Bitka kod Angore ili Ankare, odlučujući sukob između Osmanskog i Timuridskog Carstva.

Težeći ponovnoj uspostavi Džingis-kanovog Mogolskog Carstva, njegov navodni potomak Timur usmjerio je krajem 14. stoljeća svoje osvajačke pohode prema zapadu, u pravcu prednje Azije te je osnovao Timuridsko Carstvo. U isto vrijeme je sultan Bajazid I. širio vlast Turaka Osmanlija u suprotnom pravcu, osvajajući redom kneževine Turaka Seldžuka u Maloj Aziji, čiji su se emiri sklonili kod Timura.

Pokreti vojski pred bitku i njihovi sastavi
U proljeće 1402. Timur se s vojskom kretao preko Erzincana u smjeru Sivasa. Za to vrijeme je Bajazid prikupio svoju vojsku kod Angore (Ankare) i odtamo krenuo na istok prema Tokatu, s ciljem da Timura dočeka na planinskom i šumskom terenu, povoljnijem za djelovanje osmanske vojske, čija je glavna snaga bila u elitnom pješaštvu, janjičarima. Upravo zbog toga Timur mu nije krenuo u susret, već je sa svojim tatarskim konjanicima zaobišao Tokat s juga, dolinom rijeke Kizil stigao pred utvrđenu Angoru, u namjeri da privuče Bajazida na taj teren koji je bio povoljniji za djelovanje konjice.

O obostranoj jačini nema pouzdanih podataka. Tadašnji su izvori tvrdili kako je Bajazid imao između 90 i 120,000 vojnika, a njegov protivnik 840,000. Međutim, prema onome što se zna o njihovoj vojnoj organizaciji,. Timur nije mogao imati više od 140,000, a Bajazid najviše oko 85,000.

U Bajazidovoj vojsci, među njegovima vazalima, bilo je oko 5000 Srba koje je predvodio Stefan Lazarević. Uz njega bio je njegov brat Vuk i njihovi sestrići Grgur i Đurađ, sinovi Vuka Brankovića. Među srpskim ratnicima bilo je nekoliko stotina oklopnika. Na bojištu, to su bili jedini teški oklopnici europskog (viteškog) tipa.

Tijek i posljedice bitke
U zoru 28. srpnja obje su se vojske postrojile za bitku sjeverno od Angore. Desnim osmanskim krilom zapovijedao je najstariji Bajazidov sin Sulejman, lijevim Stefan Lazarević, a centrom Bajazid osobno. Na krilima su se nalazili konjanici (spahije, akindžije i vazalne trupe), a u centru pješaci, janičari i azapi. Tok bitke može se rekonstruirati samo u glavnim potezima.

Do sudara je došlo najprije između desnog tatarskog i lijevog osmanskog krila. Tatari su odbačeni akcijom srpskih trupa čiju hrabrost ističu bizantski i perzijski izvori. Srpski oklopnici bili su na angorskom bojištu najefikasniji ratnici. Na desnom osmanskom krilu trupe tek potčinjenih seldžučkih emirata prešle su na stranu Tatara. Nakon nekog vremena sva je laka osmanska konjica bila razbijena, a Stefan Lazarević odsječen od centra koji je čvrsto držao. Zahvaljujući svojim oklopnicima on se probio do Bajazida kako bi ga nagovorio da povuče avoje snage. Kada je ovaj to odbio, Stefan se povukao sam prema zapadu štiteći od tatarskih odreda Sulejmanovo povlačenje.

Na tome putu postoji toponim Srp gazi (srpski pobjednik), koji i danas svjedoči o srpskom uspjehu. Bajazid je na jednom visu nastavio borbu s janičarima do večeri, ali je pri pokušaju proboja pao s konja i pao u zarobljeništvo, gdje je i umro Zarobljen je i Grgur Brankovic ali je kasnije otkupljen.

Posle bitke sva Mala Azija pala je u ruke Timura. U Osmanskom Carstvu je nakon bitke došlo do interregnuma što je zaustavilo širenje Osmanlija za za čitavu generaciju.

Literatura

 "Angorska bitka", U: Vojna enciklopedija, sv. 1., Beograd: Izdanje redakcije Vojne enciklopedije, 1970., str. 156. – 157.
 J. Hammer, Geschichte des osmanischen Reiches, I, Pest, 1827.
 Emerhalis, Bitka kod Ankare (prev. s tur.), Beograd, 1937.
 F. Lot, L'art militarie et les armées au moyen âge, II, Paris, 1946.

Timuridsko Carstvo
Angora
Osmanske bitke
Srbijanske bitke

Bitka kod Angore


El órgano de perfumería es un mueble de uso profesional, imaginado en 1884 por el escritor francés Joris-Karl Huysmans para la novela À rebours, posteriormente construido por ebanistas para uso de perfumistas y químicos, que proporciona los frascos de materias primas, esencias, sintéticas y naturales, dispuestos en semicírculo, para la creación de perfumes.

Algunas grandes empresas de perfumería sustituyen el órgano de perfume por laboratorios de prueba, talleres olfativos que albergan miles de ingredientes y esencias.

Referencias

 . Les Parfums, Histoire, Anthologie, Dictionnaire. Editado por Robert Laffont. 2011

Enlaces externos

Perfumería
Mobiliario comercial

Órgano de perfumería


An Seidenfadeniella filiformis in uska species han Liliopsida nga syahan ginhulagway ni Heinrich Gustav Reichenbach, ngan ginhatag han pagkayana nga asya nga ngaran ni Eric Alston Christenson och Paul Ormerod. An Seidenfadeniella filiformis in nahilalakip ha genus nga Seidenfadeniella, ngan familia nga Orchidaceae. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Seidenfadeniella

Seidenfadeniella filiformis


An Aloe officinalis in uska species han Liliopsida nga ginhulagway ni Peter Forsskål. An Aloe officinalis in nahilalakip ha genus nga Aloe, ngan familia nga Xanthorrhoeaceae.

Subspecies

Ini nga species ginbahin ha masunod nga subspecies:

 A. o. angustifolia
 A. o. officinalis

Mga kasarigan

Mga sumpay ha gawas

Image gallery

Aloe

sv:Äkta aloe

Aloe officinalis


شركة سيكو القابضة ، وتعرف باسمها المختصر سيكو ، هي شركة ساعات يابانية.

لمحة تاريخية

تم تأسيس شركة سيكو في عام 1881م عندما قام كنتارو هاتوري بافتتاح متجر للساعات في منطقة جنزا من مدينة طوكيو في اليابان، وأطلق على المتجر اسم «كي هاتوي» "K.Hattori"، وبعد إحدى عشر سنة من افتتاح المتجر ابتداء كنتارو بتصنيع الساعات تحت اسم سيكوشا Seikosha والذي معناه «بيت الحرفية المتقنة»، وبحسب تعريف الشركة فإن معنى كلمة سيكو Seiko، هو «الإتقان» أو «النجاح».

المؤقت الرسمي
سيكو هي المؤقت الرسمي لعدد من الأحداث الرياضية المهمة مثل:
 ألعاب أولمبية صيفية 1964 في طوكيو، اليابان، 1964
 بطولة كأس العالم لكرة القدم 1978 في الأرجنتين
 بطولة كأس العالم لكرة القدم 1982 في إسبانيا
 بطولة كأس العالم لكرة القدم 1986 في المكسيك
 بطولة العالم لألعاب القوى 1987 في إيطاليا، 1987.
 بطولة كأس العالم لكرة القدم 1990 في إيطاليا.
 بطولة العالم لألعاب القوى 1991 في طوكيو، اليابان، 1991.
 ألعاب أولمبية صيفية 1992 فيبرشلونة، أسبانيا، 1992
 ألعاب أولمبية شتوية 1994 في النرويج، 1994
 ألعاب أولمبية شتوية 1998 في ناغانو، اليابان، 1998
 ألعاب أولمبية شتوية 2002 في سولت ليك، الولايات المتحدة، 2002.

مراجع وهوامش

وصلات خارجية
 موقع شركة سيكو القابضة
 موقع شركة سيكو القابضة
 مجموعة شركات سيكو القابضة
 موقع شركة ساعة سيكو
 موقع شركة ساعة سيكو الدولي
 موقع ساعات سيكو
 مجموعة شركات سيكو القابضة

الاكتتابات العامة الأولية في عقد 1940
تأسيسات سنة 1881 في اليابان
تكتل شركات مقرها في طوكيو
شركات أشباه موصلات
شركات إلكترونيات في اليابان
شركات أسست في 1881
شركات تصنيع أسست في 1881
شركات تصنيع ساعات
شركات تصنيع ساعات يابانية
شركات تصنيع مقرها في طوكيو
شركات قابضة مقرها في طوكيو
شركات مدرجة في بورصة طوكيو
علامات تجارية فاخرة
علامات تجارية يابانية
مالكي الضمان الملكي البلجيكي
شركات يابانية أسست في 1881

سيكو (شركة يابانية)


Trial in absentia is a criminal proceeding in a court of law in which the person who is subject to it is not physically present at those proceedings.  is Latin for "in (the) absence". Its meaning varies by jurisdiction and legal system.

In common law legal systems, the phrase is more than a spatial description. In these systems, it suggests a recognition of a violation of a defendant's right to be present in court proceedings in a criminal trial. Conviction in a trial in which a defendant is not present to answer the charges is held to be a violation of natural justice. Specifically, it violates the second principle of natural justice,  (hear the other party).

In some civil law legal systems, such as that of Italy,  is a recognized and accepted defensive strategy. Such trials may require the presence of the defendant's lawyer, depending on the country.

Europe

Member states of the Council of Europe that are party to the European Convention on Human Rights are bound to adhere to Article 6 of the convention, which protects the right to a fair trial.

Trials in absentia are banned in some member states of the EU and permitted in others, posing significant problems for the fluidity of mutual recognition of these judicial judgments. The executing member state possesses some degree of discretion and is not obliged to execute a European Arrest Warrant if the country that is making the request has already tried that person in absentia.

Conditions under which trials in absentia must be recognised include: if the person can be said to have been aware of the trial; if a counsellor took their place at the trial; if they do not request an appeal in due time; and if they are to be offered an appeal.

The framework decision on the European Arrest Warrant provides for the legal guarantees relevant to trials in absentia. While the framework decision explicitly refers to Article 6 of the European Convention on Human Rights, its purpose is not to harmonise national laws on trials in absentia but to provide terms for the non-recognition of a European Arrest Warrant and other cooperative tools. The framework decision provides detailed conditions and requirements on which a trial in absentia can be considered compatible with Article 6, the right to a fair trial.

According to Pieter Cleppe of the think-tank Open Europe, in parts of Europe, in absentia trials essentially give defendants the ability to appeal twice—asking for a retrial at which they would be present and then potentially appealing the second verdict.

The Council of Europe has made commentary on judgments that are made in absentia. The Committee of Ministers, in Resolution (75) 11, of 21 May 1975, stated that an individual must first be effectively served with a summons prior to being tried.  In this sense, the ministers are emphasizing that it is not the presence of the accused at the hearing that is of importance, rather the focus should be on whether or not the individual was informed of the trial in time.

In a 1985 judgement in the case Colozza v Italy, the European Court of Human Rights stressed that a person charged with a criminal offence is entitled to take part in the hearings. This entitlement is based on the right to a fair trial and the right to a defence, both of which are required by the convention (articles 6(1) and 6(3)). Furthermore, the court stressed that a person convicted in absentia shall be entitled to a fresh trial once he becomes aware of the proceedings:

Belgium
The Human Rights Committee (HRC) examined Monguya Mbenge v. Zaire (1990) in which the applicant was sentenced to death while exiled in Belgium and was only able to learn of the case against him through the media. Due to these circumstances, the committee found that a number of the applicant's procedural rights had been violated, especially in consideration of the fact that the Zairean authorities had hardly attempted to contact the applicant despite possible knowledge of the applicant's address. This highly impeded the applicant's capacity to prepare any form of defense. Failed evidence to support the case that a court had tried to inform the accused of proceedings against him/her provides the committee with the opinion that the right to be tried in one's presence was violated.

Czech Republic
Under Article 8(2) of the Charter of Fundamental Rights and Basic Freedoms of the Czech Republic, which has the same legal standing as the Czech Constitution, no one may be prosecuted or deprived of their liberty except on grounds and in a manner specified by law.

In general, the Czech Criminal Procedural Code requires the presence of the defendant in any criminal proceedings. The code recognizes the following exemptions from this rule, when criminal proceedings may be conducted without the presence of the person charged:
 Where a defendant has died (involving the continuation or reopening of proceedings in order to clear a deceased defendant's name).
 Where a defendant is unknown:
 This may arise before charges against a person are brought, normally in respect of pre-trial proceedings. For example, if police conclude that a crime has been committed and that action needs to be taken to identify the perpetrator, such as the interrogation of a witness or an identity parade, such an action is taken in the presence of a judge because the rights of the (still unidentified) criminal suspect cannot otherwise be adequately protected during the evidence gathering. Normally, a defendant enjoys the right to be present or represented by an attorney during the interrogation or identity parade. But where the defendant is not yet identified, in order to secure full legality and impartiality, a judge is present. This ensures the admissibility of the resulting evidence will not be successfully challenged during the trial. Typically, this situation might involve a dying witness, not expected to be available later for cross-examination at a trial by or on behalf of the defendant.
 When confiscating property involved in criminal case from an unknown owner, the property confiscated will remain the property of the unknown owner pending a trial and a court decision to transfer the property confiscated to the state.  An example could arise where the property to be confiscated might endanger people, property or society, or might be used for commission of a felony. Typically, this concerns prohibited weapons or ammunition, explosives, narcotics, poisons, etc., seized by the police without, at the time of the seizure, knowing the owner's identity.
 Where a defendant is known:
 Where an accused person is evading proceedings by being either abroad or in hiding, the proceedings may be conducted in absentia. The proceedings are then officially started by the formal delivery of charges to the defendant's attorney. If the defendant does not have an attorney, the court will appoint one. An attorney must in these circumstances be appointed throughout the entire proceedings, and will have all the defendant's rights. All documents intended for the defendant will be delivered to the attorney and the court must take "appropriate measures" to announce the trial publicly. Where the absent defendant subsequently appears during the trial, the proceedings shall continue in the normal way. The defendant may request that any evidence that had been presented in his absence be presented again; where this is not possible, he will be shown records of it and may comment on it. Where the case has ended with an enforceable judgment, the convicted party may request a fresh trial within eight days of the delivery of the judgment to him. The fresh trial may not lead to an outcome that would be less favorable to the defendant than the outcome of the previous in absentia trial.

Apart from the aforementioned cases of in absentia proceedings in the narrow sense, the defendant may also be absent during the trial under following circumstances:

 When the defendant fails to appear for the trial: only if
the indictment was duly delivered and
the defendant was duly summoned for the trial (i.e. is not in hiding) and
the defendant has already been formally questioned during pre-trial proceedings (whether or not they elected to remain silent) and
the defendant has been alerted about their right to study the case file and to put forward motions for investigation and
the court determines that, despite the defendant's absence from the trial, the case can be reliably decided and the purposes of the trial achieved.
 When the defendant requests that the trial takes place in their absence: if the defendant is being held on remand, a simple failure to appear is not permitted: the defendant must formally request that the proceedings to take place in their absence
 When the defendant is disrupting the proceedings: trial in absentia is possible only on basis of a formal ruling of, and subject to previous warning by, the court, and only for the necessary period of time. Immediately after allowing the defendant back into the courtroom, the presiding judge must convey the essential content of the proceedings taken in the defendant's absence, so as allow them to comment on it.

Italy
Italy is one of several countries in Europe that allow trials in absentia, and they are a regular occurrence.

In Maleki v Italy (1997), the United Nations Human Rights Committee held that the Italian policy on trials in absentia was a breach of the right to fair trial under Article 14 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights. Italy argued that where a defendant in absentia is represented by court-appointed counsel and where he or she has an opportunity to be re-tried, the right to a fair trial will not be violated. The committee disagreed, describing Italy's position as:

In 2009, a former CIA station chief and two other Americans were tried and convicted in absentia by a Milan appeals court for the abduction of Egyptian terror suspect Osama Hassan Mustafa Nasr. The decision meant that 26 Americans tried in absentia for the abduction were found guilty.

The trial of American Amanda Knox for the 2007 murder of British student Meredith Kercher highlighted the issue of Italy's willingness to try defendants in absentia. In 2013 Italy's highest court, the Court of Cassation, decided to annul Knox's appeal (alongside the co-accused, Italian Raffaele Sollecito), thus overturning their previous acquittals, declaring the acquittal as "full of deficiencies, contradictions and illogical conclusions".

As Amanda Knox remained at her home in the United States, her appeal was heard in absentia, in Florence, Italy. On 30 January 2014 her guilty verdict was re-instated for the murder of Kercher and her sentence set at 28 years and six months imprisonment.

In the case of Goddi v. Italy, the European Court of Human Rights held that the failure of Italy's judiciary to inform the officially appointed lawyer of the applicant in regards to the correct date of the trial hearing deprived the applicant of an effective defence, and therefore Article 6 (3) (c) had been violated.

Certain case law supports the notion that in some circumstances representation by counsel at the trial will not be enough to make an in absentia conviction conclusive enough for the establishment of probable cause. In Gallina v Fraser, the appellant Vincenzo Gallina was convicted in absentia according to established Italian procedure for two robberies. The verdict in Gallina has been since interpreted to suggest that the presence of legal counsel alone is, in certain cases, insufficient to give an in absentia conviction that establishes probable cause.

United States
For more than 100 years, courts in the United States have held that the United States Constitution protects a criminal defendant's right to appear in person at their trial, as a matter of due process, under the Fifth, Sixth, and Fourteenth Amendments.

In 1884, the Supreme Court of the United States held that

A similar holding was announced by the Arizona Court of Appeals in 2004 (based on Arizona Rules of Criminal Procedure):

Although United States Congress codified this right by approving Rule 43 of the Federal Rules of Criminal Procedure in 1946 and amended the Rule in 1973, the right is not absolute.

Rule 43 provides that a defendant shall be present

 at the arraignment,
 at the time of the plea,
 at every stage of the trial including the impaneling of the jury and the return of the verdict and
 at the imposition of sentence.

However, the following exceptions are included in the Rule:
 the defendant waives his or her right to be present if he or she voluntarily leaves the trial after it has commenced,
 if he or she persists in disruptive conduct after being warned that such conduct will cause him or her to be removed from the courtroom,
 a corporation need not be present, but may be represented by counsel,
 in prosecutions for misdemeanors, the court may permit arraignment, plea, trial, and imposition of sentence in the defendant's absence with his or her written consent, and
 the defendant need not be present at a conference or argument upon a question of law or at a reduction of sentence under Rule 35 of the Federal Rules of Criminal Procedure.

Indeed, several U.S. Supreme Court decisions have recognized that a defendant may forfeit the right to be present at trial through disruptive behavior, or through his or her voluntary absence after trial has begun.

In 1993, the Supreme Court revisited Rule 43 in the case of Crosby v. United States. The Court unanimously held, in an opinion written by Justice Harry Blackmun, that Rule 43 does not permit the trial in absentia of a defendant who is absent at the beginning of trial.

However, in Crosby, the Rehnquist Court reiterated an 80-year-old precedent that

Examples

Examples of people convicted in absentia are:
 Charles I of England was removed from his trial due to his disruptive behavior, and sentenced to death by beheading without being in the room.
 Cesare Battisti, thriller author and former member of the Italian terrorist group Armed Proletarians for Communism, sentenced to life. (Arrested on March 18, 2007, in Brazil, and then released on 9 June 2011.)
Ian Bailey, a British man convicted in absentia by a French court of the murder of a French woman in Ireland.
 Adem Jashari, leader of the Kosovo Liberation Army, was convicted in July 1997 in absentia by a Yugoslav court after several unsuccessful attempts to capture or kill him.
 Krim Belkacem, Algerian Berber resistance fighter and politician. (Assassinated on October 18, 1970, in West Germany.)
 Heinrich Boere, a Dutch or German convicted by a Dutch court in 1949 of murders on the part of the World War II German occupation authorities in the Netherlands. German courts refused to extradite Boere to the Netherlands due to his possibly having German citizenship.
 Martin Bormann, Nazi official and Hitler's private secretary, convicted of war crimes and crimes against humanity and sentenced to death by hanging at the Nuremberg war crimes trials. (Disappeared on May 2, 1945, his remains were uncovered in late 1972 in West Berlin, and conclusively identified as those of Bormann in 1998.)
 Dési Bouterse, Suriname's former military leader, sentenced to 16 years in prison and fined $2.18 million in the Netherlands for cocaine trafficking.
 Ahmed Chalabi, former Iraqi oil minister, convicted in Jordan for bank fraud.
 Bettino Craxi, Italian former prime minister, sentenced in absentia to 27 years in jail in Italy, who previously fled to Hammamet in Tunisia in 1994, and remained a fugitive there, protected by Ben Ali's regime.
 Léon Degrelle, Belgian Nazi collaborator sentenced to death by firing squad while he lived in Spain.
Ryszard Kukliński, a Polish colonel, Cold War spy and communist whistleblower, sentenced in absentia to death as a traitor in 1984 by a communist court in the Polish People's Republic. He was finally acquitted in 1997. It was said his activity was in a State of Necessity.
 Ira Einhorn, murderer and anti-war activist, who challenged his conviction in Pennsylvania. (Escaped to Europe, but was extradited from France back to the US on July 20, 2001.)
 John Factor, a British-born American gangster and con man, charged with securities fraud in England and tried and sentenced to 24 years in prison in absentia after fleeing back to the United States.
 Charles de Gaulle, sentenced first to four years in prison and later to death in 1940 for treason against the Vichy regime.
 Oleg Gordievsky, sentenced to death by the Soviet Union for treason after fleeing to the United Kingdom in 1985.
 Boļeslavs Maikovskis, Latvian Nazi collaborator sentenced to death by a Soviet court in 1965 (while living in the United States).
 Mengistu Haile Mariam, former communist dictator sentenced to death in Ethiopia for genocide in May 2008.
 Jamal Jafaar Mohammed aka Abu Mahdi al-Muhandis, sentenced to death by a Kuwaiti court for the 1983 Kuwait bombings. He served in Iraq's parliament (2006–2007) as a member of Prime Minister Nouri al-Maliki's Islamic Dawa Party and was killed in the 2020 Baghdad International Airport airstrike by a United States drone.
 Abu Musab al-Zarqawi, sentenced to death in Jordan. (Killed on June 7, 2006, in Iraq.)
 Andrew Luster, convicted of rape after fleeing mid-trial.
 Filiberto Ojeda Ríos, convicted in the US after fleeing.
 Zine El Abidine Ben Ali, former president of Tunisia, sentenced to life in prison along with his wife, Leïla Ben Ali.
 Bernardo Provenzano, Sicilian Mafia boss convicted of numerous murders during his 42 years as a fugitive.
 Michael Townley, Chilean DINA agent, has been convicted in 1993 by an Italian court in carrying out the 1975 Rome murder attempt on Bernardo Leighton. (Currently living under the United States Federal Witness Protection Program.)
 Sholam Weiss, sentenced to the longest federal prison term in United States history (835 years) for fraud, money laundering and other crimes, jumped bail mid-trial. (Extradited by Austria on June 20, 2002.)
 Arkady Shevchenko, high ranking SVR official of the USSR, sentenced to death in Moscow in absentia after defecting to the United States.
 Irakli Okruashvili, Defense Minister of Georgia from 2004 to 2006 and a personal friend of Georgian president Mikheil Saakashvili. Okruashvili returned to prominence when he formed an opposition party to the Georgian government and accused it of corruption and plotting assassinations. He was arrested days later on charges of extortion, bribe taking, and abuse of power, and released on $6 million bail pending trial. He flew to Europe, supposedly to seek medical treatment, but tried to find political asylum. He was denied asylum in Germany, but received it in France, which refused an extradition request from Georgia. He was tried in absentia, found guilty, and sentenced to 11 years imprisonment.
In 2011, Eugene Koffi Adoboli was sentenced to five years in jail in absentia stemming from an embezzlement scandal while he was Prime Minister of Togo.
 Anwar al-Awlaki, radical Islamic cleric assassinated by drone by the United States in Yemen in 2011, was tried in abseentia by the Yemeni government.
 Alexander Poteyev, ex-colonel of the Russian intelligence agency SVR, was sentenced in absentia to 25 years of imprisonment on the charge of high treason by Moscow court in 2011. His whereabouts are unknown; presumably he lives in the United States under protection of the US government.
 Kent Kristensen, Danish businessman was sentenced in Romania in absentia to seven years for not paying an official in a building project. He was arrested in Spain in 2011 when he tried to save his child who was abducted by her mother. He is serving his time at the Giurgiu maximum security prison. In March 2012 it was reported that the Romania denied him his medication.
 Amanda Knox, tried in absentia and convicted in 2013 (later cleared), for the 2007 murder of Meredith Kercher.
 Dmitry Yazov, Soviet Marshal convicted in absentia by Lithuania for deadly military crackdown in 1991 and sentenced to 10 years in jail.
 Julie d'Aubigny, 17th-century French duelist charged with kidnapping, arson and body snatching in absentia.
 Muhammad Zaidan (aka. Abu Abbas), leader of the Palestine Liberation Front, was charged in Italy in absentia to five terms of life imprisonment for his role as mastermind in the 1985 hijacking of the Italian cruise ship MS Achille Lauro, which resulted in the murder of 69-year-old American Jewish passenger Leon Klinghoffer. He was captured by American forces on April 14, 2003, during the Iraq War and died on March 8, 2004, of natural causes, while in American custody.
 Mauricio Funes, a former president of El Salvador (2009–2014), was convicted and sentenced in absentia to 14 years imprisonment in May 2023 for his role in organizing a gang truce between 2012 and 2014. At the time of his sentencing, Funes was living in exile in Nicaragua.
 Khalid Latif, a former Pakistani cricketer, was convicted in absentia to 12 years imprisonment in September 2023 for attempting to provoke the murder of Dutch politician Geert Wilders, incitement, and threats

See also

 Declared death in absentia
 Default judgment (a civil counterpart)
 In absentia (disambiguation)
 List of Latin phrases

References

External links

Latin legal terminology

Trial in absentia


Kosmos 2306, ruski satelit za kalibriranje iz programa Kosmos. Vrste je Romb.
Lansiran je 2. ožujka 1995. godine u 13:00 s kozmodroma Pljesecka u Rusiji. Lansiran je u nisku orbitu oko planeta Zemlje raketom nosačem Kosmos-3M 11K65M. Orbita mu je bila 466 km u perigeju i 518 km u apogeju. Orbitna inklinacija bila mu je 65,85°. Spacetrackov kataloški broj je 23501. COSPARova oznaka je 1995-008-A. Zemlju je obilazio u 94,45 minuta. Pri lansiranju bio je mase 1000 kg.

Ponovo se vratio u atmosferu 30. listopada 2000. godine.

Djelovi satelita su otpali. Prvome komadu satelita, vrste ESO, SS 1, orbita je bila 469 km u perigeju i 5143 km u apogeju. Orbitna inklinacija bila mu je 64,86°. Spacetrackov kataloški broj je 24781. COSPARova oznaka je 1995-008-G. Zemlju je obilazio u 94,45 minuta. U atmosferu je ušao ponovo 27. studenoga 1998. godine.

Drugome komadu satelita, vrste ESO, SS 2, orbita je bila 463 km u perigeju i 514 km u apogeju. Orbitna inklinacija bila mu je 65,84°. Spacetrackov kataloški broj je 24782. COSPARova oznaka je 1995-008-H. Zemlju je obilazio u 94,38 minuta. U atmosferu je ušao ponovo 13. studenoga 1998. godine.

Trećemu komadu satelita, vrste ESO, SS 3, orbita je bila 453 km u perigeju i 515 km u apogeju. Orbitna inklinacija bila mu je 65,86°. Spacetrackov kataloški broj je 24783. COSPARova oznaka je 1995-008-J. Zemlju je obilazio u 94,28 minuta. U atmosferu je ušao ponovo 20. listopada 1998. godine.

Četvrtomu komadu satelita, vrste ESO, SS 4, orbita je bila 448 km u perigeju i 513 km u apogeju. Orbitna inklinacija bila mu je 65,83°. Spacetrackov kataloški broj je 24784. COSPARova oznaka je 1995-008-K. Zemlju je obilazio u 94,22 minute. U atmosferu je ušao ponovo 3. listopada 1998. godine.

Petomu komadu satelita, vrste ESO, SS 5, orbita je bila 458 km u perigeju i 513 km u apogeju. Orbitna inklinacija bila mu je 65,87°. Spacetrackov kataloški broj je 24785. COSPARova oznaka je 1995-008-L. Zemlju je obilazio u 94,32 minute. U atmosferu je ušao ponovo 2. studenoga 1998. godine.

Šestomu komadu satelita, vrste ESO, SS 6, orbita je bila 458 km u perigeju i 513 km u apogeju. Orbitna inklinacija bila mu je 65,83°. Spacetrackov kataloški broj je 24789. COSPARova oznaka je 1995-008-M. Zemlju je obilazio u 94,32 minute. U atmosferu je ušao ponovo 3. studenoga 1998. godine.

Sedmomu komadu satelita, vrste ESO, SS 7, orbita je bila 195 km u perigeju i 208 km u apogeju. Orbitna inklinacija bila mu je 65,80°. Spacetrackov kataloški broj je 26584. COSPARova oznaka je 1995-008-N. Zemlju je obilazio u 88,52 minute. U atmosferu je ušao ponovo 25. listopada 2000. godine.

Osmomu komadu satelita, vrste ESO, SS 8, orbita je bila 216 km u perigeju i 242 km u apogeju. Orbitna inklinacija bila mu je 65,84°. Spacetrackov kataloški broj je 26585. COSPARova oznaka je 1995-008-P. Zemlju je obilazio u 89,08 minute. U atmosferu je ušao ponovo 28. listopada 2000. godine.

Devetomu komadu satelita, vrste ESO, SS 9, orbita je bila 178 km u perigeju i 185 km u apogeju. Orbitna inklinacija bila mu je 65,84°. Spacetrackov kataloški broj je 26586. COSPARova oznaka je 1995-008-Q. Zemlju je obilazio u 88,12 minuta. U atmosferu je ušao ponovo 27. listopada 2000. godine.

Desetomu komadu satelita, vrste ESO, SS 10, orbita je bila 199 km u perigeju i 223 km u apogeju. Orbitna inklinacija bila mu je 65,81°. Spacetrackov kataloški broj je 26587. COSPARova oznaka je 1995-008-R. Zemlju je obilazio u 88,71 minutu. U atmosferu je ušao ponovo 27. listopada 2000. godine.

Jedanaestomu komadu satelita, vrste ESO, SS 11, orbita je bila 182 km u perigeju i 191 km u apogeju. Orbitna inklinacija bila mu je 65,80°. Spacetrackov kataloški broj je 26588. COSPARova oznaka je 1995-008-S. Zemlju je obilazio u 88,22 minute. U atmosferu je ušao ponovo 27. listopada 2000. godine.

Dvanaestomu komadu satelita, vrste ESO, SS 12, orbita je bila 172 km u perigeju i 185 km u apogeju. Orbitna inklinacija bila mu je 65,81°. Spacetrackov kataloški broj je 26589. COSPARova oznaka je 1995-008-T. Zemlju je obilazio u 88,06 minuta. U atmosferu je ušao ponovo 27. listopada 2000. godine.

Trinaestomu komadu satelita, vrste ESO, SS 13, orbita je bila 102 km u perigeju i 207 km u apogeju. Orbitna inklinacija bila mu je 65,77°. Spacetrackov kataloški broj je 26592. COSPARova oznaka je 1995-008-U. Zemlju je obilazio u 88,57 minuta. U atmosferu je ušao ponovo 29. listopada 2000. godine.

Četrnaestomu komadu satelita, vrste ESO, SS 14, orbita je bila 125 km u perigeju i 138 km u apogeju. Orbitna inklinacija bila mu je 65,82°. Spacetrackov kataloški broj je 26593. COSPARova oznaka je 1995-008-V. Zemlju je obilazio u 87,11 minuta. U atmosferu je ušao ponovo 29. listopada 2000. godine.

Petnaestomu komadu satelita, vrste ESO, SS 15, orbita je bila 133 km u perigeju i 160 km u apogeju. Orbitna inklinacija bila mu je 65,80°. Spacetrackov kataloški broj je 26594. COSPARova oznaka je 1995-008-W. Zemlju je obilazio u 87,41 minuta. U atmosferu je ušao ponovo 29. listopada 2000. godine.

Šesnaestomu komadu satelita, vrste ESO, SS 16, orbita je bila 157 km u perigeju i 161 km u apogeju. Orbitna inklinacija bila mu je 65,80°. Spacetrackov kataloški broj je 26595. COSPARova oznaka je 1995-008-X. Zemlju je obilazio u 87,66 minuta. U atmosferu je ušao ponovo 29. listopada 2000. godine.

Sedamnaestomu komadu satelita, vrste ESO, SS 17, orbita je bila 122 km u perigeju i 176 km u apogeju. Orbitna inklinacija bila mu je 65,84°. Spacetrackov kataloški broj je 26596. COSPARova oznaka je 1995-008-Y. Zemlju je obilazio u 87,46 minuta. U atmosferu je ušao ponovo 29. listopada 2000. godine.

Osamnaestomu komadu satelita, vrste ESO, SS 18, orbita je bila 148 km u perigeju i 192 km u apogeju. Orbitna inklinacija bila mu je 65,82°. Spacetrackov kataloški broj je 26597. COSPARova oznaka je 1995-008-Z. Zemlju je obilazio u 87,88 minuta. U atmosferu je ušao ponovo 29. listopada 2000. godine.

Devetnaestomu komadu satelita, vrste ESO, SS 19, orbita je bila 124 km u perigeju i 153 km u apogeju. Orbitna inklinacija bila mu je 65,82°. Spacetrackov kataloški broj je 26598. COSPARova oznaka je 1995-008-AA. Zemlju je obilazio u 87,25 minuta. U atmosferu je ušao ponovo 29. listopada 2000. godine.

Izvori
Heavens-above (engl.)
NASA (engl.)
Planet4589.org Tablični prikaz podataka o satelitima (engl.)

Vanjske poveznice
N2YO.com Search Satellite Database
Celes Trak SATCAT Format Documentation (engl.)
Kunstman  Satellites in Orbit (engl.)

Sateliti Kosmos

Kosmos 2306


An Macropodanthus alatus in uska species han Liliopsida nga syahan ginhulagway ni Richard Eric Holttum, ngan ginhatag han pagkayana nga asya nga ngaran ni Gunnar Seidenfaden och Leslie Andrew Garay. An Macropodanthus alatus in nahilalakip ha genus nga Macropodanthus, ngan familia nga Orchidaceae. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Macropodanthus

Macropodanthus alatus


The Airspeed AS.10 Oxford is a twin-engine monoplane aircraft developed and manufactured by Airspeed. It saw widespread use for training British Commonwealth aircrews in navigation, radio-operating, bombing and gunnery roles throughout the Second World War.

The Oxford was developed by Airspeed during the 1930s in response to a requirement for a capable trainer aircraft that conformed with Specification T.23/36, which had been issued by the British Air Ministry. Its basic design is derived from the company's earlier AS.6 Envoy, a commercial passenger aircraft. After its maiden flight by Percy Colman on 19 June 1937, it was quickly put into production as part of a rapid expansion of the Royal Air Force (RAF) in anticipation of a large-scale conflict.

As a consequence of the outbreak of war, many thousands of Oxfords were ordered by Britain and its allies, including Australia, Canada, France, New Zealand, Poland, and the United States. Following the end of the conflict, the Oxford continued to achieve export sales for some time, equipping the newly formed air forces of Egypt, India, Israel, and Yugoslavia. It was considered to be a capable trainer aircraft throughout the conflict, as well as being used as a general-purpose type. A number of Oxfords are preserved today on static display worldwide.

Development
During the 1930s, a major expansion of the Royal Air Force (RAF) had been directed by the British government, which led to the formulation and issuing of a number of operational requirements by the Air Ministry. One of these was Operational Requirement 42 (OR.42), which sought an advanced training aircraft to be specifically used by aircrews destined to serve on bomber aircraft. As the RAF was in the process of migrating from biplanes to monoplanes, which were capable of greater speeds and had more demanding flight characteristics, a suitable trainer was needed to match this step change. At one point, the Avro Anson was considered for the role, however, it was thought that an aircraft more difficult to fly would be necessary. Accordingly, on 10 July 1936, Specification T.23/36 was issued to Airspeed for the development of a twin-engined training aircraft to meet OR.42.

Developed to meet the requirements of Specification T.23/36 by Airspeed, the Oxford was based on the company's existing commercial 8-seater aircraft, the AS.6 Envoy, designed by Hessell Tiltman. Seven Envoys had already been modified for the South African Air Force (SAAF) as the "Convertible Envoy", which could be equipped at short notice with bomb racks and with a machine-gun in a hand-operated Armstrong Whitworth dorsal turret. Airspeed gained substantial benefit from its prior work on the Envoy and the Convertible Envoy in its development of the Oxford. The Air Ministry approved of the project, leading to an initial order for the type being placed during 1937.

It was decided to opt for a large first batch, totalling 136 aircraft, as this allowed for the implementation of more economical flow-line production at Airspeed's Portsmouth factory. On 19 June 1937, the first prototype Oxford, L4534, was first flown by chief test pilot C H A 'Percy' Colman from Portsmouth. Initially, two variants were planned; the Mark I, which was viewed as a general-purpose training aircraft equipped with a dorsal gun turret, and the Mark II, which lacked any turret but was instead fitted with dual controls. As further large contracts for the aircraft were placed with Airspeed, (100 Mk Is and 100 Mk IIs) it was arranged that de Havilland Aircraft would build them at Hatfield later, to meet the demands for Oxfords for training. Other companies also manufactured the aircraft.

By the end of production, a total of 8,751 Oxfords had been completed. Of these, 4,411 had been produced by Airspeed at its Portsmouth factory, another 550 at the Airspeed-run shadow factory at Christchurch, Dorset, 1,515 by de Havilland at Hatfield, 1,360 by Percival Aircraft at Luton and 750 by Standard Motors at Coventry.

Design

The Oxford was a low-wing twin-engine cantilever monoplane, featuring a semi-monocoque constructed fuselage, a conventional landing gear configuration and a wooden tail unit. It was capable of reproducing the flight characteristics of many contemporary front-line aircraft then in military service. It was specifically developed to be suitable for a range of training missions, including navigation, flying instruction, night flying, instrument flying, wireless, direction-finding, gunnery, and vertical photography. The Oxford was specifically planned and developed to incorporate various modern innovations and equipment fittings, including a full array of instruments and controls within the cockpit, which assisted in its principal trainer role. In addition, the Oxford could also be used in various secondary roles, such as an air ambulance and maritime patrol aircraft.

In terms of flying experience, the Oxford was suitably representative as to enable pilots to migrate onto larger transport aircraft with ease while possessing smooth flight characteristics. The controls were relatively straightforward, typically remaining consistent and easily adjustable; the second pilot's position is also provided with a fully furnished suite of key flight instrumentation. It was equipped with the standard blind-flying panel, incorporating an airspeed indicator, altimeter, artificial horizon, directional
gyroscope, rate of climb indicator and turn indicator. Life support equipment includes three oxygen regulators, a flowmeter, three bayonet unions and three high-pressure oxygen cylinders of 750 litres capacity. The external view of the cockpit was considered to be very high for the era, superior to the majority of its contemporaries, but is unavoidably interrupted by the engine cowlings acting as blind spots.

It was normally operated by a three-man crew; the seating arrangement could be altered in order to suit various purposes, such as to better enable a specific training role. The cockpit was outfitted with dual flying controls and a pair of seats, intended to accommodate a pilot and either a navigator or second pilot alongside. When used for bomb aimer training, the second set of controls would be removed and the freed-up space was instead used to accommodate a prone bomb-aimer. When used as a navigation trainer, the second seat was pushed back so that it would line up with the chart table. Aft of the cockpit was a wireless operator station, facing aft on the starboard side of the fuselage. On the Oxford I, a dorsal turret was located amidships; it could be used for training navigators, bomb-aimers, wireless operators, air gunners and camera operators. The centre section can contain up to 16 11 lb. practice bombs, which are controlled via bomb-release switches installed at the pilot and bomb-aimers' stations.

The Oxford was normally powered by a pair of Armstrong Siddeley Cheetah X air-cooled radial engines, capable of generating 340 hp. These were initially outfitted with wooden fixed-position de Havilland-built propellers, but had been designed from the onset to accommodate variable-pitch propellers when these became available. The starboard engine drives a hydraulic pump and air compressor, the former being used to actuate the undercarriage and flaps while the latter is used for the braking system; a vacuum pump is also present for the gyroscopic instrumentations. The port engine drives a 500-watt electrical generator. The engine cowling features an inlet that draws cooling air into a tank; a pair of tinned steel oil tanks are also contained within the cowling. Welded steel construction was used for the nacelles, which attach to the centre section of the wing at four separate rubber-insulated joints.

The retractable undercarriage of the Oxford was internally designed, featuring broken-braced twin oleo legs that retract rearward into each engine nacelle. Although actuation of the retraction mechanism is normally achieved via an engine-driven pump, a manual fall-back mechanism is provided to force the wheels down in the event of an in-flight engine failure. The undercarriage wheels are equipped with pneumatically-operated brakes, controlled by a lever set on each control column. For inspection purposes, access panels are located beneath the pilot's cockpit for internal access to the flight controls, hydraulics and electrical components; inspection panels are also present in the outer wing sections.

The semi-monocoque fuselage of Oxford uses an arrangement of spruce longerons and stiffeners underneath a plywood exterior. It is constructed in two sections on separate jigs, divided between the front and rear, these are joined together at the rear bulkhead. The forward bulkhead is deliberately reinforced so that the structure is capable of withstanding the impact of the aircraft turning over during landing in the hands of an unfortunate trainee pilot. Both the elevator and fin of the tail unit used a wooden spar and rib structure covered by fabric. The fuselage can be partially dismantled, the wing dividing into three separate sections, so that it can be road-transported. The wing uses a stressed-skin ply-covered structure using spruce flanges and ply webs. The spars are assembled upon a single jig, while others are used for the elements of the leading edge and trailing edge. Similar construction to the centre section is also used in the outer panels. The wings are outfitted with hydraulically-operated split flaps, which extend between the ailerons.

Operational history

The Oxford (nicknamed the 'Ox-box') was used to prepare complete aircrews for RAF Bomber Command and could simultaneously train pilots, navigators, bomb aimers, gunners and radio operators on the same flight. In addition to training duties, Oxfords were used in communications and anti-submarine roles and as air ambulances in the Middle East.

The Oxford was the preferred trainer for the Empire Air Training Scheme (EATS) and British Commonwealth Air Training Plan (BCATP), which sent thousands of potential aircrew to Canada for training. 27 Oxfords were on the strength of No 4 Flying Training School RAF Habbaniya, Iraq in early 1941 and some were converted locally, for use as light bombers to help in the defence of the School against Iraqi forces.

In 1941, the aviator Amy Johnson went missing in an Airspeed Oxford, presumably crashing into the Thames Estuary.

After the war, 152 surplus Oxfords were converted into 6-seat commercial airliners called the AS.65 Consul. A few Oxfords were acquired by the Hellenic Air Force and used by the 335th Squadron during the Greek Civil War.

Although the Oxford was equipped with fixed-pitch wooden or Fairey-Reed metal propellers, the cockpit contained a propeller pitch lever, which had to be moved from "Coarse" to "Fine" for landing. This was to reinforce this important step for trainee pilots.

Oxfords continued to serve the Royal Air Force as trainers and light transports until the last was withdrawn from service in 1956. Some were sold for use by overseas air arms, including the Royal Belgian Air Force.
Most Oxfords in the UK were equipped with a knotted rope from the pilot's seat to the rear door to assist evacuation should the plane inadvertently be put into a spin, which it was almost impossible to recover from. When the pilot(s) released their seat belts centripetal force would hurl them to the rear of the plane, beyond the exit door, from which it was impossible to crawl forward to the door. The rope was installed as a response to a test by four "boffins" who tried to recover from a spin from 18,000 ft. When no recovery happened no matter what was tried the four released their harness and were hurled to the rear of their plane and there remained helpless as the spiral descent continued.  However all was not lost. The plane was in such a flat spin when it reached the ground that it skidded sideways over the surface of a field until the tail section hit a haystack and broke off.  The four "boffins" walked away relatively unharmed, the knotted rope being their only positive remedy for an Oxford in a spin.

Australia
From November 1940, the Royal Australian Air Force received 391 Oxford I and IIs from RAF contracts for use in Australia. Most of the survivors were sold in the early 1950s.

Canada
The Royal Canadian Air Force ordered 25 Oxford Is in 1938. They were taken from RAF stocks and shipped to Canada in 1939 and assembled by Canadian Vickers at Montreal. Issued to the Central Flying School, they were later joined by large numbers of RAF aircraft to equip the Service Flying Training Schools.
819 Oxfords of all Marks were operated by the RCAF in Canada for the BCATP during the war.

New Zealand
New Zealand was one of the first nations to order the Oxford in 1937 with a contract for five Oxford Is; the fifth aircraft was modified as a survey aircraft. They were delivered to New Zealand by sea and assembled at RNZAF Hobsonville at the end of 1938. The RNZAF placed further orders for six and then 30 Oxfords. With the start of the Commonwealth Air Training Plan a further 140 aircraft were allocated, which included the last batch of 30 ordered. In total, the RNZAF operated 299 Oxfords between 1938 and 1952.

South Africa
As part of the Commonwealth Air Training Plan, the South African Air Force was allocated nearly 700 Oxfords which started to arrive in South Africa from November 1940. Due to the intense training, 256 aircraft were lost to accidents. Most survivors were withdrawn in 1945 and had been sold by 1947.

United States
The United States Army Air Forces (USAAF) used 137 Oxfords on loan from the Royal Air Force. Most were used as general-purpose communications aircraft in the United Kingdom; from June 1942 they were also used for Beam Approach training. By the end of 1944, American types were available, and all USAAF Oxfords had been returned to the RAF. A small number had also been loaned to the USAAF in Australia by the Royal Australian Air Force. Two Oxfords were used by the United States Navy in the United Kingdom as communications aircraft.

Other users

Belgium
 When the Belgian section of the Royal Air Force returned to Belgian control as the Militaire Vliegwezen (became the Belgian Air Force in 1949), the RAF donated thirty Oxfords to form a flying training school. They were used until the late 1950s with the last aircraft being donated to the Brussels War Museum in 1960.
Belgian Congo
In April 1944 six Oxfords were transferred to the Force Publique in the Belgian Congo, they were withdrawn from use in 1955.
Burma
 At least 15 Oxfords along with some Consuls were supplied to the Union of Burma Air Force in the late 1940s with some being modified to carry pod-mounted forward facing machine guns and rocket projectiles.
Ceylon
 Three former RAF Oxfords were delivered to the Royal Ceylon Air Force in 1953.
Czechoslovakia
 It is reported that some Oxfords were given the type code D42 and were used for bombing training.
Denmark
 From the end of 1946 the Danish Air Force received 44 former RAF Oxfords for advanced flying training at Karup, they were also used for communications and aerial photography, all were withdrawn by 1956.
Egypt
 RAF Oxfords where loaned to the Royal Egyptian Air Force but at least one was transferred in 1948.
France
 The Free French Air Force in West Africa received five new Oxfords in 1944 and were used until 1946.
Greece
 The Royal Hellenic Air Force received at least 33 Oxfords in 1947 for transport and aerial photography.
India
 When India became independent in December 1947 nine Oxfords were transferred to the Royal Indian Air Force, later Indian Air Force from December 1949.
Iran
 Three Oxfords were delivered to the Imperial Iranian Air Force.
Israel
 Three Oxfords and eleven Consuls were used by the Central Flying School of the Israeli Defence Force Air Force for twin-engined training in the early 1950s.
Netherlands
 From May 1946 the Royal Netherlands Air Force received 28 Oxfords for aircrew training, they had been withdrawn from use by 1952.
 In October 1947 the Royal Netherlands Navy received three Oxfords for multi-engined and navigation training from Valkenburg, two former Royal Netherlands Air Force aircraft were added in 1951, all were withdrawn by 1952.
Norway
 The Royal Norwegian Air Force bought twenty surplus Oxfords from the RAF in 1947.
Portugal
 The Portuguese Army and Navy each received six Oxfords in 1943 under Operation Oatmeal, by the time the Portuguese Air Force was formed in 1952 four aircraft were still in service.
Turkey
 The Turkish Air Force were supplied with 50 Oxford I's in 1943 and these were joined by twenty more between 1946 and 1947. They were replaced by the AT-11 in the early 1950s and the survivors were scrapped.
Yugoslavia
 Five Oxfords were supplied to the Yugoslav Air Force between 1951 and 1958 by Norway under the Mutual Defence Aid Program and used for twin-engined training of Mosquito crews.

Variants
AS.10 Oxford I
The first Mark I flew on 19 June 1937 and entered service with the Central Flying School in November of that year.  By the start of the war, about 300 Mk I Oxfords were in service with the RAF, while a number were also being used by the Royal New Zealand Air Force to train pilots for the RAF.
AS.10 Oxford II
The second planned version was the Oxford II, it didn't have a turret but had dual controls so it could be used as an advanced pilot trainier as well as training for navigators and radio operators. At the start of the second world war 70 were in service.
AS.10 Oxford III
Powered by two Cheetah XV engines with 425 hp (315 kW) and Rotol constant-speed propellers, used for navigation and radio training.
AS.10 Oxford IV
Flying test-bed for de Havilland Gipsy Queen IV engines.
Oxford T.II
Only 9 of these were built, eight of them being conversions of Mk Is.
AS.40 Oxford
Civil conversion for radio research, two built.
AS.41 Oxford
Used by Miles Aircraft as a flying test-bed for Alvis Leonides engine, one conversion.
AS.42 Oxford
Oxford I to meet Specification T.39/37 for New Zealand.
AS.43 Oxford
Survey variant of the AS.42
AS.46 Oxford V
The final variant, upgraded to Pratt & Whitney R-985 radial engines with 450 hp (335 kW) and Hamilton-Standard variable-pitch propellers. Many Mark I and II Oxfords were upgraded to the Mark V standard.
AS.65 Consul
After the end of WWII, over 150 aircraft surplus ex-RAF Oxfords were converted for civilian transport operation; this type was known as the Airspeed Consul.

Operators

 Royal Australian Air Force

 Belgian Air Force

 Force Publique

 Union of Burma Air Force

 Royal Ceylon Air Force

 Royal Canadian Air Force

 Czechoslovakian Air Force – One aircraft, in service from 1945 to 1948

 Royal Danish Air Force

 Royal Egyptian Air Force

 Free French Air Force

 Royal Hellenic Air Force

 Indian Air Force

 Imperial Iranian Air Force

 Israeli Air Force

 Royal Netherlands Air Force
 Dutch Naval Aviation Service

 Royal New Zealand Air Force
 No. 1 Squadron RNZAF
 No. 2 Squadron RNZAF
 No. 3 Squadron RNZAF
 No. 7 Squadron RNZAF
 No. 8 Squadron RNZAF
 No. 14 Squadron RNZAF
 No. 42 Squadron RNZAF

 Royal Norwegian Air Force

 Polish Air Force in Great Britain

 Portuguese Air Force
 Portuguese Army
 Portuguese Navy

 South African Air Force

 Turkish Air Force

 Royal Air Force
 No. 1 Squadron RAF
 No. 5 Squadron RAF
 No. 17 Squadron RAF
 No. 20 Squadron RAF
 No. 24 Squadron RAF
 No. 34 Squadron RAF
 No. 41 Squadron RAF
 No. 116 Squadron RAF
 No. 173 Squadron RAF
 No. 192 Squadron RAF
 No. 285 Squadron RAF
 No. 286 Squadron RAF
 No. 287 Squadron RAF
 No. 288 Squadron RAF
 No. 289 Squadron RAF
 No. 290 Squadron RAF
 No. 510 Squadron RAF
 No. 526 Squadron RAF
 No. 527 Squadron RAF
 No. 529 Squadron RAF
 No. 567 Squadron RAF
 No. 577 Squadron RAF
 No. 587 Squadron RAF
 No. 595 Squadron RAF
 No. 598 Squadron RAF
 No. 631 Squadron RAF
 No. 667 Squadron RAF
 No. 691 Squadron RAF
 No. 695 Squadron RAF
 Fleet Air Arm
 700 Naval Air Squadron
 701 Naval Air Squadron
 702 Naval Air Squadron
 703 Naval Air Squadron
 720 Naval Air Squadron
 727 Naval Air Squadron
 728 Naval Air Squadron
 729 Naval Air Squadron
 730 Naval Air Squadron
 739 Naval Air Squadron
 740 Naval Air Squadron
 744 Naval Air Squadron
 750 Naval Air Squadron
 751 Naval Air Squadron
 758 Naval Air Squadron
 759 Naval Air Squadron
 760 Naval Air Squadron
 761 Naval Air Squadron
 762 Naval Air Squadron
 765 Naval Air Squadron
 766 Naval Air Squadron
 771 Naval Air Squadron
 775 Naval Air Squadron
 776 Naval Air Squadron
 780 Naval Air Squadron
 781 Naval Air Squadron
 782 Naval Air Squadron
 787 Naval Air Squadron
 789 Naval Air Squadron
 790 Naval Air Squadron
 792 Naval Air Squadron
 798 Naval Air Squadron
 799 Naval Air Squadron
 1701 Naval Air Squadron

 United States Army Air Forces
 United States Navy

 SFR Yugoslav Air Force

Surviving aircraft

Belgium
 016/MP455 – Oxford I on static display at the Royal Museum of the Armed Forces and Military History in Brussels.

Canada
 Replica – Unknown variant with Frank Thompson of Reidland, Saskatchewan, built to static display condition by volunteers from the Saskatchewan Western Development Museum in Moose Jaw, Saskatchewan.

New Zealand

 NZ277 – Oxford I wreckage on display at the Taranaki Aviation Transport and Technology Museum near New Plymouth, Taranaki. The aircraft crashed in October 1942. The wreckage was discovered 32 years later by NZ Forester Service hunter Errol Clince in 1974.
 NZ1332 – Oxford II under restoration by Don Subritzky in Dairy Flat, Auckland.
 PK286 – Oxford I on static display at the Air Force Museum of New Zealand in Wigram, Canterbury. It had been converted to Airspeed Consul configuration in 1947. It is on long-term loan from the Canada Aviation and Space Museum. The aircraft went on display in February 2016.
 R6029 – Unknown variant on display at the Croydon Aircraft Company in Mandeville, Southland. It is configured as Consul VR-SCD.

South Africa
 ED290 – Oxford I under restoration to static display at the South African Air Force Museum in Port Elizabeth, Eastern Cape.

United Kingdom

 V3388 – Oxford I on static display at the Imperial War Museum in Duxford, Cambridgeshire.
 AT605 – Oxford I wreck under rebuild with the Midland Aircraft Recovery Group.
 EB518 – Oxford V believed under restoration at the Spitfire Visitor Centre at Blackpool Airport.
 MP425 – Oxford I on static display at the Royal Air Force Museum London in London.

Specifications (Mk I)

See also

Notes

References

Citations

Bibliography

 Bridgman, Leonard. Jane's Fighting Aircraft of World War II. New York: Crescent Books, 1988. .
 Flintham, V. (1990). Air Wars and Aircraft: a detailed record of air combat, 1945 to the present. London : Arms and Armour. .
 Fredriksen, John C. International Warbirds: An Illustrated Guide to World Military Aircraft, 1914–2000. ABC-CLIO, 2001. .
 Gunston, Bill. Classic World War II Aircraft Cutaways. London: Osprey, 1995. .
 Hamlin, John F. The Oxford, Consul & Envoy File. Tunbridge Wells, Kent, UK: Air-Britain (Historians) Ltd., 2001. .

 Middleton, Don. "RAF Piston Trainers No 9 Airspeed Oxford–Part One". Aeroplane Monthly, May 1980, Volume 9 No 5, ISSN 0143-7240. pp. 242–249.
 Middleton, Don. "RAF Piston Trainers No 9 Airspeed Oxford–Part Two". Aeroplane Monthly, June 1980, Volume 9 No 6, ISSN 0143-7240. pp. 322–327.

 Pacco, John. "Airspeed Oxford Mk.I" Belgisch Leger/Armee Belge: Het militair Vliegwezen/l'Aeronautique militaire 1930–1940. Artselaar, Belgium, 2003, p. 89. .
 Rawlings, John D.R. "The Airspeed Oxford". Aircraft in Profile, Volume 11. Windsor, Berkshire, UK: Profile Publications Ltd., 1971.
 Taylor, H. A. Airspeed Aircraft since 1931. London: Putnam, 1970. .
 Thetford, Owen. Aircraft of the Royal Air Force 1918–57. London: Putnam, 1957.
 Wilson, Stewart. Aircraft of WWII. Fyshwick, ACT, Australia: Aerospace Publications Pty Ltd., 1998. .
.

External links

 Fleet Air Arm Archive
 "Singles to Twins" 1943 article on using Oxford for training

Oxford
1930s British military trainer aircraft
Low-wing aircraft
Aircraft first flown in 1937
Twin piston-engined tractor aircraft

Airspeed Oxford


Die Gartenbau-Berufsschule Langenlois ist eine lehrzeitbegleitende Schule in der dualen Ausbildung von Jugendlichen nach dem 9. Schuljahr. Sie bereitet Lehrlinge in drei mehrwöchigen Kursen auf die Lehrabschluss-/Facharbeiterprüfung vor. Ziel ist der qualifizierte gärtnerische Facharbeiter bzw. die qualifizierte gärtnerische Facharbeiterin.

Geschichte
Im Schuljahr 1945/46 wurde die Schultätigkeit in angemieteten Räumen in St. Pölten, Krems an der Donau, Wiener Neustadt und Wien begonnen. Den Unterricht erteilten ausschließlich Gastlehrer, beauftragt von der Landwirtschaftskammer für Niederösterreich und Wien. Am 11. November 1947 wurde der erste fünfwöchige Lehrgang für Schüler des 1. Lehrjahres in Schul- und Internatsräumen der Schulschwestern in Haindorf bei Langenlois einberufen. Schulträger der Gartenbauschule war die Landes-Landwirtschaftskammer für Niederösterreich und Wien. Der Unterricht wurde von zwei hauptamtlichen Lehrern und einem Erzieher erteilt. Praktischen Unterricht erteilten der Obergärtner bzw. Gärtnermeister in regionalen Gärtnereien und Obstgärten. In diesen drei Jahren wurden in 27 Kursen 666 Lehrlinge unterrichtet.

Am 21. November 1950 wurden die Räumlichkeiten der neuerbauten Landeskursstätte für Obst-, Wein- und Gartenbau, eine Initiative des Bürgermeisters und Landeshauptmannstellvertreter August Kargl, bezogen. 1951 erfolgte die Gründung der Junggärtnervereinigung Niederösterreich am Schulort. 1952 fanden die Gehilfenprüfungen nun in der angegliederten Schulgärtnerei, wo Glashäuser und Pflanzensortimente bestehen, statt. Die Schulgärtnerei "Rosenhügel" war Übungsort für den praktischen Unterricht. 1954 besuchte der Hochkommissär Banin, der Vertreter der russischen Besatzungsmacht, die Schule.

Ab 1957 war die Gartenbauschule zunehmender Treffpunkt für weiterbildungswillige Gärtner aller Altersstufen bei ein- oder mehrtägigen Kursen. 1962 kam es durch die Einführung des 9. Pflichtschuljahres bei den Schülerzahlen zu einem Knick. In diesem Jahr fanden nur 7 Kurse mit 148 Teilnehmern statt, anstelle der bisherigen 9 bis 10 Lehrgänge pro Jahr. 1963/64 baute der österreichische Industrielle Othmar Ruthner das weltweit erste Turmgewächshaus mit rotierendem Paternoster-System in der Schulgärtnerei. Es kam zu regem Besuch in- und ausländischer Fachleute. Fernsehgesellschaften aus drei Ländern drehten Filmbeiträge.

1971 wurde die Fachschule für Gartenbau als weitere fachliche Bildungseinrichtung gegründet. Die Lehrgangsdauer der Berufsschule betrug ab 1971 pro Lehrjahr sechs Wochen.

1973 wurde mit Erlass des Bundesministeriums für Land- und Forstwirtschaft der Gartenbauschule das Öffentlichkeitsrecht erteilt. 1974 übernahm das Land Niederösterreich die Schulträgerschaft. Die Schule wurde zur "Landwirtschaftlichen Berufsschule Fachrichtung Gartenbau". Das Niederösterreichische landwirtschaftliche Schulgesetz regelte sodann Schulpflicht und Schulbesuch. Bisherige Lehrer wurden als Landeslehrer in das Dienstrecht des Landes übernommen. 1975 wurde ein neuer Lehrplan für die nun achtwöchigen Lehrgänge erstellt. Englisch wurde Pflichtfach, später auch der Unterricht in EDV. Für die Schüler wurden Schulbücher im Rahmen der Schulbuchaktion eingeführt. Die Unterrichtswoche umfasste 42 Stunden zu je 50 Minuten von Montag bis Samstagvormittag.

1980 fand erstmals der Berufswettbewerb für Gärtnerlehrlinge statt, eine Einrichtung, die das Fachwissen und praktisches Können der teilnehmenden Jugendlichen testet. 1981 machte akuter Raummangel es erforderlich, zusätzliche Ressourcen in der stillgelegten Berufsschule Ravelsbach im Bezirk Hollabrunn zu aktivieren. Die Lehrgänge wurden deshalb getrennt in Burschen- und Mädchenkursen geführt. Die Mädchenklasse in Ravelsbach fuhr zwei Unterrichtstage pro Woche nach Langenlois, um die Praxiseinrichtungen und Werkstätten zu nutzen.

1988/89 wurde das neue Internatsgebäude der Gartenbaufachschule in Langenlois bezogen. Der Unterricht wird wieder ganz in Langenlois erteilt. Nach einem Rückgang der Schülerzahlen (2005-10) werden derzeit zwischen 100 und 120 Lehrlinge je Schuljahr ausgebildet.

Direktoren der Schule
 Hartmann Demal (1948–1961)
 Helmuth Hanten (1961–1973)
 Fritz Weigl (1974–1998)
 Karl Priplata (1998–2008)
 Anna Maria Betz (2008–2019)
 Andreas Kovac (seit 2019)

Siehe auch
 LAKO
 Berufsbildende mittlere Schule
 Berufswettbewerb für junge Gärtnerinnen und Gärtner

Weblinks

Einzelnachweise

Gartenbauberufsschule
Schule in Niederösterreich

Berufsschule in Österreich

Berufsbildende Schule im Gartenbau
Gartenbau (Österreich)
Langenlois

Gartenbau-Berufsschule Langenlois


Rudskogen Motorsenter er et norsk motorsportsanlæg, beliggende i Rakkestad Kommune i Østfold. Anlægget blev indviet i 1990, og er Norges ældste motorbane. Rudskogen blev i 2006 udpeget til det nationale center for motorsport af Kulturdepartementet.

Historie
Den belgiske Formel 1-kører Thierry Boutsen indviede 20. maj 1990 Rudskogen Motorsenter og den 1.910 meter lange racerbane. Rakkestad lagde jord til banen, som blev placeret 15 kilometer nordøst for Sarpsborg. Det var NMK Sarpsborg, Trafikskolerne i Østfold, Rakkestad Kommune og Norges Automobil-Forbund der havde fælles ejerskab af anlægget.

Senere overtog blandt andet racerkører Harald Huysman ejerskabet af banen, og der blev opført en 1.210 meter lang gokartbane, Norges længste, på det sted hvor der før var en speedwaybane. Efter en intens kamp med blandt andre Vålerbanen, blev Rudskogen i 2006 Norges nationale center for motorsport, og modtager derfor offentlige midler.

I 2011 begyndte en omfattende ændring af banens layout, designet af den tyske arkitekt Hermann Tilke. Året efter stod den 3.254 meter lange bane færdig.

Eksterne henvisninger

 Rudskogens officielle hjemmeside

Motorsportsanlæg i Norge
Etableret i 1990
Østfold

Rudskogen


مجرى الصرف الصحي (يسمى أيضًا مجرى مياه الصرف الصحي) هو نظام نقل منفصل تحت الأرض مخصص لنقل مياه الصرف الصحي من المنازل والمباني التجارية لمعالجتها أو التخلص منها. وتحمل مجاري الصرف الصحي الأخرى التي تخدم المناطق الصناعية أيضًا مياه الصرف الصناعي. ويُسمى نظام مجاري الصرف بنظام شبكة المجاري (الصرف الصحي).

تعمل مجاري الصرف الصحي بصورة منفصلة ومستقلة عن مصارف مياه الأمطار الغزيرة، والتي تحمل الميا الجارية الخاصة بـ الأمطار وغير ذلك من المياه التي تغمر شوارع المدينة.  يطلق على مجاري الصرف التي تحمل كلاً من مياه الصرف الصحي ومياه الأمطار الغزيرة معًا المجاري المجمعة.

والصرف الصحي هو جزء من شبكة توزيع المياه، وتعني هذه الشبكة بتصريف المخلفات السائلة من المباني والمصانع إلى محطة المعالجة أو أماكن التصريف. تنتج مياه الصرف الصحي عن منطقة التجميع، وتكون مجاري الصرف الصحي أصغر بكثير من المجاري المجمعة والمصممة أيضًا لتحمل جريان المياه السطحية. وتكون بعض مجاري الصرف الصحي القليلة كبيرة بدرجة تكفي لوقوف رجل قائم بداخلها، وهي عادةً ما تحمل تدفقات شديدة قد تكتسح مثل هذا الرجل من قدميه.]]

مجموعة مصطلحات
في الدول المتقدمة، تكون مجاري الصرف عادةً عبارة عن خطوط أنابيب تبدأ بالأنابيب المتصلة من المباني إلى واحد أو أكثر من المستويات الأكبر لشبكة المجاري الرئيسية للقنوات تحت الأرض، والتي تنقل مياه الصرف الصحي إلى مرافق معالجة مياه الصرف الصحي. الأنابيب الرأسية، التي تسمى فتحات دخول غرف التفتيش، تعمل على توصيل شبكة المجاري الرئيسية إلى السطح. يتم استخدام فتحات دخول غرف التفتيش للوصول إلى أنابيب الصرف الصحي من أجل عمليات الفحص والصيانة، وأيضًا كوسيلة لتسريب الغازات من مجاري الصرف. كما أنها تسهل الزوايا الرأسية والأفقية في خطوط الأنابيب المستقيمة الأخرى. تعمل مجاري الصرف بقوة الجاذبية بشكل عام، إلا أنه يمكن استخدام المضخات إذا كان ذلك ضروريًا. أنبوب الصرف الأكثر استخدامًا هو الأنبوب SDR-35 (معدل الأبعاد القياسي 35)، مع الأنابيب الفرعية الأصغر حجمًا والمتصلة داخل شبكة مجارٍ رئيسية أكبر حجمًا

وتسمى أنابيب نقل مياه الصرف الصحي من مبنى فردي إلى أنبوب تجميع الصرف الصحي العام باسم الأنابيب الفرعية. مجاري الصرف الفرعية تعمل عادةً تحت الشوارع التي تستقبل الأنابيب الفرعية من المباني الموجودة على طول هذه الشوارع وتصرفها بقوة الجاذبية في قنوات الصرف الرئيسية في غرف التفتيش. ربما يكون لدى المدن الكبيرة مجاري صرف تسمى المجاري الحاجزة والتي تستقبل التدفقات من قنوات الصرف الرئيسية المتعددة. محطة الرفع هي عبارة عن بالوعة تجميع الصرف الصحي مع وجود مضخة لرفع مياه الصرف الصحي المتراكمة لارتفاعات عالية. ربما تعمل المضخة على التصريف إلى مجرى صرف تجميعي آخر في ذلك الموقع أو ربما يكون التصريف من خلال قوة ضغط شبكة المجاري الرئيسية في بعض المواقع البعيدة.

معلومات تاريخية
امتدادًا للثورة الصناعية، فقد نمت العديد من المدن في أوروبا وأمريكا الشمالية في القرن التاسع عشر، مما أدى في كثير من الأحيان إلى الازدحام وزيادة المخاوف بشأن الصحة العامة. كجزء من توجه برامج الصرف الصحي المحلية في أواخر القرن التاسع عشر والعشرين، فقد شيدت العديد من المدن أنظمة صرف صحي واسعة النطاق للمساعدة في السيطرة على تفشي بعض الأمراض مثل التيفوئيد والكوليرا. في البداية كانت هذه الأنظمة تصرف مياه الصرف الصحي مباشرة إلى المياه السطحية دون معالجة. وبما أن تلوث المسطحات المائية أصبح مصدر قلق، فقد أضافت المدن محطات معالجة الصرف الصحي لأنظمتها. خضعت معظم المدن في الولايات المتحدة إلى ثورات تغيير في الصرف الصحي بين عامي 1900 و1935، وذلك بإضافة أنظمة الصرف الصحي الأكثر تكلفة وغيرها من التقنيات للتخلص من البكتيريا الضارة من خلال معالجة المياه باستخدام الكلور وترشيح المياه ومياه الصرف الصحي. في المناطق التي يوجد بها تلوث سطحي بالقرب من الشاطئ، مثل كليفلاند، تم وضع أنظمة امتصاص موسعة في المياه للحد من التلوث في مياه الشرب. خلال هذه الفترة، كان هناك انخفاض في الأمراض في المدن، مثل حمى التيفوئيد التي انخفضت من 35 حالة من كل 10,000 شخص إلى أقل من 5 حالات من كل 10,000 من السكان. يمكن لهذه الأنظمة الأولية من أنظمة مجاري الصرف أن تكون معتمدة مع الزيادة السكانية في المدن وذلك لأن متوسط العمر المتوقع يزيد والمرض يقل.

مصادر المخلفات
 المخلفات السائلة المنزلية: ويطلق عليها مياه المجاري وهي المياه المستعملة في الوحدات المنزلية أو المباني العامة.
 المخلفات السائلة الصناعية: وهي المخلفات الناتجة من استعمال المياه في عمليات التصنيع المختلفة، وقد تحتوي هذه المخلفات على مواد سامة أو ضارة لذلك يتم ربط المصانع بشبكة التصريف بعد تحقيق شروط معينة.
 مياه الرشح: وهي المياه التي تتسرب إلى أنابيب التصريف أو غرف التفتيش.
 مياه الأمطار: في الشبكات الحديثة يتم فصل مياه الأمطار عن المخلفات الأخرى

شروط تصميم الشبكة
يتطلب تصميم شبكة الصرف الصحي دراسات خاصة ومتعمقة لتحقيق الاستفادة القصوى من الشبكة، وهذه الدراسات هي:
 بيانات بمعدلات الاستهلاك.
 وضع خطط تطوير مستقبلة للشبكة.
 الخرائط الجغرافية للمنطقة.
 أماكن تموضع المناطق الصناعية والتجارية.

طرق تصريف المياه

يتم تصريف المخلفات بعدة طرق ويفضل استخدام الانحدار في عملية التصريف, لتخفيف التكلفة. وتستخدم المضخات عند الصعوبات.

مكونات الشبكة
 محطة معالجة مياه الصرف الصحي ومنها الثنائية والثلاثية.
 محطة ضخ أو مضخات.
 خطوط التصريف الرئيسية.
وتقوم بنقل كميات كبيرة من المخلفات وتكون الخطوط عبارة عن أنابيب كبيرة أو أنفاق ضخمة في بعض البلدان ذات الكثافة العالية.
 خطوط التصريف الفرعية.
 غرف التفتيش.
 المطابق.
 مطاحن: وهي تقنية حديثة تقوم بطحن المعادن وفصلها عن بقيت المخلفات.

غرفة التفتيش
وهي غرفة مربعة الشكل في أغلب البلدان ومقاسها (60 * 60) سم وتكون خارج المبنى, وتقوم غرفة التفتيش بتجميع المخلفات من عدد محدد من الأبنية السكنية أو المحال التجارية وتحويلها إلى خطوط التصريف.

أنابيب التوزيع

هنالك عدة أنواع من الأنابيب (مواسير) المستخدمة في شبكات الصرف الصحي وتختلف باختلاف مكوناتها.
 الشروط الواجب توافرها في الأنابيب
 القدرة العالية على تحمل الضغوط الخارجية والداخلية.
 المقاومة العالية لعوامل التآكل.
 القدرة على تحمل مختلف درجات الحرارة.
 أنواع الأنابيب.
 أنابيب معدنية.
 أنابيب (حرارية).
 أنابيب خرسانية مسلحة أو عادية.
 أنابيب اللدائن.
 أنابيب (الفخارية).

الصيانة
تتطلب شبكات الصرف الصحي لعمليات صيانة دورية ومتخصصة، وذلك للحفاظ على الشبكة من عوامل الهدر وتحقيق الاستفادة القصوى من الشبكة. وتتم الصيانة بالطرق التالية:
 مضخات الماء
 مضخات الهواء
 المحاليل الكيميائية.

تتدهور جميع مجاري الصرف مع تقدم العمر، ولكن مشكلة التسريب/التدفق تعتبر مشكلة استثنائية لمجاري الصرف الصحي، لأن كلاً من مجاري الصرف المجمعة ومصارف مياه الأمطار الغزيرة تم تصميمهما بشكل يتيح لهما حمل هذه الأشياء. التحكم بدرجات مقبولة في التسريب يتطلب مستوى أعلى من الصيانة اللازمة لاعتبارات السلامة الهيكلية لمجاري الصرف المجمعة. يلزم وجود برنامج شامل لفحص البناء وذلك لمنع الاتصال غير الملائم من القبو والفناء ومصارف الأسطح بمجاري الصرف الصحية. احتمالية وجود الاتصال غير الملائم تكون أعلى عندما توجد مجاري الصرف المجمعة ومجاري الصرف الصحية على مقربة من بعضها، وذلك لأن الموظفين في البناء قد لا يمكنهم التعرف على الفرق بينهما. العديد من المدن القديمة مازالت تستخدم مجاري الصرف المجمعة في حين أنه قد تم بناء الضواحي المتجاورة بمجاري صرف صحية منفصلة.

على مدى عقود، كان الخيار الوحيد عند حدوث تشققات أو غيرها من الأعطال الأخرى في أنابيب الصرف الصحي، هو العملية المكلفة من النبش عن الأنابيب التالفة واستبدالها، الأمر الذي يتطلب عادةً إعادة تعبيد الشارع بعد ذلك. في منتصف الخمسينيات، تم اختراع الوحدة حيث تم سحب وحدتين في نهاية كل طرف مع مزيج خاص من الأسمنت بينهما من غطاء فتحة غرفة التفتيش إلى الذي يليه، وطلاء الأنبوب بالأسمنت تحت ضغط عالٍ ثم تجفيفه بمعدل سريع، وإحكام غلق جميع الشقوق والكسور في الأنبوب.

مجاري الصرف المبسطة
مجاري الصرف الصحية المبسطة تتكون من الأنابيب ذات القطر الصغير (عادةً يكون200 مم أو حوالي 8 بوصات)، والموضوعة غالبًا في تدرجات مسطحة إلى حد ما (1 في 200). التكلفة الاستثمارية لمجاري الصرف الصحي يمكن أن تصل لحوالي نصف تكاليف مجاري الصرف التقليدية. ومع ذلك، فإن متطلبات عمليات التشغيل والصيانة عادةً ما تكون أعلى من ذلك. تعتبر مجاري الصرف المبسطة هي الأكثر شيوعًا في البرازيل وتستخدم أيضًا في عدد من البلدان النامية الأخرى.

انظر أيضًا
 المياه السوداء
 معالجة مياه الصرف الصحي
 تلوث المياه
 نموذج الحمأة المنشطة

المراجع

وصلات خارجية
 Experiences and Challenges in Sewers: Measurements and Hydrodynamics (2008), International Meeting on Measurements and Hydraulics of Sewers IMMHS'08, Hydraulic Model Report No. CH70/08, University of Queensland, Brisbane, Australia, 114 pages (ISBN 978-1-86499-928-0)

تطهير المياه
صرف صحي

مجاري الصرف الصحي


Gary Ross (n. Los Ángeles, California; 3 de noviembre de 1956) es un escritor, productor y director de cine estadounidense. Ross ganó fama al ser el director de la primera entrega de la saga de Los juegos del hambre. Es hijo del también director, escritor y productor Arthur A. Ross, quien es conocido por haber escrito varias cintas entre 1950 y 1980, principalmente Creature from the Black Lagoon, de 1954, y The Great Race (La carrera del siglo), de 1965.

Carrera

Inicios

Ross nació en Los Ángeles, California, hijo del también director, escritor y productor Arthur A. Ross. Ross asistió a la Universidad de Pensilvania, donde comenzó a centrarse en el ámbito político. Trabajó como congresista durante 1972. En 1980, ocho años después, apoyó la campaña presidencial de Ted Kennedy, y tiempo después trabajó en la realización de algunos discursos para Kennedy y luego para Michael Dukakis y Bill Clinton, periodo en el cual también escribió dos libros. Después de un tiempo, Ross se trasladó al igual que su padre a Hollywood. Su padre debutó como guionista en la película The Great Race (La carrera del siglo), de 1965, y en 1980 volvió a marcar su debut, esta vez como escritor, en la cinta Brubaker, con Twentieth Century Fox Film Corporation, un film dramático que protagonizaron Robert Redford, Jane Alexander y Morgan Freeman, sobre la historia real de Tom Murton, quien haciéndose pasar por un prisionero revela la clase de violencia que se había cometido en una prisión. Este film lo llevó a ser nominado un año después, en 1981, a un Premio Óscar al Mejor guion original.

Guionista

Su carrera en el cine comenzó en 1986 cuando escribió un pequeño guion de un episodio adaptado para TV en la serie Hitchhicker.

El primer guion de Ross para cine fue producido en 1988 con 20th Century Fox en el film Big (Quiero ser grande), una comedia dramática protagonizada por Tom Hanks, Elizabeth Perkins y Robert Loggia, la cual alude a una trama sobre la vida de un joven que es cambiada totalmente cuando le pide un deseo a un mago con el fin de crecer y convertirse en un adulto.
Un año después, en 1989, por esta misma película saltó a la fama y debutó como guionista al ser nominado a un Premio Óscar al Mejor guion original.

Tres años después, en 1992, participó también en el guion de la película Mr. Baseball, dirigida por Fred Schepisi. Dos años después, en 1994, recibió una nominación al Óscar nuevamente al Mejor guion original por la película Dave (Presidente por un día), una cinta de comedia romántica protagonizada por Kevin Kline y Sigourney Weaver en 1993. En 1994 Ross también escribió el guion de la película Lassie.

En 1998, escribió el guion de la película Pleasantville (Amores a colores), debutando a su vez como director y productor.

Pleasantville contó con la participación de Jeff Daniels, Joan Allen y Tobey Maguire, quien trabajó nuevamente con Ross en el filme Seabiscuit, de 2003. Escribió también el guion de la película The Tale of Despereaux de 2008, una cinta animada de comedia de aventuras, basada en un libro ganador de la medalla "Newbery" de la autora Kate Dicamillo.
Además, escribió el guion para el remake de Creature from the Black Lagoon, cinta en la cual su padre fue el guionista en la versión original (1954). Ha escrito algunos otros guiones, como Dog Years, el cual no se produjo y Free State of Jones, estrenada en 2016. Ross ha trabajado también como actor en algunas ocasiones en películas como Dave y The Mistery of Brothers.

Director

Ross debutó como director en el film Pleasantville (Amores a colores), cinta que recibió tres nominaciones al Premio Óscar, incluyendo el de Mejor dirección de arte. La película también es reconocida por el reparto de grandes actores que integran el elenco, entre ellos Tobey Maguire, Jeff Daniels y Joan Allen. Ross participó más adelante como director en la adaptación del film Los juegos del hambre, basada en la novela de Suzanne Collins, acerca de un futuro post-apocalíptico en el cual los restos de lo que fue Estados Unidos son controlados por el llamado Capitolio, en el cual son sometidos varios jóvenes para luchar en un juego con el único objetivo de mantenerse con vida. La película fue protagonizada por Jennifer Lawrence, Josh Hutcherson y Liam Hemsworth.

Productor

Ross ha producido varias películas desde su primer y gran debut en 1988 con la cinta Big (Quiero ser grande), como por ejemplo: Trial and Error (1997), Pleasantville (Amores a colores) (1998), Seabiscuit, The Tale of Despereaux y Creature from the Black Lagoon.

Filmografía

Cine y televisión

Premios y distinciones
Premios Óscar

Enlaces externos

Referencias

Directores de cine de Estados Unidos
Guionistas de cine de Estados Unidos
Productores de cine de Estados Unidos

Gary Ross


Lissycasey () is a village in County Clare, Ireland. It forms one half of the parish of Clondegad-Kilchrist. The village straddles the N68 Ennis-Kilrush road for some 3.5 km. The area stretches east–west from Caherea to Crown and north–south from Frure North to Cloncolman. Lissycasey were Clare county champions in football in 2007 and won the Cusack Cup that year.

The Roman Catholic parish of Ballynacally (Clondegad) encompasses Ballynacally, Lissycasey and Ballycorick, and is part of the Diocese of Killaloe.

Sword of O'Neill
In 1881, foreign publications reported that two men digging a drain near Lissycasey discovered an iron clasped chest laying on which was a large sword engraved with the name O'Neill. The men assumed it to be a coffin and reported the discovery to the police. The box was opened by the police and found it was full of gold coins of an ancient date.

See also

List of towns and villages in Ireland

References

External links
 Lissycasey GAA Club

Towns and villages in County Clare

Lissycasey


L'Audience royale de Lima (en espagnol : Audiencia y Cancillería Real de Lima) était une cour supérieure de l'empire espagnol située à Lima, la capitale de la vice-royauté du Pérou.

Créée le 20 novembre 1542 par Charles Quint, elle a commencé à fonctionner en 1543 et a initialement juridiction sur l'ensemble de la vice-royauté – pratiquement toute l'Amérique du Sud et le Panama sous contrôle espagnol. Elle a fonctionné jusqu'en 1821 lorsque les forces de José de San Martín sont entrées à Lima.

Notes et références

Empire espagnol

Audience royale de Lima


Kan grubu, kandaki antikorlara bakılarak, kanın özelliğini belirtmek için oluşturulmuş sınıflandırma sistemidir. İnsanlarda A, B, AB ve 0 türleri vardır. Bundan bağımsız olarak, Rh değeri + ya da - değerinde olabilir. Bu üç sistemin birleşiminden 8'li kan grubu tablosu oluşmuştur. Türkiye'de iki sistem yan yana yazılarak belirtilir. Örneğin; A türü kanda Rh değeri negatif ise, o kan için A Rh (-) grubu denir. Türkiye'de Kızılay'ın verilerine göre en çok bulunan ve en çok gereksinilen grup A Rh (+)'dir. RH etkeni, Hint şebeğinin () kanındaki antikorların var olup olmaması anlamına gelir.

Kan grubu uyumu
Her ne kadar aşağıdaki tablo genel olarak doğruysa da uzun dönem kan aktarımı gerektiren kişilere kendi kan gruplarının aynısının verilmesi zorunludur. Çok ama çok acil durumlarda RH (-), RH (+)'ye kan verebilir.

Kan Gruplarının görevi

Kan grubunu belirleyen A ve B genleri, kanda bulunan alyuvarların zarlarında A ve B türü proteinlerden hangisinin yer alacağını belirlerler. Birinin kan grubu A ise, alyuvarlarının zarında yalnızca A türü protein; B ise, yalnızca B türü protein, AB ise her ikisinden de vardır demektir. 0 ise alyuvarların zarında her ikisi de yoktur demektir. Alyuvar çeperinde bulunan ve kan grubunu belirleyen bu proteinlere aglütinojen denir. Ancak kanda, kendinizinkinden ayrı bir kan grubuna ait alyuvar hücrelerinin vücudunuza girmemesini sağlayarak sizi koruyan aglütinin adlı antikorlar bulunur. Protein yapısında olan aglütininler de tıpkı aglütinojenler gibi A ve B türümde olurlar.

Tarihi

Kan aktarımlarının, kan grupları konusunda hiçbir bilginin olmadığı halde önceleri başarıyla sürdürülebilmesi dikkat çekicidir. Landois 1875'te köpek kanının başka bir cinsin kanı ile karıştırıldığında 2 dakika içerisinde sürekli lizise (hücre parçalanması) neden olduğunu bildirmiştir. Bu çalışmayı bilen Karl Landsteiner, 22 kişide yaptığı çalışmada alyuvar ve serum arasındaki tepkimeleri tanımlayarak 1901'de sonuçlarını yayınlamıştır. Landsteiner önceleri A, B, C olmak üzere üç kan grubu tanımladı. Sonraki yıl öğrencileri olan DeCastello ve Sturli 155 kişiyi kapsayan daha geniş bir çalışma ile kan grup sistemini A, B, O, AB olarak tanımladılar (1902). 1922'de Amerika Birleşik Devletleri'ne göç eden Landsteiner 1930 yılında Nobel Fizyoloji veya Tıp Ödülü'ne layık görülmüştür.
Diğer kan grup sistemleri tanımlanmadan neredeyse yarım yüzyıllık bir zaman geçmiş ve 1939'da Philip Levine tarafından sunulan bir olgu ile Rhesus (Rh etkeninin bulunduğu maymunun adı) etkeninin varlığına dikkat çekilmiştir. Sonraki birkaç yıl içerisinde yapılan benzer çalışmalarla yeni antijen sistemleri tanımlanmıştır.

Genetik
İnsanlardaki ABO kan grubu sistemlerinin kalıtımsal açıklaması şu şekildedir:

Kaynakça

Grup
Genetik
Hematoloji

Kan grubu


Perezia magellanica (Edelweiss fueguino, tól harr (selknam)) es una especie de planta herbácea perteneciente a la familia de las asteráceas.

Descripción
Es una planta perenne, que alcanza un tamaño de unos 30 cm de altura. De hojas basales y lanceoladas, su tallo alcanza una altura de hasta 20 cm. Se encuentra en sitios húmedos: suelos pantanosos, pastizales, en zonas de montaña hasta los 800  por sobre el límite arbóreo. La floración se produce entre noviembre y febrero.

Distribución
Es endémica de las zonas sur andinas de Argentina y de Chile -en las regiones de Aysén y la de Magallanes-.

Taxonomía
P. magellanica fue descrita por (L.f.) Lag. y publicado en Amenidades Naturales de las Españas 1(1): 31. 1811.
Sinonimia
 Clarionea elegans
 Clarionea magellanica
 Clarionella magellanica
 Perdicium magellanicum
 Perezia lagascae
 Perezia magellanica

Galería de Imágenes

Referencias

Bibliografía
 Marticorena, C. & M. Quezada. 1985. Catálogo de la Flora Vascular de Chile. Gayana, Bot. 42: 1–157.

magellanica
Flora endémica de Argentina
Flora endémica de Chile

Perezia magellanica


කුරුණෑගල දිස්ත්‍රික්කයේ පිහිටා ඇත.

පාදෙණිය - අනුරාධපුර ඇල්ල හරහා දිවෙන A28 මහා මාර්ගයේ පිහිටි කුඩා නගරයකි. කුරුණෑගල සිට කිලෝමීටර් 57 ක පමණ දුරින් මෙය පිහිටා ඇත.

ගමනාගමනය

දුම්රිය
කොළඹ - කන්කසන්තුරේ (උතුරු) දුම්රිය මාර්ගයේ මහව දුම්රිය ස්ථානයට පසුව හමුවන දුම්රිය ස්ථානයද මෙය වේ.

මහා මාර්ග
අංක 57 බස් මෙම පුදේශයට පිට පලාත්වල සිට ලඟාවන බස් වල මාර්ග අංකයයි.
 පාදෙණිය මාර්ගය - කුරුණෑගලට
 අනුරාධපුර මාර්ගය
 දනිකිතව මාර්ගය - නිකවැරටියට
 ඇහැටුවැව මාර්ගය -  අතරගල්ල, අබකොල වැව,  පොල්පිතිගම යන ප්‍රදේශවලට

ප්‍රධාන රජයේ ආයතන
 රජයේ රෝහල
 ප්‍රාදේශීය ලේකම් කාර්යාලය
 ගොවිජන සේවා කාර්යාලය

පාසල්
 අඹන්පොල ජාතික පාසල
 අඹන්පොල කණිෂ්ඨ විද්‍යාලය

ශ්‍රී ලංකාවේ නගර සහ ගම්මාන
කුරුණෑගල දිස්ත්‍රික්කය

අඹන්පොල


Le travail de reproduction ou travail reproductif est souvent associé à la prestation d'aidant naturel et à la réalisation de tâches ménagères, notamment le nettoyage, la cuisine, la garde des enfants et la main-d'œuvre domestique non rémunérée. Le terme a pris une place importante dans la philosophie et le discours féministes, et se veut un moyen d'attirer l'attention sur la façon dont les femmes en particulier sont assignées à la sphère domestique, où le travail est reproductif et donc non rémunéré et non reconnu dans un système capitaliste. Ces théories ont évolué comme un parallèle des histoires centrées sur l'entrée des femmes dans la population active dans les années 1970, offrant une approche intersectionaliste qui reconnaît que les femmes ont fait partie de la population active avant leur incorporation dans l'industrie traditionnelle, si le travail reproductif est pris en considération. Certains anthropologues marxistes et économistes comme George Caffentzis sont allés jusqu'à suggérer que le travail reproductif crée de la valeur de la même manière que le travail productif crée de la valeur, en augmentant la valeur de la force de travail.

Définitions
La division entre travail productif et travail improductif est soulignée par certaines féministes marxistes, dont Margaret Benston et Peggy Morton. Ces théories précisent que si le travail productif aboutit à des biens ou services qui ont une valeur monétaire dans le système capitaliste et sont donc rémunérés par les producteurs sous la forme d'un salaire payé, le travail reproductif est associé à la sphère privée et implique tout ce que les gens doivent faire pour eux-mêmes sans recevoir de salaire en échange (c'est-à-dire nettoyer, cuisiner, s'occuper des enfants). Ces interprétations soutiennent que si les deux formes de travail sont nécessaires, les gens ont un accès différent à ces formes de travail en fonction de certains aspects de leur identité.

Ces théories soutiennent que les institutions publiques et privées exploitent le travail des femmes comme une méthode peu coûteuse afin d'obtenir de la main-d'œuvre. Pour les producteurs, cela signifie des profits plus élevés. Pour la famille nucléaire, la dynamique du pouvoir dicte que le travail domestique doit être accompli exclusivement par la femme du ménage, libérant ainsi le reste des membres de leur propre travail reproductif nécessaire. Les féministes marxistes soutiennent que l'exclusion des femmes du travail productif conduit à un contrôle masculin dans les domaines privé et public.

Le concept de travail reproductif en ce qui concerne le nettoyage, la cuisine, la garde des enfants et la main-d'œuvre domestique rémunérée a été décrit et discuté avant que le terme ne soit codifié. Il est par exemple possible de citer des œuvres comme l'essai de Virginia Woolf, « Une chambre à soi », qui participe de ce concept.

Une distinction a été faite entre le travail reproductif nourricier et non nourricier. Les emplois de main-d'œuvre reproductive nourricière comprennent des postes dans la garde d'enfants, le travail domestique et les soins de santé. Le travail reproductif non nourricier comprend les emplois dans la préparation des aliments et le nettoyage. Les hommes des minorités, en particulier les hommes noirs et hispaniques, constituent la majorité des travailleurs reproductifs non nourriciers. Les emplois de main-d'œuvre reproductive nourricière sont plus susceptibles que les emplois non nourriciers d'avoir des femmes pour occuper des postes à bas salaire. Il existe une division genrée dans le travail nourricier. Dans le domaine de la santé, les hommes sont susceptibles d'être considérés comme des chirurgiens, tandis que les femmes sont susceptibles d'occuper des postes d'assistants médicaux et d'infirmières.

Salaire pour les travaux ménagers

Se concentrant sur l'exclusion du travail productif comme source la plus importante d'oppression des femmes, certaines féministes marxistes ont consacré leur activisme à lutter pour l'inclusion du travail domestique dans l'économie capitaliste salariée. L'idée de créer un travail reproductif rémunéré était présente dans les écrits de socialistes tels que Charlotte Perkins Gilman (1898) qui soutenaient que l'oppression des femmes découlait du fait qu'elles étaient forcées d'exercer dans la sphère privée. Gilman a proposé que les conditions des femmes s'amélioreraient lorsque leur travail serait localisé, reconnu et valorisé dans la sphère publique.

Les efforts les plus influents pour compenser le travail reproductif ont peut-être été la campagne internationale Wages for Housework, une organisation lancée en Italie en 1972 par des membres du Collectif féministe international. Beaucoup de ces femmes, dont Selma James, Mariarosa Dalla Costa, Brigitte Galtier et Silvia Federici ont publié une série de sources pour promouvoir leur message dans les domaines académiques et publics. Malgré un groupe relativement restreint de femmes en Italie ayant porté ce sujet, la campagne Un salaire pour le travail domestique a réussi à se mobiliser au niveau international. Un groupe Wages for Housework a été fondé à Brooklyn, à New York, avec l'aide de Federici. Comme le reconnaît Heidi Hartmann (1981), les efforts de ces mouvements, bien que finalement infructueux, ont généré un discours important sur la valeur du travail domestique et sa relation avec l'économie.

Le revenu de base universel a été proposé comme une solution possible.

Partage du travail reproductif
Une autre solution proposée par les féministes marxistes est de libérer les femmes de leur lien forcé avec le travail reproductif. Dans sa critique des mouvements féministes marxistes traditionnels tels que la Wages for Housework Campaign, Heidi Hartmann (1981) soutient que ces efforts .

Plus récemment, de nombreuses féministes marxistes se sont concentrées sur la manière dont les femmes sont désormais potentiellement dans de pires conditions après avoir eu accès au travail productif. Nancy Folbre (1994) propose que les mouvements féministes commencent à se concentrer sur le statut subordonné des femmes aux hommes à la fois dans la sphère reproductive (privée) et sur le lieu de travail (sphère publique). Dans une interview en 2013, Silvia Federici exhorte les mouvements féministes à considérer le fait que de nombreuses femmes sont désormais contraintes à un travail productif et reproductif, ce qui se traduit par une "double journée". Federici (2013) soutient que l'émancipation des femmes ne peut toujours pas se produire tant qu'elles ne sont pas libérées de leur fardeau de travail non rémunéré, ce qui, selon elle, impliquera des changements institutionnels tels que la réduction de l'écart salarial et la mise en œuvre de programmes de garde d'enfants sur le lieu de travail. Les suggestions de Federici (2013) trouvent un écho dans une interview similaire avec Selma James (2012) et ces questions ont été abordées lors des récentes élections présidentielles dans plusieurs pays.

Division internationale
Evelyn Nakano Glenn a émis l'idée que le travail reproductif était divisé en fonction de la race et de l'ethnicité, un modèle qu'elle a appelé la «division raciale du travail reproductif». L'industrialisation du  a transformé les rôles de la société attribués aux hommes et aux femmes, les hommes étant considérés comme les principaux soutiens de famille et les femmes comme maîtresses de maison. Cependant, de nombreuses familles blanches de la classe moyenne aux États-Unis pouvaient se permettre de sous-traiter certaines des tâches ménagères les plus désagréables à des domestiques. L'origine raciale et ethnique des femmes embauchées dans ces rôles variait selon le lieu. Dans le nord-est des États-Unis, les immigrés européens, principalement d'Allemagne ou d'Irlande, ont constitué la majorité des domestiques jusqu'au début du . Au fil du temps, à mesure que le statut social du rôle déclinait et que les conditions de travail générales se détérioraient, il a commencé à devenir plus stratifié sur le plan racial. Le rôle était principalement assumé par des femmes afro-américaines du sud, des mexicaines du sud-ouest et des japonaises du nord de la Californie et d'Hawaï. De plus, des travailleuses et travailleurs occupant ce poste qui gagnaient de bas salaires étaient aussi souvent traités comme des subordonnés par leur employeur, et les seules femmes qui acceptaient ces emplois le faisaient parce qu'il n'y avait pas d'autres opportunités qui s'offraient à elles. Il y avait un a priori racial qui disait que les femmes noires et latines étaient «faites» pour travailler et servir pour les familles blanches en tant que domestiques. Cela a changé à la fin du , où le nombre de femmes travaillant comme domestiques a d'abord diminué en raison de la modernisation des outils permettant de réaliser les tâches ménagères, mais aussi du développement et d'une augmentation des autres opportunités d'emploi pour les femmes assumant auparavant ce rôle. Cependant, Saskia Sassen a expliqué que lorsque l'économie s'est tournée vers les services, elle a créé une demande pour les femmes immigrées parce que des emplois à bas salaires étaient disponibles dans les pays développés. Ces rôles étaient principalement assumés par des immigrants du Mexique, d'Amérique centrale et des Caraïbes. Ces emplois ont attiré une main-d'œuvre féminine en raison du faible salaire, de sorte qu'ils sont considérés comme des « emplois de femmes ».

Le terme division internationale du travail reproductif a été inventé par Rhacel Parreñas dans son livre, Servants of Globalization: Migrants and Domestic Work, où elle parle des travailleurs domestiques migrants philippins. La division internationale du travail reproductif implique un transfert de travail entre trois acteurs dans un pays développé et en développement. Les femmes les plus riches des pays développés sont entrées sur le marché du travail en plus grand nombre, ce qui les a amenées à avoir plus de responsabilités à l'intérieur et à l'extérieur du foyer. Ces femmes sont en mesure d'embaucher de l'aide et d'utiliser ce privilège de race et de classe pour transférer leurs responsabilités de travail reproductif à une femme moins privilégiée. Les femmes migrantes maintiennent une hiérarchie par rapport aux membres de leur famille et aux autres femmes qui restent gardent elles-mêmes leurs enfants. Les recherches de Parrenas expliquent que la division sexuelle du travail demeure dans le travail reproductif puisque ce sont les femmes qui migrent pour travailler comme domestiques dans les pays développés.

Rhacel Parrenas soutient que la division internationale du travail reproductif est née de la mondialisation et du capitalisme. Les composantes de la mondialisation, notamment la privatisation et la féminisation du travail, ont également contribué à l'essor de cette division du travail. Elle explique que la mondialisation a conduit à la comodification et à la demande internationale de travail reproductif. Les pays d'origine sont obligés de perdre une main-d'œuvre précieuse tandis que les pays d'accueil profitent de cette main-d'œuvre pour développer leur économie. Parrenas souligne le rôle que jouent le colonialisme américain et le Fonds monétaire international dans les pays en développement, comme les Philippines, qui deviennent des exportateurs de travailleurs migrants. Cette explication de la racine du concept est cruciale car elle explique que les inégalités financières auxquelles les femmes sont confrontées dans les trois niveaux sont enracinées dans l'économie.

Le concept a été élargi par d'autres et appliqué à des endroits autres que les Philippines où Rhacel Parrenas a mené ses recherches. Dans une étude réalisée au Guatemala et au Mexique, au lieu d'un transfert global de main-d'œuvre, un transfert plus local a été effectué entre les femmes qui travaillent sur le marché du travail et les autres femmes de la famille qui s'occupent des enfants. Une « nouvelle division internationale du travail reproductif » se serait produite à Singapour en raison de l'externalisation et de l'exploitation d'une main-d'œuvre peu qualifiée, ce qui a conduit à la division internationale du travail reproductif. Afin de maintenir une économie forte et en croissance en Asie du Sud-Est, ce transfert de main-d'œuvre reproductive est nécessaire. À Singapour, embaucher une aide migrante est une nécessité pour soutenir l'économie et le statut de la femme singapourienne.

Références

Courant d'inspiration marxiste

Travail de reproduction


Aasmäe ist der Familienname folgender Personen:

 Hardo Aasmäe (* 1951), estnischer Politiker
 Meelis Aasmäe (* 1972), estnischer Skilanglauf- und Biathlontrainer und ehemaliger Skilangläufer

Aasmäe


Østhimmerlands Ungdomsskole er en er en kreativ og kunstnerisk efterskole beliggende i Bælum. Ungdomsskolen har været drevet som sådan siden 1954.

Fogedsæde
Bygningerne der i dag huser Østhimmerlands Ungdomsskole var oprindeligt områdets fogedsæde. Tiden som fogedsæde blev meget kort. Det skyldes at den gamle herredsfogeds unge førstemand blev forelsket i herredsfogedens unge kone. Som førstemand havde han hjemmel til at skrive under på diverse retsdokumenter, og derved svindlede han sig efter sigende til en stor sum penge. Ifølge historier forlyder det, at det førstemanden og herrefogedens førstemand flygtede med alle pengene til Amerika. Tilbage stod herredsfogeden med ansvar for førstemandens formodede forbrydelser. Som konsekvens heraf blev herredsfogeden smidt i sit eget fængsel, som skulle have ligget i hovedbygningens kælder. Her døde han, før han kom for retten.

Herefter blev fogedsinstitutionen flyttet til Terndrup, som senere også fik områdets sygehus og områdets kommunale administrationsbygning. Bygningerne i Bælum stod tomme. Heraf kom ideen om at oprette en højskole, og i år 1885 var højskolen en realitet med Hans Villumsen som forstander.

Fra fogedsæde til kreativ efterskole
Bygningerne fungerede som højsskole indtil lige før 2. verdenskrig, hvor man omdannede højskolen til en landbrugshøjskole. Skolen blev i 1942 inddraget af tyskerne, og efter krigens afslutning var skolen i så dårlig stand, at man opgav at fortsætte med at drive landbrugshøjskolen. En kreds af Bælum-borgere bad herefter Gunnar Kragelund være ny forstander på det man valgte at kalde Østhimmerlands Ungdomsskole, der i 1954 modtog sit første hold sommerpiger.

Gunnar Kragelunds blev i 1983 efterfulgt af Peter Overgaard. I et interview forklarer Peter Overgaard, at Ungdomsskolen var meget frisindet i forhold til sin samtid. Det var en af de meget få efterskoler uden sengetider og uden nogle regler vedrørende kontakt mellem drenge og piger. Ungdomsskolen var klart foran sin tid med hensyn til disse regler. Det skabte stor opsigt og gav mange problemer fra utilfredse forældre, men der blev ikke ændret på reglerne af den grund, og de fastholdes stadigvæk. Berno Jacobsen trådte til i 2003 og fortsatte i stor stil skolens frisindede traditioner, og han lagde grunden til den kreative efterskole der findes i dag. Forstanderposten blev i 2018 overtaget af Jesper Brøsted, som den 4. forstander siden 1954.

Eksterne henvisninger
 Østhimmerlands Ungdomsskoles hjemmeside

Efterskoler
Bygninger, konstruktioner og anlæg i Rebild Kommune

Østhimmerlands Ungdomsskole