Culture of Croatia has historically been influenced by Central European, Mediterranean and other Balkan cultures. Croatia's unique culture and identity can be traced back to the historical llyricum, and the Dalmatae illyrian tribes of Dalmatia. The Croatian language is believed to have been formed in the 6th or 7th century, and the written language is present in Glagolitic texts from the 11th century.

In terms of Croatian national emancipation, the 19th-century Illyrian movement was a significant period of national cultural history. During this movement, Croatians and saw unprecedented developments in fields of art and culture, giving rise to a number of historical figures. Most notably, Croatia has a place in the history of Mediterranean architecture and urbanism and clothing as place of origin of the cravat, a precursor of the modern necktie.

Modern and contemporary arts, music, urban, independent and youth culture in Croatia has been exceptionally growing due to numerous festivals and frequent manifestations, as well as (re-)emergence of new cultural infrastructure all over Croatia.

History

Prehistoric heritage
Ancient monuments from the Paleolithic era consist of simple stone and bone objects. Some of the earliest remaining historical features include 100,000-year-old bones of a Neandertal man on Krapina Neanderthal site, in Hrvatsko Zagorje.The most interesting Copper Age or Eneolithic findings are from Vučedol culture. Out of that culture, the Bronze Age Vinkovci culture (named after the city of Vinkovci) developed, which is recognizable by bronze fibulas that were replacing objects like needles and buttons.

Bronze Age culture of Illyrians, ethnic group with distinct culture and art form started to organize itself in 7th century BC. Numerous monumental sculptures are preserved, as well as walls of citadel, Nezakcij near Pula, one of numerous Istrian cities from Iron Age.

Ancient heritage
During Greek colonisation period, Greeks from Syracuse arrived to islands of Vis (Issa), Hvar (Pharos), and Korčula (Corcyra Nigra) in 390 BC and founded their city-states on Adriatic parts of modern Croatia, where they lived quite isolated.
While the Greek colonies were flourishing on the island, on the continent, the Illyrians were organizing their centers. Their art was greatly influenced by Greek art, and they have even copied some elements. Illyrians sometimes attacked Greek colonies on Dalmatian islands. One such example was queen Teuta of Ardiaei, whose pirating activities drew the attention of the Roman Republic to Eastern Adriatic Coast in 229 BC. After this initial contact, Rome gradually managed to subdue the Illyrians by the 1st century and Great Iliryan Revolt. These lands were in the meantime organized into Roman provinces of Ilyricum and subsequently Dalmatia and Pannonia, while Ilirians and other native tribes living in these areas gradually became romanized.The Romans organized the entire coastal territory by transforming citadels to urban cities. There have been at least thirty cities in Istria, Liburnia and Dalmatia with Roman citizenship (civitas). The best-preserved networks of Roman streets (decumanus/cardo) are those in Epetion (Poreč) and Jader (Zadar). The best preserved Roman monuments are in Pola (Pula) including an Amphitheater (an arena) from the 2nd century.
In the 3rd century AD, the city of Salona was the largest (with 40,000 inhabitants) and most important city of Dalmatia. Near the city, emperor Diocletian, born in Salona, built Diocletian's Palace (around year 300 AD), which is the largest and most important monument of late antique architecture in the World. In the 4th century, Salona became the center of Christianity for entire western Balkans. It had numerous basilicas and necropolises, and even two saints: Domnius (Duje) and Anastasius (Staš).

One of few preserved basilicas in western Europe (beside ones in Ravenna) from the time of early Byzantium is Euphrasian Basilica in Poreč from the 6th century.

Medieval heritage

The early Middle Ages brought the great migration of the Slavs and this period was perhaps a Dark Age in the cultural sense until the successful formation of the Slavic states which coexisted with Italic cities that remained on the coast, each of them were modelled like Venice.

In the 7th century the Croats, along with other Slavs and Avars, migrated from Eastern Europe to the area of Dalmatian hinterland. Here, the Croats came into contact with Roman art, culture, and most of all with Christianity. In first few centuries following their arrival, Croats adopted Christianity, which had spread from old Roman cities in Dalmatia and as well as by Frankish missionaries. In following centuries both Latin language, Church Slavonic and Glagolitic script were in use in Church liturgy among Croats, while pre-Romanesque period is considered foundational period of Croatian medieval culture. The monuments created in this period are associated with arrival of Benedictine monks to Croatia, who first came from Frankish monasteries and subsequently from Monte Cassino. In later periods, the new monasteries were mostly founded by local monks. The first benedictine monastery in Dalmatia was constructed during the reign of 9th century duke Trpimir in Rižinice between modern day Solin and Klis.

In later period the rule of duke Branimir, in particular, is considered as a time of "cultural blossom" of Croatia due to construction of new churches, reconstruction of already existing churches, as well as five stone inscriptions mentioning Branimir's name which remain preserved until this day.

In second half of 10th century, Croatian queen Helen of Zadar, built a royal mausoleum in church of St. Stephen on the Island in what is today Solin.

Another period of cultural blossom of Croatian kingdom came with the rule of 11th century king Demetruis Zvonimir. Since his rule was relatively stable, he donated many churches and monasteries. The most famous of his donations is recorded in Baška Tablet, 11th century inscription written in Glagolitic script and Croatian language. It was discovered in village of Baška, on the island of Krk. It represents the earliest mention of Croatian royal name and royal title in Croatian language (Zvonimir, kralj hrvatski) for which it has a great significance in study of Croatian language. Original documents issued by Croatian medieval rulers were also written in Latin language and in either Beneventan, Carolingian minuscule or Gothic minuscule script. During the 13th century Croatian provost Dobroslav launched the construction of a romanesque Knin cathedral on a site of the earlier Benedictine menastery in Kapitul near Knin. Upon completion the cathedral became a seat of Knin bishop (previously Croatian bishop) until Ottoman invasions forced high clergy to move their seats elsewhere. During the archeological excavations in the 19th century, this site became a place where ornaments from Trpimirović dynasty were recovered.

Renaissance heritage

The Rennaisance period among Croats was influenced by wars against expanding Ottoman Empire, which slowed down Croatian cultural development. The downfall of the homeland left impression on Croatian writers, who expressed their mood in their writings. Some examples of this are Petar Zoranić in his novel Planine (English: "The Mountains"), Šimun Kožičić Benja in his publication De Corvatiae desolatione (English: "On the desolation of Croatia"), Marko Marulić in his Molitva suprotiva Turkom ("A Prayer Against the Turks") or Brne Karnarutić's Vazetje Sigeta grada (English: "The Taking of the City of Siget").

Fine arts

Sculpture
The altar enclosure and windows of early medieval churches were highly decorated with a transparent shallow string-like ornament that is called Croatian interlace because the strings were threaded and rethreaded through themselves. Sometimes the engravings in early Croatian script–Glagolitic appear. Soon, the Glagolitic writings were replaced with Latin ones on altar boundaries and architraves of old-Croatian churches.

In Croatian Romanesque sculpture, we have a transformation from decorative interlace relief (Croatian interlace) to figurative relief. The best examples of Romanesque sculpture are: the wooden doors of the Split cathedral made by Andrija Buvina (c. 1220) and the stone portal of the Trogir cathedral by the artisan Radovan (c. 1240).
Zadar was an independent Venetian city. The most beautiful examples of Gothic humanism in Zadar represent reliefs in gilded metal on Chest of St Simeon, made by artisans from Milan in around 1380.

Most Croatian prominent sculptors of modern include Ivan Meštrović, Antun Augustinčić, Frano Kršinić and others.

Painting
Gothic painting is less well-preserved, and the finest works are in Istria such as the fresco-cycle of Vincent from Kastav in the Church of Holy Mary in Škriljinah near Beram, from 1474. From that time are two of the best and most decorated illuminated liturgical books made by monks from Split, Hvals' Zbornik (today in Zagreb) and the Missal of the Bosnian Duke Hrvoje Vukčić Hrvatinić (now in Istanbul).

The most prominent painter from Croatia was Federiko Benković who worked almost his entire life in Italy, while an Italian, Francesco Robba, did the best Baroque sculptures in Croatia.

In Austrian countries at the beginning of the 19th century the Romantic movement in Croatia was sentimental, gentle and subtle.  Vlaho Bukovac brought the spirit of impressionism from Paris, and he strongly influenced the young artists (including the authors of "Golden Hall"). On the Millennium Exhibition in Budapest they were able to set aside all other artistic options in Austro-Hungary.

Modern art in Croatia began with the Secession ideas spreading from Vienna and Munich, and post-Impressionism from Paris. Young artists would study the latest trends and integrate them into their own work. Many strove to bring a native cultural identity into their art, for example themes of national history and legends, and some of the artwork during and following the First World War contained a strong political message against the ruling Austro-Hungarian state. As Croatian lands joined the Kingdom of Yugoslavia after the war, a change was noticeable in 1919 with a move to flatter forms, and signs of cubism and expressionism were evident. In the 1920s, the Earth Group sought to reflect reality and social issues in their art, a movement that also saw the development of naive art. By the 1930s there was a return to more simple, classical styles.

Following the Second World War, artists everywhere were searching for meaning and identity, leading to abstract expressionism in the U.S. and art informel in Europe. The early split with the rest of the Eastern Bloc in the new Socialist Yugoslavia which Croatia was a constituent republic of allowed for greater artistic freedom, with socialist realism style never truly taking hold. Bauhaus ideas led to geometric abstraction in paintings and simplified spaces in architecture. In the 1960s, non-conventional forms of visual expression took hold along with a more analytical approach to art, and a move towards new media, such as photography, video, computer art, performance art and installations, focusing more on the artists' process. Art of the 1970s was more conceptual, figurative and expressionist. However, the 1980s brought a return to more traditional painting and images.

Architecture

The oldest preserved examples of architecture in Croatia are the 9th century churches, with the largest and the most representative among them being Donatus of Zadar and Church of Holy Trinity, Split. Some of the first churches build by the Croats were royal sanctuaries, and the influences of Roman art were the strongest in Dalmatia where urbanization was most dense, and there were the largest number of monuments.
Along the coast, the architecture is Mediterranean with a strong influence of renaissance architecture in major urban areas best exemplified in works of Venetian Giorgio da Sebenico and Niccolò di Giovanni Fiorentino.
Architecture in Croatia reflects influences of bordering nations. Austrian and Hungarian influence is visible in public spaces and buildings in the north and in the central regions. Large squares named after culture heroes, well-groomed parks, and pedestrian-only zones, are features of these orderly towns and cities, especially where large scale Baroque urban planning took place, for instance in Varaždin and Karlovac. Subsequent influence of the Art Nouveau was reflected in contemporary architecture.

Music and Performing arts

Music

Music in Croatia has two major influences: Central European, present in the central and northern parts of the country including Slavonia, and Mediterranean, particularly present in the coastal regions of Dalmatia and Istria.

In Croatia, both pop and rock are popular, and often incorporates Dalmatian or Slavonian folk elements. Since the mid-20th century, schlagers and chanson-inspired music have formed the backbone of the Croatian popular music. During 1990's marked by Croatian War of Independence; Cro dance, or Cro trash music dominated in Croatian nightclubs. In recent times, the most popular music genre (especially among young Croatians) became Turbo folk.  According to the 2018 sociological research conducted on high school students in six Croatian cities, the most common consumers of Turbo folk are students with right wing leaning and conservative values. It is more popular among females as well as among those enrolled in lower level educational programs.

Traditional humorous folk song of eastern Croatian region of Slavonia is called bećarac. It was recorded for the first time in 18th century by Croatian Enlightment author Matija Antun Relković. Since 2011, it is listed on UNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritage List.

Porin is Croatian music award, named after Vatroslav Lisinski's opera of the same name and inspired by an American Grammy award. It has been awarded each year since 1994. Croatian national television usually also organizes national song contest - Dora, whose winnter represents Croatia on Eurovision. This contest was named after Croatian first, distinguished female composer Dora Pejačević.

Theatre

Croatian theatre dates back at least as far as the Middle Ages, with a combination of religious liturgical dramas, and secular performances of travelling entertainers. During the Renaissance, there was a flowering of dramatic writing and performances in Dalmatia, especially in Dubrovnik and on the island of Hvar. Notable playwrights of the time were Marin Držić and Hanibal Lucić.In other parts of Croatia, theatres started to appear in the late 18th, early 19th century in cities such as Split, Dubrovnik, Šibenik, Zadar, Osijek, Varaždin, Pula, Rijeka, and Zagreb. The development of a Croatian National Theatre evolved from Zagreb's first city theatre on St Mark's Square. Beginning in the 1860s, performances were increasingly written and given in Croatian.

Today, Croatia boasts a strong tradition of theatres and theatrical companies all round the country. Performances range from dramas and musicals for adults or children, youth theatre and puppet theatre. Croatia is also home to the world's oldest Theatre of the Blind. Festivals are held in several locations in the summer.

Literature

The first known printed book in Croatian language is Missale Romanum Glagolitice (Misal po zakonu rimskog dvora) from 1483. It was printed in Glagolitic script.

Media

Cinema

First Croatian production company was called "Croatia" and in 1917, this company produced first Croatian feature film called Brcko in Zagreb. This film, as well as all other films made in Zagreb in interwar period are lost to this day. First film screening in Zagreb was held on 8 October 1896, when Lumiere brothers films were shown.

From 1960's to 1990's Croatian production company Jadran Film became one of the largest film producers in Central Europe, for which it was called "Croatian Hollywood". Some of well known international movie productions filmed in Croatia in that time were: Austerlitz, The Valley of Death, Death Train etc. However, Croatian war of Independence, and subsequent bad privatization led to company's downfall, as Croatia lost the competitive advantage it had over other socialist block countries during Cold War. The sixties in particular are known as a "golden age" of film in Croatia.

In 1989/1990 and 1999/2000 One Song a Day Takes Mischief Away was proclaimed as best Croatian feature film of all time. However, in 2020, a 1958 movie H-8 was proclaimed as best Croatian feature film of all time. The same election proclaimed Oscar winning Surogat as best Croatian animated film of all time, while Od 3 do 22 was proclaimed the best Croatian documentary film of all times. Since 1992, Croatian society of film critics gives annual award "Okatavijan", named after Croatian film pioneer Oktavijan Miletić.

Modern film production in Croatia is subsidized by Croatian Audiovisual Center (HAVC). Some of the well known film festivals held in Croatia are: Pula Film festival, Zagreb Film Festival, Vukovar Film Festival, Motovun Film Festival, Animafest Zagreb or ZagrebDox.

In recent years, indie cinemas of Zagreb started closing down. Out of 24 indie cinemas which used to operate in Zagreb, only 6 remained opened by 2018. First multiplex cinema in Croatia was opened in 2003 by German company CineStar. During summer period in Zagreb, outdoor cinema in Tuškanac forest is open. This cinema was originally opened back in 1954. After it was shut down for several decades after 1970, it was again refurbished and reopened in 2012.

Television

Television in Croatia was first introduced in 1956. As of 2012 there are 10 nationwide and 21 regional DVB-T (Digital Video Broadcasting – Terrestrial) television channels, and more than 30 other channels either produced in the Republic of Croatia or produced for the Croatian market and broadcast via IPTV (Internet Protocol television), cable or satellite television. The electronic communications market in Croatia is regulated by the Croatian Regulatory Authority for Network Industries (HAKOM), which issues broadcast licenses and monitors the market. The DVB-T and satellite transmission infrastructure is developed and maintained by the state-owned company Odašiljači i veze (OiV).

The first television signal broadcast in Croatia occurred in 1939 during the Zagreb Fair, where Philips showcased its television system. The first regular broadcasts started in 1956, when Television Zagreb was established as the first TV station in the Yugoslav Radio Television system. Color broadcasts began in 1972. Coverage and number of channels grew steadily, and by the 2000s there were four channels with nationwide coverage in Croatia. DVB-T signal broadcasts began in 2002, and in 2010 a full digital switchover was completed. During that period the IPTV, cable and satellite television markets grew considerably, and by 2011 only 60.7 percent of households received DVB-T television only; the remainder were subscribed to IPTV, cable and satellite TV in addition, or as the sole source of TV reception. As of January 2012 DVB-T is broadcast in three multiplexes, while the territory of Croatia is divided into nine main allotment regions and smaller local allotments corresponding to major cities. High-definition television (HDTV) is broadcast only through IPTV, although HDTV DVB-T test programming was broadcast from 2007 to 2011. A DVB-T2 test broadcast was conducted in 2011.

As of November 2019 all national channels are transmitted via three DVB-T and one DVB-T2 (HEVC/H.265) MUXes. After June 2020 DVB-T MUXes will be switched off and all channels will be distributed via two DVB-T2 (HEVC/H.265) MUXes.

Television in Croatia, as all other media in the country are criticised for lack of balance of global issues and trends on one hand and national topics covered on the other. All major television networks in Croatia are generally thought to be under excessive influence of commercialism. State owned Croatian Radiotelevision is required to produce and broadcast educational programmes, documentaries, and programmes aimed at the diaspora and national minorities in Croatia. The television in Croatia is considered to be important in avenue for non-governmental organizations communicating their concerns to the public and to criticising the authorities. Television is the primary source of information for 57% of the population of Croatia.

 Croatian radiotelevision

Radio

Croatian Radio () is the official broadcasting service of Croatia. Founded on May 15, 1926 as Zagreb Radio, it was the first radio station in Southeast Europe, now part of Croatian Radiotelevision.

The broadcast, which began with just one channel that could be listened to only in Zagreb and northern Croatia, today makes 16 radio channels sent out on short wave, medium wave, FM, satellite and the Internet.

On May 25, 2012, the television and radio program archive and a collection of music production were given the status of Croatia's cultural heritage.
 List of radio stations in Croatia
 List of Croatian language television channels

Video games

Some video games created by Croatian developers include: Serious Sam franchise, Talos Principle, Gas Guzzlers Extreme, Doodle Jump, I Hate Running Backwards, SEUM: Speedrunners from Hell, Inked, The Ward, etc. According to 2023 research results published in Croatian daily Jutarnji list; 92% of Croatian citizens play video games.

Education

People in Croatia enjoy free government-sponsored education at the primary and secondary level, and partially free university education. There are over 800 primary schools and over 400 secondary schools in the country.

The higher education is also government-sponsored, and mostly free for students who enroll with better results. There are thirty two various polytechnic schools, as well as seven universities in seven larger cities: Zagreb, Split, Rijeka, Osijek, Zadar, Dubrovnik, and Pula. Each of the universities in Croatia is composed of many independent "faculties" (Croatian fakultet, meaning college or department), which focus on specific areas of learning: Natural Sciences, Philosophy, Law, Engineering, Economy, Architecture, Medicine, and so on.

There are also a number of other educational and scientific institutions, such as institutes (most notably the Ruđer Bošković Institute) or the Croatian Academy of Sciences and Arts, a learned society promoting language, culture, and science from its first conception in 1866.

The Roman Catholic Church was instrumental in the founding of many educational facilities in Croatia. The Catholic Church in Croatia continues to maintain numerous seminaries and theological faculties in the country, as well as the Pontifical Croatian College of St. Jerome for Croatian students in Rome.

Philosophy
Between 1964 and 1974 Praxis School of Marxist philosophy used to exist inside Socialist Republic of Croatia as well as wider Socialist Yugoslavia. During its existence, the movement organized a Summer school on island of Korčula.

Places

The UNESCO has marked seven places in Croatia as World Heritage Sites:
 Episcopal complex of the Euphrasian Basilica in the historic center of Poreč
 The cathedral of St. James in Šibenik
 Historic city of Trogir
 Diocletian's Palace, built by Roman Emperor Diocletian
 Old city of Dubrovnik
 Plitvice Lakes
 Stari Grad Plain on the Adriatic island of Hvar, parceled by Ancient Greece

Regarding conservation and natural beauty, Croatia has eight national parks, mostly situated along the Adriatic coast.

Fashion

According to Dubravka Prpić Znaor, main editor of ItGirl.hr magazine, modern Croatians do not have its own unique dressing style, but instead combine elements of Italian, American, Japanese and French style. According global survey results published by US news, Croatia is 45th most fashionable country in the world.

Festivities and traditions
Some of the festivities held in Croatia include:

 Sinjska alka - held in memory of victory Siege of Sinj in 1715
 Koprivnica Renaissance Festival
 Špancirfest in Varaždin
 Dubrovnik Summer Festival
 Đakovački vezovi
 Neretva Boat Marathon
 Music Biennale Zagreb
 Vinkovačke jeseni
 Rijeka Carnival
 Samobor fašnik (Samobor Carnival)
 Rapska fjera
 Chivalry Tournament of Franjo Tahy in Donja Stubica (VIteški turnir Franje Tahija)
 Susreti za Rudija - the annual airshow in Gornja Stubica, held in memory of Rudolf Perešin
 Večernjakova ruža (Rose of Večernji list) - Croatia's oldest and most prestigious media award
 Varaždin Baroque Evenings
 Victory and Homeland Thanksgiving Day and the Day of Croatian Defenders
 Vukovar and Škabrnja Remembrance Day
 Vladimir Nazor Award - an annual award given by Croatian Ministry of Culture and Media for best artistic achievements in: literature, music, architecture, film, theatre and visual and applied arts
 Zagreb Classic - festival of classical music on King Tomislav Square in Zagreb

Food and drink

Cuisine

Croatian cuisine is heterogeneous, and is therefore known as "the cuisine of regions". Its modern roots date back to proto-Slavic and ancient periods and the differences in the selection of foodstuffs and forms of cooking are most notable between those on the mainland and those in coastal regions. Mainland cuisine is more characterized by the earlier proto-Slavic and the more recent contacts with the more famous gastronomic orders of today, Hungarian, Viennese and Turkish, while the coastal region bears the influences of the Greek, Roman and Illyrian, as well as of the later Mediterranean cuisine, including Italian and French.

A large body of books bears witness to the high level of gastronomic culture in Croatia, which in European terms dealt with food in the distant past, such as the Gazophylacium by Belostenec, a Latin-Kajkavian dictionary dating from 1740 that preceded a similar French dictionary. There is also Beletristic literature by Marulić, Hektorović, Držić and other writers, down to the work written by Ivan Bierling in 1813 containing recipes for the preparation of 554 various dishes (translated from the German original), and which is considered to be the first Croatian cookbook.

Wine

Croatian wine (, pl. ) has a history dating back to the Ancient Greek settlers, and their wine production on the southern Dalmatian islands of Vis, Hvar and Korčula some 2,500 years ago.< Like other old world wine producers, many traditional grape varieties still survive in Croatia, perfectly suited to their local wine hills. Modern wine-production methods have taken over in the larger wineries and EU-style wine regulations
 have been adopted, guaranteeing the quality of the wine.

There are currently over 300 geographically defined wine regions and a strict classification system to ensure quality and origin. The majority of Croatian wine is white, with most of the remainder being red and only a small percentage being rosé wines. In 2014, Croatia ranked 32nd in wine production by country with an estimated 45,272 tonnes.

Wine is a popular drink in Croatia, and locals traditionally like to drink wine with their meals. Quite often, the wine is diluted with either still or sparkling water—producing a drinks known as  (a combination of white wine and carbonated water) and  (a combination of red wine and still water).

Coffee

Drinking coffee is a ritual and a mean of socialising for Croatians. If they want to socialise with someone, they invite this person for a coffee. This is the reason why in Croatian towns coffee bar terraces can always be seen crawling with locals drinking their cappuccino and hanging out. Average coffee drinking time among Croatians tends to extend to between 40 and 45 minutes. According to the research done by Gfk Agency, 80% of Croatians older that 15 drink coffee on a daily basis. During the COVID-19 pandemic, 44% of Croatian citizens reported that they miss drinking coffee in their caffe bars. Among Dalmatians, 65% reported that the first thing they will do when the lockdown ends is go to their coffee bar and order coffee. In Croatian culture, the person who invites for a coffee usually pays the bill. Exception is if another person wants to make a nice gesture and pays instead.

Croatian domestic animals

 Croatian Sheepdog
 Dalmatian dog
 Istrian Shorthaired Hound
 Hrvatica chicken
 Posavac (horse)

Sports

Since independence Croatia has been a fairly successful sporting country. The most popular team sports have been association football (soccer). The Croatian Football Federation () has more than 118,000 registered players, and it is the largest sporting association in the country. Since its existence, Croatian male national football team achieved notable results on worldwide scale by winning 3rd place in Fifa 1998 World Cup, 2nd place in Fifa 2018 World Cup and 3rd place in Fifa 2022 World Cup.

Croatian male handball team also achieved some notable  successes by winning gold medal on summer Olympics in 1996 and 2004, gold medal on 2003 World Championship and silver medal on 2008, 2010 and 2020 European Championship.

Other popular sports are basketball and to some extent water polo. The most popular sports played mainly by individuals are tennis, skiing, swimming, and to some extent table tennis and chess. The nation's arenas are primarily used for handball and basketball games.

Some notable Croatian martial artists include Mirko "Cro Cop" Filipović, Željko Mavrović, Mate Parlov, Branko Cikatić, Ana Zaninović, Lucija Zaninović, Ivana Habazin and Maša Martinović.

See also

 Natural and Cultural Heritage of Croatia
 Register of Cultural Goods of Croatia
 List of museums in Croatia
 Public holidays in Croatia

References

External links
 Republic of Croatia Ministry of Culture and Media
 Croatian Cultural Center of Greater Los Angeles

 Croatian Cultural
 International Trust for Croatian Monuments
Heritage - digital collection of Croatian cultural heritage]
Arts and literature
 Prehistory art in Croatia
 Antiquity in Croatia
 Croatian Culture Links
 Preromanesque art of coastal Croatia
 Croatia Arts and Literature
 Croatian cultural heritage
 Online library of major Croatian literary works from Renaissance to Modernism. In Croatian only
Education
 Ministry of Science: the list of institutes and general survey
 Higher Education: Complete directory of higher education institutes in Croatia
History
 Museum of Croatian Archaeological Monuments home page
 Institute for Ethnology and Folklore
 Lado National Folklore Ansamble
 The History of Necktie
Nature Protection
 State Institute for Nature Protection - Croatia

Culture of Croatia


جان مارك فيراتغ ( في كازيريس)  لاعب كرة قدم فرنسي معتزل كان يجيد اللعب في مركز المهاجم.

لعب فيراتغ في أندية بوردو (1977-1980) نيم (1980-1982) تولوز (1982-1986) موناكو (1986-1991) بوردو مجددا (1991-1992).

شارك فيراتغ مع منتخب فرنسا في مباراة دولية واحدة من دون أن ينجح في تسجيل أي هدف في سنة 1982.

تولى فيراتغ تدريب أندية فيتشي (2001-2002) باو (2003-2004).

روابط خارجية

مراجع

لاعبو كرة قدم رجالية فرنسيون
مهاجمو كرة قدم رجالية
أشخاص على قيد الحياة
لاعبو الدوري الفرنسي
لاعبو الدوري الفرنسي الدرجة الثانية
لاعبو بوردو
لاعبو تولوز
لاعبو كرة قدم فرنسيون
لاعبو منتخب فرنسا لكرة القدم
لاعبو موناكو
لاعبو نيم
مدربو كرة قدم فرنسيون
مواليد 1959
مدربو نادي باو

جان مارك فيراتغ


Selenite, satin spar, desert rose, gypsum flower are  crystal habit varieties of the mineral gypsum.

All varieties of gypsum, including selenite and alabaster, are composed of calcium sulfate dihydrate (meaning that it has two molecules of water), with the chemical formula CaSO4·2H2O. Selenite contains no significant selenium – The similar names both derive from Greek  ( 'Moon').

Some of the largest crystals ever found are of selenite, the largest specimen found in the Naica Mine's Cave of the Crystals being 12 metres long and weighing 55 tons.

History and etymology
"Selenite" is mostly synonymous with gypsum, but from the 15th century, it has named the transparent variety that occurs in crystals or crystalline masses. The name derives through Middle English  from Latin , ultimately from Greek  (, ). It got this name because people historically believed the mineral waxed and waned with the cycles of the Moon.

Distinguishing characteristics
The main distinguishing characteristics of crystalline gypsum are its softness (hardness 2 on Mohs scale, soft enough to scratch with a fingernail) and its three unequal cleavages. Other distinguishing characteristics include its crystal habits, pearly lustre, easy fusibility with loss of water, and solubility in hot dilute hydrochloric acid.

Varieties
Though sometimes grouped together as "selenite", the four crystalline varieties have differences. General identifying descriptions of the related crystalline varieties are:

Selenite
 Most often transparent and colorless
 If selenite crystals show opacity or color, it is caused by the presence of other minerals, sometimes in druse

Satin spar
 Most often silky and fibrous; chatoyant; can exhibit some coloration
 The satin spar name has also been applied to fibrous calcite (a related calcium mineral), which can be distinguished from gypsum by its greater hardness (Mohs 3), rhombohedral cleavage, and reaction with dilute hydrochloric acid.

Desert rose

 Rosette-shaped gypsum with outer druse of sand or with sand throughout –  most often sand colored (in all the colors that sand can exhibit)
 The desert rose name can also be applied to barite desert roses (another related sulfate mineral) – barite is a harder mineral with higher density

Gypsum flower
 Gypsum flowers are curved rosettes of fibrous gypsum crystals found in solution caves.

Use and history
Satin spar is sometimes cut into cabochons to best display its chatoyance.

Crystal habit and properties

Crystal habit refers to the shapes that crystals exhibit. Selenite crystals show a variety of habits, but the most common are tabular, prismatic, or acicular (columnar) crystals, often with no imperfections or inclusions. Twinned crystals are common, and often take the form of "swallow tail" twins.

Selenite crystals sometimes form in thin tabular or mica-like sheets and have been used as window panes as at Santa Sabina in Rome.

Selenite crystals sometimes will also exhibit bladed rosette habit (usually transparent and like desert roses) often with accompanying transparent, columnar crystals. Selenite crystals can be found both attached to a matrix or base rock, but can commonly be found as entire free-floating crystals, often in clay beds (and as can desert roses).

Satin spar is almost always prismatic and fibrous in a parallel crystal habit. Satin spar often occurs in seams, some of them quite long, and is often attached to a matrix or base rock.

Desert roses are most often bladed, exhibiting the familiar shape of a rose, and almost always have an exterior druse. Desert roses form in wet sand, unattached to a matrix or base rock.

Gypsum flowers are most often acicular, scaly, stellate, and lenticular. Gypsum flowers most often exhibit simple twinning (known as contact twins); where parallel, long, needle-like crystals, sometimes having severe curves and bends, will frequently form "ram's horns", "fishtail", "arrow/spear-head", and "swallowtail" twins. Selenite crystals can also exhibit "arrow/spear-head" as well as "duck-bill" twins. Both selenite crystals and gypsum flowers sometimes form quite densely in acicular mats or nets; and can be quite brittle and fragile. Gypsum flowers are usually attached to a matrix (can be gypsum) or base rock.

Color

Gypsum crystals are colorless (most often selenite), white (or pearly –  most often satin spar), or gray, but may be tinted brown, yellow, red, or blue by the presence of impurities, such as iron oxides or clay minerals.

Transparency
Gypsum crystals can be transparent (most often selenite), translucent (most often satin spar but also selenite and gypsum flowers), and opaque (most often the rosettes and flowers). Opacity can be caused by impurities, inclusions, druse, and crust, and can occur in all four crystalline varieties.

Luster
Selenite typically shows vitreous luster, but may show pearly luster on cleavage surfaces. Satin spar shows characteristic silky luster.  Luster is not often exhibited in the rosettes, due to their exterior druse; nevertheless, the rosettes often show glassy to pearly luster on edges. Gypsum flowers usually exhibit more luster than desert roses.

Other optical properties
Fibrous satin spar exhibits chatoyancy (cat's eye effect).

When cut across the fibers and polished on the ends, satin spar exhibits an optical illusion when placed on a printed or pictured surface: print and pictures appear to be on the surface of the sample. It is often called and sold as the "television stone" (as is ulexite).

Some selenite and satin spar specimens exhibit fluorescence or phosphorescence.

Tenacity
All four crystalline varieties are slightly flexible, though will break if bent significantly. They are not elastic, meaning they can be bent, but will not bend back on their own.

All four crystalline varieties are sectile in that they can be easily cut, will peel (particularly selenite crystals that exhibit mica-like properties), and like all gypsum varieties, can be scratched by a fingernail (hardness: 2 on Mohs Scale). The rosettes are not quite as soft due to their exterior druse; nevertheless, they too can be scratched.

Selenite crystals that exhibit in either reticular or acicular habits, satin spar, in general (as fibrous crystals are thin and narrow), desert roses that are thinly bladed, and gypsum flowers, particularly acicular gypsum flowers, can be quite brittle and easily broken.

Size

All four crystalline varieties can range in size from minute to giant selenite crystals measuring 11 meters long such as those found in the caves of the Naica Mine of Chihuahua, Mexico. The crystals thrived in the cave's extremely rare and stable natural environment. Temperatures stayed at 58 °C, and the cave was filled with mineral-rich water that drove the crystals' growth. The largest of those crystals weighs 55 tons, is  long, and is over 500,000 years old.

Occurrence
Gypsum occurs on every continent and is the most common of all the sulfate minerals.

Gypsum is formed as an evaporative mineral, frequently found in alkaline lake muds, clay beds, evaporated seas, salt flats, salt springs, and caves. It is frequently found in conjunction with other minerals such as, copper ores, sulfur and sulfides, silver, iron ores, coal, calcite, dolomite, limestone, and opal. Gypsum has been dated to almost every geologic age since the Silurian Period 443.7 ± 1.5 Ma.

In dry, desert conditions and arid areas, sand may become trapped both on the inside and the outside of gypsum crystals as they form. Interior inclusion of sand can take on shapes such as an interior hourglass shape common to selenite crystals of the ancient Great Salt Plains Lake bed, Oklahoma, US. Exterior inclusion (druse) occurs as embedded sand grains on the surface such as, commonly seen in the familiar desert rose.

When gypsum dehydrates severely, anhydrite is formed. If water is reintroduced, gypsum can and will reform –  including as the four crystalline varieties. An example of gypsum crystals reforming in modern times is found at Philips Copper Mine (closed and abandoned), Putnam County, New York, US where selenite micro crystal coatings are commonly found on numerous surfaces (rock and otherwise) in the cave and in the dump.

Images

See also
Great Salt Plains Lake and Great Salt Plains National Wildlife Refuge, Oklahoma, USA
Lake Lucero, White Sands National Park, New Mexico, USA
Lechuguilla Cave, Carlsbad Caverns National Park, New Mexico, USA
Peñoles Mine, Naica, Chihuahua, Mexico

References

External links
Cavern of Crystal Giants Cueva de los Cristales, Peñoles Mine, Naica, Chihuahua, Mexico
Mindat.org - scientific description of gypsum plus list of localities
Mindat.org - satin spar localities
1927 article on the giant crystals of Naica
Gypsum flowers, National Speleological Society
Image of huge crystals of selenite telegraph.co.uk, 2008

Calcium minerals
Sulfate minerals
Cave minerals

Selenite (mineral)


Vested interest (Crano, 1983; Crano & Prislin, 1995; Sivacek & Crano, 1982) is a communication theory that seeks to explain how certain hedonically relevant (Miller & Averbeck, 2013) attitudinal dimensions can influence and consistently predict behavior based on the degree of subjective investment an individual has in a particular attitude object. As defined by William Crano, vested interest refers to the degree to which an attitude object is deemed hedonically relevant by the attitude holder. According to Crano, "an attitude object that has important perceived personal consequences for the individual will be perceived as highly vested. Highly vested attitudes will be functionally related to behavior" (Crano, 1983). Simply put, when people have more at stake with the result of an object (like a law or policy) that will greatly affect them, they will behave in a way that will directly support or defy the object for the sake of their own self-interest.

For example, a 30-year-old learns that the legal driving age in his state is being raised from 16 to 17. While he may not agree with this proposed change, he is not affected as much as a 15-year-old would be and is unlikely to protest the change. A 15-year-old, however, has much to lose (waiting another year to get a driver license) and is more likely to vehemently oppose the new proposed law. To gather support for his position, a course of action the 15-year-old might take would be to tell other soon-to-be drivers about the new law, so that they collectively have a vested interest in perhaps changing the law. This example illustrates the point that highly vested attitudes concerning issues depend on the individual's point of view.

Another example of vested interest can be found in a study conducted by Berndsen, Spears and van der Pligt, which involves students from a University in Amsterdam where the teaching faculty proposed the use of English to teach the curriculum instead of Dutch.  Vested interest, in this case, suggests that students would be opposed to the use of English rather than Dutch simply based on the potential impact lectures conducted in English might have on their grades.

Key Factors

Involvement
A key factor to consider with vested interest is the level or type of involvement the individual has with a particular attitude object. This can be broken up into three main involvement components: Value-relevant, Impression-relevant, and Outcome-relevant. Value-relevant involvement concerns behaviors which support/reinforce values of the individual. Impression-relevant involvement relates to those behaviors which serve to create or maintain a specific image of the individual. This could, in some ways, be compared to a low-self monitor. Outcome-relevant involvement concerns those behaviors which hold direct personal consequences at a premium for the individual and as a result, corresponds most closely to vested interest.

The concept of involvement closely relates to collaboration which encompasses value, impression and desired outcome.  Vested interest is essential in achieving success in collaboration where two or more individuals have the potential to gain or lose.  Organizations who strive for collaborative success benefit from understanding vested interest and that of other collaborators in order to maintain a supportive level of involvement.

Ego involvement
The way people view vested interest as distinct from ego involvement, is a construct that has been the topic of social psychological research for many years. In a study conducted by John Sivacek and William D. Crano, they prove that the aforementioned statement of ego involvement and vested interest are indeed separate. Sivacek and Crano state, "It was possible to have circumstances that an individual would perceive as involving but that it would not arouse his or her vested interest." Ego-involvement's main focus points are on individual's psychological attitudes that are experienced as being a part of "me". The more emotionally connected people are to an idea, concept, or value, minor differences in beliefs can be viewed as significantly large and perhaps make harsh judgments or have stronger reactions. Conversely, a person with less emotional connectivity (low ego-involvement) will have more latitude in their reactions. It is important to note that while highly vested attitudes can be experienced as ego involving, the opposite is not always true. An individual can be ego involved in a certain attitude that has no hedonic consequence. For example, religious or political ideals with little or no hedonic value may still be ego-involved because individuals view those types of beliefs as part of who they are.

Ego-involvement, as it pertains to vested interest, is relative to Social Judgment Theory in that the concept of one's identity is the primary focus of efforts in continued involvement.  Essential to social judgment theory is the idea of ego thus actions or ideas with a varying degree of ego involvement carry a commensurate amount of vested interest to the individual as detailed by Sherif, Kelly, Rogers, Sarup, and Tittler.  Sherif, et al. conducted a series of studies to develop "indicators of ego involvement" (p. 311).  One of the leading questions they sought to answer was how much ego involvement (vested interest) does an individual in a situation with no alternatives solutions have and does this ego involvement correlate to the number of options at hand. Sherif et al., suggest the question was answered by Beck and Nebergall in 1967 who stated that individuals with little to no options have corresponding vested interest indicating low ego involvement.

Attitude importance
The factor to consider with vested interest and its application towards attitude-consistent actions is attitude importance. Attitude (or issue) importance concerns not only matters of personal consequence, but also matters of national or international interest. While both of these can fall in line with each other, vested interest and attitude importance are not the same. For example, consider the plight of an African nation that has been ravaged by an influenza epidemic. Although an individual in America may consider this objectively important, because of the low probability of personal consequence—i.e., vested interest — his resultant behavior may not be indicative of his attitude towards the epidemic. In other words, since the issue is of little hedonic relevance to the perceiver, the amount of vested interest is low, and is therefore unlikely to produce attitude-consistent actions. Geographic distance and cultural differences are also a factor in attitude importance. Tragic circumstances halfway around the world or shocking behaviors by members of a culture different from the perceiver, will most likely never result in attitude change. The physical distance or cultural difference of an occurrence directly correlates to the vested interest of the perceiver. Things too far away or customs perceived to be too strange will almost never trigger a vested interest.

Indicators of vested interest can include attitude importance, as detailed by Jon Krosnick who defined this concept by stating that "central, ego-involved, and salient attitudes" often include attitudes significantly important to individual interests.  In politics, for example, voters have a vested interest in candidates whose values (policy) align with their own to include attitudes toward these values.  Due to the nature of politics, voters come to conclusions about one candidate over another based on perceived attitude importance (object) on these policies rather than vocal support alone placing a high value on this concept as it pertains to vested interest.

Attitude object continuously makes an issue salient which correlates to outcome relevant involvement.  Two differences exist between vested interest and outcome relevant involvement where attitude objects remain highly important.  Initially,  outcome relevant objects retain a high degree of vested interest while not appearing to be.  Secondly,  outcome relevant involvement suggest interest ends once the goal is achieved whereas vested interest suggests a self-perpetuated interest.

Components
There are five key components that may diminish or enhance the effects of vested interest on attitude-behavior consistency. These are (a) stake, (b) attitudinal salience, (c) the certainty of the attitude outcome link, (d) the immediacy of attitude-implicated consequences, and (e) the self-efficacy of the individual to perform an attitudinally implicated act. Attitudes affect behavior. However, social psychologists recognize that contextual, interpsychic, and intrapsychic sources of variation can drastically affect the strength of this relation. A factor that has been shown to strongly affect attitude-behavior consistency is self-interest or vested interest. The following sections explain each of these variables in greater detail.

Stake
Stake refers to the perceived personal consequence of an attitude that is directly related to the intensity of vested interest and influences components that contribute to attitude-behavior consistency. In its basic form, the more that is at stake concerning a particular issue, the stronger the attitude will be. Consequently, as attitude strength increases, the consistency of attitude-based actions also increases.

Referring to the concept of vested interest as it relates to attitude-behavior consistency, stake is an individual's macro involvement in a particular situation where the consequence is salient.  In a situation where stake is operationalized using certainly and immediacy, one found the likely effect of this was behavior relative to the immediate consequence, positive or negative. For instance, in a study conducted to measure the relevance stake has on vested interest, students given a health assessment showed greater enthusiasm for items inquiring about donating blood when saving a life was salient (i.e. a child's life depends on my donation).

Stake may contribute to attitude-behavior consistency by inducing thoughts that support the attitude. This serves as the basis for future behavior. Stake may also strengthen the attitude-behavior relation by indirectly amplifying the awareness of stimuli associated with people's attitudes. Stake is the most powerful impression that comes from all the components of vested interest regarding attitude and behavior. Stake influences perceptions of attitude and action, but also of other action-relevant components as well. When stake is high, people also find the critical issue highly salient. Stake also affects the perception of immediacy. The greater the personal consequence of the issue, the more pressing the issue is perceived to be. Finally, stake was found to affect the perception of immediacy. The greater the personal consequence of the issue, the more pressing it was perceived to be. The phrases, "the stakes are/were high" or "high stakes", are used when issues of high salience or immediacy are raised, usually in regards to gambling or other high-risk activities involving vested interest.

Salience
Salience refers to the perceiver's awareness of the effects of an attitude upon himself. In other words, the prominence of an issue, as perceived by an individual, shapes the strength of his resulting attitude. Salient attitudes have a greater effect directly on subsequent behavior. Linking this discovery to vested interest, the research concluded that the salience effect was heightened when the attitude had important personal outcomes for someone. When the consequences of the behavior issuing from an attitude are highly salient, attitude-behavior consistency increases. If consequences are not salient, the consistency of the effects of vested interest on attitude behavior will be dramatically reduced. For instance, two people may have negative attitudes towards living near a prison. The first person lost a loved one at the hands of an inmate who escaped during a jailbreak. The second person simply does not like the eyesore the prison building creates in the area around his home. The first person's attitude towards inmates and prisons will probably be more salient than that of the second person who has not experienced a similar trauma. The first person's more salient attitude will foster the operation of vested interest, which will result in greater attitude-behavior consistency.

Attitudes that have been acquired through direct experience, such as the example just given, may be more salient than those acquired through vicarious processes. This greater salience results in greater consistency in attitude behavior. The attitude of someone who is non-salient reduces vested interest and weakens attitude-behavior consistency. The most powerful impression to emerge from all the analyses is the overwhelming effect of stake, or personal consequence, on attitude and behavior. When stake is high, people assume that a person would find the critical issue highly salient. Stake does not interact with, but enhances the perception of, issue salience. This is an important effect, because salience significantly affects actions that are expected to happen.

Additionally, salience can be described as the most recent and accessible memory associated with a specific object (i.e. idea) in which an individual has developed their own unique attitude.  Mortality, for instance, would become salient when faced with a situation where death was probable or the known death of a friend, relative or an experienced event which resulting in someone's death.  This death salience would then influence behavior for a short amount of time following the event.

Certainty
Certainty refers to perceived likelihood of personal consequences as a result of an attitude or action. Simply stated, if a certain course of action is taken, then the chances of a specific event occurring as a result of this action are evaluated by the perceiver to help shape his resultant attitudes and behaviors. Certainty can be easily applied to situations in which an individual knowingly takes a calculated risk. For instance, let's continue with our aforementioned example of people living near a prison. Although the chance of a prison escape is minimal, particularly in a maximum-security prison, it could occur and crimes against those living close by would increase. Those living further away from the prison might argue that a prison break is unlikely and that there is no real risk. Alternatively, those living close to the prison could make an equally valid argument about the dangers of living near the prison in the event of prisoners escaping. Still others might realize there to be a potential risk to their safety, but would not deem it risky enough to move elsewhere.

Certainty in attitude, relative to vested interest, remains difficult to define without an understanding of two particular concepts.  One is the acceptance of truth in the events or idea requiring approximation of occurrence.  Two requires that certainty is not dependent on external factors which can undermine its validity.  Certainty must be a concept which is pushed onto us much like truth is a certainty beyond our immediate control.

If the consequences of an attitude consistent act are uncertain, attitude-consistent action is not likely to occur, due to the fact that vested interest will be reduced. An example of this is a person who has a negative attitude towards living near a prison. If the person assumes that the link between living near a prison and being a victim of a violent crime is minimal, then health and safety promoting behaviors consistent with this negative attitude are not likely. However, if someone believes that living near the prison and being a victim of a violent crime is almost certain, that person would be unlikely to move close to the prison, assuming the person has a positive attitude toward safety or a negative attitude toward prisons and inmates.

Immediacy
Immediacy refers to an individual's perceived amount of time between an action and its resulting consequences. Immediacy can be considered an extension of certainty, however, these two entities are completely separate. For instance, in our prison example, people in opposition to the construction of the prison in their neighborhood may have felt that the amount of time to build the prison to and the eventual housing of prisoners was not long enough to make an informed decision. They may also feel that it is only a matter of time before something negative happened to the local citizens as a result of having a prison nearby.

Immediacy refers to the apparent temporary lag between an attitudinally implicated action and its consequences. If the results of an attitude consistent action are thought to be immediate rather than delayed, the effects of stake, or vested interest, on attitude-behavior consistency will be more dramatic. In other words, if a person living near the prison in the previous example perceives the possibility of a jailbreak could occur at a much later time in life, he may act in manner that is not consistent. This is because the lack of immediate consequences reduces the perception of vested interest. Therefore, immediacy can help explain self-destructive behaviors.

Immediacy, in vested interest,  can also be thought of in terms of positive or negative consequence disassociated from a timeline.  Vested interest such as organ donation, for example, make life and death salient which brings about the concept of immediacy to decide not necessarily to act.  This is seen in a mechanism which allows people to agree to donate organs in the event of their death (i.e. drivers licenses).

Another example of immediacy is that of marketing companies who implement immediacy to encourage consumers to act or remain inactive. If what they market is something a person is highly vested in and the marketing firm has simultaneously created an immediate need, then they have done their job to get consumers to behave as they desired. This use of immediacy can be both helpful and harmful. Consumers who are not well versed in how marketing works may find themselves situations they did not wish to be in. However, consumers who are cognizant of how marketing works may find this very useful in how they do or do not expend their resources.

Self-efficacy
Self-efficacy in regards to vested interest, is the amount that an individual believes that they are capable of performing an action associated with an attitude or advocated position. In short, it is a person's sense of competence in regards to a specific task. Continuing with our prison example, residents with high vested interest that was covered by the other four components would need self-efficacy to protest the location of the new prison. In other words, the residents opposing the prison would have to believe in their abilities to effectively stop the construction. Conversely, if they lacked self-efficacy and therefore believed there was nothing they could do, then they would not act on their held attitude and vested interest will not have been attained. Variations in self-efficacy will produce differences in perceptions of the likelihood of someone working against the opposed plan. Higher levels of manipulated self-efficacy result in higher levels of expected action. However, variations in stake also influence perceptions of self-efficacy. When the stakes are high, people assume higher levels of perceived self-efficacy.

Another way the concept of self-efficacy can be described is using social cognitive theory to understand the role thought, drive and emotion have on self-efficacy (20).  Cognitively, one works to quantify actions, emotion, and drive resulting in self-efficacy.  However, this concept remains volatile as a change in one or more of these influences degrades self-efficacy.  An example of this would be physical fitness, in that, elevated or decreased self-efficacy will cause one to accept or deny a strenuous task daily.

Relevant research

Drinking age experiment
Various studies have been conducted to determine the effects of vested interest on attitude strengths. In one such study, Crano and Sivacek visited a university in Michigan and gathered the results of a proposed drinking-age referendum. The referendum sought to increase the legal drinking age from 18 to 21. The respondents were divided into three categories: 1. high vested interest (those who would be significantly and immediately affected as a result of the referendum), 2. low vested interest (those who would be unaffected by the law change at the time of its inception), and 3. moderate vested interest (those who fell between the first two extremes). Although 80% of the subjects were opposed to the referendum, their respective levels of vested interest clearly indicated that the strength of their attitudes significantly affected their resultant behaviors. Half of the highly vested interest groups joined the anti-referendum campaign, but only a quarter of the moderately vested interest group and an eighth of the low vested interest group joined the campaign. These results support Crano's theory of vested interest and reinforce the implications and considerations of stake, salience, certainty, immediacy, and self-efficacy discussed above. It also proves the correlation between vested interest and action, based on what level of involvement the three types of students were willing to participate in.

Comprehensive exam experiment
In a second study, Sivacek and Crano visited Michigan State University. In this experiment, subjects were informed that the university was considering the addition of a senior comprehensive examination to the graduate prerequisites. Respondents were given the following options:
Do nothing
Sign an opposing petition
Join a group that opposed the referendum
Volunteer specific numbers of hours to the opposing group's activities
The respondents were grouped into the same three categories as the drinking age study: high, moderate, and low vested interest. The study found that those with the highest levels of vested interest were significantly more inclined to take action based on their attitudes concerning the issue; that is, their resultant behaviors (signing the petition, joining the group, pledging multiple hours with the group) occurred much more consistently and prevalently than that of the other two vested interest groups.

Assumed consensus
Crano conducted another study to prove that vested interest may affect people's belief that a majority of a population will support their attitude on an issue. This bias is known as false-consensus or assumed-consensus effect. Under the guise of a public opinion survey, Crano created high and low vested interest groups by identifying whether upper- or lower-classmen would pay a surcharge to subsidize lost funding from the government. The class who was selected to pay the surcharge had a high degree of vested interest while the student body not required to pay exhibited a lower degree of vested interest. The study then determined the participants estimate of what percentage of the student body would support their beliefs regardless of impact. Crano found that vested interest influenced assumed consensus and students believed that a majority of the university's population would support their plight even though only half would be affected.

The effect of smoking on attitudes toward cigarette tax and smoking restrictions
Dale Miller and Rebecca Ratner conducted this study utilizing 81 male and female students at the University of Yale. In this experiment the objective was for half of the participants to show their own attitude toward smoking policies and the other half to show their thoughts on others attitudes toward smoking policies. The group with the questionnaire regarding their personal attitude about smoking were asked: 1. if they were a smoker or a nonsmoker, 2. how heavy or light a smoker they were, 3. whether they would support an increase on cigarette tax, 4. would they do away with smoking advertisements, and 5. their thoughts on smoking restrictions in public places. The second half of the participants were asked what percentage they thought smokers would support the previously mentioned policies for smokers or nonsmokers. They were not asked whether or not they smoked. The results of this study replicated Green and Gerkin's 1989 study that nonsmokers had more support for smoking restrictions than did those that smoke. These results supported the hypothesis: "Smokers in this study were more opposed to policies that regulated smoking than were nonsmokers, but the effect of smoking status on expressed attitudes was significantly less than that predicted by respondents". The smokers had a higher vested interest in smoking policies because they were directly affected. This study also revealed a direct correlation between vested interest and attitudes.

Voter Registration
Barbara Lehman and William Crano conducted a study regarding the persuasive effects of vested interest on attitude concerning political judgment which was published in 2001. In this study, they utilized data from 1976 national election studies concentrating on three areas (e.g. living conditions, health insurance and school integration).  Their discoveries were such that self-interest was a significant contributor to values placed on all three areas of concern. Further, outside analysis of the study revealed self-interest had a direct correlation to ideologies, affiliation, and intolerance.  Additionally, respondents with vested interest in any one of the three areas were more than likely to endorse candidates whose focus was in that particular area.

	These findings, set in 1976, show a significant relationship between vested interest and aligned values associated with electoral candidates which can be either perceived or marketed.  Understanding these values, one can conclude, would allow for use of vested interest harvested by surveys to decide which values to champion for use in maximizing voter endorsement.

Issues
Vested interest appears to affect people's tendency to overestimate the extent to which others agree with their beliefs, a bias known variously as the false-consensus or assumed-consensus effect. If people tend to overestimate the number of others who share their beliefs, this tendency should be exacerbated in situations involving personally consequential, or highly vested, beliefs. Research supports this expectation. College student participants who thought that a new university policy would disadvantage them personally assumed that the great majority of the student body would evaluate the policy as they had, despite the fact that only half the student population would be similarly disadvantaged.

Summary
Each of the five components (stake, salience, certainty, immediacy, and self-efficacy) co-exist within an individual's realm of conscious judgment. If it creates a sufficiently strong attitude, any of these components can cause an individual to adopt or reject a certain position. All five are considered any time an individual is presented with a message that attempts to influence or persuade him to adopt a certain position or perform an action. The process of evaluating these components can range from almost instantly to taking several years. At any rate, all five are considered (consciously or subconsciously) before making a decision with implications of vested interest.

See also
Attitude (psychology)
William Crano
social cognitive theory
attitude behavior consistency

References

Social influence
Bias
Conflict of interest

Vested interest (communication theory)


Johann Hedwig (n. 8 decembrie 1730, Brașov – d. 18 februarie 1799, Leipzig), și Johannes Hedwig sau latinizat ca Joannis Hedwig, a fost un profesor universitar, botanist, briolog, micolog, desenator de ilustrații botanice și medic transilvănean sas, cunoscut pentru studiile sale legate de mușchi, în special pentru observarea reproducerii sexuale a criptogamelor, fiind considerat fondatorul briologiei. Abrevierea numelui său în cărți științifice este Hedw..

Familie
Johann a fost fiul lui Jakob Hedwig (d. 1746), comerciant de vin și consilier orășenesc, căsătorit cu Agnetha Galles. A avut un frate, Jakob. Savantul a fost căsătorit de două ori, prima dată cu Sophie (1738-1776), fiica profesorului de teologie precum pastor al renumitei Thomaskirche din Leipzig (biserica Sf. Toma unde a acționat Johann Sebastian Bach) Romanus Teller (1703-1750) și a Wilhelmine Sophie Schütz, apoi, din 1778, cu Clara Benedicta Sultzberger (1751-1826). A avut 15 copii, între ei (din prima căsătorie) pe Romanus Adolf (1772-1806), și el profesor de botanică la Leipzig, mort din cauza unei infecții cu Febra tifoidă abdominală la vârsta de numai 34 de ani și pe Hedwig, măritată cu profesorul de filologie clasică al universității din oraș Christian Daniel Beck (1757-1832). Nepotul lui Hedwig, Johann Ludwig Wilhelm Beck (1786-1869), a fost profesor de drept la Universitatea Albertus din Königsberg. Doar doi fii si două fiice din cele două căsătorii l-au supraviețuit.

Biografie

Hedwig a absolvit școala elementară și, a fost primit apoi elev la  Liceul Johannes Honterus din Brașov, pe care la urmat până la vârsta de 17 ani. La scurt timp după moartea tatălui l-a însoțit pe căpitanul  imperial Horváth la Viena, schimbând apoi pentru 2 ani la liceul din Preßburg, totul plătit de mama sa. În sfârșit, s-a mutat pentru studiile de primire într-o academie pentru 3 ani la Zittau. În 1752 s-a înscris la Universitatea din Leipzig, unde a studiat medicina. A primit bacalaureatul medicinal (pe atunci o diplomă de medic) în 1756 cu lucratea De calore ut causa sanitatis ad rationes chemica examinata, iar, la 18 mai 1759, a luat doctoratul cu teza Dissertatio inauguralis de emesi in febribus acutis. În tot timpul studiilor medicinale a urmărit cu mare plăcere și cursurile de botanică, susținut în primul rând de profesorul Ernst Gottlob Bose (1723-1788), din 1773 rectorul universității, care, de asemenea, l-a ajuta să obțină "Stipendiul Walther" când a avut nevoie de un sprijin financiar.

După terminarea studiilor, s-a întors la Brașov. Când a vrut să deschidă un cabinet medical acolo, magistratul i-a pus obstacole, deoarece acest lucru era permis, conform legii, numai celora care obținuseră un doctorat la Universitatea din Viena. De aceea s-a întors la Leipzig, unde a publicat un tratat popular în limba germană, privind utilizarea emeticelor la febrele acute, bazând de fapt pe disertația sa din 1759. La sfatul unuia dintre prietenii săi, unui negustor din Chemnitz, s-a stabilit în acest oraș ca medic, unde a practicat pentru următorii douăzeci de ani. Acolo, pe lângă practica sa neproductivă, s-a ocupat cu investigarea plantelor criptogamice, în special a mușchilor, fiind sprijinit prietenos de Johann Christian von Schreber (1739-1810), pe acest timp un cunoscut profesor universitar pentru botanică în Erlangen, cu care intrase în corespondență. În 1779, Hedwig a publicat rezultatele cercetărilor sale într-o lucrare privind instrumentele reale de fertilizare a mușchilor, o carte neînregistrată în cataloagele de cărți, care, cum se spune, a fi fost similară, poate chiar identică cu faimoasa sa lucrare din 1784 (vezi mai jos). În acest scop a făcut colectări dimineața, înainte de muncă și apoi studiind ceea ce adunase seara. A achiziționat, de asemenea, un microscop și și-a aranjat o mică bibliotecă. Întrucât desenul s-a dovedit indispensabil pentru el în studiile sale, a început să-l practice la vârsta de deja 40 de ani, atingând o astfel de perfecțiune în înfățișarea mușchilor, încât ilustrațiile sale pe acest subiect sunt considerate până astăzi ca fiind cele mai bune în acest domeniu.

În 1781, s-a mutat, la sfatul soției sale, la Leipzig, pentru a-și îmbunătăți situația financiară. Acolo, a reușit să obțină o ocupare în spitalul municipal. Numai un an mai târziu, Hedwig a publicat opera sa în două volume Fundamentum historiae naturalis muscorum frondosorum, cu care și-a făcut un renume în lumea botaniștilor. Dar și mai prestigioasă a fost Theoria generationis et fructificationis plantarum cryptogamarum Linnaei, St. Petersburg 1784, scrisă pe inițiativa  Academiei Ruse de Științe și dotată cuun premiu de 100 ducați aur. În această carte (în combinație cu publicările din 1779 și 1782) l-a corectat pe faimosul savant Carl Linné tatăl ecologiei moderne. După ce Hedwig l-a tare venerat, și-a lăsat mult timp, analizând acribic sub microscop (cu o mărire de până la 290x) și desenând organele genitale adevărate ale mușchilor, pre-germenul lor și reproducerea lor prin semințe, pentru care a creat termenul nou "spori", valabil până în prezent (2020), observând și în mod direct germinarea sporilor și formarea protonemei. Linné, cunoscut drept "tatăl ecologiei moderne", a revoluționat sistemele botanicii și a zoologiei, dar nu a fost astfel de succes în domeniul criptogamelor. Astfel Hedwig a dovedit că părțile mușchilor, pe care Linné le-a ținut "flori feminine" sunt într-adevăr anteridii, adică gametangiul masculin, iar părțile pe care l-ea văzut masculine, arhegonul, gametangiul feminin, anume capsulele semințelor=sporilor, ce a dus la o reformă totală a criptogamiei. A cercetat și în domeniul sporofiților (generația diploidă în cadrul schimbului nuclid de generație), făcând observații utile asupra algelor, ciupercilor, lichenilor și ferigilor. Astfel, de exemplu a fost primul care a detectat că ascele speciilor din încrengătura Ascomycota poartă 8 spori în fiecare ască, denumindu-le Octospora, de exemplu Octospora bulbosa.

Datorită succeselor sale medicinale obținute la spitalul municipal, a fost numit profesor titular de medicină la Universitatea din Leipzig. După ce electorul Frederic Augustus al III-lea a fost un susținător și interesat înfocat al botanicii, l-a numit pe Hedwig, imediat după ce scaunul de botanică a devenit liber, și profesor titular de botanică în 1787 (după unii 1789), iar din 1789 director al grădinii botanice Leipzig. La sfatul savatului, electorul Saxoniei a amenajat bogata grădină botanică la , azi parte a capitalei Dresda. În plus, din 1791, a mai întreținut funcția de medic șef al spitalului Thomasspital.

În 1793, a fost din nou primul care a dovedit stomatele în fanerogame și le-a recunoscut funcția drept "deschideri de evaporare", a căror deschidere și închidere le-a observat. Opiniile corecte despre funcția  bulbilor de ceapă și a cotiledoanelor dovedesc, de asemenea, ochiul său pentru procesele fiziologice.

De asemenea, interesul său pentru problemele economice este documentat în cele 2 volume Sammlung seiner zerstreuten Abhandlungen und Beobachtungen über botanisch-ökonomische Gegenstände din 1793 și 1797, printre altele, în lucrările sale despre iernarea cerealelor, boala lipitorului la oi, cauzele făinării prin mană și irigarea pajiștilor cu apă de izvor.Johan Hedwig: "Sammlung seiner zerstreuten Abhandlungen und Beobachtungen über botanisch-ökonomische Gegenstände", vol. 2, Editura Siegfried Lebrecht Crusius, Leipzig 1797

Lucrarea sa de căpătâi, Species Muscorum Frondosorum a fost publicată postum, în 1801. Acesta descrie toate speciile de mușchi cunoscute pe atunci, și este punctul de pornire pentru nomenclatura tuturor mușchilor.

În sfârșit mai trebuie menționat că a fost și traducător a mai multor cărți științifice importante ca de exemplu:

-  Dr. Christian Gottlieb Ludwig: Einleitung in die Pathologie, Erlangen 1777 (din limba latină)

-  Karl Bonnet: Werke der natürlichen Geschichte und Philosophie, 4 volume,  Leipzig 1783-1785 (din limba franceză)

În domeniul botanicii, lucrările lui Johann Hedwig, anume descoperirile sale la ferigi, licheni și mușchi, despre capsulele lor de semințe și metoda de fertilizare, au fost epocale, iar clasificarea sa, pe care a derivat-o din forma și poziția caracteristică a instrumentelor de fertilizare, a fost nouă. Astfel briologul Samuel Elisée Bridel-Brideri (1761-1828)  a început încă în timpul vieții savantului publicarea cărții Muscologia recentiorum muscorum frondosorum cognitorum ad normam Hedwigii. Marele om de stiință a combinat o rară forță de muncă și perseverență cu o memorie excelentă, a lucrat neobosit în domeniul care i-a datorat descoperiri esențiale pentru timpul său, fiind rupt din ambițiile sale brusc prin moartea sa la vârstă de doar 68 de ani din cauza unei meningite declanșată în urma unei infecții cu tifos.

Referințe pentru biografie:Johann Daniel Hager: "Skizze zu Hedwigs Biographie" în: "Siebenbürgische Quartalschrift", nr. 7, Editura Martin Hochmeister, Hermannstadt (Sibiu) 1801, p. 218-224

 Onoruri
 Fellow of the Royal Society (1788)
 Membru extern al Academiei Regale Suedeze de Științe (1790)
 Membru al Academiei Leopoldine, (1792)
 Familia de mușchi Hedwigiaceae cu 5 genuri Schimp. (1856), genurile de mușchi Hedwigia P.Beauv. (1804) cu cel puțin 8 specii (H. czernyadjevae, H. ciliata, H. detonsa, H. emodica, H. filiformis, H. integrifolia, H. nemorensis, H. nivalis, H. stellata)Amalia B. Biasuso: "The Genus Hedwigia (Hedwigiaceae, Bryophyta) in Argentina", în: "Lindbergia", vol. 32, nr. 1, 2007, p. 5-17 și Hedwigidium  Bruch & Schimp. (1846) cu o specie (Hedwigidium imberbe).
 Jurnalul științific Hedwigia, fondat de renumitul botanist prusac Gottlob Ludwig Rabenhorst (1806-1881) în 1852, în prezent (din 1979) Nova Hedwigia, un jurnal internațional care publică articole originale, revizuite de către experți, cu privire la problemele actuale de taxonomie, morfologie, ultrastructură și ecologie a tuturor grupurilor de plante criptogamice, inclusiv cyanofite/cyanobacterii și ciuperci.
 Hedwig Medal ("Medalia Hedwig"), conferită din 1983 de International Association of Bryologists (IAB) la oameni de știință pentru contribuții extraordinare în domeniul briologiei.

 Publicații (selecție)

 Epistola de praecipitantiae in addiscenda medicina noxis, Leipzig, 1755
 De calore ut causa sanitatis ad rationes chemica examinata Leipzig, 1756, teză de baclaureat medicinal
 Dissertatio inauguralis de emesi in febribus acutis"", Leipzig 1759, teză de doctorat
 Fundamentum historiae naturalis muscorum frondosorum, 2 volume, Editura Siegfried Lebrecht Crusius, Leipzig 1782 ambele volume, cu 20 calcografii
 Theoria generationis et fructificationis plantarum cryptogamarum, Editura Academiae Imperii Scientiarum St. Petersburg 1784, reeditată în 1798 la Leipzig, Editura  ex officina Breitkopfio – Haerteliana , cu 37 calcografii (la reeditare: 42 calcografii)
 Stirpe cryptomanicae: Descriptio et adumbratio microscopico-analytica muscorum frondosorum nec non aliorum vegetantium e classe cryptogamica Linnaei novorum dubiisque vexatorum, 4 volume, Editura I. G. Müller, Leipzig 1787-1797, cu fiecare 40 de calcografii mari vol. 1-2
 Sammlung seiner zerstreuten Abhandlungen und Beobachtungen über botanisch-ökonomische Gegenstände, vol. 1, Editura Siegfried Lebrecht Crusius, Leipzig 1793
 Sammlung seiner zerstreuten Abhandlungen und Beobachtungen über botanisch-ökonomische Gegenstände, vol. 2, Editura Siegfried Lebrecht Crusius, Leipzig 1797
 Belehrung, die Pflanzen zu trocknen und zu ordnen, sie frisch nach dem Linné zu untersuchen und ein System ausfindig zu machen; für junge Botaniker, Gotha 1797
 Filicum genera et species 4 vol.., Editura Schaefer, Leipzig 1799-1803
 Christian Friedrich Schwägrichen (ed.): Ioannis Hedwig Species muscorum frondosorum 1 volum și 4 suplemente, Editura Johann Ambrosius Barth, Leipzig 1801-1842 Species muscorum frondosorum volumul principal

Note

Bibliografie
 Joseph Philippe François Deleuze: "Sur la vie et les ouvrages d'Hedwig", în: "Annales du Muséum d'histoire naturelle", vol. 2, partea 1, Editura Frères Levrault, Paris 1803, p. 392-408
 Joseph Philippe François Deleuze: "Sur la vie et les ouvrages d'Hedwig", în: "Annales du Muséum d'histoire naturelle", vol. 2, partea 2, Editura Frères Levrault, Paris 1803, p. 451-473
 Julius Römer:  "Siebenbürgisch-sächsische Charakterköpfe III: Johann Hedwig", în: Jurnalul lui Adolf "Die Karpathen", vol. 1, Editura Menschendörfer, Kronstadt (Brașov) 1907/08, p. 522-531
 Istvan Györffy: "Addimenta ad floram bryologicam Hungariae", în: "Revue bryologiquo", vol. 3, nr. 1, Paris 1930, p. 161-165
 Joseph Trausch: "Schriftsteller der Siebenbürger Deutschen", vol. II, Editura Gött, Kronstadt (Brașov) 1870, p. 83-92
 József Szinnyei: "Magyar írók élete és munkái", vol. IV, Editura Kiadja Hornyánszki, Budapesta 1896, p. 578-580
 Heinz Heltmann: "Von Honterus zu Oberth - Bedeutende siebenbürgisch-deutsche Naturwissenschaftler", Editura Techniker und Mediziner, București 1980, p. 66-95
 Karl Mägdefrau: "Geschichte der Botanik. Leben und Leistung grosser Forscher", Editura Fischer, Stuttgart 1992, ISBN 3-437-20489-0

Legături externe

 Seria jurnalului Nova Hedwigia

Nașteri în 1730
Nașteri pe 8 decembrie
Decese în 1799
Decese pe 18 februarie
Biologi din secolul al XVIII-lea
Botaniști cu abreviere de autor
Profesori universitari
Briologi
Medici
Micologi germani
Membri ai Academiei Leopoldine
Fellows of the Royal Society
Membri ai Academiei Regale Suedeze
Scriitori de limbă latină
Brașoveni

Johann Hedwig


Hoya schallertiae er fjölær jurt í vaxblómaættkvísl.  Útbreiðslan er á Filippseyjum.

Tilvísanir

Vaxblómaættkvísl

Hoya schallertiae


Enosis 1930'lu senelerde Birleşik Krallık idaresinde bulunan Kıbrıs adasının "Yunanistan'a bağlanması" anlamında kullanılmıştır. Genel anlamı ise politika açısından "bir ülkenin sınırlarına dahil olma, birleşme" anlamına gelmektedir.

Sözlük anlamı
Yunanca olan Enosis (Ένωσις) kelimesi birleşme, ilhak demektir.

Enosis terimi
"Enosis" terimi Balkan Savaşları'nda Girit'in Yunanistan Krallığı'na ilhakı sırasında da kullanılmıştır. Genel anlamda terim, politika açısından "bir ülkenin sınırlarına dahil olma, birleşme, ilhak" anlamına gelmektedir.

Tarih
25 Mart 1921 tarihinde Güzelyurt'un Serhatköy adındaki köyünde Rum halkının önde gelenleri, Kıbrıs adasının Yunanistan'a ilhakını isteyen bir plebisit yaptılar. Birleşik Krallık yönetimine başvuruldu ama bu istek direkt reddedildi. 1925 tarihinden sonra ise durum kızıştı ve Türk-Rum çatışmaları yaşanmaya başladı. Kıbrıslı Rumlar anavatan gördükleri Yunanistan ile birleşmek amacıyla ortaya attıkları bu fikir sayesinde, Birleşik Krallık idaresine karşı ilk ayaklanmalarını 21 Ekim 1931 tarihinde Nikodimos Milanos önderliğinde başlattılar. Bu isyan sonucunda 6 kişi hayatını kaybetti ve çok sayıda insanın yaralanmasına neden oldu. Lefkoşa'daki hükûmet binası göstericiler tarafından yakıldı.

Ayrıca bakınız

 Taksim

Kaynakça

Avrupa'da milliyetçi hareketler
Asya'da milliyetçi hareketler
EOKA
Kıbrıs Sorunu
İrredantizm

Enosis


Refik Halid Karay (15 Mart 1888, İstanbul – 18 Temmuz 1965, İstanbul), Türk yazar.

Hayatı
Bolu Mudurnu'dan İstanbul'a göçen Karakayış ailesinden Maliye Başveznedarı Mehmed Halid Bey'in oğlu olarak 15 Mart 1888'de İstanbul Beylerbeyi'nde doğdu. Galatasaray Sultanisi'nde ve Hukuk Mektebi'nde okudu. Maliye Nezareti'nde (Hazine ve Maliye Bakanlığı) memur olarak çalıştı.

II. Meşrutiyet'in ilanından sonra gazetecilik ile uğraşmaya başladı. 1909 yılında girdiği Tercüman-ı Hakikat gazetesinde mütercimlik ve muhabirlik yaptı. Tercüman-ı Hakikat gazetesinde çalışırken, Son Havadis gazetesini kurdu.

Fecriâtî topluluğuna katıldı ve "Kirpi" imzasıyla mizah dergisi Kalem'e yazılar yazmaya başladı. Eşref dergisine zamanın edebiyatçıları üstüne portreler, tanıtma yazıları yazdı. Cem dergisinde hem başyazarlık, hem de yine "Kirpi" imzası ile mizah yazarlığı yaptı.

Hürriyet ve İtilaf Fırkası'na üye oldu. Aydede adlı siyasi mizah dergisini çıkarmaya başladı. Hürriyet ve İtilaf Fırkası iktidara gelince, 1912'de Beyoğlu Belediye Başkatibi oldu. [İttihatçılar] yeniden iktidarı alınca yazıları yüzünden 1913'te önce Sinop'a sürüldü, daha sonra Çorum, Ankara ve Bilecik'e gönderildi.

İstanbul'a dönünce bir süre Robert Kolej'de Türkçe öğretmenliği,Yeni Mecmua'da yazarlık yaptı. Hürriyet ve İtilaf Fırkası Genel Merkezi'nde görev aldı. 1919'da Posta Telgraf Umum Müdürlüğü'ne atandı.

Alemdar, Peyam-ı Sabah gazetelerinde ve Aydede dergisinde İstiklal Savaşı aleyhine yazdığı yazılardan ötürü vatan hainliğiyle suçlandı, Yüzellilikler listesine alındı ve 1922'de Yüzelliliklerle birlikte yurt dışına çıkarıldı. Uzun süre Beyrut ve Halep'te sürgün yaşadı. Mustafa Kemal Atatürk'e yazdığı şiir ve mektuplarla, Yüzellilikler listesindekilerin affedilmesinde önemli rol oynadı. 16 senelik sürgün hayatının ardından 1938'de çıkarılan af kanunundan yararlandı ve aynı yılın Temmuz ayında yurda döndü. Başta Tan olmak üzere, gazetelerde hikâye, roman ve fıkralar yayımladı. 1948-1949 yıllarında, Aydede dergisini tekrar çıkardı.

18 Temmuz 1965'te İstanbul'da vefat eden Karay, Zincirlikuyu Mezarlığı'na defnedildi.

Türk Edebiyatındaki Yeri
Refik Halid, Türk edebiyatında ilk defa Anadolu'yu tanıtan eserleri ile ismini duyurmuş, yergi ve mizah türündeki yazıları ile de üne kavuşmuştur. Gözleme dayanan eserlerinde tasvirler, portreler ve benzetmeler kullanarak güçlü tekniği, sade ve akıcı dili ile 20. yüzyıl romancıları arasında seçkin bir yere sahip olmuştur. İstanbul'u bütün renk ve çizgileriyle yansıtan ve Türkçeyi ustalıkla kullanan Refik Halid, Türk edebiyatına birçok eser kazandırmıştır.

Fecriâtî topluluğunda dönemde ve sonrasında özentiden uzak, açık, terkipsiz (tamlamasız) bir dille yazmayı benimsemiştir. Memleket Hikâyeleri gerçekçi edebiyat akımının başlıca örneklerinden sayılmıştır.

Seyit Kemal Karaalioğlu onu şöyle tarif eder: Refik Halit Karay; «Yeni Lisan» akımının tutunmasında önemli payı bulunan, konuşma dilini yazılarında büyük bir ustalıkla uygulayan bir yazardır. Hikâyelerinde ve romanlarında renkli bir görgü ve gözlem zenginliği göze çarpar. Romanlarında, çoğunlukla aile üstünde durur. Hiçbir belli teze bağlanmaksızın, sağlam bir teknikle, başarılı çevre tasvirleri içerisinde nefis bir üslupla olayları anlatır. Ağır fikre, derin çözümlemelere, tezli saplantılara girmeden, «ak realizm» diyebileceğimiz bir görüşle yazardır.

Eserleri

Roman
 İstanbul'un Bir Yüzü (1920)
 Ay Peşinde (1922)
 Yezidin Kızı (1939)
 Çete (1940)
 Sürgün (1941)
 Anahtar (1949)
 Bu Bizim Hayatımız (1950)
 Nilgün (3 cilt, 1950-1961)
 Yeraltında Dünya Var (1953)
 Dişi Örümcek (1953)
 Bugünün Saraylısı (1954)
 İki Bin Yılın Sevgilisi (1954)
 İki Cisimli Kadın (1955)
 Kadınlar Tekkesi (1956)
 Karlı Dağdaki Ateş (1956)
 Dört Yapraklı Yonca (1957)
 Sonuncu Kadeh (1965)
 Yerini Seven Fidan (1977)
 Ekmek Elden Su Gölden (1980)
 Ayın On Dördü (1980)
 Yüzen Bahçe (1981)
Oyunlar
 Kanije Müdafaası (1909)
 Deli (1939)

Hikâye
 Memleket Hikâyeleri (1919)
 Gurbet Hikâyeleri (1940)
 Mizah
 Sakın Aldanma, İnanma, Kanma (1915)
 Kirpinin Dedikleri (1916)
 Ago Paşa'nın Hatırı (1918)
 Ay Peşinde (1918)
 Tanıdıklarım
 Guguklu Saat (1922)
 Deli (1939)
Günlük
 Bir İçim Su (1939)
 Bir Avuç Saçma (1940)
 İlk Adım
 Üç Nesil Üç Hayat (1943)
 Makyajlı Kadın
 Tanrı'ya Şikâyet
Anı
 Minelbab İlelmihrab

Ayrıca bakınız
 MEB 100 Türk Edebiyatçısı

Kaynakça

1888 doğumlular
İstanbul doğumlu yazarlar
1965 yılında ölenler
Türk yazarlar
Türk liberaller
20. yüzyıl Türk roman yazarları
Posta ve Telgraf nâzırları
Yüzellilikler
Zincirlikuyu Mezarlığı'na defnedilenler
İstanbul'da ölenler
20. yüzyıl Türk gazetecileri
Türk mizah yazarları
Galatasaray Lisesinde öğrenim görenler
İstanbul Üniversitesi Hukuk Fakültesinde öğrenim görenler
Osmanlı devlet görevlileri

Refik Halit Karay


Chad Guy Bertrand le Clos () este un înotător sud-african laureat cu trei medalii olimpice, inclusiv una de aur, din două participări la Jocurile Olimpice: Londra 2012 și Rio de Janeiro 2016. A fost și triplu campion mondial în 2013 și 2015.

Carieră
Primul sport pe care l-a practicat a fost fotbal. S-a apucat de înotul de performanță din copilărie și a luat parte la prima sa competiție la vârsta de zece ani. A fost inspirat de performanța lui Michael Phelps la Jocurile Olimpice din 2008 de la Beijing să se specialize în stilul fluture.

El a ajuns la cel mai înalt nivel la Jocurile Commonwealth-ului din 2010, unde a cucerit două medalii de aur, una de argint și două medalii de bronz. A cucerit titlul la proba de 200 m fluture și la cea de 400 m fluture, doborând  și recordul Jocurilor la aceste probe.

La Jocurile Olimpice din 2012 a creat surpriză, cucerind medalia de aur la proba de 200 m fluture cu 0,05 secundă avans față de Michael Phelps. Câteva zile mai târziu, a obținut argintul pe distanța de 100 m, fiind depășit de Phelps de dată asta.

În 2013, după ce Phelps s-a retras, a devenit campion mondial în bazin lung atât la 100 m fluture, cât și la 200 m fluture. Un an mai târziu, Phelps s-a razgandit, explicând că proba de fluture nu era "chiar atât de repede". La Campionatul Mondial din 2015, în absența lui Michael Phelps, Le Clos și-a aparat titlul mondial la proba de 100 m fluture cu timpul de 50,56 s, stabilind un nou record african. A declarat în presă: "Acum [Michael Phelps] poate tace din gură." A fost depășit de ungurul László Cseh pe distanța de 200 m și s-a mulțumit cu argintul.

La Jocurile Olimpice din 2016 de la Rio de Janeiro, a obținut medalia de aur la proba de 200 m stil liber. În proba de 200 m fluture s-a clasat pe locul 4, Michael Phelps cucerind medalia de aur.

Referințe

Legături externe

  Site-ul oficial
  Profil la Comitetul Olimpic Internațional
  Profil  la Federația Internațională de Natație (FINA)

Înotători sud-africani
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