Benjamin Louis Eulalie de Bonneville (April 14, 1796 – June 12, 1878) was an American officer in the United States Army, fur trapper, and explorer in the American West. He is noted for his expeditions to the Oregon Country and the Great Basin, and in particular for blazing portions of the Oregon Trail.

During his lifetime, Bonneville was made famous by an account of his explorations in the West written by Washington Irving.

Early life
Benjamin was born in or near Paris, France, the son of the French publisher Nicholas Bonneville and his wife Marguerite Brazier.  When he was seven, his family moved to the United States; their passage was paid by Thomas Paine.  Paine had lodged with the Bonnevilles in France and was godfather to Benjamin and his two brothers, Louis and Thomas. In his will, Paine left the bulk of his estate to Marguerite who had cared for him until he died in 1809.  The inheritance included 100 acres (40.5 ha) of his New Rochelle, New York farm where they had been living, so she could maintain and educate her sons.

Early career
In 1813 Bonneville received an appointment to the United States Military Academy at West Point, New York. He graduated after only two years, receiving a commission as brevet second lieutenant of light artillery. In his early career, he served at posts in New England, Mississippi, and at Fort Smith in the Arkansas Territory.

In 1824, he was taken to Fort Gibson in the Indian Territory and promoted to captain. While traveling to France, he was a guest of General Lafayette. After returning from France, he was transferred in 1828 to Jefferson Barracks in Missouri.

While in Missouri, Bonneville was inspired by the writing of Hall J. Kelley, as well as editorials in the St. Louis Enquirer (edited at the time by Thomas Hart Benton) to join in the exploration of the American West. Bonneville met with Kelley, who was impressed by him and appointed him to lead one of the expeditions to the Oregon Country; it was scheduled to leave in early 1832. The lack of volunteers for the expedition forced the delay and eventual cancellation of the expedition, leaving Bonneville unrequited in his ambitions.

To pursue his desire to explore the west, he petitioned General Alexander Macomb for a leave of absence from the military, arguing that he would be able to perform valuable reconnaissance among the Native Americans in the Oregon Country, which at the time was under a precarious joint occupation of the U.S. and Britain.  It was largely controlled by the Hudson's Bay Company. Macomb granted his request, a 26-month leave running from August 1831 to October 1833, and instructed him to gather all information that might be useful to the government.  In particular, he was to pose as a fur trader and find out the natural history of the region, its climates, soils, geography, topography, mineral production, geology, and the character of the local tribes. Expenses for his exploration were paid by private donors, including Astorian Alfred Seton and possibly John Jacob Astor.

Marriage and family
Bonneville married and had a daughter with his wife. After both his first wife and daughter died, he did not remarry until after retiring from the military in 1866, when he settled in Fort Smith, Arkansas.  There he married Sue Neis.

Expedition of 1832
The expedition that would be known as the most notable accomplishment of his life began in May 1832, when Bonneville left Missouri with 110 men, with field lieutenants Michael Cerre and Joseph Walker. The voyage was financed by John Jacob Astor, a rival of the Hudson's Bay Company. The expedition proceeded from Fort Osage on the Missouri River, up to the Platte River, and across present-day Wyoming. They reached the Green River in August and built a fur trading post, which they named Fort Bonneville.  The mountain men called it "Fort Nonsense" and it was never used for trading.

In the spring of 1833, Bonneville explored along the Snake River in present-day Idaho, drifting into the head of the Salmon River and eventually into Fort Nez Perce. During this trip he engaged a guide, John Enos (Enos), a 10-year-old Shoshone nephew of Gourd Rattler (Washakie) and Pahdasherwahundah (Iron Wristbands); Enos later served as a scout for the Fremont expedition.

He also sent a party of men under Joe Walker to explore the Great Salt Lake and to find an overland route to California. Walker discovered a route along the Humboldt River across present-day Nevada, as well as Walker Pass across the Sierra Nevada.  The path later became known as the California Trail, the primary route for the immigrants to the gold fields during the California Gold Rush. Much speculation has surrounded Bonneville's motivation for sending Walker to California. Some historians have speculated that Bonneville was attempting to lay the groundwork for an eventual invasion of California, then part of Mexico, by the United States Army.

John McLoughlin, the director of the Columbia operations of the Hudson's Bay Company at Fort Vancouver on the Columbia River, heard of Bonneville's mission.  He forbade his traders from doing business with Bonneville and his men. Bonneville reported that many of the Native Americans he encountered in the Snake River were also reluctant to displease the Hudson's Bay Company by trading with the Americans.

In the summer of 1833, Bonneville ventured into the Wind River Range in present-day Wyoming to trade with the Shoshone. By this time, he realized that he would not be able to return east by October as planned. He wrote a lengthy letter to Gen. Macomb summarizing some of his findings and requesting more time, specifically to survey the Columbia River and parts of the Southwest before his return.

Trying to reach Oregon

After spending the early winter at Fort Bonneville, he set out westward in January 1834 with the goal of reaching the Willamette Valley. He and his men traveled down the Snake River, through Hells Canyon, and into the Wallowa Mountains, where they found a hospitable welcome by the Nez Perces along the Imnaha River.

On March 4, 1834, they reached Fort Nez Perces, the outpost of the Hudson's Bay Company at the confluence of the Walla Walla River with the Columbia. Pierre Pambrun, the HBC commander of the fort, welcomed him but refused to do business with him. Empty handed, Bonneville and men retraced their course back to southeast Idaho and made camp on the Portneuf River.

In July he made a second trip west, determined to trade with the Hudson's Bay Company. He followed an easier route across the Blue Mountains, where he met Nathaniel Wyeth once again and camped along the Grande Ronde River. By this time he and his men had become desperate for food and supplies. At Fort Nez Perces, they found the same rejection from Pambrun. Instead of returning immediately east, Bonneville and men journeyed down the Columbia towards Fort Vancouver. Along the river, he attempted to trade with Sahaptins but without success. He came to realize that he would probably receive the same rejection from McLoughlin at Fort Vancouver and decided to turn back east.

He spent the winter of 1834–35 with the Shoshone along the upper Bear River, and in April 1835 began the voyage back to Missouri. He reached Independence by August and discovered that although his letter requesting an extension had arrived, it had not been delivered to Macomb. In the meantime, his commission had been revoked.

Washington Irving
Bonneville journeyed east hoping to be able to recover his commission. On the way to Washington, D.C., he stopped in New York City where he was received by his patron John Jacob Astor. While staying with Astor, Bonneville met Washington Irving. Bonneville regaled Irving with tales of his adventures, tales that Bonneville planned to include in a book he was working on.

A month or two later, Irving visited Bonneville again, at the D.C. barracks where the latter was staying. Bonneville was having difficulties writing his adventures. The two of them agreed that for the sum of $1000 ($ in  dollars ), Bonneville would turn over his maps and notes so that Irving could use them as the basis for his third "Western" book. The result was The Adventures of Captain Bonneville, published in 1837.

More military service
In Washington, Bonneville petitioned tirelessly to Secretary of War Lewis Cass to have his commission re-instated. In early 1836 he was successful. In subsequent years, he was given assignments on the western frontier at Fort Kearny in the Nebraska Territory and in the New Mexico Territory at Fort Fillmore, where he became the commander of the third infantry regiment on February 3, 1855, after the death of Colonel Thomas Staniford. He also served in the Mexican–American War, taking part in the Veracruz campaign of Winfield Scott. He was part of the occupation of Mexico City. He was promoted to colonel of the 3rd Infantry Regiment in 1855, and twice commanded the Department of New Mexico.

Bonneville retired from active service in 1861, but was soon recalled to duty during the Civil War. From 1861 to 1863 Bonneville served as superintendent of recruiting in Missouri, and from 1862 to 1865 served as commander of Benton Barracks in St. Louis. At the end of the war he was breveted as a brigadier general in honor of his long and distinguished career.

He retired a second time in 1866 and moved to Fort Smith, Arkansas, where he married a second time, to Sue Neis.

Brevet Brigadier General Bonneville died at age 82 in 1878. He is buried in Bellefontaine Cemetery, St. Louis, Missouri.

General Bonneville was eligible to join both the Aztec Club of 1847 and the Military Order of the Loyal Legion of the United States, which were military societies for officers who had served in the Mexican War and American Civil War respectively, but did not join either organization.

Dates of rank
 Cadet, United States Military Academy – 14 April 1813
 Brevet 2nd Lieutenant, Light Artillery – 11 December 1815
 2nd Lieutenant, 8th Infantry – 10 March 1819
 1st Lieutenant, 8th Infantry – 9 July 1820
 1st Lieutenant, 7th Infantry – 1 June 1821
 Captain, 7th Infantry – 4 October 1825
 Dropped – 31 March 1834
 Reinstated – 19 April 1836
 Major, 6th Infantry – 15 July 1845
 Brevet Lieutenant Colonel – 20 August 1847
 Lieutenant Colonel, 4th Infantry – 7 May 1849
 Colonel, 3rd Infantry – 3 February 1855
 Retired – 9 September 1861
 Brevet Brigadier General – 13 March 1865

Namesakes
Bonneville's namesakes include:
 Booneville, Arkansas, an altered spelling of Bonneville
 Bonneville Avenue, Las Vegas, Nevada
 Bonneville County, Idaho
 Bonneville Mountain, Wallowa Mountains of Oregon
 Bonneville Salt Flats
 Lake Bonneville, the Pleistocene ancestor of the Great Salt Lake
 Bonneville Slide
 Bonneville Peak in the Portneuf Range
 Bonneville High School in Idaho Falls, Idaho
 Bonneville High School in Washington Terrace, Utah
 Bonneville Elementary School in Salt Lake City, Utah
 Bonneville Dam, after which the Bonneville Power Administration (BPA) was named
 Pontiac Bonneville, an automobile produced by General Motors from 1957 to 2005
 Triumph Bonneville, a line of motorcycles made by the British company Triumph
 Bonneville International, a broadcasting company
 The Bonneville House, Event Center in Fort Smith, Arkansas, once home to Sue Neis
 Bonneville (crater) on Mars.
 , a World War II Liberty Ship.

See also

Further reading

References

 EndofTheOregonTrail.org: Benjamin Bonneville

External links

 Cullum's Register of Graduates of the United States Military Academy

1796 births
1878 deaths
French emigrants to the United States
Military personnel from New Rochelle, New York
American explorers
French explorers of North America
American fur traders
Mountain men
American military personnel of the Mexican–American War
United States Army colonels
United States Military Academy alumni
People of Missouri in the American Civil War
French people of Norman descent
Union Army generals
Explorers of Oregon
American folklore
Burials at Bellefontaine Cemetery

Benjamin Bonneville


Trbotor, arheološka zona u Žeževici, zaštićeno kulturno dobro

Opis dobra
Nastala od 2000. g. pr. Kr. do 1900. g. Arheološka zona Trbotor nalazi se na S strani brda Sidoča, na razmeđu Opanaka i Žeževice. Radi se o kompleksnom arheološkom nalazištu koje ima nekoliko faza razvoja. Prvu fazu predstavlja prapovijesna gradina Trbotor te šest prapovijesnih gomila. Prapovijesna gradina smještena je na istaknutom obronku koji je omogućavao kontrolu čitavog Z dijela Imotske krajine kao i dijela omiškog zaleđa. Zaravnjeni plato gradine branjen je jednostrukim bedemom sa S i J strane dok je s I strane branjen dvostrukim bedemom. Širina sačuvanog bedema varira od 3-10 m dok visina varira od 2-4 m. Vanjski plato gradine je niži i uži te zemljan dok je unutarnji plato gradine uzdignut i kamenit. Gradinu su koristili i antički stanovnici kako svjedoče pokretni nalazi. Ova antička revitalizacija gradine predstavlja drugu fazu razvoja nalazišta. S i SI od gradine nalaze se 4 prapovijesne gomile dok se 3 manje nalaze dvadesetak m od SI bedema. Između ovih gomila, u podnožju brda nalazi se bunar Pišćet dijelom ozidan kamenom. Bunar predstavlja treću fazu razvoja na ovom nalazištu.

Zaštita
Pod oznakom Z-6944 zavedena je kao nepokretno kulturno dobro - kulturno-povijesna cjelina, pravna statusa zaštićena kulturnog dobra, klasificirano kao "arheološka baština".

Izvori

Zaštićene kopnene arheološke zone i nalazišta u Splitsko-dalmatinskoj županiji
Šestanovac

Trbotor (arheološka zona)


Koç ya da Aries (sembolü: ), zodyak kuşağı takımyıldızlarından biridir.

Gözlem bilgisi
Koç'un ikinci ve üçüncü kadirden iki parlak yıldızları Hamal ve Şeratan'ı tanımak oldukça kolaydır. Bu yıldızların solunda ve sağında takımyıldızın diğer yıldızları yay biçiminde sıralanmışlardır. Koç'un iki ana yıldızı, Andromeda'nın tam güneyi ile Kanatlı At'ın Büyük Karesi'nin tam doğusunda, kolay bir yerdedir.

Mitoloji
Koç takımyıldızı, Yunan mitolojisinde geçen "Iason ve Altın Post Peşinde" adlı ünlü bir hikâye ile bağlantılıdır. Hikâye parçalanmış bir ailenin mutsuz çocukları ile başlar.
Phrixus ve kız kardeşi Helle, Boeotia kralı Athamas ve eşi Nephele'nin çocuklarıdır.

Bulutu simgeleyen varlık olarak Nephele'nin adı, İksion masalında geçer. İksion, Zeus'un karısı Hera'ya aşıktır. Muradına ermemesi için Zeus, Hera biçiminde bir bulut yaratır. Ve İksion'un onunla birleşmesini sağlar. Bu bulut kadın (Nephele) Kentaur'ların (bkz. Yay) anası olur. Aristophanes'in "Nephelai" (Bulutlar) adlı komedyasında bulutlar birer kadın olarak simgelenmiştir. Oyunda Sokrates ve diğer filozoflarla alay eder. Aristophanes belki de halk masallarından ve onlardan alınmış motiflerden etkilenmiştir.

Ne var ki bu aile kraliçenin ölümüyle sarsılır. Daha sonra kral Athamas, Thebai kralı Kadmos'un kızı Ino ile ikinci evliliğini yapar.. Ancak Ino çocuklara tahammül edemez ve onlara bir tuzak kurar.

Önce Boeotia tarlalarına zararlı bir madde dökerek ürünlerin zarar görmesini sağlar. Kral ürünlerin zarar görmesinin nedenini ve ürünlerin nasıl kurtulacağını tanrılara sordurmak üzere baş danışmanlarını Delphi'ye yollar. Bu arada kraliçe Ino danışmanlara rüşvet vererek "çocukların kurban edilmesi" yanıtını krala götürmesini sağlar. Kral çocukları kurban etme konusunda tereddüde düşer. Ama Ino burada tekrar devreye girer ve yerel rahiplere de rüşvet verir. Tüm rahipler çocukların kurban edilmesi konusunda ısrar etmeye başlar.

Kral çocuklarını kurban etmek için yakınlarda bulunan bir dağa götürür. Bu arada olan biten her şeyi öz anneleri Nephele cennetten seyretmektedir. Tanrılardan çocuklarını koruması için altın bir post yollamalarını diler. Kral tam çocuklarını kurban etmeye hazırlanırken "Altın Postlu Koç" (Aries) çocukları almaya gelir. Çocuklar koçun sırtına binerler. Koç onları uçarak Asya'ya doğru götürür. Ne yazık ki bugünkü Çanakkale boğazı üzerinde küçük Helle dengesini kaybedip, koçun üzerinden aşağı düşer. Bu yüzden, Yunan mitolojisinde Çanakkale boğazına "Hellespont" denir. Bazı hikâyelerde Helle boğaza düştükten sonra, deniz tanrısı Poseidon tarafından kurtarıldığı, Poseidon'un Helle'yi sevdiği ve onunla birleşerek üç çocuk annesi yaptığı anlatılır.

Phrixus, her şeye rağmen yoluna devam eder. Koç onu Caucausus dağlarında Kolhis denen yere bırakır. Phrixus minnettarlığını göstermek için koçu Zeus'a kurban eder. Koçun altın postunu kutsal meşe ağacına asar. Altın Post, ağacı saran ve hiç uyumayan dev bir yılan tarafından (Serpent) korunur. Bu nedenle Zeus, Koç'u gökyüzüne çıkarmıştır.

Zeus'a kurban edilen koçun postunun, Phriuxus tarafından Kolhis kralı Aietes'e verildiği de rivayet edilir. Kral Aietes bu eşsiz postu savaş tanrısı Ares'e adanan bir korulukta saklar.

Hikâyenin bu kısmında kendilerine "Argonaunt'lar" diyen ve altın postu arayan bir grup cesur, güçlü denizci ile liderleri Jason (İason) devreye girer. Çağının en büyük destansal masallarından biri olan Argonaunt'lar masalını bize tüm olarak Rodos'lu Apollonios anlatır. MÖ 3. yüzyılda yaşayan Apollonios ünlü bir mitos yazarıdır.

Adı "hızlı" anlamına gelen Argo gemisi Karadeniz'in Kolhis (Gürcistan) ülkesinde Altın Postu aramaya giden kahramanlar için yapılmış ellibeş kürekli bir gemiymiş. Gemi, Argos denilen bir usta tarafından yapılmış. Mitos yazarlarının sefere katılanlar üzerine verdikleri listeler birbirini tutmamaktadır. Ama katıldığı konusunda görüş birliği sağlanabilen en ünlü kahramanlar; Jason, gemici ustası Argos, ozan Orpheus, Dioskuri'ler (bkz. İkizler) Kastor ve Polluks, Herakles, Boreas'ın oğulları Kalais'le Zetes'tir.

Seferin nedeni ilginçtir. Iolkos kralı Aeson tahtını üvey kardeşi Pelias'a kaptırır. Aeson'un oğlu Jason delikanlılık çağına gelince Pelias'ın karşısına çıkıp tahtı geri ister. Pelias ondan kurtulmak için önce Colchis'e gidip, Phrixus'un orada bıraktığı altın postu getirmesini buyurur. İason bu sefere çıkmak zorunda kalır. Yunanistan'da ne kadar gözü pek, atılgan, yiğit varsa hepsini toplar. Zeus'un kızı bilge tanrıça Athena'nın yardımıyla büyük usta Argos'a bir gemi yaptırdıktan sonra, yola çıkarlar.

Yolculuk sırasında meydana gelen birçok olaydan sonra Argonaunt'lar, altın postu geri istemek için kral Aietes'in karşısına çıkarlar. O sırada kralın kızı Medeia, Jason'u görür. Delicesine bir aşkla ona tutulur. Güçlü bir büyücü olan Medeia bundan böyle Argonaunt'ların ve Jason'un bütün işlerini eline alır. Kral Aietes görünüşte altın postu vermeye razıdır. Ama önce İason'un bir ejderi öldürmesini, ateş püsküren tunç ayaklı iki boğayı boyunduruğa koşmasını ister. İstekleri bu kadarla kalmaz. Boyunduruğa koştuğu iki boğa ile ejderin dişlerini toprağa dikmesini de şart koşar. İason ister istemez bu koşulları kabul eder. Büyücü prenses Medeia, İason'a kendisini eş olarak alması halinde yardımcı olacağını söyler. Sonra yiğit İason'a büyülü bir merhem hazırlar. Ve
"-Bu merhemi süren bedene silah işlemez, gün boyunca ne yaralanır ne de ölür. Ejderha'nın dişlerini toprağa ektikten sonra topraktan silahlı adamlar çıkacak, bu adamların aralarına bir taş attığı takdirde kendi aralarında kavgaya tutuşacaklar ve birbirlerini öldüreceklerdir"
şeklinde tavsiyede bulunur. Her şey Medeia'nın dediği gibi olur. İason boğaları boyunduruğa sokmayı, ejderin dişlerini tarlaya ekip, topraktan çıkan silahlı adamları birbirlerine öldürtmeyi başarır.

Ne var ki Aietes, yine de altın postu vermeye razı olmaz. Argo gemisini yakmaya ve Argonaunt'ları öldürmeye kalkışır. Ama İason'a aşık olan Medeia hızlı davranıp, İason'la elele vererek altın postu Serpenten çalmayı başarır. Ve Argo gemisiyle yola çıkarlar. Medeia babasının kendilerine yetişememesi için korkunç bir plan yapmıştır; yanına aldığı küçük kardeşi Apsyrtos'u keser ve parçalarını yol boyunca serperek uzaklaşırlar. Arkalarından gelen Aietes'le adamları Apsyrtos'un parçalarını toplamakla vakit kaybettiler, bu yüzden Argonaunt'lara yetişemediler.

İason ve Argonaunt'lar, altın postu amcası Pelias'a vermek üzere Iolkos'a dönerler. Babası Asion'un öldüğü haberini alan İason, amcası Pelias'ın da tahtı geri vermeye hiç yanaşmadığını görür. Burada Medeia'nın tüyler ürpertici bir oyunu yer almaktadır. Pelias'ın kızlarıyla arkadaşlık kuran büyücü Medeia, ihtiyarlamakta olan babalarını gençleştirmenin çaresini kendilerine öğreteceğini söyler. Ve örnek olması bakımından yaşlı bir koçu alıp keser. Kestiği koçu büyülü otlarla kaynayan bir kazana atıp, körpe bir kuzu çıktığını gösterir. Pelias'ın kızları büyücü Medeia'ya inanarak babalarını öldürüp kazana atarlar. Pelias'ın dirilmediğini görünce çılgına dönerler ve yurtlarından sürülürler.

İason ve Medeia bu suçu işledikten sonra Pelias'ın oğlu tarafından Iolkos'tan kovulurlar.

Ayrıca bakınız
 Koç'taki yıldızlar dizini

Notlar

Kaynakça
 H. A. Rey, The Stars—A New Way To See Them.  Enlarged World-Wide Edition.  Houghton Mifflin, Boston, 1997.  ISBN 0-395-24830-2.
 Ian Ridpath and Wil Tirion (2007). Stars and Planets Guide, Collins, London. ISBN 978-0007251209. Princeton University Press, Princeton. ISBN 978-0691135564.

Dış bağlantılar
 The Deep Photographic Guide to the Constellations: Aries
 NightSkyInfo.com: Constellation Aries
 Star Tales – Aries

Aries (takımyıldız)


لورينت ديبروسي  (2 أكتوبر 1969 في سانت فالير) لاعب كرة قدم فرنسي معتزل كان يجيد اللعب في خط الوسط .

روابط خارجية

مراجع

لاعبو كرة قدم رجالية فرنسيون
لاعبو وسط كرة قدم رجالية
أشخاص على قيد الحياة
لاعبو الدوري الفرنسي
لاعبو الدوري الفرنسي الدرجة الثانية
لاعبو شاتورو
لاعبو غرونوبل
لاعبو كرة قدم فرنسيون
لاعبو أولمبيك ليون
لاعبو نيور
مواليد 1969
مواليد في سانت فالير

لورينت ديبروسي


Hypochlorous acid (ClOH, HClO, HOCl, or ClHO) is an acid that forms when chlorine dissolves in water, and itself partially dissociates, forming hypochlorite, ClO−. HClO and ClO− are oxidizers, and the primary disinfection agents of chlorine solutions. HClO cannot be isolated from these solutions due to rapid equilibration with its precursor, chlorine.

Because of its strong antimicrobial properties, the related compounds sodium hypochlorite (NaClO) and calcium hypochlorite  (Ca(ClO)2) are ingredients in many commercial bleaches, deodorants, and disinfectants. The white blood cells of mammals, such as humans, also contain hypochlorous acid as a tool against foreign bodies. In living organisms, HOCl is generated by the reaction of hydrogen peroxide with chloride ions under the catalysis of the heme enzyme myeloperoxidase (MPO).

Like many other disinfectants, hypochlorous acid solutions will destroy pathogens, such as COVID-19, absorbed on surfaces. In low concentrations, such solutions can serve to disinfect open wounds.

History

Hypochlorous acid was discovered in 1834 by the French chemist Antoine Jérôme Balard (1802–1876) by adding, to a flask of chlorine gas, a dilute suspension of mercury(II) oxide in water.  He also named the acid and its compounds.

Despite being relatively easy to make, it is difficult to maintain a stable hypochlorous acid solution.  It is not until recent years that scientists have been able to cost-effectively produce and maintain hypochlorous acid water for stable commercial use.

Uses
 In organic synthesis, HClO converts alkenes to chlorohydrins.
 In biology, hypochlorous acid is generated in activated neutrophils by myeloperoxidase-mediated peroxidation of chloride ions, and contributes to the destruction of bacteria.
In medicine, hypochlorous acid water has been used as a disinfectant and sanitiser.
In wound care, and as of early 2016 the U.S. Food and Drug Administration has approved products whose main active ingredient is hypochlorous acid for use in treating wounds and various infections in humans and pets.  It is also FDA-approved as a preservative for saline solutions.
In disinfection, it has been used in the form of liquid spray, wet wipes and aerosolised application. Recent studies have shown hypochlorous acid water to be suitable for fog and aerosolised application for disinfection chambers and suitable for disinfecting indoor settings such as offices, hospitals and healthcare clinics.
 In food service and water distribution, specialized equipment to generate weak solutions of HClO from water and salt is sometimes used to generate adequate quantities of safe (unstable) disinfectant to treat food preparation surfaces and water supplies. It is also commonly used in restaurants due to its non-flammable and nontoxic characteristics.
 In water treatment, hypochlorous acid is the active sanitizer in hypochlorite-based products (e.g. used in swimming pools).
 Similarly, in ships and yachts, marine sanitation devices use electricity to convert seawater into hypochlorous acid  to disinfect macerated faecal waste before discharge into the sea.
In deodorization, hypochlorous acid has been tested to remove up to 99% of foul odours including garbage, rotten meat, toilet, stool, and urine odours.

Formation, stability and reactions
Addition of chlorine to water gives both hydrochloric acid (HCl) and hypochlorous acid (HClO):

Cl2 + H2O  HClO + HCl
Cl2 + 4 OH−  2 ClO− + 2 H2O + 2 e−
Cl2 + 2 e−  2 Cl−

When acids are added to aqueous salts of hypochlorous acid (such as sodium hypochlorite in commercial bleach solution), the resultant reaction is driven to the left, and chlorine gas is formed. Thus, the formation of stable hypochlorite bleaches is facilitated by dissolving chlorine gas into basic water solutions, such as sodium hydroxide.

The acid can also be prepared by dissolving dichlorine monoxide in water; under standard aqueous conditions, anhydrous hypochlorous acid is currently impossible to prepare due to the readily reversible equilibrium between it and its anhydride:

2 HClO  Cl2O + H2O K (at 0 °C) =

The presence of light or transition metal oxides of copper, nickel, or cobalt accelerates the exothermic decomposition into hydrochloric acid and oxygen:

2 Cl2 + 2 H2O → 4 HCl + O2

Fundamental reactions
In aqueous solution, hypochlorous acid partially dissociates into the anion hypochlorite ClO−:
HClO  ClO− + H+

Salts of hypochlorous acid are called hypochlorites. One of the best-known hypochlorites is NaClO, the active ingredient in bleach.

HClO is a stronger oxidant than chlorine under standard conditions.

2 HClO(aq) + 2 H+ + 2 e−  Cl2(g) + 2 H2O E = +1.63 V
HClO reacts with HCl to form chlorine:
HClO + HCl → H2O + Cl2

HClO reacts with ammonia to form monochloramine:
NH3 + HClO → NH2Cl + H2O
HClO can also react with organic amines, forming N-chloroamines.

Hypochlorous acid exists in equilibrium with its anhydride, dichlorine monoxide.
2 HClO  Cl2O + H2O  K (at 0 °C) =

Reactivity of HClO with biomolecules
Hypochlorous acid reacts with a wide variety of biomolecules, including DNA, RNA, fatty acid groups, cholesterol and proteins.

Reaction with protein sulfhydryl groups
Knox et al. first noted that HClO is a sulfhydryl inhibitor that, in sufficient quantity, could completely inactivate proteins containing sulfhydryl groups. This is because HClO oxidises sulfhydryl groups, leading to the formation of disulfide bonds that can result in crosslinking of proteins. The HClO mechanism of sulfhydryl oxidation is similar to that of monochloramine, and may only be bacteriostatic, because once the residual chlorine is dissipated, some sulfhydryl function can be restored. One sulfhydryl-containing amino acid can scavenge up to four molecules of HClO. Consistent with this, it has been proposed that sulfhydryl groups of sulfur-containing amino acids can be oxidized a total of three times by three HClO molecules, with the fourth reacting with the α-amino group. The first reaction yields sulfenic acid (R–SOH) then sulfinic acid (R–SO2H) and finally R–SO3H. Sulfenic acids form disulfides with another protein sulfhydryl group, causing cross-linking and aggregation of proteins. Sulfinic acid and R–SO3H derivatives are produced only at high molar excesses of HClO, and disulfides are formed primarily at bacteriocidal levels. Disulfide bonds can also be oxidized by HClO to sulfinic acid. Because the oxidation of sulfhydryls and disulfides evolves hydrochloric acid, this process results in the depletion HClO.

Reaction with protein amino groups
Hypochlorous acid reacts readily with amino acids that have amino group side-chains, with the chlorine from HClO displacing a hydrogen, resulting in an organic chloramine. Chlorinated amino acids rapidly decompose, but protein chloramines are longer-lived and retain some oxidative capacity. Thomas et al. concluded from their results that most organic chloramines decayed by internal rearrangement and that fewer available NH2 groups promoted attack on the peptide bond, resulting in cleavage of the protein. McKenna and Davies found that 10 mM or greater HClO is necessary to fragment proteins in vivo. Consistent with these results, it was later proposed that the chloramine undergoes a molecular rearrangement, releasing HCl and ammonia to form an aldehyde. The aldehyde group can further react with another amino group to form a Schiff base, causing cross-linking and aggregation of proteins.

Reaction with DNA and nucleotides
Hypochlorous acid reacts slowly with DNA and RNA as well as all nucleotides in vitro. GMP is the most reactive because HClO reacts with both the heterocyclic NH group and the amino group. In similar manner, TMP with only a heterocyclic NH group that is reactive with HClO is the second-most reactive. AMP and CMP, which have only a slowly reactive amino group, are less reactive with HClO. UMP has been reported to be reactive only at a very slow rate. The heterocyclic NH groups are more reactive than amino groups, and their secondary chloramines are able to donate the chlorine. These reactions likely interfere with DNA base pairing, and, consistent with this, Prütz has reported a decrease in viscosity of DNA exposed to HClO similar to that seen with heat denaturation. The sugar moieties are nonreactive and the DNA backbone is not broken. NADH can react with chlorinated TMP and UMP as well as HClO. This reaction can regenerate UMP and TMP and results in the 5-hydroxy derivative of NADH. The reaction with TMP or UMP is slowly reversible to regenerate HClO. A second slower reaction that results in cleavage of the pyridine ring occurs when excess HClO is present. NAD+ is inert to HClO.

Reaction with lipids
Hypochlorous acid reacts with unsaturated bonds in lipids, but not saturated bonds, and the ClO− ion does not participate in this reaction. This reaction occurs by hydrolysis with addition of chlorine to one of the carbons and a hydroxyl to the other. The resulting compound is a chlorohydrin. The polar chlorine disrupts lipid bilayers and could increase permeability. When chlorohydrin formation occurs in lipid bilayers of red blood cells, increased permeability occurs. Disruption could occur if enough chlorohydrin is formed. The addition of preformed chlorohydrin to red blood cells can affect permeability as well. Cholesterol chlorohydrin have also been observed, but do not greatly affect permeability, and it is believed that Cl2 is responsible for this reaction. Hypochlorous acid also reacts with a subclass of glycerophospholipids called plasmalogens, yielding chlorinated fatty aldehydes which are capable of protein modification and may play a role in inflammatory processes such as platelet aggregation and the formation of neutrophil extracellular traps.

Mode of disinfectant action
E. coli exposed to hypochlorous acid lose viability in less than 0.1 seconds due to inactivation of many vital systems. Hypochlorous acid has a reported  of 0.0104–0.156 ppm and 2.6 ppm caused 100% growth inhibition in 5 minutes. However, the concentration required for bactericidal activity is also highly dependent on bacterial concentration.

Inhibition of glucose oxidation
In 1948, Knox et al. proposed the idea that inhibition of glucose oxidation is a major factor in the bacteriocidal nature of chlorine solutions. They proposed that the active agent or agents diffuse across the cytoplasmic membrane to inactivate key sulfhydryl-containing enzymes in the glycolytic pathway. This group was also the first to note that chlorine solutions (HClO) inhibit sulfhydryl enzymes. Later studies have shown that, at bacteriocidal levels, the cytosol components do not react with HClO. In agreement with this, McFeters and Camper found that aldolase, an enzyme that Knox et al. proposes would be inactivated, was unaffected by HClO in vivo. It has been further shown that loss of sulfhydryls does not correlate with inactivation. That leaves the question concerning what causes inhibition of glucose oxidation. The discovery that HClO blocks induction of β-galactosidase by added lactose led to a possible answer to this question. The uptake of radiolabeled substrates by both ATP hydrolysis and proton co-transport may be blocked by exposure to HClO preceding loss of viability. From this observation, it proposed that HClO blocks uptake of nutrients by inactivating transport proteins. The question of loss of glucose oxidation has been further explored in terms of loss of respiration. Venkobachar et al. found that succinic dehydrogenase was inhibited in vitro by HClO, which led to the investigation of the possibility that disruption of electron transport could be the cause of bacterial inactivation. Albrich et al. subsequently found that HClO destroys cytochromes and iron-sulfur clusters and observed that oxygen uptake is abolished by HClO and adenine nucleotides are lost. It was also observed that irreversible oxidation of cytochromes paralleled the loss of respiratory activity. One way of addressing the loss of oxygen uptake was by studying the effects of HClO on succinate-dependent electron transport. Rosen et al. found that levels of reductable cytochromes in HClO-treated cells were normal, and these cells were unable to reduce them. Succinate dehydrogenase was also inhibited by HClO, stopping the flow of electrons to oxygen. Later studies revealed that Ubiquinol oxidase activity ceases first, and the still-active cytochromes reduce the remaining quinone. The cytochromes then pass the electrons to oxygen, which explains why the cytochromes cannot be reoxidized, as observed by Rosen et al. However, this line of inquiry was ended when Albrich et al. found that cellular inactivation precedes loss of respiration by using a flow mixing system that allowed evaluation of viability on much smaller time scales. This group found that cells capable of respiring could not divide after exposure to HClO.

Depletion of adenine nucleotides
Having eliminated loss of respiration, Albrich et al. proposes that the cause of death may be due to metabolic dysfunction caused by depletion of adenine nucleotides. Barrette et al. studied the loss of adenine nucleotides by studying the energy charge of HClO-exposed cells and found that cells exposed to HClO were unable to step up their energy charge after addition of nutrients. The conclusion was that exposed cells have lost the ability to regulate their adenylate pool, based on the fact that metabolite uptake was only 45% deficient after exposure to HClO and the observation that HClO causes intracellular ATP hydrolysis. It was also confirmed that, at bacteriocidal levels of HClO, cytosolic components are unaffected. So it was proposed that modification of some membrane-bound protein results in extensive ATP hydrolysis, and this, coupled with the cells inability to remove AMP from the cytosol, depresses metabolic function. One protein involved in loss of ability to regenerate ATP has been found to be ATP synthetase. Much of this research on respiration reconfirms the observation that relevant bacteriocidal reactions take place at the cell membrane.

Inhibition of DNA replication
Recently it has been proposed that bacterial inactivation by HClO is the result of inhibition of DNA replication. When bacteria are exposed to HClO, there is a precipitous decline in DNA synthesis that precedes inhibition of protein synthesis, and closely parallels loss of viability. During bacterial genome replication, the origin of replication (oriC in E. coli) binds to proteins that are associated with the cell membrane, and it was observed that HClO treatment decreases the affinity of extracted membranes for oriC, and this decreased affinity also parallels loss of viability. A study by Rosen et al. compared the rate of HClO inhibition of DNA replication of plasmids with different replication origins and found that certain plasmids exhibited a delay in the inhibition of replication when compared to plasmids containing oriC. Rosen's group proposed that inactivation of membrane proteins involved in DNA replication are the mechanism of action of HClO.

Protein unfolding and aggregation
HClO is known to cause post-translational modifications to proteins, the notable ones being cysteine and methionine oxidation. A recent examination of HClO's bactericidal role revealed it to be a potent inducer of protein aggregation. Hsp33, a chaperone known to be activated by oxidative heat stress, protects bacteria from the effects of HClO by acting as a holdase, effectively preventing protein aggregation. Strains of Escherichia coli and Vibrio cholerae lacking Hsp33 were rendered especially sensitive to HClO. Hsp33 protected many essential proteins from aggregation and inactivation due to HClO, which is a probable mediator of HClO's bactericidal effects.

Hypochlorites

Hypochlorites are the salts of hypochlorous acid; commercially important hypochlorites are calcium hypochlorite and sodium hypochlorite.

Production of hypochlorites using electrolysis

Solutions of hypochlorites can be produced in-situ by electrolysis of an aqueous sodium chloride solution in both batch and flow processes. The composition of the resulting solution depends on the pH at the anode.  In acid conditions the solution produced will have a high hypochlorous acid concentration, but will also contain dissolved gaseous chlorine, which can be corrosive, at a neutral pH the solution will be around 75% hypochlorous acid and 25% hypochlorite. Some of the chlorine gas produced will dissolve forming hypochlorite ions. Hypochlorites are also produced by the disproportionation of chlorine gas in alkaline solutions.

Safety
HClO is classified as Non-Hazardous by the Environmental Protection Agency in the US. As any oxidising agent it can be corrosive or irritant depending on its concentration and pH.

In a clinical test, hypochlorous acid water was tested for eye irritation, skin irritation, and toxicity. The test concluded that it was non-toxic and nonirritating to the eye and skin.

In a 2017 study, a saline hygiene solution preserved with pure hypochlorous acid was shown to reduce the bacterial load significantly without altering the diversity of bacterial species on the eyelids. After 20 minutes of treatment, there was >99% reduction of the Staphylococci bacteria.

Commercialisation
For disinfection, despite being discovered a long time ago, the stability of hypochlorous acid water  is difficult to maintain. In solution, the active compounds quickly deteriorate back into salt water, losing its disinfecting capability, which makes it difficult to transport for wide use.  Despite its stronger disinfecting capabilities, it is less commonly used as a disinfectant compared to bleach and alcohol due to cost.

Technological developments have reduced manufacturing costs and allow for manufacturing and bottling of hypochlorous acid water for home and commercial use.  However, most hypochlorous acid water has a short shelf life.  Storing away from heat and direct sunlight can help slow the deterioration. The further development of continuous flow electrochemical cells has been implemented in new products, allowing the commercialisation of domestic and industrial continuous flow devices for the in-situ generation of hypochlorous acid for disinfection purposes.

See also
 Dichlorine monoxide: the corresponding acidic oxide
 Hypofluorous acid
 Perchloric acid

References

External links
 National Pollutant Inventory – Chlorine
 Reuters – Mystery solved: How bleach kills germs
 "From Ground to Tap": a summary of the municipal tapwater treatment process

Disinfectants
Halogen oxoacids
Triatomic molecules
Hydrogen compounds
Hypochlorites
Mineral acids
Oxidizing acids
Oxidizing agents

Hypochlorous acid


تاريخ القوات الجوية الإيرانية أو كما عرفت قبل 1979 القوات الجوية الإمبراطورية الإيرانية هي أحد أفرع القوات المسلحة الإيرانية وقد كانت قبل ثورة 1979 في المرتبة الثانية بعد إسرائيل في الشرق الأوسط، بلغت القوات الجوية الإمبراطورية ذروتها عام 1979 زمن حكم للشاه وكان يتوافر بها أكثر من 450 طائرة حديثة بما في ذلك طائرات إف 14 توم كات وإف 4 وإف 5، وكان عدد الطيارين يبلغ 5،000 طيار مدربين تدريبا جيدا.

في عشية الثورة الإسلامية عام 1979 بلغ عدد أفراد القوات الجوية الإيرانية 100،000 فرد، وكانت الأكثر تقدماً من بين فروع القوات المسلحة الإيرانية.

مراجع

وصلات خارجية
 Historical memorial site for the Imperial Iranian Air Force

القوات الجوية الإيرانية
تاريخ إيران
تاريخ إيران العسكري
تاريخ سلاح الجو
تاريخ منظمات مقرها في إيران

تاريخ القوات الجوية الإيرانية


قرار مجلس الأمن الدولي رقم 101 الصادر بتاريخ 24 نوفمبر 1953 وفيه يدين مجلس الأمن هجوم إسرائيل على قبية بتاريخ 14-15 أكتوبر 1953،  حيث تشكل كل هذه الإجراءات انتهاكًا لبنود وقف إطلاق النار الواردة في قرار مجلس الأمن التابع للأمم المتحدة رقم 54 وتتعارض مع التزامات الطرفين بموجب اتفاقية الهدنة العامة بين إسرائيل والأردن وكذلك مع ميثاق الأمم المتحدة. وأعرب المجلس عن أقوى لوم ممكن لهذا الإجراء، وأحاط علما بالأدلة الجوهرية على عبور أشخاص غير مصرح لهم للخط الفاصل. ثم دعا المجلس الحكومتين الإسرائيلية والأردنية إلى التعاون مع بعضهما البعض وطلب من رئيس أركان TSO تقديم تقرير في غضون ثلاثة أشهر مع التوصيات.

المصادر

روابط خارجية

 نص القرار باللغة الانجليزية - موقع مجلس الامن الدولي

أحداث نوفمبر 1953
إسرائيل وفلسطين والأمم المتحدة
عنصرية إسرائيل
قرارات مجلس الأمن التابع للأمم المتحدة بشأن إسرائيل
قرارات مجلس الأمن التابع للأمم المتحدة عام 1953
قرارات مجلس الأمن التابع للأمم المتحدة بشأن فلسطين

قرار مجلس الأمن التابع للأمم المتحدة رقم 101


An Symplectrodia gracilis in uska species han Liliopsida nga ginhulagway ni Michael Lazarides. An Symplectrodia gracilis in nahilalakip ha genus nga Symplectrodia, ngan familia nga Poaceae. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Symplectrodia

Symplectrodia gracilis