Athens is one of the oldest named cities in the world, having been continuously inhabited for perhaps 5,000 years. Situated in southern Europe, Athens became the leading city of Ancient Greece in the first millennium BC, and its cultural achievements during the 5th century BC laid the foundations of Western civilization.

During the early Middle Ages, the city experienced a decline, then recovered under the later Byzantine Empire and was relatively prosperous during the period of the Crusades (12th and 13th centuries), benefiting from Italian trade. Following a period of sharp decline under the rule of the Ottoman Empire, Athens  in the 19th century as the capital of the independent and self-governing Greek state.

Name
The name of Athens, connected to the name of its patron goddess Athena, originates from an earlier Pre-Greek language. The origin myth explaining how Athens acquired this name through the legendary contest between Poseidon and Athena was described by Herodotus, Apollodorus, Ovid, Plutarch, Pausanias and others. It even became the theme of the sculpture on the west pediment of the Parthenon. Both Athena and Poseidon requested to be patrons of the city and to give their name to it, so they competed with offering the city one gift each. Poseidon produced a spring by striking the ground with his trident, symbolizing naval power.

Athena created the olive tree, symbolizing peace and prosperity. The Athenians, under their ruler Cecrops, accepted the olive tree and named the city after Athena. (Later the Southern Italian city of Paestum was founded under the name of Poseidonia at about 600 BC.) A sacred olive tree said to be the one created by the goddess was still kept on the Acropolis at the time of Pausanias (2nd century AD). It was located by the temple of Pandrosus, next to the Parthenon. According to Herodotus, the tree had been burnt down during the Persian Wars, but a shoot sprung from the stump. The Greeks saw this as a symbol that Athena still had her mark there on the city.

Plato, in his dialogue Cratylus, offers an etymology of Athena's name connecting it to the phrase ἁ θεονόα or hē theoû nóēsis (ἡ θεοῦ νόησις, 'the mind of god').

Geographical setting

There is evidence that the site on which the Acropolis ('high city') stands was first inhabited in the Neolithic period, perhaps as a defensible settlement, around the end of the fourth millennium BC or a little later. The site is a natural defensive position which commands the surrounding plains. It is located about  inland from the Saronic Gulf, in the centre of the Cephisian Plain, a fertile valley surrounded by rivers. To the east lies Mount Hymettus, to the north Mount Pentelicus.
Ancient Athens, in the first millennium BC, occupied a very small area compared to the sprawling metropolis of modern Greece. The ancient walled city encompassed an area measuring about two kilometres (1.5 mi) from east to west and slightly less than that from north to south, although at its peak the ancient city had suburbs extending well beyond these walls. The Acropolis was situated just south of the centre of this walled area.

The Agora, the commercial and social centre of the city, lay about 400 m (1,300 ft) north of the Acropolis, in what is now the Monastiraki district. The hill of the Pnyx, where the Athenian Assembly met, lay at the western end of the city. The Eridanus (Ηριδανός) river flowed through the city.

One of the most important religious sites in ancient Athens was the Temple of Athena, known today as the Parthenon, which stood on top of the Acropolis, where its evocative ruins still stand. Two other major religious sites, the Temple of Hephaestus (which is still largely intact) and the Temple of Olympian Zeus or Olympeion (once the largest temple in mainland Greece but now in ruins) also lay within the city walls.

Antiquity

Origins and early history

Athens has been inhabited from Neolithic times, possibly from the end of the fourth millennium BC, or over 5,000 years. By 1412 BC, the settlement had become an important center of the Mycenaean civilization and the Acropolis was the site of a major Mycenaean fortress whose remains can be recognised from sections of the characteristic Cyclopean walls. On the summit of the Acropolis, below the later Erechtheion, cuttings in the rock have been identified as the location of a Mycenaean palace. Between 1250 and 1200 BC, to feed the needs of the Mycenaean settlement, a staircase was built down a cleft in the rock to reach a water supply that was protected from enemy incursions, comparable to similar works carried out at Mycenae.

Unlike other Mycenaean centers, such as Mycenae and Pylos, it is unclear whether Athens suffered destruction in about 1200 BC, an event traditionally attributed to a Dorian invasion (though now commonly attributed to a systems collapse, part of the Late Bronze Age collapse). The Athenians always maintained that they were 'pure' Ionians with no Dorian element. However, Athens, like many other Bronze Age settlements, went into economic decline for around 150 years following this.

Iron Age burials, in the Kerameikos and other locations, are often richly provided for and demonstrate that from 900 BC onwards Athens was one of the leading centres of trade and prosperity in the region; as were Lefkandi in Euboea and Knossos in Crete. This position may well have resulted from its central location in the Greek world, its secure stronghold on the Acropolis and its access to the sea, which gave it a natural advantage over inland rivals such as Thebes and Sparta.

Founding myths
According to legend, Athens was formerly ruled by kings, a situation which may have continued up until the 9th century BC. From later accounts, it is believed that these kings stood at the head of a land-owning aristocracy known as the Eupatridae (the 'well-born'), whose instrument of government was a Council which met on the Hill of Ares, called the Areopagus and appointed the chief city officials, the archons and the polemarch (commander-in-chief). The most famous king of Athens was Theseus, a prominent figure in Greek Mythology who killed the Minotaur. A slightly different mythical version of Athens' past is given in Plato's dialogue Timaeus. In this dialogue, a story is told about information given to Athenian leader Solon from Egyptian priests of the goddess Neith while he visited Egypt, according to which a well advanced Athenian state was established 9,000 years prior to his time that preceded Egypt's oldest kingdom by a thousand years. The laws of that state were the most just and largely inspired the various kings of Egypt when making laws for their kingdom. This story is not supported by any scholarly evidence, as no Athenian state is known to have existed during the 10th millennium BC. In addition, no evidence exists of any possible cultural or other ties between Egypt and any part of present-day Greece at such early a date.

Classical period
During the 1st millennium BC, Athens succeeded in bringing the other towns of Attica under its rule. This process of synoikismosthe bringing together into one homecreated the largest and wealthiest state on the Greek mainland, but it also created a larger class of people excluded from political life by the nobility. By the 7th century BC, social unrest had become widespread, and the Areopagus appointed Draco to draft a strict new code of law (hence the word 'draconian'). When this failed, they appointed Solon, with a mandate to create a new constitution (in 594 BC).

Reform and democracy

The reforms that Solon initiated dealt with both political and economic issues. The economic power of the Eupatridae was reduced by forbidding the enslavement of Athenian citizens as a punishment for debt (debt bondage), by breaking up large landed estates and freeing up trade and commerce, which allowed the emergence of a prosperous urban trading class. Politically, Solon divided the Athenians into four classes, based on their wealth and their ability to perform military service. The poorest class, the Thetai, (Ancient Greek Θήται) who formed the majority of the population, received political rights for the first time and were able to vote in the Ecclesia (Assembly). But only the upper classes could hold political office. The Areopagus continued to exist but its powers were reduced.

The new system laid the foundations for what eventually became Athenian democracy, but in the short-term it failed to quell class conflict and after twenty years of unrest the popular party, led by Peisistratos, seized power. Peisistratos is usually called a tyrant, but the Greek word tyrannos does not mean a cruel and despotic ruler, merely one who took power by force. Peisistratos was in fact a very popular ruler, who made Athens wealthy, powerful, and a centre of culture. He preserved the Solonian Constitution, but made sure that he and his family held all the offices of state.

Peisistratus built the first aqueduct tunnel at Athens, which most likely had its sources on the slopes of Mount Hymettos and along the Ilissos river. It supplied, among other structures, the fountain house in the southeast corner of the Agora, but it had a number of branches. In the 4th century BC it was replaced by a system of terracotta pipes in a stone-built underground channel, sometimes called the Hymettos aqueduct; many sections had round, oval or square access holes on top of about .
Pipe segments of this system are displayed at the Evangelismos and Syntagma Metro stations.

Peisistratos died in 527 BC and was succeeded by his sons Hippias and Hipparchus. They proved to be much less adept rulers and in 514 BC, Hipparchus was assassinated in a private dispute over a young man (see Harmodius and Aristogeiton). This led Hippias to establish a real dictatorship, which proved very unpopular. He was overthrown in 510 BC. A radical politician with an aristocratic background named Cleisthenes then took charge, and it was he who established democracy in Athens.

The reforms of Cleisthenes replaced the traditional four phyle ('tribes') with ten new ones, named after legendary heroes and having no class basis; they were in fact electorates. Each phyle was in turn divided into three trittyes and each trittys had one or more demes, which became the basis of local government. The phyle each elected fifty members to the Boule, a council which governed Athens on a day-to-day basis. The Assembly was open to all citizens and was both a legislature and a supreme court, except in murder cases and religious matters, which became the only remaining functions of the Areopagus.

Most public offices were filled by lot, although the ten strategoi (generals) were elected. This system remained remarkably stable and, with a few brief interruptions, it remained in place for 170 years, until Philip II of Macedon defeated Athens and Thebes at the Battle of Chaeronea in 338 BC.

Classical Athens

Early Athenian military history and Persian era

Prior to the rise of Athens, Sparta considered itself to be the leader (or hegemon) of the Greeks. In 499 BC, Athens sent troops to aid the Ionian Greeks of Asia Minor, who were rebelling against the Persian Empire (the Ionian Revolt). This provoked two Persian invasions of Greece by the Achaemenid Empire. In 490 BC, the Athenians, led by the soldier-statesman Miltiades, defeated the first invasion of the Persians under Darius I at the Battle of Marathon.

In 480 BC, the Persians returned under Darius's son Xerxes. When a small Greek force holding the pass of Thermopylae was defeated, the Persians proceeded to capture an evacuated Athens. The city of Athens was twice captured and sacked by the Persians within one year after Thermopylae. Subsequently, the Athenians (led by Themistocles), with their allies, engaged the much larger Persian navy at sea in the Battle of Salamis and routed the Persians, a great turning point in the war.

In 479 BC, the Athenians and Spartans, with their allies, defeated the Persian army conclusively at the Battle of Plataea. Athens then took the war to Asia Minor. These victories enabled it to bring most of the Aegean and many other parts of Greece together in the Delian League, an Athenian-dominated alliance.

Peloponnesian War

The resentment felt by other cities at the hegemony of Athens led to the Peloponnesian War, which began in 431 BC and pitted Athens and its increasingly rebellious overseas empire against a coalition of land-based states led by Sparta. The conflict was a drawn out one that saw Sparta control the land while Athens was dominant at sea, however the disastrous Sicilian Expedition severely weakened Athens and the war eventually ended in an Athenian defeat following the Battle of Aegospotami which ended Athenian naval supremacy.

Athenian coup of 411 BC

Due to its poor handling of the war, the democracy in Athens was briefly overthrown by a coup in 411 BC; however, it was quickly restored. The Peloponnesian War ended in 404 BC with the complete defeat of Athens. Since the loss of the war was largely blamed on democratic politicians such as Cleon and Cleophon, there was a brief reaction against democracy, aided by the Spartan army (the rule of the Thirty Tyrants). In 403 BC, however, democracy was restored by Thrasybulus and an amnesty was declared.

Corinthian War and the Second Athenian League
Sparta's former allies soon turned against her, due to her imperialist policy, and soon Athens' former enemies Thebes and Corinth had become her allies; they fought with Athens and Argos against Sparta in the indecisive Corinthian War (395 – 387 BC). Opposition to Sparta enabled Athens to establish a Second Athenian League.

Finally Thebes defeated Sparta in 371 BC in the Battle of Leuctra. But then the Greek cities (including Athens and Sparta) turned against Thebes, whose dominance was stopped at the Battle of Mantinea (362 BC) with the death of its military-genius leader Epaminondas.

Athens and the rise of Macedon

By the mid-4th century BC, however, the northern Greek kingdom of Macedon was becoming dominant in Athenian affairs. In the Battle of Chaeronea (338 BC), Philip II's armies defeated an alliance of some of the Greek city-states including Athens and Thebes, forcing them into a confederation and effectively limiting Athenian independence. Philippides of Paiania, one of the wealthiest Athenian aristocratic oligarchs, campaigned for Philip II during the Battle of Chaeronea and proposed in the Assembly decrees honoring Alexander the Great for the Macedonian victory. Philippides was prosecuted in trial by Hypereides, who detested his pro-Macedonian sympathies. Subsequently, the conquests of Alexander the Great widened Greek horizons and made the traditional Greek city state obsolete. Athens remained a wealthy city with a brilliant cultural life, but ceased to be a leading power. The period following the death of Alexander in 323 BC is known as Hellenistic Greece.

Artists and philosophers

The period from the end of the Persian Wars to the Macedonian conquest marked the zenith of Athens as a center of literature, philosophy, and the arts. In Athens at this time, the political satire of the Comic poets at the theatres had a remarkable influence on public opinion.

Some of the most important figures of Western cultural and intellectual history lived in Athens during this period: the dramatists Aeschylus, Sophocles, Euripides and Aristophanes, the physician Hippocrates, the philosophers Socrates, Plato and Aristotle, the historians Herodotus, Thucydides and Xenophon, the poet Simonides, the orators Antiphon, Isocrates, Aeschines, and Demosthenes, and the sculptor Phidias. The leading statesman of the mid-fifth century BC was Pericles, who used the tribute paid by the members of the Delian League to build the Parthenon and other great monuments of classical Athens. The city became, in Pericles's words, "the school of Hellas [Greece]."

Hellenistic Athens

Shortly after the death of Alexander the Great, Antipater and Craterus became joint generals of Greece and Macedonia. Athens joined Aetolia and Thessaly in facing their power, known as the Lamian War. Craterus fell in a battle against Eumenes in 320 BC, leaving Antipater alone to rule for a year, till his death in 319 BC. Athens had a central role in the struggle for his succession, when Antipater's son, Cassander, secured the Piraeus leaving Athens without a source of supplies, to contest Antipater's successor, Polyperchon. To consolidate power against Cassander, Polyperchon restored Athens's democracy, as it was before the Lamian War. However, after losing the fleet one year prior, Polyperchon had to flee Macedon when in 316 BC Cassander secured control of Athens. Cassander appointed Demetrius of Phalerum as head of the administration of Athens. Demetrius remained in power until 307 BC when Cassander's enemy, Demetrius Poliorcetes captured Athens, and Macedon, ending the short-lived Antipatrid dynasty and installing his own.

Athens and the rise of the Roman empire
After the Pyrrhic War (280–275 BC) Rome asserted its hegemony over Magna Graecia and became increasingly involved in Greece and the Balkans peninsula. The First Macedonian War (214–205 BC) between the Roman Republic and the Kingdom of Macedon ended with the Treaty of Phoenice. During the Second Macedonian War (200–197), the Romans declared "the freedom of Greece" from the Macedonian Kings. After the Roman–Seleucid War (192–188), that ended with the Peace of Apamea, and the Third Macedonian War (171–168), after which Macedonian territory was divided into four client republics, Macedonia was formally annexed to the Roman Republic after the Fourth Macedonian War (150–148). After the Achaean League was itself defeated and dissolved by the Romans in the Achaean War in 146, during which the Battle of Corinth resulted in the looting and destruction of the city by Lucius Mummius Achaicus and Greece divided into the Roman provinces of Macedonia and Achaea. Athens thus came under Roman rule.

Roman Athens

During the First Mithridatic War, Athens was ruled by Aristion, a tyrant installed by Mithridates the Great. In 88–85 BC, most Athenian fortifications and homes were leveled by the Roman general Sulla after the Siege of Athens and Piraeus, although many civic buildings and monuments were left intact. The Macedonian astronomer Andronicus of Cyrrhus subsequently designed the Tower of the Winds for the Roman forum, which mostly survives to the present day Under Roman rule, Athens was given the status of a free city because of its widely admired schools. The Roman emperor Hadrian (), constructed the Library of Hadrian, a gymnasium, an aqueduct which is still in use, several temples and sanctuaries, a bridge, and finally completed the Temple of Olympian Zeus. The Arch of Hadrian commemorates the foundation of the city by Hadrian, with the "city of Theseus" referred to on its inscription on one side of the arch, and the new quarter erected by Hadrian around the Temple of Zeus called the "city of Hadrian".

The city was sacked by the Heruli in 267 AD, resulting in the burning of all the public buildings, the plundering of the lower city and the damaging of the Agora and Acropolis. After the Sack of Athens, the city to the north of the Acropolis was hastily refortified on a smaller scale, with the agora left outside the walls. Athens remained a centre of learning and philosophy during its 500 years of Roman rule, patronized by emperors such as Nero and Hadrian.

Late Antiquity

In the early 4th century AD, the eastern Roman empire began to be governed from Constantinople, and with the construction and expansion of the imperial city, many of Athens's works of art were taken by the emperors to adorn it. The Empire became Christianized, and the use of Latin declined in favour of exclusive use of Greek; in the Roman imperial period, both languages had been used. In the later Roman period, Athens was ruled by the emperors continuing until the 13th century, its citizens identifying themselves as citizens of the Roman Empire ("Rhomaioi"). The conversion of the empire from paganism to Christianity greatly affected Athens, resulting in reduced reverence for the city. Ancient monuments such as the Parthenon, Erechtheion and the Hephaisteion (Theseion) were converted into churches. As the empire became increasingly anti-pagan, Athens became a provincial town and experienced fluctuating fortunes.

The city remained an important center of learning, especially of Neoplatonism—with notable pupils including Gregory of Nazianzus, Basil of Caesarea and emperor Julian ()—and consequently a center of paganism. Christian items do not appear in the archaeological record until the early 5th century. The sack of the city by the Herules in 267 and by the Visigoths under their king Alaric I () in 396, however, dealt a heavy blow to the city's fabric and fortunes, and Athens was henceforth confined to a small fortified area that embraced a fraction of the ancient city. The emperor Justinian I () banned the teaching of philosophy by pagans in 529, an event whose impact on the city is much debated, but is generally taken to mark the end of the ancient history of Athens. Athens was sacked by the Slavs in 582, but remained in imperial hands thereafter, as highlighted by the visit of the emperor Constans II () in 662/3 and its inclusion in the Theme of Hellas.

Middle Ages

Byzantine Athens

The city was threatened by Saracen raids in the 8th–9th centuries—in 896, Athens was raided and possibly occupied for a short period, an event which left some archaeological remains and elements of Arabic ornamentation in contemporary buildings—but there is also evidence of a mosque existing in the city at the time. In the great dispute over Byzantine Iconoclasm, Athens is commonly held to have supported the iconophile position, chiefly due to the role played by Empress Irene of Athens in the ending of the first period of Iconoclasm at the Second Council of Nicaea in 787. A few years later, another Athenian, Theophano, became empress as the wife of Staurakios (r. 811–812).

Invasion of the empire by the Turks after the Battle of Manzikert in 1071, and the ensuing civil wars, largely passed the region by and Athens continued its provincial existence unharmed. When the Byzantine Empire was rescued by the resolute leadership of the three Komnenos emperors Alexios, John and Manuel, Attica and the rest of Greece prospered. Archaeological evidence tells us that the medieval town experienced a period of rapid and sustained growth, starting in the 11th century and continuing until the end of the 12th century.

The agora or marketplace, which had been deserted since late antiquity, began to be built over, and soon the town became an important centre for the production of soaps and dyes. The growth of the town attracted the Venetians, and various other traders who frequented the ports of the Aegean, to Athens. This interest in trade appears to have further increased the economic prosperity of the town.

The 11th and 12th centuries were the Golden Age of Byzantine art in Athens. Almost all of the most important Middle Byzantine churches in and around Athens were built during these two centuries, and this reflects the growth of the town in general. However, this medieval prosperity was not to last. In 1204, the Fourth Crusade conquered Athens and the city was not recovered from the Latins before it was taken by the Ottoman Turks. It did not become Greek in government again until the 19th century.

Latin Athens

From 1204 until 1458, Athens was ruled by Latins in three separate periods, following the Crusades. The "Latins", or "Franks", were western Europeans and followers of the Latin Church brought to the Eastern Mediterranean during the Crusades. Along with rest of Byzantine Greece, Athens was part of the series of feudal fiefs, similar to the  Crusader states established in Syria and on Cyprus after the First Crusade. This period is known as the Frankokratia.

Burgundian period
Athens was initially the capital of the eponymous Duchy of Athens, a fief of the Latin Empire which replaced the Byzantine Empire, ruling from Constantinople. After Thebes became a possession of the Latin dukes, which were of the Burgundian family called De la Roche, it replaced Athens as the capital and seat of government, although Athens remained the most influential ecclesiastical centre in the duchy and site of a prime fortress.

Under the Burgundian dukes, a bell tower was added to the Parthenon, known as the Frankish Tower. The Burgundians brought chivalry and tournaments to Athens; they also fortified the Acropolis. They were themselves influenced by Byzantine Greek culture.

Aragonese period
In 1311, Athens was conquered by the Catalan Company, a band of mercenaries called Almogavars. It was held by the Catalans until 1388. After 1379, when Thebes was lost, Athens became the capital of the duchy again.

The history of Aragonese Athens, called Cetines (rarely Athenes) by the conquerors, is obscure. Athens was a veguería with its own castellan, captain, and veguer. At some point during the Aragonese period, the Acropolis was further fortified and the Athenian archdiocese received an extra two suffragan sees.

Florentine period
In 1388, the Florentine Nerio I Acciajuoli took the city and made himself duke. The Florentines had to dispute the city with the Republic of Venice, but they ultimately emerged victorious after seven years of Venetian rule (1395–1402). The descendants of Nerio I Acciajuoli ruled the city (as their capital) until the Turkish conquest of 1458.

Early modern period

Ottoman Athens

The first Ottoman attack on Athens, which involved a short-lived occupation of the town, came in 1397, under the Ottoman generals Yaqub Pasha and Timurtash. Finally, in 1458, Athens was captured by the Ottomans under the personal leadership of Sultan Mehmed II. As the Ottoman Sultan rode into the city, he was greatly struck by the beauty of its ancient monuments and issued a firman (imperial edict) forbidding their looting or destruction, on pain of death. The Parthenon was converted into the main mosque of the city.

Under Ottoman rule, Athens was denuded of any importance and its population severely declined, leaving it as a "small country town" (Franz Babinger). From the early 17th century, Athens came under the jurisdiction of the Kizlar Agha, the chief black eunuch of the Sultan's harem. The city had originally been granted by Sultan Ahmed I () to Basilica, one of his favourite concubines, who hailed from the city, in response of complaints of maladministration by the local governors. After her death, Athens came under the purview of the Kizlar Agha.

The Turks began a practice of storing gunpowder and explosives in the Parthenon and Propylaea. In 1640, a lightning bolt struck the Propylaea, causing its destruction. In 1687, during the Morean War, the Acropolis was besieged by the Venetians under Francesco Morosini, and the temple of Athena Nike was dismantled by the Ottomans to fortify the Parthenon. A shot fired during the bombardment of the Acropolis caused a powder magazine in the Parthenon to explode (26 September), and the building was severely damaged, giving it largely the appearance it has today. The Venetian occupation of Athens lasted for six months, and both the Venetians and the Ottomans participated in the looting of the Parthenon. One of its western pediments was removed, causing even more damage to the structure. During the Venetian occupation, the two mosques of the city were converted into Catholic and Protestant churches, but on 9 April 1688 the Venetians abandoned Athens again to the Ottomans.

In the 18th century, the city recovered much of its prosperity. During Michel Fourmont's visit in the city in the 1720s, he witnessed much construction going on, and by the time the Athenian teacher Ioannis Benizelos wrote an account of the city's affairs in the 1770s, Athens was once again enjoying some prosperity, so that, according to Benizelos, it "could be cited as an example to the other cities of Greece". Its Greek population possessed a considerable degree of self-government, under a council of primates composed of the leading aristocratic families, along with the city's metropolitan bishop. The community was quite influential with the Ottoman authorities, the  (governor), the  (judge), the  (Islamic prelate), and the garrison commander of the Acropolis—according to Benizelos, if the  did not treat them well and heed their opinion, he was liable to be removed before his annual term of office was out—particularly through the influence at Constantinople of the two Athenian-born patriarchs of Jerusalem, Parthenius (1737–1766) and Ephram II (1766–1770). Taxation was also light, with only the  tax payable to the Ottoman government, as well as the salt tax and a water-tax for the olive yards and gardens.

This peaceful situation was interrupted in 1752–1753, when the execution of the previous Kizlar Agha resulted in the dispatch of a new , Sari Muselimi. His abuse of power led to protests by both the Greeks and the Turks; Sari Muselimi killed some of the notables who protested, whereupon the populace burned down his residence. The  fled to the Acropolis, where he was besieged by the Athenians, until the Ottoman governor of Negroponte intervened and restored order, imprisoning the metropolitan bishop and imposing a heavy fine on the Greek community. In 1759 the new , a native Muslim, destroyed one of the pillars of the Temple of Olympian Zeus to provide material for a fifth mosque for the city—an illegal act, as the temple was considered the Sultan's property. In the next year, Athens was removed from the purview of the Kizlar Agha and transferred to the privy purse of the Sultan. Henceforth it would be leased as a , a form of tax farming where the owner bought the proceeds of the city for a fixed sum, and enjoyed them for life.

The first owner (), Ismail Agha, a local Turk from Livadeia, had been humane and popular, appointing good , so that he was nicknamed "the Good". English visitors during the 1760s report a population of around 10,000 inhabitants, around four-fifths of which were Christians. The Turkish community numbered several families established in the city since the Ottoman conquest; and their relations with their Christian neighbours were friendlier than elsewhere, as they had assimilated themselves to a degree, even to the point of drinking wine. The climate was healthy, but the city relied chiefly on pasture—practiced by the Arvanites of Attica—rather than agriculture. It exported leather, soap, grain, oil, honey, wax, resin, a little silk, cheese, and valonia, chiefly to Constantinople and France. The city hosted a French and an English consul. During the Orlov Revolt of 1770 the Athenians, with the exception of the younger men, remained cautious and passive, even when the Greek rebel chieftain Mitromaras seized Salamis. Nevertheless, it was only thanks to the intervention of Ismail Agha that the city was spared a massacre as reprisals, and was forced to pay an indemnity instead.

Ismail Agha's successor, Hadji Ali Haseki was cruel and tyrannical, and the twenty years of his on-and-off rule over the city represented one of the worst periods in the city's history. Supported by the city's aristocratic families, and his relationship with the Sultan's sister, who was his lover, he extorted large sums from the populace, and seized much property from them. Through protests in Constantinople, the Athenians achieved his recall several times, but Haseki always returned, until his final downfall and execution in 1795. Haseki's early tenure also saw two large Muslim Albanian raids into Attica, as a response to which he ordered the construction of a new city wall, the "Wall of Haseki", which was partly constructed with material taken from ancient monuments. Between 1801 and 1805 Lord Elgin, the British ambassador to the Ottoman Empire, arranged for the removal of many sculptures from the Parthenon (the Elgin marbles). Along with the Panathenaic frieze, one of the six caryatids of the Erechtheion was extracted and replaced with a plaster mold. All in all, fifty pieces of sculpture were carried away, including three fragments purchased by the French.

Athens produced some notable intellectuals during this era, such as Demetrius Chalcondyles (1424–1511), who became a celebrated Renaissance teacher of Greek and of Platonic philosophy in Italy. Chalcondyles published the first printed editions of Homer (in 1488), of Isocrates (in 1493), and of the Suda lexicon (in 1499), and a Greek grammar (Erotemata).

His cousin Laonicus Chalcondyles (c. 1423–1490) was also a native of Athens, a notable scholar and Byzantine historian and one of the most valuable of the later Greek historians. He was the author of the valuable work Historiarum Demonstrationes (Demonstrations of History) and was a great admirer of the ancient writer Herodotus, encouraging the interest of contemporary Italian humanists in that ancient historian. In the 17th century, Athenian-born Leonardos Philaras (c. 1595–1673), was a Greek scholar, politician, diplomat, advisor and the Duke of Parma's ambassador to the French court, spending much of his career trying to persuade western European intellectuals to support Greek independence.

Independence from the Ottomans

In 1822, a Greek insurgency captured the city, but it fell to the Ottomans again in 1826 (though Acropolis held till June 1827). Again the ancient monuments suffered badly. The Ottoman forces remained in possession until March 1833, when they withdrew. At that time, the city (as throughout the Ottoman period) had a small population of an estimated 400 houses, mostly located around the Acropolis in the Plaka.

Modern history

In 1832, Otto, Prince of Bavaria, was proclaimed King of Greece. He adopted the Greek spelling of his name, King Othon, as well as Greek national dress, and made it one of his first tasks as king to conduct a detailed archaeological and topographical survey of Athens, his new capital. He assigned Gustav Eduard Schaubert and Stamatios Kleanthis to complete this task. At that time, Athens had a population of only 4,000 to 5,000 people in a scattering of houses at the foot of the Acropolis, located in what today covers the district of Plaka.

Athens was chosen as the Greek capital for historical and sentimental reasons. There are few buildings dating from the period of the Byzantine Empire or the 18th century. Once the capital was established, a modern city plan was laid out and public buildings were erected.

The finest legacy of this period are the buildings of the University of Athens (1837), the National Gardens of Athens (1840), the National Library of Greece (1842), the Old Royal Palace (now the Greek Parliament Building; 1843), the Old Parliament Building (1858), the City Hall (1874), the Zappeion Exhibition Hall (1878), the Greek National Academy (1885) and the New Royal Palace (now the Presidential Palace; 1897). In 1896 the city hosted the 1896 Summer Olympics.

Athens experienced its second period of explosive growth following the disastrous Greco-Turkish War in 1921, when more than a million Greek refugees from Asia Minor were resettled in Greece, after the Asia Minor Catastrophe in 1922. Suburbs such as Nea Ionia and Nea Smyrni began as refugee settlements on the Athens outskirts and the population of the city doubled.

Athens during World War II
Athens was occupied by the Axis (primarily German soldiers) during World War II and experienced terrible privations during the later years of the war. The Great Famine greatly affected the city during the occupation. Several resistance organizations were present inside Athens to fight against the occupation. Following the liberation of Greece and the ensuing Greek Civil War, the Dekemvriana rocked the city with heavy fighting between communist forces and  government forces backed by the British.

Contemporary Athens

Following World War II the city began to grow again as people migrated from the villages and islands to find work. Greek entry into the European Union in 1981 brought a flood of new investment to the city, but also increasing social and environmental problems. Athens had some of the worst traffic congestion and air pollution in the world at that time. This posed a new threat to the ancient monuments of Athens, as traffic vibration weakened foundations and air pollution corroded marble. The city's environmental and infrastructure problems were the main reason why Athens failed to secure the 1996 Centenary Olympic Games. Following the failed attempt to secure the 1996 Olympics, both the city of Athens and the Greek government, aided by European Union funds, undertook major infrastructure projects such as the new Athens Airport and a new metro system. The city also tackled air pollution by restricting the use of cars in the center of the city. As a result, Athens won its bid to host the 2004 Summer Olympic Games. Despite the skepticism of many observers, the games were a success and brought renewed prestige and tourism revenue to Athens. The 2008 Greek Riots began in Athens following the killing of a 15-year old student by an officer.

Recent historical population

Ancient sites in Athens
The Acropolis, with the Parthenon
Agora
Arch of Hadrian
Areopagus
Kerameikos
Lysicrates monument
Philopappos monument
Pnyx
Temple of Hephaestus
Temple of Olympian Zeus
Tower of the Winds

Athenians

Ancient and medieval periods

Theseus, mythical king
Solon (c. 640–560 BC), statesman
Peisistratos (fl. 564–528 BC), tyrant
Cleisthenes (c. 570–500 BC), statesman
Simonides of Ceos (c. 556–468 BC), lyric poet
Miltiades the Younger (c. 550–489 BC), statesman and general
Aeschylus (c. 525–455 BC), tragic poet
Themistocles (c. 524–459 BC), politician and general
Cimon (c. 510–450 BC), statesman and general
Apollodorus Skiagraphos (fifth century BC), painter
Sophocles (c. 496–406 BC), tragic poet
Pericles (c. 495–429 BC), statesman and general
Herodotus (c. 484–425 BC), historian, originally from Halicarnassus
Euripides (c. 480–406 BC), tragic poet
Pheidias (c. 480–430 BC), sculptor, painter and architect
Aspasia (c. 470–400 BC), lover and partner of Pericles, possibly a hetaera, originally from Milet
Nicias (c. 470–413 BC), politician and general
Socrates (c. 469–399 BC), philosopher
Telecleides (fl. 450–430 BC), playwright of the Old Comedy
Thucydides (c. 460–400 BC), historian and general
Hermippus (fifth century BC), playwright of the Old Comedy
Cleon (fl. 435–422 BC), general during the Peloponnesian war
Alcibiades (c. 450–404 BC), statesman, orator and general
Ephialtes of Athens (c. 450–461 BC), politician
Agathon (c. 448–400 BC), tragic poet
Eupolis (c. 446–411 BC), playwright of the Old Comedy
Aristophanes (c. 446–386 BC), playwright of the Old Comedy
Thrasybulus (c. 440–388 BC), general and democratic leader
Xenophon (c. 430–354 BC), historian, soldier and mercenary, and a student of Socrates
Plato (c. 425–348 BC), philosopher
Menander (c. 341–290 BC), playwright of the New Comedy
Aristotle (384–322 BC), philosopher, native from Stagira, Chalkidike
Demosthenes (384–322 BC), statesman and orator
St. Dionysius the Areopagite (c. 1st century AD), judge, early convert to Christianity, and first Bishop of Athens
Athenagoras of Athens (c. 133–190 AD), Father of the Church and apologist
Clement of Alexandria (c. 150–215 AD), Christian theologian
Aelia Eudocia Augusta, born as Athenaïs, later Saint Eudocia (c. 401–460 AD), wife of Emperor Theodosius II
Saint Giles (c. 650–710 AD), hermit saint
Irene of Athens (c. 752–803 AD), empress consort, thereafter Byzantine empress
Demetrios Chalkokondyles (1423–1511), scholar
Saint Philothei, née Revoula Benizelos (1522–1589), martyr and saint
Leonardos Philaras (1595–1673), scholar, politician and diplomat

Modern period

Panagis Kalkos (1818–1875), architect
Stefanos Dragoumis (1842–1923), judge, writer and Prime Minister of Greece
Dimitrios Rallis (1844–1921), politician and reiterate prime minister (1897, 1904, 1905, 1909, 1920–21)
Anastasios Metaxas (1862–1937), architect and Olympic shooter
Constantine I of Greece (1868–1923), King of the Greeks (1913–17, 1920–22)
Ion Dragoumis (1878–1920), diplomat, philosopher, writer and revolutionary
Ioannis Rallis (1878–1946), Prime Minister of Greece (1943–44)
Prince Andrew of Greece and Denmark (1882–1944), son of King George I of Greece, father of Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh
Alexandros Papagos (1883–1955), Field Marshal and Prime Minister (1952–55)
Helen of Greece and Denmark (1896–1982), daughter of King Constantine, mother of King Michael I of Romania and Queen Mother of Romania
Aspasia Manos (1896–1972), wife of Alexander I of Greece
Paul of Greece (1901–1964), King of the Greeks (1947–1964)
Dora Stratou (1903–1988), singer, dancer and choreographer
Princess Irene, Duchess of Aosta (1904–1974), fifth child and second daughter of Constantine I of Greece
Angelos Terzakis (1907–1979), writer
Stavros Niarchos (1909–1996), shipping tycoon
Melina Mercouri (1920–1994), actress, singer and politician
Dimitri Terzakis (born 1938), composer
Stavros Dimas (born 1941), politician and former European Commissioner (2004–09)
Lucas Papademos (born 1947), economist and Prime Minister of Greece (2011–12)
Maria Farantouri (born 1947), singer
Arianna Huffington (born 1950), author and journalist
Antonis Samaras (born 1951), politician
Louka Katseli (born 1952), economist and politician
Dora Bakogianni (born 1954), politician
Kostas Karamanlis (born 1956), politician and Prime Minister of Greece (2004–09)
Toula Limnaios (born 1963), dancer and choreographer
Pavlos, Crown Prince of Greece (born 1967), eldest son and second child of Constantine II
Leonidas Kavakos (born 1967), violinist and conductor
Kyriakos Mitsotakis (born 1968), politician and Prime Minister of Greece (2019–present)
Giorgos Lanthimos (born 1973), film producer and film director
Alexis Tsipras (born 1974), politician and Prime Minister of Greece (2015–2019)
Sofia Pappa Mathematician

See also
 City walls of Athens
 Timeline of Athens

Notes

Sources

Further reading

Published in the 19th century

Published in the 20th century

 Traill, John S., The political organization of Attica: a study of the demes, trittyes, and phylai, and their representation in the Athenian Council, Princeton : American School of Classical Studies at Athens (ASCSA), 1975

External links

Athens official website
A history of Athens from prehistoric to contemporary times
Ancient Athens 3D (archived 29 May 2011)
The Athenian Constitution by Aristotle
Model of Classical Athens
Athens in 421 BC
Athens: Ancient Greek Supercity  From the TV series Lost Worlds of The History Channel (Season 1, Episode 4)

History of Athens


HMS Scylla (F71) was a  of the Royal Navy (RN). She was built at Devonport Royal Dockyard, the last RN frigate to be built there as of 2016. Scylla was commissioned in 1970, taken out of service in 1993 in accordance with Options for Change, and sunk as an artificial reef in 2004 off Whitsand Bay, Cornwall.

Construction and career
In early 1966, the British Admiralty ordered Scylla, a "Broad-Beam" Leander-class frigate, from Devonport Dockyard, at a cost of £6,600,000. Scylla was laid down on 17 May 1967, launched on 8 August 1968 and commissioned on 14 February 1970, receiving the pennant number F71.

1970s

On 22 January 1973, Scylla collided with the Torpoint ferry, one of three separate collisions involving four warships on the same day. Scyllas collision had occurred while on sea trials following a refit. While Scylla resumed her journey, the ferry sustained a  gash at the bow. A court martial in May reprimanded Scyllas commanding officer, Captain Peter Sutton. In May, Scylla was deployed with other frigates to support the Royal Navy's operations against Iceland during the Second Cod War. The frigate conducted patrols to counter Icelandic coast guard ships targeting fishing vessels. On 1 June, the Icelandic gunboat Aegir collided with Scylla, the first such incident to occur during the fishing dispute.

Fishing relations with Iceland deteriorated further in 1975, and the dispute escalated into the Third Cod War. From February 1976, Scylla began operating in support of British fishing trawlers. In May, Scylla provided the escort to the royal yacht  during Queen Elizabeth II's state visit to Finland. Scylla attended the Spithead Fleet Review, held in honour of Queen Elizabeth II's Silver Jubilee. During that review Scylla was situated between  and sister ship .

1980s
In 1980, Scylla provided support when Cayman Brac, part of the Cayman Islands, was struck by a powerful hurricane. Scylla went into refit in 1980, to provision the frigate with Type 2016 sonar, Exocet and Sea Wolf missile launchers, and a Westland Lynx helicopter. The refit lasted four years, and cost £79,692,000, rendering the frigate unavailable for service in the Falklands. After being recommissioned, Scylla acted as guard ship for the West Indies and patrolled the Persian Gulf as part of Armilla Patrol.. In November 1986 at the end of her first Armilla Patrol, she was the escort to Britannia during the Prince and Princess of Wales' visit to the Middle East firing a Royal Salute off Matrah, Oman and also visiting Jiddah. The Princess of Wales flew home from Hurghada and Syclla then escorted Britannia north through the Suez Canal and on to Akrotiri, Cyprus where Prince Charles disembarked. While on Armilla Patrol in late December 1987, Scylla and  twice intervened after two ships, the Korean Hyundai No 7 and British Eastern Power, were targeted by Iranian gunships. After the Korean vessel had been attacked south of Abu Musa Island, Scyllas crew launched the frigate's Westland Lynx helicopter and evacuated some of the ship's crew.

1990s
In 1990, Scylla underwent a 10-month refit at Rosyth. By 1993, Scylla had become the last representative of her class in active service. The frigate's last deployment came that year when she deployed to the South Atlantic. By then she was showing her age, and it had become difficult for the ship's engineers to maintain. Scylla suffered steering problems while on patrol and collided with the accompanying tanker . While Scylla suffered only superficial damage, Gold Rover had to have repairs for hull damage. Scylla was decommissioned in December 1993. In 1992, Scylla, with the commanding officer, officers and members of the ship's company in attendance, was granted the Freedom of the City of Aberdeen.

Sinking and use as a dive site

The ship was bought by the National Marine Aquarium for £200,000 and on 27 March 2004 Scylla was sunk off Whitsand Bay, Cornwall, to form the first such artificial reef in Europe. The ship was 'planted' on a  sandy seabed at  approximately  from the wreck of the Liberty ship , which has been a dive site for many years.

Within three months of sinking the wreck was colonised by sea anemone, mussels and scallops and by six months sea urchin and starfish were found in large numbers. By 2021, 250 species have been recorded.

In 2007 two amateur divers were killed after entering the wreck. Two more experienced divers died inside the engine room on deck three in September 2021. There are fears that the continuing deposition close to the wreck of dredged waste from the Tamar estuary has led to large quantities of silt spreading through the ship and frequently mixing with the moving water reducing visibility, thereby preventing divers from finding their way out before their air supply diminishes. Following a 2014 survey the National Marine Aquarium who manage the site advised divers not to enter the wreck and solely to undertake scenic dives.

References

Publications

 Marriott, Leo, 1983.  Royal Navy Frigates 1945-1983, Ian Allan Ltd.

 Roberts, John (2009), Safeguarding the Nation: The Story of the Modern Royal Navy, Seaforth Publishing.

1968 ships
1973 in England
Cornish shipwrecks
Leander-class frigates
Maritime incidents in 1973
Ships built in Plymouth, Devon
Ships of the Fishery Protection Squadron of the United Kingdom
Ships sunk as artificial reefs
Ships sunk as dive sites
Shipwrecks in the English Channel
Wreck diving sites in England

HMS Scylla (F71)


Vaccinium myrsinites es una planta con flores de la familia de las ericáceas conocida con el nombre común de arándano brillante. Es nativa del sureste de los Estados Unidos, creciendo silvestre entre Alabama y Carolina del Sur hasta la península de Florida, aunque puede encontrarse también en lugares más al oeste, como Louisiana.

Descripción
Este arbusto erecto y abundante de ramas puede alcanzar un metro de altura. Es rizomatoso y puede formar colonias muy grandes, habiéndose observado algunas cubriendo un kilómetro de terreno. Es generalmente perenne, pero algunas son caducas. El tallo tiene ramitas verdes angulares. Las hojas, coriáceas, ovaladas y de color verde o verde grisáceo, tienen casi un centímetro de largo y tiene bordes suaves o vagamente dentados. Las partes inferiores son glandulares. Las flores son en forma de E o cilíndricas, de color blanco a rosa con tintes rojos, y crecen en grupos de hasta ocho. Pueden ser casi un centímetro de longitud. La fruta es una baya negra o azul grasosa de hasta 8 o 9 milímetros de largo, conteniendo varias semillas.

Esta planta crece en diversos tipos de hábitat en el sureste de los Estados Unidos, incluyendo praderas, pinares, márgenes de pantanos, bosques, breñales y comunidades de sabal. También crece en áreas cultivadas. En general, necesita suelos secos y ácidos a plena luz solar.

Al igual que muchas otras especies que habitan el matorral del sureste de los Estados Unidos, esta planta se adapta al fuego, pudiendo recuperarse de un incendio por el surgimiento de su rizoma. Ésta es también la manera en que forma grandes colonias de individuos clonados. La planta también se reproduce sexualmente por semillas, las que son dispersadas por los animales que comen sus frutos.

Esta especie es probablemente un híbrido de otras dos especies de arándanos, Vaccinium tennelum y Vaccinium darrowii. Los ejemplares de esta especie pueden parecerse a una u otra de las dos de las cuales se hibrida:, los "darrowoides" son más comunes en la costa de Florida, mientras que los "tenneloides" se pueden encontrar en el sur de Georgia y el norte de Florida. Esta especie también se hibrida con muchos otros arándanos.

Usos
Los seminolas usaron esta planta como alimento y para una variedad de propósitos medicionales y ceremoniales, incluyendo el tratamiento analgésico contra la insolación y cefalea.

Taxonomía
Vaccinium myrsinites fue descrita por Jean-Baptiste Lamarck y publicado en Encyclopédie Méthodique, Botanique 1(1): 73. 1783.

Etimología
Ver: Vaccinium

myrsinites: epíteto latíno que significa "como Myrsine".
Sinonimia
 Cyanococcus angustifolium (Aiton) Rydb.
 Vaccinium angustifolium Aiton
 Vaccinium angustifolium Benth.

Referencias

Bibliografía
 Anonymous. 1986. List-Based Rec., Soil Conserv. Serv., U.S.D.A. Database of the U.S.D.A., Beltsville.
 Godfrey, R. K. & J. W. Wooten. 1981. Aquatic Wetland Pl. S.E. U.S. Dicot. 1–944. Univ. Georgia Press, Athens.
 Long, R. W. & O. K. Lakela. 1971. Fl. Trop. Florida i–xvii, 1–962. University of Miami Press, Coral Cables.
 Radford, A. E., H. E. Ahles & C. R. Bell. 1968. Man. Vasc. Fl. Carolinas i–lxi, 1–1183. University of North Carolina Press, Chapel Hill.
 Wunderlin, R. P. 1998. Guide Vasc. Pl. Florida i–x, 1–806. University Press of Florida, Gainesville.

Enlaces externos
USDA Plants Profile

myrsinites
Flora de Estados Unidos
Plantas medicinales
Plantas descritas en 1783
Plantas descritas por Lamarck

Vaccinium myrsinites


Youdan bikarinn (enska: Youdan Cup eða The Youdan Football Cup) var bikarkeppni í fótbolta sem haldin var í  Sheffield árið 1867 og er talin fyrsta knattspyrnukeppni í heimi með útsláttarfyrirkomulagi og raunar eitt fyrsta eiginlega fótboltamótið. Keppnin dró nafn sitt af styrktaraðilanum Thomas Youdan, sem rak leikhús í borginni. Vinsældir hennar kunna að hafa orðið kveikjan að stofnun ensku bikarkeppninnar nokkrum árum seinna.

Saga og fyrirkomulag
 Á sjöunda áratug nítjándu aldar voru reglur knattspyrnuíþróttarinnar ekki að fullu samræmdar. Enska knattspyrnusambandið var stofnað árið 1863 og samþykkti um leið sínar eigin reglur, sem einkum nutu vinsælda í Lundúnum. Félagar í Sheffield F.C., sem talið er elsta starfandi knattspyrnufélag veraldar, höfðu þó samþykkt sínar eigin reglur þegar árið 1858. Sheffield-reglurnar nutu talsverðra vinsælda í norðanverðu Englandi. Birtist munurinn í ýmsu. Þannig var rangstaða hluti af reglum Enska knattspyrnusambandsins en Sheffield-reglurnar gengu lengra í að banna leikmönnum alfarið að handfjatla knöttinn. Báðar keppnisreglurnar héldu áfram að þróast á næstu árum og tókst ekki að sameina þær fyrr en árið 1877.

Knattspyrnuviðureignir þessara ára voru yfirleitt stakir æfinga- og vináttuleikir. Óljóst er hvernig hugmyndin kom til en í janúar 1867 komu fulltrúar þrettán fótboltaliða í Sheffield saman og ákváðu að efna til móts. Leikið skyldi eftir Sheffield-reglunum, tólf leikmenn ættu að vera í hvoru liði, hver leikur yrði 90 mínútur og framlengdur um klukkustund ef úrslit fengjust ekki. Væri enn jafnt eftir framlengingu skyldu liðin mætast að nýju. Tveir eftirlitsmenn, einn frá hvoru liði, skyldu fylgjast með leiknum og úrskurða um vafaatriði. Ef þeim bæri ekki saman skyldi sérstakur dómari skera úr. Í tengslum við mótið voru Sheffield-reglurnar endurskoðaðar enn eina ferðina og enn frekari hömlur settar á að leikmenn notuðu hendur og dregið úr hvers kyns hrindingum og bolabrögðum.

 Keppt var um verðlaunagrip sem athafnamaðurinn Thomas Youdan gaf. Bar mótið nafn Youdan og var það hugsað í auglýsingaskyni fyrir leikhús sem hann starfrækti í borginni. Að undangenginni samkeppni var verðlaunagripurinn valinn og jafnframt ákveðið að næstfallegasta tillagan skyldi verða veittur fyrir annað sætið.

Sheffield F.C., langöflugasta lið borgarinnar, ákvað að lokum að taka ekki þátt í mótinu. Félagsmenn töldu mikilvægara að ferðast um landið og kynna Sheffield-reglurnar sem víðast. Tólf lið mættu því til leiks og fóru allar viðureignirnar í fyrstu umferð fram á sama degi, 16. febrúar. Viku síðar fóru leikirnir í annarri umferð fram. Þar á meðal mættust Hallam F.C. og Norton í framlengdum og markalausum leik. Áhorfendur voru sagðir á fjórða þúsund, sem var mesti fjöldi á knattspyrnuleik til þess tíma og var það met ekki slegið fyrr en í úrslitum enska bikarsins árið 1878.

Hallam fór að lokum með sigur af hólmi í mótinu eftir sigur á Norfolk í úrslitaleiknum. Norfolk hafði svo betur í leik við Mackenzie í keppni um silfurverðlaunin.

Keppnin um Youdan bikarinn var talin afar vel heppnuð, þótt ekki tækist að endurtaka leikinn árið eftir eða síðar. Í ljós kom að útsláttarfyrirkomulagið jók keppnisskap liðanna verulega og viðureignirnar urðu fjörlegri en venja var til, en um leið jókst harkan. Töluvert var um pústra og meiðsli, gekk það raunar þvert á markmiðið með Sheffield-reglunum sem miðuðu við að gera íþróttina minna ofbeldisfulla en eldri fótboltaafbrigði. Áhorfendur kunnu hins vegar að meta kappið eins og sást á háum áhorfendatölum. Líklegt verður að telja að Youdan bikarinn hafi orðið stjórnendum Enska knattspyrnusambandsins innblástur þegar bikarkeppnin var stofnuð nokkrum árum síðar.

Heimildir

Enskar knattspyrnudeildir

Youdan-bikarinn


Giuseppe Conte () este un jurist italian.

La 23 mai 2018, a acceptat  funcția de prim-ministru al Italiei de la președintele Republicii Italiene, Sergio Mattarella.

Note

Nașteri în 1964
Politicieni italieni
Italieni în viață
Prim-miniștri ai Italiei
Nașteri pe 8 august

Giuseppe Conte


Cardonville () is a commune in the Calvados department and Normandy region of north-western France.

History

World War II
After the liberation of the area by Allied Forces in early June 1944, engineers of the Ninth Air Force IX Engineering Command began construction of a combat Advanced Landing Ground outside of the town.  Declared operational on 14 June, the airfield was designated as "A-3", it was used by the 368th Fighter Group which flew P-47 Thunderbolts until the end of August when the unit moved into Central France.  Along with the 368th, the 370th Fighter Group flew P-38 Lightnings from the airfield until mid-August.  With the combat units moved out, the airfield was closed.

Population

See also
Communes of the Calvados department

References

Communes of Calvados (department)
Calvados communes articles needing translation from French Wikipedia

Cardonville


Reghina Petrovna Todorenko (în ; ) este o prezentatoare de televiziune, cântăreață și compozitoare ucraineană. Este cunoscută ca gazdă a emisiunii de turism "Oriol i reșka".

Educație
A studiat la școala nr. 22 din Odesa, frecventând în paralel ore de teatru, dans și vocal. În 2007, a absolvit școala cu mențiune și a fost admisă la facultatea de tehnologii și sisteme de transport a Universității Naționale Maritime din Odesa. Nu a absolvit acea universitate și a plecat la Kiev pentru a intra la facultatea regie și show-biz a Universității Naționale de Cultură și Arte, pe care a absolvit-o în 2013 cu diplomă de maestru al artelor teatrale.

Carieră

Muzică
În 2007, Reghina Todorenko a devenit gazda concursului televizat "Zolotaia deseatka" (rus. «Золотая десятка» – "Zece de aur"). A fost remarcată de producătoarea Nataliia Mohîlevskaia, care a invitat-o să ia parte în proiectul ucrainean "Fabrica de stele-2" (în ucr. «Фабрика зірок-2» / "Fabrîka zirok-2"). Reghina s-a numărat printre finaliștii din 2008 ai proiectului și a devenit solistă a formației Real O. Albumul lor de debut a fost lansat în 2010, iar în 2014, după încheierea contractului, Todorenko a părăsit formația.

În 2009 a început să colaboreze, în calitate de compozitoare, cu colegul său de breaslă Ruslan Kvinta. Printre rezultatele colaborării lor se numără genericul sezonului 8 al show-ului de talente "Minuta slavî" (în rus. «Минута славы» – "Un minut de glorie"), cât și cântecele "Prosti" (rus. «Прости» – "Iartă-mă") de Sofia Rotaru, "Nemae neba" (ucr. «Немає неба» – "Nu există cer") de Vitalii Kozlovskîi, "Vsio ravno" (rus. «Всё равно» – "Nu contează") și "Moia liubov" (rus. «Моя любовь» – "Dragostea mea") de Mașa Sobko, "Spasibo mama" (rus. «Спасибо мама» – "Mulțumesc, mamă") de Nataliia Mohîlevskaia, "Ia podariu" (rus. «Я подарю» – "Voi dărui") de Tatiana Ciubarova, "Show girl" de Open Kids, "Popolam" (rus. «Пополам» – "În jumătate") de Mașa Goia, "U serdța tvoego" (rus. «У сердца твоего» – "Lângă inima ta") și "Prosto obnimi" (rus. «Просто обними» – "Doar îmbrățișează-mă") de Elena Laptander, "Bardo" de Natalia Bardo, "Snegom" (rus. «Снегом» – "Cu zăpadă"), "Uhodi na fig" (rus. «Уходи на фиг» – "Cară-te") și "Iolki" (rus. «Ёлки» – "Brazii") de Real O, "Kristallî" (rus. «Кристаллы» – "Cristale") de INDI etc.

Todorenko a debutat solo în 2015, înregistrându-și piesa de debut "Heart's Beating". A participat în cel de-al patrulea sezon al show-ului rusesc de talente muzicale "Golos", unde a avut-o ca antrenoare pe Polina Gagarina. În noiembrie 2015, ea a fost nominalizată la M1 Music Awards în cadrul categoriei "Debutul anului".

În iunie 2016, în timpul filmărilor în SUA (Canionul Antelope) a programului "Oriol i reșka. Krugosvetka" (rus. «Орёл и решка. Кругосветка» – "Cap și pajură. În jurul lumii"), a lansat videoclipul cântecului "Liverpool". În același an, Reghina Todorenko, împreună cu colegii săi de la "Oriol i reșka" Andrei Bedneakov, Lesea Nikitiuk și Janna Badoeva, s-a filmat în videoclipul Svetlanei Loboda "Pora domoi" («Пора домой» – "E timpul să mă întorc acasă").

Albumul de debut al artistei este intitulat "Fire" și a fost pre-lansat pe iTunes la 25 noiembrie 2016. A devenit disponibil pentru descărcare la 2 decembrie. Albumul include 13 cântece.

Televiziune
În 2014, în pereche cu Kolea Serga, a trecut casting-ul emisiunii de turism "Oriol i reșka" (rus. «Орёл и решка» – "Cap și pajură") și a devenit una din gazdele acesteia. De atunci, a luat parte la toate sezoanele, cu excepția sezonului intitulat "Perezagruzka" (rus. «Перезагрузки» – "Reboot").

În ianuarie 2016, a fost model pentru versiunea rusă a revistei Maxim. În luna aprilie a aceluiași an, Todorenko a anunțat că va lansa o marcă de vestimentație proprie, numită "Generation TR". În mai, a câștigat nominalizarea pentru cel mai bun prezentator de televiziune în cadrul premiilor ucrainene "Cosmopolitan Awards 2016".

La 13 noiembrie, a câștigat premiul "Femeia Anului 2017" a revistei Glamour, în categoria "Vedeta TV a anului".

La 30 noiembrie 2017, Reghina Todorenko a anunțat, pe pagina sa de Instagram, că se retrage din emisiunea "Oriol i reșka", punând astfel capăt perioadei de aproape 4 ani în care a fost gazdă a acestei emisiuni. Ca număr de sezoane în care a participat, îi cedează doar co-prezentatorului său Andrei Bedneakov (7, respectiv 8).

Din noiembrie 2017, prezintă emisiunea de cosmetică "Makeup-erii" (rus. «Мейкаперы») pe canalul "Peatnița!" («Пятница!»), împreună cu stilistul Vladislav Lisoveț. Din 29 iunie 2018, Regina mai prezintă și concursul muzical televizat "Golos uliț" (rus. «Голос улиц» – "Voci din stradă"), cât și propriul show săptămânal de divertisment "Peatnița s Reghinoi" (rus. «Пятница с Региной» – "Vinerea cu Reghina") la "Peatnița!". La televiziune au fost difuzate doar șase ediții, iar emisiunea a fost re-lansată în august pe canalul de YouTube al artistei. Tot în 2018, Todorenko a devenit co-prezentatoare a emisiunii "Oriol i reșka. Rossia" (versiunea ruseasă a proiectului).

În 2019, a lansat un show televizat intitulat "Reghina+1", în care oferă sfaturi de îngrijire a bebelușului. În unele ediții, are anumite vedete ca oaspeți ai emisiunii. Pentru acest proiect, la 2 octombrie 2019 Todorenko a câștigat premiul TEFI la nominalizarea "Cel mai bun program matinal". În 2020, Todorenko a devenit membru al juriului show-ului muzical "Maska" (versiunea rusească a formatului internațional al emisiunii "The Masked Singer") la canalul NTV. Premiera a avut loc la 1 martie 2020.

Actorie
La 28 august 2017 a avut loc premiera spectacolului "Dă-ți soția la lombard" (în rus. «Заложи жену в ломбард») la "Teatrul de pe Serpuhovka" din Moscova, în care Reghina Todorenko joacă rolul principal.

Contracte de publicitate

Reghina Todorenko colaborează activ cu diferite agenții de publicitate pe pagina sa de Instagram, preponderent cu producători de produse cosmetice, articole de vestimentație și articole pentru copii. În 2019, versiunea rusească a revistei Forbes a plasat-o pe locul doi în clasamentul celor mai bine plătite vedete de Instagram din Rusia, cu un venit de 0,86 milioane de dolari între 1 iunie 2018 și 31 mai 2019 și 7 milioane de abonați. Todorenko nu a confirmat sau infirmat această sumă.

Potrivit informațiilor publicate de agenția de publicitate SALO în ziarul Kommersant, la sfârșitul anului 2019 veniturile Reghinei Todorenko obținute de pe canalul său de YouTube se ridicau la 26 de milioane de ruble, costul total de producție al videoclipurilor fiind estimat la 5,2 milioane de ruble. În clasamentul după venituri a youtuber-ilor ruși din categoria "interviuri", ea îi cedează doar lui Iuri Dudi.

Todorenko este ambasador digital al L'Oréal Paris Rusia. A reprezentat marca la Festivalul Internațional de Film de la Cannes în 2017 și 2018, L'Oréal fiind marcă parteneră a ceremoniei. Ea a defilat pe covorul roșu și a urmărit prezentarea oficială a premierelor cinematografice.

Din septembrie 2018, Reghina Todorenko este ambasadorul mărcii italiene Calzedonia în Rusia. În septembrie 2019, ea a devenit ambasador în Rusia și al mărcii australiene Aussie.

În urma scandalului din 2020 legat de declarațiile sale cu privire la violența în familie, Todorenko a pierdut unele contracte de publicitate cu PepsiCo și Procter & Gamble.

Viață personală
La 25 iulie 2018, Todorenko și-a anunțat logodna cu cântărețul rus Vlad Topalov. Cei doi și-au oficializat relația la 25 octombrie 2018. La 5 decembrie 2018, în familia lor s-a născut un fiu, Mihail, pe care părinții îl numesc adesea "Michael".

Nunta Reghinei Todorenko și a lui Vlad Topalov a avut loc la 3 iulie 2019, la Sorrento, Italia.

În aprilie 2020, Todorenko s-a pomenit în mijlocul unui scandal provocat de declarațiile sale referitoare la violența în familie, precum că "femeii bătute îi place să se prefacă victimă", dar mai ales afirmația "Ce ai făcut ca să nu te bată?". Ca reacție, revista Glamour i-a retras titlul "Femeia Anului" oferit în 2019, iar prezentatoarea și-a cerut scuze public. La 3 mai, Reghina a publicat un clip intitulat "Ce am făcut ca să ajut?", dedicat problemei violenței în familie.. Pe pagina sa de Instagram, artista a scris următoarele: "Poate a fost nevoie să-mi pierd într-o zi titlurile, contractele și încrederea spectatorilor pentru a auzi vocile care au nevoie de ajutor. Dacă veți privi acest film, atunci nu a fost totul în zadar."

Premii și recunoaștere

Premii
Cu italic sunt evidențiate premiile obținute în colaborare.

Clasamente

Discografie

Albume de studio
Ca membră a Real O
 2010 - Platie (rus. Платье – "Rochia")

Solo
 2016 - Fire

Single-uri
 2015: "Heart's Beating"
 2015: «Биение сердца» ("Bienie serdța"; din rus. "Bătaia inimii")
 2015: «Ты мне нужен» ("Tî mne nujen"; din rus. "Am nevoie de tine")
 2016: «Мама» ("Mama")
 2016: "Liverpool"

Videoclipuri

Note

Legături externe
 Site oficial

Nașteri în 1990
Nașteri pe 14 iunie
Prezentatori de televiziune din Rusia
Prezentatori de televiziune din Ucraina
Cântărețe ucrainene
Cântărețe ruse
Cântărețe din secolul al XXI-lea
Compozitori ucraineni
Călători
Oameni în viață

Reghina Todorenko


ايزنهايم المخادع  هي قصة قصيرة من الأدب الأمريكي ألفها ستيفن ميلهاوزر Steven Millhauser تروي قصة شاب ولد عام 1895 في عاصمة سلوفاكيا( براتيسلافا ) و عمل في السحر و كان يقوم بتقديم العروض في المسارح و قد تم تحويل القصة إلى فيلم سينمائي عام 2006.ويقوم باستدعاء الأرواح.

أدب أمريكي
قصص قصيرة

أيزنهايم المخادع


السنافر  هو مسلسل رسوم متحركة أمريكي، أنتج سنة 1981 من قبل شركة هانا-باربيرا، وبني على القصص المصورة السنافر  البلجيكي للمؤلف بييو وبث في حوالي 256 حلقة، وحوى اجمالا 421 قصة، وكانت مدة عرض كل حلقة 22 دقيقة.

تمت دبلجة المسلسل للغات عدة بينها اللغة العربية من إنتاج لبناني وبثت تلك النسخة في الثمانينيات والتسعينيات في معظم القنوات التلفزيونية العربية. وتم حديثاً في لبنان إعادة دبلجته للعربية وهو يعرض على قناة كرتون نتورك بالعربية.

وقد تم إنتاج فيلمين عامي 2012 و2014 بصيغة 3D عرضا في دور السينما في معظم الدول.

الأصوات العربية

نسخة إستوديو لبنان والمشرق
 عبد الكريم عمر - بابا سنفور (الصوت الأول)، سنفور كسول (الصوت الأول)
 سمير معلوف - سنفور مفكر، غضبان
 سميرة بارودي - سنفور غبي، مرعوش، سنفور مغرور، شندوخة
 إيلي ضاهر - بابا سنفور (الصوت الثاني)، سنفور كسول (الصوت الثاني)
 جوزيف نانو - شرشبيل
 سمارة نهرا - سنفورة
 إلفيرا يونس - سنفور مازح، سنفور شاعر، عازف، حالم، الراوية في شارة البداية
 إدوار الهاشم - سنفور مغرور
 عمر الشماع - سنفور قوي (الصوت الأول)
 مادلين طبر - رسام، وسخ، خدوم
 وليم عتيق - سنفور شاطر (الصوت الثاني)، سنفور دلول
 طوني يونس - سنفور قوي (الصوت الثاني)
 يوسف فخري - سنفور مغرور
 علاء احمدرشاد - سنفور قذر وعازف وفلورا بيل

نسخة فيلملي
 وفاء طربيه
 سمير شمص
 سمير معلوف
 سمارة نهرا
 ألسي فرنينة (مدرجة باسم السي فرنيني)
 مارسيل مارينا
 صبحي عيط
 إسماعيل نعنوع (مدرجة باسم إسماعيل نعنوع)
 نوال حجازي
 أسعد رشدان
 زينة ملكي
 غسان سالم
 كاتيا أبو دامس (مدرجة باسم كاتيا أبو دامس)
 ديانا إبراهيم (مدرجة باسم ديانا إبراهيم)
 جهاد الأندري (مدرجة باسم جهاد الاندري)
 ميرنا مكرزل (مدرجة باسم ميرنا مكزل)
 أنطوانيت عقيقي (مدرجة باسم انطوانيت عقيقي)
 شربل زيادة (مدرجة باسم شربل زياده)
 بيير داغر (مدرجة باسم بيار داغر)

نسخة إيمدج برودكشن هاوس
 سمير شمص - بابا سنفور
 إسماعيل نعنوع - شرشبيل
 عبدو حكيم - سنفور غبي، سنفور حالم، الملك جيرالد
 بيان أبو شقرا - سنفور مفكر، سنفور مغرور، هلهول
 سهير ناصر الدين - سنفورة
 حسان حمدان - سنفور قوي، سنفور مازح، سنفور كسلان
 سعد حمدان - سنفور أكول، سنفور غضبان، سنفور رسام، بابا الوقت
 ريتشارد ياني - سنفور شاطر، سنفور شاعر
 سيلينا شويري - الأم الطبيعة، جعلوكة
 حسن مهدي - سنفور قذر
 رالين داغر - سنفور خائف
 زينة ضاهر
 جيهان ملا
 إبراهيم ماضي
 شربل أيوب

الدبلجة مركز الزهرة

 مروان فرحات - بابا سنفور، سنفور شاطر

 محمد خير أبو حسون - شرشبيل
 عادل أبو حسون - سنفور غبي، سنفور غضبان
 رأفت بازو - سنفور حالم، سنفور مازح
 مروان أبو شاهين - الملك جيرالد
 خلدون قاروط - سنفور مفكر
 يحيى الكفري - سنفور مغرور
 رغدة الخطيب - هلهول، سنفورة
 إياس أبو غزالة - سنفور قوي
 جاك دانيو - سنفور كسلان، سنفور شاعر
 هيثم عساف - سنفور أكول
 جمال نصار - سنفور رسام
 محمد خير عليوي - بابا الوقت
 سمر كوكش - الأم الطبيعة
 أنجي اليوسف - جعلوكة
 محمد حداقي - سنفور قذر
 أمل عمران - سنفور خائف

مراجع

وصلات خارجية

 The Smurfs at Big Cartoon DataBase
 The Smurfs at mushroomvillage.com

السحر في مسلسلات تلفزيونية
برامج تلفزيون أساهي
برامج تلفزيونية باللغة الإنجليزية
برامج تلفزيونية في القناة الرابعة البريطانية
برامج تلفزيونية مبنية على أفلام
برامج شبكة هيئة الإذاعة الوطنية
سنافر
سنافر
عروض تلفزيونية تقع أحداثها في غابات
عروض رسوم متحركة تلفزيونية أمريكية تتميز بشخصيات مجسمة
مسلسلات أكشن أمريكية
مسلسلات أمريكية انتهت في 1989
مسلسلات أمريكية انتهت في 1990
مسلسلات تلفزيونية أطفال كوميدية أمريكية في عقد 1980
مسلسلات تلفزيونية أمريكية بدأ عرضها في 1981
مسلسلات تلفزيونية تقع أحداثها في العصور الوسطى
مسلسلات تلفزيونية مبنية على قصص مصورة بلجيكية
مسلسلات تلفزيونية من قبل هانا-باربيرا
مسلسلات رسوم متحركة تلفزيونية أمريكية في عقد 1980
مسلسلات رسوم متحركة تلفزيونية أمريكية في عقد 1990
مسلسلات رسوم متحركة تلفزيونية أمريكية للأطفال
مسلسلات رسوم متحركة تلفزيونية كوميدية أمريكية للأطفال
مسلسلات رسوم متحركة فانتازيا تلفزيونية أمريكية للأطفال
مسلسلات رسوم متحركة مدبلجة للعربية
مسلسلات رسوم متحركة مغامرات تلفزيونية أمريكية للأطفال
واشنطن ويزاردز في تلفاز

السنافر (مسلسل)


An Brachiaria pubescens in uska species han Liliopsida nga syahan ginhulagway ni Emilio Chiovenda, ngan ginhatag han pagkayana nga asya nga ngaran ni Sylvia Mabel Phillips. An Brachiaria pubescens in nahilalakip ha genus nga Brachiaria, ngan familia nga Poaceae.

Mabibilngan ini ha Ethiopia. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Brachiaria

Brachiaria pubescens


Çamköy, Muğla ilinin Milas ilçesine bağlı bir mahalledir.

Coğrafya
Milas ile ilçenin sayfiye yeri mahiyetinde olan Ören Mahallesi yolu üzerinde olup, ilçeye 13 km, Muğla iline 82 km uzaklıktadır.

Nüfus

Dış bağlantılar
 MEB
 Muğla Sağlık Müdürlüğü

Milas'ın mahalleleri

Çamköy, Milas


تيمون وبومبا  هو مسلسل كرتون من إنتاج ديزني مقتبس من الفيلم الأسد الملك، وقد دبلج إلى اللهجة المصرية العامية بإلاضافة إلى اللغة العربية الفصحى.

قصة
أحداث المسلسل حول تيمون (ميركات) هو شخص كسول دائما يستغل صديقه بومبا وينسب أفكاره إليه ويحب المال والسلطة والقوة ويحب نفسه كثيرا ومع ذلك يحب صديقه بومبا أيضا، وأما بومبا (خنزير ثؤلولي) فهو طيب القلب لا يحمل في قلبه أي مشاعر خبيثة وهو عكس صديقه تيمون لا يحب المال ولا السلطة ولا القوة ولا الأفعال الشريرة ويحب مساعدة الأخرين ونشيط دائما ويحب تيمون جدا. وعدد حلقات المسلسل 85 حلقة. عدد المواسم 3 من (1995-1999) و عرض على قناة ديزني عربية في (1997-2001).

الأصوات العربية في النسخة المصرية
 محمد هنيدي (تيمون)
 سامي صلاح (بومبا)
 زايد فؤاد (بومبا)
 جلال الهجرسي (بومبا)
 سامي عبد الحليم (بنزاي)
 سلوى محمد علي (شينزي)
 مؤمن البرديسي (رافيكي)
 هشام نور (سِمبا)
 عادل خلف (زازو)
 كريم الحسيني
 سمير حبيب
 عماد العروسي
 شهاب إبراهيم
 حنان يوسف
 فانيا اكسرجيان
 سعيد الصالح
 سامي مغاوري

روابط خارجية

مراجع

آلف في الثقافة الشعبية
أشباح في مسلسلات تلفزيونية
الأسد الملك
برامج تلفزيونية باللغة الإنجليزية
برامج تلفزيونية في القناة الرابعة البريطانية
برامج تلفزيونية مبنية على أفلام
برامج سي بي إس
تلفاز عن بيغ فوت
توون ديزني
الجن في التلفاز
رسوم متحركة أميركية
عروض تلفزيونية تقع أحداثها في إفريقيا
عروض رسوم متحركة تلفزيونية أمريكية تتميز بشخصيات مجسمة
عروض رسوم متحركة تلفزيونية مبنية على أفلام
عروض قناة ديزني
مسلسلات أمريكية انتهت في 1999
مسلسلات تلفزيونية أمريكية بدأ عرضها في 1995
مسلسلات تلفزيونية عن تنانين
مسلسلات تلفزيونية عن شبح
مسلسلات رسوم متحركة تلفزيونية أمريكية في عقد 1990
مسلسلات رسوم متحركة تلفزيونية أمريكية للأطفال
مسلسلات رسوم متحركة تلفزيونية عن الثدييات
مسلسلات رسوم متحركة تلفزيونية عن تنانين
مسلسلات رسوم متحركة تلفزيونية كوميدية أمريكية للأطفال
مسلسلات رسوم متحركة فانتازيا تلفزيونية أمريكية للأطفال
مسلسلات رسوم متحركة مدبلجة للعربية
مسلسلات رسوم متحركة مغامرات تلفزيونية أمريكية للأطفال
مسلسلات شبكة سي بي إس

تيمون وبومبا (مسلسل كرتوني)


Petter (Pekka) Wilhelm Heikkinen (Nilsiä, 24 de abril de 1883 – Helsinque, 4 de fevereiro de 1959) foi um fazendeiro e político finlandês. Ele serviu como ministro do Comércio e Indústria no primeiro governo de Juho Sunila e no terceiro governo de Kyösti Kallio e ministro da Agricultura de 1936 a 1940.

Ainda no âmbito político, Heikkinen integrou o Parlamento e presidiu o Sindicato dos Camponeses da Liga Agrária. Após seu mandato ministerial em 1940, foi eleito governador da antiga província de Kuopio, cargo que ocupou por uma década.

Ver também
 Governo Cajander III
 Governo Kallio III
 Governo Kallio IV
 Governo Ryti I
 Governo Ryti II
 Governo Sunila I
 Governo Sunila II

Nascidos em 1883
Mortos em 1959
Ministros da Agricultura da Finlândia
Membros do Parlamento da Finlândia
Ministros do Comércio e Indústria da Finlândia

Pekka Heikkinen


Vladas Damulevičius (* 27. August 1955 in der Oblast Irkutsk, Sowjetunion) ist ein litauischer Politiker, Vizebürgermeister von Šiauliai.

Leben
Nach dem Abitur an der Mittelschule absolvierte Damulevičius 1979 das Diplomstudium des Bauingenieurwesens an der Institut für Bauwesen in Vilnius. Von 2001 bis 2002 war er stellvertretender Bürgermeister von Šiauliai und danach Gehilfe des Seimas-Mitglieds Vidmantas Žiemelis. Von 2008 bis 2013 arbeitete Damulevičius als Verwaltungsdirektor der Stadtgemeinde Šiauliai. Er war Mitglied der Partei Tėvynės sąjunga.

Damulevičius ist verheiratet und hat zwei Kinder.

Einzelnachweise

Stellvertretender Bürgermeister (Šiauliai)
Kommunalbeamter (Šiauliai)
Kommunalverwaltungsdirektor (Litauen)
Absolvent der Technischen Universität Vilnius
TS-LKD-Mitglied
Litauer
Mann
Geboren 1955
Politiker (21. Jahrhundert)
Sowjetbürger

Vladas Damulevičius


Anagram, bir sözcüğün veya sözcük grubunun harflerinin değişik düzenle başka bir sözcüğü veya sözcük grubunu oluşturmasıdır. Edebiyatta, bazı özel adların saklanması amacıyla yapılan bir incelik gösterisidir. Özge – göze, Bahri - ihbar vb.

Popüler kültürde

Anagramlara popüler kültürde de sık sık rastlanır. Örneğin "The Simpsons" çizgi filminde Bart isimli karakterin adı İngilizce 'yaramaz, anlamına gelen 'brat'ten türetilmiştir. Tom Marvolo Riddle isminden ise "I am Lord Voldemort" cümlesi türetilmiştir. Güncel ve bilindik bir diğer örnek olarak İngiliz yazar Samuel Butler'ın "Erewhon" adlı eseri verilebilir. Bu isim İngilizcedeki 'nowhere' kelimesinden anagram yoluyla üretilmiştir. Esas anlamı 'hiçbir yer' olmasına rağmen, yazarın yorumuna göre 'her şeyin bittiği yer' anlamında kullanılmıştır.

Ayrıca bakınız
 Ananim

Edebiyat terimleri
Söz sanatları
Fransızcadan Türkçeye geçen sözcükler

Anagram


Ovo je popis grofova Vermandoisa. Vjerojatno najpoznatiji grof bio je Herbert II., koji je zarobio tadašnjeg franačkog kralja Karla Glupog. Herbertova je sestra bila kraljica Beatrica Vermandoiska, žena kralja Roberta I.

Rani grofovi
Leodegar od Vermandoisa
Emerannus
Wagon I.
Wagon II.
Bertruda
Garifrede
Ingomar od Vermandoisa

Grofovi Vermandoisa i opati Saint Quentin de Montea
Bernard, sin Karla Martela
Jeronim od Vermandoisa
Fulrad
Guntard od Vermandoisa
Hugo (opat Saint-Quentina)
Adalard od Vermandoisa
Balduin I. Flandrijski

Nibelungidi
Teodorik, grof Vermandoisa

Karolinzi (dinastija Herberta)
Pipin II., sin kralja Bernarda Talijanskog
Pipin III. od Vermandoisa
Herbert I. – brat Pipina III.
Herbert II., sin svog prethodnika; muž princeze Adele te otac Adalberta, Roberta i Herberta Starijeg od Omoisa
Adalbert I., sin Herberta II. (otac Otona od Chinyja?)
Herbert III., sin Adalberta I.
Adalbert II.

Oton, brat Adalberta II.
Herbert IV.
Adelajda od Vermandoisa, kći Herberta IV.

Dinastija Capet
Hugo, grof Vermandoisa, sin Henrika I. i Ane Kijevske
Rudolf I. od Vermandoisa
Rudolf II. od Vermandoisa
Elizabeta od Vermandoisa
Filip od Elzasa
Eleonora od Vermandoisa
Nakon smrti gospe Eleonore, Vermandois je postao vlasništvo kralja Filipa II. Francuskog.

Luj
Posljednji grof Vermandoisa bio je Luj, sin kralja Luja XIV. Francuskog i njegove ljubavnice Louise de La Vallière.

Izvori

Francuski grofovi

Grofovi Vermandoisa


Consilierul de stat (în ) a fost o poziție civilă (clasă) în Imperiul Rus, în conformitate cu Tabelul rangurilor introdus de Petru cel Mare în 1722. Era un rang civil de gradul 5, echivalent cu gradele de general de brigadă în Armata, căpitan-comandor în Marină și Mareșal al Curții sau Mare Paharnic la Curtea Imperială. În 1796 gradul de general de brigadă a fost desființat în Armată, deci rangul de consilier de stat a fost plasat între gradele de general-maior și colonel. Până în 1856, rangul nobiliar de consilier de stat era transmis ereditar; mai târziu, pragul de acces în nobilime a fost ridicat la gradul 4. Formula de adresare către deținătorul acestui rang trebuia să fie Înălțimea voastră de neam înalt (în ).

Privire de ansamblu
Consilierii de stat serveau de obicei ca viceguvernatori, vicedirectori ai departamentelor guvernamentale sau  președinți ai instituțiilor de stat. Pe la mijlocul secolului al XIX-lea, acest rang era cel mai mic dintre rangurile superioare ale funcționarilor statului. Acest grup de funcționari (de la gradul 1 la gradul 5) a reprezentat instituția de stat cea mai înaltă ce punea în practică politica guvernului. Deținătorii acestei poziții se bucurau de privilegii speciale și salarii mari. Inițial, pentru a accede la rangul de consilier de stat, un candidat trebuia să petreacă cinci ani într-un rang inferior.

Rangul a fost abolit în 1917 prin decretul sovietic cu privire la moșii și rangurile civile.

Referințe

Aristocrația rusă

Consilier de stat (Rusia)