Faraonul (titlul original: în )  este un film istoric epic polonez,
realizat în 1966 de regizorul Jerzy Kawalerowicz, după romanul omonim a scriitorului Bolesław Prus, protagoniști fiind actorii Jerzy Zelnik, Wiesława Mazurkiewicz. Barbara Brylska și Ewa Krzyżewska.

Conținut

După moartea faraonului Ramses al XII-lea, care a fost grav bolnav, descendentul acestuia, Ramses al XIII-lea se luptă în mijlocul unei grave crize pentru preluarea puterii în stat. Pe lângă situația financiară mizerabilă, tezaurul statului a fost jefuit, corupția omniprezentă, populația chinuită și sărăcită, iar țara este amenințată de dușmani. Averile țării se află în mâinile castei atotputernice a preoților și a conducătorului lor Herhor, marele preot din Teba și comandant-șef al forțelor armate.

Tânărul faraon Ramses al XIII-lea, în mijlocul acestei situații se luptă pentru supremație,  și încearcă să contracareze puterea clerului, cler care însuși ia inițiativa și urzește o intriga împotriva tânărului faraon.

Distribuție
 Jerzy Zelnik – Faraonul Ramses al XIII-lea / Lykon, sosia
 Wiesława Mazurkiewicz – Nikotris, mama sa
 Barbara Brylska – Kama, preoteasa feniciană
 Krystyna Mikołajewska – Sarah, concubina lui Ramses
 Ewa Krzyżewska – Hebron, soția lui Tutmosis
 Piotr Pawłowski – Herhor, preotul suprem de Ammone
 Leszek Herdegen – Pentuer, profetul egiptean
 Stanisław Milski – Mephres, preotul suprem
 Kazimierz Opaliński – Beroes, profet
 Mieczysław Voit – Samentu, preotul de Seth
 Alfred Łodziński – Hiram, principe di Tiro, conducătorul fenicienilor
 Andrzej Girtler – Ramses al XII-lea
 Emir Buczacki – Tutmosis, prietenul lui Ramses al XIII-lea
 Józef Czerniawski – Mentesufis, preotul de Ammone
 Edward Rączkowski – Dagon, vistiernicul lui Ramses al XII-lea
 Ryszard Ronczewski – Eunane
 Leonard Andrzejewski – Tehenna, comandantul libian
 Jerzy Block – felahul care săpa canalul
 Bohdan Janiszewski – marele preot, gardianul labirintului
 Wiktor Grotowicz – Nitager, generalul egiptean
 Jarosław Skulski – Sargon, ambasadorul Asiriei
 Marian Nosek – Rabsun, negustorul fenician
 Lucyna Winnicka – preoteasa de la mumificarea lui Ramses XIII

Premii și nominalizări
 1966 nominalizare la Festivalul de la Cannes pentru Palme d'Or
 1967 nominalizare la Oscar pentru cel mai bun film străin

Note

Vezi și
 Listă de filme străine până în 1989
 Lista celor mai vizionate filme din Polonia

Legături externe

Filme din 1966
Filme regizate de Jerzy Kawalerowicz
Filme în limba poloneză
Filme istorice poloneze
Filme epice
Ecranizări de romane

Faraonul (film)


Springer Spaniel refers to two different breeds of dogs, both of which are commonly called simply Springer Spaniel:

English Springer Spaniel
Welsh Springer Spaniel

Springer Spaniel


Chamaedorea oreophila es una especie de palmera que se distribuye por México (Veracruz, Oaxaca).

Descripción
Son palmas con tallos solitarios, erectos, que alcanzan un tamaño de 1 - 3 m de altura. Tallo de 0,6-2 cm de diámetro, con anillo prominentes, entrenudos de 1-6 cm de largo. Las hojas: 5-13, erectas, pinnadas; con vaina de 10-25 cm de largo, fibrosas, de color verde claro, densamente manchadas de blanco, con peciolo de 7-35 cm de largo, de color verde claro con manchas blancas granuladas, acanalado ligeramente por encima; raquis de 40-80 cm de largo, verde obtusamente en ángulo y brillante por encima, verde  pálido por debajo; pinnas 14-25 en cada lado del raquis, x 1,5-4 cm, estrechamente lanceoladas. Las inflorescencias son interfoliares, erectas, espigadas, pedunculadas. Frutas  ovoide-elipsoides, de color amarillo verdoso que cambian a naranja y luego a rojo cuando están completamente maduras.

Taxonomía
Chamaedorea oreophila fue descrita por Carl Friedrich Philipp von Martius y publicado en Historia Naturalis Palmarum 3: 309, en el año 1849.
Etimología
Chamaedorea: nombre genérico que deriva de las palabras griegas: χαμαί (chamai), que significa "sobre el terreno", y δωρεά (dorea) , que significa "regalo", en referencia a las frutas fácilmente alcanzadas en la naturaleza por el bajo crecimiento de las plantas.

oreophila, epíteto griego que significa amor a la montaña, en referencia al hábitat.

Sinonimia
 Chamaedorea monostachys Burret
 Nunnezharia oreophila (Mart.) Kuntze
 Stachyophorbe filipes O.F.Cook
 Stachyophorbe montana Liebm. ex Oerst.
 Stachyophorbe oreophila (Mart.) O.F.Cook

Nombre común
 Tepejilote, tepejilote Cimarron - México.

Referencias

Enlaces externos

oreophila
Flora de México
Plantas descritas en 1849
Plantas descritas por Martius

Chamaedorea oreophila


Nikola Nino Vranić , hrv.  fotograf
 J. R. August, hrv. glazbenik

Nikola Vranić


Azurara Portekiz'de Vila do Conde belediyesine bağlı olan, 2,11 km² yüzölçümüne sahip, 2.102 nüfuslu (2001) bir bucaktır (Portekizce: freguesia).

Vila do Conde'nin bucakları

Azurara (Vila do Conde)


Leonardo Villeda (Ciudad de México, 1967) es un tenor mexicano.

Biografía
Leonardo Villeda realizó sus estudios en la Escuela Nacional de Música de la Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México. Ha tomado cursos de especialización de canto en el Conservatorio Verdi de Milán y con maestros del Metropolitan Opera House de Nueva York. Obtuvo la Medalla Mozart en 1997 otorgada por la Embajada de Austria y el Instituto Cultural Domecq. Fue finalista y ganador de los concursos Carlo Morelli, Año Mozart y Enrico Caruso en Milán, Italia. En México, ha participado en diversos estrenos de obras, como el oratorio dramático Brindis por un milenio, de Federico Ibarra. Se ha presentado en diversos teatros y orquestas del país, dirigidas por múltiples directores, así como en escenarios de Estados Unidos y Europa.

Leonardo Villeda ha compartido el escenario con cantantes como Fernando de la Mora, Encarnación Vázquez, Maria Katzarava, Conchita Julián, Ramón Vargas y Rolando Villazón.

A menudo, Leonardo Villeda es solista de orquestas mexicanas, como la Orquesta Filarmónica de la UNAM y la Orquesta Filarmónica de la Ciudad de México.

Es el director artístico de la Sociedad Coral Cantus Hominum.

Repertorio

Su repertorio incluye, entre otros:

El Mesías de Händel

Gran misa en do menor (Mozart)

Novena Sinfonía de Beethoven

El elixir de amor de Gaetano Donizetti

Herbstlich sonnige Tage (Soleados días otoñales) de Friedrich Nietzsche

Stabat Mater de Dvorak

De la poesía folclórica judía de Dmitri Shostakovich

Referencias

Tenores de México
Cantantes líricos de México

Leonardo Villeda


Zuzana Piussi () este o actriță, regizoare de film și producătoare de filme documentare din Slovacia.

Biografie

Filmografie
 Přímý přenos (2014)
 Těžká volba (2016)
 Český Alláh (2017)

Note

Legături externe

 http://www.csfd.cz/   Check: Zuzana Piussi in: the Czech-Slovak Film Database
 http://vimeo.com/22138046 - Director Susan Piussi presents her new film " Chicken Love "
 http://www.probiznis.eu/politikov-filmy-prilis-nezaujimaju/  - Susan Piussi: "Politicians do not care too much about movies "

Vezi și
 Listă de regizori slovaci

Nașteri în 1971
Regizori slovaci
Slovaci în viață

Zuzana Piussi


American Homes 4 Rent (ou AH4R) est une fiducie de placement immobilier basée à Calabasas, en Californie, mais gérée en interne dans le Maryland. American Homes 4 Rent, LP est une société en commandite du Delaware (souvent considéré comme un Paradis fiscal américain) qui chapeaute l'ensemble des activités et détient, directement ou indirectement tous les « actifs » du groupe.

AH4R fait partie de la poignée de très grandes entreprises américaines (du secteur dit SFR industry) ayant fait fortune en achetant à bas prix et en les mettant en location (après rénovation) des dizaines milliers de maisons unifamiliales. Son premier modèle économique a été de profiter de la forte baisse des prix de ces maisons, laisse induite par la crise des subprimes puis d'en tirer des revenus sous forme de loyers. À la différence de la plupart des autres entreprises de cette taille opérant dans le secteur de la location immobilière, American Homes 4 Rent s'est (en 2017) aussi dotée d'une branche de construction de maisons individuelles spécialement destinée à la location (AMH Development).

Au 31 décembre 2019, la société (et ses diverses sous-entités/filiales) possédait  maisons unifamiliales à louer, chiffre passé à  en 2021 (où vivraient, selon l'entreprise  résidents, dans 22 États des États-Unis).
Ses plus grandes concentrations de maisons se trouvent à Atlanta (9,3 % du total des maisons appartenant à l'entreprise), Dallas - Fort Worth (8,4 % des maisons) et Charlotte, Caroline du Nord (7,2 % des maisons).

Selon son site internet (version décembre 2021), l'entreprise progresse dans le domaine les normes environnementales, sociales et de gouvernance et affirme contribuer à  (en y rénovant des maisons pour les mettre en location), ajoutant rester . Elle subit néanmoins des critiques ; depuis ses débuts, elle dispose d'une direction juridique, pilotée par Sara H. Vogt-Lowell, avocate spécialisée dans les transactions immobilières et financières, qui selon le site internet de l'entreprise .

Histoire
En octobre 2012, B. Wayne Hughes (fondateur de Public Storage) crée American Homes 4 Rent qui comptera parmi les 4 plus grandes entreprises publiques à commencer à investir massivement dans les maisons unifamiliales, après l'entrée de The Blackstone Group dans le domaine en 2012. L'entreprise est présidée par David P. Singelyn (Administrateur/fondateur et PDG depuis octobre 2012, et antérieurement cofondateur de AH LLC, avec M. Hughes en juin 2011), détenteur d'un B.S. en comptabilité et d'un B.S. en systèmes d'information informatique (de la California Polytechnic University de Pomona).

L'entreprise est introduite en bourse en 2013.

Le financement initial de l'entreprise comprenait un investissement de 600 millions de dollars, apporté par l'Alaska Permanent Fund.

En août 2013, la société est devenue une société anonyme via un premier appel public à l'épargne.

En mars 2016, la société fusionne avec American Residential Properties, Inc.

En 2020, au 31 décembre, la Société détenait dans 22 États un portefeuille de  (  détenues en vue de la vente, , ou 97,0 % (hors propriétés détenues en vue de la vente) étant occupées.  personnes avaient pour fonction d'acheter, gérer et louer les maisons, et développer, dont via le marketing, l'entreprise.

Marchés-cibles et stratégie
Comme tous ses concurrents, AH4R concentre socio-géographiquement ses achats en privilégiant des types et localisions de maisons qui sont ceux recherchés par des ménages aux revenus  (dans des zones bien desservies en transport et services (scolaires notamment) ; là où les plus-value immobilière à long terme, et la croissance du marché sont les plus probables pour l'entreprise. Les marchés cibles sont aussi , et en ciblant notamment des .
Le groupe recherche des maisons récentes (construites après l'an 2000) ; à trois chambres ou plus ; à deux salles de bain ou plus ; dont le prix de vente estimée de  à un  au maximum et dont les coûts de rénovation estimés ne dépasseront pas 25 % de la valeur estimée. 60,5 % de ses maisons sont .

Grâce à l'importance de son patrimoine d'actifs, l'entreprise pense pouvoir  (…) et optimiser ses bénéfices en ayant centralisé .
En tant que SIIC (« Société d'investissement immobilier cotée » ou REIT pour les anglophones ou FIP pour fiducies de placement immobilier au Québec)), la société paie nettement moins d'impôts qu'une société ordinaire (elle peut déduire les dividendes versés à ses actionnaires dans le calcul de son revenu imposable, et évite de l'impôt fédéral américain sur le revenu au taux normal d'imposition des sociétés (taux qui était de 21 % en 2020). Cependant cette qualification peut être retirée par un changement de législation, décisions de justice ou des directives administratives (avec éventuels effets rétroactifs dans ces trois cas), et le financement du développement de l'entreprise (pour l'acquisition de nouveaux actifs notamment) doit se faire à la fois par emprunt et par actions, car en tant que FPI, le groupe doit distribuer à ses actionnaires une partie importante de ses bénéfices imposables.

Le groupe doit choisir ses maisons et parcelles à construire en calculant ses bénéfices probables à partir de l'âge et de l'état initial de la maison, et en estimant la durée estimée de location, les coûts et délais de rénovation et de gestion, les coûts d'exploitation annuels, les taux présent et futur de location dans la zone de l'investissement, des montants possibles de loyers, des délais entre achat et location de la maison, et selon le risque estimé de . Dans ses critères d'investissement foncier, notamment dans certains États plus exposés au risque climatique, le groupe doit aussi prendre en compte les risques plus élevés de sécheresse, incendies, tremblement de terre, montée de la mer, inondations, cyclones et tornades, qui pourraient encore s'accroître dans le futur, alors que certains assureurs et réassureurs refusent d'assurer les maisons plusieurs fois touchées par ce type de risque (les pertes dues à certains aléas sismiques et climatiques mais aussi aux actes de guerre, émeute et actes de terrorisme peuvent ne pas être assurables ou ne sont généralement pas entièrement assurés ). L'entreprise se considère comme assez riche pour être  tout en expliquant à ses actionnaires que  sur les finances et les capacités d'exploitation de l'entreprise ainsi que sur sa capacité à effectuer des distributions.

Mode d'acquisition
Les maisons sont recherchées et achetées via les canaux (Agences immobilières, annonces de vente ou saisies…) ou achats de maisons  (dans ce dernier cas, une partie des maisons peuvent ne pas convenir aux critères de l'entreprise ; elles sont alors vendues. Le groupe construit aussi ses propres maisons .

Modalités de rénovation
La plupart des maisons achetées ont besoin d'être rénovées avant leur mise en location. Ceci est fait par des entrepreneurs approuvés, avec lesquels l'entreprise a  sur chacun de ses marchés pour les produits courants du travail de rénovation (ex : peinture, stores, revêtements de sol…). Selon le bilan 2020 de l'entreprise : .

Modalités de location et gestion
La gestion de toutes les maisons à louer (commercialisation et location, sélection des locataires potentiels, fixation des tarifs de loyers et autres frais, des propriétés et de la perception et du traitement des loyers) est faite en interne, sans aucun gestionnaire-tiers. Les candidats à la location font l'objet d'une .

Les tarifs de location sont fixés .

Les loyers sont payés par voie électronique, via un transfert automatisé de la chambre de compensation ou un prélèvement automatique sur le compte courant du locataire. Si le loyer n'est pas payé avant la date limite (généralement dans les cinq jours civils suivant la date d'échéance), des frais de retard sont appliqués au locataire (dans les juridictions où c'est autorisé), propriétaire peut en dernier recours être expulsé.

Répartition des rôles au sein du groupe entre la Société et la société en exploitation
Dans le groupe, c'est AH4R qui est le commandité, qui  possédait environ 85,9 % des participations dans la société en commandite ; les 14,1 % restants appartenaient à des commanditaires.
Comme unique commandité de la société d'exploitation, AH4R contrôle seul la gestion quotidienne de la société d'exploitation (AH4R dont l'équipe de direction est la même que celle qui dirige le partenariat d'exploitation. AH4R a comme fonction première d'agir en tant que commandité de la société d'exploitation Son seul actif important est sa participation dans la société d'exploitation. Autrement dit, AH4R n'a pas d'activité commerciale en soi, hormis en agissant comme seul commandité de la société en exploitation, en émettant périodiquement des actions et en garantissant certaines dettes de la société en exploitation. AH4R n'est en soi engagée au titre d'aucune dette, mais garantit une partie de la dette de la société d'exploitation.

25,7 millions de dollars de « certificats de titrisation adossés à des actifs » (les actifs étant ici les maisons en location) ont été émis par la société en exploitation et achetés par AH4R. Ces certificats de titrisation sont comptabilisés comme adossés à des actifs à recevoir par la Société, et comme un montant dû par les sociétés affiliées par la société en exploitation.

Concurrents
AH4R fait, dans ses zones géographiques, et depuis 201é, face à la concurrence de quelques autres groupes similaires, tant pour les maisons recherchées que pour les locataires (pour ces derniers d'autres bailleurs de propriétés unifamiliales, d'immeubles d'appartements et d'unités en copropriété existent).
De manière générale, le marché des maisons neuves unifamiliales, et des appartements à louer (individus ou en copropriété) fait aussi concurrence à AH4R. Là où, et quand des subventions gouvernementales ou locales ou d'autres incitations soutiennent ou rendent moins cher l'accession à la propriété, AH4R peut aussi perdre des clients (locataires) potentiels.

Ses grands concurrents sont notamment :
 Pretium Partners (et ses filiales)
 Progress Residential (et ses filiales)

Notes et références

Voir aussi

Articles connexes

Liens externes

Société cotée au NYSE
Entreprise ayant son siège dans le comté de Los Angeles
Entreprise fondée en 2012
Immobilier

American Homes 4 Rent


Samu Pecz (geboren 1. März 1854 in Pest, Kaisertum Österreich; gestorben 1. September 1922 in Budapest) war ein ungarischer Architekt des Historismus.

Leben
Samu Pecz (eigentlich Samuel Petz) begann nach dem Abitur in Budapest ein Architekturstudium an der Joseph-Universität für Technik und Wirtschaftswissenschaften. 1873 wechselte er für zwei Jahre an die Technische Hochschule Stuttgart; darauf studierte er zwei Jahre bei T. Hansen an der Akademie der bildenden Künste Wien. Von 1878 bis 1882 arbeitete er im Büro des Budapester Architekten Frigyes Schulek und öffnete danach sein eigenes Büro.

Neben seiner Arbeit an zahlreichen Wettbewerben und ersten Projekten erhielt er 1887 eine Gast- und 1888 eine ordentliche Professur an der Architekturfakultät der Technischen Hochschule Budapest. Ab Anfang der 1890er realisierte er die meisten seiner im Stil der Neoromanik bzw. Neorenaissance entworfenen Bauten, die mit ihren bunten Kacheln bzw. Ziegeln das Budapester Stadtbild nachhaltig prägten. Das bekannteste seiner Bauten ist die 1897 eröffnete Große Markthalle im IX. Budapester Bezirk Ferencváros – noch heute die größte Markthalle Europas. 1899 gewann er den 1. Preis im Architektenwettbewerb für das Museum der Bildenden Künste; aufgrund der zu teuren Planung bekam er jedoch nicht den Zuschlag für dessen Bauausführung. 1902 wird er Vorsitzender der Ungarischen Architektenkammer (MÉK). Pecz starb 1922 im Alter von 68 Jahren.

Bauten (Auswahl)

 1888–1890: Unitarische Kirche, Budapest
 1890–1893: Szeky-Palast, Cluj-Napoca (Klausenburg)
 1892–1896: Reformierte Kirche am Szilágyi Dezső-Platz (Szilágyi Dezső tér), Budapest
 1894–1896: Große Markthalle, Budapest
 1901–1902: Marineakademie, Fiume
 1903–1904: Lutherischen Kirche, Budapest
 1913–1920: Ungarisches Staatsarchiv, Budapest

Literatur
 Ákos Moravánszky: Die Architektur der Jahrhundertwende in Ungarn und ihre Beziehungen zu der Wiener Architektur der Zeit, VWGÖ, Wien, 1983

Weblinks

Einzelnachweise

Architekt (Ungarn)
Architekt des Historismus
Hochschullehrer (TU Budapest)
Architekt (Budapest)
Person (Transleithanien)
Ungar
Geboren 1854
Gestorben 1922
Mann

Samu Pecz


María Vallet-Regí (Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, 19 de abril de 1947) es una investigadora y catedrática de Química Inorgánica y directora del departamento de Química Inorgánica y Bioinorgánica de la Facultad de Farmacia de la Universidad Complutense de Madrid.

Biografía

En 1974 obtuvo el doctorado en ciencias químicas en la Universidad Complutense de Madrid. En 1990 fue nombrada catedrática de Química Inorgánica y directora del Departamento de Química Inorgánica y Bioinorgánica de la Facultad de Farmacia de dicha universidad.

En 1994 fue nombrada académica de número de la Real Academia de Ingeniería y en 2011 de la Real Academia Nacional de Farmacia.

Investigación
Realizó una extensa labor investigadora, marcada por un enfoque multidisciplinar, plasmada en más de 550 publicaciones científicas recogidas en el ISI Web of Knowledge, la mayoría en las áreas de química y ciencia de materiales. Según el ISI, es el español del área de Ciencia de Materiales más citado en las dos últimas décadas.

Su actividad investigadora se centra en las biocerámicas para la sustitución y reparación de tejidos duros; vidrios bioactivos; compuestos de cerámica y polímero para liberación controlada de fármacos; híbridos bioactivos de materiales orgánico e inorgánico; materiales mesoporosos para liberación controlada de fármacos e ingeniería tisular; síntesis y aplicaciones biomédicas de nanopartículas; preparación de láminas delgadas por métodos químicos; no estequiometría en óxidos con estructura tipo perovskita y sus derivados; materiales magnéticos con estructuras tipo espinela y hexaferrita; superconductores de alta temperatura; sensores de gases basados en óxidos semiconductores, y perovskitas con magnetorresistencia colosal.

Formó parte del Comité Rector del Programa 'Science for Peace' de la OTAN (1999-2005), el Comité Nacional de la CNEAI (2004-2008), y ha sido vicepresidenta de la Real Sociedad Española de Química (1999-2007).

Premios y reconocimientos
 Premio Franco-Español 2000 de la Société Française de Chimie
 Premio RSEQ 2008 en Química Inorgánica
 Premio Nacional de Investigación 2008 Leonardo Torres Quevedo en Ingenierías
 Premio FEIQUE de Investigación 2011
 Medalla de Oro de la RSEQ 2011
 FBSE Fellow of Biomaterials Science and Engineering, otorgado por la International Union of Societies, Biomaterials Science & Engineering
 Doctora Honoris causa por la Universidad del País Vasco.
 Premio de Investigación 'Miguel Catalán' 2013
 Doctora Honoris Causa por la Universidad Jaume I, Castellón, España, 2015.
 Premio a la carrera distinguida en Química 2016 de la Fundación Lilly, 2016.
 Premio Rey Jaime I de Investigación Básica, 2018.
 En 2018 fue incluida en la La Tabla Periódica de las Científicas por ser el 2019 el Año Internacional de la Tabla Periódica de los Elementos Químicos, con motivo del 150.º aniversario de la publicación de Mendeléyev.
 En 2019 recibió el Premio Influentials a la trayectoria profesional, otorgado por El Confidencial y Herbert Smith Freehills.
 En 2019 fue galardonada con La Medalla al Mérito en la Investigación y en la Educación Universitaria junto a Emilio Lledó y Dolores Cabezudo, la entrega la hizo el ministro Pedro Duque.

Referencias

Enlaces externos
 "Salud con Biomedicina"- entrevistas a mujeres científicas de excelencia. Emitido en RadioVoz para el proyecto Científicas en Biomedicina: una carrera de fondo, INIBIC, financiado por la FECYT (2016)
 "Cápsulas de SoN", cuento radiofónico sobre mujeres científicas con aportaciones en la historia de la biomedicina. Escrito y narrado por Estíbaliz Espinosa. Emitido en RadioVoz para el proyecto Biomedicina con y para la Sociedad, CIBER-BBN, financiado por la FECYT (2015)

Científicos de Canarias
Químicas de España
Químicos de España del siglo XXI
Catedráticos de la Universidad Complutense de Madrid
Premios Nacionales de Investigación de España
Académicos de la Real Academia Nacional de Farmacia
Académicos de la Real Academia de Ingeniería de España
Selección Española de la Ciencia
Mujeres farmacéuticas de España
Nacidos en Las Palmas de Gran Canaria
Académicos de la Real Sociedad Española de Química
Doctores honoris causa por la Universidad del País Vasco

María Vallet Regí


Agudath Israel can refer to any of several related organizations, including:

World Agudath Israel, an international movement
Agudath Israel of America, an American organization
Agudat Yisrael, an Israeli political party

Agudath Israel


The Constitution of 3 May 1791, titled the Governance Act, was a constitution adopted by the Great Sejm ("Four-Year Sejm", meeting in 1788–1792) for the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, a dual monarchy comprising the Crown of the Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. The Constitution was designed to correct the Commonwealth's political flaws. It had been preceded by a period of agitation for—and gradual introduction of—reforms, beginning with the Convocation Sejm of 1764 and the ensuing election that year of Stanisław August Poniatowski, the Commonwealth's last king. It's the second constitution in history, after that of the United States.

The Constitution sought to implement a more effective constitutional monarchy, introduced political equality between townspeople and nobility, and placed the peasants under the government's protection, mitigating the worst abuses of serfdom. It banned pernicious parliamentary institutions such as the liberum veto, which had put the Sejm at the mercy of any single deputy, who could veto and thus undo all the legislation adopted by that Sejm. The Commonwealth's neighbours reacted with hostility to the adoption of the Constitution. King Frederick William II broke Prussia's alliance with the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. He joined with Catherine the Great's Imperial Russia and the Targowica Confederation of anti-reform Polish magnates to defeat the Commonwealth in the Polish–Russian War of 1792.

The 1791 Constitution was in force for less than 19 months. It was declared null and void by the Grodno Sejm that met in 1793, though the Sejm's legal power to do so was questionable. The Second and Third Partitions of Poland (1793, 1795) ultimately ended Poland's sovereign existence until the close of World War I in 1918. Over those 123 years, the 1791 Constitution helped keep alive Polish aspirations for the eventual restoration of the country's sovereignty. In the words of two of its principal authors, Ignacy Potocki and Hugo Kołłątaj, the 1791 Constitution was "the last will and testament of the expiring Homeland."

The Constitution of 3 May 1791 combined a monarchic republic with a clear division of executive, legislative, and judicial powers. It is generally considered Europe's first and the world's second modern written national constitution, after the United States Constitution that had come into force in 1789.

Background

Polish constitutionalism can be traced to the 13th century, when government by consensus and representation was already well established in the young Polish state. The emergence of parliamentary bodies, the sejm and sejmiki, followed in the first half of the 16th century. By the 17th century, Poland's legal and political tradition was characterized as parliamentary institutions and a system of checks and balances on state power, which was itself limited by decentralization. The idea of a contractual state embodied in texts like the Henrician Articles and the Pacta conventa; the concept of individual liberties; and the notion that the monarch owed duties to his subjects. This system, which primarily benefited the Polish nobility (szlachta), came to be known as the "nobles' democracy."

End of Golden Age
The 1791 Constitution was a response to the increasingly perilous situation in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, which had been a major European power only a century earlier and was still the largest state on the continent. In the 1590s, at the peak of the nobles' democracy, King Sigismund III Vasa's court preacherthe Jesuit Piotr Skargahad condemned the weaknesses of the Commonwealth. In the same period, writers and philosophers such as Andrzej Frycz Modrzewski and Wawrzyniec Grzymała Goślicki, and the egzekucja praw (Execution-of-the-Laws) reform movement led by Jan Zamoyski had advocated political reforms. In 1656, in what came to be known as the Lwów Oath, Sigismund's son King John II Casimir Vasa made a solemn vow on behalf of the entire Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth that he would free the Polish peasants "from the unjust burdens and oppression." As he was struggling with the Sejm, in 1661 John Casimirwhose reign saw highly destructive wars and obstructionism by the nobilitycorrectly predicted that the Commonwealth was in danger of a partition by Russia, Brandenburg and Austria.

As the Sejm failed to implement sufficient reforms, the state machinery became increasingly dysfunctional. A significant cause of the Commonwealth's downfall was the liberum veto ("free veto"), which, since 1652, had allowed any Sejm deputy to nullify all the legislation enacted by that Sejm. As a result, deputies bribed by magnates or foreign powersprimarily from the Russian Empire, the Kingdom of Prussia and France, which had an ongoing revolutionor deputies who believed they were living in an unprecedented "Golden Age" paralysed the Commonwealth's government for over a century. The threat of the liberum veto could only be overridden by the establishment of a "confederated sejm", which was immune to the liberum veto. Declaring that a sejm either constituted a "confederation" or belonged to one was a contrivance prominently used by foreign interests in the 18th century to force a legislative outcome.

By the early 18th century, the magnates of Poland and Lithuania controlled the state, ensuring that no reforms that might weaken their privileged status (the "Golden Freedoms") would be enacted. The ineffective monarchs who were elected to the Commonwealth throne in the early 18th century, Augustus II the Strong and Augustus III of Poland of the House of Wettin, did not improve matters. The Wettins, used to the absolute rule practiced in their native Saxony, tried to govern through intimidation and the use of force, which led to a series of conflicts between their supporters and opponentsincluding another pretender to the Polish throne, King Stanisław Leszczyński. Those conflicts often took the form of confederationslegal rebellions against the king permitted under the Golden Freedomsincluding the Warsaw Confederation (1704), Sandomierz Confederation, Tarnogród Confederation, Dzików Confederation and the War of the Polish Succession. Only 8 out of 18 Sejm sessions during the reign of Augustus II (1694–1733) passed legislation. For 30 years during the reign of Augustus III, only one session was able to pass legislation. The government was near collapse, giving rise to the term "Polish anarchy", and the country was managed by provincial assemblies and magnates.

Other reform attempts in the Wettin era were led by individuals such as Stanisław Dunin-Karwicki, Stanisław A. Szczuka, Kazimierz Karwowski and Michał Józef Massalski; these mostly proved to be futile.

Early reforms

The Enlightenment greatly affected the thinking of influential Commonwealth circles during the reign (1764–95) of its last king, Stanisław II August Poniatowski. The King was an "enlightened" Polish magnate who had been a deputy to several Sejms between 1750 and 1764 and had a deeper understanding of Polish politics than previous monarchs. The Convocation Sejm of 1764, which elected Poniatowski to the throne, was controlled by the reformist Czartoryski Familia and was backed by Russian military forces invited by the Czartoryskis. In exchange for passing decrees favorable to them, the Russians and Prussians let the confederated Convocation Sejm enact a number of reforms, including the weakening of the liberum veto and its no longer applying to treasury and economic matters. A more comprehensive reform package was presented by Andrzej Zamoyski, but opposition from Prussia, Russia, and the Polish nobility thwarted this ambitious program, which had proposed deciding all motions by majority vote.

In part because his election had been imposed by Empress Catherine the Great, Poniatowski's political position was weak from the start. He proceeded with cautious reforms, such as the establishment of fiscal and military ministries and the introduction of a national customs tariff, which was soon abandoned due to opposition from Prussia's Frederick the Great. These measures had already been authorized by the Convocation Sejm; more legislative and executive improvements inspired by the Familia or the King were implemented during and after the 1764 Sejm.

The Commonwealth's magnates viewed reform with suspicion and neighboring powers, content with the deterioration of the Commonwealth, abhorred the thought of a resurgent and democratic power on their borders. With the Commonwealth Army reduced to around 16,000, it was easy for its neighbors to intervene directlythe Imperial Russian Army numbered 300,000 and the Prussian Army and Imperial Austrian Army had 200,000 each.

Russia's Empress Catherine and Prussia's King Frederick II provoked a conflict between members of the Sejm and the King over civil rights for religious minorities, such as Protestants and Greek Orthodox whose positions, which were guaranteed equal with the Catholic majority by the Warsaw Confederation of 1573, had worsened considerably. Catherine and Frederick declared their support for the szlachta and their "liberties", and by October 1767 Russian troops had assembled outside Warsaw in support of the conservative Radom Confederation. The King and his adherents had little choice but to acquiesce to Russian demands. During the Repnin Sejm (named after the unofficially presiding Russian ambassador Nicholas Repnin) the King accepted the five "eternal and invariable principles" which Catherine had vowed to "protect for all time to come in the name of Poland's liberties": the election of kings, the right of liberum veto, the right to renounce allegiance to and raise rebellion against the king (rokosz), the szlachta exclusive right to hold office and land, and landowners' power over their peasants. Thus all the privileges ("Golden Freedoms") of the nobility that had made the Commonwealth ungovernable were guaranteed as unalterable in the Cardinal Laws. The Cardinal Laws and the rights of "religious dissenters" passed by the Repnin Sejm were personally guaranteed by Empress Catherine. By these acts of legislation, for the first time, Russia formally intervened in the Commonwealth's constitutional affairs.

During the 1768 Sejm, Repnin showed his disregard for local resistance by arranging the abduction and imprisonment of Kajetan Sołtyk, Józef A. Załuski, Wacław Rzewuski and Seweryn Rzewuski, all vocal opponents of foreign domination and the recently proclaimed policies. The Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth had legally and practically become a protectorate of the Russian Empire. Nonetheless, several minor beneficial reforms were adopted, political rights of the religious minorities were restored and the need for more reforms was becoming increasingly recognized.

King Stanisław August's acquiescence to the Russian intervention encountered some opposition. On 29 February 1768, several magnatesincluding Józef Pułaski and his young son Kazimierz Pułaski (Casimir Pulaski)vowing to oppose Russian influence, declared Stanisław August a lackey of Russia and Catherine, and formed a confederation at the town of Bar. The Bar Confederation focused on limiting the influence of foreigners in Commonwealth affairs, and being pro-Catholic was generally opposed to religious tolerance. It began a civil war to overthrow the King, but its irregular forces were overwhelmed by Russian intervention in 1772.

The defeat of the Bar Confederation set the scene for the partition treaty of 5 August 1772, which was signed at Saint Petersburg by Russia, Prussia, and Austria. The treaty divested the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth of about a third of its territory and populationover  and 4 million people. The three powers justified their annexation, citing anarchy in the Commonwealth and its refusal to cooperate with its neighbors' efforts to restore order. King Stanisław August yielded and on 19 April 1773, he called the Sejm into session. Only 102 of about 200 deputies attended what became known as the Partition Sejm. The rest were aware of the King's decision and refused. Despite protests from the deputy Tadeusz Rejtan and others, the treatylater known as the First Partition of Polandwas ratified.

The first of the three successive 18th-century partitions of Commonwealth territory that would eventually remove Poland's sovereignty shocked the Commonwealth's inhabitants and made it clear to progressive minds that the Commonwealth must either reform or perish. In the thirty years before the Constitution, there was a rising interest among progressive thinkers in constitutional reform. Before the First Partition, a Polish noble, Michał Wielhorski was sent to France by the Bar Confederation to ask the philosophes Gabriel Bonnot de Mably and Jean-Jacques Rousseau for their suggestions on a new constitution for a reformed Poland. Mably submitted his recommendations Du gouvernement et des lois en Pologne (The Government and Laws of Poland) in 1770–71, whereas Rousseau finished his Considerations on the Government of Poland in 1772 when the First Partition was already underway. Works advocating the need for reform and presenting specific solutions were published in the Commonwealth by Polish–Lithuanian thinkers: On an Effective Way of Councils or on the Conduct of Ordinary Sejms (1761–63), by Stanisław Konarski, founder of the Collegium Nobilium; Political Thoughts on Civil Liberties (1775) and Patriotic Letters (1778–78), by Józef Wybicki, author of the lyrics of the Polish National Anthem; (Anonymous Letters to Stanisław Małachowski (1788–89) and The Political Law of the Polish Nation (1790), by Hugo Kołłątaj, head of the Kołłątaj's Forge party; and Remarks on the Life of Jan Zamoyski (1787), by Stanisław Staszic. Ignacy Krasicki's satires of the Great Sejm era were also seen as crucial to giving the constitution moral and political support.

A new wave of reforms supported by progressive magnates such as the Czartoryski family and King Stanisław August were introduced at the Partition Sejm. The most important included the 1773 establishment of the Commission of National Education (Komisja Edukacji Narodowej)the first ministry of education in the world. New schools were opened, uniform textbooks were printed, teachers received better education and poor students were provided with scholarships. The Commonwealth's military was to be modernized and funding to create a larger standing army was agreed. Economic and commercial reformsincluding some intended to cover the increased military budget previously shunned as unimportant by the szlachtawere introduced. A new executive assembly, the 36-strong Permanent Council comprising five ministries with limited legislative powers, was established, giving the Commonwealth a governing body in constant session between Sejms and therefore immune to their liberum veto disruptions.

In 1776, the Sejm commissioned former chancellor Andrzej Zamoyski to draft a new legal code. By 1780, he and his collaborators had produced the Zamoyski Code (Zbiór praw sądowych). It would have strengthened royal power, made all officials answerable to the Sejm, placed the clergy and their finances under state supervision, and deprived landless szlachta of many of their legal immunities. The Code would also have improved the situation of non-noblestownspeople and peasants. Zamoyski's progressive legal code, containing elements of constitutional reform, met with opposition from native conservative szlachta and foreign powers; the 1780 Sejm did not adopt it.

Constitution's adoption

An opportunity for reform occurred during the "Great Sejm"also called the "Four-Year Sejm"of 1788–92, which began on 6 October 1788 with 181 deputies. In accordance with the Constitution's preamble, from 1790 it met "in dual number" when 171 newly elected deputies joined the earlier-established Sejm. On its second day, the body became a confederated sejm to avoid the liberum veto. Concurrent world events appeared to have been opportune for the reformers. Russia and Austria were at war with the Ottoman Empire, and the Russians found themselves simultaneously fighting in the Russo-Swedish War, 1788–1790. A new alliance between the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth and Prussia seemed to provide security against Russian intervention, and King Stanisław August drew closer to leaders of the reform-minded Patriotic Party.

The Sejm passed few major reforms in its first two years, but the subsequent two years brought more substantial changes. The Sejm adopted the 1791 Free Royal Cities Act, which was formally incorporated into the final constitution. This act addressed a number of matters related to the cities, crucially expanding burghers' (i.e., townspeople's) rights, including electoral rights. While the Sejm comprised representatives of the nobility and clergy, the reformers were supported by the burghers, who in late 1789 organized in Warsaw a "Black Procession" demanding full political enfranchisement of the bourgeoisie. On 18 April 1791 the Sejmfearing that the burghers' protests, if ignored, could turn violent, as they had in France not long beforeadopted the Free Royal Cities Act.

The new constitution was drafted by the King, with contributions from Ignacy Potocki, Hugo Kołłątaj and others. The King is credited with writing the general provisions and Kołłątaj with giving the document its final shape. Stanisław August wanted the Commonwealth to become a constitutional monarchy similar to that of Great Britain, with a strong central government based on a strong monarch. Potocki wanted the Sejm to be the strongest branch of government. Kołłątaj wanted a "gentle" revolution, carried out without violence, to enfranchise other social classes in addition to the nobility.

The proposed reforms were opposed by the conservatives, including the Hetmans' Party. Threatened with violence by their opponents, the advocates of the draft began the debate on the Government Act two days early, while many opposing deputies were away on Easter recess. The debate and subsequent adoption of the Government Act was executed as a quasi-coup d'état. No recall notices were sent to known opponents of reform, while many pro-reform deputies secretly returned early. The royal guard under the command of the King's nephew Prince Józef Poniatowski were positioned about the Royal Castle, where the Sejm was gathered, to prevent opponents from disrupting the proceedings. On 3 May, the Sejm convened with only 182 members, about half its "dual" number. The bill was read and overwhelmingly adopted, to the enthusiasm of the crowds outside. A protest was submitted the next day by a small group of deputies, but on 5 May the matter was officially concluded and protests were invalidated by the Constitutional Deputation of the Sejm. It was the first time in the 18th century that a constitutional act had been passed in the Commonwealth without the involvement of foreign powers.

Soon after, the Friends of the Constitution (Zgromadzenie Przyjaciół Konstytucji Rządowej)which included many participants in the Great Sejmwas organised to defend the reforms already enacted and to promote further ones. It is now regarded as the first modern-style political party in Poland's history. The response to the new constitution was less enthusiastic in the provinces, where the Hetmans' Party enjoyed considerable influence. General support among the middle nobility was crucial and still very substantial; most of the provincial sejmiks deliberating in 1791 and early 1792 supported the constitution.

Features

The Constitution of 3 May 1791 reflected Enlightenment influences, including Rousseau's concept of the social contract and Montesquieu's advocacy of a balance of powers among three branches of government—legislative, executive, and judicial—and of a bicameral legislature. As stated in Article V of the 3 May 1791 Constitution, the government was to ensure that "the integrity of the states, civil liberty, and social order shall always remain in equilibrium." Jacek Jędruch writes that the liberality of the 3 May 1791 Constitution's provisions "fell somewhere below [that of] the French Constitution of 1791, above [that of the Canadas'] Constitutional Act of 1791, and left the [1794] General State Laws for the Prussian States far behind, but did not equal [that of] the American Constitution [that went into force in 1789]." King Stanisław August Poniatowski was reported to have said that the 3 May 1791 Constitution was "founded principally on those of England and the United States of America, but avoiding the faults and errors of both, and adapted as much as possible to the local and particular circumstances of the country." However, Polish historians report the Constitution as having been described as "based mainly on the United States Constitution, but minus the latter's flaws, and adapted to Poland's circumstances."  George Sanford writes that the Constitution of 3 May 1791 provided "a constitutional monarchy close to the English model of the time."

Article I acknowledged the Roman Catholic faith as the "dominant religion" but guaranteed tolerance and freedom to all religions. It was less progressive than the 16th-century Warsaw Confederation, and placed Poland clearly within the Catholic sphere of influence. Article II confirmed many old privileges of the nobility, stressing that all nobles were equal and should enjoy personal security and the right to property. Article III stipulated that the earlier Free Royal Cities Act (Miasta Nasze Królewskie Wolne w Państwach Rzeczypospolitej), of 18 (or 21) April 1791, was integral to the Constitution. Personal securityneminem captivabimus, the Polish version of habeas corpuswas extended to townspeople (including Jews). Townspeople also gained the right to acquire landed property and became eligible for military officers' commissions and public offices, such as reserved seats in the Sejm and seats in the executive commissions of the Treasury, Police, and Judiciary. Membership in the nobility (szlachta) was also made easier for burghers to acquire.

With half a million burghers in the Commonwealth now substantially enfranchised, political power became more equally distributed. Little power was given to the less politically conscious or active classes, such as Jews and peasants. Article IV placed the Commonwealth's peasantry under the protection of the national lawa first step toward enfranchising the country's largest and most oppressed social class. Their low status compared to other classes was not eliminated, as the constitution did not abolish serfdom. The Second Partition and Kościuszko's Proclamation of Połaniec in 1794 would later begin to abolish serfdom.

Article V stated that "all power in civil society [should be] derived from the will of the people." The constitution referred to the country's "citizens," which for the first time included townspeople and peasants. The document's preamble and 11 individual articles introduced the principle of popular sovereignty applied to the nobility and townspeople, and the separation of powers into legislative (a bicameral Sejm), executive ("the King and the Guardians," the Guardians of the Laws being the newly established top governmental entity) and judicial branches. It advanced the democratization of the polity by limiting the excessive legal immunities and political prerogatives of landless nobility.

Legislative power, as defined in Article VI, rested with the bicameral parliament (an elected Sejm and an appointed Senate) and the king. The Sejm met every two years, and when required by national emergency. Its lower chamberthe Chamber of Deputies (Izba Poselska)had 204 deputies (2 from each powiat, 68 each from the provinces of Greater Poland, Lesser Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania) and 21 plenipotentiaries from royal cities (7 from each province). The royal chancellery was to inform the sejmiks of the legislation it intended to propose in advance, so deputies could prepare for the discussions. The Sejm's upper chamberthe Chamber of Senators (Izba Senacka)had between 130 and 132 (sources vary) senators (voivodes, castellans, and bishops, as well as governments ministers without the right to vote). The king presided over the Senate and had one vote, which could be used to break ties. The king and all deputies had legislative initiative, and most mattersknown as general laws, and divided into constitutional, civil, criminal, and those for the institution of perpetual taxesrequired a simple majority, first from the lower chamber, then the upper. Specialized resolutions, including treaties of alliance, declarations of war and peace, ennoblements and increases in national debt, needed a majority of both chambers voting jointly. The Senate had a suspensive veto over laws that the Sejm passed, valid until the next Sejm session, when it could be overruled.

Article VI recognized the Prawo o sejmikach, the act on regional assemblies (sejmiks) passed on 24 March 1791. By reducing the enfranchisement of the noble classes, this law introduced major changes to the electoral ordinance. Previously, all nobles had been eligible to vote in sejmiks, which de facto meant that many of the poorest, landless noblesknown as "clients" or "clientele" of local magnatesvoted as the magnates bade them. Now right to vote was tied to a property qualification: one had to own or lease land and pay taxes, or be closely related to somebody who did, to vote. 300,000 of 700,000 previously eligible nobles were thus disfranchised. Voting rights were restored to landowners in military service. They had lost these rights in 1775. Voting was limited to men aged at least 18. The eligible voters elected deputies to local powiats, or county sejmiks, which elected deputies to the General Sejm.

Finally, Article VI explicitly abolished several institutional sources of government weakness and national anarchy, including the liberum veto, confederations and confederated sejms, and the excessive influence of sejmiks stemming from the previously binding nature of their instructions to their Sejm deputies. The confederations were declared "contrary to the spirit of this constitution, subversive of government and destructive of society." Thus the new constitution strengthened the powers of the Sejm, moving the country towards a constitutional monarchy.

Executive power, according to Article V and Article VII, was in the hands of "the King in his council," a cabinet of ministers that was called the Guardians of the Laws (or Guard of the Laws, Straż Praw). The ministries could not create or interpret laws, and all acts of the foreign ministry were provisional and subject to Sejm approval. The King presided over his council, which comprised the Roman Catholic Primate of Polandwho was also president of the Education Commissionand five ministers appointed by the King: a minister of police, a minister of the seal (internal affairs), a minister of foreign affairs, a minister belli (of war), and a minister of treasury. Council members also includedwithout a votethe Crown Prince, the Marshal of the Sejm, and two secretaries. This royal council descended from similar councils that had functioned since King Henry's Articles (1573), and from the recent Permanent Council. Acts of the King required the countersignature of the pertinent minister. A minister was required to countersign a law, unless all other ministers endorsed his objection to that law. In that case, the King could withdraw the law or press the issue by presenting it to parliament. The stipulation that the King, "doing nothing of himself, ... shall be answerable for nothing to the nation," parallels the British constitutional principle that "The King can do no wrong." (In both countries, the pertinent minister was responsible for the King's acts.) The ministers were responsible to the Sejm, which could dismiss them by a two-thirds vote of no confidence of both houses. Ministers could also be held accountable by the Sejm Court, where a simple-majority vote sufficed to impeach a minister. The King was the nation's commander-in-chief; there is no mention of hetmans (the previous highest-ranking military commanders). The King had the right to grant pardons, except in cases of treason. The royal council's decisions were implemented by commissions, whose members were elected by the Sejm.

The Constitution changed the government from an elective to a hereditary monarchy. This provision was intended to reduce the destructive influence of foreign powers at each election. The royal dynasty was elective, and if one were to cease, a new family would be chosen by the nation. The king reigned by the "grace of God and the will of the Nation," and "all authority derives from the will of the Nation." The institution of pacta conventa was preserved. On Stanisław August's death the Polish throne would become hereditary and pass to Frederick Augustus I of Saxony of the House of Wettin, which had provided the two kings before Stanisław August. This provision was contingent upon Frederic Augustus' consent. He declined when Adam Czartoryski offered him the throne.

Discussed in Article VIII, the judiciary was separated from the two other branches of the government, and was to be served by elective judges. Courts of first instance existed in each voivodeship and were in constant session, with judges elected by the regional sejmik assemblies. Appellate tribunals were established for the provinces, based on the reformed Crown Tribunal and Lithuanian Tribunal. The Sejm elected from its deputies the judges for the Sejm Court, a precursor to the modern State Tribunal of Poland. Referendary courts were established in each province to hear the cases of the peasantry. Municipal courts, described in the law on towns, complemented this system.

Article IX covered procedures for regency, which should be taken up jointly by the council of the Guardians, headed by the Queen, or in her absence by the Primate. Article X stressed the importance of education of royal children and tasked the Commission of National Education with this responsibility. The last article of the constitution, Article XI, concerned the national standing army. Said army was defined as a "defensive force" dedicated "solely to the nation's defense." The army was to be increased in strength to 100,000 men.

To further enhance the Commonwealth's integration and security, the Constitution abolished the erstwhile union of Poland and Lithuania in favor of a unitary state. Its full establishment, supported by Stanisław August and Kołlątaj, was opposed by many Lithuanian deputies. As a compromise, the Grand Duchy of Lithuania received numerous privileges guaranteeing its continued existence. Related acts included the Declaration of the Assembled Estates (Deklaracja Stanów Zgromadzonych) of 5 May 1791, confirming the Government Act adopted two days earlier, and the Mutual Pledge of the Two Nations (Zaręczenie Wzajemne Obojga Narodów), i.e., of the Crown of the Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, of 22 October 1791, affirming the unity and indivisibility of Poland and Lithuania within a single state and their equal representation in state-governing bodies. The Mutual Pledge strengthened the Polish–Lithuanian union while keeping many federal aspects of the state intact.

The Constitution was also published in English-, French-, and German-language editions. Also a manuscript in lithuanian language exists but it was made in the beginning of XIX century.

The Constitution provided for potential amendments, which were to be addressed at an extraordinary Sejm to be held every 25 years.

The Constitution remained to the last a work in progress. The Government Act was fleshed out in a number of laws passed in May and June 1791: on sejm courts (two acts of 13 May), the Guardians of the Laws (1 June), the national police commission (a ministry, 17 June), and municipal administration (24 June).

The Constitution's co-author Hugo Kołłątaj announced that work was underway on "an economic constitution ... guaranteeing all rights of property [and] securing protection and honor to all manner of labor ..." A third planned basic law was mentioned by Kołłątaj: a "moral constitution," most likely a Polish analog to the United States Bill of Rights and the French Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen. The Constitution called for the preparation of a new civil and criminal code, tentatively called the Stanisław August Code. The King also planned a reform improving the situation of the Jews.

Aftermath: war and final two Partitions

The constitutional formal procedures were performed for little over a year before being stopped by Russian armies allied with conservative Polish nobility in the Polish–Russian War of 1792, also known as the War in Defense of the Constitution. With the wars between Turkey and Russia and Sweden and Russia having ended, Empress Catherine was furious over the adoption of the document, which she believed threatened Russian influence in Poland. Russia had viewed Poland as a de facto protectorate. "The worst possible news have arrived from Warsaw: the Polish king has become almost sovereign" was the reaction of one of Russia's chief foreign policy authors, Alexander Bezborodko, when he learned of the new constitution. The contacts of Polish reformers with the Revolutionary French National Assembly were seen by Poland's neighbors as evidence of a revolutionary conspiracy and a threat to the absolute monarchies. The Prussian statesman Ewald von Hertzberg expressed the fears of European conservatives: "The Poles have given the coup de grâce to the Prussian monarchy by voting a constitution", elaborating that a strong Commonwealth would likely demand return of the lands that Prussia had acquired in the First Partition.

Magnates who had opposed the constitution draft from the start, Franciszek Ksawery Branicki, Stanisław Szczęsny Potocki, Seweryn Rzewuski, and Szymon and Józef Kossakowski, asked Tsarina Catherine to intervene and restore their privilegesthe Cardinal Laws abolished under the new statute. To that end these magnates formed the Targowica Confederation. The Confederation's proclamation, prepared in St. Petersburg in January 1792, criticized the constitution for contributing to "contagion of democratic ideas" following "the fatal examples set in Paris." It asserted that "The parliament ... has broken all fundamental laws, swept away all liberties of the gentry and on the third of May 1791 turned into a revolution and a conspiracy." The Confederates declared an intention to overcome this revolution. We "can do nothing but turn trustingly to Tsarina Catherine, a distinguished and fair empress, our neighboring friend and ally", who "respects the nation's need for well-being and always offers it a helping hand", they wrote.

Russian armies entered Poland and Lithuania, starting the Polish–Russian War of 1792. The Sejm voted to increase the army of the Commonwealth to 100,000 men, but owing to insufficient time and funds this number was never achieved and soon abandoned even as a goal. The Polish King and the reformers could field only a 37,000-man army, many of them untested recruits. This army, under the command of Józef Poniatowski and Tadeusz Kościuszko, defeated or fought to a draw the Russians on several occasions, but in the end, a defeat loomed inevitable. Despite Polish requests, Prussia refused to honor its alliance obligations. Stanisław August's attempts at negotiations with Russia proved futile. As the front lines kept shifting to the west and in July 1792 Warsaw was threatened with siege by the Russians, the King came to believe that victory was impossible against the numerically superior enemy, and that surrender was the only alternative to total defeat. Having received assurances from the Russian ambassador Yakov Bulgakov that no territorial changes will occur, the Guardians of the Laws cabinet voted 8:4 to surrender. On 24 July 1792, King Stanisław August Poniatowski joined the Targowica Confederation, as the Empress had demanded. The Polish Army disintegrated.

Many reform leaders, believing their cause was for now lost, went into self-imposed exile. Some hoped that Stanisław August would be able to negotiate an acceptable compromise with the Russians, as he had done in the past. But the King had not saved the Commonwealth and neither had the Targowica Confederates, who governed the country for a short while. To their surprise, the Grodno Sejm, bribed or intimidated by the Russian troops, enacted the Second Partition of Poland. On 23 November 1793, it concluded its deliberations under duress, annulling the constitution and acceding to the Second Partition. Russia took , while Prussia took . The Commonwealth now comprised no more than . What was left of the Commonwealth was merely a small buffer state with a puppet king, and Russian garrisons keeping an eye on the reduced Polish army.

For a year and a half, Polish patriots waited while planning an insurrection. On 24 March 1794 in Kraków, Tadeusz Kościuszko declared what has come to be known as the Kościuszko Uprising. On 7 May, he issued the Proclamation of Połaniec (Uniwersał Połaniecki), granting freedom to the peasants and ownership of land to all who fought in the insurrection. Revolutionary tribunals administered summary justice to those deemed traitors to the Commonwealth. After initial victories at the Battle of Racławice (4 April), the capture of Warsaw (18 April) and the Wilno (22 April)the Uprising was crushed when the forces of Russia, Austria and Prussia joined in a military intervention. Historians consider the Uprising's defeat to have been a foregone conclusion in face of the superiority in numbers and resources of the three invading powers. The defeat of Kościuszko's forces led in 1795 to the third and final partition of the Commonwealth.

Legacy

Historic importance

The Constitution of 3 May 1791 has been both idealized, and criticized for either not going far enough or being too radical. As its provisions remained in force for only 18 months and 3 weeks, its influence was, in any case, limited. However, for generations, the memory of the Constitutionrecognized by political scientists as a progressive document for its timehelped keep alive Polish aspirations for an independent and just society, and continued to inform the efforts of its authors' descendants. Bronisław Dembiński, a Polish constitutional scholar, wrote a century later that "The miracle of the Constitution did not save the state but did save the nation." In Poland the Constitution is mythologized and viewed as a national symbol and as the culmination of the Enlightenment in Polish history and culture. In the words of two of its authors, Ignacy Potocki and Hugo Kołłątaj, it was "the last will and testament of the expiring Homeland." Since Poland's recovery of independence in 1918, the 3 May anniversary of the Constitution's adoption has been observed as the country's most important civil holiday.

The 3 May Constitution was a milestone in the history of law and in the growth of democracy. The 18th-century Irish statesman Edmund Burke described it as "the noblest benefit received by any nation at any time ... Stanislas II has earned a place among the greatest kings and statesmen in history." The 3 May Constitution was the first to follow the 1788 ratification of the United States Constitution. Poland and the United States, though geographically distant from each other, showed similar approaches to the designing of political systems. The 3 May Constitution has been called the second constitution in world history. Constitutional-law expert Albert Blaustein calls it the "world's second national constitution", and Bill Moyers writes that it was "Europe's first codified national constitution (and the second oldest in the world)." Historian Norman Davies calls it "the first constitution of its type in Europe." The 3 May Constitution and the Great Sejm that adopted it have been the subjects of a large body of works by Polish scholars, starting with the still often cited 19th-century works of Walerian Kalinka and Władysław Smoleński, and continued in the 20th century by Bogusław Leśnodorski.

The document's official name was Ustawa Rządowa ("Government Act"), where "government" referred to the political system. In the Commonwealth, the term "constitution" (Polish: konstytucja) had previously denoted all the legislation, of whatever character, that had been passed by a given Sejm.

Holiday

3 May was declared a Polish holiday (Constitution DayŚwięto Konstytucji 3 Maja) on 5 May 1791. The holiday was banned during the partitions of Poland but reinstated in April 1919 under the Second Polish Republicthe first holiday officially introduced in the newly independent country. It was again outlawed during World War II by both the Nazi and Soviet occupiers. It was celebrated in Polish cities in May 1945, although in a mostly spontaneous manner. The 1946 anti-communist demonstrations did not endear it to the Polish communists, and it competed for attention with the communist-endorsed 1 May Labor Day celebrations in the Polish People's Republic; this led to its "rebranding" as Democratic Party Day and removal from the list of national holidays by 1951. Until 1989, 3 May was a frequent occasion for anti-government and anti-communist protests. 3 May was restored as an official Polish holiday in April 1990 after the fall of communism. Polish-American pride has been celebrated on the same date, for instance in Chicago, where since 1982 Poles have marked it with festivities and the annual Polish Constitution Day Parade.

Notes

References

Further reading

  – compilation of facsimile reprints of 1791 legislation pertinent to the Constitution of 3 May 1791.

External links

 Photos of original document
 Polishconstitution.org – about the 3 May 1791 Constitution, includes a partial English translation by Christopher Kasparek.
 Collection of digitized versions of the 3 May 1791 Constitution and various related documents in the Digital National Library Polona.
 Official web page about Constitution of 3 May (in English)

Constitutions of former countries
Great Sejm
1791 in law
1791 in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth
Constitutions of Poland
Defunct constitutions
Legal history of Poland
Legal history of Belarus
Legal history of Lithuania
Age of Enlightenment
1791 documents
1791 in politics
Polish flag flying days
Polish Enlightenment
Frederick William II of Prussia

Constitution of 3 May 1791


7 වන ලෝක වෙළෙඳ මධ්‍යස්ථානය ගොඩනැගිල්ල යනු නිව්යෝර්ක් නගරයේ, මැන්හැටන් හි පිහිටි ලෝක වෙළෙඳ මධ්‍යස්ථාන ගොඩනැගිලි සමුහයෙන් එකකි. මෙය මේ නමින් හැදින්වෙන දෙවන ගොඩනැගිල්ල වේ. පළමු ගොඩනැගිල්ල 1987 පිහිටුවන ලද අතර එය සැප්තැම්බර් 11 ප්‍රහාරයෙන් විනාශයට පත් විය. මෙම ගොඩනැගිල්ලේ ඉදිකිරීම් 2006 වසරේදී නිමවන ලදී. මෙම ගොඩනැගිලි 2කෙහිම සංවර්ධන කටුතු ලැරි සිල්වෙස්ටියන් විසින් සිදු කර ඇත.

ආශ්‍රිත

7 ලෝක වෙළෙඳ මධ්‍යස්ථානය


Sitia () is a port town and a municipality in Lasithi, Crete, Greece. The town has 9,912 inhabitants (2011) and the municipality has 18,318 (2011). It lies east of Agios Nikolaos and northeast of Ierapetra. Sitia port is on the Sea of Crete, part of the Aegean Sea and is one of the economic centers of the Lasithi region. European route E75, which ends in Vardø, starts in Sitia. Sitia is served by the Sitia Public Airport. Sitia has not experienced the effects of mass tourism even though there is a long beach along the road leading to Vai and several places of historical interest.

History

The settlement of the town dates to pre-Minoan times. Excavations in the Petras neighbourhood have found architectural remains from the end of the Neolithic (3000 BC) and continue through the Bronze Age 3000-1050 BC, including the Minoan palace of Petras. Several other Minoan settlements have been found within the municipality, notably Itanos and Mochlos.

According to Diogenes Laërtius, Sitia was the home of Myson of Chen, one of the Seven Sages of Greece.

Etymology
The ancient Ἠτεία, written as Itia or Etea in English, appears to correspond roughly to modern Sitia. The name Sitia itself is probably the result of rebracketing of the prefix "s-" < σε 'at' + Ἠτεία.

Ancient Sitia
Sitia was founded by Minoans as Iteia, and was a centre of refuge for native Cretans after the fall of the major Minoan settlements. The city continued to prosper through the Classical, Hellenistic, Roman and Byzantine periods as one of the island's chief ports.

Venetian Era
The town was later expanded and fortified by the Venetians after their acquisition of Crete in 1204, who used it as a base of operations for the Eastern Mediterranean. During the Venetian occupation, the town was destroyed three times: first by an earthquake in 1508, then by the Turkish pirate Hayreddin Barbarossa in 1538, and finally by the Venetians themselves in 1651. This final destruction took place in the context of the Cretan War (1645–1669) in which the Venetians battled to retain their hold on the island against the Ottoman Empire. While Sitia did not fall in the initial Turkish advance the Venetians did not have the resources to withstand a long siege, and accordingly destroyed the fortifications and removed the garrison to Heraklion. The local inhabitants meanwhile removed westwards to Liopetro and the site was subsequently abandoned for the next 200 years of Turkish rule.

The main remnant of the Venetian occupation is the Kazarma (from Italian casa di arma), the old fortress overlooking the harbour.

Modern Era
After the Venetian period and subsequent abandonment the town was rebuilt until 1870 by the progressive Turkish governor Hüseyin Avni Pasha following the Cretan Revolt. It was subsequently created capital of the Sanjak of Lasit (later Lasithi, which it remains to this day). Under Turkish rule the town was renamed Avniye in honour of its rebuilder, but as the local Greeks continued to use the traditional named of Sitia this innovation did not survive Independence. Despite the turbulent history of Crete in leaving the Ottoman Empire and joining Greece, as well as the First World War, the population almost quadrupled between 1881 (570 inhabitants) and 1928 (2,100 inhabitants). Major public works were carried out by the Greek government in 1911 to modernise the town, in the course of which much of the Ottoman era town was rebuilt, as well as a fresh water supply.

Geography

Municipality
The municipality Sitia was formed at the 2011 local government reform by the merger of the following 3 former municipalities which became municipal units:
Itanos
Lefki, Lasithi
Sitia

The municipality has an area of , the municipal unit .

Province
The province of Siteia () was one of the provinces of Lasithi. Its territory corresponded with that of the current municipality Siteia and the municipal unit Makry Gialos. It was abolished in 2006.

Environmentally protected areas
There are a number of sites in the municipality of Sitia that are protected as National Parks, Aesthetic Forests, Wildlife Refuges etc. under national and international laws. Sitia is home to the Sitia UNESCO Global Geopark.
Notable examples are:
Dionysades Islands which carry many rare and endangered plant species and also serve as a refuge of several animal species (mostly birds and small reptiles), including the falcon, Falco eleonorae, which finds sanctuary here.
Vai Palm Forest.
Richtis Gorge and waterfall.

Climate
Sitia has a hot-summer Mediterranean climate (Köppen climate classification: Csa) with hot, dry summers and mild, rainy winters.

Infrastructure
The municipality of Sitia is served by the Sitia Public Airport which offers several domestic destinations. The first landing occurred on June 7, 1984 and the airport opened officially on June 9, 1984. Construction of new building facilities that included a control tower was completed in May 1993. Runway and apron extension works were finished in May 2003. Recently (2011), the local authorities have completed negotiations with international travel agents for organizing regular charter flights starting in May 2012. Currently (2011), local officials are under negotiations with the low-cost airline Ryanair.

In addition, Sitia is served by a port which connects Sitia and eastern Crete with several other Greek islands as well as with the port of Piraeus. The town also has a marina which accommodates smaller fishing boats and yachts.

Health services
The General Hospital of Sitia was founded in 1947 as a local health center and was later (1994) relocated to a new 7500m2 (110-bed capacity) building and accordingly upgraded to serve as the main hospital for the municipality of Sitia and the surrounding area.

Culture

Attractions
Moni Toplou, founded in the mid 15th century, is one of the most significant monasteries in Crete.
Kazarma fortress, in the town of Sitia.
Gorge of the Dead (at Kato Zakros).
Archaeological Museum of Sitia,
Folkor Museum of Sitia,
Various archeological sites with Minoan civilization settlements from the Bronze Age, such as in Itanos and Mochlos.

Notable people
Yannis Hamilakis - archaeologist
Myson - philosopher (one of the 7 legendary wise men of ancient Greece)
Vitsentzos Kornaros - poet (composer of Erotokritos)
Giorgos Mazonakis - singer
Jenny Hiloudaki - DJ
Manousos - Musician (bassist of Psofioi Korioi Band)

References

External links

Municipality of Sitia (History)
Vai forest
Richtis gorge
Gorge of the Dead
Richtis beach and gorge
Richtis gorge and waterfall
1st General Lyceum of Sitia (high school)
Cretan Quality Agreement, local non-profit "promoting local cuisine and good health"
Photos from Sitia

Municipalities of Crete
Populated places in Lasithi

Provinces of Greece

Sitia


මීරිගම ප්‍රදේශයේ ලංකාවේ මුල්ම අගමැති ඩී. එස්. සේනානායක මහතාගේ පියා විසින් ඉදිකළ නිවාසයයි. සුවිශාල පොල් වත්තක් මැද ඉදිකළ මෙම ගෘහය ක්‍රි.ව.1860 වසරට ආසන්න සමයේදී ඉදිකරවන ලදී.මහ මුදලි වරයෙකු වූ ඩී.එස්. සේනානායක මහතාගේ පියා වියෝවූ පසුව වලව්වට පසෙකින් සුවිශාල සමාධියක් කරවා එතුමාගේ භෂ්මාවශේෂ තැම්පත් කරවා තිබේ.

සේනානායක පරපුරේ මෑතකාලීන ආරම්භකයා ලෙස සැලකෙන්නේ 1848 වසරේ උපත ලැබූ දොන් ස්පේටර් සේනානායක වන අතර ඔහු තරුණ වියේදී ම මිනිරන් පතල් කැණීමේ ව්‍යාපාරවලට යොමු වීම හරහා විශාල ධනස්කන්ධයක් උපයා ගෙන ඇත. පසුකාලීනව වැවිලි කර්මාන්තයට සහ රේන්ද (අරක්කු) කර්මාන්තයට ද යොමු වී ඇති ඔහුට එවකට බ්‍රිතාන්‍ය ආණ්ඩුව  'මුදලි' තනතුරක් ද ලබා දී ඇත.

ඔහු දෝන කැතරිනා එළිසබෙත් පෙරේරා ගුණසේකර සමඟ විවාහ වූ අතර මෙම යුවළට දොන් ස්ටීවන් සේනානායක (ඩී.එස්. සේනානායක), දොන් චාල්ස් සේනානායක, ෆ්‍රෙඩ්රික් රිචර්ඩ් සේනානායක සහ මරියා ෆ්‍රාන්සස් සේනානායක නමින් පුතුන් තිදෙනෙක් සහ එක දියණියක් විය.

1865 වසරේදී පමණ මුදලි, දොන් ස්පේටර් සේනානායක මීරිගම, බෝතලේ ප්‍රදේශයේ පිහිටි අක්කර 35කින් යුතු ඉඩමක නිවසක් ඉදි කළ අතර බ්‍රිතාන්‍ය ආණ්ඩුව ඔහුට මුදලි තනතුරක් ලබා දීමෙන් අනතුරුව එය 'වලව්ව' යන නමින් හැඳින්විණි. බෝතලේ ප්‍රදේශයේ පිහිටා තිබීම හේතුවෙන් එය පසුකාලීන ව 'බෝතලේ වලව්ව' වශයෙන් ජනතාව අතර ප්‍රසිද්ධ විය.

මුල් කාලයේදී මෙම වලව්ව සතුව ඉඩම් අක්කර 600කට වැඩි ප්‍රමාණයක් තිබී ඇති අතර පසුකාලීනව හඳුන්වා දුන් ඉඩම් ප්‍රතිසංස්කරණ පනත යටතේ අක්කර 50කට වැඩි වපසරියකින් යුතු ඉඩම් රජයට පවරා ගැනීම හේතුවෙන් මේ වන විට වලව්ව සතුව ඇත්තේ ඉඩම් අක්කර 50කටත් අඩු ප්‍රමාණයකි

විශාල වත්තක් මධ්‍යයට වන්නට පිහිටා ඇති බෝතලේ වලව්වට පිවිසෙන ස්ථානයේ තරමක් විශාල කණු දෙකකින් දරා සිටින ගේට්ටුවක් පිහිටා ඇත. සොල්දරයක් ද සහිත නිවසක් වන බෝතලේ වලව්ව ඉදිරිපස ඉංග්‍රීසි ගෘහ නිර්මාණ ලක්ෂණ සහිත විශාල පෝටිකෝවක් සහිත ආලින්දයක් දැකිය හැකි ය.

ආලින්දයේ ඉදිරිපස විශාල ආරුක්කුවකුත්, ඊට දෙපසින් තරමක් කුඩා ප්‍රමාණයේ ආරුක්කු දෙකකුත් දැකිය හැකි ය. ආලින්දය දෙපසට වන්නට ද විශාල ප්‍රමාණයේ ආරුක්කු දෙකක් දැකිය හැකි ය. දැවයෙන් කරවන ලද දොර ජනෙල්වලින් යුතු වලව්වේ වහලයේ වර්තමානය වන විට රට උළු සෙවිලි කරවා තිබේ. වලව්වේ ආලින්දයේ බිමට මැටියෙන් සාදන ලද පිඟන් ගඩොල් අතුරා තිබේ.

බෝතලේ වලව්වට යාබදව තරමක් විශාල ප්‍රමාණයේ සොහොන් ගෙයක් දැකගත හැකි අතර මුලින් ම එය ඉදි කරවා ඇත්තේ ඩී.එස්. සේනානායකයන්ගේ පියා වූ දොන් ස්පේටර් සේනානායක අභාවප්‍රාප්ත වූ අවස්ථාවේදී ය. සුදු පැහැයෙන් පින්තාරු කර ඇති එම සොහොන් ගෙය තුළ පසුකාලීන ව ඩී.එස්. සේනානායක සහ ඩඩ්ලි සේනානායක යන අයගේ ද භෂ්මාවශේෂ තැන්පත් කර තිබේ.

බෝතලේ ඉහලගම වලව්ව


Nemosia  es un género de aves paseriformes de la familia Thraupidae que agrupa a dos especies nativas de América del Sur, donde se distribuyen en el norte del continente, desde la costa caribeña de Colombia hasta las Guayanas; y desde el sur del río Amazonas desde el noreste de Perú y la Amazonia brasileña hasta el noroeste y noreste de Argentina. A sus miembros se les conoce por el nombre común de tangaras o fruteros, entre otros.

Etimología
El nombre genérico femenino «Nemosia» deriva del griego «nemos»: clarera, lugar abierto.

Características
Las dos aves de este género son tráupidos pequeños, miden entre 13 y 14 cm de longitud, bastante diferentes entre sí, de color predominante blanco y gris y que podrían no ser congéneres. Uno (N. pileata) común y ampliamente difundido y el otro (N. rourei) redescubierto en 1998 y restringido a una pequeña área del sureste de Brasil.

Lista de especies
Según las clasificaciones del Congreso Ornitológico Internacional (IOC) y Clements Checklist v.2019, el género agrupa a las siguientes especies con el respectivo nombre popular de acuerdo con la Sociedad Española de Ornitología (SEO):

(*) Estado de conservación

Taxonomía
Los amplios estudios filogenéticos recientes de Burns et al. (2014) demuestran que el presente género está hermanado a un clado formado por Cyanicterus hermanado al par Compsothraupis + Sericossypha, en una subfamilia Nemosiinae.

Referencias

Enlaces externos

Géneros de aves
Taxones descritos por Louis Pierre Vieillot

Nemosia


Der Bahnhof Staffel (auch als Limburg-Staffel bezeichnet) ist ein denkmalgeschützter Trennungsbahnhof mit denkmalgeschütztem Empfangsgebäude im Limburger Stadtteil Staffel. Hier zweigt die Unter- von der Oberwesterwaldbahn ab.

Gebäude

Das Bahnhofsgebäude wurde 1870 im Zuge der Erbauung des Teilstücks Limburg–Westerburg der Oberwesterwaldbahn errichtet. Architekt des zweigeschossigen Putzbaus ist vermutlich Heinrich Velde. Das klassizistische Gebäude steht östlich der Gleise und war ursprünglich fünfachsig, wurde aber nachträglich nach Süden hin verlängert. Auf der dem Ort zugewandten Seite des Dachs befindet sich ein Zwerchhaus.

Nach Norden schließt sich ein niedriger, verputzter Güterschuppen aus Fachwerk an. In Sichtweite befindet sich zudem das 1890 errichtete Stellwerk der Unterwesterwaldbahn. Der Kleinbau verfügt über ein Sockelgeschoss aus Backstein, das Obergeschoss ist ausgekragt und mit großen Fenstern versehen.

Etwa 250 Meter nördlich des Bahnhofs befindet sich das 1925 errichtete Stellwerk, ebenfalls für die Unterwesterwaldbahn. Es handelt sich um einen Kleinbau mit gemauertem Erdgeschoss, verputztem Stockwerk und Walmdach.

Geschichte

Das Teilstück der Oberwesterwaldbahn zwischen Staffel und Hadamar wurde am 1. Januar 1870 eröffnet, die Unterwesterwaldbahn nahm am 30. Mai 1884 ihren Betrieb auf. Die Strecke zwischen Limburg und Staffel ging am 10. Dezember 1888 in Betrieb, nachdem zum Oktober 1886 bereits der Streckenabschnitt von Hadamar nach Westerburg eröffnet worden war.

Verkehr

Der Bahnhof Staffel liegt in der Tarifzone 6001 des Rhein-Main-Verkehrsverbund (RMV), seit dem 1. Januar 2017 gilt der Tarif des Verkehrsverbund Rhein-Mosel (VRM) ebenso als Übergangstarif, sofern der Start/Zielbahnhof der Fahrt im VRM-Gebiet liegt, welches seit diesem Zeitpunkt auch den Westerwaldkreis umfasst. Im Bahnhof Staffel halten die Regionalbahnlinien RB 29 und RB 90, welche von der Hessischen Landesbahn (HLB), Betriebsbereich Dreiländerbahn betrieben werden. Staffel hat somit umsteigefreie Bahnverbindungen nach Hadamar, Westerburg, Hachenburg, Altenkirchen, Betzdorf, Siegen, Montabaur und Siershahn sowie in die Innenstadt von Limburg. Die Fahrtzeit nach Limburg beträgt 7 Minuten.

Literatur
 Heinz Schomann: Kulturdenkmäler in Hessen: Eisenbahn in Hessen. Teil 2: Eisenbahnbauten und -strecken 1839–1939. Herausgegeben vom Landesamt für Denkmalpflege Hessen. Theiss, 2005. ISBN 3-8062-1917-6, S. 414–417, 628–630

Weblinks

Verkehrsbauwerk in Limburg an der Lahn
Kulturdenkmal in Limburg an der Lahn
Staffel
Staffel

Bahnhof Staffel


is the Icelandic term for nationalism; nationmindedness is a rough translation of the term. Its use was instrumental in the Icelandic movement for independence from Denmark, led by Jón Sigurðsson.

Icelandic nationalism or  is based upon the idea of resurrection of the Icelandic Free State, and its values (or what was believed to be its values): democracy, freedom of the individual, the need for the country to be independent, and respect for the cultural and religious traditions, specially the long preserved language. These ideas are often encoded in the popular phrase  ('land, people, and language'). Historically, Icelanders have seen their current republic to be the reincarnation of the old Free State, and thus Icelandic nationalism today is based upon preserving what was gained by the independence movement. Thus Icelandic nationalist sentiment, having some aspects of civic and ethnic nationalism, is highly respectful of democratic parliamentary powers (see resurrected Althing) and skeptical of foreign control over Iceland, which is partly responsible for there being little will in Iceland for joining the European Union.

Icelandic nationalism primarily arose in the 19th century, during a time when it was under Danish hegemony. It arose not only due to pride in Iceland's achievements in the Middle Ages and a desire to embrace Icelandic cultural peculiarities, but also in reaction towards the increasing economic liberalism of the Danish government and thus a defense of Icelandic peasant life. One towering figure was Jón Sigurðsson, who was the preeminent figure of Icelandic nationalism in the 19th century and on whose birthday, 17 June 1944, the modern Icelandic republic intentionally declared independence.

List of Icelandic nationalist parties
 Icelandic National Front

References

Nationalism

Icelandic nationalism


Walter Cohen (geboren 18. Februar 1880 in Bonn; gestorben 8. Oktober 1942 im KZ Dachau) war ein deutscher Kunsthistoriker, Kunstsammler und Kurator.

Leben
Walter Cohen war das jüngste von elf Kindern von Friedrich Moritz (1836–1912) und Helena (1839–1914) Cohen. Sein Bruder war der spätere Buchhändler und Verleger Friedrich Cohen. Walter Cohen war von Kindheit an schwerhörig, sodass er meist die Worte vom Munde ablesen musste. Aus einer jüdischen Familie stammend wurde er getauft und erhielt eine protestantische Erziehung. Am Städtischen Progymnasium mit Oberrealschule machte er 1898 sein Abitur.

Ab 1898 studierte Cohen Kunstgeschichte, Klassische Archäologie und Philosophie zuerst in Bonn, dann München und Berlin und zuletzt in Straßburg, wo er 1903 bei Georg Dehio promoviert wurde. Nach einer längeren Studienreise ins Ausland hatte er 1904 bis 1905 eine Beschäftigung bei der Redaktion des Allgemeinen Lexikons der Bildenden Künstler von der Antike bis zur Gegenwart in Leipzig. 1906 folgte ein Volontariat an den Staatlichen Museen Berlin (Kaiser-Friedrich-Museum und Kunstgewerbemuseum). Eine Anstellung fand er ab 1908 zunächst als wissenschaftlicher Hilfsarbeiter, dann als Direktorialassistent am Provinzialmuseum unter Hans Lehner in Bonn. Hier ordnete er die Abteilungen mittelalterlicher Kunst und neuer Kunst neu und veranlasste die Vereinigung der Gemäldegalerie mit der Sammlung Wesendonk.

Als August Macke vom Tegernsee kommend 1911 in Bonn sein Atelier in der Bornheimerstraße einrichtete, wurde dies zum Treffpunkt der Kunstszene. Schnell baute er sein Netzwerk in Bonn aus: Walter Cohen gehörte dazu, der am Provinzialmuseum in Bonn arbeitete, und dessen beiden älteren Brüder Friedrich und Heinrich, die gegenüber der Universität einen Buch- und Kunsthandel betrieben. Cohen schloss Freundschaft mit Macke, so wie mit vielen Künstlern. .

Bei der am 25. Mai 1912 in Köln eröffneten Internationalen Kunstausstellung des Sonderbundes, welche aus heutiger Sicht zu den wegbereitenden Kunstausstellungen des frühen 20. Jahrhunderts gehörte, wirkte Cohen an den Vorbereitungen mit. Dieser Ausstellung vorausgegangen war die 1909 in Düsseldorf gegründete Vereinigung von Künstlern, Museumsdirektoren, Sammlern und Händlern, die sich zusammengeschlossen hatten, um die Kunst der Avantgarde einem breiten Publikum zu eröffnen. Vorsitzender war Karl Ernst Osthaus, zum Vorstand zählte unter anderen Walter Cohen.

Eine geplante Anstellung an den Berliner Museen scheiterte 1912 an seiner Schwerhörigkeit. 1914 wechselte Cohen an die Städtische Kunstsammlung Düsseldorf  und wurde 1920 Kustos der Gemäldesammlung. Karl Koetschau, der Direktor, wollte die Sammlung von alter Kunst durch Zukäufe ergänzen. Zusammen mit dem Kurator Walter Cohen erwarb er moderne deutsche Werke.

Cohen prägte den Namen "Das Junge Rheinland", der 1919 gegründeten modernen Künstlervereinigung. 1918 hatte er mit der Gruppe die erste Ausstellung im Kölnischen Kunstverein veranstaltet. Dort stellten bereits 113 Künstler aus, wobei die Mitgliederzahl rasch anwuchs.

Walter Cohen war ein Sammler zahlreicher Werke führender deutscher Expressionisten von Künstlern der Künstlervereinigungen "Brücke", "Der Blaue Reiter" und "Das Junges Rheinland", wie Max Beckmann, Otto Dix, Käthe Kollwitz, Paula Modersohn-Becker, Emil Nolde, Otto Pankok, Karl Schmidt-Rottluff, Gabriele Münter, Erich Heckel, Christian Rohlfs und vielen anderen Künstlern. Cohen sammelte nicht nur, sondern war auch ein engagierter Förderer der damaligen Avantgarde, darunter die Künstler Dix, Rohlfs, August Macke, Gerhard Marcks.

Zu dem Galeristen Alfred Flechtheim hatte er eine freundschaftliche sowie auch berufliche Verbindung. Zu der Wiedereröffnung der Galerie Flechtheim nach dem Ersten Weltkrieg, Ostern 1919, mit einer ersten Ausstellung über die Expressionisten leistete er seinen Beitrag mit einem Vorspruch.

1924 veröffentlichte er sein Werk Hundert Jahre Rheinischer Malerei, in dem vierzig Künstler vor allem des 19. Jahrhunderts vorgestellt wurden. Walter Cohen genoss in den 1920er Jahren als weitsichtiger Museumskustos, glänzender Kunstkritiker und engagierter Förderer breite Anerkennung.

1928 richtete er das neu eröffnete Museumsgebäude am Ehrenhof ein. Doch dann kamen die Nazis, beschlagnahmten 137 Ankäufe und entließen Cohen. Auch seine private zusammengetragene Sammlung zeitgenössischer Kunst wurde von den Nationalsozialisten als Entartete Kunst diffamiert. Trotz Taufe und protestantischer Erziehung wurde Cohen 1933 als Nichtarier gemäß § 3 des Gesetz zur Wiederherstellung des Berufsbeamtentums zwangsweise in den Ruhestand versetzt und aus dem Museumsdienst entlassen, verlor seinen Beamtenstatus und einen großen Teil seiner Rentenbezüge. Eine Klage auf Wiedereinsetzung in den Dienst wurde abgelehnt. In der Folgezeit war er als Gutachter im Kunsthandel tätig. Schwierige wirtschaftliche Bedingungen machten ihm zu schaffen, auch hatte er Probleme mit seiner Gesundheit.

Unter dem ganzen Druck zerbrach auch die Ehe mit seiner nicht-jüdischen Ehefrau Margarete Umbach (1892–1960), selbst Künstlerin und Sammlerin, welche er 1920 geheiratet hatte. Einen Prozess wegen angeblicher Bildfälschung endete mit Freispruch. Jedoch wurde Cohen in Schutzhaft genommen und ins Konzentrationslager Dachau verbracht und dort ermordet.

Seine Frau Margarete Umbach versteckte die Sammlung in einer Stadt bei Mülhausen im Elsass, sie wurde dennoch fast vollständig zerstört. Gemeinsam mit ihrem zweiten Ehemann, Richard Vogts (1906–1984), Sohn des Düsseldorfer Porträtmalers Richard Vogts, versuchte sie nach dem Krieg, die Sammlung zu rekonstruieren und im Sinne Walter Cohens fortzuführen. Die Sammlung der Stiftung "Cohen-Umbach-Vogts" im Dreiländermuseum in Lörrach umfasst rund 200 expressionistische Druckgrafiken von Künstlern wie Max Beckmann, Wassily Kandinsky, Otto Dix, Käthe Kollwitz und Erich Heckel und spiegelt Leben und Schicksal ihrer drei Sammler in tragischer Weise die deutsche Geschichte des 20. Jahrhunderts wider.

Veröffentlichungen (Auswahl)

 Studien zu Quinten Metsys. Inaugural-Dissertation zur Erlangung der Doktorwürde bei einer Hohen Philosophischen Fakultät der Kaiser-Wilhelms-Universität Straßburg. München: Alphons Bruckmann, München 1904.
 Katalog der Gemäldegalerie. Vorwiegend Sammlung Wesendonk. Provinzial-Museum in Bonn. Kommissionsverlag von Friedrich Cohen, 1914.
 August Macke. Klinkhardt & Biermann. Leipzig 1922.
 Hundert Jahre rheinischer Malerei. Kunstbücher deutscher Landschaften, Cohen Verlag, Bonn 1924.

 Zeitschriftenaufsätze (Auswahl)
 Alfred Rethel. In: Die Rheinlande. 1918.
 Düsseldorfer und Frankfurter Kunst auf der "Ausstellung deutscher Malerei im neunzehnten Jahrhundert" zu Dresden. In: Die Rheinlande. 1919.
 Erinnerung an Seehaus. In: Das Kunstfenster. 1921.

Literatur
 Reichshandbuch der deutschen Gesellschaft – Das Handbuch der Persönlichkeiten in Wort und Bild. Erster Band, Deutscher Wirtschaftsverlag, Berlin 1930, ISBN 3-598-30664-4.
 Martina Sitt: Auch ein Bild braucht einen Anwalt. Walter Cohen – Leben zwischen Kunst und Recht. Deutscher Kunstverlag, München/Berlin 1994, ISBN 3-422-06128-2.
 Entartet – zerstört – rekonstruiert: die Sammlung "Cohen-Umbach-Vogts". Hrsg. Markus Moehring und Barbara Hauss, Lörracher Hefte, Bd. 9 (Rote Schriftenreihe des Dreiländermuseums), Verlag W. Lutz, Lörrach 2008, ISBN 978-3-922107-81-1.
 Erich Cohen: Aufbewahrtes Leben unter schützenden Händen. Düsseldorf 1998, ISBN 3-930250-30-6, S. 502 ff.
 Ulrike Wendland: Biographisches Handbuch deutschsprachiger Kunsthistoriker im Exil. Leben und Werk der unter dem Nationalsozialismus verfolgten und vertriebenen Wissenschaftler. Teil 1: A–K. Saur, München 1999, ISBN 3-598-11339-0, S. 91–95.
 Cohen, Walter. In: Lexikon deutsch-jüdischer Autoren. Band 5: Carmo–Donat. Hrsg. vom Archiv Bibliographia Judaica. Saur, München 1997, ISBN 3-598-22685-3, S. 191–193.
 Helga Fremerey-Dohnau und Renate Schoene, Bearbeitung: Jüdisches Geistesleben in Bonn 1786–1945. Verlag Ludwig Röhrscheid, Bonn 1985, ISBN 3-7928-0489-1, S. 32–34, Bild S. 3.

Weblinks

Einzelnachweise

Kunsthistoriker
Wissenschaftlicher Mitarbeiter eines Museums in Düsseldorf
Wissenschaftlicher Mitarbeiter des Rheinischen Landesmuseums Bonn
Kunstsammler
Todesopfer im KZ Dachau
Opfer des Holocaust
Deutscher
Geboren 1880
Gestorben 1942
Mann

Walter Cohen


Lucifers blyant er en animationsfilm fra 1993 instrueret af Lejf Marcussen efter eget manuskript.

Handling
Et forvandlingsbolsje af en animationsfilm, hvorom instruktøren selv skriver: Min diktatoriske bevidsthed forlanger klare symboler og målrettet skelnen. Men Lucifers blyant driller mine hænder og vil vise mig, at selv uforenelige billeder måske har fælles ophav.

Referencer

Eksterne henvisninger

Animationsfilm fra Danmark
Danske film fra 1993

Lucifers blyant


Das kroatische Lied Evo zore, evo dana (Hier ist die Morgendämmerung, hier ist der Tag), alternativer Titel Jure i Boban (Jure und Boban), war das Kampflied der Schwarzen Legion, einer militärischen Eliteeinheit der Ustascha. Es gilt als Ausdruck einer großkroatischen und nationalistischen Ideologie.

Die Titel des Liedes beziehen sich auf die Kämpfe um Kupres im Jahr 1942, bei denen die Schwarze Legion unter der Führung von Jure Francetić und Rafael Boban mit einem überraschenden Gegenangriff im Morgengrauen die Tito-Partisanen aus Kupres und Umgebung vertrieb. Der Text des Liedes wurde zur traditionellen Melodie des Volksliedes Oj, Kupreško ravno polje (O, Brachland von Kupres) gesungen, das ebenfalls diese Kämpfe um Kupres thematisierte.

Angehörige der Legion sangen das Lied erstmals im April des Jahres 1942, in den schweren Kämpfen gegen "die Rebellen an der östlichen Grenze Kroatiens" – der damaligen Grenze zu Serbien –, dem Fluss Drina.

Text
Autor des Textes ist der Volksdichter Josip Križanac. Er arbeitete vor dem Krieg als Waldarbeiter in Ljubinje, trat in die Legion als Schütze (čarkar) ein und wurde bis in den Rang eines Majors (bojnik) befördert. In der Zeit zwischen den Kämpfen schrieb er Gedichte, die den Kampf der Legion und die Treue der Legionäre und ihrer Kommandeure zur damaligen politischen Führung Kroatiens verherrlichten. Križanac wurde von Partisanen über einem offenen Feuer zu Tode gefoltert und soll noch im Sterben gerufen haben:

Der Liedtext ist die gekürzte Fassung eines längeren Gedichts von Križanac, das den Kampf der Legion gegen Tschetniks und Partisanen in Ostbosnien beschreibt. Der Text wurde 1942 im Buch Crna legija : odredi nepobjedive mladosti (Die Schwarze Legion : Einheiten der unbesiegbaren Jugend) zum Jahrestag der Gründung der Schwarzen Legion von Ivo Balentović herausgegeben und lautete:

Nachkriegszeit
Ab 1991 in der Zeit des Zerfalls Jugoslawiens und dem Beginn des Kroatien- und Bosnienkrieges, wurde das Lied mit neuen, meist radikaleren Textversionen wiederbelebt. Auch von bekannten kroatischen Interpreten, wie z. B. der Band Thompson und dem Sänger Dražen Zečić wurde das Lied in dieser Zeit und auch lange danach noch gesungen. Zu diesen neuen Textversionen gehören z. B. die Zeilen:

Einzelnachweise

Politisches Lied
Unabhängiger Staat Kroatien
Lied 1942

Evo zore, evo dana


Fudbalski klub Izbor (FK Izbor; NK Izbor; Izbor Brčko; Izbor) je nogometni klub iz Brčkog, Distrikt Brčko, Bosna i Hercegovina.

O klubu
FK "Izbor" je osnovan 1974. godine po istoimenoj tvornici obuće. Do 1992. godine se natjecao u ligama nogometnog saveza sa sjedištem u Brčkome, te ligama na području sjevernoistočne Bosne, kao "Regionalne lige BiH – Sjever". U sezoni 1988./89. klub je bio član "Republičke lige BiH – Sjever".
1992. godine izbija rat u BiH, koji je intenzivan na području Brčkog i Bosanske Posavine, te sami grad ostaje pod srpskom kontrolom. Klub za trajanja ratnih sukoba ne djeluje.
Nakon rata klub se obnavlja, te za njega većinom igraju Bošnjaci, te klub sudjeluje u ligama i natjecanjima organiziranim od strane nogometnog saveza Tuzlanske Županije.
Klub organizira i memorijalni turnir.

Uspjesi

 3. ŽNL Tuzlanske županije – Sjever
 prvak: 2017./18.

Pregled plasmana

Poznati igrači

Unutrašnje poveznice
 Brčko

Vanjske poveznice
 FK Izbor Brčko, facebook stranica
 FK Izbor Brčko, twitter stranica
 sportdc.net, Izbor
 posavinasport.com, Izbor (Broduša-Brčko)
 infobrcko.com, FK Izbor Brčko: Vidljiv napredak omladinskog pogona , objavljeno 21. lipnja 2016., pristupljeno 23. rujna 2019.
 nstk.info, ŽNS Tuzlanske županije, klubovi

Izvori

 bhklubovi.wordpress.com, BRČKO DISTRIKT, pristupljeno 23. rujna 2019.
 posavinasport.com, Spisak ekipa koje su se postojale u nekadašnjem Brčko i Doboj savezu- 1985 sezona. , pristupljeno 23. rujna 2019.
 posavinasport.com, Iz FK "Izbor" Brčko se pitaju na osnovu čega su "izbačeni" iz Druge lige TK , pristupljeno 23. rujna 2019.
 bisnode.ba, F.K. "IZBOR", Brčko, Brčko distrikt BiH

Izbor
Izbor

FK Izbor Brčko


HA(psyk) er en 3-årig videnskabelig bacheloruddannelse i erhvervsøkonomi og psykologi. Uddannelsen fokuserer på ledelse inden for de erhvervsøkonomiske tænkemåder, der præger de fleste virksomheder. Herunder forestillingen om, at økonomiske beslutninger bliver taget ud fra rationelle og fornuftsbetonede overvejelser, der styrer vores tanker, handlinger og måder at forstå på. Ved at kombinere de to perspektiver undervises der i at gennemskue, hvordan den menneskelige faktor påvirker vilkårene for virksomhedens måde at fungere og udvikle sig på. Det kan være ift. generelle ledelses- og samarbejdsforhold, ift. udviklings- og forandringsprocesser i virksomheden eller ift. det billede, virksomheden gerne vil skabe af sig selv. Uddannelsen udbydes pt. kun på CBS.

Den naturlige overbygning er cand.merc.psyk., hvorefter man ligeledes har retten til at bruge titlen:
Master of Science in Business Administration and Psychology.

Uddannelsen giver kandidaten en høj akademisk forståelse inden for det erhvervsøkonomiske felt samt en lang række dybdegående kompetencer indenfor ledelse, virksomhedsstyring og psykologi. Som færdiguddannet cand.merc.psyk, ansættes man typisk inden for det private erhvervsliv, hvor man arbejder med kompetenceudvikling og uddannelse, ledelses- og organisationsudvikling eller forandringsledelse.

Referencer

Bacheloruddannelser

HA(psyk.)


Mulheres, Cheguei!  é um filme brasileiro de 1961, escrito e dirigido por Victor Lima, baseado na peça "A Flor dos Maridos" de Armando Gonzaga.

Elenco

Filmes do Brasil de 1961
Filmes de comédia do Brasil
Filmes em língua portuguesa
Filmes em preto e branco

Mulheres, Cheguei!


Jonathan Velgaard Sørensen (født 16. august 1996) er en dansk floorballspiller, som på nuværende tidspunkt spiller for Frederikshavn Blackhawks. På banen spiller han center i holdets 2. kæde, men han har tidligere spillet wing.

Eksterne henvisninger
 Jonathan Velgaard Sørensen på floorball.org

Floorballspillere fra Danmark
Personer fra Frederikshavn

Jonathan Velgaard Sørensen


Daniel Jacob Danielsen (født 15. juni 1871 i København, død 16. oktober 1916 i Tórshavn) var en færøsk missionær og prædikant. Han var missionær i den belgiske konge Leopold 2.s private koloni Congofristaten 1901–03. Her arbejdede han tæt sammen med ireren Roger Casement om at dokumentere den belgiske konges administratorers og soldaters overgreb mod de indfødte congolesere, og bidrog til etableringen af Congo Reform Association i Storbritannien i 1904.<ref>Óli Jacobsen. «Daniel J. Danielsen (1871–1916): The Faeroese who Changed History in the Congo» I: Brethren Historical Review; Vol 8, 2012</ref>

Danielsen blev født i København i 1871 af en ung, ugift færøsk mor, Sigrid Danielsen, som flyttede til København som ung pige. Han fik navnet Ludvig Daniel Jacob Danielsen, hvor Ludvig angives at være hans fars navn. Danielsen kendte aldrig sin far og brugte ikke Ludvig-navnet. På Færøerne blev han kaldt Dollin, som nogle steder på Færøerne er et almindeligt kælenavn for drenge og mænd der hedder Daniel Jacob eller bare Daniel (Dánjal). Kort tid efter fødselen flyttede mor og søn tilbage til Tórshavn, hvor hun i 1874 blev gift.

Han drog til søs som 18-årig og udannede sig til maskinmester i Skotland. 27 år gammel blev han omvendt af Plymouthbrødrene under et vækkelsesmøde i Glasgow. Han rejste til Congo som missionær for Congo Balolo Mission, med base i Bonginda. Han havde særlig ansvaret for driften af missionens hjuldamper Pioneer''. I 1903 var han skibsfører, assistent og fotograf for Casement under dennes undersøgelsesfærd langs Congofloden. Efter hjemkomsten til England i 1904 holdt han en serie lysbilledforedrag om forholdene i Congo. I engelske tekster kaldes han Danielson, ikke Danielsen.

I 1904 flyttede han med sin hustru Lina tilbage til Færøerne. Her virkede han som prædikant for den lokale aflægger af Plymouthbrødrene, Brøðrasamkoman. Han døde i 1916 og blev begravet i kirkegården i Tórshavn (Gamli kirkjugarður í Havn). På hans gravsten står: Virkaði i Congo 1901–1903 / Ein óræddur hermaður Harrans - som betyder: Arbejdede i Congo 1901-1903 / En frygtløs Herrens soldat. (Herren = Gud).

I 2014 blev han afbilledet på et færøsk frimærke, og den færøske tidligere politiker og fagforeningformand Óli Jacobsen har skrevet en bog om Danielsens liv og indsats i Congo.

Referencer

Missionærer fra Færøerne
Congo Fristaten
Søfolk fra Færøerne

Daniel J. Danielsen