The Latin school was the grammar school of 14th- to 19th-century Europe, though the latter term was much more common in England. Other terms used include Lateinschule in Germany, or later Gymnasium. Latin schools were also established in Colonial America.

Emphasis was placed on learning Latin, initially in its Medieval Latin form. Grammar was the most basic part of the trivium and the Liberal arts. Latin schools aimed to prepare students for university, as well as seeking to enable those of middle-class status to rise above their station. It was therefore not unusual for children of commoners to attend Latin schools, especially if they were expected to pursue a career within the church. Although Latin schools existed in many parts of Europe in the 14th-century and were more open to the laity, prior to that the Church allowed for Latin schools for the sole purpose of training those who would one day become clergymen. Latin schools began to develop to reflect Renaissance humanism around the 1450s. In some countries, but not England, they later lost their popularity as universities and some Catholic orders began to prefer the vernacular.

History

Medieval background
Medieval Europe thought of grammar as a foundation from which all forms of scholarship should originate. Grammar schools otherwise known as Latin schools taught Latin by using Latin. Latin was the language used in nearly all academic and most legal and administrative matters, as well as the language of the liturgy. Some of the laity, though not instructed formally, spoke and wrote some Latin. Courts, especially church courts, used Latin in their proceedings, although this was even less accessible than the vernacular to the lower classes, who often could not read at all, let alone Latin.

Students often studied in Latin school for about five years, but by their third year, students would be deemed as "knowledgeable enough" in Latin grammar to assist the master teacher in teaching the younger or less skilled pupils. Most boys began at the age of seven but older men who wanted to study were not discouraged as long as they could pay the fees. Students usually finished their schooling during their late teens, but those who desired to join the priesthood had to wait until they were twenty-four in order to get accepted. There was usually a limit to how long a student could stay in school, although if a relative was one of the school's founders then an extended stay was possible.

Schools were managed by appointing a committee who then employed a teacher and paid their salary. These schools usually had limited supervision from the town authorities. Freelance Latin masters opened up their own schools quite frequently and would provide Latin education to anyone willing to pay. These freelance schools usually taught students in the master's home. Others taught as a tutor in a student's household by either living there or making daily visits to teach. Students ranged from those who were members of the peasantry to those of the elite. If a serf's child wanted to go to school, payment given to the lord was required (to replace the value of his labour) as well as his consent.

Renaissance and Early Modern perceptions

As Europeans experienced the intellectual, political, economic and social innovations of the Renaissance so did their attitudes towards Medieval Latin schools. Renaissance humanists criticized Medieval Latin calling it "barbaric jargon". Scholars like the Dutch humanist, Desiderius Erasmus (1466–1536), denounced the church and the way it taught. He desired that a Renaissance in the Roman Catholic Church should accompany the study of the classics. Humanist ideas became so influential that residents in Italian states began to call for a new kind of education in Latin. Schools and academies that centred on instructing classical literature, history, rhetoric, dialectic, natural philosophy, arithmetic, medieval texts, the Greek language, as well as modern foreign languages, emerged. They called this new curriculum the Studia Humanitatis. Latin school formed the basis of education in the elite Italian city-states. Positions such as headmaster of grammar schools or professor of Latin grammar, rhetoric and dialect, were filled in by erudite humanists. Guarino da Verona, another humanist, devised three stages for humanistic learning: the elementary, the grammatical and the rhetorical. Humanists held the belief that by being a learned individual they were contributing to society. Hence, humanistic education constituted the intermediate and advanced levels for most of the urban population. It created an opportunity to advance an individual's social status since more institutions intellectual, political and economic sought workers who possessed a background in classical Latin as well as training in humanistic scripts.

Still considered as the language of the learned, Latin was esteemed and used frequently in the academic field. However, at the start of the 14th century, writers started writing in the vernacular. Due to this event and the common practice of interweaving Latin with a dialect even at advanced stages in learning, the precedence of Latin schools from other pedagogical institutions diminished.

Latin church schools
Clergy often funded ecclesiastical schools where clerics taught. Many historians argue that up until 1300 the Church had a monopoly on education in Medieval Italy. Latin church schools seemed to appear around the 12th century, however very few remained after the 14th century as a vernacular, more definite form of Latin school emerged in Italy. In some areas in Spain during the late 15th century, the church encouraged priests and sacristans to train others in reading and writing.

After the Protestant Reformation, the Catholic Church tried to deal with the surfacing of Protestant Latin schools that involved itself with orienting church authorities and pastors. John Calvin, a reformer, taught Latin grammar along with the Geneva catechism. Nevertheless, there were some reformers who wanted to cease using Latin in worship, finding the vernacular a more efficient language to use. In the latter part of the 16th century, the Catholic Counter-Reformation supported the establishment of municipal schools.
Jesuits founded their own schools and offered free training in Latin grammar, Philosophy, Theology, Geography, Religious Doctrine and History for boys. It was important for Jesuits as well as the Catholic Reformation to instruct clergymen as well as laymen in this type of education. The Jesuits pursued the significance of education to their order and took over the teaching responsibilities in Latin schools and secondary schools along with other Catholic orders in several Catholic areas.

Latin school curriculum
The Latin school curriculum was based mainly on reading Classical and some Medieval authors. Students had to learn the principles of Ars Dictaminis in order to learn how to write formal letters. Authors often had lists of books that were supposed to be used in the curriculum that would teach students grammar. These texts however, were often not the original texts, as more often than not, texts were changed to include moral stories or to display rules of grammar. These were usually in the form of fables or poems. New students generally started off with easy basic grammar, and steadily moved into harder Latin readings such as the Donatus (Ars Minor stage), which was a syntax manual that was memorized, or even more advanced with glossaries and dictionaries. Although many teachers used many books that varied from person to person, the most popular textbook would have been the Doctrinale. The Doctrinale was a long verse of Latin grammar. This textbook dealt with parts of speech, syntax, quantity and meter, as well as figures of speech. The Doctrinale as well as a large sum of other books (though not nearly as popular) was often referred to as the "canon of textbooks". Similarly, as the student advanced into the Ars Dictaminis stage more theory and practice writing formal or prose letters were focused on. Poetry was often a teachers favorite as it taught not only Latin, but mnemonic value and "truth". Poetry was not chiefly studied during the medieval times, although some classic poems were taken into the curriculum. However, during the Renaissance, pupils greatly studied poetry in order to learn metrics and style. As well, it was viewed as a broader study of Latin grammar and rhetoric, which often included concepts, and analysis of words

Ars Dictaminis
Ars Dictaminis was an area of study that was created in the latter part of the Middle Ages as a response to the demand for social communication as
offices for religious and political leaders increased. Rhetoric was seen as a method of persuasion and so there were five distinct
aspects of Ars Dictaminis that assured this. These five elements were: "how to word a question; how to dispose material; how to find the right words and effective stylistic devices; how to commit everything to memory; how to find the right intonation and suitable gestures". During the Renaissance however,
rhetoric developed into the study of how to write official and private letters as well as records. The revised Ars Dictaminis took its guidelines from one of Cicero's works, the de inventione and pseudo-Ciceronian Rhetorica ad Herennium. There were five main parts: the salutatio (salutation), benevolentiae (winning the agreement of the recipient through the arrangement of words), narratio (the point of the discussion), petitio (petition), and conclusio (conclusion). This systematic presentation was attributed to the Medieval preference for hierarchal organization.

Studia Humanitatis

Studia Humanitatis was the new curriculum founded in the Early Modern Era by humanists. In order to be able to move forward academically, a firm foundation in Studia Humanitatis starting from elementary school was necessary. Those who studied under Ars Dictaminis but did not have this background found it difficult to get accepted into chanceries following the year 1450. Those who did study under this discipline were taught classical literature, history, rhetoric, dialectic, natural philosophy, arithmetic, some medieval texts, Greek as well as modern foreign languages. The use of pagan authors became more common as the church became less involved with the humanistic method used in academic institutions before university. Colloquies (1518), a book containing dialogues written for the study of Latin grammar, was written by Erasmus and became one of the most popular books of its time. Students of Studia Humanitatis were seen as well prepared for occupations pertaining to politics or business. Learning the classics and other subjects in this curriculum enabled the individual to speak, argue and write with eloquence and relevance.

Other institutions
Early Modern children were first taught to read and write the vernacular and were then sent to Latin schools. If the parents were financially able, the child went even before he learned to read or write if the opportunity was present. Men were the usual students since women were either taught at home or in nunneries. Subsequent to the Council of Trent's decision to cloister all female religious, female orders such as Ursulines and Angelicals conducted their own schools within their convents. University was the final stage of academic learning and within its walls Latin was the language of lectures and scholarly debates. Jews however, including those who were converted into Christianity, were not allowed to teach so they developed their own schools which taught Doctrine, Hebrew and Latin.

Latin schools in colonial North America and the US

Latin schools, on the same model, were founded in North America, importing the European methods of education. The first of these was Boston Latin School, founded in 1635. These fed early universities such as Harvard, with students capable of speaking, reading and debating in Latin. The challenge to the Latin, Greek and "classical" domination of education came earlier than in Europe, but the tradition continued at a diminished level through the twentieth century. A number of "Latin Schools" still exist in the US, some of which teach Latin, while others do not.

See also
 Donatus
 Latin poetry

Notes

References

 Black, Robert. Humanism and Education in Medieval and Renaissance Italy: Tradition and Innovation in Latin Schools from the Twelfth to the Fifteenth Century. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001.
 Burke, Peter. The historical anthropology of early modern Italy. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987.
 Ferguson, Wallace K. The Renaissance in Historical Thought: Five Centuries of Interpretation. Cambridge: Houghton Mifflin, 1948.
 Goldgar, Anne, and Robert I. Frost. Institutional Culture in Early Modern Society. Boston: BRILL, 2004.
 Grendler, Paul F. Schooling in Renaissance Italy Literacy and Learning, 1300-1600. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1989.
 Orme, Nicholas. Medieval Schools: From Roman Britain to Renaissance England. New Haven: Yale University Press, 2006.
 Piltz, Anders. The World of Medieval Learning. trans. David Jones. New Jersey: Barnes & Noble Books, 1978.
 Wiesner-Hanks, Merry E. Early Modern Europe, 1450-1789. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006.
 Woodward, William Harrison. Studies in Education during the Age of the Renaissance 1400-1600. New York: Russell and Russell⋅Inc, 1965.

Further reading

 Courtenay, William J. 1987. Schools and scholars in fourteenth-century England. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
 Hunt, Tony. 1991. Teaching and learning Latin in thirteenth-century England. Woodbridge: D.S. Brewer.
 Martin, John Jeffries. 2007. The Renaissance World. Abingdon: Routledge.
 Mehl, James V. 1993. Hermannus Buschius' Dictata utilissima: a textbook of commonplaces for the Latin school. Humanistica Lovaniensia 42: 102-125.
 Nellen, Henk J. M. 2005. Short but not sweet: the career of Gisbertus Longolius (1507–1543), headmaster of the Latin school in Deventer and professor at the University of Cologne. Lias 32: 3-22
 Verweij, Michiel. 2004. Comic elements in 16th-century Latin school drama in the low countries. Humanistica Lovaniensia 53: 175-190.
 WItt, Ronald. 1982. Medieval "ars dictaminis" and the beginnings of humanism: a new construction of the problem. Renaissance Quarterly 35: 1-35.
 Proctor, Robert E. 1990. The studia humanitatis: contemporary scholarship and renaissance ideals. Renaissance Quarterly 43: 813-818.

External links
 Schools in the Latin Wikipedia
 Latin Alphabet
 The Latin Library

School types
Medieval European education

Latin school


Inés de Zúñiga y Velasco (Villalpando, 1584-Loeches, 10 de septiembre de 1647) fue una noble española de la Casa de Zúñiga, esposa de Gaspar de Guzmán y Pimentel, Conde-Duque de Olivares —valido del rey Felipe IV—, dama de la corte de la reina Margarita de Austria, esposa del rey Felipe III y dama principal en la corte de la reina Isabel de Borbón, esposa del rey Felipe IV, aya y tutora del príncipe Baltasar Carlos, inmortalizada por el escritor Benito Pérez Galdós en su obra Doña Perfecta. Camarera mayor de palacio 1627-1643.

Filiación

Hija de Gaspar de Zúñiga y Acevedo, V conde de Monterrey, señor de Biedma y de Ulloa, Virrey de México y del Perú, y de su esposa Inés de Velasco y Aragón, hija de Íñigo Fernández de Velasco y Tovar, VI conde de Haro, IV duque de Frías, Condestable de Castilla, y de su esposa Ana Ángela de Aragón y Guzmán.
Inés fue dama de la reina Margarita de Austria, esposa del rey Felipe III, quién la quería mucho por su probidad y rectitud. Era una dama muy bella y fue cortejada por el príncipe, el futuro rey Felipe IV. Inés se casó en Madrid en septiembre de 1607 con su primo hermano Gaspar de Guzmán y Pimentel, III conde de Olivares, hijo de Enrique de Guzmán, II conde de Olivares, embajador en Roma, y de su esposa María Pimentel de Fonseca y Zúñiga. Gaspar era tres años menor de edad que Inés y su madre María Pimentel de Fonseca y Zúñiga era tía de Inés, hermana de su padre, el conde de Monterrey. Fue padrino de las bodas su tío Baltasar de Zúñiga y Velasco, hermano de su padre y primer ministro del rey Felipe IV, quien estrechó los lazos de unión de las familias Zúñiga y Guzmán con el doble matrimonio de su sobrino Manuel de Acevedo y Zúñiga hermano de Inés con Leonor hermana de Gaspar. Inés y Gaspar tuvieron en su matrimonio tres hijos, Alonso, María e Inés. Dos de ellos murieron poco después de su nacimiento, sólo María fue su única hija sobreviviente. El matrimonio con Inés fue para el conde de Olivares la oportunidad de alcanzar la Grandeza de España, costumbre de los reyes de elevar a las damas de su corte a su matrimonio y además teniendo presente que ella era hija del virrey de México y del Perú, bien considerado por sus méritos en la corte y por el rey.

Primeros años en Olivares

El joven matrimonio vivió sus primeros años en el palacio de los condes de Olivares en Olivares (Sevilla). En 1609 nació su hija María. El conde Gaspar a recomendación de su tío Baltasar de Zúñiga y Velasco, ministro del rey Felipe III, fue nombrado en 1615 gentilhombre de cámara del príncipe Felipe IV, por lo que la familia se trasladó a Madrid.

Primera dama de la reina Isabel de Borbón

El rey Felipe IV concedió al III conde de Olivares, Gaspar de Guzmán y Pimentel, la Grandeza de España el 10 de abril de 1621 y el 12 de abril el título de duque de Olivares. Lo nombró presidente del consejo de Estado, a la muerte de Baltasar de Zúñiga y Velasco, que fue presidente del Consejo de Estado, primer ministro y su válido, ocurrida el 7 de octubre de 1622, tío y mentor de Gaspar. El conde-duque de Olivares, ya válido del rey, tiene que mudarse con su familia al Real Alcázar de Madrid, para estar cerca del rey. Su esposa Inés fue nombrada primera dama de la corte de la reina Isabel de Borbón, esposa del rey Felipe IV. Los conde-duques de Olivares se trasladan al ala interior del primer piso con vista al hermoso patio del Real Alcázar de Madrid. Cuando se terminaron las obras del Palacio del Buen Retiro, también se reservó una sección del palacio para ellos.

Por ese tiempo surgió una disputa entre la duquesa Inés y su cuñada la condesa Leonor, que las apartó y duró todas sus vidas.

Su hija María de Guzmán y Zúñiga recibió en 1624 el título de marquesa de Eliche, concedido a su padre por el rey Felipe IV. María se casó a los 17 años el 9 de enero de 1625 en la capilla del Real Alcázar de Madrid con Ramiro Núñez de Guzmán, hijo de Gabriel Núñez de Guzmán, I marqués de Toral, y de su esposa Francisca de Guzmán, prima del conde-duque de Olivares. El rey Felipe IV concedió a María a principios de 1626 el título de duquesa de Medina de las Torres. En julio de 1626 nació una niña, quien murió poco después. La joven madre después de haberse recuperado un poco, tuvo una recaída que le costó la vida y falleció ese mismo año. Su pérdida ocasionó a sus padres un dolor inmenso, que los hizo ser más íntimos, sinceros y de Gaspar un fiel marido.

La duquesa Inés creó un ambiente feliz en su hogar, gracias a su inteligente juicio y cordura. Fue una fiel, sacrificada y silenciosa ayuda de su esposo. Mujer austera y piadosa, que se impuso en su matrimonio y fue apoyo y consuelo de su marido, quien sufría de ataques y profundas depresiones mentales.
Decían de ella que era una mujer varonil por su fuerte carácter y su bien organizado gobierno de su casa. Fue muy bondadosa y tenía una particular sazón en hacer regalos.
El matrimonio de los duques de Olivares servía de ejemplo y freno a la sociedad madrileña de mediados del , conocida por su libertinaje.
La duquesa Inés hizo construir en el parque del Buen Retiro un pabellón para mantener aves del país y del extranjero, que se convirtió en una zona de paseo y recreo bien frecuentada, atrayendo a los reyes y dando origen así a la construcción del palacio del Buen Retiro.

Aya y tutora del infante Baltasar Carlos, patronazgos

La duquesa Inés fue nombrada al nacimiento del infante Baltasar Carlos aya, tutora y responsable de la educación del infante. Estos cargos los ejercitó con delicadeza y celo. El conde duque de Olivares y su esposa compraron en 1633 la villa de Loeches, situada a una distancia de 35 km de Madrid, para su recreo y descanso. Reconstruyeron el convento de las Carmelitas Descalzas y en una de las alas del convento construyeron su palacio. El edificio se terminó de construir en 1640. Fundó con su esposo el monasterio de la Inmaculada Concepción en Loeches (Madrid), siendo ellos los primeros patrones del monasterio. La duquesa Inés pasó bastante tiempo de su vida en el convento de Loeches en compañía de las monjas.

A la revelación de su esposo en septiembre de 1641 de tener un hijo bastardo de 27 años, nacido en abril de 1613 en Madrid en una dama de la corte de la reina, se dedicó con el mismo cariño por Julián de Guzmán, el hijo adulterino del conde-duque. El bastardo fue legitimado en 1642 por el conde-duque y recibió el nombre de Enrique Felipéz de Guzmán. Fue casado con Juana de Velasco, hija de Bernardino Fernández de Velasco, condestable de Castilla, IX conde de Haro, VI duque de Frías. El rey Felipe IV le concedió a Enrique el 10 de octubre de 1642 el título de marqués de Mairena, que disfrutó sólo cuatro años, falleciendo el 13 de junio de 1646. No tuvo sucesión.

El conde-duque de Olivares en su testamento otorgado en 1642 le pide a su esposa Inés encarecidamente perdón por los sinfín disgustos y penas, que en su vida entera le causó, que ella por su conmovedora lealtad y complacencia no lo merecía.

Destierro del conde-duque de Olivares, últimos años

El conde-duque de Olivares recibió un mensaje del rey Felipe IV el 17 de enero de 1643, informándolo, que su solicitud de renuncia había sido aceptada. El conde-duque escribe a su esposa Inés, que estaba en Loeches, pidiéndole regresar inmediatamente a Madrid. El conde-duque presidió por última vez el Consejo de Estado el 23 de enero de 1643 y tuvo que abandonar el palacio real en silla, porque las piernas le temblaban y abandonó el palacio en su coche en dirección a su palacio de Loeches. Inés ayudó a su esposo a tratar de sobrepasar la crisis que lo agotaba. Inés continuó en ese tiempo de tutora y aya de los infantes. El 24 de mayo de 1643 Luis Méndez de Haro y Guzmán, VI marqués del Carpio, ministro del rey Felipe IV, y sobrino del conde-duque, trajo el mensaje del rey para el conde-duque, de abandonar Loeches y retirarse a sus dominios sevillanos o donde el deseara pero lejos de Madrid. El conde-duque salió de Loeches el 12 de junio de 1643 a su destierro en Toro, donde llegó el 19 de junio y tomó residencia en el palacio de su hermana Inés, viuda de Álvaro Antonio Enríquez de Almansa, VI marqués de Alcañices.

La duquesa de Olivares ejerció el cargo de tutora del infante Baltasar Carlos hasta noviembre de 1643, cuando recibió la licencia del rey para retirarse de su servicio. La duquesa Inés viajó luego a Toro a reunirse con su esposo. La reina Isabel hasta en los días de destierro demostró su atención y muestras de afecto a los duques de Olivares. El infante Baltasar Carlos en su carta al conde-duque le escribe: a vuestra esposa no es necesario recomendarla, yo le debo mucho y no dejaré mi vida entera en cualquier situación de alabarla. Su esposo el conde-duque de Olivares falleció en Toro el 22 de julio de 1645. Los restos mortales del conde-duque y los de su hija María fueron enterrados el 10 de agosto en Loeches. La duquesa Inés se retiró a su monasterio de Loeches, donde 2 años más tarde el 10 de septiembre de 1647 falleció. Sus restos mortales fueron enterrados al lado de los de su esposo en la iglesia del monasterio de Loeches. El escritor Benito Pérez Galdós inmortalizó a la duquesa de Olivares en su obra Doña Perfecta, como la mujer admirable típica española de ser una exquisita rosa con espinas.

Referencias

Bibliografía

Enlaces externos

 Genealogía de los Condes de Monterrey en http://www.grandesp.org.uk/historia/gzas/monterrey.htm
 Genealogía de los Duques de Frías en http://www.grandesp.org.uk/historia/gzas/frias.htm
 Genealogía de los Duques de Sanlúcar la Mayor en http://www.grandesp.org.uk/historia/gzas/sanlucar.htm
 Ayuntamiento de Olivares (Sevilla) en https://web.archive.org/web/20120119094129/http://www.olivares.es/opencms/opencms/olivares/ayuntamiento/publicaciones/index.html

Nobles de la provincia de Zamora
Zúñiga
Nacidos en Villalpando
Camareras mayores de la reina
Corte de Felipe IV de España

Inés de Zúñiga y Velasco


Todor Diev Stadyumu Bulgaristan'ın Filibe şehrinde çok amaçlı olarak inşa edilen bir stadyum

Todor Diev Stadyumunda çoğunlukla futbol müsabakaları yapılmaktadır. Bulgaristan'ın FC Spartak Plovdiv takımının maçlarını yaptığı stadyum, 7.000 seyirci kapasitelidir.

Bulgaristan'daki stadyumlar
Filibe'de spor

Todor Diev Stadyumu


Souheib Dhaflaoui (født 8. maj 1996 i Danmark) er en dansk fodboldspiller med tunesiske rødder, der spiller for Næstved Boldklub.

Klubkarriere
Dhaflaoui skiftede i 2012 i en alder af 16 år fra Boldklubben af 1893 til FC Nordsjælland, hvor han skrev under på en treårig kontrakt.

Han blev rykket op i klubbens førsteholdstrup i juli 2015, efter i marts samme år at have skrevet under på en forlængelse frem til sommeren 2017. Han fik sin officielle debut i Superligaen den 3. august 2015, da han blev skiftet ind i det 93. minut i stedet for Emiliano Marcondes i 2-1-sejren hjemme over AaB.

Den 31. august 2016 blev det offentliggjort, at Dhaflaoui skiftede til 1. divisionsklubben FC Helsingør på en lejeaftale. Han spillede 8 ligakampe, inden han forlod klubben igen i december 2016.

Sammen med Dominic Oduro deltog Dhaflaoui i januar 2017 i 'Super Draft' i MLS Combine i et forsøg på at tilspille sig en kontrakt i USA.

Næstved Boldklub
Den 31. juli 2017 blev det offentliggjort, at Dhaflaoui skiftede til 2. divisionsklubben Næstved Boldklub.

Referencer

Eksterne henvisninger

Fodboldspillere fra Danmark
Fodboldspillere fra Handelsstandens Boldklub
Fodboldspillere fra Østerbro IF
Fodboldspillere fra B.93
Fodboldspillere fra FC Nordsjælland
Fodboldspillere fra Næstved BK

Souheib Dhaflaoui


Vardan Petrosyan (né le ; en ) est un acteur, scénariste et parodiste arménien. Il est basé à Paris et à Erevan et possède la double nationalité arménienne et française. Petrosyan est largement considéré comme l'un des plus grands acteurs arméniens contemporains, il intègre diverses questions telles que le génocide arménien, la politique arménienne et les affaires étrangères dans ses performances.

Biographie
Vardan Petrosyan est né le 27 février 1959 à Erevan, en Arménie soviétique. Il est diplômé du Terlemezian Art College en 1983. Son père est mort en 1981, alors qu'il a 22 ans. Après un service de deux ans dans l'armée soviétique, il retourne à Erevan en 1985 pour créer - avec Vahram Sahakian - le studio de théâtre privé appelé Vozniner (Ոզնիներ, "Hedgehogs"). Entre 1988 et 1992, alors que le mouvement du Karabakh est en cours, Petrosyan écrit et met en scène plusieurs performances à motivation politique. Jusqu'en 1997, il joue dans des courts et longs métrages. En raison des conditions économiques difficiles en Arménie, Petrosyan déménage à Paris en 1992. Il apparait dans plusieurs pièces françaises.

À partir de 2000, Vardan Petrosyan présente principalement des spectacles personnels sur diverses questions politiques et sociales. Outre l'Arménie, il s'est également produit pour les communautés de la diaspora arménienne aux États-Unis, en France, au Canada, au Liban, en Iran, en Syrie, en Russie, etc.

Accident de voiture en 2013
Le 20 octobre 2013, Vardan Petrosyan a un accident de voiture sur l'autoroute qui relie Erevan à Eghvard, dans lequel deux garçons de seize ans sont morts et quatre autres personnes ont été blessés, dont Petrosyan. Après avoir été soigné dans un hôpital d'Erevan, le 9 novembre, Petrosyan est inculpé de « manquement par négligence au code de la route entraînant la mort » et placé en garde à vue. Le tribunal a rejeté les demandes de libération sous caution, malgré une pétition qui a recueilli . Petrosyan plaide non coupable le 26 janvier 2015. Il est condamné à cinq ans de prison le 29 janvier 2015 par un tribunal de la province de Kotayk. Petrosyan est libéré le 2 septembre 2015 et purge le reste de sa peine en dehors de prison. Il termine sa peine en mars 2017.

Filmographie
 1992 : Le dernier Tango à Paris (ձմենավերջին տանգոն Փարիզում)
 1998 : Le Dernier Tango à Paris-2 (ձմենավերջին տանգոն Փարիզում-2)
 1999 : Notre fin  (Մեր վերջը)
 2001 : Jouer 1700 (Խաղում ենք 1700)
 2003 : Bénéfice (ղենեֆիս)
 2004 : Dans le feu (տրակի մեջ)
 2006 : Ascension (Վեր ֵլք)
 2008 : Amour et haine (Սեր և ատելություն)
 2008 : Ce qu'il faut faire? (անել)
 2009 : Les condamnés à perpétuité (Ցմահ բանտարկյալներ)
 2010 : Blagues du destin (Ճակատագրի կատակներ)
 2011 : Horreur sexuelle (Սեռասարսափ)
 2012 : Mesdames et Messieurs, 50/50 (Պարոնայք 50-50)
 2013 : Tous les lundis (ұմեն 2շաբթի)

Références

Liens externes

Naissance en février 1959
Acteur arménien du XXe siècle
Acteur arménien du XXIe siècle

Vardan Petrosyan


The iAPX 432 (Intel Advanced Performance Architecture) is a discontinued computer architecture introduced in 1981. It was Intel's first 32-bit processor design. The main processor of the architecture, the general data processor, is implemented as a set of two separate integrated circuits, due to technical limitations at the time. Although some early 8086, 80186 and 80286-based systems and manuals also used the iAPX prefix for marketing reasons, the iAPX 432 and the 8086 processor lines are completely separate designs with completely different instruction sets.

The project started in 1975 as the 8800 (after the 8008 and the 8080) and was intended to be Intel's major design for the 1980s. Unlike the 8086, which was designed the following year as a successor to the 8080, the iAPX 432 was a radical departure from Intel's previous designs meant for a different market niche, and completely unrelated to the 8080 or x86 product lines.

The iAPX 432 project is considered a commercial failure for Intel, and was discontinued in 1986.

Description
The iAPX 432 was referred to as a "micromainframe", designed to be programmed entirely in high-level languages. The instruction set architecture was also entirely new and a significant departure from Intel's previous 8008 and 8080 processors as the iAPX 432 programming model is a stack machine with no visible general-purpose registers. It supports object-oriented programming, garbage collection and multitasking as well as more conventional memory management directly in hardware and microcode. Direct support for various data structures is also intended to allow modern operating systems to be implemented using far less program code than for ordinary processors. Intel iMAX 432 is a discontinued operating system for the 432, written entirely in Ada, and Ada was also the intended primary language for application programming. In some aspects, it may be seen as a high-level language computer architecture.

These properties and features resulted in a hardware and microcode design that was more complex than most processors of the era, especially microprocessors. However, internal and external buses are (mostly) not wider than 16-bit, and, just like in other 32-bit microprocessors of the era (such as the 68000 or the 32016), 32-bit arithmetical instructions are implemented by a 16-bit ALU, via random logic and microcode or other kinds of sequential logic. The iAPX 432 enlarged address space over the 8080 was also limited by the fact that linear addressing of data could still only use 16-bit offsets, somewhat akin to Intel's first 8086-based designs, including the contemporary 80286 (the new 32-bit segment offsets of the 80386 architecture was described publicly in detail in 1984).

Using the semiconductor technology of its day, Intel's engineers weren't able to translate the design into a very efficient first implementation. Along with the lack of optimization in a premature Ada compiler, this contributed to rather slow but expensive computer systems, performing typical benchmarks at roughly 1/4 the speed of the new 80286 chip at the same clock frequency (in early 1982). This initial performance gap to the rather low-profile and low-priced 8086 line was probably the main reason why Intel's plan to replace the latter (later known as x86) with the iAPX 432 failed. Although engineers saw ways to improve a next generation design, the iAPX 432 capability architecture had now started to be regarded more as an implementation overhead rather than as the simplifying support it was intended to be.

Originally designed for clock frequencies of up to 10 MHz, actual devices sold were specified for maximum clock speeds of 4 MHz, 5 MHz, 7 MHz and 8 MHz with a peak performance of 2 million instructions per second at 8 MHz.

History

Development
Intel's 432 project started in 1976, a year after the 8-bit Intel 8080 was completed and a year before their 16-bit 8086 project began. The 432 project was initially named the 8800, as their next step beyond the existing Intel 8008 and 8080 microprocessors.  This became a very big step.  The instruction sets of these 8-bit processors were not very well fitted for typical Algol-like compiled languages. However, the major problem was their small native addressing ranges, just 16 KB for 8008 and 64 KB for 8080, far too small for many complex software systems without using some kind of bank switching, memory segmentation, or similar mechanism (which was built into the 8086, a few years later on).  Intel now aimed to build a sophisticated complete system in a few LSI chips, that was functionally equal to or better than the best 32-bit minicomputers and mainframes requiring entire cabinets of older chips.  This system would support multiprocessors, modular expansion, fault tolerance, advanced operating systems, advanced programming languages, very large applications, ultra reliability, and ultra security.  Its architecture would address the needs of Intel's customers for a decade.

The iAPX 432 development team was managed by Bill Lattin, with Justin Rattner as the lead engineer (although one source states that Fred Pollack was the lead engineer). (Rattner would later become CTO of Intel.) Initially the team worked from Santa Clara, but in March 1977 Lattin and his team of 17 engineers moved to Intel's new site in Portland. Pollack later specialized in superscalarity and became the lead architect of the i686 chip Intel Pentium Pro.

It soon became clear that it would take several years and many engineers to design all this.  And it would similarly take several years of further progress in Moore's Law, before improved chip manufacturing could fit all this into a few dense chips.  Meanwhile, Intel urgently needed a simpler interim product to meet the immediate competition from Motorola, Zilog, and National Semiconductor. So Intel began a rushed project to design the 8086 as a low-risk incremental evolution from the 8080, using a separate design team.  The mass-market 8086 shipped in 1978.

The 8086 was designed to be backward-compatible with the 8080 in the sense that 8080 assembly language could be mapped on to the 8086 architecture using a special assembler. Existing 8080 assembly source code (albeit no executable code) was thereby made upward compatible with the new 8086 to a degree. In contrast, the 432 had no software compatibility or migration requirements.  The architects had total freedom to do a novel design from scratch, using whatever techniques they guessed  would be best for large-scale systems and software.  They applied fashionable computer science concepts from universities, particularly capability machines, object-oriented programming, high-level CISC machines, Ada, and densely encoded instructions.  This ambitious mix of novel features made the chip larger and more complex. The chip's complexity limited the clock speed and lengthened the design schedule.

The core of the design — the main processor — was termed the General Data Processor (GDP) and built as two integrated circuits: one (the 43201) to fetch and decode instructions, the other (the 43202) to execute them. Most systems would also include the 43203 Interface Processor (IP) which operated as a channel controller for I/O, and an Attached Processor (AP), a conventional Intel 8086 which provided "processing power in the I/O subsystem".

These were some of the largest  designs of the era. The two-chip GDP had a combined count of approximately 97,000 transistors while the single chip IP had approximately 49,000. By comparison, the Motorola 68000 (introduced in 1979) had approximately 40,000 transistors.

In 1983, Intel released two additional integrated circuits for the iAPX 432 Interconnect Architecture: the 43204 Bus Interface Unit (BIU) and 43205 Memory Control Unit (MCU). These chips allowed for nearly glueless multiprocessor systems with up to 63 nodes.

The project's failures
Some of the innovative features of the iAPX 432 were detrimental to good performance. In many cases, the iAPX 432 had a significantly slower instruction throughput than conventional microprocessors of the era, such as the National Semiconductor 32016, Motorola 68010 and Intel 80286. One problem was that the two-chip implementation of the GDP limited it to the speed of the motherboard's electrical wiring. A larger issue was the capability architecture needed large associative caches to run efficiently, but the chips had no room left for that. The instruction set also used bit-aligned variable-length instructions instead of the usual semi-fixed byte or word-aligned formats used in the majority of computer designs. Instruction decoding was therefore more complex than in other designs. Although this did not hamper performance in itself, it used additional transistors (mainly for a large barrel shifter) in a design that was already lacking space and transistors for caches, wider buses and other performance oriented features. In addition, the BIU was designed to support fault-tolerant systems, and in doing so up to 40% of the bus time was held up in wait states.

Another major problem was its immature and untuned Ada compiler. It used high-cost object-oriented instructions in every case, instead of the faster scalar instructions where it would have made sense to do so. For instance the iAPX 432 included a very expensive inter-module procedure call instruction, which the compiler used for all calls, despite the existence of much faster branch and link instructions. Another very slow call was enter_environment, which set up the memory protection. The compiler ran this for every single variable in the system, even when variables were used inside an existing environment and did not have to be checked. To make matters worse, data passed to and from procedures was always passed by value-return rather than by reference.  When running the Dhrystone benchmark, parameter passing took ten times longer than all other computations combined.

According to the New York Times, "the i432 ran 5 to 10 times more slowly than its competitor, the Motorola 68000".

Impact and similar designs
The iAPX 432 was one of the first systems to implement the new IEEE-754 Standard for Floating-Point Arithmetic.

An outcome of the failure of the 432 was that microprocessor designers concluded that object support in the chip leads to a complex design that will invariably run slowly, and the 432 was often cited as a counter-example by proponents of RISC designs. However, some hold that the OO support was not the primary problem with the 432, and that the implementation shortcomings (especially in the compiler) mentioned above would have made any CPU design slow. Since the iAPX 432 there has been only one other attempt at a similar design, the Rekursiv processor, although the INMOS Transputer's process support was similar — and very fast.

Intel had spent considerable time, money, and mindshare on the 432, had a skilled team devoted to it, and was unwilling to abandon it entirely after its failure in the marketplace. A new architect—Glenford Myers—was brought in to produce an entirely new architecture and implementation for the core processor, which would be built in a joint Intel/Siemens project (later BiiN), resulting in the i960-series processors. The i960 RISC subset became popular for a time in the embedded processor market, but the high-end 960MC and the tagged-memory 960MX were marketed only for military applications.

According to the New York Times, Intel's collaboration with HP on the Merced processor (later known as Itanium) was the company's comeback attempt for the very high-end market.

Architecture
The iAPX 432 instructions have variable length, between 6 and 321 bits. Unusually, they are not byte-aligned, that is, they may contain odd numbers of bits and directly follow each other without regard to byte boundaries.

Object-oriented memory and capabilities
The iAPX 432 has hardware and microcode support for object-oriented programming and capability-based addressing. The system uses segmented memory, with up to 224 segments of up to 64 KB each, providing a total virtual address space of 240 bytes. The physical address space is 224 bytes (16 MB).

Programs are not able to reference data or instructions by address; instead they must specify a segment and an offset within the segment. Segments are referenced by access descriptors (ADs), which provide an index into the system object table and a set of rights (capabilities) governing accesses to that segment. Segments may be "access segments", which can only contain Access Descriptors, or "data segments" which cannot contain ADs. The hardware and microcode rigidly enforce the distinction between data and access segments, and will not allow software to treat data as access descriptors, or vice versa.

System-defined objects consist of either a single access segment, or an access segment and a data segment. System-defined segments contain data or access descriptors for system-defined data at designated offsets, though the operating system or user software may extend these with additional data. Each system object has a type field which is checked by microcode, such that a Port Object cannot be used where a Carrier Object is needed. User programs can define new object types which will get the full benefit of the hardware type checking, through the use of type control objects (TCOs).

In Release 1 of the iAPX 432 architecture, a system-defined object typically consisted of an access segment, and optionally (depending on the object type) a data segment specified by an access descriptor at a fixed offset within the access segment.

By Release 3 of the architecture, in order to improve performance, access segments and data segments were combined into single segments of up to 128 kB, split into an access part and a data part of 0–64 KB each. This reduced the number of object table lookups dramatically, and doubled the maximum virtual address space.

The iAPX432 recognizes fourteen types of predefined system objects:
 instruction object contains executable instructions
 domain object represents a program module and contains references to subroutines and data
 context object represents the context of a process in execution
 type-definition object represents a software-defined object type
 type-control object represents type-specific privilege
 object table identifies the system's collection of active object descriptors
 storage resource object represents a free storage pool
 physical storage object identifies free storage blocks in memory
 storage claim object limits storage that may be allocated by all associated storage resource objects
 process object identifies a running process
 port object represents a port and message queue for interprocess communication
 carrier Carriers carry messages to and from ports
 processor contains state information for one processor in the system
 processor communication object is used for interprocessor communication

Garbage collection
Software running on the 432 does not need to explicitly deallocate objects that are no longer needed. Instead, the microcode implements part of the marking portion of Edsger Dijkstra's on-the-fly parallel garbage collection algorithm (a mark-and-sweep style collector). The entries in the system object table contain the bits used to mark each object as being white, black, or grey as needed by the collector. The iMAX 432 operating system includes the software portion of the garbage collector.

Instruction format
Executable instructions are contained within a system "instruction object". Due to instructions being bit-aligned, a 16-bit bit displacement into the instruction object allows the object to contain up to 65,536 bits (8,192 bytes) of instructions.

Instructions consist of an operator, consisting of a class and an opcode, and zero to three operand references. "The fields are organized to present information to the processor in the sequence required for decoding". More frequently used operators are encoded using fewer bits. The instruction begins with the 4 or 6 bit class field which indicates the number of operands, called the order of the instruction, and the length of each operand. This is optionally followed by a 0 to 4 bit format field which describes the operands (if there are no operands the format is not present). Then come zero to three operands, as described by the format.  The instruction is terminated by the 0 to 5 bit opcode, if any (some classes contain only one instruction and therefore have no opcode). "The Format field permits the GDP to appear to the programmer as a zero-, one-, two-, or three-address architecture." The format field indicates that an operand is a data reference, or the top or next-to-top element of the operand stack.

See also
 iAPX, for the iAPX name

Notes

References

External links
 IAPX 432 manuals at Bitsavers.org
 Computer History Museum
 Intel iAPX432 Micromainframe contains a list of all the Intel  documentation associated with the iAPX 432, a list of hardware part numbers and a list of more than 30 papers.

Capability systems
High-level language computer architecture
Intel microprocessors

Intel iAPX 432


Meserie naturală este un film românesc din 2015 regizat de Florin Andreescu.

Prezentare

Note

Legături externe

Vezi și
 2015 în film

Filme românești
Filme în limba română
Filme din 2015
Filme documentare românești

Meserie naturală


طيران إيطاليا (بالإنجليزية: Air Italy) هي شركة طيران مقرها في غالاراتي ، إيطاليا.تعمل في خدمات لمنظمي الرحلات السياحية إلى وجهات في أوروبا والبرازيل وكينيا. القواعد الرئيسية لها مطار نابولي وفيرونا مع مركز مطار مالبينسا في ميلانو.

شركات طيران انحلت في 2018
شركات طيران أسست سنة 2005
شركات طيران سابقة في إيطاليا

طيران إيطاليا (2005-2018)


Alt kültür, bir kültür içindeki bir grup insandır. Hâkim kültürle bağlantısını koparmadan ancak çeşitli önemli noktalarda ayrılarak gelişen bir kültür "alt kültür" olarak tanımlanır.

Alt kültür örnekleri arasında hippiler, hipsterler, emolar, apaçiler, furry fandom, gothlar, motosiklet kulübü üyeleri ve dazlaklar sayılabilir. Alt kültür kavramı sosyoloji ve kültürel çalışmalarda geliştirilmiştir. Alt kültürler, karşı kültürlerden farklıdır.

Alt kültürün kaynağı, belli bir yaş grubuna, üyelerin kökenine, ırkına, ekonomik sınıfına, cinsiyetine dayanabilir ve alt kültürü belirleyen unsurlar genellikle grubun estetik, dinsel, mesleki, siyasi ve cinselliğe bakış açılarıdır.

Gençlik Alt Kültürleri

Hâkim kültür içinde, gençlerin davranışlarına uygun rehberlikte bulunan, gençler tarafından paylaşılmış ve kabul edilmiş uygulamaları, tutumları, değerleri ve normları kapsayan gençlik alt kültürleri yer almaktadır. Çeşitli gençlik grupları; giyim tarzları, dinledikleri müzik türü, saç şekilleri, geliştirdikleri konuşma dilleri, benimsedikleri değer ve normları, tutum ve davranışları gibi özellikleri ile hâkim kültür içinde alt kültür grubu olarak varlıklarını sergilemektedirler.

Değerler ve normlar, dil, giyim ve saç tarzı, müzik ve boş zamanları değerlendirme biçimleri gibi unsurlar gençlik alt kültürlerinin genel belirleyicileri olarak kabul edilebilir. Bu kültürel unsurların en önemli özelliği, hızla yayılmaları şeklinde ifade edilebilir.

Notlar

Altkültür


est un film britannico-américain écrit, produit et réalisé par Christopher Nolan, sorti en 2023.

Il s'agit d'un film biographique et d'une adaptation du livre Robert Oppenheimer : Triomphe et tragédie d'un génie (2005) de Kai Bird et Martin J. Sherwin sur Robert Oppenheimer, régulièrement surnommé le .

L'intrigue est présentée de manière non linéaire et alterne trois séquences temporelles : l'ascension d'Oppenheimer de Cambridge à Los Alamos entre les années 1920 et 1940, son audition pour le maintien de son habilitation de sécurité en 1954 ainsi que l'audience de confirmation par le Sénat de Lewis Strauss au poste de secrétaire au Commerce  en 1959. Cette dernière est présentée en noir et blanc aux spectateurs.

Synopsis

En 1926, Robert Oppenheimer étudie au laboratoire Cavendish de Cambridge au Royaume-Uni. Outre son mal du pays, il est en proie à des crises d'anxiété, surtout parce qu'il ne se sent pas à l'aise dans les travaux pratiques; il préfère la théorie. Il travaille sous la direction de l'exigeant Patrick Blackett et va même jusqu'à empoisonner la pomme de ce dernier. Il se ravisera cependant, surtout quand Niels Bohr sera sur le point de la manger accidentellement. Oppenheimer termine son doctorat en physique à l'université de Göttingen en Allemagne et rencontre notamment Werner Heisenberg lors d'une conférence à l'École polytechnique fédérale de Zurich. Il retourne ensuite aux États-Unis où il espère développer ses recherches en physique quantique. Il commence à enseigner à l'université de Californie à Berkeley et au California Institute of Technology. En 1936, il rencontre Jean Tatlock, une jeune femme membre du Parti communiste. Ils entretiendront une relation amoureuse intermittente jusqu'à la mort de celle-ci , et ce, malgré le mariage d'Oppenheimer avec Katherine Puening, biologiste et ex-communiste, qui a lieu en 1940. Lié à des communistes, Robert Oppenheimer est dès lors surveillé notamment par le FBI.

En 1939, au début de la Seconde Guerre mondiale, le général Leslie Richard Groves recrute Oppenheimer pour diriger le projet Manhattan. Le but de celui-ci est de développer une bombe atomique. Le scientifique lui a alors assuré qu'il n'avait aucune sympathie communiste. Oppenheimer, qui est juif, est par ailleurs particulièrement motivé pour devancer les nazis sur leur programme d'armes nucléaires en cours, dirigé par Werner Heisenberg, qu'il connaît bien. Oppenheimer rassemble une équipe de scientifiques comprenant Edward Teller, Isidor Isaac Rabi et . Il les regroupe à Los Alamos au Nouveau-Mexique au sein d'un laboratoire pour créer secrètement la bombe avec l'intention qu'elle sauverait le monde malgré ses répercussions mondiales potentielles. Pendant le développement, il reçoit la visite de Niels Bohr et s'entretient également avec Albert Einstein, qui lui parlent de la possibilité qu'une telle bombe déclenche une réaction en chaîne qui pourrait détruire le monde.

En 1945, la Seconde Guerre mondiale touche à sa fin en Europe après la capitulation du Troisième Reich. Certains scientifiques du projet commencent à avoir des doutes sur la nécessité de poursuivre le projet. Néanmoins, la bombe est terminée, et l'essai Trinity a lieu avec succès le , juste avant la conférence de Potsdam. Le président américain Harry S. Truman décide de larguer des bombes atomiques sur Hiroshima et Nagasaki pour forcer la reddition du Japon. Dès lors, Robert Oppenheimer devient aux yeux du public le . Hanté par l'immense destruction provoquée par les bombes, le scientifique rencontre le président américain pour l'exhorter à la retenue dans le développement d'armes de plus en plus puissantes. Truman n'est cependant pas touché par la détresse d'Oppenheimer, qu'il perçoit comme une faiblesse, et insiste sur le fait que lui seul, en tant que président, porte la responsabilité de l'utilisation de la bombe. Oppenheimer continue néanmoins de ressentir une intense culpabilité.

Oppenheimer critique alors la poursuite du développement nucléaire, en particulier l'élaboration de la bombe à hydrogène. Cela l'oppose donc à son ancien collaborateur, Edward Teller. Sa position devient un point de discorde au milieu de la guerre froide contre l'Union soviétique. Lewis Strauss, président de la Commission de l'énergie atomique des États-Unis, en veut à Oppenheimer notamment en raison d'une humiliation publique qu'il a subie lors d'un débat sur la circulation des isotopes. Strauss est également persuadé qu'Oppenheimer l'a critiqué auprès d'Einstein. En , Strauss manœuvre en secret et organise l'audition de sécurité d'Oppenheimer, visant à prouver que le scientifique est un espion à la solde des Soviétiques. Défendu par certains proches, Oppenheimer est trahi par le témoignage de Teller et d'autres associés. Strauss exploite les liens d'Oppenheimer avec des communistes, anciens ou actuels, tels que sa défunte maîtresse Jean Tatlock et son frère Frank. Malgré les témoignages de plusieurs alliés, l'habilitation de sécurité d'Oppenheimer est révoquée. Cela ternit son image publique et anéantit son influence politique. Plus tard, une audience de confirmation du Sénat se réunit pour valider ou non la nomination de Lewis Strauss au poste de Secrétaire au Commerce. Contre toute attente, les motivations personnelles et secrètes de Strauss pour faire chuter Oppenheimer sont révélées par David L. Hill, ancien membre du Projet Manhattan. Ces révélations provoquent l'échec de la validation de Strauss.

En 1963, le président Lyndon B. Johnson remet à Oppenheimer le prix Enrico-Fermi en signe de réhabilitation politique et médiatique. Il est alors révélé que la conversation antérieure d'Oppenheimer avec Einstein ne concernait pas du tout Lewis Strauss, mais plutôt les implications profondes des armes nucléaires sur le long terme. Oppenheimer se demande si l'essai Trinity, et dans une plus large mesure la création de l'arme atomique, n'a pas déclenché une réaction en chaîne d'événements qui pourraient conduire à un holocauste nucléaire.

Fiche technique

 Titre original et français :
 Réalisation : Christopher Nolan
 Scénario : Christopher Nolan, d'après la biographie Robert Oppenheimer : Triomphe et tragédie d'un génie de Kai Bird et Martin J. Sherwin
 Musique : Ludwig Göransson
 Direction artistique : Samantha Englender et Anthony D. Parrillo
 Décors : Ruth De Jong
 Costumes : Ellen Mirojnick
 Photographie : Hoyte van Hoytema
 Montage : Jennifer Lame
 Production : Christopher Nolan, Charles Roven et Emma Thomas
 Production déléguée : Thomas Hayslip
 Sociétés de production : Atlas Entertainment et Syncopy ; Universal Pictures (coproductions)
 Sociétés de distribution : Universal Pictures, Sony Pictures Releasing
 Budget :  de dollars
 Pays de production : ,
 Langue originale : anglais
 Format : couleur et noir et blanc —  (IMAX)– 2,20:1
 Genres : drame biographique, historique
 Durée :
 Dates de sortie
 France, Belgique, Suisse romande :
 États-Unis :
 Classification :
 États-Unis : R-Restricted (interdit aux moins de 17 ans non accompagnés)
 France : tous publics

Distribution

Version française réalisée par la société de doublage Dubbing Brothers, sous la direction artistique de Michel Derain.
  et selon le carton du doublage français cinématographique.

Production

Genèse et développement
En 2005, à la suite de la sortie de la biographie Robert Oppenheimer : Triomphe et tragédie d'un génie, le réalisateur Sam Mendes se montre intéressé pour l'adapter en film. Cependant, le projet ne se concrétise jamais et les auteurs se montrent pessimistes quant aux perspectives d'adaptation du livre à l'écran. En 2019, à la fin de la production de Tenet, Robert Pattinson offre à Christopher Nolan un livre contenant les discours d'Oppenheimer. Il estime que c'est une extension logique du film Tenet et que l'idée d'explorer la réalité historique plutôt que de l'employer comme analogie dans un film de science-fiction était fascinante.

En décembre 2020, Warner Bros. annonce son intention de donner à ses films de 2021 des sorties simultanées à cause de l'impact de la pandémie de coronavirus sur l'industrie cinématographique. Nolan, qui s'était associé au studio depuis Insomnia en 2002, se dit indigné par la décision. Les médias évoquent en janvier 2021 la possibilité que le prochain film de Nolan soit le premier à ne pas être financé par Warner Bros. À la mi-2021, le cinéaste avait déjà quitté Warner Bros. et avait rencontré d'autres studios pour développer son nouveau projet.

En septembre 2021, il est annoncé que Nolan écrirait et réaliserait un film biographique se déroulant pendant la Seconde Guerre mondiale sur Robert Oppenheimer, créateur de la bombe atomique, avec Cillian Murphy en négociation pour jouer le rôle du physicien. Le réalisateur lit finalement Robert Oppenheimer : Triomphe et tragédie d'un génie plus tard cette année-là et décide de baser son scénario sur le livre, considérant Oppenheimer comme le personnage historique le plus important à avoir jamais vécu en raison de son rôle dans la création de la bombe atomique. Nolan approche plusieurs studios pour le projet, notamment Sony Pictures, Universal Pictures, Paramount Pictures et Apple Studios, en raison de sa relation tendue avec Warner Bros. Selon certaines sources, Paramount est très vite hors de la sélection à la suite du remplacement du président Jim Gianopulos par Brian Robbins, un défenseur des services de streaming.

Universal Pictures accepte de financer et de distribuer le film, la production devant commencer au premier trimestre de 2022. Le studio accepte aussi un budget de 100 millions de dollars, 20% du box-office du premier week-end, une période de trois semaines avant et après le film durant laquelle Universal ne peut sortir d'autres films.

Écriture
Oppenheimer est le premier scénario écrit par Christopher Nolan à la première personne. Il souhaite que le récit soit transmis du point de vue d'Oppenheimer et décrit la texture du film comme posant la question  avec l'intention d'en faire un récit édifiant. Il commence à écrire le scénario après avoir terminé Tenet. Nolan choisit d'explorer la manière qu'ont les conséquences à affecter les gens. Il décide d'alterner des scènes en couleur et en noir et blanc, expliquant qu'il souhaitait que le film soit transmis d'un point de vue à la fois objectif et subjectif. Sur la dichotomie entre la couleur et le noir et blanc, il déclare que la majorité du film en couleur étaye les expériences subjectives d'Oppenheimer, tandis qu'une  est présentée dans la chronologie en noir et blanc. Les visuels du monde quantique et des vagues d'énergie renforcent le côté subjectif du film. Nolan note qu'Oppenheimer ne s'est jamais publiquement excusé pour son rôle dans les bombardements atomiques d'Hiroshima et de Nagasaki et désire dépeindre cette culpabilité qui le ronge.

Christopher Nolan commence par essayer de trouver le lien qui relie le domaine quantique, la vibration de l'énergie et le parcours personnel d'Oppenheimer. Il cherche aussi à montrer les difficultés de sa vie, en partie ce qui concerne sa vie sexuelle. Nolan souhaite raconter franchement sa liaison avec Jean Tatlock ainsi que l'influence qu'elle a eu sur sa vie, étant communiste. Nolan souhaite également explorer la relation entre l'amiral Lewis Strauss et Oppenheimer. Pour cela, il s'inspire de la relation entre Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart et Antonio Salieri dans le film Amadeus (1984). Nolan compte aussi retranscrire l'entrevue d'Oppenheimer avec le président Harry S. Truman, ce dernier le qualifiant de cry baby. Nolan cherche à transmettre la scène du point de vue d'Oppenheimer, estimant que c'est  tout en soulignant qu'il s'agit d'un . Il décide aussi de changer le ton du film après les bombardements atomiques d'Hiroshima et de Nagasaki, désireux de passer du .

Attribution des rôles
En , Cillian Murphy est annoncé dans le rôle-titre. Il est ensuite rejoint par Robert Downey Jr. et Matt Damon, dans les rôles respectifs de Lewis Strauss et Leslie Groves. Emily Blunt rejoint ensuite le projet dans le rôle de Katherine Oppenheimer. En , Florence Pugh et Benny Safdie rejoignent la distribution pour interpréter Jean Tatlock et Edward Teller, alors que Rami Malek est annoncé dans un rôle non précisé. En , la présence de Josh Hartnett est également confirmée. En , la présence d'Alden Ehrenreich et David Krumholtz est confirmée. Ils sont suivis par Michael Angarano, Kenneth Branagh ou encore David Dastmalchian.

Oppenheimer marque la sixième collaboration entre Christopher Nolan et Cillian Murphy, mais la première avec Murphy en tête d'affiche. Pour se préparer au rôle, l'acteur fait beaucoup de lectures et de recherches sur Oppenheimer, perd beaucoup de poids et apprend plusieurs milliers de mots de néerlandais.

Le processus de casting était si secret que certains des acteurs ne savaient pas quel rôle ils allaient jouer jusqu'à ce qu'ils signent. Robert Downey Jr., Matt Damon et Emily Blunt ont subi des réductions de salaire pour travailler sur le film, gagnant 4 millions de dollars chacun au lieu de leurs salaires habituels de 10 à 20 millions de dollars. Robert Downey Jr. se rend chez Nolan pour lire le scénario, comme d'habitude, imprimé en noir sur du papier rouge. Emily Blunt rencontre Nolan à Los Angeles et accepte avec enthousiasme le rôle.

Alors que le tournage a déjà débuté, Gary Oldman déclare qu'il sera sur le plateau pendant une journée en mai pour .

Le film marque le premier film de Nolan sans Michael Caine depuis 2005. Interrogé sur l'absence de Caine, Nolan répond qu'

Tournage
La pré-production commence en janvier 2022 au Nouveau-Mexique où un casting de deux jours a lieu à Santa Fe et Los Alamos afin de trouver des acteurs pour jouer les résidents locaux, le personnel militaire et les scientifiques. Un autre casting a eu lieu en février. Le tournage commence fin février 2022 et dure 57 jours avec Hoyte van Hoytema comme directeur de la photographie.

Le film est tourné en IMAX 65 mm et en format large 65 mm sur pellicule. Oppenheimer est par ailleurs le premier film avec des séquences tournées en IMAX noir et blanc.

Au cours de la deuxième semaine d'avril, le tournage a lieu à l'université de Princeton. Le tournage a également lieu en Californie principalement autour du campus de l'université de Californie à Berkeley. L'équipe de production filme des scènes à Belen (Nouveau-Mexique) avec Murphy escaladant une tour en acier, une réplique des installations du projet Manhattan, par mauvais temps. Le tournage se termine en mai 2022.

Le tournage impliquait l'utilisation de vrais explosifs pour représenter l'essai nucléaire de Trinity, Nolan ayant choisi de ne pas utiliser d'effets spéciaux numériques. Tout en utilisant des miniatures pour l'effet pratique, le superviseur des effets spéciaux du film, Scott R. Fisher, les qualifie de , car l'équipe a essayé de rendre les modèles aussi grands que possible.

Toute une ville de style années 1940 a également été construite ex nihilo. Parce que Nolan voulait rendre le film aussi subjectif que possible, en racontant tout du point de vue d'Oppenheimer, il a cherché à représenter ses idées et ses réflexions sur la façon dont il imaginait le monde quantique et les vagues d'énergie.

Musique

Le , on apprend que la musique du film est composée par Ludwig Göransson, qui a déjà travaillé avec Christopher Nolan sur  (2020).

Sortie et accueil

Promotion
La sortie concomitante d'Oppenheimer avec Barbie crée un effet d'amplification qui pousse nombre de spectateurs à voir les deux films successivement pour mieux apprécier leur contraste. Aux États-Unis,  achètent ainsi un double billet auprès de la chaîne de cinémas AMC pour voir les deux films dans la même journée, le jour de leur sortie, le 21 juillet 2023.

Le 14 juillet 2023, la grève de la SAG-AFTRA est déclarée durant la première londonienne du film. Les acteurs ont pu parcourir le tapis rouge, mais se sont retirés avant la projection par solidarité. La première new-yorkaise devrait avoir lieu mais sans les acteurs.

Critique

Sur l'agrégateur de critiques Rotten Tomatoes, il obtient 93 % d'avis favorables pour  et une note moyenne de . Le consensus suivant résume les critiques compilées par le site :

Sur Metacritic, qui utilise une moyenne pondérée, le film obtient une note de  pour .

Sur le site Allociné, qui recense  de presse, le film obtient la note moyenne de . Du côté des avis positifs, Aurélien Allin de CinemaTeaser écrit notamment :  Pour le site Écran Large,

Dans Ouest-France, on peut notamment lire  Nathalie Chifflet du Dauphiné Libéré souligne  qui

Certains avis sont plutôt négatifs comme dans Libération :  Josué Morel du site Critikat écrit quant à lui  Les critiques du Masque et la Plume sont également négatifs,  pour Jean-Marc Lalanne des Inrockuptibles. Pour Eric Neuhoff du Figaro

Box-office

Notes et références

Voir aussi

Articles connexes
 Projet Manhattan
 Trinity (essai atomique)
 Bombardements atomiques d'Hiroshima et de Nagasaki
 Les Maîtres de l'ombre, film de 1989 au sujet similaire

Liens externes

Film américain sorti en 2023
Film britannique sorti en 2023
Film biographique américain
Film biographique britannique
Film dramatique américain
Film dramatique britannique
Film partiellement en noir et blanc
Film réalisé par Christopher Nolan
Film avec une musique composée par Ludwig Göransson
Film d'Universal Pictures
Film de Columbia Pictures
Film tourné en Californie
Film tourné au New Jersey
Film tourné au Nouveau-Mexique
Film tourné en 2022
Film biographique sur une personnalité scientifique
Film se déroulant dans les années 1920
Film se déroulant dans les années 1930
Film se déroulant dans les années 1940
Film se déroulant dans les années 1960
Film se déroulant en Allemagne
Film se déroulant en Angleterre
Film se déroulant au Nouveau-Mexique
Film se déroulant à Washington (district de Columbia)
Robert Oppenheimer

Oppenheimer (film)


Ștefan Stroia (n. 1886) a fost un general român care a îndeplinit funcția de inspector general al Justiției Militare (1940-1943) în timpul celui de-al Doilea Război Mondial.

A lucrat o lungă perioadă ca magistrat militar.

Decorații
  Ordinul "Steaua României" în gradul de Ofițer (9 mai 1941)

Note

Nașteri în 1886
Generali români din Al Doilea Război Mondial
Decorați cu Ordinul Steaua României

Ștefan Stroia


Antonino Pizzolato, né le  à Castelvetrano, est un haltérophile italien.

Palmarès

Jeux olympiques
 Jeux olympiques d'été de 2020 à Tokyo
  Médaille de bronze en moins de 81 kg.

Championnats du monde
 Championnats du monde d'haltérophilie 2017 à Anaheim, États-Unis
  Médaille de bronze à l'épaulé en moins de 85 kg.
  Médaille de bronze au total en moins de 85 kg.

Championnats d'Europe
 Championnats d'Europe d'haltérophilie 2022 à Tirana, Albanie
  Médaille d'or à l'arraché en moins de 89 kg.
  Médaille d'or à l'épaulé-jeté en moins de 89 kg.
  Médaille d'or au total en moins de 89 kg.
 Championnats d'Europe d'haltérophilie 2021 à Moscou, Russie
  Médaille d'or à l'arraché en moins de 81 kg.
  Médaille d'or au total en moins de 81 kg.
  Médaille d'argent à l'épaulé-jeté en moins de 81 kg.
 Championnats d'Europe d'haltérophilie 2019 à Batoumi, Géorgie
  Médaille d'or à l'épaulé-jeté en moins de 81 kg.
  Médaille d'or au total en moins de 81 kg.
 Championnats d'Europe d'haltérophilie 2016 à Førde, Norvège
  Médaille de bronze à l'épaulé-jeté en moins de 85 kg.

Jeux méditerranéens
 2022 à  Oran
  Médaille d'or à l'arraché en moins de .
  Médaille d'or à l'épaulé-jeté en moins de .

Notes et références

Liens externes

Haltérophile italien
Médaillé de bronze olympique italien
Naissance en août 1996
Haltérophile (homme) aux Jeux olympiques d'été de 2020

Antonino Pizzolato


Mémoires de la Société Linnéenne de Paris, (abreviado Mém. Soc. Linn. Paris), fue una revista ilustrada con descripciones botánicas que fue editada por la Sociedad Linneana de París. Se publicaron 6 volúmenes en los años 1822 a 1828, ( el volumen n.º 2 no fue publicado y los volúmenes del 3 al 6 llevaron por nombre Annales de la Société Linnéenne de Paris.

Referencias

Enlaces externos
en IPNI

Revistas de botánica


La Asamblea General de las Naciones Unidas, 1. Decide designar el 20 de octubre de 2015 el segundo Día Mundial de la Estadística, con el tema general "Datos mejores, vidas mejores"; 2. Decide también celebrar el Día Mundial de la Estadística cada cinco años, el 20 de octubre.

Día Mundial de la Estadística 2020

El 3 de junio de 2015 en la Resolución 69/282 la Asamblea General de las Naciones Unidas, 1. Decide designar el 20 de octubre de 2015 el segundo Día Mundial de la Estadística, con el tema general "Datos mejores, vidas mejores"; 2. Decide también celebrar el Día Mundial de la Estadística cada cinco años, el 20 de octubre.

Historia

Referencias

Véase también

 Estadística

Enlaces externos

 Sitio Oficial del Día Mundial de la Estadística en inglés

Estadistica
Fiestas de octubre
Estadística
Introducciones de 2010

Día Mundial de la Estadística


شلال فولمر هو شلال يقع في منتزه الأطفال التفاعلي جورج واشنطن، في مدينة دينغمانز فيري التابعة لمقاطعة بايك في ولاية بنسيلفانيا بالولايات المتحدة.

هي شلالات بارتفاع 17 متر و هي الأعلى بين الشلالات التي تسبقها في أعلى النهر() و من الشلالات التي تليها ()

صور

المراجع

شلالات الولايات المتحدة الأمريكية

شلالات مقاطعة بايك (بنسيلفانيا)

شلال فولمر


Çavuş, Türk Silahlı kuvvetlerde erbaşlar sınıfında ikinci yüksek rütbe olup, seviyeleri uzman onbaşılar ile sözleşmeli çavuşlar arasındadır.

Türk Silahlı Kuvvetleri

Gazneli, Karahanlı ve Selçuklu devletinde çavuşluk yüksek görevlerden biriydi. Siyasal ilişkileri, elçilik görevlerini ve protokol işlerini yönetirlerdi. Osmanlı'da denetim görevlerini üstlendiler. Sarayda müezzinlik, müzikçilik, mehterlik yapanlar çavuş şanını taşırlardı. II.Mahmud'un 1826'dan sonra gerçekleştirdiği askeri yenilikler sırasında geleneksel çavuşluklar kaldırılarak kara ve deniz ordularında erle subay arasındaki küçük rütbelere çavuş sanı verildi. Erleri temsilen kullanılan çavuş rütbesi, onbaşı rütbesininin bir kademe üstüdür. Çavuş, erlerle subay arasındaki ilişkileri düzenler. Ayrıca çavuşlar, bir manganın komutanı da olabilirler. Askeriyede çavuşlar nöbet tutmazlar ancak komutanların emriyle nöbet tutabilirler.

Türk Silahlı Kuvvetleri'nde sözleşmeli çavuş
Sözleşmeli Çavuş, 6191 sayılı Sözleşmeli Erbaş ve Er kanunu kapsamında, Sözleşmeli Onbaşı olarak en az 2 yıl görev yaptıktan sonra kadro görev yeri uygun olduğu takdirde, yeterlilik durumu da göz önüne alınarak Sözleşmeli Onbaşının Türk Silahlı Kuvvetlerinde aldığı Çavuş rütbesidir.

Sözleşmeli Çavuşlar, Sözleşmeli Onbaşı, Sözleşmeli Er ve Erlerin üstü olup, Erbaş sayılırlar. Uzman Erbaş olan Uzman Çavuş ve Uzman Onbaşıların astıdırlar. Özlük hak ve işlemleri aynı Erbaşlar gibi yürütülür.

Sözleşmeli Çavuşlar sınıf değişikliği yapabilirler. Ayrıca askerlerde olduğu gibi sözleşme görev süresince kışlada iskan edilirler. Sözleşmeli Çavuşların sözleşmeleri, 1 yıldan az 3 yıldan fazla olmamak şartıyla en fazla 29 yaşın bitirildiği yılın aralık ayı sonuna kadar uzatılabilir.

Sözleşmeli Çavuşlardan, kendi kusurları olmaksızın sözleşmesi feshedilenler ile kendi isteği ile sözleşmesini yenilemeyenler veya ayrılanlar, ilgili mevzuattaki şartları sağlamak şartıyla Uzman Erbaşlığa veya Astsubaylığa başvurabilirler. Başvuruda bulunan sözleşmeli Sözleşmeli Çavuşlara yönetmelikte belirtilen esaslar dahilinde öncelik verilir.

Ayrıca bakınız
Türk Silahlı Kuvvetleri subay rütbe dereceleri ve işaretleri

Askerî rütbeler

Çavuş


البروتينات الفلورية الخضراء (بالإنجليزية:Green fluorescent protein) أو اختصارا (GFP) هي بروتينات تتكون من 238 حمض أميني (26.9 وحدة كتل ذرية) والتي تشع بلون أخضر فلوري عند تعرضها لضوء أزرق اللون. تتواجد هذه المادة في الكثير من الأحياء البحرية وبشكل خاص في قنديل البحر من نوع إيكووريا فكتوريا. للبروتين الفلوري الأخضر المعزول من قنديل البحر إيكووريا فيكتوريا ذروة إصدار عند طول موجة قدره 509 نانومتر، وهو يعادل تقريبا طول موجة الضوء الأخضر في الطيف المرئي. أصبحت البروتينات الفلورية الخضراء من أهم المواد المستخدمة في مجالات العلوم الحيوية الحديثة، حيث تستخدم لمراقبة عمليات نمو الخلايا العصبية في المخ، وكيفية انتشار الخلايا السرطانية.

تاريخ
استخلص البروتين الأخضر المشع ودرست خصائصه للمرة الأولى في ستينات وسبعينات القرن العشرين على يد عالم الأحياء البحرية أوسامو شيمومورا، والذي لاحظ أن هذا الصنف من قناديل البحر يشع بلون أزرق ثم يعطى بعد ذلك توهجاً أخضر اللون، لذا حاول عزل المادة التي ظن أنها ترتبط بتلك الخاصية المميزة في ذلك الحيوان البحري.
وقام شيمومورا بجمع عشرات الآلاف من هذا الصنف من قناديل البحر، وقد نجح في عزل تلك المادة في العام 1962، حيث ُأطلق عليها لاحقاً اسم البروتين الأخضر المشع. إلا أنه لم يبدأ بإدراك أهميتها كأداة في علم الأحياء الخلوي حتى عام التسعينات من القرن العشرين. حيث قام مارتن تشالفي بنشر كود البروتين الأخضر المشع في خلايا الإشريكية القولونية والربداء الرشيقة.

حصل القائمون على مجموعة أبحاث تتعلق بالمادة على جائزة نوبل في الكيمياء في عامل 2008 وهم، اوسامو شيمومورا، مارتن تشالفي وروجر تسيان.

اقرأ أيضاً
 ضوء بارد
 فحص برادفورد للبروتين
 قائمة المنابع الضوئية
 ضيائية حيوية
 ضيائية فسفورية
 بحر محترق
 حشرات مضيئة
 نسبة كفاءة البروتين

مصادر

بروتينات فلورية
بروتينات مؤتلفة
ضيائية حيوية
طرق البروتين
علم الأحياء الخلوي

بروتينات فلورية خضراء


An Zostera angustifolia in uska species han Liliopsida nga syahan ginhulagway ni Jens Wilken Hornemann, ngan ginhatag han pagkayana nga asya nga ngaran ni Heinrich Gottlieb Ludwig Reichenbach. An Zostera angustifolia in nahilalakip ha genus nga Zostera, ngan familia nga Zosteraceae. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Mga sumpay ha gawas

Zostera

Zostera angustifolia


වසර  599 (DXCIX) යනු ජූලියානු දින දසුන ප්‍රකාර,   බ්‍රහස්පතින්දා දිනයකින් ඇරඹෙන සාමාන්‍ය අවුරුද්දක් (බැඳිය විසින් මුළු දින දසුන දක්වනු ඇත) විය. මෙම වසර සඳහා 599 යන නාමය භාවිත වීම ඇරඹුනේ මුල් මධ්‍යතන යුගයේදී, වසර නම් කිරීම සඳහා යුරෝපයේ ප්‍රචලිත භාවයට පත් ක්‍රමය ලෙසින් ක්‍රිස්තු වර්ෂ දින දසුන් යුගය ඇරඹීම හා සමගය.
ග්‍රෙගරි දිනදසුනේ අවුරුදු

599


La Parranda es una zarzuela en tres actos con música de Francisco Alonso y libreto de Luis Fernández Ardavín. Se estrenó el 26 de abril de 1928 en el Teatro Calderón de Madrid. Obra de trama sencilla, canta la belleza de la rica y frondosa Huerta murciana, la nobleza de sus gentes y las profundas raíces de sus tradiciones.

Luis Fernández Ardavín, poeta, periodista, dramaturgo y guionista cinematográfico, escribió un texto con magníficos versos que fueron muy aplaudidos, especialmente cuando la obra se dio a conocer en el Teatro Romea de Murcia.

La partitura de La Parranda es una de las mejores de Alonso e incluye números que recogen el ambiente y la luz de la región murciana, como el "Coro de botijeros", la "Ronda de las solteras", y el amor por la tradición en la "Salve de Auroros". Destacan también el "Dúo de Aurora y Miguel", el simpático "Terceto cómico" que sostienen Carmela, Retrasao y Don Cuco y las pícaras "Coplas del quisiera", en las que Retrasao da consejos a la recién casada Aurora. Y, sobre todo, la "Canción del platero", bellísima romanza de barítono. Pero sin lugar a dudas, la pieza más famosa es el "Canto a Murcia", interpretada por el protagonista Miguel y Coro.

Personajes

Canto a Murcia
El Canto a Murcia es una pieza musical intensa y brillante y está considerado como uno de los finales de acto más impresionantes de la historia de la zarzuela. Es una exaltación de la hermosura de Murcia, de su huerta y de sus mujeres. Considerado uno de los símbolos que identifican a Murcia, su música, acompaña tanto los actos oficiales y solemnes que se celebran en el Ayuntamiento como los actos lúdicos y festivos, entre los que destacan las Fiestas de Primavera de Murcia. Tal es su popularidad y arraigo entre los murcianos, que se le atribuyen características de himno regional, aunque no es el himno oficial de Murcia, como aparece reflejado en algunos medios.

La Parranda
(Canto a Murcia)
En la huerta del Segura,cuando ríe una huertana,resplandece de hermosura,toda la vega murciana. Y en las ramas del naranjo,brotan flores a su paso,huertanica de mi amor,tú eres pura,y eres casta como el azahar.En la huerta del Segura,cuando ríe una huertana,resplandece de hermosura,toda la vega murciana.Y mirándose al pasar,en la acequia del jardín,en el agua se reflejan,como flores que salieron para verla sonreír,como flores,que salieron para verla sonreír.'''Huerta,risueña huerta,que siempre frutos,y flores das.Murcia,la que cubierta,en todo tiempo,de flor estás.Murcia,son tus mujeres,gala de tu palmar.Murcia,qué hermosa eres,tu huerta,no tiene igual.(bis)'''En la huerta he nacido,para amar y vivir.En tu campo labrado,con noble trabajo,me quiero morir.

Referencias
 Historia, sinopsis y discografía en lazarzuela.webcindario.com
 Sinopsis y letra del Canto a Murcia y de la Romanza del platero
 Vídeo con letra del Canto a Murcia
 Letra con acordes de guitarra del canto a murcia

Zarzuelas de Francisco Alonso
Zarzuelas de 1928

La Parranda


ක්ෂාරීය පාංශු ලෝහ යනු,  ආවර්තිතා  වගුවෙහි පිහිටි  රසායනික මූලද්‍රව්‍ය කාණ්ඩයක් වන අතර, එහි මූලද්‍රව්‍යයන් බෙහෙවින් එක්වැනි ගුණාංග සහිත වෙති. ඒවා සියල්ල,  සම්මත උෂ්ණත්වයෙහි සහ පීඩනයෙහිදී, දිලිසෙන-සුළු,  රිදීවන්-සුදු  පැහැ, තරමක් ප්‍රතික්‍රියක වන අතර,   +2 ක ආරෝපණයක් හෝ ඔක්සිකරණ අංකය +2 ක් සහිත කැටායන තැනීමට, ඒවායේ බාහිරතම ඉලෙක්ට්‍රෝන දෙක පහසුවෙන් අහිමිකර ගනියි.

සටහන්

ආශ්‍රිත

ආවර්තිතා වගුව
 ආවර්තිතා වගුවෙහි කාණ්ඩ
රසායන විද්‍යාව

ක්ෂාරීය පාංශු ලෝහ


Demir Demirkan (12 Ağustos 1972, Adana), Türk şarkıcı-şarkı yazarı ve albüm yapımcısıdır.

Yaşamı
Demir Demirkan 12 Ağustos 1972 tarihinde Adana'da doğdu. İlköğrenimini Çankaya İlkokulu ve TED Ankara Kolejinde tamamladıktan sonra İzmir Özel Çamlaraltı Lisesinde ortaokul ve liseyi bitirdi. Bilkent Üniversitesinde İngilizce ve İngiliz Edebiyatı bölümünü okuduktan sonra Los Angeles'taki Musicians Institute Hollywood'da müzik öğrenimini tamamladı. 1990 yılında üniversite yıllarında olan Demir, Pentagram grubuna gitarist olarak katıldı.

Pentagram grubu ile "Trail Blazer" albümünü tamamladıktan sonra Los Angeles'a taşınarak 1992'de Musicians Institute'da eğitime başladı. Paul Hanson, Scott Henderson, Frank Gambale gibi birçok müzisyenle beraber çalıştı. Mezuniyetinden sonra da Los Angeles'ta kalarak pop, caz, afro, latin ve rock gibi birçok müzik tarzında kayıtlarda bulundu gitar çaldı ve şarkı sözü yazdı.

1996'da İstanbul'a döndü. Dönüşünde Pentagram grubu ile Anatolia albümünün kayıtlarını yaptı ve Şebnem Ferah'ın Kadın albümünün yapımcılığını üstlendi. Aynı yıl Sertab Erener'in Sertab Gibi albümünün prodüksiyonunu gerçekleştirdi (1997). Yapımcılık tarafı ağır bastığı için Pentagram grubundan ayrıldı. 1999 yılında Şebnem Ferah'ın Artık Kısa Cümleler Kuruyorum ve Sertab Erener'in kendi adını taşıyan Sertab Erener albümünü hazırladı. Ricky Martin ve Sertab Erener'in düet yaptığı, yapımcılığını Desmond Child'ın üstlendiği "Private Emotions" adlı şarkının kayıtlarında bulundu ve bu versiyon Orta Doğu ülkelerinde yayınlandı.

1999 yılında Sony Müzik Türkiye ile anlaşma imzaladı. İlk solo albümü Demir Demirkan adıyla 2000 yılının Mayıs ayında yayımlandı.

İki televizyon filminde yardımcı rol olarak oynadı. 2000 yılının sonunda Sertab Erener'in Turuncu albümü için tekrar stüdyoya girdi. 2002 yılının Mart ayında ikinci solo albümü Dünya Benim'i yayımladı.

Demir Demirkan, 2002'nin Ekim ayından itibaren Show TV'de yayınlanmaya başlayan 5'i Bir Yerde adlı dizisinin başrolünde yer aldı. Jenerik şarkısı ve müziklerini yazan Demirkan, "Hayat Sensiz Olmuyor" adlı şarkıya diziden alınan görüntülerin de bulunduğu bir klip çekti.

2003 yılında Eurovision Şarkı Yarışması'nda Türkiye'ye birincilik getiren "Every Way That I Can" adlı şarkının sözlerini yazdı ve Sertab Erener ile birlikte besteledi.

2004 yılında üçüncü solo albümü İstanbul 2004ü, 2007 yılında dördüncü solo albümü Ateş Yağmurunda Çırılçıplakı yayımladı. 2008'de Yolun Yarısı adlı beşinci solo albümünü yayımladı. Öfkem ve Beni 2010 yılında yayımladı. 2012'de 2000-2012yi yayımladı. Aynı yıl sonunda Hatırlayı yayımladı. Daha sonra 2014'te altıncı solosu Tam Ölmek de Değili, 2015'te Günahı Boynuma teklisini yayımladı.

2016'dan beri hayatını çoğunlukla ABD'de sürdüren Demirkan, zaman zaman kısa süreli de olsa Türkiye'ye gelmekte ve orada konserlerine devam etmektedir. 2017'de Pentagram'ın 30. yılı nedeni ile Akustik adlı albümde gruba eşlik etmiş ve gruba yeniden dahil olmuştur. WAR 3 adlı rock/metal üçlemesinin ilk bölümü olan ve tamamı İngilizce parçalardan oluşan WAR 3 - Awakening EP'sini Şubat 2018'de yayımladı. 2019 yılında ikinci İngilizce sözlü albümü olan Elysium in Ashes'ı çıkarmıştır.

Diskografi

Albümler
Demir Demirkan (2000)
Dünya Benim (2002)
2004 İstanbul (2004)
Gelibolu (Orijinal Film Müzikleri) (2005)
Ateş Yağmurunda Çırılçıplak (2007)
Yolun Yarısı (2008)
Painted on Water (Sertab Erener ile) (2010)
2000-2012 (27 Şubat 2012)
Hatırla (2012)
Tam Ölmek de Değil (2014)
Elysium in Ashes (2019)

Çalışmaları
 Pentagram Trail Blazer 1992 Şarkı yazarı, Gitarlar
 Pentagram Anatolia 1997 Şarkı yazarı, Gitarlar
 Şebnem Ferah Kadın 1996 Prodüktör, Gitarlar
 Şebnem Ferah Artık Kısa Cümleler Kuruyorum 1999 Prodüktör, Gitarlar
 Sertap Erener Sertab Gibi 1997 Prodüktör, Gitarlar, şarkı yazarı
 Sertap Erener Sertab 1999 Prodüktör, Gitarlar, şarkı yazarı
 Sertap Erener Turuncu 2001 Prodüktör, Gitarlar, şarkı yazarı
 Demir Demirkan Demir Demirkan 2000 Prodüktör, Gitarlar, şarkı yazarı, Vokal
 Sertap Erener Yeni 2001 Prodüktör, Gitarlar, şarkı yazarı
 Demir Demirkan Dünya benim 2002 Prodüktör, Gitarlar, şarkı yazarı, Vokal
 5'i Bir Yerde Dizi 2002 Başrol, jenerik şarkısı yazarı, yorumcusu
 Every Way That I Can ESC 2003 Besteci ve söz yazarı
 Demir Demirkan 2004 İstanbul 2004 Prodüktör, Gitarlar, şarkı yazarı, Vokal
 Gelibolu Belgeseli Film Müziği
 Demir Demirkan 2007 Ateş Yağmurunda Çırılçıplak
 Demir Demirkan 2008 Yolun Yarısı
 Demir Demirkan 2008 Devrim Arabaları Film Müziği (SİYAD 2009 En İyi Film Müziği Ödülü)
 Demir Demirkan 2012 Kayıp Şehir Dizi Müziği
 Demir Demirkan 2013 Güneşi Beklerken Dizi Müziği
 Demir Demirkan Tam Ölmek de Değil 2014
 Demir Demirkan Günahı Boynuna 2015 Single
 Demir Demirkan Şah Damarından 2016 Single
 Pentagram Akustik Şarkı Yazarı, Gitarlar 2017
 War 3 Demir Demirkan EP 2018
 Şebnem Ferah Parmak İzi 2018 Düzenleme, Gitarlar
 It's a Texas Chrismas Single/Feat Lance Keltner 2018
 Demir Demirkan Elysium In Ashes 2019
 Demir Demirkan Deli Hayaller Single 2020
 Pentagram Bu Düzen Yıkılsın Şarkı Yazarı, Solo Gitar, Single 2020
 Pentagram Sur Single Şarkı Yazarı, Solo Gitar 2021
 Pentagram Pride Single Şarkı Yazarı, Solo Gitar 2021
 Pentagram Makina Elektrika Albüm Solo Gitar

Dış bağlantılar
 Demir Demirkan Homepage

Yaşayan insanlar
1972 doğumlular
Adana doğumlu şarkıcılar
Türk rock şarkıcıları
Türk rock gitaristleri
Pentagram
Türk erkek şarkıcı-şarkı yazarları
21. yüzyılda Türk erkek şarkıcılar
2000'lerin şarkıcıları
2010'ların şarkıcıları
2020'lerin şarkıcıları
Radyo Boğaziçi Müzik Ödülü sahipleri

Demir Demirkan


Gretna () is a town in Dumfries and Galloway, Scotland, originally part of the historic county of Dumfriesshire. It is located close to the A74(M) on the border of Scotland and England and near the mouth of the River Esk. It is the most southeasterly settlement in Scotland.

The town is situated  east-south-east of Dumfries,  east of Annan,  north-west of Carlisle,  south-east of Glasgow and  south of Edinburgh.

History

Etymology
Gretna means "(place at the) gravelly hill", from Old English greot "grit" (in the dative form greoten (which is where the -n comes from) and hoh "hill-spur".

The Lochmaben Stone is a megalith standing in a field, nearly  west of the Sark mouth on the Solway Firth, three hundred yards or so above high water mark on the farm of Old Graitney. It was one of the traditionally recognised meeting places on the England / Scotland border.

17th century
Prior to the Acts of Union 1707 of the Parliaments of England and Scotland, Gretna was a customs post for collecting taxes on cattle crossing the border between the two kingdoms. The Gretna customs post was established in 1612. A drove road was constructed between Gretna and Annan in 1619, possibly to facilitate the transportation of cattle from Wigtownshire, Kirkcudbrightshire and Dumfriesshire to markets in England.

18th century
Gretna's principal claim to fame arose in 1753 when an Act of Parliament, Lord Hardwicke's Marriage Act, was passed in England, which provided, among other things, that if both parties to a marriage were not at least 21 years old, consent to the marriage had to be given by the parents. This Act did not apply in Scotland, which allowed boys to marry at 14 and girls at 12, with or without parental consent.  In addition, the Act required procedures that gave notice of an impending marriage to the community.  As a result, many elopers fled England, and the first Scottish village they reached was often Gretna. The act was repealed in 1849.

World War I
HM Factory, Gretna, codenamed Moorside, was a cordite munitions factory built between Gretna Green and the Solway Firth to supply ammunition to British forces during World War I. This developed into the town of Gretna.

Transport

Rail
In the 1840s, there were three main railway companies building lines around Gretna and this resulted in three railway stations named "Gretna". The first station called "Gretna" was opened by the Glasgow, Dumfries and Carlisle Railway on 23 August 1843, this station was renamed Gretna Green railway station in April 1852. It closed on 6 December 1965, but a new station was opened by British Rail nearby on 20 September 1993, the station is served by Glasgow South Western Line. This station had a new platform added in 2009,to coincide with the redoubling of this section of track. The other two stations were located a short distance to the east of Gretna, over the border in England. Gretna (Caledonian) railway station was opened on 9 September 1847 by the Caledonian Railway on its main line between Carlisle and Glasgow and Edinburgh. The station closed on 10 September 1951. The North British Railway built Gretna (Border Union) railway station next to the Caledonian station, at Gretna junction, on its short link to the Border Union Railway. The station opened on 1 November 1861 and closed during World War One on 9 August 1915.

Roads
A military road was built in 1763 by General Wade linking Gretna to Portpatrick, then the main ferry port to Northern Ireland. This was later to become the route of much of the A75 road to Stranraer. The original route between Gretna and Annan is now the B721 road, and the A75 diverges significantly from it; similarly, the B724 was the original route between Annan and Dumfries.

The main Anglo-Scottish trunk road running north–south through Gretna was the A74 road. With the opening of the M6 motorway to the south of Carlisle in December 1970, most of the A74 in Scotland was upgraded to motorway, these upgraded sections were renamed the A74(M). The Cumberland Gap was the remaining  of non-upgraded dual-carriageway A74 between the northern terminus of the M6 at Carlisle.

In 2008, the six remaining miles were upgraded to a three-lane motorway.

Sport
Gretna was the official home of Gretna Football Club, who played in the Scottish Premier League during the 2007–2008 season. A reformed club, Gretna F.C. 2008 is based in Gretna.

AFC Gretna are the town's amateur football team who like to give local players a chance. The club, based in the nearby Springfield, played in the DSAFL. However, they now play in the Carlisle City Sunday League system.

Border Towns United are another amateur football team in the town formed in 2022. The club also play in the Carlisle City Sunday League system in the same league as AFC Gretna. They play at the Graitney.

Gretna Green
Nearby Gretna Green, is traditionally associated with eloping English couples because of the more liberal marriage provisions in Scots law compared to English law. Because of this, "Gretna" has become a term for a place for quick, easy marriages.

Shopping
Gretna Gateway Outlet Village is a shopping centre on the east side of Gretna. In 2021, this was renamed Caledonia Park.

References

Notes

Sources

 Chatsworth, George (1984). A history of British motorways. London: Thomas Telford Limited. .
 Haldane, A.R.B. (1997). The Drove Roads of Scotland. Edinburgh: Berlinn. .
 Routledge, Gordon L. (1999).Gretna's Secret War.
 Ordnance Survey Landranger Map (number 85) – 1:50,000 scale (1.25 inches to 1 mile). .
 Ordnance Survey Explorer Map (number 323) – 1:25,000 scale (2.5 inches to 1 mile)

External links

Gretna Registration Office
Civil Parish Historical Tax Rolls for the Civil Parish of Gretna, Dumfriesshire, (Volumes 1-5)

Towns in Dumfries and Galloway
Parishes in Dumfries and Galloway

Gretna, Dumfries and Galloway