය.

නොතම්බ්‍රියාවෙහි අර්ල්වරයා ලෙසින් ඔහු වෙනුවට පත්වුණු  මොර්කාර් අර්ල්වරයා විසින් ටොස්ටිග්ට එරෙහිව සටන් වදින ලදි.

සටහන්

ආශ්‍රිත

බාහිර සබැඳි
ඩීටේල්ස්  ෆ්‍රොම් බැට්ල්ෆීල්ඩ්ස් ට්‍රස්ට්
බැට්ල් ඔෆ් ෆුල්ෆර්ඩ්

එංගලන්තය හා සබැඳි සටන්
නෝර්වේ  හා සබැඳි සටන්
වයිකිංවරුන් හා සබැඳි සටන්
ඇංග්ලෝ-සැක්සන්වරුන් හා සබැඳි සටන්
 නෝර්මන්වරුන් විසින් එංගලන්තය දික්විජය කිරීම
උතුරු යෝර්ක්ෂයර්හී ඉතිහාසය
යෝර්ක්හී ඉතිහාසය
ෆුල්ෆර්ඩ්
 1066 වසර තුල වූ ගැටුම්
1066 වසර තුල එංගලන්තය
 1066 සැප්තැම්බර් මස තුල වූ සිද්ධි

ෆුල්ෆර්ඩ් සටන


Mucopolysaccharidoses are a group of metabolic disorders caused by the absence or malfunctioning of lysosomal enzymes needed to break down molecules called glycosaminoglycans (GAGs). These long chains of sugar carbohydrates occur within the cells that help build bone, cartilage, tendons, corneas, skin and connective tissue. GAGs (formerly called mucopolysaccharides) are also found in the fluids that lubricate joints.

Individuals with mucopolysaccharidosis either do not produce enough of one of the eleven enzymes required to break down these sugar chains into simpler molecules, or they produce enzymes that do not work properly. Over time, these GAGs collect in the cells, blood and connective tissues. The result is permanent, progressive cellular damage which affects appearance, physical abilities, organ and system functioning.

The mucopolysaccharidoses are part of the lysosomal storage disease family, a group of more than 40 genetic disorders that result when the lysosome organelle in animal cells malfunctions.  The lysosome can be thought of as the cell's recycling center because it processes unwanted material into other substances that the cell can utilize.  Lysosomes break down this unwanted matter via enzymes, highly specialized proteins essential for survival.  Lysosomal disorders like mucopolysaccharidosis are triggered when a particular enzyme exists in too small an amount or is missing altogether.

Signs and symptoms

The mucopolysaccharidoses share many clinical features but have varying degrees of severity. These features may not be apparent at birth but progress as storage of GAGs affects bone, skeletal structure, connective tissues, and organs. Neurological complications may include damage to neurons (which send and receive signals throughout the body) as well as pain and impaired motor function. This results from compression of nerves or nerve roots in the spinal cord or in the peripheral nervous system, the part of the nervous system that connects the brain and spinal cord to sensory organs such as the eyes and to other organs, muscles, and tissues throughout the body.

Depending on the mucopolysaccharidosis subtype, affected individuals may have normal intellect or have cognitive impairments, may experience developmental delay, or may have severe behavioral problems. Many individuals have hearing loss, either conductive (in which pressure behind the eardrum causes fluid from the lining of the middle ear to build up and eventually congeal), neurosensory (in which tiny hair cells in the inner ear are damaged), or both. Communicating hydrocephalus—in which the normal reabsorption of cerebrospinal fluid is blocked and causes increased pressure inside the head—is common in some of the mucopolysaccharidoses. Surgically inserting a shunt into the brain can drain fluid. The eye's cornea often becomes cloudy from intracellular storage, and glaucoma and degeneration of the retina also may affect the patient's vision.

Physical symptoms generally include coarse or rough facial features (including a flat nasal bridge, thick lips, and enlarged mouth and tongue), short stature with disproportionately short trunk (dwarfism), dysplasia (abnormal bone size and/or shape) and other skeletal irregularities, thickened skin, enlarged organs such as liver (hepatomegaly) or spleen (splenomegaly), hernias, and excessive body hair growth. Short and often claw-like hands, progressive joint stiffness, and carpal tunnel syndrome can restrict hand mobility and function. Recurring respiratory infections are common, as are obstructive airway disease and obstructive sleep apnea. Many affected individuals also have heart disease, often involving enlarged or diseased heart valves.

Another lysosomal storage disease often confused with the mucopolysaccharidoses is mucolipidosis. In this disorder, excessive amounts of fatty materials known as lipids (another principal component of living cells) are stored, in addition to sugars. Persons with mucolipidosis may share some of the clinical features associated with the mucopolysaccharidoses (certain facial features, bony structure abnormalities, and damage to the brain), and increased amounts of the enzymes needed to break down the lipids are found in the blood.

Genetics

It is estimated that 1 in 25,000 babies born in the United States will have some form of the mucopolysaccharidoses. Approximately 1 in 100,000 newborns will experience severe mucopolysaccharidosis type I, while approximately 1 in 500,000 newborns will experience attenuated mucopolysaccharidosis type I. Most mucopolysaccharidoses are autosomal recessive disorders, meaning that only individuals inheriting the defective gene from both parents are affected. (The exception is MPS II, or Hunter syndrome, in which the mother alone passes along the defective gene to a son.) When both people in a couple have the defective gene, each pregnancy carries with it a one in four chance that the child will be affected. The parents and siblings of an affected child may have no sign of the disorder. Unaffected siblings and select relatives of a child with one of the mucopolysaccharidoses may carry the recessive gene and could pass it to their own children.

Diagnosis
Diagnosis often can be made through clinical examination and urine tests (excess mucopolysaccharides are excreted in the urine). Enzyme assays (testing a variety of cells or body fluids in culture for enzyme deficiency) are also used to provide definitive diagnosis of one of the mucopolysaccharidoses. Prenatal diagnosis using amniocentesis and chorionic villus sampling can verify if a fetus either carries a copy of the defective gene or is affected with the disorder. Genetic counseling can help parents who have a family history of the mucopolysaccharidoses determine if they are carrying the mutated gene that causes the disorders.

Types
Seven distinct clinical types and numerous subtypes of the mucopolysaccharidoses have been identified. Although each mucopolysaccharidosis (MPS) differs clinically, most patients generally experience a period of normal development followed by a decline in physical and/or mental function. (Note: MPS-V and MPS-VIII are no longer in use as designations for any disease.)

Overview table

MPS I
MPS I is divided into three subtypes based on severity of symptoms. All three types result from an absence of, or insufficient levels of, the enzyme alpha-L-iduronidase. Children born to an MPS I parent carry the defective gene.
 MPS I H (also called Hurler syndrome or α-L-iduronidase deficiency), is the most severe of the MPS I subtypes. Developmental delay is evident by the end of the first year, and patients usually stop developing between ages 2 and 4. This is followed by progressive mental decline and loss of physical skills. Language may be limited due to hearing loss and an enlarged tongue. In time, the clear layers of the cornea become clouded and retinas may begin to degenerate. Carpal tunnel syndrome (or similar compression of nerves elsewhere in the body) and restricted joint movement are common.

 Affected children may be quite large at birth and appear normal but may have inguinal (in the groin) or umbilical (where the umbilical cord passes through the abdomen) hernias. Growth in height may be faster than normal but begins to slow before the end of the first year and often ends around age 3. Many children develop a short body trunk and a maximum stature of less than 4 feet. Distinct facial features (including flat face, depressed nasal bridge, and bulging forehead) become more evident in the second year. By age 2, the ribs have widened and are oar-shaped. The liver, spleen, and heart are often enlarged. Children may experience noisy breathing and recurring upper respiratory tract and ear infections. Feeding may be difficult for some children, and many experience periodic bowel problems. Children with Hurler syndrome often die before age 10 from obstructive airway disease, respiratory infections, and cardiac complications.
 MPS I S, Scheie syndrome, is the mildest form of MPS I. Symptoms generally begin to appear after age 5, with diagnosis most commonly made after age 10. Children with Scheie syndrome have normal intelligence or may have mild learning disabilities; some may have psychiatric problems. Glaucoma, retinal degeneration, and clouded corneas may significantly impair vision. Other problems include carpal tunnel syndrome or other nerve compression, stiff joints, claw hands and deformed feet, a short neck, and aortic valve disease. Some affected individuals also have obstructive airway disease and sleep apnea. Persons with Scheie syndrome can live into adulthood.
 MPS I H-S, Hurler–Scheie syndrome, is less severe than Hurler syndrome alone. Symptoms generally begin between ages 3 and 8. Children may have moderate intellectual disability and learning difficulties. Skeletal and systemic irregularities include short stature, marked smallness in the jaws, progressive joint stiffness, compressed spinal cord, clouded corneas, hearing loss, heart disease, coarse facial features, and umbilical hernia. Respiratory problems, sleep apnea, and heart disease may develop in adolescence. Some persons with MPS I H-S need continuous positive airway pressure during sleep to ease breathing. Life expectancy is generally into the late teens or early twenties.

Although no studies have been done to determine the frequency of MPS I in the United States, studies in British Columbia estimate that 1 in 100,000 babies born has Hurler syndrome. The estimate for Scheie syndrome is one in 500,000 births and for Hurler-Scheie syndrome it is one in 115,000 births.

MPS II
MPS II, Hunter syndrome or iduronate sulfatase deficiency, is caused by lack of the enzyme iduronate sulfatase. Hunter syndrome has two clinical subtypes and (since it shows X-linked recessive inheritance) is the only one of the mucopolysaccharidoses in which the mother alone can pass the defective gene to a son. The incidence of Hunter syndrome is estimated to be 1 in 100,000 to 150,000 male births.

MPS III
MPS III, Sanfilippo syndrome, is marked by severe neurological symptoms. These include progressive dementia, aggressive behavior, hyperactivity, seizures, some deafness and loss of vision, and an inability to sleep for more than a few hours at a time. This disorder tends to have three main stages. During the first stage, early mental and motor skill development may be somewhat delayed. Affected children show a marked decline in learning between ages 2 and 6, followed by eventual loss of language skills and loss of some or all hearing. Some children may never learn to speak. In the syndrome's second stage, aggressive behavior, hyperactivity, profound dementia, and irregular sleep may make children difficult to manage, particularly those who retain normal physical strength. In the syndrome's last stage, children become increasingly unsteady on their feet and most are unable to walk by age 10.

Thickened skin and mild changes in facial features, bone, and skeletal structures become noticeable with age. Growth in height usually stops by age 10. Other problems may include narrowing of the airway passage in the throat and enlargement of the tonsils and adenoids, making it difficult to eat or swallow. Recurring respiratory infections are common.

There are four distinct types of Sanfilippo syndrome, each caused by alteration of a different enzyme needed to completely break down the heparan sulfate sugar chain. Little clinical difference exists between these four types but symptoms appear most severe and seem to progress more quickly in children with type A. The average duration of Sanfilippo syndrome is 8 to 10 years following onset of symptoms. Most persons with MPS III live into their teenage years, and some live longer.
 Sanfilippo A is the most severe of the MPS III disorders and is caused by the missing or altered enzyme heparan N-sulfatase. Children with Sanfilippo A have the shortest survival rate among those with the MPS III disorders.
 Sanfilippo B is caused by the missing or deficient enzyme alpha-N-acetylglucosaminidase.
 Sanfilippo C results from the missing or altered enzyme acetyl-CoAlpha-glucosaminide acetyltransferase.
 Sanfilippo D is caused by the missing or deficient enzyme N-acetylglucosamine 6-sulfatase.

The incidence of Sanfilippo syndrome (for all four types combined) is about one in 70,000 births.

MPS IV
MPS IV, Morquio syndrome, is estimated to occur in 1 in 700,000 births. Its two subtypes result from the missing or deficient enzymes N-acetylgalactosamine-6-sulfatase (GALNS) (Type A) or beta-galactosidase (Type B) needed to break down the keratan sulfate sugar chain. Clinical features are similar in both types but appear milder in Morquio Type B. Onset is between ages 1 and 3. Neurological complications include spinal nerve and nerve root compression resulting from extreme, progressive skeletal changes, particularly in the ribs and chest; conductive and/or neurosensitive loss of hearing and clouded corneas. Intelligence is normal unless hydrocephalus develops and is not treated.

Physical growth slows generally around the age of 18 months, and stops completely by the age of 8. Skeletal abnormalities include a bell-shaped chest, a flattening or curvature of the spine, shortened long bones, and dysplasia of the hips, knees, ankles, and wrists. The bones that stabilize the connection between the head and neck can be malformed (odontoid hypoplasia); in these cases, a surgical procedure called spinal cervical bone fusion can be lifesaving. Restricted breathing, joint stiffness, and heart disease are also common. Children with the more severe form of Morquio syndrome may not live beyond their twenties or thirties.

MPS VI
Children with MPS VI, Maroteaux–Lamy syndrome, usually have normal intellectual development but share many of the physical symptoms found in Hurler syndrome. Caused by the deficient enzyme N-acetylgalactosamine 4-sulfatase, Maroteaux-Lamy syndrome has a variable spectrum of severe symptoms. Neurological complications include clouded corneas, deafness, thickening of the dura (the membrane that surrounds and protects the brain and spinal cord), and pain caused by compressed or traumatized nerves and nerve roots.

Growth is normal at first but stops suddenly around age 8. By age 10 children have developed a shortened trunk, crouched stance, and restricted joint movement. In more severe cases, children also develop a protruding abdomen and forward-curving spine. Skeletal changes (particularly in the pelvic region) are progressive and limit movement. Many children also have umbilical or inguinal hernias. Nearly all children have some form of heart disease.

An enzyme replacement therapy was tested on patients with MPS VI and was successful in that it improved growth and joint movement. An experiment was then carried out to see whether an injection of the missing enzyme into the hips would help the range of motion and pain.

MPS VII
MPS VII, Sly syndrome, one of the least common forms of the mucopolysaccharidoses, is estimated to occur in fewer than one in 250,000 births. The disorder is caused by deficiency of the enzyme beta-glucuronidase. In its rarest form, Sly syndrome causes children to be born with hydrops fetalis, in which extreme amounts of fluid are retained in the body. Survival is usually a few months or less. Most children with Sly syndrome are less severely affected. Neurological symptoms may include mild to moderate intellectual disability by age 3, communicating hydrocephalus, nerve entrapment, corneal clouding, and some loss of peripheral and night vision. Other symptoms include short stature, some skeletal irregularities, joint stiffness and restricted movement, and umbilical and/or inguinal hernias. Some patients may have repeated bouts of pneumonia during their first years of life. Most children with Sly syndrome live into the teenage or young adult years.

MPS IX
As of 2001, only one case of MPS IX () had been reported. The disorder results from hyaluronidase deficiency. Symptoms included nodular soft-tissue masses located around joints, with episodes of painful swelling of the masses and pain that ended spontaneously within 3 days. Pelvic radiography showed multiple soft-tissue masses and some bone erosion. Other traits included mild facial changes, acquired short stature as seen in other MPS disorders, and normal joint movement and intelligence.

Treatment
Currently there is no cure for these disorders. Medical care is directed at treating systemic conditions and improving the person's quality of life. Physical therapy and daily exercise may delay joint problems and improve the ability to move.

Changes to the diet will not prevent disease progression, but limiting milk, sugar, and dairy products has helped some individuals experiencing excessive mucus.

Surgery to remove tonsils and adenoids may improve breathing among affected individuals with obstructive airway disorders and sleep apnea. Sleep studies can assess airway status and the possible need for nighttime oxygen. Some patients may require surgical insertion of an endotrachial tube to aid breathing. Surgery can also correct hernias, help drain excessive cerebrospinal fluid from the brain, and free nerves and nerve roots compressed by skeletal and other abnormalities. Corneal transplants may improve vision among patients with significant corneal clouding.

Enzyme replacement therapy has proven useful in reducing non-neurological symptoms and pain. Currently BioMarin Pharmaceutical produces enzyme replacement therapies for MPS type I and VI.  Aldurazyme is an enzymatic replacement therapy for alpha-L-iduronidase produced by BioMarin for use in Type I MPS. In May 2005, galsulfase[Naglazyme®], a recombinant enzyme replacement therapy also produced by Biomarin was approved for MPS VI (Marateaux-Lamy syndrome). In July 2006, the United States Food and Drug Administration approved a synthetic version of I2S produced by Shire Pharmaceuticals Group, called Elaprase, as a treatment for MPS type II (Hunter syndrome). Vestronidase alfa (Mepsevii) is a recombinant human lysosomal beta glucuronidase for MPS VII (Sly syndrome) approved in the United States in November 2017 (Ultragenyx).

Bone marrow transplantation (BMT) and umbilical cord blood transplantation (UCBT) have had limited success in treating the mucopolysaccharidoses. Abnormal physical characteristics, except for those affecting the skeleton and eyes, may be improved, but neurologic outcomes have varied. BMT and UCBT are high-risk procedures and are usually performed only after family members receive extensive evaluation and counseling.

See also
 Alder–Reilly anomaly — a morphologic abnormality of white blood cells associated with mucopolysaccharidosis
 Lysosomal storage disease

References

External links

Autosomal recessive disorders
Proteoglycan metabolism disorders

Mucopolysaccharidosis


Die Eburoviken (lateinisch Eburovices) waren ein keltisch-gallischer Volksstamm aus dem Gebiet der unteren Seine und Loire. Sie gehörten als Teilstamm zum größeren Verbund der Aulerci. Die Eburoviken werden erstmals schriftlich von dem römischen Feldherrn Gaius Iulius Caesar in seinem Bericht De Bello Gallico über seine Kriege in Gallien genannt. Sie hatten im Jahr 56 v. Chr. ihren Senat getötet, weil dieser gegen den Krieg war. Sie schlossen sich der Revolte der Veneller an.

Die Eburoviken siedelten südlich der Seine. Das Gebiet ihrer civitas bildet heute den Hauptteil des Départements Eure. Ihre Hauptstadt war Mediolanum Aulercorum, das heutige Évreux, wo archäologisch für die römische Kaiserzeit ein Theater und eine Stadtmauer nachgewiesen sind. Benachbarte Stämme den Eburoviken waren die Veliocasses, die nördlich der Seine lebten, die Lexovier im Nordwesten und die Karnuten, die südlich der Avre siedelten.

Literatur

 Bernhard Maier: Lexikon der keltischen Religion und Kultur (= Kröners Taschenausgabe. Band 466). Kröner, Stuttgart 1994, ISBN 3-520-46601-5.

Weblinks

Einzelnachweise

Keltischer Stamm
Aremorica

Eburoviken


Amplifikatör (Fransızca: amplificateur, kısaca ampli), müzik sistemlerinde yükseltici olarak kullanılır. Kaynak cihazlardan (CD çalar, pikap gibi) çıkan ses sinyallerini güçlendirerek hoparlörlere gönderme görevini üstlenir. Çeşitli mimariler ve bu mimari özelliklere dayanan sınıflandırmalar mevcuttur, ama asıl sınıflandırma transistörlü yapıda olanlar ve vakum tüplü, yani eskiden beri Türkçeye yerleştiği şekli ile, lambalı yapıda olanlar arasındadır. 2 ve 4 kanallı olarak piyasada mevcuttur.

Bunlarla birlikte son yıllarda yaygınlaşan hibrid (melez) tasarımlar da vardır. Yine bunlara ek olarak entegre yapıdakiler, giriş/güç katı ayrı kasalar halinde üretilenler ve monoblok (güç amplileri için) şeklinde ana yapıdan bağımsız alt sınıflandırmalar da mevcuttur.

Sınıflandırma
Çıkış katı yapısına göre amplifikatör sınıflandırmaları şu şekildedir:

 Sınıf A: Çıkış katında devamlı akım bulunur. Bu nedenle çok elektrik harcar. Buna karşılık en saf sese sahip oldukları düşünülür. Sesteki bozulma teorik olarak en alt seviyededir
 Sınıf B: Çıkış elemanları işlemleri sıra ile yapar. Önce eksi, sonra artı yüklü sinyalleri işlenir. Bu işlem günümüz teknolojisi ile yeterince hızlı yapılamadığından pek kullanılmamaktadır.
 Sınıf AB: Çıkış elemanları sinyallerin sadece yarıdan fazlasını işler. Çıkış elemanları Sınıf A'daki gibi tamamen akımla kaplı değildir. Bu sayede Sınıf A'nın dezavantajları ortadan kaldırılmış olur. En çok kullanılan sınıftır.
 Sınıf C: Daha çok radyo frekans işlenmesi ile ilintilidir. İşleme belirli sinyal parçacıklarını kapsar.
 Sınıf D: Şu anki teknoloji ile üretilemeyen fakat çalışma mantığı olarak B sınıfının oldukça hızlandırılmış teorik bir versiyonudur.
 Sınıf E: Kare yapılı dalga boylarını güçlendirilir. Sadece özel kontrol cihazlarında kullanılmaktadır.

Bunlar haricinde F,G,H sınıfları gibi yeni tasarımlar da bulunmaktadır. Yukarıdaki ana sınıfların beraberce kullanılmasına dayanırlar. Neredeyse her firmanın farklı çözümleri bulunmaktadır.

Yapı ve tasarımı

Amplifikatörlerin genelde ısınma gibi bir takım dezavantajları olduğu için bilgisayar sektöründe sıkça karşımıza çıkan ve ısıyı yayma maksadıyla kullanılan aluminyum metali kullanılır. Genelde bu maddeden yapılmış bir kasayla hazırlanırlar. Bu kasa hem görünüşü, hem de soğutma özelliği sayesinde sektörde geniş kulanım alanına sahiptir. Amplifikatör içindeki entegre ve benzeri yarı iletken maddeler bu kasa üzerine yüzeyleri temas edecek şekilde montajlanır ve kasa entegrelerle bir bütün olarak çalışır. Fan barındıran modeller de bulunmakta ve kasanın soğumasına hava akımıyla katkıda bulunulmaktadır.Birçok amplifikatör sac kutu içerisinde imal edilir.Burada Kasanın önemi büyük bir yer tutar.

Ses teknolojileri
Elektronik cihazlar
Müzik teknolojisi
Elektronik terimleri
İletişim

Ses gücü amplifikatörü


La Democracia es un municipio del departamento de Escuintla del departamento sur-central de la República de Guatemala. Celebra su fiesta titular el 1 de enero de cada año en honor a su patrón San Benito de Palermo.  Tras la conquista de Guatemala se llamó «Don García», y luego de la independencia de Centroamérica en 1821 estuvo en el Distrito N.º 2 (Escuintla) para la impartición de justicia por medio de juicios de jurados.

El 22 de agosto de 1903 el gobierno del licenciado Manuel Estrada Cabrera autorizó el cambio de nombre por «La Democracia» a solicitud de la Municipalidad de la localidad.

Geografía física

Clima

Se caracteriza por ser de clima tropical caluroso, y de acuerdo a la Clasificación climática de Köppen, es de Clima Monzónico (Am). Posee dos estaciones bien definidas: la temporada seca, que comprende de finales de noviembre a mediados de abril; y la lluviosa, que ocurre en los meses restantes. Este último, es la más extensa, debido a que se ubica en un área entre la cadena volcánica y la planicie costera del Océano Pacífico (conocido como Bocacosta), donde la humedad y las altas temperaturas son las claves para la generación de lluvias copiosas. Tanto en el municipio de La Democracia, como en los demás que se ubican en la Bocacosta, son los primeros lugares en donde la temporada de lluvias inicia de forma anticipada (mediados de abril).

Ubicación geográfica

La Democracia es uno de los pocos municipios que se encuentran en el centro del departamento de Escuintla. Se localiza a:
 35 km al este de la ciudad de Escuintla (cabecera departamental), yendo 25 km al oeste por la carretera principal CA 2 hasta el municipio de Siquinalá y después 9 km al sur por la carretera secundaria 2.
 9 km al sur del municipio de Siquinalá.
 18 km al sureste de Santa Lucía Cotzumalguapa, yendo 9 km hacia el este por la carretera principal CA 2 hasta el municipio de Siquinalá y después 9 km al sur por la carretera secundaria 2.
 23 km al noreste de La Gomera, por la carretera secundaria 2.
 8 km (sin carretera, a campo traviesa) al oeste del río Achiguate (que corre de norte a sur).
 82 km al noroeste de Puerto San José (pasando por Escuintla por carretera)
 12 km (sin carretera, a campo traviesa) al este de Masagua
 48 km de Masagua (pasando por Escuintla por carretera)

Gobierno municipal

Los municipios se encuentran regulados en diversas leyes de la República, que establecen su forma de organización, lo relativo a la conformación de sus órganos administrativos y los tributos destinados para los mismos.  Aunque se trata de entidades autónomas, se encuentran sujetos a la legislación nacional y las principales leyes que los rigen desde 1985 son:

El gobierno de los municipios está a cargo de un Concejo Municipal mientras que el código municipal —ley ordinaria que contiene disposiciones que se aplican a todos los municipios— establece que «el concejo municipal es el órgano colegiado superior de deliberación y de decisión de los asuntos municipales […] y tiene su sede en la circunscripción de la cabecera municipal»; el artículo 33 del mencionado código establece que «[le] corresponde con exclusividad al concejo municipal el ejercicio del gobierno del municipio».

El concejo municipal se integra con el alcalde, los síndicos y concejales, electos directamente por sufragio universal y secreto para un período de cuatro años, pudiendo ser reelectos.

Existen también las Alcaldías Auxiliares, los Comités Comunitarios de Desarrollo (COCODE), el Comité Municipal del Desarrollo (COMUDE), las asociaciones culturales y las comisiones de trabajo. Los alcaldes auxiliares son elegidos por las comunidades de acuerdo a sus principios y tradiciones, y se reúnen con el alcalde municipal el primer domingo de cada mes, mientras que los Comités Comunitarios de Desarrollo y el Comité Municipal de Desarrollo organizan y facilitan la participación de las comunidades priorizando necesidades y problemas.

Los alcaldes que ha habido en el municipio han sido:

Historia

Se dice que los primeros pobladores que habitaron en el municipio fueron personas de la etnia pipil, que al parecer llegaron desde México. No se conoce una fecha específica de cuando se fundó esta población, ya que es muy antigua. Prueba de lo que acontecía en el municipio de La Democracia son los sitios arqueológicos que han dejado huella en todo el lugar.

Tras la Independencia de Centroamérica

La constitución del Estado de Guatemala promulgada el 11 de octubre de 1825 estableció los circuitos para la administración de justicia en el territorio del Estado y menciona que el poblado de Don García era parte del Circuito de Escuintla en el Distrito N.º 2 (Escuintla), junto con , San Pedro Mártir, Chahuite, Palín, Masagua, los dos Mixtanes, Santa Lucía Cotzumalguapa, Tecuaco, Guanagazapa, Chipilapa, Siquinalá y La Gomera.

Gobierno de Manuel Estrada Cabrera

El poblado se llamaba Don García, pero cambió de nombre el 22 de agosto de 1903, por solicitud de los vecinos al presidente de la República, el licenciado Manuel Estrada Cabrera; el decreto es escueto y literalmente dice:

Infraestructura

En noviembre de 2012 el ingenio Magdalena inauguró una planta eléctrica de cincuenta y seis megavtios, la que fue conectada a la red eléctrica del ingenio —que ya era de ciento veinticinco megavatios— y a la red de distribución eléctrica del país.  La inversión tuvo un costo total de setenta millones de dólares.

Economía

Los democratenses tienen varias fuentes de empleos, a través de empresas como Serca S.A es una empresa de transportes, Ingenio Magdalena; es una empresa azucarera que exporta azúcar, es uno de los ingenios más grandes. También cuenta con limoneras que generan empleos, fincas que se dedican al ganado y cultivo, otra porción de habitantes se dedican a sus propios negocios.

Turismo

El municipio de La Democracia es reconocido por sus sitios turísticos relacionados con la arqueología. Es visitado por muchos habitantes del país y también por extranjeros. También es un centro de estudio para muchos historiadores y científicos.

En la finca Monte Alto (a 500 m al este de la población) es una finca que se encuentra entre los bosques tropicales del municipio y ahí se encuentran esculturas de rostros indígenas que se supone fueron creadas por pipiles.

En la finca Monte Alto se encontraron esculturas de rostros fabricados por los antepasados de La Democracia. Otros lugares arqueológicos importantes son El Tránsito, Costa Brava y San Víctor.

Patrimonio

Museo arqueológico

Una joya del municipio La Democracia es el Museo Regional de Arqueología de La Democracia, que se fundó el 22 de mayo de 1972 y se encuentra a un costado del parque central de la cabecera municipal.

Servicios públicos

Educación

En 1916 fue develado un busto del profesor Santos Toruño, originario de La Democracia, y se le puso su nombre a la plaza central.  Toruño, quien falleció en 1914, fue un educador guatemalteco que estuvo a cargo del entonces prestigioso Instituto Nacional Central para Varones en la década de 1870 y en la de 1890. Toruño Inició su carrera en Santa Ana, El Salvador y en 1859 fundó el colegio San Buenaventura en la Ciudad de Guatemala, cuyo prestigio le valió que fuera nombrado director del Instituto Central por el general Justo Rufino Barrios en 1876.

Véase también

 Elecciones municipales de Guatemala de 2015
 Historia Territorial de Guatemala
 Organización territorial de Guatemala

Notas y referencias

Referencias

Bibliografía

Municipios de Escuintla
Patronazgo de San Benito
Toponimia castellana de Guatemala

La Democracia (Escuintla)


Yusufçuk Yusuf, Yaşar Kemal'in Akçasazın Ağaları ikilemesinin ikinci cilt romanıdır. Bu roman yabancılaşma ve değişmenin romanıdır. Çukurova'daki iki ağanın kişiliğinde feodal düzenin can çekişmesi, bitişi, tükenişi verilir.

Eleştiriler
Fethi Naci, Yaşar Kemal'in bu romanıyla toplumsal değişmenin üzerinde fazla durmadığını, "şöyle bir değinip geçtiğini" belirtmiştir. Asıl göstermek istediğinin gelişme olmadığını, bir düzenin çöküşü, yozlaşması, yok olması olduğunu yazmıştır.

Kaynakça

1975 romanları
Yaşar Kemal romanları
Türkçe romanlar

Yusufçuk Yusuf


Die Würth AG mit Sitz in Arlesheim beliefert Handwerker mit Montage- und Befestigungsmaterial. Das Unternehmen beschäftigt ca. 700 Mitarbeitende – mehr als die Hälfte davon als Verkäufer im Aussendienst.
Die Würth AG ist ein Unternehmen der weltweit tätigen Würth-Gruppe.

Geschichte

Als Schrauben Würth GmbH wurde die heutige Würth AG am 30. April 1962 von Reinhold Würth in Basel gegründet (1983: Umfirmierung zu Würth AG). 1963 wurde der Firmensitz nach Pratteln verlegt.

1985 verlegte die Würth AG ihren Firmensitz von Münchenstein nach Arlesheim. 2003 wurde das Verwaltungs- und Vertriebszentrum in Arlesheim um zwei grosse Lagerhallen, einen Bürotrakt sowie das Forum Würth Arlesheim erweitert, in welchem Kunst und Kultur präsentiert werden. 1991 eröffnete Würth AG zunächst in Lonay, später in Crissier eine Niederlassung in der Romandie. 1998 wurde in Mezzovico ein Stützpunkt für die italienischsprachige Schweiz eröffnet. 2007 öffnete der erste Würth Handwerker-Shop in Niederwangen.

Produkte
Das Sortiment der Würth AG umfasst über 150 000 Produkte von Schrauben, Dübeln und Beschlägen über Werkzeuge, Maschinen, chemisch-technischen Produkten, Arbeitsschutz, bis hin zu Fahrzeugeinrichtungen und Lagermanagement.

Geschäftsmodell
Der Handel mit Montage- und Befestigungsmaterial ist das Kerngeschäft der Würth AG. Das Unternehmen beschäftigt über 380 fest angestellte Verkäufer in den Divisionen Auto, Cargo, Metall, Installation, Maintenance, Holz und Bau. Die Aussendienstmitarbeiter beraten Handwerks- und Industriebetriebe (Business-to-Business). Als Ergänzung zum Aussendienst betreibt Würth AG in der Schweiz 40 Würth Handwerker-Shops.

Kulturelles Engagement
Im 2003 eröffneten Forum Würth Arlesheim werden wechselnde Kunst-Ausstellungen hauptsächlich mit Werken aus der Sammlung Würth gezeigt. Darüber hinaus finden im Forum regelmässig kulturelle Veranstaltungen, wie Lesungen, Konzerte und Comedy, statt.

Im Verbund mit weiteren Schweizer Würth-Gesellschaften engagiert sich Würth AG als Official Sponsor des Spengler Cups (Eishockey, seit 2007) und als Premium-Partner von Special Olympics Switzerland (Sportprogramme für Menschen mit geistiger Behinderung, seit 2012). Für das Engagement bei Special Olympics Switzerland wurde der Firmenverbund im Februar 2014 mit dem "Public Award for the Best Sponsorship Campaign 2013" ausgezeichnet. Von 2005 bis 2012 war Würth Hauptsponsor der Tour de Suisse.

Weblinks
 Würth AG Schweiz
 Forum Würth Arlesheim

Einzelnachweise

Unternehmen (Kanton Basel-Landschaft)
Handelsunternehmen (Schweiz)
Arlesheim
Unternehmen der Würth-Gruppe

Würth AG


Axel Breidahl som Hypnotisør er en stumfilm fra 1913 instrueret af Axel Breidahl efter manuskript af Poul Knudsen.

Eksterne henvisninger

Stumfilm fra Danmark
Danske film fra 1913

Axel Breidahl som Hypnotisør


Little Fort est une municipalité située dans la province de la Colombie-Britannique, dans l'intérieur de la Colombie-Britannique.

Notes et références

Municipalité en Colombie-Britannique

Little Fort


Glycyrrhizeae, tribus mahunarki, dio potporodice Faboideae.

Postoje dva roda sa ukupno 18 vrsta; jedan rod je monotipičan.

U Hrvatskoj su prisutne dvije vrste, čekinjasti i glatki sladić ili Slatki korijen.

Rod Glycyrrhiza uklapaju i u podtribus Glycyrrhizinae, kao dio tribusa Galegeae., Glycyrrhizopsis je po nekima sinonim za Glycyrrhiza.

Rodovi
 Glycyrrhiza Tourn. ex L.
 Glycyrrhizopsis Boiss.

Izvori

Faboideae

Glycyrrhizeae


En enstemmig afgørelse eller på engelsk: unanimous decision (UD) er et vindende kriterium flere fuldkontakt kampsporter, såsom boksning, kickboxing, Thaiboksning, MMA og andre sportsgrene, der involverer striking, hvori alle 3 dommere er enige om hvilken kæmper, der har vundet kampen.

I boksning, scorer hver af de 3 dommere (omgang for omgang) hvilken kæmper, de mener vinder (og taber). En afgørelse behøver ikke at være enstemmig for at en bokser kan få tildelt en sejr. En enstemmig afgørelse burde ikke forveklses med en majority decision eller split decision.

Referencer

Boksning
Kickboxing

Enstemmig afgørelse


Kevin Feige (Boston 2. lipnja 1973.) je američki filmski producent i predsjednik Marvel Studia. Od listopada 2019. također je i kreativni direktor Marvel Comicsa, Marvel Televisiona i Marvel Animationa.

2019. nominiran je za Oscara za najbolji film za produkciju Black Panthera.

Biografija
Rođen u Bostonu 2. lipnja 1973., pohađao je srednju školu Westfield u Westfieldu, New Jersey. Njegov djed s majčine strane, Robert E. Short, bio je televizijski producent 50-ih godina, radio je na sapunicama, uključujući The Guiding Light (1915.) i As the World Turns. Nakon srednje škole, Feige se prijavio u školu filmske umjetnosti na Sveučilištu Južne Kalifornije, alma mater svojih omiljenih redatelja: George Lucas, Ron Howard i Robert Zemeckis. Prvih pet zahtjeva je odbijeno, ali šesti je prihvaćen. Njegov rani rad uključuje pomoćnika izvršnog producenta Laurena Shuler Donnera u Volcano i You've Got Mail.

Bavi se filmskom industrijom od 2000. godine, pridruživši se Marvel Entertainmentu kao producent, sedam godina kasnije direktor Avi Arad imenovao ga je voditeljem produkcije Marvel Studiosa. Osim uloge producenta, Feige često savjetuje redatelje i scenariste svojih filmova.

U prvom X-Men filmu, Donner je imenovao Feigea svojim bliskim producentom, također zahvaljujući poznavanju Marvel svemira. Kasnije ga je Avi Arad zaposlio kao svog zamjenika u Marvel Studiju iste godine. Sredinom 2000-ih Feige je shvatio da, iako su Spider-Man i X-Men dobili licencu za Sony i 20th Century Fox, Marvel je i dalje posjedovao prava na glavne članove Osvetnika i zamislio stvaranje zajedničkog svemira baš kao što su to učinili tvorci Stan Lee i Jack Kirby sa svojim stripovima početkom 60-ih.

Imenovan je predsjednikom produkcije Marvel Studija u ožujku 2007. Dobitnik je nagrade "Motion Picture Showman of the Year" na dodjeli nagrada "ICG Publicists Guild Awards" 22. veljače 2013.

Za svoj rad na Black Pantheru dobio je nominacije za Oscara, Zlatni globus i nagradu Producers Guild of America Award.

Dobitnik je nagrade "David O. Selznick" za postignuća u kazališnim filmovima od "Udruženja producenata Amerike" u 2019. godini.

Filmografija

Filmovi
 Doctor Strange in the Multiverse of Madness (2022.) - izvršni producent
 Spider-Man: Put bez povratka (2021.) - izvršni producent
 Spider-Man: Daleko od kuće (2019.) - izvršni producent
 Osvetnici: Završnica (2019.) - izvršni producent
 Kapetanica Marvel (2019.) - izvršni producent
 Ant-Man i Wasp (2018.) - izvršni producent
 Osvetnici: Rat beskonačnosti (2018.) - izvršni producent
 Thor: Ragnarok (2017.) - izvršni producent
 Spider-Man: Povratak kući (2017.) - izvršni producento
 Kapetan Amerika: Građanski rat (2016.) - izvršni producent
 Ant-Man (2015.) - izvršni producent
 Osvetnici 2: Vladavina Ultrona (2015.) - izvršni producent
 Kapetan Amerika: Ratnik zime (2014.) - izvršni producent
 Thor: Svijet tame (2013.) - izvršni producent
 Iron Man 3 (2013.) - izvršni producent
 Osvetnici (2012.) - izvršni producent
 Kapetan Amerika: Prvi osvetnik (2011.) - izvršni producent
 Thor (2011.) - izvršni producent
 Iron Man 2 (2010.) - izvršni producent
 Nevjerojatni Hulk (2008.)- izvršni producent
 Iron Man (2008.) - izvršni producent
 Punisher: Ratna zona (2008.) - izvršni producent
 Fantastična četvorka: Dolazak Srebrnog letača (2007.) - izvršni producent
 Spider-Man 3 (2007.) - izvršni producent
 X-Men: Posljednja fronta (2006.) - izvršni producent
 Fantastična četvorka (2005.) - izvršni producent
 Elektra (2005.) - koproducent
 Tajanstvena sila (2005.) - izvršni producent
 Spider-Man 2 (2004.) - izvršni producent
 Punisher (2004.) - izvršni producent
 Hulk (2003.) - izvršni producent
 X-Men 2 (2003.) - koproducent
 Daredevil (2003.) - koproducent
 Spider-Man (2002.) - pomoćni producent
 X-Men (2000.) - pomoćni producent

Televizijske serije
 Hawkeye (2021.) - izvršni producent
 What If...? (2021.) - izvršni producent
 Loki (2021.) - izvršni producent
 The Falcon and the Winter Soldier (2021.) - izvršni producent
 WandaVision (2020.) - izvršni producent
 Agent Carter (2015.-2016.) - izvršni producent
 Iron Man: Armored Adventures (2008.-2012.) - izvršni producent

Kratki filmovi
 All Hail the King (2014.) - producent
 Agent Carter (2013.) - producent
 Item 47 (2012.) - producent
 A Funny Thing Happened on the Way to Thor's Hammer (2011.) - producent
 The Consultant (2011.) - producent

Izvori

Vanjske poveznice

Filmski producenti
Američki filmski producenti
Dobitnici BAFTA-e
Dobitnici nagrade Saturn

Kevin Feige


Das dritte Kabinett Tong wurde von Anote Tong, dem Präsidenten der Republik Kiribati, am 17. Januar 2012 gebildet und am gleichen Tag im Parlament, dem zehnten Maneaba ni Maungatabu, vereidigt.

Präsident Tong wurde am 13. Januar 2012 in seine dritte Amtsperiode von 2012 bis 2015 wiedergewählt. In der Parlamentswahl in Kiribati 2011 wurde ein Teil der Mitglieder seines zweiten Kabinetts (2007 bis 2011) nicht wiedergewählt, so dass Tong, Führer der Regierungspartei Boutokaan Te Koaua (BTK) vermehrt auch auf Mitglieder der Oppositionspartei Maurin Kiribati (MKP) zurückgriff.

Dem elfköpfigen Kabinett gehören zwei Ministerinnen an.

In Personalunion ist das Amt des Präsidenten (Te Beretitenti) mit dem des Außenministers verbunden. Seine Vizepräsidentin Teima Onorio bekleidet zusätzlich den Posten der Innen- und Sozialministerin.

Weblinks

 Übersicht sämtlicher Kabinettsmitglieder seit 1979 (Website des Parlaments)
 Borerei Uriam: President Anote Tong appoints his new cabinet. The Kiribati Independent, 20. Januar 2012

Einzelnachweise

Tong #03

Kabinett Tong III


Vokseværk er en kortfilm fra 2014 instrueret af Tor Fruergaard efter manuskript af Sissel D. Thomsen.

Handling
Fabian bor alene med sin omsorgsfulde, men kontrollerende mor Birte. Da Fabian møder Felicia, bliver han forelsket for første gang. Og med forelskelsen følger også en ekstrem opdagelse: Når Fabian bliver liderlig, forvandler han sig til en varulv. Fabian skal lære sit nye "jeg" at kende, samtidig med at han skal overbevise Felicia om, at han ikke vil gøre hende fortræd. I sidste ende må han træffe et valg: Skal han undertrykke en del af sig selv og blive hos sin mor, eller skal han favne den nye mand, han er blevet til, og rejse væk med Felicia?

Referencer

Eksterne henvisninger

Danske film fra 2014

Kortfilm fra Danmark

Vokseværk (film)


An Phalaris angusta in uska species han Liliopsida nga ginhulagway ni Christian Gottfried Daniel Nees von Esenbeck ngan Carl Bernhard von Trinius. An Phalaris angusta in nahilalakip ha genus nga Phalaris, ngan familia nga Poaceae. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Mga sumpay ha gawas

Phalaris

Phalaris angusta


Albert van den Berg (* 1957) ist ein niederländischer Physiker, der sich mit (Nanotechnologie-) Miniaturisierung in Physik, Chemie, Biologie und Biotechnologie befasst (Nanofluidik, Nanosensorik, Lab on a chip (LOC)).

Van den Berg wurde 1988 an der Universität Twente promoviert über chemisch modifizierte ISFETS. Danach war er bis 1993 am CSEM in Neuchâtel und am Institut für Mikrotechnology (IMT) der dortigen Universität.  Während dieser Zeit arbeitete er vor allem über miniaturisierte chemische Sensoren. 1993 bis 1999 war er Forschungsdirektor für miniaturisierte Systeme zur chemischen Analyse (Micro Total Analysis Systems, TAS) und chemische Systeme (Miniaturized Chemical Systems, MiCS) am Institut für Nanotechnologie (MESA) der Universität Twente. 1998 hatte er dort eine Teilzeitprofessur und ab 2000 eine volle Professur. 2003 wurde er Leiter der Nanofluidik innerhalb des nationalen niederländischen Nanotechnologie Programms (Nanoned).

2002 erhielt er den Simon Stevin Master Award der niederländischen Gesellschaft für Technikwissenschaften. 2009 erhielt er den Spinoza-Preis, den höchsten niederländischen Wissenschaftspreis. Er ist Mitglied der Königlich Niederländischen Akademie der Wissenschaften und in deren Rat.

Schriften
Herausgeber mit R. Edwin Oosterbroek Lab-on-a-chip: miniaturized systems for (bio)chemical analysis and synthesis, Elsevier 2003
Herausgeber mit Helene Andersson Lab on Chip for Cellomics. Micro – and Nanotechnologies for Life Science, Kluwer/Springer Verlag 2007
Herausgeber mit Séverine Le Gac Miniaturzation and Mass Spectroscopy, Royal Society of Chemistry Publishing 2009
Herausgeber verschiedener Konferenzbände zu Micro Total Analysis Systems, zum Beispiel zu den Workshops 1994, 1998, 2000

Weblinks

Seine Lab on a Chip Forschungsgruppe an der Universität Twente
Biographie bei der Royal Society of Chemistry

Einzelnachweise

Physiker (20. Jahrhundert)
Physiker (21. Jahrhundert)
Hochschullehrer (Universität Twente)
Spinoza-Preisträger
Mitglied der Königlich Niederländischen Akademie der Wissenschaften
Niederländer
Geboren 1957
Mann

Albert van den Berg (Physiker)


Louis Cameron Gossett Jr. (born May 27, 1936) is an American actor. Born in Coney Island, Brooklyn, New York City, he had his stage debut at the age of 17, in a school production of You Can't Take It with You. Shortly after he successfully auditioned for the Broadway play Take a Giant Step. Gossett would go on acting on stage. One of these plays was A Raisin in the Sun in 1959, and in 1961 he made his debut on screen in its film adaptation. From thereon, Gossett added to his resume many roles in films and television, as well as releasing music. In 1977, Gossett gained wide recognition for his role of Fiddler in the popular miniseries Roots for which he won "Outstanding Lead Actor for a Single Appearance in a Drama or Comedy Series" at the Emmy Awards.

Gossett continued acting in high profile films and television. In 1982, for his role as Gunnery Sergeant Emil Foley in An Officer and a Gentleman,  he won the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor, and became the first black actor to win in this category. At the Emmy Awards, Gossett continued to receive recognition with acting nominations for The Sentry Collection Presents Ben Vereen: His Roots (1978), Palmerstown, U.S.A. (1981), Sadat (1983), A Gathering of Old Men (1987), Touched by an Angel (1997), and Watchmen (2019). He won and was nominated at other ceremonies including the Golden Globe Awards, Black Reel Awards, NAACP Image Awards, etc. Gossett is also well known for his role as Colonel Chappy Sinclair in the Iron Eagle film series (1986-1995).

Since his beginnings, Gossett appeared in a wide range of projects. Film projects include Hal Ashby's The Landlord (1970), Paul Bogart's Skin Game (1971), George Cukor's Travels with My Aunt (1972), Stuart Rosenberg's The Laughing Policeman (1974), Philip Kaufman's The White Dawn (1974), Peter Yates's The Deep (1977), Wolfgang Petersen's Enemy Mine (1985), Christopher Cain's The Principal (1987), Mark Goldblatt's The Punisher (1989), Daniel Petrie's Toy Soldiers (1991), as well as television appearance in Bonanza (1971), The Jeffersons (1975), American Playhouse (1990), Stargate SG-1 (2005), Boardwalk Empire (2013), and The Book of Negroes (2015). He also acted in video-games, commercials, and continued to work on stage.

Early life and education

Gossett was born in Coney Island, Brooklyn, New York City, to Hellen Rebecca (née Wray), a nurse, and Louis Gossett Sr., a porter. He is an alumnus of Mark Twain Intermediate School 239 and Abraham Lincoln High School. His stage debut came at the age of 17, in a school production of You Can't Take It with You when a sports injury resulted in the decision to take an acting class. Polio had already delayed his graduation.

His high school teacher had encouraged him to audition for a Broadway part, resulting in his selection for a starring role on Broadway in 1953 from among 200 other actors well before he entered NYU.

After graduating from Abraham Lincoln High School in 1954, he attended New York University, declining an athletic scholarship. Standing  tall, he was offered the opportunity to play varsity basketball during his college years at NYU; he declined the basketball offer to concentrate on theater.

Career

1953 to 1977: music career and early roles to breakthrough
In 1953, Gossett acted in the Broadway play Take a Giant Step. He replaced Bill Gunn as Spencer Scott. The play was selected by The New York Times drama critics as one of the 10 best shows of the year. He was 17, and still a student at Abraham Lincoln High School, with no formal drama training.

On October 24, 1955, Broadway play The Desk Set started its run, with Gossett acting in it. The show had 297 performances and closed on July 7, 1956. Its a comedy about office workers. On its 200th performance, Jack Y. Kohl's The Morning Call review praised the entire cast.In 1959, continuing his Broadway theatre career, Gossett played the role of George Murchison in A Raisin in the Sun. The story tells of a black family's experiences in south Chicago, as they attempt to improve their financial circumstances. The character of Murchison represents the "fully assimilated black man" who denies his African heritage with a "smarter than thou" attitude. The play received rave reviews. In Boyd Martin's review in The Courier Journal said that the play is "magnificently played by the entire cast." It won best play at the New York Drama Critics' Circle.

During the early 1960s, Gossett was considered to be a talented folk musician. He was also well known. His singing career was helped along with appearing at the Folk City venue in New York.

In 1961, Gossett had his cinematic debut with the play's film adaptation of A Raisin in the Sun. Due to the critical acclaim of the play, Columbia Pictures bought the film rights. Most of the original cast, including Gossett, returned to their roles. The film just like the play the film received excellent reviews.

Also in 1961, Gossett appeared in the original cast of Jean Genet's The Blacks, the longest running off-Broadway play of the decade, running for 1,408 performances. The original cast also featured James Earl Jones, Roscoe Lee Browne, Cicely Tyson, Godfrey Cambridge, Maya Angelou and Charles Gordone.

In 1963, Gossett acted in the Broadway play Tambourines to Glory. William Glover in his review published in The Bee, describes it as the first Broadway play with a gospel  score, and praised the entirety of the cast for their energy and vocals.

In 1964, Gossett acted tin the Broadway play Golden Boy.

Signed to Powertree Records, Gossett's single, "Hooka' Dooka', Green Green" / "Goodmornin' Captain" was released in early 1964. Later in May, "Red Rosy Bush" / "See See Rider" was released.

In 1965, Gossett appeared in the musical play The Zulu and the Zayda on Broadway as Paulus with music and lyrics by Harold J. Rome. A December, 1965 review of The Zulu, original cast recording that was released on Columbia Records noted Menasha Skulnik and Gossett's vocal performance of "It's Good to Be Alive.

In 1966, Gossett acted in the Broadway play My Sweet Charlie. Gossett wrote the antiwar folk song "Handsome Johnny" with Richie Havens; Havens recorded the song in 1966.

In 1967, the song "Handsome Johnny" was released appearing  on Richie Havens's album Mixed Bag, which he co-composed with Havens . Havens performed it on the Johnny Carson Show which resulted in a standing ovation that lasted through two commercial breaks. By September, 1967, his single "Where Have All the Flowers Gone" / "Just a Girl" was released on Warner Brothers 7078. It was a Cash Box Newcomer Pick and received a good review with the reviewer calling it "easy-paced blues working and a mighty fine smooth vocal join forces in putting across a tempting r&b reading of the folk standard."

In 1968, Gossett acted in the play Carry Me Back to Morningside Heights.

In the spring of 1969, Gossett was listed among the actors who could not be determined or uncredited in Stuart Rosenberg's WUSA.

In 1970, his album From Me to You was released on B.T. Puppy Records BTPS-1013. It contained some of his own compositions.

In 1971, Gossett acted in Paul Bogart's Skin Game. That year Gossett, was cast in a film adaptation of the novel Finding Maubee, however the project went dormant, and was released as The Mighty Quinn in 1989 with another cast. On February 7, Gossett acted in The Desperado a Bonanza episode.

Also that year he acted in the play Murderous Angels, which is about an investigation regarding Congolese leader Patrice Lumumba. In his Daily News review Douglas Watt said that Gossett performance as Lumumba is "extremely convincing."

In 1972, Gossett acted in George Cukor's Travels with My Aunt. That he was announced to act in a starring role in Brian De Palma's Sisters, but had to withdraw due to scheduling conflict, and to play a gang leader in Barry Shear's Across 110th Street, but he is not in the finished product.

In 1973, Gossett acted in Stuart Rosenberg's The Laughing Policeman.

In 1974, Gossett acted in Philip Kaufman's The White Dawn.

In 1975, he played O' Flaherty in the "Clark Templeton O'Flaherty" episode of The Six Million Dollar Man
On November 22, 1975, Gossett acted in George's best friend and episode of The Jeffersons.In 1976, Gossett acted in films, this includes Arthur Marks's J. D.'s Revenge, and Krishna Shah's The River Niger.

In 1977, Gossett played the role of Fiddler in the television miniseries Roots based on Alex Haley's book Roots: The Saga of an American Family. The role was his screen breakthrough, earning him an Emmy Award for outstanding lead actor in a single appearance in a drama or comedy series. Gossett has stated that he was initially insulted to be cast as a submissive "Uncle Tom" character, but after researching the role he came to appreciate Fiddler as a survivor doing what he found necessary under the plantation regime.

That year in films, Gossett acted Robert Aldrich's The Choirboys, and Peter Yates's The Deep.

1978 to 1997: subsequent success
On March 2, 1978, the television special The Sentry Collection Presents Ben Vereen: His Roots  premiered. Actor Ben Vereen showcases key elements of his life through dance and music. Gossett was among the guest stars. At the Emmy Awards, Gossett was nominated for "Outstanding continuing or single performance by a supporting actor in variety or music".

On the 28th of January 1979, the mini-series Backstairs at the White House premiered. It is an adaption of the book My Thirty Years Backstairs at the White House, about White House servants who served there during several presidencies. Gossett plays a servant who is 37 years of age when the series starts and 88 when it ends. He said ''I took the role because of the chance to age". At the Emmy Awards, Gossett was nominated for "Outstanding lead actor in a limited series or a special".

In 1981, Gossett was a guest star in an episode of the television series Palmerstown, U.S.A.. For his performance Gossett was nominated at the Emmy Awards for Outstanding Lead Actor in a Drama Series.

In 1982, for his role as drill instructor Gunnery Sergeant Emil Foley, in Taylor Hackford's An Officer and a Gentleman won him an Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor. He was the first black male to win an Oscar in a supporting role, the second black male to win for acting, and the third black actor to win overall. Additionally, Gossett won the Golden Globe Award for Best Supporting Actor at the Golden Globe Awards, and NAACP Image Award for Outstanding Actor in a Motion Picture at the NAACP Image Awards.

Also that year, Gossett was also starring in the science fiction series, The Powers of Matthew Star which lasted until 1983.

In 1983, he played the title role in Sadat, a two-part miniseries which chronicled the life and assassination of former Egypt president Anwar Sadat. For his performance, Gossett was nominated at the Emmy Awards for Outstanding Lead Actor in a Drama Series, and at the Golden Globes Awards he was nominated for "Best Actor in limited series, anthology series or television motion picture".

That same year, Gossett acted in Joe Alves's Jaws 3-D.

In 1984 Gossett acted in Richard Lester's Finders Keepers.

In 1985, Gossett co-starred with Dennis Quaid in Wolfgang Petersen's Enemy Mine.
In 1987, Gossett acted in Volker Schlöndorff's A Gathering of Old Men. While it was screened in the Un Certain Regard section at the 1987 Cannes Film Festival, it was released as television film in the US. For his performance, Gossett was nominated at the Emmy Awards for Outstanding Lead Actor in a Miniseries or a Special.

  Also that year he acted in Christopher Cain's The Principal.

In 1988, Gossett reunited with director Sidney J. Furie for Iron Eagle II. It made $10,497,324 at the U.S. box office.

In 1989, Gossett co-starred in the Marvel Comics adaptation The Punisher, with Dolph Lundgren in the title role. The film was directed by Mark Goldblatt, with a screenplay by Boaz Yakin. The Punisher was filmed in Sydney, Australia and also featured Jeroen Krabbé, Kim Miyori, and Barry Otto.

On February 14, 1990, Gossett acted in Zora is my name! an episode of American Playhouse.

In 1991, Gossett acted in Manny Coto's Cover Up, and Daniel Petrie's Toy Soldiers. On March 16, HBO premiered the television film The Josephine Baker Story. For his acting at the Golden Globes Awards, in the television category, Gossett won "Best supporting actor".

In 1992, provided additional narration for Bill Miles and Nina Rosenblum's documentary film The Liberators: Fighting on Two Fronts in World War II. Gossett returned to the role of Chappy in Aces: Iron Eagle III directed by John Glen, and acted in Michael Ritchie's Diggstown.

In 1994, Gossett acted in Bruce Beresford's A Good Man in Africa.

In 1995, Gossett returned to the role of Chappy and reunited with director Sidney J. Furie for Iron Eagle IV.

In 1996, Gossett acted in the Broadway play Chicago. That year he acted in Arthur Penn's film Inside which was screened at Cannes before being released as a television film, where he also served as an executive producer. For his effort Gossett received CableACE Award nomination for "Best actor in a movie or mini-series.

In 1997, Gossett had a guest role in  theTouched by an Angel episode Amazing Grace: Part 1. For his performance he was nominated for "Outstanding guest actor in a drama series". In 1997, Gossett's narration of Disney's Candlelight Processional, telling the nativity story, was recorded and released by Walt Disney Records.

1998 to present day: following roles and current works
In 1998, Gossett acted Bram Stoker's Legend of the Mummy.

In 2004, Gossett voiced the Vortigaunts in the video game Half-Life 2.

In the 2005 film Left Behind: World at War, he played the role of the U.S. President. That year on television, he played Free Jaffa Leader Gerak in several episodes of Season 9 of the sci-fi television series Stargate SG-1.

In 2007, he acted in Tyler Perry's Daddy's Little Girls. That year, he provided the voice of Lucius Fox in The Batman animated series.

In 2008, he filmed the "Keep It Real" series of commercials for the Namibian lager Windhoek.

In 2009, Gossett also lent his voice talents in the Thomas Nelson audio Bible production known as The Word of Promise. In this dramatized audio, Gossett played the character of John the Apostle. The project also featured a large ensemble of well known Hollywood actors including Jim Caviezel, John Rhys-Davies, Jon Voight, Gary Sinise, Jason Alexander, Christopher McDonald, Marisa Tomei and John Schneider.

In 2011, Gossett acted in film The Grace Card.

In 2013, Gossett starred in the controversial drama Boiling Pot, which is based on true events of racism that occurred on college campuses across the US during the 2008 Presidential election. The film, written and directed by the Ashmawey brothers under AshmaweyFilms, also stars Danielle Fishel, Keith David, M. Emmet Walsh, and John Heard. Gossett plays a detective attempting to decipher a murder case that was fueled by racism, all while putting aside his own prejudices. Boiling Pot was released in 2014.  Gossett returned to television in the CBS All Access series, The Good Fight, guest starring as founding partner Carl Reddick of Diane Lockhart's new firm. He narrated an audiobook based on Twelve Years a Slave. Also that year, he acted in Havre de grace an episode of Boardwalk Empire.

In 2015, Gossett acted in the miniseries The Book of Negroes.

In 2019, Gossett acted in the series Watchmen. At the Emmy Awards, he was nominated for "Outstanding supporting actor in a limited series or movie", and at the Black Reel Awards he received a nomination for "Outstanding Supporting Actor, TV Movie/Limited Series".

On July 18, 2016, Gossett cohosted as a guest programmer on Turner Classic Movies' primetime lineup. Allowed to choose four movies to air, he selected Blackboard Jungle, Lifeboat, Touch of Evil and The Night of the Hunter.

In 2021, Gossett appears in the film Not To Forget (2021), which aims to raise awareness and funds for the fight against Alzheimer's. The movie, directed by Valerio Zanoli, stars Karen Grassle and 5 Academy Award winners: Louis Gossett Jr., Cloris Leachman, Tatum O'Neal, George Chakiris, and Olympia Dukakis.

In 2022, Gossett was cast in a supporting role for the upcoming American horror film, Awaken the Reaper. The film also features performances by Lance Henriksen and Robin Curtis. Awaken the Reaper is directed by Justin Paul and Dave Campfield. The film is produced by Fourth Horizon Cinema, Impact Media Studios and Design Weapons.

Personal life

Gossett has been married three times and fathered one son and adopted one son.  His first marriage was to Hattie Glascoe; it was annulled. His second, to Christina Mangosing, took place on August 21, 1973. Their son Satie was born in 1974. Gossett and Mangosing divorced in 1975.  His third marriage, to Star Search champion Cyndi James-Reese, took place on December 25, 1987. They adopted a son, Sharron (born 1977). Gossett and James-Reese divorced in 1992.

Louis is the first cousin of actor Robert Gossett who starred on TNT's The Closer.

Gossett states that in 1966 he was handcuffed to a tree for three hours by the police in Beverly Hills.

On February 9, 2010, Gossett announced that he had prostate cancer. He added the disease was caught in its early stages, and he expected to make a full recovery.

In late December 2020, Gossett was hospitalized in Georgia with COVID-19.

Filmography and theatre credits

Partial accolades

Academy Awards

Emmy Awards

Golden Globe Awards

Black Reel Awards

CableACE Awards

References

External links

Image of Richard Pryor and Lou Gossett backstage, 1978. Los Angeles Times Photographic Archive (Collection 1429). UCLA Library Special Collections, Charles E. Young Research Library, University of California, Los Angeles.

1936 births
20th-century American male actors
21st-century American male actors
Abraham Lincoln High School (Brooklyn) alumni
African-American male actors
African-American television producers
American male film actors
American male television actors
American male voice actors
Audiobook narrators
Television producers from New York City
Best Supporting Actor Academy Award winners
Daytime Emmy Award winners
Primetime Emmy Award winners
Best Supporting Actor Golden Globe (film) winners
Best Supporting Actor Golden Globe (television) winners
Living people
Male actors from New York City
New York University alumni
People from Sheepshead Bay, Brooklyn
Film producers from New York (state)
20th-century African-American people
21st-century African-American people
B.T. Puppy Records artists
Warner Records artists
African-American guitarists
20th-century African-American male singers
21st-century African-American male singers
African-American male singer-songwriters
American folk singers
Polio survivors

Louis Gossett Jr.