Coniine is a poisonous chemical compound, an alkaloid present in and isolable from poison hemlock (Conium maculatum), where its presence has been a source of significant economic, medical, and historico-cultural interest; coniine is also produced by the yellow pitcher plant (Sarracenia flava), and fool's parsley (Aethusa cynapium). Its ingestion and extended exposure are toxic to humans and all classes of livestock; its mechanism of poisoning involves disruption of the central nervous system, with death caused by respiratory paralysis. The biosynthesis of coniine contains as its penultimate step the non-enzymatic cyclisation of 5-oxooctylamine to γ-coniceine, a Schiff base differing from coniine only by its carbon-nitrogen double bond in the ring. This pathway results in natural coniine that is a mixture—a racemate—composed of two enantiomers, the stereoisomers (S)-(+)-coniine and (R)-(−)-coniine, depending on the direction taken by the chain that branches from the ring. Both enantiomers are toxic, with the (R)-enantiomer being the more biologically active and toxic of the two in general. Coniine holds a place in organic chemistry history as being the first of the important class of alkaloids to be synthesized, by Albert Ladenburg in 1886, and it has been synthesized in the laboratory in a number of unique ways through to modern times.

Hemlock poisoning has been a periodic human concern, a regular veterinary concern, and has had significant occurrences in human and cultural history. Notably, in 399 BC, Socrates was sentenced to death by drinking a coniine-containing mixture of poison hemlock.

Natural origins

Poison hemlock (Conium maculatum) contains highly toxic amounts of coniine. Its presence on farmland is an issue for livestock farmers because animals will eat it if they are not well fed or the hemlock is mixed in with pasture grass. The coniine is present in Conium maculatum as a mixture of the R-(−)- and S-(+)-enantiomers.

Coniine is also found in Sarracenia flava, the yellow pitcher plant. The yellow pitcher plant is a carnivorous plant endemic to the southeastern United States. The plant uses a mixture of sugar and coniine to simultaneously attract and poison insects, which then fall into a digestive tube. Coniine is also found in Aethusa cynapium, commonly known as fool's parsley.

History of natural isolates

The history of coniine is understandably tied to the poison hemlock plant, since the natural product was not synthesizable until the 1880s. Jews in the Middle East were poisoned by coniine after consuming quail in the area that usually ate hemlock seeds, and Greeks on the island of Lesbos who also consumed quail suffered from the same poisoning, causing myoglobinuria and acute kidney injury. The most famous hemlock poisoning occurred in 399 BCE, when the philosopher Socrates is believed to have consumed a liquid infused with hemlock to carry out his death sentence, his having been convicted of impiety toward the gods, and the corruption of youth. Hemlock juice was often used to execute criminals in ancient Greece.

Hemlock has had a limited medical use throughout history. The Greeks used it not just as capital punishment, but also as an antispasmodic and treatment for arthritis. Books from the 10th century attest to medical use by the Anglo-Saxons. In the Middle Ages it was believed that hemlock could be used to cure rabies; in later European times it came to be associated with flying ointments in witchcraft. Native Americans used hemlock extract as arrow poison.

While the yellow pitcher plant and fool's parsley also contain coniine, there are no reports of traditional uses for these plants.

Pharmacology and toxicology

The (R)-(−) enantiomer of coniine is the more biologically active, at least in one system (TE-671 cells expressing human fetal nicotinic neuromuscular receptors), and in mouse bioassay, the same enantiomer and the racemic mixture are about two-fold more toxic than the (S)-(+) enantiomer (see below).

Coniine, as racemate or as pure enantiomer, begins by binding and stimulating the nicotinic receptor on the post-synaptic membrane of the neuromuscular junction. The subsequent depolarization results in nicotinic toxicity; as coniine stays bound to the receptor, the nerve stays depolarized, inactivating it. This results, systemically, in a flaccid paralysis, an action similar to that of succinylcholine since they are both depolarizing neuromuscular blockers. Symptoms of paralysis generally occur within a half-hour, although death may take several hours. The central nervous system is not affected: the person remains conscious and aware until respiratory paralysis results in cessation of breathing. The flaccid, muscular paralysis is an ascending paralysis, lower limbs being first affected. The person may have a hypoxic convulsion just prior to death, disguised by the muscular paralysis such that the person may just weakly shudder. Cause of death is lack of oxygen to the brain and heart as a consequence of respiratory paralysis, so that a poisoned person may recover if artificial ventilation can be maintained until the toxin is removed from the victim's system.

The LD50 values (in mouse, i.v. administered) for the R-(−) and S-(+) enantiomers, and the racemate, are approximately 7 and 12, and 8 milligrams per kilogram, respectively.

Chemical properties
(+/–)-Coniine was first isolated by Giesecke, but the formula was suggested by Blyth and definitely established by Hofmann.

D-(S)-Coniine has since been determined to be a colorless alkaline liquid, with a penetrating odour and a burning taste; has D0° 0.8626 and D19° 0.8438, refractive index n23°D 1.4505, and is dextrorotatory, [α]19°D +15.7° (see related comments under Specific rotation section below). L-(R)-Coniine has [α]21°D 15° and in other respects resembles its D-isomer, but the salts have slightly different melting points; the platinichloride has mp. 160 °C (Löffler and Friedrich report 175 °C), the aurichloride mp. 59 °C.

Solubility
Coniine is slightly soluble (1 in 90) in cold water, less so in hot water, so that a clear cold solution becomes turbid when warmed. On the other hand, the base dissolves about 25% of water at room temperature. It mixes with alcohol in all proportions, is readily soluble in ether and most organic solvents. Coniine dissolves in carbon disulfide, forming a complex thiocarbamate.

Crystallization

Coniine solidifies into a soft crystalline mass at −2 °C. It slowly oxidizes in the air. The salts crystallize well and are soluble in water or alcohol. The hydrochloride, B•HCl, crystallizes from water in rhombs, mp. 220 °C, [α]20°D +10.1°; the hydrobromide, in needles, mp. 211 °C, and the D-acid tartrate, B•C4H6O6•2 H2O, in rhombic crystals, mp. 54 °C. The platinichloride, (B•HCl)2•PtCl4•H2O, separates from concentrated solution as an oil, which solidifies to a mass of orange-yellow crystals, mp. 175 °C (dry). The aurichloride, B•HAuCl4, crystallizes on standing, mp. 77 °C. The picrate forms small yellow needles, mp. 75 °C, from hot water. The 2,4-dinitrobenzoyl- and 3,5-dinitrobenzoyl-derivates have mps. 139.0–139.5 °C and 108–9 °C respectively. The precipitate afforded by potassium cadmium iodide solution is crystalline, mp. 118 °C, while that given by nicotine with this reagent is amorphous.

Color changes
Coniine gives no coloration with sulfuric or nitric acid. Sodium nitroprusside gives a deep red color, which disappears on warming, but reappears on cooling, and is changed to blue or violet by aldehydes.

Specific rotation
The stereochemical composition of "coniine" is a matter of some importance, since its two enantiomers do not have identical biological properties, and many of the older pharmacological studies on this compound were carried out using the naturally-occurring isomeric mixture. S-(+)-Coniine has a specific rotation, [α]D, of +8.4° (c = 4.0, in CHCl3). These authors note that Ladenburg's value, +15°, is for a "neat", i.e. undiluted, sample. A similarly high value of +16° for the [α]D of "coniine" is given, without explicit citation of the source, in The Merck Index. The value of +7.7° (c = 4.0, CHCl3) for synthetic S-(+)-coniine and -7.9° (c = 0.5, CHCl3) for synthetic R-(−)-coniine is given by other chemists. The hydrochloride salts of the (S)-(+) and (R)-(−) enantiomers of coniine have values of [α]D of +4.6° and -5.2°, respectively (c = 0.5, in methanol).

Synthesis

The original synthesis (shown below) of Coniine was performed by Ladenburg in 1886. Ladenburg heated N-methylpyridine iodide to 250 °C, to obtain 2-methylpyridine. He then performed a Knoevenagel condensation with acetaldehyde in anhydrous zinc chloride to yield 2-propenylpyridine. In fact, Ladenburg used paraldehyde, a cyclic trimer of acetaldehyde that readily forms acetaldehyde upon heating. Finally, 2-propenylpyridine was reduced with metallic sodium in ethanol to provide racemic (±) coniine. Fractional crystallisation of racemic coniine with (+)-tartaric acid yielded enantiopure coniine.

The scheme proposed by Ladenburg gave poor yields, so the quest for alternative routes was open. A slightly better yield is observed if 2-methylpyridine and acetaldehyde are heated in a sealed tube with hydrochloric acid for 10 hours. A mixture of 2-propenylpyridine and 2-chloropropylpyridine is formed and is subsequently reduced by sodium in ethanol to give rac-coniine. Note: although the scheme below shows a single enantiomer of coniine, the final reaction produces a racemic mixture that is then separated

In 1907, another route with better yield was proposed. First, 2-(2'-hydroxypropyl)pyridine is reduced with phosphorus and fuming hydroiodic acid at 125 °C. Second, the product is treated with zinc dust and water. Finally, the product of the second step is treated with sodium in ethanol. Note: although the graphic below shows a single enantiomer of coniine, this reaction produces a racemic mixture that is then purified and separated.

A number of other syntheses of coniine have been effected, of which that of Diels and Alder is of special interest. The initial adduct of pyridine and dimethyl acetylenedicarboxylate is tetramethylquinolizine-1,2,3,4-tetracarboxylate, which on oxidation with dilute nitric acid is converted into trimethyl indolizine-tricarboxylate. This, on hydrolysis and decarboxylation, furnishes indolizine, the octahydro-derivate of which, also known as octahydropyrrocoline is converted by the cyanogen bromide method successively into the bromocyanamide, cyanamide and rac.-coniine. A synthesis of the alkaloid, starting from indolizine (pyrrocoline) is described by Ochiai and Tsuda.

The preparation of L-(R)-coniine by the reduction of β-coniceine (L-propenylpiperidine) by Löffler and Friedrich provides means for converting conhydrine to L-(R)-coniine. Hess and Eichel reported, incorrectly, that pelletierine was the aldehyde (β-2-piperidyl-propaldehyde) corresponding to coniine, and yielded rac-coniine when its hydrazone was heated with sodium ethoxide in ethanol at 156–170 °C. According to these authors, D-(S)-coniine is rendered almost optically inactive when heated with barium hydroxide and alcohol at 180–230 °C. Leithe has shown by observation of the optical rotation of (+)-pipecolic acid (piperidine-2-carboxylic acid) and some of its derivatives under varying conditions, that it must belong to the D-series of amino acids.

Currently, Coniine, and many other alkaloids, can be synthesized stereoselectively. For example, Pd-catalyzed 1,3-chirality transfer reaction can stereospecifically transform a single enantiomer of an allyl alcohol into a cyclic structure (in this case a piperidine). In this way, starting from (S)-alcohol an (S)-enantiomer of Coniine is obtained and vice versa. Remarkably, the separation of racemic alcohol into different enantiomers is done with the help of Candida antarctica lipase.

Biosynthesis
The biosynthesis of coniine is still being investigated, but much of the pathway has been elucidated. Originally thought to use 4 acetyl groups as feed compounds for the polyketide synthase that forms coniine, it is in fact derived from two malonyl and a butyryl CoA, which are derived in the usual way from acetyl-CoA.

Further elongation of butyryl-CoA using 2 malonyl-CoA forms 5-ketooctanal.  Ketooctanal then undergoes transamination using  alanine:5-keto-octanal aminotransferase. The amine then spontaneously cyclizes and is dehydrated to form the coniine precursor γ–coniceine.  This is then reduced using NADPH dependent y-coniceine reductase to form coniine.

In popular culture
Coniine is the murder weapon in Agatha Christie's mystery novel Five Little Pigs.

The R and S 2-Propylpiperidine stereoisomers are a neurotoxin present in a slug-like lifeform in The Expanse. The toxin is shown as causing almost instant death upon skin contact in the show.

References

Further reading

External links
 Information on hemlock from the University of Bristol
  Mitch Tucker student work, Hemlock and Death of Socrates, at the University of Oklahoma

Neurotoxins
Piperidine alkaloids
Nicotinic antagonists
Plant toxins
2-Piperidinyl compounds

Coniine


جيفرين اسحاق سواريز برموديز  (مواليد 20 يناير 1988 في مدينة بوليفار في فنزويلا، لاعب كرة قدم إسباني وأصله فنزويلي. كان يلعب لصالح نادي الدرجة الأولى برشلونة الإسباني منذ 2004 حتى 2011 في مركز الجناح قبل أن ينتقل في 2011. وهو لاعب يمتاز بمهارات فردية. ويستطيع أن يلعب في مركز الظهير.وقد سجل جيفرين الهدف الخامس في شباك ريال مدريد عندما تفوق برشلونة على الريال بنتيجة تاريخية (5-0).

مراجع

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لاعبو كرة قدم رجالية مغتربون في تايلاند
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مواليد 1988
رياضيون من ولاية بوليفار

جيفرين سواريز


فيلافا هي مدينة تقع في منطقة نافارا ذاتية الحكم شمال إسبانيا.

أعلام
 برودينسيو إندوراين
 ميغيل إندوراين
 رفاييل سانتشيث غيرا

مراجع

بلديات إسبانيا
بلديات في منطقة نافارا
أماكن مأهولة في منطقة نافارا

فيلافا


Prințul Egiptului (titlu original: The Prince of Egypt) este un film american de animație din 1998 regizat de Simon Wells,  Brenda Chapman și Steve Hickner. Rolurile principale au fost interpretate de actorii Val Kilmer ca Moise și Dumnezeu (voci) și Ralph Fiennes ca Ramses. Este primul film de animație tradițional produs și distribuit de către DreamWorks Pictures.

Filmul este o adaptare a Cărții Exodului și prezintă viața lui Moise de la a fi un prinț al Egipt până când își împlinește destinul său final de a-i scoate pe  copiii lui Israel din robia Egiptului.  Cântecele din film sunt scrise de  Stephen Schwartz si muzica este compusă din Hans Zimmer. În rolurile principale de voce au fost distribuite numeroase vedete de la Hollywood, în timp ce cântăreți profesioniști i-au înlocuit la interpretarea cântecelor, cu excepția lui Ralph Fiennes, Steve Martin, Martin Short, Michelle Pfeiffer și Ofra Haza (care a cântat și cântecul personajului ei, "Deliver Us", în alte șaptesprezece limbi în care a fost dublat filmul), care au interpretat și cântecele personajelor lor.

Prezentare

În floarea Egiptului Antic, poporul evreu este ținut sub aspră sclavie de către faraonul Seti I. Acesta ordonă omorârea în masă a pruncilor evrei, temându-se că sporul pozitiv al populației de sclavi va duce la revolte. Iochebed, o mamă evreică, fuge de gărzile ucigașe împreună cu copiii săi (Aaron, Miriam și Moise), adăpostindu-se la malul fluviului Nil. Aici, femeia își lasă mezinul căutat în apele învolburate, alinându-l cu un ultim cântec de leagăn. Coșul în care se află bebelușul călătorește printre hipopotami și corăbii până ajunge la palatul regal, unde este observat de regina Tuya. Soția faraonului este văzută de Miriam cum ia bebelușul în brațe, hotărându-se să-l adopte în doar câteva clipe.

Moise și copilul cuplului conducător, Ramses II, cresc împreună printre bogățiile palatului. Comportamentul lor rebel îi bagă numai în probleme, cei doi fiind mustrați de faraon după ce distrug un templu. Mai târziu în acea zi, prinții participă la un banchet unde Ramses îl numește pe Moise arhitect regal principal. La petrecerea dată este adusă ca tribut și o tânără țărancă din Midian, numită Țipora. Ramses poruncește să fie dusă în camera lui Moise. Fata fuge însă pe o cămilă, fiind lăsată să scape de către prinț. Moise o urmărește până la o fântână din satul sclavilor, unde îi întâlnește accidental pe Miriam și Aaron. Miriam îi spune lui Moise despre misiunea sa de a salva evreii, acesta reacționând, ca răspuns, foarte rece și confuz. În seara aceea, Moise descoperă hieroglifele ce ilustrau genocidul cauzat de faraon, el realizându-și atunci originea.

Ziua următoare, Moise încearcă să oprească un egiptean din a biciui un sclav evreu bătrân împingându-l și, fără intenție, omorându-l. Rușinat și oripilat de fapta sa, Moise fuge în exil. Ajunge la o oază unde salvează trei fete de niște tâlhari. Surorile îl duc apoi la ele acasă, Moise descoperind că este musafir în familia țărăncii din Midian, Țipora. Tatăl Țiporei, preotul Ietro, îl primește cu urale pe Moise și celebrează cu dans venirea sa în deșert. Moise devine cioban la oile lui Ietro și încet, se îndrăgostește de Țipora. Cei doi urmează să se căsătorească.

Într-o zi, una din oi se îndepărtează de turma lui Moise, acesta urmând-o printre rocile înalte. În mijlocul cavoului, Moise vede un tufiș arzător. Moise aude pentru prima oară vocea lui Dumnezeu, care îl sfătuiește să se întoarcă în Egipt să elibereze poporul evreu. La început speriat, Moise îi povestește Țiporei miraculoasa întâmplare și se hotărăște să se întoarcă la palat.

În Egipt, Moise și Țipora sunt primiți de Ramses, devenit între timp faraon. Moise cere să îi lase pe sclavii evrei să plece, dar Ramses refuză și îi invită pe Hotep și Huy să facă un spectacol ca să-l înfioare pe Moise. Mai târziu, Moise îl avertizează din nou pe fratele său adoptiv să renunțe la poporul ales și transformă cu toiagul apa Nilului, prefăcând-o în sânge. Astfel, încep cele zece plăgi ale Egiptului. Blestemul aspura egiptenilor se încheie cu moartea fiului lui Ramses. Faraonul îndurerat renunță atunci la mânie și dă voie poporului evreu să plece.

Moise, Aaron, Miriam și Țipora conduc mulțimile de oameni către Marea Roșie. La mal, evreii văd neputincioși cum Ramses și armata egipteană îi urmăresc, dorind să-i atace. Prin puterea lui Dumnezeu, sunt reținuți de flăcări venite din cer, iar Moise, folosindu-și toiagul, desparte apele mării pentru a fi traversată. Poporul ales parcurge adâncul uscat și este salvat odată cu ajungerea pe celălalt mal. Faraon și armata sa pătrund printre apele mării, dar sunt năpăstuiți de valuri. Moise îi conduce pe evrei pe muntele Sinai, unde primește cele zece porunci.

Distribuție
 Val Kilmer - Moise, un evreu care a fost adoptat de către faraonul Seti.
 Val Kilmer interpretează (nemenționat) și vocea lui Dumnezeu
 Amick Byram interpretează pe Moise atunci când acesta cântă
 Ralph Fiennes ca Ramses, fratele adoptiv al lui Moise și posibilul succesorul al tatălui său, Seti.
 Michelle Pfeiffer ca Țipora, cea mai mare fiică a lui Ietro și soția lui Moise.
 Sandra Bullock ca Miriam, sora biologică a lui Aaron și a lui Moise.
 Sally Dworsky interpretează pe Miriam atunci când aceasta cântă
 Eden Riegel ca tânăra Miriam (atât voce cât și cântec)
 Jeff Goldblum ca Aaron, fratele biologic al lui Moise și Miriam.
 Patrick Stewart ca faraonul Seti, tatăl lui Rameses, tatăl adoptiv al lui Moise.
 Danny Glover ca Ietro, tatăl Ziporei, mare preot în Midian.
 Brian Stokes Mitchell ca Ietro (atunci când acesta cântă).
 Helen Mirren ca regina Tuya, consoarta lui Seti, mama lui Ramses și mama adoptivă a lui Moise.
 Linda Dee Shayne ca Tuya (atunci când aceasta cântă).
 Steve Martin ca Hotep, unul din marele preoți ce servește pe post de consilier al lui Seti și mai târziu al lui Ramses.
 Martin Short ca  Huy, mare preot adept al lui Hotep.
 Ofra Haza ca Iochebed, mama lui Moise, a lui Aaron și a lui Miriam.

Coloană sonoră

Numere muzicale
 "Deliver Us" – Iochebed, Miriam și Corul
 "All I Ever Wanted" – Moise
 "River Lullaby" - Miriam
 "All I Ever Wanted (Queen's Reprise)" – Regina Tuya
 "Through Heaven's Eyes" – Ietro
 "Playing with the Big Boys" – Hotep și Huy
 "The Plagues" – Moise, Ramses și Corul
 "When You Believe" – Miriam, Sefora și Corul

Lansare și primire
The Prince of Egypt a avut premiera la Royce Hall (UCLA) la 16 decembrie 1998, iar lansarea generală a avut loc două zile mai târziu.

Note

Legături externe

Vezi și
Listă de filme despre Egiptul antic
 Listă de filme bazate pe Biblie

Filme din 1998
Filme americane
Filme în limba engleză
Filme în limba ebraică
Filme de animație
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Filme regizate de Steve Hickner
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Ecranizări ale Bibliei
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Filme Amblin Partners

Prințul Egiptului


Coringa, également connu sous le nom de Korangi (en ), est un petit village situé sur les côtes du district du Godavari oriental, dans l'Andhra Pradesh, en Inde. Il comprend le village et une île adjacente, nommée Hope Island par les autorités britanniques dans l'espoir qu'elle serait protégée des catastrophes environnementales. On retrouve juste à l'Est le sanctuaire faunique de Coringa.

Le navire battant pavillon français Harmonie, lors d'un voyage de l'île Bourbon (aujourd'hui la Réunion) à Pondichéry, a fait naufrage à Coringa en . Son équipage a été secouru.

Le village est à dix kilomètres au nord de l'ancien comptoir français de Yanaon.

Cyclones
En 1789, un cyclone tropical a frappé Coringa et la forte onde de tempête a tué 20 000 personnes.

Le , un autre cyclone a frappé l'est de l'Inde avec des vents violents et une importante onde de tempête. Une fois de plus, Coringa a subi de gros dégâts. Plus de  sont mortes et 20 000 navires ont été détruits dans la région.

Références

Lien externe
 .

Village en Inde

Coringa


Head-up Display (HUD) este un tip de afișaj pe un ecran transparent al unui set de date, fără a necesita ca utilizatorul să schimbe direcția de privire uzuală.

În afară de sistemele HUD fixe, există și afișaje care se mișcă cu orientarea capului utilizatorului, montate pe cap (Head-mounted Display -  HMD) sau montate pe cască (Helmet-mounted Display) de asemenea abreviat HMD.

HMD-urile sunt capabile să utilizeze senzori pentru șase grade de libertate, permițând utilizatorului să-și miște capul în mod liber. Acest lucru permite sistemului să alinieze informațiile virtuale la lumea fizică și să se adapteze în funcție de mișcările capului utilizatorului.

Această tehnologie dezvoltată inițial exclusiv pentru aviația militară (avioane și elicoptere), este utilizată și în aviația civilă, industria auto, divertisment. În prezent, funcția Head-up Display a devenit foarte răspândită și este pe cale să devină una uzuală.

Funcționare
Afișajul constă în general într-o unitate de imagine, un modul optic și un ecran de proiecție.
Unitatea de imagistică creează imaginea. Modulul optic cu colimator și deflector direcționează imaginea pe suprafața de proiecție. Această suprafață este un disc reflectorizant, translucid. Utilizatorul proiectorului vede astfel informațiile oglindite ale unității de imagine și, în același timp, lumea reală din spatele ecranului. Pe timp de noapte, informațiile pot fi proiectate și prin infraroșu.

Imaginea virtuală generată poate fi proiectată astfel încât să poată fi detectată cu un ochi (monocular) sau cu ambii ochi (binocular). HUD-urile binoculare au un domeniu de vizibilitate mai mare decât cele monoculare. Imaginea virtuală este proiectată întotdeauna la infinit în aeronave, dar în autovehicule la 2-3 m în față, astfel încât șoferul nu este distras în curbe.

În tehnologia aviatică au fost folosite mici tuburi de imagine speciale, care au produs imaginea corespunzătoare. Tuburile de imagine generează o luminozitate foarte ridicată, astfel încât nu este necesară o sursă suplimentară de lumină. Tuburile cu imagini utilizează două tehnici de vizualizare diferite: afișaj oscilografic (vector) de mare viteză sau afișaj de televiziune (liniar).

În prezent se folosesc LED-uri ca surse de lumină. Luminozitatea imaginii este controlată de un senzor foto în funcție de lumina ambientală. Imaginea este generată de un ecran color TFT (Thin-film transistor) cu rezoluție înaltă

Utilizări
Dispozitivele HUD au fost testate pentru un număr mare utilizări, cum ar fi:

Aviație: Pe lângă informațiile tipice pe care HUD-urile aeronavelor le afișează (viteza aerului, altitudinea, linia de orizont, deplasarea, indicatori de viraj și glisadă), aplicațiile militare includ date despre sistemul de arme și sistemul de ochire, unghi de atac, computer de țintire, HMD (Helmet-mounted Display) care se utilizează simultan cu HUD.

Auto: Primul producător auto care a introdus tehnologia HUD pe vehiculele sale a fost BMW. Producătorii oferă fie dispozitive independente care sunt fixate pe bord, fie diverse accesorii pentru telefoane mobile. Dispozitivul oferă informații de bază pentru șoferi, proiectând o imagine pe suprafața interioară a parbrizului. Spre exemplu, distanța până la următorul viraj, direcția, timpul estimativ până la destinație, viteza, banda de rulare, avertizări de trafic atunci când sunt disponibile și camere radar. În plus, funcționează în combinație cu funcția vocală de navigare.

Medicină: În chirurgie HUD (HMD) poate reprezenta o imagine de ansamblu îmbunătățită a operației, arătând rezultatele plăcilor cu raze X prin suprapunerea acestora pe imaginea reală a pacientului și permițând observarea de structuri în mod normal invizibile.

Divertisment: Afișarea unor funcții suplimentare pentru a facilita utilizarea intuitivă a realității augmentate în jocuri video, programe grafice, proiecții video cu subtitrare.

Ubuntu, o distribuție Linux, de la versiunea 12.04 LTS (Precise Pangolin), are o funcționalitatea HUD în cadrul mediului desktop Unity, a cărui utilitate este similară cu cea a afișajelor Head-up Display.

Vezi și
HUD (jocuri video)
Realitate augmentată
Sistem înglobat
Smartglasses

Note

Legături externe

 Tehnologia Head-Up Display, un pariu câștigat de constructorii auto
 The best head-up displays (HUDs) for your car

Tehnologia vehiculelor
Avionică
Tehnologii de autovehicule
Instrumente optice
Realitate mixtă

Head-up Display


Harry Bertoia (March 10, 1915 – November 6, 1978) was an Italian-born American artist, sound art sculptor, and modern furniture designer.

Bertoia was born in San Lorenzo d'Arzene, Pordenone, Italy. At age 15, given the opportunity to move to Detroit, Harry chose to adventure to America and live with his older brother, Oreste. After learning English and the bus schedule, he enrolled in Cass Technical High School, where he studied art and design and learned the skill of handmade jewelry making ca.1930–1936. At that time, there were three jewelry and metals teachers Louise Green, Mary Davis, and Greta Pack. In 1936 he attended the Art School of the Detroit Society of Arts and Crafts, now known as the College for Creative Studies. The following year in 1937 he received a scholarship to study at the Cranbrook Academy of Art where he encountered Walter Gropius, Edmund N. Bacon, Ray and Charles Eames, and Florence Knoll for the first time.

In 2019, the Harry Bertoia Foundation launched a catalogue raisonné project, which seeks to document and research the diverse and extensive artistic practice of the artist. The goal is to provide a comprehensive record and resource of Bertoia's work, and will include his painting, graphics (including monotypes), furniture, jewelry, metalwork, sound recordings, and sculpture. An ongoing project, the Harry Bertoia Catalogue Raisonné will be available online, published in stages, and regularly updated to reflect ongoing research. It will be accessible to scholars, educators, collectors, arts professionals, and any member of the public wishing to gain a deeper understanding of Bertoia's work.

Career

Starting out as a painting student but soon being asked to reopen the metal workshop in 1939, Bertoia taught jewelry design and metal work. Later, as the war effort made metal a rare and very expensive commodity he began to focus his efforts on jewelry making, even designing and creating wedding rings for Ray Eames and Edmund Bacon's wife Ruth. When all the metal was taken up by war efforts, he became the graphics instructor. Still at Cranbrook, in 1943 he married Brigitta Valentiner, and then moved to California to work for Charles and Ray at the Molded Plywood Division of the Evans Product Company. Bertoia also learned welding techniques at Santa Monica College and began experimenting with sound sculptures. Bertoia worked there until 1946, then sold his jewelry and monotypes until obtaining work with the Electronics Naval Lab in La Jolla.
In 1950, he was invited to move to Pennsylvania to work with Hans and Florence Knoll. (Florence studied also at Cranbrook.)  During this period he designed five wire pieces that became known as the Bertoia Collection for Knoll.  Among these was the famous diamond chair, a fluid, sculptural form made from a welded lattice work of steel.

In Bertoia's own words, "If you look at these chairs, they are mainly made of air, like sculpture. Space passes right through them."

The chairs were produced with varying degrees of upholstery over their light grid-work, and they were handmade at first because a suitable mass production process could not be found. Unfortunately, the chair edge utilized two thin wires welded on either side of the mesh seat.  This design had been granted a patent to the Eames for the wire chair produced by Herman Miller. Herman Miller eventually won and Bertoia & Knoll redesigned the seat edge, using a thicker, single wire, and grinding down the edge of the seat wires at a smooth angle—the same way the chairs are still produced.   Nonetheless, the commercial success enjoyed by Bertoia's diamond chair was immediate. It was only in 2005 that Bertoia's asymmetrical chaise longue was introduced at the Milan Furniture Fair and sold out immediately.

Sound sculpture

In the mid-1950s, the chairs being produced by Knoll sold so well that the lump sum payment arrangement from Knoll allowed Bertoia to devote himself exclusively to sculpture. He ultimately produced over 50 commissioned public sculptures, many of which remain viewable. In the 1960s, he began experimenting with sounding sculptures of tall vertical rods on flat bases. He renovated the old barn into an atypical concert hall and put in about 100 of his favorite "Sonambient" sculptures. Bertoia played the pieces in a number of concerts and even produced a series of eleven albums, all entitled "Sonambient," of the music made by his art, manipulated by his hands along with the elements of nature. In the late 1990s, his daughter found a large collection of near mint condition original albums stored away on his property in Pennsylvania.  These were sold as collector's items. In 2015, these Sonambient recordings were re-issued by Important Records as a box set with a booklet of the history and previously unseen photos.

The sound sculptures are also featured on a 1975 record titled "The Sound of Sound Sculpture".

Bertoia's work can be found in The Addison Gallery of American Art (Andover, Massachusetts), the Brooklyn Museum (New York City), the Cleveland Museum of Art, the Dallas Public Library, the Detroit Institute of Arts, the Hirshhorn Museum and Sculpture Garden (Washington D.C.), the Honolulu Museum of Art, the Kemper Museum of Contemporary Art (Kansas City, Missouri), the Nasher Sculpture Center (Dallas, Texas), the Philadelphia Museum of Art, the Reading Public Museum (Reading, Pennsylvania), the Allentown Art Museum,  Milwaukee art museum, the Smithsonian American Art Museum (Washington D.C.), the Vero Beach Museum of Art (Vero Beach, Florida), and the Walker Art Center (Minneapolis, Minnesota).

Bertoia's "Sunburst Sculpture" owned by the Joslyn Art Museum was originally installed in the Joslyn's Fountain Court.  It is now
located in the lobby of the Milton R. Abrahams Branch of the Omaha Public Library.  Lord Palumbo owns several Bertoia works which are on display at Kentuck Knob.  Bertoia's "Sounding Sculpture" can be found in the plaza of The Aon Center, Chicago's fourth-tallest building. Another "Sounding Sculpture", considerably smaller than the one mentioned above, is featured in the Rose Terrace of the Chicago Botanic Garden, and a third very similar to the piece in Chicago called " Sounding Piece" was until 2003 on display at the Herbert F. Johnson Museum of Art at Cornell University in Ithaca, New York.  As explained in October 3, 1995 piece in the weekly "Dear Uncle Ezra" column of the university newspaper:

Dear Uncle Ezra,

What is that sound coming from the Johnson Museum? It's a pingy type sound that I guess could be some kind of wind chime but it seems like it's coming from the building itself.

— Just wondering
Dear Chiming In,

Well, it almost is coming from the building itself.  What you hear is "Sounding Piece", a sculpture by Harry Bertoia that permanently resides on the sculpture court (outdoor balcony) on the second floor of the Johnson Museum.  The chimes sway back and forth on tall rods and "ping" or "gong" into each other (depending on which chime and how hard they collide) when winds move them.  It's one of my all-time favorites, well worth a visit if you haven't seen it.  You can go out on to the sculpture court until at least the end of October.  Once winter sets in, the chimes are secured so that they won't snap in the windy, icy weather.

Uncle Ezra

The sculpture was taken off view after it was damaged in a storm in 2003 . Audiovisual footage of many of Bertoia's sound sculptures can be viewed on websites such as YouTube .

Other work
Bertoia was the sculptor commissioned to create the Marshall University fountain in Huntington, West Virginia, to honor the university's football team in the wake of the plane crash that killed them on November 14, 1970. For more information on the disaster, see Marshall University air disaster.

The 1954 Gordon Bunshaft building for Manufacturer's Hanover Trust-now JPMorgan Chase (510 Fifth Avenue at West 43rd Street, New York City) included a full building-width, second-floor screen-sculpture by Bertoia. It was dismantled and removed in 2010 by J. P. Morgan Chase.

Bertoia was also commissioned to make a screen sculpture for the Embassy of the United States in Caracas, Venezuela, in 1958. The building, located in the Chacao Municipality (former Sucre District), now serves as the headquarters of Venezuela's Ministry of the People's Power for Tourism, while the embassy was moved to a bigger site in Valle Arriba in 1995. Bertoia's sculpture, spanning the entire vertical length of the building, is still in place.

The 'Golden Sun' was commissioned in 1967 for The Whiting, an auditorium in Flint, Michigan.  Seven feet in diameter, the spherical sculpture consists of 675 gold-plated stainless steel branches and hangs in the building's lobby.

Personal life
In 1943 Bertoia married fellow Cranbrook student Brigitta Valentiner (daughter of Wilhelm Valentiner, then director of the Detroit Institute of Arts). They had three children; a son, Val, and two daughters, Lesta and Celia. One grandson and two granddaughters (one who died young), and three great grandchildren have carried on his lineage.  Some members of the subsequent two generations are engaged in artistic endeavors. Bertoia died of lung cancer in Barto, Pennsylvania, at the age of 63 on November 6, 1978.  Brigitta Valentiner, died in 2007, aged 87.

Publications

Harry Bertoia: Sculptor  (1970), June Kompass Nelson, Wayne State University Press,
Harry Bertoia, Printmaker: Monotypes and Other Monographics (1989), June Kompass Nelson, Wayne State University Press,
The World of Bertoia (2003),  Nancy N. Schiffer and Val O. Bertoia, Schiffer Publishing,
 The Life and Work of Harry Bertoia (2015), Celia Bertoia, Schiffer Publishing,

References

External links

 HarryBertoia Foundation
 Harry Bertoia Catalogue Raisonné Project
 Bertoia Studio
 Marshall University Air Disaster Memorial Site (Harry Bertoia)
 ArtCycloPedia.Com (Harry Bertoia Online)
 Harry Bertoia's Birthplace, hosting a comprehensive Digital Library
 The Bertoia Collection

20th-century Italian male artists
Italian furniture designers
American furniture designers
Modern artists
1915 births
1978 deaths
Audiovisual artists
American male sculptors
Cass Technical High School alumni
Cranbrook Academy of Art alumni
Italian emigrants to the United States
People from Berks County, Pennsylvania
20th-century American sculptors
20th-century American male artists
Santa Monica College alumni

Harry Bertoia


ترجمة روسية (بالروسية:'РУССКИЙ ПЕРЕВОД) مسلسل تليفزيوني روسي تم إنتاجه 2006 وعرض عام 2007 في القناة الأولي الروسية.

والمسلسل مقتبس من رواية «الصحافي» للكاتب ومؤسس وكالة التحقيقات الصحفية الروسي اندري كنستانتينوف هي الرواية الأولي من نوعها التي تدور أحداثها في اليمن الديمقراطي وليبيا بين 1984-1991

وتحكي حكاية المترجمين المستشرقين الروس الذين كانوا يؤدون واجبهم وعملهم جنب الخبراء العسكريين السوفييت في اطار التعاون العسكري بين بلادهم والدول العربية.

والمؤلف نفسه عمل مترجما للغة العربية في لواء المظلات قرب عدن ثم بالقاعدة الجوية القريبة من بنغازي في الفترة الزمنية المذكورة بل وانه اصرعلي أدبية كتابه وعلي عدم تطابق الأشخاص واللأماكن والأحداث كما هي في الكتاب مع الأشخاص والأماكن والأحداث الحقيقية التاريخية فان حدث مثل هذا التطابق فليس إلا من قبيل الصدفة.

أما الفيلم «ترجمة روسية» فهو محاولة نقل تلك الرواية لاندري كستانتينوف الي شاشات التلفزيون والفيديو، وعلي الرغم كون اللغة الروسية لغة فيلم أساسية تلعب اللغة العربية ولهجاتها دورا هاما في مشاهد الفيلم أيضا كاحد ابطال المسلسل

روابط خارجية

المصادر

 l عن المسلسل في موقع المؤتمر الشعبي العام
 وفي الموقع الثقافي «العناوين الثقافية»
 صلاح عبد الفتاح أسماعيل في لقاء مراسل جريدة «26 سبتمبر» معه، أبريل 2006

أفلام عن اللغة والترجمة
مسلسلات جريمة تلفزيونية روسية
مسلسلات تلفزيونية روسية
مسلسلات تلفزيونية روسية انتهت في 2007
مسلسلات تلفزيونية روسية بدأ عرضها في 2007
مسلسلات تلفزيونية روسية في عقد 2000
عروض تلفزيونية مبنية على كتب
مسلسلات قصيرة روسية

ترجمة روسية (مسلسل)


Page Four er et dansk boyband fra København bestående af de fire medlemmer: Stefan Hjort (f. 1998), Lauritz Emil Christiansen (f. 1998), Jonas Schwanenflügel Eilskov Jensen (f. 1996), og Pelle Højer Pedersen (f. 11 april 1997). Gruppen blev dannet i starten af 2014 og fik hurtigt mange Facebookfølgere, som følge af deres online-upload af coverversioner af danske sange. I november, 2014 skrev gruppen pladekontrakt med Sony Music Entertainment Denmark. Page Four udmærkede sig ved at være det første boyband, der sang på dansk.
Deres fans bliver kaldt Pagers
.

Singlen "Sommer" blev skrevet sammen med Tim McEwan, Theis Andersen og Søren Ohrt Nissen. Sangen røg direkte ind som nr 1 på den danske iTunes og opnåede også en placering på Europe Official Top 100. Gruppens tre første singler opnåede desuden alle en placering i top 15 på den danske singlehitliste Tracklisten.

I 2018 annoncerede boybandet at de stoppede med at lave musik sammen og at deres forårstour blev den sidste tour.
Den 13. juni 2023 annoncerede bandet at de genopstår via et opslag på instagram.

Diskografi

Album

Singler

Referencer

Eksterne henvisninger
 Officiel hjemmeside

Musikgrupper fra 2014
Popgrupper fra Danmark
Boybands

Page Four


Senecioneae is the largest tribe of the Asteraceae, or the sunflower family, comprising over 150 genera and over 3,500 species. Almost one-third of the species in this tribe are placed in the genus Senecio.  Its members exhibit probably the widest possible range of form to be found in the entire plant kingdom, and include annuals, minute creeping alpines, herbaceous and evergreen perennials, shrubs, climbers, succulents, trees, and semi-aquatic plants.

Plants in this tribe are responsible for more livestock poisonings than all other plants combined. Its members usually contain liver and kidney toxic and carcinogenic unsaturated pyrrolizidine alkaloids in Senecio and furanoeremophilanes in Tetradymia.

A number of species are well known in horticulture.

Classification
Since the time of Bentham, the "premier systematic botanist of the nineteenth century",
considerable efforts have been made to classify and understand the striking morphological diversity in the Senecioneae.
The traditional view of the tribe has been that of one huge genus Senecio plus many other genera which exhibit varying degrees of distinctiveness.
Circumscription and delimitation of the tribe have experienced expansions and contractions over the decades as genera and groups of genera have been moved in and out,
as was the case for Arnica, Liabum, Munnozia, Schistocarpha, etc. which have since then been excluded.
Of the several potential causes for this constant redefinition the greatest is probably that little is known about its intergeneric relationships or a lack of phylogenetic understanding enhanced  by the other problems of conflicting clues from morphological characters, the large size of the tribe, the absence of a precise delimitation or circumscription of Senecio and the naturalness of these assemblages combined with the imprecise boundaries of the different species themselves.

Many segregate genera have been recognized in recent studies, often with circumscriptions derived from selected representative species. Whether the recognition of numerous segregate genera provides a better taxonomy than treating the variation patterns as infrageneric taxa is yet unclear. A respectable case can be made for maintaining Senecio as a broad concept, at least until revisionary studies at the species level are carried out and the results subjected to critical analyses.
Most genera that have been removed from the Senecioneae in the broadest sense have come to rest within the Liabeae or within a broadly circumscribed Heliantheae (e.g., allies in the Arnicinae, Chaenactidinae, or Madiinae; Haploesthes in the Flaveriinae; and Raillardella and allies in the Madiinae). Additional information may be found in B. G. Baldwin et al. (2002), H. Robinson (1981), B. Nordenstam (1977–1978) and K. Bremer (1994).

Genera
Senecioneae genera recognized by the Global Compositae Database :

References

External links

Asteraceae tribes

Senecioneae


Kim Karin Polese (born November 13, 1961) is a Silicon Valley entrepreneur and technology executive. She serves as Chairwoman of CrowdSmart Inc., a software products company.

Polese serves on the board of the Long-term Stock Exchange and is an adjunct faculty member at the University of California. Until 2015, Polese was a Chairwoman of ClearStreet Inc., a company whose products help employers and their employees reduce their healthcare spend. An advocate of public policy to increase America's innovation capacity, Polese was named to President Obama's Innovation Advisory Board in 2011. The Board guided the Commerce Department's study of US economic competitiveness, delivering a report with recommendations to Congress in January 2012.

In May 2012, Polese was named to the San Francisco Business Journals list of "Most Influential Women". Polese is the recipient of the 2010 National Center for Women & Information Technology Innovator Award. Early in her career, in 1997, she made Time magazine's list of "The 25 Most Influential Americans". In 2018, Polese appeared in the documentary Silicon Valley: The Untold Story.

Education
Polese received a BA degree in biophysics in 1984 from the University of California, Berkeley and studied computer science at the University of Washington. She was awarded an Honorary Doctorate in Business and Economics from California State University in 2011. She is a fellow at Carnegie Mellon University's Center for Engineered Innovation.

Work history
In addition to serving CrowdSmart as Chairman, Polese is an Aspen Institute Crown Fellow and serves on a number of boards, including the Silicon Valley Leadership Group, TechNet, the University of California President's Board on Science and Innovation, UC Berkeley's College of Engineering, the Long Now Foundation, the Public Policy Institute of California and the Global Security Institute. Polese served on the board of Technorati, Inc. from 2004 to 2006. She is an advisor and investor in several early-stage technology companies.

Previously, Polese served as CEO of SpikeSource Inc., which developed software to automate open source application management. The company was incubated in 2003 at VC firm Kleiner Perkins Caufield & Byers and launched its first products in April 2005. The company was acquired by software company Black Duck in November 2010. Prior to SpikeSource, Polese co-founded Marimba Inc., an Internet-based software management pioneer. She served as President and CEO until 2000, leading Marimba to profitability. She was Chairman from 2000 to 2004, when Marimba was sold to BMC Software for $239M.

Before co-founding Marimba, Polese spent more than seven years with Sun Microsystems and was the founding product manager for Java when it launched in 1995. She also influenced the transition of its internal name of "Oak" to "Java".

Prior to joining Sun, Polese worked on expert systems at IntelliCorp Inc., helping Fortune 500 companies apply artificial intelligence to solving complex business challenges.

References

External links

 Kim Polese speaks at Stanford University
 Kim Polese speaks at the University of California
 Kim Polese interview by InformIT
 Kim Polese interview by ZDNet
 Kim Polese presentation at O'Reilly Media's OSCON 2005
 Kim Polese interview by David Berlind from ZDNet as Spikesource came out of beta
 Kim Polese interview by David Berlind from ZDNet

1961 births
Living people
UC Berkeley College of Letters and Science alumni
American technology chief executives
American women chief executives
American chief executives of financial services companies
Henry Crown Fellows
20th-century American businesspeople
20th-century American businesswomen
21st-century American businesspeople
21st-century American businesswomen

Kim Polese


Institut des sciences et techniques des Yvelines, fondată în 1992, este o universitate tehnică de stat din Vélizy-Villacoublay (Franța).

Secții
 Master
Domeniu: Inginerie, IT, mecatronica, sisteme electronice integrate

Vezi și
Universitatea Versailles

Legături externe
 ISTY Web

Universități din Franța
Universități tehnice


Pterothamnus, monotipski rod češljugovki smješten u tribus Pterocephalidieae, dio porodice kozokrvnica. Jedina vrsta je P. diandrum, zeljasta biljka sa Iberskog poluotoka

Sinonimi
 Pseudoscabiosa diandra (Lag.) Greuter & Burdet
 Pterocephalus diandrus (Lag.) Lag.
 Scabiosa brevis D.Dietr.
 Scabiosa diandra Lag., bazionim
 Scabiosa divaricata E.D.Clarke

Izvori

Češljugovke

Pterocephalidium


In statistics, an effect size is a value measuring the strength of the relationship between two variables in a population, or a sample-based estimate of that quantity. It can refer to the value of a statistic calculated from a sample of data, the value of a parameter for a hypothetical population, or to the equation that operationalizes how statistics or parameters lead to the effect size value. Examples of effect sizes include the correlation between two variables, the regression coefficient in a regression, the mean difference, or the risk of a particular event (such as a heart attack) happening. Effect sizes complement statistical hypothesis testing, and play an important role in power analyses, sample size planning, and in meta-analyses. The cluster of data-analysis methods concerning effect sizes is referred to as estimation statistics.

Effect size is an essential component when evaluating the strength of a statistical claim, and it is the first item (magnitude) in the MAGIC criteria. The standard deviation of the effect size is of critical importance, since it indicates how much uncertainty is included in the measurement. A standard deviation that is too large will make the measurement nearly meaningless. In meta-analysis, where the purpose is to combine multiple effect sizes, the uncertainty in the effect size is used to weigh effect sizes, so that large studies are considered more important than small studies.  The uncertainty in the effect size is calculated differently for each type of effect size, but generally only requires knowing the study's sample size (N), or the number of observations (n) in each group.

Reporting effect sizes or estimates thereof (effect estimate [EE], estimate of effect) is considered good practice when presenting empirical research findings in many fields.  The reporting of effect sizes facilitates the interpretation of the importance of a research result, in contrast to its statistical significance. Effect sizes are particularly prominent in social science and in medical research (where size of treatment effect is important).

Effect sizes may be measured in relative or absolute terms. In relative effect sizes, two groups are directly compared with each other, as in odds ratios and relative risks. For absolute effect sizes, a larger absolute value always indicates a stronger effect. Many types of measurements can be expressed as either absolute or relative, and these can be used together because they convey different information. A prominent task force in the psychology research community made the following recommendation:

Overview

Population and sample effect sizes
As in statistical estimation, the true effect size is distinguished from the observed effect size, e.g. to measure the risk of disease in a population (the population effect size) one can measure the risk within a sample of that population (the sample effect size). Conventions for describing true and observed effect sizes follow standard statistical practices—one common approach is to use Greek letters like ρ [rho] to denote population parameters and Latin letters like r to denote the corresponding statistic. Alternatively, a "hat" can be placed over the population parameter to denote the statistic, e.g. with  being the estimate of the parameter .

As in any statistical setting, effect sizes are estimated with sampling error, and may be biased unless the effect size estimator that is used is appropriate for the manner in which the data were sampled and the manner in which the measurements were made.  An example of this is publication bias, which occurs when scientists report results only when the estimated effect sizes are large or are statistically significant.  As a result, if many researchers carry out studies with low statistical power, the reported effect sizes will tend to be larger than the true (population) effects, if any. Another example where effect sizes may be distorted is in a multiple-trial experiment, where the effect size calculation is based on the averaged or aggregated response across the trials.

Smaller studies sometimes show different, often larger, effect sizes than larger studies. This phenomenon is known as the small-study effect, which may signal publication bias.

Relationship to test statistics
Sample-based effect sizes are distinguished from test statistics used in hypothesis testing, in that they estimate the strength (magnitude) of, for example, an apparent relationship, rather than assigning a significance level reflecting whether the magnitude of the relationship observed could be due to chance.  The effect size does not directly determine the significance level, or vice versa.  Given a sufficiently large sample size, a non-null statistical comparison will always show a statistically significant result unless the population effect size is exactly zero (and even there it will show statistical significance at the rate of the Type I error used).  For example, a sample Pearson correlation coefficient of 0.01 is statistically significant if the sample size is 1000.  Reporting only the significant p-value from this analysis could be misleading if a correlation of 0.01 is too small to be of interest in a particular application.

Standardized and unstandardized effect sizes
The term effect size can refer to a standardized measure of effect (such as r, Cohen's d, or the odds ratio), or to an unstandardized measure (e.g., the difference between group means or the unstandardized regression coefficients). Standardized effect size measures are typically used when:
 the metrics of variables being studied do not have intrinsic meaning (e.g., a score on a personality test on an arbitrary scale),
 results from multiple studies are being combined,
 some or all of the studies use different scales, or
 it is desired to convey the size of an effect relative to the variability in the population.
In meta-analyses, standardized effect sizes are used as a common measure that can be calculated for different studies and then combined into an overall summary.

Interpretation

Whether an effect size should be interpreted as small, medium, or large depends on its substantive context and its operational definition. Cohen's conventional criteria small, medium, or big are near ubiquitous across many fields, although Cohen cautioned:

"The terms 'small,' 'medium,' and 'large' are relative, not only to each other, but to the area of behavioral science or even more particularly to the specific content and research method being employed in any given investigation....In the face of this relativity, there is a certain risk inherent in offering conventional operational definitions for these terms for use in power analysis in as diverse a field of inquiry as behavioral science. This risk is nevertheless accepted in the belief that more is to be gained than lost by supplying a common conventional frame of reference which is recommended for use only when no better basis for estimating the ES index is available." (p. 25)

In the two sample layout, Sawilowsky  concluded "Based on current research findings in the applied literature, it seems appropriate to revise the rules of thumb for effect sizes," keeping in mind Cohen's cautions, and expanded the descriptions to include very small, very large, and huge. The same de facto standards could be developed for other layouts.

Lenth  noted for a "medium" effect size, "you'll choose the same n regardless of the accuracy or reliability of your instrument, or the narrowness or diversity of your subjects.  Clearly, important considerations are being ignored here. Researchers should interpret the substantive significance of their results by grounding them in a meaningful context or by quantifying their contribution to knowledge, and Cohen's effect size descriptions can be helpful as a starting point." Similarly, a U.S. Dept of Education sponsored report  said  "The widespread indiscriminate use of Cohen's generic small, medium, and large effect size values to characterize effect sizes in domains to which his normative values do not apply is thus likewise inappropriate and misleading."

They suggested that "appropriate norms are those based on distributions of effect sizes for comparable outcome measures from comparable interventions targeted on comparable samples." Thus if a study in a field where most interventions are tiny yielded a small effect (by Cohen's criteria), these new criteria would call it "large". In a related point, see Abelson's paradox and Sawilowsky's paradox.

Types
About 50 to 100 different measures of effect size are known. Many effect sizes of different types can be converted to other types, as many estimate the separation of two distributions, so are mathematically related. For example, a correlation coefficient can be converted to a Cohen's d and vice versa.

Correlation family: Effect sizes based on "variance explained"
These effect sizes estimate the amount of the variance within an experiment that is "explained" or "accounted for" by the experiment's model (Explained variation).

Pearson r or correlation coefficient
Pearson's correlation, often denoted r and introduced by Karl Pearson, is widely used as an effect size when paired quantitative data are available; for instance if one were studying the relationship between birth weight and longevity.  The correlation coefficient can also be used when the data are binary. Pearson's r can vary in magnitude from −1 to 1, with −1 indicating a perfect negative linear relation, 1 indicating a perfect positive linear relation, and 0 indicating no linear relation between two variables. Cohen gives the following guidelines for the social sciences:

Coefficient of determination (r2 or R2)
A related effect size is r2, the coefficient of determination (also referred to as R2 or "r-squared"), calculated as the square of the Pearson correlation r.  In the case of paired data, this is a measure of the proportion of variance shared by the two variables, and varies from 0 to 1. For example, with an r of 0.21 the coefficient of determination is 0.0441, meaning that 4.4% of the variance of either variable is shared with the other variable.  The r2 is always positive, so does not convey the direction of the correlation between the two variables.

Eta-squared (η2)
Eta-squared describes the ratio of variance explained in the dependent variable by a predictor while controlling for other predictors, making it analogous to the r2. Eta-squared is a biased estimator of the variance explained by the model in the population (it estimates only the effect size in the sample). This estimate shares the weakness with r2 that each additional variable will automatically increase the value of η2. In addition, it measures the variance explained of the sample, not the population, meaning that it will always overestimate the effect size, although the bias grows smaller as the sample grows larger.

Omega-squared (ω2)

A less biased estimator of the variance explained in the population is ω2

This form of the formula is limited to between-subjects analysis with equal sample sizes in all cells. Since it is less biased (although not unbiased), ω2 is preferable to η2; however, it can be more inconvenient to calculate for complex analyses. A generalized form of the estimator has been published for between-subjects and within-subjects analysis, repeated measure, mixed design, and randomized block design experiments. In addition, methods to calculate partial ω2 for individual factors and combined factors in designs with up to three independent variables have been published.

Cohen's f2
Cohen's f2 is one of several effect size measures to use in the context of an F-test for ANOVA or multiple regression. Its amount of bias (overestimation of the effect size for the ANOVA) depends on the bias of its underlying measurement of variance explained (e.g., R2, η2, ω2).

The f2 effect size measure for multiple regression is defined as:

where R2 is the squared multiple correlation.

Likewise, f2 can be defined as:
 or
for models described by those effect size measures.

The  effect size measure for sequential multiple regression and also common for PLS modeling is defined as:

where R2A is the variance accounted for by a set of one or more independent variables A, and R2AB is the combined variance accounted for by A and another set of one or more independent variables of interest B. By convention, f2 effect sizes of , , and  are termed small, medium, and large, respectively.

Cohen's  can also be found for factorial analysis of variance (ANOVA) working backwards, using:

In a balanced design (equivalent sample sizes across groups) of ANOVA, the corresponding population parameter of  is

wherein μj denotes the population mean within the jth group of the total K groups, and σ the equivalent population standard deviations within each groups. SS is the sum of squares in ANOVA.

Cohen's q

Another measure that is used with correlation differences is Cohen's q. This is the difference between two Fisher transformed Pearson regression coefficients. In symbols this is

where r1 and r2 are the regressions being compared. The expected value of q is zero and its variance is

where N1 and N2 are the number of data points in the first and second regression respectively.

Difference family: Effect sizes based on differences between means
The raw effect size pertaining to a comparison of two groups is inherently calculated as the differences between the two means.  However, to facilitate interpretation it is common to standardise the effect size;  various conventions for statistical standardisation are presented below.

Standardized mean difference

A (population) effect size θ based on means usually considers the standardized mean difference (SMD) between two populations

where μ1 is the mean for one population, μ2 is the mean for the other population, and σ is a standard deviation based on either or both populations.

In the practical setting the population values are typically not known and must be estimated from sample statistics.  The several versions of effect sizes based on means differ with respect to which statistics are used.

This form for the effect size resembles the computation for a t-test statistic, with the critical difference that the t-test statistic includes a factor of .  This means that for a given effect size, the significance level increases with the sample size.  Unlike the t-test statistic, the effect size aims to estimate a population parameter and is not affected by the sample size.

SMD values of 0.2 to 0.5 are considered small, 0.5 to 0.8 are considered medium, and greater than 0.8 are considered large.

Cohen's d
Cohen's d is defined as the difference between two means divided by a standard deviation for the data, i.e.

Jacob Cohen defined s, the pooled standard deviation, as (for two independent samples):

where the variance for one of the groups is defined as

and similarly for the other group.

The table below contains descriptors for magnitudes of d = 0.01 to 2.0, as initially suggested by Cohen and expanded by Sawilowsky.

Other authors choose a slightly different computation of the standard deviation when referring to "Cohen's d" where the denominator is without "-2"

This definition of "Cohen's d" is termed the maximum likelihood estimator by Hedges and Olkin,
and it is related to Hedges' g by a scaling factor (see below).

With two paired samples, we look at the distribution of the difference scores.  In that case, s is the standard deviation of this distribution of difference scores.  This creates the following relationship between the t-statistic to test for a difference in the means of the two groups and Cohen's d:

and

Cohen's d is frequently used in estimating sample sizes for statistical testing. A lower Cohen's d indicates the necessity of larger sample sizes, and vice versa, as can subsequently be determined together with the additional parameters of desired significance level and statistical power.

For paired samples Cohen suggests that the d calculated is actually a d', which doesn't provide the correct answer to obtain the power of the test, and that before looking the values up in the tables provided, it should be corrected for r as in the following formula:

Glass' Δ
In 1976, Gene V. Glass proposed an estimator of the effect size that uses only the standard deviation of the second group

The second group may be regarded as a control group, and Glass argued that if several treatments were compared to the control group it would be better to use just the standard deviation computed from the control group, so that effect sizes would not differ under equal means and different variances.

Under a correct assumption of equal population variances a pooled estimate for σ is more precise.

Hedges' g
Hedges' g, suggested by Larry Hedges in 1981,
is like the other measures based on a standardized difference

where the pooled standard deviation  is computed as:

However, as an estimator for the population effect size θ it is biased.
Nevertheless, this bias can be approximately corrected through multiplication by a factor

Hedges and Olkin refer to this less-biased estimator  as d, but it is not the same as Cohen's d.
The exact form for the correction factor J() involves the gamma function

There are also multilevel variants of Hedges' g, e.g., for use in cluster randomised controlled trials (CRTs). CRTs involve randomising clusters, such as schools or classrooms, to different conditions and are frequently used in education research.

Ψ, root-mean-square standardized effect
A similar effect size estimator for multiple comparisons (e.g., ANOVA) is the Ψ root-mean-square standardized effect:

where k is the number of groups in the comparisons.

This essentially presents the omnibus difference of the entire model adjusted by the root mean square, analogous to d or g.

In addition, a generalization for multi-factorial designs has been provided.

Distribution of effect sizes based on means
Provided that the data is Gaussian distributed a scaled Hedges' g, , follows a noncentral t-distribution with the noncentrality parameter  and  degrees of freedom.  Likewise, the scaled Glass' Δ is distributed with  degrees of freedom.

From the distribution it is possible to compute the expectation and variance of the effect sizes.

In some cases large sample approximations for the variance are used. One suggestion for the variance of Hedges' unbiased estimator is

Other metrics
Mahalanobis distance (D) is a multivariate generalization of Cohen's d, which takes into account the relationships between the variables.

Categorical family: Effect sizes for associations among categorical variables

Commonly used measures of association for the chi-squared test are the Phi coefficient and Cramér's V (sometimes referred to as Cramér's phi and denoted as φc). Phi is related to the point-biserial correlation coefficient and Cohen's d and estimates the extent of the relationship between two variables (2 × 2). Cramér's V may be used with variables having more than two levels.

Phi can be computed by finding the square root of the chi-squared statistic divided by the sample size.

Similarly, Cramér's V is computed by taking the square root of the chi-squared statistic divided by the sample size and the length of the minimum dimension (k is the smaller of the number of rows r or columns c).

φc is the intercorrelation of the two discrete variables and may be computed for any value of r or c. However, as chi-squared values tend to increase with the number of cells, the greater the difference between r and c, the more likely V will tend to 1 without strong evidence of a meaningful correlation.

Cohen's omega (ω)

Another measure of effect size used for chi-squared tests is Cohen's omega (). This is defined as

where p0i is the proportion of the ith cell under H0, p1i is the proportion of the ith cell under H1 and m is the number of cells.

In Statistical Power Analysis for the Behavioral Sciences (1988, pp.224-225), Cohen gives the following general guideline for interpreting omega (see table below), but warns against its "possible inaptness in any given substantive context" and advises to use context-relevant judgment instead.

Odds ratio

The odds ratio (OR) is another useful effect size.  It is appropriate when the research question focuses on the degree of association between two binary variables.  For example, consider a study of spelling ability.  In a control group, two students pass the class for every one who fails, so the odds of passing are two to one (or 2/1 = 2).  In the treatment group, six students pass for every one who fails, so the odds of passing are six to one (or 6/1 = 6).  The effect size can be computed by noting that the odds of passing in the treatment group are three times higher than in the control group (because 6 divided by 2 is 3).  Therefore, the odds ratio is 3. Odds ratio statistics are on a different scale than Cohen's d, so this '3' is not comparable to a Cohen's d of 3.

Relative risk

The relative risk (RR), also called risk ratio, is simply the risk (probability) of an event relative to some independent variable.  This measure of effect size differs from the odds ratio in that it compares probabilities instead of odds, but asymptotically approaches the latter for small probabilities. Using the example above, the probabilities for those in the control group and treatment group passing is 2/3 (or 0.67) and 6/7 (or 0.86), respectively.  The effect size can be computed the same as above, but using the probabilities instead.  Therefore, the relative risk is 1.28.  Since rather large probabilities of passing were used, there is a large difference between relative risk and odds ratio. Had failure (a smaller probability) been used as the event (rather than passing), the difference between the two measures of effect size would not be so great.

While both measures are useful, they have different statistical uses.  In medical research, the odds ratio is commonly used for case-control studies, as odds, but not probabilities, are usually estimated.  Relative risk is commonly used in randomized controlled trials and cohort studies, but relative risk contributes to overestimations of the effectiveness of interventions.

Risk difference
The risk difference (RD), sometimes called absolute risk reduction, is simply the difference in risk (probability) of an event between two groups. It is a useful measure in experimental research, since RD tells you the extent to which an experimental interventions changes the probability of an event or outcome. Using the example above, the probabilities for those in the control group and treatment group passing is 2/3 (or 0.67) and 6/7 (or 0.86), respectively, and so the RD effect size is 0.86 − 0.67 = 0.19 (or 19%). RD is the superior measure for assessing effectiveness of interventions.

Cohen's h

One measure used in power analysis when comparing two independent proportions is Cohen's h. This is defined as follows

where p1 and p2 are the proportions of the two samples being compared and arcsin is the arcsine transformation.

Common language effect size
To more easily describe the meaning of an effect size to people outside statistics, the common language effect size, as the name implies, was designed to communicate it in plain English. It is used to describe a difference between two groups and was proposed, as well as named, by Kenneth McGraw and S. P. Wong in 1992. They used the following example (about heights of men and women): "in any random pairing of young adult males and females, the probability of the male being taller than the female is .92, or in simpler terms yet, in 92 out of 100 blind dates among young adults, the male will be taller than the female", when describing the population value of the common language effect size.

The population value, for the common language effect size, is often reported like this, in terms of pairs randomly chosen from the population. Kerby (2014) notes that a pair, defined as a score in one group paired with a score in another group, is a core concept of the common language effect size.

As another example, consider a scientific study (maybe of a treatment for some chronic disease, such as arthritis) with ten people in the treatment group and ten people in a control group. If everyone in the treatment group is compared to everyone in the control group, then there are (10×10=) 100 pairs. At the end of the study, the outcome is rated into a score, for each individual (for example on a scale of mobility and pain, in the case of an arthritis study), and then all the scores are compared between the pairs. The result, as the percent of pairs that support the hypothesis, is the common language effect size. In the example study it could be (let's say) .80, if 80 out of the 100 comparison pairs show a better outcome for the treatment group than the control group, and the report may read as follows: "When a patient in the treatment group was compared to a patient in the control group, in 80 of 100 pairs the treated patient showed a better treatment outcome." The sample value, in for example a study like this, is an unbiased estimator of the population value.

Vargha and Delaney generalized the common language effect size (Vargha-Delaney A), to cover ordinal level data.

Rank-biserial correlation

An effect size related to the common language effect size is the rank-biserial correlation.  This measure was introduced by Cureton as an effect size for the Mann–Whitney U test. That is, there are two groups, and scores for the groups have been converted to ranks.  The Kerby simple difference formula computes the rank-biserial correlation from the common language effect size. Letting f be the proportion of pairs favorable to the hypothesis (the common language effect size), and letting u be the proportion of pairs not favorable, the rank-biserial r is the simple difference between the two proportions: r = f − u.  In other words, the correlation is the difference between the common language effect size and its complement.  For example, if the common language effect size is 60%, then the rank-biserial r equals 60% minus 40%, or r = 0.20. The Kerby formula is directional, with positive values indicating that the results support the hypothesis.

A non-directional formula for the rank-biserial correlation was provided by Wendt, such that the correlation is always positive.  The advantage of the Wendt formula is that it can be computed with information that is readily available in published papers.  The formula uses only the test value of U from the Mann-Whitney U test, and the sample sizes of the two groups: r = 1 – (2U)/(n1 n2). Note that U is defined here according to the classic definition as the smaller of the two U values which can be computed from the data. This ensures that 2U < n1n2, as n1n2 is the maximum value of the U statistics.

An example can illustrate the use of the two formulas.  Consider a health study of twenty older adults, with ten in the treatment group and ten in the control group; hence, there are ten times ten or 100 pairs.   The health program uses diet, exercise, and supplements to improve memory, and memory is measured by a standardized test.  A Mann-Whitney U test shows that the adult in the treatment group had the better memory in 70 of the 100 pairs, and the poorer memory in 30 pairs.  The Mann-Whitney U is the smaller of 70 and 30, so U = 30.  The correlation between memory and treatment performance by the Kerby simple difference formula is r = (70/100) − (30/100) = 0.40.  The correlation by the Wendt formula is r = 1 − (2·30)/(10·10) = 0.40.

Effect size for ordinal data
Cliff's delta or , originally developed by Norman Cliff for use with ordinal data, is a measure of how often the values in one distribution are larger than the values in a second distribution.  Crucially, it does not require any assumptions about the shape or spread of the two distributions.

The sample estimate  is given by:

where the two distributions are of size  and  with items  and , respectively, and  is the Iverson bracket, which is 1 when the contents are true and 0 when false.

 is linearly related to the Mann–Whitney U statistic; however, it captures the direction of the difference in its sign.  Given the Mann–Whitney ,  is:

Confidence intervals by means of noncentrality parameters

Confidence intervals of standardized effect sizes, especially Cohen's  and , rely on the calculation of confidence intervals of noncentrality parameters (ncp). A common approach to construct the confidence interval of ncp is to find the critical ncp values to fit the observed statistic to tail quantiles α/2 and (1 − α/2). The SAS and R-package MBESS provides functions to find critical values of ncp.

t-test for mean difference of single group or two related groups
For a single group, M denotes the sample mean, μ the population mean, SD the sample's standard deviation, σ the population's standard deviation, and n is the sample size of the group. The t value is used to test the hypothesis on the difference between the mean and a baseline μbaseline. Usually, μbaseline is zero. In the case of two related groups, the single group is constructed by the differences in pair of samples, while SD and σ denote the sample's and population's standard deviations of differences rather than within original two groups.

and Cohen's

is the point estimate of

So,

t-test for mean difference between two independent groups
n1 or n2 are the respective sample sizes.

wherein

and Cohen's
 is the point estimate of

So,

One-way ANOVA test for mean difference across multiple independent groups
One-way ANOVA test applies noncentral F distribution. While with a given population standard deviation , the same test question applies noncentral chi-squared distribution.

For each j-th sample within i-th group Xi,j, denote

While,

So, both ncp(s) of F and  equate

In case of  for K independent groups of same size, the total sample size is N := n·K.

The t-test for a pair of independent groups is a special case of one-way ANOVA. Note that the noncentrality parameter  of F is not comparable to the noncentrality parameter  of the corresponding t. Actually, , and .

See also
Estimation statistics
Statistical significance
Z-factor, an alternative measure of effect size

References

Further reading
Aaron, B., Kromrey, J. D., & Ferron, J. M. (1998, November). Equating r-based and d-based effect-size indices: Problems with a commonly recommended formula. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the Florida Educational Research Association, Orlando, FL. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED433353)

Lipsey, M. W., & Wilson, D. B. (2001). Practical meta-analysis. Sage: Thousand Oaks, CA.

External links

Further explanations
Effect Size (ES)
EffectSizeFAQ.com
EstimationStats.com Web app for generating effect-size plots.
 Measuring Effect Size
Computing and Interpreting Effect size Measures with ViSta
effsize package for the R Project for Statistical Computing

Clinical research
Psychometrics
Statistical hypothesis testing
Pharmaceutical industry
Meta-analysis
Medical statistics
Mathematical and quantitative methods (economics)

Effect size


8:30 is the second live album from the jazz fusion group Weather Report, issued in 1979 by ARC/Columbia Records. The album rose to No. 3 on the Billboard Jazz Albums chart and No. 47 on the Billboard 200 chart. 8:30 also won a Grammy Award for Best Jazz Fusion Performance.

Recording

The album takes its name from the band's habit of starting their performance at 8:30 PM. At the time of the tour, the band was a quartet and would take the stage continuously for around two and a half hours, each of the members taking a solo. Wayne Shorter sometimes plays percussion instead of saxophone on stage, and on one of the studio tracks, the calypso inspired "Brown Street", Joe Zawinul's son Erich plays percussion with Erskine and Pastorius.

Jaco Pastorius played a notable solo on "Slang" which started with an out-of-time rendition of "Dolores" by Wayne Shorter, then melded a multi-part bass solo using a rack-mounted MXR digital delay, leading into references to "Third Stone from the Sun" by Jimi Hendrix, "Portrait of Tracy" from his solo work, then "The Sound of Music". He finished playing his bass with its own strap.

According to Peter Erskine, the band had planned for the entire album to be live, but an engineer accidentally erased some of the material, prompting the band to go into the studio to record the fourth side.

Release
The album was originally a double gatefold LP. In the US, the reissue on CD dropped "Scarlet Woman", as the album's running time narrowly exceeds the Red Book standard's maximum running time for a single CD. The album was released as a 2-CD set outside the US.

Critical reception
Reviewing in Christgau's Record Guide: Rock Albums of the Seventies (1981), Robert Christgau wrote: "The live double their more bemused admirers have waited for years is indeed Weather Report's most (if not first) useful album. But it also defines their limits. This is a band that runs the gamut from the catchy to the mysterioso. Joe Zawinul is the best sound effects man since Shadow Morton. And when he gives himself room, Wayne Shorter can blow."

Track listing

Personnel
 Joe Zawinul – keyboards, ARP Quadra synthesizer bass, Korg Vocoder VC-10, Sequential Circuits Prophet-5, percussion
 Wayne Shorter – tenor saxophone, soprano saxophone
 Jaco Pastorius – fretless bass guitar, percussion; drums on "8:30" & "Brown Street"
 Peter Erskine – drums
 Erich Zawinul – percussion on "Brown Street"
 The West Los Angeles Christian Academy Children's Choir – vocals on "The Orphan"

References

External links
 Weather Report - 8:30 (1979) album releases & credits at Discogs
 Weather Report - 8:30 (1979) album to be listened on Spotify
 Weather Report - 8:30 (1979) album to be listened on YouTube

Weather Report albums
1979 live albums
Live jazz fusion albums
Columbia Records live albums
 Columbia Records albums
ARC Records albums
Grammy Award for Best Jazz Fusion Performance

8:30


William Cropper est un joueur de cricket professionnel et footballeur anglais, né le  et mort le  à 26 ans. Il a été joueur de cricket pour le Derbyshire County Cricket Club entre  et  et au football au moins une fois pour le Derby County FC. Il est l'un des dix-neuf sportifs à avoir remporté le doublé du Derbyshire en jouant au cricket pour le Derbyshire et au football pour le comté de Derby. Le , il devient le premier à décéder comme joueur à cause d'un match de football.

Biographie
Cropper est né à Brimington, Derbyshire, fils de Thomas et Mary Cropper, et était maçon. Joueur professionnel de cricket populaire, il a fait ses débuts pour le Derbyshire lors de la saison 1882. Il a également joué pour l'équipe du nord de l'Angleterre. Il partage la plupart des guichets du club au cours des saisons 1883, 1884, 1885 et 1886. En , il joue au moins un match de football pour le Derby County FC en FA Cup. Le Derbyshire perd son statut de première classe pour la saison 1888, mais Cropper continue à jouer pour l'équipe. Cropper dispute 113 manches en 60 matchs de première classe et marque 1638 points avec une moyenne de 15,00 et un meilleur score de 93 non éliminés. Il a pris 171 guichets de première classe, avec une moyenne de 17,13 et une meilleure performance de 7 pour 25. En , il est sélectionné pour un match international avec l'Angleterre XI contre les Australiens alors en tournée.

À partir de , Cropper joue au football comme avant-centre pour l'équipe du Derbyshire du Staveley FC qui venait de déposer sa demande d'accession au statut de club professionnel. Le , après quinze minutes de jeu, pendant le match Staveley FC contre Grimsby Town à Clee Park, Lincolnshire, Cropper entre en collision avec Dan Doyle, l'arrière droit de Grimsby. Il est grièvement blessé par le genou de Doyle dans son abdomen et quitte le terrain pensant à des blessures légères mais son état se détériore rapidement. La collision a entraîné une rupture de l'intestin et il ne peut être transporté à l'hôpital le plus proche, distant de 2 miles. Malgré la présence du chirurgien Grimoldy qui assistait au match, il meurt dans la nuit dans le vestiaire de Grimsby  dans les bras de son coéquipier au Staveley et au Derbyshire County Cricket Club, George Hay. Une autopsie a confirmé la rupture des intestins créant une inflammation péritonéale aiguë. À la suite de ce décès accidentel et devant le nombre de blessures augmentant, le British Medical Journal demande que les règles du jeu soient revues. Cropper est le premier décès enregistré résultant d'un match de football.

Cropper est enterré dans le cimetière de Brimington et une pierre commémorative en marbre de Sicile a été érigée grâce au produit d'un fonds de souscription collecté par sa famille et ses amis, stèle qui peut encore être vue aujourd'hui.

Sa mort aurait donné naissance à l'expression anglaise « coming a cropper » pour décrire la malchance d'une personne.

Références

Annexes

Bibliographie

Liens externes
  Portrait de William Cropper sur footballsfallen.wordpress.com

Joueur anglais de cricket
Footballeur anglais
Naissance en décembre 1862
Décès en janvier 1889
Joueur du Derby County FC
Décès à 26 ans

William Cropper


سيدي الرئيس Mr. President هو لقب يحمله الشخص الذي يتولى منصب رئاسة الجمهورية، ويقال للمرأة إذا تولت المنصب «سيدتي الرئيسة» Madam President. أول من استخدمه جورج واشنطن أول رئيس للولايات المتحدة الأمريكية لكي يكون لقبه كرئيس للجمهورية الوليدة. وقد استخدمت حكومات أخرى اللقب لتطلقه على من يرأس الدولة. وللقب تاريخ طويل. ويترجم اللقب الإنجليزي إلى مقابله في اللغات الأخرى فتجد الفرنسيين يقولون «مسيو لو بريزيدون» Monsieur le Président في مخاطبة الرئيس الفرنسي.

التاريخ

كان توماس هانغرفورد الذي أصبح أول رئيس لمجلس العموم في عام 1376، أول من استخدم هذه الصيغة Mr. Speaker (حيث كلمة speaker في البرلمان تعني رئيس البرلمان)، وبعد استخدم رؤساء مجلس العموم ذلك اللقب. وانتقل ذلك الاستخدام إلى البرلمان الفرنسي. ففي القرن الثامن عشر كان رئيس البرلمان الفرنسي يلقب بالسيد الرئيس Monsieur le Président. وقد ورد في رواية لبيير لاكلو بعنوان «علاقات غرامية خطرة» في عام 1782، أن أشير إلى زوجة قاض في البرلمان بلقب «سيدتي الرئيسة دو تورفل» Madame la Présidente de Tourvel.

وفي عام 1787 لم يحدد دستور الولايات المتحدة كيفية مخاطبة الرئيس. فحين أدى جورج واشنطن اليمين كأول رئيس للولايات المتحدة في عام 1789 استخدم لقب «عظمة معالي رئيس الولايات المتحدة وحامي حرياتها»، وهو لقب استخدم اللجنة البرلمانية لمدة شهر. وقد انتقد هذا اللقب لكونه يوحي بالملكية. فوافق جورج واشنطن على أن يطلب من جيمس ماديسون ومجلس النواب الأمريكي، أن يتغير اللقب إلى السيد الرئيس. وقد كان جون آدمز أول نائب رئيس للولايات المتحدة وثاني رئيس لها، يشعر أن اللقب الجديد لا يختلف كثيرا عن اللقب السابق وأنه ملأ فراغ الهيبة، ولكنه في رأيه لم ينجح في الحلول مكانه.

وحين تأسست الجمهورية الفرنسية الثانية في عام 1848، أطلق لقب السيد الرئيس على رئيس الجمهورية الفرنسية. وكذلك في كندا عام 1867 حين تأسس مجلس العموم الكندي، أطلق لقب السيد الرئيس باللغة الفرنسية على رئيس المجلس.

طريقة الاستخدام

لا يستخدم اللقب إلا حين مخاطبة الرئيس نفسه. فمثلا إذا تحدثنا عن باراك أوباما لا نقول «السيد الرئيس باراك أوباما قام بكذا...»، وإنما نقول «الرئيس الأمريكي باراك أوباما قام بكذا». فهذا اللقب لا يستخدم إلا عند مناداة الرئيس وتوجيه الحديث إليه، فنقول: «عيد ميلاد سعيد، سيدي الرئيس».

زوجة الرئيس

وفي الولايات المتحدة كانت زوجة الرئيس جورج واشنطن مارثا واشنطن يطلق عليها «ليدي واشنطن». وفي الخمسينات من القرن الثامن عشر في الولايات المتحدة تحول لقب ليدي من كونه توقيرا واحتراما إلى أن يكون لقبا رسميا، فاستخدم لقب «السيدة الأولى». واكتسب اللقب شعبية أثناء الحرب الأهلية الأمريكية. وقد ذكر الرئيس زكاري تيلور في عام 1849 دولي ماديسون زوجة الرئيس جيمس ماديسون، في ذكرى وفاتها قائلا: «حقا لقد كانت سيدتنا الأولى لنصف قرن».

مراجع

انظر أيضا
عيد ميلاد سعيد، سيدي الرئيس

ألقاب
رئاسة الولايات المتحدة

السيد الرئيس


Rachele Brooke Smith (7 de noviembre de 1987) es una actriz y bailarina estadounidense. Su talento de baile se ha podido ver en películas como Center Stage: Turn It Up, Bring it on: Lucha hasta el final y Burlesco.

Biografía
Rachele nació 7 de noviembre de Tracy y el Dr. Kris Smith. Ella es la segunda más grande de cinco hijos. Creció en Arizona, Rachele ha desarrollado una amplia variedad de intereses, como el esquí, el tenis, break dance, y la enseñanza. Se graduó de la escuela secundaria en 2006 y continuó sus estudios en Utah. Actualmente, se está especializando en Psicología y está estudiando una maestría en Servicios Humanos y Gestión [1].
Desde su llegada a Hollywood a menos de cinco años, Rachele ha sido presentada como bailarina en la adaptación de Robert Zemeckis de A Christmas Carol, la comedia de Zac Efron 17 Again y en Alvin y las Ardillas: la secuela. Rachele también bailó como un Ironette en Iron Man 2, y más recientemente, fue una bailarina destacada en el nuevo musical Burlesque, protagonizada por Cher y Christina Aguilera.
Rachele ha desempeñado un papel principal junto a Peter Gallagher en la película de 2008, Center Stage: Turn It Up y en 2009 interpretó a Avery en una nueva entrega de la franquicia de Bring It On, Bring It On: Lucha hasta el final con Christina Milian. Rachele acaba de concluir el trabajo en la barra de comedia de la playa próxima, donde interpretó a la valiente protagonista, Sara West. [2] [3]
Rachele Brooke Smith hizo su debut en la televisión cuando ella como actriz invitada en funciones de salida (2007) para PAX TV, y el año pasado, apareció en la exitosa serie de Lifetime, ¿Cómo lucir bien desnuda alojado por Carson Kressley. Recientemente Rachele ha aparecido en series de ficción de la ABC, Eli Stone, Glee (sobre todo como una bailarina destacada en el episodio de estreno de la temporada "Britney / Brittany"), y la comedia de CBS Cómo conocí a vuestra madre como la dama de rojo. [4 ] [3]
Rachele se ha convertido en el rostro de las campañas de comercialización de Skechers, Ropa Capezio, aquí Nappy Hip-Hop de engranajes de 2009 Brecha de la campaña de vacaciones, y Old Navy. Recientemente, ella ha aparecido en videos musicales de John Legend y Andre 3000.
le gusta el dulce de leche y la manteca.

Referencias

Bailarinas de Estados Unidos
Actrices de Arizona

Rachele Brooke Smith


DIN 1472 er en DIN-standard for en konisk kærv.

Kilde
http://bolte.dk/kaervstifter-m-kaerv-din-1472-halv/
DIN-standarder

DIN 1472


An Cyperus reduncus in uska species han Liliopsida nga ginhulagway ni Ferdinand von Hochstetter ngan Johann Otto Boeckeler. An Cyperus reduncus in nahilalakip ha genus nga Cyperus, ngan familia nga Cyperaceae. Ginklasipika han IUCN an species komo diri gud kababarak-an. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Cyperus

Cyperus reduncus


Kary Fajer es una escritora mexicana. Ha realizado su carrera en la televisión mexicana para Televisa. Conocida por ser escritora de cabecera de las telenovelas del productor Nicandro Díaz González.

Sus novelas más exitosas se encuentran: Carita de ángel, ¡Vivan los niños!, La indomable, Simplemente María, Gotita de amor, Contra viento y marea, Destilando amor, Mañana es para siempre, Soy tu dueña, Amores verdaderos y Hasta el fin del mundo.

Trayectoria

Adaptaciones
 Golpe de suerte (2023) Original de Rodrigo Cuevas Gallegos
 La mexicana y el güero (2020/2021) Original de Víctor Carrasco y Vicente Sabatini
 El bienamado (2017) con Ximena Suárez Original de Dias Gomes
 Planteamiento y sinopsis de Hasta el fin del mundo (2014/2015) con Gabriela Ortigoza y Gerardo Luna Original de Enrique Estevanez
 Amores verdaderos (2012/2013) con Ximena Suárez y Alberto Gómez Original de Marcela Citterio y Enrique Estevanez
 Soy tu dueña (2010) Original de Inés Rodena
 Mañana es para siempre (2008/2009) Original de Mauricio Navas y Guillermo Restrepo
 Destilando amor (2007) Original de Fernando Gaitán
 Primera parte de Contra viento y marea (2005) Original de Manuel Muñoz Rico
 ¡Vivan los niños! (2002/03) con Alberto Gómez Original de Abel Santa Cruz
 Carita de ángel (2000/01) con Alberto Gómez Original de Abel Santa Cruz
 Primera parte de Rosalinda (1999) con Carlos Romero Original de Delia Fiallo
 Gotita de amor (1998) Original de Raymundo López
 Los hijos de nadie (1997) Original de Miguel Sabido
 La última esperanza (1993) Original de Abel Santa Cruz
 Simplemente María (1989/90) con Carlos Romero y Gabriela Ortigoza Original de Celia Alcántara

Co-adaptaciones
 Segunda parte de Prisionera de amor (1994) escrita por Carlos Romero y Dolores Ortega
 Media parte de Valentina (1993) escrita por Carlos Romero, Alfonso Cremata y Salvador Ugarte
 La indomable (1987) con Lei Quintana, escrita por Carlos Romero

Remakes reescritos por otros
 Carinha de Anjo (2016/2018) adaptación de Carita de ángel por Leonor Corrêa e Iris Abravanel
 Simplemente María (2015/16) adaptación de Simplemente María por Gabriela Ortigoza

Premios y nominaciones

Premios TVyNovelas

TV Adicto Golden Awards

Premios INTE

Referencias

Enlaces externos

Nacidos en Ciudad de México
Escritoras de México del siglo XX
Escritores de la Ciudad de México
Escritores en español del siglo XX
Escritores en español del siglo XXI
Autores de telenovelas de México
Escritoras de México del siglo XXI

Kary Fajer


O serie de puternice atacuri cibernetice folosind malware-ul Petya  a început pe 27 iunie 2017 inundând websiteurile  ucrainene ale unor organizații, bănci, ministere, ziare și firme de electricitate. Infecții similare au fost raportate în Franța, Germania, Italia, Polonia, Rusia, Marea Britanie, Statele Unite ale Americii și Australia. ESET a estimat la 28 iunie 2017, că 80% din toate infecțiile au fost în Ucraina, Germania fiind a doua cea mai greu lovită (9%). Pe 28 iunie 2017, guvernul ucrainean a declarat că atacul a fost oprit. Pe 30 iunie 2017, Associated Press a raportat că experții au fost de acord că Petya n- a fost un ransomware ci, de fapt, a vizat Ucraina!

Abordare

Ucraina acuză Rusia
Pe 30 iunie, Serviciul de Securitate al Ucrainei (SBU) a raportat că a confiscat echipamente care au fost folosite pentru a lansa atac cibernetic, susținând că acestea au aparținut unor agenți ruși responsabili pentru lansarea atacului. Pe 1 iulie 2017, SBU a susținut că datele disponibile au arătat că aceiași autori care, în Ucraina, în decembrie 2016, au atacat sistemul financiar, de transport și  energetic din Ucraina (folosind TeleBots și BlackEnergy) au atacat Ucraina și în 27 iunie 2017. "Acest lucru demonstrează implicarea serviciilor speciale ale Federației Ruse în acest atac", a fost concluzia. (în decembrie 2016 un atac cibernetic asupra sistemului energetic a provocat o pană de curent în partea de nord a capitalei, Kiev.)
Relatiile ruso–ucrainene sunt înghețate, începând din momentul în care, în 2014, Rusia a anexat Crimea, apoi a sprijinit guvernul insurgenților separatiști în estul Ucrainei astfel încât până la sfârșitul lunii iunie 2017 au ucis mai mult de 10.000 de oameni. (Rusia a negat în mod repetat trimiterea de trupe sau echipamente militare în estul Ucrainei.)
Ucraina susține că hackingul asupra instituțiilor de stat ucrainene este parte a ceea ce ei descriu ca un "război hibrid" al Rusiei împotriva Ucrainei.

Reacții
Secretarul  Consiliului Național de Securitate și Apărare a Ucrainei , Oleksandr Turchynov a susținut că există semne ale implicării ruse în atacul cibernetic din 27 iunie fără să dea vreo dovadă directă. Oficialii ruși au negat orice implicare, declarând auzațiile Ucrainei ca nefondatr..

Secretarul General al NATO, Jens Stoltenberg a promis pe 28 iunie 2017, că NATO va continua sprijinul pentru Ucraina în consolidarea apărării cibernetice.

Vezi și
 Atacuri cibernetice asupra Ucrainei (2022)

Referințe

2017 în Ucraina
Atacuri cibernetice

Atacuri cibernetice asupra Ucrainei (2017)


Hypecoeae, tribus iz porodice makovki (Papaveraceae), nekada uključivan u  vlastitu porodicu Hypecoaceae. . Danas su u njega ukjlučena dva roda Hypecoum sa 16 vrsta iz Euroazije i sjeverne Afrike, i vrsta P. racemosum iz monotipskog roda Pteridophyllum iz Japana To je jedina vrsta u rodu Pteridophyllum koja je prije bila smještena u monogeneričku porodicu Pteridophyllaceae, koja je sada uključena u Papaveraceae.

Rodovi
 Hypecoum Tourn. ex L.
 Pteridophyllum Siebold & Zucc.

Izvori

Makovke

Hypecoeae


Sutopu, 6 alan oyuncusu biri kaleci, kaleci dahil 7'si oyun içinde, yedeklerle beraber toplam 14 kişiden oluşan (Benchtekilerle beraber oyuncu sayısı 13'tür, 2 kişinin adı sadece kadroda yazılıdır.) 2 takımla 2 yarı ve 8 dakika 4 periyot   süresince en fazla 25x33 metre boyutundaki havuzda yüzerek ve topu kaleye sokmaya çalışarak suda oynanan bir takım oyundur.

Dış bağlantılar
 - sutopu.gov.tr
 waterpolo-world
 WPA - Asociación Española de Clubes de Waterpolo

Kaynakça

Sutopu