The spiral of silence theory is a political science and mass communication theory proposed by the German political scientist Elisabeth Noelle-Neumann. It states that an individual's perception of the distribution of public opinion influences that individual's willingness to express his own opinions, which in turn affects the perceptions and, ultimately, willingness of others to express their opinions. The main idea is that people influence one another's willingness to express opinions through social interaction. According to the spiral of silence theory, individuals will be more confident and outward with their opinion when they notice that their personal opinion is shared throughout a group.  But if the individual notices that his opinion is unpopular with the group he will be more inclined to be reserved and remain silent. In other words, from the individual's perspective, "not isolating himself is more important than his own judgement", meaning his perception of how others in the group perceive him is more important to himself than the need for his opinion to be heard.

According to Glynn (1995), "the major components of the spiral of silence include (1) an issue of public interest; (2) divisiveness on the issue; (3) a quasi-statistical sense that helps an individual perceive the climate of opinion as well as estimate the majority and minority opinion; (4) 'fear of isolation' from social interaction "(though, whether this is a causal factor in the willingness to speak out is contested)"; (5) an individual's belief that a minority (or 'different') opinion isolates oneself from others; and (6) a 'hardcore' group of people whose opinions are unaffected by others' opinions."

Background
In 1974, Elisabeth Noelle-Neumann, a German political scientist, created the model called "Spiral of Silence". She believed that an "individuals willingness to express his or her opinion was a function of how he or she perceived public opinion." In 1947, Neumann and her husband founded the "Public Opinion Organization" in Germany. She was also the President of the "World Association for Public Opinion Research" from 1978 to 1980.

Noelle-Neumann evolved the spiral of silence theory from research on the 1965 West German elections. The research, according to Noelle-Neumann, "measured a lot more than we understood." The two major parties were locked in a dead heat from December until September, with a series of questions of public perception of the election winner was showing steady, independent movement. During the final days of the election, 3 to 4% of the voters shifted in the direction of the public's perception of the winner. A similar shift happened in the 1972 election, which began the development of the spiral of silence as a theory of public opinion.

According to Shelly Neill, "Introduced in 1974, the Spiral of Silence Theory [...] explores hypotheses to determine why some groups remain silent while others are more vocal in forums of public disclosure." The spiral of silence theory suggests that "people who have believed that they hold a minority viewpoint on a public issue will remain in the background where their communication will be restrained; those who believe that they hold a majority viewpoint will be more encouraged to speak." The spiral of silence theory arose from a combination of high public uncertainty about a topic with an increase in the flow of communication.

The theory explains the formation of social norms at both the micro and macro level. "As a micro-theory, the spiral of silence examines opinion expression, controlling for people's predispositions – such as fear of isolation, and also demographic variables that have been shown to influence people's willingness to publicly express opinions on issues, such as agricultural biotechnology." This micro effect is seen in experiments conducted as early as the 1950's, in which a group of students are asked to compare the length of lines. All but one student are coached ahead of time on what answers to give and how to behave. When the coached subjects gave unanimously incorrect answers, the dissenter tended to agree with the majority, at times even when the difference between the lines was so egregious as seven inches. On the macro level, the spiral of silence occurs if more and more members of the perceived minority fall silent. This is when public perceptions of the opinion climate begin to shift. "In other words, a person's individual reluctance to express his or her opinion, simply based on perceptions of what everyone else thinks, has important implications at the social level." As one opinion gains interest, the amount of exposure it receives increases, leading the public to believe it is the majority. The perceived minority then faces the threat and fear of isolation from society unless they conform. As the opinion gains momentum, the perceived minority falls deeper into their silence. This continues until the perceived minority no longer speaks out against it, either by presenting an image of agreement or actually conforming, and the opinion of the perceived majority ultimately becomes a social norm.

The spiral of silence has continued to be observed and studied since then. In today's world, technology can play a key part in the spiral of silence, something that could not have been predicted at the time of its inception. For example, survey data showed that during the 2016 US presidential election, opinion congruency for democratic candidate Hillary Clinton in society at large and for republican candidate Donald Trump on Facebook had indirect associations for willingness to present one's opinion both offline and online.

Since its introduction, a large amount of research has been done by Glynn (1983, 1989), Glynn and McLeod (1985), Katz (1983), LaSora (1991), Price and Allen (1990), Salmon and Kline (1985), Taylor (1982), and Kennamer (1990). There also has been more recent research by Hampton et al. (2014), Chen (2018), and Drew (2022). This list is not exhaustive.

Spiral model
The spiral model is used to visually represent the theory. It claims that an individual is more likely to go down the spiral if his or her opinion does not conform with the perceived majority opinion. The following steps summarize how the process works:
The model begins with individuals' inherent desire to blend with society. The fear of social isolation is necessary for the spiral to occur.
Individuals who notice that their personal opinion is spreading will voice this opinion confidently in public. On the other hand, individuals who notice that their opinions are losing ground will be inclined to adopt a more reserved attitude when expressing their opinions in public.
Representatives of the spreading opinion talk quite a lot while the representatives of the second opinion remain silent. An opinion that is being reinforced in this way appears stronger than it is, while a suppressed opinion will seem weaker than it is.
The result is a spiral process which prompts other individuals to perceive the changes in opinion and follow suit until one opinion becomes established as the prevailing attitude. Meanwhile, the other opinion is pushed back and rejected by most. The end of the spiral refers to the number of people who are not publicly expressing their opinions, due to the fear of isolation.

In summary, the spiral model is a process of formation, change, and reinforcement of public opinion. The tendency of the one to speak up and the other to be silent begins a spiraling process which increasingly establishes one opinion as the dominant one.

Furthermore, Noelle-Neumann describes the spiral of silence as a dynamic process, in which predictions about public opinion become fact as mass media's coverage of the majority opinion becomes the status quo, and the minority becomes less likely to speak out.

Relationship with other kinds of social influence
The basic ideas for the spiral of silence are not unique and are closely related to theories on conformity. In 1987, Kerr, MacCoun, Hansen and Hymes introduced the idea of the "momentum effect". The momentum effect states that if some members of a group move toward a particular opinion, others will follow. Others have described similar "gain-loss effect" (Aronson & Linder, 1965), and "bandwagon effect" (Myers & Lamm, 1976). Experiments also show how the spiral of silence and the bandwagon effect jointly undermine minority positions when pre-election polls are shown to voters.

Epistemology

Public
Scholars have long argued over the concept of public within "public opinion". The use of "public" and "the public" betrays multiple competing meanings. There are three meanings of public. One meaning is the legal sense of public that focuses on openness, for example, a public place or path. A second meaning for the term emphasizes public rights. Lastly, within the phrase public opinion, public is said to have a related but different definition. Public, in this sense, could be characterized as social psychology. Scholars have marveled in amazement at the power public opinion has in making regulations, norms, and moral rules triumph over the individual self without ever troubling legislators, governments, or courts for assistance.

Opinion
"Common Opinion" is what the Scottish social philosopher David Hume called it in his 1739 published work A Treatise of Human Nature. Agreement and a sense of the common are what lay behind the English and French "opinion." In researching the term opinion, Meinung in German, researchers were led back to Plato's Republic. In Plato's Republic, a quote from Socrates conclude that opinion takes the middle position. Immanuel Kant considered the opinion to be an "insufficient judgment, subjectively as well as objectively." How valuable opinion may be was left out; however, the fact that it is suggested to be unified agreement of a population or segment of the population, was still considered.

Public opinion
The term public opinion first emerged in France during the eighteenth century. The definition of public opinion has been debated over time. There has not been much progress in locking in one classification of the phrase public opinion, however Hermann Oncken, a German historian, stated Whoever desires to grasp and define the concept of public opinion will recognize quickly that he is dealing with a Proteus, a being that appears simultaneously in a thousand guises, both visible and as a phantom, impotent and surprisingly efficacious, which presents itself in innumerable transformations and is forever slipping through our fingers just as we believe we have a firm grip on it... That which floats and flows cannot be understood by being locked up in a formula... After all, when asked, everyone knows exactly what public opinion means. It was said to be a "fiction that belonged in a museum of the history of ideas; it could only be of historical interest."

In contradiction to that quote, the term public opinion seemed to not cease. During the early 1970s, Elisabeth Noelle-Neumann was creating the theory of the spiral of silence. She was attempting to explain why Germans who disagreed with Hitler and the Nazi's (many did) remained silent until after his regime ended. This "two-faced" behavior has come to be known as the spiral of silence theory. Noelle-Neumann began to question if she was indeed grabbing a handle on what public opinion actually was. "The spiral of silence might be one of the forms in which public opinion appeared; it might be a process through which a new, youthful public opinion develops or whereby the transformed meaning of an old opinion spreads."

The American sociologist Edward Ross described public opinion in 1898 using the word "cheap". "The equation of 'public opinion' with 'ruling opinion' runs like a common thread through its many definitions. This speaks to the fact that something clinging to public opinion sets up conditions that move individuals to act, even against their own will."

Many possible meanings and definitions of the term have been explored. Scholars have considered the content of public opinion, assumed to consist of public affairs issues. Scholars point out that the emergence of the public opinion depends on an open public discourse rather than "on the discipline imposed by an apparent majority dominant enough to intimidate but whose views may or may not support actions that are in the common interest."

They have also considered whose opinion establishes public opinion, assumed to be persons of a community who are ready to express themselves responsibly about questions of public relevance. Scholars have also looked into the forms of public opinion, said to be those that are openly expressed and accessible; opinions that are made public, especially in the mass media. Controversy surrounding this term spiraled around both words combining to form the phrase.

Neumann (1955) suggests two concepts on public opinion:

Public Opinion as Rationality: The public opinion or "dominant view" comes after conscious rational public discussion. Childs (1965) and Wilson (1933) believe that "the rational model is based on the notion of an enlightened, rational public that is willing to and capable of participating in political processes." In all, it is political and necessary for generating social change.

Public Opinion as Social Control:  This is at the root of the Spiral of Silence Theory. It means that "opinions that can be expressed without risking sanctions or social isolation, or opinions that have to be expressed in order to avoid isolation (Noelle-Neumann 1983). Social systems require cohesion. To achieve this, individuals are threatened with social isolation.

Media and public opinion
Mass media's effects on both public opinion and the perception of the public opinion are central to the Spiral of Silence Theory. One of the earliest works that called attention to the relationship between media and the formation of public opinion was Walter Lippmann's book "Public Opinion," published in 1922. Ideas of Lippmann regarding the effects of media influenced the emergence of the Spiral of Silence Theory. As she is building the spiral theory, Noelle-Neumann states "the reader can only complete and explain the world by making use of a consciousness which in large measure has been created by the mass media."

Agenda-setting theory is another work that Noelle-Neumann builds on as she is characterizing media's effect on the public opinion. Agenda-setting theory describes the relationship between media and public opinion by asserting that the public importance of an issue depends on its salience in the media. Along with setting the agenda, the media further determine the salient issues through a constant battle with other events attempting to gain place in the agenda. The media battle with these news alternatives by creating "pseudo-crises" and "pseudo-novelties."

Media's characteristics as a communication tool further affect people's perception of their own ideas in regard to the public opinion. According to Noelle-Neumann, the media are a "one-sided, indirect, public form of communication, contrasting threefold with the most natural form of human communication, the conversation." When an issue hits the media and proves salient, a dominant point of view usually emerges. These characteristics of the media in particular further overwhelm one's individual ideas.

While some media communication theories assume a passive audience, such as the Hypodermic Needle model, the spiral model assumes an active audience "who consumes media products in the context of their personal and social goals." Knowledge "gained from the mass media may offer ammunition for people to express their opinions and offer a rationale for their own stance." Ho et al. point out that "among individuals who paid high amount of media attention, those who have a low fear of isolation were significantly more likely to offer a rationale for their own opinion than were those who have a high fear of isolation."

Noelle-Neuman regards media central to the formulation of the Spiral of Silence Theory, whereas some scholars argue whether the dominant idea in one's social environment overwhelms the dominant idea that media propose as the perceived social norm. Some empirical research align with this perspective; suggesting that the "micro-climate" of an individual overwhelms the effects of the media. Other articles further suggest that talking with others is the primary way of understanding the opinion climate.

Social Media has contributed to the Spiral of Silence Theory. Researchers,  found that social media actually weakens this theory. This theory suggests that the minority are uncomfortable expressing their opinions because of the fear of isolation, but, "the vocal minority are comfortable expressing unpopular views, questioning the explanatory power of this popular theory in the online context."

Perception
The Spiral of Silence Theory rests on perception as individuals constantly scan their environment to assess the climate to possibly find the dominant point of view. Perception matters because these opinions influence an individual's behavior and attitudes. How can individuals do this? Sherif (1967) believes individuals use frames of reference based on past experience -- "social environment as a frame of reference for interpreting new information has important implications for public opinion research." According to Gestalt psychology, when individuals are presented with information with "an appropriate frame of reference by which to interpret it" they are uncomfortable in the social environment (e.g. behavioral influence).

Assumptions

Fear of isolation
The spiral of silence can lead to a social group or society isolating or excluding members due to the members' opinions. This stipulates that individuals have a fear of isolation. This fear of isolation consequently leads to remaining silent instead of voicing opinions. Media is an important factor that influences both the dominant idea and people's perception of what the dominant idea is. The assessment of one's social environment may not always correlate with reality.

The fear of isolation is the "engine that drives the spiral of silence". Essentially, people fear becoming social isolates and thus take measures to avoid such a consequence, as demonstrated by psychologist Solomon Asch in the Asch conformity experiments. People feel more comfortable agreeing with the dominant opinions instead of expressing their own ideas.

An underlying idea of the spiral of silence theory is that public opinion acts as a form of social control. According to Noelle-Neumann's definition this key concept describes "opinions on controversial issues that one can express in public without isolating oneself". This assumption supposed that public opinion is governed by norms and conventions, the violation of which will lead to sanctions against those individuals. Going off of this assumption that going against public opinion will lead to social sanctions, Noelle-Neumann assumes that human beings have an inherent fear of isolation and will adapt their behavior so that they will not be isolated from others. This "fear of isolation" is so strong that people will not express opinions if they assume that these opinions differ from public opinion.

Based on this assumption it follows that people will constantly monitor their social environment in order to assess whether their opinion diverges from public opinion and will decide whether or not to voice their opinion based on their assessment of the public opinion on an issue. Noelle-Neumann attributed this ability of assessing opinion climate on an issue to the so-called "quasi-statistical organ", which refers to how individuals unconsciously assess the distribution of viewpoints and the chances that certain viewpoints will succeed over others. According to Noelle-Neumann everyone is affected by this fear of isolation and the ensuing self-censoring except for about 15% of the general population which she refers to as "hardcores" who are assumed to be immune to this social pressure. "Hardcores" are individuals who do not care what others think of them and will express whatever belief/opinion they have, even if is an opinion that goes against the majority, and do not care about the consequences. Additionally, "hardcores" have an unusually high amount of interest in issues, and their views always remain relatively unchanged.

This fear of social isolation is a central concept in Noelle-Neumann's theory but throughout different studies on the theory it has been conceptualized in many different ways. Some researchers have considered fear of social isolation to be transitory and triggered by the exposure to a situation in which an individual is expected to express an opinion. In this conceptualization an individual's perception of the opinion climate in a specific situation would trigger the fear of isolation in that moment.

Other researchers have argued that instead of a situation-specific reaction, fear of social isolation can be viewed as individual characteristic that varies between people and leads individuals to continuously monitor their environment for cues about the opinion climate. While there are individuals who generally do not suffer from a fear of isolation (what Noelle-Neumann referred to as Hardcores) others are constantly aware of their social environment and faced with a constant fear of isolation. Individuals who bear this characteristic of fear of social isolation and at the same time perceive their opinion to be incongruent with the majority opinion climate are less likely to be willing to voice their opinion. Similar to the previously described conceptualization of fear of social isolation, in this line of spiral of silence research fear of social isolation is a key concept in formation of public opinion, however research has often assumed this conceptualization as a fact without empirical proof or been inconsistent in the empirical measurement of this phenomenon.

Recent research has been able to capture the concept of fear of social isolation in a more reliable and consistent way. One example is research conducted by  in which the researchers used an individual differences approach based on individual's character traits and measured individual's fear of social isolation using psychometric properties. , as well as other researchers, considers fear of social isolation to be a subsequent reaction to encountering a perceived hostile opinion climate which in turn leads the individual to not voice their own opinions and therefore sets in motion the spiral of silence.

Although many accept fear of isolation to be the motivation behind the theory, arguments have been made for other causal factors. For example, Lasorsa proposed it may be less a fear of isolation fueling the spiral, and more about political interest (in the case of political debate) and self-efficacy. From a more positive standpoint, Taylor suggested the benefits of opinion expression, whether that opinion was common or not, to be the motivation. When studying the willingness to discuss an issue so divisive as abortion, Salmon and Neuwirth found only "mixed supportive evidence" for fear of isolation, and instead found that knowledge and personal concern of the issue played important roles. More examples follow at the end of the article.

Assessing the climate
This assumption proposes that in order to avoid becoming isolated and in order not to lose popularity and esteem, people constantly observe their environment very closely. They try to find out which opinions and modes of behavior are prevalent, and which opinions and modes of behavior are becoming more popular. They behave and express themselves accordingly in public. Then, they try to determine whether they are in the majority: whether the public opinion tends to agree with them. If they feel they are in the minority, they tend to remain silent.

Quasi-statistical sense
Described as a "sixth-sense," individuals use what is described as "an innate ability" or quasi-statistical sense to gauge public opinion. People assume they can sense and figure out what others are thinking.

Pluralistic ignorance
Pluralistic ignorance may occur in some cases, another classic perspective on perception in which the minority opinion is incorrectly accepted as the norm. Group members may be privately rejecting a norm, but may falsely assume that other group members accept it. This phenomenon may cause a group to hold on to a norm.

Evaluation of public opinion matters
Our evaluation of a public opinion has an effect on our decision to speak up. Where opinions are relatively definite and static – customs, for example – one has to express or act according to this opinion in public or run the risk of becoming isolated. In contrast, where opinions are in flux, or disputed, the individual will try to find out which opinion he can express without becoming isolated. Individuals tend to publicly express their opinions and attitudes when they perceive their view to be dominant or on the rise. Conversely, when individuals perceive that their opinion is less popular or losing popularity, they are less likely to voice it in public. What one individual decides to do affects all of society around them.

Vocal minority and hardcore
The theory explains a vocal minority (the complement of the silent majority) by stating that people who are highly educated, or who have greater affluence, and the few other cavalier individuals who do not fear isolation (if that is accepted to be the causal factor), are likely to speak out regardless of public opinion. It further states that this minority is a necessary factor of change while the compliant majority is a necessary factor of stability, with both being a product of evolution. There is a vocal minority, which remains at the top of the spiral in defiance of threats of isolation.

This theory calls these vocal minorities the hardcore nonconformist or the avant-garde. Hardcore nonconformists are "people who have already been rejected for their beliefs and have nothing to lose by speaking out." The hardcore has the ability to reconfigure majority opinion. While the avant-garde are "the intellectuals, artists, and reformers in the isolated minority who speak out because they are convinced they are ahead of the times."

Application of the theory
The spiral of silence has brought insight regarding diverse topics, ranging from speaking about popular culture phenomena to smoking. Considering that the spiral of silence is more likely to occur in controversial issues and issues with a moral component, many scholars have applied the theory to controversial topics, such as abortion, affirmative action, capital punishment, Mandatory COVID-19 vaccines and masking.

Cross-cultural studies
Existing literature prior to the spiral of silence theory suggest a relationship between social conformity and culture, motivating communication scholars to conduct cross-cultural analysis of the theory. Scholars in the field of psychology in particular previously addressed the cultural variance involved in the conformity to the majority opinion. More recent studies confirm the link between conformity and culture: a meta-analysis regarding Asch conformity experiments, for example, suggest that collectivist cultures are more likely to exhibit conformity than the individualistic cultures.

The United States and Taiwan
"A Cross-Cultural Test of the Spiral of Silence" by Huiping Huang analyzes the results of a telephone survey done in Taiwan and the United States. The hypotheses tested were the beliefs that the United States is an "individualistic" society, while Taiwan is a "collectivist" society. This suggested that the spiral of silence is less likely to be activated in the United States, because individuals are more likely to put emphasis on their personal goals. They put the "I" identity over the "we" identity, and strive for personal success. Therefore, it was hypothesized that they would be more likely to speak out, regardless of if they are in the minority. On the other hand, it was predicted that individuals in Taiwan put more emphasis on the collective goal, so they would conform to the majority influence in hopes of avoiding tension and conflict. The study also tested the effect of motives, including self-efficacy and self-assurance.

Telephone surveys were conducted; the citizens of the United States were questioned in regard to American involvement in Somalia, and the citizens of Taiwan about the possibility of a direct presidential election. Both issues focused on politics and human rights, and were therefore comparable. Respondents were asked to choose "favor," "neutral" or "oppose" in regard to the categories of themselves, family and friends, the media, society, and society in the future about the given issue. Measurements were also taken regarding the individualism and collectivism constructs, and the "motives of not expressing opinion" based on a 1–10 and 1–5 scale respectively, in approval of given statements.

Results showed support for the original hypothesis. Overall, Americans were more likely to speak out than Taiwanese. Being incongruous with the majority lessened the motivation of the Taiwanese to speak out (and they had a higher collectivist score), but had little effect on the Americans. In Taiwan, future support and belief of society played a large role in likeliness to voice an opinion, and support that the activation of the spiral of silence is in effect. In the United States, it was hypothesized that because they were more individualistic, they would be more likely to speak out if in the minority, or incongruous group. However, this was not true, but Huang suggests that perhaps the issue chosen was not directly prevalent, and therefore, they found it "unnecessary to voice their objections to the majority opinion." Lack of self-efficacy led to lack of speaking out in both countries.

Basque nationalism
Basque Nationalism and the Spiral of Silence is an article by Spencer and Croucher that analyzes the public perception of ETA (Euskadi Ta Askatasuna, a militant separatist group) in Spain and France. This study was conducted in a similar way as above, with Basque individuals from Spain and France being questioned about their support of ETA. They were asked questions such as "How likely would you be to enter into a conversation with a stranger on a train about ETA?" Taken into consideration were the cultural differences of the two different regions in which ETA existed.

The results supported the theory of the spiral of silence. While there was a highly unfavorable opinion of the group, there was a lack of an outcry to stop it. Individuals claimed that they were more likely to voice their opinions to non-Basques, suggesting that they have a "fear of isolation" in regard to fellow Basques. Furthermore, the Spanish individuals questioned were more likely to be silent because of their greater proximity to the violent acts.

Perceptions in the classroom
One study by Henson and Denker "investigates perceptions of silencing behaviors, political affiliation, and political differences as correlates to perceptions of the university classroom climates and communication behaviors." They looked at whether students' view of the classroom changes whether they perceive the instructor and other classmates with a different political affiliation, with the instructor and other classmates communicating using silencing behaviors. The article stated that little has been investigated into student-teacher interactions in the classroom, and how the students are influenced. The goal of the article was to "determine how political ideas are expressed in the university classrooms, and thus, assess the influence of classroom communication on the perceptions of political tolerance."

The article claimed that university classrooms are an adequate place to scrutinize the spiral of silence theory because it is a place that has interpersonal, cultural, media, and political communication. Henson and Denker said, "Because classroom interactions and societal discourse are mutually influential, instructors and students bring their own biases and cultural perspectives into the classroom."

The study researched whether there was a correlation between students' perception that they were being politically silenced and their perceived differences in student-instructor political affiliation. The study also questioned whether there was any connection between the perceived climate and the similarity of the student and instructor on their political affiliations. The researchers used participants from a Midwestern university's communication courses. The students answered a survey over their perceptions of political silencing, classroom climate, and the climate created by the instructor. The results of this research found that there is a positive relationship of the perceived similarities in a political party and ideological differences of the student and instructor to perceived greater political silencing.

In computer-mediated communication
While the studies regarding the spiral of silence theory focused on face-to-face interaction before 2000, the theory was later applied to a computer-mediated communication environment. The first study in this context analyzed communication behaviors in online chat rooms regarding the issue of abortion, and revealed that minority opinion holders were more likely to speak out, whereas their comments remained neutral. Another study focused on the Korean bulletin board postings regarding the national election, and found a relationship between online postings and the presentation of candidates in the mainstream media. The third study focuses on the online review system, suggesting that the fear of isolation tend to reduce the willingness of members to voice neutral and negative reviews. The Spiral of Silence Theory is extended "into the context of non-anonymous multichannel communication platforms" and "the need to consider the role of communicative affordances in online opinion expression" is also addressed.

In social media contexts
Current literature suggests that the spiral model can be applied to the social media context. Gearhart and Zhang conduct a study to examine whether or not the use of social media will increase people's motivation to express their opinions about political issues. The results suggest that social media users "who have received a strong negative reaction to their politically related posts are likely to censor themselves, exemplifying the spiral of silence effect". Another study found that the fear of isolation causes people to not want to share their opinion on social media. Similar to the Gearhart and Zhang study, results from this study showed that people are more likely to self-censor information on social media by not posting some things that are political, choosing what and what not to follow or like, etc.

Another research confirms the positive relationship between speaking out and issue importance on the social media context as well: individuals who view gay bullying as a significant social issue are more likely to comment on Facebook. As social media becomes more and more important in our daily lives, Deceptive social bots have been successfully applied for manipulating online conversations and opinions. Current research shows that "social bots" are being used on a large scale to control the opinion climate to influence public opinion on social media. Social bots are social media accounts managed by computer algorithms. They can automatically generate content and interact with human users, often impersonating or imitating humans. Research shows that a small number of social bots can easily direct public opinion on social media and trigger a spiral of silence model. For example, scholars find out that social bots can affect political discussion around the 2016 U.S. presidential election and the 2017 French presidential election.

Social capital
The spiral of silence theory can be also applied to social capital context. Recent studies see social capital as "a variable that enables citizens to develop norms of trust and reciprocity, which are necessary for successful engagement in collective activities". One study examines three individual-level indicators of social capital: civic engagement, trust and neighborliness, and the relationship between these indicators and people's willingness to express their opinions and their perception of support for one's opinions. The results suggest that civic engagement has a direct effect on people's willingness to express their opinions and neighborliness and trust had direct positive effects on people's perception of support for one's opinions. Also, the study shows that "only a direct (but not indirect) effect of civic engagement on opinion expression further highlights a potential difference between bonding and bridging social capital".

Internet

Isolating the factors that remove isolation
The concept of isolation has a variety of definitions, dependent upon the circumstances it is investigated in. In one instance the problem of isolation has been defined as social withdrawal, defined as low relative frequencies of peer interaction. Other researchers have defined isolation as low levels of peer acceptance or high levels of peer rejection. Research that considers isolation with regard to the Internet either focuses on how the Internet makes individuals more isolated from society by cutting off their contact from live human beings or how the Internet decreases social isolation of people by allowing them to expand their social networks and giving them more means to stay in touch with friends and family. Since the development of the Internet, and in particular the World Wide Web, a wide variety of groups have come into existence, including Web and Internet Relay Chat (IRC), newsgroups, multiuser dimensions (MUDs), and, more recently, commercial virtual communities. The theories and hypotheses about how Internet-based groups impact individuals are numerous and wide-ranging. Some researchers view these fast growing virtual chat cliques, online games, or computer-based marketplaces as a new opportunity, particularly for stigmatized people, to take a more active part in social life.

Traditionally, social isolation has been presented as a one-dimensional construct organized around the notion of a person's position outside the peer group and refers to isolation from the group as a result of being excluded from the group by peers. From children to adults, literature shows that people understand the concept of isolation and fear the repercussions of being isolated from groups of which they are a member. Fearing isolation, people did not feel free to speak up if they feel they hold dissenting views, which means people restrict themselves to having conversation with like-minded individuals, or have no conversation whatsoever. Witschge further explained, "Whether it is fear of harming others, or fear to get harmed oneself, there are factors that inhibit people from speaking freely, and which thus results in a non-ideal type of discussion, as it hinders diversity and equality of participants and viewpoints to arise fully."

The medium of the Internet has the power to free people from the fear of social isolation, and in doing so, shuts down the spiral of silence. One article demonstrates that social media can weaken the fear of isolation. The research shows that the vocal minority who hold racist viewpoints are willing to express unpopular views on Facebook. The Internet allows people to find a place where they can find groups of people with like mindsets and similar points of view. Van Alstyne and Brynjolfsson stated that "Internet users can seek out interactions with like-minded individuals who have similar values, and thus become less likely to trust important decisions to people whose values differ from their own." The features of the Internet could not only bring about more people to deliberate by freeing people of psychological barriers, but also bring new possibilities in that it "makes manageable large-scale, many-to-many discussion and deliberation." Unlike traditional media that limit participation, the Internet brings the characteristics of empowerment, enormous scales of available information, specific audiences can be targeted effectively and people can be brought together through the medium.

Online versus offline
The Internet is a place where many reference and social groups are available with similar views. It has become a place where it appears that people have less of a fear of isolation. One research article examined individuals' willingness to speak their opinion online and offline. Through survey results from 305 participants, a comparison and contrast of online and offline spiral of silence behaviors was determined. Liu and Fahmy stated that "it is easy to quit from an online discussion without the pressure of complying with the majority group." This is not to say that a spiral of silence does not occur in an online environment. People are still less likely to speak out, even in an online setting, when there is a dominant opinion that differs from their own. But people in the online environment will speak up if someone has a reference group that speaks up for them.

Online, the presence of one person who encourages a minority point of view can put an end to a spiral of silence. Studies of the spiral of silence in online behavior have not acknowledged that a person may be more likely to speak out against dominant views offline as well. The person might have characteristics that make them comfortable speaking out against dominant views offline, which make them just as comfortable speaking out in an online setting.

Although research suggests that people will disclose their opinions more often in an online setting, silencing of views can still occur. One study indicates that people on Facebook are less willing to discuss the Snowden and NSA stories than an offline situation such as a family dinner or public meeting. Another research article examined the influence of different opinion climates in online forums (opinion congruence with the majority of forum participants vs. website source) and found personal opinion congruence was more influential than the online site in which the forum is situated in. Nekmat and Gonzenbach said it might be worth researching whether the factors in these studies or other factors cause people to be more comfortable when it comes to speaking their mind while online.

Heterogeneity and anonymity
The nature of the Internet facilitates not only the participation of more people, but also a more heterogeneous group of people. Page stated, "The onward rush of electronic communications technology will presumably increase the diversity of available ideas and the speed and ease with which they fly about and compete with each other." The reason people engage in deliberations is because of their differences, and the Internet allows differences to be easily found. The Internet seems the perfect place to find different views of a very diverse group of people who are at the same time open to such difference and disagreement needed for deliberation. Noelle-Neumann's initial idea of cowering and muted citizens is difficult to reconcile with empirical studies documenting uninhibited discussion in computer-mediated contexts such as chat rooms and newsgroups.

The Internet provides an anonymous setting, and it can be argued that in an anonymous setting, fears of isolation and humiliation would be reduced. Wallace recognized that when people believe their actions cannot be attributed to them personally, they tend to become less inhibited by social conventions and restraints. This can be very positive, particularly when people are offered the opportunity to discuss difficult personal issues under conditions in which they feel safer.

The groups' ability to taunt an individual is lessened on the Internet, thus reducing the tendency to conform. Wallace goes on to summarize a number of empirical studies that do find that dissenters feel more liberated to express their views online than offline, which might result from the fact that the person in the minority would not have to endure taunts or ridicule from people that are making up the majority, or be made to feel uncomfortable for having a different opinion. Stromer-Galley considered that "an absence of non-verbal cues, which leads to a lowered sense of social presence, and a heightened sense of anonymity" frees people from the psychological barriers that keep them from engaging in a face-to-face deliberation.

The crux of the spiral of silence is that people believe consciously or subconsciously that the expression of unpopular opinions will lead to negative repercussions. These beliefs may not exist on the Internet for several reasons. First, embarrassment and humiliation depends on the physical presence of others. In computer-mediated communication, physical isolation often already exists and poses no further threat. Second, a great deal of normative influence is communicated through nonverbal cues, such as eye contact and gestures, but computer-mediated communication typically precludes many of these cues. Third, Kiesler, Siegel, and McQuire observe that nonverbal social context cues convey formality and status inequality in face-to-face communication. When these cues are removed, the importance of social status as a source of influence recedes. Group hierarchies that develop in face-to-face interaction emerge less clearly in a mediated environment. The form and consequences of conformity influence should undergo significant changes given the interposition of a medium that reduces the social presence of participants. Social presence is defined as the degree of salience of the other person in the interaction or the degree to which the medium conveys some of the person's presence.

Equality
An important issue in obtaining heterogeneity in conversation is equal access for all the participants and equal opportunities to influence in the discussion. When people believe they are ignorant about a topic, incapable to participate in a discussion or not equal to their peers, they tend to not even become involved in a deliberation. When people do decide to participate, their participation might be overruled by dominant others, or their contribution might be valued less or more, depending on their status. Dahlberg praises the Internet for its possibility to liberate people from the social hierarchies and power relations that exist offline: "The 'blindness' of cyberspace to bodily identity... [is supposed to allow] people to interact as if they were equals. Arguments are said to be assessed by the value of the claims themselves and not the social position of the poster".

Gastil sees this feature as one of the strongest points of the Internet: "if computer-mediated interaction can consistently reduce the independent influence of status, it will have a powerful advantage over face-to-face deliberation". While status cues are difficult to detect, perceptions about the status converge, and this lessens stereotyping and prejudice.

It may be that people do feel more equal in online forums than they feel offline. Racism, ageism, and other kinds of discrimination against out groups "seems to be diminishing because the cues to out-group status are not as obvious". Next to this, the Internet has rapidly and dramatically increased the capacities to develop, share and organize information, realizing more equality of access to information.

Methodological research approaches
The relationship between the perception of public opinion and willingness to speak-up is mainly measured through surveys. In surveys, respondents are often asked whether they would reveal their opinions given a hypothetical situation, right after their opinions about the public opinion and their opinion is received. Whether asking hypothetical questions can reflect real life cases was questioned by some communication scholars, leading to a criticism of this methodology as not being able to capture what the respondent would do in a real-life situation. A research study addressed this criticism by comparatively testing a spiral model both in a hypothetical survey and in a focus group. The findings are in line with the critic of hypothetical survey questions, demonstrating a significant increase in the spiral of silence in focus groups.

Among different approaches to survey methodology, cross-sectional study design is the leading method employed to analyze and test the theory. Cross-sectional design involves the analysis of the relationship between public opinion and willingness to speak at one point in time.

While many of the researchers employ cross-sectional design, some scholars employed panel data. Under this methodology, three specific approaches have been used. Noelle-Neumann herself tested the theory from the aggregate level. Using this approach, the change process is "observed by comparing the absolute share of people perceiving a majority climate with people willing to express their views over time." The second approach that has been used in Spiral of Silence research is conducting separate regressions for each panel survey wave. The drawback for this approach is that the individual change of climate and opinions perception is ignored. The last approach a few scholars used in conducting Spiral of Silence researches is to use changed scores as dependent variables. However, as intuitive as this approach may be, it "leads to well-documented difficulties with respect to statistical properties, such as regression to the mean or the negative correlation of the change score with the time one state".

Criticisms
The critics of this theory most often claim that individuals have different influences that affect whether they speak out or not.

Research indicates that people fear isolation in their small social circles more than they do in the population at large. Within a large nation, one can always find a group of people who share one's opinions, however people fear isolation from their close family and friends more in theory. Research has demonstrated that this fear of isolation is stronger than the fear of being isolated from the entire public, as it is typically measured.

Scholars have also argued that both personal characteristics and various culture among different groups will have influences on whether a person will willingly speak out. If one person "has a positive self-concept and lacks a sense of shame, that person will speak out regardless of how she or he perceives the climate of public opinion." Another influence critics give for people choosing not to speak out against public opinion is culture. Open expression of ideas is forbidden in some of the cultures. Some cultures are more individualistic, which would support more of an individual's own opinion, while collectivist cultures support the overall group's opinion and needs. Gender can be also considered as a cultural factor. In some cultures, women's "perception of language, not public opinion, forces them to remain quiet." Scheufele & Moy, further assert that certain conflict styles and cultural indicators should be used to understand these differences.

The nature of issues will influence the dynamic processes of the spiral of silence. Yeric and Todd present three issues type, including enduring issues that will be discussed by the public for a long time; emerging issues that are new to the public but have the potential to become enduring issues; and the transitory issues, which don't stay in the public consciousness for very long but come up from time to time. The research suggests that issues difference affects people's willingness to express. Facebook users are more likely to post their real thoughts on emerging issues such as gay marriage in an incongruent opinion climate.

Another criticism of the spiral of silence research is that the research designs do not observe the movement in the spiral over time. Critics propose that Noelle-Neumann's emphasis on time in the formation of the spiral should reflect on the methodology as well, and the dynamic nature of the spiral model should be acknowledged. They argue that the spiral of silence theory involves a "time factor", considering that the changes in public opinion eventually lead to change in people's assessments of the public opinion. Also, according to Spilchal, the spiral of silence theory "ignores the evidence of the historical development of public opinion, both in theory and practice, through the extension of suffrage, organisation of political propaganda groups, the establishment of pressure groups and political parties, the eligibility of ever wider circles of public officials and, eventually, the installation of several forms of direct democracy."

Some scholars also provide understandings of the theory in the contemporary society by pointing out that "it is not so much the actual statistical majority that generates pressure for conformity as it is the climate of opinion conveyed in large measure by the media." Under the great influence by the media coverage, the climate of opinion "is not invariably an accurate reflection of the distribution of opinions within the polity."

Further, Scheufele & Moy find problems in the operationalization of key terms, including willingness to speak out. This construct should be measured in terms of actually speaking out, not voting or other conceptually similar constructs. Conformity experiments have no moral component, yet morality is a key construct in the model. These conformity experiments, particularly those by Asch, form part of the base of the theory. Scholars question whether these conformity experiments are relevant to the development of the Spiral of Silence.

False dilemmas and silence of consistency
Research indicates that while the existence of groups with other opinions than those that are supposed to be dominant in a society opens a possibility for some people to express some different opinions, fallacy assumptions in such groups that criticism of particular aspects of that group's program is support for society's mainstream views is a source of false dilemmas. This research indicates that such false dilemmas, especially when there are inconsistencies both in mainstream views and in organized opposition views, causes a spiral of silence that specifically silences logically consistent third, fourth or higher number viewpoint criticism. The research in question does not find a solution in many approaches of "recognizing cognitive bias" but instead indicate that such assumptions are part of the problem by promoting the myth of one's own group having overcome its bias by institutional means and allegations of rational critical arguments being due to bias in the minds of critics, citing evolutionary research that shows that not only would any predisposition for justification of views be selected against due to costing nutrients without improving adaptivity of behavior, but that the claim that most adult humans are irrational due to missing stimulation of rationality in early childhood is also evolutionarily indefensible as genes for potential rationality would have been totally eliminated by selection before reaching significant population fraction if they needed a society already promoting rationality to manifest themselves adaptively. The research indicates that humans are not inherently irrational but are forced to pretend irrationality by false dilemmas that claim rational criticism to be justifications for irrational resentment, and suggest that openly expressed rationality can be promoted by discussions in which no exclusion based on traditional political scales or beneficiary classifications exist but all allegations of irrational motives as well as assumptions that some opinions are linked  or that criticism of one view is defense of another specific view are excluded.

See also

Asch conformity experiments
Abilene paradox
Bandwagon effect
Blue wall of silence
Bradley effect
Bystander effect
Cancel culture
Chilling effect
Cognitive bias
Collective behavior
Communal reinforcement
Conformity
Conspiracy of silence (expression)
Flaming (Internet)
Foot-in-the-door technique
Group behaviour
Groupthink
Knowledge falsification
Memory hole
Opinion corridor
Overton window
Pact of forgetting
Pluralistic ignorance
Preference falsification
Purity spiral
Shame society
Shy Tory Factor
Silent majority
Third rail of politics
Tyranny of the majority

Notes

References

Bibliography

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Media studies
Cognitive biases
Communication
Conformity
Theories
Crowd psychology
Polling terms
Silence
Shunning
Political science theories
Public opinion
Majority–minority relations

Spiral of silence


Agrilus chamelae é uma espécie de inseto do género Agrilus, família Buprestidae, ordem Coleoptera.

Foi descrita cientificamente por Hespenheide, 1990.

Referências

chamelae

Agrilus chamelae


Seçki veya güldeste (ayrıca antoloji) bir konu ya da beğeniye göre, derlenen metinlerin bulunduğu eser. Divân-ı Lügati't-Türk, Türk edebiyatındaki ilk seçki olarak görülebilir. Yunanca'daki anthos (çiçek) ile legein (toplamak) kelimelerinden türemiştir. İlk antolojileri Antik Yunanlar derlemişlerdir.

Bilinen ilk antoloji MÖ 2. yüzyılda derlenmiştir. Çelenk adındaki bu antolojinin derleyicisi Gadaralı Meleagros'tur.

1. yüzyılda da, Makedonyalı Philippos buna benzer bir çelenk meydana getirmiştir.

2. yüzyılda ise, Diagenianus ilk kez olarak anthologion (antoloji) adı altında bir derleme yapmıştır. Hemen hemen aynı sıralarda Sardeisli Straton da bir şiir antolojisi derledi. Bu saydığımız eserlerin çoğu bugün kaybolmuş bulunmaktadır.

9. yüzyılda Constantinus Cephalas biraz önce saydığımız eserleri de kapsayan büyük bir antoloji meydana getirdi. Bu antoloji, konulara göre sıralanmıştı. Aynı şekilde konulara göre sıralanmış bir antoloji de, 4. yüzyılın sonlarında, Agathias tarafından derlenmişti. Batılıların dikkatini çeken ilk Yunan antolojisi 1301 yılında Maximus Planudes'in hazırladığı antoloji oldu. Planudes eserinde Cephalas'ın antolojisini esas tutmuştu. Bu eser ilk olarak Floransa'da yayınlanmıştır (1494).

17. yüzyılın hemen başlarında da palatine yazması adıyla anılan bir başka Yunan antolojisi ele geçirildi. Heildelberg'de, Palatine Kütüphanesi'nde bulunan bu yazma bugünkü Yunan antolojisi eserlerinin temeli sayılır. Bu antoloji 15 kitaptan meydana gelmiştir. İçindeki eserler, 2.000 yıllık Yunan örf ve geleneklerini canlandırmaları bakımından, çok önemli sayılırlar. Latin antolojilerinin en önemlisi ise codex selmasianus adındaki eserdir. Bu antoloji 6. yüzyıla ait eserleri kapsamaktır. Tahminen 8. yüzyıl başında derlendiği sanılmaktadır. Bu şiirler, 533 yılında antologia latina adındaki eserde toplanmıştı. Tanzimat edebiyatında ise ilk seçki Ziya Paşa'nın Harabat adlı eseridir.

Birlikte verilen ürünler veya hizmetler

Seçki


Riola Sardo (sardisk: Arriòra) er en by og en kommune (comune) i provinsen Oristano i regionen Sardinien i Italien. Byen ligger i 9 meters højde og har 2.151 indbyggere (2016). Kommunen har et areal på 48,11 km² og grænser til kommunerne Baratili San Pietro, Cabras, Narbolia, Nurachi og San Vero Milis.

Referencer

Henvisninger

Kommuner i provinsen Oristano

Riola Sardo


En støpe er en passage for biler eller toge gennem et dige, som kan lukkes med porte, planker eller nedsænkede sveller under stormflod. På den måde udgør diger ikke længere en trafikhindring uden dog at beskære digernes beskyttende funktion for baglandet eller kogerne bag digerne. Støper findes ofte i anden digelinje. I Danmark findes støper blandt andet på øerne Mandø og Fanø, i Sydslesvig blandt andet i Tønning og Dagebøl.

En lignende fremgangsmåde bliver anvendt ved silerne (≈digesluser).

Eksterne henvisninger / kilder

 Danmarks nationalparker: Nationalpark Vadehavet
 Anne-Mette Hjalager: Evaluering af Plan for Nationalpark Vadehavet 2013-18, 2017

Vadehavet
Trafik
Kystsikring

Støpe


Die Druckerei Borkmann war eine deutsche Druckerei mit Verlag in Weimar und bereits vor der Zeit des Nationalsozialismus in den Diensten der Thüringer NSDAP.

Geschichte
Die Druckerei wurde von Rudolf Borkmann 1876 in Weimar gegründet. Von Beginn an war sie im Hinterhaus der Jakobstraße 2 untergebracht. Nach 1933 wurde die Tordurchfahrt neu gestaltet, unter anderem kann man heute noch vier Reliefs mit Symbolen des Druckhandwerks erkennen.
Die Druckerei stellte seit 1926 alle Schriften wie auch Plakate der Weimarer NSDAP her. Darunter war auch der "Der Nationalsozialist", Vorläufer der "Thüringer Gauzeitung", die von Gauleiter Fritz Sauckel herausgegeben wurde. Hans Severus Ziegler war deren Hauptschriftleiter.
Als überzeugter Nationalsozialist belieferte Paul Borkmann, der die Druckerei 1930 vom Vater übernommen hatte, auch die Wehrmacht und seit April 1940 das KZ Buchenwald. Neben Packpapier stammten verschiedene Formulare des Konzentrationslagers, wie die Berechnung der Lebensmittelrationen, Fernschreiben und Rechnungen aus dieser Druckerei.

Paul Borkmann wurde 1945 verhaftet und verstarb noch im selben Jahr. Die Druckerei wurde 1948 enteignet.

Verlegte Schriften (Auswahl)
Bedingt durch den häufigen Wechsel der Bezeichnungen werden die tatsächlichen Bezeichnungen für den Verlag jeweils ausgewiesen.

 Der Nationalsozialist (später: Thüringer Gauzeitung)
 Paul Grau: Chronik der Stadt Vacha. Festschrift zur Feier des 75jährigen Anschlusses des Amtes und der Stadt Vacha an das Großherzogtum Sachsen-Weimar, Vacha: Borkmann 1891.
 Ortsverzeichnis der Thüringischen Staaten auf Grund der Volkszählung vom 1. Dezember 1910, hg. v. Statistischen Bureau Vereinigter Thüringischer Staaten in Weimar, v. Statistischen Bureau des Herzogl. Sächs. Staatsministeriums in Meiningen, v. Statistischen Bureau des Herzogl. Sächs. Staatsministeriums in Gotha, Weimar: Borkmann 1912.
 Karl Radicke (Hg.): Fremdsprachliches Optisches Wörterbuch. Teil IV: Mikroskope, Weimar: R. Borkmann Verlag 1928.
 Hans Funcke: Die deutsche Optische und Feinmechanische Industrie in der Nachkriegszeit (Diss. Köln) Rud. Borkmann; Weimar 1931.
 Adolf Bartels: Der letzte Obervollmacht. Ein Roman aus der Bismarckzeit, Weimar: Rudolf Borkmann 1931.
 Albrecht von Heinemann: Empfindsames Wandern in Weimar. Ein buntes Bilderbuch. Illustriert von Hanns-Marcus Wittig. Weimar: Borkmann, 1932.
 Karl Treffurth: Die Geschlechts-Liebe, Rudolf Borkmann Weimar, 1939.
 Tarifordnung für die Angestellten im mitteldeutschen Braunkohlenbergbau vom 22. Februar 1939 nach Gehaltstafel A, Weimar: Buchdruckerei und Verlag Rudolf Borkmann 1939.
 Anselm Markau: Gedichte. Erstausgabe Rudolf Borkmann: Weimar o. J. [vermutlich 1944/1945 erschienen].
 W. A. Beckert: Die Wahrheit über das Konzentrationslager Buchenwald. Der Tatsachenbericht eines langjährigen politischen Gefangenen der Gestapo Hitlers über das Konzentrationslager Buchenwald-Weimar, (Selbstverlag) Weimar 1945 und Rudolf Borkmann KG (Verlag antifaschistischen Schrifttums) 1946.

Siehe auch
Thüringen im Nationalsozialismus

Weblinks
 http://www.weimar-im-ns.de/ort05.php

Literatur
 Gitta Günther, Wolfram Huschke, Walter Steiner (Hrsg.): Weimar. Lexikon zur Stadtgeschichte. Böhlau, Weimar 1993, S. 96.
 Jens Schley: Nachbar Buchenwald. Die Stadt Weimar und ihr Konzentrationslager 1937-1945. Böhlau, Köln/Weimar/Wien 1993, S. 79, 137.

Einzelnachweise

Druckerei (Deutschland)
Buchverlag (Deutschland)
Ehemaliges Unternehmen (Weimar)
Gegründet 1876
Produzierendes Unternehmen (Weimar)
Ehemaliger Verlag (Deutschland)
Verlag (Thüringen)

Druckerei Borkmann


Un ornitolito (del griego "ὄρνις - ὄρνιθος", "ornis - ornithos", "pájaro" y λίθος lithos, 'piedra') es un artefacto arqueológico elaborado en piedra con forma de ave.
Están estrechamente relacionados con los zoolitos y antropolitos. Los hallazgos más notables se encuentran en Sudamérica, fundamentalmente en Uruguay. Se destaca el ornitolito del Tacuarí, que recuerda la "tradición sambaquí" del sudeste del Brasil, por lo que se considera que, en vez de haber sido realizada por indígenas del Uruguay, probablemente se trate de un producto de un intercambio cultural.

Se puede suponer que estos objetos servían como morteros para la mezcla de alucinógenos con fines ceremoniales. Esta pieza denota una sociedad sofisticada, y es muy escasa, por lo que no son infrecuentes las falsificaciones.

Referencias

Arqueología de Uruguay
Restos arqueológicos
Arte del Neolítico

Ornitolito


مستشفي المواساة الجامعي الخيري بالإسكندرية..
 تم افتتاح المستشفي رسميا في1936/11/12 بحضور الملك فاروق الأول ملك مصر والسودان
 استهدفت جمعية المواساة الإسلامية الخيرية بالإسكندرية إنشاء مستشفي أهلي بمدينة الإسكندرية يخصص قسم كبير منه لمعالجة الفقراء مجانا فقامت بالدعاية وتدبير المال اللازم له، وقد نجح محمد فهمي عبد المجيد رئيس الجمعية في إضافة نص إلي قانون الجمعية يقضي بأن يكون من ضمن أغراضها معالجة المرضي وتحقيقا لذلك أصدرت الجمعية العمومية للمواساة قرارا في اجتماعها المنعقد بتاريخ1929/10/27 بإضافة هذا النص لقانون الجمعية ومن هنا كان إنشاء عمارة المواساة والاستعانة بإيرادها في بناء مستشفي المواساة
 صادفت جهود محمد فهمي عبد المجيد العديد من الصعاب والعقبات لشراء قطعة أرض في المنطقة الواقعة بين محطة الشاطبي وشارع أبي قير، وتبلغ مساحتها1850 م2 لبناء مستشفي المواساة، ولكن العقبات التي وضعت اجبرت الجمعية علي شراء قطعة الأرض الخلفية في1931/8/25
 نجحت جهود الجمعية في بناء المستشفي في نحو ثلاث سنوات بفضل همة واقدام وايمان وشجاعة القائمين علي جمعية المواساة وأصر محمد فهمي عبد المجيد أن يكون بناء المستشفي علي أحدث النظم، وأن يكون مثلا يحتذي به، وتحقيقا لهذا الإصرار سافر محمد فهمي عبد المجيد ومعه سكرتير الجمعية وأحد أصدقائه الأوفياء محمد سعيد جميعي الي ألمانيا للاطلاع علي أحدث المستشفيات بها وهو مستشفي مارتن لوثر، ليكون نموذجا لمستشفي المواساة ولجمعه لثلاثة عناصر أساسية هي المنفعة والبساطة والاقتصاد
 تم استدعاء المهندس الإخصائي الذي قام بتشييد مستشفي مارتن لوثر ببرلين، وهو الهر ارنست كوب، الذي حضر إلي الإسكندرية في1930/7/20، وعاين الأرض ووضع التصميمات الهندسية والرسومات التفصيلية الخاصة بالمستشفي
 1931/11/22 بدأت الأعمال لإنشاء مستشفي المواساة التي صادفها الكثير من الصعاب المالية اللازمة لتنفيذ هذا المشروع، الأمر الذي دفعها الي الحصول علي سلفة من بنك مصر لاستكمال إنشاء المستشفي، وتم رهن العمارة التي تمتلكها الجمعية ضمانا لهذه السلفة، والتي بلغت30,000 جنيه مصري
 عجزت الجمعية عن الوفاء بسداد القسط الأول للسلفة في يونيو1934, وبرغم محاولاتها الحصول علي مهلة في السداد فإن البنك أصر علي نزع ملكية العمارة التي تمتلكها جمعية المواساة وكان في تصرفه هذا مكرهاً علي هذا السلوك من القصر، الذي كان يرغب في ارساء مناقصة بناء المستشفي علي أحد أعوانه
 رفض فهمي عبد المجيد الخضوع بإعطاء مقاولة البناء لشخص معين.. فكانت أول ضربة وجهت للجمعية امتناع الملك السابق فؤاد عن حضور حفل وضع حجر الأساس للمستشفي وكانت الثانية صدور الأمر لبنك مصر باستعمال منتهي القسوة والشدة في معاملته للجمعية
 تمكنت الجمعية من الخروج من هذا المأزق باصدار يانصيب علي العمارة، كان الأول من نوعهة في القطر المصري ونجح اليانصيب نجاحا منقطع النظير، وأقبل الناس عليه، وحقق للجمعية ربحا بلغ نحو60,000 جنيه مصري، وسددت جميع الديون التي علي الجمعية لبنك مصر.
 تم افتتاح المستشفي رسميا في1936/11/12
 بداية من سبتمبر 2010 تم ضم مستشفى المواساة إلى جامعة الإسكندرية وأصبحت تتبع مستشفيات الجامعة وبها يدرس طلبة كلية الطب العلوم الأساسية التي تدرس في السنوات الثلاث الأولى.

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 جمعية المواساة
 محمد فهمي عبد المجيد

جامعة الإسكندرية
مستشفيات جامعية
تأسيسات سنة 1936 في مصر
مستشفيات في الإسكندرية

مستشفى المواساة (الإسكندرية)


Oracle VM VirtualBox (fost Sun VirtualBox, Sun xVM VirtualBox și Innotek VirtualBox) este un software pentru monitorizarea mașinilor virtuale pentru calculatoare x86 de la Oracle. Dezvoltat inițial de Innotek GmbH, a fost achiziționat de Sun Microsystems în 2008 care apoi a fost achiziționat de Oracle în 2010.

Referințe

Vezi și
 BlueStacks

Legaturi externe

 Sub-site la Oracle
 Virtualbox Downloads
 What is virtualization?

Software liber programat în C++
Software liber
Software pentru Linux
Software cu sursă deschisă
Emulatoare

VirtualBox


Jo Stevens peut désigner :
 Jo Stevens (1966-), femme politique galloise.
 Jo Stevens, actrice belge.

Notes et références

Jo Stevens


Melancijum (lat. Melanthium L.), biljni rod iz porodice Melanthiaceae kojemu pripadaju 4 priznate vrste,  trajnica dok su neke izdvojene u razne druge rodove, a najviše rod čemerika (Veratrum). Tipična u rodu je  Melanthium virginicum L. = Veratrum virginicum (L.) W.T.Aiton

Vrste
 Melanthium hybridum Walter
 Melanthium parviflorum (Michx.) S.Watson
 Melanthium virginicum L.
 Melanthium woodii (J.W.Robbins ex Alph.Wood) Bodkin

Sinonimi

 Melanthium aethiopicum Desr. = Baeometra uniflora (Jacq.) G.J.Lewis
 Melanthium album (L.) Thunb. 	= Veratrum album L.
 Melanthium angustifolium Willd. = Androcymbium gramineum (Cav.) J.F.Macbr.
 Melanthium aspericaule Poir. 	= Triantha glutinosa (Michx.) Baker
 Melanthium bergii Schltdl. = Wurmbea punctata (L.) J.C.Manning & Vinn.
 Melanthium biglandulosum Bertol. = Veratrum virginicum (L.) W.T.Aiton
 Melanthium blandum Sol. ex Baker = Wurmbea punctata (L.) J.C.Manning & Vinn.
 Melanthium bracteolare Desr. = Veratrum album L.
 Melanthium brownii Schltdl., nom. illeg. = Wurmbea biglandulosa (R.Br.) T.D.Macfarl.
 Melanthium caeruleum Eckl. ex Schult. & Schult.f. = Wurmbea punctata (L.) J.C.Manning & Vinn.
 Melanthium capense L. = Androcymbium capense (L.) Druce
 Melanthium capense Licht. ex Schult. & Schult.f., nom. illeg. = Wurmbea punctata (L.) J.C.Manning & Vinn.
 Melanthium caricinum Roth = Iphigenia indica (L.) A.Gray ex Kunth
 Melanthium ciliatum L.f. = Wurmbea punctata (L.) J.C.Manning & Vinn.
 Melanthium cochinchinense Lour. = Asparagus cochinchinensis (Lour.) Merr.
 Melanthium damascenum (L.) Medik. = Nigella damascena L.
 Melanthium densum Desr. = Stenanthium densum (Desr.) Zomlefer & Judd
 Melanthium dioicum Walter = Chamaelirium luteum (L.) A.Gray
 Melanthium dispersum Small = Veratrum virginicum (L.) W.T.Aiton
 Melanthium eucomoides Jacq. = Androcymbium eucomoides (Jacq.) Willd.
 Melanthium flavum Sm. = Baeometra uniflora (Jacq.) G.J.Lewis
 Melanthium garnotianum Kunth = Wurmbea punctata (L.) J.C.Manning & Vinn.
 Melanthium glaucum Nutt. = Anticlea elegans subsp. glauca (Nutt.) A.Haines
 Melanthium gracile Desr. = Wurmbea punctata (L.) J.C.Manning & Vinn.
 Melanthium gramineum Cav. = Androcymbium gramineum (Cav.) J.F.Macbr.
 Melanthium graminifolium Steud. = Androcymbium gramineum (Cav.) J.F.Macbr.
 Melanthium guineense Welw. ex Baker, nevalidna publ. = Camptorrhiza strumosa (Baker) Oberm.
 Melanthium hultgreenii Thunb. = Anticlea elegans subsp. elegans
 Melanthium hyacinthium B.Heyne ex Roth, nevalidna publ. = Ledebouria revoluta (L.f.) Jessop
 Melanthium hyacinthoides Royle = Drimia indica (Roxb.) Jessop
 Melanthium indicum L. = Iphigenia indica (L.) A.Gray ex Kunth
 Melanthium inustum Ker Gawl. = Wurmbea capensis Thunb.
 Melanthium japonicum Willd. = Chionographis japonica (Willd.) Maxim.
 Melanthium junceum Jacq. = Wurmbea stricta (Burm.f.) J.C.Manning & Vinn.
 Melanthium laetum Aiton = Amianthium muscitoxicum (Walter) A.Gray
 Melanthium laetum Kunth, nom. illeg. = Veratrum virginicum (L.) W.T.Aiton
 Melanthium latifolium Desr. = Veratrum hybridum (Walter) J.H.Zimmerman ex Zomlefer
 Melanthium latifolium var. longipedicellatum A.Br., nom. provis. = Veratrum hybridum (Walter) J.H.Zimmerman ex Zomlefer
 Melanthium longiflorum Ker Gawl., nom. illeg. =  Wurmbea monopetala (L.f.) B.Nord.
 Melanthium lucidum Ker Gawl., orth. var. = Wurmbea spicata var. spicata
 Melanthium luridum'' Banks ex Ker-Gawl. = Wurmbea spicata var. spicata
 Melanthium luridum Sol. ex Baker, nom. illeg. = Wurmbea punctata (L.) J.C.Manning & Vinn.
 Melanthium luteum (L.) Thunb. = Chamaelirium luteum (L.) A.Gray
 Melanthium luteum Thunb., sensu auct. = krivi naziv za  Chionographis japonica var. japonica
 Melanthium marginatum Desr. = Wurmbea marginata (Desr.) B.Nord.
 Melanthium marginatum Schltdl., nom. illeg. = Wurmbea punctata (L.) J.C.Manning & Vinn.
 Melanthium massoniifolium Andrews = Whiteheadia bifolia (Jacq.) Baker
 Melanthium monoicum Pursh, nom. illeg. =  Veratrum virginicum (L.) W.T.Aiton
 Melanthium monoicum Walter = Veratrum virginicum (L.) W.T.Aiton
 Melanthium monopetalum L.f. = Wurmbea monopetala (L.f.) B.Nord.
 Melanthium muscitoxicum Walter = Amianthium muscitoxicum (Walter) A.Gray
 Melanthium myoctonum J.F.Gmel. = Amianthium muscitoxicum (Walter) A.Gray
 Melanthium nigrum (L.) Thunb. = Veratrum nigrum L.
 Melanthium nuttallii (A.Gray) D.Dietr. = Toxicoscordion nuttallii (A.Gray) Rydb.
 Melanthium phalangioides Desr. = Amianthium muscitoxicum (Walter) A.Gray
 Melanthium polygamum Desr. = Veratrum virginicum (L.) W.T.Aiton
 Melanthium pumilum (Willd.) Ker Gawl., nom. illeg. = Wurmbea capensis Thunb.
 Melanthium pumilum J.R.Forst. =  Astelia pumila (J.R.Forst.) Gaudich.
 Melanthium punctatum Cav., nom. illeg. =  Androcymbium gramineum (Cav.) J.F.Macbr.
 Melanthium punctatum L. = Wurmbea punctata (L.) J.C.Manning & Vinn.
 Melanthium punctatum Mill., nom. illeg. =  Wurmbea punctata (L.) J.C.Manning & Vinn.
 Melanthium racemosum Michx., nom. illeg. = Veratrum hybridum (Walter) J.H.Zimmerman ex Zomlefer
 Melanthium racemosum Roth, nom. illeg. = Iphigenia indica (L.) A.Gray ex Kunth
 Melanthium racemosum Walter = Triantha racemosa (Walter) Small
 Melanthium remotum Ker Gawl. = Wurmbea capensis Thunb.
 Melanthium revolutum Ker Gawl. =  Wurmbea capensis Thunb.
 Melanthium rubicundum Willd. = Wurmbea punctata (L.) J.C.Manning & Vinn.
 Melanthium sabadilla (Retz.) Thunb. = Schoenocaulon officinale (Schltdl. & Cham.) A.Gray
 Melanthium schlechtendalianum Schult. & Schult.f. = Wurmbea punctata (L.) J.C.Manning & Vinn.
 Melanthium secundum Desr. = Wurmbea punctata (L.) J.C.Manning & Vinn.
 Melanthium sibiricum L. = Anticlea sibirica (L.) Kunth
 Melanthium spicatum Burm.f. = Wurmbea spicata (Burm.f.) T.Durand & Schinz
 Melanthium spicatum Walter, nom. illeg. = Xerophyllum tenax (Pursh) Nutt.
 Melanthium tenue Hook.f. = Wurmbea tenuis (Hook.f.) Baker
 Melanthium triquetrum L.f. =  Wurmbea stricta (Burm.f.) J.C.Manning & Vinn.
 Melanthium uniflorum Jacq. = Baeometra uniflora (Jacq.) G.J.Lewis
 Melanthium virens Thunb. = Veratrum album L.
 Melanthium virescens Willd. ex Kunth, pro syn. = Anticlea virescens (Kunth) Rydb.
 Melanthium viride L.f. = Ornithoglossum viride (L.f.) Dryand. ex W.T.Aiton
 Melanthium woodii (J.W.Robbins ex Alph.Wood) Bodkin = Veratrum woodii J.W.Robbins ex Alph.Wood
 Melanthium wurmbeum Thunb. = Wurmbea capensis'' Thunb.

Izvori

Vanjske poveznice

Sistematika

Melancijum


O Turaco-violeta (Tauraco violaceae) é uma espécie de ave da família Musophagidae.

Distribuição e habitat
É residente na África Ocidental e tem uma distribuição muito alargada, desde o Senegal até à Nigéria, com populações isoladas no Chade e na República Centro-Africana. Ocorre em savanas tropicais, zonas húmidas, bosques e florestas.

Aves descritas em 1788
Tauraco

Turaco-violeta


Ryuichi Hirashige (født 15. juni 1988) er en japansk fodboldspiller, som spiller for den japanske fodboldklub Thespakusatsu Gunma.

Referencer

Eksterne henvisninger

Fodboldspillere fra Japan

Ryuichi Hirashige


إن Windows 98 (الذي يحمل الاسم الكودي Memphis) عبارة عن نظام تشغيل ذي واجهة استخدام رسومية تم طرحه من قِبل شركة «مايكروسوفت» في 25 يونيو عام 1998، وهو يعد الإصدار التالي بعد ويندوز 98. ومثله مثل الإصدار السابق له، فهو يعتمد على نظام MS-DOS ويجمع بين كونه نظام تشغيل 16 بت/32 بت (أي أنه يقوم بتنفيذ تعليمات (عبارة عن قائمة أوامر) يصل طولها إلى 16 بت و32 بت. كما أنه يقوم بتشغيل برامج مهيأة للعمل على هذين النوعين من نظامي التشغيل). وبعد طرح Windows 98، قامت شركة مايكروسوفت في 14 سبتمبر عام 2000 بطرح نظام التشغيل ويندوز ميلينيوم.

الإصدار الثاني من نظام التشغيل windows 98

يقصد بالإصدار الثاني من نظام التشغيل Windows 98 (المشار إليه اختصارًا باسم Windows 98 SE ) الإشارة إلى النسخة الأحدث التي تم طرحها - في 5 مايو عام 1999 - من نظامWindows 98. ويشتمل هذا الإصدار على العديد من الحلول لبعض المشاكل الثانوية الموجودة في الإصدار الأول، مثل دعم وتطوير منافذ USB واستبدال برنامج Internet Explorer 4.0 ببرنامج Internet Explorer 5.0 الأسرع والأقل عرضة للأخطاء. يشتمل الإصدار الثاني أيضًا على سمة Internet Connection Sharing (مشاركة اتصال الإنترنت) التي يمكن من خلالها أن تشترك عدة أجهزة كمبيوتر متصلة بشبكة محلية (LAN) في اتصال واحد بالإنترنت من خلال نظام Network Address Translation (الذي يقوم بترجمة عناوين بروتوكول الإنترنت الخاصة بإحدى الشبكات المحلية إلى عنوان بروتوكولات مختلفة في شبكة أخرى خارجية لضمان تأمين الطلبات الصادرة والواردة). بالإضافة إلى ذلك، يشتمل الإصدار الثاني على برنامج المحادثة NetMeeting 3.0 وعلى دعم متكامل لمحركات أقراص دي في دي. كما تم حل مشكلة امتلاء الذاكرة التي كانت تتسبب في انهيار معظم مكونات نظام التشغيل في الإصدار الأول من Windows 98 وذلك إذا تم تشغيلها لمدة 49.7 يوم فقط. وتشتمل أسطوانة تحميل الإصدار الثاني أيضًا على خيار لتثبيت برنامج Microsoft Plus! الذي يتضمن مجموعة من صور الخلفيات الخاصة بنظام. هذا، ويمكن الحصول على الإصدار الثاني من Windows 98 كنسخة Retail Upgrade (نسخة يمكن شراؤها وتنزيلها على أكثر من جهاز) مشتملة على الحزم الكاملة، أو كنسخة OME (نسخة خاصة بالشركة المصنعة تأتي مثبتة على جهاز الكمبيوتر ولا يمكن نقلها إلى أي جهاز آخر) وكذلك قرص التحديث الخاص بالنسخة الثانية من Windows 98 للمستخدمين الحاليين.

معايير جديدة لبرامج التشغيل

يعتبر نظام Windows 98 أول نظام تشغيل يستخدم Windows Driver Model (WDM). لكن هذا الأمر لم يتم الإعلان عنه جيدًا في وقت إصدار Windows 98، لذلك استمر معظم منتجي مكونات أجهزة الكمبيوتر في إنشاء برامج تشغيل تعتمد على معيار برنامج التشغيل القديم VxD. ومع ذلك، فقد شاع استخدام معيار WDM بعد إصداره بسنوات من خلال نظامي التشغيل ويندوز 2000 وويندوز إكس بي، حيث لا يتوافق هذان النظامان مع معيار VxD القديم. أما اليوم، فحتى إذا لم يقم منتجو مكونات أجهزة الكمبيوتر بإنشاء برامج تشغيل مطورة للعمل مع نظام Windows 98، فإن برامج التشغيل المصممة وفقًا لمعايير WDM تعمل بتوافق أيضًا مع النظم التي تعتمد على Windows 98.

متطلبات تثبيت نظام Windows 98

 معالج 486DX-2/66 ميجا هرتز أو معالج أحدث (يوصى باستخدام معالج Pentium)
 ذاكرة RAM سعة 16 ميجا بايت (يوصى باستخدام ذاكرة RAM سعة 24 ميجا بايت، ومن الممكن تشغيل النظام على أجهزة 8 ميجا بايت باستخدام خيار im/ في أثناء عملية التثبيت.)
 ضرورة توفُّر مساحة 500 ميجا بايت - على الأقل - على القرص الصلب؛ ويتوقف حجم المساحة المطلوبة على طريقة التثبيت والمكونات المختارة. ومع ذلك، يجب أخذ في الاعتبار كل من الذاكرة الافتراضية برامج النظام المساعدة وبرامج التشغيل عند تحديد المساحة المطلوبة.
 عند الترقية من نظام التشغيل Windows 95(FAT16) أو 3.1 (FAT): يجب توفُّر من 140 إلى 400 ميجا بايت (والوضع الافتراضي هو 205 ميجا بايت)
 في حالة إجراء تثبيت جديدر (FAT32): يجب أن تكون هناك من 190 إلى 305 ميجا بايت (والوضع الافتراضي هو 210 ميجا بايت)
 ملحوظة 1: قد تكون هناك العديد من المشاكل الملحوظة في كل من الإصدار الأول والإصدار الثاني من Windows 98 في حالة التثبيت على أقراص صلبة سعتها أكثر من 32 جيجا بايت. وتظهر هذه المشاكل فقط مع بعض إعدادات Phoenix BIOS. لذلك، تم تصميم برنامج جديد يعمل على إصلاح هذا الخطأ.
 ملحوظة 2: بالإضافة إلى ما سبق، لا يمكن لكل من الإصدار الأول والثاني من Windows 98 التعامل مع الأقراص الصلبة التي تزيد سعتها عن 137 جيجا بايت، وذلك لغياب دعم 48Bit LBA. كما أن تعرض البيانات للتلف يعد أمرًا واردًا أيضًا. لذلك، تم تصميم برنامج تجريبي جديد للمساعدة في إصلاح هذا الخطأ.

 كارت VGA أو شاشة ذات درجة وضوح أعلى
 محرك أقراص CD-ROM أو DVD-ROM (تم طرح الإصدار الأول أيضًا على أقراص مرنة، لكن من النادر جدًا وجودها الآن.)
 ماوس من إنتاج شركة مايكروسوفت أو جهاز إشارة متوافق (اختياري).

وكما هو الحال في الإصدار السابق Windows 95 والإصدار اللاحقWindows Millennium (Me، يمكن لمستخدمي Windows 98 تجاوز عملية فحص متطلبات الجهاز باستخدام إعداد im/. وهذا يتيح للمستخدم إمكانية تثبيت النظام على أجهزة كمبيوتر تحتوي على معالجات قديمة مثل المعالج إنتل 80386.

الإعلان عن نظام Windows 98

سبق طرح نظام Windows 98 في الأسواق دعاية إعلامية كبيرة من خلال معرض Comdex في إبريل عام 1998. وفي أثناء عرض نظام التشغيل الجديد وقتها، Windows 98، كان «بيل غيتس» رئيس مجلس إدارة شركة مايكروسوفت يحاول تسليط الضوء على مدى سهولة استخدام هذا النظام وعلى الدعم والتطوير الذي شهدته سمة Plug and Play (PnP) الخاصة بالتوصيل والتشغيل. ولكن عندما قام مساعده كريس كابوسيلا بتوصيل جهاز سكانر بالكمبيوتر ثم حاول تثبيته، توقف نظام التشغيل وعرض شاشة زرقاء. أعقب ذلك تصفيق وهتاف من الحاضرين مما جعل «جيتس» يعلق على ما حدث قائلاً: «لهذا السبب، لم نطرح Windows 98 في الأسواق بعد». أصبح تداول لقطات الفيديو التي سجلت هذا الحدث ظاهرة على الإنترنت لاقت رواجًا كبيرًا وقتها.

الأدوات المساعدة في نظام Windows 98
 سكان ديسك - تعتبر أداة تفحص الأقراص هذه من الأدوات المساعدة التي تستخدم في الحفاظ على نظام الملفات، كما أنها توفر نسخة من نظام التشغيل DOS وواجهة استخدام رسومية. كذلك تُستخدم هذه الأداة في التحقق من سلامة نظام الملفات والملفات المخزنة به.
 إلغاء تجزئة الأقراص - تعتبر أداة إلغاء تجزئة القرص من أدوات النظام المساعدة المستخدمة في التغلب على الآثار السلبية لتجزئة نظام الملفات. فهي تقوم بتجميع أجزاء الملف الذي تمت تجزئته ثم تعيد تجميعها ووتعيد أيضًا ترتيب كل الملفات بالشكل الأمثل، وبهذا فإنها تزيد من سرعة الوصول للملفات وسرعة التشغيل.
 Scanreg - تُستخدم هذه الأداة في استعادة سجلات أو قاعدة بيانات نظام التشغيل في حالة تعرضه للتلف. فهي تقوم بفحص سلامة السجلات ثم تحفظ نسخة احتياطية منها في كل مرة. ويمكن للمستخدم تحديد عدد النسخ الاحتياطية التي يريد الاحتفاظ بها من خلال الملف "scanreg.ini". وقد يتسبب خطأ ما في عدم القدرة على استعادة النسخة الأقدم المحفوظة من السجل (فقبل إجراء عملية الاستعادة، يتم عمل نسخة احتياطية من الإعدادات الحالية وحذف النسخة الاحتياطية الأقدم من السجل). ولا يمكن استعادة السجل المعيوب أو الذي يشتمل على خطأ إلا في وضع التشغيل DOS. كما تشتمل هذه الأداة على بعض أوامر DOS المهمة مثل أمر scanreg/opt الذي يعمل على تحسين أداء سجلات قاعدة البيانات نظام التشغيل بحذف المدخلات غير المهمة، بالإضافة إلى أمر scanreg/fix الذي يقوم بإصلاح إعدادات سجلات نظام التشغيل.
 إعدادات نظام مايكروسوفت - أحد برامج المساعدة في نظام التشغيل والمستخدمة في زيادة سرعة تشغيل جهاز الكمبيوتر من خلال تعطيل البرامج والخدمات غير الضرورية لتشغيله. وتتميز هذه الأداة بالكفاءة العالية حيث يمكنها مضاعفة ثبات النظام واستقراره وسرعته.
 Regedit - توفر هذه الأداة إمكانية تحرير سجلات قاعدة بيانات نظام التشغيل يدويًا.

إصدارات Windows 98

زيادة إمكانيات Windows 98

يمكن تثبيت كل إصدارات برنامج DirectX من الإصدار الأول وحتى الإصدار 9.0c على Windows 98SE. كذلك يدعم نظام التشغيل جميع إصدارات برنامج Microsoft.NET Framework حتى الإصدار 2.0. وأيضًا يمكن تثبيت برنامج إنترنت إكسبلورر على Windows 98 حتى الإصدار إنترنت إكسبلورر 6 (6.00.2800.1106 Service Pack 1)، علمًا بأن هذا الإصدار يُستخدم أيضًا مع نظام التشغيل Windows XP SP1 (كما أن الإصدار الأخير منه متاح أيضًا مع نظم التشغيل التي تم طرحها قبل Windows XP). ولكن لا يمكن تنزيل عمليات التحديث الحالية الخاصة بالتأمين في برنامج Internet Explorer على نظام Windows 98. علاوةً على ذلك، يمكن لنظم تشغيل Windows 98 التعامل مع تطبيق Visual C++ 2005 library وتقنية L2TP/IPSec VPN client بالإضافة إلى جميع إصدارات خدماتMicrosoft Installer (MSIA) حتى الإصدار 2.0. كما يدعم Windows 98 برنامج Windows Media Player 9.0 الذي يمكن تثبيته على النظام دون مشاكل. جدير بالذكر أنه بسبب عدم القدرة على التوافق مع واجهة Cairo المستخدمة في الإصدار 1.9 من Gecko Layout Engine - فإن إصدارات فايرفكس بدءًا من الإصدار 3.0 لن تدعم نظامي تشغيل Windows 98 وويندوز ميلينيوم. مع ذلك، فإن جميع الإصدارات الخاصة ببرنامج التصفح Opera بما فيها الإصدار الأخير 9.64 يمكنها العمل مع Windows 98. وهناك أيضًا مشروع لتوفير نوع من التوافق يسمح بالتعامل مع البرامج التي لا تعمل إلا مع نظام التشغيل Windows 2000 والنظم الأحدث منه. هذا وقد تم توفير دعم لذاكرات RAM التي تزيد عن 512 ميجا بايت من خلال الاستعانة ببرنامج باتش (لمعالجة هذا الأمر) أو تعديل ملف System.ini. وبالمثل، يمكن أن يقوم نظام Windows 98 بدعم الأقراص الصلبة، التي تزيد سعتها عن 137 جيجا بايت أو تصل إلى 2 تيترا بايت، من خلال الاستعانة بالعديد من الأدوات المساعدة.

فترة استخدام Windows 98
خططت شركة مايكروسوفت وقف دعمها لنظام Windows 98 في 16 يناير عام 2004، ولكن نظرًا لاستمرار رواج المنتج بين المستخدمين (حيث كانت 27% من طلبات البحث على جوجل خلال شهري أكتوبر ونوفمبر من عام 2003 تتعلق بهذا النظام ، قررت شركة مايكروسوفت الاستمرار في تقديم الدعم للنظام حتى 11 يوليو عام 2006، كما انتهى أيضًا تقديم الدعم لنظام ويندوز ميلينيوم في هذا التاريخ. وبحلول ذلك التاريخ، انخفضت حصة نظام التشغيل Windows 98 في السوق إلى 2.7%.

سمات تم الاستغناء عنها

لقد كان من المقرر دعم نظام Windows 98 بسمة DeskBar، لكن تم الاستغناء عن هذه السمة قبل طرح المنتج في الأسواق، على الأرجح نظرًا لضيق الوقت. ومع ذلك، فإن المطورين جعلوا من الممكن الوصول إلى علامة التبويب التي تتضمن الإعدادات الخاصة بهذه السمة، والتي يمكن إظهارها بالاستمرار في الضغط على مفتاح Control في أثناء تحديد Properties من قائمة شريط المهام.

مراجع

مصادر

 فريد ديفيس وكيب كروسبي، كتاب "The Windows 98 Bible" ،Berkeley, California: peachpit Press, 1998. الرقم المعياري الدولي للكتاب: 0-201-696908.
 Microsoft Windows 98 Review - IT Reviews

أشكال دوس
إصدارات موقوفة من مايكروسوفت ويندوز
برمجيات 1998
برمجيات 1999
مايكروسوفت ويندوز
منتجات وخدمات توقفت في 2006

ويندوز 98


Kaalsommerfuglen er en dansk naturfilm fra 1948 med instruktion og manuskript af Erik R. Knudsen.

Handling
Nærbilleder af de forskellige stadier af kålsommerfuglens liv, fra ægget lægges, over larve- og puppestadiet, til sommerfuglen bryder ud af puppehylstret.

Referencer

Eksterne henvisninger

Danske film fra 1948
Naturfilm fra Danmark

Kaalsommerfuglen


El XLII Campeonato Europeo de Tiro en 10 m se celebró en Vierumäki (Finlandia) entre el 14 y el 20 de febrero de 2012 bajo la organización de la Confederación Europea de Tiro (ESC) y la Federación Finlandesa de Tiro Deportivo.

Las competiciones se realizaron en la Arena de Vierumäki.

Resultados

Masculino

Femenino

Medallero

Enlaces externos
Pág. del evento  (en inglés).
Resultados oficiales (en inglés).

10 2012

Campeonato Europeo de Tiro en 10 m de 2012


Aurel Muntean (n. 2 mai 1882, Merghindeal, Austro-Ungaria – d. 10 septembrie 1940, Huedin, Regatul României) a fost un deputat în Marea Adunare Națională de la Alba Iulia, organismul legislativ reprezentativ al "tuturor românilor din Transilvania, Banat și Țara Ungurească", cel care a adoptat hotărârea privind Unirea Transilvaniei cu România, la 1 decembrie 1918.

Biografie
Aurel Muntean, a studiat teologia, slujind la începutul carierei ca preot în Valea Drăganului, din județul Cluj.

Parintele Aurel a păstorit mai mulți ani în parohia Sebeșului Mare (Valea Draganului), după care a fost numit de Consistoriul Eparhial Cluj, protopop al Huedinului în anul 1923. Ca partizan și prieten cu Octavian Goga la Ciucea. A fost ales senator în sesiunea parlamentară din 1926—27.Protopopul Aurel Munteanu a primit moartea martirică în 10 septembrie 1940, trecând prin chinuri groaznice. A fost bătut în plină stradă cu pumnii și ciomege, a fost trântit la pământ, i-au smuls părul și barba cu carne cu tot, iar unul dintre asasini i-a înfipt un par în gură până i-a ieșit prin ceafă, se menționează într-un raport al Ministerului Afacerilor Străine.

Activitatea politică

Ca deputat în Adunarea Națională din 1 decembrie 1918 a reprezentat, ca delegat de drept, despărțământul Huedin al "Astrei" .
Pe lângă activitatea religioasă a desfășurat o intensă activitate culturală în cadrul Partidului Național Țărănesc în Consiliul aceluiași municipiu, făcând parte și din delegația permanentă a acestuia .A desfășurat o intensă activitate în cadrul mai multor societăți de binefacere și culturale din localitate, iar pe teren politic a contribuit la organizarea secției feminine a partidului.

Recunoașteri

Note

Bibliografie
 Ioan I. Șerban, Dorin Giurgiu, Ionela Mircea, Nicolae Josan, Dicționarul personalităților Unirii. Trimișii românilor transilvăneni la Marea Adunare Națională de la Alba Iulia, Muzeul Național al Unirii, Alba Iulia, 2003, ISBN 973-8141-90-7
 Gelu Neamțu, Mircea Vaida-Voevod, 1 decembrie 1918. Mărturii ale participanților, vol. I-II, Editura Academiei Române, București, 2005, ISBN 973-27-1258-9 (vol. I); ISBN 973-27-1264-3 (vol. II)

Lectură suplimentară
 Daniela Comșa, Eugenia Glodariu, Maria M. Jude, Clujenii și Marea Unire, Muzeul Național Transilvania, Cluj-Napoca, 1998
 Florea Marin, Medicii și Marea Unire, Editura Tipomur, Târgu Mureș, 1993
 Silviu Borș, Alexiu Tatu, Bogdan Andriescu, (coord.), Participanți din localități sibiene la Marea Adunare Națională de la Alba Iulia din 1 decembrie 1918, Editura Armanis, Sibiu, 2015

Legături externe
  Membrii de drept ai Marii Adunării Naționale de la Alba-Iulia din 1 decembrie 1918, lista publicată în "Gazeta Oficială", Sibiu, nr. 1, 1/14 decembrie 1918
  1 decembrie 1918, Marea Unire de la Alba Iulia. Mărturii, documente și semnificații

Vezi și
 Lista delegaților la Marea Adunare Națională de la Alba Iulia

Nașteri în 1882
Decese în 1940
Delegați la Marea Adunare Națională de la Alba Iulia
Preoți români
Transilvăneni
Români din Austro-Ungaria

Aurel Muntean


Sylt steht für:
 Sylt, eine Nordseeinsel
 Sylt (Gemeinde), die am 1. Januar 2009 gebildete Gemeinde auf der gleichnamigen Nordseeinsel
 Sylt-Ost, eine ehemalige Gemeinde auf der Nordseeinsel Sylt, die von 1970 bis 2008 existierte
 Amt Landschaft Sylt, ein Amt, das die nicht zur Gemeinde Sylt gehörenden Teile der gleichnamigen Insel umfasst.
 Sylt (Album), ein Album der Band Kettcar

SYLT steht für:
 Lethem Airport (ICAO-Code), Flughafen von Lethem (Guyana), Upper Takutu-Upper Essequibo, Guyana

Siehe auch:
 Flughafen Sylt
 Sylt Air
 Lager Sylt
 Sylt1

Abkürzung

Sylt (Begriffsklärung)


Ayumu Matsumoto (født 28. april 1998) er en japansk fodboldspiller.

Han har spillet for flere forskellige klubber i sin karriere, herunder Gamba Osaka.

Eksterne henvisninger

Fodboldspillere fra Japan

Ayumu Matsumoto


حبابة هي جارية عاشت في العصر الأموي، وكانت ملكاً للخليفة الأموي يزيد بن عبد الملك، وقصتها معه مشهورة، وقد ماتت في بيت رأس ودفنت هناك.

قصتها
تتلخص قصة حبابة حسب معظم الروايات، أنه كان للخليفة قصرٌ في إربد كان ينزله متى أراد، وكان يستخدمه للهو والسرور والاستراحة في رحلات الصيد التي كان يقوم بها في الصحراء الأردنية، وفي إحدى المرات قام برحلة تنزه إلى بيت راس وأخذ يلهو هناك مع جاريته حبابه ويأكلان الرمان والعنب، حتى شرقت هذه الجارية بحبّة عنب فلفظت أنفاسها بين يديه، فجنَّ جنونه على موتها بهذه الصورة المفجعة، فأبقاها ثلاث ليال وهو يشمها ويقبّلها، ويذرف الدمع على فراقها، حتى عاب عليه أقاربه وحاشيته ما يصنع، فأذن لهم بغسلها ودفنها في ثرى بيت رأس.

أما الخليفة يزيد فقد رجع إلى قصره في إربد، ومكث بعدها أربعين يوما، ثم لفظ أنفاسه حزنا عليها، وقيل أنه دُفن حيث مات في إربد، والأرجح أنه نقل على أكتاف الرجال إلى دمشق ليوارى هناك في حدود سنة 105 هـ/724 م.

لكن كون العديد من الروايات لهذه القصة وقصص أخرى تشبهها عن ذات الخليفة غير مؤكدة كونها موضوعة أو مُبالغاً في روايتها للتركيز على عشق الخليفة المزعوم للجاريات، وقد ذكر بعض المؤرخين ومنهم المؤرخ ابن تغرى بردي صاحب كتاب النجوم الزاهرة رفضهم لمثل هذه الروايات ومبالغاتها ويردونها إلى نقمة العباسيين المتمردين على الأمويين وخاصة في هذه الفترة من أواخر حكم الأمويين، وأنها مدسوسة ومغرضة.

في السينما والتلفزيون
ظهرت شخصية حبابة جارية يزيد بن عبد الملك في فيلم حبابة عام 1944 باسمها إخراج نيازي مصطفى وقامت بدورها عزيزة أمير، وظهرت في المسلسل المصري الحسن البصري عام 2000 وقامت بتجسيد الدور منال سلامة، ثم في المسلسل السوري فارس بني مروان عام 2004 من إخراج نجدت إسماعيل أنزور ، وقد قامت بتجسيد دورها درة زروق.

المراجع

العبيد في القرن 8
أمويون في القرن 8
العبودية في الدولة الأموية
جوار
شاعرات في الدولة الأموية
شعراء بالعربية في القرن 8
عبيد من الدولة الأموية
عبيد ومعتقون عرب
مغنون في العصور الوسطى
مغنيات
موسيقيات في القرن 8
موسيقيون في القرن 8
نساء القرن 8
نساء من الدولة الأموية
وفيات 105 هـ
وفيات 724
وفيات عقد 720

حبابة (جارية)


Trudnoća, ljudska trudnoća
 Trudnoća kod mužjaka, inkubacija jednog ili više embrija ili fetusa od muških pripadnika neke vrste.
 Trudnoća kod sisavaca
 Trudnoća kod riba

Trudnoća (razdvojba)


රයිගම් සිතුවම් සම්ප්‍රදාය

රයිගම චිත්‍ර සම්ප්‍රදාය කොටස් දෙකකට බෙදේ. ඉන් එක් කොටසක් වූ කලී ක්‍රි.ව 1800ට පෙර යුගයේ සම්ප්‍රදාය යි. එම සිතුවම් අපට දැක ගත හැකි වන්නේ කෙසෙල්හේනාව රජමහා විහාරයේ හා පොකුණුවිට කිත්සිරිමෙවන් රජ මහා විහාරයේය. ඒවායේ සෙංඛඩගල යුගයේ මූලික ලක්ෂණ පෙන්නුම් කෙරේ. රතු පසුබිමේ අදින ලද පැතැලි චිත්‍ර හා සිංහල සම්ප්‍රදායේ පලාපෙති ආදී මොස්තර පිළිඹිබුවේ.

රයිගම් චිත්‍ර සම්ප්‍රදායේ දෙවැණි යුගය වන්නේ ක්‍රි.ව 1800න් පසු යුගයයි. පරංගින් විසින් රයිගම වෙහෙර විහාර විනාස කළ පසු ඒවා නැවත ගොඩ නැන්වීමට ඉංග්‍රීසි පාලන යුගයේ ක්‍රි.ව 1800 වන තුරුම අවසර නොලැබින. එම ශතවර්ශයේදී  ඉංග්‍රීසි රජය විසින් බෞද්ධයින්ටද වෙහෙර විහාර තැනීමට අවසර ලබාදුනි.

දීර්ග කාලයකට පසු රයිගම් කෝරළයේ වැසියන්ද වෙහෙර විහාර කර්මාන්තය ආරම්භ කළේය. එවකට සිටි සිතුවම් ශිල්පීන් බටහිර චිත්‍ර කලාව මත පිහිටි චිත්‍ර ශිල්පීන් විය. ඔවුන් පන්සල්වල සිතුවම් ඇදීමට පළමු පැරණි නුවර යුගයේ සිතුවම් කලාව අධ්‍යනය කළේය. මෙම වියන් සම්ප්‍රධායේ බටහිර සිතුවම් කලාවේ අභාෂය තුළින් විහාර සිතුවම් නැගීම නිසා යස අපූරු චිත්‍ර සම්ප්‍රදායක් රයිගම් කොරළයෙන් බිහිවිය. මෙය අප දිවිතීක රයිගම් සම්ප්‍රදාය ලෙසින් හඳුන්වයි. පසුව එය පහතරට සෙසු කලාපයන් කෙරෙහිද පැතිර ගියේය.

රයිගම් දිවිතීක සිතුවම් සම්ප්‍රදායේ සිතුවම් දක්නට ලැබෙන විහාරස්ථාන වන්නේ හොරණ ඔළබොඩුව පුරාණ පංසල, ඉංගිරිය දීපාලෝක මහා විහාරය, හඳපාන්ගොඩ ගණේ විහාරය, කඳනපිටිය දෙගම්තිලකාකාරාමය, ගුංගමුව පුරාණ විහාරය, උරුගල තපොධනාරාමය, පොකුණුවිට රජ මහා විහාරය, කෙසෙල් හේනාව වියන් සිතුවම්, පානදුර රන්කොත් විහාරීය සිතුවම් හා රයිගම් කෝරළයෙන් පරිබාහිරව තොටගමු රජමහා විහාරයේ සිතුවම් මෙම දිවිතීක රයිගම් සිතුවම් සම්ප්‍රදායට අයත්වේ.

මෙම සම්ප්‍රදායේ විශේෂත්වයන් නම් බටහිර උරුවට නුවර යුගයේ චිත්‍ර සම්ප්‍රදාය  ප්‍රති නිර්මානය කිරීමට ගත් උත්සාහයකි. නුවර සම්ප්‍රදායේ  මෙන් පසුතලය සඳහා රතු පැහැය දිවිතීක රයිගම් සිතුවම් වල එතරම් යොදා ගෙන නොමැත. ඒ වෙනුවට නිල් හා ගුරු පැහැ පසු තලයේ සිතුවම් ඇඳීමට වැඩි ඇල්මක් දක්වා ඇත. විශේෂයෙන් නිල් පැහැ පසුබිම මෙම රයිගම් සම්ප්‍රදායේ අනිවාර්ය ආවේනික ලක්ෂණයක් ලෙසින් විශේෂයෙන් කැපීපෙනේ. ඉහත සඳහන්කල සෑම විහාරස්ථානයකම ඒ ලක්ෂණය දක්නට ලැබේ. සිතුවම් වර්ණ ගැන්වීමේදී නිල්, කහ, රතු, කලු වර්ණ වලට ප්‍රමුඛත්වයක් ලබාදී ඇත.

සමකාලීන ඇදුම් පැළදුම් හා සමාජීය තත්වය සිතුවම් සුළින් පිළිඹිබුවීමය. එකල සමාජයේ පැවති රේන්ද වැඩ සහිත බොරිච්චි කබාකුරුත්තා,  හිස් වැසුම්, ගෘහ නිර්මාණය මේවායින් දැක්වේ. බුද්ධ කාලීන පසුබිම දැක්වීමේදී නමුත් සිතුවම් අදින සමයේ තක්කාලීන සංස්කෘතික අංග  තුළින් නිරූපණය කිරීමට උත්සාහ දරා ඇත. බටහිර සිතුවම් වලින් ලද අභාෂය සෙංඛඩගලයුගයේ පතැලි චිත්‍ර ආර මත නිරිපණය කිරීමට ශිල්පීන් ගත් උත්සාහය නිසා දිවිතීක යුගයේ රයිගම් චිත්‍ර සම්ප්‍රදාය ජනිත වී ඇති බව පැහැදිළිව පෙනීයයි. එහි එයටම ආවේනික වූ අපූරවතම අලංකාරයක් ඇත.

රෝස මල් රටා, ලීලී මල් මෙම සිතුවම් සදහා වල මොස්තර නිර්මානය සඳහා යොදා ගෙන ඇත. සිතුවම් අදින යුගයේ රයිගම පුරුෂයින් හා කාන්තාවන් ඇදි ඇදුම් ආයිත්තම් හා ගෘහ නිර්මානය දක්වා ඇති නිසා එකල සමාජයේ රයිගම ජන ජීවිතය ගැන යම් අවබෝධයක් ලබා ගත හැකිය.

මේ අපූරු සිතුම්කලාව වෙනස් කම් සහිතව හෝ පසුතලයට නිල් පහැය යොදා ගැනීම, ගුරු, නිල්, රතු, කලු වරණ සංකල්නය කරමින් වර්තමානයේ බිහිවන විහාරස්ථානවල  සිතුවම් අඳිමින් මෙම සම්ප්‍රදාය වැඩි වර්ධනය කර ගනිමින් ඉදිරියට ගෙන යෑම වත්මන් චිත්‍ර ශිල්පීන්ගේ වගකීමකි.

එමෙන්ම ශතවර්ෂයක් පමණ පැරණි සිතුවම් නිසා මේම සිතුවම් කාලයාගේ ඇවෑමෙන් විනාස වෙමින් පවතී. එම නිසා පුරාවිද්‍යා දෙපාර්තමේන්තුවේ සෘජු මග පෙන්වීම සහිතව මෙම විහාර සතුවම් ප්‍රති නිර්මාණය කර ආරක්ෂා කරන්නේ නම් අතිශයින් වටී.

රයිගම සිතුවම් සම්ප්රදාය


Vahida Maglajlić (Banja Luka, 14. travnja 1907. – Bosanski Novi, 1. travnja 1943.), bosanskohercegovačka antifašistkinja i bošnjačka narodna heroina Jugoslavije.

Životopis
Vahida je rođena 1907. godine u  Banjoj Luci. Bila je najstarija kćerka među desetoro djece oca Muhameda i majke Ćamile. Porijeklom je iz bogate, dobro situirane obitelji, ali je kao i njena braća svojim životnim putem pokazala borbu za ravnopravnost i antifašizam. Završila je Žensku stručnu školu u rodnom gradu. U mladosti je pokazivala naklonost u borbi za prava žena i za komunističku partiju. Uključila se u Ženski pokret, gdje je bila i rukovoditelj. Učestvovala je u sakupljanju sredstava za organizaciju Crvena pomoć. U članstvo Komunističke partije Jugoslavije primljena je svibnja 1941. godine.

Listopada 1941, je uhićena, mučena i određena za trajniji zatvor, ali je 20. prosinca 1941. zajedno s Danicom Marić, pobjegla iz zatvora. Krajem 1941. odlazi na na teritoriju oslobođenu od fašista u partizanski odred na planini Čemernici.

Djelovala je među ženama Kozare, Grmeča i Cazinske krajine radeći na osnivanju Antifašističkog fronta žena u Podgrmeču. Na Prvoj konferenciji Antifašističkog fronta žena Jugoslavije, održanoj 6. prosinca 1942. u Bosanskom Petrovcu, izabrana je u članstvo Centralnog odbora.

Poginula je 1. travnja 1943. u selu Velika Rujiška, kod Bosanskog Novog. Poslije rata njeni posmrtni ostaci su preneseni na Partizansko spomen-groblje u Banjoj Luci. Ukazom Prezidijuma Narodne skupštine Federativne Republike Jugoslavije 20. prosinca 1951. godine, proglašena je za narodnu heroinu. Njen brat Munib Maglajlić je poginuo 1943. godine, a brat Šefket Maglajlić je bio narodni heroj.

Jedno vrijeme ime Vahide Maglajlić nosila je osnovna škola u naselju Arapuša kod Bosanske Krupe i Srednja medicinska škola u Banjoj Luci. Spomen-biste narodnih heroja Šefketa Maglajlića i Vahide Maglajlić nalaze se u Banjoj Luci u parku u središtu grada, u blizini hotela Bosna. Banjalučka ulica Vahide Maglajlić, od tranzitne ceste ka Jajcu i Bosanskoj Gradiški do danas zapuštenog Partizanskog spomen groblja u Pobrđu, od 1992, ne nosi njeno ime.

U Sarajevu, u naselju Dobrinja kod OŠ Osman Nuri Hadžić nalazi se Ulica Vahide Maglajlić. Hrabrost i samoodređenost Vahide Maglajlić inspirisale su Palestinca El Helou Mohameda da sastavi brošuru s njenim likom na naslovnici, kako bi služila kao primjer ženama Palestinskog oslobodilačkog pokreta.

Izvori

Vanjske povezice
 Šta je meni antifašizam,
 Heroina Vahida Maglajlić kao uzor Palestinkama,
 Pet narodnih heroina u Historijskom muzeju,
 Medicinska škola Banja Luka,

Narodni heroji Jugoslavije
Životopisi, Banja Luka

Vahida Maglajlić


Novosad este o comună slovacă, aflată în districtul Trebišov din regiunea Košice. Localitatea se află la , se întinde pe o suprafață de  și în 2017 număra 1.010 locuitori.

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