The Citroën CX is a large, front-engined, front-wheel-drive executive car manufactured and marketed by Citroën from 1974 to 1991.  Production models were either a standard wheelbase or a stretched, more luxurious, four-door fastback saloon, as well as a station wagon (estate), on the longer wheelbase.  The CX is known for its hydropneumatic self-leveling suspension system (continued and improved from its DS predecessor), and its (at the time) low 0.36 drag coefficient, normally noted as a vehicle's  in French. Restyled as 'CX', the model name underscored this.

Voted the 1975 European Car of the Year, the CX has been described by some enthusiasts as the last "real Citroën" before Peugeot took control of the company in 1976.  The CX was also the final successful model of the "big Citroën" era, dating back to 1934.

History
The CX was launched at the 1974 Paris Motor Show. Citroën was unable to schedule right-hand drive production of the car until well into 1975. The CX was initially a huge success in Europe, with more than 132,000 being produced in 1978. It found customers beyond the loyal DS customer base and used the technology of Citroën's advanced grand touring personal luxury car, the SM. Unlike its principal competitors, the CX did not have worldwide distribution—the cost of development and improvements had to be met from a geographically small sales base. According to Driving & Motoring Month the CX "provides a startlingly intelligent set of solutions to modern motoring problems".

Design
The CX's flowing lines and sharp Kammback were designed by auto stylist Robert Opron, resembling its precursor the GS. Citroën had been using a wind tunnel for many years, and the CX was designed to perform well in aerodynamic drag, with a low coefficient of drag of 0.36.  Indeed, the car's name of CX is to refer to French term for drag coefficient, or coefficient ('C') along the X-axis ('x', being the longitudinal). A notable feature was the concave rear window, designed to clear rain from the rear window without the need for a rear window wiper.

Mechanically, the car was one of the most advanced of its time, combining Citroën's hydro-pneumatic integral self-leveling suspension, speed-sensitive DIRAVI fully-powered steering (first introduced on the Citroën SM), and a uniquely effective interior design that did away with steering column stalks, allowing the driver to reach all controls while both hands remained on the steering wheel. A Citroën design principle was that turning signals should not cancel themselves—this should be a conscious decision of the driver. The CX perpetuated this feature, which is not shared by virtually any other contemporary automobile, limiting the CX's potential use as a rental car.

The ability of the CX suspension to soak up large undulations and yet damp out rough surfaces resulted in a consistent ride quality when empty or fully laden. The suspension was attached to sub-frames that were fitted to the body through flexible mountings, to improve even more the ride quality and to reduce road noise. The British Car magazine described driving a CX as hovering over road irregularities, much like a ship traversing above the ocean floor. The constant ground clearance component of this suspension was used under license by Rolls-Royce on the Silver Shadow, and the Bentley T series. The Mercedes-Benz 450SEL 6.9 was not built under license, but copied the Hydropneumatic suspension principles after the less effective Mercedes-Benz 600 Air suspension installation.

The CX has a transverse engine arrangement, in contrast to the longitudinal mid-engine layout of the Traction Avant and DS.  This brings multiple benefits: significant mechanical packaging space savings (the CX is  shorter than the DS); dramatically less engine noise in the cabin (Traction Avant and DS engines are partially in the cabins of those cars); and, improved access for maintenance of many under-bonnet items.

Fastback saloon

The CX sedan was always a fastback saloon, with a separate trunk, and a trunklid hinged below the rear window, like many prior fastbacks from the late 1940s until the CX's era – but unlike almost every other 1970s sedan, which either offered a hatchback body, like the successful Volkswagen Passat and Saab 900, or exclusively hatchbacked contemporaries as the Rover SD1 and Renault 20/30 (or those with ungainly modified notchback rooflines, like the Lancia Trevi).

Hatchback conversions to the CX were offered by Caruna and Beutler, but not available from the factory. Citroën's own 1970 compact GS, and the small Alfa Romeo Alfasud were also initially released as fastback sedans, but both received a hatchback in the late 1970s.

Launch
At launch in 1974, the CX was rushed to market, with some teething troubles. Some very early models did not have power steering and proved difficult to drive - the CX carries 70% of its weight over the front wheels.

Originally, the CX was developed as a rotary-engined car—with several negative consequences. The CX engine bay is small because rotary engines are compact, but the Comotor three-rotor rotary engine was not economical and the entire rotary project was scrapped the year the CX was introduced. Citroën went bankrupt in 1974, partly due to a series of investments like Comotor that didn't result in profitable products. Production versions of the CX were powered by a range of inline four cylinder engines - only the very rare  GTi Turbo (1985–89) ever had the engine power to match the capabilities of the chassis.
At launch, the carburetor CX was positioned below the  DS 23 Pallas Injection Electronique and the  SM Injection Electronique.

There was a choice between three differently powered versions. The "Normale" CX car came with a 1985 cc version of the four cylinder engine from the predecessor model with a claimed maximum output of , which was slightly more than had been available from the engine when fitted in the DS. The "Economique" version of the car (reflecting the continuing impact of the 1973 oil price shock) came with the same engine as the "Normale", but the gear ratios were changed, along with the final drive ratio, giving rise to a 7 km/h (4 mph) reduction in top speed in return for usefully improved fuel economy. More performance came from the "CX 2200", fitted with a 2175 cm3 version of the engine and a twin carburetor, resulting in a claimed maximum output of .

Contemporary reports also indicated that the cost of setting up a new production facility for the CX, on the northern edge of Paris, at Aulnay-sous-Bois, also played a role in undermining the company's finances to the point where it was obliged to surrender its independence to the more financially cautious Peugeot company. On 12 July 2012, PSA announced the permanent closure of the Aulnay-sous-Bois plant.

Development
The CX was slowly developed and improved, the key elements it needed to compete successfully in its market segment taking years to emerge.

The parent company, PSA Peugeot Citroën, was fielding three cars in the executive car segment, the slow selling Peugeot 604, the abortive Talbot Tagora and the CX, all competing for PSA's scarce financial resources. Developing and exploiting the CX design was not the top priority. The seeds of PSA's competitive retreat from this traditionally important segment were sown during this period of diffused efforts.

In 1974, the DS featured a  fuel-injected 2.3-litre engine, while the 1974 CX 2000 generated , giving it acceleration from 0-60 mph of 12 seconds. The 2200 improved on this, and eventually the 2400 engine (the 2347 cm3 unit as used in the DS) arrived; originally only in the Prestige. A regular CX 2400 arrived at the 1976 Paris Salon, subsequent to the discontinuation of the CX 2200.

In 1977, the CX GTi received a modern Bosch L-Jetronic injection system, with .

In 1981, factory rustproofing and a fully automatic transmission were added.

In 1984, turbo-powered 2.5 L diesel engine did make the CX Turbo-D 2.5 the fastest diesel sedan in the world, able to reach speeds up to . Diesels account for more than half the market for executive cars in France.

In 1985, the GTi Turbo petrol model, with a top speed of over , gave the CX the powerful engine that finally used the full capabilities of the chassis.

The CX eventually acquired a reputation for high running costs, which over time cut sales. The components standard to any automobile (steel, door hinges, starter motors, electrical connections, etc) proved troublesome in service, not the advanced components. The quality of construction improved too slowly to eliminate this perception.

Although the minor 1985 Series 2 changes did create initial interest from press and public alike, they did little to revive sales, with 35,000 units being produced in 1986 and 1987.

While the DS achieved its greatest sales success at age 15 (1970) the CX design was subject to more intense competitive pressures, peaking at age 4 (1978). Other automakers succeeded in using the CX design as a template for improvement. In particular, the Audi 100 introduced an aerodynamically restyled variant in 1983.

1,170,645 CXs were sold from 1974 to 1991.

Racing

Despite the challenging finances of Citroën at the time of launch, the CX was entered in numerous rally driving events, like Tour du Senegal and Paris-Dakar, winning five events outright.

One notable achievement was in the  1977 London–Sydney Marathon road race, where driver Paddy Hopkirk, driving a CX 2400 sponsored by Citroën's Australian concessionaire, staged a come-from-behind sprint to obtain third place.

The CX competed and finished the 2022 Dakar Rally and 2023 Dakar Rally.

Replacements
Successful competitors in this market segment have adopted a cycle of redesign and substantial improvement every seven years. Despite the success of the CX design (and the company's unbroken legacy of dominance in this segment stretching back to 1934) there was no new and improved "big Citroën" model on the horizon by 1981. CX sales began to slide and, apart from a slight revival after the 1985 facelift, never recovered.

Citroën tried to operate independently and design a CX replacement that updated the flowing CX design (in 1980 and again in 1986). Each time, the parent company PSA Peugeot Citroën killed the project and fired the Citroën designers responsible.

Citroën did incur the expense of designing an entirely new petrol four-cylinder engine in 1984 for the top-of-the-range cars, but the market demanded either inline-six or V6 engines.

The CX saloon was finally replaced by the XM in May 1989. This vehicle was based on the same chassis as the Peugeot 605. It was styled in a distinctive, angular fashion, and fitted with self-levelling hydropneumatic suspension, and featured new electronic controls and branded Hydractive suspension. It also featured a hatchback and a conventional interior rather than the "spaceship" instrument panel of the CX. The XM was clearly related to the BX in layout and construction, but incorporated little design and technology from the CX. The estate remained in production until July 1991, when an estate version of the XM was finally launched.

The XM at first achieved annual sales similar to the modest totals of the CX in the last decade of its life, before a total collapse in demand set in during the mid 1990s. It was retired without an immediate replacement in 2000. Total sales were 333,000 units, less than a third of CX sales, but twice those of the earlier Peugeot 604.

The 2006 Citroën C6, first announced as the C6 Lignage concept car in 1999, appeared to be the direct descendant of the CX. The design of the Citroën flagship was directly inspired by the personality of the CX. It remained in production until the end of 2012 but barely 20,000 examples were sold; the lack of an estate version also hampered sales.

In 2016, Dongfeng Peugeot-Citroën introduced a new large sedan - the Citroën C6 (no relation to earlier models) - a car based on the Dongfeng A9. The CX, which had briefly been sold in China, was referenced in the promotional materials.

Design variations
CX was available from the factory in three body styles, with 13 different inline-four engines.

Four door SWB fastback
The original CX design was a four-door fastback, with a shorter Wheelbase. It was sold in a variety of trim and engine options, the highest designated Pallas. The factory never offered a conventional three-box styling notchback, nor a hatchback.

Estate/Wagon/Break
The Estate (Safari in the United Kingdom; Break in France), produced from 1975 until 1991, was a  longer car. The same body style was also offered as the Familiale with three rows of seats, seating seven people. These models had increased load capacity (baggage; equipment; passengers), taking full advantage of the CX's self-levelling suspension.

The Estate was the last CX to be replaced. It was one of the largest, and because of its suspension, most practical, family cars available in Europe.  The Safari was a success with speedway riders and other motorcycle racers, as the capacious design meant a bike could easily fit in the back.

Prestige
The CX short wheel base fastback had insufficient rear legroom to function as a chauffeur driven limousine (a common use for the spacious DS model), so in 1976, Citroën introduced another  longer version, the Prestige variant. The Prestige offered more rear legroom than any other standard-sized sedan in the world. In 1977, it also gained a raised roofline to improve headroom. Prestiges often came equipped with a vinyl roof. Contemporary reviews of the Prestige were favourable. In 1976 the UK's Driver and Motorist praised its comfort and interior fitments. In 1980, a diesel engine variant was introduced, the Limousine.

Series 1 and Series 2
The Series 1 vehicles (1974–85) were characterised by stainless steel front and rear bumpers, hydropneumatic suspension as compliant and soft as the DS, a "spaceship" style dashboard featuring a revolving drum speedometer and similar tachometer.

The Series 2 vehicles (1985–91) can be distinguished by the use of plastic bumpers. The cars lost some of their earlier distinctiveness, but maintained the "stalk-free" layout, where turn signals, wiper controls, horn and headlights could be operated by the driver's fingertips while his/her hands remained on the steering wheel. The suspension became stiffer in most models, with arguably a more aggressive look, as opposed to the more elegant Series 1 design. Although the dashboard retained the "pod" housing for the instrumentation, it lost the revolving-drum instruments and received a sloping centre dash area, and the radio moved to a position sideways and between the front seats, with the height corrector and heating controls moving to the centre console.

Custom models
The CX was frequently used as an ambulance and camera car, applications where the cosseting suspension was especially valuable.

A number of CX estates were elongated and retrofitted with a second rear axle, mostly used for high speed bulk transport such as carrying newspapers across Europe. They are known as the "loadrunner" variant. Most of them were prepared by the French company Tissier.

In 1984, Guy Deslandes Design constructed four CX Orphée two-door convertibles.

The Swedish coachbuilder Nilsson produced several stretched limousines based on the Prestige for the leader of East Germany, Erich Honecker.

Transmissions
Manual, semi-automatic ("C-Matic") and, ultimately, fully automatic transmissions were fitted, the fully automatic ZF 3HP22 transmission replacing the C-Matic in 1980. Luxury trim-level models were badged as Pallas, and sports variants as GTi. The long-wheelbase models were badged as Prestige (petrol engine) or Limousine (diesel). The factory never produced the CX with both the powerful turbocharged petrol engine and automatic transmission in one car.

Engine types
Both petrol and diesel-powered models were available in various engine sizes including turbocharged versions. The top-end sports model, alongside the CX Prestige luxury model, was the CX 25 GTi Turbo, launched in autumn 1984, rated at  and a top speed of .

2.0 L (1985 cc) I4
2.0 L (1995 cc) Douvrin I4
2.2 L (2165 cc) Douvrin I4
2.2 L (2175 cc) I4
2.4 L (2347 cc) carburetted I4
2.4 L (2347 cc) fuel-injected I4
2.5 L (2499 cc) fuel-injected I4
2.5 L (2499 cc) fuel-injected I4 with turbocharger
2.5 L (2499 cc) fuel-injected I4 with turbocharger and intercooler
2.2 L (2200 cc) diesel I4
2.5 L (2500 cc) diesel I4
2.5 L (2500 cc) diesel I4 with turbocharger
2.5 L (2500 cc) diesel I4 with turbocharger and intercooler

International sales and production

The CX was popular in most European nations, and also sold in some Asian and Latin American countries.

In 1984, Citroën sold 2,500 CXs to China and nearly succeeded in getting the "large car" contract that would have made the CX the most common vehicle in the People's Republic, which only had 20,000 private vehicles at the time. The Chinese government decided to award this contract to the Shanghai Volkswagen joint venture, and instead gave Citroën the rights to the "compact car" segment. This joint venture, located in Wuhan, is today known as the Dongfeng Peugeot-Citroën Automobile factory, producing over 700,000 cars a year.  Ironically, Dongfeng Motor rescued the ailing PSA Peugeot Citroën in 2014, with a cash injection in exchange for an interest in the control of PSA.

The CX was assembled in South America from 1978–1984 starting with the CX 2000 Super in Citroën's facility of Arica, Chile. The car achieved good sales numbers despite being one of the most complex cars built in the Americas.

In Australia and South Africa, the CX was imported, unlike the DS, which was assembled locally.

CX in North America

PSA Peugeot Citroën had initially engineered the CX models to meet then current  US regulations. One specific circumstance led to Citroën's permanent withdrawal from the US market at the end of 1973, the January 1, 1974 US regulation wording related to 5 mph bumpers being drafted in such a way that height adjustable suspension was de facto illegal for passenger vehicles. The 1974 Citroëns actually built for the U.S. market could not be supplied to Americans due to the effective date of the bumper regulation.

More specifically, the newly updated US regulations (FMVSS No. 215) mandated 5-mph bumpers at both ends of passenger vehicles, with the bumper height to be standardized and maintained at constant height for the 1974 model years - with no distinction for operating ride height, as there was in later EU legislation, since Citroëns are common automobiles in Europe. The height-adjustable suspension was integral to the CX design. Even the Mercedes-Benz Congressional lobby had no impact on this mandate, and they had to disable the height adjustment feature for the US-bound W116 S-Class saloons and S123 estates. In 1981, the standardised bumper height and 5-mph bumper requirements failed Cost–benefit analysis and were rescinded.

In addition, the situation for Citroën in the North American market was worsened by Citroën's corporate financial situation and the cost of U.S. and Canadian design legislation.
People with Diplomatic immunity are not subject to lawsuit or prosecution under the host country's laws, so diplomats in the U.S. still had access to the CX. So did foreign tourists under the personal use exemption, bringing in the CX for temporary use.

From 1979 on, Americans obtained the CX through grey import specialists, including the firm Trend Imports, who modified them to comply with US regulations.

Beginning in 1983, CxAuto (CXA), based in Lebanon, New Jersey, remanufactured the CX in the Netherlands before exporting them to the United States with full US compliance. The cars were crash tested as required by NHTSA. The bumpers were fitted with shock absorbing elements, the passenger doors were fitted with side impact bars, the form-fitting headlamps were replaced with four round capsule headlamps and fog lamps, the exhaust system was fitted with oxygen sensor and catalyst, and so forth. They offered a 5-year/50,000-mile warranty and sold the CX cars in 49 states except California (due to stricter emission regulations). CxAuto removed the Citroën and CX badges and double chevron logos and marketed them as the CXA.

The CXA retail price was $39,900 for CX 25 GTi and was $49,800 for CX 25 Prestige, at a time when the similar 1988 Peugeot 505 GLS sedan had an MSRP of $17,775. The higher price was due to the unwillingness of PSA Peugeot Citroën to sell CX at wholesale price, and due to the high cost of engineering and modification work to meet US regulations.

Another specialist, Citroen Importers of North America (CINA), based in Atlanta, Georgia, also imported CX and modified them for US regulations.  They received cease-and-desist letters from PSA Peugeot Citroën to stop selling CX cars to Americans. CINA was allowed to sell the remaining CX in stock before terminating the sales permanently.

Despite lack of advertisement, minimal service network, and higher retail price, Trend Imports, individuals on the grey market, CxAuto, and CINA managed to supply Americans with about 1,000 CX units during the 1980s.

Today, all CXs are over 25 years old, so the federal government no longer criminalizes their import or possession.

Prominent owners

In France, the CX Prestige model was used by the French government, including former president Jacques Chirac, who kept using the CX officially many years after it had left production.

In addition to the 15 CX models used between 1978 and 1989 by Erich Honecker, head of East Germany, many other senior party officials also found the car suitable.  (Furthermore, during 1981 the East German government purchased 5,000 of the smaller Citroën GS models.)

Elena Ceaușescu, Deputy Prime Minister of Romania (and wife of Romania's Communist leader Nicolae Ceaușescu), was given a CX Prestige by King Juan Carlos I of Spain, which she used until her execution in 1989.

Rainier III, Prince of Monaco and his wife Grace Kelly owned two CXs, a 1981 CX Reflex D Break and a 1980 CX 2400 Pallas, which were both auctioned in July 2012.

Mário Soares the Prime Minister of Portugal used a CX with the license plate POR, while the CX of Henrik, Prince Consort of Denmark sported the license plate Crown 101.

Henri, Grand Duke of Luxembourg, had a special Landaulet created by Henri Chapron for his 1981 wedding.

Other royal and government figures who drove CXs include Harald V, King of Norway, Panamanian dictator Manuel Noriega, Chilean dictator Augusto Pinochet, and Prince Bernhard of The Netherlands.

Italian investigative journalist Carmine Pecorelli was investigating former prime minister Aldo Moro's 1978 kidnapping and murder, when he himself was shot and killed by an unknown assailant, while driving his CX in Rome, in March 1979.

Prominent owners also include Carlos Santana and Johan Cruyff.

Parts used in other vehicles
Common parts from the CX were used in other more exclusive cars. For instance, the rear view mirrors of the "Series 2" CX were found on many—mostly British—sports cars, like the Lotus Esprit, the Jaguar XJ220, the TVR Chimaera and the (French) MVS Venturi.
The gearbox of the Citroën CX was used in the Matra Murena.

In 1982, Robert Cumberford built the Cumberford Martinique, an open two seater with engine and transmission from a BMW 733i, and steering and suspension from the CX. Pricing was 60% higher than its closest competitor, from Clénet Coachworks, and only two cars were built. Both still exist, one in France and one in San Diego.

Timeline

1974: 28 August: Introduction of the 2000 and 2200 fastbacks, with engines inherited from the Citroën DS—positioned between the bottom of range DSuper and the exclusive DS 23 Pallas
1975: CX voted 'Car of the Year' by 49 journalists from 14 European countries. July: Introduction of the long-wheelbase saloon, the CX Prestige   October: Introduction of the Estate version .
1976: January: Introduction of the 2200 Diesel saloon and estate. Semi-automatic "C-Matic" transmission introduced as an option. July: Introduction of CX 2400 Carburettor model. September: Introduction of the CX Ambulance. October: Introduction of the CX Familiale Estate, a 7-seater version. December: The President of France receives a CX with electronic fuel injection, 5-speed gearbox and a raised roof.
1977: May: Introduction of the 2400 GTi with fuel injection and the larger motor from the DS 23. July: The CX Prestige receives a raised roofline and fuel injection as well as a 5-speed gearbox. All CX 2400 models are given the optional extra of a 5-speed gearbox. December: Introduction of the CX 2400 Pallas Injection with semi-automatic, C-Matic transmission and vari-power steering as standard.
1978: January: Introduction of the CX 2500 Diesel model. July: CX 2500 Diesel saloons and estates have the option of a 5-speed gearbox.
1979: July: Introduction of the bottom of range 2000 Reflex and 2000 Athena Saloons, as replacements for the previous 2000 Super and 2000 Confort Saloons. Reflex and Athena have the new 1995 cc Douvrin engine shared with the Renault 20 TS, with a 4-speed gearbox on Reflex and a 5-speed on the Athena. November: Introduction of the CX 2500 Diesel Limousine, which combines the CX Prestige bodywork and the engine and transmission of the CX 2500 Diesels.
1980: July: The CX 2400 engine receives power and torque performance increase. 5-speed gearboxes are standard fitting on the Athena, CX Diesel, Super, and Pallas. New gearbox ratios for the CX Break, GTi and Prestige. Rear aerodynamic spoiler fitted to the CX GTi.
1981: Automatic transmission made by ZF Friedrichshafen AG replaces C-Matic as an option - available on CX Pallas and Prestige models (both carburettor and injection). Wider front track introduced throughout the range to accommodate the ZF automatic. Introduction of the 2000 Reflex Safari, 2000 Reflex Familiale, 2400 Reflex Safari and 2400 Reflex Familiale Estates. July: Cruise control offered as option on the CX Pallas (5-speed manual and automatic), CX Prestige automatic and CX GTi.
1982: New enlarged front wheel arches are introduced throughout the range to match the wider front track introduced 6 months earlier and allow for the fitment of wider Michelin TRX tyres. Michelin TRX tyres are standard on the CX GTi and optional on the fuel injected Pallas and Prestige models.
1983: CX Reflex becomes CX20, CX Reflex D becomes CX 25D, CX Reflex IE becomes CX IE, CX Athena became CX 20 Pallas.
1983: July gasoline 2400 (2347ccm) engine replaced with 2500 (2499ccm) engine.
1984: March: Introduction of the CX Entreprise models, the CX 20 Entreprise and the CX 25D Entreprise, having only front seats fitted and the rear lined for carrying loads and targeted towards businesses. April: The limited edition CX 20 Leader is launched. 700 examples are produced and the model has the same technical characteristics to the 5-speed CX 20. October: The CX 25 GTi Turbo is introduced—the first genuinely fast CX model.
1985: March: ABS braking becomes optional on the CX 25 GTi Turbo. July: Introduction of the model year 1986 S2 (Series 2) CX, restyled in appearance. Plastic bumpers, a completely revised interior, new mirrors, and protective body strips are among the most obvious changes. The new Series 2 model CX 22 TRS (2,165 ccm aluminum Douvrin engine) in addition to entry level CX 20 sedan.
1986: Introduction of the gasoline models 25 GTi Turbo 2 and Prestige Turbo 2, with new Intercooler and improved performance. All Turbo models are 5 speed manual.
1989: CX production at the Aulnay-sous-Bois factory ceased. All saloon models discontinued. Heuliez, famous French coachbuilders, were given the contract for continuing to produce CX estate models. Introduction of the re-badged 25 TGI Familiale estate, formerly the TRI.
1990: Introduction of the 22 TGE Safari, 25 TGI Safari, and 25 TGD Safari Turbo Diesel estates.
1991: Last estate models discontinued.

Legacy
Citroën CX values strongly reflect condition, as befits a high volume car with complex components. Value was bolstered in 2015, when one of the Erich Honecker CX's, a 1984 CX 2500 Injection Prestige, was sold for EUR €95,360 (US$108,621) at Artcurial. In 2018, another CX, Landaulet by Chapron, sold for EUR 95,360 as well.

The most collectible CX models are the very rare Series 1 GTi Turbo, and the Series 2 Prestige Turbo.

References
 L'usine Citroën à Aulnay-sous-Bois - L'histoire et les secrets du berceau de la Citroën CX, by Julius Goldmann, Éditions Citrovisie, 2023. ISBN 978-90-832960-5-0, https://citrovisie.nl/fr/products/aulnay
 La véritable histoire de la Citroën CX, by Michael Buurma, Éditions Citrovisie, 2014. ISBN 978-90-828147-5-0, https://citrovisie.nl/fr/products/la-veritable-histoiredelacitroencx
 Car magazine (UK), March 1981
 Car magazine (UK), March 1986
 Car & Driver magazine (U.S.), March 1987

Notes

External links

Citroën CX - Citroën Origins
Citroën CX at Citroënët

The Pininfarina 1800 design study
 How to repair the Citroën CX

CX
Executive cars
Sedans
Station wagons
Front-wheel-drive vehicles
Cars introduced in 1974
1980s cars
1990s cars

Citroën CX


إيان غلين  ممثل اسكتلندي من مواليد 24 يونيو 1961 . لعب دور جورا مورمنت في صراع العروش .

مواقع خارجية

مراجع

أشخاص على قيد الحياة
أشخاص متعلمون في أكاديمية أدنبرة
خريجو الأكاديمية الملكية للفنون المسرحية
خريجو جامعة أبردين
رواة كتب صوتية
طاقم عمل مسلسل صراع العروش
مسرحيون إسكتلنديون
ممثلو أفلام إسكتلنديون
ممثلو أفلام بريطانيون
ممثلو أفلام ذكور إسكتلنديون
ممثلو أفلام ذكور بريطانيون
ممثلو تلفزيون إسكتلنديون
ممثلو تلفزيون بريطانيون
ممثلو تلفزيون ذكور إسكتلنديون
ممثلون إسكتلنديون
ممثلون إسكتلنديون في القرن 20
ممثلون إسكتلنديون في القرن 21
ممثلون حائزون على جائزة الدب الفضي لأفضل ممثل
ممثلون في مسلسل صراع العروش
ممثلون من إدنبرة
مواليد 1961
مواليد في إدنبرة

إيان غلين


Einkalíf getur líka verið kvikmyndin Einkalíf frá 1995, eftir Þráin Bertelsson.

Einkalíf er sá hluti af lífi einstaklings sem markast af persónuleika, sjálfsmynd og persónulegu vali. Með tilkomu borgaralegs samfélags á 19. öld verður aukin áhersla á einkalíf með tilkomu einkarýmis sem helgað er fjölskyldulífi og heimilislífi, utan við almannarýmið sem helgað er vinnu og félagslífi. Fram að því mótaðist líf einstaklinga fyrst og fremst af stöðu þeirra og hlutverki innan samfélags, þótt hugmyndir um þroskaferil sjálfsins og persónulega ábyrgð hafi áður verið til innan ýmissa samfélaga. Friðhelgi einkalífs, eða geta einstaklingsins til að hafa stjórn á upplýsingum um sig og líf sitt, er þannig tiltölulega nýtilkomið fyrirbæri.

Einkalíf

Einkalíf


ist ein kleiner, landwirtschaftlich geprägter Ort in der Region  auf der Nordinsel von Neuseeland. Administrativ gehört der Ort zur Stadt .

Namensherkunft
 wurde nach  benannt, dem umliegende Ländereien gehörten. Er war einer der Direktoren der , die 1867 in England gegründet wurde und die Besiedlung eines 430 km² großen Areals zwischen dem   und dem  , des sogenannten "" betrieb. Der Name der  für das Gebiet ist "" nach ihrer Bezeichnung für die hier heimische aromatische Pflanze Pseudopanax edgerleyi.

Geographie
 liegt rund 14 km nordöstlich des Stadtzentrums von  am , der südlich des Ortes von  kommend nach Osten in Richtung  abknickt.

Die Bahnstrecke Palmerston North–Gisborne verläuft parallel zum . Die Stadt hatte ursprünglich einen Bahnhof, der aber schon lange aufgegeben ist.

Östlich am Ort fließt der   vorbei.

Nordöstlich des Ortes befinden sich die südlichen Ausläufer der   mit dem 920 m hohen  , auf dem sich ein Fernseh- und Radiosender befinden. Östlich von  befindet sich eine Windfarm in den Bergen.

Persönlichkeiten
 Andre Taylor, Rugbyspieler

Literatur

Weblinks
 Website von Ashhurst

Einzelnachweise

Ort in der Region Manawatū-Whanganui

Ashhurst


Le musée d'art de Dnipro, fondé en 1914 est un musée d'Ukraine, situé à Dnipro au 21 de la rue Schevchenka.

Présentation et histoire

Galerie

Références

Liens
 Liste de musées en Ukraine.

Musée d'art en Ukraine
Culture à Dnipro
Musee

Musée d'Art de Dnipro


El Tour de Marmara  (oficialmente: Tour of Marmara) fue una carrera ciclista profesional por etapas que se disputaba en la región del Mármara (Turquía).

Se disputó en 2010 y 2011 formando parte del UCI Europe Tour, dentro de la categoría 2.2 (última categoría del profesionalismo).

Siempre tuvo 4 etapas, todas ellas con la misma salida y meta aunque con diferente kilometraje. Empezando en Şile y acabando en Kocaeli.

Palmarés

Palmarés por países

Referencias

Enlaces externos
 Tour de Marmara (cqranking.com)
 Tour de Marmara (sitiodeciclismo.net)

Marmara
Marmara
Marmara

Tour de Marmara


Rufus Hardy (* 16. Dezember 1855 bei Aberdeen, Monroe County, Mississippi; † 13. März 1943 in Corsicana, Texas) war ein US-amerikanischer Politiker. Zwischen 1907 und 1923 vertrat er den Bundesstaat Texas im US-Repräsentantenhaus.

Werdegang
Rufus Hardy besuchte private Schulen in Mississippi und Texas. Nach einem anschließenden Jurastudium an der University of Georgia in Athens und seiner 1875 erfolgten Zulassung als Rechtsanwalt begann er in Navasota (Texas) in diesem Beruf zu arbeiten. Im Jahr 1878 zog er nach Corsicana. Von 1880 bis 1884 war Hardy Bezirksstaatsanwalt im Navarro County. Danach war er bis 1888 Staatsanwalt im 13. Gerichtsbezirk von Texas. Von 1888 bis 1896 war er als Bezirksrichter tätig. Danach praktizierte er wieder als privater Rechtsanwalt. Gleichzeitig schlug er als Mitglied der Demokratischen Partei eine politische Laufbahn ein.

Bei den Kongresswahlen des Jahres 1906 wurde Hardy im sechsten Wahlbezirk von Texas in das US-Repräsentantenhaus in Washington, D.C. gewählt, wo er am 4. März 1907 die Nachfolge von Scott Field antrat. Nach sieben Wiederwahlen konnte er bis zum 4. März 1923 acht Legislaturperioden im Kongress absolvieren. In diese Zeit fiel der Erste Weltkrieg. Außerdem wurden in den Jahren 1913 bis 1920 der 16., der 17., der 18. und der 19. Verfassungszusatz ratifiziert. Von 1911 bis 1919 war Hardy Vorsitzender des Ausschusses zur Kontrolle der Ausgaben des Marineministeriums.

Im Jahr 1922 verzichtete Rufus Hardy auf eine weitere Kandidatur. Nach dem Ende seiner Zeit im US-Repräsentantenhaus betätigte er sich wieder als Anwalt. Er starb am 13. März 1943 in Corsicana, wo er auch beigesetzt wurde.

Weblinks

Mitglied des Repräsentantenhauses der Vereinigten Staaten für Texas
Mitglied der Demokratischen Partei (Vereinigte Staaten)
Richter (Vereinigte Staaten)
Staatsanwalt (Vereinigte Staaten)
Rechtsanwalt (Vereinigte Staaten)
US-Amerikaner
Geboren 1855
Gestorben 1943
Mann

Rufus Hardy


The Allegheny Mountain Range ( ; also spelled Alleghany or Allegany), informally the Alleghenies, is part of the vast Appalachian Mountain Range of the Eastern United States and Canada and posed a significant barrier to land travel in less developed eras. The Allegheny Mountains have a northeast–southwest orientation, running for about  from north-central Pennsylvania, southward through western Maryland and eastern West Virginia.

The Alleghenies comprise the rugged western-central portion of the Appalachians. They rise to approximately  in northeastern West Virginia. In the east, they are dominated by a high, steep escarpment known as the Allegheny Front. In the west, they slope down into the closely associated Allegheny Plateau, which extends into Ohio and Kentucky. The principal settlements of the Alleghenies are Altoona, State College, and Johnstown, Pennsylvania; and Cumberland, Maryland.

Using the USGS classification of physical geography (physiography), the Allegheny Mountain range is part of the Appalachian Plateau province of the Appalachian Highlands physiographic division.

Etymology
The name is derived from the Allegheny River, which drains only a small portion of the Alleghenies in west-central Pennsylvania. The meaning of the word, which comes from the Lenape (Delaware) Native Americans, is not definitively known but is usually translated as "fine river". A Lenape legend tells of an ancient tribe called the "Allegewi" who lived on the river and were defeated by the Lenape. Allegheny is the early French spelling (as in Allegheny River, which was once part of New France), and Allegany is closer to the early English spelling (as in Allegany County, Maryland, Allegany County, New York, or Alleghany County, Virginia).

The word "Allegheny" was once commonly used to refer to the whole of what are now called the Appalachian Mountains.  John Norton used it (spelled variously) around 1810 to refer to the mountains in Tennessee and Georgia. Around the same time, Washington Irving proposed renaming the United States either "Appalachia" or "Alleghania". In 1861, Arnold Henry Guyot published the first systematic geologic study of the whole mountain range. His map labeled the range as the "Alleghanies", but his book was titled On the Appalachian Mountain System. As late as 1867, John Muir—in his book A Thousand Mile Walk to the Gulf—used the word "Alleghanies" in referring to the southern Appalachians.

There was no general agreement about the "Appalachians" versus the "Alleghanies" until the late 19th century.

Geography

Extent
From northeast to southwest, the Allegheny Mountains run about . From west to east, at their widest, they are about .   When combining the Allegheny Province with the Kanawa Province, they run .

The USGS physiographic classification of all land in the United States lists the Allegheny Mountains as a section within the larger Appalachian Plateau province.  It may generally defined to the south by the Allegheny Front, and to the east by the Susquehanna River valley. To the west, the Alleghenies grade down into the dissected Allegheny Plateau. The westernmost ridges are considered to be the Laurel Highlands and Chestnut Ridge in Pennsylvania, and Laurel Mountain and Rich Mountain in West Virginia.

Big Stone Ridge marks the southern extent of the Alleghenies and is an outlier of Flat Top Mountain, with the Tug Fork river running along its western flank.  The land to the south and to the west of the Alleghenies is the Valley and Ridge physiographic province.

Allegheny Front and Allegheny Highlands
The eastern edge of the Alleghenies is marked by the Allegheny Front, which is also sometimes considered the eastern terminus of the Allegheny Plateau. This great escarpment roughly follows a portion of the Eastern Continental Divide in this area. A number of impressive gorges and valleys drain the Alleghenies: to the east, Smoke Hole Canyon (South Branch Potomac River), and to the west the New River Gorge and the Blackwater and Cheat Canyons. Thus, about half the precipitation falling on the Alleghenies makes its way west to the Mississippi and half goes east to Chesapeake Bay and the Atlantic seaboard.

The highest ridges of the Alleghenies are just west of the Front, which has an east/west elevational change of up to . Absolute elevations of the Allegheny Highlands reach nearly , with the highest elevations in the southern part of the range. The highest point in the Allegheny Mountains is Spruce Knob (), on Spruce Mountain in West Virginia. Other notable Allegheny highpoints include Thorny Flat on Cheat Mountain (), Bald Knob on Back Allegheny Mountain (), and Mount Porte Crayon (), all in West Virginia; Dans Mountain () in Maryland, Backbone Mountain (), the highest point in Maryland; Mount Davis (), the highest point in Pennsylvania, and the second highest, Blue Knob ().

Development
There are very few sizable cities in the Alleghenies. The four largest are (in descending order of population): Altoona, State College, Johnstown (all in Pennsylvania) and Cumberland (in Maryland). In the 1970s and '80s, the Interstate Highway System was extended into the northern portion of the Alleghenies, and the region is now served by a network of federal expressways—Interstates 80, 70/76 and 68. Interstate 64 traverses the southern extremity of the range, but the Central Alleghenies (the "High Alleghenies" of eastern West Virginia) have posed special problems for highway planners owing to the region's very rugged terrain and environmental sensitivities (see Corridor H.) This region is still served by a rather sparse secondary highway system and remains considerably lower in population density than surrounding regions.

In the telecommunications field, a unique impediment to development in the central Allegheny region is the United States National Radio Quiet Zone (NRQZ), a large rectangle of land—about —that straddles the border area of Virginia and West Virginia. Created in 1958 by the Federal Communications Commission, the NRQZ severely restricts all omnidirectional and high-power radio transmissions, although cell phone service is allowed throughout much of the area.

Protected areas
Much of the Monongahela (West Virginia), George Washington (West Virginia, Virginia) and Jefferson (Virginia) National Forests lie within the Allegheny Mountains. (No part of the wooded Alleghenies in Maryland or Pennsylvania, however, is managed by the U.S. Forest Service.) The Alleghenies also include a number of federally designated wilderness areas, such as the Dolly Sods Wilderness, Laurel Fork Wilderness, and Cranberry Wilderness in West Virginia.

The mostly completed Allegheny Trail, a project of the West Virginia Scenic Trails Association since 1975, runs the length of the range within West Virginia. The northern terminus is at the Mason–Dixon line and the southern is at the West Virginia-Virginia border on Peters Mountain.

Geology

The bedrock of the Alleghenies is mostly sandstone and metamorphosed sandstone, quartzite, which is extremely resistant to weathering. Prominent beds of resistant conglomerate can be found in some areas, such as the Dolly Sods. When it weathers, it leaves behind a pure white quartzite gravel. The rock layers of the Alleghenies were formed during the Appalachian orogeny.

Because of intense freeze-thaw cycles in the higher Alleghenies, there is little native bedrock exposed in most areas. The ground surface usually rests on a massive jumble of sandstone rocks, with air space between them, that are gradually moving down-slope. The crest of the Allegheny Front is an exception, where high bluffs are often exposed.

Mineral springs in the High Alleghenies attracted Native Americans and 18th century white settlers and provided a modest incentive to the local economy. The spas developing around these geological features include celebrated resorts that continue to cater to an exclusive clientele, such as The Greenbrier (White Sulphur Springs, West Virginia; hotel built 1858) and The Homestead (Hot Springs, Virginia; original lodge built 1766).

Ecology

Flora
The High Alleghenies are noted for their forests of red spruce, balsam fir, and mountain ash, trees typically found much farther north. Hardwood forests also include yellow birch, sugar and red maple, eastern hemlock, and black cherry. American beech, pine and hickory can also be found. The forests of the entire region are now almost all second- or third-growth forests, the original trees having been removed in the late 19th and (in West Virginia) early 20th centuries. The wild onion known as the ramp (Allium tricoccum) is also present in the deeper forests.

Certain isolated areas in the High Alleghenies are well known for their open expanses of sphagnum bogs and heath shrubs (e.g., Dolly Sods, Cranberry Glades). Many plant communities are indeed similar to those of sea-level eastern Canada. But the ecosystems within the Alleghenies are remarkably varied. In recent decades, the many stages of ecologic succession throughout the area have made the region one of enduring interest to botanists.

Fauna
The larger megafauna which once inhabited the High Alleghenies—elk, bison, mountain lion—were all exterminated during the 19th century. They survived longer in this area, however, than in other parts of the eastern United States. Naturalist John James Audubon reported that by 1851 a few eastern elk (Cervus canadensis canadiensis) could still be found in the Alleghany Mountains but that by then they were virtually gone from the remainder of their range. Mammals in the Allegheny region today include whitetail deer, chipmunk, raccoon, skunk, groundhog, opossum, weasel, field mouse, flying squirrel, cottontail rabbit, gray foxes, red foxes, gray squirrels, red squirrels and a cave bat. Bobcat, snowshoe hare, wild boar and black bear and coyote are also found in the forests and parks of the Alleghenies. Mink and beaver are much less often seen.

These mountains and plateau have over 20 species of reptiles represented as lizard, skink, turtle and snake. Some of the icterid birds visit the mountains as well as the hermit thrush and wood thrush. North American migrant birds live throughout the mountains during the warmer seasons. Occasionally, osprey and eagles can be found nesting along the streams. The hawks and owls are the most common birds of prey.

The water habitats of the Alleghenies hold 24 families of fish. Amphibian species number about 21, among them hellbenders, lungless salamanders, and various toads and frogs. The Alleghenies provide habitat for about 54 species of common invertebrate. These include Gastropoda, slugs, leech, earthworms and grub worm. Cave crayfish (Cambarus nerterius) live alongside a little over seven dozen cave invertebrates.

History

Pre-contact Native Americans
The indigenous people inhabiting the Allegheny Mountains emerged from the greater region's archaic and mound building cultures, particularly the Adena and Eastern Woodland peoples with a later Hopewellian influence. These Late Middle Woodland culture people have been called the Montaine (c. A.D. 500 to 1000) culture. Their neighbors, the woodland Buck Garden culture, lived in the western valleys of the central Allegheny range. The Montaine sites extend from the tributaries of the upper Potomac River region south to the New River tributaries. These also were influenced by the earlier Armstrong culture of the more southwestern portions northern sub-range of the Ouasioto (Cumberland) Mountains and by the more easterly Virginia Woodland people. The Late Woodland Montaine were less influenced by Hopewellian trade from Ohio, although similarly polished stone tools have been found among the Montaine sites in the Tygart Valley. Small groups of Montaine people appear to have lingered much beyond their classically defined period in parts of the most mountainous valleys.

The watershed of the Monongahela River is within the northwestern Alleghenies, and it is from it that the Monongahela culture takes its name. The Godwin-Portman site (36AL39) located in Allegheny County, Pennsylvania, had a possible Fort Ancient (c. AD 850 to 1680) presence during the 15th century. Washington Boro ceramics have been found on the Barton (18AG3) and Llewellyn (18AG26) sites in Maryland on the northeastern slopes of the late Susquehannock sequence. The early Monongahela (c. AD 900 to 1630) are called the Drew Tradition in Pennsylvania. According to archeologist Richard L. George: "I believe that some of the Monongahela were of Algonquin origin.... Other scholars have suggested that Iroquoian speakers were interacting with Late Monongahela people, and additional evidence is presented to confirm this. I conclude that the archaeologically conceived term, Monongahela, likely encompasses speakers of several languages, including Siouan." According to Dr Maslowski of West Virginia in 2009: "The New River Drainage and upper Potomac represents the range of the Huffman Phase (Page) hunting and gathering area or when it is found in small amounts on village sites, trade ware or Page women being assimulated into another village (tribe)." Finally, according to Prof Potter of Virginia, they [the people represented by the Huffman Phase of Page pottery] had occupied the eastern slopes of the Alleghenies on the upper Potomac to the northern, lower Shenandoah Valley region before the A.D. 1300 Luray phase (Algonquian) peoples' "invasion". It is thought that these ancient Alleghenians were pushed from the classic Huffman Phase of the eastern slopes of the Alleghenies to the Blue Ridge Mountains in western Virginia, which was eastern Siouan territory.

In 1669, John Lederer and members of his party became the first Europeans to crest the Blue Ridge Mountains and the first to see the Shenandoah Valley and the Allegheny Mountains beyond.

Native Americans in the 17th century
The proto-historic Alleghenies can be exampled by the earliest journals of the colonists. According to Batts and Fallows' September, 1671 Expedition, they found Mehetan Indians of Mountain "Cherokee-Iroquois" mix on the New River tributaries. This journal does not identify the "Salt Village", but, that the "Mehetan" were associated with these and today thought to be "Monetons", Siouans. However, this journal does not identify the "Salt Village" below the Kanawha Falls, but, that simply the "Mehetan" were associated with these. He explained, below the "Salt Villages", a mass of hostile Indians had, implied, arrived and some believe these to be "Shanwans" of Vielles Expedition of 1692~94, ancient Shawnee. In 1669, John Lederer of Maryland for the Virginia Colony and the Tennessee Cherokee had visited the mouth of the Kanawha and reported no hostilities on the lower streams of the Alleghenies. The Mohetan representative through a Siouan translator explained to Mr Batts and Mr Fallon, Colonel Abraham Woods explorers 1671–2, that he (Moheton Native American) could not say much about the people below the "Salt Village" because they (Mountain Cherokee) were not associated with them. The Mohetan was armed by this time of 1671 for the Mohetan Representative was given several pouches of ammunition for his and the other's weapons as a token of friendship. Somebody had already been trading within the central Alleghenies before the Virginians historical record begins in the Allegheny Mountains. Some earlier scholars found evidence these Proto-historics were either Cistercians of Spanish Ajacan Occuquan outpost on the Potomac River or Jesuits and their Kahnawake Praying Indians (Mohawk) on the Riviere de la Ronceverte. The "Kanawha Madonna" may date from this period or earlier. Where the New River breaks through Peters' Mountain, near Pearisburg Virginia the 1671 journal mentions the "Moketans had formerly lived".

According to a number of early 17th century maps, the Messawomeake or "Mincquas" (Dutch) occupied the northern Allegheny Mountains. The "Shatteras" (an ancient Tutelo) occupied the Ouasioto Mountains and the earliest term Canaraguy (Kanawhans otherwise Canawest) on the 1671 French map occupied the southerly Alleghenies. They were associated with the Allegheny "Cherokee" and Eastern Siouan as trade-movers and canoe transporters. The Calicuas, an ancient most northern Cherokee, migrated or was pushed from the Central Ohio Valley onto the north eastern slopes of the Alleghenies of the ancient Messawomeake, Iroquois tradesmen to 1630s Kent Island, by 1710 maps. Sometime before 1712, the Canawest ("Kanawhans"-"Canallaway"-"Canaragay") had moved to the upper Potomac and made a Treaty with the newly established trading post of Fort Conolloway which would become a part of western Maryland during the 1740s.

Trading posts and other settlements
Prior to European exploration and settlement, trails through the Alleghenies had been transited for many generations by American Indian tribes such as the Iroquois, Shawnee, Delaware, Catawba and others, for purposes of trade, hunting and, especially, warfare. Western Virginia "Cherokee" were reported at Cherokee Falls, today's Valley Falls of the Tygart Valley. Indian trader Charles Poke's trading post dates from 1731 with the Calicuas of Cherokee Falls still in the region from the previous century.

The "London Scribes" (The Crown's taxation records) vaguely mentions the colonial Alleghenian location of only a few other early colonial trading locations. A general knowledge of these few outposts are more of traditional telling of some local people. However, an example is the "Van Metre" trading house mentioned in an earlier edition of the "Wonderful West Virginia Magazine" being on the South Branches of the upper reaches of the Potomac. Another very early trading house appears on a lower Greenbrier Valley map during the earlier decades of the 18th century.

As early as 1719, new arrivals from Europe began to cross the lower Susquehanna River and settle illegally in defiance of the Board of Property in Pennsylvania, on un-warranted land of the northeastern drainage rivers of the Allegheny Mountains. Several Indian Nations requested the removal of "Maryland Intruders". Some of these moved onward as territory opened up beyond the Alleghenies.

The first permanent European settlers west of the Alleghenies have traditionally been considered to have been two New Englanders: Jacob Marlin and Stephen Sewell, who arrived in the Greenbrier Valley in 1749. They built a cabin together at what would become Marlinton, West Virginia, but after disputing over religion, Sewell moved into a nearby hollowed-out sycamore tree. In 1751, surveyor John Lewis (father of Andrew Lewis) discovered the pair. Sewell eventually settled on the eastern side of Sewell Mountain, near present-day Rainelle, West Virginia. They may well have been the first to settle what was then called the "western waters"—i.e., in the regions where streams flowed westward to the Gulf of Mexico rather than eastward to the Atlantic.

First surveys

Among the first whites to penetrate into the Allegheny Mountains were surveyors attempting to settle a dispute over the extent of lands belonging to either Thomas Fairfax, 6th Lord Fairfax of Cameron or to the English Privy Council. An expedition of 1736 by John Savage established the location of the source of the North Branch Potomac River. In March 1742, a frontiersman named John Howard—along with his son and others—had been commissioned by Governor Gooch to explore the southwest of Virginia as far as the Mississippi River. Following Cedar Creek through the Natural Bridge, they floated in buffalo-skin boats down the New, Coal, Kanawha, and Ohio Rivers to the Mississippi. Although captured by the French before he reached Natchez, Howard was eventually released and (in 1745) was interviewed by Fairfax. Howard's description of the South Branch Potomac River resulted in the definite decision by Fairfax to secure his lands in the region. An expedition under Peter Jefferson and Thomas Lewis in the following year emplaced the "Fairfax Stone" at the source of the North Branch and established a line of demarcation (the "Fairfax Line") extending from the stone south-east to the headwaters of the Rappahannock River. Lewis' journal of that expedition provides a valuable view of the Allegheny country before its settlement.  Jefferson and Joshua Fry's "Fry-Jefferson Map" of 1751 accurately depicted the Alleghenies for the first time. In the following decades, pioneer settlers arrived in the Alleghenies, especially during Colonial Virginia's Robert Dinwiddie era (1751–58). These included squatters by the Quit-rent Law. Some had preceded the official surveyors using a "hack on the tree and field of corn" marking land ownership approved by the Virginia Colonial Governor who had to be replaced with Governor John Murray, 4th Earl of Dunmore.

First roads

Trans-Allegheny travel had been facilitated when a military trail—Braddock Road—was blazed and opened by the Ohio Company in 1751. (It followed an earlier Indian and pioneer trail known as Nemacolin's Path.) Braddock Road connected Cumberland, Maryland (the upper limit of navigation on the Potomac River) and the forks of the Ohio River (the future Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania). It received its name from the British leader of the French and Indian War (1754–63), General Edward Braddock, who led the ill-fated Braddock expedition four years later.

In addition to the war, hunting and trading with Indians were primary motivations for white movement across the mountains. Permanent white settlement of the northern Alleghenies was facilitated by the explorations and stories of such noted Marylanders as the Indian fighter and trader Thomas Cresap (1702–90) and the backwoodsman and hunter Meshach Browning (1781–1859). In the late 18th century, a massive migration to the Monongahela River basin took place over three main routes: along the old Braddock Road via Winchester, Virginia; through the Shenandoah Valley to the head of the Cheat River and from there to the Monongahela; and along the Lincoln Highway to Ligonier, Pennsylvania, and thence along Jacob's Creek to the Monongahela. These immigrants were predominantly Scotch-Irish, German, and, to a lesser extent, British stock.

The Braddock Road was superseded by the Cumberland Road—also called the National Road—one of the first major improved highways in the United States to be built by the federal government. Construction began in 1811 at Cumberland and the road reached Wheeling, Virginia (now West Virginia) on the Ohio River in 1818. Just to the south, the state-funded Staunton and Parkersburg Turnpike was constructed to provide a direct route for the settlements of the Shenandoah Valley to the Ohio River by way of the Tygart Valley and Little Kanawha Rivers. Planned and approved in 1826 and completed in 1848, the Staunton and Parkersburg was maintained by fees (tolls) collected at toll houses placed at regular intervals.

First railroads and canals
Construction on the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad began at Baltimore in 1828; the B&O traversed the Alleghenies, changing the economy and society of the Mountains forever. The B&O had reached Martinsburg, (West) Virginia by May 1842, Hancock, (West) Virginia, by June, Cumberland, Maryland, on November 5, 1842, Piedmont, (West) Virginia on July 21, 1851, and Fairmont, (West) Virginia on June 22, 1852. (It finally reached its Ohio River terminus at Wheeling, (West) Virginia on January 1, 1853.)

The Chesapeake and Ohio Canal—also begun in 1828, but at Georgetown—was also a public work of enormous economic and social significance for the Alleghenies. It approached Hancock, Maryland, by 1839. From the beginning, the B&O Railroad and the C&O Canal operated in bitter legal and commercial competition with one another as they vied for rights to the narrow strips of land along the Potomac. When the Canal finally reached Cumberland in 1850, the Railroad had already arrived eight years before. Debt-ridden, the Canal company dropped its plan to continue construction of the next  of the Canal into the Ohio Valley. The company had long realized—especially with the difficult experience of digging the Paw Paw Tunnel—that the original plan of construction over the mountains and all the way down the Youghiogheny River to Pittsburgh was "wildly unrealistic".

Public works financed at the state level were not lacking during this period. The Main Line of Public Works was a railroad and canal system across southern Pennsylvania between Philadelphia and Pittsburgh. Built between 1826 and 1834 by the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania, it included the Philadelphia and Columbia Railroad, the Allegheny Portage Railroad and the Pennsylvania Canal system.

Civil War
Lying astride the border separating the Union and Confederacy, the Alleghenies were among the areas most directly affected by the American Civil War (1861–1865). One of the earliest campaigns of the War was fought for control of the Staunton and Parkersburg Turnpike and for the access it provided to the B&O Railroad. The Battle of Rich Mountain (July 11, 1861) gave the Federals control of the turnpike, of Tygart's Valley, and of all of the territory of western Virginia to the north and west, including the railroad. (Union General George McClellan's victory in this theater would ultimately bring him promotion to commander the Army of the Potomac.) The Federals fortified at Cheat Summit, and the Confederates established strongholds at Camp Bartow and Camp Allegheny. Here they faced each other warily through the fall of 1861 and the following winter. General Robert E. Lee's attempt to attack Cheat Summit Fort (September 12–15, 1861) and Federal attempts to attack Bartow and Allegheny, all failed to change the strategic stalemate. Finally, the harsh, high elevation winter achieved what the troops had failed to accomplish, and in the spring of 1862 both armies moved on down the pike to the Battle of McDowell (May 8, 1862), and then on to fight what became General Stonewall Jackson's Shenandoah Valley Campaign (spring 1862). Two years later, much of this contested area (along with much else) became part of the new state of West Virginia. The very rugged terrain of the Alleghenies was not at all amenable to a large-scale maneuver war and so the actions that the area witnessed for the remainder of the conflict were generally guerrilla in nature.

Coal and timber industries
With the further spread of the railroad networks in the 1890s and early 1900s, many new towns developed and thrived in the Alleghenies. The lumbering and coal industries that boomed in the wake of the railroads brought a measure of prosperity to the region, but most of the revenues flowed out of the mountains to the cities of the eastern seaboard where the captains of industry were headquartered. This inequity created a bitter legacy that would last for generations and form the foundation of the mountaineers' poverty and the area's immense environmental degradation.

The most momentous disaster to afflict the people of the Alleghenies was the Johnstown Flood—locally known as the "Great Flood of 1889"—which occurred on May 31 of that year after the catastrophic failure of the South Fork Dam on the Little Conemaugh River  upstream of the town of Johnstown, Pennsylvania. The dam broke after several days of extremely heavy rainfall, unleashing 20 million tons of water (18 million cubic meters) from the reservoir known as Lake Conemaugh. (This body of water had been built as part of the Main Line of Public Works, then abandoned.) With a flow rate that temporarily equalled that of the Mississippi River, the flood killed 2,209 people and caused US$17 million of damage (about $425 million in 2012 dollars). The American Red Cross, led by Clara Barton and with 50 volunteers, undertook a major disaster relief effort. Support for victims came from all over the United States and 18 foreign countries. After the flood, survivors suffered a series of legal defeats in their attempts to recover damages from the dam's owners. Public indignation at that failure prompted the development in American law changing a fault-based regime to strict liability.

20th century
In the 1920s and '30s, Allegheny highways were extensively paved to provide access for automobiles.

From the 1950s to 1992, the United States government maintained a top secret continuity program known as Project Greek Island at The Greenbrier hotel in the Alleghenies of southern West Virginia.

In August 1963, at the March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom, Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. referenced the Allegheniesamong several in an evocative list of mountainsin his famous "I Have a Dream" speech, when he said "Let freedom ring from the heightening Alleghenies of Pennsylvania!"

21st century
The Flight 93 National Memorial is located at the site of the crash of United Airlines Flight 93—which was hijacked in the September 11 attacks—in Stonycreek Township, Pennsylvania, about  north of Shanksville. The memorial honors the passengers and crew of Flight 93, who stopped Al-Qaeda terrorists from reaching their intended target.

Photo gallery

See also
 High Allegheny National Park and Preserve, a proposed NPS unit in eastern West Virginia

Notes

References

Citations

General sources

Folklore
 McNeill, G.D. (Douglas), The Last Forest, Tales of the Allegheny Woods, n.p., 1940. (Reprinted with preface by Louise McNeill, Pocahontas Communications Cooperative Corporation, Dunmore, W. Va. and McClain Printing Company, Parsons, W. Va, 1989.)

Botany
 Core, Earl L. (1967), "Wildflowers of the Alleghenies", J. Alleghenies, 4(l):I, 2–4.
 Core, Earl L. (1943), "Botanizing in the Higher Alleghenies", Sci. Monthly, 57:119-125.

External links

 [ USGS GNIS – Allegheny Mountains]
 The Allegheny Regional Family History Society

Geography of Appalachia
Mountain ranges of Maryland
Mountain ranges of Pennsylvania
Mountain ranges of Virginia
Mountain ranges of West Virginia
Subranges of the Appalachian Mountains
Western Maryland

Allegheny Mountains


Festival bunjevački' pisama 2020., dvadeseto izdanje tog festivala.

Organizator je Hrvatska glazbena udruga "Festival bunjevački pisama". Online snimanje bilo je 14. rujna 2020. u restoranu Majur na Kelebiji. Velikim tamburaškim orkestrom HGU Festivala bunjevački pisama dirigirala je Mira Temunović. Tehničku potporu činili su Zvonimir Sudarević sa suradnicima. Sradnici na realizaciji projekta Vojislav Temunović i Nemanja Temunović. Emitiranje je predviđeno za nedjelju 4. listopada u 19 h na K23 i internet portalu.

Stručno prosudbeno povjerenstvo bili su: Nataša Kostadinović, Tamara Štricki Seg, Milica Lerić, Milan Pridraški, Goran Ivanović-Lac

Voditelji Festivala: Ksenija Ivanković Radak i Darko Temunović

Glasovanje:

Izvođače je pratio Veliki tamburaški orkestar Hrvatske glazbene udruge Festival bunjevački pisama pod ravnanjem prof. Mire Temunović.

Na natječaj je stiglo ... kompozicija, a stručno povjerenstvo odabralo je najbolje koje su i izvedene. Najavljeni izvođači bili su:

Stručnji ocjenjivački sud dodijelio je nagrade za skladatelje:
Prva nagrada:  Sebastijan Kantur za Neće Dunav zbog nas stati (tekst Ninoslav Radak, izvođač Ansambl "Ruže")
Druga nagrada: Snežana Kujundžić za Zbog tebe jesam
Treća nagrada: Magdalena Temunović za Ja sam cura panonske ravnice'

Najbolja pjesma po izboru publike: Magdalena Temunović za autorsku pjesmu Ja sam cura panonske ravniceNagrada za najbolji do sada neobjavljeni tekst po izboru posebnog stručnog žirija:  Ninoslav Radak za pjesmu Neće Dunav zbog nas statiNagrada za najbolji aranžman: Ansambl Ruže za pjesmu Neće Dunav zbog nas stati te Tomislav Vukov i Marinko Piuković za pjesmu Salaš kao svjetionik''

Nagrada stručnog žirija za najbolju interpretaciju: Davor Knežević i Sebastijan Kantur

Nagrada za najboljeg debitanta: Davor Knežević

Izvori

2020.

Festival bunjevački’ pisama 2020.


بلدية ثاباردييل دي لا ريبيرا (بالإسبانية: Zapardiel de la Ribera) هي بلدية تقع في مقاطعة آبلة التابعة لمنطقة قشتالة وليون وسط إسبانيا.

الديموغرافيا
بلغ عدد سكان بلدية ثاباردييل دي لا ريبيرا 124 نسمة عام 2011 (وفقاً للمعهد الوطني للإحصاء الإسباني).

مراجع

مصادر
  الموقع الرسمي لبلدية ثاباردييل دي لا ريبيرا

أماكن مأهولة في آبلة
بلديات آبلة

ثاباردييل دي لا ريبيرا


Die Liste der deutschen Botschafter in Costa Rica enthält alle Botschafter der Bundesrepublik Deutschland in Costa Rica. Sitz der Botschaft ist in San José.

Siehe auch
 Botschafter der DDR in Costa Rica

Weblink
 Website der Deutschen Botschaft San José

Einzelnachweise

!
Costa Rica
Deutschland


Tohoku se poate referi la:

 Regiunea Tohoku, o diviziune teritorială traditțională în Japonia.
 Asteroidul 23649 Tohoku, un corp ceresc numit după regiunea Tohoko.

Tohoku (dezambiguizare)


Apu Nahasapeemapetilon The Simpsons'taki Hint asıllı karakter. İngilizcesi iyidir ve çoğu zaman fahiş fiyat ile müşterileri kandırır. Dondurmalı turşu gibi garip icatları vardır. Karısı Manjula ile Hint usulü bir törenle evlenmiştir ve ondan tam 8 çocuğu vardır. Bir kere karısı Manjulayı bir meyve suyu satıcısıyla aldatır. Bunu gören Homer olayı Marge'a anlatır. Büyük çabalarla tekrar birleşirler. Apu Kwik-E-Mart'ta çalışır.

Simpsonlar karakterleri
Kurgusal Hintler
1990'da tanıtılan kurgusal karakterler
Resim aranan çizgi karakterler

Apu Nahasapeemapetilon


Se denomina tren de conducción (en inglés chassis y en alemán Fahrwerk) al total de componentes de un vehículo que sirven para mantenerlo en contacto con la carretera.

Componentes
El tren de conducción está compuesto por las ruedas junto a los componentes para su unión con el chasis, suspensión, amortiguador, dirección y los frenos. Los sistemas para el accionamiento de los frenos y la dirección, así como el motor, la caja de cambios y el grupo motopropulsor, no pertenecen al tren de conducción.
En el caso de los vehículos utilitarios con una carrocería independiente, el tren de conducción no es parte del chasis, sino que se considera como un conglomerado independiente.

Referencias
 KFZ-Fahrwerk 5. durchgesehene Auflage 1987

Enlaces externos

 Christian Weber: Begriffe und Grundlagen der Kraftfahrzeugtechnik, KFZ04 – Fahrwerk (PDF, 3,9 MB). Universität des Saarlandes, 23. Januar 2006.

Componentes del automóvil

Tren de conducción


كاربوندال، إلينوي Carbondale, Illinois مدينة بجنوب إلينوي في وسط غرب الولايات المتحدة 154 كم جنوب شرق سانت لويس التي توجد بولاية ميزوري، توجد بالتحديد بمقاطعة جاكسون ولاية إلينوي، إحصاء تعداد السكان لعام 2000 بلغ 25.597 نسمه.

المدينة توجد في منطقة يطلق عليها مصر الصغيرة أو little Egypt.

التركيبة السكانية
حدّد مكتب تعداد الولايات المتحدة بيانات التركيبة السكانية لكاربوندال في تعداد الولايات المتحدة. في ما يلي، التركيبة السكانية حسب تعدادي 2000 و2010.

تعداد عام 2000
بلغ عدد سكان كاربوندال 20,681 نسمة بحسب تعداد عام 2000، وبلغ عدد الأسر 9,981 أسرة وعدد العائلات 3,489 عائلة مقيمة في المدينة. في حين سجلت الكثافة السكانية . وبلغ عدد الوحدات السكنية 10,968 وحدة بمتوسط كثافة قدره .
وتوزع التركيب العرقي للمدينة بنسبة 66.08% من البيض و23.14% من الأمريكيين الأفارقة و0.22% من الأمريكيين الأصليين و6.67% من الأمريكيين ذوي الأصول الآسيوية و0.08% من سكان جزر المحيط الهادئ و1.42% من الأعراق الأخرى و2.40% من عرقين مختلطين أو أكثر و3.05% من الهسبانيون أو اللاتينيون من أي عرق.

بلغ عدد الأسر 9,981 أسرة كانت نسبة 18.3% منها لديها أطفال تحت سن الثامنة عشر تعيش معهم، وبلغت نسبة الأزواج القاطنين مع بعضهم البعض 22.1% من أصل المجموع الكلي للأسر، ونسبة 10.1% من الأسر كان لديها معيلات من الإناث دون وجود شريك، بينما كانت نسبة 2.8% من الأسر لديها معيلون من الذكور دون وجود شريكة وكانت نسبة 65% من غير العائلات. تألفت نسبة 43.5% من أصل جميع الأسر من عدة أفراد يعيشون في نفس المنزل ونسبة 6.9% كانت تتألف من شخص يعيش بمفرده يبلغ من العمر 65 عاماً أو أكثر. وبلغ متوسط حجم الأسرة المعيشية 1.99، أما متوسط حجم العائلات فبلغ 2.78.

بلغ العمر الوسطي للسكان 24.7 عاماً. وكانت نسبة 15% من القاطنين تحت سن الثامنة عشر، وكانت نسبة 33.9% بين الثامنة عشر والرابعة والعشرين عاماً، ونسبة 26.6% كانت واقعةً في الفئة العمرية ما بين الخامسة والعشرين والرابعة والأربعين عاماً، ونسبة 12.2% كانت ما بين الخامسة والأربعين والرابعة والستين، ونسبة 8.2% كانت ضمن فئة الخامسة والستين عاماً فما فوق. يوجد لكل 100 أنثى 105.6 ذكر، ويوجد لكل 100 أنثى في الثامنة عشر من عمرها فما فوق 105.6 ذكر.

بلغ متوسط دخل الأسرة في المدينة 15,882 دولارًا، أما متوسط دخل العائلة فبلغ 34,601 دولارًا. وكان متوسط دخل الذكور 30,217 دولارًا مقابل 24,114 دولارًا للإناث. وسجل دخل الفرد الخاص بالمدينة 13,346 دولارًا. وكانت نسبة 23.5% من العائلات ونسبة 41.4% من السكان تحت خط الفقر، وكان من هؤلاء نسبة 32.5% تحت سن الثامنة عشر ونسبة 13.2% في الخامسة والستين من العمر وما فوق.

تعداد عام 2010
بلغ عدد سكان كاربوندال 25,902 نسمة بحسب تعداد عام 2010، وبلغ عدد الأسر 11,035 أسرة وعدد العائلات 3,455 عائلة مقيمة في المدينة. في حين سجلت الكثافة السكانية . وبلغ عدد الوحدات السكنية 12,419 وحدة بمتوسط كثافة قدره .
وتوزع التركيب العرقي للمدينة بنسبة 62.42% من البيض و25.62% من الأمريكيين الأفارقة و0.37% من الأمريكيين الأصليين و5.66% من الأمريكيين ذوي الأصول الآسيوية و0.08% من سكان جزر المحيط الهادئ و2.50% من الأعراق الأخرى و3.35% من عرقين مختلطين أو أكثر و5.44% من الهسبانيون أو اللاتينيون من أي عرق.

بلغ عدد الأسر 11,035 أسرة كانت نسبة 15.6% منها لديها أطفال تحت سن الثامنة عشر تعيش معهم، وبلغت نسبة الأزواج القاطنين مع بعضهم البعض 19% من أصل المجموع الكلي للأسر، ونسبة 9.2% من الأسر كان لديها معيلات من الإناث دون وجود شريك، بينما كانت نسبة 3.1% من الأسر لديها معيلون من الذكور دون وجود شريكة وكانت نسبة 68.7% من غير العائلات. تألفت نسبة 42.7% من أصل جميع الأسر من عدة أفراد يعيشون في نفس المنزل ونسبة 6.1% كانت تتألف من شخص يعيش بمفرده يبلغ من العمر 65 عاماً أو أكثر. وبلغ متوسط حجم الأسرة المعيشية 2.02، أما متوسط حجم العائلات فبلغ 2.85.

بلغ العمر الوسطي للسكان 23.5 عاماً. وكانت نسبة 12.3% من القاطنين تحت سن الثامنة عشر، وكانت نسبة 44.4% بين الثامنة عشر والرابعة والعشرين عاماً، ونسبة 23.3% كانت واقعةً في الفئة العمرية ما بين الخامسة والعشرين والرابعة والأربعين عاماً، ونسبة 12.5% كانت ما بين الخامسة والأربعين والرابعة والستين، ونسبة 7.4% كانت ضمن فئة الخامسة والستين عاماً فما فوق. وتوزع التركيب الجنسي للسكان بنسبة 53.1% ذكور و46.9% إناث.

المناخ
يظهر الجدول التالي التغييرات المناخية على مدار السنة لكاربوندال:

توأمة
لكاربوندال اتفاقيات توأمة مع كل من:
 تايناي
 تاينان
 شيملا

أعلام

 بادي أرمور
 أغنيس ايريس
 ويليام أوبراين
 ديلوس براون
 شيكو فوغن
 كريم سنجابي
 بول غيلبرت
 جوستين دينتمون
 بن فالكون
 لوري ميتكاف

مراجع

أماكن مأهولة أسست في 1856
تأسيسات سنة 1856 في إلينوي
مدن إلينوي
مدن جامعية في الولايات المتحدة
مناطق حضرية في إلينوي
مدن في مقاطعة جاكسون (إلينوي)

كاربوندال


Cemitério Khovanskoye (), também conhecido como Cemitério Nikolo-Khovanskoye (Николо-Хованское кладбище), é um grande cemitério em Moscou, Rússia. Está localizado no distrito de Leninsky, oblast de Moscou, além do anel viário de Moscou.

O Cemitério Khovanskoye é o maior cemitério da Europa, cobrindo mais de .

Sepultamentos notáveis
Vasily Aleksanyan
Iskra Babich
Dmitri Bystrolyotov
Boris Delaunay
Alexei Khomich
Viktor Kosykh
Ivan Safronov
Ruslana Korshunova

Cemitérios de Moscou

Cemitério Khovanskoye


An Schoenorchis secundiflora in uska species han Liliopsida nga syahan ginhulagway ni Henry Nicholas Ridley, ngan ginhatag han pagkayana nga asya nga ngaran ni Johannes Jacobus Smith. An Schoenorchis secundiflora in nahilalakip ha genus nga Schoenorchis, ngan familia nga Orchidaceae. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Mga sumpay ha gawas

Schoenorchis

Schoenorchis secundiflora


L'École normale d'instituteurs de Paris était une école normale d'instituteurs et d'institutrices, dite aussi école normale primaire. Cet établissement est chargé de 1872 à 1991 de former des élèves (les élèves-maîtres) à l'enseignement à l'école élémentaire. Celle de Paris est créée tardivement par rapport aux autres départements. Elle met en application les directives officielles avec des évolutions en fonction des changements politiques, historiques et sociaux du pays. La réalité de la vie des internes oscille entre représentations officielles et ressenti effectif des intéressés.

En 1991, les écoles normales sont remplacées par les Instituts universitaires de formation des maîtres (IUFM), puis en 2013 par les Écoles supérieures pour le professorat et l'enseignement (ESPE) et en 2019 par les l'Instituts nationaux supérieurs du professorat et de l'éducation (INSPÉ).

Le site historique de l'École normale d'instituteurs de Paris, 10 rue Molitor ( arrondissement), accueille de nos jours l'INSPÉ de Paris. Désormais mixte et ne disposant plus d'internat, il forme également les futurs professeurs de l'enseignement secondaire.

Histoire de l'École normale d'instituteurs de Paris (1872-1991)

Projet

La création de l'École normale d'instituteurs de la Seine  est décidée le 13 octobre 1870 par le ministre de l'Instruction publique Jules Simon, à la demande du directeur de l'enseignement primaire de la Seine Octave Gréard. Elle ouvre le  octobre 1872. Elle est inaugurée le 28 octobre 1872 au château Ternaux, 11 bis rue d'Auteuil et 5 rue du Buis. Jules Simon préside la cérémonie, assisté de Léon Say, préfet de la Seine, et Octave Gréard.

Cette implantation dans le  arrondissement est éloignée du centre de Paris. C'est Octave Gréard lui-même qui livre les raisons de ce choix : .

L'École normale d'instituteurs de Paris, abrégé en ENI ou EN de Paris, est parfois appelée École normale d'Auteuil, ou ENA, sigle qui orne la mosaïque du hall d'entrée. Elle tire ce nom du village d'Auteuil où elle est installée, et dont l'existence remonte au Moyen Âge. Sa rue principale conserve le tracé historique et porte le même nom.

Histoire du site depuis le  siècle

L'origine des terrains où l'École normale sera installée à partir de 1872 prête souvent à confusion. Il est donc important d'en faire le point. Le document en référence en présente l'état.

L'immense domaine où se trouve l'établissement est historiquement celui de l'hôtel de la Ferme, qui s'étendait à l'origine jusqu'à l'actuelle rue Jouvenet. Ensuite, le manufacturier Ternaux s'installe dans le bâtiment principal, qui prend le nom de château Ternaux, et y travaille à introduire en France la fabrication des châles cachemires.

En 1852, le domaine est racheté par l'abbé Lévêque, qui y fonde l'Institution Notre-Dame d'Auteuil. Elle accueille jusqu'à 300 élèves. En difficulté financière, elle ferme avec la guerre de 1870-1871.

Le terrain est alors racheté par la Ville de Paris, qui va y installer l'École normale d'instituteurs de la Seine (ou de Paris selon les documents).

Première décennie
Après une décennie d'existence, l'établissement déménage mais reste cantonné au vaste périmètre de l'ancien domaine Ternaux, compris entre la rue du Buis, la rue d'Auteuil, la rue Boileau, la rue Molitor et la rue de la Municipalité, actuelle rue Chardon-Lagache (voir plan ci-contre).

En 1882, l'architecte Léon Salleron (1820-1904) construit en effet les nouveaux bâtiments de l'établissement dans la partie sud du lotissement, à l'angle des rues Molitor et Chardon-Lagache. L'entrée est située au 10 rue Molitor. Au nord, côté rue d'Auteuil, le château Ternaux, ancien site de l'École normale désormais libéré, accueille alors l'école puis l'actuel lycée Jean-Baptiste-Say.

Les nouveaux bâtiments de l'École normale d'instituteurs sont réalisés en pierre beige, comme de nombreux édifices publics de la Troisième République à la fin du XIX siècle. Le plan ci-contre indique qu'au croisement de la rue Molitor et de la rue Boileau, des terrains sont achetés en 1924 à l'Église réformée. Sur cette parcelle sont construits des bâtiments en brique rouge, matériau typique du style architectural de l'entre-deux-guerres.

École normale d'institutrices

Cet article traite principalement de l'École normale d'instituteurs d'Auteuil mais il faut noter qu'existe également l'École normale d'institutrices de Paris, située au 56 boulevard des Batignolles, dans le  arrondissement.

Elle est issue de la Petite communauté des Filles ouvrières fondée vers 1760 par l'abbé Guéret passage Saint-Pierre. À la Révolution, elle est transférée à l'Assistance publique, qui la transmet à l'administration municipale en 1841. La ville la transforme en l'École primaire supérieure de jeunes filles pour répondre aux obligations de la loi Guizot de 1833. En 1868, elle est transférée rue Poulletier et divisée en deux sections : enseignement et emplois commerciaux. L'école est transformée en école normale par le vote du conseil général de la Seine du 23 octobre 1872. Elle est créée le  janvier 1873 et dirigée par Madame de Friedberg. Le  octobre 1874, elle est installée dans les locaux de l'ancienne école polonaise au 56 boulevard des Batignolles, où le site existe toujours, intégré à l'INSPÉ de Paris, comme annexe du site d'Auteuil.

Directeurs de l'école
Les directeurs successifs de l'École normale d'instituteurs (ENI) d'Auteuil de 1872 à 1991 sont :
 1872-1875 : Ernest-Menu de Saint-Mesmin
 1875-1880 : Léon Puisieux
 1880-1896 : Anthelme Lénient
 1896 : M. Godart
 1896-1912 : Émile Devinat
 1912-1920 : Paul Bernard
 1920-1934 : Paul-Héliodore Gay
 1934-1945 : Henri Flandre, ancien directeur de l'ENI de Rouen
 1945-1964 : Louis Defond
 1964-1969 : Émile Foex, ancien directeur de l'ENI de Beauvais
 1969-1978 : J.-Robert Thomas, ancien directeur de l'ENI d'Arras
 1978-1991 : Frank Marchand, jusqu'à la suppression des ENI, directeur adjoint de l'IUFM de Paris en 1991

Grands choix éducatifs

Mise en place de la laïcité

L'Instruction publique est déclarée laïque et obligatoire en 1882. Elle apparaît comme le levier susceptible d'ancrer les valeurs républicaines dans la Nation. La loi de séparation des Églises et de l'État de 1905 permet à toutes les religions de pouvoir coexister. L'Instruction publique a alors pour mission de dispenser un enseignement universaliste. Pourtant, pendant vingt ans, dans certaines d'Écoles normales dont celle de Paris, un aumônier est présent et rétribué par l'établissement.

Les « hussards noirs de la République »
Cette formule du poète Charles Péguy en 1913 fait référence à la fois au costume austère des jeunes instituteurs () et à leur motivation pour enseigner les valeurs de la République. Mais contrairement à cette idée reçue, pendant longtemps, un tiers seulement des instituteurs et institutrices passe par les écoles normales pour y recevoir une formation professionnelle. En fait, les traditions demeurent, que ces jeunes gens et jeunes filles sans formation reprennent sans grands changements. De plus, ils sont dépendants des communes qui gèrent le fonctionnement quotidien et financier des écoles.

La variation des politiques éducatives
Adolphe Lénient (1880-1896) marque les débuts de l'établissement par des méthodes strictes d'éducation. Émile Devinat, qui lui succède en 1896, l'organise pour sa part sur des principes modernes de confiance vis-à-vis des élèves, dans une approche à la fois hygiéniste et pédagogique : . La période de l'après-guerre (dans les années 1920) entraîne un nouveau revirement et un renforcement du règlement disciplinaire : « La Première Guerre mondiale devait changer tout cela [...]. Une discipline renforcée, extrêmement rigoureuse, fut instaurée rue Molitor [...]. Plus de sorties sportives le mardi, suppression du week-end de quinzaine, plus de commentaires de presse à l'heure du déjeuner, réduction du nombre de promenades champêtres, plus de matinées récréatives, plus de public aux conférences, plus de bals, plus de stages en banlieue, plus de restaurant. Mais par contre, multiplication des cérémonies officielles auxquelles nous devions participer et chanter en chœur. La mise au point de ces séances [...] prenait un temps précieux, perdu pour de véritables études [...] ».

Le vécu des normaliens
Dans les années 1920, certains normaliens estiment la situation contradictoire. Ils critiquent la différence entre un discours officiel ouvert et une réalité plus intransigeante et estiment la situation d'autant plus contradictoire qu'ils seront amenés, à la fin de leur formation, à devenir eux-mêmes des enseignants.

La discipline entraîne des réactions de la part des internes. En fait, à la pesanteur des règlements et de leur application, ils opposent d'abord une force d'inertie considérable et un humour constant. Ils mettent aussi en place une vie secrète en marge des règlements : fumoirs et salles de jeux occultes, batailles rangées entre promotion, petits-déjeuners anticipés et secrets car les internes doivent attendre deux heures entre le lever à 5 h en été et le petit-déjeuner.

La Coinciade est une publication clandestine des normaliens. Leur esprit frondeur apparaît dans la production de ce journal clandestin par chaque promotion, dans les années 1920. Ses centaines de pages (parfois plus de 500 pages), dans un format approximativement 15 x 21 cm, sont tirées dans le plus grand secret au cours des trois années de la formation. Elles dénoncent avec une certaine dérision les défauts ressentis dans l'internat.

La photographie à Auteuil
La photographie, comme le cinéma naissant, ont une place importante dès les débuts de l'École. Ces médias doivent assurer plusieurs tâches, parfois contradictoires, de représentation du monde et de fixation du modèle de société républicaine, de témoignages et d'expressions personnels également.

La création d'albums reliés atteste de cette volonté éducative. Présentés aux Expositions universelles de 1889 et 1900, dans un pavillon de l'Instruction publique, ils exposent la création, les objectifs, les activités et les voyages de l'École normale de Paris. Par exemple, l'élève-maître Heyser de la  promotion (1897-1899) met en scène le déroulement d'une journée fictive, avec quelques « acteurs » choisis. Les situations-types sont posées, figées et censées représenter le bon déroulement de la formation. Elles en disent autant sur le désir de reconnaissance que sur les réalités quotidiennes. Dans les albums du photographe scolaire Tourte et Petitin, l'établissement semble un lieu désert, mises à part quelques photos de groupes très structurées.

Les monographies des élèves-maîtres et les récits des voyages de fin d'année font souvent appel à la photographie comme source documentaire, concurremment au dessin qu'ils maîtrisent pour un certain nombre d'entre-eux.

Les voyages personnels des professeurs sont une autre source non négligeable. Côte d'Azur, Italie, Afrique du Nord, ainsi que l'Afrique noire et Madagascar, il est parfois difficile d'attribuer un auteur à ces véritables documents bien qu'ils sont parfois annotés. Ils semblent avoir été projetés en diapositives lors de conférences normaliennes.

Organisation des journées
L'internat héberge plus de 80 % des élèves-maîtres pendant les trois années de la formation. Il détermine le fonctionnement de l'établissement qui compte autour de 200 élèves-maîtres annuellement.

Emploi du temps

Le programme du 3 août 1881 fixe l'emploi du temps globalement, excepté les jeudis, dimanches et jours de fête. Il prévoit au moins huit heures de sommeil chaque jour. Sur les heures de la journée, six environ doivent être employées aux soins de propreté, repas, récréations et exercices corporels. Sur les heures réservées au travail, cinq au moins sont consacrées au travail personnel, aux lectures et à la préparation des classes en étude (entretien). Aucun cours n'a lieu le dimanche, ni dans l'après-midi du jeudi. L'emploi de ces journées est réglé par le directeur (ou la directrice pour l'École normale d'institutrices).

Cet emploi du temps s'organise autour de l'enseignement des différentes disciplines et sorties éducatives dites « promenades d'instruction » le jeudi après-midi. Il compte 38 h de cours et d'études par semaine ordinaire.

Les contraintes de l'internat sont intégrées de manière stricte, avec un lever à 5 h en été et 5 h 30 en hiver. Le coucher est à 21 h. Une heure avant les cours, les élèves-maîtres participent aux tâches de nettoyage et de rangement des différents locaux. Cela donne lieu à une répartition entre anciens et nouveaux (les « Lapins » selon la terminologie consacrée).

Le dimanche matin est consacré à l'entretien du directeur. À partir de 11 h, la sortie réglementaire, dont la destination familiale est recommandée, est autorisée jusqu'à 20 h 45.

Les locaux
Classes, réfectoire, cuisine sont conçus à l'image de l'établissement. Ils sont amples et prévus pour durer. La cuisine est ainsi mise en scène dans sa fonction centrale, essentielle à la vie de l'internat.

Les voyages d'été ou « caravanes scolaires »
Dès 1882, les voyages de vacances de fin d'année sont appelés « caravanes scolaires » et récompensent les meilleurs élèves des différentes classes. Ils obéissent à des règles précises que rappelle É. Devinat : « Toujours préparé avec un grand soin, l'itinéraire de ces voyages offre à l'observation des jeunes touristes de multiples occasions pour s'exercer, prendre des notes, des photographies [voir la photo sur la production des photographies] et des croquis relevés en cours de route, qui servent ensuite à l'établissement de comptes-rendus qui fixent le souvenir de chaque voyage. Il faut aussi rendre des comptes au Conseil général de la Seine qui finance les voyages, et veut s'assurer du bon emploi des fonds alloués » [voir le tableau des voyages de 1882 à 1939].

Deux grands pédagogues inspirent ces caravanes scolaires. Jean-Jacques Rousseau et Rodolphe Toepffer, qui estime qu'après avoir travaillé, il faut « voir du monde, prendre l'air, flâner, digérer ce qu'on apprend, observer, lier la science à la vie ».

L'École normale et la Première Guerre mondiale

Patriotisme et pacifisme
Le patriotisme occupe une place importante à l'école depuis sa fondation, avec la création des « bataillons scolaires » en 1880 puis la préparation militaire après 1903. L'enseignement de la morale et le traumatisme de la perte de « l'Alsace-Lorraine » sont très présents et s'opposent au pacifisme également très ancré dans l'enseignement primaire.

La pratique du sport et de la gymnastique en particulier pour la discipline et la maîtrise corporelle qu'elle suppose sont un encouragement à former les jeunes élèves à leur éventuel statut de sous-officiers de réserve.

Les victimes de la guerre
Au total, vingt-neuf promotions sont touchées par les combats de la Grande Guerre, et plus particulièrement celles comprises entre la  et la , entrées à l'EN entre 1903 et 1911, qui comptent 120 morts. Ainsi, la  promotion compte 40 % de tués. Les victimes avaient entre 18 et 25 ans au moment de la mobilisation.

Entre 225 et 238 noms d'anciens normaliens sont recensés sur les plaques commémoratives, ce qui représente une très forte ponction dans les rangs des jeunes instituteurs parisiens.

L'hôpital militaire n°108
Entre 1914 et 1917, l'École normale d'Auteuil accueille des soldats blessés. La Croix-Rouge la destine au traitement de la fièvre typhoïde, avec l'aide de l'Union des femmes de France. L'établissement compte de 125 à 275 lits en juin 1915 et en 1917 plus de 800 soldats y auront été soignés.

Commémoration du 11 novembre

Tout d'abord très officielle et revendiquée dans les années 1920, la cérémonie de l'armistice du 11 novembre 1918 est devenue discrète. Mais on fleurit toujours les plaques de marbre commémoratives des normaliens tombés au combat. La photographie des iris est un hommage de 1989. Outrages du temps, la mémoire et sur les fleurs : les iris imitent l'apparence d'insectes pour favoriser la pollinisation. Juste retour des choses, en se desséchant, ils semblent se métamorphoser en ces mêmes insectes.

Le hall d'entrée consacre les changements de perspective. À l'origine dédié à Marianne, figure allégorique de la République naissante, il devient le lieu des cérémonies du souvenir, en l'honneur des très nombreux normaliens disparus en 1914-1918. Après une période plus neutre depuis la Seconde Guerre mondiale, il accueille depuis 1996 une sculpture en bronze de E. Joulia dénommée Danse la Vie.

Mutations de l'établissement depuis 1991

Depuis la fin des Écoles normales d'instituteurs en France, plusieurs structures leur ont succédé :

 IUFM (Institut universitaire de formation des maîtres) de 1992 à 2013. Direction Jean Janitza puis Claudette Lapersonne.
 ESPE (École supérieure pour le professorat et l'enseignement) de 2013 à 2019. Direction Alain Frugière.
 INSPÉ (Institut national supérieur du professorat et de l'éducation) depuis 2019. Direction Alain Frugière.

Ces évolutions sont la formation à partir de la licence et la mise en place d'une formation générale et commune aux premier et second degrés d'enseignement. L'organisation de l'établissement est restée identique jusqu'à la disparition de l'internat en 1974. Alors, les deux étages qui étaient dévolus uniquement aux dortoirs ont été progressivement transformés en salles de cours. La bibliothèque est aménagée dans les combles restructurés. Les changements se sont accélérés avec le passage à l'IUFM en 1992.

En décembre 2022, une plaque commémorative est inaugurée pour célébrer les 150 ans du site.

Parc et cour intérieure
Ils sont d'un accès très réglementé jusqu'aux années 1950. Les élèves ne peuvent par exemple que tourner et courir (dans un sens unique), sous la surveillance d'un professeur. L'accès actuel est dédié au délassement et au plaisir des lieux. La tempête de décembre 1999 marque le parc comme partout en France. Plusieurs arbres centenaires sont couchés par le vent, sans autres dommages.

Modèles en plâtre, un patrimoine artistique redécouvert
L'enseignement des beaux-arts est fréquemment modifié au cours des  et  siècles. Les directives se succèdent, s'enrichissent mais aussi se contredisent parfois. Les programmes d'enseignement du 21 juin 1865, confirmés par ceux de 1878, établissent l'enseignement par la méthode du dessin linéaire (géométrique), d'ornement et d'imitation (d'après des modèles lithographiés ou des moulages en plâtre). L'art doit être « utile » et l'apprentissage mène aux arts mécaniques. En 1882, l'enseignement du dessin devient obligatoire dans le primaire, avec l'accent mis sur le dessin d'imitation et le dessin géométrique. D'où l'achat des modèles d'imitation en plâtre par l'École normale parisienne naissante.

En 1909, changement radical : méthode intuitive (une certaine liberté est laissée à l'élève), aspect éducatif de l'enseignement du dessin (la sensibilité est revendiquée), observation directe de la nature (le monde au contact de l'enfant). Les modèles précédents, sont donc délaissés comme le montre le document en référence.

La remarquable collection de sculptures en plâtre pour le dessin d'imitation (une dotation de 3500 francs or à l'époque) est progressivement remisée dans les caves. Sa redécouverte par « Mémoires d'Auteuil » et la création d'une exposition en 2010 lui redonnent une nouvelle vie. « Mémoires d'Auteuil » est un groupe de professeurs de l'INSPÉ de Paris qui se consacrent à valoriser les archives et étudier l'histoire de l'ancienne École normale d'instituteurs de la capitale.

La collection botanique, anatomique et animale du docteur Auzoux

Cette collection prestigieuse acquise dans les années 1880 est elle aussi progressivement remisée par les changements pédagogiques au cours des années. Fabriquée dans la technique du « papier mâché », elle ne résiste pas aux manipulations et surtout à son quasi abandon du fait de l'emploi de documents photographiques de grande qualité, puis de l'informatique. L'état misérable de « l'Écorché » est un signal d'alarme. En 2012, « Mémoires d'Auteuil » crée une page Internet avec des photos d'une partie de la collection délaissée. Par la suite, des pièces sont rénovées par l'université Paris-Sorbonne dont dépend l'INSPÉ et présentées au public universitaire.

La photo de R. Gineste, normalien entre 1911 et 1914, met en scène de manière humoristique les collections de sciences naturelles et présente « l'Écorché » à droite et le squelette connu sous le sobriquet « Oscar ».

Notes et références

Bibliographie
 Émile Devinat, Monographie de l'École normale d'instituteurs de la Seine, Exposition universelle de 1900. Archives de l'INSPÉ.
 Association des Anciens et Anciennes Élèves, Fêtes du  anniversaire de la fondation des Écoles normales de la Seine, Éd. L. Lenoir, Paris, 118 rue Oberkampf, 1898.
 Félix Narjoux, Les Écoles normales primaires, p. 295-296.
 A. Doniol, Histoire du  arrondissement de Paris, Hachette, Paris, 1902.
 Mona Ozouf, L'école, l'Église et la République 1871-1914, Armand Colin, 1963.
 J.-F. Condette, Les écoles dans la guerre, Septentrion, 2014.

Liens externes

 Site de l'INSPÉ de Paris
 Site de Mémoire d'Auteuil, consacré à l'histoire de l'établissement

Enseignement à Paris
Enseignement primaire en France
16e arrondissement de Paris
Établissement scolaire fondé en 1872


Felipe Garcia (født 6. november 1990) er en brasiliansk fodboldspiller.

Referencer

Eksterne henvisninger

Fodboldspillere fra Brasilien

Felipe Garcia