Der Internationale Residualmechanismus für die Ad-hoc-Strafgerichtshöfe (, IRMCT; bis Mai 2018 auch Mechanism for International Criminal Tribunals, MICT) ist ein internationales Strafgericht. Er wurde am 22. Dezember 2010 durch Resolution 1966 des UN-Sicherheitsrats geschaffen und ist Rechtsnachfolger des Internationalen Strafgerichtshofs für das ehemalige Jugoslawien (IStGHJ) sowie des Internationalen Strafgerichtshofs für Ruanda (IStGHR).

Der IRMCT soll im Wesentlichen die Tätigkeit dieser 1993 bzw. 1994 gegründeten Ad-hoc-Strafgerichtshöfe zum Abschluss bringen (sogenannte completion strategy). Dementsprechend verfügt er über die materiellen, territorialen, zeitlichen und personenbezogenen Zuständigkeiten sowie die Rechte, die Pflichten und die wesentlichen Funktionen seiner beiden Vorgängerinstitutionen.

Organisatorisch ist der IRMCT ein Nebenorgan des UN-Sicherheitsrats. Er nahm am 1. Juli 2012 seine Tätigkeit auf und hat seinen Sitz im niederländischen Den Haag sowie im tansanischen Arusha.

Zuständigkeit und Rechtsgrundlagen
Die Rechtsgrundlagen des IRMCT sind neben der Resolution 1966 das zusammen mit der Resolution beschlossene Statut sowie die am 8. Juni 2012 durch die Richter angenommene Verfahrens- und Beweisordnung. Eine Strafverfolgung und Verurteilung durch den IRMCT ist entsprechend seinem Statut nur möglich für Personen, die bereits, gegebenenfalls in Abwesenheit, vor einem der beiden Ad-hoc-Strafgerichtshöfe angeklagt wurden. Ausgenommen davon sind Fälle von Falschaussage oder Strafvereitelung vor dem IRMCT oder einer seiner beiden Vorgängereinrichtungen, für die eine Anklage vor dem IRMCT möglich ist. Als einzige mögliche Strafe bei einer Verurteilung durch den IRMCT ist die Freiheitsstrafe vorgesehen. Für die Strafbemessung soll dabei neben der Schwere der Taten der Angeklagten und den individuellen Umständen ihrer jeweiligen Fälle auch die bisherige Rechtsprechung des IStGHJ und des IStGHR berücksichtigt werden.

Weitere wichtige Aufgaben des IRMCT sind, wie bei den bisherigen Ad-hoc-Strafgerichtshöfen, die Überwachung von Verfahren, die in die Zuständigkeit der nationalen Gerichtsbarkeit der jeweiligen Länder übertragen wurden beziehungsweise werden, sowie die Unterstützung der nationalen Strafverfolgungsbehörden bei Verfahren, die in Zusammenhang mit den Verfahren des IStGHJ und des IStGHR stehen. Darüber hinaus obliegen dem IRMCT unter anderem Aktivitäten zum Schutz von Zeugen und Opfern aus IStGHJ- und IStGHR-Verfahren, die Überprüfung von Verurteilungen des IStGHR, des IStGHJ und des IRMCT beim Vorliegen neuer Fakten, die Überwachung des Vollzugs der durch die drei Institutionen verhängten Urteile sowie die Verwaltung ihrer Archive.

Die beiden bisher bestehenden Ad-hoc-Gerichtshöfe haben bis Ende 2014 ihre Aktivitäten weitestgehend eingestellt sowie ihre Zuständigkeiten und noch laufenden Verfahren an den IRMCT übertragen. Für den Bestand des IRMCT ist zunächst eine Laufzeit von vier Jahren ab Gründung vorgesehen. Eine Verlängerung des Mandats ist danach möglich auf der Basis von Überprüfungen, die ab 2016 alle zwei Jahre stattfinden sollen.

Organisation und Arbeitsweise

Der IRMCT ist ein Nebenorgan des Sicherheitsrats der Vereinten Nationen und gliedert sich in zwei Abteilungen, von denen jede die Arbeit von einem der beiden Ad-hoc-Gerichtshöfe weiterführt. Nach den Vorgaben der Resolution 1966 ist die in Nachfolge des IStGHR bestehende und in Arusha ansässige Abteilung seit Juli 2012 tätig, während die für die Weiterführung der Aktivitäten des IStGHJ zuständige Abteilung mit Sitz in Den Haag Anfang Juli 2013 ihre Arbeit aufnahm. Es besteht jeweils eine eigene Verfahrenskammer für jede Abteilung sowie eine gemeinsame Berufungskammer für beide Abteilungen. Auch die Kanzlei (Geschäftsstelle) fungiert als gemeinsame Einrichtung beider Abteilungen.

Am IRMCT sind 25 Richter tätig, von denen nicht mehr als zwei zum gleichen Zeitpunkt aus dem gleichen Land kommen dürfen. Bei der Auswahl werden insbesondere Personen berücksichtigt, die bereits über Erfahrungen als Richter an einer der beiden Vorgängerinstitutionen verfügen. Entsprechend dem Statut sollen die Richter so weit wie möglich nicht am Sitz der jeweiligen Abteilung, sondern in ihrem Heimatland tätig sein. Für ihre Arbeit und die ihnen zustehende Aufwandsentschädigung gelten dementsprechend die Regeln für Ad-hoc-Richter am Internationalen Gerichtshof (IGH), für die Tätigkeit des durch den UN-Generalsekretär ernannten Präsidenten finden die für reguläre IGH-Richter geltenden Bestimmungen Anwendung.

Die Amtszeit der durch die Generalversammlung der Vereinten Nationen gewählten Richter beträgt vier Jahre. Durch den UN-Generalsekretär ist nach Konsultationen mit den Präsidenten des Sicherheitsrats und der Generalversammlung eine Ernennung für eine weitere Amtszeit möglich. Die Zuordnung der Richter zu den einzelnen Kammern und Verfahren erfolgt durch den Präsidenten des IRMCT, der selbst der Berufungskammer angehören soll. Der Präsident des IRMCT hat darüber hinaus die Entscheidungsbefugnis über Anträge auf Begnadigung oder Haftaussetzung.

Die Wahl der ersten Richter des IRMCT erfolgte am 20. Dezember 2011. Zum ersten Präsidenten wurde der amerikanische Jurist Theodor Meron ernannt. Als für beide Abteilungen zuständiger Chefankläger fungierte von 2012 bis 2016 Hassan Bubacar Jallow aus Gambia, der zuvor in gleicher Funktion am Internationalen Strafgerichtshof für Ruanda tätig war. Ihm folgte im Februar 2016 der belgische Jurist Serge Brammertz, der vorher als Chefankläger des IStGHJ fungiert hatte. Kanzler und damit Leiter der Geschäftsstelle und der Verwaltung des IRMCT ist seit Juli 2020 der Gambier Abubacarr Tambadou.

Anmerkungen

Literatur
 Thomas Wayde Pittman: The Road to the Establishment of the International Residual Mechanism for Criminal Tribunals. From Completion to Continuation. In: Journal of International Criminal Justice. 9(4)/2011. Oxford University Press, S. 797–817,
 Brigitte Benoit Landale, Huw Llewellyn: The International Residual Mechanism for Criminal Tribunals: The Beginning of the End for the ICTY and ICTR. In: International Organizations Law Review. 8(2)/2011. Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, S. 349–365,
 Guido Acquaviva: 'Best Before Date Shown': Residual Mechanisms at the ICTY. In: Albertus Henricus Joannes Swart, Bert Swart, Alexander Zahar, Göran Sluiter: The Legacy of the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia. Oxford University Press, Oxford 2011, ISBN 978-0-19-957341-7, S. 507–536.
 Residual mechanism. In: Gerald Gahima: Transitional Justice in Rwanda: Accountability for Atrocity. Routledge, Abingdon/ New York 2013, ISBN 978-0-415-52278-6, S. 120–122.

Weblinks
 Offizielle Website (englisch und französisch)
 Entscheidungssammlung des IRMCT im Legal Tools Projekt

Internationales Gericht
Organisation der Vereinten Nationen
UN in Afrika
Völkermord in Ruanda
Kriegsverbrechen in den Jugoslawienkriegen
Gericht (Den Haag)
Organisation (Tansania)
Arusha
Gegründet 2010

Internationaler Residualmechanismus für die Ad-hoc-Strafgerichtshöfe


لويس والاس  ويعرف أيضا باسم لو والاس (1827 – 1905) جندي ومحامي ودبلوماسي أمريكي وكاتب قصص تاريخية مثل بن هور.

ولد والاس في 10 ابريل 1827 في بروكفيل في إنديانا وكان ابن حاكمها ديفد والاس، وترك المدرسة في سن 16 سنة، وأصبح ناشطا في مكتب كتاب المحافظة، وكان يقرا الأدب في وقت فراغه ويدرس القانون في مكتب أبيه.

ذهب ليتطوع في الحرب المكسيكية (1846 –48) وفي عام 1849 كان محاميا في إنديانابوليس حيث تم وضعه في سجل المحاماة. وفي الحرب الأهلية حارب مع الاتحاد برتبة لواء للمتطوعين ورأس محكمة التحقيق التي حققت في سلوك الجنرال الاتحادي د س بيول وأدانت الجنرال الجنوبي هنري ويرز آمر سجن أندرسونفيل في جورجيا وكان ضمن المحكمة التي حاكمت المتهمين في اغتيال أبراهام لينكون.

في عام 1865 تقاعد من الجيش وعاد للقانون حيث أخذ منصبين بتعيين رئاسي ما حاكم مقاطعة نيومكسيكو (1878 –81) ثم وزير مفوض إلى تركيا (1881 – 85) حيث منحه السلطان وساما، وعاد لإنديانا حيث مات يوم 15 فبراير 1905 في كروفوردفيل.

رغم أنه كتب الشعر والمسرحيات إلا أن شهرته أتت من الروايات التاريخية ومن هذه الروايات:
 الإله الجميل (1873) وتحكي عن احتلال المكسيك.
 أمير الهند (1893) عن اليهودي التائه والإمبراطورية البيزنطية.
 بن هور: حكاية عن المسيح (1880) وهي تحكي عن مجيء المسيح وترجمت للغات عدة وحولت لمسرحية وفيلم عام 1927 وأعيد إنتاجه كفيلم ضخم عام 1959 من بطولة تشارلتون هيستن.
 تم نشر سيرة ذاتية له بعد مماته عام 1906.

نشأته وتعليمه
وُلد لويس «لو» والاس في 10 أبريل 1827، في بروكفيل، إنديانا. كان الثاني بين أربعة أبناء لإستير فرنش والاس (لقبها قبل الزواج تست) وديفيد والاس. تخرج والد لو من الأكاديمية العسكرية الأمريكية في ويست بوينت، نيويورك، وغادر الجيش في عام 1822 وانتقل إلى بروكفيل، حيث زاول المحاماة ودخل السياسة في إنديانا. خدم ديفيد في الجمعية العامة لإنديانا وأصبح بعد ذلك نائب حاكم الولاية، ثم حاكم الولاية، وعضوًا في الكونغرس. كان جد لو والاس من ناحية أمه قاضي محكمة الدائرة وعضو الكونغرس جون تست.

في عام 1832، انتقلت العائلة إلى كوفينغتون، إنديانا، حيث توفيت والدة لو بمرض السل في 14 يوليو 1834. وفي ديسمبر 1836، تزوج ديفيد بزيريلدا غراي ساندرز والاس البالغة من العمر تسعة عشر عامًا، والتي أصبحت فيما بعد داعية لحق النساء في التصويت وعضوًا في حركة الاعتدال. في عام 1837، بعد انتخاب ديفيد حاكمًا لولاية إنديانا، انتقلت العائلة إلى إنديانابوليس.

بدأ ليو تعليمه الرسمي بعمر السادسة في مدرسة عامة في كوفينغتون، لكنه كان يفضل الهواء الطلق. كان والاس يتمتع بموهبة في الرسم ويحب القراءة، لكنه كان يعاني من مشكلة في الانضباط ضمن المدرسة. في عام 1836، في سن التاسعة، انضم لو إلى شقيقه الأكبر في كروفوردسفيل، إنديانا، حيث ارتاد قسم المدرسة الإعدادية في كلية واباش لفترة وجيزة، لكنه سرعان ما انتقل إلى مدرسة أخرى أكثر ملاءمة لعمره. في عام 1840، عندما كان والاس في الثالثة عشرة من عمره، أرسله والده إلى أكاديمية خاصة في سنترفيل، إنديانا، حيث شجع معلمه ميل لو الطبيعي للكتابة. وعاد والاس إلى إنديانابوليس في العام التالي.

بدأ لو البالغ من العمر ستة عشر عامًا بالعمل لكسب أجره الخاص في عام 1842، بعد أن رفض والده دفع المزيد من المال لأجل التعليم. وجد والاس وظيفة نسخ السجلات في مكتب كاتب مقاطعة ماريون وعاش في سكن بإنديانابوليس. وانضم أيضًا إلى بنادق ماريون، وهي وحدة ميليشيا محلية، وبدأ بكتابة روايته الأولى، الإله الجميل، لكنها لم تنشر حتى عام 1873. وقال والاس في سيرته الذاتية إنه لم يكن عضوًا في أي دين منظم، لكنه يؤمن «بالمفهوم المسيحي عن الإله».

بحلول عام 1846، في بداية الحرب المكسيكية الأمريكية، كان والاس البالغ من العمر تسعة عشر عامًا يدرس القانون في مكتب والده القانوني، لكنه تركه بهدف إنشاء مكتب تجنيد لمتطوعي ماريون في إنديانا بوليس. عُيّن برتبة ملازم ثانٍ، وفي 19 يونيو 1846، اقتيد إلى الخدمة العسكرية مع متطوعي ماريون (المعروف أيضًا باسم السرية إتش، مشاة المتطوعين الأولى في إنديانا). رُقي والاس إلى منصب مساعد فوج ورتبة ملازم أول في أثناء خدمته في جيش زكاري تايلور، لكن والاس لم يشارك في القتال بشكل شخصي. ثم أخرج والاس من الخدمة التطوعية في 15 يونيو 1847، وعاد إلى إنديانا، حيث كان ينوي مزاولة المحاماة. بعد الحرب، قام والاس وويليام ب. غرير بإدارة صحيفة تابعة لحزب الأرض الحرة، اسمها ذا فري سويل بانر، في إنديانابوليس.

الزواج والأسرة
في عام 1848 التقى والاس بسوزان أرنولد إلستون في منزل هنري سميث لين في كروفوردسفيل، الذي كان القائد السابق لوالاس خلال الحرب المكسيكية. وكانت سوزان ابنة الرائد إسحاق كومبتون إلستون، وهو تاجر ثري من كروفوردسفيل، وماريا أكين إلستون، التي كانت عائلتها من الكويكرز من شمال ولاية نيويورك. قبلت سوزان عرض زواج والاس عام 1849، وتزوجا في كروفوردسفيل في 6 مايو 1852. كان لوالاس ابن وحيد هو هنري لين والاس، الذي ولد في 17 فبراير 1853.

مشواره المهني المبكر في المحاماة والجيش
دخل والاس نقابة المحامين في فبراير 1849، وانتقل من إنديانا بوليس إلى كوفينغتون، إنديانا، حيث أسس مكتبًا للمحاماة. وفي عام 1851، انتُخب والاس المدعي العام للدائرة الانتخابية الأولى في إنديانا، لكنه استقال في عام 1853 ونقل عائلته إلى كروفوردسفيل، في مقاطعة مونتغومري، إنديانا. استمر والاس في ممارسة المحاماة وانتُخب بصفته ديمقراطيًا في مجلس الشيوخ في إنديانا عام 1856 مدة عامين. منذ عام 1849 حتى عام 1853، كان مكتبه في مبنى كاتب مقاطعة فاونتن.

في أثناء عيشه في كروفوردسفيل، نظم والاس ميليشيات الحرس المستقلة لكروفوردسفيل، التي سُميت فيما بعد بحرس مونتغومري. خلال شتاء 1859-1860، بعد القراءة عن وحدات النخبة في الجيش الفرنسي في الجزائر، تبنى والاس زي الزواف ونظام تدريبهم للمجموعة. وشكل حراس مونتغومري في وقت لاحق أساس قيادته العسكرية الأولى، مشاة المتطوعين الحادية عشرة في إنديانا، خلال الحرب الأهلية الأمريكية.

خدمته خلال الحرب الأهلية
أصبح والاس –الذي كان مؤيدًا بشدة للاتحاد- عضوًا في الحزب الجمهوري، وبدأ حياته العسكرية بعد وقت قصير من الهجوم الكونفدرالي على حصن سمتر بكارولاينا الجنوبية، في 12 أبريل عام 1861. طلب حاكم إنديانا الجمهوري أوليفر ب. مورتون من والاس المساعدة في تجنيد متطوعي إنديانا في جيش الاتحاد. ووافق والاس، الذي سعى أيضًا إلى قيادة عسكرية، على أن يصبح رئيس إدارة الجيش للولاية بشرط أن يُعطى قيادة فوج من اختياره. اكتملت حصة إنديانا من ست وحدات أفواج خلال أسبوع، وتولى والاس قيادة فوج مشاة المتطوعين الحادي عشر في إنديانا، الذي ضُم إلى جيش الاتحاد في 25 أبريل 1861. وتلقى والاس تفويضه الرسمي كعقيد في جيش الاتحاد في اليوم التالي.

في 5 يونيو 1861، ذهب والاس مع فوج إنديانا الحادي عشر إلى كمبرلاند، ماريلاند، وفي 12 يونيو، ربح الفوج معركة صغيرة في رومني، فيرجينيا، (في فيرجينيا الغربية حاليًا). وعززت هذه المعركة الروح المعنوية لقوات الاتحاد وأدت إلى الإخلاء الكونفدرالي من هاربرز فيري في 18 يونيو. وفي 3 سبتمبر 1861، رُقي والاس إلى رتبة عميد في جيش المتطوعين الأمريكي وأعطي قيادة لواء.

روابط خارجية

مراجع

أشخاص مرتبطون باغتيال أبراهام لينكون
أشخاص من إنديانا في الحرب الأمريكية المكسيكية
أشخاص من إنديانا في الحرب الأهلية الأمريكية
أشخاص من إنديانا في الحرب المكسيكية الأمريكية
أشخاص من كروفوردسفيل (إنديانا)
أشخاص من كوفينغتون
أعضاء مجلس شيوخ ولاية إنديانا
أفراد الجيش الأمريكي في الحرب الأمريكية المكسيكية
أفراد عسكريون أمريكيون في الحرب الأمريكية المكسيكية
أفراد عسكريون أمريكيون في الحرب المكسيكية الأمريكية
أفراد عسكريون من إنديانا
أمريكيون من أصل إسكتلندي
ثقافة شعبية
جمهوريون من ولاية إنديانا
جمهوريون من ولاية نيومكسيكو
جنرالات جيش الاتحاد
حكام إقليم نيومكسيكو
دبلوماسيون أمريكيون في القرن 19
روائيون أمريكيون
روائيون أمريكيون في القرن 19
روائيون تاريخيون أمريكيون
روائيون مسيحيون
روائيون من إنديانا
سفراء الولايات المتحدة لدى الدولة العثمانية
إقليم نيومكسيكو في عقد 1870
إقليم نيومكسيكو في عقد 1880
كتاب أمريكيون في القرن 20
كتاب خيال تاريخي تقع أحداثه في التاريخ القديم
كتاب سيرة ذاتية أمريكيون
كتاب غير روائيين أمريكيون في القرن 20
كتاب غير روائيين ذكور أمريكيون
كتاب من إنديانا
كتاب وكاتبات أمريكيون
كتاب وكاتبات أمريكيون في القرن 20
محامون من ولاية إنديانا
مدفونون في إنديانا
مسيحيو القرن 19
مسيحيون أمريكيون
مواليد 1827
وفيات 1905
وفيات بسبب التهاب المعدة
وفيات في كروفوردسفيل (إنديانا)

لو والاس


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Antonio Caballero y Fernández de Rodas (Madrid, 1816-Madrid, 1876) fue un militar y político español.

Biografía
Uno de los primeros frentes en los que interviene es la Primera Guerra Carlista, donde ya despertó el interés de sus superiores. En 1854 formó parte de la Vicalvarada y se distinguió por pertenecer a la Unión Liberal. En tiempos de Leopoldo O'Donnell fue ascendido a brigadier e intervino en la campaña de Marruecos (1859-1860). En 1861 puso fin a la insurrección de Loja. Tras intervenir en la guerra de Marruecos vuelve a Madrid y tiene una pelea con Nicolás María Rivero que terminaría en duelo. Esta circunstancia no le favoreció en absoluto. Acabó siendo exiliado a las islas Canarias, donde también enviaron al general Francisco Serrano, entre otros.

La Gloriosa
Con el duque de la Torre y otros generales desterrados a las islas Canarias regresó a la península en septiembre de 1868 para incorporarse a revolución contra Isabel II.

Fue uno de los firmantes del Manifiesto de Cádiz en septiembre de 1868 y participó en la batalla de Alcolea, en la que fue uno de sus más importantes actores. Al frente de una división contribuyó al triunfo de las tropas sublevadas. Fue ascendido por sus méritos a teniente general.

Nombrado director general de Infantería, en julio de 1869 juró el cargo de capitán general de Cuba, donde poco antes había estallado la primera insurrección independentista. Viajó a Cuba junto con el nuevo intendente, José Emilio de Santos, con el mandato de pacificar la isla y acabar con la corrupción en la administración pero solo tardó un año en regresar a España. En 1872 fue elegido senador por las provincias de Almería y Córdoba, optando por la representación de la primera.

En 1873 participó en el intento fallido de golpe de Estado del 23 de abril junto a los generales Serrano y Topete con el objeto de impedir la proclamación de la República federal, el fracaso del movimiento motivó que se diese a la fuga disfrazado pero fue capturado en Torrelodones, aunque gracias a un salvoconducto de Estanislao Figueras recuperó la libertad.

Referencias

Enlaces externos
 Biografía 1
 Biografía 2

Capitanes generales de Cuba
Generales de España del siglo XIX
Militares de la Primera Guerra Carlista leales a Isabel II
Militares de Madrid
Caballeros grandes cruces de la Orden de Isabel la Católica
Comendadores de número de la Orden de Carlos III
Caballeros de la Orden de Malta
Grandes oficiales de la Orden de Leopoldo
Grandes oficiales de la Legión de Honor
Comendadores de la Orden de Nuestra Señora de la Concepción de Villaviciosa
Comendadores de la Orden de Cristo
Comendadores de la Orden de San Gregorio Magno
Caballeros de segunda clase de la Orden imperial de la Corona de Hierro
Comendadores de la Real Orden de San Fernando y el Mérito
Condecorados con la Cruz de Comendador de la Orden imperial de Leopoldo
Caballeros grandes cruces de la Orden del Mérito bajo el título de San Luis
Nacidos en Madrid
Senadores de España del Sexenio Democrático
Ministros de Asuntos Exteriores de España

Antonio Caballero y Fernández de Rodas


A regurgitação tricúspide, também chamada de insuficiência tricúspide, é uma condição relativamente comum que pode resultar de anormalidades estruturais de qualquer parte do aparelho valvar tricúspide. Isso pode envolver modificações nos folhetos da válvula, no anel, nas cordas tendíneas ou nos músculos papilares.

A regurgitação tricúspide é, comparativamente, uma anomalia comum. As modificações estruturais de qualquer ou de todo o aparelho valvular tricúspide podem causar o desenvolvimento de regurgitação tricúspide.

Anatomia
O aparelho da válvula atrioventricular direita, ou válvula tricúspide, é constituído pelos seguintes componentes

 Três folhetos valvulares: Pode ter apenas dois ou até seis folhetos.
 Annulus
 Cordas tendíneas de suporte
 Músculos papilares: De 2 a 9. Imediatamente antes do início da sístole do ventrículo direito, o músculo papilar contrai-se para aumentar a tensão nas cordas tendíneas, de modo a que as 3 cúspides da válvula se coaptam e, assim, evitam a regurgitação através da válvula tricúspide.

O sistema de condução e a estrutura de suporte do esqueleto cardíaco fibroelástico coordenam as acções da válvula tricúspide. A válvula tricúspide está localizada entre a aurícula direita e o ventrículo direito. Tem uma área valvular de 4 a 6 cm2.

As variantes fisiopatológicas da válvula tricúspide incluem:

 Anomalia de Ebstein
 Atresia tricúspide
 Estenose tricúspide congénita
 Fenda congénita do folheto anterior

Etiologia
As lesões na regurgitação tricúspide podem ser classificadas como primárias, em que as anomalias intrínsecas no aparelho valvular tricúspide são responsáveis pelo problema, ou secundárias, em que a dilatação do ventrículo direito causa regurgitação tricúspide. As perturbações secundárias, como a dilatação do anel tricúspide e/ou o atrelamento dos folhetos no contexto de sobrecarga de pressão e/ou volume do ventrículo direito, são as principais responsáveis pela regurgitação tricúspide, em comparação com as perturbações primárias que envolvem o aparelho valvular.

Regurgitação Tricúspide Secundária
Nos adultos, a regurgitação tricúspide é mais frequentemente secundária, com prováveis folhetos e cordas anatómicos normais. A dilatação da aurícula direita, do ventrículo direito, juntamente com a dilatação do anel tricúspide, e a amarração do folheto da válvula tricúspide são algumas das causas da regurgitação tricúspide secundária. Esta pode resultar de condições que afectam o ventrículo direito ou pode ser devida a um aumento da pressão sistólica do ventrículo direito, frequentemente com hipertensão pulmonar. As válvulas são anatomicamente normais, mas devido ao aumento da cavidade do ventrículo direito e à dilatação do anel, as cúspides não conseguem coaptar-se adequadamente.

As condições que afectam o ventrículo direito e que eventualmente causam regurgitação tricúspide incluem cardiomiopatias e cardiopatias isquémicas que envolvem o miocárdio do ventrículo direito e os músculos papilares tricúspides.

As condições que induzem hipertensão pulmonar e dilatação secundária do VD são as seguintes

 Insuficiência cardíaca do lado esquerdo
 Estenose ou regurgitação mitral
 Doença pulmonar primária: Cor pulmonale, embolia pulmonar, hipertensão pulmonar de qualquer causa
 Estenose da válvula pulmonar ou da artéria pulmonar
 Hipertiroidismo

Regurgitação Tricúspide Primária
Em adolescentes e adultos jovens, a causa da regurgitação tricúspide é geralmente congénita, mas em adultos são raras as condições que afectam directamente o aparelho valvular tricúspide.

As causas de insuficiência tricúspide primária incluem:

 Lesão directa da válvula devido à colocação ou remoção de um pacemaker permanente ou de um cardioversor-desfibrilhador implantável ou biópsia endomiocárdica em receptores de transplante cardíaco
 Trauma na parede torácica ou lesão por desaceleração
 Endocardite infecciosa: O uso de drogas intravenosas, neoplasias, alcoolismo, queimaduras extensas, cateteres de demora infectados e deficiência imunitária causam infecção da válvula. O abcesso anular é comum.
 A anomalia de Ebstein é a forma mais comum de doença congénita que afecta a válvula tricúspide: Os folhetos posterior e septal da válvula tricúspide são deslocados apicalmente no ventrículo direito, resultando na sua atrialização.
 A doença valvular reumática é a causa mais comum de regurgitação tricúspide pura devido à lesão dos folhetos tricúspides. As válvulas sofrem espessamento fibroso sem fusão comissural, cordas fundidas ou depósitos calcários.
 Síndrome carcinoide: Pode ocorrer regurgitação tricúspide isolada. Os folhetos da válvula aderem à parede do ventrículo direito devido às placas fibrosas nos folhetos da válvula e no endocárdio. Assim, as cúspides tricúspides não se coaptam adequadamente durante a sístole, causando regurgitação tricúspide.
 Degenerescência mixomatosa associada ao prolapso da válvula tricúspide, que ocorre em até 40% dos pacientes com prolapso da válvula mitral
 Doença do tecido conjuntivo, por exemplo, síndrome de Marfan, Ehlers-Danlos: Observa-se regurgitação tricúspide pura. Pode dever-se a um anel tricúspide ligeiramente dilatado sem folhetos flácidos e a folhetos da válvula tricúspide flácidos.
 Endocardite marântica no lúpus eritematoso sistémico ou na artrite reumatóide
 Doença induzida por fármacos: Em alguns estudos, existe uma associação entre a regurgitação tricúspide e o uso combinado dos fármacos anorexígenos fenfluramina e fentermina. O agonista dopaminérgico pergolida pode induzir regurgitação tricúspide.

Epidemiologia
A incidência de regurgitação tricúspide nos Estados Unidos é de 0,9%. Não se registam diferenças de género ou raça na incidência.

A regurgitação tricúspide apresenta-se em diferentes grupos etários, dependendo da sua etiologia. A anomalia de Ebstein pode ser diagnosticada à nascença e durante a primeira infância. A doença valvular reumática é a forma mais comum de regurgitação tricúspide em doentes com mais de 15 anos.

Fisiopatologia
As anomalias estruturais primárias do aparelho valvular tricúspide ou as anomalias secundárias devidas a disfunção ou dilatação do miocárdio são responsáveis pela incompetência estrutural da válvula tricúspide. A regurgitação tricúspide é definida pelo refluxo de sangue do ventrículo direito para a aurícula direita durante a sístole. Nos casos ligeiros a moderados de regurgitação tricúspide, não se observam consequências hemodinâmicas importantes devido à natureza comparativamente complacente da aurícula direita. No entanto, em casos graves, desenvolve-se uma sobrecarga de volume do ventrículo direito que acaba por resultar em insuficiência cardíaca congestiva do lado direito, com edema periférico, ascite e congestão hepática.

A gravidade da regurgitação tricúspide aumenta durante a inspiração. O ventrículo direito alarga-se durante a inspiração, o que aumenta ainda mais o anel da válvula tricúspide, aumentando assim a área efectiva do orifício regurgitante.

História e exame físico

Sintomas
Os doentes apresentam características clínicas de insuficiência cardíaca do lado direito. Estas podem ser hepatoesplenomegalia dolorosa, ascite e edema periférico. Em casos graves, notam-se pulsações no pescoço das veias jugulares distendidas e pulsáteis. Pode ser observada intolerância ao exercício físico. Podem ser observadas características clínicas da doença subjacente que causa a regurgitação tricúspide. Por exemplo, a hipertensão pulmonar pode causar sintomas como fraqueza, falta de ar e intolerância ao exercício ou os doentes com endocardite infecciosa, uma causa comum de regurgitação tricúspide, podem apresentar episódios febris.

Exame físico

 A distensão venosa jugular com uma onda V proeminente reflecte a elevação da pressão na aurícula direita. O aumento do retorno venoso causa distensão venosa jugular, sendo mais proeminente com a inspiração (sinal de Kussmaul).
 O galope em S3 está associado a um ventrículo direito extremamente dilatado.
 Sopro pansistólico: É agudo e mais alto no quarto espaço intercostal na região paraesternal. A intensidade do sopro aumenta durante a inspiração, exercício, elevação das pernas (devido ao aumento do retorno venoso) e diminui na posição de pé e durante a manobra de Valsalva.
 Ascite;
 Caquexia e icterícia;
 Fibrilhação auricular;
 Edema periférico;
 Heave do ventrículo direito devido à dilatação do ventrículo direito e galope S4 que aumenta com a inspiração.

Avaliação e diagnóstico
A principal modalidade utilizada para o diagnóstico e avaliação da regurgitação tricúspide é o ecodopplercardiograma. Ele é usado para contemplar com precisão o fluxo sanguíneo regurgitante e sua velocidade de fluxo e medir com precisão a pressão sistólica no ventrículo direito

Achados ecocardiográficos
O movimento da válvula tricúspide pode ser normal ou anormal. As anormalidades valvares primárias características incluem anomalia de Ebstein, prolapso do folheto, folheto em flocos, endocardite, cardiopatia carcinoide e doença valvar reumática.

O átrio direito e o ventrículo direito dilatados na presença de regurgitação tricúspide moderada a grave

O anel tricúspide está frequentemente dilatado.

O movimento paradoxal do septo interventricular que reflecte o aumento do volume no ventrículo direito (sobrecarga diastólica)

A função do ventrículo direito (VD) que pode ser hiperdinâmica, normal ou reduzida, reflectindo assim a causa subjacente à regurgitação tricúspide e o grau de compensação do VD.

Outras anormalidades podem ser observadas quando a regurgitação tricúspide é devida à hipertensão pulmonar secundária a uma anormalidade cardíaca do lado esquerdo.

A velocidade de pico do fluxo regurgitante através da válvula tricúspide é medida, o que ajuda a estimar a pressão sistólica do ventrículo direito e da artéria pulmonar. A equação de Bernoulli modificada é utilizada para a converter num gradiente de pressão, após o que o gradiente é adicionado a uma estimativa da pressão na aurícula direita. Assim, a extensão da hipertensão pulmonar pode ser estimada.

Exames adicionais
Radiografia de tórax: São observados os seguintes achados:

 Cardiomegalia acentuada: na regurgitação tricúspide grave
 Derrames pleurais e ascite com elevação do diafragma
 Hipertensão arterial e venosa pulmonar comum

Exames laboratoriais: Testes de função hepática anormais, pode ser observada hiperbilirrubinemia secundária a congestão hepática.

Electrocardiografia(ECG): Ondas ST e T inespecíficas nas derivações precordiais direitas, reflectindo disfunção do ventrículo direito. Se a hipertensão pulmonar causar regurgitação tricúspide, o ECG pode mostrar um desvio do eixo direito indicando hipertrofia do VD e ondas R altas em V1 a V2. Na hipertensão pulmonar grave, a hipertrofia atrial direita e o "P-pulmonale" também podem estar presentes.

Cateterismo cardíaco: Observam-se pressões diastólicas finais elevadas na aurícula direita e no ventrículo direito.

Tratamento
A preferência de tratamento depende da gravidade da regurgitação tricúspide, da etiologia e da presença e extensão de anomalias associadas, incluindo hipertensão pulmonar, insuficiência cardíaca e outras doenças valvulares.

O tratamento da regurgitação tricúspide grave inclui terapia médica, aconselhamento em relação à gravidez e à actividade física, consideração de cirurgia da válvula tricúspide e avaliação e tratamento da causa subjacente.

Tratamento médico
Em doentes com regurgitação tricúspide secundária a insuficiência cardíaca do lado esquerdo, está indicado o controlo adequado da sobrecarga de fluidos. Nestes casos, sugere-se o uso de diuréticos. Os diuréticos de ansa são comumente utilizados. A restrição da ingestão de sal é indicada. A cabeceira da cama deve ser elevada, pois pode melhorar a dispneia. Os digitálicos, os diuréticos poupadores de potássio, os inibidores da enzima de conversão da angiotensina e os anticoagulantes estão indicados nestes doentes. A fibrilhação auricular, se presente, pode ser controlada iniciando os doentes com antiarrítmicos.

São utilizados os seguintes medicamentos:
Diuréticos: Furosemida

Antiarrítmicos

Digoxina

Inibidores da enzima de conversão da angiotensina

Anticoagulantes

Cirurgia da válvula tricúspide
As indicações para a cirurgia da válvula tricúspide dependem da indicação de cirurgia para a doença da válvula do lado esquerdo (aórtica ou mitral)

Para pacientes submetidos a cirurgia da válvula do lado esquerdo:

 A cirurgia da válvula tricúspide é recomendada nesses pacientes com insuficiencia tricuspidal grave, conforme observado nas diretrizes de doença valvular da American Heart Association/American College of Cardiology (AHA/ACC) de 2014 e da Sociedade Europeia de Cardiologia (ESC) de 2012.
 Em doentes submetidos a cirurgia valvular do lado esquerdo e que apresentem insuficiencia ligeira, moderada ou grave, recomenda-se a reparação concomitante da válvula tricúspide nos seguintes casos:
 Dilatação do anel tricúspide (ecocardiograma transtorácico indicando diâmetro maior que 40 mm ou 21 mm/m2 indexado para área de superfície corporal ou diâmetro intraoperatório maior que 70 mm)
 História prévia de insuficiência cardíaca direita. Esta é uma recomendação das directrizes valvulares da AHA/ACC, e recomendações semelhantes são indicadas nas directrizes da ESC de 2012.

Cirurgia Tricúspide Isolada
O momento apropriado para a cirurgia isolada da válvula tricúspide não está bem estabelecido.

Em doentes refractários ao tratamento médico mas com regurgitação tricúspide grave, sugere-se a cirurgia da válvula tricúspide (recomendação fraca). É preferível realizá-la antes do início de disfunção ventricular direita significativa para controlar ou prevenir sintomas, como recomendado nas directrizes valvulares da AHA/ACC de 2014.

Na regurgitação tricúspide isolada sintomática e grave sem disfunção ventricular direita, a cirurgia da válvula tricúspide é fortemente recomendada, de acordo com as directrizes valvulares da ESC de 2012.

Em pacientes assintomáticos ou minimamente sintomáticos cominsuficiencia tricuspidal grave, o papel da cirurgia da válvula tricúspide é ambíguo. As directrizes valvulares da AHA/ACC de 2014 registam esta incerteza e incluem uma recomendação muito fraca de que a cirurgia da válvula tricúspide pode ser considerada em doentes assintomáticos ou minimamente sintomáticos com regurgitação tricúspide primária grave e dilatação progressiva moderada ou superior do VD e/ou disfunção sistólica. As directrizes da ESC encaram a cirurgia neste contexto de forma ligeiramente mais favorável e indicam que a cirurgia deve ser considerada em doentes com regurgitação tricúspide isolada grave com sintomas ligeiros ou inexistentes e dilatação progressiva do ventrículo direito ou deterioração da função ventricular direita.

Tratamento Baseado na Etiologia
Na endocardite da válvula tricúspide, recomenda-se a excisão da válvula tricúspide sem substituição imediata. A excisão da válvula doente elimina a endocardite enquanto o tratamento com antibióticos é continuado. Pode ser inserida uma válvula artificial se os sintomas de insuficiência cardíaca direita forem refractários ao tratamento médico e a infecção estiver bem controlada.

Na anomalia de Ebstein, não é necessária cirurgia na regurgitação tricúspide assintomática. No entanto, os doentes sintomáticos podem ter de ser tratados com reparação ou substituição da válvula tricúspide.

Diagnóstico Diferencial
Os diagnósticos diferenciais da regurgitação tricúspide são os seguintes:

 Ascite
 Cirrose
 Anomalia de Ebstein
 Síndrome de Eisenmenger
 Insuficiência cardíaca
 Síndrome de Marfan
 Choque cardiogénico
 Fibrilhação auricular
 Cardiomiopatia dilatada
 Doença biliar
 Cor pulmonale
 Regurgitação mitral
 Tumor carcinoide

Prognóstico
O prognóstico da regurgitação tricúspide é geralmente bom.

Complicações
As complicações incluem:

 Cirrose cardíaca
 Ascite
 Formação de trombos e embolização As complicações das intervenções cirúrgicas incluem:
 Bloqueio cardíaco
 Trombose da válvula protésica
 Infecção
 Arritmias

Cuidados pós-operatórios e de reabilitação
Os cuidados posteriores no internamento de um doente com regurgitação tricúspide envolvem:

 Anticoagulação pode ser necessária em casos de fibrilação atrial ou se o paciente tiver sofrido uma substituição de válvula.
 Tratamento de arritmias, se presentes
 Tratamento de eventuais infecções
 Insuficiência cardíaca

Nos doentes cuja válvula tenha sido removida, está indicada a repetição do ecocardiograma a intervalos de 6 meses. Nos doentes cuja válvula tenha sido substituída, recomenda-se a realização de um ecocardiograma anual.

Melhorar os resultados da equipa de cuidados de saúde
O diagnóstico e a gestão da regurgitação tricúspide são efectuados por uma equipa interprofissional constituída por um cardiologista, um cirurgião cardíaco, um internista, um prestador de cuidados primários e um enfermeiro. A preferência de tratamento depende da gravidade da regurgitação tricúspide, da etiologia e da presença e extensão de anomalias associadas, incluindo hipertensão pulmonar, insuficiência cardíaca e outras doenças valvulares.

O tratamento da regurgitação tricúspide grave inclui terapia médica, aconselhamento em relação à gravidez e à actividade física, consideração de cirurgia da válvula tricúspide e avaliação e tratamento da causa subjacente.

Os casos leves geralmente são tratados com medicamentos, mas os casos graves exigem cirurgia cardíaca aberta. A válvula tricúspide pode ser reparada ou substituída, dependendo do estado dos folhetos. Devido ao risco de trombose, todas as válvulas mecânicas na posição tricúspide necessitam de anticoagulação. Os doentes têm de ser monitorizados regularmente quanto ao INR. Os resultados da regurgitação tricúspide são geralmente razoáveis a bons.(Nível V)

Doenças cardiovasculares
Insuficiência cardíaca

Insuficiência Tricúspide


East Germany had a command economy, similar to the economic system in the Soviet Union and other Comecon member states — in contrast to the market economies or mixed economies or other capitalist states. The state established production targets, set prices, and also allocated resources, codifying these decisions in comprehensive plans. The means of production were almost entirely state-owned. The GDR had an above-average standard of living compared to other Eastern Bloc countries or the Soviet Union, and enjoyed favorable duty and tariff terms with the West German market; in 1989, it was estimated that 50 to 60% of its trade was with Western countries. However by the mid-1980s its economy had reached a state of stagnation.

History

Soviet occupation period

Each occupation power assumed authority in their respective zones by June 1945. The Allied powers originally pursued a common German policy, focused on denazification and demilitarization in preparation for the restoration of a democratic German nation-state.

Over time, the western and Soviet zones drifted apart economically. In 1946, the Soviet zone had a slight total factor productivity lead; wartime industrialization had contributed more to the eastern economy, and the destruction caused by the war was lighter than in the west. However, by 1948 the western zones had become more prosperous.

There were several reasons behind the backward economic situation in East Germany. While large sums had been poured into West Germany, especially by the United States, the Soviet Union not only put nothing into the economy of its zone but actually took out large amounts in reparations and occupation costs. Direct and indirect reparations paid by East Germany between 1946 and 1953 amounted to $14 billion in 1938 prices.

Military industries and those owned by the state, by Nazi Party members, and by war criminals were confiscated. These industries amounted to approximately 60% of total industrial production in the Soviet zone. Most heavy industry (constituting 20% of total production) was claimed by the Soviet Union as World War II reparations, and Soviet joint stock companies (German: Sowjetische Aktiengesellschaften - SAG) were formed. The remaining confiscated industrial property was nationalized, leaving 40% of total industrial production to private enterprise. The reparations seriously hindered the ability of East Germany to compete with West Germany economically.

While the dismantling of industrial capacity had a significant effect, the most important factor in explaining the initial divergence in economic performance was the separation of the eastern zone from its traditional West German market. The East German economy was dominated by consumer-goods manufacturers, and depended on raw materials and intermediate goods found exclusively in the West. East Germany had virtually no hard coal deposits, and only half of the fuel demand could be met domestically. In 1943 the East accounted for 0.5% of total output in coke, 1.6% in raw iron, and 6.9% in raw steel produced in post-war German territory. After the war, trade between East and West fell by a factor of 35.

Retail trade in the east was slowly being absorbed by two state-controlled organizations (Konsum and Handelsorganisation) which were given special preferences. On 2 January 1949, a two-year plan of economic reconstruction was launched, aiming at 81% of the 1936 production level, and, by cutting 30 per cent off production costs, hoping to raise the general wage level 12% to 15%. The plan also called for an increase in the daily food ration from 1,500 to 2,000 calories.

It was estimated that by 1949, 100 per cent of the automotive, between 90% and 100% of the chemical, and 93% of the fuel industries were in Soviet hands. By the end of 1950 East Germany had paid $3.7 bn of Russia's $10 bn reparations demand. After the death of Joseph Stalin and the June 1953 uprising, the Soviet Union began to return the East German factories it had taken as reparations.

In May 1949, Soviet Foreign Minister Andrei Vishinsky claimed that production in the Soviet occupation zone in March 1949 had reached 96.6 per cent of its 1936 level and that the government budget of the Soviet zone showed a surplus of 1 billion East German Marks, despite a 30% cut in taxes.

The following case is typical of the economic relationship between the two eastern bloc countries. According to documents supplied by a shipbuilding official who escaped from the East, ships ordered by the Soviet Union for 1954 cost $148 million to build, but the Soviets paid only $46 million for them; the difference of $102 million was absorbed by the GDR.

1950s

The agrarian reform (Bodenreform) expropriated all land belonging to former Nazis and war criminals and generally limited ownership to . Some 500 Junker estates were converted into agricultural production cooperatives (German: Landwirtschaftliche Produktionsgenossenschaft - LPG), and more than  were distributed among 500,000 peasant farmers, agricultural laborers, and refugees. Compensation was paid only to active anti-Nazis. In September 1947 the Soviet military administration announced the completion of agrarian reform through the Soviet zone. This report listed 12,355 estates, totaling , which had been seized and redistributed to 119,000 families of landless farmers, 83,000 refugee families, and some 300,000 in other categories. State farms were also established, called Volkseigenes Gut ("People's Owned Property").

The Third Party Congress of the Socialist Unity Party of Germany (Sozialistische Einheitspartei Deutschlands—SED) convened in July 1950 and emphasized industrial progress. The industrial sector, employing 40% of the working population, was subjected to further nationalization, which resulted in the formation of the "People's Enterprises" (German: Volkseigene Betriebe—VEB). These enterprises incorporated 75% of the industrial sector. The First Five Year Plan (1951–55) introduced centralized state planning; it stressed high production quotas for heavy industry and increased labor productivity. The pressures of the plan caused an exodus of GDR citizens to West Germany. The second SED Party Conference (less important than a party congress) convened from 9–12 July 1952. 1565 delegates, 494 guest-delegates, and over 2500 guests from the GDR and from many countries in the world participated in it. In the conference a new economic policy was adopted, "Planned Construction of Socialism". The plan called to strengthen the state-owned sector of the economy. Further goals were to implement the principles of uniform socialist planning and to use the economic laws of socialism systematically.

By 1953, one out of every seven industrial companies had relocated to the West. Joseph Stalin died in March 1953. In June 1953, the SED, hoping to give workers an improved standard of living, announced the New Course which replaced the "Planned Construction of Socialism." The New Course in the GDR was based on the economic policy initiated by Georgi Malenkov in the Soviet Union. Malenkov's policy, which aimed at improvement in the standard of living, stressed a shift in investment toward light industry and trade and a greater availability of consumer goods. The SED, in addition to shifting emphasis from heavy industry to consumer goods, initiated a program for alleviating economic hardships. This led to a reduction of delivery quotas and taxes, the availability of state loans to private business, and an increase in the allocation of production material.

While the New Course increased the availability of consumer goods, there were still high production quotas. When work quotas were raised in 1953, it led to the uprising of June 1953. Strikes and demonstrations happened in major industrial centers, and workers demanded economic reforms. The Volkspolizei and the Soviet Army suppressed the uprising, in which approximately 100 participants were killed.

When the 1953 budget was introduced in the Volkskammer on 4 February, economic exploitation in the Soviet interest was still the dominant trend. The budget envisaged expenditures of 34.688 bn East marks, an increase of about 10% over the 31.730 bn of the 1952 budget. Its main object was to provide investments for strengthening the economy and for national defense.

In 1956, at the 20th Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, First Secretary Nikita Khrushchev repudiated Stalinism, in his so-called 'Secret Speech' to selected members of the Congress.

Around this time, an academic intelligentsia within the SED leadership demanded reform. To this end, Wolfgang Harich issued a platform advocating radical changes in the GDR. In late 1956, he and his associates were quickly purged from the SED ranks and imprisoned.

An SED party plenum in July 1956 confirmed Walter Ulbricht's leadership and presented the Second Five-Year Plan (1956–60). The plan employed the slogan "modernization, mechanization, and automation" to emphasize the new focus on technological progress. At the plenum, the regime announced its intention to develop nuclear energy, and the first nuclear reactor in the GDR was activated in 1957. Decision was also made to build the first nuclear power reactor, the Rheinsberg Nuclear Power Plant, which started commercial production in 1966. The government increased industrial production quotas by 55% and renewed emphasis on heavy industry.

The Second Five-Year Plan committed the GDR to accelerated efforts toward agricultural collectivization and nationalization and completion of the nationalization of the industrial sector. By 1958 the agricultural sector still consisted primarily of the 750,000 privately owned farms that comprised 70% of all arable land; only 6,000 LPGs had been formed. In 1958–59 the SED placed quotas on private farmers and sent teams to villages in an effort to encourage voluntary collectivization. In November and December 1959 some law-breaking farmers were arrested by the Stasi.

An extensive economic management reform by the SED in February 1958 included the transfer of a large number of industrial ministries to the State Planning Commission. In order to accelerate the nationalization of industry, the SED offered entrepreneurs 50% partnership incentives for transforming their firms into VEBs.

1960s
By mid-1960, nearly 85% of all arable land was incorporated in more than 19,000 Landwirtschaftliche Produktionsgenossenschaft; state farms comprised another 6%. By 1961 the socialist sector produced 90% of the GDR's agricultural products. As more farmers fled to the West, a crop failure occurred in 1961, which was made worse by unfavorable weather.

At the close of 1960, private enterprise controlled only 9% of total industrial production. Production cooperatives (Produktionsgenossenschaften—PGs) incorporated one-third of the artisan sector during 1960–61, a rise from 6% in 1958. The opening of the new port of Rostock in 1960 reduced the country's dependency on the West German port of Hamburg.

The Second Five-Year Plan encountered difficulties, and the government replaced it with the Seven-Year Plan (1959–65). The new plan aimed at achieving West Germany's per capita production by the end of 1961, set higher production quotas, and called for an 85% increase in labor productivity. Emigration again increased, totaling 143,000 in 1959 and 199,000 in 1960. The majority of the emigrants were white collar workers, and 50% were under 25 years of age. The labor drain exceeded a total of 2.5 million citizens between 1949 and 1961.

The annual industrial growth rate declined steadily after 1959. The Soviet Union therefore recommended that East Germany implement the reforms of Soviet economist Evsei Liberman, an advocate of the principle of profitability and other market principles for communist economies.

In 1963 Ulbricht adapted Liberman's theories and introduced the New Economic System (NES), an economic reform program providing for some decentralization in decision-making and the consideration of market and performance criteria. The NES aimed at creating an efficient economic system and transforming the GDR into a leading industrial nation.

Under the NES, the task of establishing future economic development was assigned to central planning. Decentralization involved the partial transfer of decision-making authority from the central State Planning Commission and National Economic Council to the Associations of People's Enterprises (Vereinigungen Volkseigener Betriebe—VVB), parent organizations intended to promote specialization within the same areas of production. The central planning authorities set overall production goals, but each VVB determined its own internal financing, utilization of technology, and allocation of manpower and resources. As intermediary bodies, the VVBs also functioned to synthesize information and recommendations from the VEBs. The NES stipulated that production decisions be made on the basis of profitability, that salaries reflect performance, and that prices respond to supply and demand.

The NES brought forth a new elite in politics as well as in management of the economy, and in 1963 Ulbricht announced a new policy regarding admission to the leading ranks of the SED. Ulbricht opened the Politbüro and the Central Committee to younger members who had more education than their predecessors and who had acquired managerial and technical skills. As a consequence of the new policy, the SED elite became divided into political and economic factions, the latter composed of members of the new technocratic elite. Because of the emphasis on professionalization in the SED cadre policy after 1963, the composition of the mass membership changed: in 1967 about 250,000 members (14%) of the total 1.8 million SED membership had completed a course of study at a university, technical college, or trade school.

The SED emphasis on managerial and technical competence also enabled members of the technocratic elite to enter the top echelons of the state bureaucracy, formerly reserved for political dogmatists. Managers of the VVBs were chosen on the basis of professional training rather than ideological conformity. Within the individual enterprises, the number of professional positions and jobs for the technically skilled increased. The SED stressed education in managerial and technical sciences as the route to social advancement and material rewards. In addition, it promised to raise the standard of living for all citizens. From 1964 until 1967, real wages increased, and the supply of consumer goods, including luxury items, improved much.

The results of the reform, however, fell short of initial expectations, as growth was mostly the result of increased investment, rather than the new system of control. As a result, the reform plan was altered in 1967–1968, with the implementation of the "Economic System of Socialism". The ESS was implemented through so-called structure-determining areas, strategic sectors which enjoyed preferential access to funds and resources. Those initially included chemicals, engineering and electronics, but as enterprises lobbied the government for inclusion in the list of strategically important projects, the list grew ever longer.

Industrial combines partnerships were formed to integrate vertically industries involved in the manufacture of vital final products. Price subsidies were restored to accelerate growth in favored sectors. The annual plan for 1968 set production quotas in the structure-determining areas 2.6% higher than in the remaining sectors to achieve industrial growth in these areas. The state set the 1969–70 goals for high-technology sectors even higher. Failure to meet ESS goals resulted in the conclusive termination of the reform effort in 1970.

The Altmark gas field was discovered in the late 1960s, providing an important source of foreign currency for the country.

1970s-1990

In the early 1970s, long-term, comprehensive planning began. It too provided general guidance, but over a longer period, fifteen or twenty years, long enough to link the five-year plans in a coherent manner.

The Main Task, introduced by First Secretary Erich Honecker in 1971, formulated domestic policy for the 1970s. The program re-emphasized Marxism-Leninism and the international class struggle. During this period, the SED launched a massive propaganda campaign to win citizens to its Soviet-style socialism and to restore the "worker" to prominence. The Main Task restated the economic goal of industrial progress, but this goal was to be achieved within the context of centralized state planning. Consumer socialism—the new program featured in the Main Task—was an effort to magnify the appeal of socialism by offering special consideration for the material needs of the working class. The state extensively revamped wage policy and gave more attention to increasing the availability of consumer goods.

The regime accelerated the construction of new housing and the renovation of existing apartments; 60% of new and renovated housing was allotted to working-class families. Rents, which were subsidized, remained extremely low. Because women constituted nearly 50% of the labor force, child-care facilities, including nurseries and kindergartens, were provided for the children of working mothers. Women in the labor force received salaried maternity leave which ranged from six months to one year. Retirement annuities were increased.

The last small and middle-sized private companies, which had hitherto operated semi-independently, were nationalized in 1972. Honecker proudly informed Leonid Brezhnev of this fact in 1973. In some cases, the owner of the company would continue as its director with a salary provided by the state, which bore no automatic resemblance to the operating efficiency of the enterprise.  This was an unnecessary step and caused shortages of certain goods.  The very enterprises which allowed some degree of initiative and response to the market and which contributed so largely to the economy as a whole, even earning desperately needed hard currency, became subject to central planning and controls and as stagnant as the rest of the economy. One such example was the toy manufacturer C.M. Breitung in Sonneberg in Thuringia which was independent till 1972 when it was taken over and renamed Plüti.

The global rise in commodity prices in the 1970s also affected East Germany, though later than elsewhere due to Comecon price controls. Due to the strong German tradition of drinking coffee, imports of this commodity were important for consumers. A massive rise in coffee prices in 1976–77 led to a quadrupling of the amount of hard currency needed to import coffee, an event known as the East German coffee crisis. This caused severe financial problems for the GDR, which perennially lacked sufficient hard currency to address imports from the West. As a result, in the summer of 1977 the Politbüro withdrew most cheaper brands of coffee from sale, limited the use of coffee in restaurants, and effectively withdrew its provision in public offices and state enterprises. In addition, an infamous new type of coffee was introduced, Mischkaffee (mixed coffee), which was 51% coffee and 49% a range of filler including chicory, rye, and sugar beet. Unsurprisingly, the new coffee was generally detested for its comparatively poor flavour, and the whole episode came to be informally known as the "Coffee Crisis." The crisis passed after 1978 as world coffee prices began to fall again, as well as increased supply through an agreement between the GDR and Vietnam.

The GDR's growing hard currency debts were a cause of domestic instability. After the People's Republic of Poland became bankrupt, the West imposed a credit boycott on Eastern Bloc countries, including East Germany. The sale of Soviet crude oil, previously an important source of hard currency, became less profitable due to changes in the world economy. A long period of underinvestment in research and capital goods made East German products uncompetitive on Western markets, leaving the country more reliant on the Soviet Union.

The debt-to-GDP ratio reached 20% in 1989, a manageable level, but large in relation to the GDR's capacity to export sufficient goods to the West to provide the hard currency to service these debts. In October 1989, a paper prepared for the Politbüro (the Schürer-Papier, after its principal author) projected a need to increase export surplus from around 2 billion DM in 1990 to over 11 billion DM by 1995 to stabilize debt levels. It is doubtful whether such a Herculean effort could have succeeded without political turmoil, or indeed at all.

Much of the debt originated from attempts by the GDR to export its way out of its international debt problems, which required imports of components, technologies and raw materials; as well as attempts to maintain living standards through imports of consumer goods. The GDR was internationally competitive in some sectors such as mechanical engineering and printing technology.

A significant factor was also the elimination of a ready source of hard currency through re-export of Soviet oil, which until 1981 was provided below world market prices; the resulting loss of hard currency income produced a noticeable dip in the otherwise steady improvement of living standards. (It was precisely this continuous improvement which was at risk due to the impending debt crisis; the Schürer-Papier's remedial plans spoke of a 25–30% reduction.)

The fall of the Berlin Wall in November 1989 further worsened the economic situation by draining the workforce and making it harder for state enterprises to obtain supplies. The collapse of the central planning authority caused a fall in production, bringing about shortages which in turn led to increasing levels of emigration.

On 1 July 1990 the country entered a monetary and economic union with West Germany, followed by the political dissolution of East Germany on 3 October 1990.

Post-unification

The immediate aftermath of unification saw a period of economic collapse as industrial production plummeted and a rapid increase in the unemployment rate. In the early 1990s the kombinats were handed over to the Treuhandanstalt (Public Trustee), a German federal agency responsible for reprivatizing former government-owned industrial assets. Interest in East German businesses proved underwhelming, as West German firms had no need for the excess production capacity to supply the new federal states. One-third of the firms were ultimately liquidated, which, combined with layoffs in the surviving firms, resulted in a 60% cut in employment in the new states.

Sectors of the economy

Agriculture

The agricultural sector of the economy had a somewhat different place in the system, although it too was thoroughly integrated. It was almost entirely collectivized except for private plots. The collective farms were formally self-governing. They were, however, subordinate to the Council of Ministers through the Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry, and Foodstuffs. A complex set of relationships also connected them with other cooperatives and related industries, such as food processing. By 1 July 1954, there were 4,974 collective farms with 147,000 members which cultivated 15.7 per cent of the arable land of the territory.

Industry

On 1 January 1954, the Soviet government turned over to the GDR thirty-three industrial concerns including the Leuna and Buna chemical works, and the GDR became the owner of all the enterprises in its territory.

Directly below the ministries were the centrally directed trusts, or Kombinate. Intended to be replacements for the Associations of Publicly Owned Enterprises—the largely administrative organizations that previously served as a link between the ministries and the individual enterprises—the Kombinate resulted from the merging of various industrial enterprises into large-scale entities in the late-1970s, based on interrelationships between their production activities.

The Kombinate included research enterprises, which the state incorporated into their structures to provide better focus for research efforts and speedier application of research results to production. A single, united management directed the entire production process in each Kombinat, from research to production and sales. The reform also attempted to foster closer ties between the activities of the Kombinate and the foreign trade enterprises by subordinating the latter to both the Ministry of Foreign Trade and the Kombinate. The goal of the Kombinat reform measure was to achieve greater efficiency and rationality by concentrating authority in the hands of midlevel leadership. The Kombinat management also provided significant input for the central planning process.

By the early 1980s, establishment of Kombinate for both centrally managed and district-managed enterprises was essentially complete. Particularly from 1982 to 1984, the government established various regulations and laws to define more precisely the parameters of these entities. These provisions tended to reinforce the primacy of central planning and to limit the autonomy of the Kombinate, apparently to a greater extent than originally planned. As of early 1986, there were 132 centrally managed Kombinate, with an average of 25,000 employees per Kombinat. District-managed Kombinate numbered 93, with an average of about 2,000 employees each.

At the base of the entire economic structure were the producing units. Although these varied in size and responsibility, the government gradually reduced their number and increased their size. The number of industrial enterprises in 1985 was only slightly more than a fifth that of 1960. Their independence decreased significantly as the Kombinate became fully functional.

Central leadership

Socialist Unity Party of Germany
The ultimate directing force in the economy, as in every aspect of the society, was the Socialist Unity Party of Germany (SED), particularly its top leadership. The party exercised its leadership role formally during the party congress, when it accepted the report of the general secretary, and when it adopted the draft plan for the upcoming five-year period.

More important was the supervision of the SED's Politbüro, which monitored and directed ongoing economic processes. That key group, however, could concern itself with no more than the general, fundamental, or extremely serious economic questions, because it also had to deal with many other matters.

Government bureaucracy
At the head of the state apparatus responsible for formally adopting and carrying out policies elaborated by the party congress and Politbüro was the Council of Ministers, which had more than forty members and was in turn headed by a Presidium of sixteen. The Council of Ministers supervised and coordinated the activities of all other central bodies responsible for the economy, and it played a direct and specific role in important cases.

The State Planning Commission, sometimes called the "Economic General Staff of the Council of Ministers," advised the Council of Ministers on possible alternative economic strategies and their implications, translated the general targets set by the council into planning directives and more specific plan targets for each of the ministries beneath it, coordinated short-, medium-, and long-range planning, and mediated interministerial disagreements.

The individual ministries had major responsibility for the detailed direction of the different sectors of the economy. The ministries were responsible within their separate spheres for detailed planning, resource allocation, development, implementation of innovations, and generally for the efficient achievement of their individual plans.

In addition to the basic structure of the industrial sector, a supplementary hierarchy of government organs reached down from the Council of Ministers and the State Planning Commission to territorial rather than functional subunits. Regional and local planning commissions and economic councils, subordinate to the State Planning Commission and the Council of Ministers, respectively, extended down to the local level. They considered such matters as the proper or optimal placement of industry, environmental protection, and housing.

Central planning
The fact that the GDR had a planned economy did not mean that a single, comprehensive plan was the basis of all economic activity. An interlocking web of plans having varying degrees of specificity, comprehensiveness, and duration was in operation at all times; any or all of these may have been modified during the continuous process of performance monitoring or as a result of new and unforeseen circumstances. The resultant system of plans was extremely complex, and maintaining internal consistency between the various plans was a considerable task.

Short-term planning

Operationally, short-term planning was the most important for production and resource allocation. It covered one calendar year and encompassed the entire economy. The key targets set at the central level were overall rate of growth of the economy, volume and structure of the domestic product and its uses, use of raw materials and labor and their distribution by sector and region, and volume and structure of exports and imports. Beginning with the 1981 plan, the state added assessment of the ration of raw material use against value and quantity of output to promote more efficient use of scarce resources.

Five-year plans

Low-range (five-year) planning used the same indicators, although with less specificity. Although the five-year plan was duly enacted into law, it is more properly seen as a series of guidelines rather than as a set of direct orders. It was typically published several months after the start of the five-year period it covered, after the first one-year plan had been enacted into law. More general than a one-year plan, the five-year plan was nevertheless specific enough to integrate the yearly plans into a longer time frame. Thus it provided continuity and direction.

Planning mechanisms

In the first phase of planning, the centrally determined objectives were divided and assigned to appropriate subordinate units. After internal consideration and discussion had occurred at each level and suppliers and buyers had completed negotiations, the separate parts were reaggregated into draft plans. In the final stage, which follows the acceptance of the total package by the State Planning Commission and the Council of Ministers, the finished plan was redivided among the ministries, and the relevant responsibilities were distributed once more to the producing units.

The production plan was supplemented by other mechanisms that control supplies and establish monetary accountability. One such mechanism was the System of Material Balances, which allocated materials, equipment, and consumer goods. It acted as a rationing system, ensuring each element of the economy access to the basic goods it needed to fulfill its obligations. Since most of the goods produced by the economy were covered by this control mechanism, producing units had difficulty obtaining needed items over and above their allocated levels.

Another control mechanism was the assignment of prices for all goods and services. These prices served as a basis for calculating expenses and receipts. Enterprises had every incentive to use these prices as guidelines in decision-making. Doing so made plan fulfillment possible and earned bonus funds of various sorts for the enterprise. These bonuses were not allocated indiscriminately for gross output but were awarded for such accomplishments as the introduction of innovations or reduction of labor costs.

The system functioned smoothly only when its component parts were staffed with individuals whose values coincided with those of the regime or at least complemented regime values. Such a sharing took place in part through the integrative force of the party organs whose members occupied leading positions in the economic structure. Efforts were also made to promote a common sense of purpose through mass participation of almost all workers and farmers in organized discussion of economic planning, tasks, and performance. An East German journal reported, for example, that during preliminary discussion concerning the 1986 annual plan, 2.2 million employees in various enterprises and work brigades of the country at large contributed 735,377 suggestions and comments. Ultimate decision-making, however, came from above.

Private sector
The private sector of the economy was small but not entirely insignificant. In 1985 about 2.8% of the net national product came from private enterprises. The private sector included private farmers and gardeners; independent craftsmen, wholesalers, and retailers; and individuals employed in so-called freelance activities (artists, writers, and others). Although self-employed, such individuals were strictly regulated. In 1985, for the first time in many years, the number of individuals working in the private sector increased slightly. According to East German statistics, in 1985 there were about 176,800 private entrepreneurs, an increase of about 500 over 1984. Certain private sector activities were quite important to the system. The SED leadership, for example, encouraged private initiative as part of an effort to upgrade consumer services.

In addition to those East Germans who were self-employed full-time, there were others who engaged in private economic activity on the side. The best known and most important examples were families on collective farms who also cultivated private plots (which could be as large as ). Their contribution was significant; according to official sources, in 1985 the farmers privately owned about 8.2% of pigs, 14.7% of sheep, 32.8% of horses, and 30% of laying hens in the country. Professionals such as commercial artists and doctors also worked privately in their free time, subject to separate taxes and other regulations. Their impact on the economic system, however, was negligible.

Informal economy
More difficult to assess, because of its covert and informal nature, was the significance of that part of the private sector called the "second economy." As used here, the term includes all economic arrangements or activities that, owing to their informality or their illegality, took place beyond state control or surveillance. The subject has received considerable attention from Western economists, most of whom are convinced that it is important in CPEs. In the mid-1980s, however, evidence was difficult to obtain and tended to be anecdotal in nature.

These irregularities did not appear to constitute a major economic problem. However, the East German press occasionally reported prosecutions of egregious cases of illegal "second economy" activity, involving what are called "crimes against socialist property" and other activities that are in "conflict and contradiction with the interests and demands of society", as one report described the situation.

Barter economy
One kind of informal economic activity included private arrangements to provide goods or services in return for payment. An elderly woman might have hired a neighbour boy to haul coal up to her apartment, or an employed woman might have paid a neighbour to do her washing. Closely related would be instances of hiring an acquaintance to repair a clock, tune up an automobile, or repair a toilet. Such arrangements take place in any society, and given the deficiencies in the East German service sector, they may have been more necessary than in the West. They were doubtlessly common, and because they were considered harmless, they were not the subject of any significant governmental concern. Scarce goods from Westpakete were also highly desired for barter.

Corruption
Another common activity that was troublesome if not disruptive was the practice of offering a sum of money beyond the selling price to individuals selling desirable goods, or giving something special as partial payment for products in short supply, the so-called Bückware (duck goods; sold from "below the counter"). Such ventures may have been no more than offering someone Trinkgeld (a tip), but they may have also involved Schmiergeld (bribes; lit. money used to "grease" a transaction) or Beziehungen (special relationships).

Opinions in East Germany varied as to how significant these practices were. But given the abundance of money in circulation and frequent shortages in luxury items and durable consumer goods, most people were perhaps occasionally tempted to provide a "sweetener", particularly for such things as automobile parts or furniture.

Comparison with West Germany

See also

 New Course
 Volkseigener Betrieb
 Volkseigenes Gut
 Electronics industry in East Germany

Notes

References

Sources

 Library of Congress

Further reading

External links
RFE/RL East German Subject Files: Industry, Blinken Open Society Archives, Budapest

German Democratic Republic, Economy of
East Germany

de:Deutsche Demokratische Republik#Wirtschaft

Economy of East Germany


Alexeï Alexandrovitch Chakhmatov (en ) (1864-1920) est un philologue russe, historien des langues slaves.

Biographie
Né à Narva (actuelle Estonie) le 17 juin 1864, mort le 16 août 1920 à Petrograd (aujourd'hui Saint-Pétersbourg), Chakhmatov poursuit ses études secondaires au lycée Kreimann et s'intéresse très tôt aux manuscrits russes et slaves en consultant dès seize ans, avant ses études universitaires, un professeur de l'Université de Petrograd I.V. Jagié qui publiera en 1882, dans sa revue Archives de la philologie slave, son article sur l'étude du manuscrit original de l'un des plus anciens monuments de la langue russe, le Sbornik de Sviatoslav daté de 1073. L'Université de Moscou complète sa formation de philologue entre 1883 et 1887 sous la direction de celui qu'il considérera comme son maître à penser Filipp Fortunatov.

Membre adjoint de l'Académie des sciences de Saint-Pétersbourg à trente ans, membre ordinaire de cette même Académie à trente-cinq ans, il devient président de la Section de langue et de littérature russes. A ce poste, il refait le plan du Dictionnaire de la langue russe édité par l'Académie et fait éditer une vaste Encyclopédie de la philologie slave.

Il participe en février 1904 à une commission spéciale de l'Académie des sciences sur la réforme de l'orthographe russe qui n'a été mise en place qu' en 1917-1918.

Travaux et publications
Connaissant les langues slaves et la littérature qu'a inspirée leur étude scientifique, il traite en 1896, les différents problèmes de la linguistique slave.

Comparant les données de toutes les langues slaves, il publie en 1898 une Étude sur l'histoire de l'accent, l'une des plus difficiles de la linguistique slave.

Chakhmatov poursuit simultanément l'étude de l'ancienne littérature russe et celle des parlers populaires vivants. Il publie une Étude de la langue des chartes de Novgorod des XIIIe et XIVe siècles en 1895, une Étude des chartes de Dvinsk du XVe siècle en 1903, et les Particularités phonétiques des parlers d'El'nja et de Masal'sk en 1909.

Son dessein est ensuite de présenter l'histoire de la langue russe en ses relations avec l'histoire du peuple russe. L'auteur est ici à la fois linguiste et historien. En 1915, il nous donne une Esquisse de la période ancienne de l'histoire de la langue russe. Son Introduction à un cours d'histoire de la langue russe en 1916 présente un sous-titre qui définit l'esprit de l'ouvrage Processus historique de la formation des tribus et des dialectes russes.

Liens externes

Notes et références

Naissance en juin 1864
Naissance à Narva
Linguiste de l'Empire russe
Slaviste
Membre de l'Académie des sciences de Saint-Pétersbourg
Membre de l'Académie des sciences de Russie
Membre de l'Académie serbe des sciences et des arts
Décès en août 1920
Décès à Saint-Pétersbourg
Décès à 56 ans
Personnalité inhumée au cimetière Volkovo

Alexeï Chakhmatov


Miguel Vences (* 24. April 1969 in Köln) ist ein deutscher Herpetologe, Evolutionsbiologe und Hochschullehrer. Sein Forschungsschwerpunkt liegt hauptsächlich auf der Herpetofauna Madagaskars.

Leben
Er ist der Sohn des galicischen Philosophen Sergio Vences Fernández (1936–2012). Vences besuchte ab 1979 das Schiller-Gymnasium Köln und schloss 1988 mit dem Abitur ab. Im Jahr darauf begann er das Studium der Biologie an der Universität zu Köln. Dort lernte er Frank Glaw kennen, mit dem er bereits als Undergraduate erste Exkursionen nach Madagaskar unternahm. Nach dem Vordiplom wechselte er 1993 an die Universität Bonn und das Museum Koenig, wo er sein Studium 1996 mit dem Diplom abschloss. Vences blieb die nächsten drei Jahre als Doktorand an der Universität Bonn und promovierte unter Wolfgang Böhme schließlich 2000 über die Entwicklungsgeschichte der Ranoidea (Echte Frösche und verwandte Familien) auf Madagaskar. Im Anschluss daran arbeitete er ein Jahr lang am Muséum national d'histoire naturelle in Paris, bevor er 2001 nach Deutschland zurückkehrte, um an der Universität Konstanz zu arbeiten. Bereits 2002 ging er aber wieder nach Amsterdam, um an der Universität von Amsterdam und am dortigen Zoologischen Museum als Assistenzprofessor beziehungsweise Leiter der Wirbeltierabteilung zu arbeiten. 2005 gab er diese Stellungen zugunsten einer Professorenstelle an der Technischen Universität Braunschweig auf, die er bis heute innehat.  2013 wurde er in die Berlin-Brandenburgische Akademie der Wissenschaften und 2018 zum Mitglied der Deutschen Akademie der Naturforscher Leopoldina gewählt.

Wissenschaftliches Werk

Vences' Arbeitsschwerpunkt liegt in der Erforschung der Amphibien- und Reptilienwelt Madagaskars, wobei er häufig mit Frank Glaw zusammenarbeitete. Zusammen beschrieben die beiden über 150 Froscharten, hinzu kommen zahlreiche Schlangenarten, Chamäleons und Geckos. Aus Reaktion auf fehlende Literatur zu diesem Forschungsgebiet gaben sie erstmals 1992 den  heraus, der 1994 in der zweiten und 2007 in einer überarbeiteten dritten Auflage erschien. Neben der Erfassung der madagassischen Kriechtierfauna widmet sich Vences vor allem der Erforschung ihrer Systematik und evolutionären Vergangenheit.

Literatur
  Frank Glaw, Miguel Vences:  Vences & Glaw, Köln 2007, ISBN 978-3-929449-03-7.

Weblinks

  Miguel Vences:

Einzelnachweise

Herpetologe
Hochschullehrer (Technische Universität Braunschweig)
Hochschullehrer (Universität Konstanz)
Mitglied der Berlin-Brandenburgischen Akademie der Wissenschaften
Mitglied der Leopoldina (21. Jahrhundert)
Deutscher
Geboren 1969
Mann

Miguel Vences


La fissure ptérygo-maxillaire (ou fente ptérygo-maxillaire) est une fente osseuse située entre le processus ptérygoïde de l'os sphénoïde et le corps de l'os maxillaire.

Description
Elle est triangulaire verticale et descend à angle droit depuis l'extrémité médiale de la fissure orbitaire inférieure.

Elle est fermée en bas par le processus pyramidal de l'os palatin.

Son bord postérieur est formé par la lame latérale du processus ptérygoïde de l'os sphénoïde

Elle relie la fosse infratemporale à la fosse ptérygo-palatine.

Elle permet le passage de la partie terminale de l'artère maxillaire et du rameau alvéolaire supérieur et postérieur.

Notes et références

Crâne

Fissure ptérygo-maxillaire


الكلونيدين دواء اكتشف في ستينات القرن العشرين، واستخدم في علاج فرط ضغط الدم ومهدئ ومسكن للشقيقة وقد قل استخدامه اليوم بصورة كبيرة وذلك لأعراضه الجانبية.

الزمرة الدوائية
خافض ضغط
مسكن ألم
منبه لمستقبلات ألفا الأدرينرجية

الصيغة الكيميائية
C9H9Cl2N3

الاستعمال
يعتبر مساعد في علاج ارتفاع الضغط، وفي تدبير الألم السرطاني الحاد الذي لم يتم تدبيره بنجاح باستعمال الأفيونات وحدها، وفي التشخيص التفريقي لورم القواتم عند مرضى ارتفاع الضغط، للوقاية من صداع الشقيقة، علاج عسر الطمث الحاد، تدبير الاعراض الحركية الوعائية المصاحبة لانقطاع الطمث، غزالة السمية بسرعة عند تدبير سحب الأفيونات، علاج الانسحاب الكحولي بالمشاركة مع بنزوديازبين، تدبير اعتياد النيكوتين، موضعياً لخفض ضغط العين عند علاج الزرق مفتوح الزاوية، الزرق الثانوي والزرق النزفي المترافق مع ارتفاع الضغط، علاج اضطراب فرط النشاط ونقص الانتباه (ADHD).

آلية التأثير
منبه لمستقبلات α2 (ألفا 2) الأدرينرجية

الامتصاص
امتصاص جيد عقب الإعطاء الفموي، التوافر الحيوي بعد الإعطاء المستمر يقارب 65%.

الاستقلاب
كبدي

التأثيرات الجانبية
جفاف فم
نعاس
دوار
انخفاض طاقة الجسم
ضعف

التداخلات الدوائية
مضاد هيستامين
الأدوية المنومة والحالة للقلق
مرخي عضلي
مخدر

المراجع

المصادر
 http://www.webmd.com
 http://www.drugbank.ca

أدوية طب العيون
أدوية علاج الصداع النصفي
أدوية مضادة لارتفاع ضغط الدم
أنيلينات
إيميدازولينات
علاجات اضطراب نقص الانتباه مع فرط النشاط
علامات تجارية لشركة نوفارتس
غوانيدينات
كلوروأرينات
مضادات مزيلة للقلق
معالجة اضطرابات القلق
ناهضات أدرينالينية نوع ألفا

كلونيدين


HMS Brilliant was a Type 22 frigate of the Royal Navy.

Brilliant took part in the only ship-to-ship engagement of the Falklands War, when she and  chased the Argentine coaster Monsunen, in the Battle of Seal Cove.

Royal Navy service

Falklands War
Brilliant was part of the task force that took part in the Falklands War, with Captain John Coward in command.

During the war, her two helicopters were involved in successfully attacking the Argentine submarine Santa Fe, and she was the first Royal Navy warship to fire the Sea Wolf missile in action when, on 12 May 1982, she shot down three A-4 Skyhawks.

On 21 May 1982 HMS Brilliant came under Argentine air attack outside San Carlos Water and was slightly damaged by cannon fire. On 23 May she joined HMS Yarmouth in the chase of the Argentinian supply ship ARA Monsunen.

She rescued 24 survivors from Atlantic Conveyor on 25 May. Brilliant had sailed south with a pair of WE.177A nuclear depth charges on board. To avoid complications arising from the Treaty of Tlatelolco, these were unloaded to  on 16 April 1982.

1983–1996
In 1987 she became leader of the 2nd Frigate Squadron. On 14 May 1989, the ship's helicopter, a Lynx HAS3, XZ244, crashed near Mombasa, Kenya, while en route to the city's airport for a period of shore leave. A door had detached when opened inflight and collided with the tail rotor, resulting in the aircraft splitting in half and the death of all nine personnel on board.

In October 1990 she saw the first members of the Women's Royal Naval Service to serve officially on an operational warship. In January 1991, Brilliant deployed to the Persian Gulf as part of the Operation Granby Task Force, in the First Gulf War. Brilliant starred in a BBC documentary series called HMS Brilliant – In a Ship's Company by the journalist Chris Terrill in 1994, while she was undertaking an operational tour off the coast of former Yugoslavia enforcing a United Nations arms embargo in the Adriatic sea.

Brazilian Navy service
She was decommissioned from Royal Navy service in 1996 and sold to the Brazilian Navy on 31 August 1996 and renamed Dodsworth.

F47 Dodsworth was sold for scrap and broken up at Aliağa, Turkey, during July 2012.

The silhouette of HMS Brilliant is painted, with the date 21 May, on the side of Argentine Air Force IAI Finger serial number C-412. Also painted on C-412 is the silhouette of HMS Arrow and the date 1 May. These kill markings (without crossing) have to do with damage to both ships in the Falklands War, HMS Arrow being slightly damaged by cannon fire 1 May 1982 and HMS Brilliant also being slightly damaged by cannon fire on 21 May. C-412's markings were painted soon after the war; they were seen during the November 2005 multi-national Exercise Ceibo in Argentina.

Citations

References

 AirForces Monthly Magazine February 2006, page 61.

External links
 Argentine Aircraft Successes against British Ships
 F47 Dodsworth

Falklands War naval ships of the United Kingdom
1978 ships
Type 22 frigates of the Royal Navy
Type 22 frigates of the Brazilian Navy

HMS Brilliant (F90)


සානියා මල්හෝත්‍රා (උපත 25 පෙබරවාරි 1992) යනුවෙන් හැඳින්වෙන්නේ හින්දී චිත්‍රපටවල රංගනයෙහි යෙදෙන ඉන්දියානු නිළියකි. දංගල් (2016) චිත්‍රපටයෙහි බබිතා කුමාරි චරිතය නිරූපණය කරමින් සිනමා ක්ෂේත්‍රයට පිවිසි ඇය, she starred in the comedy-drama Badhaai Ho (2018), both of which rank among the highest-grossing Indian films. She was nominated for the Filmfare Critics Award for Best Actress for playing a student who befriends a street photographer in the drama Photograph (2019) and received praise for her supporting roles in the biopic Shakuntala Devi (2020) and the dark comedy crime film Ludo (2020).

චරිත නිරූපණය

චිත්‍රපට

Television

Accolades

References

External links

1992 උපත්
ජීවමාන ජනයා
Indian film actresses
Actresses from Delhi
Actresses in Hindi cinema
21 වන සියවස තුළ ඉන්දියානු නිළියෝ
Gargi College alumni

සානියා මල්හෝත්‍රා


Das Gutshaus Lichterfelde, auch als Carstenn-Schlösschen bekannt, ist ein im klassizistischen Stil erbautes Landhaus im Berliner Ortsteil Lichterfelde des Bezirks Steglitz-Zehlendorf. Es liegt in einem zum Gutshaus gehörenden öffentlichen Park, der aus dem früheren Gutspark entstand und als Schlosspark Lichterfelde bekannt ist.

Lage
Das Gebäude befindet sich am Hindenburgdamm. Der das Schloss umgebende Schlosspark Lichterfelde grenzt im Norden an den Benjamin-Franklin-Campus der Berliner Charité, im Osten an den Teltowkanal und im Süden an die Krahmerstraße.

Geschichte und Namensgebung

Im Jahr 1289 tauchte urkundlich ein Arnoldus de Lichterfeld auf; 1316 wurde Lichtervelde als Dorf genannt. Um 1375 wurden die von Britzkes als Inhaber diverser Rechte (Abgaben, Gerichtsbarkeit) erwähnt; ihr Einfluss endete 1692. Seitdem wechselte die Herrschaft über das Rittergut Lichterfelde mehrfach innerhalb kurzer Zeit, so um 1700 an Daniel Ludolf von Danckelman, um 1725/1726 an den preußischen Kriegskommissar Heinrich Cunow, im späteren 18. Jahrhundert die von Bülow, dann Nikolaus von Béguelin.

Das Gutshaus in seiner jetzigen Grundform wurde wahrscheinlich 1780 auf einem älteren Vorgängerbau errichtet. Weder der Baumeister noch seine ursprüngliche Verwendung sind bekannt.

Nach mehrfachen Umbauten zog schließlich der Großgrundbesitzer Johann Anton Wilhelm von Carstenn in das Gutshaus ein. 1865 hatte er unter anderem das Gut Lichterfelde erworben, um dort eine Villenkolonie zu gründen. Nach ihm wird das Gutshaus auch heute noch als Carstenn-Schlösschen bezeichnet.

Nach Ende des Zweiten Weltkriegs 1945 wurde das Gutshaus zunächst von amerikanischen Soldaten mit dem Zweck der Gründung eines Nachbarschaftsheims übernommen. 1948 wurde das Gebäude vom neu gegründeten Nachbarschaftsheim Steglitz e. V. für soziale Zwecke gemietet. Mit Beginn der 1970er Jahre wurde das gesamte Gebäude vom Verein genutzt. 1982 wurde die Einrichtung umstrukturiert und eine Kindertagesstätte sowie ein Schülerhort angeschlossen. Nachdem der Verein 1999 Insolvenz anmeldete, übernahm das Stadtteilzentrum Steglitz e. V. das Gebäude. Heute werden dort unter anderem soziale Beratung, Kulturveranstaltungen und Kurse zu verschiedenen Themen angeboten. Das Gebäude steht unter Denkmalschutz und gehört zu den Kulturdenkmälern in Lichterfelde.

Schlosspark

Der zum Gutshaus Lichterfelde gehörende Schlosspark erstreckt sich mit 5,7 Hektar (ohne Naturschutzgebiet) vom Hindenburgdamm bis zum Teltowkanal. Ein Teil des Schlossparks Lichterfelde umfasst ein eingezäuntes Naturschutzgebiet, das NSG Schlosspark Lichterfelde mit einer Größe von 2,6 Hektar. Es ist ein Restgebiet des ursprünglichen Bäketals, das seit dem 3. März 1923 (offizielle Verordnung am 19. August 1986) unter Naturschutz steht und damit das älteste Berliner Naturschutzgebiet ist. Hier haben unter anderem holzbewohnende Insekten und verschiedene Vogelarten wie Spechte, Nachtigallen, Rotkehlchen und Zaunkönige eine Heimstatt gefunden. Carstenn ließ den Park 1867 neu anlegen. Im Jahr 1950 erfuhr die Grünanlage eine größere Umgestaltung.

Der Schlosspark ist mit öffentlichen Verkehrsmittel gut zu erreichen, z. B. mit dem Bus M85.

Der waldähnliche Teil des Parks ist als eingezäuntes Naturschutzgebiet nicht zugänglich. Für den Schlosspark Lichterfelde wurde im Oktober 2013 ein Baumkataster mit den Grunddaten erfasst. Baumgattung und Stammumfang sind für 295 Bäume ermittelt. Diese Bäume befinden sich alle in dem öffentlich zugänglichen Teil des Parks. Die Parkbäume sind teilweise über 140 Jahre alt.

Weblinks
 Schlosspark Lichterfelde auf berlin.de

Einzelnachweise

Berlin-Lichterfelde
Baudenkmal in Berlin
Klassizistisches Bauwerk in Berlin
Erbaut in den 1700er Jahren
Wikipedia:Naturschutzgebiete

Gutshaus Lichterfelde


Der Indische Spinat, Malabarspinat oder Ceylonspinat (Basella alba) ist eine Pflanzenart aus der Gattung Basella innerhalb der Familie der Basellgewächse (Basellaceae). Sie wird in den gesamten Tropen angebaut und die jungen Blätter als Kochgemüse verwendet.

Beschreibung

Vegetative Merkmale
Der Indische Spinat ist eine 1 bis 9 Meter hohe, windende und reich verzweigte, krautige Pflanze mit hin- und hergebogenen, grünen oder roten, kahlen Sprossachsen.

Die wechselständig angeordneten Laubblätter sind in Blattstiel und Blattspreite gegliedert. Der Blattstiel ist 1 bis 3 Zentimeter lang. Die einfache, ganzrandige, fleischige Blattspreite ist bei einer Länge von 5 bis 15 Zentimetern sowie einer Breite von 4 bis 12 Zentimetern länglich oder breit-eiförmig mit einer schwach herzförmigen, gerundeten oder gestutzten Spreitenbasis und einem spitzen oder stumpf-zugespitzten oberen Ende. Beide Blattseiten sind hellgrün und häufig etwas rötlich getönt.

Generative Merkmale
Der seitenständige, ährige Blütenstand ist 3 bis 15, selten bis zu 20 Zentimeter lang. Je zwei längliche Deckblätter befinden sich unter jeder Blüte.

Die relativ kleinen, zwittrigen Blüten sind weiß, rot, rosa- oder purpurfarben. Die fünf Staubblätter sind mit der Blütenhülle am Grunde verwachsen. Die Staubfäden sind weiß und die Staubbeutel gelblich. Drei Fruchtblätter sind zu einem oberständigen, einfächerigen Fruchtknoten verwachsen. Der Griffel endet in drei Narben.

Die etwa 6 Millimeter dicken, glänzenden, schwarzen, dunkelroten oder weißen Steinfrüchte sind von der urnenförmigen Blütenhülle bedeckt, die sich bei der Reife der Früchte vergrößert und fleischig wird.

Der Indische Spinat blüht von Mai bis September, die Früchte reifen von Juli bis Oktober.

Die Chromosomenzahl beträgt 2n = etwa 48.

Verbreitung
Das ursprüngliche Verbreitungsgebiet von Basella alba liegt wahrscheinlich in Südostasien. Als Kulturpflanze ist Basella alba in den gesamten Tropen verbreitet. Basella alba ist ein Neophyt im tropischen Afrika und Asien, in China und Taiwan, in Neuguinea, in Südamerika, in Panama, auf Karibischen Inseln und auf Inseln im Pazifik.

Taxonomie
Die Erstveröffentlichung von Basella alba erfolgte 1753 durch Carl von Linné in seinem Werk Species Plantarum. S. 272. Synonyme für Basella alba  sind: Basella rubra , Basella japonica , Basella lucida

Anbau
Der Indische Spinat wird in tropischen Gebieten als mehrjährige Gemüsepflanze angebaut. Die Vermehrung erfolgt durch Ableger oder Samen. Sechs Monate nach der Pflanzung werden die jungen beblätterten Triebe geerntet.

Der Anbau in Europa erfolgt wegen der fehlenden Frostbeständigkeit einjährig an vollsonnigen, windgeschützten Standorten meist durch Samen. Nach Aussaat in Töpfen unter Glas im März erfolgt die Vorkultur bei 22 bis 15 °C. Die Jungpflanzen werden im Abstand von 20 Zentimetern in Reihen mit 40 Zentimeter Abstand ausgepflanzt, sobald keine Nachtfröste mehr zu erwarten sind. Die Pflanzen benötigen eine Rankhilfe. Die 10 bis 20 Zentimeter langen Triebspitzen können fortlaufend geerntet werden.

Verwendung
Die beblätterten Triebspitzen werden ähnlich wie Spinat als Kochgemüse zubereitet. Die fleischigen Blätter haben einen hohen Nährwert, sie enthalten 5 % Kohlenhydrate, 5 % Eiweiß, 0,7 % Fett, Kalzium, Phosphor, Eisen, Provitamin A und Vitamin C.  Die gekochten Blätter haben eine etwas schleimige Konsistenz.

Der dunkelrote Saft der Früchte wurde im alten China als Tinte und Färbemittel benutzt. Die Pflanze kann auch als Zierpflanze genutzt werden.

Literatur

 Dequan Lu, Michael G. Gilbert: Basellaceae Moquin Tandon. In: Wu Zhengyi, Peter H. Raven, Deyuan Hong (Hrsg.): Flora of China. Volume 5: Ulmaceae through Basellaceae. Science Press und Missouri Botanical Garden Press, Beijing und St. Louis 2003, ISBN 1-930723-27-X.  Basella alba. S. 445 textgleich online wie gedrucktes Werk.

Einzelnachweise

Weblinks

 Kamal Akhter Malik: Basellaceae. In: Flora of Pakistan. Volume 161, Karachi, 1984, S. 2.

Nelkenartige
Blattgemüse

Indischer Spinat


Karanlıkta Koşanlar, 2001 yılında TRT 1'de yayımlanan Uğur Yücel ve Haluk Bilginer'in başrollerini paylaştığı macera ve polisiye türündeki Türk televizyon dizisidir. Dizi, 10. bölümü ile sona erdi.

Konusu
Dizinin senaryosunu Uğur Yücel, Ahmet Ümit'in öyküsünün uyarlaması olarak yazmıştır. Konusu ise bir seri katilin işlediği cinayetler, bunu çözmeye çalışan emniyet ve çocukluktan beri arkadaş olan üç insanın bakışlarından hayatı anlatmalarıdır.

Dizinin ana karakterlerinden biri olan  Nevzat (Uğur Yücel) yıllar önce işinde çok iyi olan ve sezgileriyle hareket etmeyi tercih eden bir komiserdir. Karısı Mualla (Naz Erayda) ile çocukluğunun geçtiği mahalleden tanışmaktadır ve birbirlerini o zamanlardan beri çok sevmektedirler. Ancak karısı Mualla dizinin ilk bölümünde tekrar harekete geçmiş olan seri katilin neden olduğu bir kaza geçirmiştir ve bu travma nedeniyle dünyayla olan iletişimini koparmıştır. Kocası Nevzat'la dahi konuşmamış, bu da Nevzat'ı alkol batağına sürüklemiştir. Yıllardan beri alkolün esiri olan ve mesleğinden uzak kalan Nevzat, katilin yeniden ortaya çıkması ve eylemlerine kaldığı yerden devam etmesi üzerine tekrar görevinin başına dönmesi ve bu cinayetleri çözmesi için çağrılır.

Dizinin diğer bir ana karakteri Ali (Haluk Bilginer)  Nevzat'ın hem çocukluk hem de iş arkadaşıdır. Mesleğinde o da Nevzat kadar iyidir ancak Nevzat'tan farklı olarak o sezgilerini dinlemekten çok kanıtlar ve delillerle karar vermeyi tercih eden bir yapıya sahiptir. Aynı zamanda bekar olan Ali'nin hayatında sayısız kadın vardır. Annesi Dürnev Hanım (Altan Karındaş) ise, deli dolu neşeli ve herkesin saygı duyduğu bir kadındır. Aynı zamanda hikâyenin anlatıcısıdır.

Çocukken Kalamış'ta beraber büyüyen üç arkadaştır  Nevzat, Ali ve Fikret. Fikret (Köksal Engür) sancılı bir çocukluk dönemi geçirmiştir. Buna neden olan olay da annesinin çektiği sıkıntılara daha fazla dayanamayarak herkesin ve de oğlu Fikret'in gözleri önünde kendini yakmasıdır. Fikret, çocukluğundan beri Mualla'yı sevmektedir ancak Mualla'nın tercihi Nevzat'tan yana olmuştur ve Fikret de çaresiz bir başkasıyla evlenmiştir. Karısı Saime katilin ilk ortaya çıktığı dönemdeki kurbanlarından biridir ve bu olay Fikret'i çok sarsmıştır. Diğer arkadaşları gibi polis olmamasına rağmen, Fikret de en az onlar kadar katilin yakalanmasını istemektedir. Maddi durumu oldukça elverişli olmasına rağmen Fikret koltuk değnekleri kullanarak yürüyebilmektedir ve bu rahatsızlığının tedavi ile geçme şansı yoktur.

Oyuncu kadrosu  ve karakterler

 Uğur Yücel  -  Nevzat
 Haluk Bilginer  -  Ali
 Köksal Engür  -  Fikret
 Altan Karındaş  -  Dürnev
 Devin Özgür Çınar  -  İdil
 Laçin Ceylan  -  Yasemin
 Naz Erayda  -  Mualla
 Hale Akınlı  -  Mualla'nın annesi
 Selin Gülel  -  Gazeteci Kız

Notlar
 Dizi, daha uzun sürmesi planlanmışken düşük reytingleri nedeniyle sekiz bölümün sonunda bitirilmek zorunda kalmıştır. Ancak, hem yayınlandığı dönemde hem tekrar yayınlarında, Türk televizyonları için alışılmışın dışında olan polisiye öyküsü, derinlikli karakterleri, bu karakterlerin incelikli şekilde işlenişi ve başarılı oyunculardan oluşan kadrosuyla dikkat çekmiştir.
 Uzun yıllar oyunculuğuyla tanınmış olan Uğur Yücel'in İkinci Bahar'ın ilk sekiz bölümünden sonra yönettiği ilk dizidir.
 Dizinin yayınlanmasından sonra, Ahmet Ümit, yine Nevzat ve Ali adındaki kahramanların çeşitli suçları araştırmasını konu alan öykülerden oluşan Şeytan Ayrıntıda Gizlidir adlı polisiye kitabı yayınlamıştır. Bu kitaptan uyarlanan Cevdet Mercan'ın yönettiği dizide Nevzat'ı Çetin Tekindor, Ali'yi ise, Nejat İşler oynamıştır.

TV dizisi taslakları
Türk polisiye televizyon dizileri
2001'de başlayan Türk televizyon dizileri
2001'de sona eren Türk televizyon dizileri
TRT dizileri
2000'lerde Türkçe televizyon dizileri

Karanlıkta Koşanlar


Florina Maria Chintoan (født d. 6. december 1985) er en kvindelig rumænsk håndboldspiller som spiller for CS Gloria Bistrița-Năsăud og tidligere Rumæniens kvindehåndboldlandshold.

Referencer

Håndboldspillere fra Rumænien

Florina Chintoan


Franjo Giler (Srijemska Mitrovica, 1. rujna 1907. – Vršac, 20. prosinca 1943.) bio je hrvatski nogometaš njemačkog podrijetla i nogometni reprezentativac.

Reprezentativna karijera
Za nogometnu reprezentaciju Kraljevine Jugoslavije odigrao je 14 utakmica i postigao 3 pogotka.

Izvori

Hrvatski nogometaši
Jugoslavenski nogometni reprezentativci
Životopisi, Srijemska Mitrovica

Franjo Giler


سير غواين والفارس الأخضر  رومانس فروسي مكتوب بالإنكليزية الوسطى في أواخر القرن الرابع عشر يحكي مغامرة سير غواين أحد فرسان الطاولة المستديرة الذين كانوا مع الملك آرثر. في الحكاية، يقبل سير غواين تحدياً من محاربٍ غامض جلده أخضر وكذلك شعره ولحيته وثيابه. يعرض الفارس الأخضر أن يسمح لأيٍ كان بأن يضرب عنقه بالفأس على أن يتلقى المتحدي الضربة ذاتها في سنة ويوم. يقبل غواين التحديث ويقطع رأس الفارس الأخضر بضربة واحدة، ليقف الفارس الأخضر ويلتقط رأسه، ويُذكر غواين بأن يُقابله في الموعد المحدد. وتُظهر قصة صراع غواين لمقابلة الفارس الأخضر في الموعد المُحدد ومغامراته طوال الطريق روح الفروسية والولاء.

نجت القصيدة في مخطوطة واحدة: كوتن نيرو إيه. إكس'' التي تتضمن كذلك ثلاثة أعمالٍ دينية: اللؤلؤة والطهارة والصبر. ويُعتقد أن هذه الأعمال قد كُتبت بواسطة المؤلف المجهول نفسه الذي سُمي «شاعر اللؤلؤة» أو «شاعر غواين». جميع القصائد السردية مكتوبة بلهجة شمال غرب ميدلاند الإنكليزية الوسطى. لذلك تأتي القصة من التقاليد الإنكليزية والويلزية لتلك المنطقة، مستعيرة من قصص «ألعاب قطع الرأس» السابقة، ومظهرة أهمية الشرف والفروسية في مواجهة الخطر.

بالإضافة إلى حبكتها المعقدة ولغتها الغنية، فإن أهمية القصيدة الرئيسية للنقاد الأدبيين تأتي من استخدامها المعقد لرمزية القرون الوسطى. كل شيء في القصيدة من الفارس الأخضر إلى لعبة قطع الرأس إلى المنطقة التي أُعطيت لغواين للحماية من الفأس رموز غنية متجذرة في التقاليد الثقافية للشعوب الكلتية والجرمانية، ويُفسرها البعض بأنها إشارات إلى الرجل الأخضر في الأسطورة الكلتية والخضر في التراث الإسلامي، كما يفسرها آخرون بأنها إشارات إلى المسيح.

سير غواين والفارس الأخضر قصيدة مهمة لنوع الرومانس الذي يحكي غالباً عن بطلٍ يذهب في رحلة تختبر قدراته. مع ذلك، يجعل التباس النهاية القصيدة أكثر تعقيداً من معظم أدب الرومانس. ترى القراءات المسيحية للقصيدة وجود تفسير متعلق بالقيامة فيها، مستنتجة بعض التماثلات بين سير غواين وليدي برتيلاك من جهة، وبين قصة آدم وحواء من جهة أخرى. بينما تختلف التفسيرات النسوية للقصيدة فيما بينها، حيث يرى بعضها أن النساء في القصيدة مسيطرات منذ البداية إلى النهاية، بينما ترى دراساتٌ نسوية أخرى أن السيطرة النسوية مجرد وهم. يرى النقاد الثقافيون أن القصيدة ينبغي أن تقرأ كتعبير عن توتر العلاقات بين الشعبين الويلزي والإنكليزي الذي كان موجوداً في إقليم الكاتب. تبقى القصيدة شعبية إلى اليوم من خلال الترجمات التي قام بها كتاب معروفون مثل ج. ر. ر. تولكين وسيمون آرميتاج، بالإضافة إلى تكييفها للسينما والمسرح مراتٍ عديدة.

مصادر

أعمال مجهولة المؤلف
الأسطورة الآرثرية
الخنازير في الثقافة الشعبية
النظام الأمومي
روايات تجري أحداثها في المملكة المتحدة
قصائد القرن 14
قصائد سردية
كتب القرن 14
كتب فروسية

سير غواين والفارس الأخضر


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