Loss aversion is a psychological and economic concept which refers to how outcomes are interpreted as gains and losses where losses are subject to more sensitivity in people's responses compared to equivalent gains acquired. Kahneman and Tversky (1992) have suggested that losses can be twice as powerful, psychologically, as gains. When defined in terms of the utility function shape as in the Cumulative Prospect Theory (CPT), losses have a steeper utility than gains, thus being more "painful" than the satisfaction from a comparable gain  as shown in Figure 1. Loss aversion was first proposed by Amos Tversky and Daniel Kahneman as an important framework for Prospect Theory - an analysis of decision under risk.

Finance and insurance are the sub fields of economics with the most active applications.

History

In 1979, Daniel Kahneman and his associate Amos Tversky originally coined the term loss aversion in their paper criticising the expected utility theory and proposing prospect theory as an alternative descriptive model of decision making under risk. "The response to losses is stronger than the response to corresponding gains" is Kahneman's definition of loss aversion. "Losses loom larger than gains" implies that people by nature are aversive to losses and tend to avoid them. For example, given a choice between Option A: 50% chance of winning 1,000 Israeli pounds and 50% chance of winning nothing and Option B: winning 450 Israeli pounds for sure, the studied respondents were more likely to choose option B despite the higher expected value of option A (500 pounds). Loss aversion gets stronger as the stakes of a gamble or choice grow larger. Prospect theory and utility theory follow to make the person regret and feel anticipated disappointment for that said gamble.

After the first 1979 proposal in the prospect theory framework paper, Tversky and Kahneman also used loss aversion for a paper in 1991 about a consumer choice theory that incorporates reference dependence, loss aversion, and diminishing sensitivity. Compared to the original paper above that discusses loss aversion in risky choices, Tversky and Kahneman (1991) discuss loss aversion in riskless choices, for instance, not willing to trade or even sell something that is already in our possession. Here, "losses loom larger than gains" correspondingly reflects how outcomes below the reference level (e.g., what we do not own) loom larger than those above the reference level (e.g., what we own), showing people's tendency to value losses more than gains relative to a reference point. Also, the paper supported loss aversion with the endowment effect theory and status quo bias theory.

Loss aversion was popular in explaining many phenomena in traditional choice theory. In 1980, loss aversion was used in Thaler (1980) regarding endowment effect. Loss aversion was also used to support the status quo bias in 1988  and the equity premium puzzle in 1995. In the 2000s, behavioural finance was an area with frequent application of this theory.

Application
In marketing, the use of trial periods and rebates tries to take advantage of the buyer's tendency to value the good more after the buyer incorporates it in the status quo. In past behavioral economics studies, users participate up until the threat of loss equals any incurred gains.  Recent methods established by Botond Kőszegi and Matthew Rabin in experimental economics illustrates the role of expectation, wherein an individual's belief about an outcome can create an instance of loss aversion, whether or not a tangible change of state has occurred.

Whether a transaction is framed as a loss or as a gain is important to this calculation. The same change in price framed differently, for example as a $5 discount or as a $5 surcharge avoided, has a significant effect on consumer behavior. Although traditional economists consider this "endowment effect", and all other effects of loss aversion, to be completely irrational, it is important to the fields of marketing and behavioral finance. Users in behavioral and experimental economics studies decided to cease participation in iterative money-making games when the threat of loss was close to the expenditure of effort, even when the user stood to further their gains. Loss aversion coupled with myopia has been shown to explain macroeconomic phenomena, such as the equity premium puzzle.

Prospect theory

Loss aversion is part of prospect theory, a cornerstone in behavioral economics.  The theory explored numerous behavioral biases leading to sub-optimal decisions making.  Kahneman and Tversky found that people are biased in their real estimation of probability of events happening. They tend to over-weight both low and high probabilities and under-weight medium probabilities.

Consider the following example: which option is more attractive? Option A – $1500 with a probability of 33%, $1400 with a probability of 66% and $0 with a probability of 1%; or Option B – a guaranteed $920. Prospect theory and loss aversion suggests that most people would choose option B as they prefer the guaranteed $920 since there is a probability of winning $0, even though it is only 1%. This demonstrates that people think in terms of expected utility relative to a reference point (i.e. current wealth) as opposed to absolute payoffs. When choices are framed as risky (i.e. risk losing 1 out of 10 lives vs the opportunity to save 9 out of 10 lives), individuals tend to be loss-averse as they weigh losses more heavily than comparable gains.

The endowment effect

Humans are theorized to be hardwired to be loss averse due to asymmetric evolutionary pressure on losses and gains: "for an organism operating close to the edge of survival, the loss of a day's food could cause death, whereas the gain of an extra day's food would not cause an extra day of life (unless the food could be easily and effectively stored)". Loss aversion was first proposed as an explanation for the endowment effect—the fact that people place a higher value on a good that they own than on an identical good that they do not own—by Kahneman, Knetsch, and Thaler (1990). Loss aversion and the endowment effect lead to a violation of the Coase theorem—that "the allocation of resources will be independent of the assignment of property rights when costless trades are possible" (p. 1326).

In several studies, the authors demonstrated that the endowment effect could be explained by loss aversion but not five alternatives:
transaction costs
misunderstandings
habitual bargaining behaviors
income effects
trophy effects.
In each experiment half of the subjects were randomly assigned a good and asked for the minimum amount they would be willing to sell it for while the other half of the subjects were given nothing and asked for the maximum amount they would be willing to spend to buy the good. Since the value of the good is fixed and individual valuation of the good varies from this fixed value only due to sampling variation, the supply and demand curves should be perfect mirrors of each other and thus half the goods should be traded. The authors also ruled out the explanation that lack of experience with trading would lead to the endowment effect by conducting repeated markets.

The first two alternative explanation are that under-trading was due to transaction costs or misunderstanding—were tested by comparing goods markets to induced-value markets under the same rules. If it was possible to trade to the optimal level in induced value markets, under the same rules, there should be no difference in goods markets.The results showed drastic differences between induced-value markets and goods markets. The median prices of buyers and sellers in induced-value markets matched almost every time leading to near perfect market efficiency, but goods markets sellers had much higher selling prices than buyers' buying prices. This effect was consistent over trials, indicating that this was not due to inexperience with the procedure or the market. Since the transaction cost that could have been due to the procedure was equal in the induced-value and goods markets, transaction costs were eliminated as an explanation for the endowment effect.

The third alternative explanation was that people have habitual bargaining behaviors, such as overstating their minimum selling price or understating their maximum bargaining price, that may spill over from strategic interactions where these behaviors are useful to the laboratory setting where they are sub-optimal. An experiment was conducted to address this by having the clearing prices selected at random. Buyers who indicated a willingness-to-pay higher than the randomly drawn price got the good, and vice versa for those who indicated a lower WTP. Likewise, sellers who indicated a lower willingness-to-accept than the randomly drawn price sold the good and vice versa. This incentive compatible value elicitation method did not eliminate the endowment effect but did rule out habitual bargaining behavior as an alternative explanation.

Income effects were ruled out by giving one third of the participants mugs, one third chocolates, and one third neither mug nor chocolate. They were then given the option of trading the mug for the chocolate or vice versa and those with neither were asked to merely choose between mug and chocolate. Thus, wealth effects were controlled for those groups who received mugs and chocolate. The results showed that 86% of those starting with mugs chose mugs, 10% of those starting with chocolates chose mugs, and 56% of those with nothing chose mugs. This ruled out income effects as an explanation for the endowment effect. Also, since all participants in the group had the same good, it could not be considered a "trophy", eliminating the final alternative explanation.

Thus, the five alternative explanations were eliminated in the following ways:
 1 and 2: Induced-value market vs. consumption goods market;
 3: Incentive compatible value elicitation procedure;
 4 and 5: Choice between endowed or alternative good.

Criticisms of loss aversion
Multiple studies have questioned the existence of loss aversion. In several studies examining the effect of losses in decision-making,  no loss aversion was found under risk and uncertainty. There are several explanations for these findings: one, is that loss aversion does not exist in small payoff magnitudes (called magnitude dependent loss aversion by Mukherjee et al.(2017);  which seems to hold true for time as well. The other is that the generality of the loss aversion pattern is lower than previously thought. David Gal (2006) argued that many of the phenomena commonly attributed to loss aversion, including the status quo bias, the endowment effect, and the preference for safe over risky options, are more parsimoniously explained by psychological inertia than by a loss/gain asymmetry. Gal and Rucker (2018) made similar arguments. Mkrva, Johnson, Gächter, and Herrmann (2019) cast doubt on these critiques, replicating loss aversion in five unique samples while also showing how the magnitude of loss aversion varies in theoretically predictable ways.

Loss aversion may be more salient when people compete. Gill and Prowse (2012) provide experimental evidence that people are loss averse around reference points given by their expectations in a competitive environment with real effort. Losses may also have an effect on attention but not on the weighting of outcomes; losses lead to more autonomic arousal than gains even in the absence of loss aversion. This latter effect is sometimes known as Loss Attention.

Alternatives to loss aversion: Loss attention
Loss attention refers to the tendency of individuals to allocate more attention to a task or situation when it involve losses than when it does not involve losses. What distinguishes loss attention from loss aversion is that it does not imply that losses are given more subjective weight (or utility) than gains. Moreover, under loss aversion losses have a biasing effect whereas under loss attention they can have a debiasing effect. Loss attention was proposed as a distinct regularity from loss aversion by Eldad Yechiam and Guy Hochman.

Specifically, the effect of losses is assumed to be on general attention rather than plain visual or auditory attention. The loss attention account assumes that losses in a given task mainly increase the general attentional resource pool available for that task. The increase in attention is assumed to have an inverse-U shape effect on performance (following the so called Yerkes-Dodson law).
The inverse U-shaped effect implies that the effect of losses on performance is most apparent in settings where task attention is low to begin with, for example in a monotonous vigilance task or when a concurrent task is more appealing. Indeed, it was found that the positive effect of losses on performance in a given task was more pronounced in a task performed concurrently with another task which was primary in its importance.
Loss attention is consistent with several empirical findings in economics , finance, marketing, and decision making. Some of these effects have been previously attributed to loss aversion, but can be explained by a mere attention asymmetry between gains and losses. An example is the performance advantage attributed to golf  rounds where a player is under par (or in a disadvantage) compared to other rounds where a player is at an advantage.
Clearly, the difference could be attributed to increased attention in the former type of rounds.

Recently, studies have suggested that loss aversion mostly occur for very large losses  though the exact boundaries of the effect are unclear. On the other hand, loss attention was found even for small payoffs, such as $1. This suggests that loss attention may be more robust than loss aversion. Still, one might argue that loss aversion is more parsimonious than loss attention.

Additional phenomena explained by loss attention:

Increased expected value maximization with losses – It was found that individuals are more likely to select choice options with higher expected value (namely, mean outcome) in tasks where outcomes are framed as losses than when they are framed as gains. Yechiam and Hochman found that this effect occurred even when the alternative producing higher expected value was the one that included minor losses. Namely, a highly advantageous alternative producing minor losses was more attractive compared when it did not produce losses. Therefore, paradoxically, in their study minor losses led to more selection from the alternative generating them (refuting an explanation of this phenomenon based on loss aversion).

Loss arousal – Individuals were found to display greater Autonomic Nervous System activation following losses than following equivalent gains. For example, pupil diameter and heart rate were found to increase following both gains and losses, but the size of the increase was higher following losses. Importantly, this was found even for small losses and gains where individuals do not show loss aversion. Similarly, a positive effect of losses compared to equivalent gains was found on activation of midfrontal cortical networks 200 to 400 milliseconds after observing the outcome. This effect as well was found in the absence of loss aversion.

Increased hot stove effect for losses – The hot stove effect is the finding that individuals avoid a risky alternative when the available information is limited to the obtained payoffs. A relevant example (proposed by Mark Twain) is of a cat which jumped of a hot stove and will never do it again, even when the stove is cold and potentially contains food. Apparently, when a given option produces losses this increases the hot stove effect, a finding which is consistent with the notion that losses increase attention.

The out of pocket phenomenon – In financial decision making, it has been shown that people are more motivated when their incentives are to avoid losing personal resources, as opposed to gaining equivalent resources. Traditionally, this strong behavioral tendency was explained by loss aversion. However, it could also be explained simply as increased attention.

The allure of minor disadvantages – In marketing studies it has been demonstrated that products whose minor negative features are highlighted (in addition to positive features) are perceived as more attractive. Similarly, messages discussing both the advantages and disadvantages of a product were found to be more convincing than one-sided messages. Loss attention explains this as due to attentional competition between options, and increased attention following the highlighting of small negatives, which can increase the attractiveness of a product or a candidate either due to exposure or learning.

In nonhuman subjects
In 2005, experiments were conducted on the ability of capuchin monkeys to use money. After several months of training, the monkeys began showing behavior considered to reflect understanding of the concept of a medium of exchange. They exhibited the same propensity to avoid perceived losses demonstrated by human subjects and investors.

Chen, Lakshminarayanan and Santos (2006) also conducted experiments on capuchin monkeys to determine whether behavioral biases extend across species. In one of their experiments, subjects were presented with two choices that both delivered an identical payoff of one apple piece in exchange of their coins. Experimenter 1 displayed one apple piece and gave that exact amount. Experimenter 2 displayed two apple pieces initially but always removed one piece before delivering the remaining apple piece to the subject. Therefore, identical payoffs are yielded regardless of which experimenter the subject traded with. It was found that subjects strongly preferred the experimenter who initially displayed only one apple piece, even though both experimenters yielded the same outcome of one apple piece. This study suggests that capuchins weighted losses more heavily than equivalent gains.

Expectation-based
Expectation-based loss aversion is a phenomenon in behavioral economics. When the expectations of an individual fail to match reality, they lose an amount of utility from the lack of experiencing fulfillment of these expectations. Analytical framework by Botond Kőszegi and Matthew Rabin provides a methodology through which such behavior can be classified and even predicted.  An individual's most recent expectations influences loss aversion in outcomes outside the status quo; a shopper intending to buy a pair of shoes on sale experiences loss aversion when the pair they had intended to buy is no longer available.

Subsequent research performed by Johannes Abeler, Armin Falk, Lorenz Goette, and David Huffman in conjunction with the Institute of Labor Economics used the framework of Kőszegi and Rabin to prove that people experience expectation-based loss aversion at multiple thresholds. The study evinced that reference points of people causes a tendency to avoid expectations going unmet. Participants were asked to participate in an iterative money-making task given the possibilities that they would receive either an accumulated sum for each round of "work", or a predetermined amount of money. With a 50% chance of receiving the "fair" compensation, participants were more likely to quit the experiment as this amount approached the fixed payment. They chose to stop when the values were equal as no matter which random result they received, their expectations would be matched. Participants were reluctant to work for more than the fixed payment as there was an equal chance their expected compensation would not be met.

Within education

Loss aversion experimentation has most recently been applied within an educational setting in an effort to improve achievement within the U.S. In this latest experiment, Fryer et al. posits framing merit pay in terms of a loss in order to be most effective. This study was performed in the city of Chicago Heights within nine K-8 urban schools, which included 3,200 students. 150 out of 160 eligible teachers participated and were assigned to one of four treatment groups or a control group.  Teachers in the incentive groups received rewards based on their students' end of the year performance on the ThinkLink Predictive Assessment and K-2 students took the Iowa Test of Basic Skills (ITBS). The control group followed the traditional merit pay process of receiving "bonus pay" at the end of the year based on student performance on standardized exams.  However, the experimental groups received a lump sum given at beginning of the year, that would have to be paid back.  The bonus was equivalent to approximately 8% of the average teacher salary in Chicago Heights, approximately $8,000. According to the authors, 'this suggests that there may be significant potential for exploiting loss aversion in the pursuit of both optimal public policy and the pursuit of profits'.

Thomas Amadio, superintendent of Chicago Heights Elementary School District 170, where the experiment was conducted, stated that "the study shows the value of merit pay as an encouragement for better teacher performance".

Neural aspect of loss aversion
In earlier studies, both bidirectional mesolimbic responses of activation for gains and deactivation for losses (or vica versa) and gain or loss-specific responses have been seen. While reward anticipation is associated with ventral striatum activation, negative outcome anticipation engages the amygdala. However, only some studies have shown involvement of amygdala during negative outcome anticipation but not others which has led to some inconsistencies. It has later been proven that inconsistencies may only have been due to methodological issues including the utilisation of different tasks and stimuli, coupled with ranges of potential gains or losses sampled from either payoff matrices rather than parametric designs, and most of the data are reported in groups, therefore ignoring the variability amongst individuals. Thus later studies rather than focusing on subjects in groups, focus more on individual differences in the neural bases by jointly looking at behavioural analyses and neuroimaging.

Neuroimaging studies on loss aversion involves measuring brain activity with functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) to investigate whether individual variability in loss aversion were reflected in differences in brain activity through bidirectional or gain or loss specific responses, as well as multivariate source-based morphometry (SBM) to investigate a structural network of loss aversion and univariate voxel-based morphometry (VBM) to identify specific functional regions within this network.

Brain activity in a right ventral striatum cluster increases particularly when anticipating gains. This involves the ventral caudate nucleus, pallidum, putamen, bilateral orbitofrontal cortex, superior frontal and middle gyri, posterior cingulate cortex, dorsal anterior cingulate cortex, and parts of the dorsomedial thalamus connecting to temporal and prefrontal cortex. There is a significant correlation between degree of loss aversion and strength of activity in both the frontomedial cortex and the ventral striatum. This is shown by the slope of brain activity deactivation for increasing losses being significantly greater than the slope of activation for increasing gains in the appetitive system involving the ventral striatum in the network of reward-based behavioural learning. On the other hand, when anticipating loss, the central and basal nuclei of amygdala, right posterior insula extending into the supramarginal gyrus mediate the output to other structures involved in the expression of fear and anxiety, such as the right parietal operculum and supramarginal gyrus. Consistent with gain anticipation, the slope of the activation for increasing losses was significantly greater than the slope of the deactivation for increasing gains.

Multiple neural mechanisms are recruited while making choices, showing functional and structural individual variability. Biased anticipation of negative outcomes leading to loss aversion involves specific somatosensory and limbic structures. fMRI test measuring neural responses in striatal, limbic and somatosensory brain regions help track individual differences in loss aversion. Its limbic component involved the amygdala (associated with negative emotion and plays a role in the expression of fear) and putamen in the right hemisphere. The somatosensory component included the middle cingulate cortex, as well as the posterior insula and rolandic operculum bilaterally. The latter cluster partially overlaps with the right hemispheric one displaying the loss-oriented bidirectional response previously described, but, unlike that region, it mostly involved the posterior insula bilaterally. All these structures play a critical role in detecting threats and prepare the organism for appropriate action, with the connections between amygdala nuclei and the striatum controlling the avoidance of aversive events. There are functional differences between the right and left amygdala. Overall, the role of amygdala in loss anticipation suggested that loss aversion may reflect a Pavlovian conditioned approach-avoidance response. Hence, there is a direct link between individual differences in the structural properties of this network and the actual consequences of its associated behavioral defense responses.

The neural activity involved in the processing of aversive experience and stimuli is not just a result of a temporary fearful overreaction prompted by choice-related information, but rather a stable component of one's own preference function, reflecting a specific pattern of neural activity encoded in the functional and structural construction of a limbic-somatosensory neural system anticipating heightened aversive state of the brain. Even when no choice is required, individual differences in the intrinsic responsiveness of this interoceptive system reflect the impact of anticipated negative effects on evaluative processes, leading preference for avoiding losses rather than acquiring greater but riskier gains.

Individual differences in loss aversion are related to variables such as age, gender, and genetic factors affecting thalamic norepinephrine transmission, as well as neural structure and activities. Outcome anticipation and ensuing loss aversion involve multiple neural systems, showing functional and structural individual variability directly related to the actual outcomes of choices.

In a study, adolescents and adults are found to be similarly loss-averse on behavioural level but they demonstrated different underlying neural responses to the process of rejecting gambles. Although adolescents rejected the same proportion of trials as adults, adolescents displayed greater caudate and frontal pole activation than adults to achieve this. These findings suggest a difference in neural development during the avoidance of risk. It is possible that adding affectively arousing factors (e.g. peer influences) may overwhelm the reward-sensitive regions of the adolescent decision making system leading to risk-seeking behaviour. On the other hand, although men and women did not differ on their behavioural task performance, men showed greater neural activation than women in various areas during the task. Loss of striatal dopamine neurons is associated with reduced risk-taking behaviour.  Acute administration of D2 dopamine agonists may cause an increase in risky choices in humans. This suggests dopamine acting on stratum and possibly other mesolimbic structures can modulate loss aversion by reducing loss prediction signalling.

See also
 Prospect theory
 Equity premium puzzle
 Escalation of commitment
 List of cognitive biases
 Risk aversion
 Status quo bias
 Sunk cost fallacy

References

Sources

Cognitive biases
Consumer theory
Decision theory
Prospect theory

Loss aversion


Milagros Porta Siso, conocida como Mili Porta (La Coruña, 1918 - Madrid, 1971) fue una pianista, compositora  y directora de orquesta y coros gallega.

Biografía
Comenzó muy joven a tocar el piano, aprobando la carrera de este instrumento en el Conservatorio de Madrid a los 14 años. Estudia armonía y composición con  los maestros García de la Parra y Conrado del Campo. A la edad de dieciséis años dirigió la orquesta de profesores de La Coruña para representar en el Teatro Rosalía de Castro de esa ciudad la zarzuela La fama del tartanero con la Agrupación Ofelia Nieto, a la que continuó acompañando como pianista y directora durante los siguientes años. Conforme avanzó en su tarea, marchó a Madrid, donde estrena la opereta infantil compuesta por ella y letra de Fernando Navarrete Monteserin y Julio Ponte: "Malibú, los cerditos y tú" en el Teatro Español y donde es nombrada Auxiliar Interina de Solfeo del Real Conservatorio Superior de Música de Madrid e inmediatamente obtiene la plaza de Profesora Especial de Música y Declamación en el mismo centro, plaza que compagina con la dirección de la coral Alalá de Veiga y la composición de lieder como Padrón,  o piezas corales como Pazo de Veiga, entre otras.

Sus brillantes composiciones e interpretaciones y sus méritos didácticos, labor investigadora y contribución al moderno desarrollo de la música gallega dieron pie a la concesión de la Cruz de la Orden de Alfonso X el Sabio a los 34 años de edad.

Tras múltiples actuaciones por España como pianista y como directora de la  coral Anaquiños da Terra del Centro Gallego de Madrid, del Grupo de Opera de Madrid y del coro de voces blancas Iria Flavia, creado por ella, con el que da a conocer las Cantigas de Martin Codax y las de Alfonso X el  Sabio, y la grabación de varios discos como  "Airiños. Viejos Cantares de Galicia" (ORPHEO) con la agrupación Anaquiños da Terra, del que se imprime un LP y tres sencillos y participar activamente en las emisiones para América de Radio Nacional de España, continua en paralelo con su tarea docente, obteniendo, por oposición, la plaza de Catedrática de Solfeo del Real Conservatorio Superior de Música de Madrid en 1962. Becada por la Fundación March, viaja por Alemania, Bélgica y Francia para hacer estudios de Acústica y Rítmica lo que la permite mejorar el nivel didáctico y técnico de sus enseñanzas.

Recibe a su fallecimiento en 1971 diversos reconocimientos de su tierra gallega y de sus numerosos alumnos, y deja algunas obras por estrenar, entre ellas la zarzuela gallega A Represa e o Rio con letra de Antón de Santiago (Nito) que finalmente vio la luz en el Teatro Colón de La Coruña (17 de enero de 1983) y en la Plaza de la Quintana en Santiago (días después).

Véase también

 Mujeres en la música

Personas de La Coruña
Pianistas de España del siglo XX
Directores de orquesta de España
Mujeres músicas de España
Grandes cruces de la Orden de Alfonso X el Sabio
Directoras de orquesta
Mujeres pianistas
Nacidos en 1918
Fallecidos en 1971
Mujeres
Compositores de zarzuela de España

Mili Porta


The Southern African Development Community (SADC) is an inter-governmental organization headquartered in Gaborone, Botswana.

Goals
The SADC's goal is to further regional socio-economic cooperation and integration as well as political and security cooperation among 16 countries in southern Africa.  Although its primary objectives are development, economic growth, and poverty alleviation, peacekeeping has become increasingly important to the SADC.

Member states

As of 2022, the SADC has a total of 16 member states:

Burundi has requested to join.

The origin and history of the SADC

The origins of SADC are in the 1960s and 1970s, when the leaders of majority-ruled countries and national liberation movements coordinated their political, diplomatic and military struggles to bring an end to colonial and white-minority rule in southern Africa. The immediate forerunner of the political and security cooperation leg of today's SADC was the informal Frontline States (FLS) grouping. It was formed in 1980.

The Southern African Development Coordination Conference (SADCC) was the forerunner of the socio-economic cooperation leg of today's SADC.  The adoption by nine majority-ruled southern African countries of the Lusaka declaration on 1 April 1980 paved the way for the formal establishment of SADCC in April 1980.

Membership of the FLS and SADCC sometimes differed.

SADCC was transformed into SADC on 17 August 1992, with the adoption by the founding members of SADCC and newly independent Namibia of the Windhoek declaration and treaty establishing SADC. The 1992 SADC provided for both socio-economic cooperation and political and security cooperation. In reality, the FLS was dissolved only in 1994, after South Africa's first democratic elections. Subsequent efforts to place political and security cooperation on a firm institutional footing under SADC's umbrella failed.

On 14 August 2001, the 1992 SADC treaty was amended. The amendment heralded the overhaul of the structures, policies and procedures of SADC, a process which is ongoing. One of the changes is that political and security cooperation is institutionalised in the Organ on Politics, Defence and Security (OPDS); one of the principal SADC bodies. It is subject to the oversight of the organisation's supreme body, the Summit, which comprises the heads of state or government.

The organisation holds its own multi-sport event in the form of the SADC Games, which was first held in 2004 in Maputo. Originally planned for an earlier date in Malawi and Lesotho, organisational issues led to abandonment of the plan and the SADC issuing a fine of $100,000 against Malawi. The first event in 2004 in Maputo resulted in over 1000 youths under-20 from 10 countries taking part in a sports programme including athletics, football, netball, boxing and basketball.

In 2012, the SADC deployed peacekeepers to the Democratic Republic of Congo in order to counter a rebel threat. The dpepoloyed troops were supplied by Tanzania, Malawai, and South Africa.

In August 2019 SADC adopted Swahili as its fourth working language, alongside English, French and Portuguese. Kiswahili – a lingua franca in the African Great Lakes region, other parts of East Africa, and to a lesser degree, parts of Southern Africa – is an official language of Tanzania, Kenya and Uganda and of the African Union.

Protocols

SADC has 27 legally binding protocols dealing with issues such as Defence, Development, Illicit Drug Trade, Free Trade and Movement of People.

 Protocol on Energy (1996) – Intended to promote harmonious development of national energy policies. These development strategies set out tangible objectives for SADC and its Member States for infrastructure development in energy and its subsectors of woodfuel, petroleum and natural gas, electricity, coal, renewable energy, and energy efficiency and conservation.
 Protocol on Gender and Development – Member states are urged to accelerate implementation efforts towards the achievements of concrete and transformative changes in the lives of women and girls in the region. H.E. President Mutharika also expressed concern on the escalating incidents of gender based violence in the region, especially those perpetrated against women and girls, and used this occasion to sign a commitment to end child marriages, as part of the AU campaign to end Child Marriages in Africa.
 Protocol on Politics, Defence and Security Co-operation (2001) – Intended to foster regional security and defence cooperation, promote peace, political stability and conflict-management. The protocol initiated also an institutional reform of the SADC's Organ for Politics, Defence and Security (OPDS).

SADC FTA

The SADC Free Trade Area was established in August 2008, after the implementation of the SADC Protocol on Trade in 2000 laid the foundation for its formation. Its original members were Botswana, Lesotho, Madagascar, Mauritius, Mozambique, Namibia, South Africa, Eswatini, Tanzania, Zambia and Zimbabwe, with Malawi and Seychelles joining later. Of the 15 SADC member states, only Angola and the Democratic Republic of Congo are not yet participating, however Angolan trade minister Joffre Van-Dúnen Júnior said in Luanda that his ministry is working to create conditions for Angola's accession to the SADC Free Trade Area in 2019. The SADC-Customs Union, scheduled to be established by 2010 according to SADC's Regional Indicative Strategic Development Plan (RISDP), is unlikely to become reality in the near future. This is because the European Union's Economic Partnership Agreements (EPA) with their inherent extra-regional freetrade regimes provided for several SADC members more benefits than deeper regional market integration within the framework of a SADC-Customs Union. Since these SADC countries formed four different groupings to negotiate and implement different Economic Partnership Agreements with European Union, the chance to establish a SADC-wide common external tariff as prerequisite for a regional customs union is missed.

On Wednesday 22 October 2008, SADC joined with the Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa and the East African Community to form the African Free Trade Zone, including all members of each of the organizations.  The leaders of the three trading blocs agreed to create a single free trade zone, the African Free Trade Zone, consisting of 26 countries with a GDP of an estimated $624bn (£382.9bn). It is hoped the African Free Trade Zone agreement would ease access to markets within the zone and end problems arising from the fact that several of the member countries belong to multiple groups.

The African Free Trade Zone effective has been more than a hundred years in the making—a trade zone spanning the whole African continent from Cape to Cairo and envisioned by Cecil Rhodes and other British imperialists in the 1890s.  The only difference is that the African Free Trade Zone is the creation of independent African Countries.  The idea is a free trade zone spanning the whole continent from the Cape to Cairo (Cape Town in the Republic of South Africa to Cairo in Egypt).

In addition to eliminating duplicative membership and the problem member states also participating in other regional economic cooperation schemes and regional political and security cooperation schemes that may compete with or undermine each other, the African Free Trade Zone further aims to strengthen the bloc's bargaining power when negotiating international deals.

Pursuant to the SADC goal of more integration, Botswana and Namibia signed an agreement in February 2023 allowing citizens to travel between the two countries using only identity cards, with passports no longer being needed. Botswana has held talks with Zimbabwe to achieve a similar deal, and expects to open talks with Zambia.

Challenges facing member countries

SADC countries face many social, development, economic, trade, education, health, diplomatic, defence, security and political challenges.  Some of these challenges cannot be tackled effectively by individual members.  Cattle diseases and organised-crime gangs know no boundaries.  War in one country can suck in its neighbours and damage their economies.  The sustainable development that trade could bring is threatened by the existence of different product standards and tariff regimes, weak customs infrastructure and bad roads.  The socio-economic and political and security cooperation aims of SADC are equally wide-ranging, and intended to address the various common challenges.

One significant challenge is that member states also participate in other regional economic cooperation schemes and regional political and security cooperation schemes that may compete with or undermine SADC's aims.  For example, South Africa and Botswana both belong to the Southern Africa Customs Union, Zambia is a part of the Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa, and Tanzania is a member of the East African Community.

According to Human Rights Watch, "SADC has been criticized for its laxity on making human rights compliance within its member states a priority".

Structure and decision-making procedures
The organization has six principal bodies:

 The Summit, comprising heads of state or heads of government
 Organ on Politics, Defense and Security
 Council of Ministers
 SADC Tribunal
 SADC National Committees (SNCs)
 Secretariat

Except for the Tribunal (based in Windhoek, Namibia), SNCs and Secretariat, decision-making is by consensus.

Leaders

Chairmen

Executive Secretaries

Comparison with other regional blocs

See also
Southern African Development Community Mission in Mozambique (SAMIM)
Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa (COMESA)
East African Community (EAC)
Economic Community of Central African States (ECCAS)
Southern African Customs Union (SACU)
Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS)
List of trade blocs
Rules of Origin
Market access
Free-trade area
Tariffs

References

Further reading
Gabriël Oosthuizen, The Southern African Development Community: The organisation, its history, policies and prospects. Institute for Global Dialogue: Midrand, South Africa, 2006.
John McCormick, The European Union: Politics and Policies. Westview Press: Boulder, Colorado, 2004.
Muntschick, Johannes, The Southern African Development Community (SADC) and the European Union (EU). Regionalism and External Influence. Palgrave Macmillan: Cham. 2017. .
Ramsamy, Prega 2003 Global partnership for Africa. Presentation at the human rights conference on global partnerships for Africa's development, Gaborone: SADC

External links

Agritrade website covering trade issues in southern Africa

Organisations related to Southern Africa
International organizations based in Africa
United Nations General Assembly observers
Organizations established in 1992
1992 establishments in Africa

Southern African Development Community


Cecilia Moreau (Olivos, 1976) é uma política argentina, atual presidente da Câmara dos Deputados da Nação Argentina desde agosto de 2022. Moreau tornou-se a primeira mulher a ocupar esse cargo no país.

Ocupou seu primeiro cargo parlamentar entre 2007 e 2011, como deputada da província de Buenos Aires, eleita pela União Cívica Radical. Em 2014, filiou-se ao partido Frente Renovadora, liderado por Sergio Massa. Em 2015, foi eleita deputada nacional de Buenos Aires pela coalizão UNA (Unidos por uma Nova Alternativa), sendo reeleita em 2019 pela Frente de Todos que elegeu o presidente Alberto Fernández.

Com a saída de Sergio Massa da presidência da Câmara dos Deputados para assumir o Ministério da Economia, o bloco Frente de Todos anunciou que proporia Moreau para assumir a presidência.  A política foi confirmada no cargo em sessão realizada no dia 2 de agosto de 2022 após uma votação simbólica.

Moreau é filha dos também políticos María del Carmen Banzas e Leopoldo Moreau. Seu pai, Leopoldo, presidiu a Câmara dos Deputados do país em 1989.

Políticos da Argentina
Presidentes da Câmara de Deputados da Nação Argentina
Mulheres da Argentina na política
Deputados da Argentina

Cecilia Moreau


Ludvig Carl Christian Maximilian Schow (født 15. februar 1828, død 2. februar 1864 i Mysunde) var en dansk officer.

Schow blev 1844 kadet, 1846 sekondløjtnant i 4. Jægerkorps med anciennitet fra 1845, 29. december 1848 Ridder af Dannebrog, 1849 (ansat ved 1. Espingolbatteri) karakteriseret premierløjtnant og samme år premierløjtnant i 3. Jægerkorps, blev 1858 adjudant ved 1. Infanteribrigade, 1861 kaptajn af 2. klasse, 1862 forsat til 18. Bataljon, hvor han den 1. oktober 1863 blev kompagnikommandør. Den 2. februar 1864 faldt han i slaget ved Mysunde.

Kilder
 Vilhelm Richter: Den danske Landmilitæretat 1801-1894, bind 2, København: Antikvariat Richard Levin & Co. ApS og Dansk Historisk Håndbogsforlag 1977, s. 154-155.

Personer i den 2. Slesvigske Krig fra Danmark
Faldne danske militærfolk
Officerer fra Danmark
Riddere af Dannebrog

Ludvig Carl Christian Maximilian Schow


El vastu shastra es una antigua doctrina hinduista que trata sobre la influencia de las leyes de la naturaleza en las construcciones humanas.

 vāstu, en el sistema AITS (alfabeto internacional para la transliteración del sánscrito).
 वास्तु, en escritura devanagari del sánscrito.
 Pronunciación: /vástu/.
 Etimología: podría provenir de vasá (habitante, que reside en una casa).
 vāstu: lugar, edificio, vivienda y shastra ciencia,doctrina, teoría.

Está basado en una serie de tratados que reúnen los distintos preceptos que deben respetarse a la hora de diseñar un edificio para cualquier uso; ya sea una vivienda o un templo.

De acuerdo con los Vedas, el vastu shastra considera que el universo está compuesto por cinco elementos: tierra, agua, fuego, aire y éter, y que el diseño de un edificio debe conseguir una relación equilibrada entre ellos. Los diseños propuestos por esta doctrina se basan en una planta cuadrada que se subdivide en varios cuadrados menores, dedicados a distintas funciones según su orientación. Aunque existen varias formas de dividir el cuadrado, la más popular es la división de 3x3, que a su vez subdivide cada uno de los nueve cuadrados resultantes en otra rejilla de 3x3, para sumar un total de 81 cuadrados. Con independencia del número de subdivisiones, las viviendas se organizan de forma concéntrica en torno a un patio central.

Aunque tradicionalmente el uso de esta doctrina se ha circunscrito al ámbito de la arquitectura india (esencialmente para el diseño de templos y palacios), el vastu shastra cubre también otras disciplinas artísticas como el urbanismo, la danza, la poesía o la escultura.

En la India contemporánea, afirma Chakrabarti, consultores que incluyen a "curanderos, sacerdotes y astrólogos" alimentados por la codicia están comercializando pseudociencia y superstición en nombre de los Vastu-sastras. Tienen poco conocimiento de lo que los textos históricos del Vastu-sastra enseñan realmente, y lo enmarcan en términos de una "tradición religiosa", en lugar de basarlo en cualquier "teoría arquitectónica" en ella.

Características
El vastu shastra se considera una disciplina integral, que abarca no solo la distribución de las estancias (el rasgo más conocido), sino también la construcción, los materiales, la forma y disposición de los elementos, las circulaciones o la propia ornamentación. Dentro de la práctica del vastu shastra se incluye también la celebración de diferentes ritos y ceremonias entre el constructor y el cliente, como parte del proceso de construcción del edificio.

Los libros sobre «vastu shastra» (tratados sobre arquitectura)
Se llama Vastu shastra (del sánscrito vāstu —lugar, edificio, vivienda— y śāstra —ciencia, doctrina, enseñanza—) a varios textos que tratan acerca de arquitectura hindú.

 Manasara silpa shastra
 Mayamata
 Visvakarma-vastu-shastra
 Samarangana-sutra-dhara
 Aparayita-priccha
 Silpa-ratna

Cada uno de ellos está dedicado o inspirado en una deidad del panteón hinduista, y proceden de épocas y lugares distintos. Existen no obstante varios tratados más, como el Agní-purana o el Raya-vállabha, que son aceptados o no según las distintas escuelas de pensamiento.

Los cinco elementos
Según el vastu shastra, el mundo está compuesto por cinco elementos, cada uno de ellos con unas características que permiten asociarlos a diversos aspectos de la actividad humana.

 tierra (bhumi): el planeta Tierra es un gran imán con los polos norte y sur como centros de atracción. Los adeptos al vastu shastra consideran que la fuerza de la gravedad y el campo magnético ejercen un considerable efecto sobre cualquier elemento sobre la tierra, ya sea vivo o inanimado.
 agua (yala): forma parte de cualquier ser vivo.
 aire (vaiú): como elemento que soporta la vida, se considera una poderosa fuente de vitalidad. El bienestar de las personas depende en gran medida de la humedad, temperatura y composición del aire, así como de un adecuado flujo del mismo.
 fuego (agní): representa la luz y el calor, y se relaciona con el día y la noche, las estaciones, la energía, el entusiasmo, la pasión y el vigor.
 espacio (akasha): El espacio alberga a los otros cuatro elementos. Se considera el principal conductor de todas las energías presentes en la naturaleza, incluyendo tanto las físicas (sonido, luz) como las sociales (emocionales) o las intelectuales (intuición).

Estos cinco elementos se encuentran en permanente relación. La disciplina del vastu sastra se encarga de que el diseño de los espacios habitados consiga armonizar esta relación, potenciando las cualidades beneficiosas de cada uno de ellos.

Vastu Purusha Mandala

Existen varios "mandalas" o diagramas que sirven de base para el diseño del edificio. Estos diagramas se identifican con una representación del cosmos, e incorporan conceptos sobrenaturales como las fuerzas cósmicas, energías y deidades. El número de subdivisiones del diagrama varía según los usos previstos para el edificio, la región climática o también según las escuelas, pero siempre respetando una serie de principios básicos. La mayor diferencia entre los diferentes diagramas, además del número de subdivisiones, es la ubicación de la "cabeza" divina en el noreste o en el este, o la opción de subdividir los espacios en retícula o de forma concéntrica.

De los distintos mandalas existentes, el más popular es el Vastu Purusha, que ubica la "cabeza" en el noroeste y divide el cuadrado inicial en dos tramas sucesivas de 3 × 3 elementos.

De los nueve cuadrados principales, el cuadrado central recibe el nombre de Brahmasthanam y debe estar descubierto, bien iluminado y carecer de pilares o elementos que entorpezcan el flujo de aire y energías. Según el concepto hinduista, es el lugar por donde respira el edificio y el centro energético de la vivienda. No está diseñado para estar habitado, reservándose únicamente para la realización de ceremonias puntuales, tales como bodas u ofrendas a los dioses.

Los ocho cuadrados restantes se subdividen en una retícula de 3x3, quedando la hilera de cuadrados perimetral dedicada a circulación.

Los cuadrados restantes se dedicarán a distintas actividades según su orientación. Los ubicados en las esquinas (de tamaño 2x2 en la retícula) están asociados a deidades específicas y tienen usos asignados, mientras que los espacios intermedios, ocupando 2x5 cuadrados en la retícula, pueden tener distintos usos. La esquina noreste (Isanya) alojará el lugar de oración. La esquina sureste (Agni) se reservará para la cocina. La suroeste (Niruthi) contendrá el dormitorio principal, y la noroeste (Vayu) el almacén. Como norma general, se consideran adecuados los dormitorios en el sur, los aseos en el este y el comedor en el oeste.

Otra característica de las edificaciones vastu shastra es la necesidad de inclinar los tejados, siendo la esquina noreste la más baja, y la suroeste la más elevada.

Véase también
Anexo:Pseudociencias
Feng shui
Geomancia
Pseudociencias

Referencias

Arquitectura de India
Palabras en sánscrito
Templos hinduistas
Ciencia y tecnología de India
Conceptos hinduistas
Adivinación
Arquitectura bioclimática

Vastu shastra


Vispop é um gênero musical que mistura canções pop e tradicionais, podendo ser canções recém-escritas ou covers de canções antigas. É originário e se tornou popular nos países escandinavos em meados da década de 1960. O termo é derivado da palavra visa, que denota a música folclórica tradicional e popular da Suécia. Na Noruega, o termo aplicado a este gênero musical acompanhado é visesang. Durante a década de 1970, este foi um dos gêneros musicais mais populares na Escandinávia.

Na atualidade, artistas vispop famosos na Suécia incluem Melissa Horn, Mikael Ramel, Sara Varga e Håkan Hellström. Artistas com um estilo semelhante noutros países nórdicos são Finn Kalvik e os finlandeses Blust.

Características
Vispop é normalmente interpretado por um cantautor a tocar violão, e as letras geralmente expressam comentários sociais. Também podem ser interpretados por grupos musicais, como o grupo norueguês Ballade!.

O gênero pode ser comparado ao folk rock americano ou ao bluegrass.

Artistas

Finlândia
 Blust

Noruega
 Ane Brun
 Alf Cranner
 Jan Eggum
 Finn Kalvik
 Åse Kleveland
 Kristian Kristensen
 Moddi
 Lillebjørn Nilsen
 Siri Nilsen
 Øystein Sunde
 Halvdan Sivertsen
 Frida Ånnevik

Suécia
 Lisa Ekdahl
 Ted Gärdestad
 Jakob Hellman
 Uno Svenningsson
 Cornelis Vreeswijk

Ligações externas
  Visebølgen i Norge

Gêneros de música pop
Música da Suécia
Música da Noruega
Escandinávia

Vispop


بلدية هوركاجو دي لوس مونتس ، هي إحدى بلديات مقاطعة سيوداد ريال إحدى مقاطعات إسبانيا، والتي تقع في منطقة قشتالة لا منتشا وسط إسبانيا.

يبلغ عدد سكانها 1.015 نسمة وفقاً لإحصائية سنة (2007).

مراجع

أماكن مأهولة في ثيوداد ريال
بلديات سيوداد ريال

هوركاجو دي لوس مونتس (سيوداد ريال)


Lionel Walter Rothschild (London, 8. siječnja 1868. – Tring, 27. kolovoza 1937.), britanski barun,  bankar, političar, zoolog; potomak bogate židovske bankarske obitelji Rothschild. Bio je istaknuti cionist te se zalagao za stvaranje židovske države u Palestini. Predsjedao je Odborom predstavnika britanskih Židova 1925. – 1926. godine.

Rodio se u britanskom ogransku dinastije Rothschilda, u obitelji Nathana Mayera, prvog baruna Rothschilda i Emme Louise von Rothschild, izdanice njemačke loze Rothschilda. Iako je bio stariji sin kojemu je bio namijenjen bankarski posao, razočarao je oca i posvetio se prirodoslovlju. Godine 1889. otac mu je dao nešto zemlje u Tringu za dvadeset i prvi rođendan, što je bio temelj za izgradnju Zoološkog muzeja koji je bio otvoren 1892. godine, i u kojem je Lionel Walter stavio svoju veliku prirodoslovnu kolekciju i knjige. Godine 1894. pokrenuo je znanstveni časopis Novitates Zoologicae. Muzej je oporučno ostavio Prirodoslovnom muzeju iz Londona.

Nije se nikada ženio, ali je imao ljubavne avanture, a iz jedne od njih dobio je izvanbračnu kćerku. Njegov naslov baruna Rothschilda naslijedio je nećak Victor Rothschild.

Bilješke

Vanjske poveznice

 Lionel Walter (Walter) Rothschild (1868.-1937.) - family.rothschildarchive.org

Britanski političari
Bankari iz obitelji Rothschild (Ujedinjeno Kraljevstvo)

Lionel Walter Rothschild, 2. barun Rothschild


Ensembles

Ensemble Weiler Ensbach

Das Ensemble umfasst die sieben alten Anwesen des Weilers Ensbach, denen sich im 19. Jahrhundert und in neuerer Zeit noch vier – zum Teil wieder abgegangene – Anwesen zugeordnet haben.

Der Ort liegt in den südlichen Ausläufern des Bayerischen Waldes über dem Ensbacher Tälchen zwischen hügeligen Ackerstreifen, Wiesen und Obstgärten; die Grundherrschaft lag jahrhundertelang überwiegend bei dem Kloster Niederaltaich. Die Bauernhöfe, meist dem 18. und frühen 19. Jahrhundert entstammend, reihen sich unregelmäßig zu beiden Seiten der gewundenen Dorfgasse; nur der Hof Nr. 1 (heute Ensbach 20) liegt etwas abseits erhöht und beherrscht das Ortsbild.

Die Höfe haben geschlossene Vierseit-, Dreiseit-, Haken- und Einfirstformen, die Wohnstallbauten sind zweigeschossig und gänzlich oder in den Obergeschossen in Blockbauweise errichtet; sie tragen flache vorstehende Satteldächer. Die Bedeutung des Ortsbildes beruht in der Häufung der historischen bäuerlichen Bauten, in der Vielzahl ihrer malerischen Werte und in den in die Kulturlandschaft übergehenden Ortsrändern, die an fast keiner Stelle durch Neubebauung verändert worden sind.

Aktennummer: E-2-71-148-1

Baudenkmäler nach Ortsteilen

Schaufling

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Böhaming

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Ensbach

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Ensmannsberg

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Geßnach

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Hainstetten

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Martinstetten

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Muckenthal

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Nadling

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Nemering

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Penk

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Sanatorium am Hausstein

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Sicking

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Urlading

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Wetzenbach

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Wotzmannsdorf

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Ehemalige Baudenkmäler

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Anmerkungen

Literatur

Weblinks

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Schaufling
Baudenkmaler Schaufling

Liste der Baudenkmäler in Schaufling


Sri Jayawardenepura Kotte, commonly known as Kotte (), is the legislative capital of Sri Lanka. Sri Jayawardenepura Kotte is located adjacent to the urban area of Sri Lanka's de facto economic, executive, and judicial capital, Colombo.

The Sri Jayawardenepura Kotte Municipal Council area is bounded in:

 the North by Kolonnawa Urban Council area,
 the North-East by the Kotikawatta–Mulleriyawa Pradeshiya Sabha area,
 the East by the Kaduwela Municipal Council area,
 the South-East by the Maharagama Urban Council area,
 the South-West by the Dehiwala-Mount Lavinia Municipal Council and
 the West by the Colombo Municipal Council area, which is the commercial capital of Sri Lanka.

History

The village of Darugama lay at the confluence of two streams, the Diyawanna Oya and the Kolonnawa Oya. As Darugama was a naturally secure place, it was not easy for enemies to enter it. Here, in the 13th century, a local chieftain, Nissanka Alagakkonara, built a Kotte, or fortress.

Alagakkonara is mentioned by Ibn Batuta as ruling in Kurunegala, but other sources indicate that he was the Bandara (Guardian) of Raigama Korale (county) in the modern Kalutara District. Arya Chakravarthy's army was held by Alagakkonara in front of Kotte, while he defeated the enemy's invasion fleet at Panadura to the south-west.

Kotte was a jala durgha (water fortress), in the shape of a triangle, with the Diyawanna Oya and Kolonnawa Oya marshes forming two long sides; along the shorter third (land) side a large moat (the 'inner moat') was dug. The fortress was nearly  in area, fortified with ramparts of kabook or laterite rock,  high and  in breadth.

In 1391, following the conquest of the Kingdom of Jaffna by Prince Sapumal (Sembahap Perumal), Kotte was given the epithet 'Sri Jayawardenepura' ('resplendent city of growing victory'). It became the capital of the ancient Kingdom of Kotte, which it remained until the end of the 16th century.

From the ramparts to the magnificent three storied buildings that housed the kings palace, laterite and clay were the main raw material used in its construction. One of the places from which the laterite blocks were mined can be seen even today inside the premises of Ananda Sasthralaya (a local school).

The main features of the capital city were:

 the king's palace, with walls of quartz that sparkle in the moonlight (candrakanta pasana) and a golden spire, with beautiful flower gardens and springs of water,
 the three-storeyed Dalada Maligawa with Buddha's sacred tooth relic in it (Temple of the tooth),
 the five-storeyed "Arama" where sixty Buddhist Bhikkus resided, with a Sangha Raja(a high priest)as the chief incumbent,
 the king's treasure house,
 the 'Kotavehara' at Baddagana, the only Buddhist temple of the city outside the moat and rampart,
 the royal cemetery at Beddagana (Veherakanda memorial),
 and the 'Angampitiya', the military parade and training ground just inside the inner moat.

The Portuguese arrived on the island in 1505 and were initially welcomed by the king, but they had militaristic and monopolistic intentions and gained control of the city by 1565. Failing to withstand repeated assaults by the forces of the neighbouring kingdom of Sitawaka, the city was abandoned by the Portuguese, who made Colombo their new capital.

Like similar cities of that era, Sri Jayawardenepura was built with security in mind. A rampart and moat protected the entire city. Traces of this moat and rampart are still visible today at certain places. Along parts of the rampart, encroachers have now built houses, garages and even toilets.

The urbanisation of Kotte restarted in the 19th century. The archaeological remains were torn up and used as building materials (a process that continues)—some of it even ending up in the Victoria Bridge, across the Kelani River.

Legislature
The New Parliament was inaugurated on 29 April 1982. The buildings were built on reclaimed land, after a massive lake was formed by dredging the marshlands around the Diyawanna Oya. The new parliamentary buildings were built on Duwa, a 50,000 square metre (12 acre) island in the centre of the lake. The island (off Baddegana Road, Pita Kotte) had been used as a recreation and brawling spot for Portuguese soldiers in the last days of  Kotte era, alcohol being banned from the Royal City. It had belonged to E. W. Perera and had housed a chicken farm prior to being vested in the state. On 29 April 1982, the new parliamentary complex was declared open by the former president J. R. Jayewardene.

The process of relocating government institutions from the former capital of Colombo is still in progress.

Municipal structure

The Kotte Urban Development Council was created in the 1930s, with a modern building at Rajagiriya. It was succeeded by the Kotte Urban Council, which had a large section of its area removed and tagged onto the Colombo Municipal Council ward of Borella while the Battaramulla urban council was dissolved and a small section of Battaramulla tagged onto the Kotte Urban Council. The Kotte Urban Council became the Sri Jayawardenepura Kotte Municipal Council in 1997, with Chandra Silva as the first Mayor.

There are 20 Members of the Municipal Council (MMCs), elected on proportional representation. There are 18 wards, but these are now merely polling divisions, without individual representation.

Zones
 Pita Kotte
 Ethul Kotte
 Nawala
 Nugegoda
 Rajagiriya

Wards

Grama Niladhari Division

Demographics
Sri Jayawardenepura Kotte is a multi-ethnic, multi-religious urban centre. According to the census of 2012, the demographics by ethnicity and religion is as follows:

Infrastructure

Transport
The only main railway station is at Nugegoda, on the Kelani Valley Line. Also at Nugegoda is the main bus terminus. There are subsidiary bus stands at Pita Kotte. This urban area is well served by buses and there is a CTB bus depot at Udahamulla.

In 2005, a Passenger boat service was being finalised and would commence adjacent to Parliament Junction at Bataramulla and end at the Wellawatte canal near Marine drive. Each journey would take around 30 minutes. It would have stations at the Kotte Marsh, Nawala, Open University, Apollo Hospital, Duplication road, Wellawatte and at St Peter's College, Colombo. The Sri Lanka Navy is  conducting a pilot project between the Open University and Wellawatte.

Health
The main hospital of area situated at Madivela known as Sri Jayawardenepura Hospital is a gift from the Japanese government. There is a dedicated Eye & ENT hospital at Rajagiriya, and another maternity hospital under construction in Nawala. A small private health centre, the Blue Cross Hospital at Rajagiriya, provides basic facilities for medical diagnostics, and there is a small nursing home in Park Lane, Welikada, much patronised by Maldivians.

Education
There are a number of state and private schools in Kotte. They are either "national schools" (run by the central government; Main School President's College, Sri Jayawardenepura Kotte), "government schools" (run by the Provincial Councils), semi-government/private schools, or International schools (run by trusts and individuals; Gateway College Colombo is an example of the latter class of school).

The oldest English school on the island is Sri Jayawardenepura Maha Vidyalaya, formerly known as Christian College, located in Pita Kotte. The Ananda Sastralaya at Pita Kotte is the oldest Buddhist school in the city, and Anula Vidyalaya, Nugegoda is the third-largest Buddhist girls school in South Asia, with over 5000 students.

The Education Ministry as well as the Department of Examinations is based in Kotte.

A considerable number of the students living within the zone study at government owned colleges and International schools in Colombo.

Located at Nawala is the Open University, Sri Lanka, and at Nugegoda is the University of Sri Jayewardenepura. Public Libraries are conveniently located, and can be found at Nugegoda and Rajagiriya.

Climate
Sri Jayawardenepura Kotte features a tropical rainforest climate (Köppen: Af) more subject to the Intertropical Convergence Zone than the trade winds. Since there are a few cyclones, the climate is not purely equatorial but subequatorial, with little variation in temperatures throughout the course of the year. The city does feature wetter and drier months, with February on average being its driest month, seeing on average  of precipitation. However, since none of the average monthly precipitation falls below , Sri Jayawardenepura Kotte falls under the tropical rainforest climate category.

Sports and recreation

Cricket is the most popular sport in this urban area as well as the country and is usually played in the grounds around the city.

Association football was at one time the most popular sport in the Colombo area, although it was eclipsed by cricket after 1980. Four separate football clubs (Lido, Welikada Progress, Welikada Red Star and Welikada United) once used the EW Perera Park grounds at Welikada, Rajagiriya where a pavilion was constructed in the 1970s. However, when the grounds were destroyed by the JR Jayawardene regime in the late 1970s, the football clubs disappeared. Football continued to be played at the grounds at Obeysekerapura in Rajagiriya.

In the 1990s, the Kotte Municipal Council constructed the Chandra Silva Stadium, to replace the EW Perera Grounds. Part of the grounds was sold and later used to construct the HSBC building. In 2007 the Municipality, with aid from the Ministry of Urban Development, completed the first stage of the new Chandra Silva Stadium on the site of a rubbish dump behind the HSBC building.

Recently, football has once more grown in popularity, and the sport now has a considerable following. The football association's new training facility at Kotte is aimed at harnessing and developing the available talent and organizing the individual players into a cohesive team. It includes a football playground with a sprinkler system, gym and a host of other facilities.

Other sports are mostly played in the numerous clubs and gyms, and include tennis, squash, billiards, horse riding, indoor cricket, badminton and table tennis. Horse riding can be pursued at the Premadasa Riding School in Nugegoda.

Notable residents
 Edward Walter Perera (1875–1953), a Ceylonese (Sri Lankan) barrister, politician and freedom fighter.
 Sir James Peter Obeyesekere II Maha Mudaliyar, JP (1879–1968), a Ceylonese colonial-era headmen, the last Head Mudaliyar and served as aide-de-camp to the British Governor of Ceylon and Governor General of Ceylon.
 Tissa Abeysekara (1939–2009), an eminent film personality.

See also

 University of Sri Jayewardenepura

References

External links

 Sri Jayawardanapura Kotte Municipal Council
 University of Sri Jayawardenepura
 1400–1565 A. D

Capitals in Asia
Planned communities
Populated places in Western Province, Sri Lanka
Planned capitals
Suburbs of Colombo

Sri Jayawardenepura Kotte


El canotier (también conocido como boat o gondolero) es un sombrero de paja de copa recta, parte superior plana y ala corta, plana y rígida, normalmente adornado con una cinta de color, o negra. Es similar al sombrero cordobés de España.

Historia
Surgió en 1880 y era propio de los gondoleros de Venecia (Italia), que lo solían adornar con una cinta larga (nastro del doppio), para distinguirse de los oficiales de marina. También es símbolo de los colegiales de Oxford. A finales del , el sombrero se puso de moda en Francia, por la exaltación de la navegación "du canotaje", de ahí su nombre. Paralelamente los inmigrantes italianos lo pusieron de moda en América, donde obtuvo su máximo esplendor en la primera mitad del .

Se trata de un sombrero muy elaborado, hecho con paja sennit trenzada como el rostik japonés. Se cosían las tres partes del sombrero: tapa, copa y ala por separado y después, se unían con caucho. Se solía adornar con una cinta negra o de color azul o de rayas que a menudo representan una escuela, una tripulación de remo o una institución. La máquina con la que se cosía el canotier estaba creada específicamente para este tipo de sombrero. En el museo de la paja de Florencia, se exhibe una extraordinaria colección de estas máquinas.

Se solía usar en verano por navegantes y deportistas, usándolo tanto mujeres como hombres, marcando un alto nivel social. También era utilizado por la clase media en sus comidas campestres, excursiones de fin de semana o acontecimientos más formales.

El sombrero de la gente

Con el tiempo, el canotier fue utilizado por todas las clases sociales. Era utilizado por los actores musicales del vodevil, así como por los agentes del FBI en los tiempos de la pre-guerra. En el mundo del cine, los actores Gene Kelly, Fred Astaire o Maurice Chevalier fueron los máximos representantes del canotier. En películas como "Inherit the Wind"(1960), de Stanley Kramer o "The Music Man"(1962), de Robert Preston, el canotier se convirtió en un complemento indispensable. En Francia está representado en célebres cuadros de Auguste Renoir. En Italia el mayor portador del canotier es el ingeniero Stefano  Zacchè.

Coco Chanel eligió el canotier como símbolo de la nueva era, consiguiendo imponer el sombrero como uno de los símbolos de la nueva mujer. El primer triunfo de Coco se produjo durante una visita al hipódromo antes de la I Guerra Mundial. Solo tocada con un sombrero canotier y un sencillo traje sastre se enfrentó a plumas, rellenos y damas encorsetadas. Todo París comenzó a hablar de sus sombreros.

Referencias

 El canotier en Chanel Consultado el 5-2-12
 El canotier en Wordpress Consultado el 5-2-12

Cultura de Venecia
Sombreros

Canotier


Crucea latină este o cruce formată dintr-un braț orizontal mai scurt, care se intersectează la mijloc cu un braț vertical mai lung.
Crucea latină evocă forma crucifixului din tradiția creștină.
Forma crucii latine se regăsește frecvent în planurile lăcașurilor de cult creștine.

Vezi și
 Cruce greacă

Simboluri creștine

Cruce latină


Jaime Manuel Penedo Cano (født 26. september 1981 i Panama City, Panama), er en panamansk fodboldspiller (målmand). Han spiller i Rumænien for Dinamo București, som han har repræsenteret siden 2016.

Landshold
Penedo har (pr. juni 2018) spillet 50 kampe for Panamas landshold, som han debuterede for 29. juni 2003 i en venskabskamp mod Cuba. Han var en del af den panamanske trup til VM 2018 i Rusland.

Referencer

Eksterne henvisninger

Fodboldspillere fra Panama
Deltagere ved verdensmesterskabet i fodbold 2018
Fodboldspillere fra CA Osasuna
Fodboldspillere fra Los Angeles Galaxy
Fodboldspillere fra FC Dinamo Bucureşti

Jaime Penedo


În biochimie, lanțul transportor de electroni (LTE) este o serie de complecși proteinici care au ca scop transferul intracelular de electroni (e-), de la donori la acceptori, prin intermediul unor procese redox (reacții de reducere și de oxidare care au loc simultan). Lanțul transportor de electroni cuplează transferul de electroni cu transferul membranar de protoni (H+). Astfel, se formează un gradient electrochimic care duce la sinteza de adenozintrifosfat (ATP), compus care are un rol esențial în metabolismul energetic celular și vehicularea energiei chimice sub forma legăturilor chimice macroergice care pot participa la efectuarea unor reacții biochimice care nu pot avea loc spontan în sensul necesar metabolismului celular.

Sinteza ATP-ului este catalizată de către enzima denumită ATP-sintetază.

Compușii care participă în acest lanț sunt în general peptide și enzime (proteine), iar acceptorul final de electron din lanț (în respirația aerobă) este oxigenul molecular. În respirația anaerobă se regăsesc și alți acceptori finali, de exemplu ionul sulfat.

În mitocondrie
Majoritatea celulelor eucariote posedă mitocondrii, la nivelul cărora se obține ATP din produși ai ciclului Krebs, metabolismului acizilor grași și ai metabolismului proteic. La nivelul membranei interne mitocondriale, electronii cedați de NADH și FADH2 trec prin lanțul transportor de electroni, având ca destinație finală moleculele de oxigen, ducând la formarea de apă. Lanțul este alcătuit dintr-o serie de enzime cu rol de donor și acceptor de electroni. Fiecare donor de electroni va transfera electronii unui acceptor mai electronegativ, care la rândul său va transfera electronii pe următorul acceptor, iar procesul continuă până la acceptorul final cel mai electronegativ, oxigenul. În urma acestui transport al electronilor între donor și acceptor se eliberează energie, iar energia va fi utilizată pentru generarea unui gradient de protoni de o parte și de alta a membranei mitocondriale. Procesul poartă numele de fosforilare oxidativă, iar ADP-ul este fosforilat la ATP folosindu-se energia generată în lanț.

În momentul în care electronii nu sunt transportați prin întreg lanțul și nu ajung la molecula de oxigen, are loc formarea de specii reactive de oxigen, radicali liberi precum superoxidul.

La procariote

Fotosintetic

Note

Vezi și
 Fosforilare oxidativă
 Ciclul acidului citric
 Navete mitocondriale

Legături externe

 Khan Academy, video (în engleză)

Respirație celulară

Lanțul transportor de electroni


Voix ouvrière ist eine französische Zeitschrift. Gegründet wurde sie 1956 durch Mitglieder, die vormals der trotzkistischen Groupe Barta angehörten. Der rumänisch-französische militante Kommunist, Gewerkschafter und Journalist David Korner verfasste unter dem Pseudonym Barta Artikel für die Zeitschrift.

Anfangs erschien die Zeitschrift als Journal mit kleiner Auflage mehrere Jahre lang zusammen mit der Gruppe PCI-Lambert. Die alle zwei Monate erscheinende Voix ouvrière bimensuel wurde ab 1963 veröffentlicht. Zunächst hatte das  einflussreiche pamphletartige Blatt nur vier Seiten mit einer Auflage von 6000 Stück, verdoppelte seinen Umfang später auf acht Seiten. Ab 1967 erschien die Zeitschrift wöchentlich. Nach der Studentenrevolte und dem Generalstreik von Mai–Juni 1968 wurde die Voix ouvrière, wie alle trotzkistischen und linksextremen Bewegungen und Vereinigungen durch ein Dekret des Präsidenten der Republik Charles de Gaulle vom 12. Juni 1968 verboten.

Die Bewegung formiert sich jedoch erneut, diesmal unter dem Namen ihrer Zeitschrift mit dem neuen Titel Lutte ouvrière.

Einzelnachweise

Kommunistische Organisation oder Vereinigung
Politische Zeitschrift (Frankreich)
Trotzkismus
Ersterscheinung 1956
Antiquarische Zeitschrift (Frankreich)
Erscheinen eingestellt 1968

fr:Voix ouvrière

Voix ouvrière (Organisation)


Flavia Bujor () este o scriitoare franceză de origine română. Ea era cunoscută deja la vârsta de 13 ani ca autoarea romanului fantezist "La prophétie des pierres".

Biografie
Familia ei s-a mutat în Franța când ea avea doi ani. Astăzi locuiește cu părinții la Paris.

Prima ei carte, "Oracolul lui Oonagh" a scris-o în doar șase luni, în 2001. Mai întâi, a distribuit cartea, capitol cu capitol,  colegilor, profesorul ei de franceză a trimis lucrarea diferitelor edituri, astfel încât a putut fi publicată în anul următor. Datorită vârstei autoarei, cartea a primit multă atenție în mass-media, ceea ce a făcut să aibă un mare succes în Franța și a fost tradusă în alte 23 de limbi.

Bibliografie
 La prophétie des pierres (ediție originală), Editions Anne Carriere, Paris, 2002,

Note

Legături externe

 perlentaucher.de: Flavia Bujor. Oracolul lui Oonagh

Nașteri în 1988
Romanciere franceze
Români expatriați în Franța
Scriitoare din secolul al XXI-lea
Bucureșteni
Scriitori români în viață
Francezi în viață
Nașteri pe 8 august

Flavia Bujor


An Centrochloa singularis in uska species han Liliopsida nga ginhulagway ni Jason Richard Swallen. An Centrochloa singularis in nahilalakip ha genus nga Centrochloa, ngan familia nga Poaceae. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Centrochloa

Centrochloa singularis


David Graham was the pen name of Evan (or Wilbur) Wright (1919–1994), a British crime fiction author who is mainly remembered for his post-apocalyptic novel, Down to a Sunless Sea.

Bibliography
David Graham served with the RAF as a fighter pilot during World War 2, and subsequently as a flying instructor. He later worked as a technical author for a hovercraft company.

Novels

As David Graham
Down to a Sunless Sea (1979)
Sidewall (1983)
Seven Years to Sunset (1985)

As Wilbur Wright
Carter's Castle (1983)
Now Centurion (1991)

References

1919 births
1994 deaths
British crime fiction writers
20th-century British novelists

David Graham (author)


Jekaterina Sergejevna Levsja, fødselsnavn Sukhanova ( ; født 6. april 1993, i Majkop, Rusland) er en russisk håndboldspiller, som spiller i Metz Handball og tidligere Ruslands kvindehåndboldlandshold.

Referencer

Håndboldspillere fra Rusland
Håndboldspillere fra Metz Handball
Personer fra Majkop

Jekaterina Levsja


George Packer (born ca. 1960) is a US journalist, novelist, and playwright. He is best known for his writings for The New Yorker and The Atlantic about U.S. foreign policy and for his book The Assassins' Gate: America in Iraq. Packer also wrote The Unwinding: An Inner History of the New America, covering the history of the US from 1978 to 2012. In November 2013, The Unwinding received the National Book Award for Nonfiction. His award-winning biography, Our Man: Richard Holbrooke and the End of the American Century, was released in May 2019. His latest book, Last Best Hope: America in Crisis and Renewal was released in June 2021.

Early life and education
Packer was born in California around 1960. His parents taught at Stanford University: his mother, Nancy Packer (née Huddleston), was a Wallace Stegner Fellow in the Creative Writing Program and later professor of English, and his father, Herbert L. Packer, was a distinguished professor of law, and the author of numerous books and articles. Packer's maternal grandfather, George Huddleston, Sr., had served eleven successive terms (1915–1937) representing Alabama's 9th congressional district in the U.S. House of Representatives. His uncle, George Huddleston, Jr., succeeded to his father's seat in the House of Representatives from 1954 to 1964. Packer's sister, Ann Packer, also is a writer. Their father's background was Jewish and their mother's Christian. In a 2022 talk for House of SpeakEasy's Seriously Entertaining program, Packer shared that his father took his own life when he (Packer) was twelve years old, calling it "the big event of my childhood."

Packer graduated from Yale College in 1982, where he resided at Calhoun College (now called Grace Hopper College). He served in the Peace Corps in Togo.

Packer is married to writer and editor Laura Secor. He was previously married to Michele Millon.

Career
His essays and articles have appeared in Boston Review, The Nation, World Affairs, Harper's, The New York Times, and The New Yorker, among other publications. Packer was a columnist for Mother Jones and was a staff writer for The New Yorker from 2003 to 2018. He now writes for The Atlantic.

Packer was a Holtzbrinck Fellow Class of Fall 2009 at the American Academy in Berlin.

His 2005 book The Assassins' Gate: America in Iraq analyzes the events that led to the 2003 invasion of Iraq and reports on subsequent developments in that country, largely based on interviews with ordinary Iraqis. He was a supporter of the Iraq war. He was a finalist for the 2004 Michael Kelly Award.

In July 2013 the New Yorker Festival released a video entitled Geoffrey Canada on Giving Voice to the Have-nots, of a panel that was moderated by George Packer. Along with Canada, the panelists included Abhijit Banerjee, Katherine Boo, and Jose Antonio Vargas.

The Unwinding: An Inner History of the New America focuses on the ways that America changed in the years between 1978 and 2012. The book achieves this mainly by tracing the lives of various individuals from different backgrounds through the years. Interspersed are capsule biographies of influential figures of the time such as Colin Powell, Newt Gingrich, Elizabeth Warren, Jay-Z, and Raymond Carver.

In 2019, Packer released a book titled Our Man: Richard Holbrooke and the End of the American Century, a full-scale scholarly biography of Richard Holbrooke, one of the most influential U.S. diplomats of the late 20th Century. Our Man was a finalist for the 2020 Pulitzer Prize Finalist in Biography.

His 2021 book Last Best Hope: America in Crisis and Renewal describes the fragmentation of American society in recent decades into four mutually antagonistic "four Americas": "Free America" (economically liberal), "Smart America" (educated, affluent and socially liberal), "Real America" (white rural precariat) and "Just America" (urban, progressive and economically disadvantaged).

Awards and honors

2005 Cornelius Ryan Award, The Assassin's Gate
2013 National Book Award for Nonfiction, The Unwinding
2013 National Book Critics Circle Award (Nonfiction) shortlist for The Unwinding
2017 Whiting Creative Nonfiction Grant to complete Richard Holbrooke and the End of the American Century
2019 Hitchens Prize  Our Man: Richard Holbrooke and the End of the American Century
2019 Los Angeles Times Book Prize (biography) for Our Man: Richard Holbrooke and the End of the American Century
2019 Pulitzer Prize finalist for Our Man: Richard Holbrooke and the End of the American Century

Bibliography

References

External links

George Packer articles at The New Yorker
George Packer articles at Foreign Affairs
George Packer articles at The New York Times

1960 births
20th-century American novelists
21st-century American novelists
American male journalists
American male novelists
Jewish American dramatists and playwrights
Living people
The New Yorker staff writers
Writers from California
Yale College alumni
20th-century American dramatists and playwrights
American male essayists
American male dramatists and playwrights
20th-century American essayists
21st-century American essayists
20th-century American male writers
21st-century American male writers
The Atlantic (magazine) people
21st-century American Jews

George Packer


Ortabatı eyaletleri (İngilizce: Midwestern United States veya kısaca Midwest) ABD'nin orta-kuzey bölgesinde bulunan bir grup eyaleti anlatmak için kullanılan deyim. Bu bölgedeki toprakların eyalet statüsünü kazandığı 19. yüzyılın ilk yarısında bu eyaletler, Büyük Okyanusu kıyısında kalan batı eyaletlerine oranla daha yakın oldukları için bu şekilde adlandırılırlar. Hangi eyaletlerin bu gruba girdiği deyimi kullanan kişiden kişiye değişiklik gösterse de, şu eyaletler her zaman için bu gruba dahil edilirler: Ohio, Michigan, İndiana, İllinois, Wisconsin, Minnesota, Iowa; şu eyaletler de zaman zaman kısmen veya tamamen bu gruba dahil edilebilirler: Batı Virginia, Kentucky, Missouri, Kansas, Nebraska, Güney Dakota, Kuzey Dakota. Bölgenin önemli şehirlerinin bazıları ise şunlardır: Chicago, Cleveland, Columbus, Indianapolis, Detroit.

Yerleşim
18. yüzyılın sonunda, ABD bağımsızlık savaşının hemen ardından Avrupalılarca yerleşilmeye başlanan bölge, mısır ve buğday üretimine uygun toprağıyla pek çok yerleşimciyi kendine çekmiştir. Daha sonraları 19. yüzyılda nehir ve göl taşımacılığı sayesinde gelişmiş, bunu demiryolları ve sanayileşme izlemiştir. Sanayileşmenin getirdiği refah da 20. yüzyılda güneyli zenci nüfusun Ortabatı eyaletlerine göçüne neden olmuştur. ABD'nin kuruluşu aşamasında köleci ve köleci olmayan eyaletler arasında varılan bir anlaşma uyarınca köleliğin hiçbir zaman olmadığı bu bölge, bu göç nedeniyle bugün çok önemli oranda bir zenci nüfus barındırır.

Kültür
Çoğunlukla Almanya, İsveç, Hollanda gibi kuzey ve batı Avrupa ülkelerinden gelen göçmenlerin torunları olan Ortabatılılar, ülke genelinde dindarlıkları, arkadaş canlısı olmaları ve inatçılıklarıyla tanınırlar. Bunun yanında standart Amerikan İngilizcesinin Ortabatı eyaletlerinde konuşulan İngilizce olduğu görüşü ülke çapında yaygındır. Bu nedenle ABD'de pek çok televizyon spikeri Ortabatı kökenlidir. Belki de bölge kültüründe çok önemli bir yeri olan Protestanlık'ın ve Kalvinizm'in eğitime verdiği önemin bir sonucu olarak bölge dünyaca tanınan pek çok üniversiteye ev sahipliği yapmaktadır. Bunlardan Chicago Üniversitesi, Cambridge Üniversitesi'nin ardından dünyada en çok Nobel Ödülü çıkaran ikinci üniversitedir.

Siyasi kültür açısından ise bölge büyük farklar gösterir. Bölge Cumhuriyetçi Parti'nin doğduğu yer olmasına ve Indiana gibi yıllardır hep Cumhuriyetçi adayları destekleyen eyaletlerin mevcudiyetine rağmen Demokrat Parti de bu bölgenin çeşitli kesimlerinde büyük oranda oy toplayabilmektedir. Şikago ve Cleveland gibi büyük şehirlerdeki Demokrat Parti etkinliğinin yanı sıra, özellikle Iowa, Wisconsin, Illinois ve Minnesota'dan oluşan yukarı Ortabatı bölgesinin kırsal kesimleri de Demokrat Parti taraftarlıklarıyla öne çıkarlar.

Ortabatı eyaletleri


Ceratocanthidae ist eine Familie der Käfer aus der Überfamilie Scarabaeoidea. Die Familie ist die wohl am wenigsten untersuchte Gruppe der Überfamilie.

Merkmale

Käfer
Die Käfer haben eine Körperlänge von 2,0 bis 9,0 Millimeter. Sie können ihren Körper in der Regel so zusammenrollen, dass sämtliche Extremitäten innerhalb einer kompakten Kugel geschützt sind. Ihr Körper ist braun, schwarz, grünlich oder mit violettem Ton gefärbt und hat häufig einen metallischen Schimmer. Der Kopf ist stark nach unten abgewinkelt. Die acht- bis zehngliedrigen Fühler haben eine dreisegmentige Keule am Ende. Der dreieckige Scapus ist vergrößert. Die Facettenaugen sind zumindest teilweise geteilt. Ihre Ommatidien sind vom euconen Typ. Die Stirnplatte (Clypeus) trägt keine Tuberkel oder Hörner. Das Labrum ist verkürzt und teilweise unterhalb des Stirnplattenrandes verdeckt. Der Epipharynx ist an der Spitze sklerotisiert, zum Körper hin (proximal) ist er membranös. Bei dessen sklerotisierten Bereichen (Tormae) ist der mediane tormale Fortsatz ausgebildet, die seitlichen sind einzeln oder doppelt ausgebildet. Die Mandibeln haben eine sklerotisierte Basis und eine scharfe Spitze, sowie eine gut entwickelte mesiale Bürste. Diese ist bei der Gattung Pterorthochaetes in einen distalen und mesialen Kamm geteilt. Die Galea ist normalerweise groß und hat bei manchen Arten dorsal und ventral ein Gelenksklerit, oder ist proximal sklerotisiert. Die Palpi sind viergliedrig, mit Ausnahme bei Pterorthochaetes, bei der sie dreigliedrig sind.

Das breite Pronotum ist zur Seite erweitert. An den Beinen sind die Hüften (Coxen) der Vorderbeine kegelförmig und treten deutlich hervor. Die Hüften der mittleren Beine liegen schräg. Die Schienen (Tibien) der mittleren und hinteren Beine sind horizontal abgeflacht und verbreitert. Ein Empodium fehlt. Die Deckflügel (Elytren) sind konvex und haben eine sehr unterschiedlich strukturierte oder sehr glatte Oberfläche. Sie sind bei manchen Arten behaart. Die Tracheenöffnungen am Mesothorax sind vom allgemeinen Typ, die Intersegmentalia sind jedoch speziell verändert. An den Flügeln ist die extrem lange und schmale Ader 1Ax-FSc2 stark nach vorne gerichtet. Die Tracheenöffnungen am Hinterleib sind alle funktional. Das letzte Paar befindet sich am Tergit des entsprechenden Segments. Die männlichen Geschlechtsteile sind unterschiedlich strukturiert. Ihr basaler Teil ist meist asymmetrisch und uneben sklerotisiert. Bei manchen Arten ist eine ventrale oder laterale Apophyse ausgebildet. Die Paramere sind in der Regel im Verhältnis zu diesem basalen Teil klein und ebenfalls meistens asymmetrisch. Der mediane Lobus ist mit Ausnahme der Gattungen Pseudopterorthochaetes und Pterorthochaetes stark zurückgebildet. Der Saccus ist groß und mit mehreren Armaturen bestückt, die Armaturen können jedoch auch zurückgebildet sein oder fehlen. Die Genitalkapsel ist je nach Art gut entwickelt bis zu zurückgebildet. Sie ist symmetrisch oder asymmetrisch. Die weiblichen Genitalien bestehen aus einem an der Mittellinie membranösen neunten Tergit und haben keine Styli. Bei manchen Arten sind an der Bursa copulatrix Sklerite ausgebildet.

Larven
Der Körper der Larven ist in einem breiten C geformt. Die Segmente des Thorax und die ersten sechs Hinterleibssegmente sind am Rücken in drei Falten untergliedert. Ocelli sind keine ausgebildet. Die Frontoclypealnaht kann ausgebildet sein oder fehlen. Die Fühler sind viergliedrig. Sie haben einen großen Sinnesfleck am letzten Glied, der ungefähr die Hälfte dessen Oberfläche umfasst. Die Mandibeln haben dorsal einen rechtwinkelig abgewinkelten Kiel. Die Galea und Lacinia sind deutlich voneinander getrennt. Die Hinterbeine sind in ihrer Länge nicht verkürzt. Den Larven fehlt der Schließmechanismus bei den Tracheenöffnungen.

Verbreitung
Die Ceratocanthidae sind pantropisch verbreitet. Nur wenige Arten kommen in den gemäßigten Regionen der beiden Amerikas, Südafrika und dem Südosten der Paläarktis vor. In Europa ist die Familie nicht vertreten, in Nordamerika nördlich von Mexiko treten nur drei Arten auf. Der überwiegende Teil der Arten besiedelt tropische Regenwälder, einige wenige leben auch in gemäßigten oder tropischen Saisonwäldern, oder in Lebensräumen mit Savannen- und Waldanteilen.

Lebensweise
Die Imagines wurden in der Regel in totem Pflanzenmaterial, wie etwa Bodenstreu gefunden, werden jedoch auch nachts durch künstliche Lichtquellen angelockt. Man findet sie jedoch auch gemeinsam mit den Larven in Totholz und unter Rinde. Manche Arten sind mit Ameisen und Termiten vergesellschaftet und sind dafür anscheinend speziell angepasst. So können sie den Kopf und den Halsschild scharf anwinkeln und die Beine zum Schutz der Bauchseite anlegen. Die Arten der Gattung Ivieolus konnten bisher nur in großer Zahl in Fallen für fliegende Tiere gesammelt werden. Sie sind in ihrer Körperform stark adaptiert. Anhand ihrer Mundwerkzeuge wird zwar vermutet, dass sie an Pilzen fressen, manche Autoren vermuten jedoch sogar, dass diese Tiere überhaupt in der Luft leben.

Taxonomie und Systematik
Die Familie wird derzeit in drei Unterfamilien unterteilt, die ungefähr 40 Gattungen und 320 Arten umfassen, wobei jedoch ungefähr noch einmal so viele schon entdeckte Arten, die der Familie zugerechnet werden, bisher noch unbeschrieben sind. Ungefähr 180 Arten in 16 Gattungen sind bisher aus der Neuen Welt bekannt. Die Verwandtschaftsverhältnisse zwischen den drei Unterfamilien sind unbekannt.

Die Monophylie der Familie ist nur durch folgende zwei Autapomorphien der Imagines begründet: Die Tracheenöffnungen am Mesothorax sind vom allgemeinen Typ und die Flügelader 1Ax-FSc2 ist stark nach vorne gerichtet und extrem lang und schmal. Es ist sehr wahrscheinlich, dass die Familie eine der weiter entwickelten Gruppen innerhalb der Gruppe der nahen Verwandten der Zuckerkäfer (Passalidae) ist. Die Merkmale der Larven legen eine nahe Verwandtschaft mit den Hybosoridae nahe und es ist nicht ausgeschlossen, dass die Familie eigentlich eine weiter entwickelte Gruppe innerhalb der Hybosoridae darstellt.

Belege

Einzelnachweise

Literatur

Käfer
Coleoptera

Ceratocanthidae


Şerafettin Elçi (14 Mart 1938 – 25 Aralık 2012) Kürt avukat ve siyasetçi. Katılımcı Demokrasi Partisi kurucu genel başkanı.

Yaşam öyküsü
Hukuk fakültesi mezunu olan ve 49'lar Davasından yargılanmış olan Elçi, sekiz ay boyunca Diyarbakır Cezaevi'nde yattı. 1977'de Mardin milletvekili seçilerek meclise girdi ve 1978-79 yılları arasında Ecevit hükûmetinde Bayındırlık Bakanı olarak görev yaptı. 12 Eylül Darbesi sonrası otuz ay hapis yattı. 12 Haziran 2011 seçimleri'nde BDP'nin desteklediği bağımsız adaylardan biri olarak meclise girdi. Eski futbolcu ve teknik direktör Mustafa Denizli'nin kayınpederidir.

Kanser tedavisi gören Elçi, 25 Aralık 2012 tarihinde Ankara'da öldü.

Siyasi kariyeri

70'li ve 80'li yıllar
İlk ve ortaokulu Cizre'de, liseyi Mardin'de okudu. Yüksek öğrenimini, Ankara Üniversitesi Hukuk Fakültesi'nde tamamladıktan sonra, Diyarbakır'da avukatlık stajı yaptı. Talebeliği döneminde, 49'lar Davası diye bilinen "Kürtçülük Davası"ndan yargılandı. Cizre'de bir süre avukatlık mesleğini icra etti. 12 Mart 1971 Muhtırası döneminde, Türkiye Kürdistan Demokrat Partisi sanıkları arasında Diyarbakır Askeri Mahkemesi'nde yargılandı. Sekiz ay kadar  Askeri Cezaevi'nde tutuklu kaldı.

1977 Türkiye genel seçimlerinde Mardin milletvekili olarak, parlamentoya girdi. 22 Aralık 1977'de Bülent Ecevit, İstanbul Florya semtinde bulunan Güneş Moteli'nde daha sonra 11'ler olarak anılacak Adalet Partisi'nden ayrılan bağımsız milletvekillerden Enver Akova, Ali Rıza Septioğlu, Mustafa Kılıç, Mete Tan, Tuncay Mataracı, Güneş Öngüt, Orhan Alp, Ahmet Karaaslan, Hilmi İşgüzar, Oğuz Atalay ve Şerafettin Elçi ile görüşmüş ve yeni kurulacak hükûmetteki bakanlık koltuğu karşılığıyla Demirel hükûmeti aleyhindeki gensorunu desteklemesi konusunda anlaşmıştı. Şerafettin Elçi kurulan hükûmette 1978–1979 yılları arasında, Bayındırlık Bakanı olarak görev yaptı.

12 Eylül Darbesi'nden sonra tutuklandı. Bakan bulunduğu dönemde "Türkiye'de Kürtler var, ben de Kürdüm" şeklindeki açıklamalarından dolayı, Ankara Sıkıyönetim Mahkemesince 2 yıl 3 ay cezaya çarptırıldı. Yine Bakanlığı döneminde, "bazı Kürtleri işe aldı" diye Yüce Divan'da yargılandı ve 2 yıl 4 aya mahkûm oldu. Bu cezalardan dolayı, otuz ayı aşkın bir süre cezaevinde kaldı. Bu cezaların bir sonucu olarak, 10 yıl kadar siyasi haklardan mahrum bırakıldı ve avukatlık mesleğini yapmaktan alıkonuldu.

90'lı yıllar
1992'de, doksan sekiz Kürt ile birlikte Kürt Hak ve Özgürlükler Vakfı'nı kurdu. Vakfın Kurucu Başkanlığı'nı yürüttü. Uzun bir hukuki mücadelenin sonucunda, söz konusu vakıf, 1995'te Kürt Kültür ve Araştırma Vakfı olarak tescil edildi. Bu sayede, Cumhuriyet tarihinde ilk olarak, "Kürt" adı ile bir kurum resmiyet kazanmış oldu. Gene aynı sene 1995 seçimlerinde CHP Şırnak milletvekili adayı oldu. 1994'te bir grup arkadaşıyla birlikte, Kürt Demokratik Platformu'nun kuruluşuna öncülük etti. Bu platformun sözcülüğünü yürüttü. Kürt Demokratik Platformu, 3 Ocak 1997'de kurulan Demokratik Kitle Partisi'nin oluşum faaliyetlerini yürüttü. Demokratik Kitle Partisi'nin kuruluşu ile birlikte, Parti'nin Genel Başkanlığı'na getirildi. Demokratik Kitle Partisi, 26 Şubat 1999 tarihinde Anayasa Mahkemesi tarafından kapatıldı. Daha sonra 19 Aralık 2006 tarihinde kurulan Katılımcı Demokrasi Partisi'nin Genel Başkanlığına getirildi.

2000'ler
12 Haziran 2011 seçimlerinde Diyarbakır ilinden bağımsız milletvekili seçilmiştir. Şerafettin Elçi, milletvekili yemini için, "Parlamentoda edilecek yemini kabul etmemiz mümkün değil. Bu yemin faşizan bir anlayışla, sadece Türk şoven anlayışıyla hazırlanmış bir yemindir. Hiçbir zaman bu yemin bizim kabulleneceğimiz, benimseyeceğimiz, siyasi mücadele olarak bağlı kalacağımız bir yemin değil." diye açıklamada bulunmuştur.

Çözüm Süreci'ni destekledi. PKK'nın "sadece onurlu bir barış istediğini" savundu.

Ölümü
Elçi, 25 Aralık 2012'de kanser tedavisi gördüğü Ankara Medicana International Hastanesi'nde öldü. Cenazesi önce Diyarbakır'a götürüldü, ardından yaklaşık 100 bin kişinin katıldığı bir törenle Cizre'de defnedildi.

Havaalanı
Adı, Şırnak'ta 26 Temmuz 2013 tarihinde Başbakan Recep Tayyip Erdoğan tarafından açılışı yapılan Havalimanına verildi.

Kaynakça

1938 doğumlular
Cizre doğumlular
Şırnak doğumlu siyasetçiler
Kürt asıllı Türk siyasetçiler
TBMM 16. dönem Mardin milletvekilleri
TBMM 24. dönem Diyarbakır milletvekilleri
Yüce Divan'da yargılanan siyasetçiler ve bürokratlar
Adalet Partisi mensubu siyasetçiler
20. yüzyıl Türk siyasetçileri
Ankara Üniversitesi Hukuk Fakültesinde öğrenim görenler
Ankara'da kanserden ölenler
Şırnak'ta defnedilenler
2012 yılında ölenler
20. yüzyıl Türk avukatları
21. yüzyıl Türk avukatları

Şerafettin Elçi


La Maison Internationales des Arts de la Marionnette (MIAM), a ouvert ses portes en automne 2018.

Le bâtiment, domicilié dans l'îlot Saint-Viateur dans l'arrondissement d'Outremont à Montréal, a occupé plusieurs fonctions au fil du temps. Originellement, une écurie servant à accueillir les chevaux des pompiers, il a ensuite été transformé en appartement, puis en divers centres communautaires, pour finalement être abandonné en 2006. Entièrement rénové, il a maintenant pour mission la promotion des arts de la marionnette.

Créé conjointement par Casteliers et l'Association québécoise des marionnettistes (AQM), il a bénéficié de subventions municipales dans le cadre d'un programme créé dans le but de soutenir les legs du 375e anniversaire de Montréal.

Outre les locaux de Casteliers et de l'AQM, l'édifice abrite une salle de spectacle, un atelier de fabrication, ainsi qu'une salle multifonctionnelle. Il a été pensé de manière à pouvoir soutenir des activités de diffusion, de résidence, de formation, de promotion et de réseautage.

Liens externes

 https://lamiam.ca/
 https://casteliers.ca/
 https://aqm.ca/

Notes et références

Association ou organisme culturel à Montréal
Association ou organisme lié à la marionnette
Outremont

Maison internationale des arts de la marionnette