The olfactory bulb (Latin: bulbus olfactorius) is a neural structure of the vertebrate forebrain involved in olfaction, the sense of smell. It sends olfactory information to be further processed in the amygdala, the orbitofrontal cortex (OFC) and the hippocampus where it plays a role in emotion, memory and learning. The bulb is divided into two distinct structures: the main olfactory bulb and the accessory olfactory bulb. The main olfactory bulb connects to the amygdala via the piriform cortex of the primary olfactory cortex and directly projects from the main olfactory bulb to specific amygdala areas. The accessory olfactory bulb resides on the dorsal-posterior region of the main olfactory bulb and forms a parallel pathway. Destruction of the olfactory bulb results in ipsilateral anosmia, while irritative lesions of the uncus can result in olfactory and gustatory hallucinations.

Structure
In most vertebrates, the olfactory bulb is the most rostral (forward) part of the brain, as seen in rats. In humans, however, the olfactory bulb is on the inferior (bottom) side of the brain. The olfactory bulb is supported and protected by the cribriform plate of the ethmoid bone, which in mammals separates it from the olfactory epithelium, and which is perforated by olfactory nerve axons. The bulb is divided into two distinct structures: the main olfactory bulb and the accessory olfactory bulb.

Layers
The main olfactory bulb has a multi-layered cellular architecture. In order from surface to the center the layers are:
Glomerular layer
External plexiform layer
Mitral cell layer
Internal plexiform layer
Granule cell layer
The olfactory bulb transmits smell information from the nose to the brain, and is thus necessary for a proper sense of smell. As a neural circuit, the glomerular layer receives direct input from afferent nerves, made up of the axons from approximately ten million olfactory receptor neurons in the olfactory mucosa, a region of the nasal cavity. The ends of the axons cluster in spherical structures known as glomeruli such that each glomerulus receives input primarily from olfactory receptor neurons that express the same olfactory receptor. The glomeruli layer of the olfactory bulb is the first level of synaptic processing.  The glomeruli layer represents a spatial odor map organized by chemical structure of odorants like functional group and carbon chain length.  This spatial map is divided into zones and clusters, which represent similar glomeruli and therefore similar odors.  One cluster in particular is associated with rank, spoiled smells which are represented by certain chemical characteristics.  This classification may be evolutionary to help identify food that is no longer good to eat.

The spatial map of the glomeruli layer may be used for perception of odor in the olfactory cortex.  The next level of synaptic processing in the olfactory bulb occurs in the external plexiform layer, between the glomerular layer and the mitral cell layer.  The external plexiform layer contains astrocytes, interneurons and some mitral cells.  It does not contain many cell bodies, rather mostly dendrites of mitral cells and GABAergic granule cells  are also permeated by dendrites from neurons called mitral cells, which in turn output to the olfactory cortex. Numerous interneuron types exist in the olfactory bulb including periglomerular cells which synapse within and between glomeruli, and granule cells which synapse with mitral cells.  The granule cell layer is the deepest layer in the olfactory bulb.  It is made up of dendrodendritic granule cells that synapse to the mitral cell layer.

Function
This part of the brain receives sensations of smell.
As a neural circuit, the olfactory bulb has one source of sensory input (axons from olfactory receptor neurons of the olfactory epithelium), and one output (mitral cell axons).  As a result, it is generally assumed that it functions as a filter, as opposed to an associative circuit that has many inputs and many outputs. However, the olfactory bulb also receives "top-down" information from such brain areas as the olfactory cortex,  amygdala, neocortex, hippocampus, locus coeruleus, and substantia nigra.
Its potential functions can be placed into four non-exclusive categories:

discriminating among odors
enhancing sensitivity of odor detection
filtering out many background odors to enhance the transmission of a few select odors
permitting higher brain areas involved in arousal and attention to modify the detection or the discrimination of odors.

While all of these functions could theoretically arise from the olfactory bulb's circuit layout, it is unclear which, if any, of these functions are performed exclusively by the olfactory bulb. By analogy to similar parts of the brain such as the retina, many researchers have focused on how the olfactory bulb filters incoming information from receptor neurons in space, or how it filters incoming information in time.  At the core of these proposed filters are the two classes of interneurons; the periglomerular cells, and the granule cells.  Processing occurs at each level of the main olfactory bulb, beginning with the spatial maps that categorize odors in the glomeruli layer.

Interneurons in the external plexiform layer are responsive to pre-synaptic action potentials and exhibit both excitatory postsynaptic potentials and inhibitory postsynaptic potentials.  Neural firing varies temporally, there are periods of fast, spontaneous firing and slow modulation of firing.  These patterns may be related to sniffing or change in intensity and concentration of odorant. Temporal patterns may have effect in later processing of spatial awareness of odorant. For example, synchronized mitral cell spike trains appear to help to discriminate similar odors better than when those spike trains are not synchronized. A well known model is that the bulbar neural circuit transforms the odor information in the receptors to a population pattern of neural oscillatory activities in the mitral cell population, and this pattern is then recognized by the associative memories of olfactory objects in the olfactory cortex. Top-down feedback from the olfactory cortex to the olfactory bulb modulates the bulbar responses, so that, for example, the bulb can adapt to a pre-existing olfactory background to single out a foreground odor from an odor mixture for recognition, or can enhance sensitivity to a target odor during odor search.  Destruction to the olfactory bulb results in ipsilateral anosmia while irritative lesion of the uncus can result in olfactory and gustatory hallucinations.

Lateral inhibition
External plexiform layer
The interneurons in the external plexiform layer perform feedback inhibition on the mitral cells to control back propagation.  They also participate in lateral inhibition of the mitral cells. This inhibition is an important part of olfaction as it aids in odor discrimination by decreasing firing in response to background odors and differentiating the responses of olfactory nerve inputs in the mitral cell layer.  Inhibition of the mitral cell layer by the other layers contributes to odor discrimination and higher level processing by modulating the output from the olfactory bulb.  These hyperpolarizations during odor stimulation shape the responses of the mitral cells to make them more specific to an odor.

There is a lack of information regarding the function of the internal plexiform layer which lies between the mitral cell layer and the granule cell layer.

Granule cell layer
The basal dendrites of mitral cells are connected to interneurons known as granule cells, which by some theories produce lateral inhibition between mitral cells.  The synapse between mitral and granule cells is of a rare class of synapses that are "dendro-dendritic" which means that both sides of the synapse are dendrites that release neurotransmitter.  In this specific case, mitral cells release the excitatory neurotransmitter glutamate, and granule cells release the inhibitory neurotransmitter Gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA).  As a result of its bi-directionality, the dendro-dendritic synapse can cause mitral cells to inhibit themselves (auto-inhibition), as well as neighboring mitral cells (lateral inhibition).  More specifically, the granule cell layer receives excitatory glutamate signals from the basal dendrites of the mitral and tufted cells.  The granule cell in turn releases GABA to cause an inhibitory effect on the mitral cell.  More neurotransmitter is released from the activated mitral cell to the connected dendrite of the granule cell, making the inhibitory effect from the granule cell to the activated mitral cell stronger than the surrounding mitral cells.  It is not clear what the functional role of lateral inhibition would be, though it may be involved in boosting the signal-to-noise ratio of odor signals by silencing the basal firing rate of surrounding non-activated neurons.  This in turn aids in odor discrimination.  Other research suggest that the lateral inhibition contributes to differentiated odor responses, which aids in the processing and perception of distinct odors. There is also evidence of cholinergic effects on granule cells that enhance depolarization of granule cells making them more excitable which in turn increases inhibition of mitral cells.  This may contribute to a more specific output from the olfactory bulb that would closer resemble the glomerular odor map.
Olfaction is distinct from the other sensory systems where peripheral sensory receptors have a relay in the diencephalon. Therefore, the olfactory bulb plays this role for the  olfactory system.

Accessory olfactory bulb
In vertebrates, the accessory olfactory bulb (AOB), which resides on the dorsal-posterior region of the main olfactory bulb, forms a parallel pathway independent from the main olfactory bulb. The vomeronasal organ sends projections to the accessory olfactory bulb making it the second processing stage of the accessory olfactory system. As in the main olfactory bulb, axonal input to the accessory olfactory bulb forms synapses with mitral cells within glomeruli. The accessory olfactory bulb receives axonal input from the vomeronasal organ, a distinct sensory epithelium from the main olfactory epithelium that detects chemical stimuli relevant for social and reproductive behaviors, but probably also generic odorants. It has been hypothesized that, in order for the vomernasal pump to turn on, the main olfactory epithelium must first detect the appropriate odor. However, the possibility that the vomeronasal system works in parallel or independently from generic olfactory inputs has not been ruled out yet.

Vomeronasal sensory neurons provide direct excitatory inputs to AOB principle neurons called mitral cells which are transmitted to the amygdala and hypothalamus and therefore are directly involved in sex hormone activity and may influence aggressiveness and mating behavior. Axons of the vomeronasal sensory neurons express a given receptor type which, differently from what occurs in the main olfactory bulb, diverge between 6 and 30 AOB glomeruli. Mitral cell dendritic endings go through a dramatic period of targeting and clustering just after presynaptic unification of the sensory neuron axons. The connectivity of the vomernasal sensorglomery neurons to mitral cells is precise, with mitral cell dendrites targeting the glomeruli. There is evidence against the presence of a functional accessory olfactory bulb in humans and other higher primates.

The AOB is divided into two main subregions, anterior and posterior, which receive segregated synaptic inputs from two main categories of vomeronasal sensory neurons, V1R and V2R, respectively. This appears as a clear functional specialization, given the differential role of the two populations of sensory neurons in detecting chemical stimuli of different type and molecular weight. Although it doesn't seem to be maintained centrally, where mitral cell projections from both sides of the AOB converge. A clear difference of the AOB circuitry, compared to the rest of the bulb, is its heterogeneous connectivity between mitral cells and vomeronasal sensory afferents within neuropil glomeruli. AOB mitral cells indeed contact through apical dendritic processes glomeruli formed by afferents of different receptor neurons, thus breaking the one-receptor-one-neuron rule which generally holds for the main olfactory system. This implies that stimuli sensed through the VNO and elaborated in the AOB are subjected to a different and probably more complex level of elaboration. Accordingly, AOB mitral cells show clearly different firing patterns compared to other bulbar projection neurons. Additionally, top down input to the olfactory bulb differentially affects olfactory outputs.

Further processing
The olfactory bulb sends olfactory information to be further processed in the amygdala, the orbitofrontal cortex (OFC) and the hippocampus where it plays a role in emotion, memory and learning.  The main olfactory bulb connects to the amygdala via the piriform cortex of the primary olfactory cortex and directly projects from the main olfactory bulb to specific amygdala areas. The amygdala passes olfactory information on to the hippocampus.  The orbitofrontal cortex, amygdala, hippocampus, thalamus, and olfactory bulb have many interconnections directly and indirectly through the cortices of the primary olfactory cortex.  These connections are indicative of the association between the olfactory bulb and higher areas of processing, specifically those related to emotion and memory.

Amygdala
Associative learning between odors and behavioral responses takes place in the amygdala.  The odors serve as the reinforcers or the punishers during the associative learning process; odors that occur with positive states reinforce the behavior that resulted in the positive state while odors that occur with negative states do the opposite. Odor cues are coded by neurons in the amygdala with the behavioral effect or emotion that they produce.  In this way odors reflect certain emotions or physiological states. Odors become associated with pleasant and unpleasant responses, and eventually the odor becomes a cue and can cause an emotional response.  These odor associations contribute to emotional states such as fear.  Brain imaging shows amygdala activation correlated with pleasant and unpleasant odors, reflecting the association between odors and emotions.

Hippocampus
The hippocampus aids in olfactory memory and learning as well.  Several olfaction-memory processes occur in the hippocampus.  Similar to the process in the amygdala, an odor is associated with a particular reward, i.e. the smell of food with receiving sustenance.  Odor in the hippocampus also contributes to the formation of episodic memory; the memories of events at a specific place or time.  The time at which certain neurons fire in the hippocampus is associated by neurons with a stimulus such as an odor.  Presentation of the odor at a different time may cause recall of the memory, therefore odor aids in recall of episodic memories.

Olfactory coding in Habenula
In lower vertebrates (lampreys and teleost fishes), mitral cell (principal olfactory neurons) axons project exclusively to the right hemisphere of Habenula in an asymmetric manner. It is reported that dorsal Habenula (Hb) are functional asymmetric with predominant odor responses in right hemisphere. It was also shown that Hb neurons are spontaneous active even in absence of olfactory stimulation. These spontaneous active Hb neurons are organized into functional clusters which were proposed to govern olfactory responses. (Jetti, SK. et al. 2014, Current Biology)

Depression models
Further evidence of the link between the olfactory bulb and emotion and memory is shown through animal depression models. Olfactory bulb removal in rats effectively causes structural changes in the amygdala and hippocampus and behavioral changes similar to that of a person with depression. Researchers use rats with olfactory bulbectomies to research antidepressants. Research has shown that removal of the olfactory bulb in rats leads to dendrite reorganization, disrupted cell growth in the hippocampus, and decreased neuroplasticity in the hippocampus. These hippocampal changes due to olfactory bulb removal are associated with behavioral changes characteristic of depression, demonstrating the correlation between the olfactory bulb and emotion. The hippocampus and amygdala affect odor perception. During certain physiological states such as hunger a food odor may seem more pleasant and rewarding due to the associations in the amygdala and hippocampus of the food odor stimulus with the reward of eating.

Orbitofrontal cortex
Olfactory information is sent to the primary olfactory cortex, where projections are sent to the orbitofrontal cortex. The OFC contributes to this odor-reward association as well as it assesses the value of a reward, i.e. the nutritional value of a food.  The OFC receives projections from the piriform cortex, amygdala, and parahippocampal cortices. Neurons in the OFC that encode food reward information activate the reward system when stimulated, associating the act of eating with reward.  The OFC further projects to the anterior cingulate cortex where it plays a role in appetite.  The OFC also associates odors with other stimuli, such as taste. Odor perception and discrimination also involve the OFC.  The spatial odor map in the glomeruli layer of the olfactory bulb may contribute to these functions.  The odor map begins processing of olfactory information by spatially organizing the glomeruli.  This organizing aids the olfactory cortices in its functions of perceiving and discriminating odors.

Adult neurogenesis
The olfactory bulb is, along with both the subventricular zone and the subgranular zone of the dentate gyrus of the hippocampus, one of only three structures in the brain observed to undergo continuing neurogenesis in adult mammals. In most mammals, new neurons are born from neural stem cells in the sub-ventricular zone and migrate rostrally towards the main  and accessory   olfactory bulbs. Within the olfactory bulb these immature neuroblasts develop into fully functional granule cell interneurons and periglomerular cell interneurons that reside in the granule cell layer and glomerular layers, respectively.  The olfactory sensory neuron axons that form synapses in olfactory bulb glomeruli are also capable of regeneration following regrowth of an olfactory sensory neuron residing in the olfactory epithelium.  Despite dynamic turnover of sensory axons and interneurons, the projection neurons (mitral and tufted neurons) that form synapses with these axons are not structurally plastic.

The function of adult neurogenesis in this region remains a matter of study.  The survival of immature neurons as they enter the circuit is highly sensitive to olfactory activity and in particular associative learning tasks.  This has led to the hypothesis that new neurons participate in learning processes.  No definitive behavioral effect has been observed in loss-of-function experiments suggesting that the function of this process, if at all related to olfactory processing, may be subtle.

Clinical significance
The olfactory lobe is a structure of the vertebrate forebrain involved in olfaction, or sense of smell. Destruction of the olfactory bulb results in ipsilateral anosmia.

Other animals

Evolution

Comparing the structure of the olfactory bulb among vertebrate species, such as the leopard frog and the lab mouse, reveals that they all share the same fundamental layout (five layers containing the nuclei of three major cell types; see "Anatomy" for details), despite being dissimilar in shape and size.  A similar structure is shared by the analogous olfactory center in the fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster, the antennal lobe.  One possibility is that vertebrate olfactory bulb and insect antennal lobe structure may be similar because they contain an optimal solution to a computational problem experienced by all olfactory systems and thus may have evolved independently in different phyla – a phenomenon generally known as convergent evolution.

<blockquote>"The increase of brain size relative to body size—encephalization—is intimately linked with human evolution. However, two genetically different evolutionary lineages, Neanderthals and modern humans, have produced similarly large-brained human species. Thus, understanding human brain evolution should include research into specific cerebral reorganization, possibly reflected by brain shape changes. Here we exploit developmental integration between the brain and its underlying skeletal base to test hypotheses about brain evolution in Homo. Three-dimensional geometric morphometric analyses of endobasicranial shape reveal previously undocumented details of evolutionary changes in Homo sapiens. Larger olfactory bulbs, relatively wider orbitofrontal cortex, relatively increased and forward projecting temporal lobe poles appear unique to modern humans. Such brain reorganization, beside physical consequences for overall skull shape, might have contributed to the evolution of H. sapiens''' learning and social capacities, in which higher olfactory functions and its cognitive, neurological behavioral implications could have been hitherto underestimated factors."</blockquote>

See also
Olfactory ensheathing glia
Phantosmia
Nobiletin

References

Further reading
Shepherd, G. The Synaptic Organization of the Brain'', Oxford University Press, 5th edition (November, 2003).

External links

Olfactory system
Cerebrum
Limbic system

Olfactory bulb


Thom Noble (* Mai 1935) ist ein britischer Filmeditor, der sowohl einen Oscar für den besten Schnitt als auch einen Eddie gewann, den Filmpreis der American Cinema Editors (ACE).

Leben
Noble begann seine Laufbahn als Editor in der Filmindustrie 1964 bei der Produktion Verführen will gelernt sein (Rattle of a Simple Man) und wirkte bis heute an der Herstellung von über fünfzig Filmen mit.

Bei der Oscarverleihung 1986 gewann er den Oscar für den besten Schnitt für Der einzige Zeuge (1985) von Peter Weir mit Harrison Ford, Kelly McGillis und Danny Glover in den Hauptrollen. Zugleich erhielt er hierfür den Eddie der American Cinema Editors (ACE) und war darüber hinaus für den British Academy Film Award für den besten Schnitt nominiert.

1992 erhielt er eine Nominierung für den Oscar für den besten Schnitt für Thelma & Louise (1991) von Ridley Scott mit Susan Sarandon, Geena Davis und Harvey Keitel. Für den Schnitt in diesem Film war er zudem erneut für den BAFTA Film Award nominiert.

Zurzeit arbeitet er an der Vorproduktion von Miracle Underground von Regisseur Armand Mastroianni mit den Hauptdarstellern Eric Roberts, Nia Peeples und Adrian Paul. Der Film über das Grubenunglück von San José soll 2015 Kinopremiere haben.

Filmografie (Auswahl)
 1980: Rambo (First Blood)
 1964: Verführen will gelernt sein (Rattle of a Simple Man)
 1966: Fahrenheit 451
 1967: … und Scotland Yard schweigt (The Man Outside)
 1971: Monty Pythons wunderbare Welt der Schwerkraft (And Now for Something Completely Different)
 1973: Begrabt die Wölfe in der Schlucht (Billy Two Hats)
 1974: Duddy will hoch hinaus (The Apprenticeship of Duddy Kravitz)
 1975: Unternehmen Rosebud (Rosebud)
 1978: Die Schlemmer-Orgie (Who Is Killing the Great Chefs of Europe?)
 1984: Die rote Flut (Red Dawn)
 1985: Der einzige Zeuge (Witness)
 1986: Mosquito Coast (The Mosquito Coast)
 1988: Eine Frau steht ihren Mann (Switching Channels)
 1988: Winter People – Wie ein Blatt im Wind (Winter People)
 1990: Land der schwarzen Sonne (Mountains of the Moon)
 1990: Der Exorzist III (The Exorcist III)
 1991: Thelma & Louise
 1992: Eiskalte Leidenschaft (Final Analysis)
 1993: Body of Evidence
 1994: Hudsucker – Der große Sprung (The Hudsucker Proxy)
 1995: Der scharlachrote Buchstabe (The Scarlet Letter)
 1998: Die Maske des Zorro (The Mask of Zorro)
 1999: Inspektor Gadget
 2000: Vertical Limit
 2005: Soldier of God
 2005: Flightplan – Ohne jede Spur (Flightplan)
 2009: Die Frau des Zeitreisenden (The Time Traveler's Wife)
 2010: R.E.D. – Älter, Härter, Besser (RED – Retired. Extremely Dangerous)
 2012: Alex Cross
 2015: Point Break

Auszeichnungen
 Oscar
 1986: für den besten Schnitt
 Eddie
 1986: für den besten Filmschnitt

Weblinks

Filmeditor
Oscarpreisträger
Brite
Geboren 1935
Mann

Thom Noble


In mathematics, specifically in topology, the operation of connected sum is a geometric modification on manifolds. Its effect is to join two given manifolds together near a chosen point on each. This construction plays a key role in the classification of closed surfaces.

More generally, one can also join manifolds together along identical submanifolds; this generalization is often called the fiber sum. There is also a closely related notion of a connected sum on knots, called the knot sum or composition of knots.

Connected sum at a point

A connected sum of two m-dimensional manifolds is a manifold formed by deleting a ball inside each manifold and gluing together the resulting boundary spheres.

If both manifolds are oriented, there is a unique connected sum defined by having the gluing map reverse orientation. Although the construction uses the choice of the balls, the result is unique up to homeomorphism. One can also make this operation work in the smooth category, and then the result is unique up to diffeomorphism. There are subtle problems in the smooth case: not every diffeomorphism between the boundaries of the spheres gives the same composite manifold, even if the orientations are chosen correctly. For example, Milnor showed that two 7-cells can be glued along their boundary so that the result is an exotic sphere homeomorphic but not diffeomorphic to a 7-sphere.

However, there is a canonical way to choose the gluing of  and  which gives a unique well-defined connected sum. Choose embeddings  and  so that  preserves orientation and  reverses orientation. Now obtain  from the disjoint sum

by identifying  with  for each unit vector  and each . Choose the orientation for  which is compatible with  and . The fact that this construction is well-defined depends crucially on the disc theorem, which is not at all obvious. For further details, see.

The operation of connected sum is denoted by .

The operation of connected sum has the sphere  as an identity; that is,  is homeomorphic (or diffeomorphic) to .

The classification of closed surfaces, a foundational and historically significant result in topology, states that any closed surface can be expressed as the connected sum of a sphere with some number  of tori and some number  of real projective planes.

Connected sum along a submanifold

Let  and  be two smooth, oriented manifolds of equal dimension and  a smooth, closed, oriented manifold, embedded as a submanifold into both  and  Suppose furthermore that there exists an isomorphism of normal bundles

that reverses the orientation on each fiber. Then  induces an orientation-preserving diffeomorphism

where each normal bundle  is diffeomorphically identified with a neighborhood  of  in , and the map

is the orientation-reversing diffeomorphic involution

on normal vectors. The connected sum of  and  along  is then the space

obtained by gluing the deleted neighborhoods together by the orientation-preserving diffeomorphism. The sum is often denoted

Its diffeomorphism type depends on the choice of the two embeddings of  and on the choice of .

Loosely speaking, each normal fiber of the submanifold  contains a single point of , and the connected sum along  is simply the connected sum as described in the preceding section, performed along each fiber. For this reason, the connected sum along  is often called the fiber sum.

The special case of  a point recovers the connected sum of the preceding section.

Connected sum along a codimension-two submanifold

Another important special case occurs when the dimension of  is two less than that of the . Then the isomorphism  of normal bundles exists whenever their Euler classes are opposite:

Furthermore, in this case the structure group of the normal bundles is the circle group ; it follows that the choice of embeddings can be canonically identified with the group of homotopy classes of maps from  to the circle, which in turn equals the first integral cohomology group . So the diffeomorphism type of the sum depends on the choice of  and a choice of element from .

A connected sum along a codimension-two  can also be carried out in the category of symplectic manifolds; this elaboration is called the symplectic sum.

Local operation

The connected sum is a local operation on manifolds, meaning that it alters the summands only in a neighborhood of . This implies, for example, that the sum can be carried out on a single manifold  containing two disjoint copies of , with the effect of gluing  to itself. For example, the connected sum of a 2-sphere at two distinct points of the sphere produces the 2-torus.

Connected sum of knots

There is a closely related notion of the connected sum of two knots. In fact, if one regards a knot merely as a 1-manifold, then the connected sum of two knots is just their connected sum as a 1-dimensional manifold. However, the essential property of a knot is not its manifold structure (under which every knot is equivalent to a circle) but rather its embedding into the ambient space. So the connected sum of knots has a more elaborate definition that produces a well-defined embedding, as follows.

This procedure results in the projection of a new knot, a connected sum (or knot sum, or composition) of the original knots.  For the connected sum of knots to be well-defined, one has to consider oriented knots in 3-space.  To define the connected sum for two oriented knots:

 Consider a planar projection of each knot and suppose these projections are disjoint.
 Find a rectangle in the plane where one pair of sides are arcs along each knot but is otherwise disjoint from the knots and so that the arcs of the knots on the sides of the rectangle are oriented around the boundary of the rectangle in the same direction.
 Now join the two knots together by deleting these arcs from the knots and adding the arcs that form the other pair of sides of the rectangle.

The resulting connected sum knot inherits an orientation consistent with the orientations of the two original knots, and the oriented ambient isotopy class of the result is well-defined, depending only on the oriented ambient isotopy classes of the original two knots.

Under this operation, oriented knots in 3-space form a commutative monoid with unique prime factorization, which allows us to define what is meant by a prime knot.  Proof of commutativity can be seen by letting one summand shrink until it is very small and then pulling it along the other knot.  The unknot is the unit.  The two trefoil knots are the simplest prime knots. Higher-dimensional knots can be added by splicing the -spheres.

In three dimensions, the unknot cannot be written as the sum of two non-trivial knots. This fact follows from additivity of knot genus; another proof relies on an infinite construction sometimes called the Mazur swindle.  In higher dimensions (with codimension at least three), it is possible to get an unknot by adding two nontrivial knots.

If one does not take into account the orientations of the knots, the connected sum operation is not well-defined on isotopy classes of (nonoriented) knots.  To see this, consider two noninvertible knots K, L which are not equivalent (as unoriented knots); for example take the two pretzel knots K = P(3, 5, 7) and L = P(3, 5, 9).  Let K+ and K− be K with its two inequivalent orientations, and let L+ and L− be L with its two inequivalent orientations.  There are four oriented connected sums we may form:

 A = K+ # L+
 B = K− # L−
 C = K+ # L−
 D = K− # L+

The oriented ambient isotopy classes of these four oriented knots are all distinct, and, when one considers ambient isotopy of the knots without regard to orientation, there are two distinct equivalence classes: {A ~ B} and {C ~ D}.  To see that A and B are unoriented equivalent, simply note that they both may be constructed from the same pair of disjoint knot projections as above, the only difference being the orientations of the knots.  Similarly, one sees that C and D may be constructed from the same pair of disjoint knot projections.

See also

Band sum
Prime decomposition (3-manifold)
Manifold decomposition
Satellite knot

Further reading
 Robert Gompf: A new construction of symplectic manifolds, Annals of Mathematics 142 (1995), 527–595
 William S. Massey, A Basic Course in Algebraic Topology, Springer-Verlag, 1991. .

References

Differential topology
Geometric topology
Knot theory
Operations on structures

Connected sum


Ford engines are those used in Ford Motor Company vehicles and in aftermarket, sports and kit applications. Different engine ranges are used in various global markets.

3 cylinder
A series of Ford DOHC 12-valve inline-three engines with Twin Independent Variable Camshaft Timing (Ti-VCT), labelled as Fox (1.0 L), Duratec (1.1 L), Dragon (1.2 L and 1.5 L) and turbocharged 1.0 L and 1.5 L as EcoBoost.

1.0 L Fox
 2012–present 1.0 L Fox Ti-VCT I3, naturally aspirated.
The smallest Ford 3-cylinder engine.
Displacement: 998 cc
Bore x stroke: 71.9 mm x 82.0 mm
Compression ratio: 12.0:1
Maximum power:  @ 6300–6500 rpm
Maximum torque:  @ 4100–4500 rpm
Applications:
 2013–2017 Ford Fiesta
 2016–present Ford Ka

 2012–present 1.0 L EcoBoost I3
The turbocharged version of 1.0 L Fox engine.

1.1 L Duratec
 2017–present 1.1 L Duratec Ti-VCT I3, naturally-aspirated.
 Displacement: 1084 cc
 Bore x stroke: 73.0 mm x 86.3 mm
 Compression ratio: 12.0:1
Maximum power:  @5000–6500 rpm
 Maximum torque:  @3500 rpm
Application:
 2017–present Ford Fiesta

1.2 L Dragon
 2017–present 1.2 L Dragon Ti-VCT I3, naturally aspirated.
Based from 1.5 L Dragon engine but with smaller piston and without balancer shaft.
Displacement: 1194 cc
Bore x stroke: 75.0 mm x 90.0 mm
Compression ratio: 11.2:1
Maximum power:  PS @ 6500 rpm
Maximum torque:  @ 4250 rpm
Applications:
2017–present Ford Figo/Aspire/Freestyle

1.5 L Dragon
 2017–present 1.5 L Dragon Ti-VCT I3, naturally aspirated.
Displacement: 1497 cc
Bore x stroke: 84.0 mm x 90.0 mm
Compression ratio: 11.0:1
Maximum power:
 @ 6500 rpm
 @ 5500 rpm (ethanol)
Maximum torque:
 @ 4250–4750 rpm
 @ 4750 rpm (ethanol)
Applications:
2017–present Ford EcoSport
2018–present Ford Focus
2018–present Ford Ka

 2018–present 1.5 L EcoBoost I3
The turbocharged version of 1.5 L Dragon engine.

4 cylinder
 1904–1906 Ford Model B (1904) engine
 1906–1908 Ford Model N/R/S engine
 1908–1927 Ford Model T engine
 1928–1931 Ford Model A engine (also see Ford Model A (1927-1931))
 1932–1934 Ford Model B engine (see Ford Model B (1932))
 1932–1962 Ford Sidevalve
 1951–1966 Consul 4—(United Kingdom)
 1961–1977 Essex V4—(United Kingdom: Used in Transit Mk.1, Granada Mk.1/Consul, Capri Mk.1) (South Africa: Used in Ford Corsair, Ford Capri Mk. 1, Ford Cortina Mk III)
 1962–1981 Taunus V4 (or Cologne V4)—(Germany) Used in Ford Taunus V4, Saab Saab 95, Saab Sonett and Saab 96 until 1980.
 1968–1983 Renault Cléon engine—Ford Corcel from Willys/Renault Dauphine (Brazil)
 1959–2002 Kent—(UK) 1.0-1.6 L I4 (Europe)
 1959–1968 Kent (Original) 1.0–1.5L (used in Anglia, Consul Capri, Cortina Mk.1)
 1962–1975 Lotus Twin Cam 1.6 L (used in Lotus Elan, Cortina, Europa, Ford Escort, and Caterham Super Seven)
 1967–1980 Crossflow 1.1 L, 1.3 L, 1.6 L (used in Cortina Mk.2, Capri Mk.1, Escort Mk.1 & Mk.2, Ford Fiesta Mk.1 (1.6 versions), Reliant Anadol (1.3 and 1.6 versions)
 1969–198? BDA 1.6 L (used in Escort RS1600, and Caterham Super Seven)
 1976–1989 Valencia 1.0 L, 1.1 L, 1.3 L (used in Fiesta Mk.1 & Mk.2, Escort Mk.3, Orion
 1989–1995 HCS 1.0L, 1.1 L, 1.3 L (used in Fiesta Mk.3, Orion Mk.2/Escort Mk3-6)
 1995–2002 Endura-E 1.3 L OHV (UK: Fiesta Mk.4, Ka)
 1970s OHC/Pinto/T-88 Series
 1970–1989 EAO—1.3 L–2.0 L Cortina Mk.3-Mk.5, Sierra, Capri Mk.2&3, Granada Mk.2&3, Scorpio, Transit
 1974–1990s OHC—2.3 L (used in the Pinto, Mustang, the Merkur XR4Ti, 1975-79 Brazilian Maverick and Thunderbird Turbo Coupe)
 1983– OHC—2.0 L 2.3 L and the 2.5 L for the Ranger
 1989– I4 DOHC (used in Sierra, Scorpio/Granada Mk.3, Transit)
 1972–2000 York (Diesel) 2.3L, 2.4L, 2.5L (Used in Transit, A-Series (4 and 6-cyl version), London Taxi, also Ford-Iveco trucks, "DI" (Direct-Injection) version from 1984-on)
 1980–2002 CVH—1.1 L/1.3 L/1.4 L/1.6 L/1.8 L/1.9/2.0 L Escort (International), Escort (North America), Orion, Fiesta Mk.2, Sierra (Europe, Sierra from '89 onwards, 1.9L and 2.0L for USA only)
 1983–1995 CHT—(Brazil)
 1984–1994 HSC—2.3 L/2.5 L for Tempo and Taurus
 1983–1996 LT—(Diesel) 1.6 L/1.8 L/ 1.8 L turbodiesel. Used in Escort, Orion, Fiesta
 1986–2000 Lynx—(Diesel) 1.8 L/ 1.8 L turbodiesel. Used in Escort, Orion, Fiesta, Mondeo. Later branded as Endura-DE and developed to Duratorq DLD-418.
 1990s Mazda F—Mazda-engine 2.2 L for Probe
 1992–2004 Zeta/Zetec/Zetec-E (Used in Escort ZX2 (North America), Escort Mk.5 / Orion, Fiesta Mk.4, Ford Fiesta Mk.3/3.5, Mondeo Mk.1, Focus) (Ford Aspire/Kia)
 1995– Zetec-SE (Sigma) (Used in Fiesta Mk.4, Puma, Focus)
 2000– Duratorq—Diesel (Europe: Used in Mondeo Mk.3, Focus, Transit, Transit Connect, London Taxi TX1 (from 2002 onwards))
 2000– Duratec 8v/HE/20/23—(Duratec branded Mazda-engine used in Mondeo Mk.3, Focus Mk.2)
 2000–present Power Stroke 3.0—3.0 L Diesel (Brazil), Used in Ford Ranger (Argentina)
 2009–present EcoBoost—1.6 L/2.0 L Ford Sigma 1.6L and L 2.0L-engine with Direct Injection Spark Ignition
 2013–present EcoBoost—1.5 L
 2016–present EcoBlue—Diesel

5 cylinder
 2015–present; The 3.2 is an I5 engine used in the Ford Transit, the Ford Ranger, Ford Everest, Mazda BT-50 and the Vivarail. For the North American-spec Transit, * the 3.2L Duratorq is modified to meet American and Canadian emissions standards and is branded as a Power Stroke engine. The 3.2 Power Stroke is rated 188 PS (138 kW; 185 hp) and 470 N⋅m (350 lb⋅ft).[8]
2004-2011;The 2.5 Duratec is an inline 5 engine used in the Ford Focus ST225,Kuga,S-Max ST and various Volvo T5 models.It features DOHC, 20 valves and Ti-VCT.It displaces 2521cc and produces 166 kW (225hp) and 320 N.m (236lb.ft) in the ST or 227 kW (305hp) and 440 N.m (324.5lb.ft) in the Focus RS, or even up to 257kW (345hp) and 460 N.m (339lb.ft) in the RS500

6 cylinder
Ford was late to offer a six-cylinder engine in their cars, only introducing a six in 1941 after the failure of the 1906 Model K. The company relied on its famous Flathead V8 for most models, only seriously producing six-cylinder engines in the 1960s. The company was also late with a V6 engine, introducing a compact British V6 in 1967 but waiting until the 1980s to move their products to rely on V6 engines. The company has relied on seven major V6 families ever since, the Cologne/Taunus V6, British Essex V6, Canadian Essex V6, Vulcan V6, Mondeo V6, Cyclone V6, and Nano V6. The first five of these lines are no longer in production, leaving only the Cyclone and Nano as the company's midrange engines.
 1906–1907 Model K straight-6
 1941–2016 Straight-6
 1941–1951 226 CID Flathead
 1948–1953 254 CID Flathead used in buses and two ton trucks
 1952–1964 OHV (215, 223, 262) 215-223 used in car and non-HD pickups. 262 used in HD trucks only.

 1960–1993 (Longer in Australia) 'Falcon Six' OHV (144, 170, 200, 250) car usage.
 1964–1996 OHV (240, 300, 4.9 L) truck 6 built in Cleveland, Ohio
 1988–2002 Ford Australia SOHC I6 Falcon engines
 1988–1989 3.2 L SOHC
 1988–1992 3.9 L SOHC
 1992–2002 4.0 L SOHC
 1998–2002 4.0 L SOHC VCT
 2002–2016 Ford Australia Barra DOHC I6 4.0 L engines
 1951–1966 Zephyr 6—(United Kingdom)
 1964–2011 Cologne/Taunus V6—1.8–4.0 L pushrod and SOHC V6
 1966–1988 (2000 in South Africa) British Essex V6—60° British V6 2.5/3.0/3.1/3.4 L
 1982–2008 Canadian Essex V6—90° V6, 3.8/3.9/4.2 L models
 1986–1987 Ford-Cosworth GBA engine—120° V6, 1.5 L (Formula One engine)
 1986–2007 Vulcan V6—60° pushrod V6 3.0 L, originally designed for the Taurus
 1989–1995 SHO V6 3.0/3.2 L DOHC V6
 1994–2012 Mondeo V6 aluminum 60° DOHC
 1994–2002 Duratec 25—2.5 L
 1996–2012 Duratec 30—3.0 L
 2000–2011 Jaguar AJ-V6—2.1/2.5/3.0 L
 2003–present Ecotorq—7.3/9.0/12.7 L Diesel
 2004–present AJD-V6—2.7 L Diesel
 2006–2016 SI6—3.0/3.2 L I6 designed by Volvo
 2006–present Cyclone V6 aluminum 60° DOHC
 2018 Duratec 33—3.3 L
 2006–present Duratec 35—3.5 L
 2007–present Duratec 37—3.7 L
2009–present EcoBoost V6 engine
 2015–present EcoBoost—2.7 L
 2016–present EcoBoost—3.0 L
 2009–present EcoBoost—3.5 L

8 cylinder

Ford introduced the Flathead V8 in their affordable 1932 Model 18, becoming a performance leader for decades. In the 1950s, Ford introduced a three-tier approach to engines, with small, mid-sized, and larger engines aimed at different markets. All of Ford's mainstream V8 engines were replaced by the overhead cam Modular family in the 1990s and the company introduced a new large architecture, the Boss family, for 2010.
 1920–1932 Lincoln 60 Degree Fork & Blade V8—()
The Fork and Blade V8 used a novel approach for the piston connecting rods, which meant two connecting rods shared one bearing on the crankshaft, which allowed for a short crankshaft and a smaller overall engine size.
 1932–1953 Flathead V8
 1940–1950 Ford GAA engine, exclusively for armored fighting vehicle military use
 1952–1963 Lincoln Y-block V8 engine—big-block (317/341/368), HD truck (279/302/317/332)
 1954–1964 Y-block V8—small-block Ford/Mercury/Edsel (239/256/272/292/312)
 1958–1968 MEL V8—big-block Mercury/Edsel/Lincoln (383/410/430/462)
 1958–1976 FE V8—medium-block Ford/Edsel
 1958–1971 Generation I (332/352/360/361/390)
 1962–1973 Generation II (406/410/427/428)
 1965–1968 Ford 427 side oiler
 FT truck (330/359/361/389/391)
 427 SOHC**
 1958–1981 Super Duty truck engine—big-block (401/477/534)
 1962–2000 Windsor—small-block (221/255/260/289/289HP/302/351W/Boss 302/427 aluminum)
 1963–1971 Ford Indy V8 engine (U.S.A.C. IndyCar engine)
 1968–1997 385 V8—big-block (370/429/Boss 429/460/514)
 1975–2007 Ford-Cosworth Indy V8 engine (U.S.A.C. IndyCar engine)
 1970–1982 335/Cleveland V8— small-block (351 Cleveland/400/351M/Boss 351)
 1969–1982 Ford Australia produced Cleveland V8 engines 302/351 (Geelong plant)
 1983–2010 Ford/Navistar Diesel V8
 1983–1987—6.9 L IDI (indirect injection)
 1988–1993—7.3 L IDI
 1993–1994.5—7.3 L IDI with Turbo
 1994.5–2003.5—7.3 L DI (direct injection) "Power Stroke"
 2003.5–2009—6.0 L DI "Power Stroke" (E and F-series vehicles)
 2008–2010—6.4 L DI "Power Stroke" (F-series only)
 1989–1993 Ford-Cosworth HB engine—DOHC 3.5 L (Formula One racing engine)
 1991–present Modular V8 —SOHC/DOHC 4.6/5.0/5.4/5.8 L
 1997–present Triton V8—truck versions of the Modular
 2003-2004 Terminator V8 DOHC Supercharged 4.6 L
 2010-2016 Ford Miami'' Coyote V8 based Ford Australia Ford Performance Vehicles 5.0L Supercharged DOHC VCT on intake cams only
 2011–present Coyote V8 —DOHC TiVCT 5.0 L; In 2018 dual fuel injection added providing both port and direct injection.
2013–2014 Trinity V8 5.8 L, supercharged (Shelby GT500)
 2016–2020 Voodoo V8 —DOHC 5.2 L (Shelby GT350/350R)
 2020–2022 Predator V8 —DOHC 5.2 L, supercharged (Shelby GT500 & 2022 F-150 Raptor R)
 2023–present Carnivore V8 —DOHC 5.2 L, supercharged (2023 F-150 Raptor R)
 1994–1997 Ford-Cosworth EC / ED engine—DOHC 3.0/3.5 L (Formula One racing engine)
 1996–present Jaguar AJ-V8—small displacement DOHC V8 engine family also used by Lincoln LS and Ford Thunderbird
 1996–1999 SHO V8—3.4 L DOHC 60° V8 designed and produced with Yamaha Motor Corporation. This engine was only used in the Taurus SHO V-8.
 2005–2010 Volvo V8—4.4 L DOHC 60° V8 produced by Yamaha Motor Company in Japan in connection with Volvo Skövde Engine plant Sweden.
 Cosworth DFV—DOHC 3.0-liter Formula One racing engine
 2006–present AJD-V8—DOHC 3.6 L twin-turbo Diesel
 2010–present 4.4 Turbo Diesel V8—DOHC 4.4 L twin-turbo Diesel
 2010–present Boss V8—SOHC 6.2 L
 2011–present Scorpion Diesel V8—"Power Stroke" OHV 6.7 L 32-valve DI turbo diesel (F-series only)
2020–present Godzilla V8  — Pushrod V8 7.3L (445ci), gasoline, naturally aspirated, port fuel injected, variable timing, 16valve, 10.5:1 compression made for F-series Super Duty models.

10 cylinder
 1997–present Triton V10—6.8L SOHC 90° Modular V10 truck engine
 1999–2005 Ford-Cosworth JD / VJ engine (Formula One engine)
 1999–2005 Ford-Cosworth CR engine (Formula One engine)
 2001 5.8L DOHC 90° Modular V10, 4 valves/cyl. (Experimental). Ford Powertrain Division.

12 cylinder
 1932–1942 Lincoln L-head V12 (382/414/448)
 1936–1948 Lincoln-Zephyr V12 (267/292/306)
 1941 Ford V-12 aero engine 1941 Ford GAC V12 1995 Ford GT90 engine (used in the Ford GT90 concept car.)
 1999 - Current Aston Martin 6.0L V12''' (Originally made by Aston Martin under Ford ownership, continued by Aston Martin to present day.)

See also
 List of Ford vehicles
 List of Ford platforms
 List of Ford bellhousing patterns

References

External links
 Website & Forums dedicated to the Ford Windsor Engine
 Specs on Ford overhead valve V8 engines

Engines
Ford

List of Ford engines


Levorfanol, vrsta psihoaktivne droge. Uvrštena je u Hrvatskoj na temelju Zakona o suzbijanju zlouporabe drogu na Popis droga, psihotropnih tvari i biljaka iz kojih se može dobiti droga te tvari koje se mogu uporabiti za izradu droga, pod Popis droga i biljaka iz kojih se može dobiti droga, pod Droge sukladno Popisu 1. Jedinstvene konvencije UN-a o drogama iz 1961. godine. Kemijsko ime je (−)-3-hidroksi-N-metilmorfinan.  U Odjeljku 1 hrvatskog zakona, uključuje se i izomere (osim onih izrijekom isključenih) droga navedenih u ovom odjeljku kad je god postojanje takvih izomera moguće u okviru navedenoga kemijskog imena; estere i etere (osim onih koji se pojavljuju u drugim odjeljcima) droga u ovom odjeljku kad je god njihovo postojanje moguće; soli droga navedenih u ovom odjeljku, uključujući soli estera, etera i izomera kako je prethodno navedeno, kad je god postojanje takvih soli moguće. U ovom slučaju dekstrorfan (((+)-3-metoksi-N-metilmorfinan)) je izomer izrijekom isključen iz Odjeljka 1.

Izvori

Psihoaktivne droge

Levorfanol


2. ŽNL Požeško-slavonska u sezoni 2016./17. predstavlja ligu šestog ranga natjecanja nogometne lige u Hrvatskoj, te 2. rang županijske lige u Požeško-slavonskoj županiji.
Sudjelovalo je deset klubova, a prvak je momčad Mladost iz Pavlovaca.

Ljestvica

Rezultatska križaljka
podebljan rezltat - igrano u prvom dijelu lige (1. – 9. kolo)
rezultat normalne debljine - igrano u drugom dijelu lige (10. – 18. kolo)
 prekrižen rezultat  - poništena ili brisana utakmica

Poveznice
 Nogometni savez Požeško-slavonske županije
 2. ŽNL Požeško-slavonska
 1. ŽNL Požeško-slavonska 2016./17.
 3. ŽNL Požeško-slavonska 2016./17.

Izvori

 rsssf.com, Hrvatska 2016./17., 6. rang - 2. ŽNL
 nspsz.hr, Opomene, suspenzije, završne tablice 2. i 3.ŽNL, objavljeno 29. svibnja 2017., preuzeto 13. srpnja 2017.
 sportalo.hr, Sulkovci slavili protiv Mladosti za kraj sezone , objavljeno 23. svibnja 2017., pristupljeno 13. srpnja 2017.

2016-17
požeško-slavonska-2

2. ŽNL Požeško-slavonska 2016./17.


Risahreisturdýr (fræðiheiti: Smutsia gigantea) er stærsta tegund hreisturdýra. Þau finnast í Vestur-Afríku og í vestur-miðbaugasvæði Afríku.

Tilvísanir

Spendýr

Risahreisturdýr


أرض وقرض، مسرحية كويتية كوميدية عرضت في دولة الكويت عام 1987. من تأليف محمد الرشود ومن إخراج نجف جمال، تتحدث عن أزمة الإسكان وماهي حال بعض بيوت الحكومة التي توزع على المواطنين بعد فترة.

ممثلين العمل
 حياة الفهد.
 خليل إسماعيل .
 عبد العزيز النمش .
 عائشة إبراهيم.
 انتصار الشراح .
 عبد الناصر درويش .
 داود حسين.
 محمد العجيمي.
 بدر الطيار.
 نايف الراشد.

مسرحيات كويتية

أرض وقرض (مسرحية)


An American Mosaic: Prose and Poetry by Everyday Folk is an anthology of writings by persons without literary ambition that were developed in the first nine years of Free River writing workshops. Published in 1999 by Oxford University Press, the collection contains prose and poetry of the homeless, short essays and stories by Midwestern and Mississippi Delta farm families, by small town residents of vanishing rural America, and by men who make their living on the Mississippi River: a towboat captain, a river pilot, a commercial fisherman.

Inspired by America Today, Thomas Hart Benton's 1932 panorama of the United States, An American Mosaic explores America from the point of those whose stories are seldom heard. The editor, Robert Wolf, connects these panels with interpretive essays on contemporary America.

As a reviewer for Kirkus Reviews wrote: "Wolf hears America singing by recording poems and essays by the homeless, farmers, commune inhabitants, and residents of small river towns, the most common and least represented element in our urban, urbane culture. What weaves these pieces together is a sense of sadness and nostalgia because a way of life is disappearing. Wolf sees the rapid technological advances of the past few decades as increasingly dehumanizing. Jettisoned in its wake, he theorizes, are the thousands of mentally ill homeless, the newly unemployed and impoverished, the low-tech and depressed small-town dwellers, and the abandoned company ghosts of the manufacturing era. Local education has failed in the misery belt 'because those driving this society are, as a class, anti-intellectual and unimaginative.'  These elegiac themes dominate."

1999 anthologies
1999 poetry books
American poetry anthologies
Oxford University Press books
Oxford University Press poetry anthologies


روني برانسويجك  مواليد (مارس 1962 بماوينغو تابوي، مقاطعة مارويجيني)، كان زعيم المتمردين في سورينام. حارب نظام ديزي بوترس، الذي كان حارسه الشخصي.

مراجع

لاعبو وسط كرة قدم رجالية
أشخاص على قيد الحياة
أشخاص مدانون بقضايا المخدرات
أشخاص من ضاحية مارويجيني
أفارقة أمريكيون في القرن 21
تجار مخدرات سوريناميون
سارقو بنك
سياسيون سوريناميون
لاعبو انتر مونغوتابوي
لاعبو كرة قدم سوريناميون
متمردون سوريناميون
مدربو انتر مونغوتابوي
مدربو كرة قدم سوريناميون
مواليد 1380 هـ
مواليد 1961
مواليد 1962
نديوكا
نواب رؤساء سورينام

روني برانسويجك


Ponoćno sivo je kratki film redatelja Branka Ištvančića iz 2014., snimljen po romanu Ponoćno sivo Josipa Mlakića. Žanrovski je ratni dramski triler. Uloge igraju Aleksandar Bogdanović, Slaven Knezović, Đorđe Kukuljica, Nikša Kušelj i Jasmin Telalović. Snimljen u produkciji Artizana Film.

Radnja
Radnja se zbiva u vrijeme hrvatsko-bošnjačkog sukoba. Skupina vojnika HVO tražeći alkohol ušli su u razbijeni kafić smješten na bojišnici prema snagama ARBIH.

Festivali
Prikazan na Mediteranskom festivalu kratkog filma u Tangeru 2015. godine.

Izvori

Vanjske poveznice

Hrvatski filmovi 2010-ih
Ratni filmovi
Hrvatski kratki filmovi

Ponoćno sivo (2014.)


NGC 5596 est une galaxie lenticulaire située dans la constellation de la Bouvier. Sa vitesse par rapport au fond diffus cosmologique est de , ce qui correspond à une distance de Hubble de . NGC 5596 a été découverte par l'astronome germano-britannique William Herschel en 1785.

NGC 5596 présente une large raie HI. Selon la base de données Simbad, NGC 5596 est une galaxie de Seyfert de type 2.

À ce jour, deux mesures non basées sur le décalage vers le rouge (redshift) donnent une distance de , ce qui est à l'intérieur des valeurs de la distance de Hubble. Notons cependant que c'est avec la valeur moyenne des mesures indépendantes, lorsqu'elles existent, que la base de données NASA/IPAC calcule le diamètre d'une galaxie et qu'en conséquence le diamètre de NGC 5596 pourrait être d' si on utilisait la distance de Hubble pour le calculer.

Groupe de NGC 5557
Selon Abraham Mahtessian, NGC 5596 fait partie du groupe de NGC 5557, la galaxie la plus brillante de ce groupe. Ce groupe de galaxies compte au moins sept membres. Les six autres galaxies du groupe sont NGC 5529, NGC 5544, NGC 5545, NGC 5557, NGC 5590 et NGC 5589.

A. M. Garcia mentionne aussi ce groupe, mais la galaxie NGC 5529 ne figure pas dans sa liste alors que les six autres y sont.

Notes et références

Voir aussi

Articles connexes
 Liste des objets du New General Catalogue

Liens externes

 NGC 5596 sur le site du professeur C. Seligman

5596
Constellation du Bouvier
Galaxie lenticulaire
Galaxie active
Galaxie de Seyfert
Objet céleste découvert en 1785
Objet céleste découvert par William Herschel

NGC 5596


Die Route nationale 680, kurz N 680 oder RN 680, war eine französische Nationalstraße, die von 1933 bis 1973 in zwei Abschnitten zwischen Brive-la-Gaillarde und Murat verlief. Ihre Gesamtlänge betrug 145 Kilometer. Der Abschnitt zwischen Brive-la-Gaillarde und Saint-Charmant wurde 1973 in die Nationalstraße 121 umgewidmet und 1995 abgestuft.

N 680a

Die Route nationale 680A, kurz N 680A oder RN 680A, war eine französische Nationalstraße und zugleich von 1933 bis 1973 ein Seitenast der Nationalstraße 680, der in Ally von dieser abzweigte und nach Mauriac führte. Ihre Länge betrug 11 Kilometer.

Weblinks

 Route nationale française 680 auf WikiSara ()
 Route nationale française 680A auf WikiSara (französisch)

680

Route nationale 680


Triens Roma Cumhuriyeti döneminde basılmış 1/3 as (4 unciae) değerinde bronz bir Antik Roma sikkesidir. Trien'lerin en bilinen tasarımı ön yüzde tanrıça Minerva büstü ve 4 nokta kabartması (4 unciae'yi işaret eder), arka yüzde ise gemi pruvasıdır. Çok yaygın bir seri değildi ve son olarak MÖ 89' da basılmıştır.

Antik Roma sikkeleri

Triens


Republikken Colombia er et transkontinentalt land, der stort set ligger i nordvest for Sydamerika, med territorier i Nordamerika. Colombia grænser mod nordvest ved Panama; mod øst af Venezuela og Brasilien; mod syd ved Ecuador og Peru; og det deler maritime grænser med Costa Rica, Nicaragua, Honduras, Jamaica, Den Dominikanske Republik og Haiti. Colombia er den 26. største nation i verden og det fjerde største land i Sydamerika efter Brasilien, Argentina og Peru. På trods af sit store territorium er Colombiens befolkning ikke ensartet fordelt, med de fleste colombianere, der bor i den bjergrige vestlige del af landet såvel som den nordlige kyst, de fleste bor i eller nær hovedstaden Bogotá. De sydlige og østlige dele af landet er for det meste sparsomt beboede tropiske regnskove og indenlandske tropiske sletter, der indeholder store ejendomme eller store husdyrbrug, olie- og gasproduktionsfaciliteter, små landbrugsgrupper og indfødte stammer.

Areal
 Areal
 Totalt: 1,138,910 km2
 Land: 1,038,700 km2
 Vand: 100,210 km2

Ekstern henvisning

Colombias geografi


Rear Admiral Sir Horace Lambert Alexander Hood,  (2 October 1870 – 31 May 1916) was a Royal Navy admiral of the First World War, whose lengthy and distinguished service saw him engaged in operations around the world, frequently participating in land campaigns as part of a shore brigade. His early death at the Battle of Jutland in the destruction of his flagship  was met with mourning and accolades from across Britain.

Hood was a youthful, vigorous and active officer whose service in Africa won him the Distinguished Service Order and who was posthumously appointed a Knight Commander of the Order of the Bath in recognition of his courageous and ultimately fatal service in the Battle of Jutland, during which his ship was constantly engaged from its arrival at the action and caused fatal damage to a German light cruiser. He has been described as "the beau ideal of a naval officer, spirited in manner, lively of mind, enterprising, courageous, handsome, and youthful in appearance … His lineage was pure Royal Navy, at its most gallant".

Early career
Horace Hood was descended from one of the most influential and experienced navy lines, being a great-great-grandson of Admiral Samuel Hood, 1st Viscount Hood, who won numerous actions against the French in the American Revolutionary War and the French Revolutionary Wars. His father was Francis Wheler Hood, 4th Viscount Hood and his mother Edith Lydia Drummond Ward. Born in South Street, London, Hood joined the Royal Navy aged 12, attending  cadet training ship at Dartmouth in 1882. Graduating top of his class in September 1885, Hood joined  as a midshipman and served on her for a year in the Mediterranean Squadron before joining . In 1887 he was attached to , a small cruiser which sailed for the Pacific Ocean. It was aboard her that Hood experienced the Samoan Hurricane in which Calliope was the only survivor of seven foreign warships in Apia Harbour.

African service
Hood gained a record score in his exam for lieutenant, and qualified first time. He served in  for a time before taking three years out to study gunnery and staff duties. On his return to sea, he spent brief periods aboard , ,  and . He performed well at these duties and, in 1897, was recommended to the Egyptian government, which provided him with a Nile gunboat to command on the Nile Expedition of 1898 in the Mahdist War. During these operations, Hood was conspicuous in his duty as second-in-command to Captain David Beatty and saw action for the first time, providing artillery support at the Battle of Atbara and Battle of Omdurman. For his services in these operations, he was promoted to commander, skipping the intermediate rank.

During the Second Boer War, Hood was given command of transport ships taking supplies to South Africa. He was later transferred to Admiral Lord Charles Beresford's flagship  in the Mediterranean from 9 September 1901. Promoted to captain on 1 January 1903, ha was in July that year placed in command of , flagship of Admiral George Atkinson-Willes on the East Indies Station. In April 1904, Hood was given his first independent command as he led a force of 754 sailors, marines and soldiers of the Hampshire Regiment against the Ilig Dervishes of Somaliland. Landing his men on an opposed beach in the dark, Hood led from the front, personally engaging in hand-to-hand combat and driving the dervishes into the hinterland, for which he was awarded the Distinguished Service Order.

Distinguished by his action, Hood was given command of the armoured cruiser  in 1906 and the following year was made naval attaché to the British Embassy in Washington D.C. It was there he met Ellen Touzalin Nickerson, a widowed mother, whom he married in 1910. The couple had two sons, Samuel Hood, 6th Viscount Hood (1910–1981) and Alexander Lambert Hood, 7th Viscount Hood (1914–1999). In 1908, Hood was given command of the pre-dreadnought battleship , in which he served for a year before receiving a shore appointment to command the Royal Naval College, Osborne, where he stayed until 1913 when he was raised to flag rank. For three months Hood raised his flag in the dreadnought battleship  before becoming Naval Secretary to the First Lord of the Admiralty, Winston Churchill, in July 1914.

First World War

At the outbreak of the First World War, Hood's experience with coastal operations recommended him to serve with a small flotilla of s on the Belgian coast, bombarding German positions and troop formations during the Siege of Antwerp and then the Battle of the Yser, assisting Belgian forces to hold the coastline during the Race for the Sea.

Later in the year, Hood became Commander-in-Chief, Dover and commander of the Dover Patrol, tasked with preventing German ships and submarines passing through. He was transferred to command of Force E at Queenstown by orders of Churchill and Fisher, for his perceived failure to do this as submarines continued to pass the Channel to threaten shipping in the Irish Sea. Force E consisted of obsolete cruisers and boarding vessels whose task was to patrol the area south west of Ireland to give instructions to arriving merchant vessels and guard against attacks by armed merchantmen. In February their operating area had been moved 200 miles further west as they were considered in themselves to be tempting targets for submarines. After his transfer, intelligence reports based on intercepted messages from German submarines showed that they had indeed had extreme difficulty passing the Channel, and as a result their orders were changed to travel around Scotland instead. Before Churchill was replaced as First Lord he corrected his mistake by appointing Hood to command of the 3rd Battlecruiser Squadron operating out of Rosyth in Scotland. Hood's command was the three battlecruisers of the : ,  and his flagship .

In late May 1916 came the only opportunity for the British battlefleet to engage the German main force at the Battle of Jutland. Hood's squadron was attached to Jellicoe's main battlefleet and thus had not witnessed the destruction of two British battlecruisers at the guns of their German counterparts. Arriving as the action was well underway but ahead of the main fleet by advantage of their greater speed, Hood's force's first action was to rescue the light cruiser , which had been separated from the main fleet to provide a signal relay but was then ambushed by four German cruisers and was in danger of sinking. Hood's timely arrival scattered the German ships and caused fatal damage to , which sank later that night with 589 of her crew.

Hood's intervention had far greater effects than were realised at the time however. In diverting his squadron to the North-West to aid Chester, Hood had inadvertently confused the German battlecruiser commander Admiral Hipper into believing that the main British force was approaching from the North-West and prompting his withdrawal to the main German fleet, an act which has been claimed saved the British battlecruiser fleet from destruction. Hood meanwhile attached his squadron to the British battlecruiser squadron of Admiral Beatty and with them formed the vanguard of the British battlefleet, which was now heading directly for the approaching Germans.

Destruction of HMS Invincible

The vanguards of the battlefleets, made up of battlecruisers and smaller ships, collided just before 18.00. The German fleet, possessing better gunnery and range-finding equipment, had the better of the early exchanges; , an old armoured cruiser which was the flagship of Rear-Admiral Sir Robert Arbuthnot, was blown up with all 903 hands, and the fast battleship  was badly damaged and forced to limp back to Britain. Hood's squadron was heavily engaged, Invincible facing the combined batteries of  and  and inflicting damage on Lützow, which would force her abandonment and scuttling during the night. At this, Hood called through the voicepipe to the gunnery officer, "Keep firing as quickly as possible. You are doing splendidly; every shot is telling." The combination of the two ships proved too much for Hood's flagship, however, and a shell from Derfflinger penetrated the "Q" turret of Invincible, the same mortal wound which had destroyed  a few hours before and almost claimed .

The unstable cordite ammunition carried by Invincible, coupled with the weakness of her turret design and armour, resulted in a catastrophic explosion from "Q" turret's magazine, which blew the ship in half. The ship's remains sank rapidly, settling on the shallow bottom while the bow and stern protruded from the sea. Of Invincibles crew of 1,021, there were just six survivors, pulled from the water by attendant destroyers. Hood was not amongst them. The Battle of Jutland was ultimately an expensive stalemate; both sides suffered further losses during the night action but the strategic situation remained unchanged. The Royal Navy had suffered over 6,000 fatal casualties, three times the German losses, but remained in control of the North Sea while the High Seas Fleet was forced to retire to harbour.

Remembrance
As with his lost shipmates, Hood's body was never recovered and remains in the wreckage of HMS Invincible at the bottom of the North Sea. The wreck is now a protected war grave, although it has suffered from the attentions of looters. Hood's name, with all those lost on Invincible, is inscribed on the Portsmouth War Memorial administered by the Commonwealth War Graves Commission. Admiral Hood was posthumously appointed a Knight Commander of the Order of the Bath. He had previously been made a Member of the Royal Victorian Order. His collected papers were donated by his family, with those of his ancestor Samuel Hood, to the Churchill Archives Centre in 1967. In 1918, Hood's widow was asked to launch the ill-fated battlecruiser , named after Horace Hood's ancestor, which was lost in the Second World War fighting the . She was sunk with the loss of 1,415 hands when a shell detonated an after magazine. Hood's name is inscribed on the War Memorial at St Botolph's Church, Barton Seagrave, Northamptonshire.

Notes

References

|-

1870 births
1916 deaths
Graduates of Britannia Royal Naval College
British military personnel killed in World War I
Captains and Commandants of the Royal Naval College, Osborne
Royal Navy personnel of the Mahdist War
Companions of the Distinguished Service Order
Knights Commander of the Order of the Bath
Members of the Royal Victorian Order
Royal Navy admirals of World War I
British military personnel of the Fourth Somaliland Expedition
Horace
Younger sons of viscounts
Military personnel from London
People from Barton Seagrave

Horace Hood


Kollsbók (Codex Guelferbytanus 42.7 Augusteus quarto) er íslenskt skinnhandrit frá 15. öld. Þetta handrit hefur að geyma elsta safn íslenskra rímna frá miðöldum og er það mikilvægasta ásamt Staðarhólsbók rímna. Ólafur Halldórsson handritafræðingur (1920-2013) hefur aldursgreint handritið og telur að það hafi verið skrifað einhvern tímann á árunum 1480-1490. Handritið er nefnt eftir Jóni kolli Oddssyni (um 1450 - eftir 1540) lögréttumanni í Holti í Saurbæ (Dalasýsl. Vesturl.) fyrsta eiganda handritsins. Handritið komst síðar í eigu Augusts hins yngra, hertoga yfir Braunschweig-Lüneburg-Wolfenbüttel, eins mesta bókasafnara í Evrópu á 17. öld.

Rímur þær, sem munu hafa verið í Kollsbók frá öndverðu, voru að öllum líkindum allar ortar á 15. öld. Talið er þó að elstu rímur handritsins séu Geiplur, ortar laust eftir árið 1400, en yngstu rímurnar Mábilar rímur. Grettis rímur þær, sem eru í Kollsbók, eru hvergi varðveittar annars staðar. Kollsbók hefur ekki varðveist heil og mörg blöð hafa glatast úr henni.

Kollsbók er nú varðveitt í bókasafni Augusts hertoga í Wolfenbüttel í Þýskalandi og líklegt þykir að handritið muni dvelja þar um ókomna framtíð.

Efni Kollsbókar
Í Kollsbók hafa í upphafi verið tuttugu rímnaflokkar (samkvæmt efnisyfirliti handritsins sem hefur varðveist) en þar sem upphaf Kollsbókar vantar hafa fjórir af þessum rímnaflokkum glatast.

Glötuðu rímur (rímnaflokkar) Kollsbókar eru:

 Reinalds rímur. Þær hafa varðveist að hluta í Staðarhólsbók rímna, Hólsbók en þær hafa varðveist heilar í nokkrum pappírshandritum.
 Skáld-Helga rímur. Þær hafa varðveist heilar í Staðarhólsbók rímna, Hólsbók og fleiri pappírshandritum.
 Andra rímur fornu. Níu rímur Andra rímna hafa varðveist í Staðarhólsbók rímna, tvær rímur til viðbótar Hólsbók (AM 603 4to) og tvær til viðbótar í handritinu Holm Perg 4to nr. 23.
 Óþekktur rímnaflokkur tveggja rímna sem hefur að öllum líkindum glatast með öllu.

Varðveittar rímur (rímnaflokkar) Kollsbókar:

 Sigurðar rímur fóts. Sex rímur alls.
 Skikkju rímur. Þrír rímur alls.
 Ormars rímur. Fjórir rímur alls.
 Áns rímur bogsveigis. Átta rímur alls.
 Geðraunir (Hrings rímur og Tryggva). Ellefu rímur alls.
 Geiraðs rímur. Átta rímur alls.
 Konráðs rímur. Sex rímur alls en hafa í upphafi verið átta sbr. önnur handrit. Í Kollsbók vantar rímu VI og VIII.
 Ólafs rímur Tryggvasonar af Svöldrarorrustu (Svöldrar rímur fornu). Fimm rímur alls.
 Griplur (Hrómundar rímur Gripssonar). Fjórir rímur alls en hafa í upphafi verið sex sbr. önnur handrit. Í Kollsbók vantar rímur I og II.
 Ektors rímur. Ellefu rímur alls en hafa í upphafi verið tólf, sbr. Staðarhólsbók rímna. Í Kollsbók vantar rímu VIII.
 Filipó rímur (Krítarþáttur). Átta rímur alls.
 Sálus rímur og Níkanórs. Átta rímur alls.
 Herburts rímur. Fjórar rímur alls.
 Geiplur. Fjórar rímur alls en hafa í upphafi verið sex að tölu. Í Kollsbók vantar rímur II og III.
 Grettis rímur. Átta rímur alls.
 Mábilar rímur. Níu rímur alls. Vantar tíundu rímuna sem mun vera yngsta ríman. Hún er varðveitt í yngri pappírshandritum.

Rannsóknir og útgáfur

 Ólafur Halldórsson. 1964. Kollsbók. Handritastofnun Íslands, Reykjavík.

Tenglar

 Rímur

Heimildir
Rímur

íslensk handrit

Kollsbók


Softver SnatchBot besplatan je alat za izradu chatbota na temelju oblaka, osmišljen za društvene mreže.

Povijest
SnatchBot, koji su 2015. godine osnovali Henri Ben Ezra i Avi Ben Ezra, jedna je od novih tehnoloških tvrtki koje dolaze iz Herzliya Pituacha u Izraelu.

U srpnju 2017. godine, Snatchbot je sponzorirao Chatbot Summit održan u Berlinu, Njemačka. U prosincu 2017. više od 30 milijuna krajnjih korisnika imalo je chatbotove izgrađene na platformi SnatchBot.

Usluge
SnatchBot pomaže korisnicima u izgradnji botova za Facebook Messenger, Skype, Slack, SMS, Twitter i druge platforme društvenih mreža. SnatchBot također pruža besplatne modele za natural language processing (obrada prirodnog jezika). Zajedno s tvrtkinim alatima za machine learning (strojno učenje), platforma omogućuje stvaranje chatbotova koji mogu analizirati namjere korisnika.

Pogledajte također
Chatbot

Izvori

Računalni programi

SnatchBot


Aceasta este o listă de regizori de film sloveni:

A
 Vojko Anzeljc
 Vinci Vogue Anžlovar
 Franc Arko

B
 Jože Babič
 Metod Badjura
 Milka Badjura
 Matjaž Berger
 Jože Bevc
 Boris Bezić
 Valo Bratina
 Jure Breceljnik
 Matjaž Brumen
 Franjo Bučar
 Janez Burger
 Ivica Buljan

C
 Boris Cavazza
 Franci Cegnar
 Jože Cegnar
 Marjan Ciglič
 Jan Cvitkovič

Č
 František Čap
 Tadej Čater

D
 Anton Danilo
 Avgusta Danilova
 Vera Danilova
 Polde Dežman
 Saša Dobrila
 Janez Drozg
 Klemen Dvornik
 Vojko Duletič

E
 Milan Erič

F
 Matjaž Farič

G
 Jože Gale
 Nejc Gazvoda
 Maruša Geymayer-Oblak
 Karpo Godina
 Milan Golob
 Mirko Grobler

H
 Andrej Hieng
 Boštjan Hladnik
 Meta Hočevar
 Sebastijan Horvat
 Jasna Hribernik
 Emil Hrvatin

I
 Rudolf Inemann
 Jaka Ivanc
 Matjaž Ivanišin

J
 Ven Jemeršić
 France Jamnik

 Tomi Janežič
 Alen Jelen
 Dušan Jovanović
 Boris Jurjaševič

K
 Haidy Kancler
 Jane Kavčič
 Matjaž Klopčič
 Aleksander Kogoj
 Herman Kokove
 Ivan Konda
 Mile Korun
 France Kosmač
 Andrej Košak
 Just Košuta
 Zora Košuta
 Damjan Kozole
 Mirč Kragelj
 Bratko Kreft
 Nataša Krhen
 Saša Kump
 Martin Kušej

L
 Janez Lapajne
 Primož Lazar
 Igor Likar
 Milan Ljubić
 Matija Logar
 Jernej Lorenci
 Matevž Luzar
 Matjaž Latin

M
 Edi Majaron
 Luka Marčetič
 Marjan Marinc
 Rene Maurin
 Andrej Mlakar
 Dušan Mlakar
 Varja Močnik
 Vinko Möderndorfer
 Viktor Molka
 Bogdan Mrovlje
 Miki Muster

N
 Marko Naberšnik
 Barbara Novakovič Kolenc
 Mitja Novljan
 Tomo Novosel

O
 Mitja Okorn

P
 Boris Palčič
 Tomaž Pandur
 Igor Pediček
 Katja Pegan
 Jure Pervanje
 Žarko Petan
 Metod Pevec
 Janez Pipan
 Sašo Podgoršek
 Jože Pogačnik
 Matjaž Pograjc
 Branko Potočan
 Dušan Povh
 Robert Prebil
 Rado Pregarc
 Igor Pretnar
 Aiken Veronika Prosenc

R
 Rajko Ranfl
 Vili Ravnjak
 Janko Ravnik
 Vlado G. Repnik
 Filip Robar Dorin

S

 Mako Sajko
 Kolja Saksida
 Petra Seliškar
 Polona Sepe
 Franci Slak
 Jurij Souček
 Danijel Sraka
 Andrej Stopar
 Alojz Stražar
 Bojan Stupica

Š
 Zvone Šedlbauer
 Osip Šest
 Igor Šmid
 Božo Šprajc
 Igor Šterk
 France Štiglic
 Tugo Štiglic
 Tomaž Štrucl

T
 Vito Taufer
 Uroš Trefalt
 Anton Tomašič
 Iztok Tory
 Gregor Tozon
 Martin Turk

V
 Sergej Verč

W

 Robert Waltl
 Maja Weiss
 Hanna Antonina Wojcik-Slak

Z
 Helena Zajc
 Jan Zakonjšek
 Barbara Zemljič
 Tijana Zinajić
 Damir Zlatar Frey
 Miran Zupanič
 Zdravko Zupančič
 Matjaž Zupančič

Ž
 Dragan Živadinov
 Fran Žižek

Vezi și
 Listă de regizori de film
 Listă de actori sloveni

sloveni
regizori
 Listă
Cinematografia slovenă

Listă de regizori sloveni


Buenas obras es un llamamiento para todo el cristiano a vivir la fe y el mandato de Jesucristo, pues, según varias confesiones cristianas, todos seremos juzgados por nuestras obras practicadas.

Orígenes
De hecho, es el propio Jesús que dice: «no todo aquel que me dice "Señor, Señor" entrará en el Reino de los Cielos, pero aquel que practica la voluntad de mi Padre que está en los cielos» (Mt 7, 21). A pesar de San Pablo defiende «que el hombre es justificado por la fe» (Ro 3, 28 - 31), el afirma también que «Dios retribuirá a cada uno según sus obras» (Ro 2, 6). Sobre este asunto, Santiago dice también que «el hombre es justificado por las obras y por la fe» (Snt 2, 24), o entonces "por las obras que nacen de la fe, porque la «fe sin obras está muerta» (Snt 2, 17)".

Jesús manda a sus creyentes, que son «la luz del mundo», que brillen «brillen del mismo modo a vuestra luz delante de los hombres, para que, viendo las vuestras buenas obras, glorifiquen vuestro Padre que está en los cielos» (Mt 5, 14-16). Con esto, se puede concluir que "el hombre debe dar gloria a Dios en la tierra a través de sus obras. Pudiendo hacer obras, y no haciéndolas, peca el hombre contra Dios y no se justifica por la Fe, visto que su Fe está muerta al no producir los frutos esperados".

Luego, "el hombre es salvo por las buenas obras nacidas de la fe", porque "solo una fe viva puede dar la vida", siendo por eso la práctica de ellas un instrumento necesario para la salvación, principalmente para la obtención de las indulgencias. Por eso, la Iglesia católica defiende que todos los pecadores que desean ser salvos y que todavía tienen fe "deben pedir perdón de sus pecados, cambiar de vida" e intentar practicar, con fe, las buenas obras, tal como nos manda Nuestro Señor: "Ve y ¡no peques más!". De hecho, San Pablo se rebeló contra la vida pecaminosa de aquellos que tienen fe, diciendo: «¿Que diremos entonces? ¿Que debemos permanecer en el pecado a fin de que la gracia alcance su plenitud? ¡De modo alguno!»(Rm 6, 1-2).

Catolicismo
Según la doctrina católica, las buenas obras más perfectas y por eso más usadas para juzgar el católico o cristiano en el día de su Juicio particular son las obras de misericordia. Estas obras, que, en total son catorce, tienen como finalidad socorrer "el nuestro próximo en sus necesidades corporales o espirituales". Ellas son por lo tanto divididas, dependiendo de su naturaleza, en dos grupos:

 Las obras de misericordia corporales, que son siete:
 Dar de comer a quien tiene hambre;
 Dar de beber a quien tiene sed;
 Vestir a los desnudos;
 Dar posada a los peregrinos;
 Asistir a los enfermos;
 Visitar los presos;
 Enterrar los muertos.

 Las obras de misericordia espirituales, que también son siete:
 Dar buen consejo;
 Enseñar a los ignorantes;
 Corregir a los que se equivocan;
 Consolar a los afligidos;
 Perdonar las injurias;
 Sufrir con paciencia las debilidades de nuestro prójimo;
 ''Rogar a Dios.

El católico experimenta la caridad de forma definitiva. Se inicia en esta desde el hogar, por la forma en que se trata a la pareja, a los padres, a los pequeños, a los hermanos, y todos los familiares, incluyendo a los vecinos; poniendo en práctica estas obras de misericordia que le permiten a su vez. Las buenas obras son particularmente recomendadas a los católicos durante el período anual de la Cuaresma.

Cristianismo evangélico
Según la teología evangélica, las buenas obras son la consecuencia de la salvación y no su justificación. Son un signo de fe sincera y agradecida. Incluyen acciones para la Gran Comisión, es decir, evangelismo, servicio en  Iglesia y la caridad. Serán recompensados con la gracia de Dios en el juicio final.

Véase también

 Cristianismo
 Salvación y Justificación
 Caridad (virtud)

Referencias

Teología cristiana

Buenas obras


Gassendi may refer to:

People
 Pierre Gassendi (1592–1655), French philosopher, scientist and mathematician
  (1748–1828), French Army general and politician
  or Gassendi (1749–1806), French priest and politician

Other
 Gassendi (crater), a large crater on the Moon named after Pierre Gassendi

Gassendi


Eric Daniel Djemba-Djemba (Douala, Camerún, 4 de mayo de 1981), es un ex-futbolista camerunés, se desempeñaba como centrocampista

Selección nacional

Ha sido internacional con la Selección de fútbol de Camerún, ha jugado 24 partidos internacionales y ha anotado 2 goles.

Participaciones en Copas del Mundo

Clubes

Referencias

Enlaces externos

Futbolistas de Camerún en la Copa Mundial de 2002
Futbolistas de Camerún en la Copa FIFA Confederaciones 2003
Futbolistas del Football Club de Nantes
Futbolistas del Manchester United Football Club
Futbolistas del Aston Villa Football Club
Futbolistas del Burnley Football Club
Futbolistas del Qatar Sports Club
Futbolistas del Odense BK
Futbolistas del Hapoel Tel Aviv
Nacidos en Duala

Eric Djemba-Djemba


O Voo Indian Airlines 605 foi um voo doméstico regular de passageiros de Bombaim para Bangalore. Em 14 de fevereiro de 1990, o Airbus A320-231 registrado como VT-EPN, caiu em um campo de golfe enquanto tentava pousar em Bangalore, matando 92 das 146 pessoas a bordo.

A equipe de investigação indiana decidiu que a causa provável era os pilotos selecionando o modo de controle "Descida aberta/faleira ociosa" ao invés de "Captura de planador", permitindo que a aeronave descesse muito abaixo da rota de voo correta. Eles ainda não conseguiram avançar os aceleradores ou puxar para cima mesmo após as chamadas de rádio de altitude, quando a aeronave se aproximava do pouso. O relatório afirmava que a tripulação do voo 605 não estava ciente da situação e do perigo que enfrentava na época, resultando em reação retardada durante a descida. Após o acidente, o comitê de investigação indiano emitiu 62 recomendações à Direção Geral de Aviação Civil da Índia (DGCA), incluindo um registro de tempo nas fitas do controlador de tráfego aéreo (ATC) e a formação de vários comitês de investigação especializados em várias questões operacionais de aviação. Incluída na recomendação estava a adição de uma sirene de impacto em Bangalore, avaliação das portas de evacuação e corrediças nos aviões Airbus, e uma mudança de projeto em seu botão de instrumento. O relatório também exortou o governo a avaliar cada aeroporto na Índia para evitar a ocorrência de incidentes similares.

O acidente atraiu críticas entre a Associação de Piloto Comercial da Índia (ICPA), que alegou que o Airbus A320 apresentava graves falhas. Eles alegaram que os sistemas da aeronave eram muito confusos e que a tripulação do voo 605 estava lutando para evitar o acidente.

Outro acidente com o A320 menos de dois anos depois (que ocorreu em circunstâncias similares) levou a melhorias no projeto da unidade de controle de voo e numerosas recomendações de segurança.

Ver também
 Voo Air Inter 148
 Voo Air France 296

Acidentes e incidentes envolvendo o Airbus A320

Voo Indian Airlines 605