Google News is a news aggregator service developed by Google. It presents a continuous flow of links to articles organized from thousands of publishers and magazines. Google News is available as an app on Android, iOS, and the Web.

Google released a beta version in September 2002 and the official app in January 2006. The initial idea was developed by Krishna Bharat.

The service has been described as the world's largest news aggregator. In 2020, Google announced they would be spending  billion to work with publishers to create Showcases, "a new format for insightful feature stories".

History
As of 2014, Google News was watching more than 50,000 news sources worldwide. Versions for more than 60 regions in 28 languages were available in March 2012. , service is offered in the following 35 languages: Arabic, Bengali, Bulgarian, Cantonese, Chinese, Czech, Dutch, English, French, German, Greek, Hebrew, Hindi, Hungarian, Italian, Indonesian, Japanese, Kannada, Korean, Latvian, Lithuanian, Malayalam, Norwegian, Polish, Portuguese, Romanian, Russian, Serbian, Spanish, Swedish, Tamil, Telugu, Thai, Turkish, Ukrainian and Vietnamese.

The service covers news articles appearing within the past 44 days on various news websites. In total, Google News aggregates content from more than 20,000 publishers. For the English language, it covers about 4,500 sites; for other languages, fewer. Its front page provides roughly the first 200 characters of the article and a link to its larger content. Websites may or may not require a subscription; sites requiring a subscription are no longer noted in the article's description.

On December 1, 2009, Google announced changes to their "first click free" program, which has been running since 2008 and allows users to find and read articles behind a paywall. The reader's first click to the content is free, and the number after that would be set by the content provider. Google on December 1, 2009 changed their policy to allow a limit of five articles per day, in order to protect publishers from abuse. This policy was again changed on September 29, 2015 where this limit was changed to three articles per day. In October 2017, this program was replaced with a "flexible sampling" model in which each publisher chooses how many, if any, free articles were allowed.

The layout of Google News underwent a major revision on May 16, 2011.

On July 14, 2011, Google introduced "Google News Badges", which it later retired in October 2012.

Additionally in July 2011, the Sci/Tech section of the English Google News versions was split up into two sections: Science and Technology. It was announced that this section split would be performed on other language versions as well. , this split had not been applied to all language versions of Google News.

In June 2017, the desktop version of Google News saw a thorough redesign that according to Google had the goal to "make news more accessible and easier to navigate ... with a renewed focus on facts, diverse perspectives, and more control for users." Yet several options such as the search tools menu were removed along with the redesign, making searches much more difficult. It now uses a card format for grouping related news stories, and as summarized by Engadget, "doesn't look like a search results page anymore", removing text snippets and blue links.

Historically users could choose to hide articles originating from a news source. These hidden sources can still be listed in a user's settings however these exclusions are no longer honoured. The option to exclude a source of news items is no longer presented.

According to a 2020 study in the journal Nature Human Behaviour, Google News prioritizes local news outlets when individuals search for  keywords specifically related to topics of local interest.

On October 18, 2023 Google confirmed they cut at least 40 jobs in the news division. Google clarified that, "These internal changes have no impact on our misinformation and information quality work in News."

Controversies with publishers

EU copyright and database right
In March 2005, Agence France-Presse (AFP) sued Google for $17.5 million, alleging that Google News infringed on its copyright because "Google includes AFP's photos, stories and news headlines on Google News without permission from Agence France Presse". It was also alleged that Google ignored a cease and desist order, though Google counters that it has opt-out procedures which AFP could have followed but did not. Google now hosts Agence France-Presse news, as well as the Associated Press, Press Association and the Canadian Press. This arrangement started in August 2007. In 2007, Google announced it was paying for Associated Press content displayed in Google News, however the articles are not permanently archived. That arrangement ceased on December 23, 2009 when Google News ceased carrying Associated Press content.

In 2007, a preliminary injunction and then a Belgian court ruled that Google did not have the right to display the lead paragraph from French-language Belgian news sources when Google aggregated news stories, nor to provide free access to cached copies of the full content ("in cache" feature), due to both copyright and the sui generis database rights.
Google responded by removing the publications both from Google News and the main Google web search.
According to the 2009 Report on the outlook for copyright in the EU

In May 2011 the ruling was upheld in appeal after Google reiterated most legal defences from the first grade plus some new ones, which the Court rejected based on the Infopaq ruling and others. In July 2011, Copiepress publications were restored on Google News after they requested so and renounced any complaint based on the judgement.

Nevertheless, in a 2017 briefing on the ancillary copyright for press publishers paid by the European Commission, Prof. Höppner thought the sui generis database right was not violated by most platforms on the basis that the "substantial part" criterion may be too high a bar after C-444/02 Fixtures Marketing v. OPAP and that no publisher was known to have won a case with it.

Compensation for disseminating access to news
Some Europe-based news outlets have asked their governments to consider making Google pay to host links. In Germany, their lobbying led to the introduction of the ancillary copyright for press publishers in 2013. In October 2014, a group of German publishers granted Google a license to use snippets of their publications gratis; the group had first claimed that such snippets were illegal, and then complained when they were removed by Google. In December 2014, Google announced it would be shutting down the Google News service in Spain. A new law in Spain, lobbied for by the Spanish newspaper publishers' association AEDE, would require that news aggregators would have to pay news services for the right to use snippets of their stories on Google News. Google chose to shut down their service and remove all links to Spain-based news sites from international versions of the site. The attempt at establishing a publisher right on press publications was then repeated at EU level with the Directive on Copyright in the Digital Single Market.

In 2012, Brazil's National Association of Newspapers (AJN) jointly pulled out of allowing their content to be shown on Google News. The change resulted in only a "negligible" drop in traffic

In October 2020, Google announced a new program known as "Showcases", in which the company would pay publishers to curate featured news content displayed in branded panels on Google News and Discover. Showcases may occasionally include free access to paywalled content. The program was first launched in Argentina, Australia, Brazil, Canada, France, Germany, and the United Kingdom. The feature's launch in Australia came amid the implementation of the News Media Bargaining Code; Google stated that it believed the Showcase program was in compliance with the Code.

In response to the Online News Act, Google announced it would block all Canadian news sites from visitors located in Canada, when the act goes into effect near the end of 2023.

Features and customization
A pull-down menu at the top of search results enables users to specify the time period in which they wish to search for articles. This menu includes options such as: past day, past week, past month, or a custom range.

Users can request e-mail "alerts" on various keyword topics by subscribing to Google News Alerts. E-mails are sent to subscribers whenever news articles matching their requests come online. Alerts are also available via RSS and Atom feeds.

Users used to be able to customize the displayed sections, their location on the page, and how many stories are visible with a JavaScript-based drag and drop interface. However, for the US site, this has been disabled in favor of a new layout; roll-out of this layout is planned for other locales in the near future. Stories from different editions of Google News can be combined to form one personalized page, with the options stored in a cookie. The service has been integrated with Google Search History since November 2005. Upon its graduation from beta, a section was added that displays recommended news based on the user's Google News search history and the articles the user has clicked on (if the user has signed up for Search History).

A revamped version of Google News was introduced in May 2018 that included artificial intelligence features to help users find relevant information.

News Archive Search

On June 6, 2006, Google News expanded, adding a News Archive Search feature, offering users historical archives going back more than 200 years from some of its sources. There was a timeline view available, to select news from various years.

An expansion of the service was announced on September 8, 2008, when Google News began to offer indexed content from scanned newspapers. The depth of chronological coverage varies; beginning in 2008, the entire content of the New York Times back to its founding in 1851 has been available.

In early 2010, Google removed direct access to the archive search from the main Google News page, advanced news search page and default search results pages. These pages indicated that the search covered "Any time", but did not include the archive and only included recent news.

During the summer of 2010, Google decided to redesign the format of the Google news page, creating a firestorm of complaints.

In May 2011, Google cancelled plans to scan further old newspapers. About 60 million newspaper pages had been scanned prior to this event. Google announced that it would instead focus on "Google One Pass, a platform that enables publishers to sell content and subscriptions directly from their own sites".

In August 2011, the "News Archive Advanced Search" functionality was removed entirely, again generating complaints from regular users who found that the changes rendered the service unusable. Archival newspaper articles could still be accessed via the Google News Search page, but key functionalities such as the timeline view and ability to specify more than 10 results per page were removed.

Coverage artifacts
On September 7, 2008, United Airlines, which was the subject of an indexed, archived article, lost and later not quite regained US$1 billion in market value when a 2002 Chicago Tribune article about the bankruptcy filing of the airline in that year appeared in the current "most viewed" category on the website of the Sun-Sentinel, a sister paper. Google News index's next pass found the link as new news, and Income Security Advisors found the Google result to be new news, which was passed along to Bloomberg News, where it was briefly a current headline and very widely viewed.

See also
 Apple News
 Yahoo! News
 Ask BigNews
 Google Fast Flip
 Google News & Weather
 Google Play Newsstand
 Google Search
 List of Google products
 Techmeme

References

External links

News
News
News
News aggregators
Internet properties established in 2002

Google News


44216 Olivercabasa este un asteroid din centura principală de asteroizi.

Descriere
44216 Olivercabasa este un asteroid din centura principală de asteroizi. A fost descoperit pe  la Teide de E. Vigil și F. Casarramona. Asteroidul prezintă o orbită caracterizată de o semiaxă mare de 2,65 ua, o excentricitate de 0,19 și o înclinație de 13,9° în raport cu ecliptica.

Vezi și
 Lista planetelor minore: 44001-45000
 Centura de asteroizi

Referințe

Obiecte astronomice descoperite în 1998
Centura de asteroizi

44216 Olivercabasa


Lab-grown diamond (LGD; also called laboratory-grown, laboratory-created, man-made, artisan-created, artificial, synthetic, or cultured diamond) is diamond that is produced in a controlled technological process (in contrast to naturally formed diamond, which is created through geological processes and obtained by mining). Unlike diamond simulants (imitations of diamond made of superficially similar non-diamond materials), synthetic diamonds are composed of the same material as naturally formed diamonds – pure carbon crystallized in an isotropic 3D form – and share identical chemical and physical properties.

Numerous claims of diamond synthesis were reported between 1879 and 1928; most of these attempts were carefully analyzed but none was confirmed. In the 1940s, systematic research of diamond creation began in the United States, Sweden and the Soviet Union, which culminated in the first reproducible synthesis in 1953. Further research activity yielded the discoveries of high pressure high temperature diamond (HPHT) and CVD diamond, named for their production method (high-pressure high-temperature and chemical vapor deposition, respectively). These two processes still dominate synthetic diamond production. A third method in which nanometer-sized diamond grains are created in a detonation of carbon-containing explosives, known as detonation synthesis, entered the market in the late 1990s. A fourth method, treating graphite with high-power ultrasound, has been demonstrated in the laboratory, but currently has no commercial application.

The properties of man-made diamond depend on the manufacturing process. Some synthetic diamonds have properties such as hardness, thermal conductivity and electron mobility that are superior to those of most naturally formed diamonds. Synthetic diamond is widely used in abrasives, in cutting and polishing tools and in heat sinks. Electronic applications of synthetic diamond are being developed, including high-power switches at power stations, high-frequency field-effect transistors and light-emitting diodes. Synthetic diamond detectors of ultraviolet (UV) light or high-energy particles are used at high-energy research facilities and are available commercially. Due to its unique combination of thermal and chemical stability, low thermal expansion and high optical transparency in a wide spectral range, synthetic diamond is becoming the most popular material for optical windows in high-power  lasers and gyrotrons. It is estimated that 98% of industrial-grade diamond demand is supplied with synthetic diamonds.

Both CVD and HPHT diamonds can be cut into gems and various colors can be produced: clear white, yellow, brown, blue, green and orange. The advent of synthetic gems on the market created major concerns in the diamond trading business, as a result of which special spectroscopic devices and techniques have been developed to distinguish synthetic and natural diamonds.

History

In the early stages of diamond synthesis, the founding figure of modern chemistry, Antoine Lavoisier, played a significant role. His groundbreaking discovery that a diamond's crystal lattice is similar to carbon's crystal structure paved the way for initial attempts to produce diamonds.
After it was discovered that diamond was pure carbon in 1797, many attempts were made to convert various cheap forms of carbon into diamond. The earliest successes were reported by James Ballantyne Hannay in 1879 and by Ferdinand Frédéric Henri Moissan in 1893. Their method involved heating charcoal at up to  with iron inside a carbon crucible in a furnace. Whereas Hannay used a flame-heated tube, Moissan applied his newly developed electric arc furnace, in which an electric arc was struck between carbon rods inside blocks of lime. The molten iron was then rapidly cooled by immersion in water. The contraction generated by the cooling supposedly produced the high pressure required to transform graphite into diamond. Moissan published his work in a series of articles in the 1890s.

Many other scientists tried to replicate his experiments. Sir William Crookes claimed success in 1909. Otto Ruff claimed in 1917 to have produced diamonds up to  in diameter, but later retracted his statement. In 1926, Dr. J. Willard Hershey of McPherson College replicated Moissan's and Ruff's experiments, producing a synthetic diamond. Despite the claims of Moissan, Ruff, and Hershey, other experimenters were unable to reproduce their synthesis.

The most definitive replication attempts were performed by Sir Charles Algernon Parsons. A prominent scientist and engineer known for his invention of the steam turbine, he spent about 40 years (1882–1922) and a considerable part of his fortune trying to reproduce the experiments of Moissan and Hannay, but also adapted processes of his own. Parsons was known for his painstakingly accurate approach and methodical record keeping; all his resulting samples were preserved for further analysis by an independent party. He wrote a number of articles—some of the earliest on HPHT diamond—in which he claimed to have produced small diamonds. However, in 1928, he authorized Dr. C. H. Desch to publish an article in which he stated his belief that no synthetic diamonds (including those of Moissan and others) had been produced up to that date. He suggested that most diamonds that had been produced up to that point were likely synthetic spinel.

ASEA

The first known (but initially not reported) diamond synthesis was achieved on February 16, 1953, in Stockholm by ASEA (Allmänna Svenska Elektriska Aktiebolaget), Sweden's major electrical equipment manufacturing company. Starting in 1942, ASEA employed a team of five scientists and engineers as part of a top-secret diamond-making project code-named QUINTUS. The team used a bulky split-sphere apparatus designed by Baltzar von Platen and Anders Kämpe. Pressure was maintained within the device at an estimated  and a temperature of  for an hour. A few small diamonds were produced, but not of gem quality or size.

Due to questions on the patent process and the reasonable belief that no other serious diamond synthesis research occurred globally, the board of ASEA opted against publicity and patent applications. Thus the announcement of the ASEA results occurred shortly after the GE press conference of February 15, 1955.

GE diamond project

In 1941, an agreement was made between the General Electric (GE), Norton and Carborundum companies to further develop diamond synthesis. They were able to heat carbon to about  under a pressure of  for a few seconds. Soon thereafter, the Second World War interrupted the project. It was resumed in 1951 at the Schenectady Laboratories of GE, and a high-pressure diamond group was formed with Francis P. Bundy and H. M. Strong. Tracy Hall and others joined the project later.

The Schenectady group improved on the anvils designed by Percy Bridgman, who received a Nobel Prize in Physics for his work in 1946. Bundy and Strong made the first improvements, then more were made by Hall. The GE team used tungsten carbide anvils within a hydraulic press to squeeze the carbonaceous sample held in a catlinite container, the finished grit being squeezed out of the container into a gasket. The team recorded diamond synthesis on one occasion, but the experiment could not be reproduced because of uncertain synthesis conditions, and the diamond was later shown to have been a natural diamond used as a seed.

Hall achieved the first commercially successful synthesis of diamond on December 16, 1954, and this was announced on February 15, 1955. His breakthrough was using a "belt" press, which was capable of producing pressures above  and temperatures above . The press used a pyrophyllite container in which graphite was dissolved within molten nickel, cobalt or iron. Those metals acted as a "solvent-catalyst", which both dissolved carbon and accelerated its conversion into diamond. The largest diamond he produced was  across; it was too small and visually imperfect for jewelry, but usable in industrial abrasives. Hall's co-workers were able to replicate his work, and the discovery was published in the major journal Nature. He was the first person to grow a synthetic diamond with a reproducible, verifiable and well-documented process. He left GE in 1955, and three years later developed a new apparatus for the synthesis of diamond—a tetrahedral press with four anvils—to avoid violating a U.S. Department of Commerce secrecy order on the GE patent applications.

Further development

Synthetic gem-quality diamond crystals were first produced in 1970 by GE, then reported in 1971. The first successes used a pyrophyllite tube seeded at each end with thin pieces of diamond. The graphite feed material was placed in the center and the metal solvent (nickel) between the graphite and the seeds. The container was heated and the pressure was raised to about . The crystals grow as they flow from the center to the ends of the tube, and extending the length of the process produces larger crystals. Initially, a week-long growth process produced gem-quality stones of around  (1 carat or 0.2 g), and the process conditions had to be as stable as possible. The graphite feed was soon replaced by diamond grit because that allowed much better control of the shape of the final crystal.

The first gem-quality stones were always yellow to brown in color because of contamination with nitrogen. Inclusions were common, especially "plate-like" ones from the nickel. Removing all nitrogen from the process by adding aluminum or titanium produced colorless "white" stones, and removing the nitrogen and adding boron produced blue ones. Removing nitrogen also slowed the growth process and reduced the crystalline quality, so the process was normally run with nitrogen present.

Although the GE stones and natural diamonds were chemically identical, their physical properties were not the same. The colorless stones produced strong fluorescence and phosphorescence under short-wavelength ultraviolet light, but were inert under long-wave UV. Among natural diamonds, only the rarer blue gems exhibit these properties. Unlike natural diamonds, all the GE stones showed strong yellow fluorescence under X-rays. The De Beers Diamond Research Laboratory has grown stones of up to  for research purposes. Stable HPHT conditions were kept for six weeks to grow high-quality diamonds of this size. For economic reasons, the growth of most synthetic diamonds is terminated when they reach a mass of  to .

In the 1950s, research started in the Soviet Union and the US on the growth of diamond by pyrolysis of hydrocarbon gases at the relatively low temperature of . This low-pressure process is known as chemical vapor deposition (CVD). William G. Eversole reportedly achieved vapor deposition of diamond over diamond substrate in 1953, but it was not reported until 1962. Diamond film deposition was independently reproduced by Angus and coworkers in 1968 and by Deryagin and Fedoseev in 1970. Whereas Eversole and Angus used large, expensive, single-crystal diamonds as substrates, Deryagin and Fedoseev succeeded in making diamond films on non-diamond materials (silicon and metals), which led to massive research on inexpensive diamond coatings in the 1980s.

From 2013, reports emerged of a rise in undisclosed synthetic melee diamonds (small round diamonds typically used to frame a central diamond or embellish a band) being found in set jewelry and within diamond parcels sold in the trade. Due to the relatively low cost of diamond melee, as well as relative lack of universal knowledge for identifying large quantities of melee efficiently, not all dealers have made an effort to test diamond melee to correctly identify whether it is of natural or man-made origin. However, international laboratories are now beginning to tackle the issue head-on, with significant improvements in synthetic melee identification being made.

Manufacturing technologies
There are several methods used to produce synthetic diamonds. The original method uses high pressure and high temperature (HPHT) and is still widely used because of its relatively low cost. The process involves large presses that can weigh hundreds of tons to produce a pressure of  at . The second method, using chemical vapor deposition (CVD), creates a carbon plasma over a substrate onto which the carbon atoms deposit to form diamond. Other methods include explosive formation (forming detonation nanodiamonds) and sonication of graphite solutions.

High pressure, high temperature

In the HPHT method, there are three main press designs used to supply the pressure and temperature necessary to produce synthetic diamond: the belt press, the cubic press and the split-sphere (BARS) press. Diamond seeds are placed at the bottom of the press.
The internal part of the press is heated above  and melts the solvent metal. The molten metal dissolves the high purity carbon source, which is then transported to the small diamond seeds and precipitates, forming a large synthetic diamond.

The original GE invention by Tracy Hall uses the belt press wherein the upper and lower anvils supply the pressure load to a cylindrical inner cell. This internal pressure is confined radially by a belt of pre-stressed steel bands. The anvils also serve as electrodes providing electric current to the compressed cell. A variation of the belt press uses hydraulic pressure, rather than steel belts, to confine the internal pressure. Belt presses are still used today, but they are built on a much larger scale than those of the original design.

The second type of press design is the cubic press. A cubic press has six anvils which provide pressure simultaneously onto all faces of a cube-shaped volume. The first multi-anvil press design was a tetrahedral press, using four anvils to converge upon a tetrahedron-shaped volume. The cubic press was created shortly thereafter to increase the volume to which pressure could be applied. A cubic press is typically smaller than a belt press and can more rapidly achieve the pressure and temperature necessary to create synthetic diamond. However, cubic presses cannot be easily scaled up to larger volumes: the pressurized volume can be increased by using larger anvils, but this also increases the amount of force needed on the anvils to achieve the same pressure. An alternative is to decrease the surface area to volume ratio of the pressurized volume, by using more anvils to converge upon a higher-order platonic solid, such as a dodecahedron. However, such a press would be complex and difficult to manufacture.

The BARS apparatus is claimed to be the most compact, efficient, and economical of all the diamond-producing presses. In the center of a BARS device, there is a ceramic cylindrical "synthesis capsule" of about  in size. The cell is placed into a cube of pressure-transmitting material, such as pyrophyllite ceramics, which is pressed by inner anvils made from cemented carbide (e.g., tungsten carbide or VK10 hard alloy). The outer octahedral cavity is pressed by 8 steel outer anvils. After mounting, the whole assembly is locked in a disc-type barrel with a diameter about . The barrel is filled with oil, which pressurizes upon heating, and the oil pressure is transferred to the central cell. The synthesis capsule is heated up by a coaxial graphite heater, and the temperature is measured with a thermocouple.

Chemical vapor deposition

Chemical vapor deposition is a method by which diamond can be grown from a hydrocarbon gas mixture. Since the early 1980s, this method has been the subject of intensive worldwide research. Whereas the mass production of high-quality diamond crystals make the HPHT process the more suitable choice for industrial applications, the flexibility and simplicity of CVD setups explain the popularity of CVD growth in laboratory research. The advantages of CVD diamond growth include the ability to grow diamond over large areas and on various substrates, and the fine control over the chemical impurities and thus properties of the diamond produced. Unlike HPHT, CVD process does not require high pressures, as the growth typically occurs at pressures under .

The CVD growth involves substrate preparation, feeding varying amounts of gases into a chamber and energizing them. The substrate preparation includes choosing an appropriate material and its crystallographic orientation; cleaning it, often with a diamond powder to abrade a non-diamond substrate; and optimizing the substrate temperature (about ) during the growth through a series of test runs. The gases always include a carbon source, typically methane, and hydrogen with a typical ratio of 1:99. Hydrogen is essential because it selectively etches off non-diamond carbon. The gases are ionized into chemically active radicals in the growth chamber using microwave power, a hot filament, an arc discharge, a welding torch, a laser, an electron beam, or other means.

During the growth, the chamber materials are etched off by the plasma and can incorporate into the growing diamond. In particular, CVD diamond is often contaminated by silicon originating from the silica windows of the growth chamber or from the silicon substrate. Therefore, silica windows are either avoided or moved away from the substrate. Boron-containing species in the chamber, even at very low trace levels, also make it unsuitable for the growth of pure diamond.

Detonation of explosives

Diamond nanocrystals ( in diameter) can be formed by detonating certain carbon-containing explosives in a metal chamber. These are called "detonation nanodiamonds". During the explosion, the pressure and temperature in the chamber become high enough to convert the carbon of the explosives into diamond. Being immersed in water, the chamber cools rapidly after the explosion, suppressing conversion of newly produced diamond into more stable graphite. In a variation of this technique, a metal tube filled with graphite powder is placed in the detonation chamber. The explosion heats and compresses the graphite to an extent sufficient for its conversion into diamond. The product is always rich in graphite and other non-diamond carbon forms, and requires prolonged boiling in hot nitric acid (about 1 day at ) to dissolve them. The recovered nanodiamond powder is used primarily in polishing applications. It is mainly produced in China, Russia and Belarus, and started reaching the market in bulk quantities by the early 2000s.

Ultrasound cavitation
Micron-sized diamond crystals can be synthesized from a suspension of graphite in organic liquid at atmospheric pressure and room temperature using ultrasonic cavitation. The diamond yield is about 10% of the initial graphite weight. The estimated cost of diamond produced by this method is comparable to that of the HPHT method; the crystalline perfection of the product is significantly worse for the ultrasonic synthesis. This technique requires relatively simple equipment and procedures, but it has only been reported by two research groups, and has no industrial use. Numerous process parameters, such as preparation of the initial graphite powder, the choice of ultrasonic power, synthesis time and the solvent, are not yet optimized, leaving a window for potential improvement of the efficiency and reduction of the cost of the ultrasonic synthesis.

Properties
Traditionally, the absence of crystal flaws is considered to be the most important quality of a diamond. Purity and high crystalline perfection make diamonds transparent and clear, whereas its hardness, optical dispersion (luster), and chemical stability (combined with marketing), make it a popular gemstone. High thermal conductivity is also important for technical applications. Whereas high optical dispersion is an intrinsic property of all diamonds, their other properties vary depending on how the diamond was created.

Crystallinity
Diamond can be one single, continuous crystal or it can be made up of many smaller crystals (polycrystal). Large, clear and transparent single-crystal diamonds are typically used as gemstones. Polycrystalline diamond (PCD) consists of numerous small grains, which are easily seen by the naked eye through strong light absorption and scattering; it is unsuitable for gems and is used for industrial applications such as mining and cutting tools. Polycrystalline diamond is often described by the average size (or grain size) of the crystals that make it up. Grain sizes range from nanometers to hundreds of micrometers, usually referred to as "nanocrystalline" and "microcrystalline" diamond, respectively.

Hardness
The hardness of diamond is 10 on the Mohs scale of mineral hardness, the hardest known material on this scale. Diamond is also the hardest known material for its resistance to indentation. The hardness of synthetic diamond depends on its purity, crystalline perfection and orientation: hardness is higher for flawless, pure crystals oriented to the [111] direction (along the longest diagonal of the cubic diamond lattice). Nanocrystalline diamond produced through CVD diamond growth can have a hardness ranging from 30% to 75% of that of single crystal diamond, and the hardness can be controlled for specific applications. Some synthetic single-crystal diamonds and HPHT nanocrystalline diamonds (see hyperdiamond) are harder than any known natural diamond.

Impurities and inclusions

Every diamond contains atoms other than carbon in concentrations detectable by analytical techniques. Those atoms can aggregate into macroscopic phases called inclusions. Impurities are generally avoided, but can be introduced intentionally as a way to control certain properties of the diamond. Growth processes of synthetic diamond, using solvent-catalysts, generally lead to formation of a number of impurity-related complex centers, involving transition metal atoms (such as nickel, cobalt or iron), which affect the electronic properties of the material.

For instance, pure diamond is an electrical insulator, but diamond with boron added is an electrical conductor (and, in some cases, a superconductor), allowing it to be used in electronic applications. Nitrogen impurities hinder movement of lattice dislocations (defects within the crystal structure) and put the lattice under compressive stress, thereby increasing hardness and toughness.

Thermal conductivity
The thermal conductivity of CVD diamond ranges from tens of W/m2K to more than 2000 W/m2K, depending on the defects, grain boundary structures. As the growth of diamond in CVD, the grains grow with the film thickness, leading to a gradient thermal conductivity along the film thickness direction.

Unlike most electrical insulators, pure diamond is an excellent conductor of heat because of the strong covalent bonding within the crystal. The thermal conductivity of pure diamond is the highest of any known solid. Single crystals of synthetic diamond enriched in  (99.9%), isotopically pure diamond, have the highest thermal conductivity of any material, 30 W/cm·K at room temperature, 7.5 times higher than that of copper. Natural diamond's conductivity is reduced by 1.1% by the  naturally present, which acts as an inhomogeneity in the lattice.

Diamond's thermal conductivity is made use of by jewelers and gemologists who may employ an electronic thermal probe to separate diamonds from their imitations. These probes consist of a pair of battery-powered thermistors mounted in a fine copper tip. One thermistor functions as a heating device while the other measures the temperature of the copper tip: if the stone being tested is a diamond, it will conduct the tip's thermal energy rapidly enough to produce a measurable temperature drop. This test takes about 2–3 seconds.

Applications

Machining and cutting tools

Most industrial applications of synthetic diamond have long been associated with their hardness; this property makes diamond the ideal material for machine tools and cutting tools. As the hardest known naturally occurring material, diamond can be used to polish, cut, or wear away any material, including other diamonds. Common industrial applications of this ability include diamond-tipped drill bits and saws, and the use of diamond powder as an abrasive. These are by far the largest industrial applications of synthetic diamond. While natural diamond is also used for these purposes, synthetic HPHT diamond is more popular, mostly because of better reproducibility of its mechanical properties. Diamond is not suitable for machining ferrous alloys at high speeds, as carbon is soluble in iron at the high temperatures created by high-speed machining, leading to greatly increased wear on diamond tools compared to alternatives.

The usual form of diamond in cutting tools is micron-sized grains dispersed in a metal matrix (usually cobalt) sintered onto the tool. This is typically referred to in industry as polycrystalline diamond (PCD). PCD-tipped tools can be found in mining and cutting applications. For the past fifteen years, work has been done to coat metallic tools with CVD diamond, and though the work shows promise, it has not significantly replaced traditional PCD tools.

Thermal conductor
Most materials with high thermal conductivity are also electrically conductive, such as metals. In contrast, pure synthetic diamond has high thermal conductivity, but negligible electrical conductivity. This combination is invaluable for electronics where diamond is used as a heat spreader for high-power laser diodes, laser arrays and high-power transistors. Efficient heat dissipation prolongs the lifetime of those electronic devices, and the devices' high replacement costs justify the use of efficient, though relatively expensive, diamond heat sinks. In semiconductor technology, synthetic diamond heat spreaders prevent silicon and other semiconducting devices from overheating.

Optical material
Diamond is hard, chemically inert, and has high thermal conductivity and a low coefficient of thermal expansion. These properties make diamond superior to any other existing window material used for transmitting infrared and microwave radiation. Therefore, synthetic diamond is starting to replace zinc selenide as the output window of high-power CO2 lasers and gyrotrons. Those synthetic polycrystalline diamond windows are shaped as disks of large diameters (about 10 cm for gyrotrons) and small thicknesses (to reduce absorption) and can only be produced with the CVD technique. Single crystal slabs of dimensions of length up to approximately 10 mm are becoming increasingly important in several areas of optics including heatspreaders inside laser cavities, diffractive optics and as the optical gain medium in Raman lasers. Recent advances in the HPHT and CVD synthesis techniques have improved the purity and crystallographic structure perfection of single-crystalline diamond enough to replace silicon as a diffraction grating and window material in high-power radiation sources, such as synchrotrons. Both the CVD and HPHT processes are also used to create designer optically transparent diamond anvils as a tool for measuring electric and magnetic properties of materials at ultra high pressures using a diamond anvil cell.

Electronics
Synthetic diamond has potential uses as a semiconductor, because it can be doped with impurities like boron and phosphorus. Since these elements contain one more or one fewer valence electron than carbon, they turn synthetic diamond into p-type or n-type semiconductor. Making a p–n junction by sequential doping of synthetic diamond with boron and phosphorus produces light-emitting diodes (LEDs) producing UV light of 235 nm. Another useful property of synthetic diamond for electronics is high carrier mobility, which reaches 4500 cm2/(V·s) for electrons in single-crystal CVD diamond. High mobility is favorable for high-frequency operation and field-effect transistors made from diamond have already demonstrated promising high-frequency performance above 50 GHz. The wide band gap of diamond (5.5 eV) gives it excellent dielectric properties. Combined with the high mechanical stability of diamond, those properties are being used in prototype high-power switches for power stations.

Synthetic diamond transistors have been produced in the laboratory. They remain functional at much higher temperatures than silicon devices, and are resistant to chemical and radiation damage. While no diamond transistors have yet been successfully integrated into commercial electronics, they are promising for use in exceptionally high-power situations and hostile non-oxidizing environments.

Synthetic diamond is already used as radiation detection device. It is radiation hard and has a wide bandgap of 5.5 eV (at room temperature). Diamond is also distinguished from most other semiconductors by the lack of a stable native oxide. This makes it difficult to fabricate surface MOS devices, but it does create the potential for UV radiation to gain access to the active semiconductor without absorption in a surface layer. Because of these properties, it is employed in applications such as the BaBar detector at the Stanford Linear Accelerator and BOLD (Blind to the Optical Light Detectors for VUV solar observations). A diamond VUV detector recently was used in the European LYRA program.

Conductive CVD diamond is a useful electrode under many circumstances. Photochemical methods have been developed for covalently linking DNA to the surface of polycrystalline diamond films produced through CVD. Such DNA-modified films can be used for detecting various biomolecules, which would interact with DNA thereby changing electrical conductivity of the diamond film. In addition, diamonds can be used to detect redox reactions that cannot ordinarily be studied and in some cases degrade redox-reactive organic contaminants in water supplies. Because diamond is mechanically and chemically stable, it can be used as an electrode under conditions that would destroy traditional materials. As an electrode, synthetic diamond can be used in waste water treatment of organic effluents and the production of strong oxidants.

Gemstones

Synthetic diamonds for use as gemstones are grown by HPHT or CVD methods, and represented approximately 2% of the gem-quality diamond market as of 2013. However, there are indications that the market share of synthetic jewelry-quality diamonds may grow as advances in technology allow for larger higher-quality synthetic production on a more economic scale. They are available in yellow, pink, green, orange, blue and, to a lesser extent, colorless (or white). The yellow color comes from nitrogen impurities in the manufacturing process, while the blue color comes from boron. Other colors, such as pink or green, are achievable after synthesis using irradiation. Several companies also offer memorial diamonds grown using cremated remains.

Gem-quality diamonds grown in a lab can be chemically, physically and optically identical to naturally occurring ones. The mined diamond industry has undertaken legal, marketing and distribution countermeasures to try to protect its market from the emerging presence of synthetic diamonds. Synthetic diamonds can be distinguished by spectroscopy in the infrared, ultraviolet, or X-ray wavelengths. The DiamondView tester from De Beers uses UV fluorescence to detect trace impurities of nitrogen, nickel or other metals in HPHT or CVD diamonds.

At least one maker of laboratory-grown diamonds has made public statements about being "committed to disclosure" of the nature of its diamonds, and laser-inscribed serial numbers on all of its gemstones. The company web site shows an example of the lettering of one of its laser inscriptions, which includes both the words "Gemesis created" and the serial number prefix "LG" (laboratory grown).

In May 2015, a record was set for an HPHT colorless diamond at 10.02 carats. The faceted jewel was cut from a 32.2-carat stone that was grown in about 300 hours. By 2022, gem-quality diamonds of 16–20 carats were being produced.

Traditional diamond mining has led to human rights abuses in Africa and other diamond mining countries. The 2006 Hollywood movie Blood Diamond helped to publicize the problem. Consumer demand for synthetic diamonds has been increasing, albeit from a small base, as customers look for stones that are ethically sound and cheaper. Any kind of mining also causes irreversible changes to the bio-diversity.

According to a report from the Gem & Jewellery Export Promotional Council, synthetic diamonds accounted for 0.28% of diamond produced for use as gemstones in 2014. In April 2022, CNN Business reported that engagement rings featuring a synthetic or a lab grown diamond jumped 63% compared to previous year, while the number of engagement rings sold with a natural diamond declined 25% in the same period.

Around 2016, the price of synthetic diamond gemstones (e.g., 1 carat stones) began dropping "precipitously" by roughly 30% in one year, becoming clearly lower than that of mined diamonds. As of 2017, synthetic diamonds sold as jewelry were typically selling for 15–20% less than natural equivalents; the relative price was expected to decline further as production economics improve.

In May 2018, De Beers announced that it would introduce a new jewelry brand called "Lightbox" that features synthetic diamonds.

In July 2018, the U.S. Federal Trade Commission approved a substantial revision to its Jewelry Guides, with changes that impose new rules on how the trade can describe diamonds and diamond simulants. The revised guides were substantially contrary to what had been advocated in 2016 by De Beers. The new guidelines remove the word "natural" from the definition of "diamond", thus including lab-grown diamonds within the scope of the definition of "diamond". The revised guide further states that "If a marketer uses 'synthetic' to imply that a competitor's lab-grown diamond is not an actual diamond, ... this would be deceptive." In July 2019, the third party diamond certification lab GIA (Gemological Institute of America) dropped the word 'synthetic' from its certification process and report for lab-grown diamonds, according to the FTC revision.

See also
The Diamond Maker (1895): a short story by H. G. Wells inspired by Hannay and Moissan
Synthetic alexandrite
List of diamonds

Notes

References

Bibliography

Lundblad, Erik (1988). Om konsten att göra diamanter. In Daedalus 1988. ISBN 9176160181

External links

Crystals
1953 introductions

Synthetic diamond


Jakobenizm, ideolojisini genel kitle ideolojisinden daha yeğ gören ve dayatarak ile bu ideolojiyi kabullendirmeyi amaçlayan politik akım. Kelime anlamı itibarıyla keskin devrimci anlamına gelir.

Bu akım, Fransız Devrimi sonrasında kurulan Jakoben Demokratik Kulübü'nün fikirlerine dayanır. Fransız Devrimi'nin en köktenci belirleyici unsurudur. Maximilien Robespierre liderliğindeki bu kişiler, karşı devrimlerin ancak devletin zor rolünü gerçekleştirmesiyle ortadan kaldırılabileceğini savunmaktadır. Amaçları bir dönemlik dikta yönetimi sonrası "Aydınlanma Çağı" felsefecilerinin öngördükleri doğal düzene ulaşmaktır. Bir tür toplum mühendisliği çabasıdır. Fransa'da eğitim alanında 20. yüzyıl ortalarına kadar etkisini sürdürmüş ve bu nedenle Fransa'da yaşayan azınlıklara yerel dillerini konuşma olanağı verilmemiştir.

Jakobenizm bir ideoloji değil yöntemdir. İdeolojisini topluma benimsetmek isteyen herkes Jakoben olarak kabul edilebilir. Fransız Jakobenler ideolojilerini benimsetmek için devrimi tercih ettiklerinden karşıtları tarafından dayatmacılıkla suçlanmışlardır. Fransız Jakobenlerin ideolojisi aristokrasi yerine cumhuriyettir. Aristokrasinin kurumlarına karşı sert davrandıkları için gericiler tarafından eleştirilmişlerdir. Aristokrasi, teokrasi ve feodaliteyi savunanların yöntemleri baskı, korkutma ve şiddete dayandığından onlar da Jakobenler tarafından karşı devrimcilikle suçlanmışlardır.

Kaynakça

Fransız Devrimi'nde gruplar
Siyasi kavramlar

Jakobenizm


Raonička kukavica (lat. Serapias vomeracea), vrsta orhideje iz roda kukavica (Serapias). Raširena je po mediteranskim zemljama u Europi, Aziji i Africi. Raste i u Hrvatskoj (Istra)

Izvori

Vanjske poveznice

Orchideae

Raonička kukavica


Alidedebölmesi, Samsun ilinin Alaçam ilçesine bağlı bir mahalledir.

Tarihçe
Mahalle, 1837 yılından beri aynı adı taşımaktadır. Alidedebölmesi; daha önceleri bir köy iken, 12 Kasım 2012'de TBMM'de kabul edilen 6360 sayılı kanun ile mahalle oldu.

Coğrafya
Mahalle, Samsun il merkezine 94 km, Alaçam ilçe merkezine 14 km uzaklıktadır.

Nüfus

Kaynakça

Dış bağlantılar

Alaçam'ın mahalleleri

Alidedebölmesi, Alaçam


Trianthema, biljni rod iz porodice čupavica raširen po svim kontinentima osim Europe. Postoji blizu 30 vrsta, poglavito jednogodišnjeg raslinja

Rod je opisao 1753. Carl Linné. Tipična vrsta je T. portulacastrum L.

Vrste

 Trianthema argentinum Hunz. & A.A.Cocucci
 Trianthema ceratosepalum Volkens & Irmsch.
 Trianthema clavatum (J.M.Black) H.E.K.Hartmann & Liede
 Trianthema compactum C.T.White
 Trianthema corallicola H.E.K.Hartmann & Liede
 Trianthema corymbosum (E.Mey. ex Sond.) H.E.K.Hartmann & Liede
 Trianthema crystallinum (Forssk.) Vahl
 Trianthema cussackianum F.Muell.
 Trianthema cypseleoides (Fenzl) Benth.
 Trianthema glossostigma F.Muell.
 Trianthema hecatandrum Wingf. & M.F.Newman
 Trianthema hereroense Schinz
 Trianthema kimberleyi Bittrich & K.M.Jenssen
 Trianthema megaspermum A.M.Prescott
 Trianthema mozambiquense H.E.K.Hartmann & Liede
 Trianthema oxycalyptrum F.Muell.
 Trianthema pakistanense H.E.K.Hartmann & Liede
 Trianthema parvifolium E.Mey. ex Sond.
 Trianthema patellitectum A.M.Prescott
 Trianthema pilosum F.Muell.
 Trianthema portulacastrum L.
 Trianthema rhynchocalyptrum F.Muell.
 Trianthema salsoloides Fenzl ex Oliv.
 Trianthema sanguineum Volkens & Irmsch.
 Trianthema sheilae A.G.Mill. & J.Nyberg
 Trianthema triquetrum Willd. ex Spreng.
 Trianthema turgidifolium F.Muell.
 Trianthema ufoense H.E.K.Hartmann & Liede
 Trianthema vleiense H.E.K.Hartmann & Liede

Izvori

Sesuvioideae

Trianthema


Pluta Meduzei se poate referi la:
 Pluta Meduzei (piesă de teatru) de Marin Sorescu
 Pluta Meduzei (film) de Iradj Azimi.
 Pluta Meduzei (pictură) de Théodore Géricault

Pluta Meduzei


Las elecciones generales 2011 de la provincia de San Juan se realizaron en 23 de octubre de 2011 junto con las elecciones presidenciales en Argentina. Se eligieron gobernador y vicegobernador, 3 senadores nacionales, 3 diputados nacionales, 34 diputados provinciales y 19 intendentes. Fue elegido gobernador José Luis Gioja, quien inicia su tercer mandato consecutivo.

Resultados

Consulta popular

El domingo 8 de mayo de 2011 se realizó una Consulta Popular para modificar la constitución provincial y permitir que el gobernador acceda a tres mandatos consecutivos, en lugar de los dos de la constitución provincial de 1986. El Sí a la enmienda triunfó por un amplio margen, lo cual permitió a Gioja presentarse para un tercer mandato.

Gobernador y vicegobernador

Cámara de Diputados

Resultados por departamentos

Notas

Referencias

San Juan
Elecciones en la provincia de San Juan

Elecciones provinciales de San Juan de 2011


Oficial: Stadionul Centrului Tehnic-Academie al Federației Armene de Fotbal (), cunoscut și ca Stadionul Academiei de Fotbal este un stadion cu toate locurile pe scaune, construit în cartierul Avan, în nordul Erevanului, capitala Armeniei.

Generalități

Stadionul cu o capacitate de 1.428 locuri, toate pe scaune, a fost oficial inaugurat la data de 29 aprilie 2013 de către primarul Erevanului, Taron Margaryan. De fapt, primul meci oficial disputat pe acest stadion avusese loc pe 13 aprilie 2013, între FC Pyunik și FC Banants contând pentru Prima Ligă Armeană. Meciul s-a încheiat cu scorul de 4-0, în favoarea celor de la Pyunik.

Stadionul a fost locul de disputare al meciurilor de "acasă" al lui FC Pyunik între 2013 și 2017.

Stadionul este parte din Centrului Tehnic-Academie al Federației Armene de Fotbal, care a fost inaugurat oficial pe 1 septembrie 2010 de către președintele UEFA, Michel Platini. Complexul mai cuprinde pe lângă stadionul principal, 9 terenuri de antrenament (8 cu gazon natural și 1 cu gazon artificial), 4 terenuri de tenis, o sală de sport, bazine de înot acoperite și în aer liber, o sală de fitness și un hotel de 4 stele cu 49 de camere.

Referințe

Stadioane din Armenia
Fondări în 2013
Erevan

Stadionul Academiei de Fotbal din Erevan


An Triticum dicoccon in uska species han Liliopsida nga syahan ginhulagway ni Franz von Paula Schrank, ngan ginhatag han pagkayana nga asya nga ngaran ni Gustav Schübler. An Triticum dicoccon in nahilalakip ha genus nga Triticum, ngan familia nga Poaceae. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Triticum

en:Emmer

Triticum dicoccon


Montpellier Hérault Sport Club Féminines (oftest kaldt Montpellier) er en fransk fodboldklub for kvinder, baseret i Villeneuve-lès-Maguelone, en kommune i Montpellier arrondissementet. Klubben blev etableret i 1990. Montpellier spiller i Division 1 Féminine og blev nummer to i 2016-17 sæsonen.

Spillere

Aktuel trup
Pr. 12. oktober 2020

Forhenværende kendte spillere
  Camille Abily
  Andressa Alves
  Viviane Asseyi
  Jennifer Beattie
  Sonia Bompastor
  Marie-Laure Delie
  Céline Deville
  Ludivine Diguelman
  Kelly Gadéa
  Stéphanie Grand
  Hoda Lattaf
  Laure Lepailleur
  Claire Lavogez
  Ophélie Meilleroux
  Louisa Necib
  Josefine Öqvist
  Aya Sameshima
  Élodie Thomis
  Rumi Utsugi
  Francine Zouga

Hæder

Officiel
 Division 1 Féminine (fransk mester) (niveau 1)
Vindere (2): 2003–04, 2004–05

 Challenge de France
Vindere (3): 2006, 2007, 2009

Efter invitation
 Pyrénées Cup
Vindere (2): 2008, 2010

Danskere spillere i klubben
 Katrine Veje (2017-2018)
 Luna Gewitz (2012-2013)

Referencer

Kvindefodboldklubber i Frankrig
HSC (kvinder)

Montpellier HSC (kvinder)


Sandra Gaston Chapin (born 1934) is an American poet/songwriter and activist. She is best known for her songwriting collaborations with her second husband, singer-songwriter Harry Chapin, and is also the mother of singer Jen Chapin.

Marriages
Her first husband was lawyer James John Cashmore, son of longtime Borough of Brooklyn (New York) president John Cashmore. She was working as a teacher at the time. They had three children together. She divorced him to marry Harry Chapin, who was her guitar instructor. They married on November 26, 1968 and had two children: Jennifer and Joshua. The story of their meeting and romance is dramatized in his song "I Wanna Learn a Love Song".

Songwriting
She wrote poems and helped Chapin write songs for the television show Make a Wish. She helped write lyrics to several of Chapin's songs, including the well-known "Cat's in the Cradle". Chapin wrote several songs about her, including "Shooting Star" and "Sandy."

Lawsuits
She was involved in several lawsuits after Chapin's death: Negligence suits related to the car accident that took his life and suits over his biography and a possible film of his life.

Charity
She accepted Chapin's Congressional Gold Medal and has worked to ensure his charities continued to function after his death. She is chairperson of the charity Long Island Cares and of The Harry Chapin Foundation.

References

External links

1934 births
Living people
American lyricists

Sandra Chapin


Njál Torgeirsson (islandsk: Njáll Þorgeirsson;  sandsynligvis født før 950; død ca. 1010) eller Brennu-Njál (Brente-Njal) var en islandsk høvding, som boede på Bergþórshvoll (Bergtorskvål) og den, som Njáls saga er navngivet efter. Han spiller en vigtig rolle i denne saga.

Njál var ifølge sagaen søn af Torgeir "gollnir" Torolfsson (Þorgeir "gollnir" Þórólfsson) og Åsgerd Askelsdotter (Ásgerður Áskelsdóttir; morens navn er ukendt, og Åsgerd var hans bedstemor, en flygtning fra Norge). Hans hustru var Bergtora Skarphedinsdotter (Bergþóra Skarphéðinsdóttir). Sagaen beskriver ham som en snild, rig og smuk mand på trods af, at han var skægløs. Han var  lovkyndig, klog og fremsynet og gav gode råd til alle, som kom til ham. Han var god ven med Gunnar fra Lidarende.

Njál døde sammen med resten af familien, da han valgte at brænde inde på gården Bergþórshvoll, selv om han bliver tilbudt at gå fri, da gården blev angrebet af hans sønners fjender. Afbrændingen af Bergþórshvoll skete ifølge arkæologiske udgravninger ca. 1010.

Njáll er en norrøn form af det gæliske Niall, som svarer til det moderne engelske navnet Neil.

Eksterne henvisninger
 Njáls saga

Personer fra Island
Personer fra vikingetiden

Njál Torgeirsson


Kento Misao (født 16. april 1996) er en japansk fodboldspiller.

Japans fodboldlandshold

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Eksterne henvisninger

Fodboldspillere fra Japan

Kento Misao


බුදු දහමේ සෝතාපන්න හෙවත් සෝවාන් ඵලය ලැබීම යනු නිර්වාණය සඳහා ගමන් කරන මාර්ගයේ පළමුවැනි පියවරයි. සෝවාන් පුද්ගලයා යනු සක්ඛායදිට්ඨි, විචිකිච්ඡා සහ සීලබ්බත පරාමාස සංයෝජන ප්‍රහීන කළ පුද්ගලයා වේ.

බුද්ධ දේශනාවට අනුව සෝවාන් ඵලයට පැමිණීමෙන් පසු අනිවාර්යෙන්ම මේ භවයේදී හෝ තවත් භව 7 ක් ඇතුළත දී නිර්වාණය අවබෝධ කර ගනී. රත්න සුත්‍රයේ එන න තේ භවං අට්ඨමං ආදියන්ති යනුවෙන් සඳහන් වන්නේ මේ අදහසයි. එසේම සෝවාන් ඵලයට පැමිණි පුද්ගලයා ඉදිරි ආත්ම 7 තුළදී පහත් හෝ දුක් සහිත (සත්ව, ප්‍රේත, නිරය) භවයක උපත නොලබයි. ඔවුන් බුද්ධ දේශනාව පිළිබඳ නොබිඳෙන ග්‍රහණයක්  ලබාගෙන ඇත. එසේම තෙරුවන් (බුද්ධ, ධම්ම, සංඝ) කෙරෙහි අචල විශ්වාසයකින් යුක්තව ශීලය සපුරා සෝවාන් ඵලයට පැමිණි පුද්ගලයාගේ ධර්ම ඇස විවෘතව පවතින නිසා හොඳින් ධර්මය අවබෝධ කර ගැනීමට සමත්ය.
සෝවාන් ඵලයට පැමිණිමේදි ප්‍රහීණ වන සංයෝජන නම්,

සෝතාපත්ති මාර්ගය

සෝතාපත්තියට පත්වීමේදී ප්‍රහීන වන දුරු වන සංයෝජන
සෝතාපන්න මාර්ගයේ ගමන් කරන්නා සංයෝජන 3 ක් බිඳ දමයි. මේ සංයෝජන 3 සම්පූර්ණයෙන් දුරු කළ කල්හි සෝවාන් මගට පැමිණිය හැකි වේ.

සක්ඛාය දිට්ඨි
ශරිරය තුළ හැඟීම, දැනීම සහිත ස්ථිර ආත්මයක් හෝ භූතයෙක් වෙසේ යන මිත්‍යා විස්වාසය. ලෞකික වස්තූන් පිළිබඳ ඇති කරගන්න ඇල්ම.
රුපය මමය මාගේය යනුවෙන්ද වේදනාව, සංඥාව, සංකාර, විඥාන යන මේ පංචස්කන්දය ම මමය මාගේය යනුවෙන් ගැනීමද සක්ඛාය දිට්ඨිහි ල්ක්ෂණය වේ.
හේතු ඵල දහමට අනුව සක්ඛාය දිට්ඨිය දැඩිව ගැනීම නිසා ම අප මෙතෙක් සංසාරයේ දුක් විඳිමින් යන ගමන අවසන් කරගත නොහැකිව සිටින බව ප්‍රඥාවන්ත පුද්ගලයාට අවබෝධ කරගත හැක.

විචිකිච්චා
තෙරුවන් කෙරෙහි ඇති කරගන්න සැකය  සහ අනාගත භව හා කර්මය පිළිබඳ සැකය. අකුසලයෙහි බැඳීමට ඇති  කැමැත්ත .

ශීලබ්බත පරාමාස
උග්‍රතපසෙන් තොර විමුක්තිය ලබා ගත නොහැකි  බවට පවතින මිත්‍යා විස්වාසය. ගව වෘත සුනක වෘත ආදී ශිල වෘත සමාදානය.
ශීල සමාදානය බුදුන් වහන්සේ ලෝකයට පහලවන්නටත් පෙර සිටම පැවතුනි. නිවනට මග වන්නේ  ශීල සමාදානය නොව ඉන්ද්‍රිය සංවරයයි

සෝතාපත්ති අංග

සෝවාන් වීමට අපගේ එදිනෙද කටයුතු අතහැර දමා මහන වීමට වත්, කැලෑ වැදී භාවනා කිරීමට වත් අවශ්‍ය නැත. ඒ සඳහා සෝතාපත්ති අංග පිරිය යුතු වේ. සාරිපුත්ත රහතන්වහන්සේ විසින් වාදාරා බුදුන් වහන්සේ විසින් නිවැරදි යැයි අනුමත කර ඇති පරිදි සෝතිපත්ති අංග පහත පරිදි වේ.

 සත්පුරිස සේවනය සෝවාන් ආදී මගඵල ලාබින්ගෙන් නිවැරදි මග අසා දැනගැනීම
 සද්ධර්ම ශ්‍රවණය සංදීට්ටික වූ අකාලික ශ්‍රී සද්ධර්මය ශ්‍රවනය කිරීම
 යෝනිසෝ මනසිකාරය  හෙවත් අයෝනිසෝ මනසිකාරයෙන් තොරවීම      තමා විසින් කරනු කියනු ලබන සියලු දෙය සිහියෙන් යතුව කිරීම
 ධම්මානුධම්මපටිපදාව ශ්‍රවනය කරනු ලැබූ ධර්මයට අනුරූපව මෙනෙහි කිරීම හා ක්‍රියා කිරීම

එසේම ඔවුන් නිර්වාණයේ එළිපත්තට පැමිණ සිටී. ඔවුන්ට අපායේ දොරටු සඳහටම විවර නොවේ. නිර්වාණය මෙම ආත්මයේදී හෝ තව ආත්ම 3 කින් හෝ 7 කින් අනිවාර්යෙන්ම අවබෝධකරගත හැක. මනුෂ්‍ය  දේව ලෝක හෝ බ්‍රහ්ම ලෝක වල වසති. සෝවාන් වු තැනැත්තා කිසිම අකුසල ක්‍රියාවක නොයෙදෙයි. බුදුසමයේදී ගිහි පුරුෂයන් හා ස්ත්‍රීන් දස දහස් ගණනක් සෝවාන් ඵලයට පැමිණියහ. බුද්ධශාසනයේ අවසානය තෙක්ම යහපත් පුද්ගලයෝ සංයෝජන 3 විනාශ කර සෝවාන් ඵලයට පැමිණීමට උත්සාහ කරති. එසේ උත්සාහ කරන්නන්ට මෙම භාවයේදී සෝවාන් වීමට නොහැකි වුවද ඔවුන් ඊළඟ භවයේදි වඩා යහපත් උපනිස්සය කර්මයක් සහිතව උපත ලබා වඩා ප්‍රඥාවන්ත වේ. මෙම මාර්ගයේ ගමන් කිරීමට පංචශීලය, සතර බ්‍රහ්ම චර්යාව අනුගමනය කළ යුතුය.
සෝවාන් ඵලය යනු අවබෝදයක් වනබැවින් ඒ සඳහා බොහෝ ශිල සමාදානයන් අවශ්‍ය වන්නේ  නැත. ඉහත සඳහන් සංයෝජන 3 දුරුකල ඕනෑම අයෙකුට සෝවාන් ඵලයට පැමිණිය හැක. සොවන්මගට පැමිණි ශ්රුතවත් ආර්ය ශ්‍රාවකයා අනවරතයෙන්ම පංච දුෂ්චරිතයෙන් වෙන්ව වාසය කරයි.

 සොත පත්ති ඵල සිත *

සොතපත්ති මාර්ග සිතට අනතුරුව 2 ක් හො 3 ක් ව ලැබෙන්නා වු මේ ඵල චිත්තයෝ ද
ඒකාන්තයෙන් ම නිවන අරමුණු කොට ඇත්තා වූ ලෝකොත්තර 'සිත් වූයේ වී නමුත් කුසල් නොවෙති.ආනන්තරික සමාධිය අකාලික විපාකය යයි කියනු ලබන මේ විපාක අව්‍යාකෘත ධර්මයෝ වෙති .මේ ඵල ච්ත්තයෝ කුණු කසල දවා අලු කොට ..උණුසුම නිවීමට පැන් කල දෙකක් හෝ තුනක් වත් කිරීමක් මෙනි .මාර්ගයෙන් නසන ලද කෙලෙස් ඇති එම සන්තානයෙහි සන්සිදිම් වශයෙන් උපදනා බැවින් පටිප්පස්සද්ධි ප්‍රහාණිය යයි කියන ලද සන්සිදිම කරමින් ඉපිද නිරුද්ධ වීමෙන් පසු චිත්ත සන්තතිය නැවත භවාංග වේ .
මේ සෝවාන් ඵලස්ත ආයර්‍ය පුද්ගල තෙමෙ ධ්‍යානලාභී නම් මරණින් මතු කාම භූමියෙහි නෝ ඉපිද ලබන ලද ධ්‍යනයට අනුව රූපා රූප භූමීන්හි පටිසන්ධිය ලබා එහිදී ම ඉතිරි මාර්ග ඵල ලැබිමෙන් පිරිනිවන් පාන්නේ ය .
.ලෞකික ධ්‍යාන නො ලැබු විදර්ශනා වඩා මාර්ගයට පැමිණි ශුෂ්ක විදර්ශක සෝවාන් පුද්ගලයෝ තිදෙනෙකි
1. ඒක බීජ සෝතා පත්ති පුද්ගලයා --එක් වරක් පමණක් කාම් භවයෙහි ඉපිද අර්හත්වය ලබා නිවන් දකී .
2. කොලංකොල සෝතාපත්ති පුද්ගලයා --ද්වර සිට සයවර දක්වා කාම භවයන්හී ඉපිද අර්හත්වයට පැමිණ නිවන් දකී.
3.සත්තක්ඛත්තු පරම සොතාපත්ති පුද්ගලයා --සත් වරක් කාම භවයන්හි ඉපිද අර්හත්වයට පැමිණ නිවන් දකී ..
මේ ශුෂ්ක වදර්සශකයා විසින් ලබන්නාවු මාරගය ඒකාන්තයෙන් ම ප්‍රතම ධ්‍යානයට සමාන වූ ව්තක්ක විචාර පීති සුඛ එකග්ගතා යන ධ්‍යානාංග පසකින් යුත්ත වන්නෙ ය . එහෙයින් ශුෂ්ක විදරශ කයාට හෝ සමථ යානිකයාට හෝ නෝ මිදෙන්නේ මැයි ..

සෝවාන් මාර්ගය සහ ඵලය

සෝවාන් මාර්ගයට පැමිණීම යනු මම මේ භයේදීම සෝවාන් වෙමි යන දැඩි අධිශ්ටානය හා විශ්වාසය ඇතිකරගනීමයි.
සෝවාන් ඵලය යනු ශ්‍රතවත් ආර්ය ශ්‍රාවකයෙක් බවට පත්ව ත්‍රිවිද සංයෝජන ප්‍රහීන කොට සෝතාපන්න වීමයි (නිවැරදි අවබෝධයට පත්වීමයි.)

සටහන්
සෝවාන් ඵලය ලබා ගන්නට පුළුවන් ස්වාමීන් වහන්සේලාට පමණක් නෙමෙයි. තවමත් ඉගෙන ගන්න අපිට වුනත්, රැකියාවක් කරන කාර්යබහුල ජීවිතයක් ගත කරන අයට වුනත්, විවාහ වී දරුවන් ලබා සිටින ඔබට වුනත් සෝවාන් ඵලය ලබා ගන්නට පුළුවන්. සෝවාන් වීමට අපගේ එදිනෙද කටයුතු අතහැර දමා මහන වීමට වත්, කැලෑ වැදී භාවනා කිරීමට වත් අවශ්‍ය නැහැ. නමුත් අද සමාජයේ කිසිම මිනිසෙකුට මේ පිළිබඳව අවබෝධයක් නැහැ. බුද්ධ කාලයේ සිටි විශාඛාව ඔබට මතකද? ඇය හත් වන වියේදී සෝවාන් බව ලබා සිටියා. එමෙන්ම ඇය අවුරුදු 120 ක් ජීවත් වූ බවත් ඔබට මතක ඇති. ඇය විවාහ වන විටත් සෝවාන් ඵලය ලබා සිටියා. ඇයට දරුවන් ලැබෙන විටත් ඇය සෝවාන් වී සිටියා. එහෙනම් දැන් ඔබට තේරෙනවද සාමාන්‍ය ජීවිතයක් ගත කරගෙන වුනත් සෝවාන් බව ලබා ගැනීමට පුළුවන් බව. ඉතින් ඇයි අපි තවත් පරක්කු වෙන්නේ? මේ ලිපිය කියවන ඔබත් පරිගණකයට හා අන්තර්ජාලයට ගොඩක් සමීපයි කියල මම දන්නවා. මොකද මමත් අන්තර්ජාලයට ගොඩක් කැමතියි. එත් ලස්සන ජීවිතයක් ගත කරන්න අපිත් කැමතියි නේද? ඔය හිතන්නේ මේ ජීවිතේ සුන්දරද? ඇත්තෙන්ම නැහැ. නමුත් සෝවාන් ඵලය කොච්චර සුන්දරද කියලා ඔයා දන්නවද? ඔයා සෝවාන් වෙන්න කැමතිද? සෝවාන් උනා කියල ඔයා ඔයාගේ ජීවිතේ සම්පුර්ණයෙන්ම වෙනස් කරන්න ඕනි නැහැ. සෝවාන් වෙලා ඔයාට රස්සාවක් කරන්න උනත්, විවාහ වෙන්න උනත් , දරුවන් හදන්න උනත් විතරක් නෙමෙයි ඔයා මේ රටේ ජනාධිපති උනත් ඔයාට සෝවාන් වෙන්න පුළුවන්. ඒවගේම ඔයා හොරෙක් , මංකොල්ල කාරයෙක් , මිනි මරුවෙක් උනත් ඔයාට සෝවාන් වෙන්න පුළුවන්. ඔබට මතකද අංගුලිමාල නම් පුද්ගලයා. ඔහු මිනිසුන් 1000 ක් පමණ ගාතනය කල කෙනෙක්. නමුත් ඔහුත් රහත් බවය ලබා ගත්තා. ඉතින් ඇයි අපිට බැරි. ඒවගේම සෝවාන් බව ලබා ගත අය අප අතරම ඉන්නම පුළුවන්. ඔබගේ හොඳම යහළුවා හෝ ඔබගේ ලංගම අසල්වැසියා වුවද සෝවාන් බව ලබා ඇති අයෙක් වීමට පුළුවන්. සෝවාන් වූ පුද්ගලයා කිසිම වෙලාවක කියන්නේ නැහැ තම සෝවාන් වූ කෙනෙක් බව.
සෝවාන් වීම සඳහා අප විසින් අනුගමනය කල යුත්තේ ආර්ය අෂ්ටාංගික මාර්ගයයි. පංච උපාදානස්කන්ධය තුල පවතින ත්‍රිලක්ෂණය ඉගැනීම වැදගත්ය . ත්‍රිලක්ෂණය යනු
1.අනිත්‍ය
2.දුක්ඛ
3.අනාත්ම යන කරුණු 3යි.

1.අනිත්‍ය
අනිත්‍ය යනු මෙලොව පවතින කිසිම දෙයක් ස්ථිර නැති බව සිතීමයි. එනම් මෙලොව හැම දෙයක්ම , හැම කෙනෙක්ම වෙනස් වන බව මෙනෙහි කිරීමයි. ඔබ ගැන සිතන්න. ඔබ කුඩා කල සිට අද දක්වාම වෙනස් වුණා. කුඩා කාලයේ ඔබට ලැබුණු කරුණාව , දයාව , ආදරය දැන් ටිකක් හෝ අඩු වී නැද්ද? ඔබේ පියා ගැන සිතන්න. ඔබේ මව ගැන සිතන්න. ඔවුන් දැන් පත්ව ඇති තත්වය ගැන සිතන්න. ඔවුන් තරමක් හෝ සම්පුර්ණයෙන්ම හෝ වෙනස් වෙලා නේද? ඉතින් මේ ලෝකේ වෙනස් වෙන්නේ නැති කිසිම කෙනෙක් ඉන්නවද? නැහැ. දෙවි වරුත් වෙනස් වෙනවා, බ්‍රහ්ම යොත් වෙනස් වෙනවා. තුන් ලෝකෙටම අධිපති යැයි කියන ශක්‍ර දෙවියත් වෙනස් වෙනවා,මිය යනවා. ඒවගේම මේලෝකේ තියෙන කිසිම දෙයක් ස්ථිර නැහැ. ඔබේ පරිගණකය ගැන සිතන්න. එය කොපමණ වාරයක් කැඩෙනවද? ඔබේ ජංගම දුරකථනය කෙතරම් කැඩෙනවද? ඉතින් මේලෝකේ මොනවද සදාකල්ම පවතින්නේ? ඔබේ වාහනය , නිවස , ඔබේ ඉඩම , පමණක් නොව තවත් වසර 5000 කින් පමණ අපේ ලෝකයත් කෙමෙන් විනාශ වන බව ඔබ නොදන්නේද? එහෙනම් අනිත්‍යය කියන මේ සුවිශේෂී ලක්ෂණය තේරුම් ගන්න. මෙය සෝවාන් මගට යාමට පළමු පියවරයි.

2.දුක්ඛ
දුක්ඛ කියන්නේ දුක. දුක කියන්නේ මොකද්ද කියලා කියා දෙන්න ඕනිත් නැහැ. මොකද අපි හැමෝම දුක් විඳලා තියෙනවා. නමුත් මෙහිදී දුක කියන්නේ අනිත්‍ය බව (එනම් මෙලොව පවතින සියලු දෙයකම හා සියලු සත්වයෙක්ම වෙනස් වන බව ) තේරුම් නොගැනීම  නිසා ඇතිවන දුකයි. විශේෂ වශයෙන්ම පංචඋපාදානස් කන්ධය දුකක් බවත්, හේතුන් නිසා හට ගත්තාවූ  වූ පංච උපාදානස්කන්ධයකට බැදී ගියහොත් ඒ  හේතුන් වෙනස් වන විට පංච උපාදානස්කන්ධය වෙනස් වීම නිසා  සිතෙහි  දුක ඇතිවන බවත් තේරුම් ගත යුතුයි.  මෙම දුක හොඳින් අවබෝධ කරගැනීමෙන් සෝවාන් මාර්ගය සඳහා තවත් පියවරක් ඉදිරියට යයි.

3.අනාත්ම
අනාත්ම කියන්නේ ආත්මයක් නැති බව අවබෝධ කරගැනීමයි. එනම් මේ ලෝකයේ මම මගේ කියා කිසිම දෙයක් නැති බව අවබෝධ කරගැනීමයි. ඇත්තටම මම කියල පුද්ගලයෙක් ඉන්නවද? අපි මම කියල හඳුන්වන අපේ මේ ශරීරය අපි මැරුණට පස්සේ අපේද? නැහැ නේද? ඉතින් ඇයි අපිට අවබෝධ කරගන්න බැරි ආත්මයක් කියල දෙයක් නැහැ කියලා. ඉතින් ඔයා අනාත්ම කියන ලක්ෂණය අවබෝධ කරගත්ත කියන්නේ ඔයා සෝවාන් මගට ගොඩක්ම කිට්ටු වෙලා කියන එකයි.

ඉතින් මූලික වශයෙන් මේ ලක්ෂණ 3 අවබෝධ කරන්නට ඔයාට පුලුවන්නම් ඔයාට සෝවාන් බව ලබා ගන්නත් පුළුවන්. නමුත් ත්‍රිලක්ෂණය තව දුරටත් අවබෝධ කරගත යුතුයි. ත්‍රිලක්ෂණයට අමතරව අප විසින් අවබෝධ කරගත යුතු තවත් ලක්ෂණ 2ක් තියෙනවා.

1.අනිච්ච ලක්ෂණය
මේ ලෝකයේ සිදුවන කිසිම දෙයක් සිදුවන්නේ තමන්ගේ කැමැත්තට නොවන බව තේරුම් ගැනීම අනිච්ච වේ. සිතන්න.... ඔබත් මම වගේම ශිෂ්‍යයෙක් නම්, ඔබට බලාපොරොත්තු ඇති. ඔබට අවශ්‍යයි පන්තියේ පළමු වෙනියා වීමට. ඔබ කෙතරම් මහන්සි වී වැඩ කලත් ඇතැම් අවස්ථාවලදී ඔබට ලැබෙන්නේ පන්තියේ පහල මට්ටමක්. ඉතින් ඔබට තේරෙනවද? මේ ලෝකේ කිසිම දෙයක් තමන්ගේ කැමැත්තට අනුව සිදු නොවන බව ඔබට වැටහෙනවද? ඔබ රැකියාවක් කරන කෙනෙක් නම්..... ඔබට අවශ්‍ය තනතුරට යාමට ඔබට හැකිද?  තවත් වෙලා වකට ඔය මෙහෙමත් හිතනවා ඇති..... මිනිස්සු ලෙඩ වෙන්නේ නැත්තම් , අපිට ඉගෙන ගන්න ඕනි නැත්තම් , මිනිස්සු මැරෙන්නේ නැත්තම් , අපිට හැම දාමත් මේ වගේ පොහොසත් වෙලා ඉන්න ඇත්නම් කොච්චර හොඳද? නමුත් එය නිකම්ම නිකම් සිහිනයක් විතරයි නේද? ඉතින් මේලෝකේ කිසිම දෙයක් තමන්ගේ කැමැත්තට සිදු වෙන්නේ නැත්තම් ඇයි අපි මේ ජීවත් වෙන්නේ? මෙම ලක්ෂණය අවබෝධ කරගැනීමෙන් ඔයා තවත් සෝවාන් ඵලයට ලඟා වෙනවා.

2.අනන්ත/අනර්ථ  ලක්ෂණය
අනන්ත කියන්නේ මේ ලෝකයේ ඇති සෑම දෙයකම තේරුමක් නැති කමයි. කොටින්ම , අනිච්ච හෙවත් කිසිම දෙයක් අපට කැමති විදියට සිදුනොවන නිසාම මේ ලෝකයේ ඇති කිසිම දෙයක  අර්ථයක් නැති බව අවබෝධ වෙනවා නේද? අපේ ජීවන චක්‍රය ගැන හිතන්න. අපි මෙලොවට බිහිවෙනවා, ළදරු අවදියේ පසුවෙනවා, ඉගෙන ගැනීම ආරම්භ කරනවා, විභාග සමත් වෙලා හොඳ රස්සාවකට සම්බන්ද වෙනවා, පුළුවන් තරම් සල්ලි හම්බ කරනවා, අවසානයේ හිඟන්නෙක් වගේ මැරිලා යනවා. මේකද අපේ ජීවිතේ? මේ ජීවිතේ තේරුම මොකක්ද? සිතන්න..... අප උපන් දා සිටම කනවා,බොනවා,නානවා,නිදා ගන්නවා. ඇයි අපි කන්නේ? මරණයෙන් ගැලවෙන්න නේද? ඒත් අපි කවත් නැතත් අපිට අනිවාර්යෙන්ම මැරෙන්නට සිදු වෙනවා නේද? මරනයෙන් පසුවත් අපි නැවතත් ඉපදිලා මේ විදියට දුක් විඳිනවා නේද? ඉතින් මෙලෙස බලන විට අපේ ජීවිතය අර්ථයක් නැති දෙයක් බව තේරෙනවා නේද? ඉති මෙම අවසාන ලක්ෂණය තේරුම් ගැනීමත් සමඟ ඔබ සෝවාන් මාර්ගයට තවත් ලං වෙනවා.

මාර්ග ඵල

සෝවාන්


Borislaw Jordanow Baldschijski (auch Borislav Yordanov Baldzhiyski geschrieben, ; * 12. Oktober 1990 in Ichtiman, Bulgarien) ist ein bulgarischer Fußballspieler.

Karriere
Baldschijski kam im Jahr 2009 in den Kader der ersten Mannschaft von Lewski Sofia. Er kam zunächst nicht zum Einsatz und wurde Anfang 2010 für ein halbes Jahr an Lokomotive Mesdra ausgeliehen. Nach fünf Einsätzen kehrte er zurück zu Lewski, das ihn im Sommer für eine Spielzeit an PFK Nessebar verlieh. Dort konnte er sich in der Saison 2010/11 einen Stammplatz erkämpfen. Im Sommer 2011 wechselte er zu FC Tschernomorez Burgas. Hier kam er meist als Einwechselspieler zum Zuge. In der Saison 2012/13 zog er sich eine Verletzung zu und fiel einige Monate aus. Im Sommer 2013 verließ er Burgas wieder und schloss sich Slawia Sofia an. Nach drei Spielen wurde sein Vertrag aufgelöst.

Im September 2013 heuerte Baldschijski bei Botew Ichtiman in seiner Heimatstadt an, das in der dritten bulgarischen Liga spielte. Im Sommer 2014 verpflichtete ihn Lokomotive Mesdra in der B Grupa. In der Winterpause wechselte er zu Ligakonkurrent PFK Montana, mit dem er am Ende der Spielzeit 2014/15 aufstieg. Auch in der A Grupa gehörte er zum Stamm der Mannschaft. Anfang 2016 ergab sich die Gelegenheit, erneut zu Slawia Sofia zu wechseln. War er dort in der Saison 2015/16 noch Stammkraft, kam er in der Hinrunde 2016/17 seltener zum Einsatz. Er verließ den Verein Anfang 2017 zu Ligakonkurrent Tscherno More Warna.

Im Sommer 2017 kehrte Baldschijski zu PFK Montana zurück, das wieder in der zweiten Liga spielte. Er verpasste mit seiner Mannschaft in der Saison 2017/18 die Rückkehr ins Oberhaus und wechselte zum FC Dunaw Russe. Seit Anfang 2019 spielte er für Zarsko Selo Sofia.

Weblinks

 Profil auf LevskiSofia.info (englisch)

Fußballspieler (FC Dunaw Russe)
Fußballspieler (FC Tschernomorez Burgas)
Fußballspieler (Lewski Sofia)
Fußballspieler (Lokomotive Mesdra)
Fußballspieler (PFK Montana)
Fußballspieler (PFK Nessebar)
Fußballspieler (Slawia Sofia)
Fußballspieler (Tscherno More Warna)
Geboren 1990
Mann
Bulgare

Borislaw Baldschijski


Genoni (sardinski: Jaròi, Geròni) je grad i općina (comune) u pokrajini Južnoj Sardiniji u regiji Sardiniji, Italija. Nalazi se na nadmorskoj visini od 447 metara i ima populaciju od 832 stanovnika. Prostire se na teritoriju od 43,79 km². Gustoća naseljenosti je 19 st/km².Susjedne općine su: Albagiara, Assolo, Genuri, Gesturi, Gonnosnò, Laconi, Nuragus, Nureci, Setzu i Sini.

Izvori

Gradovi na Sardiniji

Genoni


Jet Black Stare ist eine Hard-Rock-Band aus Vancouver, Kanada. Ihr Debütalbum, In This Life, wurde am 15. Juli 2008 veröffentlicht.

Diskografie

Alben

Singles

Weblinks
 Jet Black Stare bei Myspace

 Interview with Rod Black

Einzelnachweise

Rockband
Post-Grunge-Band
Kanadische Band

Jet Black Stare


විවිධ කරුණු මත සිංහල නාම පද වර්ග කල හැක.

පණ අනුව
 පණ ඇති (සප්‍රාණ වාචී)
 පණ නැති (අප්‍රාණ වාචී)
පණ ඇති පද, නැවත පුරුෂවාචී සහ ස්ත්‍රීවාචී ලෙස වර්ග 2කට බෙදේ

සංඛ්‍යාව අනුව
 ඒක වචන
 බහු වචන
ඒක වචන, නැවත නියත නාම පද සහ අනියත නාමපද ලෙස වර්ග 2කට බෙදේ

කාර්ය භේදය
ලිවීමේදී පමණක් සලකන භේදයකි
 උක්ත
 අනුක්ත

සම්භවය අනුව
 හෙළ (ශුද්ධ සිංහල) වදන්
 ඉල්ලාගත් වදන්
 බාහිර වදන්

සැකැස්ම අනුව
 තනි නාම පද
 සමාස පද
 සංයුක්ත නාම පද
 ක්‍රියානාම
 යුගල නාම පද

සමාස පද
ලොකු ද කුඩා ද ළමයි සියල්ලෝම පාන් ද බත් ද කමින් දිවා ආහාරය ගත්හ.

ලොකු කුඩා ළමයි සියල්ලෝම බත් පාන් කමින් දිවා ආහාරය ගත්හ.

මෙම වාක්‍ය දෙකෙන් ම එකම අර්ථය දෙන අතර දෙවන වාක්‍ය කෙටිය. මෙසේ පද කෙටිවීම සමාස ලෙස හැදින්වේ. අර්ථයට අදාල වන ලෙස මනාලෙස ගැලපීම මෙහිදී සිදුවිය යුතුය. ප්‍රධාන වශයෙන් සමාස වර්ග පහකි.

 'ද' කාරාර්ථ සමාසය
පද එක් කිරීමේ දී නැතහොත් සමුච්ඡයාර්ථයේ දී යොදනු ලබන 'ද' අක්ෂරය ඉවත් කිරීමෙන් පසුව සමාස වන නාම මෙනමින් හැදින්වේ.
උදා - ගස් ද වැල් ද = ගස්වැල්
දකාරාර්ථ සමාස නාම අනු කොටස් දෙකකට බෙදේ.
 අවයව ප්‍රමධානත්ව දකාරාර්ථ නාම.
 සමුදාය ප්‍රඅධානත්ව දකාරාර්ථ නාම.
 අවයව ප්‍රධානත්ව දකාරාර්ථ නාම.
මෙම වර්ගයේ දී ජාති නාම, සංඥා නාම, අර්ථ ක්‍රියා නාම එකට එක් වීම සිදු වේ. වාන්‍යවල යෙදීමේ දී බහු වචනයෙන් යෙදේ.
උදා - මව්පියෝ තම දූදරුවන් තම පණ සේ රකිති.
දූ ද දරු ද 	= දූදරු
මව් ද පිය ද	= මව්පිය
අර්ථ ක්‍රියා නාම, කන ද බොන ද = කනබොන - අවුරුදු සමයේ කනබොන දෑ බොහෝය
 අව්‍යය සමාසය
 විශේෂණ සමාසය
 විභක්ති සමාසය
 අන්‍යාර්ථ සමාසය

ආශ්‍රිත ලිපි
 සිංහල හෝඩි
 සිංහල අක්ෂර වින්‍යාසය
 සිංහල ව්‍යාකරණ

යොමුව

සටහන්

තව දුර කියවීමට

බැහැර පිටු
 ශ්‍රී ලංකා රාජ්‍ය භාෂා දෙපාර්තමේන්තුව
 සිංහල හෝඩිය
 සිංහල ශබ්දකෝෂය

සිංහල නාම පද
භාෂා- ශ්‍රී ලංකා
සිංහල භාෂාව

සිංහල නාම පද


ريو دي جانيرو  هي إحدى ولايات البرازيل السبع والعشرين. وبها ثاني أكبر اقتصاد في البرازيل، ومرتبتها الثانية بعد ولاية ساو باولو.

تقع ولاية ريو دي جانيرو في المنطقة الجيوسياسية البرازيلية المعرفة باسم الجنوب الشرقي (حسب تحديد المعهد البرازيلي للجغرافيا والإحصاء). تشترك ريو دي جانيرو في الحدود مع جميع الولايات الأخرى في المنطقة: ميناس جيرايس (الشمال والشمال الغربي)، إسبيريتو سانتو (الشمال الشرقي) ساو باولو (الجنوب الغربي). ويحدها المحيط الأطلسي من الشرق والجنوب.

تبلغ مساحة ريو دي جانيرو 43,653 كيلومتر مربع. عاصمتها مدينة ريو دي جانيرو، التي كانت عاصمة مستعمرة البرازيل البرتغالية بين عامي 1763-1815، والمملكة المتحدة لبرتغال والبرازيل والغرب بين عامي 1815-1822، والبرازيل المستقلة بين عام 1822-1960، قبل أن تنتقل العاصمة إلى برازيليا.

كان يشار لأهل ريو دي جانيرو قديما باسم «فلوميننسي»، وهي مأخوذة من الكلمة اللاتينية flumen التي تعني «النهر». ورغم أن «كاريوكا» كانت الإشارة القديمة لسكان ريو دي جانيرو (منذ عام 1502)، فقد تم استبدالها بعبارة «فلوميننسي» في عام 1783، عندما أصبحت الإشارة الرسمية الرسمية لنقابية ريو دي جانيرو الملكية (والتي أصبحت لاحقا مقاطعة ريو دي جانيرو)، بعد سنوات قليلة من جعل مدينة ساو سيباستياو دو ريو دي جانيرو عاصمة المستعمرات البرازيلية. من 1783، وخلال كل العهد الإمبراطوري، كانت كلمة «كاريوكا» اللقب الذي أطلقه البرازيليون الآخرون على سكان ريو (المدينة والمحافظة). خلال السنوات الأولى للجمهورية البرازيلية، أصبحت «كاريوكا» اسما يطلق على أولئك الذين يعيشون في الأحياء الفقيرة أو ازدراء للنخبة البيروقراطية في المقاطعة الاتحادية. تغيرت مكانة ريو كعاصمة اتحادية وأصبحت ولاية برازيلية (ولاية جوانابارا) عندما انتقلت العاصمة إلى برازيليا، وأصبحت «كاريوكا» الإشارة الرسمية بالاشتراك مع «جوانابارينو». في عام 1975، تم إنهاء ولاية جوانابارا بقرار من الرئيس إرنستو جيزل (في ظل الدكتاتورية العسكرية) لتتحول إلى ريو دي جانيرو وأصبحت «كاريوكا» تشير للبلدية. ورغم أن «كاريوكا» ليست إشارة رسمية معترف بها للولاية، فإن البرازيليين يدعون سكان ريو دي جانيرو بشكل عام (الولاية والمدينة) باسم «كاريوكاس»، وكذلك يفعل معظم سكان الولاية. في الوقت الحاضر، فإن الحركات الاجتماعية كلنا كاريوكاس أو "Somos Todos Cariocas" في تحاول الحصول على اعتراف رسمي باسم «كاريوكا» كلقب رسمي مشترك لولاية ريو دي جانيرو.

أكبر 10 مدن في الولاية هي: ريو دي جانيرو، ساو غونسالو، دوق دي كاكسياس، نوفا إيغواسو، نيتيروي، كامبوس دوس غويتاكازيس، بلفورد روكسو،ساو جواو دي ميريتي، بتروبوليس، فولتا ريدوندا،

ريو دي جانيرو هي أصغر ولاية في الجنوب الشرقي وإحدى أصغر ولايات البرازيل. إلا أنها ثالث أكبر ولاية البرازيلية من حيث عدد السكان، وبلغ عدد سكانها 16 مليون نسمة في عام 2011 (مما يجعلها الولاية الأكثر كثافة سكانية في البرازيل وثالث أطول شريط ساحلي في البلاد (بعد ولايتي باهيا ومارانهاو).

تمثل الولاية في العلم البرازيلي من قبل النجم بيتا في الصليب الجنوبي (β = ميموزا).

مراجع

وصلات خارجية
 الموقع الرسمي للولاية
 بوابة السياحة البرازيلية

المنطقة الجنوبية الشرقية (البرازيل)
تأسيسات سنة 1975 في البرازيل
دول وأقاليم أسست في 1975
ولايات البرازيل
ولاية ريو دي جانيرو

ريو دي جانيرو (ولاية)


القانون النووي كما هو معروف فان للطاقة النووية مزايا وعيوب حيث انها من جهة تساعد على إنتاج الكهرباء والطاقة كما يتم استخدامها أيضا في الطب والقضاء على الامراض بل تمتد منافع التكنولوجيا النووية أيضا في الحفاظ على الأراضي الزراعية والقضاء على الاوبئة والآفات المختلفة، الا انه ومن جهة أخرى فان تفجيرات الحرب العالمية الثانية في هيروشيما ونجازاكي عام 1945 تعد أكبر شاهد على الاثار المدمرة للأسلحة والاشعاعات النووية والتي تؤثر بصورة كبيرة على السلم والامن الدوليين.

وعليه فقد دعت الحاجة لاستحداث قانون خاص للاستفادة من التكنولوجيا والعلوم النووية وتفادي الاثار المدمرة لها، ومن هنا فقد نشأ القانون النووي.

تعريف
تعريف القانون النووي: هو قانون خاص بالاستخدامات السلمية للعلوم والتكنولوجيا النووية، بما يضمن الأمن والسلامة للدول والافراد والبيئة.وتأتي هنا أهم مزايا ذلك القانون حيث انه مجموعة القواعد القانونية التي نشأت من التزاوج بين العلم والتكنولوجيا والقانون، وتتضمن طريقا ايجابياً للرقابة الاجتماعية على العلاقات الجديدة بين الإنسان وبيئته.

إدراج القانون
اين يمكن ادراج القانون النووي (العام ام الخاص)؟

القانون النووي باعتباره القانون الذي ينظم عملية استغلال وتطوير قطاع الطاقة النووية ويضبط النشاط في مجال البحث النووي، كما يحدد القواعد القانونية التي تحمي سلوك الأفراد والهيئات الممارسة للنشاطات ذات الصلة بالإشعاعات، وضمان أمن المصادر وتسيير النفايات، فبالملاحظة الأولى نجد أن الدولة هنا طرف فيها باعتبارها صاحبة سلطة وسيادة، ومن جهة أخرى تنظيم هذا القانون للتراخيص والرقابة على الأنشطة النووية وأخيرا توقيع العقاب في حالة ارتكاب فعل ضار يدخل في مجال هذه الأنشطة، فهذه كلها قوانين يكون مجالها داخل الدولة ومنه فالقانون النووي هو فرع من فروع القانون العام.

أما إذا نظرنا من ناحية المسؤولية المدنية للمطالبة بالتعويض عن الضرر الناجم عن هذه الأنشطة النووية فهنا تنظيمها يخضع للمعاهدات الدولية والتي هي بدورها تندرج ضمن فرع من فروع القانون الخاص (القانون الدولي الخاص).

إذن كنتيجة القانون النووي يندرج ضمن فروع القانون المختلفة بحسب الحالة التي نحن بصدد دراستها، فهو قانون يتميز بوضع خاص في حين أنه يدخل ضمن النظام القانوني ككل.

مراجع

طاقة نووية
قانون

قانون نووي


Hermanfrid (also Hermanifrid or Hermanafrid; , died 532) was the last independent king of the Thuringii in present-day Germany. He was one of three sons of King Bisinus and the Lombard Menia. His siblings were Baderic; Raicunda, married to the Lombard king Wacho; and Bertachar.

Between 507 and 511 Hermanfrid married Amalaberga, daughter of Amalafrida who was the daughter of Theodemir. Amalberga was the niece of Theodoric the Great, who received a number of "silver-white" horses from Hermanfrid.
It is unclear when Hermanfrid became king, but he is called king (rex thoringorum) in a letter by Theodoric dated to 507. He first shared the rule with his brothers Baderic and Bertachar, but later killed Bertachar in a battle in 529, leaving the young Radegund an orphan.

According to Gregory of Tours, Amalaberga now stirred up Hermanfrid against his remaining brother. Once she laid out only half the table for a meal, and when questioned about the reason, she told him "A king who owns only of half of his kingdom deserved to have half of his table bare." Thus roused, Hermanfrid made a pact with the king of Metz, Theuderic I, to march against Baderic. Baderic was overcome by the Franks and beheaded, but Hermanfrid refused to fulfill his obligations to Theuderic, which led to enmity between the two kings.

In 531 or 532, Theuderic, his son Theudebert I, and his brother King Clotaire I of Soissons attacked the Thuringii. The Franks won a battle near the river Unstrut and took the royal seat at Scithingi (modern Burgscheidungen). Hermanfrid managed to flee, but the Franks captured his niece Radegund (see Venantius Fortunatus, De excidio Thoringae) and his nephews.

Theuderic gave Hermanfrid safe conduct, ordered him to come to Zülpich, and gave him many gifts. While Hermanfrid talked with Theuderic, somebody pushed him from the town walls of Zülpich and he died. Gregory mentions that certain people had ventured to suggest that Theuderic might have had something to do with it.

Radegund was then forced to marry King Clotaire, while Hermanfrid's wife Amalaberga fled to the Ostrogoths with her children Amalafrid and Rodelinda. She was later captured by the Byzantine general Belisarius and sent to Constantinople, where Amalafrid later became an imperial general and Rodelinda was married to the Lombard king Auduin.

The Thuringian kingdom ended with Hermanfrid. The area east of the Saale River was taken over by Slavic tribes, north Thuringia by the Saxons.

The fall of the Thuringian dynasty became the subject of numerous epic treatments, the best known of which is in the Rerum gestarum saxonicarum libri tres by Widukind of Corvey, a Saxon foundation myth written in 967. Rudolph of Fulda tells a related story. In this version, it is the Saxons under Duke Hadugato, as allies of the Franks, who win the great battle on the Unstrut.

About the Sources
The main source for this period is Gregory of Tours, who represents the Frankish viewpoint.
Widukind is much later and has clearly incorporated mythical elements into his account. Procopius only mentions the events in passing as far as they affect Italy.

References

Kings of the Thuringians
6th-century monarchs in Europe

Hermanafrid


Tonmi Lillman (* 3. Juni 1973 in Kouvola als Tommi Lillman; † 13. Februar 2012) war ein finnischer Schlagzeuger. Unter dem Pseudonym Otus war er von Oktober 2010 bis zu seinem Tod Mitglied der Rockband Lordi, zuletzt spielte er zudem bei den Bands Vanguard und zusammen mit Alexi Laiho und Vesa Jokinen bei Kylähullut.

Zuvor war er unter anderem Bandmitglied bei Ajattara, Sinergy und To/Die/For und auch als Session-Schlagzeuger für weitere Bands aktiv gewesen. Als Toningenieur arbeitete er unter anderem mit Beherit und MyGRAIN zusammen.

Seinen Geburtsnamen Tommi ließ Lillman im Jahr 2004 in Tonmi ändern. Neben dem Schlagzeug spielte er auch noch E-Bass (z. B. auf den Veröffentlichungen mit Kylähullut), Gitarre und Keyboard.

Am 13. Februar 2012 starb Tonmi Lillman im Alter von 38 Jahren.

Diskografie

Auswahl; nur Studioalben
Mit Ajattara
 2007: Kalmanto
 2009: Noitumaa
Mit Kylähullut
 2005: Turpa Täynnä
 2007: Peräaukko Sivistyksessä
Mit Sinergy
 2000: To Hell and Back
 2002: Suicide By My Side
Mit To/Die/For
 1999: All Eternity
 2001: Epilogue
 2003: Jaded

Einzelnachweise

Weblinks

Musiker (Finnland)
Metal-Schlagzeuger
Finne
Geboren 1973
Gestorben 2012
Mann
Dark-Rock-Musiker

Tonmi Lillman


Christopher John Farley (born July 28, 1966) is a Jamaican-born American journalist, columnist, and author.

Early life
Farley was born in Kingston, Jamaica, and grew up in New York. He is a graduate of Brockport High School and Harvard University, where he edited the Harvard Lampoon. He has been a writer for Time magazine since 1992. He currently serves as an editor of The Wall Street Journal. In May 2005, Time published Chris's interview with comedian Dave Chappelle.

Career
Farley is the author of the fact-based novel Kingston by Starlight, the novel My Favorite War; and biographies Before the Legend: The Rise of Bob Marley; Aaliyah, More Than a Woman; Introducing Halle Berry; and is a co-author of Martin Scorsese Presents the Blues: A Musical Journey. In 2004, at the passing of legendary rhythm and blues recording artist and singer Ray Charles, Farley and fellow journalist Anthony DeCurtis, pianist Marcus Roberts, and violinist and record producer Phil Ramone all appeared in an installment of the Charlie Rose show, titled "An Appreciation of Ray Charles", which was dedicated to the singer's music and his memory and legacy.

References

External links
Christopher John Farley interview at Journalisam Jobs weblink
Christopher John Farley at Facebook

Journalists from New York City
The Harvard Lampoon alumni
Living people
1966 births
People from Kingston, Jamaica
Writers from New Rochelle, New York
The Wall Street Journal people
American columnists
Jamaican columnists
Jamaican journalists
20th-century American journalists
American male journalists

Christopher John Farley


Nicole Prescovia Elikolani Valiente Scherzinger (d. 29 Haziran 1978, Hawaii, Honolulu), Amerikalı şarkıcı, söz yazarı. Nicole, Pussycat Dolls grubunun baş vokalistidir. Ke'ala adında bir kız kardeşi vardır. ABD, Santa Monica'da yaşamaktadır. Babası Filipinli Alfonso Valiente ve annesi hem Hawaiili hem Rus Rosemary'dir. Annesi, Nicole doğduğunda 18 yaşındaydı. Nicole bebekken annesi ve babası ayrıldı. Nicole 6 yaşındayken annesi, Alman üvey babası Gary Scherzinger ile evlendi ve Kentucky'deki Louisville'e yerleştiler. Nicole, Katolik bir aileden gelmektedir. Nicole'ün ses ve müziğe olan yeteneği, küçükken kilise korosunda şarkı söylemesiyle başladı.

ABD'de 2000 yılında başlayan Popstars adlı yarışmaya katıldığında 22 yaşında olan Nicole Scherzinger, seçmelerde ünlü Whitney Houston şarkısı "I Will Always Love You"yu söyleyerek yarışmacı olarak seçildi. 2003'te sonlanan Popstars yarışmasını Nicole'ün de bir üyesi olduğu grup, "Eden's Crush" kazandı. 2004 yılında Robin Antin'le tanışan Nicole Scherzinger, Robin Antin'den Pussycat Dolls adlı dans grubuna solist olarak katılması yönünde teklif aldı. Nicole, Edens Crush'tan ayrılarak Pussycat Dolls'a katıldığında 25 yaşındaydı.

"Don't Cha", "Beep", "Buttons" gibi dünyada hit olmuş şarkıların yaratıcısı, The Pussycat Dolls grubunun lideri ve solistidir. 2005 yılında çıkan ilk Pussycat Dolls albümü "PCD" ile grupla birlikte çok büyük başarılara imza attı. Solo kariyer yapmakta gecikmedi. Avant'ın "Lie About Us" adlı şarkısına eşlik etti. Daha sonra Shaggy'nin "Don't Ask Her That" şarkısında ve Diddy'nin "Come To Me" şarkısında düet yaptı. Ayrıca "Steam"in çıkış single'ı olacağı söylendi ama Nicole, Steam'in albümde yer almayacağını açıkladı. 2007 yazında Pussycat Dolls'un resmi web sitesinde T.I. ile düet olan "Whatever U Like" çıktı ve bu şarkının ilk single olacağı açıklandı. Nicole şarkının tanıtımını 17 Ağustos'ta "So You Think You Can Dance" adlı dans yarışmasının kapanışında söyledi. "Whatever U Like" ilk single olarak sayılıyordu fakat bazı sebeplerden dolayı Will.I.Am ile düet olan "Baby Love" Nicole'ün ilk single'ı olarak kabul edilmektedir. Prodüktörlüğünü Akon'ın yaptığı "Puakenikeni" ise albümdeki 2. single'dır.

19 Eylül 2008 tarihinde grubu Pussycat Dolls'un ikinci stüdyo albümü "Doll Domination" satışa çıktı.

Doll Domination albümünden yayınlanan singlelar;

"When I Grow Up" 27 Mayıs 2008, "Whatcha Think About That" 9 Eylül 2008, "I Hate This Part" 7 Ekim 2008, "Jai Ho! (You Are My Destiny)" 23 Şubat 2009, "Bottle Pop" 6 Mart 2009, "Hush Hush; Hush Hush" 12 Mayıs 2009.

Nicole Scherzinger, bu albümdeki tüm şarkıların yazılışında ve bestelenişinde çok büyük bir yere sahiptir. "Hush Hush" şarkısı çoğunlukla Nicole Scherzinger'e aittir.

2009 Aralık ayında Amerikan şarkı yarışması "The Sing-Off"un jüri üyeliğini yapmıştır. Yarışmanın final kısmında Scherzinger, finalist grup Beelzebubs ile birlikte "You Don't Own Me" adlı şarkıyı seslendirmiştir.

Nicole Scherzinger, Amerika'da yayınlanan dans yarışması Dancing With The Stars'ın 10. sezonunda dans partneri Derek Hough'la birlikte 1. oldu. Hemen ardından Nicole, 24 Mayıs 2010 tarihinde "Nobody Can Change Me" adlı yeni single'ını çıkardı.

Diskografi

 Killer Love (2011)
 Big Fat Lie (2014)

Kaynakça

Dış bağlantılar

 Resmî sitesi

1978 doğumlular
Honolulu doğumlular
Amerikalı kadın dansçılar
Amerikalı dans müzisyenleri
Amerikalı kadın sinema oyuncuları
Amerikalı kadın pop şarkıcıları
Amerikalı rhythm and blues şarkıcıları
Amerikalı söz yazarları
Amerikalı mezzo-sopranolar
Filipin asıllı Amerikalılar
Rus asıllı Amerikalılar
The Pussycat Dolls üyeleri
Elektropop
Yaşayan insanlar
21. yüzyılda Amerikalı şarkıcılar
Amerikalı kadın hip hop şarkıcıları

Nicole Scherzinger


10.5: Apocalypse  é um minissérie da televisão americana exibida em 2006, escrita e dirigida por John Lafia. A produção é uma sequência da minissérie de 2004, 10.5.

Produzida e filmada no Canadá (Montreal e Quebec em junho de 2005), seu enredo trata de desastres sísmicos catastróficos, incluindo terremotos, erupções vulcânicas, tsunamis e sumidouros, todos desencadeados por um terremoto apocalíptico.

Elenco (lista incompleta)
 Kim Delaney.....Dr. Samantha "Sam" Hill
 Carlos Bernard.....Dr. Miguel Garcia
 Oliver Hudson.....Will Malloy
 Fred Ward.....Roy Nolan
 Carly Pope.....Laura Malloy
 Frank Langella.....Dr. Earl Hill
 Beau Bridges.....presidente dos Estados Unidos Paul Hollister

Minisséries dos Estados Unidos
Telefilmes de drama de ação dos Estados Unidos
Telefilmes dos Estados Unidos de 2006

10.5: Apocalypse