Arabic literature ( / ALA-LC: al-Adab al-'Arabī) is the writing, both as prose and poetry, produced by writers in the Arabic language. The Arabic word used for literature is Adab, which is derived from a meaning of etiquette, and which implies politeness, culture and enrichment.

Arabic literature emerged in the 5th century with only fragments of the written language appearing before then. The Qur'an, widely regarded as the finest piece of literature in the Arabic language, would have the greatest lasting effect on Arab culture and its literature. Arabic literature flourished during the Islamic Golden Age, but has remained vibrant to the present day, with poets and prose-writers across the Arab world, as well as in the Arab diaspora, achieving increasing success.

History

Jahili

 is the literature of the pre-Islamic period referred to as al-Jahiliyyah, or "the time of ignorance". In pre-Islamic Arabia, markets such as Souq Okaz, in addition to  and , were destinations for caravans from throughout the peninsula. At these markets poetry was recited, and the dialect of the Quraysh, the tribe in control of Souq Okaz of Mecca, became predominant.

Poetry

Notable poets of the pre-Islamic period were Abu Layla al-Muhalhel and Al-Shanfara. There were also the poets of the Mu'allaqat, or "the suspended ones", a group of poems said to have been on display in Mecca. These poets are Imru' al-Qais, Tarafah ibn al-'Abd, , Harith ibn Hilliza, Amr ibn Kulthum, Zuhayr ibn Abi Sulma, Al-Nabigha al-Dhubiyānī, Antara Ibn Shaddad, al-A'sha al-Akbar, and Labīd ibn Rabī'ah.

Al-Khansa stood out in her poetry of rithā' or elegy.  was prominent for his madīh, or "panegyric", as well as his , or "invective".

Prose
As the literature of the Jahili period was transmitted orally and not written, prose represents little of what has been passed down. The main forms were parables ( al-mathal), speeches ( al-khitāba), and stories ( al-qisas).

 was a notable Arab ruler, writer, and orator.  was also one of the most famous rulers of the Arabs, as well as one of their most renowned speech-givers.

The Qur'an

The Qur'an, the main holy book of Islam, had a significant influence on the Arabic language, and marked the beginning of Islamic literature. Muslims believe it was transcribed in the Arabic dialect of the Quraysh, the tribe of Muhammad. As Islam spread, the Quran had the effect of unifying and standardizing Arabic.

Not only is the Qur'an the first work of any significant length written in the language, but it also has a far more complicated structure than the earlier literary works with its 114 suwar (chapters) which contain 6,236 ayat (verses). It contains injunctions, narratives, homilies, parables, direct addresses from God, instructions and even comments on how the Qu'ran will be received and understood. It is also admired for its layers of metaphor as well as its clarity, a feature which is mentioned in An-Nahl, the 16th surah.

The 92 Meccan suras, believed to have been revealed to Muhammad in Mecca before the Hijra, deal primarily with , or "the principles of religion", whereas the 22 Medinan suras, believed to have been revealed to him after the Hijra, deal primarily with Sharia and prescriptions of Islamic life.

The word qur'an comes from the Arabic root qara'a (قرأ), meaning "he read" or "he recited"; in early times the text was transmitted orally. The various tablets and scraps on which its suras were written were compiled under Abu Bakr (573-634), and first transcribed in unified masahif, or copies of the Qur'an, under Uthman (576-656).

Although it contains elements of both prose and poetry, and therefore is closest to Saj or rhymed prose, the Qur'an is regarded as entirely apart from these classifications. The text is believed to be divine revelation and is seen by Muslims as being eternal or 'uncreated'. This leads to the doctrine of i'jaz or inimitability of the Qur'an which implies that nobody can copy the work's style.

This doctrine of i'jaz possibly had a slight limiting effect on Arabic literature; proscribing exactly what could be written. Whilst Islam allows Muslims to write, read and recite poetry, the Qur'an states in the 26th sura (Ash-Shu'ara or The Poets) that poetry which is blasphemous, obscene, praiseworthy of sinful acts, or attempts to challenge the Qu'ran's content and form, is forbidden for Muslims.

This may have exerted dominance over the pre-Islamic poets of the 6th century whose popularity may have vied with the Qur'an amongst the people. There was a marked lack of significant poets until the 8th century. One notable exception was Hassan ibn Thabit who wrote poems in praise of Muhammad and was known as the "prophet's poet". Just as the Bible has held an important place in the literature of other languages, The Qur'an is important to Arabic. It is the source of many ideas, allusions and quotes and its moral message informs many works.

Aside from the Qur'an the hadith or tradition of what Muhammed is supposed to have said and done are important literature. The entire body of these acts and words are called sunnah or way and the ones regarded as sahih or genuine of them are collected into hadith. Some of the most significant collections of hadith include those by Muslim ibn al-Hajjaj and Muhammad ibn Isma'il al-Bukhari.

The other important genre of work in Qur'anic study is the tafsir or commentaries Arab writings relating to religion also includes many sermons and devotional pieces as well as the sayings of Ali which were collected in the 10th century as Nahj al-Balaghah or The Peak of Eloquence.

Rashidi
Under the Rashidun, or the "rightly guided caliphs," literary centers developed in the Hijaz, in cities such as Mecca and Medina; in the Levant, in Damascus; and in Iraq, in Kufa and Basra. Literary production—and poetry in particular—in this period served the spread of Islam. There was also poetry to praise brave warriors, to inspire soldiers in jihad, and rithā' to mourn those who fell in battle. Notable poets of this rite include Ka'b ibn Zuhayr, Hasan ibn Thabit, , and Nābigha al-Ja'dī.

There was also poetry for entertainment often in the form of ghazal. Notables of this movement were Jamil ibn Ma'mar, Layla al-Akhyaliyya, and Umar Ibn Abi Rabi'ah.

Umayyad
The First Fitna, which created the Shia–Sunni split over the rightful caliph, had a great impact on Arabic literature. Whereas Arabic literature—along with Arab society—was greatly centralized in the time of Muhammad and the Rashidun, it became fractured at the beginning of the period of the Umayyad Caliphate, as power struggles led to tribalism. Arabic literature at this time reverted to its state in al-Jahiliyyah, with markets such as Kinasa near Kufa and  near Basra, where poetry in praise and admonishment of political parties and tribes was recited. Poets and scholars found support and patronage under the Umayyads, but the literature of this period was limited in that it served the interests of parties and individuals, and as such was not a free art form.

Notable writers of this political poetry include Al-Akhtal al-Taghlibi, Jarir ibn Atiyah, Al-Farazdaq, Al-Kumayt ibn Zayd al-Asadi, , and .

There were also poetic forms of rajaz—mastered by  and —and ar-Rā'uwīyyāt, or "pastoral poetry"—mastered by  and Dhu ar-Rumma.

Abbasid

The Abbasid period is generally recognized as the beginning of the Islamic Golden Age, and was a time of significant literary production. The House of Wisdom in Baghdad hosted numerous scholars and writers such as Al-Jahiz and Omar Khayyam. A number of stories in the One Thousand and One Nights feature the Abbasid caliph Harun al-Rashid. Al-Hariri of Basra was a notable literary figure of this period.

Some of the important poets in  were: Bashar ibn Burd, Abu Nuwas, Abu-l-'Atahiya, Muslim ibn al-Walid, Abbas Ibn al-Ahnaf, and .

Andalusi

Andalusi literature was produced in Al-Andalus, or Islamic Iberia, from its Muslim conquest in 711 to either the Catholic conquest of Granada in 1492 or the Expulsion of the Moors ending in 1614. Ibn Abd Rabbih's Al-ʿIqd al-Farīd (The Unique Necklace) and Ibn Tufail's Hayy ibn Yaqdhan were influential works of literature from this tradition. Notable literary figures of this period include Ibn Hazm, Ziryab, Ibn Zaydun, Wallada bint al-Mustakfi, Al-Mu'tamid ibn Abbad, Ibn Bajja, Al-Bakri, Ibn Rushd, Hafsa bint al-Hajj al-Rukuniyya, Ibn Tufail, Ibn Arabi, Ibn Quzman, Abu al-Baqa ar-Rundi, and Ibn al-Khatib. The muwashshah and zajal were important literary forms in al-Andalus.

The rise of Arabic literature in al-Andalus occurred in dialogue with the golden age of Jewish culture in Iberia. Most Jewish writers in al-Andalus—while incorporating elements such as rhyme, meter, and themes of classical Arabic poetry—created poetry in Hebrew, but Samuel ibn Naghrillah, Joseph ibn Naghrela, and Ibn Sahl al-Isra'ili wrote poetry in Arabic. Maimonides wrote his landmark Dalãlat al-Hā'irīn (The Guide for the Perplexed) in Arabic using the Hebrew alphabet.

Maghrebi
Fatima al-Fihri founded al-Qarawiyiin University in Fes in 859, recognised as the first university in the world. Particularly from the beginning of the 12th century, with sponsorship from the Almoravid dynasty, the university played an important role in the development of literature in the region, welcoming scholars and writers from throughout the Maghreb, al-Andalus, and the Mediterranean Basin. Among the scholars who studied and taught there were Ibn Khaldoun, al-Bitruji, Ibn Hirzihim (Sidi Harazim), Ibn al-Khatib, and Al-Wazzan (Leo Africanus) as well as the Jewish theologian Maimonides. Sufi literature played an important role in literary and intellectual life in the region from this early period, such as Muhammad al-Jazuli's book of prayers Dala'il al-Khayrat.

The Zaydani Library, the library of the Saadi Sultan Zidan Abu Maali, was stolen by Spanish privateers in the 16th century and kept at the El Escorial Monastery.

Mamluk
During the Mamluk Sultanate, Ibn Abd al-Zahir and Ibn Kathir were notable writers of history.

Ottoman
Significant poets of Arabic literature in the time of the Ottoman Empire included , Al-Busiri author of "Al-Burda", Ibn al-Wardi, Safi al-Din al-Hilli, and Ibn Nubata.
Abd al-Ghani al-Nabulsi wrote on various topics including theology and travel.

Nahda

During the 19th century, a revival took place in Arabic literature, along with much of Arabic culture, and is referred to in Arabic as "al-Nahda", which means "the renaissance". There was a strand of neoclassicism in the Nahda, particularly among writers such as Tahtawi, Shidyaq, Yaziji, and Muwaylihi, who believed in the iḥyāʾ "reanimation" of Arabic literary heritage and tradition.

The translation of foreign literature was a major element of the Nahda period. An important translator of the 19th century was Rifa'a al-Tahtawi, who founded the School of Languages (also knowns as School of Translators) in 1835 in Cairo. In the 20th century, Jabra Ibrahim Jabra, a Palestinian-Iraqi intellectual living mostly in Bagdad, translated works by William Shakespeare, Oscar Wilde, Samuel Beckett or William Faulkner, among many others.

This resurgence of new writing in Arabic was confined mainly to cities in Syria, Egypt and Lebanon until the 20th century, when it spread to other countries in the region. This cultural renaissance was not only felt within the Arab world, but also beyond, with a growing interest in translating of Arabic works into European languages. Although the use of the Arabic language was revived, particularly in poetry, many of the tropes of the previous literature, which served to make it so ornate and complicated, were dropped.

Just as in the 8th century, when a movement to translate ancient Greek and other literature had helped vitalise Arabic literature, another translation movement during this period would offer new ideas and material for Arabic literature. An early popular success was The Count of Monte Cristo, which spurred a host of historical novels on similar Arabic subjects. Jurji Zaydan and Niqula Haddad were important writers of this genre.

Poetry

During the Nahda, poets like Francis Marrash, Ahmad Shawqi and Hafiz Ibrahim began to explore the possibility of developing the classical poetic forms. Some of these neoclassical poets were acquainted with Western literature but mostly continued to write in classical forms, while others, denouncing blind imitation of classical poetry and its recurring themes, sought inspiration from French or English romanticism.

The next generation of poets, the so-called Romantic poets, began to absorb the impact of developments in Western poetry to a far greater extent, and felt constrained by Neoclassical traditions which the previous generation had tried to uphold. The Mahjari poets were emigrants who mostly wrote in the Americas, but were similarly beginning to experiment further with the possibilities of Arabic poetry. This experimentation continued in the Middle East throughout the first half of the 20th century.

Prominent poets of the Nahda, or "Renaissance," were Nasif al-Yaziji; Mahmoud Sami el-Baroudi, , , and Hafez Ibrahim; Ahmed Shawqi; Jamil Sidqi al-Zahawi, Maruf al Rusafi, , and Khalil Mutran.

Prose
Rifa'a at-Tahtawi, who lived in Paris from 1826 to 1831, wrote  about his experiences and observations and published it in 1834. Butrus al-Bustani founded the journal Al-Jinan in 1870 and started writing the first encyclopedia in Arabic: Da'irat ul-Ma'arif in 1875. Ahmad Faris al-Shidyaq published a number of influential books and was the editor-in-chief of  in Tunis and founder of  in Istanbul.

Adib Ishaq spent his career in journalism and theater, working for the expansion of the press and the rights of the people. Jamāl ad-Dīn al-Afghānī and Muhammad Abduh founded the revolutionary anti-colonial pan-Islamic journal Al-Urwah al-Wuthqa, Abd al-Rahman al-Kawakibi, Qasim Amin, and Mustafa Kamil were reformers who influenced public opinion with their writing. Saad Zaghloul was a revolutionary leader and a renowned orator appreciated for his eloquence and reason.

Ibrahim al-Yaziji founded the newspaper an-Najah ( "Achievement") in 1872, the magazine At-Tabib, the magazine Al-Bayan, and the magazine Ad-Diya and translated the Bible into Arabic. launched a newspaper called al-Istiqama (, " Righteousness") to challenge Ottoman authorities and push for social reforms, but they shut it down in the same year. Mustafa Lutfi al-Manfaluti, who studied under Muhammad Abduh at Al-Azhar University, was a prolific essayist and published many articles encouraging the people to reawaken and liberate themselves. Suleyman al-Boustani translated the Iliad into Arabic and commented on it. Khalil Gibran and Ameen Rihani were two major figures of the Mahjar movement within the Nahda. Jurji Zaydan founded Al-Hilal magazine in 1892,  founded Al-Muqtataf in 1876, Louis Cheikho founded the journal Al-Machriq in 1898. Other notable figures of the Nahda were Mostafa Saadeq Al-Rafe'ie and May Ziadeh.

Muhammad al-Kattani, founder of one of the first arabophone newspapers in Morocco, called At-Tā'ūn, and author of several poetry collections, was a leader of the Nahda in the Maghreb.

Modern literature

Beginning in the late 19th century, the Arabic novel became one of the most important forms of expression in Arabic literature. The rise of an efendiyya, an elite, secularist urban class with a Western education, gave way to new forms of literary expression: modern Arabic fiction. This new bourgeois class of literati used theater from the 1850s, starting in Lebanon, and the private press from the 1860s and 1870s to spread its ideas, challenge traditionalists, and establish its position in a rapidly transforming society.

The modern Arabic novel, particularly as a means of social critique and reform, has its roots in a deliberate departure from the traditionalist language and aesthetics of classical adab for "less embellished but more entertaining narratives." This direction began with translations from French and English, followed by  social romances by  and other writers—particularly Christians. Khalil al-Khuri's narrative Way, Idhan Lastu bi-Ifranjī! (1859-1860) was an early example.

The emotionalism of early 20th century writers such as Mustafa Lutfi al-Manfaluti and Kahlil Gibran, who wrote with heavy moralism and sentimentality, equated the novel as a literary form with imported Western ideas and "shallow sentimentalism." Writers such as  of Al-Madrasa al-Ḥadītha "the Modern School," calling for an adab qawmī "national literature," largely avoided the novel and experimented with short stories instead. Mohammed Hussein Heikal's 1913 novel Zaynab was a compromise, as it included heavy sentimentality but portrayed local personality and characters.

Throughout the 20th century, Arabic writers in poetry, prose and theatre plays have reflected the changing political and social climate of the Arab world. Anti-colonial themes were prominent early in the 20th century, with writers continuing to explore the region's relationship with the West. Internal political upheaval has also been a challenge, with writers suffering censorship or persecution.

The interwar period featured writers such as Taha Hussein, author of Al-Ayyām, Ibrahim al-Mazini, Abbas Mahmoud al-Aqqad, and Tawfiq al-Hakim. The acceptance of suffering in al-Hakim's 1934 , is exemplary of the disappointment that prevailed over the idealism of the new middle class. As a result of increasing industrialization and urbanization, binary struggles such as the "materialism of the West" against the "spiritualism of the East," "progressive individuals and a backward, ignorant society," and "a city-versus-countryside divide" were common themes in the literature of this period and since.

There are many contemporary Arabic writers, such as Mahmoud Saeed (Iraq) who wrote Bin Barka Ally, and I Am The One Who Saw (Saddam City). Other contemporary writers include Sonallah Ibrahim and Abdul Rahman Munif, who were imprisoned by the government for their critical opinions. At the same time, others who had written works supporting or praising governments, were promoted to positions of authority within cultural bodies. Nonfiction writers and academics have also produced political polemics and criticisms aiming to re-shape Arabic politics. Some of the best known are Taha Hussein's The Future of Culture in Egypt, which was an important work of Egyptian nationalism, and the works of Nawal el-Saadawi, who campaigned for women's rights. Tayeb Salih from Sudan and Ghassan Kanafani from Palestine are two other writers who explored identity in relationship to foreign and domestic powers, the former writing about colonial/post-colonial relationships, and the latter on the repercussions of the Palestinian struggle.

Poetry

After World War II, there was a largely unsuccessful movement by several poets to write poems in free verse (shi'r hurr). Iraqi poets Badr Shakir al-Sayyab and Nazik Al-Malaika (1923-2007) are considered to be the originators of free verse in Arabic poetry. Most of these experiments were abandoned in favour of prose poetry, of which the first examples in modern Arabic literature are to be found in the writings of Francis Marrash, and of which two of the most influential proponents were Nazik al-Malaika and Iman Mersal. The development of modernist poetry also influenced poetry in Arabic. More recently, poets such as Adunis have pushed the boundaries of stylistic experimentation even further.

Poetry retains a very important status in the Arab world. Mahmoud Darwish was regarded as the Palestinian national poet, and his funeral was attended by thousands of mourners. Syrian poet Nizar Qabbani addressed less political themes, but was regarded as a cultural icon, and his poems provide the lyrics for many popular songs.

Novels
Two distinct trends can be found in the nahda period of revival. The first was a neo-classical movement which sought to rediscover the literary traditions of the past, and was influenced by traditional literary genres—such as the maqama—and works like One Thousand and One Nights. In contrast, a modernist movement began by translating Western modernist works—primarily novels—into Arabic.

In the 19th century, individual authors in Syria, Lebanon and Egypt created original works by imitating classical narrative genres: Ahmad Faris Shidyaq with Leg upon Leg (1855), Khalil Khoury with Yes... so I am not a Frank (1859), Francis Marrash with The Forest of Truth (1865), Salim al-Bustani with At a Loss in the Levantine Gardens (1870), and Muhammad al-Muwaylihi with Isa ibn Hisham's Tale (1907). This trend was furthered by Jurji Zaydan (author of many historical novels), Khalil Gibran, Mikha'il Na'ima and Muhammad Husayn Haykal (author of Zaynab). Meanwhile, female writer Zaynab Fawwaz's first novel Ḥusn al-'Awāqib aw Ghādah al-Zāhirah (The Happy Ending, 1899) was also influential. According to the authors of the Encyclopedia of the Novel:
Almost each of the above [works] have been claimed as the first Arabic novel, which goes to suggest that the Arabic novel emerged from several rehearsals and multiple beginnings rather than from one single origin. Given that the very Arabic word "riwaya", which is now used exclusively in reference to the "novel", has traditionally conjured up a tangle of narrative genres [...], it might not be unfair to contend that the Arabic novel owes its early formation not only to the appropriation of the novel genre from Europe [...] but also, and more importantly, to the revival and transformation of traditional narrative genres in the wake of Napoleon's 1798 expedition into Egypt and the Arab world's firsthand encounter with industrialized imperial Europe.

A common theme in the modern Arabic novel is the study of family life with obvious resonances of the wider family of the Arabic world. Many of the novels have been unable to avoid the politics and conflicts of the region with war often acting as background to intimate family dramas. The works of Naguib Mahfuz depict life in Cairo, and his Cairo Trilogy, describing the struggles of a modern Cairene family across three generations, won him a Nobel prize for literature in 1988. He was the first Arabic writer to win the prize.

Plays
The musical plays of Lebanese Maroun Naccache from the mid-1800s are considered the birth of not only theatre in Lebanon, but also modern Arab theatre. Modern Arabic drama began to be written in the 19th century chiefly in Egypt and mainly influenced and in imitation of French works. It was not until the 20th century that it began to develop a distinctly Arab flavour and be seen elsewhere. The most important Arab playwright was Tawfiq al-Hakim whose first play was a re-telling of the Qur'anic story of the Seven sleepers and the second an epilogue for the Thousand and One Nights. Other important dramatists of the region include Yusuf al-Ani from Iraq and Saadallah Wannous from Syria.

Classical Arabic literature

Poetry

A large proportion of Arabic literature before the 20th century is in the form of poetry, and even prose from this period is either filled with snippets of poetry or is in the form of saj' or rhymed prose. The themes of the poetry range from high-flown hymns of praise to bitter personal attacks and from religious and mystical ideas to poems on women and wine. An important feature of the poetry which would be applied to all of the literature was the idea that it must be pleasing to the ear. The poetry and much of the prose was written with the design that it would be spoken aloud and great care was taken to make all writing as mellifluous as possible.

Religious scholarship
The research into the life and times of Muhammad, and determining the genuine parts of the sunnah, was an important early reason for scholarship in or about the Arabic language. It was also the reason for the collecting of pre-Islamic poetry; as some of these poets were close to the prophet—Labid meeting Muhammad and converting to Islam—and their writings illuminated the times when these events occurred. Muhammad also inspired the first Arabic biographies, known as Al-Sirah Al-Nabawiyyah; the earliest was by Wahb ibn Munabbih, but Muhammad ibn Ishaq wrote the best known. Whilst covering the life of the prophet they also told of the battles and events of early Islam and have numerous digressions on older biblical traditions.

Some of the earliest works studying the Arabic language were started in the name of Islam. Tradition has it that the caliph Ali, after reading a copy of the Qur'an with errors in it, asked Abu al-Aswad al-Du'ali to write a work codifying Arabic grammar. Khalil ibn Ahmad would later write Kitab al-Ayn, the first dictionary of Arabic, along with works on prosody and music, and his pupil Sibawayh would produce the most respected work of Arabic grammar known simply as al-Kitab or The Book.

Other caliphs followed after 'Abd al-Malik made Arabic the official language for the administration of the new empire, such as al-Ma'mun who set up the Bayt al-Hikma in Baghdad for research and translations. Basrah and Kufah were two other important seats of learning in the early Arab world, between which there was a strong rivalry.

The institutions set up mainly to investigate more fully the Islamic religion were invaluable in studying many other subjects. Caliph Hisham ibn Abd al-Malik was instrumental in enriching the literature by instructing scholars to translate works into Arabic. The first was probably Aristotle's correspondence with Alexander the Great translated by Salm Abu al-'Ala'. From the east, and in a very different literary genre, the scholar Abdullah Ibn al-Muqaffa translated the animal fables of the Panchatantra. These translations would keep alive scholarship and learning, particularly that of ancient Greece, during the Dark Ages in Europe and the works would often be first re-introduced to Europe from the Arabic versions.

Culinary

More medieval cookbooks have survived into the present day written in Arabic than in any other language. Classical Arabic culinary literature is comprised not only of cookbooks, there are also many works of scholarship, and descriptions of contemporary foods can be found in fictional and legendary tales like The Thousand and One Nights. Some of these texts predate Ibn Sayyar al-Warraq's Kitab al-Tabikh, the earliest known book of medieval Arabic cuisine. The Persian language Ḵusraw ī Kawādān ud rēdak-ēw, translated into Arabic after the conquest of the Sasanian Empire by Arab armies in the 7th century, was a guide to the sophisticated culinary and court culture of the time, written as a fictionalized narrative about an orphan descended from priestly roots who learns the ways of Khosrow I's court.

Early authors appear to have been familiar with the earlier works of Hippocrates, Rufus of Ephesus and Galen of Pergamum. Galen's On the Properties of Foodstuffs was translated into Arabic as Kitab al-aghdiya and was cited by all contemporary medical writers in the Caliphate during the reign of Abu Bakr al-Razi. Al-Razi was himself the author of an early text on food Manafi al-Aghdhiya wa Daf Madarriha (Book of the Benefits of Food, and Remedies against Its Harmful Effects). Interest in Galen's work was not limited only to Muslim scholars; Jewish scholar Abu Ya'qub Ishaḳ ibn Sulayman al-Isra'ili wrote Book on Foods (also in Arabic) in the same period. Rufus' original Greek language work has not survived into the present day, and it is only known to us from its Arabic translation.

Non-fiction literature

Compilations and manuals
In the late 9th century Ibn al-Nadim, a Baghdadi bookseller, compiled a crucial work in the study of Arabic literature. The Kitab al-Fihrist is a catalogue of all books available for sale in Baghdad, and it gives an overview of the state of the literature at that time.

One of the most common forms of literature during the Abbasid period was the compilation. These were collections of facts, ideas, instructive stories and poems on a single topic, and covers subjects as diverse as house and garden, women, gate-crashers, blind people, envy, animals and misers. These last three compilations were written by al-Jahiz, the acknowledged master of the form. These collections were important for any nadim, a companion to a ruler or noble whose role was often involved regaling the ruler with stories and information to entertain or advise.

A type of work closely allied to the collection was the manual in which writers like ibn Qutaybah offered instruction in subjects like etiquette, how to rule, how to be a bureaucrat and even how to write. Ibn Qutaybah also wrote one of the earliest histories of the Arabs, drawing together biblical stories, Arabic folk tales and more historical events.

The subject of sex was frequently investigated in Arabic literature. The ghazal or love poem had a long history, being at times tender and chaste and at other times rather explicit. In the Sufi tradition, the love poem would take on wider, mystical and religious importance. Sex manuals were also written such as The Perfumed Garden, Ṭawq al-Ḥamāmah or The Dove's Neckring by ibn Hazm and Nuzhat al-albab fi-ma la yujad fi kitab or Delight of Hearts Concerning What will Never Be Found in a Book by Ahmad al-Tifashi. Countering such works are one like Rawdat al-muhibbin wa-nuzhat al-mushtaqin or Meadow of Lovers and Diversion of the Infatuated by ibn Qayyim al-Jawziyyah who advises on how to separate love and lust and avoid sin.

Biography, history, and geography
Aside from the early biographies of Muhammad, the first major biographer to weigh character rather than just producing a hymn of praise was al-Baladhuri with his Kitab ansab al-ashraf or Book of the Genealogies of the Noble, a collection of biographies. Another important biographical dictionary was begun by ibn Khallikan and expanded by al-Safadi and one of the first significant autobiographies was Kitab al-I'tibar which told of Usamah ibn Munqidh and his experiences in fighting in the Crusades. This time period saw the emergence of the genre of tabaqat (biographical dictionaries or biographical compendia).

Ibn Khurdadhbih, an official in the postal service wrote one of the first travel books and the form remained a popular one in Arabic literature with books by ibn Hawqal, ibn Fadlan, al-Istakhri, al-Muqaddasi, al-Idrisi and most famously the travels of ibn Battutah. These give a view of the many cultures of the wider Islamic world and also offer Muslim perspectives on the non-Muslim peoples on the edges of the empire. They also indicated just how great a trading power the Muslim peoples had become. These were often sprawling accounts that included details of both geography and history.

Some writers concentrated solely on history like al-Ya'qubi and al-Tabari, whilst others focused on a small portion of history such as ibn al-Azraq, with a history of Mecca, and ibn Abi Tahir Tayfur, writing a history of Baghdad. The historian regarded as the greatest of all Arabic historians though is ibn Khaldun whose history Muqaddimah focuses on society and is a founding text in sociology and economics.

Diaries
In the medieval Near East, Arabic diaries were first being written from before the 10th century, though the medieval diary which most resembles the modern diary was that of Abu Ali ibn al-Banna in the 11th century. His diary was the earliest to be arranged in order of date (ta'rikh in Arabic), very much like modern diaries.

Literary theory and criticism
Literary criticism in Arabic literature often focused on religious texts, and the several long religious traditions of hermeneutics and textual exegesis have had a profound influence on the study of secular texts. This was particularly the case for the literary traditions of Islamic literature.

Literary criticism was also employed in other forms of medieval Arabic poetry and literature from the 9th century, notably by Al-Jahiz in his al-Bayan wa-'l-tabyin and al-Hayawan, and by Abdullah ibn al-Mu'tazz in his Kitab al-Badi.

Fiction literature

Ibn ʿAbd Rabbih's book Al-ʿIqd al-Farīd is considered one of the seminal texts of Arabic fiction.

In the Arab world, there was a great distinction between al-fus'ha (quality language) and al-ammiyyah (language of the common people). Not many writers would write works in this al-ammiyyah or common language and it was felt that literature had to be improving, educational and with purpose rather than just entertainment. This did not stop the common role of the hakawati or story-teller who would retell the entertaining parts of more educational works or one of the many Arabic fables or folk-tales, which were often not written down in many cases. Nevertheless, some of the earliest novels, including the first philosophical novels, were written by Arabic authors.

Epic literature

The most famous example of Arabic fiction is the One Thousand and One Nights (Arabian Nights). It is easily the best-known work of all Arabic literature, and still affects many of the ideas non-Arabs have about Arabic culture. A good example of the lack of popular Arabic prose fiction is that the stories of Aladdin and Ali Baba, usually regarded as part of the Tales from One Thousand and One Nights, were not actually part of the Tales. They were first included in French translation of the Tales by Antoine Galland who heard them being told by Maronite Hanna Dyab and only existed in incomplete Arabic manuscripts before that. The other great character from Arabic literature, Sinbad, is from the Tales.

The One Thousand and One Nights is usually placed in the genre of Arabic epic literature along with several other works. They are usually collections of short stories or episodes strung together into a long tale. The extant versions were mostly written down relatively late, after the 14th century, although many were undoubtedly collected earlier and many of the original stories are probably pre-Islamic. Types of stories in these collections include animal fables, proverbs, stories of jihad or propagation of the faith, humorous tales, moral tales, tales about the wily con-man Ali Zaybaq, and tales about the prankster Juha.

Maqama
Maqama not only straddles the divide between prose and poetry, being instead a form of rhymed prose, it is also part-way between fiction and non-fiction. Over a series of short narratives, which are fictionalised versions of real-life situations, different ideas are contemplated. A good example of this is a maqama on musk, which purports to compare the feature of different perfumes but is in fact a work of political satire comparing several competing rulers. Maqama also makes use of the doctrine of badi or deliberately adding complexity to display the writer's dexterity with language. Al-Hamadhani is regarded as the originator of maqama; his work was taken up by Abu Muhammad al-Qasim al-Hariri, one of al-Hariri's maqama being a study of al-Hamadhani's own work. Maqama was an exceptionally popular form of Arabic literature, one of the few forms which continued to be written during the decline of Arabic in the 17th and 18th centuries.

Love literature
A famous example of romantic Arabic poetry is Layla and Majnun, dating back to the Umayyad era in the 7th century. It is a tragic story of undying love. Layla and Majnun is considered part of the platonic Love (Arabic: حب عذري) genre, so-called because the couple never marry or consummate their relationship, that is prominent in Arabic literature, though the literary motif is found throughout the world. Other famous Virgin Love stories include Qays and Lubna, Kuthair and Azza, Marwa and al-Majnun al-Faransi and Antara and Abla.

The 10th-century Encyclopedia of the Brethren of Purity features a fictional anecdote of a "prince who strays from his palace during his wedding feast and, drunk, spends the night in a cemetery, confusing a corpse with his bride. The story is used as a gnostic parable of the soul's pre-existence and return from its terrestrial sojourn".

Another medieval Arabic love story was Hadith Bayad wa Riyad (The Story of Bayad and Riyad), a 13th-century Arabic love story. The main characters of the tale are Bayad, a merchant's son and a foreigner from Damascus, and Riyad, a well-educated girl in the court of an unnamed Hajib (vizier or minister) of 'Iraq which is referred to as the lady. The Hadith Bayad wa Riyad manuscript is believed to be the only illustrated manuscript known to have survived from more than eight centuries of Muslim and Arab presence in Spain.

Many of the tales in the One Thousand and One Nights are also love stories or involve romantic love as a central theme. This includes the frame story of Scheherazade herself, and many of the stories she narrates, including "Aladdin", "The Ebony Horse", "The Three Apples", "Tale of Tàj al-Mulúk and the Princess Dunyà: The Lover and the Loved", "Adi bin Zayd and the Princess Hind", "Di'ibil al-Khuza'i With the Lady and Muslim bin al-Walid", "The Three Unfortunate Lovers", and others.

Several elements of courtly love were developed in Arabic literature, namely the notions of "love for love's sake" and "exaltation of the beloved lady" which have been traced back to Arabic literature of the 9th and 10th centuries. The notion of the "ennobling power" of love was developed in the early 11th century by the Persian psychologist and philosopher, Ibn Sina (known as "Avicenna" in Europe), in his Arabic treatise Risala fi'l-Ishq (A Treatise on Love). The final element of courtly love, the concept of "love as desire never to be fulfilled", was also at times implicit in Arabic poetry.

Murder mystery
The earliest known example of a whodunit murder mystery was "The Three Apples", one of the tales narrated by Scheherazade in the One Thousand and One Nights (Arabian Nights). In this tale, a fisherman discovers a heavy locked chest along the Tigris river and he sells it to the Abbasid Caliph, Harun al-Rashid, who then has the chest broken open only to find inside it the dead body of a young woman who was cut into pieces. Harun orders his vizier, Ja'far ibn Yahya, to solve the crime and find the murderer within three days, or be executed if he fails his assignment. Suspense is generated through multiple plot twists that occur as the story progresses. This may thus be considered an archetype for detective fiction.

Satire and comedy
In Arabic poetry, the genre of satirical poetry was known as hija. Satire was introduced into prose literature by the author al-Jahiz in the 9th century. While dealing with serious topics in what are now known as anthropology, sociology and psychology, he introduced a satirical approach, "based on the premise that, however serious the subject under review, it could be made more interesting and thus achieve greater effect, if only one leavened the lump of solemnity by the insertion of a few amusing anecdotes or by the throwing out of some witty or paradoxical observations." He was well aware that, in treating of new themes in his prose works, he would have to employ a vocabulary of a nature more familiar in hija, satirical poetry. For example, in one of his zoological works, he satirized the preference for longer human penis size, writing: "If the length of the penis were a sign of honor, then the mule would belong to the (honorable tribe of) Quraysh". Another satirical story based on this preference was an Arabian Nights tale called "Ali with the Large Member".

In the 10th century, the writer Tha'alibi recorded satirical poetry written by the poets As-Salami and Abu Dulaf, with As-Salami praising Abu Dulaf's wide breadth of knowledge and then mocking his ability in all these subjects, and with Abu Dulaf responding back and satirizing As-Salami in return. An example of Arabic political satire included another 10th-century poet Jarir satirizing Farazdaq as "a transgressor of the Sharia" and later Arabic poets in turn using the term "Farazdaq-like" as a form of political satire.

The terms "comedy" and "satire" became synonymous after Aristotle's Poetics was translated into Arabic in the medieval Islamic world, where it was elaborated upon by Arabic writers and Islamic philosophers, such as Abu Bischr, his pupil al-Farabi, Avicenna, and Averroes. Due to cultural differences, they disassociated comedy from Greek dramatic representation and instead identified it with Arabic poetic themes and forms, such as hija (satirical poetry). They viewed comedy as simply the "art of reprehension", and made no reference to light and cheerful events, or troublous beginnings and happy endings, associated with classical Greek comedy. After the Latin translations of the 12th century, the term "comedy" thus gained a new semantic meaning in Medieval literature.

Theatre
While puppet theatre and passion plays were popular in the medieval Islamic world, live theatre and drama has only been a visible part of Arabic literature in the modern era. There may have been a much longer theatrical tradition but it was probably not regarded as legitimate literature and mostly went unrecorded. There is an ancient tradition of public performance amongst Shi'i Muslims of a play depicting the life and death of al-Husayn at the battle of Karbala in 680 CE. There are also several plays composed by Shams al-din Muhammad ibn Daniyal in the 13th century when he mentions that older plays are getting stale and offers his new works as fresh material.

The most popular forms of theater in the medieval Islamic world were puppet theatre (which included hand puppets, shadow plays and marionette productions) and live passion plays known as ta'ziya, where actors re-enact episodes from Muslim history. In particular, Shia Islamic plays revolved around the shaheed (martyrdom) of Ali's sons Hasan ibn Ali and Husayn ibn Ali. Live secular plays were known as akhraja, recorded in medieval adab literature, though they were less common than puppetry and ta'ziya theater.

The Moors had a noticeable influence on the works of George Peele and William Shakespeare. Some of their works featured Moorish characters, such as Peele's The Battle of Alcazar and Shakespeare's The Merchant of Venice, Titus Andronicus and Othello, which featured a Moorish Othello as its title character. These works are said to have been inspired by several Moorish delegations from Morocco to Elizabethan England at the beginning of the 17th century, ignoring the fact that The Merchant of Venice and Titus Andronicus were both penned in the 16th century. In 2016, opera singer and actor David Serero performed Othello in a Moroccan adaptation in New York.

Philosophical novels
The Arab Islamic philosophers, Ibn Tufail (Abubacer) and Ibn al-Nafis, were pioneers of the philosophical novel as they wrote the earliest novels dealing with philosophical fiction. Ibn Tufail wrote the first Arabic novel Hayy ibn Yaqdhan (Philosophus Autodidactus) as a response to Al-Ghazali's The Incoherence of the Philosophers. This was followed by Ibn al-Nafis who wrote a fictional narrative Theologus Autodidactus as a response to Ibn Tufail's Philosophus Autodidactus. Both of these narratives had protagonists (Hayy in Philosophus Autodidactus and Kamil in Theologus Autodidactus) who were autodidactic individuals spontaneously generated in a cave and living in seclusion on a desert island, both being the earliest examples of a desert island story. However, while Hayy lives alone on the desert island for most of the story in Philosophus Autodidactus (until he meets a castaway named Absal), the story of Kamil extends beyond the desert island setting in Theologus Autodidactus (when castaways take him back to civilization with them), developing into the earliest known coming of age plot and eventually becoming the first example of a science fiction novel.

Ibn al-Nafis described his book Theologus Autodidactus as a defense of "the system of Islam and the Muslims' doctrines on the missions of Prophets, the religious laws, the resurrection of the body, and the transitoriness of the world." He presents rational arguments for bodily resurrection and the immortality of the human soul, using both demonstrative reasoning and material from the hadith corpus to prove his case. Later Islamic scholars viewed this work as a response to the metaphysical claim of Avicenna and Ibn Tufail that bodily resurrection cannot be proven through reason, a view that was earlier criticized by al-Ghazali. Ibn al-Nafis' work was later translated into Latin and English as Theologus Autodidactus in the early 20th century.

A Latin translation of Ibn Tufail's work, entitled Philosophus Autodidactus, first appeared in 1671, prepared by Edward Pococke the Younger. The first English translation by Simon Ockley was published in 1708, and German and Dutch translations were also published at the time. These translations later inspired Daniel Defoe to write Robinson Crusoe, which also featured a desert island narrative and was regarded as the first novel in English. Philosophus Autodidactus also inspired Robert Boyle, an acquaintance of Pococke, to write his own philosophical novel set on an island, The Aspiring Naturalist, in the late 17th century. The story also anticipated Rousseau's Émile in some ways, and is also similar to the later story of Mowgli in Rudyard Kipling's The Jungle Book as well the character of Tarzan, in that a baby is abandoned in a deserted tropical island where he is taken care of and fed by a mother wolf. Other European writers influenced by Philosophus Autodidactus include John Locke, Gottfried Leibniz, Melchisédech Thévenot, John Wallis, Christiaan Huygens, George Keith, Robert Barclay, the Quakers, and Samuel Hartlib.

Science fiction
Al-Risalah al-Kamiliyyah fil Sira al-Nabawiyyah (The Treatise of Kamil on the Prophet's Biography), known in English as Theologus Autodidactus (which is a phonetic transliteration of the Greek name Θεολόγος Αὐτοδίδακτος, meaning self-taught theologian), written by the Arab polymath Ibn al-Nafis (1213–1288), is the earliest known science fiction novel. While also being an early desert island story and coming of age story, the novel deals with various science fiction elements such as spontaneous generation, futurology, apocalyptic themes, the end of the world and doomsday, resurrection and the afterlife. Rather than giving supernatural or mythological explanations for these events, Ibn al-Nafis attempted to explain these plot elements using his own extensive scientific knowledge in anatomy, biology, physiology, astronomy, cosmology and geology. His main purpose behind this science fiction work was to explain Islamic religious teachings in terms of science and philosophy. For example, it was through this novel that Ibn al-Nafis introduces his scientific theory of metabolism, and he makes references to his own scientific discovery of the pulmonary circulation in order to explain bodily resurrection. The novel was later translated into English as Theologus Autodidactus in the early 20th century.

A number of stories within the One Thousand and One Nights (Arabian Nights) also feature science fiction elements. One example is "The Adventures of Bulukiya", where the protagonist Bulukiya's quest for the herb of immortality leads him to explore the seas, journey to the Garden of Eden and to Jahannam, and travel across the cosmos to different worlds much larger than his own world, anticipating elements of galactic science fiction; along the way, he encounters societies of jinns, mermaids, talking serpents, talking trees, and other forms of life. In another Arabian Nights tale, the protagonist Abdullah the Fisherman gains the ability to breathe underwater and discovers an underwater submarine society that is portrayed as an inverted reflection of society on land, in that the underwater society follows a form of primitive communism where concepts like money and clothing do not exist. Other Arabian Nights tales deal with lost ancient technologies, advanced ancient civilizations that went astray, and catastrophes which overwhelmed them. "The City of Brass" features a group of travellers on an archaeological expedition across the Sahara to find an ancient lost city and attempt to recover a brass vessel that Solomon once used to trap a jinn, and, along the way, encounter a mummified queen, petrified inhabitants, lifelike humanoid robots and automata, seductive marionettes dancing without strings, and a brass horseman robot who directs the party towards the ancient city. "The Ebony Horse" features a robot in the form of a flying mechanical horse controlled using keys that could fly into outer space and towards the Sun, while the "Third Qalandar's Tale" also features a robot in the form of an uncanny boatman. "The City of Brass" and "The Ebony Horse" can be considered early examples of proto-science fiction.

Other examples of early Arabic proto-science fiction include al-Farabi's Opinions of the residents of a splendid city about a utopian society, and elements such as the flying carpet.

Arabic literature for young readers and children
As in other languages, there is a growing number of literary works written in Arabic for young readers. With this group of readers in mind, the Young Readers series of the New York University Press's Library of Arabic Literature (LAL) offers contemporary and even classical texts in its Weaving Words collection, like the tenth-century anthology of stories and anecdotes Al-Faraj Ba'd al-Shiddah (Deliverance Follows Adversity) by medieval writer Al-Muḥassin ibn ʿAlī al-Tanūkhī (327–84/939–94).

In her 2011 essay  "Arabic Children's Literature Today: Determining Factors and Tendencies" author and translator from Arabic to German Petra Dünges gave an overview of fiction written for Arab children since its beginnings in Egypt during the late 19th century, focussing on books published between 1990 and 2010. Judging from several modern illustrated books and mangas such as Gold Ring (الذهب سوار) by Emirati writer Qays Sidqiyy (Sheikh Zayed Book Award 2010), she noted an increase in the variety of children's literature in the changing modern Arab society. Further, she noticed a growing demand for stories and adequate illustrations that take children as readers seriously. Finally, she ascertained that Arabic children's literature is an important contribution the development of Arab society, crucial to keeping Arab culture and the Arabic language alive.

Marcia Lynx Qualey, editor-in-chief of ArabLit online magazine, has translated Arabic novels for young readers, such as Thunderbirds by Palestinian writer Sonia Nimr. Further, she has written on Arabic books for teens and participated in academic forums. She and other literary translators and consultants publish the website ArabKidLitNow!, promoting translated Arabic literature for children and young readers.

Women in Arabic literature

In the words of Clarissa Burt,

 Despite the historical and social conditions that contributed to an almost total eclipse of women's poetic expression in the literary record as maintained in Arabic culture from the pre-Islamic era through the nineteenth century, with a few significant exceptions, women poets writing in Arabic have made tremendous strides since the dawn of the twentieth century in presenting their poetic offerings in mainstream cultural forums, and contributing to a plethora of new and modern poetic currents in literary cultural throughout the Arab world.

Whilst not playing a major attested part in Arabic literature for much of its history, women have had a continuing role. Women's literature in Arabic has been relatively little researched, and features relatively little in most Arabic-language education systems, meaning that its prominence and importance is probably generally underrated.

The Medieval Period

In the estimation of Tahera Qutbuddin,

 the citation of women's poetry in the general medieval anthologies is sparse. The earliest anthologists either ignored women poets or made disparaging remarks about them ... In his introduction to the Nuzhat al-Julasa, al-Suyuti refers to a large (at least six-volume) anthology--now lost--of 'ancient' women's poetry ... It would seem from this that women poets may have formed a more dynamic part of the poetic landscape, at least in the earliest classical period, than is generally believed.

(The main modern anthology of medieval Arabic women's writing in English translation is that of Abdullah al-Udhari.)

Pre-Islamic women's literature seems to have been limited to the genre of marathiya ('elegy'). The earliest poetesses were al-Khansa and Layla al-Akhyaliyyah of the 7th century. Their concentration on the ritha' or elegy suggests that this was a form deemed acceptable for women to work with. However, the love lyric was also an important genre of women's poetry. The Umayyad and 'Abbasid periods saw professional singing slave girls (qiyan, sing. quayna) who sang love songs and accompanied these with music; alongside panegyric and competitive verse-capping, qiyan also sang love-poetry (ghazal). In his Risalat al-Qiyan (Epistle of the Singing-Girls), al-Jahiz (d. 255/868×69) reckoned that an accomplished singer might have a repertoire of 4,000 songs. Pre-eminent 'Abbasid singing-girls included: 'Inan (paramour of Harun al-Rashid, r. 786–809); Arib al-Ma'muniyya (concubine of Al-Ma'mun, r. 813–17); and Fadl Ashsha'ira (d. 871; concubine of Al-Mutawakkil, r. 847–61). Meanwhile, Harun al-Rashid's half-sister 'Ulayya bint al-Mahdī (777-825) was also known for her poetic skills, as was the mystic and poet of Basra Rabi'a al-'Adawiyya (d. 801). Women also had an important role in pre-modern periods as patrons of the arts.

Writings from medieval moorish Spain attest to several important female writers, pre-eminently Wallada bint al-Mustakfi (1001–1091), an Umawi princess of al-Andulus, who wrote Sufi poetry and was the lover of fellow poet ibn Zaydun; the Granadan poet Hafsa Bint al-Hajj al-Rukuniyya (d. 1190/91); and Nazhun al-Garnatiya bint al-Qulai'iya (d. 1100). These and other women writers suggest a hidden world of literature by women.

Despite their lack of prominence among the literary elite, women still played an important part as characters in Arabic literature. Sirat al-amirah Dhat al-Himmah, for example, is an Arabic epic with a female warrior, Fatima Dhat al-Himma, as protagonist, and Scheherazade is famous for cunningly telling stories in the One Thousand and One Nights to save her life.

The Mamluk period saw the flourishing of the Sufi master and poet 'A'isha al-Ba'uniyya (d. 1517), who was probably the Arabic-speaking world's most prolific female author before the twentieth century. Living in what is now Egypt and Syria, she came from the al-Ba'uni family, noted for its judges and scholars, and belonged to the 'Urmawi branch of the Qadiriyya order. 'A'isha composed at least twelve books in prose and verse, which included over three hundred long mystical and religious poems.

Al- Nahda

The earliest prominent female writer of the modern period during which the Arab cultural renaissance (Al-Nahda) took place is Táhirih (1820–52), from what is now Iran. She wrote fine Arabic and Persian poetry.

Women's literary salons and societies in the Arab world were also pioneered during the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, initially by Christian Arab women, who tended to have more freedom and access to education than their female Muslim counterparts in the Ottoman Empire at the time. Maryana Marrash (1848−1919) started what is now believed to have been the first salon including women in Aleppo. In 1912, May Ziadeh (1886-1941) also started a literary salon in Cairo and in 1922, Mary 'Ajami (1888−1965) did the same in Damascus. These salons supported the emergence of women's writing (both literary and journalistic) and women's presses through increased interaction in the male-dominated world of Arab literature.

Late 20th century to early 21st century
A quote by Clarissa Burt on modern Arab poetry by female Arab authors: Unlocked from the constraints of the traditional ode, several of these and other women have had long careers of poetry writing, entering into areas of expression of women's experience that had not been presented in print before. In many ways, this poetic work has gone hand in hand with the growth of critical discourse about women's role, status, and experience, and women's desires to be fully participating members of public society. [...] With few exceptions, critical reception in the Arab world of these and other women poets has been lukewarm at best, for the most part, often filled with criticism of their adherence or lack thereof to poetic principles that have been held as prescriptive in many schools of Arabic literary criticism.Alongside Maryana Marrash, May Ziadeh, and Mary 'Ajami, pioneering figures in women's writing in Arabic during this time period are Zaynab Fawwaz (modern Lebanon/Egypt, 1846–1914), who arguably wrote the first novel in Arabic and was the first woman to write a play in that language as well; Aisha Taymur (modern Turkey/Egypt, 1840–1902); Malak Hifni Nasif (under the pseudonym Bahithat al-Badiyya, Egypt 1886–1918); Anbara Salam Khalidy (modern Palestine/Lebanon, 1897–1988) Anbara Salam Khalidy (modern Palestine/Lebanon, 1897–1986) and Salma al-Malaika (Iraq, 1908–1953, under the pseudonym Umm Nizar).

Since the Second World War, Arabic women's poetry has become markedly more prominent. Nazik Al-Malaika (Iraq/Egypt, 1923–2007) was the daughter of Salma al-Kadhimiyya, who in her own right was a poet and a vanguard of the early nationalist movement. Al-Malaika, alongside Badr Shakir al-Sayyab, can be considered the initiator of the Free Verse Movement in Arabic poetry. Al-Malaika's poetry is characterised by thematic variations and the use of imagery. She also wrote The Case of Contemporary Poets which is considered a major contribution to Arab literary criticism.

Other major post-war poetic voices include Fadwa Touqan (Palestine, 1917–2003), Rabāb al-Kāẓimī (Iraq, b. 1920), Jalīla Riḍa (Egypt, 1920–2001), Salma Khadra Jayyusi (Palestine, 1926-), Lami'a 'Abbas 'Amara (Iraq, b. 1927).

The poetry of Saniya Salih (Syria, 1935–85) appeared in many well-known magazines of her time, particularly Shi'r and Mawaqif, but remained in the shadow of work by her husband, the poet Muhammad al-Maghout. Her later poems often address her relationship with her two daughters, and many were written during her illness, as she died of cancer.

Other Arab post-war poetesses include Zubayda Bashīr (Tunis, 1938-); Ghada al-Samman (Syria, 1942-), known not only for poetry, but also for short stories and novels, Su'ad al-Sabah (Kuwait, 1942-) and Hamda Khamis (Bahrain, 1946-), who is regarded as Bahrain's first female free-verse poet.

More recent Arabic literature has seen an even greater number of female writers' works published: Suhayr al-Qalamawi, Ulfat Idlibi, Layla Ba'albakki, Zuhrabi Mattummal, Hoda Barakat, Alifa Rifaat and Samiha Khrais are just some of these novelists and prose writers. There has also been a number of significant female authors, who wrote non-fiction and mainly exploring the female condition in Muslim societies, which includes authors such as Zaynab al-Ghazali, Nawal el-Saadawi and Fatema Mernissi.

Women writers in the Arab world have unavoidably courted controversy. Layla Ba'albakki, for instance, was charged with obscenity and "endangering public morality" a few months after she published her collection of short stories titled Tenderness to the Moon (1963). The Lebanese vice squad actually traveled to every bookstore, where the book was sold, to confiscate all remaining copies because of its erotic content.

In Algeria, women's oral literature used in ceremonies called Būqālah, also meaning ceramic pitcher, became a symbol of national identity and anti-colonialism during the War of Independence in the 1950s and early 60s. These poems are usually four to ten lines in Algerian Arabic, and cover topics from the everyday, like love and work, to the political, like the struggle for independence. Since using Algerian Arabic as poetic language was considered an act of cultural resistance in itself at the time, these poems took on a revolutionary implication.

Contemporary Arabic Literature
Suffice to say although female Arab authors still risk controversy by discussing explicit themes or taboo topic in their works, it is a theme explored more explicitly and with more vigour due to greater outreach thanks to social media and more international awareness of Arab literature. More current Arab female writers include Hanan al-Shaykh, Salwa al-Neimi (writer, poet and journalist), Joumanna Haddad (journalist and poet), Assia Djebar. Ahdaf Soueif and Yasmine El-Rashidi amongst others who confront less-talked about topics such as sex, prostitution, homosexuality and political censorship and prosecution within the Arab diaspora and also internationally in relation to Arab emigration.

Contemporary female Arab writers/poets/journalists alongside producing literature and non-fiction works often take on an activist role in their careers in order to highlight and improve the female condition in Arab society. This concept is embodied in female figures such as Mona Eltahawy, who is an Egyptian columnist and international public speaker. She is best known for her unconventional comments on Arab and Muslim issues and her involvement in global feminism. In 2015, she released her book Headscarves and Hymens in which she argues the need for a sexual revolution in the Middle East. Another writer from Egypt is Basma Abdel Aziz, who has published dystopian novels called The Queue or Here is a Body, as well as nonfiction based on her studies of oppression, torture and authoritarian language of the government in Egypt.

Contemporary Arab women's literature has been strongly influenced by the diaspora of Arabic-speakers, who have produced writing not only in Arabic, but also in other languages, prominently English, French, Dutch and German. The Internet is also important in furthering the reach of literature produced in Arabic or Arabic-speaking regions:

It is among the younger generation of poets that the Internet has become a platform for mounting collections and sharing poetry. Some of these poets have their own websites, while others are included on ever growing web anthologies being posted by young Arab computer geeks dedicated to the construction of web archives for Arabic poetry and poetic history. Similarly, critical treatment of these women's poetry, while now well established in on-line resources and web-based sites for major paper publications throughout the arab world, has yet to produce clearly defined critical means of articulating emerging values for poetry, for measuring the critical worth of some of these new productions, and for encouraging the production of Arab women's poetry which will have weight, depth, and acclaim comparable to the work of some of the major Arab male poets of our day.

Literary criticism
For many centuries, there has been a vibrant culture of literary criticism in the Arabic speaking world. The poetry festivals of the pre-Islamic period often pitched two poets against each other in a war of verse, in which one would be deemed winner by the audience. Literary criticism also relates to theology, and gained official status with Islamic studíes of the Qur'an. Although nothing which might be termed 'literary criticism' in the modern sense, was applied to a work held to be i'jaz or inimitable and divinely inspired, textual analysis, called ijtihad and referring to independent reasoning, was permitted. This study allowed for a better understanding of the message and facilitated interpretation for practical use, all of which helped the development of a critical method important for later work on other literature. A clear distinction regularly drawn between works in literary language and popular works has meant that only part of the literature in Arabic was usually considered worthy of study and criticism.

Some of the first Arabic poetry analysis are Qawa'id al-shi'r or The Foundations of Poetry by Kufan grammarian Tha'lab (d. 904) and Naqd al-shi'r or Poetic Criticism by Qudamah ibn Ja'far. Other works continued the tradition of contrasting two poets in order to determine which one best follows the rule of classical poetic structure. Plagiarism also became a significant topic, exercising the critics' concerns. The works of al-Mutanabbi were particularly studied with this concern. He was considered by many the greatest of all Arab poets, but his own arrogant self-regard for his abilities did not endear him to other writers and they looked for a source for his verse. Just as there were collections of facts written about many different subjects, numerous collections detailing every possible rhetorical figure used in literature emerged, as well as how to write guides.

Modern criticism first compared new works unfavourably with the classical ideals of the past, but these standards were soon rejected as too artificial. The adoption of the forms of European romantic poetry dictated the introduction of corresponding critical standards. Taha Hussayn, himself well versed in European thought, would even dare to examine the Qur'an with modern critical analysis, in which he pointed out ideas and stories borrowed from pre-Islamic poetry.

An outstanding Sudanese scholar and literary critic with a long list of publications on poetry or other genres, and on Arabic language in general, was Abdallah al-Tayyib (1921–2003). Arguably his most notable work is A Guide to Understanding Arabic Poetry, written over thirty-five years and published in four volumes of several thousand pages.

Outside views of Arabic literature
Literature in Arabic has been influential outside the Islamic world. One of the first important translations of Arabic literature was Robert of Ketton's translation of the Qur'an in the twelfth century, but it would not be until the early eighteenth century that much of the diverse Arabic literature would be recognised. This was largely due to arabists, like Forster Fitzgerald Arbuthnot and his books such as Arabic Authors: A Manual of Arabian History and Literature.

Antoine Galland's French translation of the Thousand and One Nights was the first major work in Arabic which found great success outside the Muslim world. Other significant translators were Friedrich Rückert and Richard Burton, along with others working at Fort William, India. Since at least the 19th century, Arabic and many works in other Western Asian languages fuelled a fascination in Orientalist thinking and artistic production in the West. Works of dubious 'foreign' morals were particularly popular, but even these were censored for content, such as homosexual references, which were not permitted in Victorian society. Most of the works chosen for translation helped confirm the stereotypes of the audiences. Compared to the variety and scope of literature written in Arabic, relatively few historical or modern Arabic works have been translated into other languages.

Since the mid-20th century, there has been an increase of translations of Arabic books into other languages, and Arabic authors began to receive a certain amount of acclaim. Egyptian writer Naguib Mahfouz had most of his works translated after he won the 1988 Nobel Prize for Literature. Other writers, including Abdul Rahman Munif and Tayeb Salih have found critical acclaim by Western scholars, and both Alaa Al Aswany's The Yacoubian Building and Rajaa al-Sanea's Girls of Riyadh attracted significant Western media attention in the first decade of the 21st century.

See also

References

Citations

Sources

Allen, Roger (1995). The Arabic Novel: an Historical and Critical Introduction (2nd ed.). Syracuse University Press. .

Ashtiany, Julia; Johnstone, T. M.; Latham, J. D.; Serjeant, R. B.; Smith, G. Rex, ed. (1990). Abbasid Belles-lettres. Cambridge University Press. .
Auchterlonie, Paul (1986). Arabic Biographical Dictionaries: a Summary Guide and Bibliography. Middle East Libraries Committee. .
Beeston, A. F. L.; Johnstone T. M.; Serjeant, R. B.; Smith, G. R., ed. (1983). Arabic Literature to the End of the Umayyad Period. Cambridge University Press. .
Bosworth, Clifford Edmund (1976). The Mediaeval Islamic Underworld: the Banū Sāsān in Arabic Society and Literature. Brill. .
El-Enany, Rasheed (1993). Naguib Mahfouz: the Pursuit of Meaning. Routledge. .
Glassé, Cyril (2001). The New Encyclopedia of Islam. AltaMira Press. .
Hamori, Andras (1971). "An Allegory from the Arabian Nights: the City of Brass". Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies. Volume XXXIV.
Hashmi, Alamgir, ed. (1986). The Worlds of Muslim Imagination. Gulmohar.
Hassan, Nawal Muhammad (1980). Hayy Bin Yaqzan and Robinson Crusoe: a Study of an Early Arabic Impact on English Literature. Al-Rashid House for Publication.

Irwin, Robert (2005). The Arabian Nights: a Companion. Tauris Parke Paperbacks. .

Jones, Alan (2003). "Foreword". In Rodwell, J. M. The Koran. Phoenix. .
Logan, Peter Melville, ed. (2011). The Encyclopedia of the Novel. Volume I. Wiley-Blackwell. .
Makdisi, George (May 1, 1986). "The Diary in Islamic Historiography: Some Notes". History and Theory. Volume XV.
Marzolph, Ulrich; van Leeuwen, Richard; Wassouf, Hassan (2004). The Arabian Nights Encyclopedia. ABC-CLIO. .
McGinnis, Jon; Reisman, David C. (2007). Classical Arabic Philosophy: an Anthology of Sources. Hackett Publishing Company. .
Menocal, María Rosa; Scheindlin, Raymond P.; Sells, Michael, ed. (2000). The Literature of al-Andalus. Cambridge University Press. .

Moreh, Shmuel (1986). "Live Theater in Medieval Islam". In Sharon, Moshe. Studies in Islamic History and Civilization: in Honour of Professor David Ayalon. Brill.

Pinault, David (1992). Story-Telling Techniques in the Arabian Nights. Brill Publishers. .
Russell, G. A., ed. (1994). The 'Arabick' Interest of the Natural Philosophers in Seventeenth-century England. Brill. .

Stone, Christopher (2008). Popular Culture and Nationalism in Lebanon: the Fairouz and Rahbani Nation. Routledge. .
Toomer, G. J. (1996). Eastern Wisedome and Learning: the Study of Arabic in Seventeenth-century England. Oxford University Press. .
van Gelder, G. J. H. (1982). Beyond the Line: Classical Arabic Literary Critics on the Coherence and Unity of the Poem. Brill. .
von Grunebaum, G. E. (1952). "Avicenna's Risâla fî 'l-'išq and Courtly Love", Journal of Near Eastern Studies.
Wainwright, Martin (March 22, 2003). "Desert island scripts". The Guardian.
Young, M. J. L.; Latham, J. D.; Serjeant, R. B., ed. (1990). Religion, Learning and Science in the Abbasid Period. Cambridge University Press. .

Further reading
 Abdel-Malek, Kamal, "Popular Arabic Religious Narratives", in Muhammad in History, Thought, and Culture: An Encyclopedia of the Prophet of God (2 vols.), Edited by C. Fitzpatrick and A. Walker. Santa Barbara, Ca: ABC-Clio, 2014, Vol 2, pp. 460–465.

 Eglash, Ruth. "Arabic manuscripts from J'lem libraries to go online" Arabic manuscripts from J'lem libraries to go online

 Johnson-Davies, Denys (ed.) 2006, The Anchor book of modern Arabic fiction, New York: Anchor Books.
 Kaaki, Lisa (2019). A history of Arab women in literature.

External links
 Arabic Ontology
 Lexicographic Search Engine

Cornell University link to Arabic Literature
The original Arabic manuscript of Tawq Alhamama

Arab culture
Literature by ethnicity

Arabic literature


El Arco o Puerta de Santa María (denominado en época musulmana Puerta de la Mezquita o Puerta de la Almudena) fue uno de los tres accesos con los que contaba la muralla islámica de la ciudad española de Madrid. Se construyó en la segunda mitad del , cuando fue fundada la fortaleza andalusí de Mayrit, en el tramo final de la actual calle Mayor, cerca del Palacio de los Consejos.

Toponimia
Los nombres que el arco recibía durante la época musulmana provenían, por un lado, de la mezquita aljama existente en sus inmediaciones y, por otro, de la almudena, ya que comunicaba los barrios extramuros con la ciudadela islámica, conocida en árabe como al-mudayna.

Tras la conquista cristiana de Madrid, esta última denominación se mantuvo, ya que terminó aplicándose a la iglesia que, bajo la advocación de Santa María de la Almudena, se edificó sobre la antigua mezquita. De  este templo también proviene su topónimo más usado, el de Santa María.

Historia

Junto con los accesos de la Sagra y de la Vega, se trataba de una de las puertas más antiguas de Madrid. Levantada en piedra de pedernal, al igual que todo el recinto amurallado, estaba formada por un tramo recto resuelto en medio punto, con un único torreón defensivo, según puede apreciarse en la vista de Madrid que Anton van den Wyngaerde dibujó en 1562.

Fue demolida por ruinosa y sustituida por tres arcos de ladrillo, que duraron hasta 1570. En este año se tomó la decisión de ensanchar la calle donde se asentaba y de erigir otra puerta, con motivo de la entrada triunfal en Madrid de Ana de Austria, la cuarta esposa de Felipe II. El nuevo acceso fue bautizado oficialmente como Puerta de Santa María de la Almudena, por la cercanía de la iglesia homónima, y fue, junto con la Puerta de Guadalajara, el lugar desde donde se hacían los pregones. Estuvo en pie hasta 1672, cuando fue sustituido por un nuevo acceso, que pasó a ser conocido como Arco de Santa María y que desapareció en el .

La puerta se encontraba en uno de los ejes viarios más importantes del Madrid antiguo, a partir del cual se fue conformando el Camino de Alcalá (actual calle de Alcalá), como una prolongación natural de la calle Mayor. De ahí que muy pronto quedara sobrepasada, primero con la Puerta de Guadalajara, abierta sobre la muralla cristiana, y posteriormente con la Puerta del Sol y la Puerta de Alcalá, construidas sobre sucesivas cercas.

Referencias

Santa María
Patrimonio desaparecido de Madrid
Calle Mayor de Madrid
Arquitectura en la Comunidad de Madrid en el siglo XVI
Distrito Centro (Madrid)

Arco de Santa María (Madrid)


Estereótipos de judeus são representações generalizadas de judeus, muitas vezes caricaturados e de natureza preconceituosa e antissemita.

Objetos reproduzidos, frases e tradições comuns são usados para enfatizar ou ridicularizar o judaísmo. Isso inclui, mas não está limitado à mãe judia queixosa e culpada, muitas vezes junto com um menino judeu manso e simpático, e a princesa judia-americana mimada e materialista.

Estereótipo por tipo

Características físicas

Em caricaturas e desenhos animados, os judeus Ashkenazi são geralmente retratados como tendo grandes narizes aduncos e olhos redondos escuros com pálpebras caídas. Características faciais judaicas exageradas ou grotescas eram um tema básico na propaganda nazista e, com menos frequência, na propaganda soviética. O personagem de Star Wars Watto, apresentado em A ameaça fantasma (1999), foi comparado a caricaturas antissemitas tradicionais.

Nariz
A ideia do grande ou aquilino "nariz judeu" continua sendo uma das características mais prevalentes e definidoras para caracterizar alguém como judeu. Esse estereótipo generalizado pode ser rastreado até o século XIII, de acordo com a historiadora de arte Sara Lipton. Embora a representação do nariz adunco tenha se originado no século XIII, teve um desenraizamento no imaginário europeu muitos séculos depois. O registro mais antigo de caricatura antijudaica é um rabisco detalhado representado na margem superior do Exchequer Receipt Roll (registro de imposto real inglês) em 1233. Mostra três judeus de aparente transtorno intelectual dentro de um castelo, bem como um judeu no meio do castelo com um nariz grande. O livro satírico antissemita de 1893, The Operated Jew, gira em torno de uma trama de cirurgia plástica como uma "cura" para o judaísmo.

Cabelo

Na cultura europeia, antes do século XX, o cabelo ruivo era comumente identificado como a característica judaica negativa distintiva. Esse estereótipo provavelmente se originou porque o cabelo ruivo é um traço recessivo que tende a encontrar maior expressão em populações altamente endogâmicas, como em comunidades judaicas onde os judeus eram proibidos de se casar com estranhos. O cabelo ruivo estava especialmente ligado a Judas Iscariotes, que era comumente mostrado com cabelo ruivo para identificá-lo como judeu. Durante a Inquisição espanhola, todos os ruivos eram identificados como judeus. Na Itália, o cabelo ruivo era associado aos judeus italianos. Escritores como Shakespeare e Dickens identificariam personagens judeus dando-lhes cabelos ruivos. No folclore europeu medieval, os "judeus vermelhos" eram um grupo semi-ficcional de judeus ruivos, embora este conto tenha origens incertas.

Em parte devido às suas origens étnicas do Oriente Médio, os judeus tendem a ser retratados como de pele escura e peludos, às vezes associados a uma textura de cabelo encaracolada conhecida como "jewfro".

Mãos
Durante a campanha de propaganda da era nazista contra os judeus, houve menções repetidas de que os judeus podiam ser identificados pelo uso das mãos enquanto falavam, "o judeu move as mãos quando fala". Isso evoluiu para estereótipos modernos de judeus, muito parecidos com outros na Europa, ou seja, italianos falando com as mãos. Embora ambos sejam estereótipos de judeus e italianos, muitos judeus aceitam que esta é uma observação fundamentalmente verdadeira. Os judeus são bem conhecidos por falarem com as mãos, pois o uso das mãos é consistente na oração judaica, especialmente os homens que rezam devido ao uso do tefilin, requer o uso de movimentos constantes das mãos.

Comportamental

Comunicação
Um estereótipo comum é que os judeus respondem a uma pergunta com outra pergunta. É usado no humor judaico e na literatura comum quando é necessário pintar um personagem como um "judeu típico".

Ganância

Os judeus costumam ser estereotipados como gananciosos e avarentos. Isso se origina na Idade Média, quando a Igreja proibiu os cristãos de emprestar dinheiro cobrando juros (uma prática chamada usura, embora a palavra mais tarde tenha assumido o significado de cobrar juros excessivos). Os judeus foram legalmente restritos a ocupações geralmente proibidas aos cristãos e, portanto, muitos começaram a emprestar dinheiro. Isso levou, durante a Idade Média e o Renascimento, à associação de judeus com práticas gananciosas.

Publicações como Os Protocolos dos Sábios de Sião e literatura como O Mercador de Veneza, de William Shakespeare, e Oliver Twist, de Charles Dickens, reforçaram o estereótipo do judeu desonesto. Dickens mais tarde lamentou sua interpretação de Fagin no romance e atenuou as referências ao seu judaísmo. Além disso, o personagem do Sr. Riah em seu romance posterior Nosso amigo comum é um credor judeu gentil e pode ter sido criado como um pedido de desculpas por Fagin.  Referências menores em As Mil e Uma Noites, Os Três Mosqueteiros, e até mesmo Hans Brinker são exemplos da prevalência desta percepção negativa. Alguns, como Paul Volcker, sugerem que a prevalência do estereótipo diminuiu nos Estados Unidos. Uma pesquisa telefônica com 1.747 adultos americanos conduzida pela Liga Antidifamação em 2009 constatou que 18% acreditavam que "os judeus têm muito poder no mundo dos negócios", 13% que "os judeus estão mais dispostos do que outros a usar práticas obscuras para obter o que eles querem", e 12% que "os judeus não são tão honestos quanto os outros empresários".

A frugalidade, parcimônia e ganância judaicas estão entre os temas típicos das piadas sobre os judeus, até mesmo dos próprios judeus.

Personagens estereotípicos

Belle juive

La belle juive (francês, "a bela judia") foi um estereótipo literário do século XIX. Uma figura que atende à descrição é frequentemente associada a ter e causar luxúria, tentação e pecado. Seus traços de personalidade podem ser retratados positiva ou negativamente. A aparência típica da belle juive incluía cabelos longos, grossos e escuros, grandes olhos escuros, tom de pele morena e uma expressão lânguida. Um exemplo desse estereótipo é Rebecca em Ivanhoe, de Walter Scott. Outro exemplo é Miriam no romance de Nathaniel Hawthorne, O Fauno de Mármore.

Mãe judia
O estereótipo da mãe judia é um estereótipo comum e um personagem modelo usado por comediantes judeus e não judeus, escritores de televisão e cinema, atores e autores nos Estados Unidos e em outros lugares. O estereótipo geralmente envolve uma mãe irritada, barulhenta, manipuladora, altamente falante, superprotetora, sufocante e autoritária, que persiste em interferir na vida de seus filhos muito depois de se tornarem adultos e é excelente em fazer seus filhos se sentirem culpados por ações que podem fazê-la sofrer. O estereótipo é descrito em detalhes no best-seller de Dan Greenburg, livro de humor de 1964, How to Be a Jewish Mother: A Very Lovely Training Manual.

Uma possível origem desse estereótipo é a pesquisa da antropóloga Margaret Mead sobre o shtetl europeu, financiada pelo Comitê Judaico Americano. Embora suas entrevistas na Universidade de Columbia, com 128 judeus nascidos na Europa, revelassem uma ampla variedade de estruturas e experiências familiares, as publicações resultantes deste estudo e as muitas citações na mídia popular resultaram no estereótipo da mãe judia: uma mulher intensamente amorosa, mas controlando a ponto de sufocar e tentar gerar uma enorme culpa em seus filhos por meio do sofrimento sem fim que ela afirma ter experimentado em nome deles. O estereótipo da mãe judia, então, tem origem na comunidade judaica americana, com predecessoras que se originaram nos guetos da Europa Oriental.  Em Israel, com sua diversidade de origens diaspóricas e onde a maioria das mães são judias, a mesma mãe estereotipada é conhecida como a mãe polonesa (ima polania).

A associação desse estereótipo de gênero com as mães judias em particular é, de acordo com Helmreich, devido à importância que o judaísmo tradicionalmente atribui ao lar e à família, e ao importante papel da mãe dentro dessa família. O judaísmo, conforme exemplificado pela Bíblia (por exemplo, a Mulher de Valor) e em outros lugares, enobrece a maternidade e associa as mães à virtude. Esse enobrecimento foi aumentado ainda mais pela pobreza e dificuldades dos judeus da Europa Oriental que imigraram para os Estados Unidos (durante o período de 1881 a 1924, quando ocorreu uma das maiores ondas dessa imigração), onde as exigências de trabalho árduo dos pais foram transmitidas aos filhos por meio da culpa: "A gente trabalha muito para que você seja feliz". Outros aspectos do estereótipo estão enraizados no impulso daqueles pais judeus imigrantes para que seus filhos tenham sucesso, resultando em um esforço para a perfeição e uma insatisfação contínua com qualquer coisa menos: "Então você tirou um B? Aquilo poderia ter sido um A." Hartman observa que a raiz do estereótipo está no auto-sacrifício dos imigrantes de primeira geração, incapazes de tirar o máximo proveito da educação americana, e a consequente transferência de suas aspirações de sucesso e status social, de si mesmos para seus filhos. Uma mãe judia obtém status social vicário das realizações de seus filhos, onde ela mesma é incapaz de alcançar tal status.

Princesa judia-americana (JAP)
Princesa judia-americana (JAP do inglês "Jewish-American Princess") é um estereótipo pejorativo que retrata algumas mulheres judias de classe média alta como mimadas, implicando entitlement e egoísmo, atribuídos a um passado mimado ou rico. Este estereótipo de mulheres judias americanas tem sido frequentemente retratado na mídia americana contemporânea desde meados do século XX. Os "JAPs" são retratados como privilegiados, materialistas e neuróticos. Um exemplo do uso humorístico desse estereótipo aparece na música "Jewish Princess" do álbum Sheik Yerbouti de Frank Zappa. Mulheres comediantes judias como Sarah Silverman também satirizaram o estereótipo, assim como o cineasta Robert Townsend em sua comédia B*A*P*S.

De acordo com Machacek e Wilcox, o estereótipo da princesa judia-americana não surgiu até depois da Segunda Guerra Mundial e é "peculiar na cena dos Estados Unidos". Em 1987, o Comitê Judaico Americano realizou uma conferência sobre "Estereótipos Atuais de Mulheres Judias", que argumentou que tais piadas "representam um ressurgimento de invectivas sexistas e antissemitas mascarando um pano de fundo misógino".

O estereótipo foi parcialmente construído e popularizado por alguns escritores judeus do pós-guerra, notavelmente Herman Wouk em seu romance de 1955 Marjorie Morningstar e Philip Roth em seu romance de 1959 Goodbye, Columbus, apresentando protagonistas que se encaixam o estereótipo.

Advogado judeu
O conceito de advogado judeu é um estereótipo dos judeus, que retrata judeus e advogados judeus como sendo inteligentes, gananciosos, exploradores, desonestos e os descreve como envolvidos em torpeza moral e legalismo excessivo. Ted Merwin escreve que nos Estados Unidos o estereótipo se tornou popular em meados do século XX, quando os judeus começaram a ingressar na profissão jurídica. Na época da Grande Depressão, muitos judeus já haviam se estabelecido como advogados.

O personagem modelo do advogado judeu frequentemente aparece na cultura popular. Jay Michaelson escreve no The Jewish Daily Forward que o personagem de Maurice Levy, na série dramática The Wire, interpretado por Michael Kostroff, é estereotipado, com um "sotaque de Nova York e a quintessência da pele pálida, cabelo castanho e nariz Ashkenazic do típico judeu estadunidense".

Este estereótipo é parodiado em Breaking Bad e sua série spinoff Better Call Saul, nos quais o personagem Saul Goodman é um advogado irlandês-americano que finge ser um judeu-americano para seus clientes, acreditando que isso o faz parecer mais competente como advogado. Em Curb Your Enthusiasm, Larry David (interpretando uma versão ficcional de si mesmo) despede seu advogado de divórcio Berg, que também finge ser judeu, e contrata um advogado judeu em seu lugar.

Nice Jewish boy
O nice Jewish boy (NJB) é um estereótipo da masculinidade judaica que circula na comunidade judaica estadunidense, bem como na cultura estadunidense dominante. Homens judeus têm sido historicamente vistos como efeminados, especialmente em contraste com a masculinidade mais violenta da sociedade romana, de onde surgiu o judaísmo rabínico. A masculinidade judaica coloca mais ênfase no estudo e nas atividades acadêmicas do que na força física. No entanto, os judeus do gênero masculino também foram rotulados como femininos em um contexto antissemita. Já foi uma visão amplamente difundida que os homens judeus menstruavam. O tropo surgiu da crença de que a circuncisão era equivalente à castração. Os homens judeus frequentemente recebem traços físicos e mentais femininos para designá-los como deficientes em comparação com a ideia dominante de masculinidade. Por exemplo, no final dos anos 1900, homens judeus eram retratados com peitos estreitos, rechonchudos e histéricos, características tradicionalmente femininas. A ideia de que os homens judeus eram efeminados chegou até mesmo às teorias raciais nazistas que adotaram a afirmação do filósofo austríaco Otto Weininger de que "o judeu é mais saturado de feminilidade do que o ariano". Em Israel e nas partes da diáspora que receberam forte exposição à mídia americana que implementa a representação, o estereótipo ganhou reconhecimento popular em menor grau.

As qualidades que são atribuídas ao nice Jewish boy são derivadas do ideal Ashkenazic de אײדלקײַט (eydlkayt, "nobreza" ou "delicadeza" em iídiche). De acordo com Unheroic Conduct de Daniel Boyarin, eydlkayt abraça a estudiosidade, gentileza e sensibilidade que dizem distinguir o erudito talmúdico e torná-lo um parceiro de casamento atraente.

Na cultura popular

Os estereótipos judaicos na literatura evoluíram ao longo dos séculos. De acordo com Louis Harap, quase todos os escritores europeus anteriores ao século XX que incluíram personagens judeus em suas obras projetaram representações estereotipadas. Harap cita Nathan, o Sábio (1779), de Gotthold Lessing, como a primeira vez que os judeus foram retratados nas artes como "seres humanos, com possibilidades e características humanas". Harap escreve que a persistência do estereótipo judeu ao longo dos séculos sugere a alguns que "o tratamento do judeu na literatura era completamente estático e essencialmente não foi afetado pelas mudanças na situação judaica na sociedade conforme a própria sociedade mudava". Ele contrasta as visões opostas apresentadas nos dois estudos mais abrangentes de personagens judeus na literatura inglesa, um de Montagu Frank Modder e outro de Edgar Rosenberg. Modder afirma que os escritores invariavelmente "refletem a atitude da sociedade contemporânea em sua apresentação do personagem judeu e que o retrato muda com as mudanças econômicas e sociais de cada década". Em oposição à "razão histórica" de Modder, Rosenberg adverte que tal perspectiva "é capaz de diminuir a enorme durabilidade de um estereótipo". Harap sugere que a recorrência do estereótipo judeu na literatura é em si um indicador da presença contínua de antissemitismo entre aqueles que consomem literatura.

O historiador Gary Rosenshield escreve que, enquanto os soviéticos aprovavam uma legislação que tornava o antissemitismo contra os judeus "tecnicamente um crime e, à medida que a opressão política aumentava, autores judeus e não judeus evitavam a representação de judeus em suas obras", a representação estereotipada de judeus "floresceu" entre as obras de proeminentes autores britânicos, irlandeses e americanos como Dorothy Richardson, Virginia Woolf, TS Eliot, Evelyn Waugh, James Joyce, Ezra Pound e Graham Greene (com personagens como Shylock, Fagin e Svengali). Rosenshield escreve que entre os muitos autores que empregaram representações estereotipadas de judeus em suas obras, TS Eliot e Ezra Pound receberam a maior atenção na historiografia moderna. Eliot foi acusado de ser antissemita por John Gross e Anthony Julius, enquanto Ezra Pound era um autoproclamado antissemita, fazendo várias transmissões para o governo italiano culpando a Segunda Guerra Mundial pela usura e pelos judeus.

Jewface
Jewface foi um ato de vaudeville que se tornou popular entre os judeus da Europa Oriental que imigraram para os Estados Unidos na década de 1880. O nome utiliza o termo "blackface" e "Jew" ("judeu" em inglês), e o ato apresentava artistas representando estereótipos judaicos, usando narizes grandes e macilentos, barbas longas e roupas esfarrapadas e falando com forte sotaque iídiche. As primeiras representações foram feitas por gentios, mas os judeus logo começaram a produzir seus próprios atos de Jewface. No início do século XX, quase todos os atores, gerentes, agentes e público do Jewface eram judeus. Jewface apresentava música de dialeto judaico, escrita por compositores de Tin Pan Alley. Esses atos de vaudeville eram controversos na época. Em 1909, um rabino reformista proeminente  disse que comédia como essa era "a causa de maior preconceito contra os judeus como classe do que todas as outras causas combinadas", e naquele mesmo ano a Conferência Central de Rabinos Americanos denunciou esse tipo de comédia.

Em 16 de maio de 2014, o Rapper Macklemore fez uma apresentação no Experience Music Project, onde se vestiu como uma caricatura antissemita.

Na política
Pesquisas sobre votação nos Estados Unidos mostraram que os estereótipos desempenham um papel crucial na tomada de decisão do eleitor, tanto no nível consciente quanto no subconsciente. Os candidatos políticos judeus são estereotipados como liberais. Desde que se envolveram fortemente na política e no processo eleitoral na década de 1930, os líderes e eleitores judeus assumiram posições liberais em várias questões. A partir daí o estereótipo cresceu e agora é presumido mesmo que nem sempre seja preciso. Um exemplo disso ocorreu nas eleições presidenciais de 2000, quando Joseph Lieberman foi o companheiro de chapa de Al Gore na vice-presidência. Ele foi rotulado por alguns como liberal, embora se descrevesse como "pró-negócios, pró-comércio e pró-crescimento econômico". Embora tivesse assumido posições ostensivamente moderadas e conservadoras em várias questões, o estereótipo o definia para muitos eleitores.

Orientalismo
Propaganda antissemita

Estereótipos sobre judeus


An Phymatidium hysteranthum in uska species han Liliopsida nga ginhulagway ni João Barbosa Rodrigues. An Phymatidium hysteranthum in nahilalakip ha genus nga Phymatidium, ngan familia nga Orchidaceae. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

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Phymatidium hysteranthum


الإفناء في الفيزياء وفي نظرية المجال الكمي هي ظاهرة تحول الإلكترون ونقيضه البوزيترون كلية إلى شعاع غاما. وكما نرى فتعبير إفناء لا يقصد منه إفناء الطاقة وإنما المادة ومضادها فقانون بقاء الطاقة ينطبق على الطاقة كما ينطبق على الكتلة. أي أن الطاقة لا تفني، والكتلة لا تفنى وكلتاهما صورتان لشيئ واحد. وقد صاغ أينشتاين ذلك التكافؤ بين المادة والطاقة بالعلاقة المشهورة.

E = mc2

حيث:

E الطاقة ووحدتها كيلوجرام.متر مربع / ثانية مربع أو جول

m كتلة الجسم أو الجسيم كيلوجرام

c سرعة الضوء في الفراغ 3 × 108 متر/ثانية.

وكلمة إفناء هي ترجمة كلمة annihilation الإنجليزية وهذه أخذت عن اللاتينية nihil التي تعني (لا شيء). وكما بينا أعلاه لا إفناء للمادة ولا للطاقة وإنما تحول من حالة إلى حالة.

ونقيض الإلكترون أو البوزيترون هو جسيم أولي له نفس كتلة الإلكترون وله كم من الشحنة تساوي تماما كمة شحنة الإلكترون إلا أنها شحنة موجبة. وليست شحنة سالبة كالتي يحملها الإلكترون.

فعندما يلتقيا أو يصتدما الإلكترون والبوزيترون يتحولان إلى شعاعين من أشعة غاما يحملا طاقتيهما، وتنقسم الطاقة الكلية بين الشعاعين بالتساوي. وهذا ما يتطلبه قانون انحفاظ الطاقة وقانون انحفاظ كمية الحركة. فتبلغ طاقة كل شعاع غاما 0.511 MeV ، ويكون الشعاعان متضادين في الاتجاه.

وتبلغ كتلة السكون للإلكترون 0.511 MeV ، وتبلغ كتلة السكون للبوزيترون 0.511 MeV، وعند اصطدامهما تتحول كتليهما إلى طاقة، وتظهر هذه الطاقة في هيئة شعاعي غاما، ويحمل كل شعاع طاقة قدرها 0.511 MeV.

كذلك يمكن أن تحدث عملية الإفناء أو التحلل للبروتون ونقيض البروتون antiproton ، وتكون نتيجة التحلل إنتاج 2 من الفوتونات (شعاعي غاما)، كل واحد منهما له كتلة ساكنة = 938 MeV. وإذا كانت طاقة البروتون ونقيض البروتون أعلى من 2 × MeV 1876 = 938 بسبب سرعاتهم الكبيرة، تتوزع الطاقة الكلية بين الفوتونين الناتجين بالتساوي. وطبقا لقانون انحفاظ كمية الحركة ينطلق الشعاعان في اتجاهين منعكسين.

أمثلة على التحلل أو الإفناء

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عند اصطدام إلكترون بطيئ السرعة مع بوزيترون بطيئ يتحللان وينشأ في العادة شعاعان من أشعة غاما طالما لا يحمل الإلكترون أو البوزيترون طاقة حركة كبيرة، تساعد على نشأة جسيمات أخرى. أما إذا كان أحد الجسيمان الإلكترون أو البوزيترون يحمل طاقة حركة كبيرة فيمكن خلال تلك العملية أن تنشأ جسيمات جديدة إذا كانت طاقة الحركة كافية، وتلك العملية هي عكس «الإفناء» فهي تسمى عملية إنتاج زوجي. وأحيانا تحمل الصور المأخوذة في المعجلات صورا لتحول أشعة غاما الصادرة عن الإلكترون والبوزيترون إلى جسيمات أخرى.

تحلل الإلكترون والبوزيترون عند التقائهما لا يمكن أن ينتج شعاعا واحدا من أشعة غاما بسبب قانون انحفاظ كمية الحركة الذي يمنع حدوث ذلك، أو يمكن أن يسمح به بشرط وجود جسيم ثالث (مثل نواة ذرية) تقوم بحمل كمية الحركة الزائدة. لذلك يتحلل البوزيترون والإلكترون عند اصطدامهما ببعض إلى شعاعين غاما.

بالتامل لمعادلة التفاعل أعلاه يتبين أنه إذا كانت طاقة حركة الإلكترون والبوزيترون صغيرة فإن التحول يصير بمقدار كتلة السكون للإلكترون وكتلة السكون للبوزيترون، وكلاهما متساويان ويبلغ كل منهما 51و0 مليون إلكترون فولت. يناء عن ذلك ينشأ عن تفاعلهما شعاعين غاما، كل شعاع منهما ذو طاقة 51و0 مليون إلكترون فولت أيضا.

وبافتراض أن لدينا إلكترون وبوزيترون يحمل كل منهما طاقة حركة قدرها 03و0 مليون إلكترون فولت واصطدما ببعضهما و«أفنى» كل منهما الآخر، فينشأ عن التفاعل شعاعان غاما كل منهما له طاقة قدرها 54و0 مليون إلكترون فولت.

الإناء البروتون ونقيض البروتون

نقيض البروتون هو بروتون ذو شحنة سالبة، وعندما يجتمعان يتفاعلان مع بعضهما البعض بطريقة أعقد من التقاء الإلكترون بالبوزيترون. فبصفة عامة فإن اصطدام بروتون بنقيضه ينتج عددا من الميزونات ومعظمها يكون ميسون-بي أو ميسون-كي وهذه تتطاير من نقطة الاصطدام. ولكن الميزونات المتكونة لا تكون مستقرة وتتحلل سريعا منتجة أشعة غاما، وإلكترونات، وبوزيترونات ونيوترينوات.

(ملحوظة: يبلغ كتلة البروتون 980 مليون إلكترون فولت أي أكبر نحو 1840 مرة من كتلة الإلكترون التي تبلغ فقط 51و0 مليون إلكترون فولت. كذلك تبلغ كتل الميسونات أقل بكثير من كتلة البروتون أو كتلة نقيض البروتون.)

كما يتم هدا النوع من التفاعل بين أي باريون (مكون من 3 كواركات) مع أي نقيض الباريون (مكون من 3 نقيض كواركات). كما يمكن لنقيض البروتون «إفناء» النيوترون على هذا النحو.

ونجد خصائصا للتفاعلات التي تنتج ميسونات. فيحتوي البروتون على 2 كواركات علوية و 1 كوارك سفلي، في حين يتكون نقيض البروتون من 3 لنقيض كواركات. وتعمل القوة القوية على تفاعل شديد بين الكواركات ومضادات الكواركات، فعندما يقترب بروتون من مضاد البروتون تميل الكواركات للالتحام بمضادات الكواركات وتكون 3 من ميسونات-بي. وتنتج كاقة كبيرة عن هذا التفاعل حيث أن كتلة السكون للثلاثة ميسونات-بي أقل بكثير من كتلتي البروتون ومضاد البروتون. وتظهر تلك الطاقة الزائدة في هيئة طاقة حركة للميسونات الناتجة، أو أشعة غاما، أو يمكنها عن طريق إنتاج زوجي تكوين أزواجا إضافية من الكوارك-نقيض الكوارك.

انظر أيضا ً

 إفناء إلكترون-بوزيترون
 إنتاج زوجي
 طيف كهرومغناطيسي
 قائمة الجسيمات
 نظرية النموذج العياري
 مصادم الهدرونات الكبير
 المنظمة الأوروبية للأبحاث النووية

مراجع

جسيمات أولية
دمار
فيزياء الجسيمات
مادة مضادة
ميكانيكا الكم

إفناء


Milorad Jablanov (Srpski Krstur, 10. studenoga 1931. - Novi Sad 25. srpnja 2001. ) bio je jugoslavenski i srbijanski nogometaš.

Životopis

Rodio se je u selu Srpskom Krsturu kod Novog Kneževca.  Milorad je imao mlađeg brata po imenu Đuka koji je bio dvije godine mlađi od njega.  Tijekom Drugog svjetskog rata njegov je otac bio interniran u sabirnom logoru u Dachauu .

Klupska
Jablanov je nosio Vojvodinin dres 2 godine, u sezoni 1952./53. i 1953./54.

Reprezentativna

Kao član jugoslavenske studentske reprezentacije nastupao je u nekoliko utakmica, između ostalog u Rijeci 1953. godine.

Karijera nakon nogometa
Milorad je krajem 50-ih napustio nogomet da bi dovršio Poljoprivredni fakultet, gdje je stekao zvanje inženjera vodnog gospodarstva. Zaposlen je u DTD Šajkaška, gdje radi na sanaciji oštećenja i izgradnji nasipa nakon Velike poplave u Novom Sadu. Između 1972. i 1979. izabran je za direktora SIZ-a DTD "Šajkaška", da bi kasnije biti tajnik vanjske trgovine.

Umro je 25. srpnja 2001. godine.  u Novom Sadu, nakon duge i teške bolesti. Iza njega ostala je supruga i kći sa svojom obitelji.

Izvori

Nogometaši FK Vojvodine
Srbijanski nogometaši

Milorad Jablanov


Dracula får blod på tanden er en britisk film fra 1970 instrueret af Peter Sasdy.

Medvirkende
 Christopher Lee som Dracula
 Geoffrey Keen som William Hargood
 Gwen Watford som Martha Hargood
 Linda Hayden som Alice Hargood
 Peter Sallis som Samuel Paxton
 Anthony Higgins som Paul Paxton
 Isla Blair som Lucy Paxton
 John Carson som Jonathon Secker
 Martin Jarvis som Jeremy Secker
 Ralph Bates som Lord Courtley

Eksterne henvisninger

Britiske film fra 1970
Gyserfilm fra Storbritannien
Vampyrfilm

Dracula får blod på tanden


Güvenç, Adana ilinin Karaisalı ilçesine bağlı bir mahalledir.

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350 yıl önce kurulduğu tahmin edilmektedir.

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Adana iline 46 km, Karaisalı ilçesine 4 km uzaklıktadır.

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