Os direitos à terra indígena são os direitos dos povos indígenas à terra e aos recursos naturais nela contidos, individual ou coletivamente, principalmente em países colonizados. Os direitos relacionados à terra e aos recursos são de importância fundamental para os povos indígenas por uma série de razões, incluindo: o significado religioso da terra, autodeterminação, identidade e fatores econômicos. A terra é um importante ativo econômico e, em algumas sociedades indígenas, o uso dos recursos naturais da terra e do mar formam a base de sua economia doméstica, de modo que a demanda por posse decorre da necessidade de garantir seu acesso a esses recursos. Em muitas sociedades indígenas, como entre os muitos povos aborígenes australianos, a terra é uma parte essencial de sua espiritualidade e sistemas de crenças.

As reivindicações por terras indígenas têm sido abordadas com vários graus de sucesso em nível nacional e internacional desde o início da colonização. Tais reivindicações podem basear-se nos princípios do direito internacional, tratados, direito consuetudinário ou constituições ou legislação nacional. Título indígena (também conhecido como título aborígene, título nativo e outros termos) é uma doutrina de direito comum que os direitos à terra dos povos indígenas à posse consuetudinária persistem após a assunção da soberania sob o colonialismo colonizador. O reconhecimento estatutário e a proteção dos direitos indígenas e comunitários à terra continuam a ser um grande desafio, com a lacuna entre a terra formalmente reconhecida e a terra habitualmente mantida e administrada é uma fonte significativa de subdesenvolvimento, conflito e degradação ambiental.

Lei internacional
Os documentos fundamentais para os direitos indígenas à terra no direito internacional incluem a Convenção dos Povos Indígenas e Tribais de 1989 ("OIT 169"), a Declaração das Nações Unidas sobre os Direitos dos Povos Indígenas, a Convenção sobre a Eliminação de Todas as Formas de Discriminação Racial, a Pacto Internacional sobre Direitos Civis e Políticos, a Convenção Americana sobre Direitos Humanos e a Declaração Americana sobre os Direitos dos Povos Indígenas .

Lei civil

Brasil

O direito à terra indígena no Brasil é e tem sido uma luta contínua para os indígenas brasileiros, que têm sido tratados como um grupo minoritário sem direitos e são discriminados. A discriminação contra os indígenas está presente desde a colonização. Em 1910, foi criado o Serviço de Proteção ao Índio devido à grande quantidade de violência infligida aos povos indígenas, porém essa política era ineficaz e corrupta e foi substituída pela Fundação Nacional do Índio (FUNAI), em 1967. Em 1983, mais leis de demarcação foram implantadas e impediram os colonos brancos de roubar terras indígenas e especificaram ainda mais as fronteiras das terras indígenas. No entanto, outras agências estatais foram autorizadas a especificar fronteiras que foram fortemente influenciadas pelos setores da indústria de mineração. Apenas 14% das terras acabaram sendo demarcadas e muitas terras foram perdidas para as mineradoras.

Em 1988, o Brasil adotou uma nova constituição, que dizia que as terras e a cultura indígena seriam protegidas. Esse projeto de lei permitiu que os indígenas vivessem com segurança em seu território sem medo de que suas terras ou recursos fossem tomados. No entanto, este projeto acabou tendo muito menos sucesso do que originalmente prometido, o governo brasileiro deveria demarcar todos os territórios indígenas até 1993, mas nesses cinco anos eles demarcaram apenas 50% dos territórios.

Em 2017, ainda poucas ações haviam sido tomadas para garantir os direitos à terra dos povos indígenas no Brasil. O presidente do Brasil em 2017 declarou uma data limite para terras indígenas. O projeto de lei afirmava que se os indígenas não estavam em seu território antes do corte de 1988, não era sua terra para demarcar. A demarcação de 27 territórios indígenas foi suspensa por causa desse corte, mesmo que a razão pela qual eles não puderam declarar seu território antes de 1988 foi devido ao governo ou porque eles não puderam provar que residiam lá anteriormente. Em fevereiro de 2020, o presidente Jair Bolsonaro propôs o projeto de lei 191/2020, que permitirá a abertura de territórios indígenas à mineração e geração hidrelétrica. Este projeto de lei causou o retrocesso das comunidades indígenas, ameaça a saúde de suas terras e a segurança de seu povo.

A situação atual das Terras Indígenas no Brasil é a seguinte: 124 estão em identificação (em estudo por grupo de trabalho nomeado pela FUNAI); 43 foram identificadas (aprovadas pela presidência da FUNAI após estudo) e aguardam os próximos passos; 74 foram declaradas pelo Ministro da Justiça e aguardam a assinatura do Presidente da República; 487 foram homologadas pela Presidência da República e foram Reservadas (ou seja, adquiridas pela União ou doadas a ela, sendo de posse das comunidades que as habitam). Ou seja, de um total de 728 terras indígenas que se encontram em algum dos estágios do processo de Reserva, pouco mais de 65% foram devidamente recohecidas e protegidas pela nação após 30 anos da data limite de demarcação (uma evolução de apenas 15% em relação às terras demarcadas em 1993).

México

Os anos após a Revolução Mexicana de 1910 viram reformas agrárias (1917-1934), e no artigo 27 da Constituição mexicana o sistema de encomienda foi abolido, e o direito à terra comunal para as comunidades tradicionais foi afirmado. Assim foi criado o sistema ejido, que na prática deveria abranger o poder dos investimentos privados de empresas estrangeiras e proprietários ausentes, e dar direito à população indígena a um pedaço de terra para trabalhar e viver.

Desde as décadas de 1980 e 1990, o foco da política econômica do México concentrou-se mais no desenvolvimento industrial e na atração de capital estrangeiro. O governo de Salinas iniciou um processo de privatização de terras (através do programa PROCEDE). Em 1992, como (pré)condição para o México entrar no Acordo de Livre Comércio da América do Norte (NAFTA) com os Estados Unidos e o Canadá, foram modificados os art.4 e art.27 da Constituição, por meio dos quais se tornou possível privatizar ejido-terra comunal. Isso prejudicou a segurança básica das comunidades indígenas ao direito à terra, e ex- ejidatorios agora se tornaram posseiros de terra formalmente ilegais e suas comunidades assentamentos informais. (ver também o conflito de Chiapas )

Lei comum
Título indígena, também conhecido como título aborígene (Canadá), título nativo (Austrália), título costumeiro (Nova Zelândia), título indiano original (EUA), é a doutrina de direito comum de que os direitos à terra dos povos indígenas à posse consuetudinária persistem após a assunção da soberania. Os povos indígenas também podem ter certos direitos sobre as terras da Coroa em muitas jurisdições.

América latina
À medida que os sistemas políticos de alguns países latino-americanos estão se tornando mais democráticos e abertos a ouvir e abraçar as opiniões das minorias, essas questões de direitos à terra claramente vieram à tona na vida política. Apesar desse novo "re-reconhecimento" aos poucos, os grupos indígenas ainda estão entre as populações mais pobres e muitas vezes têm menos acesso a recursos e menos oportunidades de progresso e desenvolvimento. A situação legal do direito à terra indígena nos países da América Latina é muito variada. Ainda há uma variação muito ampla de direitos, leis e reconhecimentos indígenas em todo o continente. No ano de 1957, a Organização Internacional do Trabalho (OIT), fez a Convenção 107 da OIT. Essa convenção criou leis e normas para a proteção e integração dos povos indígenas em países independentes. Todos os países independentes da América Latina e do Caribe da época ratificaram esta convenção. A partir da década de 1960, começaram com o reconhecimento das primeiras reivindicações de terras indígenas desde a era colonial. No ano de 1989 a OIT fez a Convenção 169; a convenção sobre Povos Indígenas e Tribais em Países Independentes, que atualiza a OIT 107, de 1957. Nesta convenção foi também muito importante o reconhecimento da relação muito próxima e importante entre terra e identidade, ou identidade cultural. Hoje, essa convenção foi ratificada por 15 países da América Latina e do Caribe. Mesmo nos países onde foi ratificada, a implementação limitada levou a conflitos sobre os direitos das terras indígenas, como os protestos contra a mina Escobal, na Guatemala.

Austrália

Os direitos indígenas à terra têm sido historicamente prejudicados por uma variedade de doutrinas, como terra nullius. que é um termo latino que significa "terra que não pertence a ninguém". Em 1971, um grupo de pessoas de Meriam, na Austrália, emitiu uma reivindicação legal pela posse de sua ilha de Mer, no Estreito de Torres. Em sua reivindicação legal, eles emitiram que sua terra é inerente e exclusivamente de propriedade, vivida e governada pelo povo Meriam, que historicamente geriu suas questões políticas e sociais. Após anos de julgamento do caso pelos tribunais, e após a morte de um dos demandantes (Eddie Mabo), o julgamento do Supremo Tribunal emitiu um reconhecimento da propriedade da terra nativa e a negação do mito da terra nullius.

Em 2015, após cinco anos de negociação entre o Conselho Central dos povos do Território do Norte e o Governo australiano, foi criada a reserva indígena de mais de cinco milhões de hectares ao redor do Uluru, uma rocha avermelhada gigante com 348 metros de altura, que é local sagrado para os habitantes locais.

Canadá
O principal caso para o título aborígene no Canadá é Nação Delgamuukw vs Colúmbia Britânica (1997). Outro caso importante para o título aborígene é o Nação Tsilhqot'in Nation vs Colúmbia Britânica (2014). Lá os povos originários são denominados "Primeiras Nações" (First Nations).

Estados Unidos
A decisão fundamental para o título aborígene nos Estados Unidos é Johnson v. McIntosh (1823), de autoria do Chefe de Justiça John Marshall. Os nativos americanos nos Estados Unidos foram amplamente relegados a reservas indígenas administradas por tribos sob o Departamento de Assuntos Indígenas do Departamento do Interior dos Estados Unidos.

Uma lista das reservas indígenas históricas nos Estados Unidos é apresentada AQUI. Contudo, tais reservas foram desestabelecidas ou revogadas. Poucas delas ainda existem como um remanescente consideravelmente menor, ou foram fundidas com outras reservas indígenas, ou reconhecidas por governos estaduais (como a Área Estatística Tribal de Oklahoma, também conhecida como OTSA), mas não pelo governo federal dos EUA.

Nova Zelândia
A Nova Zelândia foi um dos últimos lugares da Terra a ser colonizado pelos europeus.

Os direitos indígenas à terra foram reconhecidos no Tratado de Waitangi feito entre a Coroa Britânica e vários chefes maoris. O próprio Tratado tem sido frequentemente ignorado, mas os tribunais da Nova Zelândia geralmente aceitam a existência do título nativo. As controvérsias sobre os direitos da terra indígena tendem a girar em torno dos meios pelos quais os maoris perderam a propriedade, e não se eles tinham a propriedade em primeiro lugar.

Ver também

 Marco temporal das terras indígenas
 Terra Indígena Raposa Serra do Sol
 Terra Indígena Yanomami

Referências

Direitos indígenas

Direitos da terra indígena


يقصد بالنظرية النقدية (Monetary Theory)، ذلك الفرع من الاقتصاد الذي يدرس ويحلل استعمالات النقود ووظائفها وآثارها في أنتاج السلع والخدمات وتوزيعها وأستهلاكها، وقد أنبثقت عن النظرية النقدية نظريات تبحث في قيمة النقود وفي الدخل والأنفاق، كنظرية المعاملات (Transactions Theory)، ونظرية النقد والرصيد (Cash - Balance)، وغيرها.

مصادر

 القاموس الاقتصادي - حسن النجفي - بغداد 1977 - صفحة 211.

اقتصاد كلي
اقتصاد نقدي
مصطلحات اقتصادية

نظرية نقدية (اقتصاد)


The flag of the Central African Republic (; ) was officially adopted in 1958. It has been retained since that time with the same design, four horizontal stripes of blue, white, green and yellow, and a single vertical band of red, with a yellow five-pointed star in the upper left corner.

Design
The design consists of four horizontal stripes and one vertical stripe, and a single yellow five-pointed star in the upper left. The colours chosen are intended to be symbolic of France (blue and white) and Africa (green and yellow) with the red vertical stripe connecting them both in unity, and the respect that Europeans and Africans should have for each other. The yellow star is intended to be indicative of independence as well as a symbol of African unity, progress and tolerance The Constitution of the Central African Republic describes the flag as "four equal sized horizontal bands of the colours blue, white, green and yellow, perpendicularly barred in their centre by a red band of equal size and marked in the upper left corner by a yellow five-pointed star."

Construction sheets

Colours scheme

History

The flag of the Central African Republic was designed by Barthélemy Boganda, who would become its first president. It was originally intended to be the flag of the United States of Latin Africa, which he proposed in 1957. The flag was adopted by the Legislative Assembly of Ubangi-Shari on 1 December 1958. At the time it was introduced, Boganda stated in the national Legislative Assembly that "Those colours, which symbolize the four territories constituting the French Equatorial Africa but also our guide territory, the Metropolitan France, came out of my heart. The red stripe which crosses the four colours is the symbol of our blood. As we did it when France was in danger, we shall shed our blood for Africa and to protect the Central African Republic, member of the French Community."

President Jean-Bédel Bokassa considered the replacement of the flag in 1976, following his conversion to Islam under the influence of Libyan leader Muammar Gaddafi. The proposal was to change the flag entirely in order to feature a crescent and star prominently. However, the proposal was short-lived, as several months later the Central African Empire was created under Bokassa, as Emperor Bokassa I. On 4 December that year, a Constitution described both the emblem for the Emperor's personal use and the existing flag was re-used as that of the Empire. The personal standard of the Emperor was light green in color, with a gold-colored eagle in the centre superimposed over a 20-pointed gold star, inspired by the eagle on the imperial standard of Napoleon I.

The flag remained in place after the Central African Empire fell.

Former flags

References

External links

Flag of Central African Republic, a brief history by Flagmakers

Flags introduced in 1958
Flag
Flags of Africa
Central African Republic

Flag of the Central African Republic


Darendeli Cebecizade Mehmet Paşa (d. 1714, Darende - ö. 1784, Darende) I. Abdülhamid saltanatında, 5 Ocak 1777 - 1 Eylül 1778 tarihleri arasında bir yıl beş gün sadrazamlık yapmış Osmanlı devlet adamıdır.

Hayatı
Darendeli olup bu kentten olup tanınmış Sarı Abdurrahman Paşa'nın yakın akrabasındandı. Darende'de "Cebelcizadeler" ailesine mensup oldugu için Cebecizade lakbi ile anilmistir. İstanbul'a gelip onun yoluyla önce kapıcıbaşı olup sonra Kesriyeli Ahmet Paşa'nın yanında kethudalık görevine girdi. 1767'de birinci imrahor, 1768'de Boğaz muhafızı oldu. 21 Aralık 1776'da sedaret kethudalığına getirildi.

5 Ocak 1777'de Yağlıkçızade Derviş Mehmed Paşa'nın sadrazamlıktan azledilmesi üzerine vezir rütbesiyle Sadrazam oldu. Sadrazamlığı sırasında 1776'da başlayan İran'la savaş devam etmekteydi ve Abdullah Paşa İran cephesi serdarı idi. Kerkük ve Şehrizör valisine bağlı Babanlı Mehmet Paşa Mayıs 1777'de İran içine girip Bana mevkiinde yapılan muharebede İran komatanı Hüsrev Han'ı mağlup etmişti ama destekçi güç kendine gönderilmeyince geri çekilmek zorunda kalmıştı. Ruslar ise Kırım içişlerine karışıp kendilerini tutan Şahin Giray'ın Kırım Hanı olmasını desteklemeğe başlamışlardı. Cebecizade Mehmet Paşa 1 Eylül 1778'de sadrazamlıktan azledildi.

Azlinden sonra Bozcaada'ya sürgüne gönderildi. 18 Kasım 1778'de affedilip vezirlik rütbesi geri verilip İnebahtı Muhafızı görevine getirildi. 17 Mayıs 1779'da ise İçel Sancakbeyi görevine nakloldu. Kasım 1779'da ise kendi isteğiyle emekli oldu. Memleketi olan Darende'ye çekildi.

18 Şubat 1784'te ise vezirlik rütbesi geri verilerek Erzurum Valiliğine tayin edildi. Fakat yaşı 70'i geçmişti. Daha Darende'de iken bu görev yerine yola çıkamadan öldü. Darende'de yaptırdığı türbeye gömüldü.

Değerlendirme
Sicill-i Osmani de şöyle değerlendirilmektedir:
İyi ve kötü günler görmüş; iyi işler yapmış; vakur, tehdidini yerine getirecek güçte bir vezirdi.

Eserleri
Darende'de cami, han, medrese ve çeşme'den olsuşan bir külliye yaptırdı. Bazı yolların yapılmasına destek sağlayıp şehirde bir köprü yaptırdı.

Notlar

Dış bağlantılar
 Buz, Ayhan (2009) " Osmanlı Sadrazamları", İstanbul: Neden Kitap, ISBN 978-975-254-278-5
 Danișmend, İsmail Hâmi (1971),Osmanlı Devlet Erkâni, İstanbul: Türkiye Yayınevi
 Mehmed Süreyya (haz. Nuri Akbayar) (1996), Sicill-i Osmani, İstanbul:Tarih Vakfı Yurt Yayınları ISBN 975-333-0383 C.IV s.261

Osmanlı sadrazamları
Darende doğumlular
1714 doğumlular
1784 yılında ölenler
Osmanlı Erzurum valileri
Malatya'da ölenler
Resim aranan siyasetçiler

Darendeli Mehmed Paşa


Gnaphaliinae, podtribus glavočika, dio tribusa Gnaphalieae. Pripada mu 18 rodova i 8 podtribusa .

Tipičan je kozmopolitski rod  Gnaphalium sa 46 vrsta.

Rodovi
 Galeomma Rauschert (2 spp.)
 Achyrocline Less. (47 spp.)
 Helichrysum Mill. (562 spp.)
 Aphelexis D. Don (4 spp.)
 Chiliocephalum Benth. (2 spp.)
 Syncephalum DC. (5 spp.)
 Stenocline DC. (2 spp.)
 Catatia Humbert (2 spp.)
 Pseudognaphalium Kirp. (110 spp.)
 Quasiantennaria R.J.Bayer & M.O.Dillon (1 sp.)
 Anaphalis DC. (111 spp.)
 Plecostachys Hilliard & B. L. Burtt (2 spp.)
 Tenrhynea Hilliard & B. L. Burtt (1 sp.)
 Syncarpha DC. (21 spp.)
 Libinhania N. Kilian, Galbany, Oberpr. & A. G. Mill. (13 spp.)
 Gnaphalium L. (46 spp.)
 Cladochaeta DC. (1 sp.)
 Achyranthemum N. G. Bergh (7 spp.)

Izvori

Gnaphalieae

Gnaphaliinae


NGC 7280 je prečkasta spiralna galaktika u zviježđu Tukanu.

Izvori

Vanjske poveznice

  Hartmut Frommert: Revidirani Novi opći katalog
  Izvangalaktička baza podataka NASA-e i IPAC-a
  Astronomska baza podataka SIMBAD
   VizieR
 DSS-ova slika NGC 7280
  Auke Slotegraaf: NGC 7280 Deep Sky Observer's Companion
  NGC 7280 DSO-tražilica
  Courtney Seligman: Objekti Novog općeg kataloga: NGC 7250 - 7299

7280

NGC 7280


Ginocrítica ou ginocrítica é o termo cunhado nos anos setenta por Elaine Showalter para descrever um novo projeto literário destinado a construir "um quadro feminino para a análise da literatura feminina".

Ao expandir o estudo histórico das mulheres escritoras como uma tradição literária distinta, os ginocríticos buscaram desenvolver novos modelos baseados no estudo da experiência feminina para substituir os modelos masculinos de criação literária, e assim "mapear o território"  deixado inexplorado nas críticas literárias anteriores.

História
Enquanto figuras anteriores como Virginia Woolf e Simone de Beauvoir já haviam começado a revisar e avaliar a imagem feminina na literatura,  e o feminismo da segunda onda havia explorado o falocentrismo e o sexismo através de uma leitura feminina de autores masculinos, a ginocrítica foi concebida como um " segunda fase" na crítica feminista – voltando-se para um foco na, e interrogação da autoria, das imagens, da experiência e da ideologia feminina, e da a história e do desenvolvimento da tradição literária feminina.

Desenvolvimento como crítica literária
A ginocrítica também examina a luta feminina pela identidade e a construção social do gênero.  De acordo com Elaine Showalter,  ginocrítica é o estudo não apenas da mulher como status de gênero, mas também da 'consciência internalizada' da mulher. A descoberta da subcultura feminina e a exposição de um modelo feminino é a intenção da ginocrítica,  compreendendo o reconhecimento de um cânone feminino distinto onde ´r buscada uma identidade feminina livre das definições e oposições masculinas .

A ginocrítica, pois, desafiou uma perspectiva psicanalítica freudiana pela qual a mulher inerentemente sofre de inveja dos homens e  de sentimentos de inadequação e injustiça,  combinados com sentimentos de inferioridade intelectual.  Argumentando que o próprio 'preconceito fálico' masculino  cria uma consciência feminina que exige uma crítica,  e que o preconceito contra o feminino incita uma noesis específica que é atribuída ao feminino,  a ginocrítica enfatizou que esse preconceito ocultou a tradição literária feminina a ponto de imitar a masculina.

Conquistas e limitações
A ginocrítica ajudou a recuperar da obscuridade um vasto corpo de escritos femininos antigos, muitas vezes publicados em Virago,  bem como a produção de clássicos feministas como The Madwoman in the Attic .  No entanto, seus próprios sucessos a deixaram aberta a novos desafios dentro do feminismo. Os pós-estruturalistas reclamavam que ela fetichizava o papel do autor, em detrimento do leitor e do texto, e que sua grande narrativa, estabelecendo um cânone feminino em oposição ao masculino, era essencialista, e omitia diferenças e divisões entre as mulheres, deixando de fora lésbicas e mulheres de cor, por exemplo.

Raça, classe, interesse social, inclinação política, religião e sexualidade   todos indiscutivelmente entram em jogo na construção da identidade.  Separar essas propriedades criaria uma visão unidimensional do feminino, mas se gênero e identidade são meras construções, torna-se difícil atribuir quaisquer qualidades inerentes à natureza ou à linguagem para fundamentar uma crítica.

Apesar de tais limitações, a ginocrítica oferece uma valiosa interrogação da literatura 'feminina', através do estudo da mesmice e da diferença de gênero.  Embora o termo raramente seja usado no feminismo da terceira onda, as práticas e o estabelecimento do cânone do ginocrítico continuam a sustentar a crítica literária feminista .

Referências

Leitura adicional

 Groden, Michael e Martin Kreiswurth, eds. The Johns Hopkins Guide to Literary Theory and Criticism. Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1997.
Teoria feminista
Crítica literária
!Mais Teoria da História na Wiki (Wikiconcurso de edição)

Ginocrítica


Melanie Moore ist der Name folgender Personen:

* Melanie Moore (Pornodarstellerin) (* 1962), US-amerikanische Pornodarstellerin
 Melanie Moore (Tänzerin) (* 1991), US-amerikanische Tänzerin
 Melanie Deanne Moore (* 1972), US-amerikanische Schauspielerin

Melanie Moore


Alfred Bernhard Nobel (21 Ekim 1833, Stokholm İsveç – 10 Aralık 1896, San Remo İtalya), İsveçli kimyager ve mühendis, dinamitin mucidi. Vasiyetiyle Nobel Ödülleri'ni başlatmıştır.

Sentetik element nobelyuma onun adı verilmiştir.

Hayatı
1833'te varlıklı bir aileden gelen anne Andriette Ahlsell ile mühendis baba Immanuel Nobel'in üçüncü oğlu olarak Stokholm'de dünyaya geldi. Alfred doğduğunda babası iflas etmişti, dolayısıyla ailesinin maddi durumu iyi değildi. Nobel ailesi 1837'de Finlandiya'ya, 1842 yılında ise Sankt-Peterburg'a taşınır. St. Petersburg'da babası Immanuel Nobel bir atölye açar, annesi ise bir bakkal dükkânı işletir. Baba Nobel, Sankt-Peterburg'da büyük başarı kazanır ve Rus ordusu için silah üretmeye başlar.

Alfred Nobel, özel öğretmenler tarafından eğitilir. Doğa bilimleri, dil ve edebiyat alanlarına yoğunlaşır. 17 yaşına geldiğinde İsveççe, Rusça, Fransızca, İngilizce ve Almanca'yı akıcı bir şekilde konuşabilmektedir. Fizik ve kimyanın yanı sıra, onun bir mühendis olmasını isteyen babasının pek hoşuna gitmese de Alfred İngiliz edebiyatına ve şiire de ilgi duymaktadır.

Babası onu kimya mühendisliği eğitimi görmesi için yurtdışına gönderir. İki yıllık süre içinde İsveç, Almanya, Fransa ve ABD'de bulunur. Paris'te bulunduğu süre zarfında dönemin ünlü kimyageri T. J. Pelouze'nin laboratuvarında çalışır. Burada ayrıca güçlü bir patlayıcı sıvı olan nitrogliserini keşfeden İtalyan kimyager Ascanio Sobrero ile tanışır. Alfred Nobel de nitrogliserin ile ilgilenmektedir. Nitrogliserin, baruttan daha güçlü olmasına karşın, basınç ve sıcaklığın etkisiyle kolayca patlamaktadır. Nobel'e göre bu durum nitrogliserinin pratik kullanımını sınırlandırmaktadır.

Alfred Nobel, 1852'de ailesi tarafından Sankt-Peterburg'a geri çağrılır. Nobel, nitrogliserin ile ilgili çalışmalarına burada devam etmeye çalışır. Ancak, babası Immanuel Nobel'in işleri bozulmaya başlar. Kırım Savaşı'nın sona ermesini takiben Rus ordusu baba Nobel'in işletmesinden silah sipariş etmeyi keser. Baba Nobel, bir kez daha iflas eder. Bunun üzerine baba Nobel iki oğlu Alfred ve Emil ile birlikte Stokholm'e geri döner (Diğer oğulları Robert ve Ludvig ise Sankt-Peterburg kalır).

Alfred Nobel, 1863 yılından itibaren nitrogliserin ile ilgili çalışmalarına Stokholm'de devam eder. 1864 yılında çalışmalarını yürütürken bir patlama olur. Kazada, küçük kardeşi Emil ile birlikte dört kişi hayatını kaybeder. Alfred Nobel'in Stokholm şehri sınırları dahilinde çalışma yapması yasaklanır. Bunun üzerine Alfred çalışmalarına Mälaren Gölü yakınlarındaki bir mavnada devam eder.

Nitrogliserin'i patlayıcı madde olarak kullanma yollarını araştırdı. 1863 yılında Stokholm'de az miktarda nitrogliserin yapmaya başladı. Birkaç ay süren araştırmaların sonunda bir patlama ile laboratuvar yıkıldı. Çalışmalarına devam eden Alfred Nobel 1865'te yeni bir fabrika kurdu, bir süre sonra ikinci fabrikasını da açtı. 1864 yılında araştırmalarının sonucunu aldı ve dinamit barutunu buldu. Araştırmalarına devam eden Nobel, 1877'de Balistit adını verdiği yeni bir çeşit barut tasarladı. 1879'da, Paris yakınlarındaki Servan'da bir laboratuvar kuran Nobel, buradaki çalışmaları sırasında dumansız barut adını verdiği ve eşit miktarlarda nitrogliserinle nitroselüloz karışımından oluşan, itici barutu buldu.

Birkaç yıl sonra kordit adlı patlayıcı madde konusunda İngiliz hükûmeti aleyhine dava açtı, ancak davayı kaybetti. Bu dönemde Fransa'ya karşı kurulan bir ittifakta İtalya ile işbirliği yapan Nobel, aleyhindeki kampanyalar sonucunda Paris'i terk ederek İtalya'nın San Remo şehrine yerleşti, laboratuvarını da oraya taşıdı.

Nobel, San Remo'da 1896 yılında beyin kanaması sonucu öldü. Buluşları insan oğlunun yıkım gücünü arttırdı. Geri kalan yaşamında sürekli bunun pişmanlığını yaşadığı söylenmektedir.

Öldüğünde ise bir gazete manşette şu başlığı kullandı, '' Ölüm taciri öldü ! ( Le marchand de la mort est mort )''.

Vasiyetinde, mirasının Nobel Ödüllerinin enstitüleştirilmesi yönünde kullanılmasını ve 33.200.000 kronunun her yıl insanlığa hizmette bulunanlara sunulmasını istemiştir.

Bu ödüller, fizik, kimya, tıp veya fizyoloji, edebiyat ve barışa hizmet olmak üzere toplam beş dalda verilecekti. Nobel'in bu vasiyeti önceleri büyük tartışma yarattı. Ancak 1900 yılında İsveç hükûmetinin Nobel Vakfı'nı kurmasıyla, Nobel Ödülleri düzenli olarak verilmeye başlandı. Daha sonra 1968'de İsveç Bankası Alfred Nobel'in anısına bir ekonomi ödülü vermeyi kararlaştırdı, ödül ilk kez 1969'da verildi.

Sentetik bir element olan Nobelyum onun anısına bu isim ile anılmıştır.

Nobel ödülleri her sene  Alfred Bernard Nobel'ın  ölüm tarihi olan 10 Aralık'ta verilmektedir.

Kaynakça

Ayrıca bakınız
 Nobel Ödülü

1833 doğumlular
1896 yılında ölenler
Alfred
İsveçli iş insanları
İsveçli mühendisler
İsveçli kimyagerler
İsveçli mucitler
National Inventors Hall of Fame
İsveç Kraliyet Bilimler Akademisi üyeleri

Alfred Nobel


Muška paprat (obična paprat, navala, šumska paprat, lat. Dryopteris filix-mas), biljna vrsta u rodu paprati raširena po velikim dijelovima Europe, Azije i Sjeverne Amerike. jedna je od nekoliko vrsta koje rastu i u Hrvatskoj.

Naziv vrste filix–mas znači muška paprat, od filix paprat, i mas, muška.

Izvori

Dryopteridoideae

Muška paprat


Shin Megami Tensei is a role-playing video game developed and published by Atlus for the Super Famicom. Originally released in 1992 in Japan, it has been ported to multiple systems and eventually released in the West for iOS in 2014. It was released on the Virtual Console service in Japan on Wii in 2007 and on Wii U in 2013, as well as Nintendo Switch Online in 2020. It is the third game in the Megami Tensei series and the first in the central Shin Megami Tensei series. The gameplay uses first-person navigation of dungeons and turn-based battles against demons. The player can recruit demons as allies by talking to them rather than fighting them, and two to three demons can be fused to create new demons.

The story follows a player-named protagonist who lives in near-future Tokyo. When a portal to the realm of demons is opened accidentally by a scientist named Steven and is seized by Gotou, a military commander who believes that he can control the demons, the United States government orders a nuclear attack on Tokyo. Transported with two other supporting characters thirty years into the future, the protagonist finds the Earth ruined by a demon invasion, which is now the stage for an escalating conflict between the Order of Messiah and the Ring of Gaia, conflicting cults who wish to bring about kingdoms for their respective patron deities (YHVH and Lucifer). The story is influenced by moral decisions the protagonist makes, aligning him either with the Messians, the Ring of Gaia, or setting him up as an independent agent.

From the start of the production, Atlus staff saw Shin Megami Tensei as a chance to create a game with the company's brand on it. The staff saw it as a remake of the previous Megami Tensei game; because of this, they knew what was going to happen in the story, and the development went smoothly. The story went through multiple revisions, and many settings were inspired by the staff's personal lives. The character and demon designs were done by Kazuma Kaneko, who used mythical figures and multiple clothing styles in his designs. Critical and commercial reception for the game have been highly positive, and its success helped launch Atlus as a developer and publisher, along with popularizing the Megami Tensei series.

Gameplay

In Shin Megami Tensei, players take the role of an unnamed protagonist, a teenage boy who can communicate with demons using a computer program. The gameplay is similar to that of other games in the series: players make their way through dungeons and fight against demons in a first-person perspective. The protagonist uses a variety of weapons and items, with the primary weapons being swords and guns. Such items are bought from merchants scattered around the world map. In special areas, the protagonist can use the in-game currency to restore health and magic points for themselves and their demons, remove status ailments, and revive fallen demons. Special Terminals scattered across the world map allow the player to save their game, and they can use them to teleport between terminals in different areas of Tokyo.

Battles are turn-based, and consist of players letting the characters in their party attack with swords or guns, summon demons, or cast magic spells; both demons and humans, with the exception of the player character, are able to use magic. By participating in battles, human characters in the player's party receive experience points; by accumulating these points, the characters' levels rise and new abilities are randomly learned. Players can choose to talk to demons instead of fighting them; they can ask the demons for items or money, try to get them to go away, or try to form an alliance with them. At some places, called "Cathedrals of Shadows", players can fuse two to three allied demons into one single, more powerful demon; as demons do not receive experience points, this is the only way for the player to increase their demons' power. Magnetite is used as a fuel for allied demons, and is used up by summoned demons as the player character walks around in the dungeons; if players run out of magnetite, summoned demons take damage.

The way demons behave is based on their and the protagonist's respective alignments. Alignments come in two types, Light-Neutral-Dark, and Law-Neutral-Chaos. A demon's alignment can range across both alignments, resulting in nine possible stances that affect how they behave and what actions in battle or story progression pleases them. The protagonist's alignment changes depending on choices made during the story, and in response the attitudes of people and demons change; for instance, demons who are law-aligned will refuse to form an alliance with chaos-aligned players. Additionally, depending on their alignment, players will not be let into certain areas; for instance, the Order of Messiah will not let chaos-aligned players into their churches.

Synopsis

Setting and characters
Shin Megami Tensei takes place in a near future Tokyo, first in the year "199X", and then 30 years later in a post-apocalyptic version of the city. A rift has been opened to another world, allowing demons to invade Tokyo; by using a computer program, humans are able to communicate with and summon the demons. Across the story, moral alignments are portrayed in various ways: alongside the middle "neutral" pathway, the "law" faction believes in establishing a logical order at the expense of feeling and freedom, while the "chaos" faction espouses unlimited freedom for the individual while discarding the weak.

The game includes four nameable human "heroes": the player character, the Hero, who is a teenage boy living with his mother in Kichijōji in Tokyo; the Heroine, who is the leader of a resistance force which tries to protect Tokyo; and the Law Hero and Chaos Hero, who represent the alignments "law" and "chaos", respectively. Among other characters are ambassador  and general , who lead the United States military and the Japan Self-Defense Forces, respectively; the archangel  and the demon , who lead the Order of Messiah and the Ring of Gaea, respectively; the demons  and , who use the pseudonyms  and ; and Stephen, the creator of the demon summoning program. Unused sprites for monsters that were parodies of Mickey Mouse and Donald Duck were found in the game, as enemies in the level Tokyo Destiny Land. The sprites were included in the Digital Devil Story 10th Anniversary art book.

Plot
The game begins with the Hero dreaming that he meets the Law Hero, the Chaos Hero, and a woman named Yuriko; she promises that she will become the Hero's partner. He wakes up, and receives an e-mail with a computer program for summoning demons attached. While out on an errand, he learns that a scientist has opened a portal to the Expanse, which allows demons to enter Tokyo. He also meets Yuriko, who says she will fulfill her promise. The next night, the Hero again dreams that he meets the Law Hero and Chaos Hero, and that they save the Heroine from a sacrificial ritual. The next day, he meets the Law Hero and Chaos Hero in reality; they reveal that they had the same dreams. News of the demons spread, and the US military, led by ambassador Thorman, decides to intervene. The Japan Self-Defense Forces, led by general Gotou, opposes them, as they see demons as the ancient spirits of the land. A third group, led by the Heroine, tries to prevent conflict between the other two. She gets captured by Gotou's forces; they are about to publicly execute her under supervision by Yuriko, but she is saved by the Hero, Law Hero, and Chaos Hero. The Hero can choose to support Thorman or Gotou, or to reject both; regardless of his choice, the conflict escalates until Thorman launches missiles towards Tokyo. The Heroine is killed, but saves the Hero, Law Hero, and Chaos Hero by using magic to teleport them to another plane of existence.

When they return to Tokyo, thirty years have passed, and the world lies in ruins. Both demons and humans live in Tokyo, and two warring groups have formed: the Order of Messiah, who is building a cathedral and wants to bring about the Thousand-Year Kingdom, and the Ring of Gaea, who intends to summon Lucifer and wants freedom. While exploring the city, the Chaos Hero fuses himself with a demon to gain power, and decides to leave to pursue his own ideals; the group moves on without him and meet the Heroine, who has been reincarnated and rejoins them. Soon afterwards, the Law Hero's soul gets taken by an attacking demon. The Chaos Hero joins the Ring of Gaea, while the Law Hero's soul gets reincarnated as the new Messiah. Both try to get the Hero to join their respective side; he can choose to support either, or to reject both. Regardless of what he chooses, the Order of Messiah finishes building their cathedral, and a great flood appears, drowning people who were not inside the cathedral at the time. Survivors set up camps inside the cathedral; the Order of Messiah takes control of the top floors, while the Ring of Gaea occupies the basement floors.

After this point, the story continues differently depending on the Hero's alignment. If it is "law", the Law Hero is killed in a battle with the Chaos Hero, while the Hero and the Heroine go to the basement. On their way they have to kill the Chaos Hero and fight Yuriko, who turns out to be the demon Lilith in disguise; she says that she and the Hero were supposed to be the new Adam and Eve and that she wanted to create a new age and live with him forever, which is why she tried to execute the Heroine. After defeating her in battle, the Hero and the Heroine reach the basement and kill the demon Asura-ou; they then go to the cathedral's roof, where they are thanked by a messenger from God. If the Hero's alignment instead is "chaos", he and the Heroine must go to the top floor and kill the archangel Michael, and on their way kill the Law Hero; in this scenario, Yuriko leaves the Hero and the Heroine instead of fighting them, while the Chaos Hero dies after trying to steal a magical ring from the Hero. On the roof, they meet Lucifer, who says that a new era will begin, where both demons and humans are free; he also warns them that God still is alive. If the Hero's alignment instead is "neutral", he and the Heroine must kill the Law Hero, the Chaos Hero, Asura-ou, and Michael, and fight Yuriko. On the roof, they meet Taishang Laojun, who thanks them and says that balance is needed to achieve happiness; he asks the Hero and the Heroine to lead humanity to a future that doesn't rely on gods or demons. The game ends with the Heroine saying that those who have died will be reborn, and that it is time for creation and rebuilding.

Development

From the beginning of production, Atlus staff saw Shin Megami Tensei as a chance to develop a game with the company's brand on it. The main staff included director Yōsuke Niino, producer Hideyuki Yokoyama, programmer and future Megami Tensei director Kouji Okada, writers Ryutaro Ito and Kazunari Suzuki, and composer Tsukasa Masuko. Kazuma Kaneko worked on multiple aspects of the game, including character and sprite design, the world's concept and visual design, and the creation of visual assets. Atlus saw the game as a remake of the previous game in the Megami Tensei series, Digital Devil Story: Megami Tensei II. As such, the staff knew what would happen with the story, so development went smoothly. An early factor in the game was the inclusion of a Law Hero and a Chaos Hero, and a protagonist who would initially be neutral and whose actions would affect their alignment. Kaneko defined this blending of different alignments as "a sort of hodgepodge" when compared to future games in the series. When designing it, the team slowly decided that they wanted to break the then-current gaming status quo using its aesthetic and content. That feeling, along with granting it a sense of reality through use of dark imagery, would later define the series. The main theme of Shin Megami Tensei was a person waking up to inevitable destruction and being able to do nothing but rely on their own abilities. The scenario took a long time to finalize, being revised a number of times by multiple staff members. During earlier drafts, it was planned that the finale of the story would take place in Israel after an extensive journey across Japan.

One of the reasons the development team chose Tokyo as the main setting was that its turbulent history, going through multiple phases of development and often suffering severe damage in wars or due to natural disasters, made it comparable with the fantasy settings of other games at the time. In a later interview, an Atlus staff member stated that this setting and style made it the antithesis of traditional fantasy RPGs, adding that this resulted in the game developing a punk spirit. Because of the post-apocalyptic setting of Megami Tensei II, the development team wanted to depict a time before the apocalypse. The decision to set the game in Tokyo was made by Suzuki and Kaneko, and was influenced by manga such as Violence Jack, Devilman, and Fist of the North Star. Kichijōji was decided to be the game's starting point due to Kaneko, Suzuki, and Ito all having lived in or near the area, or having visited it often. The abandoned Terminal Echo building there fascinated them, making them wonder how a building in such a prime location could remain unoccupied; Ito described it as two floors of arcade cabinets, with the rest of the building feeling like a ghost town. This fascination led to it being included as a dungeon in the game. While designing the maps, Kaneko wanted to use wire-frame models, but the Super Famicom's limited capacities meant this idea was scrapped.

By the end of development, multiple members of staff voiced dissatisfaction with the final product. Ito and Suzuki felt that the portrayals of the Law and Chaos Heroes were imbalanced, with the Chaos Hero being too emotional and the Law Hero being unsympathetic. They also saw the demon fusion system as too difficult for players to master. Okada, while commenting on what improvements would be made for the next game, stated that there were too many useless items in the game. Niino felt that the game's pacing and flow needed to be addressed, as after naming the characters, the player immediately is prompted to divide their status points.

Character designs
In addition to handling the graphics, Kaneko designed the character and demon designs for the game. The Hero's and the Heroine's clothes were designed to be futuristic; the Heroine was designed to be a protector, with clothes inspired by American football equipment. The Law Hero and Chaos Hero have ordinary clothes at first; the Chaos Hero was designed to look unsophisticated, with a bad posture and military clothes. After their metamorphoses, the Law Hero wears clothes designed to look priestly; Kaneko did not have a specific form in mind when designing them, but thought they looked "Gucci-like". The Chaos Hero's clothes after his metamorphosis were designed to be similar to the character Piccolo from the Dragon Ball manga series; his hair style was also based on Dragon Ball, specifically on that of the "super saiyan" transformations in that series. Kaneko wanted the Chaos Hero to change back and forth between human and demon form to tie in more closely with this design theme, but the concept was abandoned. During production, all the characters had names attached to them to help with identification during event planning. The character Louis Cyphre was inspired by the character of the same name from the 1987 movie Angel Heart. Some characters, such as Stephen and General Gotou, are based on real-life people; in the game files, they are identified as "hoking" and "mishima", respectively. According to Ito, the character Thorman's name was originally inspired by the Norse god of thunder, but after release, he realized that the name was highly similar to that of Harry S. Truman, the American president who approved the atomic attacks against Japan.

For the demon design, Kaneko took inspiration from Medieval woodblock prints, wooden carvings from South America, masks from Micronesia, and terracotta figurines from the Middle East. His designs of angelic characters were influenced by descriptions from the Book of Ezekiel of angels having multiple strange forms, such as multiple arms or heads. In addition to traditional demons and monsters, Kaneko designed versions of less-frequented figures from Celtic and Southeast Asian mythology. The theme he used when drawing them was "fear", which extended to both obvious threats and the internal dread the creatures evoked. The graphics for most demons were directly drawn as sprites, without concept art, to make sure that the design and the graphics would work within the hardware limitations of the Super Famicom. Certain important characters, and some demons who the player would be guaranteed to meet, were drawn as concept art first. Several demons were designed in a way that allowed parts of their graphics to be reused; for instance, the demon Cerberus' body is also used for Shanhui and Nue, with a different color palette. Demon fusions were designed around the dichotomy of Law and Chaos, but in hindsight it was stated that this provided little fusion variety.

Music
The game's music was composed by Tsukasa Masuko, with arrangements by Masuko and Tatsuya Nishiwaki. Masuko considered Shin Megami Tensei to be an experimental work: it was the first time he had created music for the Super Famicom, so he was not familiar with the console's specifications. During composition, he needed to check the specifications repeatedly to see what he could do within the hardware limitations. For the PC Engine port, the music was arranged by Hitoshi Sakimoto.

A soundtrack album, Shin Megami Tensei Law & Chaos Disc, was released on February 24, 1993, by Victor Entertainment under the catalog number VICL-40046/7. It includes two discs: the first contains the music as it sounds in-game, and the second contains arrangements by Nishiwaki. A second album, Shin Megami Tensei Sound Collection, was released on March 5, 2003, by SME Visual Works under the catalog number SVWC-7175/6. It includes music from the original and PlayStation versions of Shin Megami Tensei, Shin Megami Tensei II, and Shin Megami Tensei If..., along with selected tracks from Shin Megami Tensei: Nine.

Release
Shin Megami Tensei was first released on the Super Famicom on October 30, 1992, in Japan; it remained exclusive to that region for 22 years. It was the first Megami Tensei title not to be published by Namco. Instead, it was published by Atlus, which caused some complaints as to why Namco was not publishing the game. A fan translation of the Super Famicom version has been developed. Subsequent ports were released on the PC Engine (December 25, 1993), Mega-CD (February 25, 1994), the PlayStation (May 31, 2001), and Game Boy Advance (March 28, 2003). Atlus was responsible for the PlayStation port, and the staff were divided on whether to make it a complete port or something new. Those who wanted a direct port won through. The PC Engine port included added story scenes. SIMS Co., Ltd. was in charge of the Mega CD port, which included additional demons. The Game Boy Advance version, which was the first time Shin Megami Tensei appeared on a portable platform, included the ability to exchange demons and items using the platform's data exchange capacities. It also featured remastered music and alterations to ease the playing experience. The game was released in February 2012 for iOS and November of that year for Android. These mobile ports were based on the Game Boy Advance version, including all the port's features. The iOS port was localized and released in North America and Europe on March 18, 2014. With the release of iOS 11 in 2017, the game is no longer compatible with up-to-date iOS devices.

Localization
Shin Megami Tensei, as with many other early Megami Tensei titles, was initially not localized for the West due to its controversial content such as the portrayal of religious elements. This content clashed with Nintendo's strict content policy guidelines. The PlayStation port was also prevented from being localized by Sony's then-current approval policy. The possibility of later localization after the series became established in the West were stalled due to the age of the game, which would have put it at a disadvantage in the modern gaming market.

In 2002, the team Aeon Genesis released an English translation patch unofficially for the original Super Famicom release of the game. They went on to release English translations for Shin Megami Tensei II in 2004 and Shin Megami Tensei if... in 2018. In 2021, another team released a translation patch for the GBA version that carries over the official iOS localization. In 2022, a third team released an unofficial English translation patch for the PlayStation release.

According to Nich Maragos, the editor of the English version of Shin Megami Tensei, it was already too late to localize the PlayStation and Game Boy Advance versions of the game by the time the Megami Tensei series had "taken off" in the US; Atlus normally does not have an interest in localizing mobile games, but saw the iOS version of the game as a perfect opportunity to fill in one of the gaps in the series. The localization project was slow at first, as it took time to extract the files from the game, so the localization team started by playing the game in order to find out what kinds of dialogue text and system messages it contained. After receiving the files, they translated the text, which was then sent to the editors; the edited text was sent back to the translators, who checked that nothing had been lost in translation, after which the text was inserted into the game. A challenge for the localization team was character limitations: only four rows of text, with 28 characters each, were able to be displayed at a time, and at some points this had to be limited even further in order to avoid graphical glitches. This was solved by modifying the game to allow for more text boxes as needed. Later Megami Tensei games, which had been localized before Shin Megami Tensei, influenced the localization, as several of them include terms or quotes from the game. For instance, the catastrophe in Shin Megami Tensei is referred to as the "Great Cataclysm" in Devil Summoner: Raidou Kuzunoha vs. The Soulless Army, while Persona 4 and Shin Megami Tensei IV include several quotes and terms from the game. The already translated Shin Megami Tensei quotes from Persona 4 localization were reused verbatim in the localization of Shin Megami Tensei.

Reception

According to Ito, the Super Famicom release was a great success for the company, helping establishing it as both a developer and publisher. While a success, the game also received criticism from players for its high encounter rate and difficulties using the map and in-game instructions. At the end of 2001, the PlayStation version was the 119th best selling video game of the year in Japan, with 85,991 sold copies.

On release, Famitsu magazine gave the original Super Famicom version a score of 36 out of 40, with all four reviewers giving it a 9 out of 10. This made it one of their three highest-rated games of 1992, along with Dragon Quest V and World of Illusion Starring Mickey Mouse and Donald Duck. Shin Megami Tensei was also one of only eleven games to have received a Famitsu score of 36/40 or above up until 1992. For subsequent console ports, Famitsu gave scores of 25/40 (PCE), 28/40 (MD), 30/40 (PS), and 27/40 (GBA).

The website TouchArcade said that they loved the game, and that it was one of their favorite role-playing games on iOS. They did however think that the game was bad at explaining things, including the system of saving one's progress. Pocket Gamer, too, thought that things were not explained enough. For instance, they said that the game does not guide players from point A to point B, and often does not even let players know where to start looking for point B. RPGFan echoed this, and said that it is not uncommon for players to wander around, wondering where to go. Gamezebo said they did not think the battle system was particularly exciting, but appreciated how the conversation system and the demon fusion adds elements of risk and reward to the game. Gamezebo found the iOS version's touch screen-based virtual buttons clumsy to use, while Pocket Gamer found the interface to work "reasonably well" while using the landscape mode, and RPGFan found the interface to be excellent. Both Gamezebo and TouchArcade wished the game had been a "universal app", so that it could have been played on other devices than iPhone and iPod Touch without having the graphics upscaled.

Several reviewers appreciated the game's plot. Gamezebo said that it was an aspect of the game that stood out in a positive way, and pointed out how good they thought the English translation was. TouchArcade called the story one of the game's strengths, and said that it was impressive, despite how it had a tendency to be "ham-fisted". RPGFan found the story to be good and macabre, and surprisingly relevant even in 2014. They disliked that there was very little character development, and how scenes that "traditionally [would] be poignant", especially death scenes, were handled in a nonchalant manner.

TouchArcade called the graphics "good, but not great", though reasonable given the game's age, but that some demon designs were "spectacular works of art". RPGFan found the majority of the game's graphics to be "functional, but not too appealing", and said that it was easy to get lost due to the bland textures of the walls and the floors. They did however like the graphics used in battles and story sections, which they found well-drawn and detailed. They praised the designs of the game's female characters, especially Nekomata, Lamia, and Yuriko, but felt that the designs of the male characters were bland. TouchArcade found the music to be fantastic. RPGFan said that every piece fits into the scene where it is played, but that few were memorable. They did note "Ginza" as an exception, which they felt was so well-composed that it would sound good in any format.

Legacy
The success of Shin Megami Tensei led to multiple sequels over the coming years and made the Megami Tensei franchise more popular. Development on a sequel began immediately after the success of Shin Megami Tensei. Shin Megami Tensei II, which directly continued the story of Shin Megami Tensei, was released in 1994. Multiple other Shin Megami Tensei titles have followed and brought the series acclaim overseas. Kaneko's concept of the Chaos Hero's transformation was resurrected as the main gameplay mechanic of Shin Megami Tensei: Digital Devil Saga.

The game developer Toby Fox cited Shin Megami Tensei as inspiration for his 2015 game Undertale, specifically its dialogue system.

Notes

References

External links

Shin Megami Tensei
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Shin Megami Tensei (video game)


4. periyot elementi, periyodik tablonun 4. periyodunda yer alan her bir element için kullanılan kavramdır.

4. periyot elementi


Dynamit kan henvise til:

 Dynamit – sprængstof baseret på nitroglycerin
 Dynamit (film fra 1909) – en dansk kortfilm instrueret af ubekendt
 Dynamit (film fra 1929) – amerikansk dramafilm fra 1929 af Cecil B. DeMille
 Dynamit (film fra 1935) – den amerikanske film Black Fury fra 1935

Dynamit (flertydig)


المتحف الأثريّ بشِمْتُو أو متحف شمتو الأثري متحف يقع في الموقع الأثري بشمتو بولاية جندوبة بالشمال الغربي التونسي، على بعد 20  من مدينة جندوبة. افتتح المتحف في 25 نوفمبر 1997، الموافق لـ 24 رجب 1418هـ.

هذا المتحف حديث التصميم هو ثمرة تعاون علماء الآثار التونسيين من المعهد الوطني للتراث والمعهد الألماني للآثار الرومانية. وهو يتميز بوجوده في  رخام قديم يعود للعهد الروماني (وهو الذي لا يزال مستغلاًّ أيضا في الوقت الحاضر)، ويهدف المتحف إلى شرح كيفية استغلال الرخام في ذلك العهد وعرض بعض الآثار التي عُثر عليها في موقع المدينة النوميدية ثم الرومانية القديمة.

ابتدأ استغلال الرخام الأصفر والأحمر بموقع شمتو في القرن 2 م في المقاطع التي كانت ممتلكات شخصية خاصة لأباطرة الرومان. سمح تموقع شمتو قرب وادي مجردة بتصدير مكثف لهذه المنتجات. كما استؤنف اقتطاع الرخام في .

أجزاء المتحف
يحتوي المتحف على 4 قاعات عرض موزعة في 3 أجنحة، تبلغ مساحتها الجملية 1500 . بالمتحف بهو مركزي مفتوح (للهواء الطلق) تُعرض فيه واجهة المعلم الملكي النوميدي. تسمح هذه الساحة متعددة الأغراض المتميزة بالسمعيات الفائقة بإقامة حفلات و في الهواء الطلق، وهي مزودة بركح لـ12 ممثلاً. كما تحتوي على مرافق تلفزية وإضاءة مسرحية ومقاعد لـ200 متفرجٍ.

خاصيات المتحف

يعرض المتحف المُكْتَشَفَات الأثرية في المنطقة وتاريخها وجغرافيتها:
 إراضة الشمال الغربي التونسي،
 شمتو بين عامي ،
 نصبًا من  الطيني الصفحي الأخضر (يعود إلى ) يمثّل فارسًا نوميديًا يحمل تاجًا، يعتقد أنه قائد أو أحد أفراد العائلة المالكة النوميدية،
 إعادة تشكيل واجهة معلم ملكي نوميدي، أقامه الملك النوميدي مكيبسا لوالده الملك ماسينيسا عام 139 ق.م.، كان موجودًا على قمة تلة قريبة تدعى "بُورفِيفَة"،
 شمتو الرومانية (ب: Colonia Iulia Augusta Numidica Simitthensium)،
 طرق استغلال الرخام بشمتو الرومانية (المعروف بالاسم اللاتيني: Marmor Numidicum)،
 شواهد قبور رومانية.

معرض صور بعض معروضات المتحف

انظر أيضا
  الموقع الرسمي للمتحف الأثري بشمتو.
  المتحف الوطني بشمتو على موقع المعهد الوطني للتراث.

المراجع

تاريخ نوميديا
رخام
متاحف أثرية في تونس
ولاية جندوبة

المتحف الأثري بشمتو


Fanny and Alexander () is a 1982 period drama film written and directed by Ingmar Bergman. The plot focuses on two siblings and their large family in Uppsala, Sweden during the first decade of the twentieth century. Following the death of the children's father (Allan Edwall), their mother (Ewa Fröling) remarries a prominent bishop (Jan Malmsjö) who becomes abusive towards Alexander for his vivid imagination.

Bergman intended Fanny and Alexander to be his final picture before retiring, and his script is semi-autobiographical. The characters Alexander, Fanny and stepfather Edvard are based on himself, his sister Margareta and his father Erik Bergman, respectively. Many of the scenes were filmed on location in Uppsala. The documentary film The Making of Fanny and Alexander was made simultaneously with the feature and chronicles its production.

The production was originally conceived as a television miniseries and cut in that version, spanning 312 minutes; a 188-minute cut version was created later for cinematic release, although this version was in fact the one to be released first. The television version has since been released as a complete film, and both versions have been shown in theaters throughout the world. The 312-minute cut is one of the longest cinematic films in history.

The theatrical version was released to positive reviews. It won four Academy Awards, including for Best Foreign Language Film; three Guldbagge Awards, including Best Film; and other honours. Fanny and Alexander was followed by stage adaptations and further semi-autobiographical screenplays by Bergman, released as films in 1992: The Best Intentions, directed by Bille August, and Sunday's Children, directed by Daniel Bergman.

Plot
In 1907, young Alexander, his sister Fanny, and their well-to-do family, the Ekdahls, live in a Swedish town, running a moderately profitable theatre. At Christmastime, the Ekdahls hold a Nativity play and later a large Christmas party. The siblings' parents, Emilie and Oscar, are happily married until Oscar suddenly dies from a stroke. Shortly thereafter, Emilie marries Edvard Vergérus, the local bishop and a widower, and moves into his home where he lives with his mother, sister, aunt, and maids.

Emilie initially expects that she will be able to carry over the free, joyful qualities of her previous home into the marriage, but realises that Edvard's harsh authoritarian policies are unshakable. The relationship between the bishop and Alexander is especially cold, as Alexander invents stories, for which Edvard punishes him severely. As a result, Emilie asks for a divorce, which Edvard will not consent to; though she may leave the marriage, this would be legally considered desertion, placing the children in his custody. Meanwhile, the rest of the Ekdahl family has begun to worry about their condition, and Emilie secretly visits her former mother-in-law, Helena, revealing she is pregnant.

During Emilie's absence, Edvard confines the children to their bedroom, ostensibly for their safety. There, Alexander shares a story, claiming he was visited by the ghosts of the Vergérus family, who revealed the bishop was responsible for their deaths. The maid Justina reports the story to Edvard, who responds with corporal punishment. After Emilie returns, the Ekdahl family friend Isak Jacobi helps smuggle the children from the house. They live temporarily with Isak and his nephews in their store.

Emilie's former brothers-in-law confront Edvard to negotiate a divorce, using the children, the bishop's debts, and the threat of a public scandal for leverage, but Edvard is unmoved.

Emilie, now in the later stages of her pregnancy, refuses to restore the children to Edvard's home. Emilie allows Edvard to drink a large dosage of her bromide sedative. She explains to him, as the medication takes effect, that she intends to flee the home as he sleeps. He threatens to follow her family and ruin their lives, but falls unconscious. After she escapes, Edvard's dying Aunt Elsa accidentally overturns a gas lamp, setting her bedclothes, nightgown, and hair on fire. Engulfed in flames, she runs through the house, seeking Edvard's help, but he, too, is set aflame. Although partially incapacitated by the sedative, he is able to disentangle himself from Aunt Elsa, but is badly burned and dies shortly thereafter.

Alexander had fantasised about his stepfather's death while living with Isak and his nephews Aron and Ismael Retzinsky. The mysterious Ismael explains that fantasy can become true as he dreams it.

The Ekdahl family reunites for the christening celebration of Emilie's and the late bishop's daughter as well as the extra-marital daughter of Alexander's uncle, Gustav Adolf, and the family maid, Maj. Alexander encounters the ghost of the bishop who knocks him to the floor, and tells him that he will never be free. Emilie, having inherited the theatre, hands Helena a copy of August Strindberg's play A Dream Play to read and tells her that they should perform it together onstage. Initially scoffing at the idea and declaring Strindberg a "misogynist," Helena takes to the idea and begins reading it to a sleeping Alexander.

Cast

The cast consists of:

The Ekdahl house

The Bishop's house

Jacobi's house

The Theatre

Production

Development

Director Ingmar Bergman conceived of Fanny and Alexander while working on his 1980 film From the Life of the Marionettes, and wrote the screenplay at Fårö in summer 1979. Bergman intended Fanny and Alexander to be his last feature film, although he wrote several screenplays afterward and directed for television. He told the press he decided to retire, because, "I don't have the strength any more, neither psychologically nor physically". The screenplay was semi-autobiographical, attempting to portray Bergman's fondest memories in what he called a "happy and privileged" childhood; Alexander himself was meant as a representation of the young Ingmar. His recollections of his grandmother's home were a particular inspiration. He commented on his boyhood:

Bergman also recalled receiving his own magic lantern at age 10, from his aunt; in his autobiography, he described it as personally significant, and previously depicted a magic lantern in his 1972 Cries and Whispers.

However, the Ekdahls do not entirely match the Bergmans. Ingmar's relationship with his sister Margareta during their shared childhood is depicted through the character Fanny, who is included in the title though she is not as large a character as Alexander. Bergman had previously modeled characters after his mother, Karin Åkerblom, as simultaneously "virgin and seductress": Emilie also fits that self-contradictory design.

Margareta and Ingmar's father was the strict Erik Bergman, a Lutheran pastor. Edvard is based on Erik, and like Edvard, Erik was raised in a family almost completely made up of women. Erik and Ingmar also often conflicted over "truth" and honesty, much as Edvard and Alexander do. The story Alexander tells of being sold to a circus resembles one Ingmar had told as a boy, and he was accosted by Erik much as Edvard lectures Alexander. However, Bergman also stated that "It has been suggested ... that 12-year-old Alexander is my alter-ego. But this is not quite true. Fanny and Alexander is a story, the chronicle of a middle-class, perhaps upper-middle-class family sticking closely together ... There's a lot of me in the Bishop, rather than in Alexander. He is haunted by his own devils".

Bergman proposed the project to producer Jörn Donner, who said he could provide the budget if all production and costume design crew would be Swedish. Bergman initially doubted that Sweden alone had the manpower, but eventually caved, Donner said. The estimated budget of 40 million SEK would make it the most costly Swedish film ever. To raise the $6 million, Donner and the Swedish Film Institute partnered with the French company Gaumont and West German TV. Bergman completed the screenplay by October 1980 and assembled a budget of $7 million, according to New York.

Casting

The project was announced in October 1980 with Liv Ullmann, Max von Sydow and Erland Josephson in lead roles; von Sydow was cast as Edvard, the bishop who Ingmar told the press resembled Erik Bergman. However, negotiations to secure von Sydow became troubled as he continued to act more in productions beyond Sweden, and as his agent demanded a larger salary. Edvard was recast with Jan Malmsjö, whom Bergman had worked with before in Scenes from a Marriage. In 1981, Ullmann also rejected the role of Emilie, due to a scheduling conflict, though in 2013 she remarked "I still don't know why I did that".

Bertil Guve was 10 when cast as Alexander. Bergman had seen Guve in a television film by Lasse Hallström and called for an audition with Guve, though the boy did not know who Bergman was. Bergman ultimately cast Guve, without sharing the story of Fanny and Alexander with him, recognising his imagination when he told a story about killing his own grandfather during the audition. Guve also said, "I asked Ingmar later why he chose me. He said it was because I acted with my eyes". Child actress Pernilla Allwin was cast as Fanny, and she and Guve regarded each other as rivals when they first met and began working; Bergman identified with this sibling rivalry.

Other actors, like Harriet Andersson, Gunnar Björnstrand, and Jarl Kulle, had previously appeared in Bergman's filmography. Björnstrand was developing Alzheimer's syndrome, making it difficult for him to memorise his dialogue, but he was still awarded a small role. Veteran actress Gunn Wållgren was cast as Helena, despite the fact that she was suffering from cancer, often concealing her pain during shots. Fanny and Alexander marked the final film appearances of both Björnstrand and Wållgren.

Pernilla Wallgren (later August) was cast, out of a state school where she was studying the stage, for what became her breakthrough role. August later explained she received a message inviting her to read the screenplay, and she did not know how the filmmakers knew of her. She had developed an interest in acting after seeing Bergman's Cries and Whispers, and wanted a part like Kari Sylwan's in a film one day. Bergman also cast some of his real-life children, including Mats Bergman as Isak's nephew Aron, and Anna Bergman as Hanna Schwartz; Linn Ullmann was to play Alexander's older sister Amanda, but when Linn's school refused to give her a break for production, her father cut the character. His ex-wife Käbi Laretei was cast as an aunt. In total, there were 60 characters with lines, and over 1,200 extras.

Pre-production
Art director Anna Asp was given six months before production to prepare, and started by building miniature models and drawing sets. In creating the Ekdahl home, Bergman envisioned his real-life grandmother's Uppsala residence as a model. She had one apartment in the residence, whereas the other apartment belonged to Erik Bergman and his family. Asp designed Oscar and Emilie's apartment with an Art Nouveau style. For the bishop's house, Asp sought a design that would be frightening while still being a plausible home for a man of the church, and found inspiration from a photograph of a castle in a magazine.  In designing Isak's residence, Asp worked from Bergman's memory of a Jewish antiques shop owner, looking for a labyrinth-style.

Costume designer Marik Vos was tasked to oversee a project requiring 250 costumes for the principal actors, along with over 1,000 costumes for the extras. She allowed the testing of the vast majority of fabric samples to determine how they appeared in photography, with Bergman demanding to see as many of the test shots as he could. Vos also co-ordinated colours with Asp.

Filming

Principal photography began in Uppsala, Sweden, lasting from 7 September 1981 to 22 March 1982. The filmmakers began shooting around Uppsala streets, which municipal leaders allowed the crew to redecorate. Scenes were shot in chronological order, and Guve only learned the thrust of the story was his conflict with his stepfather during production. On the first day of photography, Bergman decided to stage a pillow fight, which the apprehensive Wallgren credited for putting her at ease. It also endeared the director to the child actors. Guve developed a generally amiable relationship with Bergman and later Pernilla Allwin, and Allwin and Guve's habit of playing on bicycles between filming would dirty their costumes and cause the crew to rush to clean them. Guve also conflicted with Bergman when he laughed during a shoot, at which point Bergman reprimanded him and said that it was "the most outrageous, the most unprofessional behaviour" he had ever seen. While production meant full-time days during the workweek, Guve remained in school by spending the weekend on homework.

Scenes were shot outside of Uppsala Cathedral, with the crew conflicting with the dean over whether an antenna could be removed. For Edvard's house, shooting moved to Upplandsmuseet, Uppsala County's museum. For interiors, the same sets in Uppsala and the Swedish Film Institute were used to portray multiple places.

With Bergman suffering from influenza, his colleagues substituted for him in shooting Oscar's funeral scene with 500 extras and a brass band. At one point during production, a crossbeam fell over in the studio and nearly hit Bergman and cinematographer Sven Nykvist. Other crew were injured in workplace accidents. One injury took place when a male stunt performer portraying the burning Aunt Elsa was actually burned by spilled napalm. Much of the production was recorded by Bergman and Arne Carlsson for the 1984 documentary, The Making of Fanny and Alexander.

Themes and interpretations
Critic Michiko Kakutani identified Fanny and Alexander as sharing marriage-drama and domestic themes as his Thirst (1949), Scenes from a Marriage (1973) and From the Life of the Marionettes. In contrast, academic Linda Haverty expressed surprise at Bergman including fantastical elements such as ghosts and telepathy as they were a departure from the psychological horror of his work in the 1960s and 1970s, for this Bildungsroman story. Professor Frank Gado argued in his 1986 book The Passion of Ingmar Bergman that Fanny and Alexander is "actually two films, which, except that they concern members of the same family, are dramatically separate entities. The glow that warmed audiences radiates from only an outer layer; its core is as chilling as any of Bergman's fictions".

Magic and reality

Academic Egil Törnqvist identified the character Gustav Adolf with secular merriment, while Alexander and Isak inhabit a world filled with the supernatural and evil. Critic Dave Kehr interpreted the fairy tale style as a product of the story being told from Alexander's perspective, coloured with "myth and legend". Alexander experiences "visions of ghosts or dream visions alongside everyday reality", author Laura Hubner wrote. The sequence these visions are seen in may be significant. After being punished by Edvard for telling a story about how the Vergérus family died, Alexander is haunted by the ghosts of the family who deny Edvard's culpability, suggesting Edvard frightened Alexander into seeing this new vision. Writer Mas'ud Zavarzadeh rationalised Alexander's visions as a product of the character being "an artist in the making". Zavarzadeh further noted, "He is involved in the construction of a more genuine and stable reality than the one that surrounds him".

As indicated by Gustav Adolf's final speech, most of the Ekdahls do not spend much time grappling with the meaning of life. Zavarzadeh also contrasted Alexander to another of his uncles, Carl, a scholar who relies on logic but who is reduced to an absurdity, at one point entertaining the children with his flatulence. Törnqvist considered the surname of the characters to be inspired by Henrik Ibsen's 1884 play The Wild Duck, and that it made the name Ekdal synonymous with characters who cope with illusions about reality. Fanny and Alexander adds an H to Ekdal, giving it an aristocratic air, Törnqvist added.

Huber cited academics Marilyn Johns Blackwell and Törnqvist in support of the point that, despite the title, Alexander is the lead role and Fanny is a minor character; Blackwell added that imagination is "largely gendered as male". Concurring that Fanny is a minor character, Kehr further argued that Alexander influences the plot to a lesser degree than the adult characters, but remains the focus in the storytelling.

On Alexander's visions and their reality, critic Roger Ebert argued:

In the end, Helena reads from August Strindberg's 1902 play A Dream Play: "Anything can happen, all is possible and probable. Time and space do not exist. On an insignificant foundation of reality, imagination spins out and weaves new patterns". As with A Dream Play, Fanny and Alexander explores "the unreality of life itself". Gado suggested the quote refers to memories and imagination, and that all of Bergman's filmography could be dreams forming parts of one dream.

Family conflict

Film Quarterly essayist Jarrod Hayes concluded the conflict between Alexander and Edvard is a "clash of two Titans", as Edvard summons "the power of an image, God, Alexander has the power of the Image". Törnqvist observed Alexander's father Oscar wears white while his stepfather Edvard wears black, signifying they represent good and evil.  Academic Amir Cohen-Shalev also observed contrasts between Oscar and Edvard, Oscar as "well-meaning, loving but passive", and Edvard, as a far more strict man of the church, in the mold of Erik Bergman. Cohen-Shalev argued Edvard disguises his emotional shortcomings with his bourgeois veneer and "glib, affected piety". While espousing his devotion, Edvard personally may have secretly lost his belief, and he conflicts with Alexander with "doublethink": using "love" to mean "hate". Following Oscar's death, Cohen-Shalev argued Emilie chooses to marry Edvard because she is frightened as to how empty she is: "I could not understand why nothing really happened, why I never felt really happy".

The story makes multiple references to William Shakespeare's play Hamlet; According to Scott-Douglas, Alexander observes Oscar playing [[Ghost (Hamlet)|Hamlet'''s Ghost]] before he dies, and afterward appears as a ghost, while Alexander acquires a new abusive stepfather. This made "theatre and reality seem indistinguishable". Cohen-Shalev argued Oscar being reduced to a ghost is his punishment for never truly living, and losing his life. Törnqvist wrote the "triangle" of Alexander, Emilie and Edvard is explicitly explained with Emilie's reference to Hamlet, and the characters Hamlet, Queen Gertrude and King Claudius: "Don't act Hamlet, my son. I'm not Queen Gertrude, your kind stepfather is no king of Denmark, and this is not Elsinore Castle, even if it does look gloomy". Emilie, like Gertrude, is also portrayed as unfaithful, with Bergman's screenplay suggesting Oscar is not Alexander's biological father: in the Nativity play, Oscar plays Joseph. According to Helena, Oscar fell impotent after Fanny's birth, and Emilie afterward conducted circumspect affairs.

By framing Edvard as "stepfather-king", the story becomes a battle between "infanticide and parricide", where killing Edvard is associated with Alexander's "artistic/sexual emancipation", scholar Arnold L. Weinstein wrote. Törnqvist wrote Alexander displays an "erotic attraction to his mother", combined with a hatred for his stepfather, referencing the Oedipus complex. Author Viveka Nyberg identified Oedipal themes as pervasive, suggesting Alexander believes he may have killed both his father and stepfather in competition for his mother's love. Nyberg described Emilie as "beautiful and aloof in equal measure", and she cares for her children but concerns herself more with other things. Alexander's story of being sold to the circus reflects his feelings of his mother forsaking him. While Alexander appears to admire Oscar and his imagination, Alexander also listens in on his parents' interactions, and sleeps in Maj's bed, with Maj acting as stand-in mother and an object of sexual desire.

Cohen-Shalev described cyclical patterns in the story: the family endures seasons of distinct "symbols, myths, and moods", including death in winter and resurrections in the spring; or, a trip to which the protagonist experiences a test in the "Valley of Tears" before achieving "blissful family unification". Edvard is also forgiven with "a kind of humanity", Cohen-Shalev wrote, as Edvard confesses his faith is a mask, and his burning death mirrors his analogy of a mask that cannot be removed unless the flesh is removed as well.

Christianity and Judaism

The story opens with exploring celebrations of the Swedish Christmas, which is expressed through "colors, sounds, movements, music" that Cineaste critic Royal Brown called "life-affirming, pagan Christianity". This is starkly contrasted with Edvard's Christianity, which is dictated by asceticism, authoritarianism and concern with death, with Alexander finding his new home a bare, cold prison. Professor Freddie Rokem wrote that, in contrast to Edvard's "rigorous and sterile" Protestantism, the Ekdahl Christmas party can include the Jewish Isak, as he is a dear friend of matriarch Helena Ekdahl, and this friendship is "utopian". While at Isak's, his nephew Aron Retzinsky brings out a puppet of God, or deus ex machina, to which Alexander reacts with terror; he then tries to play down that fear, and is left to wonder how seriously to take the supernatural. Author Harry Perridon argued that when Alexander declares God "is a shit", he means God in Christianity, associating the deity with suffering in the world. After this point, true miracles in Bergman's universe have to come from a different source, Perridon wrote.

The depiction of Jews in Sweden revolves around Isak, which academic Rochelle Wright argues is "far more nuanced" than in Bergman's previous The Touch (1971). Isak is not completely assimilated, but his presence in Sweden is presented as positive, as he stands for imagination, "magic and mystery", Wright wrote. Erland Josephson, who played Isak, described his performance as a stereotyped portrayal of a Jew, but with mystical and tragic elements, drawing on Jewish people and their history. Hayes argued that with its take on "time and space", the story hinted at Jewish mysticism and the Kabbalah. The light that engulfs Isak when he screams after being beaten by Edvard calls on the light of the Kabbalah to vanquish evil, Hayes hypothesised. The scream may have invited "spiritual intervention", allowing the children's escape by rendering them invisible in Isak's trunk, while the children seemingly appear lying on the floor to Edvard. Törnqvist hypothesised that Jewish pantheism replaces Christian belief in "grace and punishment" in the story. Royal Brown argued that Isak's "cabbalistic magic and animism" is closer to the Ekdahls' Christianity than to Edvard's.

Törnqvist identified Ismael as "one of the more enigmatic features" of Fanny and Alexander, commenting on the character as a fusion of elements. Ismael speaks the Finno-Swedish language, and is androgynous, being a male character played by a woman, Stina Ekblad. Ismael also says to Alexander, "Perhaps we are the same person". Author Daniel Humphrey also commented in Ismael's androgyny, conveying "queerness and foreignness" but presented as spiritually identical to Alexander. Additionally, Humphrey commented on the name, with Ishmael of the Bible being a bastard son of Abraham and progenitor of the Arab people, considered "paradigmatic" by Christians and Jews alike. A Dream Play author Strindberg had taken interest in the Ishmael character. Törnqvist also identified Ismael as matching Hamlet in education, intelligence, real or feigned insanity and anti-social nature.

Hayes commented on the way Ismael holds Alexander, remarking it was "Alexander's erotic encounter with a man/a woman/himself". Critic Robin Wood and Richard Lippe argued Ismael directly replaces Oscar, dismissed by Alexander as not serving a purpose; Ismael instead brings danger and sexual ambiguity: Wood and Lippe observed Ismael touching Alexander and kissing Aron. The role of Ismael and Alexander's ritual in Edvard's death is uncertain: Ismael speaks of what will happen in the future in describing Edvard's death, but it can all be logically explained, with a police officer informing Emilie the death is legally accidental.

Release

While cinematic film stock was used in production, Bergman conceived of the presentation as a television miniseries, and there are different versions, presented as a miniseries and film. The longer version intended for television was the original. After completing production, Bergman had to edit the complete cut to 188 minutes for screenings in theatres, regretting losing much of the fantasy material. He remarked, "This was extremely troublesome, as I had to cut into the nerves and lifeblood of the film". The film premiered in Stockholm on 17 December 1982 in its 188-minute theatrical cut. Distribution rights were sold to 30 other countries in 1982. It subsequently opened in France on 9 March 1983, West Germany on 8 October 1983, and the United States on 17 June 1983.

The complete version runs 312 minutes. It was released in Swedish theatres in 1983, and screened at the 40th Venice International Film Festival in September 1983. It subsequently aired as a miniseries on Sveriges Television in four segments, and five episodes of unequal length at Bergman's demand. They ran 92, 40, 37, 60 and 90 minutes, beginning 25 December 1984. After debuting at the Swedish Film Institute on 16 September 1984, The Making of Fanny and Alexander aired with a television repeat of Fanny and Alexander in Sweden on 18 August 1986. In 1991, the Guinness Book of World Records listed the five-hour version as among the longest films in history. The entire miniseries ran on SVT1 in Sweden on 2 August 2007, with 10-minute newscast interruption, rendering it a two-part version. The screenplay was also published as a book and translated into English in 1983.

In Region 2, Artificial Eye released the five-hour version on DVD in 2002. In 2011 in Region A, The Criterion Collection published a Blu-ray edition including the theatrical version, the television version, and The Making of Fanny and Alexander.

Reception
Box office
There were large audiences in Sweden at showings of Fanny and Alexander, including at the five-hour cut, making it the most popular box-office film Bergman had in his native country. It had 374,208 admissions in France and 165,146 in Germany. This amounted to minimal presence in the French box-office.Fanny and Alexander finished its run grossing $6,783,304 in North America. According to critic Vincent Canby's analysis, the film did "extremely well" and had its niche audience, but could not match summer blockbuster competition which dominated the top 15 spots in the box office, particularly Return of the Jedi. In 1992, Variety ranked it the 21st highest grossing foreign film in U.S. box office history, and the fifth-highest grossing Swedish film after 1967's I Am Curious (Yellow) and Elvira Madigan, Dear John (1964) and My Life as a Dog (1985).

Critical reception

Upon release in Sweden, the film received generally positive reviews, with Expressen critic Lasse Bergström approving of the portrayal of the Oscarian era. Critic Stig Larsson assessed it as Bergman's ironic take on his past filmography. Jönköpings-Posten posted a positive review on 7 February 1983, followed by a second critic in the same paper accusing the film of creating false joy on 21 February. The film ranked 10th on Cahiers du Cinéma's Top 10 Films of the Year List in 1983.

Vincent Canby's contemporary review in The New York Times described it a "big, dark, beautiful, generous family chronicle"; Canby also praised the cast as "uniformly excellent". Roger Ebert awarded it four stars, assessing it as "a big, exciting, ambitious film", relatable to audiences though more specific in its story than Bergman's prior studies of faith and sex, and named  it the 4th best film of 1983. Variety staff called it "a sumptuously produced period piece" blending "elegance with intimacy". For The Washington Post, Rita Kempley found the story more cheerful than past Bergman productions, highlighting Ewa Fröling and comparing her to Liv Ullmann. In The New York Times, Michiko Kakutani compared the film's "generosity of vision" to the comedies of William Shakespeare. The Nation critic Robert Hatch compared it to Shakespeare's The Tempest as a final life-affirming work, featuring "magic with the casual authority of Prospero himself". Kerry Brougher denied it was Bergman's magnum opus, but still said it was "a thoughtful, graceful, beautifully filmed work". National Review critic John Simon wrote a negative review, calling it "overstuffed", and expressing lack of interest in Fröling and Guve as newcomers to Bergman's filmography.

Ebert added it to his Great Movies list in 2004, hailing it as "astonishingly beautiful", crediting Sven Nykvist for "color and warmth". In 2010, The Guardian ranked the film eighth in its list of 25 greatest arthouse films. Reviewing The Criterion Collection Blu-ray, Andre Dellamorte wrote that despite the five-hour runtime, the story was uncomplicated but always interesting. The Observer quoted actor Matthew Macfadyen as saying the film "featured just the most extraordinary acting I'd ever seen". Macfadyen added that as a RADA student, the film was shown as "an example to follow – an example of people acting with each other". Polish film director Agnieszka Holland also praised it in 2012, saying both children and intellectuals could enjoy it and that it gives a very vivid portrait of another era. In his 2015 Movie Guide, Leonard Maltin gave it four stars, identifying its emotions as "exquisitely expressed".

Pauline Kael wrote a more mixed review, enjoying the merry atmosphere but writing the "conventionality" is "rather shocking", suggesting Bergman had moved to Victorian times to escape his usual eccentric viewpoints. The Guardian critic Alex Cox wrote a negative review in 2006, claiming there was no story for the first two of three hours, and that the analogy to Hamlet did not hold up as Alexander knows Edvard is evil, whereas Hamlet is uncertain if the Ghost is a demon and Claudius is innocent. Cox had not seen the longer version, but considered it might be better.

In 1990, Fanny and Alexander was named the best film of the 1980s by Los Angeles Times by Sheila Benson, who called it "generous, ribald, reflective and radiantly life-affirming", and Michael Wilmington, and the third best by Newsweek critic David Ansen. In 1996, Fanny and Alexander was ranked at No. 36 in Movieline Magazine's "100 Greatest Foreign Films". In 2004, The New York Times also included the film on its list of "the Best 1,000 Movies Ever Made". Xan Brooks, in The Guardians Film Season, chose the film as the eighth "best arthouse film of all time". He described it as "an opulent family saga, by turns bawdy, stark and strange" with a rare abundance of "indelible supporting characters". In 2007, the film was ranked at No. 23 by The Guardians readers' poll on its list of "40 greatest foreign films of all time". The film was Voted at No. 44 on the list of "100 Greatest Films" by the prominent French magazine Cahiers du cinéma in 2008. In the British Film Institute's 2012 Sight & Sound polls of the greatest films ever made, Fanny and Alexander was 84th among critics and 16th among directors. In the earlier 2002 version of the list, the film ranked 35th among critics and 19th among directors. Also in 2002, Sight and Sound magazine invited several critics to make a list of the best films of last 25 years and Fanny and Alexander was ranked at number three. In 2012 the film was voted at number five on the 25 best Swedish films of all-time list by a poll of 50 film critics and academics conducted by film magazine FLM. In 2018 ,the film was ranked 28th in BBC's list of The 100 greatest foreign language films. In 2022 edition of Sight & Sound's Greatest films of all time list the film ranked 53rd in the director's poll. Fanny and Alexander has a 100% approval rating on Rotten Tomatoes, based on 45 reviews, with a weighted average of 9/10. The site's consensus reads: "Ingmar Bergman conveys the sweep of childhood with a fastidious attention to detail and sumptuous insight into human frailty in Fanny and Alexander, a masterwork that crystalizes many of the directors' preoccupations into a familial epic". On Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 100 out of 100 based on 8 critics, indicating "universal acclaim".

Accolades
The film received six Academy Award nominations, winning four, including Best Foreign Language Film. While it received the third highest number of nominations of 1984, after Terms of Endearment and The Right Stuff (both released in 1983), the fact that Sweden chose to submit it for Best Foreign Language Film rendered it ineligible for a Best Picture nomination. The four wins was the most any foreign-language film had received at the Academy Awards to date until it tied the record with Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon  (2000), Parasite (2019) and All Quiet on the Western Front (2022). Fanny and Alexander marked the third and final time Bergman won Best Foreign Language Film, after The Virgin Spring (1960) and Through a Glass Darkly (1961). Bergman did not personally attend the ceremony, while working on a stage production in Munich, so his award was accepted by his wife Ingrid von Rosen and Jörn Donner. The film won the FIPRESCI Prize at 1983 Venice Film Festival. It also won the French Syndicate of Cinema Critics Award for Best Foreign Film.

Legacy
After ostensibly retiring from directing, Bergman completed After the Rehearsal in 1984. Bergman also conceived of a biographical project following his parents Erik and Karin Åkerblom, and in a press conference in August 1989, announced he planned a production that could be considered a follow-up to Fanny and Alexander and his 1987 autobiography The Magic Lantern. The resulting 1991–92 miniseries and film The Best Intentions was directed by Bille August and won the Palme d'Or at the 1992 Cannes Film Festival. Bergman selected Bille August as director on condition that Fanny and Alexander actress Pernilla Wallgren star as Bergman's mother; she did under the name Pernilla August. Critic Vincent Canby also identified Ingmar's screenplay Sunday's Children, directed by Daniel Bergman and released in 1992, as "a continuation" of Fanny and Alexander and The Best Intentions, and questioned if Ingmar had truly retired. Whereas Ingmar's recollections of Erik Bergman are damning in Fanny and Alexander, his study of his father is "far more forgiving" in The Best Intentions and Sunday's Children. After The Best Intentions, Pernilla August played Ingmar's mother twice more, in the 1996 Private Confessions and 1997 In the Presence of a Clown.

Following Bergman's death in 2007, PostNord Sverige decided to honour the director with a postage stamp depicting him directing Fanny and Alexander. In the two decades following the release, "Fanny and Alexander" decorations were also common in Swedish businesses at Jul. In 2017, Hallwyl Museum also exhibited costumes from Fanny and Alexander and other Bergman films.

Stefan Larsson directed a stage adaptation of Fanny and Alexander for the Royal Dramatic Theatre, which traveled to Uppsala City Theater in 2012. It played at the John F. Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts in Washington, D.C. in 2013. In 2010, stage adaptations also played in Finland, directed by Maria Lundström and Tiina Puumalainen, and Norway, where it was the biggest box office success in the National Theatre's history. Later, Stephen Beresford wrote an adaptation for The Old Vic in London, directed by Max Webster and starring Penelope Wilton. It was scheduled to debut February 2018.

The film has exercised considerable influence on subsequent filmmaking, not only in Sweden. South Korean director Bong Joon-ho has listed it as one of his favourite films, and stated that it has "the most beautiful ending to a feature film career in the history of cinema". French director Arnaud Desplechin frequently cites Fanny and Alexander as a critical touchstone for his own career, and has labelled his own La Vie des Morts as "a complete rip-off of that film". He noted that "I saw Fanny and Alexander and then I became a director. Before, I was a technician, and after that film, I became a director." Filmmaker Barry Jenkins listed Fanny and Alexander as one of his favourite films. The Japanese filmmaker Akira Kurosawa cited Fanny and Alexander'' as one of his favorite films.

See also
 List of longest films
 List of submissions to the 56th Academy Awards for Best Foreign Language Film
 List of Swedish submissions for the Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film

Explanatory notes

References

Citations

General bibliography

External links
  (188-minute cut)
  (miniseries/312-minute cut)

 "Fanny and Alexander: Bergman's Bildungsroman", an essay by Rick Moody at the Criterion Collection
 "Fanny and Alexander: In the World of Childhood", an essay by Stig Björkman at the Criterion Collection

1982 films
1982 drama films
Best Film Guldbagge Award winners
Best Foreign Film César Award winners
Best Foreign Language Film Academy Award winners
Best Foreign Language Film Golden Globe winners
Films about Christianity
Films about Jews and Judaism
Films about siblings
Films directed by Ingmar Bergman
Films set in 1907
Films set in 1908
Films set in 1909
Films set in 1910
Films set in Uppsala
Films that won the Best Costume Design Academy Award
Films whose art director won the Best Art Direction Academy Award
Films whose cinematographer won the Best Cinematography Academy Award
Films whose director won the Best Director Guldbagge Award
French drama films
German drama films
1980s German-language films
Films with screenplays by Ingmar Bergman
Swedish Christmas films
Swedish drama films
1980s Swedish-language films
Swedish television miniseries
West German films
1980s Christmas films
Films about remarriage
1980s French films
1980s German films
1980s Swedish films

Fanny and Alexander


Das Autobahnkreuz Marl-Nord (Abkürzung: AK Marl-Nord; Kurzform: Kreuz Marl-Nord) ist ein Autobahnkreuz in Marl (Nordrhein-Westfalen) in der Metropolregion Rhein-Ruhr. Es verbindet die Bundesautobahn 43 (Münster – Wuppertal) mit der Bundesautobahn 52 (Mönchengladbach – Marl) und der Landesstraße 612.

Geografie
Das Autobahnkreuz liegt auf dem Stadtgebiet von Marl im Kreis Recklinghausen, an der Stadtgrenze zu Haltern am See. Nächstgelegene Stadtteile sind Bergbossendorf und Hamm-Bossendorf, zu Haltern gehörig und Sickingmühle, dass zu Marl gehört. Es befindet sich etwa 30 Kilometer nordöstlich von Essen, etwa 30 Kilometer nordwestlich von Dortmund und etwa 45 Kilometer südwestlich von Münster.

Das Autobahnkreuz Marl-Nord trägt auf der A 43 die Anschlussstellennummer 9, auf der A 52 die Nummer 50.

Bauform und Ausbauzustand
Beide Autobahnen sind vierstreifig ausgebaut, die L 612 ist dreistreifig ausgebaut. Alle Verbindungsrampen sind einspurig ausgeführt.

Das Autobahnkreuz wurde als Kleeblatt angelegt und 1987 zusammen mit dem letzten Abschnitt der A 52 zwischen Dorsten-Ost und Marl-Nord eröffnet.

Auf der A 52 sind keine Parallelfahrbahnen angelegt, die Rampen schließen direkt an die Hauptfahrbahnen an.

Verkehrsaufkommen
Das Kreuz wurde im Jahr 2015 täglich von rund 80.000 Fahrzeugen befahren.

Einzelnachweise

MarlNord
Bundesautobahn 43
Bundesautobahn 52
Verkehrsbauwerk im Kreis Recklinghausen
Bauwerk in Marl
Erbaut in den 1980er Jahren

Autobahnkreuz Marl-Nord