An emoji ( ; plural emoji or emojis; ) is a pictogram, logogram, ideogram, or smiley embedded in text and used in electronic messages and web pages. The primary function of emoji is to fill in emotional cues otherwise missing from typed conversation. Emoji exist in various genres, including facial expressions, common objects, places and types of weather, and animals. They are much like emoticons, except emoji are pictures rather than typographic approximations; the term "emoji" in the strict sense refers to such pictures which can be represented as encoded characters, but it is sometimes applied to messaging stickers by extension. Originally meaning pictograph, the word emoji comes from Japanese  + ; the resemblance to the English words emotion and emoticon is purely coincidental. The ISO 15924 script code for emoji is Zsye.

Originating on Japanese mobile phones in 1997, emoji became increasingly popular worldwide in the 2010s after being added to several mobile operating systems. They are now considered to be a large part of popular culture in the West and around the world. In 2015, Oxford Dictionaries named the Face with Tears of Joy emoji (😂) the word of the year.

History

Evolution from emoticons (1990s)

The emoji was predated by the emoticon, a concept implemented in 1982 by computer scientist Scott Fahlman when he suggested text-based symbols such as :-) and :-( could be used to replace language. Theories about language replacement can be traced back to the 1960s, when Russian novelist and professor Vladimir Nabokov stated in an interview with The New York Times: "I often think there should exist a special typographical sign for a smile — some sort of concave mark, a supine round bracket." It did not become a mainstream concept until the 1990s when Japanese, American and European companies began developing Fahlman's idea. Mary Kalantzis and Bill Cope point out that similar symbology was incorporated by Bruce Parello, a student at the University of Illinois, into PLATO IV, the first e-learning system, in 1972. The PLATO system was not considered mainstream, and therefore Parello's pictograms were only used by a small number of people. Scott Fahlman's emoticons importantly used common alphabet symbols, and aimed to replace language/text to express emotion, and for that reason are seen as the actual origin of emoticons.

Wingdings, a font invented by Charles Bigelow and Kris Holmes, was released by Microsoft in 1990. It could be used to send pictographs in rich text messages, but would only load on devices with the Wingdings font installed. In 1995, the French newspaper  announced that Alcatel would be launching a new phone, the BC 600. Its welcome screen displayed a digital smiley face, replacing the usual text seen as part of the "welcome message" often seen on other devices at the time. In 1997, J-Phone launched the SkyWalker DP-211SW, which contained a set of 90 emoji. It is thought to be the first set of its kind. Its designs, each measuring 12 by 12 pixels were monochrome, depicting numbers, sports, the time, moon phases and the weather. It contained the Pile of Poo emoji in particular. The J-Phone model experienced low sales, and the emoji set was thus rarely used.

In 1999, Shigetaka Kurita created 176 emoji as part of NTT DoCoMo's i-mode, used on its mobile platform. They were intended to help facilitate electronic communication, and to serve as a distinguishing feature from other services. Due to their influence, Kurita's designs were once claimed to be the first cellular emoji; however, Kurita has denied that this is the case. According to interviews, he took inspiration from Japanese manga where characters are often drawn with symbolic representations called manpu (such as a water drop on a face representing nervousness or confusion), and weather pictograms used to depict the weather conditions at any given time. He also drew inspiration from Chinese characters and street sign pictograms. The DoCoMo i-Mode set included facial expressions, such as smiley faces, derived from a Japanese visual style commonly found in manga and anime, combined with kaomoji and smiley elements. Kurita's work is displayed in the Museum of Modern Art in New York City.

Kurita's emoji were brightly colored, albeit with a single color per glyph. General-use emoji, such as sports, actions and weather, can readily be traced back to Kurita's emoji set. Notably absent from the set were pictograms that demonstrated emotion. The yellow-faced emoji in current use evolved from other emoticon sets and cannot be traced back to Kurita's work. His set also had generic images much like the J-Phones. Elsewhere in the 1990s, Nokia phones began including preset pictograms in its text messaging app, which they defined as "smileys and symbols". A third notable emoji set was introduced by Japanese mobile phone brand au by KDDI.

Development of emoji sets (2000–2007)
The basic 12-by-12-pixel emoji in Japan grew in popularity across various platforms over the next decade. This was aided by the popularity of DoCoMo i-mode, which for many was the origins of the smartphone. The i-mode service also saw the introduction of emoji in conversation form on messenger apps. By 2004, i-mode had 40 million subscribers, exposing numerous people to emoji for the first time between 2000 and 2004. The popularity of i-mode led to other manufacturers offering their own emoji sets. While emoji adoption was high in Japan during this time, the competitors failed to collaborate to create a uniform set of emoji to be used across all platforms in the country.

The Universal Coded Character Set (Unicode), controlled by the Unicode Consortium and ISO/IEC JTC 1/SC 2, had already been established as the international standard for text representation (ISO/IEC 10646) since 1993, although variants of Shift JIS remained relatively common in Japan. Unicode included several characters which would subsequently be classified as emoji, including some from North American or Western European sources such as DOS code page 437, ITC Zapf Dingbats or the WordPerfect Iconic Symbols set. Unicode coverage of written characters was extended several times by new editions during the 2000s, with little interest in incorporating the Japanese cellular emoji sets (deemed out of scope), although symbol characters which would subsequently be classified as emoji continued to be added. For example, Unicode 4.0 contained 16 new emoji, which included direction arrows, a warning triangle, and an eject button. Besides Zapf Dingbats, other dingbat fonts such as Wingdings or Webdings also included additional pictographic symbols in their own custom pi font encodings; unlike Zapf Dingbats, however, many of these would not be available as Unicode emoji until 2014.

Nicolas Loufrani applied to the US Copyright Office in 1999 to register the 471 smileys that he created. Soon after he created The Smiley Dictionary, which not only hosted the largest number of smileys at the time, it also categorized them. The desktop platform was aimed at allowing people to insert smileys as text when sending emails and writing on a desktop computer. By 2003, it had grown to 887 smileys and 640 ascii emotions.

The smiley toolbar offered a variety of symbols and smileys and was used on platforms such as MSN Messenger. Nokia, then one of the largest global telecom companies, was still referring to today's emoji sets as smileys in 2001. The digital smiley movement was headed up by Nicolas Loufrani, the CEO of The Smiley Company. He created a smiley toolbar, which was available at smileydictionary.com during the early 2000s to be sent as emoji are today.

Over the next two years, The Smiley Dictionary became the plug-in of choice for forums and online instant messaging platforms. There were competitors, but The Smiley Dictionary was by far the most popular. Platforms such as MSN Messenger allowed for customisation from 2001 onwards, with many users importing emoticons to use in messages as text. These emoticons would eventually go on to become the modern day emoji. It was not until MSN Messenger and BlackBerry noticed the popularity of these unofficial sets and launched their own from late 2003 onwards.

Beginnings of Unicode emoji (2007–2014)

The first American company to take notice of emoji was Google beginning in 2007. In August 2007, a team made up of Mark Davis and his colleagues Kat Momoi and Markus Scherer began petitioning the Unicode Technical Committee (UTC) in an attempt to standardise the emoji. The UTC, having previously deemed emoji to be out of scope for Unicode, made the decision to broaden its scope to enable compatibility with the Japanese cellular carrier formats which were becoming more widespread. Peter Edberg and Yasuo Kida joined the collaborative effort from Apple Inc. shortly after, and their official UTC proposal came in January 2009 with 625 new emoji characters. Unicode accepted the proposal in 2010.

Pending the assignment of standard Unicode code points, Google and Apple implemented emoji support via Private Use Area schemes. Google first introduced emoji in Gmail in October 2008, in collaboration with au by KDDI, and Apple introduced the first release of Apple Color Emoji to iPhone OS on 21 November 2008. Initially, Apple's emoji support was implemented for holders of a SoftBank SIM card; the emoji themselves were represented using SoftBank's Private Use Area scheme and mostly resembled the SoftBank designs. Gmail emoji used their own Private Use Area scheme, in a supplementary Private Use plane.

Separately, a proposal had been submitted in 2008 to add the ARIB extended characters used in broadcasting in Japan to Unicode. This included several pictographic symbols. These were added in Unicode 5.2 in 2009, a year before the cellular emoji sets were fully added; they include several characters which either also appeared amongst the cellular emoji or were subsequently classified as emoji.

After iPhone users in the United States discovered that downloading Japanese apps allowed access to the keyboard, pressure grew to expand the availability of the emoji keyboard beyond Japan. The Emoji application for iOS, which altered the Settings app to allow access to the emoji keyboard, was created by Josh Gare in February 2010. Before the existence of Gare's Emoji app, Apple had intended for the emoji keyboard to only be available in Japan in iOS version 2.2.

Throughout 2009, members of the Unicode Consortium and national standardization bodies of various countries gave feedback and proposed changes to the international standardization of the emoji. The feedback from various bodies in the United States, Europe, and Japan agreed on a set of 722 emoji as the standard set. This would be released in October 2010 in Unicode 6.0. Apple made the emoji keyboard available to those outside of Japan in iOS version 5.0 in 2011. Later, Unicode 7.0 (June 2014) added the character repertoires of the Webdings and Wingdings fonts to Unicode, resulting in approximately 250 more Unicode emoji.

The Unicode emoji whose code points were assigned in 2014 or earlier are therefore taken from several sources. A single character could exist in multiple sources, and characters from a source were unified with existing characters where appropriate: for example, the "shower" weather symbol (☔) from the ARIB source was unified with an existing umbrella with raindrops character, which had been added for KPS 9566 compatibility. The emoji characters named  from all three Japanese carriers were in turn unified with the ARIB character. However, the Unicode Consortium groups the most significant sources of emoji into four categories:

UTS #51 and modern emoji (2015–present)

In late 2014, a Public Review Issue was created by the Unicode Technical Committee, seeking feedback on a proposed Unicode Technical Report (UTR) titled "Unicode Emoji". This was intended to improve interoperability of emoji between vendors, and define a means of supporting multiple skin tones. The feedback period closed in January 2015. Also in January 2015, the use of the zero width joiner to indicate that a sequence of emoji could be shown as a single equivalent glyph (analogous to a ligature) as a means of implementing emoji without atomic code points, such as varied compositions of families, was discussed within the "emoji ad-hoc committee".

Unicode 8.0 (June 2015) added another 41 emoji, including articles of sports equipment such as the cricket bat, food items such as the taco, new facial expressions, and symbols for places of worship, as well as five characters (crab, scorpion, lion face, bow and arrow, amphora) to improve support for pictorial rather than symbolic representations of the signs of the Zodiac.

Also in June 2015, the first approved version ("Emoji 1.0") of the Unicode Emoji report was published as Unicode Technical Report #51 (UTR #51). This introduced the mechanism of skin tone indicators, the first official recommendations about which Unicode characters were to be considered emoji, and the first official recommendations about which characters were to be displayed in an emoji font in absence of a variation selector, and listed the zero width joiner sequences for families and couples that were implemented by existing vendors. Maintenance of UTR #51, taking emoji requests, and creating proposals for emoji characters and emoji mechanisms was made the responsibility of the Unicode Emoji Subcommittee (ESC), operating as a subcommittee of the Unicode Technical Committee,

With the release of version 5.0 in May 2017 alongside Unicode 10.0, UTR #51 was redesignated a Unicode Technical Standard (UTS #51), making it an independent specification rather than merely an informative document.  there were 2,666 Unicode emoji listed. The next version of UTS #51 (published in May 2018) skipped to the version number Emoji 11.0, so as to synchronise its major version number with the corresponding version of the Unicode Standard.

The popularity of emoji has caused pressure from vendors and international markets to add additional designs into the Unicode standard to meet the demands of different cultures. Some characters now defined as emoji are inherited from a variety of pre-Unicode messenger systems not only used in Japan, including Yahoo and MSN Messenger.

Corporate demand for emoji standardization has placed pressures on the Unicode Consortium, with some members complaining that it had overtaken the group's traditional focus on standardizing characters used for minority languages and transcribing historical records. Conversely, the Consortium recognises that public desire for emoji support has put pressure on vendors to improve their Unicode support, which is especially true for characters outside the Basic Multilingual Plane, thus leading to better support for Unicode's historic and minority scripts in deployed software.

Cultural influence

Oxford Dictionaries named  its 2015 Word of the Year. Oxford noted that 2015 had seen a sizable increase in the use of the word "emoji" and recognized its impact on popular culture. Oxford Dictionaries President Caspar Grathwohl expressed that "traditional alphabet scripts have been struggling to meet the rapid-fire, visually focused demands of 21st Century communication. It's not surprising that a pictographic script like emoji has stepped in to fill those gaps — it's flexible, immediate, and infuses tone beautifully." SwiftKey found that "Face with Tears of Joy" was the most popular emoji across the world. The American Dialect Society declared  to be the "Most Notable Emoji" of 2015 in their Word of the Year vote.

Some emoji are specific to Japanese culture, such as a bowing businessman (), the shoshinsha mark used to indicate a beginner driver (), a white flower () used to denote "brilliant homework", or a group of emoji representing popular foods: ramen noodles (), dango (), onigiri (), curry (), and sushi (). Unicode Consortium founder Mark Davis compared the use of emoji to a developing language, particularly mentioning the American use of eggplant () to represent a phallus. Some linguists have classified emoji and emoticons as discourse markers.

In December 2015 a sentiment analysis of emoji was published, and the Emoji Sentiment Ranking 1.0 was provided. In 2016, a musical about emoji premiered in Los Angeles.  The computer-animated The Emoji Movie was released in summer 2017.

In January 2017, in what is believed to be the first large-scale study of emoji usage, researchers at the University of Michigan analyzed over 1.2 billion messages input via the Kika Emoji Keyboard and announced that the Face With Tears of Joy was the most popular emoji. The Heart and the Heart eyes emoji stood second and third, respectively. The study also found that the French use heart emoji the most. People in countries like Australia, France, and the Czech Republic used more happy emoji, while this was not so for people in Mexico, Colombia, Chile, and Argentina, where people used more negative emoji in comparison to cultural hubs known for restraint and self-discipline, like Turkey, France and Russia.

There has been discussion among legal experts on whether or not emoji could be admissible as evidence in court trials. Furthermore, as emoji continue to develop and grow as a "language" of symbols, there may also be the potential of the formation of emoji "dialects". Emoji are being used as more than just to show reactions and emotions. Snapchat has even incorporated emoji in its trophy and friends system with each emoji showing a complex meaning. Emojis can also convey different meanings based on syntax and inversion. For instance, 'fairy comments' involve heart, star, and fairy emojis placed between the words of a sentence. These comments often invert the meanings associated with hearts and may be used to 'tread on borders of offense.'

In 2017, the MIT Media Lab published DeepMoji, a deep neural network sentiment analysis algorithm that was trained on 1.2 billion emoji occurrences in Twitter data from 2013 to 2017. DeepMoji was found to outperform human subjects in correctly identifying sarcasm in Tweets and other online modes of communication.

Use in furthering causes

On March 5, 2019, a drop of blood () emoji was released, which is intended to help break the stigma of menstruation. In addition to normalizing periods, it will also be relevant to describe medical topics such as donating blood and other blood-related activities.

A mosquito () emoji was added in 2018 to raise awareness for diseases spread by the insect, such as dengue and malaria.

Linguistic function of emojis
Linguistically, emoji are used to indicate emotional state, they tend to be used more in positive communication. Some researchers believe emoji can be used for visual rhetoric.  Emoji can be used to set emotional tone in messages. Emoji tend not to have their own meaning but act as a paralanguage adding meaning to text. Emoji can add clarity and credibility to text.

Sociolinguistically, the use of emoji differ depending on speaker and setting. Women use emoji more than men. Men use a wider variety of emoji. Women are more likely to use emoji in public communication than private communication. Extraversion and agreeableness are positively correlated with emoji use, neuroticism is negative correlated. Emoji use differ between cultures: studies in terms of Hofstede's cultural dimensions theory found that cultures with high power distance and tolerance to indulgence used more negative emojis, while those with high uncertainty avoidance, individualism, and long-term orientation use more positive emojis.

Emoji communication problems
Research has shown that emoji are often misunderstood. In some cases, this misunderstanding is related to how the actual emoji design is interpreted by the viewer; in other cases, the emoji that was sent is not shown in the same way on the receiving side.

The first issue relates to the cultural or contextual interpretation of the emoji. When the author picks an emoji, they think about it in a certain way, but the same character may not trigger the same thoughts in the mind of the receiver (see also Models of communication).

For example, people in China have developed a system for using emoji subversively, so that a smiley face could be sent to convey a despising, mocking, and even obnoxious attitude, as the orbicularis oculi (the muscle near that upper eye corner) on the face of the emoji does not move, and the orbicularis oris (the one near the mouth) tightens, which is believed to be a sign of suppressing a smile.

The second problem relates to technology and branding. When an author of a message picks an emoji from a list, it is normally encoded in a non-graphical manner during the transmission, and if the author and the reader do not use the same software or operating system for their devices, the reader's device may visualize the same emoji in a different way. Small changes to a character's look may completely alter its perceived meaning with the receiver. As an example, in April 2020, British actress and presenter Jameela Jamil posted a tweet from her iPhone using the Face with Hand Over Mouth emoji (🤭) as part of a comment on people shopping for food during the COVID-19 pandemic. On Apple's iOS, the emoji expression is neutral and pensive, but on other platforms the emoji shows as a giggling face. Many fans were initially upset thinking that she, as a well off celebrity, was mocking poor people, but this was not her intended meaning.

Researchers from German Studies Institute at Ruhr-Universität Bochum found that most people can easily understand an emoji when it replaces a word directly – like an icon for a rose instead of the word 'rose' – yet it takes people about 50 percent longer to comprehend the emoji.

Variation and ambiguity
Emoji characters vary slightly between platforms within the limits in meaning defined by the Unicode specification, as companies have tried to provide artistic presentations of ideas and objects. For example, following an Apple tradition, the calendar emoji on Apple products always shows July 17, the date in 2002 Apple announced its iCal calendar application for macOS. This led some Apple product users to initially nickname July 17 "World Emoji Day". Other emoji fonts show different dates or do not show a specific one.

Some Apple emoji are very similar to the SoftBank standard, since SoftBank was the first Japanese network on which the iPhone launched. For example,  is female on Apple and SoftBank standards but male or gender-neutral on others.

Journalists have noted that the ambiguity of emoji has allowed them to take on culture-specific meanings not present in the original glyphs. For example,  has been described as being used in English-language communities to signify "non-caring fabulousness" and "anything from shutting haters down to a sense of accomplishment". Unicode manuals sometimes provide notes on auxiliary meanings of an object to guide designers on how emoji may be used, for example noting that some users may expect  to stand for "a reserved or ticketed seat, as for an airplane, train, or theater".

Controversial emoji

Some emoji have been involved in controversy due to their perceived meanings. Multiple arrests and imprisonments have followed usage of pistol (), knife (), and bomb () emoji in ways that authorities deemed credible threats.

In the lead-up to the 2016 Summer Olympics, the Unicode Consortium considered proposals to add several Olympic-related emoji, including medals and events such as handball and water polo. By October 2015, these candidate emoji included "rifle" () and "modern pentathlon" (). However, in 2016, Apple and Microsoft opposed these two emoji, and the characters were added without emoji presentations, meaning that software is expected to render them in black-and-white rather than color, and emoji-specific software such as onscreen keyboards will generally not include them. In addition, while the original incarnations of the modern pentathlon emoji depicted its five events, including a man pointing a gun, the final glyph contains a person riding a horse, along with a laser pistol target in the corner.

On August 1, 2016, Apple announced that in iOS 10, the pistol emoji () would be changed from a realistic revolver to a water pistol. Conversely, the following day, Microsoft pushed out an update to Windows 10 that changed its longstanding depiction of the pistol emoji as a toy ray-gun to a real revolver. Microsoft stated that the change was made to bring the glyph more in line with industry-standard designs and customer expectations. By 2018, most major platforms such as Google, Microsoft, Samsung, Facebook, and Twitter had transitioned their rendering of the pistol emoji to match Apple's water gun implementation. Apple's change of depiction from a realistic gun to a toy gun was criticised by, among others, the editor of Emojipedia, because it could lead to messages appearing differently to the receiver than the sender had intended. Insider Rob Price said it created the potential for "serious miscommunication across different platforms", and asked "What if a joke sent from an Apple user to a Google user is misconstrued because of differences in rendering? Or if a genuine threat sent by a Google user to an Apple user goes unreported because it is taken as a joke?"

The eggplant (aubergine) emoji () has also seen controversy due to it being used to represent a penis. Beginning in December 2014, the hashtag  began to rise to popularity on Instagram for use in marking photos featuring clothed or unclothed penises. This became such a popular trend that, beginning in April 2015, Instagram disabled the ability to search for not only the  tag, but also other eggplant-containing hashtags, including simply  and .

The peach emoji () has likewise been used as a euphemistic icon for buttocks, with a 2016 Emojipedia analysis revealing that only seven percent of English language tweets with the peach emoji refer to the actual fruit. In 2016, Apple attempted to redesign the emoji to less resemble buttocks. This was met with fierce backlash in beta testing, and Apple reversed its decision by the time it went live to the public.

In December 2017, a lawyer in Delhi, India, threatened to file a lawsuit against WhatsApp for allowing use of the middle finger emoji () on the basis that the company is "directly abetting the use of an offensive, lewd, obscene gesture" in violation of the Indian Penal Code.

Emoji implementation

Early implementation in Japan
Various, often incompatible, character encoding schemes were developed by the different mobile providers in Japan for their own emoji sets. For example, the extended Shift JIS representation F797 is used for a convenience store (🏪) by SoftBank, but for a wristwatch (⌚) by KDDI. All three vendors also developed schemes for encoding their emoji in the Unicode Private Use Area: DoCoMo, for example, used the range U+E63E through U+E757. Versions of iOS prior to 5.1 encoded emoji in the SoftBank private use area.

Unicode support considerations
Most, but not all, emoji are included in the Supplementary Multilingual Plane (SMP) of Unicode, which is also used for ancient scripts, some modern scripts such as Adlam or Osage, and special-use characters such as Mathematical Alphanumeric Symbols. Some systems introduced prior to the advent of Unicode emoji were only designed to support characters in the Basic Multilingual Plane (BMP), on the assumption that non-BMP characters would rarely be encountered, although failure to properly handle characters outside of the BMP precludes Unicode compliance.

The introduction of Unicode emoji created an incentive for vendors to improve their support for non-BMP characters. The Unicode Consortium notes that "[b]ecause of the demand for emoji, many implementations have upgraded their Unicode support substantially", also helping support for minority languages that use those features.

Color support
Any operating system that supports adding additional fonts to the system can add an emoji-supporting font. However, inclusion of colorful emoji in existing font formats requires dedicated support for color glyphs. Not all operating systems have support for color fonts, so in these cases emoji might have to be rendered as black-and-white line art or not at all. There are four different formats used for multi-color glyphs in an SFNT font, not all of which are necessarily supported by a given operating system library or software package such as a web browser or graphical program. This means that color fonts may need to be supplied in several formats to be usable on multiple operating systems, or in multiple applications.

Implementation by different platforms and vendors
Apple first introduced emoji to their desktop operating system with the release of OS X 10.7 Lion, in 2011. Users can view emoji characters sent through email and messaging applications, which are commonly shared by mobile users, as well as any other application. Users can create emoji symbols using the "Characters" special input panel from almost any native application by selecting the "Edit" menu and pulling down to "Special Characters", or by the key combination . The emoji keyboard was first available in Japan with the release of iPhone OS version 2.2 in 2008. The emoji keyboard was not officially made available outside of Japan until iOS version 5.0. From iPhone OS 2.2 through to iOS 4.3.5 (2011), those outside Japan could access the keyboard but had to use a third-party app to enable it. Apple has revealed that the "face with tears of joy" is the most popular emoji among English-speaking Americans. On second place is the "heart" emoji, followed by the "Loudly Crying Face".

An update for Windows 7 and Windows Server 2008 R2 brought a subset of the monochrome Unicode set to those operating systems as part of the Segoe UI Symbol font. As of Windows 8.1 Preview, the Segoe UI Emoji font is included, which supplies full-color pictographs. The plain Segoe UI font lacks emoji characters, whereas Segoe UI Symbol and Segoe UI Emoji include them. Emoji characters are accessed through the onscreen keyboard's  key, or through the physical keyboard shortcut .

In 2016, Firefox 50 added in-browser emoji rendering for platforms lacking in native support.

Facebook and Twitter replace all Unicode emoji used on their websites with their own custom graphics. Prior to October 2017, Facebook had different sets for the main site and for its Messenger service, where only the former provides complete coverage. Messenger now uses Apple emoji on iOS, and the main Facebook set elsewhere. Facebook reactions are only partially compatible with standard emoji.

Modifiers

Emoji versus text presentation
Unicode defines variation sequences for many of its emoji to indicate their desired presentation.

Specifying the desired presentation is done by following the base emoji with either U+FE0E VARIATION SELECTOR-15 (VS15) for text or U+FE0F VARIATION SELECTOR-16 (VS16) for emoji-style.

As of version  (2023), Unicode defines presentation sequences for 371 characters.

Skin color

Five symbol modifier characters were added with Unicode 8.0 to provide a range of skin tones for human emoji. These modifiers are called EMOJI MODIFIER FITZPATRICK TYPE-1-2, , , , and  (U+1F3FB–U+1F3FF): 🏻 🏼 🏽 🏾 🏿. They are based on the Fitzpatrick scale for classifying human skin color. Human emoji that are not followed by one of these five modifiers should be displayed in a generic, non-realistic skin tone, such as bright yellow (■), blue (■), or gray (■). Non-human emoji (like ) are unaffected by the Fitzpatrick modifiers.
, Fitzpatrick modifiers can be used with 131 human emoji spread across seven blocks: Dingbats, Emoticons, Miscellaneous Symbols, Miscellaneous Symbols and Pictographs, Supplemental Symbols and Pictographs, Symbols and Pictographs Extended-A, and Transport and Map Symbols.

The following table shows both the Unicode characters and the open-source "Twemoji" images, designed by Twitter:

Joining

Implementations may use a zero-width joiner (ZWJ) between multiple emoji to make them behave like a single, unique emoji character. For example, the sequence , , , ,  (👨👩👧) could be displayed as a single emoji depicting a family with a man, a woman, and a girl if the implementation supports it. Systems that do not support it would ignore the ZWJs, displaying only the three base emoji in order (👨👩👧).

Unicode previously maintained a catalog of emoji ZWJ sequences that were supported on at least one commonly available platform. The consortium has since switched to documenting sequences that are recommended for general interchange (RGI). These are clusters that emoji fonts are expected to include as part of the standard.

The ZWJ has also been used to implement platform specific emojis. For example, in 2016 Microsoft released a series of Ninja Cat emojis for their Windows 10 Anniversary Update. The sequence , ,  were used to create Ninja Cat (🐱👤) . Ninja Cat and variants were removed in late 2021's Fluent emoji redesign.

In Unicode

Unicode  specifies a total of 3,782 emoji using 1,424 characters spread across 24 blocks, of which 26 are Regional indicator symbols that combine in pairs to form flag emoji, and 12 (#, * and 0–9) are base characters for keycap emoji sequences.

637 of the 768 code points in the Miscellaneous Symbols and Pictographs block are considered emoji. 242 of the 256 code points in the Supplemental Symbols and Pictographs block are considered emoji.  All of the 107 code points in the Symbols and Pictographs Extended-A block are considered emoji.  All of the 80 code points in the Emoticons block are considered emoji. 105 of the 118 code points in the Transport and Map Symbols block are considered emoji. 83 of the 256 code points in the Miscellaneous Symbols block are considered emoji. 33 of the 192 code points in the Dingbats block are considered emoji.

Additional emoji can be found in the following Unicode blocks: Arrows (8 code points considered emoji), Basic Latin (12), CJK Symbols and Punctuation (2), Enclosed Alphanumeric Supplement (41), Enclosed Alphanumerics (1), Enclosed CJK Letters and Months (2), Enclosed Ideographic Supplement (15), General Punctuation (2), Geometric Shapes (8), Geometric Shapes Extended (13), Latin-1 Supplement (2), Letterlike Symbols (2), Mahjong Tiles (1), Miscellaneous Symbols and Arrows (7), Miscellaneous Technical (18), Playing Cards (1), and Supplemental Arrows-B (2).

In popular culture
 The 2009 film Moon featured a robot named GERTY who communicates using a neutral-toned synthesized voice together with a screen showing emoji representing the corresponding emotional content.
 In 2014, the Library of Congress acquired an emoji version of Herman Melville's Moby Dick created by Fred Benenson.
 A musical called Emojiland premiered at Rockwell Table & Stage in Los Angeles in May 2016, after selected songs were presented at the same venue in 2015.
 In October 2016, the Museum of Modern Art acquired the original collection of emoji distributed by NTT DoCoMo in 1999.
 In November 2016, the first emoji-themed convention, Emojicon, was held in San Francisco.
 In March 2017, the first episode of the fifth season of Samurai Jack featured alien characters who communicate in emoji.
 In April 2017, the Doctor Who episode "Smile" featured nanobots called Vardy, which communicate through robotic avatars that use emoji (without any accompanying speech output) and are sometimes referred to by the time travelers as "Emojibots".
 On July 28, 2017, Sony Pictures Animation released The Emoji Movie, a 3D computer animated movie featuring the voices of Patrick Stewart, Christina Aguilera, Sofía Vergara, Anna Faris, T. J. Miller, and other notable actors and comedians. It was universally panned, and is considered to be one of the worst films of all time.
 On September 3, 2021, Drake released his sixth studio album, Certified Lover Boy with album cover art featuring twelve emoji of pregnant women in varying clothing colors, hair colors and skin tones.

See also

 Blob emoji
 Emojipedia
 Emojli
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Pictograms

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This article lists the heads of state of Fiji, from the establishment of the Kingdom of Fiji in 1871 to the present day.

Currently, the head of state of Fiji is the president of the republic, appointed by the Parliament for a three-year term under the terms of the Constitution of 2013.

The current president is Ratu Wiliame Katonivere. He was elected on 22 October 2021, and sworn in on 12 November 2021.

Tui Viti (King of Fiji) (1871–1874)

Note that Cakobau had been the Vunivalu (Warlord/Paramount Chief) of Bau since 1852. He had long styled himself the Tui Viti (King of Fiji), but had not been recognized as such by other chiefs, and he exercised no direct authority outside his domain of Bau until he united the country under his leadership in 1871. His ancestors, going back as far as 1770, have often – erroneously – been listed as "Kings" of Fiji.

British period (1874–1970)

On 10 October 1874, Cakobau signed the Deed of Cession, that granted the British Empire sovereignty over the islands. From 1874 to 1970, the British monarch was Fiji's formal head of state.

Governors

The British monarch was represented by a governor, who acted on the advice of the British government.

Queen of Fiji (1970–1987)

Fiji became an independent Commonwealth realm on 10 October 1970, and Elizabeth II assumed the role of Queen of Fiji.

Governors-general

The Queen of Fiji was represented by a governor-general, who acted on the advice of the Fijian government.

Presidents (1987–present)

Fiji was proclaimed a republic on 7 October 1987, upon the deposition of the Fijian monarchy following two military coups.

Timeline

See also
 Monarchy of Fiji
 President of Fiji
 Prime Minister of Fiji

References

Fiji, Heads of State
Heads of state
Heads of state
Heads of State
Heads of state of Fiji
1871 establishments in Fiji

List of heads of state of Fiji


Split-Dalmaçya İdari Bölgesi (Hırvatça: Splitsko-dalmatinska županija) Hırvatistan'ın ikinci büyük idari bölgesidir. İdari merkezi, Dalmaçya'nın en büyük şehri olan Split'tir. Dalmaçya'nın orta-güney bölgesinde yer alır. Bölgenin yüzölçümü 4534 km², nüfusu 470.000 kişidir.

Split-Dalmaçya, coğrafi olarak üç bölgeden oluşur. Nüfusun yoğunlaştığı dar sahil kesimi, sahile paralel ilerleyen dağların arkasında kalan hinterland ve adalar. Bölgede yer alan adalar, Brač, Hvar, Čiovo, Vis, Šolta, Drvenik Veli, Drvenik Mali, Trogir ve Biševo olarak sıralanabilir. Bölgede Split'e ek olarak; Hvar, Imotski, Kaštela, Komiža, Makarska, Omiš, Sinj, Solin, Stari Grad, Supetar, Trilj, Trogir, Vis, Vrgorac ve Vrlika olmak üzere toplam 16 kent bulunmaktadır.

Kaynakça

Split-Dalmaçya


An Spodiopogon jainii in uska species han Liliopsida nga ginhulagway ni V.J.Nair, A.N.Singh ngan N.Chandrasekharan Nair. An Spodiopogon jainii in nahilalakip ha genus nga Spodiopogon, ngan familia nga Poaceae. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Spodiopogon

Spodiopogon jainii


Menip din Gadara, cunoscut și ca Menippus sau Menipp, (în ; fl. secolul al III-lea î.Hr.) a fost un filozof și satirist cinic. Scrierile lui, care astăzi sunt toate pierdute, au avut o influență importantă asupra filozofilor Varro și Lucian din Samosata. Satira menipeană este numită după el.

Biografie
Se cunosc puține informații despre viața lui Menip. Era originar din orașul Gadara din regiunea Coele-Siria. Potrivit surselor antice el ar fi fost inițial sclav. S-a aflat în slujba unui cetățean din Pontus, dar și-a obținut libertatea într-un anume fel și a locuit la Teba. Diogene Laerțiu relatează o poveste dubioasă potrivit cărea Menip a acumulat o avere din cămătărie, a pierdut-o și apoi s-a sinucis de disperare. Lucian din Samosata îl consideră pe Menip, alături de Antistene, Diogene din Sinope și Crates, drept unul dintre cei mai notabili filozofici cinici.

Scrieri
Lucrările sale (scrise într-un amestec de proză și versuri) sunt toate pierdute. El a discutat subiecte serioase într-un stil batjocoritor și a fost deosebit de încântat să-i atace pe epicurieni și pe stoici. Strabon și Stephanus îl numesc "bufon serios" (în , spoudogeloios). Scrierile sale au exercitat o influență considerabilă asupra literaturii de mai târziu, iar satira menipeană este numită după el. Deși scrierile lui Menip nu au supraviețuit, există unele fragmente din Saturae Menippeae a lui Varro, care au imitat stilul lui Menip. Unul dintre dialogurile atribuite lui Lucian, imitatorul lui declarat, care îl menționează frecvent, este numit Menippus, dar din moment ce subtitlul ("Dialogurile morților") seamănă cu titlul unei lucrări atribuite de Diogene Laerțiu lui Menip, s-a sugerat că este o imitație după Necromanție.

Diogene Laerțiu a afirmat că următoarele lucrări au fost scrise de Menip:

 Νέκυια – Necromanție
 Διαθῆκαι – Testamente
 Ἐπιστολαὶ κεκομψευμέναι ἀπὸ τῶν θεῶν προσώπου – Scrisori compuse artificial ca și cum ar fi ale zeilor
 Πρὸς τοὺς φυσικοὺς καὶ μαθηματικοὺς καὶ γραμματικοὺς – Răspunsuri către filozofi, matematicieni și gramaticieni
 Γονὰς Ἐπικούρου – Nașterea lui Epicur
 Τὰς θρησκευομένας ὑπ' αὐτῶν εἰκάδας – Venerarea celei de-a douăzecea zi (sărbătorită în școala epicuriană)

În plus, Athenaeus menționează lucrările Symposium și Arcesilaus, iar Diogene Laerțiu menționează Vânzarea lui Diogene (în ) scrisă de Menip, care pare a fi principala sursă a poveștii capturării de către pirați și a vânzării ca sclav a lui Diogene din Sinope.

Note

Bibliografie
 Laërtius, Diogenes (1925). "The Cynics: Menippus". Lives of the Eminent Philosophers. 2:6. Translated by Hicks, Robert Drew (Two volume ed.). Loeb Classical Library.

Legături externe
 Lives & Writings on the Cynics, directory of literary references to Ancient Cynics
 Menippus – Lucian's dialogue in which Menippus visits Hades

Poeți din Grecia antică
Filozofi cinici

Menip


Högersdorf, Almanya'nın kuzeyinde Schleswig-Holstein eyaletinde, Segeberg iline bağlı bir yerleşim yeri. 4,94 km² yüzölçümüne sahiptir. Nüfusu, 30 Eylül 2006 itibarıyla yaklaşık 419 olarak tespit edilmiştir. Belediye Başkanlığı Arnold Wilken tarafından yürütülmektedir.

Dış bağlantılar
 www.amt-leezen.de

Segeberg iline bağlı yerleşim birimleri

Högersdorf


Topaktaş, Kahramanmaraş ilinin Afşin ilçesine bağlı bir mahalledir.

Tarihçe
Mahalle, 1914 yılından beri aynı adı taşımaktadır. Daha önceleri Marabuz köyüne bağlı bir mahalle iken, 21 Mayıs 1948'de yine aynı köye bağlı Sergen mahallesi ile birleşerek köy statüsü kazandı. 2012 yılındaki yasa değişikliğinden sonra yeniden mahalle oldu.

Kaynakça

YerelNet

Afşin'in mahalleleri

Topaktaş, Afşin


Bu sayfa yalın bir şekilde yaygın kullanılan veya zaman içinde önemli bir konuma getirilmiş Latince deyişlerin ("veni, vidi, vici") listesidir. Bu deyişlerden bir kısmı Yunanca deyişlerin Latince çevirileridir, bunun en büyük nedeni Yunanca'nın Antik Roma'da retorik ve edebiyat gelişmeden çok önceleri retorik ve edebiyat açısından gelişmiş olmasıdır.

Bu listede F harfinden O harfine kadarki Latince deyişler vardır. Ana liste için Latince deyişler listesine bakınız. Ayrıca diğer harflerle başlayan deyişler için de Latince deyişler listesi (A-E) ve Latince deyişler listesi (P-Z)'ye bakabilirsiniz.

F

Faber est suae quisque fortunae
Herkes kendi kaderini yazar. (Appius Cladius Caecus)

Fabricando fit faber
Pratik mükemmelleştirir.

Facilius est multa facere quam diu
Birçok şey yapmak hayat boyu sadece bir şey yapmaktan daha kolaydır.

Facito aliquid operis, ut semper te diabolus inveniat occupatum
Hep çalışın ki şeytan geldiğinde sizi meşgul görsün. (Aziz Jerome)

Fac simile
Benzer bir şey yap. (Faks sözcüğü buradan türemiştir)

Felix culpa
Mutlu hata

Felix qui potuit rerum cognoscere causas
"Şey"lerin derinliklerine inebilenlere (nedenleri anlayabilene) ne mutlu! (Virgilius)

Fere libenter homines id quod volunt credunt
Kural olarak, insan olmasını umduğu şeye inanır.

Festina lente !
Yavaşça acele et!

Fiat lux !
Işık olsun! (Dünyanın yaratılması sırasındaki ilahi emir)

Fide, sed cui vide
Güven, ancak önlemini de al. <İtimat kontrole mani değildir.>

Finis coronat opus
Sonuç, araçları meşru kılar. (Başarı için her yol mubahtır gibi)

Finis vitae sed non amoris
Can tükense de sevgi tükenmez.

Flagrante delicto
Suçüstü

Florebo quocumque ferar
Taşındığım her yerde çiçek açacağım.

Fluctuat nec mergitur
Yalpalar, ama asla batmaz (Paris şehrinin mottosu)

Fortes fortuna juvat ou Audaces fortuna adiuvat
Şans ancak cesurlara yardım eder.

Fortis et liber
Güçlü ve özgür

Fraus latet in generalibus
Genellemeden hata doğar.

G

Gladius legis custos
Kılıç yaşamın koruyucusudur. (Paris Adalet Sarayı'nın girişinde kazılı döviz, silahlı kuvvetlerin hukuk için çalışması gerektiğini anlatır)

Grammatici certant
Bilginler kendi aralarında bu konuda anlaşamamışlardır.

Gutta cavat lapidem non vi, sed sæpe cadendo
Suyun taşı delmesi gücünden değil sürekliliğindendir.

H

Habeas corpus
Vücudun senindir (Hukuk yasası)

Habemus papam
Bir papamız var

Habent sua fata libelli
Kitaplar kendi kaderlerine sahiptir

Hannibal ante portas ya da Hannibal ad portas
Hannibal kapıda (Tartışmaya zaman yok, savaşmalı anlamında)

Hic et nunc
Burada ve şimdi

Hic et ubique terrarum
Burada ve dünyanın her yerinde (Sorbonne dövizi)

Hic Rhodus, hic salta
İşte Rodos, atla!

Hoc signo vinces
Bu işaret sayesinde galip geleceksin (Milvius Köprüsü Savaşı öncesi I. Konstantin'a iletildiğine inanılan ilahi görünüm)

Hodie mihi, cras tibi
Bugün benim, yarın senin için

Homines quod volunt credunt
İnsanlar inanmak istediklerine inanırlar.

Homo homini lupus
İnsan insanın kurdudur.

Homo sum, humani nil a me alienum puto
İnsanım, ve insani olan hiçbir şey bana yabancı değildir.

Hora fugit, stat jus
Zaman geçer, hukuk kalır.

Horribile dictu
Söylemesi korkunç

Humanius est deridere vitam quam deplorare
Hayata gülmek hayat için ağlamaktan daha insani bir davranıştır.

I

İbid
Aynı yerde

İd est
Yani

Idem
Aynı şey

Id est genus hominum
İşte insan cinsi böyledir (Terentius)

Ignorantia iuris nocet
Hukuk bilmemek zarar verir.

Ignorantia legis neminem excusat
Hukuk bilmemek özür olamaz.

Ignorantia juris non excusat
Kuralları bilmemek özür olamaz.

Ignoti nulla cupido
Bilmediğimizi arzulamayız (Ovidius'un dizesi)

In dubio pro reo
Şüphe zanlıya yarar.

In medio tutissimus ibis
Orta yol en güvenlisidir (Ovidius)

In extenso
Tam içerikle

In fine
Sonunda

In girum imus nocte et consumimur igni
Gecenin içinde dönüyoruz, ateş bizi yutuyor (Lat. sağdan ve soldan okunuşu aynı)

In medias res
Şeylerin ortasından (Edebiyat, film gibi alanlarda anlatıma olayın ortasından başlama tekniği)

In medio stat virtus
Erdem ortada durur, uçlarda değildir. (Yedi Bilge Tapınağı'nın kapısında yazılı aşırıya kaçmamayı öğütleyen söz)

In ovo
Yumurta içinde, embriyo içinde

In partibus
Aslı: "in partibus infidelium" (sadık olmayanların şehrinde)

In silico
20. yy.'da ortaya çıkan terim, bilgisayarla yapılan anlamında. (Zıt: in vivo, in vitro)

İn situ
Aynı yer üzerinde

In solis sis tibi turba locis
Issız yerlerde kendin için bir evren ol.

İn vino veritas
Şarabın içinde gerçek vardır (şarap gerçekleri ortaya döktürür)

İn vitro
Deney yapılan ortamda, laboratuvarda.

İn vivo
Canlı içinde, yaşamın içinde

Incredibile dictu
Söylemesi inanılmaz

Increscunt animi, virescit volnere virtus
Tek bir yara, maneviyatı derinleştirir, erdemleri geliştirir. (Furius Antias, Aulus Gellius, 18, 11,4)

Inter alia
Diğer şeylerin yanı sıra/diğer şeylere ilaveten

İnter arma silent leges
Savaş zamanında yasalar sessiz kalır.

Inter fæces et urinam nascimur
Dışkı ve sidiğin arasından doğarız (Aziz Augustine)

Intra muros
Sur içi

Intuitu personae
İnsana bağlı (sözleşme)

Inventas vitam iuvat excoluisse per artes
Bırakın sanat ve bilimle hayatı güzelleştirelim/geliştirelim. (Vergil, Nobel Madalyası)

Ipso facto
Kendiliğinden olan

Ipsa scientia potestas est
Bilgi tek başına güçtür (Sir Francis Bacon)

Ira furor brevis est
Kızgınlık kısa deliliktir.

Irritare crabrones
Eşekarılarını rahatsız etmek

Is fecit, cui prodest
Bunu yapan, bundan çıkarı olandır. (Suçluyu bulmak için bundan kimin çıkarı olduğuna bakın)

I tego arcana dei
Git, ben tanrının öğretisine sahibim. (Et in arcadia ego 'nun anagramı)

Iunctis viribus
Birleşmiş güçler tarafından (Birlikten güç doğar)

Iurare in verba magistri
Efendinin sözüne bakarak yargılamak

Iustitia omnibus
Herkes için adalet (District of Columbia'nın mottosu).

Iuventus stultorum magister
Gençler delilerin öğretmenidir.

J
Jvesticae Cavsa Verum Qverit Medicina
Adalete ulaşmakta en büyük yol, tıptır. (Adli Tıp mottosu)

Jure uxoris
Eş durumundan hak iddialarını tanımlar.

Jus ad bellum

Savaşa girmeden önce savaş ilanını belirli haklı gerekçelere bağlayan kriterleri kapsayan uluslararası hukuk terimidir.

L

Labor omnia vincit improbus
Güçlü bir çalışma/emek her şeyin üstesinden gelinir. (Virgilius)

Laborare est orare
Çalışmak ibadettir.

Lacrimis struit insidias cum femina plorat
Kadın ağlarken, gözyaşlarıyla tuzak hazırlar. (Caton)

Lapsus calami
Kalemin sürçmesi

Lapsus linguæ
Dilin sürçmesi (genelde sadece "lapsüs" olarak kullanılır)

Liberate me ex inferis
Beni cehennemden kurtarın!

M

Macte animo ! Generose puer, sic itur ad astra
Cesaret soylu evlat! Ancak bu şekilde yıldızlara doğru yükselinir.

Magnum opus
Bir Şaheser

Major e longinquo reverentia
Uzaktan, beğeni daha çok olur. (Davulun sesi uzaktan hoş gelir)

Mala gallina, malum ovum
Kötü yumurta kötü tavuktan çıkar (Anasına bak kızını al)

Mala malus mala mala dat
Kötü ağaç kötü elma verir.

Mali principii malus finis
Kötü başlayan kötü biter

Manu militari
Silahlı kuvvetlerin yardımıyla (cf. Manus milites)

Manus dei
Tanrı'nın eli

Manus manum lavat
El eli yıkar.

Manus milites
Askeri el tarafından

Margaritas ante porcos
Domuzların önündeki inciler (Sanat eserlerinin cahiller tarafından yorumlanması için kullanılır)

Mater artium necessitas
İcatlar ihtiyaçlardan doğar. (Apuleius)

Mea culpa
Benim hatam!

Medice, curate ipsum
Doktor,sen önce kendini iyileştir.

Medicus curat, natura sanat
Doktor tedavi eder, doğa iyileştirir.

Memento mori
Ölümlü olduğunu unutma

Memento audere semper
Her zaman denemeyi ve cesaret etmeyi unutma.

Memento quia pulvis es
Toz olduğunu unutma

Mendacem memorem esse oportere
Yalancının hafızası güçlü olmalıdır. (Quintilian)

Mens sana in corpore sano
Sağlam kafa sağlam vücutta bulunur. (Juvénal)

Militat omnis amans
Her aşık bir savaşçıdır (Ovidius)

Minimum minimorum
En küçüklerin en küçüğü

Missi dominici
Senyörün delegesi/elçisi

Modus operandi
Hareket etme tarzı (cinayet romanlarında suçluların ortak davranışları için kullanılır)

Modus vivendi
Yaşam tarzı

Mors Certa, vita Incerta
Ölüm kesindir, hayat değil.

Multi sunt vocati, pauci vero electi
Çoğu çağrılan, azı seçilen

Multim in parvo
Azlık içinde çokluk (Az şeyle çok şey yapmak)

Mutatis mutandis
Değişmesi gerekeni değiştirerek

N

Nam et ipsa scientia potestas est
Bilgi güçtür.
Natura abhorret a vacuo
Doğa boşluktan korkar

Ne(non) bis in idem
Bir nedenden iki kere hüküm giyilmez (eski ceza hukukundan)

Ne Jupiter quidem omnibus placet
Tanrı bile herkesi memnun edemez.

Ne nuntium necare
Haberciyi öldürme. (Elçiye zeval olmaz)

Nec verbum verbo curabis reddere fidus interpres
Gerçek bir çevirmen sözcük sözcük çevirmez (Horatius)

Nec Hercules contra plures
Herkül bile düşman ordusuna karşı duramaz.

Nec Jactantia Nec Metu
Ne övün ne de yerin.

Nec plus ultra
Daha da iyisi yok.

Nec pluribus impar
Herkese benzemez/herkesten üstün (Louis XIV mottosu)

Nec Temere, Nec Timide
Ne Pervasız, Ne Korkak.

Ne humanis crede
İnsana inanma.

Nemo auditur propriam turpitudinem allegans
Kimse kendi kanunsuzluğundan faydalanamaz. < Haksızlıktan hak çıkarılamaz.>(Hukuk terimi)

Nemo censetur ignorare legem
Kanunu bilmemek mazeret olamaz.

Nemo enim est tam senex qui se annum non putet posse vivere
Hiç kimse bir yıl daha yaşayamayacağını düşünecek kadar yaşlanmaz (Marcus Tullius Cicero)

Nemo est liber qui corpori servit
Bedenine hizmet eden kişi özgür olamaz (Sénèque le Jeune)

Nemo sine vitio est
Hiç kimse hatasız değildir. (Seneca)

Neque ignorare medicum oportet quæ sit ægri natura
Doktor, hastalığın doğasını es geçmemelidir.

Nescire autem antequam natus sis quid acciderit, id est semper esse puerum
Doğduğundan önce olanları bilmemek, hala çocuk kalmaktır. (Marcus Tullius Cicero)

Nihil est ab omni parte beatum
Her güzelin bir kusuru vardır (Her gülün bir dikeni vardır)

Nihil lacrima citius arescit
Hiçbir şey gözyaşından daha hızlı kurumaz.

Nihil novi sub sole
Güneşin altında (yeryüzünde) yeni bir şey yok.

Nihil primum nocere
Önce zarar verme. (Tıp mottosu)

Nihil obstat
Sakıncası yok

Nil desperandum
Asla vazgeçme.

Nomen est omen
İsim bir işarettir.

Non fui, fui, non sum, non curo
Yoktum, varım, olmayacağım, umrumda değil. (Mezartaşlarında bulunan epiküryen felsefeden etkilenmiş yazılar, kısaltma: NFFNSNC)

Non licet omnibus adire Corinthum
Korint'e gitmek herkese serbest değildir. (Antik Yunan zamanı Korint çok pahalı bir şehirdi ve herkes orada yaşayamazdı.)

Non nobis, Domine, non nobis, sed Nomini Tuo da gloriam
Bizi değil tanrım, bizi değil; kendi ismini şereflendir...

Non omnia possumus omnes
Herkes her şeyi yapamaz.

Non scholae, sed vitae discimus
Okul için değil, hayat için öğreniyoruz.

Non semper ea sunt quae videntur
"Şey"ler çoğu zaman göründükleri gibi olmazlar.

Non ut edam vivo, sed ut vivam edo
Yemek için yaşamıyorum, yalnız yaşamak için yiyorum.

Non vestimentum virum ornat, sed vir vestimentum
Elbise insanı güzelleştirmez, insan elbiseyi güzelleştirir.

Non vini vi no, sed vi no aquæ
Şarap sayesinde değil, su sayesinde yüzüyorum (sözcük oyunu)

Nosce te ipsum
Kendini tanı (Matrix filminde kahin'in mutfağında kapıda yazan sözün eş anlamlısı sayılır [Temet nosce - Kendini Tanı])

Nota bene (N. B.)
Önemli not

Nulla dies sine linea
Bir şeyler yazmadan geçen gün gün değildir. (Émile Zola mottosu)

Nulla est medicina sine lingua latin
Latince bilmeden hekimlik olmaz. (Hekimlik için Latince gereklidir anlamında, aynı zamanda: Açıklaması olmadan ilaç faydasızdır)

Nulla poena sine lege
Kanun olmadan ceza olmaz. (Açıkça kanunlarda belirtilmiş olmadıkça kimseye ceza verilemeyeceğiyle ilgili hukuk kuralı)

Nulla regula sine exceptione
İstisnasız kural olmaz

Nulla res tam necessaria est quam medicina
Hekimlikten daha gerekli bir şey yoktur.

Nulla tenaci invia est via
Hiçbir yol aşılmaz değildir.

Nullum magnum ingenium sine mixtura dementiae fuit.
Hiçbir deha yoktur ki içine biraz delilik karışmamış olsun. (Sénèque le Jeune)

Nunc aut numquam
Ya şimdi ya hiçbir zaman

Nunc est bibendum
Şimdi, içelim! (Horatius)

Numero deus impare gaudet
Tanrılar tek sayıları sever. (Virgile, Les Bucoliques, VIII, 75)

O

Obscuris vera involvens
Gizlilik gerçeği örter.

Odi profanum vulgus et arceo
İnsan sürüsünden nefret ediyorum ve uzak duruyorum. (Horatius)

O tempora, o mores
Oh zaman, oh adetler! (Marcus Tullius Cicero) (daha çok farklı zaman, farklı adetler anlamına gelir)

Oculi plus vident quam oculus
Birçok göz, bir gözden daha iyi görür.

Oculos habent et non videbunt
Gözleri var ama göremiyorlar.

Oderint, dum metuant
Benden nefret etsinler yeter ki benden korksunlar. (Seneca, De clementia ve Cicéron, De officiis)

O miseri! Quorum guadia crimen habent.
Ah zavallılar, sevinçlerini suç sayanlar. (Gallus)

Omne ignotum pro terribili
Bilinmeyen bir şeyin altında kötülük yatar.

Omnes homines sibi sanitatem cupiunt, sæpe autem omnia, quæ valetudini contraria sunt, faciunt
Tüm insanlar sağlıklı olmak isterler ama çoğu zaman buna aykırı davranırlar.

Omnes viae Romam ducunt
Bütün yollar Roma'ya çıkar

Omnes vulnerant, ultima necat
Her geçen dakika yaralar, sonuncusu öldürür

Omnia adversa exercitationes putat
Her talihsizliği deneme sayar. (Seneca, De Providentia)

Omnia mea mecum porto
Bütün her şeyi yanımda taşıyorum.

Omnia vincit amor
Aşk, her şeye üstün gelir.

Omnibus viis Romam pervenitur
Tüm yollar Roma'ya çıkar.

Omnis homo mendax
Tüm insanlar yalancıdır.

Omnium artium medicina nobilissima est
Tüm sanatlar içinde hekimlik en soylu olandır.

Omnium rerum principia parva sunt
Her şeyin küçük bir başlangıcı vardır.

Optimum medicamentum quies est
En iyi ilaç dinlenmektir.

Ora et labora
Dua et ve çalış.

Orbis Unum
Bir (tek) dünya (bkz. Zorro Efsanesi)

Ordo ab chao
Düzensizlikten doğan düzen

Otium sine litteris mors est
Edebiyatsız geçen zaman ölümcüldür.

 Ayrıca bakınız
 Latince deyişler
 Latince kısaltmalar listesi

F

Latince deyişler listesi (F-O)


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La elección presidencial de los Estados Unidos de 1920 estuvo dominada por las secuelas de la Primera Guerra Mundial y una respuesta hostil a ciertas políticas del presidente Woodrow Wilson incluso dentro del Partido Demócrata. El auge económico en tiempos de guerra se había derrumbado, pasando rápidamente a un clima de alta inflación y desempleo. Los políticos estaban discutiendo sobre los tratados de paz y la cuestión de la entrada de Estados Unidos en la Sociedad de Naciones, lo que produjo una reacción aislacionista. En el extranjero, hubo guerras y revoluciones. En casa, 1919 estuvo marcado por grandes huelgas en las industrias empacadoras de carne y la del acero, y en gran escala los disturbios raciales en Chicago y otras ciudades (el llamado "Verano Rojo de 1919"). Los ataques terroristas en Wall Street produjeron temores de los radicales y los terroristas. Las comunidades de irlandeses católicos y alemanes se sintieron ultrajados por la política exterior de Wilson, y su posición política se debilitó críticamente después de haber sufrido un grave ataque de apoplejía en 1919 que lo dejó incapaz de hablar en su propio nombre.

El expresidente Theodore Roosevelt habría sido el favorito para la nominación republicana, pero su salud se deterioró en 1918. Murió en enero de 1919, sin dejar ningún heredero claro a su legado progresista. Los dos principales partidos presentaron a dos desconocidos candidatos del estado de Ohio, quienes también dirigían periódicos. Los demócratas nominaron al gobernador y editor de prensa James M. Cox. A su vez, los republicanos eligieron al senador Warren G. Harding. Para ayudar a su campaña, Cox eligió al futuro presidente Franklin D. Roosevelt (un primo lejano de Theodore), como su compañero de fórmula. Harding virtualmente ignoró a Cox, esencialmente haciendo campaña en contra de Wilson y los progresistas en general, pidiendo un retorno a la normalidad ("A return to normalcy"). Con una ventaja de cuatro a uno, el Partido Republicano obtuvo una victoria aplastante de un 60,3% (voto popular) frente al 34,1% de los demócratas. Esta fue la victoria más marcada desde que James Monroe fue reelecto sin oposición en 1820 (durante la "Era de las Buenas Intenciones"). Más tarde estos resultados serían superados por Franklin Roosevelt en 1936, Lyndon B. Johnson en 1964 y Richard Nixon en 1972.

Esta elección fue la primera desde la ratificación de la Decimonovena Enmienda el 18 de agosto de 1920, y por tanto la primera en la que las mujeres tenían derecho a votar en los 48 estados. Como resultado, el voto popular total se incrementó de manera espectacular, de 18,5 millones en 1916 a 26,8 millones en 1920.

Candidaturas

Partido Republicano
El partido Republicano celebró su convención partidaria el 8 de junio en Chicago. La competencia prontamente se estancó entre el Mayor General Leonard Wood y el gobernador de Illinois Frank Orren Lowden. Otros candidatos fueron los gobernadores William Cameron Sproul (Pennsylvania) y Calvin Coolidge (Massachusetts), el filántropo Herbert Hoover, el presidente de la Universidad Columbia Nicholas Murray Butler y los senadores Hiram Johnson (California), Robert M. La Follette (Wisconsin) y Warren G. Harding (Ohio).

Harding habría conseguido la nominación en un "cuarto lleno de humo", mediante maniobras realizadas previo a la décima votación por su jefe de campaña Harry M. Daugherty, más tarde nombrado fiscal general. Pese a que Harding y los líderes partidistas preferían al senador Irvine Lenroot (Wisconsin) como el "número dos". Sin embargo, los delegados se rebelaron y escogieron a Coolidge, quien se hizo conocido al manejar la huelga policial de Boston el año anterior.

Partido Demócrata
Tras su ataque de apoplejía, se dio por sentado de que el presidente Wilson no se presentaría para un tercer mandato, aunque él nunca supo de ello al estar casi completamente recluido. De hecho este desincentivó a su yerno y anterior Tesorero William Gibbs McAdoo para que no hubiese un candidato claro para la convención, lo que según el le permitiría ser nominado nuevamente. El vicepresidente Thomas R. Marshall intentó en un principio llenar aquel vacío, pero su torpe administración relevando al convaleciente jefe de Estado terminó por destruir su credibilidad.

La convención Demócrata inició el 28 de junio en San Francisco, siendo la primera convención política en realizarse en la costa del Pacífico. James M. Cox fue elegido en la cuadragésima cuarta votación, mientras que su compañero de fórmula Franklin D. Roosevelt no era solo primo en quinto grado del famoso Theodore, sino que también fue subsecretario de la Armada en el primer período Wilson.

Otros partidos
El socialista Eugene V. Debs fue candidato por quinta (y última) vez, a diferencia que en esta ocasión hizo campaña desde la cárcel (caso único en la historia norteamericana) debido a que se rehusó a ser reclutado durante la guerra. Recibió casi un millón de votos, la mayor votación popular para un candidato del partido Socialista (sin embargo el propio Debs había conseguido un porcentaje mayor en 1912).

Parley P. Christensen (Partido Agrario-Laborista) obtuvo 265 mil votos (1%) mientras que Aaron S. Watkins del partido por la Prohibición consiguió casi 190 mil votos, el menor resultado para aquel partido desde 1884, principalmente debido a la reciente aprobación de la Ley Volstead.

Estados Unidos
1920
Estados Unidos en 1920

Elecciones presidenciales de Estados Unidos de 1920


Agave palmeri ist eine Pflanzenart aus der Gattung der Agaven (Agave). Ein englischer Trivialname ist "Palmer's Agave".

Beschreibung
Agave palmeri  formt offene Rosetten und bildet manchmal spärlich Ausläufer. Sie erreicht Wuchshöhen von 50 bis 120 Zentimetern und einen Durchmesser von 100 bis 120 Zentimetern. Die variablen, rinnigen, linealisch bis lanzettförmig, hellgrünen bis bläulich, Blätter sind 35 bis 75 cm lang und 7 bis 10 cm breit. Die welligen Blattränder sind variabel gezahnt. Der braune Enddorn ist 3 bis 6 cm lang.

Der rispige schlanke, breite, gerade Blütenstand wird 3 bis 5 m hoch. Die schmalen gelben bis grünlichen Blüten sind 45 bis 55 mm lang und erscheinen am oberen Teil des Blütenstandes an unregelmäßig angeordneten Verzweigungen. Die Blütenröhre ist 12 bis 14 mm lang.

Die länglich geformten dreikammerigen Kapselfrüchte sind 35 bis 60 mm lang und 18 bis 20 mm breit. Die flachen, schwarzen Samen sind 5 bis 7 mm lang und 4 bis 5 mm breit.

Die Blütezeit reicht von Juni bis August.

Die Chromosomenzahl beträgt 2n = 60.

Systematik und Verbreitung
Agave palmeri wächst in Arizona und in New Mexico in den Vereinigten Staaten sowie in Mexiko in Sonora und Chihuahua an Kalksteinhängen, in Gras- und Waldland in 900 bis 1800 m Höhe. Sie ist vergesellschaftet mit zahlreichen Kakteen- und SukkulentenaArten.

Die Erstbeschreibung durch George Engelmann ist 1875 veröffentlicht worden.

Agave palmeri ist ein Vertreter der Sektion Ditepalae. Sie zeigt den für diese Sektion typischen, schlanken und offenen Blütenstand. Die Art ist nahe verwandt mit Agave chrysantha, mit der sie in Arizona hybridisiert, jedoch werden Unterschiede der Blatt- und Blütenstruktur deutlich. Die Art kann bei trockenem Stand kurze Frostperioden bis minus 8 °C vertragen und wird im Desert Botanic Garden in Arizona kultiviert.

Literatur
 August J. Breitung: Agave palmeri. In: The Agaves. The Cactus & Succulent Journal Yearbook. 1968, S. 104.
 Howard Scott Gentry: Agaves of Continental North America. University of Arizona Press, 1982, S. 443–447.
 Thomas Heller: Agaven. Ntv, Münster 2006, ISBN 3-937285-59-8, S. 113–114.
 Mary Irish, Gary Irish: Agaves, yuccas, and related plants. A Gardener's Guide. Timber Press, 2000, ISBN 0-88192-442-3, S. 144–145, Pl. 29.

 J. Thiede: Agave palmeri. In: Urs Eggli (Hrsg.): Sukkulenten-Lexikon. Einkeimblättrige Pflanzen (Monocotyledonen). Eugen Ulmer, Stuttgart 2001, ISBN 3-8001-3662-7, S. 51.

Einzelnachweise

Weblinks

Agaven
Palmeri

Agave palmeri


Mircea Ionnițiu (n. 27 septembrie 1921, București – d. 13 noiembrie 1990, Woodland Hills, California, Statele Unite ale Americii) a fost un scriitor memorialist român.

În adolescență, el a făcut parte din Clasa Palatină, o clasă specială de elevi formată la cererea regelui Carol al II-lea al României pentru educația fiului său, principele moștenitor Mihai (mai târziu regele Mihai I al României).

În preajma anului 1944, Mircea Ionnițiu a îndeplinit funcția de secretar personal al regelui Mihai I. În această calitate, el a fost martor ocular la evenimentele din ziua de 23 august 1944, la impunerea primului guvern Petru Groza de către ocupanții militari sovietici (6 martie 1945) și la abdicarea forțată a regelui Mihai I, impusă de comuniștii români susținuți de Armata Roșie, la 30 decembrie 1947 (în urma loviturii de stat comuniste de la 30 decembrie 1947 a luat naștere Republica Populară Română, cu încălcarea normelor constituționale prevăzute de Constituția României din 1923, atunci în vigoare).

Mircea Ionnițiu a părăsit România în 3 ianuarie 1948, în Trenul Regal, odată cu Familia Regală a României care a fost silită să plece în exil.

Mai târziu, el a relatat evenimentele istorice la care a fost martor, în cartea sa Amintiri și reflecțiuni, apărută la Editura Enciclopedică în 1993.

Bibliografie
 Mircea Ionnițiu - Amintiri și reflecțiuni, Editura Enciclopedică, 1993, ISBN 973-45-0039-2
 Tudor Vișan-Miu - La școală cu Regele Mihai. Povestea Clasei Palatine, Editura Corint, 2016, ISBN 9786067930559
 Nicolae Drăgușin - Abdicarea forțată a Regelui Mihai , în România Liberă, 4 ianuarie 2008

Decese în 1990
Anticomuniști români
Memorialiști români
Români expatriați în Statele Unite ale Americii
Scriitori români
Monarhiști români

Mircea Ionnițiu


Griphopithecus es un género extinto de primate homínido que existió en Europa y Asia hace aproximadamente 16,5 a 17 millones de años, a finales del Mioceno Inferior. Se describió en 2002, a partir de un fragmento de molar hallado en Alemania. Se conoce principalmente a partir de numerosos especímenes de la misma antigüedad, principalmente dientes, hallados en Turquía y otros que vivieron posteriormente (hace 14-15 millones de años) en Eslovaquia. Las especies reconocidas del género son Griphopithecus africanus, Griphopithecus alpani y Griphopithecus darwini, de las cuales la mejor conocida es Griphopithecus alpani (Tekkaya 1974).

Características
El primer fragmento de molar hallado en Alemania, presenta características evolucionadas como una capa de esmalte con baja penetración dentro de la dentina a diferencia de Proconsul y posiblemente Afropithecus. Esta especie poseía mandíbulas robustas, con sínfisis fuertemente reforzadas con molares anchos y aplanados, con esmalte de poco espesor, y el cíngulo dental menos desarrollado comparado con Proconsul. La morfología dental y los microsurcos presentes hace presumir que le permitía alimentarse de frutas con corteza dura, sin embargo, no se puede establecer si era oportunista o estas constituían la base de su dieta. A partir de dos especímenes postcraneales constituidos por fragmentos de un húmero y un cúbito hallados en Austria, se estableció que las proporciones eran similares a Proconsul y que posiblemente se trataba de un primate arbóreo similar en tamaño y tipo de locomoción a Proconsul nyanzae.

Referencias

Paleoantropología
Mamíferos del Mioceno
Mamíferos extintos de Asia
Mamíferos extintos de Europa
Vertebrados descritos en los años 2000

Griphopithecus


Gaius Flaminius (c. 275 BC217 BC) was a leading Roman politician in the third century BC. Flaminius served as  consul twice, in 223 and 217. He is notable for the Lex Flaminia, a land reform passed in 232, the construction of the Circus Flaminius in 221, the construction of the Via Flaminia, and his death at the hands of Hannibal's army at the Battle of Lake Trasimene in 217, during the Second Punic War. Flaminius is celebrated by ancient sources as being a skilled orator and a man possessed of great piety, strength, and determination. He is, however, simultaneously criticised by ancient writers such as Cicero and Livy for his popular policies and disregard of Roman traditions, particularly during the terms of his tribunate and second consulship.

Tribunate and the Lex Flaminia, 232 BC
Flaminius was elected as tribune of the plebs in 232 BC. Cicero writes that Flaminius was an accomplished orator before the people, a skill that likely helped him achieve the tribunate. During his term Flaminius proposed the Lex Flaminia de Agro Gallico et Piceno viritim dividundo, a controversial agrarian law proposing the settlement of Roman citizens in the Ager Gallicus Picenus lands around Picenum and Ariminum, made available by Rome's defeat of their previous occupants, the Senones, in 283. It is unclear from the ancient sources why the Ager Gallicus Picenus was chosen for the project.

Polybius suggests that the law caused problems with the Boii as the Romans began settling near their territory, eventually leading to the Gallic rebellion in 225. Approximately 2,580 square kilometres had been made ager publicus following the Roman victory, although the law did not distribute all the available territory and some was in fact privatised prior to Flaminius' reform. The land was reasonably valuable as it could produce large quantities of wine. It is not clear from the ancient sources how many people were settled there, although estimates suggest approximately 19,000 citizens, not including their families. It would have been problematic to transport and settle this many people to a relatively distant area from Rome so scholars have argued that transportation must have been made by sea as land would have been difficult. This transportation has been linked to the Roman conflict with Illyrian pirates as raids now directly affected Roman citizens.

Ancient sources describe resistance from the senate to these measures including opposition from Quintus Fabius Maximus, a rival of Flaminius, although Cicero notes that Spurius Carvilius, Fabius Maximus' colleague for his second consulship, did not join the opposition. Valerius Maximus writes that Flaminius persisted in pushing it through despite threats and pleas from the senate, and against the possibility of an army being levied against him if he continued. Later Roman historians use the opposition to the law from the senate to portray Flaminius as a populares style leader, alienated from the senate in the tradition of the Gracchi, although this narrative is challenged by modern historians.

Controversy in passing the Lex Flaminia
One tradition suggests that as Flaminius was proposing his agrarian law he was dragged from the rostra by his father. Cicero writes that Flaminius' father was subsequently tried for maiestas (diminishing the majesty of the Roman people) for this action, but argued that he was exerting his authority as a father over a son rather than a citizen acting against an elected tribune of the plebs. Valerius Maximus follows this tradition, listing Flaminius as an example of male piety for respecting his father's private authority over him as he allowed his father to remove him from the rostra when nothing else would sway him. Valerius Maximus claims the crowd respected Flaminius' pietas in this event and does not mention the subsequent maiestas trial described by Cicero. This has led some modern scholars to argue that the law was never passed, although contemporary sources indicate that it did.

Scholarly explanations for senatorial opposition to the Lex Flaminia
Early scholarly thinking compared Flaminius with Tiberius Gracchus as they both pushed through land laws against the wishes of the senate. This led to the view that the senatorial opposition stemmed from an economic motivation to keep this land solely for the nobiles who had been exploiting it since its capture, and the portrayal of Flaminius as a democratic leader campaigning for the common people against the greedy nobiles. Fraccaro rejected this explanation and began looking for a political motivation instead, arguing that there was senatorial opposition as the law proposed a new style of settlement. Previously colonists kept their Roman citizenship if the land was connected to the ager Romanus, as otherwise Rome founded a Latin colony and colonists lost Roman citizenship, while through this law colonists kept their citizenship despite the distance from Rome. Meyer argues against this, citing citizenship given to other peoples including the Sabines and Picentes despite their distance from Rome.

Corbett proposes instead that Rome had a manpower problem, and the senate was therefore unwilling to distribute citizens so far away to a place already sufficiently guarded. Feig Vishnia argues against this idea as the people settled had lost land and therefore were ineligible for the army, and so by giving them land Rome would increase its manpower possibilities and protect the border with the Boii, an idea supported by the fact that the area became a key source of manpower in the Second Punic War.

Develin claims that the law never passed due to the intervention of Flaminius' father, and that the senate settled Latin colonies there to prevent complaints from the potential settlers, but no names of these colonies are found in the ancient evidence and his argument is not supported by the ancient evidence on the law. He also argues that it impossible to reconstruct factional support within the senate for the law.

Kramer however suggests that Flaminius was manipulating factional rivalries by aligning with the Aemilii to gain an advantage for the plebs he hoped to settle. He views choice of territory as part of an aggressive policy against Gallic threat advocated by the Aemilii who saw the Gauls as potential allies for Hannibal, and opposed by the Fabii.

Cassola argues that the law was opposed for multiple reasons, first because both senators and publicans would lose economically if land was distributed and also because there was conflict in the senate between a liberal faction supporting southern expansion, facilitating economic and cultural relations with Greek territories, and a conservative faction in favour of maintaining the agrarian nature of Rome. He sees Flaminius as champion of the rural plebs against the urban plebs, opposed to expansion beyond Italy. Yavetz similarly asserts that Flaminius is a man with his own faction, opposed to the senatorial aristocracy, and in 232 he may have been supported by the Aemilii-Scipiones on political grounds.

Scholars have argued that opposition from the senate was due to the possibility of war with the Gauls since a settlement near Gallic territory may have seemed aggressive. This is what Polybius argues caused war with the Gauls seven years later. Roselaar also suggests that the Senones had not been completely eradicated and still occupied the land. Rome was already at war in several places and the senate may not have wanted to provoke another immediate conflict. Feig Vishnia also argues that this explains the conflict between Fabius and Flaminius as Fabius was cautious and did not want to give the Gauls an excuse for more conflict.

Roselaar argued that the senate was afraid that Flaminius would gain too much influence over the people for distributing the land to them, although Feig Vishnia points out that they were too far away to easily vote and settlers were only incorporated into two tribes which limited their political usefulness.

Support for the Lex Flaminia
Feig Vishnia argues that since the law was passed it must have had more support than indicated by the sources as no tribunician veto was used against it. The law was passed in the consulship of M. Aemilius Lepidus and he may have been a supporter as Flaminius had connections with the Aemilii. Spurius Carvilius Ruga's silence, mentioned by Cicero, is also significant in showing support among the senate for the law. L. Caecilius Metellus may have been another supporter as his eulogy describes him taking part in a commission appointed for land distribution and the only possible distribution in this period was Flaminius'. Flaminius' law may not have been as controversial as represented in later sources, as he was able to go on to hold the highest offices of the state and giving land to soldier veterans was simply a continuation of normal Roman policy.

Dating issues
There have been issues with the dating of his tribunate as Polybius places it in 232 in the consulship of Lepidus, while Cicero dates it to the second consulship of Fabius Maximus. Scholars have argued that Cicero's date is incorrect and instead that the opening months of Flaminius' tribunate would have overlapped with Fabius Maximus's first consulship allowing Fabius to officially oppose the law. Despite chronological problems with Cicero, Fieg Vishnia argues that Spurius Carvilius Ruga's silence, even while not the consul, is significant in showing support among the senate for the law.

Praetorship, 227 BC
Flaminius was elected praetor for the year 227 BC. It was the first year in which four praetors were elected as Rome had gained overseas provinces, meaning Flaminius was made the first praetor of Sicily. Through his position in Sicily he was tasked with ruling over the Sicilians as praetors held imperium, which gave him the power to command an army and to quell any rebellions against Rome's administration in Sicily. He was also the magistrate who dealt with all judicial matters that arose in Sicily and regularly exchanged messages with the senate in Rome to resolve judicial matters. Flaminius' tenure in Sicily must have been viewed well by the provincials, since in 196 BC they sent his son one million measures of grain to bring back to Rome at two asses per measure during the latter's tenure as aedile as a sign of respect to his father. As a result of the influx of grain, Rome celebrated the Ludi Romani magnificently, repeated for two days to celebrate the ability of Flaminius to govern a foreign city state.

First consulship, 223 BC
Flaminius as a novus homo secured election to the consulship in 223 BC alongside Publius Furius Philus, due to his popularity among the plebs. His term was plagued by unfavourable auspices from the outset.  Plutarch records that at the time of the consular election, priests had proclaimed inauspicious and baleful omens from the flight of birds.  During Flaminius' journey to Cisalpine Gaul, the river flowing through Picenum was running red with blood, and three moons were seen at Ariminum. Upon these grounds the senate sent letters commanding both consuls to return to the city with great speed, lay down their office, and forbade them from engaging the enemy. Before the senate's message arrived, Flaminius entered Gallic territory through the country of the Anares, and admitted the tribe into his friendship. Even after the letters arrived, driven by his fiery and ambitious nature, Flaminius refused to read the senate's directive until after he had joined battle with the Insubrians, whom he soundly defeated.

Polybius attributes Flaminius' victory not to the consul, but to his military tribunes, who from former battles had learnt the swords used by the Gauls after an initial onslaught became so bent they were unserviceable, unless the men had time to straighten them on the ground with their boots. Recognising this, the tribunes distributed spears among the front line with orders to allow the Gauls to slash at their spears, rendering their swords useless. The Romans then switched to swords, and slew the greater part of their enemies. Flaminius is judged by Polybius to have mismanaged the battle by deploying his force at the edge of the riverbank, not allowing for any tactical room to fall back upon, for if the troops were pushed back even by the slightest degree, they would have been forced into the river. Despite this apparent tactical oversight by Flaminius, the Romans were able to return to Rome with a large amount of booty and trophies due to their own skill and valour.

While Polybius details how Flaminius won an important victory for Rome, the majority of the sources focus upon the portent auspices which surrounded his consulship and his disobedience of the senate which led to both the abdication of his consulship and the attempted refusal of his triumph. While evidence steadfastly confirms Flaminius' triumph occurred, inconsistencies among sources point to some form of historical inaccuracy and fabrication. Plutarch details that upon Flaminius' return, the people would not go out to see him and due to his insolence and disobedience came close to denying him his triumph, compelled him to renounce his consulship, and made him a private citizen. While Livy labels his behaviour as insubordination towards both men and the gods, Silius Italicus describes Flaminius' actions as resulting in an easy triumph and crushing a fickle and guileless people. While the latter was most certainly true, Plutarch's version of events conflicts with Italicus'. Furthermore, Heinemann within his translation of Livy's History of Rome cites that Flaminius triumphed in the face of senatorial opposition by virtue of a decree of the people, which again further diverges with Plutarch's account where the people were the main barrier to the triumph. Other modern scholars such as Develin support Heinemann's view, which points towards an inaccuracy or fabrication on the part of Plutarch.

Magister Equitum, 222 BC
Flaminius served as magister equitum in 222 BC, having been appointed to serve under the dictator Marcus Minucius Rufus. The magister equitum served as the deputy of a Roman dictator, being appointed by the dictator to assist him with his political and military functions. As such, the magister equitum's magistracy ended with the dictator's. While Plutarch and Valerius Maximus both recount how Flaminius' tenure as Master of the Horse ended as a result of poor omens—namely that a shrew-mouse was heard at an inopportune time—sources differ as to the course of events following said omens. While Plutarch claims "the people deposed these officials" (Flaminius and Mucinius), Valerius Maximums claims that the two abdicated their posts.

Censorship and building program, 220 BC

Flaminius was elected as censor in 220, alongside his colleague Lucius Aemilius Papus. Livy provides an account of his achievements in this office. Flaminius registered and organised the freedmen of Rome into the four existing city tribes (Esquilina, Palatina, Subura and Collina). He also established the Roman colonies of Placentia and Cremona, situated at two points on opposite sides of the Padus. As censor, Flaminius also commissioned the construction of the Circus Flaminius and the Via Flaminia.

Circus Flaminius

The Circus Flaminius was located at the southern end of the Campus Martius. Taylor writes that Flaminius was taking advantage of the existing association between the Prata Flaminia and the plebs, pointing out the advantage of having such an area outside the pomerium. It was circular in shape, with Varro suggesting that the shape was designed to accommodate the horse racing in the Taurian Games. It is likely that the Ludi Taurii were the only games that were held in the circus, with the majority of public spectacles held in the Circus Maximus. However, this didn't limit its usefulness as it was also used to host public assemblies. Over time, the area around the Circus Flaminius became extremely decadent, with Pompey, Caesar, and particularly Augustus building extravagant temples and public works there. Humphrey writes that "by the early third century AD, the open space had been reduced to a piazza in the front the great Augustan colonnades of Octavia and Philippus". By this date, Humphrey estimates that the piazza was less than 300 meters long.

Via Flaminia
The Via Flaminia was a road constructed by Flaminius during his censorship in 220 BC. The road travelled from the coast of Ariminum to Rome at the Porta del popolo via the Apennine Mountains. It was able to link the regions of Etruria, Latium and Marche (Ager Gallicus), thus facilitating greater connection and ease of communication between them and Rome. It also allowed for Rome to better mobilise their army to fight off invaders such as Hannibal in 219, and encouraged trade with the aforementioned regions as it allowed for quicker movement of goods like olives and wine. It also effected the political system in Rome positively as it became easier for citizens to travel to Rome in order to vote in elections.

Support for the Lex Claudia, 218 BC
Flaminius was the only senator to support the tribune Quintus Claudius in passing his Lex Claudia, a law preventing the ownership of ships with a capacity of more than 300 amphorae by senators and their sons. The bill was passed despite strong opposition from the senate. Based on Livy's claim that 'all moneymaking was held unseemly in a senator', modern historians have argued that Flaminius was concerned that maritime trade and profits might jeopardise the values of the Roman elite. Following this argument, Nicolet interprets the law as a Roman attempt to follow an Aristotelian, moralistic tradition in preventing magistrates from engaging in financial affairs, the law acting as a formalisation of the traditional honour code already in operation among senators. D'Arms argues instead that only profits from the sea are disreputable as they were high risk and could swiftly ruin an entire family, which was problematic for the stability of the ruling class. Cassola points out that as senators could use clients or freedmen to run their business they could circumvent the law, arguing that the law instead intended to make the entry of new men (merchants and publicans) into the senate more difficult. Yavetz contends instead that Flaminius was supporting new plebeian senators and contractors who wanted to prevent senatorial competition in their ventures. Feig Vishnia argues that publicans with ships had the most to gain from the law as they were a growing political group and through the law were the only group capable of bidding for the contracts for the delivery of supplies to armies.

The date of the law coincides with the creation of the first two Roman provinces so it was possibly intended to prevent governors from exploiting their new positions for trading profits. There also may be a connection between the law and the growing threat from Hannibal as senators involved in maritime trade provoked a war with Demetrius of Pharus and the Istrians when another faction of senators would have preferred to intervene in Hannibalic Spain instead. Feig Vishnia argues that the law was a convenient political solution for Flaminius as he could see that senatorial competition for the state contracts previously monopolised by the publicans would lead to disgruntled publicans attempting to enter political offices to address their problem. The Claudian law prevented publicans from running for office at the same time as it prevented senators from participating in large-scale maritime trade.

Second consulship and death, 217 BC
Flaminius entered his second term as consul in 217 amid inauspicious beginnings. Prompted by senatorial hostility, which was inflamed by his support of the Lex Claudia in 218, and the advancing Hannibalic army, Flaminius bypassed the traditional vows and rituals of consulship within Rome to take up office at Ariminum instead. Once there, Flaminius was assigned command of the four legions of Tiberius Sempronius, who had fought and lost against Hannibal at the Trebia the previous year. Despite remarks that he was acting against the will of the gods and the senate, Flaminius proceeded to ignore senatorial summons back to Rome and instead marched his troops to Etruria.

The Battle of Lake Trasimene

With spring approaching, Hannibal had set out from his winter quarters, and aimed to seize the town of Arretium. Upon hearing this news, Flaminius hastened his army to Arretium and beat Hannibal there whilst Servilius, his colleague, travelled with other forces to Ariminum. Hannibal then pitched his camp in the marshes around Arretium and set to plundering the rich countryside of central Etruria, to incite Flaminius to give battle before Servilius arrived with reinforcements. Witnessing this destruction, despite his war council advising patience, Flaminius summoned his troops.

This call to battle was, according to Livy's history and Cicero's later writings, followed by a double portent of Flaminius being thrown from his mount, and the legion's standard being unable to be moved. Despite the ill omens, Flaminius advanced with his men, straight into the ambush Hannibal had laid for the Roman troops on the plain between Lake Trasimene and the surrounding hills of Mt. Cortona. The Carthaginians were divided between the Spanish and African troops on the most visible hill, the light troops hidden in the mountains and the cavalry concealed near the narrow entrance to the plain. Once Flaminius' men entered the area they were ambushed, encircled and annihilated.

Death and legacy
Flaminius is criticised, most strongly by Polybius, for his rashness, lack of judgement, and lack of military expertise that led to this defeat. He is, however, praised by Livy for the strength and determination he displayed during the battle. The accounts of Flaminius' death vary amongst ancient sources; Polybius states he was killed by a group of Gauls, while Livy suggests it was a specific Insubrian horseman, Ducarius, who had recognised the Roman general. The overwhelming consensus, however, is that Flaminius was killed in the battle and his body never recovered, despite Hannibal searching for it in order to give his enemy a proper burial. 15,000 Roman soldiers were slain at Lake Trasimene, 6,000 were taken prisoner, and 10,000 were scattered across Etruria, eventually making their way back to Rome. Flaminius was survived by his son, Gaius Flaminius, notable for his consulship in 187 BC and wars fought against the Friniates and Apuani in Northern Italy.

Debate over political alignment

Flaminius has been traditionally judged by ancient and modern historians as a populares style leader in opposition to the conservative Fabius Maximus. Cassola challenges this, arguing for their political association by citing their mutual opposition to Roman expansion, support for Italian interests, disdain for religious convention and claims that the votes that gave Flaminius his second consulship appointed Fabius dictator after his death. He shows that there is little evidence in the ancient sources supporting enmity between the two, although Develin emphasises that Fabius clearly opposed Flaminius' agrarian law. Develin agrees with Cassola's case that Flaminius was Fabius' choice to serve as magister equitum under him as dictator. He argues that no consistent factional alignment or popular movement can be attributed to Flaminius, claiming his electoral and political success was primarily due to his obvious military and administrative talents. Develin believes that the only firm policies that can be linked to Flaminius are support for an Italian focus in Rome's affairs, which coincided with Fabius' interests, the support of aristocratic values and the dismissal of religious conventions for the sake of military expediency.

References

Works cited
 Badian, E. "Gaius Flaminius". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 16 September 2017.
 Broughton, T.R.S. and American Council of Learned Societies (1984). The magistrates of the Roman Republic. Chico: Scholars Press.
 Coarelli, F. (2014). Rome and environs: an archaeological guide. Updated ed. Berkeley: University of California Press.
 Develin, R. (1979). "The Political Position Of C. Flaminius". Rheinisches Museum für Philologie, 122 (3/4), pp. 268–277.
 Feig Vishnia, R. (1996). State, society and popular leaders in mid-Republican Rome, 241–167 B.C. New York; London: Routledge.
 Feig Vishnia, R. (2012). "A Case of "Bad Press"? Gaius Flaminius in Ancient Historiography". Zeitschrift für Papyrologie und Epigraphik, 181, pp. 27–45
 Humphrey, J.H. (1986). Roman circuses: arenas for chariot racing. London: Batsford.
 Roselaar, S.T. (2010). Public land in the Roman Republic: A social and economic history of ager publicus in Italy, 396–89 BC. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
 Ross Taylor, L. (1966). Roman Voting Assemblies from the Hannibalic War to the Dictatorship of Caesar. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.
 Sherwin-White, A. and Lintott, A. (2007). Magister Equitum. In: Oxford Dictionary of the Classical World. Oxford University Press.

270s BC births
217 BC deaths
3rd-century BC Roman consuls
3rd-century BC Roman praetors
Gaius
Magistri equitum (Roman Republic)
Ancient Roman censors
Roman consuls who died in office
Roman generals killed in action
Roman governors of Sicily
Roman commanders of the Second Punic War
Tribunes of the plebs
Year of birth uncertain

Gaius Flaminius (consul 223 BC)


Knut Bertil Hilding Linde (* 28. Februar 1907 in Stockholm; † 25. März 1990 ebenda) war ein schwedischer Eishockeyspieler.

Karriere
Bertil Linde begann seine Karriere als Eishockeyspieler beim Karlbergs BK, für den er von 1926 bis 1929 aktiv war. Anschließend spielte er ebenfalls drei Jahre lang für den AIK Solna. Von 1932 bis 1934 und in der Saison 1937/38 lief der Angreifer erneut für den Karlbergs BK auf.

International
Für Schweden nahm Linde an den Olympischen Winterspielen 1928 in St. Moritz teil, bei denen er mit seiner Mannschaft die Silbermedaille gewann. Als bestes europäisches Team bei den Olympischen Winterspielen gewann er mit seiner Mannschaft den Europameistertitel. Zudem stand er im Aufgebot seines Landes bei der Weltmeisterschaft 1931.

Erfolge und Auszeichnungen
 1928 Silbermedaille bei den Olympischen Winterspielen

Weblinks

Eishockeynationalspieler (Schweden)
Eishockeyspieler (AIK Solna)
Olympiateilnehmer (Schweden)
Teilnehmer der Olympischen Winterspiele 1928
Europameister (Eishockey)
Schwede
Geboren 1907
Gestorben 1990
Mann

Bertil Linde


Çaykoz, Eskişehir ilinin Sivrihisar ilçesine bağlı bir mahalledir.

Tarihçe
Mahallenin adı mahallede bulunan bir çaydan gelir koz kelimesi ise ceviz anlamındadır.Mahallenin adı bu iki kelimenin birleşimiyle oluşmuştur

Coğrafya
Eskişehir iline 131 km, Sivrihisar ilçesine 31 km uzaklıktadır.

Nüfus

Sivrihisar'ın mahalleleri

Çaykoz, Sivrihisar


An Potosia kusibabiana in uska species han Liliopsida nga ginhulagway ni Szlach., Mytnik ngan Piotr Rutkowski. An Potosia kusibabiana in nahilalakip ha genus nga Potosia, ngan familia nga Orchidaceae. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Potosia

Potosia kusibabiana


Opal er íslenskt sælgæti í töfluformi.

Rauður opal var fyrstur opalanna sem kom út árið 1945 þegar sælgætisgerðin Opal var stofnuð sem síðar var keypt af Nóa Siríus. Vegna vinsælda rauðs opals var framleiddur nokkrum árum síðar blár opal. Árið 1978 kom grænn opal og nokkrum árum síðar gulur opal með ávaxtabragði.

Blár Opal
Blár opal kom á markað nokkrum árum eftir rauðum opal en árið 1982 var framleiðslu hætt á opalnum en framleiðsla hófst aftur árið 1984. Framleiðslan hætti alfarið árið 2005 og hafa vinsældir opalsins aukist eftir það.

Listi yfir gerðir Opals

Allir opalar sem hafa verið framleiddir eru:

 Rauður
 Blár
 Grænn
 Gulur
 Svartur
 Brúnn

Heimildir
Íslenskt sælgæti
Stofnað 1945

Opal