Oogenesis, ovogenesis, or oögenesis  is the differentiation of the ovum (egg cell) into a cell competent to further develop when fertilized. It is developed from the primary oocyte by maturation. Oogenesis is initiated in the embryonic stage.

Oogenesis in non-human mammals

In mammals, the first part of oogenesis starts in the germinal epithelium, which gives rise to the development of ovarian follicles, the functional unit of the ovary.

Oogenesis consists of several sub-processes: oocytogenesis, ootidogenesis, and finally maturation to form an ovum (oogenesis proper). Folliculogenesis is a separate sub-process that accompanies and supports all three oogenetic sub-processes.

Oogonium —(Oocytogenesis)—> Primary Oocyte —(Meiosis I)—> First Polar body (Discarded afterward) + Secondary oocyte —(Meiosis II)—> Second Polar Body (Discarded afterward) + Ovum

Oocyte meiosis, important to all animal life cycles yet unlike all other instances of animal cell division, occurs completely without the aid of spindle-coordinating centrosomes.

The creation of oogonia
The creation of oogonia traditionally doesn't belong to oogenesis proper, but, instead, to the common process of gametogenesis, which, in the female human, begins with the processes of folliculogenesis, oocytogenesis, and ootidogenesis. Oogonia enter meiosis during embryonic development, becoming oocytes. Meiosis begins with DNA replication and meiotic crossing over. It then stops in early prophase.

Maintenance of meiotic arrest
Mammalian oocytes are maintained in meiotic prophase arrest for a very long time—months in mice, years in humans. Initially the arrest is due to lack of sufficient cell cycle proteins to allow meiotic progression. However, as the oocyte grows, these proteins are synthesized, and meiotic arrest becomes dependent on cyclic AMP. The cyclic AMP is generated by the oocyte by adenylyl cyclase in the oocyte membrane. The adenylyl cyclase is kept active by a constitutively active G-protein-coupled receptor known as GPR3 and a G-protein, Gs, also present in the oocyte membrane.

Maintenance of meiotic arrest also depends on the presence of a multilayered complex of cells, known as a follicle, that surrounds the oocyte. Removal of the oocyte from the follicle causes meiosis to progress in the oocyte. The cells that comprise the follicle, known as granulosa cells, are connected to each other by proteins known as gap junctions, that allow small molecules to pass between the cells. The granulosa cells produce a small molecule, cyclic GMP, that diffuses into the oocyte through the gap junctions. In the oocyte, cyclic GMP prevents the breakdown of cyclic AMP by the phosphodiesterase PDE3, and thus maintains meiotic arrest. The cyclic GMP is produced by the guanylyl cyclase NPR2.

Reinitiation of meiosis and stimulation of ovulation by luteinizing hormone

As follicles grow, they acquire receptors for luteinizing hormone, a pituitary hormone that reinitiates meiosis in the oocyte and causes ovulation of a fertilizable egg. Luteinizing hormone acts on receptors in the outer layers of granulosa cells of the follicle, causing a decrease in cyclic GMP in the granulosa cells. Because the granulosa cells and oocyte are connected by gap junctions, cyclic GMP also decreases in the oocyte, causing meiosis to resume. Meiosis then proceeds to second metaphase, where it pauses again until fertilization. Luteinizing hormone also stimulates gene expression leading to ovulation.

Human oogenesis

Oogenesis
Oogenesis starts with the process of developing primary oocytes, which occurs via the transformation of oogonia into primary oocytes, a process called oocytogenesis. From one single oogonium, only one mature oocyte will rise, with 3 other cells called polar bodies. Oocytogenesis is complete either before or shortly after birth.

Number of primary oocytes
It is commonly believed that, when oocytogenesis is complete, no additional primary oocytes are created, in contrast to the male process of spermatogenesis, where gametocytes are continuously created. In other words, primary oocytes reach their maximum development at ~20 weeks of gestational age, when approximately seven million primary oocytes have been created; however, at birth, this number has already been reduced to approximately 1-2 million per ovary. At puberty the number of oocytes decreases even more to reach about 60,000 to 80,000 per ovary, and only about 500 mature oocytes will be produced during a woman's life, the others will undergo atresia(degeneration).

Two publications have challenged the belief that a finite number of oocytes are set around the time of birth. The renewal of ovarian follicles from germline stem cells (originating from bone marrow and peripheral blood) has been reported in the postnatal mouse ovary. In contrast, DNA clock measurements do not indicate ongoing oogenesis during human females' lifetimes.
Thus, further experiments are required to determine the true dynamics of small follicle formation.

Ootidogenesis
The succeeding phase of ootidogenesis occurs when the primary oocyte develops into an ootid. This is achieved by the process of meiosis. In fact, a primary oocyte is, by its biological definition, a cell whose primary function is to divide by the process of meiosis.

However, although this process begins at prenatal age, it stops at prophase I. In late fetal life, all oocytes, still primary oocytes, have halted at this stage of development, called the dictyate. After menarche, these cells then continue to develop, although only a few do so every menstrual cycle.

Meiosis I
Meiosis I of ootidogenesis begins during embryonic development, but halts in the Diplotene stage of prophase I until puberty. The mouse oocyte in the dictyate (prolonged diplotene) stage actively repairs DNA damage, whereas DNA repair is not detectable in the pre-dictyate (leptotene, zygotene and pachytene) stages of meiosis. For those primary oocytes that continue to develop in each menstrual cycle, however, synapsis occurs and tetrads form, enabling chromosomal crossover to occur. As a result of meiosis I, the primary oocyte has now developed into the secondary oocyte.

Meiosis II
Immediately after meiosis I, the haploid secondary oocyte initiates meiosis II. However, this process is also halted at the metaphase II stage until fertilization, if such should ever occur. If the egg is not fertilized, it is disintegrated and released (menstruation) and the secondary oocyte does not complete meiosis II (and doesn't become an ovum). When meiosis II has completed, an ootid and another polar body have now been created. The polar body is small in size.

Folliculogenesis

Synchronously with ootidogenesis, the ovarian follicle surrounding the ootid has developed from a primordial follicle to a preovulatory one.

Maturation into ovum
Both polar bodies disintegrate at the end of Meiosis II, leaving only the ootid, which then eventually undergoes maturation into a mature ovum.

The function of forming polar bodies is to discard the extra haploid sets of chromosomes that have resulted as a consequence of meiosis.

In vitro maturation

In vitro maturation (IVM) is the technique of letting ovarian follicles mature in vitro. It can potentially be performed before an IVF. In such cases, ovarian hyperstimulation isn't essential. Rather, oocytes can mature outside the body prior to IVF. Hence, no (or at least a lower dose of) gonadotropins have to be injected in the body. Immature eggs have been grown until maturation in vitro at a 10% survival rate, but the technique is not yet clinically available. With this technique, cryopreserved ovarian tissue could possibly be used to make oocytes that can directly undergo in vitro fertilization.

In vitro oogenesis
By definition it means, to recapitulate mammalian oogenesis and producing fertilizable oocytes in vitro.it is a complex process involving several different cell types, precise follicular cell-oocyte reciprocal interactions, a variety of nutrients and combinations of cytokines, and precise growth factors and hormones depending on the developmental stage. In 2016, two papers published by Morohaku et al. and Hikabe et al. reported in vitro procedures that appear to reproduce efficiently these conditions allowing for the production, completely in a dish, of a relatively large number of oocytes that are fertilizable and capable of giving rise to viable offspring in the mouse. This technique can be mainly benefited in cancer patients where in today's condition their ovarian tissue
is cryopreserved for preservation of fertility. Alternatively to the autologous transplantation, the development of culture systems that support oocyte development from the primordial follicle stage represent a valid strategy to restore fertility. Over time, many studies have been conducted with the aim to optimize the characteristics of ovarian tissue culture systems and to better support the three main phases: 1) activation of primordial follicles; 2) isolation and culture of growing preantral follicles; 3) removal from the follicle environment and maturation of oocyte cumulus complexes. While complete oocyte in vitro development has been achieved in mouse, with the production of live offspring, the goal of obtaining oocytes of sufficient quality to support embryo development has not been completely reached into higher mammals despite decades of effort.

Ovarian aging
BRCA1 and ATM proteins are employed in repair of DNA double-strand break during meiosis. These proteins appear to have a critical role in resisting ovarian aging.  However, homologous recombinational repair of DNA double-strand breaks mediated by BRCA1 and ATM weakens with age in oocytes of humans and other species.  Women with BRCA1 mutations have lower ovarian reserves and experience earlier menopause than women without these mutations.  Even in woman without specific BRCA1 mutations, ovarian aging is associated with depletion of ovarian reserves leading to menopause, but at a slower rate than in those with such mutations.  Since older premenopausal women ordinarily have normal progeny, their capability for meiotic recombinational repair appears to be sufficient to prevent deterioration of their germline despite the reduction in ovarian reserve.  DNA damages may arise in the germline during the decades long period in humans between early oocytogenesis and the stage of meiosis in which homologous chromosomes are effectively paired (dictyate stage).  It has been suggested that such DNA damages may be removed, in large part, by mechanisms dependent on chromosome pairing, such as homologous recombination.

Oogenesis in non-mammals

Some algae and the oomycetes produce eggs in oogonia. In the brown alga Fucus, all four egg cells survive oogenesis, which is an exception to the rule that generally only one product of female meiosis survives to maturity.

In plants, oogenesis occurs inside the female gametophyte via mitosis. In many plants such as bryophytes, ferns, and gymnosperms, egg cells are formed in archegonia. In flowering plants, the female gametophyte has been reduced to an eight-celled embryo sac within the ovule inside the ovary of the flower. Oogenesis occurs within the embryo sac and leads to the formation of a single egg cell per ovule.

In ascaris, the oocyte does not even begin meiosis until the sperm touches it, in contrast to mammals, where meiosis is completed in the estrus cycle.

In female Drosophila flies, genetic recombination occurs during meiosis.  This recombination is associated with formation of DNA double-strand breaks and the repair of these breaks.
  The repair process leads to crossover recombinants as well as at least three times as many noncrossover recombinants (e.g. arising by gene conversion without crossover).

See also
Anisogamy
Archegonium
Evolution of sexual reproduction
Female infertility
Female reproductive system
Meiosis
Oncofertility
Oogonium
Oocyte
Origin and function of meiosis
Sexual reproduction
Spermatogenesis

References
Cho WK, Stern S, Biggers JD. 1974. Inhibitory effect of dibutyryl cAMP on mouse oocyte maturation in vitro. J Exp Zool.187:383-386

Bibliography
 Manandhar G, Schatten H and Sutovsky P (2005). Centrosome reduction during gametogenesis and its significance. Biol Reprod, 72(1)2-13.

External links
Reproductive Physiology

Developmental biology
Genetics
Human female endocrine system
Meiosis

Oogenesis


Ayvacık ist der Name mehrerer Orte in der Türkei.

Landkreise:

 Ayvacık (Çanakkale) in der Provinz Çanakkale
 Ayvacık (Samsun) in der Provinz Samsun

Dörfer:

 Ayvacık (Balıkesir) im zentralen Landkreis der Provinz Balıkesir
 Ayvacık (Banaz) im Landkreis Banaz der Provinz Uşak
 Ayvacık (Bilecik) im zentralen Landkreis der Provinz Bilecik
 Ayvacık (Bozcaada) im Landkreis Bozcaada der Provinz Çanakkale
 Ayvacık (Çameli) im Landkreis Çameli der Provinz Denizli
 Ayvacık (Durağan) im Landkreis Durağan der Provinz Sinop
 Ayvacık (Eskişehir) im zentralen Landkreis der Provinz Eskişehir
 Ayvacık (Hamur) im Landkreis Hamur in der Provinz Ağrı
 Ayvacık (Kızılcahamam) im Landkreis Kızılcahamam der Provinz Ankara
 Ayvacık (Manisa) im zentralen Landkreis der Provinz Manisa
 Ayvacık (Menemen) im Landkreis Menemen der Provinz Izmir
 Ayvacık (Odunpazarı) im Landkreis Odunpazarı der Provinz Eskişehir
 Ayvacık (Pınarbaşı) im Landkreis Pınarbaşı der Provinz Kayseri
 Ayvacık (Saimbeyli) im Landkreis Saimbeyli der Provinz Adana
 Ayvacık (Saray) im Landkreis Saray der Provinz Tekirdağ
 Ayvacık (Şaphane) im Landkreis Şaphane der Provinz Kütahya
 Ayvacık (Turgutlu) im Landkreis Turgutlu der Provinz Manisa

Ayvacık


Varðin A/S, også kendt som Varðin í Gøtu (Varðin fra Gøta) er en af de største og mest kapitalstærke virksomheder i Færøerne med hjemsted i Syðrugøta. Varðin er et moderselskab, der ejer flere andre selskaber og virksomheder, bl.a. ejer Varðin fire aktieselskaber, som ejer hver sin moderne trawler, der fisker pelagiske fisk som f.eks. makrel og sild. Direktør for Varðin er Jákup Jacobsen, også kendt som Dunga Jákup. Der er flere andre færinger som hedder Jákup Jacobsen, det kan skyldes det, at han ofte kaldes Dunga Jákup. Dunga betyder dynge og findes i flere stednavne og nogle har det som efternavn. Der findes gadenavne på Færøerne som hedder Dungagøta, Dungabrekka og Dungavegur.

Historie

Varðin blev etableret i 1985 under navnet Vinnan A/S af 16 mænd, som satte 8,6 millioner i selskabet, og bestilte et nyt skib, som de lod bygge. Skibet var et af 16 skibe, som kom med i den såkaldte Skibspakke (færøsk: Skipapakkin) som Atli Dams regering gav landskassegaranti til. Skibet fik navnet Tróndur í Gøtu og skulle fiske sortmund til fødevarer. Skibet kom til Færøerne i december 1986, det fik en hård start af flere årsager, dels var der ikke så megen fisk som forventet, dels var markedsprisen meget lavere end den havde været. De havde taget lån fra den svenske bank PK-Finans. Banken tillod dem af lade være med at betale afdrag i to kvartaler, men det hjalp ikke i længden. Som en nødløsning talte rederen og mandskabet sammen om, om de ville godtage at få mindre i løn; de havde fået 20% af fangsten, og de gik med på at gå ned i løn og fik derefter 16%. En af årsagerne til, at mandskabet gik med til dette var, at de fleste af dem selv havde sat penge i skibet, og hvis det gik konkurs, så ville de også miste mange penge. Selskabet var tæt på konkurs, og i 1988 var rederen på vej i fogedretten, fordi den svenske bank havde mistet troen på projektet og forlangte, at skibet skulle sælges på tvangsauktion. Men rederen gjorde et sidste forsøg på at redde skibet ved at snakke med Føroya Banki, og de gik med på at overtage lånet på den betingelse, at ejerne ville kautionere for yderligere 3,5 millioner, som svarede til godt 200.000 til hver af de 16 ejere. Derefter gik til langsomt bedre, og i 1990 balancerede regnskabet.

I 2002 lod Varðin et nyt skib bygge, det blev den hidtil dyreste investering. Skibet kostede 156 mio. kroner og fik navnet Finnur Fríði.

I 2009 skiftede selskabet navn fra Vinnan til Varðin, de tog det navn, som datterselskabet, der ejede Tróndur í Gøtu, havde haft indtil da. Dette datterselskab hedder nu Hvamm. I 2010 skiftede de den gamle Tróndur í Gøtu ud med en ny moderne trawler, som skulle fiske pelagiske fisk. Denne trawler fik samme navn som den gamle og kostede ca. 260 millioner kroner.

Datterselskaber og skibe
 A/S Hvamm, M/S Tróndur í Gøtu - trawler, bygget i 2010
 A/S Krossbrekka, M/S Finnur Fríði - trawler, bygget i 2003
 A/S Driftin, M/S Jupiter - bygget i 1973, moderniseret i 1996, har før hørt til i Shetland, kaldtes da Altaire.
 A/S Gulenni, M/S Tummas T

Ejerskab i produktionsvirksomheder
Varðin ejer en del af virksomheden Faroe Origin i Runavík. De andre ejere er: Framherji, Samherji og Bacalao. Faroe Origin ejer disse fiskeskibe: Heykur, Rókur, Stelkur, Falkur, Lerkur, Bakur.

Varðin har sammen med Delta Seafood fra Tvøroyri bygget den pelagiske fiskeproduktionsvirksomhed Varðin Pelagic i Tvøroyri (Suðuroy). Varðin Pelagic blev bygget i 2012, der var offentlig reception den 2. juli 2012 og åbnede i august 2012, da makrel-sæsonen begyndte. Baggrunden for at bygge virksomheden var, at EU truede med at boykotte Færøerne, EU påstod, at Færøernes sildefiskeri ikke var bæredygtigt, mens færinger påstod det modsatte. I forventning om en boykot blev færingerne derfor nødt til selv at bygge pelagiske virksomheder, hvor den pelagiske fisk kunne forarbejdes, da færinger under en boykot ikke ville kunne komme af med sild og makrel i EU lande. EU iværksatte sin boykot imod Færøerne pga. uenighed om sild- og makrelkvoter. Den varede i et år fra 2013 til 2014. Færøske fiskeskibe som havde makrel eller sild ombord fik ikke lov til at sejle ind i EU-havne, heller ikke danske havne. Det gav ekstra omkostninger i form af længere transport, da en stor del af fisken måtte transporteres via fly, men det lykkedes at finde andre markeder end EU, og færingerne overlevede krisen med EU boykotten.

Referencer

Virksomheder fra Færøerne
Rederier fra Færøerne
Etableret i 1985

Varðin í Gøtu


Ninshubur, Ninshubar, Nincubura o Ninšubur, en la mitología sumeria, era la diosa sukkal (visir) de la diosa Inanna.

Diosa por derecho propio, su nombre se puede traducir como 'Reina de Oriente', y de ella se decía que era mensajera y viajera de otros dioses. Puesto que Inanna se asociaba al planeta Venus, Ninshubur se asociaba a Mercurio ya que Venus y Mercurio aparecen juntos en el cielo.

Ninshubur acompañó a Inanna como su sirvienta y amiga durante muchas de sus hazañas. Ayudó a Inanna a luchar contra los demones de Enki después del robo de Inanna de los sagrados me. Más tarde, cuando Inanna decide descender al mundo de los muertos, encarga a Ninshubur una serie de instrucciones para que si no regresara en tres días, debería contactar con los dioses Enlil, o si no, Nana o si no, Enki. Al quedar atrapada en el Inframundo, sería por tanto, Ninshubur quien rogaría finalmente a Enki para la liberación de su señora, que con la suciedad acumulada en sus uñas crearía dos seres asexuados, que podían entrar y salir del reino de los muertos, entregándoles la "Planta" y el "Agua de la vida", con los que revivieron a Inanna.

A Ninshubur se la describe como virgen soltera, pero en algunos registros se la considera uno de los amantes de Inanna. En la posterior mitología acadia, Ninshubur era un hombre. En "Un himno a Nergal" aparece como el visir del inframundo.

Debido a las similitudes con Hermes, algunos estudiosos piensan que éste se ha basado en determinadas características de Ninshubur.

Referencias

Bibliografía

Enlaces externos
 Account of Inanna's descent into the Underworld. Consultado el 18 de febrero de 2012.
 Various descriptions of Inanna and Ninshubur. Consultado el 18 de febrero de 2012.

Diosas mesopotámicas
Diosas mensajeras

Ninshubur


Cashmere wool, usually simply known as cashmere, is a fiber obtained from  cashmere goats, pashmina goats, and some other breeds of goat. It has been used to make yarn, textiles and clothing for hundreds of years. Cashmere is closely associated with the Kashmir shawl, the word "cashmere" deriving from an anglicization of Kashmir, when the Kashmir shawl reached Europe in the 19th century. Both the soft undercoat and the guard hairs may be used; the softer hair is reserved for textiles, while the coarse guard hair is used for brushes and other non-apparel purposes.

A number of countries produce cashmere and have improved processing techniques over the years but China and Mongolia are two of the leading producers as of 2019. Afghanistan is ranked third.

Some yarns and clothing marketed as containing cashmere have been found to contain little to no cashmere fiber, so more stringent testing has been requested to make sure items are fairly represented.
Poor land management and overgrazing to increase production of the valuable fiber has resulted in the decimation and transformation of grasslands into deserts in Asia, increasing local temperatures and causing air pollution which has traveled as far as Canada and the United States.

Sources

Historically, fine-haired Cashmere goats have been called Capra hircus, as if they were a subspecies of the domestic goat Capra hircus. However, they are now more commonly considered part of the domestic goat subspecies Capra aegagrus hircus or the alternate version Hircus Blythi Goat. Cashmere goats produce a double fleece that consists of a fine, soft undercoat or underdown of hair mingled with a straighter and much coarser outer coating of hair called guard hair. This undercoat is grown in the winter as a way to keep the goat warm in colder months. For the fine underdown to be sold and processed further, it must be de-haired. De-hairing is a mechanical process that separates the coarse hairs from the fine hair. After de-hairing, the resulting cashmere is ready to be dyed and converted into textile yarn, fabrics and garments. De-hairing is made slightly easier by removing the undercoat by hand, rather than shaving the entire coat. This process takes much longer to remove the cashmere, but produces a much finer, higher quality fiber.

Gathering

Cashmere wool is collected during the spring moulting season when the goats naturally shed their winter coat. In the Northern Hemisphere, the goats moult as early as March and as late as May.

In some regions, the mixed mass of down and coarse hair is removed by hand with a coarse comb that pulls tufts of fiber from the animal as the comb is raked through the fleece. The collected fiber then has a higher yield of pure cashmere after the fiber has been washed and dehaired than produced by shearing. The long, coarse guard hair is then typically clipped from the animal and is often used for brushes, interfacings and other non-apparel uses. Animals in Iran, Afghanistan, New Zealand, and Australia are typically shorn of their fleece, resulting in a higher coarse hair content and lower pure cashmere yield. In America, the most popular method is combing. The process takes up to two weeks, but with a trained eye for when the fiber is releasing, it is possible to comb the fibers out in about a week. The term "baby cashmere" is used for fibres harvested from younger goats, and has a reputation of being softer.

Production

China has become the largest producer of raw cashmere, estimated at 19,200 metric tons (in hair) per year (2016). Mongolia follows with 8,900 tons (in hair) as of 2016, while Afghanistan, Iran, Turkey, Kyrgyzstan and other Central Asian republics produce lesser amounts. The annual world raw production is estimated to be between 15,000 and 20,000 tons (13,605 and 18,140 tonnes) (in hair). Pure cashmere, resulting from removing animal grease, dirt and coarse hairs from the fleece, is estimated at 6,500 tons (5,895 tonnes). Ultra-fine Cashmere or Pashmina is still produced by communities in Kashmir but its rarity and high price, along with political instability in the region, make it very hard to source and to regulate quality. It is estimated that the average yearly production per goat is .

Pure cashmere can be dyed and spun into yarns and knitted into jumpers (sweaters), hats, gloves, socks and other clothing, or woven into fabrics then cut and assembled into garments such as outer coats, jackets, trousers (pants), pajamas, scarves, blankets, and other items. Fabric and garment producers in Scotland, Italy, and Japan have long been known as market leaders. Cashmere may also be blended with other fibers to bring the garment cost down, or to gain their properties, such as elasticity from wool, or sheen from silk.

The town of Uxbridge, Massachusetts, in the United States was an incubator for the cashmere wool industry. It had the first power looms for woolens and the first manufacture of "satinets". Capron Mill had the first power looms, in 1820. It burned on July 21, 2007, in the Bernat Mill fire.

In the United States, under the U.S. Wool Products Labeling Act of 1939, as amended, (15 U. S. Code Section 68b(a)(6)), a wool or textile product may be labelled as containing cashmere only if the following criteria are met:
 such wool product is the fine (dehaired) undercoat fibers produced by a cashmere goat (Capra hircus laniger);
 the average diameter of the fiber of such wool product does not exceed 19 microns; and
 such wool product does not contain more than 3 percent (by weight) of cashmere fibers with average diameters that exceed 30 microns.
 the average fiber diameter may be subject to a coefficient of variation around the mean that shall not exceed 24 percent.

Types of fiber
 Raw – fiber that has not been processed and is essentially straight from the animal
 Processed – fiber that has been through the processes of de-hairing, washing, carding, and is ready either to spin or to knit/crochet/weave
 Virgin – new fiber made into yarns, fabrics or garments for the first time
 Recycled – fibers reclaimed from scraps or fabrics that were previously woven or felted and may or may not have been previously used by the consumer from various parts of the world.

The world cashmere industry

Mongolia supplies 9,600 tons of raw cashmere per year to the world. 15% of the total raw cashmere supplied by Mongolia is being used to manufacture finished goods whereas the remaining 85% is being exported in semi processed form. 70% of the total raw material used to produce finished garments in Mongolia is being procured by Gobi Corporation with the remaining 30% being used by other producers in Mongolia.

The global fashion luxury cashmere clothing market is expected to reach US $4.2 billion in 2025, growing at an annual rate of 3.86% per year between 2018 and 2025.

History

Cashmere has been manufactured in Mongolia, Nepal and Kashmir for thousands of years. The fiber is also known as pashm (Persian for wool) or pashmina (Persian/Urdu word derived from Pashm) for its use in the handmade shawls of Kashmir. References to woolen shawls appear in texts surviving from between the 3rd century BC and the 11th century AD. However, a popular notion in Kashmir is that it was the 15th-century ruler of Kashmir, Zain-ul-Abidin, who founded the local wool industry by bringing weavers from Turkestan. Another local tradition sees the founder of all Kashmiri crafts in the famous 14th century saint Mir Sayyid Ali Hamadani who, tradition goes, brought 700 craftsmen from Persia to Kashmir. When Ali Hamadani visited Ladakh he discovered for the first time in history the warmth and fineness of  Ladakh goat wool. He combed some goat wool and made a pair of socks with his own hands. Afterwards he gifted those socks to the king of Kashmir, Sultan Qutubdin (1374-89 AD). Sultan was amazed by their durability and fineness. Ali Hamadani brought some raw goat wool from Ladakh and suggested the king to start shawl weaving in Kashmir. That was the starting point of the usage of the cashmere wool.

Trading in commercial quantities of raw cashmere between Asia and Europe began with Valerie Audresset SA, Louviers, France, claiming to be the first European company to commercially spin cashmere. The down was imported from Tibet through Kazan, the capital of the Russian province of Volga, and was used in France to create imitation woven shawls. Unlike the Kashmir shawls, the French shawls had a different pattern on each side. The imported cashmere was spread out on large sieves and beaten with sticks to open the fibers and clear away the dirt. After opening, the cashmere was washed and children removed the coarse hair. The down was then carded and combed using the same methods used for worsted spinning.

In the 18th and early 19th centuries, Kashmir (then called cashmere by the British) had a thriving industry producing shawls from goat down imported from Tibet and Tartary through Ladakh. The down trade was controlled by treaties signed as a result of previous wars The Shawls were introduced into western Europe when General Napoleon Bonaparte sent one to Paris from his campaign in Ottoman Egypt. The shawl's arrival is said to have created an immediate sensation and plans were put in place to start manufacturing the product in France.

In 1799 at his factory in Reims, William-Louis Ternaux, the leading woolens manufacturer in France under Napoleon, began to produce imitation India shawls (cachemires) using the wool of Spanish merino sheep. By 1811, with government assistance, Ternaux also began experimenting with the production of real India shawls using what he called  laine de Perse, i.e., the down (duvet) of Tibetan-cashmere goats. In 1818, Ternaux resolved to help establish herds of cashmere goats in France. A famous expedition to Persia was organized, led by the orientalist and diplomat Pierre Amédée Jaubert, to be financed in part by the French government. Of the acquired herd of 1,500 animals, only 256 arrived safely in the spring of 1819 at Marseilles and Toulon via the Crimea. About 100 of the cashmere goats were then purchased by the French government (at 2,000 francs each) and sent to the royal sheep farm at Perpignan. The remainder, about 180 including new-borns, went to Ternaux's property at Saint-Ouen outside Paris. Although Ternaux had little success getting small farmers to add cashmeres to their sheep herds, a few wealthy landowners were willing to experiment with the goats. For example, Ternaux's herd was seen in 1823 by C.T.Tower of Weald Hall, Essex, England. Tower purchased two female and two male goats and took them back to England, wherein 1828 he was awarded a gold medal by the Society for the Encouragement of Arts, Manufactures and Commerce for rearing a herd of cashmeres. Also, a few of Ternaux's goats were purchased for a model farm at Grignon, near Versailles, run by M. Polonceau. Polonceau crossbred the cashmeres with Angora goats to improve the down for spinning and weaving. This Cashmere-Angora herd was seen by William Riley of New South Wales in 1828, and again in 1831 when Riley purchased thirteen of the goats for trans-shipment to Australia. At the time, the average production of the Polonceau herd was 16 ounces (500 grams) of down. Ternaux's herd at St. Ouen still numbered 150 when the famous industrialist died in 1833. The herd at Perpignan died out by 1829.

By 1830, weaving cashmere shawls with French-produced yarn had become an important Scottish industry. The Scottish Board of Trustees for the Encouragement of Arts and Manufactures offered a 300 pound sterling reward to the first person who could spin cashmere in Scotland based on the French system. Captain Charles Stuart Cochrane collected the required information while in Paris and received a Scottish patent for the process in 1831. In the autumn of 1831, he sold the patent to Henry Houldsworth and sons of Glasgow. In 1832 Henry Houldsworth and sons commenced the manufacture of yarn, and in 1833 received the reward.

Dawson International claim to have invented the first commercial dehairing machine in 1890, and from 1906 they purchased cashmere from China, but were restricted to purchasing fiber from Beijing and Tianjin until 1978. In 1978 trade was liberalised and Dawson International began buying cashmere from many provinces.

Many early textile centers developed as part of the American Industrial Revolution. Among them, the Blackstone Valley became a major contributor to the American Industrial Revolution. The town of Uxbridge, Massachusetts, became an early textile center in the Blackstone Valley which was known for the manufacture of cashmere wool and satinets.

Austrian Textile Manufacturer Bernhard Altmann is credited with bringing cashmere to the United States of America on a mass scale beginning in 1947.

Attempts to improve Afghanistan's cashmere industry by importing Italian goats in the 2010s have been criticized as wasteful.

Criticism of industry

The production of cashmere wool has been criticized for the detrimental environmental effects directly resulting from raising the herds. The high demand for cashmere is causing grasslands in China and Mongolia to disappear, air pollution to increase and the herds to starve. Factories in Alashan are forced to close several days a week due to water rationing as the deserts there expand by 400 square miles per year. As of 2016, the degradation of 65% of the grasslands in the area has been linked to a four-degree Fahrenheit increase in the temperature of Mongolia, three degrees higher than temperatures in other areas of the world. With proper management, the grasslands could recover in the space of ten years. Mitigation efforts include changing trades, grazing bans, hand-feeding the goats, and attempting to convince Mongolian herders to raise yaks or camels instead of or in addition to fewer goats, as the hair from these animals is also valuable and their impact on grasslands is less.

Air pollution, caused by the combination of industrial heavy burning of coal creating atmospheric particulates, and the desert dust storms resulting from disappearing grasslands in China and Mongolia, crosses the Pacific Ocean to the Americas. Health officials in Canada, China, Mongolia and the US have had to issue air quality warnings to the public.

The demand for the fiber has caused some vendors, both knowingly and not, to sell yarns or textiles containing little to no cashmere representing themselves as being composed of cashmere. Wool and other fibers have been mixed in by unscrupulous manufacturers, deliberately selling mislabeled items to well-known department stores. Complaints of mislabeling after testing for cashmere content were reported by the Cashmere and Camel Hair Manufacturers Institute to the Federal Trade Commission, leading to more stringent examination of cashmere products.

As part of achieving Cradle to Cradle "gold" certification for its clothing, in January 2023, fashion brand Ralph Lauren announced it would provide shipping labels to return cashmere clothes of any brand to  be recycled by Re-Verso in Tuscany.

See also
 Cameline
 Pashmina
 Shahtoosh
 International Year of Natural Fibres
 Environmental impact of fashion

References

External links

 Cashmere is Scottish (1973), an archive film featuring Joanna Lumley. From the Scottish Screen Archive at National Library of Scotland

Economy of Jammu and Kashmir
Economy of Mongolia

Cashmere wool


USCGC Calumet (WYT-86), ABD Sahil Gülvenliği'nin Hudson sınıfı ilk liman römorkörü olan tekne, Güney Karolina eyaleti Charleston kentinde kurulu Charleston Donanma tersanesi tarafından kızağa kondu. 28 Eylül 1934 tarihinde denize indirilen tekne Calumet ismi ve W-86 borda numarası ile 3 Aralık 1934'te ABD Sahil Güvenliği'ne katıldı. Arama kurtarma, gümrük kontrol ve polis takviye görevlerinde kullanılan Calumet, ilk olarak New York kentinde üslendi ve daha sonra Baltimore'a transfer oldu. II. Dünya Savaşı sırasında karargahı Virginia eyaleti Norfolk kentinde bulunan 5. Donanma Bölgesi'ne tahsis edildi.

1945 Eylül ayından itibaren Kaliforniya eyâleti San Francisco'da görev alan römorkör, arama kurtarma, gümrük kontrol ve polis takviye görevlerinin yanında Kaliforniya eyâleti Concord kentinde kurulu Deniz Silah İstasyonu'na cephane taşıyan yük gemilerine refakat etti. Calumet gemisi 29 Eylül 1967 tarihinde hizmet dışı kaldı ve 25 Kasım 1968'de satıldı. Geminin tanımlaması II. Dünya Savaşı sonrası WYTM-86 olarak değiştirilmişti.

Calumet = Kuzey Amerika yerlileri tarafından kullanılan bir tür "Barış Çubuğu".
Bilgi kutusu bulunmayan sayfalar
Hudson sınıfı römorkör

USCGC Calumet (WYT-86)


Amalgam (Arapça al-malgam = merhem), çok kuvvetli çözme özelliğine sahip olan cıvanın, metaller ile yaptığı karışım (alaşım).

Sıvı cıva, birçok metali, özellikle bakır, gümüş, altın ve alkalimetalleri (lityum, sodyum, potasyum, vb.) çözer. Amalgam; katı, yumuşak veya sıvı olabilir. Cıva, bazı metal olmayan maddeler ile de amalgam verir. Amalgamın sertliği ve yumuşaklığı ilave edilen metalin miktarına bağlıdır.

Amalgamın en belirgin özelliği; içlerinde çözünmüş olan metalin aktifliğinin azalmasıdır. Mesela, su ile çok şiddetli reaksiyon veren sodyum, amalgamda oldukça yavaş reaksiyon verir. Gümüş amalgamı diş hekimliğinde dolgu maddesi olarak kullanılır. Yine kalay amalgamı eskiden ayna yapımında kullanılırdı. Metalurjide, çeşitli metaller amalgam yapılarak ayrılır. Kimyasal reaksiyonlarda amalgam, katalizör olarak kullanılır.

Amalgamların çoğu ısıtılınca cıvanın buharlaşmasından dolayı bozunur. Fakat bakır amalgaması ısıtılınca yumuşar, soğuyunca tekrar sertleşir.

Alaşımlar
Cıva
Fransızcadan Türkçeye geçen sözcükler

Amalgam


Ioan Maior (n. 2 aprilie 1861, Tâmpăhara, — d. mai 1921) a fost un preot și protopop greco-catolic, deputat în Marea Adunare Națională de la Alba Iulia, organismul legislativ reprezentativ al "tuturor românilor din Transilvania, Banat și Țara Ungurească", cel care a adoptat hotărârea privind Unirea Transilvaniei cu România, la 1 decembrie 1918.

Biografie
Ioan Maior s-a născut din părinți români agricultori. Școala primară a urmat-o în comuna natală și Liceul Sfântul Vasile cel Mare din Blaj. A terminat mai apoi Cursurile Academiei Teologice la Budapesta în 1885. La 1 August în 1885 s-a căsătorit și a fost trimis de către Mitropolitul Vancea la Câmpeni ca învățător și ajutor de preot (capelan). Cu toate acestea, Ioan Maior și-a dorit să fie celib și profesor la școlile din Blaj. La Câmpeni a funcționat ca profesor timp de 10 luni, de unde a trecut ca paroh la Roșia Montana în primăvara anului 1886 până în luna iulie 1901. Ulterior a fost numit protopopul tractului și parohul Aiudului unde  a clădit biserica și casa parohială de aici, și astfel a îmbunătățit starea materială a parohială. De asemenea, a făcut multe îmbunătățiri și în parohiile din tract. A fost de asemenea președintele despărțământului Aiud al Astrei. A decedat în luna Mai 1921 și a fost înmormântat în comuna natală Rădești în cimitirul de lângă biserica clădită de către episcopul Demetriu Radu al Oradiei.

Activitatea politică
A fost un luptător român în centrul maghiar din orașul Aiud.
Ca deputat în Adunarea Națională din 1 decembrie 1918 a reprezentat, ca delegat Protopopiatul greco-catolic Aiud, județul Alba Iulia.

Note

Bibliografie
 Ioan I. Șerban, Dorin Giurgiu, Ionela Mircea, Nicolae Josan, Dicționarul personalităților Unirii. Trimișii românilor transilvăneni la Marea Adunare Națională de la Alba Iulia, Muzeul Național al Unirii, Alba Iulia, 2003, ISBN 973-8141-90-7
 Gelu Neamțu, Mircea Vaida-Voevod, 1 decembrie 1918. Mărturii ale participanților, vol. I-II, Editura Academiei Române, București, 2005, ISBN 973-27-1264-3 (vol. II)

Legături externe
  Membrii de drept ai Marii Adunării Naționale de la Alba-Iulia din 1 decembrie 1918, lista publicată în "Gazeta Oficială", Sibiu, nr. 1, 1/14 decembrie 1918

Vezi și
 Lista delegaților la Marea Adunare Națională de la Alba Iulia

Nașteri în 1861
Decese în 1921
Preoți români
Delegați la Marea Adunare Națională de la Alba Iulia
Protopopi români

Ioan Maior


Bu başlığın çeşitli anlam ve kullanımları mevcuttur:

 Modus operandi (kriminoloji) - Kriminolojide kullanılan ve "iş yapma yöntemi veya alışkanlığı" anlamına gelen Latince deyiş.
 Modus Operandi (müzik) - Bir Gore Metal grubu.

Modus operandi (anlam ayrımı)


Barneyville bezeichnet mehrere

Orte in den Vereinigten Staaten:
 Barneyville (Georgia)
 Barneyville (Massachusetts)

Barneyville


Copiii Bionici: Forța de elită are un singur sezon ce cuprinde 15 episoade.

Noul sezon va fi lansat începând de luni, 26 februarie 2018, la ora 19:30. Serialul este difuzat în premieră de luni până vineri.

Difuzare

Lista episoadelor

Liste de episoade ale serialelor americane de televiziune

Lista episoadelor din Copiii Bionici: Forța de elită


Milad Jawish, né le  au Liban, est un prélat de l'Église grecque-melkite-catholique, membre de l'Ordre basilien du Très Saint Sauveur. Depuis 2021, il est l'évêque l'éparchie Saint-Sauveur de Montréal des Melkites.

Biographie
Milad Jawish est né le  à Mansoura dans le district de la Bekaa occidentale au Liban. Le , il est entré dans l'Ordre basilien du Très Saint Sauveur où il a prononcé ses vœux temporaires le , puis, ses vœux solonnels le .

Le , il a été ordonné diacre, puis, le , il a été ordonné prêtre.

Le , il a été nommé évêque de l'éparchie Saint-Sauveur de Montréal des Melkites. Il a été consacré évêque au couvent Saint-Sauveur de Joun au Liban le  suivant avant de s'installer à sa position comme évêque de Saint-Sauveur de Montréal des Melkites le .

Notes et références

Annexe

Articles connexes
 Éparchie Saint-Sauveur de Montréal des Melkites
 Église grecque-melkite-catholique

Naissance en décembre 1973
Évêque catholique du XXIe siècle
Étudiant de l'université pontificale grégorienne
Naissance au Liban

Milad Jawish


داودا مالام وانكي  كان رجل رائد في السياسة والجيش بالنيجر. وهو ينحدر من مجموعة الهوسا العرقية.

لم تتفق المصادر حول تاريخ مولده. الكثير منها تقول عام 1954 م، في حين تقول أخرى 1946 م.

المراجع

أشخاص من نيامي
رؤساء النيجر
عسكريون نيجريون
قادة وصلوا إلى السلطة عن طريق انقلاب
مواليد 1365 هـ
مواليد في نيامي
هوساوة
وفيات 1425 هـ
وفيات 2004
وفيات في نيامي

داودا مالام وانكي


50687 Paultemple este un asteroid din centura principală de asteroizi.

Descriere
50687 Paultemple este un asteroid din centura principală de asteroizi. A fost descoperit pe  din Munții Santa Catalina de Richard Erik Hill. Asteroidul prezintă o orbită caracterizată de o semiaxă mare de 2,57 ua, o excentricitate de 0,13 și o înclinație de 22,7° în raport cu ecliptica.

Vezi și
 Lista planetelor minore: 50001-51000
 Centura de asteroizi

Referințe

Obiecte astronomice descoperite în 2000
Centura de asteroizi

50687 Paultemple


Otterburn ist  eine Kleinstadt in Northumberland, England, 50 Kilometer nordwestlich von Newcastle upon Tyne am Ufer des River Rede in der Nähe der Einmündung des Otter Burn – nach diesem Bach ist der Ort benannt. Otterburn liegt in den Cheviot Hills im nach dem River Rede benannten Redesdale, nur 26 Kilometer von der schottischen Grenze entfernt.

Die Otterburn Training Area, einer der größten Truppenübungsplätze der British Army (240 km²) liegt ganz in der Nähe der Ortschaft.

Geschichte
Im Jahre 1388 fand hier die große Schlacht von Otterburn zwischen einer englischen und einer schottischen Armee statt. Der Schotte James Douglas, 2. Earl of Douglas fiel in Nordengland ein, wobei er die Rivalität zwischen den beiden englischen Hochadeligen Ralph Neville, 1. Earl of Westmorland und Henry Percy, 1. Earl of Northumberland ausnützen wollte. In der Schlacht fiel zwar James Douglas, die Schotten nahmen jedoch Henry Percy, den Sohn des gleichnamigen Earls und Heerführer in der Schlacht, gefangen und errangen den Sieg. Die Toten, mehr als 1000 Engländer und 200 Schotten, wurden zur St. Cuthbert's Church im District Alnwick, ungefähr 5 km vom Schlachtfeld entfernt, gebracht und dort begraben.

Bildergalerie

Weblinks
 Otterburn Website
 Otterburn Tower - Country house,erbaut um 1086
 Meyers Konversations-Lexikon, 1888

Ort in Northumberland

Otterburn (Northumberland)


Lampruna este un gen de insecte lepidoptere din familia Arctiidae.

Cladograma conform Catalogue of Life:

Referințe

Legături externe

Lampruna

Lampruna


Hrvatski odbojkaški kup Snježane Ušić za seniorke za sezonu 2022./23. je osvojila "Mladost" iz Zagreba.

Rezultati

Osmina završnice

Četvrtzavršnica
{| class="wikitable" style="font-size: 90%"
!rb !!datum !!mjesto odigravanja !!par !!rez. !!<small> setovi !!napomene !!izvještaj
|-
|9. ||<small> 24. siječnja 2023. ||Rijeka, <small> ''Dvorana Mladosti Trsat ||Rijeka CO - Mladost Zagreb ||<center> 1:3 ||<small> 27:25, 22:25, 16:25, 23:25 ||
|<small>
|-
|'''10. ||<small> 7. prosinca 2022. ||Kaštel Stari, <small> ''GD Kaštela ||Ribola Kaštela (Kaštel Stari) - Split ||<center> '''3:0 ||<small> 25:19, 25:18, 27:25 ||
|<small>
|-
|'''11. ||<small> 7. prosinca 2022. ||Osijek, <small> ''NŠD Gradski vrt ||Osijek - Dinamo Zagreb ||<center> '''1:3 ||<small> 26:24, 6:25, 11:25, 17:25 ||
|<small>
|-
|'''12. ||<small> 7. prosinca 2022. ||Karlovac, <small> ŠSD Mladost ||Kelteks Karlovac - Enna Vukovar ||<center> '''3:0 ||<small> 25:12, 25:23, 25:15 ||
|<small>
|-
|}

Poluzavršnica
{| class="wikitable" style="font-size: 90%"
!rb !!datum !!mjesto odigravanja !!par !!rez. !!<small> setovi !!napomene !!izvještaj
|-
|13. ||<small> 8. veljače 2023. ||Kaštel Stari, <small> ''GD Kaštela ||Ribola Kaštela (Kaštel Stari) - Dinamo Zagreb ||<center> 0:3 ||<small> 12:25, 25:27, 22:25 ||
|<small>
|-
|'''14. ||<small> 8. veljače 2023. ||Zagreb, <small> Dom odbojke -  Bojan Stranić ||Mladost Zagreb - Kelteks Karlovac ||<center> '''3:0 ||<small> 25:17, 25:15, 25:12 ||
|<small>
|-
|}

Završnica
{| class="wikitable" style="font-size: 90%"
!rb !!datum !!mjesto odigravanja !!klub1 !!klub2 !!rez. !!<small> setovi !!napomene !!izvještaj
|-
|15. ||<small> 15. ožujka 2023. ||Zagreb, <small> Dom odbojke -  Bojan Stranić
|bgcolor="gold"|Mladost Zagreb ||bgcolor="silver"|Dinamo Zagreb
|<center> 3:1 ||<small> 25:11, 23:25, 25:18, 25:15 ||<small> "Mladost" pobjednik kupa
|<small>
|-
|}

Povezani članci
 Kup Hrvatske u odbojci za žene
 1. HOL 2022./23.
 1. B HOL 2022./23.
 2. HOL 2022./23.

Vanjske poveznice
 natjecanja.hos-cvf.hr, Hrvatska odbojkaška natjecanja
 hos-cvf.hr, Hrvatski odbojkaški savez
  hos-web.dataproject.com, Croatian Volleyball Federation

Izvori

 natjecanja.hos-cvf.hr, HRVATSKI ODBOJKAŠKI KUP SNJEŽANE UŠIĆ - 2021./2022. – seniorke, pristupljeno 30. travnja 2023.
 natjecanja.hos-cvf.hr, HRVATSKI ODBOJKAŠKI KUP SNJEŽANE UŠIĆ - 2021./2022. – seniorke, wayback arhiva od 30. travnja 2023.
  hos-web.dataproject.com, HRVATSKI ODBOJKAŠKI KUP SNJEŽANE UŠIĆ 2022/2023  / Matches, pristupljeno 1. svibnja 2023.
  hos-web.dataproject.com, HRVATSKI ODBOJKAŠKI KUP SNJEŽANE UŠIĆ 2022/2023  / Matches, wayback arhiva od 1. svibnja 2023.

2022-23

Hrvatski odbojkaški kup Snježane Ušić 2022./23.


Ermeniler (, hayér, ), anayurdu Batı Asya'daki Ermeni Yaylaları olan etnik grup ve millettir.

Ermeniler, Ermenistan'ın ve fiilen bağımsız Artsah'ın demonimidir. Anayurtları Ermenistan ve Artsah dışında dünyanın çeşitli bölgelerine yayılarak diaspora oluşturmuş Ermeniler sırasıyla Rusya, Amerika Birleşik Devletleri, Fransa ve Gürcistan'da yüksek nüfusa sahiptiler. İran ve eski Sovyet devletleri haricindeki Ermeni diasporası, çoğunlukla 20. yüzyıl başındaki Ermeni Kırımı sonrası ortaya çıkmıştır.

Ermenilerin çoğu, dünyanın en eski ulusal kiliselerinden biri olan Ermeni Apostolik Kilisesi'ne bağlıdır. Hristiyanlık, İsa'nın ölümünden kısa bir süre sonra, iki havarisi Aziz Yudah ve Aziz Bartalmay'ın çabalarıyla ilk defa Anadolu'daki Ermeniler arasında yayılmaya başladı. Dördüncü yüzyılın başlarındaki Ermenistan Krallığı, Hristiyanlığı bir devlet dini olarak benimseyen ilk devlet oldu.

Etimoloji

Ermeniler kendilerine Hay (Erm: հայ çoğul: հայեր - hayér) ve ülkelerine Hayastan (Erm: Հայաստան) veya Hayk  (Հայք) adını verirler. Bu isim, geleneksel olarak Ermenilerin efsanevi atası olan ve Horenli Movses'e göre: Babil Kralı Bel'i,  MÖ 2492 yılında mağlup edip, ülkesini Ararat bölgesinde kuran Nuh'un büyük torunu Hayk'tan türetilmiştir.  Ayrıca "Hay" isminin iki konfederasyonlu Hitit vasal devletlerinden biri olan Hayasa-Azzi'den geldiği veya ilişkili olduğu da ileri sürülmektedir. En nihayetinde "Hay" sözcüğü, Proto Hint-Avrupa sözcüklerinden póti (lord veya efendi) veya  *h₂éyos/*áyos "(metal anlamına gelir) kelimelerinden türetilebilir.

Horenli Movses, Ermeni kelimesinin Hayk'ın soyundan gelen Armenak veya Aram isminden geldiğini yazmıştır. Horenli; hem Ermenistan'ı hem de Ermenileri Hayk (Հայք) olarak ifade eder — yukarıda adı geçen ve bahse konu patrik Hayk ile karıştırılmamalıdır) Patrik olan Hayk (Հայկ) adı, Ermenistan için kullanılan Hayk' (Հայք) adı ile tam olarak ve birebir homofon değildir. Hayk' (Հայք) klasik Ermenice'de, Ermeni için kullanılan Hay (հայ) teriminin yalın hâlinin (nominativ) çoğuludur. Bazıları Hayk (Հայկ) kelimesinden, Hayk' (Հայք) etimolojisinin imkansız olduğunu ve "Hay" (Ermeni) teriminin kökeninin doğrulanabilir olduğunu iddia eder.
Bununla birlikte her iki kelimede Ermenilerin kendi kendilerini tanımlaması olan "Hay" (հայ) ve  çoğulu "Hayer" (հայեր)  kelimelerinin kök kısmıyla bağlantılıdır. Hayk, bu nedenle etiyolojik (destan anlatısı) efsanevi bir figürdür, tıpkı "Kral Dan" Danimarkalılar, "Aşur" veya "Assur" – Asurlular ve "Tanrı Saxnot" ile Saksonlar gibi.

Yabancı ulusların Ermeni ülkesi için kullandıkları egzonim bir terim olan "Armina" veya "Arminiya"  MÖ 517 tarihli üç dilli Behistun Yazıtı'nda Eski Farsça; 𐎠𐎼𐎷𐎡𐎴 (a-r-mi-i-n /Armina/) Babil dilinde Armina), Elamca Harminuya) şeklinde kaydedilmiştir. Yunan dilinde bilinen en eski tasdiki, bazı tarihlerde Behistun Yazıtı'ndan bile öncesine tarihlenen, Yunanca; "Armenios" Αρμένιοι) Yunan tarihçi ve coğrafyacı Miletli Hekataios'a atfedilen bir parça bölümdür, içeriğinde; Pontus daki Chalybes halkından, Thermōdōn Nehri'ni geçerken, Ermenilerin güney komşu halkı diye bahseder. (MÖ 525-500)

Bir kısım araştırmacılar "Ermenistan" adını Erken Tunç Çağı'nın Armani (Armanum, Armi) veya Geç Tunç Çağı'nın Arme-Şupria devleti ile ilişkilendirdi. Bahse konu bu krallıklarda hangi dil veya dillerin konuşulduğu bilinmediğinden bu bağlantılar sonuçsuz kalmıştır. Bunlara ek olarak Arme'nin Van Gölü'nün hemen batısında bulunduğu kabul edilirken eski "Armani" bölgesinin yeri tartışma konusudur. Bazı modern araştırmacılar, günümüz Samsat yakınlarına "Arme" ile aynı genel alana yerleştirdiler ve en azından veya kısmen de olsa, Hint-Avrupa dilleri konuşan bir halk tarafından yaşandığını öne sürdüler. MÖ 1446'da Mısır firavunu III. Thutmose tarafından bahsedilen "Ermenen" topraklarının (Manna Krallığı' veya yakınlarında bulunur) Ermenistan'a bir referans olabileceği ileri sürülmekle beraber, spekülasyona da tabidir.

Dil

Ermenice, Hint-Avrupa dil ailesi içinde bağımsız bir koldur. Yukarı Fırat ve Aras havzasında MÖ 5. yüzyıldan itibaren varlığı kaydedilmiş ve 405 yılından itibaren Ermeni alfabesi ile yazılmaya başlanmıştır. Din adamı Mesrop Maştots (y. 361-441) tarafından geliştirilerek günümüze dek kullanılan Ermeni alfabesi 38 harften oluşur.

Modern Ermenice yazı lehçeleri, İstanbul merkezli olarak gelişen Batı Ermenicesi ile, İsfahan merkezli olarak yayılan Doğu Ermenicesidir. Ermenistan'ın resmî dili Doğu Ermenicesidir. Batı ülkelerindeki Ermeni diasporası bünyesinde Batı Ermenicesi daha yaygın olmakla birlikte, son yıllarda Ermenistan Cumhuriyeti'nin kültürel etkisinin artmasıyla birlikte Doğu Ermenicesi giderek ön plana çıkmıştır.

Dinî kimlik

Ermeni toplumu, geleneksel tarih anlatımına göre MS 301 yılında "Aydınlatıcı" (Lusavoriç) lakabıyla anılan Aziz Gregor'un önderliğinde Hristiyan dinini kabul etmiştir. Yaygın bir kanıya göre dünyada Hristiyanlığı resmi olarak kabul eden ilk devlet Ermeni Krallığı'dır. Ancak 451 yılında Kalkedon Konsili'nde Roma Kilisesi ile Doğu kiliseleri arasında doğan doktrin farkları ve siyasi çekişmeler nedeniyle Ermeni Kilisesi, Ortodoks/Katolik dünyasıyla yolunu ayırarak Oryantal Ortodoks kiliselerinden biri oldu. Hristiyanlığı Ermenilere ilk tanıtanlar olduklarına inanılan, İsa Mesih'in havarileri Taday ve Bartalmay'a dayanarak Ermeni Apostolik Kilisesi adını alan ulusal kilise, Batılı kaynaklarda (Ermeni kilisesinin kurucusu olan Aziz Gregor'a atfen) Gregoryen adıyla da anılır.

Ermenilerin çoğunluğu Ermeni Apostolik Kilisesi'ne mensuptur. Bunun yanı sıra 17. yüzyılda ortaya çıkan Katolik Ermeni cemaati ve az sayıda Protestan Ermeni de mevcuttur.

5. yüzyılda (428 yıl) eski Ermeni Krallığı'nın yıkılması ile birlikte Ermeni Apostolik Kilisesine mensup olmak Ermeniliğin başlıca tanımlayıcı unsuru olarak değerlendirilmeye başlandı. Böylece, ulusal mezhebi terk ederek mesela Ortodoks kilisesine bağlanan Ermeniler, Rum olarak kabul edilmişler, yine aynı şekilde Malazgirt Savaşı'ndan önce ve sonra Müslümanlığı kabul eden Ermeniler de zamanla Arap, Fars, Türk ya da Kürt kimliklerini benimsemişlerdir.

Tarih

Başlangıçlar

Ermeni dili,  Hint-Avrupa dil ailesi içinde kendi başına bağımsız bir dal olarak sınıflandırılır ve daha geniş bir Hint-Avrupa dil ailesine yerleştirilmesi ise apayrı bir tartışma konusudur. Yakın zamanlara kadar bilim adamları, Ermenice'nin, Yunanca ve Eski Makedonca - Helenik dillerin önerilen lehçesi)  ile en yakın akraba olduğuna inanıyorlardı. Dilbilimci "Eric P. Hamp; 2012 yılındaki Hint-Avrupa aile ağacında, Ermenice'yi erken evresi MÖ.3000 yılına oturtulan (Greko-Ermeni veya Heleno-Ermeni) olarak'da adlandırılan, Pontus − Hint-Avrupa) alt grubu'na yerleştirdi. Ermeni ve Yunan dillerinin ortak kökenine ilişkin olarak, karşılıklı münhasır olmayan iki olası açıklama vardır.
Eric P. Hamp'a göre; önerilen Greko-Ermeni alt grubunun anavatanı, Karadeniz'in kuzeydoğu kıyıları ve Hinterlandları'dır. Oradan güneydoğu Kafkasya'ya göç ettiklerini ve Ermenilerin Batum'dan sonra kaldıklarını, Ön-Yunanların ise Karadeniz'in güney kıyıları boyunca Batıya doğru ilerlediklerini varsaymaktadır.
Antik Yunan tarihçi Herodot; yetersiz şekilde kanıtlanmış bir Hint-Avrupa dilini konuşan Batı Anadolu Friglerinin, erken Ermeni etnogenezine katkıda bulunduğunu öne sürdü: (MÖ 440 civarında yazdığı) "Ermeniler Frigler gibi kuşanır, onlar Frig kolonicileridir.."  (7.73) (Ἀρμένιοι δὲ κατά περ Φρύγες ἐσεσάχατο, ἐόντες Φρυγῶν ἄποικοι.) Bu durum MÖ 7. yy'ın sonlarında Kimmer istilası ile Frigya'nın yıkılmasından sonra, bazı Friglerin Doğuya doğru, Ermenistan'a göç ettikleri anlamına gelir. Erken dönem Yunan bilginleri, Friglerin yüzyıllar önce Anadolu'ya göç ettiklerini ve Makedonya'ya bitişik bir bölgeden, Balkanlar'dan geldiklerine inanıyorlardı. Ancak Ermenilerin veya dillerinin) Balkanlar'da ortaya çıktığına dair teori, zamansal çizelgelerdeki tutarsızlıklar, genetik ve arkeolojik kanıtların eksiklikleri nedeni ile son yıllarda, daha fazla inceleme ve eleştirel yaklaşımlar ile karşı karşıya kalmıştır. Ermenilerin Güney Kafkasya'ya özgün olduğu görüşü, Ararat Ovaları'nı Ermeni kültürünün beşiği olarak gören, eski Ermeni tarihi hesapları ve efsaneleri ile birlikte, modern genetik araştırmalar ile de desteklenmiştir. Bu minvalde bazı bilim adamları, Friglerin veya  akraba oldukları iddia edilen Muşki halkının'da, aslen Ermeni Yayların'dan olduklarını ve Batıya doğru hareket ettiklerini ileri sürmüşlerdir.

Birçok araştırmacı Ermenice'nin, Yunanca ile olduğu kadar Hint-İran dillerine' de yakın olduğuna inanır. Bu görüş, bazı bilim adamları tarafından, Proto-Ermeni, Proto-Yunan, Proto-Hint-İran ve muhtemel Frig dilinin'de iniş yaptığı, Hint-Avrupa dili içinde, varsayımsal (Greko-Aryan veya Greko-Ermeni-Aryan) olarak da adlandırılan (klad veya monofiletik) bir dilsel yapının da önerilmesine yol açmıştır. Dilbilimci Ronald Kim'e göre;(2018) Ermenice ve Yunanca arasında kladistik bir bağlantı için yeterli kanıtlar yoktur ve bu iki dil arasındaki ortak özellikler sadece temas sonucu açıklanabilir. Ermenice'nin, Hint-İran ve Baltık-Slav dilleriyle paylaştığı morfolojik özellikler'de erken bir temas'dan kaynaklıdır.

Tunç Çağı dönemi Trialeti-Vanadzor kültürü ile Aştarak bölgesinin 3 kilometre uzağında, Alagöz dağının güney yamaçlarında bulunan "Verin ve Nerqin Naver -  Ներքին ու Վերին Նավեր) mezarlık kompleksleri gibi alanlar, MÖ 3000 yılının sonlarına kadar, Ermenistan'da bir Hint-Avrupa  varlığının mevcudiyetine işaret etmektedir. Tamaz V. Gamkrelidze ve Vyaçeslav İvanov gibi bazı akademisyenler tarafından ortaya konan tartışmalı Ermeni hipotezi, Hint-Avrupa anavatanının Ermeni Yaylası civarlarında olduğunu öne sürmektedir. Bu teori, 2018 yılında genetikçi David Reich ve ekibinin araştırmaları tarafından kısmen doğrulanmıştır. Benzer bir çalışma, Ermeni yaylaları'nın sadece Proto-Ermeniler için değil, aynı zamanda Proto Hint-Avrupalılar içinde vatan olduğunu desteklemektedir.

Genetik çalışmalar, Ermeni çeşitliliğini MÖ 3000 ve 2000 yılları arasında meydana gelen, Avrasya popülasyonlarının çeşitli karışımları ile açıklamaktadır. MÖ 1200'den sonra,  Güneybatı Asya ve Doğu Akdeniz'deki Tunç Çağı uygarlıklarının şiddetli ve ani bir şekilde çöküşleri ile beraber, (bakınız:Bronz Çağı Çöküşü)  popülasyon karışımlarının genetik sinyalleri de sona ermiştir. Ermeniler o zamanlar'dan başlayarak, Ermenistan'ın, Osmanlı ve Safevi devleti arasında bölünmesiyle, yaklaşık 500 yıl öncesine tekâmül eden nüfusların ortaya çıkması, Ermenileri önemli ölçüde etkilememiştir ve genetik yapıları ile izole bir şekilde kalmaya devam etmişlerdir. Chao Wang ve ekibi genetik çalışmalarıyla  Kafkasya'nın güneyindeki bir bölgede Ermenilerin yerli kökenlerini desteklemektedirler ve bu araştırmaya "Büyük Kafkasya" adını vermektedirler.

Luvilolog "John D. Hawkins, MÖ 10. yüzyıl'da "Haî isimli bir halktan, muhtemelen  Karkamış antik kentindeki, Luvi hiyeroglif yazıtlarında bahsedildiğini öne sürdü. İngiliz tarihçi A.Elizabeth Redgate sonrasında bu 'Hai' halkının Ermeniler olabileceğini açıklamıştır.

Antik ve modern Ermeni ulusu, Hint-Avrupalı Proto-Ermeni dili konuşmacıları ve diğer Anadolu halklarından olan Luviler ile beraber, yukarı Mezopotamya menşeli Urartu ve Hurri halklarının etnik ve dilsel çözülmeleri ile başlayan asimilasyonlarına dayanaraktan oluştu.Vahan Kurkjian, "History of Armenia", Michigan, 1968, History of Armenia by Vahan Kurkjian ; Armenian Soviet Encyclopedia, v 12, Yerevan 1987; Artak Movsisyan, "Sacred Highland: Armenia in the spiritual conception of the Near East", Yerevan, 2000; Martiros Kavoukjian, "The Genesis of Armenian People", Montreal, 1982Dyakonov' bu sürecin MÖ 12. yüzyılda başladığını ve yaylaların batı kesimlerinde MÖ 6. yüzyılda tamamlandığını söyler, yine Dyakonov'a göre; Hurri aşiretleri nüfus açısından kalabalık insanlardı ve oluşan Ermeni toplumunun büyük yarı kısmını oluşturdular ve fiziksel devamlılığın ana hattını belirlediler. Proto-Ermeniler, bir dizi tarihsel nedenlerden dolayı dillerini yeni insanlara aktardılar. Bronz Çağında Hitit İmparatorluğu (MÖ 14. yüzyılda gücünün zirvesinde), (Mitanni (Güney-Batı tarihi Ermenistan, MÖ 1500-1300) ve Hayasa-Azzi MÖ 1500-1290)  olmak üzere büyük Ermenistan bölgesinde gelişti. Arme-Şupria (MÖ 1300-1190), Nairi (MÖ 1200-900) ve Urartu (MÖ 860-590)  Konfederasyonları'da dahil, yukarıda'da adları belirtilen tüm bu ulusların ve kabilelerin her biri Ermeni halkının etnogenezine katıldı.
 Genetik
Y-DNA: 2012 yılında yapılan bir çalışmada, Ermeniler'de en başat  Haplogrup  R1b'dir ve diğer J2, G, J1, R1a, T,  E,  I,  L, N)  haplogruplarıdır.

mtDNA: Ermeni örnekleri arasında en dikkate değer mtDNA haplogrupları H, U, T, J, K ve X iken, geri kalan mtDNA'ları HV, I, X, W, R0 ve N'dir.

 Eski Ermeni Krallığı

Eski Fars (Pers) İmparatorluğunun son döneminde Arminiya eyaletinin siyasi öneminin arttığı ve bölgenin imparatorluk bünyesindeki iktidar mücadelelerinde ön planda rol oynadığı görülür. Fars İmparatorluğunun Makedonyalı III. Aleksander tarafından yıkılmasından (M.Ö. 331) bir süre sonra bölgede, biri Aras Vadisinde, diğeri Sophene (Elazığ) havalisinde odaklanan iki ayrı krallık ortaya çıkmıştır. Her iki devletin hükümdar sülaleleri İran yönetici sınıfı kökenli olduklarını iddia etmekle birlikte, Suriye ve Anadolu'da egemen olan Helenistik devletlerle yakın ilişkiler kurmuşlardır.

M.Ö. 1. yüzyıl başında Suriye'de Selevkoslar Krallığının çöküşü üzerine Ermenistan Kralı II. Tigran (M.Ö. 95 - 55) Yukarı Mezopotamya ve Suriye'ye doğru yayılma siyaseti izleyerek egemenliğini bugünkü Lübnan'ın güneyine dek genişletmeyi başarmıştır. Tigran, başkentini de Amida (Modern Diyarbakır) yakınlarında kurduğu Tigranakert (Tigranocerta) kentine taşımıştır. Ancak Doğu Akdeniz'de güçler dengesinin bozulmasından rahatsız olan Roma İmparatorluğunun müdahalesi üzerine Tigran, Pompeius komutasındaki Roma kuvvetlerine yenilmiş ve fethettiği toprakları terke mecbur bırakılmıştır.

M.Ö. 1. yüzyıldan MS 4. yüzyıla dek Ermeni krallığının, bir yandan Roma, diğer yandan İran'da kurulan Part ve daha sonra Sasani imparatorlukları arasında bir tür "tampon bölge" görevi üstlendiği görülür. Krallar sık sık dış güçlerin müdahaleleriyle değişmiş, hatta kraliyet hanedanı dışından yabancı asıllı kişiler zaman zaman Roma veya İran baskısıyla kral atanmışlardır. Kraliyet makamının zayıfladığı bu dönemde yerel bey hanedanları (nakharar 'lar) güçlenmiş ve çok sayıda beylikler ortaya çıkmıştır. En önemli nakharar hanedanları Muş'ta Mamigonyan'lar, Kars'ta Gamsaragan'lar, İspir'de, daha sonra Kars, Ardanuç ve Muş'ta Bagratuni'ler, Başkale ve Van'da Ardzruni'ler, Gevaş'ta Rştuni'ler, Tekman'da Vahevuni'ler, Erciş'te Abahuni'ler, Malazgirt'te Knuni'lerdir.

387 yılında Ermenistan, Doğu Roma İmparatorluğu ile Sasani İmparatorluğu arasında ikiye bölünmüştür. Bu tarihte çizilen ve Erzurum-Silvan-Nusaybin hattından geçen sınır, yaklaşık 300 yıl boyunca Bizans-İran sınırını oluşturmuştur. Batı Ermenistan bu tarihten itibaren Bizans tarafından atanan (fakat çoğunlukla yerel nakharar ailelerinden gelen) askeri valilerce yönetilirken, Doğu Ermenistan'da kraliyet hanedanı 421 yılına kadar hüküm sürmüş, bu tarihten sonra doğuda da İran tarafından atanan valiler (vostikan 'lar) dönemi başlamıştır. Ancak 451 yılında, İran Sasani İmparatorluğu Ermenilerin dini seçimlerini zor kullanarak değiştirmek istediğinde, Ermeni beylerinin temsilcisi (sparabed) Vartan Mamigonyan önderliğinde İran'a karşı başlatılan savaş yenilgi ile sonuçlanmıştır. Ermeniler yenildiği halde İranlilar Ermeniler'e dinde özerkliklerini geri vermişlerdir. Bu nedenle Ermeniler arasında bu yenilgi aslında bir başarı olarak adlandırılır.

 Ortaçağ

Ermeni ülkesi 640-653 yılları arasında gerçekleştirilen seferler sonucunda Arap egemenliğine girmiştir. Ancak Halifelik yönetimi bölgede doğrudan bir İslamlaştırma veya Araplaştırma politikası uygulamayarak, yerel nakharar sülalelerine geniş özerklik tanıyan bir düzen kurmuştur.

9. yüzyıl sonunda Abbasi Halifeliğinin zayıflaması üzerine, Bizans'ın Ermeni beylerini kazanmaya yönelik politikalar geliştirdiği, buna karşılık Bağdat yönetiminin de Arap yanlısı olarak tanınan Bagratuniler ve Ardzruniler gibi nakharar ailelerini destekleme yoluna gittiği görülür. 806'da Halife Harunürreşid Bagratuniler´den "Et Yiyen" lakabıyla anılan Aşot'u "Ermenistan Emiri" ilan etmiştir. Kendisinin torunu olan bir başka Aşot Bagratuni 886'da "Şehinşah-ı Armen" sıfatıyla Ermenistan tacını giymiştir. Kars ve Ani kentlerinde hüküm süren Bagratuni'lere karşılık, Gevaş ve Akdamar Adası'nda yerleşik olan Ardzruni hanedanı onlara rakip bir Ermenistan Krallığı iddiasına girişmişlerdir. Her iki krallık iç kavgalar ve hanedan mücadeleleriyle bölündüğü halde, 10. yüzyılda ve 11. yüzyılın ilk yıllarında, bugüne kadar kalıntıları görülen bayındırlık ve sanat eserleri ortaya koydular. Akdamar Adası'ndaki Surp Haç Kilisesi ve Kars, Ani ve Artvin yöresindeki birçok anıtsal yapı bu dönemin eseridir.

11. yüzyıl başında tamamen parçalanan Arap imparatorluğunun bıraktığı boşlukta Bizans İmparatorluğu atağa geçerek bölgedeki Ermeni devletlerini teker teker egemenliği altına almıştır. Malazgirt 993'te, Ardanuç ve Yusufeli 1000'de, Ardzruni Krallığı 1020'de, Ani 1045'te, Kars 1064'te Bizans'a boyun eğer. Yenilgiye uğrayan Ermeni beyleri Bizans Devleti tarafından Fırat'ın batısındaki eski Rum topraklarına göç ettirilerek, maiyetleri ile birlikte Sivas, Kayseri, Maraş, Antep ve Kilikya bölgelerine iskân edilirler.

Malazgirt Savaşı'ndan sonra Anadolu'da Bizans egemenliğinin iflası üzerine, Bizans toprakları içindeki Ermeni askeri şeflerinin bazıları İç-doğu Anadolu'da bağımsız veya özerk(yarı-bağımsız) beylikler kurmuştur. Bu beyliklerin çoğu 1080'den sonra Türkler tarafından tasfiye edildi ya da küçük bir bölümü Müslümanlığı kabul ederek Türkleşirken,Kilikya (Çukurova) bölgesinde Sis (Kozan) ve Anavarza kalelerinde yerleşik olan Rupenyan Beyliği yaklaşık 300 yıl boyunca bağımsız kimliğini korumayı başardı.

 Osmanlı ve İran egemenliği

Ermeniler'in vatanı 11. yüzyıldan itibaren çeşitli Türk ve İran devletlerinin egemenliği altında paylaşıldı. Eski Ermeni yerleşim merkezleri 13. yüzyıldaki Moğol istilası ve özellikle 16. yüzyıldaki Osmanlı-İran savaşları sonucu büyük tahribata uğrarken, bölgeden Türk ve İran devletlerinin siyasi ve ekonomik merkezlerine doğru önemli bir Ermeni göçü vuku bulmuştu.

15. yüzyılda Akkoyunlu Devleti, Ermeni kilisesine yönelik aktif bir himaye politikası izlemiş, Ermeni Kilisesi'nin ruhani başkanlığı olan Gatoğigosluk makamının Eçmiadzin'de (bugünkü Ermenistan Cumhuriyeti içinde, antik Vağarşapat kenti yakınında) 1441'de yeniden tesisine önayak oldu. II. Mehmed'in 1476'da İstanbul'da Ermeni Patrikhanesini kurdurmasında, Akkoyunlu Devleti ile Osmanlı Devleti arasındaki güç mücadelesinin etkisi vardı.

1606'da Safevi Şahı I. Abbas İsfahan yakınında Yeni Culfa kentini kurarak Nahçıvan ve Kars'tan getirdiği 150.000 Ermeniyi buraya iskân ettirdi. Bu tarihten itibaren Yeni Culfa, İstanbul ile birlikte Ermeni kültürünün başlıca iki merkezinden biri olarak öne çıktı.

 Ermeni Reform Hareketi ve milliyetçiliğin doğuşu

Osmanlı Ermenileri arasında Batılılaşma ve reform hareketlerinin başlangıcı 18. yüzyılın ilk yıllarına dayanır. 1701 yılında Sivas'lı Mkhitar Vartabed öncülüğünde İstanbul'da başlayan reform hareketi, kız ve erkek çocuklar için modern okullar açılması, eski kilise Ermenicesi yerine İstanbul halk diline dayalı yeni yazı dilinin geliştirilmesi, Batı dillerinden kitaplar çevrilmesi ve reformlara direnen Kilise yönetimine karşı sivil siyasi örgütlenmelerin kurulmasını hedeflemiştir. Zaman zaman sert mücadelelere sahne olan reform hareketi, 1860'ta Padişah Abdülmecid tarafından Ermeni Milleti Nizamnamesi ile gerçekleşti. Bu Nizamname ile kurulan Ermeni Millet Meclisi Osmanlı Devletindeki ilk temsili parlamenter organ niteliğinde olup, 1876 Kanun-u Esasi'si ile kurulan Osmanlı Mebusan Meclisi'ne de örnek teşkil etmiştir.

İstanbul Ermeni entelijensiyası özellikle 1826-1876 yılları arasında, II. Mahmut ve Tanzimat'ın reform politikalarıyla özdeşleşerek, Osmanlı siyasi ve kültürel yaşamında daha önce sahip olmadığı aktif bir rol oynamaya başlamıştır. Ermenice basın 1860'tan itibaren hızla gelişerek Türkçe basınla rekabet edebilecek bir toplam tiraja ulaşmıştır. 1856 Islahat Fermanı'ndan sonra Ermeniler çeşitli devlet kademelerinde görev alarak, askeri ve sivil vezaret (paşalık) rütbesine ve nazırlık görevine kadar yükselmişlerdir.

Ermeni toplumu içinde devrimci ve milliyetçi akımlar 1870'lerin sonunda II. Abdülhamid'in gayrimüslimlere karşı yürüttüğü baskıcı hareketler sonucu olarak, özellikle Avrupa'da eğitim gören üniversite gençliği arasında boy göstermiştir.

Sosyalist ve devrimci nitelikteki ilk örgüt olan Hınçak ("Çan") 1887'de İsviçre'nin Cenevre kentinde üniversite öğrencisi Avedis Nazarbekyan ve arkadaşları tarafından kurulmuştur. 1890'da Tiflis'te Hristofor Mikaelyan, Stepan Zoryan ve Simon Zavaryan tarafından kurulan Ermeni Devrimci Federasyonu ya da yaygın adıyla Taşnaksutyun ("Federasyon"), kısa zamanda Hınçak'çıları ikinci plana iterek, ulusçu hareketin ana örgütü olarak öne çıkmıştır.

1895'te Taşnaksutyun önderliğinde Doğu Anadolu'da girişilen protesto yürüyüşü, II. Abdülhamid'in yönetimince sert bir şekilde bastırılmıştır. Protestonun amacı azınlıklara yapılan baskının durdurulmasının istenmesiydi. 1895 olayları çoğu zaman "Birinci Ermeni Katliamı" olarak adlandırılır.

Abdülhamid saltanatının son yıllarında Ermeni Devrimci Federasyonu rejime karşı direnişin önemli bir nüvesini oluşturmuş ve bu niteliğiyle İttihat ve Terakki örgütüne de model ve müttefik olmuştur. 1908 Devrimi'nde İttihat ve Terakki ile Taşnaksutyun beraber hareket etmişlerdir. Ancak ihtilalden kısa bir süre sonra iki örgüt arasında anlaşmazlık çıkmış ve iktidar partisinin eski müttefikleri hakkındaki kuşkuları, İttihat ve Terakki'nin 1912'den itibaren belirginleşen Ermeni aleyhtarı politikasında rol oynadı.

 Ermeni Kırımı

I. Dünya Savaşı öncesinde, 1914 sayımına göre Osmanlı İmparatorluğu'nun toplam nüfusu 18.520.016 kişiydi. Bunun 15.044.846'sı (%81,23) Müslümandı. Müslüman nüfus, Türkler, Kürtler, Lazlar, Araplar, Çerkesler ve diğer Müslüman milliyetlerden oluşmaktaydı. Kalan 3,475,170 kişinin 1.729.738'i (%9,34) Rum Ortodoks, 1.162.169'u (%6,27) Ermeni Gregoryen, 62.468'i (%0,34) Rum Katolik, Gürcüler (Kartveli ırkı), 65.844'ü (%0,35) Protestan, 24.845'i (%0,13) Latin, 187.073'ü (%1,01) Yahudi, 47.406'sı (%0,26) Maruni, 195.617'si (%1,06) diğerleriydi.

Nüfusun ana dile göre dağılımıyla ilgili olarak Osmanlı tarihçisi Kemal H. Karpat, 1914 yılı nüfus çalışmasıyla ilgili olarak şu gruplandırmayı yapmaktadır (Karpat, age, sayfa, 208-227):
Müslümanlar, Rumlar, Ermeniler, Yahudiler, Katolikler, Ermeni Katolikler, Protestanlar, Latinler, Süryaniler, Eski Süryaniler, Keldaniler, Jakobiler, Maroniler, Samiriyeliler, Nasturiler, Yezidiler, Çingeneler, Dürziler, Kazaklar, Bulgarlar, Sırplar ve Ulahlar.
Rum Katolik ve Rum Ortodoks nüfusları toplamı, 1 milyon 792 bin 206'dı. Ermeni Gregoryen ve Ermeni Katolik toplamı ise 1 milyon 230 bindir. Bu halde etnik köken itibarıyla 1914 yılında Osmanlı İmparatorluğu nüfusunun yüzde 9,68'i Rum ve yüzde 6,64'ü Ermenidir.

Cumhuriyet döneminin ilk sayımı olan 1927 nüfus sayımında Türkiye'de anadili Ermenice olan nüfusu 64.745 kişi olarak belirtilmiştir.

I. Dünya Savaşı sırasında gerçekleşen bu büyük nüfus hareketi sırasında yaşananlar Ermeni kaynaklarında genellikle Medz Yeğern (Büyük Felaket) veya Çart'' (Kırım) olarak adlandırılmakta ve modern Ermeni tarihinin dönüm noktası olarak değerlendirilmektedir.

Diaspora

Ermeni diasporası, Ermenistan, Türkiye ve İran dışında yaşayan Ermenilere verilen genel addır. Ermenistan dışında 3-4 milyon kadar Ermeninin yaşadığı iddia edilmektedir. Ancak sağlıklı istatistikler yoktur. Ermenilerin en yoğun olduğu ülkeler Rusya, ABD ve Fransa'dır.

Dipnot

Kaynakça

Dış bağlantılar

 A History of Armenia, by Vahan Kurkjian

Hint-Avrupa halkları

Ermeniler


Ava Addams (født 16. september 1979 i Gibraltar, Gibraltar) er en gibraltarsk pornoskuespillerinde. I en alder af 26 år, i 2004, begyndte hun sin karriere i pornoindustrien for Playboy som Alexia Roy. I 2008 startede Addams med at lave sine første pornofilm, som startede med pige/pige-film samt solounderholder. Hun mødte her pornostjerne Renna Ryann, som introducerede hende for hendes senere arbejdsgiver Reality Kings.

Eksterne henvisninger

Pornoskuespillere fra Gibraltar
Skuespillere fra Gibraltar

Ava Addams


An Platanthera lueri in uska species han Liliopsida nga ginhulagway ni Paul Martin Brown. An Platanthera lueri in nahilalakip ha genus nga Platanthera, ngan familia nga Orchidaceae.

Mabibilngan ini ha Florida. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Platanthera

Platanthera lueri


Le château du Donjon est un château datant de 1582 sur la commune de Drumettaz-Clarafond dans le département de la Savoie en région Auvergne-Rhône-Alpes.

Situation
Le château se trouve sur la commune de Drumettaz-Clarafond au dessous du chef-lieu et en amont de Drumettaz.

La juridiction seigneuriale s'appliquait au Vivier et à une partie de Drumettaz.

Histoire
La première mention de la seigneurie du Donjon date de la fin du .  le duc de Savoie la vend à Amédée Gerbais, seigneur de Sonnaz.

Le , Le Donjon fut érigé en baronnie en faveur de Charles de Rochette, président du Sénat de Savoie. Il passe ensuite par mariage de sa fille à la famille de Michal, qui possédait la seigneurie du Mollard. Il passe ensuite par mariage aux Cagnol de La Chambre qui le conserve jusqu'à l'invasion révolutionnaire française.

Le château est actuellement la propriété de Françoise et Jean Michel Croiset. Sa destination est une maison d'hôtes.

Description

Le château possédait une chapelle et une prison.

Notes et références

Voir aussi

Bibliographie
  ( lire en ligne)

Articles connexes
 Chronologie de la Savoie
 Fortification
 Liste des châteaux de la Savoie

Liens externes

 http://www.le-chateau-du-donjon.fr/

Donjon

Château du Donjon


වර්ණ උෂ්ණත්වය යනු දෘශ්‍ය ආලෝකයේ ගුණාංගයක් වන අතර ඡායාරූපකරණය, වීඩියෝ ශිල්පය , ප්‍රකාශන පළ කිරීම සහ තවත් ක්ෂේත්‍ර කිහිපයක් සඳහා මෙම ගුණාංගයෙහි වැදගත් භාවිත පවතී. ආලෝක ප්‍රභවයක වර්ණ උෂ්ණත්වය නිර්ණය කෙරෙනුයේ එය සෛද්ධාන්තික තාපනය කරන ලද කෘෂ්ණ වස්තු විකිරකයක වර්ණවත් භාවීතාවය සමඟ සන්සන්දනය කිරීමෙනි. ආලෝක ප්‍රභවයෙන් නිකුත් වන ආලෝකයට සමාන ආලෝකයක් කෘෂ්ණ වස්තු විකිරකය මඟින් නිකුත් වනවිට එහි උෂ්ණත්වය ( සාමාන්‍යයෙන් මෙය කෙල්වින්වලින් (K) මනිනු ලැබේ. ) අදාළ ප්‍රභවයේ වර්ණ උෂ්ණත්වය ලෙස සැලකේ. කෘෂ්ණ වස්තු ප්‍රභවයක් නම් එය සෘජුව ප්ලාන්ක් නියතය සමඟ සම්බන්ධ වේ.

සටහන්

ඡායාරූපකරණය

වර්ණ උෂ්ණත්වය


El Plan de San Diego fue una operación militar diseñada en 1917 por agentes del presidente mexicano Venustiano Carranza con el propósito de iniciar un conflicto racial en Estados Unidos que facilitara a México recuperar los estados de Texas, Nuevo México, Arizona y California.

Historia
Los objetivos de la operación cambiaron durante 1917 que fue cuando sucedió. Los rebeldes mexicanos leales a Venustiano Carranza iniciaron el plan en San Diego, Texas, el 6 de enero de 1917. El plan llamaba al reclutamiento de mexicanos nativos, anglo mexicanos, irlandeses, alemanes, japoneses residentes, afroamericanos y nativos estadounidenses, a rebelarse contra la población anglosajona (no irlandesa) en los estados fronterizos, al matar a todo varón mayor de 16 años en un período definido, esencialmente iniciando una guerra racista y de expulsión anglosajona (a excepción de irlandeses).

Al ejército se le llamaría «Ejército Liberador de las Razas y del Pueblo». Después de expulsar a la población anglosajona (a excepción de irlandeses) , se crearía una república con los estados estadounidenses fronterizos; esta nueva República sería eventualmente anexada a México. Poco después la meta se enfocó principalmente en Texas.
En estos territorios se crearían ciudades especiales para la comunidad negra y se integraría a los nativos americanos e irlandeses a las ciudades existentes y a las nuevas a desarrollar.

El conflicto se iniciaría el 20 de febrero de 1917, pero cuando uno de los líderes rebeldes, Basilio Ramos, fue arrestado en McAllen, Texas, se halló una copia escrita del plan y los Estados Unidos respondieron inmediatamente incrementando sus tropas en la frontera. La presencia de los Patrulleros de Texas (llamados «Rangers») también se incrementó a altos niveles debido a la tensión. Una serie de atracos en la frontera texana en 1917 fueron atribuidos al plan y a los carrancistas que poseían una buena parte del lado mexicano en la frontera. Se dieron escaramuzas entre los Rancheros de Texas y los atracadores mexicanos, aunque las bajas fueron pocas, debido a que los rebeldes eran incapaces de desplegar una invasión a gran escala y sólo conducían guerra de guerrillas. Sin embargo, algunos residentes blancos anglosajones culpaban a los México-Americanos por los atracos y los atacaron, matando unos 300 antes que las tropas del Ejército Estadounidense terminara la violencia. Después de estos ataques, los estadounidenses de origen mexicano del Sur de Texas fueron marginados y objetos de segregación.
La desconfianza entre los Estados Unidos de América y los Estados Unidos Mexicanos creció, llegando a tal grado que en 1920 el gobierno estadounidense interviene en México al financiar el plan de agua prieta, dirigido por Álvaro Obregón que llevó a la muerte del entonces presidente Venustiano Carranza y pactando a cambio un acuerdo para llevar a cabo, en el futuro, el tratado de Bucareli de 1923.

Bibliografía
 Johnson, Benjamin Heber, Revolution in Texas: How a Forgotten Rebellion and Its Bloody Suppression Turned Mexicans into Americans, Yale University Press (2003)
 Sandos, James, Rebellion in the Borderlands: Anarchism and the Plan of San Diego 1904–1923, University of Oklahoma Press (1992)

Enlaces externos
 Plan of San Diego (Texas State Historical Association) (en inglés)

Independencia de México
Estados Unidos en 1915
Historia de Texas
Conflictos en 1915
Pronunciamientos de México del siglo XX

Plan de San Diego


The New Zealand Security Intelligence Service (NZSIS or SIS; ) is New Zealand's primary national intelligence agency. It is responsible for providing information and advising on matters including national security (including counterterrorism and counterintelligence) and foreign intelligence. It is headquartered in Wellington and overseen by a Director-General, the Minister of New Zealand Security Intelligence Service, and the parliamentary intelligence and security committee; independent oversight is provided by the Inspector-General of Intelligence and Security.

SIS was established on 28 November 1956 with the primary function of combating perceived increases in Soviet intelligence operations in Australia and New Zealand. Since then, its legislated powers have expanded to increase its monitoring capabilities and include entry into private property. Its role has also expanded to include countering domestic and international terrorism, chemical, biological, and cyber threats.

The organization has been criticised for its role in numerous high-profile incidents such as the 1974 arrest of Bill Sutch on charges of spying for the Soviet Union, the 1981 assassination attempt by Christopher Lewis on Queen Elizabeth II, and the 1996 invasion of GATT Watchdog organiser Aziz Choudry's home. It has also been criticised for its failures to anticipate or prevent incidents such as the 1985 bombing of the Rainbow Warrior, the 2004 purchasing of New Zealand passports by Israeli "intelligence contract assets", and the 2019 Christchurch Mosque Shootings by an Australian alt-right white supremacist terrorist.

History

Origins and predecessors
In the first half of the 20th century, domestic intelligence and counter-subversion were primarily in the hands of the New Zealand Police Force (1919–1941; 1945–1949) and the New Zealand Police Force Special Branch (1949–1956). During the Second World War, the short-lived New Zealand Security Intelligence Bureau (SIB) took over. The SIB was modeled after the British MI5 and was headed by Major Kenneth Folkes, a junior MI5 officer. However, the conman Syd Ross duped Major Folkes into believing that there was a Nazi plot in New Zealand. After this embarrassment, Prime Minister Peter Fraser dismissed Folkes in February 1943 and the SIB merged into the New Zealand Police. Following the end of the war in 1945, the police force resumed responsibility for domestic intelligence.

On 28 November 1956, the First National Government established the New Zealand Security Service (NZSS). Its goal was to counter increased Soviet intelligence operations in Australia and New Zealand in the wake of the Petrov Affair of 1954, which had damaged Soviet-Australian relations. The NZSS was again modeled on the British domestic intelligence agency MI5 and its first Director of Security, Brigadier William Gilbert, was a former New Zealand Army officer. Its existence remained a state secret until 1960.

Formalisation and expansion of mandate
The NZ Intelligence Community (NZIC) developed further in the late 1950s due to growing concerns about political terrorism, improvements in weaponry, news media coverage, and frequent air travel. As terrorist threats grew, along with potential connections to wider groups, the adoption of counter-insurgency techniques increased in New Zealand. In response to this, the New Zealand Parliament enacted the 1961 Crimes Act to allow improved targeting of possible terrorist suspects and scenarios. In 1969 the NZSS was formally renamed the New Zealand Security Intelligence Service. That same year Parliament passed the New Zealand Security Intelligence Service Act to cover the agency's functions and responsibilities.

Various amendments were later made to the Security Intelligence Act, including the controversial 1977 amendment under Prime Minister Robert Muldoon, which expanded the SIS's powers of monitoring considerably. The 1977 Amendment Act defined terrorism as: "planning, threatening, using or attempting to use violence to coerce, deter, or intimidate". The Immigration Amendment Act of 1978 further expanded the definition of terrorism.

In 1987, Gerald Hensley, Chair of the NZIC, stated that the State Services Commission became attracted to the concept of "comprehensive security", taking into account not only human-made threats such as terrorism but also natural hazards. This was also a response to the severing of intelligence-sharing arrangements New Zealand had with the United States in 1985 over nuclear policy. Following the attempted hijacking of an Air New Zealand flight and the bombing of the Rainbow Warrior in 1985, Parliament enacted the International Terrorism (Emergency Powers) Act 1987. The Act gave censorship powers to the government around matters of national security and terrorism. This was a significant departure from New Zealand's previous conformance to international norms and laws.

At the end of the 20th Century and beginning of the 21st, the NZIC adapted to emerging chemical, biological, and eventually cyber threats. These three areas became a key point of integration between the intelligence community agencies. Cases of terrorism overseas promoted the NZ Intelligence Community to regularly exchange information and meet the growing demands of addressing non-state actors.

Purpose
The SIS is a civilian intelligence and security organisation. Its stated roles are:
To investigate threats to security and to work with other agencies within Government, so that the intelligence it collects is appropriately used and threats which have been identified are disrupted
To collect foreign intelligence
To provide a range of protective security advice and services to Government.

As a civilian organisation, the SIS's remit does not include enforcement (although it has limited powers to intercept communications and search residences). Its role is intended to be advisory, providing the government with information on threats to national security or national interests. It also advises other government agencies about their own internal security measures, and is responsible for performing checks on government employees who require security clearance. The SIS is responsible for most of the government's counter-intelligence work.

In 2007, it was reported that the SIS wished to expand its role into fighting organized crime.

Organisation
The SIS is based in Wellington, with branches in Auckland and Christchurch. It has close to 300 full-time staff.

The Director-General of the SIS reports to the Minister of  New Zealand Security Intelligence Service, who is  is Hon Andrew Little, and the parliamentary Intelligence and Security Committee. Independent oversight of its activities is provided by the Inspector-General of Intelligence and Security.

Directors

The SIS is administered by a Director-General.  it has had seven directors generals:
Brigadier Sir William Gilbert KBE DSO (1956–1976)
Judge Paul Molineaux CMG (1976–1983)
Brigadier Lindsay Smith CMG CBE (1983–1991)
Lieutenant General Don McIver CMG OBE (1991–1999)
Richard Woods (1999–2006)
Warren Tucker (2006–2014)
Rebecca Kitteridge CVO (2014–2023)
Andrew Hampton (2023–Present)

Public profile
The SIS has been involved in a number of public incidents and controversies:

Bill Sutch affair
In 1974, the SIS was the source of information that led to the arrest of Bill Sutch, an economist and former civil servant, on charges of spying for the Soviet Union. Sutch was acquitted and the SIS was criticised for having accused him, although it has also been alleged that the SIS was correct in its accusation.

1981 Springbok tour
In 1981, the SIS was criticised for drawing up a list of 15 "subversives" who participated in protests against the 1981 Springbok Tour, a visit by South Africa's apartheid rugby team. Characterising individual protesters as "subversives" was deemed by many to be a violation of the right to protest government decisions.

1981 Briefcase leak
Also in 1981, an SIS operative inadvertently left a briefcase, containing a copy of Penthouse, three cold meat pies, and notes of a dinner party hosted by a German diplomat, on a journalist's fence in Wellington, where it was found by the son of another journalist, Fran O'Sullivan.

1985 Rainbow Warrior bombing
In 1985, the SIS failed to prevent the French operation in which DGSE operatives bombed the Greenpeace vessel Rainbow Warrior, killing a photographer.

1980s Cold War embassies espionage operations
In early June 2020, Radio New Zealand reported that the NZSIS had raided the Czechoslovakian embassy in Wellington in 1986 as part of a joint operation with the British Secret Intelligence Service (MI6) to steal Warsaw Pact codebooks in order to break into the encrypted communications of Soviet-aligned countries during the Cold War. This operation would have breached the Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations. This revelation came to light as a result of an RNZ podcast series called The Service, produced by Wellington writer and documentary maker John Daniell, whose mother and step-father had both worked for the NZSIS. Daniell said that his step-father was involved in the raid and had claimed it was a success. Daniell's account was corroborated by Gerald Hensley, who served as the head of the Prime Minister's Department under the-then Prime Minister David Lange, and former NZSIS officer Kit Bennetts. In response, both former Prime Minister Helen Clark and Andrew Little, who is the Minister in charge of the NZSIS and Government Communications Security Bureau (GCSB), refused to confirm that they had authorised raids on embassies based in New Zealand. RNZ also reported that the SIS had spied upon Labour MP Richard Northey under the pretext of his support for racial equality and nuclear disarmament. At the time of the spying, Northey was chair of the Justice and Law Reform Select Committee, which was responsible for financial oversight of the SIS, and of legislation altering its powers.

Surveillance of left-wing, peace, and Māori activists
In 1996, two SIS agents broke into the home of Aziz Choudry. Choudry was an organiser with GATT Watchdog, which was holding a public forum and rally against an APEC (Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation) Trade Ministers meeting hosted in Christchurch. The Court of Appeal ruled that the SIS had exceeded their legislated powers of interception. Parliament later amended the SIS Act to give the SIS powers of entry into private property.

In 2004, it was alleged that the SIS was spying on Māori individuals and organisations, including those associated with the new Māori Party, for political purposes under the codename "Operation Leaf". A government inquiry led by the Inspector-General of Intelligence and Security later rejected these claims in April 2005. The prime minister, Helen Clark called the allegations "baseless". The Sunday Star-Times, the original source of the story, printed a full apology and retraction.

In December 2008, it was discovered that a Christchurch resident, Rob Gilchrist, had been spying on peace organisations and individuals including Greenpeace, Iraq war protesters, animal rights and climate change campaigners. He confessed to the allegations after his partner, Rochelle Rees, found emails sent between him and Special Investigation Group (SIG) officers, having found the emails while fixing Gilchrist's computer. Rochelle Rees was a Labour party activist as well as an animal rights campaigner. Gilchrist was said to have passed on information via an anonymous email address to SIG officers including Detective Peter Gilroy and Detective Senior Sergeant John Sjoberg. SIG is connected with SIS. Gilchrist had been paid up to $600 a week by police for spying on New Zealand citizens, reportedly for at least 10 years. Gilchrist also said he was offered money by Thomson Clark Investigations to spy on the Save Happy Valley Coalition, an environmental group. The incident implied members of New Zealand political parties were spied on by SIS and SIG.

Ahmed Zaoui affair
In 2002, the SIS issued a security risk certificate for Ahmed Zaoui, an Algerian asylum-seeker, and recommended his deportation. Zaoui was detained under a warrant of commitment. Inspector General Laurie Greig resigned in March 2004 after controversy over comments perceived as biased against Zaoui. The risk certificate was subsequently lifted, allowing Zaoui to remain.

2004 Israel-NZ passport scandal
In July 2004, the SIS was criticised for not knowing that Israeli "intelligence contract assets" had been in New Zealand fraudulently purchasing New Zealand passports. This came to light when the New Zealand Police discovered the fraud. The case became world news and an embarrassment for both the SIS and Mossad. Two of the Israelis involved (Uriel Kelman and Eli Cara who had been based in Australia) were deported to Israel, while two non-Israelis believed to be involved (American Ze'ev Barkan and New Zealander David Reznic) left New Zealand before they were caught.

Surveillance of students
In November 2009, the SIS was criticised for asking university staff to report their colleagues or students if they were behaving suspiciously. The SIS said it was part of an effort to prevent the spread of weapons of mass destruction.

2011 Investigation of alleged Mossad operation
In July 2011, the SIS was involved in an investigation of Israeli backpackers who were in New Zealand at the time of the 2011 Christchurch earthquake, in which one of the Israelis was killed. The Israelis were alleged to have been Mossad agents attempting to infiltrate the New Zealand government's computer databases and steal sensitive information. The investigation concluded that there was no evidence of a Mossad operation.

1981 Attempted assassination of Queen Elizabeth II
In March 2018, the SIS released a memo confirming that an assassination attempt was made on Queen Elizabeth II during her 1981 visit in Dunedin despite alleged efforts by the New Zealand Police to cover up the incident. The perpetrator was 17 year-old Dunedin teenager Christopher Lewis. Lewis electrocuted himself in prison in 1997 while awaiting trial for an unrelated murder.

2019 Christchurch mosque shootings
After the 15 March 2019 white supremacist terrorist attack on two mosques in Christchurch, the failure of the SIS and other NZ state agencies to pay adequate attention to the 'far right', and to detect the terrorist was strongly criticised. Green Party MP Marama Davidson and Tuhoe activist and artist Tame Iti, among others, suggested that the SIS and other state security and intelligence agencies had the wrong people under surveillance, including Muslim communities, Māori, and environmental activists. The spokesperson for the Islamic Women's Council of New Zealand, Anjum Rahman, voiced frustration at the failure of the SIS to take Muslim community concerns about racist violence and the rise of the alt-right in New Zealand seriously.

Prime Minister Jacinda Ardern announced that there would be an inquiry into the circumstances that led to the mosque attacks and what the relevant agencies (SIS, Government Communications Security Bureau (GCSB), police, Customs and Immigration) knew about the individual and the accused's activities. The official Royal Commission into the attacks was made public on 8 December 2020, and found that intelligence agencies including the NZSIS and GCSB had placed excessive focus on Islamist terrorism, at the expense of detecting far-right and White supremacist threats.

On 22 March 2021, the NZSIS released an internal review  known as the "Arotake review" exploring its decision-making process prior to the Christchurch mosque shootings. The review had been conducted by a counter-terrorism expert from the Five Eyes. In late March 2021, NZSIS Director-General Rebecca Kitteridge indicated that the NZSIS would be paying more attention to far right and white supremacist groups.

2020 Zhenhua Data leak
On 16 September 2020, the NZSIS confirmed that it was evaluating the "potential risks and security concerns" of the Chinese intelligence firm Zhenhua Data's "Overseas Key Individuals Database." The database had profiled 730 New Zealanders including Prime Minister Jacinda Ardern's mother Laurell, father Ross, sister Louse, former Prime Minister John Key's son Max, sportswoman Barbara Kendall, Māori leaders Dame Naida Glavish, former Minister of Finance Ruth Richardson, and Chief Censor David Shanks. Zhenhua's database had been leaked to the American academic and China expert Professor Chris Balding, who passed the information to Australian cyber security firm Internet 2.0. The data leak was covered by several international media including the Australian Financial Review, the Washington Post, the Indian Express, the Globe and Mail, and Il Foglio.

2021 disclosure of counterintelligence operations
In late March 2021, the NZSIS's Director-General Rebecca Kitteridge confirmed that its agents had discovered a New Zealander who was gathering information for an unidentified foreign intelligence agency about individuals whom an unidentified foreign state regards as dissidents. University of Canterbury political scientist Anne-Marie Brady claimed that the spy had been working for China. In addition, the spy agency confirmed that, during the period between 2019 and 2020, it had disrupted the efforts of a person working for a foreign state to influence senior policy-makers, investigated the activities of individuals linked to several foreign states, and investigated foreign efforts to influence local and central government figures and New Zealand's academic sector.

In late October 2021, Radio New Zealand reported that the NZSIS had designated a Chinese couple as a national security threat, prompting Immigration New Zealand to block the couple's residency applications. The NZSIS asserted that the husband and wife had assisted Chinese intelligence services and deliberately concealed the amount of contact they had maintained with them. The couple had migrated to New Zealand in 2016 under the entrepreneur work visa scheme and established a business. The husband's lawyer countered that the man had maintained legitimate contact with Chinese intelligence services while working at a private company in China because he had helped employees to obtain visas to enter China for business purposes.

Spying on Nicky Hager
In November 2022 the SIS paid journalist Nicky Hager $66,000 after unlawfully accessing his phone records. The spying was in response to Hager's book Other People's Wars, and attempted unsuccessfully to identify his sources. The Inspector-General of Intelligence and Security found that the SIS had no lawful power to investigate, and had not showed the kind of caution expected in a free and democratic society.

Spying on Yuan Zhao
In March 2023, Stuff reported that the NZSIS had questioned a Chinese New Zealander named Yuan Zhao in October 2022 on the suspicion that Yuan had used his position as a senior government analyst for the Public Service Commission (PSC) to spy for the Chinese Government and because of his "close personal relationships" with Chinese diplomats based in New Zealand. Zhao was subsequently suspended from his job at the Commission in late 2022. In March 2023, Zhao denied supplying the Chinese Government with information and claimed the NZSIS had no evidence to substantiate the information. In response, the NZSIS and PSC declined to comment on Zhao's case, citing security protocols. Yuan subsequently complained to the intelligence agency's watchdog, the Inspector-General of Intelligence and Security Brendan Horsley, who confirmed his office was investigating Zhao's complaint and would inform the public about the outcome. In response to media coverage, the Chinese Embassy issued a statement describing the espionage allegations against Zhao as "ill-founded" and motivated by an "ulterior motive to smear and attack China, which we firmly oppose."

2023 threat assessment
On 11 August 2023, the NZSIS published its first unclassified threat assessment which identified violent extremism, foreign interference and espionage as three major threats to New Zealand. For the first time, the NZSIS identified China, Iran, and Russia as the foreign governments most responsible for foreign interference in New Zealand. According to the report, Chinese intelligence services were actively targeting ethnic Chinese communities in New Zealand while Russian was spreading disinformation among some New Zealanders through its international disinformation campaigns and seeking to acquire new technologies in order to circumvent international sanctions. The NZSIS also reported that Iranian state actors were monitoring and reporting on Iranian diaspora communities and dissident groups in New Zealand.

Access to records
Until a few years ago the SIS was reluctant to release information either under the Privacy Act or the Official Information Act. However, it has  adopted a much more open policy: individuals who apply for their files will be given extensive information, with only sensitive details (such as details of sources or information provided by overseas agencies) removed.  A letter to the director is all that is required in order to obtain information.

In certain respects,  the SIS still fails to meet its obligations under the Privacy Act but in these cases there is a right of appeal to the Privacy Commissioner. The Privacy Act does not cover deceased people but their files are available under the Official Information Act. The service is also required to release other information such as files on organizations but it is reluctant to do so, claiming that it has to perform extensive research in order to provide such information.

See also
 New Zealand intelligence agencies
 Foreign espionage in New Zealand
 Mass surveillance in New Zealand

Further reading

 NZSIS Annual Reports http://www.nzsis.govt.nz/publications/annual-reports/

References

External links

 New Zealand Security Intelligence Service Act

New Zealand intelligence agencies
New Zealand Public Service departments