The State of India (), also referred as the Portuguese State of India (Estado Português da Índia, EPI) or simply Portuguese India (), was a state of the Portuguese Empire founded six years after the discovery of a sea route to the Indian subcontinent by Vasco da Gama, a subject of the Kingdom of Portugal. The capital of Portuguese India served as the governing centre of a string of military forts and trading posts scattered all over the Indian Ocean.

The first viceroy, Francisco de Almeida established his base of operations at Fort Manuel, after the Kingdom of Cochin negotiated to become a protectorate of Portugal in 1505. With the Portuguese conquest of Goa from the Bijapur Sultanate in 1510, Goa became the major anchorage for the Portuguese Armadas arriving in India. The capital of the viceroyalty was transferred from Cochin in the Malabar region to Goa in 1530. From 1535, Mumbai (Bombay) was a harbour of Portuguese India as Bom Bahia, until it was handed over, via the dowry of Catherine de Braganza to Charles II of England in 1661.  The expression "State of India" began regularly appearing in documents in the mid-16th century.

Until the 18th century, the viceroy at Goa had authority over all Portuguese possessions in and around the Indian Ocean, from Southern Africa to Southeast Asia. In 1752, Mozambique got its own separate government, from 1844 onwards Portuguese Goa stopped administering Macao, Solor & Timor.

In later years, Portugal's authority was confined to holdings in the Canara, Cambay & Konkan regions, along the west coast of India. At the time of the dissolution of the British Raj in 1947, Portuguese India comprised three administrative divisions, sometimes referred to collectively as Goa: Namely Goa which included Anjediva; and Damaon, which included the exclaves of Dadra and Nagar Haveli and Dio districts. The Salazar regime of Portugal lost de facto control of Dadra and Nagar Haveli in 1954. Finally, the rest of the overseas territory was lost in December 1961 with the Indian Annexation of Goa under PM Nehru. Portugal only recognised Indian control after the Carnation Revolution and the fall of the Estado Novo regime by a treaty signed on 31 December 1974.

Context

Vasco da Gama lands in India
The first Portuguese encounter with the subcontinent was on 20 May 1498 when Vasco da Gama reached Calicut on the Malabar Coast. Anchored off the coast of Calicut, the Portuguese invited native fishermen on board and immediately bought some Indian items. One Portuguese accompanied the fishermen to the port and met with a Tunisian Muslim. On the advice of this man, Gama sent a couple of his men to Ponnani to meet with ruler of Calicut, the Zamorin. Over the objections of Arab merchants, Gama managed to secure a letter of concession for trading rights from the Zamorin. But, the Portuguese were unable to pay the prescribed customs duties and price of his goods in gold.

Later Calicut officials temporarily detained Gama's Portuguese agents as security for payment. This, however, annoyed Gama, who carried a few natives and sixteen fishermen with him by force.

Nevertheless, Gama's expedition was successful beyond all reasonable expectation, bringing in cargo that was worth sixty times the cost of the expedition.

Pedro Álvares Cabral

Pedro Álvares Cabral sailed to India, marking the arrival of Europeans to Brazil on the way, to trade for pepper and other spices, negotiating and establishing a factory at Calicut, where he arrived on 13 September 1500. Matters worsened when the Portuguese factory at Kozhikode was attacked by surprise by the locals, resulting in the death of more than fifty Portuguese. Cabral was outraged by the attack on the factory and seized ten Arab merchant ships anchored in the harbour, killing about six hundred of their crew and confiscating their cargo before burning the ships. Cabral also ordered his ships to bombard Calicut for an entire day in retaliation for the violation of the agreement. Additionally, Cabral succeeded in making advantageous treaties with local rulers in Cochin and Cannanore. Cabral started the return voyage on 16 January 1501 and arrived in Portugal with only 4 of 13 ships on 23 June 1501.

In 1502, the Portuguese built a trade post in Pulicat because its location at the mouth of a lagoon made it a great natural harbor.

João da Nova

The third Portuguese expedition to reach India sailed under the command of João da Nova and was composed of four ships, tasked mainly with acquiring spices and returning to Europe. While en route the fleet discovered the islands of Ascension and Saint Helena in the South Atlantic, and despite having been planned as a purely commercial expedition, the fleet clashed with vessels of the Zamorin of Calicut off the Malabar Coast in what was the first significant naval battle of the Portuguese India.

The fleet may also have called at Ceylon.

Vasco da Gama

Vasco da Gama sailed to India for a second time with 15 ships and 800 men, arriving at Calicut on 30 October 1502. Gama this time made a call to expel all Muslims from Calicut which was turned down. The ruler showed willingness to sign a treaty but Gama bombarded the city and captured several rice vessels after he was informed that the Zamorin was messaging neighboring rulers to join him in resisting the Portuguese at the same time.
While in India Gama also attacked Onor, reduced Baticala to tributary status, established a trade treaty and trading post at Cananore, and clashed with a fleet belonging to the Zamorin. He returned to Portugal in September 1503.

Afonso de Albuquerque

The expedition of 1503 was the first time Afonso de Albuquerque sailed to India, as its commander. Its activities were limited to erecting a fort on the territory of the allied kingdom of Cochin, signing a peace with Zamorin that would prove brief, and opening a new trading post on Kollam.

Lopo Soares de Albergaria

The sixth Portuguese expedition to sail to India was commanded by Lopo Soares de Albergaria, who bombarded Calicut, relieved Duarte Pacheco Pereira and the Portuguese garrison at Cochin defending the territory from a large attack by the Zamorin, sacked Cranganore, struck an allegiance with the king of Tanur which removed him from the suzerainty of the Zamorin, and finally captured a large Egyptian trade fleet at Pandarane.

Foundation (1505–1515)

Francisco de Almeida

On 25 March 1505, Francisco de Almeida was appointed Viceroy of India, on the condition that he would set up four forts on the southwestern Indian coast: at Anjediva, Cannanore, Cochin and Quilon. Francisco de Almeida left Portugal with a fleet of 22 vessels with 1,500 men.

On 13 September, Francisco de Almeida reached Anjadip island, where he immediately started the construction of Fort Anjediva. On 23 October, with the permission of the friendly ruler of Kōlattir, he started building Fort St Angelo of Cannanore, leaving Lourenço de Brito in charge with 150 men and two ships.

On 31 October 1505 Francisco de Almeida then reached Cochin, with only 8 vessels left. There he learned that the Portuguese traders at Quilon had been killed. He decided to send his son Lourenço de Almeida with 6 ships, who destroyed 27 Calicut vessels in the harbour of Quilon. Almeida took up residence in Cochin and strengthened Fort Manuel.

The Zamorin prepared a large fleet of 200 ships to oppose the Portuguese, but in March 1506 Lourenço de Almeida (son of Francisco) was victorious in a sea battle at the entrance to the harbour, in the Battle of Cannanore (1506), an important setback for the fleet of the Zamorin. Thereupon Lourenço de Almeida explored the coastal waters southwards to Colombo, in what is now Sri Lanka. In Cannanore, however, a new ruler, hostile to the Portuguese and friendly with the Zamorin, attacked the Portuguese garrison, leading to the Siege of Cannanore.

In 1507 Almeida's mission was strengthened by the arrival of Tristão da Cunha's squadron. Afonso de Albuquerque's squadron had, however, split from that of Cunha off East Africa and was independently conquering territories in the Persian Gulf to the west.

In March 1508 a Portuguese squadron under command of Lourenço de Almeida was attacked by a combined Mameluk Egyptian and Gujarat Sultanate fleet at Chaul and Dabul respectively, led by admirals Mirocem and Meliqueaz in the Battle of Chaul. Lourenço de Almeida died after a fierce fight in this battle. Mamluk-Indian resistance was, however, to be decisively defeated at the Battle of Diu.

Afonso de Albuquerque

In the year 1509, Afonso de Albuquerque was appointed the second governor of Portuguese possessions in the East. After acquiring their first protectorate in Portuguese Cochin, a new fleet under Marshal Fernão Coutinho arrived with specific instructions to destroy the power of Zamorin of Calicut. The Zamorin's palace was captured and destroyed and the city was set on fire. The Zamorin's forces rallied, killing Coutinho and wounding Albuquerque. Albuquerque withdrew with his forces and after the Zamorin was assassinated in 1513 he entered into agreement with his successor to protect Portuguese interests in Malabar, and a fort was built on Calicut.

In 1510, Afonso de Albuquerque captured Goa from the Bijapur Sultanate sultan with the aid of the Hindu privateer Timoja, leading to the establishment of a permanent settlement in the city of Velha Goa (Old Goa in English). Goa (island) bore the seat of the viceroy, who governed all the possessions in Asia.

Albuquerque added to the State of India the city of Malacca in 1511 and Ormus in 1515. He encouraged the settlement of his soldiers and their marriage to native women. In the mid sixteenth century there were about 2000 casados ("married men") in Goa. Goa included a large body of native non-Portuguese inhabitants for the Portuguese crown to rule. To better achieve this, Albuquerque resorted to medieval Iberian procedures: people of different religious communities were allowed to live by their laws under representatives of their respective communities. Exception was made to the practice of sati however, which was promptly abolished. Certain taxes due to the Adil Shah of Bijapur were also abolished. Native women were legally allowed property rights for the first time. At Goa, Albuquerque instituted an orphan's fund and opened a hospital, the Hospital Real de Goa, modelled after the grand Hospital Real de Todos os Santos in Lisbon. Also at Goa were built smaller hospitals run by the city's charity, the Misericórdia, dedicated to serving the poor and the natives.

Albuquerque's policies proved immensely popular amongst his soldiers as well as the local population, especially his characteristically strict observance of justice. When Albuquerque died in sight of Goa in 1515, even the Hindu natives of Goa mourned his passing alongside the Portuguese. His tomb at the Nossa Senhora da Serra hermitage was converted to a shrine by the local Hindus, who would leave flowers there in his dedication and direct prayers to him, seeking aid in matters of justice, until his remains were returned to Portugal in 1566.

The Portuguese had also shipped Órfãs do Rei to their colonies in the Indian peninsula, the most important of which were the eastern metropole of Goa and the largest province in Bombay-Bassein. Órfãs do Rei (literally "Orphans of the King"), were orphaned Portuguese girls patronised by the King, and sent to overseas colonies to form marital alliances with either Portuguese settlers or natives of high status.

Early Years (16th to 17th Century)

In 1520, the Portuguese extended their dominion over the town of Rachol, as in that year, Krishnadevaraya captured the Rachol Fort and delivered it to the Portuguese, in exchange for a mutual defence pact against the Deccan Sultanates.

In 1526, John III of Portugal granted the city of Goa and its town hall the same legal status as Lisbon, in a foral in which the general laws and privileges of the city, its town hall, and the local Hindu community were detailed – especially important since at the time the native laws of Goa were still not written, instead being handled by councils of elders or religious judges and passed down orally (thus prone to abuses).

There were Portuguese settlements in and around the Coromandel region. The Luz Church in the Mylapore neighbourhood of Madras (Chennai) was the first church that the Portuguese built in the area in 1516, the São Tomé or San Thome shrine was rebuilt by them 1522. They also built the first structures at the Basilica of Our Lady of the Mount, Bandra, the Our Lady of Velankanni shrine and the Cathedral of Our Lady of Miracles; which are among the important Christian pilgrimage sites of South Asia.

Several colonies were also acquired from the Sultan of Guzerat in the north Konkan region: Damaon was sacked in 1531 and ceded in 1539; Salsette, the seven islands of Bombay, Chaul and Bassein (Vasai) in 1534; Diu ceded in 1535. These would jointly come to be known as the Northern Province of Portuguese India.  It extended almost  along the west-coast from Daman to Chaul, and in places  inland. The territory (province) of Portuguese Bombay had its city centre in and around the Bassein Fort; subject to the viceroy in the capital (metropole) of Velha Goa in south Konkan country, along with other colonies in the Indian subcontinent, such as Portuguese Ceylon and Portuguese Chittagong.

The Ottoman Empire carried out the Siege of Diu in 1538, with a strong fleet under the command of the Ottoman governor of Egypt Sulaiman Pasha for four months, with the aid of a large army provided by the Sultan of Guzerat; however they were ultimately forced to retreat with considerable losses. The successful defense of Dio by captain António da Silveira against overwhelming odds was a battle of annihilation, is one of the most celebrated exploits in Portuguese history, and frequently compared to the Great Siege of Malta. On the occasion, the Portuguese captured the Tiro de Diu, a massive Guzerati bombard.

According to Portuguese records there was a Cholera epidemic in 1543, "It is said that deaths from the disposal of the disease were so numerous that the disposal of bodies was a formidable task"

On 16 May 1546, the Jesuit missionary Francis Xavier requested the institution of the Goa Inquisition for the "Old Christians" and "New Christians", in a letter to John III of Portugal. Non-Christians were officially oppressed, even before the Inquisition was set up. Francis Xavier was instrumental for a mass conversion of 30,000 Paravar fishermen at Cape Comorin.

In 1556, the printing press in Goa was the first installed in India at Saint Paul's College, Goa. Through publications made on the printing press, opened a window on the knowledge and customs of Europe. The Jesuits brought this European-style, metal movable type technology to Macao in China in 1588 and to Japan in 1590.

By the start of the 17th century, the population of Goa and the surrounding areas was about 250,000. Holding this strategic land against repeated attacks by the Indian states required constant infusions of men and material. Portugal's important victories, such as the battle of Cochin in 1504, the defense of Diu in 1509, the conquest of Goa in 1510, the defenses of Diu in 1538 and 1546, and the defense of Goa in 1571 were accomplished with limited manpower. In their largest deployments, the Portuguese could field perhaps 2,000 to 3,000 European and mestiço troops supported by a similar amount of local auxiliaries, while the larger Indian states could field tens of thousands each. Portuguese superiority in military technology (especially in regards to ships and artillery), training (especially in the skill of their gunners), and tactics, combined with the disunity of the Indian states opposing them, allowed them to keep their position and consistently win their wars.

Later Years (17th to 20th Century)

17th century

The seven islands of Bombay were presented to the English Crown in 1661, as part of the dowry of Catherine Braganza to Charles II of England, who in turn leased the area to the English East India Company.

In 1683, Marathas attempted a siege against Portuguese settlements in the Konkan region, but with no success.

Kollam (Quilon) was a prominent seaport and became a Portuguese settlement from 1519, they built a cemetery at Tangasseri in Quilon city. After the Dutch East India Company invasion, the Dutch also buried their dead there. The pirates of Tangasseri inhabited the cemetery before Europeans arrived. Remnants of this cemetery still exist today, very close to Tangasseri Lighthouse and St Thomas Fort, which are listed among the protected monuments in the Archaeological Survey of India.

18th Century

Most of the Northern Province composed of Taana, Bassein (Vasai) and Chaul near British Bombay was lost following another Mahratta Invasion of Bassein in 1739. Goa, Daman and Diu as well as Anjediva, were retained because a fleet of Portuguese Armadas arrived from Lisbon, bearing a newly appointed viceroy.

In 1752, Mozambique was detached from the State of India and henceforth ruled by its own governor.

In the aftermath of the battles and the losses, the Portuguese expanded the territory of Goa between 1763 and 1788, at the expense of the Dessais of Kudal, the Sondas and the Bhonslas/ Mahrattas of Silvassa, which became known as Novas Conquistas. By order of the Marquis de Pombal, the Jesuits were expelled from Portugal's territories in 1759. They were replaced by the Oratorians, a native Goan Catholic religious order founded by Christian Brahmin and Christian Cxatria converts, and a college dedicated to the secular education of the native elites was opened, and the Goan Inquisition was abolished. By influence of Pombal, King José declared that native Christians were equal in standing with Europeans, while the Viceroy Count of Ega declared religious freedom and prohibited racial slander. For these reasons "Pombal and his collaborators remain to this day much respected figures in Goa"

In 1783, following an attack on the Portuguese ship Santana, the Marathas handed over control of the territories of Dadrá and Nagar Áveli. The Portuguese then purchased Dadrá in 1785. By 1818, the Portuguese were the undisputed rulers of Nagar Áveli after the dissolution of the Maratha Confederacy.

19th century

Military intelligence about the France's plan to occupy Goa caused the British Governor-general at Calcutta, Marquis of Wellesley to send troops, Goa was briefly a British Protectorate from 1799 to 1813. The Portuguese governor Francisco António da Veiga Cabral managed to retain control of civil institutions by formally appointing the British officer in charge of the occupation, Sir William Clarke, as commander of Portuguese troops in Goa under his authority.

In 1843, the capital was shifted to Panjim (Nova Goa or New Goa), when it officially became the administrative seat of the Estado, replacing the city of Velha Goa (Old Goa), although the viceroys had taken residence there already since 1 Dec, 1759. In 1844, the Portuguese governor of India stopped administering the territories of Macão, Solór, and Timór. Only then was the territory of the State of India confined to the Indian subcontinent itself.

Second World War
Portugal was neutral during the Second World War.  As a result, at the outbreak of hostilities a number of Axis ships sought refuge in Goa rather than be sunk or captured by the British Royal Navy. Three German merchant ships, the Ehrenfels, the Drachenfels and the Braunfels, as well as an Italian ship, took refuge in the port of Mormugao. The Ehrenfels began transmitting Allied ship movements to the U-boats operating in the Indian Ocean, an action that was extremely damaging to Allied shipping.

The British Royal Navy was unable to take any official action against these ships because of Goa's stated neutrality. Instead the Indian mission of Special Operations Executive backed a covert raid using members from the Calcutta Light Horse, a part-time unit made up of civilians who were not eligible for normal war service.  The Light Horse embarked on an ancient Calcutta riverboat, the Phoebe, and sailed around India to Goa, where they sank the Ehrenfels. The British then sent an unencrypted radio message announcing it was going to seize the territory. This bluff made the other Axis crews scuttle their ships fearing they could be seized by British forces.

The raid was covered in the book Boarding Party by James Leasor.  Due to the potential political ramifications of the fact that Britain had violated Portuguese neutrality, the raid remained secret until the book was published in 1978. In 1980 the story was made into the film, The Sea Wolves, starring Gregory Peck, David Niven and Roger Moore.

1945 to 1961

On 24 July 1954 an organisation called "The United Front of Goans" took control of the enclave of Dadra. Nagar Haveli was seized by Azad Gomantak Dal on 2 August 1954.
The International Court of Justice at The Hague delivered an impasse verdict, regarding access to Dadra and Nagar Haveli by Portugal.

From 1954, the satyagrahis (peaceful protesters) against Portuguese rule, outside Goa were violently suppressed through brute force. Many internal revolts were quelled and leaders extrajudicially murdered or jailed. As a result, India broke off diplomatic relations with Portugal, closed its consulate-general in Panjim and demanded that Portugal must close its delegation in New Delhi. India also imposed an economic embargo against the territories of Portuguese Goa. The Indian Government adopted a diplomatic "wait and watch" approach from 1955 to 1961 with numerous representations to the Portuguese Salazar dictatorship, and made attempts to highlight the issue of decolonisation before the international community.

To facilitate the transport of people and goods to and from the Indian enclaves, the Salazar dictatorship established an airline, Transportes Aéreos da Índia Portuguesa, and airports at Goa, Daman and Diu.

Finally, in December 1961, India militarily invaded the remaining Portuguese possessions. Portuguese forces had been given orders to either defeat the invaders or die. Eventually, the Governor of Portuguese India signed the Instrument of Surrender on 19 December 1961, thus ending 450 years of Portuguese rule in India.

Post-annexation

Status of the new territories
Free Dadra and Nagar Haveli existed as a de facto independent entity from its independence in 1954 until its merger with the Republic of India in 1961.

Following the annexation of Dadra and Nagar Haveli, Goa, Daman and Diu became new territories of the Indian Union. Maj Gen K P Candeth was declared as military governor of Goa, Daman and Diu. Goa's first legislative elections were held in 1963.

In 1967 a referendum was conducted after activists led by Jack Sequeira proposed it, where voters would decide whether to merge Goa into the Marathi-majority state of Maharashtra, the pro-Konkani faction eventually won after protests against the Maharashtrawadi Gomantak Party, led by Dayanand Bandodkar. However full statehood was not conferred immediately, and it was only on 30 May 1987 that Goa became the 25th state of the Indian Union, with Dadra and Nagar Haveli, Daman and Diu districts were partitioned, and continue to be administered as the Daman, Diu and Silvassa territory.

The most drastic changes in Portuguese India after 1961 were the introduction of democratic elections, as well as the replacement of Portuguese with English as the general language of government and education. Following many years of Konkani language agitation, Konkani in the Devanagari script finally became the official language of the union territory of Goa, Damaon and Diu in 1987. The Indians allowed certain Portuguese institutions to continue unchanged. Amongst these were the land ownership system of the comunidades, where land was held by the community of neighbourhoods was then leased out to individuals. Goans under the Indian Government left the Portuguese Civil Code of Goa and Damaon unchanged, hence they remain as the only territories in India with a common civil code that does not depend on religion.

Citizenship
The Citizenship Act of 1955 granted the Government of India the authority to define citizenship in the Indian Union. In exercise of its powers, the government passed the Goa, Daman and Diu (Citizenship) Order, 1962 on 28 March 1962 conferring Indian citizenship on all persons born on or before 20 December 1961 in Goa, Daman, and Diu.

Indo-Portuguese relations
Portugal's Salazar dictatorship did not recognise India's sovereignty over the annexed territories, and established a government-in-exile for the territories, which continued to be represented in the Portuguese National Assembly. After 1974's Carnation Revolution, the new Portuguese government recognised Indian sovereignty over Goa, Daman and Diu, and the two states restored diplomatic relations. Portugal automatically gives citizens of the former Portuguese-India its citizenship and opened a consulate in Goa in 1994.

Administration

From the moment the State was founded in 1505 till it was disestablished in 1961, an official with the title of governor or viceroy served as its highest authority, usually for a three-year term, initially with authority over all Crown territories east of the Cape of Good Hope. The latter title was attributed as a high honour while the monarchy lasted, however their duties were the same as governors. They were the highest military commanders as well as administrators, hence their authority fell on matters pertaining to the armed forces, diplomacy, trade, finance and personnel management. Before they left Portugal, they were handed a written set of orders and objectives, called regimento. The viceroys often attempted to influence the nomination of political allies to key positions. However, the final say fell on the metropolis. Many were accompanied by their personal retinues, and these often included their sons to serve in important military positions, such was the case of the captain-major of the seas of India Dom Lourenço de Almeida, son the viceroy Dom Francisco de Almeida. After Goa was conquered, governors and viceroys lived in the Palácio do Hidalcão, the native Indian palace built by the city's former sovereign, the Adil Khan.

The most important administrative structure of the State was put in place in the 16th century; it included the high court (relação), the superintendency of finances (vedoria da fazenda) run by a Crown appointed vedor, financial accounts office (casa dos contos) and the military registry and supply office (casa da matrícula).

The extremely scattered nature of Portuguese holdings however, meant that the State was highly decentralized, with great power being held by individual fortress captains, their captain-generals or town halls, far away from Goa. Like the governors and viceroys, fortress captains served for three years, however their terms could be renovated. Sancho de Vasconcelos, captain-major of Ambon served for 19 years. In the most important captaincies, financial authority rested with the vedor (superintendent), while judicial authority was vested in an ouvidor ("ombundsman").

The Church played an important role in the State. The Pope had granted the Kings of Portugal exclusive ecclesiastical rights to religious patronage (Padroado) in their overseas possessions. After 1513 Portuguese eastern holdings were part of the bishopric of Funchal seated in Madeira island. After 1557 Goa became the seat of an archbishop with subordinate bishops in Cochin and Malacca. Further sees were later opened in Macau in 1576 and in Funai in 1588. Religious Orders of the Augustinians, Franciscans, Dominicans and Jesuits established mission headquarters in Goa, giving the Catholic Church a very visible presence and influence in the capital of the State of India, for which it earned the nickname of "Rome of the East", a fact commented by many foreign travellers.

In the most important settlements featured a câmara ("town hall"), with charters similar to equivalent cities in Portugal, and they played an important role in administration, as they were the only institution through which settlers could voice their opinions and make themselves heard. They were responsible for local governance, could collect some municipal taxes and acted as a court of first instance. They sometimes provided loans to Viceroys, though cooperation was often difficult. Portuguese merchants often established by their own initiative a câmara in their non-Crown settlements, the most important case of which was the Leal Senado in Macau.

Aside from the Portuguese themselves, the State often also ruled over non-Portuguese, non-Christian peoples, and in these cases often the traditional native structures were left in place. When Afonso de Albuquerque captured Goa, the Hindu inhabitants were left in possession of their lands; the pre-Portuguese system of land-ownership and administration of village communes codified and the rights of Brahmin or Khsatria ganvkars (shareholders) recognized,  and tax collection was left to the Hindu Timoja and after him the long-standing Krishna Rao. In Hormuz, Albuquerque left its native Muslim king as chief administrator under a protectorate. As the Counter-Reformation gained momentum in Europe, Brahmins were excluded from the Portuguese administration during the tenure of Dom Constantino de Bragança, which resulted in a wave of conversions.

Trade and economy

Trade had been one of the primary motivations behind the Portuguese expansion overseas, and one of the main objectives behind the foundation of the State of India was to take over the Europe-Asia trade, up to that point conducted mainly through the Red Sea and the Persian Gulf, redirecting it around Africa via the Cape Route. Trade was processed either by the Crown through royal agents (feitores) working from royal trade posts (feitorias) and maintained by the royal finances, or by independent merchants, either Portuguese or otherwise.

One of the main tasks of royal factors was to acquire spices to be shipped back to Europe. In 1503, the Portuguese unloaded at Lisbon 30,000 quintals of spices, more than what the Venetians introduced in the European marked through Alexandria in Egypt. The overwhelming bulk of commodities imported to Europe by the Portuguese consisted of black pepper, which after 1520 was declared an official Crown monopoly. The Portuguese acquired most of their pepper in Kerala or Kanara in India. For most of the century, the Portuguese secured an overwhelming share of the pepper imports into Europe, supplying 75 per cent or more of Europes pepper. The Crown declared a monopoly on their commodities, such as cloves, nutmeg, mace, cinnamon, ginger, silk, pearls and the export of gold and silver bullion from Portugal to Asia.

The Portuguese Crown instituted a number of official carreiras, literally meaning "runs", connecting Goa to major Portuguese and non-Portuguese harbours around the Indian and Pacific oceans once a year. Initially conducted through Crown vessels, after 1560, the Crown began leasing them to private contractors, and by the late 16th century they were the norm. By 1580, the value of inter-Asian trade rights leases reached as high as two million cruzados - twice the value the Portuguese Crown earned from the Goa-Lisbon trade.

Portugal regulated and rerouted the Indian Ocean trade by imposing a system of safe-passes called cartaz. It was imposed most effectively on the west coast of India.  The Portuguese Crown also collected high customs dues, most importantly at Goa, Hormuz, Malacca, Bassein and Diu, and in the 1580s it accounted for over 85% of the viceroys revenue.

Independent Portuguese merchants got involved in the inter-Asian trade, and the backbone of informal Portuguese presence and trade in Asia was formed of Eurasian merchants, descending from Portuguese soldiers or merchants married to local wives. Their main hub of activities was the capital of Goa, where the largest community of casados ("married men") was located at, about 2,000 families.   The core element of their trade was Gujarati cotton textiles, but they also dealt in Kerala pepper, cinnammon from Sri Lanka, Kanara rice, diamonds from southern India and larins from Persia.   By 1520 they had penetrated almost every commercially relevant region in Asia aside from Japan (which was reached in the 1540s). Macau was founded by independent Portuguese traders. The Crown regulated their trade into a number of convoys for safety against pirates, the most important of which were those which transported textiles from Gujarat to Goa and rice from Kanara to Goa. The second most important settlement of Portuguese merchants in India was Cochin, where 500 casados with their families resided. Diu had a casado population of about 200.

Portuguese India Company was established in 1628, however with the Crown being its only major shareholder, it was liquidated five years later. By that point, Portugal's share of pepper trade had fallen behind those of the Dutch VOC and the English EIC.

Portuguese trade was greatly reduced by the war with the Dutch VOC, with whom a peace treaty was signed in 1663. Inter-Indian Portuguese convoys continued, mainly with Gujarat, Porto Novo and Madras. Indian cottons became the bedrock of exports from Portuguese India, while tobacco grown in Portuguese Brazil became the most important commodity exported across Asia via Portuguese India till the 19th century. New Portuguese East India Companies established in 1669 and 1685 failed, largely due to disagreements between the Crown and the merchants over the nature of the enterprise and lack of confidence from investors. By the 18th century, tobacco, bullion, firearms, consumer goods such as Madeira wine and books represented the most important items traded in Portuguese India, while exports back to Europe included silks, spices, porcelain, precious stones, Indian cottons and high quality lacquered furniture, a good proportion being unloaded at Bahia in Brazil. Indian cottons were especially valuable in Mozambique, where an important community of Indians from Diu or Daman came to reside. Nevertheless, Goa effectively became a commercial satellite of British Bombay. Many Indo-Portuguese merchants became deeply involved and prominent in French Pondicherry, Danish Tranquebar and especially British Madras, Calcutta and Bombay, Portuguese Jews being linked to the diamond trade in Madras.

Society and culture

The State was largely urban, since its reason of being was to provide well-protected havens from which trade and communication could be conducted, controlled and dominated, hence only Goa, Damaon, Bassein, Chaul and Colombo had any meaningful hinterland and rural populations. After the massacre of the Portuguese in their feitoria in Calicut in 1500, practically every possession of the State was fortified, sometimes massively, and for this reason it resembled as much a network of maritime communications as an enormous perimeter of fortresses.

Portuguese India harboured a society that was officially Christian and European but influenced by the non-European setting into which it was inserted. At the top of the social pyramid were the European-born viceroys, officers, and clergymen, followed by the Portuguese casados and their Eurasian descendants, who could be wealthy merchants or hold important positions in the local câmara, and finally the native society. Portuguese living in Asia or east-Africa were generally more accepting of non-Christian beliefs and practices than their countrymen from Europe or Catholic clergy generally approved. At their peak in 1600, the total number of Portuguese casados across the State probably numbered about 5,500. Many casados followed a lifestyle that seemed to foreign visitors as remarkably relaxed and luxurious by European standards, some living in fine houses furnished in the Indian fashion with many servants, abundant and varied food that included a wide variety of fruits and poultry, consumed off Ming porcelain. Goan casados often dressed in shirts and white trousers while their wives usually wore saris.

Alongside fortresses, ecclesiastical buildings dominated the skyline of most Portuguese settlements, particularly in Goa, giving the city a distinctly European and Catholic flavour and a high profile to the Church. About 600 clergymen were concentrated in Goa out of perhaps 1800 east of the Cape of Good Hope in 1630. Nevertheless, the European and Christian Eurasian community in any Portuguese settlement of the State always constituted a minority, perhaps no more than 7% in the case of Goa, the rest being Hindus, Indian Christians, other Asians and Africans, free or slaves.

For these reasons, the State was culturally hybrid, distant as it was from Europe, with the façades and interiors of churches blending Portuguese and Asian iconographic traditions, while the domestic culture was likewise a compromise between East and West, with furniture, dress and food often more Asian than Portuguese.

Postal history

Early postal history of the colony is obscure, but regular mail is known to have been exchanged with Lisbon from 1825 onwards. Portugal had a postal convention with Great Britain, so much mail was probably routed through Bombay and carried on British packets. Portuguese postmarks are known from 1854 when a post office was opened in Goa.

The last regular issue for Portuguese India was on 25 June 1960, for the 500th anniversary of the death of Prince Henry the Navigator. Stamps of India were first used on 29 December 1961, although the old stamps were accepted until 5 January 1962. Portugal continued to issue stamps for the lost colony but none were offered for sale in the colony's post offices, so they are not considered valid stamps.

Dual franking was tolerated from 22 December 1961 until 4 January 1962. Colonial (Portuguese) postmarks were tolerated until May 1962.

Gallery

Currency

Architecture

See also

 Portuguese Empire
 Códice Casanatense
 Japan Voyage
 Estado Novo (Portugal)
 Indo-Portuguese creoles
 List of governors of Portuguese India
 Arquivo Histórico Ultramarino (archives in Lisbon documenting Portuguese Empire, including India)
 Portuguese Indian rupia
 Portuguese Indian escudo
 Goa liberation movement
 Civil code of Goa and Damaon
 Cuncolim Revolt
 Portuguese Bombay and Bassein
 Portuguese Ceylon
 Portuguese Oman
 Colonial India

References

Further reading

 Andrada (undated). The Life of Dom John de Castro: The Fourth Vice Roy of India. Jacinto Freire de Andrada. Translated into English by Peter Wyche. (1664). Henry Herrington, New Exchange, London. Facsimile edition (1994) AES Reprint, New Delhi. .
Panikkar, K. M. (1953). Asia and Western dominance, 1498–1945, by K.M. Panikkar. London: G. Allen and Unwin.
Panikkar, K. M. 1929: Malabar and the Portuguese: being a history of the relations of the Portuguese with Malabar from 1500 to 1663
 Priolkar, A. K. The Goa Inquisition (Bombay, 1961).

External links

ColonialVoyage.com – History of the Portuguese and the Dutch in Ceylon, India, Malacca, Bengal, Formosa, Africa, Brazil.
 Biographical entries on Portuguese viceroys and governors of India (1550–1640) in Portuguese – Encyclopedia of the Portuguese Expansion (PDF)

Empires and kingdoms of India
India, Portuguese
States and territories established in 1505
India
States and territories disestablished in 1961
History of Kerala
Former countries in South Asia
History of Goa
History of Mumbai
Former colonies in Asia
1505 establishments in Portuguese India
1961 disestablishments in Portuguese India
Portuguese colonisation in Asia

Portuguese India


Arthur Selbmann (* 1874 in Dresden; † 1946 in Reichenbach im Vogtland) war ein deutscher Bildhauer.

Leben
Arthur Selbmann wurde 1874 in Dresden geboren. Nach Schulabschluss studierte er von 1889 bis 1895 an der Dresdner Kunstakademie bei Johannes Schilling. Durch seine außergewöhnliche künstlerische Begabung wurde er bald zum Meisterschüler und später zum Gehilfen Schillings. Selbmann unternahm 1899 eine Studienreise nach Rom, kehrte 1900 nach Dresden zurück und war dort freischaffend im eigenen Atelier tätig. Neben seinen lebensgroßen Werken schuf er Bronzekleinplastiken.

Durch die Luftangriffe auf Dresden verlor er 1945 seine Wohnung und das Atelier in der Glacisstraße mit all seinen Kunstwerken und Entwürfen.

Werke (Auswahl)
 1909: König-Albert-Denkmal in Zittau
 1910–12: überlebensgroße Sandsteinfiguren Frömmigkeit und Barmherzigkeit auf dem Rathausturm Dresden; Peter Pöppelmann, Bruno Fischer und August Schreitmüller schufen gleichzeitig Aufopferung, Stärke, Beharrlichkeit, Hoffnung, Liebe, Klugheit, Wachsamkeit, Wahrheit, Gerechtigkeit, Weisheit, Mut, Treue, Glaube und Güte
 1919: Bronzefigur Diana für Hermann Ilgen, Dresden
 1920: Marmorbüsten Mozart und Beethoven für die Ehrengalerie in der Semperoper
 1920: Bronzefigur Diana, Privatbesitz

Literatur
 Heinz Quinger: Dresden und Umgebung, Geschichte, Kunst und Kultur der sächsischen Hauptstadt.

Weblinks
 Türme der Stadt: Der Rathausturm

Einzelnachweise

Bildhauer (Dresden)
Bildhauer (Deutschland)
Deutscher
Geboren 1874
Gestorben 1946
Mann

Arthur Selbmann


Kristoffer Nyrop (født 11. januar 1858 i København, død 13. april 1931) var en dansk filolog. Han var søn af Camillus Nyrop.

Liv og gerning
Straks efter at have taget Artium 1875 begyndte han med Energi på studiet af de romanske sprog og litteraturer; især påvirkedes han under et ophold i Paris 1877—78 stærkt af disse studiers mestre i denne periode, Gaston Paris og Paul Meyer. I 1879 blev han magister, 1886 dr.phil., 1888 docent ved Københavns Universitet, 1894 professor efter Thor Sundbys død. Det kgl. danske Videnskabernes Selskab valgte ham til medlem 1899.

Han blev som universitetslærer skattet for sin dygtighed: han var praktisk pædagogisk anlagt og havde let ved at udtrykke sig mundtlig, ikke mindst i det franske Sprog. Trods en hård øjensygdom, der fra 1907 tvang ham til bestandig at benytte sekretær ved sit Arbejde, fortsatte han såvel sin universitetsvirksomhed som sit videnskabelige forfatterskab med forbavsende energi og dygtighed. På Finansloven blev der fra 1908 bevilget en årlig sum til stadig medhjælp. Han kunne under disse forhold endog fortsætte sine studierejser til udlandet og flere gange holdt han forelæsninger ved fremmede universiteter, særlig i Paris og navnlig i Frankrig har man da også i fuldt mål ydet hans videnskabelige arbejde officiel anerkendelse: Sorbonne udnævnte ham til æresdoktor, og den franske stat lod ved forskellige æresbevisninger tilkendegive sin erkendtlighed over for denne nationens trofaste ven, dens sprogs og dens litteraturs ihærdige dyrker.

Under 1. verdenskrig viste han sin glødende begejstring for Frankrig og alt, hvad der er fransk, bl.a. ved at udsende en bog: "Frankrig" (1915, 7. oplag 1916,illustreret udgivelse 1919); den blev oversat på adskillige sprog, men blev tillige genstand for en del angreb af dem, der fandt et alt for ensidigt standpunkt hos forfatteren.

Forfatterskab
I sine talrige litterære arbejder har han aflagt vidnesbyrd om sin ved jernflid erhvervede, udstrakte lærdom, på det sproglige som på det litterærhistoriske område, og om sin livlige ånd. Nogle af disse bøger er strengt videnskabelige i indhold og form, navnlig doktorafhandlingen "Adjektivernes Kønsbøjning i de romanske Sprog" (1886) og Grammaire historique de la langue française, I—IV (1899—1913); af 1. bind udkom en ny forbedret udgave i 1904, og af 2. bind kom en ny udgave i 1924; herhen hører også Nouveau recueil de farces françaises des XV et XVI siècles, udg. sammen med É. Picot (1880), og det anselige og nyttige skrift "Den oldfranske Heltedigtning" (1883; i italiensk oversættelse, ved E. Gorra, med rettelser og tilføjelser af forfatteren i 1886, prisbelønnet med Universitetets guldmedalje. Til en
mere populær Genre er at henregne "Sprogets vilde Skud" fra 1882, "Romanske Mosaiker" fra 1885, rejseskildringer fra Syden), "Nej, et Motivs Historie" fra 1891, "Kysset og dets Historie" fra 1897 (oversat til svensk, russisk og engelsk), "Ordenes Liv" fra 1901 (oversat til engelsk og tysk), og flere lignende skrifter og afhandlinger Hertil slutter sig hans virksomhed som medredaktør af "Dania" 1890—1903, idet især mange af de folkloristiske bidrag til dette tidsskrift hidrører fra hans pen.

Endelig har han udgivet en række særdeles gode, mest sproglige lærebøger, beregnede væsentlig på anvendelse ved de mere elementære universitetsstudier, såvel franske som italienske og spanske. Mindeskriftet "Gaston Paris" udgaves 1906 (i Filologisk-historisk Samfunds "Studier"). I 1907 begyndte han - med »Toves Tryllering« - udgivelsen af en række populære, mindre skrifter, "Fortids Sagn og Sange", hvoraf 6. bind er fra 1909.

Kilder

Eksterne henvisninger

Filologer fra Danmark
Professorer fra Københavns Universitet
Medlemmer af Videnskabernes Selskab
Faglitterære forfattere fra Danmark
Dansksprogede forfattere fra Danmark
Danskere i 1800-tallet
Danskere i 1900-tallet
Personer fra København
Modtagere af Københavns Universitets guldmedalje
Medlemmer af Kungliga Vitterhets Historie och Antikvitets Akademien
Æresdoktorer
Kommandører af Dannebrog
Kristoffer

Kristoffer Nyrop


Ollolai (sardinski: Ollolài) je grad i općina (comune) u pokrajini Nuoru u regiji Sardiniji, Italija. Nalazi se na nadmorskoj visini od 960 metara i ima 1 291 stanovnika. Prostire se na 27,24 km². Gustoća naseljenosti je 47 st/km².Susjedne općine su: Gavoi, Mamoiada, Olzai, Ovodda, Sarule i Teti.

Izvori

Gradovi na Sardiniji

Ollolai


27712 Coudray este un asteroid din centura principală de asteroizi.

Descriere
27712 Coudray este un asteroid din centura principală de asteroizi. A fost descoperit pe  la Tautenburg de Freimut Börngen. El prezintă o orbită caracterizată de o semiaxă mare de 2,19 ua, o excentricitate de 0,18 și o înclinație de 3,1° în raport cu ecliptica.

Vezi și
 Lista planetelor minore: 27001-28000
 Centura de asteroizi

Referințe

Obiecte astronomice descoperite în 1988
Centura de asteroizi

27712 Coudray


was a town located in Izumi District, Kagoshima Prefecture, Japan.

As of 2003, the town had an estimated population of 13,965 and the density of 196.28 persons per km². The total area was 71.15 km².

On March 13, 2006, Takaono, along with the town of Noda (also from Izumi District), was merged into the expanded city of Izumi and no longer exists as an independent municipality.

External links
 Official website of Izumi  (some content in English)

Dissolved municipalities of Kagoshima Prefecture

Takaono, Kagoshima


Rafael Alfonso Escudero López-Brea (Quintanar de la Orden, 4 de abril de 1962) é prelado espanhol da Igreja Católica Romana que serve no Peru, desde 2007, como bispo-prelado de Moyobamba.

Biografia
Após concluir seus estudos escolares em sua cidade natal, ingressou no Seminário Maior da Arquidiocese de Toledo e obteve bacharelado em teologia no Instituto Teológico Santo Idelfonso na mesma cidade.

Foi ordenado sacerdote em 9 de julho de 1989 e incardinado na Arquidiocese de Toledo. Posteriormente, ingressou na Fraternidade Sacerdotal no Coração de Cristo, associação clerical privada aprovada definitivamente em 1993.

Durante quinze anos, trabalhou como pároco na arquidiocese. Em 2004, partiu para o Peru, e trabalhou na Prelazia Territorial de Moyobamba como pároco da paróquia da catedral e vigário geral.

Em 8 de julho de 2006, o Papa Bento XVI o nomeou coadjutor do prelado territorial Moyobamba. Foi ordenado bispo em 26 de agosto de 2006, pelo cardeal Dom Antonio Cañizares Llovera. Em 21 de julho de 2007, assumiu o governo da prelazia.

Ver também

Naturais de Toledo (província)
Bispos católicos do Peru
Espanhóis expatriados

Rafael Alfonso Escudero López-Brea


En náutica, filo es la línea que indica la dirección del viento

El término filo se emplea también en las locuciones siguientes:
bracear al filo: véase bracearcaer cerca del filo del viento: presentar el buque su proa más a barlovento de resultas de una cabezada con balance a un tiempo, estando a la capa. De suerte que la vela de cruz con que se capea, se acerca mucho a coincidir con la dirección del viento.estar al filo: se dice al virar en un barco de vela por avante cuando el viento está exactamente por la proa.perder el filo el viento'': se dice, cuando intentando llevar un aparejo al filo mientras se vira en redondo, no se consigue.

Véase también
Apéndice:Términos marineros

Referencias

Terminología naval
Navegación

Filo (náutica)


أرغايوس الثاني المقدوني (باليونانية القديمة:Ἀργαῖος Βʹ ὁ Μακεδών) هو أحد ملوك مملكة مقدونيا القديمة حكم مقدونيا لمدة عامين (392 - 390 قبل الميلاد) والده باوسانياس المقدوني.

استيلاءه على العرش
قام أرغايوس الثاني وبمساعدة من الإليريين بخلع الملك أمينتاس الثالث المقدوني عن العرش واستلم الحكم عنه لمدة عامين إلا أن أمينتاس الثالث المقدوني استطاع وبمساعدة الثيساليين باستعادة مملكته.

المحاولة الثانية
بعد موت الملك المقدوني بيرديكاس الثالث المقدوني حاول أرغايوس الثاني العودة إلى الحكم وهذه المرة بمساعدة من أثينا التي زودته بجيش مؤلف من 3000 جندي مشاة (هوبليتس) مع قائدهم مانتياس إلا أن محاولته باءت بالفشل إذ تصدى له فيليبوس الثاني المقدوني مما اضطره إلى الرجوع إلى ميثوني في بييريا

مصادر
 ديودورس الصقيلي 14, 92; 16, 2 - 3.

حكام في القرن 4 ق م
ملكيون مقدونيون في القرن 4 ق م
ملوك مقدونيون

أرغايوس الثاني المقدوني


مجمع الطيران الباكستاني هو المرفق المسئول عن صيانة وتجميع وتصنيع طائرات الجيش الباكستاني. يقع المجمع في كامرا بولاية البنجاب، ويعد ثالث أكبر مصنع تجميع في العالم.

العمليات
بدأ المجمع عملياته بثلاثة مشاريع: بي-721, بي-741, بي-751، حيث الرقمين الأولين يرمزان لسنة الموافقة علي تنفيذ المشروع، أما الرقم الأخير فهو مسلسل المشاريع.

مصنع إف-6
يعرف بالمشروع بي-721، وغرضه إصلاح وتصنيع أجزاء الطائرات الصينية الموجودة في الخدمة لدي سلاح الطيران الباكستاني.

مصنع الميراج
يعرف بالمشروع بي-741، وغرضه إصلاح وتصنيع أجزاء طائرات الميراج الفرنسية الموجودة في الخدمة لدي سلاح الطيران الباكستاني: ميراج الثالثة وميراج 5. قام المصنع بعمليات صيانة لطائرات ميراج تابعة لدول أخرى أيضا. كما توسع المصنع وقام بعمليات صيانة وإصلاح لمحركات تربو ال (إف100 برات وويتني) الخاصة بطائرات إف-16 الباكستانية.

مصنع تصنيع الطائرات
يعرف بالمشروع بي-751، مخصص لتصنيع الطائرات العسكرية الثقيلة. يقوم المصنع بتصنيع الطائرة التدريبية «إم إف آي-17 مشاق» نسخة مرخصة من طائرة «ساب سفاري». كما قام بتطوير وتعديل هذه الطائة منتجا الطائرة «إم إف آي-395 سوبر مشاق». تطوير طائرة التدريب المتوسطة/المتقدمة «كاراكورام كي-8» تم بالتعاون مع شركة نانتشانغ لصناعة الطائرات من الصين. طائرة «جي إف-17 ثاندر»، وهي مشروع مشترك بين الصين وباكستان، دخلت الآن حيز الإنتاج في المصنع. كل الطائرات التي ينتجها المصنع موجودة الآن في الخدمة في سلاح الطيران الباكستاني. كما يقوم المصنع بتطوير طائرة بدون طيار للاستخدام كأهداف تدريبية.

مصنع الرادار وتكنولوجيا الطيران
عام 1983 تم إنشاء مركز صيانة الرادارات، للقيام بصيانة وإعادة تصنيع الرادارات الأرضية. عام 1989 تمت عملية توسعة إلى مصنع الرادارات وتكنولوجيا الطيران. أصبح المصنع قادر على صيانة وتجميع الرادرات الجوية بجانب الأرضية، والإلكترونيات وتكنولوجيا الطيران. وهو المصنع الوحيد الحاصل علي الأيزو 9200 في المجمع. قام المصنع بتحديث نظام الرادارات في الطائرة «تشنجدو جي-7» التابعة لسلاح الطيران الباكستاني.

المنافسة
بالقدرات الحالية للمجمع، أصبح قادرا على المنافسة المحلية والدولية والمنافسة في المشاريع التجارية أيضا.

الإنتاج
الطائرات
 جيه إف-17 ثاندر
 إم إف آي-17 مشاق
 إم إف آي-395 سوبر مشاق

أجزاء الطائرات
 كاراكورام كي-8

صيانة الطائرات
 إف-16
 ميراج الثالثة
 ميراج 5
 تشنجدو جي-7
 شنيانج إف-6
 نان شانغ إيه-5

طائرات بدون طيار
 أبابيل
 باز

مراجع

العلاقات الصينية الباكستانية
أبحاث عسكرية في باكستان
تأسيسات سنة 1971 في باكستان
شركات تصنيع باكستانية
شركات دفاعية في باكستان
شركات صناعة طائرات
متنزهات صناعية في باكستان
مرافق بحثية عسكرية باكستان
مقاطعة أتوك
وكالات وأقسام اتحادية باكستانية

مجمع الطيران الباكستاني


Ayşe Saffet Rıza Alpar (17 Nisan 1903 - 1 Şubat 1981), Karadeniz Teknik Üniversitesi rektörlüğü görevinde bulunarak, Türkiye'nin ilk kadın rektörü oldu.

Balkan Savaşı'nda İşkodra kalesini savunurken 30-31 Ocak 1913'te şehit olan Müşir Hasan Rıza Paşa'nın kızıdır. İlk Türk kadın kimyacılarındandır. Saffet Rıza Alpar, İstanbul Üniversitesi Fen Fakültesi Kimya Enstitüsünden mezun oldu. 1933'te üniversite reformunda İstanbul Üniversitesi Fen Fakültesi Kimya Enstitüsü'nde Ord. Prof. Herzog'un Sınaî Kimya ders muavini oldu. Aynı yerde doçent ve profesör oldu. Kimya fakültesi dekanlığı görevinde bulundu. Karadeniz Teknik Üniversitesi Temel Bilimler Fakültesi'nde Sınaî Kimya profesörü olarak ders verdi. Üniversitenin 1972-1974 yılları arasında rektörlüğünü yaptı.

1977 Türkiye genel seçimlerinde MHP İstanbul'dan 4. sırada milletvekili adayı oldu. 1981 yılında öldü ve Kozlu Mezarlığı'nda defnedildi.

Eserleri
 Su ve Teknologisi (İçme, Kullanma Sanayi ve Çirkef Suları),  İstanbul,  1944, 176 s.
 Kimyasal Teknoloji - Yakıtlar, Anorganik ve Organik Kimya Sanayii, Şirketi Mürettibiye  Matbaası, İstanbul 1946,  VIII + 546 s.
 Sınaî Kimya Analiz Metodları, İstanbul: İstanbul Üniversitesi Yayınları No 302, 1946    XXII, 482, 6 s.
 Su ve Teknolojisi İçme Sanayii, 1951, 196 s.
 Organik Sınaî Kimya, İstanbul Üniversitesi Kimya (2. Bask) Fakültesi Yayınları,  Şirketi Mürettibiye Basımevi 1983, 464 s.
 Abaacus 04:21, 3 Mart 2014 (UTC) Abaacus

Kaynakça

1903 doğumlular
1981 yılında ölenler
İstanbul Üniversitesi Fen Fakültesinde öğrenim görenler
Türk profesörler
Karadeniz Teknik Üniversitesi Fen Edebiyat Fakültesi dekanları
Karadeniz Teknik Üniversitesi rektörleri
İstanbul Üniversitesi öğretim üyeleri
Türk kadın profesörler
Milliyetçi Hareket Partisi mensubu siyasetçiler
Türkiye'de üniversitelere göre rektörler
Türk kimyagerler
Türk kadın akademisyenler
Hamburg Üniversitesinde öğrenim görenler

Ayşe Saffet Alpar


كرامة زوجتي هو فيلم مصري تم إنتاجه عام 1967، عن قصة إحسان عبد القدوس ومن إخراج فطين عبد الوهاب، بطولة صلاح ذو الفقار وشادية .

قصة الفيلم
يمضى محمود مختار كل وقته في العلاقات العاطفية دون أن يفكر في الزواج ويحاول التقرب من نادية زميلته في النادى لمدة خمس سنوات ولكنها تصده مما يضطره إلى طلب الزواج منها وتشترط عليه قبل الموافقة بأنه إذا خانها فستخونه بالمثل. يوافق محمود ويتزوجها، وتنجح في تحويله إلى إنسان آخر ناجح في حياته العملية، وبعد شهور من الزواج تشك الزوجة في تصرفات زوجها ثم تكتشف خيانته مع إحدى عميلاته، وتبدأ في التصرف معه بطريقة توحى بأنها تخونه مما يجعله يعيش في عذاب وألم وعندما يزيد الشك يطلقها ويترك القاهرة لينسى آلامه وعندما يعود إلى مكتبه يفاجأ بوكيل المكتب، وهو يقدم له ملفًا فيرى المستندات التي تؤكد أن زوجته لم تخنه ويعرف أن كل ما حدث كان مجرد تمثيل، يقرر العودة إلى زوجته بعد أن تكون قد لقنته درسًا لا ينساه

طاقم التمثيل

بطولة
 صلاح ذو الفقار بدور محمود مختار
 شادية بدور نادية
 شريفة ماهر بدور سلوى
 رجاء الجداوي بدور سهير
 جورج سيدهم بدور صميدة عبد الصمد - الجرسون
 عادل إمام بدور  أمين
 محمود رشاد بدور خال نادية
 ثريا حلمي بدور صديقة صميدة
 زينات علوي بدور فتكات
 كاميليا بدور ميرفت

بالاشتراك مع
 فتحية طاهر
 جاذبية فؤاد
 سيد عبد الله
 طوسون معتمد

فريق العمل
 الإخراج: فطين عبد الوهاب
 التأليف:
 إحسان عبد القدوس (قصة)
 محمد مصطفى سامي (سيناريو وحوار)
 محمد أبو يوسف (حوار)
 إنتاج: رمسيس نجيب

روابط خارجية

مراجع

أفلام شادية
أفلام صلاح ذو الفقار
أفلام عادل إمام
أفلام مصرية إنتاج 1967
أفلام فطين عبد الوهاب
أفلام رجاء الجداوي
أفلام جورج سيدهم

كرامة زوجتي (فيلم)


Michael López-Alegría (born Miguel Eladio López Alegría on May 30, 1958) is an astronaut, test pilot and commercial astronaut with dual nationality, American and Spanish; a veteran of three Space Shuttle missions and one International Space Station mission. He is known for having performed ten spacewalks so far in his career, presently holding the second longest all-time EVA duration record (first among NASA astronauts) and having the fifth-longest spaceflight of any American at the length of 215 days; this time was spent on board the ISS from September 18, 2006, to April 21, 2007. López-Alegría commanded Axiom-1, the first ever all-private team of commercial astronaut mission to the International Space Station, which launched on April 8, 2022, and spent just over 17 days in Earth's orbit.

Background
Son of a Spanish father and an American mother, López-Alegría was born in Madrid, Spain and raised in Mission Viejo, California. After graduating from Mission Viejo High School, López-Alegría joined the United States Navy, where he earned a Bachelor of Science degree in Systems Engineering in 1980 from the United States Naval Academy, and a Master of Science degree in Aeronautical Engineering in 1988 from the U.S. Naval Postgraduate School. Designated a Naval Aviator in 1981, his aviation experience in the Navy was as an instructor pilot in Training Squadron 2 (VT-2) at Naval Air Station Whiting Field near Pensacola, Florida, at Fleet Air Reconnaissance Squadron 2 (VQ-2) in Rota, Spain, and the Naval Air Test Center at NAS Patuxent River, Maryland. He was the first EP-3E pilot to be selected for U.S. Naval Test Pilot School. He is a graduate of Harvard Kennedy School's Program for Senior Executives in National and International Security. He is fluent in English, Spanish, French, and Russian.

His son Nicolas starred alongside López-Alegría in 2006 in Mira La Luna (directed by Eduard Bosch). A second documentary, directed by Manuel Huerga, Son And Moon, was released in Spanish theaters in 2009 featuring astronauts Mikhail Tyurin, Sunita Williams, and him.

Mission record

López-Alegría's first space mission was STS-73 in 1995; for several years afterwards he led NASA's International Space Station (ISS) Crew Operations office before returning to space aboard STS-92 in 2000 and STS-113 in 2002. During flight STS-92, he tested the SAFER jet backpack with fellow astronaut Jeff Wisoff, flying up to 50 feet from the spacecraft.

López-Alegría served as an aquanaut on the first NEEMO (NASA Extreme Environment Mission Operations) crew aboard the Aquarius underwater laboratory in October 2001.

On September 20, 2006, López-Alegría docked with the ISS as commander of Expedition 14, having taken off from Baikonur, Kazakhstan on September 18, onboard Soyuz TMA-9. On Expedition 14, he performed five spacewalks. On April 21, 2007, he undocked from the ISS and returned to Earth.

López-Alegría holds the all-time American record for number of EVAs (10) and total EVA duration (67 hours and 40 minutes). The previous record holder, Jerry L. Ross had a total of 9 EVAs with a duration of 58 hours and 18 minutes. López-Alegría is the second most experienced spacewalker overall, behind Russia's Anatoly Solovyev. On April 2, 2007, López-Alegría set the record for the longest space mission of any American astronaut. When he landed on April 21, his time in space on a single mission was 215 days. (The longest space mission on record is that of Valeriy Polyakov, who spent 437 days aboard the Russian space station Mir in 1994 and 1995.)

List of EVAs

 2000-10-16  7:07 hours  STS-92,  EVA 2
 2000-10-18  6:56 hours  STS-92,  EVA 4
 2002-11-26  6:45 hours  STS-113, EVA 1
 2002-11-28  6:10 hours  STS-113, EVA 2
 2002-11-30  7:00 hours  STS-113, EVA 3
 2006-11-22  7:39 hours  ISS Expedition 14, EVA 1
 2007-01-31  7:55 hours  ISS Expedition 14, EVA 2
 2007-02-04  7:11 hours  ISS Expedition 14, EVA 3
 2007-02-07  6:39 hours  ISS Expedition 14, EVA 4
 2007-02-22  6:18 hours  ISS Expedition 14, EVA 5

At the end of his ISS mission, he commanded the longest flight by a Soyuz spacecraft, making Expedition 14 the longest expedition thus far. López-Alegría broke the record for longest spaceflight by an American astronaut.

Post-NASA career
López-Alegría retired from NASA on March 12, 2012 and served as the President of the Commercial Spaceflight Federation through the end of 2014.
López-Alegría is an independent consultant to traditional and commercial space companies, serves on several advisory boards and committees to public and private organizations, and is engaged in public speaking domestically and internationally. He is based in Washington, DC.

In 2017 López-Alegría joined Axiom Space as director of Business Development. He flew in space again in 2022 as commander of Axiom Mission 1, the first Axiom Space Crew Dragon mission to the International Space Station.

López-Alegría has been selected as the commander of Axiom Mission 3, scheduled to fly in 2024.

Awards and decorations

See also

References

External links
 Spacefacts biography of Michael López-Alegría

1958 births
Living people
Aquanauts
United States Navy astronauts
Commanders of the International Space Station
Crew members of the International Space Station
Spanish emigrants to the United States
Hispanic and Latino American scientists
People from Madrid
People from Mission Viejo, California
United States Naval Academy alumni
Naval Postgraduate School alumni
United States Naval Test Pilot School alumni
Harvard Kennedy School alumni
United States Navy officers
United States Naval Aviators
American test pilots
people with multiple nationality
Space Shuttle program astronauts
Axiom Space
Spacewalkers
United States Astronaut Hall of Fame inductees
Military personnel from California
Spanish astronauts
Mission Viejo High School alumni
Hispanic and Latino American aviators

Michael López-Alegría


Coma Berenices ya da Berenices'in Saçı takımyıldızı, modern 88 takımyıldızdan biridir.

Coma Berenices (takımyıldız)


Saab 21 er et kampfly designet og bygget af Svenska Aeroplan AB til det svenske Flygvapnet, der benyttede flyet i perioden 1945-1953. Flyet fandtes i to versioner J 21, der var et jagerfly og A 21, der var en jagerbomber.

Udvikling og design

Under den spændte situation i Europa i slutningen af 1930'erne og ved 2. verdenskrigs udbrud ønskede Sverige at fastholde sin neutralitet ved at opretholde et stærkt militær. Sverige havde dog vanskeligt ved at købe våben i udlandet på grund af udlandets restriktioner mod våbeneksport til bl.a. Sverige. Sverige var derfor afhængig af selv at kunne udvikle og fremstille egne moderne våben, herunder moderne kampfly.

Det oprindelige designstudie blev påbegyndt i 1939 og var baseret på brugen af den britiske Bristol Taurus stjernemotor. Flyets design var utraditionelt med et centralt skrog og to halebomme med hver sin halefinne og var det første svenske militærfly med næsehjul. Motoren var placeret bagerst i det centrale skrog, hvor den drev en propel, der skubbede flyet. Projektet lå i dvale indtil 1940, hvor der blev indgået en aftale med den svenske stat og SAAB om udvikling af et nyt svensk jagerfly, der skulle kunne forsvare svensk luftrum. I løbet af 1941 blev projektet færdiggjort. Det endelige design af Saab 21 blev baseret på en licensbygget udgave af den nyudviklede tyske motor Daimler-Benz DB 605, der også blev anvendt i bl.a. Messerschmitts Bf 109 og Bf 110.

Designet med propellen placeret bag på det centrale skrog havde den fordel, at det gav piloterne frit udsyn, ligesom det var muligt at placere kraftig bevæbning i flyets næse. Omvendt var det risikabelt for piloterne at forlade flyet under en nødsituation, da de risikerede at blive ramt af propellen. For at sikre piloterne arbejdede Saab med løsninger, hvor propellen kunne skydes væk fra flyet, men endte i stedet med en løsning med et katapultsæde udviklet af Bofors specielt til Saab 21. Løsningen med katapultsædet blev ikke patenteret, hvilket senere skabte kontrovers med englænderen Martin Baker, der efterfølgende patenterede et katapultsæde. Motorens placering bagerst i det centrale skrog gjorde det nødvendigt at udvikle nye løsninger til køling. Det endelige design, der også benyttede et næsehjul, blev testet i 1943.

Flygvapnet bestilte tre prototyper (J 21A-1, J 21A-2 og J 21A-3) af det nye fly, der fik sin jomfruflyvning den 30. juli 1943 af Saabs testpilot Claes Smith. Flyvningen skete efter grundige tests og forberedelser, men startbanen hos SAAB var lidt for kort, og flyet lettede først ved banens kant, hvilket forårsagede skader på understellet, hvilket medførte, at hovedhjulene brød sammen ved den efterfølgende landing.

Flygvapnet bestilte i alt 298 fly i tre udgaver, der blev leveret i årene 1945-1949.

Efter afslutningen af 2. Verdenskrig fik Sverige adgang til at købe udenlandske jetmotorer, og flyet blev herefter redesignet med en de Havilland Goblin turbojet-motor, og herefter produceret under navnet Saab 21R. R'et står for rea(ktions)motor (tidligere svensk betegnelse for jetmotor).

J 21
J 21 ("J"et står for jaktflygplan; ) var et jagerfly baseret på prototyperne J 21A-1 og J 21A-2. Det første serieproducerede J 21 fløj den 20. december 1944.

Under flyet kunne monteres op til otte 8 mm maskingeværer, hvorved det totale antal våben i flyet kom op på 13.

Det var oprindeligt planen at lade otte svenske flyflotiller anvende flyet, men flyet fungerede ikke godt i rollen som jagerfly, og produktionen af J 21 blev derfor stoppet. Saab fortsatte imidlertid med at fremstille flyet i versionen som jagerbomber, A 21, hvor den begrænsede stigeevne og træge manøvrering var mindre væsentlig.

A 21

A 21 ("A"et står for attackflygplan; ) var en jagerbomber baseret på prototypen J 21A-3. Efter at J 21 var taget i tjeneste ved Svea flygflottilj (F 8) til prøvning, indså Flygvapnet, at flyets udformning og andre karakteristika gjorde det anvendeligt også som bombefly. Der blev derfor bestilt 120 eksemplarer af versionen B 21 som bombefly til Västgöta flygflottilj (F 6) og Skaraborgs flygflottilj (F 7). Inden leveringen ændrede Flygvapnet imidlertid holdning og besluttede i stedet at anvende de bestilte fly som jagerbombere. Dette var ikke blot et spørgsmål om benævnelse af flyet, men vedrørte også hvilken taktik, der skulle benyttes for flyet, idet det svenske forsvar havde fået raketter og missiler i våbenarsenalet. Flyet blev benævnt som Saab 21 A-3, J 21 A-3, B 21 A-3 og A 21 A-3.

Forskellen mellem J 21 og A 21 bestod alene i de forskellige bevæbningsalternativer og lastpylonerne under vingerne. Bombelasten kunne erstattes af to 18 cm raketter eller otte 14,5 cm raketter eller to napalmbomber. Første leverance af A 21 fandt sted 1947 til Skaraborgs flygflottilj, der kom til at anvende flyet i begrænset omfang. A 21 blev i 1948 hovedtypen ved Västgöta flygflottilj, som i en periode var den eneste flotille, der anvendte A 21.

Versioner
Der blev i alt fremstillet 302 eksemplarer af Saab 21 i de forskellige varianter.
 J 21A-1: Udstyret med en 20 mm maskinkanon, Hispano, og to 13,2 mm maskingeværer. 59 eksemplarer fremstillet.
 J 21A-1: Udstyret med en 20 mm maskinkanon, Bofors, og fire 13,2 mm maskingeværer. 124 eksemplarer fremstillet.
 J 21A-3: Samme bevæbning som J 21 A-2, samt forsynet med lastpyloner for bomber og raketter. Også kaldet B 21A-3 eller A 21A. 119 eksemplarer fremstillet.

Den propeldrevne Saab 21 blev senere videreudviklet til en model drevet af en jetmotor og fik betegnelsen Saab 21R.

Galleri

Se også
Videreudviklinger:
 Saab 21R
Tilsvarende fly:
 Kyushu J7W
 Ambrosini SS.4
 Mansyū Ki-98
 Vultee XP-54 Swoose Goose
 Curtiss XP-55 Ascender
 XP-56 Black Bullet

Noter

Litteratur

 Billing, Peter. "A Fork-Tailed Swede." Air Enthusiast Twenty-two, August–November 1983. Bromley, Kent, UK: Pilot Press, 1983.
 Erichs, Rolph, Kai Hammerich, Gudmund Rapp et al. The Saab-Scania Story. Stockholm: Streiffert & Co., 1988. .
 This Happens in the Swedish Air Force (brochure). Stockholm: Information Department of the Air Staff, Flygstabens informationsavdelning, Swedish Air Force, 1983.
 Widfeldt, Bo. The Saab 21 A & R (Aircraft in Profile number 138). Leatherhead, Surrey, UK: Profile Publications, 1966.
 Wilson, Stewart. Combat Aircraft since 1945. Fyshwick, AU: Aerospace Publications, 2000. .

Eksterne henvisninger

 "Sweden, 1936-1996" . ejection-history.org
 Saab 21  på x-plane.org
 video af en Saab 21 og 21R under start og i flyvning samt afprøvning af katapultsædet.

Militærfly fra Sverige
21
Kampfly
Fly fra 2. verdenskrig
1-motors propelfly

Saab 21


The Missing Link sedmi je studijski album njemačkog heavy metal-sastava Rage. Diskografska kuća Noise Records objavila ga je 1. kolovoza 1993. Posljednji je album sastava na kojem je svirao Manni Schmidt. Godine 2002. album je ponovno objavljen s pjesmama s EP-a Refuge.

Popis pjesama

Zasluge

 Rage

 Peter "Peavy" Wagner – vokali, bas-gitara, koncept naslovnice
 Manni Schmidt – gitara
 Chris Efthimiadis – bubnjevi

 Dodatni glazbenici

 Detlef Goy – kontrabas
 Benjamin Rinnert – violina

 Ostalo osoblje

 Sven Conquest – produkcija, inženjer zvuka, miks
 Bernd Steinwedel – mastering
 Karl-U. Walterbach – produkcija
 Peter Vahlefeld – dizajn, grafiki
 Duncan Storr – naslovnica albuma
 Martin Becker – fotografije
 Marisa Jacobi – dizajn, grafiki

Izvori

Albumi sastava Rage
Albumi iz 1993.

The Missing Link


Verkehrsgemeinschaft: CFL
|}
Die Bahnstrecke Bettembourg–Volmerange-les-Mines ist eine eingleisige elektrifizierte Stichbahn in Luxemburg und Frankreich.

Geschichte

Als in den 1880er Jahren ein Hüttenwerk in Düdelingen (Dudelange) geplant wurde, benötigte es einen entsprechenden Eisenbahnanschluss. Zwar führte schon die 1859 eröffnete Bahnstrecke Metz–Luxemburg über das Gebiet von Düdelingen, der nächste Bahnhof war aber in Bettemburg (Bettembourg). In Betrieb genommen wurde die Bahnstrecke Bettemburg–Düdelingen am 20. Dezember 1883. Das Anschlussgleis von Düdelingen zur Ladestelle Reiteschkopp folgte 1884, seit 1888 ist dieses Gleis ein Teil der Bahnstrecke. Als 1886 das Hüttenwerk Düdelingen in Betrieb ging, erhöhte sich das Transportaufkommen gewaltig. Da alle Brennstofflieferungen und ein großer Teil des Erzes mit der Bahn angeliefert wurde, gehörte die Strecke zu den profitabelsten Bahnstrecken in Luxemburg.

1959/60 wurde die Strecke elektrifiziert, der elektrische Betrieb konnte am 9. Juli 1960 aufgenommen werden.

Als 1984 das Stahlwerk geschlossen wurde, verblieb nur ein Walzwerk in Düdelingen. Der Güterverkehr sank daher rapide, die kurze Strecke zur Ladestelle Reiteschkopp wurde im Anschluss daran 1988 stillgelegt.

In den 1990er Jahren entstanden neue Haltepunkte in Dudelange-Burange und Dudelange-Centre.

Die Verlängerung der Strecke bis ins benachbarte Volmerange-les-Mines (Wollmeringen) in Frankreich wurde 2001 beschlossen, die Fortsetzung wurde im Dezember 2003 eröffnet.

Als 2005 auch das verbliebene Walzwerk schloss, wurde der Güterverkehr daraufhin 2006 eingestellt, seitdem dient die Strecke nur noch dem Personenverkehr.

Literatur
 Ed Federmeyer: Eisenbahnen in Luxemburg – Band 1, Wolfgang Herdam Fotoverlag, Gernrode/Harz 2007

Weblinks

 www.rail.lu Strecke Bettemburg–Düdelingen-Werk–Wollmeringen

Einzelnachweise

Bahnstrecke in Luxemburg
Bahnstrecke in Lothringen
Internationale Bahnstrecke
Bahnstrecke in Grand Est


En klemmedag er en hverdag, som ligger mellem en helligdag og en anden arbejdsfri dag.

Typiske klemmedage er fredagen efter Kristi himmelfartsdag samt hverdage mellem jul og nytår.

Dage

Klemmedag


Joêl Delplanque, né le  à Dechy, est un dirigeant français de handball.

Biographie
Joël Delplanque naît le  à Dechy, d'une famille de mineurs. Il poursuit ses études à l'École normale de Douai et devient instituteur et professeur de sport.

Joël Delplanque est conseiller technique du directeur des sports au ministère de la Jeunesse et des Sports, Jacques Périllat, de 1976 à 1980, puis directeur administratif de la Fédération française de handball (FFHB) de 1980 à 1982. Il est ensuite directeur de cabinet de Nelson Paillou, le président du Comité national olympique et sportif français, du 30 mars 1982 à février 1992. Chef de mission de la délégation française aux Jeux olympiques d'hiver de 1992 à Albertville, il se voit chargé d'assurer les relations entre le groupe GMF et les fédérations sportives en mars 1992. Il est ensuite directeur du CREPS de Montpellier de 1995 à 1997.

Il est conseiller technique auprès de la ministre de la Jeunesse et des Sports Marie-George Buffet de 1997 à 1999, directeur des Sports de 1999 à 2002 et inspecteur général de la Jeunesse et des Sports de 2002 à 2008.

Dans la sphère du handball, il est conseiller du président de la FFHB André Amiel de 2004 à 2007, président du jury d'appel de la FFHB de 2007 à 2008 avant d'être élu président de la FFHB en 2008. Décrit comme un travailleur  en raison de sa discrétion, il est à la tête jusqu'en 2020 d'une Fédération connaissant son apogée avec neuf titres internationaux hommes et femmes confondus.

Il est également élu en juin 2009 secrétaire général de la Fédération internationale de handball, poste qu'il occupe jusqu'en 2013 : il est aussi membre du comité exécutif de l'IHF à partir de 2009 et premier vice-président de l'IHF depuis novembre 2017.

Distinctions
  (2012)

Notes et références

Liens externes

Dirigeant français de handball
Président de la fédération française de handball
Chevalier de la Légion d'honneur décoré en 2012
Naissance en juin 1946
Naissance dans le département du Nord

Joël Delplanque


Moara lui Călifar este un film românesc din 1984 regizat de Șerban Marinescu. Rolurile principale au fost interpretate de actorii Remus Mărgineanu, Elena Albu și Vasile Nițulescu. Scenariul este scris de Valeriu Drăgușanu, Radu Aneste Petrescu și Petru Maier Bianu și se bazează pe nuvela omonimă a lui Gala Galaction.

Rezumat

Distribuție
Distribuția filmului este alcătuită din:

 Remus Mărgineanu — Stoicea, un țăran sărac care vrea să se îmbogățească
 Elena Albu — Tecla, fiica boierului Rovin
 Vasile Nițulescu — Teofil, drumețul care povestește legenda morii lui Călifar
 Dan Condurache — Nicodim, argatul boierului Rovin
 Andrei Finți — conul Rovin, boier invalid, proprietarul unei mari moșii
 Ion Marinescu — Iorgu, negustor angrosist de cereale
 Jean Lorin Florescu — Kirim, moșierul vecin al lui Rovin
 Petre Tanasievici — Burtan, vechiul boierului Rovin
 Nicolae Praida — Gorgan, drumețul care nu crede în legenda morii lui Călifar
 George Negoescu — moșierul vecin al lui Rovin care-și vinde caii pentru plata unei datorii
 Theodor Danetti — industriașul ruinat care-și vinde fabrica
 Tudorel Filimon — proprietarul atelierului de croitorie
 Radu Pașalega
 Radu Coriolan
 Cristian Tuță
 George Giban
 Coleta Nițulescu
 Camelia Mocan
 Adriana Mocan

Primire
Filmul a fost vizionat de 1.437.297 de spectatori în cinematografele din România, după cum atestă o situație a numărului de spectatori înregistrat de filmele românești de la data premierei și până la data de 31 decembrie 2014 alcătuită de Centrul Național al Cinematografiei.

Note

Legături externe

Vezi și
 1984 în film
 Listă de filme fantastice românești

Filme din 1984
Filme regizate de Șerban Marinescu
Filme românești
Filme în limba română
Filme dramatice românești
Filme fantastice românești
Filme Româniafilm

Moara lui Călifar (film)


Halvetije su derviši halvetijskog tarikata (derviškog reda) koji je osnovao Omera el-Halveti.

Omera el-Halveti je bio iz mjesta Lahidžan. Zaslužan je za institualiziranje reda i sintezu njegovog učenja. Ovaj tarikat je jedan od najrasprostaranjenijih tarikata, te tarikat koji broji najviše ogranaka i podogranaka od svih ostalih derviških redova. Na učenje reda je dobrano uticao i Jahja eš-Širvani.

Karakteristike
Posebna odlika ovog reda je stavljanje akcenta na individualnom asketizmu (zuhd), melamijskoj tradiciji i povlačenju u osamu (halvet). Pod melamijskom tradicijom ili melametu se podrazumijava skrivanje pripadništva derviškom tarikatu. Osoba koja praktikuje melamet skriva od drugih ljudi svoja duhovna stanja i osobine. Prema njihovom stavu robovanje Bogu ima dva osnovna principa: potrebitost za istinom i slijeđenje poslanika Muhammeda.

Izvori

Vanjske povezice
 Home page of the Halveti-Ramazani order
 IRSHAD Wisdom of a Sufi Master By Sheikh Muzaffer Ozak Al-Jerrahi

Derviški redovi

Halvetije


Pokrajina Raqqa ( / ALA-LC: Muḥāfaẓat ar-Raqqah) je jedna od 14 sirijskih pokrajina. Nalazi se na sjeveru zemlje i pokriva površinu od 19.616 km². Pokrajina je na popisu 2010 imala 921.000 stanovnika. Glavni grad pokrajine je Raqqa.

Okruzi

Pokrajina je podijeljena u 3 okruga i 10 nahija (u zagradama je broj nahija u okrugu):
 Okrug Tell Abyad (3)
 Nahija Tell Abyad
 Nahija Suluk
 Nahija Ayn Issa
 Okrug Al-Thawrah (3)
 Nahija Al-Thawrah
 Nahija Al-Mansurah
 Nahija Al-Jarniyah
 Okrug Raqqa (4)
 Nahija Raqqa
 Nahija Al-Sabkhah
 Nahija Al-Karamah
 Nahija Maadan

Izvori

Vanjske poveznice

  The First Complete website for Raqqa news and services

Raqqa

Raqqa (pokrajina)


Julien Bilodeau, né à Québec en 1974, est un compositeur québécois de musique classique et d'opéra.

Après une formation au Québec et en Europe, Julien Bilodeau reçoit des commandes d'ensembles symphoniques canadiens tel que l'Orchestre symphonique de Montréal et l'Orchestre métropolitain du Grand Montréal, l'Orchestre Symphonique de Toronto, l'Orchestre I Musici de Montréal, l'Opéra de Montréal et la Canadian Opera Company. Depuis Another Brick in the Wall: The Opera (2017), son adaptation opératique de l'œuvre The Wall  de Pink Floyd, Julien Bilodeau se consacre davantage au genre de l'opéra.

Débuts en musique et Formation
En 1995, Julien Bilodeau fait paraître l'album intitulé Hymnemonde, son premier projet musical à titre d'interprète et compositeur, alors qu'il est membre du groupe de rock progressif Pangée.

En 1999, Julien Bilodeau entreprend ses premières études en composition au Conservatoire de musique de Montréal où il se voit décerner deux premiers prix avec grandes distinctions en composition instrumentale et en analyse musicale. Il poursuit sa formation en Europe, pendant quatre années vers Paris à l'Institut de recherche et coordination acoustique/musique (IRCAM) et au Centre de création musicale Iannis Xenakis (CCMIX), puis au stage annuel de l'Ensemble Modern Akademie et de la Hochschule für Musik und Darstellende Kunst à Francfort en Allemagne.

Création musicale

Conception
Sa conception musicale se base principalement sur la tradition classique occidentale de Bach à Britten. Ses influences contemporaines couvrent un vaste éventail allant de Pascal Dusapin à Fausto Romitelli en passant par Philipp Glass ou encore Thomas Adès. Son catalogue témoigne d'un intérêt marqué pour l'orchestre symphonique et l'opéra.

L'hybridation ou la rencontre entre les univers esthétiques classique et rock fait aussi partie de sa démarche dans une œuvre telle que Another brick in the Wall: The Opera ou encore À coups.

Œuvres instrumentales
En 2004, le compositeur participe à la biennale Forum 2004 du Nouvel Ensemble Moderne .Il fait partie des sept compositeurs qui créent une œuvre présentée lors du  Forum international des jeunes compositeurs sous la direction de Lorraine Vaillancourt.

Le répertoire symphonique des  est une influence que l'on retrouve dans ses œuvres telles Qu'un cri élève nos chants et son Ouverture lente. Créée en 2011, Qu'un cri élève nos chants! est une commande de l'orchestre symphonique de Montréal avec l'aide du Conseil des Arts et des Lettres du Québec. Elle est jouée lors de l'inauguration de la nouvelle salle de concert de l'Orchestre symphonique de Montréal, le 7 septembre 2011, sous la direction du chef d'orchestre Kent Nagano.

Au printemps 2012, il compose son Concerto du Printemps, pour piano solo et orchestre, à l'intention du pianiste Matthieu Fortin, joué par l'Orchestre de la Francophonie et sous la direction de Jean-Philippe Tremblay.

Ses œuvres sont jouées par des ensembles tels que l'Orchestre Symphonique de Montréal, l'Ensemble Modern, l'ensemble ltinéraire, l'Orchestre des Amériques de New York, l'Orchestre Métropolitain du Grand Montréal et le Nouvel Ensemble Moderne. Depuis 2010, il a collaboré avec les chefs d'orchestre Kent Nagano, Yannick Nézet-Séguin, Lorraine Vaillancourt, Jean-Marie Zeitouni, Alain Trudel et Xian Zhang, . Grâce à ses expériences et opportunités, Julien Bilodeau s'inscrit de plus en plus dans le paysage musical contemporain québécois et canadien.

Opéras
Le 11 mars 2017, son premier opéra, Another brick in the Wall, mis en scène par Dominic Champagne voit le jour à l'Opéra de Montréal, dans le contexte du  anniversaire de fondation de Montréal. L'œuvre de deux heures ayant nécessité un investissement de  remplit la salle Wilfrid-Pelletier à chacune des dix représentations. À ce jour, Another brick in the Wall est le succès le plus notable de Julien Bilodeau. Comme le mentionne le musicologue Danick Trottier dans un article consacré à l'analyse de l'opéra:  « La nouvelle œuvre de Bilodeau repose sur la trame narrative de l'album double de Pink Floyd en reprenant les 26 chansons tout en apportant des modifications importantes aux niveaux musical et dramatique, transformant ainsi l'œuvre d'origine en opéra » (p. 138). Roger Water, chanteur-compositeur de Pink Floyd, a également collaboré à la création. Plusieurs éléments scénographiques rappellent le film The Wall d'Alan Parker paru en 1982.

L'opéra La beauté de monde, est une commande de l'opéra de Montréal pour l'automne 2022 et La Reine-Garçon, est une commande du Canadian Opera Company et de l'Opéra de Montréal, à l'horaire de la programmation de l'année 2024.

Prix et distinctions

En 2006, Julien Bilodeau obtient le prix Robert Flemming, offert par le conseil des arts du Canada. Ce prix est remis chaque année : « à un jeune compositeur canadien doté d'un talent exceptionnel afin de favoriser le développement de sa carrière. Ce prix représente l'un des seuls offerts aux compositeurs canadiens ».

Le 4 février 2018, le Conseil des arts et des lettres du Québec (CALQ) décerne les Prix Opus du compositeur de l'année et de l'événement musical de l'année à Julien Bilodeau pour son opéra Another Brick in the Wall.

Le 27 septembre 2022, la Société professionnelle des Auteurs et des Compositeurs du Québec (SPACQ) décerne le prix Richard-Grégoire à Julien Bilodeau pour sa contribution à l'opéra québécois.

Notes et références

Liens externes

Compositeur québécois
Compositeur canadien de musique classique de la période moderne
Naissance à Québec
Compositeur canadien d'opéra

Julien Bilodeau (compositeur)


Shankarrao Bhavrao Chavan (14 July 1920 – 26 February 2004) was an Indian politician who served as the Chief Minister of Maharashtra twice from 1975 until 1977 and from 13 March 1986 until 26 June 1988. He was the Finance Minister of India from 1988 to 1989 in Rajiv Gandhi ministry. He also served as the Home Minister of India twice, from 31 December 1984 to 12 March 1986 in the Rajiv Gandhi cabinet, and from 21 June 1991 to 16 May 1996 in the P. V. Narasimha Rao cabinet.

Early life and family
Chavan completed his Bachelor of Arts from Madras University and LL.B. from Osmania University. He started his career as an advocate. He initiated the Student's Movement and gave up practice of law during the 'Quit Court' Movement in the former Hyderabad State.

He was elected to Bombay State Assembly from Dharmabad in 1957 and to Maharashtra Vidhan Sabha from Dharmabad during the 1962 election and from Bhokar during 1967, 1972 and 1978 elections.

His son Ashok Chavan served  as chief minister of Maharashtra. His daughter-in-law and Ashok Chavan's wife, Ameeta Ashokrao Chavan represented Bhokar in Maharashtra Vidhan sabha.

Political career

Membership in legislative and parliament bodies
 Bombay State Legislative Council, 1956
 Maharashtra Legislative Assembly, 1960–80
 Lok Sabha, 1980–84 and 1985–86
 Maharashtra Legislative Council, 8 July 1986 – 21 October 1988
 Rajya Sabha from Maharshtra 28 October 1988 – 2 April 1990, April 1990 – April 1996 and April 1996 – April 2002
 Committee on Rules, Rajya Sabha, 1992–96

Leadership in Rajya Sabha
 Congress(I) Party in Rajya Sabha 2 July 1991 – 15 May 1996
 Leader of the House in Rajya Sabha from 2 July 1991 to 15 May 1996 elected to the Rajya Sabha in October 1988, re-elected in April 1990 and again in April 1996

Chief Minister
Shankarrao served as chief Minister of Maharashtra on two occasions.

21 February 1975 – 16 May 1977: This coincided with The Emergency declared by prime Minister, Indira Gandhi. Sanjay Gandhi, the son of the prime minister became the power behind the throne and Chavan had to meet Sanjay first to get an appointment with the prime minister
12 March 1986 – 26 June 1988

Union Cabinet Minister, Government of India
 Culture and Social Welfare & Education (HRD), 17 October 1980 – 8 August 1981
 Deputy Chairman, Planning Commission, 8 August 1981 to 18 July 1984
 Defence, 2 August 1984 to December 30, 1984
 Home, 31 December 1984 – 12 March 1986
 Finance 25 June 1988 – 2 December 1989
 Home, 21 June 1991 to 16 May 1996

Positions

Chancellor
 Tilak Maharashtra University, Pune (Deemed University)

President

The Bharat Scouts and Guides, New Delhi (April 1983 to November 1998)
 Maratha Mitra Mandal, New Delhi

Chairman
 Indian Institute of Public Administration (IIPA), New Delhi(1981-2004)
 Shri Sharda Bhavan Education Society, Nanded
 Committee on Human Resource Development, Parliament of India
 Ethics Committee, Rajya Sabha

Member
 Business Advisory Committee, Rajya Sabha
 General Purposes Committee, Rajya Sabha
 Executive Committee of the Indian Parliamentary Group
 Consultative Committee for the Ministry of Railways
 Parliamentary Affairs Committee of Congress(I) Party in Parliament
 All India Congress Committee (A.I.C.C.)
 Central Cooperative Union, Hyderabad

In Memory
 Dr. Shankarrao Chavan Government Medical College & Hospital, Nanded
 MMM's Shankarrao Chavan Law College, Pune
 NWCMC's Dr.Shankarrao Chavan Auditorium, Near SGGS Stadium
 SBES's Shankarrao Chavan Memorial, VIP Road
 Shankarrao Chavan Chowk, Kamtha-Nanded
 Shankarrao Chavan Chowk, Chimegaon Nanded
 Dr.Shankarrao Chavan Garden & Library, CIDCO, Nanded

References

External links
 http://timesnow.tv/Newsdtls.aspx?NewsID=22813
 http://www.bsgindia.org/

1920 births
2004 deaths
Chief Ministers of Maharashtra
Rajya Sabha members from Maharashtra
Scouting and Guiding in India
Maharashtra MLAs 1960–1962
Maharashtra MLAs 1962–1967
Maharashtra MLAs 1967–1972
Maharashtra MLAs 1972–1978
Maharashtra MLAs 1978–1980
Marathi politicians
India MPs 1980–1984
India MPs 1984–1989
Lok Sabha members from Maharashtra
University of Madras alumni
Politicians from Marathwada
Chief ministers from Indian National Congress
Ministers of Internal Affairs of India
Defence Ministers of India
Education Ministers of India
Finance Ministers of India
Ministers for Corporate Affairs

Shankarrao Chavan


Hermann Arthur Gottfried Reimer (* 18. Februar 1911 in Döbeln; † 1987 ebenda) war ein deutscher Kunsthistoriker und während des Zweiten Weltkriegs am Sonderauftrag Linz maßgeblich beteiligt.

Tätigkeit bis 1945
Nach dem Philosophie- und Geschichtsstudium in Dresden und Würzburg wurde er 1935 promoviert. Ab 1939 arbeitete Gottfried Reimer als wissenschaftlicher Assistent unter Hans Posse, dem Direktor der Gemäldegalerie Dresden und "Sonderbeauftragten des Führers" Adolf Hitler für das Museum in Linz. Am 1. Juni 1941 wurde Gottfried Reimer Referent des Linzer Projektes und bezog seinen Amtssitz auf Schloss Weesenstein bei Dresden. Nach Posses Tod 1942 übernahm Hermann Voss dessen Nachfolge als "Sonderbeauftragter des Führers". Reimer behielt seine Funktion und war verantwortlich für die Auswahl, den Ankauf und die Erfassung von Kunstwerken für das Führermuseum. Ab 1943 leitete Reimer die Evakuierung und Einlagerung der Kunstschätze im Salzbergwerk von Altaussee.

Tätigkeit nach 1945
Bereits vor Kriegsende kehrte Reimer von Altaussee zuerst nach Dresden, später nach Döbeln zurück. Ende 1945 wurde er von der Landesverwaltung Sachsen beauftragt, Schlösser und Rittergüter des Landratsbezirkes Döbeln nach verborgenen Kunst- und Kulturschätzen zu durchsuchen. Im Februar 1946 stellten ihn die Staatlichen Sammlungen für Kunst und Wissenschaft in Dresden als wissenschaftlichen Hilfsarbeiter ein und übertrugen ihm die Betreuung des Sächsischen Kupferstichkabinetts. Von der Sowjetischen Militäradministration verhaftet, gelang es Reimer, seine Rolle im Sonderprojekt Linz zu verschleiern. Nach seiner Freilassung kehrte er nach Döbeln zurück und arbeitete als Denkmalpfleger im Kreis Döbeln. Bis Mitte der 1970er Jahre übte er diesen Beruf aus, danach beschäftigte er sich freiberuflich als Kunstexperte und erstellte Expertisen.

Um 1980 geriet Reimer in den Fokus der Staatssicherheit. Das Ministerium für Staatssicherheit untersuchte den Verbleib des Bernsteinzimmers.

Reimer starb, ohne sein eventuelles Wissen preiszugeben.

Werke
 Die Verwendung des Wassers in der Gartenkunst vom Mittelalter bis zur Gegenwart in Deutschland. J. Thomm, Bad Mergentheim 1935  (Dissertation: Julius-Maximilians-Universität zu Würzburg, 1934).

Literatur
 Birgit Schwarz: Hitlers Museum. Böhlau, Wien u. a. 2004, ISBN 3-20-577054-4.
 Manfred John, Gabi Liebegall: Gebunkerte Geheimnisse. Auf den Spuren des Bernsteinzimmers in Sachsen. Tauchaer Verlag, Taucha 2008, ISBN 978-3-89772-140-1.
 Mario Morgner: Geheimsache Bernsteinzimmer: Im Auge des Ministeriums für Staatssicherheit. Taucha 2012, ISBN 978-3-89772-214-9.

Weblinks

Kunsthistoriker
Kunst im Nationalsozialismus
Kunstraub
Deutscher
Person (Sonderauftrag Linz)
Geboren 1911
Gestorben 1987
Mann

Gottfried Reimer


Bergtatt - Et Eeventyr i 5 Capitler ("Začaran – bajka u 5 poglavlja") prvi je studijski album norveškog black metal-sastava Ulver. Diskografska kuća Head Not Found objavila ga je u veljači 1995. Album je sniman u Endless Lydstudiju u Oslu od studenoga do prosinca 1994. Za tonsku obradu i produkciju zaslužan je Kristian Romsø.

Album je hvaljen zbog svoje jedinstvene atmosfere i opisan je kao "tajanstven, melankoličan, jeziv i neobično miran". Stihovi pjesama pisani arhaičnim dansko-norveškim jezikom nastali su pod velikim utjecajem skandinavskih narodnih priča i nadahnuti su baroknim pjesnicima kao što su Ludvig Holberg i Thomas Kingo.

Pozadina
Bergtatt je prvi album u Ulverovoj trilogiji black metala. Objavljen je tijekom uspona supkulture black metala u Norveškoj početkom devedesetih godina 20. stoljeća. Odvojen od jednostavnijeg black metal-zvuka svojih suvremenika, Ulver je u svoje pjesme uvrstio elemente norveške narodne glazbe; pojavljuju se akustična gitara, flauta, usredotočenost na melodiju, čisti vokali uz brz tempo, death growl, jako distorzirane gitare, bubnjanje uz tehniku blast beat, niska kvaliteta zvuka i nekonvencionalne strukture pjesama. Zbog toga je sastav nazivan i folk metal-skupinom.

Tekstovi na Bergtattu znatno odstupaju od stihova pjesama ostalih sastava drugog vala black metala. Iako sadrži elemente preuzete iz norveškog folklora, ne sadrži protukršćanske teme (koje su prisutne u pjesmama skupina kao što su Darkthrone i Burzum). Ime albuma Bergtatt znači začaran; u norveškom folkloru riječ se odnosi na ljude koji odlutaju u šume i planine nakon što ih onamo namame trolovi ili druga mitska bića.

Folklorni elementi albuma odvojeni su i prošireni na drugom albumu Kveldssanger, na kojem se nalaze klasična gitara, violončelo i zborski komorni napjevi prekriveni suptilnim orkestralnim pejzažima. Treći album sastava Nattens Madrigal napušta te akustične i atmosferske elemente, a odlikuje se iznimno niskom kvalitetom zvuka, tj. "sirovim i mračnim" black metal-zvukom.

Popis pjesama

Recenzije

AllMusic pohvalio je album napisavši: "Bergtatt svakako nije najžešći ili najagresivniji black metal-album; nije ni najzlobniji ili najbogohulniji. Ističe se raznolikim vokalnim stilovima i izvrsno napisanim pjesmama, ali i jedinstvenom atmosferom – tajanstvenom, melankoličom, jezivom i neobično mirnom."

Angry Metal Guy napisao je: "S glazbenog se gledišta pjesme na albumu usredotočuju na melodiju i atmosferu, spajaju black metal s akustikom, reverbom i prekrasnim, melankoličnim pjesmama. Izbjegavaju čak i sotonizam u tekstu i slikama. Ali Ulver je bio tu kada je sve počelo; njegovi su članovi autsajderi u sceni autsajdera."

Osoblje

 Ulver

 Garm – vokal
 Haavard – gitara
 Aismal – gitara
 Skoll – bas-gitara
 AiwariklaR – bubnjevi, prijevodi

 Dodatni glazbenici

 Sverd – klavijature
 Lill Kathrine Stensrud – vokal, flauta

 Ostalo osoblje

 Tanya "Nacht" Stene – naslovnica albuma
 Kristian Romsøe – produkcija, inženjer zvuka, miks
 Craig Morris – mastering

Izvori

Albumi sastava Ulver
Albumi iz 1995.

Bergtatt – Et Eeventyr i 5 Capitler


An Paspalum guttatum in uska species han Liliopsida nga ginhulagway ni Carl Bernhard von Trinius. An Paspalum guttatum in nahilalakip ha genus nga Paspalum, ngan familia nga Poaceae. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Paspalum

Paspalum guttatum


An Phaius hainanensis in uska species han Liliopsida nga ginhulagway ni Chen Zhen Zi Tang ngan S.J.Cheng. An Phaius hainanensis in nahilalakip ha genus nga Phaius, ngan familia nga Orchidaceae. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Phaius

Phaius hainanensis


Charlotte Scheier-Herold, auch Charlotte Scheier, (* 2. Juli 1900 in Berlin; † im Dezember 1969) war eine deutsche Schauspielerin und Synchronsprecherin.

Leben
Charlotte Scheier-Herold trat bis 1945 an Theatern in der deutschsprachigen Provinz auf. Seit den ausgehenden 20er Jahren ist sie unter anderem an Bühnen in Beuthen, Potsdam, Gotha-Sondershausen, Hannover, Iglau, Brünn und Zoppot nachweisbar. Nach  dem Zweiten Weltkrieg spielte sie vorwiegend an verschiedenen Münchner Bühnen. Bis 1948 war sie am Münchner Lustspielhaus engagiert, zwischen 1952 und 1953 an der Kleinen Komödie. Weitere Theaterstationen waren das Ateliertheater sowie die Münchner Kammerspiele, an denen sie beispielsweise 1955 die Mutter in Jean Anouilhs Lerche verkörperte.

Auch in Film- und Fernsehproduktionen trat Scheier-Herold regelmäßig auf. Sie spielte neben Zarah Leander im Drama Ave Maria , in der Heinz-Rühmann-Komödie Der Mann, der nicht nein sagen konnte und in der Edgar-Wallace-Verfilmung Der Frosch mit der Maske. Außerdem übernahm sie zahlreiche Gastrollen in Fernsehserien wie Die fünfte Kolonne, Das Kriminalmuseum und Kommissar Freytag.

Darüber hinaus arbeitete Scheier-Herold umfangreich im Bereich Hörspiel und Synchronisation. Als Synchronsprecherin lieh sie ihre Stimme unter anderem Georgette Anys in Fanfan, der Husar, Gladys Cooper in Rebecca und May Robson in Vater dirigiert.

Filmografie (Auswahl)
 1949: Tromba
 1952: Die große Versuchung
 1953: Die blaue Stunde
 1953: Ave Maria
 1956: Weil du arm bist, musst du früher sterben
 1958: Ein Lied geht um die Welt
 1958: Der Mann, der nicht nein sagen konnte
 1959: Der Frosch mit der Maske
 1959: Raskolnikoff
 1960: Der Fehltritt
 1960: Der Frieden unserer Stadt
 1961: Cancan und Bakarole
 1961: Toller Hecht auf krummer Tour
 1963: Kleider machen Leute
 1964: Die Brücke von Estaban
 1965: Onkelchens Traum
 1965: Der seidene Schuh

Hörspiele (Auswahl)
 1952: Ein Blumenbrett am Fenster, BR
 1952: Vater braucht eine Frau, BR.
 1953: Heute Nacht in Samarkand, BR.
 1955: Abdallah und sein Esel, BR
 1955: Die rächende Nemesis, BR.
 1956: Sie reisen nicht, Fräulein von Montijo, BR.

Literatur
 Herbert A. Frenzel, Hans Joachim Moser (Hrsg.): Kürschners biographisches Theater-Handbuch. Schauspiel, Oper, Film, Rundfunk. Deutschland, Österreich, Schweiz. De Gruyter, Berlin 1956, , S. 639.

Weblinks

 Charlotte Scheier-Herold in der Synchrondatenbank von Arne Kaul

Anmerkungen

Filmschauspieler
Theaterschauspieler
Synchronsprecher
Deutscher
Geboren 1900
Gestorben 1969
Frau

Charlotte Scheier-Herold


Müfide Kadri Hanim () a fost o pictoriță și compozitoare turcă, una dintre primii femei artiste din Turcia și prima profesoară profesionistă de artă din Imperiul Otoman. Ea a pictat portrete în cea mai mare parte a carierei sale.

Biografie
Și-a pierdut mama pe când era doar un copil și a fost adoptată de Kadri Bey, o rudă îndepărtată, și soția lui, care nu aveau copii. Educația ei s-a făcut numai acasă, cu profesori particulari, care i-au descoperit talentul artistic.

Ea a început să picteze de la vârsta de zece ani și a luat lecții de la Osman Hamdi Bey. Apoi, ea a studiat desenul și pictura cu acuarele sub îndrumarea lui Salvatore Valeri (1856-1946), un profesor italian școlit la "Sanayi-am Nefise Mektebi" (Școala de Arte frumoase, acum parte a Universității de arte Mimar Sinan). De asemenea, ea a învățat cum să cânte la pian, vioară, dar și la instrumente tradiționale, cum ar fi oud și kemenche.

La îndemnul lui Hamdi Bey, a trimis niște tablouri la o expoziție în München, unde au fost premiate cu o medalie de aur. La scurt timp după, ea a devenit profesoară de muzică la Liceul de Fete din Istanbul și mai târziu a predat pictura și broderia. De asemenea, a ținut lecții de pictură particulare fiicei lui Abdul Hamid al II-lea la Palatul Sultanului Adile. În această perioadă a compus muzica pentru versurile a mai multor poeți, care au fost publicate în mai multe reviste culturale.

La scurt timp după ce și-a expus trei dintre lucrări la expoziția ținută de Societatea de Operă de la Istanbul în 1911, a fost diagnosticată cu tuberculoză, dar starea bolii era prea avansată pentru a urma un tratament eficient și a murit în anul următor. După moartea ei, patruzeci de tablouri au fost vândute în beneficiul "Societății pictorilor otomani". Kadri Bey a simțit atât de mult durere, încât a făcut un pelerinaj la Mecca și a trăit acolo până când guvernul otoman a fost înlăturat.

Ea a fost îngropată în Cimitirul Karacaahmet. Piatra ei funerară poartă o inscripție a caligrafului Ismail Hakki Altınbezer, iar viața ei a servit ca sursă de inspirație pentru romanul Fiul Eseri (Ultima Lucrare) de Halogenuri Edip Adıvar, publicat în format episodic în ziarul Tanin.

Galerie

Referințe

Legături externe

 Articol comemorativ

Nașteri în 1890
Decese în 1912
Artiste din secolul al XX-lea
Oameni din Istanbul
Pictorițe turce

Müfide Kadri