The Centurion was the primary British Army main battle tank of the post-World War II period. Introduced in 1945, it is widely considered to be one of the most successful post-war tank designs, remaining in production into the 1960s, and seeing combat into the 1980s. The chassis was adapted for several other roles, and these variants have remained in service. It was a very popular tank with good armour, mobility, and a powerful main armament.

Development of the Centurion began in 1943 with manufacture beginning in January 1945. Six prototypes arrived in Belgium less than a month after the war in Europe ended in May 1945. It entered combat with the British Army in the Korean War in 1950 in support of the UN forces. The Centurion later served on the Indian side in the Indo-Pakistani War of 1965, where it fought against US-supplied M47 and M48 Patton tanks, and it served with the Royal Australian Armoured Corps in the Vietnam War.

Israel's army used Centurions in the 1967 Six-Day War, the 1973 Yom Kippur War, the 1978 South Lebanon conflict, and the 1982 Lebanon War. Centurions modified as armoured personnel carriers were used in Gaza, the West Bank and on the Lebanese border. The Royal Jordanian Land Force used Centurions, first in 1970 to fend off a Syrian incursion within its borders during the Black September events and later in the Golan Heights in 1973. South Africa deployed its Centurions in Angola during the South African Border War.

The Centurion became one of the most widely used tank designs, equipping dozens of armies around the world, with some in service until the 1990s. In the 2006 Israel–Lebanon conflict the Israel Defense Forces employed modified Centurions as armoured personnel carriers and combat engineering vehicles. The South African National Defence Force still employs over 170 Centurions, which were modernised in the 1980s and 2000s as the  (elephant).

Between 1946 and 1962, 4,423 Centurions were produced, consisting of 13 basic marks and numerous variants. In the British Army it was replaced by the Chieftain.

Development
In 1943, the Directorate of Tank Design, under Sir Claude Gibb, was asked to produce a new design for a heavy cruiser tank under the General Staff designation A41. After a series of fairly mediocre designs in the A series in the past, and bearing in mind the threat posed by the German 88 mm gun, the War Office demanded a major revision of the design requirements, specifically: increased durability and reliability, the ability to withstand a direct hit from the German 88 mm gun and providing greater protection against mines. Initially in September 1943 the A41 tank was to weigh no more than , the limit for existing Mark I and Mark II transport trailers and for a Bailey bridge of  span. The British railway loading gauge required that the width should not exceed  and the optimum width was , but, critically, for the new tank this restriction had been lifted by the War Office under pressure from the Department of Tank Design. A high top speed was not important, while agility was to be equal to that of the Comet. A high reverse speed was specified, as during the fighting in southern Italy, Allied tanks were trapped in narrow sunken roads by the German Army. The modified production gearbox had a two-speed reverse, with the higher reverse speed similar to second gear.

The Department produced a larger hull by replacing the long-travel five-wheel Christie suspension used on the Comet with a six wheel Horstmann suspension, and extending the spacing between the second and third wheels. The Christie suspension, with vertical spring coils between side armour plates, was replaced by a Horstmann suspension with three horizontally sprung, externally mounted two-wheel bogies on each side. The Horstmann design did not offer the same ride quality as the Christie system, but took up less room and was easier to maintain. In case of damage by mines, individual suspension and wheel units could be replaced relatively easily. The hull was redesigned with welded, sloped armour and featured a partially cast turret with the highly regarded 17 pounder (76.2 mm/3-inch) as the main gun and a 20 mm Polsten cannon in an independent mounting to its left. With a Rover-built Rolls-Royce Meteor engine, as used on the Comet and Cromwell, the new design would have excellent performance.

But even before the Outline Specification of the A41 was released in October 1943, these limits were removed, and the weight was increased from 40 tons to , because of the need for heavier armour and a wider turret (too wide for the tank to be transported by rail) with a more powerful gun. The new version carried armour equal to the heaviest infantry tanks, while improved suspension and engines provided cross-country performance superior to even the early cruiser tanks. The War Office decided it would be wiser to build new trailers, rather than hamper what appeared to be a superb design. Historian David Fletcher states, "But was Centurion, after all, a Universal Tank? The answer has to be a qualified negative."
The design mockup, built by AEC Ltd, was viewed in May 1944. Subsequently, twenty pilot models were ordered with various armament combinations: ten with a 17 pounder and a 20 mm Polsten gun (of which half had a Besa machine gun in the turret rear and half an escape door), five with a 17-pounder, a forward Besa machine gun and an escape door, and five with a QF 77 mm gun and a driver-operated hull machine gun.

Prototypes of the original 40-ton design, the Centurion Mark I, had 76 mm of armour in the front glacis, which was thinner than that on the then current infantry tanks (the Churchill), which had 101 mm or 152 mm on the Churchill Mk VII and VIII being produced at the time. However, the glacis plate was highly sloped, and so the effective thickness of the armour was very high—a design feature shared by other effective designs, such as the German Panther tank and Soviet T-34. The turret was well armoured at 152 mm. The tank was also highly mobile, and easily outperformed the Comet in most tests. The uparmoured Centurion Mark II soon arrived; it had a new 118 mm-thick glacis and the side and rear armour had been increased from 38 mm to 51 mm. Only a handful of Mk I Centurions had been produced when the Mk II replaced it on the production lines. Full production began in November 1945 with an order for 800 on production lines at Leyland Motors, Lancashire the Royal Ordnance Factories ROF Leeds and Royal Arsenal, and Vickers at Elswick. The tank entered service in December 1946 with the 5th Royal Tank Regiment.

Continued development

Soon after the Centurion's introduction, Royal Ordnance finished work on the 84 mm calibre Ordnance QF 20 pounder tank gun. With this, the Centurion went through another upgrade to mount the 20-pounder. By this point, the usefulness of the 20 mm Polsten had been called into question, it being unnecessarily large for use against troops, so it was replaced with a Besa machine gun in a completely cast turret. The new Centurion Mark III also featured a fully automatic stabilisation system for the gun, allowing it to fire accurately while on the move, dramatically improving battlefield performance. Production of the Mk 3 began in 1948. The Mk 3 proved substantially more capable than prior variants, resulting in the earlier designs being removed from service as soon as the new Mk 3s became available, and existing tanks were then either converted into the Centurion armoured recovery vehicle (ARV) Mark 1 for use by the Royal Electrical and Mechanical Engineers or upgraded to Mk 3 standard. Improvements introduced with the Mk 3 included a more powerful version of the engine and a new gun sight and gun stabiliser.

The 20 pounder gun was used until the Royal Ordnance Factories introduced the 105 mm L7 gun in 1959. All later variants of the Centurion, from Mark 5/2 on, used the L7.

Design work for the Mk 7 was completed in 1953, with production beginning soon afterwards. One disadvantage of earlier versions was the limited range, initially just  on hard roads, hence external auxiliary tanks and then a "monowheel" trailer were used. But the Mk7 had a third fuel tank inside the hull, giving a range of . Additionally, it was found possible to put the Centurion on some European rail routes with their larger loading gauges.

The Centurion was used as the basis for a range of specialist equipment, including combat engineering variants with a 165 mm demolition gun Armoured Vehicle Royal Engineers (AVRE). It is one of the longest-serving designs of all time, serving as a battle tank for the British and Australian armies from the Korean War (1950–1953) to the Vietnam War (1961–1972), and as an AVRE during Operation Desert Storm in January–February 1991.

Production
The development cost of Centurion did not exceed £5 million. The cost of a Centurion tank was £35,000 in 1950, but had risen to £38,000 in 1952. Of this, "the gun control equipment costs £1,600, and the actual gadget that works the stabiliser only £100." By comparison, during World War II a Covenanter tank cost the British Government £12,000, a Crusader tank cost £13,700, a Matilda tank cost £18,000, and a Valentine tank £14,900; in 1967 a Chieftain tank cost between £90,000 and £95,000, and in 1984 a Challenger 1 tank cost £1.5 million.  In 1955, Sir Edward Boyle (the Parliamentary Secretary to the Minister of Supply) told the House of Commons that "the cost of the Centurion tank has been coming down recently as production has settled into its stride."

Service history

Korean War
On 14 November 1950, the British Army's 8th King's Royal Irish Hussars, equipped with three squadrons (64 tanks) of Centurion Mk 3, landed in Pusan. The first recorded Centurion kill occurred near Seoul against a North Korean captured Cromwell tank. Operating in sub-zero temperatures, the 8th Hussars learnt the rigors of winter warfare: their tanks had to be parked on straw to prevent the steel tracks from freezing to the ground. Engines had to be started every half-hour, with each gear being engaged in turn to prevent them from being frozen into place. During the Battle of the Imjin River, Centurions won lasting fame when they covered the withdrawal of the 29th Brigade, with the loss of five tanks, most later recovered and repaired. In 1952, Centurions of the 5th Royal Inniskilling Dragoon Guards were also involved in the Second Battle of the Hook where they played a significant role in repelling Chinese attacks. Centurions of the 1st Royal Tank Regiment participated in the Third Battle of the Hook repelling the PLA and also were involved in the Battle of the Samichon River in 1953. In a tribute to the 8th Hussars, General John O'Daniel, commanding the US 1st Corps, stated: "In their Centurions, the 8th Hussars have evolved a new type of tank warfare. They taught us that anywhere a tank can go, is tank country: even the tops of mountains." The lack of pintle-mounted machine guns on the turret meant that the Centurion was only able to fire in one direction and so was vulnerable to infantry attacks.

Deployment in Western Europe

By early 1952, with the Cold War heating up, NATO needed modern heavy tanks to meet the T-34 versions with the Warsaw Pact countries, and to deter Soviet forces by stationing them with the BAOR in West Germany, where the French had just the light AMX-13, and the Germans had none. America was keen to have Centurions supplied to Denmark and the Netherlands under the Mutual Defence Assistance Program, as production of the M48 Patton would not start until April 1952. A Mk 3 cost £31,000 or £44,000 with ammunition. The Royal Canadian Armoured Corps deployed a regiment of Centurions to Germany to support the Canadian Brigade.

Suez Crisis
During the Suez Crisis, British ground commander General Sir Hugh Stockwell believed that methodical and systematic armoured operations centred on the Centurion would be the key to victory.

The Egyptians destroyed Port Said's Inner Harbour, which forced the British to improvise and use the Fishing Harbour to land their forces. The 2nd Brigade of the Parachute Regiment landed by ship in the harbour. Centurions of the British 6th Royal Tank Regiment were landed and by 12:00 they had reached the French paratroopers. While the British were landing at Port Said, the men of the 2 RPC at Raswa fought off Egyptian counter-attacks featuring SU-100 tank destroyers.

After establishing themselves in a position in downtown Port Said, 42 Commando headed down the Shari Muhammad Ali, the main north–south road to link up with the French forces at the Raswa bridge and the Inner Basin lock. While doing so, the Marines also took Port Said's gasworks. Meanwhile, 40 Commando supported by the Royal Tank Regiment remained engaged in clearing the downtown of Egyptian snipers. Lieutenant Colonel Norman Tailyour arranged for more reinforcements to be brought in via helicopter.

Vietnam War

In 1967, the Royal Australian Armoured Corps' (RAAC), 1st Armoured Personnel Carrier (APC) Squadron transferred to "A" Squadron, 3rd Cavalry Regiment in South Vietnam. Although they successfully conducted combat operations in their areas of operations, reports from the field stated that their lightly-armoured M113A1 armoured personnel carriers were unable to force their way through dense jungle limiting their offensive actions against enemy forces. The Australian government, under criticism in Parliament, decided to send a squadron of Australian Centurion tanks to South Vietnam. The 20-pdr armed Australian Centurions of 'C' Squadron, 1st Armoured Regiment landed in South Vietnam on 24 February 1968, being headquartered at Nui Dat in III Corps (MR3).

Colonel Donald Dunstan, later to be governor of South Australia, was the deputy task force commander of the 1st Australian Task Force (1 ATF) in South Vietnam. Dunstan had quite possibly been the last Australian to use tanks and infantry in a combined operation during the Second World War, (as part of the Bougainville campaign), and the first since the war to command Australia's tanks and infantry in combat. When he temporarily took over command during Brigadier Ronald Hughes's absence, he directed that the Centurions be brought up from Nui Dat to reinforce firebases Coral and Balmoral, believing that they were a strong element that were not being used. Besides adding a great deal of firepower, Dunstan stated, he "couldn't see any reason why they [the Centurions] shouldn't be there". His foresight enabled 1 ATF to kill approximately 267 soldiers from the 141st and 165th North Vietnamese Army Regiments during the six-week-long Battle of Coral–Balmoral in May 1968, as well as capturing 11 prisoners, 36 crew-served weapons, 112 small arms, and other miscellaneous enemy weapons.

After the Battle of Coral-Balmoral, a third Centurion troop, which included two tankdozers, was formed. By September 1968, 'C' Squadron was brought to its full strength of four troops, each equipped with four Centurion tanks. By 1969, 'B' Squadron, 3rd Cavalry; 'A' Squadron, 1st Armoured Regiment; 'B' Squadron, 1st Armoured Regiment; and 'C' Squadron, 1st Armoured Regiment, had all made rotations through South Vietnam. Originally deployed as 26 Centurion tanks, after three and a half years of combat operations, 58 Centurions had served in country; 42 had suffered battle damage with six beyond repair and two crewmen had been killed in action.

The Centurion crews, after operating for a few weeks in country, soon learned to remove the protective armoured side skirts from both sides of the tank, to prevent the vegetation and mud from building up between the track and the mudguards. Each Centurion in Vietnam normally carried a basic load of 62 rounds of 20 pounder shells, 4,000 rounds of .50 cal and 9,000 rounds of .30 cal machine gun ammunition for the tank commander's machine gun as well as the two coaxial machine guns. They were equipped with petrol engines, which necessitated the use of an extra externally mounted  fuel tank, which was attached to the vehicle's rear.

Indo-Pakistani wars

In 1965, the bulk of India's tank fleet was older M4 Sherman tanks, but India also had Centurion Mk.7 tanks, with the 20 pounder gun, and also AMX-13 and M3 Stuart light tanks. The Centurion Mk.7 at that time was one of the most modern western tanks.

The offensive of Pakistan's 1st Armoured Division was blunted at the Battle of Asal Uttar on 10 September. Six Pakistani armoured regiments were opposed by three Indian armoured regiments. One of these regiments, 3 Cavalry, fielded 45 Centurion tanks. The Centurion, with its 20-pounder gun and heavy armour, proved to be more than a match for the M47 and M48 Pattons. On the other side, when Pakistani Army armoured division primary composed of M47 and M48 Pattons, they proved to be able to penetrate only a few of the Centurion tanks, as witnessed in the Battle of Chawinda in the Sialkot sector. A post-war US study of the tank battles in South Asia concluded that the Patton's armour could, in fact, be penetrated by the 20-pounder tank gun (84 mm) of the Centurion (later replaced by the even-more successful L7 105 mm gun on the Mk. 7 version which India also possessed) as well as the 75 mm tank gun of the AMX-13 light tank.

In 1971, at the Battle of Basantar, an armoured division and an armoured brigade of the Pakistani I Corps confronted two armoured brigades of the Indian I Corps, which had Centurion tanks. This resulted in a substantial tank battle, between the American-built tanks of the Pakistani Army and the Indian Army's mixture of Soviet T-55s and British Centurions. Casualties were heavily skewed against the Pakistani force, with 46 tanks destroyed.

Middle East

The first country which bought Centurion tanks was Egypt. The first tanks were received in 1950. Israel's formerly British Centurions were first delivered in 1959. Differing varieties of the Centurion were bought by Israel over the years from many different countries or captured in combat. Following their acquisition the Israelis quickly upgraded the tanks with British 105 mm L7 instead of the original 20-pounder main gun and renamed them Sho't ("scourge" or "whip").

When the Six-Day War broke out in 1967, the Israel Defense Forces (IDF) had 293 Centurion / Sho't tanks that were ready for combat out of a total of 385 tanks. In Sinai, Egypt had 30 Centurion tanks. All 30 Egyptian tanks were destroyed or captured by Israel during the conflict. Israel also captured about 30 Jordanian Centurion tanks from a total of 90 in Jordanian service. 25 tanks were abandoned in Hebron by the 10th Jordanian Independent Tank Regiment.

All Sho't tanks were upgraded with the more efficient Continental AVDS-1790-2A diesel engine (also used in the M48 and the M60 tanks) and an Allison CD850-6 transmission from 1970 to 1974. The upgraded version were named Sho't Kal Alef and were followed by three additional sub-variants called Bet, Gimel and Dalet according to the upgrades added. The upgrades included thicker armour, new turret rotating mechanism, new gun stabiliser, improved ammunition layout with more rounds and increased fuel capacity. A modern fire control system, an improved fire extinguisher system, better electrical system and brakes, and the capability of installing reactive armour completed the modifications. They had American radios and either the original 7.62 mm calibre MG on the commander's cupola or a 12.7 mm calibre HMG. The Sho't Kal could be distinguished from the Centurion by its raised rear deck, to accommodate the bigger engine.

The Sho't Kal version of Centurion earned its legendary status during the Battle of "The Valley of Tears" on the Golan Heights in the 1973 Yom Kippur War. 105 Sho't Kal tanks of the 7th Armoured Brigade and 20 Sho't tanks of the 188th Brigade defeated the advance of some 500 Syrian T-55s and T-62s and the Sho't Kal became emblematic of Israeli armour's prowess. During the entire war, 1,063 Israeli tanks were disabled (more than half of them Centurions), about 600 of which were completely destroyed or captured. Some 35 Israeli Centurions were captured by Egypt, dozens more were captured by Syria, Iraq and four by Jordan. On the other hand, 2,250 Arab tanks were disabled (including 33 Jordanian Centurions, 18 of them destroyed), 1,274 of them were completely destroyed or captured (643 tanks were lost in the north and 631 were lost in the south). After the war, to replace Israeli losses, the United States delivered 200 M60 and M48 tanks and the United Kingdom delivered 400 Centurion tanks to Israel.

Sho't Kal tanks with Blazer reactive armour package were used in the 1982 invasion of Lebanon. During the war, 21 Centurion tanks were knocked out, 8 of them were destroyed.

The Israelis started to retire the Sho't Kal during the 1980s and they were completely retired during the 1990s. Most of them were converted to Nagmasho't, Nagmachon, and Nakpadon (heavy armoured personnel carriers or Infantry Fighting Vehicles) and Puma armoured engineering vehicles.

British use of Centurion AVREs
In 1972 during Operation Motorman in Northern Ireland, 165mm-armed Armoured Vehicle Royal Engineers (AVREs) with dozer blades were used to destroy barricades set up by the IRA in Northern Ireland. The 165mm demolition guns were pointed to the rear and covered up.

During Operation Desert Storm in 1991, 12 FV4003 Centurion Mk5 AVREs were deployed with 32 Armoured Engineer Regiment as part of British operations during the campaign. Three were lost in training in two separate incidents involving vehicle fires and detonation of munitions. One AVRE was destroyed on 5 February 1991 and two were destroyed in a second incident the next day. Four minor injuries were sustained. No AVRES saw action during the operation.

Jordan

Fifty Centurions were purchased by Jordan between 1954 and 1956 and by 1967 about 90 Centurions were in service. The Jordanian Army used its Centurion tanks in the Six-Day War. In 1967, the 10th Independent Tank Regiment was equipped with 44 Centurion Mk.V tanks armed with 20pdr guns, but was initially deployed on East Bank. Later, the unit was moved urgently to the Hebron area, in West Bank, in order to link with the supposed Egyptian advance. Some Centurion tanks were destroyed and about 30 captured by the Israeli Army. Israelis entering Hebron captured 25 Jordanian Centurion tanks. The Royal Guards Brigade had one regiment that was also equipped with Centurions.

After the 1967 war, the army was rearmed and more Centurion tanks were purchased.

In September 1970 (Black September) Jordan used Centurions of the 40th Armoured Brigade against invading Syrian T-55 tanks. Jordan lost 75 to 90 tanks out of 200 involved. Most of them were destroyed by Syrian tank fire at ar-Ramtha. But some of them were destroyed by the PLO in Amman.
Palestinians used captured Centurion tanks against the Jordanian army.

In 1972, Centurion tanks were reequipped with 105 mm guns. During the Yom Kippur War, the Jordanian 40th Armoured Brigade was deployed in the Golan front to support Syrian troops and show King Hussein's concern for Arab solidarity. The 40th Armoured Brigade moved northward towards Sheikh Meskin, but its counterattack was uncoordinated and largely ineffective as the Israelis were in prepared defensive positions.

In 1982–1985, 293 surviving Centurions of the Jordanian Army were refitted with the diesel engine and transmission of the M60A1 tank in place of the original Meteor petrol engine, Belgian SABCA computerised fire-control system, which incorporated a laser range-finder and passive night sight for the gunner, Cadillac Gage electro-hydraulic turret drive and stabilisation system and a new Teledyne Continental hydropneumatic suspension in place of the Horstmann units. These upgraded vehicles were called the Tariq. After retirement from service with the arrival of ex-British Challenger tanks in the late 1990s, several Tariqs were converted into heavy APCs (Dawsar).

South Africa

South Africa ordered 203 Centurion Mk 3 tanks from the United Kingdom in 1953. The South African Centurions entered service between 1955 and 1958, and included about 17 armoured recovery vehicles. South Africa's major strategic priorities at the time revolved around assisting the British Armed Forces and other member states of the Commonwealth of Nations during a conventional war in the Middle East or Anglophone Africa. The Centurions were procured specifically because they were compatible with Commonwealth tank tactics and pre-existing British armoured formations.

Following South Africa's withdrawal from the Commonwealth in 1961, its priorities shifted toward internal security and diversifying national arms procurement outside traditional suppliers such as the United Kingdom. To that end, 100 Centurion Mk 3s and 10 Centurion-based recovery vehicles were sold off to Switzerland in 1961. The remaining Centurions were largely relegated to reserve roles as a result of maintenance problems compounded by parts shortages and a tendency to overheat in the hot African climate. In 1972, the South African Army retrofitted some of its Centurions with the engines and transmission of American-made M48 Patton tanks in an attempt to improve technical performance. The upgraded Centurions were designated Skokiaan and proved unpopular due to their high fuel consumption and poor operating range.

Tanks reentered the mainstream of South African military doctrine in 1975, following Operation Savannah, which saw the lightly armoured South African forces in Angola threatened by large formations of Soviet tanks supplied to the People's Armed Forces for the Liberation of Angola (FAPLA) and their Cuban allies. Operation Savannah was followed by further modifications and trials under Project Semel, and the South African government was obliged to finance the creation of a new private sector enterprise, the Olifant Manufacturing Company (OMC), to refurbish the Centurions. During this period South Africa managed to restore its tank fleet to its original size by purchasing a number of surplus Centurion hulls from Jordan and India. The passage of United Nations Security Council Resolution 418, which imposed a mandatory arms embargo on the country, forced South Africa to purchase the hulls without turrets or armament. OMC upgraded each Centurion with a 29-litre Continental turbocharged diesel engine and a new transmission adopted from the M60 Patton. The refurbished Centurions were also armed with a South African variant of the Royal Ordnance L7 105 mm main gun. They were accepted into service with the South African Armoured Corps as the Olifant Mk1A in 1985.

South African expeditionary forces clashed with FAPLA T-54/55 tanks during Operation Askari in late 1983 and early 1984; however, due to the enormous logistical commitment needed to keep the Olifants operational so far from conventional repair facilities, they were not deployed. At length the South African mechanised infantry, bolstered by Eland and Ratel-90 armoured car squadrons, succeeded in destroying the tanks on their own, although severe delays were encountered due to their lack of adequate anti-tank weaponry. Morale also suffered when inexperienced armoured car crews were ordered to take on the Angolan T-54/55s in their vulnerable vehicles. Criticism in this regard led to the deployment of a single squadron of thirteen Olifant Mk1As to the Angolan border, where they were attached to the 61 Mechanised Battalion Group. Following the Lusaka Accords, which effectively ensured a ceasefire between South Africa and Angola, these Olifants were placed into storage and the tank crews rotated out.

The collapse of the Lusaka Accords and the subsequent launch of Operation Moduler in late 1987 led to the Olifant squadron being reactivated on the direct orders of South African State President P.W. Botha. On 9 November 1987 the Olifants destroyed two Angolan T-55s during a heated nine-minute skirmish. This marked the first occasion South African tanks had been sent into battle since World War II. Throughout Operation Moduler, South African forces typically dispersed into an "arrowhead" formation, with Olifants in the lead, Ratel-90 armoured cars on the flanks, and the remainder of the mechanised infantry to the rear and centre. Three Olifants were abandoned in a minefield during Operation Packer and subsequently captured by FAPLA, while another two were damaged beyond immediate repair by mines but successfully recovered. A number of others suffered varying degrees of track and suspension damage due to mines or Angolan tank fire, but were able to keep moving after field repairs.

In the early 1990s, the Olifant Mk1A was superseded by the Olifant Mk1B, which incorporated major improvements in armour protection, a slightly more powerful engine, a double armoured floor for protection against mines, and a torsion bar suspension.

Sweden

At the end of the Second World War, it was clear that the mix of tanks in service with the Swedish Armed Forces was not just obsolete but also presented a large logistical problem. Kungliga Arméförvaltningens Tygavdelning (KAFT, the weapons bureau of the army administrative service) conducted a study that concluded that the most cost-effective alternative would be to purchase the newly developed Centurion Mk 3, which, while quite modern, was judged to also have upgrade potential for future requirements. A purchase request was sent to Great Britain, but the reply was that no deliveries could be made before the needs of the British Army had been satisfied, which was deemed to take between five and 15 years. Thus, in 1951, the vehicle bureau of KAFT was set to develop a Swedish alternative project, E M I L. Parallel with this, negotiations were initiated with France about buying the AMX-13.

The British stance altered in early December 1952, due to the economic necessity of increasing exports to earn scarce foreign currency. Britain offered to sell the desired Centurions immediately. Minister of Defence Torsten Nilsson arbitrarily placed an order of 80 Mk 3, with Swedish Army designation Stridsvagn 81 (Strv 81), around new year 1952/1953, with the first delivery in April 1953. In 1955, Sweden ordered a batch of 160 Centurion Mk 5 (also designated Strv 81), followed by a batch of 110 Centurion Mk 10 around 1960 (designated Strv 101). The Centurions, together with the Stridsvagn 103, formed the backbone of the Swedish armoured brigades for several decades. The Mk 3 and the Mk 5 were upgraded with a 105 mm gun in the 1960s, becoming Strv 102.

Between 1983 and 1987, the Centurions had a midlife renovation and modification (REMO) done, which included among other things night vision equipment, targeting systems, laser range finders, improved gun stabilisation, thermal sleeves on the barrel and exhaust pipes and reactive armour developed by the Swedish FFV Ordnance. Around 80 Strv 102 were upgraded with Continental diesel engines and Allison gearboxes in the early 1980s, becoming Strv 104.

The Swedish Army gradually phased out its Centurions and Strv 103 during the 1990s as a consequence of comparative tests of the T-72, Leclerc, M1A1 and Leopard 2. They were replaced with the Stridsvagn 121 and Stridsvagn 122.

Nuclear tests

An Australian Army Mk 3 Centurion Type K, Army Registration Number 169041, was involved in a small nuclear test at Emu Field in Australia in 1953 as part of Operation Totem 1. Built as number 39/190 at the Royal Ordnance Factory, Barnbow in 1951 it was assigned the British Army number 06 BA 16 and supplied to the Australian Commonwealth Government under Contract 2843 in 1952.

It was placed less than  from the 9.1 kt blast with its turret facing the epicentre, left with the engine running and a full ammunition load. Examination after detonation found that it had been pushed away from the blast point by about , pushed slightly left and that its engine had stopped working, but only because it had run out of fuel. Antennae were missing, lights and periscopes were heavily sandblasted, the cloth mantlet cover was incinerated, and the armoured side plates had been blown off and carried up to  from the tank. It could still be driven from the site. Had the tank been manned, the crew would most likely have been killed by the shock wave.

169041, subsequently nicknamed The Atomic Tank, was used in the Vietnam War. In May 1969, during a firefight, 169041 (call sign 24C) was hit by a rocket-propelled grenade (RPG). The turret crew were all wounded by fragmentation as the RPG hollow charge jet entered the lower left side of the fighting compartment, travelled diagonally across the floor and lodged in the rear right corner. Trooper Carter was evacuated, while the others remained on duty and the tank remained battleworthy.

The Atomic Tank is now located at Robertson Barracks in Palmerston, Northern Territory. Although other tanks were subjected to nuclear tests, 169041 is the only one known to have withstood a blast and to have later fought in a war.

Centurion timeline
 1950: Korean War – United Kingdom
 1956: Suez Crisis – United Kingdom
 1965: Indo-Pakistani War of 1965 – India
 1967: Six-Day War – Israel, Jordan
 1969: Vietnam War – Australia
 1971: Indo-Pakistani War of 1971 – India
 1973: Yom Kippur War – Israel, Jordan, Kuwait
 1982: 1982 Lebanon War – Israel
 1988: South African Border War – South Africa
 1991: Operation Desert Storm/Operation Granby (British name)-United Kingdom, twelve FV4003 AVREs deployed to SW Asia. Three destroyed in accidents; fires and munitions. None saw action.

Centurion variant timeline
 1982: Falklands War-United Kingdom, single Centurion Beach Armoured Recovery Vehicle (BARV).

Variants

UK variants

Centurion Pilot Vehicles
20 built late 1944-early 1945. Vehicle weight 42 tons.
P1 – P5
Armed with 17 pdr with 20 mm Polsten cannon and 7.92 BESA in ball mounting at turret rear.

P6 – P10
17 pdr with linkage to 20 mm Polsten and turret rear escape hatch

P11 – P15
17 pdr with linkage to 7.92 mm BESA and turret rear escape hatch

P16 – P20
Armed with 77mm HV and driver-operated hull machine gun

Prototypes

A41 [20 mm] Centurion prototype with secondary turret-mounted Polsten cannon
A41 [Besa] Centurion prototype with coaxial Besa MG—later fitted with experimental CDL

Centurion production mark numbers

Centurion Mk 1 A41, armed with the 17pdr (76.2 mm) gun and Polsten cannon (or Besa machine gun). Fabricated turret with rear escape door, vehicle weight 47 tons. Six early vehicles sent to 5th Royal Inniskilling Dragoon Guards, 22nd Armoured Brigade at Gribbohm, in Germany, May 1945.
Centurion Mk 2 A41A, Up-armoured hull, fully cast turret, new commander's cupola, Polsten cannon and mount replaced with co-axial Besa machine gun, gunner's sighting periscope replacing sighting telescope, main gun armament stabilised in azimuth and elevation. Entered full production in 1946.
Centurion Mk 3 Upgunned to the 20pdr (84 mm) gun, slightly shorter hull, 2 stowage positions for track links on glacis, vehicle weight 49 tons.  Fitted with a  mortar, loaded and fired from within the turret. Entered full production in 1948, replaced earlier variants.
Centurion Mk 4 Projected close-support version with 95 mm CS howitzer, not built
Centurion Mk 5 Browning machine guns fitted to coaxial and commander's cupola mounts, turret rear escape door deleted, turret roof reshaped, deletion of 2" (51 mm) bomb thrower in turret roof, extra stowage bin on glacis, addition of guide roller in track run, vehicle weight 51 tons. Entered production in 1955.
Centurion Mk 5/1 a.k.a. FV 4011 Increased glacis armour, two coax machineguns: one .30 (7.62 mm) Browning & one .50 (12.7 mm) caliber Browning for ranging the 84 mm (20 pounder) main gun
Centurion Mk 5/2 Upgunned to the Royal Ordnance L7 105 mm gun
Centurion Mk 6 Upgunned and uparmoured Mk 5
Centurion Mk 6/1 Mk 6 fitted with IR equipment
Centurion Mk 6/2 Mk 6/1 fitted with ranging gun
Centurion Mk 7 a.k.a. FV 4007 Revised engine decks, and added a third internal fuel tank. Armed with the 20pdr (84 mm) gun.
Centurion Mk 7/1 a.k.a. FV 4012 Uparmoured Mk 7
Centurion Mk 7/2 Upgunned Mk 7
Centurion Mk 8 Resilient mantlet and new commanders cupola. Armed with the 20pdr (84 mm) gun.
Centurion Mk 8/1 Uparmoured Mk 8
Centurion Mk 8/2 Upgunned Mk 8
Centurion Mk 9 a.k.a. FV 4015 A Mk 7 uparmored and upgunned to the L7 gun.
Centurion Mk 9/1 Mk 9 with IR equipment
Centurion Mk 9/2 Mk 9 with ranging gun fitted
Centurion Mk 10 a.k.a. FV 4017 Upgunned and uparmoured Mk 8
Centurion Mk 10/1 Mk 10 with IR equipment
Centurion Mk 10/2 Mk 10 with ranging gun fitted
Centurion Mk 11 Mk 6 fitted with IR equipment and ranging gun
Centurion Mk 12 Mk 9 fitted with IR equipment and ranging gun
Centurion Mk 13 Mk 10 fitted with IR equipment and .50 (12.7 mm) caliber Browning ranging gun.

Fighting Vehicle numbers

FV 3802  Self-propelled 25-pdr (88 mm) artillery prototype based on the Centurion—engine at the rear as in the gun tank, but only five road wheels per side. The gun was fitted in a barbette with 45° traverse to each side. Accepted in principle in 1954, but abandoned in favour of FV3805 in 1956.

FV 3805  Self-propelled  artillery prototype, again based on the Centurion—engine at the front and driver over the trackguard. Project stopped in 1960 in favour of the FV433 105 mm SP Abbot. The single surviving prototype of the FV3805, which had its  gun removed, is known to be located on the Isle of Wight on the south coast of England. This prototype was converted into an artillery observation vehicle. As of August 2015, there is currently a crowd-sourced restoration project in process, with the intent to restore the vehicle to fully operational and running capacity.

FV 4002 Centurion Mk 5 Bridgelayer (1963) – Mk 5 chassis with a No 5 Tank Bridge. The  bridge could be launched in less than two minutes, could span a gap of  and with a height difference of up to  and could bear up to 80 tons.

FV 4003 Centurion Mk 5 AVRE 165 (1963) – AVRE (Armoured Vehicle Royal Engineers) vehicle with a 165 mm demolition gun with a range of about  and firing a  HESH projectile for breaching obstacles. It was fited with a hydraulically operated dozer blade or a mine plough and could carry a fascine bundle or a roll of metal Class 60 Trackway, tow the Viper mine-clearance equipment or a trailer. This variant had a five-man crew and was used in the 1972 Operation Motorman and in the 1991 Gulf War.

FV 4004 Conway  "FV 4004 Self-propelled gun, 120 mm, L1 gun, Mk 3" prototype based on a Centurion 3 hull with a larger calibre 120 mm L1 gun in a turret made from rolled plate. To be an interim design until Conqueror tank entered service. One built before the project was cancelled in 1951.

FV 4005 Stage 2  An experimental tank destroyer with a 183 mm gun L4, which was a modified version of the BL  howitzer. Project started in 1951/52, and developed in July 1955. It used a lightly armoured, fully enclosed and traversable turret on a Centurion hull. By August 1957, the tank destroyer was dismantled. It was later reassembled, replacing the original Centurion Mk.3 Hull with Mk.12 Hull, and Put on display in the Bovington Tank Museum.

FV 4006 Centurion ARV Mk 2 (1956) – Mk 1 / Mk 2 / Mk 3 hull with the turret replaced by a superstructure housing a winch. The winch was powered by an auxiliary engine and was capable of pulling of up to 90 tons using a system of blocks. Armed with a single  machine gun on the commander's cupola.
FV 4007 Centurion Mk 1, 2, 3, 4, 7, 8/1, 8/2
FV 4008 Duplex Drive Amphibious Landing Kit 12 lightweight panels forming a skirt around a permanently fixed deck; the panels were jettisoned with explosive charges.
FV 4010 a.k.a. Heavy Tank Destroyer G.W. Carrier Malkara Anti Tank Guided Missile launcher vehicle
FV 4011 Centurion Mk 5
FV 4012 Centurion Mk 7/1, 7/2
FV 4013 Centurion ARV Mk 1 (1952) – Based on Mk 1 / Mk 2 hull. Turret replaced by a superstructure housing a winch driven by a  Bedford QL truck engine. About 180 units were built, some of them were used in the Korean War. After 1959, they were used solely as training vehicles.
FV 4015 Centurion Mk 9
FV 4016 Centurion ARK (1963) – Armoured Ramp Carrier. Built on a Mark 5, the vehicle itself was part of the bridge. It could span a gap of up to , and could bear up to 80 tons.
FV 4017 Centurion Mk 10
FV 4018 Centurion BARV (1963) Beach Armoured Recovery Vehicle. The last Centurion variant to be used by the British Army. One vehicle was still in use by the Royal Marines until 2003. Replaced by the Hippo, which is based on a Leopard 1 chassis.
FV 4019 Centurion Mk 5 Bulldozer (1961) – Centurion Mk V with a dozer blade identical to that of the Centurion AVRE. One such tank was usually given to every Centurion-equipped squadron.
FV 4202 40 ton Centurion Used to develop various concepts later used in the Chieftain

Specialist variants

Centurion [Low Profile]
 Variant with Teledyne Low-profile Turret. It was armed with a 105mm gun, and the hull was up-armoured to an unknown extent.
Centurion [MMWR Target]
 Cobbled together radar target tank.
Centurion Marksman
 Fitted with Marksman air defence turret
Centurion Ark (FV 4016)
 Assault Gap Crossing Equipment (Armoured ramp carrier)
Centurion ARV Mk I
 Armoured Recovery vehicle
Centurion ARV Mk II
 Armoured Recovery Vehicle with superstructure
Centurion AVLB
 Dutch armoured vehicle laying bridge
Centurion AVRE 105
 Combat Engineer Version armed with 105 mm gun
Centurion AVRE 165
 Combat Engineer Version armed with 165mm L9 Demolition Gun
Centurion BARV
 Beach Armoured Recovery Vehicle
Centurion Bridgelayer (FV 4002)
 Class 80 bridgelayer
Centurion Mk 12 AVRE 105
Ex-Forward Artillery Observer vehicles converted to AVRE role.
Centurion Target Tank
A Gun tank with most items removed from turret and dummy gun fitted, much thicker Bazooka plates fitted and extra armour in places. Used on Lulworth Ranges c1972-5 to train guided weapon missile crews using inert missiles. Nominally driver only.

Non-UK variants

Denmark

Centurion Mk V, 2
A Mk V upgraded with the British 105 mm L7A1 gun and the Browning co-axial machine gun replaced by the German MG3. 106 Mk Vs were upgraded from 1964.

Centurion Mk V, 2 DK
Mk V, 2 with laser range finder and night vision optics. 90 units were upgraded in 1985.

Israel

Sho't (English – "Whip")
 An Israeli designation of the Centurion.
Sho't Meteor
Centurion Mk 5 tanks with the original Meteor engine purchased in 1959.
Sho't Kal Alef/Bet/Gimel/Dalet
Modernised Centurion tanks with 105 mm gun from 1963 and new powertrain of the Continental AVDS-1790-2A diesel engine mated to the Allison CD850-6 transmission. Entered service in 1970. By 1974, all Israeli Centurions were upgraded to Sho't Kal (Mk 13 armour) and had a pintle-mounted .50 cal HMG. Sub-variants indicate upgrades received by Sho't Kal tanks during their operational life, including a new turret rotating mechanism, a new gun stabiliser, a new fire-control system and preparations for the installation of the Blazer ERA.
Nagmashot / Nagmachon / Nakpadon
Israeli heavy armoured personnel carriers based on the Centurion tank's chassis.
Puma
Israeli combat engineering vehicle on Centurion tank chassis.
Eshel ha-Yarden
A quadruple tubular launcher for 290 mm ground-to-ground rockets mounted on Centurion tank chassis. The project was cancelled after a single prototype was built. Both this vehicle and an earlier version based on Sherman chassis are often referred to as MAR-290.
Tempest
Operated by Singapore, modernised with Israeli assistance, similar to Israeli variant, with diesel engine and new main gun, and possibly reactive armour.

Netherlands

 and Mk 5/2 NL
Circa 1965, Dutch Mk 5 and 5/2 tanks were equipped with infrared headlights, searchlight, and viewing equipment, of Philips design instead of the types used on British tanks. Around the same time, a .50-caliber ranging machine gun was added, as was a spare wheel bracket on the rear of the turret, and from 1969, the M1919 Browning machine guns were replaced by FN MAGs. From 1973, the tanks' radio sets were replaced by Philips-designed ones.

Between 1962 and 1965, 17 Mk 5 gun tanks were converted to bridge layers (Dutch: bruggenlegger), using the same bridge and mechanism as the American M48 and M60 AVLBs.

Also in 1962–65, 17 Mk 5s with 20-pounder guns were converted to dozer tanks by fitting adapted blades from old M4 Sherman dozers. Once ammunition stocks for the 20-pounders were exhausted, the guns were removed and the turrets fixed facing to the rear, with the smoke grenade launchers relocated to the now front of the turret with spotlights installed there as well to assist dozer operations at night.

South Africa

Olifant
 Centurion tanks redesigned and rebuilt by  with the help of Israel; considered the best indigenous tank design on the African continent. The name, 'Olifant' derives from the Afrikaans word for 'elephant' - being a heavy animal and indicating the heaviest combat vehicle in the South African Army.
Semel
(1974) 810 hp fuel-injected petrol engine, three-speed semi-automatic transmission.
Olifant Mk 1
(1978) 750 hp diesel engine, semi-automatic transmission.
Olifant Mk 1A
(1985) Retains the fire control system of the original Centurion but has a hand-held laser rangefinder for the commander and image-intensifier for the gunner.
Olifant Mk 1B
(1991) Torsion bar suspension, lengthened hull, additional armour on the glacis plate and turret, V-12 950 hp diesel engine, computerised fire control system, laser rangefinder.
Olifant Mk 2
Redesigned turret, new fire control system. Can mount an LIW 105 mm GT-8 rifled gun or a 120 mm smooth bore gun.

Sweden

The designations follows the pattern of main gun calibre in centimetres followed by the service order number. Hence the Strv 81 is read as the first tank with an 8 cm gun, while the Strv 101 is the first tank with a 10 cm gun that was accepted into service.

Stridsvagn 81
Swedish Army designation for both the initial 80 Mk 3 Centurions (20 pdr gun) and the 1955 purchase of 160 Mk 5 Centurions, all with Imperial instrumentation, Swedish radios, etc. Pre-NATO threading made the screws incompatible with the later Strv 101.
Stridsvagn 101
Swedish Army designation for its 110 Mk 10 Centurions (105 mm gun) bought in 1958 with Swedish instrumentation and radios, etc.
Stridsvagn 102
Swedish Army designation for Stridsvagn 81 upgunned in 1964–1966 to 105 mm main gun.
Stridsvagn 101R
Swedish Army designation for Stridsvagn 101 upgraded in the 1980s with Renovation/modification (REMO).
Stridsvagn 102R
Swedish Army designation for Stridsvagn 102 upgraded in the 1980s with REMO and frontal armour matching the 101R.
Stridsvagn 104
Swedish Army designation for the 80 Stridsvagn 102 which in addition to the REMO received the same powerpack as the Sho't Kal Alef, consisting of a Continental diesel and an automatic gearbox from Allison.
Stridsvagn 105
Swedish Army designation for Stridsvagn 102R upgraded with new suspension, firecontrol systems etc. Prototype only.
Stridsvagn 106
Swedish Army designation for Stridsvagn 101R upgraded with new suspension, etc. Not built.
Bärgningsbandvagn 81
Swedish Army designation for Centurion ARV.

Switzerland

All swiss Centurion Tanks were used with a retrofitted Swiss MG 51 / 71 as secondary armament.
Panzer 55
100 Centurion Mark 3's ordered in 1955 and delivered between 1956 and 1957.
100 additional Centurion Mark 5's were ordered from South Africa in 1960 and delivered between 1962 and 1964
150 of the vehicles were subsequently re-armed with the 105 mm L7.
Panzer 57
100 Centurion Mark 7's ordered in 1957 and delivered between 1958 and 1960
12 used (Canadian) Centurion Mark 12's were ordered in 1975/76 and delivered in 1976/77

Jordan
Tariq
Jordan designation.

Operators

Current operators

  Israel: Gun tanks retired, many hulls converted to Nagmachon APCs, Nakpadon ARVs or Puma CEVs.
  Jordan: Chassis re-used for the modern Temsah APC
  South Africa: In service as the indigenously developed and upgraded Mk1A/B and Mk2 Olifant tank

Former operators
  Australia: Replaced by Leopard 1.
  Austria: Now fixed in bunkers.
  Canada: Initially ordered 274 Mk 3 tanks, plus nine armoured recovery vehicles and four bridge-layers and additional orders followed. The Mk 5 (upgunned to 105 mm) were used later. From 1969 to 1970, the Canadian Army lists 77 tanks based in Germany (mostly Mk 5 and Mk 11's) and the remainder in Canada (60 at CFB Wainwright AB, 59 at CFSD Longue-Pointe QC, 46 at CFB Gagetown NB, 30 at CFB Borden, 29 at CFB Meaford ON, 27 at CFB Calgary AB, 12 at CFB Petawawa ON, six at RCEME School Kingston ON and one at the LETE Test Establishment Orleans, CFB Ottawa ON) for a total of 347 tanks (including 120 Mk 5s, three Mk 5 recovery tanks and some Mk 11s with IR and ranging guns fitted). Replaced by Leopard C1. Many of the tanks were sold to Israel, which converted them to diesel. Some are still in use as variants.
  Denmark: 216 Replaced by Leopard 1.
  Egypt: Replaced by T-55s, T-62s, M60A3s and M1A1s.
  India: Retired
  Iraq: Retired
  Kuwait: 50. Handed over to Somalia in the later half of 1979.
  Lebanon

  Netherlands: Initially received 435 Mk 3 tanks beginning in 1953, increased to 592 by 1956; all were paid for by the United States as part of the Mutual Defense Assistance Act. As one was lost to an accidental fire in 1953, 591 gun tanks were on strength, and were soon upgraded to Mk 5 standard with 20-pounder gun and the British radio sets replaced by American types; one fuel mono-trailer was also available per tank. From 1956 to 1958, 66 ARV Mk 2s were procured, and in 1959–60, 70 Mk 7 tanks were delivered from the UK; these were all held in war reserve until 1969, when they were disposed of. Over the years 1960–72, 343 Mk 5 tanks were gradually upgunned with 105 mm guns to Mk 5/2 standard, as were 19 Mk 7s (to Mk 7/2) in 1966–68. Between 1962 and 1965, 17 Mk 5 tanks were converted to bridge layers, using the same bridge and mechanism as the American M48 and M60 AVLBs; at the same time, another 17 Mk 5s with 20-pounder guns were converted to dozer tanks. As an experiment, one Mk 5/2 and one Mk 7/2 were converted by installing a diesel engine in 1968; though successful, it was not adopted because the cost approached that of buying a new Leopard 1. All Centurions were replaced by Leopard 2 MBTs in the 1980s, after having been used alongside Leopard 1s in the 1970s. Many Mk 5 and all Mk 7 tanks were returned to the United States (which had paid for them), which appears to have shipped most to Israel.
  New Zealand: Used 12 vehicles in the variant Mk 3 (three tanks) from UK, Mk 5 and 5/1 (total eight tanks) from British Army in Hong Kong and one ARV from UK. Retired from services in 1968 and seven tanks together with the ARV sold to Australia. Two have been preserved and have been handed over to the museum. The other two went to the Waiouru training ground as hard range targets.
  Socialist Republic of Romania: Defector Ion Mihai Pacepa claimed Romania received one example from Israel in 1978 in exchange for increased immigration of Romanian Jews to Israel. Pacepa further states that Nicolae Ceaușescu had planned to produce the Centurion under license.
  Singapore: 63 Centurion Mk3 and Mk7s bought from India in 1975 and more from Israel in 1993–1994, all upgraded to Israeli standard with new main guns and diesel engines It has since been placed into storage and replaced by the Leopard 2SGs.
  Somalia: Christopher F. Foss, writing in the second edition of Jane's Main Battle Tanks said that 'Kuwait was believed to have supplied Somalia with about 35 Centurions.' The Military Balance 1987–88 (p. 112) listed 30 Centurions held by the Somali Army.
  Sweden: Replaced by Stridsvagn 122 (Leopard 2A5S)
  Switzerland: Replaced by Leopard 2
  United Kingdom: Replaced by Chieftain

Tanks of comparable role, performance and era
 T-54/55 (Soviet Union)
 T-62 (Soviet Union)
 M26 Pershing (US)
 M46 Patton (US)
 M47 Patton (US)
 M48 Patton (US)

Notes

References
Citations

Bibliography

External links

 Centurion armour/technical data
 Centurion
 Centurion Tank Chat by tank historian David Fletcher
 Australian Centurions
 Redoubt Fortress Museum  Home of an example of a Mark III Centurion Tank
 Dutch Cavalry Museum has 2 Centurion tanks in its collection.
 Olifant Mk1B details on Army-technology.com.
 Centurion Mk 5 and 5/1  details on Australian Mk. 5 and 5/1

Main battle tanks of the United Kingdom
Main battle tanks of the Cold War
Cruiser tanks of the United Kingdom
World War II tanks of the United Kingdom
Cold War tanks of the United Kingdom
Military vehicles introduced from 1945 to 1949
Articles containing video clips

Centurion (tank)


Dvorac Donje Oroslavje je višeslojni objekt u općini Oroslavje, zaštićeno kulturno dobro.

Opis dobra
Dvorac Donje Oroslavje zajedno s perivojem kojim je okružen zauzima značajno mjesto među baroknim dvorcima Hrvatskog zagorja. Sagrađen je krajem 18. st. kao jednokatna trokrilna građevina, koja je naknadno podignutim prizemnim građevinama povezana s nekadašnjom konjušnicom, smještenom s dvorišne strane dvorca. Naročitu vrijednost daje mu zidni oslik dvorana i stubišta, od kojih se posebice ističe zidna slika s prikazom Herkulesove apoteoze na svodu središnje dvorane prvoga kata, nastala u posljednjem desetljeću 18. stoljeća, koja je jedini takav sačuvani primjer neoklasicističkog zidnog oslika na području Krapinsko-zagorske županije.

Zaštita
Pod oznakom Z-2444 zavedena je kao nepokretno kulturno dobro - pojedinačno, pravna statusa zaštićena kulturnog dobra, klasificirano kao "profana graditeljska baština".

Izvori

Zaštićene stambene građevine u Krapinsko-zagorskoj županiji
Dvorci u Hrvatskoj
Oroslavje

Dvorac Donje Oroslavje


Silver lode or Silverlode may refer to:

Silver lode, a deposit of silver found alloyed with gold
Silverlode, fictional river described by English author J. R. R. Tolkien
Silver Lode (film), 1954 American western directed by Allan Dwan

See also
Lode (disambiguation)

Silver lode


An Paspalum eucomum in uska species han Liliopsida nga ginhulagway ni Christian Gottfried Daniel Nees von Esenbeck ngan Carl Bernhard von Trinius. An Paspalum eucomum in nahilalakip ha genus nga Paspalum, ngan familia nga Poaceae. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Paspalum

Paspalum eucomum


Costumul membrilor Ku Klux Klan reprezintă cel mai cunoscut aspect al organizației și este recunoscut la nivel internațional. Uniforma a fost popularizată pe parcursul celui de-al doilea Klan între 1915 și 1944. Aceasta este formată dintr-o robă de culoare albă (decorată de obicei cu un petic rotund în mijlocul căruia există o cruce) și un acoperământ alb de formă conică care acoperă fața celui care îl poartă. Rolul costumului este acela de a ascunde identitatea purtătorului și de a-i oferi acestuia un aspect intimidant. Culoarea robei depinde de grup și de regiune.

Istoric
Originea costumelor este necunoscută. Uniforme asemănătoare au fost utilizate încă din secolul XV în cadrul ceremoniilor din Săptămâna Mare unde simbolizau actul de penitență. În Spania și în fostele sale colonii, printre care și părți din Statele Unite, scufia de formă conică era numită "capirote". Exceptând asemănarea superficială, aceasta nu are nicio legătură cu Ku Klux Klanul.

Surse regionale precizează că făurirea uniformei a fost cauzată de observarea credințelor religioase ale afro-americanilor (precum Santeria sau Voodoo). Conștienți de obsesia persoanelor de culoare față de spirite și de morți, fondatorii KKK au creat un costum de "fantomă" prin intermediul căruia să-i terorizeze pe afro-americanii superstițioși. Dovezi care susțin această origine sunt în mare parte transmise pe tradiție orală; prin urmare, nu se știe cât de autentică este informația.

Filmul Nașterea unei națiuni este considerat ca reprezentând paradigma unor elemente din protocolul celui de-al doilea Ku Klux Klan (înființat în 1915). Totuși, filmul prezintă o varietate de costume: de exemplu, unii membrii nu utilizează acoperământul de formă conică.

Robele membrilor KKK din secolul XIX erau de culori diferite. Standardizarea a fost realizată în secolul XX de către cel de-al doilea Klan când culoarea albă a fost aleasă ca fiind reprezentativă pentru organizație. Pe parcursul secolului XX, grupurile asociate Ku Klux Klanului au creat o varietate imensă de robe. Unele dintre acestea utilizează diferite culori pentru diferite ranguri.

În timp ce unele grupuri folosesc doar robe de culoare albă, altele utilizează o varietate de culori care sunt asignate de obicei următoarelor funcții:

 Violet (sau uneori albastru) - Imperial Wizard
 Verde (sau uneori roșu) - Grand Dragon
 Roșu purpuriu - Great Titan
 Auriu - Exalted Cyclops
 Negru - Knighthawk
 Roșu - Kleagle

Robele Knighthawk sunt în general mai scurte, cei care ocupă această funcție fiind însărcinați cu securitatea.

Embleme

Insignele Ku Klux Klanului includ o cruce sau o cruce cu o picătură de sânge în mijloc.

M.I.O.A.K. (Mystic Insignia Of A Klansman) este un petic rotund de culoare roșie purtat pe piept în partea stângă a costumului. În interiorul său există un "X" cu câte un "K" în fiecare colț al literei care denotă Knights of the Ku Klux Klan. Conform membrilor KKK, picătura de sânge din centrul crucifixului reprezintă sângele vărsat de Iisus Hristos pe Cruce pentru rasa ariană considerată drept cea aleasă.

Perioada contemporană
Deși există numeroase grupuri asociate Ku Klux Klanului, o parte din organizațiile succesoare utilizează aceleași costume. Cele mai importante fracțiuni care încă există sunt Imperial Klans of America, The Louisiana White Knights, The Loyal White Knights, The Traditionalist American Knights și Knights of the White Camellia

Referințe culturale

 În episodul "Pinkeye" din serialul South Park, Eric Cartman apare îmbrăcat într-un costum de Klansmen de Halloween.
 În mini-serialul Roots există o scenă unde un veteran confederat creează accidental o robă asemănătoarea cu cea din KKK.
 În filmul Blazing Saddles, șeriful Cleavon Little și pistolarul Gene Wilder, îmbrăcați în costume de Klansmen, încearcă să intre în gașca răufăcătorului Hedley Lamar. Ironia era aceea că Little este afro-american și Wilder evreu.
 În numărul #207, Revista Mad a comparat petrecerile toga cu raliurile organizației; în urma acestei comparații, sediul publicației a primit o scrisoare din partea acestora.
 O scenă cu un raliu KKK apare în filmul O Brother, Where Art Thou?.
 Comedia scenaristului Larry Shue, The Foreigner (1983), îl are ca protagonist pe Charlie, un englez timid, care dejoacă accidental planul pus la cale de către un membru local al KKK.
 În cadrul serialului True Blood, există o secvență în care un copil îmbrăcat în robă de Klansmen stă alături de alți adulți îmbrăcați în costume asemănătoare.
 Filmul Fried Green Tomatoes conține scene în care apar membri Ku Klux Klan.
 Organizația Ku Klux Klanul apare în jocul Wolfenstein II: The New Colossus în Statele Unite aflate sub ocupație nazistă. În ciuda ideologiilor asemănătoare, aceștia sunt asupriți de către naziști.

Galerie

Note

Legături externe

 Midnight Rangers: Costume and Performance in the Reconstruction-Era Ku Klux Klan
 Catolog oficiale de robe și bannere

Ku Klux Klan

Simboluri Ku Klux Klan


Događaji
 2162. ili kasnije: Očekuje se da će satelit Envisat, proglašen mrtvim 2012. godine, izaći iz orbite i izgorjeti u atmosferi najranije u 2162.

Rođenja

Smrti

Vanjske poveznice

2162.


Metzenbach ist ein Gewässername:

 Metzenbach (Heimersheimer Bach), rechter Zufluss des Heimersheimer Bachs bei Heimersheim, Stadt Alzey, Landkreis Alzey-Worms, Rheinland-Pfalz
 Metzenbach (Heinrichsbach), rechter Quellbach des Heinrichbachs auf dem Gemeindegebiet von Bischbrunn, Landkreis Main-Spessart, Bayern
 Metzenbach (Hornbach), rechter Zufluss des Hornbachs (zum Schwarzbach) bei Rimschweiler, kreisfreies Zweibrücken, Rheinland-Pfalz
 Metzenbach (Losheimer Bach), linker Zufluss des Losheimer Bachs (zur Prims) vor dem Stausee Losheim bei Losheim am See, Landkreis Merzig-Wadern, Saarland
 Metzenbach (Regen), rechter Zufluss des Regens in Markt Lappersdorf, Landkreis Regensburg, Bayern

Siehe auch:
 Matzenbach
 Mettenbach

Metzenbach


ශ්‍රී ලංකාවේ කොටසක ඊලාම් නමින් වෙනම රාජ්‍යයක් ලෙස බෙදා වෙන්කර ගැනීම සඳහා ක්‍රියාත්මක වන සහ ක්‍රිසාතිමක වූ ත්‍රස්තවාදී සංවිධාන පොදුවේගත්කල  ඊලාම්වාදී ත්‍රස්තවාදී සංවිධාන ලෙස හඳුන්වයි.

ක්‍රියාකාරී
 දෙමළ ඊළාම් විමුක්ති කොටි

අක්‍රීය
 ඊරෝස්

ත්‍රස්තවාදය අත්හල
 ඊ.පී.ඩී.පී.

ඊලාම්වාදී ත්‍රස්තවාදී සංවිධාන

ඊලාම්වාදී ත්‍රස්තවාදී සංවිධාන


NGC 7772 je otvoreni skup u zviježđu Pegazu.

Izvori

Vanjske poveznice

  Hartmut Frommert: Revidirani Novi opći katalog
  Izvangalaktička baza podataka NASA-e i IPAC-a
  Astronomska baza podataka SIMBAD
   VizieR
 DSS-ova slika NGC 7772
  Auke Slotegraaf: NGC 7772 Deep Sky Observer's Companion
  NGC 7772 DSO-tražilica
  Courtney Seligman: Objekti Novog općeg kataloga: NGC 7750 - 7799

7772

NGC 7772


An Graphorkis ecalcarata in uska species han Liliopsida nga syahan ginhulagway ni Schltr., ngan ginhatag han pagkayana nga asya nga ngaran ni Victor Samuel Summerhayes. An Graphorkis ecalcarata in nahilalakip ha genus nga Graphorkis, ngan familia nga Orchidaceae. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Graphorkis

Graphorkis ecalcarata


كريستيان إزيكويل لاما  الشهير باسم كريستيان لاما (مواليد 26 يونيو 1986 في لوماس دي ثامورا - الأرجنتين) لاعب كرة قدم أرجنتيني يلعب حاليا لصالح نادي الدرجة الأولى كاتانيا الإيطالي منذ 2008 في مركز الجناح الأيسر .

روابط خارجية

مراجع

لاعبو كرة قدم رجالية مغتربون في الإكوادور
لاعبو كرة قدم رجالية مغتربون في إيطاليا
لاعبو كرة قدم رجالية مغتربون في المكسيك
أرجنتينيون من أصل إسباني
أشخاص على قيد الحياة
أشخاص من لوماس دي ثامورا
رياضيون أرجنتينيون مغتربون في الإكوادور
رياضيون أرجنتينيون مغتربون في المكسيك
رياضيون أرجنتينيون مغتربون في إيطاليا
رياضيون من مقاطعة بوينس آيرس
لاعبو الدوري الأرجنتيني برايم بي
لاعبو الدوري الإكوادوري لكرة القدم
لاعبو الدوري الإيطالي
لاعبو الدوري الإيطالي الدرجة الثالثة
لاعبو الدوري المكسيكي الممتاز
لاعبو أرسنال دي ساراندي
لاعبو خيمناسيا إسغريما دي ميندوزا
لاعبو دوري الدرجة الأولى الأرجنتيني
لاعبو فيرا كروز
لاعبو فيورنتينا
لاعبو كرة قدم أرجنتينيون
لاعبو كرة قدم رجالية أرجنتينيون
لاعبو كرة قدم رجالية أرجنتينيون مغتربون
لاعبو كرة قدم مغتربون أرجنتينيون
لاعبو كرة قدم مغتربون في الإكوادور
لاعبو كرة قدم مغتربون في المكسيك
لاعبو كرة قدم مغتربون في إيطاليا
لاعبو كرة قدم من لوماس دي ثامورا
لاعبو كرة قدم من مقاطعة بوينس آيرس
لاعبو نادي أتليتيكو كولون
لاعبو نادي كاتانيا
لاعبو نيولز أولد بويز
لاعبو وسط كرة قدم رجالية
مواليد 1986
مواليد في لوماس دي ثامورا

كريستيان لاما


Zachariah Keodirelang Matthews, kurz ZK Matthews, auch Professor ZK (* 20. Oktober 1901 in Kimberley; † 12. Mai 1968 in Washington, D.C.) war ein südafrikanischer Hochschullehrer, ANC-Politiker und botswanischer Diplomat. Im African National Congress wirkte Matthews als eine Führungsperson mit der Fähigkeit zum Ausgleich, die in den 1940er und 1950er Jahren zwischen den älteren, teilweise der Gründergeneration angehörenden, und den jungen, darunter militant orientierten Mitgliedern vermitteln konnte. Während dieser Zeit zählte er auf dem afrikanischen Kontinent zu den aufstrebenden intellektuellen Persönlichkeiten.

Leben
Matthews wurde als Kind einer Bergarbeiterfamilie in Kimberley geboren. Seine Eltern waren Peter Motsielwa und Martha Mooketsi Matthews. In seiner Jugend entwickelte er Interesse an politischen Themen. Sein Cousin war Sol Plaatje und Matthews' Vater besaß in der Kapprovinz das Wahlrecht.

Nach seinem Junior Certificate an der Lovedale High School begann er 1918 ein Studium am South African Native College Fort Hare, das er Ende 1923 mit einem Bachelor abschloss, nachdem er die externen Prüfungen an der UNISA abgelegt hatte. Damit war er der erste Schwarze mit einem solchen Abschluss von einer südafrikanischen Hochschuleinrichtung. Für das College in Fort Hare ergab sich daraus ebenso ein besonderes Ereignis, weil am 3. Mai 1924 die erste Graduierungszeremonie mit zwei Absolventen, Matthews und Edwin Ncwana (College Diploma in Arts), an dieser Einrichtung stattfand.

Im Jahr 1925 übernahm Matthews die Funktion des Principals an der High School des Adams College in Amanzimtoti (Natal). Nach privaten Studien erhielt Matthews im Jahr 1930 einen Bachelor in Rechtswissenschaften, auch hier erneut der erste Schwarze in Südafrika mit diesem akademischen Grad. Daraufhin wurde er als Rechtsanwalt in Johannesburg mit einer Zulassung für die Transvaal-Abteilung am Supreme Court tätig.

1933 ließ er sich an der Yale University immatrikulieren und erwarb dort im Folgejahr einen Mastergrad in Anthropologie, nachdem er sich bei dem dort lehrenden Charles Templeman Loram mit Fragen des Eingeborenenrechts im Beziehung zur westlichen Zivilisation in Südafrika befasst hatte. Danach wandte er sich nach England und studierte an der London School of Economics bei Bronisław Malinowski in derselben Disziplin.

Im Jahr 1935 erfolgte seine Rückkehr nach Südafrika, wo er am Gründungskongress der All African Convention in Bloemfontein teilnahm. Ein Jahr später begann Matthews in Fort Hare seine Dozententätigkeit in Social Anthropology und Native Law and Administration. Dieser berufliche Lebensabschnitt gestaltete sich zunehmend erfolgreich, so dass ihm 1944 die Leitung der Abteilung für Afrikanische Studien an diesem College als Nachfolger von Davidson Don Tengo Jabavu, der in den Ruhestand ging, übertragen wurde. In diesem Zusammenhang berief man ihn zum Professor an dieser Einrichtung. Inzwischen war Matthews Mitglied des Native Representative Council (deutsch etwa: Eingeborenen-Repräsentanten-Rat), der 1936 geschaffen wurde, um eine durch "weiße" Politik kontrollierte Eingeborenenvertretung zu entwickeln. Dieses Mandat übte Matthews seit seiner Wahl im Jahr 1940 bis 1950 aus und legte es schließlich aus Protest gegen die Staatspolitik der Apartheidsregierung Südafrikas nieder. Im Verlauf dieser Zeit setzte er sich mit der Wirkung dieses Gremiums auseinander, was er in seinem Aufsatz Reasons Why the Native Representative Council in the Union of South Africa Adjourned von 1946 zum Ausdruck brachte.

Infolge der Atlantik-Charta-Erklärung von 1941 wurden 1943 zahlreiche afrikanische Führungspersönlichkeiten zu einer Stellungnahme aufgerufen. Die darauf reagierenden Personen kamen am 13. und 14. Dezember 1943 zu einem Atlantik-Charta-Komitee in Bloemfontein zusammen. Die Anwesenden wählten Matthews zum Vorsitzenden des Komitees. Die Leitung der zweitägigen Tagung lag in den Händen von ANC-Präsident Alfred Bitini Xuma.

Im Jahr 1949 wählte man ihn als Amtsnachfolger von James Arthur Calata zum Präsidenten der Kap-Sektion des African National Congress. Sein politisches Profil verstärkte sich zunehmend, wofür auch 1952 seine Einbindung in die Vorbereitungen der Defiance Campaign spricht. Im Juni 1952 siedelte Matthews in die Vereinigten Staaten über, da er am New York's Union Theological Seminary eine Gastprofessur erhielt. Zwischenzeitlich weilte er auch in Südafrika.

Auf der Jahreskonferenz der ANC-Kapsektion in Cradock stellte er am 15. August 1953 die Grundzüge für ein neues politisches Handlungskonzept vor, das er Congress of the People nannte. Diese programmatischen Aussagen hatten zum Ziel, alle Bevölkerungsgruppen Südafrikas mit einer "Freiheitscharta für ein demokratisches Südafrika der Zukunft" auf einer gemeinsamen Handlungsgrundlage zu vereinen. Seine Initiative hierzu fand ihre Basis in den Aussagen früherer Positionspapiere, wie den African Claims in South Africa (16. Dezember 1943) und dem Programme of Action (17. Dezember 1949, ANC-Programm), die unter der Leitung des damaligen ANC-Präsidenten Alfred Bitini Xuma entstanden waren. Matthews war zusammen mit Albert John Luthuli maßgeblich inhaltlich am Entwurf der Freiheitscharta neben anderen Persönlichkeiten beteiligt. Der offiziellen Beschlussfassung im Jahre 1955 konnten beide nicht mehr beiwohnen, da Matthews im Ausland weilte und Luthuli auf der Grundlage des Suppression of Communism Act wegen seines politischen Engagements gebannt war. Für den ANC stellen diese programmatischen Festlegungen wichtige Meilensteine seiner Geschichte dar. Das gewachsene nationale und internationale Ansehen Matthews verhinderte in dieser Zeit rigide Repressionsmaßnahmen des Apartheidstaates gegen ihn, wie sie bereits auf andere Personen angewandt wurden.

Er kehrte von seiner Hochschultätigkeit in New York wieder nach Südafrika zurück, um am University College of Fort Hare 1955 die Funktion des Principals zu übernehmen. Im Dezember des folgenden Jahres verhaftete man Matthews und hielt ihn unter dem Vorwurf des Verrats während des Treason Trial bis 1958 fest. Als man die Anschuldigungen gegen ihn fallen ließ, konnte Matthews nach Fort Hare zurückkehren, wo er als Vice-Principal eingesetzt wurde. Es erfolgte 1960 unter den Verhältnissen des Ausnahmezustandes eine erneute Verhaftung, die sechs Monate andauerte. Während dieser Zeit ordnete das Apartheidregime Massenverhaftungen an, wovon politische und intellektuelle Repräsentanten der schwarzen Bevölkerung betroffen waren. Die Verhältnisse in Südafrika veranlassten ihn, 1962 nach Genf umzusiedeln, wo Matthews als Sekretär der Afrika-Abteilung des Weltkirchenrates wirkte.

In Anerkennung seiner akademischen und politischen Leistungen ernannte ihn Präsident Seretse Khama 1966 nach der Unabhängigkeitserklärung von Botswana zum ersten Geschäftsträger seines Landes in den USA und zum UN-Botschafter.

Matthews starb durch einen Herzinfarkt im Georgetown University Hospital in Washington D.C. Der Leichnam wurde nach Botswana überführt und in Gaborone beigesetzt.

Der frühere Präsident Südafrikas, Kgalema Motlanthe, bezeichnete Matthews Lebenswerk im Jahr 2008 in seiner Rede anlässlich der 5. ZK Matthews Memorial Lecture in der Universität Fort Hare als untrennbar "mit der Geschichte dieser Institution und dem weiten Feld von Bildung und Ausbildung" Südafrikas verbunden.

Familie
Matthews war seit 1928 mit Freda Deborah Bokwe verheiratet, einer Tochter von John Knox Bokwe, die am Inanda Seminary for girls nordwestlich von Durban tätig war. Das Ehepaar hatte fünf Kinder. Ein Sohn, Vincent Joseph Gaobakwe Matthews (* 1929, † 2010), war Mitarbeiter im Büro des botswanischen Premierministers Seretse Khama und von 1994 bis 2004 südafrikanisches Parlamentsmitglied.

Mitgliedschaften
 Royal Commission of Inquiry into Higher Education for Blacks in British East African and Anglo-Egyptian Sudan (1936)
 Research Fellow am International Institute of African Languages and Cultures (1936–1939)
 Exekutivkomitee des South African Institute of Race Relations
 Ciskeian Missionary Council (Ciskei-Missionsrat)
 Federation of African Teachers' Associations
 Union Advisory Board on Native Education
 Natives' Representative Council (NRC) (1940–1950)

Ehrungen
 ZK Matthews Great Hall, eine Konzerthalle auf dem Hauptcampus der UNISA in Pretoria
 Z.K. Matthews Memorial Lecture, Erinnerungsvorlesungen an der Universität Fort Hare in Alice (Auftaktveranstaltung am 12. Oktober 2001 mit einer Ansprache des ehemaligen Staatspräsidenten Thabo Mbeki)
 ZK Matthews Gallery für einen Ausstellungsraum (Nr. 2.05) im Hoerikwaggo-Gebäude des Centre for Higher Education Development (CHED) an der Universität Kapstadt
 Order of Luthuli in Gold. Am 16. Juni 2004 für seine "seine bahnbrechenden Leistungen in der Bildung und seinen lebenslangen Beitrag zum Kampf für ein nichtrassistisches, nichtsexistisches und demokratisches Südafrika" postum verliehen.

Ausgewählte Schriften
 Bantu law and western civilization in South Africa: a study in the clash of cultures. Master thesis, Yale, Mai 1934
 The rehabilitation and development of the Reserves. South African Outlook, 1945 (75), November, 895, S. 166–170.
 An African policy for South Africa. SAIRR 30/12/1948. 7 Seiten
 The African response to racial laws. Foreign Affairs, 30, 1, Okt. 1951. 14 Seiten
 Apartheid - another view. Journal of International Affairs, 1953 (7), Nr. 2, S. 145–150
 South Africa: a land divided against itself. Yale Review, summer 1953. 13 Seiten
 Civil rights for Africans and the Tomlinson Report. (1956). 28 Seiten
 African Awakening and the universities. Cape Town [Kapstadt], 1961
 Africa survey report. Geneva [Genf], World Council of Churches, 1964
 Responsible government in a revolutionary age. New York, 1966 (im selben Jahr auf Französisch in Genf erschienen)
 Freedom For My People. The Autobiography of Z. K. Matthews: southern Africa 1901 to 1968. London 1981 (rezensiert 1982 von Alan Paton)

Literatur über Matthews
 Tim J. Juckes: Opposition in South Africa: the leadership of Z.K. Matthews, Nelson Mandela, and Stephen Biko. Westport (Conn.) 1995.
 Willem A. Saayman: A man with a shadow. the life and times of professor ZK Matthews; a missiological interpretation in context. Pretoria 1996.

Weblinks
 Professor Z K Matthews. Kurzbiographie auf www.sahistory (englisch)
 Interview with Professor Z. K. Matthews (September 1954), Interview durch George M. Houser, Mitbegründer des American Committee on Africa. (englisch)
 Interview with Z. K. Matthews about Apartheid, September 1954. Tondokument (englisch)
 Thabo Mbeki: Address by President Thabo Mbeki at the Inaugural ZK Matthews Memorial Lecture. auf www.nelsonmandela.org (englisch)
 ZK Matthews Papers (ACC101). UNISA Institutional Repository (englisch)
 UNISA Documentation Centre for African Studies. The Personal Papers of Zachariah Keodirelang Matthews. zusammengestellt von Ammi Ryke, März 2010 (englisch)
 The Road From Non-violence to Violence: Rede von Z. K. Matthews auf einer Konferenz, unterstützt vom World Council of Churches am 20. Mai 1964 in Kitwe (Nord-Rhodesien). auf www.anc.org.za (englisch)

Einzelnachweise

Autor
Botswanischer Botschafter
Ständiger Vertreter bei den Vereinten Nationen
Botschafter in den Vereinigten Staaten
Hochschullehrer (University of Fort Hare)
Hochschullehrer (Union Theological Seminary, New York)
ANC-Mitglied
Apartheidgegner
Südafrikaner
Botswaner
Geboren 1901
Gestorben 1968
Mann

Zachariah Keodirelang Matthews


El Triángulo del Arlanza es un conjunto de tres municipios de la provincia de Burgos (Castilla y León, España), formado por Covarrubias, Lerma y Santo Domingo de Silos.

Historia
El término fue acuñado de forma reciente con el objetivo de promocionarlo turísticamente. Los tres municipios se encuentran muy cercanos geográficamente, lo que facilita su visita.

Lugares de interés
Además de los propios municipios, destacan los siguientes elementos:
 Monasterio de San Pedro de Arlanza  (Perteneciente al municipio de Hortigüela).
 Monasterio de Santo Domingo de Silos.
 Desfiladero de la Yecla.
 Palacio Ducal de Lerma.
 Colegiata de San Cosme y San Damián de Covarrubias.

Referencias

Cultura de Burgos
Covarrubias
Lerma (España)
Santo Domingo de Silos

Triángulo del Arlanza


Die römisch-katholische Filialkirche Wackendorf steht in der Gemeinde Globasnitz im Bezirk Völkermarkt in Kärnten. Die Filialkirche hl. Martin der Pfarrkirche St. Michael ob Bleiburg gehört zum Dekanat Bleiburg/Pliberk in der Diözese Gurk-Klagenfurt. Die Kirche und der Friedhof stehen unter .. Die Jahreszahl 1272 auf einem Schlussstein im Chor könnte ein Hinweis auf das Gründungsjahr der Kirche sein.

Baubeschreibung
Die ehemalige Wehrkirche ist ein spätgotischer Bau aus dem 15. Jahrhundert. Schießscharten und vorhangbogige Schießöffnungen des Wehrobergeschoßes am Langhaus zeugen von der Wehrhaftigkeit. Das Langhaus und der Chor besitzen Maßwerkfenster und werden von dreistufigen Strebepfeilern gestützt. An der Nordseite des Langhauses ist eine barocke Kapelle angebaut. Der im Kern romanischer Turm nördlich des Chores stürzte 1970 ein. An seiner Stelle wurde die Sakristei und nördlich davon ein neuer Turm errichtet. Das West- und das Südportal haben profilierte Leibungen. Die Eisenplattentür des Westportals ist mit einem Schießloch versehen.

Über dem einschiffigen, vierjochigen Langhaus erhebt sich ein Netzrippengewölbe mit bemalten Schlusssteinen auf runden Vorlagen. Die Westempore ist tonneunterwölbt. Ein hoher korbbogiger Triumphbogen mit abgefasten Kanten verbindet das Langhaus und den einjochigen Chor mit Fünfachtelschluss und einem Kreuzrippengewölbe auf Konsolen.

Fresken
Der Chor ist mit bemerkenswerten, in der ersten Hälfte des 15. Jahrhunderts entstandenen Fresken ausgestattet. An der Triumphbogenwand befindet sich ein Jüngstes Gericht. An der Nordwand ist das Martyrium der heiligen Ursula dargestellt, an der nördlichen Chorschlusswand in den oberen Feldern stehende Heilige, in den unteren Feldern die Heiligen Georg und Martin auf Pferden. An der Chorsüdwand ist Antonius der Große sowie eine nicht bestimmbare Szene wiedergegeben.

Einrichtung
Der Hochaltar von 1741 ausgeführt von  J. M. Sotari, war ursprünglich für St. Michael ob Bleiburg geschaffen. Die Mittelnische birgt die Statue des Johann Nepomuk, den Aufsatz bildet Gottvater im Strahlenkranz, umringt von Putti. Der ursprüngliche Hochaltar von 1701 steht heute in der nördlichen Seitenkapelle. Auf beiden Seitenaltären stehen Statuen vom Anfang des 16. Jahrhunderts, auf dem linken der heilige Martin, auf dem rechten der heilige Ulrich.

Literatur
 Ernst Bacher u. a.: Kärnten (Dehio-Handbuch. Die Kunstdenkmäler Österreichs). Anton Schroll, Wien 2001, ISBN 3-7031-0712-X, S. 1043.

Weblinks

Kirchengebäude in Globasnitz
Wakendorf
Wackendorf
Dekanat Bleiburg/Pliberk

Filialkirche Wackendorf


La Base navale sud est un port militaire en Ukraine ouvert sur la mer Noire. Elle se trouve dans la municipalité de Novoozerne sur le lac Donouzlav, elle est utilisée par la flotte de la mer Noire. La base reprend, en partie, les installations soviétique qui comprenaient une base aérienne et une base sous-marine. En 2014 la base est devenue russe.

Notes et références

Voir aussi
 Prise de la base navale sud

Liens externes

Port militaire en Ukraine
Port de la mer Noire
Crimée

Base navale sud (Ukraine)