Vladimir Konstantinovich Bukovsky (; 30 December 1942 – 27 October 2019) was a Russian-born British human rights activist and writer. From the late 1950s to the mid-1970s, he was a prominent figure in the Soviet dissident movement, well known at home and abroad. He spent a total of twelve years in the psychiatric prison-hospitals, labour camps, and prisons of the Soviet Union during Brezhnev rule.

After being expelled from the Soviet Union in late 1976, Bukovsky remained in vocal opposition to the Soviet system and the shortcomings of its successor regimes in Russia. An activist, a writer, and a neurophysiologist, he is celebrated for his part in the campaign to expose and halt the political abuse of psychiatry in the Soviet Union.

A member of the international advisory council of the Victims of Communism Memorial Foundation, a director of the Gratitude Fund (set up in 1998 to commemorate and support former dissidents), and a member of the International Council of the New York City-based Human Rights Foundation, Bukovsky was a Senior Fellow of the Cato Institute in Washington, D.C.

In 2001, Vladimir Bukovsky received the Truman-Reagan Medal of Freedom, awarded annually since 1993 by the Victims of Communism Memorial Foundation.

In 2015 he was prosecuted in the United Kingdom on the charge of possession of child pornography, but became ill and died before the case went to trial.

Early life
Vladimir Bukovsky was born to Russian parents in the town of Belebey in the Bashkir Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic (today the Republic of Bashkortostan in the Russian Federation), to which his family was evacuated during World War II. After the war he and his parents returned to Moscow where his father Konstantin (1908–1976) was a well-known Soviet journalist. During his last year at school Vladimir was expelled for creating and editing an unauthorised magazine. To meet the requirements to apply for a university place he completed his secondary education at evening classes. Bukovsky was enrolled at Moscow State University for biology but was kicked out at age 19, having criticised the Komsomol, i.e., the Young Communist League.

Soviet-era activism

Rallies

Mayakovsky Square
In September 1960, Bukovsky entered Moscow University to study biology. There he and some friends decided to revive the informal Mayakovsky Square poetry readings which began after a statue to the poet was unveiled in central Moscow in 1958. They made contact with earlier participants of the readings such as Vladimir Osipov, the editor of Boomerang (1960), and Yuri Galanskov who issued the Phoenix (1961), two examples of literary samizdat.

It was then that the 19-year-old Bukovsky wrote his critical notes on the Communist Youth League or Komsomol. Later, this text was given the title "Theses on the Collapse of the Komsomol" by the KGB. Bukovsky portrayed the USSR as an "illegal society" facing an acute ideological crisis. The Komsomol was "moribund", he asserted, having lost both moral and spiritual authority, and he called for its democratisation. This text, and his other activities, brought Bukovsky to the attention of the authorities. He was interrogated twice before being thrown out of the university in autumn 1961.

Bukovsky was arrested on 1 June 1963. He was later convicted, in absentia, by reason of his "insanity", under Article 70.1 ("Anti-Soviet agitation and propaganda") of the RSFSR Criminal Code. The official charge was the making and possession of photocopies of anti-Soviet literature, namely two copies of the banned work The New Class by Milovan Djilas. Bukovsky was examined by Soviet psychiatrists, declared to be mentally ill ("schizophrenia"), and sent for treatment at the Special Psychiatric Hospital in Leningrad where he remained for almost two years, until February 1965. It was there he became acquainted with General Petro Grigorenko, a fellow inmate.

The Glasnost rally, 5 December 1965
In December 1965, Bukovsky helped prepare a demonstration on Pushkin Square in central Moscow to protest against the trial of the writers Andrei Sinyavsky and Yuli Daniel. He circulated the "Civic Appeal" by mathematician and poet Alexander Esenin-Volpin, which called on the authorities to obey the Soviet laws requiring glasnost in the judicial process, e.g. the admission of the public and the media to any trial. The demonstration on 5 December 1965 (Constitution Day) became known as the Glasnost Meeting or rally, and marked the beginning of the openly active Soviet civil rights movement.

Bukovsky himself was unable to attend. Three days earlier he was arrested, charged with distributing the appeal, and kept in various psikhushkas, among them Hospital No 13 at Lublino, Stolbovaya and the Serbsky Institute, until July 1966.

The Right to Demonstrate, 1967
On 22 January 1967, Bukovsky, Vadim Delaunay, Yevgeny Kushev and Victor Khaustov held another demonstration on Pushkin Square. They were protesting against the recent arrests of Alexander Ginzburg, Yuri Galanskov, Alexei Dobrovolsky and Vera Lashkova (finally prosecuted in January 1968 in the Trial of the Four) and asserting their own right to protest: on 16 September 1966 a new law, Article 190.3, had been introduced which classified any public gatherings or demonstrations as a crime.

On 1 September 1967, at his own trial, Bukovsky used his final words to attack the regime's failure to respect the law or follow legal procedures. He invoked Article 125 of the (still current) 1936 Soviet Constitution to defend the right to organise demonstrations and other public protests. He further suggested that the prosecution had repeatedly failed to observe the revised 1961 Code of Criminal Procedure in its conduct of the case. Bukovsky's final words in court circulated widely in a samizdat collection of such addresses and as part of a collection of materials about the demonstration and subsequent trials compiled by Pavel Litvinov.

Fellow protestors Vadim Delaunay and Yevgeny Kushev admitted regret for their actions but not their guilt; they received suspended sentences and were released. Bukovsky was defiant and, like fellow demonstrator Victor Khaustov (convicted in February 1967), was given three years in an "ordinary regime" corrective-labour camp. Bukovsky was sent to Bor in the Voronezh Region to serve his sentence. He was released in January 1970.

The Campaign against the Abuse of Psychiatry

In the 1960s and 1970s, the Soviet authorities began the widespread use of psychiatric treatment as a form of punishment and deterrence for the independent-minded. This involved unlimited detention in a psikhushka, as such places were popularly known, which might be conventional psychiatric hospitals or psychiatric prison-hospitals set up (e.g. the Leningrad Special Psychiatric Hospital) as part of an existing penal institution. Healthy individuals were held among mentally ill and often dangerous patients; they were forced to take various psychotropic drugs; they might also be incarcerated in prison-type institutions under overall control of the KGB.

During a clandestine interview filmed by CBS News correspondent  Bill Cole in a forest near Moscow, Bukovsky described how the Soviet government was committing political dissidents to mental institutions and subjecting them to drug treatments.

That interview along with interviews with Andrei Amalrik and Pyotr Yakir were smuggled out of the country by Canadian diplomats and aired in 1970 in the CBS News special report "Voices from the Soviet Underground."
In 1971, Bukovsky managed to smuggle to the West over 150 pages further documenting the political abuse of psychiatric institutions in the Soviet Union. In a letter addressed to "Western psychiatrists" and written in a deliberately restrained tone, Bukovsky asked them to consider if the evidence justified the isolation of several dissidents, and urged them to discuss the matter at the next International Congress of Psychiatrists.

The documents were released to the press in March 1971 by a small French group called the International Committee for the Defence of Human Rights. Bukovsky's letter appeared on 12 March in The Times (London) and later in the British Journal of Psychiatry Bukovsky was arrested on 29 March and held in custody for nine months before being put on trial in January 1972.

The information Bukovsky had gathered and sent to the West galvanised human rights activists worldwide and those within the Soviet Union. It also struck a chord among psychiatrists. In September that year 44 European psychiatrists wrote to The Times (London) expressing grave doubts about the diagnoses of the six people concerned. At a meeting in November 1971, the World Federation for Mental Health called on its members to investigate the charges and defend the right to free opinion where it was threatened. These responses were carefully documented by the dissident human rights periodical Chronicle of Current Events, which also recorded the many statements made by Bukovsky's friends and fellow rights activists in his defence. As the person at the centre of this unprecedented international row, Bukovsky waited in almost total isolation, without access to a lawyer, to be tried and sent to the camps or a special psychiatric hospital.

Responding to public pressure, the World Psychiatric Association finally condemned Soviet practices at its Sixth World Congress in 1977 and set up a review committee to monitor misuse. In 1983, the Soviet representatives withdrew from the World Psychiatric Association rather than face expulsion. Bukovsky later characterised this reaction as "the most important victory for the dissident form of glasnost".

Final arrest (1971) and imprisonment
Following the release of the documents, Bukovsky was denounced in Pravda as a "malicious hooligan, engaged in anti-Soviet activities" and arrested on 29 March 1971. At first held in Lefortovo Prison, in August, Bukovsky spent approximately three months in the Serbsky Institute, which this time pronounced him mentally sound and able to stand trial.

During the trial in January 1972 Bukovsky was accused of slandering Soviet psychiatry, contacts with foreign journalists, and the possession and distribution of samizdat. On this occasion he again used his final words to the court to reach a much wider audience when the text circulated in samizdat. He was sentenced to two years in prison, five in a labour camp, and five more in internal exile.

While in prison Bukovsky and his fellow inmate, the psychiatrist Semyon Gluzman, wrote a brief 20-page Manual on Psychiatry for Dissidents, which was widely published abroad, in Russian (1975) and in many other languages, including  English, French, Italian, German, and Danish. It instructed potential victims of political psychiatry how to behave during interrogation to avoid being diagnosed as mentally ill.

Deportation from the USSR (1976)

The fate of Bukovsky and other political prisoners in the Soviet Union had been repeatedly brought to world attention by Western diplomats and human rights groups such as the relatively new Amnesty International formed in 1961.

In December 1976, Bukovsky was deported from the USSR and exchanged at Zürich airport by the Soviet government for the imprisoned general secretary of the Communist Party of Chile, Luis Corvalán. In his 1978 autobiography Bukovsky describes how he was brought to Switzerland in handcuffs. The widely publicised exchange increased public awareness in the West about Soviet dissidents. A fellow dissident, Vadim Delaunay wrote an epigram on the occasion:

They exchanged a hooligan
For one Luis Corvalan.
Now we need to find a bitch
To exchange her for Ilyich

In March 1977, US President Jimmy Carter met with Bukovsky at the White House. In the USSR the meeting was seen by dissidents and rights activists as a sign of the newly elected president's willingness to stress human rights in his foreign policy; the event provoked harsh criticism by Soviet leaders.

Bukovsky moved to Great Britain where he settled in Cambridge and resumed his studies in biology, disrupted fifteen years earlier (see above) by his expulsion from Moscow University.

Life in the West
Bukovsky gained a master's degree in Biology at Cambridge University. He also wrote and published To Build a Castle: My Life as a Dissenter (1978). (The title in Russian, And the Wind Returns ..., is a Biblical allusion.) The book was translated into English, French and German. It was published in Russian the following year by Chalidze publishers in New York. Today the Russian original is available online via a number of websites.

Since he has lived in the West, Bukovsky has written many essays and polemical articles. These not only criticised the Soviet regime and, later, that of Vladimir Putin, but also exposed "Western gullibility" in the face of Soviet abuses and, in some cases, what he believed to be Western complicity in such crimes. In the late 1970s and early 1980s, following the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan, Bukovsky campaigned successfully for an official UK and US boycott of the summer 1980 Olympics in Moscow. During the same years he voiced concern about the activities and policies of the Western peace movements.

In 1983, together with Cuban dissident Armando Valladares, Bukovsky co-founded and was later elected president of Resistance International. The anti-Communist organisation was run from a small office in Paris by Soviet dissidents and emigres, notably Vladimir Maximov and Eduard Kuznetsov. In 1985 it expanded into the American Foundation for Resistance International. Among the prominent members of the board were Albert Jolis and Jeane Kirkpatrick while Midge Decter, Yuri Yarim-Agaev, Richard Perle, Saul Bellow, Robert Conquest and Martin Colman were on the body's advisory committee. The Foundation aimed to be a co-ordinating centre for dissident and democratic movements seeking to overturn communism in Eastern Europe and elsewhere. It organised protests in the communist countries and in the West, and opposed western financial assistance to communist governments. The Foundation also created the National Council to Support Democratic Movements (National Council for Democracy) with the goal of aiding the emergence of democratic rule-of-law governments, and providing assistance with the writing of constitutions and the formation of civil institutions.

In March 1987, Bukovsky and nine other émigré authors (Ernst Neizvestny, Yury Lyubimov, Vasily Aksyonov and Leonid Plyushch among them) caused a furore in the West and then in the Soviet Union itself when they raised doubts about the substance and sincerity of Mikhail Gorbachev's reforms.

Return to the Soviet Union (1991)
In April 1991, Vladimir Bukovsky visited Moscow for the first time since his deportation fifteen years before.

In the run-up to the 1991 presidential election, Boris Yeltsin's campaign team included Bukovsky on their list of potential vice-presidential running-mates. In the end, army officer Alexander Rutskoy, a veteran of the 1979–1989 war in Afghanistan and Hero of the Soviet Union was selected. On 5 December 1991, both of Bukovsky's Soviet-era convictions were annulled by a decree of the RSFSR Supreme Court. The following year President Yeltsin formally restored Bukovsky's Russian citizenship: he had never been deprived of his Soviet citizenship, despite deportation from the country.

Post-Soviet Union activities
British and European psychiatrists assessing the documents on psychiatric abuse released by Bukovsky characterised him in 1971: "The information we have about [Vladimir Bukovsky] suggests that he is the sort of person who might be embarrassing to authorities in any country because he seems unwilling to compromise for convenience and personal comfort, and believes in saying what he thinks in situations which he clearly knows could endanger him. But such people often have much to contribute, and deserve considerable respect."

Soon after the collapse of the Soviet Union Vladimir Bukovsky was again out of favour with the Russian authorities. He supported Yeltsin against the Supreme Soviet in the 1993 Russian constitutional crisis in October that year but criticised the new Constitution of Russia approved two months later, as being designed to ensure a continuation of Yeltsin's power. According to Bukovsky, Yeltsin became a hostage of the security agencies from 1994 onwards, and a restoration of KGB rule was inevitable.

Judgment in Moscow (1995–2019)

In 1992, after the dissolution of the Soviet Union, President Yeltsin's government invited Bukovsky to serve as an expert witness at the trial before the Constitutional Court where Russia's communists were suing Yeltsin for banning their Party and taking its property. The respondent's case was that the CPSU itself had been an unconstitutional organisation. To prepare his testimony, Bukovsky requested and was granted access to a large number of documents from the CPSU Central Committee archives (then reorganised into the Central Depository for Contemporary Documentation or TsKhSD). With the help of a small hand-held scanner and a laptop computer, he managed secretly to make photocopies of many of the documents (some with high security clearance), including KGB reports to the Central Committee. The copies were then smuggled to the West.

Bukovsky hoped that an international tribunal in Moscow might play a similar role to the first Nuremberg Trial (1945–1946) in post-Nazi Germany and help the country begin to overcome the legacy of Communism.

It took several years and a team of assistants to piece together the scanned fragments (many only half a page in width) of the hundreds of documents photocopied by Bukovsky and then, in 1999, to make them available online. Many of the same documents were extensively quoted and cited in Bukovsky's Judgment in Moscow (1995), where he described and analysed what he had uncovered about recent Soviet history and about the relations of the USSR and the CPSU with the West.

The book was soon translated into several languages but did not appear in English for over twenty years. Random House bought the rights to the manuscript, but the publisher, in Bukovsky's words, tried to make the author "rewrite the whole book from the liberal left political perspective." Bukovsky resisted, explaining to the Random House editor that he was "allergic to political censorship" because of "certain peculiarities of my biography". (The contract was subsequently cancelled.).

Meanwhile, the book was published in French as Jugement à Moscou (1995), in Russian (1996) and in certain other Slavic languages: for a time the Polish edition became a best-seller. In 2016, it was published in Italian, by Spirali, with the title Gli archivi segreti di Mosca. An English language translation did not appear in book form until May 2019, five months before the author died.

Potential 1992 mayoral candidacy
In 1992, a group of liberal deputies of the Moscow City Council proposed Bukovsky's candidacy for elections of the new Mayor of Moscow, following the resignation of the previous Mayor, Gavriil Popov. Bukovsky refused the offer, stating that to fulfil the mayor's duties he would need a large team of intellectuals committed to radical reform, and there was a lack of such people in the country. Deputy mayor Yury Luzhkov took over, and ran the city from 1992 to 2010.

Potential 1996 presidential candidacy

In early 1996, a group of Moscow academics, journalists and intellectuals suggested that Vladimir Bukovsky should run for President of Russia as an alternative candidate to both incumbent President Boris Yeltsin and his main challenger Gennady Zyuganov of the Communist Party of the Russian Federation. However, no formal nomination process was initiated.

Memento Gulag
In 2001, Bukovsky was elected President of the Comitatus pro Libertatibus – Comitati per le Libertà – Freedom Committees in Florence, an Italian libertarian organisation which promoted an annual Memento Gulag, or Memorial Day devoted to the Victims of Communism, on 7 November (the anniversary of the Bolshevik Revolution). The Memento Gulag has since been held in Rome, Bucharest, Berlin, La Roche sur Yon and Paris.

Contacts with Boris Nemtsov and the Russian Opposition
In 2002, Boris Nemtsov, former Deputy Prime Minister of Russia who was then an elected member of the State Duma and leader of the Union of Rightist Forces, paid a visit to Bukovsky in Cambridge. He wanted to discuss the strategy of the Russian opposition. It was imperative, Bukovsky told Nemtsov, that Russian liberals adopt an uncompromising stand toward what he saw as the authoritarian government of President Vladimir Putin.

On one of journalist Anna Politkovskaya's frequent visits to Britain she interviewed Vladimir Bukovsky and Boris Berezovsky to provide a "comparative analysis of different waves of political emigration". With Bukovsky, "The Patriarch" as he was called in the published version of her article, she discussed the position of those who had gained political asylum in Britain (Ahmed Zakayev, Alexander Litvinenko), and the attitudes of the UK government of Tony Blair and of the European Parliament to the situation in Chechnya. During their talk Bukovsky expressed disapproval of the way in which Slobodan Milosevic was brought before the Hague tribunal.

In January 2004, with Garry Kasparov, Boris Nemtsov, Vladimir V. Kara-Murza and others, Bukovsky was a co-founder of Committee 2008. This umbrella organisation of the Russian democratic opposition was formed to ensure free and fair elections in 2008 when a successor to Vladimir Putin was elected.

In 2005, Bukovsky was among the prominent dissidents of the 1960s and 1970s (Gorbanevskaya, Sergei Kovalyov, Eduard Kuznetsov, Alexander Podrabinek, Yelena Bonner) who took part in a documentary series by Vladimir Kara-Murza Jr. They Chose Freedom. In 2013 Bukovsky was featured in a documentary series by Natella Boltyanskaya Parallels, Events, People.

In 2009, Bukovsky joined the council of the new Solidarnost coalition which brought together a wide range of extra-parliamentary opposition forces.

Criticism of torture in Abu Ghraib prison (Iraq)
As revelations mounted about the sanctioned torture of captives in the Guantánamo Bay detention camp, Abu Ghraib and the CIA secret prisons, Bukovsky entered the discussion with an uncompromising attack on the official if covert rationalisation of torture. In an 18 December 2005 op-ed in The Washington Post, Bukovsky recounted his experience under torture in Lefortovo prison in 1971. Once commenced, he warned, the inertia of torture was difficult to control, corrupting those who carried it out. "Torture", he wrote, "has historically been an instrument of oppression—not an instrument of investigation or of intelligence gathering." Bukovsky explained:

US President Barack Obama repudiated the Torture Memos on 20 January 2009, two days after taking office.

Criticism of the European Union

In EUSSR, a booklet written with Pavel Stroilov and published in 2004, Bukovsky exposed what he saw as the "Soviet roots of European Integration".  Two years later, in an interview with The Brussels Journal, Bukovsky said he had read confidential documents from secret Soviet files in 1992 which confirmed the existence of a "conspiracy" to turn the European Union into a socialist organisation. The European Union was a "monster", he argued, and it must be destroyed, the sooner the better, "before it develops into a full-fledged totalitarian state". As an expression of his Eurosceptic position Bukovsky was vice-president of The Freedom Association (TFA) in the United Kingdom.

Ten years earlier, Bukovsky sketched some of the ways in which cooperation was secured. Beyond those who were recruited as Soviet agents and consciously worked for the USSR, as he explained in Judgment in Moscow (1995), there were men and women whom the KGB and GRU classified as "agents of influence" and "confidential contacts":

This applied equally, Bukovsky cautioned, to post-Stalin generations of specialists on the USSR and Eastern Europe. They had been subjected to similar pressures and inducements in the 1970s and 1980s:

2008 presidential candidacy
In May 2007, Bukovsky announced his plans to run as candidate for president in the May 2008 Russian presidential election. On 16 December 2007, Bukovsky was officially nominated to run against Dmitry Medvedev and other candidates.The group that nominated Bukovsky as a candidate included Yuri Ryzhov, Vladimir V. Kara-Murza, Alexander Podrabinek, Andrei Piontkovsky, Vladimir Pribylovsky and others. Activists, authors and commentators such as Viktor Shenderovich, Valeriya Novodvorskaya and Lev Rubinstein also favoured Bukovsky.

Responding to pro-Kremlin politicians and commentators who expressed doubt about Bukovsky's electoral prospects, his nominators rejected a number of frequently repeated allegations. In Moscow more than 800 citizens of the Russian Federation nominated Bukovsky for president on 16 December 2007. Bukovsky secured the required number of signatures to register and submitted his application to the Central Election Commission on time, 18 December 2007.

Bukovsky's candidacy received the support of Grigory Yavlinsky, who announced on 14 December 2007 at the Yabloko party conference that he would forgo a campaign of his own and would instead support Bukovsky.

The Action Group in support of Bukovsky's candidacy denied claims by pro-government media that Bukovsky had failed in his campaign to become RF President and in appeals before the RF Constitutional Court.

On 22 December 2007, the Central Electoral Commission turned down Bukovsky's application, on the grounds that (1) he had failed to give information about his activities as a writer when submitting his documents, (2) he was holding a British residence permit, and (3) he had not been living in Russia during the past ten years. Bukovsky appealed against the decision at the RF Supreme Court on 28 December 2007 and, subsequently, before its cassation board on 15 January 2008.

On 30 March 2011, Bukovsky requested the arrest of Mikhail Gorbachev by the British authorities after submitting to Westminster Magistrates' Court materials on crimes against humanity that the former Soviet leader had allegedly committed in the late 1980s and early 1990s.

Crimea, Ukraine, Litvinenko Inquiry (2012–2015)
Bukovsky was among the first 34 signatories of "Putin must go", an online anti-Putin manifesto published on 10 March 2010. In May 2012, Vladimir Putin began his third term as president of the Russian Federation after serving four years as the country's prime minister. The following year, Bukovsky published a collection of interviews in Russia which described Putin and his team as The heirs of Lavrentiy Beria, Stalin's last and most notorious secret police chief.

In March 2014 Russia annexed Crimea after Ukraine had lost control of its government buildings, airports and military bases in Crimea to unmarked soldiers and local pro-Russian militias. The West responded with sanctions targeted at Putin's immediate entourage, and Bukovsky expressed the hope that this would prove the end of his regime.

In October 2014, the Russian authorities declined to issue Bukovsky with a new foreign-travel passport. The Russian Foreign Ministry stated that it could not confirm Bukovsky's citizenship. The response was met with surprise from the Presidential Human Rights Council and the Human Rights ombudsman of the Russian Federation.

On 17 March 2015, at the long-delayed inquiry into Alexander Litvinenko's fatal poisoning Bukovsky gave his views as to why the former FSB man had been murdered. Interviewed on BBC TV eight years before, Bukovsky expressed no doubt that the Russian authorities were responsible for the London death of Litvinenko on 23 November 2006.

"Prohibited images" prosecution
In 2015, the UK Crown Prosecution Service announced prosecution of Bukovsky for "prohibited images" of children allegedly found on his computer. Bukovsky's statements about the accusations were inconsistent. According to the prosecutor William Carter, Bukovsky told detectives that he himself had downloaded the images over the course of 15 years. On another occasion, Bukovsky described the accusations as absurd and said that the tip about the images – which he initially said were planted on his computer by a backdoor program – was passed through Europol from Russian security services. Bukovsky also noted that while the original announcement by the CPS accused him of "possession and making", the prosecution materials passed to the court only charged "possession".

In early May 2015, it was reported that Bukovsky had undergone a nine-hour heart operation in a private German clinic, during which he was given two artificial valves. Subsequently, Bukovsky was kept in a medically induced coma for three days to improve his chances of recovery. After partial recovery from his lengthy heart surgery, Vladimir Bukovsky responded to charges brought against him by the UK Crown Prosecution Service earlier in the year. Issuing a High Court writ for libel, Vladimir Bukovsky said that the CPS had defamed him, and claimed damages of £100,000. Bukovsky was later ruled to be too ill to stand trial.

Death

Bukovsky died of a heart attack on 27 October 2019 at the age of 76 in Cambridge, Cambridgeshire, after a period of ill-health. He is buried on the eastern side of Highgate Cemetery.

Bibliography

 In translation
 1978:  352 pp.
  1979:  386 pp.
 1979:
  2007:
 1987:
 1995:  616 pp.

  (1996) Abrechnung mit Moskau. Das sowjetische Unrechtsregime und die Schuld des Westens, Bergisch Gladbach

 Judgment in Moscow: Soviet Crimes and Western Complicity (May 2019)
 1999: Soviet Archives: Online archive compiled by Vladimir Bukovsky, prepared for publication by the late Julia Zaks (1938–2014) and Leonid Chernikhov
 2016: The Bukovsky Archives upgraded version of 1999 archive.
 2019: Judgment in Moscow: Soviet crimes and Western complicity

 In Russian
 1979:  382 pp. The first publication in Russian of Bukovsky's memoirs was given a Biblical title (see Ecclesiastes, v. 6).
 1989:  The first publication of Bukovsky's memoirs in the USSR.
 1996:
 2001:
 2007:  (First serialised in Teatr periodical, see above, 1989).
 2008:
 2013:
 2014:
 2015:

Documentaries
 Bukovsky (1977) – documentary by Alan Clarke.
 They Chose Freedom (2005) (4 parts) – documentary by Vladimir Kara-Murza Jr.
 Russia/Chechnya: Voices of Dissent (2005) – with Bukovsky, Yelena Bonner, Natalya Gorbanevskaya, Anna Politkovskaya, Akhmed Zakayev and others.
 The Soviet Story (2008) – documentary by Edvīns Šnore
 Parallels, Events, People (2014) (36 parts) – documentary series by Natella Boltyanskaya

References

A Chronicle of Current Events (1968–1982)

Other

Further reading

In the Soviet Union

After his expulsion to the West

Two years on

To Build a Castle (1978)

Judgement in Moscow (1995)

In the 21st century

External links

In English

 : May 1989, "The Democratic Revolution in Eastern Europe and the Soviet Union" (forum).
 Vladimir Bukovsky News archives, links, photos, video, public domain writings, official statements, contact info, maintained by US group Bukovsky Center
 Russia/Chechnya: Voices of Dissent (2005) – features Vladimir Bukovsky, Yelena Bonner, Natalya Gorbanevskaya, Anna Politkovskaya, Akhmed Zakayev and others.
  Uploaded on 7 January 2012.
 The Bukovsky Archives: Communism on Trial. Contains over seven hundred classified Soviet documents (1937–1994), an abridged translation of Judgement in Moscow, and many of the author's key articles since 1976 ("Books, Articles & Letters").
 "The suppression of dissent, 1970–1979" in the Bukovsky Archives (above) includes documents concerning Bukovsky: his activities as a Soviet dissident; his periods of imprisonment in the USSR; his exchange in 1976 for Luis Corvalan; and his ongoing campaign in the West against the Soviet regime.
 "Vladimir Bukovsky: Obituary" The Guardian, 28 October 2019.

In Russian
 An Alphabet of Dissent: Bukovsky (2011)
 Bukovsky on Voice of America (2014)
  Episode 29: "To Build a Castle", part 1.
  Episode 30: "To Build a Castle", part 2.
 Official 2008 Presidential campaign site

1942 births
2019 deaths
20th-century Russian male writers
20th-century Russian writers
21st-century Russian politicians
21st-century Russian writers
Alumni of King's College, Cambridge
Amnesty International prisoners of conscience held by the Soviet Union
Burials at Highgate Cemetery
Campaign Against Psychiatric Abuse
Cato Institute people
Inmates of Lefortovo Prison
Inmates of Vladimir Central Prison
Members of the Freedom Association
Neurophysiologists
People from Belebey
Psychiatric survivor activists
Russian anti-communists
Russian dissidents
Russian emigrants to the United Kingdom
Russian memoirists
Russian non-fiction writers
Russian political activists
Russian political writers
Russian prisoners and detainees
Solidarnost politicians
Soviet dissidents
Soviet emigrants to the United Kingdom
Soviet expellees
Soviet human rights activists
Soviet male writers
Soviet non-fiction writers
Soviet prisoners and detainees
Soviet psychiatric abuse whistleblowers
Stanford University alumni
Male non-fiction writers

Vladimir Bukovsky


المكورة الدقيقة أو المكورة الصغرية أو المُكَيَّرة  هو جنس من البكتريا في فصيلة المُكَيَّرات. تتواجد المكيرة في نطاق واسع من البيئات، من ضمنها الماء والغبار والتربة. المكيرة بكتريا إيجابية الغرام، خلاياها كروية قطرها يتراوح ما بين 0,3 إلى 3 ميكرومتر وتظهر غالباً في رباعيات. يوجد لدى المكيرة جدار خلوي سميك قد يمثل حوالي 50% من كتلة الخلية. جينوم المكيرة غني بالجوانين والسيتوزين. عادة ما تحمل المكيرة بلازميدات.

مراجع

أجناس البكتيريا
أجناس بكتيرية
بكتيريا إيجابية الغرام
علم الأحياء الدقيقة
مكيرات

مكورة دقيقة


El Rally Cataluña de 1987, oficialmente 23.º Rally Cataluña, fue la vigesimotercera edición, la cuadragésimo segunda ronda del Campeonato de Europa de Rally y la décima de la temporada 1987 del Campeonato de España de Rally. Se celebró entre el 22 y el 24 de octubre y contó con un itinerario de veintitrés tramos.

Clasificación final

Referencias

Enlaces externos
 Sitio web oficial

1987
10
42

Rally Cataluña de 1987


An Galearis spathulata in uska species han Liliopsida nga syahan ginhulagway ni John Lindley, ngan ginhatag han pagkayana nga asya nga ngaran ni Peter Francis Hunt. An Galearis spathulata in nahilalakip ha genus nga Galearis, ngan familia nga Orchidaceae. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Galearis

Galearis spathulata


فادي أندراوس (مواليد 21 أكتوبر 1981) هو مغني وممثل ومخرج فلسطيني.

النشأة
ولد ونشأ فادي في لبنان من عائلة مسيحية، لأب فلسطيني وأم لبنانية له أخ وحيد اسمه ايلي. درس إدارة الأعمال لكنه اضطر لتركها مؤقتا بسبب التحاقة بالموسم الثالث من برنامج ستار أكاديمي، حيث اشتهر بوسامته وطريقة لباسه الخاصة.

بعد الأكاديمية
قدم فور خروجه من الأكاديمية مسلسلا بعنوان فادي وراضي مع جورج خباز ووسام صباغ ثم شارك في مسلسل جيران بالإضافة لبعض من طلاب المواسم التالية

في عام 2007 عاد للغناء من خلال أغنية «بقلبي ضلي» الرومانسية، ثم أصدر في عام 2008 أغنية «هيدا مش أنا» وهي على طريقة الروك فأطلق عليه بعدها روك ستار العرب، وفي عام 2009 قدم أغنية «فلسطين ولبنان» وفي 2010 قدم أغنية «إطلعي مني» سينجل في انتظار طرح الألبوم.

في عام 2011 عاد بسينغل جديد بعنوان «شدتني» كلمات منير بوعساف وألحان رواد رعد وتوزيع هادي شرارة، كما تم تصوير الأغنية على طريقة الفيديو كليب حيث كان الإخراج من توقيعه لتكون أول تجربة له كمخرج.

في سنة 2013 عاد فادي أندراوس بأغنية سينغل جديدة وصورها على طريقة الفيديو كليب بعنوان «ما بعرف كون» مع المخرج داني فارس وهي من كلمات منير بو عساف وألحان رواد رعد وتوزيع ايلي أندراوس (شقيق فادي)وكما قدم فادي في نفس السنة أغنية أخرى بعنوان «معاك» وصورها على طريقة الفيديو كليب وأخرجها بنفسهو في سنة 2014 قدم فادي أغنية سنغل أخرى بعنوان «لما تكون» وصورها على طريقة الفيديو كليب ز أخرجها بنفسه ولاقت نجاحا كبيرا وقدم كذلك أغنية للجيش اللبناني بعنوان «حكاية نصر». وشارك فادي كذلك في الجزء الرابع من مسلسل صبايا الذي تدور أحداثه في إمارة دبي الذي تم عرضه خلال شهر رمضان 2012. وكما حل فادي أيضا ضيفا على المسلسل السوري شيفون وغنى شارته.

مراجع

وصلات خارجية

 الموقع الرسمي لفادي أندراوس

أشخاص على قيد الحياة
أشخاص من بيروت
لبنانيون من أصل فلسطيني
متسابقو البرامج التلفزيونية العربية
متسابقو ستار أكاديمي
مسيحيون فلسطينيون
مسيحيون لبنانيون
مغنو روك
مغنون ذكور لبنانيون في القرن 21
مغنون فلسطينيون
مغنون لبنانيون
ممثلون ذكور من بيروت
ممثلون من بيروت
مواليد 1401 هـ
مواليد 1981
موسيقيون من بيروت
فلسطينيون من أصل لبناني

فادي أندراوس


An Nothostele acianthiformis in uska species han Liliopsida nga syahan ginhulagway ni Heinrich Gustav Reichenbach ngan Johannes Eugen ius Bülow Warming, ngan ginhatag han pagkayana nga asya nga ngaran ni Leslie Andrew Garay. An Nothostele acianthiformis in nahilalakip ha genus nga Nothostele, ngan familia nga Orchidaceae. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Nothostele

Nothostele acianthiformis


Bağlanma teorisi veya bağlanma kuramı (), psikolojide bireyin, başka bir kişiden yakınlık bekleme eğilimi ve bu kişi yanında olduğunda bireyin kendisini güvende hissetmesidir.

Bağlanma, genelde çocuk ile yetişkin bir birey -çoğu zaman anne- arasındaki olumlu bağı ifade etmek için kullanılan bir terimdir. Bağlanma kuramı hayvan gözlemleri ve deneyleri sonucunda gelişmiş bir kuramdır. Bağlanma ile ilgili ilk araştırmaları John Bowlby ve arkadaşları yapmışlardır.

Bağlanma kuramı insanların sosyal varlıklar olduklarını, diğer insanları yalnızca temel ihtiyaçlarını karşılayacak araçlar olarak algılamadıklarını kabul eder. Bu yönüyle Nesne İlişkileri Kuramı'na benzemektedir.

Bazı bağlanma kuramcılarına göre, bir kişinin erişkinlikte başka insanlarla kuracağı ilişkinin niteliği ve insanlardan beklentileri, bu kişinin küçüklüğünde annesiyle kuracağı bağlanma ilişkisi ile belirlenir. Anne ve çocuk arasındaki sıcak duygular, özellikle korku ve stres anlarında birbirlerine sağladıkları rahatlık ve destek bağlanmayı oluşturur. Bağlanma iki taraflı bir ilişkidir ve her iki tarafın da birbirinin ihtiyaçlarını karşılaması ile gelişir. Yeni doğan bir bebek beslenmek, temizlenmek, ısınmak, korunmak, kısaca yaşayabilmek için anneye ya da başka bir bakıcıya muhtaçtır. Ancak anneler, babalar ya da çocuğa bakmakla yükümlü diğer yetişkinler çocuğun bakımını sadece bir görev olarak algılamazlar, bundan mutluluk ve tatmin de sağlarlar. Çocukla yaşadıkları etkileşimin sonucunda onunla aralarında hissettikleri bağ giderek güçlenir. Bu bağlanmanın oluşmasında bebeklerin bir takım davranış özellikleri etkili olur. Bebeğin, ana-babasıyla iletişiminde kullandığı ve hayatının ilk dokuz ayında geliştirdiği davranışlarına bağlanma davranışları denir. Emme, sokulma/uzanma, bakış, gülümseme, ağlama bebeğin başlıca bağlanma davranışlarıdır.

Bağlanma davranışları

Emme
Çocuklar yalnızca süt emmek için annelerini emmezler, aç olmadıklarında da stresten uzaklaşmak için sürekli annelerini emmek isterler. Modern toplumlarda bu isteği yerine getirmek mümkün olmadığından bebekler parmaklarını ya da emziklerini, emilebilecek her türlü nesneyi emmeye alışırlar.

Sokulma/uzanma (Temas)
Bütün memeli türlerinde yavruların anneyle yüz yüze gelmeye ve ona dokunmaya yönelik refleksleri vardır. Örneğin maymunlar, doğar doğmaz annelerinin üzerine tırmanırlar. İnsan yavruları doğduklarında kendi kendilerine ayakta duramaz ve yetişkinlerin ellerinde taşınmak zorundadırlar. Ancak onlar da kaskatı durmak yerine vücutlarını kendilerini taşımakta olan yetişkine kolaylık sağlayacak bir biçimde gevşek ve şekillendirebilir bir biçimde tutarlar. Bazı kalıtımsal beyin hasarları nedeniyle bu özelliği gösteremeyen bebekler, kendilerini ellerinde tutan yetişkinler tarafından pek sevecen olmayan bebekler olarak tanımlanmışlardır.

Bakış
Çok küçük bebekler bile anne ile göz kontağı ararlar ve bu arayışa anneden bir karşılık gelmezse ağlayıp huysuzlanarak tepki gösterirler. Bir araştırmada öncelikle annelerin bebekleriyle yüz yüze iletişimi gözlenmiş ve şöyle bir iki yönlü etkileşim saptamışlardır: Annelerin bebeklerine yaklaştıklarında genellikle gülümseyip yumuşak ve yüksek perdeden seslerle konuşmaya başlarlar, Bebekler buna karşılık olarak gülümseyip el ve ayaklarını çırparlar. Anneler çocuklarını yumuşak dokunuşlarla sever. Bebekler de kendilerine has sesler ile yanıt verirler. Gerçekten de bu tarz iki- taraflı etkileşim olup olmadığını anlamak için araştırmacılar annelerden bebeklerinin yanında ifadesiz bir yüzle durmalarını istemişler ve bebeklerin anneye olan tepkilerinde bir farklılık olup olmadığını gözlemişlerdir. Bu durumda bebekler, önce annelerini her zamanki gibi karşılamış fakat anneden hiçbir tepki (gülümseme, değişik bir yüz ifadesi) gelmeyince artık anneye bakmaz olmuşlardır. Arada bir küçük bir gülümsemeyle anneye bakıp onun halen ifadesiz olan yüzünü görünce başlarını yeniden başka taraflara çevirmişlerdir. Annelerin çoğunluğu çocuğun iletişim davetine karşılık vermeden durmanın çok zor olduğunu söylemiş, 3 dakika boyunca bebekleri yanında ifadesiz bir yüzle durmaya dayanamamışlardır. Dayanabilenler ise 3 dakikanın sonunda bebeklerinden özür dileyip 'Ben tekrar eski benim, her şey yolunda, bana yeniden güvenebilirsin..." gibi sözler sarf etmişlerdir. Bu deney bebeklerin anneye bakışının ondan bir tepki almaya yönelik bir davranış olduğunu, anne tepki vermezse çocuğun rahatsız olduğunu ve anneye bakmaktan vazgeçtiğini ortaya koymuştur.

Gülümseme
Bebek gülümsemesi, insanlar için genellikle mutluluk vericidir ve pek çok insan bebekleri güldürmeye çalışır. Doğumlarından itibaren ilk 1 ay içinde bebekler yüksek seslere gülümseyerek karşılı verirler. Bunu keşfeden yetişkinler, bebeklerle yüksek sesle konuşur. 5 haftalıktan itibaren sesler değil, görüntüler önem kazanmaya başlar. Bebekler yüzlere, özellikle de hareket halindeki yüzlere gülümserler. Hareket eden bir maske bile bebekte gülümseme davranışını doğurur. 3 aylıktan itibaren bebekler aralarında özel bir bağ kurdukları anne, baba gibi kişiler kendilerine yaklaşırken gülümsemeye başlarlar ve bunun bağlanma açısından önemi çok büyüktür. Bu gülümseyişler anne, baba ve çocukla ilgilenen diğer kişiler için büyük birer ödüldür ve çocukla daha çok zaman geçirme arzusu yaratır.

Ağlama
Çocuklar acıktıklarında, üşüdüklerinde, acı duyduklarında ağlarlar ve bu ağlama sesi yetişkinleri çok rahatsız eder. Ağlama, bebeklerin yetişkin ilgisine ve yardımına ihtiyaç duyduklarında kullandıkları bir sinyaldir. Bir iddiaya göre bebeklerin acıktıklarında, üşüdüklerinde, acı duyduklarında kullandıkları ağlama sesleri niteliksel farklılık gösterir. Bir Afrika kabilesinde gözlem yapan bir araştırmacı, bir bebek acı ifade eden ağlama sesini kullanırsa bütün kabile üyelerinin bebeğe koştuğunu, ama acıkmayı ifade eden ağlama sesini kullanırsa sadece annesinin ona koştuğunu iddia etmiştir. Sonraki çalışmalar, bebeklerin ağlama seslerini birbirinden ayıran şeyin niteliksel farklılıklar değil, şiddet farklılığı ve aniden ya da yavaş yavaş artarak ortaya çıkmasının getirdiği bir fark olduğunu göstermişlerdir. Eğer çocuk aniden ve şiddetli ağlarsa yetişkinler ağlamanın acıdan kaynaklandığını düşünürler. Yavaş başlayıp giderek yükselen bir ağlama sesi ise açlıktan, altını değiştirmek gerekmesinden, uykudan kaynaklanıyor olarak algılanır.

Yavru maymunların annelerine bağlanması
1958'de Bowlby'nin İngiltere'deki çalışmalarından henüz haberdar olmayan Harry Harlow tarafından yavru rhesus makakları üzerinde gerçekleştirilen bir dizi deney, bağlanmanın açlık ve benzeri temel gereksinimleri karşılamaya yönelik basit bir tepkiden ibaret olmadığını göstermiştir. Bu deneylerde, doğumdan hemen sonra anne maymun ayrılan yavru maymunlara her biri gerçek annenin farklı özelliklerinden bir tanesini sunan yapay anne maymun modelleri sunulmuştur: Yumuşak ve tüylü bir oyuncak maymun (süt verme ve hareket etme kabiliyeti yok), metal tellerden yapılmış, bir süt şişesi bağlanmış yapay maymun (süt, yumuşaklık, sıcaklık sunma kabiliyeti yok) ve hareket edebilen fakat süt ve yumuşaklık-sıcaklık sağlayamayan maymun modeli. Yavru maymunların sadece besin sağlayan anne maymun modeline değil, hareket ve yumuşaklık sunan anne maymun modellerine de ilgi gösterip zamanlarını onlarla geçirdikleri görülmüştür. Besin sağlasa da, pasif olan anne maymun modeli yavrularda güven hissi uyandırmamış, gerçek anneyi modellemede tek başına yeterli olamamıştır. Gerçek maymunlarla iletişim kurmadan yetişen yavru maymunlar anormal davranışlar göstermiştir: Başka maymunlarla ilk karşılaşmalarında korkmuş ya da saldırganca davranmışlardır. Cinsel davranışlarında da anormallik görülmüştür. Bütün bunlar, erken yaşlarda anne ile kurulan bağın yavruların sosyal gelişimi için önemini göstermektedir.

Bağlanmanın ölçülmesi
Mary Ainsworth adlı gelişim psikoloğu, bir çocuk ile temel bakıcısı arasındaki bağlanma ilişkisini gözlemlemek üzere Yabancı Durum Testi denilen gözlem prosedürünü geliştirmiştir. Bu prosedüre göre 11-17 aylık bir çocuk, yirmi dakika boyunca bir oyun odasında gözlemlenir. Bu arada çocuğun bakıcısı (genelde annesi) ile bir yabancı (araştırmacının bir yardımcısı) belirli aralıklarla odaya girip çıkarlar. Odada yaşanan durumlara (yabancının varlığı, annenin yokluğu...) çocuğun verdiği tepkiler videoya kaydedilir. Oyun odasında çocuğa yaşatılan deneyim şu şekilde gelişir:

 Anne ve çocuk gözlem odasına alınır.
 Anne ve çocuk odada yalnız bırakılır. Çocuk odayı keşfederken anne ona katılmaz.
 Yabancı girer, anneyle selamlaşır, çocuğa yaklaşır.
 İlk ayrılık: Anne sessizce odadan çıkar, çocuk ve yabancı odada kalır.
 İlk birleşme: Anne gelip çocuğu rahatlatır, sonra yine çıkar.
 İkinci ayrılık: Çocuk odada tek başınadır.
 İkinci ayrılığın devamı: Yabancı içeri girer, anne ise halen yoktur.
 İkinci birleşme: Anne girer, çocukla ilgilenir, yabancı sessizce çıkar.

Bu olaylar sırasında çocuğun iki davranışı gözlenir: a.	Çocuğun keşif davranışı (yeni oyuncaklarla oynaması..vb.) b.Çocuğun, annesinin gidiş ve dönüşlerine verdiği tepki.

Mary Ainsworth'in geliştirdiği Yabancı Durum Testi'nin ardından, 18 aylıktan daha büyük bireylerde bağlanma değerlendirmesi yapmak üzere çeşitli ölçüm araçları geliştirilmiştir.

Bağlanma tarzları
Yabancı Durum Testleri'ndeki davranışlarına göre çocuklar üç sınıfa ayrılırlar. Çocuğun yabancıya tepkileri, anneye bağlanma düzeyine göre değişir. Anneye güvenli bağlanan 1 yaşındaki çocuklar, etrafta bağımsızca dolaşır, ara sıra annelerinin yanına dönerler. Anne odadan ayrılınca üzülürler, geri gelince sevinirler. kaygılı bağlanan 1 yaşındaki çocuklar anne içerideyken bile huzursuzdurlar. Anne gidince ağlarlar, gelince anneni yanına koşarlar fakat anneye vurma ve tekmeleme gibi davranışlar gösterirler. Kaçıngan bağlanan 1 yaşındaki çocuklar anne yokken ağlamaz, anne gelince kaçınır ve anneye öfkeli görünürler. Kaçıngan bağlanmaya "A tipi bağlanma", güvenli bağlanmaya "B tipi bağlanma", kaygılı bağlanmaya "C tipi bağlanma" da denilmektedir.

Çocukların 1 yaşında iken ne tür bir bağlanma gösterdikleri, ilerideki yaşamlarını önemli ölçüde etkiliyor olabilir. Örneğin bir çalışma, 1 yaşında iken güvenli bağlanma geliştirdiği saptanan erkek çocuklarının büyüdüklerinde kaygılı ve kaçıngan bağlananlara göre daha az sıklıkta psikolojik güçlüklerden şikayetçi olduklarını göstermiştir.

Yetişkinlerde bağlanma
Bağlanma Kuramı'na göre, çocuk bebeklikten itibaren annesi ile yaşadığı deneyimleri ve onunla geliştirdiği ilişkisini ilerleyen yaşlarda her türle yakın ilişkisinde model olarak kullanır; kişinin benlik modeli ile başkaları modeli bu sayede gelişir. Benlik modeli (self-esteem), kişinin ne ölçüde kendini sevgiye layık, değerli bir birey olarak gördüğüdür. Başkaları modeli (interpersonal trust) ise kişinin diğer insanları ne ölçüde güvenilir, ilgi ve sevgi sunmaya hazır bireyler olarak algıladığıdır. Bebekliklerinde annelerine her ihtiyaç duyduklarında gecikmeden annelerinden ilgi gören ve bu sayede güvenli bağlanan bireyler, olumlu birer benlik ve başkaları modeli geliştirirler. Duygu ve düşüncelerini başkalarına açmaktan, ihtiyaçlarını ifade etmekten çekinmezler ve kolaylıkla yakın ilişkiler kurabilirler. Öte yandan, bireylerin benlik ve başkaları modellerinden birisinin ya da heri ikisinin birden olumsuz olması mümkündür. Dört farklı yetişkin bağlanma modeli vardır:

Güvenli Bağlanma (Secure Attachment)
Güvenli bağlanma, bir kişinin sağladığı bağın sorunsuz ve düzgün bir şekilde gerçekleştiğini ifade eden bir bağlanma türüdür. Hedeflenen bağlanma stili güvenli bağlanmadır. Bu bağlanma tarzına sahip bireyler, hem kendilerini hem de başkalarını olumlu görme eğilimindedirler. Yakın ilişkilere değer verirler, bu tür ilişkileri başlatmakta ve sürdürmekte başarılıdırlar. Bu nedenle, anne ve babaların, çocuklarına sağlıklı bir bağlanma ortamı sunmaları ve güvenli bağlanmayı sağlamaları büyük bir önem taşımaktadır.

Kayıtsız Kaçıngan Bağlanma (Dismissing-Avoidant Attachment)
Bu bağlanma tarzına sahip bireyler, kendilerini olumlu başkalarını ise  olumsuz görme eğilimindedirler. Kimse ile kolay kolay yakın ilişki geliştirmezler. Başkalarına duydukları gereksinimi ve yakın ilişkilerin önemini reddederler.

Bu yapi çocukluk yıllarında gelişir. Çocuk ihtiyaç duyduğu güven, sığınak ve de şefkati anneden göremeyince, bu ihtiyaç duygusunu içinde en düşük dereceye indirmeyi başarır. Bu nedenle bu çocuklar sonraki yıllarda kimsenin ilgisine güvenemez ve de kimse ile kolay yakin ilişki geliştirmezler. Ne bağlanırlar ne de birilerinin kendilerine bağlanmalarına tahammül ederler.

Kaygılı Bağlanma (Preoccupied Attachment)
Bu bağlanma türüne sahip bireyler kendilerine güvenmezlerken başkalarına güvenirler. Bunun nedeni ise başkalarının kendinden daha üstün olarak ve kendilerini daha değersiz görmeleridir.

Korkulu/kaçıngan Bağlanma (Fearful-Avoidant Attachment)
Bu bağlanma tarzına sahip olanlar, hem benlik hem de başkaları modeli olumsuz olan bireylerdir. Kendilerine de başkalarına da güvenmezler.

bireyin; çocukluk yıllarında annesine aşırı bağlılığından kaynaklanan psikolojik bir problemdir. Çocuk annesinin sevgi, güven ve şefkatine ihtiyaç duyduğu durumlarda annenin sabit ve sürekli bir güven alanı kuramadığından kaynaklanır. Çocuk annenin şefkatinden yoksun kalacağı korkusuyla annesine aşırı bağlılık duyar.

Kaynakça

Gelişim psikolojisi
Psikoloji teorileri
Çocuk gelişimi

Etoloji
Evrimsel biyoloji
İnsan gelişimi
Kişilerarası ilişkiler

Psikanaliz
Zihin felsefesi
Dikkat
Biliş
Bilişsel bilim
Bellek
Algı

Bağlanma teorisi


La barrera de Coulomb o barrera culombiana, denominada a partir de la ley de Coulomb, nombrada así por el físico Charles-Augustin de Coulomb (1736-1806), es la barrera de energía producida por la interacción electrostática que el núcleo atómico debe superar para experimentar una reacción nuclear. Esta barrera de energía es proporcionada por la energía potencial electrostática:

donde:
k es la constante de Coulomb = 8.9876×109 N m² C−2;
ε0 es la permeabilidad en el vacío;
q1, q2 son las cargas de las partículas que interactúan;
r es el radio de interacción.

Un valor positivo de U es debido a una fuerza de repulsión, así que las partículas que interactúan están a mayores niveles de energía cuando se acercan. Un valor negativo de la energía potencial U indica un estado de ligadura, debido a una fuerza atractiva.

La barrera culombiana aumenta con el número atómico, o sea, con el número de protones del núcleo en colisión:

donde e es la carga elemental, 1,602 176 53×10−19 C, y Zi los correspondientes números atómicos.

Para superar este obstáculo, el núcleo tiene que colisionar a altas velocidades, para que las energías cinéticas permitan que opere la interacción nuclear fuerte y una las partículas.

Según la teoría cinética de los gases, la temperatura de un gas es solo una medida de la velocidad media de las partículas en ese gas. Para gases habituales, la distribución de Maxwell-Boltzmann proporciona la fracción de partículas que se mueven a una determinada velocidad como función de la temperatura, y así podemos obtener la fracción de partículas que se mueven a velocidades suficientemente altas para rebasar la barrera de Coulomb.

En la práctica, las temperaturas necesarias para superar la barrera de Coulomb resultan ser menores de las esperadas debido al efecto túnel cuántico, como fue establecido por Gamow. La consideración de barrera-penetración mediante el efecto túnel y la distribución de velocidades dan lugar a un número limitado de condiciones en las que la fusión puede llevarse a cabo, conocido como pico de Gamow.

Véase también

Ley de Coulomb
Fusión nuclear
Efecto túnel

Referencias

Física nuclear
Fusión nuclear
Química nuclear
Epónimos relacionados con la física
Epónimos relacionados con la química

Barrera de Coulomb


Sandra Milowanoff  (San Peterburgo, Rusia,  – París ) es el nombre artístico de Alexandrine Milowanoff, actriz francesa de cine, inicialmente bailarina de danza clásica.

Biografía

A Sandra Milowanoff, hija de Alexis Milowanoff y de Marie, le apasionó desde muy joven la danza clásica. Durante ocho años asistió a las escuelas de danza de San Peterburgo, como alumna «petit rat», y después pasó a la compañía de la célebre Anna Pavlova.

Tras participar como bailarina en una gira triunfal por diferentes capitales europeas, dejó Rusia en 1917 huyendo de la Revolución bolchevique. Refugiada junto a su familia en Monte Carlo, interpretó un pequeño papel en una película de folletín realizada por René Navarre.

Fascinado por su belleza y acento, el director francés Louis Feuillade exprimió todo su talento para la comedia en la película Les Deux Gamines al lado de la actriz Blanche Montel. Dado el éxito obtenido, el mismo director le encargó el papel protagonista en el folletín cinematográfico de doce episodios Parisette.

Bajo la dirección de Henri Fescourt participó en la película Les Misérables donde interpretó los papeles de Fantine y de Cosette. Se adaptó tan bien a la tragedia que inmediatamente encarnó el papel de heroína protagonista en Pêcheur d'Islande,  bajo la dirección de Jacques de Baroncelli.

Tras una cadena de éxitos, la estrella de Sandra Milowanoff se apagó con la llegada del cine sonoro. Retirada y en el más completo anonimato, falleció en París el 9 de mayo de 1957, y sus restos fueron inhumados en el cementerio de Pantin (Seine-Saint-Denis).

Filmografía

 1917, La p'tite du sixième  de René Hervil Louis Mercanton.
 1920, Les Deux Gamines - película con 12 episodios de Louis Feuillade.
 1921, Le sens de la mort de Jacob Protozanoff.
 1921, L'Orpheline - película en 12 episodios de Louis Feuillade.
 1921, Parisette película en 12 épisodes de Louis Feuillade.
 1922, Le fils du flibustier película en 12 épisodes de Louis Feuillade.
 1923, Le gamin de Paris de Louis Feuillade.
 1923, Nène de Jacques de Baroncelli.
 1923, La légende de sœur Béatrix de Jacques de Baroncelli.
 1924, La flambée des rêves de Jacques de Baroncelli.
 1924, Pêcheur d'Islande de Jacques de Baroncelli.
 1924, Jocaste de Gaston Ravel.
 1925, Le Fantôme du Moulin-Rouge de René Clair.
 1925, Les Misérables de Henri Fescourt, rodada en cuatro fases.
 1926, Mauprat de Jean Epstein.
 1926, Les larmes de Colette de René Barberis.
 1927, La Proie du vent de René Clair.
 1927, La condesa María de Benito Perojo.
 1927, Dahält die welt dem atem an de Félix Basch.
 1927, Förseglade läppar de Gustav Molander.
 1928, La veine de René Barberis.
 1928, La faute de Monique de Maurice Gleize.
 1929, La meilleure maîtresse de René Hervil.
 1929, Dans la nuit, cortometraje de Charles Vanel.
 1929, Montparnasse de Georges Burton.
 1940, Après Mein Kampf, mes crimes de Alexandre Ryder.
 1945, Le jugement dernier de René Chanas.
 1947, Le comédien de Sacha Guitry.
 1950, Ils ont vingt ans de René Delacroix, en el papel de la madre de Anita.

Actores de cine de Francia
Actrices de cine de Rusia
Actrices de cine mudo de Francia
Nacidos en San Petersburgo

Sandra Milovanoff


Ömer Nasûhî Bilmen (1882 - 13 Ekim 1971), Türk din alimi ve 5. Diyanet İşleri Başkanı.

İlk tahsiline Ahmediye Medresesi müderrisi Abdürrezzak İlmî ile Erzurum Müftüsü Müderris Hüseyin Râkî Efendilerden okuyarak başladı. 1908 yılında İstanbul'a gelen Bilmen, Fatih Dersiâmlarından Tokatlı Şakir Efendi'nin derslerine devam etti ve icazet aldı. Daha sonra Medreset'ül Kuzat'a girdi. Burada dört yıl hukuk tahsil etti. 1912 yılında açılan ru'us imtihanını da kazandı.

Fatih dersi'âmları arasına katıldı. Fatih Camii'nde, Satırlı Medresesi'nde ve Darüşşafaka'da dersler veren ve kısa bir zaman içerisinde istidat ve kabiliyeti ile kendisini tanıtan Ömer Nasûhî Bilmen; ayrıca İstanbul İmam-Hatip Okulu ve Yüksek İslâm Enstitüsü'nde usûl-i fıkıh ve ilm-i kelâm dersleri okuttu. Temyiz Mahkemesi Şer'iyye Dairesi Mümeyyizliğinde de bulundu. 1941 yılında seçimle İstanbul Müftülüğü'ne tayin oldu.

30 Haziran 1960 tarihinde Diyanet İşleri Başkanlığı'na getirildiyse de bir yıl sonra emekliye ayrıldı. 13 Ekim 1971 tarihinde hayatını yitirdi.

Dinî konularda yazdığı eserleri ile tanınan Ömer Nasûhî Bilmen'in başlıca eserleri olan "Hukuk-u İslâmiyye ve Istılahat-ı Fıkhiyye kamûsu", "Kur'an-ı Kerim'in Meâl-i Âlisi ve Tefsîri" ile "Büyük İslâm İlmihâli" yanında yayınlanmış ve yayınlanmamış pek çok eseri bulunmaktadır.

Kitapları
 İslam Hukukunda Manevi Zararların Tazmini, 1941
 Kuran-ı Kerim'den Dersler ve Öğütler, 1947-50, 3 cilt
 Eshab-ı Kiram, 1948.
 Yüksek İslam Ahlakı, 1949
 Büyük İslâm İlmihâli, 1949
 Hukuku İslamiye ve Istılahat-ı Fıkhiye Kamusu, 1949-52, 6 cilt
 Sureti Feth Tefsiri, 1953
 Tefsir Tarihi, 1955
 Kur'an-ı Kerîm'in Tefsîri ve Türkçe Me'âl-i Âlîsi, 1956
 Sualli Cevaplı Dini Bilgiler, 1959
 Muvazzah İlmi Kelam, 1959
 İlmi Tevhid, 1962
 Beşyüz Hadisi Şerif

Kaynakça

1882 doğumlular
1971 yılında ölenler
Erzurum doğumlular
Türk müfessirler
Ankara'da ölenler

Ömer Nasuhi Bilmen


අසම්භාව්‍ය මැතිවරණ ක්‍රමය යනු ඡන්ද දායකයන් අපේක්ෂකයන් සිය කැමැත්තේ අනුපිළිවලට ලකුණු කල පසු ඉන් එක් ජයග්‍රහකයෙකු තෝරාගන්නා මැතිවරණ ක්‍රමයකි. ප්‍රථම මනාප ගණනයෙන් පසුව එක් අපේක්ෂකයෙකුටවත් බහුතර මනාප ලබාගත නොහැක ( 50% ) වී නම් ඉහළ මනාප ලබාගත් දෙදෙනා හැර ඉතිරි අපේක්ෂයන් තරගයෙන් ඉවත් කරනු ලැබේ. පසුව එසේ ඉවත් කෙරුනු අපේක්ෂකයන්ට ලැබී තිබුණු ඡන්දවල දෙවන මනාප ගණන්කර තරගයේ රැදී සිටින අපේක්ෂකයන් දෙදෙනා අතර බෙදා හැරේ. මෙමගින් අවසානයේ එක් අපේක්ෂකයෙකු බහුතරයක් ඡන්ද ලබා ජයග්‍රහනය කරයි.මෙය විකල්ප මැතිවරණ ක්‍රමයකට සමාන නමුත් එක් වෙනසක් ඇත. එනම් විකල්ප මැතිවරණ ක්‍රමයකදී ඡන්ද ගණන්කිරීම වට කිහපයකදී සිදුවිය හැකි නමුත් මෙහි දී පැවතිය හැක්කේ වට දෙකක් පමණි. එක්සත් ජනපදයේ මෙම මැතිවරණ ක්‍රම දෙකම instant run off sysstem ප්‍රභේදන ලෙස සලකනු ලැබේ. අසම්භාව්‍ය මැතිවරණ ක්‍රමය Two Round system හි සංයුත්ත අවස්ථාවක් ලෙසද සැලකිය හැකිය. ඡන්දදායකයින් දෙවරක් ඡන්ද පොළ වෙත යෑමකින් තොරව ඡන්දවට දෙකම සිදුවේ.

අසම්භාව්‍ය මැතිවරණ ක්‍රමයේ විශේෂ ප්‍රභේදනයක් ශ්‍රී ලංකා ජනාධිපතිවරණයේ දී යොදාගැනේ. තවත් ප්‍රභේදනයක් වන Supemetary vote එන්ගලන්තයේ නගරාධිපතිවරුන් පත් කිරීම සදහා යොදාගැනේ. අතීතයේදී එනම් 1892 - 1942 දක්වා ක්වීන්ස්ලන්ඩ් ව්‍යවස්ථාදායක සභාව පත් කර ගැනීම සඳහාද මෙම ක්‍රමය යොදා ගැනුණි. අද දක්වා අඛණ්ඩව දීර්ඝතම කාලයක් ලොව භාවිතා කෙරුණු මැතිවරණ ක්‍රමය මෙය වේ. ඇමරිකා එක්සත් ජනපදයේ ඇලබාමා ප්‍රාන්තයේද 1920 දශකයේදී මෙම ක්‍රමය භාවිතාවිය.

සටහන්

දේශපාලන විද්‍යාව

ශ්‍රී ලංකාවේ අසම්භාව්‍ය ජනාධිපතිවරණ ක්‍රමය


M&M's (stylized as m&m's) are color-varied sugar-coated dragée chocolate confectionery, each of which has the letter "m" printed in lower case in white on one side, consisting of a candy shell surrounding a filling which varies depending upon the variety of M&M's. The original candy has a semi-sweet chocolate filling which, upon introduction of other variations, was branded as the "plain, normal" variety. Peanut M&M's, which feature a peanut coated in milk chocolate, and finally a candy shell, were the first variation to be introduced, and they remain a regular variety. Numerous other variations have been introduced, some of which are regular widespread varieties (peanut butter, almond, pretzel, crispy, dark chocolate, and caramel) while others are limited in duration or geographic availability. M&M's are the flagship product of the Mars Wrigley Confectionery division of Mars, Incorporated.

The candy originated in the United States in 1941, and M&M's have been sold in over 100 countries since 2003. They are produced in different colors, some of which have changed over the years. The candy-coated chocolate concept was copied by Forrest Mars Sr. from Smarties, which he had encountered during the Spanish Civil War (1936–1939). The sugar coating made it possible to carry chocolate in warm climates without it melting. The company's longest-lasting slogan reflects this: "the milk chocolate that melts in your mouth, not in your hand."

A traditional milk chocolate M&M weighs about 0.91 grams / 0.032 ounces and has about 4.7 calories (kcal) of food energy (1.7 kcal from fat). Despite common belief, each colored M&M does not have a different flavor and all possess the same chocolate taste.

History

1940–70s: Beginnings

Forrest Mars Sr., son of the Mars Company founder, Frank C. Mars, copied the idea for the candy in the 1930s during the Spanish Civil War when he saw soldiers eating British-made Smarties, chocolate pellets with a colored shell of what confectioners call hard panning (essentially hardened sugar syrup) surrounding the outside, preventing the sweets (candies) from melting. Mars received a patent for his own process on March 3, 1941. Production began in 1941 in a factory located at 285 Badger Avenue in Clinton Hill, Newark, New Jersey. When the company was founded it was M&M Limited. The two 'M's represent the names of Forrest E. Mars Sr., the founder of Newark Company, and Bruce Murrie, son of Hershey Chocolate's president William F. R. Murrie, who had a 20 percent share in the product. The arrangement allowed the candies to be made with Hershey chocolate, as Hershey had control of the rationed chocolate at the time.

The Nestle archives show that George Harris of Rowntree and Forrest Mars Sr. agreed, after much negotiation, to share the marketplace rather than compete, with Rowntree making Mars Bars in Canada, Erie and South Africa and with Mars making M&M's in America without competition from Smarties, and Rowntree did not attempt to sue Mars for stealing their concept.

The company's first big customer was the U.S. Army, which saw the invention as a way to allow soldiers to carry chocolate in tropical climates without it melting. During World War II, the candies were exclusively sold to the military. The resulting demand for the candies caused an increase in production and the company moved its factory to bigger quarters at 200 North 12th Street in Newark, New Jersey, where it remained until 1958 when it moved to a bigger factory at Hackettstown. A second factory was opened in Cleveland, Tennessee, in 1978. Today, about half of the production of M&M's occurs at the New Jersey factory, and half at the Tennessee factory.
In 1949, the brand introduced the tagline "The milk chocolate that melts in your mouth, not in your hand."

In 1950, a black "M" was imprinted on the candies giving them a unique trademark. It was changed to white in 1954.

In the early 1950s, the Midwest Research Institute (now MRIGlobal) in Kansas City, Missouri, worked on behalf of M&M's to perfect a process whereby  of chocolate centers could be coated every hour.

Peanut M&M's were introduced in 1954 but first appeared only in the color tan. In 1960, M&M's added the yellow, red, and green colors.

In 1976, the color orange was added to the mix to replace red, which was discontinued in response to the "red dye scare" over Red Dyes #2 and #4 having been evaluated to be carcinogenic in nature. Although M&M's were made with the less controversial Red Dye #40, the public was wary of any food being dyed red. Red M&M's were re-introduced in 1987.

1980s: Expanding internationally
In the 1980s, M&M's were introduced internationally to Australia, Canada, Europe, Hong Kong, Japan, Malaysia, and the United Kingdom.

M&Ms Royals were marketed in the early 1980s with an advertising campaign that said: "Now chocolate's got a whisper of mint." They were colored pale green or brown and showed a crown rather than an M&Ms logo.

Although they were marketed and then withdrawn in the 1960s, almond-centred M&M's were available again in 1988 in limited release, with appearances only during Christmas and Easter times; they became a standard part of the product line in 1992.

Also in 1986, M&M's launched Holidays Chocolate Candies for Easter and Christmas, with the Easter candies having a bunny, chick, and egg symbols on pastel-colored shells, and the Christmas candies having pine tree, bell, and candle symbols on red and green shells; with the latter also having a special mint flavor. By 1993, the holiday symbols were replaced with the standard trademark "M".

1990s: New flavors ring
In 1991, Peanut Butter M&M's were released. These candies have peanut butter inside the chocolate shell and the same color scheme as the other varieties. As of at least 2013, the size of the peanut butter M&M has become slightly smaller. In 1995, tan M&Ms were discontinued to be replaced by blue. To introduce the new color, the Home Shopping Network televised a promotional video for the blue M&M. Producer Jon Watson became the first man to wear the famous blue M&M suit.

During the 1990s, Europe first began to adopt the M&M's brand name, replacing existing products. Two of these were known as "Treats" and "Bonitos." In 1996, Mars introduced "M&M's Minis", smaller candies usually sold in plastic tubes instead of bags. In 1999, Crispy M&M's were released. They were slightly larger than the milk chocolate variety and also featured a crispy wafer center. Crispy M&M's were discontinued in the United States in 2005, before being reintroduced in 2015; however, they remained continually available in Europe and Australia.

2000s–present: New flavors and re-releases
In July 2001, dulce de leche M&M's were introduced in five markets with large Hispanic populations: Los Angeles, California; San Diego, California; Miami, Florida; McAllen-Brownsville, Texas; and San Antonio, Texas. The flavor never became popular with the Hispanic community, who preferred existing M&M's flavors, and it was discontinued in most areas by early 2003.

Several other flavors of M&M debuted throughout the 2010s. These include Pretzel M&M's, released in 2010; Coffee Nut M&M's, released in 2016; Caramel M&M's, released in 2017; English Toffee M&M's, released in 2019; and Hazelnut Spread M&M's, also released in 2019.

A range of additional products were launched in the 2000s and 2010s to expand beyond the traditional line of candies. A chocolate bar called the M-Azing was initially released in 2004, and subsequently relaunched in 2013; Oversized candies titled "Mega M&M's" were briefly released in 2007 to promote the Shrek film series, before being introduced as a standalone product in 2014; M&M cookies began to be sold in the United States in 2016; and M&M chocolate blocks were released in Australia in 2017.

In 2020, Fudge Brownie M&M's were released in the United States.

On September 28, 2022, the introduction of purple M&M's were announced, as well as their newest spokescandy, Purple.

Marketing
Over the years, marketing has helped build and expand the M&M's brand. Computer-animated graphics, personification of the candies as characters with cartoon-like storytelling, and various merchandising techniques including the introduction of new flavors, colors and customizable merchandise have helped to increase the brand's recognition as a candy icon.

In 1982, the Mars candy bar company rejected the inclusion of M&M's in the new Steven Spielberg film E.T. the Extra-Terrestrial. However, competitor Hershey took a chance with their Reese's Pieces, which is similar to M&M's but contains a peanut butter filling. With the film's blockbuster success, Reese's Pieces sales dramatically increased, perhaps by as much as 300%.

Marketing campaigns
Between 1982 and 1987, its slogan was "All the World Loves M&M's", accompanied by a TV jingle of the same name. Actor Joel Higgins, then co-starring in the NBC-TV sitcom Silver Spoons, co-wrote the song.

In 1990, M&M's exhibited at New York's Erie County Fair a life-size fiberglass cow covered with 66,000 M&M candies—each adhered by hand with the "m" logo on each candy facing outward. According to a website run by the cow's designer, Michael Adams, the stunt earned M&M Mars $1 million in free publicity because it was reported on by Newsweek magazine, as well as the New York Post, UPI and WABC-TV, and Live with Regis.

In 1995, the company ran the M&M's Color Campaign, a contest in which participants were given the choice of selecting purple, blue, or pink as the color of a new variety of M&M's. The announcement of the winning color (blue) was carried on most of the television networks' news programs, as well as the talk shows of David Letterman and Jay Leno. As part of the contest results, the company had the Empire State Building lighted in blue. Although the financial details of these deals were not disclosed and neither was the campaign's effect on sales, one marketing book estimated that the company "collected millions" in free publicity and that the campaign "certainly" resulted in an increasing of the brand's awareness.

In 1996, Mars produced Christmas-themed advertisement for the candies in which the Red and Yellow characters run into Santa Claus on Christmas Eve. Similarly to competitor Hershey's own Christmas-themed commercial, the commercial proved immensely successful and has re-aired every December since that year, becoming their longest-running television commercial.

In 1998, M&M's were styled as "The Official Candy of the New Millennium", as MM is the Roman numeral for 2000. This date was also the release of the rainbow M&M's, which are multi-colored and filled with a variety of different fillings.

In 2000, "Plain" M&M's (a name created in 1954 when "Peanut" M&M's were introduced) were renamed "Milk Chocolate" M&M's, and pictures of the candy pieces were added to the traditional brown and white packaging.

In 2004, M&M's adopted the 1967 Petula Clark song "Colour My World" for its TV ads, albeit using newly recorded versions with other singers.

Joint marketing campaigns
In 1990, Mars Snackfood US signed up to be a sponsor for NASCAR in the NASCAR Cup Series. Drivers for the M&M's-sponsored car through the years have included Ernie Irvan (1999), Ken Schrader (2000–02), Elliott Sadler (2003–06), Ricky Rudd (2007), David Gilliland (2006–07), Kyle Busch (2008–current, won 2015 Sprint Cup Series Championship & 2019 Monster Energy Cup Series Championship), Michael McDowell, Matt Crafton, Erik Jones and David Ragan. 2022 would be Mars final year as Busch's sponsor. Mars has also sponsored Busch in the Xfinity Series and Craftsman Truck Series along with Busch's team, Kyle Busch Motorsports. Mars sponsored the 2022 NASCAR Cup Race at Pocono, titled the "M&M's Fan Appreciation 400".

The introduction of the blue M&M to Australia was promoted by the Australian Football League's Carlton Football Club, which wore sky-blue colored guernseys in one of its matches in 1997 instead of its traditional navy blue – a color which the successful and fiercely traditional club had worn since the 1870s. In 2010, Mars Snackfood Australia described it as the most successful promotional campaign it had ever engaged in.

In April 2005, M&M's ran the "mPire" promotion to tie in with the Star Wars: Episode III – Revenge of the Sith film release. M&M's were offered in dark chocolate varieties (regular and Peanut) for the first time after a string of Addams Family M&M's commercials.

In May 2004, M&M's ran a Shrek 2 promotion to tie in with the film's release. M&M's were offered "ogre-sized" (65% larger) in swamp/ogre colors. They were sold at many stores displayed in huge cardboard-cutout ogre displays.

In the summer of 2005, Mars added "Mega M&M's" to the lineup. These candies, at 55% larger than the traditional M&M's, were a little smaller than the ogre-sized version. They were available in Milk Chocolate and Peanut varieties. The colors for Mega M&M's were changed to less-bright colors, ostensibly to appeal to older consumers: teal (replacing green), beige (replacing orange), maroon (replacing red), gold (replacing yellow), blue-gray (replacing blue), and brown.

In July 2006, Dark Chocolate M&M's reappeared in a purple package, followed in 2007 by Dark Chocolate Peanut M&M's. Also in 2006, the company piloted White Chocolate M&M's as a tie-in with their Pirates of the Caribbean promotion. The company also offered eight new flavors of M&M's via online sales, as well as at M&M's World locations: "All That Razz"; "Eat, Drink, & Be Cherry"; "A Day at the Peach"; "Orange-U-Glad"; "Mint Condition"; "AlmonDeeLicious"; "Nut What You Think"; and "Cookie Monster". Mars also released a "Crispy Mint" variety in Australia that year.

Also in 2006, M&M's became the official chocolate of NASCAR.

In 2007, M&M's introduced a limited-edition raspberry flavor called "M&M's Razzberry Chocolate Candies".

Also in 2007, M&M's produced a 50-foot, smiling Lady Liberty M&M statue to kick off a campaign encouraging Americans to create their own M&M characters at mms.com. The website allows for people to log in and create their own character from scratch. They can choose features such as the color, shape, hair, and accessories.

In 2008, two limited-edition varieties of the candy were introduced – "Wildly Cherry" M&M's, and, as a marketing tie-in with the film Indiana Jones and the Kingdom of the Crystal Skull, "Mint Crisp" M&M's.

M&M's also introduced another new product called "M&M's Premiums" in 2008. They come in five flavors – chocolate almond, mint chocolate, mocha, raspberry almond, and triple chocolate (milk, dark, and white chocolate), which are sold in small upright cartons with a plastic bag inside. M&M's Premiums do not have a candy shell, but are coated with carnauba wax and color. Dark chocolate was added in 2009, replacing mocha.

During the summer of 2008, My M&M's launched 'Faces,' which allows consumers to print the faces of loved ones on M&M's chocolate candies at mymms.com.

In February 2009, M&M's launched the "M&M's Colour Break-Up" promotion in Australia, where M&M's were sold in separate packs (one for each color): the packs included a code to win prizes.

In summer 2009, M&M's launched a limited-edition "Strawberried Peanut Butter" variant to tie in with the release of Transformers: Revenge of the Fallen. In addition, M&M's launched a limited edition "Coconut M&M's", which became a permanent item in 2010.

In early 2010, M&M's Bare All were released as part of a competition in Australia and New Zealand. M&M's Bare All winning packs were ordinary M&M's, but without colored shells. An official website was launched, along with television advertisements. In April 2010, M&M's launched a new Pretzel variety. In November 2011, Mars released a limited edition M&M's Cinnamon Milk Chocolate for Christmas.

About the time Pretzel M&M's came out, the M&M's wrapper designs in the US were redone from the design used from 2004 to early 2010.

In 2012, M&M's released two new Dark Chocolate flavors: Raspberry and Mint. Also that year, M&M's released a White Chocolate flavor for the Easter season. From May 30, 2012, onwards, M&M's will be launched in Macau. Its Macanese launch language is Portuguese. In 2012, Peanut M&M's were produced in the UK in a limited edition "Red, White and Blues only" pack, in connection with the country's Diamond Jubilee and 2012 Summer Olympics. The 'M' remains white on the white candies. The commercial advertising this promotional package had Yellow donning various outfits of British stereotypes to try to get into the limited edition pack. Similarly, to promote the 2014 FIFA World Cup in the UK, Peanut M&M's were produced in a pack that contained only green, yellow, and blue candies, to reflect the colors of the flag of Brazil; these were dubbed as limited-edition "Brazilian M&M's" in the accompanying commercial. "Brazilian M&M's" were re-released in 2016 to promote the 2016 Summer Olympics, but were available in both Chocolate and Peanut.

In 2013, M&M's launched the "Better with M" campaign, which included cause-related marketing. The campaign worked with Habitat for Humanity and encouraged fans to use a Facebook app to volunteer at the various sites where the homes were being built. The advertising campaign was one of the largest that Mars had ever executed. The 2013 "America Better With M" initiative sought to provide money directly to Habitat for Humanity through offering limited versions of M&M's in red, white and blue.

Since 1988, specially designed packages of red, white and blue Presidential M&M's have been given as souvenirs to guests of the President of the United States. One side of the box features the presidential seal and the signature of the current president; the other side includes an M&M's character flying the American flag. A common misconception is that every candy is stamped with the presidential seal; however, some U.S. embassies around the world do offer M&M's stamped with the seal of the United States.

M&M's World specialty shops have been established in some locations, including Las Vegas, Orlando, New York, London, and Shanghai.

Several M&Ms-themed video games have been created. The first was M&M's The Lost Formulas, released on September 28, 2000.

Related brands
Related candy brands from Mars include Minstrels, Revels, Skittles, and Treets.

M&M's characters

Early black-and-white adverts for the candy in 1954 featured two talking, anthropomorphic M&M characters—one plain and one peanut—diving into a swimming pool full of chocolate.

The first incarnation of the characters in CGI was a 1994 celebrity campaign which had the characters interacting with celebrities on which M&Ms candy color is their favorite. This campaign was created by Blue Sky Studios. Concurrent with 1995's blue M&M campaign, M&M's introduced second computer-animated "spokescandies" in their television commercials. The depiction and campaign of the M&M's were made by Will Vinton in 1995. Vinton previously created the clay-animated California Raisins in 1986. Around the time he worked on CGI projects, he made the depiction of the M&M's as more mature than most food mascots. These include the team of the cynical and sardonic Red (originally voiced by Jon Lovitz, thereafter Billy West) who is the mascot for milk chocolate, peanut butter, and crispy M&M's, and the happy and gullible Yellow (originally voiced by John Goodman, thereafter J.K. Simmons), who is the mascot for Peanut M&M's (he was originally known as "Peanut" when first introduced). Other mascots include the "cool one", Blue (voiced by Robb Pruitt) who is the mascot for Almond M&M's; the seductive Green (her personality is a reference to the 1970s urban legend that green M&Ms were aphrodisiacs) (voiced by Cree Summer and Larissa Murray), who is the mascot for both Dark Chocolate Mint and Peanut Butter M&M's, and the slightly neurotic Orange (voiced by Eric Kirchberger), who was introduced when Crispy M&M's were first released and returned when Pretzel M&M's debuted in 2010. Orange, upon his return, was joined by the second non-M&M mascot, Pretzel Guy, who "supports" him and offers helpful advice as he hates the idea of having a pretzel put inside his body.

Other mascots that were introduced, but no longer used, are Almond, the original green guy; Orange, a female peanut character; Chocolate Bar (voiced by Phil Hartman), the first non-M&M character that always gets foiled or outdone by Red and Yellow by being melted, as M&M's do not melt; and the Swarmees for M&M's Minis candies, which are portrayed as destructive yet crafty troublemakers whom Red and Yellow are always trying unsuccessfully to contain after they accidentally released them in the product's initial commercial.

Female M&M's mascots were introduced in 1995. Green was the Milk Chocolate mascot and Tan was the Peanut. Marketing discontinued Tan when they introduced the then-new Blue mascot. Green was the only female M&M's mascot from her introduction in 1995 until 2012 when M&M's unveiled a new additional spokescandy, Ms. Brown (voiced by actress Vanessa Williams), the "Chief Chocolate Officer". During a Super Bowl LII advertisement, Red was transformed into a human after finding a lucky penny and wishing that he was inedible. As a human, he is portrayed by Danny DeVito.

In January 2022, Mars announced plans to alter the design of the M&Ms characters. The company announced that the aim of this change was to make their characters more representative of a broader array of human personalities and personal backgrounds. Among these changes is the adoption of more casual clothing for the Green and Brown M&Ms, both of which are generally interpreted to be female characters. In September 2022, they introduced a new Purple M&M voiced by Amber Ruffin who first appeared in a commercial singing "I'm Just Gonna Be Me".

Referencing criticism surrounding the changes from conservative media outlets, the company teased a Super Bowl LVII commercial in January 2023 by making a fictitious announcement that the characters were being temporarily retired and replaced by comedian Maya Rudolph. In subsequent teasers leading up to the game, Rudolph was shown hijacking the M&M's brand in her own image, re-launching them as "Ma&Ya's" candy-coated clams. Concurrently, the M&M's characters were depicted as "exploring their outside passions", collaborating with other brands such as Cheddar, eBay, Snickers, Spotify, and Zappos. During the eventual ad for Ma&Ya's, Red makes a cameo during its final scene, holding up a sign reading "Help!" Following the game, M&M's posted a "press conference" confirming the spokescandies had been reinstated.

Color changes

The original colors of M&M's candies were red, yellow, violet, green and brown. Violet was discontinued and replaced with tan in the late 1940s.

In 1976, Mars eliminated red-colored M&M's because of health concerns over the dye amaranth (FD&C Red #2), which was a suspected carcinogen, and replaced them with orange M&M's. This was done despite the fact that M&M's did not contain the dye; the action was purely to satisfy worried consumers. Ten years later, Paul Hethmon, then a student at University of Tennessee, started a joke campaign to reinstate red M&M's that would eventually become a worldwide phenomenon. Red M&M's were reintroduced as a result, and the orange M&M's that had originally replaced them were kept in production. In Europe, red M&M's contain the red dye carmine (E120, cochineal).

In early 1995, Mars ran a promotion in which consumers were invited to vote on which of blue, pink, or purple would replace the tan M&M's. Blue was the winner with 54% of the votes. It replaced tan in late 1995. Consumers could vote by calling 1-800-FUN-COLOR. Ads for the new blue colors featured a plain and an almond blue M&M character as Red and Yellow take notice of trying to do takes in the commercial by painting themselves blue where they appear on stage with B.B. King singing the blues, but the filmmakers had to cut the scene as they were not the real blue M&M's; another featured Red and Yellow holding their breath to look like the new blue M&M's, where Steven Weber sees the three M&M's, Red, Yellow, and Blue; and one more featuring Weber talking to the blue M&M if he had dived into the chocolate pool, but did not.

In 2002, Mars solicited votes in their first ever "M&M's Global Color Vote" to add a new color from three choices: aqua (turquoise), pink, and purple. Purple won and was featured for a limited time. To help the colors get votes, Ken Schrader and his MB2 Motorsports team, who was sponsored by M&M's at the time, ran four paint schemes during the 2002 NASCAR Winston Cup Series season representing the promotion (one for aqua, one for pink, one for purple, and another one with all three colors on the car). Specially marked packages of M&M's were released in Japan. Finding a bag of all purple M&M's entitled the customer to a prize of 100 million yen (equivalent to approximately US$852,000).

Since 2004, M&M's have been available online in 17 colors, with personalized phrases on each candy on the opposite side from the "m". Released around Christmas, these custom-printed M&M's were originally intended for holiday greetings, but are now available all year round.

For the 2008 Valentine's Day season, Mars introduced all-green bags of M&M's. This was due to common urban folklore that says green M&M's are an aphrodisiac. They were brought back for 2009 alongside the "Ms. Green Heats Up Valentine's Day" contest.

In October 2011, Mars released M&M's White Chocolate Candy Corn exclusively in the United States for Halloween. These candies come in three candy corn inspired colors: white, bright yellow, and bright orange.

The following is a summary of the changes to the colors of the flagship (milk chocolate) flavor of M&M's, the only filling manufactured continuously since the beginning of the brand. From 1941 until 1969, each package contained M&M's in five different colors; when red M&M's were reintroduced in 1987, they were added as a sixth color instead of replacing any of the existing colors.

See also

 Cadbury
 Sixlets
 Smarties
 Freia's
 Hershey-ets
 Jelly Belly

References

External links

 The History of M&M's Chocolates from us.mms.com

Food and drink introduced in 1941
Mars confectionery brands
Candy
Brand name confectionery
1941 establishments in the United States

M&M's


Turunçlu, Kahramanmaraş ilinin Pazarcık ilçesine bağlı bir mahalledir.

Coğrafya
Kahramanmaraş iline 73 km, Pazarcık ilçesine 26 km uzaklıktadır.

Kaynakça

Dış bağlantılar
 Yerelnet

Pazarcık'ın mahalleleri

Turunçlu, Pazarcık


Simón de la Rosa y López, (Jerez de la Frontera, Provincia de Cádiz, 8 de noviembre de 1846 - Sevilla, 14 de febrero de 1915) fue un Jurista, escritor y periodista.

Biografía
Sus primeros estudios los realiza en su ciudad natal hasta los diez años, cuando se traslada a Sevilla e ingresa, en 1857, en el Seminario. En 1868 se matriculó en Derecho en la Universidad de Sevilla, compaginando esta carrera con la de Filosofía y Letras, que concluyó en 1874. Se licenció en Derecho el 22 de junio de 1871, y en Filosofía y Letras el 13 de enero de 1874. Además obtuvo el doctorado de Filosofía y Letras por la Universidad de Sevilla y el de Derecho por la Universidad Central de Madrid. Fue catedrático en Sevilla, y Secretario de la Facultad de Derecho de dicha Universidad. Otros cargos que ostentó fueron el de oficial primero de la Biblioteca Colombina, a partir del 15 de enero de 1880, socio fundador del Ateneo de Sevilla, siendo elegido, el 29 de junio de 1891, miembro numerario, desde el 29 de junio de 1891, de la Real Academia Sevillana de Buenas.
Como periodista dirigió el periódico El Oriente, además de colaborar en la revista, editada en Sevilla, Bética.

Obras
El método para estudiar derecho (discurso). 1888.
Catálogo razonado de la Biblioteca Colombina. Imp. E. Rasco. Sevilla, 1888.
Libros y autógrafos de D. Cristóbal Colón (discurso). Imp. E. Rasco. Sevilla, 1891.
La Autonomía académica. Discurso de apertura del curso académico 1900-1901.
Los Seises de la Catedral de Sevilla. Imp. F. de la P. Díaz. Sevilla, 1904.
El lugar en que se dio la batalla del Guadalete. Sevilla, 1911.

Referencias
 Bética, Revista Ilustrada, n.º 27, 15 de febrero de 1915. Sevilla.

Enlaces externos

http://www.archive.org/details/losseisesdelaca00lpgoog
https://web.archive.org/web/20091211200032/http://www.ciere.org/CUADERNOS/Art%2051/depuracion.htm

Escritores de Jerez
Catedráticos de la Universidad de Sevilla
Académicos de la Real Academia Sevillana de Buenas Letras
Periodistas de la provincia de Cádiz
Escritores en español del siglo XX
Escritores en español del siglo XIX
Periodistas de España del siglo XX
Periodistas de España del siglo XIX
Escritores de España del siglo XX
Escritores de España del siglo XIX
Nacidos en Jerez de la Frontera
Fallecidos en Sevilla

Simón de la Rosa y López


Romain (mort en 596 ou 597) est exarque de Ravenne de 589 à sa mort, sous le règne de Maurice (empereur byzantin).

Biographie

Sa carrière militaire commence par une victoire contre les Sassanides en 589. Ce succès entraîne une crise parmi les Perses puisque le général vaincu, Bahram, se révolte et renverse Hormizd IV.

La même année, il est envoyé pour remplacer Smaragde en Italie, alors confrontée à la progression des Lombards. Il remporte plusieurs succès avec les prises de Modène, Parme, Piacenza, Altinum et Mantoue.

En 592, le pape Grégoire Ier le Grand l'appelle à l'aide pour soutenir Naples, alors attaquée. Toutefois, Romanus refuse de quitter le centre de la péninsule et le pape doit conclure la paix avec le duché de Spolète. De plus en plus, les intérêts de l'Empire et ceux de la papauté s'écartent face à la pression des Lombards. Peu après, ceux-ci attaquent Pérouse et Romanus doit envoyer une force reprendre l'Ombrie. Le roi lombard, Agilulf, réagit par une attaque au cœur de la péninsule qui menace Rome. A nouveau, Grégoire se plaint de l'attitude de Romain et de son absence de soutien. Il tente même de convaincre l'empereur de le démettre de son poste, sans résultat. En effet, Maurice souhaite avant tout conserver la région de Ravenne, proche de la péninsule balkanique, elle-même exposée aux Avars et aux Slaves.

Romain meurt en 597 ou 598 et est remplacé par Callinique.

Notes et références

Liens externes

Personnalité du VIe siècle
Personnalité politique byzantine
Histoire de l'Italie médiévale
Histoire de Ravenne
Date de naissance non renseignée (VIe siècle)
Date de décès non renseignée (VIIe siècle)
Militaire byzantin du VIe siècle
Personnalité du haut Moyen Âge par nom

Romain (exarque)


George Harvey Strait (18 de mayo de 1952) es un cantante de música country, actor y productor de Estados Unidos. A Strait se le conoce como "King of Country" y la crítica le sitúa como una leyenda viva.

Es conocido por su estilo inconfundible de western swing, baladas de bar, honky-tonk y country fresco pero tradicional. Geoge Strait tiene el récord del mundo de mayor número de sencillos que han sido número uno, más que cualquier otro artista en la historia de la música de cualquier género, habiendo grabado 60 números uno de Billboard hasta 2010.

Strait se disparó al éxito tras su primer sencillo "Unwound" en 1981. Mientras contribuía al movimiento de Country neotradicional de los años 1980, reunió 7 números uno en esa década, destacando entre ellos  "Fool Hearted Memory" y "Ocean Front Property". En los años 1990, había influenciado a un buen número de músicos mientras seguía con sus éxitos llegando a los 20 números uno entre los que destacan "Heartland" y "Blue Clear Sky". En la década de 2000, Strait consigue el título "Artista de la década" otorgado por la Academia de la Música Country, entra en el Country Music Hall of Fame y gana su primer premio Grammy por su álbum Troubadour. Strait continúa su éxito con un sonido más contemporáneo con éxitos como "She'll Leave You with a Smile" y "You'll Be There".

Strait fue nombrado "CMA Entertainer of the Year" en 1989 y 1990 y "ACM Entertainer of the Year" en 1990. Ha sido nominado para otros premios CMAs y ACM awards y ha ganado más en ambas categorías que ningún otro artista.

Principales álbumes

 Here for a Good Time (2011)
 Twang (2009)
 Troubadour (2008)
 It Just Comes Natural (2006)
 Somewhere Down in Texas (2005)
 Honkytonkville (2003)
 The Road Less Traveled (2001)
 George Strait (2000)
 Always Never the Same (1999)
 One Step at a Time (1998)
 Carrying your love with me (1997)
 Blue clear sky (1996)
 Lead On (1994)
 Easy Come, Easy Go (1993)
 Holding my own (1992)
 Chill of an early fall (1991)
 Livin' It Up (1990)
 Beyond the blue neon (1989)
 If You Ain't Lovin' You Ain't Livin' (1988)
 Ocean Front Property (1987)
 #7 (1986)
 Something Special (1985)
 Does Fort Worth Ever Cross Your Mind (1984)
 Right or Wrong (1983)
 Strait from the heart (1982)
 Strait Country (1981)

Filmografía
Strait ha actuado en varias películas como The Soldier (1982)  o Pure Country (1992). Aparece como sí mismo en Grand Champion (2002).

Premios
 Ver Lista de premios

Véase también

 George Strait Country Music Festival

Notas

Referencias
 Bego, Mark (2001). George Strait: the Story of Country's Living Legend. Citadel Press.  ISBN 978-0-8065-2258-6
 Dickinson, Chris. (1998). "George Strait". In The Encyclopedia of Country Music. Paul Kingsbury, Editor. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 513–4.
 "Discography". George Strait's Official Web Site. Retrieved August 27, 2004.
 "Awards". George Strait's Official Web Site. Retrieved August 27, 2004.

Bibliografía

Enlaces externos
 George Strait Online
 Biografía, discografía, letras, fotos y vídeos
 Official UMG Nashville Artist Page
 George Strait en el Internet Movie Database
 Country Music Hall of Fame and Museum
 George Strait Team Roping Classic (GSTRC) homepage

Cantantes de country
Personas de Texas
Medalla Nacional de las Artes
Alumnado de la Universidad Estatal de Texas

George Strait