In vector calculus, a conservative vector field is a vector field that is the gradient of some function. A conservative vector field has the property that its line integral is path independent; the choice of any path between two points does not change the value of the line integral. Path independence of the line integral is equivalent to the vector field under the line integral being conservative. A conservative vector field is also irrotational; in three dimensions, this means that it has vanishing curl. An irrotational vector field is necessarily conservative provided that the domain is simply connected.

Conservative vector fields appear naturally in mechanics: They are vector fields representing forces of physical systems in which energy is conserved. For a conservative system, the work done in moving along a path in a configuration space depends on only the endpoints of the path, so it is possible to define potential energy that is independent of the actual path taken.

Informal treatment

In a two- and three-dimensional space, there is an ambiguity in taking an integral between two points as there are infinitely many paths between the two points—apart from the straight line formed between the two points, one could choose a curved path of greater length as shown in the figure. Therefore, in general, the value of the integral depends on the path taken. However, in the special case of a conservative vector field, the value of the integral is independent of the path taken, which can be thought of as a large-scale cancellation of all elements  that don't have a component along the straight line between the two points. To visualize this, imagine two people climbing a cliff; one decides to scale the cliff by going vertically up it, and the second decides to walk along a winding path that is longer in length than the height of the cliff, but at only a small angle to the horizontal. Although the two hikers have taken different routes to get up to the top of the cliff, at the top, they will have both gained the same amount of gravitational potential energy. This is because a gravitational field is conservative.

Intuitive explanation

M. C. Escher's lithograph print Ascending and Descending illustrates a non-conservative vector field, impossibly made to appear to be the gradient of the varying height above ground (gravitational potential) as one moves along the staircase. The force field experienced by the one moving on the staircase is non-conservative in that one can return to the starting point while ascending more than one descends or vice versa, resulting in nonzero work done by gravity. On a real staircase, the height above the ground is a scalar potential field: one has to go upward exactly as much as one goes downward in order to return to the same place, in which case the work by gravity totals to zero. This suggests path-independence of work done on the staircase; equivalently, the force field experienced is conservative (see the later section: Path independence and conservative vector field). The situation depicted in the print is impossible.

Definition

A vector field , where  is an open subset of , is said to be conservative if and only if there exists a  (continuously differentiable) scalar field  on  such that

Here,  denotes the gradient of . Since  is continuously differentiable,  is continuous. When the equation above holds,  is called a scalar potential for .

The fundamental theorem of vector calculus states that any vector field can be expressed as the sum of a conservative vector field and a solenoidal field.

Path independence and conservative vector field

Path independence
A line integral of a vector field  is said to be path-independent if it depends on only two integral path endpoints regardless of which path between them is chosen:

for any pair of integral paths  and  between a given pair of path endpoints in .

The path independence is also equivalently expressed as

for any piecewise smooth closed path  in  where the two endpoints are coincident. Two expressions are equivalent since any closed path  can be made by two path;  from an endpoint  to another endpoint , and  from  to , so

where  is the reverse of  and the last equality holds due to the path independence

Conservative vector field
A key property of a conservative vector field  is that its integral along a path depends on only the endpoints of that path, not the particular route taken. In other words, if it is a conservative vector field, then its line integral is path-independent. Suppose that  for some  (continuously differentiable) scalar field  over  as an open subset of  (so  is a conservative vector field that is continuous) and  is a differentiable path (i.e., it can be parameterized by a differentiable function) in  with an initial point  and a terminal point . Then the gradient theorem (also called fundamental theorem of calculus for line integrals) states that

This holds as a consequence of the definition of a line integral, the chain rule, and the second fundamental theorem of calculus.  in the line integral is an exact differential for an orthogonal coordinate system (e.g., Cartesian, cylindrical, or spherical coordinates). Since the gradient theorem is applicable for a differentiable path, the path independence of a conservative vector field over piecewise-differential curves is also proved by the proof per differentiable curve component.

So far it has been proven that a conservative vector field  is line integral path-independent. Conversely, if a continuous vector field  is (line integral) path-independent, then it is a conservative vector field, so the following biconditional statement holds:

The proof of this converse statement is the following.

 is a continuous vector field which line integral is path-independent. Then, let's make a function  defined as

over an arbitrary path between a chosen starting point  and an arbitrary point . Since it is path-independent, it depends on only  and  regardless of which path between these points is chosen.

Let's choose the path shown in the left of the right figure where a 2-dimensional Cartesian coordinate system is used. The second segment of this path is parallel to the  axis so there is no change along the  axis. The line integral along this path is

By the path independence, its partial derivative with respect to  (for  to have partial derivatives,  needs to be continuous.) is

since  and  are independent to each other. Let's express  as  where  and  are unit vectors along the  and  axes respectively, then, since ,

where the last equality is from the second fundamental theorem of calculus.

A similar approach for the line integral path shown in the right of the right figure results in  so

is proved for the 2-dimensional Cartesian coordinate system. This proof method can be straightforwardly expanded to a higher dimensional orthogonal coordinate system (e.g., a 3-dimensional spherical coordinate system) so the converse statement is proved. Another proof is found here as the converse of the gradient theorem.

Irrotational vector fields

Let  (3-dimensional space), and let  be a  (continuously differentiable) vector field, with an open subset  of . Then  is called irrotational if and only if its curl is  everywhere in , i.e., if

For this reason, such vector fields are sometimes referred to as curl-free vector fields or curl-less vector fields. They are also referred to as longitudinal vector fields.

It is an identity of vector calculus that for any  (continuously differentiable up to the 2nd derivative) scalar field  on , we have

Therefore, every  conservative vector field in  is also an irrotational vector field in . This result can be easily proved by expressing  in a Cartesian coordinate system with Schwarz's theorem (also called Clairaut's theorem on equality of mixed partials).

Provided that  is a simply connected open space (roughly speaking, a single piece open space without a hole within it), the converse of this is also true: Every irrotational vector field in a simply connected open space  is a  conservative vector field in .

The above statement is not true in general if  is not simply connected. Let  be  with removing all coordinates on the -axis (so not a simply connected space), i.e., . Now, define a vector field  on  by

Then  has zero curl everywhere in  ( at everywhere in ), i.e.,  is irrotational. However, the circulation of  around the unit circle in the -plane is ; in polar coordinates, , so the integral over the unit circle is

Therefore,  does not have the path-independence property discussed above so is not conservative even if  since  where  is defined is not a simply connected open space.

Say again, in a simply connected open region, an irrotational vector field  has the path-independence property (so  as conservative). This can be proved directly by using Stokes' theorem,for any smooth oriented surface  which boundary is a simple closed path . So, it is concluded that In a simply connected open region, any  vector field that has the path-independence property (so it is a conservative vector field.) must also be irrotational and vise versa.

Abstraction
More abstractly, in the presence of a Riemannian metric, vector fields correspond to differential . The conservative vector fields correspond to the exact , that is, to the forms which are the exterior derivative  of a function (scalar field)  on . The irrotational vector fields correspond to the closed , that is, to the   such that . As  any exact form is closed, so any conservative vector field is irrotational. Conversely, all closed  are exact if  is simply connected.

Vorticity

The vorticity  of a vector field can be defined by:

The vorticity of an irrotational field is zero everywhere. Kelvin's circulation theorem states that a fluid that is irrotational in an inviscid flow will remain irrotational. This result can be derived from the vorticity transport equation, obtained by taking the curl of the Navier-Stokes Equations.

For a two-dimensional field, the vorticity acts as a measure of the local rotation of fluid elements. Note that the vorticity does not imply anything about the global behavior of a fluid. It is possible for a fluid that travels in a straight line to have vorticity, and it is possible for a fluid that moves in a circle to be irrotational.

Conservative forces

If the vector field associated to a force  is conservative, then the force is said to be a conservative force.

The most prominent examples of conservative forces are a gravitational force and an electric force associated to an electrostatic field. According to Newton's law of gravitation, a gravitational force  acting on a mass  due to a mass  located at a distance  from , obeys the equation

where  is the gravitational constant and  is a unit vector pointing from  toward . The force of gravity is conservative because , where

is the gravitational potential energy. In other words, the gravitation field  associated with the gravitational force  is the gradient of the gravitation potential  associated with the gravitational potential energy . It can be shown that any vector field of the form  is conservative, provided that  is integrable.

For conservative forces, path independence can be interpreted to mean that the work done in going from a point  to a point  is independent of the moving path chosen (dependent on only the points  and ), and that the work  done in going around a simple closed loop  is :

The total energy of a particle moving under the influence of conservative forces is conserved, in the sense that a loss of potential energy is converted to the equal quantity of kinetic energy, or vice versa.

See also
 Beltrami vector field
 Conservative force
 Conservative system
 Complex lamellar vector field
 Helmholtz decomposition
 Laplacian vector field
 Longitudinal and transverse vector fields
 Solenoidal vector field

References

Further reading

Vector calculus
Force

Conservative vector field


Nova Castilho es un municipio brasileño del estado de São Paulo. Pertenece a la Microrregión de Auriflama.

Localización
Se localiza a una latitud 20º45'47" sur y a una longitud 50º20'35" oeste, estando a una altitud de 420 metros. Su término municipal tiene una extensión de 183,2 km².

Demografía
La ciudad tiene una población de 1.125 habitantes (556 hombres y 569 mujeres) según el censo IBGE de 2010, de los que 746 viven en el medio urbano y 379 en el medio rural.
 Densidad demográfica (hab./km²): 5,39
 Mortalidad infantil hasta 1 año (por mil): 14,28
 Expectativa de vida (años): 72,09
 Tasa de fertilidad (hijos por mujer): 1,94
 Tasa de alfabetización: 86,99%
 Índice de Desarrollo Humano (IDH-M): 0,761
 IDH-M Salario: 0,631
 IDH-M Longevidad: 0,785
 IDH-M Educación: 0,868

Referencias

Enlaces externos

 Sitio oficial de la prefectura

Localidades de São Paulo

Nova Castilho


Çevresel psikoloji, psikolojinin çevre ve insan davranışı arasındaki ilişkiyi inceleyen alt alanıdır. Hem çevre koşullarının insan davranışlarına etkisini, hem de insanların çeşitli eylemlerinin sosyal ve fiziksel çevreye etkisini inceler. Söz konusu olan çevre bir mahalle, ev, ofis, fabrika, okul, çocuk parkı ya da bir sokak olabilir. Psikolojinin diğer alt dalları (sosyal psikoloji, bilişsel psikoloji, okul psikolojisi gibi) ve psikoloji dışındaki uzmanlık alanları (mimarlık, mühendislik, çevre bilimi, eğitim bilimleri, ergonomi, sosyoloji, antropoloji gibi) çevresel psikolojinin gelişimine katkıda bulunur.

Notlar

Çevresel sosyal bilimler

Çevresel psikoloji


Hermann Fischer (* 26. Februar 1922 in Regensburg; † 19. Dezember 2009 in München) war ein deutscher Anglist, Literaturwissenschaftler, Übersetzer und Hochschullehrer.

Leben
Hermann Fischer, Sohn des Vizepräsidenten Ernst Fischer und der Luise geborene Lang, wandte sich nach dem Abitur 1940 am Wilhelmsgymnasium München den Studien der Anglistik und Literaturwissenschaften an den Universitäten München und Bristol zu, 1955 absolvierte er das Staatsexamen, 1957 erfolgte seine Promotion zum Dr. phil. 1962 habilitierte Fischer sich als Privatdozent für das Fach Anglistik in München, 1965 folgte er dem Ruf auf das Ordinariat für anglistische Literaturwissenschaft verbunden mit der Leitung des Instituts für Anglistik an der Wirtschaftshochschule Mannheim, 1987 wurde er emeritiert. Der im gleichen Jahr zum Ehrenvorsitzenden der Gesellschaft für englische Romantik gewählte Hermann Fischer, der seit 1964 mit Eva-Maria geborene Reinhardt verheiratet war, mit der er zwei Söhne hatte, verstarb 2009 im Alter von 87 Jahren.

Hermann Fischers Forschungen umspannten Shakespeares  Dramen, die Dichtung des Barock, die Satire des 17. Jahrhunderts, die Werke der Romantiker und zahlreiche Autoren und Tendenzen des späteren 19. und des 20. Jahrhunderts. Darüber hinaus trat Fischer als Übersetzer englischer Lyrik, Versepik und Literaturkritik hervor.

Publikationen
 Interpretationskommentar zu Shakespeares "Antony and Cleopatra" : (Erster Akt), München, 1957
 Die romantische Verserzählung in England : Versuch einer Gattungsgeschichte, Niemeyer, Tübingen, 1964
 English satirical poetry from Joseph Hall to Percy B. Shelley, Niemeyer, Tübingen, 1970
 Herausgeber und Übersetzer
 Englische Barockgedichte : Englisch und deutsch, Reclam, Stuttgart, 1971
 William Wordsworth, Präludium oder das Reifen eines Dichtergeistes, Reclam, Stuttgart, 1974 ISBN 3150097665.
 Die Grenzgänger : eine Tragödie, Die blaue Eule, Essen, 1992 ISBN 3892064563.

Literatur
 Werner Schuder (Hrsg.): Kürschners Deutscher Gelehrten-Kalender. Band 1, 13. Ausgabe, De Gruyter, Berlin/New York 1980, ISBN 3110074346, Seite 893.
 August Ludwig Degener, Walter Habel: Wer ist wer? Das deutsche Who's who, Band 40, Verlag Schmidt-Römhild, 2001, ISBN 3795020328 bzw. ISBN 9783795020323. Seite 353.

Weblinks

 Nachruf auf Professor (em.) Dr. Hermann Fischer in www.uni-mannheim.de

Einzelnachweise

Anglist
Literaturwissenschaftler
Literatur (Englisch)
Übersetzer aus dem Englischen
Übersetzer ins Deutsche
Hochschullehrer (Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München)
Hochschullehrer (Universität Mannheim)
Deutscher
Geboren 1922
Gestorben 2009
Mann

Hermann Fischer (Anglist)


El tonalismo fue un estilo artístico que surgió durante los años 1880 cuando artistas estadounidenses empezaron pintar paisajes con un tono de atmósfera o neblina. Entre 1880 y 1915, tonos oscuros y neutrales como gris, marrón o azul a menudo dominaron composiciones por artistas asociados con el estilo. Durante los fines de los años 1890, los críticos de arte americanos comenzaron utilizar el término "tonal" para describir estas obras. Dos de los pintores principales de este estilo fueron George Inness y James McNeill Whistler.

A menudo se emplea el término tonalismo para describir los paisajes americanos derivados del estilo Barbizon, que enfatizaron modo y sombra. Finalmente, el tonalismo fue reemplazado con el impresionismo y el modernismo europeo.

Artistas principales

Galería

Referencias

Movimientos pictóricos del siglo XIX
Impresionismo
Pintura de Estados Unidos
Estados Unidos en el siglo XIX

Tonalismo


وامبيسا هي قبيلة هندية في أمريكا الجنوبية تعيش في شمال أنهار مارانيون وسانتياغو، وفي عام 1841 طردوا كل الهنود المتحضرين من الإرساليات المجاورة، وفي عام 1843 قتلوا كل سكان قرية سانتا ماريا بين مصبات أنهار سانتياغو ومورونا، وهم يتميزون بجلدهم الفاتح ولحاهم، حيث ينحدرون هم وقبيلة خيفيرو من النساء الإسبانيات اللاتي سباهن أسلافهم الهنود عند نهب سيفيلا دل أورو عام 1599.

أمريكيون أصليون
إكوادوريون أوروبيون
شعوب أصلية في الأمازون
شعوب أصلية في بيرو
مجموعات عرقية في بيرو

وامبيسا


An Gomesa varicosa in uska species han Liliopsida nga syahan ginhulagway ni John Lindley, ngan ginhatag han pagkayana nga asya nga ngaran ni Mark W. Chase och Norris Hagan Williams. An Gomesa varicosa in nahilalakip ha genus nga Gomesa, ngan familia nga Orchidaceae. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Mga sumpay ha gawas

Gomesa

Gomesa varicosa


Ministerul Afacerilor Interne Republicii Srpska (în sârbă: Министарство унутрашњих послова Републике Српске, Ministarstvo unutrašnjih poslova Republike Srpske; abreviație: МУП РС, MUP RS) este unul din ministerilor ai Guvernului Republicii Srpska care în domeniul serviciului are afacerile interne. Ministrul actual este Dragan Lukač. Organul executiv al ministerului este Poliția Republicii Srpska. Sediul ministerului este în Centrul administrativ al Guvernului în Centrul orașului și Administrația Ministerului este locuită în Starčevica, Banja Luka.

Ministerul efectuează munci administrării de stat relate cu protecție Constituției și ordinea constituțională, securitatea Republicii Srpska și protecția personală a cetățenilor. De asemenea MAI cooperează cu organe alte Republicii Srpska, Federației Bosniei și Herțegovinei, Districtului Brčko, Bosniei și Herțegovinei în general și alte organizații internaționale care efectua impunere legelor. Structura etnică a Ministerului trebuie să fie la fel de în recensământul popular următor și angajatul în MAI este obligat să respecte drepturile și libertățile omului indiferent de rasă, sex, limbă, etnie, religie, originea socială, năștere, educație, convingerea politică și alte.

Ministru
Ministrul are obligația să conducă Ministerul Afacerilor Interne și organizează ministerul. Toate obligațiile ministrului sunt definite în Legea despre Guvernul Republicii Srpska, Legea despre administrarea Republicii, Legea despre poliția și afacerile interne și alte. Părți organizației legate cu ministru sunt Cabinetul Ministrului și Serviciul Ministrului. Ministru este electat de Adunarea Națională și numai Zoran Đerić a fost alungat de Reprezentativul Înalt în Bosnia și Herțegovina.

Cabinetul și Serviciul
Cabinetul Ministrului (Кабинет министра, Kabinet ministra) conducă șeful cabinetului și este electat în perioada mandatului de ministru. Este direct responsabil pentru serviciul său ministrului. Șeful cabinetului organizează și participă în programuri și raporturi serviciului despre minister, organizează în pregătiri pentru ședințe Guvernului, Adunarei naționale, supraveghează realizație muncilor și activităților în domeniul afacerilor interne, documentele despre intrebări și probleme în domeniul afacerilor interne, informează ministrul despre probleme, supreveghează informare publicului despre MAI, coordinează munci cooperației internaționale, supraveghează situație de securitate în Republica ș.a.m.d.

Serviciul Ministrului (Служба министра, Služba ministra) conducă șeful serviciului și obligații servicului sunt: să organizeze și participă în programuri serviciului ai ministerului și să organizeze documente pentru ședințe Guvernului și Adunarei naționale, să supravegheze realizație muncilor și activităților în domeniul afacerilor interne, documente despre intrebări și probleme în domeniul afacerilor interne, să informeze ministrul despre probleme și intrebari, să coordineze munci cooperației internaționale, să facă câteve munci protocolare și să aibă grijă de documente ai MAI. Serviciul are cinci părți organizaționale: Detașamentul pentru relațiile cu publicul (Odjeljene za odnose s javnošću), Detașamentul pentru planarea strategică (Odjeljenje za strateško planiranje), Detașamentul pentru analitică (Odjeljenje za analitiku), Unitatea pentru revizia internă (Jedinica za internu reviziju) și Unitatea pentru cooperarea internațională și integrațiile europeane (Jedinica za međunarodnu saradnju i evropske integracije).

Lista miniștrilor

Afacerile
Afacerile ministerului sunt împărțiti la afacerile polițiste și afacerile interne alte.
După Legea despre poliția și afacerile interne munci polițiști sunt:
 afaceri operativ-profesionali protectând viață, securitatea personală, drepturile și libertățile omului, ordinea constituției și securitatea Republicii Srpska,
 protecție tuturor formelor proprietății,
 împiedicare efectuării, descoperire infracțiunelor și găsiri și arestuiri executorilor ai infracțiunelor,
 protecție ordinei și păci publice
 asigurare evenimentelor publice, manifestațiilor, evenimentelor culture și sportive și altelor întrunirelor permise și
 securitate și controla traficului pe străzi, dare ajutorului când securitatea cetățenilor sau proprietății este invadată și alte.
Afacerile interne alte sunt:
 afacerile administrativ-legale,
 afacerile analitic-informatice și afacerile comunicației,
 afacerile material-financiare și afacerile de proprietate,
 educație și instruire profesională,
 controla armamentului și muniției,
 număr personal de identificare,
 documente de călătorie
 carte de identitate
 permise de conducere și registrări vehiculelor.

Organizație
Organizația Ministerului Afacerilor Interne conține Ministrul cu Cabinetul și Serviciul ministrului ca partea organizațională cea mai înaltă și Serviciul pentru protecție integrității și legalității în muncă, Directorul al Poliției, Administrația pentru tecnologii informativ-comunicative, Administrația pentru afacerile de cadru și legale, Administrația pentru afacerile material-financiare și afacerile de proprietate, Administrația pentru antrenarea polițistă și Centrul pentru antrenare.

Vezi și
 Poliția Republicii Srpska
 Republika Srpska

Referințe

Fondări în 1992
Republika Srpska

Ministerul Afacerilor Interne (Republika Srpska)


Les avances de la Banque de France étaient un mécanisme de financement de court et très court termes du déficit public français par lequel la Banque de France prêtait de l'argent à court terme au Trésor public. Ce mécanisme n'a jamais financé la dette publique française à hauteur de plus de 5 % du PIB en temps normaux. Il a pris fin en 1993.

Concept
Les avances de la Banque de France étaient des sommes déposées par la Banque de France sur le compte du Trésor français afin de financer le déficit public français. Ces avances étaient de court terme, ou de très court terme. Les avances n'ont jamais été un mode de financement privilégié de l'État et faisaient figure d'ultime recours, témoignant d'un niveau de déficit élevé.

Le montant des avances de la Banque de France a été fixé par diverses conventions successives entre l'État et la banque. Les avances de la Banque de France n'ont jamais représenté plus de 5 % du PIB en temps normaux.

Une étude de Vincent Duchaussoy et Eric Monnet montre que les avances ont principalement été financées, directement, par une hausse de la masse monétaire, qui s'est répercutée sous forme d'inflation. Parce que les avances étaient d'une taille faible, qu'elles créaient de l'inflation, qu'elle réduisaient la qualité du portefeuille de la Banque de France et diminuaient le crédit de son billet, les avances ont été peu utilisées dans la deuxième moitié du XXe siècle.

Historique

De la Restauration à la monarchie de Juillet
La Banque de France ouvre un compte au profit du Trésor public en 1806. Ce compte courant est avant tout un compte de dépôt, et un compte spécial. Toutefois, un compte d'avances est ouvert en janvier 1832 pour que le Trésor puisse recevoir les avances directes que la banque centrale lui consent. Les demandes sont néanmoins peu nombreuses et les sommes assez faibles. Entre 1837 et 1846, aucune demande d'avances n'est émise.

La Banque de France accorde des avances à l'État lors de situations exceptionnelles, comme durant l'année 1848.

De la Deuxième République au Second Empire
Sous le Second Empire, Napoléon III force la main de la banque pour l'inciter à procéder à des avances. Le prince-empereur demande des avances aux compagnies de chemin de fer, afin de stimuler le rail français. La banque rechigne, considérant que cela ne relève pas de sa compétence. Elle accepte toutefois facilement d'accéder aux demandes d'avances qui visent à financer le Trésor dans le cadre du stress budgétaire exercé par la guerre de Crimée. Entre 1854 et 1857, trois avances sont ainsi accordées pour un montant de 100 millions de francs.

Une convention est signée avec l'État en 1857 pour encadrer les avances. Jusqu'au Second Empire, les avances représentent une part importante du passif de la banque, qui intervient peu sur les marchés financiers. La banque rechigne toutefois à faire trop d'avances au Trésor, de peur de réduire la confiance dans la monnaie. Avec la convention de 1857, toutefois, le Trésor obtient une avance permanente de 80 millions de francs (réduite à 60 millions en 1862). L'intérêt maximal est de 3 %.

Troisième République

De la fondation à 1917
La Banque de France est mobilisée en 1871, après la bataille de Sedan et la chute du Second Empire, pour avancer des sommes importantes à l'État. Les avances consenties entre 1870 et 1871 s'élèvent à 1,530 milliard de francs. En 1871, les avances représentent 10 % du PIB annuel.

Devant le montant important qui est demandé à la Banque de France, des négociations sont entamées pour décider des modalités de remboursement. Par la loi du 21 juin 1871, l'État s'engage à inscrire chaque année dans son budget une somme de 200 millions de francs prévue à l'effet de rembourser les avances. Ainsi, les avances sont remboursées entre 1872 et 1879 sous forme d'annuités.

Entre 1878 et 1913, les avances de la Banque de France au Trésor représentent 4 % ou moins des actifs de la banque centrale. Une convention du  fixe les avances consenties par la Banque de France à 2,9 milliards de francs.

Première guerre mondiale
La Première Guerre mondiale requiert de l'État la mobilisation de sommes budgétaires importantes. Le gouvernement René Viviani entre rapidement en discussion avec la Banque de France, mais le gouverneur, Georges Pallain, met en garde le président du Conseil contre un recours abusif aux avances, solution de facilité qui ne permet pas de régler les problèmes budgétaires de long terme. Dans une lettre envoyée au ministre des Finances, il soutient que les avances de la banque centrale ne sauraient suffire, et écrit : .

Alexandre Ribot, dans une lettre au gouverneur, demande le 18 septembre 1914 le doublement du plafond à 6 milliards, qui permettrait à l'État de payer entre 1 % et 3 % de taux d'intérêt. Ce doublement est accepté par la banque par la convention du 21 septembre 1914. Cette convention stipule que l'État .

Ainsi, si la dette publique française était financée à hauteur de 2 % par les avances de la banque centrale en 1913, la proportion augmente d'un point par an jusqu'à 1918 (8 %). Fin 1918, le montant des avances a été encore augmenté pour atteindre 21 milliards de francs. Bertrand Blancheton estime qu'entre 1914 et 1918, les avances ont contribué à 11 % du total des ressources françaises, contre 15 % pour les impôts, 35 % pour la dette à court et moyen terme, 22 % pour la dette à long terme, et 17 % pour la dette extérieure.

Entre-deux guerres
La progression des avances a causé une augmentation de la circulation fiduciaire, qui est passée de moins de 6 milliards à plus de 30 milliards de francs pendant la guerre. L'agrégat M2 est passé de 15 milliards (1914) à 46 milliards (1918). L'augmentation des avances a réduit le ratio encaisse/or circulation fiduciaire à 18 % à la fin de l'année 1918, rendant impossible le rétablissement de la convertibilité-or du franc.

Les gouvernements successifs cherchent de ce fait à éviter tout recours aux avances. Ainsi, lorsque le cartel des gauches est mis en difficulté par la situation fortement déficitaire du Trésor public, il refuse de faire voter par le Parlement une augmentation du plafond : cela est considéré à l'époque comme un motif suffisant pour renverser le gouvernement. Les gouvernements suivants cherchent à rembourser intégralement la dette du Trésor à l'égard de la banque, ce qui est quasiment fini en 1928. Elle ne s'élève alors plus qu'à 3,2 milliards de francs, niveau maintenu jusqu'en 1935.

Par conséquent, la proportion des avances de la banque centrale dans le financement de la dette publique a été remarquablement stable sur la période : après une hausse dans l'immédiat après-guerre (de 9 % en 1919 à 14 % en 1924), cette proportion se stabilise jusqu'en 1928. Elle entame une lente décrue à partir de 1929, passant de 13 % à 12 % en 1933, puis 11 % en 1936.

La Banque de France est toutefois amenée à intervenir sous le Front populaire à quatre reprises. Les prêts sans intérêts à l'État sont portés à 10 milliards, et les avances provisoires atteignent 32 milliards. Toutefois, en pourcentage des sources de financement de la dette publique, l'épisode du Front populaire marque une continuité dans la décrue : représentant 11 % du financement de la dette publique en 1936, les avances pèsent autant en 1938. La proportion chute à 10 % en 1939.

Henry Laufenburger estime que 33 % des dépenses de l'État pour la Seconde Guerre mondiale entre 1939 et 1940 ont été financées par des avances de la Banque de France.

Régime de Vichy
Le régime de Vichy, malgré sa politique de collaboration active, doit payer des frais d'occupation au Troisième Reich. Le Trésor est donc contraint de demander à la Banque de France de consentir à des avances provisoires. La circulation monétaire passe de 150 milliards de francs à 218 milliards entre décembre 1939 et décembre 1940. Sur toute la durée du régime, le montant augmente fortement, à vingt-quatre reprises, entre 1940 et 1944. En 1944, il s'élève à 426 milliards de francs.

De ce fait, la part des avances de la banque centrale dans le financement de la dette publique augmente continûment : de 10 % en 1940, elle passe à 11 % en 1941, 12 % l'année suivante, 13 % l'année d'après, et 14 % en 1944. Lorsque Charles de Gaulle et le gouvernement provisoire reprennent le pouvoir, les avances constituent 15 % du financement de la dette publique.

Quatrième République
En 1947, les besoins de financement se font de plus en plus pressants. L'État doit demander de nouvelles avances à la Banque de France. Le , le gouvernement Paul Ramadier décide que le montant des prêts sans intérêt de la Banque passera de 10 milliards de francs à 50 milliards. Cela ne suffit toutefois pas à financer le déficit. Les avances continuent dans les quelques années qui suivent du fait de la lenteur des avances promises par les États-Unis dans le cadre du plan Marshall.

De ce fait, la part des avances dans le financement du déficit public augmente sur la période de la Quatrième République. Elle passe de 15 % en 1945 à 16 % l'année suivante et 17 % en 1947 et 18 % en 1948. Elle stagne jusqu'en 1952, date à laquelle elle passe à 19 %. Deux crises de trésorerie ont lieu en 1953 et 1957. La Banque de France octroie au Trésor des avances spéciales. En 1957, face aux difficultés rencontrées par le Trésor public, la Banque de France accorde des avances à hauteur de 350 milliards de francs afin d'éviter un défaut de paiement. Elles atteignent 500 milliards en 1958.

La part de 19 % de dette publique financée par les avances se maintient jusqu'en 1956, date à laquelle elle passe à 20 %. Lorsque Charles de Gaulle devient le dernier président du Conseil de la Quatrième République, la part de la dette publique financée par les concours de la Banque de France est de 20 %.

Cinquième République

Une convention de trésorerie est signée le  pour régir les rapports entre l'État et la banque centrale. Une convention signée le  fixe le nouveau plafond à 3,452 milliards de francs. En 1970, les prêts à l'État et les avances représentaient 5,45 et 3,45 milliards de francs, soit 2 % du PIB, et 16 % de la dette publique.

La loi de 1973 sur la Banque de France réforme les statuts de la banque centrale. Elle n'interdit pas les avances. L'article 19 de la loi réaffirme ce qui était déjà vrai, à savoir que . Elle soumet toutefois les avances supérieures à un certain montant au vote du Parlement, afin que les représentants de la nation puissent décider de ces opérations risquées.

Une convention signée le 17 septembre 1973, approuvée par le Parlement, fixe le plafond des concours de trésorerie pouvant être apportés au Trésor à 20,5 milliards de francs, dont la moitié à titre gratuit. Aucune nouvelle convention n'est signée après cette date.

Le recours aux avances de la Banque de France se réduit progressivement dans les années 1970. En 1982, elles ne représentent plus que 2 % du financement de la dette publique. L'année suivante, elles représentent 0 %. Ce chiffre reste identique durant les années qui suivent, l'État n'ayant plus recours à ce mode de financement de court terme. La loi du 4 août 1993 met fin à la possibilité pour le Trésor de recourir au financement direct de son déficit auprès de la Banque de France.

Notes et références

Macroéconomie
Finances publiques en France

Avances de la Banque de France


Edgar Dutka (* 21. Mai 1941 in Wiener Neustadt, Österreich) ist ein tschechischer Prosaist, Drehbuchautor, Regisseur und Dramaturg.

Leben
Nach der Festnahme seiner Mutter wegen staatsfeindlicher Tätigkeit wurde er kurz nach dem Machtantritt der Kommunisten in ein Kinderheim eingewiesen. Auf den Erfahrungen dieser Jahre basiert das Erzählmosaik Waisenhausgasse 5, das Dutka wie andere Texte erst nach Ende des kommunistischen Regimes veröffentlichen konnte. 2004 folgte der mit dem tschechischen Staatspreis für Literatur ausgezeichnete Roman Fräulein, der Hundefänger kommt! Seit 1974 ist Dutka als Drehbuchautor, Regisseur und Dramaturg von Zeichentrickfilmen tätig. Er lebt in Prag.

Werke
 Fräulein, der Hundefänger kommt!, Roman, Braumüller Literaturverlag, Wien 2009. ISBN 978-3-99200-000-5.
 Waisenhausgasse 5, Prosa, Braumüller Literaturverlag, Wien 2011. ISBN 978-3-99200-042-5.

Weblinks

Einzelnachweise

Autor
Drehbuchautor
Filmregisseur
Tscheche
Geboren 1941
Mann

Edgar Dutka


Thunbergioideae, potporodica primogovki. Postoji 5 rodova u dva tribusa

Rodovi
 Tribus Mendoncieae Meisn.
 Mendoncia Vell. ex Vand. (87 spp.)
 Anomacanthus R. D. Good (1 sp.)
 Tribus Thunbergieae Dumort.
 Pseudocalyx Radlk. (6 spp.)
 Thunbergia Retz. (148 spp.)
 Meyenia Nees (1 sp.)

Izvori

Primogovke

Thunbergioideae


කලා ඔය යනු ශ්‍රී ලංකාවේ පිහිටි තුන් වැනියට දිගම ඔය වේ. එහි දිග ආසන්න වශයෙන් කිලෝ මීටර 145 ක් පමණ වේ කලා ඔය අසල පන්සලක් හා පල්ලියක් දැක ගත හැක..

ආශ්‍රිත
 කලා වැව

මූලාශ්‍ර

ශ්‍රී ලංකාවේ ඔයවල්

කලා ඔය


{{Infobox Unité militaire
 | nom_unite             = Joint Helicopter Command
 | image                 =Andover - Marlborough Lines.jpg
 | taille image          = 200
 | legende               =QG Marlborough Lines
 | creation              =  - présent
 | dissolution           =
 | pays                  =
 | allegeance            =
 | branche               = British Army
 | type                  = Groupe interarmes
 | role                  = Opérations d'hélicoptères
 | effectif              =15.000 personnes 239 aéronefs
 | faitpartie            = Quartier général de l'armée britannique
 | enfaitpartie          =
 | garnison              = Andover Hampshire
 | ancien_nom            =
 | surnom                =
 | couleurs              =
 | honneur               =
 | devise                = | marche                =
 | mascotte              =
 | inscriptions          =
 | anniversaire          =
 | guerres               =
 | batailles             =
 | decorations           =
 | equipement            = Apache AH1Bell 212Chinook HC4/5/6Gazelle AH1Merlin HC4/4APuma HC2Watchkeeper WK450Wildcat AH1
 | commandant            =
 | commandant_historique =
 | pavillon              =
 | emblème               =
}}
Le Joint Helicopter Command (JHC) est une organisation de commandement et de coordination militaire réunissant des hélicoptères des forces armées britanniques provenant du Fleet Air Arm, de l'Army Air Corps et de la Royal Air Force.
 Établissement

Le Joint Helicopter Command'' a été formé le , regroupant les hélicoptères commando de la Marine, les hélicoptères d'attaque et utilitaires légers de l'armée et les hélicoptères de soutien de la RAF. La guerre navale, la lutte anti-sous-marine et les hélicoptères de système de détection et de commandement aéroporté de la Royal Navy, ainsi que les hélicoptères de recherche et sauvetage de la Royal Navy et de la RAF, n'étaient pas inclus dans le JHC et restaient sous le contrôle de leurs services respectifs. Le quartier général du JHC a été établi aux côtés du commandement terrestre du QG à , l'Air vice-marshal David Niven étant le premier commandant.

En 2007, Le JHC avait plus de 15.000 personnes sous son commandement, dont environ 8.000 faisaient partie de la 16e brigade d'assaut par air. Cela comprenait plus de 900 réservistes volontaires de l'Army Reserveet de la , et 380 civils du MOD.

Déploiements
La plus grande opération du Joint Helicopter Command à ce jour a été l'Opération Telic, l'invasion de l'Irak.
Après l'invasion, le Joint Helicopter Command a maintenu des unités en Irak, en soutien aux forces britanniques et de la coalition déployées là-bas. Un autre détachement a également été maintenu en Afghanistan, dans le cadre de l'Opération Herrick.

Le JHC est aussi intervenu en support du Service de police d'Irlande du Nord : Opération Banner et  (2007)

Organisation
Les unités subordonnées au Joint Helicopter Command.

British Army

Army Air Corps
Army Aviation Centre (AAC Middle Wallop)

No. 668 (Training) Squadron
No. 676 Squadron

No. 670 Squadron
No. 671 Squadron – Gazelle AH1 et Bell 212
No. 673 Squadron – Apache AH1

Royal Artillery
 (Horne Barracks, Larkhill)
10 (Assaye) Battery – Watchkeeper WK450
31 (Headquarters) Battery
43 Battery (Lloyd's Company) – Watchkeeper WK450
74 Battery (The Battle Axe Company) – Watchkeeper WK450

1st Aviation Brigade
1st Aviation Brigade
 (RNAS Yeovilton)
No. 652 Squadron – Wildcat AH1
No. 659 Squadron – Wildcat AH1
No. 661 Squadron – Wildcat AH1
(Wattisham Airfield)
No. 653 Squadron – Apache AH1
No. 662 Squadron – Apache AH1
No. 663 Squadron – Apache AH1
 (Wattisham Airfield)
No. 656 Squadron – Apache AH1
No. 664 Squadron – Apache AH1
 (JHFS Aldergrove)
No. 665 Squadron – Gazelle AH1 (désactivé le 12 octobre 2023)
 (Blenheim Camp, Bury St Edmunds)
No. 675 (The Rifles) Squadron
No. 677 (Suffolk and Norfolk Yeomanry) Squadron
No. 678 (The Rifles) Squadron
No. 679 (The Duke of Connaught's) Squadron
, Royal Electrical and Mechanical Engineers (REME) (Wattisham Airfield)

Royal Navy

Fleet Air Arm
Commando Helicopter Force (RNAS Yeovilton) :
845 Naval Air Squadron – Commando Merlin HC4/4A
846 Naval Air Squadron – Commando Merlin HC4/HC3i
847 Naval Air Squadron – Commando Wildcat AH1

Royal Air Force
Support Helicopter Force :
No. 7 Squadron RAF (RAF Odiham ) – Chinook
No. 18 Squadron RAF (RAF Odiham) – Chinook
No. 22 Squadron RAF (RAF Benson )
No. 27 Squadron RAF (RAF Odiham) – Chinook
No. 28 Squadron RAF (RAF Benson) – Chinook HC4 et Puma HC2
No. 33 Squadron RAF (RAF Benson) – Puma HC2
No. 230 Squadron RAF (RAF Benson) – Puma HC2
Joint Helicopter Support Squadron (RAF Benson)
Tactical Supply Wing (MOD)

Voir aussi

Notes et références

Lien connexe
Fleet Air Arm
Army Air Corps
Royal Air Force

Liens externes
 Joint Helicopter Command - Government UK
  Joint Helicopter Command - British Army
 Joint Helicopter Command - Royal Navy

Forces armées du Royaume-Uni
Association ou organisme lié au secteur aéronautique
Unité ou formation militaire créée en 1999

Joint Helicopter Command


S.A. Lombarda Vetture Automobili war ein italienischer Hersteller von Automobilen.

Unternehmensgeschichte
Das Unternehmen aus Mailand begann im Dezember 1906 mit der Produktion von Automobilen. Der Markenname lautete Salva. Im Oktober 1907 wurde das Unternehmen liquidiert.

Fahrzeuge
Im Angebot waren drei Modelle mit Vierzylindermotor, Vierganggetriebe und Kettenantrieb. Dies waren der 16/25 HP, der 28/45 HP und der 60/75 HP. Vom letztgenannten Modell gab es auch Nutzfahrzeuge.

Literatur

 George Nick Georgano: The Beaulieu Encyclopedia of the Automobile, Volume 3 P–Z. Fitzroy Dearborn Publishers, Chicago 2001, ISBN 1-57958-293-1 (englisch)
 Autorenkollektiv: Enzyklopädie des Automobils. Marken · Modelle · Technik. Weltbild Verlag, Augsburg, 1989

Ehemaliger Pkw-Hersteller (Italien)
Ehemaliges Unternehmen (Mailand)

Lombarda Vetture Automobili


Svijet

Otkrića

Osnivanja

Događaji

Nagrade i priznanja

Rođenja

Smrti

Astronomske pojave
10. travnja: Halleyjev komet se najviše približio Zemlji, kada mu se rep protegao 60 stupnjeva preko polovice neba. Po proračunima trebao je proći tek 0,03 AJ (5,1 milijun km) od Zemlje. Zabilježili su ga astronomi u Kini, Japanu, Njemačkoj na Bliskom Istoku.

Hrvatska i u Hrvata

Otkrića

Osnivanja

Događaji

Nagrade i priznanja

Rođenja

Smrti

Izvori

Vanjske poveznice

Astronomija u 837.


A United States presidential doctrine comprises the key goals, attitudes, or stances for United States foreign affairs outlined by a president. Most presidential doctrines are related to the Cold War. Though many U.S. presidents had themes related to their handling of foreign policy, the term doctrine generally applies to presidents such as James Monroe, Harry S. Truman, Richard Nixon, Jimmy Carter and Ronald Reagan, all of whom had doctrines which more completely characterized their foreign policy.

Presidential doctrines

Monroe Doctrine

The Monroe Doctrine, expressed in 1823, proclaimed the United States' opinion that European powers should no longer colonize the Americas or interfere with the affairs of sovereign nations located in the Americas, such as the United States, Mexico, Gran Colombia and others. In return, the United States planned to stay neutral in wars between European powers and in wars between a European power and its colonies. However, if these latter type of wars were to occur in the Americas, the U.S. would view such action as hostile toward itself.

The doctrine was issued by President James Monroe during this seventh annual State of the Union address to Congress. The doctrine was originally declared by its authors, including John Quincy Adams, to be a proclamation by the United States of its opposition to colonialism. However, since 1923, the doctrine has been re-interpreted in a variety of ways, including by President Theodore Roosevelt as justification U.S. to practice its own form of colonialism in South America, which is known as the Roosevelt Corollary to the Monroe Doctrine.

Roosevelt Corollary

The Roosevelt Corollary to the Monroe Doctrine was a substantial alteration (called an "amendment") of the Monroe Doctrine by U.S. president Theodore Roosevelt in 1904. In its altered state, the Monroe Doctrine would now consider Latin America as an agency for expanding U.S. commercial interests in the region, along with its original stated purpose of keeping European hegemony from the hemisphere.

In essence, Roosevelt's Monroe Doctrine would be the basis for a use of economic and military hegemony to make the U.S. the dominant power in the Western Hemisphere. The new doctrine was a frank statement that the U.S. was willing to seek leverage over Latin American governments by acting as an international police power in the region. This announcement has been described as the policy of "speaking softly but carrying a big stick", and consequently launched a period of "big stick" diplomacy, in contrast with later Dollar Diplomacy. Roosevelt's approach was more controversial among isolationist-pacifists in the U.S.

Truman Doctrine

The 1947 Truman Doctrine was part of the United States' political response to perceived aggression by the Soviet Union in Europe and the Middle East, illustrated through the communist movements in Iran, Turkey and Greece. As a result, American foreign policy towards the USSR shifted, as George F. Kennan phrased it, to that of containment. Under the Truman Doctrine, the United States was prepared to send any money, equipment, or military force to countries that were threatened by the communist government, thereby offering assistance to those countries resisting communism. In U.S. president Harry S Truman's words, it became "the policy of the United States to support free peoples who are resisting attempted subjugation by armed minorities or by outside pressures".

President Truman made the proclamation in an address to the U.S. Congress on March 12, 1947 amid the crisis of the Greek Civil War (1946–1949). Truman insisted that if Greece and Turkey did not receive the aid that they needed, they would inevitably fall to communism with consequences throughout the region.

Truman signed the act into law on May 22, 1947 which granted $400 million in military and economic aid to Turkey and Greece. However, this American aid was in many ways a replacement for British aid which the British were no longer financially in a position to give. The policy of containment and opposition to communists in Greece for example was carried out by the British before 1947 in many of the same ways it was carried out afterward by the Americans.

The doctrine also had consequences elsewhere in Europe. Governments in Western Europe with powerful communist movements, such as Italy and France, were given a variety of assistance and encouraged to keep communist groups out of government. In some respects, these moves were in response to moves by the Soviet Union to purge opposition groups in Eastern Europe out of existence.

Eisenhower Doctrine

The Eisenhower Doctrine was announced by President Dwight D. Eisenhower in a message to the United States Congress on January 5, 1957. Under the Eisenhower Doctrine, a country could request American economic assistance and/or aid from U.S. military forces if it was being threatened by armed aggression from another state. Eisenhower singled out the Soviet threat in his doctrine by authorizing the commitment of U.S. forces "to secure and protect the territorial integrity and political independence of such nations, requesting such aid against overt armed aggression from any nation controlled by international communism". The doctrine was motivated in part by an increase in Arab hostility toward the West, and growing Soviet influence in Egypt and Syria following the Suez Crisis of 1956.

In the global political context, the Doctrine was made in response to the possibility of a generalized war, threatened as a result of the Soviet Union's attempt to use the Suez War as a pretext to enter Egypt. Coupled with the power vacuum left by the decline of Great British and French power in the region after their failure in that same war, Eisenhower felt that a strong position needed to better the situation was further complicated by the positions taken by Egypt's Gamal Abdul Nasser, who was rapidly building a power base and using it to play the Soviets and Americans against each other, taking a position of "positive neutrality" and accepting aid from the Soviets.

The military action provisions of the Doctrine were applied in the Lebanon Crisis the following year, when America intervened in response to a request by that country's president.

Kennedy Doctrine

The Kennedy Doctrine refers to foreign policy initiatives of John Fitzgerald Kennedy, towards Latin America during his term in office.  Kennedy voiced support for the containment of Communism and the reversal of Communist progress in the Western Hemisphere.

In his Inaugural address on January 20, 1961, President Kennedy presented the American public with a blueprint upon which the future foreign policy initiatives of his administration would later follow and come to represent. In this address, Kennedy warned "Let every nation know, whether it wishes us well or ill, that we shall pay any price, bear any burden, meet any hardship, support any friend, oppose any foe, in order to assure the survival and the success of liberty." He also called upon the public to assist in "a struggle against the common enemies of man: tyranny, poverty, disease, and war itself". It is in this address that one begins to see the Cold War, us-versus-them mentality that came to dominate the Kennedy administration.

Johnson Doctrine

The Johnson Doctrine, enunciated by U.S. president Lyndon B. Johnson after the United States' intervention in the Dominican Republic in 1965, declared that domestic revolution in the Western Hemisphere would no longer be a local matter when "the object is the establishment of a Communist dictatorship".

Nixon Doctrine

The Nixon Doctrine was put forth in a press conference in Guam on July 25, 1969 by Richard Nixon. He stated that the United States henceforth expected its allies to assume primary responsibility for their own military defense. This was the start of the "Vietnamization" of the Vietnam War. The Doctrine argued for the pursuit of peace through a partnership with American allies.

In Nixon's own words (Address to the Nation on the War in Vietnam November 3, 1969)
 First, the United States will keep all of its treaty commitments.
 Second, we shall provide a shield if a nuclear power threatens the freedom of a nation allied with us or of a nation whose survival we consider vital to our security.
 Third, in cases involving other types of aggression, we shall furnish military and economic assistance when requested in accordance with our treaty commitments. But we shall look to the nation directly threatened to assume the primary responsibility of providing the manpower for its defense.

The doctrine was also applied by the Nixon administration in the Persian Gulf region, with military aid to Iran and Saudi Arabia, so that these U.S. allies could undertake the responsibility of ensuring peace and stability in the region. According to Michael Klare, author of Blood and Oil: The Dangers and Consequences of America's Growing Petroleum Dependency (New York: Henry Holt, 2004), application of the Nixon Doctrine "opened the floodgates" of U.S. military aid to allies in the Persian Gulf, and helped set the stage for the Carter Doctrine and for the subsequent direct U.S. military involvement of the Gulf War and the Iraq War.

Carter Doctrine

The Carter Doctrine was a policy proclaimed by President of the United States Jimmy Carter in his State of the Union Address on January 23, 1980, which stated that the United States would use military force if necessary to defend its national interests in the Persian Gulf region. The doctrine was a response to the 1979 invasion of Afghanistan by the Soviet Union, and was intended to deter the Soviet Union—the Cold War adversary of the United States—from seeking hegemony in the Persian Gulf. After stating that Soviet troops in Afghanistan posed "a grave threat to the free movement of Middle East oil", Carter proclaimed:

Let our position be absolutely clear: An attempt by any outside force to gain control of the Persian Gulf region will be regarded as an assault on the vital interests of the United States of America, and such an assault will be repelled by any means necessary, including military force. (full speech)

This, the key sentence of the Carter Doctrine, was written by Zbigniew Brzezinski, President Carter's National Security Adviser. Brzezinski modeled the wording of the Carter Doctrine on the Truman Doctrine, and insisted that the sentence be included in the speech "to make it very clear that the Soviets should stay away from the Persian Gulf".

In The Prize: The Epic Quest for Oil, Money, and Power, author Daniel Yergin notes that the Carter Doctrine "bore striking similarities" to a 1903 British declaration, in which British Foreign Secretary Lord Landsdowne warned Russia and Germany that the British would "regard the establishment of a naval base or of a fortified port in the Persian Gulf by any other power as a very grave menace to British interests, and we should certainly resist it with all the means at our disposal".

Reagan Doctrine

The Reagan Doctrine was an important Cold War strategy by the United States to oppose the influence of the Soviet Union by backing anti-communist guerrillas against the communist governments of Soviet-backed client states. It was created partially in response to the Brezhnev Doctrine and was a centerpiece of American foreign policy from the mid-1980s until the end of the Cold War in 1991.

Reagan's definition
Reagan first explained the doctrine in his 1985 State of the Union Address: "We must not break faith with those who are risking their lives...on every continent, from Afghanistan to Nicaragua ... to defy Soviet aggression and secure rights which have been ours from birth. Support for freedom fighters is self-defense."

The Reagan doctrine called for American support of the Contras in Nicaragua, the Mujahideen in Afghanistan and Jonas Savimbi's UNITA movement in Angola, among other anti-communist groups.

Clinton Doctrine

The Clinton Doctrine is not a clear statement in the way that many other doctrines were. However, in a February 26, 1999, speech, President Bill Clinton said the following, which was considered the Clinton Doctrine:

It's easy ... to say that we really have no interests in who lives in this or that valley in Bosnia, or who owns a strip of brushland in the Horn of Africa, or some piece of parched earth by the Jordan River. But the true measure of our interests lies not in how small or distant these places are, or in whether we have trouble pronouncing their names. The question we must ask is, what are the consequences to our security of letting conflicts fester and spread. We cannot, indeed, we should not, do everything or be everywhere. But where our values and our interests are at stake, and where we can make a difference, we must be prepared to do so.

Later statements "genocide is in and of itself a national interest where we should act," and "we can say to the people of the world, whether you live in Africa, or Central Europe, or any other place, if somebody comes after innocent civilians and tries to kill them en masse because of their race, their ethnic background or their religion, and it's within our power to stop it, we will stop it," augmented the doctrine of interventionism. However, a lack of leadership within the Clinton Administration led to the United States failure to properly intervene in the Rwandan genocide, despite this ideology.

Bush Doctrine

The Bush Doctrine is the set of foreign policies adopted by the president of the United States George W. Bush in the wake of the September 11, 2001 attacks. In an address to the United States Congress after the attacks, President Bush declared that the U.S. would "make no distinction between the terrorists who committed these acts and those who harbor them", a statement that was followed by the U.S. invasion of Afghanistan. Subsequently, the Bush Doctrine has come to be identified with a policy that permits preventive war against potential aggressors before they are capable of mounting attacks against the United States, a view that has been used in part as a rationale for the 2003 Iraq War. The Bush Doctrine is a marked departure from the policies of deterrence that generally characterized American foreign policy during the Cold War and brief period between the collapse of the Soviet Union and 9/11, and can also be contrasted with the Kirkpatrick Doctrine of supporting stable right-wing dictatorships that was influential during the Administration of Ronald Reagan.

Obama Doctrine

The Obama Doctrine is yet to be fully defined, and President Obama himself has expressed a dislike for an overly "doctrinaire" approach to foreign policy. When asked about his doctrine, Obama has replied that the United States would have to "view our security in terms of a common security and a common prosperity with other peoples and other countries". On April 16, 2009, E. J. Dionne wrote a column for The Washington Post defining the doctrine as "a form of realism unafraid to deploy American power but mindful that its use must be tempered by practical limits and a dose of self-awareness". The Obama Doctrine has been praised by some as a welcome change from the dogmatic and aggressive Bush Doctrine. Others, such as Bush appointee and former United States Ambassador to the United Nations John Bolton, have criticized it as overly idealistic and naïve, promoting appeasement with the country's enemies.

Trump Doctrine

The Trump Doctrine is defined as the Trump administration's foreign policy, based upon the slogan of "America first." It leverages America's economic and military power to increase and decrease tensions favorably for America. President Trump was especially critical of so-called "free riders," or countries which the United States uses resources to protect without receiving benefits in return. Through his foreign policy, Trump criticized the use of United States military forces in situations where national interests were uninvolved.

Biden Doctrine
Although the Biden Doctrine is not explicitly defined, President Biden's foreign policy has been characterized by an avoidance of aggressive tactics that involve personnel in foreign nations. As a means of moving away from the Trump Doctrine's policy of "America first," Biden stated that, "The transatlantic alliance is back. The US is determined to consult with you." The Biden Doctrine is a shift away from foreign conflicts in an effort to focus resources on domestic issues. Following the United States' withdrawal of troops from Afghanistan, Biden defended the decision as furthering the administration's efforts to reduce risk to American lives and resources in foreign affairs.

See also
Powell Doctrine, drafted by then-Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff Colin Powell
Make America Great Again

References

Further reading

Doctrines
Presidential doctrines

Foreign policy

United States presidential doctrines


Karaahmet, Polatlı - Ankara ili Polatlı ilçesine bağlı mahalle
 Karaahmet, Göksun - Kahramanmaraş ili Göksun ilçesine bağlı mahalle

Karaahmet


ගණිතයේදී ප්‍රථමක සංඛ්‍යාවක් හෝ ප්‍රථමකයක් ලෙස හැදින්වෙන්නේ 1 න් හා එම සංඛ්‍යාවෙන්ම පමණක් බෙදිය හැකි 1 ට වැඩි ප්‍රකෘති සංඛ්‍යාවක් වේ. ක්‍රි.පු. 300 දී පමණ යුක්ලීඩ් විසින් ආදර්ශනය කර ඇති පරිදි ප්‍රථමක සංඛ්‍යා අපරිමිතයක් පවතී. මුල් ප්‍රථමක සංඛ්‍යා 30 පහත දැක්වේ.

2,3,5,7,11,13,17,19,23,29,31,37,41,43,47,53,59,61,67,71,73,79,83,89,97,101,103,107,109,113, (OEIS හි A 000040 අනුක්‍රමය)

මීට වඩා දිගු ලයිස්තුවක් සදහා "ප්‍රථමක සංඛ්‍යා ලයිස්තුව" බලන්න. අර්ථ දැක්වීම් අනුව 1 ප්‍රථමක සංඛ්‍යාවක් නොවේ. 1 හි ප්‍රථමක බව පිළිබඳ පහතින් දක්වා ඇති සාකච්ඡාමය කරුණු දැක්වීම බලන්න.

එනමුත් දැන් වර්තමානයේ ප්‍රථමක සංඛ්‍යා
හැදින්වෙන්නේ මෙයාකාරයටය.සාදක දෙකක් පමණක් ඇති සංඛ්‍යා ප්‍රථමක සංඛ්‍යා වේ.

ප්‍රථමක වීමේ ගුණය ප්‍රථමක බව හෙවත් ප්‍රථමකත්වය ලෙස හැදින්වේ. ඉංග්‍රීසි භාෂාවේදී ප්‍රථමක හදුන්වන "Prime" යන පදය විශේෂ පදයක් ලෙසද යොදා ගැනේ. අංක 2 එකම ඉරට්ටේ සංඛ්‍යාව බැගින් 2ට වැඩි සියළු ප්‍රථමක ඔත්තේ ප්‍රථමක වේ.

ප්‍රථමක සංඛ්‍යා පිළිබඳ අධ්‍යයන ප්‍රකෘති සංඛ්‍යා අධ්‍යයනය සඳහා වු ගණිත ක්ෂේත්‍රය වන සංඛ්‍යාවාදයට අයත් වේ. තීව්‍ර පරීක්ෂණයන්ට භාජනය වි ඇතත් රීමන් කල්පිතය සහ ගෝඩ්බාක් ඌනනය වැනි ප්‍රථමක සංඛ්‍යා පිළිබඳ මූලික ගැටළු කිහිපයක් සදහා ශත වර්ෂයකට අධික කාලයක් පුරා විසදුම්වලින් තොරව පවතී. ප්‍රථමක සංඛ්‍යා ව්‍යාප්තිය පිළිබඳව ආදර්ශයක් ගොඩනැගීම සංඛ්‍යාවාදීන් අතර වඩාත් අවධානයට ලක්වු විෂය පථයකි. තනි තනි සංඛ්‍යා සැලකූ විට ප්‍රථමක සංඛ්‍යා අහඹු විසුරුමක් පෙන්වන සේ හැගෙන නමුදු සමස්ථයක් ලෙස ගත් කල ප්‍රථමක සංඛ්‍යා පැහැදිලිව අර්ථ දක්වා ඇති නියම කිහිපයක් මත පදනම් ව ව්‍යාප්ත වී තිබේ.

ප්‍රථමක සංඛ්‍යා පිළිබඳ සංකල්පය ගණිතයේ විවිධ ක්ෂේත්‍රයන් තුල සාධාරණීකරණයට ලක්ව තිබේ. අමුර්ත වීජ ගණිතයට අයත් ශාඛාවක් වන වලය වාදයේදී ප්‍රථමක අංගයක් යන පදයට නිශ්චිත අර්ථයක් ඇත. මෙහිදී නිශ්-ශුන්‍ය, ඒකීය නොවන a නම් වලය අංගය බලය අංගයක් වන b හා c සදහා bc බෙදයි නම් සහ අවම වශයෙන් b හෝ c වලින් එකක් හෝ a මගින් බෙදිය හැකි නම් එවිට a ප්‍රථමකයක් ලෙස අර්ථ දක්වනු ලැබේ. මෙම අර්ථයට අනුව ඕනෑම ප්‍රථමකයක ආකල ප්‍රතිලෝමයද ප්‍රථමක වේ. වෙනත් අයුරකින් කිවහොත් නිඛිල කලනය වලයක් ලෙස සලකන විට -7 ප්‍රථමක වේ. නමුත් වැඩි දුර පැහැදිලි කිරිමක් / අර්ථ දැක්වීමක් නොමැතිව ප්‍රථමක සංඛ්‍යාවක් යැයි පවසන විට එමගින් නිරන්තරයෙන්ම ධන නිඛිල ප්‍රථමකයක් නිරූපණය වේ. මෙම කරුණු යටතේ සංකිර්ණ වීජීය ප්‍රථමක අතරින් අයින්ස්ටයින් ප්‍රථමක හා ගෝසියානු ප්‍රථමක ඇතැම්විට ආකර්ෂණීය ස්වභාවයක් දරයි.

නොට් වාදයේදී ප්‍රාථමික කොටසක් යනු ඊට අඩු වටිනාකමකින් යුත් සරු කොට යුගලක නොට් එකතුව ලෙස ලිවිය නොහැකි කොටසක් වේ.

ප්‍රථමක සංඛ්‍යා

ප්‍රථමක සංඛ්‍යා


العمود عنصر إنشائي ينصب بشكل عامودي ووظيفته نقل الحمولات من ما فوق العمود إلى ما أسفله.وللعمود وظائف متعدد ونذكر منها
 عنصر داعم لمختلف العناصر الإنشائية.
 عنصر تجميلي.
 عنصر مقاوم لمختلف العوامل (الزلازل والرياح...)
 يقال للعمود في تراث المعمارية العربية الاسطوانة وجمعها أساطين.

التاريخ

يعتبر العمود من أقدم العناصر المستخدمة في عملية البناء، وتعددت أشكاله والمواد المكونة له باختلاف العصور والمناطق.
 يعد السومريون واليمنيون القدماء أول من استخدم الأعمدة في البناء، وكان العمود مكون من حزمه من اعواد القصب ولا يزال هذا النمط من الأعمدة مستخدم في هذا الزمن.
 اسخدم الطين في تكوين الأعمدة عند حضارت بلاد الرافدين,لكنه لم يدم.
 الأعمدة الحجرية حيث اسخدمت الحجارة في تكون الاعمدة واخذت شهرة واسعة في ارجاء العالم.واشتهرت حضارات الشرق الأوسط بهذا النمط من الأعمد خصوصا عند المصريون القدماء والفرس وغيرهم.وتطورت الأعمدة الحجرية وازدهرت عند اليونان والرمان بشكل كبير وظهرت للأعمد عدة أنماط.

في القرآن
ذُكرتْ لفظة عَمَد وما اشتُقَّ منها في 7 مواضع من القرآن، ومن ذلك في سورة الرعد {الله الذي رفع السماوات بغير عَمَدٍ ترونها} أي لا شبهة في كون السماء بغير عَمَد، والعَمَد : جمع عِماد، والعامد : ما تقام عليه القبة والبيت.

أقسام العمود
يقسم العمود إلى ثلاثة عناصر :
 القدم أو القاعدة (الجزء السفلي)
 الجذع أو الساق (الجزء الأوسط)
 التاج أو الرأس (الجزء العلوي)

أنماط العمود

 في العصر اليوناني ظهرت ثلاث أنماط للعمود وهي :

الطراز الدوري
وهو ابسط انماط الأعمدة، ومكون من اسطوانة غير متجانسة حيث أن مساحة الدائرة السفلية للاسطوانة أكبر من مساحة الدائرة العلوية.ويوجد هذا النمط في بعض المدن الإيطالية.

الطراز الايوني
نسبة لمدينة لونيا (ازمير) وهذا الطراز يشبه كثيرا الطراز الدوري، لكنه يتميز بتاجه المزخرف.

الطراز الكورنثي
نسبة لمدينة كورنث في اليونان.وهو طراز أكثر تعقيداً من الدوري والايوني.حيث يبنى تاج العمود على شكل زخارف نباتية.ويوجد هذا النمط في الحضارة المصرية بكثرة.
 في العصر الروماني يمكن تمييز نمطين وهما:

الطراز التوسكاني
الطراز التوسكاني بسيط جدا ويشابه الطراز الدوري، حيث يكمن الفرق في قاعدة العمود.حيث أن القاعدة في الطراز التوسكاني اسطوانية.ولا توجد زخارف في هذا الطراز أخدية.

الطراز المركب
وسمي بالمركب لأنه مركب من الطراز الكورنثي والايوني.حيث أن شكل تاج العمود مكون من قسمين
 علوي مكون من زخارف العمود الايوني
 سفلي مكون من زخارف العمود الكورنثي

أنواع العمود

تختلف نوع العمود باختلاف المواد المكونة له.وهنالك الكثير من المواد المستخدمة لإنشاء الاعمدة نذكر منها
 الخشبي
ويتكون العمود من قطعة واحدة من الخشب أو حزمة مترابطة من الأخشاب وونجد هذا العمود مستعملاً في الخيام أو بعض الابنية الأثرية ويستخدم بكثرة كعنصر تجميلي.
 الحجري
ويتكون من قطعة واحدة من الحجر تنحت على اشكال مختلفة، ولايزال هذا النوع من الاعمدة مستخدما في عمليات الترمييم للأبنية التراثية ويستخدم أيضا كعنصر تجميلي.
 الخرساني
ويتكون من الخرسانة على أختلاف أنواعها.وهذا النوع يعد من أكثر الأنواع استعمالا في العصر الحالي وفي مختلف الابنية
 المعدني
وذالك عندما تدخل المعادن الصلبة في تكوين العمود كالحديد والالمنيوم والكربون وغيرها.وتتميز بمقاومة وكفاءة عالية وتستعمل هذه الأعمد بشكل كبير في الابنية الحديثة وخصوصا في ناطحات السحاب.
 المعدني المتحرك
حيث يتكون العمود من معادن ومعدات مكانيكية لتحريك العمود.

العوامل المؤثرة في العمود
يخضع العمود إلى عدة عوامل مؤثرة عليها نذكرمنها:
 الأحمال ويقصد بها مجموع الأوزان الضاغطة على العمود.
 التوازن ويقصد بها استقرار العمود في وضعه دون انحناء
 الاستقرار ويقصد بها استقرار قاعدة العمود منعاً للهبوط.

في العصر القديم كانت هذه العوامل مؤثرة جداً في تصميم العمود، حيث وضعت معادلات وقياسات ثابتة للعمود لتلافي هذه العوامل ومن هذه النظريات.
 ارتفاع العمود يساوي (12) ضعف قطره.(أعمدة الجامع الأموي الكبير)
 تلاشت هذه النظريات في العصر الحديث نظرا لتطور المواد المكونة للاعمدة.

العمود التجميلي

هو نوع من الاعمدة تقتصر وظيفته في الناحية التجميلية والرمزية.
المسلة
نوع من الأعمد التجميلية الفريدة والمميزة.

معرض صور

انظر أيضاً
 بهو معمد
 رواق معمد
 تاج العمود
 مخططات الترابط

مراجع

عناصر معمارية
نظام إنشائي
هندسة زلازل
أدوات ذكرت في القرآن
أعمدة ومعمدات

عمود (إنشاء)


Operacija Draufgänger (njem. Odvažan), u Jugoslaviji se nazivala i Andrijevička operacija, njemačka je operacija okruživanja koja se odvijala od 18. do 26. srpnja 1944. godine, u širem prostoru Andrijevice.

Povod operaciji
U prvoj polovici srpnja tu se prikupljala Operativna grupa divizija NOV-a (2., 5. i 17.), sa zadatkom prodranja u Toplicu i Jablanicu i da sa srpskim jedinicama potakne oslobodilačku borbu u Srbiji. Druga divizija nalazila se na položajima: 2. brigada (br.) od rijeke Zlorečice do Goleša, zatvarajući pravac Čakor — Andrijevica, 4. br. od Ostožera do Gradine, zatvarajući pravce od Turjaka i Vrbice, talijanska brigada Garibaldi kod sela Štitara, a 3. br. u pričuvi kod Berana (Ivangrad). Između 2. i 4. br. kod Kaludre, nalazila se bojna 9. br. 3. divizije, a 7. br te divizije kod sela Bioča. 5. divizija bila je na položajima od Bijelog Polja do Brodareva 4. i 1. br., a 10. br kod sela Šahovića. 17. divizija pristigla je 18. srpnja na prostor sela Graba. Primijetivši prikupljanje jedinica NOV, Nijemci su pokušali  iznenadnim i obuhvatnim napadom razbiti Operativnu grupu divizija i odbaciti je iz doline Lima na zapad. U toj operaciji njemačkim snagama zapovijedao je stožer V. SS gorskog korpusa sa sjedištem u Raškoj.

Tijek operacije

18. srpnja
Napad Nijemaca počeo je 18. srpnja kada su 21. SS divizija Skenderbeg, borbena grupa Strippel i 14. pukovnija 7. SS divizije Prinz Eugen upućeni pravcem: Murino — Andrijevica — Berane, borbena grupa Bendl pravcen: Turjak — Berane, a legija Krempler pravcem Bioče — Berane. Radi vezivanja jedinica NOV u dolini Lima od Bijelog Polja do Priboja, Nijemci su od Sjenice i Nove Varoši angažirali prema Brodarevu i Bijelom Polju 2 bojne pukovnije Brandenburg i dijelove 5. SS policijske pukovnije, a prema Priboju dijelove bugarske 24. divizije i četnički 4. jurišni korpus. U početku su 2. i 4. br. 2. divizije bile uvučene u teške obrambene borbe. Iskoristivši razvučeni raspored, 2. br, 21. SS divizije i 14. pukovnija 7. SS divizije izvršili su prodor kod Murinoa i ugrozili Andrijevicu. Da bi se ograničio njihov prodor, po 2 bojne 5. i 9. br. 3. divizije upućene su iz Kolašina u prostor Andrijcvice.

19. i 20. srpnja
U zoru 19. srpnja Nijemci su zauzeli Andrijevicu, potisnuli dijelove 2. i 9. br. do sela Prisoja, te 20. srpnja nastavili napad prema Beranima i do 21. srpnja odbacili 2. diviziju na položaj Kovačevo brdo — Vranja glava — Zmijina glava — Volujnik — Drezga — Lekino brdo. Na pravcima Turjak — Berane i Vrbica — Berane, Nijemci nisu imali uspjeha. Stožer 2. korpusa je noću 20. na 21. srpnja uputio 17. diviziju na Berane, 10. br. 5. divizije prema selu Pračevcu, a 1. br 5. divizije južno od Berana, sa zadatkom da napadnu njemačke snage u prostoru Andrijevice.

Protunapad partizanskih snaga

21. do 26. srpnja
Sutradan, 21. srpnja, 17. divizija smijenila je 4. br. 2. divizije i zauzela položaj: 15. br. od Gradine do Ivanovog brda, 2. br. prema Kacuberu, od Simovče do Ostožera, 6. br. u području Kaludre. Poslije smjene, 4. br. je 22. srpnja prešla u napad, zauzela Balj i selo Šekular, 23. srpnja izbila na Sjekiricu i ugrozila Nijemcima odstupnicu za Čakor. Dok su 2. i 3. divizija vezivale njemačke snage sjeverno i zapadno od Andrijevice, 17. divizija je s 2. br. zauzela Turjak, a s 6. br. prodrla istočno od Čakora. Za to vrijeme 5. divizija izbila je na greben Sjekirice i s dijelom snaga ovladala Čakorom i Devojačkim kršem, a 4. br. 2. divizije prodrla je do sela Gornje Ržanice. Pod pritiskom 2. i 3. divizije Nijemci su se povukli s Rujišta prema Andrijevici. Daljnjim napadima 2. i 3. brigade sjeverozapadno, i 9. brigade zapadno od Andrijevice, a uz sudjelovanje 5. brigade koja je preko Jerinje glave i Zeletina ugrožavala odstupnicu prema Murinou, što je Nijemci primoralo da napuste Andrijevicu. Pritiskom 2, 3. i 5. divizije, 21. SS divizija, 14. pukovnija 7. SS divizije i borbena grupa Strippel sabijeni su u obruč u prostoru Murinoa. U nastavku borbi, 25. srpnja, okružene njemačke snage pretrpjele su teške gubitke, a 21. SS divizija potpuno je razbijena i zbog pretrpljenih gubitaka kasnije svedena na borbenu grupu Skenderbeg.

Stožer 2. korpusa, ostavivši 5. i 9. brigadu 3. divizije za uništenje preostalih okruženih njemačkih snaga, naredio je da se Operativna grupa divizija prikupi južno od Berana radi izvršenja glavnog zadatka – prodor u Srbiju.

Završetak vojnih djelovanja
Borbe 5. i 9. brigade s okruženim neprijateljem odužile su se do 1. kolovoza, ali se 14. pukovnija 7. SS divizije probila preko Čakora prema Peću, a dijelovi borbene grupe Strippel i ostaci 21. SS divizije, nakon što su pretrpili velike gubitke, prema Rožaju i albanskoj granici.

Literatura
 "Andrijevica", U: Vojna enciklopedija, sv. 1., Beograd: Izdanje redakcije Vojne enciklopedije, 1970., str. 145. – 146.
 D. Trifunovid i P. Babac, Prodor Operativne grupe divizija u Srbiju, Vojno-istorijaki glasnik, br. 6/1951.
 N. Jovićevič, Od pete ofanzive do slobode, Beograd, 1955.

Draufgänger
Draufgänger
Crna Gora u Drugom svjetskom ratu
Povijest Albanije
Srbija u Drugom svjetskom ratu

Operacija Draufgänger


Foton çiftleri, birbiri ile aynı özelliği gösteren iki fotondan oluşur.

Aralarında hiçbir fiziksel bağ olmamasına karşı, herhangi birine etki edildiği zaman iki çift de aynı tepkiyi verirler.

Örnek olarak, bir foton Ay'a gönderilse ve Dünya'daki eşi uyarılsa aynı anda fiziksel bir bağ olmamasına rağmen diğer foton da uyarılır.

Foton çiftleri hakkında bilimsel bir açıklama henüz yapılamamıştır, çiftler arasındaki iletişimin telepati yoluyla olduğu sölenmektedir. Ayrıca, Einstein foton çiftleri için spooky (ürkütücü) kelimesini kullanmıştır. Bu konu kuantum dolanıklığı başlığı altında incelenen kuantum mekaniği konusudur. Eskiden denilen telepati tabiri şimdi aynı süper pozisyon altındaki iki atom altı parçacığın birbirleri ile etkileşime geçen bir kuantum duruma geçmesidir. Einstein EPR Paradoksu (iki dolanık  parçacığın  hakkındaki makalesinde böyle bir şey olmayacağını açıkladı fakat 2022 Nobel Fizik ödülü ile kuantum dolanıklıklığı kanıtlandı. Kuantum mekaniğine göre, bazı koşullar altında, çift kuantum sistemleri, çift sistemde gerçekleşen deneylerin sonuçlarının olasılıklarını kodlayan tek bir dalganın işleviyle tanımlanabilir. Yani temelde iki dolanık parçacığın olasılıklarını kodlayan, tek bir dalga fonksiyonunun işlevi ile tanımlanır. Bu sayede foton çiftleri arasında bir telepati olmadığı açıklanır. Ayrıca ilk kuantum dolanıklık deneyi foton çiftleri ile yapılmıştır.

Elektromanyetizma
Çift
Optik

Foton çiftleri


Rapla, Estonya'nın iç kesimlerinde 2.980 km2'lik yüzölçümü, 38.000 nüfusu olan bir ildir.

Belediyeleri:

 Juuru
 Järvakandi
 Kaiu
 Kehtna
 Kohila
 Käru
 Märjamaa
 Raikküla
 Rapla
 Vigala

Galeri

Rapla (il)

Rapla (il)


Olaylar
 15 Aralık - III. Murat 12. Osmanlı padişahı olarak tahta çıktı

Doğumlar

Ölümler
 15 Aralık - II. Selim Osmanlı padişahı

1574


Balasagun (Arapça: بلاساغون; Farsça: بلاساغون; Çince: 八剌沙衮; Bālàshāgǔn; başka isimleri; Karabalsagun, Koz Ordu, Koz Uluş, Kuz Uluş), Eski Çağ'da Soğdiana, günümüzde Kırgızistan'da, Çu Nehri vadisinde Bişkek ile Issık Gölü arasında tarihî bir şehirdir.

Balasagun adı Bala veya Bal ve sagun iki kelimenin birleşmesinden oluştuğu sanılır.

Balasagun, Soğdlar soyları İran'dan tahmin edilen insanlar tarafından ve Soğdca dili 11. yüzyıla kadar bu şehirde kullanılırdı.. Türk Dili'nin en eski ve değerli sözlüklerinden Divân-ı Lügati't-Türk'te Balasagun'a gelip yerleşmiş olan bir ulustur. Bunlar "Soğd" dandırlar. "صْغد Soğd", Buhara ile Semerkand arasındadır. Bunlar, Türk kılığını almışlar, Türk huyu ile huylanmışlardır.

Orta Asya'da, bugünkü Kırgızistan sınırları içerisinde Aral Gölü'nün doğusunda yer alan ve Türgiş, Karahanlı, Kara Hıtay'ın merkezi olmuştur. Kutadgu Bilig'in yazarı Yusuf Has Hacib (يوسف خاصّ حاجب Yūsuf Khāṣṣ Ḥājib Balasağuni), 11. yüzyılda Balasagun şehrinde Dünya'ya geldi.

Balasagun, Divân-ı Lügati't-Türk'te yer alan haritada Türk illerinin merkezi olarak gösterilir ve Türkistan'da bir şehir adı olarak tanımlanmış, ayrıca Zanbı art (زانبى ارت) "Koçnğar başı" ile "Balasagun" arasında bir dağ geçiti. ve "يون ارق Yun arık" "Balgasuna yakın bir yayla adı." gibi bilgiler verilmiştir. Burana şehir kalıntısında gerçekleştirilen kazılar sonucunda elde edilen eserlerin büyük bir kısmını X.-XII. yüzyıla ait olan seramik eşyalar oluşturmaktadır. Bu eserler arasında en ilginç olan eser ise Kuz-Ordu da basılan ve Hicrî 424–447 yıllarına (1032–1056) ait olan para olmuştur.

Hicrî 531, Milâdi 1137 yılında Kara Hıtaylı Gūr Han Balgasun'u Karahanlılardan ele geçirmiş, ordu kampını Çu (Ču) vadisinde kente yakın Ḵosun-ordu'da (anlamı, güçlü ordu) yerleştirmiştir.

Balasagun, Moğollar tarafından 1218 yılında işgal edilene kadar Karahıtay Hanlığı'na başkentlik yapmıştır. Moğollar Balasagun'un ismini Gobalıq (güzel şehir) olarak değiştirmişlerdir. Yıllar boyunca bölgenin cazibe merkezi olan şehir, bu özelliğini Moğol işgali ile yavaş yavaş kaybetmiştir.

Ünlü Burana Kulesi ve ona ait olan Balasagun harabeleri Çuy İli sınırı içindeki Burana köyü yakınında konumlanır. Çuy vadisinde, bir zamanlar ünlü ve güçlü üç büyük şehir vardı: Balasagun, Suyab ve Nevkat, bunlar Kırgız azmanların (sıradağlar) yakınlarında birbirine çok yakın konumlanırdı.

Resimler

Notlar

Dış bağlantılar

 Tarihi Türk Şehri Balasagun Hakkında Yeni İncelemeler

Kırgızistan'daki şehirler
Kırgızistan'daki arkeolojik sitler
Çuy İli
İpek Yolu'ndaki şehirler

Balasagun


Le canalicule tympanique (ou canal tympanique ou canal de Jacobson) est un petit canal creusé dans l'os pétreux.

Il s'ouvre en bas sur la crête entre la fosse jugulaire et l'ouverture externe du canal carotidien.

Il se dirige en haut et latéralement pour déboucher dans la cavité tympanique.

Il permet le passage du nerf tympanique et de l'artère tympanique inférieure.

Notes et références

Crâne

Canalicule tympanique


Granville Hicks (9 de setembro de 1901 - 18 de junho de 1982) foi um marxista norte-americano e, mais tarde, romancista antimarxista, crítico literário, educador e editor.

Ativismo político
Hicks foi um crítico literário marxista altamente influente na década de 1930, conhecido por seu envolvimento em várias causas célebres (incluindo sua renúncia bem divulgada do Partido Comunista dos EUA em 1939). Ele estabeleceu sua reputação como um importante crítico literário com a publicação de 1933 de The Great Tradition: An Interpretation of American Literature since the Civil War, uma história sistemática da literatura americana de uma perspectiva marxista.

Em 1932, ele votou na chapa do Partido Comunista e se juntou a quase todos os grupos de frente comunistas significativos na década de 1930. Em 1934, Hicks ingressou no próprio Partido Comunista e tornou-se editor de sua revista cultural, The New Masses.

Em 1935, Hicks foi demitido de seu cargo de professor no Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, que ele alegou ter motivação política, embora os funcionários da escola negassem. Ele continuou a lecionar em várias instituições, mas dedicou cada vez mais seu tempo à escrita. Em 1936, Hicks foi convidado a co-escrever John Reed: The Making of a Revolutionary, uma biografia do jornalista radical John Reed. O secretário-geral do Partido Comunista, Earl Browder, pressionou Hicks para remover várias passagens que refletiam negativamente na União Soviética, mas no final, o livro foi elogiado por sua apresentação imparcial e imparcial.

Em 1939, em protesto contra o Pacto Molotov-Ribbentrop, Hicks renunciou ao Partido Comunista. Ele tentou organizar uma organização alternativa independente de esquerda, mas com pouco sucesso. Em 1940, ele havia renunciado inteiramente ao comunismo e se autodenominava um socialista democrático. No mesmo ano, ele escreveu um ensaio para The Nation, "The Blind Alley of Marxism". Na década de 1950, Hicks testemunhou perante o Comitê de Atividades Antiamericanas da Câmara duas vezes. Em um ensaio de 1951 no Commentary, ele explicou que o comunismo "não permite neutralidade. A liquidação de neutros é uma de suas especialidades". Seu objetivo é o "totalitarismo revolucionário brutal".

Escritor e editor
O trabalho seminal de Hicks, Small Town, baseado em suas experiências em Grafton, Nova York, foi publicado em 1946. Por três anos (1955–58), ele ensinou redação de romances na New School for Social Research em Nova York. Foi professor visitante na New York University (1959), Syracuse University (1960) e Ohio University (1967–68). Ele foi o diretor da comunidade de artistas Yaddo a partir de 1942 e mais tarde atuou como seu diretor executivo interino. Por 35 anos (1930–65), ele foi o consultor literário da Macmillan Publishers.

Bibliografia
Além de seus livros, Hicks escreveu uma série de artigos para várias publicações, incluindo American Mercury, Saturday Review, Pacific Weekly, Antioch Review, Harper's, Sewanee Review, New York Times Book Review, The Bookman, Esquire, New Republic, e Nation. Ele também escreveu a introdução de Ten Days that Shook the World, de John Reed (Modern Library (Nova York: Modern Library, 1935).

Não ficção

 Eight Ways of Looking at Christianity, Nova York: Macmillan, 1926.
 The Great Tradition: An Interpretation of American Literature since the Civil War, Nova York: Macmillan, 1933, revisado em 1933, edição revisada com um novo prefácio e posfácio, New York: Quadrangle, 1969.
 One of Us: The Story of John Reed, Nova York: Equinox Cooperative Press, 1935.
 (Editor, with others) Proletarian Literature in the United States, Nova York: International Publishers, 1935.
 (Com John Stuart) John Reed: The Making of a Revolutionary, Nova York: Macmillan, 1936; reimpresso, Nova York: Arno, 1968.
 I Like America, Nova York: Modern Age Books, 1938.
 Figures of Transition: A Study of British Literature at the End of the Nineteenth Century, Nova York: Macmillan, 1939; reimpresso, Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1969.
 Small Town, Nova York: Macmillan, 1946, reimpresso, Nova York: Fordham University Press, 2004.
 Where We Came Out, Nova York: Viking, 1954.
 Part of the Truth (autobiografia), Nova York: Harcourt, 1965.
 James Gould Cozzens, Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Press, 1966.
 Literary Horizons: A Quarter Century of American Fiction, Nova York: Nova York University Press, 1970.
 Granville Hicks in the New Masses, Port Washington, NY: Kennikat, 1974.

Ficção

 The First to Awaken, Nova York: Macmillan, 1940.
 Only One Storm, Nova York: Macmillan, 1942.
 Behold Trouble, Nova York: Macmillan, 1944.
 There was a Man in our Town, Nova York: Viking, 1952.

Morte e legado
Hicks morreu em 18 de junho de 1982 em Franklin Park, Nova Jersey.

Críticos literários dos Estados Unidos

Granville Hicks


Tre'shaun "Tre" Albert Mann (Gainesville, 3 de fevereiro de 2001) é um jogador norte-americano de basquete profissional que atualmente joga no Oklahoma City Thunder da National Basketball Association (NBA).

Ele jogou basquete universitário pela Universidade da Florida e foi selecionado pelo Thunder como a 18º escolha geral no draft da NBA de 2021.

Carreira no ensino médio
Mann jogou basquete no ensino médio na The Villages Charter em The Villages, Flórida. Em seu terceiro ano, ele teve médias de 20 pontos e 5,6 rebotes mas sofreu uma ruptura no menisco do joelho direito na final estadual.

Em sua última temporada, Mann teve médias de 23,6 pontos e 4,9 rebotes e foi nomeado Jogador do Ano do Distrito pelo Daily Commercial. Ele foi selecionado para jogar no McDonald's All-American Game e no Jordan Brand Classic.

Recrutamento
Mann foi considerado um recruta de cinco estrelas pela 247Sports e pela Rivals e um recruta de quatro estrelas pela ESPN. Em 28 de agosto de 2018, ele se comprometeu a jogar basquete universitário na Universidade da Florida e rejeitou as ofertas de Kansas, Tennessee e Carolina do Norte.

Carreira universitária
Em seu primeiro jogo na Universidade da Florida, Mann registrou 11 pontos e quatro rebotes na vitória por 74-59 sobre North Florida. Ele teve média de 5,3 pontos como calouro. Após a temporada, ele se declarou para o draft da NBA de 2020. Em 7 de julho de 2020, Mann anunciou que estava voltando para a Flórida, em parte devido à possibilidade de ser titular.

Em sua estreia em sua segunda temporada, Mann marcou 19 pontos na vitória por 76-69 contra Army. Em 12 de março de 2021, ele marcou 30 pontos em uma derrota por 78-66 para o Tennessee nas quartas de final do Torneio da SEC. Em seu segundo ano, Mann teve médias de 16 pontos, 5,6 rebotes, 3,5 assistências e 1,4 roubos de bola e foi nomeado para a Primeira-Equipe da SEC pelos treinadores da liga e para a Segunda-Equipe da SEC pela mídia. Em 24 de março, ele se declarou para o draft da NBA de 2021, renunciando à elegibilidade universitária restante.

Carreira profissional

Oklahoma City Thunder (2021–Presente)
Mann foi selecionado pelo Oklahoma City Thunder como a 18ª escolha geral no draft da NBA de 2021. Em 8 de agosto de 2021, ele assinou um contrato de 4 anos e US$14 milhões com o Thunder.

Em 9 de abril de 2023, Mann registrou seu primeiro triplo-duplo da carreira com 24 pontos, 12 rebotes e 12 assistências na vitória contra o Memphis Grizzlies.

Estatísticas da carreira

NBA

Temporada regular

Universitário

Fonte:

Links externos

 Biografia do Florida Gators

Basquetebolistas do Oklahoma City Thunder
Pessoas vivas
Nascidos em 2001
Naturais de Gainesville (Flórida)
Basquetebolistas da Flórida

Tre Mann


Stema municipiului Sfântu Gheorghe a fost aprobată în 1997. Acesta se compune dintr-un scut triunghiular cu marginile rotunjite. În câmp albastru, pe 3 coline verzi, se află un zid de cetate crenelat, cu două turnuri crenelate, de aur, întrerupt în mijloc de o turlă de biserică de culoare albă, cu poarta neagră, având gratiile argintii ridicate. Deasupra turnului din dreapta se află un soare de aur, figurat, iar deasupra celui din stânga, o semilună de argint, crescătoare, strălucind. Colina din mijloc mai înaltă este încărcată cu o efigie. Scutul este trimbrat de o coroană murală de argint cu 7 turnuri crenelate.

Semnificațiile elementelor însumate:
 Turla bisericii este singurul monument medieval al localității.
 Cetatea semnifică faptul că localitatea a avut rang de oraș medieval.
 Soarele simbolizează curajul și demnitatea, iar luna, puritatea morală a localnicilor.
 Efigia, reprezentând scena învingerii balaurului de către cavalerul Sfântu Gheorghe, redat negru pe aur, face trimitere la denumirea localității.
 Coroana murală cu 7 turnuri crenelate semnifică faptul că localitatea are rangul de municipiu-reședință de județ.

Legături externe
 Hotărârea nr. 510/2007 privind aprobarea stemei municipiului Sfântu Gheorghe, județul Covasna

 Stemele municipiilor din România
 Sfântu Gheorghe

Stema municipiului Sfântu Gheorghe


The Toliara Province (formerly Toliary or Tuléar) is a former province of Madagascar with an area of . It had a population of 2,229,550 (July, 2001). Its capital was Toliara. Near Toliara was the "spiny forest".

Toliara Province bordered the following provinces – Mahajanga Province in the north, Antananarivo Province in the northeast and Fianarantsoa Province in the east. Masikoro Malagasy and Tandroy Malagasy were the chief languages. Sea cucumbers were exported from the province and were an important factor in its economy. The deciduous Andronovory forest was located in the province.

The province was the poorest one in Madagascar. In 1993, 8 in every 10 person of the province was living below the poverty line. Despite the production of export crops the province recorded the highest rural poverty. The average fertility rate per woman was above 5. With 77 percent of its population being illiterate, Tolaira was the most illiterate province of Madagascar. Only 22 percent of the province's population had received primary level education.

The commercially valuable softwood tree Givotia madagascariensis, found in Antananarivo and Toliara provinces was endemic to Madagascar. The oil producing plant moringa drouhardii was endemic to Toliara province. Deforestation was a major issue for the province. In April 1971, a peasant rebellion was organised by MONIMA leader Monja Joana. The peasants refused to pay taxes and the government retaliated by dissolving MONIMA and deporting Joana.

Toliara province offered poor transport and security facilities. Potable water was accessible to only 24.9% of the province's households. It was rich in terms of minerals. Toliara province was in the news in July 2005 for its mining activity.

Abolition

The provinces were abolished following the results of Malagasy constitutional referendum, 2007 which led to the formation of 22 smaller areas (faritra or regions) to facilitate regional development.

Administrative divisions

Toliara Province was divided into four regions of Madagascar - Androy, Anosy, Atsimo Andrefana and Menabe. These four regions became the first-level administrative divisions when the provinces were abolished in 2009. They are sub-divided into 21 districts:

 Androy region:
 Ambovombe-Androy
 Bekily
 Beloha
 Tsiombe
 Anosy region:
 Amboasary Sud
 Betroka
 Taolanaro
 Atsimo-Andrefana region:
 Ampanihy Ouest
 Ankazoabo
 Benenitra
 Beroroha
 Betioky-Atsimo
 Morombe
 Sakaraha
 Toliara II
 Toliara
 Menabe region:
 Belon'i Tsiribihina
 Mahabo
 Manja
 Miandrivazo
 Morondava

References

Bibliography

Provinces of Madagascar

Toliara Province


Velika (en cirílico, Велика; "grande" (fem.) en las lenguas eslavas meridionales) puede referirse a:
Velika (Bulgaria).
Velika (Croacia).
Velika (Lárisa), un pueblo en la playa, en Tesalia, Grecia.
Velika (obispado), un obispado medieval asociada con Clemente de Ohrid.
Velika, un Matoran en el mundo de Bionicle.

Velika


Algimantas Mykolas Dailidė (* 12. März 1921 in Kaunas; † 2015 in Deutschland (Kirchberg?)) war ein litauisches Mitglied der Sicherheitspolizei Saugumas. Er stand auf der Liste der meistgesuchten Nazi-Kriegsverbrecher. 1944 floh mit einem Pferdewagen gemeinsam mit seinem Onkel vor den anrückenden Russen nach Deutschland. Er heiratete 1945 in Bamberg die Deutsche Ruth Anneliese Meyer aus Greiz in Thüringen. 1950 erfolgte die Auswanderung in die USA. Das Ehepaar bekam zwei Söhne. In den USA arbeitete er erst in einer Brauerei und später als Geschäftsmann. Er arbeitete später bis zu seinem Ruhestand als Immobilienmakler. Danach zog er sich nach Gulfport, Florida zurück. Nach Öffnung der Archive in Litauen nach der wiedererlangten Unabhängigkeit wurde seine Mitgliedschaft in der Saugumas den amerikanischen Behörden bekannt und seine amerikanische Staatsbürgerschaft widerrufen. Daher wurde er 2003 abgeschoben. Ab 2003 lebte er in Kirchberg in Sachsen, weil dort ein Cousin seiner Frau lebte.

Im Jahre 2006 stellte sich Dailidė den litauischen Behörden. Ein litauisches Gericht beschuldigte ihn, zwölf Juden, die aus dem Ghetto Vilnius geflohen waren, erneut gefangen genommen zu haben, um sie von den Nazis exekutieren zu lassen. Außerdem wurde er verurteilt, zwei Polen aus politischen Gründen gefangen genommen zu haben. Das litauische Gericht verurteilte ihn zwar zu fünf Jahren Haft, er müsse aber, so das Gericht, aufgrund seines Alters und da er keine Gefahr für die Bevölkerung mehr darstelle, seine Haftstrafe nicht antreten.

Im Jahr 2008 berichtete die israelische Tageszeitung Haaretz, dass Dailide mit seiner Frau wieder in Kirchberg lebte und von der deutschen Rente seiner Frau lebte.

Er wurde auf dem Spring Grove Cemetery in Medina (Ohio) begraben. Dort ist auch seine Ruth Anneliese Dailide (1916–2009) und sein Sohn Al Dailide (1950–2012) begraben.

Seltsamerweise wurde er noch im Dezember 2018 vom Simon Wiesenthal Center – Israel Office in der List of Nazi War Criminals Slated for Possible Prosecution in 2019 (Liste der Nazi-Kriegsverbrecher, die 2019 vor Gericht gestellt werden könnten) aufgeführt.

Weblinks
 Der Kollaborateur von Kirchberg Artikel in Welt Online.

Einzelnachweise

Operation Last Chance
Person (litauische Kollaboration)
Person (Kaunas)
Verurteilte Person (NS-Kriegsverbrechen)
Litauer
Geboren 1921
Gestorben 2015
Mann

Algimantas Dailidė


Bobo Forro é uma aldeia na parte nordeste da ilha de São Tomé em São Tomé e Príncipe, parte do distrito de Mé-Zóchi . Sua população é de 715 (censo de 2012). está 3 km a sudoeste do centro da cidade da capital São Tomé, e 4 km a nordeste de Trindade. A vila adjacente no Distrito de Água Grande também é chamada de Bobo Forro.

Mercado
A aldeia tem um mercado que, no ano de 2020, começou a receber feirantes que até então trabalhavam nas ruas da capital são-tomense. Na ocasião foram propostas obras de alargamento do mercado com o investimento previsto em 2 milhões de dólares; no entanto, com a pandemia de COVID-19, houve quem defendesse que investimentos na contenção da doença seriam prioritários. As obras foram finalmente inauguradas em fevereiro de 2022, com inauguração da primeira etapa e lançamento da segunda etapa acontecendo em julho do mesmo ano.

Histórico da população

Referências

!Artigos com coordenadas no Wikidata
Mé-Zóchi

Bobo Forro


L'ajo nell'imbarazzo es una ópera bufa en dos actos con música de Gaetano Donizetti y libreto en italiano de Jacopo Ferretti. Se estrenó en el Teatro Valle de Roma el 4 de febrero de 1824. En España se representó por vez primera en el año 1828, en el Teatro de la Santa Cruz de Barcelona.

Donizetti adaptó esta ópera en el año 1826, con un título nuevo, Don Gregorio. Es una ópera poco representada. En las estadísticas de Operabase aparece con sólo 1 representación en el período 2005-2010.

Notas

Óperas basadas en piezas de teatro
Óperas de 1824
Óperas de Gaetano Donizetti
Óperas en italiano
Óperas estrenadas en Roma

L'ajo nell'imbarazzo


Insurgency: Sandstorm é um jogo eletrônico multijogador de tiro tático em primeira pessoa desenvolvido pela New World Interactive e publicado pela Focus Home Interactive. O jogo é uma sequência do jogo Insurgency (2014). Ambientado em uma região fictícia sem nome do Oriente Médio, o jogo retrata um conflito entre duas facções: "Security" (Segurança), vagamente baseado em vários militares do mundo (ou seja, forças da OTAN; SOCOM dos EUA; as forças armadas do Iraque, Afeganistão e Síria; YPG e YPJ curdos; e empresas militares privadas ocidentais) e "Insurgents" (Insurgentes), vagamente baseados em vários grupos paramilitares e terroristas (ou seja, EIIL, Talibã, Al-Qaeda, desertores de segurança e mercenários russos implícitos).

Insurgency: Sandstorm foi anunciado oficialmente em fevereiro de 2016 para o Microsoft Windows. Foi lançado em 12 de dezembro de 2018 para Windows; as versões Linux e macOS anunciadas anteriormente do jogo foram canceladas. As versões PlayStation 4 e Xbox One passaram por vários atrasos e foram lançados juntamente com as versões para PlayStation 5 e Xbox Series X/S em 29 de setembro de 2021.

Insurgency: Sandstorm recebeu elogios da crítica por sua jogabilidade realista, design de níveis, design de som, atmosfera, gráficos e animações fluidas, mas foi criticado por seus problemas técnicos e otimização, com alguns lamentando o cancelamento da campanha de história planejada.

Jogos eletrônicos de 2018
Jogos de tiro em primeira pessoa com multijogador online
Jogos de tiro tático
Jogos eletrônicos com Unreal Engine
Sequências de jogos eletrônicos
Jogos eletrônicos desenvolvidos nos Estados Unidos
Jogos eletrônicos ambientados no Oriente Médio
Jogos para múltiplos jogadores online
Jogos para Windows
Jogos para PlayStation 4
Jogos para PlayStation 5
Jogos para Xbox One
Jogos para Xbox Series X e Series S

Insurgency: Sandstorm


Mariane Gaburro (nacida em 26 de setembro de 1993, em Mogi das Cruzes) é uma jogadora de futebol brasiliana naturalizada italiana, atacante do Fiammamonza.

Características técnicas
Avanço rápido, com bons dribles, com propensão a ajudar.

Biografia
Mariane nasceu no Brasil, em Mogi das Cruzes, mesma cidade natal de Neymar, no Estado de São Paulo, mas aos 4 anos foi adotada por uma família italiana e adquiriu sua nacionalidade. Já aos 5 anos se apaixonou pelo futebol.

Carreira
Mariane Gaburro começou a jogar nas categorias de base mistas até 2007, altura em que chega à sua equipe principal com uma formação inteiramente feminina, a Sovicese, sendo incluída na equipe que joga na Série D. Depois de apenas uma temporada, ela foi contatada por Fiammamonza, que lhe ofereceu a oportunidade de vestir a camisa do time e participar do Campeonato da Primavera.

Com o clube de Monza logo foi convocada para a primeira equipe, jogando na Serie A da temporada 2008-2009 e, depois de ser rebaixada para a Serie A2, contribuindo na temporada 2011-2012 para a reconquista da posição na primeira divisão do Campeonato italiano de futebol feminino. Gaburro permaneceu no Fiammamonza até o final da temporada 2012-2013, saindo com um ativo de 28 gols em 95 jogos.

No verão de 2013, depois de avaliar várias propostas, ele decidiu assinar um contrato com o San Zaccaria, um clube de Ravenna, que joga no campeonato da Série B e visa a promoção. Com o San Zaccaria, no final da temporada 2013-2014, contribuiu para conquistar a histórica promoção à primeira divisão, ao marcar 10 gols em 17 jogos.

No final da temporada, no verão de 2014, ela foi emprestada ao AC Seattle, time feminino da cidade norte-americana de mesmo nome que participa da Women's Premier Soccer League (WPSL), o segundo escalão do futebol feminino da  organização de futebol americano.

Com o San Zaccaria ela também permaneceu na temporada seguinte, sendo usada 12 vezes, muitas vezes começando no banco, e indo para a rede em apenas duas ocasiões, em ambas a única a marcar um gol pelo time de Ravenna, mas também não decisiva para vencer os jogos: 1-2 contra a Riviera di Romagna, no dia 18; e 1-2 contra o AGSM Verona, no dia 26, último dia do campeonato regular. Também estava no time que jogou o play-out contra o Riviera di Romagna, apesar de não entrar em campo, ela comemorou a vitória por 2 a 1 com as companheiras e o direito de permanecer na Série A também para o campeonato que está por vir. Esse foi o seu último jogo com a Romagna, despedindo-se com um placar pessoal de 12 gols marcados em 29 partidas.

Durante a época de transferências do verão de 2015, ele entrou em acordo com o recém-aposentado Como 2000, na Série B, que está determinado a integrá-la em sua equipe para buscar uma rápida promoção à primeira divisão, e onde encontrou algumas companheiras de Fiammamonza. Gaburro estava no time escalado para a primeira parte da temporada, marcando 6 gols em tantas partidas. Mas, durante a época de transferências de inverno, ela se libertou para enfrentar a aventura da Virtus Romagna, uma empresa de Bellaria-Igea Marina, a partir do Regional Série C.

No final da temporada 2016-2017, mudou-se para Fiammamonza.

Estatísticas

Prêmios

 Campionato italiano di Serie A2: 1

 Fiammamonza: 2011-2012

 Campionato italiano di Serie B: 1

 San Zaccaria: 2013-2014

Futebolistas do Brasil
Futebolistas da Itália

Mariane Gaburro