Nostaljik tramvay, şehir içi yolcu taşımacılığının yanı sıra, tarihi, kültürel ve turistik amaçlı işletilen raylı sistem. Genellikle kâr amacı gütmeyen tarihi raylı sistemlerin ana amacı geçmişte ulaşımın nasıl olduğuna dair bir tarih bilinci oluşturmaktır.

Tarihçe
Nostaljik tramvay (İngilizce heritage trolley ya da vintage trolley olarak bilinir) terimi yaklaşık 1900-1950 yılları arasında tasarlanmış ve kullanılmış tramvayların günümüzdeki nostaljik kullanımını ifade eder ve ilk olarak 1950'lerde Birleşik Krallık'ta ortaya çıkmıştır.  Bu tramvaylar 20. yüzyılın ilk yarısına ait eski tramvayların görünümünü ve teknik özelliklerini bozmadan günümüzde yapılan taklitleri olduğu gibi o günlerden kalan gerçek tramvayların restore edilmiş biçimleri de olabilirler.

Tasarım ve özellikler

Nostaljik tramvaylar; küçük, tekli vagon tasarımı (vagon gövdesine kendi etrafında dönmeyecek şekilde sabitlenmiş iki aks olarak) ve daha geniş çiftli vagon tasarımı (dört akslı, her iki vagonda da bir aks kendi etrafında dönecek  bir aks da sabit olacak şekilde) olarak ikiye ayrılır. Tekli olanların uzunluğu genellikle 9 metreden azdır ve 25-30 koltuk kapasitelidir. Cadde tramvayları 1890 yıllarındaki orijinal elektrifikasyon modellerinden, yaklaşık bir on yıl sonra çiftli modellerinin geliştirilmesine kadar tekli vagon olarak kullanılmıştır. 20. yüzyılın başlarında pek çoğu ya kaybolmuştur ya da önemini yitirmiştir. I. Dünya Savaşı sırasında Birney Safety Car sunumuyla birlikte daha modern, daha hafif ve tek kişinin kullanabileceği (önceleri makinist ve kondüktör olmak üzere iki kişilik mürettebatı vardır) modelleriyle tekrar popüler oldular ve küçük kasabalarda yıllarca kullanılmaya devam ettiler. Çiftli modelleri ise genellikle 10- 15 metre uzunluğunda olup 45-70 koltuk kapasitelidir ve 20. yüzyıl boyunca kullanılan tramvayların atası olarak kabul edilirler.

Tramvaylar tepelerinden geçen tellerden aldıkları 600 voltluk elektrik ile çalışırlar. Doğru akımlı bu elektriğin güç merkezine geri dönüşü raylar aracılığı ile olur.Bu tramvaylar eski modellerde akslara paralel ve yeni modellerde akslara dik olarak monte edilmiş iki ya da dört motora sahiptirler. Fren sistemleri basınçlı havayla çalışır. Frenlemeyi sağlayacak basınçlı hava elektrikli kompresörlerle elde edilir.

Bazı alanlarda vintage trolley terimi günümüzde düzenli servis yapan orijinal vagonları, heritage trolley terimi ise kopya ya da taklit tramvayları belirtmek için kullanılsa da, bu kelimeler çoğu zaman aynı anlamı ifade eder.

Ülkelere göre nostaljik tramvaylar

Amerika Birleşik Devletleri

Kökenleri Birleşik Krallık'a dayansa da, nostaljik tramvaylar popülaritesini ABD'de kazanmıştır. ABD'nin pek çok şehrinde tarihi cadde tramvayı olarak da tanımlanabilecek nostaljik tramvay hatları modern hafif raylı sistemlerinin yanında yerlerini almıştır. Diğer bölgelerde olduğu gibi Amerika'daki destekçilerinin amacı da eski tarihi ulaşım yöntemlerini 21. yüzyıla getirmektir. Bununla beraber, pek çok nostaljik tramvay hattının kurulum maliyeti, daha yeni hatlar ile kıyaslandığında daha azdır. Tarihi tip tramvaylar, sonradan modifiye edilmediği takdirde engelli bireylerin kullanımına uygun değildir.

Bu sistemler ABD'de yirmiden fazla şehirde yer almaktadır ve yapım aşamasında olan kırk tane daha bulunmaktadır. Şu anda işleyen nostaljik tramvay sistemleri arasında Little Rock, Arkansas, Memphis, Tennessee, New Orleans, Louisiana, Philadelphia, Tampa ve Florida'da yer alanları en büyükleri arasındadır. Bir nostaljik hat da günümüzde Charlotte, Kuzey Karolina'da tamamlanmıştır ve şehrin yeni ulaşım sisteminin bir parçası olmak üzeredir.

Birleşik Krallık

Nostaljik tramvay fikri ilk olarak muhtemelen 1950 yılında Galler yöresinde tamamen gönüllüler tarafından kurtarılan ve işletilen Talyllyn Nostaljik Treni ile atıldı. Bir grup heveslisinin attığı bu ilk adımlar geçmişin korunması hareketinin başlangıcı kabul edilmekle birlikte günümüze yüzlerce nostaljik hat kazandırdı.

İngiltere'deki tarihi tramvay hatlarının çok büyük bir kısmı Nostalji Hareketi başlamadan önce kaldırılmış, raylar ve tramvaylar hurdaya çıkarılmıştır. Tramvaylar günümüzde İngiltere şehirlerine geri dönüyor olmasına rağmen, bu araçlar tarihi olmayıp modern tramvaylardır.

Hong Kong
Hong Kong'daki Hong Kong Tramvayları da Hong Kong kültür mirasının bir parçası olarak görülmektedir.

Türkiye

Türkiye'de hizmet vermekte olan nostaljik tramvayları 37 yıl aradan sonra tekrar hizmete giren T3 (Kadıköy - Moda) Nostaljik Ring Tramvay Hattı ve Beyoğlu'ndaki T2 (Taksim - Tünel) Nostaljik Tramvay Hattı oluşturur.
1 Kasım 2003 tarihinde hizmete giren Kadıköy-Moda Tramvayı'nda 2.6 km'lik sistemde 10 istasyon yer almaktadır. 4 adet tramvay aracının çalıştığı Kadıköy-Moda tramvayı; Kadıköy meydanından hareket edip, otobüs özel yolu ve Bahariye Caddesi'ni takip ederek Moda Caddesi üzerinden tekrar Kadıköy Meydanı'na gelmektedir. Hattın tur süresi 205 dakikadır.

1990 yılının sonlarında Taksim - Tünel arasında tarihi tramvay tekrar işletmeye alınmış olup halen 3 motris (çekici), 2 vagon ile 1640 m'lik hat üzerinde turistik bir işlev görmesinin yanında yılda 14.600 sefer ve 23.944 km yaparak günlük ortalama 6,000 yolcu taşımaktadır.

Kaynakça

 İstanbul.net.tr sitesi
 İngilizce nostaljik tramvay hakkında bir sayfa

Tramvaylar

Nostaljik tramvay


Camel case (stylized as camelCase or CamelCase; also known as camel caps or more formally as medial capitals) is the practice of writing compound words or phrases such that each word or abbreviation in the middle of the phrase begins with a capital letter, with no intervening spaces or punctuation. Common examples include "iPhone ", "eBay", "FedEx", "DreamWorks", "HarperCollins", "iCarly", "WordWorld", and "WordGirl". It is also sometimes used in online usernames such as "JohnSmith", and to make multi-word domain names more legible, for example in advertisements.

Some systems prefer camelcase with the first letter capitalised, others not. For clarity, this article calls the two alternatives upper camel case (initial upper case letter, also known as Pascal case) and lower camel case (initial lower case letter). Some people and organizations, notably Microsoft, use the term camel case only for lower camel case.  Pascal case means only upper camel case.

Camel case is distinct from Title Case, which capitalises all words but retains the spaces between them, and from Tall Man lettering, which uses capitals to emphasize the differences between similar-looking words such as "predniSONE" and "predniSOLONE.

The name "CamelCase" is not related to the "Camel Book", the popular nickname of the book Programming Perl due to the picture of a camel on its cover, which uses all-lowercase identifiers with underscores (sometimes called snake case) in its sample code.

Variations and synonyms

The original name of the practice, used in media studies, grammars and the Oxford English Dictionary, was "medial capitals". Other names such as "InterCaps" or "CamelCase" are relatively recent and more common in computer-related communities. Other synonyms include:

 BumpyCaps
 NerdCaps
 camelBack (or camel-back) notation or CamelCaps
 CapitalizedWords or CapWords for upper camel case in Python
 compoundNames
 Embedded Caps (or Embedded Capitals)
 HumpBack (or hump-back) notation

 InterCaps or intercapping (abbreviation of Internal Capitalization)
 mixedCase for lower camel case in Python
 PascalCase for upper camel case (after the Pascal programming language)
 Smalltalk case
 Turtle case
 WikiWord or WikiCase (especially in older wikis)
 StudlyCaps includes even randomly mixed capitalization, as in MiXeD CaPitALiZaTioN (typically a stereotyped allusion to online culture), and thus encompasses both styles of camel case.

The earliest known occurrence of the term "InterCaps" on Usenet is in an April 1990 post to the group alt.folklore.computers by Avi Rappoport. The earliest use of the name "CamelCase" occurs in 1995, in a post by Newton Love. Love has since said, "With the advent of programming languages having these sorts of constructs, the humpiness of the style made me call it HumpyCase at first, before I settled on CamelCase. I had been calling it CamelCase for years. ... The citation above was just the first time I had used the name on USENET."

Traditional use in natural language

In word combinations
The use of medial capitals as a convention in the regular spelling of everyday texts is rare, but is used in some languages as a solution to particular problems which arise when two words or segments are combined.

In Italian, pronouns can be suffixed to verbs, and because the honorific form of second-person pronouns is capitalized, this can produce a sentence like non ho trovato il tempo di risponderLe ("I haven't found time to answer you" - where Le means "you").

In German, the medial capital letter I, called Binnen-I, is sometimes used in a word like StudentInnen ("students") to indicate that both Studenten ("male students") and Studentinnen ("female students") are intended simultaneously. However, mid-word capitalisation does not conform to German orthography; the previous example could be correctly written using parentheses as Student(inn)en, analogous to "congress(wo)man" in English.

In Irish, camelcase is used when an inflectional prefix is attached to a proper noun, for example  ("in Galway"), from  ("Galway");   ("the Scottish person"), from  ("Scottish person"); and  ("to Ireland"), from  ("Ireland"). In recent Scots Gaelic orthography, a hyphen has been inserted: .

This convention is also used by several written Bantu languages (e.g., kiSwahili, "Swahili language"; isiZulu, "Zulu language") and several indigenous languages of Mexico (e.g. Nahuatl, Totonacan, Mixe–Zoque, and some Oto-Manguean languages).

In Dutch the letter J is capitalized if it is immediately preceded by a capital I, for example in the countryname IJsland.

In English, medial capitals are usually only found in Scottish or Irish "Mac-" or "Mc-" names, where for example MacDonald, McDonald, and Macdonald are common spelling variants of the same name, and in Anglo-Norman "Fitz-" names, where for example both FitzGerald and Fitzgerald are found.

In their English style guide The King's English, first published in 1906, H. W. and F. G. Fowler suggested that medial capitals could be used in triple compound words where hyphens would cause ambiguity—the examples they give are KingMark-like (as against King Mark-like) and Anglo-SouthAmerican (as against Anglo-South American). However, they described the system as "too hopelessly contrary to use at present."

In transliterations

In the scholarly transliteration of languages written in other scripts, medial capitals are used in similar situations. For example, in transliterated Hebrew, haIvri means "the Hebrew person" and biYerushalayim means "in Jerusalem".  In Tibetan proper names like rLobsang, the "r" stands for a prefix glyph in the original script that functions as tone marker rather than a normal letter. Another example is tsIurku, a Latin transcription of the Chechen term for the capping stone of the characteristic Medieval defensive towers of Chechenia and Ingushetia; the capital letter "I" here denoting a phoneme distinct from the one transcribed as "i".

In abbreviations
Medial capitals are traditionally used in abbreviations to reflect the capitalization that the words would have when written out in full, for example in the academic titles PhD or BSc. In German, the names to statutes are abbreviated using embedded capitals, e.g. StGB (Strafgesetzbuch) for Criminal Code, PatG (Patentgesetz) for Patent Act, BVerfG (Bundesverfassungsgericht) for Federal Constitutional Court, or the very common GmbH (Gesellschaft mit beschränkter Haftung) for Company with Limited Liability. In this context, there can even be three or more "CamelCase" capitals, e.g. in TzBfG for Teilzeit- und Befristungsgesetz (Act on Part-Time and Limited Term Occupations). In French, camel case acronyms such as OuLiPo (1960) were favored for a time as alternatives to initialisms.

Camel case is often used to transliterate initialisms into alphabets where two letters may be required to represent a single character of the original alphabet, e.g., DShK from Cyrillic ДШК.

History of modern technical use

Chemical formulae
The first systematic and widespread use of medial capitals for technical purposes was the notation for chemical formulae invented by the Swedish chemist Jacob Berzelius in 1813. To replace the multitude of naming and symbol conventions used by chemists until that time, he proposed to indicate each chemical element by a symbol of one or two letters, the first one being capitalized. The capitalization allowed formulae like "NaCl" to be written without spaces and still be parsed without ambiguity.

Berzelius' system continues to be used, augmented with three-letter symbols such as "Uue" for unconfirmed or unknown elements and abbreviations for some common substituents (especially in the field of organic chemistry, for instance "Et" for "ethyl-"). This has been further extended to describe the amino acid sequences of proteins and other similar domains.

Early use in trademarks
Since the early 20th century, medial capitals have occasionally been used for corporate names and product trademarks, such as
 DryIce Corporation (1925) marketed the solid form of carbon dioxide (CO2) as "Dry Ice", thus leading to its common name.
 CinemaScope and VistaVision, rival widescreen movie formats (1953)
 ShopKo (1962)
 MisteRogers, the Canadian version of Mister Rogers' Neighborhood (1962)
 AstroTurf (1967)
 ConAgra, formerly Consolidated Mills (1971).

Computer programming

In the 1970s and 1980s, medial capitals were adopted as a standard or alternative naming convention for multi-word identifiers in several programming languages. The precise origin of the convention in computer programming has not yet been settled. A 1954 conference proceedings occasionally informally referred to IBM's Speedcoding system as "SpeedCo". Christopher Strachey's paper on GPM (1965), shows a program that includes some medial capital identifiers, including "NextCh" and "WriteSymbol".

Multiple-word descriptive identifiers with embedded spaces such as end of file or char table cannot be used in most programming languages because the spaces between the words would be parsed as delimiters between tokens. The alternative of running the words together as in endoffile or chartable is difficult to understand and possibly misleading; for example, chartable is an English word (able to be charted).

Some early programming languages, notably Lisp (1958) and COBOL (1959), addressed this problem by allowing a hyphen ("-") to be used between words of compound identifiers, as in "END-OF-FILE": Lisp because it worked well with prefix notation (a Lisp parser would not treat a hyphen in the middle of a symbol as a subtraction operator) and COBOL because its operators were individual English words. This convention remains in use in these languages, and is also common in program names entered on a command line, as in Unix.

However, this solution was not adequate for mathematically-oriented languages such as FORTRAN (1955) and ALGOL (1958), which used the hyphen as an infix subtraction operator. These early languages instead allowed identifiers to contain unrestricted embedded spaces, determining the end of the identifier by context. This approach was abandoned in later languages due to the complexity it adds to tokenization. (FORTRAN initially restricted identifiers to no more than six characters, effectively preventing multi-word identifiers except those made of very short words, such as "GO TO"="GOTO".)

Exacerbating the problem, common punched card character sets of the time were uppercase only and lacked other special characters. It was only in the late 1960s that the widespread adoption of the ASCII character set made both lower case and the underscore character _ universally available. Some languages, notably C, promptly adopted underscores as word separators, and identifiers such as end_of_file are still prevalent in C programs and libraries (as well as in later languages influenced by C, such as Perl and Python). However, some languages and programmers chose to avoid underscores—among other reasons to prevent confusing them with whitespace—and adopted camel case instead.

Charles Simonyi, who worked at Xerox PARC in the 1970s and later oversaw the creation of Microsoft's Office suite of applications, invented and taught the use of Hungarian Notation, one version of which uses the lower case letter(s) at the start of a (capitalized) variable name to denote its type. One account claims that the camel case style first became popular at Xerox PARC around 1978, with the Mesa programming language developed for the Xerox Alto computer. This machine lacked an underscore key, and the hyphen and space characters were not permitted in identifiers, leaving camel case as the only viable scheme for readable multiword names. The PARC Mesa Language Manual (1979) included a coding standard with specific rules for upper and lower camel case that was strictly followed by the Mesa libraries and the Alto operating system.

The Smalltalk language, which was developed originally on the Alto and became quite popular in the early 1980s, may have been instrumental in spreading the style outside PARC. Camel case was also used by convention for many names in the PostScript page description language (invented by Adobe Systems founder and ex-PARC scientist John Warnock), as well as for the language itself. In addition, Niklaus Wirth, the inventor of Pascal, came to appreciate camel case during a sabbatical at PARC and used it in Modula, his next programming language.

Spread to mainstream usage
Whatever its origins within the computing world, the practice spread in the 1980s and 1990s, when the advent of the personal computer exposed hacker culture to the world. Camel case then became fashionable for corporate trade names, initially in technical fields; mainstream usage was well established by 1990:

 (1962) PolyGram, formerly one of the major labels of the music industry.
 (1971) AeroVironment
 (1976) InterCity 125
 (1977) CompuServe, UnitedHealthCare (now UnitedHealthcare).
 (1978) WordStar
 (1979) MasterCard, SportsCenter, VisiCalc
 (1980) EchoStar
 (1982) MicroProse, WordPerfect
 (1983) NetWare
 (1984) BellSouth, LaserJet, MacWorks, iDEN
 (1985) PageMaker, EastEnders
 (1986) SpaceCamp
 (1987) ClarisWorks, HyperCard, PowerPoint
 (1990) HarperCollins, SeaTac, iconic WorldWideWeb

During the dot-com bubble of the late 1990s, the lowercase prefixes "e" (for "electronic") and "i" (for "Internet", "information", "intelligent", etc.) became quite common, giving rise to names like Apple's iMac and the eBox software platform.

In 1998, Dave Yost suggested that chemists use medial capitals to aid readability of long chemical names, e.g. write AmidoPhosphoRibosylTransferase instead of amidophosphoribosyltransferase. This usage was not widely adopted.

Camelcase is sometimes used for abbreviated names of certain neighborhoods, e.g. New York City neighborhoods SoHo (South of Houston Street) and TriBeCa (Triangle Below Canal Street) and San Francisco's SoMa (South of Market). Such usages erode quickly, so the neighborhoods are now typically rendered as Soho, Tribeca, and Soma.

Internal capitalization has also been used for other technical codes like HeLa (1983).

Current usage in computing

Programming and coding

The use of medial caps for compound identifiers is recommended by the coding style guidelines of many organizations or software projects. For some languages (such as Mesa, Pascal, Modula, Java and Microsoft's .NET) this practice is recommended by the language developers or by authoritative manuals and has therefore become part of the language's "culture".

Style guidelines often distinguish between upper and lower camel case, typically specifying which variety should be used for specific kinds of entities: variables, record fields, methods, procedures, types, etc. These rules are sometimes supported by static analysis tools that check source code for adherence.

The original Hungarian notation for programming, for example, specifies that a lowercase abbreviation for the "usage type" (not data type) should prefix all variable names, with the remainder of the name in upper camel case; as such it is a form of lower camel case.

Programming identifiers often need to contain acronyms and initialisms that are already in upper case, such as "old HTML file". By analogy with the title case rules, the natural camel case rendering would have the abbreviation all in upper case, namely "oldHTMLFile". However, this approach is problematic when two acronyms occur together (e.g., "parse DBM XML" would become "parseDBMXML") or when the standard mandates lower camel case but the name begins with an abbreviation (e.g. "SQL server" would become "sQLServer"). For this reason, some programmers prefer to treat abbreviations as if they were lower case words and write "oldHtmlFile", "parseDbmXml" or "sqlServer". However, this can make it harder to recognise that a given word is intended as an acronym.

Wiki link markup
Camel case is used in some wiki markup languages for terms that should be automatically linked to other wiki pages. This convention was originally used in Ward Cunningham's original wiki software, WikiWikiWeb, and can be activated in most other wikis. Some wiki engines such as TiddlyWiki, Trac and PmWiki make use of it in the default settings, but usually also provide a configuration mechanism or plugin to disable it. Wikipedia formerly used camel case linking as well, but switched to explicit link markup using square brackets and many other wiki sites have done the same. Some wikis that do not use camel case linking may still use the camel case as a naming convention, such as AboutUs.

Other uses
The NIEM registry requires that XML data elements use upper camel case and XML attributes use lower camel case.

Most popular command-line interfaces and scripting languages cannot easily handle file names that contain embedded spaces (usually requiring the name to be put in quotes). Therefore, users of those systems often resort to camel case (or underscores, hyphens and other "safe" characters) for compound file names like MyJobResume.pdf.

Microblogging and social networking sites that limit the number of characters in a message (most famously Twitter, where the 140-character limit can be quite restrictive in languages that rely on alphabets, including English) are potential outlets for medial capitals. Using camel case between words reduces the number of spaces, and thus the number of characters, in a given message, allowing more content to fit into the limited space. Hashtags, especially long ones, often use camel case to maintain readability (e.g. #CollegeStudentProblems is easier to read than #collegestudentproblems).

In website URLs, spaces are percent-encoded as "%20", making the address longer and less human readable. By omitting spaces, camel case does not have this problem.

Readability studies
Camel case has been criticised as negatively impacting readability due to the removal of spaces and uppercasing of every word.

A 2009 study comparing snake case to camel case found that camel case identifiers could be recognised with higher accuracy among both programmers and non-programmers, and that programmers already trained in camel case were able to recognise those identifiers faster than underscored snake-case identifiers.

A 2010 follow-up study, under the same conditions but using an improved measurement method with use of eye-tracking equipment, indicates: "While results indicate no difference in accuracy between the two styles, subjects recognize identifiers in the underscore style more quickly."

See also
All caps
Capitalization
Caps lock
Shift key
Small caps
Unicase

References

External links

 Examples and history of CamelCase, also WordsSmashedTogetherLikeSo
 .NET Framework General Reference Capitalization Styles
 What's in a nAME(cq)?, by Bill Walsh, at The Slot
 The Science of Word Recognition, by Kevin Larson, Advanced Reading Technology, Microsoft Corporation
 Convert text to CamelCase
 OASIS Cover Pages: CamelCase for Naming XML-Related Components
 Convert text to CamelCase, Title Case, Uppercase and lowercase

CamelCase


Ce nom peut désigner :
 Mark Burns (acteur)
 Mark Burns (pasteur)

Mark Burns


Ellingsrudåsen Station (Ellingsrudåsen stasjon) er en metrostation, der siden sin åbning 8. november 1981 har været endestation for Furusetbanen på T-banen i Oslo.

Stationen ligger 165,2 meter over havet men under jorden med naturlige fjeldvægge. Adgang til stationen sker via elevatorer fra Ellingsrud senter eller via en lang gangtunnel fra Munkebekken.

Eksterne henvisninger

T-banestationer i Oslo
Etableret i 1981

Ellingsrudåsen Station


Henry Gustav Molaison (February 26, 1926 – December 2, 2008), known widely as H.M., was an American who had a bilateral medial temporal lobectomy to surgically resect the anterior two thirds of his hippocampi, parahippocampal cortices, entorhinal cortices, piriform cortices, and amygdalae in an attempt to cure his epilepsy. Although the surgery was partially successful in controlling his epilepsy, a severe side effect was that he became unable to form new memories.

A childhood bicycle accident is often advanced as the likely cause of H.M's epilepsy. H.M. began to have minor seizures at age 10; from 16 years of age, the seizures became major. Despite high doses of anticonvulsant medication, H.M.'s seizures were incapacitating. When he was 27, H.M. was offered an experimental procedure by neurosurgeon, W.B. Scoville. Previously Scoville had only ever performed the surgery on psychotic patients.

The surgery took place in 1953 and H.M. was widely studied from late 1957 until his death in 2008. He resided in a care institute in Windsor Locks, Connecticut, where he was the subject of ongoing investigation. His case played an important role in the development of theories that explain the link between brain function and memory, and in the development of cognitive neuropsychology, a branch of psychology that aims to understand how the structure and function of the brain relates to specific psychological processes.

Molaison's brain was kept at University of California, San Diego where it was sliced into histological sections on December 4, 2009. It was later moved to The MIND Institute at UC Davis. The brain atlas constructed was made publicly available in 2014.

Biography

Henry Molaison was born on February 26, 1926, in Manchester, Connecticut, and experienced intractable epilepsy that has sometimes been attributed to a bicycle accident at the age of seven. He had minor or partial seizures for many years, and then  major or tonic-clonic seizures following his 16th birthday. He worked for a time on an assembly line but, by the age of 27, he had become so incapacitated by his seizures, despite high doses of anticonvulsant medication, that he could not work nor lead a normal life.

In 1953, Molaison was referred to William Beecher Scoville, a neurosurgeon at Hartford Hospital. Scoville localized his epilepsy to the left and right medial temporal lobes (MTLs) and suggested their surgical resection. On September 1, 1953, Scoville removed Molaison's medial temporal lobes on both hemispheres including the hippocampi and most of the amygdalae and entorhinal cortex, the major sensory input to the hippocampi. His hippocampi appeared entirely nonfunctional because the remaining 2 cm of hippocampal tissue appeared to have atrophied and some of his anterolateral temporal cortex was also destroyed.

After the surgery, which was partially successful in controlling his seizures, Molaison developed severe anterograde amnesia: although his working memory and procedural memory were intact, he could not commit new events to his explicit memory. According to some scientists, he was impaired in his ability to form new semantic knowledge.

Researchers argue over the extent of this impairment. He also had moderate retrograde amnesia, and could not remember most events in the one- to two-year period before surgery, nor some events up to 11 years before, meaning that his amnesia was temporally graded.

His case was first reported by Scoville and Brenda Milner in 1957, who referred to him by "H.M." His full name was not revealed to the wider public until after his death. While researchers had told him of the significance of his condition and of his renown within the world of neurological research, he was unable to internalize such facts as memories.

Near the end of his life, Molaison regularly filled in crossword puzzles. He was able to fill in answers to clues that referred to pre-1953 knowledge. For post-1953 information he was able to modify old memories with new information. For instance, he could add a memory about Jonas Salk by modifying his memory of polio.

Insights into memory formation
Molaison was influential not only for the knowledge he provided about memory impairment and amnesia, but also because it was thought his exact brain surgery allowed a good understanding of how particular areas of the brain may be linked to specific processes hypothesized to occur in memory formation. In this way, his case was taken to provide information about brain pathology, and helped to form theories of normal memory function.

In particular, his apparent ability to complete tasks that require recall from short-term memory and procedural memory but not long-term episodic memory suggests that recall from these memory systems may be mediated, at least in part, by different areas of the brain. Similarly, his ability to recall long-term memories that existed well before his surgery, but inability to create new long-term memories, suggests that encoding and retrieval of long-term memory information may also be mediated by distinct systems.

Nevertheless, imaging of Molaison's brain in the late 1990s revealed the extent of damage was more widespread than previous theories had accounted for, making it very hard to identify any one particular region or even isolated set of regions that were responsible for HM's deficits.

Contribution to science
The study of Molaison revolutionized the understanding of the organization of human memory. It has provided broad evidence for the rejection of old theories and the formation of new theories on human memory, in particular about its processes and the underlying neural structures (cf. Kolb & Whishaw, 1996). In the following, some of the major insights are outlined.

Molaison's brain was the subject of an anatomical study funded by the Dana Foundation and the National Science Foundation. The aim of the project, headed by Jacopo Annese, of The Brain Observatory at UC San Diego, was to provide a complete microscopic survey of the entire brain to reveal the neurological basis of Molaison's historical memory impairment at cellular resolution. On December 4, 2009, Annese's group acquired 2401 brain slices, with only two damaged slices and 16 potentially problematic slices. The digital 3D reconstruction of his brain was finished at the beginning of 2014.

The results of the study were published in Nature Communications for January 2014. The researchers found, to their surprise, that half of H.M.'s hippocampal tissue had survived the 1953 surgery, which has deep implications on past and future interpretations of H.M.'s neurobehavioral profile and of the previous literature describing H.M. as a "pure" hippocampus lesion patient. Additionally, a previously unexpected discrete lesion was discovered in the prefrontal cortex. These findings suggest revisiting raw data from behavioral testing. A three-dimensional virtual model of the brain allowed the dynamics of the surgery to be reconstructed; it was found that the brain damage above the left orbit could have been created by Dr. Scoville when he lifted the frontal lobe to reach into the medial temporal lobes.

The article also describes the general neuropathological state of the brain via multiple imaging modalities. As H.M. was 82 when he died, his brain had aged considerably. Several pathological features were discovered, some severe, which had contributed to his cognitive decline.

The digital atlas of HM's brain was made publicly available on the Internet free of charge.

Amnesia

Molaison's general condition has been described as heavy anterograde amnesia, as well as temporally graded retrograde amnesia.  Since Molaison did not show any memory impairment before the surgery, the removal of the medial temporal lobes can be held responsible for his memory disorder. Consequently, the medial temporal lobes can be assumed to be a major component involved in the formation of semantic and episodic long-term memories (cf. medial temporal lobes described as a convergence zone for episodic encoding in Smith & Kosslyn, 2007). Further evidence for this assumption has been gained by studies of other patients with lesions of their medial temporal lobe structures.

Despite his amnesic symptoms, Molaison performed quite normally in tests of intellectual ability, indicating that some memory functions (e.g., short-term memories, stores for words, phonemes, etc.) were not impaired by the surgery. However, for sentence-level language comprehension and production, Molaison exhibited the same deficits and sparing as in memory. Molaison was able to remember information over short intervals of time. This was tested in a working memory experiment involving the recall of previously presented numbers; in fact, his performance was no worse than that of control subjects (Smith & Kosslyn, 2007). This finding provides evidence that working memory does not rely on medial temporal structures. Molaison's largely intact word retrieval provides evidence that lexical memory is independent of the medial temporal structures.

Motor skill learning

In addition to his intact working memory and intellectual abilities, studies of Molaison's ability to acquire new motor skills contributed to a  demonstrated preserved motor learning (Corkin, 2002). In a study conducted by Milner in the early 1960s, Molaison acquired the new skill of drawing a figure by looking at its reflection in a mirror (Corkin, 2002). Specifically, H.M. was asked to trace a 3rd star in the narrow space between 2 concentric stars while only looking at a reflection of his paper and pencil in a mirror. Like most people performing this task for the first time, he did not do well and went outside the lines about 30 times. Milner had him do this task 10 times on each day and saw that the number of errors he made went down for each trial after the first. H.M. made about 20 errors on the second trial, 12 errors on the third, and by the 10th trial on the first day he only made about 5-6 errors. Each time H.M. performed the task, he improved even though he had no memory of the previous attempts or of ever doing the task. On the second day, he made significantly fewer errors for each trial on average, and on the third day he made almost no errors for each trial. Milner concluded that the unconscious motor centers and parts of the brain responsible for procedural implicit memory such as the basal ganglia and cerebellum can remember things that the conscious mind has forgotten. These structures were intact in H.M.'s brain, and thus he was able to do well on this task after repeated trials.

Further evidence for intact motor learning was provided in a study carried out by Corkin (1968). In this study, Molaison was tested on three motor learning tasks and demonstrated full motor learning abilities in all of them.

Experiments involving repetition priming underscored Molaison's ability to acquire implicit (non-conscious) memories, in contrast to his inability to acquire new explicit semantic and episodic memories (Corkin, 2002). These findings provide evidence that memory of skills and repetition priming rely on different neural structures than memories of episodes and facts; whereas procedural memory and repetition priming do not rely on the medial temporal structures removed from Molaison, semantic and episodic memory do (cf. Corkin, 1984).

The dissociation of Molaison's implicit and explicit learning abilities along their underlying neural structures has served as an important contribution to our understanding of human memory: Long-term memories are not unitary and can be differentiated as being either declarative or non-declarative (Smith & Kosslyn, 2007).

Spatial memory

According to Corkin (2002), studies of Molaison's memory abilities have also provided insights regarding the neural structures responsible for spatial memory and processing of spatial information. Despite his general inability to form new episodic or factual long-term memories, as well as his heavy impairment on certain spatial memory tests, Molaison was able to draw a quite detailed map of the topographical layout of his residence. This finding is remarkable since Molaison had moved to the house five years after his surgery and hence, given his severe anterograde amnesia and insights from other cases, the common expectation was that the acquisition of topographical memories would have been impaired as well. Corkin (2002) hypothesized that Molaison "was able to construct a cognitive map of the spatial layout of his house as the result of daily locomotion from room to room" (p. 156).

Regarding the underlying neural structures, Corkin (2002) argues that Molaison's ability to acquire the floor plan is due to partly intact structures of his spatial processing network (e.g., the posterior part of his parahippocampal gyrus). In addition to his topographical memory, Molaison showed some learning in a picture memorization-recognition task, as well as in a famous faces recognition test, but in the latter only when he was provided with a phonemic cue. Molaison's positive performance in the picture recognition task might be due to spared parts of his ventral perirhinal cortex.

Furthermore, Corkin (2002) argues that despite Molaison's general inability to form new declarative memories, he seemed to be able to acquire small and impoverished pieces of information regarding public life (e.g., cued retrieval of celebrities' names). These findings underscore the importance of Molaison's spared extrahippocampal sites in semantic and recognition memory and enhance our understanding of the interrelations between the different medial temporal lobe structures. Molaison's heavy impairment in certain spatial tasks provides further evidence for the association of the hippocampi with spatial memory (Kolb & Whishaw, 1996).

Memory consolidation
Another contribution of Molaison to understanding of human memory regards the neural structures of the memory consolidation process, which is responsible for forming stable long-term memories (Eysenck & Keane, 2005). Molaison displayed a temporally graded retrograde amnesia in the way that he "could still recall childhood memories, but he had difficulty remembering events that happened during the years immediately preceding the surgery". His old memories were not impaired, whereas the ones relatively close to the surgery were. This is evidence that the older childhood memories do not rely on the medial temporal lobe, whereas the more recent long-term memories seem to do so). The medial temporal structures, which were removed in the surgery, are hypothesized to be involved in the consolidation of memories in the way that "interactions between the medial temporal lobe and various lateral cortical regions are thought to store memories outside the medial temporal lobes by slowly forming direct links between the cortical representations of the experience".

Post-death controversy
On August 7, 2016, a New York Times article written by Luke Dittrich, grandson of Molaison's neurosurgeon William Beecher Scoville, raised a number of concerns about how Molaison's data and consent process had been conducted by the primary scientist investigating him, Suzanne Corkin. The article suggested that Corkin had destroyed research documents and data, and failed to obtain consent from Molaison's closest living kin. In response to the article, a group of over 200 leading neuroscientists signed a public letter arguing that the article was biased and misleading, and MIT published a rebuttal of some of the allegations in Dittrich's article. This was in turn rebutted by Dittrich, who provided a recording of the interview with Corkin, where she said she had destroyed large amounts of data and files specifically related to H.M.  A second rebuttal was issued on 20 of August 2016 responding to the criticism leveled against Corkin, including the fact that in this same recorded interview Corkin says that when moving lab locations in the past, other files and data had been discarded, while temporarily "We kept the H.M. stuff".

Psychologist Stuart Vyse writes about this controversy and the action of the two hundred scientists who responded to criticism of Corkin. Vyse states that in their rush to defend Corkin they risked their credibility and authority "by weighing in on subjects outside their circle of knowledge". The "signers responded very quickly" only two days after the release of the NYT article, they were not aware of the "specific claims of bias" and very few of the signers "could have had relevant knowledge of the facts". Consensus of the science is important, but the consensus should be based on actual knowledge of the subject and not as a reaction to "come to the defense of a beloved colleague".

See also
 Cognitive neuropsychology
 Kent Cochrane, a similar patient who lost episodic memory after a motorcycle crash
 Clive Wearing, whose amnesia appeared after an infection
 Phineas Gage, a 19th-century railroad worker who survived an accident where a metal rod went through his brain
 Cenn Fáelad mac Ailella, a 7th-century Irish scholar who developed an extremely strong memory after a head injury
 Dark Matters: Twisted But True, an episode featured Henry Molaison's case.
 S.M., a patient who lost her ability to fear due to bilateral amygdala destruction

Notes

References

Further reading

Articles

Textbooks

Full books
  Provides further discussion of the author's meetings with HM.

External links
 What happens when you remove the hippocampus? – TED-Ed video on HM case
 The Day His World Stood Still – Article on HM from Brain Connection
 H.M.'s Brain and the History of Memory – NPR Piece on HM
 HM – The Man Who Couldn't Remember – BBC Radio 4 documentary, broadcast on August 11, 2010.  Features interviews with HM himself and his carers, Dr Brenda Milner, Professor Suzanne Corkin, and Dr Jacopo Annese
 Remembering Henry Molaison, the Man Who Kept Forgetting, Science Friday, August 12, 2016
 The Untold Story of Neuroscience's Most Famous Brain, Wired, August 9, 2016
 Project H.M. – The Brain Observatory
 Remembering: What 50 Years of Research with Famous Amnesia Patient H.M. Can Teach Us about Memory and How it Works (2019) Donald G. MacKay professor emeritus of psychology at UCLA and founder of its Cognition and Aging Lab. "New and Notable". Skeptical Inquirer. 43 (4): 62–63. 2019.

1926 births
2008 deaths
American people with disabilities
People from Hartford, Connecticut
People with epilepsy
People with amnesia
Deaths from respiratory failure
People with brain injuries
Famous patients
20th-century American people

Henry Molaison


Meiogyne, biljni rod porodice Annonaceae smješten u tribus  	Miliuseae, dio potporodice Malmeoideae. Na popisu je 33 vrste raširenih po zapadnoj Indiji, južnoj Kini, Indokini i od Malezije do Filipina i otočja Sunda.

Vrste

 Meiogyne amicorum (A.C.Sm.) B.Xue & R.M.K.Saunders
 Meiogyne amygdalina (A.Gray) B.Xue & R.M.K.Saunders
 Meiogyne anomalocarpa D.M.Johnson & Chalermglin
 Meiogyne baillonii (Guill.) Heusden
 Meiogyne beccarii I.M.Turner
 Meiogyne bidwillii (Benth.) D.C.Thomas et al.
 Meiogyne caudata (C.E.C.Fisch.) I.M.Turner
 Meiogyne chiangraiensis Chalermglin & M.fil.Liu
 Meiogyne cylindrocarpa (Burck) Heusden
 Meiogyne dumetosa (Guill.) Heusden
 Meiogyne gardneri D.M.Johnson
 Meiogyne glabra Heusden
 Meiogyne habrotricha (A.C.Sm.) B.Xue & R.M.K.Saunders
 Meiogyne hainanensis (Merr.) T.B.Nguyen
 Meiogyne heteropetala (F.Muell.) D.C.Thomas, Chaowasku & R.M.K.Saunders
 Meiogyne hirsuta (Jessup) Jessup
 Meiogyne insularis (A.C.Sm.) D.C.Thomas, B.Xue & R.M.Saunders
 Meiogyne kanthanensis Ummul-Nazrah & J.P.C.Tan
 Meiogyne laddiana (A.C.Sm.) B.Xue & R.M.K.Saunders
 Meiogyne lecardii (Guill.) Heusden
 Meiogyne leptoneura (Diels) I.M.Turner & Utteridge
 Meiogyne maxiflora D.M.Johnson & Chalermglin
 Meiogyne microflora (H.Okada) B.Xue, M.F.Liu & R.M.K.Saunders
 Meiogyne mindorensis (Merr.) Heusden
 Meiogyne monosperma (Hook.fil. & Thomson) Heusden
 Meiogyne pannosa (Dalzell) J.Sinclair
 Meiogyne papuana I.M.Turner & Utteridge
 Meiogyne punctulata (Baill.) I.M.Turner & Utteridge
 Meiogyne ramarowii (Dunn) Gandhi; C. J. Saldanha & Nicolson
 Meiogyne stenopetala (F.Muell.) Heusden
 Meiogyne trichocarpa (Jessup) D.C.Thomas & R.M.K.Saunders
 Meiogyne verrucosa Jessup
 Meiogyne virgata (Blume) Miq.

Izvori

Annonaceae

Meiogyne


Das Universitätsklinikum Krems ist ein von der Landesgesundheitsagentur geführtes Krankenhaus am Mitterweg 10 in Krems. Das Klinikum ist mit zwölf Klinischen Abteilungen und fünf Klinischen Instituten eine wichtige regionale Gesundheitseinrichtung. Es verfügt über ca. 469 Betten und beschäftigt 1.206 Mitarbeiter. Der Standort Krems ist Teil der Region NÖ Mitte, die größte der fünf Versorgungsregionen in Niederösterreich. Als einer der Standorte der Karl Landsteiner Privatuniversität für Gesundheitswissenschaften sowie als Lehrkrankenhaus der Medizinischen Universität Wien und der IMC Krems hat das Klinikum einen hohen Stellenwert für Ausbildung und Forschung.

Die Kliniken Krems, St. Pölten und Tulln sind Teil des Universitätsklinikverbund der Karl Landsteiner Privatuniversität für Gesundheitswissenschaften (KL). An den 3 Universitätsklinik-Standorten wird neben Patientenversorgung auch klinische Forschung und Lehre betrieben.

Geschichte
Das Kremser Spital wurde 1852 eröffnet und 1856 ein öffentliches Krankenhaus. Davor war es in der Spitalgasse in der Innenstadt angesiedelt. Aber durch das rasche Wachstum der Stadt und aus hygienischen Gründen, wurde es in der Vorstadt Hohenstein am damaligen Stadtrand, neu errichtet.

1955 wurde im Krankenhaus eine Blutbank eingerichtet. Im September 1982 ist der Neubau des Universitätsklinikums als Schwerpunkt-Krankenhaus eröffnet worden, wodurch die Klinik die Versorgungsstufe zwei erreichte. Am 1. September 1983 wurde der Rettungshubschrauber Christophorus 2 in Krems dauerhaft stationiert und ist damit der zweitälteste Standort Österreichs. 1987 ist direkt vor dem Krankenhaus ein unterirdischer Hangar für den Rettungshubschrauber errichtet worden. Aufgrund der geplanten Erweiterung des Universitätsklinikums und des damit verbundenen Flächenbedarfs, wurde 2014 für den Rettungshubschrauber ein neuer Stützpunkt am Flugplatz Krems-Langenlois errichtet. Allerdings übersiedelte der Stützpunkt bereits im Folgejahr am Flugplatz Krems in Gneixendorf.

Organisation
Rechtsträger des Universitätsklinikums Krems ist die Landesgesundheitsagentur.

Die Klinikleitung für das Universitätsklinikums Krems setzt sich zusammen aus
 Ärztlicher Direktor Heinz Jünger
 Pflegedirektorin Annette Wachter
 Kaufmännischer Direktor Roman Semler

Abteilungen
 Anästhesie und Intensivmedizin
 Allgemein- und Thoraxchirurgie
 Gynäkologie und Geburtshilfe
 Hals-, Nasen- und Ohrenabteilung
 Innere Medizin 1
 Innere Medizin 2
 Kinder- und Jugendheilkunde
 Institut für Medizinisch-Chemische Labordiagnostik
 Orthopädie und Traumatologie
 Pneumologie
 Strahlentherapie-Radioonkologie
 Urologie

Ambulanzen
 Chirurgische Ambulanz
 Anästhesiologie und Intensivmedizin Ambulanz
 Gynäkologische Ambulanz
 Hals-, Nasen- und Ohrenambulanz
 Innere Medizin 1 Ambulanz
 Innere Medizin 2 Ambulanz
 Kinder- und Jugendambulanz
 Orthopädische und Traumatologische Ambulanz
 Pneumologische Ambulanz
 Pathologische Ambulanz
 Physikalische Medizin und Rehabilitation
 Radioonkologische Ambulanz
 Urologische Ambulanz

Klinische Institute
 Medizinisch-Chemische Labordiagnostik
 Pathologie
 Physikalische Medizin und Rehabilitation
 Radiologie
 Präventiv- und Angewandte Sportmedizin - IPAS

Weblinks
 Universitätsklinikum Krems
 Christophorus2 Krems
 https://www.facebook.com/Uniklinikkrems/

Einzelnachweise

Universitätsklinikum Krems
Krems
Krems
Krankenhausbau in Niederösterreich
Krankenhausbau in Europa

Universitätsklinikum Krems


Sauternes er en fransk kommune med 766 indbyggere (2014) i departementet Gironde i regionen Nouvelle-Aquitaine. Den tilhører canton Le Sud-Gironde i arrondissement Langon og er medlem af kommuneforbundet Sud Gironde. Det ligger ca. 40 km sydøst for Bordeaux.

Et damskib som forliste ved Færøerne hed Sauternes.

Befolkningsudvikling

Vinavl
Sauternes er kendt for sine søde hvidvine i vindistriktet Bordeaux. Kommunen er opkaldt efter vinområdet.
Kommunen vinmarksareal er 1669 hektar. Et kendt vingods er Château d'Yquem.

Sauternes ligger i nærheden af floden Garonne og dens biflod Ciron. Floderne har stor betydning for vinen, da de giver en næsten daglig morgendis, der lægger sig over floddalen og er med til at give svampen Botrytis cinerea (ædelråd) ideelle vilkår. Botrytis er godartede svampe, der gør druen næsten rosinagtig før høst. Det resulterer i en koncentreret og karakteristisk vin.

Druerne, der bruges til fremstilling af sauternes, er Semillon og små mængder Sauvignon blanc og Muscadelle.
For at fremstille en sauternes skal svampen ædelråd angribe druerne. Kun de mest berørte druer plukkes. Det betyder et lavt udbytte og en høj pris. Sauternes kan drikkes alene eller til frugttærter eller roquefortost
Flere af vingodserne inviterer på smagninger (det er klogt at sikre sig en aftale) og har restaurant og overnatningsmuligheder.

Litteratur
 Le Patrimoine des Communes de la Gironde. Flohic Éditions, 2 Bände, Paris 2001, S. 852–855, .

Eksterne henvisninger og kilder

 oversat fra wikipedia de
 www.engoddrue.dk

Byer i Gironde

Sauternes


Sci-Fi Magazin. Colecția Povestirilor Științifico-Fantastice a fost o revistă din România de literatură științifico-fantastică editată de scriitorul român George Lazăr. Au fost tipărite 12 numere între octombrie 2007 și septembrie 2008. Povestirile care nu au apărut în cele 12 numere, dar ale căror drepturi de autor au fost cumpărate, au fost adunate într-un Almanah Sci-Fi Magazin în 2009.

Numărul 1 (octombrie 2007)

Povestirile au fost traduse de Oana Cercel, Emanuel Huțanu, Daniela Moraru, Camelia Butnariu și Cătălin Moraru.
 Editorul - Dreptul de a visa, eseu
 Bud Sparhawk - Stele însângerate (Bright Red Star)
 William Sanders - Scheletul (Dry Bones)
 Ursula K. Le Guin - "Anotimpurile de pe Ansarac" (The Seasons of the Ansarac)
Publicată pentru prima dată pe webzin-ul Infinite Matrix, 3 iunie 2002. Republicată de mai multe ori, de exemplu în colecția din 2003 a scriitoarei Le Guin, Changing Planes Despre o planetă cu ani foarte lungi (aproximativ 24 de ani ai Pământului) în timpul cărora locuitorii săi migrează spre și dinspre munții din nord; inspirat de tiparele de migrație ale Uliganului pescar.

 Alfred Coppel - Am cucerit Marte (Mars is Ours)
 Will Shetterly - Brian și extratereștrii (Brian and the Aliens)
 Matthew Hughes - Hoțul de IQ-uri (Mastermindless)
 Ken Liu - Algoritmi pentru dragoste (The Algorithms for Love )
 George Lazăr - Restul zilelor;
 Cory Doctorow - Eu, robotul (I, Row-Boat)

Numărul 2 (noiembrie 2007)
 Cory Doctorow - Apocalipsul progresiv și alte delicii futurismice, eseu, Locus Magazine, iunie 2007
 Geoffrey A. Landis - "O plimbare prin Soare" (A Walk in the Sun). Traducere: Cătălin Moraru
 Charles Coleman Finley - "Pervers" (Pervert). Traducere: Daniela Moraru
 Nancy Kress - "O încălcare a drepturilor de autor" (Patent Infringement). Traducere: Emanuel Huțanu
 Blair Dalton - "Niște actori" (Merely Actors). Traducere: Emanuel Huțanu
 Isaac Asimov - "Visuri de robot" (Robot Dreams). Traducere: Oana Cercel
 Jack McDevitt - "Voia lui Dumnezeu" (Act of God). Traducere: Emanuel Huțanu
 Matthew Jarpe - "Orașul rațiunii" (City of Reason). Traducere: Emanuel Huțanu
 Bruce McAllister - "Înrudire" (Kin). Traducere: Oana Cercel
 Walter Jon Williams - "Maladia leopardului verde" (The Green Leopard Plague). Traducere: Oana Cercel

Numărul 3 (decembrie 2007)
 Bruce McAllister - Science fiction – singurul fel de fantezie rațională, eseu
 Stephen Baxter - "Oaze de lumină" ("Lakes of Light"). Traducere: Oana Cercel
 Robert Onopa - "Geropozi" ("Geropods"). Traducere: Gabi Ioniță
 Larry Niven - "Lună schimbătoare" ("Inconstant Moon") - Premiul Hugo 1972. Traducere: Oana Cercel
 Paul J. McAuley - "Șobolanii sistemului" ("Rats of the System"). Traducere: Emanuel Huțanu
 Kim Stanley Robinson - "Arthur Sternbach joacă baseball pe Marte" ("Arthur Sternbach Brings the Curveball to Mars"). Traducere: Oana Cercel
 Gene Wolfe - "Avertisment" ("Pulp Cover"). Traducere:  Daniela Moraru
 Michael Swanwick - "Viață lentă" ("Slow Life") - Premiul Hugo 2003. Traducere: Daniela Moraru
 Jack Williamson - "Cu brațele încrucișate" ("With Folded Hands"). Traducere: Emanuel Huțanu

Numărul 4 (ianuarie 2008)

 Mugur Cornilă - Cartea (SF) și partea (leului), eseu
 Steven Gould - "Piersici pentru Molly cea nebună" (Peaches for Mad Molly). Traducere: Emanuel Huțanu
 John Kessel - "O evadare perfectă" (A Clean Escape). Traducere:  Emanuel Huțanu
 Ursula K. Le Guin - Cei care pleacă din Omelas" (The Ones Who Walk Away From Omelas). Traducere: Emanuel Huțanu
 Norman Spinrad - "Niciun drum către casă" (No Direction Home). Traducere: Gabi Ioniță
 Kelly Link - "Geanta fărmăcată" (The Faery Handbag). Traducere: Ona Frantz pentru Editura Tritonic (în Magia pentru începători )
 Greg Van Eekhout - "Cât de departe poți ajunge" (Far As you Can Go). Traducere: Mirela Oniciuc
 Ann McCaffrey - "Nava care cântă" (The Ship Who Sang). Traducere: Emanuel Huțanu
 Jack Skillingstead - "Viața în câmpul de prezervare" (Life on the Preservation). Traducere: Oana Cercel
 Mary Rosenblum - "Filme pentru acasă" (Home Movies)  (2006) in Asimov's Science Fiction.. Traducere: Oana Cercel

Numărul 5 (februarie 2008)

 George Lazăr - Scriitorul de după amiază, eseu
 Charlie Rosenkranz - Preempțiune (Preemption). Traducere: Mirela Oniciuc
 R. A. Lafferty - Fiul Euremei (Euremas Dam). Traducere: Emanuel Huțanu
 Paul di Filippo - Ailoura (Ailoura). Traducere: Gabi Ioniță
 Paul E. Martens - Extraterestru de închiriat (Creature for Hire). Traducere: Tudor Chiriac
 Walter Jon Williams - Vremea lupilor (Wolf Time). Traducere: Emanuel Huțanu
 William Meikle - Unirea cu unicul (Joining With the One). Traducere: Gabi Ioniță
 Charles Sheffield - Psihologie cu diamante (The Diamond Drill). Traducere: Oana Cercel
 Ted Chiang - Iadul e acolo unde nu există Dumnezeu (Hell is the Absenee of God). Traducere: Emanuel Huțanu

Numărul 6 (martie 2008)
Acest număr a fost dedicat în întregime autoarelor.
 Walter Jon Williams - Orășelul Science Fiction, eseu
 Ruth Nestvold - Ieșire fără salvare (Exit Without Saving). Traducere: Oana Cercel
 Nancy Kress - Dintre toate stelele strălucitoare (Out of All Them Bright Stars). Traducere: Oana Cercel
 Kameron Hurley - Femeile care ne-au cucerit (The Women of Our Occupation). Traducere: Oana Cercel
 Carolyn Ives Gilman - Okanoggan Falls (Okagoggan Falls). Traducere: Emanuel Huțanu
 Ursula K. Le Guin - Ziua de dinaintea Revoluției (The Day Before the Revolution). Traducere: Emanuel Huțanu
 Heather Lindsley - Fă ceea ce-ți dorești! (Just Do It!). Traducere: Emanuel Huțanu
 Mioara Musteață - S.O.S.
 Kage Baker - Acolo unde cresc merele aurii (Where the Golden Apples Grow). Traducere: Emanuel Huțanu

Numărul 7 (aprilie 2008)

 Ted Chiang - Diferența dintre știință și magie, eseu. (apărut în Hayakawa S-F Magazine S-Fマガジン, Esu-Efu Magajin, ianuarie 2008)
 Steve Stanton - Hoțul de timp (Timestealer). Traducere: Emanuel Huțanu
 Arthur C. Clarke - Cele 9 miliarde de nume ale lui Dumnezeu (The Nine Billion Names of God). Traducere: Emanuel Huțanu
 Mike Resnick - "Călătorii cu pisicile" (Travels with My Cats). Traducere: Mirela Oniciuc
 Ted Chiang - Avertisment (What's Expected of Us). Traducere: Gabi Ioniță
 Daryl Gregory - Damasc (Damascus). Traducere: Emanuel Huțanu
 Anthony R. Lewis - Spațiu ostil (Alien Ground). Traducere: Cristina Olariu
 Cezar Mazilu - Încurcături în Paradis
 Albert E. Cowdrey - Triburile de pe Bela (The Tribes of Bela). Traducere: Oana Cercel

Numărul 8 (mai 2008)
 Nicolae C. Ariton - Paradoxul SF-ului
 Mark A. Rayner - Dincolo de linia orizontului (Under the Blue Curve). Traducere: Cristina Olariu
 Allen Steele - Numărând zilele (The Days Between). Traducere: Emanuel Huțanu
 Tom Gerencer - Xenoformarea Pământului (Xenoforming Earth). Traducere:  Adriana Moșoiu
 Orson Scott Card - Recuperare (Salvage). Traducere: Emanuel Huțanu
 Ken MacLeod - Oamenii autostrăzii (The Highway Men). Traducere:  Oana Cercel
 William Meikle - Violare de cod (Code Violation). Traducere: Gabi Ioniță
 Vernor Vinge - Monștri pentru software (The Cookie Monster). Traducere: Adriana Moșoiu

Numărul 9 (iunie 2008)
 Nicolae C. Ariton - Cum a omorât Harry Potter SF-ul, eseu
 Michael Swanwick - Mlaștini de tinichea (Tin Marsh). Traducere: Mirela Oniciuc
 Neal Asher - Un albinos în deșert (Snow in the Desert). Traducere:  Emanuel Huțanu
 Douglas Smith - Strigătul îngerului (Scream Angel). Traducere:  Emanuel Huțanu
 Liviu Braicu - Ziua vântuirii;
 Daryl Gregory - Persoana a II-a, timpul prezent (Second Person, Present Tense). Traducere: Mirela Oniciuc
 Mike Resnick - Elefanții de pe Neptun (The Elephants on Neptune). Traducere:  Cristina Olariu
 Walter Jon Williams - Ziua încarnării (Incarnation Day). Traducere: Emanuel Huțanu

Numărul 10 (iulie 2008)
 Nicolae C. Ariton - Fandomul și societățile secrete, eseu
 Will McIntosh - Puțin probabil (Unlikely). Traducere:  Emanuel Huțanu
 Laird Long - În căutarea sufletului pierdut (Soul Searching). Traducere:  Emanuel Huțanu
 Ciprian Mitoceanu - Amendamentul Dawson
 Ken Warthon - Corecție de zbor (Flight Correction). Traducere:  Tudor Chiriac
 George R.R. Martin - Calea Crucii și a Dragonului (The Way of Cross and Dragon). Traducere:  Emanuel Huțanu
 Gene Wolfe - Scuturile de pe Marte (Shields of Mars). Traducere: Emanuel Huțanu
 Connie Willis - Intrusul (Inside Job). Traducere: Emanuel Huțanu

Numărul 11 (august 2008)
 George Lazăr - Cine a ucis mașina electrică?, eseu
 Daniel Abraham - Lacrimile răului (Leviathan Wept). Traducere: Emanuel Huțanu
 Daniel Pearlman - O inimă pentru Emily (The Heart of the Overchild). Traducere:  Cristina Olariu
 George Saunders - Comcom (Commcomm). Traducere: Emanuel Huțanu
 Nicolae C. Ariton - Corabie'n văzduh
 Nancy Kress - Arta războiului (Art of War). Traducere:  Adriana Moșoiu
 Jack Williamson - Viața de apoi (Afterlife). Traducere:  Emanuel Huțanu
 Bruce Holland Rogers - Pilule amare (Bitter Pills). Traducere: Cristina Olariu
 Walter Jon Williams - Trimiteți-le flori (Send Them Flowers). Traducere: Emanuel Huțanu

Numărul 12 (septembrie 2008)
 George Lazăr, Reîntoarcerea la magie, eseu
 Robert Silverberg - Sezonul mutanților (The Mutant Season). Traducere: Cristina Olariu
 Edward M. Lerner - În cutie (Inside the Box). Traducere: Emanuel Huțanu
 Frank Roger - NeSfântul Graal (Unholy Grail). Traducere: Emanuel Huțanu
 Kage Baker - Complot pentru trăgători (Plotters and Shooters). Traducere:  Adriana Moșoiu
 Connie Willis - Chiar și regina (Even the Queen). Traducere: Adriana Moșoiu
 Jack McDevitt - Henry James, asta-i pentru tine (Henry James, This One's For You). Traducere: Mirela Oniciuc
 George Lazăr - Omul și atomul
 Arthur C. Clarke - O infracțiune pe Marte (Trouble with time). Traducere:  Emanuel Huțanu
 Joe Haldeman - Eroul (Hero). Traducere: Emanuel Huțanu

Almanah 2009 (ianuarie 2009)

 Robert A. Heinlein - "Univers" (Universe). Traducere: Mirela Oniciuc
 Sean McMullen - Cascada (The Cascade). Traducere: Mirela Oniciuc
 Walter Jon Williams - "Dinozauri" (Dinosaurs). Traducere: Cristina Olariu
 Theodore Sturgeon - "Un OZN de singurătate" (A Saucer of Loneliness). Traducere: Emanuel Huțanu
 James Patrick Kelly - Bărbații aduc numai necazuri (Men Are Trouble). Traducere:  Emanuel Huțanu
 Gregory Benford - Teologia matematicii aplicate (Applied Mathematical Theology). Traducere: Emanuel Huțanu
 Bruce Golden - Vremuri obișnuite (Common Time). Traducere: Emanuel Huțanu
 Mike Resnick - Prințesa Pământului (A Princess of Earth). Traducere: Emanuel Huțanu
 Alex Irvine - Mystery Hill (Mystery Hill). Traducere:  Emanuel Huțanu
 Ken Wharton - Aloha (Aloha). Traducere:  Mirela Oniciuc
 Nancy Kress - Nanotehnologia cucerește Clifford Falls (Nano Comes to Clifford Falls). Traducere: Emanuel Huțanu
 Edmond Hamilton - Involuție (Devolution). Traducere: Cristina Olariu
 John Kessel - Povești pentru bărbați (Stories for Men). Traducere:  Emanuel Huțanu
 Michael Cassutt - Ultima călătorie pe Marte (The Last Mars Trip). Traducere: Emanuel Huțanu
 Paul J. McAuley - Pace biruitoare (Winning Peace). Traducere:  Mirela Oniciuc
 Cynthia Ward - Ultima zi de școală (On the Last Day of School). Traducere: Emanuel Huțanu
 Poul Anderson - Printre tâlhari (Among Thieves). Traducere: Emanuel Huțanu
 Robert Silverberg - "Născut printre morți" (Born With the Dead). Traducere: Emanuel Huțanu
 Robert Silverberg - Multipli (Multiples). Traducere: Cristina Olariu
 Robert Silverberg - Cursă prin microcipuri (Chip Runner). Traducere: Emanuel Huțanu
 Robert Silverberg - Hardware (Hardware). Traducere: Emanuel Huțanu
 Robert Silverberg - Împăratul și maula (The Emperor and the Maula). Traducere: Adriana Moșoiu

Referințe și note
 http://www.cititorsf.ro/?s=Sci-Fi+Magazin

Legături externe

 http://www.sci-fi.ro/  Site-ul oficial
 Michael HAULICĂ - FANTASY & SCIENCE FICTION. Sci-Fi magazin nr. 1, observatorcultural.ro

Vezi și
 Listă de reviste din România

Reviste literare din România
Publicații science-fiction din România
Colecții de povestiri
Reviste desființate din România
Colecții de povestiri științifico-fantastice
Almanahuri literare
2007 în științifico-fantastic
2008 în științifico-fantastic
2009 în științifico-fantastic

Sci-Fi Magazin


A Escola Básica D. Domingos Jardo, igualmente conhecida como Colégio Dom Domingos Jardo, é uma instituição de ensino básico no concelho de Sintra, na Área Metropolitana de Lisboa, em Portugal.

Descrição e história
A instituição oferece os graus de ensino correspondentes ao segundo e terceiro ciclos, e está integrada no Agrupamento de Escolas Agualva Mira Sintra. Situa-se na Rua Primeiro de Maio, no Cacém, fazendo parte de um bairro.

Nos princípios da década de 2020, contava com  um auditório, um bar, um refeitório, uma papelaria, uma reprografia, um pavilhão polivalente que também funciona como sala de convívio, uma biblioteca, um Gabinete de Apoio ao Aluno e à Família, um campo de jogos exterior e um pavilhão gimnodesportivo. Em termos de salas de ensino, destacam-se as das tecnologias da informação e da comunicação, a Sala da Matemática, a Sala da Educação Especial, a Sala de Actividades Educativas Funcionais, e a Sala de Estudo e Ocupação de Turma. Como parte do seu currículo educativo, implementou vários planos de estudo no sentido de fomentar o conhecimento, principalmente em termos culturais e sociais, incluindo várias iniciativas integradas no Plano Anual de Actividades e das Áreas Curriculares Não Disciplinares. Destacam-se também os programas relativos à educação ambiental, no âmbito do programa Eco Escolas, do qual a instituição de ensino foi galardoada em todos os anos lectivos desde o período de 2008 a 2009. Devido à sua situação numa área desfavorecida, a escola foi integrada no programa TEIP – Território Escolar de Acção Prioritária no ano lectivo de 2009 a 2010.

A instituição de ensino foi inaugurada em 1979, tendo sido baptizada com o nome de Dom Domingos Jardo, uma importante figura da religião e da cultura nacional do século XIII, que nasceu perto de Agualva-Cacém. Em Outubro de 2019 esteve envolta numa polémica sobre a presença de amianto nas coberturas do edifício, tendo o Sindicato de Todos Os Professores organizado uma greve para exigir a remoção do material cancerígeno. Esta greve foi criticada pela Câmara Municipal de Sintra, que a classificou de «injustificável e irresponsável, baseada num falso problema», e alertou para os problemas que iria causar aos alunos e encarregados de educação. Recordou igualmente que «apesar de a Câmara Municipal de Sintra só ter assumido a responsabilidade quanto ao respetivo edifício no passado mês de setembro, a antecipação do lançamento deste concurso público permitiu que a obra tenha início previsto até ao final da primeira quinzena de outubro». Esta intervenção inseriu-se num programa de remoção de amianto no concelho de Sintra, que abrangeu a escola Domingos Jardo e outras duas instituições de ensino, e cujo concurso público foi lançado pela autarquia em Abril de 2019. O Sindicato argumentou que apesar as obras estarem previstas durante o fim de semana, existiam a possibilidade que permanecessem fibras de amianto em suspensão no interior do edifício, e não existia tempo suficiente para serem removidas antes das aulas recomeçarem, na Segunda-Feira.

Em Outubro de 2021, a autarquia estava a fazer obras na escola, que incluiu a requalificação do logradouro e do campo de jogos da escola. A intervenção no campo de jogos custou cerca de 109 mil Euros, e incluiu a repavimentação do campo, a pintura com slurry, a marcação dos campos de jogos, a substituição das tabelas de basquete e balizas, a instalação de equipamentos de iluminação para permitir as práticas desportivas durante a noite, e a substituição das vedações, que se encontravam muito degradadas.

Em Maio de 2022, o estabelecimento de ensino foi visitada pelo presidente da Câmara Municipal de Sintra, Basílio Horta, como parte do processo de presidência aberta, e para divulgar um programa de investimentos da autarquia para a realização de obras de conservação e reabilitação dos edifícios escolares do concelho, incluindo a D. Domingos Jardo. No dia 17 desse mês, duas alunas da escola, Carolina Fernandes e Joana Trindade, apresentaram o programa Miúdos a Votos na Assembleia Municipal de Sintra. Esta iniciativa, organizada pela revista Visão, Comissão Nacional de Eleições, e do Plano Nacional de Leitura 2027, tem com principal finalidade reduzir a abstenção e a iliteracia entre as comunidades escolares nacionais. Igualmente como parte da iniciativa Miúdos a Votos, os alunos da Escola D. Domingos Jardo criaram o jogo Diário de Anne Frank Labirinto, alusivo à obra Diário de Anne Frank, que foi exibido durante um evento de apresentação dos trabalhos dos estudantes, na Fundação Calouste Gulbenkian, igualmente em Maio.

Ligações externas

Escolas básicas e secundárias de Lisboa
Cacém
Fundações em Portugal em 1979

Escola Básica D. Domingos Jardo


Şiran (Pontus Rumcası: Cheirana), Gümüşhane ilinin bir ilçesidir.

Tarih
Şiran sınırları içerisinde Bakır Çağı ile Erken Tunç Çağı'na tarihlenen yüzey bulgularına rastlanılmakla birlikte detaylı kazı çalışmalarının yapılamamış olması nedeniyle ilçedeki yerleşim tarihinin daha eski dönemlere uzayıp uzamadığı hakkında bilgilere ulaşılmasını kısıtlamaktadır. 2000'li yıllarda Araköy/Könger Höyük'te yapılan yüzey araştırmalarında Şiran sınırlarında Karaz kültürü'ne (Erken Transkafkasya Kültürü) ait buluntulara rastlanılmasıyla söz konusu kültürün bu bölgeye kadar uzadığı görülmüştür.

Şiran adı esasen ilçenin kapladığı bölgenin adıdır. Bizans kaynaklarında 9. yüzyıldan itibaren bu bölge Khêriana ve (çoğul genitiv) Khêrianôn adıyla anılmıştır. 16. ve 17. yüzyıl belgelerinde ise "Şiryan" olarak kaydedilmiştir. Şiryan ismi zamanla Şiran olarak Türkçeye uyarlanmıştır. Yerel şivede Şiran, Şeyran olarak telaffuz edilir. Yerleşim merkezinden 19. yüzyılda "Karaca" adıyla bahsedilmiştir.

Şiran bölgesi; uzun süren Bizans egemenliğinin sonlarına doğru Bizans-Sasani mücadelesine sahne olmuş, Sasanileri ortadan kaldıran Arapların akınları sonucu Bizans-Arap mücadelesi ile bölgedeki kaotik durumdan faydalanmak isteyen Gürcü ve Ermeni beylerinin saldırılarına maruz kalmıştır. 1071'de yaşanan Malazgirt Meydan Muharebesi sonrasında Türk akınlarına sahne olan bölge, Mengücek Gazi tarafından kurulan Mengüçlü Beyliği hakimiyetine girmiştir. 1228'de Anadolu Selçuklularının hakimiyetine giren bölge, Kösedağ Muharebesi sonrasında da Moğol-İlhanlı hakimiyetine girmiştir. Daha sonra Eretna Beyliği, Erzincan Beyliği, Karakoyunlular ve Akkoyunlular'ın egemenliğine giren bölge, şiddetli süren Karakoyunlu-Akkoyunlu mücadelesinin akabinde 1457'de kesin olarak Akkoyunlu hakimiyetine atılmıştır. Ancak bölge kısa süre sonra da Akkoyunlu-Osmanlı mücadelesine sahne olmuş ve 1473'te yaşanan Otlukbeli Muharebesi akabinde kesin olarak Osmanlı hakimiyetine katılmıştır.

Osmanlı hakimiyetine girdikten hemen sonra bölgede tahrir yapılmış olup yerleşim Şarki Karahisar (Şebinkarahisar) sancağına bağlı bir nahiye merkezi konumunda görülmektedir. Uzun yıllar süren savaşlar nedeniyle harap halde olan Şiran bölgesinde Osmanlı'ın yürüttüğü iskan politikaları ve bağlanan köyler nedeniyle Şiran, önemli bir nahiye konumuna gelmiştir. 1642 tarihli avarız defterinde kaza merkezi konumunda gözüken yerleşim ilerleyen yıllarda yeniden nahiye konumunda görülmektedir. 1642 tahririne göre merkez köyüyle birlikte 62 köye sahip olan nahiye merkezinde sadece Hristiyanlardan oluşan 49 hane bulunmaktadır. Evliya Çelebi ise seyahatnamesinde yerleşimden Hristiyan ve Müslümanların birlikte yaşadığı bir yer olarak bahsetmiştir ki bu durum yerleşime dışarıdan Müslüman nüfusun yerleştirildiğini göstermektedir. 1642 kaydına göre nahiyeye bağlı köylerden 27'sinde Müslümanlar, 5'inde Hristiyanlar, 29'unda Hristiyan ve Müslümanlar birlikte yaşarken 1 köyün de o tarihte boş olduğu görülmektedir.

1829 yılında Rus güçlerinin Bayburt'u ele geçirmesi akabinde halkın çoğunluğu yerleşimi terk etmiş ve kısa süre sonra da Ruslar şehri ele geçirmiştir. Ancak Osmanlı karşı saldırısı ve taktiksel nedenlerle Ruslar önce yerleşimden çekilmiş ve Edirne Antlaşması (1829) uyarınca da bölgeden tamamen çekilmiştir. 1837 yılında 74 köyden, 1848'de 64 köy ve 15 mezradan oluşan kaza, idari değişiklikler sonucunda 1878 yılında 92 köyden oluşurken, kaza merkezi de Karaca ismiyle görülmektedir. 19. yüzyılda Erzincan sancağına bağlı görüle yerleşim, 1868 yılında Gümüşhane sancağına, 1878 yılında yeni kurulan Bayburt sancağına, Bayburt sancağının lağvedilmesiyle de 1888 yılından Türkiye Cumhuriyeti'nin kuruluşuna kadar Gümüşhane sancağına bağlı kalmıştır. Şiran kazasının geneli, 19. yüzyılda çeşitli göçlere sahne olmuştur. Örneğin 1837 yılında Torul'un Turna köyünden 432 kişi yaşam şartlarının zorluğu nedeniyle Şiran kazasına yerleşmiştir. 1845'te Kelkit'in Morakom mezrasında yaşayanların tamamı, 1861'de de yine Kelkit'in Kelahbur köyünden 21 erkek Şiran kazasına yerleştirilmiştir. 1864 yılında Kafkaslardan göç eden 498 kişi Şiran kazasına (Sellidere, Günbatur ve Dumanoluğu köyleri) yerleştirilmiştir. 1887 yılında Şiran kazası; Uluşiran, Korzaf, Sarıca, Aşağı Tesrun ve Seydi Baba nahiyelerinden oluşmakta olup, kaza genelinde 2.282 hanede de 13.086'sı Müslüman, 1.399'u Rum'u ve 208'i Ermeni ve geri kalanı da yabancılardan olmak üzere toplam 15.002 kişi yaşamaktadır. Bu tarihte kaza genelinde 22 cami-mescit, 5 medrese, 12 kilise-manastır olmak üzere dini yapılar ile 1 han, 1 hamam, 20 dükkân bulunmaktadır. 1893 yılında yaşanan kıtlık nedeniyle de Şiran kazasından Trabzon Vilayetinin sahil yerleşimleri, Erzurum vb. yerlere göç yaşanmıştır. 1894 yılında Şiran'da belediye teşkilatı kurulmuş olup ilk belediye başkanı da Lütfullah Bey olmuştur. 1903 yılında 100 civarında hanenin bulunduğu kasaba merkezi, Mehdi Efendi, Hacı Kasım, Uzun Şecaaddin, Emirler-i Cedîd ve Mümya mahallelerinden oluşmaktadır.
1904 yılında Şiran kazasının genelinde; 15.247 Müslüman, 1.947 Rum ve 225 Ermeni yaşamaktadır. 1907 ve 1908 yıllarında yaşanan kuralık sonuncunda yaşanan kıtlık nedeniyle özellikle köylerinden olmak üzere kaza genelinden Karadeniz sahilleri başta olmak üzere dışarıya yoğun göçler yaşanmıştır. Şiran, I. Dünya Savaşı esnasında Ruslar tarafından ele geçirilmese de Kelkit'in Ruslar tarafından ele geçirilmesinden endişelenen halk, Ruslar çekilene yerleşimi terk etmiştir. Yerleşim işgale uğramasa da küçük bir kasaba niteliğinde olması nedeniyle sahipsizlikten dolayı yağmalanmış ve büyük oranda tahrip olmuştur. 20 Nisan 1924 tarihli "Teşkilat-ı Esasiye Kanunu"nun 89. maddesi uyarınca Gümüşhane ilinin kurulmasıyla Şiran'da kurulan bu ilin ilçesi olmuştur. Türkiye Cumhuriyetinin ilk yıllarında yerleşime yeni hükûmet konağı, belediye binası ve çeşitli tesisler yapılmak suretiyle imar faaliyetlerinde bulunulmuştur.

2010 yılında Erenkaya, 2018 yılında Örenkale ve Bilgili köyleri ilçeye mahalle olarak bağlanmıştır.

Coğrafya
Şiran ilçesi, Gümüşhane il alanının güneybatısında yer alır. Kuzeyde Torul ilçesi, batısında Alucra ilçesi, güneyde Refahiye ilçesi ile çevrilidir. Yüzölçümü 928 km²'dir.

Toplam 69 köy bulunmaktadır ve genellikle dağlarla kaplı olan ilçe alanlarıdır.

Nüfus

Ekonomi
İlçede sebzecilik ve meyvecilik gelişme yolundadır. Meyvelerden elma üretimi önemlidir. Hayvancılık  ilçenin diğer önemli bir gelir kaynağıdır. Koyun, kır keçisi ve sığır ciddi manada beslenen hayvanlardır. İlçede 30 ton günlük kapasiteli süt fabrikası, birde boya fabrikası ve Taş Mermer Fabrikası mevcuttur. Ayrıca belli bir kota uygulanmak suretiyle seker pancarı üretimi yapılmakta olup, seker fasulyesi üretimi de önemli bir yer tutmaktadır.

Turistik yerler
 Çakırkaya Manastırı
 Tomara Şelalesi
 Seydibaba Türbesi
 Gelin Ebe Türbesi
 Firdevs Hatun Türbesi

Kaynakça

Dış bağlantılar
 Şiran Belediyesi
 Şiran Kaymakamlığı

Şiran


"La Nigérienne" () fue el himno nacional de Níger. La letra es de Maurice Albert Thiriet. Jacquet Robert y Nicolás Abel François Frionnet escribieron la música. Fue adoptado como himno de Níger en 1961 hasta el 22 de junio de 2023.

El 21 de noviembre de 2019, el Presidente de la República Mahamadou Issoufou anunció que decidió cambiar o incluso cambiar el himno nacional. Un comité presidido por el primer ministro Birgi Rafini está "encargado de reflexionar sobre el himno actual proporcionando correcciones" y "si es posible encontrar un nuevo himno que responda al contexto actual de Níger". Creado en 2018, está compuesto por varios miembros del Gobierno y unos quince "expertos con experiencia en escritura y composición musical".

Para Assamana Malam Issa, Ministro de Renacimiento Cultural, "Debemos encontrar un himno que pueda galvanizar a la población, ser para nosotros una especie de grito de guerra que toque nuestra fibra patriótica".

El 22 de junio de 2023, el parlamento nigerino adoptó L'Honneur de la Patrie como nuevo himno de Níger.

Letra
Letra en francés

 Auprès du grand Niger puissant
 Qui rend la nature plus belle,
 Soyons fiers et reconnaissants
 De notre liberté nouvelle !

 Evitons les vaines querelles
 Afín d'épargner notre sang,
 Et que les glorieux accents
 De notre race soit sans tutelle !

 S'élève dans un même élan
 Jusqu'à ce ciel éblouissant,
 Où veille son âme éternelle
 Qui fera le pays plus grand !

 Coro

 Debout ! Niger ! Debout !
 Que notre œuvre féconde
 Rajeunisse le cœur de ce vieux continent !
 Et que ce chant s'entende
 Aux quatre coins du monde
 Comme le cri d'un peuple équitable et vaillant!

 Debout ! Niger ! Debout!
 Sur le sol et sur l'onde,
 Au son des tam-tams
 Dans leur rythme grandissant,
 Restons unis toujours,
 Et que chacun réponde
 A ce noble avenir
 Qui nous dit: - En avant !

Letra en inglés
 Throughout great powerful Niger
 Which makes nature more beautiful,
 Let us be proud and grateful
 For our newfound freedom!

 Let us avoid vain quarrels
 In order to spare ourselves bloodshed,
 And may the glorious voices
 Of our race be free of domination!

 Let us rise in a single leap
 As high as the dazzling sky,
 Where stands guard its eternal soul
 Which will make the country greater!

 Coro:

 Arise! Niger! Arise!
 May our fruitful labors
 Rejuvenate the heart of this old continent!
 And may the song be heard
 In the four corners of the Earth
 As the cry of a fair and valiant people!

 Arise! Niger! Arise!
 On the ground and on the wave,
 To the sound of the drums
 In their growing rhythms
 Let us always remain united,
 And may each one respond
 To this noble future
 Which tells us: - Go forward!

Símbolos de Níger
Himnos nacionales de naciones independientes
Composiciones en fa mayor

La Nigérienne


La Universidad Nacional de Colombia sede Amazonía, es una Sede de Presencia Nacional de la Universidad Nacional de Colombia, ubicada frente a la pista de aterrizaje del Aeropuerto Internacional Alfredo Vásquez Cobo, en las afueras de la ciudad de Leticia, sobre el kilómetro 2 de la vía hacia Tarapacá. Su campus recoge elementos locales y autóctonos en su diseño, obra del arquitecto Santiago Moreno, lo que fue destacado en la XVI Bienal de Arquitectura Colombiana.

Lo que hoy es la sede fue creada por la Universidad Nacional de Colombia en 1989 como la Estación Científica de Leticia, que fue convertida en la quinta sede en 1994, y con Instituto Amazónico de Investigaciones IMANI como unidad académica por medio del Acuerdo 012 del 15 de marzo de 1995 del Consejo Superior Universitario.

La sede cuenta con el pregrado de Administración de Empresas y el Programa Especial de Admisión y Movilidad Académica (PEAMA). En posgrado, ofrece la Especialización en Estudios Amazónicos y Maestría en Estudios Amazónicos.

Referencias

Leticia (Colombia)
Amazonia


عمر حمدي فنان تشكيلي كردي سوري ولد في قرية "تل نايف" التابعة لمحافظة الحسكة الواقعة أقصى الشمال الشرقي من سوريا عام 1951.
مارس الفن منذ الطفولة ودرسه فيما بعد دراسة خاصة، وعين مدرساً للفنون في سورية عام 1970. ثم عمل رساماً وغرافيكياً في الصحف وفي مديرية الكتب المدرسية في سورية 1971-1978. بعد ذلك سافر إلى فيينا عام 1978 ظل مقيما في النمسا حتى وفاته في عام 2015  كتب في النقد الفني وله محاولات شعرية. وصدرت العديد من المطبوعات والكتب المصورة عن أعماله. وهو عضو في الاتحاد العام للفنانين النمساويين واليونسكو. وكذلك عضو في الكونستيلر هاوس في فيينا. ويترأس لجنة التحكيم في غاليري آرت فوروم للفن الدولي المعاصر بفيينا، النمسا.
أعماله مقتناة من قبل تجار الفن في العالم، وصالات العرض، ومتاحف وبنوك ووزارات ثقافة كما يوجد هناك عدد كبير من المقتنيات الخاصة في سوريا، أمريكا، كندا، النمسا، ألمانيا، فرنسا، إيطاليا، هولندا، اليابان، سيريلانكا، وروسيا.

بعض من مؤلفاته
 1976 (مالفا) عمر حمدي: الحياة واللون، باللغة العربية، دمشق / سورية.
 1994 (من من) الفن العالمي، سويسرا.
 1999 قاموس عالم النقد الفني، باللغة الإنكليزية، فلاش أرت للنشر.
 2004 ألبوم (مالفا) إلى الألفية الجديدة، معرض أرنوت، نيويورك، الولايات المتحدة الأميركية.

مختارات من معارضه الفردية
 1976 صالة الشعب ب دمشق.
 1977 المتحف الوطني ب حلب.
 1979 فيينا، البنك النمساوي المركزي - آرت غاليري بشيكاغو، غاليري ليتسون بتينيسي ناشفيل - غاليري كرال بسان فرانسيسكو - وغاليري آرنوت بنيويورك.
 1990 غاليري اتيليه - وغاليري سيليستة بفيينا ودار الفن بكوتينكن ب ألمانيا.
 1991 غاليري فرانكين شتاين ببرلين.
 1992 غاليري فيندلي ب نيويورك وباريس.
 1993 غاليري آرت فوروم للفن الدولي المعاصر ب فيينا.

مختارات من معارضه المشتركة
 1972 - 1977 مشاركة بمعارض الخريف السنوية في المتحف الوطني بدمشق والمعارض الدورية لنقابة الفنون الجميلة بصالة الشعب.
 1980 - 1992 مشاركة بمعارض الاتجاد العام للفنانين النمساويين داخل النمسا وخارجها.
 1989 قصر المعارض بفيينا - والمهرجان العربي الأول للفنون - دار الفن بكوتينكين بألمانيا.
 1985 - 1993 مشاركة بالمعارض العالمية السنوية للفنون بفرانكفورت، ألمانيا.
 1989 المشاركة بالمعرض العالمي للفن المعاصر في مدريد، إسبانيا.
 1990 المشاركة بالمعرض العالمي للفن المعاصر في ميلانو، إيطاليا.
 1991 المشاركة بمعرض آرت جونكسيون الدولي في نيس، فرنسا.
 1992 المشاركة بمهرجان بولونيا للفن المعاصر، إيطاليا. ومهرجان فيرونا للفن الأوروبي. ومعرض دار الفن في النمسا، والمعرض العالمي في إسبانيا، والمعرض الفني في مهرجان المحبة والسلام في اللاذقية، سورية.
 1993 المشاركة بالمعرض العالمي للفن المعاصر في بودابست، هنغاريا.

المراجع

أشخاص من محافظة الحسكة
أكراد سوريا
رسامون سوريون
سوريون مهاجرون إلى النمسا
فنانون تشكيليون سوريون
مواليد 1951
مواليد 1952
مواليد في الحسكة (مدينة)
وفيات 2015
كردي
كرد سوريا

عمر حمدي


Santalovke (lat. Santalaceae), velika biljna porodica iz reda santalolike, kojem je dala svoje ime. Porodici pripada preko 1000 vrsta, od kojih svega 17 najvažnijem rodu santal (Santalum).

Indijski santal ili bijelo santal-drvo (S. album) je korisno, mirisno, vazdazeleno drvo iz Indije koje je introducirano u mnoge države svijeta, tako u Tajland, Nepal, Kinu, otok Javu, Palau, Pohnpei, Društvene otoke, Tahiti, Mauricijus, Madagaskar, Rodrigues, Vijetnam, Réunion, Burmu.

Drvo mnogim vrsta ovog roda poznato je kao santal-drvo ili sandalovina. os njega se destilacijom dobiva santalovo ulje koje se koristi u proizvodnji mirisa, za mazanje tijela i za balzamiranje. Bijelo santal-drvo iz Karnatake, Hyderabada i Sundskih otoka otporno je na napad termita, vrlo je velike gustoće i teško se cijepa.

Rodovi

 Familia Santalaceae R. Br. (66 spp.)
 Exocarpos Labill. (25 spp.)
 Omphacomeria (Engl.) A. DC. (1 sp.)
 Myoschilos Ruiz & Pav. (1 sp.)
 Antidaphne Poepp. & Endl. (9 spp.)
 Lepidoceras Hook. fil. (2 spp.)
 Eubrachion Hook. fil. (2 spp.)
 Santalum L. (17 spp.)
 Elaphanthera N. Hallé (1 sp.)
 Osyris L. (6 spp.)
 Nestronia Raf. (1 sp.)
 Rhoiacarpos A. DC. (1 sp.)

Tradicionalno uključivani rodovi:
 Acanthosyris (Eichler) Griseb.
 Amphorogyne Stauffer & Hürl.
 Anthobolus R.Br.
 Antidaphne Poepp. & Endl.
 Arceuthobium M.Bieb.
 Buckleya Torr.
 Cervantesia Ruiz & Pav.
 Choretrum R.Br.
 Comandra Nutt.
 Daenikera Hürl. & Stauffer
 Dendromyza Danser
 Dendrophthora Eichler
 Dendrotrophe Miq.
 Elaphanthera N.Hallé
 Eubrachion Hook.f.
 Exocarpos Labill.
 Geocaulon Fernald
 Ginalloa Korth.
 Henslowia Blume
 Hylomyza Danser
 Jodina Hook. & Arn. ex Meisn.
 Korthalsella Tiegh.
 Lacomucinaea Nickrent & M.A.García
 Lepidoceras Hook.f.
 Leptomeria R.Br.
 Mida R.Cunn. ex A.Cunn.
 Myoschilos Ruiz & Pav.
 Nanodea Banks ex C.F.Gaertn.
 Nestronia Raf.
 Notothixos Oliv.
 Okoubaka Pellegr. & Normand
 Omphacomeria A.DC.
 Osyridicarpos A.DC.
 Osyris L.
 Phacellaria Benth.
 Phoradendron Nutt.
 Pilgerina Z.S.Rogers, Nickrent & Malécot
 Pyrularia Michx.
 Rhoiacarpos A.DC.
 Santalum L.
 Scleropyrum Arn.
 Staufferia Z.S.Rogers, Nickrent & Malécot
 Thesium L.
 Viscum L.

Vanjske poveznice

Izvori

Porodice santalolikih
Biljne porodice

Santalovke


Tefsir (ar. pojasniti, protumačiti i otkriti), znanost o tumačenju i razumijevanju Kurana. Povod objavljivanja kuranskih ajeta važna je grana tefsira. Prema nekim mufesirima, tefsir je tumačenje samo jedne riječi a te'vil tumačenje cijelog ajeta. Uz tefsir i te'vil treći izraz za tumačenje Kurana je šerh. Tefsir se može periodizirati u šest razdoblja, koja predstavljaju razvoj tefsira i kuransko-tefsirskih znanosti. Glavna podjela tefsira je na tradicijski i racionalni. Ogranak racionalnog tefsira je znanstveni tefsir, a pristaše mu tumeče Kuran na osnovi novih znanstvenih otkrića. Vrste tefsira određuje se na osnovi načina tumačenja Kurana koji u njima preovladava. Najboljim ikad napisani tefsirom je tefsir od et-Taberija, najstariji tefsir koji je sačuvan u potpunosti do danas i smatra se uzorom svim tradicionalnim tefsirima. Fikhski tefsir je tumačenje Kurana pri čemu mufesiri osobitu pozornost pokazuju na ajete iz kojih se izvode šerijatski propisi. Sufijski tefsir ili aluzivni tefsir je pokušaj pronicanja u dubinu teksta i izvođenje dodatnih značenja temeljem aluzija (išareta) koji se nalaze u
ajetima. Jezični tefsir je tumačenje Kurana pri kojem dotični autor (mufesir) najveću pozornost pruža jezičkom gledištu kuranskog teksta.

Izvori

Islam

Tefsir


Les championnats panaméricains de BMX freestyle 2021 ont lieu le  au sein du Parc Costa Verde-San Miguel à Lima au Pérou.

Podiums

Notes et références

Voir aussi
 Championnats panaméricains de BMX 2021

Liens externes
 Site de la Confédération panaméricaine de cyclisme
 Résultats sur le site de l'UCI

2021
BMX
BMX 2021
BMX panamericains 2021
Panamericains
BMX
Cyclisme en décembre 2021

Championnats panaméricains de BMX freestyle 2021


Marina Golbahari (født 10. marts 1989) er en afghansk skuespiller, som er bedst kendt for sin rolle som hovedpersonen i filmen Osama fra 2003, hvor hun spiller en pige, der var nødt til at klæde sig og leve som en dreng for at støtte hendes familie i løbet af Taliban åren.

Filmografi
 Osama – 2003

Kilde

Eksterne henvisninger

Personer fra Kabul
Skuespillere fra Afghanistan

Marina Golbahari


زهاشكيف (Жашків) هي مدينة في مقاطعة تشيركاسكا في أوكرانيا.

يبلغ عدد سكانها حوالي 14948 نسمة.

أعلام
 صموئيل نوح كريمر
 شموئيل دايان

مراجع

محافظة كييف
مدن أوكرانيا
مدن مقاطعة تشيركاسي

جاشكيف


Jezero Vidak (točnije, skup jednog većeg, jednog manjeg i nekoliko manjih bara površine ukupno oko 6 hektara) kojima gospodari ŠRK "Đelekovec", nalazi se u Koprivničko-križevačkoj županiji u južnom dijelu općine Đelekovec.

Opis

Jezero je udaljeno od samog centra naselja i općine Đelekovec južno oko 2 km. To su umjetna jezera nastala iskapanjem šljunka i pijeska. Jezera se opskrbljuju vodom podzemno iz rijeke Drave i iz potoka Segovina koji teče desetak metara zapadno od njih. Obala jezera je prilično neprohodna, gusto obrasla visokim i niskim raslinjem, šikarom, trskom, rogozom, šašom, ježincom, ljutkom i drugim biljem a pristup vodi je moguć na nešto više od desetak ribičkih mjesta. Visoko raslinje ljeti ribičima daje savršeni hlad a cijelu godinu mirnu površinu vode jer štiti od vjetra. Obala je nešto pristupačnija na sjevero-zapadnom dijelu. Oko jezera su poljoprivredne površine i livade. Dno jezera je šljunkovito, mjestimično s puno trulog lišća i mulja, mjestimično prilično, a južnije i jako obraslo vodenom travom (krocanj). Ima bijelog lopoča i žutog lokvanja. Jezera se poribljavaju i bogata su nekim uobičajenim ribljim vrstama za ovo područje: posebno šaran (divlji/vretenasti i ribnjački/bezljuskaš), amur, obični grgeč i pastrvski grgeč bass, tolstolobik (bijeli/sivi glavaš), smuđ*?, som, štuka, linjak i ostala sitnija riba (unesene-alohtone invazivne vrste patuljasti som-američki som i sunčanica i koje obitavaju u ovom području -autohtonih vrsta crvenperka, žutooka-bodorka, bjelica-uklija i dr.). Sitnije ribe također ima i u spomenutom potoku. Zabranjena je uporaba čamaca.

Galerija

Izvori
Popis ribolovnih voda  Ribolovne vode podravsko-prigorskog kraja

Porječje Drave

Vidak (jezero)


Jessica Beinecke (chinesisch: 白洁, Bái Jié; * 1986 in Ohio) ist eine US-amerikanische Journalistin, die für den US-Sender Voice of America chinesischen Internet-Nutzern amerikanische Alltagssprache und Slang beibringt.

Beinecke war eine Zeit lang damit sehr erfolgreich, da sie ihre kurzen und unterhaltsamen Lektionen auf Chinesisch erklären konnte. Doch dann wurde ihre Seite im März 2012 von den chinesischen Behörden blockiert.

Leben
Jessica Beinecke wurde 1986 im Bundesstaat Ohio geboren und wuchs in der Kleinstadt Pickerington auf. Sie studierte Journalismus an der Ohio State University und lernte Chinesisch am Middlebury College sowie in den chinesischen Städten Peking und Hangzhou.

Weblinks
 YouTube (OMG Meiyu Channel, englisch)
 PBS.org: OMG Meiyu exports American slang to China (englisch)
 Die Slang-Botschafterin (Frankfurter Rundschau)
 "OMG! Meiyu". So niedlich lernen Chinesen Englisch (Der Spiegel)
 Die US-Blondine Jessica Beinecke (白洁 Bái Jié) ist in China ein Star

Journalist (Vereinigte Staaten)
US-Amerikaner
Geboren 1986
Frau

Jessica Beinecke


Downland, Downs, or The Downs may refer to:

Places

Topography
In the 'hill' context, the word 'down' derives from Celtic (Gaelic or Welsh) dun "hill, hill fort".
Downland, a geographical feature

Australia
Darling Downs, Queensland, a farming region on the western slopes of the Great Dividing Range in southern Queensland

Europe
The Downs (ship anchorage), the sea area between Goodwin Sands and the East Kent coast
The Downs, Bristol, a public open space in Bristol, England
North Downs, England, the counterpart of the South Downs. The two are often referred to as a collective term
South Downs, England, the counterpart of the North Downs
The Downs, a large grassy area on the University of Nottingham's University Park Campus
The Downs, White Horse Hills, England
Downs (townland, County Westmeath), a townland in Taghmon civil parish, barony of Corkaree, County Westmeath, Republic of Ireland
Downs, County Laois, a townland in County Laois, Republic of Ireland
Downs, County Tyrone, a townland in County Tyrone, Northern Ireland
North Wessex Downs, England

North America
Downs, Illinois, a village in the United States
Downs, Kansas, a small city in the United States
The Downs, a hilly peninsula in Ferryland, Newfoundland and Labrador, Canada

Other
Downs (surname)
Downs cell, a vessel used for manufacturing pure magnesium
Down's syndrome, a genetic disorder

See also
 The Downs School (disambiguation)

 Downs Station, a former formation of the Royal Navy
 Down (disambiguation)
 Downes (disambiguation)

Downs


Cafeneaua Fialkowski a fost deschisă la parterul și subsolul clădirii de la intersecția Străzii Regale (actualmente Strada Ion Câmpineanu) cu Calea Victoriei, lângă vechiul sediu al Teatrului Național din București și a funcționat între 1853 și 1898.

Bibliografie
 Gheorghe Crutzescu, "Podul Mogoșoaiei", Editura Meridiane, București, 1986
 George Potra, "Din Bucureștii de altădată", Ed. Științifică și Enciclopedică, București, 1981
 Constantin C. Giurescu, "Istoria Bucureștilor", Ed. Sport-Turism, București, 1979

Legături externe
 Onorabil public, poftiți la cafeneaua Fialkowski!
 Cafenele bucureștene loc de scandaluri și împăcări de tot felul
 Bătaia din Cafeneaua Fialkovski

Vezi și
 Lista restaurantelor și a cafenelelor vestite din București

Cafenele

Cafeneaua Fialkowski


The Kawanishi H6K was an Imperial Japanese Navy flying boat produced by the Kawanishi Aircraft Company and used during World War II for maritime patrol duties. The Allied reporting name for the type was Mavis; the Navy designation was .

Design and development

The aircraft was designed in response to a Navy requirement of 1934 for a long-range flying boat and incorporated knowledge gleaned by a Kawanishi team that visited the Short Brothers factory in the UK, at that time one of the world's leading producers of flying boats, and from building the Kawanishi H3K, a license-built, enlarged version of the Short Rangoon. The "Type S", as Kawanishi called it, was a large, four-engined monoplane with twin tails, and a hull suspended beneath the parasol wing by a network of struts. Three prototypes were constructed, each one making gradual refinements to the machine's handling both in the water and in the air, and finally fitting more powerful engines. The first of these flew on 14 July 1936 and was originally designated "Navy Type 97 Flying Boat", later H6K. Eventually, 217 were built.

Operational history
H6Ks were deployed from 1938 onwards, first seeing service in the Sino-Japanese War and were in widespread use by the time the full-scale Pacific War erupted, in December 1941. At that time of the war, four Kōkūtai (air groups) operated a total of 66 H6K4s.

The type had some success over South East Asia and the South West Pacific. H6Ks had excellent endurance, being able to undertake 24-hour patrols, and were often used for long-range reconnaissance and bombing missions. From bases in the Dutch East Indies, they were able to undertake missions over a large portion of Australia.

However, the H6K became vulnerable to a newer generation of more heavily armed and faster fighters. It continued in service throughout the war, in areas where the risk of interception was low. In front-line service, it was replaced by the Kawanishi H8K.

Variants

 H6K1
Evaluation prototypes with four Nakajima Hikari 2 engines, four built.
 H6K1 (navy flying boat Type 97 Model 1)
Prototypes with 746 kW (1,000 hp) Mitsubishi Kinsei 43 engines, three converted from the original H6K1 prototypes
 H6K2 Model 11
First production model. Includes two H6K2-L officer transport modification, 10 built.
 H6K2-L (navy transport flying boat Type 97)
Unarmed transport version of H6K2 powered by Mitsubishi Kinsei 43 engines, 16 built
 H6K3 Model 21
Modified transport version of H6K2 for VIPs and high-ranking officers, 2 built
 H6K4 Model 22
Major production version, modified H6K2 with revised weapons, some with 694 kW (930 hp) Mitsubishi Kinsei 46 engines. Fuel capacity increased from 7,764 L (1,708 Imp gal) to 13,410 L (2,950 Imp gal). Includes two H6K4-L transport versions, 100 to 127 (if other numbers are all correct) built.
 H6K4-L
Transport version of H6K4, similar to H6K2-L, but with Mitsubishi Kinsei 46 engines, 20 built and another two converted from the H6K4
 H6K5 Model 23
Fitted with 969 kW (1,300 hp) Mitsubishi Kinsei 51 or 53 engines and new upper turret replacing the open position, 36 built

Operators

Air Service Volunteer Corps - A single H6K5 flying boat was restored to flight by Indonesian forces during the Indonesian War of Independence.

 Imperial Japanese Navy Air Service
 Imperial Japanese Airways
 Used on the routes Yokohama-Saipan-Koror (Palau)-Timor, Saigon-Bangkok and Saipan-Truk-Ponape-Jaluit

Specifications (H6K4 Model 22)

See also

Notes

Bibliography
 Doubilet, David. "The Flying Boat". Sport Diver Magazine. Volume 15, Number 8, September 2007.
  (new edition 1987 by Putnam Aeronautical Books, .)

 "Pentagon Over The Islands...The Thirty Year History of Indonesian Military Aviation". Air Enthusiast Quarterly. No. 2, n.d. pp. 154–162.
 Richards, M.C. "Kawanishi 4-Motor Flying-Boats (H6K 'Mavis' and H8K 'Emily')". Aircraft in Profile Volume 11. Windsor, Berkshire, UK: Profile Publications Ltd., 1972.
 Van der Klaauw, Bart. Water- en Transportvliegtuigen Wereldoorlog II (in Dutch). Alkmaar, the Netherlands: Uitgeverij de Alk. .

External links

 Duel between an HK6 and 2 B-17s

H6K
H6K, Kawanishi
Flying boats
Four-engined tractor aircraft
Parasol-wing aircraft
World War II Japanese patrol aircraft
Aircraft first flown in 1936
Four-engined piston aircraft

Kawanishi H6K