Neven Antičević (Zagreb, 1953.), hrvatski dugogodišnji nakladnik i urednik.

Životopis
Rođen u Zagrebu. Još u mladoj dobi bio je strastveni čitatelj knjiga zbog čega su u školi očekivali da će studirati komparativnu književnost, no opredijelio se za ekonomiju. Nakon što je diplomirao posvetio se knjigama. Bio je urednik u uglednoj zagrebačkoj izdavačkoj kući Mladost. Radio je i kao prevoditelj pa je rano spoznao važnost prijevoda. Godine 1990. omogućeno je osnivanje privatnih poduzeća pa je sa šestero partnera i uz osnivački ulog od samo 7000 njemačkih maraka osnovao privatnu izdavačku kuću Algoritam. Brzo je stekao glas gurua hrvatskog nakladništva i knjižarstva i izdavačkog vizionara koji je prvi shvatio važnost tržišne orijentacije i e-knjiga. Tvrtka mu je postala perjanica hrvatskog izdavaštva. Bio je predsjednik Zajednice nakladnika i knjižara pri Hrvatskoj gospodarskoj komori. Godine 1996. Hrvatsko udruženje menadžera i poduzetnika proglasilo ga je menadžerom godine u kategoriji malih poduzeća. Godine 2009. na Sajmu knjiga u Puli dobio je Nagradu Kiklop kao najbolji urednik. Zbog poslovne bliskosti s ministricom kulture Andreom Zlatar Violić smatralo ga se dijelom kulturne ljevice. Gospodarska kriza 2010-ih poharala je hrvatsko gospodarstvo, time i hrvatsko nakladništvo uključujući i Antičevićev Algoritam. Krizu je okarakterizirao psihološkom, a za krizu u izdavaštvu okrivio je puštanje novinskih kuća u izdavačku branšu. Novine kao izdavači knjiga ne samo da više nisu promotivno pisale o novim knjiškim izdanjima, niti su prezentirali autore i izdavače, urednike, nego nisu nikako jer je to značilo promicanje konkurencije.

Izvori

Životopisi, Zagreb
Hrvatski poduzetnici
Izdavači knjiga u Hrvatskoj

Neven Antičević


El término Acompáñame puede referirse, en esta enciclopedia:

 a Acompáñame, película musical española de 1966;
 a Acompáñame, telenovela mexicana de 1977;
 a Acompáñame, musical peruano estrenado en 2006;
 a Acompáñame, álbum de Rocío Dúrcal;
 a Acompáñame, álbum de Yuri y Mijares.

Acompáñame


Necromunda: Hired Gun est un jeu vidéo de tir à la première personne développé par Streum On Studio et édité par Focus Home Interactive. Le jeu se déroule dans l'univers de Warhammer 40,000 et se déroule sur la planète mécanisée Necromunda, où le joueur travaille pour diverses factions. Le jeu est sorti le 1er juin 2021 pour PlayStation 4, PlayStation 5, Xbox One, Xbox Series X et S et Microsoft Windows.

Système de jeu
Necromunda: Hired Gun est un jeu de tir à la première personne, dans lequel le joueur incarne un mercenaire qui cherche à découvrir un complot impliquant un gang puissant dans le monde souterrain de Necromunda. Le jeu est linéaire avec des étapes qui peuvent être jouées normalement, plus tard le joueur devra accepter des contrats, l'obligeant à accomplir des tâches spécifiques, il peut choisir entre des armes de mêlée ou à distance avec des améliorations disponibles pour chacune. Le jeu se concentre sur l'agilité et la vitesse, le joueur étant capable d'utiliser un grappin, de se précipiter autour des ennemis et de courir sur les murs. Le jeu propose également des mécanismes de furtivités où le joueur peut se faufiler entre les ennemis sans être détecté. Le joueur dispose d'un chien de combat qui peut être utilisé pour repérer et attaquer les ennemis, et peut être amélioré pour renforcer ses capacités et en acquérir de nouvelles. La fin de chaque niveau se termine par un combat de boss.

Le jeu a une zone centrale, Martyr's End, où le joueur a accès aux niveaux et peut choisir des contrats. Le hub sert de zone où une grande partie de l'histoire du jeu et des quêtes secondaires existent. Le joueur peut également acheter des armes, des capacités et des améliorations dans les magasins de la zone.

Développement
Après le lancement de leur titre précédent, Space Hulk: Deathwing, Streum On Studio voulait revenir au gameplay axé sur la vitesse comme leurs autres jeux. Un producteur a déclaré sur le moment : "Necromunda a beaucoup de diversité d'environnements, ce qui nous a permis de créer diverses atmosphères et expériences pour le joueur." Les développeurs ont également mentionné qu'ils voulaient que le joueur utilise ses capacités d'exploration, des récompenses ont donc été placées dans des endroits difficiles d'accès.

Le jeu a été annoncé en mars 2021 pour un lancement en juin 2021. Le 1er juin 2021, Necromunda: Hired Gun est sorti sur PlayStation 4, PlayStation 5, Xbox One, Xbox Series X et Series S et Microsoft Windows.

Accueil
Necromunda: Hired Gun a reçu des « critiques mitigées à moyens » selon Metacritic.

Notes et références

Liens externes

Jeu Windows
Jeu Xbox Series
Jeu Xbox One
Jeu PlayStation 5
Jeu PlayStation 4
Jeu vidéo développé en France
Jeu vidéo Warhammer 40,000
Jeu Focus Home Interactive
Jeu de tir à la première personne
Jeu Unreal Engine
Jeu vidéo sorti en 2021

Necromunda: Hired Gun


مطار سانت كاترين الدولي هو مطار يقع على بعد 20 ميل بحري شمال شرق مدينة سانت كاثرين بسيناء، مصر.
مساحة المطار 1959667 م² ويعمل بكفائه 80 راكب/ساعة وله مدرج رئيسي بطول 2115 م × 36 م 15 S بقوة تحمل (PCN (40
ولا توجد انارة ليلية للممرات وللترامك الذي يتسع لثلاث طائرات صغيرة ومساحة التراماك 60×240 م.

مراجع

سانت كاترين
محافظة جنوب سيناء

مطار سانت كاترين الدولي


"Fantasy" es una canción de la banda estadounidense Earth, Wind & Fire, de su álbum All 'N All, lanzada como sencillo en 1978.
La selección fue escrita y compuesta por Maurice White, Verdine White y Eddie del Barrio, y alcanzó el puesto #32 en la lista pop y #12 en la lista de sencillos de R&B en los Estados Unidos, y #14 en la lista de sencillos del Reino Unido.

"Fantasy" recibió una nominación al premio Grammy por Mejor canción R&B.

Otras versiones
En 1990, la banda italiana Black Box realizó una versión que alcanzó el puesto 5 del ranking británico. Esta canción se encuentra incluida en su álbum Dreamland.

Referencias

Canciones de 1978
Canciones de Earth, Wind & Fire

Fantasy (canción de Earth, Wind & Fire)


Imperiul Toucouleur a fost fondat în secolul 19 de Al-Hajji Umar Tall (1796-1864), etnic toucouleur, într-o regiune din actualul Mali.

Umar Tall se întoarce dintr-un pelerinaj la Mecca, în anul 1836, cu titlurile de Al Hajji și Calif al confreriei Tijaniyyah pentru Sudan. După ce a stat în Fouta-Djallon (actuala Guineea), își începe jihadul (războiul sfânt) în 1850 din țara sa natală, Fouta-Toro (în prezent Senegal).

Nereușind să învingă armata colonială franceză, după eșecul asediului fortului Médine în iulie 1857, își mută imperiului la est, prin atacarea regatelor bambara. Cucerind Ségou în 10 martie 1861, el a făcut din el capitala imperiului său, lăsând conducerea, un an mai târziu, fiului său, Ahmadou Tall pentru a cuceri Hamdallaye, capitala Imperiului peul (fula) Macina. El se refugiază în Deguembéré, aproape de Bandiagara. În 1864, el dispare în mod misterios în munții Bandiagara.

Nepotul său, Tidjani Tall, îi succede și își mută capitala Imperiului Toucouleur în Bandiagara.

În Ségou, continuă să conducă Amadou Tall, dar intră în conflict cu frații lui. În 1890, francezii vin în Ségou, în alianță cu triburile bambara. Ahmadou este forțat să fugă la Sokoto, în nordul Nigeriei.

Referințe

Foste imperii
Istoria Maliului

Imperiul Toucouleur


Jim Gottfridsson (født 2. september 1992 i Ystad) er en svensk håndboldspiller, der spiller for den tyske Bundesligaklub SG Flensburg-Handewitt og Sveriges herrehåndboldlandshold.

Eksterne henvisninger

Håndboldspillere fra Sverige
Håndboldspillere fra SG Flensburg-Handewitt
Personer fra Ystad
Olympiske håndboldspillere fra Sverige
Håndboldspillere ved sommer-OL 2020
Deltagere for Sverige ved sommer-OL 2020

Jim Gottfridsson


Great Amwell es una parroquia civil y un pueblo del distrito de East Hertfordshire, en el condado de Hertfordshire (Inglaterra).

Geografía
Según la Oficina Nacional de Estadística británica, Great Amwell tiene una superficie de 3,03 km².

Demografía
Según el censo de 2001, Great Amwell tenía 2239 habitantes (47,48% varones, 52,52% mujeres) y una densidad de población de 738,94 hab/km². El 21,13% eran menores de 16 años, el 72,85% tenían entre 16 y 74, y el 6,03% eran mayores de 74. La media de edad era de 36,83 años. Del total de habitantes con 16 o más años, el 28,77% estaban solteros, el 57,47% casados, y el 13,76% divorciados o viudos.

El 94,86% de los habitantes eran originarios del Reino Unido. El resto de países europeos englobaban al 2,28% de la población, mientras que el 2,86% había nacido en cualquier otro lugar. Según su grupo étnico, el 98,48% eran blancos, el 0,45% mestizos, el 0,13% asiáticos, el 0,54% negros, y el 0,27% chinos. El cristianismo era profesado por el 77,78%, el budismo por el 0,13%, el hinduismo por el 0,13%, el judaísmo por el 0,45%, el islam por el 0,31%, y cualquier otra religión, salvo el sijismo, por el 0,18%. El 14,59% no eran religiosos y el 6,43% no marcaron ninguna opción en el censo.

Había 921 hogares con residentes, 19 vacíos, y 7 eran alojamientos vacacionales o segundas residencias.

Referencias

Enlaces externos

Localidades de Hertfordshire
Parroquias civiles de Hertfordshire

Great Amwell


An Alloteropsis papillosa in uska species han Liliopsida nga ginhulagway ni Clayton. An Alloteropsis papillosa in nahilalakip ha genus nga Alloteropsis, ngan familia nga Poaceae. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Alloteropsis

Alloteropsis papillosa


An Tetroncium magellanicum in uska species han Liliopsida nga ginhulagway ni Carl Ludwig von Willdenow. An Tetroncium magellanicum in nahilalakip ha genus nga Tetroncium, ngan familia nga Juncaginaceae. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Mga sumpay ha gawas

Tetroncium

Tetroncium magellanicum


Gara University este o stație de cale ferată care deservește Universitatea din Birmingham, Birmingham Women's Hospital și Queen Elizabeth Hospital din West Midlands, Anglia. Aceasta este situată pe linia Cross-City care merge de la Redditch spre Lichfield via Birmingham New Street. Cele mai multe servicii sunt operate de West Midlands Trains, care administrează și gara. Unele trenuri sunt operate de CrossCountry.

Istoric
Situată pe fosta linie Birmingham West Suburban, University a fost construită în 1977/8 ca parte a dezvoltării liniei Cross-City. Garaa a fost deschisă pe 8 mai 1978 de către William Rogers, Secretarul de Stat pentru Transporturi. Deși aceasta a fost prima stație din acest nou proiect, este situată la o scurtă distanță de fosta gară Somerset Road, care a fost închisă în anii 1930. Linia a fost electrificată în anul 1993 și trenuri electrice din clasa 323 au fost introduse de către British Rail pentru serviciile locale.

În 2017, a fost anunțat că gara University ar putea primi până la 10 milioane de lire sterline drept fond de dezvoltare pentru a îmbunătăți experiența pasagerilor și de a reduce supraaglomerarea, ca parte a unei strategii guvernamentale dedicată Midlands.

Facilități
Accesul pietonal se face prin University Road West, în apropiere de Medical School și stația de autobuz - la aproximativ de 330 de metri (300 la deal din Piața Universității. Din cauză că gara este localizată pe un drum mic în campus, nu există nici un loc parcare. Cu toate acestea, gara Selly Oak, care se află în apropeire, are o parcare. Gara este situată de-a lungul canalului Worcester and Birmingham, un traseu popular pentru ciclism și jogging. Accesul este la nivel cu strada.

Gara este singura din  Marea Britanie construită cu scopul de a deservi o universitate. Pe peronul 2 există o sală de așteptare. Există și două automate de bilete și două ghișee care sunt deschise toată ziua de luni până sâmbătă și de la 9:20 duminica. Ambele peroane pot fi accesate cu liftul. În 2009, au fost instalate bariere automate de bilete.

Servicii
Gara este deservită de trenuri locale operate de West Midlands Trains cu trenuri din clasa 323 cu trei sau șase vagoane. Pentru distanțe mai lungi, trenurile operate de West Midlands Trains spre Hereford și de CrossCountry spre Cardiff și Nottingham sunt de tipul Turbostar, pe bază de motorină.

Gara University este a șasea cea mai aglomerată gară din zona West Midlands în ceea ce privește numărul de pasageri și cea mai aglomerate fără o legătură directă spre Londra. În anul financiar 2009-2010, peste două milioane de bilete au fost vândute spre și dinspre gară.

Peronul 1 (spre nord)
Toate serviciile de la peronul 1 opresc la Birmingham New Street, cu un timp mediu de călătorie de 8 minute.

 2 trenuri pe oră spre Four Oaks, oprind la toate stațiile, operate de WMT.
 2 trenuri pe oră spre Lichfield City, oprind în toate gările, cu excepția Shenstone și Duddeston, operate de WMT.
 2 trenuri pe oră spre Lichfield Trent Vale, oprind la toate stațiile, cu excepția Duddeston, operate de WMT.
 1 tren pe oră spre Birmingham New Street, operat de WMT.
 1 tren pe oră spre Nottingham, operat de CrossCountry.

Peronul 2 (spre sud)

 3 trenuri pe oră spre Bromsgrove, cu unul oprind la toate stațiile și 2 oprind în toate gările cu excepția Barnt Green, operate de WMT. Câteva trenuri se opresc la Longbridge.
 3 trenuri pe oră spre Redditch, oprind la toate stațiile, operate de WMT.
 1 tren pe oră spre Hereford, oprind la Bromsgrove, Droitwich Spa, Worcester Foregate Street și apoi toate gările până la Hereford, operate de WMT. Câteva trenuri opresc, de asemenea, la Barnt Green. La orele de vârf de seară există trenuri suplimentare (1 tren pe oră) spre Malvern sau Worcester Shrub Hill
 1 tren pe oră spre Cardiff Central, oprind la Cheltenham Spa, Gloucester, Newport și Cardiff Central, operate de CrossCountry. Uneori, aceste trenuri opresc la Ashchurch for Tewkesbury, Lydney, Chepstow și Severn Tunnel Junction.

Acces pentru persoane cu handicap
Sala principală a gării este la nivel cu strada, astfel că se paote ajunge ușor la la casa de bilete și podul peste peroane. Pentru a ajunge pe peron, există lifturi pe pod. Gara are o poartă automată de bilete largă, care poate fi utilizată de persoanele în scaune cu rotile.

Referințe

University
Fondări în 1978

Gara University (Anglia)


Stances à Madame de Pompadour est une œuvre pour piano de Déodat de Séverac composée en 1907.

Composition
Déodat de Séverac compose les Stances à Madame de Pompadour en 1907. La partition est publiée en 1909 dans un supplément de la revue Musica puis chez Rouart-Lerolle et Cie en 1921.

Présentation
L'œuvre est en un seul mouvement,  en la majeur, à .

Postérité

François-René Tranchefort préfère .

Guy Sacre estime que  qui imprègnent les Stances à Madame de Pompadour :

Vladimir Jankélévitch note que les . Pour le philosophe et musicologue, le , dans la partition, . Jankélévitch considère en effet que, loin d'être de , les ornements nombreux de l'œuvre ont une fonction impressionniste : .

Jankélévitch souligne aussi la recherche dans la partition de , avec une , constatant que .

Pour le critique musical Adrian Corleonis, l'œuvre s'écoule , empreinte d'une certaine nostalgie.

Discographie

Bibliographie

Ouvrages généraux
 .
 .
 .

Monographies
 .
 .

Notes discographiques

Références

Liens externes

Œuvre pour piano
Stances

Stances à Madame de Pompadour


An Eragrostis scabriflora in uska species han Liliopsida nga ginhulagway ni Jason Richard Swallen. An Eragrostis scabriflora in nahilalakip ha genus nga Eragrostis, ngan familia nga Poaceae. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Mga sumpay ha gawas

Eragrostis

Eragrostis scabriflora


William King (* 22. April 1809 in Sunderland, County Durham, Nordost-England; † 24. Juni 1886 in Taylor's Hill, Glenoir bei Galway) war ein britischer Geologe und Mineraloge. Obwohl er kein Studium absolviert hatte, wurde er 1849 nach Irland auf den Lehrstuhl für Geologie und Mineralogie im neu eingerichteten Queen's College, Galway, berufen, der heutigen National University of Ireland, Galway.

1864 führte er die Bezeichnung Homo neanderthalensis für das Fossil Neandertal 1 ein, das Mitte August 1856 in einem als Neandertal bezeichneten Talabschnitt der Düssel im niederbergischen Land, 13 Kilometer östlich von Düsseldorf, entdeckt worden war. King war somit der erste Wissenschaftler, der eine neue, eng mit dem anatomisch modernen Menschen (Homo sapiens) verwandte, ausgestorbene Art anhand von fossilem Material benannte.

Leben
William King wuchs in Sunderland auf und entwickelte dort bereits sehr früh ein Interesse an der Naturgeschichte; im Anschluss an seinen Schulbesuch konnten ihm die Eltern jedoch kein akademisches Studium finanzieren. Nach einer Ausbildung zum Eisenwarenhändler eröffnete er 1833 in Sunderland einen Buchladen, der von den örtlichen wohlhabenden, an Naturgeschichte und Literatur Interessierten unterstützt wurde. King hatte sich im Selbststudium Anatomie beigebracht und seit seiner Kindheit Mineralien und Fossilien gesammelt. Daher gelang ihm der Zugang zu an Geologie interessierten wissenschaftlichen Kreisen, so dass er 1840 zum Kurator im heute Great North Museum: Hancock genannten Naturkundemuseum in Newcastle-upon-Tyne berufen wurde; 1847 gab er diese Tätigkeit nach Streitigkeiten mit seinen Mitarbeitern auf. Als Lecturer unterrichtete er in dieser Zeit Geologie an der örtlichen School of Medicine und verfasste mehrere Publikationen in Fachzeitschriften, u. a. über Siegelbäume aus dem Karbon, über Fossilien des Perm und zur Systematik der Kopffüßer.

1849 wurde King nach Irland auf den jüngst erst eingerichteten Lehrstuhl für Geologie und Mineralogie des Queen's College, Galway, berufen. Die genauen Umstände, wie es zu dieser Berufung kam, sind nicht mehr bekannt, jedoch wird angenommen, dass Henry Thomas de la Bèche – damals Direktor der Ordnance Geological Survey und Präsident der Geological Society of London – auf die hohe Qualität von Kings Publikationen aufmerksam geworden war. Galway war damals, kurz nach dem Höhepunkt der Great Famine, eine extrem arme, entvölkerte und daher unattraktive irische Grafschaft. Dennoch blieb King bis zu seiner Emeritierung im Jahr 1883 und danach bis zu seinem Lebensende in Galway, was allerdings auch dem Umstand geschuldet war, dass 1873 seine Bewerbung für den Woodwardian Chair of Geology an der University of Cambridge trotz Fürsprechern wie Adam Sedgwick, Roderick Murchison und John Phillips erfolglos blieb.

Schwerpunkte seiner Forschung und seiner Publikationen waren die Geologie Irlands (unter anderem das Entstehen der Burren), die Fossilien des Perm in England und – gemeinsam mit Thomas Henry Rowney, Professor für Chemie am Queen's College, Galway – die so genannten Eozoen, vermeintliche Fossilien von Lebewesen aus dem Perm, die von King & Rowney korrekt als rein kristalline Strukturen interpretiert wurden.

1852 richtete er aus dem Bestand seiner Privatsammlung ein geologisches Museum am Queen's College ein, das heutige James Mitchell Geology Museum. Außerdem war er beratend tätig, als die Route für das Verlegen von Transatlantikkabeln festgelegt wurde.

1870 wurde ihm in Galway ein Ehrendoktorat verliehen, das erste, das von seiner Universität vergeben wurde. 1882/83 war King zusätzlich Professor für Naturgeschichte.

William King wurde 1886 auf dem Neuen Friedhof in Galway beigesetzt.

Befassung mit dem Neandertaler
Zu den vielseitigen naturkundlichen Interessen von William King gehörte neben den Fossilien auch die vergleichende Anatomie des Menschen. Wie er selbst berichtet, hatte er sich mit dem Bau der Schädel aller wichtigen Rassen vertraut gemacht und auch Zugang zu einem rund 500 Jahre alten Schädel aus der irischen Grafschaft Clare. Dank dieses Wissens und in Kenntnis der damals aktuellen Fachliteratur gelang ihm eine detaillierte Analyse der besonderen Merkmale des in Deutschland entdeckten Neandertaler-Schädels.

In der Zeit zwischen 1857 und 1863 war William King in den Besitz eines Abformung des Schädels vom Fossil Neandertal 1 gelangt, der ihm von einem "Mr. Gregory, of Golden Square, London" zur Verfügung gestellt wurde. Zunächst 1863 während der 33. Tagung der British Association for the Advancement of Science, in einem Vortrag vor der Geologischen Sektion, und im gleichen sowie im folgenden Jahr in mehreren Fachaufsätzen argumentierte er, dass der Neandertaler-Schädel aufgrund seiner Merkmale und seiner Einbettung im Gestein ein erhebliches Alter haben müsse und sich von den Merkmalen aller rezenten Rassen hinreichend deutlich unterscheide, so dass er einer neuen taxonomischen Einheit zugeordnet werden könne. Sein Vorschlag, der 1864 publiziert wurde, lautete: Homo neanderthalensis. Bemerkenswert an Kings Argumentation ist, dass er bei seiner Analyse des Neandertaler-Schädels ganz selbstverständlich davon ausging, dass die rezenten menschlichen Populationen aller Kontinente zu einer gemeinsamen Art gehören, zum Homo sapiens – dass er also eine wissenschaftliche Lehrmeinung vertrat, die damals keineswegs allgemein akzeptiert war.

Schriften (Auswahl)
 The Permian Fossils of England. The Palaeontographical Society, London 1850. Volltext-Reproduktion.
 The Neanderthal Skull. In: The Anthropological Review. Band 1, Nr. 3, 1863, S. 393–394, Volltext (PDF).
 On the Neanderthal Skull, or Reasons for believing it to belong to the Clydian Period and to a species different from that represented by Man. In: British Association for the Advancement of Science, Notices and Abstracts for 1863. Part II, London 1864, S. 81–82.
 mit Thomas Henry Rowney: On the so-called "Eozoonal Rock". In: Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society of London. Band 22, 1866, S. 185–218, doi:10.1144/GSL.JGS.1866.022.01-02.13.
 mit Thomas H. Rowney: On "Eozoon Canadense". In: Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy. Band 10, 1869, S. 506–551, Volltext (PDF).
 mit Thomas Henry Rowney: An Old Chapter of the Geological Record, with a New Interpretation: or, Rock-Metamorphism (especially the Methylosed Kind) and its Resultant Imitations of Organisms. John Van Voorst, London 1881 Volltext (PDF; 6,55 MB).

Literatur
 Sidney Lee: Dictionary of National Biography. Smith, Elder & Co., London 1892, S. 170.
 Frederic Boase: Modern English Biography. Netherton & Worth, Truro 1892–1921.

Weblinks

Belege

Paläoanthropologe (Vereinigtes Königreich)
Geologe (19. Jahrhundert)
Kurator einer naturwissenschaftlichen Sammlung
Hochschullehrer (Galway)
Fossiliensammler
Mineraliensammler
Mäzen
Ehrendoktor der National University of Ireland
Brite
Geboren 1809
Gestorben 1886
Mann

William King (Geologe)


6534 Carriepeterson este un asteroid din centura principală de asteroizi.

Descriere
6534 Carriepeterson este un asteroid din centura principală de asteroizi. A fost descoperit pe  la Catalina Station de Timothy B. Spahr. Asteroidul prezintă o orbită caracterizată de o semiaxă mare de 3,17 ua, o excentricitate de 0,11 și o înclinație de 23,3° în raport cu ecliptica.

Vezi și
 Lista planetelor minore: 6001-7000
 Centura de asteroizi

Referințe

Obiecte astronomice descoperite în 1995
Centura de asteroizi

6534 Carriepeterson


El anascote o añascote es una tela cruzada de lana peinada, lisa, áspera, tejida en crudo y teñida en piezas. Se usaba generalmente para mantos de mujer y, a veces, con ella se hacen vestidos, chales y más comúnmente, delantales.

Orígenes
El anascote era originario de Hondschoote, actualmente comuna francesa, pero parte de Flandes bajo la Monarquía Hispánica los siglos XV-XVI. Este anascote se fabricaba principalmente de lino, especie ampliamente cultivada en la zona de Hondschoote.

Debido a la Guerra de los Ochenta Años, la ciudad pasa a manos francesas y los tejedores se refugian en Bélgica e Inglaterra, donde siguen con la industria del anascote. En el siglo XVII, se importaba de Brujas un anascote negro bastante apreciado por las damas del momento.

Más tarde, se recibía este artículo en España desde  Inglaterra en cantidades considerables en piezas. En 1796, empezó en Francia a imitarse la fabricación del anascote con muestras inglesas que sirvieron de tipos. Al principio, se ejecutó con una urdimbre doble, es decir, un hilo de lana torcido con un hilo de seda. Los primeros ensayos produjeron a los franceses grandes beneficios exportando anascotes a España. Con semejante estímulo la fábrica de Amiens tomó un rápido vuelo y, a pesar del gran consumo, satisfizo por mucho tiempo todos los pedidos. Entonces fue cuando los fabricantes de las cercanías de Breteuil lograron reemplazar la urdimbre doble por urdimbres sencillas con tan gran reducción de precio en los jornales que los operarios abandonaron esta clase de fabricación a los tejedores del campo, que posteriormente, fueron casi los únicos que se dedicaron a ella.

Desaparición
Como se pasaron muchos años antes que se introdujese en Francia el sistema de hilatura de lana por medio de la maquinaria, los fabricantes buscaron la salida de sus productos en mercados de su nación. Entonces, el merino era mucho más caro y su uso era reducido a causa del precio. Con todo, había dado origen a la moda de los vestidos de lana para las mujeres, moda que fue adquiriendo favor con el tiempo y el añascote permitió satisfacerla a la clase menos acomodada. Además, este tejido se apropiaba bien a este uso, por la facilidad con que recibe toda clase de colores: de ahí fue que se hicieron chales pintados muy baratos, creándose nuevas ancharías, etc. Mas como el pintado era en general poco esmerado en aquellas clases de añascote cuyos defectos se disimulan por medio de los colores que en ellos se aplican, este artículo decayó en breve: se empezó por empeorar su calidad, luego se disminuyó su ancharía y hasta que se redujo considerablemente el consumo, no se pensó en reanimar la producción por medio de una fabricación más esmerada.

Anascote en España
Los primeros anascotes se fabricaron en Toledo siguiendo la técnica de los telares de los Países Bajos. Sin embargo, existían anascotes de distintas calidades y precios.

España era el punto que por sí solo consumía más anascote que todos los países reunidos. La importación extranjera y el mucho contrabando que por los Pirineos y por Gibraltar se hacía con este artículo, determinó a emprendedores industriales a ensayar la fabricación de este tejido aprovechando de la baratura de las lanas hasta que consiguieron imitar el añascote de los ingleses, como lo habían practicado a su vez los franceses. Al principio, se obtenía un producto algo más grosero que el del extranjero, pero su bajo precio facilitaba la venta; sucesivamente fueron perfeccionándose los medios de fabricación y el añascote casi pudo competir con los que venían de fuera de España, menguando a proporción la importación de este artículo. Desde muchísimo tiempo, pues, se fabricaban en grande escala añascotes en Cataluña. Luego, disminuyó bastante su fabricación pues una buena parte la consumían los frailes.

Características y usos
Se ha dicho que el subido precio del merino había favorecido el uso del añascote para los vestidos de mujer; posteriormente, la baratura de aquel primer tejido ha producido un efecto enteramente contrario. Otra circunstancia contribuyó también a dar este resultado, y es la introducción de la franela ancha de Reims conocida en el comercio con el nombre de Napolitana, la cual sustituyó casi enteramente al añascote. Posteriormente, el consumo de este artículo disminuyó más todavía con el uso de una gran variedad de tejidos de lana pintados y propios para chales de modo que finalmente, el añascote no se usó sino para trajes de luto o para hábitos de monjas y para delantales de señora, pues no se teñía sino de color negro.

Además de mantos, con anascote se fabricaban jubones, ropa de luto y otras prendas.

Referencias

Notas

Bibliografía

Tejidos

Anascote


Ernst Wilhelm Ludvig Karlberg (* 12. Oktober 1901 in Stockholm; † 20. März 1987 ebenda) war ein schwedischer Eishockeyspieler.

Karriere
Auf Vereinsebene spielte Ernst Karlberg ausschließlich in seiner Heimatstadt für den Djurgårdens IF. Von 1921 bis 1932 trat er mit seiner Mannschaft in der schwedischen Meisterschaft an. In der Saison 1926 gewann er mit Djurgårdens IF den nationalen Meistertitel.

International
Für Schweden nahm Karlberg an den Olympischen Winterspielen 1924 in Chamonix sowie 1928 in St. Moritz teil. Bei den Winterspielen 1928 gewann er mit seiner Mannschaft die Silbermedaille. Als bestes europäisches Team bei den Olympischen Winterspielen gewann er mit seiner Mannschaft zudem den Europameistertitel.

Erfolge und Auszeichnungen
 1926 Schwedischer Meister mit Djurgårdens IF
 1928 Silbermedaille bei den Olympischen Winterspielen

Weblinks

Eishockeynationalspieler (Schweden)
Eishockeyspieler (Djurgården Hockey)
Olympiateilnehmer (Schweden)
Europameister (Eishockey)
Schwedischer Meister (Eishockey)
Schwede
Geboren 1901
Gestorben 1987
Mann
Teilnehmer der Olympischen Winterspiele 1924
Teilnehmer der Olympischen Winterspiele 1928

Ernst Karlberg


Megalosaurus (meaning "great lizard", from Greek , , meaning 'big', 'tall' or 'great' and , , meaning 'lizard') is an extinct genus of large carnivorous theropod dinosaurs of the Middle Jurassic Epoch (Bathonian stage, 166 million years ago) of southern England. Although fossils from other areas have been assigned to the genus, the only certain remains of Megalosaurus come from Oxfordshire and date to the late Middle Jurassic.

Megalosaurus was, in 1824, the first genus of non-avian dinosaur to be validly named. The type species is Megalosaurus bucklandii, named in 1827. In 1842, Megalosaurus was one of three genera on which Richard Owen based his Dinosauria. On Owen's directions a model was made as one of the Crystal Palace Dinosaurs, which greatly increased the public interest for prehistoric reptiles. Over 50 other species would eventually be classified under the genus; at first, this was because so few types of dinosaur had been identified, but the practice continued even into the 20th century after many other dinosaurs had been discovered. Today it is understood that none of these additional species was directly related to M. bucklandii, which is the only true Megalosaurus species. Because a complete skeleton of it has never been found, much is still unclear about its build.

The first naturalists who investigated Megalosaurus mistook it for a gigantic lizard of  length. In 1842, Owen concluded that it was no longer than , standing on upright legs. He still thought it was a quadruped, though. Modern scientists, by comparing Megalosaurus with its direct relatives in the Megalosauridae, were able to obtain a more accurate picture. Megalosaurus was about  long, weighing about . It was bipedal, walking on stout hindlimbs, its horizontal torso balanced by a horizontal tail. Its forelimbs were short, though very robust. Megalosaurus had a rather large head, equipped with long curved teeth. It was generally a robust and heavily muscled animal.

Discovery and naming

Edward Lhuyd's tooth (specimen OU 1328)

In 1699, Edward Lhuyd described what he believed to have been a fish tooth (called Plectronites), later believed to be part of a belemnite, that was illustrated alongside the holotype tooth of the sauropod "Rutellum impicatum" and another tooth, from a theropod, in 1699. Later studies found that the theropod tooth, known as specimen 1328 (University of Oxford coll. #1328; lost?) almost certainly was a tooth crown that belonged to an unknown species of Megalosaurus. OU 1328 has since been lost and it was not confidently assigned to Megalosaurus until the tooth was re-described by Delair & Sarjeant (2002).

OU 1328 was collected near Caswell, near Witney, Oxfordshire sometime during the 17th century and became the third dinosaur fossil to ever be illustrated, after "Scrotum humanum" in 1677 and "Rutellum impicatum" in 1699.

"Scrotum humanum"

Megalosaurus may have been the first non avian dinosaur to be described in the scientific literature. The earliest possible fossil of the genus, from the Taynton Limestone Formation, was the lower part of a femur, discovered in the 17th century. It was originally described by Robert Plot as a thigh bone of a Roman war elephant, and then as a biblical giant.  Part of a bone was recovered from the Taynton Limestone Formation of Stonesfield limestone quarry, Oxfordshire in 1676. Sir Thomas Pennyson gave the fragment to Robert Plot, Professor of Chemistry at the University of Oxford and first curator of the Ashmolean Museum, who published a description and illustration in his Natural History of Oxfordshire in 1676. It was the first illustration of a dinosaur bone published. Plot correctly identified the bone as the lower extremity of the thighbone or femur of a large animal and he recognised that it was too large to belong to any species known to be living in England. He therefore at first concluded it to be the thigh bone of a Roman war elephant and later that of a giant human, such as those mentioned in the Bible. The bone has since been lost, but the illustration is detailed enough that some have since identified it as that of Megalosaurus.

It has also been argued that this possible Megalosaurus bone was given the very first species name ever applied to an extinct dinosaur. Plot's engraving of the Cornwell bone was again used in a book by Richard Brookes in 1763. Brookes, in a caption, called it "Scrotum humanum", apparently comparing its appearance to a pair of "human testicles". However, it is possible that the attribution of this name stemmed from illustrator error, not Richard Brookes. In 1970, paleontologist Lambert Beverly Halstead pointed out that the similarity of Scrotum humanum to a modern species name, a so-called Linnaean "binomen" that has two parts, was not a coincidence. Linnaeus, the founder of modern taxonomy, had in the eighteenth century not merely devised a system for naming living creatures, but also for classifying geological objects. The book by Brookes was all about applying this latter system to curious stones found in England. According to Halstead, Brookes thus had deliberately used binomial nomenclature, and had in fact indicated the possible type specimen of a new biological genus. According to the rules of the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature (ICZN), the name Scrotum humanum in principle had priority over Megalosaurus because it was published first. That Brookes understood that the stone did not actually represent a pair of petrified testicles was irrelevant. Merely the fact that the name had not been used in subsequent literature meant that it could be removed from competition for priority, because the ICZN states that if a name has never been considered valid after 1899, it can be made a nomen oblitum, an invalid "forgotten name".

In 1993, after the death of Halstead, his friend William A.S. Sarjeant submitted a petition to the International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature to formally suppress the name Scrotum in favour of Megalosaurus. He wrote that the supposed junior synonym Megalosaurus bucklandii should be made a conserved name to ensure its priority. However, the Executive Secretary of the ICZN at the time, Philip K. Tubbs, did not consider the petition to be admissible, concluding that the term "Scrotum humanum", published merely as a label for an illustration, did not constitute the valid creation of a new name, and stated that there was no evidence it was ever intended as such. Furthermore, the partial femur was too incomplete to definitely be referred to Megalosaurus and not a different, contemporary theropod.

Buckland's research

During the last part of the eighteenth century, the number of fossils in British collections quickly increased. According to a hypothesis published by science historian Robert Gunther in 1925, among them was a partial lower jaw of Megalosaurus. It was discovered about  underground in a Stonesfield Slate mine during the early 1790s and was acquired in October 1797 by Christopher Pegge for 10s.6d. and added to the collection of the Anatomy School of Christ Church College, Oxford.

In the early nineteenth century, more discoveries were made. In 1815, John Kidd reported the find of bones of giant tetrapods, again at the Stonesfield quarry. The layers there are currently considered part of the Taynton Limestone Formation, dating to the mid-Bathonian stage of the Jurassic Period. The bones were apparently acquired by William Buckland, Professor of Geology at the University of Oxford and dean of Christ Church. Buckland also studied a lower jaw, according to Gunther the one bought by Pegge. Buckland did not know to what animal the bones belonged but, in 1818, after the Napoleonic Wars, the French comparative anatomist Georges Cuvier visited Buckland in Oxford and realised that they were those of a giant lizard-like creature. Buckland further studied the remains with his friend William Conybeare who in 1821 referred to them as the "Huge Lizard". In 1822 Buckland and Conybeare, in a joint article to be included in Cuvier's Ossemens, intended to provide scientific names for both gigantic lizard-like creatures known at the time: the remains found near Maastricht would be named Mosasaurus – then seen as a land-dwelling animal – while for the British lizard Conybeare had devised the name Megalosaurus, from the Greek μέγας, megas, "large". That year a publication failed to occur, but the physician James Parkinson already in 1822 announced the name Megalosaurus, illustrating one of the teeth and revealing the creature was 40 feet long and eight feet high. It is generally considered that the name in 1822 was still a nomen nudum ("naked name"). Buckland, urged on by an impatient Cuvier, continued to work on the subject during 1823, letting his later wife Mary Morland provide drawings of the bones, that were to be the basis of illustrating lithographies. Finally, on 20 February 1824, during the same meeting of the Geological Society of London in which Conybeare described a very complete specimen of Plesiosaurus, Buckland formally announced Megalosaurus. The descriptions of the bones in the Transactions of the Geological Society, in 1824, constitute a valid publication of the name. Megalosaurus was the first non-avian dinosaur genus named; the first of which the remains had with certainty been scientifically described was Streptospondylus, in 1808 by Cuvier.

By 1824, the material available to Buckland consisted of specimen OUM J13505, a piece of a right lower jaw with a single erupted tooth; OUM J13577, a posterior dorsal vertebra; OUM J13579, an anterior caudal vertebra; OUM J13576, a sacrum of five sacral vertebrae; OUM J13585, a cervical rib; OUM J13580, a rib; OUM J29881, an ilium of the pelvis, OUM J13563, a piece of the pubic bone; OUM J13565, a part of the ischium; OUM J13561, a thigh bone and OUM J13572, the lower part of a second metatarsal. As he himself was aware, these did not all belong to the same individual; only the sacrum was articulated. Because they represented several individuals, the described fossils formed a syntype series. By modern standards, from these a single specimen has to be selected to serve as the type specimen on which the name is based. In 1990, Ralph Molnar chose the famous dentary (front part of the lower jaw), OUM J13505, as such a lectotype. Because he was unaccustomed to the deep dinosaurian pelvis, much taller than with typical reptiles, Buckland misidentified several bones, interpreting the pubic bone as a fibula and mistaking the ischium for a clavicle. Buckland identified the organism as being a giant animal belonging to the Sauria – the Lizards, at the time seen as including the crocodiles – and he placed it in the new genus Megalosaurus, repeating an estimate by Cuvier that the largest pieces he described, indicated an animal 12 metres long in life.

Etymology
Buckland had not provided a specific name, as was not uncommon in the early nineteenth century, when the genus was still seen as the more essential concept. In 1826, Ferdinand von Ritgen gave this dinosaur a complete binomial, Megalosaurus conybeari, which however was not much used by later authors and is now considered a nomen oblitum. A year later, in 1827, Gideon Mantell included Megalosaurus in his geological survey of southeastern England, and assigned the species its current valid binomial name, Megalosaurus bucklandii. Until recently, the form Megalosaurus bucklandi was often used, a variant first published in 1832 by Christian Erich Hermann von Meyer – and sometimes erroneously ascribed to von Ritgen – but the more original M. bucklandii has priority.

Early reconstructions

The first reconstruction was given by Buckland himself. He considered Megalosaurus to be a quadruped. He thought it was an "amphibian", i.e. an animal capable of both swimming in the sea and walking on land. Generally, in his mind Megalosaurus resembled a gigantic lizard, but Buckland already understood from the form of the thigh bone head that the legs were not so much sprawling as held rather upright. In the original description of 1824, Buckland repeated Cuvier's size estimate that Megalosaurus would have been 40 feet long with the weight of a seven foot tall elephant. However, this had been based on the remains present at Oxford. Buckland had also been hurried into naming his new reptile by a visit he had made to the fossil collection of Mantell, who during the lecture announced to have acquired a fossil thigh bone of enormous magnitude, twice as long as that just described. Today, this is known to have belonged to Iguanodon, or at least some iguanodontid, but at the time both men assumed this bone belonged to Megalosaurus also. Even taking into account the effects of allometry, heavier animals having relatively stouter bones, Buckland was forced in the printed version of his lecture to estimate the maximum length of Megalosaurus at 60 to 70 feet. The existence of Megalosaurus posed some problems for Christian orthodoxy, which typically held that suffering and death had only come into the world through Original Sin, which seemed irreconcilable with the presence of a gigantic devouring reptile during a pre-Adamitic phase of history. Buckland rejected the usual solution, that such carnivores would originally have been peaceful vegetarians, as infantile and claimed in one of the Bridgewater Treatises that Megalosaurus had played a beneficial role in creation by ending the lives of old and ill animals, "to diminish the aggregate amount of animal suffering".

Around 1840, it became fashionable in England to espouse the concept of the transmutation of species as part of a general progressive development through time, as expressed in the work of Robert Chambers. In reaction, on 2 August 1841 Richard Owen during a lecture to the British Association for the Advancement of Science claimed that certain prehistoric reptilian groups had already attained the organisational level of present mammals, implying there had been no progress. Owen presented three examples of such higher level reptiles: Iguanodon, Hylaeosaurus and Megalosaurus. For these, the "lizard model" was entirely abandoned: they would have had an upright stance and a high metabolism. This also meant that earlier size estimates had been exaggerated. By simply adding the known length of the vertebrae, instead of extrapolating from a lizard, Owen arrived at a total body length for Megalosaurus of 30 feet. In the printed version of the lecture published in 1842, Owen united the three reptiles into a separate group: the Dinosauria. Megalosaurus was thus one of the three original dinosaurs.

In 1852, Benjamin Waterhouse Hawkins was commissioned to build a life-sized concrete model of Megalosaurus for the exhibition of prehistoric animals at the Crystal Palace Park in Sydenham, where it remains to this day. Hawkins worked under the direction of Owen and the statue reflected Owen's ideas that Megalosaurus would have been a mammal-like quadruped. The sculpture in Crystal Palace Park shows a conspicuous hump on the shoulders and it has been suggested this was inspired by a set of high vertebral spines acquired by Owen in the early 1850s. Today, they are seen as a separate genus Becklespinax, but Owen referred them to Megalosaurus. The models at the exhibition created a general public awareness for the first time, at least in England, that ancient reptiles had existed.

The presumption that carnivorous dinosaurs, like Megalosaurus, were quadrupeds was first challenged by the find of Compsognathus in 1859. That, however, was a very small animal, the significance of which for gigantic forms could be denied. In 1870, near Oxford, the type specimen of Eustreptospondylus was discovered – the first reasonably intact skeleton of a large theropod. It was clearly bipedal. Shortly afterwards, John Phillips created the first public display of a theropod skeleton in Oxford, arranging the known Megalosaurus bones, held by recesses in cardboard sheets, in a more or less natural position. During the 1870s, North American discoveries of large theropods, like Allosaurus, confirmed that they were bipedal. The Oxford University Museum of Natural History display contains most of the specimens from the original description by Buckland.

Later finds of Megalosaurus bucklandii

The quarries at Stonesfield, which were worked until 1911, continued to produce Megalosaurus bucklandii fossils, mostly single bones from the pelvis and hindlimbs. Vertebrae and skull bones are rare. In 2010, Roger Benson counted a total of 103 specimens from the Stonesfield Slate, from a minimum of seven individuals. It has been contentious whether this material represents just a single taxon. In 2004, Julia Day and Paul Barrett claimed that there were two morphotypes present, based on small differences in the thighbones. In 2008 Benson favoured this idea, but in 2010 concluded the differences were illusory. A maxilla fragment, specimen OUM J13506, was, in 1869 assigned, by Thomas Huxley, to M. bucklandii. In 1992 Robert Thomas Bakker claimed it represented a member of the Sinraptoridae; in 2007, Darren Naish thought it was a separate species belonging to the Abelisauroidea. In 2010, Benson pointed out that the fragment was basically indistinguishable from other known M. bucklandii maxillae, to which it had in fact not been compared by the other authors.

Apart from the finds in the Taynton Limestone Formation, in 1939 Sidney Hugh Reynolds referred remains to Megalosaurus that had been found in the older Chipping Norton Limestone Formation dating from the early Bathonian, about 30 single teeth and bones. Though the age disparity makes it problematic to assume an identity with Megalosaurus bucklandii, in 2009 Benson could not establish any relevant anatomical differences with M. bucklandii among the remains found at one site, the New Park Quarry, and therefore affirmed the reference to that species. However, in another site, the Oakham Quarry, the material contained one bone, an ilium, that was clearly dissimilar.

Sometimes trace fossils have been referred to Megalosaurus or to the ichnogenus Megalosauripus. In 1997, a famous group of fossilised footprints (ichnites) was found in a limestone quarry at Ardley, 20 kilometres northeast of Oxford. They were thought to have been made by Megalosaurus and possibly also some left by Cetiosaurus. There are replicas of some of these footprints, set across the lawn of the Oxford University Museum of Natural History. One track was of a theropod accelerating from walking to running. According to Benson, such referrals are unprovable, as the tracks show no traits unique to Megalosaurus. Certainly they should be limited to finds that are of the same age as Megalosaurus bucklandii.

Finds from sites outside England, especially in France, have in the nineteenth and twentieth century been referred to M. bucklandii. In 2010 Benson considered these as either clearly different or too fragmentary to establish an identity.

Description

Since the first finds, many other Megalosaurus bones have been recovered; however, no complete skeleton has yet been found. Therefore, the details of its physical appearance cannot be certain. However, a full osteology of all known material was published in 2010 by Benson.

Size and general build

Traditionally, most texts, following Owen's estimate of 1841, give a body length of 30 feet or nine metres for Megalosaurus. The lack of an articulated dorsal vertebral series makes it difficult to determine an exact size. David Bruce Norman in 1984 thought Megalosaurus was seven to eight metres long. Gregory S. Paul in 1988 estimated the weight tentatively at 1.1 tonnes, given a thigh bone 76 centimetres long. The trend in the early twenty-first century to limit the material to the lectotype inspired even lower estimates, disregarding outliers of uncertain identity. Paul in 2010 estimated the size of Megalosaurus at  in length and . However, the same year Benson claimed that Megalosaurus, though medium-sized, was still among the largest of Middle Jurassic theropods. Specimen BMNH 31806, a thigh bone 803 millimetres long, would indicate a body weight of 943 kilogrammes, using the extrapolation method of J.F. Anderson — which method, optimised for mammals, tends to underestimate theropod masses by at least a third. Furthermore, thigh bone specimen OUM J13561 has a length of about 86 centimetres.
In general, Megalosaurus had the typical build of a large theropod. It was bipedal, the horizontal torso being balanced by a long horizontal tail. The hindlimbs were long and strong with three forward-facing weight-bearing toes, the forelimbs relatively short but exceptionally robust and probably carrying three digits. Being a carnivore, its large elongated head bore long dagger-like teeth to slice the flesh of its prey. The skeleton of Megalosaurus is highly ossified, indicating a robust and muscular animal, though the lower leg was not as heavily built as that of Torvosaurus, a close relative.

Skull and lower jaws

The skull of Megalosaurus is poorly known. The discovered skull elements are generally rather large in relation to the rest of the material. This can either be coincidental or indicate that Megalosaurus had an uncommonly large head. The praemaxilla is not known, making it impossible to determine whether the snout profile was curved or rectangular. A rather stubby snout is suggested by the fact that the front branch of the maxilla was short. In the depression around the antorbital fenestra to the front, a smaller non-piercing hollowing can be seen that is probably homologous to the fenestra maxillaris. The maxilla bears 13 teeth. The teeth are relatively large, with a crown length up to seven centimetres. The teeth are supported from behind by tall, triangular, unfused interdental plates. The cutting edges bear 18 to 20 denticula per centimetre. The tooth formula is probably 4, 13–14/13–14. The jugal bone is pneumatised, pierced by a large foramen from the direction of the antorbital fenestra. It was probably hollowed out by an outgrowth of an air sac in the nasal bone. Such a level of pneumatisation of the jugal is not known from other megalosaurids and might represent a separate autapomorphy.

The lower jaw is rather robust. It is also straight in top view, without much expansion at the jaw tip, suggesting the lower jaws as a pair, the mandibula, were narrow. Several traits in 2008 identified as autapomorphies, later transpired to have been the result of damage. However, a unique combination of traits is present in the wide longitudinal groove on the outer side (shared with Torvosaurus), the small third dentary tooth and a vascular channel, below the row of interdental plates, that only is closed from the fifth tooth position onwards. The number of dentary teeth was probably 13 or 14, though the preserved damaged specimens show at most 11 tooth sockets. The interdental plates have smooth inner sides, whereas those of the maxilla are vertically grooved; the same combination is shown by Piatnitzkysaurus. The surangular has no bony shelf, or even ridge, on its outer side. There is laterally an oval opening present in front of the jaw joint, a foramen surangulare posterior, but a second foramen surangulare anterior to the front of it is lacking.

Vertebral column

Although the exact numbers are unknown, the vertebral column of Megalosaurus was probably divided into 10 neck vertebrae, 13 dorsal vertebrae, five sacral vertebrae and 50 to 60 tail vertebrae, as is common for basal Tetanurae.

The Stonesfield Slate material contains no neck vertebrae; but a single broken anterior cervical vertebra is known from the New Park Quarry, specimen BMNH R9674. The breakage reveals large internal air chambers. The vertebra is also otherwise heavily pneumatised, with large pleurocoels, pneumatic excavations, on its sides. The rear facet of the centrum is strongly concave. The neck ribs are short. The front dorsal vertebrae are slightly opisthocoelous, with convex front centrum facets and concave rear centrum facets. They are also deeply keeled, with the ridge on the underside representing about 50% of the total centrum height. The front dorsals perhaps have a pleurocoel above the diapophysis, the lower rib joint process. The rear dorsal vertebrae, according to Benson, are not pneumatised. They are slightly amphicoelous, with hollow centrum facets. They have secondary joint processes, forming a hyposphene–hypantrum complex, the hyposphene having a triangular transverse cross-section. The height of the dorsal spines of the rear dorsals is unknown, but a high spine on a tail vertebra of the New Park Quarry material, specimen BMNH R9677, suggests the presence of a crest on the hip area. The spines of the five vertebrae of the sacrum form a supraneural plate, fused at the top. The undersides of the sacral vertebrae are rounded but the second sacral is keeled; normally it is the third or fourth sacral having a ridge. The sacral vertebrae seem not to be pneumatised but have excavations at their sides. The tail vertebrae are slightly amphicoelous, with hollow centrum facets on both the front and rear side. They have excavations at their sides and a longitudinal groove on the underside. The neural spines of the tail basis are transversely thin and tall, representing more than half of the total vertebral height.

Appendicular skeleton

The shoulderblade or scapula is short and wide, its length about 6.8 times the minimum width; this is a rare and basal trait within Tetanurae. Its top curves slightly to the rear in side view. On the lower outer side of the blade a broad ridge is present, running from just below the shoulder joint to about mid-length where it gradually merges with the blade surface. The middle front edge over about 30% of its length is thinned, forming a slightly protruding crest. The scapula constitutes about half of the shoulder joint, which is orientated obliquely sideways and to below. The coracoid is in all known specimens fused with the scapula into a scapulocoracoid, lacking a visible suture. The coracoid as such is an oval bone plate, with its longest side attached to the scapula. It is pierced by a large oval foramen but the usual boss for the attachment of the upper arm muscles is lacking.

The humerus is very robust with strongly expanded upper and lower ends. Humerus specimen OUMNH J.13575 has a length of 388 millimetres. Its shaft circumference equals about half of the total humerus length. The humerus head continues to the front and the rear into large bosses, together forming a massive bone plate. On the front outer side of the shaft a large triangular deltopectoral crest is present, the attachment for the Musculus pectoralis major and the Musculus deltoideus. It covers about the upper half of the shaft length, its apex positioned rather low. The ulna is extremely robust, for its absolute size more heavily built than with any other known member of the Tetanurae. The only known specimen, BMNH 36585, has a length of 232 millimetres and a minimal shaft circumference of 142 millimetres. The ulna is straight in front view and has a large olecranon, the attachment process for the Musculus triceps brachii. Radius, wrist and hand are unknown.

In the pelvis, the ilium is long and low, with a convex upper profile. Its front blade is triangular and rather short; at the front end there is a small drooping point, separated by a notch from the pubic peduncle. The rear blade is roughly rectangular. The outer side of the ilium is concave, serving as an attachment surface for the Musculus iliofemoralis, the main thigh muscle. Above the hip joint, on this surface a low vertical ridge is present with conspicuous vertical grooves. The bottom of the rear blade is excavated by a narrow but deep trough forming a bony shelf for the attachment of the Musculus caudofemoralis brevis. The outer side of the rear blade does not match the inner side, which thus can be seen as a separate "medial blade" that in side view is visible in two places: in the corner between outer side and the ischial peduncle and as a small surface behind the extreme rear tip of the outer side of the rear blade. The pubic bone is straight. The pubic bones of both pelvis halves are connected via narrow bony skirts that originated at a rather high position on the rear side and continued downwards to a point low on the front side of the shaft. The ischium is S-shaped in side view, showing at the transition point between the two curvatures a rough boss on the outer side. On the front edge of the ischial shaft an obturator process is present in the form of a low ridge, at its top separated from the shaft by a notch. To below, this ridge continues into an exceptionally thick bony skirt at the inner rear side of the shaft, covering over half of its length. Towards the end of the shaft, this skirt gradually merges with it. The shaft eventually ends in a sizeable "foot" with a convex lower profile.

The thigh bone is straight in front view. Seen from the same direction its head is perpendicular to the shaft, seen from above it is orientated 20° to the front. The greater trochanter is relatively wide and separated from the robust lesser trochanter in front of it, by a fissure. At the front base of the lesser trochanter a low accessory trochanter is present. At the lower end of the thigh bone a distinct front, extensor, groove separates the condyles. At the upper inner side of this groove a rough area is present continuing inwards into a longitudinal ridge, a typical megalosauroid trait. The shinbone, or tibia, is relatively straight, slightly curving inwards. To below, its shaft progressively flattens from front to rear, resulting in a generally oval cross-section. For about an eighth of its length the front lower end of the shaft is covered by a vertical branch of the astragalus. Of the foot, only the second, third and fourth metatarsals are known, the bone elements that were connected to the three weight-bearing toes. They are straight and robust, showing ligament pits at their lower sides. The third metatarsal has no clear condyles at its lower end, resulting in a more flexible joint, allowing for a modicum of horizontal movement. The top inner side of the third metatarsal carries a unique ridge that fits into a groove along the top outer side of the second metatarsal, causing a tighter connection.

Diagnosis

For decades after its discovery, Megalosaurus was seen by researchers as the definitive or typical large carnivorous dinosaur. As a result, it began to function as a "wastebasket taxon", and many large or small carnivorous dinosaurs from Europe and elsewhere were assigned to the genus. This slowly changed during the 20th century, when it became common to restrict the genus to fossils found in the middle Jurassic of England. Further restriction occurred in the late 20th and early 21st centuries, researchers such as Ronan Allain and Dan Chure suggesting that the Stonesfield Slate fossils perhaps belonged to several, possibly not directly related, species of theropod dinosaur. Subsequent research seemed to confirm this hypothesis, and the genus Megalosaurus and species M. bucklandii became generally regarded as limited to the taxon having produced the lectotype, the dentary of the lower jaw. Furthermore, several researchers failed to find any characteristics in that jaw that could be used to distinguish Megalosaurus from its relatives, which would mean the genus were a nomen dubium. However, a comprehensive study by Roger Benson and colleagues in 2008, and several related analyses published in subsequent years, overturned the previous consensus by identifying several autapomorphies, or unique distinguishing characteristics, in the lower jaw that could be used to separate Megalosaurus from other megalosaurids.

Various distinguishing traits of the lower jaw have been established. The longitudinal groove on the outer surface of the dentary is wide. The third tooth socket of the dentary is not enlarged. Seen from above, the dentary is straight without an expanded jaw tip. The interdental plates, reinforcing the teeth from behind, of the lower jaw are tall. Benson also concluded it would be most parsimonious to assume that the Stonesfield Slate material represents a single species. If so, several additional distinctive traits can be observed in other parts of the skeleton. The low vertical ridge on the outer side of the ilium, above the hip joint, shows parallel vertical grooves. The bony skirts between the shafts of the ischia are thick and touch each other forming an almost flat surface. There is a boss present on the lower outer side of the ischium shaft with a rough surface. The underside of the second sacral vertebra has an angular longitudinal keel. A ridge on the upper side of the third metatarsal connected to a groove in the side of the second metatarsal. The middle of the front edge of the scapula forms a thin crest.

Phylogeny

In 1824, Buckland assigned Megalosaurus to the Sauria, assuming within the Sauria a close affinity with modern lizards, more than with crocodiles. In 1842, Owen made Megalosaurus one of the first three genera placed in the Dinosauria. In 1850, Prince Charles Lucien Bonaparte coined a separate family Megalosauridae with Megalosaurus as the type genus. For a long time, the precise relationships of Megalosaurus remained vague. It was seen as a "primitive" member of the Carnosauria, the group in which most large theropods were united.

In the late 20th century the new method of cladistics allowed for the first time to exactly calculate how closely various taxa were related to each other. In 2012, Matthew Carrano et al. showed that Megalosaurus was the sister species of Torvosaurus within the Megalosaurinae, giving this cladogram:

Paleobiology

Living in what is now Europe, during the Jurassic Period (~201 to ~145 million years ago), Megalosaurus may have hunted stegosaurs and sauropods. Repeated descriptions during the nineteenth and early twentieth century of Megalosaurus hunting Iguanodon (another of the earliest dinosaurs named) through the forests that then covered the continent are now known to be inaccurate, because Iguanodon skeletons are found in much younger Early Cretaceous formations. The only specimens belonging to Megalosaurus bucklandii are from the Lower/Middle Bathonian of Oxfordshire and Gloucestershire. No material from outside the Bathonian formations of England can be referred to Megalosaurus. It lived alongside the theropods Cruxicheiros, Iliosuchus and Streptospondylus, and the sauropods Cardiodon, Cetiosaurus, and possibly Cetiosauriscus. The pterosaur Rhamphocephalus, and indeterminate sauropod and ornithopod remains have also been found alongside fossils of Megalosaurus.

Benson in 2010 concluded from its size and common distribution that Megalosaurus was the apex predator of its habitat. He saw the absence of Cetiosaurus on the French Armorican Massif as an indication that Megalosaurus too did not live on that island and was limited to the London-Brabant Massif.

Paleopathology
A Megalosaurus rib figured in 1856 and 1884 by Sir Richard Owen has a pathological swollen spot near the base of its capitular process. The swollen spot appears to have been caused by a healed fracture and is located at the point where it would have articulated with its vertebra.

Species and synonyms
During the later nineteenth century, Megalosaurus was seen as the typical carnivorous dinosaur. If remains were found that were not deemed sufficiently distinct to warrant a separate genus, often single teeth, these were classified under Megalosaurus, which thus began to function as a wastebasket taxon, a sort of default genus. Eventually, Megalosaurus contained more species than any other non-avian dinosaur genus, most of them of dubious validity. During the twentieth century, this practice was gradually discontinued; but scientists discovering theropods that had been mistakenly classified under a different animal group in older literature, still felt themselves forced to rename them, again choosing Megalosaurus as the default generic name.

Species named in the 19th century

In 1857, Joseph Leidy renamed Deinodon horridus (Leidy, 1856) into Megalosaurus horridus, the "frightening one", a genus based on teeth. In 1858, Friedrich August Quenstedt named Megalosaurus cloacinus, based on a probable Late Triassic theropod tooth found near Bebenhausen, specimen SMNH 52457. It is a nomen dubium. In 1869 Eugène Eudes-Deslongchamps named Megalosaurus insignis, the "significant", based on a theropod tooth found near La Hève in Normandy that was 12 centimetres long, a third longer than the teeth of M. bucklandii. The name at first remained a nomen nudum, but a description was provided, in 1870, by Gustave Lennier. Today, it is considered a nomen dubium, an indeterminate member of the Theropoda, the specimen having in 1944 been destroyed by a bombardment. In 1870, Jean-Baptiste Greppin named Megalosaurus meriani based on specimen MH 350, a premaxillary tooth found near Moutier and part of the collection of Peter Merian. Today, this is either referred to Amanzia,  Ceratosaurus or seen as a nomen dubium, an indeterminate member of the Ceratosauria. In 1871, Emanuel Bunzel named remains found near Schnaitheim Megalosaurus schnaitheimi. It is a nomen nudum, the fossils possibly belonging to Dakosaurus maximus. In 1876, J. Henry, a science teacher at Besançon, in a published dissertation named four Late Triassic possible dinosaur teeth found near Moissey Megalosaurus obtusus, "the blunt one". It is a nomen dubium, perhaps a theropod or some indeterminate predatory archosaur. In 1881, Harry Govier Seeley named two possible theropod teeth found in Austria Megalosaurus pannoniensis. The specific name refers to Pannonia. It is a nomen dubium, possibly an indeterminate member of the Dromaeosauridae or Tyrannosauroidea. In 1883, Seeley named Megalosaurus bredai, based on a thigh bone, specimen BMNH 42997 found near Maastricht, the Netherlands. The specific name honours Jacob Gijsbertus Samuël van Breda. In 1932, this was made a separate genus Betasuchus by Friedrich von Huene.

In 1882, Henri-Émile Sauvage named remains found at Louppy-le-Château, teeth and vertebrae from the Early Cretaceous, Megalosaurus superbus, "the proud one". In 1923, this became the genus Erectopus. In 1884/1885, Wilhelm Barnim Dames, based on specimen UM 84, a tooth from the Early Cretaceous, named Megalosaurus dunkeri, the specific name honouring Wilhelm Dunker. In 1923, this was made a separate genus Altispinax. In 1885, Joseph Henri Ferdinand Douvillé renamed Dakosaurus gracilis Quenstedt 1885 into Megalosaurus gracilis. Today the renaming is generally rejected. In 1889, Richard Lydekker named Megalosaurus oweni, the specific name honouring Owen, based on a series of metatarsals from the Early Cretaceous, specimen BMNH R2556. In 1991, this was made a separate genus Valdoraptor. In 1892, Edward Drinker Cope renamed Ceratosaurus nasicornis Marsh 1884 into Megalosaurus nasicornis. This had been largely motivated by a desire to annoy his rival Othniel Charles Marsh and the name has found no acceptance. In 1896, Charles Jean Julien Depéret named Megalosaurus crenatissimus, "the much crenelated", based on remains from the Late Cretaceous found in Madagascar. In 1955 this was made a separate genus Majungasaurus. The generic name Laelaps, used by Cope to denote a theropod, had been preoccupied by a mite. Marsh had therefore provided the replacement name Dryptosaurus, but Henry Fairfield Osborn, a partisan of Cope, rejected this replacement and thus in 1898 renamed Laelaps aquilunguis Cope 1866 into Megalosaurus aquilunguis.

Species named in the 20th century

In 1901 Baron Franz Nopcsa renamed Laelaps trihedrodon Cope 1877 into Megalosaurus trihedrodon. In the same publication Nopcsa renamed Poekilopleuron valens Leidy 1870 into Megalosaurus valens; this probably represents fossil material of Allosaurus. In 1902, Nopcsa named Megalosaurus hungaricus based on two teeth found in Transylvania, then part of the Kingdom of Hungary. The specimens, MAFI ob. 3106, were later lost. It represents an indeterminate theropod. In 1903, Louis Dollo named Megalosaurus lonzeensis based on a manual claw found near Lonzee in Belgium. He had first reported this claw in 1883, and as a result some sources by mistake indicate this year as the date of the naming. It perhaps represents a member of the Noasauridae, or an indeterminate member of the Coelurosauria. In 1907/1908, von Huene renamed Streptospondylus cuvieri Owen 1842, based on a presently lost partial vertebra, into Megalosaurus cuvieri. This is today seen as a nomen dubium, an indeterminate member of the Tetanurae. In 1909, Richard Lydekker named Megalosaurus woodwardi, based on a maxilla with tooth, specimen BMNH 41352. This is today seen as a nomen dubium, an indeterminate member of the Theropoda.

In 1910, Arthur Smith Woodward named Megalosaurus bradleyi based on a skull from the Middle Jurassic, the specific name honouring the collector F. Lewis Bradley. In 1926, this was made a separate genus Proceratosaurus. In 1920, Werner Janensch named Megalosaurus ingens, "the enormous", based on specimen MB R 1050, a 12 centimetre long tooth from German East Africa. It possibly represents a large member of the Carcharodontosauridae; Carrano e.a. saw it as an indeterminate member of the Tetanurae. M. ingens is now seen as a specimen of Torvosaurus. In 1923, von Huene renamed Poekilopleuron bucklandii Eudes-Deslongchamps 1838 into Megalosaurus poikilopleuron. Today, the genus Poekilopleuron is generally seen as valid. In the same publication, von Huene named two additional Megalosaurus species. The first was Megalosaurus parkeri, its specific name honouring William Kitchen Parker and based on a pelvis, leg bones and vertebrae from the Late Cretaceous. This was made the separate genus Metriacanthosaurus in 1964. The second was Megalosaurus nethercombensis, named after its provenance from Nethercombe and based on two dentaries, leg bones, a pelvis and vertebrae from the Middle Jurassic, which von Huene himself in 1932 made the separate genus Magnosaurus. In 1925, Depéret, based on two teeth from Algeria, named Megalosaurus saharicus. In 1931/1932 this was made the separate genus Carcharodontosaurus. In 1956 von Huene by mistake named the same species as Megalosaurus africanus, intending to base it on remains from Morocco but referring the Algerian teeth; this implies that M. africanus is a junior objective synonym of M. saharicus. In 1926, von Huene named Megalosaurus lydekkeri, its specific name honouring Richard Lydekker, based on BMNH 41352, i.e. the same specimen that had already been made the holotype of M. woodwardi (Lydekker, 1909). This implies that M. lydekkeri is a junior objective synonym of M. woodwardi. It is likewise seen as a nomen dubium. In the same publication von Huene named Megalosaurus terquemi based on three teeth found near Hettingen, its specific name honouring Olry Terquem. It is seen as a nomen dubium, the fossil material probably representing some member of the Phytosauria or some other archosaur. In 1932, a work by von Huene mentioned a Megalosaurus (Magnosaurus) woodwardi, a synonym of Magnosaurus woodwardi named in the same book. Its type specimen is differing from the earlier Megalosaurus woodwardi (Lydekker, 1909), the two names are not synonyms. In 1954 Samuel Welles named Megalosaurus wetherilli. This species is exceptional in being based on a rather complete skeleton, found in Arizona, from the Early Jurassic. Its specific name honours John Wetherill. In 1970, Welles made this the separate genus Dilophosaurus. In 1955, Albert-Félix de Lapparent named Megalosaurus mersensis based on a series of 23 vertebrae found near Tizi n'Juillerh in a layer of the El Mers Formation of Morocco. This probably represents a member of the Mesosuchia. In 1956, Alfred Sherwood Romer renamed Aggiosaurus nicaeensis Ambayrac 1913, based on a lower jaw found near Nice, on the authority of von Huene into Megalosaurus nicaeensis. Originally it had been considered to be some crocodilian; present opinion confirms this. In 1957, de Lapparent named Megalosaurus pombali based on three teeth found near Pombal in the Jurassic of Portugal. Today it is seen as a nomen dubium, an indeterminate member of the Theropoda.

In 1965, Oskar Kuhn renamed Zanclodon silesiacus Jaekel 1910 into Megalosaurus? silesiacus. It is a nomen dubium based on the tooth of some indeterminate predatory Triassic archosaur, found in Silesia, perhaps a theropod. In 1966, Guillermo del Corro named Megalosaurus inexpectatus, named "the unexpected" as it was discovered on a sauropod site with remains of Chubutisaurus, based on specimen MACN 18.172, a tooth found in Argentina. It might represent a member of the Carcharodontosauridae. In 1970, Rodney Steel named two Megalosaurus species. Firstly, he renamed Iliosuchus incognitus Huene 1932 into Megalosaurus incognitus. Secondly, he renamed Nuthetes destructor Owen 1854 into Megalosaurus destructor. Both genera are today seen as not identical to Megalosaurus. Michael Waldman in 1974 renamed Sarcosaurus andrewsi Huene 1932 into Megalosaurus andrewsi. Indeed, Sarcosaurus andrewsi is today by some scientists not seen as directly related to the type species of Sarcosaurus: Sarcosaurus woodi. In the same publication Waldman named Megalosaurus hesperis, "the western one", based on skull fragments from the Middle Jurassic. In 2008 this was made the separate genus Duriavenator. Del Corro in 1974 named Megalosaurus chubutensis, based on specimen MACN 18.189, a tooth found in Chubut Province. It is a nomen dubium, a possible carcharodontosaurid, or a very large abelisaurid.

In 1985, Zhao Xijin named two Megalosaurus species found in Tibet. He had earlier mentioned these species in an unpublished dissertation of 1983, implying they initially were invalid nomina ex dissertatione. However, his 1985 publication did not contain descriptions so the names are still nomina nuda. The first species was Megalosaurus dapukaensis, named for the Dapuka Group. It was, in the second edition of The Dinosauria, by mistake spelled as Megalosaurus cachuensis. The second species was Megalosaurus tibetensis. In 1987/1988, Monique Vianey-Liaud renamed Massospondylus rawesi (Lydekker, 1890), based on specimen NHMUK R4190, a tooth from the Maastrichtian of India, into Megalosaurus rawesi. This is a nomen dubium, a possible member of the Abelisauridae. In 1988, Gregory S. Paul renamed Torvosaurus tanneri Galton & Jensen 1979 into Megalosaurus tanneri. The change has found no acceptance. In 1973, Anatoly Konstantinovich Rozhdestvensky had renamed Poekilopleuron schmidti Kiprijanow 1883 into a Megalosaurus sp. However, as it is formally impossible to change a named species into an unnamed one, George Olshevsky in 1991 used the new combination Megalosaurus schmidti. It is a chimaera. In 1993, Ernst Probst and Raymund Windolf by mistake renamed Plateosaurus ornatus Huene 1905 into Megalosaurus ornatus by mentioning the latter name in a species list. This can be seen as a nomen vanum. The same publication listed the ichnospecies Megalosauropus teutonicus Kaever & Lapparent 1974 as a Megalosaurus teutonicus. In 1997, Windolf renamed Saurocephalus monasterii Münster 1846, based on a tooth found near Hannover, into Megalosaurus monasterii. It is a nomen dubium, an indeterminate member of the Theropoda. In 1998, Peter Malcolm Galton renamed Zanclodon cambrensis Newton 1899, based on a left lower jaw, specimen BGS 6532 found at Bridgend, into ?Megalosaurus cambrensis because it was not a basal sauropodomorph. It is a senior synonym of Gressylosaurus cambrensis Olshevsky 1991. The specific name refers to Cambria, the Latin name of Wales. It probably represents a member of the Coelophysoidea, or some other predatory archosaur.

Species list
The complex naming history can be summarised in a formal species list. The naming authors are directly mentioned behind the name. If the name has been changed, they are placed in parentheses and the authors of the changed name are mentioned behind them. The list also indicates whether a name has been insufficiently described (nomen nudum), is not taxonomically identifiable at the generic level (nomen dubium), or fallen out of use (nomen oblitum). Reclassifications under a different genus are mentioned behind the "=" sign; if the reclassification is today considered valid, it is listed under Reassigned species.

References

Sources
Carrano, M.T.; Benson, R.B.J.; & Sampson, S.D. (2012). "The phylogeny of Tetanurae (Dinosauria: Theropoda)". Journal of Systematic Palaeontology 10(2): 211–300

Megalosaurs
Middle Jurassic dinosaurs of Europe
Middle Jurassic genus first appearances
Middle Jurassic genus extinctions
Fossils of England
Fossil taxa described in 1824
Taxa named by William Buckland
History of Oxfordshire
Jurassic England

Megalosaurus


مبارك عبد الله جاسم الدبوس (1930 - 27 يناير 2004) ، نائب سابق في مجلس الأمة الكويتي.

السيرة البرلمانية
شارك في انتخابات مجلس الأمة الكويتي 1963 في الدائرة العاشرة وحصل على المركز الأول برصيد 803 أصوات وفاز بالانتخابات ، وشارك في انتخابات مجلس الأمة الكويتي 1967 في الدائرة العاشرة وحصل على المركز الخامس برصيد 713 صوت وفاز بالانتخابات ، وشارك في انتخابات مجلس الأمة الكويتي 1971 في الدائرة العاشرة وحصل على المركز السادس برصيد 809 أصوات وخسر بالانتخابات ، وشارك في انتخابات مجلس الأمة الكويتي 1975 في الدائرة العاشرة وحصل على المركز السادس برصيد 1249 صوت وخسر بالانتخابات ، وشارك في انتخابات مجلس الأمة الكويتي 1981 في الدائرة الرابعة والعشرون وحصل على المركز الأول برصيد 498 صوت وفاز بالانتخابات ، وشارك في انتخابات مجلس الأمة الكويتي 1985 في الدائرة الرابعة والعشرون وحصل على المركز الثالث برصيد 691 صوت وخسر بالانتخابات ، وشارك في انتخابات مجلس الأمة الكويتي 1992 في الدائرة الرابعة والعشرون وحصل على المركز السادس برصيد 315 صوت وخسر بالانتخابات.

مراجع

أعضاء مجلس الأمة الكويتي 1963
أعضاء مجلس الأمة الكويتي 1967
أعضاء مجلس الأمة الكويتي 1981
مواليد 1930
وفيات 1424 هـ
وفيات 2004

مبارك الدبوس


Andreas Lubetz (* 30. September 1976) ist ein ehemaliger österreichischer Radballspieler, der 2003 Österreichischer Radball-Meister wurde.

Werdegang
2001 wurde er Zweiter und 2003 wurde er zusammen mit seinem Team-Partner Reinhard Schneider österreichischer Meister im Radball.

2003 wurde er in der Schweiz Dritter beim Radball-Europacup.
Beim Radball-Weltcup 2003 belegten die beiden den vierten Rang, beim Radball-Weltcup 2004 den neunten und beim Radball-Weltcup 2008 den zehnten Rang.

Auch sein Bruder Simon ist aktiver Radballer.

Im Dezember 2009 beendete Andreas Lubetz seine aktive Karriere beim RC Höchst. Heute ist der Marketing-Manager eines Möbelzulieferers als sportlicher Leiter tätig.

Erfolge
  Bronzemedaille Weltmeisterschaft 2003
  Österreichischer Meister 2003
 1 Weltcup-Sieg 2003
 3. Rang Europacup 2003

Weblinks
 ÖAMTC Radfahrer Club Höchst
 Alle Resultate auf www.radball.at

Einzelnachweise

Radballspieler
Österreichischer Meister (Radsport)
Sportler (Vorarlberg)
Österreicher
Geboren 1976
Mann

Andreas Lubetz


La route régionale 638 () est une route régionale allant de Vaajakoski à Jyväskylä jusqu'à Kuukanpää à Laukaa en Finlande.

Présentation
La seututie 638 est une route régionale de Finlande-Centrale.
La route 638 commence à Vaajakoski et se termine près de l'aéroport de Jyväskylä.

À Leppävesi, la route régionale 638 a environ un kilomètre en commun avec la route régionale 637.

Parcours
Jyväskylä
 Vaajakoski
 Laukaa
 Leppävesi ()
 Jyväskylä
 Kuukanpää ()

Références

Annexes

Liens externes

Articles connexes
 Seututie

638

Transport à Jyväskylä
Transport à Laukaa

Seututie 638


වංශ ප්‍රවේණික නාමකරණය යනු පෙලපත් නාමකරණයට විකල්පයකි. මෙහි සෙද්ධාන්තික අර්ත දැක්විම දෙකකි. එනම් ජෛව විදයාත්මක තක්සෝන නාමයක් තිබිම සහ අනිවාරය පෙලපත් නාමයක්  නොතිබිමමයි. මෙම නාමකරණය phylocode යන වචනයේ phyly යන්න 19 වන සියවසේ පැවැති පරිනාමිකසේ අතු ඉති නැමැති අරැතක් ලබාදේ. මෙහිදි වංශප්‍රවේණිය යන්න බිහිවි ඇත්තේ පරිනාමිය වාදයන් නිර්මානය කල පුද්ගලය් නිසාය මිට අමතරව paraphyletic තක්යෝග කරනය සමනය පලිගන්නා අතර සමහර අස්ථා වලදි ලිනෙයස් නාමකරණයේ කොටසක් ලෙස අනුමතද කරයි. නමුත් එය වංශ ප්‍රවේණිය නාමකරණ යටතට නොගනි.

තක්සෝනකරාය, වංශ ප්‍රවේණිය නාමකරණය


An Epidendrum luckei in uska species han Liliopsida nga ginhulagway ni Irene Bock. An Epidendrum luckei in nahilalakip ha genus nga Epidendrum, ngan familia nga Orchidaceae. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Epidendrum

Epidendrum luckei


Die Swiss Open 1988 im Badminton fanden vom 26. bis zum 30. Januar 1988 in Lausanne, Schweiz, statt. Mit einem Preisgeld von 15.000 US-Dollar wurde das Turnier als 1-Sterne-Turnier in der Grand-Prix-Wertung eingestuft.

Finalresultate

Referenzen
 World Badminton 16 (1988) (1), S. 35–36

World Badminton Grand Prix 1988
1988
Badmintonwettbewerb in Lausanne

Swiss Open 1988


Skwilsi'diabsh, jedna od četiri skupine Snohomish Indijanaca (jezična porodica Salishan), koji su živjeli od Preston Pointa, iznad Everetta, do južnog vrha otoka Camano, uključujući selo u Marysvilleu i Tcatcthlks nasuprot Tulalipa na zaljevu Tulalip, u saveznoj američkoj državi Washington.

Izvori

Snohomish

Skwilsi'diabsh


Modern mimarlık, 19. yüzyıl'ın Eklektisist mimarlığına karşı çıkan özgün yaratma yanlısı tüm mimari akımların genel adıdır. Eklektisizmin geçmişten biçim aktarmaları yapan tutumuna karşıt olarak, tüm modern akımlar mimari biçimlerin çağa ve güncel koşullara göre oluştuğu görüşü doğrultusunda çalışmışlardır. Kabaca, Art Nouveau'nun ortadan kalkışından, 1910'dan sonra, 1970'lere dek gelişen tüm akımlar modern mimarlık kapsamı içinde değerlendirilebiler. Bunlar tasarım anlayışları açısından birbirlerinden çok farklı kutuplarda yer alsalar da temelde tarihten yararlanmayı yadsıyışlarıyla ortaklaşırlar. 1970'lerden bu yana modern mimarlık Postmodernizm karşısında sürekli gerileyerek, yerini tarihselci bir akıma terk etmektedir.

Modern mimarlık batı uygarlığının bir ürünüdür. On sekizinci yüzyılın sonlarında, modern çağı ortaya çıkaran demokratik devrim ve endüstri devrimi ile birlikte biçimlenmeye başlamıştır. Bütün dönemlerin mimarlığı gibi modern mimarlıkta, insan yaşamı için özel bir çevre yaratmaya, insanoğlunun düşünce ve eylemlerini, olduğuna inandığı ya da olmasını istediği gibi görselleştirmeye girişmiştir. Ünlü mimar Otto Wagner, 1986'da yayımladığı kitaba verdiği başlıkla, daha sonra tüm sanat biliminin kullanabileceği bir deyimin isim babası olmuştur.

18. yüzyılın sonlarında ortaya çıkmaya başlayan demir köprüler modern mimarinin ilk otantik örnekleri sayılır. Bina olaraksa, 1851 Londra sergisindeki Paxton'un Crystal Palace'ına gelinceye kadar tavizsiz bir örnek gösterebilme olanağı yoktur. Yaklaşık olarak 70 bin metre karelik bir alanı kaplayan bu teşhir sergisi, standardize elemanlar halinde demirle camın kaynaştığı ilk önemli fabrikasyon örneğidir. Nitekim böylesine muazzam bir bina 16 hafta içerisinde, o zaman için mucizevi, bugünse şaşırtıcı sayılabilecek bir sürede inşa edilip bitirilebilmiştir. Crystal Palace'sı çeşitli özellik ve nitelikleriyle, modern mimarinin başlatıcısı ve eskimez örneklerinden biri olarak değerlendirmek yanlış olmaz.

Londra'da Crystal Palace Sergi Sarayı
Modern mimarinin yapısal yönden en ilginç tarafı, teknolojik yetkinliğin sağlandığı, neredeyse sınırsız olan özgürlüktür. 1964 Lozan, 1967 Montreal ve 1970 Osaka dünya fuarlarındaki pavyonların modern mimariye getirdiği yapısal çözümler söz konusu özgürlüğün somut ifadeleridir. Betonarmenin, çeliğin, alüminyumun, plastik maddelerin kılıktan kılığa sokulup taşıyıcı ve örtücü fonksiyonlara kavuştuğu modern strüktür anlayışı çerçevesinde, Alman mimarı Frei Otto'nun geliştirdiği çadırsal konstrüksiyonlar, Göçebe Uygarlık'ta rastlanan bir mimarlık türüne bambaşka içerik ve boyutlarla yeniden dönüşü ifade eder.

Münih Olimpiyat Sitesi'nin uyandırdığı derin yankı, şimdi bile bazı çevrelerde kaybolmuş değildir. Ünlü Japon mimar Kenzo Tange yönetimindeki ekibin planlayıp inşa ettiği Tokyo Olimpiyat Sitesinin, yine adı geçen özgürlük anlayışı ile hem büyük hem küçük salonun dış ve iç mimarilerine ne derece başarılı bir çözüm tarzı getirdiği bilinmektedir.

Tokyo Olimpiyat Sitesi
Bu yapısal başarılara paralel olarak çeşitli mimari konuların ele alınışında her türlü tasarlama olanağının - bu defa düşünce özgürlüğünün sonucu olarak -  modern mimaride aynı zaman da temsil edildiğini görüyoruz. Loos, Le Corbusier Gropius ve Mies Van Der Rohe gibi ünlü mimarların önerip uyguladıkları Rasyonalist ve Fonksiyonculuk anlayışı giderek 1950'lerde tümel mekân mimarisini doğuracaktır. Rasyonalizmin, yani basit geometrik biçimlerle dikaçısallığın savunuculuğunu yapan akımın tasarlama anlayışı mimari konuların basit, asal geometrik formlara sığdırılmasını öngörür. Bunun dışında, Brütalizm adı altında 1950'lerin ortalarında meydana çıkıp gelişen diğer bir akım, doksan dereceye bağlı kalmakla beraber, herhangi bir binada, o binayı oluşturan çeşitli işlevlerin kendilerini dışarıya vurma zorunluluğu şart koşacaktır. Malzeme kullanımında da aynı tutumu öneren bu akım, mimari tasarlamada "kimliği bileşenleriyle belirtme" felsefesinden hareket ederek, mimari sorumluluğuna yeni bir boyut getirmiştir.

Paul Rudolph. New Haven'de mesken bloğu 1966 Brütalist anlayışa özgü ilkeleri büyük bir sadakatle uygulayan ünlü mimar bu yapıta adı geçen akıma ait sağlam bir belge geliştirebilmeyi başarmıştır.

90 derece ya da belirli bir açısal düzeni vazgeçilmez koşul olarak kabul etmeyen iki önemli eğilimden birine Ekspresyonist, yani ifadeci tutum diyebiliriz. Alman mimar Erich Mendelsohn'un 1915-19 yılları arasında geliştirdiği projelerle Potsdam'da inşa ettiği meşhur rasathane, Einstein Kulesi bu tutuma ait belirgin örneklerdir. Fonksiyonu somut bir biçime kavuşturmada mimara kişisel özgürlük tanıyan ekspresyonist davranışların mimarlık tarihinde, dün olduğu gibi bugün ve yarın da daima varolacağı bir gerçektir. Özellikle modern mimarinin en önemli birkaç anıtından biri olarak sayılan Le Courbusier'in Ronchhamp Şapeli'nde de böyle bir ifadeci, ekspresyonist bir atılımla modern mimarinin rotası ilk önemli değişikliğine uğrayacaktır. Nihayet, diğer önemli akım da ünlü  Alman mimarları  Haering ile Scharoun'un geliştirilmiş oldukları  Organhafte adlı mimari akımdır. Temel ilkesi bakımından Brütalizm'le paralellik kurulabilir; burada da binanın içindeki eyleme cevap veren bir biçim yaratmak söz konusudur. Ancak, Organhafte mimari de serbest davranabilme imkânı vardır. 90 derece veya belirli bir açı reddedilmemekle beraber, eylemi en iyi ifade edebilecek biçimi ararken mimar tamamen özgürdür; serbest kırık serbest eğrisel ya da dik açısal çalışabilir.

Özellikle 1960'ların başlangıcından itibaren seslerini yükseltip etkilerini arttırmaya başlayan birtakım kişi ve akımlar, modern mimarinin mimarlarına birtakım yazı ve yapıtlarla karşı çıkarak yeni bir akım arayışı içine girmişlerdir. Dış biçime önem verilmesine; plastik sanatların cephelerden şehirsel mekâna yansıtılmasına; tarihle geçmişle çevreyle ilişkilerinin yeniden kurulmasına çalışan birtakım olumlu çabalar dengesizliğe yol açmıştır. Beklenebileceği üzere, geçmişçilik, tarihçilik, bölgeselcilik modernizmin aleyhine gelişen bir ortam yaratmıştır. Gelişigüzel biçimcilikte son derece tehlikeli bir düzeye varmıştır ve postmodernizm, olumlu ya da olumsuz yönleriyle, modern mimarinin karşısında gelişen veya ondan farklı olan davranışların tümünü kapsayan bir terim niteliğinde kullanılır hale gelmiştir.

Modern mimari ile ilgili önemli örnekler
Bir inşaat mühendisi olarak Gustave Eiffel'in tasarladığı bu kule yaklaşık 12000 parçadan oluşup, 200 kadar işçi tarafından 21 ayda monte edilmiştir.

Frank Lloyd Wright'ın Chicago'daki Robie evi, kütlesi ve cephenin ele alınışı bakımından, katılığı, tekdüzeliği reddedebilen bir rasyonalizmin en belirgin örneklerindendir.

Berlin'deki 20. Yüzyıl Galerisinde 1962-68 Mies Van Der Rohe yıllarca önce başlattığı tümel mekân ile neredeyse cephesizlik anlamına gelebilecek cam cephe uygulamalarının müze mimarisi alanındaki en belirgin örneğini geliştirmiş olacaktır.

Ayrıca bakınız
 Bauhaus
 Brütalist mimari
 Ekspresyonist Mimarlık
 Organik mimari
 Organik mimarlık
 Uluslararası Mimarlık
 Uluslararası stil
 Yüzyıl Ortası Modern

Kaynakça
 http://www.press.uchicago.edu/Images/Chicago/storrer_robie.jpeg
 https://web.archive.org/web/20070221163601/http://www.endex.com/gf/ buildings/eiffel/tower.jpg
 http://www.designboom.com/snapshots/venice04/concerthalls/1.jpg
 http://s92141478.onlinehome.us/observador/PR1_WEB.jpg
 https://web.archive.org/web/20070211171451/http://www.bartleby.com/65/mo/modarch.html
 http://www.infoplease.com/ce6/world/A0833538.html
 History of Architecture-  Leonardo Benevolo
 Modernization in Architecture- Helen Castle

Mimarlık tarihi
Mimarlık

Modern mimarlık


Aventura Mall is a shopping mall located in Aventura, Florida. It is the third-largest mall in the United States by total square feet of retail space and the largest mall in Florida. The mall features JCPenney, Macy's, Nordstrom, and Bloomingdale's, in addition to a 24-screen AMC Theatres.

Aventura Mall has more than 50 eateries and restaurants, including Treats Food Hall, and the experiential Arts Aventura Mall program.

The Brightline Aventura Station, which opened in December 2022, is located across Biscayne Boulevard from the mall. A pedestrian bridge across Biscayne Blvd. is planned, to provide direct access to the mall from the station.  In the interim, Brightline is providing free shuttle bus service.

History
In April 1983, the Oxford Development Company, led by partners Donald Soffer, Edward J. Lewis, Mark E. Mason, Eugene Lebowitz, and Ray Parello officially dedicated Aventura Mall. There would be four anchors in the original, , complex: Lord & Taylor, JCPenney (opened April 28, 1983), Sears (opened July 6, 1983, three weeks after another at Miami International Mall), and Macy's opened October 1, 1983.

On board as an original investor in the project was mall-developer Edward J. DeBartolo Sr. The mall was originally designed to accommodate a fifth anchor, and there was a section of drywall in a place where its mall entrance would be located.

Soon after its construction, Soffer left Oxford. As part of the break-up of assets, Soffer's new firm, Turnberry Associates assumed control of the Aventura Mall. In 1996, the DeBartolo Realty Corporation, which owned the minority interest once held by Edward J. DeBartolo, was acquired by Simon Property Group.

In 1996, the ground was broken for a major expansion of Aventura Mall. The addition, built onto the southeast end of the existing complex, consisted of a three-story atrium with an multiplex cinema and restaurants at a new entrance. Part of the new development were two three-story parking garages surrounding the new anchor stores' southeast facades.

The Mall continued to expand, with major additions being added in November 1997 and August 1999. The mall underwent a $20 million renovation in late 2006. The mall expanded again in 2017 by opening a new three-level,  expansion wing.

In March 2019, LEVEL THREE, a  venue designed by Carlos Zapata, was launched.

By 2023, since the government lockdown, Aventura Mall had announced several newest additions, among them are Mango, Dr. Martens, Vuori, Garage, Aesop, Hermès, Balenciaga, Armani Exchange, BVLGARI, and Valentino.

Incidents
On May 29, 2020, two people were taken to the Aventura Hospital after a shooting incident occurred in the Nordstrom part of the Aventura Mall.

On May 8, 2021, a shooting incident occurred near Nordstrom in the Aventura Mall. The shooter was arrested.

Current anchors
Macy's (Women's and Kids Fashion) (original tenant) (1983–present)
JCPenney (original tenant) (1983–present)
AMC Theatres (August 7, 1998–present)
Bloomingdales (1997–present)
Macy's (Men's and Home Furnishings) (2005–present)
Nordstrom (2008–present)

Former anchors
 Sears (original tenant) (1983–2017)
 Lord & Taylor (original tenant) (1983–2005)
 Burdines (1999–2004)
 Burdines-Macy's (2004–2005)

See also
List of shopping malls in South Florida
City of Aventura

References

External links

Shopping malls in Miami-Dade County, Florida
Shopping malls established in 1983
1983 establishments in Florida

Aventura Mall