قاعدة اليد اليمنى هي قاعدة ذهنية مشهورة في الفيزياء لفهم اصطلاح رمزي للمتجهات في الاتجاهات الثلاث. وقد ابتكرها الفيزيائي البريطاني زاكاريا ويليلم كول (Zachariah William Cole) للاستخدام في المغناطيسية الكهربائية وذلك في أواخر القرن الثامن عشر.

عند اختيار ثلاثة متجهات والتي يجب أن تكون متعامدة على بعضها البعض، يوجد حلان مميزان، ولذلك عند التعبير عن هذه الفكرة في الرياضيات، يجب إزالة هذه الغموض ومعرفة أي قاعدة معنية.

ترتيب الأصابع في قاعدة اليد اليمنى

يستخدم شكل واحد لقاعدة اليد اليمنى في المواضع التي نقوم فيها بعملية مرتبة على متجهين a وb ولهما متجه محصلة c عمودي على كلا المتجهين a وb. المثال الشائع هو جداء متجهات الوحدة. تفرض قاعدة اليد اليمنى الإجراءات التالية لاختيار اتجاه واحد من الاتجاهين.

يكون الإبهام والسبابة والوسطى متعامدة على بعضها، وتكون الأصبع الوسطى تشير باتجاه المتجه c بينما يكون الإبهام باتجاه المتجه a والسبابة باتجاه المتجه b.

وهناك طريقة مكافئة تختلف فيها وضعية الأصابع، حيث تكون السبابة باتجاه a، وهو المتجه الأول في الجداء، وتكون الإصبع الوسطى باتجاه المتجه الثاني في الجداء b، فيكون اتجاه الإبهام في اتجاه المتجه الناتج عن الجداء.

الاتجاه المرتبط بالدوران
تستخدم قاعدة اليد اليمنى عندما يكون الدوران محددا بمتجه، وهناك حاجة لمعرفة اتجاه الدوران. نلف أصابع اليد اليمنى باتجاه حركة الحقل المغناطيسي، فيكون الإبهام المبسوط معبرا عن اتجاه المتجه.

تطبيقات
تستخدم هذه القاعدة بكثرة في تحديد اتجاه ناتج جداء متجهين. وهي ذات تطبيقات كثيرة في الفيزياء، مهما كان نوع الجداء الناتج. نستعرض قائمة بالكميات الفيزيائية في الأسفل تستخدم قاعدة اليد اليمنى لتحديد اتجاهها. يجب أن نشير إلى أن بعض هذه الكميات لا تتعلق مباشرة بجداء المتجهات، وتستخدم النوع الثاني.

 سرعة دوران الأجسام الدوارة والسرعة الزاوية لأي نقطة من الجسم.
 عزم الدوران، والقوة المسببة له، وموضع نقطة تأثير القوة.
 الحقل المغناطيسي، موضع النقطة التي يحدد عندها، والتيار الكهربائي (أو التغير في التدفق الكهربائي) الذي سببه.
 الحقل المغناطيسي في ملف من الأسلاك والتيار الكهربائي في السلك.
 قوة الحقل المغناطيسي المؤثرة على الجسيمات المشحونة، والحقل المغناطيسي، وسرعة الجسم.
 سرعة أي نقطة في الحقل أو الجريان لسائل ما.
 التيار المحرض من حركة ضمن حقل مغناطيسي (تعرف باسم قاعدة اليد اليمنى لفليمنغ).

قاعدة اليد اليسرى لفليمنغ هي قاعدة تحدد اتجاه الدفع في ناقل يمر فيه تيار ضمن حقل مغناطيسي.

المراجع

إشارات اليد
توجيه
علوم تطبيقية
قواعد الإبهام
كهرومغناطيسية
متجهات
ميكانيكا

قاعدة اليد اليمنى


Andrea Miklós () este o alergătoare română specializată pe proba de 400 metri.

Carieră
A început atletismul la vârsta de 9 ani. Prima ei performanță notabilă este medalia de aur cucerită la Festivalul Olimpic al Tineretului European din 2015 de la Tbilisi (Georgia), în proba de 400 m.

La Campionatele Mondiale de Atletism în sală din 2016 din Portland (SUA), Miklós a reușit o nouă performanță împreună cu ștafeta de 4×400 m, obținând medalia de bronz.

Împreună cu Sanda Belgyan, Anamaria Ioniță și Adelina Pastor, a obținut calificarea la Jocurile Olimpice din 2016 după ce a obținut locul 8 in finala Campionatului European de la Amsterdam în proba de ștafetă 4×400 m. În iulie 2016, atleta a reușit să obțină din nou medalia de aur la categoria ei, 400 m, în cadrul Campionatelor Europene de Tineret din Georgia.

La Campionatele Europene de juniori mari (U20) din 2017 de la Grosseto a obținut medalia de argint, reușind cel mai bun timp al carierei. În anul a devenit vicecampioană mondială la Campionatul Mondial de juniori (U20) de la Tampere cu 52,07 s, stabilind un nou record personal. La Campionatul European de Tineret U23 din 2019 de la Gävle românca a obținut medalia de bronz.

La Campionatul European în sală din 2021 de la Toruń a obținut locul 6. În același an s-a calificat pentru Jocurile Olimpice de la Tokio prin locul ocupat în clasamentul mondial. S-a aflat deja în satul olimpic dar nu a putut să participe din cauza unor leziuni la tendonul lui Ahile.

În 2023 ea a câștigat medalia de bronz la Jocurile Europene, alergând un nou record personal cu timpul de 50,67 s. În luna iulie a îndeplinit baremul pentru Jocurile Olimpice din 2024 și la Campionatul Mondial de la Budapesta a ajuns în semifinală.

Palmares competițional

Recorduri personale

Note

Legături externe

Nașteri în 1999
Nașteri pe 17 aprilie
Atleți olimpici români
Atleți la Jocurile Olimpice de vară din 2016
Clujeni
Alergători
Campioni naționali de atletism ai României
Sportivi români în viață

Andrea Miklós


Emmanouíl Pappás, en , localement appelé Douvísta (), est un village du dème d'Emmanouíl Pappás, district régional de Serrès, en Macédoine-Centrale, Grèce.

Selon le recensement de 2011, la population du village compte .

Le village est nommé en l'honneur du général de la révolution de 1821, Emmanouíl Pappás, qui a sacrifié sa vie, sa famille et ses biens pour la lutte pour l'indépendance. Le village est situé au pied du  et présente une architecture macédonienne traditionnelle avec des rues étroites pittoresques et des maisons traditionnelles. Parmi les curiosités, une place particulière est occupée par le bâtiment du Scholarchío (institution éducative de la communauté grecque orthodoxe), construit en 1906 et récemment restauré, l'église d'Agíos Athanasíos avec sa magnifique iconostase unique en bois sculpté, construite en 1805 sur les fondations d'une église antérieure, les nombreuses chapelles du village sur les collines environnantes et la beauté unique des chevaux sauvages de Meníkio.

La localité fait partie de l'aire linguistique des Darnakochória.

Notes et références

Voir aussi

Liens externes

Village en Macédoine-Centrale

Emmanouíl Pappás (Serrès)


Allesø Gymnastik Forening er en dansk forening i Allesø på Fyn. Foreningen tilbyder et bredt udvalg af idræts- og sportsgrene, såsom fodbold, håndbold, gymnastik, tennis, petanque, volleyball og badminton.

Fodboldklubben spiller til dagligt i Serie 1

Eksterne henvisninger
 Allesø Gymnastik Forening
Gymnastikforeninger i Danmark
Odense Kommune

Allesø Gymnastik Forening


La Galerie nationale du Bénin est une galerie d'art créée le 20 mars 2020 par le gouvernement béninois pour donner une nouvelle dynamique aux arts visuels.

Localisation
La Galerie est située à Haie-Vive dans le 12ᵉ arrondissement de Cotonou, département du Littoral au sud du Bénin. Elle est placée sous la tutelle du ministère chargé des Arts.

Histoire
La Galerie nationale du Bénin est créée le 20 mars 2020 conformément  au décret N° 2020-201, pris en Conseil des Ministres en sa séance du 11 mars 2020, et portant approbation des statuts de la galerie nationale. La galerie est gérée par un conseil d'administration dont les membres sont installés le lundi 16 mars 2020, par le ministre du tourisme, de la culture et des arts, Jean-Michel Abimbola.

Mission
Placée sous la tutelle du ministère chargé des Arts, la galerie nationale du Bénin à pour mission de révéler les artistes plasticiens et de créer une dynamique autour du marché de l'art puis celle de son Conseil d'Administration à travers : la constitution du patrimoine artistique contemporain de l'État béninois ; des expositions-ventes d'œuvres d'artistes ; des évènements nationaux et internationaux ; l'animation de sa plateforme digitale dédiée à la vente d'œuvres d'art en ligne.

Collections et expositions

Notes et références

Galerie d'art
Culture au Bénin

Galerie nationale du Bénin


An Dichaea fragrantissima in uska species han Liliopsida nga ginhulagway ni James P. Folsom. An Dichaea fragrantissima in nahilalakip ha genus nga Dichaea, ngan familia nga Orchidaceae.

Subspecies

Ini nga species ginbahin ha masunod nga subspecies:

 D. f. eburnea
 D. f. fragrantissima

Mga kasarigan

Dichaea

Dichaea fragrantissima


Die League of Ireland 2012 (offiziell: Airtricity League nach dem Ligasponsor Airtricity) war die 92. Spielzeit der höchsten irischen Fußballliga. Die Saison begann am 2. März 2012 und endete am 26. Oktober 2012 mit dem 33. und letzten Spieltag.

Titelverteidiger und Rekordmeister Shamrock Rovers belegte nur den vierten Rang. Meister wurde Sligo Rovers und holte damit den dritten Titel ihrer Vereinsgeschichte.

Modus
Aufgrund der Ligaaufstockung von zehn auf zwölf Vereine stiegen die beiden erstplatzierten Teams der First Division 2011 (zweithöchste Spielklasse) direkt auf. Diese waren Cork City und der Shelbourne FC. Außerdem besiegte der drittplatzierte der First Division, Monaghan United, den letztplatzierten der League of Ireland 2011, Galway United, im Aufstiegsplayoff mit 2:0 und 3:1, und stieg daher ebenfalls auf.

Die Teams spielten jeweils dreimal gegeneinander. Der Tabellenletzte stieg direkt ab, der Vorletzte musste in die Relegation.

Vereine

Abschlusstabelle

Tabellenführende nach Spieltagen

 Sha = Shamrock Rovers
 Der = Derry City

Kreuztabelle
Die Kreuztabelle stellt die Ergebnisse aller Spiele dieser Saison dar. Die Heimmannschaft ist in der mittleren Spalte aufgelistet und die Gastmannschaft in der obersten Reihe. Die Ergebnisse sind immer aus Sicht der Heimmannschaft angegeben. Blau hinterlegte Begegnungen wurden nach dem Rückzug von Monaghan United annulliert bzw. nicht ausgetragen.

Relegation
Der Elftplatzierte der regulären Saison (Dundalk FC) spielte gegen den Zweiten der First Division (Waterford United) zwei Relegationsspiele.

|}

Torschützenliste

Weblinks
 Ergebnisse und Tabelle eu-football.info
 Premier Division extratime.ie

Einzelnachweise

2012
Fußballsaison 2012

League of Ireland 2012


Franz Reuß (17 de abril de 1904 - 5 de junho de 1992) foi um general da Luftwaffe da Alemanha nazista durante a Segunda Guerra Mundial. Ele foi premiado com a Cruz de Cavaleiro da Cruz de Ferro em julho de 1944.

Prêmios

 Cruz alemã em ouro em 21 de agosto de 1942 como Oberstleutnant i. G. (no estado maior) no Stab/ IV. Flieger-Korps
 Cruz de Cavaleiro da Cruz de Ferro em 18 de julho de 1944 como Generalmajor e comandante da 4. Divisão Flieger

Referências

Citações

Bibliografia

Recebedores da Cruz de Cavaleiro da Cruz de Ferro
Recebedores da Cruz Germânica em Ouro
Mortos em 1992
Nascidos em 1904
!CS1 alemão-fontes em língua (de)

Franz Reuß


Umberto Guidoni (born 18 August 1954 in Rome) is an Italian astrophysicist, science writer and a former ESA astronaut, being the first European to visit the International Space Station. He is a veteran of two NASA Space Shuttle missions. He was also a Member of the European Parliament (MEP) from 2004 to 2009, with the Group of the European United Left (GUE/NGL).

Biography

Career and spaceflights

Guidoni earned a doctorate in astrophysics from the University of Rome La Sapienza in 1978 and worked in the Italian Space Agency (ASI) as well as in the European Space Agency (ESA). One of his research projects was the Tethered Satellite System, which was part of the payload of the STS-46 mission. Guidoni trained as an alternate payload specialist for that mission and made his first spaceflight aboard the Space Shuttle Columbia STS-75 in 1996, which included the second flight of the TSS system (TSS-1R).

In 2001, Guidoni participated in the Space Shuttle's STS-100 mission, being the first European on board  International Space Station (ISS).
On that flight, the Space Shuttle Endeavour carried the Raffaello Multi-Purpose Logistics Module for its maiden flight as well as the Space Station Remote Manipulator System (SSRMS), the Canadian robotic arm used extensively to assemble the ISS.

ESA career

In September 2001, Guidoni was assigned to ESA's European Space Research and Technology Centre (ESTEC) as crew support for the payloads to be developed for the Columbus Laboratory. Columbus and its payloads are the European contribution to the scientific research performed on board the International Space Station.
He retired from active astronaut status in June 2004.

Member of the European Parliament

In June 2004 Guidoni was elected to the European Parliament, in the Group of the European United Left (GUE/NGL). He was a member of the Committee on Budgetary Control and the Committee on Industry, Research and Energy (ITRE), and substitute of the Committee on the Environment, Public Health and Food Safety (ENVI), and the Temporary Committee on Climate Change. He has been rapporteur for the Seventh Framework Programme (FP7) for Research and Innovation. He also proposed the amendment 16 to protect the freedom of the press from the strict application of the EU directive (IPRED2) on criminal measures aimed at ensuring the enforcement of intellectual property rights.

Guidoni joined the Party of Italian Communists (PdCI) around 2004. He led a tendency within PdCI called 'Unite the Left'. Guidoni left PdCI in 2009.

Present activity

In 2007 was the speaker of  the radio program entitled "From the Sputnik to the Shuttle" (the series "At 8 in the evening" by Radio Rai 2), in which he retraced the main steps of the Space Era. In 2009, he presented another cycle of the same series where he narrated the epic history of the Apollo lunar missions. Starting from this program, in 2011, was published the book "From the Earth to the Moon".

Guidoni is involved in popularizing science and organizes events related to space. He has written articles and books including books for children such as "Martino on Mars", "Astrolibro" and the most recent published in 2019: "Voglio la LUNA" and "Guida per Giovani Astronauti".

Honours

 On 15 April 1996, Guidoni was appointed Commander of the Order of Merit of the Italian Republic by Oscar Luigi Scalfaro, President of Italy.

 On 11 May 2001, he was promoted to Grand Officer of the Order of Merit of the Italian Republic by Carlo Azeglio Ciampi, President of Italy.

 For his first orbital flight (STS-75) in 1996, Guidoni also received the NASA Space Flight Medal

 A second Space Flight Medal was awarded after his second space flight of 2001 (STS-100).

 For his achievements in space, Guidoni received the NASA Exceptional Service Medal in 2002.

The asteroid 10605 Guidoni discovered by V. Giuliani e F. Manca on 1996.

See also
Astronaut-politician

References

External links

 Personal site of Umberto Guidoni
 ESA profile page
 Spacefacts biography of Umberto Guidoni
 Umberto Guidoni at the European Parliament

1954 births
Living people
Astronaut-politicians
Italian astronauts
Sapienza University of Rome alumni
MEPs for Italy 2004–2009
21st-century Italian politicians
Space Shuttle program astronauts

Umberto Guidoni


النسخة الثانية من الدوري الإماراتي بمشاركة ستة فرق في مجموعة واحدة يتنافسون في جولتي ذهاب وإياب.
فاز بالبطولة فريق الأهلي لأول مرة في تاريخه.

الترتيب

مراجع

وصلات خارجية
 نتائج الموسم على RSSSF

الإمارات العربية المتحدة في 1974
الإمارات العربية المتحدة في 1975
دوريات كرة قدم آسيوية في 1974–75
كرة القدم الإماراتية في 1974-75
كرة القدم في 1974
كرة القدم في 1975
مواسم الدوري الإماراتي

الدوري الإماراتي 1974–75


Operațiunea Reinhard sau Operațiunea Reinhardt (în ) a fost numele de cod al planului german secret de război al celui de-al doilea război mondial de a extermina evreii polonezi în cartierul general al Poloniei ocupate de Germania. Această fază mortală a Holocaustului a fost marcată de introducerea lagărelor de exterminare.

Peste două milioane de evrei au fost trimiși la Bełżec, Sobibór și Treblinka pentru a fi uciși în camere de gazare. În plus, instalațiile de ucidere a maselor, folosind Zyklon B, au fost dezvoltate la aproximativ același timp la lagărul de concentrare Majdanek și la Auschwitz II-Birkenau, lângă tabăra de la Auschwitz I, pentru prizonieri etnici polonezi.

Note

Reinhard
Heinrich Himmler
Masacre ale Holocaustului și pogromuri
Reinhard Heydrich
Holocaust

Operațiunea Reinhard


مايكل رول (30 أكتوبر 1976 في ليون)  لاعب كرة قدم فرنسي يلعب حاليا لصالح نادي الدرجة الوطنية كروا سافوا .

روابط خارجية

مراجع

لاعبو كرة قدم رجالية فرنسيون
لاعبو وسط كرة قدم رجالية
مدافعو كرة قدم رجالية
أشخاص على قيد الحياة
لاعبو الدوري الفرنسي
لاعبو الدوري الفرنسي الدرجة الثانية
لاعبو كروا سافوا
لاعبو كرة قدم فرنسيون
لاعبو أولمبيك ليون
لاعبو نيس
لاعبو نيور
مواليد 1976
مواليد في ليون
لاعبو نادي تشيربورغ
لاعبو نادي مونتلوكون

مايكل رول


Peçe, doğal etkilerden ve kötü amaçlı bakışlardan korunmak amacıyla yüzün tamamını veya gözler hariç bir kısmını kapatmaya yarayan bir çeşit örtüdür.

Köken

Peçe kelimesinin kökeninin Arapça piçe kullanımından geldiği bir varsayımdır. Bir diğer iddia ise İtalyanca'da küçük bez anlamına gelen "pezzoto" kelimesinden türediği yönündedir. Peçe yerine diğer dillerde bürku, nikāb, vesvesa, ruband gibi kelimeler de kullanılmaktadır. Ortaya çıkışı itibarıyla Samî kavimlerinin bir geleneği olan peçenin kanıtlanabilir tarihi M.Ö. 2000 başlarına kadar gitmektedir.

Kullanımı

Peçe fiziksel olarak yüzü dış etkilerden koruyan bir örtüdür. Bu nedenle güneş ışınlarına karşı ve çöl ortamında rüzgarla uçuşan kumlara karşı koruma vazifesi görür. Peçe, alnın üst hizasında başörtüsünde veya çarşafa tutturulan bir bez parçasıdır ve kullanılmadığı zamanlarda kaldırılarak başın üstüne atılır. Tesettür açısından bakıldığında örtünmenin yüz için de sağlanması için çeşitli coğrafyalarda yaygındır. Özellikle Müslüman, Hindu ve Sih nüfusun yoğun olarak yaşadığı ülkelerde kadınlar arasında kimi bölgelerde yaygın olarak kullanılmaktadır. Bu ülkeler arasında Suudi Arabistan, Hindistan, Pakistan, Afganistan, Irak, Bangladeş ve Birleşik Arap Emirlikleri gibi ülkeler sayılabilir. Peçe ne başörtüsünün bir parçasıdır ne de burka gibi bütün vücudu kaplayan bir örtünme aracıdır.

İslam coğrafyasında özellikle Emevî ve Abbâsî dönemlerinde kadınların sokağa çıkarken peçe taktıkları bilinmektedir. Osmanlı toplumunda da özellikle büyük kentlerdeki müslüman kadınlar arasında peçe kullanımı yaygındır. Fransa Kralı II. Henri (Fransa Kralı)'nin 16. yüzyılda İstanbul'a gönderdiği elçilik heyetinde yer alan Nicolas de Nicolay'ın seyahatnâmesine koyduğu feraceli Türk kadını ve hamama giden Türk kadını resimlerinde ferace üstünde kenarları sırmalı, uçları püsküllü yaşmaklarla fes biçimli hotozlara iliştirilmiş süslü peçeler göze çarpmaktadır. Üç defa İstanbul'a gelen Ogier Ghislain de Busbecq de gönderdiği mektuplarda sokağa çıkan kadınların keten ve ipek peçeler arkasından erkekleri mükemmelen gördüklerini, fakat erkeklerin onların yüzünü göremediklerini yazmaktadır. Osmanlılar'da yalnız kadınlar değil 18. yüzyılın ortalarından itibaren Yeniçeri Ocağı'ndaki genç yeniçeri adayı civelekler de "civelek peçesi" denilen ince hasır bir peçe kullanmışlardır.

Sadece İslam dini bakımından değil, Hinduizm ve Sih inançlarında da kadının örtünmesi gereklidir ve peçe ayrı olarak kullanılabileceği gibi yaygın olarak örtünmek için uzun eşarpların kenarlarını peçe amaçlı kullanabilir. Sadece dini açıdan örtünme dışında cazibe katma aracı olarak da peçe kullanılabilir. Dansözlerin peçe takması bu nedenledir. Bazı kültürlerde de gelinlerin damatla buluşmazdan evvel peçe ile düğünde gezmeleri gerekir. Türkiye'de de kına gecelerinde gelinin yüzünün örtülmesi ve nazardan korunması için peçe takılması adettendir.

Ayrıca bakınız
 Başörtüsü
 İslam ve kadın
 Mısır'da peçe

Kaynakça

 Bahaeddin Ögel, Türk Kültür Tarihine Giriş, Ankara 1985, V, 191, 192

İslam terimleri
Tesettür

Peçe


John Bordley Rawls (21 Şubat 1921 - 24 Kasım 2002), Amerikalı filozof. Temel eseri A Theory of Justice (Bir Adalet Kuramı) dır. Bu kitap 20.yüzyılın siyaset felsefesi alanında hazırlanmış en önemli kitap olarak görülmektedir. 1971'de yazdığı bu kitaptan sonra 1993'te Siyasal Liberalizmi yazmıştır. Bu kitap da bir anlamda onun adalet kuramı çalışmasının bir devamı niteliğindedir.

1950'lerde ceza üzerine yazdığı ilk yazılarından, doğruluğun (ve dolayısıyla Etik'in) temellerine yönelik yazılarına kadar onun bütün yazılarında toplumsal adalet ya da adaletin eşit dağılımı sorunlarıyla uğraşmış olduğu görülür. Söz konusu Bir Adalet Kuramı kitabın da Rawls, " hakkaniyet olarak adalet" fikrini şekillendirmeye çalışır. O faydacı ahlak felsefesi karşısında toplumsal bir adalet düşüncesi oluşturma arayışındadır. Bu bağlamda şekillenen liberal adalet anlayışını sözleşmecilik ilkesiyle birlikte temellendirir. Bu bir anlamda "toplumsal sözleşme" geleneğinin devam ettirilmesi olarak görülmektedir. Rawls'ın adalet kuramı şu iki ilkeyle belirtilebilir. Bir; özgürlükler konusunda eşitlik. İki; toplumsal eşitsizliklerin toplumda dezavantajlı durumdakilerin yararı gözetilerek çözümlenmesi. Kuramı ve formülasyonları cok yoğun tartışmalara yol açmıştır. Özellikle kuramın içerdiği rasyonel çekirdek, yani neden ve nasıl diğerlerine nazaran Rawls'ın belirttiği adalet anlayışını tercih edecegimiz konusundaki rasyonellik, kuramın tartışmaya açık yanını oluşturmaktadır. Rawls, çoğulcu ve eşitlikçi bir siyasal liberalizm anlayışı içinde hakkaniyet olarak adalet fikrine imkân olacağını düşünmektedir.

Biyografi

İlk yılları
John Rawls, "Baltimore'un en seçkin avukatlarından biri" olan William Lee Rawls ve Anna Abell Stump Rawls'un oğlu olarak Baltimore, Maryland'de doğdu. Beş erkek çocuktan ikincisi olan Rawls'u trajedi erken yaşında yakaladı. "İki erkek kardeşi Rawls'dan ölümcül hastalık bulaşması sebebiyle çocukluklarında vefat ettiler. . . . 1928' te, 7 yaşındaki Rawls difteriye yakalandı. Kendisinden 20 ay küçük olan erkek kardeşi Bobby, O'nu odasında ziyaret etti ve enfeksiyon kaptı.  Ertesi kış, Rawls zatüreye yakalandı. Diğer erkek kardeşi Tommy'e hastalık bulaştı ve öldü." Rawls biyografisi yazarı Thomas Pogge, kardeşlerinin ölümünün   "John'un çocukluğunun en önemli olayları"  olduğunu söylemektedir.

Rawls Connecticut'taki Kent School'a (Episcopalian hazırlık okulu) nakil olmadan önce kısa bir süre Baltimore'da okula gitti. 1939' daki mezuniyetinin ardından Rawls, Princeton Üniversitesi'ne başladı ve yüksek şeref derecesi summa cum laude ile mezun oldu. The Ivy Club ve the American Whig-Cliosophic Society'e kabul edildi. Princeton'daki son iki senesinde "teoloji ve doktrinleriyle yoğun bir şekilde ilgilendi". Piskopos rahipliği (Episcopal priesthood) eğitimi almak için papaz okuluna gitmeyi düşündü.<ref>Joshua Cohen and Thomas Nagel, "John Rawls: On My Religion" , Times Literary Supplement, 18 March 2009</ref>

1943'te Bachelor of Arts olarak mezun oldu ve hemen sonra Amerika Birleşik Devletleri Ordusu'na kaydoldu.  Rawls, II. Dünya Savaşı sırasında Pasifik'te piyade olarak hizmet etti. Pasifik'te Yeni Gine'yi, Filipinler'i dolaştı ve Japonya'da bulundu; burada, Hiroşima bombalamasının sonrasına tanıklık etti. Bu tecrübe sonrasında, Rawls subay olma teklifini geri çevirdi ve 1946'da ordudan er olarak ayrıldı. Kısa bir süre sonra Princeton'a etik felsefesi üzerine doktora yapmak için geri döndü.

Rawls Brown Üniversitesi mezunu olan Margaret Fox ile 1949'da evlendi.

 Kariyeri
1950'de Princeton'da Doktora'sını tamamladıktan sonra 1952'ye kadar burada ders verdi. Bu tarihte, Oxford University (Christ Church) için Fulbright bursu kazandı. Burada, liberal siyaset kuramcısı ve tarihçi Isaiah Berlin ve hukuk kuramcısı H. L. A. Hart'ın görüşlerinden etkilendi. Birleşik Devletlere döndükten sonra Cornell University'nde yardımcı doçent (assistant professor) ve doçent (associate professor) olarak görev yaptı. 1962'de, Cornell'da profesör oldu. Kısa süre sonra da MIT'de tenure konumuna geçti. Aynı yıl, kırk yıl boyunca hocalık yapacağı ve etik ve siyaset felsefesi alanında Martha Nussbaum, Thomas Nagel, Onora O'Neill, Adrian Piper, Christine Korsgaard, Susan Neiman, Claudia Card, Thomas Pogge, T.M. Scanlon, Barbara Herman, Joshua Cohen, Thomas E. Hill, Jr. ve Paul Weithman'nın dahil olduğu dönemin önde gelen isimlerine ders vereceği Harvard Üniversitesi'ne geçiş yaptı.

 İleri dönemleri
Rawls kekeme oluşu ve "spotlar karşısında yarasa gibi dehşet" duyması nedeniyle nadiren röportaj verdi; ve ününe rağmen göz önünde bulunan bir entelektüel olmadı. Bunun yerine kendini akademi ve aile yaşamına adadı.

1995'te çalışmasının önüne ciddi bir şekilde engel oluşturacak olan ve birçok defa yaşayacağı felçten ilkini yaşar. Buna rağmen, uluslararası adalet hakkındaki görüşlerini en bütüncül haliyle açıkladığı The Law of Peoples adlı kitabını tamamlayabildi ve ölümünden kısa süre önce Kasım 2002'de "Bir adalet Teorisi" adlı kitabına yönelik eleştirilere cevap niteliğinde Justice As Fairness: A Restatement'ı yayınladı.

 Siyaset ve etik felsefesine Katkıları
Rawls liberal siyaset felsefesine katkılarıyla tanınmıştır. Rawls'un çalışmaları arasında büyük ilgi toplanlayan görüşleri şunlardır:
Justice as Fairness
 The original position
Reflective equilibrium
Overlapping consensus
Public reason
Veil of ignorance
Political constructivism

Akademik çevrede A Theory of Justice'''nin  1971'de yayınlanmasıyla siyaset felsefesi üzerine akademik çalışmalarda yeniden canlanmaya yol açması bakımından önemine dair genel bir mutabakat vardır. Çalışmaları iktisatçı, hukukçu, siyaset bilimci, sosyolog, sağlıkta kaynak dağıtımıyla ilgilenler ve teologlardan ciddi bir ilgi görmüş ve disiplinel sınırları aşmıştır. Rawls, Birleşik Devletler ve Kanada mahkemelerinde sıklıkla alıntı yapılması  ve Birleşik Devletler ile Birleşik Krallık politikacılarının atıfta bulunmasıyla  siyaset felsefesi alanındaki çağdaşlarından ayırt edilmişir.

Kaynakça

Dış bağlantılar
 John Rawls ve Yaşamı

1921 doğumlular
Maryland doğumlular
2002 yılında ölenler
20. yüzyıl Amerikalı yazarları
20. yüzyıl filozofları
21. yüzyıl Amerikalı yazarları
21. yüzyıl filozofları
Amerikalı filozoflar
Amerikalı ateistler
Cornell Üniversitesi öğretim üyeleri
Harvard Üniversitesi öğretim üyeleri
Massachusetts Teknoloji Enstitüsü öğretim üyeleri
Princeton Üniversitesinde öğrenim görenler
Siyaset felsefecileri
Politik kuramlar
Sosyal liberaller
20. yüzyıl Amerikalı filozofları
21. yüzyıl Amerikalı filozofları
Amerikalı etikçiler
II. Dünya Savaşı'nda Amerikalı askerler
Amerikalı siyaset felsefecileri
Analitik filozoflar
Ateist filozoflar
Mount Auburn Mezarlığı'na defnedilenler
Massachusetts'te defnedilenler
Ahlâkçılar
National Humanities Medal sahipleri
Tarih filozofları
Hukuk filozofları
Zihin felsefecileri
Önyargı ve ayrımcılık
Princeton Üniversitesi öğretim üyeleri
Rolf Schock Ödülü sahipleri
Sosyal adalet
Boston doğumlu yazarlar
Fulbright Programında öğrenim görenler

John Rawls


Anatomide üretra (Antik Yunanca ουρήθρα - uretra 'dan), (veya sidik borusu, idrar yolu, siyek) mesaneyi vücut dışına bağlayan bir borudur. Her iki cinsiyette de üretranın bir boşaltım sistemi vardır, erkeklerde ayrıca meninin geçmesini sağlayarak üremeyle ilgili de bir işlevi de bulunur.

Dış üretral sfinkter, işemenin isteğe bağlı olarak kontrolünü sağlayan bir iskelet kastır. Üretral tepe, hem erkek hem de kadınların üriner sisteminde bulunan anatomik bir özelliktir.

Anatomi

Dişi üretrası
İnsanlarda dişi üretrası 3–5 cm uzunluğundadır ve klitoris ile vajina girişi arasında bulunan vulvaya açılır; iki ucundaki iç ile dış üretra deliği arasında uzanır. Vajinanın ön duvarı simfizis pubis (symphysis pubis) içine gömülü durumdadır, yönü aşağı ve öne doğrudur; hafif eğridir, konkav tarafı öne doğrudur. Yüzeyi çok katlı yassı epitelden oluşur, mesane yakınında Çok katlı değişici epitele dönüşür. Urogenital diyaframın yukarı ve aşağı yüzleri arasında dişi üretrası, uretra Sfinkteri ile çevrilidir. Dış üretral sfinkterin somatik inervasyonu pudendal sinir tarafından sağlanır. Uro-genital sinüs üç kısımdan oluşur. Bunlardan birincisi, allantoisin devamı sayılan kranial kısımdır ve mesaneyi oluşturur. Sinüsün pelvik kısmı erkeklerde prostatik üretra ve epiteli, ayrıca membranlı üretra ve bulbo üretral (Cowper) bezleri, dişilerde ise membranlı üretra ve vajinanın bir kısmını oluşturur.

Erkek üretrası
İnsanlarda erkek üretrası yaklaşık 16 cm uzunluğundadır ve penisin ucuna açılır. Üretranın içinde spiral oyuklar bulunur (ateşli silahlarda namlunun içindeki yivler gibi), bu sayede idrar akımı geniş çaplı olur.

Erkeklerde üretra, konumuna göre dört bölüme ayrılır:

Erkek üretrasının uzunluğu ve içinde birkaç köşenin bulunması sonda (kateter) uygulamasını zor kılar.

Histoloji
üretranın epiteli, mesaneden çıkarken, geçiş hücreleri olarak başlar. üretra boyunca daha ileride çok katlı silindirik epitel hücreler sonra da, dış meatusta (çıkış deliğinde) çok katlı yassı epitel hücreler olur.

Müküs salgılayan küçük üretral bezler epiteli idrarın yakıcı etkisinden korur.

Üretranın tıbbî sorunları
 Hipospadias ve epispadias erkeklerde üretranın anormal gelişmesidir, meatus penisin ucunda olmak yerine  hipospadiasta normalden daha aşağıda, epispasdiasta daha yukarıda bulunur. Ciddi durumlarda üretra penis ile skrotum arasında son bulabilir.
 Üretra enfeksiyonuna üretrit denir, dişilerde erkeklerden daha sık görülür. Üretrit, işeme sırasında acı duymanın (dizüri'nın)  sık görülen bir nedenidir.
 Üretral sendrom, üretritle ilişkilidir.
 Böbrek taşının üretradan geçmesi ağrılı olabilir ve sonradan üretral daralmalara neden olabilir.
üretra aracılığıyla yapılan mesane endoskopisi sitoskopi olarak adlandırılır.

Cinsel fizyoloji
Erkeklere üretra, hem idrar akımı için, hem de cinsel ilişkide meninin geçmesi için bir yoldur.

Ayrıca bakınız
 G noktası
 Dış üretra deliği
 İç üretra deliği

Ek resimler

Dış bağlantılar
  "erkek üreteri"

İnsan üreme sistemi
Erkek üreme sistemi
Üriner sistem
Üretra
Memeli üreme sistemi

Üretra


Portúgal er yfirgnæfandi kristilegt meirihlutaland, þar sem fylgismenn íslams eru lítill minnihluti. Samkvæmt manntalinu 2021 eru múslimar um 0,4% af heildaríbúum landsins. Hins vegar, fyrir margar aldir aftur í tímann, var íslam mikil trúarbrögð á yfirráðasvæði nútíma Portúgals, sem hófst með landvinningum Umayyad á Hispaníu. Í dag, vegna veraldlegs eðlis portúgölsku stjórnarskrárinnar, er múslimum frjálst að trúa og byggja tilbeiðslustaði í landinu, þekktar sem moskur.

Samkvæmt manntalinu 1991, skráð af Instituto Nacional de Estatística (National Statistical Institute of Portúgal), voru 9.134 múslimar í Portúgal, um 0,1% allra íbúa. Íbúar múslima árið 2019 voru um það bil 65.000 manns. Meirihluti múslima í landinu eru súnnítar, þar á eftir koma um 20.000 til 22.000 sjía-múslimar, 65% þeirra eru Ismaili. Flestir múslimabúa á tíunda áratugnum var upprunninn frá fyrrum portúgölsku erlendu héruðunum Portúgölsku Gíneu og Portúgalska Mósambík og flestir þeirra síðarnefndu ættu uppruna sinn í fyrrverandi portúgölsku Góa og Damaon (Indlandi). Flestir múslimar sem búa nú í Portúgal eru frá Miðausturlöndum (þar á meðal Sýrlandi), Maghreb og Mósambík.

Tengt efni
 Íslam
 Íslam í Evrópu
 Íslam á Íslandi
 Evrabía

Tilvísanir

Íslam í Evrópu

Íslam í Portúgal


Die Pont de Lavaur (offiziell Pont Saint-Roch) ist eine in den Jahren 1772 bis 1785 erbaute Brücke über den tief eingeschnittenen Fluss Agout in Lavaur, Tarn, in der französischen Region Okzitanien. Sie ist nach wie vor die einzige Straßenbrücke, die Lavaur mit seinen Vororten auf dem rechten Ufer verbindet und mit der Route départementale RD 47 den Weg nach Osten ermöglicht. Nur das Viaduc de Lavaur, eine 1884 von Paul Séjourné gebaute Eisenbahnbrücke rund 200 Meter weiter nördlich, quert ansonsten den Fluss. Die Pont de Lavaur ist seit 1960 als Monument historique geschützt.

Beschreibung
Die Steinbogenbrücke besteht aus einem großen Segmentbogen mit einer Spannweite von 48,75 Meter. Der durch Steinmetzarbeiten betonte tragende Steinbogen ist 2,92 Meter stark. Sein Scheitel befindet sich 19 Meter über dem Flussbett. Der Bogen ist an den Enden von je zwei halbrunden, bis zur Höhe der Straße reichenden Türmen begrenzt, die die Widerlager flankieren. Die eigentliche Brücke ist rund 60 m lang, einschließlich der Widerlager rund 116 Meter. Die 8,86 Meter breite Brückentafel hat zwei Fahrbahnen und schmale Gehwege, die durch Steinmauern begrenzt sind.

Geschichte
Die Pont de Lavaur wurde von Joseph-Marie de Saget (1725–1782), dem Direktor für staatliche Baumaßnahmen des Languedoc, geplant. Er leitete die Bauarbeiten vom Beginn im Jahr 1773 bis zu seinem Tod kurz nach der Entfernung des Lehrgerüsts im Juni 1782. Sein jüngerer Bruder übernahm die Leitung der Restarbeiten. Zwei schwere Hochwasserschäden am Lehrgerüst, eine Arbeitseinstellung des Bauunternehmers wegen Problemen bei der Vergütung der Erschwernisse und später die erneute mangelhafte Ausführung weiterer Teilbereiche verzögerten die endgültige Fertigstellung der Brücke bis ins Jahr 1791, also bis kurz vor Ausbruch der Französischen Revolution. Die einige Jahre vor der Vergabe der Bauarbeiten auf 260.000 Livres veranschlagten Kosten stiegen schließlich auf 650.000 Livres an.

Andere Brücken der Zeit
Beim Bau der Brücke hatte nur die im 15. Jahrhundert errichtete Pont de Vieille-Brioude mit 54,50 Meter eine größere Spannweite, nachdem die Trezzo-Brücke mit einer außergewöhnlichen Spannweite von 72 Meter schon 1416 bei einer Belagerung vorsätzlich zerstört worden war. Als die Pont de Vieille-Brioude am 27. März 1822 einstürzte, hatte die Pont de Lavaur mit seinen 48,75 Meter zehn Jahre lang angeblich die größte Spannweite der Welt, bis 1832 die Grosvenor Bridge in Chester, England mit 61 m lichter Weite eröffnet wurde. Dabei wird aber übersehen, dass auch die Ponte Scaligero in Verona mit 48,70 Meter und die Pont Grand bei Tournon-sur-Rhône mit 49,20 Meter ähnliche Spannweiten haben.

Weblinks

 Paul Séjourné: Ancient Pont de Lavaur in: Construction des ponts du Castelet, de Lavaur et Antoinette. Annales des Ponts et Chaussées 1886, II. Band XII, S. 486–496. Digitalisat auf BnF Gallica
 Pont sur l'Agout auf Base Mérimée, abgerufen am 13. März 2012

Einzelnachweise

Lavaur
Lavaur
Lavaur
Erbaut in den 1780er Jahren
Brücke in Okzitanien
Brücke in Europa
Labastide-Saint-Georges
Monument historique seit 1960
Monument historique (Brücke)
Monument historique in Lavaur (Tarn)

Pont de Lavaur


Alergen je tvar koje unesena u organizam izaziva pojavu odgovarajućih specifičnih tvari (protutijela) u tjelesnim tekućinama ili u stanicama i tako na specifičan način mijenja reaktivnost predmetnog organizma.

U najčešće alergene spadaju pelud, životinjske dlake, perje i perut, plijesni, hrana životinjskog porijekla bogata bjelančevinama, lijekovi životinjskog podrijetla (serumi) itd.

Alergen izaziva simptome alergijskih bolesti koje ovise o tvari (alergenu) koji pokreće alergijsku reakciju i o organskom sustavu u kojem ova tvar manifestira svoje djelovanje.

Povijest
U 21. stoljeću učestalost alergija se udvostručila, a time i povećala svijest o ovoj opasnosti. Alergija nije nova bolest. Pretpostavlja se da najranije bilješke o alergiji potječu iz Egipta, iz doba kralja Mensesa, između 3640. i 3300. godine prije nove ere. Kralj Menses umro je od uboda ose. Još jedan slučaj iz povijesti (ili legenda) vezan je za kralja Rikarda III. koji je vješto iskoristio svoju alergiju na jagode. Kralj je namjerno pojeo jagode, i vrlo brzo dobio je jak osip i optužio svog protivnika Lorda Williama Hastingsa da je bacio kletvu na njega.

Rimski pjesnik i filozof, Tit Lukrecije Kar (98—55. pr. n. e.), promatrao je burne reakcije na uobičajene tvari koje su ga okruživale. Prateći te reakcije, došao je do zaključka:
Moderna era upoznavanja alergena i alergija započela je s početka 19. stoljeća, kada je austrijski pedijatar Clemens von Pirkvet prvi 1906. godine upotrijebio riječi alergija i alergen da bi opisao čudno stanje čiji simptomi nisu bili povezani s nekom poznatom bolešću.

Unos alergena u organizam i simptomi koje uzrokuju
Alergene najčešće udišemo, uzimamo hranom i pićem ili kao lijekove. Primamo ih također kroz injekcije, a u tijelo ulaze i ubodom insekata ili u kontaktu s kožom. Alergeni koji dolaze u kontakt s organizmom preko kože uzrokuju najčešće kožne tegobe. Kod alergena koji se unose u organizam gutanjem dominiraju simptomi od strane probavnog sustava ili kože, rjeđe dišnog sustava. Kod djelovanja alergena koji se unose u organizam udisanjem najčešće dominiraju simptomi od strane dišnog sustava.

Prema načinu na koji ulaze u tijelo, alergene dijelimo na više skupina.

Podjela alergena prema podrijetlu
Alergeni mogu poticati iz vanjskog svijeta i samog organizma, i dijele se na:
Alergene iz vanjskog svijeta (egzoalergeni).
Egzoalergeni mogu biti životinjskog, biljnog ili mineralnog podrijetla.
Alergene iz organizma (endoalergeni).
Endogeni alergeni mogu biti iz:
 vlastitog organizma (autoalergeni),
 organizma iste vrste (izoalergeni)
 organizma drugih vrsta (heteroalergeni).
Neki od najčešćih alergena

Podjela alergena na skupine
Alergeni su prema načinu određivanja grupirani u skupine:
 inhalacioni alergeni – pelud, grinje, plijesni, kemikalije koje hlape.
 inhalacioni alergeni – ostali (kozmetička sredstva, alergeni na radnom mestu...)
 nutritivni alergeni
 ubodi insekata
 screening testovi

Izvori

Vanjske poveznice

Dermatologija

Alergen


Aceasta este o listă de dramaturgi de limbă germană, în ordine alfabetică:

A
Herbert Achternbusch

B
Wolfgang Bauer (1941–2005)
Thomas Bernhard
Leo Birinski
Bertolt Brecht
Georg Büchner

D
Friedrich Dürrenmatt

F
Gustav Freytag

G
Johann Wolfgang von Goethe (1749–1832)

H
Peter Handke
Gerhart Hauptmann
Wolfgang Hildesheimer
Ödön von Horváth (1901–1938)

J
Elfriede Jelinek
Hanns Johst

K
Georg Kaiser
Heinrich von Kleist
Karl Kraus

L
Else Lasker-Schüler
Gotthold Ephraim Lessing
Franz Xaver Kroetz

M
Andreas Mand
Lucas Maius
Klaus Mann
Marius von Mayenburg (n. 1972)
Heiner Müller
Robert Musil
Johann Nestroy

P
Ulrich Plenzdorf

S
Friedrich Schiller (1759–1805)
Roland Schimmelpfennig

T
Ludwig Tieck
Ernst Toller
Kurt Tucholsky
Peter Turrini

W
Robert Walser
Frank Wedekind
Peter Weiss
Franz Werfel
 (1938–2014)

Z
Carl Zuckmayer
Stefan Zweig

Vezi și
 Listă de piese de teatru germane
 Listă de scriitori de limbă germană, după țară
 Listă de scriitori de limbă germană
 Listă de germani
 Listă de poeți germani
 Listă de filozofi germani

Legături externe

Listă
Dramaturgi

Listă de dramaturgi de limbă germană


Michał Pazdan (, n. 21 septembrie 1987, Cracovia, Polonia) este un fotbalist polonez care joacă pe posturile de fundaș central și mijlocaș defensiv pentru clubul polonez Legia Varșovia din Ekstraklasa.

Cariera la club
Pazdan și-a început cariera de fotbalist la Hutnik Cracovia. Treptat, el a trecut prin echipele de juniori, ajungând în prima echipă și devenind jucător de bază în sezonul 2003-2004.

În 2007 a ajuns la Górnik Zabrze. El a debutat în Ekstraklasa pe 14 septembrie 2007, înt-un meci cu Polonia Bytom. În acel sezon, el a jucat în 19 meciuri, fiind titular în 17 dintre acestea, și-a ajutat echipa să termine pe locul 8 în acel sezon.

Pe data de 24 iunie 2015, Pazdan a semnat cu Legia Varșovia.

Carieră la națională
Pazdan a strâns nouă selecții pentru echipa națională de fotbal a Poloniei. A debutat la națională într-un amical ce a avut loc la data de 15 decembrie 2007, împotriva Bosniei și Herțegovinei, meci câștigat cu 1-0.

Antenorul Poloniei, Leo Beenhakker, l-a convocat în lotul de 23 pentru Euro 2008. El și  Łukasz Garguła au fost singurii jucători care nu au jucat niciun minut.

De regulă, Pazdan a fost chemat în cazul în care alți jucători erau accidentați, fiind totuși convocat pe 21 noiembrie 2008 pentru meciuri amicale din Antalya, Turcia.

Titluri

Club
Legia Varșovia
 Ekstraklasa (1): 2015-16

Note

Legături externe

 Michał Pazdan la pzpn.pl

Nașteri în 1987
Fotbaliști ai Górnik Zabrze
Fotbaliști ai Jagiellonia Białystok
Fotbaliști ai Legia Varșovia
Fotbaliști internaționali polonezi
Sportivi polonezi în viață

Michał Pazdan


This is an incomplete list that is biased toward current and popular programming.

0-9
 The 180
 2 minutes du peuple
 3 Guys on the Radio

A
 À Propos
 Adler on Line
 Afghanada
 After Hours
 And Sometimes Y
 The Arts Tonight
 As It Happens

B
 Backbencher (2010-2011)
 Backstage with Ben Heppner
 Bandwidth
 Basic Black
 Because News
 Between the Covers
 Brave New Waves
 Bunny Watson

C
 C'est formidable!
 C'est la Vie
 Canada Live (1992–1993)
 Canada Live (2007–)
 Canada Reads
 Canadia: 2056 (2007-2008)
 CBC Radio Overnight
 CBC Radio Three
 CBC Radio 3 Sessions
 CBC Wednesday Night
 Charles Adler Tonight (2016-2021)
 CHUM Chart
 Chatelaine Radio
 The Chuck Swirsky Show
 The Chumps Without a Net
 Commotion
 Cross Country Checkup
 The Current

D
 Day 6
 The Dead Dog Café Comedy Hour
 The Debaters
 Definitely Not the Opera
 DiscDrive (2008)
 Dispatches
 Doc Mailloux
 The Doc Project
 Double Exposure

E
 The Entertainers

F
 Finkleman's 45s
 Frantic Times
 Freestyle
 Fuse

G
 Gilmour's Albums
 Global Village
 Go
 The Great Eastern

H
 The Happy Gang (1937-1959)
 Here Come the Seventies
 High Definition
 The House

I
 Ideas
 In the Key of Charles
 Inside the Music
 The Inside Track
 Inspector Maigret
 The Investigator (1954)
 The Irrelevant Show

J
 Jake and the Kid
 Jazz Beat
 Johnny Chase: Secret Agent of Space (1978-1981)

L
 Late Night Counsell
 Laugh in a Half
 Laugh out Loud
 Live Audio Wrestling
 Lovers and Other Strangers

M
 Madly Off in All Directions
 Marvin's Room
 Medium Rare
 Metro Morning
 Mr. Interesting's Guide to the Continental United States
 Monday Night Playhouse
 Monsoon House
 Morningside (1976-1997)
 Music and Company
 The Mystery Project (1992-2002)

N
 The National Playlist
 National Research Council Time Signal
 Nazi Eyes on Canada
 Nero Wolfe (a.k.a. Rex Stout's Nero Wolfe)
 The Next Chapter
 Nightfall (1980-1983)
 Night Lines
 Nightstream
 The Norm
 Northern Lights
 Now or Never

O

 O'Reilly and the Age of Persuasion
 O'Reilly on Advertising
 The Ongoing History of New Music
 OnStage
 Ontario Morning
 Ontario Today
 OverDrive

P
 Podcast Playlist
 The Point
 Prime Time
 Prime Time Sports

Q
 Q
 Quirks and Quarks

R
 The R3-30
 Radio 2 Morning
 Radio 2 Drive
 The Radio 2 Top 20
 Radio Free Vestibule
 The Radio Show
 RadioSonic (1997-2003)
 Rawhide
 RealTime
 The Review
 ReVision Quest
 Rewind
 The Roundup
 Royal Canadian Air Farce
 Running with Scissors with Mr. Interesting

S
 Saturday Afternoon at the Opera
 Saturday Night Blues
 Search Engine
 Share the Wealth
 The Signal
 Simply Sean
 Sound Advice
 The Sound Lounge
 Sounds Like Canada
 Spark
 Steve, The First
 Steve, The Second
 The Story from Here
 Strike (2007)
 Studio Sparks
 The Sunday Edition
 Sunday Morning
 Sunday Night Sex Show
 Sunny Days and Nights

T
 Talking Books
 Tapestry (CBC)
 Tapestry (CHFI)
 This Country in the Morning (1971-1974)
 This I Believe
 This Is That
 This Morning
 Tonic
 Trust Inc. (2012)

U
 Under the Covers
 Unreserved

V
 Vanishing Point (1984-1986)
 Variety Tonight
 The Vinyl Cafe (1994-2015)
 Vinyl Tap

W
 Warren on the Weekend
 What a Week
 White Coat, Black Art
 WireTap
 The World at Six
 World Report
 Writers and Company

See also

 List of UK radio programs
 List of US radio programs
 List of old-time radio people

References
Swartz, Jon D. & Robert C. Reinehr. Handbook of old-time radio: a comprehensive guide to golden age radio listening and collecting. Scarecrow Press, 1993.

Canadian
Radio programs

List of Canadian radio programs


Katolički školski centar Don Bosco je rimokatolička školska ustanova redovnika salezijanaca u Žepču. Dio je Sustava katoličkih škola za Europu. Vode ju salezijanci Hrvatske salezijanske provincije sa sjedištem u Zagrebu.

Identitet
Tri bitne osobine KŠC-a su: to je škola, katolička škola i salezijanska škola. Pod školom znači da je to "odgojna institucija koja promiče razvoj zdrave i uravnotežene osobnosti pod sljedećim vidovima: kulturološkim, osjećajnim, društvenim i duhovnim." Pod katoličkom znači da je "vlasništvo Katoličke crkve kojoj je prvotna zadaća evangelizacija. Nije katolička po tome što se u njoj izučava katolički vjeronauk, nego se njezin odgojni i kulturološki projekt temelji na kršćanskim vrijednostima koje postaju unutrašnja motivacija, nadahnjuju metodologiju, određuju ciljeve." Pod salezijanskom znači da ju "vode salezijanci, duhovni sinovi sv. Ivana Bosca koji je za mladiće svoga vremena darovao život nastojeći ih odgojiti kao poštene građane i dobre kršćane."

Ciljevi
Salezijanci se u svom radu nadahnjuju se evanđeoskim vrijednostima kao i na djelu sv. Ivana Bosca, osnivača salezijanske družbe. Škola želi odgojiti učenike, pri čemu nastoji pomoći svakom svom učeniku postići humanističku i opće kulturalnu izobrazbu, biti otvorenim društvenim potrebama i biti kršćanski zrela i slobodna osobnost.

Povijest
Ordinarijata Vrhbosanske nadbiskupije i općinskih vlasti Žepča pozvao je ratne 1994. Hrvatsku salezijansku provinciju da preuzme brigu oko izgradnje i vođenja ovog centra. 1995. godine stigla je prva skupina salezijanaca. Priključili su se odgojno-obrazovnom rad u srednjoj školi.

Žepačka općina darovala je zemljište u ulici Stjepana Radića bb uz rijeku Bosnu za izgradnju, površine 70.000 m2. Godine 1997. položen je kamen temeljac Katoličkoga školskog centra. 1999. je proradila Tehničko-obrtnička škola. Na godinu je proradila Opća gimnazija. Upravna zgrada izgrađena je 2003. i prostori za salezijansku zajednicu. Nova školska radionica gradi se od 2004. godine.

KŠC je dio mreže katoličkih škola u BiH. Promiče ih msgr. Pero Sudar, pomoćni biskup Vrhbosanske nadbiskupije. Danas u KŠC radi 60 djelatnika i u sklopu Centra dvije srednje škole, Tehničko-obrtničku školu koju pohađa 272 učenika i Opću gimnaziju koju pohađa 198 učenika.

Izvori

Vanjske poveznice
KŠC Don Bosco
Salezijanski oratorij
KŠC Don Bosco - Obavijesti - Početna - Facebook

Žepče
Salezijanski red
Crkveno školstvo u Bosni i Hercegovini
Katoličanstvo u Bosni i Hercegovini

Katolički školski centar Don Bosco u Žepču


Havet er en dansk kortfilm fra 1984, der er instrueret af Leif Magnusson efter manuskript af ham selv og Mogens Rukov.

Handling
Om en bygmesters livsrejse ad en flod mod havet, hans forhold til slaver, herremænd, en dreng og en kvinde. Handlingen udspiller sig i 1100-tallet.

Medvirkende
 Sverker Hällen, Bygmesteren

Referencer

Eksterne henvisninger

Kortfilm fra Danmark
Filmskolefilm fra Danmark
Danske film fra 1984

Havet (film)


Maymana (Persian/Uzbek/Pashto: ) is the capital city of Faryab Province in northwestern Afghanistan, near the Afghanistan–Turkmenistan border. It is approximately  northwest of the country's capital Kabul, and is located on the Maymana River, which is a tributary of the Murghab River. The population of Maymana was 149,040 in 2015, making it one of the largest cities of northwestern Afghanistan.

On 14 August 2021, Maymana was seized by Taliban fighters, becoming the twenty-second provincial capital to be captured by the Taliban as part of the wider 2021 Taliban offensive. As of January 2022, however, clashes between Taliban and resistance fighters and protests have been reported in the city.

Location
Maymana is located at the northern foot of the Torkestan Range at an elevation of  on the old terrace of the Qeysar or Maymana River, which is a right tributary of the Murghab River. The Maymana River branches off of the Band-e Turkistan River 50 km south of the city. The highlands of the Maymana region generally possess a very rich topsoil which supports the seasonal agricultural activities.

Land use

Maymana is a trading and transit hub in northern Afghanistan. Just over half of the land in Maymana is non built-up (57%) consisting largely of agriculture. The central districts (2-5) have higher dwelling density and clear road grids. The outer districts(1, 7-10) are characterized by more agricultural land.

Population

During the 19th century, the population of the settlement was estimated at 15,000–18,000 and was assumed to be a dominantly Uzbek city due to the market language which was mostly Chagatai language (Uzbeki). However, documents show it was a city of different ethnicities and people such as Tajiks, Turkmens, Pashtuns and Baluch. In 1958, the population was estimated to be 30,000. By 1979 this had risen to 38,250, and by 1982 to 56,973. Since there was never an official population census, those previous data should not be taken seriously. In 2004, it was estimated that Maymana has a population of 75,900 but was not backed by any evidence. In 2015, the population was estimated to be 149,040 by UN supported observers. Maymana has 10 districts and a total land area of 3,461 hectares. The total number of dwellings in this city are 16,560.

History

The town is of ancient origin. It seems clear that Maymana citadel dates back to the early Iron Age. Ceramic materials in a nearby cave at Bilchiragh are from the Paleolithic and late Neolithic-Bronze Age. Between 800 B.C and 700 A.D it was part of Median and Persian Empire, as well of Kushanian and Hephtalite, before being subjugated by Arabs during the Islamic Conquest who used local Iranian vassals to rule the region. In the 7th and 8th century it was the residence of the Malik of Guzganan, last Kushanian remnants, which was then under the control of the Farighunid, a native dynasty. From the 9th to 11th century the region was ruled by several rulers and dynasties (Saffarid, Mihrabanid, Nasrid...) from Sistan and then being subjugated by the Iranian Samanid and the Irano-Turkic Ghaznavid and Khwarizm rulers.

In the 12th and 13th century the region was devastated by nomadic Turks and invading Mongols. It took long for the region, nearly 200 years, to recover from the damage the nomadic and invading Turko-Mongol foreigners from northern Central Asia had caused. The area's population remained thin and the commercial trade was very weak but enough for the survivors to develop new agricultural and rebuild old structures. While the city was garrisoned and hosted Iranians and some Arabs, the villages as well owned by Iranians and settled remnants of Arabs, the deserts and steppe were home of wandering nomads of Turko-Mongolian and Iranian stocks (Aymaq).
In the 16th century, the Turkic Uzbek influence came to Maymana with the invasions of Turkistan and Herat by Muhammad Shaibani. For the region it was again a complicated time. However, Shaibani was defeated by the Iranian Saffavids but the Uzbek elements remained dominant from then up to day in the region until in the 18th and 19th centuries.

During that time the city became the center of the Maimana Khanate and an important centre for commerce, as well as being the gateway to Turkistan from Herat and Iran. It served as an important cultural and trade centre for the whole region and served to connect various different states and peoples. Under the Uzbek rule, the city experienced a sudden renaissance, starting from the conquest of the area by Muhammad Shaibani and lasting all the way down to the Pashtun subjugation of the region. In 1876, under Sher Ali Khan, the city fell to the kingdom of Kabul and was viciosly put in ruins. As result, only ten percent of the population remained alive while a large part either died or left the city for other regions after the horrific slaughter.

In the 20th century, the city was once strongly walled with thick walls and towers and surrounded by a moat, but in the 20th century all this has been reduced to an anonymous mound. In 1934, the rebuilding of the city started, and in 1949 the northern parts of the old city were renewed, the old city citadel changed to a park. Maymana was the administrative center of Meymaneh Province until the disintegration of the province.

As part of the International Security Assistance Force operation in Afghanistan, a Provincial Reconstruction Team led by Norway formerly operated in the province. The team also included Latvian troops.

Transportation
Maymana is served by Maymana Airport which had direct flights to Herat as of May 2014.

Economy
The town serves an agricultural area irrigated from the Qeysar River and also handles the trade in Karakul sheep with nomads. Maymana is an important livestock centre in Afghanistan. In the 1970s, the wool and cotton processing industry was booming in the city. Maymana is a market for leather goods, silk, carpets, wheat, barley, melons and grapes.

There is also an airport  located 2 miles (3.2 km) west of Maymana  in a valley surrounded by hills and a range of mountains  with some peaks reaching 12,000 ft.; 24 miles (39 km) southeast of the Turkmenistan border; and 64 miles (103 km) south of Andkhoy. The runway is with gravel surface.

Maymana is, after Kabul, Kandahar, Herat, Mazar-i-Sharif, Jalalabad, Kunduz, and Ghazni, the eighth-largest Afghan town with an independent women-managed radio station, Radio Quyaash, established in February 2005.

Climate
Maymana has a hot-summer Mediterranean climate (Köppen climate classification: Csa) with hot, dry summers and cold, moist winters.

References

External links
 Dupree, Nancy Hatch (1977): An Historical Guide to Afghanistan. 2nd Edition. Revised and Enlarged.  Afghan Tourist Organization. (First edition: 1970.)

Populated places in Faryab Province
Provincial capitals in Afghanistan
Cities in Afghanistan

Maymana


Stefánovaki  es un jútor del raión de Séverskaya del krai de Krasnodar, en Rusia. Está situado en la orilla izquierda del Kubán, 23 km al nordeste de Séverskaya y 27 km al sureste de Krasnodar. Tenía 236 habitantes en 2010.

Pertenece al municipio Lvóvskoye.

Enlaces externos y referencias

 Este artículo contiene datos geográficos extraídos de Google Earth y el mapa de Rusia de Yandex.ru, accesible desde este enlace.
 Este artículo es una traducción parcial de su correspondiente en la edición rusa de Wikipedia, Стефановский (хутор).
 Mapa topográfico en maps.vlasenko.net
  en Panoramio

Localidades del raión de Séverskaya del krai de Krasnodar

Stefánovski


Sander Provost (fæddur 7. október 1997 í Flæmska Brabant) er belgískur leikari.

Ævisaga
Síðan 2014 hefur Sander (þá 16 ára) leikið eitt af aðalhlutverkunum fyrir flæmsku Ketnet seríuna D5R (í heild sinni De Vijver). Provost er þekktur fyrir hlutverk Wout í þessari seríu. Í prufurnar voru 5 af 300 ungmennunum valin: Jamie-Lee Six, Thijs Antonneau, Angela Jakaj, Liandra Sadzo og hann sjálfur. Ásamt meðleikurum hans voru þeir tilnefndir til verðlauna fyrir bestu Ketnet seríuna á gala gullnu K's 2014 og unnu þau. Þættirnir fengu síðar einnig kvikmynd sem hann leikur í.

Tilvísanir

Tenglar

Sander Provost á Instagram

Leikarar
Belgar

Sander Provost


ميناء خور الزبير تأسس في عام 1974، على خور الزبير في محافظة البصرة ويبعد عن مدينة البصرة مسافة 80 كيلومتر.

ويتكون الميناء من أربعة أقسام رئيسية هي:
 الأقسام الفنية
 أقسام الشحن
 أقسام التفريغ
 الأقسام الإدارية

يستقبل ميناء خور الزبير البواخر التي تحمل موادا تجارية للتجار العراقيين وموادا تستوردها الحكومة العراقية، إذ يحتوي الميناء الذي يقع على مسافة (40كم) جنوب شرقي البصرة على تسعة أرصفة، ثلاثة منها جرى تخصيصها لتحميل النفط والأخريات لشحن وتفريغ كافة أنواع البضائع والسلع، لا سيما مفردات البطاقة التموينية والمواد التجارية الأخرى.

وكان الميناء يدار من قبل شركة "ميرسك" الدنماركية التي استمرت بإدارة عمل الميناء منذ سقوط النظام السابق في 9 نيسان/أبريل من عام 2003 وحتى 2 آذار/مارس من عام 2014 بعد تسليمه إلى إدارة الشركة العامة لموانىء العراق.

المصادر

ميناء خور الزبير_المعرفة

محافظة البصرة
موانئ ومرافئ البصرة

ميناء خور الزبير


شوردي (بالألبانية: Shurdhi) ويعرف بالأصمّ، هو الإله الألباني لعواصف البَرَد. وعبادته ذات أصل إليري.

مراجع

آلهة أوروبية
آلهة السماء والجو
أساطير ألبانية
تراث شعبي ألباني

شوردي


The Battle of Kunersdorf occurred on 12 August 1759 near Kunersdorf (now Kunowice, Poland) immediately east of Frankfurt an der Oder. Part of the Third Silesian War and the wider Seven Years' War, the battle involved over 100,000 men. An Allied army commanded by Pyotr Saltykov and Ernst Gideon von Laudon that included 41,000 Russians and 18,500 Austrians defeated Frederick the Great's army of 50,900 Prussians.

The terrain complicated battle tactics for both sides, but the Russians and the Austrians, having arrived in the area first, were able to overcome many of its difficulties by strengthening a causeway between two small ponds. They had also devised a solution to Frederick's deadly modus operandi, the oblique order. Although Frederick's troops initially gained the upper hand in the battle, the sheer number of Allied troops gave the Russians and Austrians an advantage. By afternoon, when the combatants were exhausted, fresh Austrian troops thrown into the fray secured the Allied victory.

This was the only time in the Seven Years' War that the Prussian Army, under Frederick's direct command, disintegrated into an undisciplined mass. With this loss, Berlin, only  away, lay open to assault by the Russians and Austrians. However, Saltykov and Laudon did not follow up on the victory due to disagreement. Only 3,000 soldiers from Frederick's original 50,000 remained with him after the battle, although many more had simply scattered and rejoined the army within a few days. This represented the penultimate success of the Russian Empire under Elizabeth of Russia and was arguably Frederick's worst defeat.

Seven Years' War

Although the Seven Years' War was a global conflict, it took on a specific intensity in the European theater based on the recently concluded War of the Austrian Succession (1740–1748). The 1748 Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle gave Frederick II of Prussia, known as Frederick the Great, the prosperous province of Silesia as a consequence of the First and Second Silesian Wars. Empress Maria Theresa of Austria had signed the treaty to gain time to rebuild her military forces and forge new alliances; she was intent upon regaining ascendancy in the Holy Roman Empire as well as reacquiring Silesia. In 1754, escalating tensions between Great Britain and France in North America offered France an opportunity to break the British dominance of Atlantic trade. Recognizing the opportunity to regain her lost territories and to limit Prussia's growing power, the Empress put aside the old rivalry with France to form a new coalition. Faced with this turn of events, Britain aligned herself with the Kingdom of Prussia; this alliance drew in not only the British king's territories held in personal union, including Hanover, but also those of his and Frederick's relatives in the Electorate of Brunswick-Lüneburg and the Landgraviate of Hesse-Kassel. This series of political maneuvers became known as the Diplomatic Revolution.

At the outset of the war, Frederick had one of the finest armies in Europe: his troops—any company—could fire at least four volleys a minute, and some of them could fire five. By the end of 1757, the course of the war had gone well for Prussia, and poorly for Austria. Prussia had achieved spectacular victories at Rossbach and Leuthen and reconquered parts of Silesia that had fallen to Austria.
The Prussians then pressed south into Austrian Moravia. In April 1758, Prussia and Britain concluded the Anglo-Prussian Convention in which the British committed an annual subsidy of £670,000. Britain also dispatched 7,000–9,000 troops to reinforce the army of Frederick's brother-in-law, Duke Ferdinand of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel. Ferdinand evicted the French from Hanover and Westphalia and re-captured the port of Emden in March 1758; he crossed the Rhine with his own forces, causing general alarm in France. Despite Ferdinand's victory over the French at the Battle of Krefeld and his brief occupation of Düsseldorf, the successful maneuvering of larger French forces required him to withdraw across the Rhine.

While Ferdinand kept the French occupied, Prussia had to contend with Sweden, Russia, and Austria, all of which wanted to carve out a piece of Prussia for themselves. Prussia could lose Silesia to Austria, Pomerania to Sweden, Magdeburg to Saxony, and East Prussia to Poland or Russia: an entirely nightmarish scenario. By 1758, Frederick was increasingly concerned by the Russian advance from the east and marched to counter it. Just east of the Oder river in Brandenburg–Neumark, at the Battle of Zorndorf, on 25 August 1758 a Prussian army of 35,000 men fought a Russian army of 43,000. Both sides suffered heavy casualties but the Russians withdrew, and Frederick claimed victory. At the Battle of Tornow a month later, a Swedish army repulsed the Prussian army, but did not move on Berlin. By late summer, fighting had resulted in a draw. None of Prussia's enemies seemed willing to take the decisive steps to pursue Frederick into Prussia's heartland. The Austrian Feldmarshalleutnant Leopold Josef Graf Daun could have ended the war in October at Hochkirch, but he failed to follow up on his victory with a determined pursuit of Frederick's retreating army. This allowed Frederick time to recruit a new army over the winter.

Situation in 1759
By 1759, Prussia had reached a strategic defensive position; Russian and Austrian troops surrounded Prussia, although not quite at the borders of Brandenburg. Upon leaving winter quarters in April 1759, Frederick assembled his army in Lower Silesia; this forced the main Habsburg army to remain in its staging area in Bohemia. The Russians, however, shifted their forces into western Poland–Lithuania, a move that threatened the Prussian heartland, potentially Berlin itself. Frederick countered by sending Generalleutnant Friedrich August von Finck's army corps to contain the Russians. Finck's corps was defeated at the Battle of Kay on 23 July. Subsequently, Pyotr Saltykov and the Russian forces advanced  west to occupy Frankfurt an der Oder on 31 July (on Germany's border with present-day Poland). There he ordered entrenchment of their camp to the east, near Kunersdorf. To make matters worse for the Prussians, an Austrian corps commanded by Feldmarshalleutnant Ernst Gideon von Laudon joined Saltykov on 3–5 August. King Frederick rushed from Saxony, took over the remnants of Generalleutnant Carl Heinrich von Wedel's contingent at Müllrose and moved toward the Oder River. By 9 August, he had 49,000–50,000 troops, enhanced by Finck's defeated corps, and Prince Henry of Prussia's corps moving from the Lausitz region.

Preliminaries

Terrain
The terrain surrounding Kunersdorf suited itself better to defense than offense. Between the Frankfurt dam, a long earthen bulwark that helped to contain the Oder river, and to the north of Kunersdorf itself stretched a  line of knolls; Judenberge (Jews Hill), Mühlberge (Mill Hill) and Walkberge (also spelled Walckberge). None was more than  high. The hillocks were steeper on the north side than the south, but bounded by a marshy, boggy meadow called the Elsbusch, or the Alder wasteland. East of Kunersdorf and the Walkberge, the Hühner Fliess (Fliess means running water) was joined by another stream that tumbled between two more hillocks. Past the Walkberge and beyond the Hühner stood two more promontories at Trettin.

Several ravines intersected the ridge of hillocks: starting at the northeastern end, the Bäckergrund joined the Hühner Fleiss. Just east of the Walkberge a small ravine separated the Walkberge from the Mühlberge. Another narrow roadway cut through the Mühlberge ridge, then a second narrow depression, known as the Kuhgrund (cow hollow), lay west of that. Beyond the Kuhgrund, the ground rose again, then dipped into a fourth hollow in which lay a Jewish settlement known as a shtetl, and the ground rose into the Judenberge; from this point, one could overlook most of Frankfurt and its suburbs. To the southeast lay a variety of small promontories, called the Grosser- and Kleiner-Spitzberge. Like the northwest side of the ridge, this ground was covered with small ponds, streams, marshy fields, and broad meadows. Natural features—ponds, causeways, swamps—would restrict wide movements on some of the terrain. To the east and north of the entire landscape lay the Forest of Reppen. Here the ground itself was sandy and unstable. The scrub forests were threaded with streams, springs, and bogs of all kinds.

Allied dispositions
The Russian army, which before the battle of Kay had about 40,000 men and lost 4,804 in the battle, after the battle of Kay had about 35,000 men. After the battle of Kay, it was joined by Pyotr Rumyantsev's corps of 7,000 men and the Austrian army of General Laudon. On August 4, 1759, according to the inspection, the total number of the Russian army was 41,248 people. This number included the regular army of 33,000 people and irregular—about 8,000 light cavalry of the Cossacks and Kalmyks. During the battle of Kunersdorf Saltykov left a detachment of 266 men in Frankfurt and had 41,000 for the battle. The Austrian army had on 4 August 18,523 men. These figures are reflected in the documents and are used in Russian scientific literature. There are also numerous overestimates of the Russian army, originating from German and English sources—for example 79,000, 64,000, 69,000 and even 88,000—these numbers are not based on documents. For example, the number 79,000 comes from the addition of 55,000 Russians and 24,000 Austrians, and 55,000 Russians are, in turn, the result of an army that had an initial strength of 60,000 people, lost about 5,000 at the battle of Kay. In fact, 60,000 is the total number of all Russian troops in Prussia, including garrisons in different cities, troops for the protection of communications and so on.

A portion of the Russian force remained in Frankfurt as the Allied advanced guard. Saltykov had expected the Austrian commander-in-chief's entire army to arrive; instead a mere wing under Laudon's command came to his aid. Their collaboration was complicated by their personalities. Neither Laudon nor Saltykov had great command of operational arts. Saltykov did not like foreigners; Laudon thought Saltykov was inscrutable. Neither liked conversing through translators, and both mistrusted each other's intentions.

Laudon wanted a fight, so he swallowed his differences and joined the Russians in building fortifications. Saltykov established his troops on a strong position from which to receive the Prussian attack, concentrating his force in the center, which he calculated was the best way to counter-act any attempt by Frederick to deploy his deadly oblique order. Saltykov entrenched himself in a position running from the Judenberge through the Grosser Spitzberge to the Mühlberge, creating a bristling line of fortifications, and faced his troops to the northwest; the Judenberge, most heavily fortified, fronted what he believed would be Frederick's approach. He and the Austrian troops were stretched along the ridge that ran from the outskirts of Frankfurt to just north of the village of Kunersdorf. Anticipating that Frederick would rely on his cavalry, the Russians effectively negated any successful cavalry charge by using fallen trees to break up the ground on the approaches.

Saltykov had little concern about the extreme northwestern face of the ridge, which was steep and fronted by the marshy Elsbruch, but a few of the Austrian contingents faced northwest as a precaution. He expected Frederick to attack him from the west, from Frankfurt, and from the Frankfurt outer city. The Russians constructed redans and flèche to protect all the potentially weak points of their fortifications; they built glacis to cover the most shallow of the hills, and scarps and counterscarps to protect seemingly weak points. Abatis not only littered the hillsides, but dotted flat ground. By 10 August, his scouts had told him that Frederick was at the far western edge of Frankfurt. Accordingly, Saltykov took everything he could from the city by way of sustenance, all oxen, sheep, chickens, produce, wine, beer, in a flurry of ransacking.

Prussian plans
While Saltykov plundered the city and prepared for Frederick's assault from the west, the Prussians reached Reitwein, some  north of Frankfurt on 10 August, and built pontoon bridges during the night. Frederick crossed the Oder in the night and the next morning, and moved southward toward Kunersdorf; the Prussians established a staging area near Göritz (also spelled Gohritz on the old maps), about  north-northeast of Kunersdorf late on 11 August with about 50,000 men; of these, 2,000 were deemed unfit for service and stayed behind to guard the baggage.

Frederick conducted a perfunctory reconnaissance of his enemy's position, accompanied by a forest ranger and an officer who had previously been stationed in Frankfurt. He also consulted a peasant who, though garrulous, was uninformed about military needs: the peasant told the King that a natural obstacle between the Red Grange (a large farmstead between Kunersdorf and Frankfurt's outer city) and Kunersdorf was unpassable; what the peasant did not know was that the Russians had been there long enough to construct a causeway linking these two sections. Looking to the east through his telescope, Frederick saw some wooded hills, called the Reppen Forest, and he believed he could use them to screen an advance, much like he had done at Leuthen. He did not send scouts to reconnoiter the land or question locals about the ground in the forest. Furthermore, through his glass he could see that the Russians were facing west and north, and their fortifications were stronger on the west. He decided all the Allies were facing northwest and that the forest was readily passable.

After his perfunctory reconnaissance, Frederick returned to his camp to develop his battle plan. He planned to direct a diversionary force, commanded by Finck, to the Hühner Fliess, to demonstrate in front of what he believed to be the main Russian line. He would march with his main army to the southeast of the Allied position, circling around Kunersdorf, screened by the Reppen Forest. This way, he thought, he would surprise his enemy, forcing the Allied army to reverse fronts, which is a complicated maneuver for even the best trained troops. Frederick could then employ his much feared oblique battle order, feinting with his left flank as he did so. Ideally, this would allow him to roll up the Allied line from the Mühlberge.

Final dispositions
Late in the afternoon on the 11th, wily Saltykov realized Frederick was not advancing on him from Frankfurt, and changed his plans. He inverted his flanks: instead of having the left wing at the shtetl and the right at Mühlberge, he reversed his flank with the right at the shtetl. Then the Russians set fire to Kunersdorf. Within hours, the only thing left was the stone church and some walls. While Frederick developed his plan to outflank Saltykov by maneuvering behind him, Saltykov outfoxed him.

Battle

Prussian activities began at 2:00 am on 12 August. Troops were roused and, within the hour, they set off. Finck's corps had the shortest distance to travel, and the five brigades arrived at the assigned post, the high ground northeast of the Walkeberge, by dawn; Karl Friedrich von Moller established the artillery park on the highest ground at Trettin, and pointed it at the Walkberge, on the hills north of the Hühner Fleiss. Finck's infantry and cavalry demonstrated in front of the five Russian regiments as a diversion, while the remainder of Frederick's army continued in a  semi-circle around the eastern flank of the Russian line, to approach from the village from the southeast. The grueling march took up to eight hours. Frederick intended to flank his opposition, and attack what he assumed would be its weakest side, but again, he sent no reconnaissance, not a single hussar or dragoon, to confirm his assumptions.

Mid-way in the march, Frederick finally realized he would end up facing his enemy, instead of approaching from behind. Furthermore, a row of ponds forced him to break his line into three narrow columns, exposing it to full Russian fire power. Frederick changed his dispositions; the Prussian right vanguard would concentrate east of the ponds of Kunersdorf and make an assault on the Mühlberge. Frederick calculated that he could turn the Austrian-Russian flank, and push the Russians off the Mühlberge heights. His redeployment took time, and the apparent hesitation in the assault confirmed to Saltykov what Frederick planned; he moved more troops around so the strongest line would face the Prussian onslaught.

Frederick's army became bogged down in the Reppen Forest. The day was already hot and sultry, and the men were already tired. The trees were thick and the ground was unstable and oozy in some parts, which made the movement of the heavy guns difficult. Delay after delay slowed them down. The carriages pulling the biggest guns, traveling with the bulk of the army, were too wide to cross the narrow forest bridges and the columns had to be reshuffled in the woods. The Russians could hear them, but thought they were scouting parties, albeit noisy ones; they calculated Finck's column was the primary force. Between 5:00 am. and 6:00 am., only Finck's demonstrating corps, to the north by Trettin, were visible to the Russians. Finck's right wing moved out of the hills toward the mill on Hühner Fleiss; more Prussians from Finck's left and center prepared to attack the Walkberge. Finck's artillery awaited Frederick's signal, but the bulk of Frederick's army still crashed about in the woods.

Assault on the Mühlberge

Finally, at 8:00 am., some of Frederick's army emerged from the woods, with most of Generalleutnant Friedrich Wilhelm von Seydlitz's cavalry and the rest of his artillery; a short time later, the rest of the Prussians emerged from the woods, and the Russians realized it was not a scouting party, but the main army. The Prussians stood ranked for battle, which now began in earnest. Finck's artillery park had been in place since dawn and, at 11:30 am, Moller initiated bombardment of the Russian position from the northern and northeastern ends of the Russian line (now the Russian left). In error, the Russian artillery had faced their batteries to the meadows beyond the Mühlberge, not the ravine, and had to be reset. For 30 minutes, the two sides bombarded each other.

At about noon, Frederick sent his first wave of soldiers toward the Russian position on the Mühlberge. Frederick favored mixed troops in such conditions, and his forward troops included grenadiers and musketeers, and some cuirassiers. The Prussian artillery batteries created an arc of fire on the Russian sector by the Walkberge and the Kleiner Spitzberge; the infantry could safely move under this arc. They advanced into the crevasse between the two hills; when they came within  of the Russian guns on the Mühlberge, they charged at point-blank range. Some of Shuvalov's Observation Corps, stationed on the summit, took substantial losses—perhaps 10 percent—before the Prussian grenadiers overwhelmed them. Prussian losses were also high. Frederick sent 4,300 men into this assault, immediately losing 206 of Prince Henry's cuirassiers. Although Saltykov sent his own grenadiers to shore up the Russian defense, the Prussians carried the Mühlberge, capturing between 80 and 100 enemy cannons, which they immediately deployed against the Russians. For the moment, the Prussians held the position.

After capturing the cannons, the Prussians raked the retreating Russians with fire from their own pieces. The Russians were slaughtered by the score, losing most of five large regiments to injury and death. By 1:00 pm, the Russian left flank had been defeated and driven back on Kunersdorf itself, leaving behind small, disorganized groups capable of only token resistance. In panic, some of the Russians even fired on the Margrave of Baden-Baden's troops, which also wore blue coats (although of a lighter blue), mistaking them for Prussians. Saltykov fed in more units, including a force of Austrian grenadiers led by Major Joseph De Vins, and gradually the situation stabilized.

Attack stalled
The Prussian position at Kunersdorf was not substantially better than it had been a few hours earlier, but it was, at least, defensible; the Russian position, on the other hand, was substantially worse. While Frederick's principal force had assaulted the Mühlberg, Johann Jakob von Wunsch, with 4,000 men, had retraced his steps from Reitwein to Frankfurt and had captured the city by mid-day. The Prussians had effectively blocked the Allies from moving east, west or south, and the terrain blocked them from moving north; if they tried such a foolhardy move, Moller's artillery would rake them with enfilade fire. The King's brother, Prince Henry, and several other generals encouraged Frederick to stop there. The Prussians could defend Frankfurt from their vantage point on the Mühlberg and in the city itself. To descend into the valley, cross the Kuhgrund and ascend Spitzberge against frightful fire was foolhardy, they argued. Furthermore, the weather was blisteringly hot and the troops had endured forced marches to reach the theater and the battlefield. They were exhausted and low on water. The men had not had a hot meal in several days, having bivouacked the night before without fires.

Despite those arguments, Frederick wanted to press his initial success. He had won half the battle and wanted the whole victory. He decided to continue the fight. He transferred his artillery to the Mühlberg, and ordered Finck's battalions to assault the Allied salient from the northwest, while his main strike force would cross the Kuhgrund.

To complete Frederick's battle plan, the Prussians would have to descend from the Mühlberg to the lower Kuhgrund, cross the spongy field, and then assault the well-defended higher ground. This is where Saltykov had concentrated his men, making the Grosser Spitzberg nearly impregnable. At this point in his plan, Frederick intended to have the second half of a pincer movement ready to squeeze the Russian left. The rearmost forces were supposed to have advanced straight against the Russians from the south, while the right wing did the same from the north. The right was where it was supposed to be, with the exception of one of the support formations for the right wing, which was held up by misinformation about the ground: a couple of bridges that crossed the Huhner Fliess were too narrow for the artillery teams. The left was still out of position.

Anticipating Frederick's plan, Saltykov had reinforced the salient with reserves from the west and southwest; these reserves included most of Laudon's fresh infantry. Finck made no progress at the salient and the Prussian attack at the Kuhgrund was thwarted with murderous fire along their very narrow front. Watching from the luxury of the Kleiner Spitzberg immediately east of the village, Saltykov judiciously fed in reinforcements from other sectors, and awaited results. Once, in the fierce fighting, it looked like the Prussians might break through, but gradually the Allied superiority of 423 artillery pieces could be brought to bear on the struggling Prussians. The Allied grenadiers held their lines.

The Prussian left had been held up by a variety of problems, mostly relating to the inadequately-scouted terrain. Two small ponds and several streams trisected the ground between the Prussian front and the Russians, which the Russians had also littered with abatis. Tats required the Prussian line to break into small columns that could march along narrow passages between the water and marshy ground, diminishing the legendary firepower of the Prussian line of attack. Outside the shtetl, the Prussians tried to break through the Russian line; they got as far as the Jewish cemetery at the eastern base of Judenberg, but lost two thirds of Krockow's 2nd Dragoons in the process: 484 men and 51 officers gone in minutes.

The 6th Dragoons lost another 234 men and 18 officers as well. Other regiments battling through the Russians and the terrain had comparable losses. Despite these problems, they continued to slog through the Russian positions, advancing toward the Kuhgrund outside what remained of Kunersdorf's wall.

Cavalry attack
The battle culminated in the early evening hours with a Prussian cavalry charge, led by von Seydlitz, upon the Russian centre and artillery positions, a futile effort. The Prussian cavalry suffered heavy losses from cannon fire and retreated in complete disorder. Seydlitz himself was badly wounded and, in his absence, Generalleutnant Dubislav Friedrich von Platen assumed command. Under Frederick's orders, Platen organized a last-ditch effort. His scouts had discovered a crossing past the chain of ponds south of Kunersdorf, but it lay in full view of the artillery batteries on the Grosser Spitzberge. Seydlitz, still following the action, noted that it was foolish to charge a fortified position with cavalry. His assessment was correct, but Frederick had apparently lost his ability to think objectively.

The strength of Frederick's cavalry lay in its ability to attack at a full gallop, with riders knee to knee and horses touching at the shoulders. The units sent against the position shattered; they had to attack piecemeal because of the manner in which the ground was naturally formed. Before any further action could take place, Laudon himself led the Austrian cavalry's counterattack around the obstacles and routed Platen's cavalry. The fleeing men and horses trampled their own infantry around the base of the Mühlberge. General panic ensued.

The cavalry attack against fortified positions had failed. The Prussian infantry had been on its feet for 16 hours, half that in a forced march over muddy and uneven terrain, and the other half in slogging battle against formidable odds, in hot weather. Despite the apparent futility, the Prussian infantry repeatedly attacked the Spitzberge, each time with greater losses; the 37th Infantry lost 992 men and 16 officers, more than 90 percent of its force.

The King himself led two attacks of the 35th Infantry and lost two of his horses in the effort. He was mounting a third when the animal was shot in the neck and fell to the ground, nearly crushing the King. Two of Frederick's adjutants pulled him from under the horse as it fell. A ball smashed the gold snuff box in his coat, and this box, plus his heavy coat, probably saved his life.

Evening action
By 5:00 pm, neither side could make any gains; the Prussians held tenaciously to the captured artillery works, too tired to even retreat: they had pushed the Russians from the Mühlberge, the village, and the Kuhgrund, but no further. The Allies were in a similar state, except they had more cavalry in reserve and some fresh Austrian infantry. This part of Laudon's forces, late arrivals to the scene and largely unused, came into action at about 7:00 pm. To the exhausted Prussians holding the Kuhgrund, the swarm of fresh Austrian reserves was the final stroke. Although such isolated groups as Hans Sigismund von Lestwitz's regiment put up a bold front, these groups lost heavily and their stubborn defense could not stop the chaos of the Prussian retreat. Soldiers threw their weapons and gear aside and ran for their lives.

The battle was lost for Frederick—it had actually been lost for the Prussians for a couple of hours—but he had not accepted this fact. Frederick rode among his melting army, snatched a regimental flag, trying to rally his men: Children, my children, come to me. Avec moi, Avec moi! They did not hear him, or if they did, they chose not to obey. Watching the chaos and seeking the coup de grâce, Saltykov threw his own Cossacks and Kalmyks (cavalry) into the fray. The Chuguevski Cossacks surrounded Frederick on a small hill, where he stood with the remnants of his body-guard—the Leib Cuirassiers—determined to either hold the line or to die trying. With a 100-strong hussar squadron, Rittmeister (cavalry captain) Joachim Bernhard von Prittwitz-Gaffron cut his way through the Cossacks and dragged the King to safety. Much of his squadron died in the effort. As the hussars escorted Frederick from the battlefield, he passed the bodies of his men, lying on their faces with their backs slashed open by Laudon's cavalry. A dry thunderstorm created a surreal effect.

Aftermath

That evening back in Reitwein, Frederick sat in a peasant hut and wrote a despairing letter to his old tutor, Count Karl-Wilhelm Finck von Finckenstein:
 This morning at 11 o'clock I have attacked the enemy. ... All my troops have worked wonders, but at a cost of innumerable losses. Our men got into confusion. I assembled them three times. In the end I was in danger of getting captured and had to retreat. My coat is perforated by bullets, two horses of mine have been shot dead. My misfortune is that I am still living ... Our defeat is very considerable: To me remains 3,000 men from an army of 48,000 men. At the moment in which I report all this, everyone is on the run; I am no more master of my troops. Thinking of the safety of anybody in Berlin is a good activity ... It is a cruel failure that I will not survive. The consequences of the battle will be worse than the battle itself. I do not have any more resources, and—frankly confessed—I believe that everything is lost. I will not survive the doom of my fatherland. Farewell forever!
Frederick also decided to turn over command of the army to Finck. He told this general he was sick. He named his brother as generalissimo and insisted his generals swear allegiance to his nephew, the 14-year-old Frederick William.

Casualties

Before the battle, both armies had been reinforced by smaller units; by the time of the battle, the Allied forces had about 60,000 men, with another 5,000 holding Frankfurt, and the Prussians had almost 50,000. The Russians and Austrians lost 16,332 men (3,486 killed), some 27 percent. Russian losses were 14,031 and Austrian losses 2,301. Sources differ on Prussian losses. Duffy maintains 6,000 killed and 13,000 wounded, a casualty rate of more than 37 percent. Another source gives 18,609. Gaston Bodart represents losses at 43 percent, and that 6,100 of the 20,700 casualties were deaths. Frank Szabo places Prussian losses at 21,000.
Following the battle, the victorious Cossack troops plundered corpses and slit the throats of the wounded; this no doubt contributed to the death rate.

The Prussians lost their entire horse artillery, an amalgam of cavalry and artillery in which the crews rode horses into battle, dragging their cannons behind them, one of Frederick's notable inventions. The Prussians also lost 60 percent of their cavalry, killed or wounded, animals and men. The Prussians lost 172 of their own cannons plus the 105 they had captured from the Russians in the late morning on the Mühlberge. They also lost 27 flags and two standards.

Staff losses were significant. Frederick lost eight regimental colonels. Of his senior command, Seydlitz was wounded and had to relinquish command to Platen, nowhere near his equal in energy and nerve; Wedel was wounded so badly he never fought again; Georg Ludwig von Puttkamer, commander of the Puttkamer Hussars, lay among the dead. Friedrich Wilhelm von Steuben, later the inspector general and major general of the Continental Army during the American Revolutionary War, was wounded at the battle. Ewald Christian von Kleist, the famous poet of the Prussian army, was badly injured in the latter moments of the assault on the Walkeberge. By the time he was injured, Major Kleist was the highest-ranking officer in his regiment. Generalleutnant August Friedrich von Itzenplitz died of his wounds on 5 September, Prince Charles Anton August von Holstein-Beck on 12 September, and Finck's brigade commander, Generalmajor George Ernst von Klitzing, on 28 October in Stettin. Prussia was at its last gasp and Frederick despaired of preserving much of his remaining kingdom for his heir.

Impact on Russo-Austro alliance
Although still wary of one another, the Russian and Austrian commanders were satisfied with the result of their cooperation. They had outfought Frederick's army in a test of nerve, courage and military skills. Elizabeth of Russia promoted Saltykov to Generalfeldmarschall and awarded a special medal to everyone involved. She also sent a sword of honor to Laudon, but the price of the rout was high: 27 percent Austrian and Russian losses would not usually qualify as a victory. The storming of field works typically resulted in a disproportionate number of killed over wounded. The conclusion of the battle in hand-to-hand struggle also increased casualties on both sides. Finally, subsequent cavalry charges and the stampeding flight of men and horses had caused many more injuries.

Regardless of the losses, Saltykov and Laudon remained on the field with intact armies, and with extant communications between one another. The Prussian defeat remained without consequences when the victors did not capitalize on the opportunity to march against Berlin, but retired to Saxony instead. If Saltykov had sought the coup de grâce in the last hour of the battle, he did not follow through with it.

Within days, Frederick's army had reconstituted itself. Approximately 26,000 men, most of the survivors, were scattered over the territory between Kunersdorf and Berlin. Four days after the battle, though, most of the men turned up at the headquarters on the Oder River or in Berlin, and Frederick's army recovered to a strength of 32,000 men and 50 artillery pieces.

Elizabeth of Russia continued her policy of providing support to Austria, considering it vital to Russian interests, but with decreasing effectiveness. Distance constrained the Russian supply lines, and despite Austrian headquarters' agreement to supply the Russian troops through their own lines, Russian troops took little part in the remaining battles of 1759 and 1760. The Russian army did not fight another major battle until they stormed Kolberg in 1761, allowing the Prussians to focus on the Austrians. In 1762, the death of Elizabeth, and the ascension of her nephew, Peter, an admirer of Frederick's, saved the Prussians when he immediately withdrew Russia from hostilities.

Assessment
Most military historians agree that Kunersdorf was Frederick's greatest, and most catastrophic, loss. They generally attribute it to three major problems: his indifference to the Russian practices of the "art of war", his lack of information about the terrain, and his inability to realize that the Russians had surmounted the obstacles of location. Frederick complicated his fate by violating every principle of war he had espoused in his own writing.

First, Frederick had assumed he could use his trade-mark oblique order attack, but his reconnaissance had been incomplete. The Russians had been there for two weeks, had dug in to prepare for Frederick's arrival, and their fortifications bristled with abatis and guns. When he did arrive, Frederick had made limited efforts to assess the terrain and there was no operational reason for him not to have sent some of his cavalry to scout the area, except, perhaps, that his hussars, previously often used in reconnaissance, were being converted by Seydlitz into heavy cavalry. In the two weeks they had to prepare for the battle, the Russians and the Austrians had discovered, and reinforced, a causeway between the lakes and the marshland that allowed them to present Frederick with a united southeastern front. This effectively cancelled any advantage of the oblique battle order employed so successfully at Rossbach and Leuthen. Furthermore, the Russians utilized several natural defensive positions. The chain of hillocks could be enhanced by the construction of redans; the Russians were able to shape abutments from which to fire down upon the Prussians; they also constructed bastions, especially on the Spitzberge. Despite the murderous fire, Frederick's troops eventually turned the Russian left, but to little benefit. The terrain allowed the Russians and Austrians to form a compact front up to 100 men deep, shielded by the hills and marshes.

Second, Frederick's most egregious mistake was his refusal to consider the recommendations of his trusted staff. Brother Henry, a superb tactician and strategist in his own right, reasonably suggested halting the battle at mid-day, after the Prussians had secured the first height and Wunsch, the city. Wunsch could not move across the river; only one bridge remained, and Laudon's cavalry guarded it fiercely. Regardless, from these vantage points, the Prussians would be unassailable, and eventually, the Austro-Russian force would have to withdraw. Furthermore, Henry argued, the troops were exhausted from several days of marching, the weather was appallingly hot, they did not have enough water, and they had not had a good meal in several days. Instead of holding his secure position, though, Frederick forced his tired troops to descend the hill, cross the low ground, and ascend the next hill, in the face of heavy fire. The Prussian cavalry effort initially drove back the Russian and Austrian squadrons, but the fierce cannon and musketry fire from the united Allied front inflicted staggering losses on Frederick's much-vaunted horsemen. Furthermore, he committed perhaps the gravest of errors in sending his cavalry into battle piecemeal and against entrenched positions.

Third, he acted on the ground of his enemy's choosing, not of his own, and on the basis of meager information and almost no understanding of the ground, he broke all the military tactical rules of his own devising. He had thrown his infantry into the teeth of gun fire; he compounded this folly by committing his cavalry piecemeal in pointless charges across soft, spongy ground that was divided by streams, requiring them to attack in long, drawn out lines, rather than en masse; of course, he could not send his cavalry en masse because several natural features—ponds, causeways, swamps—made this impossible on some of the terrain.

The catastrophic loss was due to more than these three issues, though. Indeed, he violated his own rules of strategy and tactics because he faced an enemy he despised, and this brought out the worst of his generalship. In this way, the loss at Kunersdorf was similar to that of the Battle of Hochkirch. There, the British envoy traveling with the Prussian Army attributed Frederick's loss to the contempt in which he held the Austrians and his unwillingness to give credit to intelligence that did not agree with his imagination; certainly, this contempt for the Austrians and the Russians contributed to his loss at Kunersdorf as well. Yet, as Herbert Redman notes, "... seldom in military history has a battle been so completely lost by an organized army in such a short space of time." The loss was not only due to Frederick's unwillingness to accept that the Russians, whom he despised, and the Austrians, whom he despised only slightly less, had any military acumen. At Hochkirch, Frederick demonstrated good leadership by rallying his troops against the surprise attack; Prussian discipline and the bonds of regimental cohesion had prevailed. Importantly, the Prussian army at Kunersdorf was not the same army that had fought at Hochkirch, because it had already fought, and lost, there. Over the winter, Frederick had cobbled together a new army, but it was not as well-trained, well-disciplined, and well-drilled as his old one. He failed to accept this. Arguably Frederick's worst defeat, at Kunersdorf, his army panicked and discipline disintegrated before his eyes, especially in the last hour of the battle. The few regiments that held together, such as that of Lestwitz, were the exception. Frederick had demanded more of his men than they could bear.

Sources

Notes

Citations

Bibliography

Web resources
 Fleming, Thomas. "The Magnificent Fraud," American Heritage.  https://www.americanheritage.com/magnificent-fraud, February–March 2006. Retrieved 2016-10-09.

Further reading

  – particularly Volume 2, Chapter 17

  – particularly Chapter XXXI

  – particularly Chapter 5

Web resources
 Colaiacomo, Alessandro . Battle of Kunersdorf Kronoskaf Seven Years War. Accessed 21 September 2017.

1759 in the Holy Roman Empire
Battles involving Austria
Battles involving Prussia
Battles involving Russia
Battles of Frederick the Great
Battles of the Seven Years' War
Battle of Kunersdorf
Battles of the Silesian Wars
History of Lubusz Voivodeship

Battle of Kunersdorf


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