Killdozer war eine US-amerikanische Noise-Rock-Band aus Madison, Wisconsin.

Geschichte
Die Band wurde 1983 von Bill und Dan Hobson und Michael Gerald gegründet. Der Name ist einem Fernsehfilm aus dem Jahr 1974 entlehnt, der sich als Remake auf eine Novelle von Theodore Sturgeon aus dem Jahr 1944 bezog. Das erste Album Intellectuals are the Shoeshine Boys of the Ruling Elite erschien noch im gleichen Jahr. 1989 ersetzte Tom Hazelmyer, der drei Jahre zuvor Amphetamine Reptile gegründet hatte und bei Halo of Flies spielte, Bill Hobson, der dann später wieder für kurze Zeit bei Killdozer mitspielte. 1990 löste die Band sich zunächst auf, wurde aber 1993 für drei Jahre mit Paul Zagoras anstelle von Bill Hobson als Gitarristen reformiert. Die Abschiedstour lief unter dem Namen "Fuck you, we quit". Die Tour wurde mit Erik Tunison von Die Kreuzen anstelle von Dan Hobson am Schlagzeug und Jeff Ditzenberger (zweite Gitarre) abgehalten.

Killdozer veröffentlichten neun Alben, einschließlich einer postumen Live-Breakup-CD unter dem Titel The Last Waltz. 2006 spielten sie auf einem Event zum 25. Geburtstag von Touch and Go Records in Chicago, Illinois, unter dem Titel "Fuck you, we reunite!". Für 2008 wurden einige Anschlusskonzerte von Touch and Go angekündigt. In der Zwischenzeit spielte Dan Hobson in unterschiedlichen Bands (zum Beispiel Cement Pond). Die Band veröffentlichte auf Touch and Go während der 1980er / 1990er und tourte mit anderen Bands des Labels wie zum Beispiel den Butthole Surfers, Scratch Acid und Big Black. Killdozer wurde auch von Butch Vig (Geffen Records, siehe auch Nirvana) und Steve Albini (Big Black) produziert. Twelve Point Buck war das Album, das Butch Vig zum Durchbruch verhalf, indem er im Anschluss von Kurt Cobain und Billy Corgan (The Smashing Pumpkins) entdeckt wurde. Michael Gerald ist heute Anwalt in Los Angeles und sang 2007 noch einmal für die Band den Titel Hunchback (für eine Coverversion von Christina Aguileras Hit Beautiful), Bill Hobson arbeitet in der Filmproduktion in Los Angeles.

Stil

Die Band war bekannt für ihre extralangsamen, durchgedrehten Songs und ihren schwarzen Humor. Michael Gerald (Bass und Gesang) grölte die Stücke eher als er sie sang, der ganze Habitus der Band war betont rüpelhaft und bratzig, die Musik dabei warm und rund gemischt. Killdozer wurden bekannt als eine der ersten Grunge-Bands, auch wenn diese Stilrichtung sich zuallererst mit der Seattle-Musikszene verband / verbindet. Der Sound ist zum Teil vergleichbar mit der Amerikanischen Band Flipper, den Melvins, ebenso kann auch die Band The Birthday Party und – durch die Verwendung von Bläsersätzen – der Classic Rock der 1970er Jahre zu den Einflüssen gezählt werden. Es entstanden auch eine Reihe von Coverversionen, dazu zählen zum Beispiel Neil Youngs Cinnamon Girl, Don McLeans American Pie (eine Version gibt es auf ihrem 1989er Album For Ladies Only, das ausschließlich Coverversionen enthält), Lynyrd Skynyrds Sweet Home Alabama, Deep Purples Hush, Lee Hazlewoods Poor Man und Jessi Colters I'm not Lisa (auf Burl, 1986, später enthalten auf der CD Uncompromising War on Art Under the Dictatorship of the Proletariat, 1994). Zu Killdozers überbreit angelegten Stücken wurden stupende Textideen bis hin zu Einsendungen von Textvorschlägen durch Fans entworfen. Die Texte sind zum Teil von einer parodistischen Distanz getragen, die wie ein doppelter Boden die Lebensverhältnisse (nicht nur) der amerikanischen Gesellschaft widerspiegelt. Der ganze Gestus der Band legt es auf eine zum Teil vielleicht als Zynismus zu verstehende Kommentierung der real-zynischen Umstände des Homo Consumus an, so zum Beispiel auf Twelve Point Buck (produziert von Butch Vig) in einer Actionfilmparodie (Man vs Nature).

Diskografie

Alben
The Last Waltz (1997, Man's Ruin Records, wiederveröffentlicht 2006 auf Crustacean Records)
God Hears the Pleas of the Innocent (Touch and Go, 1995)
Uncompromising War on Art Under the Dictatorship of the Proletariat (Touch and Go, 1994)
Twelve Point Buck (Touch and Go, 1991)
For Ladies Only (Touch and Go, 1989)
Little Baby Buntin'  (Touch and Go, 1987)
Burl EP (Touch and Go, 1986)
Snake Boy (Touch and Go, 1985)
Intellectuals Are the Shoeshine Boys of the Ruling Elite (Touch and Go, 1984)

Singles
Go Big Red (Sonnet '96 / I Saw The Light) (-ismist Recordings, 1996)
Michael Gerald's Party Machine (Touch and Go, 1996) mit Alice Donut
We Will Crush You 10" Kollaboration mit Ritual Device (Man's Ruin Records, 1995)
The Pig Was Cool / Unbelievable (Touch and Go, 1993)
Her Mother's Sorrow / Short Eyes (Amphetamine Reptile, 1989)
Yow! (Lupus / Nasty) (Touch and Go, 1989)
Short Eyes (mit Tom Hazelmyer)

Weblinks

Killdozer bei Myspace
Killdozer bei Touch and Go Records
Trouser Press Artikel

WFMU 2008

Mark Prindles Seite zu Killdozers Tonträgern
Brett Emerson:
Fotostrecke Final Show bei Emo's Red River, 2012

Einzelnachweise

Noise-Rock-Band
Post-Rock-Band
US-amerikanische Band

Killdozer (Band)


مثبطات الإنزيمات   هي جزيئات ترتبط بالإنزيمات وتقلل من نشاطها بشكل مؤقت أو دائم.

ربط المثبط يمكن أن يوقف المادة الركيزة من دخول موقع الإنزيم النشط و/أو منع الإنزيم من تحفيز تفاعله. وهناك نوعين للمثبطات، إما انعكاسية أو لا انعكاسية. المثبطات اللا انعكاسية عادة تتفاعل مع الانزيم وتغيره كيميائيا (عن طريق تشكيل الروابط التساهمية). هذه المثبطات توجد لتعديل بقايا الأحماض الأمينية الرئيسة اللازمة للنشاط الأنزيمي. في المقابل، يوجد مثبطات انعكاسية التي ترتبط بروابط غير تساهمية، وأنواع مختلفة من المثبطات تـُنتج اعتمادا عما إذا كانت هذه مثبطات لربط إنزيم ما، أو مجموع الانزيم والمادة الركيزة، أو كليهما. العديد من جزيئات الدواء مثبطة للإنزيمات، لذلك فإن اكتشافها وتحسينها هو مجال نشط جدا في بحوث  الكيمياء الحيوية والصيدلة.

وكثيرا ما يحكم على مثبط الإنزيم الطبي حسب تصنيفه (افتقاره لرابطة ببروتينات أخرى) وفاعليته (حسب  ثابت التفكك الخاص به، الذي يعطي تركيزه الضروري لتثبيط الانزيم). فإذا كانت تلك الخاصتين عالية له فهذا يعني أن الدواء سيكون له آثارا جانبية قليلة، وبالتالي تكون درجة سميته منخفضة.

مثبطات الانزيم تحدث أيضا بشكل طبيعي وتشارك في تنظيم عملية الأيض. على سبيل المثال، الإنزيمات في المسار الأيضي يمكن تثبيطه بالمنتجات التي تنتج خلال سلسلة التفاعلات وتعمل على تثبيطها. هذا النوع من ردود الفعل السلبية يبطئ خط الإنتاج عندما تبدأ المنتجات في البناء وهو وسيلة هامة للحفاظ على التوازن في الخلية. مثبطات الانزيم الخلوية الأخرى هي البروتينات التي ترتبط بالانزيم وتمنع عمله. هذا يمكن أن يساعد في السيطرة على الانزيمات التي قد تكون ضارة للخلية، مثل البروتياز أو نوكليسيس. يمكن أن تستخدم مثبطات الإنزيم الطبيعية كوسيلة للحماية ضد أي جسم غريب أو مؤذي.

مثبط تنافسي
المثبط التنافسي هو عبارة عن مادة مشابهة جدا ببنيتها الكيميائية لبنية المادة الهدف (الركيزة) التي ترتبط بالانزيم مما يجعلها قابلة للارتباط بالمستقبل على الانزيم فتثبط عمله، يمكن التفوق على هذا المثبط بزيادة تركيز المادة الهدف (الركيزة). المثبطات العكسية تزيد من عملها عن طريق التفاعلات غير التساهمية مثل روابط الهيدروجين، والروابط الأيونية. روابط ضعيفة متعددة بين المثبط والموقع النشط تندمج لإنتاج روابط قوية ومحددة. على عكس المواد الركيزة والمثبطات الا عكسية، المثبطات العكسية عموما لا تخضع للتفاعلات الكيميائية عندما تكون مرتبطة بانزيم ويمكن إزالتها بسهولة مثل غسيل الكلى.

أنواع المثبطات العكسية:

1) : في هذه الحالة، لا يمكن ربط المادة الركيزة والمثبط على الانزيم في نفس الوقت. هذا ينتج عادة عند وجود ألفة كيميائية بين المثبط والموقع نشط من الانزيم حيث ترتبط المادة الركيزة أيضا؛ المادة الركيزة ومثبط يتنافسان للوصول إلى الموقع النشط للإنزيم. هذا النوع من تثبيط يمكن التغلب عليه عن طريق زيادة تركيز المادة الركيزة. المثبطات التنافسية غالبا ما تكون مشابهة في هيكل المادة الركيزة الحقيقية.

2) المثبطات غير التنافسية: يرتبط المثبط مع الإنزيم في كلا الحالتين سواء كان هذا الإنزيم مرتبطا بركيزته وكان موقعه النشط مشغولا أو لم يكن مرتبطا وكان موقعه النشط فارغا.

3) : يرتبط المثبط بالمعقد الذي يتشكل بين الركيزة والإنزيم فقط. يحدث عادةً عندما يكون هناك ركيزتين أو أكثر.

4) : يمكن للمثبط الربط بالانزيم في نفس وقت ربط المادة الركيزة له. ومع ذلك، فإن ربط المثبط يؤثر على ربط المادة الركيزة، والعكس صحيح. هذا النوع من تثبيط يمكن تخفيضه، لا التغلب عليه، من خلال زيادة تركيز المادة الركيزة. على الرغم من أنه من الممكن للمثبطات من هذا نوع الربط في المواقع النشطة، وهذا النوع من التثبيط عموما ينتج عن  حيث يرتبط المثبط على مواقع مختلفة على الإنزيم. المثبط المرتبط بهذه المواقع ألوستيريك تتغير هيئة تشكلها بحيث تقل  المادة الركيزة للموقع النشط.

مثبط غير تنافسي
هو مثبط يرتبط بموقع خاص به على الانزيم مما يسبب بتغير البنية الفراغية للمستقبل على الانزيم فلا تستطيع المادة الهدف (الركيزة) الارتباط بالمستقبل الخاص بها على الانزيم، فيُثبَّط عمل الانزيم.

المثبطات الاعكسية  في العادة تعادل الانزيم تساهميا، بالتالي لا يمكن للتثبيط الانعكاس. المثبطات الانعكاسية غالبا ما تحتوي على مجموعات وظيفية نشطة مثل خردل النيتروجين، الألدهيدات، هالوالكينات، ألكينات، أو فلوروفوسفوناتس. هذه المجموعات المحبة اللإلكترونات تتفاعل مع سلاسل الجانبية للأحماض الأمينية لتشكيل روابط ادوكتس التشاركيه والتساهمية. المواد المعدلة هي تلك التي تحتوي على سلاسل جانبية تحتوي على نوكلوفيلز مثل مجموعات الهيدروكسيل أو السلفهيدريل؛ وتشمل هذه الأحماض الأمينية سيرين، السيستين، ثريونين، أو التيروزين. المثبطات الانعكاسية محددة لفئة واحدة من الانزيمات ولا تعطل نشاط جميع البروتينات، حيث انها لا تعمل عن طريق تدمير بنية البروتين بل عن طريق تغيير الموقع النشط لهدفها. على سبيل المثال، الزيادة في درجة الحموضة أو درجة الحرارة عادة ما يسبب في تحطم كل بنية البروتين، ولكن هذا التأثير غير محدد. وبالمثل، فإن بعض العلاجات الكيميائية غير المحددة تدمر بنية البروتين: على سبيل المثال، ارتفاع الحرارة في حمض الهيدروكلوريك المركز سوف يقوم بتحطيم وتكسير روابط الببتيدات مما يسبب في تكسسر البروتينات، إلى ان تصبح الاحماض الامينية حرة.

الوصف الكمي للتثبيط العكسي
يمكن وصف التثبيط العكسي كمّيا من خلال فهم ارتباط المثبطات بالانزيم أو ارتباطها بمركب الانزيم والمادة التي يرتبط بها، وتأثيرها على ثوابت  حركة الانزيم. مخطط مايكل مينتين شرح فيه ارتباط الانزيمE مع المادة S لتكوين مركب الانزيم والمادة ES. عند التحطيم تنتج المادة P والإنزيم الحر. المثبط I يستطيع الارتباط بالانزيم E أو ES مع ثوابت التحلل K1 و K2

المثبطات التنافسية تستطيع الارتباط بالانزيمE ولكن ليس بالمركبES  . التثبيط التنافسي سوف يزيد من Km (المثبط يتداخل مع ارتباط المادة) لكن لا يؤثر على  Vmax (المثبط لا يستطيع التأثير في ES لأنه لا يستطيع الارتباط فيها).

المثبطات غير التنافسية ترتبط مع ES. المثبطات غير التنافسية لها نفس قابلية الارتباط بكل من E و ES(K1=K1'). التثبيط غير التنافسي لا يغير من Km ولكن يقلل من Vmax

المثبطات والتي تكون بنوعين التنافسية وغير التنافسية  ترتبط  مع الانزيم E والمركب ES ولكن ارتباطهم وقابلية ارتباطهم مختلفة حيث لا تكون (K1=K2) وعلى الرغم من ان هذه المثبطات تتداخل مع ارتباط المادة (تزيد Km) وتعمل على تقليل Vmax

قياس ثوابت تفكك المثبط العكسي
يتميز مثبط الانزيم من خلال اثنين من ثوابت التفكك Ki,Ki` بالنسبة للانزيم ومركب الانزيم والمادة بالترتيب.  يمكن قياس ثابت مثبط الانزيم Ki` مباشرة من خلال عدة طرق، مت أكثر الطرق دقة هي طريقة قياس السعرات الحرارية متساوية الاحرارة بالمعايرة، حيث يتم معايرة مثبط الانزيم في محلول ويتم قياس الحرارة المنبعثة أو الممتصة. ولكن من الصعب قياس ثابت التفكك Ki` مباشرة وذلك لقصر عمر مركب الانزيم والمادة ولأنه يتفاعل كيميائيا ليكون النواتج. ولذلك فان Ki` من الصعب قياسه بطريقة مباشرة، لذلك يتم قياسه بمراقبة نشاط الانزيم تحت تأثير تراكيز متعددة للمادة والمثبطات وتعبئة النتائج وتطبيقها على معادلة مايكل منتن. V=(Vmax[S])/(aKm+a`[S]).

الاستخدام
كثير من الأدوية تكون عبارة عن مثبطات إنزيمية حيث أنها تمنع نشاط إنزيم ما مما يتسبب بقتل عوامل ممرضة أو يضبط الاستقلاب مثلا. تستخدم مثبطات الإنزيمات كمبيدات حشائش ومبيدات آفات. ليست كل الجزيئات التي ترتبط بالإنزيمات مثبطة فهناك المنشطات الإنزيمية.

و خلال وجود المثبط فان فعالية الانزيم Km و Vmax تصبح (a/a`)Km و (1/a`)Vmax بالترتيب، ولكن معادلة مايكل منتن المعدلة تفترض ان ارتباط المثبط مع الانزيم قد وصل مرحلة التوازن والتي قد تكون عملية بطيئة جدا للمثبطات مع ثوابت التفكك شبه النانومولارية. في هذه الحالات يكون من العملي ان نعامل المثبطات التي ترتبط بشدة على انها مثبطات غير عكسية. تأثيرات الانواع المختلفة من المثبطات العكسية على نشاط الانزيمات يمكن ترجمته باستخدام الممثلات التصويرية لمعادلة مايكل منتن مثل لينويفر بيرك وايدي هوفستي. على سبيل المثال في معادلة لينويفر عند تمثيل التثبيط المنافس بيانيا فأنه يقطع المحور الصادي، وذلك يوضح ان مثل هذه المثبطات لا تؤثر في Vmax. بينما خطوط التثبيط غير التنافسي تقطع محور السينات وتظهر انها لا تؤثر في Km. ولكن من الصعب تقدير Ki and Ki` من خلال التمثيل البياني، لذلك ينصح بتقدير هذه الثوابت باستخدام طرق غير خطية.

الاستخدامات الأكثر شيوعا لمثبطات الإنزيم هي أدوية لعلاج الامراض. العديد من هذه المثبطات تستهدف انزيم في جسم الإنسان وتهدف إلى تصحيح حالته المرضية. ومع ذلك، ليس كل الأدوية مثبطات الإنزيم. بعضها، مثل الأدوية المضادة للصرع، التي تغير من نشاط الانزيم عن طريق التسبب في زيادة إنتاجيته أو تقليلها، والتي لا علاقة لها بالانواع المذكوره اعلاه. مثال على مثبط إنزيمي طبي هو (الفياجرا)، وهو علاج شائع للذكور الذين يعانون من ضعف الانتصاب. هذا الجزيء يعمل على زيادة الاشارات بالجسم والتي تعمل على استرخاء العضلات الملساء في الجسم ويزيد من تدفق الدم وتوسع الشرايين الدموية، مما يسبب الانتصاب.  بما ان الادوية تقلل من نشاط الانزيم الذي يوقف هذه الاشارات،  فإنه يجعل هذه الإشارات تستمر لفترة أطول من الزمن. وهناك مثال آخر على التشابه الهيكلي لبعض مثبطات الإنزيمات التي يتم استهدافها نتيجة التشابه  بالشكل والذي يقارن ما بين الميثوتريكسيتت وحمض الفوليك. حمض الفوليك هو الركيزة من اختزال الديهيدروفوليت، وهو انزيم تشارك في صنع النيوكليوتيدات التي يتم تثبيطها بقوة من قبل الميثوتريكسيت. ميثوتريكسيت يقوم بنفس عمل عمل الانزيم ديهيدروفوليت ريدكتيز، وبالتالي توقف إنتاج النيوكليوتيدات. هذه الكتلة من النيوكليوتيد الحيوي هو أكثر سمية لخلايا النمو السريع من الخلايا غير تقسيم، لأن الخلية سريعة النمو لديها القدرة في تكرار الاحماض النووية، وبالتالي ميثوتريكسات غالبا ما تستخدم في العلاج الكيميائي للسرطان.

تستخدم الأدوية أيضا لتثبيط الإنزيمات اللازمة للنجاة من مسببات الأمراض. على سبيل المثال، يحيط بالبكتيريا جدار خلية سميك مصنوع من البوليمر مثل الببتيدوغليكان. العديد من المضادات الحيوية مثل البنسلين والفانكومايسين تثبط الانزيمات التي تنتج ثم تربط خيوط هذا البوليمر معا. هذا يسبب لانقاص قوة جدار الخلية وتفجر البكتيريا.يتم تسهيل تصميم المضادات الحيوية عندما يكون الانزيم الضروري للنجاة من المرض غائبا أو مختلفا جدا في البشر. في المثال أعلاه، البشر لا تنتج ببتيدوغليكان، وبالتالي مثبطات هذه العملية سامة للبكتيريا. كما تنتج السمية في المضادات الحيوية عن طريق استغلال الاختلافات في بنية الريبوسومات في البكتيريا، أو كيفية صنعها للأحماض الدهنية.

مثبطات الإنزيم مهمة أيضا في التحكم بالعمليات الأيضية. يتم تثبيط العديد من المسارات الأيضية في الخلية عن طريق الأيضات التي تتحكم في نشاط الإنزيم من خلال الضوابط التفارغية أو تثبيط المادة الركيزة. ومن الأمثلة الجيدة على ذلك، الضوابط التفارغية للتحلل السكري. هذا المسار يستهلك الجلوكوز وتنتج طاقة. وهناك خطوة رئيسية لتنظيم التحلل السكري هو رد الفعل المبكر في المسار الذي يحفزها فوسفهوفروكتوكيناز. عندما ترتفع مستويات الطاقة، يربط جزي الطاقة موقع ألوستيريك في PFK1 لخفض معدل تفاعل الانزيم. يتم منع انحلال السكر وينخفض إنتاج أتب. يساعد هذا التحكم ردود فعل سلبية الحفاظ على تركيز ثابت من أتب في الخلية. ومع ذلك، لا يتم تنظيم مسارات التمثيل الغذائي فقط من خلال تثبيط منذ تفعيل الإنزيم هو نفس القدر من الأهمية. فيما يتعلق PFK1، والفركتوز 2,6-بيسفوسفهات وأدب هي أمثلة على الأيض التي هي منشطات أروستريك.

ويمكن أيضا  تثبيط الانزيمات الفسيولوجية المثبطة من قبل مثبطات بروتين محددة. تحدث هذه العملية في البنكرياس، الذي يقوم بتثبيط العديد من الانزيمات التي تقوم بتنشيط انزيمات الجهاز الهضمي المعروفة باسم زيموجنس. يتم تنشيط العديد من هذه المثبطات من قبل البروتين تربسين، لذلك فمن المهم منع نشاط البروتبن تربسين في البنكرياس لمنع الجهاز من هضم نفسه. إحدى الطرق التي يتم بها التحكم في نشاط التربسين هو إنتاج بروتين يقوم بتثبيط التربسين وهو محدد وقوي في البنكرياس. هذا المثبط يرتبط بإحكام مع التربسين، ويمنع نشاطه ويحميعضو البنكرياس. فعلى الرغم من أن مثبط التربسين هو بروتين، فإنه يتجنب التحلل كركيزة من البروتياز عن طريق استبعاد الماء من الموقع النشط للتربسين وزعزعة الحالة الانتقالية.

العديد من المبيدات هي مثبطات الإنزيم. أسيتيلكولينستراس (أش) هو انزيم وجدت في الحيوانات من الحشرات للبشر. فمن الضروري أن وظيفة الخلايا العصبية من خلال آليتها لكسر الأسيتيل كولين العصبي في مكوناتها، خلات والكولين. هذا هو غير عادية إلى حد ما بين الناقلات العصبية كما يتم امتصاص معظم، بما في ذلك السيروتونين، الدوبامين، والنورادرينالين، من المشقوق متشابك بدلا من المشقوق. يتم استخدام عدد كبير من مثبطات أش في كل من الطب والزراعة. وتستخدم مثبطات تنافسية عكسية، مثل إدروفونيوم، فيسوستيغمين، ونيوستيغمين، في علاج الوهن العضلي الوبيل والتخدير. المبيدات الكرباميت هي أيضا أمثلة على مثبطات أش عكسها. مبيدات الفوسفات العضوية مثل مالاثيون، باراثيون، وكلوربيريفوس تمنع بشكل لا رجعة فيه أستيل كولينستراس. الكثير من مبيدات الآفات هي انزيمات مثبطة. مثل سلفونيل يوريا تمنع انزيم أسيتولاكتات سينثاس. كل من هذه الإنزيمات مطلوبة للنباتات لجعل الأحماض الأمينية المتفرعة السلسلة. العديد من الانزيمات الأخرى تمنعها مبيدات الأعشاب، بما في ذلك الإنزيمات اللازمة للتخليق الحيوي للدهون والكاروتينات وعمليات التمثيل الضوئي والفوسفورية المؤكسد.

أمثلة
- أحد أبرز الأمثلة حول المثبطات التنافسية هي:

1) المالونات حيث أنه يُثبط الإنزيم المُسمى نازع هيدروجين السكسينات ويتنافس مع حمض السكسينيك، والذي يمثل الركيزة، على الموقع النشط للإنزيم، (أنظر أيضا  أيض الحموض الدهنية).

2) الزاناميفير هو مثبط تنافسي قوي للبروتين السكري نورامينيداز، لعلاج الأنفلونزا A وB.

- أما فيما يخص المثبطات غير التنافسية:

1) أشباه الأفيونيات حيث أنه يُثبط الإنزيم المُسمى حمض النتريك سينثاز بشكل غير تنافسي.

2) السيانيد يُثبط الإنزيمات التنفسية (سيتوكروم سي أكسيداز) بشكل غير تنافسي.

3) النحاس (كبريتات النحاس الثنائي) وأنواع أخرى من الفلزات الثقيلة تُثبط إنزيم الكتالاز.

انظر أيضاً
 إنزيم
 فارماكوفور
 مضاد المئيضة

المصادر

أيض
كيمياء دوائية
مثبطات الإنزيمات

مثبط إنزيم


On İki İmam veya On İki İmamlar, İslâm Dîni'nin Şiî mezheplerinden biri olan İmâmiye-i İsnâ'aşer'îyye (veya Onikiciler; fıkhî mezhep olarak Câferîlik ile Alevîlik) Onikicilik itikadındaki imâm silsilesine verilen addır. Ehl-i Sünnet vel Cemaat inancında da On İki İmamlar'a saygı gösterilir. Ehl-i Beyt'ten Ali ile başlayan On İki İmamlar; Muhammed'in torunlarından Hüseyin bin Ali'nin soyundan devam eder.

Şiîlik / Alevî-Câferî ve Sünnîlik arasındaki farklı görüşler

İsnâaşeriyye'ye göre İslâm'ın meşrû halifeliği (velâyet gereği) On İki İmâm'a aittir. İmâmet adı verilen bu husus, Câferî fıkhının temel kaynağını oluşturur. Şiî ve Alevî-Câferî Müslümanların, Sünnîlerden farklı İmam Mehdi beklemektedirler. İmam Mehdi dışındaki İmâmı, Sünnîler kabul etmezler ve Bâtıl zannederek şiddetle reddederler. Fakat Sünnîlikte, Alevîlerin nesebi olan ve Alevî-Câferîlik'teki On İki İmamlar yerine, Sünnîlerin kendilerine halife seçtikleri Ebu Bekir, Ömer, Osman ve [Ali]'yi kabul ederler. Mehdî'nin ortaya çıkmasında görüşler farklıdır. Mâsum (günahsız ve hatasız olmak) sıfatının yalnız Peygamberlere has olduğu gibi, On İki İmamlar'ın herhangi hata veya günah işlemediklerinden dolayı On Dört Mâsum (günahsız ve hatasız olmak) denir ve kaynak olarak da Kur'an-ı Kerîm'deki Ahzâb Sûresi 33. Ayeti buna dair delildir.

On İki İmâm listesi

On İki İmâm, sırasıyla şu şekilde sıralanır:

On İki İmam ile Sûfilik ve Şiîlikteki diğer önemli şâhsiyet, tarikât, ve mezhepler arasında mevcût tarihî yakınlıkların basitleştirilmiş şeması:

Ayrıca bakınız
 On iki halife
 On iki havari
 Ondört Masum
 14 Masum-u Pak
 İmam (İslâm)
 İmamiye

Kaynakça

Bibliografya

On İki İmam


Notater om tavshed er en film instrueret af Dorte Høeg Brask.

Referencer

Eksterne henvisninger

Danske film fra 2001

Dokumentarfilm fra Danmark

Notater om tavshed


Dos guerras enfrentaron a Italia con Etiopía:
 Primera guerra ítalo-etíope (1895-1896), ganada por Etiopía;
 Segunda guerra ítalo-etíope (1935-1936), ganada por Italia.

Guerra ítalo-etíope


Chilognatha is a subclass of the class Diplopoda, which includes the vast majority of extant millipedes, about 12,000 species.

Taxonomy
The classification of Chilognatha presented below is based on Shear, 2011, and Shear & Edgecombe, 2010 (extinct groups). Recent cladistic and molecular studies have challenged the traditional classification schemes above, and in particular the position of the orders Siphoniulida and Polyzoniida is not yet well established. The placement and positions of extinct groups (†) known only from fossils is tentative and not fully resolved. After each name is listed the author citation: the name of the person who coined the name or defined the group, even if not at the current rank.

 Subclass Chilognatha Latrielle, 1802
 Order †Zosterogrammida Wilson, 2005 (Chilognatha incertae sedis)
 Infraclass Pentazonia Brandt, 1833
 Order †Amynilyspedida Hoffman, 1969
 Superorder Limacomorpha Pocock, 1894
 Order Glomeridesmida Cook, 1895
 Superorder Oniscomorpha Pocock, 1887
 Order Glomerida Brandt, 1833
 Order Sphaerotheriida Brandt, 1833
 Infraclass Helminthomorpha Pocock, 1887
 Superorder †Archipolypoda Scudder, 1882
 Order †Archidesmida Wilson & Anderson 2004
 Order †Cowiedesmida Wilson & Anderson 2004
 Order †Euphoberiida Hoffman, 1969
 Order †Palaeosomatida Hannibal & Krzeminski, 2005
 Order †Pleurojulida Schneider & Werneburg, 1998 (possibly sister to Colobognatha)
 Subterclass Colobognatha Brandt, 1834
 Order Platydesmida Cook, 1895
 Order Polyzoniida Cook, 1895
 Order Siphonocryptida Cook, 1895
 Order Siphonophorida Newport, 1844
 Subterclass Eugnatha Attems, 1898
 Superorder Juliformia Attems, 1926
 Order Julida Brandt, 1833
 Order Spirobolida Cook, 1895
 Order Spirostreptida Brandt, 1833
Superfamily †Xyloiuloidea Cook, 1895 (Sometimes aligned with Spirobolida)
 Superorder Nematophora Verhoeff, 1913
 Order Callipodida Pocock, 1894
 Order Chordeumatida Pocock 1894
 Order Stemmiulida Cook, 1895
 Order Siphoniulida Cook, 1895
 Superorder Merocheta Cook, 1895
 Order Polydesmida Pocock, 1887

References

Millipedes
Arthropod subclasses

Chilognatha


Gloeochaete, monotipski rod dodijeljen koljenu Glaucophyta, carstvo Plantae i podcarstvo Biliphyta. Smještena je u vlastitu porodicu Gloeochaetaceae, i s rodom Cyanoptyche u red Gloeochaetales. Jedina priznata vrsta je G. wittrockiana. To je modro-zelena alga mikroskopske veličine koja je pronađena u slatkim vodama nekih europskih država: Britanski otoci, europski dio Turske, Španjolska, Nizozemska, Slovačka, te u Gruziji.

Vrsta G. protogenita Kutzing iz Rumunjske, još nije priznata, jer nije potvrđena od taksonomskog urednika.

Sinonimi
 Gloeochaete bicornis Kirchner

Izvori

Glaukofite

Gloeochaete


La alondra de Archer (Heteromirafra archeri) es una especie de ave paseriforme de la familia de las alondras (Aluididae). Se encuentra en peligro crítico de extinción, es poco conocida y endémica del noroeste de Somalia. Su nombre específico proviene de Geoffrey Francis Archer, el gobernador de la Somalilandia Británica desde 1914 hasta 1922.

Descripción

Esta alondra alcanza una longitud de 14 cm. Su cuerpo es pequeño y rechoncho con una cabeza grande y una cola corta y delgada. La parte superior muestra un llamativo patrón de color que recuerda a escamas. La parte ventral es de color claro con rayas beige oscuro en el pecho. Las plumas externas de la cola son de color blanco.

Distribución y hábitat

Su área de distribución está situada entre las ciudades de Hargeisa y Boorama en el noroeste de Somalia, a lo largo de la frontera con Etiopía. Esta región tiene una precipitación anual de 300 a 400 mm. Su hábitat natural son los matorrales y pastizales secos subtropicales o tropicales.

Conservación

El último avistamiento documentado de la alondra de Archer es en 1955. Expediciones para redescubrir esta especie durante la década de 1970 tuvieron tan poco éxito como las operaciones de búsqueda posteriores de 1996 y 2006. El hábitat original ha sido destruida por los cambios en el país y la guerra civil.
Sin embargo, es muy difícil seguirles la pista, y es de suponer que todavía podrían existir en otras partes de Somalia, donde los matorrales siguen intactos y que se han pasado por alto. Está clasificado por la UICN en la categoría de "en peligro crítico".

Referencias

Enlaces externos

Aves de África Oriental
Alaudidae

Heteromirafra archeri


Burgaz-Dedeağaç Boru Hattı (Burgas-Alexandroupolis), Rus petrolünün (doğalgaz da söz konusu edilmektedir) Bulgaristan'ın Burgaz limanından Batı Trakya'da Dedeağaç limanına aktarılması için planlanan bir boru hattıdır.

Ayrıca bakınız
 Petrol boru hatları listesi

Bulgaristan'daki petrol boru hatları
Yunanistan'daki petrol boru hatları
Bulgaristan'da enerji
Yunanistan'da enerji
İptal edilmiş projeler
Rosneft

Burgaz-Dedeağaç Boru Hattı


Peer-to-peer Television (P2PTV) este o tehnică care permite streaming-ul de canale TV prin intermediul internetului folosind tehnologia peer-to-peer. P2PTV combină televiziunea pe internet cu arhitectura peer-to-peer.
Promovatorii acestui sistem sunt companiile TV din China, China Central Television (CCTV).

Funcționare
Particularitatea acestei tehnologii este că nu există un server central pentru a transmite fluxurile video/audio. P2PTV se bazează pe funcționarea rețelelor peer-to-peer, fluxurile de date sunt retransmise de către utilizatorii rețelei, aproape în real-time. În timp ce descarcă, utilizatorii încarcă în același timp streaming-ul video, printr-un sistem similar torrentului. Programul instalat de către utilizator, este responsabil pentru a urmări încărcarea/descărcarea fluxului de date. Calitatea video a unui program TV, depinde de numărul de utilizatori care-l vizionează. Difuzarea conținutului audiovizual al programelor, se face cu întârziere care poate fi de la 2 secunde la 30 de minute, depinzând de canal și utilizatori.

Software P2PTV
Majoritatea aplicațiilor P2PTV au fost dezvoltate în China (TVUPlayer, PPLive, QQLive, PPStream, SopCast, CoolStreaming, TV Ants, PPmate) pentru difuzarea posturilor de televiziune, în principal din Asia, cu excepția TVUPlayer, care transmite un număr de stații din America de Nord, inclusiv CBS, Spike TV, și Fox News.

Alte aplicații P2PTV din afara Chinei sunt Abroadcasting (S.U.A.), Zattoo (Elveția/SUA), Octoshape (Danemarca), FreetuxTV (Franța), Livestation (MB). , My WebTV (România), Me TV (Australia), MythTV .

În România, există mai multe site-uri de streaming tv online: DigiOnline, Telekom TV, Seenow , Orange TV Go, Cool TV , My WebTV , TV-Maxe, p2ptv .

Streaming-ul de programe TV online poate ajunge să fie o activitate nu tocmai legală, în special datorită vizionării de filme și seriale tv online ce intră sub incidența legii drepturilor de autor precum și licențele de transmisie.

P2P-Next
P2P-Next este un proiect de cercetare al Uniunii Europene , care se ocupă de aspectele tehnice și juridice ale proliferării tehnologiei P2P pe rețelele televiziunii pe Internet.

Note

Vezi și
 Cool TV
 IPTV
 Peercasting
 Peer-to-peer
 Televiziune pe internet

Legături externe
 Allp2pTv.org
 Live P2P TV Stream.com
 Underground Apps: Live TV Via P2P
 BitTorrent Inc. announces live streaming TV service powered by P2P
 Newest Export From China: Pirated Pay TV
 TV fără TV – Peer2Peer Television

Multimedia
Peer-to-peer
Televiziune digitală
Tehnologie cinema și video
Video hosting

P2PTV


ميتو هوليوك، (لغة يابانية|باللغة اليابانية : 水戸ホーリーホックميتوهوريهوكُّ) هو نادي كرة قدم ياباني يلعب في الدوري الياباني من الدرجة الثانية. أصل المركز هو مدينة ميتو، محافظة إيباراكي.

أهم اللاعبين الذين لعبوا للعين خلال تاريخه
 جواو باولو
 فرانسيسكو فيرنانديز
 نغوين كونغ فونغ

مراجع

أندية الدوري الياباني
أندية كرة قدم أسست في 1994
أندية كرة قدم في اليابان
تأسيسات سنة 1990 في اليابان
تأسيسات سنة 1994 في اليابان
فرق رياضية في محافظة إيباراكي
ميتو (إيباراكي)
أندية رابطة كرة القدم اليابانية

ميتو هوليهوك


Andruschiwka (; ) ist eine Stadt im Süden der Oblast Schytomyr in der Ukraine mit etwa 9000 Einwohnern. Die Stadt liegt am Ufer der Hujwa, etwa 36 Kilometer südöstlich der Oblasthauptstadt Schytomyr. Bis Juli 2020 war die Stadt das Zentrum des gleichnamigen Rajons Andruschiwka.

Die Ortschaft wurde 1683 zum ersten Mal schriftlich erwähnt. Bis 1793 lag das damalige Andruszówka in der polnischen Woiwodschaft Kiew und kam dann im Zuge der Zweiten Polnischen Teilung an das Russische Kaiserreich. Dort wurde sie 1797 in das Gouvernement Kiew eingegliedert. Seit 1859 hieß der Ort Andruschowka ().

Während des Zweiten Weltkrieges wurde Andruschiwka am 10. Juli 1941 von deutschen Truppen besetzt. Unter deutscher Besetzung wurden 460 Einwohner der Stadt misshandelt und ermordet, darunter 216 Kinder und 84 alte Männer. 84 Personen wurden zur Zwangsarbeit in das Deutsche Reich deportiert. Das von den Deutschen eingerichtete Ghetto wurde im Mai 1942 liquidiert; 220 seiner jüdischen Einwohner in der Nähe des städtischen Krankenhauses erschossen. Andruschiwka wurde am 27. Dezember 1943 von sowjetischen Truppen zurückerobert. 1975 erhielt die Ortschaft, bis dahin eine Siedlung städtischen Typs, zusammen mit der Zuerkennung des Stadtstatus, ihren heutigen Namen. Ein vom Observatorium Andruschiwka am 18. September 2003 entdeckter Asteroid wurde zu Ehren der Stadt (133293) Andrushivka benannt.

Verwaltungsgliederung
Am 12. Juni 2020 wurde die Stadt zum Zentrum der neugegründeten Stadtgemeinde Andruschiwka (/Andruschiwska miska hromada), zu dieser zählten auch noch die 24 in der untenstehenden Tabelle aufgelistetenen Dörfer, bis dahin bildete sie die gleichnamige Stadtratsgemeinde Andruschiwka (Андрушівська міська рада/Andruschiwska miska rada) im Zentrum des Rajons Andruschiwka.

Seit dem 17. Juli 2020 ist sie ein Teil des Rajons Berdytschiw.

Folgende Orte sind neben dem Hauptort Andruschiwka Teil der Gemeinde:

Einzelnachweise

Weblinks

 Eintrag zum Ort im Geographischen Verzeichnis des Königreichs Polen und anderer slawischer Länder

Ort in der Oblast Schytomyr
Ersterwähnung 1683
Stadt als Namensgeber für einen Asteroiden
Rajon Berdytschiw

Andruschiwka


Karpenterija (lat. Carpenteria), monotipski biljni rod iz porododice hortenzijevki, čija jedina vrsta, C. californica, koja kao endem raste u američkoj državi Kalifornija.

Karpenterija je vazdazeleni grm atraktivnih bijelih cvjetova s upadljivim žutim prašnicima, koji je dobio ime u čast američkog prirodoslovca W. M. Carpentera.

Lokalno je pozata kao tree anemone i bush anemone.

Galerija

Izvori

Vanjske poveznice

Hortenzijevke

Karpenterija


Ronald Desruelles (* 14. Februar 1955 in Antwerpen; † 1. November 2015 in Phuket) war ein belgischer Sprinter und Weitspringer.

Im Weitsprung schied er 1976 bei den Olympischen Spielen in Montreal aus und gewann 1978 Silber bei den Halleneuropameisterschaften in Mailand. Bei den Europameisterschaften in Prag scheiterte er in derselben Disziplin in der Qualifikation und wurde mit der belgischen Mannschaft Achter in der 4-mal-100-Meter-Staffel.

Einem vierten Platz im Weitsprung bei den Halleneuropameisterschaften 1979 in Wien folgte Gold bei den Halleneuropameisterschaften 1980 in Sindelfingen. Wegen Dopings wurde ihm der Europameistertitel jedoch wieder aberkannt.

1982 wurde er im Weitsprung Siebter bei den Halleneuropameisterschaften in Mailand und schied bei den Europameisterschaften in Athen in der Vorrunde aus.

1984 gewann er Bronze bei den Halleneuropameisterschaften in Göteborg über 60 Meter und schied bei den Olympischen Spielen in Los Angeles über 100 Meter im Vorlauf aus. Weitere Bronzemedaillen über 60 Meter errang er 1985 bei den Hallenweltspielen in Paris und bei den Halleneuropameisterschaften in Piräus. 1986 siegte er bei den Halleneuropameisterschaften in Madrid über 60 Meter und erreichte bei den Europameisterschaften in Stuttgart über 100 Meter das Halbfinale.

1987 wurde er bei den Halleneuropameisterschaften in Liévin Sechster über 200 Meter und bei den Hallenweltmeisterschaften in Indianapolis Fünfter über 60 Meter. Bei den Weltmeisterschaften in Rom kam er über 100 Meter ins Viertelfinale. Zwei weitere Male trat er über 60 Meter bei den Halleneuropameisterschaften an: 1988 in Budapest gewann er Silber, 1989 in Den Haag wurde er Fünfter.

Siebenmal wurde er belgischer Meister über 100 Meter (1978, 1979, 1982, 1984–1987), einmal über 200 Meter (1985) und zehnmal im Weitsprung (1975–1979, 1981–1984, 1986).

Sein Bruder Patrick Desruelles war als Stabhochspringer erfolgreich.

Persönliche Bestzeiten
 60 m (Halle): 6,56 s, 5. Februar 1988, Sindelfingen (belgischer Rekord)
 100 m: 10,02 s, 11. Mai 1985, Lüttich (belgischer Rekord); handgestoppt: 9,9 s, 23. Juni 1978, Merksem
 200 m: 20,66 s, 18. Juli 1984, Grosseto
 Halle: 20,92 s, 9. Februar 1986, Liévin
 Weitsprung: 8,08 m, 12. August 1979, Brüssel

Weblinks
  bei der IAAF (englisch)

Fußnoten

100-Meter-Läufer (Belgien)
200-Meter-Läufer (Belgien)
Weitspringer (Belgien)
Olympiateilnehmer (Belgien)
Teilnehmer der Olympischen Sommerspiele 1976
Teilnehmer der Olympischen Sommerspiele 1984
Dopingfall in der Leichtathletik
Doping in Belgien
Europameister (60-Meter-Lauf)
Belgier
Geboren 1955
Gestorben 2015
Mann

Ronald Desruelles


James Turner (December 20, 1766 – January 15, 1824) was the 12th Governor of the U.S. state of North Carolina from 1802 to 1805. He later served as a U.S. Senator from 1805 to 1816.

Turner was born in Southampton County in the Colony of Virginia; his family moved to the Province of North Carolina in 1770. Raised in a family of farmers, Turner served in the North Carolina volunteer militia during the American Revolutionary War in 1780. He served under Nathanael Greene alongside Nathaniel Macon, with whom he formed a lasting friendship and political alliance.

Politics
In 1798, Turner was elected to the North Carolina House of Commons; he served there from 1799 to 1800, and served in the North Carolina Senate from 1801 to 1802.

Governor

In 1802, the General Assembly elected John Baptista Ashe governor, but he died before he could assume office; Turner was chosen in his place and sworn in on December 5, 1802. He served the constitutional limit of three one-year terms and, at the end of his time as governor, was elected to the United States Senate when Montfort Stokes resigned before serving the term to which he had been elected.

U.S. Senate
Turner served as a senator for eleven years, re-elected to a second term in 1811, resigning due to ill health in 1816. During his time in office, he supported the administration of James Madison during the War of 1812. Around 1805, he introduced to the Senate a bill outlawing the importation of slaves.

Personal life, death, legacy
Turner was married three times; first to Marian Anderson in 1793 (they had four children), then to Ann Cochran in 1802, with no children, and finally to Elizabeth Johnston in 1810 (resulting in two children). Turner died in 1824 and is buried on his "Bloomsbury" plantation in Warren County. In addition to Bloomsbury, he owned a second home, "Oakland," in present-day Vance County.

His son Daniel Turner served in the US House of Representatives from 1827 to 1829.

Sources
 Biographical Directory of the Governors of the United States, 1789–1978, Robert Sobel and John Raimo, eds. Westport, CT: Meckler Books, 1978. ()
North Carolina Historical Marker  James Moody Turner
 Charles L. Coon, The Beginnings of Public Education in North Carolina: A Documentary History, 1790–1840 (1908)
 Delbert H. Gilpatrick, Jeffersonian Democracy in North Carolina, 1789–1816 (1931)
 William S. Powell, ed., Dictionary of North Carolina Biography, VI, 65—sketch by Roy Parker Jr.

Governors of North Carolina
United States senators from North Carolina
Members of the North Carolina House of Representatives
1766 births
1824 deaths
North Carolina Democratic-Republicans
Democratic-Republican Party United States senators
Democratic-Republican Party state governors of the United States
18th-century American politicians
19th-century American politicians
People from Southampton County, Virginia
People from Warren County, North Carolina

James Turner (North Carolina politician)


Cocotele (din ) au fost în Franța, sub al Doilea Imperiu, prostituate de lux (desemnate anterior prin termenul curtezane) cunoscute pentru ruinarea amanților bogați prin cheltuieli exagerate. Prin extensie, termenul a fost folosit în perioadele ulterioare, în special în timpul Belle Époque.

Termenul "demimondenă" desemna inițial femeile obișnuite cu purtări ușuratice și a ajuns, de asemenea, să desemneze cocotele de condiție joasă sau mai înaltă, numite și "".

Printre alte denumiri franceze care desemnau o cocotă se află următoarele cu sensuri mai mult sau mai puțin diferite: , , , , , , , , .

Istoric
Printre cocotele celebre ale vremii au fost Cora Pearl (1835-1886) (care i-a avut ca amanți pe prințul Napoleon, pe ducele de Morny și pe alții) și Laure Hayman (1851-1932) (care i-a avut ca amanți pe Paul Bourget, pe regele Greciei, pe prințul Karagheorghevici și pe prințul Karl de Fürstenberg). Este demn de remarcat faptul că mai multe palate (hôtel particulier) din Paris au fost construite pentru "cocote", precum cel construit pentru la Païva pe Champs-Élysées.

Mai mulți autori francezi ai secolului al XIX-lea au scris despre cocote ca, de exemplu, Émile Zola în romanul Nana. Acest roman descrie viața și destinul tragic al unei femei care i-a sedus și i-a dus la ruină pe bărbații bogați și influenți pe care i-a cunoscut.

Pentru unele femei din popor a deveni cocotă era, de asemenea, o modalitate de a obține o situație financiară confortabilă înainte de a-și găsi un loc stabil în societate. Unele au avut noroc și au ajuns bogate, altele au murit în mizerie, în timp ce mai puține dintre ele, precum Sarah Bernhardt, care a fost cocotă la începuturile carierei, au devenit actrițe iubite de public.

"Miros de cocotă" se referă la un parfum de proastă calitate, precum cele folosite de cocotele de nivel inferior, și a dat naștere verbului francez "", care înseamnă a emana un miros puternic de parfum (a puți).

Note

Bibliografie
 Richard Balducci, Les Princesses de Paris - L'Âge d'or des cocottes, Presses de la Cité, 1994.
 Catherine Guigon, Les Cocottes - Reines Du Paris 1900, Parigramme, 2012.

Prostituție

Cocotă


Médiouna é uma província de Marrocos que faz parte da região de Casablanca-Settat. Tem uma área de 216 km² e uma população de 172.680 habitantes (em 2014). A sua capital é a cidade de Médiouna.

Limites

 Norte pela província de Benslimane.
 Sul pela província de Nouaceur.
 Oeste pela cidade de Casablanca.
 Leste pela província de Settat.

História
A província de Médiouna foi criada em 2003. Até a reforma administrativa de 2015 fazia parte da extinta região de Grande Casablanca.

Clima
A província é caracterizada por um clima oceânico com uma temperatura média de 13°C durante o inverno e 23°C durante a estação quente. A precipitação pode chegar a 376 mm em um ano normal.

Localidades

 Médiouna

Províncias de Marrocos
Casablanca-Settat

Médiouna (província)


Jean-Siméon Garangeau (Paris, 1647 —  Saint-Malo, 25 de agosto de 1741), também conhecido pelo apelido Garengeau, foi um engenheiro militar que se distinguiu no campo da fortificação e que durante largos anos foi engenheiro-chefe das fortificações da Bretanha.

Biografia
Siméon Garangeau foi o único filho de François Garangeau, mestre-carpinteiro, e de Marie Dubois. Com a morte de seu pai em 1698, cedeu sua parte da herança em favor das suas cinco irmãs, três sendo casadas e duas freiras em Saint-Cloud.

Depois de participar como voluntário no Cerco de Maastricht (1673) e ter atingido o posto de capitão do Regimento de Champagne, Garangeau foi reformado do serviço ativo após uma lesão. Os seus conhecimentos de desenho geométrico, que aprendera com o seu pai, levaram a que se dedicasse às artes. Após viagens à Itália e Inglaterra, em 1677 iniciou uma carreira como arquiteto em Paris e, em 1678, foi nomeado controlador dos edifícios de Versalhes e Fontainebleau e engenheiro do rei.

Nessas funções supervisionou o trabalho do Arsenal des galères de Marselha a partir de 1679, antes de ser nomeado para Brest em 1682. Lá foi autor do projecto da igraja de Saint-Louis de Brest. Permaneceu nesse cargo em Brest durante dez anos. Sébastien Le Prestre de Vauban nomeou-o em 1691 engenheiro-chefe e diretor das fortificações de Saint-Malo, onde permaneceu até sua morte em 1741. Também foi responsável pelas fortificações da Alta Bretanha (Haute-Bretagne).

Embora não totalmente concluídos, os seus trabalhos defensivos tornaram possível repelir dois ataques marítimos anglo-holandeses em Saint-Malo de 23 a 30 de novembro de 1693 e de 14 a  18 de julho de 1695. Em 1708, recebeu como engenheiro uma renda anual de 3800 libras, que foi aumentada para 4000libras em 1717.

Também supervisionou as quatro ampliações das fortificações de Saint-Malo em 1708-1710, 1714-1725, 1721 e 1737, e o desenvolvimento de Saint-Servan (igreja de Sainte-Croix de Saint-Malo).

Obras

 Le fort de l'île Harbour, le fort National, le Fort-la-Latte (réaménagement), le fort du Petit Bé, le fort du Grand Bé, le fort de la Conchée, le fort de l'Île aux Moines, le fort de l'Arboulé,
 La Tour de l'Ile des Ébihens (ou Hébihens) à Saint-Jacut-de-la-Mer (1697)
 Les travaux au Château du Taureau et à la Tour Solidor,
 La canalisation du Couesnon, celle des marais de Dol,
 Plusieurs batteries et deux tours à feux (à Ouessant et au cap Fréhel),
 Les hôpitaux de Morlaix et de Cézembre,
 Les églises de Saint-Louis de Brest, de Saint-Servan, de Cancale, la chapelle Saint-Sauveur de Saint-Malo,
 Les répartitions des remparts de Brest et de Dinan,
 Les accroissements de Saint-Malo,
 Les projets de Saint-Servan,
 Plusieurs malouinières.
 Maître-autel dessiné pour la basilique Saint-Sauveur de Dinan, dotée en 1718, avec une intervention de Jules Michel Alexandre Hardouin (mort en 1737), contrôleur des bâtiments du Roi. Le dessin fut de nouveau retouché par Jacques le Bonhomme, architecte malouin, avant que la réalisation ne soit confiée à François Lamandé et Jean Lemonnier. En 1744, l'autel est augmenté d'un baldaquin en bois doré, réalisé par François Lamandé et Thomas Maisonneuve. La dorure est posée en 1756 par Thomas Durocher et Pierre Morillon, qui y ajoutent deux anges. Cet ensemble est classé au titre des monuments historique par arrêté du 24 septembre 1956 et restauré en 2007.
On lui doit notamment le fort National, les forts de l'île Harbour, de la Conchée, du Petit et du Grand Bé, de l'Arboulé, la tour des Ebihens, ainsi que le réaménagement du fort Lalatte et de la tour Solidor.

Referências

Bibliografia
 .
 Victoria Sanger, « Vauban urbaniste : l'exemple de Brest », in Actes du colloque « Vauban et ses successeurs dans les ports du Ponant et du Levant », Brest, 16-19 mai 1993, publié dans Vauban et ses successeurs dans les ports du Ponant et du Levant, Paris : Association Vauban, 2000, .
 J.B. Denisard, Collection des décisions nouvelles et des notions relatives à la jurisprudence, tome 2, 1771, pp. 168-169.

Links
 Biographie de Garangeau in « Le Taureau, forteresse Vauban, baie de Morlaix » sur chateau-du-taureau.com.

Engenheiros da França
Militares da França

Siméon Garangeau


Dintre cele patru Suite orchestrale ale lui Johann Sebastian Bach, A treia este cea mai cunoscută, în mare parte datorită faimei celei de a doua mișcări, faimoasa "Arie pe coarda sol". Cea de A treia suită, în Re major, este formată din cinci mișcări: Uvertura, Aria (numai coarde și continuo), Gavotte I & II, Bourrée și Gigue. Toate mișcările, cu excepția celei de-a doua, sunt scrise pentru trei trompete, timpani, două oboaiee, coarde și continuo. Oboiul cântă rareori independent de viori în această lucrare. Trompetele și timpanii sunt folosițî pentru culoare și accentuare. Tipic pentru Suitele lui Bach, aceasta este formată din mișcări binare bazate pe dansuri franceze.

Uvertura

Toate Suitele orchestrale ale lui Bach încep cu o uvertură franceză. Aici, muzica lentă, maiestuoasă revine la încheierea porțiunii rapide, cu o repetare la începutul secțiunii rapide. Partida timpanilor este notată în Do major, deoarece timpanii din vremea lui Bach nu erau acordabili, ca cei de astăzi, toate piesele pentru timpani fiind scrise ca și cum ar fi în Do major. Sunetul Do este întotdeauna echivalent, în această epocă, cu tonica tonalității, în acest caz re, iar sunetul sol este întotdeauna echivalent cudominanta tonalității, aici la. Așadar, timpanii sunt prezenți doar pe segmentele din tonalitatea de bază, nu și în modulațiile înla major, mi minor, si minor, sol major.

Aria

În primul rând, titlul mișcării este neobișnuit pentru că "Air" nu este, de fapt, un dans francez, la fel ca celelalte mișcări. În mod clar, este un termen englezesc, termenul englez pentru "arie" sau orice lucrare lirică, așa cum este aceasta. Așa cum se întâmplă de obicei în mișcările lente ale Concertelor brandenburgice, Bach renunță aici la instrumentele de suflat și la timpani, permițând coardelor să poarte tot materialul. Aceasta este o piesă binară simplă; nu există, în mod clar, nicio întoarcere a materialului melodic de deschidere în a doua parte a mișcării.
Mișcarea este uneori numită "Air for the G string", deoarece atunci când este transpusă în Do major, întreaga partidă a viorii întâi poate fi cântată doar pe coarda sol; violonistul german din secolul al XIX-lea, August Wilhelm, a făcut acest lucru în transcrierea lucrării pentru vioară și pian.

Se remarcă câteva elemente, care se cer subliniate:

- Linia basului este o linie tipică de bas pentru baroc, fiind într-o mișcare constantă. Conținutul acestei linii este alcătuit din salturi de octavă.

- În cele din urmă, se observă cum mișcarea este continuă de la început până la sfârșit, cu două excepții: cele două cadențe cele mai puternice, la sfârșitul primei secțiuni și măsura finală. Acesta este un alt exemplu de "mișcare perpetuă" în lucrările lui Bach.

- Majoritatea disonanțelor din această lucrare sunt rezultatul unei partide susținute, care se ciocnește cu alta în mișcare, mai ales sub forma unei suspensii. Pe vremea lui Bach, suspensiile au fost clasificate în funcție de combinația de intervale disonante-consonante: 4-3 (cvartă la terță), 2-3 (secundă rezolvată la terță), 7-6 (septimă la sextă) și 9-8 (nona la octavă). Disonanțele suplimentare sunt rezultatul tonurilor non-coardă (nivele care nu aparțin armoniei în prezent), cum ar fi apogiatura.

Gavotte I & II

Gavota a avut o istorie indelungată care a pornit de la sfârșitul secolului al XVI-lea și a continuat ca un gen de popularitate, de dans de curte, până la sfârșitul secolului al XVIII-lea. Bach a scris 26 de piese numite "gavotte", inclusiv mișcări în trei din cele patru suite orchestrale. O gavotă este un dans francez stilizat, moderat în ritm, întotdeauna în metru dublu, fiecare frază începe pe a doua jumătate a măsurii. Frazele sunt aproape întotdeauna grupuri de câte patru măsuri și sunt adesea asociate într-o manieră antecedentă. Ca și Aria, este o formă binară, cu două secțiuni repetate. Este grațioasă, uneori plină de bucurie, dar nu atât de jucăușă ca o gigă.↵În această lucrare, există, de fapt, două gavote separate, ambele în formă binară. Gavotte I debutează în Re major, dar cu o modulație la dominantă la sfârșitul primei secțiuni și o mutare la tonalitatea relativei, aproape de începutul celei de-a doua secțiuni. Întreaga piesă se bazează pe un motiv simplu de patru note:

Uneori ritmul este variat după cum urmează:

Acest ritm și variația lui cuprind întreaga gavotăț.
Gavota a II-a este puțin mai lungă, cu doar șase măsuri. Ea inversează al doilea ritm al Gavotei I, punând mai întâi optimile:

După ce Gavota II este cântată în totalitate, se va relua Gavota I, fără repetări. Rezultă o formă de ansamblu ABA, întâlnită și în alte piese de dans ale timpului.

Bourrée
Ca și gavota, bourrée era un dans francez de curte. Este în metru dublu, de obicei moderat în tempo (ușor mai rapid decât gavota) și întotdeauna începând cu o pătrime sau un o pereche de optimi. Ca și Gavotele discutate mai sus, frazele sunt de obicei de câte patru măsuri și adesea aranjate într-o manieră antecedent-consecvent. Toate cele patru Suite orchestrale au un bourrée. Atipic pentru cele mai multe dansuri de acest fel, Bach experimentează, în această lucrare, ritmul sincopat,  în a doua parte a mișcării:

Acest lucru este neobișnuit pentru un bourrée, în care accentul aproape niciodată nu cade pe timpii principali. În același moment, Bach schimbă muzica în modul minor, iar combinația dintre ritm și mod este tulburătoare.

Gigue
În diferitele sale forme, giga apare de patruzeci și două de ori în lucrările lui Bach. Ceea ce au toate în comun este utilizarea metrului compus, un ritm rapid și un stil saltăreț, jucăuș. Există trei tipuri de bază de gigă în lucrările lui Bach: gigă franceză, giga I și giga II, aceasta fiind tipul de gigă I.

Caracteristici:

- metru compus

- lungimea imprevizibilă a frazelor

- exprimare echilibrată la începutul secțiunilor

- efect plin de viață

- factură imitativă

- una sau două pulsații pe măsură

- tempo mediu, cu iluzia de rapid

- unele ornamente

- nu există schimbări armonice în cadrul grupurilor de triolete (acordurile rămân aceleași pentru întreaga pulsație)

- puține cadențe interne (puncte clare de repaus) înainte de finalul secțiunilor

- formă binară.

Referințe

Compoziții de Johann Sebastian Bach

Suita pentru orchestră, nr. 3, în re major, BWV 1068 (Johann Sebastian Bach)


Alphonse Jean Ferdinand Marie Verwilghen, né à Sint-Niklaas, en Flandre-Orientale, le 28 novembre 1862 et mort le 7 mars 1933, est un homme politique belge, avocat et directeur de la banque de Waas à St-Niklaas, président de la Ligue démocratique belge.

Biographie
Alphonse (Alfons en néerlandais), est le fils de Stanislas Jean François Verwilghen, et le petit fils de Pierre-Antoine Verwilghen.

Il épouse le 20 mai 1890 Mathilde Catharina van den Broeck (1868-1942). Ils ont 10 enfants dont un décède peu après la naissance, deux autres fils décèdent pendant la première guerre mondiale au front de l'Yser, et un quatrième enfant décédé en 1923.

Le 15 janvier 1931 Alphonse est anobli par le roi Albert Ier qui lui octroie concession de noblesse héréditaire avec titre de baron transmissible par ordre de primogéniture masculine. Armes : "d'azur, à la croix d'or, chargée de cinq abeilles de sable, et cantonnée de quatre dextrochères armés d'argent, tenant une épée du même, garnie d'or".

Études
Il fait ses études au petit séminaire à Sint-Niklaas. C'est à partir de 1881 qu'il rejoint l'Université catholique de Louvain. Il sera membre de la commission de la Société générale. Il est diplômé en tant que docteur en droit et devient avocat au Barreau de Termonde.

Carrière politique

En 1900, il est président du Conseil général de la Guilde des métiers de Neringen Sint-Niklaas.

En 1904, il est le premier président du Sint-Jozefsverbond Sint-Niklaas.

De 1917 à 1920, il est président de la Ligue démocratique belge.

En 1919, il est membre de conseil de surveillance de la coopérative centrale Gildenhuis Sint-Niklaas.

En 1920, il est délégué à l'Association électorale catholique de Sint-Niklaas. Président de la Fédération des Assurances Nationales Chrétiennes. Conseiller provincial et représentant de la province de Flandre orientale.

En 1931, il est délégué au bureau principal de l'Association électorale catholique.

La Ligue démocratique belge
En 1917, Alphonse Verwilghen, préside la Ligue démocratique belge. Il succède à Arthur Verhaegen. Le 2 février 1891, la Ligue démocratique belge est fondée à Louvain. Elle aura pour objectif la coordination de l'organisation pour la gilde des métiers.

Alphonse Verwilghen préside la Ligue durant 3 ans : son mandat est donc très bref. En effet, il entre en fonction en 1917 alors que la Ligue disparaît en 1920 dû à la guerre mondiale. Il en est donc le dernier président, après en avoir été le secrétaire. Bien que son mandat ait été plus court que celui de ses prédécesseurs, il montra une détermination sans relâche dans sa volonté de sauver la Ligue.

En effet, le 21 janvier 1913, une délégation spéciale composée de Marbille, de Ponthière, Verwilghen, Senel et Jaminé va réussir à convaincre Verhaegen d'assumer encore la présidence de la Ligue jusqu'au Congrès de 1914. C'est alors, qu'avec le décès de Verhagen, le 5 septembre 1917, qu'Alphonse Verwilghen et Cyrille Van Overbergh essaient de maintenir le mouvement en place.

N'importe quelle association, pourvu qu'elle adhère au slogan « religion, propriété et famille » constituait le fondement même du programme social de la Ligue. C'est alors qu'à partir de 1900, le profil de la Ligue se recentre autour intérêts des ouvriers. La Ligue est quant à elle dissoute en novembre 1920, pour céder la place à la Ligue Démocratique Chrétienne de Belgique, que la LNTC remplacera par la suite.

Représentant de la province de Flandre
Alphonse Verwilghen, devient député permanent de la Flandre. Il obtient également le statut de conseiller provincial et représentant de la province de Flandre orientale.

Il prend notamment des décisions au sein du conseil. En 1922, au conseil provincial de Flandre orientale, la subvention de l'Œuvre nationale pour la protection de l'enfance s'est avérée chaque année un sujet sensible. C'est alors que sur les conseils du catholique Alfons Verwilghen, une politique d'austérité sera menée et dont le conseil provincial adoptera en raison de la situation financière précaire après la Première Guerre mondiale. Il réduira ainsi le budget d'un demi-million. Il est à noter qu'il fut un des députés les plus importants de l'entre-deux-guerres.

Activités diverses
Il est chef de clan « hoofdman », dans la confrérie « van het Allerheiligste Sacrament» de 1917 à 1933. Cette association a pour but de promouvoir la dévotion au Saint-Sacrement. Celle-ci comprend 30 hommes maximum.

Il est également directeur de la banque de Waas à St Niklaas, il succéda donc à son père. Il a été avant cela trésorier dans la société générale des étudiants.

Alfons était aussi avocat, mais il s'est montré présent dans d'autres domaines. Il était membre du "Derde Orde", membre de la congrégation de "Onze-Lieve-Vrouw", ainsi que président d'un groupement de travailleurs nommé "het Gildenhuis" - la maison dorée. Il était officier dans l'ordre de Léopold, et président d'une fraternité du sacrement H ou encore membre du comité paroissial de "Onze-Lieve-Vrouw" de Bijstand.

Carrière politique
Verwilghen, se situe en tant que politicien catholique. Il était très actif dans le parti catholique dont il faisait partie. Il est à noter, qu'à ce moment-là, la question de l'isolation du territoire nord-est de la Flandre orientale est à l'ordre du jour. Cette isolation serait alors compensée d'un tunnel sous l'Escaut et d'un canal reliant Burcht au canal Gand-Terneuzen. Pour des raisons pragmatiques, seul le canal sera finalement réalisé et ce dans une version minimaliste telle que prônée par Ferdinand Van de Wattyne. Verwilghen se plie à cette idée par crainte de ne rien avoir du tout. C'est le législatif qui décide et non le conseil provincial dont il fait partie. Il tente tout de même de s'opposer aux négociations avec le gouvernement, sauf qu'il ne sera pas suivi car les libéraux et socialistes seront en majorité. En 1931 il quitte alors le conseil provincial.

Concernant l'enseignement, Verwilghen qui prônait avant la guerre, la position dominante de l'enseignement catholique, a compris qu'il fallait faire des compromis à la suite de la victoire des socialistes en 1921. Il devient alors le défendeur de la "schoolvrede" (la paix entre les enseignements). Il défend la coexistence des deux systèmes ; l'enseignement catholique et l'enseignement officiel.

Verwilghen était pour un enseignement primaire et technique obligatoire et a mis les moyens financiers dans l'enseignement technique, ce qui le rapprochait du socialisme. Toutefois, les libéraux trouvaient qu'il gaspillait l'argent qui profitait surtout à l'enseignement libre. Verwilghen justifie sa vision de l'enseignement technique par le fait que ça apporte beaucoup à la classe ouvrière et produit dorénavant des ouvriers qualifiés. Il a d'ailleurs pour objectif de financer davantage l'enseignement, et plus précisément l'enseignement de l'industrie textile. Le savoir servira finalement l'économie et la prospection des gens. En effet, dès 1904, il s'opposera à la politique libérale et de non-intervention mais également à plusieurs reprises aux propositions sociales progressistes ainsi qu'à la réduction du temps de travail. Selon lui, pas le moindre usage n'a été rapporté d'une possible exploitation des travailleurs en 1904.

Verwilghen était flamand. Il apportait donc son support aux festivités flamandes et au cours en néerlandais à l'université de Louvain mais il rejetait catégoriquement le « Nationalisme Flamand ». À partir de 1925, il devra non seulement se défendre contre des nationalistes flamands isolés mais également au sein de sa propre partie, ou des nationalistes pro-flamants catholiques qui sont dirigés par Paul Van Steenberge. Les deux hommes n'ont pas la même vision. Premièrement, Verwilghen, pragmatique, était pour un bilinguisme en Flandre et ne voulait pas débattre de cette question purement politique au sein du conseil provincial, contrairement à Van Steenberge. Deuxièmement, il craignait que si la Belgique venait à disparaître, la Flandre se perdrait, la Wallonie serait annexée à la France et la Colonie du Congo serrait aussi perdue. Cette discussion annonce la fin de carrière pour Verwilghen.

En 1929, à la suite des élections, le parti catholique n'a plus la majorité absolue pour la première fois depuis 1860. Il déclare ne pas vouloir dévier de sa ligne politique afin de maintenir l'unité nationale. Dans la pratique, il restait le dirigeant même si ce n'était pas le cas sur le papier. Il refuse tout compromis avec la vision nationaliste flamand de Paul Van Verwilghen va ensuite demander sa démission en 1929 malgré les tentatives de Thuysbaert de l'en dissuader.

Au départ, le socialiste De Block ne voulait pas qu'il ait un temps de réflexion. Il va par conséquent passer le dossier de l'électricité et de l'Escaut dont il était chargé à Van de Wattyne - deux dossiers mis en débat quand il les avait à sa charge.

Références

Naissance en novembre 1862
Naissance à Saint-Nicolas (Flandre-Orientale)
Personnalité politique belge
Avocat belge
Baron belge
Décès en mars 1933
Décès à 70 ans

Alfons Jean Ferdinand Marie Verwilghen


Die Saison 1948/49 war die vierte reguläre Saison der United States Hockey League (USHL). Meister wurden die St. Paul Saints.

Modus
In der Regulären Saison absolvierten die acht Mannschaften jeweils 66 Spiele, wobei die Meisterschaft in zwei Division (North und South) aufgeteilt wurde. Anschließend wurde der Meister in Playoffs ausgespielt. Für einen Sieg erhielt jede Mannschaft zwei Punkte, bei einem Unentschieden einen Punkt und bei einer Niederlage null Punkte.

Reguläre Saison

North Division
Abkürzungen: GP = Spiele, W = Siege, L = Niederlagen, T = Unentschieden, GF = Erzielte Tore, GA = Gegentore, Pts = Punkte

South Division
Abkürzungen: GP = Spiele, W = Siege, L = Niederlagen, T = Unentschieden, GF = Erzielte Tore, GA = Gegentore, Pts = Punkte

Weblinks
 Die Spielzeit bei hockeydb.com

1948
Eishockeysaison 1948/49

USHL 1948/49


Irun (İspanyolca : Irún). İspanya Bask Özerk Bölgesi içindeki Guipuzcoa ilinde şehir. İl içindeki en büyük şehirlerden biridir. Fransa ve İspanya arasında bir sınır şehridir. Şehrin nüfusu 60.000 kişidir.

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 sanmarcial.eu  site dedicated to the Alarde of San Marcial the main festivity in town.
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Bleak House is a novel by Charles Dickens, first published as a 20-episode serial between March 1852 and September 1853. The novel has many characters and several subplots, and is told partly by the novel's heroine, Esther Summerson and partly by an omniscient narrator. At the centre of Bleak House is a long-running legal case in the Court of Chancery, Jarndyce and Jarndyce, which comes about because a testator has written several conflicting wills. In a preface to the 1853 first edition, Dickens said there were many actual precedents for his fictional case. One such was probably Thellusson v Woodford, in which a will read in 1797 was contested and not determined until 1859. Though many in the legal profession criticised Dickens's satire as exaggerated, Bleak House helped support a judicial reform movement that culminated in the enactment of legal reform in the 1870s.

Some scholars debate when Bleak House is set. The English legal historian Sir William Holdsworth sets the action in 1827; however, reference to preparation for the building of a railway in Chapter LV suggests the 1830s. However, the London Metropolitan Police did not establish the Detective branch until 1842. Mr Bucket of the Detective could not have existed before that time.

Synopsis

Jarndyce and Jarndyce is an interminable law case in the Court of Chancery, concerning two or more wills and their beneficiaries.

Sir Leicester Dedlock and his wife Honoria live on his estate at Chesney Wold. Lady Dedlock is a beneficiary under one of the wills. While listening to the reading by Mr Tulkinghorn, the family solicitor, of an affidavit, she recognises the handwriting on the copy. The sight affects her so much she almost faints, which Mr Tulkinghorn notices and investigates. He traces the copyist, a pauper known only as "Nemo", in London. Nemo has recently died, and the only person to identify him is a street-sweeper, a poor homeless boy named Jo, who lives in a particularly grim and poverty-stricken part of the city known as Tom-All-Alone's ("Nemo" is Latin for "nobody").

Esther Summerson is raised by the harsh Miss Barbary, who tells her "Your mother, Esther, is your disgrace, and you were hers". After Miss Barbary dies, John Jarndyce becomes Esther's guardian and assigns the Chancery lawyer "Conversation" Kenge to take charge of her future. After attending school for six years, Esther moves in with him at his home, Bleak House. Jarndyce simultaneously assumes custody of two other wards, Richard Carstone and Ada Clare (who are both his and one another's distant cousins). They are beneficiaries in one of the wills at issue in Jarndyce and Jarndyce; their guardian is a beneficiary under another will, and the two wills conflict. Richard and Ada soon fall in love, but though Mr Jarndyce does not oppose the match, he stipulates that Richard must first choose a profession. Richard first tries a career in medicine, and Esther meets Allan Woodcourt, a physician, at the house of Richard's tutor. When Richard mentions the prospect of gaining from the resolution of Jarndyce and Jarndyce, John Jarndyce beseeches him never to put faith in what he calls "the family curse". Richard decides to change his career to law. He later switches again and spends the remainder of his funds to buy a commission as a military officer.

Lady Dedlock is also investigating the copyist, disguised as her maid, Mademoiselle Hortense. Lady Dedlock pays Jo to take her to Nemo's grave. Meanwhile, Mr Tulkinghorn is concerned Lady Dedlock has a secret which could threaten the interests of Sir Leicester and he watches her constantly, even enlisting her maid to spy on her. He also enlists Inspector Bucket to run Jo out of town, to eliminate anything that might connect Nemo to the Dedlocks.

Esther sees Lady Dedlock at church and talks with her later at Chesney Wold. Lady Dedlock discovers that Esther is her own child: unknown to Sir Leicester, before she married, Honoria had had a lover, Captain Hawdon (Nemo), and bore a daughter by him, who she had believed was dead. The daughter, Esther, was brought up by Honoria's sister, Miss Barbary.

Esther becomes sick (possibly with smallpox, since it severely disfigures her) from the homeless boy Jo. Lady Dedlock waits until Esther has recovered before telling her the truth. Though Esther and Lady Dedlock are happy to be reunited, Lady Dedlock tells Esther they must never acknowledge their connection again.

Upon her recovery, Esther finds that Richard, having failed at several professions, has ignored his guardian's advice and is trying to push Jarndyce and Jarndyce to conclusion in his and Ada's favour, and has fallen out with John Jarndyce. In the process, Richard loses all his money and declines in health. He and Ada have secretly married, and Ada is pregnant. Esther has her own romance when Mr Woodcourt returns to England, having survived a shipwreck, and he continues to seek her company despite her disfigurement. However, Esther has already agreed to marry her guardian, the much older John Jarndyce.

Mademoiselle Hortense and Mr Tulkinghorn discover the truth about Lady Dedlock's past. After a confrontation with Mr Tulkinghorn, Lady Dedlock flees her home, leaving a note apologising to Sir Leicester for her conduct. Mr Tulkinghorn dismisses Hortense, who is no longer of any use to him. Mr Tulkinghorn is shot through the heart, and suspicion falls on Lady Dedlock. Sir Leicester, discovering his lawyer's death and his wife's confession and flight, suffers a catastrophic stroke, but he manages to communicate that he forgives his wife and wants her to return.

Inspector Bucket, who has previously investigated several matters related to Jarndyce and Jarndyce, accepts Sir Leicester's commission to find Lady Dedlock. At first he suspects Lady Dedlock of the murder but is able to clear her of suspicion after discovering Hortense's guilt. He requests Esther's help to find her mother. Lady Dedlock has no way to know of her husband's forgiveness or that she has been cleared of suspicion, and she wanders the country in cold weather before dying at the cemetery of her former lover, Captain Hawdon (Nemo). Esther and Inspector Bucket find her there.

Progress in Jarndyce and Jarndyce seems to take a turn for the better when a later will is found, which revokes all previous wills and leaves the bulk of the estate to Richard and Ada. John Jarndyce cancels his engagement to Esther, who becomes engaged to Mr Woodcourt. They go to Chancery to find Richard. On their arrival, they learn that the case of Jarndyce and Jarndyce is finally over, because the costs of litigation have entirely consumed the estate. Richard collapses, and Mr Woodcourt diagnoses him as being in the last stages of tuberculosis. Richard apologises to John Jarndyce and dies. John Jarndyce takes in Ada and her child, a boy whom she names Richard. Esther and Mr Woodcourt marry and live in a Yorkshire house which Jarndyce gives to them. The couple later raise two daughters.

Many of the novel's subplots focus on minor characters. One such subplot is the hard life and happy, though difficult, marriage of Caddy Jellyby and Prince Turveydrop. Another plot focuses on George Rouncewell's rediscovery of his family, and his reunion with his mother and brother.

Characters

Although not a character, Jarndyce and Jarndyce is a vital part of the novel. It is believed to have been inspired by a number of real-life Chancery cases involving wills, including those of Charles Day and William Jennens, and of Charlotte Smith's father-in-law, Richard Smith.

Major characters
 Esther Summerson is the heroine. She is Dickens's only female narrator. Esther is raised as an orphan by her godmother Miss Barbary, who is in fact her aunt. She does not know her parents' identity.  Miss Barbary holds macabre vigils on Esther's birthday each year, telling her that her birth is no cause for celebration, because the girl is her mother's "disgrace". Despite, or perhaps because of, her cruel upbringing she is self-effacing, self-deprecating and grateful for every trifle. The discovery of her true identity provides much of the drama in the book. Finally it is revealed that she is the illegitimate daughter of Lady Dedlock and Nemo, later learned to be Captain Hawdon.
 Honoria, Lady Dedlock is the haughty and beautiful mistress of Chesney Wold. The revelation of her past drives much of the plot. Before her marriage, Lady Dedlock had an affair with another man and bore his child. Her sister had told her at the time of the birth that the infant was stillborn. Years later, however, Lady Dedlock discovers that the child was born alive and that her identity is Esther Summerson. Because Lady Dedlock has revealed that she harbours a secret predating her marriage, she has attracted the curiosity of Mr Tulkinghorn who feels bound by his ties to his client, Sir Leicester, to pry out this secret. At the end of the novel, Lady Dedlock dies, disgraced in her own mind and convinced that her husband could never forgive what she imagines to be her own moral failings.
 John Jarndyce is an unwilling party in Jarndyce and Jarndyce, guardian of Richard, Ada, and Esther, and owner of Bleak House. Vladimir Nabokov called him "one of the best and kindest human beings ever described in a novel". A wealthy man, he helps most of the other characters, motivated by a combination of goodness and guilt at the mischief and human misery caused by Jarndyce and Jarndyce, which he calls "the family curse". At first, it seems possible that he is Esther's father, but he makes clear he is her guardian shortly after she comes to live under his roof, explaining the letter he received asking him to take on that role a few years earlier. He falls in love with Esther and wishes to marry her, but he gives her up because she is in love with Mr Woodcourt.
 Richard Carstone is a ward of Chancery in Jarndyce and Jarndyce. Straightforward and likeable but irresponsible and inconstant, Richard falls under the spell of Jarndyce and Jarndyce. At the end of the book, just after Jarndyce and Jarndyce is finally settled, he dies, worn out by his imprudence in trusting to the outcome of a Chancery suit.

 Ada Clare is another young ward of Chancery in Jarndyce and Jarndyce. She falls in love with Richard Carstone, a distant cousin. They later marry in secret, and she has Richard's child. She is the dear friend of Esther's.
 Harold Skimpole is a friend of Jarndyce's "in the habit of sponging his friends" (Nuttall). He is irresponsible, selfish, amoral, and without remorse. He often refers to himself as "a child" and claims not to understand human relationships, circumstances, and society – but actually understands them very well, as he demonstrates when he enlists Richard and Esther to pay off the bailiff who has arrested him on a writ of debt. He believes that Richard and Ada will be able to acquire credit based on their expectations in Jarndyce and Jarndyce and declares his intention to start "honouring" them by letting them pay some of his debts. This character is commonly regarded as a portrait of Leigh Hunt. Dickens wrote in a letter of 25 September 1853, 'I suppose he is the most exact portrait that was ever painted in words! ... It is an absolute reproduction of a real man'. A contemporary critic commented, 'I recognised Skimpole instantaneously; ... and so did every person whom I talked with about it who had ever had Leigh Hunt's acquaintance.'" G. K. Chesterton suggested that Dickens "may never once have had the unfriendly thought, 'Suppose Hunt behaved like a rascal!'; he may have only had the fanciful thought, 'Suppose a rascal behaved like Hunt!'"
 Lawrence Boythorn is an old friend of John Jarndyce's and a former soldier who speaks in superlatives, very loud and harsh, but goodhearted. Boythorn was once engaged to and very much in love with a woman who later left him without giving him any reason. That woman was Miss Barbary, who abandoned her former life and Boythorn when she took Esther from her sister. Boythorn is also a neighbour of Sir Leicester Dedlock's, with whom he is engaged in an epic tangle of lawsuits over a right-of-way across Boythorn's property that Sir Leicester asserts the legal right to close. He is thought to be based on the writer Walter Savage Landor.
 Sir Leicester Dedlock is a crusty baronet, much older than his wife. Dedlock is an unthinking conservative who regards the Jarndyce and Jarndyce lawsuit as a mark of distinction worthy of a man of his family lineage. On the other hand, he is shown as a loving and devoted husband towards Lady Dedlock, even after he learns about her secret.
 Mr Bill Tulkinghorn is Sir Leicester's lawyer. He defers to his clients but enjoys and is driven by the power his control of their secrets gives him. He learns of Lady Dedlock's past and tries to control her conduct, in the name of preserving the reputation and good name of Sir Leicester. He is murdered, and his murder gives Dickens the chance to weave a detective plot into the closing chapters of the book.
 Mr Wallace Snagsby is the timid and hen-pecked proprietor of a law-stationery business who gave law-writer work to Nemo. Snagsby gets involved with Mr Tulkinghorn and Inspector Bucket's secrets. He is Jo's only friend. He tends to give half-crowns to those for whom he feels sorry.
 Miss Annie Flite is an elderly eccentric. Her family has been destroyed by a long-running Chancery case similar to Jarndyce and Jarndyce, and her obsessive fascination with Chancery veers between comedy and tragedy. She owns a large number of little birds which she says will be released "on the day of judgment".
 Mr (William) Guppy is a law clerk at Kenge and Carboy. He becomes smitten with Esther and makes an offer of marriage, which she refuses. Later, after Esther learns that Lady Dedlock is her mother, she asks to meet Mr Guppy to tell him to stop investigating her past. He fears the meeting is to accept his offer of marriage, which he does not want to pursue now that she is disfigured. He is relieved when she explains her true purpose and he agrees to do everything in his power to protect her privacy in the future. After he gains full status as an attorney, ready to start his own practice (Chapter 59), he again proposes to Esther, in the presence of Mr Jarndyce, who turns Guppy down, without telling him she was engaged to Woodcourt.
 Inspector Bucket of the Detective (Branch) is a Metropolitan Police detective who undertakes several investigations throughout the novel, most notably the investigation of the murder of Mr Tulkinghorn. He is notable in being one of the first detectives in English fiction. This character is probably based on Inspector Charles Frederick Field of the then recently formed Detective Branch at Scotland Yard. Dickens wrote several journalistic pieces about the Inspector and the work of the detectives in Household Words. It has also been argued that the character was based on Jack Whicher, one of the 'original' eight detectives set up by Scotland Yard in the middle 19th century.
 Mr George is a former soldier, who once served under Nemo, who owns a London shooting-gallery and is a trainer in sword and pistol. The first suspect in the murder of Mr Tulkinghorn, he is exonerated and his true identity is revealed, against his wishes, to his mother. He is George Rouncewell, son of the Dedlocks' housekeeper, Mrs Rouncewell, who welcomes him back to Chesney Wold. He ends the book as body-servant to the stricken Sir Leicester Dedlock.
 Caddy (Caroline) Jellyby is a friend of Esther's, secretary to her mother. Caddy feels ashamed of her own "lack of manners", but Esther's friendship heartens her. Caddy falls in love with Prince Turveydrop, marries him, and has a baby.
 Krook is a rag and bottle merchant and collector of papers. He is the landlord of the house where Nemo and Miss Flite live and where Nemo dies. He seems to subsist on a diet of gin. Krook dies from a case of spontaneous combustion, something that Dickens believed could happen, but which some critics (such as the English essayist George Henry Lewes) denounced as outlandish. Amongst the stacks of papers obsessively hoarded by the illiterate Krook is the key to resolving the case of Jarndyce and Jarndyce.
 Jo is a young boy who lives on the streets and tries to make a living as a crossing sweeper. Jo was the only person with whom Nemo had any real connection. Nemo expressed a paternal sort of interest in Jo, something that no other human had ever done. Nemo would share his meagre money with Jo, and would sometimes remark, "Well, Jo, today I am as poor as you," when he had nothing to share. Jo is called to testify at the inquiry into Nemo's death, but knows nothing of value. Despite this, Mr Tulkinghorn pays Inspector Bucket to harry Jo and force him to keep "moving along" [leave town] because Mr Tulkinghorn fears Jo might have some knowledge of the connection between Nemo and the Dedlocks. Jo ultimately dies from a disease (pneumonia, a complication from an earlier bout with smallpox which Esther also catches and from which she almost dies).
 Allan Woodcourt is a surgeon and a kind, caring man who loves Esther deeply. She in turn loves him but feels unable to respond, not only because of her prior commitment to John Jarndyce, but also because she fears her illegitimacy will cause his mother to object to their connection.
 Grandfather (Joshua) Smallweed is a moneylender, a mean, bad-tempered man who shows no mercy to people who owe him money and who enjoys inflicting emotional pain on others. He lays claim to the deceased Krook's possessions because Smallweed's wife is Krook's sister and only living relation. Smallweed also drives Mr George into bankruptcy by abruptly calling in a loan. It has been suggested that his description (together with his grandchildren) fits that of a person with progeria, although people with progeria only have a life expectancy of 14 years, while Grandfather Smallweed is very old.
 Mr Ed Vholes is  a Chancery lawyer who takes on Richard Carstone as a client, squeezes out of him all the litigation fees he can manage to pay, and then abandons him when Jarndyce and Jarndyce comes to an end.
 "Conversation" Kenge is a Chancery lawyer who represents John Jarndyce, and has apprentice attorneys in his office, including Mr Guppy and more briefly, Richard Carstone. His chief foible is his love of grand, pretentious, and empty rhetoric.

Minor characters
 Mr Gridley is an involuntary party to a suit in Chancery (based on a real case, according to Dickens's preface), who repeatedly seeks in vain to gain the attention of the Lord Chancellor. He threatens Mr Tulkinghorn and then is put under arrest by Inspector Bucket, but dies, his health broken by his Chancery ordeal. The character is based on the true case of Thomas Cook of Onecote, Leek, which was brought to Dickens's attention in 1849 by his solicitor Mr W. Challinor of Leek.
 Nemo (Latin for "nobody") is the alias of Captain James Hawdon, a former officer in the British Army under whom Mr George once served. Nemo is a law-writer who makes fair copies of legal documents for Snagsby and lodges at Krook's rag and bottle shop, eventually dying of an opium overdose. He is later found to be Lady Dedlock's former lover, and the father of Esther Summerson.
 Mrs Snagsby is Mr Snagsby's highly suspicious and curious wife, who has a "vinegary" personality and incorrectly suspects Mr Snagsby of keeping many secrets from her: she suspects he is Jo's father.
 Guster is the Snagsbys' maidservant, prone to fits.
 Neckett is a debt collector – called "Coavinses" by debtor Harold Skimpole because he works for that business firm.
 Charley is Neckett's daughter, hired by John Jarndyce to be a maid to Esther. Called "Little Coavinses" by Skimpole.
 Tom is Neckett's young son.
 Emma is Neckett's baby daughter.
 Mrs Jellyby is Caddy's mother, a "telescopic philanthropist" obsessed with an obscure African tribe but having little regard for the notion of charity beginning at home.  It's thought Dickens wrote this character as a criticism of female activists like Caroline Chisholm.
 Mr Jellyby is Mrs Jellyby's long-suffering husband.
 Peepy Jellyby is the Jellybys' young son.
 Prince Turveydrop is a dancing master and proprietor of a dance studio.
 Old Mr Turveydrop is a master of deportment who lives off his son's industry.
 Jenny is a brickmaker's wife. She is mistreated by her husband and her baby dies. She then helps her friend look after her own child.
 Rosa is a favourite lady's maid of Lady Dedlock whom Watt Rouncewell wishes to marry. The proposal is initially refused when Mr Rouncewell's father asks that Rosa be sent to school to become a lady worthy of his son's station. Lady Dedlock questions the girl closely regarding her wish to leave, and promises to look after her instead. In some way, Rosa is a stand-in for Esther in Lady Dedlock's life.
 Hortense is lady's maid to Lady Dedlock.  Her character is based on the Swiss maid and murderer Maria Manning.
 Mrs Rouncewell is housekeeper to the Dedlocks at Chesney Wold.
 Mr Robert Rouncewell, the adult son of Mrs Rouncewell, is a prosperous ironmaster.
 Watt Rouncewell is Robert Rouncewell's son.
 Volumnia is a cousin of the Dedlocks, given to screaming.
 Miss Barbary is Esther's godmother and severe childhood guardian, and sister of Lady Dedlock.
 Mrs Rachael Chadband is a former servant of Miss Barbary's.
 Mr Chadband is an oleaginous preacher, husband of Mrs Chadband.
 Mrs Smallweed is the wife of Mr Smallweed senior and sister to Krook. She is suffering from dementia.
 Young Mr or Bart (Bartholomew) Smallweed is the grandson of the senior Smallweeds, twin of Judy Smallweed, and friend of Mr Guppy.
 Judy (Judith) Smallweed is the granddaughter of the senior Smallweeds, and twin of Bartholomew Smallweed.
 Tony Jobling, who adopts the alias Mr Weevle, is a friend of William Guppy.
 Mrs Guppy is Mr Guppy's aged mother.
 Phil Squod is Mr George's assistant.
 Matthew Bagnet is a military friend of Mr George's and a dealer in musical instruments.
 Mrs Bagnet is the wife of Matthew Bagnet.
 Woolwich is the Bagnets' son.
 Quebec is the Bagnets' elder daughter.
 Malta is the Bagnets' younger daughter.
 Mrs Woodcourt is Allan Woodcourt's widowed mother.
 Mrs Pardiggle is a woman who does "good works" for the poor, but cannot see that her efforts are rude and arrogant, and do nothing at all to help. She inflicts her activities on her five small sons, who are clearly rebellious.
 Arethusa Skimpole is Mr Skimpole's "Beauty" daughter.
 Laura Skimpole is Mr Skimpole's "Sentiment" daughter.
 Kitty Skimpole is Mr Skimpole's "Comedy" daughter.
 Mrs Skimpole is Mr Skimpole's ailing wife, who is weary of her husband and his way of life.

Analysis and criticism

Narrative structure

Much criticism of Bleak House focuses on its unique narrative structure: it is told both by a third-person omniscient narrator and a first-person narrator (Esther Summerson). The omniscient narrator speaks in the present tense and is a dispassionate observer. Esther Summerson tells her own story in the past tense (like David in David Copperfield or Pip in Great Expectations), and her narrative voice is characterised by modesty, consciousness of her own limits, and willingness to disclose to us her own thoughts and feelings. These two narrative strands never quite intersect, though they do run in parallel. Nabokov felt that letting Esther tell part of the story was Dickens's "main mistake" in planning the novel. Alex Zwerdling, a scholar from Berkeley, after observing that "critics have not been kind to Esther", nevertheless thought Dickens's use of Esther's narrative "one of the triumphs of his art".

Feminine modesty
Esther's portion of the narrative is perceived by some scholars as an interesting case study of the Victorian ideal of feminine modesty. She introduces herself thus: "I have a great deal of difficulty in beginning to write my portion of these pages, for I know I am not clever" (chap. 3). This claim is almost immediately belied by the astute moral judgement and satiric observation that characterise her pages. In the same introductory chapter, she writes: "It seems so curious to me to be obliged to write all this about myself! As if this narrative were the narrative of  life! But my little body will soon fall into the background now" (chap. 3). This does not turn out to be true.

Satire
For most readers and scholars, the central concern of Bleak House is its indictment of the English Chancery court system. Chancery or equity courts were one half of the English civil justice system, existing side-by-side with law courts. Chancery courts heard actions having to do with wills and estates, or with the uses of private property. By the mid-nineteenth century, English law reformers had long criticised the delays of Chancery litigation, and Dickens found the subject a tempting target. He already had taken a shot at law-courts and that side of the legal profession in his 1837 novel The Posthumous Papers of the Pickwick Club or The Pickwick Papers. Scholars, such as the English legal historian Sir William Searle Holdsworth, in his 1928 series of lectures, have made a plausible case for treating Dickens's novels, and Bleak House in particular, as primary sources illuminating the history of English law.

Spontaneous combustion
Dickens said in the preface to the book edition of Bleak House that he had "purposely dwelt upon the romantic side of familiar things". And some remarkable things do happen: One character, Krook, smells of brimstone and eventually dies of spontaneous human combustion. This was highly controversial. The nineteenth century saw the increasing triumph of the scientific worldview. Scientifically inclined writers, as well as physicians and scientists, rejected spontaneous human combustion as legend or superstition. When the instalment of Bleak House containing Krook's demise appeared, the literary critic George Henry Lewes accused Dickens of "giving currency to a vulgar error". Dickens vigorously defended the reality of spontaneous human combustion and cited many documented cases, as well as his own memories of coroners' inquests that he had attended when he had been a reporter. In the preface of the book edition of Bleak House, Dickens wrote: "I shall not abandon the facts until there shall have been a considerable Spontaneous Combustion of the testimony on which human occurrences are usually received."

Critical reputation
George Gissing and G. K. Chesterton are among those literary critics and writers who consider Bleak House to be the best novel that Dickens wrote. As Chesterton put it: "Bleak House is not certainly Dickens's best book; but perhaps it is his best novel". Harold Bloom, in his book The Western Canon, considers Bleak House to be Dickens's greatest novel. Daniel Burt, in his book The Novel 100: A Ranking of the Greatest Novels of All Time, ranks Bleak House number 12. Horror and supernatural fiction author Stephen King named it among his top 10 favourite books.

Locations of Bleak House

The house named Bleak House in Broadstairs is not the original. Dickens stayed with his family at this house (then called Fort House) for at least one month every summer from 1839 until 1851. However, there is no evidence that it formed the basis of the fictional Bleak House, particularly as it is so far from the location of the fictional house.

The house is on top of the cliff on Fort Road and was renamed Bleak House after his death, in his honour. It is the only four storey grade II listed mansion in Broadstairs.

Dickens locates the fictional Bleak House in St Albans, Hertfordshire, where he wrote some of the book. An 18th-century house in Folly Lane, St Albans, has been identified as a possible inspiration for the titular house in the story since the time of the book's publication and was known as Bleak House for many years.

Adaptations
In the late nineteenth century, actress Fanny Janauschek acted in a stage version of Bleak House in which she played both Lady Dedlock and her maid Hortense.  The two characters never appear on stage at the same time. In 1876 John Pringle Burnett's play, Jo found success in London with his wife, Jennie Lee playing Jo, the crossing-sweeper. In 1893, Jane Coombs acted in a version of Bleak House.

A 1901 short film, The Death of Poor Joe, is the oldest known surviving film featuring a Charles Dickens character (Jo in Bleak House).

In the silent film era, Bleak House was filmed in 1920 and 1922. The latter version featured Sybil Thorndike as Lady Dedlock.

In 1928, a short film made in the UK in the Phonofilm sound-on-film process starred Bransby Williams as Grandfather Smallweed.

In 1998, BBC Radio 4 broadcast a radio adaptation of five hour-long episodes, starring Michael Kitchen as John Jarndyce.

The BBC has produced three television adaptations of Bleak House. The first serial, Bleak House, was broadcast in 1959 in eleven half-hour episodes. The serial survives. The second Bleak House, starring Diana Rigg and Denholm Elliott, aired in 1985 as an eight-part series. In 2005, the third Bleak House was broadcast in fifteen episodes starring Anna Maxwell Martin, Gillian Anderson, Denis Lawson, Charles Dance, and Carey Mulligan. It won a Peabody Award that same year because it "created 'appointment viewing,' soap-style, for a series that greatly rewarded its many extra viewers."

Musical references
Charles Jefferys wrote the words for and Charles William Glover wrote the music for songs called "Ada Clare" and "Farewell to the Old House", which are inspired by the novel.

Anthony Phillips included a piece entitled "Bleak House" on his 1979 progressive rock release, Sides. The form of the lyrics roughly follows the narrative of Esther Summerson, and is written in her voice.

Original publication
Like most Dickens novels, Bleak House was published in 20 monthly instalments, each containing 32 pages of text and two illustrations by Phiz (the last two being published together as a double issue). Each cost one shilling, except for the final double issue, which cost two shillings.

Critical editions
Charles Dickens, Bleak House, ed. Nicola Bradbury (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1996)

See also

Citations

Sources

  Contains detailed information on the workings of the Court of Chancery pages 79 to 115.

External links
 Bleak House read online at Bookwise

 Bleak House at Internet Archive.

 Dark Plates The ten "dark plates" executed by H.K. Browne for Bleak House.
  "The Detective Police", "Three Detective Anecdotes", "On Duty with Inspector Field". Last piece first published in Household Words, June 1841.

1853 British novels
British novels adapted into films
British novels adapted into television shows
English novels
Fiction about law
Inheritances in fiction
Novels by Charles Dickens
Novels first published in serial form
Novels set in London
Novels set in the 19th century
Spontaneous human combustion in fiction
Victorian novels

Bleak House


Qui êtes-vous, Polly Maggoo? (¿Quién es usted, Polly Magoo?) es una película satírica francesa en blanco y negro dirigida por el fotógrafo estadounidense William Klein en 1966 y protagonizada por la modelo Dorothy McGowan y el actor Philippe Noiret.

Argumento
Para un programa de televisión, un periodista (Philippe Noiret) entrevista a la top model Polly Maggoo (Dorothy Mac Gowan) de la que está enamorado el príncipe heredero del pequeño país de Borodine.

Comentarios
Esta comedia sobre el mundo de la alta costura es, junto con Mr. Freedom, una de las obras cinematográficas más conocidas de su autor.

La película obtuvo el Premio Jean Vigo en 1967.

En 2005 fue editada en DVD por ARTE con la colaboración del CNC (Centre national de la cinématographie).

Referencias

Enlaces externos

Películas de Francia
Películas de 1966
Películas en francés
Películas en blanco y negro
Películas cómicas
Películas satíricas
Películas sobre moda
Cine experimental
Primer largometraje de un director
Películas con música de Michel Legrand

Qui êtes-vous, Polly Maggoo ?


Dolichomastigaceae, porodica zelenih algi, dio reda Dolichomastigales. Donedavno su bile priznate  samo četiri vrste, a 2019. u nju je uključen i rod Microrhizoidea.

Rodovi
 Dolichomastix Manton
 Microrhizoidea Wetherbee, 2019

Izvori

Mamiellophyceae

Dolichomastigaceae


Jacob Otto Dietrich (31 August 1897 – 22 November 1952) was a German SS officer during the Nazi era, who served as the Press Chief of the Nazi regime and was a confidant of Adolf Hitler.

Biography

Otto Dietrich was born in Essen, he served as a soldier during World War I and was awarded the Iron Cross (First Class). Afterwards he studied at the universities of Munich, Frankfurt am Main and Freiburg, from which he graduated with a doctorate in political science in 1921.

Dietrich worked for newspapers in Essen and Munich. In 1929 he became a member of the Nazi Party (NSDAP) as a Personal Press Referent. Here he was able to introduce Hitler to numerous important officials within different sects of the mining industry to help secure funding for the Nazi Party. On 1 August 1931 he was appointed Press Chief of the NSDAP, and the following year joined the SS. On 2 June 1933 Hitler appointed Dietrich a Reichsleiter, the second highest political rank in the Nazi Party. On 1 November, he was named Vice-President of the Reich Press Chamber (Reichspressekammer) under Max Amann. On February 28, 1934, Hitler raised Dietrich to the position of Reich Press Chief of the Nazi Party.  In March 1936 he was elected as a Nazi member of the Reichstag. On 26 November 1937, Dietrich became the Reich Press Chief of the Government and a State Secretary in the Reich Ministry of Public Enlightenment and Propaganda. On April 20, 1941 he had risen to the rank of SS-Obergruppenführer.

In the decree from Hitler on February 28, 1934 the role of the Reich Press Chief was loosely explained: "He directs in my name the guiding principles for the entire editorial work of the Party Press.  In addition, as my Press Chief he is the highest authority for all press publications of the Party and all its agencies."  Dietrich, as the Press Chief of the Nazi Party and later as the Reich Press Chief of the Government, had control over the Nazi party's publications and newspapers.  This included anything disseminated to the SS, SA, Hitler Youth, and the German Labor Front.  The work done by Dietrich helped to secure the Nazis foothold in Germany. He aided party members to acquire positions of power and general acceptance within different communities and helped to spread Nazi ideology to the public.

His job as Press Chief overlapped with Joseph Goebbels's Ministry of Public Enlightenment and Propaganda, and thus many anecdotes exist of their feuds. They were infamous for their disagreements, and both often felt obliged to "repair" the mistakes of the other.  Dietrich believed himself to be the supreme commander over the German press and so sought to lessen Goebbels's influence within the Press Department.

Dietrich had a close relationship with Hitler.  In some testimony from Hans Fritzsche, the head of the German Press Division from December 1938 to November 1942, who worked under Dietrich, he noted that: "For years he (Dietrich) also summarized the press telegrams, which constituted one of the most important sources of information for Hitler.  Finally I could see for myself that he elaborated Hitler's speeches for publication.  Thus Dr. Dietrich also functioned as the transmitter of Hitler's current directives to Dr. Goebbels." However, in the secrecy mandated by war, Dietrich, who was not in Hitler's "inner circle," often did not truly know of Hitler's whereabouts.

Dietrich retained the confidence of the Führer throughout the regime until Hitler accused him of defeatism and placed him on indefinite leave after an argument on 30 March 1945.  After the war ended, he was arrested by the British. In 1949, he was tried at the Subsequent Nuremberg Trials, where he was convicted of crimes against humanity and being a member of a criminal organization, namely the SS, and was sentenced to seven years' imprisonment. Dietrich's conviction for crimes against humanity stemmed from anti-Semitic propaganda which he broadcast."These press and periodical directives were not mere political polemics, they were not aimless expressions of anti-Semitism, and they were not designed only to unite the German people in the war effort."

"Their clear and expressed purpose was to enrage Germans against the Jews, to justify the measures taken and to be taken against them, and to subdue any doubts which might arise as to the justice of measures of racial persecution to which Jews were to be subjected."

"By them Dietrich consciously implemented, and by furnishing the excuses and justifications, participated in, the crimes against humanity regarding Jews charged in count five."Dietrich was released from prison in August 1950. He died in November 1952 in Düsseldorf.

Memoir: The Hitler I Knew

In captivity in Landsberg Prison, Dietrich wrote The Hitler I Knew. Memoirs of the Third Reich's Press Chief, a book sharply critical of Hitler personally and strongly denouncing the crimes committed in the name of Nazism. The first part of the book contains assessments by Dietrich about his character, his reflections on Hitler as a politician and as a soldier, and his critique of his leadership. The second part (Scenes from Hitler's Life) describes Dietrich's first-hand oberservations of Hitler's daily activities before and during the war. The book translated by Richard and Clara Winston was published by Methuen in 1957, and republished in 2010 by Skyhorse Publishing, with a new introduction by historian Roger Moorhouse.

Publications
 Dietrich O. The Hitler I Knew. Memoirs of the Third Reich's Press Chief. Skyhorse Publishing, 2010.

References

Citations

Bibliography
Hardy, Alexander G. (1967). Hitler's Secret Weapon: The "Managed" Press and Propaganda Machine of Nazi Germany. New York: Vantage Press.

Further reading

External links

Die philosophischen Grundlagen des Nationalsozialismus "The Philosophical Foundations of National Socialism" by Otto Dietrich
The Führer and the German People An essay by Dietrich
With Hitler On the Road to Power by Otto Dietrich

1897 births
1952 deaths
People from Essen
Holocaust perpetrators
People from the Rhine Province
SS-Obergruppenführer
Recipients of the Iron Cross (1914), 1st class
Nazi propagandists
Nazis convicted of war crimes
Reichsleiters
People convicted by the United States Nuremberg Military Tribunals
German people convicted of crimes against humanity
Members of the Reichstag of Nazi Germany
German Army personnel of World War I
University of Freiburg alumni
People convicted of incitement to genocide
20th-century memoirists
German memoirists

Otto Dietrich


Ayaz, Çorum ilinin Merkez ilçesine bağlı bir köydür.

Tarihçe
Köyün adı, 1925 yılı kayıtlarında Ayas olarak geçmektedir.

Coğrafya
Köy, Çorum il merkezine 17 km uzaklıktadır.

Nüfus

Kaynakça

Dış bağlantılar

Çorum merkez belde ve köyleri

Ayaz, Çorum


Tebliğ, kelime manasıyla "bildirme, duyurma, haber verme" manasına gelir. Terim dinî, felsefî ve spiritüalist literatürlerde az çok farklı anlamlarda kullanılmıştır.

Dinde tebliğ
"Be-leğa" fiilinden gelen bu terim, Peygamberler'in vazifeleriyle ilgili olarak, aldıklarını aktarma, bildirme, haber verme anlamında kullanılır. Çoğulu tebligattır, "bildirilenler" anlamında kullanılır. Peygamberler'in vazifesi yalnızca bildirmektir; kabul konusunda zorlamazlar; yani bildirdiklerini insanların kabul edip etmemeleri ve sonuçlar Allah'a bırakılır.

Spiritüalizmde tebliğ
Deneysel ruhçulukta tebliğ terimi yalnızca, "aşkın (müteal) irtibat"la alınmış çok değerli bilgiler içeren mesajları ifade etmek üzere kullanılır. Ruhçulara göre, tekâmül düzeyi çok yüksek varlıklardan," ruhsal plan"lardan alınmamış, teşevvüşteki bedensiz varlıklardan alınmış bilgilere, felsefî-fikrî bir havaya bürünmüş olsalar da veya içinde gelecek hakkında sonradan doğrulanan kehanetler bulunsa da tebliğ denilemez.

Kaynakça

Literatür
 Baran İslam Ansiklopedisi
 Ruh ve Kainat, Bedri Ruhselman

Ayrıca bakınız
 Tebliğ Cemaati

Spiritüalizm

Tebliğ


Sărutul (sculptură) se poate referi la:

 Sărutul (Brâncuși), o sculptură de Constantin Brâncuși
 Sărutul (Rodin), o sculptură de Auguste Rodin

Sărutul (sculptură)