Bullying is the use of force, coercion, hurtful teasing or threat, to abuse, aggressively dominate or intimidate. The behavior is often repeated and habitual. One essential prerequisite is the perception (by the bully or by others) of an imbalance of physical or social power. This imbalance distinguishes bullying from conflict. Bullying is a subcategory of aggressive behavior characterized by hostile intent, imbalance of power and repetition over a period of time.

Bullying can be done individually or by a group, called mobbing, in which the bully may have one or more followers who are willing to assist the primary bully or who reinforce the bully by providing positive feedback such as laughing. Bullying in school and the workplace is also referred to as "peer abuse". Robert W. Fuller has analyzed bullying in the context of rankism. The Swedish-Norwegian researcher Dan Olweus says bullying occurs when a person is "exposed, repeatedly and over time, to negative actions on the part of one or more other persons", and that negative actions occur "when a person intentionally inflicts injury or discomfort upon another person, through physical contact, through words or in other ways". Individual bullying is usually characterized by a person behaving in a certain way to gain power over another person.

A bullying culture can develop in any context in which humans interact with each other. This may include school, family, the workplace, the home, and neighborhoods. The main platform for bullying in contemporary culture is on social media websites. In a 2012 study of male adolescent American football players, "the strongest predictor [of bullying] was the perception of whether the most influential male in a player's life would approve of the bullying behavior." A study by The Lancet Child & Adolescent Health in 2019 showed a relationship between social media use by girls and an increase in their exposure to bullying.

Bullying may be defined in many different ways. In the United Kingdom, there is no legal definition of bullying, while some states in the United States have laws against it. Bullying is divided into four basic types of abuse: psychological (sometimes called emotional or relational), verbal, physical, and cyber, though an encounter can fall into multiple of these categories.

Behaviors used to assert such domination may include physical assault or coercion, verbal harassment, or threat, and such acts may be directed repeatedly toward particular targets. Rationalizations of such behavior sometimes include differences of social class, race, religion, gender, sexual orientation, appearance, behavior, body language, personality, reputation, lineage, strength, size, or ability.

Etymology
The word "bully" was first used in the 1530s meaning "sweetheart", applied to either sex, from the , "lover, brother", probably diminutive of , "brother", of uncertain origin (compare with the German buhle "lover"). The meaning deteriorated through the 17th century through "fine fellow", "blusterer", to "harasser of the weak". This may have been as a connecting sense between "lover" and "ruffian" as in "protector of a prostitute", which was one sense of "bully" (though not specifically attested until 1706). The verb "to bully" is first attested in 1710.

In the past, in American culture, the term has been used differently, as an exclamation/exhortation, in particular famously associated with Theodore Roosevelt and continuing to the present in the bully pulpit, Roosevelt's coining and also as faint/deprecating praise ("bully for him").

Types
Bullying has been classified by the body of literature into different types. These can be in the form of nonverbal, verbal, or physical behavior. Another classification is based on perpetrators or the participants involved, so that the types include individual and collective bullying. Other interpretation also cite emotional and relational bullying in addition to physical harm inflicted towards another person or even property. There is also the case of the more recent phenomenon called cyberbullying.

Physical, verbal, and relational bullying are most prevalent in primary school and could also begin much earlier while continuing into later stages in individuals lives.

Individual
Individual bullying tactics are perpetrated by a single person against a victim or victims. Individual bullying can be classified into four types.

Physical
Physical bullying is any bullying that hurts someone's body or damages their possessions. Stealing, shoving, hitting, fighting, and intentionally destroying someone's property are types of physical bullying. Physical bullying is rarely the first form of bullying that a victim will experience. Often bullying will begin in a different form and later progress to physical violence. In physical bullying the main weapon the bully uses is his/her body, or some part thereof; or an object as a weapon when attacking his/her victim. Sometimes groups of young adults will target and alienate a peer because of some adolescent prejudice. This can quickly lead to a situation where they are being taunted, tortured, and "beaten up" by their classmates. Physical bullying will often escalate over time, and can lead to a detrimental or fatal ending, and therefore many try to stop it quickly to prevent any further escalation.

Verbal
Verbal bullying is one of the most common types of bullying. This is any bullying that is conducted by speaking, other use of the voice, or some form of body language and does not involve any physical contact. Bullying usually begins at this stage and includes any of the following:

Derogatory name-calling and nicknaming
Spreading rumors or lying about someone
Threatening someone
Yelling at or talking to someone in a rude or unkind tone of voice, especially without justifiable cause
Mocking someone's voice or style of speaking
Laughing at someone
Use of body language (i.e., the middle finger) to torment someone
Making insults or otherwise making fun of someone

In verbal bullying, the main weapon the bully uses is voice. In many cases, verbal bullying is common in both genders, but girls are more likely to perform it. Girls, in general, are more subtle with insults than boys. Girls use verbal bullying, as well as social exclusion techniques, to dominate and control other individuals and show their superiority and power, often to try to impress someone they idolize. Many boys are subtle enough to use verbal techniques for domination when they want to avoid the trouble that can come with physically bullying someone else.

Relational
Relational bullying (sometimes referred to as social aggression) is the type of bullying that uses relationships to hurt others. The term also denotes any bullying that is done with the intent to hurt somebody's reputation or social standing which can also link in with the techniques included in physical and verbal bullying. Relational bullying is a form of bullying common among youth, but particularly upon girls. Social exclusion (slighting or making someone feel "left out") is one of the most common types of relational bullying. Relational bullying can be used as a tool by bullies to both improve their social standing and control others. Unlike physical bullying which is obvious, relational bullying is not overt and can continue for a long time without being noticed.

Cyber
Cyberbullying is the use of technology to harass, threaten, embarrass, or target another person. When an adult is involved, it may meet the definition of cyber-harassment or cyberstalking, a crime that can have legal consequences and involve jail time. This includes bullying by use of email, instant messaging, social media websites (such as Facebook), text messages, and cell phones. It is stated that Cyberbullying is more common in secondary school than in primary school.

The internet provides people with limited accountability and no filter. The use of technology for bullying can be detrimental to someones online reputation.  The information put out online will stay there forever, unless taken down by the person who put it out there and sometimes not even then. Future jobs and people will be able to see others' digital footprint and how you treated others. Another problem with cyberbullying is that other people can get involved. Technology, especially the use of social media, allows others to repost or share content whether it is positive or negative.

Collective
Collective bullying tactics are employed by more than one individual against a victim or victims. Collective bullying is known as mobbing, and can include any of the individual types of bullying. Trolling behavior on social media, although generally assumed to be individual in nature by the casual reader, is sometime organized efforts by sponsored astroturfers.

Mobbing

Mobbing refers to the bullying of an individual by a group, in any context, such as a family, peer group, school, workplace, neighborhood, community, or online. When it occurs as emotional abuse in the workplace, such as "ganging up" by co-workers, subordinates or superiors, to force someone out of the workplace through rumor, innuendo, intimidation, humiliation, discrediting, and isolation, it is also referred to as malicious, nonsexual, nonracial/racial, general harassment.

Characteristics

Bullies and accomplices
Studies have shown that envy and resentment may be motives for bullying. Research on the self-esteem of bullies has produced equivocal results. While some bullies are arrogant and narcissistic, they can also use bullying as a tool to conceal shame or anxiety or to boost self-esteem: by demeaning others, the abuser feels empowered. Bullies may bully out of jealousy or because they themselves are bullied. Psychologist Roy Baumeister asserts that people who are prone to abusive behavior tend to have inflated but fragile egos. Because they think too highly of themselves, they are frequently offended by the criticisms and lack of deference of other people, and react to this disrespect with violence and insults.

Researchers have identified other risk factors such as depression and personality disorders, as well as quickness to anger and use of force, addiction to aggressive behaviors, mistaking others' actions as hostile, concern with preserving self-image, and engaging in obsessive or rigid actions. A combination of these factors may also be causes of this behavior. In one study of youth, a combination of antisocial traits and depression was found to be the best predictor of youth violence, whereas video game violence and television violence exposure were not predictive of these behaviors.

Bullying may also result from a genetic predisposition or a brain abnormality in the bully. While parents can help a toddler develop emotional regulation and control to restrict aggressive behavior, some children fail to develop these skills due to insecure attachment with their families, ineffective discipline, and environmental factors such as a stressful home life and hostile siblings. Moreover, according to some researchers, bullies may be inclined toward negativity and perform poorly academically. Dr. Cook says, "A typical bully has trouble resolving problems with others and also has trouble academically. He or she usually has negative attitudes and beliefs about others, feels negatively toward himself/herself, comes from a family environment characterized by conflict and poor parenting, perceives school as negative and is negatively influenced by peers."

Contrarily, some researchers have suggested that some bullies are psychologically strongest and have high social standing among their peers, while their targets are emotionally distressed and socially marginalized. Peer groups often promote the bully's actions, and members of these peer groups also engage in behaviors, such as mocking, excluding, punching, and insulting one another as a source of entertainment. Other researchers also argued that a minority of the bullies, those who are not in-turn bullied, enjoy going to school, and are least likely to take days off sick.

Research indicates that adults who bully have authoritarian personalities, combined with a strong need to control or dominate. It has also been suggested that a prejudicial view of subordinates can be a particularly strong risk factor.

In a recent study, bullies showed lower school performance-related self-esteem than non-involved students. They also showed higher social self-esteem than victims of traditional bullying.

Brain studies have shown that the section of the brain associated with reward becomes active when bullies are shown a video of someone inflicting pain on another.

Bystanders
Often, bullying takes place in the presence of a large group of relatively uninvolved bystanders. In many cases, it is the bully's ability to create the illusion they have the support of the majority present that instills the fear of "speaking out" in protestation of the bullying activities being observed by the group. Unless the "bully mentality" is effectively challenged in any given group in its early stages, it often becomes an accepted, or supported, norm within the group.

Unless action is taken, a "culture of bullying" is often perpetuated within a group for months, years, or longer.

Bystanders who have been able to establish their own "friendship group" or "support group" have been found to be far more likely to opt to speak out against bullying behavior than those who have not.

In addition to communication of clear expectations that bystanders should intervene and increasing individual self-efficacy, there is growing research to suggest interventions should build on the foundation that bullying is morally wrong.

Among adults, being a bystander to workplace bullying was linked to depression.

The Bystander effect can be detrimental to the person being bullied. People are less likely to stand up for someone or something when others are around. In the case of cyberbullying, people that see bullying happen on social media are less likely to say something back, whether online or in person. People can have good intentions and want to help, but with no action nothing will be accomplished. "The act of others stepping in is what will stop bullying". To stop the Bystander effect, people should be confident and stand up for what they believe in. Do not worry what people think of you, rather think of what the benefits can be for the person being bullied.

Victims
Dr. Cook says, "A typical victim is likely to be aggressive, lack social skills, think negative thoughts, experience difficulties in solving social problems, come from a negative family, school and community environments and be noticeably rejected and isolated by peers." Victims often have characteristics such as being physically and mentally weak, as well as being easily distraught emotionally. They may also have physical characteristics that make them easier targets for bullies such as being overweight or having some type of physical deformity. Boys are more likely to be victims of physical bullying while girls are more likely to be bullied indirectly.

Low levels of self-esteem has been identified as a frequent antecedent of bullying victimization. Victims of traditional bullying tend to have lower global, social, body-related, and emotional self-esteem compared to uninvolved students.
Victims of cyberbullying, on the other hand, may not have lower self-esteem scores than uninvolved students but might have higher body-related self-esteem than both victims of traditional bullying and bullies.

It has also been shown that victims are more likely to employ self-defeating or self-deprecating humor intended to entertain others at the expense of themselves and their own feelings.

The results of a meta-analysis conducted by Cook and published by the American Psychological Association in 2010 concluded the main risk factors for children and adolescents being bullied, and also for becoming bullies, are the lack of social problem-solving skills.

Children who are bullied often show physical or emotional signs, such as: being afraid to attend school, complaining of headaches or a loss of appetite, a lack of interest in school activities, or in spending time with friends or family, reluctance to go out in public for fear they may encounter their bullies in public places other than school, and having an overall sense of sadness.

Effects

Mona O'Moore of the Anti-Bullying Centre at Trinity College in Dublin, has written, "There is a growing body of research which indicates that individuals, whether child or adult, who are persistently subjected to abusive behavior are at risk of stress related illness which can sometimes lead to suicide."
Those who have been the targets of bullying can develop long-term emotional and behavioral problems. Bullying can cause loneliness, depression, anxiety, lead to low self-esteem and increased susceptibility to illness. Bullying has also been shown to cause maladjustment in young children, and targets of bullying who were also bullies themselves exhibit even greater social difficulties. A mental health report also found that bullying was linked to eating disorders, anxiety, body dysmorphia and other negative psychological effects. Both victims and perpetrators have been shown to exhibit higher levels of loneliness.

Suicide

Even though there is evidence that bullying increases the risk of suicide, bullying alone does not cause suicide. Depression is one of the main reasons why kids who are bullied die by suicide. It is estimated that between 15 and 25 children die by suicide every year in the UK alone because they are being bullied. Certain groups seem to incur a higher risk for suicide, such as Native Americans, Alaskan Natives, Asian Americans, and LGBT people. When someone feels unsupported by family or friends, it can make the situation much worse for the victim.

In a self-report study completed in New York by 9th through 12th graders, victims of bullying reported more depressive symptoms and psychological distress than those who did not experience bullying. All types of involvement in bullying among both boys and girls is associated with depression even a couple years later. Another study that followed up with Finnish teens two years after the initial survey showed that depression and suicidal ideation is higher with teens who are bullied than those who did not report experiencing bullying. A Dutch longitudinal study on elementary students reported that boys who are bully-victims, who play both roles of a victim and a bully, were more likely to experience depression or serious suicidal ideation than the other roles, victims or bullies only, while girls who have any involvement in bullying have a higher level of risk for depression. In a study of high school students completed in Boston, students who self reported being victims of bullying were more likely to consider suicide when compared to youth who did not report being bullied. The same study also showed a higher risk of suicidal consideration in youth who report being a perpetrator, victim, or victim-perpetrator. Victims and victim-bullies are associated with a higher risk of suicide attempts. The place where youth live also appears to differentiate their bullying experiences such that those living in more urban areas who reported both being bullied and bullying others appear to show higher risk of suicidal ideation and suicide attempts. A national survey given to American 6th through 10th grade students found that cyberbullying victims experience a higher level of depression than victims experiencing other forms of bullying. This can be related to the anonymity behind social media. If a teen is being bullied and is displaying symptoms of depression it should be questioned and interventions should be implemented. The Danish study showed that kids who are bullied talked to their parents and teachers about it and some reported a decrease in bullying or a stop in the bullying after a teacher or parent intervened. The study emphasizes the importance of implementing program-collaborations in schools to have programs and anti-bullying interventions in place to prevent and properly intervene when it occurs. The study also shows the importance of having parents and teachers talk to the bullies about their bullying behavior in order to provide the necessary support for those experiencing bullying.

While some people find it very easy to ignore a bully, others may find it very difficult and reach a breaking point. There have been cases of apparent bullying suicides that have been reported closely by the media. These include the deaths of Ryan Halligan, Phoebe Prince, Dawn-Marie Wesley, Nicola Ann Raphael, Megan Meier, Audrie Pott, Tyler Clementi, Jamey Rodemeyer, Kenneth Weishuhn, Jadin Bell, Kelly Yeomans, Rehtaeh Parsons, Amanda Todd, Brodie Panlock, Jessica Haffer, Hamed Nastoh, Sladjana Vidovic, April Himes, Cherice Moralez and Rebecca Ann Sedwick. According to the suicide awareness voices for education, suicide is one of the leading causes of death for youth from 15 to 24 years old. Over 16 percent of students seriously consider suicide, 13 percent create a plan, and 8 percent have made a serious attempt.

Strength and wisdom
Some have argued that bullying can teach life lessons and instill strength. Helene Guldberg, a child development academic, sparked controversy when she argued that being a target of bullying can teach a child "how to manage disputes and boost their ability to interact with others", and that teachers should not intervene but leave children to respond to the bullying themselves. Others, however, have pointed out that this is only true for normal peer conflicts but not for bullying cases.

The teaching of anti-bullying coping skills to children, carers and teachers has been found to be an effective long-term means of reducing bullying incidence rates and a valuable skill-set for individuals.

Testosterone production
Statistically controlling for age and pubertal status, results indicated that on average verbally bullied girls produced less testosterone, and verbally bullied boys produced more testosterone than their nonbullied counterparts.

Dark triad

Research on the dark triad (narcissism, Machiavellianism, and psychopathy) indicate a correlation with bullying as part of evidence of the aversive nature of those traits.

Projection

A bully may project his/her own feelings of vulnerability onto the target(s) of the bullying activity. Despite the fact that a bully's typically denigrating activities are aimed at the bully's targets, the true source of such negativity is ultimately almost always found in the bully's own sense of personal insecurity and/or vulnerability. Such aggressive projections of displaced negative emotions can occur anywhere from the micro-level of interpersonal relationships, all the way up through to the macro-level of international politics, or even international armed conflict.

Emotional intelligence

Bullying is abusive social interaction between peers which can include aggression, harassment, and violence. Bullying is typically repetitive and enacted by those who are in a position of power over the victim. A growing body of research illustrates a significant relationship between bullying and emotional intelligence (EI). Mayer et al., (2008) defines the dimensions of overall EI as "accurately perceiving emotion, using emotions to facilitate thought, understanding emotion, and managing emotion". The concept combines emotional and intellectual processes. Lower emotional intelligence appears to be related to involvement in bullying, as the bully and/or the victim of bullying. EI seems to play an important role in both bullying behavior and victimization in bullying; given that EI is illustrated to be malleable, EI education could greatly improve bullying prevention and intervention initiatives.

Context

Internet

Cyberbullying is any bullying done through the use of technology. This form of bullying can easily go undetected because of lack of authoritative (including parental) supervision. Because bullies can pose as someone else, it is the most anonymous form of bullying. Cyberbullying includes abuse using email, instant messaging, text messaging, websites, and social networking sites. Particular watchdog organizations have been designed to contain the spread of cyberbullying.

Disability

Disabled people are disproportionately affected by bullying and abuse, and such activity has been cited as a hate crime. The bullying is not limited to those who are visibly disabled, such as wheelchair users or physically deformed such as those with a cleft lip, but also those with developmental disabilities such as autism and developmental coordination disorder.

There is an additional problem that those with learning disabilities are often not as able to explain things to other people, so are more likely to be disbelieved or ignored if they do complain.

Homosexuality

Gay bullying and gay bashing designate direct or indirect verbal or physical actions by a person or group against someone who is gay or lesbian, or perceived to be so due to rumors or because they are considered to fit gay stereotypes. Gay and lesbian youth are more likely than straight youth to report bullying, as well as be bullied.

Law

Legal bullying is the bringing of a vexatious legal action to control and punish a person. Legal bullying can often take the form of frivolous, repetitive, or burdensome lawsuits brought to intimidate the defendant into submitting to the litigant's request, not because of the legal merit of the litigant's position, but principally due to the defendant's inability to maintain the legal battle. This can also take the form of Strategic Lawsuit Against Public Participation (SLAPP). It was partially concern about the potential for this kind of abuse that helped to fuel the protests against SOPA and PIPA in the United States in 2011 and 2012.

Military

In 2000, the UK Ministry of Defence (MOD) defined bullying as "the use of physical strength or the abuse of authority to intimidate or victimize others, or to give unlawful punishments".

Some argue that this behaviour should be allowed, due to ways in which "soldiering" is different from other occupations. Soldiers expected to risk their lives should, according to them, develop strength of body and spirit to accept bullying.

Parenting

Parents who may displace their anger, insecurity, or a persistent need to dominate and control upon their children in excessive ways have been proven to increase the likelihood that their own children will in turn become overly aggressive or controlling towards their peers.
The American Psychological Association advises on its website that parents who may suspect their own children may be engaging in bullying activities among their peers should carefully consider the examples which they themselves may be setting for their own children regarding how they typically interact with their own peers, colleagues, and children.

Prison

The prison environment is known for bullying. An additional complication is the staff and their relationships with the inmates. Thus, the following possible bullying scenarios are possible:
 Inmate bullies inmate (echoing school bullying)
 Staff bullies inmate
 Staff bullies staff (a manifestation of workplace bullying)
 Inmate bullies staff

School

It is important to distinguish school bullying that per definition has the goal of harming the victim from normal peer conflict that is an inherent part of everyday school life and often promotes social development. Unlike normal conflict, bullying is a systematic and repeated abuse committed intentionally by another student who has more power (physical, social, or otherwise). School bullies may taunt and tease their target before finally physically bullying them. Bystanders typically choose to either participate or watch, sometimes out of fear of becoming the next target.

Bullying can occur in nearly any part in or around the school building, although it may occur more frequently during physical education classes and activities such as recess. Bullying also takes place in school hallways, bathrooms, on school buses and while waiting for buses, and in classes that require group work and/or after school activities. Bullying in school sometimes consists of a group of students taking advantage of or isolating one student in particular and gaining the loyalty of bystanders who want to avoid becoming the next target. The 2011 documentary Bully showcases the lives of five American public school students who face bullying in school and while on the school bus. The bullying is shown to effect the students both at school and in their homes.

Teachers play an important role in bullying prevention and intervention because they are the adults who spend most of their time with the students.
Bullying can, however, also be perpetrated by teachers and the school system itself; there is an inherent power differential in the system that can easily predispose to subtle or covert abuse (relational aggression or passive aggression), humiliation, or exclusion—even while maintaining overt commitments to anti-bullying policies.

In 2016, in Canada, a North American legal precedent was set by a mother and her son, after the son was bullied in his public school. The mother and son won a court case against the Ottawa-Carleton District School Board, making this the first case in North America where a school board has been found negligent in a bullying case for failing to meet the standard of care (the "duty of care" that the school board owes to its students). Thus, it sets a precedent of a school board being found liable in negligence for harm caused to a child, because they failed to protect a child from the bullying actions of other students. There has been only one other similar bullying case and it was won in Australia in 2013 (Oyston v. St. Patricks College, 2013).

Heterosexuality

Sexual bullying is "any bullying behaviour, whether physical or non-physical, that is based on a person's sexuality or gender. It is when sexuality or gender is used as a weapon by boys or girls towards other boys or girls – although it is more commonly directed at girls. It can be carried out to a person's face, behind their back or through the use of technology."

Transsexuality

Trans bashing is the act of victimizing a person physically, sexually, or verbally because they are transgender or transsexual. Unlike gay bashing, it is committed because of the target's actual or perceived gender identity, not sexual orientation.

Work

Workplace bullying occurs when an employee experiences a persistent pattern of mistreatment from others in the workplace that causes harm. Workplace bullying can include such tactics as verbal, nonverbal, psychological, physical abuse and humiliation. This type of workplace aggression is particularly difficult because, unlike the typical forms of school bullying, workplace bullies often operate within the established rules and policies of their organization and their society. Bullying in the workplace is in the majority of cases reported as having been perpetrated by someone in authority over the target. Bullies can also be peers, and occasionally can be subordinates.

The first known documented use of "workplace bullying" is in 1992 in a book by Andrea Adams called Bullying at Work: How to Confront and Overcome It.

Research has also investigated the impact of the larger organizational context on bullying as well as the group-level processes that impact on the incidence, and maintenance of bullying behavior. Bullying can be covert or overt. It may be missed by superiors or known by many throughout the organization. Negative effects are not limited to the targeted individuals, and may lead to a decline in employee morale and a change in organizational culture. A Cochrane Collaboration systematic review has found very low quality evidence to suggest that organizational and individual interventions may prevent bullying behaviors in the workplace.

Academia

Bullying in academia is workplace bullying of scholars and staff in academia, especially places of higher education such as colleges and universities. It is believed to be common, although has not received as much attention from researchers as bullying in some other contexts.

Blue-collar jobs
Bullying has been identified as prominent in blue-collar jobs, including on oil rigs and in mechanic shops and machine shops. It is thought that intimidation and fear of retribution cause decreased incident reports. In industry sectors dominated by males, typically of little education, where disclosure of incidents are seen as effeminate, reporting in the socioeconomic and cultural milieu of such industries would likely lead to a vicious circle. This is often used in combination with manipulation and coercion of facts to gain favour among higher-ranking administrators.

Information technology

A culture of bullying is common in information technology (IT), leading to high sickness rates, low morale, poor productivity, and high staff-turnover. Deadline-driven project work and stressed-out managers take their toll on IT workers.

Courts

Bullying in the legal profession is believed to be more common than in some other professions. It is believed that its adversarial, hierarchical tradition contributes towards this. Women, trainees and solicitors who have been qualified for five years or less are more affected, as are ethnic minority lawyers and lesbian, gay and bisexual lawyers.

Medicine

Bullying in the medical profession is common, particularly of student or trainee doctors and of nurses. It is thought that this is at least in part an outcome of conservative traditional hierarchical structures and teaching methods in the medical profession, which may result in a bullying cycle.

Even though The American Nurses Association believes that all nursing personnel have the right to work in safe, non-abusive environments, bullying has been identified as being particularly prevalent in the nursing profession although the reasons are not clear. It is thought that relational aggression (psychological aspects of bullying such as gossiping and intimidation) are relevant. Relational aggression has been studied among girls but not so much among adult women.

Teaching

School teachers are commonly the subject of bullying but they are also sometimes the originators of bullying within a school environment.

Machines
Children have been observed bullying anthropomorphic robots designed to assist the elderly. Their attacks start with blocking the robots' paths of movement and then escalate to verbal abuse, hitting and destroying the object. Seventy-five percent of the kids interviewed perceived the robot as "human-like" yet decided to abuse it anyway, while 35% of the kids who beat up the robot did so "for enjoyment".

Prevention

Bullying prevention is the collective effort to prevent, reduce and stop bullying. Many campaigns and events are designated to bullying prevention throughout the world. Bullying prevention campaigns and events include Anti-Bullying Day, Anti-Bullying Week, International Day of Pink, International STAND UP to Bullying Day and National Bullying Prevention Month. Anti-bullying laws in the U.S. have also been enacted in 23 of its 50 states, making bullying in schools illegal.

Bullying prevention programs allow schools to help decrease cyberbullying within he realm of school. The prevention methods are targeted mainly for middle schoolers, where we see the most bullying occur. To help decrease cyberbullying, people need to take preventative measures. One preventative method was implemented to determine the effectiveness against cyberbullying. This program called "Media Heroes" showed how educating teachers on bullying behaviors in school can help them educate and stop students from bullying. This educational program decreased bullying in their schools. Having trusted adults become educated on what can go on online, can help prevent further cyberbullying.

Responses
Bullying is typically ongoing and not isolated behaviour. Common responses are to try to ignore it, to confront the bullies, or to turn to an authority figure.

Ignoring it often does nothing to stop the bullying continuing, and it can become worse over time.
It can be important to address bullying behaviour early on, as it can be easier to control the earlier it is detected.
Bystanders play an important role in responding to bullying, as doing nothing can encourage it to continue, while small steps that oppose the behaviour can reduce it.

Authority figures can play an important role, such as parents or teachers in child or adolescent situations, or supervisors, human-resources staff or parent-bodies in workplace and volunteer settings. In the school context, teachers who set clear boundaries, communicate seriously that bullying behavior is unacceptable and will not be tolerated, and involve school administrators have been shown to reduce bullying. Discussing bullying and its consequences with the whole class is also an important intervention that not only reduces bullying, but also encourages other students to step in and stop bullying even before it reaches its full form. In general, authority figures can be influential in recognising and stopping bullying behaviour, and creating an environment that does not encourage or promote bullying.

In many situations, authority figures are untrained and unqualified, do not know how to respond, and can make the situation worse.
In some cases the authority figures even support the people doing the bullying, facilitating it continuing and increasing the isolation and marginalising of the target.
Some of the most effective ways to respond are to recognise that harmful behaviour is taking place, and to create an environment where it will not continue.

See also

References

Further reading
 Kohut MR The Complete Guide to Understanding, Controlling, and Stopping Bullies & Bullying: A Complete Guide for Teachers & Parents (2007)
 Bullies and Victims in Schools: a guide to understanding and management by Valerie E. Besag (1989)
 The Fight That Never Ends by Tim Brown
 Odd Girl Out: The Hidden Culture of Aggression in Girls by Rachel Simmons
 Bullycide, Death at Playtime by Neil Marr and Tim Field
 Bullycide in America: Moms Speak Out about the Bullying/Suicide Connection – by Brenda High, Bullycide.org
 A Journey Out of Bullying: From Despair to Hope by Patricia L. Scott
 "Peer Abuse Know More! Bullying From A Psychological Perspective" By Elizabeth Bennett
 New Perspectives on Bullying by Ken Rigby
 Garbarino, J. & de Lara, E. (2003). And Words Can Hurt Forever: How to Protect Adolescents from Bullying, Harassment, and Emotional Violence.  The Free Press: New York NY.
 Joanne Scaglione, Arrica Rose Scaglione Bully-proofing children: a practical, hands-on guide to stop bullying 2006
 Why Is Everybody Always Picking on Me: A Guide to Handling Bullies for Young People. by Terrence Webster-Doyle. Book and Teaching curriculum.
 "Why Nerds are Unpopular", by Paul Graham. This essay is an example of how even medium differences, in a hierarchical, zero-sum, or negative environments, can lead to ostracism or persecution.
 Lord of the Flies by William Golding (1954). A famous work describing how a group of schoolboys trapped on an island descends into savagery.

External links

 Citizens Advice in the UK
 Bullying. No Way! (Australian Education Authorities)
 Bullying in schools (UK – schools)
 PBSKids.org "Great Books About Bullies"
 Be Brave Against Bullying, a UFT project
 U.S. Department of Education's Education Resources Information Center (ERIC)
 Bully Online

Abuse
Aggression
Injustice
Persecution
Psychological abuse
Interpersonal conflict

Bullying


The Association for Progressive Communications (APC) is an international network of organizations that was founded in 1990 to provide communication infrastructure, including Internet-based applications, to groups and individuals who work for peace, human rights, protection of the environment, and sustainability. Pioneering the use of ICTs for civil society, especially in developing countries, APC were often the first providers of Internet in their member countries.

APC is a worldwide network of social activists who use the internet to make the world a better place. APC is both a network and an organisation. APC members are groups working in their own countries to advance the same mission as APC. APC has more than 59 members, mostly in Asia, Africa and Latina America, from five continents. This is a challenge and a strength, because members are at the two extremes of internet development (members in South Korea with incredible connectivity and members in rural Nigeria where they have to power computers using car batteries and solar power) and in between.

History

Background and creation
APC was founded in 1990 by:

 Institute for Global Communications (IGC), San Francisco, USA
 GreenNet, London, United Kingdom
 IBASE, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
 Nicarao, Managua, Nicaragua
 Pegasus Networks, Byron Bay, Australia
 Web Networks, Toronto, Canada
 NordNet, Sweden

The activists working with United Nations–sponsored data management NGO (IDOC) create a network of like-minded organisations working with information and alternative media. At this point they communicated mainly using fax and regular mail. People physically travelled around transporting and sharing databases of information and software on disks.

In 1988, on the verge of APC creation, Mitra Ardron describes the central characteristic of the future APC user, present operations and the history of APC precedents: PeaceNet, EcoNet and GreenNet. He also expresses a common commitment to global communication available to everyone.

UN status
Collaboration between APC and the United Nations began in 1992, in preparation for the UN Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED), more popularly known as the Earth Summit. As APC had the only international, civil society communications network in existence at that time, the UNCED secretariat published their information in APC conferences. They had no other way of distributing information so economically and so effectively. (The UN itself began distributing information by electronic means many years later).
Email links are set up between Cuba and APC networks. They call the Cuban servers three times a day to deliver and collect email.

The cooperation continues over the years. APC received consultative status to the UN with the several quadrennial reports submitted over the years. APC also cooperated with United Nations Development Programme. APC actively participate in UN initiatives such as Millennium Development Goals. The studies of violence against women and ICTs in ten countries and how legislation or lack of it hinders or helps women were conducted and published as a part of promoting gender equality and empowering women.

The APC Women's Networking Support Programme (APC - WNSP) co-coordinated a women's network to bring an NGO perspective to the UN Beijing +5 review. Official declarations promote ICT as a way of enhancing NGO participation in global media policy making. It also gives recommendations for women's portrayal, decision making and advocacy in media industry.

Late 1990s

APC made a significant impact in Africa, Asia, Central and Eastern Europe, and the Caribbean by providing civil society organisations with email and e-information using the Fidonet gateways. Fidonet protocol was used because it is store-and-forward technology enabling people to compose and read email offline which is very important in the countries with the pour infrastructure (phone lines, electrical supply and hardware).

APC's African networks faced with the strong competition from commercial providers, held an Africa Strategy Development Meeting from February 8–11, 1997 in Johannesburg, South Africa. The meeting attended 34 APC members and partner networks from all over Africa. The program areas, action framework and plan as well as women's program were discussed. A powerful statement from the meeting was published as The Holy Family Communiqué from African Electronic Communicators.

A legal threat to freedom of information online came from the company Biwater and involved APC member LabourNet, April 1997. Thirteen APC members mirrored the threatened content.

2000–2003

2000 was a turning point for APC. The new vision statement drafted at an APC council meeting held in Piriapolis, Uruguay hosted by the Third World Institute (ITeM): "APC works to achieve a world in which all people have easy, equal and affordable access to the creative potential of the internet to improve their lives and create more democratic and egalitarian societies.".

In May 2001, APC and partners started work on building a portal which collects training materials related to ICT for social change. This portal, named Itrain Online, is an entry point for finding the best computer training resources on the web for the social change and development.

The first APC Internet Rights Charter was published in three languages: English, French and Spanish. The themes: internet access for all, freedom of expression and association, access to knowledge, shared learning and creation, privacy, governance and rights were addressed.

APC started Gender, Agriculture and Rural Development in the Information Society (GenARDIS) in 2002. This project was launched to provide small grants for the agricultural initiatives by women. The access to new information and communication technologies affected rural men and women and improved agricultural production.

The ICT policy handbook for beginners was published in 2003 together with a tri-lingual ICT policy training for civil society curriculum which includes a special section on advocacy for positive policy change.

APC stimulated multi-stakeholder dialogue as part of the Catalysing Access to ICTs in Africa (CATIA) programme, and trained 100 technology enthusiasts in Africa to set up community wireless networks.

2004–2008
Take Back The Tech!, a 16 days of activism against gender-based violence (25 Nov - 10 Dec), started in 2006. This campaign engages information and communication technology in helping end gender-based violence.

APC joined Internet Governance Forum for the first time in 2008. A statement to IGF open consultations was submitted before the third IGF supporting regional IGF meetings and giving suggestions about themes and content of the meeting in Hyderabad.

The first edition of Global Information Society Watch was published, focused on citizen participation in ICT policy processes in the wake of the World Summit on the Information Society. These reports are accessible yearly and are a joint initiative with the Humanist Institute for Development Cooperation Hivos.

The other activities included replication of the community wireless training developed in Africa in Latin America and the Caribbean, forming an eighteen-country network connecting indigenous communities, rural backwaters and impulsing university networking courses, the first Feminist Tech Exchange, training people from 680 organisations in technology for social change and ICT policy from 2004-2008, organizing a press conference in Tunisia to address the host government's suppression of free speech in the wake of the second World Summit on the Information Society, launching GenderIT.org.

2009–2012 strategic plan and progress
APC priorities for 2009–2012 period were: advocate for affordable internet for all, make technology work to sustain environment, use emerging technology for social change, build collaborative open online space, secure and defend internet rights and improve internet and other governance.

The strategic plan was realized by
 launching Internet Rights and Human Rights project,
 starting research on the real lived experiences of women around the internet and sexuality,
 publishing Global Information Society Watch: 2010 addressed the pressing issues of ICTs and climate change and e-waste, a dedicated edition on a defence of human rights and women's rights workers working online, GISWatch 2012 focused on the Internet and corruption, as well as 2 updates to GISWatch 2011: Update 1 and Update II,
 designing a manual called "Communicating research for influence: Strategies and challenges for bringing about change" based on their success stories and challenges in communicating research for influence,
 developing a practical guide to sustainable IT. It offers a detailed, "hands-on" introduction to thinking about sustainable computing holistically; starting with the choices you make when buying technology, through to the software and peripherals you use, how you store and work with information, manage your security, save power, and maintain and dispose of your old hardware.

The Dominican government chooses APC's Gender Evaluation Methodology (GEM) as a tool to design and evaluate their ICT policies.

The eleventh face-to-face APC council meeting is held on Panglao Island in the Philippines, hosted by the Foundation for Media Alternatives. Over one hundred communications activists also attend a Networking and Learning Forum to strategise for an open, fair and sustainable internet.

2013–2016 strategic plan and progress

The second strategic plan was released defining five priorities for 2013–2016: securing and defending internet access and rights, fostering good internet governance, strengthening use and development of transformative technology, ending technology-based violence against women and girls and strengthening APC community networks.

The realization of this plan included the following:
 Global Information Society Watch was published on communication rights ten years after the World Summit on the Information Society (WSIS).
 APC co-organised the second (2014) and third (2015) editions of the African School on Internet Governance, with graduates from more than 15 African countries.

Structure
APC is governed by the board of directors which include an executive director, a chair, a vice-chair, a treasurer and any other officers elected by APC council. The executive officer is a past board member and all other officers are elected for a three-year term during APC council meeting. The council is made up of the two representatives from each member organization and it is a secondary governing body that meets every three years. Besides, electing the board officers, it also sets strategic priorities.

APC board 2014–2016 was elected in Barcelona:

 Julián Casabuenas, Colnodo, Colombia (Chair)
 Valentina Pelizzer, OWPSEE, Bosnia-Herzegovina (Vice-chair)
 Liz Probert, GreenNet, United Kingdom (Secretary)
 Osama Manzar, Digital Empowerment Foundation, India (Treasurer)
 John Dada, Fantsuam Foundation, Nigeria
 Lillian Nalwoga, CIPESA, Uganda
 Chim Manavy, Open Institute, Cambodia
 Anriette Esterhuysen, APC, South Africa

Membership

North America
  Alternatives, Action and Communication Network for International Development, Canada
 Institute for Global Communications (IGC), United States of America
 LaborNet, United States of America
 LaNeta, Mexico
 Web Networks, Canada
 May First/People Link, United States of America

Latin America and the Caribbean
 CEPES, Peru
 Colnodo, Colombia
 Fundación Escuela Latinoamericana de Redes (EsLaRed), Venezuela
 Instituto del Tercer Mundo (ITeM), Uruguay
 NODO TAU, Argentina
 RITS (Information Network for the Third Sector), Brazil
 Networks & Development Foundation - FUNREDES, Dominican Republic
 Wamani, Argentina
 Núcleo de Pesquisas, Estudos e Formação (Nupef), Brazil
 ONG Derechos Digitales, Chile
 Sulá Batsú, Costa Rica
 Asociación Trinidad Comunicación, Cultura y Desarrollo, Paraguay

Europe
 BlueLink Information Network, Bulgaria
 Computer Aid International, United Kingdom
 GreenNet, United Kingdom
 Green Spider, Hungary
 Metamorphosis Foundation, Macedonia
 OWPSEE, Bosnia-Herzegovina
 Pangea.org, Spain
 StrawberryNet, Romania
 ZaMirNet, Croatia

Africa
 ArabDev, Egypt
 Fantsuam Foundation, Nigeria
 Arid Lands Information Network (East Africa), Kenya
 Community Education Computer Society (CECS), South Africa
 SANGONeT, South Africa
 Ungana-Afrika, South Africa
 Women'sNet, South Africa
 WOUGNET - Women of Uganda Network, Uganda
 AZUR Développement, Republic of the Congo
 Kenya ICT Action Network (KICTANet), Kenya
 Collaboration on International ICT Policy for East and Southern Africa (CIPESA), Uganda

Asia-Pacific
 Bytes for All.org, South Asia
 EngageMedia, Australia, Indonesia
 Foundation for Media Alternatives (FMA), Philippines
 JCA-NET, Japan
 JCafe, Japan
 Korean Progressive Network Center (Jinbonet), South Korea
 Open Institute of Cambodia, Cambodia
 WomensHub, Philippines
 Bangladesh Friendship Education Society (BFES) - Bangladesh
 Voices for Interactive Choice and Empowerment (VOICE), Bangladesh
 Digital Empowerment Foundation (DEF), India
 Society for Promotion of Alternative Computing and Employment (SPACE), India

Actions

Gender evaluation methodology (GEM)
The Gender Evaluation Methodology is an evaluation methodology that integrates a gender analysis into evaluations of initiatives that use information and communications technologies (ICTs) for social change. It is an evaluation tool for determining whether ICTs are really improving or worsening women's lives and gender relations, as well as for promoting positive change at the individual, institutional, community and broader social levels. It was first developed in 2002 and was tried and tested by thirty community-based organisations. Since then hundreds of people have become involved in GEM's development including people who developed the tool, who train in how to use GEM, who are adapting GEM to increase its applicability to rural ICT4D projects, telecentres, software localisation and ICT policy advocacy and who are now offering GEM evaluations on a consultancy basis. The GEM manual was written in English and has been translated into French, Spanish, Brazilian Portuguese and Arabic). GEM was developed by the APC Women's Rights Programme (APC WRP

Global Information Society Watch
Global Information Society Watch is an annual report co-produced by APC and Hivos, a Dutch organization for development, which looks at the progress being made in creating an inclusive information society worldwide (particularly in implementing World Summit on the Information Society goals), encourages critical debate and strengthens networking and advocacy for a just, inclusive information society. The country reports are easy to read and offer a quick insight into a country situation. Contributors are primarily from civil society organisations active in ICT issues in their countries. Themes covered include environment and ICTs, human rights and the internet and internet infrastructure. There is a Giswatch book website.

GISWatch editions by year:
GIS Watch 2019 - Artificial intelligence: human rights, social justice and development
GISWatch 2018 - Community networks
GISWatch 2017 - National and Regional Internet Governance Forum Initiatives (NRIs)
GISWatch 2017 Special Issue - Internet governance from the edges - National and regional IGFs in their own words
 GISWatch 2017 Special Issue - Unshackling expression - A study on laws criminalising expression online in Asia
 GISWatch 2016 - Economic, Social and Cultural Rights and the Internet
 GISWatch 2015 - Sexual Rights and the Internet
 GISWatch 2014 - Communications surveillance in the digital age
 GISWatch 2013 - Women's rights, gender and ICTs
 GISWatch 2012 - The internet and corruption
 GISWatch 2011 - Internet rights and democratisation
 GISWatch 2010 - ICTs and Environmental Sustainability
 GISWatch 2009 - Access to Online Information and Knowledge
 GISWatch 2008 - Access to Infrastructure
 GISWatch 2007 - Participation

ActionApps
ActionApps offer a low cost solution for content sharing that both increases the functionality of not-for-profit and NGO websites, and facilitates the creation of portals sites so as to improve the visibility of civil society information. They are driven by free software. ActionApps were first developed by APC and released to the free and open source software community. Development continues strongly in South America.

Evaluations, awards and criticism

FLOSS
APC is awarding Chris Nicol free/libre open source software award (FLOSS or FOSS). The criteria and 2014 and 2007 winners are published.

Awards to people

 Karen Banks and the APC Women's Networking Support Programme are awarded the Anita Borg Prize for Social Impact (2004).
 Valeria Betancourt, Communications and Information Policy Programme manager, wins LACNIC's Outstanding Achievement Award, honouring internet leaders in the LAC region
 APC's Executive Director Anriette Esterhuysen and Finance Manager Karen Banks are inducted into the ISOC's Internet Hall of Fame (2013)
 APC's Executive Director Anriette Esterhuysen and APC were awarded the Electronic Frontier Foundation's 2015 Pioneer Award.

Awards for programs
 GISWatch wins WSIS Project Prize from the ITU
 Take Back the Tech! (South Africa) won GEM Award 2014 in category 6: Efforts to Reduce Threats Online and Building Women's Confidence and Security in the Use of ICTs.

2013 DDoS Attack
Beginning at 10.15 BST on Thursday 1 August 2013 GreenNet, and consequently APC, suffered an extensive DDoS attack. The attack was later described as a "DNS reflection attack" also known as a spoofed attack Several sources linked the attack to the Zimbabwe Elections, held a day earlier. GreenNet's services were not fully operational again until 10.30 BST on Thursday 7 August. On the 9th of August there was a second attack, which, while affecting some systems, allowed GreenNet to discover the site which was being targeted.  In October 2013, the target was revealed to be the site of British investigative reporter Andrew Jennings.

See also
Geekcorps
NetCorps
United Nations Information Technology Service
OGAS

References

External links
 The Association for Progressive Communications (English, French, Spanish and Portuguese)
  International Development Research Centre

Organizations established in 1990
Information technology organizations
Privacy organizations


An Arundinaria fargesii in uska species han Liliopsida nga ginhulagway ni E.G.Camus. An Arundinaria fargesii in nahilalakip ha genus nga Arundinaria, ngan familia nga Poaceae. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Mga sumpay ha gawas

Arundinaria

Arundinaria fargesii


Abdomenul acut este un sindrom abdominal dramatic care poate fi provocat de diferite afecțiuni grave ale organelor abdominale.
Se manifestă prin:
 debut brusc;
 dureri abdominale violente;
 contractura musculaturii pereților foarte puternică;
 greață, vărsături;
 febră ridicată
 față înspăimântată;
 abdomen balonat.

Cauzele abdomenului acut pot fi:
 peritonite acute provocate de perforația stomacului (ulcer), apendicelui, colecistului inflamatic, pancreasului;
 ocluzii intestinale (ileus) care provoacă întreruperea tranzitului intestinal și spargerea organului, hernie încarcerată, tumoare abdominală, ghem de limbrici;
 sarcină extrauterină, mai ales în trompe, care se rup când fătul ajunge la o anumită mărime și se produce o hemoragie internă mare.

Uneori, colice renale, hepatice, intestinale pot limita simptomatologia abdomenului acut.

În toate cazurile, trebuie, de urgență, consultat medicul deoarece necesită intervenție chirurgicală.

Chirurgie
Urgențe medicale
Terminologie medicală

Abdomen acut


The renal calyces are conduits in the kidney through which urine passes. The minor calyces form a cup-shaped drain around the apex of the renal pyramids. Urine formed in the kidney passes through a renal papilla at the apex into the minor calyx; 4-5 minor calyces converge to form a major calyx through which urine passes into the renal pelvis (which in turn drains urine out of the kidney through the ureter).

Function
Peristalsis of the smooth muscle originating in pace-maker cells originating in the walls of the calyces propels urine through the renal pelvis and ureters to the bladder. The initiation is caused by the increase in volume that stretches the walls of the calyces. This causes them to fire impulses which stimulate rhythmical contraction and relaxation, called peristalsis. Parasympathetic innervation enhances the peristalsis while sympathetic innervation inhibits it.

Clinical significance

A "staghorn calculus" is a kidney stone that may extend into the renal calyces.

A renal diverticulum is diverticulum of renal calyces.

See also
 Renal medulla
 Renal pyramids

References

External links
  - "Posterior Abdominal Wall: Internal Structure of a Kidney"
  - "Posterior Abdominal Wall: Internal Structure of a Kidney"
  - "Urinary System: neonatal kidney"
  ()
 Diagram at bway.net

Kidney anatomy

Renal calyx


În tipologia lingvistică, analitismul și sintetismul sunt trăsături ale limbilor luate în seamă în clasificarea lor în perspectiva numărului de morfeme care constituie un cuvânt. Clasificarea după acest criteriu a fost inițiată de A. W. von Schlegel, printr-o lucrare a sa din 1818.

Orice limbă poate fi plasată pe un punct de pe următoarea scală, în afara punctelor sale extreme,:

Aceasta înseamnă că nicio limbă nu este pur analitică, sintetică sau polisintetică. Se poate vorbi numai de limbi în care ponderea uneia din trăsături este dominantă față de ponderea celorlalte.

Lingvistul american Joseph H. Greenberg a calculat raportul dintre numărul de morfeme și numărul de cuvinte pe eșantioane de o sută de cuvinte din opt limbi, pe care l-a numit "grad de sinteză". Cu cât indicele acestui raport este mai scăzut, cu atât limba este mai analitică.

Termenii analitism și sintetism se referă și la modul în care se realizează una sau alta dintre formele gramaticale, și unul sau altul dintre raporturile gramaticale. În limba română, de exemplu, unele forme verbale sunt analitice (cele cu verb auxiliar, ex. am mâncat), altele sunt sintetice, cele realizate cu sufixe și desinențe, ex. mâncaserăm. Și în domeniul sintactic se poate vorbi de raporturi realizate analitic, de pildă exprimarea atributului substantival cu prepoziție (ex. cartea a trei eleve), în opoziție cu exprimarea sa sintetică, prin desinență cazuală (cartea elevei). În domeniul lexicului, de asemenea, se opun formații analitice cu cuvinte simple, formând chiar perechi de sinonime, ca a atrage atenția – a atenționa.

Analitism

Limbile în care analitismul atinge gradul cel mai înalt sunt numite izolante. Asemenea limbi se găsesc mai ales în Asia de Est și de Sud-Est, precum și în Africa de Vest (de exemplu limba yoruba). Exemple clasice de limbi analitice sunt chineza și vietnameza. În chineză, de exemplu, lipsește flexiunea, cuvintele tinzând să fie formate dintr-un singur morfem cu sens lexical sau gramatical, iar raporturile sintactice sunt exprimate în principal prin topică și cuvinte gramaticale. De pildă, frazei românești "Dacă mă aștepți, merg cu tine" îi corespunde în chineză:

Fraza este formată din opt cuvinte, fiecare corespunzătoare unui morfem.

Gradul de sinteză al unei limbi izolante, deci foarte analitice, cum este vietnameza, este de 1,06. Cel al englezei fiind de 1,68, și această limbă este considerată analitică.

Sintetism

Limbi sintetice sunt considerate cele în care predomină cuvintele ce conțin mai mult de un morfem, adică cel puțin o rădăcină cu sens lexical și unul sau mai multe afixe gramaticale și/sau derivaționale. De asemenea, cuvintele pot fi și compuse. Printre aceste limbi se disting două categorii. În limbile numite aglutinante predomină asocierea unui singur sens sau a unei singure funcții cu câte un morfem, morfemele succedându-se cu limite clare între ele. În cele numite flexionare, dominante sunt morfemele care exprimă mai mult de un sens, respectiv mai mult de o funcție în același timp. În unele din acestea por fi și morfeme gramaticale incluse în interiorul rădăcinii. Astfel, morfemele nu sunt clar delimitate. Din prima categorie fac parte, bunăoară, limbile maghiară și turcă, iar din a doua – latina, greaca și araba.

Un exemplu de limbă sintetică este sanscrita, al cărei grad de sinteză este de 2,59. Româna este și ea o limbă sintetică, deși în mai mică măsură decât limba ei mamă, latina, prin determinarea cu articol hotărât enclitic, conjugarea verbelor și declinarea părților de vorbire nominale, care implică sufixe, desinențe și alternanțe fonetice. Totodată, are și trăsături analitice, prin determinarea cu articol nehotărât, articol posesiv și articol demonstrativ cuvinte aparte, prin folosirea prepozițiilor și a verbelor auxiliare morfologice.

Polisintetism

Polisintetismul reprezintă un sintetism maxim. În limbile polisintetice, cuvintele sunt lungi și morfologic foarte complexe. Asemenea limbi se găsesc în primul rând printre cele ale amerindienilor și ale eschimoșilor, polisintetismul fiind caracteristic și unor limbi indigene din Siberia, Caucazul de Nord și Australia. Frazei "Dacă mă aștepți, merg cu tine", îi corespunde într-o limbă a eschimoșilor, inuit, următoarea secvență:

Fraza se compune din două cuvinte, utaqquiguvinga și aullaqatiginiaqpagit, fiecare corespunzând unei propoziții.

Pentru o limbă a eschimoșilor, Greenberg 1954 a stabilit gradul de sinteză de 3,72.

Caracterul relativ al analitismului, sintetismului și polisintetismului

Fiecare limbă prezintă mai mult sau mai puțin analitism, respectiv sintetism. Comparativ, se poate spune că o limbă este mai analitică/sintetică decât alta.

În chineză, care este o limbă foarte analitică, există totuși multe cuvinte compuse, precum și cuvinte cu afixe derivaționale.

Printre limbile indoeuropene, latina, greaca și sanscrita prezintă un grad mare de sintetism față de limbile romanice. Față de acestea sau față de limba germană, engleza este și mai puțin sintetică. Totuși, nici aceasta nu este total lipsită chiar de polisintetism. Astfel, un cuvânt precum antidisestablishmentarianisms este compus din șapte morfeme: anti|dis|establish|ment|arian|ism|s. Studiind istoria unor limbi precum cele romanice și engleza, s-a constatat evoluția lor de la un grad mai mare de sintetism la unul mai mic al acestuia, mai ales în cazul englezei. Ca dovadă, gradul de sinteză al englezei vechi este de 2,12, față de 1,68 pentru engleza modernă.

Se pot face comparații între limbi din punctul de vedere al analitismului/sintetismului în privința exprimării raporturilor gramaticale. Exemple:
 raport de posesie:  la maison du père (analitism) vs.  Vaters Haus (sintetism) "casa tatălui";
 gradul comparativ:  more beautiful (analitism) vs.  schöner (sintetism) "mai frumos".

Relativitatea analitismului și sintetismului se poate manifesta într-o limbă dată și la un moment dat, diferitele domenii ale structurii gramaticale putându-se comporta diferit din acest punct de vedere. În limba japoneză, de pildă, substantivul nu are flexiune, deci funcționează în mod analitic, dar sistemul verbal prezintă o flexiune complexă, fiind prin urmare foarte sintetic.

Note

Surse bibliografice

  Bakró-Nagy, Marianne, 9. fejezet – Az uráli nyelvek tipológiai jellemzése (Capitolul IX – Caracterizarea tipologică a limbilor uralice), Kiefer, Ferenc (coord.), A magyar nyelv (Limba maghiară), Akadémiai kiadó, 2006, Digitális Tankönyvtár (Bibliotecă didactică digitală) (accesat la 25 ianuarie 2019)

 Bidu-Vrănceanu, Angela et al., Dicționar general de științe. Științe ale limbii, București, Editura științifică, 1997, ISBN 973-440229-3 (accesat la 25 ianuarie 2019)

  Brown, Keith și Ogilvie, Sarah (coord.), Concise Encyclopedia of Languages of the World (Mică enciclopedie a limbilor lumii), Oxford, Elsevier, 2009, ISBN 978-0-08-087774-7 (CELW)

  Bussmann, Hadumod (coord.), Dictionary of Language and Linguistics (Dicționarul limbii și lingvisticii), Londra – New York, Routledge, 1998, ISBN 0-203-98005-0 (accesat la 25 ianuarie 2019)

 Constantinescu-Dobridor, Gheorghe, Dicționar de termeni lingvistici, București, Teora, 1998; online: Dexonline (accesat la 25 ianuarie 2019)

  Crystal, David, A Dictionary of Linguistics and Phonetics  (Dicționar de lingvistică și fonetică), ediția a VI-a, Blackwell Publishing, 2008, ISBN 978-1-4051-5296-9 (accesat la 25 ianuarie 2019)

  Eifring, Halvor și Theil, Rolf, Linguistics for Students of Asian and African Languages (Lingvistică pentru studenții în limbi asiatice și africane), Universitatea din Oslo, 2005 (accesat la 25 ianuarie 2019)

  Kálmán, László și Trón, Viktor, Bevezetés a nyelvtudományba  (Introducere în lingvistică), ediția a II-a, adăugită, Budapesta, Tinta, 2007, ISBN 978-963-7094-65-1 (accesat la 25 ianuarie 2019)

Vezi și

 Limbă aglutinantă
 Limbă flexionară
 Limbă izolantă

Tipologie lingvistică

Analitism și sintetism (lingvistică)


Çam balı arıların çiçek poleninden değil, Akdeniz iklimine mahsus bazı çam ağacı türlerinin gövdesinde yaşayan bir aracı böceğin salgısını kullanarak ürettiği, müstesna bir baldır. Dünyada sadece Türkiye ve Yunanistan'da bulunur.

Çam balının üretilmesi için, çam pamuklu böceği, veya milimetrik boyutlarda olduğu için çam pamuklu biti olarak da adlandırılan, halk arasında basra böceği (veya balsıra böceği) denilen bu böceğe ihtiyaç vardır. Bu böcek sadece kızılçam ("Türk çamı" veya "Kalabriya çamı" da denir), karaçam ve Halep çamında yaşar. Zoolojide bu böcek afidler sınıflandırması içinde Marchalina hellenica olarak adlandırıldığı gibi Monophlebus hellecinus olarak da bilinmektedir.

Basra (balsıra) böceği çamın özsuyunu emerek beslenir, artan özsuyunu da tatlı bir madde halinde dışkılar. Basra böceğinin Temmuz ve Ekim ayları arasında salgıladığı bu sıvı arılar tarafından çok sevilmektedir. Böceğin bu şekerli artığı arılar tarafından toplanır. Bu şekerli maddeyi bulunduran ağaçlara halk arasında balsıra ağaçları denilir. Balsıra ağaçlarında böcekler ağaç gövdelerinin toprak seviyesindeki kısımlarında yumurtlar ve doğan yavrular ağaca ağır ağır ve çamın özsuyunu emerek tırmanırlar. Kışın sert geçtiği yıllarda öldüklerinden, arıcılar, böyle durumlarda, böceğin kışın içinde biriktiği mumu bol olduğu bölgelerden toplayarak kendi bölgelerine götürürler ve soğuktan korumak için üzerini çalı çırpı ile örterek bırakırlar. Bu işlem en geç kış mumunun sağlam kaldığı Nisan ayında yapılmalıdır. Aksi takdirde, böcekler yolculuğa dayanamaz ve Mayıs ayındaki üreme mevsimi tehlikeye atılmış olur.

Arıcıların arı kovanlarını (arıların çam balı üretmesi için) çama bırakırken dikkat ettikleri bir başka husus, bu bölgede arıları fazla tutmamaktır. Zira balı böcek salgısından üreten arılar, çamda çok uzun süre bırakılırsa (en fazla 20 gün), çam ağaçlarında o sırada polen olmadığından, ana arı zamanla yumurtlamayı azaltır. Bu nedenle kovan zayıflar. Ana arının üretkenliğini muhafaza etmek için hazır polen kekleri verme uygulaması da yaygınlaşmaktadır. Öte yandan, çam balı üretilmek isteniyorsa, arının çamı terkedip çiçek polenlerine yönelmemesi için, çevrede fazla çiçek olmaması önemlidir.

Böcek Türkiye'de, Muğla, Aydın, İzmir, Balıkesir, Çanakkale, Antalya illerinin Ege sahil şeridi boyunca, iç bölgelerin ılıman kısımlarına biraz girecek şekilde (Menderes ovasının tamamı ve Denizli'de de bulunur) yaşamaktadır.

Çam balının en önemli özelliği kıvamı bozulmadan veya donmadan yıllarca saklanabilmesidir. Bu nedenle pazarlaması da kolaydır. Rengi çiçek ballarının ekseriyetinden daha koyudur. Besin değeri biraz daha düşük olmakla birlikte, özellikle boğaz rahatsızlıklarına çok iyi gelir. Çam balı, kristalizasyona dayanıklılığı ve önleyici özelliği ile, tıpta ve gıda sektöründe çeşitli ürünlerde (örneğin dondurmalarda) bir doğal katkı maddesi olarak geniş bir kullanım alanına ve önemli ihracat potansiyeline sahip bir üründür.

Karışık bal ve sahte bal
Piyasada bazen, müstahsilin elindeki bal stoklarını dengelemek için, çiçek balına çam balı karıştırması hadisesi görülmektedir. Çam balının biraz daha ucuz olması da bu tür yönelimleri teşvik edebilmektedir.

Çiçek balına, çam balı (veya başka bir farklı ürün) karıştırılmamış olduğunu anlamak için, bir kaşık bal az bir miktar suda eritilerek, üzerine saf alkol (ispirto) damlatılmalıdır. Katıksız çiçek balının bulunduğu suda hiçbir bulanıklık meydana gelmez. Çiçeklerden derlenmemiş ise, yumurta akı kıvamında tortular oluşur.

Kaynakça

Dış bağlantılar

 Arıcılık ve bal çeşitleri hakkında genel bilgiler

Bal

Çam balı


Nezihe Viranyalı (1925, Vidin – 22 Aralık 2004, İstanbul), ilk Türk kadın pilotlardan birisidir.

Sabiha Gökçen tarafından yetiştirilen dört kadın pilotun (diğerleri Edibe Subaşı, Yıldız Eruçman ve Sahavet Karapars) sonuncusudur. Planörle 100 saatten fazla, motorlu uçaklarla 2800 saatten fazla uçuş yaptı, 1950'li yıllarda yurtdışında hava akrobasi gösterilerinde Türkiye'yi temsil etti. Gösterilerde daha çok paraşütle atlama gerçekleştirdi.

Yaşamı
1925'te Bulgaristan'ın Vidin şehrinde dünyaya geldi. İlk Türk kadın pilot Sabiha Gökçen'in uçakla Balkanlar'ı gezmesinden ve Sofya'da yaptığı gösterilerden çok etkilenerek Türkiye'ye geldi. Türkkuşu Eğitim Merkezi'ne kaydoldu. Sabiha Gökçen tarafından yetiştirildi. Yaz aylarında İnönü kamplarına giderek Emrullah Ali Yıldız'dan eğitim aldı. Önce paraşütçülük, daha sonra planör ve pilot brövesi aldı.
1955 yılında Hollanda ve Almanya'da yapılan uluslararası gösterilere paraşütçü olarak katıldı. Havacılık tarihinin efsanevi pilotu Jacqueline Cochran tarafından ABD'ye davet edilmesi üzerine Tenesse Üniversitesi'ne giderek özel bursla sivil havacılık okulunda eğitim gördü. 1956 yılında Bağdat'ta yapılan uçuş gösterilerine Türkkuşu filosunun pilotu olarak katıldı.

Nezihe Viranyalı, 100'den fazla paraşütle atlayış gerçekleştirdi. Türkkuşu okullarında yüzlerce öğrenci yetiştirdi.  Türk Hava Kurumu'ndan emekli oldu. Planörle 100 saatten fazla, motorlu uçaklarla 2800 saatten fazla uçuş yaptı. Amerikalı yazar Stuart Kline Türk Havacılık Kronolojisi adlı kitabında yazı ve resimlerle Türkiye'nin ilk kadın pilotlarından Nezihe Viranyalı'ya yer vermiştir.

Hayatının son yıllarını İstanbul'da bir huzurevinde geçiren Viranyalı'nın, kaza sonucu kırılan ayağı ve omzu nedeniyle geçirdiği ameliyatlar sonrasında kangren olan bir bacağı kesildi. 2004 yılında Dünya Gazetesi tarafından kendisine Türk Kadın Onur Ödülü verildi. Bağırsak kanseri olan Viranyalı, 22 Aralık 2004 günü İstanbul'da hayatını kaybetti. Karacaahmet Mezarlığı'nda toprağa verildi.

Neziye Viranyalı, hayatı boyunca Atatürk'ün çizdiği çağdaş Türk kadını modeline uymak için çabaladı. 1940'lı yıllarda Ankara'da ilk özel otomobili olan kadınlardan birisiydi. Buz pateni yapar, akordeon çalardı. Almanca, İngilizce, Bulgarca ve Rusça biliyordu.

Kaynakça

1925 doğumlular
2004 yılında ölenler
Türk kadın pilotlar
Vidin doğumlular
Karacaahmet Mezarlığı'na defnedilenler
Bulgaristan Türkleri

Nezihe Viranyalı


Luis Ramírez de Lucena (c. 1465 – c. 1530) was a Spanish chess player who published the first extant chess book. He is believed to be the son of humanist writer and diplomat Juan de Lucena.

Book

Lucena wrote the oldest surviving printed book on chess, Repetición de Amores y Arte de Ajedrez con CL [150] Juegos de Partido ("Repetition of Love and the Art of Playing Chess with 150 Games"), published in Salamanca around 1497. The book includes analysis of eleven chess openings but also contains many elementary errors that led chess historian H. J. R. Murray to suggest that it was prepared in a hurry. The book was written when the rules of chess were taking their modern form (see origins of modern chess), and some of the 150 positions in the book are of the old game and some of the new. Fewer than a dozen copies of the book exist.

Commentators have suggested that much of the material was copied from Francesc Vicent's now-lost 1495 work Libre dels jochs partits dels schacs en nombre de 100.

The Lucena position is named after him, even though it does not appear in his book. (It was first published in 1634 by Alessandro Salvio.) The smothered mate (later named Philidor's legacy) is in the book.

References

Sources

External links

 Lucena's book online
 Berliner Schach-Erinnerungen nebst den Spielen des Greco und Lucena by Baron von der Lasa, Leipzig 1859 - includes German translation and commentary on Lucena's work

Converts to Roman Catholicism from Judaism
Spanish people of Jewish descent
Spanish chess players
Spanish chess writers
Spanish Roman Catholics
1460s births
1530s deaths
15th century in chess
University of Salamanca alumni
People from Lucena, Córdoba

Luis Ramírez de Lucena


Agathis corbassonii er tegund af barrtrjám sem vex á Nýju-Kaledóníu. Það er nú oftast talið til A. moorei.

Tilvísanir

Gymnosperm Database. Agathis corbassonii. Downloaded on 10 July 2007.
Whitmore, T. C. (1980). A monograph of Agathis. Pl. Syst. Evol. 135: 41–69.

Barrtré

Agathis corbassonii


كنيسة القديس أندرو (شارع أنجلترا 50 سوككو، طنجة، المغرب) هي كنيسة أنجليكانية شُيدت سنة 1905.

التاريخ
تبرُع السلطان الحسن الأول بن محمد سنة 1880 بقطعة أرضية لبناء كنيسة أنجليكانية صغيرة بمدينة طنجة. بعد بناء الكنيسة تبين أنها لا تكفي لعدد المصلين الوافدين، بُنيت كنيسة من جديد سنة 1894 حيث حملت اسم كنيسة القديس أندرو.

من بين الأشخاص الذين تم دفنهم بمقبرة الكنيسة هي إيملي كييان ؛ و هي أول من أدخل التلقيح إلى المملكة المغربية.

الهندسة المعمارية
تستوحي كنيسة القديس أندرو عناصرها المعمارية والزخرفية من الطراز العربي الإسلامي. فقد بني برج الأجراس على شاكلة صوامع المساجد المغربية حيث يقدم تصميما مربعا مزينا في قاعدته بالزليج والجبص. أقواس الأبواب والنوافذ دائرية أو مكسورة في حين صنع إفريز الباب الرئيسي من الخشب المزخرف في الداخل. تتحدد الأروقة بواسطة أعمدة مزدوجة من الرخام؛ ويتم الولوج إلى خورس الكنيسة بواسطة عقد متجاوز مزخرف في جزئه العلوي بأشكال نباتية يؤطرها شريط من الكتابة الكوفية تمثل نصا من الإنجيل.

تمت تغطية الكنيسة بالقرميد الأخضر وألبس سقفها بالخشب المصبوغ. وقد زينت الحجرة المتواجدة وراء المذبح بتخريم من الجص كتب عليه شعار النصريين: «لا ناصر إلا الله».

مدافن بارزة
يوجد في ساحة الكنيسة قبور عدد من الشخصيات البارزة:

 السير هاري ماكلين (1848-1920) جندي وقائد الجيش المغربي.
 بول لوند (1915-1966)سب، رجل عصابات بريطاني وصديق ويليام بوروز.
 والتر بيرتون هاريس (1866-1933) دبلوماسي وصحفي ومؤلف بريطاني.
 كلير دي ميناس وزوجها الثاني القائد روي هويل آر إن. كانت كلود ماري فينسندونسب، ابنتها من زواجها الأولسب، الزوجة الثالثة للورانس دوريل.
 كريستوفر جيبس (1938-2018) تاجر وجامع تحفسب، له الفضل في اختراع لندن المتأرجحة.

مراجع

 Guildhall Library

وصلات خارجية
 planetware.com/tangier
 كنيسة القديس أندرو من موقع قنطرة

كنائس اكتمل بناؤها في عام 1894
كنائس طنجة
كنائس في المغرب
مواقع جذب سياحي في طنجة
عمارة القرن 19 في المغرب

كنيسة القديس أندرو (طنجة)


Der Dreifaltigkeits-Friedhof, auch Dreifaltigkeitskirchhof IV, ist ein evangelischer Friedhof in Berlin. Er liegt an der Paul-Schneider-Straße 46/50 im Ortsteil Lankwitz des Bezirks Steglitz-Zehlendorf von Berlin, unmittelbar angrenzend an den Gemeindepark Lankwitz.

Der Dreifaltigkeits-Friedhof verfügt über eine Fläche von 17.000 m², eine Kapelle und einen separaten Glockenturm. Er hat eine gestreckte Form, rechts und links des zur Kapelle führenden Mittelwegs erstrecken sich die Grabfelder. Eine Anlage für die Opfer von Krieg und Gewaltherrschaft mit 37 Einzelgräbern befindet sich auf dem Friedhof, der knapp 2.400 Grabstellen umfasst.

Über die weniger als 100 Meter entfernte Bushaltestelle Paul-Schneider-Straße (Bus 181 und 283) ist der Friedhof an den öffentlichen Personennahverkehr angeschlossen.

Geschichte

1899 erwarb die Dreifaltigkeitsgemeinde das sechs Morgen große Grundstück an der damaligen Straße 16 des Lankwitzer Bebauungsplans, die ab 1906 Lutherstraße hieß und seit 1961 Paul-Schneider-Straße heißt. 1902 wurde die Kapelle vom Architekten Otto Kuhlmann errichtet. 1903 wurde der Friedhof eröffnet, es fand die erste Beerdigung statt.

Seit den 1950er Jahren steht der Friedhof unter gemeinsamer Verwaltung der drei evangelischen Kirchengemeinden Paul-Schneider, Dreifaltigkeit und Luther (Friedhofsverwaltung der Evangelischen Kirchengemeinden Lankwitz und Luther) und wird inzwischen von der gemeinsamen Friedhofskommission (Friedhofskommission der Evangelischen Kirchengemeinden Lankwitz und Luther) getragen.

Weblinks

 Evangelische Friedhöfe in Berlin-Lankwitz
 2007 – Bilder von Spaziergängen auf dem Dreifaltigkeits-Friedhof IV (ev.)
 Dreifaltigkeits-Friedhof IV auf der Webpräsenz DenkFried, einer Seite zum Andenken und Gedenken an die Kriegstoten zweier Weltkriege

Einzelnachweise

Friedhof im Bezirk Steglitz-Zehlendorf
Berlin-Lankwitz
Berlin
Friedhof in Europa
Protestantismus in Berlin

Dreifaltigkeits-Friedhof (Berlin-Lankwitz)


مها محمد (3 أبريل 1980  -)، مذيعة وممثلة كويتية.

عن حياتها
بدأت بتقديم البرامج في تلفزيون الكويت عام 2001 ومن خلالها قدمت برامج منوعة عديدة على القناة كونت لها شهرة ، كما أن لها تجربة في برامج الكاميرا الخفية من خلال برنامج «صادوة 2» بمشاركة الممثل يعقوب عبد الله في عام 2003، خاضت للمرة الأولى تجربة التمثيل في عام 2006 وذلك من خلال مسرحية «أمل في مملكة النمل» مع الممثلة لمياء طارق، في عام 2009 أجرت عمليات جراحية لأنفها ووجها أسفرت عن تغيير شكلها بالكامل لأمر الذي أثار استياء وسائل الإعلام وانتقادها بشكل لاذع

ابتعادها عن تقديم البرامج واتجاها للتمثيل
بعدما فقدت حلمها الإعلامي بسبب التحرشات التي تعرضت لها عندما كانت تعمل مذيعة، مما دفعها إلى الابتعاد عن هذا المجال والاتجاه للتمثيل التي وصفته بأنه «أقل شراسة ووطأة على الصعيد الأخلاقي» وأضافت أنها رفضت تحرش أحد المسؤولين بها، وقالت له بالحرف الواحد: «أضحي بحلمي.. ولا أضحي بنفسي»، فاستشاط غضبا وحاربني بسياسة «التطفيش»، حتى هجرت الإعلام واتجهت إلى التمثيل الذي واجهت فيه الأشرار لكنهم أقل من الإعلام. وأضافت «للأسف.. أن من يدفع بعض المسؤولين لمساومة المذيعة أو الفنانة هو وجود نماذج لفتيات يقدمن التنازلات بدافع الحاجة للمال أو الشهرة، هؤلاء شوهن صورة العاملات في الحقلين الإعلامي والفني ويجب التصدي لهن»، واستدركت «الحمد لله أنا لدي المال والشهرة.. ولست في حاجة للتنازلات»  وأوضحت أنها رفضت كثيرا من المسلسلات كبطولة مطلقة بسبب جرأة الأدوار التي تضمنتها، وقالت لن أقبل الظهور بدور الزوجة الخائنة أو اللعوب أو مدمنة المخدرات مراعاة لأولادي، فأنا لا أريد لأصدقائهم أن يجرحوهم بالكلام.

نجاتها من الإختطاف
عام 2010 نجت من عملية اختطاف على يد مجهول انتحل شخصية المنتج الكويتي عادل المسيليم، طلب مني لقاءه في مكتبه الخاص للاتفاق على مسلسل.وقالت: في اليوم التالي وفي طريقي إلى العنوان اتصلت بالمنتج المسيليم لمزيد من التأكيد، ففوجئت به يخبرني بأنه لا يعلم شيئا عن الأمر، فأدركت أنني كنت سأقع ضحية لمحاولة اختطاف وخداع، وقمت على الفور بتبليغ الشرطة للتحقق من العنوان الذي تبيّن لاحقا بأنه كان لشقة مفروشة.

تعرضها لوعكة صحية
تعرضت لوعكة صحية كادت تودي بحياتها ثمنا للتشخيص الطبي الخطأ في الكويت فمجرد التهاب بسيط ومزمن تحول إلى مرض عضال لكنها تماثلت للشفاء بعد عودتها من رحلتها العلاجية في أمريكا

حياتها الأسرية
تزوجتت للمرة الأولى وانفصلت عن زوجها رزقت منه بولدين هما «عبد الله» و«فيصل» وابنة صغيرة توفيت هي صغيرة، في ديسمبر 2016 تزوجت للمرة الثانية من رجل أعمال أردني يدعى «محمد عادل» في حفل خاص حضره عدد محدود من الأصدقاء والأقارب في أكتوبر 2018رزقت بابنة اسمتها «مها»

الخلاف مع مريم حسين والصلح
شرارة الخلاف كانت بعدما سجلت في حسابها على (سناب شات) فيديو مع الفنان حسين المنصور عن رأيهم حول الألقاب التي تُمنح للممثلات، ولم يكونوا يقصدونها بتاتاً، وموضوعهم مختلف عما اعتقده البعض، وكان ذلك قبل أن تحوز هي أحد الألقاب، وبعدها ركبوا فيديو على كلامنا ليبدو الأمر وكأننا نعلق على أنها أخذت اللقب، وللأمانة نحن (مو صوبها، ولا ندري عنها)»!
تفاجئت بعدها بأنها أساءت لها من خلال حسابها على الموقع ذاته، وسجلت كلاماً في حقيها يندرج تحت جريمة (السبّ والقذف)، الأمر الذي لجأت من خلاله إلى القضاء»  أشيع بعدها بأنها وراء سحب جواز مريم مفي أبوظبي الأمر الذي أثار الاستغراب على مواقع التواصل الاجتماعي فكيف يسحب الجواز من مريم في حين أنها متواجدة بالولايات المتحدة، وأضافت مها أنها لكونها متعاطفة مع الاخيرة فسحبت الدعوى المقامة منها ضدها وتم تسليمها جوازها فور وصولها الإمارات كما نفت مها أن تكون السبب في منع دخول مريم للكويت، ووجهت المذيعة مها محمد رسالة للفنانة مريم حسين وقالت فيها: "لا تتسرعي ولا تسمعي من أذن واحدة فيه تليفون تقدري أن تستوعبي الموضوع قبل القيام بردح وذم على العامة".

الهجوم عليها ببدايتها
قالت إنها بعد اطلالتها الأولى عبر الشاشة في برنامج «صادوه 2» في رمضان 2003، خرجت إلى السوق لشراء ملابس العيد لأبنائها، ولم يخطر ببالها حينها انها باتة مشهورة ومعروفة بين الناس، ولكنها فوجئت بهجوم شبابي مزعج عليّ في اروقة المجمع التجاري «صراخ واستعباط» ما جعلنها «تنحاش» وتغطي وجهها بيدّي إلى ان انتهى الموضوع بتدخل من الشرطة التي كانت متواجدة في المجمع وفي نوفمبر 2018 رزقت بابنتها الثالثة والتي اسمتها على اسمها «مها»

أعمالها

من المسلسلات

من المسرحيات

روابط خارجية

المراجع

أشخاص على قيد الحياة
مذيعات كويتيات
ممثلات كويتيات
مواليد 1400 هـ
مواليد 1980

مها محمد


Le Musée du Montréal juif est un musée sur l'histoire des juifs à Montréal, fondé en 2010 par Zev Moses comme musée en ligne et en plein air.

En 2016, le musée déménage dans un espace dans l'édifice Vineberg à 4040, boulevard Saint-Laurent dans l'ancien quartier juif de Montréal, à l'intersection de l'avenue Duluth .

En juin 2020, le musée est obligé de déménager. En août 2021, il trouve un nouvel espace plus au nord, dans le même quartier, à proximité du Parc du Portugal. Près d'un an plus tard, en juin 2022, il annonce avoir trouvé un autre emplacement encore plus au nord sur le boulevard Saint-Laurent dans le Mile End, dans l'ancien kiosque à journaux et restaurant Lux.

Notes et références

Articles connexes
Musée de l'Holocauste Montréal

Histoire des Juifs au Québec
Juif
Judaïsme à Montréal
Musée juif au Canada
Le Plateau-Mont-Royal
Musée virtuel

Musée du Montréal juif


Joseph R. Brennan (* 15. November 1900 in Brooklyn, New York; † 10. Mai 1989 in New York) war ein US-amerikanischer Basketballspieler, der in 17 Jahren als Profi zu den besten Spielern der frühen US-Ligen dieses Sports gezählt wurde. Brennan war zwischen 1919 und 1936 als Athlet für mindestens sechs Mannschaften in vier verschiedenen Ligen aktiv, teilweise gleichzeitig. Er errang verschiedene Meistertitel sowie Auszeichnungen als bester Korbjäger. 1975 wurde Brennan für seine Karriereleistung in die Naismith Memorial Basketball Hall of Fame aufgenommen.

Karriere
Joseph R. Brennan wechselte im Jahr 1919 direkt von der High School zu einem Profiteam. Der Mannschaft der Brooklyn Visitations blieb er zeit seiner Karriere treu und spielte dort durchgängig bis 1936. Mit den Visitations gewann er drei Mal die Meisterschaft der American Basketball League, 1929 sowie 1931 und 1935. In der Metropolitan Basketball League, in der die Visitations vor 1927 antraten, wurde Brennan als Leistungsträger der Mannschaft 1922 bester Korbjäger der Saison.

Nach seinem Rücktritt vom aktiven Sport 1936 wechselte Brennan als Trainer zu Collegemannschaften. Wie als Spieler gelang es ihm auch als Trainer, jede Spielzeit seiner Karriere mit einer positiven Bilanz von Siegen zu Niederlagen zu beenden. Seine erfolgreichste Zeit als Trainer erlebte Brennan von 1941 bis 1948 am St. Francis College. In sieben Jahren führte er die Mannschaft zu einer Gesamtbilanz von 96 Siegen bei 46 Niederlagen.

Sonstiges
Ein Höhepunkt in Brennans Spielerkarriere war ein Sieg der Brooklyn Visitations gegen die Original Celtics im Jahr 1925. Zu dieser Zeit galten die Celtics als nahezu unbezwingbar und Brennan verzeichnete in der Partie den entscheidenden Korberfolg zu Spielende.

Bereits während seiner Spielerlaufbahn war Brennan nebenberuflich als Bankkaufmann tätig. Nach seiner Trainerkarriere wurde er Direktor einer Bank in Brooklyn.

Siehe auch
 Liste der Mitglieder der Naismith Memorial Basketball Hall of Fame

Weblinks
 Joe Brenann in der Naismith Memorial Basketball Hall of Fame Auf: Hoophall-Website; Springfield, MA, 2017. Abgerufen am 8. November 2017 (in Englisch).

Einzelnachweise

Mitglied der Naismith Memorial Basketball Hall of Fame
Basketballspieler (Vereinigte Staaten)
US-Amerikaner
Geboren 1900
Gestorben 1989
Mann

Joseph R. Brennan


هي مدينة سعودية تقع في منطقة الرياض وتقع غرب العاصمة ويحدها من الشمال طريق الحجاز القديم المتجه لـ محافظة الدوادمي ومن الجنوب قرية فيضة المفص ومن الشرق جبال الصفراء (صفراء الحفيرة)والقرنة ومن الغرب قرية عريدة وما جاورها, وترتبط أدارياَ ب محافظة الدوادمي، وتبعد عن مدينة الدوادمي 48 كم باتجاه الجنوب الشرقي، وتبعد عن طريق الحجاز القديم 24 كم باتجاه الجنوب، وتبعد عن طريق الحجاز السريع 75 كم باتجاه الشمال وأصبحت الحفيرة الآن مدينة حيوية لوقوعها على الطريق المزدوج الذي يربط بمحافظة والمدن التابعة لها بطريق الحجاز السريع. وتضم الحفيرة العديد من المرافق الحكومية التجارية، ويتبع الحفيرة عدد من الهجر الصغيرة مثل الحافير ورفايع الدسم وغيرها.

التأسيس والاهمية
الحفيرة كانت في القديم مورد ماء جاهلى للبادية، وهي أول هجره تأسست لقبيلة الدعاجين ومن أقدم هجر قبيلة عتيبة  ومؤسسها هو الأمير مناحي بن خالد بن حشر الهيضل.
وقد ورد ذكر الحفيرة عند الكثير من المؤرخين وعدوها من ضمن هجر عتيبة عند تأسيس الهجر واستيطان البادية منهم الزامل والمانع وخالد الفرج وأمين الريحاني والزركلي، وتميز الحفيرة بقربها من محافظة الدوادمي التي لاتبعد عنها سوى 48 كم وكذلك فإنها لاتبعد عن محافظة القويعية سوى 80 كم تقريبا وكذلك توسطها في منطقة الرياض حيث انها لاتبعد عن العاصمة إلا 200 كم تقريباً، ويوجد في الحفيرة بعض أماكن التعدين في منطقة الردينيات التابعة للحفيرة.

الموقع الجغرافي
تقع الحفيرة في عالـية نجد وتبعد عن العاصمة الرياض 220 كيلو تقريباً من جهة الغرب وتعد نقطة توقف رئيسية على طريق (الدوادمي ـ الرياض المزدوج).

الموقع الجيولوجي
تقع الحفيرة على الحافة الشرقية لمنطقة الدرع العربي وتكويناته ال جيولوجية قبل الكمبري ،فهي تنقسم إلى قسمين رئيسيين

 الدرع العربي : ذو الصخور النارية والمتحولة ويشمل أغلب أراضي الحفيرة.
 الرف العربي : ذو الصخور الرسوبية المترسبة بفعل الغمر البحري ويشمل جزء من غرب الحفيرة مايعرف صفراء الحفيرة

التضاريس
يبلغ ارتفاع الحفيرة عن سطح البحر 960 م تقريباً، وسطحها منبسط بشكل عام، وفيه بعض النتوءات الصخرية وبعض الجبال، وينحدر بانحدار سطح المملكة بشكل عام نحو الشرق والشمال الشرقي، حيث تتجه جميع الأودية باتجاه الشرق والشمال الشرقي، وتتميز الحفيرة بتباين تضاريسها نوعاً ما:
 الجهة الشمالية أغلبها ارض منبسطة ومستوية إلى طريق الحجاز القديم مثل الربوة وبها بعض الاودية مثل وادي حميان.
 الجهة الجنوبية منها بها تكوينات صخرية بسيطة مثل حشة الحفيرة وبعض الجبال الصغيرة والاودية.
 الجهة الشرقية منها توجد جبل شداد وجبل ومسامة وههما من المعالم المشهورة بالمنطقة ويقع شرق منهما صفراء الحفيرة ذات التكوين الرسوبي، وتوجد في الجهة الشرقية الشماية من الحفيرة منطقة اللهدة وهي خارج الدرع العربي وتتميز اللهدة بانها ارض خصبه وزراعية وتتوفر فيها المياه الجوفية والجزء الشمالي من اللهدة هو جزء من منطقة القرنة ويتبع للحفيرة ويوجد به مشاريع مياه الحفيرة والدوادمي.
 الجهة الغربية من ارض منبسطة تقريباً وتخللها بعض النتوءات الصخرية والجبال الصغيرة ذات التكوين الناري.

وموقع الحفيرة من حيث البناء البيولوجي تقع في الدرع العربي ماعدا جزء بسيط منها في الجانب الشمالي الشرقي،

  ومن أشهر الأودية
 وادي جهام وهو ووادي كبير وله عدة روافد وينحدر سيله من الغرب متجها إلى الحفيرة ويمر بوسطها ليقسمها إلى جزئين ويتعداها متجه للشرق ليلتقي ب وادي العبسة ووادي الضحوي،
 وادي حميان الذي يبعد عن الحفيرة 10 كم تقريبا باتجاه الشمال وينحدر مجراه من الغرب باتجاه صفراء الحفيرة شرقا،
 وادي الحسرج الذي يقع جنوب الحفيرة وغير ذلك من الاودية الأخرى

المناخ وأهم النباتات
مناخ الحفيرة كسائر مناخ المنطقة فهو مناخ قاري حار صيفاً تصل درجة الحرارة فيه إلى 44 درجة وبارد شتاءً تصل درجة الحرارة إلى 4 درجات وذلك لوقوعها في هضبة نجد
ومن أهم النباتات التي تكثر بالحفيرة.
 نباتات دائمة : مثل الرمث، الإثل، الطلح، العشرة، السلم وغيرها من النباتات المنتشرة بالمنطقة
 النباتات الموسمية في فصل الأمطار مثل : الحواء، الربلة، الثمام، النصي، النقيع، العجلة،، وغيرها
ومن النباتات الفطرية التي تنمو عقب سقوط الأمطار في الموسم الفقع الكمأة وغيرها

الآثار والتراث

 بالحفيرة آثار لبيوت طينية قديمة وبعض الآبار القديمة التي لا زالت قائمة،

من تاريخ الحفيرة

الحفيرة من أوائل هجر البادية وهي أول هجرة لقبيلة الدعاجين ومن أقدم هجر قبيلة عتيبة فقد استوطن بها الكثير من قبيلة الدعاجين ومن قبيلة عتيبة في السابق قبل التوسع في الهجرة حيث كانت من أقدم هجر عتيبة وقد شارك أهل الحفيرة على رأس أميرها مناحي بن خالد الهيضل في حروب توحيد هذه البلاد مثل معركة البكيرية ومعركة الشنانة ومعركة روضة مهنا ومعركة الطرفية ومعركة جراب وفتح حائل ومعركة السبلة والدبدبه والرغامة ومغزا الجنوب

الحفيرة الآن

تعتبر الحفيرة الآن من أكبر الهجر في محافظة الدوادمي وتكاد تكون فيها الخدمات مكتملة ويوجد فها مدارس للبنين والبنات لجميع المراحل ويوجد بها مركز صحي كبير يحوي عيادات تخصصية، ويوجد فيها مكتب للبلدية، ومكتب للبريد، وخدمات هاتفية متكاملة، وخدمات تجارية ,وتقع الحفيرة على طريق حيوي مزدوج يربط محافظة الدوادمي وتوابعها بطريق الحجاز السريع ويسكنها الآن عدد كبير من قبيلة الدعاجين وقبيلة عتيبة....

أمراء الحفيرة
 الأمير مناحي بن خالد بن حشر الهيضل ( منذ التأسيس(1338هـ) - إلى 1358هـ)
 الأمير سجدي بن مناحي بن خالد الهيضل ( من 1358 - إلى 1388هـ )
 الأمير مناحي بن سجدي بن مناحي الهيضل ( من 1388 - إلى 1422هـ)
 الأمير سجدي بن مناحي بن سجدي الهيضل( من 1422هـ - إلى الآن )

أئمة جامع الحفيرة
 عبد الله بن عبد الرحمن الصميت .
 إبراهيم بن مزيعل
 إبراهيم الجوعي
 عبد الله بن عبد الكريم
 عبد الرحمن بن سبيهين
 محمد السبيعي
 عبد الرحمن بن عبد الله أبو بكر
 إبراهيم أبوزيد
 عبد الرحمن بن عبد الله أبو بكر ( للمرة الثانية)
 عبد المحسن العصيمي

وصلات خارجية
 مدارس الحفيرة

المصادر

بوابات

تصنيفات

انظر أيضاً

 السكران
عالية نجد
قرى منطقة الرياض
محافظة الدوادمي
أماكن مأهولة في منطقة الرياض

الحفيرة


Adrian Wiener (n. , Arad, România) este un senator român, ales în 2016.

În 2017, a depus un proiect de lege la Senat care prevede limitarea acizilor grași trans-nesaturați la maxim 2g per 100g de grăsimi. Parlamentul a adoptat proiectul pe 28 iulie 2020, iar în data de 19 august a aceluiași an, Președintele Klaus Iohannis l-a promulgat. Legea a intrat în vigoare pe 1 aprilie 2021, iar producătorii care nu se vor conforma vor risca amenzi între 10.000 și 30.000 de lei.

Weiener este de origine evreiască după tatăl său, care s-a convertit la religia creștin-ortodoxă.

Vezi și
 Legislatura 2016-2020 (Senat)
 Parlamentul României

Note

Legături externe
 Activitatea parlamentară

Politicieni români în viață
Senatori români 2016-2020
Membri ai Uniunii Salvați România
Medici români în viață
Deputați români 2020-2024
Evrei români
Arădeni

Adrian Wiener


Hercyna (en grec ancien Ερκύνα) est une nymphe de la mythologie romaine.

Biographie

Fille de Trophonios et compagne de Perséphone, elle est à l'origine du culte de Cérès à Lébadée.

Notes et références

Voir aussi
 Hercyna (rivière)

Liens externes

Nymphe de la mythologie romaine

Hercyna (mythologie)