Als Markgrafschaft Baden-Rodemachern wird hier das Territorium bezeichnet, das durch die von 1556 bis 1666 existierende Nebenlinie der Markgrafen von Baden-Baden zu Rodemachern regiert wurde. Es handelt sich hierbei um die ursprünglich im Herzogtum Luxemburg gelegenen Herrschaften Rodemachern, Useldingen und Hesperingen.

Geschichte

Rodemachern im Gefüge des Heiligen Römischen Reiches Deutscher Nation
Kaiser Karl IV. erhob die luxemburgischen Stammlande 1354 zum Herzogtum. Die Herrschaften Rodemachern, Hesperingen und Useldingen gehörten zum Herzogtum Luxemburg, und deren Herren waren Lehnsnehmer des Herzogtums. Das Herzogtum gehörte zu den Burgundischen Niederlanden, die den Hauptteil des Burgundischen Reichskreises bildeten. Im Jahr 1441 verkaufte die letzte Herzogin aus dem Haus Luxemburg das Land an das französische Haus Burgund. Es blieb aber staatsrechtlich ein Lehen des Reiches. Nach dem Tod des letzten Burgunderherzogs Karls des Kühnen im Jahr 1477 kam Luxemburg mit dem gesamten burgundischen Erbe an Karls Tochter Maria und ihren Ehemann, den späteren römisch-deutschen Kaiser Maximilian von Habsburg.

Bei seiner feierlichen Abdankung im Jahr 1555 schlug Maximilians Enkel Karl V. die gesamten habsburgischen Niederlande, zu denen auch Luxemburg gehörte, seinem Sohn Philipp II., dem König von Spanien, zu. Von da an bis zum Aussterben der spanischen Habsburger bildete Luxemburg innerhalb des Heiligen Römischen Reiches Deutscher Nation einen Teil der Spanischen Niederlande.

Aufgrund des habsburgisch-bourbonischen Gegensatzes wurde Luxemburg in den folgenden 200 Jahren immer wieder in die Kriege zwischen Frankreich und den Habsburgern hineingezogen. Im Jahre 1659 musste Spanien den südlichsten Teil des Herzogtums im Rahmen des Pyrenäenfriedens an Frankreich abtreten.

Im Frieden von Utrecht, der 1714 den Spanischen Erbfolgekrieg beendete, wurde der gesamte Länderkomplex, der etwa den heutigen Staaten Belgien und Luxemburg entsprach, innerhalb des Heiligen Römischen Reiches Deutscher Nation der österreichischen Linie der Habsburger zugesprochen. Die Österreichischen Niederlande existierten innerhalb des Heiligen Römischen Reiches Deutscher Nation bis zur Eroberung und Annexion des Landes durch Truppen der Französischen Revolution 1794. Von 1795 bis 1814 bildete das vorherige Herzogtum Luxemburg als Département Forêts ("Wälder") einen Teil der Französischen Republik und später des Französischen Kaiserreichs.

Wie Rodemachern an das Haus Baden kam
Christoph I. von Baden diente unter dem damaligen Herzog von Burgund, Maximilian I., in seinem Kampf um die Niederlande, das Erbe seiner verstorbenen Ehefrau Maria von Burgund. Zu den Niederlanden gehörte damals auch das Herzogtum Luxemburg. Christoph wurde zum General-Gouverneur ernannt und erhielt die Pfandinhaberschaft über das Herzogtum Luxemburg.
1479 erhielt Christoph Schloss und Herrschaft Useldingen als Lehen des Herzogtums Luxemburg. 1492 erhielt Christoph auch Burg und Herrschaft Rodemachern und Hesperingen. Der bisherige Besitzer, Gerhart von Rodemachern, hatte auf Seiten Frankreichs gegen Herzog Maximilian gekämpft und wurde wegen Felonie enteignet.

Die Nebenlinie Baden-Rodemachern
Die Nebenlinie Baden-Rodemachern (auch: Baden-Baden zu Rodemachern) entstand aufgrund einer Erbteilung unter den Söhnen des Markgrafen Bernhard III. von Baden-Baden, Philibert und Christoph II. Christoph erhielt im Teilungsvertrag die luxemburgischen Herrschaften.
Da er beabsichtigte auf längere Reisen zu gehen, überließ er Regierung und Nutzung dieser Herrschaften zunächst für jährlich 4000 Gulden seinem Bruder Philibert. Erst ab 1566 lebte Christoph in Rodemachern.

Als sein Sohn Eduard Fortunat Markgraf von Baden-Baden wurde, vereinigte dieser die luxemburgischen Herrschaften des Hauses Baden jedoch nicht wieder mit der Markgrafschaft Baden-Baden, sondern gab sie an seinen Bruder Philipp III. weiter.
Mit dem Tod von Philipps Großneffen, des Markgrafen Karl Wilhelm Eugen, endete 1666 die Seitenlinie zu Rodemachern und die Rechte gingen an Markgraf Wilhelm von Baden-Baden über. Aus lehensrechtlichen Gründen waren die luxemburgischen Herrschaften nicht Gegenstand des badischen Erbvertrages von 1765, sondern wurden bei dessen Unterzeichnung am 28. Januar 1765 vom baden-badischen Markgraf August Georg dem baden-durlachischen Markgrafen Karl Friedrich geschenkt, womit sie bei der Wiedervereinigung der beiden badischen Markgrafschaften im Jahre 1771 bereits sechs Jahre Karl Friedrich gehörten.

Die badischen Markgrafen werden Lehensnehmer der französischen Könige
Durch den Pyrenäenfrieden wurde Diedenhofen am 7. November 1659 von Spanien an Frankreich abgetreten. Nach französischer Auffassung gehörte die Herrschaft Rodemachern zu den abhängigen Gebieten der Propstei Diedenhofen (Thionville), die mit abgetreten wurden, was von spanisch-luxemburgischer Seite aber vehement bestritten wurde. Die Herrschaft Hesperingen wiederum wurde von Frankreich als abhängiges Gebiet der Herrschaft Rodemachern betrachtet, weshalb auch hier die Landeshoheit beansprucht wurde. Im Frieden von Aachen (1668) wurde der Thionville betreffende Artikel des Pyrenäenfriedens ohne weitere Spezifikation bestätigt und der Konflikt blieb ungeklärt. Der Friede von Nimwegen führte ebenfalls zu keiner Klärung dieser Streitfrage, da Spanien zu schwach war um seine Auffassung durchzusetzen und Frankreich sich damit zufrieden gab in diesem marginalen Punkt der gesamten Auseinandersetzung mit Habsburg einfach Fakten zu schaffen. Am 30. Dezember 1678 besetzte Frankreich die Herrschaft Rodemachern. Im Vertrag von Versailles vom 16. Mai 1769 zwischen Frankreich und Österreich gab Österreich die Landeshoheit über die von Frankreich als Dependenzen von Thionville besetzten Gebiete auf.

Das Ende der Grundherrschaft der Markgrafen von Baden in Luxemburg

Bereits 1701 leitete Markgraf Ludwig Wilhelm Sondierungen zum Verkauf der luxemburgischen Besitzungen ein, die allerdings ohne Ergebnis blieben.

Nach der Wiedervereinigung der badischen Markgrafschaften untersuchte der badische Rat und Registrator, E.M. Vierordt, die rechtliche Entwicklung der badischen Besitzungen in Luxemburg und fasste seine Erkenntnisse 1782 in einem vierbändigen Werk zusammen.

Die Grundherrschaft verblieb bis 1796 bei Baden, das im Separat-Friedensvertrag vom 22. August 1796 auf alle Rechte an den Herrschaft Rodemachern und Hesperingen verzichtete., wobei in den Geheimartikeln dieses Friedensvertrages Frankreich bereits konkrete Zusagen bzgl. einer Entschädigung durch der Säkularisation bestimmter rechtsrheinischer geistlicher Territorien zugunsten der Markgrafschaft Baden machte.

Auch für die linksrheinischen Gebiete unter badischer standesrechtlicher Hoheit (nicht Landeshoheit)
mit einer Fläche von 5375 Quadratmeilen oder 296 km² und 15 430 Einwohnern wurde Baden dann auch durch den Reichsdeputationshauptschluss von 1803 entschädigt. Das von Vierordt 1782 erstellte Inventar diente dem Markgrafen bei den zwischen 1796 und 1802 erfolgten Verhandlungen mit Frankreich über eine Entschädigung für linksrheinische Gebietsverluste. Da Frankreich letztlich den Reichsdeputationshauptschluss weitgehend diktierte, waren dies die entscheidenden Verhandlungen. Die badische Grundherrschaft über Rodemachern hat von 1492 bis 1796 etwas über 300 Jahre gedauert.

Luxemburgische Herrschaften im Teilungsvertrag von 1556
Am 23. April 1556 unterzeichneten in Baden die Markgrafen Philibert und Christof einen Teilungsvertrag der Christofs Anteil wie folgt definiert:

Die Markgrafen von Baden zu Rodemachern

Literatur

 Fridolin Weber-Krebs: Die Markgrafen von Baden im Herzogtum Luxemburg (1487-1797), Trier 2007, ISBN 978-3-933701-26-8.
 Hansmartin Schwarzmaier: Baden. In: Meinrad Schaab, Hansmartin Schwarzmaier (Hrsg.) u. a.: Handbuch der baden-württembergischen Geschichte. Band 2: Die Territorien im alten Reich. Hrsg. im Auftrag der Kommission für geschichtliche Landeskunde in Baden-Württemberg. Klett-Cotta, Stuttgart 1995, ISBN 3-608-91466-8, S. 205.
 P. Nève: Die Herrschaft Rodemachern, umstritten zwischen den Grafen von Wied und Neuenahr und den Markgrafen von Baden. In: Zeitschrift für die Geschichte des Oberrheins, Band 138 (1990), S. 210ff.
 W. Dotzauer: Die westlichen Gebiete der Markgrafen von Baden von 1402–1803. In: Landeskundliche Vierteljahresblätter, Band 14 (1968), S. 31–54
 H.-W. Herrmann: Territoriale Verbindungen und Verflechtungen zwischen dem oberrheinischen und dem lothringischen Raum im Spätmittelalter. In: Jahrbuch für westdeutsche Landesgeschichte, Band 1 (1975), S. 129–176
 Georg Friedrich Martens, Karl von Martens, Friedrich Saalfeld (Hrsg.): Recueil des principaux traités d'alliance, de paix, de trêve ...: conclus ..., Vertrag von Versailles vom 16. Mai 1769, Band 1, S. 265–281 Google Digitalisat
 Johann Jacob Moser: Versuch des neuesten Europäischen Völker-Rechts in Friedens- und Kriegszeiten. Band V, S. 260
 Grotkaß: Zur Geschichte der Herren von Rodemachern. In: Jahrbuch der Gesellschaft für lothringische Geschichte und Altertumskunde, 21. Jahrgang, Zweite Hälfte, 1909, S. 105–131 Digitalisat bei Gallica
 Johann Schoetter: Geschichte des luxemburger Landes,herausgegeben und fortgesetzt von K. A. Herchen und N. van Werveke. Lief. 1, 2.
 Jakob Grob: Zur Geschichte der Jahre 1680–1682. §2 Annexion der Herrschaften Rodemachern und Hesperingen. In: Ons Hémecht. Organ des Vereins für Luxemburger Geschichte, Literatur und Kunst. 4. Jahrgang (1898), S. 422–423 im Internet Archive
 Jean Schœtter: Luxembourg et le comté de Chiny depuis le traité de paix de Nimègue jusqu'à la prise de la ville de Luxembourg par Louis XIV (1678 - 1684), Digitalisat
 Franz Xaver Kraus (Hrsg.): Kunst und Alterthum in Elsass-Lothringen. Beschreibende Statistik / im Auftrage des Kaiserlichen Oberpräsidiums von Elsass-Lothringen, C.F. Schmidts Universitäts-Buchhandlung, Band 3: Kunst und Alterthum in Lothringen. Strassburg 1889, S. 874–877 im Internat Archive
 Martin Uhrmacher: Die Auswirkungen des Pyrenäenfriedens auf die Grenze zwischen dem Königreich Frankreich und dem Herzogtum Luxemburg im Spiegel der Kartographie. pdf
 Georg Peter Rapedius: Eydliches Zeugen-Verhör vor verordneter Kayserlicher Commission, zu ewiger Gedächtnis : verfasst den 7. Junius 1715, 1715 Digitalisat

Weblinks
 Festung Rodemack
 Schloss Useldingen auf der Homepage der luxemburgischen Burgenvereinigung
 Burg Hesperingen auf der Homepage der luxemburgischen Burgenvereinigung
 Homepage SI Rodemack

Anmerkungen/Einzelnachweise

Badische Geschichte
Geschichte (Luxemburg)
Geschichte (Burgund)
!

Markgrafschaft Baden-Rodemachern


An Vrydagzynea semicordata in uska species han Liliopsida nga ginhulagway ni Johannes Jacobus Smith. An Vrydagzynea semicordata in nahilalakip ha genus nga Vrydagzynea, ngan familia nga Orchidaceae. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Vrydagzynea

Vrydagzynea semicordata


Maç Sayısı (Özgün adı: Match Point), Woody Allen tarafından yazılan ve yönetilen, Akademi Ödülü adayı, 2005 yapımı, başrollerinde  Jonathan Rhys Meyers ve  Scarlett Johansson'ın oynadığı sinema filmi.

Match Point, Woody Allen'ın İngiltere'de (1975 yılında çektiği Love and Death'den beri tamamını Amerika'nın dışında çektiği) ilk filmidir.

Konusu
Chris Wilton (Jonathan Rhys Meyers) bir tenis kulübünde tenis hocalığı yapmakta ve sürekli zengin olma hayalleri kurmaktadır. Bu sırada kulüpte zengin bir aileye mensup olan  Tom (Matthew Goode) ile arkadaşlık kurar. Kısa bir süre içinde de Tom'un kardeşi Chloe (Emily Mortimer) ile beraber olmaya başlar. Evlilik hazırlıklarına başladıkları sırada Tom'un kız arkadaşı Nola Rice (Scarlett Johansson) ile tanışır ve ona aşık olur. Nola onunla olmak istemez. Chris, Chloe ile evlenir, Tom da bu sırada Nola'dan ayrılır ve başka biriyle evlenir. Nola, bir süreliğine ABD'ye gider, İngiltere dönüşü Chris ile karşılaşır ve aralarında Chris'in ısrarıya bir ilişki başlar. Chris, karısını sevmemekle birlikte karısıyla birlikte çocuk sahibi olmayı denemektedir. Bu arada Nola hamile kalır. Chris, Nola'ya karısını bırakacağını söyleyerek onu oyalamaya başlar. Chris zenginlikten vazgeçememektedir. Bu sırada karısı da hamile kalır ve Chris, Nola'yı artık kandıramayacağını ve bu nedenle Nola'dan kurtulması gerektiğini düşünmeye başlar ve onu öldürmeye karar verir ama vicdanı onu rahat bırakmayacaktır.

Oyuncular
 Jonathan Rhys Meyers, Chris Wilton rolünde
 Scarlett Johansson, Nola Rice rolünde
 Emily Mortimer, Chloe Hewett Wilton rolünde
 Matthew Goode, Tom Hewett rolünde
 Brian Cox, Alec Hewett rolünde
 Penelope Wilton, Eleanor Hewett rolünde
 Ewen Bremner, Müfettiş Dowd rolünde
 James Nesbitt, Dedektif Mike Banner rolünde
 Rupert Penry-Jones, Henry rolünde
 Margaret Tyzack, Bayan Betty Eastby rolünde
 Alexander Armstrong, Bay Townsend rolünde
 Geoffrey Streatfeild, Alan Sinclair rolünde
 Miranda Raison, Heather rolünde
 Zoe Telford, Samantha rolünde
 Rose Keegan, Carol rolünde
 Colin Salmon, Ian rolünde
 Toby Kebbell, Polis Memuru rolünde
 Paul Kaye, Emlakçı olarak
 Steve Pemberton, Dedektif Parry rolünde

Dış bağlantılar

Woody Allen'ın yönettiği filmler
Woody Allen'ın senaryosunu yazdığı filmler
Spor temalı filmler
Letty Aronson'ın yapımcısı olduğu filmler
Amerika Birleşik Devletleri dramatik gerilim filmleri
Amerika Birleşik Devletleri psikolojik dram filmleri
Amerika Birleşik Devletleri romantik dram filmleri
Amerika Birleşik Devletleri psikolojik gerilim filmleri
Amerika Birleşik Devletleri romantik gerilim filmleri
Birleşik Krallık dramatik gerilim filmleri
Birleşik Krallık romantik dram filmleri
Konusu Londra'da geçen filmler
2000'lerde İngilizce filmler
2005 çıkışlı dramatik filmler
Gebelik ile ilgili Birleşik Krallık filmleri
Gebelik ile ilgili Amerika Birleşik Devletleri filmleri

Maç Sayısı


Nocturne Op. 62 este un set de două nocturne compuse de Frédéric Chopin în 1846 și publicate în același an. Setul a fost dedicat lui Mdlle. R. de Konneritz.

Nocturna în B major, Op. 62 Nr. 1

Una dintre ultimele sale lucrări, Nocturna în B major se deschide cu ceea ce ar putea fi descris ca un strigăt al bardului de corzi. După acordurile simple introductive, apare o melodie simplă în B major. La început, acțiunea se desfășoară ușor și fără probleme (dolce, legato). Dar cântecul devine curând declamație, condusă de o voce înaltă, dramatic ridicată, iar după o scală în mâna dreaptă, Chopin ne conduce spre secțiunea B a acestei formațiuni ternare formate (ABA) ale nocturnei.

Secțiunea de mijloc este umplută de acel sostenuto (într-un mare flat, mai degrabă străin de cheia B major), dar precedând această secțiune, muzica ezită și se oprește. Această secțiune B începe apoi încet, nu puternică sau explozivă, așa cum se întâmplă adesea în secțiunea mijlocie a nocturnei. Dimpotrivă, este ușor deranjat, inhibat, neliniște declanșată de jocul de sincopare a corzilor stângi. Chopin sfârșește sostenuto-ul cu subtilitate și delicatețe armonice extreme.

Secțiunea principală a Nocturnei revine din nou prin rotirea prin nota D # / E-flat, care este re-înțeleasă din secțiunea B a lui A-flat spre cheia de acasă a lui B major. În plus, această melodie de deschidere este împodobită prin figurarea continuă, incluzând multe trilogii, note de grație și alergări. Această înfrumusețare este similară cu cea a unei dao-aria italiană, în stilul italian belcanto: atunci când melodia principală sa întors, cântăreața nu avea doar dreptul, ci datoria de ao înfrumuseța în cel mai elaborat mod posibil, aruncându-și aptitudinile vocale.

Tema principală se termină cu o rezoluție solidă în B major, cu toate acestea există un coda deosebit de lung în această nocturnă. Această coda prezintă un număr de arpegii legato, care nu le ia niciodată departe de B major. În cele din urmă, codul se termină cu o simplă expresie armonică, care este destul de pașnică, având în vedere drama destul de misterioasă și enigmatică a complexului de nocturnă.

În lumea anglo-saxonă, B major Nocturna a primit numele unei flori exotice de sere: "Tuberose". James Huneker explică de ce: "melodia principală are farmec, un farmec fructat", iar întoarcerea în repriză "este slabită de un miros bolnav, bogat".

Nocturna în E major, Op. 62 Nr. 2

Nocturna în E major, Op. 62, Nr. 2 este o nocturnă reflexivă și contrapunctă, este un exemplu bun al bogăției rafinamentului și contrapunct al lucrărilor ulterioare ale lui Chopin. Structura tematică a nocturnei (ABCAB) constă dintr-o temă primară simplă și lentă în E major, urmată de o temă melodică secundară și cu mișcare mai rapidă, cu trasee de bas pentru alpinism. Aceasta conduce la secțiunea treia, agitato, tare și contrapunctă din C # minor, care are o interacțiune melodică între degetele LH și RH de sus, cu degetul RH și degetele în primul rând acompaniază. După această secțiune agitato, Chopin se întoarce la primul și al doilea subiect printr-un arpegiu disonant F major, cu un D # în bas, ducând la un B în bas, ecourea barelor inițiale ale piesei și revenirea la E major . Această întoarcere a primei melodii dă drumul la basul secundar, care conduce fără probleme în coda. În represaliile lor, aceste două teme melodice sunt însoțite de armonii ușor diferite, cu înfrumusețare modificată în mâna dreaptă, așa cum este tipic pentru secțiunea A a nocturnelor ternare Chopin. Nocturna se termină cu un simplu coda reafirmând solid cheia E major, o tehnică comună în alte nocturne, inclusiv Op. 62 Nr. 2 și Op. 9 Nr. 2.

Note

Legături externe
 Nocturnes Op. 62: la biblioteca International Music Scor (IMSLP)

Compoziții de Frédéric Chopin

Nocturne, Op. 62 (Chopin)


35313 Hangtianyuan este un asteroid din centura principală de asteroizi.

Descriere
35313 Hangtianyuan este un asteroid din centura principală de asteroizi. A fost descoperit pe  la Xinglong în cadrul programului Beijing Schmidt CCD Asteroid Program. Asteroidul prezintă o orbită caracterizată de o semiaxă mare de 2,86 ua, o excentricitate de 0,08 și o înclinație de 3,1° în raport cu ecliptica.

Vezi și
 Lista planetelor minore: 35001-36000
 Centura de asteroizi

Referințe

Obiecte astronomice descoperite în 1997
Centura de asteroizi

35313 Hangtianyuan


Acronychia baeuerlenii, es una rara especie de arbusto o pequeño árbol que crece en las regiones orientales de Australia. Se encuentra entre Richmond River, New South Wales y el Parque nacional Lamington justo en la frontera del estado de Queensland.

Hábitat
Es una planta de sotobosque en el bosque templado cálido, o de vez en cuando en la selva subtropical más rica en suelos aluviales o de basalto, se encuentra a una altura de hasta 800 metros sobre el nivel del mar.

Descripción

Alcanza un tamaño de alrededor de 9 metros de altura y un diámetro de tallo de 20 cm, con una corona de hojas verdes brillantes. El tronco es liso, negro, cilíndrico y torcido. Las ramillas suaves y de color verde, girando a gris.

Las hojas son opuestas en el tallo, no dentadas, de color verde brillante con un tacto parecido al papel. Son elípticas a oblongo-elípticas,  con una punta redondeada. Puntos de aceite se distinguen con una lupa de mano, teniendo una distancia entre sí de dos a cuatro diámetros. Las hojas miden 6-11 cm de largo, y de 2 a 4 cm de ancho. Pecíolo 8-18 mm de largo.

Las flores blancas o de color crema aparecen en cimas entre octubre y febrero. El fruto en forma de drupa madura entre marzo y mayo.  Contiene entre una y dos semillas de color negro pegajoso en cada celda, de 3 a 5 mm de largo. La germinación de la semilla es lenta y difícil.

Taxonomía
Acronychia baeuerlenii fue descrita por Thomas Gordon Hartley y publicado en Journal of the Arnold Arboretum 55: 491, en el año 1974.
Etimología
Acronychia: nombre genérico que deriva de las palabras griegas akros (punta) y ónix (garra), en referencia a los pétalos, que normalmente están conectados adaxialmente en el ápice.

baeuerlenii: epíteto latíno que significa "un tanto agria"

Referencias

Enlaces externos

baeuerlenii
Flora de Queensland
Plantas descritas en 1974
Plantas descritas por T.G.Hartley

Acronychia baeuerlenii


Lord Elibank, of Ettrick Forest in the County of Selkirk, is a title in the Peerage of Scotland. It was created in 1643 for Sir Patrick Murray, 1st Baronet, with remainder to his heirs male whatsoever. He had already been created a Baronet, of Elibank, in the Baronetage of Nova Scotia in 1628. His great-great-grandson, the fifth Lord, was an author and economist. He was succeeded by his younger brother, the sixth Lord, who was an admiral in the Royal Navy. On his death the titles passed to his nephew, the seventh Lord. He represented Peeblesshire in the House of Commons and also served as Lord Lieutenant of Peeblesshire.

His great-grandson, the tenth Lord, was also Lord Lieutenant of Peebleshire. In 1911 he was created Viscount Elibank, of Elibank in the County of Selkirk, in the Peerage of the United Kingdom. His eldest son and heir apparent, Alexander Murray, Master of Elibank, was a Liberal politician and was created Baron Murray of Elibank in 1912. However, he predeceased his father and the Viscount was succeeded by his younger son, the second Viscount. He sat as Member of Parliament for Glasgow St Rollox and served as Lord Lieutenant of Peeblesshire. On his death the titles passed to his younger brother, the third Viscount. He represented Kincardineshire in Parliament as a Liberal.

However, on his death in 1962 the viscountcy became extinct while he was succeeded in the baronetcy and lordship by his third cousin, the thirteenth Lord. He was the great-grandson of the Hon. James Murray, fourth son of the seventh Lord. He was succeeded his first cousin, the fourteenth Lord. He was the son of Robert Alan Erskine-Murray, uncle of the thirteenth Lord.  the titles are held by his son, the fifteenth Lord, who succeeded his father in that year.
The Honourable Alexander Murray of Elibank, fourth son of the fourth Lord, played a significant role in an abortive Jacobite conspiracy, in 1752, thereafter known as the Elibank Plot. He afterwards retired to France, where for some years he was, as "Count Murray", the representative of the Jacobite claimant "James III and VIII", known as the "Old Pretender", who created him Earl of Westminster (Letters Patent, August 12, 1759) in the Jacobite Peerage, with remainder to heirs male of the body of his father, the fourth Lord Elibank.

The family seat is The Coach House, near Sunningdale, Berkshire.

Ancestors of the Lords Elibank

John Murray (died 1477)
? Murray
John Murray (killed at the Battle of Flodden in 1513)
Sir Andrew Murray of Blackbarony (died 1572)
Sir Gideon Murray, Lord Elibank (died 1621), commissioner of the Borders between 1605 and 1617.
 General James Murray, son of 4th Lord Elibank

Lords Elibank (1643)
Patrick Murray, 1st Lord Elibank (died 1649)
Patrick Murray, 2nd Lord Elibank (died 1671)
Patrick Murray, 3rd Lord Elibank (died 1687)
Alexander Murray, 4th Lord Elibank (1677–1736)
Patrick Murray, 5th Lord Elibank (1703–1778)
George Murray, 6th Lord Elibank (1706–1785)
Alexander Murray, 7th Lord Elibank (1747–1820)
Alexander Murray, 8th Lord Elibank (1780–1830)
Alexander Oliphant-Murray, 9th Lord Elibank (1804–1871)
Montolieu Fox Oliphant-Murray, 10th Lord Elibank (1840–1927) (created Viscount Elibank in 1910)

Viscount Elibank (1911)
Montolieu Fox Oliphant-Murray, 1st Viscount Elibank (1840–1927)
Alexander William Charles Oliphant Murray, 1st Baron Murray of Elibank (1870–1920)
Gideon Oliphant-Murray, 2nd Viscount Elibank (1877–1951)
Arthur Cecil Murray, 3rd Viscount Elibank (1879–1962)

Lords Elibank (1643; Reverted)
James Alastair Frederick Campbell Erskine-Murray, 13th Lord Elibank (1902–1973)
Alan D'Ardis Erskine-Murray, 14th Lord Elibank (1923–2017)
Robert Francis Alan Erskine-Murray, 15th Lord Elibank (b. 1964)

The heir presumptive is the present holder's brother, Hon. Timothy Alexander Elibank Erskine-Murray (b. 1967)
The heir presumptive's heir apparent is his son, Alexander Alan John Erskine-Murray (b. 2003)

References

Attribution

Kidd, Charles, Williamson, David (editors). Debrett's Peerage and Baronetage (1990 edition). New York: St Martin's Press, 1990,

Ruvigny and Raineval, Marquis of, "The Jacobite Peerage", Edinburgh, 1904,
 Douglas, Robert, Sir (1764). The peerage of Scotland : containing an historical and genealogical account of the nobility of that kingdom, ... Collected from the public records and ancient chartularies of this nation, ... Illustrated with copper-plates. printed for John Donaldson, London, Edinburgh. Pages 240 - 242

Elibank
Elibank

Lord Elibank


بودان يوليهراتش  هو لاعب كرة مضرب تشيكي.

مراجع

وصلات خارجية

أشخاص على قيد الحياة
أشخاص من كولين (مدينة تشيكية)
أشخاص من مونت كارلو
تشيكيون مغتربون في موناكو
رياضيون تشيكيون في قضايا منشطات
رياضيون من كولين
قضايا منشطات في كرة المضرب
لاعبو كرة مضرب تشيكيون
مواليد 1975
مواليد في كولين (مدينة تشيكية)

بودان يوليهراتش


Albert Dam er en dansk dokumentarfilm fra 1969 instrueret af Vagn Lundbye efter eget manuskript.

Handling
Forfatteren (1880-1972) filmet i sit hjem og i sin hjemby Silkeborg i 1968 af den unge forfatter Vagn Lundbye. Dam blev forfatter i en høj alder og kredsede i sit forfatterskab mere og mere om eksistensen i det store univers. Han var optaget af teorier om menneskets oprindelse. I filmen taler han om disse spørgsmål i nære billeder, ofte direkte henvendt til kameraet.

Medvirkende

 Albert Dam

Referencer

Eksterne henvisninger

Dokumentarfilm fra Danmark
Danske film fra 1969

Albert Dam (dokumentarfilm)


Die All England 1923 fanden vom 6. bis zum 11. März 1923 in London statt. Es war die 20. Auflage des zu dieser Zeit bedeutendsten Badminton-Championats. Das Turnier fand zum neunten Mal in der Horticultural Hall in Westminster statt. Die Titel des Vorjahres konnten im Herreneinzel und Damendoppel verteidigt werden.

Austragungsort
 Lindley Hall, Royal Horticultural Halls, Vincent Square, Westminster

Finalergebnisse

Herreneinzel

Dameneinzel

Herrendoppel

Damendoppel

Mixed

Weblinks
 All England Champions 1899-2007

Badmintonwettbewerb in London
Badminton 1923
1923
Sportveranstaltung in der City of Westminster

All England 1923


La Commission historique de Francfort est une commission historique visant à promouvoir la recherche systématique sur l'histoire de Francfort-sur-le-Main par le biais d'éditions de sources et de la publication de comptes rendus universitaires.

Le , la députation extraordinaire est créée par une décision du magistrat et se compose initialement du président, le conseiller municipal , du directeur des archives  et du professeur d'académie . Le premier projet est la publication de l'histoire de la ville libre de Francfort, écrite par le professeur de lycée de Francfort, . L'ouvrage est publié en trois volumes en 1910, 1912 et 1915/1918.

Après la Seconde Guerre mondiale, le magistrat de Francfort renouvelle le  la commission. À cette époque, ses membres comprennent les conseillers municipaux Reinert et  et les historiens ,  et .

La commission travaille de manière indépendante, mais en lien étroit avec l'Association des commissions historiques du Land de Hesse. Depuis 1984, la commission décerne chaque année un prix d'étude offert par . Le prix est doté de  et est décerné à de jeunes scientifiques pour des projets exceptionnels de recherche sur l'histoire de la ville de Francfort.

Éditions
La Commission historique de Francfort publie deux séries de publications : Les Studien zur Frankfurter Geschichte, dont 67 volumes sont publiés à ce jour, et les Veröffentlichungen der Frankfurter Historischen Kommission, actuellement 25 volumes, dont la Biographie de Francfort en deux volumes.

La série Geschichte Frankfurts vom Frühmittelalter bis zur Gegenwart couvre la période du Moyen Âge à nos jours en six volumes. Deux volumes sont publiés à ce jour, quatre autres sur le Moyen Âge, le début de la période moderne, l'époque de l'Empire wilhelmien et le développement de la ville dans la République de Weimar et l'époque du national-socialisme sont en préparation.

 Tome 3 :  : L'émergence d'une société civile moderne. Histoire de la ville de Francfort-sur-le-Main 1789-1866. Édité par la Commission historique de Francfort (= Publications de la Commission historique de Francfort. Tome 25). Thorbecke, Ostfildern 2013 .
 Tome 6 : Frolinde Balser : Des ruines à un centre européen : Histoire de la ville de Francfort-sur-le-Main 1945-1989. Édité par la Commission historique de Francfort (= Publications de la Commission historique de Francfort. Tome 20). Thorbecke, Sigmaringen 1995 .

Liens externes

Histoire de Francfort-sur-le-Main
Histoire urbaine
Fondation en 1906

Commission historique de Francfort


ප්‍රවර්ධන දැන්වීම

අධ්‍යක්ෂණය 		පීටර් ජැක්සන්

නිෂ්පාදනය 		බැරී M. ඔස්බර්න්
			ෆ්‍රෑන් වොල්ෂ්

නවකතාව :

J.R.R. ටොල්කීන්

තිර රචනය :

රචනය 			ෆ්‍රෑන් වොල්ෂ්
			ෆිල්පා බොයෙන්ස්
			පීටර් ජැක්සන්

			එලිජා වුඩ්
			සින් ඇස්ටින්
			විගෝ මෝර්ටෙන්සන්
			ලෑන් මැකලන්
			ඇන්ඩි සර්කිස්
			ලිව් ටයිලර්
			කේට් බ්ලැන්චට්

ප්‍රධාන 			ජෝන් රිස් -  ඩේවිස්
			බර්නාඩ් හිල්
			ක්‍රිස්ටෝර්පර් ලී
			බිලි බොයිඩ්
			ඩොමිනික් මොනගන්
			ඕලන්ඩෝ බ්ලූම්
			හියුගෝ වීවින්ග්
			මිරැන්ඩා ඔටෝ
			ඩේවිඩ් වෙන්හැම්
			බ්‍රැඩ් ඩවුරිෆ්
			කාර්ල් අර්බන්
			ජෝන් නොබෙල්
			සීන් බීන්

සංගීතය			හොවර්ඩ් ෂෝ

සිනමාකරණය		ඇන්ඩෘ ලෙස්නි

සංස්කරණය		ජෙමී සෙල්කර්ක්

බෙදාහැරීම		ඇමරිකා එක්සත් ජනපදය - New Line Cinema
			ඇමරිකා එක්සත් ජනපදය හැර වෙනත් විවිධ බෙදාහරින්නන්

නිකුත්කළ දින (ය)	2003 දෙසැම්බර් 17

			සිනමා දර්ශනය :

ධාවන කාලය 		මීටර් 200

			දීර්ඝ කළ සංස්කරණය :

			මීටර් 252

රට 			නවසීලන්තය
			එක්සත් ජනපදය

භාෂාව 			ඉංග්‍රීසි

වියදම 			ඩොලර් මිලියන 94

දළ ආදායම 		ඩොලර් 1,119,263,306

මුල් කෘතිය		The Lord of the Rings :
			The Two Towers

The Lord of the ring : The Return of the King  යනු පීටර් ජැක්සන් විසින් සම රචනා කළ සම නිෂ්පාදනය කළ මනඃකල්පිත වීර චරිත චිත්‍රපටයකි. මෙය ප්‍රධාන වශයෙන් J.R.R වොල්‍කීන්ගේ 'The Lord of the Rings' කාතියෙහි තුන්වන වෙළුම මත පදනම් වී ඇති අතර (නමුත් දෙවන වෙළුමෙහි කොටස් ද ඇතුළත් වේ.) එය  'The Lord of the Rings' චිත්‍රපට ත්‍රිත්වයෙහි අවසාන චිත්‍රපටය වේ. එය 'The  Fellowship of the Rings' සහ 'The Two Towers' අනුව දිවෙන අතර සම චිත්‍රපටවලට සමගාමීව චිත්‍රපටයට නගා ඇත.

සවුරන් විසින් භූමි මධ්‍යය ආක්‍රමණය කිරීමේ ඔහුගේ අවසාන අදියරත් දියත් කිරීමත් සමග, මායාකාර ගැන්ඩාෆ් සහ රෝහන්හි රජු තිඔ‍ඩන් විසින් ඉදිරියෙන් පැමිණෙන තර්ජනයෙන් ගොන්ඩර්හි අගනුවර වන මිනාස් ටිරිත් ආරක්ෂා කර ගැනීමට සිය හමුදාවන් රැස් කරති. ඇරගන් අවසානයේදී ගොන්ඩර් අත්පත් කරගන්නා අතර ඔහු විසින් සෞරන් පරාජය කිරීම පිණිස උදවු ලබා ගැනීමට භූත සේනාවක් කැඳවයි. අවසානයේදී අවසානයේදී ආයුවල සියළු බලයන් හමුදාවේ වුවද ඔවුන්ට ජයගත නොහැකි බව ඔවුන් තේරුම් ගනී; හොබිට්ස්, ෆ්‍රෝඩෝ, සහ සෑමි තිදෙනාට මුද්දේ වගකීම පැවරෙන අතර ගොලමි ඔවුන්ට ද්‍රෝහි වේ, අවසානයේදී ඔවුන් මෝඩෝහි One Ring විනාශ කරනු ලැබේ.

2003 නොවැම්බර් 17 වන දින නිකුත් වූ 'The Lord of the ring : The Return of the King' චිත්‍රපටය, වැඩිම විවේචක ප්‍රසාදය දිනූ චිත්‍රපටි අතුරින් 1 ක් සහ මෙතෙක් වැඩිම බොක්ස් ඔෆිස් සම්මානය ලැබූ චිත්‍රපටය බවට පත් විය. එය යෝජිත ඇකඩමි සම්මාන එකොළහම ජයග්‍රහණය කළ අතර, එමගින් මෙය වැඩිම ඇකඩමි සම්මාණ ජයග්‍රහණය වෙනුවෙන් 'ටයිටැනික්' සහ 'බෙන් - හර්' චිත්‍රපට සමග සම තත්වයට පත් වේ. මෙය හොඳම චිත්‍රපටය සඳහා ඇකඩමි සම්මානයද ජයග්‍රහණය කළ අතර එම ජයග්‍රහණය මනඃකල්පිත චිත්‍රපටයක් ඉතිහාසයේ පළමුවරට ලැබූ අවස්ථාව එය විය.එසේම එය 'ටයිටැනික්' චිත්‍රපටයට පිටුපසින් සිටිමින් මෙතෙක් ලොව පුරා  දෙවැනි වැඩිම ආදායම් ලද චිත්‍රපටය බවටද, චිත්‍රපට මාලාවෙහි වැඩිම සාර්ථකත්වය ලැබූ චිත්‍රපටය බවටද පත් විය. මෙහි විශේෂ දීර්ඝ කරන ලද සංස්කරණය, චිත්‍රපටයේ විවිධ කොටස් සහිත අතිරේක මිනිත්තු 52 න් සමන්විත වන අතර එහි DVD තැටිය 2004 දෙසැම්බර් 14 වන දින නිකුත් කරන ලදී.

References
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Lord_of_the_Rings:_The_Return_of_the_King


Oecomys paricola, también denominado Oecomys brasilero, Rata arrocera arborea brasilera, o Rata arrocera arborea del sur del amazonas, es una especie de roedor del género Oecomys de la familia Cricetidae. Vive en las zonas centrales de  Brasil al sur del río Amazonas, donde habita en la zona baja de la pluviselva.

Referencias

Oryzomyini

Oecomys paricola


Mahaleo es una película del año 2005 coproducción de Madagascar y Francia dirigida por Cesar Paes y Raymond Rajaonarivelo sobre guion de Raymond Rajaonarivelo, Cesar Paes y Marie-Clémence Paes .

Sinopsis
Las canciones del grupo Mahaleo fueron el germen del levantamiento de 1972 que provocó la caída del régimen neocolonial en Madagascar. Hoy siguen meciendo la vida de los malgaches. En malgache, "Mahaleo" significa libre, independiente, autónomo. Los siete músicos que conforman el grupo siempre han rehusado entrar en el "show-business" a pesar de treinta años de éxito y han preferido comprometerse con el desarrollo del país. Los precursores del blues malgache son médicos, cirujanos, agricultores, sociólogos o congresistas... Guiada por la fuerza y la emoción que despiertan sus canciones, la película retrata al Madagascar actual.

Premios
 Festival international du Film Insulaire Groix, France 2005
 Festival Regards sur le Cinéma du sud, Rouen 2006

Referencias

Mahaleo


An Cycnoches densiflorum in uska species han Liliopsida nga ginhulagway ni Robert Allen Rolfe. An Cycnoches densiflorum in nahilalakip ha genus nga Cycnoches, ngan familia nga Orchidaceae.

Mabibilngan ini ha Colombia. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Mga sumpay ha gawas

Cycnoches

Cycnoches densiflorum


Beatrice Lucile Pearson, née le  à Denison (Texas) et morte le  à Ruby (comté d'Ulster, État de New York), est une actrice américaine.

Biographie

Actrice de théâtre principalement, Beatrice Pearson joue notamment à Broadway (New York) dans six pièces, Liliom de Ferenc Molnár (1940, avec Burgess Meredith dans le rôle-titre et Ingrid Bergman), Get Away Old Man de William Saroyan (1943, avec Hilda Vaughn et Richard Widmark), Over 21 de Ruth Gordon (1944, avec l'auteur et Jessie Busley), The Mermaids Singing (1945-1946, avec Walter Abel et Frieda Inescort) et La Voix de la tourterelle (1946, avec Alan Baxter), toutes deux écrites par John Van Druten, et enfin The Day After Tomorrow de Frederick Lonsdale (1950, avec Melville Cooper et Bramwell Fletcher).

Pour son rôle dans The Mermaids Singing, elle gagne un Theatre World Award en 1946.

Au cinéma, elle contribue à seulement deux films américains, L'Enfer de la corruption d'Abraham Polonsky (1948, avec John Garfield et Thomas Gomez), puis Frontières oubliées d'Alfred L. Werker (1949, avec Peter Hobbs et Mel Ferrer).

 la télévision enfin, elle apparaît dans la série série américaine consacrée au théâtre Armstrong Circle Theatre (deux épisodes, 1951), après quoi elle se retire définitivement de l'écran.

Beatrice Pearson meurt en 1986, à 65 ans.

Théâtre à Broadway (intégrale)
1940 : Liliom de Ferenc Molnár, adaptation de Benjamin Glazer : petits rôles divers (servante, paysanne, villageoise...)
1943 : Get Away Old Man de William Saroyan, production et mise en scène de George Abbott : Martha Harper
1944 : Over 21 de Ruth Gordon, mise en scène de George S. Kaufman : Jan Lupton
1945-1946 : The Mermaids Singing de (et mise en scène par) John Van Druten : Dee Matthews
1946 : La Voix de la tourterelle (The Voice of the Turtle) de (et mise en scène par) John Van Druten : Sally Middleton (remplacement)
1950 : The Day After Tomorrow de (et mise en scène par) Frederick Lonsdale : Mary Flemin

Filmographie complète

Cinéma
1948 : L'Enfer de la corruption (Force of Evil) d'Abraham Polonsky : Doris Lowry
1949 : Frontières oubliées ou Frontières invisibles (Lost Boundaries) d'Alfred L. Werker : Marcia Carter

Télévision
1951 : Armstrong Circle Theatre, saison 2, épisode 9 Day Dreams et épisode 13 Marionettes

Récompense
1946 : Theatre World Award gagné pour The Mermaids Singing

Notes et références

Liens externes

  Beatrice Pearson sur le site du Musée de la ville de New York (galerie photos, dont théâtre à Broadway)

Actrice américaine de cinéma
Actrice américaine de télévision
Actrice américaine de théâtre
Naissance en juillet 1920
Naissance à Denison (Texas)
Décès en février 1986
Décès à 65 ans
Décès dans le comté d'Ulster (New York)

Beatrice Pearson


Treća hrvatska vaterpolska liga predstavlja četvrti rang hrvatskog vaterpolskog prvenstva u sezoni 2018. Ukupni prvak lige je "Zale" iz Igrana.

Ljestvice i rezultati

Rijeka
Prvak "Crikvenica"

Slavonija
Prvak "Mursa" iz Osijeka

Split
Prvak "Zale" iz Igrana.

Šibenik
Prvak "Gusar" iz Svetog Filipa i Jakova.

Za prvaka lige

Unutrašnje poveznice
 Treća hrvatska vaterpolska liga
 Prvenstvo Hrvatske 2018.
 1. B HVL 2018.

Vanjske poveznice
 hvs.hr

Izvori

 hvs.hr, 3. liga 2018., pristupljeno 20. studenog 2018.

2018

3. HVL 2018.


يصف قانون الأفضلية المقارنة أو الأفضلية النسبية أو الميزة النسبية، كيف يمكن للوكيل، في ظل التجارة الحرة، أن ينتج المزيد من السلع ويستهلك قدرًا أقل منها، ما يتمتع بميزة نسبية.

في نموذج اقتصادي، يتمتع الوكلاء بأفضلية نسبية مقارنة بالآخرين في إنتاج سلعة معينة إذا كان بوسعهم أن ينتجوا هذه السلعة بتكاليف فرصة نسبية أدنى أو بسعر الاكتفاء الذاتي، أي بتكاليف هامشية نسبية أقل قبل التجارة. تصف الأفضلية النسبية الواقع الاقتصادي لمكاسب العمل التي تحققها التجارة بالنسبة للأفراد أو الشركات أو الدول، والتي تنشأ عن الاختلافات في عامل التبرعات أو التقدم التكنولوجي. (لا ينبغي مقارنة التكاليف النقدية للإنتاج أو حتى تكاليف الموارد (العمل المطلوب لكل وحدة من الناتج) للإنتاج. بل يتعين مقارنة تكاليف الفرص لإنتاج السلع عبر البلدان).

وضع دافيد ريكاردو النظرية الكلاسيكية للأفضلية النسبية في عام 1817 لكي يشرح الأسباب التي تدفع البلدان إلى الدخول في التجارة الدولية حتى عندما يكون عمال دولة ما أكثر كفاءة في إنتاج كل سلعة على حدة مقارنة بعمال في بلدان أخرى. أوضح أنه إذا دخلت دولتان قادرتان على إنتاج سلعتين في السوق الحر، فإن كلًا من الدولتين ستزيد استهلاكها الإجمالي من خلال تصدير السلع التي تتمتع بأفضلية نسبية، مع استيراد السلع الأخرى، شريطة وجود اختلافات في إنتاجية العمل بين الدولتين. تعتبر نظرية ريكاردو على نطاق واسع واحدة من أقوى الأفكار الاقتصادية ولكنها غير بديهية، وتعني ضمنًا أن الأفضلية النسبية وليست الأفضلية المطلقة هي المسؤولة عن قسم كبير من التجارة الدولية.

تعريف
قانون التجارة الدولية أن على كل دولة أن تتخصص في إنتاج وتصدير السلع التي يمكنها أن تنتجها بتكلفة نسبية أقل. وأن عليها أن تستورد السلع التي تنتجها بتكلفة عالية نسبيا. وبالتالي، فإن الميزة النسبية وليس المطلقة هي مايجب أن يفرض أنماط التجارة.

مفهوم
هي نظرية ترجع إلى لدافيد ريكاردو عام 1817. وتختص النظرية بالتجارة الدولية، وتقول بأن الدول تقوم بتصدير المنتوجات التي تستطيع إنتاجها بشكل كفؤٍ نسبياً مقارنة بدول أخرى.

مقياس الكفاءة النسبية يتم من خلال مقارنة تكاليف الإنتاج لمنتجٍ ما بين الدول المعنية، والتكلفة المعنية في هذه الحالة هي تكلفة الفرصة البديلة. هناك العديد من العوامل التي يمكن أن تؤثر على الأفضلية المقارنة لدولة ولهذا فهيَ ليست ثابتة وتستطيع أي دولة أن تحصل على الأفضلية المقارنة، على سبيل المثال من خلال الاستثمار في استحداث مهارات القوى العاملة أو في التقانة.

النهج التجريبي للأفضلية النسبية
تمثل الأفضلية النسبية نظرية حول الفوائد التي قد يجلبها التخصص والتجارة، وليس التنبؤ الدقيق بالسلوك الفعلي. (في الممارسة العملية، تعمل الحكومات على تقييد التجارة الدولية لأسباب متنوعة؛ ففي عهد يوليسيس جرانت، أجلت الولايات المتحدة الانفتاح على التجارة الحرة إلى أن بلغت صناعاتها قوة، على غرار ما حدث في وقت سابق في بريطانيا). مع ذلك، هناك قدر كبير من العمل التجريبي يختبر تنبؤات الأفضلية النسبية. عادة ما تتضمن الأعمال التجريبية اختبار تنبؤات لنموذج معين. على سبيل المثال، يتوقع نموذج ريكاردو أن تؤدي الاختلافات التكنولوجية في البلدان إلى اختلافات في إنتاجية العمل. تحدد الفوارق في إنتاجية العمل بدورها الأفضليات النسبية في مختلف البلدان. ينطوي اختبار نموذج ريكاردو، على سبيل المثال، على النظر في العلاقة بين إنتاجية العمل النسبية وأنماط التجارة الدولية. تميل الدولة التي تتسم بالكفاءة نسبيًا في إنتاج الأحذية إلى تصدير الأحذية.

اختبار مباشر: تجربة اليابان الطبيعية
يشكل تقييم صحة الميزة النسبية على نطاق عالمي مع أمثلة الاقتصادات المعاصرة تحديًا من الناحية التحليلية بسبب العوامل المتعددة التي تدفع العولمة: في الواقع، يلعب كل من الاستثمار والهجرة والتغيير التكنولوجي دورًا إلى جانب التجارة. حتى لو كان بالوسع عزل طريقة عمل التجارة المفتوحة عن غيرها من العمليات، فإن إثبات تأثيرها السببي يظل معقدًا أيضًا: إذ يتطلب المقارنة بعالم مغاير للواقع دون تجارة مفتوحة. بالنظر إلى متانة مختلف جوانب العولمة، فمن الصعب تقييم الأثر الوحيد للتجارة المفتوحة على اقتصاد معين.

حاول دانييل بيرنهفوين وجون براون معالجة هذه المسألة، باستخدام تجربة طبيعية للانتقال المفاجئ إلى التجارة المفتوحة في اقتصاد السوق. وقد ركزا على حالة اليابان. تطور الاقتصاد الياباني بالفعل على مدى عدة قرون في ظل الاكتفاء الذاتي وشبه العزلة عن التجارة الدولية، ولكنه كان بحلول منتصف القرن التاسع عشر اقتصاد سوق متمكن يبلغ تعداد سكانه 30 مليون نسمة. تحت الضغوط العسكرية الغربية، فتحت اليابان اقتصادها أمام التجارة الخارجية من خلال سلسلة من المعاهدات غير المتكافئة.

في عام 1859، حدت المعاهدات من التعريفات الجمركية بنسبة 5%، وفتحت التجارة أمام الغربيين. بالأخذ في الاعتبار أن الانتقال من الاكتفاء الذاتي إلى التجارة المفتوحة كان عنيفًا، فإن تغييرات قليلة طرأت على أساسيات الاقتصاد لم تحدث إلا في السنوات العشرين الأولى من التجارة. يفترض القانون العام للأفضلية النسبية أن الاقتصاد ينبغي، في المتوسط، أن يصدر السلع بأسعار الاكتفاء الذاتي المنخفضة ويستورد السلع بأسعار اكتفاء ذاتي مرتفعة. وجد كل من بيرنهوفين وبراون أنه بحلول عام 1869، شهد سعر الصادرات الرئيسية والحرير والمشتقات اليابانية زيادة بنسبة 100% في القيمة الحقيقية، في حين انخفضت أسعار العديد من السلع المستوردة بنسبة تتراوح من 30% إلى 75%. في العقد المقبل، بلغت نسبة الواردات إلى الناتج المحلي الإجمالي 4%.

التقدير الهيكلي
ثمة طريقة هامة أخرى لإثبات صحة الأفضلية النسبية تمثلت في نهج «تقدير الهيكلي». قامت هذه النهج على أساس صياغة ريكاردو لسلعتين لدولتين ونماذج لاحقة بسلع كثيرة أو بلدان كثيرة. كان الهدف من ذلك التوصل إلى صيغة تضع في الحسبان السلع المتعددة والبلدان المتعددة، من أجل تجسيد الظروف في العالم الحقيقي على نحو أكثر دقة. أكد كل من جوناثان إيتون وسامويل كورتوم على ضرورة وضع نموذج مقنع لإدراج فكرة «استمرارية السلع» التي طورها دورنبوش وآخرون للسلع والبلدان. تمكنوا من القيام بذلك بالسماح بعدد اختياري (عدد صحيح) من البلدان، والتعامل على وجه الحصر مع متطلبات وحدة العمل لكل سلعة (واحدة لكل نقطة على فترة الوحدة) في كل بلد.

أعمال تجريبية سابقة
أجري اختباران من الاختبارات الأولى للأفضلية النسبية من قبل ماكدوغال (1951، 1952). تتمثل أحد التنبؤات المتعلقة بنموذج الأفضلية النسبية لريكاردو لدولتين في أن البلدان ستصدر السلع حيث يكون فيها الناتج لكل عامل (أي الإنتاجية) أعلى. يعني هذا أننا نتوقع علاقة موجبة بين الناتج لكل عامل وعدد الصادرات. اختبر ماكدوغال هذه العلاقة ببيانات من الولايات المتحدة والمملكة المتحدة، ووجد بالفعل علاقة موجبة. تكرر الاختبار الإحصائي لهذه العلاقة الموجبة مع بيانات جديدة من قبل كل من ستيرن (1962) وبالاسا (1963).

أجرى دوسي وآخرون (1988) دراسة تجريبية طويلة بحجم كتاب تشير إلى أن التجارة الدولية في السلع المصنعة ترجع بدرجة كبيرة إلى الاختلافات في الكفاءات التكنولوجية الوطنية.

من بين الانتقادات الموجهة إلى النموذج التعليمي للأفضلية النسبية أن النموذج يشتمل على سلعتين فقط. تتأثر النتائج التي أسفر عنها هذا النموذج بهذا الافتراض. عمم دورنبوش وآخرون (1977) النظرية بحيث تسمح لعدد كبير من السلع بأن تشكل سلسلة متصلة سلسة. استنادًا جزئيًا إلى هذه التعميمات في النموذج، يقدم دافيز (1995) نظرة أحدث إلى نهج ريكاردو لشرح التجارة بين البلدان التي لديها موارد مماثلة.

في الآونة الأخيرة، يقدم كل من غولوب وهسيه (2000) تحليلًا إحصائيًا حديثًا للعلاقة بين الإنتاجية النسبية والأنماط التجارية، التي تجد علاقات ترابط قوية إلى حد معقول، وخلّص نان (2007) إلى أن البلدان التي تتمتع بقدر أكبر من إنفاذ العقود تتخصص في السلع التي تتطلب استثمارات خاصة بعلاقات.

بمنظور أوسع، كان هناك عمل بشأن فوائد التجارة الدولية. يرى زيمرينغ وإيتكس (2014) أن الحصار الذي فُرض على قطاع غزة، والذي قيد إلى حد كبير توفر الواردات لقطاع غزة، شهد انخفاضًا في إنتاجية العمل بنسبة 20% في غضون ثلاث سنوات. يذكر ماركوسن (1994) آثار الانتقال من الاكتفاء الذاتي إلى التجارة الحرة خلال فترة استعراش مييجي، مع زيادة الدخل الوطني بنسبة تصل إلى 65% في غضون 15 سنة.

انظر أيضًا
 الأفضلية المطلقة

مراجع

اقتصاد كلاسيكي
قوانين الاقتصاد
مفاهيم أساسية في الاقتصاد
مقارنات
نظرية التجارة الدولية

أفضلية مقارنة


Anopheles or Marsh Mosquitoes() is a genus of mosquito first described and named by J. W. Meigen in 1818. About 460 species are recognized; while over 100 can transmit human malaria, only 30–40 commonly transmit parasites of the genus Plasmodium, which cause malaria in humans in endemic areas. Anopheles gambiae is one of the best known, because of its predominant role in the transmission of the most dangerous malaria parasite species (to humans) – Plasmodium falciparum.

The name comes from the Ancient Greek word   'useless', derived from  , 'not', 'un-' and   'profit'.

Mosquitoes in other genera (Aedes, Culex, Culiseta, Haemagogus, and Ochlerotatus) can also serve as vectors of disease agents, but not human malaria.

Evolution
The ancestors of Drosophila and the mosquitoes diverged . The culicine and Anopheles clades of mosquitoes diverged between  and . The Old and New World Anopheles species subsequently diverged between  and . Anopheles darlingi diverged from the African and Asian malaria vectors ~.  The Anopheles gambiae and Anopheles funestus clades diverged between  and . A molecular study of several genes in seven species has provided additional support for an expansion of this genus during the Cretaceous period.

The Anopheles genome, at 230–284 million base pairs (Mbp), is comparable in size to that of Drosophila, but considerably smaller than those found in other culicine genomes (528 Mbp–1.9 Gbp). Like most culicine species, the genome is diploid with six chromosomes.

The only known fossils of this genus are those of Anopheles (Nyssorhynchus) dominicanus Zavortink & Poinar contained in Dominican amber from the Late Eocene ( to ) and Anopheles rottensis Statz  contained in German amber from the Late Oligocene ( to ).

Systematics

The genus Anopheles Meigen (nearly worldwide distribution) belongs to the subfamily Anophelinae together with another two genera:  Bironella Theobald (Australia only) and Chagasia Cruz (Neotropics). The taxonomy remains incompletely settled. Classification into species is based on morphological characteristics – wing spots, head anatomy, larval and pupal anatomy, chromosome structure, and more recently, on DNA sequences. In the taxonomy published by Harbach et al in 2016, it was shown that three species of Bironella: confusa, gracilis, and hollandi are phylogenetically similar Anopheles kyondawensis than other Bironella species. The same phylogeny also argues that, based on genetic similarity, Anopheles implexus is actually divergent from the common ancestor to the Anopheles genus, raising new questions regarding taxonomy and classification.

The genus has been subdivided into seven subgenera based primarily on the number and positions of specialized setae on the gonocoxites of the male genitalia. The system of subgenera originated with the work of Christophers, who in 1915 described three subgenera: Anopheles (widely distributed), Myzomyia (later renamed Cellia) (Old World) and Nyssorhynchus (Neotropical). Nyssorhynchus was first described as Lavernia by Frederick Vincent Theobald. Frederick Wallace Edwards in 1932 added the subgenus Stethomyia (Neotropical distribution). Kerteszia was also described by Edwards in 1932, but then recognised as a subgrouping of Nyssorhynchus. It was elevated to subgenus status by Komp in 1937, and it is also found in the Neotropics. Two additional subgenera have since been recognised: Baimaia (Southeast Asia only) by Harbach et al. in 2005 and Lophopodomyia (Neotropical) by Antunes in 1937.

Two main groupings within the genus Anopheles are used: one formed by the Celia and Anopheles subgenera and a second by Kerteszia, Lophopodomyia and Nyssorhynchus. Subgenus Stethomyia is an outlier with respect to these two taxa. Within the second group, Kerteszia and Nyssorhynchus appear to be sister taxa.

The number of species currently recognised within the subgenera is given here in parentheses: Anopheles (206 species), Baimaia (1), Cellia (216), Kerteszia (12), Lophopodomyia (6), Nyssorhynchus (34) and Stethomyia (5).

Taxonomic units between subgenus and species are not currently recognised as official zoological names. In practice, a number of taxonomic levels have been introduced. The larger subgenera (Anopheles, Cellia and Nyssorhynchus) have been subdivided into sections and series which in turn have been divided into groups and subgroups. Below subgroup but above species level is the species complex. Taxonomic levels above species complex can be distinguished on morphological grounds. Species within a species complex are either morphologically identical or extremely similar and can only be reliably separated by microscopic examination of the chromosomes or DNA sequencing. The classification continues to be revised.

Subgenus Nyssorhynchus has been divided in three sections: Albimanus (19 species), Argyritarsis (11 species) and Myzorhynchella (4 species). The Argyritarsis section has been subdivided into Albitarsis and Argyritarsis groups.

The Anopheles group was divided by Edwards into four series: Anopheles (worldwide), Myzorhynchus (Palearctic, Oriental, Australasian and Afrotropical), Cycloleppteron (Neotropical) and Lophoscelomyia (Oriental); and two groups, Arribalzagia (Neotropical) and Christya (Afrotropical). Reid and Knight (1961) modified this classification and consequently subdivided the subgenus Anopheles into two sections, Angusticorn and Laticorn and six series. The Arribalzagia and Christya Groups were considered to be series. The Laticorn Section includes the Arribalzagia (24 species), Christya and Myzorhynchus series. The Angusticorn section includes members of the Anopheles, Cycloleppteron and Lophoscelomyia series.

All species known to carry human malaria lie within either the Myzorhynchus or the Anopheles series.

Life stages

Like all mosquitoes, anophelines go through four stages in their life cycles: egg, larva, pupa, and imago. The first three stages are aquatic and together last 5–14 days, depending on the species and the ambient temperature. The adult stage is when the female Anopheles mosquito acts as malaria vector. The adult females can live up to a month (or more in captivity), but most probably do not live more than two weeks in nature.

Eggs

Adult females lay 50–200 eggs per oviposition. The eggs are quite small (about 0.5 × 0.2 mm). Eggs are laid singly and directly on water. They are unique in that they have floats on either side. Eggs are not resistant to drying and hatch within 2–3 days, although hatching may take up to 2–3 weeks in colder climates.

Larvae

The mosquito larva has a well-developed head with mouth brushes used for feeding, a large thorax and a nine-segment abdomen. It has no legs. In contrast to other mosquitoes, the Anopheles larva lacks a respiratory siphon, so it positions itself so that its body is parallel to the surface of the water. In contrast, the feeding larva of a nonanopheline mosquito species attaches itself to the water surface with its posterior siphon, with its body pointing downwards.

Larvae breathe through spiracles located on the eighth abdominal segment, so must come to the surface frequently. The larvae spend most of their time feeding on algae, bacteria, and other microorganisms in the surface microlayer. They dive below the surface only when disturbed. Larvae swim either by jerky movements of the entire body or through propulsion with the mouth brushes.

Larvae develop through four stages, or instars, after which they metamorphose into pupae. At the end of each instar, the larvae molt, shedding their exoskeletons, or skin, to allow for further growth. First-stage larvae are about 1 mm in length; fourth-stage larvae are normally 5–8 mm in length.

The process from egg-laying to emergence of the adult is temperature dependent, with a minimum time of seven days.

The larvae occur in a wide range of habitats, but most species prefer clean, unpolluted water. Larvae of Anopheles mosquitoes have been found in freshwater or saltwater marshes, mangrove swamps, rice fields, grassy ditches, the edges of streams and rivers, and small, temporary rain pools. Many species prefer habitats with vegetation. Others prefer habitats with none. Some breed in open, sun-lit pools, while others are found only in shaded breeding sites in forests. A few species breed in tree holes or the leaf axils of some plants.

Pupae
The pupa (also known as the tumbler) is comma-shaped when viewed from the side.  The head and thorax are merged into a cephalothorax with the abdomen curving around underneath. As with the larvae, pupae must come to the surface frequently to breathe, which they do through a pair of respiratory trumpets on their cephalothoraces. After a few days as a pupa, the dorsal surface of the cephalothorax splits and the adult mosquito emerges. The pupal stage lasts around 2–3 days in temperate areas.

Adults

The duration from egg to adult varies considerably among species, and is strongly influenced by ambient temperature. Mosquitoes can develop from egg to adult in as little as five days, but it can take 10–14 days in tropical conditions.

Like all mosquitoes, adult Anopheles species have slender bodies with three sections: head, thorax and abdomen.

The head is specialized for acquiring sensory information and for feeding. It contains the eyes and a pair of long, many-segmented antennae. The antennae are important for detecting host odors, as well as odors of breeding sites where females lay eggs. The head also has an elongated, forward-projecting proboscis used for feeding, and two maxillary palps. These palps also carry the receptors for carbon dioxide, a major attractant for the location of the mosquito's host.

The thorax is specialized for locomotion. Three pairs of legs and a pair of wings are attached to the thorax.

The abdomen is specialized for food digestion and egg development. This segmented body part expands considerably when a female takes a blood meal. The blood is digested over time, serving as a source of protein for the production of eggs, which gradually fill the abdomen.

Anopheles mosquitoes can be distinguished from other mosquitoes by the palps, which are as long as the proboscis, and by the presence of discrete blocks of black and white scales on the wings. Adults can also be identified by their typical resting position: males and females rest with their abdomens sticking up in the air rather than parallel to the surface on which they are resting.

Adult mosquitoes usually mate within a few days after emerging from the pupal stage. In most species, the males form large swarms, usually around dusk, and the females fly into the swarms to mate.

Males live for about a week, feeding on nectar and other sources of sugar. Males cannot feed on blood, as it appears to produce toxic effects and kills them within a few days, around the same lifespan as a water-only diet. Females will also feed on sugar sources for energy, but usually require a blood meal for the development of eggs. After obtaining a full blood meal, the female will rest for a few days while the blood is digested and eggs are developed. This process depends on the temperature, but usually takes 2–3 days in tropical conditions. Once the eggs are fully developed, the female lays them and resumes host-seeking.

The cycle repeats itself until the female dies. While females can live longer than a month in captivity, most do not live longer than one to two weeks in nature. Their lifespans depend on temperature, humidity, and their ability to successfully obtain a blood meal while avoiding host defenses.

In a study by the London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine researchers found that female mosquitoes carrying malaria parasites are significantly more attracted to human breath and odours than uninfected mosquitoes. The research team infected laboratory-raised Anopheles gambiae mosquitoes with Plasmodium parasites, leaving a control group uninfected. Then tests were run on the two groups to record their attraction to human smells. Female mosquitoes are particularly drawn to foot odours, and one of the tests showed infected mosquitoes landing and biting a prospective host repeatedly. The team speculates that the parasite improves the mosquitoes' sense of smell. It may also reduce its risk aversion.

Habitat
Although malaria is nowadays limited to tropical areas, most notoriously the regions of sub-Saharan Africa, many Anopheles species live in colder latitudes (see this map from the CDC). Indeed, malaria outbreaks have, in the past, occurred in colder climates, for example during the construction of the Rideau Canal in Canada during the 1820s. Since then, the Plasmodium parasite (not the Anopheles mosquito) has been eliminated from first world countries.

The CDC warns, however, that Anopheles that can transmit malaria are found not only in malaria-endemic areas, but also in areas where malaria has been eliminated. The latter areas are thus constantly at risk of reintroduction of the disease.

Susceptibility to become a vectorous  disease
Some species are poor vectors of malaria, as the parasites do not develop well (or at all) within them. There is also variation within species. In the laboratory, it is possible to select strains of A. gambiae that are refractory to infection by malaria parasites. These refractory strains have an immune response that encapsulates and kills the parasites after they have invaded the mosquito's stomach wall. Scientists are studying the genetic mechanism for this response. Genetically modified mosquitoes refractory to malaria possibly could replace wild mosquitoes, thereby limiting or eliminating malaria transmission.

Malaria transmission and control
Understanding the biology and behavior of Anopheles mosquitoes can help understand how malaria is transmitted, and can aid in designing appropriate control strategies. Factors affecting a mosquito's facility to transmit malaria include its innate susceptibility to Plasmodium, its host choice and its longevity. Factors that should be taken into consideration when designing a control program include the susceptibility of malaria vectors to insecticides and the preferred feeding and resting location of adult mosquitoes.

On December 21, 2007, a study published in PLoS Pathogens found the hemolytic C-type lectin CEL-III from Cucumaria echinata, a sea cucumber found in the Bay of Bengal, impaired the development of the malaria parasite when produced by transgenic A. stephensi. This could potentially be used to control malaria by spreading genetically modified mosquitoes refractory to the parasites, although numerous scientific and ethical issues must be overcome before such a control strategy could be implemented.

Preferred sources for blood meals
One important behavioral factor is the degree to which an Anopheles species prefers to feed on humans (anthropophily) or animals such as cattle or birds (zoophily). Anthropophilic Anopheles are more likely to transmit the malaria parasites from one person to another. Most Anopheles mosquitoes are not exclusively anthropophilic or zoophilic, including the primary malaria vector in the western United States, A. freeborni. However, the primary malaria vectors in Africa, A. gambiae and A. funestus, are strongly anthropophilic and, consequently, are two of the most efficient malaria vectors in the world.

Once ingested by a mosquito, malaria parasites must undergo development within the mosquito before they are infectious to humans. The time required for development in the mosquito (the extrinsic incubation period) ranges from 10–21 days, depending on the parasite species and the temperature. If a mosquito does not survive longer than the extrinsic incubation period, then she will not be able to transmit any malaria parasites.

It is not possible to measure directly the lifespans of mosquitoes in nature, but indirect estimates of daily survivorship have been made for several Anopheles species. Estimates of daily survivorship of A. gambiae in Tanzania ranged from 0.77 to 0.84, meaning at the end of one day, between 77% and 84% will have survived.

Assuming this survivorship is constant through the adult life of a mosquito, less than 10% of female A. gambiae would survive longer than a 14-day extrinsic incubation period. If daily survivorship increased to 0.9, over 20% of mosquitoes would survive longer than the same period. Control measures that rely on insecticides (e.g. indoor residual spraying) may actually impact malaria transmission more through their effect on adult longevity than through their effect on the population of adult mosquitoes.

Patterns of feeding and resting
Most Anopheles mosquitoes are crepuscular (active at dusk or dawn) or nocturnal (active at night). Some feed indoors (endophagic), while others feed outdoors (exophagic). After feeding, some blood mosquitoes prefer to rest indoors (endophilic), while others prefer to rest outdoors (exophilic), though this can differ regionally based on local vector ecotype, and vector chromosomal makeup, as well as housing type and local microclimatic conditions. Biting by nocturnal, endophagic Anopheles mosquitoes can be markedly reduced through the use of insecticide-treated bed nets or through improved housing construction to prevent mosquito entry (e.g. window screens). Endophilic mosquitoes are readily controlled by indoor spraying of residual insecticides. In contrast, exophagic/exophilic vectors are best controlled through source reduction (destruction of the breeding sites).

Gut flora
Because transmission of disease by the mosquito requires ingestion of blood, the gut flora may have a bearing on the success of infection of the mosquito host. This aspect of disease transmission has not been investigated until recently. The larval and pupal gut is largely colonized by photosynthetic cyanobacteria, while in the adult, Pseudomonadota and Bacteroidota predominate. Blood meals drastically reduce the diversity of organisms and favor enteric bacteria.

Insecticide resistance
Insecticide-based control measures (e.g. indoor spraying with insecticides, bed nets) are the principal ways to kill mosquitoes that bite indoors. However, after prolonged exposure to an insecticide over several generations, mosquito populations, like those of other insects, may evolve resistance, a capacity to survive contact with an insecticide. Since mosquitoes can have many generations per year, high levels of resistance can evolve very quickly. Resistance of mosquitoes to some insecticides has been documented with just within a few years after the insecticides were introduced. Over 125 mosquito species have documented resistance to one or more insecticides. The evolution of resistance to insecticides used for indoor residual spraying was a major impediment during the Global Malaria Eradication Campaign. Judicious use of insecticides for mosquito control can limit the evolution and spread of resistance. However, use of insecticides in agriculture has often been implicated as contributing to resistance in mosquito populations. Detection of evolving resistance in mosquito populations is possible, so control programs are well advised to conduct surveillance for this potential problem. In Malawi and other places, a shrub known as mpungabwi (Ocimum americanum) is used to repel mosquitoes.

Eradication
With substantial numbers of malaria cases affecting people around the globe, in tropical and subtropical regions, especially in sub-Saharan Africa, where millions of children are killed by this infectious disease, eradication is back on the global health agenda.

Although malaria has existed since ancient times, its eradication was possible in Europe, North America, the Caribbean and parts of Asia and southern Central America during the first regional elimination campaigns in the late 1940s. However, the same results were not achieved in sub-Saharan Africa.

Though the World Health Organization adopted a formal policy on the control and eradication of the malaria parasite since 1955, only recently, after the Gates Malaria Forum in October 2007, did key organizations start the debate on the pros and cons of redefining eradication as a goal to control malaria.

Clearly, the cost of preventing malaria is much less than treating the disease, in the long run. However, eradication of mosquitoes is not an easy task. For effective prevention of malaria, some conditions should be met, such as conducive conditions in the country, data collection about the disease, targeted technical approaches to the problem, very active and committed leadership,  total governmental support, sufficient monetary resources, community involvement, and skilled technicians from different fields, as well as an adequate implementation.

Currently, there are proposals to eradicate Anopheles gambiae, the main vector for malaria, with a CRISPR-Cas9 gene drive system. This system aims to eradicate the species through introducing a gene that would cause female sterility, thus causing the gene to be unable to replicate. It has been demonstrated in a study by Kyrou et al that such a gene drive system can suppress an entire caged An. gambiae population through targeting and deleting the dsx gene, which is vital for female fertility. By utilizing the conservation tendencies of selfish genes, Kyrou et al demonstrated full suppression of the population within 7–11 generations, typically less than a year. Of course, this has raised concerns with both the efficiency of a gene drive system as well as the ethical and ecological impact of such an eradication program. Therefore, there have been efforts to use the gene drive system to more efficiently introduce genes of Plasmodium resistance into the species, such as targeting and knocking out the FREP1 gene in Anopheles gambiae. Such systems may generate less ecological impact, as the species are not removed from the ecosystem, though concerns regarding efficiency still linger.

Researchers in Burkina Faso have created a strain of the fungus metarhizium pinghaense genetically engineered to produce the venom of an Australian funnel-web spider; exposure to the fungus caused populations of Anopheles mosquitoes to crash by 99% in a controlled trial.

A wide range of strategies is needed to achieve malaria eradication, starting from simple steps to complicated strategies which may not be possible to enforce with the current tools.

Although mosquito control is an important component of malaria control strategy, elimination of malaria in an area does not require the elimination of all Anopheles mosquitoes. For instance, in North America and Europe, although the vector Anopheles mosquitoes are still present, the parasite has been eliminated. Some socioeconomic improvements (e.g., houses with screened windows, air conditioning), once combined with vector reduction efforts and effective treatment, lead to the elimination of malaria without the complete elimination of the vectors. Some important measures in mosquito control to be followed are: discourage egg-laying, prevent development of eggs into larvae and adults, kill the adult mosquitoes, do not allow adult mosquitoes into places of human dwelling, prevent mosquitoes from biting human beings and deny them blood meals.

Research in this sense continues, and a study has suggested sterile mosquitoes might be the answer to malaria elimination. This research suggests using the sterile insect technique, in which sexually sterile male insects are released to wipe out a pest population, could be a solution to the problem of malaria in Africa. This technique brings hope, as female mosquitoes only mate once during their lifetimes, and in doing so with sterile male mosquitoes, the insect population would decrease. This is another option to be considered by local and international authorities that may be combined with other methods and tools to achieve malaria eradication in sub-Saharan Africa.

Parasites
A number of parasites of this genus are known to exist, including microsporidia of the genera Amblyospora, Crepidulospora, Senoma and Parathelohania.

Microsporidia infecting the aquatic stages of insects, a group that includes mosquitoes and black flies, and copepods appear to form a distinct clade from those infecting terrestrial insects and fish. Two distinct life cycles are found in this group.  In the first type, the parasite is transmitted by the oral route and is relatively species nonspecific. In the second, while again the oral route is the usual route of infection, the parasite is ingested within an already infected intermediate host. Infection of the insect larval form is frequently tissue-specific, and commonly involves the fat body. Vertical (transovarial) transmission is also known to occur.

Few phylogenetic studies of these parasites have been done, and their relationship to their mosquito hosts is still being determined. One study suggested Parathelohania is an early diverging genus within this group.

The parasite Wolbachia bacteria have also been studied for use as control agents.

Predators
The jumping spider Evarcha culicivora indirectly feeds on vertebrate blood by preying on female Anopheles mosquitos. Interestingly, juvenile spiders choose the Anopheles over all other prey regardless of whether it actually is carrying blood. Juvenile spiders have adopted an Anopheles-specific prey-capture behavior, using the posture of Anopheles mosquitoes as a primary cue to identify them. Anopheles has a distinctive resting posture with its abdomen angled up. In this case, the spider takes a detour and approaches from behind the mosquito and under its abdomen, and then attacks from below.

See also
 Taxonomy of Anopheles
 Tropical disease

References

External links for this search

 Anopheles Database
 Anopheles gambiae Genome and Related Data
 [https://www.cdc.gov/Malaria/ CDC – National Center for Infectious Diseases, Division of Parasitic Diseases;  Malaria]
 CDC – World map showing distribution of various Anopheles species
  Walter Reed Biosystematics Unit. – Links to the online mosquito catalog, keys for mosquito identification, images and information on medically important species and much more.
 Malaria Atlas Project
 Anopheles gambiae taxonomy, facts and life cycle
 Anopheles quadrimaculatus, common malaria mosquito on the University of Florida / Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences Featured Creatures'' website
 http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/classification/Anopheles.html

Mosquito genera
Insect vectors of human pathogens
Malaria
Taxa named by Johann Wilhelm Meigen

Anopheles


Mitologia Irlandei precreștine a fost păstrată într-o tradiție orală extrem de conservatoare. Primele manuscrise care au transmis aceste povești mitologice datează din perioada apariției creștinismului în Irlanda, conservând o mare parte a mitologiei precreștine în literatura irlandeză medievală. Cu toate că se observă o influență a creștinismului în aceste manuscrise, literatura mitologică irlandeză este cea mai cuprinzătoare și mai bine conservată dintre toate ramurile mitologiei celtice. Deși multe manuscrise nu s-au păstrat și o mare cantitate de material literar mitologic nu a fost probabil niciodată transcrisă, rămân suficiente elemente care să permită identificarea unor cicluri distincte, chiar dacă acestea se suprapun uneori: ciclul mitologic, ciclul Ulster, ciclul fenian și ciclul istoric. Există, de asemenea, o serie de texte mitologice care nu pot fi încadrate în nici unul dintre aceste cicluri și multe povești folclorice care au continuat să fie transmise pe cale orală în paralel cu transcrierea în manuscrise care, deși nu sunt strict mitologice, conțin personaje din una sau mai multe din aceste patru cicluri.

Unele dintre poveștile mitologice irlandeze cele mai cunoscute în prezent sunt despre Tír na nÓg, Fionn MacCumhaill, Na Fianna, Aos Sí / Aes Sídhe, Sétanta (CúChulainn), Tuatha Dé Danann, Copiii lui Lir, Táin Bó Cúailnge și Somonul înțelepciunii.

Divinitatea în mitologia irlandeză
În funcție de surse, importanța zeilor și a zeițelor în mitologia irlandeză variază. Legendele geografice, Dindshenchas, subliniază importanța divinităților și a strămoșilor de sex feminin, în timp ce poveștile mitologice cu caracter istoric se concentrează asupra colonizatorilor, inventatorilor sau războinicilor de sex masculin, în timp ce personajele feminine apar destul de rar.

Zeițele ancestrale sunt legate de elementele telurice (pământul, apele) sau de drepturi politice (suveranitatea, libertatea) și sunt adesea văzute ca fiind cei mai vechi strămoși ai națiunii irlandeze. Ele sunt figuri materne care îngrijesc atât pământul, cât și pe descendenții lor, precum și profesori, războinici și apărători aprigi. Unele zeități pot fi protectoare a educației, culturii și sănătății, precum Brigid care este patroana medicilor, poeților și artizanilor. Alte figuri feminine asociate cu druizii sunt profetice, mai ales atunci când prevestesc moartea și osânda. Zoomorfismul este o caracteristică importantă a mai multor zeități irlandeze. Badb Catha, de exemplu, este "corbul din bătălii", iar în povestea epică Táin Bó Cúailnge zeița Morrígan se transformă într-o anghilă, într-un lup și într-o vacă.

Zei
Zeii irlandezi sunt împărțiți în patru grupuri principale. Primul grup îi cuprinde pe zeii vechi ai Galiei și Britaniei. Cel de-al doilea grup face obiectul unei mari părți a mitologiei irlandeze și îi cuprinde pe zeii irlandezi nativi care trăiesc în tumuli ("Marile movile funerare"). Cel de-al treilea grup este format din zeii care locuiesc în mare, iar al patrulea grup îi include pe zeii de pe Lumea Cealaltă. Zeii care apar cel mai adesea în poveștile irlandeze sunt Dagda și Lug. Unii cercetători au susținut că poveștile despre acești zei seamănă într-o anumită măsuă cu poveștile despre zeii greci.

Druizi
Druizii erau tratați cu mult respect de membrii comunității ca lideri religioși, învățători și meșteri în diferite profesii.

Sursele miturilor
Cele trei manuscrise principale ale mitologiei irlandeze sunt Lebor na hUidre (Cartea vacii cenușii) de la sfârșitul secolului al XI-lea / începutul secolului al XII-lea, care se află în biblioteca Academiei Regale Irlandeze, la începutul secolului al XII-lea, Cartea din Leinster de la începutul secolului al XII-lea, care se află în Biblioteca Colegiului Trinity din Dublin, și MS Rawlinson B 502 (Rawl.), păstrat în Biblioteca Bodleiană a Universității Oxford. În ciuda datării acestor surse, cea mai mare parte a materialelor pe care le conțin sunt alcătuite anterior momentului în care au fost scrise. Proza poate fi datată pe baze lingvistice în secolul al VIII-lea, iar unele versuri pot fi chiar mai vechi, putând fi scrise chiar în secolul al VI-lea. Acestea sunt cele mai vechi manuscrise păstrate care au fost scrise în întregime în limba irlandeză. Poveștile incluse în aceste manuscrise fac parte din ciclul Ulster al mitologiei irlandeze.

Note

Lectură suplimentară

Surse primare în traducerea în limba engleză
 Cross, Tom Peete and Clark Harris Slover. Ancient Irish Tales. Barnes and Noble Books, Totowa, New Jersey, 1936, reed. 1988. .
 Dillon, Myles. The Cycles of the Kings. Oxford University Press, 1946; reed. Four Courts Press: Dublin și Portland, OR, 1994. .
 Dillon, Myles. Early Irish Literature. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1948; reed. Four Courts Press, Dublin și Portland, OR, 1994. .
 Joseph Dunn: The Ancient Irish Epic Tale Táin Bó Cúailnge (1914)
 Winifred Faraday: The Cattle-Raid of Cualng. Londra, 1904. Aceasta este o traducere parțială a textului din Yellow Book of Lecan, cenzurată parțială de Faraday.
 Gantz, Jeffrey. Early Irish Myths and Sagas. Londra: Penguin Books, 1981. .
 Kinsella, Thomas. The Tain. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1970. .
 Gregory, Lady Augusta. Cuchulain of Muirtheme. ed. I, 1902.

Surse primare în irlandeza medievală
 Cath Maige Tuired: The Second Battle of Mag Tuired. Elizabeth A. Gray, Ed. Dublin: Irish Texts Society, 1982. Series: Irish Texts Society (Series) ; v. 52. Text în limba irlandeză, traducere în limba engleză și note filologice.
 Táin Bo Cuailnge from the Book of Leinster. Cecile O'Rahilly, Ed. Dublin Institute for Advanced Studies, 1984.
 Táin Bo Cuailnge Recension I. Cecile O'Rahilly, Ed. Dublin Institute for Advanced Studies 1976. Text în limba irlandeză, traducere în limba engleză și note filologice.

Surse secundare
 Coghlan, Ronan. Pocket Dictionary of Irish Myth and Legend. Belfast: Appletree, 1985.
 Mallory, J. P. Ed. Aspects of the Tain. Belfast: December Publications, 1992. .
 O'Rahilly, T. F. Early Irish History and Mythology (1946)
 O hOgain, Daithi "Myth, Legend and Romance: An Encyclopedia of the Irish Folk Tradition" Prentice Hall Press, (1991) :  (singurul dicționar/enciclopedie cu referințe pentru fiecare termen)
 Rees, Brinley and Alwyn Rees. Celtic Heritage: Ancient Tradition in Ireland and Wales. New York: Thames and Hudson, 1961; reed. 1989. .
 Sjoestedt, M. L. Gods and Heroes of the Celts. 1949; tradusă de Myles Dillon. reed. Berkeley, CA: Turtle Press, 1990. .
 Williams, J. F. Caerwyn. Irish Literary History. Trans. Patrick K. Ford. University of Wales Press, Cardiff, Țara Galilor, și Ford and Bailie, Belmont, Massachusetts. Ed. galeză, 1958, traducere engleză, 1992. .

Adaptări, colecții și repovestiri
 Lady Francesca Speranza Wilde: Ancient Legends, Mystic Charms, and Superstitions of Ireland (1887)
 James Bonwick: Irish Druids and Old Irish Religions (1894)
 Lady Augusta Gregory : Cuchulain of Muirthemne (1902) și Gods and Fighting Men (1904)
 Juliet Marillier: Daughter of the Forest, Son of the Shadows și Child of the Prophecy (trilogia Sevenwaters, 1999-2001).
 Gregory Frost: Tain (1986) și Remscela (1988)
 Morgan Llywelyn: Red Branch (1989), Finn MacCool (1994) și Bard: The Odyssey Of the Irish (1984)
 James Stephens: Irish Fairy Tales (1920)
 Lenihan, Eddie și Carolyn Eve Green: Meeting the Other Crowd: The Fairy Stories of Hidden Ireland. New York. Jeremy P. Tarcher/Penguin. 2004.

Legături externe

 Department of Irish Folklore, Dublin. Includes the National Folklore Archives
 The Celtic Literature Collection
 Legendary Fictions of the Irish Celts
 Timeless Myths: Celtic Mythology

Religie
Păgânism
Mitologia indo-europeană

Mitologia irlandeză


Kassamlık, Osmanlıda halkın tâbi olduğu nizam ( askeri-reaya) çerçevesinde ikiye ayrılmıştır. Bunlardan biri askerî sınıf mensubu kişilerin miraslarını vârisler arasında paylaştırmaya taksime kadıasker adına memur "Askerî Kassam"lardır. Diğeri ise reayanın terekesini vârisler arasında taksime vilayet ve sancak kadıları adına memur olan şehrî kassamlardır.

Askerî sınıfın terekesini vârisleri arasında pay eden kazasker kassamları, kazada veya birkaç kazada bulunurlardı. Rumelidekiler Rumeli kazaskerleri ve Anadoludakiler Anadolu kazaskerleri taraflarından göreve getirilirlerdi. Bunlar tahsil ettikleri kısmet-i askeriyyeyi o bölgenin kadılığındaki sandıkta saklayarak, kazaskerlerin mühürlü mektupları ve fermanlarla gelmiş olan askerî kassam müfettişi
veyahut suvari kassamları geldiği zaman kadı veya nâibler tarafından onlara teslim edilirdi.

"Suvarî Kassamları her teftiş ettiği yerde tahsil edilen kısmet-i askeriyyeyi kadılık sandığından tesellüm ederek elindeki mühürlü defteri bu resimleri kendisine teslim eden kadı veya nâibe mühürletirdi. Mahallî askerî kassamların azli ve yerine diğerinin tâyini suvarî kassâmının selâhiyeti dahilinde olduğu gibi bunlar hakkındaki şikayetler veya taltif edilmeleri hakkında verdiği raporlar da hükûmetçe nazarı dikkate alınırdı". Bunların görevleri bir suvari kassamı tayininde şu şekilde belirtilmiştir:

1- "Tayin olunan bölgede bulunan vilayet ve kazalarda daha önce tayin olunan süvari kassamından bu ana gelinceye kadar vaki askeriye ait konuları teftiş edip, resimlerini kim almış ise ondan kabz etmek.

2- Söz konusu bölgede bulunan kadı ve naiblerin elde ettikleri resimleri teslim alıp, elinde bulunan mühürlü deftere kaydetmek.

3- Kısmet-i Askerîye tahririne memur olanlardan hıyaneti olanları azledip, yerlerine emin ve mutemet kimseleri tayin etmek.

4- Kısmete ilişkin bütün işler süvari kassamının uhdesine tevdi edildiğinden, bu konuda her türlü icraata yetkili olmak.

Bunlarla ilgili olarak ulemadan Mevlana Mehmed ve Anadolu'daki bazı kaza naiblerine şu şekildeki bir talimata uymaları istenmektedir:

Ulemadan Mevlana Mehmed ve Anadolu'da sol kola tayin olunan elviye-i mezbûrede vaki kaza naiblerine hüküm ki, İş bu sene tis'a ve semânîne ve elf (1089) Rebîu'l-ûlâ gurresinden sol kol tabir olunur elviyede sen ki mevlanay-ı mezbûr Mehemmed'sin kassam-ı süvari tayin
olunmanla elviye-i mezkûrede vaki olan gerek mevâli-i ızam ve gerek sair kazalarda mukaddemâ mezkûr kolda kassam-ı süvari olan İbrahim'in mürûrundan bu âne gelince vâki olan mevadd-ı askeriyyeyi teftiş ve tefehhus edip rüsumı her kim ahz ve kabz etmiş ise ahz-ü kabz idesin. Ve siz ki elviye-i mezkûrede vâkî kadılar ve nüvvabsız, sene-i mezkûreden bu âne gelince makbuzunuzu kasamm-ı mûmâ ileyhe teslim edip yedinde olan mahtum deftere kayıd idersiz. Sen ki kassam-ı mûmâ ileyhsin kısmet-i askeriyye tahririne memur olanlardan hıyaneti zahir olanları azledip
yerlerine emin ve mutemed kimesneleri nasb eyliyesin; ve bil cümle kısmete müteallik cemi'ı umûr, sana tefviz olunmuştur; azl ve nasbın, şükür ve şikayetin makbuldür. Anadolu Kazaskeri Mehmed Efendi'den süvari kassama mühürlü mektub verilmekle mucibince amel oluna deyu ferman sâdır olmağın vech-i meşruh üzere şerh yazılmıştır. Evasıt-ı Rebiu'l-evvel, sene 1089.

Tanzimat-ı Hayriyeyi müteakip, kazaskere ve kadılara ait kassamlıklar kaldırılmış sadece İstanbul'da bir kassamlık kalmış, eyalet ve sancakların kısmet işleri de kadılara bırakılmıştır.

Kaynakça

Osmanlı arşiv belgeleri

Ordu kassamı


Der Graben ist ein Gedicht der Gattung Chanson, geschrieben von Kurt Tucholsky unter seinem Pseudonym Theobald Tiger im Jahre 1926. Tucholsky zeigt darin die Sinnlosigkeit des Kriegs auf und kritisiert soziale und gesellschaftliche Missstände. Es wurde 1959–1961 von Hanns Eisler vertont und gehört zu seinen bekannten Liedern nach Texten von Kurt Tucholsky mit Interpretationen von Gisela May, Hildegard Knef, Ernst Busch, Ute Lemper und anderen.

Entstehung

Im Jahr der ersten Drucklegung dieses Gedichtes (1926) ist Deutschland dem Völkerbund beigetreten. Nur zwei Monate später, am 20. November 1926, wurde "Der Graben" in der Zeitung Das Andere Deutschland gedruckt. Für Tucholsky war klar, dass die Völkerversöhnung nicht nur Sache der Politik ist, sondern vor allem das eigentliche Volk betrifft.
In "Der Graben", das den Ersten Weltkrieg thematisiert, zeigt er unter anderem die Sinnlosigkeit des Kriegs auf. Als Hitler an die Macht kam, wurden viele Zensuren vorgenommen, wodurch auch dieses Chanson verdrängt wurde, welches zuvor großen Anklang bei der Bevölkerung gefunden hatte.

Text

Mutter, wozu hast du deinen Sohn aufgezogen?
Hast dich zwanzig' Jahr mit ihm gequält?
Wozu ist er dir in deinen Arm geflogen,
und du hast ihm leise was erzählt?
    Bis sie ihn dir weggenommen haben.
    Für den Graben, Mutter, für den Graben.

Junge, kannst du noch an Vater denken?
Vater nahm dich oft auf seinen Arm.
Und er wollt dir einen Groschen schenken,
und er spielte mit dir Räuber und Gendarm.
    Bis sie ihn dir weggenommen haben.
    Für den Graben, Junge, für den Graben.

Drüben die französischen Genossen
lagen dicht bei Englands Arbeitsmann.
Alle haben sie ihr Blut vergossen,
und zerschossen ruht heut Mann bei Mann.
    Alte Leute, Männer, mancher Knabe
    in dem einen großen Massengrabe.

Seid nicht stolz auf Orden und Geklunker!
Seid nicht stolz auf Narben und die Zeit!
In die Gräben schickten euch die Junker,
Staatswahn und der Fabrikantenneid.
    Ihr wart gut genug zum Fraß für Raben,
    für das Grab, Kameraden, für den Graben!

Werft die Fahnen fort!
Die Militärkapellen spielen auf zu euerm Todestanz.
Seid ihr hin: ein Kranz von Immortellen -
das ist dann der Dank des Vaterlands.

    Denkt an Todesröcheln und Gestöhne.
    Drüben stehen Väter, Mütter, Söhne,
    schuften schwer, wie ihr, ums bißchen Leben.
    Wollt ihr denen nicht die Hände geben?
    Reicht die Bruderhand als schönste aller Gaben
    übern Graben, Leute, übern Graben -!

Form

Der Graben gliedert sich in fünf Strophen, davon vier mit demselben Reimschema. Jede der vier Strophen beginnt mit zwei Kreuzreimen. Die letzten zwei Zeilen haben jeweils einen Paarreim und sind durch die Einrückung als Refrainzeilen gekennzeichnet. Die letzte Strophe expandierte er zu einem sechszeiligen Refrain, der in der Form des Paarreims steht. Diese Ausweitung zeigt gleichzeitig, dass es in dieser Strophe zu einem inhaltlichen Höhepunkt kommen wird und für den Autor bedeutsam ist.
Die Unregelmäßigkeit dieses Gattungtyps sieht man am Versfuß. Dieser dominiert als sechshebiger Trochäus mit zwölf Silben, wird jedoch an manchen Stellen von fünf Hebungen mit zehn Silben abgelöst. Diese Flexibilität kommt dem Autor zugute, denn er kann das Gedicht freier gestalten.
Die Wiederholungsmodelle werden von Kurt Tucholsky des Öfteren verwendet, da sie ideal für eine Vertonung geeignet sind.

Interpretation
Mit dem Titel des Werks deutet Tucholsky schon darauf hin, dass der Krieg nicht in Köpfen von Generälen und Politikern stattfindet, sondern ganz direkt im Graben und auf dem Schlachtfeld. Mit der ersten Strophe wird auch klar, dass er einfache Leute ansprechen will, sprich Familienmitglieder von Kriegsopfern. In der ersten Strophe wird die Mutter angesprochen, in der zweiten Strophe wendet er sich an den Sohn, der seinen Vater verliert. Typisch für Tucholskys Lyrik ist das Erwecken von Gefühlen über Erinnerungen. Er spricht in der zweiten Strophe von Ereignissen aus der Kindheit und weckt dadurch ein Bild des Friedens und Verbundenheit, womit er den Leser näher ans Geschehen bringt.

In der dritten Strophe findet der Übergang vom Individuellen zum Allgemeinen statt.  Während sie sich direkt auf den Graben richtet, impliziert der Verfasser eine Generalisierung der Menschen: Alle haben sie ihr Blut vergossen / Und zerschossen ruht heut Mann bei Mann. Kurt Tucholsky gibt diesen zwei Zeilen eine mehrfache Bedeutung. Die Bedeutungslosigkeit des Einzelnen im Krieg wird hervorgehoben und gleichzeitig verweist er auf die zahlreichen Opfer, die der Erste Weltkrieg forderte.

Diese Strophe fällt zudem durch ihre geänderten Schlusszeilen auf. Mit diesem geänderten Refrain wird nochmals verdeutlicht, dass gewöhnliche Bürger dem Krieg zu Opfer fallen und dabei weder Jung noch Alt verschont bleibt. Die Begriffe "Knabe" und "Massengrabe" sind gehobene, altväterliche Ausdrücke, die eine Hochschätzung der Toten des Autors verrät.
In der vorletzten Strophe, die mit einer Anapher eingeleitet wird, kommt zum ersten Mal ein diktierender Ton hervor. Der negative Appell verlangt das Unterlassen des nationalen Stolzes, während die folgenden Zeilen die Schuldigen deklariert. Der Refrain fordert Widerstand gegen Adel und Staat, womit Tucholsky gleichzeitig auf die Kriegsinteressierten hindeutet.
In der letzten Strophe werden die Forderungen dramatisiert, mit dem Ziel den Militarismus zu beenden und zu erinnern, dass dem Krieg nur Tote folgen und sonst keinen Sinn darin zu sehen ist. Im folgenden sechszeiligen Refrain erkennt man wieder das Motiv der dritten Strophe, indem Tucholsky zum Gedenken der Gegenseite und zum sich Versöhnen aufruft. Die Tatsache, dass er dabei von Vätern, Müttern und Söhnen spricht, zeigt die Verknüpfung zur ersten Strophe, diesmal jedoch mit einer positiven Aussage.

Mit dieser versöhnlichen Geste, am Schluss dieses Chanson, lässt Kurt Tucholsky die Möglichkeit des Überwindens eines Krieges wieder aufleben.

Literatur
Axel Maximilian Speith: Der Stellenwert des Chanson in Kurt Tucholskys lyrischem Gesamtwerk. Mainz 2005.

Dirk Walter: Interpretation: Tucholsky, Der Graben. Reclam. Stuttgart 2003. S. 5ff

Weblinks

 Totentänze in der Weltliteratur, deutsch

Einzelnachweise

Gedicht
Literatur (Deutsch)
Literatur (20. Jahrhundert)
Werk von Kurt Tucholsky
Kriegsliteratur
Erster Weltkrieg in Kunst und Literatur

Der Graben


Propanoplosaurus marylandicus es la única especie conocida del género extinto Propanoplosaurus de dinosaurio tireóforo nodosáurido que vivió a mediados del período Cretácico, durante el Aptiense, hace aproximadamente 112 millones de años, en Norteamérica. Fue hallado en la formación Patuxent de Maryland, Estados Unidos. Su holotipo es un molde natural y otro molde parcial de una cría.

Desde 1994 en adelante Ray Stanford descubrió una icnofauna en Maryland cerca de la frontera con Washington D. C.. Junto a las huellas de dinosaurios se hallaron las impresiones de un nodosáurido neonato.

La especie tipo Propanoplosaurus marylandicus fue nombrada y descrita por Stanford, David Weishampel y Valerie DeLeon en 2011. El nombre genérico combina el prefijo latino pro~ con el nombre del género de dinosaurio Panoplosaurus debido a que la nueva especie vivió mucho antes que ese nodosáurido ya descrito, al que se parecía bastante. El nombre de la especie se refiere a Maryland.

El holotipo, USNM 540686, fue hallado en la formación Patuxent, datando de finales del Aptiense. Consiste de las impresiones de la espalda y la cabeza junto con un molde natural de la caja torácica, algunas vértebras, la pata delantera, el fémur derecho y un pie derecho. El animal se muestra yaciendo sobre su espalda. Los autores rechazaron la posibilidad de que espécimen representara un pseudofósil o un embrión. El espécimen es el primer esqueleto de nodosáurido conocido de la costa este de los Estados Unidos de la cual antes sólo se conocía anteriormente un diente de nodosáurido denominado como Priconodon, y es el primer dinosaurio neonato encontrado en la región.

El ejemplar tiene una longitud preservada de trece centímetros. La longitud total del individuo fue estimada entre veinticuatro a veintiocho centímetros. Sólo el cráneo muestra osteodermos y los autores sugirieron que este era una fase de desarrollo común entre los nodosáuridos, junto con una larga sección media del hocico la cual se caracateriza por un patrón transversal único de las placas óseas, probablemente formado por los osteodermos triangulares del hueso maxilar. Propanoplosaurus fue asignado por sus descriptores a la familia Nodosauridae.

Referencias

Fósiles del Cretáceo
Dinosaurios del Cretácico
Dinosaurios de América del Norte
Ankylosauria

Propanoplosaurus marylandicus


Sciences et techniques

Astronomie
 La Chouette est une ancienne constellation située entre celles de l'Hydre et de la Balance, près de la queue de la première.
 L'amas de la Chouette, NGC 457, est un très jeune amas ouvert placé aujourd'hui dans la constellation de Cassiopée.
 La nébuleuse de la Chouette, M97, est une nébuleuse planétaire placée aujourd'hui dans la constellation de la Grande Ourse.

Biologie
 Diverses espèces de rapaces solitaires et nocturnes, de la famille des Strigidae, sont appelées chouette, notamment la Chouette à joues blanches (Sceloglaux albifacies), la Chouette à lignes noires (Strix nigrolineata), la Chouette à lunettes (Pulsatrix perspicillata), la Chouette à sourcils jaunes (Pulsatrix koeniswaldiana), la Chouette africaine (Strix woodfordii), la Chouette boréale ou Chouette de Tengalm (Aegolius funereus), la Chouette cendrée ou Chouette lapone (Strix nebulosa), la Chouette chevêche (Athene noctua), la Chouette Chevêchette (Glaucidium passerinum); la Chouette de Butler (Strix butleri), la Chouette de la Réunion (Mascarenotus grucheti), la Chouette de l'Himalaya (Strix nivicolum), la Chouette de l'Oural (Strix uralensis), la Chouette de Lowery (Xenoglaux loweryi), la Chouette des pagodes (Strix seloputo), la Chouette des terriers (Athene cunicularia), la Chouette dryade (Strix hylophila), la Chouette du Chaco (Strix chacoensis), la Chouette du Sichuan (Strix davidi), la Chouette effraie (Tyto alba), la Chouette elfe (Micrathene whitneyi), la Chouette épervière (Surnia ulula), la Chouette fasciée (Strix albitarsis), la Chouette fauve (Strix fulvescens), la Chouette harfang (Bubo scandiacus), la Chouette huhul (Strix huhula), la Chouette hulotte (Strix aluco), la Chouette leptogramme (Strix leptogrammica), la Chouette masquée (Strix rufipes), la Chouette mouchetée (Strix virgata), la Chouette ocellée (Strix ocellata), la Chouette-pêcheuse de Bouvier (Scotopelia bouvieri), la Chouette-pêcheuse de Pel (Scotopelia peli), la Chouette-pêcheuse rousse (Scotopelia ussheri), la Chouette rayée (Strix varia), la Chouette rayée du Mexique (Strix sartorii), la Chouette tachetée (Strix occidentalis)
 La Chouette (Pachypasa otus) est une espèce de papillons, de la famille des Lasiocampidae.
 La Salade de chouette (Veronica beccabunga) est une espèce de plantes vivaces des lieux humides, de la famille des Plantaginacées.
 Les singes-chouettes (Aotus) sont un genre de primates néotropiques nocturnes, le seul connu de la famille des Aotidae.

Sciences humaines et sociales

Héraldique
 Une chouette est un meuble représentant l'animal du même nom.

Histoire
 La Chouette (années 1970-années 1980) est une organisation secrète mise en place pour poursuivre la traque des criminels de guerre nazis après son abandon par Israël en 1960.

Linguistique
 Dans le langage familier :
 l'adjectif chouette est synonyme de sympathique (pour une personne), de bon, utile, pratique (pour un objet) ou d'heureux (pour un événement) pantonyme ;
 le nom chouette est utilisé en apposition de pantonymes comme machin, truc, bidule.
 En égyptologie, la chouette est un hiéroglyphe, noté G17 dans la liste de Gardiner.

Symbolique
 Dans la mythologie romaine, la chouette de Minerve est l'incarnation syncrétique de la déesse Minerve.
 Dans le monde occidental, elle reste le symbole de la connaissance, de la sagesse, de la perspicacité et de l'érudition.

Culture et société

Arts plastiques et monuments
 Chouette dans un intérieur est un tableau de Picasso, peint en 1946.
 La chouette de Dijon est une chouette sculptée à l'angle d'un contrefort d'une chapelle de l'église Notre-Dame de Dijon, à Dijon (Côte-d'Or, région Bourgogne-Franche-Comté, France).

Cinéma et télévision
 Chouette est le titre au Québec du film américain , réalisé par  et sorti en 2006.
 Chouette Toowam est une émission de télévision française pour la jeunesse, diffusée sur France 3 de  à .
 La Chouette Équipe est un film américain réalisé par Michael Ritchie, sorti en 1976.
 La Chouette et  est une série télévisée d'animation française, créée en 2014 par Alexandre So, Josselin Charier et Antoine Rodelet.
 La Chouette et le Pussycat est un film américain de Herbert Ross adapté de la pièce de , sorti en 1970.
 Le Cri de la chouette est un téléfilm français réalisé par Yves-André Hubert, adapté du roman d'Hervé Bazin Cri de la chouette.
 L'Héritage de la chouette est un documentaire français réalisé par Chris Marker, sorti en 1989.

Événements
 La Nuit de la chouette est un événement grand public visant à faire découvrir les rapace nocturnes, les menaces qu'ils subissent et les moyens de les sauvegarder ; il est organisé en France depuis 1995, en Belgique francophone depuis 2011 et au Luxembourg en 2019.

Gentilé
 Un chouette est un habitant  de Saint-Just-d'Avray, une commune du Rhône (région Auvergne-Rhône-Alpes, France).

Littérature et bande dessinée
 La Chouette aveugle est le roman le plus célèbre de l'écrivain iranien Sadegh Hedayat, publié en 1936.
 La Chouette de classe est une série de bande dessinée créée en 1971 par Marie-Marthe Collin, publiée pendant dix ans par Bayard Presse.
 Cri de la chouette est un roman d'Hervé Bazin, publié en 1972.
 Le Jour de la chouette est un roman policier de Leonardo Sciascia, publié en 1961.
 La plage, c'est chouette est une nouvelle écrite par René Goscinny et illustrée par Jean-Jacques Sempé, publiée en 1962 dans le recueil Les Vacances du Petit Nicolas.
 Sur la trace de la chouette d'or est un livre d'énigmes écrit par Max Valentin, publié en 1993.

Toponyme
 Les monts de la Chouette sont une chaîne de montagnes dans les Sudètes centrales (sud-ouest de la Pologne).
 La rue de la Chouette est une voie du centre historique de Dijon (Côte-d'Or, région Bourgogne-Franche-Comté, France).

Homonymie de toponyme

Chouette (homonymie)


Agathis borneensis es una especie de conífera perteneciente a la familia Araucariaceae. Se encuentra en las Islas Molucas y Sulawesi. La especie más parecida es Agathis dammara.

Descripción
Son árboles que alcanzan un tamaño de hasta 50 m de alto y 3,5 m de diámetro. Los árboles maduros tienen un largo fuste limpio de 20-30 m con una copa ancha emergente de grandes ramas  rígidas. La corteza de color variable: gris, marrón claro, al negro, con hoyuelos de escamas finas o rugosas, exfoliantes, por lo tanto, con pocas epífitas. Las hojas gruesas, coriáceas, de color verde claro, muy variables. Polen conos axilares, solitarios. Conos de semillas, solitarios en pedúnculos gruesos, elipsoidales a globosos, de 10-13 cm de diámetro en la madurez, resinosos, en la maduración verde a marrón.

Taxonomía
Agathis borneensis fue descrita por Otto Warburg y publicado en Monsunia, Beiträge zur Kenntniss der Vegetation des Süd- und Ostasiatischen Monsungebietes 1: 184, en el año 1900.
Sinonimia

 Agathis beccarii Warb.
 Agathis beckingii Meijer Drees
 Agathis latifolia Meijer Drees
 Agathis macrostachys Warb.
 Agathis rhomboidalis Warb.

Referencias

Enlaces externos

borneensis
Flora de Malesia
Plantas descritas en 1900
Plantas descritas por Warburg

Agathis borneensis


Juan Enrique "Harry" Hayes (20. januar 1891 - 25. juli 1976) var en argentinsk fodboldspiller (angriber).

Hayes tilbragte hele sin karriere, fra 1907 til 1926, hos Rosario Central i sin fødeby. Han spillede også 21 landskampe for Argentina, hvori han scorede otte mål. Han var med argentinerne med til at vinde guld ved de sydamerikanske mesterskaber i 1916.

Titler
Sydamerikanske mesterskab
 1916 med Argentina

Referencer

Eksterne henvisninger

Fodboldspillere fra Argentina
Fodboldspillere fra Rosario Central
Personer fra Rosario

Juan Enrique Hayes


In Gay Madrid é um filme de comédia musical americano pré-código, dirigido por Robert Z. Leonard, estrelado por Ramón Novarro e Dorothy Jordan, e lançado pela Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer.

Elenco
 Ramon Navarro como Ricardo
 Dorothy Jordan como Carmina Rivas
 Lottice Howell como Goytia
 Claude King como Marques de Castelar
 Eugenie Besserer como Dona Generosa
 William V. Mong como Rivas
 Beryl Mercer como Dona Concha
 Nanci Price como Jacinta
 Herbert Clark como Otávio
 David Scott como Ernesto
 George Chandler como Enrique
 Bruce Coleman como Corpulento
 Nicholas Caruso como Carlos

Filmes dos Estados Unidos de 1930
Filmes de comédia musical dos Estados Unidos
Filmes em língua inglesa

In Gay Madrid