The Pontiac Catalina is a full-size, junior series automobile produced by Pontiac from 1950 to 1981. Initially, the name was a trim line on hardtop body styles, first appearing in the 1950 Chieftain Eight and DeLuxe Eight lines. In 1959, it became a separate model as the "entry-level" full-size Pontiac.

The Catalina was Pontiac's most popular model, available in multiple body styles, and served as the donor platform for the popular Pontiac Grand Prix, Pontiac 2+2, Pontiac Ventura, and the Pontiac Safari station wagon.

When the Pontiac Tempest was introduced in 1964, lessons learned from the Catalina's introduction of the Grand Prix led to the introduction of the Pontiac GTO, to include the  Pontiac V8.

As a trim level (1950–1958)

The name "Catalina" was first used on the 1950 Chieftain Series 25/27 hardtop, Pontiac's top trim level package at the time, and later added to the Star Chief in 1954, Pontiac's equivalent of the Chevrolet Bel Air. Originally referred to as "hard-top convertibles", these vehicles offered pillarless design in the door and window areas, along with the top-grade convertible appointments. The advantage this fixed-roof design offered is its sporty, airy feeling without the expense and drawbacks normally associated with convertibles. With the exception of the 1958 Bonneville, all Pontiac hardtops are designated "Catalinas" from 1950 to 1958. Powered by a flathead straight-eight engine at the time of its debut, it would receive Pontiac's new OHV  Pontiac V8 four years later. A one-piece windshield was new for 1954. A padded safety dash became available in 1956. The names "Catalina" and "Bel Air" are communities in Southern California, United States.

As a stand-alone model

1959–1960

For 1959, Pontiac dropped the name "Chieftain" and "Super Chief" models for its junior-level series and renamed it "Catalina", while demoting the former top-line Star Chief to intermediate status eliminating the two door Star Chief Catalina, the only hardtop for the Star Chief was the four door hardtop and expanding the Bonneville nameplate to a senior series that included sedans, coupes, convertibles and Safari station wagons.

In the lower-priced Catalina line, Pontiac division advertising placed higher emphasis on the top trimmed two- and four-door hardtops, convertible and Safari station wagons instead of the pillared two- and four-door sedan variants despite the fact that the four-door sedan was the best seller in this line.

The Catalina, though it was the lowest-priced full-sized Pontiac, was priced and trimmed below the Chevrolet Impala due to GM's overlapping price structure formula only a step below the Buick LeSabre and Oldsmobile 88 in trim and appointments but priced about $100 to $200 less.  Catalinas also came standard with more amenities than Chevrolet models and included a larger and more powerful V8 engine of 389 cubic inches, compared to the Chevy's six-cylinder or 283 and 348 cubic-inch V8s. Pontiacs also benefited from a much better automatic transmission than their Chevrolet counterparts - the four-speed Hydra-Matic - versus the Chevy's two-speed Powerglide.

Though the basic Catalina started out with a full rubber mat, it could be ordered with full carpeting, glovebox and trunk lights; dual front ashtrays, cigar lighter, glove compartment snack bar (two cup indents on the glovebox door that could be opened for use at drive-in restaurants) were standard, heater-defroster and a choice of cloth and Morrokide vinyl upholstery or expanded Morrokide (all-vinyl trim) optional. Pontiac buyers could add even more trimmings for a few dollars more by ordering the "decor group" which added full wheel covers, deluxe steering wheel, chrome pedal trim plates and more. Also offered from 1962 to 1970 on most Catalina models was the Ventura custom interior (which was a separate model from 1960 to 1961), which included the interior and exterior upgrades offered with the extra-cost decor group option plus a slightly more luxurious interior of cloth or Morrokide trims similar to the costlier Pontiac Star Chief or Executive depending on the year.

Catalinas and other 1959 Pontiacs were completely restyled on a new General Motors B-body that was shared by all GM divisions from Chevrolet to Cadillac, replacing the previous A-body utilized for Pontiacs and Chevrolets that was used only for 1958. Twin tailfins, two on each side, were new and only in 1959. Styling highlights include thin-pillar rooflines and greater use of glass for increased visibility. Pillared four-door sedans feature six-window styling, while two-door hardtops were dubbed "bubbletops" due to the large wraparound bubble windshield and thin c-pillar and large rear window; four-door hardtops featured flat-blade rooflines with an overhang past the rear window. Wheelbases were 122" for Catalina and 124" for Star Chief and Bonneville  inches, but overall length on Catalina was 7" shorter than Bonneville and Star Chief at .

The 1959 Pontiacs featured a "split grille", which came about by accident when the styling studio was exploring grille design. Experimentally, a design for a conventional, full width, oval grille, containing horizontal quad headlights, was cut in two and the halves transposed. With the lights remaining at the extremities, this gave the split center, open ended look of the '59 Catalina.  Along with the wider body came a 5" wider chassis in which the wheels were moved out towards the fenders. This not only improved the appearance of the car but led to improvements in ride and handling - spawning the term "wide track" ride and handling which Pontiac would use in its promotional efforts for many years to come.

All Pontiacs were powered by various renditions of the new 389 cubic-inch Tempest V8 (which was later renamed from 1961 as the Trophy V-8), which was basically a version of the previous 370 cubic-inch V8 with stroke increased to 3.75 inches (the 370ci was used in 1958-model Pontiacs and based on the Pontiac V8 design introduced in 1955). Catalinas came standard with a  version of the 389 with two-barrel carburetor and 8.6 to 1 compression mated to the three-speed manual transmission. When the optional four-speed Hydramatic transmission was ordered, the standard engine was  version of the same engine with higher 10.5 to 1 compression ratio. Available as a no-cost option with the Hydramatic transmission was the 215-horsepower 389 (dubbed the Economy V8) with 8.6 to 1 compression ratio which burned cheaper regular gasoline, instead of the premium and super-premium fuels required for the high-compression engines, and capable of achieving more than 20 MPG on the highway. Optionally available at extra cost were higher-power versions of the 389 V8 with four-barrel carburetion rated at  with manual gearbox or 303 hp with Hydramatic, a 4-barrel carburetor version with a horsepower rating of 318 hp, or "Tri-Power" options with triple two-barrel carburetors and 330 hp or .

For 1960, Catalina and other Pontiacs received a minor facelifting of the '59 bodyshell with a new full-width horizontal bar grille similar to the 1930s Cord 810/812 replacing 1959's split grille (for this year only-the split grille returned in 1961) and round taillights. Bodystyles and drivetrain offerings were unchanged from 1959. New to the option list was a "Sportable Transistor" radio that could be used in the car in place of the regular "in-dash" radio or removed from the car for use as a portable with battery power, and the upgraded trim package as a two-door or four door hardtop called the Pontiac Ventura. Also new for 1960 were the optional "Al-Fin" eight lug-nut aluminum wheels with integral brake drums that not only enhanced the car's looks but also provided improved stopping power. Another popular option for performance enthusiasts was the "Safe-T-Track" limited slip differential. In the suspension department the front track was increased from the 59's 63⅞" to 64". In the engine compartment the so-called "gusher type" cooling system (with cooling liquid entering the engine over the exhaust valves, reverse of what is more normally done) was replaced by the so-called "Equa-flow" type (with conventional V-8 cooling configuration). Turn signals were standard, while the A/C was $430 and padded dash was $19.

Inside, a revised instrument panel featured a new horizontal sweep speedometer along with minor changes in trim patterns.

1961–1964

The 1961 full-sized Pontiacs were completely restyled with more squared-off bodylines, the reintroduction of the split grille first seen in 1959 and dropped for 1960 and an all-new Torque-Box perimeter frame with side rails replacing the "X" frame chassis used since 1958. The new frame not only provides greater side-impact protection than the "X" design but also improves interior roominess.

The distinctive protruding grille made its appearance on all Pontiac products during the early 1960s, and was a modern revival of a similar appearance on Pontiac products during the 1930s and early 1940s, as demonstrated on the Pontiac Torpedo.

Rooflines are more squared off on four-door models with the six-window styling dropped on pillared sedans and wider C-pillars with flat rear windows on four-door hardtops. A revised version of the 1959-60 "bubbletop" roof was used on two-door hardtops. Wrap-around windshields were dropped in favor of flatter glasswork for improved entry and exit to the front seat.

The new body is somewhat smaller and lighter than the 1960 model with the wheelbase down three inches (76 mm)  to 119, overall length reduced by the same to  and width dropping nearly two inches to 78.2 from  1960. The front and rear track of the 1961-62 Pontiac was reduced to  front and rear. The 1961 Pontiac was advertised as "all Pontiac...on a new wide track."

All engines were again  V8s as in previous years, now called "Trophy" engines. rather than "Tempest" (including the larger 421ci "big bore" engine). Standard engines are two-barrel units rated at  with the three-speed manual transmission or  with the optional Hydramatic, with a  regular-fuel-capable "economy" V8 offered as a no-cost option with the Hydramatic. Offered as extra-cost options were more powerful versions of the 389 including a  version with a four-barrel carburetor or  Tri-Power option. New to the options list were two higher performance versions of the 389, including a four-barrel  unit and a  Tri-Power option, both with higher, 10.75:1, compression ratios. A  engine was offered to drag racers. Late in the 1961 sales season the  Super Duty was released for sale as a dealer installed engine. The 1961 models never came from the assembly line with the 421ci engine; instead it was a specialty item installed and sold at the discretion of individual dealers.

A new "three-speed four-range" "Roto Hydramatic" automatic transmission replaced the previous four-speed unit for 1961. The new transmission is slimmer and lighter than the older four-speed Hydramatic, which was continued on the larger Star Chief and Bonneville models. Also new for 1961 was a four-speed manual transmission with Hurst floor shifter, available on special order.

The 1962 Pontiacs received a heavy facelift from the 1961 design with more rounded body contours and new rooflines on two-door hardtops featuring convertible-like bows. Catalina sedans and coupes got a  wheelbase increase to 120", after spending 1961 on a  length shared with full-sized Chevys (Safari wagons retained the  wheelbase through 1964).  1962 also saw the introduction of the Grand Prix, a sporty version of the Catalina hardtop coupe.

Most regular engine and transmission offerings were carried over from 1961 with the  Trophy V8, ranging in power ratings from  to . A small number of 1962 Catalinas and other Pontiacs were built with a "non-streetable"  Super Duty V8 with two four-barrel carburetors and , as a US$2,250 option (when the base Catalina listed at US$2,725), along with various "over the counter" performance options offered by Pontiac including aluminum bumpers and even lighter frames with drilled holes (which were dubbed the "Swiss cheese" frames).

For 1963, Catalinas and other full-sized Pontiacs featured cleaner, squared-off bodylines and vertical headlights flanking the split grille, but retained the same dimensions and basic bodyshell of 1961-62 models except for the rear flanks of the new coke bottle styling and due to this styling the rear track was extended to the 59 and 60 Pontiac's 64" wide track. Engine offerings were revised as the  and  versions of the 389 V8 were dropped in favor of "production" versions of the larger  rated at  with four-barrel carburetor,  with Tri-Power, or a  "HO" with Tri-Power . The  Super Duty 421 was still offered to racing teams during the early portion of the model year but discontinued after General Motors ordered Pontiac (and Chevrolet) to "cease and desist" from factory-supported racing efforts in February 1963. New options for 1963 included a tilt steering wheel that could be adjusted to six different positions, AM/FM radio and cruise control.

The 1963 Grand Prix got a brand new body with a unique roofline along with unique front and rear end styling.  Although still based on the Catalina, the GP looked much larger, more powerful and more luxurious, sharing its content with the longer Bonneville. It featured sumptuous "Morrokide" bucket seats and a chrome-trimmed center console with floor shifter for the optional Hydra-Matic or 4-speed manual transmissions.

A 1963 Catalina convertible modified by California hot-rodder Bill Straub was used as a tow vehicle in the NASA M2-F1 program.

Mild facelifting including new grilles and taillights highlighted the 1964 full-sized Pontiacs. Engine and transmission offerings were unchanged from 1963 except for a new GM-built Muncie four-speed manual replacing the Borg-Warner T-10 unit. Also new for 1964, was the Pontiac 2+2 option package available on Catalina two-door hardtops and convertibles that included bucket seats for both front and rear passengers, heavy-duty suspension and other performance equipment, along with the same selection of  and  V8s found in other Catalinas. The 64 2+2 was a $291 ($ in  dollars ) trim option only with the same standard engine as the base Catalina which was listed at $2,869 ($ in  dollars ). It was only until 1965 that the 421 engine became the standard engine on the 2+2.

Throughout most of the 1960s when Pontiac annually captured third place in industry sales, behind Chevrolet and Ford, the Catalina was also often the industry's third best-selling full-sized car behind the first-place Chevrolet Impala and second-place Ford Galaxie 500. The Catalina's success in the low-medium priced field led many competitors to respond with similar products such as the 1961 Chrysler Newport, a less-expensive Chrysler that was priced lower than base models bearing the Chrysler nameplate in recent previous years; and the 1962 Dodge Custom 880 and 1963 Mercury Monterey, both of which were introduced as full-fledged low-medium priced full-sized cars in size and power that followed unsuccessful efforts by Mercury and Dodge to bring out downsized full-sized cars.

In 1964, even Pontiac's mid-priced rivals within General Motors responded to the Catalina's success in the marketplace as well as to capture Chevy Impala owners "trading up" to cars from upscale GM divisions. Buick took its lowest-priced big car, the LeSabre, and lowered the base sticker price further by substituting a smaller  V8 engine and two-speed automatic transmission from its intermediate-sized cars in place of the   V8 and three-speed automatic used in other big Buicks. Oldsmobile went even further by creating a whole new full-sized series, the Jetstar 88, which was $75 lower than the Dynamic 88 series (but still a few dollars higher than comparable Pontiac Catalina models) and also got a smaller engine - a  V8 and two-speed automatic transmission from the intermediate F-85/Cutlass line, along with smaller  brake drums (also from the GM intermediates) compared to the  drums still found on all other GM full-sized cars from the bare-bones six-cylinder Chevrolet Biscayne to the Cadillac 75 limousine. And since the Catalina was still priced lower than the Jetstar and LeSabre, the lowest-priced full-sized Pontiac was often perceived by buyers as a better value in the marketplace due to its larger standard V8 engine and three-speed automatic transmission, and (in comparison to the Jetstar 88) bigger brakes.

1965–1970

The 1965 full-sized Pontiacs were completely restyled with more flowing sheetmetal featuring "Coke-bottle" profiles and fastback rooflines on two-door hardtops. Wheelbases increased to  on all models.

Pontiacs for the 1965 were now available with GM's new-for-1964 three-speed Turbo Hydramatic 400 transmission, often abbreviated as THM-400. This new unit replaced the older three-speed, four-range Roto-Hydramtic in the Catalina, as well as the four-speed Super-Hydramatic that was equipped in other Pontiacs. The THM-400 is torque converter based, similar in design to the Chrysler Torqueflite and Ford Cruise-O-Matic transmissions. Despite the Turbo Hydramatic 400 still bearing the "Hydramatic" name, it shared no design components with either of the older fluid-coupling based Roto or Super-Hydramatics. This new transmission was a large, but welcome, departure from the older transmissions, which were not as durable, smooth or fast as the new unit. The THM-400 also changed the shift pattern from the "P-N-D-S-L-R" to the safer and ultimately more modern "P-R-N-D-S-L." Although this transmission was new for 1964, it did lack some of the functionality of the older transmissions, like the low first gear ratios (3.50:1 or 3.97:1 for the Roto and Super Hydramatics respectively) or the split torque design where only 40% of the power went through the inefficient fluid couplings, which helped improve economy.

The 389 and 421 cubic-inch V8s received a number of revisions including thinner wall block castings. The standard engine for Catalina models is the 389 two-barrel rated at  with base three-speed manual transmission and 8.6 to 1 compression or 290 horsepower with Turbo Hydramatic transmission and higher 10.5 to 1 compression. An economy regular-fuel  version of the 389 two-barrel with 8.6 to 1 compression ratio that burned regular gas was available as a no-cost option with Turbo Hydramatic. Optional engines include a four-barrel 389 rated at  with Turbo Hydramatic or 333 with stick shift, a Tri-Power 389 rated at 338 horsepower, a four-barrel 421 rated at the same , 353 hp with Tri-Power or the 421 HO with Tri-Power and .

The 2+2 option changed from a trim package to an all-out performance car package for 1965 similar to Pontiac's intermediate-sized GTO. The base engine with the 2+2 was now the 338-horsepower 421 four-barrel with the  Tri-Power or 376-horsepower 421 HO with Tri-Power available as options.

The 1966 full-sized Pontiacs received minor a facelifting of the '65 body with new grilles and taillight treatment. Inside, the instrument panel was revised along with interior trim. The 2+2 was upgraded from an option to full model status and engine-transmission offerings on all Catalina models remained the same as 1965 with the exception being the elimination of the 338-horsepower 389 Tri-Power option.

For 1967, Catalinas and other full-sized Pontiacs received a heavy facelifting of the '65 bodyshell with more rounded wasp-waisted body contours and fuller fastback rooflines, along with concealed windshield wipers - an industry first. Replacing the 389 and 421 V8s of previous years were new 400 and 428 cubic-inch V8s with bigger valves and a valve angle change built off the same Pontiac V8 design in use since 1955. The valve angle change was so bigger valves and larger ports could be used. The standard Catalina engine was a two-barrel unit rated at  with three-speed manual transmission or  with Turbo Hydramatic. The  engine was available as a no-cost option with the Turbo Hydramatic and differed from the standard  unit by using regular gas as opposed to premium fuel. Optional engines included a four-barrel 400 rated at , a four-barrel 428 rated at  or the four-barrel 428 HO rated at . The Tri-Power engine options were dropped for 1967 thanks to a new GM corporate policy headed primarily by Ed Cole which prohibited the use of multiple carbs on all vehicles except the Chevrolet Corvette and the Corvair, two of Cole's babies when he was head of Chevrolet Engineering and later Chevrolet General Manager. Front disc brakes and a stereo eight-track tape player were new additions to the option list.

The 2+2 was offered for the last time in 1967 in both hardtop coupe and convertible. The 360-horsepower 428 was standard and the 428 HO was optional. This model was dropped due to low sales since its 1964 introduction as performance car buyers overwhelmingly preferred smaller and lighter intermediates such as Pontiac's own GTO and the new Firebird ponycar, which was introduced for 1967. A 1967 Pontiac Catalina convertible was featured in the Red Hot Chili Peppers music video for "Scar Tissue".

Safety came to the fore in 1967, and the Catalina featured all the new US Government-mandated safety equipment including an energy-absorbing steering column, safety steering wheel, dual-circuit hydraulic brake system, and soft interior parts.

For 1968, Catalinas and other full-sized Pontiacs received a minor facelifting of the '67 body with a new beak-nose split grille along with a reverting to horizontal headlights, and revised taillights.  Engine offerings were similar to 1967 with revised horsepower ratings including 340 for the four-barrel 400, 375 for the 428 four-barrel and 390 for the 428 HO.  Safety continued to be key in 1968 with new fender side-marker lights becoming standard.  Cars built after January 1, 1968 included front outboard shoulder belts as standard equipment.

The 1969 Pontiacs received a major restyling with somewhat more squared off sheetmetal (though not as much as similar cars from other GM divisions) and rooflines, the coke bottle rear flanks were gone. However, the basic 1965 chassis, inner-body structure and four-door pillared sedan roofline were retained although vent windows were dropped on all models and Safari wagons got a new two-way tailgate that could be opened to the side like a door or downward like a tailgate – similar in design to that introduced by Ford Motor Company on Ford/Mercury wagons in 1966. Catalinas also got a one-inch wheelbase increase to 122.  Headrests became standard on all '69 Pontiacs built after January 1.  All 1969 GM cars (except the Corvair) got a new locking steering column that would become a Federal requirement starting with the 1970 models.

Variable-ratio power steering was a new option this year (pioneered by Cadillac in 1966) and front disc brakes were now automatically included when the power brake option was ordered.

Engine offerings consisted of a standard 290-horsepower 400 two-barrel (or no-cost optional regular-fuel 265-horsepower 400 with Turbo Hydramatic transmission), 330-horsepower 400 four-barrel, 370-horsepower 428 four-barrel or the 428 HO rated at 390 horses. The standard three-speed manual transmission and optional three-speed Turbo Hydramatic were continued as before, but the four-speed manual with Hurst shifter was dropped from the option list.

All full-sized Pontiacs, including Catalinas, received a new Grand Prix-like V-nose grille for 1970 along with 'horns ports' on a facelifted front end and new taillights mounted in the rear bumper. Catalina sedans and coupes now came standard with a smaller 255-horsepower 350 cubic-inch Pontiac V8 as standard equipment with optional engines including the previously standard 400 two-barrel rated at 265 and 290 horsepower (still standard on convertibles and Safari wagons), a 330-horsepower 400 four-barrel and a two versions of the new 455 cubic-inch V8 rated at  or 370 horses with the "HO" option. As in past years, a three-speed manual transmission with column shift was standard equipment, but most cars were equipped with the optional three-speed Turbo Hydramatic. Also offered for 1970, but seldom ordered, was a two-speed automatic transmission, Turbo Hydramatic 300 that was available with the 350 V8.

The 1965–70 GM B platform is the fourth best selling automobile platform in history after the Volkswagen Beetle, Ford Model T, and the Lada Riva.

1971–1976

For 1971, Catalina and other full-sized Pontiacs were completely redesigned and restyled from the wheels up with long hood/short deck proportions and fuselage styling somewhat similar to Chrysler Corporation's 1969 full-sized cars, along with a double shell roof for improved roll-over protection and flush pull-up exterior door handles - the latter two features first seen on the  Firebird. Catalina and Catalina Brougham sedans and coupes rode on a  wheelbase while Bonneville and Grand Ville used a longer  wheelbase, and Safari wagons were an inch longer at . Station wagons also got their own multi-leaf spring rear suspensions, while sedans and coupes continued to be suspended with front and rear coil springs.

New for 1971 was the Catalina Brougham series, which offered a more luxurious interior trim than the regular Catalina, available as a two-door hardtop, four-door hardtop and four-door pillared sedan. It was similar in concept to the Ventura series (1960-1961, 1966-1969) and the  Ventura Custom trim option on the Catalina (1962-1965, 1970). It was dropped in 1973 after its sales failed to meet expectations. 1972 was also the Catalina convertible's final year.

The Catalina Safari wagon became simply the Pontiac Safari for 1971 (though it continued to share interior and exterior trimmings with Catalina sedans and coupes) while the more luxurious Executive and Bonneville wagons were replaced by the new Grand Safari wagon. While the Grand Safari shared its grille design with the new Grand Ville series, its interior trim was identical to the optional vinyl interior offered on the Bonneville series. Pontiac now grouped its full-sized wagons as a separate series from their sedan counterparts, as did Chevrolet (Brookwood, Townsman, Kingswood, Kingswood Estate), Oldsmobile (Custom Cruiser), and Buick (Estate Wagon).

As did all GM B-Body wagons, the Safari and Grand Safari received GM's new clamshell tailgate. Operated by switches on the instrument panel or a key switch on the rear quarter panel, the tailgate slid into a recess under the cargo floor while the electric window slid upward into the rear roof section. Pontiac boasted the new system made it easier to load and unload the wagon in tight spaces, but the "Glide-Away" tailgate was prone to electrical and mechanical problems, and water and air leakage problems, as the cars aged.

Another trouble-prone feature Pontiacs shared with all GM B- and C-body cars for 1971 was a new power ventilation system. The system, also shared with the ill-fated Vega, used the heater fan to draw air into the car from the cowl intake at the base of the windshield, and force it out through vents in the trunk lid or tailgate. In theory, passengers could enjoy fresh air even when the car was moving slowly or stopped, as in heavy traffic. In practice, however, it didn't work.

Within weeks of the 1971 models' debut, however, Pontiac—and all other GM dealers—received multiple complaints from drivers who complained the ventilation system pulled cold air into the car before the heater could warm up—and could not be shut off. The ventilation system was extensively revised for 1972.

All models featured new Grand Prix-style wrap-around cockpit instrument panels that placed controls and instruments within easy reach of the driver along with two round pods for a speedometer and the other for warning lights, fuel gauge or optional gauges and electric clock. Interior trims were available in cloth and Morrokide vinyl or expanded Morrokide depending on model.

Standard engine in Catalina sedans and coupes was a 255-horsepower "350" (actually 355 cid) V8 with two-barrel carburetor. Catalina Brougham models and Safari wagons came standard with a 400 cubic-inch V8 with two-barrel carburetor rated at 265 gross horsepower that was optional on other Catalina models.  Optional engines included a 455 cubic-inch V8 with two- or four-barrel carburetion and respective horsepower ratings of 285 and 325, respectively. All Pontiac engines for 1971 were designed to run on lower-octane regular leaded, low lead or unleaded gasoline thanks to a GM corporate edict, necessitating reductions in compression ratios.

Power front disc brakes were made standard equipment for the first time in 1971. As in previous years, variable ratio power steering and Turbo Hydramatic transmission were extra-cost options but became standard equipment midway through the 1971 model run. Also available on early 1971 Catalinas with the 350 engine was a two-speed automatic transmission in addition to the standard column-shift three-speed manual.

For 1972, Catalinas and other full-sized Pontiacs received new Grand Prix-style "V" nose grilles and sturdier front bumpers that could withstand crashes of up to , a year ahead of the Federal standard that took effect in 1973, along with revised taillight lenses.

The two-barrel 400 cubic-inch V8 was standard on all Catalina/Brougham/Safari models rated at 175 net horsepower compared to 265 gross horses in 1971 thanks to a switch in power measurements from gross ratings which were measured by a dynamometer with no accessories attached while the "net" figures were measured "as installed" in a vehicle with all accessories and emission gear hooked up. Optional engines included a two-barrel 455 rated at  and a four-barrel 455 rated at . The year 1972 was the last for the Catalina convertible and the Catalina Brougham series.

Catalina and other 1973 full-sized Pontiacs featured fuller-width split grilles along with the now-federally mandated  front bumper, and revised taillight lenses. Instrument panels continued the "wrap-around" theme but the two round gauges were housed in square pods. With the Catalina Brougham discontinued only the regular Catalina models and Safari wagons were offered this year. Catalinas and other full-sized Pontiacs including Bonnevilles and Grand Villes now rode on a common  wheelbaase for sedans and coupes though Safari and Grand Safari wagons continued on their own  wheelbase.

Catalina sedans and coupes came standard with a 350 cubic-inch V8 rated at  with a 170-horsepower 400 two-barrel optional and standard on Safari wagons. Optional engines included a  400 four-barrel and  455 four-barrel V8.

The 1974 Catalina and other big Pontiacs had a new Mercedes-like center split grille and revised rear styling with new  bumpers on the aft end and license plate moved above the bumper. Two-door hardtop coupes featured new fixed triangular side windows, but kept the pillarless style with roll-down rear quarter windows, unlike Chevrolet, which eliminated the rolldown rear quarters in the Caprice and Impala Custom coupes.  The four-door pillared and hardtop sedans were virtually unchanged from 1973. Interiors were much the same as 1973 except for a revised standard steering wheel and new cut-pile carpeting.

New to the option list were adjustable accelerator and brake pedals, a Pontiac exclusive (and seldom ordered), and a Radial Tuned Suspension that included the upgraded tires along with other suspension mods such as front and rear sway bars.

The 170-horsepower 400 V8 with two-barrel carburetor was now the standard engine on all models with a 225-horsepower 400 four-barrel and 250-horsepower 455 four-barrel V8 available as options. Also for 1974, the Safari wagon was renamed the Catalina Safari and continued to share interior and exterior trims with sedans and coupes.

Multiple economic factors affected sales, beginning with the 1973–1975 recession, the 1973 oil crisis and the introduction of smaller, more fuel efficient vehicles like the Pontiac Grand Am and imported vehicles like the Toyota Cressida, the Mercedes-Benz 280E and the BMW 530.

The year 1975 brought revised front and rear styling to Catalinas and other full-sized Pontiacs, along with standard radial tires and electronic ignition. The same assortment of 400 and 455 engines carried over from 1974 with reduced horsepower ratings ranging from 170 to 200, but now mated to catalytic converters, which provided improved driveability and fuel economy over previous emission control equipment, but mandated the use of unleaded gasoline. Four-door pillared and hardtop sedans featured new six-window styling with the sixth window on the hardtop sedan functioning as an opera window. 1975 also marked the end of Pontiac convertible production until 1982; the Grand Ville Brougham was the last full-size Pontiac convertible.

For 1976, only minor detail changes were made to Catalinas and other full-sized Pontiacs that included revised grilles (with rectangular headlights now on Catalinas with the "Custom Trim Option-round headlights continued on base models) and taillight lenses. This year was the last for the 1971-vintage bodyshell, optional adjustable pedals, 455 V8 and the clamshell tailgate on Safari wagons. 1976 also marked the return of the Bonneville Brougham series to the top of the full-size line, as Pontiac marketers abandoned the Grand Ville name entirely.

1977–1981

In 1977, Pontiac and other GM divisions downsized their full-sized cars in an effort to lighten weight and improve gas mileage. The Catalina continued as Pontiac's entry-level full-size automobile with a Buick-built 231 cubic-inch V6 now standard in sedans and coupes (Safari wagons came standard with V8 power) and optional V8s of 301 CID, 350 CID and 400 CID displacements, each Pontiac-built engines and offered in all states except California. The Pontiac 350 was offered in 1977, but replaced by Buick and Oldsmobile 350 V8s from 1978 to 1980; and the Pontiac 400, offered through 1978, was replaced by an Oldsmobile 403 V8 in 1979 only. An Oldsmobile-built 350 Diesel V8 was optional for 1980 and 1981, along with another cut-down Pontiac V8 of 265 CID.

With the downsized 1977 model, the Catalina Safari got a new two-way tailgate that could be opened to the side as a door or lowered as a tailgate which replaced the more complicated 1971-76 clamshell tailgate design. The wagons also shared the same full-coil spring suspension as their sedan counterparts, rather than the multi-leaf springs found on 1971-76 Safaris.

As Pontiac V8s were completely banned from the State of California beginning in 1977 due to the inability to meet the state's more stringent emission control standards, Catalinas (and Bonnevilles) sold in California were equipped with engines from other GM divisions through 1981. Those included the Buick 231 V6 and an assortment of V8s including the Chevrolet 305, Oldsmobile 307, Buick and Oldsmobile 350s, and Oldsmobile 403 V8.

The Catalina was discontinued after the 1981 model year as Pontiac sought to abandon the full-sized car market as part of GM's continued downsizing program. When production of the Catalina nameplate ended in 1981, over 3.8 million Catalinas had been sold since 1959.

Canada and Canadian exports

Strato Chief, Laurentian, Parisienne and Grande Parisienne

From the 1950s through 1970s, GM of Canada offered a unique hierarchy of full-size Pontiac series different from the American Catalina, Star Chief, Executive and Bonneville lines. In Canada, Pontiac was still marketed as a medium priced make, but with a lower price spread than those in the U.S.  Closely paralleling Chevrolet's Biscayne, Bel Air and Impala series, by 1959 the Canadian models were named Strato Chief, Laurentian and Pontiac Parisienne.  When Chevrolet introduced the "Super Sport" as a distinct model line in 1962, GM of Canada soon made available a similarly equipped Pontiac "Custom Sport" (rebadged Pontiac "2+2" in 1967 to mirror a name used by Pontiac in the US for a sporty model based on its Catalina series).  And when Chevrolet rolled out its topline Caprice model in mid-1965 to compete with Ford's newly introduced upscale Ford LTD, GM of Canada introduced the "Grande Parisienne" trim series for the 1966 model year. For the 4 years that Grande Parisienne was offered, 1966-1969 it was available as a 2 door hardtop, 4 door hardtop, or the model with no twin in the US, the 1967-1968 Grande Parisienne station wagon with hideaway headlights.  Front end styling copied the U.S. market Grand Prix.

Like all Canadian Pontiacs built from 1955 to 1970, Laurentians used full-size Chevrolet chassis, drive trains, and other parts, but using a body shell similar in style to, but not interchangeable with, the U.S. Catalina. For example, a  1964 Pontiac Laurentian looks like a Catalina, but has more in common with the Chevrolet Bel Air. Through at least 1967, however, the Laurentian wore the three "stars" normally associated with the Pontiac Star Chief/Executive series, even though other exterior trim pieces were similar to the Catalina.

The Laurentian was available in all the body styles used for the Chevrolet Bel Air, including hardtop coupes and sedans, through the 1962 model run. After 1963, hardtops were offered only in the Parisienne and Grande Parisienne series (first offered in 1966), which paralleled the Chevrolet Impala and Caprice respectively. However, two-door hardtops returned to the Strato Chief and Laurentian series in 1969 because Pontiac discontinued its Catalina 2-door sedan in the U.S. after the 1968 model run.

The Canadian model line nameplates were never sold in the U.S. They were built for the Canadian market and for export from Canada as disassembled "crate" or "kit" cars.  The one exception came when the Parisienne became an American Pontiac offering beginning in mid-1983 through 1986, although by this time the U.S. and Canadian offerings were identical. As the only remaining full-size Pontiac model available at the time, the Canadian Parisienne had been coveted by US dealerships as a flagship model to fill that market segment and compete with the Caprice offered by Chevrolet dealers. The existing name was deemed suitable for the purpose and production was simply extended to cover both countries.

Right-hand drive Laurentians were assembled from CKD kits by GM Holden in Australia from 1959-1963. In Australia, Laurentian was replaced by Parisienne for 1964. Parisiennes and Laurentians were assembled from CKD kits by GM South Africa in South Africa; and from SKD kits by GM New Zealand in New Zealand.

As well, these kits were assembled for both Left-hand drive and Right-hand drive markets in Europe at a GM plant in Antwerp, Belgium.

Canadian Pontiacs were used in part because, for fellow Commonwealth countries, there were advantages with import duties. But largely due first to the economies of part sourcing two separate GM lines from the same parts bin.  Second, with higher gasoline prices and lower discretionary spending than in the US, Canadian Pontiacs like Chevrolets were more affordable, hence more marketable overseas.  Thirdly, without the bulk and weight of American Pontiacs, their Canadian counterparts were better adapted where space can be limited, as in Europe and in a British RHD environment where an overly large full-size car suffers considerable disadvantages.

These RHD cars had the same dashboards whether Chevrolet or Pontiac (Impalas and Bel Airs were also exported to RHD markets) and only one dash design per bodyshell run so the 61-64 models had the one dash (a RHD version of the 1961 Pontiac layout) even though it changed annually in Canada and the 65-68s all had a 'transposed' version of the '65 Chevrolet dash. The RHD cars also had antiquated, short, 'clap-hands' wipers that almost met in the middle of the windshield rather than the parallel wipers of the LHD Canadian cars.  Local radios, upholstery and two-speed heater/demisters were fitted – some Australian cars had local Frigidaire air conditioning.

Footnotes

External links

 Pontiac Catalina at Muscle Car Club

Catalina
Rear-wheel-drive vehicles
Police vehicles
Full-size vehicles
Coupés
Convertibles
Sedans
Station wagons
Cars introduced in 1959
1960s cars
1970s cars
1980s cars
Motor vehicles manufactured in the United States

Pontiac Catalina


كلية غوردون التذكارية  أنشئت بناء على اقتراح اللورد كتشنر عند تسلمه الدرجة الفخرية من جامعة أدنبرة عام 1899، اعتماد مائة ألف جنيها استرلينياً لتشييد كلية في الخرطوم تخليداً لذكرى الجنرال تشارلز جورج غوردون.

تمويل المشروع
وتلقى تبرعات من أغنياء بريطانيا لتحقيق هدفه بلغت (111) ألف جنيه إسترلينى بعد أن وجدت فكرته لخلق أداة لنقل المعرفة الأوروبية وتوفير فرص التعليم لأبناء السودان ترحيباً كبيراً. أما الحكومة فرفضت توفير المبلغ المطلوب من الخزانة العامة.

الحركة الوطنية
رغم إشراف المستعمر البريطانى على إدارة كلية غوردون ومناهجها التي وضعت بما يتفق مع المصالح البريطانية، إلا أنها خرجت أجيالاً تولت قيادة الحركة الوطنية وزعزعة الاستعمار ليس في السودان فقط ويمثلهم الزعيمان إسماعيل الأزهري ومحمد أحمد محجوب اللذان رفعا علم السودان المستقل مكان العلم البريطاني، واللواء محمد نجيب الذي حقق جلاء البريطانيين عن وادي النيل وتحرير مصر من النظام الملكي.

تم تغير اسم الجامعة إلى جامعة الخرطوم وأزيل تمثال غوردون.

خريجون بارزون

 إبراهيم محمد المغربي
 عبد الرحمن الياس
 عبد الله الطيب
 عبد الله خليل
 محمد المهدي المجذوب
 محمود محمد طه
 يوسف مصطفى التني
 محمد نجيب

المراجع

التعليم في الخرطوم
تأسيسات سنة 1902 في الإمبراطورية البريطانية
جامعة الخرطوم
مدارس في الخرطوم
مدارس في السودان
هيئات تعليمية أسست في 1902

كلية غوردون التذكارية


Diese Liste gibt den Fortschreibungsstand vom 19. August 2014 wieder und enthält 21 Baudenkmäler.

Baudenkmäler nach Ortsteilen

Harsdorf

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Hettersreuth

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Lettenhof

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Sandreuth

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Zettmeisel

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Siehe auch
 Liste der Bodendenkmäler in Harsdorf

Anmerkungen

Literatur

Weblinks

!
Harsdorf
Baudenkmaler Harsdorf

Liste der Baudenkmäler in Harsdorf


Mabel Addis Mergardt, née le 21 mai 1912 à Mount Vernon, en Virginie, et morte le 13 août 2004 à New York, est une écrivaine, enseignante américaine. En 1964, elle devient la première game designeuse, grâce au jeu The Sumerian Game, programmé par William McKay, sur IBM 7090.

Biographie
Mabel Addis née Mabel Holmes, de l'union de James Holmes et Mabel Wood, grandit dans le Mount Vernon, en Virginie (États-Unis). Elle excelle à l'école et obtient son diplôme, major de promotion, en 1929. Une fois son diplôme en poche, elle décroche un diplôme en Histoire ancienne et une mineure en psychologie en 1933, au Bernard College (Columbia), puis une Maîtrise en éducation à l'Université de Columbia .

Mariée à Alexander L. Addis en 1942, avec qui elle a une fille (Alexandra Addis Johnson), Mabel Addis est veuve en 1981 et épouse Gerard Mergardt en 1991, avant d'être veuve en 1995.

Elle travaille dans un premier temps dans une école rurale à classe unique, puis de 1937 à 1950 à l'école Hyatt Avenue, avant d'enseigner dans le district scolaire de Katonah-Lewisboro de 1950 à 1976 .

Ses connaissances en Histoire lui permettent de contribuer aux comités d'Histoire et de livres du district scolaire. En outre, elle écrit et publie des articles historiques, commence une collection d'histoires orales et co-écrit un livre intitulé Katonah: a History of a New York Village and Its people.

Très active dans sa communauté, Mabel Addis fait partie de plusieurs associations et sociétés historiques. Elle est ainsi : membre du comité bicentenaire de Somers ; membre du comité littéraire et du comité d'Histoire de la société d'amélioration du village de Katonah ; secrétaire et Trésorière du cercle des agriculteurs de Bedford ; présidente de la Société Historique de Somers ; présidente de la commission du musée ; membre du comité républicain de la ville de Somers ; présidente du bicentenaire de Brewster ; bénévole au Musée de Southeast  ; et membre de la société de protection des monuments de Brewster .

Après l'aventure de la création de The Sumerian Game, Mabel Addis quitte le monde vidéoludique et finit sa carrière d'enseignante à l'école Katonah de New York, ville où elle décède en 2004, à l'âge de 92 ans .

The Sumerian Game
C'est seulement dans les années 60, que Mabel Addis fait son entrée dans le monde vidéoludique, en étant choisie pour travailler avec IBM et Boards of Cooperative Educational Services (BOCES, un programme destiné à aider les écoles rurales à mettre en commun leurs ressources et dont le directeur du comté de Westchester considère que les ordinateurs et les jeux de simulation sur ordinateur peuvent être utilisés pour améliorer les résultats scolaires dans les petits districts), pour créer le premier jeu informatique basé sur du texte : The Sumerian Game.

Elle travaille ainsi pour BOCES et IBM pendant 5 étés.

En 1964, par le programme éducatif Boards of Cooperative Educational Services, The Sumerian Game est créé, sur IBM 7090 (ordinateur introduit en 1959). Il s'agit d'un jeu de gestion, en mode texte, où le joueur incarne successivement trois souverains de la cité de Lagash, du pays de Sumer (d'où le nom du jeu), en Mésopotamie, vers -3500 A.D...

Imaginé pour être joué par un groupe d'élèves (bien qu'une seule personne soit amenée à entrer les réponses), le jeu est divisé en trois phases dont la complexité croissante correspond aux règnes successifs de ces dits trois souverains.

Chaque phase se déroule en une suite de tours où il faut répondre par des nombres à une série de questions posées par le programme.

Les réponses doivent être entrées sur l'élément central de l'IBM 7090, par l'intermédiaire d'un téléscripteur.

La première version du jeu a été jouée par un groupe de 30 élèves de sixième en 1964, alors qu'une deuxième version, au gameplay remanié, avec des éléments narratifs et audiovisuels ajoutés (présentés comme des discussions entre les conseillers du souverain, associées à des images affichées sur un écran par l'intermédiaire d'un projecteur de diapositives) a été jouée par un deuxième groupe d'élèves en 1966.

Cependant, les deux versions du programme reposent sur le même principe.

La première phase du jeu débute en -3500 A.D. et chaque tour correspond à une saison (limitée à trente tours dans la deuxième version du jeu).

Chaque tour débute avec un rapport sur la situation de la cité (nombre d'habitants, surfaces de terres agricoles, nombre de fermiers ou encore la quantité de grains récoltés et stockés). Il est suivi par une série de questions permettant de définir la quantité de grains à stocker et à utiliser pour les plantations et/ou pour nourrir la population.

Une fois les décisions prises par le joueur, le programme calcule les effets de ces choix sur la situation de la cité. En outre, à chaque tour, le programme peut générer plusieurs événements. Ainsi, à l'instar d'un SimCity bien des années plus tard, la cité peut être touchée par des catastrophes naturelles, telles des incendies ou des inondations, ayant pour conséquences de détruire un certain pourcentage de la population et/ou des récoltes. Mais le programme prend également en compte la possibilité de la disparition d'une partie des réserves de grains par pourrissement ou à cause des rats.

En outre, comme dans un Civilization, la découverte d'innovations technologiques ont un impact sur le développement du jeu (exemple : limiter la quantité de grains gâchés à chaque tour ou réduire le nombre de fermiers nécessaires pour cultiver chaque parcelle). Ces découvertes nécessitent du joueur d'avoir pris les bonnes décisions (exemple : avoir nourri sa population pendant plusieurs tours successifs).

Au début des phases suivantes, afin de représenter le passage à une autre époque, le programme ajuste la population et les réserves de la cité à des valeurs prédéfinies, indépendamment des résultats obtenus précédemment.

Dans la première version du jeu, les phases deux et trois reposent sur le même principe que la première, mais donnent au joueur de nouvelles options : la deuxième phase permet d'assigner la population à l'artisanat pour débloquer des innovations ; et la troisième phase permet le développement du commerce et ainsi étendre la cité.

Dans la seconde version du jeu : les phases deux et trois sont limitées à dix tours ; la deuxième ne demandant plus de gérer les allocations de grains mais uniquement d'assigner les habitants à l'agriculture ou à l'artisanat ; et la troisième phase restant ce qu'elle était, bien qu'il soit un temps envisagé d'y supprimer la gestion du grain et d'y ajouter de nouvelles options en termes de commerces, de colonisation et de guerre.

Le code original de ce jeu est malheureusement aujourd'hui perdu, mais les diapositives du projecteur et trois imprimés de sessions de jeu individuelles ont été trouvés en 2012 et donnés au The Strong National Museum of Play (New York, États-Unis), où ils sont conservés dans le Brian Sutton-Smith Library and Archives of Play.

En effet, bien que la fille d'Addis ait fait don de toutes les notes de sa mère, concernant The Sumerian Game, à la demande de l'historien Devin Monnens, à ce musée, cela ne couvre que le premier tiers de la version de 1964 du jeu, faisant de ce jeu, à l'instar des contributions apportées par Mabel Addis, une page oubliée de l'Histoire des jeux vidéo.

Postérité
The Sumerian Game est resté oublié de tous jusqu'à la publication, en 1974, de 101 Basic Computers Games (recueil de jeux regroupant de nombreux jeux sur ordinateur à taper à la main dans le langage de programmation BASIC), dans lequel on trouve un jeu largement inspiré de The Sumerian Game : Hamurabi.

Bien que son jeu a été créé et développé dans le cadre de recherches de nouveaux usages pour les simulations informatiques, il a réellement été le pionnier de plusieurs développements dans le milieu. Il est d'ailleurs souvent vu comme étant l'un des jeux ayant eu le plus d'influence sur le monde vidéoludique.

Outre le fait d'être un prototype en matière de jeux de stratégie, de gestion et de construction de villes, le jeu créé par Mabel Addis a été décrit comme le premier jeu vidéo avec un récit, ainsi que le premier jeu ludo-éducatif.

The Sumerian Game est le premier jeu vidéo créé sur un ordinateur entièrement électronique.

la Collection d'Histoire Orale Mabel Addis

La Collection d'Histoire Orale Mabel Addis (Mabel Addis Oral History Collection), est une collection constituée des interviews, menés dans les années 78-80, sur des sujets historiques traitant de Somers s'étendant sur environ 150 ans (du début du XIXème au milieu du XXème siècle) .

En effet, membre fondateur et membre du Conseil d'Administration de Sociétés Historiques, ainsi qu'historienne et autrice de plusieurs livres d'Histoire, Mabel Addis, reconnaissant la valeur des histoires orales comme des faits concrets, a permis d'organiser et a mené des interviews historiques, avec des habitants de longue date de Somers .

La numérisation de ces interviews est financé par une généreuse bourse accordée par l'Institut des services des musées et des bibliothèques (IMLS).

Publications
 Abba Laura Howe, Laura D Bailey, Mabel H Addis & Henry H Wells, Brewster through the years 1848 - 1948 - History and Folklore, Harbor hill Books, 1955.
 Mabel Addis, « chapitre XVII : 1917 - 1926 », Frances Duncombe, Katonah, the history of a New York village and its people, The Society, Katonah, N.Y., 1961, p.238-249.
 History of Southeast, 1988.
 Somers Historical Society, Somers, its People and Places 1788-1988, a 200 Year History, Somers, New-York, 1989.
 co-autrice du Katonah Civic Club
 Jo Pitkin, Cradle of the American Circus: Poems from Somers, New York : Mabel Addis, Apendix A, The Birth,

Notes et références

Liens internes
 The Sumerian Game
 Hamurabi

Liens externes

 "critical Kate" Willaert, THE SUMERIAN GAME: The most important video game you've never heard of, 09 septembre 2019.
 The Sumerian Game
 The Production and Evaluation of Three Computer Based Economics Games for the Sixth Grade, by Richard Wing
 BOCES Gets $103,824 to Study Simulation, North Westchester Times New Castle Tribune March 14, 1963

Conceptrice américaine de jeux vidéo
Naissance en mai 1912
Décès en août 2004
Décès à 92 ans

Mabel Addis


26183 Henrigodard este un asteroid din centura principală de asteroizi.

Descriere
26183 Henrigodard este un asteroid din centura principală de asteroizi. A fost descoperit pe  la Observatorul La Silla de Eric Walter Elst. Asteroidul prezintă o orbită caracterizată de o semiaxă mare de 2,85 ua, o excentricitate de 0,09 și o înclinație de 2,7° în raport cu ecliptica.

Vezi și
 Lista planetelor minore: 26001-27000
 Centura de asteroizi

Referințe

Obiecte astronomice descoperite în 1996
Centura de asteroizi

26183 Henrigodard


O Campeonato Europeu de Halterofilismo de 1993 foi a 72ª edição do campeonato, sendo organizado pela Federação Europeia de Halterofilismo, em Sófia, na Bulgária, entre 20 a 25 de abril de 1993. Foram disputadas 10 categorias com a presença de 153 halterofilistas de 27 nacionalidades. Também ocorreu a 6ª edição do Campeonato Europeu de Halterofilismo feminino, sendo organizado pela Federação Europeia de Halterofilismo, em Valencia na Espanha. A edição feminina contou com nove categorias.

Medalhistas

Masculino

Feminino

Quadro de medalhas

Quadro de medalhas no total combinado

Ligações externas
Site da Federação Europeia de Halterofilismo

1993
Europeu
Halterofilismo
Halterofilismo
Halterofilismo
Halterofilismo


සිරස් වගාව යනු නාගරික ප්‍රදේශයන්හි උස් ගොඩනැගිලි වල කෙරෙන කෘෂිකාර්මික ක්‍රම වේදයකි. මෙම ගොඩනැගිලි වල හරිතාගාර ක්‍රම උපයෝගි කර ගනිමින් වසර පුරා සම්පත් ප්‍රතිචක්‍රීකරණය කරමින් අනාගත නගර ස්වයං පෝෂිතව පවත්වා ගෙන  යාම පිණිස පළතුරු එළවලු වගාව මෙන්ම මසුන් ඇති කිරීම සහ සත්ව පාලනයද කළ හැකිය.

මෙම සංකල්පය සඳහා කෙරුණු පර්යේෂණ වල මූලිකයා ලෙස හැඳින්වෙන්නේ නිව් යෝර්ක් හි කොලම්බියා විශ්ව විද්‍යාලයේ ඩික්සන් ඩෙස්පොමියර් නම් වූ පාරිසරික සෞඛ්‍ය විද්‍යා මහාචාර්යවරයාය. ඩික්සන්ගේ සිරස් වගාව නැමැති සංකල්පය අඩංගු ලිපිය නිව් යෝර්ක් මැගසින් නම් සඟරාවේ පළ වීමත් සමග ලොස් ඇන්ජලීස් හි (යුනයිටඩ් ෆියුචර් හි නිර්මාණ අධ්‍යක්ෂ) ක්‍රිස් ජේකබ් විසින් සැලසුම් කරන ලද මෙම ක්‍රමය කැලිෆොර්නියාව විසින් ලෝකයේ අවධානයට යොමු කරනු ලැබීය.

තිරස් වගා ක්‍රමයේ බලාපොරොත්තු විය හැකි වාසිදායක තත්වය නම් කැලැ එලි කිරීම වැලැක්වීම සහ කාන්තාර ඇතිවීමේ තත්වය වැලැක්වීමයි. ජනාවාස ප්‍රදේශ තුලම ආහාර නිෂ්පාදනය කර ගැනීමෙන් ඈත තිබෙන ගොවිබිම් වලින් ආහාර වර්ග ප්‍රවාහනයේදි ඇති විය හැකි දූෂණ තත්වයන්ද අවම කර ගත හැකිය. මනාව සකස් කරන ලද හරිතාගාරයක් පාවිච්චි කිරීමෙන් අස්වැන්න වැඩිපුර ලබා ගත හැකි අතර කෘමිනාශක වල් පැලැටී නාශක සහ පොහොර භාවිතයද අවම කළ හැකිය. දැනට පෙනෙන අන්දමට ඉදිරියේදි මෙම සිරස් ගොවිපල වල අප ජලය පිරිසිදු ජලය බවට පත් කර අප ද්‍රව්‍ය වලින් විදුලියද නිපදවා එම අංශ වලින් ස්වයං පෝෂිත තත්වයට පත් වනු ඇත.

මහාචාර්ය ඩෙස්පොමියර් මෙම සිරස් ගොවිපලවල් බිහි කිරීමේ තාක්ෂණය දැනට අප සතු බව කියයි. ඔහු කියන්නේ මෙම ක්‍රමය ලාභ හා ප්‍රතිඵල දායී බවයි. දළ ඇස්තමේන්තුවකට අනුව 35000 ක පිරිසකගේ ප්‍රයෝජනයට ගත හැකි සිරස් ගොවිපලක් බිහි කිරීමට වැය වන්නේ ඇමෙරිකන් ඩොලර් මිලියන 84 කට වඩා අඩු මුදලකි. දැනට ටොරොන්ටෝ නගරයෙහි මෙවැනි ගොවිපලක් තැනීමට සැළසුම් ශිල්පි ගෝර්ඩන් ග්‍රාෆ් සැළසුම් කර ඇත.

සිරස් වගාව


Hafız İbrahim Demiralay, (d. 1883, Isparta) - (ö. 29 Mart 1939), Türk Kurtuluş Savaşı'nda Kuvâ-yi Milliye'de büyük yararlıklar göstermiş, TBMM'de 6 dönem Isparta milletvekilliği yapmış bir din adamıdır.

Erken dönem
Yılanlızade Tahir Paşa'nın oğludur. İlk ve orta öğrenimini Isparta'da tamamladı. 1902'de İstanbul'a gelerek Fatih Medresesi'ne kaydoldu. Yedi yıl öğrenim gördükten sonra, müderrislik icazeti aldı.

Öğrenimi sonrasında Isparta'ya dönerek babasından kalan arazide tarımla meşgul oldu. Gülyağı ticareti yaptı. Bu arada 1911-1912 yıllarında Isparta İdadisi'nde Din Bilgisi ve Ahlâk Dersleri okuttu. Ayrıca bir ara Bidayet Mahkemesi Üyeliği'nde bulundu.

Kurtuluş Savaşı
Milli Mücadele'nin başlamasıyla, Isparta ve çevresinde milli harekâtın önderi oldu. İzmir'de Yunan işgalinin başlaması üzerine mitingler düzenleyerek ve Isparta'nın bütün köylerine varıncaya kadar "beyannameler" göndererek, halkı milli harekât lehinde bilinçlendirmeye çalıştı. Konya Valisi Cemal Bey'e ve II. Ordu Müfettişi Küçük Cemal Paşa'ya telgraflar çekti. Vali, telgrafı alır almaz Isparta Mutasarrıfı Talat Bey'e, "Uyanık olmasını, imza sahibinin sorguya çekilerek İstanbul Sıkıyönetimine gönderilmesi" talimatını verdi. Isparta Hürriyet ve İtilaf Fırkası mensupları da Hafız İbrahim Efendi'nin çalışmalarına karşı çıktılar.

Bu engelleme girişimlerine rağmen Hafız İbrahim Efendi, çalışmalarını arttırarak sürdürdü. Bu cümleden olarak, 6 Ağustos - 8 Ağustos 1919 tarihlerinde toplanan 1. Nazilli Kongresi'ne Isparta delegesi sıfatıyla Eski Müftü Hacı Hüsnü Özdamar ile Uçkurcuzade Ali Efendi'yi gönderdi. Böylece Ege Bölgesi'ndeki milli faaliyetlerle irtibata geçti.

Öte yandan başkanı bulunduğu ve Isparta'da Ulusal örgütlenmenin öncülüğünü yapan Cemiyet-i İlmiye'yi Müdafaa-i Hukuk Cemiyeti adı altında yeniden kurdu. Isparta'nın merkez, ilçe ve köylerinden topladığı gönüllü kuvvetleri "Isparta Mücahitleri" adı altında Nazilli Cephesi'ne gönderdi.

TBMM I. Dönem için yapılan seçimlerle Isparta Milletvekili Seçildi. Bu sıfatla Meclisin 23 Nisan 1920'de açılışında hazır bulundu. Ankara Fetvası'nı "Isparta Mebusu, Ulemadan Hafız İbrahim" isim ve unvanıyla imzalamıştı.

1920 Temmuz'unun başlarında Yunan kuvvetlerinin Milne hattını aşarak Anadolu içlerine ilerlemeleri, Alaşehir'in kaybı, Nazilli-Köşk cephesinin çökmesi, Yunan ordusunun 5 Temmuz 1920 günü Denizli-Buldan'a girmesi, kuzeyde Bursa'ya yaklaşmasıyla işgalin genişlediği günlerde "milli teşkilat kurup cepheye gitmesi için Mustafa Kemal Paşa'nın tensibiyle Milli Müdafaa Vekili tarafından Isparta ve havalisine gönderildi". Cephede görev yapması sebebiyle, 11 Temmuz 1920'de Meclis kararıyla izinli sayıldı. Kısa zamanda topladığı yüz atlı ve iki yüz piyade gönüllü erle bir birlik teşkil ederek Yunan kuvvetleriyle savaştı. Ekim'de bu kuvvet üçü atlı, üçü piyade ve biri makinalı tüfek takımından ibaret yedi bölüklü bir alay haline geldi ve "Demir Alay" olarak anıldı. Uşak hattında, bir başka din adamı, İsmail Şükrü Çelikalay tarafından yürütülen savunma hareketlerine paralel şekilde bir tarzda girdi.

Demir Alay, 28 Ağustos 1920'de Kurban Bayramı'nın üçüncü günü Sarayköy yakınında Demirköprü mevkiinde Yunan ordusuyla şiddetli çarpışmalara girdi. 5-6 gün süren bu çarpışmalarda Hafız İbrahim'in komuta ettiği Demir Alay karşısında Yunanlar ilerleme kaydedemedi. Daha önce Tepeköy'ü işgal eden Yunan kuvvetlerine 17 Eylül gecesi baskın yapıldı ve Tepeköy işgalden kurtarıldı.

Demir Alay'ın bu başarılı hizmetleri, TBMM tarafından da yakından takip edildi. Meclis'in takdirleri, Başkan Mustafa Kemal Paşa vasıtasıyla Demiralay Komutanı Hafız İbrahim Bey'e bildirildi.

"Kuvâ-yi Milliye" kuvvetleri düzenli ordu içine alınırken, Demir Alay, "Mürettep Alay" olarak 57. Tümen içinde yer aldı. Müdafaa-i Milliye Vekaleti'nin 2 Kasım 1920 tarihli emri ile adı "39. Alay" oldu. Ocak 1921'de de "Menderes Grup Komutanlığı" emrine verildi.

Demir Alay'ın düzenli ordu içinde bu şekilde yer alması üzerine, Mart 1921'de Hafız İbrahim Efendi, Meclis'e döndü. Sağlık ve Sosyal Yardım, Milli Eğitim ve Dilekçe komisyonlarında görev aldı. I. Dönem içinde 4'ü gizli oturumlarda olmak üzere 7 konuşma yaptı. Bir de Kanun önerisi verdi. Hizmetlerinden dolayı Kırmızı-yeşil şeritli İstiklal Madalyası ile ödüllendirildi.

Sonraki Hayatı
TBMM 2. Dönem, 3. Dönem, 4. Dönem, 5. Dönem ve 6. Dönemlerde de yeniden Isparta Milletvekili seçildi. Evli ve dört çocuk babasıydı. Soyadı Kanunu ile "Demiralay" soyadını aldı. Halen Isparta'da soyu Demiralaylar olarak bilinmekte ve devam etmektedir.

IX.,X.ve XI.Dönem Isparta milletvekili Kemal Demiralay'ın babasıdır.

Kaynakça
Diyanet İşleri Başkanlığı

Konuyla ilgili yayınlar
I. Dönem TBMM'de Isparta Milletvekilleri ve Meclis Çalışmaları

TBMM 1. dönem Isparta milletvekilleri
TBMM 2. dönem Isparta milletvekilleri
TBMM 3. dönem Isparta milletvekilleri
TBMM 4. dönem Isparta milletvekilleri
TBMM 5. dönem Isparta milletvekilleri
TBMM 6. dönem Isparta milletvekilleri
Kırmızı-yeşil şeritli İstiklâl Madalyası sahipleri
1883 doğumlular
1939 yılında ölenler
Kurtuluş Savaşı'nda milisler
Isparta doğumlu siyasetçiler

Hafız İbrahim Demiralay


Helianthus pauciflorus est une plante vivace de la famille des astéracées originaire d'Amérique du Nord, dont l'espèce appartient au même genre que le Tournesol. Elle est cultivée pour ses fleurs jaunes décoratives.

Liste des sous-espèces et variétés
Selon  (Attention liste brute contenant possiblement des synonymes) :
 Helianthus pauciflorus subsp. pauciflorus
 Helianthus pauciflorus subsp. subrhomboideus (Rydb.) O. Spring & E.E. Schill.
 Helianthus pauciflorus var. pauciflorus
 Helianthus pauciflorus var. subrhomboideus (Rydb.) Cronquist

Notes et références

Liens externes

Flore en Amérique du Nord
Statut UICN Préoccupation mineure
Asteroideae

Helianthus pauciflorus


La microrregión de Joaçaba es una de las microrregiones del estado brasileño de Santa Catarina perteneciente a la mesorregión Oeste Catarinense. A conteo poblacional realizada en 2007 por el IBGE resultó en 311.373 habitantes que está dividida en 27 municipios. Posee un área total de 9.136,383 km².

Municipios

 Água Doce
 Arroio Trinta
 Caçador
 Calmon
 Capinzal
 Catanduvas
 Erval Velho
 Fraiburgo
 Herval d'Oeste
 Ibiam
 Ibicaré
 Iomerê
 Jaborá
 Joaçaba
 Lacerdópolis
 Lebon Régis
 Luzerna
 Macieira
 Matos Costa
 Ouro
 Pinheiro Preto
 Rio das Antas
 Salto Veloso
 Tangará
 Treze Tílias
 Vargem Bonita
 Videira

Referencias

Enlaces externos

Joaçaba

Microrregión de Joaçaba


නයිට්‍රජන් චක්‍රය යනු වායුගෝලය සහ ජෛවගෝල අතර නයිට්‍රජන් ගමන් කිරීමේ ක්‍රියාවලියයි.

Processes

නයිට්‍රජන් තිර කිරීම

වායුගෝලයේ ඇති නයිට්‍ර්ජන්, නයිට්‍රජනීය සංයෝග බවට පත්කිරීම නයිට්‍රජන් තිර කිරීම හෝ නයිට්‍රජන් උපයෝගීකරණය () නම් වේ.

ආශ්‍රිත

මූලාශ්‍ර

Cycle
Biogeochemical cycle
Soil biology
Metabolism
ජෛව භූගෝල විද්‍යාව
Fishkeeping

නයිට්‍රජන් චක්‍රය


O  Esporte Clube São Borja, anteriormente Associação Esportiva São Borja é um clube brasileiro de futebol, da cidade de São Borja, no estado do Rio Grande do Sul. Suas cores são o vermelho, o azul e o branco.

História
Após doze anos do licenciamento do futebol profissional do antigo clube da cidade de São Borja, a Sociedade Esportiva São Borja, em 2009 surge a Associação Esportiva São Borja, assumindo o estádio Vicente Goulart e adotando as cores e praticamente o mesmo escudo da SESB, passando a ser chamada inclusive pelo mesmo apelido, de Bugre das Missões, como era carinhosamente chamada a equipe anterior. Sua primeira competição profissional foi a Segunda Divisão de 2012 (terceiro nível), na qual terminou em 11º lugar.

Em 2017 o São Borja não disputou nenhuma competição.

Em 2018, o Bugre foi promovido a Divisão de Acesso após ganhar a semifinal contra o Sport Club Rio Grande por um placar de 3x0 jogando em casa, no último jogo, no Estádio Vicente Goulart. Na final, venceu o Farroupilha, conquistando seu primeiro título.

Em 2019, o clube foi rebaixado na Divisão de Acesso do Campeonato Gaúcho após ficar em último lugar no grupo B da competição, numa campanha com 3 vitórias, 5 empates e 6 derrotas.

No ano de 2021 a AESB foi notificada pelo Serviço de Registro Civil e Especiais que precisaria alterar a sua denominação e seu estatuto. Isto porque a Sociedade Esportiva São Borja (SESB) entrou com pedido de reativação junto ao Cartório e, e como as Sociedades não existem mais desde 2002, ela automaticamente passaria a ser Associação, resultando em dois times com a mesma denominação, e como possui o CNPJ mais antigo, teria a preferencia para o uso do nome.

Com esse imbróglio, o clube ajuizou pedido para continuar usando o nome e a marca, pleito que foi atendido em primeiro grau. Mas em 2022, a instituição anunciou a mudança de nome e de identidade visual, adotando a partir de 1º de maio de 2022 a nomenclatura de Esporte Clube São Borja.

Estatísticas

Participações

Elenco atual
  Última atualização: 20 de Setembro de 2023

Títulos

Sao Borja
Sao Borja
Esporte de São Borja
Fundações no Rio Grande do Sul em 2009

Esporte Clube São Borja


هنا قائمة ببطولات ويمبلدون لسنة 1983:

الكبار

فردي رجال

 جون ماكإنرو هزم  كريس لويس 6-2 6-2 6-2

فردي سيدات

 مارتينا نافراتيلوفا هزم  أندريه جايغير, 6-0, 6-3

زوجي رجال
 بيتر فليمنغ و جون ماكإنرو هزم  تيم غاوليكسن و توم غاوليكسن, 6-4, 6-3, 6-4

زوجي سيدات
 مارتينا نافراتيلوفا و بام شرايفر هزم  روزي كاسالس و ويندي تورنبل, 6-2, 6-2

زوجي مختلط
 جون للويد و ويندي تورنبل هزم  ستيف دينتون و بيلي جين كينغ, 6-7(5-7), 7-6(7-5), 7-5

الشباب

فردي أولاد
 ستيفان إدبرغ هزم  جون فراولي, 6-3, 7-6(7-5)

فردي بنات
 باسكال باراديس هزم  باتريسيا هي, 6-2, 6-1

زوجي أولاد
 مارك كراتزمان و سيمون يول هزم  ميهينا إيون ناستاسي و أولي رهناستو, 6-4, 6-4

زوجي بنات
 باتي فينديك و باتريسيا هي هزم  كارين أندرهولم و هيلينا أولسن, 6-1, 7-5

ملاحظة

بطولة ويمبلدون 1983
أحداث 1983 الرياضية في لندن
أحداث يوليو 1983 الرياضية في المملكة المتحدة
أحداث يونيو 1983 الرياضية في المملكة المتحدة
كرة المضرب في 1983

بطولة ويمبلدون 1983


MESSENGER was a NASA robotic space probe that orbited the planet Mercury between 2011 and 2015, studying Mercury's chemical composition, geology, and magnetic field.  The name is a backronym for "Mercury Surface, Space Environment, Geochemistry, and Ranging", and a reference to the messenger god Mercury from Roman mythology.

MESSENGER was launched aboard a Delta II rocket in August 2004.  Its path involved a complex series of flybys – the spacecraft flew by Earth once, Venus twice, and Mercury itself three times, allowing it to decelerate relative to Mercury using minimal fuel. During its first flyby of Mercury in January 2008, MESSENGER became the second mission, after Mariner 10 in 1975, to reach Mercury.

MESSENGER entered orbit around Mercury on March 18, 2011, becoming the first spacecraft to do so. It successfully completed its primary mission in 2012. Following two mission extensions, the spacecraft used the last of its maneuvering propellant to deorbit, impacting the surface of Mercury on April 30, 2015.

Mission overview
MESSENGERs formal data collection mission began on April 4, 2011. The primary mission was completed on March 17, 2012, having collected close to 100,000 images. MESSENGER achieved 100% mapping of Mercury on March 6, 2013, and completed its first year-long extended mission on March 17, 2013. The probe's second extended mission lasted for over two years, but as its low orbit degraded, it required reboosts to avoid impact. It conducted its final reboost burns on October 24, 2014, and January 21, 2015, before crashing into Mercury on April 30, 2015.

During its stay in Mercury orbit, the probe's instruments yielded significant data, including a characterization of Mercury's magnetic field and the discovery of water ice at the planet's north pole, which had long been suspected on the basis of Earth-based radar data.

Mission background

Previous missions
In 1973, Mariner 10 was launched by NASA to make multiple flyby encounters of Venus and Mercury. Mariner 10 provided the first detailed data of Mercury, mapping 40–45% of the surface. Mariner 10's final flyby of Mercury occurred on March 16, 1975. No subsequent close-range observations of the planet would take place for more than 30 years.

Proposals for the mission
In 1998, a study detailed a proposed mission to send an orbiting spacecraft to Mercury, as the planet was at that point the least-explored of the inner planets. In the years following the Mariner 10 mission, subsequent mission proposals to revisit Mercury had appeared too costly, requiring large quantities of propellant and a heavy lift launch vehicle. Moreover, inserting a spacecraft into orbit around Mercury is difficult, because a probe approaching on a direct path from Earth would be accelerated by the Sun's gravity and pass Mercury far too quickly to orbit it. However, using a trajectory designed by Chen-wan Yen in 1985, the study showed it was possible to seek a Discovery-class mission by using multiple, consecutive gravity assist, 'swingby' maneuvers around Venus and Mercury, in combination with minor propulsive trajectory corrections, to gradually slow the spacecraft and thereby minimize propellant needs.

Objectives
The MESSENGER mission was designed to study the characteristics and environment of Mercury from orbit. Specifically, the scientific objectives of the mission were:
 to characterize the chemical composition of Mercury's surface.
 to study the planet's geologic history.
 to elucidate the nature of the global magnetic field (magnetosphere).
 to determine the size and state of the core.
 to determine the volatile inventory at the poles.
 to study the nature of Mercury's exosphere.

Spacecraft design

The MESSENGER spacecraft was designed and built at the Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory. Science operations were managed by Sean Solomon as principal investigator, and mission operations were also conducted at JHU/APL. The MESSENGER bus measured  tall,  wide, and  deep. The bus was primarily constructed with four graphite fiber / cyanate ester composite panels that supported the propellant tanks, the large velocity adjust (LVA) thruster, attitude monitors and correction thrusters, the antennas, the instrument pallet, and a large ceramic-cloth sunshade, measuring  tall and  wide, for passive thermal control. At launch, the spacecraft weighed approximately  with its full load of propellant. MESSENGER's total mission cost, including the cost of the spacecraft's construction, was estimated at under US$450 million.

Attitude control and propulsion
Main propulsion was provided by the 645 N, 317 sec. Isp bipropellant (hydrazine and nitrogen tetroxide) large velocity assist (LVA) thruster. The model used was the LEROS 1b, developed and manufactured at AMPAC‐ISP's Westcott works, in the United Kingdom. The spacecraft was designed to carry  of propellant and helium pressurizer for the LVA.

Four  monopropellant thrusters provided spacecraft steering during main thruster burns, and twelve  monopropellant thrusters were used for attitude control. For precision attitude control, a reaction wheel attitude control system was also included. Information for attitude control was provided by star trackers, an inertial measurement unit and six sun sensors.

Communications

The probe included two small deep space transponders for communications with the Deep Space Network and three kinds of antennas: a high gain phased array whose main beam could be electronically steered in one plane, a medium-gain "fan-beam" antenna and a low gain horn with a broad pattern. The high gain antenna was used as transmit-only at 8.4 GHz, the medium-gain and low gain antennas transmit at 8.4 GHz and receive at 7.2 GHz, and all three antennas operate with right-hand circularly polarized (RHCP) radiation. One of each of these antennas was mounted on the front of the probe facing the Sun, and one of each was mounted to the back of the probe facing away from the Sun.

Power

The space probe was powered by a two-panel gallium arsenide/germanium solar array providing an average of 450 watts while in Mercury orbit. Each panel was rotatable and included optical solar reflectors to balance the temperature of the array. Power was stored in a common-pressure-vessel, 23-ampere-hour nickel–hydrogen battery, with 11 vessels and two cells per vessel.

Computer and software

The spacecraft's onboard computer system was contained in an Integrated Electronics Module (IEM), a device that combined core avionics into a single box. The computer featured two radiation-hardened IBM RAD6000s, a 25 megahertz main processor, and a 10 MHz fault protection processor. For redundancy, the spacecraft carried a pair of identical IEMs. For data storage, the spacecraft carried two solid-state recorders able to store up to one gigabyte each. The IBM RAD6000 main processor collected, compressed, and stored data from MESSENGER's instruments for later playback to Earth.

MESSENGER used a software suite called SciBox to simulate its orbit and instruments, in order to "choreograph the complicated process of maximizing the scientific return from the mission and minimizing conflicts between instrument observations, while at the same time meeting all spacecraft constraints on pointing, data downlink rates, and onboard data storage capacity."

Scientific instruments

Mercury Dual Imaging System (MDIS)

Included two CCD cameras, a narrow-angle camera (NAC) and a wide-angle camera (WAC) mounted to a pivoting platform. The camera system provided a complete map of the surface of Mercury at a resolution of , and images of regions of geologic interest at . Color imaging was possible only with the narrow-band filter wheel attached to the wide-angle camera.

Objectives:
Flyby Phase:
 Acquisition of near-global coverage at ≈.
 Multispectral mapping at ≈.
 Orbital Phase:
 A nadir-looking monochrome global photomosaic at moderate solar incidence angles (55°–75°) and  or better sampling resolution.
 A 25°-off-nadir mosaic to complement the nadir-looking mosaic for global stereo mapping.
 Completion of the multispectral mapping begun during the flybys.
 High-resolution () image strips across features representative of major geologic units and structures.

Principal investigator: Scott Murchie / Johns Hopkins University
Data: PDS/MODE narrow-angle catalog, PDS/MODE wide-angle catalog, PDS/PIN data catalog

Gamma-Ray Spectrometer (GRS)

Measured gamma-ray emissions from the surface of Mercury to determine the planet's composition by detecting certain elements (oxygen, silicon, sulfur, iron, hydrogen, potassium, thorium, uranium) to a depth of 10 cm.

Objectives:

 Provide surface abundances of major elements.
 Provide surface abundances of Fe, Si, and K, infer alkali depletion from K abundances, and provide abundance limits on H (water ice) and S (if present) at the poles.
 Map surface element abundances where possible, and otherwise provide surface-averaged abundances or establish upper limits.

Principal investigator: William Boynton / University of Arizona
Data: PDS/GSN data catalog, PDS/MODE GRS data catalog

Neutron Spectrometer (NS)

Determined the hydrogen mineral composition to a depth of 40 cm by detecting low-energy neutrons resulting from the collision of cosmic rays with the minerals.

Objectives:

 Establish and map the abundance of hydrogen over most of the northern hemisphere of Mercury.
 Investigate the possible presence of water ice within and near permanently shaded craters near the north pole.
 Provide secondary evidence to aid in interpreting GRS measured gamma-ray line strengths in terms of elemental abundances.
 Outline surface domains at the base of both northern and southern cusps of the magnetosphere where the solar wind can implant hydrogen in surface material.

Principal investigator: William Boynton / University of Arizona
Data: PDS/GSN data catalog,  PDS/MODE NS data catalog

X-Ray Spectrometer (XRS)

Mapped mineral composition within the top millimeter of the surface on Mercury by detecting X-ray spectral lines from magnesium, aluminum, sulphur, calcium, titanium, and iron, in the 1–10 keV range.

Objectives:
 Determine the history of the formation of Mercury
 Characterize the composition of surface elements by measuring the X-ray emissions induced by the incident solar flux.

Principal investigator: George Ho / APL
Data: PDS/GSN data catalog, PDS/MODE data catalog

Magnetometer (MAG)

Measured the magnetic field around Mercury in detail to determine the strength and average position of the field.

Objectives:
 Investigate the structure of Mercury's magnetic field and its interaction with the solar wind.
 Characterize the geometry and time variability of the magnetospheric field.
 Detect wave-particle interactions with the magnetosphere.
 Observe magnetotail dynamics, including phenomena possibly analogous to substorms in the Earth's magnetosphere.
 Characterize the magnetopause structure and dynamics.
 Characterize field-aligned currents that link the planet with the magnetosphere.

Principal investigator: Mario Acuna / NASA Goddard Space Flight Center
Data: PDS/PPI data catalog

Mercury Laser Altimeter (MLA)

Provided detailed information regarding the height of landforms on the surface of Mercury by detecting the light of an infrared laser as the light bounced off the surface.

Objectives:
 Provide a high-precision topographic map of the high northern latitude regions.
 Measure the long-wavelength topographic features at mid-to-low northern latitudes.
 Determine topographic profiles across major geologic features in the northern hemisphere.
 Detect and quantify the planet's forced physical librations by tracking the motion of large-scale topographic features as a function of time.
 Measure the surface reflectivity of Mercury at the MLA operating wavelength of 1,064 nanometers.

Principal investigator: David Smith / GSFC
Data: PDS/GSN data catalog, PDS/MODE data catalog

Mercury Atmospheric and Surface Composition Spectrometer (MASCS)

Determined the characteristics of the tenuous atmosphere surrounding Mercury by measuring ultraviolet light emissions, and ascertained the prevalence of iron and titanium minerals on the surface by measuring the reflectance of infrared light.

Objectives:
 Characterize the composition, structure, and temporal behavior of the exosphere.
 Investigate the processes that generate and maintain the exosphere.
 Determine the relationship between exospheric and surface composition.
 Search for polar deposits of volatile material, and determine how are the accumulation of these deposits are related to exospheric processes.

Principal investigator: William McClintock / University of Colorado
Data: PDS/GSN data catalog, PDS/MODE data catalog

Energetic Particle and Plasma Spectrometer (EPPS)

Measured the charged particles in the magnetosphere around Mercury using an energetic particle spectrometer (EPS) and the charged particles that come from the surface using a fast imaging plasma spectrometer (FIPS).

Objectives:
 Determine the structure of the planet's magnetic field.
 Characterize exosphere neutrals and accelerated magnetospheric ions.
 Determine the composition of the radar-reflective materialmaterials gyms at Mercury's poles.
 Determine the electrical properties of the crust/atmosphere/environment interface.
 Determine characteristics of the dynamics of Mercury's magnetosphere and their relationships to external drivers and their internal conditions.
 Measure interplanetary plasma properties in cruise and in Mercury vicinity.

Principal investigator: Barry Mauk / APL
Data: PDS/PPI data catalog

Radio Science (RS)
Measured the gravity of Mercury and the state of the planetary core by utilizing the spacecraft's positioning data.

Objectives:
 Determine the position of the spacecraft during both the cruise and orbital phases of the mission.
 Observe gravitational perturbations from Mercury to investigate the spatial variations of density within the planet's interior, and a time-varying component in Mercury's gravity to quantify the amplitude of Mercury's libration.
 Provide precise measurements of the range of the MESSENGER spacecraft to the surface of Mercury for determining proper altitude mapping with the MLA.

Principal investigator: David Smith / NASA Goddard Space Flight Center
Data: PDS/GSN data catalog, PDS/MODE data catalog

Mission profile

Launch and trajectory
The MESSENGER probe was launched on August 3, 2004, at 06:15:56 UTC by NASA from Space Launch Complex 17B at the Cape Canaveral Air Force Station in Florida, aboard a Delta II 7925 launch vehicle. The complete burn sequence lasted 57 minutes bringing the spacecraft into a heliocentric orbit, with a final velocity of 10.68 km/s (6.64 miles/s) and sending the probe into a 7.9 billion-kilometer (4.9 billion mi) trajectory that took 6 years, 7 months and 16 days before its orbital insertion on March 18, 2011.

Traveling to Mercury and entering orbit requires an extremely large velocity change (see delta-v) because Mercury's orbit is deep in the Sun's gravity well.  On a direct course from Earth to Mercury, a spacecraft is constantly accelerated as it falls toward the Sun, and will arrive at Mercury with a velocity too high to achieve orbit without excessive use of fuel. For planets with an atmosphere, such as Venus and Mars, spacecraft can minimize their fuel consumption upon arrival by using friction with the atmosphere to enter orbit (aerocapture), or can briefly fire their rocket engines to enter into orbit followed by a reduction of the orbit by aerobraking. However, the tenuous atmosphere of Mercury is far too thin for these maneuvers.  Instead, MESSENGER extensively used gravity assist maneuvers at Earth, Venus, and Mercury to reduce the speed relative to Mercury, then used its large rocket engine to enter into an elliptical orbit around the planet.  The multi-flyby process greatly reduced the amount of propellant necessary to slow the spacecraft, but at the cost of prolonging the trip by many years and to a total distance of 7.9 billion kilometers (4.9 billion miles).

Several planned thruster firings en route to Mercury were unnecessary, because these fine course adjustments were performed using solar radiation pressure acting on MESSENGER's solar panels. To further minimize the amount of necessary propellant, the spacecraft orbital insertion targeted a highly elliptical orbit around Mercury.

The elongated orbit had two other benefits:  It allowed the spacecraft time to cool after the times it was between the hot surface of Mercury and the Sun, and also it allowed the spacecraft to measure the effects of solar wind and the magnetic fields of the planet at various distances while still allowing close-up measurements and photographs of the surface and exosphere.
The spacecraft was originally scheduled to launch during a 12-day window that beginning May 11, 2004. On March 26, 2004, NASA announced the launch would be moved to a later, 15-day launch window beginning July 30, 2004, to allow for further testing of the spacecraft. This change significantly altered the trajectory of the mission and delayed the arrival at Mercury by two years. The original plan called for three fly-by maneuvers past Venus, with Mercury orbit insertion scheduled for 2009. The trajectory was changed to include one Earth flyby, two Venus flybys, and three Mercury flybys before orbit insertion on March 18, 2011.

Earth flyby

MESSENGER performed an Earth flyby one year after launch, on August 2, 2005, with the closest approach at 19:13 UTC at an altitude of 2,347 kilometers (1,458 statute miles) over central Mongolia. On December 12, 2005, a 524-second-long burn (Deep-Space Maneuver or DSM-1) of the large thruster adjusted the trajectory for the upcoming Venus flyby by 316 m/s.

During the Earth flyby, the MESSENGER team imaged the Earth and Moon using MDIS and checked the status of several other instruments observing the atmospheric and surface compositions and testing the magnetosphere and determining that all instruments tested were working as expected. This calibration period was intended to ensure accurate interpretation of data when the spacecraft entered orbit around Mercury. Ensuring that the instruments functioned correctly at such an early stage in the mission allowed opportunity for multiple minor errors to be dealt with.

The Earth flyby was used to investigate the flyby anomaly, where some spacecraft have been observed to have trajectories that differ slightly from those predicted.  However no anomaly was observed in MESSENGER's flyby.

Two Venus flybys

On October 24, 2006, at 08:34 UTC, MESSENGER encountered Venus at an altitude of . During the encounter, MESSENGER passed behind Venus and entered superior conjunction, a period when Earth was on the exact opposite side of the Solar System, with the Sun inhibiting radio contact. For this reason, no scientific observations were conducted during the flyby. Communication with the spacecraft was reestablished in late November and performed a deep space maneuver on December 12, to correct the trajectory to encounter Venus in a second flyby.

On June 5, 2007, at 23:08 UTC, MESSENGER performed a second flyby of Venus at an altitude of , for the greatest velocity reduction of the mission. During the encounter, all instruments were used to observe Venus and prepare for the following Mercury encounters. The encounter provided visible and near-infrared imaging data of the upper atmosphere of Venus. Ultraviolet and X-ray spectrometry of the upper atmosphere were also recorded, to characterize the composition. The ESA's Venus Express was also orbiting during the encounter, providing the first opportunity for simultaneous measurement of particle-and-field characteristics of the planet.

Three Mercury flybys

MESSENGER made a flyby of Mercury on January 14, 2008 (making its closest approach of 200 km above the surface of Mercury at 19:04:39 UTC), followed by a second flyby on October 6, 2008. MESSENGER executed a final flyby on September 29, 2009, further slowing down the spacecraft. Sometime during the closest approach of the last flyby, the spacecraft entered safe mode. Although this had no effect on the trajectory necessary for later orbit insertion, it resulted in the loss of science data and images that were planned for the outbound leg of the fly-by. The spacecraft had fully recovered by about seven hours later. One last deep space maneuver, DSM-5, was executed on November 24, 2009, at 22:45 UTC to provide the required  velocity change for the scheduled Mercury orbit insertion on March 18, 2011, marking the beginning of the orbital mission.

Orbital insertion
The thruster maneuver to insert the probe into Mercury's orbit began at 00:45 UTC on March 18, 2011. The 0.9 km/s (0.5 mi./sec.) braking maneuver lasted about 15 minutes, with confirmation that the craft was in Mercury orbit received at 01:10 UTC on March 18 (9:10 PM, March 17 EDT). Mission lead engineer Eric Finnegan indicated that the spacecraft had achieved a near-perfect orbit.

MESSENGERs orbit was highly elliptical, taking it within  of Mercury's surface and then  away from it every twelve hours. This orbit was chosen to shield the probe from the heat radiated by Mercury's hot surface. Only a small portion of each orbit was at a low altitude, where the spacecraft was subjected to radiative heating from the hot side of the planet.

Primary science
After MESSENGER'''s orbital insertion, an eighteen-day commissioning phase took place. The supervising personnel switched on and tested the craft's science instruments to ensure they had completed the journey without damage. The commissioning phase "demonstrated that the spacecraft and payload [were] all operating nominally, notwithstanding Mercury's challenging environment."

The primary mission began as planned on April 4, 2011, with MESSENGER orbiting Mercury once every twelve hours for an intended duration of twelve Earth months, the equivalent of two solar days on Mercury. Principal Investigator Sean Solomon, then of the Carnegie Institution of Washington, said: "With the beginning today of the primary science phase of the mission, we will be making nearly continuous observations that will allow us to gain the first global perspective on the innermost planet. Moreover, as solar activity steadily increases, we will have a front-row seat on the most dynamic magnetosphere–atmosphere system in the Solar System."

On October 5, 2011, the scientific results obtained by MESSENGER during its first six terrestrial months in Mercury's orbit were presented in a series of papers at the European Planetary Science Congress in Nantes, France. Among the discoveries presented were the unexpectedly high concentrations of magnesium and calcium found on Mercury's nightside, and the fact that Mercury's magnetic field is offset far to the north of the planet's center.

Extended mission
 In November 2011, NASA announced that the MESSENGER mission would be extended by one year, allowing the spacecraft to observe the 2012 solar maximum. Its extended mission began on March 17, 2012, and continued until March 17, 2013. Between April 16 and 20, 2012, MESSENGER carried out a series of thruster manoeuvres, placing it in an eight-hour orbit to conduct further scans of Mercury.

In November 2012, NASA reported that MESSENGER had discovered both water ice and organic compounds in permanently shadowed craters in Mercury's north pole. In February 2013, NASA published the most detailed and accurate 3D map of Mercury to date, assembled from thousands of images taken by MESSENGER. MESSENGER completed its first extended mission on March 17, 2013, and its second lasted until April 2015. In November 2013, MESSENGER was among the numerous space assets that imaged Comet Encke (2P/Encke) and Comet ISON (C/2012 S1). As its orbit began to decay in early 2015, MESSENGER was able to take highly detailed close-up photographs of ice-filled craters and other landforms at Mercury's north pole.  After the mission was completed, review of the radio ranging data provided the first measurement of the rate of mass loss from the Sun.

Discovery of water, organic compounds and volcanism
On July 3, 2008, the MESSENGER team announced that the probe had discovered large amounts of water present in Mercury's exosphere, which was an unexpected finding. In the later years of its mission, MESSENGER also provided visual evidence of past volcanic activity on the surface of Mercury, as well as evidence for a liquid iron planetary core. The probe also constructed the most detailed and accurate maps of Mercury to date, and furthermore discovered carbon-containing organic compounds and water ice inside permanently shadowed craters near the north pole.

Solar System portrait

On February 18, 2011, a portrait of the Solar System was published on the MESSENGER website.  The mosaic contained 34 images, acquired by the MDIS instrument during November 2010.  All the planets were visible with the exception of Uranus and Neptune, due to their vast distances from the Sun. The MESSENGER "family portrait" was intended to be complementary to the Voyager family portrait, which was acquired from the outer Solar System by Voyager 1 on February 14, 1990.

End of mission
After running out of propellant for course adjustments, MESSENGER entered its expected terminal phase of orbital decay in late 2014. The spacecraft's operation was extended by several weeks by exploiting its remaining supply of helium gas, which was used to pressurize its propellant tanks, as reaction mass. MESSENGER continued studying Mercury during its decay period. The spacecraft crashed onto the surface of Mercury on April 30, 2015, at 3:26 p.m. EDT (19:26 GMT), at a velocity of , probably creating a crater in the planet's surface approximately  wide. The spacecraft was estimated to have impacted at 54.4° N, 149.9° W on Suisei Planitia, near the crater Janáček. The crash occurred at a place not visible from Earth at the time, and thus was not detected by any observers or instruments. NASA confirmed the end of the MESSENGER mission at 3:40 p.m. EDT (19:40 GMT) after NASA's Deep Space Network did not detect the spacecraft's reemergence from behind Mercury.[[File:PIA19449-PlanetMercury-MESSENGER-Images-First-20110329-Last-20150430.jpg|thumb|center|600px|{{center|MESSENGERs first (March 29, 2011) and last (April 30, 2015) images from Mercury's orbit (impact details).}}]]

 See also

 BepiColombo'', a European-Japanese mission to Mercury which was launched on October 19, 2018, and will enter orbit in December 2025
 Exploration of Mercury
 Mariner program
 Stamatios Krimigis, a NASA physicist and key contributor to the mission

References

External links

JHUAPL homepage – official site at Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory
MESSENGER Mission Page – official information regarding the mission on the NASA website
MESSENGER Mission Profile by NASA's Solar System Exploration
Mercury Flyby 1 Visualization Tool and Mercury Flyby 1 Actuals – comparison between simulated views of Mercury to the images actually acquired by MESSENGER during flyby 1
Mercury Flyby 2 Visualization Tool and Mercury Flyby 2 Actuals – comparison between simulated views of Mercury to the images actually acquired by MESSENGER during flyby 2
MESSENGER Image Gallery
NSSDC Master Catalog entry
Video from MESSENGER as it departs Earth
Mercury data collected by both Mariner 10 and MESSENGER
NASA Solar System 2015-04-27 MESSENGER at Mercury Images of the Mission

Space probes launched in 2004
Destroyed space probes
Discovery Program
NASA space probes
Missions to Mercury
Spacecraft launched by Delta II rockets
Orbiters (space probe)
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MESSENGER


ජාවෙඩ් අක්තාර් (1940 නොවැම්බර් 21 – 2016 ජූලි 8) යනු 1962 දී එක් ටෙස්ට් තරගයකට ක්‍රීඩා කළ පකිස්ථාන ක්‍රිකට් ක්‍රීඩකයෙකි. පිට දඟපන්දු යවන්නෙකු වූ ඔහු පළමු පෙළ මට්ටමින් සාර්ථක වූ අතර සාමාන්‍ය 18.17ක කඩුලු ලබා ගත් නමුත් ඔහුගේ එකම ටෙස්ට් තරගයේදී කඩුල්ලක් දවා ගැනීමට අපොහොසත් විය.

පසුව ඔහු 1980 සිට 1999 දක්වා ටෙස්ට් තරඟ 18කට සහ එක්දින තරඟ 40කට විනිසුරුවරයෙකු බවට පත් විය.

යොමු කිරීම්

2016 මරණ
1940 උපත්

ජාවෙඩ් අක්තාර්