විලියම් මැක්ස්මිලන් වුන්ඩ් (16 අගෝස්තු 1832 – 31 අගෝස්තු 1920) ජර්මන් ජාතික වෛද්‍යවරයෙකි.මෙතුමා මනෝ විද්‍යාඥයෙක් දාර්ශනිකයෙක් හා මහාචාර්‍යවරයෙකු ලෙසද ප්‍රකටය.මනෝ විද්‍යාවේ පියා යන විරුදාවලි නාමයෙන් මොහු හදුන්වනු ලබයි.ලොව පහලවූ ප්‍රතම මනෝ විද්‍යාඥයා විල්හෙල්ම් වුන්ඩ් ලෙස සැලකේ.එයට හේතුව මනෝ විද්‍යව නම් විෂය බිහිකිරීම හා මෙම විෂය නාමය හදුන්වා දෙන්නේ වුන්ඩ් විසින් බැවිනි.. වුන්ඩ් විශාල සේවයක් මනෝ විද්‍යාවේ දියුණුව වෙනුවෙන් සිදු කළේය.එම නිසා පර්යේෂණාත්මක මනෝ විද්‍යාවේ පියා යනුවෙන් හදුන්වයි".  1876 දී ඔහු ප්‍රතම මනෝ විද්‍යා පර්යේෂණාගාරය ජ්මනියේ ලයිම්ෂිප් විශ්ව විද්‍යාලයේ දී ඇරඹීයˌමෙමගින් මනෝ විද්‍යාව ස්වාධින විෂයක් ලෙස වර්ධනය වීම ඇරඹින.

මනෝ විද්‍යා පර්යේෂණාගාරයක් ඇරඹීම මගින් වුන්ඩ්ට ආගමික පිළිගැනීම් වල යථාර්තය සොයාබැලීමට මානසික රෝග හදුනා ගැනීමට අසාමාන්‍ය වර්‍යා  හදුනා ගැනීමට මොළයට ඇතිවන හානි නිසා සිදුවන මානසික රෝග තත්වයන් ආදිය හදුනාගැනීමට ද ඒ පිළිබදව විද්‍යානුකූකූල අර්තකතනයන් ඉදිරිපත් කිරීමට හැකිවිය.තවද මනෝ විද්‍යාව ස්වාධින විෂයක් ලෙස වර්ධනය කිරීමට හැකිවිය.මීට පෙර දර්ශනය තුල පැවති උප විෂයක් ලෙස මනස පිළිබද දර්ශනය නමික් පැවති මනස පිළිබද අධ්‍යනය විධිමත් අධ්‍යනයක් වන්නේ වුන්ඩ්ගේ දායකත්වය නිසාය.

වුන්ඩ් තම අධ්‍යන වලදී මනසේ ත්‍රියාකාරීත්වය සිතීම සංජානනය යනු කරුණු කෙරේ අවධානය යොමු කළේය.වර්තමාන ප්‍රජානන මනෝ විද්‍යාෙව් සාකඡ්චා වන ප්‍රධාන සංකල්පයන්ද මේවා වෙයි. වුන්ඩ් ගේ අදහස් පසුව ප්‍රජානන මනෝවිද්‍යාව බිහිවීමට පදනම්විය.

ජීවිත කතාව
විල්හෙල්ම් වුන්ඩ් 1832 අගෝස්තු මස 16 වන දින නෙක්රවු(Neckarau) නගරයේ දී උපත ලැබීය ඔහු වුන්ඩ් පවුලේ හතරවැන්නාවිය.පියා මැක්ස්මිලන්ඩ් වුන්ඩ් නම් වූ අතර මව මාරි ෆ්‍රඩරික් නම්විය.වුන්ඩ්ගේ සීයා භූවිද්‍යා මහාචර්‍ය වරයෙකුවිය.ඔහු නමින් ෆ්‍රෙඩ්රිච් පීටර් වුන්ඩ් නම්විය.වුන්ඩ් ගේ වයස අවුරුදු හතර පමණවනවිට ඔහුගේ පවුල හෙයිඩල්ෂින්(Heidelsheim) නම් නගරයට සංක්‍රමණය විය.වුන්ඩ් ගේ පියා සැර පරුෂ ගති ඇති පූජකයෙකු වූ අතර මව කරුණාවන්ත ගති ඇති තැනැත්තියක වූවාය.වුන්ඩ් පවුල උගතුන්ගෙන් හෙබි පවුලක් ලෙස එවක ජර්මන් ජමාජයේ ගෞරවයට පාත්‍රවී ඇත.වුන්ඩ් ගේ ළමාවිය හුදෙකලාව ගතකලබව ඔහු පවසා ඇත.

වුන්ඩ් හෙයිඩල්බග් විශ්ව විද්‍යලයටත් බර්ලින් විශ්ව විද්‍යාලයටත් තම උසස් අධ්‍යාපනය සදහා ගියේය.එහි දී  ඔහු වෛද්‍ය විද්‍යාව කායික ව්‍යවඡේද විද්‍යාව භෞතික විද්‍යාව හා රසායන විද්‍යාව හැදෑරීය.ඔහු 1856 දී හෙයිඩල්බග් විශ්ව විද්‍යාපයෙන් කායික විද්‍යාව පිළිබද ආචාර්‍ය උපාධියක් ලැබීය.පසුව ඔහු එම විශ්ව විද්‍යාලයේම සහාය මහාචාර්‍ය වරයෙකුලෙස තම වෘත්තීය දිවිය ආරම්භ කළේය.. එහිදී ඔහු Contributions to the Theory of Sense Perception   ග්‍රන්තය ප්‍රකාශයට පත්කළේය.ඒ 1858ත් 1862 අතර කාලය තුලයි. 1865 දී ඔහු මනොවිද්‍යව පිළිබද ග්‍රන්තයක්ද සම්පාදනය කළේය.කෙසේ වෙතත් ඔහු ගේ වැඩි අවධානය ව්‍යාධිවේදය කෙරේ යොමුවිය. 1867 දී ඔහු එම විශ්ව විද්‍යාලයේ මහාචාර්‍ය පදවියටපත්විය.පසුව ඔහු තම ශිෂ්‍යයන් හා එක්ව විවිධ පර්යේෂණ සිදුකලහ.1874 දී ඔහු සුරිචි විශ්ව විද්‍යාලයේ දර්ශනය පිළිබද මහාචාර්‍යවරයා ලෙස පත්විය.

හෙයිඩ්ල්බර්ග් විශ්ව විද්‍යාලයේ ආචාර්‍යවරයෙකු ලෙස කටයුතු කරන කාලයේ දී පළමු වතාවට  වුන්ඩ් විසින් මනෝ විද්‍යාව පිළිබද සහතික පත්‍ර පාඨමලොවක් ඇරඹීය,ශද්ධ විද්‍යාන්හි භාවිතවන සම්පරීක්ෂණ ක්‍රමවේදයන් මිනිස් මොළය හා මනස පිළිබද අධ්‍යන කිරීම මෙහිදී සිදුවිය.කායික විද්‍යාඥයෙක් ලෙස ඔහු ලබාගත් දැනුම නවතම විෂයක් වූ මනෝ විද්‍යාව බිහිකිරීමේ දී ඔහුට පහසුවිය.ඔහුගේ පළමු මනෝ විද්‍යා ප්‍රකාශනය Lectures on the Mind of Humans and Animals  නමින් 1863–18කොලය තුල පළවිය.වුන්ඩ් හෙයිල්ඩන්බර්ග් විශ්ව විද්‍යාලයේ කායික විද්‍යාව පිළිබද සහාය මහාචාර්‍යවරයා ලෙස 1864දී පත්විය. පසුව ඔහු ලයිම්ෂිෆ් විශ්ව විද්‍යාලයේ මහාචාර්‍යවරයෙකු බවට පත්වේ.

වුන්ඩ් විසින් මනෝ විද්‍යාෙව් වැදගත්ම ග්‍රන්තයක් වූ  Principles of Physiological Psychology  1874  දී ප්‍රකාශයට පත් කලහ.මෙය මනෝ විද්‍යා ඉතිහාසයේ ප්‍රථම පාඨ ග්‍රන්තය ලෙස ඉතිහාස ගතවේ. මනෝ විද්‍යා විෂය නාමය බිහිකිරීමෙහි පුරෝගාමියා වන්නේ වුන්ඩ්ය.". ඔහු විඥ්ඥානය හැගීම් දැනීම් චිත්තවේග සංජානනය යන සාධක පිළිබද මනෝවිද්‍යාත්මක අධ්‍යන සිදු කළේය.

1875 දී වුන්ඩ් ලයිම්ෂිප්(Leipzig) විශ්ව විද්‍යාලයේ මහාචාර්‍යවරයෙකු ලෙස පත්විය.ඔහු එහි දී ප්‍රථම මනෝ විද්‍යා පර්යේෂණාගාරය 1879 දී ආරම්භ කළේය.නිලවශයෙන් මනෝ විද්‍යාෙව් උපත සිදුවන්නේ එතැන් සිටය.මෙතැන් සිට ස්වාධීන විශයක් ලෙස මනෝ විද්‍යාව සංවර්ධනයවීම ඇරඹිනි.ඔහු මෙම විශ්ව විද්‍යාලයේ දී මනෝ විද්‍යාව පිළිබද ප්‍රථම උපාධි පාඨමාලාව ඇරඹීය.

නූතන මනෝ විද්‍යවට වුන්ඩ්ගෙන් ලැබුන දායකත්වය

වුන්ඩ් විශ්වාස කලේ විද්‍යාත්මක මනෝවිද්‍යාව මගින් පුද්ගල විඥ්ඥානය ශූක්ෂම කොටස්වලට විභේදනය කිරීම මගින් අධ්‍යනය කලහැකිබවයි. වුන්ඩ් ගේ ව්‍යුහවාදී ක්‍රමය පසුව ඔහුගේ ප්‍රධාන ශිෂ්‍යෙයකු වූ ටිච්නර්(Titchener) විසින් දියුණු කළේය  ශද්ධ විද්‍යාවන්හි යම් පදාර්ථයක් ශූක්ෂම කොටස්වලට වෙන් කිරීම මගින් විශ්ලේෂණය කරන්නාසේ මනයේ ව්‍යුහයද එසේ විශ්ලේෂනය කළහැකිය යන්න වුන්ඩ් ප්‍රමුඛ ව්‍යුහවාදීන්ගේ අදහසවිය.ශුද්ධ විද්‍යාවන් හැදෑරීමෙන් ඔහු ලැබූ දැනුම මෙම අදහස ඔහුට ඇතිවීමට බලපාන්නට ඇත.  විඥ්ඥානය කුවා කොටස්වලට බෙදා විශ්ලේෂණය කිරීම සදහා වුන්ඩ් අන්තරාවලෝකතය(introspection) නම්වූ ක්‍රමය භාවිත කළේය.මෙහිදී අන්තරාවලොකනයට ලක්වන තැනැත්තා විසින් ඔහුගේ අදහස් තමා විසින්ම කියාපෑම සිදු කරයි..මෙම අන්තරාවලෝකනය නම්වූ මනස විශ්ලේෂණය සදහා සකස්කරගත් යාන්ත්‍රණය යුදෙවු හා ක්‍රිස්තියානි ආගමේ පැවති පාපොච්ඡාරණය ක්‍රමය ඇසුරින් සකස්කරගත් ක්‍රමයක් විය.ප්ලේටෝ හා සොක්‍රටීස් වැනි දාර්ශනිකයන්ද මෙයට සමාන ක්‍රමයක් අනුගමනය කලබව සාධක පවතී. මෙම අන්තරාවලෝකන ක්‍රමයේ බොහෝ දුර්වලතා ඇතිබව පසුව මනෝ විද්‍යාඥයන් පෙන්වා දුන්හ. වුන්ඩ්ගේ දාර්ශනික මනෝ විද්‍යාවේ මූලධර්ම(Principles of Physiological Psychology)කෘතිය නූතන මනො විද්‍යාවේ  හැරවුම් ලක්ෂයක් ලෙස මනෝ විද්‍යාඥයන් පිළිගනී.

වුන්ඩ් ගේ ශිෂ්‍යයන් රැසක්ම පසුකාලීනව කීර්තිමත් මනෝ විද්‍යාඥයන් ලෙස ප්‍රකටවිය.වුන්ඩ් ගේ සිසුන් දෙදෙනකු වූ ජුබෝනි නෙඩික්(Ljubomir Nedić සහ බ්‍රනිස්ලොව් පෙට්ට්‍රොවික්(Branislav Petronijević).වුස්බර්ග් විශ්ව විද්‍යාලයේ(University of Würzburg) දර්ශනය පිළිබද මහාචාර්‍යවරුවිය.වුන්ඩ් ගේ සිසුවකුවූ ජෙම්ස් මැකේන් කැට්ල්(James McKeen Cattel) ඇමරිකාවේ ප්‍රථම මනෝ විද්‍යා මහාචාර්‍යවරයාවිය.ජී ස්ටැන්ලි හෝල්(G. Stanley Hall)ළමා මනෝ විද්‍යාවේ පියාය.චාල්ස් හුබාර්ඩ්(Charles Hubbard Judd)චිකාගෝ හා හාවඩ් විශ්ව විද්‍යාලවල මහාචාර්‍යවරයෙකු වවිය.,එඩ්වඩ් බර්නාඩ් ට්ව්ච්නර්(Edward Bradford Titchener) කිර්තිමත් මනෝ විද්‍යාඥයෙකු විය ඔහු තම ගුරුවරයා වූ වුන්බ් ගේ ඉගැන්වීම් ව්‍යුහවාදය ලෙස නම් කර එහි දියුණුවට කටයුතු කළේය.ඇමරිකාව ඇතුලු වෙනත් රටවලටද මෙම ව්‍යුහවාදී මනෝ විද්‍යා ගුරුකුලය ප්‍රචලිත කළේය.ඔහු ලොව ප්‍රථම මනෝ විද්‍යා සායනය ඇරඹිය.

1876 දී ලයිම්ෂිප් විශ්ව විද්‍යාලය මගින් වුන්ඩ් විසින් සුරිචි විශ්ව විද්‍යාලයෙන් ගෙනා පර්යේණ උපකරණ ලයිම්ෂිප් හි තැන්පත් කිරීමට අවසර ලබාදුනි.වුන්ඩ් විසින් මෙම උපකරණ ලයිම්ෂිප්හි කොන්වික්ට් ගොඩනැගිල්ලේ තැන්පත් කරන ලද්දේ  ඔහු දේශන සිදුකල පංති කාබරය හා මෙම පර්යේෂණාගාරය අතර දුර අවම වීමෙන් පහසුවෙන් පර්යේෂණ උපකරණ එහා මෙහා ගෙනයාමට පහසුවීම නිසාය.ඔහුගේ පර්යේෂණ උපකරණ අතර  ටැකිස්ටෝස්කෝපය(tachistoscopes),හොරේක්ෂය(chronoscopes),අවලම්භනය(pendulums),විදුලි උපකරණ,ටයිමර් සංවේදක උපකරණ අාදිය මෙන්ම පසුව ඔහු තම සිසුන් හා එක්වී නිර්මාණය කළ නව උපකරණද එ් අතරවිය.

1879 දී වුන්ඩ් තම මනෝවිද්‍යා පර්යේෂණ ආරම්භ කළේය.ඒ ඔහු ගේ පාඨමාලාවන්ට අමතරවය.ඔහු විසින් ස්වාධීනව පර්යේෂණ සිදුකළ මෙම ප්‍රථම මනෝ විද්‍යා පර්යේෂණාගාරය ලයිම්ෂිප් විශ්ව විද්‍යාලයට අයත් නිල පර්යේෂණාගාරයක් ලෙස 1883 දක්වාම විශ්ව විද්‍යාලය විසින් පිළි නොගත්හ.. වුන්ට මනෝ විද්‍යා විෂයට නිල පිළිගැනීමක් ලබාදීමට මෙන්ම ස්වාධීන විෂයක් ලෙස වර්ධනය කිරීමට නොයෙක් බාධා මැද සිදුකරන්නට සිදුවිය.ඔහු භාවිත කළ අන්තරාවලෝකන ක්‍රමය බොහෝ අඩුපාඩු සහිත බව ව්ද්වතුන් පෙන්වා දුන්හ. බොහේ බාධක මැද වුවද වුන්ඩ් තම පර්යේෂණාගාරය කාබර දොළහකින් යුත් මධ්‍යස්ථානයක් බවට පත් කිරීමටත් පසුව එය නව ගොඩනැගිල්ලක ස්ථාපනය කිරීමටත් හැකිවිය.

වුන්ඩ්ගේ මරණයෙන් පසුව ඔහුගේ ශිෂ්‍යයන් විසින් මනෝ විදෘ විෂය තවදුරටත් වර්ධනය කිරීමට දායකවිය. මේ අතර වුන්ඩ්ගේ සිසුවකු වූ ට්විච්නර් විසින් තම ගුරුවරයා හදුන්වාදුන් මනෝ විද්‍යා න්‍යායන් ව්‍යුහවාදය නමින් නම් කළේය.මනෝ විද්‍යා ඉතිහාසයේ ප්‍රථම මනෝවිද්‍යා ගුරුකුලය මෙයවිය.ට්ව්ච්නර් විසින් ව්‍යුහවාදය ඇමරිකාවතුල ප්‍රචාරය කැරිණි.

කෙසේ වෙතත් පසුව බිහිවූ මනෝ විද්‍යා ගුරුකුල ව්‍යුහවාදයේ බොහෝ දුර්වලතා ඇතිබව පෙන්වා දුන්හ.මනෝ විද්‍යා ඉතිහාසයේ දෙවන ගුරුකුලය වූ කාර්‍යබද්ධවාදය තුල මෙන්ම වාර්‍යාවාදී මනෝ විද්‍යා ගුරු කුලය මගින්ද ව්‍යුහවාදය විවේඡනයටලක්විය.

ප්‍රකාශ මායාව

මෙය වුන්ඩ්ගේ මායාව යනුවෙන්ද හදුන්වයි.මෙමගින් ඍජු රේඛාවත් වක්‍ර රේඛාවක් ලෙස දර්ශනය වීම සිදුවේ.

මනසේ ක්‍රියාකාරීත්වය අධ්‍යනය කිරීම සදහා වුන්ඩ් විසින් යොදාගත් උපක්‍රමයකි

ප්‍රකාශන
වුන්ඩ් මනසේ ක්‍රියාවලින් තුනක් ප්‍රමුඛව අධ්‍යනයට ලක්කළේය.ඒවා නම් සිතීම සංජානනය හා දැනීමයි.මෙම සංකල්පයන් පසුව ප්‍රජානන මනෝවිද්‍යාව බිහිවීමට මූලිකවිය..

වුන්ඩ් විසින් පළකල ප්‍රකාශන අතුරින් කිහිපයක් පහත දැක්වේ..
 Die Lehre von der Muskelbewegung (The Patterns of Muscular Movement), (Vieweg, Braunschweig 1858).
 Die Geschwindigkeit des Gedankens (The Velocity of Thought) (Die Gartenlaube 1862, Vol 17, p. 263)
 Beiträge zur Theorie der Sinneswahrnehmung (Contributions on the Theory of Sensory Perception), (Winter, Leipzig 1862).
 Vorlesungen über die Menschen -und Tierseele (Lectures about Human and Animal Psychology), (Voss, Leipzig 1863/1864).
 Lehrbuch der Physiologie des Menschen (Text-book of Human Physiology), (Enke, Erlangen 1865).
 Die physikalischen Axiome und ihre Beziehung zum Causalprincip (Physical Axioms and their Bearing upon Causality Principles) (Enke, Erlangen 1866).
 Handbuch der medicinischen Physik (Handbook of Medical Physics), (Enke, Erlangen 1867)
 Grundzüge der physiologischen Psychologie (Principles of Physiological Psychology), (Engelmann, Leipzig 1874) (has been revised and republished several times)
 Untersuchungen zur Mechanik der Nerven und Nervenzentren (Researches upon the Mechanisms of Nerves and Nerve-Centres), 1876
 Logik. Eine Untersuchen der Principien der Erkenntniss und der Methoden Wissenschaftlicher Forschung (Logic. An investigation into the principles of knowledge and the methods of scientific research), (Enke, Stuttgart 1880 & 1883), 3 Volumes and vol. 4
 Essays, (Engelmann, Leipzig 1885).
 Ethik (Ethics), (Enke, Stuttgart 1886)
 System der Philosophie (System of Philosophy), (Engelmann, Leipzig 1889).
 Grundriss der Psychologie (Outline of Psychology), (Engelmann, Leipzig 1896).
 Völkerpsychologie (Social Psychology), 10 Volumes, (Engelmann, Leipzig 1900 to 1920)
 1, 2. Die Sprache (Language), Pt 1, 2. (1900)
 3. Die Kunst (Art). (1908)
 4, 5, 6. Mythos und Religion (Myth and Religion), Pt 1, 2, 3. (?1910, 1914, ?)
 7, 8. Die Gesellschaft (Society), Pt 1, 2. (1917)
 9. Das Recht (Right). (1918)
 10. Kultur in der Geschichte (Culture in History). (1920)
 Kleine Schriften (Shorter Writings), 3 Volumes, (Engelmann, Leipzig 1910).
 Einleitung in die Psychologie (Introduction to Psychology), (Engelmann, Leipzig 1911).
 Probleme der Völkerpsychologie (Problems of Social Psychology), (Wiegandt, Leipzig 1911).
 Elemente der Völkerpsychologie (The Elements of Social Psychology), (Kröner, Leipzig 1912).
 Reden und Aufsätze (Addresses and Extracts), (Kröner, Leipzig 1913).
 Sinnliche und übersinnliche Welt (The Sensory and Supersensory World), (Kröner, Leipzig 1914).
 Über den wahrhaften Krieg (About the Real War), (Kröner, Leipzig 1914).
 Die Nationen und ihre Philosophie (Nations and Their Philosophies), (Kröner, Leipzig 1915).
 Erlebtes und Erkanntes (Experience and Realization), (Kröner, Stuttgart 1920).
 Philosophische Studien (the first journal of psychology), 1883

මේවාත් බලන්න
 Optical illusions
 N. O. Lossky

සටහන්

වැඩිදුර කියවීම්
 Carpenter, Shana K (August 2005). "Some neglected contributions of Wilhelm Wundt to the psychology of memory.". Psychological reports. 97 (1): 63–73. doi:10.2466/PR0.97.5.63-73. PMID 16279306.
 Steinberg, H (November 2001). "[The psychologist and philosopher Wilhelm Wundt and a dedication by his student Emil Kraepelin]". Der Nervenarzt. 72 (11): 884. doi:10.1007/s001150170025. PMID 11758098.
 Ziche, P (1999). "Neuroscience in its context. Neuroscience and psychology in the work of Wilhelm Wundt.". Physis; rivista internazionale di storia della scienza. 36 (2): 407–29. PMID 11640242.
 Smith, R (November 1982). "Wilhelm Wundt resurrected.". British journal for the history of science. 15 (51 Pt 3): 285–91. doi:10.1017/S0007087400019361. PMID 11611088.
 Bringmann, W G; Balance, W D; Evans, R B (July 1975). "Wilhelm Wundt 1832–1920: a brief biographical sketch.". Journal of the history of the behavioral sciences. 11 (3): 287–97. doi:10.1002/1520-6696(197507)11:3<287::AID-JHBS2300110309>3.0.CO;2-L. PMID 11609842.
 Steinberg, H (November 2001). "[The psychologist and philosopher Wilhelm Wundt and a dedication by his student Emil Kraepelin]". Der Nervenarzt. 72 (11): 884. doi:10.1007/s001150170025. PMID 11758098.
 HICKS GD (16 September 1920). "Prof. Wilhelm Wundt". Nature. London. 106 (2655): 83–85. Bibcode:1920Natur.106...83H. doi:10.1038/106083a0.
 Smith, Roger (October 1982). "Wilhelm Wundt Resurrected". The British Journal for the History of Science. 15 (3): 288, 285–91. doi:10.1017/S0007087400019361. ISSN 1474-001X. PMID 11611088.
 Daniel L. Schcter; Daniel T. Gilbert; Daniel M. Wegner (2009). Psychology: The evolution of a science (2nd ed.). p. 9.
 Azurmendi, Joxe: "Herri Psikologia, Etnologia. Wundt" in: Volksgeist. Herri Gogoa, Donostia: Elkar, 2007. pp. 199–214 ISBN 978-84-9783-404-9
 Blumenthal, Arthur L. (1970–80). "Wundt, Wilhelm". Dictionary of Scientific Biography. 25. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons. pp. 368–371. ISBN 978-0-684-10114-9.

බාහිර සබැදුම්
 Neurotree: Wilhelm Wundt Details
 Detailed study by Alan Kim at Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
 Principles of Physiological Psychology
 Outlines of Psychology
 Wilhelm Wundt – Father of Psychology
 Biography and bibliography in the Virtual Laboratory of the Max Planck Institute for the History of Science

 Kim, Alan (June 20, 2006). "Wilhelm Maximilian Wundt". Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.

Works online
 Works by Wilhelm Wundt at Project Gutenberg
 Works by or about Wilhelm Wundt at Internet Archive
 Ethics: An Investigation of the Facts and Laws of the Moral Life. Volume 1. (Tr. Edward B. Titchener et al..) Second Edition, 1902. University of Michigan.
 Lectures on Human and Animal Psychology. (Trs. Edward B. Titchener and James E. Creighton.)
 Second Edition, 1896. Harvard.
 Fourth Edition, 1907. Stanford; UCLA; University of Illinois.
 Outlines of Psychology. (Tr. Charles Hubbard Judd.) Second Edition, 1902. Stanford.
 Principles of Physiological Psychology. Volume 1. (Tr. Edward B. Titchener.)
 First Edition, 1904. Harvard; Lane; University of Michigan; HTML.
 Second Edition, 1910. UCLA.

1832 උපත්
1920 මරණ
මනෝ විද්‍යාඥයන්
මනෝ විද්‍යාව

විල්හෙල්ම් වුන්ඩ්


Cinnamomum cassia, called Chinese cassia or Chinese cinnamon, is an evergreen tree originating in southern China and widely cultivated there and elsewhere in South and Southeast Asia. It is one of several species of Cinnamomum used primarily for its aromatic bark, which is used as a spice. The buds are also used as a spice, especially in India, and were used by the ancient Romans.

Description
The tree grows to  tall, with grayish bark and hard, elongated leaves that are  long and reddish when young.

Origin and types

Chinese cassia is a close relative to Ceylon cinnamon (C. verum), Saigon cinnamon (C. loureiroi), Indonesian cinnamon (C. burmannii), and Malabar cinnamon (C. citriodorum). In all five species, the dried bark is used as a spice. Chinese cassia's flavor is less delicate than that of Ceylon cinnamon. Its bark is thicker, more difficult to crush, and has a rougher texture than that of Ceylon cinnamon. Cassia cinnamon is the most popular variety of cinnamon sold and consumed in North America.

Chinese cassia is produced in both China and Vietnam. Until the 1960s, Vietnam was the world's most important producer of Saigon cinnamon, which has a higher oil content, and consequently has a stronger flavor. Because of the disruption caused by the Vietnam War, however, production of Indonesian cassia in the highlands of the Indonesian island of Sumatra was increased to meet demand. Indonesian cassia has the lowest oil content of the three types of cassia, so commands the lowest price. Chinese cassia has a sweeter flavor than Indonesian cassia, similar to Saigon cinnamon, but with lower oil content.

Uses

Spice
Cassia bark (both powdered and in whole or "stick" form) is used as a flavoring agent for confectionery, desserts, pastries, and meat; it is specified in many curry recipes, where Ceylon cinnamon is less suitable. Traditionally, the bark is stripped off the tree and dried in the shade. After drying, it is thinly sliced for use or ground into a powder. Essential oils made from the stripped bark have many uses, such as in health products, food and drinks. Cassia is sometimes added to Ceylon cinnamon but is a much thicker, coarser product. Cassia is sold as pieces of bark or as neat quills or sticks. Cassia sticks can be distinguished from Ceylon cinnamon sticks in this manner: Ceylon cinnamon sticks have many thin layers and can easily be made into powder using a coffee or spice grinder, whereas cassia sticks are extremely hard and are usually made up of one thick layer.

Cassia buds, although rare, are also occasionally used as a spice. They resemble cloves in appearance and have a mild, flowery cinnamon flavor. Cassia buds are primarily used in old-fashioned pickling recipes, marinades, and teas.

Traditional medicine and phytochemicals

The part of the bark that is used to make spices is called the Cinnamomi cortex. Chinese cassia (called ròuguì; 肉桂 in Chinese) is produced primarily in the southern provinces of Guangxi, Guangdong, and Yunnan. It is considered one of the 50 fundamental herbs in traditional Chinese medicine. More than 160 phytochemicals have been isolated from Cinnamomum cassia.

The blood-thinning component called coumarin found in C. cassia could damage the liver if consumed in larger amounts, therefore European health agencies have warned against consuming high amounts of cassia. Other bioactive compounds found in the bark, powder and essential oils of C. cassia are cinnamaldehyde and styrene. In high doses, these substances can also be toxic for humans.

History
A mention by Chinese herbalists suggests that cassia bark was used by humans at least as far back as 2700 B.C. It was a treatment for diarrhea, fevers, and menstrual issues. The Ayurvedic healers of India used it as well to treat similar ailments.

Cassia cinnamon was brought to Egypt around 500 B.C. where it became a valued additive to their embalming mixtures. The Bible suggests that it was part of the anointing oil used by Moses. The Greeks, Romans and ancient Hebrews were the first to use cassia bark as a cooking spice. They also made perfumes with it and used it for medicinal purposes. Cinnamon migrated with the Romans. It was established for culinary use by the 17th century in Europe.

See also
Chinese herbology

References

Further reading
Dalby, Andrew (1996). Siren Feasts: A History of Food and Gastronomy in Greece. London: Routledge.
Faure, Paul (1987). Parfums et aromates de l'antiquité. Paris: Fayard.
Paszthoty, Emmerich (1992). Salben, Schminken und Parfüme im Altertum. Mainz, Germany:  Zabern.
Paterson, Wilma (1990). A Fountain of Gardens:  Plants and Herbs from the Bible. Edinburgh.

External links
List of Chemicals in Cassia (Dr. Duke's Databases)

cassia
Spices
Plants used in traditional Chinese medicine
Trees of China
Endemic flora of China

Cinnamomum cassia


Jean de Brébeuf (Fransa, 25 Mart 1593 – Kanada,  16 Mart 1649) Cizvit misyoner, Hristiyanlık'ta aziz, Kanada'da ölmüştür.

Kanada'da yerli halklarla iyi bir ilişki kurmaya çabalayan Jean de Brébeuf, yerli dilini öğrenmiştir. Huronların arasındayken yerli Huron dilinde 1643 yılında kaleme aldığı ve bugün Huron İlahisi olarak anılan bir noel ilahisi vardır.

Dış bağlantılar
 Biography at the Dictionary of Canadian Biography Online

Kaynakça

1593 doğumlular
1649 yılında ölenler
Kanada'da ölenler
Yakılarak idam edilmiş kişiler
Yakılarak idam edilmiş Fransızlar
Yeni Fransa kişileri
17. yüzyılda Fransızlar
Fransız aziz ve azizeler
Kanadalı aziz ve azizeler
Kanadalı Hristiyanlar
Cizvitler
Fransız Cizvitler
Kanadalı Cizvitler
Cizvit misyonerler
17. yüzyılda Cizvitler
Hristiyan misyonerler
Katolik aziz ve azizeleri
Katolik misyonerler
17. yüzyıl Hristiyan aziz ve azizeleri

Jean de Brébeuf


سكايلاب 3 بالإنجليزية Skylab 3 أو SL-3 هي رحاة الفضاء الثانية التي يذهب فيها رواد فضاء إلى محطة الفضاء الأمريكية المسماة سكايلاب التي تستخدم كمعمل لاجراء تجارب في حالة انعدام الجاذبية. وأقلع الصاروخ من نوع ساتورن 1ب يوم 28 يوليو 1973 حاملا ثلاثة من رواد الفضاء وأوصلهم إلى المعمل، وبقوا فيه مدة 11 ساعة و9 دقائق . وقد استخدم المعمل لمدة كاملة تصل إلى 1084 ساعة أجرى فيه العديد من رواد الفضاء مجموعة تلو الأخرى - كلهم ينتمون إلى بعثة سكايلاب 3 - البحث العلمي وبحوثا طبية ودراسة الشمس ، واستطلاع أماكن الثروات الطبيعية على الأرض .

الإقلاع
أقلع الصاروخ حاملا رواد الفضاء يوم 28 يوليو 1973 ووصل خلال عدة دقائق إلى مدار وحول الأرض . وبعد نحو 8 ساعات وصلوا إلى المعمل الفضائي سكايلاب الذي كان خاليا من الرواد لمدة تربو على الشهر .

وخلال الأيام الأولى في الفضاء عانى الثلاثة رواد من الدوخة الفضائية حيث تنعدم الجاذبية . وكان ذلك غريبا حيث لم يظهر على أحد منهم أي علامات على عدم تحمله غياب الجاذبية خلال الفحوص التي أجريت عليهم قبل الرحيل . وقد تعطل برنامج الاختبارات الموضوع لاجرائه في الفضاء لمدة يوم ولكن تمكن رواد الفضاء بعد ذلك من تعويض ما فاتهم بعد أن استعادوا توازنهم .

وفي يوم 2 أغسطس بدرت صعوبة في تشغيل نفاثات التوجيه لمركبة الفضاء أبولو . وحدث أن تعطل أحد تلك النفاثات في يوم الإقلاع من مجموع 4 منها، أما الآن فقد ابتليت نفاثة أخرى بتسريب . وكان من المفروض أن يستطيعون العودة بنفاثتين سليمتين، ولكن جرت الاستعدادات بمركز كينيدي للفضاء لاجراء عملية انقاذ، وكان الخبراء مستعدون على الأرض بخطة جاهزة لتنفيذ الإنقاذ .

اقرأ أيضا
 أبولو 8
 أبولو 10
 أبولو 11
 نيل أرمسترونج
 قائمة بعثات أبولو

مراجع

وصلات خارجية

الولايات المتحدة في 1973
ألان بين
رحلات الفضاء في 1973
مركبات فضائية أطلقت في 1973
مهام برنامج أبولو
نشاط خارج المركبة

سكايلاب 3


Hernán Tello de Portocarrero, né à Salamanque, vers 1552 et mort à Amiens, le , était un militaire espagnol, membre des Tercios, durant la seconde moitié du . Il est considéré comme l'un des chefs militaires espagnols les plus illustres des Flandres, sous le règne de  d'Espagne.

Famille
Hernán Tello de Portocarrero était issu d'une illustre famille espagnole, d'origine portugaise, son arrière-arrière-grand-père, Alonso Hernández Portocarrero fut l'un des conquérants du Mexique. Il était le fils naturel de Jerónimo Portocarrero et de María de Velasco alors qu'il était étudiant à Salamanque. Il fut légitimé par son père et fut élevé, à Toro, chez ses grands-parents, Hernán Rodríguez Portocarrero et María Tello y Deza.

Carrière militaire

Campagnes contre les Turcs
Sa carrière militaire commença à l'automne 1571 et l'année suivante, membre du tercio de Lope de Figueroa (appelé tercio de la Ligue), il partit pour Messine pour combattre les Turcs à la bataille de Lépante et en Afrique du Nord. Il fut ensuite envoyé en Flandre puis au Portugal où il participa à la Bataille des Açores en 1582 et à la prise de l'île de São Miguel, en tant que sergent de la compagnie de Manuel de Vega Cabeza de Vaca. Le tercio de la Ligue fut ensuite envoyé en Italie puis en Flandre, où il fut congédié à Namur, en . La même année, il rejoignit le tercio de Bobadilla.

Campagnes aux Pays-Bas
Durant les cinq années suivantes, il participa aux batailles de l'île de Bommel (« le miracle d'Empel », ), le siège de Grave en 1586, Engelen, le , Venlo, siège de Bergen-Op-Zoom de 1588…

En 1588, il rejoignit l'Invincible Armada qui échoua à envahir l'Angleterre. En 1590, il devint sergent-major.

En 1591, après des mutineries des soldats du tercio qui n'avait pas perçu de soldes, il fut maintenu sergent-major du tercio par le nouveau commandant, Alonso de Mendoza, qu'il remplaça à plusieurs reprises. Lors de l'une d'elles, en , à Laon, il parvint grâce à son habileté, à sauver le tercio en situation délicate, en organisant efficacement la retraite.

Campagne de Picardie

Prise de Doullens
En 1595, il participa au siège et à la prise de Doullens, en Picardie et en fut nommé gouverneur. À la fin de l'année 1595, il participa à la prise de Cambrai. Alors qu'il était gouverneur de Doullens, il eut une liaison avec une Française originaire d'Amiens. Il semblerait que cette liaison lui fit concevoir un plan audacieux pour s'emparer de la ville d'Amiens, capitale de la Picardie.

Prise et siège d'Amiens

Hernán Tello de Portocarrero, constatant l'importance des défenses d'Amiens, située à une trentaine de kilomètres au sud de Doullens, décida de s'emparer de la ville par la ruse. Le , tandis que Pontecarrero occupait la maladrerie de La Madeleine au nord-ouest d'Amiens, des fantassins espagnols déguisés en paysans picards se présentèrent, au petit matin, à la porte Montrescu, située au nord de la ville. Il entrèrent avec une charrette chargée de sacs supposés de légumes et bloquèrent la herse permettant aux troupes espagnoles cachées non-loin de là d'entrer, de prendre le contrôle de la porte fortifiée puis de l'ensemble de la ville surprenant les gardes français. En , Porocarrero fut nommé au grade de maître de camp.

Cependant le roi de France  ne tarda pas à faire le siège d'Amiens à partir du . Portocarrero mourut au cours du siège, le , des suites d'un coup de canon lors d'une attaque française qui échoua, au sud de la ville. Il fut inhumé dans le bras nord du transept de la cathédrale Notre-Dame d'Amiens où sa pierre tombale est toujours visible. À sa mort le commandement de la garnison espagnole passa à Girolamo Carafa qui capitula le .

Hommage et distinctions

 Chevalier de l'ordre de Santiago avec l'habit jacobéen (1597).
 commandeur de Carrizosa (1597).

Notes et références
 Cet article provient essentiellement de l'article Hernán Tello de Portocarrero en espagnol

Annexes

Bibliographie
 Fernand Braudel, La Méditerranée et le monde méditerranéen au temps de , Berkeley, University of California Press, 1995 .
 Albéric de Calonne, Histoire de la ville d'Amiens, tome 2, Amiens, Piteux Frères, 1899, réédition, Bruxelles, Éditions culture et civilisation, 1976, ; chapitre IX p. 161 à 168.
 Louis Moréi, Le Grand Dictionnaire historique ou Le Curieux Mélange d'histoire sacrée et profane... Paris, 1725.
 Gérard Hurpin, « Diego de Villalobos, témoin et chroniqueur du siège d'Amiens », in : Paul Mironneau, Isabelle Pébay-Clottes rousse, Paix des armes, Paix des âmes, Paris, 2000  (Actes du colloque international tenu au Musée national du château de Pau et à l'Université de Pau et des Pays de l'Adour les 8, 9, 10 et ).

Articles connexes
 Histoire d'Amiens
 Guerre de Quatre-Vingts Ans

Liens externes

 Réflexion sur la prise d'Amiens ()

Militaire espagnol
Histoire d'Amiens
Pontecarrero
Picardie (époque moderne)
Pays-Bas espagnols
Décès en 1597

Hernán Tello de Portocarrero


ලා පැහැ සම යනු ස්වභාවිකව ඇතිවන  මිනිස් චර්ම වර්ණයක් වන අතර, මඳ පාරජම්බුල විකිරණය  සහිත පරිසරයන්ට අනුචිත වීමක් ලෙසින් වඩාත් අඩු යූමෙලනින් වර්ණනය එහි අඩංගු වෙයි.   යුරෝපයෙහි සහ අග්නිදිග ආසියාවෙහි දේශීය ජනගහණයෙහි චර්ම පරාවර්තිතාව මැනීමෙන් ලබාගත් දත්ත අනුව, ලා පැහැ සම ඔවුන් තුල ඉතාමත් සුලභ ලෙසින් පවතින බව පෙනෙයි. ලා පැහැ චර්ම වර්ණනය සහිත ජනයා බොහෝවිට සුදු ලෙසින්  හැඳින්වුවද, මෙම භාවිතය සමහර රටවලදී උභයාර්ථ විය හැක්කේ එම රටවලදී මෙම භාවිතය විසින් විශේෂිත ලෙසින් විවිධ වාර්ගික කණ්ඩායම් හෝ ජනගහණ හෝ හැඳින්වෙන නිසාවෙනි.

හෝමෝ සැපියානුවන්ද අඩංගුවන,  හෝමෝ නමැති ගණය සඳහා, මුලින් පැවැති තත්ත්වය වූයේ  තද පැහැ සම වර්ණනය බව උපකල්පනය කෙරෙයි. කෙසේවෙතත්, වසර 125,000 සිට 65,000 දක්වා කාලයකට පෙර,  නිවර්තන කලාප සිට මඳ පාරජම්බුල විකිරණ ප්‍රදේශ දක්වා ජනගහණයන් සංක්‍රමණය වෙත්ම, විටමින් ඩී හායනයට ප්‍රතිවිරුද්ධ ලෙසින් ක්‍රියාකල පරිණාමීය වරණයක් ලෙසින්, ඔවුන් තුල ලා පැහැ චර්ම වර්ණනයක් ඇති විය.  බටහිර යුරෝපයෙන් හමුවූ මිනිස් ඇටසැකිලි අවශේෂ මත 2014 වසරෙහිදී සිදුකෙරුණු  පුරාතන ඩීඑන්ඒ විශ්ලේෂණය මත පදනම්ව අනාවරණය කෙරුණේ, මෙම තද පැහැ සිට ලා පැහැ දක්වා චර්ම වර්ණන වෙනස, අවම ලෙසින් සමහරක් යුරෝපීයයන්ට හෝ සිදු වී ඇත්තේ ඉතා මෑත අතීතයෙහිදී බවයි. පුරාජානවිද්‍යා පර්යේෂක ස්පාඤ්ඤයෙහි   පොම්පේයු ෆැබ්රා විශ්වවිද්‍යාලයෙහි කාර්ල්ස් ලලුයේසා-ෆොක්ස් සහ ඔහුගේ අනුගාමිකයන් විසින් නිරික්ෂණය කෙරුණේ,   කැන්ටෑබ්රියන් කඳු තුල ලා බ්‍රෑනා-ඇරින්ටේරො වංකගිරිමය ගුහාවෙහි තිබී හමුවූ  7,000-වසර-පැරණි දඩකරු අන්නගවේෂකයෙකු තුල, නිල් ඇස් සඳහා  ඇලීලය තිබුණු මුත් ලා පැහැ චර්ම වර්ණනය සඳහා යුරෝපියානු  විකෘති නොතුබුණු බවයි.

ආශ්‍රිත

චර්ම වර්ණනය

ලා පැහැ සම


Cătălin Boboc () este un senator român, ales în 2012.

Vezi și
 Legislatura 2012-2016 (Senat)
 Parlamentul României

Legături externe
 Activitatea parlamentară

Senatori români 2012-2016
Politicieni români în viață
Prefecți români

Cătălin Boboc


راينر ميركل Rainer Merkel (ولد 26 مايو 1964 في كولونيا) هو أديب ألماني.

حياته

درس علم النفس وتاريخ الفن في برلين. وعمل في وكالة للوسائط المتعددة عالم نفس. وهو يقيم حاليا في دبلن وبرلين متفرغا للكتابة الحرة. وحصل على عدة جوائز منها الجائزة الأدبية التشجيعية من مؤسسة يورجن بونتو في عام 2001.

من أعماله

 عام المعجزة 2001
 عند الإطلالة على الخارج 2002
 الشعور في الصباح 2005.

روابط خارجية

مراجع

أشخاص يحتمل أن يكونوا أحياء
كتاب وكاتبات ألمان
مواليد 1964
مواليد في كولونيا

راينر ميركل


Lego Indiana Jones 2: La Aventura Continúa es un videojuego de 2009 desarrollado por Traveller's Tales y publicado por LucasArts. Es la secuela del juego de 2008, Lego Indiana Jones: The Original Adventures. El juego permite a los jugadores jugar las cuatro aventuras cinematográficas, Incluyendo la última película de la franquicia, Indiana Jones y el Reino de la Calavera de Cristal, que no fue incluida en el juego anterior. A pesar de ser etiquetada como una secuela, el juego contiene niveles de nuevo diseño para las cuatro películas. El juego está disponible en la Wii , Xbox 360 , PlayStation 3 , Nintendo DS , PlayStation Portable , Mac OS X y Microsoft Windows. El juego fue lanzado el 28 de abril de 2011 por Feral Interactive.

Historia
El juego comienza en el Reino de la Calavera de Cristal Parte 1. Hay seis centros (Cazadores del Arca Perdida, El templo Maldito y La Última Cruzada) en total, con 5 niveles de modo historia en cada centro, 5 niveles de modo de tesoro, 5 niveles de bonificación, y un nivel de super bonificación (estas se desbloquean por completar el modo del tesoro y los niveles de bonificación).

Recepción
El juego en general recibió críticas mixtas. GameTrailers dio al juego una puntuación de 7,0, citando como más repetitivo que los títulos anteriores y criticando la falta de funciones en línea para complementar los modos de edición, el modo cooperativo y el nivel. También criticaron el hecho de que la mitad del juego se basa en "la peor película de la serie". El IGN le dio 6.0 al juego, citando la falta de secretos en los niveles principales, así como el nuevo centro de cada película diciendo que es todo un lío, pero elogió a la banda sonora y la atracción duradera.

Referencias

Videojuegos para Windows
Videojuegos para Nintendo DS
Videojuegos para PlayStation 3
Videojuegos para PlayStation Portable
Videojuegos para Wii
Videojuegos para Xbox 360
Videojuegos de LucasArts
Videojuegos desarrollados en Reino Unido
Videojuegos de Lego
Videojuegos de Indiana Jones
Videojuegos de acción-aventura
Videojuegos de 2009
Videojuegos con antagonistas femeninas
Videojuegos ambientados en Perú


JSON-LD (JavaScript Object Notation for Linked Data) é um método de codificação de dados vinculados (linked data) usando o formato JSON. O JSON-LD foi criado no intuito de exigir o menor esforço possível para que desenvolvedores transformem seu JSON existente em JSON-LD O JSON-LD permite que os dados sejam serializados de maneira semelhante ao JSON tradicional.  Foi inicialmente desenvolvido pelo grupo da comunidade JSON for Linking Data antes de ser transferido para o grupo de trabalho RDF para revisão, melhoria e padronização,  e atualmente é mantido pelo JSON-LD Working Group. JSON-LD é atualmente uma recomendação do Consórcio World Wide Web (W3C).

Projeto
JSON-LD é projetado em torno do conceito de um "contexto" para fornecer mapeamentos adicionais de JSON para um modelo RDF. O contexto vincula as propriedades dos objetos em um documento JSON a conceitos em uma ontologia. Para mapear a sintaxe JSON-LD para RDF, o JSON-LD permite que os valores sejam transformados em um tipo especificado ou marcados com uma linguagem. Um contexto pode ser incorporado diretamente em um documento JSON-LD ou colocado em um arquivo separado e referenciado de diferentes documentos (de documentos JSON tradicionais por meio de um cabeçalho de link HTTP).

Exemplo
{
 "@context": {
  "nome": "http://xmlns.com/foaf/0.1/name",
  "pagina_inicial": {
   "@id": "http://xmlns.com/foaf/0.1/workplaceHomepage",
   "@type": "@id"
  },
  "Pessoa": "http://xmlns.com/foaf/0.1/Person"
 },
 "@id": "https://eu.example.com",
 "@type": "Person",
 "nome": "John Smith",
 "pagina_inicial": "https://www.example.com/"
}O exemplo acima descreve uma pessoa, com base na ontologia FOAF (amigo de um amigo) . Primeiro, as duas propriedades JSON nome e pagina_inicial e o tipo Pessoa são mapeadas para conceitos no vocabulário FOAF e o valor da propriedade pagina_inicial é especificado para ser do tipo @id. Em outras palavras, o id da página inicial é especificado como um IRI na definição de contexto. Com base no modelo RDF, isso permite que a pessoa descrita no documento seja identificada de forma inequívoca por um IRI. O uso de IRIs resolvíveis permite que documentos RDF que contenham mais informações sejam transcluídos, o que permite que os clientes descubram novos dados simplesmente seguindo esses links; esse princípio é conhecido como Follow Your Nose.

Tendo todos os dados anotados semanticamente como no exemplo, um processador RDF pode identificar que o documento contém informações sobre uma pessoa ( @type ) e se o processador entender o vocabulário FOAF pode determinar quais propriedades especificam o nome e a página inicial da pessoa.

Uso
A codificação é usada pelo Schema.org, Google Knowledge Graph, e principalmente para atividades de otimização de mecanismos de pesquisa. Também tem sido usada para aplicações como informática biomédica. É também a base do Activity Streams, um formato para "a troca de informações sobre atividades potenciais e concluídas", e é usado no ActivityPub, o protocolo federado de redes sociais. Além disso, é usado no contexto da Internet das Coisas (em inglês, a sigla IoT), onde existe uma "descrição de coisa" que é um documento JSON-LD, que descreve as interfaces de rede de dispositivos dispositivos IoT.

Referências

Web semântica
JSON
Linguagens de marcação
Formatos de serialização de dados

JSON-LD


Udruga bivših učenika ŠPUD-a Zagreb - UBU osnovana je 2008. godine u Zagrebu.

Udruga djeluje kao platforma s ciljem promocije Škole primijenjene umjetnosti i dizajna (kratko ŠPUD–a) i njene djelatnosti na području Republike Hrvatske i u svijetu.

Kao sastavni dio kreativne platforme Organizam, UBU djeluje u području povezivanja interesnih kreativnih žarišta s lokalnom zajednicom, senzibilizacije šire javnosti za kulturu i umjetnost te njenog upućivanja na postojeće kreativne resurse i infrastrukturu, rasvjetljavanja i promocije nasljeđa vizualne kulture, strateškog umrežavanja s akterima civilne i kulturne scene, osmišljavanja novih modela edukacije te njegovanja internacionalnih suradnji i inter/transdisciplinarnog pristupa.

Izdvojeni projekti

2009.
 Zašto ne možemo jednostavno odšetati?, Zagreb
 Ptić, lisac i balega, Zagreb
 U krugu škole, Zagreb

2010.
 Park u parku, Žumberak - Škola primijenjene umjetnosti i dizajna (Zagreb) + Park prirode Žumberak – Samoborsko gorje (u suradnji)

2013.
 Poduzetništvo u primijenjenoj umjetnosti i dizajnu, Zagreb - VERN (u suradnji)
 Strip u Primijenjenoj, Zagreb - Škola primijenjene umjetnosti i dizajna (Zagreb) (u suradnji)

2014.
 Kolaboracija UBU SVA, New York - School of Visual Arts (u suradnji)

2015.
 Osnove medijske pismenosti, Zagreb - Kurziv + Kulturpunkt (u suradnji)
 Crtići u Primijenjenoj, Zagreb - Škola primijenjene umjetnosti i dizajna (Zagreb) (u suradnji)
 Primijenjena u Močvari, Zagreb - Škola primijenjene umjetnosti i dizajna (Zagreb) + Klub Močvara (u suradnji)
 Milton Glaser - Crtanje je promišljanje, Zagreb - Škola primijenjene umjetnosti i dizajna (Zagreb) + Mirko Ilić + SOS Dizajn Festival

2016.
 Čitajmo između redaka – priručnik za razvoj medijske pismenosti, Zagreb - Kurziv + GONG (u suradnji)
 FreeDA u Primijenjenoj, Zagreb - SOBA2 + Škola primijenjene umjetnosti i dizajna (Zagreb) (u suradnji)
 Ivan Kožarić u Školi primijenjene umjetnosti i dizajna – 75 godina poslije, Zagreb - Škola primijenjene umjetnosti i dizajna (Zagreb) + Muzej suvremene umjetnosti + Mirko Ilić  (u suradnji)

2017.
 Runaway art - Kabinet suvremenih umjetničkih praksi, Zagreb - Muzej suvremene umjetnosti + Akademija likovnih umjetnosti u Zagrebu + Škola primijenjene umjetnosti i dizajna (Zagreb) (u suradnji)
 Projekt RICHTER 100, Zagreb - Škola primijenjene umjetnosti i dizajna (Zagreb) + Muzej suvremene umjetnosti +  Centar za kulturu i film Augusta Cesarca + Centar za kreativni razvoj ARTMIX (u suradnji)
 Beyond the surface – Optical sound, Zagreb - Škola primijenjene umjetnosti i dizajna (Zagreb) + IMA Institut für Medienarchäologie (u suradnji)
 Kolaboracija UBU SVA, New York - School of Visual Arts (u suradnji)

Nagrade i priznanja
 2010. godine nagrada DAN D – 1. nagrada publike na Danu Dizajna za projekt Sintokuhinja
 2011. godine nagrada UIA Architecture & Children Golden Cubes – Nagrada za institucije za projekt U krugu Škole
 2011. godine nagrada i diploma ravnateljice Škole primijenjene umjetnosti i dizajna, Maje Krstić Lukač, za audiovideo instalaciju "Pozicija ŠPUD-a u vremenu i prostoru"

Izvori

Vanjske poveznice

 Udruga bivših učenika ŠPUD-a - UBU
 Organizam & UBU: U KRUGU ŠKOLE – ZELENI VAL (7.-22.10.2016.)
 Udruga UBU postavila park skulptura na Žumberku
  Izložba autora animiranog filma u Salonu Izidor Kršnjavi
 FreeDA u Primijenjenoj
 PRIMIJENJENA U MOČVARI
 Richterovih 100
 Pucanjem okvira platno je oslobođeno
 Izložba velikana hrvatskog stripa
 Otvorena velika izložba hrvatskih autora stripa: Od Julesa preko Novog kvadrata do danas
 Naši se učenici osjećaju dijelom kulturne scene

Kultura u Zagrebu
Hrvatske udruge
Hrvatski umjetnici
Likovna umjetnost

UBU


Gerhard Kneib (* 27. August 1941 in Zornheim) ist ein deutscher Politiker (CDU).

Leben
Gerhard Kneib stammt aus einem Obst- und Weinbaubetrieb in Zornheim (Weinanbaugebiet Rheinhessen), den er später als selbständiger Obstbaumeister mit seiner Ehefrau führte. Seine Ausbildung erfolgte mit einer Landwirtschafts- und Obstbaulehre sowie dem Besuch einer Landwirtschaftlichen Fachschule. 1969 bestand er die Prüfung als Gärtnermeister, Fachrichtung Obstbau.

Er ist verheiratet und hat vier Kinder.

Politische Tätigkeiten
Gerhard Kneib war in den 1960er Jahren Landesvorsitzender und stellvertretender Bundesvorsitzender der Katholischen Landjugendbewegung sowie Landesvorsitzender der Katholischen Landvolkbewegung.

Kneib trat 1958 in die CDU ein und wurde später zum Vorsitzenden des CDU-Ortsverbandes Zornheim gewählt. 1968 erfolgte seine Wahl in den Zornheimer Gemeinderat. Von 1975 bis 1996 war er Mitglied des Rheinland-Pfälzischen Landtages. Während seiner Zugehörigkeit zum Landtag war er zeitweise Mitglied des Landesvorstandes der CDU Rheinland-Pfalz.

Zu den politischen Schwerpunkten gehörte die Interessenvertretung der Landwirtschaft, etwa als stellvertretender Vorsitzender des Bundesagrarausschusses der CDU und als Vorsitzender des Landesagrarausschusses der CDU Rheinland-Pfalz, sowie als Vorsitzender des Agrarausschusses des Rheinland-Pfälzischen Landtages.

Er bekleidete des Weiteren verschiedene Ämter in Institutionen seines Berufsstandes. So vertrat er seine Berufsständische Körperschaft in der Landwirtschaftskammer Rheinland-Pfalz – als Mitglied der Vollversammlung und später auch als Vorstand, sowie als Mitglied des Haushalts- und Finanzausschusses, als Vorsitzender des Ausschusses "Obst, Gemüse und Tabakbau" und als Vorsitzender des Weinbauausschusses. Gegen Ende seiner politischen Karriere war er Vizepräsident der Kammer. Außerdem war er Präsident des Fachverbandes Obst und Gemüse beim Bauernverband Rheinland-Pfalz-Süd sowie Bundesvorsitzender der Fachgruppe Obstbau beim Deutschen Bauernverband und beim Zentralverband Gartenbau.

Ehrungen
Gerhard Kneib wurde 1983 mit dem Bundesverdienstkreuz am Bande und 1987 mit dem Bundesverdienstkreuz 1. Klasse ausgezeichnet. Für seine Verdienste um den Berufsstand erhielt Gerhard Kneib 1996 die Silberne, 2001 die Goldene Medaille der Landwirtschaftskammer Rheinland-Pfalz. Der Ministerpräsident von Rheinland-Pfalz Kurt Beck und der Minister für Wirtschaft, Verkehr, Landwirtschaft und Weinbau, Hans-Artur Bauckhage, verliehen ihm 2002 den Titel eines Ökonomierates. Das Präsidium des Deutschen Bauernverbandes verlieh ihm 2011 die Andreas-Hermes-Medaille in Anerkennung für seinen langjährigen, erfolgreichen Einsatz für den deutschen Obstbau. Das Land Rheinland-Pfalz ehrte ihn 1967 mit der Verleihung der Freiherr-vom-Stein-Plakette.

Literatur
 Der Präsident des Landtags Rheinland-Pfalz (Hrsg.): Die Stellvertreter des freien Volkes. Die Abgeordneten der Beratenden Landesversammlung und des Landtags Rheinland-Pfalz von 1946 bis 2015. Springer VS, Wiesbaden 2016, ISBN 978-3-658-04750-4, S. 360–361.
 Norbert Beleke (Hrsg.): Wer ist wer? Das deutsche Who's who. 46. Ausgabe. Schmidt-Römhild, Lübeck 2007, S. 690.

Einzelnachweise

Landtagsabgeordneter (Rheinland-Pfalz)
Kommunalpolitiker (Landkreis Mainz-Bingen)
CDU-Mitglied
Träger des Bundesverdienstkreuzes 1. Klasse
Person (Rheinhessen)
Deutscher
Geboren 1941
Mann

Gerhard Kneib


بندقية الكرات الوامضة  هو سلاح يدوي يستخدمه بشكل رئيسي، رجال الشرطة في حالات الشغب لتفريق المتظاهرين والمشاغبين، كبديل عن الأسلحة النارية والهراوات والرصاصات البلاستيكية.

طورته شركة صناعة أسلحة الصيد فيرني كارون الفرنسية. وتقول مجموعات حقوق الإنسان أنها تخشى أن تطوير مثل تلك الأنواع من الأسلحة، ربما يؤدي إلى جعل الشرطة أكثر وحشية، بعدما سجلت عدة إصابات خطيرة للعين لبعض المتظاهرين.

أسلحة نارية
الدرك الوطني الفرنسي
سلاح غير قاتل
شرطة وطنية (فرنسا)
قنابل يدوية

بندقية الكرات الوامضة


(تعنى «الصاعقة») طائرة مقاتلة إيرانية طورت أساسا على هيكل طائرات نورثروب إف-5 الأمريكية، بدأ إنتاجها عام 1997م حتى الآن تستخدمها القوات الجوية الإيرانية.
لقد تم تصميمها على أساس هندسة عكسية للمقاتلة نورثروب إف-5. تم تطوير آذرخش في مدينةأصفهان الإيرانية من قبل الجيش الإيراني. ووزارة الدفاع وشركة "HESA" لصناعة الطائرات.

وقد تم إنتاج هذه المقاتلة على يد خبراء ومهندسون إيرانيون، ولحد الآن، فقد اعلنت إيران إنتاج أكثر من "100" مقاتلة منها، بعد تطويرها وتحديثها، واثبتت نجاحها في تنفيذ مهماتها، وفي اصابة الاهداف المحددة لها، حتى انه تم استخدام اعداد كبيرة منها في مناورات «فدائيوا الولاية» التي جرت اخيرا في مناطق واسعة من الأراضي الإيرانية.

نسخ أخرى
أعلن نائب قائد القوة الجوية التابعة للجيش الإيراني، عن صنع نسخة متطورة جديدة من مقاتلات«صاعقة» الإيرانية موضحا ان هذه المقاتلات ذات مقعدي قيادة.
وحسب تقرير نشرته وكالة"تسنيم"الدولية للأنباء، فان المسؤلين الارانيين اعلنوا اواسط عام 2004 عن إنتاج مقاتلة إيرانية تحمل اسم «الصاعقة».والتي تم تصنيعها بالكامل على يد خبراء وعلماء محليين في إيران.
وفي عام 2006 وبعد سلسلة من عمليات تحليق ناجحة لمقاتلة«صاعقة» في مناورات ضربة«ذو الفقار»، ألتحقت هذه المقاتلة لأول مرة للأسطول الجوي الإيراني، لتنضم إيران بعد أمريكا وروسيا والصين والهند وبعض الدول الناميه الأخرى لقائمة الدول التي تمتلك تكنلوجيا متطورة لتصنيع المقاتلات الحربية في العالم.

خصائص الطائرة

تعتبر "صاعقة" طائرة مقاتلة اعتراضية، وتتمتع بتكنلوجيا معقدة ومتطورة جدا ويمكن لهذه المقاتلة المحلية، من خلال تحديث برمجيات التسليح، تطويرها إلى مستوى "SRII"، كمايمكن الإشارة إلى ان جميع اجهزتها الميكانيكية والهيدروليكية هي"محلية الصنع بالكامل.

كما وان قدرتها العالية على الدعم الجوي للوحدات المقاتلة تعتبر من الخصائص الأخرى لهذه المقاتلة، وتتصف برشاقة وخفة وقدرة ممتازة على المناورة وامكانية تزويدها واطلاقها أنواع من الصواريخ والقنابل، كما وانها مجهزة بأنظمة رادار متطورة جدا، والتي تعتبر من المميزات المحلية لهذه الطائرة.

ان قدرة «الصاعقة» الكبيرة على المناورة وقلة احتمال الخطأ وانطلاقها وتحليقها السريع تعتبر من المميزات الأخرى لهذه المقاتلة.

اما الجدار الزجاجي لمقصورة الطيار فهو مقاوم للرصاص، مايمنح الطيار الحماية أكثر من غيرها من المقاتلات.

خصائص أخرى

الحمولة
ويبلغ الحد الاقصى من حمولة هذه المقاتلة نحو <4400>كغم.فيما يبلغ وزن المقاتلة بدون اسلحة<8000>كغم، اما وزن الإقلاع الاقصى فيصل من <15000> إلى <18000>كغم،

مراجع

طائرات ذات أجنحة سفلية
طائرات مقاتلة إيرانية
طائرات نفاثة ثنائية المحركات

آذرخش (طائرة مقاتلة)


Chiarissimo Falconieri Mellini (Roma,  - Ravenna, ) foi um cardeal católico e camerlengo do Sacro Colégio dos Cardeais.

Início da vida e sacerdócio
Mellini nasceu em 25 de setembro de 1794 em Roma, filho do Marquês Alessandro Falconieri Mellini e Marianna Lante Montefeltro della Rovere, dos duques de Bomarzo. Era parente dos cardeais Lelio Falconieri (1643) e Alessandro Falconieri (1724). Seu tataravô foi o duque Ippolito Lante Montefeltro della Rovere.

Ele foi educado no Collegio Tolomei em Siena, no Colégio Romano em Roma e na Universidade de Roma "La Sapienza" em Roma , onde recebeu um doutorado em utroque iuris (direito civil e canônico) em 1824. Mellini foi ordenado em 19 de setembro de 1818 e foi nomeado um Auditor da Sagrada Rota Romana.

Episcopado e cardinalato
Ele foi eleito Arcebispo de Ravena e foi consagrado em 1826 pelo Papa Leão XII.

Mellini foi elevado a cardeal-sacerdote no consistório de 12 de fevereiro de 1838. Ele participou do Conclave de 1846 que elegeu o Papa Pio IX e foi feito secretário de Memoriais em 1857. Mellini foi nomeado Camerlengo do Sagrado Colégio dos Cardeais em 1859.

Morte
Mellini morreu em 22 de agosto de 1859 em Ravenna e foi exposto e enterrado na Catedral Metropolitana de Ravenna.

Naturais de Roma
Alunos da Universidade de Roma "La Sapienza"
Cardeais nomeados pelo papa Gregório XVI

Chiarissimo Falconieri Mellini


is the Japanese traditional custom of enjoying  the transient beauty of flowers;  in this case almost always refer to those of the  or, less frequently,  trees. From the end of March to early May, cherry trees bloom all over Japan, and around the second week of January on the island of Okinawa. The  is announced each year by the Japan Meteorological Agency, and is watched carefully by those planning hanami as the blossoms only last a week or two.

In modern-day Japan, hanami mostly consists of having an outdoor party beneath the sakura during daytime or at night. In some contexts the Sino-Japanese term  is used instead, particularly for festivals. Hanami at night is called . In many places such as Ueno Park temporary paper lanterns are hung for the purpose of yozakura.  On the island of Okinawa, decorative electric lanterns are hung in the trees for evening enjoyment, such as on the trees ascending Mt. Yae, near Motobu Town, or at the Nakijin Castle.

A more ancient form of hanami also exists in Japan, which is enjoying the plum blossoms instead, which is narrowly referred to as . This kind of hanami is popular among older people, because they are calmer than the sakura parties, which usually involve younger people and can sometimes be very crowded and noisy.

History

The practice of hanami is many centuries old. The custom is said to have started during the Nara period (710–794) when it was ume blossoms that people admired in the beginning. But by the Heian period (794–1185), sakura came to attract more attention and hanami was synonymous with sakura. From then on, in both waka and haiku, "flowers" meant "sakura".

Hanami was first used as a term analogous to cherry blossom viewing in the Heian era novel The Tale of Genji. Although a wisteria viewing party was also described, the terms "hanami" and "flower party" were subsequently used only in reference to cherry blossom viewing.

Sakura was originally used to divine that year's harvest as well as announce the rice-planting season. People believed in kami inside the trees and made offerings. Afterwards, they partook of the offering with sake.

Emperor Saga of the Heian period adopted this practice, and held flower-viewing parties with sake and feasts underneath the blossoming boughs of sakura trees in the Imperial Court in Kyoto. Poems would be written praising the delicate flowers, which were seen as a metaphor for life itself, luminous and beautiful yet fleeting and ephemeral. This was said to be the origin of Hanami in Japan.

The custom was originally limited to the elite of the Imperial Court, but soon spread to Samurai society and, by the Edo period, to the common people as well. Tokugawa Yoshimune planted areas of cherry blossom trees to encourage this. Under the sakura trees, people had lunch and drank sake in cheerful feasts.

Since a book written in the Heian period mentions , one of the cultivars with pendulous branches, it is considered that Prunus itosakura 'Pendula' (Sidare-zakura) is the oldest cultivar in Japan. In the Kamakura period, when the population increased in the southern Kanto region, Oshima cherry, which originated in Izu Oshima Island, was brought to Honshu and cultivated there, and then brought to capital, Kyoto. In the Muromachi period, the Sato-zakura Group which was born from complex interspecific hybrids based on Oshima cherry, began to appear.

Prunus itosakura (syn. Prunus subhirtella, Edo higan), a wild species, grows slowly, but has the longest life span among cherry trees and is easy to grow into large trees. For this reason, there are many large and long-lived trees of this species in Japan, and their cherry trees are often regarded as sacred and have become a landmark that symbolizes Shinto shrines, Buddhist temples and local areas. Famous examples include the Jindai-zakura (~2,000 years old), Usuzumi-zakura (~1,500 years old), and Daigo-zakura (~1,000 years old).

In the Edo period, various double-flowered cultivars were produced and planted on the banks of rivers, on Buddhist temples, in Shinto shrines and in daimyo gardens in urban areas such as Edo, and the common people living in urban areas could enjoy them. Books from that period recorded more than 200 varieties of cherry blossoms and mentioned many varieties of cherry blossoms which are currently known, such as 'Kanzan'. However, the situation was limited to urban areas, and the main objects of hanami across the country were wild species such as Prunus jamasakura (Yamazakura) and Oshima cherry, which were widely distributed in the country.

Since the Meiji period when Japan was modernized, Yoshino cherry has spread throughout Japan, and the object of hanami for Japanese people has changed to Yoshino cherry. On the other hand, various cultivars other than Yoshino cherry were cut down one after another due to the rapid modernization of cities, such as reclamation of waterways and demolition of daimyo gardens. The gardener Takagi Magoemon and the village mayor of Kohoku Village Shimizu Kengo worried about this situation and saved them from the danger of extinction by making a row of cherry trees composed of various cultivars on the Arakawa River bank. In Kyoto, Sano Toemon XIV, a gardener, collected various cultivars and propagated them. After World War II, these cultivars were inherited by the National Institute of Genetics, Tama Forest Science Garden and the Flower Association of Japan, and from the 1960s onwards various cultivars were again used for hanami.

The teasing proverb  hints at the real priorities for most cherry blossom viewers, meaning that people are more interested in the food and drinks accompanying a hanami party than actually viewing the flowers themselves.

Dead bodies are buried under the cherry trees! is a popular saying about hanami, after the opening sentence of the 1925 short story "Under the Cherry Trees" by Motojirō Kajii.

Hanami today
The Japanese people continue the tradition of hanami, gathering in great numbers wherever the flowering trees are found. Thousands of people fill the parks to hold feasts under the flowering trees, and sometimes these parties go on until late at night. In more than half of Japan, the cherry blossoming days come at the same time as the beginning of school and work after vacation, and so welcoming parties are often opened with hanami. Usually, people go to the parks to keep the best places to celebrate hanami with friends, family, and company coworkers many hours or even days before. In cities like Tokyo, it is also common to have celebrations under the sakura at night. Hanami at night is called yozakura (夜桜, "night sakura"). In many places such as Ueno Park, temporary paper lanterns are hung to have yozakura.

The cherry blossom front is forecast each year, previously by the Japan Meteorological Agency and now by private agencies, and is watched with attention by those who plan to celebrate hanami because the blossoms last for very little time, usually no more than two weeks. The first cherry blossoms happen in the subtropical southern islands of Okinawa, while on the northern island of Hokkaido, they bloom much later. In most large cities like Tokyo, Kyoto and Osaka, the cherry blossom season normally takes place around the end of March and the beginning of April. The television and newspapers closely follow this cherry blossom front, as it slowly moves from South to North. In 2018 blossoms were scheduled to open in Fukuoka on March 21, in Kyoto March 27, in Tokyo March 26 and Sapporo May 1.
The hanami celebrations usually involve eating and drinking, and playing and listening to music. Some special dishes are prepared and eaten at the occasion, like dango and bento, and sake is commonly drunk as part of the festivity. In 2020, traditional cherry blossom season events were canceled and tourists did not come to Japan due to the COVID-19 pandemic. The 2021 peak bloom day in Kyoto, March 26, was the earliest since record-tracking began in 812. Peak blooms have been trending earlier since 1800 and Yasuyuki Aono, a researcher at Osaka Prefecture University, suggested that the cause was climate change.

Outside Japan
Similar celebrations take place in Taiwan, Korea, the Philippines, and China.

North America

United States

In the United States, hanami has also become very popular. In 1912, Japan gave 3,000 sakura trees as a gift to the United States to celebrate the nations' friendship. These trees were planted in Washington, D.C., and another 3,800 trees were donated in 1965. These sakura trees continue to be a popular tourist attraction, and every year, the National Cherry Blossom Festival takes place when they bloom in early spring.

In Macon, Georgia, another cherry blossom festival called the International Cherry Blossom Festival is celebrated every spring. Macon is known as the Cherry Blossom Capital of the World, because 300,000 sakura trees grow there.

In Brooklyn, New York, the Annual Sakura Matsuri Cherry Blossom Festival takes place in May, at the Brooklyn Botanic Garden. This festivity has been celebrated since 1981, and is one of the Garden's most famous attractions. Similar celebrations are also held in Philadelphia and other places through the United States.

Another popular collection of sakura in the United States is in Newark, New Jersey's Branch Brook Park, whose over 5,000 cherry trees of 18 varieties attract 10,000 visitors a day during its annual Cherry Blossom Festival.

Canada
In Toronto, Canada the Hanami is celebrated in the many parks in the city in late April, due to the city's cold climate. Around 50 Yoshino Sakura trees have been donated to the city as symbols of international friendship and good will by the descendants of Japanese immigrants. High Park, the home of the most extensive cherry tree collection in the city, closes its streets to auto traffic to better allow for sakura viewing during the week of peak bloom.

Europe

Hanami is also celebrated in several European countries. For example, in Finland people gather to celebrate hanami in Helsinki at Roihuvuori. Local Japanese people and companies have donated 200 cherry trees which are all planted in Kirsikkapuisto. Those cherry trees usually bloom in mid-May.

In Rome, in Italy, the hanami is celebrated, where are a lot of cherry trees were donated by Japan in 1959.

In Stockholm there is an annual festivity in Kungsträdgården where a lot of people celebrate hanami.

During the COVID-19 pandemic in England, the National Trust initiated the #BlossomWatch campaign, which was inspired by Japanese cherry blossom festivals. It encouraged people to share images of first flowers on their lockdown walks.

See also
Cherry blossom
Cherry Tree Park
Hana wa sakuragi, hito wa bushi
Momijigari, autumn leaf viewing
Prunus
Subaru Cherry Blossom Festival of Greater Philadelphia
Tsukimi, moon viewing
List of Award of Garden Merit flowering cherries
Fuji Matsuri

References

External links

Hanami in Philadelphia! Information on the Subaru Cherry Blossom Festival of Greater Philadelphia
Hanami Documentary produced by Oregon Field Guide
Kyotoview — ''Hanami In Kyoto
Cherry Blossom Forecast Yearly map of blossoms in Japan

Cherry blossom
Japanese culture
Festivals in Japan
Hanami spots of Japan
Spring festivals
Articles containing video clips
Flower festivals in Japan
Cherry blossom festivals

Hanami


Adult Animation (eða fullorðnisteiknmyndir) er tegund af teiknuðum grín-sjónvarpsþætti ætluðum fullorðnum.

Dæmi um Adult Animation þætti:

 The Simpsons
 Family Guy
 American Dad
 Futurama
 Bob's Burgers
 Bojack Horseman
 The King of Hill
 South Park
 Bordertown
 Rick and Morty
 Solor Opposites

Það hafa verið gerðir tveir íslenskir teiknimyndaþættir: Tvíhöfði og Hulli.
Sjónvarpsþættir
Teiknaðir sjónvarpsþættir
Teiknaðir grínþættir

Fullorðnisteiknmyndir


San Pedro Chukuaxín fue una localidad actualmente conurbada con la ciudad de Mérida en el municipio de Mérida en el estado de Yucatán localizado en el sureste de México. Hoy día es una hacienda restaurada.

Toponimia
El nombre (San Pedro Chukuaxín) se refiere al apóstol Simón Pedro y chukuaxín es una palabra en idioma maya.

Localización
La Hacienda San Pedro Chuchuaxín se encuentra ubicada en la colonia Chuminópolis de la Mérida, Yucatán.

Infraestructura
Hoy día se conserva la casa principal y la noria.

Hechos históricos
En 1605, cuando el Deán de la Catedral de Mérida, Br. Don Leonardo González de Zequeira, la compró al tesorero Don Pedro Gómez y la legó en su testamento a  Thomé de Rúa y Baltazar Correa.
En 1767 es abandonada por la expulsión de los jesuitas.
A finales del S. XIX es reconstruida por Eduardo González Gutiérrez.
En 1902 es obsequiada al Dr. Martín Tritschler y Córdova.
En 1914 es comprada por Bernardo Cano Castellanos,.
En 1915 Salvador Alvarado la expropia para crear una escuela.
En 1935 pertenece a Bernardo de J. Cano Mañé.
Entre 1920 y 1930 funciona una escuela para profesores.
Entre 1931 y 1933 funciona un asilo y hospital.
En 1952 es comprada por Joaquín Acevedo Ruiz del Hoyo.
En 1966 opera ahí un organismo religioso.

Demografía
En 1910 según el INEGI, la población de la localidad era de 50 habitantes, de los cuales 50 eran hombre y 0 eran mujeres.

Galería

Referencias

Enlaces externos
Comisarías y subcomisarías de Mérida

Toponimia maya
Haciendas de Yucatán
Localidades del municipio de Mérida (Yucatán)

San Pedro Chukuaxín


Sørfjorden (nordsamisk Suvdovuotna) er den inderste del af fjorden Kvænangen i Kvænangen kommune i Troms og Finnmark fylke i Norge. Fjorden er omkring 10 kilometer lang og begynder ved Lillestraumen, et smalt sund mellem Ytreneset på vestsiden af fjorden og Indreneset i øst. Den går først i sydøstlig retning mod Kvænangsbotn, men drejer så vestover og fortsetter ind til Sørfjordbotn.

Bygden Kvænangsbotn ligger længst mod syd i fjorden, og der findes flere mindre bebyggelser spredt langs fjorden. Fylkesvej 367 (Troms) går langs øst- og sydsiden af fjorden.

Flere større elve munder ud i Sørfjorden. De to vestligste, Ábojohka og Njemenjáikojohka, er forbundet med Kvænangsbotn kraftværk som har udløb i Sørfjorden. Længere mod øst munder de uregulerede og beskyttede elve Kvænangselva og Nordbotnelva ud i fjorden.

Kilder og henvisninger

Fjorde i Troms og Finnmark
Kvænangen

Sørfjorden (Kvænangen)


Das denkmalgeschützte Mietwohn- und Geschäftshaus wurde in zwei Bauabschnitten an der Nordseite des Schloßkirchplatzes und Ecke Spremberger Straße in Cottbus errichtet. Paul Sack hatte 1876 das Grundstück erworben und ließ dort ein repräsentatives Gebäude an der Ecke zum Katharinengässchen 1878/79 errichten.

Ursprungsgebäude – Schloßkirchplatz 1

Als der Erweiterungsbau 1910 begann, wurde im selben Atemzug das Mietwohnhaus von 1878/79 mittels Balkone und Umbau der Erdgeschosszone aufgewertet. 1897 wurde im östlichen Erdgeschossbereich das erste Restaurant "Zum Freischütz" durch Moritz Möbius eröffnet. Im Jahr 1944 wurde das Dach ausgebaut und 1950 die Schaufensteranlage im durch die Baufirma Pabel & Co. für Richard Sack umgestaltet. Bis zur heutigen Zeit hat das Juweliergeschäft F. F. Sack (benannt nach Franz Friedrich Sack) hier seine Verkaufsräume. 1993/94 wurde das Gebäude modernisiert und die Fassade restauriert.

Das Bauwerk ist ein viergeschossiges, elfachsiges Mietwohnhaus, dass auf einem L-förmigen Grundriss steht und von einer prächtigen dekorativen Fassade geprägt ist. Entlang des Katharinengässchens hat das Bauwerk weitere vier Achsen. Im Erdgeschoss links gibt es zwei Schaufenster und einen Geschäftseingang, die zum Juweliergeschäft F.F. Sack gehören. Ferner ist das Erdgeschoss über einem genuteten Sockel horizontal durch abwechselnd glatte und ornamentierte Quader stark plastisch modelliert. Das westliche Eingangsportal besitzt zwei Säulen sowie korinthische Kapitelle und die Eingangstür von 1910 hat ein hohes Oberlicht als auch Glaseinsätze mit Schutzgitter in jugendstil-linearen Formen im oberen Teil. Das östliche Portal ist weiter in der Fassade zurückgesetzt und wird von zwei Säulen, die von einem Friesband überzogene Kapitellen besitzen, flankiert. Das Türblatt hat ein reiches florales Schnitzwerk, die Verglasung ist mit einer feinen eisernen Rankenwerkvergitterung versehen.

Ein Triglyphenfries trennt das Erdgeschoss und ein Gesimsband das oberste Geschoss ab. Balkone mit schmiedeeisernen Geländern sind an allen Geschossen der linken Außenachse zu finden. Die Fenster des Gebäudes variieren von Stockwerk zu Stockwerk: Im ersten Obergeschoss sind die Faschen mit Rosetten besetzt und die Verdachung ist aus stark plastischen Dreiecksgiebeln mit schmuckvollen Konsolen sowie plastisch ausgebildeten Masken geformt. Eine geohrte Putzrahmung und ein Löwenmaul-Schlussstein sind im zweiten Obergeschoss zu finden. Im obersten Geschoss sind die Fenster vollständig von Bauschmuck umrahmt. Es gibt dort eine seitliche Rahmung durch Hermenpilaster, Brüstungsfelder mit Rosetten und Verdachungen mit Akroterien. Des Weiteren gibt es ein stark vorkragendes Kranzgesims und darunter einen Perlstab sowie ein Fries mit Fruchtgehängen.

Der Bauteil von 1900 ist auch mit der westlichen Treppe erschlossen. Hier handelt es sich um eine gewendelte Konstruktion mit einem Metallgeländer, welche vollständig erhalten ist. Innerhalb der Spindel ist ein erneuerter Fahrstuhl vorhanden. Im Eingangsflur, der einstige Zugang zum Geschäft, sind Vedutenmalereien zu finden. Die östliche Holztreppenanlage mit hölzernen Balustern, des älteren Gebäudes, ist schlichter gearbeitet.

Erweiterungsbau von 1910 – Spremberger Straße 5
Im Jahr 1910 wurde im Auftrag von Franz Sack ein Mietwohn- und Geschäftshausanbau im barocken Stil gebaut. Der Entwurf wurde durch den Architekten Paul Sack konzipiert. Die Bauausführung übernahm das Baugeschäft Hermann Pabel & Co. Im Jahr 1944 gab es eine Dachausbau und 1993/94 wurde eine Gebäudemodernisierung und Fassaden Restaurierung durchgeführt. Der Erweiterungsbau hat ein Mansarddach. Durch ein Sohlbankgesims wirkt das mit Elbsandstein-Platten verkleidete Erdgeschoss optisch überhöht. Die Aufschrift "F.F. Sack Juwelier" ist über den drei flachbogigen Schaufenstereinschnitten zu sehen. Der an den oberen Etagen angebrachte Bauschmuck, die Lisenen, Fensterrahmungen und Gesimse sind ebenfalls aus Naturstein. Die symmetrisch gegliederte dreiachsige Fassade zur Spremberger Straße hat einen mittleren, schwach vortretenden Runderker unter einem Rundhelm. Darüber befindet sich ein verschindeltes Zwerchhaus. Die dreiachsige Ansicht zum Schloßkirchplatz wird von einem über die Traufe ragenden viergeschossigen, auf mächtigen Konsolen ruhenden Seitenerker unter einer Glockenhaube geprägt. Weiterhin beleben Fenstervariationen, wie z. B. Drillingsfenster, die Ansicht des Hauses.

Bedeutung
Das Mietwohnhaus von 1878/79 gehört wegen seiner üppigen Schmuckformen und imposanten Größe zu einem Meilenstein historischer Baukunst in Cottbus.
Der Erweiterungsbau von 1900 zeugt durch die sogenannte "Reformarchitektur" vom hohen Repräsentationsanspruch seines Besitzers.
Die architektonische und künstlerische Qualität der Gebäude wird durch ausgewogenen Gebäudeproportionen, die Fassadenstruktur und das effektvolle Formen- und Materialzusammenspiel gezeigt.

Literatur
 Irmgard Ackermann, Marcus Cante, Antje Mues: Denkmale in Brandenburg, Band 2.1, Stadt Cottbus Teil 1: Altstadt, Mühleninsel, Neustadt und Ostrow, innere Spremberger Vorstadt, "Stadtpromenade", westliche Stadterweiterung, historisches Brunschwig, Wernersche Verlagsgesellschaft, Worms am Rhein, 2001, ISBN 3-88462-176-9

Weblinks

Baudenkmal in Cottbus
Wohn- und Geschäftshaus in Cottbus
Cottbus
Erbaut in den 1870er Jahren

Schloßkirchplatz 1


Waseca may refer to:

 Waseca County, Minnesota, United States
 Waseca, Minnesota, a city and the county seat
 Federal Correctional Institution, Waseca, a low-security women's prison
 Waseca Municipal Airport
 Waseca, Saskatchewan, Canada, a village

See also
 University of Minnesota Waseca, a two-year technical college specializing in agriculture, from 1971 to 1992
 Waseca Subdivision, a railway line in Minnesota

Waseca


A poluição por mercúrio compreende a emissão de mercúrio por atividades humanas e sua acumulação no meio ambiente. O mercúrio apresenta a maior toxicidade entre os metais contaminantes, sendo também o único capaz de bioacumulação na maioria das cadeias alimentares, e o único com potêncial letal em humanos expostos à contaminação ambiental. O vapor de mercúrio, por sua vez, é capaz de transmitir-se na atmosfera, em razão de sua estabilidade química na forma volátil, podendo afetar regiões remotas a partir de um foco de emissão. A contaminação de ambientes aquáticos, por outro lado, ocorre pela possibilidade de metilação por bactérias, entre outras interações químicas e biológicas que são capazes de manter altas concentrações da substância. Por ser lipossolúvel, o metilmercúrio torna-se mais assimilável por diversos organismos, transmitindo-se amplamente pela cadeia alimentar.

A utilização do mercúrio no processo de extração do ouro, especialmente no garimpo, representa uma das principais modalidades de poluição por mercúrio. No Brasil, o garimpo tem sido o motor da contaminação aquática e atmosférica, especialmente na Amazônia.

Causas

Garimpo

Indústria química

Carvão

Cosméticos
Certos cosméticos, principalmente produtos para clarear a pele, mas também maquiagens em geral, contém quantidades variáveis de mercúrio. Alguns países possuem leis proibindo ou regulando o uso do elemento pela indústria cosmética, outros, porém, carecem de legislação efetiva nesse âmbito, tornando esses produtos amplamente disponíveis em comércios eletrônicos.

Amálgama dentária
A amálgama dentária, utilizada para preencher cavidades dentárias, tem como ingrediente o mercúrio, representando um risco mínimo à saúde do paciente, embora seja também um vetor da acumulação da substância no meio ambiente. Nesse sentido, a Convenção de Minamata pautou seu uso na odontologia, propondo medidas para a substituição gradual das amálgamas com mercúrio, enfatizando alternativas e práticas de gestão de resíduo.

Meios

Presença de mercúrio em peixes

Efeitos

Em humanos

Incidentes

Desastre de Minamata

Referências

Bibliografia

Poluição por mercúrio

Poluição por mercúrio


Slaget ved Halbe var et slag, der fandt sted fra 24. april til 1. maj 1945 i slutningen af 2. verdenskrig.

Under 2. Verdenskrig blev resterne af den tyske 9. armé under kommando af general Theodor Busse omringet af sovjetiske styrker den 16. april 1945. Fra 28. april var resten af arméen trængt sammen indenfor området Löpten – Hermsdorf – Märkisch Buchholz – Halbe sydøst for Berlin. Indenfor det omringede område befandt der sig omkring 200.000 soldater samt 10-15.000 civile borgere, deriblandt adskillig tusinder flygtninge fra områderne øst for floden Oder.

Chefen for XI. SS Panzerkorps, Matthias Kleinheisterkamp, kaldte alle chefer ned til og med bataljonschefer sammen til den befalingsudgivelse. Et udbrud skulle forsøges, og den eneste mulighed var at bryde gennem omringningen i den lille by Halbe og derfra fortsætte tværs over Dresden–Berlin motorvejen mod vest i et forsøg på at nå frem til general Walther Wencks 12. armé vest for Berlin. På tidspunktet for udbrudsforsøget var Halbe besat og omringet af stærke sovjetiske styrker, hvis ledere forventede et udbrud gennem området Oderin-Halbe-Teupitz, idet der ikke var andre muligheder.

To spydspidser udgjordes af Panzergrenadier-Division "Kurmark" (generalmajor Willy Langkeit) og den svære SS-Panzerabteilung 502 (Sturmbannführer Kurt Hartrampf), der havde 14 Tiger II kampvogne tilbage. Begge var under Langkeits kommando. "Kurmark"-enhederne udgjorde den nordligste spydspids og SS-Panzerabteilung 502 den sydligste. Efter Panzergrenadier-Division "Kurmark" (nordlige spydspids) med nogle Panzer V "Panther" kampvogne og panserjagere af typen 38 "Hetzer" fulgte resterne af SS Panzeraufklärungsabteilung 10, "Frundsberg". Efter SS-Panzerabteilung 502 (sydlige spydspids) fulgte 1 mortérbatteri, 1 Schützenpanzer-Kompagni fra Panzergrenadier-Division "Kurmark" og overlevende fra et Fahnenjunker-Kompani, der skulle yde nærkampsbeskyttelse mod fjendtligt infanteri. Resterne af de øvrige omringede styrker skulle slutte sig til den sydlige angrebsspids.

Begge spydspidser blev mødt med en morderisk ild fra byen og blev midlertidigt stadset ved panserspærringer. Under store menneskelige og materielle tab lykkedes det at bryde gennem de sovjetiske linjer. Gennembruddet mod vest gik ad små skovveje under løbende hårde kampe samt uafbrudte sovjetiske luftangreb. Vest for vejen mellem Beelitz og Treuenbrietzen fik de kontakt med fremskudte styrker fra 12. armé, der opretholdt opfangningsstillinger indtil 3. maj. General Busse anslog senere, at 25.000 soldater og nogle tusinde civilister nåede frem til 12. armés stillinger.

Resterne af 9. armé overgav sig sammen med resten af 12. armé til den amerikanske 9. armé, der stod på den vestlige side af Elben. Ved Tangermünde og Ferchland lykkedes det i stort tal tyskerne at sætte over floden for at overgive sig til amerikanerne. Amerikanerne nægtede derimod at modtage civile flygtninge.

I skovene omkring Halbe og langs flugtruten lå flere tusinde faldne, der efter kampene blev begravet på stedet, hvor de blev fundet, samt i granathuller mv. Hvert år findes der rester af de faldne, der derefter begraves på krigskirkegården i Halbe. Således begravedes der d. 31. juli 2009 46 faldne Wehrmachtssoldater på Waldfriedhof i Halbe.

Store mængder af ueksploderet ammunition og landminer ligger stadig i skovene, hvor de endnu 64 år efter slaget udgør en fare for dem, der færdes i skovene.

Litteratur
 Schulze, Lothar: Der Durchbruch zur Armee Wenck im April 1945 – Podzun-Pallas, Wölfersheim, 2002.
 Tissier, Tony Le: Slaughter at Halbe – The destruction of Hitler's 9th Army, April 1945 – Sutton Publishing Limited, Phoenix Mill, Gloucestershire, 2005.
 Führling, Günther G.: Endkampf an der Oderfront – Langen Müller, München, 2004.
 Haupt, Werner: 1945 : Das Ende im Osten. Chronik vom Kampf in Ost- und Mitteldeutschland. Der Untergang der Divisionen in Ostpreussen, Danzig, Westpreussen, Mecklenburg, Pommern, Schlesien, Sachsen, Berlin und Brandenburg, 1970
 Spaeter, Helmut: Panzerkorps "Großdeutschland", Bind 3 – Duisburg 1958.
 Beevor, Antony; Berlin: the Downfall, 1945; Penguin Books, 2002,
 Busse, Theodor: Die letzte Schlacht der 9. Armee – Wehrwissenschaftliche Rundschau Nr. 4/1955 (Darmstadt)
 Kronborg, Ove C.: Da krigen kom tilbage - 100 dage foran Berlin 1945, 2015,

Eksterne henvisninger
 http://www.lr-online.de/nachrichten/brandenburg/46-gefallene-Wehrmachtssoldaten-in-Halbe-eingebettet;art25,2626664

Halbe
Begivenheder i 1945

Slaget ved Halbe


Skold is the debut solo album released in 1996 by Tim Skold.

The song "Chaos" was used in the video game Twisted Metal 4 and the film Universal Soldier: The Return. The song "Hail Mary" can be found on the Disturbing Behavior soundtrack.

Track listing
All songs written by Tim Skold.
 "Chaos" – 4:14
 "Remember" – 4:58
 "P.A.M.F." – 3:29
 "Neverland" – 4:38
 "Void" – 4:17
 "Dust to Dust" – 3:54
 "Anything" – 4:07
 "Hail Mary" – 5:08
 "Devil Inside" – 4:19
 "Shut Up" – 3:15

Reception
Alan Escher of allmusic suggested that the album's lyrics may be "trying to tap into the incredibly dark overtones" used by Nine Inch Nails' Trent Reznor, but that the music "is almost always interesting, and [Skold] knows how to rock". He concluded that the album is good, although not "groundbreaking".

References

1996 debut albums
Albums produced by Scott Humphrey
Tim Sköld albums
RCA Records albums

Skold


Temnoléskaya  es una stanitsa del raión de Apsheronsk del krai de Krasnodar, en Rusia. Está situada en las vertientes septentrionales del Cáucaso Occidental,en el curso superior del río Mezmái, afluente del Kurdzhips, tributario del Bélaya, que lo es del Kubán, 36 km al sureste de Apsheronsk y 122 km al sureste de Krasnodar, la capital del krai. Tenía 144 habitantes en 2010

Pertenece al municipio Mezmáiskoye.

Historia

Entre las décadas de 1930 y 1980 funcionó una estación de ferrocarril de vía estrecha para el transporte de madera.

Economía

Es un centro turístico de montaña. Desde su fundación, la principal actividad económica ha sido la tala de árboles.

Enlaces externos y referencias

 Este artículo contiene datos geográficos extraídos de Google Earth y el mapa de Rusia de Yandex.ru, accesible desde este enlace.
 Este artículo es en parte una traducción de su correspondiente en la edición en ruso de Wikipedia, Мезмай.
  en Panoramio.
 Mapa topográfico en maps.vlasenko.net .

Localidades del raión de Apsheronsk del krai de Krasnodar

Temnoléskaya (Krasnodar)


The Panamanian white-faced capuchin (Cebus imitator), also known as the Panamanian white-headed capuchin or Central American white-faced capuchin, is a medium-sized New World monkey of the family Cebidae, subfamily Cebinae. Native to the forests of Central America, the white-faced capuchin is important to rainforest ecology for its role in dispersing seeds and pollen.

Among the best known monkeys, the Panamanian white-faced capuchin is recognized as the typical companion to the organ grinder. In recent years the species has become popular in American media, particularly in the Pirates of the Caribbean film series. It is a highly intelligent monkey and has been trained to assist paraplegic persons.  It is a medium-sized monkey, weighing up to .  It is mostly black, but with a pink face and white on much of the front part of the body, giving it its common name.  It has a distinctive prehensile tail that is often carried coiled up and is used to help support the monkey when it is feeding beneath a branch.

In the wild, the Panamanian white-faced capuchin is versatile, living in many different types of forest, and eating many different types of food, including fruit, other plant material, invertebrates, and small vertebrates.  It lives in troops that can exceed 20 animals and include both males and females.  It is noted for its tool use, including rubbing plants over its body in an apparent use of herbal medicine, and also using tools as weapons and for getting to food.  It is a long-lived monkey, with a maximum recorded age of over 54 years.

Panamanian white-faced capuchins are highly social, living in groups of 16 individuals on average, about three quarters of which are females. Groups consists of related females, immigrant males, and offspring. On average, females birth offspring every 27 months even though they mate throughout the year. Females tend to stay within their original group while males leave their natal group when they are 4 years old and change groups every 4 years after. Both male and female capuchins exhibit different dominance behaviors within the group.

Taxonomy

The Panamanian white-faced capuchin is a member of the family Cebidae, the family of New World monkeys containing capuchin monkeys and squirrel monkeys.  Until the 21st century the Panamanian white-faced capuchin was considered conspecific with Cebus capucinus, the Colombian white-faced capuchin, but as a separate subspecies C. capucinus imitator.    Some primatologists continue to consider the Panamanian and Colombian white-faced capuchins as a single species.  It is a member of the C. capucinus species group within the genus Cebus which also includes the Colombian white-faced capuchin, white-fronted capuchin, the weeper capuchin and the Kaapori capuchin. This genus is also referred to as "gracile" capuchins.

In 2012 a study by Boubli, et al. demonstrated that C. imitator and C. capucinus split up to 2 million years ago.  Boubli's study also indicated that the Honduran white-faced capuchins, which had previously been considered a to be a possible separate subspecies, C. capucinus limitaneus, was not genetically distinct from the Panamanian white-faced capuchin.

The Panamanian white-faced capuchin is the most well-studied capuchin monkey species. Even though many previous studies were performed using the scientific name C. capucinus, as of 2014 there had been no field studies of the Colombian white-faced capuchin, so all these studies were of the Panamanian white-faced capuchin.

Physical description
Like other monkeys in the genus Cebus, the Panamanian white-faced capuchin is named after the order of Capuchin friars – the cowls of these friars closely resemble the monkey's head coloration.  The Panamanian white-faced capuchin has mostly black fur, with white to yellow like fur on the neck, throat, chest, shoulders, and upper arms.  The face is pink or a white-cream color and may have identifying marks such as dark brows or dark fur patches.  An area of black fur on the crown of the head is distinctive.  It has a prehensile tail that is often held coiled, giving the white-faced capuchins the nickname "ringtail".

Adults reach a length of between , excluding tail, and a weight of up to .  The tail is longer than the body, at up to  in length. Males are about 27% larger than females.  The brain of a white-faced capuchin is about , which is larger than that of several larger monkey species, such as the mantled howler.

The Panamanian white-faced capuchin is similar to the Colombian white-faced capuchin in appearance, except that the female Panamanian white-faced capuchins have brownish or grayish elongated frontal tufts, which provide a contrast to the pure white cheeks and throat.

Behavior

Social structure

The Panamanian white-faced capuchin is a diurnal and arboreal animal. However, it does come down to the ground more often than many other New World monkeys. It moves primarily by walking on all four limbs. It
lives in troops, or groups, of up to 40 monkeys (mean 16, range 4–40) and has a male/female adult sex ratio of 0.71 on average (range 0.54–0.88). With rare exceptions, females spend their entire lives with their female kin. Males migrate to new social groups multiple times during the course of their lifetimes, migrating for the first time between 20 months and 11 years of age.  The median age of migration in the Santa Rosa population is 4.5 years. Males sometimes migrate alone, but more often they migrate in the company of other males who are often their kin. One of the unusual features of the kinship structure of the Panamanian white-faced capuchin, relative to other primate species, is the high degree of relatedness within groups that results from the long tenures of alpha males who sire most of the offspring. Alpha males have been known to keep their positions as long as 17 years in this species and this puts them in the unusual position of being available to sire the offspring of their daughters and granddaughters, who produce their first offspring at about 6–7 years of age. Typically, however, alpha males do not breed with their own daughters, even though they do sire virtually all offspring produced by females unrelated to them. Those subordinate males who are allies of the alpha male in group defense are the males who sire the offspring of the alpha male's daughters. The high degree to which alpha males monopolize matings results in an unusually large number of paternal half-siblings and full siblings in this species relative to other primate species.

Kinship is an important organizing factor in the structuring of female-female social relationships. Particularly in larger groups, females preferentially associate with, groom, and provide coalitionary support to their matrilineally related female kin. They do not exhibit a similar preference for their paternal half sisters, which may mean that they only are capable of recognizing kinship through the maternal line. Dominance rank is also an important organizing factor, with females more often grooming and associating with females who are closer to them in the dominance hierarchy. Female-female dyads groom far more than male-female and male-male dyads. Coalitionary aggression is common both among males and females, and capuchins seem to have an excellent understanding of the alliance structure in their group. For example, when capuchins are fighting, they sensibly recruit aid from someone who is both higher ranking than they are and also better friends with themselves than with their opponent.

Female capuchins have linear dominance hierarchies. In contrast to many Old World monkeys such as macaques, in which females socially inherit the rank just below their mothers and just above their next oldest sisters, capuchins do not have a highly predictable ranking within their matrilines. Males are typically dominant to females. The alpha male is always easy to discern, but there are sometimes ambiguous rankings among subordinate males. Male-male relationships are tense, and affiliation between males is typically expressed by resting in contact, playing, or non-conceptive sex rather than by grooming. Males cooperate in coalitions against potential predators, and also in defense of the group against other males. Occasionally male coalitionary aggression becomes so violent that males are killed, particularly if they are encountered roaming the forest unaccompanied by allies. Because aggression from other male capuchins is the leading cause of death (aside from poaching by humans, where there is contact between humans and capuchins), male allies are critical for self-defense during migration, and to assist in taking over other groups. Male emigration to a new troop typically occurs about every 4 years, so most males are in constant danger of having to defend themselves against other groups of males.

Immigrating males often kill young infants when they take over a group. Females band together to defend their infants from infanticidal males, but they rarely succeed in saving their infants. Because infants inhibit their mothers from ovulating by nursing frequently, males are able to bring females into estrus earlier by killing the infants and thereby terminating nursing; this has the effect of increasing their breeding opportunities. Females do often mate with the killers of their infants, and with time, they typically become as supportive of the new alpha male as they had been of the previous one. The alpha male helps defend females from subordinate males within the group as well as from infanticidal males from other groups.

Interactions between groups

Panamanian white-faced capuchin troops occupy home ranges of between . They travel between  daily, averaging  per day. Although they engage in activity that has been described as "territorial", more recent research indicates that white-faced capuchin troops tend to behave aggressively to other white-faced capuchin troops regardless of where they meet, and the aggression is not necessarily intended to exclude the other troops from a specific home range.

Home ranges overlap extensively, so groups are not territorial in the strictest sense of the word. Perhaps because of the intensity of male-male competition and the threat of infanticide, interactions between groups are typically hostile: the males display aggressively toward one another and sometimes engage in physical aggression (even killing an opponent), while females grab their infants and run. Typically, males are the primary participants in aggressive intergroup encounters, and it seems likely that males are defending access to the females in their groups. Alpha males, who have the largest reproductive stake in the group, participate at a higher rate than subordinate males. Groups with more males have an advantage over groups with fewer males, but the location of the encounter within the home range matters as well; smaller groups defeat larger groups when the contest occurs in the core or center area of the smaller group's home range.

Interspecific interactions

The Panamanian white-faced capuchin sometimes interacts with other sympatric monkey species. Panamanian white-faced capuchins sometimes travel with and even groom Geoffroy's spider monkeys.  However, aggressive interactions between the capuchins and spider monkeys also occur.   Interactions between the Panamanian white-faced capuchin and mantled howler are infrequent, and sometimes result in the capuchins threatening the larger howlers.  However, affiliative associations between the capuchins and howlers do sometimes occur, mostly involving juveniles playing together.

Although South American capuchin species often travel with and feed together with squirrel monkeys, the Panamanian white-faced capuchin only rarely associates with the Central American squirrel monkey.  This appears to be related to the patchier, more dispersed distribution of food resources in Central America and the fact that there is less dietary overlap between the Central American squirrel monkey and the white-faced capuchin than between their South American counterparts.  Therefore, there is less benefit to the Central American squirrel monkey in associating with the Panamanian white-faced capuchin in order to exploit the capuchin's knowledge of food resource distribution.  In addition, compared to their South American counterparts, male Panamanian white-headed capuchins are relatively more alert to rival males than to predators, reducing the predator detection benefits that the Central American squirrel monkey receives from associating with the Panamanian white-faced capuchin compared to its South American counterparts.  Since the squirrel monkeys generally initiate interactions with the capuchins in South America, the fact that similar associations would impose higher foraging costs and impart fewer predator detection benefits to the Central American squirrel monkey leads to fewer associations with the Panamanian white-faced capuchin.

Several non-primate animal species tend to follow troops of white-faced monkeys or are otherwise attracted by their presence.  white-lipped peccaries and agoutis are attracted by feeding white-faced capuchins, looking for fruit that the capuchins drop.  Several species of bird are also known to follow Panmanian white-faced capuchins looking for food.  These include the double-toothed kite, the white hawk and the sharp-shinned hawk.

Diet

The Panamanian white-faced capuchin is an omnivore.  Its primary foods are fruit and insects.  It forages at all levels of the forest, including the ground.  Methods for finding food include stripping bark off of trees, searching through leaf litter, breaking dead tree branches, rolling over rocks, and using stones as anvils to crack hard fruits.  Its prehensile tail assists with feeding, helping support the monkey when foraging for food below the branches.

Fruit can make up between 50% and 67% or more of the capuchin's diet.  In one study in Panama, white-faced capuchins ate 95 different fruit species.  Among its favorite fruits are figs from the family Moraceae, mangos and related fruits from the family Anacardiaceae, the bean-like fruits from the family Leguminosae and fruits from the family Rubiaceae.  It will also eat fruits from Euphorbiaceae such as Mexican jumping bean Sebastiania pavoniana.  It generally only eats ripe fruit, testing for ripeness by smelling, tasting and prodding the fruit.  It typically eats only the pulp and juice, spitting out the seeds and fibers.  Other plant matter eaten includes flowers, young leaves, seeds of certain plants, and bromeliads.  It also uses the bromelids as a water source, drinking the water that gets trapped inside.  In Carara National Park the capuchins have a varied diet in addition to the above of banana fruits and flowers, heliconia seeds, huevos de caballo fruits and anacardiaceae stems.

Insect prey eaten includes beetle larvae, butterfly and moth caterpillars, ants, wasps, and ant and wasp larvae.  It also eats larger prey, such as birds, bird eggs, frogs, lizards, crabs, mollusks and small mammals.  The population in Guanacaste, Costa Rica in particular is noted for hunting squirrels, magpies, white-crowned parrots and baby coatis. The amount of vertebrate prey eaten varies by troop.  Even neighboring troops can show significant differences in their diets.

The diet can vary between the rainy and dry season.  For example, in Guanacaste, Costa Rica the Panamanian white-faced capuchin can eat a wide variety of fruits as well as caterpillars in the early rainy season (June to November).  But during the dry season, only figs and a few other types of fruit are available.  During the dry season, chitinous insects, ant and wasp larvae and vertebrates become a particularly important part of the Panamanian white-faced capuchin's diet.  Access to water can also become an issue during the dry season.  The Panamanian white-faced capuchin likes to drink daily, so in forests where water holes dry up during the dry season, there can be competition between troops over access to the remaining water holes.

Tool use

Capuchins are considered among the most intelligent of the New World monkeys; they have been the subject of many studies on behaviour and intelligence. The capuchins' intelligence is thought to be an adaptation to support their feeding habits; they rely on ephemeral food sources which may be hard to find. In one particular study conducted in 2007, capuchins were found to be among the ten most intelligent primates, second to spider monkeys among New World monkeys.

The use of stone tools is a marked difference between the gracile capuchins of the genus Cebus and the robust capuchins of the genus Sapajus. Although widespread in robust capuchins, only one case of habitual stone tool use has been reported by gracile capuchins. One population of Panamanian white-faced capuchins found in Coiba National Park in Panama has been observed using hammerstones and anvils to process fruits from Terminalia catappa, Bactris major, and Cocos nucifera (coconuts) and invertebrates such as nerite snails, hermit crabs, and Halloween crabs.

The Panamanian white-faced capuchin is known to rub parts of certain plants into their hair.  Plants used in this manner include citrus fruits, vines of the genera Piper and Clematis, monkey comb (genus Sloanea), dumb cane and custard apple.  Ants and millipedes are also used in this way.  It is not definitively known what this rubbing is for, but this may deter parasites such as ticks and insects, or it may serve as a fungicide or bactericide or anti-inflammatory agent.  Alternatively, it may be a form of scent marking. The Panamanian white-faced capuchin also uses tools in other ways.  It has been known to beat snakes with sticks in order to protect itself or to get the snake to release an infant, and it sometimes uses sticks as probes to explore openings.  In captivity, it has been known to use tools to get to food or to defend itself, and in one case a white-faced capuchin used a squirrel monkey as a projectile, hurling it at a human observer.

The Panamanian white-faced capuchin's intelligence and ability to use tools allows them to be trained to assist paraplegics.  Other species of capuchin monkeys are also trained in this manner.  Panamanian white-faced capuchins can also be trained for roles on television and movies, such as Marcel on the television series Friends.  They were also traditionally used as organ grinder monkeys.

Communication

The Panamanian white-faced capuchin is noisy.  Loud calls, such as barks and coughs, are used to communicate threat warnings, and softer calls, such as squeals, are used in intimate discourse.  Different types of threats, such as a threat from a terrestrial animal versus a threat from a bird, invoke different vocalizations.  Facial expressions and scent are also important to communication.  It sometimes engages in a practice known as "urine washing", in which the monkey rubs urine on its feet.  The exact purpose of this practice is unknown, but it may be a form of olfactory signal.

Reproduction

The Panamanian white-faced capuchin uses a polygamous mating system in which a male may mate with multiple females.  Although the dominant male does not monopolize breeding, studies have shown that the dominant male does tend to father most of the young.  Although a female may mate with several males, the dominant male may be more likely to copulate when the female is at peak fertility.  Nonetheless, there is evidence that dominant males do tend to avoid breeding with their own daughters who are members of the troop.  Such avoidance is rare among New World primates.

Copulation takes about 2 minutes, and the gestation period is 5 to 6 months.  Usually a single young is born, but twins occur occasionally.  Most births occur during the dry season from December to April.  The infant is carried across its mother's back for about 6 weeks.  After about 4 to 5 weeks it can stray from its mother for brief periods and by about 3 months it can move around independently, although some infants will be mostly independent earlier. Weaning occurs between 6 and 12 months.  While the mother rests, the young spends most of its time foraging or playing, either on its own or with other juveniles. Capuchins engage in high levels of alloparenting, in which monkeys other than the mother help care for the infant.  Infants are carried by alloparents most often between 4 and 6 weeks in age.  Males as well as females engage in alloparenting.

Like other capuchin species, the Panamanian white-faced capuchin matures slowly.  Sexual maturity can be reached at 3 years.  But on average, females give birth for the first time at 7 years old and give birth every 26 months thereafter.  Males attain reproductive maturity at 10 years old.  The Panamanian white-faced capuchin has a long life span given its size.  The maximum recorded life span in captivity is over 54 years.

Distribution and habitat
The Panamanian white-faced capuchin is found in much of Central America.  In Central America, its range includes much of Honduras, Nicaragua, Costa Rica and Panama.  It has also been reported to occur in eastern Guatemala and southern Belize, but these reports are unconfirmed.    It is among the most commonly seen monkeys in Central America's national parks, such as Manuel Antonio National Park, Corcovado National Park, Santa Rosa National Park and Soberania National Park. It appears on the reverse side of the Costa Rican 5,000 colón note.

While the white-faced capuchin is very common in Costa Rica and Panama, the monkey has been largely extirpated from Honduras and much of Nicaragua. Many Honduran capuchins were captured and relocated to the island of Roatán, and many Nicaraguan capuchins were captured and relocated to the island of Ometepe. In Nicaragua, wild capuchins may still be easily spotted in regions around Masaya, as well as around Bluefields and other locations around the South Caribbean coast. They are seen, in the wild, daily by visitors who climb one of the volcanoes on Ometepe Island.

It is found in many different types of forest, including mature and secondary forests, and including evergreen and deciduous forests, dry and moist forests, and mangrove and montane forests.  However, it appears to prefer primary or advanced secondary forests. Also, higher densities of white-faced capuchins are found in older areas of forest and in areas containing evergreen forest, as well as areas with more water availability during the dry season.

Conservation status

The Panamanian white-faced capuchin is regarded as vulnerable from a conservation standpoint by IUCN.  It is threatened by deforestation, hunting for pet trade and sometimes for bushmeat and by the fact that farmers sometimes attack them as potential threats.  However, deforestation may also impact its main predator, the harpy eagle, more than it directly impacts the Panamanian white-faced capuchin, and so on a net basis deforestation may not be as harmful to the capuchin's status.  The Panamanian white-faced capuchin can adapt to forest fragmentation better than other species due to its ability to live in a wide variety of forest types and exploit a wide variety of food sources.  The Panamanian white-faced capuchin is important to its ecosystems as a seed and pollen disperser.  It also impacts the ecosystem by eating insects that act as pests to certain trees, by pruning certain trees, such as Gustavia superba and Bursera simaruba, causing them generate more branches and possibly additional fruit, and by accelerating germination of certain seeds when they pass through the capuchin's digestive tract.  In addition, the Panamanian white-faced capuchin sometimes kills Acacia collinsii plants when it rips through the plant's branches to get to resident ant colonies.

References

Further reading

External links

Use of a club by a wild white-faced capuchin to attack a venomous snake
 Pet rescue -- white-faced capuchin returned to the wild

Panamanian white-faced capuchin
Primates of Central America
Least concern biota of North America
Tool-using mammals
Panamanian white-faced capuchin
Panamanian white-faced capuchin

Panamanian white-faced capuchin