بلومنغتون  هي مدينة تقع في مقاطعة مونرو في الجزء الجنوبي من ولاية إنديانا الأمريكية، وتعدّ مقر المقاطعة. وهي سابع أكبر مدينة في ولاية إنديانا، ورابع أكبر مدينة خارج منطقة إنديانابولس الحضرية. وحسب المركز التاريخي لمقاطعة منرو، فإن بلومنغتون تُعرف بلقب «بوابة جنوب إنديانا البهية». يعود تاريخ تأسيس المدينة عام 1818م على يد مجموعة من المستوطنين القادمين من ولايات كنتاكي، وتينيسي، وكارولاينا الشمالية، وفرجينيا الذين كانوا منبهرين بـ«ملاذٍ من الزهور» أو «a haven of blooms»، ولهذا أطلقوا عليها اسم «بلومنغتون».
بلغ عدد سكان بلومنغتون بحوالي 84,067 نسمة حسب مكتب التعداد السكاني بالولايات المتحدة لشهر يوليو لعام 2016.
تعتبر المدينة مقراً لجامعة إنديانا والتي تأسست عام 1820م. تضم جامعة إنديانا حوالي 50 ألف طالب وطالبة حسب إحصائيات شهر سبتمبر 2016، وهي المقر الرئيس والأساسي لجامعة إنديانا. معظم مباني الحرم الجامعي مبنية باستعمال حجر إنديانا الجيري. من أشهر الكليات بجامعة إنديانا كلية التعليم، وكلية الدراسات البيئية والاجتماعية، وكلية مُورَرْ للقانون، وكلية جايكوب للموسيقى، وكلية الصحافة، وكلية كيلي للأعمال، وكلية البصريات، وكلية نظم المعلومات، ومعهد كنسي، ومعهد بروتون الوسط الغربي للمعالجة الإشعاعية.

التركيبة السكانية
قام مكتب تعداد الولايات المتحدة بتحديد بيانات التركيبة السكانية لبلومنغتون في تعداد الولايات المتحدة. في ما يلي، التركيبة السكانية حسب تعدادي 2000 و2010.

بلومنغتون هي المدينة الرئيسية لمنطقة بلومنغتون الحضرية الإحصائية وهي منطقة حضرية تغطي مقاطعات غرين ومونرو وأوين، وبلغ مجموع سكانها 175,506 نسمة بحسب تعداد عام 2000.

تعداد عام 2010
بلغ عدد سكان بلومنغتون 80,405 نسمة بحسب تعداد عام 2010، وبلغ عدد الأسر 31,425 أسرة وعدد العائلات 11,267 عائلة مقيمة في المدينة. في حين سجلت الكثافة السكانية . وبلغ عدد الوحدات السكنية 33,239 وحدة بمتوسط كثافة قدره .
وتوزع التركيب العرقي للمدينة بنسبة 83.0% من البيض و4.6% من الأمريكيين الأفارقة و0.3% من الأمريكيين الأصليين و8.0% من الأمريكيين ذوي الأصول الآسيوية و0.1% من سكان جزر المحيط الهادئ و1.2% من الأعراق الأخرى و3.0% من عرقين أو أكثر. وكانت نسبة 3.5% من السكان من الهسبانيين أو اللاتينيين المنتمين لأي عرق.

بلغ عدد الأسر 31,425 أسرة كانت نسبة 16.6% منها لديها أطفال تحت سن الثامنة عشر تعيش معهم، وبلغت نسبة الأزواج القاطنين مع بعضهم البعض 25.3% من أصل المجموع الكلي للأسر، ونسبة 7.5% من الأسر كان لديها معيلات من الإناث دون وجود شريك، بينما كانت نسبة 3.1% من الأسر لديها معيلون من الذكور دون وجود شريكة وكانت نسبة 64.1% من غير العائلات. بلغ عدد الأسر 31,425 أسرة ومنهم نسبة 16.6% كان لديهم أطفال تحت سن الثامنة عشر يعيشون معهم. تألفت نسبة 38.2% من أصل جميع الأسر من أفراد ونسبة 7.5% كانوا يعيش معهم شخص وحيد يبلغ من العمر 65 عاماً فما فوق. وبلغ متوسط حجم الأسرة 2.09، فيما بلغ متوسط حجم العائلة 2.76.

بلغ متوسط عمر السكان في المدينة 23.3 سنة. وكانت نسبة 11.4% من القاطنين تحت سن الثامنة عشر، وكانت نسبة 44.5% بين الثامنة عشر والأربعة وعشرون عاماً، ونسبة 23% كانت واقعةً في الفئة العمرية ما بين الخامسة والعشرين حتى الرابعة والأربعين عاماً، ونسبة 13.3% كانت ما بين الخامسة والأربعون حتى الرابعة والستون، ونسبة 7.9% كانت ضمن فئة الخامسة والستون عاماً فما فوق. وتوزع التركيب الجنسي للسكان بنسبة 50.3% ذكور و49.7% إناث.

تعداد عام 2000
بلغ عدد سكان بلومنغتون 69,291 نسمة بحسب تعداد عام 2000، وبلغ عدد الأسر 26,468 أسرة وعدد العائلات 10,454 عائلة مقيمة في المدينة. في حين سجلت الكثافة السكانية 3,511.1 نسمة لكل ميل مربع (1,356.0/كم²). وبلغ عدد الوحدات السكنية 28,400 وحدة بمتوسط كثافة قدره 1,439.1 لكل ميل مربع (555.8/كم²). وتوزع التركيب العرقي للمدينة بنسبة 87.03% من البيض و4.24% من الأمريكيين الأفارقة و0.29% من الأمريكيين الأصليين و5.26% من الأمريكيين ذوي الأصول الآسيوية و0.07% من سكان جزر المحيط الهادئ و1.10% من الأعراق الأخرى و2.01% من عرقين أو أكثر. وكانت نسبة 2.49% من السكان من الهسبانيين أو اللاتينيين المنتمين لأي عرق. أمَّا بالنسبة للتوزع الإثني فبحسب تعداد 2000، كانت نسبة 22.9% من أصول ألمانية، ونسبة 10.2% من أصول أيرلندية، ونسبة 9.1% من أصول إنجليزية، ونسبة 8.4% من أصول أمريكية. ومن الناحية اللغوية، تحدثت نسبة 89.3% من السكان الإنجليزية، ونسبة 2.9% تحدثت الإسبانية، ونسبة 1.3% تحدثت الكورية، وتحدثت نسبة 1.1% الألمانية، وتحدثت نسبة 1.0% الصينية أو المندرينية كلغتهم الأم.

بلغ عدد الأسر 26,468 أسرة كانت نسبة 17.9% منها لديها أطفال تحت سن الثامنة عشر تعيش معهم، وبلغت نسبة الأزواج القاطنين مع بعضهم البعض 29.2% من أصل المجموع الكلي للأسر، ونسبة 7.8% من الأسر كان لديها معيلات من الإناث دون وجود شريك، بينما كانت نسبة 60.5% من غير العائلات. تألفت نسبة 39.1% من أصل جميع الأسر من أفراد ونسبة 7.1% كانوا يعيش معهم شخص وحيد يبلغ من العمر 65 عاماً فما فوق. وبلغ متوسط حجم الأسرة 2.09، فيما بلغ متوسط حجم العائلة 2.76.

بلغ العمر الوسطي للسكان 23 عاماً. كانت نسبة 12.7% من القاطنين تحت سن الثامنة عشر، وكانت نسبة 42.3% بين الثامنة عشر والأربعة وعشرون عاماً، ونسبة 24.6% كانت واقعةً في الفئة العمرية ما بين الخامسة والعشرين حتى الرابعة والأربعين عاماً، ونسبة 12.6% كانت ما بين الخامسة والأربعون حتى الرابعة والستون، ونسبة 7.9% كانت ضمن فئة الخامسة والستون عاماً فما فوق. يوجد لكل 100 أنثى 94.4 ذكر، ويوجد لكل 100 أنثى في الثامنة عشر من عمرها فما فوق 92.8 ذكر.

بلغ متوسط دخل الأسرة في المدينة 25,377 دولار، أمَّا متوسط دخل العائلة فبلغ 50,054 دولار. وكان متوسط دخل الذكور 32,470 دولار مقابل 26,100 دولار للإناث. وسجل دخل الفرد الخاص بالمدينة 16,481 دولار. وكانت نسبة 10.3% من العائلات ونسبة 29.6% من السكان تحت خط الفقر، وكان من هؤلاء نسبة 17.3% تحت سن الثامنة عشر ونسبة 7.6% في الخامسة والستين من العمر وما فوق.

مراجع

http://www.shura.gov.sa/wps/wcm/connect/ShuraArabic/internet/CV/Kheder+A.+Al-Korashi?presentationtemplate=PT_Inner_PrintFriendly2New

بلومنغتون (إنديانا)
تأسيسات سنة 1818 في إنديانا
مدن إنديانا
مدن جامعية في الولايات المتحدة
مدن في مقاطعة مونرو (إنديانا)
مقرات المقاطعات في إنديانا

بلومنغتون (إنديانا)


بلدية مونروي ، هي بلدية تقع في مقاطعة قصرش والتي تقع في منطقة إكستريمادورا، غرب إسبانيا.

يبلغ عدد سكانها 1.014 نسمة وفقاً لإحصائية سنة (2002).

توأمة
لمونروي اتفاقيات توأمة مع:
 رينتيريا

مراجع

أماكن مأهولة في قصرش
بلديات قصرش

مونروي


Papirus (lat. papyrus od grč. πάπυρος) može značiti:
 papirus je pisaći materijal u antičkim civilizacijama Bliskog istoka i Sredozemlja te u ranim stoljećima srednjega vijeka u Europi. Pravio se od srčike močvarne biljke papirus (lat. Cyperus papyrus), koja je rasla u Donjem Egiptu.
 papirus (biljni rod), u botanici, (lat. Cyperus papyrus) je biljka iz porodice šiljovki (lat. Cyperaceae) s mesnatim podankom i bezlisnom stabljikom visokom do 4 metra, promjera do 10 centimetra. Od srčike stabljike stari su Egipćani, Grci i Rimljani pravili materijal za pisanje sličan papiru.

Izvori

Papirus (razdvojba)


Baruch Myers, né le 2 mai 1964 à Orange, dans le New Jersey, est un rabbin slovaque d'origine américaine, grand-rabbin de Slovaquie.

Biographie
Baruch Myers est né le 2 mai 1964 à Orange, dans le New Jersey.

Notes et références

Articles connexes
 Histoire des Juifs en Slovaquie
 Dynastie hassidique Habad-Loubavitch

Liens externes

Naissance en mai 1964
Naissance à Orange (New Jersey)
Étudiant de l'université du Michigan
Hassidisme
Rabbin américain
Rabbin slovaque
Grand-rabbin du XXe siècle
Grand-rabbin du XXIe siècle
Rabbin orthodoxe
Judaïsme orthodoxe
Habad-Loubavitch
Histoire des Juifs en Slovaquie

Baruch Myers


is a city located in southern Shiga Prefecture, Japan. , the city had an estimated population of 54,607 in 24305 households and a population density of 780 persons per km². The total area of the city is .

Geography
Konan, as its name implies, is south of Lake Biwa in the center of the southern portion of Shiga Prefecture The city does not actually border the lake. The Ansei Mountains are in the south of the city and the Iwane Mountains in the north, with the Yasu River running from east-to-west through the center.

Neighboring municipalities
Shiga Prefecture
Yasu
Rittō
Kōka
Ryūō

Climate
Konan has a Humid subtropical climate (Köppen Cfa) characterized by warm summers and cool winters with light to no snowfall.  The average annual temperature in Konan is 14.1 °C. The average annual rainfall is 1430 mm with September as the wettest month. The temperatures are highest on average in August, at around 26.0 °C, and lowest in January, at around 2.6 °C.

Demographics
Per Japanese census data, the population of Konan increased rapidly in the 1970s but has plateaued in recent decades.

History
Konan is part of ancient  Ōmi Province and contains Ishibe-juku, the 51st post station on the route of the  Tōkaidō highway connecting Heian-kyō with the eastern provinces during the Edo period. The village of Ishibe was established within Kōka District, Shiga with the creation of the modern municipalities system on April 1, 1889. It was elevated to town status on June 1, 1903. On October 1, 2004, Ishibe merged with the neighboring town of  Kōsei (also from Kōka District) to form the city of Konan. I

Government
Konan has a mayor-council form of government with a directly elected mayor and a unicameral city council of 18 members. Konan contributes two members to the Shiga Prefectural Assembly. In terms of national politics, the city is part of Shiga 4th district of the lower house of the Diet of Japan.

Economy
The economy of Konan is centered on agriculture and light manufacturing. The Konan Industrial Park on the Meishin Expressway is the largest industrial park in the prefecture.

Education
Konan has nine public elementary schools and four public middle schools operated by the city government. There are two public high schools operated by the Shiga Prefectural Department of Education. The prefecture also operates one special education school for the handicapped.

Transportation

Railway
 JR West – Kusatsu Line
  -  -

Highway
  Meishin Expressway

Friendship city relations
  St. Johns, Michigan, USA (2004 – friendship cities)

Local attractions
Zensui-ji, Buddhist temple with National Treasure main hall
Chōjū-ji, Buddhist temple with National Treasure main hall
Jōraku-ji, Buddhist temple with National Treasure main hall and three-story pagoda
site of Ishibe-juku

Notable people
Tenzo Okumura, politician
Kei Aran, actress
Yuta Shimizu, tennis player

References

External links

 Konan City official website

Cities in Shiga Prefecture
Konan, Shiga

Konan, Shiga


සම්මත තූකරණ එන්තැල්පිය (සම්මත පරමාණුකරණ එන්තැල්පිය) (∆Hat∅)
සම්මත අවස්ථාවේ  පවතින මුලද්‍රව්‍යයක් වායුමය අවස්ථාවේ  ඇති පරමාණු මවුලයක් බවට පත් කිරීමේදී සිදු වන එන්තැල්පි විපර්යාසයයි.

තාප රසායනය

සම්මත තූකරණ එන්තැල්පිය


Melchiades Montenegro Filho (Catende, 2 de setembro de 1942) é um geógrafo, escritor, artista plástico, pernambucano.

Artista múltiplo, é escritor, romancista, ilustrador, compositor, pianista. Pertence a algumas instituições literárias e culturais.

Vida profissional
Geógrafo - Servidor aposentado da Empresa Pernambucana de Pesquisa Agropecuária1.

Literatura

Autor
 Memórias seletivas: Infância. Recife: Bagaço, 2002;
 Memórias seletivas: Juventude. Recife: New Graph, 2005;
 O tempo e a fé. Recife: New Graph, 2006;
 Espreitando o paraíso. Recife: Novo Estilo, 2009
 16 poemas musicados. Recife: Facform, 2011;
 Histórias que o tempo esqueceu. Recife: Facform, 2011;
 Contos de canções. Recife: Babecco, 2012; - ISBN 978-85-62883-55-2
 Feliciana - Um olhar no infinito. Lisboa: Chiado Editora, 2014 - ISBN 978-98-95120-70-3;
 Cesário. Lisboa: Chiado Editora, 2016 - ISBN 978-98-95169-32-0;
 A grande pedra do céu. Olinda: Babecco, 2017 - ISBN 978-85-8394-059-3;
 No califado de Córdoba. Olinda: Nova Presença, 2018;
 3/4 de século em poesia. Olinda: Nova presença, 2018;
 Andarilhos. Olinda: Nova Presença, 2019 - ISBN 978-85-8469-253-8;
 Trigo divino. Olinda: Nova Presença, 2021;
 Serafim & Damaris - 14 de maio de 1888, o dia que nunca existiu. Recife:Nova Presença, 2021 - ISBN 978-65-86518-68-9;
 O escambo. Recife: Nova Presença, 2022. ISBN 978-85-8469-291-0

Organizador
 Gatos, morcegos e cigarras. Recife: Babecco, 2014;
 O Eikosameron. Recife: Paulo Camelo, 2020. - ISBN 978-65-00-01931-5

Paticipação em coletâneas
 A voz do silêncio - Paulista:Editora Flor de Lis, 2023 - ISBN 978-65-980203-1-6

Distinções
 Prêmio Vânia Souto Carvalho - 2013 do Concurso literário da Academia Pernambucana de Letras
 Menção Honrosa no Prêmio Humberto de Campos, UBE-RJ, 2018
 Voto de aplauso requerido e aprovado pela Câmara de Vereadores de Catende, pelo conjunto de suas atividades, mormente as atividades literárias, reconhecidas no Brasil e no exterior.

Artes Plásticas
 Autor de aquarelas iconográficas do Conjunto arquitetônico de Triunfo (Pernambuco);
 Ilustrador de obras literárias
 Brandt, Elizabeth - O trajeto das horas. Olinda: Babecco, 2013 (ilustrador de haigas);
 Brilhante, Telma de Figueiredo - A chuva e a árvore. Olinda: Babecco, 2013;
 Camelo, Paulo - Salmos em sonetos. Recife: Babecco, 2016 (ilustrador da capa e das cortinas);
 Pintor, com trabalhos feitos com óleo sobre tela, aquarela, lápis e outros meios.

Cinema
Produtor e ator em:
 Tiro no pé (curta metragem);
 Noventa anos do Cine Teatro Guarany.

Cartografia
 Mapa fisiográfico de Olinda - PE
in: OLINDA. Secretaria de planejamento. Dossiê de informações do Centro de documentação e Informação. Olinda – PE 1973;
 Mapa turístico de Triunfo - PE (2003);

Vida associativa
Pertence às seguintes instituições literárias:
 União Brasileira de Escritores - regionais de Pernambuco, São Paulo e Rio de Janeiro;
 Academia de Letras e Artes do Nordeste - ocupa a cadeira 60
 Academia de Artes e Letras de Pernambuco;
 Academia Recifense de Letras;
 Academia de Artes, Letras e Ciências de Olinda
 Academia Triunfense de Letras e Artes.
 Académie des Lettres et Arts Luso-Suisse
 Sociedade Brasileira de Médicos Escritores - Regional Pernambuco - membro colaborador.

Referência externa
 Triunfo e eu
 Revista Preciso nº 34

Naturais do Recife
Nascidos em 1942
Escritores de Pernambuco
Geógrafos de Pernambuco
Romancistas do Brasil
Acadêmicos de Pernambuco
Membros da Academia de Letras e Artes do Nordeste
Membros da Academia Recifense de Letras

Melchiades Montenegro


En sort streg om øjet er en dansk dokumentarfilm fra 2006, der er instrueret af Camilla Magid.

Handling
Bag et syrisk hammams mure: To unge kvinder bader og betror hinanden historier om begær, søgen efter kærlighed og kampen for at finde en identitet i et samfund i forandring.

Referencer

Eksterne henvisninger

Danske film fra 2006

Syrien
Dokumentarfilm fra Danmark

En sort streg om øjet


Parken Stadyumu (), Danimarka'nın başkenti Kopenhag'da bulunan, 42.305 seyirci kapasitesine sahip futbol stadyumu. Danimarka futbol kulüplerinden FC København'ın iç saha maçlarına ev sahipliği yapmaktadır. İnşaatı 1990 yılında başlayan stadyum, 9 Eylül 1992 tarihinde hizmete girmiştir. Danimarka'nın en fazla seyirci kapasitesine sahip stadyumu olan Parken, Danimarka millî futbol takımının da iç saha maçlarına ev sahipliği yapmaktadır. Stadyum konserlerde normal kapasitesinden daha fazla seyirci almaktadır.

Tarihi

Parken, Danimarka'nın eski ulusal stadyumu Idrætsparken'in bulunduğu alanda, 1990 ile 1992 yılları arasında inşa edilmiştir. Idrætsparken'de oynanan son millî maç, 14 Kasım 1990 tarihinde Yugoslavya'ya 2-0 kaybedilen 1992 Avrupa Futbol Şampiyonası elemeleri karşılaşmasıdır. 9 Eylül 1992 tarihinde ise Almanya ile oynanan ve 2-1 kaybedilen maç ile Parken Stadyumu hizmete girmiştir. Stadyumun inşaat maliyeti toplam 640,000,000 Danimarka kronu'dur.

Stadyum, 1994 UEFA Kupa Galipleri Kupası Finali ile ve 2000 UEFA Kupası Finali'ne ev sahipliği yapmıştır.

2001 Eurovision Şarkı Yarışması'na ev sahipliği yapmıştır. 2014 yılında Danimarka yeniden yarışmanın ev sahibi olmuştur ancak stadyum alan seçimi aşamasında adaylıktan çekilmiştir.

Tiësto, 2008 yılında Elements of Life albümünün tanıtımı için bu stadyumda konser vermiştir.

Konserler

TV kanalı TV 2 Zulu, yılda bir kez Zulu Rocks isminde büyük bir konser organizasyonu düzenlemektedir.

Stadyumda bugüne kadar, Whitney Houston, Take That, Pink, Madonna, Britney Spears, AC/DC, Pink Floyd, Eric Clapton, Red Hot Chili Peppers, Celine Dion, Tiesto, Depeche Mode, The Rolling Stones, U2, Bon Jovi, The Black Eyed Peas, Pet Shop Boys, Kashmir, Pharrell, Mew, Robbie Williams, George Michael, R.E.M., Metallica, Bruce Springsteen, Muse, Tina Turner, David Bowie, Roger Waters, Paul McCartney, Lady Gaga, Justin Bieber  ve Michael Jackson konser vermişlerdir. Michael Jackson'ın, 14 Ağustos 1997 tarihinde HIStory turnesi kapsamında sahne aldığı organizasyon, stadyumda bugüne kadarki en büyük konser olmuştur. Konserde toplam 60.000 bilet satılmıştır.

Notlar

Dış bağlantılar
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Big Bang (Hangul:빅뱅) este o trupă din Coreea de Sud formată de YG Entertainment. Adesea trupa este menționată ca fiind cea mai influentă în industria K-pop, "Regii K-pop-ului", "Trupa unei națiuni" de către mass-media. Utilizarea experimentală și diversă a genurilor muzicale, implicarea personală în producerea propriilor înregistrări și spectacolele pe scenă au fost admirate de către criticii muzicali și de numeroși artiști K-pop și internaționali.

În ciuda recepției inițiale nu prea pozitivă, EP-ul Always le-a adus faima, alături de cântecul ce a ajuns numărul 1, Lies. Piesa a continuat să fie în topurile coreene majore timp de șapte săptămâni, doborând un record și câștigând premiul Song of the Year (Cântecul anului) la Mnet Korean Music Festival.
Big Bang au vândut pese 140 de milioane de recorduri, inclusiv sub-unitățile și melodiile solo, cu cel puțin 128 de milioane de single-uri și 13 milioane de albume în Coreea, Japonia și China, făcându-i cel mai bine vândut grup din Asia și unul dintre cele mai bine vândute grupuri din lume. Au câștigat numeroase premii și au creat recorduri, inclusiv actul care a petrecut cel mai mult timp pe locul 1 în Gaon Chart și Melon. Citând popularitatea lor globală și contribuția în K-pop, The Washington Post au spus despre Big Bang că sunt "Cea mai mare trupă din Asia".

Forbes Coreea a numit-o una dintre cele mai puternice celebrități din Coreea de Sud in 2010,2012,2013,2014 și 2016. Sunt și primii artiști coreeni care au intrat in Forbes' Celebrity 100 și the 30 under 30 lista celor mai influenți muzicieni din lume, în 2016 și 2017, respectiv.

Membri
  G-Dragon (지드래곤)
  T.O.P (탑)
  Taeyang (태양)
  Daesung (대성)

Fost Membru
 🇰🇷 Seungri(승리)

Discografie
Albume de Studio
 Bigbang Vol.1 (2006)
 Number 1 (2008)
 Remember (2008)
 Big Bang (2009)
 Big Bang 2 (2011)
 Alive (2012)
 Made Series (2016)
 Made (2016)
Piese extinse
 Always (2007)
 Hot Issue (2007)
 Stand Up (2008)
 Tonight (2011)
 Alive (2012)
Single-uri
 M (2015)
 A (2015)
 D (2015)
 E (2015)

Filmografie
 Big Bang Made (2016)

Turnee
Concerte
 Alive Galaxy World Tour (2012–2013)
 Japan Dome Tour (2013–2014)
 Japan Dome Tour "X" (2014–2015)
 Made World Tour (2015–2016)
 0.TO.10 (2016–2017)
 Last Dance Tour (2017)
Fan meeting tours
 Fantastic Babys (2012, 2014 & 2016)
 Made V.I.P Tour (2016)
 Big Bang Special Event (2016–2017)
YG Family tours
 10th Anniversary World Tour (2006)
 15th Anniversary Tour (2011–2012)
 Power World Tour (2014)

Legături externe
 Big Bang pe YG Entertainment

Formații sud-coreene
Cvintete muzicale
Formații muzicale fondate în 2006
Formații K-pop

Big Bang (trupă)


An Chlorospatha gentryi in uska species han Liliopsida nga ginhulagway ni Michael Howard Grayum. An Chlorospatha gentryi in nahilalakip ha genus nga Chlorospatha, ngan familia nga Araceae.

Mabibilngan ini ha Colombia. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Chlorospatha

Chlorospatha gentryi


La escala gráfica es la representación dibujada en un mapa, carta náutica o un plano con escala unidad por unidad, donde cada segmento muestra la relación entre la longitud de la representación y la de la realidad.

Se representa mediante una línea recta graduada, dividida en partes iguales, en la cual la unidad de medida representa la longitud o distancia en la realidad, y muestra cuantas unidades en la realidad equivalen a unidades del dibujo.

La Historia de la escala gráfica.

La primera representación de una escala gráfica la encontramos en la Carta pisana de finales del , su forma consiste en un círculo sobre el que se dibuja uno de sus radios, que se subdivide en partes iguales, correspondiendo cada una de estas subdivisiones a una distancia a escala que no está expresada numéricamente.

A partir de 1318 el diseño ha evolucionado con la sustitución del círculo por una barra estrecha, situada en las orillas de los mapas, que puede ser horizontal o vertical, que se denomina tronco de leguas, en ellas se sigue prescindiendo de la expresión numérica de la escala de representación que necesariamente estaba implícita y que las modernas investigaciones han situado en unidades de 50 millas de forma invariable para todos los mapas portulanos.

.

Véase también

 Cartografía

Referencias

Cartografía
Ilustración
Escalas

Escala gráfica


L'Audi A8 D4 (désignation de type interne 4H) est une voiture luxueuse du constructeur automobile allemand Audi produite de 2009 à 2017 et qui succède à l'Audi A8 D3.

Historique du modèle

La troisième génération de l'A8 (désignation de type interne 4H) est présentée au Design Miami de Miami le 30 novembre 2009, heure locale (1er décembre 2009, heure européenne). Audi a officiellement présenté pour la première fois la troisième génération de la berline luxueuse au salon international de l'automobile d'Amérique du Nord 2010. Le nouveau modèle est arrivé sur le marché allemand trois mois après sa présentation.

La version sportive, la S8, est présentée en 2011 et a sa première officielle au salon de Francfort (IAA) 2011.

L'A8 révisée a été présentée en septembre 2013 dans le cadre de l'IAA qui a eu lieu la même année.

L'Audi S8 Plus, plus puissante, est officiellement présentée pour la première fois à l'IAA 2015.

En 2019, le concept car Audi RS8, construit en 2013,est présenté dans le cadre de l'exposition spéciale "25 ans de RS" au Forum Audi Neckarsulm.

Période de construction
De 2010 à 2013 : Audi A8 Type D4/4H
De 2013 à 2017 : Audi A8 Type D4/4H (lifting)

Carrosserie
La carrosserie en aluminium de la D4 est huit centimètres plus longue que celle de sa prédécesseur. La version à empattement court mesure environ 5,14 m, la version à empattement long mesure environ de 5,27 m. En dépit d'être plus lourde que sa prédécesseur, l'A8, pesant entre 1905 et 2120 kg, est l'un des modèles les plus légers de sa catégorie par rapport à ses concurrentes, seule la Jaguar XJ est plus légère. Le coefficient de traînée (cx) de la berline avec le moteur essence de 4,2 l est de 0,26, avec une surface frontale de 2,41 m². Formellement, l'Audi A8 reste presque inchangée, seule la ceinture de caisse latérale prononcée est nouvelle. L'A8 D4 ne partage plus la plate-forme technique D avec la Volkswagen Phaeton et les modèles Bentley, Audi utilise désormais la matrice longitudinale modulaire qu'elle a elle-même développée. Le système de matrice longitudinal modulaire permet une conception un peu moins encombrante - l'essieu avant de l'Audi est monté 15 centimètres plus en avant. Cela se traduit également par une meilleure répartition du poids.

L'Audi A8 D4 était exclusivement proposée en berline avec un coffre à malle. Une version break n'était pas prévue dans le programme de livraison.

Équipement technique
Audi a proposé une finition avec diverses mesures techniques pour l'Audi A8 D4. Ceux-ci devaient augmenter le confort du conducteur dans le véhicule, assurer une sécurité adéquate et réduire la consommation de carburant. Les mesures comprennent :
Mise en réseau de tous les systèmes contrôlés électroniquement par FlexRay : Par exemple, le régulateur de vitesse adaptatif et les phares adaptatifs tiennent compte des informations du système de navigation et de la caméra sous le rétroviseur. Cela signifie que les feux de route peuvent rester activés dans une bretelle d'autoroute et que le feu de virage s'activera avant que la courbe ne soit atteinte. La lumière est également adaptée au pays respectif : en arrivant dans un pays à circulation à gauche, le groupe d'unités d'éclairage correspondant est automatiquement activé, même si le système de navigation est éteint.
L'A8 est proposé avec l'Audi MMI, y compris l'Accès à Internet à haut débit mobile, avec la technologie UMTS, ainsi que la navigation 3D avec prise en charge de Google Earth.
Assistant de feux de route adaptatif : la nuit, une caméra reconnaît les véhicules venant en sens inverse ou les véhicules qui précèdent et ajuste en douceur les feux de route et la portée des phares.
Alerte de franchissement involontaire de ligne (Audi Lane Assist)
Assistant de changement de voie (Audi Side Assist)
Assistant de vision nocturne avec détection des piétons
Reconnaissance des panneaux de signalisation
Radar de régulation de distance (Adaptive Cruise Control) avec fonction stop & go (de 0 à 250 km/h) et système anti-collision (Audi Pre Sense) inclus : Utilise plusieurs capteurs radar, une caméra vidéo (une première pour un constructeur allemand) et des capteurs de stationnement. Dans une circulation lente ou dans les embouteillages, il régule le freinage et le démarrage. En conjonction avec les capteurs radar de l'assistant de changement de voie, une décélération complètement autonome est déclenchée dans des situations où un accident de la route est inévitable afin de réduire autant que possible la gravité de l'impact.
Aide au stationnement
Transmission automatique Tiptronic à huit rapports avec technologie dite shift-by-wire
Direction dynamique pour une sensation de direction plus précise
Suspension pneumatique dite "Adaptive Air Suspension" fait partie de l'équipement de série
Carrosserie en aluminium, appelée Audi Space Frame, pour réduire le poids et la consommation de carburant.
Avec la transmission quattro, disponible avec un différentiel sport en option pour l'essieu arrière, la puissance peut être dirigée vers la roue arrière extérieure dans un virage ou lors de l'accélération dans une courbe, la voiture étant poussée dans la courbe par la force motrice et suivant l'angle des roues avant.
L'Audi Drive Select, disponible de série, est un système qui permet d'influencer électroniquement certains systèmes de contrôle de la dynamique du véhicule.
Les phares à LED à économie d'énergie, en option, comprennent les feux de croisement, les feux de route, les feux de jour, les clignotants et les feux de virage statiques. À partir de 110 km/h, l'autonomie est augmentée par la fonction Autobahn.

Lifting
Dans le lifting présenté en 2013, le capot, la calandre à cadre unique et le pare-chocs avant ont été légèrement modifiés. Dès lors, le bord inférieur des blocs optiques était droit. À l'arrière, les feux à LED sont devenus plus plats. Le pare-chocs arrière redessiné renferme deux sorties d'échappement en forme de losange sur tous les modèles à l'exception de la S8. De nouvelles baguettes chromées et des cadres de fenêtre noir brillant complètent la différenciation du design.

L'A8 disposait désormais, en option, de la technologie LED innovante Matrix LED pour les phares. La gradation ne se produit que partiellement, le reste du champ de vision est toujours éclairé comme de jour (faisceau de route sans éblouissement).

Les clignotants ont également été révisés. Selon la société basée à Ingolstadt, 18 diodes électroluminescentes sont disposées les unes à côté des autres dans une bande divisée en sept blocs dans les phares améliorés. Dans les feux arrière, 24 LED réparties sur huit segments activent le clignotant avec affichage dynamique.

Moteurs
Au début, deux variantes de moteur étaient proposées : un moteur V8 de 4,2 litres disponible soit en essence soit en turbodiesel. Étant donné que la concurrence dans la catégorie des luxueuses utilise désormais des moteurs V6 biturbo plus économiques pour cette gamme de puissance, le moteur diesel V8 était le dernier du genre dans cette catégorie. Un moteur essence V6 avec suralimentation de 3 litres a suivi plus tard.

Le moteur essence de base de l'Audi A8, un moteur six cylindres de 2,8 litres à injection directe de carburant (FSI), est arrivé en 2010 avec une traction avant et une transmission CVT (Multitronic).

À partir de fin 2010, un moteur Diesel V6 et un moteur essence W12, ainsi qu'une version longue, étaient également disponibles.

De plus, à partir d'août 2011, le moteur d'entrée de gamme était le moteur diesel (TDI) de 3,0 l modifié avec une puissance maximale de 150 kW (204 ch), une consommation standard de 6,0 litres aux 100 kilomètres et la traction avant.

Comme deux autres modèles sportifs d'Audi, les S6 C7 et S7 C7, le modèle Audi S8 est équipée d'un moteur V8 de 4,0 l avec chargement biturbo, qui, dans la S8, a une puissance maximale de 382 kW (520 ch) et un couple maximal de 650 Nm, au lieu d'une puissance maximale de 309 kW (420 ch) et d'un couple maximal de 550 Nm comme dans les deux autres modèles. L'Audi S8 accélère de 0 à 100 km/h en 4,1 secondes. De plus, à partir de 2015, la S8 Plus était disponible avec un moteur augmenté avec une puissance maximale de 445 kW (605 ch) et un couple maximal de 750 Nm. Celle-ci accélère de 0 à 100 km/h en 3,8 secondes. Ce moteur a une désactivation des cylindres (ceci est également le cas dans les S6 et S7), ce qui signifie que seuls quatre des huit cylindres sont utilisés dans la plage de charge partielle. Cela contribue à un comportement plus efficace.

À partir d'avril 2012, l'Audi A8 était également disponible avec une propulsion hybride. Dans cette version, l'A8 était équipée, pour la première fois, d'un moteur quatre cylindres de seulement deux litres.

À la fin de l'été 2013, les moteurs, en plus de l'optique, ont également été modifiés. Le moteur essence turbocompressée avec injection directe de carburant (TFSI) de 3,0 litres délivre désormais une puissance maximale de 228 kW (310 ch) et le moteur essence de quatre litres délivre une puissance maximale de 320 kW (435 ch). Pour le moteur Diesel de trois litres, il y avait maintenant aussi une variante avec un convertisseur catalytique SCR (variante propre) avec une puissance maximale initiale de 184 kW,[17] (190 kW plus tard) ; il en va de même pour le moteur diesel (TDI) de 4,2 l, qui a une puissance maximale de 283 kW (385 ch).

Scandale des émissions

Au cours du scandale des émissions de l'industrie automobile, qui dure depuis septembre 2015, le ministre fédéral des Transports, Alexander Dobrindt, a annoncé que les modèles A8 à moteurs diesel V6 et V8 produits entre 2009 et 2013 étaient équipés d'un dispositif de neutralisation illégal qui réduit ou désactive complètement le post-traitement des gaz d'échappement sur la route. Avec le modèle A7, ces dispositifs d'invalidation ont été installés dans environ 24 000 véhicules. Audi a plaidé une erreur technique comme étant la raison de l'augmentation des valeurs d'oxyde d'azote et a promis une campagne de conversion.

En novembre 2017, on a appris que les moteurs diesel V8 (TDI de 4.2 L) avec la norme Euro 6 dont la période de construction est comprise entre septembre 2013 août 2017 devaient également être rappelés en raison de dispositifs d'invalidation dans le logiciel du moteur. Cela concerne 5 000 véhicules à travers l'Europe. Déjà à l'été 2017, des mesures de l'aide environnementale allemande ont montré que l'A8 avec le moteur TDI de 4.2 L était un véhicule avec des émissions de polluants élevées; jusqu'à 1938 mg de NOX/km ont été émis lors du test.

Le 10 juin 2020, la KBA a publié sous enquête, sous le numéro KBA 10.001, un logiciel de contrôle de conduite non conforme pour l'Audi A8 4.2 TDI V8 Euro 5 MKB CDSB de 2009-2014 avec boîte de vitesses AL951. Véhicules concernés (dans le monde entier) : 10 908, véhicules probablement concernés (en Allemagne) : 5 442.

Transmission
La puissance est transmise via la transmission automatique Tiptronic à huit rapports. Les vitesses sont sélectionnées en appuyant sur le levier sélecteur vers l'avant, après quoi il revient automatiquement à sa position d'origine.

Le processus de numérotation est transmis électroniquement à l'aide de ce que l'on appelle la technologie Shift-by-wire. La commande de changement de vitesse est transmise à l'unité de commande principale de la voiture, qui effectue ensuite les changements de vitesse via des embrayages multidisques hydrauliques. Il en résulte des temps de changement de vitesse courts qui, associés à des vitesses de conduite réduites, garantissent une consommation réduite et un plus grand confort de conduite.

Variantes spéciales

Basé sur l'Audi A8 D4, le véhicule de protection spéciale A8 L Security est disponible en option jusqu'à la classe de protection VR9.

En 2016, Audi a construit une pièce unique appelée A8 L Extended à la demande d'un client de la famille royale norvégienne. Ce véhicule six portes dispose de six places, d'un poids à vide de 2 418 kg, d'un empattement de 4,22 m et d'une longueur de 6,36 m. Cela la rend 1,09 m plus longue que la version de série de l'A8 L. Le moteur essence turbocompressée et à injection directe de carburant de 3,0 l et d'une puissance maximale de 228 kW (310 ch) accélère le véhicule de 0 à 100 km/h en 7,1 secondes. Le concept car Audi RS8 a été construit sur la base de l'Audi S8, également avec un moteur V8 de 4,0 l avec une charge biturbo et une puissance maximale de 382 kW. Elle a une conception différente du modèle sur lequel elle est basée.

Cinéma
Une Audi A8 ou S8 a été utilisée dans les films Matrix Reloaded, Le Transporteur 2, Le Transporteur 3 et Le Transporteur : Héritage.

Gerhard Schröder a utilisé l'Audi A8 en tant que voiture d'État pour la première fois, et Angela Merkel utilise également une A8.

A8 successeur (Type D5/4N)
La quatrième génération, l'Audi A8 D5, a été présentée au Salon de l'automobile de Francfort (IAA) en septembre 2017 et est sur le marché depuis l'automne 2017.

Notes et références

A8 D4
Automobile des années 2010
Limousine
Véhicule à transmission intégrale

Audi A8 III


An Poa arida in uska species han Liliopsida nga ginhulagway ni George Vasey. An Poa arida in nahilalakip ha genus nga Poa, ngan familia nga Poaceae. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Mga sumpay ha gawas

Poa

Poa arida


Johanna Maria Baltensberger Rasmussen (født 2. juli 1983) er en tidligere dansk professionel fodboldspiller, som senest spillede i den svenske Damallsvenskan for Linköpings FC for Danmarks kvindefodboldlandshold, indtil 2018. Hun spillede som venstre fløjspiller og angriber og har spillernummer 13, både når hun spillede i Damallsvenskan og for landsholdet. Hun har med sine 153 landskampe spillet næst-flest landskampe for Danmark.

Hun er pr. juli 2020, assisterende landstræner for Danmarks U/19-kvindefodboldlandshold.

Klubkarriere
Rasmussen spillede for Fortuna Hjørring fra sommeren 2002. Hun spillede med i begge finalekampene for holdet mod svenske Umeå IK i UEFA Women's Champions League 2003.
Hun skrev kontrakt med svenske Umeå IK for 2008 sæsonen.
Hun skrev kontrakt med Kristianstads DFF i august 2011.

Landsholdskarriere

Rasmussen fik sin debut på A-landholdet i oktober 2002, i en 2–0 sejr over Tyskland i Ulm. Hun fortsatte med at spille for landsholdet ved EM i fodbold for kvinder 2005 i North West England, VM i fodbold for kvinder 2007 i Kina og EM i fodbold for kvinder 2009 i Finland. Rasmussen spillede sin landskamp nummer 100 for Danmark i marts 2013.

Hun blev af landstræner Kenneth Heiner-Møller udtaget til Danmarks trup til EM i fodbold for kvinder 2013.

Den 20. september 2016 blev Rasmussen dansk matchvinder, da hun efter 11 minutter sparkede bolden i målhjørnet i en 2-0 sejr over Sverige i den sidste kvalifikationskamp til EM, og med sejren var Danmark klar til EM 2017 i Holland. Rasmussen pådrog, sig dog i februar 2017, en korsbåndskade hvilket gjorde at hun ikke var med ved Danmarks EM-succes i 2017.

Andet
Rasmussen har syv gange vundet det danske ungdomsmesterskab i skak og har deltaget ved VM og EM i skak.

Referencer

Ekstern henvisning

 Spillerstatistik i svensk fodbold hos SvFF

Fodboldspillere fra Danmark
Kvindelige fodboldlandsholdsspillere fra Danmark
Skakspillere fra Danmark
Personer fra Nykøbing Falster

Johanna Rasmussen


The British Sub-Aqua Club or BSAC has been recognised since 1954 by UK Sport as the national governing body of recreational diving in the United Kingdom.

The club was founded in 1953 and at its peak in the mid-1990s had over 50,000 members declining to over 30,000 in 2009. It is a diver training organization that operates through its associated network of around 1,100 local, independent diving clubs and around 400 diving schools worldwide. The old logo featured the Roman god Neptune (Greek god Poseidon), god of the sea. The new logo, as of 2017, features a diver with the updated BSAC motto "Dive with us".

BSAC is unusual for a diver training agency in that most BSAC instructors are volunteers, giving up their spare time to train others, unlike many other agencies, in which instructors are paid employees, or self-employed.

Given that UK waters are relatively cold and have restricted visibility, BSAC training is regarded by its members as more comprehensive than some. Specifically it places emphasis on rescue training very early in the programme. BSAC also maintains links with other organisations, such as NACSAC.

Science writer and science fiction author Arthur C. Clarke was a famous member of BSAC.

The current President of BSAC is the Prince of Wales.  His father Charles, and grandfather Philip also held that position and his brother Harry also trained with BSAC.

History
For earlier events, see Oscar Gugen.
 15 October 1953: BSAC founded by Oscar Gugen, Peter Small, Mary Small, and Trevor Hampton.  Jack Atkinson, an aero engineer, was appointed as the club's first national diving officer. He wrote training bulletins which built up to form the club's training doctrine and was used later as the basis for the BSAC Diving Manual
 1954: First BSAC branch formed, in London.
 1954: Members of the newly formed BSAC Branch No.9, Southsea Sub-Aqua Club, invent the new sport of "Octopush", a game now played internationally and more commonly known outside of the United Kingdom as Underwater Hockey.
 March 1955: BSAC is accepted by the Central Council of Physical Recreation.
 1957: Alan Broadhurst became BSAC's second national diving officer. He modernized BSAC official diving terminology, including getting rid of the word "frogman".
 October 1957: BSAC's first overseas branch is formed in Kingston, Jamaica.
 January 1959: First edition of the BSAC Diving Manual appeared and cost ten shillings (now 50p). It was written by George Brookes and Alan Broadhurst.
 January 1957: BSAC and 14 other national diving federations agreed to found Confédération Mondiale des Activités Subaquatiques (CMAS)
 November 1960: First Diving Officers' Conference, at St. Abbs, with fifteen delegates.
 1965: Fort Bovisand diving center opened.
 1973: The Diving Incident Pit at Diving Officers Conference presented by E. John Towse.
 1988: Release of the BS-AC 88 dive table
 1995: BSAC allows Nitrox diving and introduced Nitrox training.
 20 May 1997: BSAC was expelled from the Confédération Mondiale des Activités Subaquatiques (CMAS)
 2001: BSAC allows rebreather use by BSAC branches.
 2006: BSAC mixed gas diving.
 2006: BSAC is the first recreational diving agency to introduce Nitrox diving as part of core training.

Recognition
BSAC is recognised by the successors of the Sports Council as the National Governing Body (NGB) for Sub Aqua within the United Kingdom.  It has held this status since 1954. 'Sub Aqua' (or Sub Aquatics) is a broad term that includes both recreational underwater activities such as recreational diving and snorkelling, and competitive underwater activities including underwater sports such as Octopush. It is also recognised by Sport England as the NGB for Sub Aqua in England.

BSAC is one of three NGBs representing 'Sub Aqua' in the constituent countries of the United Kingdom. The others are the Northern Ireland Federation of Sub-Aqua Clubs (Northern Ireland) and the Scottish Sub Aqua Club (Scotland) with the British Sub Aqua Club being the NGB for the United Kingdom as a whole; a role it has held since 1954. Wales has been represented by the British Sub Aqua Club since January 2016 when it replaced the Welsh Association of Sub Aqua Clubs.

Qualifications
BSAC has offered two separate training schemes since the 1950s: the Diver Training Programme (DTP) for scuba diving and the Snorkeller Training Programme (STP) for snorkelling.

Diver Training Programme

Diving
BSAC currently has five diver qualifications (known as grades). These are:
 : Basic skills, non-decompression diving (depth limit 20 m)
 : Further Basic skills training, navigation, nitrox (up to Nitrox 36%), non-decompression diving (depth limit increased to 30 m with a series of 5 m progression dives.)
 : Rescue, navigation, nitrox and decompression diving (depth limit increased to 40 m with a series of 5 m progression dives.)
 : Dive leading, dive planning and management, and rescue management (depth limit increased to 50 m by completing a selection of experience dives.)
 : Fully trained diver capable of leading a group of divers in normal club activities
 : Trained to lead a group of dives carrying out a project. This is nationally examined with a two-day practical test

Instructing
BSAC has eight instructor grades:
 : Trained but unqualified. Must be supervised when instructing
 : Qualified to instruct unsupervised in the classroom
 : Qualified to teach open water under supervision
 : Qualified to instruct unsupervised in open water
 : Qualified to supervise other instructors in classroom and open water training
 : Trained to teach advanced skills, such as boat based skills and group diving techniques
 : Qualified to staff Instructor events
 : Leads Instructor Training courses and BSAC National exams

Grades no longer awarded
The following grades which are no longer awarded may still be encountered:
 : A diver who has completed the extensive sheltered-water (i.e. pool) training of the BSAC syllabus of the time, but has not yet dived in open water.
 : A Novice I diver who has completed two open-water assessment dives.
The distinction between Novice I and Novice II was mostly for practical reasons to do with the difference between hiring a pool and travelling to the coast. A Novice I diver would normally complete the two open-water dives as soon as possible, but if this were not possible straight away (perhaps over winter) they would at least have a specific grade within the club. The lengthy and club-oriented Novice syllabus was replaced with the Club Diver and Ocean Diver syllabuses in the late 1990s. (However, some argue the Novice description was usefully accurate and aided diver safety because nobody with such a qualification would attempt dives beyond their capabilities.)
 : This is more or less the same as Ocean Diver; originally the two were operated in parallel with Ocean Diver awarded at schools and Club Diver at clubs.
 : An instructor grade junior to Open Water Instructor, but allowing the holder to instruct practical and theory lessons without supervision.
 : This was the entry-level grade prior to the splitting of its syllabus during the mid-1980s to create the Novice and Sports Diver grades. Divers who held this grade at the time were awarded the Sports Diver grade.
 : This was the immediate grade prior to the splitting of its syllabus during the mid-1980s to create the Dive Leader and Advanced Diver grades. Divers who held this grade at the time were awarded the Advanced Diver grade.

CMAS equivalencies
The following CMAS equivalencies have been agreed with the Sub-Aqua Association.

Skill development/specialities
BSAC also has a range of specialist skill courses known as Skill Development Courses (SDCs):

Club Diving:
 Accelerated Decompression Procedures
 Buoyancy and Trim Workshop
 Compressor Operation
 Dive Planning and Management
 Equipment Care
 Mixed Gas Blender/Nitrox Gas Blender
 Search and Recovery
 Wreck Appreciation

Safety and Rescue:
 Advanced Lifesaver Award
 Automated External Defibrillator
 First Aid for Divers
 Lifesaver Award
 Oxygen Administration
 Practical Rescue Management

Seamanship:
 Boat Handling
 Chartwork and Position fixing
 Diver Coxswain Assessment
 Outboard engine and Boat Maintenance

Special Interest:
 Underwater Photography
 Ice Diving

 Mixed gas open circuit:
 Sport Mixed Gas Diver
 Explorer Mixed Gas Diver
 Advanced Mixed Gas Diver

Rebreather/mixed gas rebreather:
 CCR Inspiration Evolution/Vision Diver
 Sport Mixed Gas CCR Diver
 Explorer Mixed Gas CCR Diver
 Advanced Mixed Gas CCR Diver

EUF Certification
BSAC obtained CEN certification from the EUF certification body in 2007 and re-certified in 2012 and 2019 for the following recreational diver grades:
 Discovery Diver – ISO 24801-1
 Ocean Diver – EN 14153-2/ISO 24801-2 – 'Autonomous Diver'
 Dive Leader – EN 14153-3/ISO 24801-3 – 'Dive Leader'
 Open Water Instructor – EN 14413-2/ISO 24802-2 – 'Instructor Level 2'
 Sports Diver – ISO 11107 – 'Nitrox diving'
 Nitrox Gas Blender – ISO 13293 – 'Level 1 Gas Blender'
 Mixed Gas Blender – ISO 13293 – 'Level 2 Gas Blender'
 Snorkelling Guide – ISO 13970 – 'Snorkelling Guide'

Snorkeller Training Programme
The BSAC has four snorkeller grades:
 Dolphin Snorkeller: experience based training intended for children using only swimming pools.
 Snorkel Diver: training for pool or sheltered water activity.
 Advanced Snorkeller: training for open water activity.
 Snorkel Dive Manager: training to plan, organise and lead snorkelling activities.

The STP has three snorkel instructor grades:
 Snorkel Instructor.
 Advanced Snorkel Instructor.
 Snorkel Instructor Trainer.
BSAC scuba instructors can also teach all or parts of the STP subject to meeting pre-requisites including additional training.

See also

Organizations

People

Wrecks

References

External links

 British Sub-Aqua Club - BSAC website
 BSAC Japan
 BSAC Korea
 BSAC Thailand

Diver organizations
Organisations based in Cheshire
Sub-aqua
sub-aqua
sub-aqua
Underwater diving in the United Kingdom
Underwater diving training organizations

British Sub-Aqua Club


Ranjit Singh (13 November 1780 – 27 June 1839), popularly known as Sher-e-Punjab or "Lion of Punjab", was the first Maharaja of the Sikh Empire, which ruled the northwest Indian subcontinent in the early half of the 19th century. He survived smallpox in infancy but lost sight in his left eye. He fought his first battle alongside his father at age 10. After his father died, he fought several wars to expel the Afghans in his teenage years and was proclaimed as the "Maharaja of Punjab" at age 21. His empire grew in the Punjab region under his leadership through 1839.

Prior to his rise, the Punjab region had numerous warring misls (confederacies), twelve of which were under Sikh rulers and one Muslim. Ranjit Singh successfully absorbed and united the Sikh misls and took over other local kingdoms to create the Sikh Empire. He repeatedly defeated invasions by outside armies, particularly those arriving from Afghanistan, and established friendly relations with the British.

Ranjit Singh's reign introduced reforms, modernisation, investment into infrastructure and general prosperity. His Khalsa army and government included Sikhs, Hindus, Muslims and Europeans. His legacy includes a period of Sikh cultural and artistic renaissance, including the rebuilding of the Harmandir Sahib in Amritsar as well as other major gurudwaras, including Takht Sri Patna Sahib, Bihar and Hazur Sahib Nanded, Maharashtra under his sponsorship. Ranjit Singh was succeeded by his son Kharak Singh.

Early years

Ranjit Singh was born in a Jat Sikh family on 13 November 1780 to Maha Singh and Raj Kaur in Gujranwala, Punjab region (present-day Punjab, Pakistan). His mother Raj Kaur was the daughter of Jat Sikh Raja Gajpat Singh of Jind. Upon his birth, he was named Buddh Singh after his ancestor who was first in line to take Amrit Sanchaar. The child's name was changed to Ranjit (literally, "victor in battle") Singh ("lion") by his father to commemorate his army's victory over the Chattha chieftain Pir Muhammad.

Ranjit Singh contracted smallpox as an infant, which resulted in the loss of sight in his left eye and a pockmarked face. He was short in stature, never schooled, and did not learn to read or write anything beyond the Gurmukhi alphabet. However, he was trained at home in horse riding, musketry and other martial arts.

At age 12, his father died. He then inherited his father's Sukerchakia Misl estates and was raised by his mother Raj Kaur, who, along with Lakhpat Rai, also managed the estates. The first attempt on his life was made when he was 13, by Hashmat Khan, but Ranjit Singh prevailed and killed the assailant instead. At age 18, his mother died and Lakhpat Rai was assassinated, and thereon he was helped by his mother-in-law from his first marriage.

Personal life

Wives

In 1789, Ranjit Singh married his first wife Mehtab Kaur, the muklawa happened in 1796. She was the only daughter of Gurbaksh Singh Kanhaiya and his wife Sada Kaur, and the granddaughter of Jai Singh Kanhaiya, the founder of the Kanhaiya Misl. This marriage was pre-arranged in an attempt to reconcile warring Sikh misls, wherein Mehtab Kaur was betrothed to Ranjit Singh in 1786. However, the marriage failed, with Mehtab Kaur never forgiving the fact that her father had been killed in battle with Ranjit Singh's father and she mainly lived with her mother after marriage. The separation became complete when Ranjit Singh married Datar Kaur of the Nakai Misl in 1797 and she turned into Ranjit's most beloved wife. Mehtab Kaur had three sons, Ishar Singh who was born in 1804 and twins Sher Singh and Tara Singh born in 1807. According to historian Jean-Marie Lafont, she was the only one to bear the title of Maharani. She died in 1813, after suffering from a failing health.

His second marriage was to, Datar Kaur (Born Raj Kaur) the youngest child and only daughter of Ran Singh Nakai, the third ruler of the Nakai Misl and his wife Karmo Kaur. They were betrothed in childhood by Datar Kaur's eldest brother, Sardar Bhagwan Singh, who briefly became the chief of the Nakai Misl, and Ranjit Singh's father Maha Singh. They were married in 1797; this marriage was a happy one. Ranjit Singh always treated Raj Kaur with love and respect. Since Raj Kaur was also the name of Ranjit Singh's mother, she was renamed Datar Kaur. In 1801, she gave birth to their son and heir apparent, Kharak Singh. Datar Kaur bore Ranjit Singh two other sons, Rattan Singh and Fateh Singh. Like his first marriage, the second marriage also brought him strategic military alliance. She was exceptionally intelligent and assisted him in affairs of the State. During the expedition to Multan in 1818, she was given command alongside her son, Kharak Singh. Throughout her life she remained Ranjit Singh's favorite  and for no other did he have greater respect for than Datar Kaur, who he affectionately called Mai Nakain.  Even though she was his second wife she became his principal wife and chief consort. During a hunting trip with Ranjit Singh, she fell ill and died on 20 June 1838.
Ratan Kaur and Daya Kaur were wives of Sahib Singh Bhangi of Gujrat (a misl north of Lahore, not to be confused the state of Gujarat). After Sahib Singh's death, Ranjit Singh took them under his protection in 1811 by marrying them via the rite of chādar andāzī, in which a cloth sheet was unfurled over each of their heads. The same with Roop Kaur, Gulab Kaur, Saman Kaur, and Lakshmi Kaur,  looked after Duleep Singh when his mother Jind Kaur was exiled. Ratan Kaur had a son Multana Singh in 1819, and Daya Kaur had two sons Kashmira Singh and Pashaura Singh in 1821.

Jind Kaur, the final spouse of Ranjit Singh. Her father, Manna Singh Aulakh, extolled her virtues to Ranjit Singh, who was concerned about the frail health of his only heir Kharak Singh. The Maharaja married her in 1835 by 'sending his arrow and sword to her village'. On 6 September 1838 she gave birth to Duleep Singh, who became the last Maharaja of the Sikh Empire.

His other wives included, Mehtab Devi of Kangara also called Guddan or Katochan and Raj Banso, daughters of Raja Sansar Chand of Kangra.

He was also married to Rani Har Devi of Atalgarh, Rani Aso Sircar and Rani Jag Deo According to the diaries, that Duleep Singh kept towards the end of his life, that these women presented the Maharaja with four daughters. Dr. Priya Atwal notes that the daughters could be adopted. Ranjit Singh was also married to Jind Bani or Jind Kulan, daughter of Muhammad Pathan from Mankera and Gul Bano, daughter of Malik Akhtar from Amritsar.

Ranjit Singh married many times, in various ceremonies, and had twenty wives. Sir Lepel Griffin, however, provides a list of just sixteen wives and their pension list. Most of his marriages were performed through chādar andāz. Some scholars note that the information on Ranjit Singh's marriages is unclear, and there is evidence that he had many concubines. Dr. Priya Atwal presents an official list of Ranjit Singh's thirty wives. The women married through chādar andāzī were noted as concubines and were known as the lesser title of Rani (queen). While Mehtab Kaur and Datar Kaur officially bore the title of Maharani (high queen), Datar Kaur officially became the Maharani after the death of Mehtab Kaur in 1813. Throughout her life was referred to as Sarkar Rani. After her death, the title was held by Ranjit's youngest widow Jind Kaur. According to Khushwant Singh in an 1889 interview with the French journal Le Voltaire, his son Dalip (Duleep) Singh remarked, "I am the son of one of my father's forty-six wives." Dr. Priya Atwal notes that Ranjit Singh and his heirs entered a total of 46 marriages. But Ranjit Singh was known not be a "rash sensualist" and commanded unusual respect in the eyes of others. Faqir Sayyid Vaḥiduddin states: "If there was one thing in which Ranjit Singh failed to excel or even equal the average monarch of oriental history, it was the size of his harem." George Keene noted, "In hundreds and in thousands the orderly crowds stream on. Not a bough is broken of a wayside tree, not a rude remark to a woman".

Punishment by the Akal Takht

In 1802, Ranjit Singh married Moran Sarkar, a Muslim nautch girl. This action, and other non-Sikh activities of the Maharaja, upset orthodox Sikhs, including the Nihangs, whose leader Akali Phula Singh was the Jathedar of the Akal Takht. When Ranjit Singh visited Amritsar, he was called outside the Akal Takht, where he was made to apologise for his mistakes. Akali Phula Singh took Ranjit Singh to a tamarind tree in front of the Akal Takht and prepared to punish him by flogging. Then Akali Phula Singh asked the nearby Sikh pilgrims whether they approved of Ranjit Singh's apology. The pilgrims responded with Sat Sri Akal and Ranjit Singh was released and forgiven. An alternative holds that Ranjit went to visit Moran on his arrival in Amritsar before paying his respects at Harmandir Sahib Gurdwara, which upset orthodox Sikhs and hence was punished by Akali Phula Singh. Iqbal Qaiser and Manveen Sandhu make alternative accounts on the relationship between Moran and the Maharaja; the former stating they never married, while the latter state that they married. Court chronicler, Sohan Lal Suri makes no mention Moran's marriage to the Maharaja or coins being struck in her name. Bibi Moran spent the rest of life in Pathankot. Duleep Singh makes a list of his father's queens which also does not mention Bibi Moran.

Issue

 Kharak Singh (22 February 1801 – 5 November 1840) was the eldest and the favorite of Ranjit Singh from his second and favorite wife, Datar Kaur. He succeeded his father as the Maharaja.
 Ishar Singh son of his first wife, Mehtab Kaur. This prince died in infancy in 1805.
 Rattan Singh (1805–1845) was born to Maharani Datar Kaur. He was granted the Jagatpur Bajaj estate as his jagir.
 Sher Singh (4 December 1807 – 15 September 1843) was elder of the twins of Mehtab Kaur. He briefly became the Maharaja of the Sikh Empire.
 Tara Singh (4 December 1807 – 1859) younger of the twins born of Mehtab Kaur.
 Multana Singh (1819–1846) son of Ratan Kaur.
 Kashmira Singh (1821–1844) son of Daya Kaur.
 Pashaura Singh (1821–1845) younger son of Daya Kaur.
 Duleep Singh (4 September 1838 – 22 October 1893), the last Maharaja of the Sikh Empire. Ranji Singh's youngest son, the only child of Jind Kaur.
According to the pedigree table and Duleep Singh's diaries that he kept towards the end of his life mention another son Fateh Singh was born to Mai Nakain, who died in infancy. According to Henry Edward only Datar Kaur and Jind Kaur's sons are Ranjit Singh's biological sons.

It is said that Ishar Singh was not the biological son of Mehtab Kaur and Ranjit Singh, but only procured by Mehtab Kaur and presented to Ranjit Singh who accepted him as his son. Tara Singh and Sher Singh had similar rumors, it is said that Sher Singh was the son of a chintz weaver, Nahala and Tara Singh was the son of Manki, a servant in the household of Sada Kaur. Henry Edward Fane, the nephew and aide-de-camp to the Commander-in-Chief, India, General Sir Henry Fane, who spent several days in Ranjit Singh's company, reported,
"Though reported to be the Maharaja's son, Sher Singh's father has never thoroughly acknowledged him, though his mother always insisted on his being so. A brother of Sher, Tara Singh by the same mother, has been even worse treated than himself, not being permitted to appear at court, and no office given him, either of profit or honour." Five Years in India, Volume 1, Henry Edward Fane, London, 1842

Multana Singh, Kashmira Singh and Pashaura Singh were sons of the two widows of Sahib Singh, Daya Kaur and Ratan Kaur, that Ranjit Singh took under his protection and married. These sons, are said to be, not biologically born to the queens and only procured and later presented to and accepted by Ranjit Singh as his sons.

Establishment of the Sikh Empire

Historical context
After the death of Aurangzeb in 1707, the Mughal Empire fell apart and declined in its ability to tax or govern most of the Indian subcontinent. In the northwestern region, particularly the Punjab, the creation of the Khalsa community of Sikh warriors by Guru Gobind Singh accelerated the decay and fragmentation of the Mughal power in the region. Raiding Afghans attacked the Indus river valleys but met resistance from both organised armies of the Khalsa Sikhs as well as irregular Khalsa militias based in villages. The Sikhs had appointed their own zamindars, replacing the previous Muslim revenue collectors, which provided resources to feed and strengthen the warriors aligned with Sikh interests. Meanwhile, colonial traders and the East India Company had begun operations in India on its eastern and western coasts.

By the second half of the 18th century, the northwestern parts of the Indian subcontinent (now Pakistan and parts of north India) were a collection of fourteen small warring regions. Of the fourteen, twelve were Sikh-controlled misls (confederacies), one named Kasur (near Lahore) was Muslim controlled, and one in the southeast was led by an Englishman named George Thomas. This region constituted the fertile and productive valleys of the five rivers – Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, Bias and Sutlej. The Sikh misls were all under the control of the Khalsa fraternity of Sikh warriors, but they were not united and constantly warred with each other over revenue collection, disagreements, and local priorities; however, in the event of external invasion such as from the Muslim armies of Ahmed Shah Abdali from Afghanistan, they would usually unite.

Towards the end of 18th century, the five most powerful misls were those of Sukkarchakkia, Kanhayas, Nakkais, Ahluwalias and Bhangi Sikhs. Ranjit Singh belonged to the first, and through marriage had a reliable alliance with Kanhayas and Nakkais. Among the smaller misls, some such as the Phulkias misl had switched loyalties in the late 18th century and supported the Afghan army invasion against their Khalsa brethren. The Kasur region, ruled by Muslim, always supported the Afghan invasion forces and joined them in plundering Sikh misls during the war.

Military campaigns

Rise to fame, early conquests

Ranjit Singh's fame grew in 1797, at age 17, when the Afghan Muslim ruler Shah Zaman, of the Ahmad Shah Abdali dynasty, attempted to annex Panjab region into his control through his general Shahanchi Khan and 12,000 soldiers. The battle was fought in the territory that fell in Ranjit Singh controlled misl, whose regional knowledge and warrior expertise helped resist the invading army. This victory gained him recognition. In 1798, the Afghan ruler sent in another army, which Ranjit Singh did not resist. He let them enter Lahore, then encircled them with his army, blocked off all food and supplies, burnt all crops and food sources that could have supported the Afghan army. Much of the Afghan army retreated back to Afghanistan.

In 1799, Raja Ranjit Singh's army of 25,000 Khalsa, supported by another 25,000 Khalsa led by his mother-in-law Rani Sada Kaur of Kanhaiya misl, in a joint operation attacked the region controlled by Bhangi Sikhs centered around Lahore. The rulers escaped, marking Lahore as the first major conquest of Ranjit Singh. The Sufi Muslim and Hindu population of Lahore welcomed the rule of Ranjit Singh. In 1800, the ruler of Jammu region ceded control of his region to Ranjit Singh.

In 1801, Ranjit Singh proclaimed himself as the "Maharaja of Punjab", and agreed to a formal investiture ceremony, which was carried out by Baba Sahib Singh Bedi – a descendant of Guru Nanak. On the day of his coronation, prayers were performed across mosques, temples and gurudwaras in his territories for his long life. Ranjit Singh called his rule as "Sarkar Khalsa", and his court as "Darbar Khalsa". He ordered new coins to be issued in the name of Guru Nanak named the "NanakShahi" ("of the Emperor Nanak").

Expansion

In 1802, Ranjit Singh, aged 22, took Amritsar from the Bhangi Sikh misl, paid homage at the Harmandir Sahib temple, which had previously been attacked and desecrated by the invading Afghan army, and announced that he would renovate and rebuild it with marble and gold.

On 1 January 1806, Ranjit Singh signed a treaty with the British officials of the East India Company, in which he agreed that his Sikh forces would not attempt to expand south of the Sutlej river, and the Company agreed that it would not attempt to militarily cross the Sutlej river into the Sikh territory.

In 1807, Ranjit Singh's forces attacked the Muslim ruled Kasur and, after a month of fierce fighting in the Battle of Kasur defeated the Afghan chief Qutb-ud-Din, thus expanding his empire northwest towards Afghanistan. He took Multan in 1818, and the whole Bari Doab came under his rule with that conquest. In 1819, he successfully defeated the Afghan Sunni Muslim rulers and annexed Srinagar and Kashmir, stretching his rule into the north and the Jhelum valley, beyond the foothills of the Himalayas.

The most significant encounters between the Sikhs in the command of the Maharaja and the Afghans were in 1813, 1823, 1834 and in 1837. In 1813, Ranjit Singh's general Dewan Mokham Chand led the Sikh forces against the Afghan forces of Shah Mahmud led by Fateh Khan Barakzai. The Afghans lost their stronghold at Attock in that battle.

In 1813–14, Ranjit Singh's first attempt to expand into Kashmir was foiled by Afghan forces led by Azim Khan, due to a heavy downpour, the spread of cholera, and poor food supply to his troops.

In 1818, Darbar's forces led by Kharak Singh and Misr Dewan Chand occupied Multan, killing Muzaffar Khan and defeating his forces, leading to the end of Afghan influence in the Punjab.

In July 1818, an army from the Punjab defeated Jabbar Khan, a younger brother of governor of Kashmir Azim Khan, and acquired Kashmir, along with a yearly revenue of Rs seventy lacs. Dewan Moti Ram was appointed governor of Kashmir.

In 1823, Yusufzai Pashtuns fought the army of Ranjit Sing north of the Kabul River.

In 1834, Mohammed Azim Khan once again marched towards Peshawar with an army of 25,000 Khattak and Yasufzai tribesmen in the name of jihad, to fight against infidels. The Maharaja defeated the forces. Yar Mohammad was pardoned and was reinvested as governor of Peshawar with an annual revenue of Rs one lac ten thousand to Lahore Darbar.

In 1835, the Afghans and Sikhs met again at the Standoff at the Khyber Pass, however it ended without a battle.

In 1837, the Battle of Jamrud, became the last confrontation between the Sikhs led by him and the Afghans, which displayed the extent of the western boundaries of the Sikh Empire.

On 25 November 1838, the two most powerful armies on the Indian subcontinent assembled in a grand review at Ferozepore as Ranjit Singh, the Maharajah of the Punjab brought out the Dal Khalsa to march alongside the sepoy troops of the East India Company and the British troops in India. In 1838, he agreed to a treaty with the British viceroy Lord Auckland to restore Shah Shoja to the Afghan throne in Kabul. In pursuance of this agreement, the British army of the Indus entered Afghanistan from the south, while Ranjit Singh's troops went through the Khyber Pass and took part in the victory parade in Kabul.

Geography of the Sikh Empire

The Sikh Empire, also known as the Sikh Raj and Sarkar-a-Khalsa, was in the Punjab region, the name of which means "the land of the five rivers". The five rivers are the Beas, Ravi, Sutlej, Chenab and Jhelum, all of which are tributaries of the river Indus.

The geographical reach of the Sikh Empire under Singh included all lands north of Sutlej river, and south of the high valleys of the northwestern Himalayas. The major towns at time included Srinagar, Attock, Peshawar, Bannu, Rawalpindi, Jammu, Gujrat, Sialkot, Kangra, Amritsar, Lahore and Multan.

Muslims formed around 70%, Hindus formed around 24%, and Sikhs formed around 6–7% of the total population living in Singh's empire

Governance

Ranjit Singh allowed men from different religions and races to serve in his army and his government in various positions of authority. His army included a few Europeans, such as the Frenchman Jean-François Allard, though Singh maintained a policy of refraining from recruiting Britons into his service, aware of British designs on the Indian subcontinent. Despite his recruitment policies, he did maintain a diplomatic channel with the British; in 1828, he sent gifts to George IV and in 1831, he sent a mission to Simla to confer with the British Governor General, William Bentinck; while in 1838, he cooperated with them in removing the hostile Islamic Emir in Afghanistan.

Religious policies

As consistent with many Punjabis of that time, Ranjit Singh was a secular king and followed the Sikh path. His policies were based on respect for all communities, Hindu, Sikh and Muslim. A devoted Sikh, Ranjit Singh restored and built historic Sikh Gurdwaras – most famously, the Harmandir Sahib, and used to celebrate his victories by offering thanks at the Harmandir. He also joined the Hindus in their temples out of respect for their sentiments. The veneration of cows was promoted and cow slaughter was punishable by death under his rule. He ordered his soldiers to neither loot nor molest civilians.

He built several gurdwaras, Hindu temples and even mosques, and one in particular was Mai Moran Masjid, built on the behest of his beloved Muslim wife, Moran Sarkar. The Sikhs led by Singh never razed places of worship to the ground belonging to the enemy. However, he did convert Muslim mosques into other uses. For example, Ranjit Singh's army desecrated Lahore's Badshahi Mosque and converted it into an ammunition store, and horse stables. Lahore's Moti Masjid (Pearl Mosque) was converted into "Moti Mandir" (Pearl Temple) by the Sikh army, and Sonehri Mosque were converted into a Sikh Gurdwara, but upon the request of Sufi Fakir (Satar Shah Bukhari), Ranjit Singh restored the latter back to a mosque. Lahore's Begum Shahi Mosque was also used as a gunpowder factory, earning it the nickname Barudkhana Wali Masjid, or "Gunpowder Mosque."

Singh's sovereignty was accepted by Afghan and Punjabi Muslims, who fought under his banner against the Afghan forces of Nadir Shah and later of Azim Khan. His court was ecumenical in composition: his prime minister, Dhian Singh, was a Hindu (Dogra); his foreign minister, Fakir Azizuddin, was a Muslim; and his finance minister, Dina Nath, was also a Hindu (Brahmin). Artillery commanders such as Mian Ghausa were also Muslims. There were no forced conversions in his time. His wives Bibi Mohran, Gilbahar Begum retained their faith and so did his Hindu wives. He also employed and surrounded himself with astrologers and soothsayers in his court.

Ranjit Singh had also abolished the gurmata and provided significant patronage to the Udasi and Nirmala sect, leading to their prominence and control of Sikh religious affairs.

Administration

Khalsa Army

The army under Ranjit Singh was not limited to the Sikh community. The soldiers and troop officers included Sikhs, but also included Hindus, Muslims and Europeans. Hindu Brahmins and people of all creeds and castes served his army, while the composition in his government also reflected a religious diversity. His army included Polish, Russian, Spanish, Prussian and French officers. In 1835, as his relationship with the British warmed up, he hired a British officer named Foulkes.

However, the Khalsa army of Ranjit Singh reflected regional population, and as he grew his army, he dramatically increased the Rajputs and the Sikhs who became the predominant members of his army. In the Doaba region his army was composed of the Jat Sikhs, in Jammu and northern Indian hills it was Hindu Rajputs, while relatively more Muslims served his army in the Jhelum river area closer to Afghanistan than other major Panjab rivers.

Reforms

Ranjit Singh changed and improved the training and organisation of his army. He reorganised responsibility and set performance standards in logistical efficiency in troop deployment, manoeuvre, and marksmanship. He reformed the staffing to emphasise steady fire over cavalry and guerrilla warfare, improved the equipment and methods of war. The military system of Ranjit Singh combined the best of both old and new ideas. He strengthened the infantry and the artillery. He paid the members of the standing army from treasury, instead of the Mughal method of paying an army with local feudal levies.

While Ranjit Singh introduced reforms in terms of training and equipment of his military, he failed to reform the old Jagirs (Ijra) system of Mughal middlemen. The Jagirs system of state revenue collection involved certain individuals with political connections or inheritance promising a tribute (nazarana) to the ruler and thereby gaining administrative control over certain villages, with the right to force collect customs, excise and land tax at inconsistent and subjective rates from the peasants and merchants; they would keep a part of collected revenue and deliver the promised tribute value to the state. These Jagirs maintained independent armed militia to extort taxes from the peasants and merchants, and the militia prone to violence. This system of inconsistent taxation with arbitrary extortion by militia, continued the Mughal tradition of ill treatment of peasants and merchants throughout the Sikh Empire, and is evidenced by the complaints filed to Ranjit Singh by East India Company officials attempting to trade within different parts of the Sikh Empire.

According to historical records, states Sunit Singh, Ranjit Singh's reforms focused on military that would allow new conquests, but not towards taxation system to end abuse, nor about introducing uniform laws in his state or improving internal trade and empowering the peasants and merchants. This failure to reform the Jagirs-based taxation system and economy, in part led to a succession power struggle and a series of threats, internal divisions among Sikhs, major assassinations and coups in the Sikh Empire in the years immediately after the death of Ranjit Singh; an easy annexation of the remains of the Sikh Empire into British India followed, with the colonial officials offering the Jagirs better terms and the right to keep the system intact.

Infrastructure investments
Ranjit Singh ensured that Panjab manufactured and was self-sufficient in all weapons, equipment and munitions his army needed. His government invested in infrastructure in the 1800s and thereafter, established raw materials mines, cannon foundries, gunpowder and arm factories. Some of these operations were owned by the state, others operated by private Sikh operatives.

However, Ranjit Singh did not make major investments in other infrastructure such as irrigation canals to improve the productivity of land and roads. The prosperity in his Empire, in contrast to the Mughal-Sikh wars era, largely came from the improvement in the security situation, reduction in violence, reopened trade routes and greater freedom to conduct commerce.

Muslim accounts
The mid 19th-century Muslim historians, such as Shahamat Ali who experienced the Sikh Empire first hand, presented a different view on Ranjit Singh's Empire and governance. According to Ali, Ranjit Singh's government was despotic, and he was a mean monarch in contrast to the Mughals. The initial momentum for the Empire building in these accounts is stated to be Ranjit Singh led Khalsa army's "insatiable appetite for plunder", their desire for "fresh cities to pillage", and eliminating the Mughal era "revenue intercepting intermediaries between the peasant-cultivator and the treasury".

According to Ishtiaq Ahmed, Ranjit Singh's rule led to further persecution of Muslims in Kashmir, expanding the previously selective persecution of Shia Muslims and Hindus by Afghan Sunni Muslim rulers between 1752 and 1819 before Kashmir became part of his Sikh Empire. Bikramjit Hasrat describes Ranjit Singh as a "benevolent despot".
The Muslim accounts of Ranjit Singh's rule were questioned by Sikh historians of the same era. For example, Ratan Singh Bhangu in 1841 wrote that these accounts were not accurate, and according to Anne Murphy, he remarked, "when would a Musalman praise the Sikhs?" In contrast, the colonial era British military officer Hugh Pearse in 1898 criticised Ranjit Singh's rule, as one founded on "violence, treachery and blood". Sohan Seetal disagrees with this account and states that Ranjit Singh had encouraged his army to respond with a "tit for tat" against the enemy, violence for violence, blood for blood, plunder for plunder.

Decline

Singh made his empire and the Sikhs a strong political force, for which he is deeply admired and revered in Sikhism. After his death, empire failed to establish a lasting structure for Sikh government or stable succession, and the Sikh Empire began to decline. The British and Sikh Empire fought two Anglo-Sikh wars with the second ending the reign of Sikh Empire. Sikhism itself did not decline.

Clive Dewey has argued that the decline of the empire after Singh's death owes much to the jagir-based economic and taxation system which he inherited from the Mughals and retained. After his death, a fight to control the tax spoils emerged, leading to a power struggle among the nobles and his family from different wives. This struggle ended with a rapid series of palace coups and assassinations of his descendants, and eventually the annexation of the Sikh Empire by the British.

Death and legacy

Death

In the 1830s, Ranjit Singh suffered from numerous health complications as well as a stroke, which some historical records attribute to alcoholism and a failing liver. According to the chronicles of Ranjit Singh's court historians and the Europeans who visited him, Ranjit Singh took to alcohol and opium, habits that intensified in the later decades of his life. However, he neither smoked nor ate beef, and required all officials in his court, regardless of their religion, to adhere to these restrictions as part of their employment contract.  He died in his sleep on 27 June 1839. Four of his Hindu wives- Mehtab Devi (Guddan Sahiba), daughter of Raja Sansar Chand, Rani Har Devi, the daughter of Chaudhri Ram, a Saleria rajput, Rani Raj Devi, daughter of Padma Rajput and Rani Rajno Kanwar, daughter of Sand Bhari along with seven Hindu concubines with royal titles committed sati by voluntarily placing themselves onto his funeral pyre as an act of devotion.

Singh is remembered for uniting Sikhs and founding the prosperous Sikh Empire. He is also remembered for his conquests and building a well-trained, self-sufficient Khalsa army to protect the empire. He amassed considerable wealth, including gaining the possession of the Koh-i-Noor diamond from Shuja Shah Durrani of Afghanistan, which he left to Jagannath Temple in Puri, Odisha in 1839.

Gurdwaras
Perhaps Singh's most lasting legacy was the restoration and expansion of the Harmandir Sahib, the most revered Gurudwara of the Sikhs, which is now known popularly as the "Golden Temple". Much of the present decoration at the Harmandir Sahib, in the form of gilding and marblework, was introduced under the patronage of Singh, who also sponsored protective walls and water supply system to strengthen security and operations related to the temple. He also directed construction of two of the most sacred Sikh temples, being the birthplace and place of assassination of Guru Gobind Singh – Takht Sri Patna Sahib and Takht Sri Hazur Sahib, respectively – whom he much admired. The nine-storey tower of Gurdwara Baba Atal was constructed during his reign.

Memorials and museums
Samadhi of Ranjit Singh in Lahore, Pakistan, marks the place where Singh was cremated, and four of his queens and seven concubines committed sati.
On 20 August 2003, a 22-foot-tall bronze statue of Singh was installed in the Parliament of India.
A museum at Ram Bagh Palace in Amritsar contains objects related to Singh, including arms and armour, paintings, coins, manuscripts, and jewellery. Singh had spent much time at the palace in which it is situated, where a garden was laid out in 1818.
On 27 June 2019, a nine-feet bronze statue of Singh was unveiled at the Haveli Maharani Jindan, Lahore Fort at his 180th death anniversary. It has been vandalised several times since, specifically by members of the Tehreek-e-Labbaik Pakistan.

Crafts

In 1783, Ranjit Singh established a crafts colony of Thatheras near Amritsar and encouraged skilled metal crafters from Kashmir to settle in Jandiala Guru. In the year 2014, this traditional craft of making brass and copper products got enlisted on the List of Intangible Cultural Heritage by UNESCO. The Government of Punjab is now working under Project Virasat to revive this craft.

Recognition
In 2020, Ranjit Singh was named as "Greatest Leader of All Time" in a poll conducted by 'BBC World Histories Magazine'.

In popular culture
 Maharaja Ranjit Singh, a documentary film directed by Prem Prakash covers his rise to power and his reign. It was produced by the Government of India's Films Division.
In 2010, a TV series titled Maharaja Ranjit Singh aired on DD National based on his life which was produced by Raj Babbar's Babbar Films Private Limited. He was portrayed by Ejlal Ali Khan
Maharaja: The Story of Ranjit Singh (2010) is an Indian Punjabi-language animated film directed by Amarjit Virdi.
 A teenage Ranjit was portrayed by Damanpreet Singh in the 2017 TV series titled Sher-e-Punjab: Maharaja Ranjit Singh. It aired on Life OK produced by Contiloe Entertainment.

See also
 Baradari of Ranjit Singh
 History of Punjab
 Charat Singh
 Hari Singh Nalwa
 List of generals of Ranjit Singh
 Koh-i-Noor
 Battle of Balakot

Notes

References

Bibliography

Lafont, Jean-Marie Maharaja Ranjit Singh, Lord of the Five Rivers. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002

Sandhawalia, Preminder Singh Noblemen and Kinsmen: history of a Sikh family. New Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal, 1999
Waheeduddin, Fakir Syed The Real Ranjit Singh; 2nd ed. Patiala: Punjabi University, 1981  (First ed. published 1965 Pakistan).

Further reading
Umdat Ut Tawarikh by Sohan Lal Suri, Published by Guru Nanak Dev University Amritsar .
 The Real Ranjit Singh by Fakir Syed Waheeduddin, published by Punjabi University, , 2001, 2nd ed. First ed. published 1965 Pakistan.
 Maharaja Ranjit Singh: First Death Centenary Memorial, by St. Nihal Singh. Published by Languages Dept., Punjab, 1970.
 Maharaja Ranjit Singh and his times, by J. S. Grewal, Indu Banga. Published by Dept. of History, Guru Nanak Dev University, 1980.
 Maharaja Ranjit Singh, by Harbans Singh. Published by Sterling, 1980.
 Maharaja Ranjit Singh, by K. K. Khullar. Published by Hem Publishers, 1980.
 The reign of Maharaja Ranjit Singh: structure of power, economy and society, by J. S. Grewal. Published by Punjab Historical Studies Dept., Punjabi University, 1981.
 Maharaja Ranjit Singh, as patron of the arts, by Ranjit Singh. Published by Marg Publications, 1981.
 Maharaja Ranjit Singh: Politics, Society, and Economy, by Fauja Singh, A. C. Arora. Published by Publication Bureau, Punjabi University, 1984.
 Maharaja Ranjit Singh and his Times, by Bhagat Singh. Published by Sehgal Publishers Service, 1990. .
 History of the Punjab: Maharaja Ranjit Singh, by Shri Ram Bakshi. Published by Anmol Publications, 1991.
 The Historical Study of Maharaja Ranjit Singh's Times, by Kirpal Singh. Published by National Book Shop, 1994. .
 An Eyewitness account of the fall of Sikh empire: memories of Alexander Gardner, by Alexander Haughton Campbell Gardner, Baldev Singh Baddan, Hugh Wodehouse Pearse. Published by National Book Shop, 1999. .
 Maharaja Ranjit Singh: The Last to Lay Arms, by Kartar Singh Duggal. Published by Abhinav Publications, 2001. .
 Fauj-i-khas Maharaja Ranjit Singh and His French Officers, by Jean Marie Lafont. Published by Guru Nanak Dev University, 2002. .
 Maharaja Ranjit Singh, by Mohinder Singh, Rishi Singh, Sondeep Shankar, National Institute of Panjab Studies (India). Published by UBS Publishers' Distributors with National Institute of Panjab Studies, 2002. ,.
 Maharaja Ranjit Singh: Lord of the Five Rivers, by Jean Marie Lafont. Published by Oxford University Press, 2002. .
 The Last Sunset: The Rise and Fall of the Lahore Durbar, by Amarinder Singh. Published by Roli Books, 2010.
 Glory of Sikhism, by R. M. Chopra, Sanbun Publishers, 2001. Chapter on "Sher-e-Punjab Maharaja Ranjit Singh".

External links

Detailed article on Ranjit Singh's Army
 , painted by W Harvey and engraved by G Presbury for Fisher's Drawing Room Scrap Book, 1838, with a poetical illustration by Letitia Elizabeth Landon.

Biographies

History of Sikhism
Punjabi people
Sikh Empire
Sikh warriors
Ranjit Singh
People from Gujranwala
History of Punjab
Indian Sikhs
1780 births
1839 deaths
Alcohol-related deaths in India
Deaths from cerebrovascular disease
Indian monarchs
Indian warriors
People from Lahore

Ranjit Singh


Thomas Leininger (* 1981) ist ein deutscher Cembalist, Organist und Komponist.

Werdegang
Leininger war zunächst Jungstudent am Peter-Cornelius-Konservatorium in Mainz. Hier erhielt er Klavier- und Hammerflügelunterricht und wirkte als Cembalist des von ihm mitbegründeten Barockensembles Concerto delle muse. 2001 errang das Ensemble einen ersten Preis im Bundeswettbewerb Jugend musiziert, Wertung Alte Musik.

Ab 2001 studierte er an der Schola Cantorum Basiliensis, und zwar Cembalo bei Jörg-Andreas Bötticher, Orgel bei Jean-Claude Zehnder, Andrea Marcon und Lorenzo Ghielmi sowie historischen Generalbass und Improvisation bei Jesper Bøje Christensen und Rudolf Lutz. Ergänzend besuchte er Kurse bei Martin Derungs, Brian Franklin, Matthias Weilenmann, Wieland Kuijken, Simon Standage und Andreas Staier. 2004 erforschte Leininger, unterstützt vom Deutschen Studienzentrum in Venedig, das Opernschaffen des Komponisten Pierfrancesco Cavalli. 2009 erhielt er den Förderpreis des Basler Organistenverbandes. Für Das Händel-Lexikon (Laaber 2010) verfasste er die Artikel "Aufführungspraxis" und "Rezitativ". Seit 2016 unterrichtet er Aufführungspraxis und Generalbass an der Schola Cantorum Basiliensis.

Thomas Leininger bildet zusammen mit dem Flötisten und Lautenisten Sven Schwannberger den Kern des Ensembles Il vero modo, das zahlreiche Konzertprogramme vorgestellt und mehrere CDs eingespielt hat. Daneben stehen Engagements bei zahlreichen Ensembles (Capriccio Basel, Cantus Firmus Consort Solothurn, Concentus Musicus Olten, Neues Zürcher Orchester, Ensemble Aspecte Zürich, Stuttgarter Kammerorchester, Le Concert Lorrain), an Opernhäuser (Theater Basel, Gran Teatre del Liceu Barcelona, Luzerner Theater, Opera da Camera Linz, Niedersächsisches Staatstheater Hannover) und bei Festspielen (Salzburger Festspiele, Händel-Festspiele Karlsruhe, Ludwigsburger Schlossfestspiele, Winter in Schwetzingen und Bayreuther Barock).

Kompositionen
2003 wurde, unterstützt von der Ernst-von-Siemens-Musikstiftung und geleitet von Hans-Martin Linde, Leiningers Oper La Scuola festeggiante uraufgeführt, ein Auftragswerk zum 75-jährigen Jubiläum der Schola Cantorum Basiliensis. 2004/2005 folgten die Uraufführungen zweier geistlicher Werke, des Oratoriums Verkündigung und des Oratoriums Das Leben des heiligen Leonhard, letzteres in der Basler Leonhardskirche. Das Theater und Orchester Heidelberg gab Rekonstruktionen und Neukompositionen der verlorenen Teile zweier Vivaldi-Opern in Auftrag, Motezuma (2006) und Tamerlano/Bajazet (2009). Für das Ekhof-Theater Gotha komponierte Leininger Rezitative und Ensemblesätze für die Galuppi-Oper Arcifanfano (2008). Im Auftrag des Badischen Staatstheaters Karlsruhe ergänzte er die unvollständig überlieferten Orchestersätze und Arien der Händel-Oper Almira (2005) und komponierte Dino und die Arche, eine "Darwinistische Oper" für Kinder auf ein Libretto von Cédric Costantino und Tina Hartmann (2012). Für die Margarethen-Kantorei Binningen-Bottmingen entstand Auf Engelsschwingen und Eselsrücken, ein Weihnachtsoratorium auf ein Libretto von Tina Hartmann (2014).

Weil Reinhard Keisers originale Vertonung verschollen ist, komponierte Leininger einen neuen Prolog für die Oper Il Muzio Scevola von Filippo Amadei, Giovanni Bononcini und Georg Friedrich Händel. Die Uraufführung durch das Barockorchester "il Gusto Barocco" fand 2021 in der Stuttgarter Liederhalle statt. Für das Bachfest Leipzig 2023 entstand die Geistliche Sinfonie "Singet dem Herrn ein neues Lied" – eine Ouvertüre im Stil von Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, gefolgt von einer orchestrierten Fassung der doppelchörigen Motette Singet dem Herrn ein neues Lied BWV 225. Das Eröffnungskonzert, in dessen Rahmen die Uraufführung mit dem Thomanerchor und dem Gewandhausorchester unter Andreas Reize erklang, wurde am selben Abend von mehreren öffentlich-rechtlichen Hörfunksendern ausgestrahlt. Die Open-Air-Gala "Bach 300", die am folgenden Tag auf dem Leipziger Marktplatz stattfand und mit der Geistlichen Sinfonie begann, wurde auf Arte gestreamt und in der Arte-Mediathek zur Verfügung gestellt.

CDs
 Arcadia. Italienische Sonaten des 17. Jahrhunderts. Ensemble Il vero modo: Sven Schwannberger (Blockflöte), Thomas Leininger (Cembalo und Orgel), Julian Behr (Laute, Chitarrone), Masako Art (Harfe), Florian Wieninger (Violone). Thorofon 2006, CTH 2508.
 Love Letters. Liebesbriefvertonungen des 17. Jahrhunderts. Ensemble Il vero modo: Giovanni Cantarini (Tenor), Sven Schwannerger (Chitarrone, Renaissance-Querflöte), Thomas Leininger (Orgel), Masako Art (Harfe), Brigitte Gasser (Lirone). Thorofon 2007, CTH 2538.
 A flauto e cembalo. Die Sonaten für Blockflöte und Cembalo von Georg Friedrich Händel. Ensemble Il vero modo: Sven Schwannberger (Blockflöte), Thomas Leininger (Cembalo). Thorofon 2007, CTH 2540.
 Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart: Sonaten für Violine und Klavier. Isabel Schau (Violine), Thomas Leininger (Tangentenflügel). Musicaphon 2009, M 56911.
 Jean-Louis Tulou et ses élèves. Werke von Jules Demerssemann, Jean Donjon und Jean-Louis Tulou. Sarah van Cornewal (Flöte), Tomoko Mukoyama (Flöte), Thomas Leininger (Hammerflügel). Pan Classics 2012, PC 10270
 The Parensi Manuscript. Werke von Arcangelo Corelli, Domenico Maria Drejer, Filippo Rosa, Tomaso Albinoni, Giovanni Battista Somis, Antonio Vivaldi und Paolo Benedetto Bellinzani. Tabea Schwartz (Blockflöte), Daniel Rosin (Violoncello), Thomas Leininger (Cembalo). Pan Classics 2019, PC 10421.
 The Gerdin Manuscript. Werke von Pietro Castrucci, Francesco Geminiani und Frederic Nussen. Tabea Schwartz (Blockflöte), Thomas Leininger (Cembalo). Pan Classics 2021, PC 10431.
 Secret Charms. Werke von Giuseppe Tartini und Comte de St. Germain. Mojca Gal (Violine), Anne Simone Aeberhard (Blockflöte), Bruno Hurtado Gosalves (Violoncello), Thomas Leininger (Cembalo). Coviello Classics 2022, COV 92201.

Weblinks
 Website von Thomas Leininger (Stand 3. Juni 2023).
 Informationen auf der Website des Badischen Staatstheaters Karlsruhe (Stand 3. Juni 2023).
 Robert Toft: Recording Classical Music. Case Studies auf der Routledge Companian Website mit folgenden MP3-Dateien: Kammerkantate "Secret Fires of Love" von Tomaso Albinoni mit Daniel Thomson, Tenor und Thomas Leininger, Cembalo; Sonate F-Dur KV 332 von Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart mit Thomas Leininger, Hammerflügel (Stand 10. September 2023).

Einzelnachweise

Cembalist
Klassischer Organist
Komponist (Deutschland)
Komponist klassischer Musik (21. Jahrhundert)
Historische Aufführungspraxis
Deutscher
Geboren 1981
Mann

Thomas Leininger


Marguerite Durand (24 de enero de 1864-16 de marzo de 1936) fue una actriz de teatro, periodista y sufragista francesa.

Primeros años
Nacida en el seno de una familia de clase media, Marguerite Durand estudió en el convento católico des Dames Trinitaires, recibió una educación religiosa tradicional de las jóvenes burguesas de su época. Después de completar sus estudios primarios, entró en el Conservatorio de París y más tarde se unió a la Comédie-Française optando así inicialmente por una carrera teatral. Debutó en 1882 con una comedia de Alexandre Dumas y consiguió ser aclamada por el público, su carrera teatral duró diez años destacando su interpretación en las obras de Molière (ella será Henriete en Les Femmes Savantes, Elise en L'Avare o Junie en Britanicus y obtuvo un gran éxito con Honnêtes Femmes de Henri Becque.

Carrera
En 1888, abandonó su carrera teatral para casarse con un joven abogado, Georges Laguerre. Su esposo, amigo y seguidor del general con ambiciones políticas Georges Boulanger, la introdujo en el mundo de la política radical y la alentó para que escribirse panfletos sobre el movimiento de los "Boulangistas". Sin embargo, en 1891 la pareja se separó y Durand aceptó un empleo como escritora en Le Figaro, el periódico más vendido de la época. En 1896, los editores la enviaron a cubrir el Congrès Féministe International (Congreso Feminista Internacional) para que escribiera un artículo humorístico. Pese a las intenciones de los editores, Durand volvió del evento muy cambiada, y al año siguiente, el 9 de diciembre de 1897, fundó un periódico feminista, La Fronde, sucesor de La Citoyenne de Hubertine Auclert.

La Fronde

El periódico de Durand, dirigido, administrado, editado, escrito y elaborado por mujeres en su totalidad, era un periódico de información y cultural de edición diaria que abarcaba dos grandes temas política y literatura. Fundamentalmente defendía los derechos de la mujer y asumía las reivindicaciones específicamente feministas, sus principales temas de acción eran la educación y el trabajo de las mujeres. Por ejemplo, solicitaba la admisión de la mujer en el Colegio de abogados y en la École des Beaux-Arts. También era tribuna de la clase trabajadora publicando colaboraciones de algunas mujeres representantes del movimiento obrero. Luchadora infatigable, al frente de La Fronde Durand hizo campañas por la igualdad en derechos civiles: el reconocimiento de los derechos de la mujer casada que era considerada inferior en el Código Civil, la "libre maternidad", el reconocimiento de la paternidad entonces prohibida por el Código Civil y la abolición de la reglamentación de la prostitución.

El periódico fue muy combativo con el famoso Caso Dreyfus, publicando el 14 de enero de 1898 el artículo de M. Emile Zola «J'accuse...!».

Entre las numerosas colaboradoras de La Fronde se encuentran figuras clave del feminismo francés y periodistas de la época como Clémence Royer (1830-1902), María Pognon (1844-1925), Madame Vincent (1841-1914), Nelly Roussel (1878-1922), Aline Valette (1850-1899), Hubertine Auclert, María Vérone (1874-1938), Avril de Sainte-Croi (1855-1939), Marie Maugueret (1844-1928), Pauline Kergomand (1838-1925), Andrée Téry, Dorothea Klumpke, Clotilde Dissard, Mathilde Meliot, Blanche Galien, Hélène Sée, Odette Laguerre, Claire de Pratz y Jane Misme.

El periódico atravesó problemas financieros y tuvo que cambiar la periodicidad de la rotativa hasta 1905 año en que desaparecería definitivamente coincidiendo con la muerte de su principal agente financiero y valedor Alphonse James de Rothschild.

Otros proyectos
En 1903, lanzó otro proyecto periodístico formando parte del Consejo de administración, junto a Henry Bérenger, futuro senador y ministro y Victor Charbonell, sacerdote excomulgado. L'Action, periódico diario, anticlerical y socialista, contó con numerosos colaboradores entre los que destacaron Octave Mirbeau, Laurent Tailhade, Ferdinand Buisson,  Aristide Briand... y otras colaboradoras de La Fronde como Nelly Roussel, Odette Laguerre, Andrée Téry y Hélène Sée. Pronto surgirían problemas financieros y la experiencia sería de corta duración.

Además, en sus editoriales demandaban que se permitiera que las mujeres recibieran por méritos la Legión de Honor y que participaran en los debates parlamentarios. En la Exposición Universal de París, en el año 1900, organizó el Congreso por los Derechos de la Mujer que presidió su amiga Clémence Royer (1830-1902).Además de establecer una residencia de verano para las periodistas femeninas en Pierrefonds, en la región de Picardía, en esa década Durand comenzó a luchar por los derechos de las mujeres trabajadoras y ayudó a organizar varios sindicatos.

Trabajó en un proyecto para crear la Oficina de trabajo femenino, como órgano adjunto al Ministerio de Trabajo para estudiar las condiciones de trabajo de las mujeres. En enero de 1907 este proyecto fue defendido ante el parlamento. También lo defendería preparando el Congrès du travail femenin del 25 al 28 de marzo de 1907 en el Grand Orient de France. Para su satisfacción pocos meses después del congreso, se aprobó la ley 13 de 1907, que otorga a la mujer casada el derecho a disponer de su salario.

Al año siguiente participó en el Congrès national pour le droit civils et le suffrage des femmes donde volvería a retomar los problemas de la falta de reglamentación de la igualdad de salarios y la evaluación del trabajo doméstico.

En 1909, participa en la creación de un nuevo periódico Les Nouvelles.

Candidata a las elecciones
Se implica de manera especial en la campaña en defensa del voto de las mujeres reivindicando el derecho de a ser elegidas y a elegir. Lanza la idea de organizar candidaturas femeninas en las elecciones legislativas del 24 de abril de 1910 y se presenta en el IXe arrondissement de Paris, pero su candidatura es rechazada por el prefecto de París.

En 1914 La Fronde reaparece con varios números, entre el 17 de agosto y el 3 de septiembre. Aunque considera que el feminismo y el pacifismo están estrechamente ligados Durant incita a las mujeres a participar en el esfuerzo de la guerra, expresando su esperanza de que las responsabilidades asumidas por las mujeres en ausencia de los hombres que están en el frente, permitirán beneficiarse de nuevos derechos. Su decepción llega con el armisticio. Decepción también en relación con el reconocimiento del derecho para las mujeres a decidir libremente su maternidad: aborto y propaganda sobre anticonceptivos son prohibidos por la ley del 31 de julio de 1920.

De mayo de 1926 a julio de 1928 relanza de nuevo La Fronde que ya no es un proyecto exclusivo de mujeres (la redacción es mixta) y es portavoz del Partido Republicano Socialista al que ella se adhiere.

En 1927 intentó de nuevo su entrada en política presentándose a las elecciones municipales de 1927 con el Partido Republicano-Socialista.

Durand fue, por otro lado, un personaje notablemente extravagante conocida por pasearse por los parques de París acompañada por su mascota, una leona llamada "Tiger". Colaboró en el establecimiento del zoológico Cimetière des Chiens en el suburbio parisino de Asnières-sur-Seine, donde finalmente debió llevar a su leona.

Legado
Su activismo elevó el perfil del feminismo en Francia y en el resto de Europa a un nivel de respetabilidad sin precedentes. A lo largo de su carrera, compiló una colección enorme de documentos que finalmente donó al Consejo municipal de la villa de París en 1931. Al año siguiente, en París fue inaugurada una biblioteca con su nombre, la Bibliothèque Marguerite Durand, creando así la primera "Oficina de documentación feminista" francesa. Ella sería la directora de la biblioteca hasta su muerte en 1936.

Bibliografía
 Mary Louise Roberts, 2002, Disruptive Acts: The New Woman in Fin-de-Siècle France.
 Jean Rabaut, 1996, Marguerite Durand (1864-1936) "La Fronde" féministe ou "Le Temps".
 "La Fronde" publicado el 14 de enero de 1898, copia digitalizada disponible en La bibliothèque Marguerite Durand [consultado 17/03/2010].
 Annie Dizier-Metz, 1992, La Bibliothèque Marguerite Durand: Histoire d'unne femme, mémoire des femmes.

Referencias

Enlaces externos
 La Bibliothèque Marguerite Durand: Histoire d'unne femme, mémoire des femmes.
 La Fronde, texto de Marguerite Durand (en francés)
 Análisis de La Fronde (en francés)
 Les informations pratiques sur la bibliothèque Marguerite Durand (en francés)

Periodistas de Francia del siglo XIX
Mujeres periodistas de Francia
Sufragistas de Francia
Actrices de teatro de Francia
Feministas de Francia
Periodistas de Francia del siglo XX
Nacidos en París
Bibliotecarias de Francia
Fallecidos en París
Activistas por los derechos de las mujeres de Francia

Marguerite Durand


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