In United States labor law, at-will employment is an employer's ability to dismiss an employee for any reason (that is, without having to establish "just cause" for termination), and without warning, as long as the reason is not illegal (e.g. firing because of the employee's gender, sexual orientation, race, religion, or disability status). When an employee is acknowledged as being hired "at will", courts deny the employee any claim for loss resulting from the dismissal. The rule is justified by its proponents on the basis that an employee may be similarly entitled to leave their job without reason or warning. The practice is seen as unjust by those who view the employment relationship as characterized by inequality of bargaining power.

At-will employment gradually became the default rule under the common law of the employment contract in most U.S. states during the late 19th century, and was endorsed by the U.S. Supreme Court during the Lochner era, when members of the U.S. judiciary consciously sought to prevent government regulation of labor markets. Over the 20th century, many states modified the rule by adding an increasing number of exceptions, or by changing the default expectations in the employment contract altogether. In workplaces with a trade union recognized for purposes of collective bargaining, and in many public sector jobs, the normal standard for dismissal is that the employer must have a "just cause". Otherwise, subject to statutory rights (particularly the discrimination prohibitions under the Civil Rights Act), most states adhere to the general principle that employer and employee may contract for the dismissal protection they choose. At-will employment remains controversial, and remains a central topic of debate in the study of law and economics, especially with regard to the macroeconomic efficiency of allowing employers to summarily and arbitrarily terminate employees.

Definition
At-will employment is generally described as follows: "any hiring is presumed to be 'at will'; that is, the employer is free to discharge individuals 'for good cause, or bad cause, or no cause at all,' and the employee is equally free to quit, strike, or otherwise cease work." In an October 2000 decision largely reaffirming employers' rights under the at-will doctrine, the Supreme Court of California explained:

At-will employment disclaimers are a staple of employee handbooks in the United States. It is common for employers to define what at-will employment means, explain that an employee's at-will status cannot be changed except in a writing signed by the company president (or chief executive), and require that an employee sign an acknowledgment of their at-will status. However, the National Labor Relations Board has opposed as unlawful the practice of including in such disclaimers language declaring that the at-will nature of the employment cannot be changed without the written consent of senior management.

History
The original common law rule for dismissal of employees according to William Blackstone envisaged that, unless another practice was agreed, employees would be deemed to be hired for a fixed term of one year. Over the 19th century, most states in the North adhered to the rule that the period by which an employee was paid (a week, a month or a year) determined the period of notice that should be given before a dismissal was effective. For instance, in 1870 in Massachusetts, Tatterson v. Suffolk Manufacturing Company held that an employee's term of hiring dictated the default period of notice. By contrast, in Tennessee, a court stated in 1884 that an employer should be allowed to dismiss any worker, or any number of workers, for any reason at all. An individual, or a collective agreement, according to the general doctrine of freedom of contract could always stipulate that an employee should only be dismissed for a good reason, or a "just cause", or that elected employee representatives would have a say on whether a dismissal should take effect. However, the position of the typical 19th-century worker meant that this was rare.

The at-will practice is typically traced to a treatise published by Horace Gray Wood in 1877, called Master and Servant. Wood cited four U.S. cases as authority for his rule that when a hiring was indefinite, the burden of proof was on the servant to prove that an indefinite employment term was for one year.  In Toussaint v. Blue Cross & Blue Shield of Michigan, the Court noted that "Wood's rule was quickly cited as authority for another proposition." Wood, however, misinterpreted two of the cases which in fact showed that in Massachusetts and Michigan, at least, the rule was that employees should have notice before dismissal according to the periods of their contract.

In New York, the first case to adopt Wood's rule was Martin v. New York Life Insurance Company (1895). Justice Edward T. Bartlett wrote that New York law now followed Wood's treatise, which meant that an employee who received $10,000, paid in a salary over a year, could be dismissed immediately. The case did not make reference to the previous authority. Four years earlier, Adams v. Fitzpatrick (1891) had held that New York law followed the general practice of requiring notice similar to pay periods. However, subsequent New York cases continued to follow the at-will rule into the early 20th century.

Some courts saw the rule as requiring the employee to prove an express contract for a definite term in order to maintain an action based on termination of the employment.  Thus was born the U.S. at-will employment rule, which allowed discharge for no reason. This rule was adopted by all U.S. states.  In 1959, the first judicial exception to the at-will rule was created by one of the California Courts of Appeal.  Later, in a 1980 landmark case involving ARCO, the Supreme Court of California endorsed the rule first articulated by the Court of Appeal. The resulting civil actions by employees are now known in California as Tameny actions for wrongful termination in violation of public policy.

Since 1959, several common law and statutory exceptions to at-will employment have been created.

Common law protects an employee from retaliation if the employee disobeys an employer on the grounds that the employer ordered him or her to do something illegal or immoral. However, in the majority of cases, the burden of proof remains upon the discharged employee. No U.S. state but Montana has chosen to statutorily modify the employment at-will rule. In 1987, the Montana legislature passed the Wrongful Discharge from Employment Act (WDEA). The WDEA is unique in that, although it purports to preserve the at-will concept in employment law, it also expressly enumerates the legal basis for a wrongful discharge action. Under the WDEA, a discharge is wrongful only if: "it was in retaliation for the employee's refusal to violate public policy or for reporting a violation of public policy; the discharge was not for good cause and the employee had completed the employer's probationary period of employment; or the employer violated the express provisions of its own written personnel policy."

The doctrine of at-will employment can be overridden by an express contract or civil service statutes (in the case of government employees).  As many as 34% of all U.S. employees apparently enjoy the protection of some kind of "just cause" or objectively reasonable requirement for termination that takes them out of the pure "at-will" category, including the 7.5% of unionized private-sector workers, the 0.8% of nonunion private-sector workers protected by union contracts, the 15% of nonunion private-sector workers with individual express contracts that override the at-will doctrine, and the 16% of the total workforce who enjoy civil service protections as public-sector employees.

By state

Public policy exceptions

Under the public policy exception, an employer may not fire an employee if the termination would violate the state's public policy doctrine  or a state or federal statute.

This includes retaliating against an employee for performing an action that complies with public policy (such as repeatedly warning that the employer is shipping defective airplane parts in violation of safety regulations promulgated pursuant to the Federal Aviation Act of 1958), as well as refusing to perform an action that would violate public policy.  In this diagram, the pink states have the 'exception', which protects the employee.

, 42 U.S. states and the District of Columbia recognize public policy as an exception to the at-will rule.

The 8 states which do not have the exception are:

 Alabama
 Florida – three limited conditions can override an at-will agreement
 Georgia
 Louisiana
 Maine
 Nebraska
 New York
 Rhode Island

Implied contract exceptions

Thirty-six U.S. states (and the District of Columbia) also recognize an implied contract as an exception to at-will employment.
Under the implied contract exception, an employer may not fire an employee "when an implied contract is formed between an employer and employee, even though no express, written instrument regarding the employment relationship exists." Proving the terms of an implied contract is often difficult, and the burden of proof is on the fired employee. Implied employment contracts are most often found when an employer's personnel policies or handbooks indicate that an employee will not be fired except for good cause or specify a process for firing. If the employer fires the employee in violation of an implied employment contract, the employer may be found liable for breach of contract.

Thirty-six U.S. states have an implied-contract exception. The 14 states having no such exception are:

 Arizona
 Delaware
 Florida
 Georgia
 Indiana
 Louisiana
 Massachusetts
 Missouri
 Montana
 North Carolina
 Pennsylvania
 Rhode Island
 Texas
 Virginia

The implied-contract theory to circumvent at-will employment must be treated with caution.  In 2006, the Supreme Court of Texas in Matagorda County Hospital District v. Burwell held that a provision in an employee handbook stating that dismissal may be for cause, and requiring employee records to specify the reason for termination, did not modify an employee's at-will employment. The New York Court of Appeals, that state's highest court, also rejected the implied-contract theory to circumvent employment at will.  In Anthony Lobosco, Appellant v. New York Telephone Company/NYNEX, Respondent, the court restated the prevailing rule that an employee could not maintain an action for wrongful discharge where state law recognized neither the tort of wrongful discharge, nor exceptions for firings that violate public policy, and an employee's explicit employee handbook disclaimer preserved the at-will employment relationship.  In the same 2000 decision mentioned above, the Supreme Court of California held that the length of an employee's long and successful service, standing alone, is not evidence in and of itself of an implied-in-fact contract not to terminate except for cause.

"Implied-in-law" contracts

Eleven US states have recognized a breach of an implied covenant of good faith and fair dealing as an exception to at-will employment. The states are:

 Alabama
 Alaska
 Arizona
 California
 Delaware
 Idaho
 Massachusetts
 Montana
 Nevada
 Utah
 Wyoming

Court interpretations of this have varied from requiring "just cause" to denial of terminations made for malicious reasons, such as terminating a long-tenured employee solely to avoid the obligation of paying the employee's accrued retirement benefits.  Other court rulings have denied the exception, holding that it is too burdensome upon the court for it to have to determine an employer's true motivation for terminating an employee.

Statutory exceptions
Every state, including Montana, is at-will by default. However, Montana defaults to a probationary period, after which termination is only lawful if for good cause.

Although all U.S. states have a number of statutory protections for employees, wrongful termination lawsuits brought under statutory causes of action typically use the federal anti-discrimination statutes, which prohibit firing or refusing to hire an employee because of race, color, religion, sex, national origin, age, or handicap status. Other reasons an employer may not use to fire an at-will employee are:

for refusing to commit illegal acts – an employer is not permitted to fire an employee because the employee refuses to commit an act that is illegal.
family or medical leave – federal law permits most employees to take a leave of absence for specific family or medical problems. An employer is not permitted to fire an employee who takes family or medical leave for a reason outlined in the Family and Medical Leave Act of 1993.
in retaliation against the employee for a protected action taken by the employee – "protected actions" include suing for wrongful termination, testifying as a witness in a wrongful termination case, or even opposing what they believe, whether they can prove it or not, to be wrongful discrimination.  In the federal case of Ross v. Vanguard, Raymond Ross successfully sued his employer for firing him due to his allegations of racial discrimination.
Examples of federal statutes include:

The Equal Pay Act of 1963 (relating to discrimination on the basis of sex in payment of wages);
Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 (relating to discrimination on the basis of race, color, religion, sex, or national origin);
The Age Discrimination in Employment Act of 1967 (relating to certain discrimination on the basis of age with respect to persons of at least 40 years of age);
The Rehabilitation Act of 1973 (related to certain discrimination on the basis of handicap status);
The Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 (relating to certain discrimination on the basis of handicap status).
The National Labor Relations Act (NLRA) provides protection to employees who wish to join or form a union and those who engage in union activity. The act also protects employees who engage in a concerted activity.  Most employers set forth their workplace rules and policies in an employee handbook. A common provision in those handbooks is a statement that employment with the employer is "at-will". In 2012, the National Labor Relations Board, the federal administrative agency responsible for enforcing the NLRA, instituted two cases attacking at-will employment disclaimers in employee handbooks. The NLRB challenged broadly worded disclaimers, alleging that the statements improperly suggested that employees could not act concertedly to attempt to change the at-will nature of their employment, and thereby interfered with employees' protected rights under the NLRA.

Controversy
The doctrine of at-will employment has been heavily criticized for its severe harshness upon employees.  It has also been criticized as predicated upon flawed assumptions about the inherent distribution of power and information in the employee-employer relationship. On the other hand, conservative scholars in the field of law and economics such as Professors Richard A. Epstein and Richard Posner credit employment-at-will as a major factor underlying the strength of the U.S. economy.

At-will employment has also been identified as a reason for the success of Silicon Valley as an entrepreneur-friendly environment.

In a 2009 article surveying the academic literature from both U.S. and international sources, University of Virginia law professor J.H. Verkerke explained that "although everyone agrees that raising firing costs must necessarily deter both discharges and new hiring, predictions for all other variables depend heavily on the structure of the model and assumptions about crucial parameters." The detrimental effect of raising firing costs is generally accepted in mainstream economics (particularly neoclassical economics); for example, professors Tyler Cowen and Alex Tabarrok explain in their economics textbook that employers become more reluctant to hire employees if they are uncertain about their ability to immediately fire them. However, according to contract theory, raising firing costs can sometimes be desirable when there are frictions in the working of markets. For instance, Schmitz (2004) argues that employment protection laws can be welfare-enhancing when principal-agent relationships are plagued by asymmetric information.

The first major empirical study on the impact of exceptions to at-will employment was published in 1992 by James N. Dertouzos and Lynn A. Karoly of the RAND Corporation,<ref>James N. Dertouzos and Lynn A. Karoly, Labor Market Responses to Employer Liability (Santa Monica: RAND, 1992).</ref> which found that recognizing tort exceptions to at-will could cause up to a 2.9% decline in aggregate employment and recognizing contract exceptions could cause an additional decline of 1.8%.  According to Verkerke, the RAND paper received "considerable attention and publicity".  Indeed, it was favorably cited in a 2010 book published by the libertarian Cato Institute.

However, a 2000 paper by Thomas Miles did not find any effect upon aggregate employment, but found that adopting the implied contract exception causes use of temporary employment to rise as much as 15%.  Later work by David Autor in the mid-2000s identified multiple flaws in Miles' methodology, found that the implied contract exception decreased aggregate employment 0.8 to 1.6%, and confirmed the outsourcing phenomenon identified by Miles, but also found that the tort exceptions to at-will had no statistically significant influence.  Autor and colleagues later found in 2007 that the good faith exception does reduce job flows, and seems to cause labor productivity to rise but total factor productivity to drop.  In other words, employers forced to find a "good faith" reason to fire an employee tend to automate operations to avoid hiring new employees, but also suffer an impact on total productivity because of the increased difficulty in discharging unproductive employees.

Other researchers have found that at-will exceptions have a negative effect on the reemployment of terminated workers who have yet to find replacement jobs, while their opponents, citing studies that say "job security has a large negative effect on employment rates," argue that hedonic regressions on at-will exceptions show large negative effects on individual welfare with regard to home values, rents, and wages.

See also

Employment Rights Act 1996, for the UK approach to employment protection. See also, Contracts of Employment Act 1963, for the first modern UK law on the requirement to give reasonable notice before any dismissal.Creen v Wright (1875–76) LR 1 CPD 591 and Hill v C Parsons & Co [1972] 1 Ch 305
Employment agency
Protected concerted activity
European Social Charter
UK agency worker law
Worker Adjustment and Retraining Notification Act (WARN Act)Bammert v. Don's Super Valu, Inc., 646 N.W.2d 365 (Wis. 2002)

Notes

 References

CW Summers, 'The Contract of Employment and the Rights of Individual Employees: Fair Representation and Employment at Will' (1984) 52(6) Fordham Law Review 1082

External links

 Highstone v. Westin Engineering, Inc.'', No. 98-1548 (8/9/99) – at-will relationship must be clear to the employees

United States labor law
Human resource management
Ethically disputed working conditions
Industrial and organizational psychology

At-will employment


- حجاز كاركرد : مقام شرقي جنسه الأعلى كرد والأخفض أيضا كرد . درجته الأساسية دو وتختلف تسمياته باختلاف الدرجة الأساسية .
يبدأ هذا المقام من درجة الدو وينتهى أيضا بالدو، يقال أن أول من استعمله هو سيد درويش.

علاماته
لهذا المقام سلمين مختلفين:

السلم الأول
وهو شبه سلم مقام الحجاز كار من الدو
دو - سى - لا b - صول - فا - مى - رى b - دو
وبالتالى يكون له نفس الأبعاد.

السلم الثانى
دو - سى b - لا b - صول - فا - مى b - رى b - دو
زاد عن السلم السابق خفض المى والسى.

اغاني على مقام حجاز كار كرد

أهو ده اللي صار - سيد درويش.
يا فايتني وروحي معاك - أم كلثوم.
عودت عيني على رؤياك - أم كلثوم.
يا ظالمني - أم كلثوم.
نسّم علينا الهوى - فيروز
يا بهجة الروح - صباح فخري

مراجع

مقامات موسيقية

مقام حجاز كار كرد


المعهد العالي لعلوم التمريض بصفاقس هو مؤسسة تونسية للتعليم العالي تحت الإشراف المشترك لوزارتي الصحة العمومية والتعليم العالي والبحث العلمي والتكنولوجيا وتحت إشراف مباشر لجامعة صفاقس. ويوجد مقرها بطريق منزل شاكر بمدينة صفاقس ضمن مجموعة من ثلاث مؤسسات تعليم عال.
وطبقا لأرقام 2007 - 2008 يدرس بالمعهد 310 طالبا من بينهم 173 طالبة.

مراجع

التعليم في تونس
تعليم عال
جامعة صفاقس
معاهد علمية

المعهد العالي لعلوم التمريض بصفاقس


Mark Granovetter  es un sociólogo estadounidense de la Universidad de Stanford. Elaboró varias teorías sobre sociología moderna en los años 70.

Dentro de sus estudios sobre análisis de redes sociales y en la sociología económica, cabe destacar su teoría de «la fuerza de los lazos débiles» o de los «vínculos débiles», enunciada en 1973. Pese a ello, esta teoría está vigente en el , y valorando la evolución de la sociedad, cada vez más.

En esta teoría Granovetter argumenta cómo la coordinación social se ve más influida de lo que valoramos habitualmente por vínculos débiles establecidos con anterioridad con otros actores con los que se tiene poco o ningún contacto, carencia de vínculos emocionales y escasos lazos relacionales y no tanto como creemos por lazos más fuertes como puede ser la familia o amigos.

Granovetter comprobó cómo se depende mucho más de lo que apreciamos de estos grupos, en especial en actividades como la búsqueda de trabajo o a la hora de organizar proyectos. Esta teoría cada día cobra más vigencia, y es que la relevancia de las redes sociales así como las redes profesionales favorecen este hecho.

Algunas publicaciones

  Reimpreso en

 : estudio que confirma la hipótesis de Granovetter en una red de comunicaciones móviles.

Véase también
 Lazos interpersonales
 James Samuel Coleman
 Sociología económica
 Harrison White

Referencias

Alumnado de la Universidad de Princeton
Alumnado de la Universidad de Harvard
Miembros de la Academia Estadounidense de las Artes y las Ciencias
Profesores de la Universidad Johns Hopkins
Profesores de la Universidad Stanford
Sociólogos de Estados Unidos
Nacidos en Jersey City

Mark Granovetter


Cara Bulaya né à Kisangani le 15 août 1973, est un auteur congolais de bande dessinée.

Biographie

Œuvres

 Congo 50, 2010.

Notes et références

Naissance à Kisangani
Naissance en août 1978

Cara Bulaya


كي إل إم الخطوط الجوية الملكية الهولندية هي شركة الطيران الناقلة الوطنية لهولندا، يقع مقرها الرئيسي في العاصمة الهولندية أمستردام وتتخذ من مطار سخيبول أمستردام مركزاً لعملياتها، وتعتبر الخطوط الجوية الملكية الهولندية جزءاً من شركة الخطوط الجوية الفرنسية - كيه إل إم وذلك بعد اندماج الشركة مع شركة الخطوط الجوية الفرنسية، تقدم شركة كي إل إم خدماتها لأكثر من 125 وجهة في أوروبا، آسيا، أفريقيا وأمريكا الشمالية، وتعتبر كي إل إم عضوا في تحالف سكاي تيم.

مراجع

وصلات خارجية
 الموقع الرسمي للشركة
 تفاصيل أسطول الخطوط الجوية الملكية الهولندية

أعضاء إياتا
أمستلفين
الخطوط الجوية الفرنسية - كيه إل إم
برنامج المسافر الدائم
تحالف سكاي تيم
شركات أسست في 1967
شركات طيران أسست سنة 1919
شركات طيران هولندية
شركات متعددة الجنسيات مقرها في هولندا
شركات مقرها في شمال-هولندا
علامات تجارية هولندية
منظمات مقرها في هولندا وتحظى برعاية بملكية سامية
شركات هولندية أسست في 1919

الخطوط الجوية الملكية الهولندية


Declared monuments of Hong Kong are places, structures or buildings legally declared to receive the highest level of protection. In Hong Kong, declaring a monument requires consulting the Antiquities Advisory Board, the approval of the Chief Executive of Hong Kong as well as the publication of the notice on the Hong Kong Government Gazette.

As of February 2013, there were 101 declared monuments, of which 57 were owned by the Government and the remaining 44 by private bodies. As of 10 March 2022, there were 132 declared monuments in Hong Kong, with 56 listed on Hong Kong Island, 53 on New Territories, 14 on Kowloon, and 9 on the Outlying Islands. Under Antiquities and Monuments Ordinance, some other buildings are classified as Grades I, II and III historic buildings, and are not listed below.

Monument declaration and historic buildings grading system

There was no direct link between graded buildings and monuments. As of July 2007, 607 buildings had been graded (since 1980), 54 of these, including five Grade I buildings, had been demolished. As of August 2007, of 151 buildings classified as Grade I, only 28 pre-war buildings have been declared monuments since 1980.

On 26 November 2008, the Antiquities Advisory Board announced that the declaration of monuments would be related to the grading of historic buildings.

Proposed monuments
The Antiquities Authority (the Secretary for Development) may declare a building facing a demolition risk a proposed monument, thus providing the building with immediate protection against demolition. A Declaration of "proposed" status is valid for twelve months and may be extended. However the affected owner may object to the "proposed" status. Five buildings were declared proposed monuments between 1982 and 2012: Ohel Leah Synagogue (later Grade I in 1990), Morrison Building (subsequently declared in 2004), Jessville (later Grade III), King Yin Lei (subsequently declared in 2008) and Ho Tung Gardens (later demolished in 2013). Hung Lau was declared a proposed monument on 9 March 2017, and subsequently retained its Grade I status.

Monuments

Hong Kong Island

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Kowloon

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New Territories

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Outlying Islands

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See also
 List of buildings and structures in Hong Kong
 List of Grade I historic buildings in Hong Kong
 List of Grade II historic buildings in Hong Kong
 List of Grade III historic buildings in Hong Kong
 Heritage Trails in Hong Kong
 History of Hong Kong

References

External links

 Declared Monuments in Hong Kong on the Antiquities and Monuments Office website
 Google Map with all locations

Declared monuments

Declared monuments of Hong Kong


Ainur, J. R. R. Tolkien kurgusal evreninde, hayat veren yaratıcı Ilúvatar tarafından ilk yaratılan ırktır.

Kelime anlamı "Kutsal Varlıklar"dır. Valar ve Maiar olarak ikiye ayrılırlar. Valar daha üstün ruhlardır, Maiar ise onların hizmetindeki daha düşük ruhlardır. Ilúvatar'ın kendileri için yaratıığı Sonsuz Odalarda yaşadılar. Her birinin, Ilúvatar'ın önünde şarkı söyleyerek onu eğlendirmesi için verilmiş güçlü bir sesi vardı. Ainur'un Müziği olarak adlandırılan ve kendi doğalarına göre baskınlık veya uyum arayan tekil ruhların oluşturduğu büyük temalardı bunlar. Bir tek sözcük ve Sönmez Ateşi ile Ilúvatar, daha sonra Eä, yani "Bilinen Dünya"yı yarattı; Elfler ve İnsanlar daha sonra ona Arda, yani Yeryüzü adını verdiler. Ainur'un bir bölümü bu yeni yaratılmış Dünyaya indiler ve Arda'nın Güçleri haline geldiler. Arda'da kendi doğalarına ve sevdikleri güçlere göre farklı biçimlere büründüler; görünür biçimlere bağlı olmamakla birlikte, genellikle bunları giysi gibi giydiler ve daha sonraki çağlarda elfler ve insanlar onları bu biçimleri ile tanıdılar.

Dünyanın Sonunda Valar ve Maiar, Sonsuz Odalardaki ırkdaşlarına katılacaklar ve geriye dönenlerin arasında Arda'da ilk olarak ortaya çıkan Eruhíni yani Ilúvatar'ın Çocukları da bulunacaktır.

Kaynakça

Orta Dünya ırkları

Ainur


Spajić je hrvatsko i srpsko prezime.

Osobe s prezimenom Spajić
Hrvoje Spajić (rođ. 1973.), hrvatski povjesničar
Ljubiša Spajić (1926. – 2004.), jugoslavenski nogometaš i trener
Stjepan Spajić (1952. – 2004.), hrvatski poduzetnik
Svetlana Spajić (rođ. 1971.), srpska pjevačica

Izvori

Hrvatska prezimena
Srpska prezimena

Spajić


Cynthia Henri McLeod  (Paramaribo, 4 de outubro de 1936) é uma romancista surinamesa conhecida por seus romances históricos e cujo romance de estreia a tornou uma das autoras mais proeminentes do Suriname.

Biografia
McLeod nasceu em Paramaribo com o nome de Cynthia Ferrier; ela é filha de Johan Ferrier, o primeiro presidente do Suriname. Ela é meia-irmã de Kathleen Ferrier, uma política holandesa.

Cynthia concluiu o ensino médio no Suriname e continuou seus estudos na Holanda, onde estudou para se tornar professora de Educação Infantil. Ela conheceu o Dr. Donald McLeod na Holanda, casando-se com ele e passando a ser chamada de Cynthia Henri McLeod. Como professora, escreveu vários contos infantis que foram publicados na série Van Hier en daar en Overal. Além disso, ela participou de projetos educacionais. Em 1962 ela e seu marido foram para o Suriname. Cynthia estudou para se formar em língua holandesa e literatura holandesa. De 1969 a 1978 ela ensinou língua e literatura holandesa na Universidade de Paramaribo. Seu marido, Donald McLeod, foi nomeado em 1978 como Embaixador do Suriname na Venezuela. Durante sua estada na Bélgica, ela teve a oportunidade de fazer pesquisas nos arquivos de Haia, Amsterdã, Rotterdam, Emmerich e Köln.

Em 1986, os McLeods retornaram ao Suriname e em 1987 seu romance de estreia Hoe duur was de suiker? (The Cost of Sugar) foi publicado pela editora Vaco em Paramaribo. A primeira edição esgotou em poucas semanas e Cynthia McLeod tornou-se a escritora surinamesa mais famosa da noite para o dia. Mais tarde, este romance histórico sobre a indústria da cana-de-açúcar no século 18 foi publicado sob licença por sua editora holandesa Conserve . O livro de romance foi posteriormente transformado em filme com o mesmo nome, e transmitida como uma minissérie pela VARA Television. Logo surgiram outros romances históricos de sua mão, como Herinneringen aan Mariënburg.

McLeod também escreveu livros para crianças. Os mais importantes são Lafu (1992) e Toen het vakantie was (1999).

Elisabeth Samson
McLeod estudou a vida de Elisabeth Samson por mais de onze anos. Samson era uma mulher negra livre cujo nome aparece com destaque em obras históricas sobre o Suriname porque ela queria se casar com um homem branco (o que era proibido na colônia do Suriname durante a primeira metade do século XVIII). Os resultados desta pesquisa foram publicados pela primeira vez como um estudo da Faculdade de Antropologia Cultural da Universidade de Utrecht. Por oito anos subsequentes, McLeod estudou a estrutura social e a vida daquele período, o que lhe permitiu posicionar Elisabeth como uma negra rica e livre nesta sociedade dominada por preconceitos e supremacia branca. Ela então escreveu o romance The Free Negress Elisabeth.

McLeod considerou vergonhoso o estado degradado da Elisabeth Samson House e estabeleceu a Fundação Elisabeth Samson para restaurar o edifício à sua condição original. O edifício foi comprado pela Fundação Elisabeth Samson em 19 de janeiro de 2021. Ele será restaurado à sua forma original. Após a restauração, o prédio será transformado no Museu Elisabeth Samson.

Outras atividades

Como resultado de sua pesquisa, McLeod adquiriu um rico conhecimento sobre a história do Suriname, conhecimento que ela compartilha com prazer com outras pessoas. Ela organiza viagens educacionais gratuitas para jovens escolares do Suriname com sua embarcação motorizada, a Sweet Merodia . Durante esses passeios pelos rios do Suriname, passando por antigas plantações, ela cativa seu público com histórias sobre seu passado interessante. Ela ainda se envolve em passeios pela cidade histórica pelo centro histórico de Paramaribo, que é um Patrimônio Mundial da UNESCO desde 2002.

Bibliografia

Bibliografia

 Irmão Mambo: Encontrando a África na Amazônia, JD Lenoir com Phil Ceder (Kutukutu). Escritores da Rosa Negra, 2022.

Ligações externas

 Cynthia McLeod na Biblioteca Digital de Literatura Holandesa (em holandês (em holandês - Hoe duur was de suiker e Herinneringen aan Mariënburg disponível para download gratuito)
 Cynthia McLeod em Werkgroep Caraïbische Letteren (em holandês)

Historiadoras
Escritoras do século XXI
Historiadores do século XXI
Escritoras do século XX
Historiadores do século XX
Filhos de presidentes
Naturais de Paramaribo
Pessoas vivas
Nascidos em 1936
!Mais Teoria da História na Wiki (Editatona Mais Pretas)
!Mais Teoria da História na Wiki (Mais Pretas)

Cynthia McLeod


U njemačkom jeziku postoji:

 6 glagolskih vremena: prezent, preterit, perfekt, pluskvamperfekt, futur I. i futur II.
 3 glagolska načina: indikativ, konjunktiv i imperativ
 3 glagolska stanja: aktiv, pasiv zbivanja i pasiv stanja
 3 glagolska lica: prvo, drugo i treće
 2 glagolska broja: jednina i množina
 uz to postoje i infinitiv, particip I i particip II.
NB: Iako u ovim tablicama nisu navedene, u njemačkom jeziku osobne zamjenice uvijek dolaze uz glagole u svim vremenima.

Nesprezivi glagolski oblici

Infinitiv
Infinitiv je osnovni oblik glagola u kojem se glagol obično navodi u rječnicima. Infinitiv ne određuje nijednu od gramatičkih kategorija glagola.

Infinitiv u njemačkom jeziku obično završava na -en.

 sag-en
 arbeit-en
 woll-en
 hab-en
 schlaf-en
Kod glagola koji završavaju na -er i -el nastavak je -n:

 lächel-n
 meister-n
 verlänger-n
 erweiter-n

Postoje i složeni infinitivi koji se tvore od pomoćnih glagola:

 Pasiv zbivanja: gesehen werden (pomoćni glagol werden i particip II. glagola)
 Pasiv stanja: gesehen sein (pomoćni glagol sein i particip II. glagola)
 Perfekt: gesehen haben (pomoćni glagol haben ili sein i particip II. glagola)
 Perfekt pasiva zbivanja: gesehen worden sein (pomoćni glagol sein, particip II. pomoćnog glagola werden i particip II. glagola)
 Perfekt pasiva stanja: gesehen geworden sein (pomoćni glagol sein, particip II. pomoćnog glagola sein i particip II. glagola)
 Futur (više teoretski jer se njime koristi samo u finitnom obliku): sehen werden (pomoćni glagol werden i običan infinitiv)

Upotreba bez zu
Infinitiv se sam po sebi (bez prijedloga zu) može upotrebljavati u tvorbi nekih oblika (futur, konjunktiv II.), s modalnim glagolima, ali i kod zahtjeva i davanja uputa:

 Bitte die Tür schließen. — Molimo zatvoriti vrata.
 Kartoffeln schneiden. — Krumpire narezati.

Neki glagoli također idu s infinitivom:

 Ich gehe in den Markt einkaufen. — Idem u trgovinu kupovati.
 Sie ließ ihn gehen. — Pustila ga je da ode.
 Horst fuhr einkaufen. — Horst se odvezao u kupnju (kupovati).
 Sie lernen nähen. — Uče šivati.

Rabi se i u konstrukciji akuzativa s infinitivom slično latinskom ili starogrčkom.

 Ich höre den Vogel singen.
 Čujem pticu pjevati.
 Glavni glagol + akuzativ + infinitiv
 Čujem kako ptica pjeva.
 Ich sehe ihn klettern.
 Vidim ga kako se penje.
 Er ließ mich schlafen.
 Pustio me da spavam.

Infinitivi se mogu upotrebljavati kao imenice uz član (srednji rod):

 Das Schwimmen ist gesund. — Plivanje je zdravo.

Upotreba sa zu
Poneki glagoli, pridjevi i imenice uz sebe mogu zahtijevati infinitiv s prijedlogom zu.

Kod glagola se on rabi kako bi se izbjeglo ponavljanje zamjenica, a ponekad je nužno:

 Ich freue mich, dass ich dich bald wiedersehe. > Ich freue mich, dich bald wiederzusehen. — Veselim se uskoro te opet vidjeti.
 Ich fing an, das Buch zu lesen. — Počeo sam čitati knjigu.

Rečenica s konjugiranim glagolom sein i nekim pridjevima dodaje se zu + infinitiv:

 Es ist praktisch, ein anderes Auto zu haben. — Praktično je imati još jedan automobil.
 Ich finde es interessant, Sprachen zu lernen. — Smatram da je učenje jezika zanimljivo.

Neke apstraktne imenice također primaju zu + Infinitiv:

 Ich habe keine Lust, dir vorzulesen. — Nemam ti volje čitati.
 Heute hat er keine Zeit, mir zu helfen. — Danas mi nema vremena pomoći.

Veznici anstatt, ohne i um dolaze uz zu + Infintiv:

 Ihr übt, um zu gewinnen. — Vježbate kako biste pobijedili.

Particip I.
Tvori se dodavanjem nastavka -d na infinitiv:

 laufen – laufend (hodati – hodajući)
 lächeln – lächelnd (smijati se – smijući se).
Upotrebljava se slično hrvatskom glagolskom prilogu sadašnjem, to jest participu prezenta:

 Die Kinder saßen spielend im Park. — Djeca su sjedila igrajući se u parku.
 Der lachende Mann ist Mann den ich kennenlernen will. — Smijući čovjek (čovjek koji se smije) jest čovjek kojeg želim upoznati.

Particip II.
Slabi (pravilni glagoli) tvore ga prefiksom ge- na treće lice jednine:

 fragen (er fragt) → gefragt
 passen (es passt) → gepasst
 antworten (er antwortet) → geantwortet.

Glagoli koji nisu naglašeni na prvom slogu (što je gotovo pa uvijek rezultat nenaglašena neodvojiva prefiksa ili stranog glagola kojem naglasak pada na posljednji slog -ieren ili -eien) ne dodaju prefiks ge-:

 verführen (er verführt) → verführt
 miauen (er miaut) → miaut
 probieren (er probiert) → probiert
 prophezeien (er prophezeit) → prophezeit

Nepravilni glagoli zadržavaju nastavak -en i često mijenjaju osnovu:

 laufen → gelaufen
 geben → gegeben
 gehen → gegangen
 werfen → geworfen

Odvojiv prefiks ostaje na mjestu prije ge-:

 aus|tauschen → ausgetauscht
 umverteilen → umverteilt

Razlika između glagola umfahren (ich fahre um) i umfahren (ich umfahre), jedan ima odvojiv prefiks um-, a drugi neodvojiv.

 Ich habe den Baum umgefahren. (Pregazio sam (zabio se u) stablo.)

 Ich habe den Baum umfahren. (Prošao sam oko stabla.)

Modalni i pomoćni glagoli imaju particip II. jednak infinitivu, ali kada ih se upotrebljava same, bez infinitiva, onda imaju pravilan particip.

 Ich habe den Chef besuchen dürfen. (Bilo mi je dopušteno vidjeti šefa.)

 Ich habe zum Chef gedurft. (nije uobičajeno) (Bio sam dopušten prema šefu.)

Particip drugi upotrebljava se slično hrvatskomu glagolskom pridjevu trpnom:

 Die gewaschene Wäsche hängt auf dem Balkon. — Oprano rublje visi na balkonu.
 Die Wäsche hängt gewaschen auf fem Balkon. — Rublje visi oprano na balkonu.

Vidimo da se može deklinirati kao običan pridjev (prva rečenica) ili stajati kao pridjev iza imenice (bez deklinacije).

Indikativ - aktiv

Prezent
Indikativ prezenta aktiva ili skraćeno prezent je sadašnje glagolsko vrijeme.

Glagoli koji završavaju na -t, -chn -d, -dn, -fn, -gn i -tm dodaju -e- prije nastavka (ako se tamo već ne nalazi).

Glagoli koji završavaju na -s, -ß, -x i -z u drugom licu jednine primaju nastavak -t.

Glagoli koji završavaju na -er i -el u prvom i trećem licu množine primaju nastavak -n (kao infinitiv).

Perfekt
Indikativom perfekta aktiva ili skraćeno perfektom se ponajprije izriče da je neka radnja izvršena u prošlosti, odnosno da je završena.

U svakidašnjoj komunikaciji na jugu njemačkog govornog područja prošla se radnja izriče perfektom, a na sjeveru preteritom.

Razlika između njemačkog preterita i perfekta izvorno je jednaka razlici između engleskog past i present perfect.

Perfekt se tvoru pomoću prezenta pomoćnog glagola haben (imati) i sein(biti) i participa II. glavnog glagola.

Preterit
Indikativ preterita aktiva ili skraćeno preterit izražava da je izrečena radnja, stanje ili zbivanje prošlo. Jedini je ispravan način prevođenja preterita na hrvatski jezik aoristom ili imperfektom. Budući da su aorist i imperfekt danas postali arhaični, takav se prijevod onda smatra stilski obilježenim. Ako se želi prijevod prilagoditi današnjem govoru, preterit se mora prevesti hrvatskim perfektom.

Preterit je uobičajeno vrijeme za pripovijedanje prošlih događaja u književnim dijelima.

Preterit se može tvoriti dvama načinima: slabi (pravilni) glagoli tvore ga posebnim nastavcima, a jaki glagoli mijenjaju osnovu i dodaju prezentske nastavke, ali za prvo i treće lice jednine ne dodaje se nikakav nastavak.

Pluskvamperfekt
Indikativom pluskvamperfekta aktiva ili skraćeno pluskvamperfektom se iskazuje neki događaj, gledano sa stajališta govornika, koji se zbio prije nekoga drugog prošlog događaja.

Pluskvamperfekt se tvori od preterita pomoćnog glagola haben (imati) i sein(biti) i participa II. glavnog glagola.

Futur I.
Indikativ futura I aktiva ili skraćeno futur I. sa stajališta govornika izriče buduće događanje koje još nije započelo, a osobina je nezavršenost.

Futur I. tvori se od prezenta pomoćnog glagola werden (postati) i infinitiva glavnog glagola.

Futur II.
Indikativ futura II. aktiva ili futur II. izriče buduću radnju koja ima osobinu završenosti.

Futur II. može izricati i radnju za koju pretpostavljamo da se već dogodila u prošlosti. Tada se on na hrvatski prevodi s konstrukcijom bit će da.

 Ergon wird uns nicht gesehen haben. (Bit će da nas Ergon nije vidio.)

Futur II. tvori se od prezenta pomoćnog glagola werden (postati) i infinitiva perfekta glavnog glagola.

Indikativ - pasiv zbivanja
Indikativi pasiva zbivanja označavaju nesvršenu radnju koja se vršila nad subjektom. Tvore se općenito tako da se pomoćni glagol werden (postati) stavi u željeno vrijeme te mu se doda particip II. glavnog glagola.

Glagoli koji perfekt, pluskvamperfekt i futur II. tvore pomoću pomoćnog glagola sein (biti) nemaju pasivni oblik.

Indikativ prezenta pasivnog zbivanja
Indikativ prezenta pasiva zbivanja tvori se od prezenta pomoćnog glagola werden (postati) i participa II. glavnog glagola.

Indikativ perfekta pasiva zbivanja
Indikativ perfekta pasiva zbivanja tvori se od perfekta pomoćnog glagola werden (postati) i participa II. glavnog glagola. S time da se kao pomoćni glagol za tvorbu perfekta koristi sein (biti), a particip II. glagola werden gubi prefiks ge-.

Indikativ preterita pasiva zbivanja
Indikativ preterita pasiva zbivanja tvori se od preterita pomoćnog glagola werden (postati) i participa II. glavnog glagola.

Indikativ pluskvamperfekta pasiva zbivanja
Indikativ pluskvamperfekta pasiva zbivanja tvori se od pluskvamperfekta pomoćnog glagola werden (postati) i participa II. glavnog glagola. S time da se kao pomoćni glagol za tvorbu pluskvamperfekta koristi sein (biti), a particip II. glagola werden gubi prefiks ge-.

Indikativ futura I pasiva zbivanja
Indikativ futura I pasiva zbivanja tvori se od futura I pomoćnog glagola werden (postati) i participa II. glavnog glagola.

Indikativ futura II. pasiva zbivanja
Indikativ futura II. pasiva zbivanja tvori se od futura II. pomoćnog glagola werden (postati) i participa II. glavnog glagola. S time da se kao pomoćni glagol za tvorbu futura II. koristi sein (biti), a particip II. glagola werden gubi prefiks ge-.

Indikativ - pasiv stanja
Indikativi pasiva stanja označavaju svršenu radnju koja se vršila nad subjektom. Tvore se općenito tako da se pomoćni glagol sein (biti) stavi u željeno vrijeme te mu se doda particip II. glavnog glagola.

Glagoli koji perfekt, pluskvamperfekt i futur II. tvore pomoću pomoćnog glagola sein (biti) nemaju pasivni oblik.

Indikativ prezenta pasiva stanja
Indikativ prezenta pasiva stanja tvori se od prezenta pomoćnog glagola sein (biti) i participa II. glavnog glagola.

Indikativ perfekta pasiva stanja
Indikativ perfekta pasiva stanja tvori se od perfekta pomoćnog glagola sein (biti) i participa II. glavnog glagola. S time da se kao pomoćni glagol za tvorbu perfekta također koristi pomoćni glagol sein (biti), a particip II. glagola sein ne gubi prefiks ge-.

Indikativ preterita pasiva stanja
Indikativ preterita pasiva stanja tvori se od preterita pomoćnog glagola sein (biti) i participa II. glavnog glagola.

Indikativ pluskvamperfekta pasiva stanja
Indikativ pluskvamperfekta pasiva stanja tvori se od pluskvamperfekta pomoćnog glagola sein (biti) i participa II. glavnog glagola. S time da se kao pomoćni glagol za tvorbu pluskvamperfekta također koristi pomoćni glagol sein (biti), a particip II. glagola sein ne gubi prefiks ge-.

Indikativ futura I. pasiva stanja
Indikativ futura I pasiva stanja tvori se od futura I pomoćnog glagola sein (biti) i participa II. glavnog glagola.

Indikativ futura II. pasiva stanja
Indikativ futura II. pasiva stanja tvori se od futura II. pomoćnog glagola sein (biti) i participa II. glavnog glagola. S time da se kao pomoćni glagol za tvorbu futura II. također koristi pomoćni glagol sein (biti), a particip II. glagola sein ne gubi prefiks ge-.

Upotreba konjunktiva
U njemačkom jeziku postoje dva konjunktiva, to su konjunktiv sadašnji ili konjunktiv I i konjunktiv prošli ili konjunktiv II.

Konjunktiv I.
Konjunktiv prvi obično se upotrebljava u indirektnom govoru. Razlikuje sljedeća vremena: prezent, perfekt, futur I. i futur II. (rijetko upotrebljavan).

Primjerice:

 Stefan sagt, er sei 20 Jahre alt.
 Stefan kaže da je star 20 godina.

Ova se rečenica može izreći i upotrebom vezika dass (glagol ide nakraj zavisne rečenice):

 Stefan sagt, dass er 20 Jahre alt sei.
 Stefan kaže da je 20 godina star.

Konjunktiv se može i zamijeniti indikativom (samo ako ima veznik dass):

 Stefan sagt, dass er 20 Jahre alt ist.
 Stefan kaže da je 20 godina star.
Razlika je u tome što indikativom govornik izvještava o čemu, a konjunktivom I pokazuje da nije siguran je li ono što je rekao točno. Dobri su primjeri:

 Er sagte mir, dass er nicht kommt. — Rekao je da ne dolazi. (indikativ)
 Er sagte mir auch, dass er arbeite. — Također mi je rekao da radi. (konjunktiv)

Konjunktiv I. rabi se i za pokazivanje odmaka u prepričavanju doživljaja:

 Er las das Buch und sagte mir, dass es gut sei. — Pročitao je knjigu i rekao mi da je dobra. (čini se da se govorniku ona ne sviđa, inače bi upotrijebio indikativ)

Vidimo ga i u naredbama i uputama:

 Man rühre einiges Mehl und vier Eier. — Pomiješajte nešto brašna i četiri jaja.

Vremena se u neupravnom govoru biraju na sljedeći način:

 konjunktiv I. perfekta — događaj se zbio (prije)
 konjunktiv I. prezenta — događaj se zbiva dok se govori (istodobno)
 konjunktiv I. futura — događaj će se dogoditi poslije (nakon)

U svakodnevnom se govoru konjunktiv I. zamjenjuje konjunktivom II., konjunktiv I. pojavljuje se uglavnom u pisanju, a u svakodnevnici, ako se rabi, najčešće se pojavljuje u prezentu.

Konjunktiv II.
Konjunktiv drugi rabi se za izricanje želja, sumnji i općenito bilo čega hipotetskog. Upotrebljava se za ublažavanje naredbi, za preporuke i savjete te kada bi upotreba konjunktiva prvog u indirektnom govoru mogla dovesti do zabune. Uz riječi fast or beinahe pokazuje radnje koje gotovo pa da se nisu dogodile.

Postoje oblici preterita i pluskvamperfekta.

Jedan je primjer:

 Wenn ich reich wäre, würde ich um die Welt segeln. — Kad bih bio bogat, oplovio bih svijet.

Konjunktiv - aktiv

Konjunktiv prezenta aktiva
Usporedba konjunktiva prezenta pravilna glagola s indikativom prezenta istog glagola:

Glagoli koji inače u drugom i trećem licu jednine prolaze kroz umlaut u konjunktivu nemaju tu promjenu, primjerice lesen, 2. lice jednine indikativa: liest, ali 2. lice jednine: lestest.

Glagoli biti i imati imaju sljedeće oblike:

Konjunktiv perfekta aktiva
Konjunktiv perfekta aktiva tvori se pomoću konjunktiva prezenta aktiva pomoćnog glagola haben (imati) ili sein(biti) i participa II. glavnog glagola.

Konjunktiv preterita aktiva
Konjunktiv preterita aktiva kod slabih je glagola jednak indikativu preterita aktivnog:

Jaki glagoli tvore konjunktiv preterita dodavanjem nastavaka za konjunktiv prezenta na svoje preteritne osnove. Samoglasnici a, o i u postaju ä, ö i ü.

Nastavak -e u drugom licu dodaje se radi lakšeg izgovora.

Glagoli brennen, kennen, senden, nennen, rennen i wenden dodaju slabe nastavke za preterit i ne mijenjaju samoglasnik. Glagoli bringen, denken i wissen također dodaju preteritne nastavke, ali oni ne samo da mijenjaju samoglasnk, nego i dodaju umlaut na a i u (nastaju ä i ü).

Pomoćni glagoli imaju sljedeće oblike:

Modalni glagoli imaju sljedeće oblike koji su zapravo pravilni:

Würde + infinitiv
Oblici konjunktiva preterita previše su slični indikativu i zato se rijetko upotrebljavaju, umjesto njih, rabi se konjunktiv glagola werden i infinitiv:

Pomoćni i modalni glagoli ne upotrebljavaju konstrukciju würde + infinitiv.

Konjunktiv pluskvamperfekta aktiva
Konjunktiv pluskvamperfekta aktiva tvori se pomoću konjunktiva preterita aktiva pomoćnog glagola haben (imati) ili sein(biti) i participa II. glavnog glagola.

Konjunktiv futura I aktiva
Konjunktiv futura I aktiva tvori se pomoću konjunktiva prezenta aktiva pomoćnog glagola werden (postati) i infinitiva glavnog glagola.

Konjunktiv futura II. aktiva
Konjunktiv futura II. aktiva tvori se pomoću konjunktiva futura I aktiva pomoćnog glagola werden (postati) i participa II. glavnog glagola.

Konjunktiv - pasiv zbivanja

Konjunktiv prezenta pasiva zbivanja
Konjunktiv prezenta pasiva zbivanja tvori se od konjunktiva prezenta aktiva pomoćnog glagola werden (postati) i participa II. glavnog glagola.

Konjunktiv perfekta pasiva zbivanja
Konjunktiv perfekta pasiva zbivanja tvori se od konjunktiva perfekta aktiva pomoćnog glagola werden (postati) i participa II. glavnog glagola. S time da se kao pomoćni glagol za tvorbu perfekta koristi sein (biti), a particip II. glagola werden gubi prefiks ge-.

Konjunktiv preterita pasiva zbivanja
Konjunktiv preterita pasiva zbivanja tvori se od konjunktiva preterita aktiva pomoćnog glagola werden (postati) i participa II. glavnog glagola.

Konjunktiv pluskvamperfekta pasiva zbivanja
Konjunktiv pluskvamperfekta pasiva zbivanja tvori se od konjunktiva pluskvamperfekta aktiva pomoćnog glagola werden (postati) i participa II. glavnog glagola. S time da se kao pomoćni glagol za tvorbu pluskvamperfekta koristi sein (biti), a particip II. glagola werden gubi prefiks ge-.

Konjunktiv futura I pasiva zbivanja
Konjunktiv futura I pasiva zbivanja tvori se od konjunktiva futura I aktiva pomoćnog glagola werden (postati) i participa II. glavnog glagola.

Konjunktiv futura II. pasiva zbivanja
Konjunktiv futura II. pasiva zbivanja tvori se od konjunktiva futura II. aktiva pomoćnog glagola werden (postati) i participa II. glavnog glagola. S time da se kao pomoćni glagol za tvorbu futura II. koristi sein (biti), a particip II. glagola werden gubi prefiks ge-.

Konjunktiv - pasiv stanja

Konjunktiv prezenta pasiva zbivanja
Konjunktiv prezenta pasiva stanja tvori se od konjunktiva prezenta aktiva pomoćnog glagola sein (biti) i participa II. glavnog glagola.

Konjunktiv perfekta pasiva zbivanja
Konjunktiv perfekta pasiva stanja tvori se od konjunktiv perfekta aktiva pomoćnog glagola sein (biti) i participa II. glavnog glagola. S time da se kao pomoćni glagol za tvorbu perfekta također koristi pomoćni glagol sein (biti), a particip II. glagola sein ne gubi prefiks ge-.

Konjunktiv preterita pasiva zbivanja
Konjunktiv preterita pasiva stanja tvori se od konjunktiv preterita aktiva pomoćnog glagola sein (biti) i participa II. glavnog glagola.

Konjunktiv pluskvamperfektapasiva zbivanja
Konjunktiv pluskvamperfekta pasiva stanja tvori se od konjunktiv pluskvamperfekta aktiva pomoćnog glagola sein (biti) i participa II. glavnog glagola. S time da se kao pomoćni glagol za tvorbu pluskvamperfekta također koristi pomoćni glagol sein (biti), a particip II. glagola sein ne gubi prefiks ge-.

Konjunktiv futura I pasiva zbivanja
Konjunktiv futura I pasiva stanja tvori se od konjunktiv futura I aktiva pomoćnog glagola sein (biti) i participa II. glavnog glagola.

Konjunktiv futura II. pasiva zbivanja
Konjunktiv futura II. pasiva stanja tvori se od konjunktiv futura II. aktiva pomoćnog glagola sein (biti) i participa II. glavnog glagola. S time da se kao pomoćni glagol za tvorbu futura II. također koristi pomoćni glagol sein (biti), a particip II. glagola sein ne gubi prefiks ge-.

Imperativ
Imperativni su nastavci za drugo lice jednine i množine sljedeći (u ova se dva oblika osobna zamjenica može izbaciti):

Glagoli koji inače mijenjaju osnovu u drugom licu jednine to rade i ovdje, ali to ne uključuje glagole koji dodaju umlaut pa glagol fahren ima imperativ fahr(e), a ne *fähr(e). Također, ovi glagoli gotovo nikad ne dodaju -e:

Glagoli koji završavaju na -d, -t, -ig te -m i -n uvijek dodaju nastavak -e, to jest on nije opcionalan:

Slabi glagoli čiji infinitivi završavaju na -eln ili -ern također uvijek zadržavaju -e, ali zato -e u osnovi često ispada u govornom njemačkom:

Imperativi za prvo lice množine i oblik iz poštovanja (Sie, ponaša se potpuno isto kao treće lice množine, ali piše se velikim slovom) također postoje, a izgledaju potpuno jednako indikativu prezenta aktivnog:

Modalni se glagoli ne upotrebljavaju u imperativu, a pomoćni glagol 'biti' ima sljedeće oblike:

Osnovni oblici pomoćnih glagola
Osnovni oblici pomoćnih glagola sein (biti), haben (imati) i werden (postati) koji se koriste za tvorbu složenih glagolskih oblika.

Pregled svih glagolskih oblika
Pregled svih glagolskih oblika na primjeru glagola kaufen.

Usporedba svih oblika indikativa i konjunktiva po glagolskim vremenima
Usporedba svih oblika indikativa i konjunktiva glagola kaufen po glagolskim vremenima.

Oblici indikativa prevedeni na hrvatski
Svi oblici indikativa glagola kaufen (kupiti / kupovati) u 1. licu jednine prevedeni na hrvatski.

Upotreba pomoćnih glagol sein i haben
Često se pri govorenju njemačkog jezika javlja problem oko toga treba li perfekt, pluskvamperfekt i futur II. nekog glagola tvoriti pomoćnim glagolom haben (imati) ili sein (biti).

Postoji jedan način na koji si govornici hrvatskog jezika uglavnom mogu pomoći oko te dvojbe.

Recept:

 uzme se glagol na njemačkom
 prevede se na hrvatski
 od njega se napravi glagolski pridjev trpni
 glagolski pridjev trpni stavi se u rečenicu u hrvatskom jeziku
 ako ta hrvatska rečenica ima smisla, onda je u njemačkom potrebno upotrijebiti pomoćni glagol haben (imati), ako ta rečenica u hrvatskom nema smisla, onda je u njemačkom potrebno upotrijebiti pomoćni glagol sein (biti).

Primjer 1.
Glagola sehen prevodi se na hrvatski kao gledati.

Napravi se glagolski pridjev trpni gledan.

Stavi se u rečenicu Ja sam gledan.

Rečenica ima smisla.

Dakle, na njemačkom se kaže Ich habe gesehen.

Primjer 2.
Glagola hören prevodi se na hrvatski kao čuti.

Napravi se glagolski pridjev trpni čuven.

Stavi se u rečenicu Ja sam čuven.

Rečenica ima smisla iako je malo čudna, ali značila bi nešto poput Mene se čulo.

Dakle, na njemačkom se kaže Ich habe gehört.

Primjer 3.
Glagola gehen prevodi se na hrvatski kao ići.

Napravi se glagolski pridjev trpni *iđen (u hrvatskom se glagolski pridjev trpni ne može tvoriti od neprijelaznih glagola).

Stavi se u rečenicu Ja sam *iđen.

Rečenica nema smisla.

Dakle, na njemačkom se kaže Ich bin gegangen.

Vanjske poveznice

 Collins German Dictionary

Izvori

Njemački jezik
Gramatike svjetskih jezika

Glagolski oblici u njemačkom jeziku


{{Infobox religious biography
| religion           = Sikhism
| name               = Guru Har Rai
| alt                = Guru Har Rai
| image              = Guru Har Rai, Guler-Basohli painting.jpg
| caption            = Guru Har Rai receives a devotee. Family workshop of Nainsukh of Guler, Punjab Hills, ca.1790
| birth_name         =
| birth_date         =
| birth_place        = Kiratpur Sahib, Lahore Subah, Mughal Empire
| death_date         =
| death_place        = Kiratpur Sahib, Lahore Subah, Mughal Empire
| period       = 1644–1661
| other_names        = Seventh MasterSeventh Nanak'
| predecessor        = Guru Hargobind
| successor          = Guru Har Krishan
| parents  =  Baba Gurditta (father) ,
Mata Nihal Kaur (mother)

Baba Daya Ram (father in law)
Mata Ananti (mother in law)"Sri Gur Sobha" by Sainapati"Gurbilas Patshahi 6" by Koer Singh
| spouse             = Mata Krishen Devi (also known as Sulakhni, Kot Kalyani, or Kishan Kaur)
| children           = Baba Ram Rai Guru Har Krishan
| native_name        = ਗੁਰੂ ਹਰਿ ਰਾਇ
| native_name_lang   = pa
| native name lang   = pa
| signature          = Autograph of Guru Har Rai.jpg
}}

Guru Har Rai (Gurmukhi: ਗੁਰੂ ਹਰਿ ਰਾਇ, pronunciation: ; 16 January 1630 – 6 October 1661) revered as the seventh Nanak, was the seventh of ten Gurus of the Sikh religion. He became the Sikh leader at age 14, on 3 March 1644, after the death of his grandfather and the sixth Sikh leader Guru Hargobind. He guided the Sikhs for about seventeen years, till his death at age 31.

Guru Har Rai is notable for maintaining the large army of Sikh soldiers that the sixth Sikh Guru had amassed, yet avoiding military conflict. He supported the moderate Sufi influenced Dara Shikoh instead of conservative Sunni influenced Aurangzeb as the two brothers entered into a war of succession to the Mughal Empire throne.

After Aurangzeb won the succession war in 1658, he summoned Guru Har Rai in 1660 to explain his support for the executed Dara Shikoh. Guru Har Rai sent his elder son Ram Rai to represent him. Aurangzeb kept Ram Rai as hostage, questioned Ram Rai about a verse in the Adi Granth – the holy text of Sikhs at that time. Aurangzeb claimed that it disparaged the Muslims. Ram Rai changed the verse to appease Aurangzeb instead of standing by the Sikh scripture, an act for which Guru Har Rai is remembered for excommunicating his elder son, and nominating his younger son Har Krishan to succeed him. Har Krishan became the eighth Guru at age five after Guru Har Rai's death in 1661. Some Sikh literature spell his name as Hari Rai.

Biography
Guru Har Rai was born to Ananti (also known as Nihal Kaur) and Baba Gurditta into a Sodhi Khatri household. His father died when he was 8 years old. At age 10, in 1640, Guru Har Rai was married to Mata Kishan Kaur (sometimes also referred to as Sulakhni) the daughter of Daya Ram. They had one daughter Rup Kaur and two sons, Ram Rai and Har Krishan (the latter of whom became the eighth Guru).

Guru Har Rai had brothers. His elder brother Dhir Mal had gained encouragement and support from Shah Jahan, with free land grants and Mughal sponsorship. Dhir Mal attempted to form a parallel Sikh tradition and criticized his grandfather and sixth Guru, Hargobind. The sixth Guru disagreed with Dhir Mal, and designated the younger Har Rai as the successor.

Authentic literature about Guru Har Rai life and times are scarce, he left no texts of his own and some Sikh texts composed later spell his name as "Hari Rai". Some of the biographies of Guru Har Rai written in the 18th century such as by Kesar Singh Chhibber, and the 19th-century Sikh literature are highly inconsistent.

Dara Shikoh
Guru Har Rai provided medical care to Dara Shikoh, possibly when he had been poisoned by Mughal operatives. According to Mughal records, Guru Har Rai provided other forms of support to Dara Shikoh as he and his brother Aurangzeb battled for rights to succession. Ultimately, Aurangzeb won, arrested Dara Shikoh and executed him on charges of apostasy from Islam. In 1660, Aurangzeb summoned Guru Har Rai to appear before him to explain his relationship with Dara Shikoh.

In the Sikh tradition, Guru Har Rai was asked why he was helping the Mughal prince Dara Shikoh whose forefathers had persecuted Sikhs and Sikh Gurus. Guru Har Rai is believed to have replied that if a man plucks flowers with one hand and gives it away using his other hand, both hands get the same fragrance.

After Aurangzeb won the succession war in 1658, he summoned Guru Har Rai in 1660 to explain his support for the executed Dara Shikoh. Guru Har Rai sent his elder son Ram Rai to represent him. Aurangzeb kept the 13 year old Ram Rai as 'security', questioned Ram Rai about a verse in the Adi Granth – the holy text of Sikhs. Aurangzeb claimed that it disparaged the Muslims. Ram Rai changed the meanings of the verse to appease Aurangzeb instead of standing by the Sikh scripture, an act for which Guru Har Rai excommunicated his elder son, and nominated the younger Har Krishan to succeed as the next Guru of Sikhism.

 Influence
He started several public singing and scripture recital traditions in Sikhism. The katha or discourse style recitals were added by Guru Har Rai to the sabad kirtan singing tradition of Sikhs. He also added the akhand kirtan or continuous scripture singing tradition of Sikhism, as well as the tradition of jotian da kirtan or collective folk choral singing of scriptures.

 Reforms
The third Sikh leader Guru Amar Das had started the tradition of appointing Manji (zones of religious administration with an appointed chief called sangatias), introduced the dasvandh ("the tenth" of income) system of revenue collection in the name of Guru and as pooled community religious resource, and the famed langar tradition of Sikhism where anyone, without discrimination of any kind, could get a free meal in a communal seating.

The organisational structure that had helped Sikhs to grow and resist the Mughal persecution had created new problems for Guru Har Rai. The donation collectors, some of the Masands (local congregational leaders) led by Dhir Mal – the older brother of Guru Har Rai, all of them encouraged by the support of Shah Jahan, land grants and Mughal administration – had attempted to internally split the Sikhs into competing movements, start a parallel guruship, and thereby weaken the Sikh religion. Thus a part of the challenge for Guru Har Rai was to keep Sikhs united.

He appointed new masands such as Bhai Jodh, Bhai Gonda, Bhai Nattha, Bhagat Bhagwan (for eastern India), Bhai Pheru (for Rajathan), Bhai Bhagat (also known as Bairagi), as the heads of Manjis.

Death and succession
He appointed his 5-year-old youngest son Har Krishan as the eighth Guru of the Sikhs before his death.

 Salok Mahalla Satvaan (7)
The common Sikh belief is that Guru Hargobind, Guru Har Rai and Guru Harkrishan did not contribute to any Bani at all. This is not entirely true as Guru Har Rai is said to have written the Salok Mahalla Satvaan.

This mahalla is in the Kiratpuri Bir of the Guru Granth Sahib. Although it is clearly marked as a composition of Guru Har Rai the seventh Mina Guru Miharban also used the marker leaving open the possibility of mistaken attribution. The Salok does not appear in any of the texts containing the writings of Miharban. At the same time no text about the Sikh Gurus lives reference Guru Har Rai writing Bani. It cannot therefore be securely attributed to Guru Har Rai. Gurus each had their own way of starting poems or couplets.

Guru Har Rai's was: Through the voice of Har Rai, the Guru.''

Gallery

Battles
 Battle of Sutlej

References

Bibliography

External links

 Guru Har Rai, Sikhs.org
 Guru Har Rai, Sikh-History.com
 Guru Har Rai, Official Website of Gurudwara Shri Guru Har Rai Village Bhungarni

Sikh warriors
Har Rai
1630 births
1661 deaths
Punjabi people

Guru Har Rai


Philippe-Audrey Larrue Saint-Jacques est un humoriste et acteur québécois diplômé du Conservatoire d'art dramatique de Montréal en 2010 et de l'École nationale de l'humour en 2014.

D'abord découvert par le grand public grâce à la série Like-moi !, l'humoriste a présenté un premier spectacle solo, Hélas, ce n'est qu'un spectacle d'humour, à l'été 2017. Il remporte le premier prix au festival Zoofest 2017 pour ce spectacle.

En 2019, il a tenu le rôle principal du film Les Barbares de La Malbaie du réalisateur . La même année, il tient le rôle principal de Teodore dans la web-série Teodore pas de H.

En 2021, Thomas Levac et lui-même lancent un balado humoristique, Deux Princes ou Les silences du hurlement.

Filmographie

Cinéma
 2017 : De père en flic 2 d'Émile Gaudreault : Kev
 2018 : Les Scènes fortuites de Guillaume Lambert : agent Loïc Saulnier
 2019 : Les Barbares de La Malbaie de Vincent Biron : Yves Tanguay

Notes et références

Humoriste québécois
Diplômé de l'École nationale de l'humour

Philippe-Audrey Larrue Saint-Jacques


Carolina Oliphant, Lady Nairne, née le 16 août 1766 et morte le 26 octobre 1845, également connue sous le nom de Carolina Baroness Nairn dans la pairie d'Écosse et de Baroness Keith dans celle du Royaume-Uni, est un auteur-compositeur écossais. Beaucoup de ses chansons, telles que Will you no' come back again? , Charlie is my Darling, The Rowan Tree et [[The Hundred Pipers|Wi' a Hundred Pipers''']] restent populaires aujourd'hui, près de deux cents ans après leur écriture. Une de ses chansons, Caller Herrin''', a été chantée lors de la commémoration de 2021 de la catastrophe d'Eyemouth de 1881. Elle mettait généralement ses paroles sur des mélodies folkloriques écossaises traditionnelles, mais apportait parfois sa propre musique.

Carolina Nairne et son contemporain Robert Burns ont été influencés par l'héritage jacobite dans leur établissement d'une identité écossaise distincte, à travers ce qu'ils ont tous deux appelé la chanson nationale. Peut-être dans la conviction que son travail ne serait pas pris au sérieux si l'on savait qu'elle était une femme, Nairne s'est donnée beaucoup de mal pour dissimuler son identité (même à son mari) lors de la soumission de son travail pour publication. Au début, elle s'appelait Mme Bogan de Bogan, mais sentant que cela en révélait trop, elle attribuait souvent ses chansons au genre neutre B.B., S.M. ou « Unknown » (« Inconnu »).

Bien que tous deux travaillent dans le même genre de ce qu'on pourrait appeler aujourd'hui les chansons folkloriques écossaises traditionnelles, Nairne et Burns affichent des attitudes assez différentes dans leurs compositions. Nairne a tendance à se concentrer sur une version antérieure romancée du mode de vie écossais, teintée de tristesse pour ce qui est parti pour toujours, tandis que Burns affiche un optimisme quant à un avenir meilleur à venir.

Honneurs et récompenses
Le cratère Nairne, sur Mercure, porte son nom.

Notes et références

Notes

Références

Liens externes

Femme de lettres écossaise
Écrivain écossais du XIXe siècle
Naissance en août 1766
Naissance dans le Perth and Kinross
Décès en octobre 1845
Pages avec des traductions non relues
Décès à 79 ans

Carolina Nairne


This is a list of English language words borrowed from Indigenous languages of the Americas, either directly or through intermediate European languages such as Spanish or French. It does not cover names of ethnic groups or place names derived from Indigenous languages.

Most words of Native American/First Nations language origin are the common names for indigenous flora and fauna, or describe items of Native American or First Nations life and culture. Some few are names applied in honor of Native Americans or First Nations peoples or due to a vague similarity to the original object of the word. For instance, sequoias are named in honor of the Cherokee leader Sequoyah, who lived 2,000 miles (3200 km) east of that tree's range, while the kinkajou of South America was given a name from the unrelated North American wolverine.

Words from Algonquian languages

Since Native Americans and First Nations peoples speaking a language of the Algonquian group were generally the first to meet English explorers and settlers along the Eastern Seaboard, many words from these languages made their way into English.

In addition, many place names in North America are of Algonquian origin, for example: Mississippi (cf.  and , "great river," referring to the Mississippi River) and Michigan (cf. , , "great sea," referring to Lake Michigan). Canadian provinces and U.S. states, districts, counties and municipalities bear Algonquian names, such as Québec, Ottawa, Saskatchewan, Nantucket, Massachusetts, Naugatuck, Connecticut, Wyoming, District of Keewatin, Outagamie County, Wisconsin and Chicago, Illinois, or Algonquian-derived names, such as Algoma.

Furthermore, some indigenous peoples of the Americas groups are known better by their Algonquian exonyms, rather than by their endonym, such as the Eskimo (see below), Winnebago (perhaps from ), Sioux (ultimately from ), Assiniboine () and Chipewyan ().

Apishamore (definition) From a word in an Algonquian language meaning "something to lie down upon" (c.f. Ojibwe ).
Atamasco lily (definition) Earlier "attamusca", from Powhatan.
Babiche (definition) From Míkmaq ápapíj (from ápapi, "cord, thread", Proto-Algonquian *aʔrapa·pyi, from *aʔrapy-, "net" + *-a·by-, "string".
Caribou (definition) From Míkmaq qalipu, "snow-shoveler" (from qalipi, "shovel snow", Proto-Algonquian *maka·ripi-).
Caucus (definition) The etymology is disputed: two possible sources are an Algonquian word for "counsel", 'cau´-cau-as´u'; or the Algonquian , meaning an advisor, talker, or orator.
Chinkapin  (definition) From Powhatan chechinquamins, reconstituted as , the plural form.
Chipmunk (definition) Originally "chitmunk," from Odawa jidmoonh  (c.f. Ojibwe ajidamoo(nh)), "American red squirrel".
Cisco (definition) Originally "siscowet," from Ojibwe language bemidewiskaawed "greasy-bodied [fish]".
Eskimo (definition) From Old Montagnais aiachkimeou (; modern ayassimēw), meaning "snowshoe-netter" (often incorrectly claimed to be from an Ojibwe word meaning "eaters of raw [meat]"), and originally used to refer to the Mikmaq.
Hackmatack (definition) From an Algonquian language akemantak (c.f. Ojibwe aagimaandag), "snowshoe boughs".
Hickory (definition) From Powhatan <pocohiquara>, "milky drink made with hickory nuts".
Hominy (definition) From Powhatan <uskatahomen>/<usketchaumun>, literally "that which is treated", in this case "that which is ground/beaten".
Husky (definition) Ultimately from a variant form of the word "Eskimo" (see above).
Kinkajou (definition) From an Algonquian word meaning "wolverine" (c.f. Algonquin kwingwaage, Ojibwe gwiingwa'aage), through French .
Kinnikinnick (definition) From Unami Delaware , "mixture" (c.f. Ojibwe  "to mix something animate with something inanimate"), from Proto-Algonquian *kereken-, "mix (it) with something different by hand".
Mackinaw (definition) From , from Menomini mishilimaqkināhkw, "be large like a snapping turtle", or from Ojibwe mishi-makinaak, "large snapping turtle" with French , "island".
Moccasin (definition) From an Algonquian language, perhaps Powhatan <mockasin>, reconstituted as (c.f. Ojibwe makizin, Míkmaq mɨkusun, from Proto-Algonquian *maxkeseni).
Moose (definition) From Eastern Abenaki moz, reinforced by cognates from other Algonquian languages (e.g. Massachusett/Narragansett moos, Ojibwe moo(n)z, Lenape mus 'elk'), from Proto-Algonquian *mo·swa.
Mugwump (definition) From "mugquomp", a shortening of Massachusett <muggumquomp>, "war chief" (Proto-Algonquian *memekwa·pe·wa, from *memekw-, "swift" + *-a·pe·, "man").
Muskellunge (definition) Ultimately from Ojibwe , "ugly pike" (c.f. ginoozhe, "pike").
Muskeg (definition) From Cree , "swamp" (Proto-Algonquian *maškye·kwi).
Muskrat (definition) A folk-etymologized reshaping of earlier "musquash", from Massachusett (c.f. Western Abenaki mòskwas), apparently from Proto-Algonquian *mo·šk, "bob (at the surface of the water)" + *-exkwe·-, "head" + a derivational ending).
Opossum (definition) From Powhatan <apasum>/<opussum>/<aposoum>, "white dog-like animal", reconstituted as  (c.f. Proto-Algonquian , "white dog").
Papoose (definition) From Narragansett <papoòs> or Massachusett <pappouse>, "baby".
Pecan (definition) From Illinois pakani (c.f. Ojibwe bagaan), "nut", from Proto-Algonquian *paka·ni.
Pemmican (definition) From Cree pimihkān, from pimihkēw, "to make grease" (Proto-Algonquian *pemihke·wa, from *pemy-, "grease" + -ehke·, "to make").
Persimmon (definition) From Powhatan <pessemins>/<pushemins>, reconstituted as . While the final element reflects Proto-Algonquian *-min, "fruit, berry", the initial is unknown.
Pipsissewa (definition) From Abenaki kpipskwáhsawe, "flower of the woods".
Pokeweed (definition) Probably from "puccoon" (see below) + "weed".
Pone (definition) From Powhatan <poan>/<appoans>, "something roasted" (reconstituted as ) (c.f. Ojibwe abwaan), from Proto-Algonquian *apwa·n.
Powwow (definition) From Narragansett powwaw, "shaman" (Proto-Algonquian *pawe·wa, "to dream, to have a vision").
Puccoon (definition) From Powhatan <poughkone>, reconstituted as  (c.f. Unami Delaware , 'red dye; the plant from which dye is made').
Pung A low box-like sleigh designed for one horse. Shortened form of "tom-pung" (from the same etymon as "toboggan") from an Algonquian language of Southern New England.
Punkie (definition) Via Dutch, from Munsee  (Proto-Algonquian *penkwehsa, from *penkw-, "dust, ashes" + *-ehs, a diminutive suffix).
Quahog (definition) From Narragansett <poquaûhock>.
Quonset hut (definition) From an Algonquian language of southern New England, possibly meaning "small long place" (with <qunni->, "long" + <-s->, diminutive + <-et>, locative).
Raccoon (definition) From Powhatan <arahkun>/<aroughcun>, tentatively reconstituted as .
Sachem (definition) From an Algonquian language of southern New England, c.f. Narragansett <sâchim> (Proto-Eastern Algonquian *sākimāw, "chief").
Sagamore (definition) From Eastern Abenaki sakəma (c.f. Narragansett <sâchim>), "chief", from Proto-Eastern Algonquian *sākimāw.
Scup (definition) Shortened from scuppaug, which is from Narragansett mishcùppaûog.
Shoepac (definition) From Unami Delaware  "shoes" (singular ), altered on analogy with English "shoe".
Skunk (definition) From Massachusett <squnck> (Proto-Algonquian *šeka·kwa, from *šek-, "to urinate" + *-a·kw, "fox").
Squash (fruit) (definition) From Narragansett <askútasquash>.
Squaw (definition) From Massachusett <squa> (c.f. Cree iskwē, Ojibwe ikwe), "woman", from Proto-Algonquian *eθkwe·wa.
Succotash (definition) From Narragansett <msíckquatash>, "boiled whole kernels of corn" (Proto-Algonquian *mesi·nkwete·wari, singular *mesi·nkwete·, from *mes-, "whole" + *-i·nkw-, "eye [=kernel]" + -ete·, "to cook").
Tabagie (definition)  From Algonquin .
Tautog (definition)  From Narragansett tautaũog.
Terrapin (definition) Originally "torope," from an Eastern Algonquian language, perhaps Powhatan (reconstituted as ) (c.f. Munsee Delaware ), from Proto-Eastern Algonquian *tōrəpēw.
Toboggan (definition) From Míkmaq topaqan or Maliseet-Passamaquoddy  (Proto-Algonquian *weta·pye·kani, from *wet-, "to drag" + *-a·pye·-, "cordlike object" + *-kan, "instrument for").
Tomahawk (definition) From Powhatan <tamahaac> (Proto-Algonquian *temaha·kani, from *temah-, "to cut" + *-a·kan, "instrument for").
Totem (definition) From Ojibwe nindoodem, "my totem" or odoodeman, "his totem," referring to a kin group.
Tuckahoe (definition) From Powhatan <tockawhoughe>/<tockwhough>/<taccaho>, "root used for bread", reconstituted as  (perhaps from Proto-Algonquian *takwah-, "pound (it)/reduce (it) to flour").
Tullibee (definition) From Old Ojibwe  (modern odoonibii).
Wampum (definition) Earlier "wampumpeag", from Massachusett, and meaning "white strings [of beads]" (c.f. Maliseet: wapapiyik, Eastern Abenaki wápapəyak, Ojibwe waabaabiinyag), from Proto-Algonquian *wa·p-, "white" + *-a·py-, "string-like object" + *-aki, plural.
Wanigan (definition) From Ojibwa , "storage pit".
Wapiti (elk) (definition) From Shawnee waapiti, "white rump" (c.f. Ojibwe waabidiy), from Proto-Algonquian *wa·petwiya, from *wa·p-, "white" + *-etwiy, "rump".
Wickiup (definition) From Fox wiikiyaapi, from the same Proto-Algonquian etymon as "wigwam" (see below).
Wigwam (definition) From Eastern Abenaki wìkəwam (c.f. Ojibwe wiigiwaam), from Proto-Algonquian *wi·kiwa·Hmi.
Woodchuck (definition) Reshaped on analogy with "wood" and "chuck", from an Algonquian language of southern New England (c.f. Narragansett <ockqutchaun>, "woodchuck").

Words from Nahuatl

Unless otherwise specified,  is among the sources used for each etymology
Words of Nahuatl origin have entered many European languages.  Mainly they have done so via Spanish. Most words of Nahuatl origin end in a form of the Nahuatl "absolutive suffix" (, , or , or the Spanish adaptation ), which marked unpossessed nouns.

Achiote (definition) from
Atlatl (definition) from
Atole (definition) from
Avocado (definition) from , 'avocado' or 'testicle' , via Spanish aguacate and later avocado (influenced by early Spanish abogado 'lawyer')
Axolotl (definition)  , via Spanish, ultimately from , 'water' + , 'male servant'
Aztec (definition) from  'coming from Aztlan', via Spanish Azteca
Cacao (definition) and Cocoa (definition) from
Chayote (definition) from
Chia (definition) from
Chicle (definition) from
Chili (definition) from
Chipotle (definition) from  'smoked chili', from chili + poctli 'smoke'
Chocolate (definition) Often said to be from Nahuatl  or , which would be derived from  'bitter' and  'water' (with an irregular change of x to ch). However, the form  is not directly attested, and  does not appear in Nahuatl until the mid-18th century. Some researchers have recently proposed that the  element was originally , and referred to a special wooden stick used to prepare chocolate.
Copal (definition) from
Coyote (definition) from  via Spanish
Epazote (definition) from
Guacamole (definition) from , from , 'avocado', and , 'sauce', via Mexican Spanish
Hoatzin (definition) from
Jicama (definition) from
Mesquite (definition) from  , via Spanish mezquite
Mezcal (definition) from      and    which mean 'oven cooked agave.'
Mole (definition) from  , 'sauce'
Nixtamalization (definition) from
Nopal (definition) from  , 'prickly pear cactus', via American Spanish
Ocelot (definition) from   'jaguar', via French
 Ocotillo (definition) from ocotl 'pine, torch made of pine', via Mexican Spanish ocote + diminutive -illo
Peyote (definition) from  . Nahuatl probably borrowed the root  from another language, but the source is not known.
Pinole  (definition) from , via Spanish
Quetzal (definition) from  , 'quetzal feather'.
Sapodilla (definition) from
Sapota (definition) from
Shack  (definition) possibly from  , 'grass hut', by way of Mexican Spanish.
Sotol (definition) from
Tamale (definition) from  , via Spanish tamal. The Spanish plural is tamales, and the English derives from a false singular tamale.
Tequila from  'work' +  'place'
Tlacoyo (definition) from
Tomato (definition) from  , via Spanish tomate. The change from tomate to tomato was likely influenced by the spelling of potato
Tule (definition) from  , 'reed, bulrush'

Words from Quechua
Unless otherwise specified, Words in English from Amerindian Languages is among the sources used for each etymology

A number of words from Quechua have entered English, mostly via Spanish, adopting Hispanicized spellings.

Ayahuasca (definition) from aya "corpse" and waska "rope", via Spanish
Cachua (definition) from qhachwa
Chinchilla(definition) possibly from Quechua. May be from Spanish chinche
Chuño (definition) from ch'uñu
Coca (definition) from kuka, via Spanish
Cocaine (definition) from kuka (see above), probably via French
Condor (definition) from kuntur, via Spanish
Gran Chaco (definition) from chaku, "hunt"
Guanaco (definition) from wanaku
Guano (definition) from wanu via Spanish
Inca (definition) from Inka "lord, king"
Jerky (definition) from ch'arki, via Spanish
Lagniappe (definition) from yapay, "add, addition", via Spanish  (with the definite article la).
Lima (definition) from rimay, "speak" (from the name of the city, named for the Rimaq river ("speaking river"))
Llama (definition) from llama, via Spanish
Lucuma (definition) from lukuma, via Spanish
Mashua (definition) from maswa
Pampa (definition) from pampa, "a large plain", via Spanish
Pisco (definition) from pisqu, "bird"
Puma (definition) from puma, via Spanish
Quinine (definition) from kinakina, via Spanish
Quinoa (definition) from kinwa, via Spanish
Quipu (definition) from khipu, via Spanish
Soroche (definition) from suruqchi or suruqch'i, "Altitude sickness"
Vicuña (definition) from wik'uña, via Spanish
Viscacha (definition) from wisk'acha, via Spanish

Words from Eskimo–Aleut languages
 Anorak (definition) from Greenlandic Inuit annoraaq
 Chimo (definition) from the Inuktitut word saimo (ᓴᐃᒧ , a word of greeting, farewell, and toast before drinking. Used as a greeting and cheer by the Canadian Military Engineers, and more widely in some parts of Southern Ontario and Western Canada, particularly in Saskatoon, Saskatchewan
 Igloo (definition) from Inuktitut iglu (ᐃᒡᓗ )
 Ilanaaq (definition) Inuktitut ilanaaq (ᐃᓚᓈᒃ ), "friend". Name of the logo for the 2010 Winter Olympics
 Inuksuk  (definition) from Inuktitut inuksuk (ᐃᓄᒃᓱᒃ )
 Kayak (definition) from Inuktitut qajaq (ᖃᔭᖅ )
 Malamute (definition) from Inupiaq Malimiut, the name of an Inupiaq subgroup
 Mukluk (definition) from Yupik maklak (), "bearded seal"
 Nanook (definition) from Inuktitut word for polar bear Nanuq (ᓇᓄᒃ ), "polar bear", made famous in English due to a 1922 documentary Nanook of the North, featuring a man with this name.
 Nunatak (definition) from Greenlandic Inuit  nunataq
 Tiktaalik (definition) from Inuktitut tiktaalik (ᑎᒃᑖᓕᒃ ), "large freshwater fish"
 Umiaq (definition)

Words from Arawakan languages
Anole (definition) from an Arawakan language, or possibly Cariban, via French anolis.
Barbecue (definition) from an Arawakan language of Haiti barbakoa, "framework of sticks", via Spanish barbacoa.
Buccaneer (definition) from an Arawakan language buccan, "a wooden frame on which Taínos and Caribs slowly roasted or smoked meat",via French boucane.
Cacique or cassique (definition) from Taíno cacike or Arawak  "chieftain"
Caiman  (definition) from a Ta-Maipurean language, "water spirit" (c.f. Garifuna ), though possibly ultimately of African origin.
Canoe (definition) from Taíno via Spanish canoa.
Cassava (definition) from Taíno caçabi, "manioc meal", via Spanish or Portuguese.
Cay (definition) from Taíno, via Spanish .
Guaiac (definition) from Taíno guayacan via Spanish and Latin.
Guava (definition) from an Arawakan language, by way of Spanish .
Hammock (definition) from Taíno, via Spanish .
Hurricane (definition) from Taíno hurakán, via Spanish.
Iguana (definition) from an Arawakan language iwana.
Macana (definition) from Taíno macana via Spanish.
Maize (definition) from Taíno mahís, via Spanish.
Mangrove (definition) from Taíno, via Spanish mangle or Portuguese mangue.
Papaya (definition) from Taíno.
Potato (definition) from Taíno or Haitian Carib batata 'sweet potato', via Spanish patata.
Savanna (definition) from Taíno zabana, via Spanish.
Tobacco (definition) probably from an Arawakan language, via .
Yuca (definition) from Taíno, via Spanish.

Words from Tupi-Guaraní
Acai (definition) from Tupi *ɨβasaí, via Brazilian Portuguese assaí, uaçaí, açaí.
Ani (definition) from Tupi *anúʔí.
Agouti (definition) from Tupi–Guaraní akutí, via Portuguese aguti through French.
Cashew (definition) from Tupí acaîu, via Portuguese caju.
Capybara  (definition) from Guaraní kapibári 'the grass eater ' via Portuguese capivara through French.
Catupiry (definition) from Guaraní katupyry via Brazilian Portuguese.
Cayenne (definition) from Tupí kyinha via French.
Cougar (definition) ultimately corrupted from Guaraní guaçu ara.
Jaguar (definition) from Tupinambá via Portuguese jaguar through French ,.
Jaguarundi (definition) from Guaraní via Portuguese.
Maraca (definition) from Tupí maraka via Portuguese.
Macaw (definition) via Portuguese Macau from Tupi macavuana, which may be the name of a type of palm tree the fruit of which the birds eat.
Manioc (definition) from Tupinambá via Portuguese man(d)ioca through French .
Petunia (definition) from Tupí petun 'smoke' via Portuguese.
Piranha (definition) from Tupí pirã́ja, pirã́nʸa, from pirá 'fish' + ã́ja, ã́nʸa 'tooth', via Portuguese.
Seriema (definition)from Tupinambá siriema 'the crested one' via Portuguese
Tapioca (definition) from Tupinambá  'juice squeezed out', from tipi 'residue, dregs' + og, ok 'to squeeze out', via Portuguese.
Tapir (definition) from Tupinambá via Portuguese tapir through French .
Tegu (definition) from Tupinambá teiú-guaçú 'big lizard' via Portuguese teiú
Toucan (definition) from Tupinambá via Portuguese tucano through French , via Portuguese and French.

Words from other indigenous languages of the Americas
Abalone (definition) from Rumsen awlun and Ohlone aluan, via Spanish abulón.
Alpaca (definition) from Aymara allpaka, via Spanish.
Appaloosa (definition) Either named for the Palouse River, whose name comes from Sahaptin palú:s, "what is standing up in the water"; or for Opelousas, Louisiana, which may come from Choctaw api losa, "black body".
Barracuda (definition) from Spanish, perhaps originally from Carib.
Bayou (definition) from early Choctaw bayuk, "creek, river", via French.
Camas (definition) from Nez Perce .
Cannibal (definition) via Spanish Caníbalis, from a Cariban language, meaning "person, Indian", (Proto-Cariban *karípona), based on the Spaniards' belief that the Caribs ate human flesh.
Catalpa (definition) from Creek katałpa "head-wing", with (i)ká, "head" + (i)táłpa, "wing".
Cenote (definition) from Yucatec Maya dzonot or ts'onot meaning "well".
Cheechako (definition) from Chinook Jargon  + chako, "new come". Chee comes from Lower Chinook čxi, "straightaway", and for chako c.f. Nuuchahnulth čokwaa, "come!"
Chicha via Spanish from Kuna chichab, "maize" or from Nahuatl , "fermented water."
Chinook (definition) from Lower Chehalis , the name of a village, via Chinook Trade Jargon.

Chuckwalla (definition) from Cahuilla čáxwal.
Coho (definition) from Halkomelem k̉ʷə́xʷəθ ().
Coontie (definition) from Creek conti hetaka.
Coypu (definition) from Mapudungun coipu, via American Spanish coipú.
Degu (definition) from Mapudungun deuñ, via Spanish.
Divi-divi (definition) from Cumanagoto.
Dory (definition) from Miskito dóri, dúri.
Eulachon (definition) from a Cree adaptation of Chinook Trade Jargon ulâkân, itself a borrowing of Clatsap u-tlalxwə(n), "brook trout".
Gaucho (definition) via Spanish, probably from a South American indigenous language, cf. Araucanian cauchu 'wanderer'.
Geoduck (definition) from Lushootseed (Nisqually) gʷídəq.
Guan (definition) from Kuna kwama.
High muckamuck (definition) from Chinook Jargon , "eat, food, drink", of unknown origin.
Hogan (definition) from Navajo hooghan.
Hooch (definition) a shortening of "Hoochinoo", the name of a Tlingit village, from Tlingit xutsnuuwú, "brown bear fort".

Kachina (definition) from Hopi katsína, "spirit being".
Jojoba (definition) via Spanish, from some Uto-Aztecan language, cf. O'odham hohowai and Yaqui hohoovam.
Kiva (definition) from Hopi kíva (containing ki-, "house").
Kokanee (definition) perhaps from Twana kəknǽxw.
Manatee (definition) via Spanish manatí, from a word in a Cariban language meaning "(woman's) breast".
Ohunka from Lakota "false", "untrue".
Peccary (definition) from Galilbi Carib pakira.
Piki (definition) from Hopi.
Pogonip (definition) from Shoshone  (), "fog".
Poncho (definition) from Mapudungun pontho "woolen fabric", via Spanish.
Potlatch (definition) from Nuuchahnulth (Nootka) p̉aƛp̉ač (, reduplication of p̉a, "to make ceremonial gifts in potlatch", with the iterative suffix -č) via Chinook Jargon.

Salal (definition) from Chinook Trade Jargon , from Lower Chinook salál.
Saguaro (definition) via Spanish, from some indigenous language, possibly Opata.
Sasquatch (definition) From Halkomelem .
Sego (definition) from Ute-Southern Paiute  ().
Sequoia (definition) from a Cherokee personal name, <Sikwayi>, with no further known etymology.
Sockeye (definition) from Halkomelem .
Skookum (definition) from Chinook Jargon , "powerful, supernaturally dangerous", from Lower Chehalis skʷəkʷə́m, "devil, anything evil, spirit monster".
Tamarin (definition) from a Cariban language, via French.
Tipi (definition) from Lakota thípi, "house".
Tupelo (definition) Perhaps from Creek 'topilwa, "swamp-tree", from íto, "tree" + opílwa, "swamp".
Wapatoo (definition) from Chinook Jargon , "arrowroot, wild potato", from Upper Chinook , a noun prefix + , which comes from Kalapuyan , "wild potato".
Wakinyan (definition) from Lakota wa, "people/things" + kiŋyaŋ, "to fly".
Yaupon (definition) from Catawba yąpą, from yą, "wood/tree" + pą, "leaf".

See also
List of placenames of indigenous origin in the Americas
List of place names in Canada of Aboriginal origin
List of place names in New England of aboriginal origin
List of Spanish words of Indigenous American Indian origin
List of Spanish words of Nahuatl origin

References

Bibliography
 Bright, William (2004). Native American Place Names of the United States. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press
 Campbell, Lyle (1997). American Indian Languages: The Historical Linguistics of Native America. Oxford: Oxford University Press
 Flexner, Stuart Berg and Leonore Crary Hauck, eds. (1987). The Random House Dictionary of the English Language [RHD], 2nd ed. (unabridged). New York: Random House.
 Siebert, Frank T. (1975). "Resurrecting Virginia Algonquian from the Dead: The Reconstituted and Historical Phonology of Powhatan". In Studies in Southeastern Indian Languages, ed. James M. Crawford, pp. 285–453. Athens: University of Georgia Press

External links
Words in English from Amerindian Languages
Online Etymology Dictionary
Dictionary.com
Free Dictionary Translation

American English words
Americas-related lists
Indigenous languages of the Americas
Inuktitut words and phrases
Americas
Nahuatl words and phrases
Guaraní words and phrases
Quechua words and phrases
Lakota words and phrases
Native American-related lists

List of English words from Indigenous languages of the Americas


Die Pletzergasse in der Kreisstadt Düren (Nordrhein-Westfalen) ist eine ihrer ältesten  historischen Innerortsstraßen.

Lage
Die Straße führt von der Oberstraße zur Straße Am Pletzerturm. Gegenüber dem Einmündungsbereich steht der denkmalgeschützte Pletzergassenturm.

Die Straße lag früher innerhalb der Dürener Stadtbefestigung.

Geschichte
Die Pletzergasse wurde bereits 1355 erwähnt und führte damals von der Oberstraße in östlicher Richtung bis zum ehemaligen Jesuitenkolleg, bog dann im rechten Winkel zur Kölnstraße ab. Die Gasse hieß außerdem auch Gertrudenstraße nach der Nmanespronin des Alexianer- oder Cellitinnenkloster, welches im ersten Abschnitt der Gasse stand. Zur Kölnstraße hin hieß ein Teil zeitweise Wurstgasse.

Über die Namensherkunft besteht Uneinigkeit. Einmal wird Pletzer von Plei, einem Platz, der an der Straße lag, abgeleitet, zum anderen wird der Name auf Pletzer (minderwertiges Fleisch, Wurst aus Fleischabfällen) zurückgeführt.

Literatur
 Josef Geuenich: Die Dürener Straßennamen, Düren 1965, herausgegeben von der Stadt Düren und dem Dürener Geschichtsverein

Siehe auch
 Liste der Straßen in Düren

Weblinks
 Straßenliste auf der Webseite der Stadt Düren (PDF-Datei; 56 kB)

Urbaner Freiraum in Düren
Straße in Düren

Pletzergasse (Düren)


El Gran Premio del Cine Brasileño —— es un premio cinematográfico entregado anualmente por la Academia Brasileña de Cine —— a lo mejor del cine de Brasil en varias categorías, incluyendo además, un premio a la mejor película extranjera.

La primera edición del galardón tuvo lugar en septiembre del año 2002, siendo denominado como Gran Premio BR al cine brasileño ——; este fue patrocinado por la BR, distribuidor de combustibles perteneciente a Petrobras. El ganador de la primera edición fue la película «Bicho de Sete Cabeças» de Laís Bodanzky, y que obtuvo siete galardones.

El nombre de Grande en honor al actor Grande Otelo.

Procedimiento
El premio es organizado y votado por los propios profesionales de la industria del cine, y cuyas votaciones  se realiza desde el año 2004 a través de Internet en el sitio oficial de la Academia; en efecto, a cada miembro se le entrega una contraseña electrónica con el que pueden ingresar y votar. El conteo es certificado por PricewaterhouseCoopers, la misma firma auditora que realiza dicha labor para los Premios Óscar.

En una primera fase, los miembros pertenecientes al Consejo Académico de la Academia seleccionan mediante votación —de una cédula con la lista completa de todos los competidores— a los cinco trabajos en cada categoría que pasarán a la siguiente etapa; luego, se realiza un nuevo procedimiento de votación para elegir a los ganadores. En ambas etapas, el voto es secreto y la apertura de los votos se lleva a cabo por Price.

Categorías

Largometrajes
 Mejor largometraje de ficción
 Mejor director
 Mejor Actriz
 Mejor Actor
 Mejor Actriz de Reparto
 Mejor Actor de Reparto
 Mejor fotografía
 Mejor dirección de arte
 Mejor diseño de vestuario
 Mejor maquillaje
 Mejor banda sonora
 Mejor sonido
 Mejor montaje
 Mejor guion original
 Mejor guion adaptado
 Mejor documental
 Mejor película extranjera

Cortometrajes
 Mejor cortometraje de ficción
 Mejor cortometraje documental
 Mejor cortometraje de animación

Premios de cada edición
Son celebrados anualmente entre septiembre y noviembre de cada año. Teniendo como sede el Teatro Municipal de Río de Janeiro.

Otros premios de cine
 Premios Óscar de la Academia de las Artes y las Ciencias Cinematográficas de Hollywood
 Premios BAFTA de la Academia Británica de las Artes Cinematográficas y de la Televisión
 Premios César de la Academia de las artes y técnicas del cine de Francia
 Premios David de Donatello de la Academia del Cine Italiano
 Premios Ariel de la Academia Mexicana de Artes y Ciencias Cinematográficas
 Premios Goya de la Academia de las Artes y las Ciencias Cinematográficas de España
 Premios Macondo de la Academia Colombiana de Artes y Ciencias Cinematográficas

Referencias

Enlaces externos
Web Gran Premio del Cine Brasileño
Cine de Brasil.

Gran Premio del Cine Brasileño


Flora of West Tropical Africa, (abreviado Fl. W. Trop. Afr.), (Flora del África tropical occidental) es un libro de referencia ilustrado y con descripciones que recoge las especies en las colonias británicas, portuguesas y francesas, el Camerún británico y el estado de Liberia. Escrito conjuntamente por John Hutchinson y John McEwan Dalziel miembros del personal del herbario de los jardines de Kew, fue publicado en dos volúmenes, el primero en 1927 y el segundo en 1936.

Referencias

Enlaces externos
En IPNI

Libros de botánica
Publicaciones científicas

Flora of West Tropical Africa


بروتوكول الاتصالات المتقدمة من برنامج إلى برنامج  هو بروتوكول يستخدم للاتصال عبر الشبكة حيث يعمل كمترجم بين البرامج التطبيقية والشبكة، وهو موجود في طبقة البرامج في مرجع أو إس آي
.
وهو عبارة عن برمجيات تسمح بالاتصال بين برامج على حواسيب مختلفة، من الحواسيب المحمولة ومحطات العمل وصولاً إلى الحواسيب الشخصية.

يقتصر بروتوكول APPC إلى حد كبير على نظم تشغيل آي بي إم مثل آي بي إم إيه آي إكس، كما أضافت مايكروسوفت دعم SNA في Host Integration Server.

عندما يقوم برنامج من الحاسوب بتمرير معلومات إلى برمجيات البروتوكول APPC يقوم هذا البروتوكول بترجمتها ومن ثم تمريرها إلى واجهة تخاطب الشبكة .
تنتقل المعلومات عبر الشبكة إلى حاسوب اَخر حيث تستلم برمجيات البروتوكول APPC المعلومات من واجهة تخاطب الشبكة.
ومن ثم يقوم البروتوكول APPC بإعادة ترجمة المعلومات إلى صيغتها الأصلية ويمررها إلى البرنامج المقابل.
وربط بالمصطلح LU 6.2) Logical unit type 6.2).

انظر أيضاً
 مرجع أو إس آي

مراجع

وصلات خارجية
 Multiplatform APPC Configuration Guide، صفحة 28
 Official Internet Protocol Standards

بروتوكول Appc
بروتوكولات الشبكة
بروتوكولات طبقة التطبيق
معلوماتية بعدية

البروتوكول Appc


Baix Camp () is a comarca located in the region of Camp de Tarragona, in Catalonia.The apital is the city of Reus.

Baix Camp is located on the coast, between Tarragonès to the northeast and Baix Ebre to the south. It also borders the comarques of Priorat, Ribera d'Ebre, Conca de Barberà, Alt Camp, and Tarragonès.

Population
Almost 150,000 people inhabit Baix Camp. The population has increased gently since the middle of the twentieth century, with population growth averaging 1.5% annually during the last three decades. Growth is not evenly distributed, however, but is strongly focused on Reus, the industrial and commercial centre of the region. Around two-thirds of the inhabitants of Baix Camp live in Reus, which from the seventeenth to the nineteenth centuries was the second most populous city in Catalonia, after Barcelona. Taking Catalonia as a whole, the place of Reus in the population rankings has now slipped to tenth. Within Baix Camp, the only other municipality with more than 10,000 inhabitants is Cambrils.

Economy
In the agricultural sector almonds and hazelnuts are a major crops, together representing 30% of primary sector production.   Viticulture has never regained the level of dominance that it enjoyed before the European Phylloxera epidemic that peaked in the 1870s.   High dependency on almonds and hazelnuts nevertheless leaves the entire regional economy vulnerable to declining world market prices that have accompanied increased globalization of the agricultural sector.   Some price protection is afforded to growers by protected designation for "Hazelnuts from Reus" which actually covers not just production from Reus but also that from neighboring Alt Camp, Tarragonès, Priorat, Conca de Barberà and Terra Alta.

Municipalities
After the capital Reus, the major cities are Cambrils and Mont-roig del Camp; other significant towns are Riudoms and Selva del Camp.

Smaller municipalities:
 North of Reus, at the foot of Puig d'en Cama: Castellvell del Camp and Almoster.
 In the Mountains of Prades: Prades, Capafonts, Arbolí, and l'Albiol.
 In the valley of the river Maspujols: Vilaplana, l'Aleixar, and Maspujols.
 In the valley of the river Alforja: Alforja, les Borges del Camp, and Vinyols i els Arcs.
 Between the ranges of Puig Marí and Puig-server: Riudecols.
 In the valley of the ravine of Ànima Blanca: Montbrió del Camp, and Botarell.
 Near Mont-roig del Camp: Vilanova d'Escornalbou, Colldejou, and la Torre de Fontaubella
 At the western edge of the comarca: Pratdip and the municipality of Vandellòs i l'Hospitalet de l'Infant.

List of municipalities

References

External links
 Official comarcal web site (in Catalan)

Comarques of the Province of Tarragona

Baix Camp