Thermoelectric materials  show the thermoelectric effect in a strong or convenient form.

The thermoelectric effect refers to phenomena by which either a temperature difference creates an electric potential or an electric current creates a temperature difference. These phenomena are known more specifically as the Seebeck effect (creating a voltage from temperature difference), Peltier effect (driving heat flow with an electric current), and Thomson effect (reversible heating or cooling within a conductor when there is both an electric current and a temperature gradient). While all materials have a nonzero thermoelectric effect, in most materials it is too small to be useful. However, low-cost materials that have a sufficiently strong thermoelectric effect (and other required properties) are also considered for applications including power generation and refrigeration. The most commonly used thermoelectric material is based on bismuth telluride ().

Thermoelectric materials are used in thermoelectric systems for cooling or heating in niche applications, and are being studied as a way to regenerate electricity from waste heat. Research in the field is still driven by materials development, primarily in optimizing transport and thermoelectric properties.

Thermoelectric figure of merit

The usefulness of a material in thermoelectric systems is determined by the device efficiency. This is determined by the material's electrical conductivity (σ), thermal conductivity (κ), and Seebeck coefficient (S), which change with temperature (T). The maximum efficiency of the energy conversion process (for both power generation and cooling) at a given temperature point in the material is determined by the thermoelectric materials figure of merit , given by

Device efficiency
The efficiency of a thermoelectric device for electricity generation is given by , defined as

The maximum efficiency of a thermoelectric device is typically described in terms of its device figure of merit  where the maximum device efficiency is approximately given by  where  is the fixed temperature at the hot junction,  is the fixed temperature at the surface being cooled, and  is the mean of  and . This maximum efficiency equation is exact when thermoelectric properties are temperature-independent.

For a single thermoelectric leg the device efficiency can be calculated from the temperature dependent properties S, κ and σ and the heat and electric current flow through the material.
In an actual thermoelectric device, two materials are used (typically one n-type and one p-type) with metal interconnects. The maximum efficiency  is then calculated from the efficiency of both legs and the electrical and thermal losses from the interconnects and surroundings.

Ignoring these losses and temperature dependencies in S, κ and σ, an inexact estimate for  is given by where  is the electrical resistivity, and the properties are averaged over the temperature range; the subscripts n and p denote properties related to the n- and p-type semiconducting thermoelectric materials, respectively. Only when n and p elements have the same and temperature independent properties () does .

Since thermoelectric devices are heat engines, their efficiency is limited by the Carnot efficiency , the first factor in , while  and  determines the maximum reversibility of the thermodynamic process globally and locally, respectively. Regardless, the coefficient of performance of current commercial thermoelectric refrigerators ranges from 0.3 to 0.6, one-sixth the value of traditional vapor-compression refrigerators.

Power factor

Often the thermoelectric power factor is reported for a thermoelectric material, given by  where S is the Seebeck coefficient, and σ is the electrical conductivity.

Although it is often claimed that TE devices with materials with a higher power factor are able to 'generate' more energy (move more heat or extract more energy from that temperature difference) this is only true for a thermoelectric device with fixed geometry and unlimited heat source and cooling. If the geometry of the device is optimally designed for the specific application, the thermoelectric materials will operate at their peak efficiency which is determined by their  not .

Aspects of materials choice
For good efficiency, materials with high electrical conductivity, low thermal conductivity and high Seebeck coefficient are needed.

Electron state density: metals vs semiconductors
The band structure of semiconductors offers better thermoelectric effects than the band structure of metals.

The Fermi energy is below the conduction band causing the state density to be asymmetric around the Fermi energy. Therefore, the average electron energy of the conduction band is higher than the Fermi energy, making the system conducive for charge motion into a lower energy state. By contrast, the Fermi energy lies in the conduction band in metals. This makes the state density symmetric about the Fermi energy so that the average conduction electron energy is close to the Fermi energy, reducing the forces pushing for charge transport. Therefore, semiconductors are ideal thermoelectric materials.

Conductivity
In the efficiency equations above, thermal conductivity and electrical conductivity compete.

The thermal conductivity κ in crystalline solids has mainly two components:
κ = κ electron + κ phonon

According to the Wiedemann–Franz law, the higher the electrical conductivity, the higher κ electron becomes. Thus in metals the ratio of thermal to electrical conductivity is about fixed, as the electron part dominates.
In semiconductors, the phonon part is important and cannot be neglected. It reduces the efficiency. For good efficiency a low ratio of κ phonon / κ electron is desired.

Therefore, it is necessary to minimize κ phonon and keep the electrical conductivity high. Thus semiconductors should be highly doped.

G. A. Slack proposed that in order to optimize the figure of merit, phonons, which are responsible for thermal conductivity must experience the material as a glass (experiencing a high degree of phonon scattering—lowering thermal conductivity) while electrons must experience it as a crystal (experiencing very little scattering—maintaining electrical conductivity): this concept is called phonon glass electron crystal. The figure of merit can be improved through the independent adjustment of these properties.

Quality factor (detailed theory on semiconductors)
The maximum  of a material is given by the material's quality factor

where  is the Boltzmann constant,  is the reduced Planck constant,  is the number of degenerated valleys for the band,  is the average longitudinal elastic moduli,  is the inertial effective mass,  is the deformation potential coefficient,  is the lattice thermal conduction, and  is temperature. The figure of merit, , depends on doping concentration and temperature of the material of interest.

The material quality factor  is useful because it allows for an intrinsic comparison of possible efficiency between different materials. This relation shows that improving the electronic component , which primarily affects the Seebeck coefficient, will increase the quality factor of a material. A large density of states can be created due to a large number of conducting bands () or by flat bands giving a high band effective mass (). For isotropic materials . Therefore, it is desirable for thermoelectric materials to have high valley degeneracy in a very sharp band structure. Other complex features of the electronic structure are important. These can be partially quantified using an electronic fitness function.

Materials of interest
Strategies to improve thermoelectric performances include both advanced bulk materials and the use of low-dimensional systems. Such approaches to reduce lattice thermal conductivity fall under three general material types: (1) Alloys: create point defects, vacancies, or rattling structures (heavy-ion species with large vibrational amplitudes contained within partially filled structural sites) to scatter phonons within the unit cell crystal; (2) Complex crystals: separate the phonon glass from the electron crystal using approaches similar to those for superconductors (the region responsible for electron transport should be an electron crystal of a high-mobility semiconductor, while the phonon glass should ideally house disordered structures and dopants without disrupting the electron crystal, analogous to the charge reservoir in high-Tc superconductors); (3) Multiphase nanocomposites: scatter phonons at the interfaces of nanostructured materials, be they mixed composites or thin film superlattices.

Materials under consideration for thermoelectric device applications include:

Bismuth chalcogenides and their nanostructures
Materials such as  and  comprise some of the best performing room temperature thermoelectrics with a temperature-independent figure-of-merit, ZT, between 0.8 and 1.0. Nanostructuring these materials to produce a layered superlattice structure of alternating  and  layers produces a device within which there is good electrical conductivity but perpendicular to which thermal conductivity is poor. The result is an enhanced ZT (approximately 2.4 at room temperature for p-type). Note that this high value of ZT has not been independently confirmed due to the complicated demands on the growth of such superlattices and device fabrication; however the material ZT values are consistent with the performance of hot-spot coolers made out of these materials and validated at Intel Labs.

Bismuth telluride and its solid solutions are good thermoelectric materials at room temperature and therefore suitable for refrigeration applications around 300 K. The Czochralski method has been used to grow single crystalline bismuth telluride compounds. These compounds are usually obtained with directional solidification from melt or powder metallurgy processes. Materials produced with these methods have lower efficiency than single crystalline ones due to the random orientation of crystal grains, but their mechanical properties are superior and the sensitivity to structural defects and impurities is lower due to high optimal carrier concentration.

The required carrier concentration is obtained by choosing a nonstoichiometric composition, which is achieved by introducing excess bismuth or tellurium atoms to primary melt or by dopant impurities. Some possible dopants are halogens and group IV and V atoms. Due to the small bandgap (0.16 eV) Bi2Te3 is partially degenerate and the corresponding Fermi-level should be close to the conduction band minimum at room temperature. The size of the band-gap means that Bi2Te3 has high intrinsic carrier concentration. Therefore, minority carrier conduction cannot be neglected for small stoichiometric deviations. Use of telluride compounds is limited by the toxicity and rarity of tellurium.

Lead tellurides

Heremans et al. (2008) demonstrated that thallium-doped lead telluride alloy (PbTe) achieves a ZT of 1.5 at 773 K. Later, Snyder et al. (2011) reported ZT~1.4 at 750 K in sodium-doped PbTe, and ZT~1.8 at 850 K in sodium-doped PbTe1−xSex alloy. Snyder's group determined that both thallium and sodium alter the electronic structure of the crystal increasing electronic conductivity. They also claim that selenium increases electric conductivity and reduces thermal conductivity.

In 2012 another team used lead telluride to convert waste heat to electricity, reaching a ZT of 2.2, which they claimed was the highest yet reported.

Inorganic clathrates

Inorganic clathrates have the general formula AxByC46-y (type I) and AxByC136-y (type II), where B and C are group III and IV elements, respectively, which form the framework where "guest" A atoms (alkali or alkaline earth metal) are encapsulated in two different polyhedra facing each other. The differences between types I and II come from the number and size of voids present in their unit cells. Transport properties depend on the framework's properties, but tuning is possible by changing the "guest" atoms.

The most direct approach to synthesize and optimize the thermoelectric properties of semiconducting type I clathrates is substitutional doping, where some framework atoms are replaced with dopant atoms. In addition, powder metallurgical and crystal growth techniques have been used in clathrate synthesis. The structural and chemical properties of clathrates enable the optimization of their transport properties as a function of stoichiometry. The structure of type II materials allows a partial filling of the polyhedra, enabling better tuning of the electrical properties and therefore better control of the doping level. Partially filled variants can be synthesized as semiconducting or even insulating.

Blake et al. have predicted ZT~0.5 at room temperature and ZT~1.7 at 800 K for optimized compositions. Kuznetsov et al. measured electrical resistance and Seebeck coefficient for three different type I clathrates above room temperature and by estimating high temperature thermal conductivity from the published low temperature data they obtained ZT~0.7 at 700 K for Ba8Ga16Ge30 and ZT~0.87 at 870 K for Ba8Ga16Si30.

Compounds of Mg and group-14 element

Mg2BIV (B14=Si, Ge, Sn) compounds and their solid solutions are good thermoelectric materials and their ZT values are comparable with those of established materials. The appropriate production methods are based on direct co-melting, but mechanical alloying has also been used. During synthesis, magnesium losses due to evaporation and segregation of components (especially for Mg2Sn) need to be taken into account. Directed crystallization methods can produce single crystals of Mg2Si, but they intrinsically have n-type conductivity, and doping, e.g. with Sn, Ga, Ag or Li, is required to produce p-type material which is required for an efficient thermoelectric device. Solid solutions and doped compounds have to be annealed in order to produce homogeneous samples – with the same properties throughout. At 800 K, Mg2Si0.55−xSn0.4Ge0.05Bix has been reported to have a figure of merit about 1.4, the highest ever reported for these compounds.

Skutterudite thermoelectrics
Skutterudites have a chemical composition of LM4X12, where L is a rare-earth metal (optional component), M is a transition metal, and X is a metalloid, a group V element or a pnictogen such as phosphorus, antimony, or arsenic. These materials exhibit ZT>1.0 and can potentially be used in multistage thermoelectric devices.

Unfilled, these materials contain voids, which can be filled with low-coordination ions (usually rare-earth elements) to reduce thermal conductivity by producing sources for lattice phonon scattering, without reducing electrical conductivity. It is also possible to reduce the thermal conductivity in skutterudite without filling these voids using a special architecture containing nano- and micro-pores.

NASA is developing a Multi-Mission Radioisotope Thermoelectric Generator in which the thermocouples would be made of skutterudite, which can function with a smaller temperature difference than the current tellurium designs. This would mean that an otherwise similar RTG would generate 25% more power at the beginning of a mission and at least 50% more after seventeen years. NASA hopes to use the design on the next New Frontiers mission.

Oxide thermoelectrics
Homologous oxide compounds (such as those of the form ()n—the Ruddlesden-Popper phase) have layered superlattice structures that make them promising candidates for use in high-temperature thermoelectric devices. These materials exhibit low thermal conductivity perpendicular to the layers while maintaining good electronic conductivity within the layers. Their ZT values can reach 2.4 for epitaxial  films, and the enhanced thermal stability of such oxides, as compared to conventional high-ZT bismuth compounds, makes them superior high-temperature thermoelectrics.

Interest in oxides as thermoelectric materials was reawakened in 1997 when a relatively high thermoelectric power was reported for NaCo2O4. In addition to their thermal stability, other advantages of oxides are their low toxicity and high oxidation resistance. Simultaneously controlling both the electric and phonon systems may require nanostructured materials. Layered Ca3Co4O9 exhibited ZT values of 1.4–2.7 at 900 K. If the layers in a given material have the same stoichiometry, they will be stacked so that the same atoms will not be positioned on top of each other, impeding phonon conductivity perpendicular to the layers. Recently, oxide thermoelectrics have gained a lot of attention so that the range of promising phases increased drastically. Novel members of this family include ZnO, MnO2, and NbO2.

Cation-substituted copper sulfide thermoelectrics

All variables mentioned are included in the equation for the dimensionless figure of merit, zT, which can be seen at the top of this page. The goal of any thermoelectric experiment is to make the power factor, S2 σ, larger while maintaining a small thermal conductivity. This is because electricity is produced through a temperature gradient, so materials that can equilibrate heat very quickly are not useful. The two compounds detailed below were found to exhibit high-performing thermoelectric properties, which can be evidenced by the reported figure of merit in either respective manuscript.

Cuprokalininite (CuCr2S4) is a copper-dominant analogue of the mineral joegoldsteinite. It was recently found within metamorphic rocks in Slyudyanka, part of the South Baikal region of Russia, and researchers have determined that Sb-doped cuprokalininite (Cu1-xSbxCr2S4) shows promise in renewable technology. Doping is the act of intentionally adding an impurity, usually to modify the electrochemical characteristics of the seed material. The introduction of antimony enhances the power factor by bringing in extra electrons, which increases the Seebeck coefficient, S, and reduces the magnetic moment (how likely the particles are to align with a magnetic field); it also distorts the crystal structure, which lowers the thermal conductivity, κ. Khan et al. (2017) were able to discover the optimal amount of Sb content (x=0.3) in cuprokalininte in order to develop a device with a ZT value of 0.43.

Bornite (Cu5FeS4) is a sulfide mineral named after an Austrian mineralogist, though it is much more common than the aforementioned cuprokalininite. This metal ore was found to demonstrate an improved thermoelectric performance after undering cation exchange with iron. Cation exchange is the process of surrounding a parent crystal with an electrolyte complex, so that the cations (positively charged ions) within the structure can be swapped out for those in solution without affecting the anion sublattice (negatively charged crystal network). What one is left with are crystals that possess a different composition, yet an identical framework. In this way, scientists are granted extreme morphological control and uniformity when generating complicated heterostructures. As to why it was thought to improve the ZT value, the mechanics of cation exchange often bring about crystallographic defects, which cause phonons (simply put, heat particles) to scatter. According to the Debye-Callaway formalism, a model used to determine the lattice thermal conductivity, κL, the highly anharmonic behavior due to phonon scattering results in a large thermal resistance. Therefore, a greater defect density decreases the lattice thermal conductivity, thereby making a larger figure of merit. In conclusion, Long et al. reported that greater Cu-deficiencies resulted in increases of up to 88% in the ZT value, with a maximum of 0.79.

The composition of thermoelectric devices can dramatically vary depending on the temperature of the heat they must harvest; considering the fact that more than eighty percent of industry waste falls within a range of 373-575 K, chalcogenides and antimonides are better suited for thermoelectric conversion because they can utilize heat at lower temperatures. Not only is sulfur the cheapest and lightest chalcogenide, current surpluses may be causing threat to the environment since it is a byproduct of oil capture, so sulfur consumption could help mitigate future damage. As for the metal, copper is an ideal seed particle for any kind of substitution method because of its high mobility and variable oxidation state, for it can balance or complement the charge of more inflexible cations. Therefore, either the cuprokalininite or bornite minerals could prove ideal thermoelectric components.

Half-Heusler alloys

Half-Heusler (HH) alloys have a great potential for high-temperature power generation applications. Examples of these alloys include NbFeSb, NbCoSn and VFeSb. They have a cubic MgAgAs-type structure formed by three interpenetrating face-centered-cubic (fcc) lattices. The ability to substitute any of these three sublattices opens the door for wide variety of compounds to be synthesized. Various atomic substitutions are employed to reduce the thermal conductivity and enhance the electrical conductivity.

Previously, ZT could not peak more than 0.5 for p-type and 0.8 for n-type HH compound. However, in the past few years, researchers were able to achieve ZT≈1 for both n-type and p-type. Nano-sized grains is one of the approaches used to lower the thermal conductivity via grain boundaries- assisted phonon scattering. Other approach was to utilize the principles of nanocomposites, by which certain combination of metals were favored on others due to the atomic size difference. For instance, Hf and Ti is more effective than Hf and Zr, when reduction of thermal conductivity is of concern, since the atomic size difference between the former is larger than that of the latter.

Flexible Thermoelectric Materials

Electrically conducting organic materials

Conducting polymers are of significant interest for flexible thermoelectric development. They are flexible, lightweight, geometrically versatile, and can be processed at scale, an important component for commercialization. However, the structural disorder of these materials often inhibits the electrical conductivity much more than the thermal conductivity, limiting their use so far. Some of the most common conducting polymers investigated for flexible thermoelectrics include poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene) (PEDOT), polyanilines (PANIs), polythiophenes, polyacetylenes, polypyrrole, and polycarbazole. P-type PEDOT:PSS (polystyrene sulfonate) and PEDOT-Tos (Tosylate) have been some of the most encouraging materials investigated. Organic, air-stable n-type thermoelectrics are often harder to synthesize because of their low electron affinity and likelihood of reacting with oxygen and water in the air. These materials often have a figure of merit that is still too low for commercial applications (~0.42 in PEDOT:PSS) due to the poor electrical conductivity.

Hybrid Composites
		Hybrid composite thermoelectrics involve blending the previously discussed electrically conducting organic materials or other composite materials with other conductive materials in an effort to improve transport properties. The conductive materials that are most commonly added include carbon nanotubes and graphene due to their conductivities and mechanical properties. It has been shown that carbon nanotubes can increase the tensile strength of the polymer composite they are blended with. However, they can also reduce the flexibility. Furthermore, future study into the orientation and alignment of these added materials will allow for improved performance. The percolation threshold of CNT's is often especially low, well below 10%, due to their high aspect ratio. A low percolation threshold is desirable for both cost and flexibility purposes. Reduced graphene oxide (rGO) as graphene-related material was also used to enhance figure of merit of thermoelectric materials. The addition of rather low amount of graphene or rGO around 1 wt% mainly strengthens the phonon scattering at grain boundaries of all these materials as well as increases the charge carrier concentration and mobility in chalcogenide-, skutterudite- and, particularly, metal oxide-based composites. However, significant growth of ZT after addition of graphene or rGO was observed mainly for composites based on thermoelectric materials with low initial ZT. When thermoelectric material is already nanostructured and possesses high electrical conductivity, such an addition does not enhance ZT significantly. Thus, graphene or rGO-additive works mainly as an optimizer of the intrinsic performance of thermoelectric materials.

Hybrid thermoelectric composites also refer to polymer-inorganic thermoelectric composites. This is generally achieved through an inert polymer matrix that is host to thermoelectric filler material. The matrix is generally nonconductive so as to not short current as well as to let the thermoelectric material dominate electrical transport properties. One major benefit of this method is that the polymer matrix will generally be highly disordered and random on many different length scales, meaning that the composite material will can have a much lower thermal conductivity. The general procedure to synthesize these materials involves a solvent to dissolve the polymer and dispersion of the thermoelectric material throughout the mixture.

Silicon-germanium alloys

Bulk Si exhibits a low ZT of ~0.01 because of its high thermal conductivity. However, ZT can be as high as 0.6 in silicon nanowires, which retain the high electrical conductivity of doped Si, but reduce the thermal conductivity due to elevated scattering of phonons on their extensive surfaces and low cross-section.

Combining Si and Ge also allows to retain a high electrical conductivity of both components and reduce the thermal conductivity. The reduction originates from additional scattering due to very different lattice (phonon) properties of Si and Ge. As a result, Silicon-germanium alloys are currently the best thermoelectric materials around 1000 °C and are therefore used in some radioisotope thermoelectric generators (RTG) (notably the MHW-RTG and GPHS-RTG) and some other high^temperature applications, such as waste heat recovery. Usability of silicon-germanium alloys is limited by their high price and moderate ZT values (~0.7); however, ZT can be increased to 1–2 in SiGe nanostructures owing to the reduction in thermal conductivity.

Sodium cobaltate
Experiments on crystals of sodium cobaltate, using X-ray and neutron scattering experiments carried out at the European Synchrotron Radiation Facility (ESRF) and the Institut Laue-Langevin (ILL) in Grenoble were able to suppress thermal conductivity by a factor of six compared to vacancy-free sodium cobaltate. The experiments agreed with corresponding density functional calculations. The technique involved large anharmonic displacements of  contained within the crystals.

Amorphous materials
In 2002, Nolas and Goldsmid have come up with a suggestion that systems with the phonon mean free path larger than the charge carrier mean free path can exhibit an enhanced thermoelectric efficiency. This can be realized in amorphous thermoelectrics and soon they became a focus of many studies. This ground-breaking idea was accomplished in Cu-Ge-Te, NbO2, In-Ga-Zn-O, Zr-Ni-Sn, Si-Au, and Ti-Pb-V-O amorphous systems. It should be mentioned that modelling of transport properties is challenging enough without breaking the long-range order so that design of amorphous thermoelectrics is at its infancy. Naturally, amorphous thermoelectrics give rise to extensive phonon scattering, which is still a challenge for crystalline thermoelectrics. A bright future is expected for these materials.

Functionally graded materials
Functionally graded materials make it possible to improve the conversion efficiency of existing thermoelectrics. These materials have a non-uniform carrier concentration distribution and in some cases also solid solution composition. In power generation applications the temperature difference can be several hundred degrees and therefore devices made from homogeneous materials have some part that operates at the temperature where ZT is substantially lower than its maximum value. This problem can be solved by using materials whose transport properties vary along their length thus enabling substantial improvements to the operating efficiency over large temperature differences. This is possible with functionally graded materials as they have a variable carrier concentration along the length of the material, which is optimized for operations over specific temperature range.

Nanomaterials and superlattices
In addition to nanostructured / superlattice thin films, other nanostructured materials, including silicon nanowires, nanotubes and quantum dots show potential in improving thermoelectric properties.

PbTe/PbSeTe quantum dot superlattice
Another example of a superlattice involves a PbTe/PbSeTe quantum dot superlattices provides an enhanced ZT (approximately 1.5 at room temperature) that was higher than the bulk ZT value for either PbTe or PbSeTe (approximately 0.5).

Nanocrystal stability and thermal conductivity

Not all nanocrystalline materials are stable, because the crystal size can grow at high temperatures, ruining the materials' desired characteristics.

Nanocrystalline materials have many interfaces between crystals, which Physics of SASER scatter phonons so the thermal conductivity is reduced. Phonons are confined to the grain, if their mean free path is larger than the material grain size.

Nanocrystalline transition metal silicides
Nanocrystalline transition metal silicides are a promising material group for thermoelectric applications, because they fulfill several criteria that are demanded from the commercial applications point of view. In some nanocrystalline transition metal silicides the power factor is higher than in the corresponding polycrystalline material but the lack of reliable data on thermal conductivity prevents the evaluation of their thermoelectric efficiency.

Nanostructured skutterudites
Skutterudites, a cobalt arsenide mineral with variable amounts of nickel and iron, can be produced artificially, and are candidates for better thermoelectric materials.

One advantage of nanostructured skutterudites over normal skutterudites is their reduced thermal conductivity, caused by grain boundary scattering. ZT values of ~0.65 and > 0.4 have been achieved with CoSb3 based samples; the former values were 2.0 for Ni and 0.75 for Te-doped material at 680 K and latter for Au-composite at .

Even greater performance improvements can be achieved by using composites and by controlling the grain size, the compaction conditions of polycrystalline samples and the carrier concentration.

Graphene

Graphene is known for its high electrical conductivity and Seebeck coefficient at room temperature. However, from thermoelectric perspective, its thermal conductivity is notably high, which in turn limits its ZT. Several approaches were suggested to reduce the thermal conductivity of graphene without altering much its electrical conductivity. These include, but not limited to, the following:

Doping with carbon isotopes to form isotopic heterojunction such as that of 12C and 13C. Those isotopes possess different phonon frequency mismatch, which leads to the scattering of the heat carriers (phonons). This approach has been shown to affect neither the power factor nor the electrical conductivity.
Wrinkles and cracks in the graphene structure were shown to contribute to the reduction in the thermal conductivity. Reported values of thermal conductivity of suspended graphene of size 3.8 µm show a wide spread from 1500 to 5000 W/(m·K). A recent study attributed that to the microstructural defects present in graphene, such as wrinkles and cracks, which can drop the thermal conductivity by 27%. These defects help scatter phonons.
Introduction of defects with techniques such as oxygen plasma treatment. A more systemic way of introducing defects in graphene structure is done through O2 plasma treatment. Ultimately, the graphene sample will contain prescribed-holes spaced and numbered according to the plasma intensity. People were able to improve ZT of graphene from 1 to a value of 2.6 when the defect density is raised from 0.04 to 2.5 (this number is an index of defect density and usually understood when compared to the corresponding value of the un-treated graphene, 0.04 in our case). Nevertheless, this technique would lower the electrical conductivity as well, which can be kept unchanged if the plasma processing parameters are optimized.
Functionalization of graphene by oxygen. The thermal behavior of graphene oxide has not been investigated extensively as compared to its counterpart; graphene. However, it was shown theoretically by Density Functional Theory (DFT) model that adding oxygen into the lattice of graphene reduces a lot its thermal conductivity due to phonon scattering effect. Scattering of phonons result from both acoustic mismatch and reduced symmetry in graphene structure after doping with oxygen. The reduction of thermal conductivity can easily exceed 50% with this approach.

Superlattices and roughness
Superlattices – nano structured thermocouples, are considered a good candidate for better thermoelectric device manufacturing, with materials that can be used in manufacturing this structure.

Their production is expensive for general-use due to fabrication processes based on expensive thin-film growth methods. However, since the amount of thin-film materials required for device fabrication with superlattices, is so much less than thin-film materials in bulk thermoelectric materials (almost by a factor of 1/10,000) the long-term cost advantage is indeed favorable.

This is particularly true given the limited availability of tellurium causing competing solar applications for thermoelectric coupling systems to rise.

Superlattice structures also allow the independent manipulation of transport parameters by adjusting the structure itself, enabling research for better understanding of the thermoelectric phenomena in nanoscale, and studying the phonon-blocking electron-transmitting structures – explaining the changes in electric field and conductivity due to the material's nano-structure.

Many strategies exist to decrease the superlattice thermal conductivity that are based on engineering of phonon transport. The thermal conductivity along the film plane and wire axis can be reduced by creating diffuse interface scattering and by reducing the interface separation distance, both which are caused by interface roughness.

Interface roughness can naturally occur or may be artificially induced. In nature, roughness is caused by the mixing of atoms of foreign elements. Artificial roughness can be created using various structure types, such as quantum dot interfaces and thin-films on step-covered substrates.

Problems in superlattices
Reduced electrical conductivity:
Reduced phonon-scattering interface structures often also exhibit a decrease in electrical conductivity.

The thermal conductivity in the cross-plane direction of the lattice is usually very low, but depending on the type of superlattice, the thermoelectric coefficient may increase because of changes to the band structure.

Low thermal conductivity in superlattices is usually due to strong interface scattering of phonons. Minibands are caused by the lack of quantum confinement within a well. The mini-band structure depends on the superlattice period so that with a very short period (~1 nm) the band structure approaches the alloy limit and with a long period (≥ ~60 nm) minibands become so close to each other that they can be approximated with a continuum.

Superlattice structure countermeasures:
Counter measures can be taken which practically eliminate the problem of decreased electrical conductivity in a reduced phonon-scattering interface. These measures include the proper choice of superlattice structure, taking advantage of mini-band conduction across superlattices, and avoiding quantum-confinement. It has been shown that because electrons and phonons have different wavelengths, it is possible to engineer the structure in such a way that phonons are scattered more diffusely at the interface than electrons.

Phonon confinement countermeasures:
Another approach to overcome the decrease in electrical conductivity in reduced phonon-scattering structures is to increase phonon reflectivity and therefore decrease the thermal conductivity perpendicular to the interfaces.

This can be achieved by increasing the mismatch between the materials in adjacent layers, including density, group velocity, specific heat, and the phonon-spectrum.

Interface roughness causes diffuse phonon scattering, which either increases or decreases the phonon reflectivity at the interfaces. A mismatch between bulk dispersion relations confines phonons, and the confinement becomes more favorable as the difference in dispersion increases.

The amount of confinement is currently unknown as only some models and experimental data exist. As with a previous method, the effects on the electrical conductivity have to be considered.

Attempts to localize long-wavelength phonons by aperiodic superlattices or composite superlattices with different periodicities have been made. In addition, defects, especially dislocations, can be used to reduce thermal conductivity in low dimensional systems.

Parasitic heat:
Parasitic heat conduction in the barrier layers could cause significant performance loss. It has been proposed but not tested that this can be overcome by choosing a certain correct distance between the quantum wells.

The Seebeck coefficient can change its sign in superlattice nanowires due to the existence of minigaps as Fermi energy varies. This indicates that superlattices can be tailored to exhibit n or p-type behavior by using the same dopants as those that are used for corresponding bulk materials by carefully controlling Fermi energy or the dopant concentration. With nanowire arrays, it is possible to exploit semimetal-semiconductor transition due to the quantum confinement and use materials that normally would not be good thermoelectric materials in bulk form. Such elements are for example bismuth. The Seebeck effect could also be used to determine the carrier concentration and Fermi energy in nanowires.

In quantum dot thermoelectrics, unconventional or nonband transport behavior (e.g. tunneling or hopping) is necessary to utilize their special electronic band structure in the transport direction. It is possible to achieve ZT>2 at elevated temperatures with quantum dot superlattices, but they are almost always unsuitable for mass production.

However, in superlattices, where quantum-effects are not involved, with film thickness of only a few micrometers (µm) to about 15 µm, Bi2Te3/Sb2Te3 superlattice material has been made into high-performance microcoolers and other devices. The performance of hot-spot coolers are consistent with the reported ZT~2.4 of superlattice materials at 300 K.

Nanocomposites are promising material class for bulk thermoelectric devices, but several challenges have to be overcome to make them suitable for practical applications. It is not well understood why the improved thermoelectric properties appear only in certain materials with specific fabrication processes.

SrTe nanocrystals can be embedded in a bulk PbTe matrix so that rocksalt lattices of both materials are completely aligned (endotaxy) with optimal molar concentration for SrTe only 2%. This can cause strong phonon scattering but would not affect charge transport. In such case, ZT~1.7 can be achieved at 815 K for p-type material.

Tin selenide
In 2014, researchers at Northwestern University discovered that tin selenide (SnSe) has a ZT of 2.6 along the b axis of the unit cell. This was the highest value reported to date. This was attributed to an extremely low thermal conductivity found in the SnSe lattice. Specifically, SnSe demonstrated a lattice thermal conductivity of 0.23 W·m−1·K−1, much lower than previously reported values of 0.5 W·m−1·K−1 and greater. This material also exhibited a ZT of  along the c-axis and  along the a-axis. These results were obtained at a temperature of . As shown by the figures below, SnSe performance metrics were found to significantly improve at higher temperatures; this is due to a structural change. Power factor, conductivity, and thermal conductivity all reach their optimal values at or above 750 K, and appear to plateau at higher temperatures. However, other groups have not been able to reproduce the reported bulk thermal conductivity data.

Although it exists at room temperature in an orthorhombic structure with space group Pnma, SnSe undergoes a transition to a structure with higher symmetry, space group Cmcm, at higher temperatures. This structure consists of Sn-Se planes that are stacked upwards in the a-direction, which accounts for the poor performance out-of-plane (along a-axis). Upon transitioning to the Cmcm structure, SnSe maintains its low thermal conductivity but exhibits higher carrier mobilities.

One impediment to further development of SnSe is that it has a relatively low carrier concentration: approximately 1017 cm−3. Compounding this issue is the fact that SnSe has been reported to have low doping efficiency.

However, such single crystalline materials suffer from inability to make useful devices due to their brittleness as well as narrow range of temperatures, where ZT is reported to be high.

In 2021 the researchers announced a polycrystalline form of SnSe that was at once less brittle and featured a ZT of 3.1.

Production methods

Production methods for these materials can be divided into powder and crystal growth based techniques. Powder based techniques offer excellent ability to control and maintain desired carrier distribution, particle size, and composition. In crystal growth techniques dopants are often mixed with melt, but diffusion from gaseous phase can also be used. In the zone melting techniques disks of different materials are stacked on top of others and then materials are mixed with each other when a traveling heater causes melting. In powder techniques, either different powders are mixed with a varying ratio before melting or they are in different layers as a stack before pressing and melting.

There are applications, such as cooling of electronic circuits, where thin films are required. Therefore, thermoelectric materials can also be synthesized using physical vapor deposition techniques. Another reason to utilize these methods is to design these phases and provide guidance for bulk applications.

3D Printing
Significant improvement on 3D printing skills has made it possible for thermoelectric components to be prepared via 3D printing. Thermoelectric products are made from special materials that absorb heat and create electricity. The requirement of fitting complex geometries in tightly constrained spaces makes 3D printing the ideal manufacturing technique. There are several benefits to the use of additive manufacturing in thermoelectric material production. Additive manufacturing allows for innovation in the design of these materials, facilitating intricate geometries that would not otherwise be possible by conventional manufacturing processes. It reduces the amount of wasted material during production and allows for faster production turnaround times by eliminating the need for tooling and prototype fabrication, which can be time-consuming and expensive.

There are several major additive manufacturing technologies that have emerged as feasible methods for the production of thermoelectric materials, including continuous inkjet printing, dispenser printing, screen printing, stereolithography, and selective laser sintering. Each method has its own challenges and limitations, especially related to the material class and form that can be used. For example, selective laser sintering (SLS) can be used with metal and ceramic powders, stereolithography (SLA) must be used with curable resins containing solid particle dispersions of the thermoelectric material of choice, and inkjet printing must use inks which are usually synthesized by dispersing inorganic powders to organic solvent or making a suspension.

The motivation for producing thermoelectrics by means of additive manufacturing is due to a desire to improve the properties of these materials, namely increasing their thermoelectric figure of merit ZT, and thereby improving their energy conversion efficiency. Research has been done proving the efficacy and investigating the material properties of thermoelectric materials produced via additive manufacturing. An extrusion-based additive manufacturing method was used to successfully print bismuth telluride (Bi2Te3) with various geometries. This method utilized an all-inorganic viscoelastic ink synthesized using Sb2Te2 chalcogenidometallate ions as binders for Bi2Te3-based particles. The results of this method showed homogenous thermoelectric properties throughout the material and a thermoelectric figure of merit ZT of 0.9 for p-type samples and 0.6 for n-type samples. The Seebeck coefficient of this material was also found to increase with increasing temperature up to around 200 °C.

Groundbreaking research has also been done towards the use of selective laser sintering (SLS) for the production of thermoelectric materials. Loose Bi2Te3 powders have been printed via SLS without the use of pre- or post-processing of the material, pre-forming of a substrate, or use of binder materials. The printed samples achieved 88% relative density (compared to a relative density of 92% in conventionally manufactured Bi2Te3). Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) imaging results showed adequate fusion between layers of deposited materials. Though pores existed within the melted region, this is a general existing issue with parts made by SLS, occurring as a result of gas bubbles that get trapped in the melted material during its rapid solidification. X-ray diffraction results showed that the crystal structure of the material was intact after laser melting.

The Seebeck coefficient, figure of merit ZT, electrical and thermal conductivity, specific heat, and thermal diffusivity of the samples were also investigated, at high temperatures up to 500 °C. Of particular interest is the ZT of these Bi2Te3 samples, which were found to decrease with increasing temperatures up to around 300 °C, increase slightly at temperatures between 300-400 °C, and then increase sharply without further increase in temperature. The highest achieved ZT value (for an n-type sample) was about 0.11.

The bulk thermoelectric material properties of samples produced using SLS had comparable thermoelectric and electrical properties to thermoelectric materials produced using conventional manufacturing methods. This the first time the SLS method of thermoelectric material production has been used successfully.

Mechanical Properties
Thermoelectric materials are commonly used in thermoelectric generators to convert the thermal energy into electricity. Thermoelectric generators  have the advantage of no moving parts and do not require any chemical reaction for energy conversion, which make them stand out from other sustainable energy resources such as wind turbine and solar cells; Nevertheless,  the mechanical performance of thermoelectric generators may decay over time due to plastic, fatigue and creep deformation as a result of being subjected to complex and time-varying thermomechanical stresses.

Thermomechanical Stresses in Thermoelectric Devices

Geometrical Effects
In their research, Al-Merbati et al. found that the stress levels around the leg corners of thermoelectric devices were high and generally increased closer to the hot side. However, switching to a trapezoidal leg geometry reduced thermal stresses. Erturun et al.  compared various leg geometries and discovered that rectangular prism and cylindrical legs experienced the highest stresses. Studies have also shown that using thinner and longer legs can significantly relieve stress. Tachibana and Fang  estimated the relationship between thermal stress, temperature difference, coefficient of thermal expansion, and module dimensions. They found that the thermal stress was proportional to, where L, α, ΔT and h are module thickness, Coefficients of Thermal Expansion(CTE), temperature difference and leg height, respectively.

Effect of Boundary Conditions
Clin et al. conducted finite-element analysis to replicate thermal stresses in a thermoelectric module and concluded that the thermal stresses were dependent on the mechanical boundary conditions on the module and on CTE mismatch between various components. The corners of the legs exhibited maximum stresses. In a separate investigation, Turenne et al. examined the distribution of stress in large freestanding thermoelectric modules and those rigidly fixed between two surfaces for thermal exchange. Although boundary conditions significantly altered the stress distribution, the authors deduced that external compressive loading on the TE module resulted in the creation of global compressive stresses.

Effect of Thermal Fatigue
Thermoelectric materials commonly contain different types of defects, such as dislocations, vacancies, secondary phases and antisite defects. These defects  can affect thermoelectric performance by evolving under service conditions. In 2019, Yun Zheng et al.  studied thermal fatigue of Bi_2Te_3 -based materials and they proposed that their fatigue behavior can be reduced via boosting the fracture toughness by introducing pores, microcracks or inclusion with the inextricable trade-off with fracture strength.

Effect of Thermal Shocks
Thermoelectric materials can undergo thermal shock loading through service temperature spikes, soldering and metallizing processes. The thermoelectric leg can be coated with metals to form the required diffusion barrier (Metallizing) and dipping the metallized leg in a molten alloy bath (Soldering) for connecting the leg to the interconnect. In a study conducted by Pelletier et al. thermoelectric disks were quenched for the purpose of thermal shock experiments. They realized that quenching in a hot medium helped disks' surface to produce compressive stresses in contrary to the core, which developed tensile stress. Anisotropic materials and thin disks were reported to develop greater maximum stresses. They also observed fracturing of specimens during quenching process in a soldering bath from room temperature.

Effect of Tensile Stresses
Thermal stresses have been quantified and extensively studied in thermoelectric modules throughout the years but von Mises stresses are commonly reported. The von Mises stress defines a constraint on plastic yielding without having any information of the stress nature.

For instance, in a study by Sakamoto et al. the mechanical stability of a Mg_2Si-based structure was investigated that could utilize thermoelectric legs at an angle with elecftrical interconnects and substrates. Maximum tensile strength stresses were calculated and compared to the ultimate tensile streength of different materials. This approach might be misleading for brittle materials (such as ceramics) as they do not possess a defined tensile strength.

Thermal Mismatch Stresses
In 2018, Chen et al. investigated the cracking failure of Cu pillar bump that was caused by electromigration under thermoelectric coupling load. They showed that under thermoelectric coupling load, will experience severe joule heat and current density that can be accumulate thermoemechanical stress and miscrostructure evolution. They also pointed out that the difference in CTE between materials in the flip chip package causes thermal mismatch stress which can later develop the cavities to expand along cathode into cracks. Also, it is worth noting that they mentioned thermal-electrical coupling can cause electromigration, microcracks and delamination due to temperature and stress concentration that can fail Cu pillar bumps.

Phase-Transformation Stresses
Phase transformation can occur in thermoelectric materials as well as many other energy materials. As pointed out by Al Malki et al., phase transformation can lead to a total plastic strain when internal mismatch stresses are biased with shear stress. The alpha phase of Ag_2S transforms to a body centered cubic phase. Liang et al. showed that a crack was observed when heating through 407 K through this phase transformation.

Creep Deformation
Creep deformation is a time-dependent mechanism where strain accumulates as amaterial is subjected to external or internal stressesat a high homologous temperature in excess ofT/Tm= 0.5(whereTmis the melting point in K).  This phenomena can emerge in thermoelectric devices after operating for a long time (i.e. months to years). A coarse-grained or monocrystalline structures have been shown to be desirable as creep-resistant materials.

Applications

Refrigeration

Thermoelectric materials can be used as refrigerators, called "thermoelectric coolers", or "Peltier coolers" after the Peltier effect that controls their operation. As a refrigeration technology, Peltier cooling is far less common than vapor-compression refrigeration. The main advantages of a Peltier cooler (compared to a vapor-compression refrigerator) are its lack of moving parts or refrigerant, and its small size and flexible shape (form factor).

The main disadvantage of Peltier coolers is low efficiency. It is estimated that materials with ZT>3 (about 20–30% Carnot efficiency) would be required to replace traditional coolers in most applications. Today, Peltier coolers are only used in niche applications, especially small scale, where efficiency is not important.

Power generation

Thermoelectric efficiency depends on the figure of merit, ZT. There is no theoretical upper limit to ZT, and as ZT approaches infinity, the thermoelectric efficiency approaches the Carnot limit. However, until recently no known thermoelectrics had a ZT>3.
In 2019, researchers reported a material with approximated ZT between 5 and 6.

As of 2010, thermoelectric generators serve application niches where efficiency and cost are less important than reliability, light weight, and small size.

Internal combustion engines capture 20–25% of the energy released during fuel combustion.
 Increasing the conversion rate can increase mileage and provide more electricity for on-board controls and creature comforts (stability controls, telematics, navigation systems, electronic braking, etc.) It may be possible to shift energy draw from the engine (in certain cases) to the electrical load in the car, e.g., electrical power steering or electrical coolant pump operation.

Cogeneration power plants use the heat produced during electricity generation for alternative purposes; being this more profitable in industries with high amounts of waste energy.

Thermoelectrics may find applications in such systems or in solar thermal energy generation.

See also
 Batteryless radio
 Pyroelectric effect
 Thermionic converter

References

Bibliography

External links
TE Modules Application Tips and Hints
The Seebeck Coefficient
Materials for Thermoelectric Devices (4th chapter of Martin Wagner dissertation)
New material breaks world record for turning heat into electricity

Thermoelectricity
Materials science
Energy conversion

bg:Термоелектричество
ca:Termoelectricitat
de:Thermoelektrizität
el:Θερμοηλεκτρισμός
es:Termoelectricidad
fr:Thermoélectricité
it:Termoelettricità
lt:Termoelektra
pt:Termoeletricidade

Thermoelectric materials


صدفة نجوت ديوان شعر للشاعر والأديب والناقد وديع العبيدي ترجم للألمانية. والديوان جزء من مجموعة قصائد نشرها العبيدي.

المحتوى
ضمت المجموعة ثمانية وعشرين نصاً باللغتين العربية والألمانية، منها:

«أنسنة» و«بعد» و«نسيان» و«النسيان» و«البدون (وطن)» و«صدفة نجوت» و«ظلم» و«الخيال الجامح»، و«لزوم»، يتكلم عن الأوقات التي قضاها الشاعر أيام الحرب، وتعبر عن معاناة إنسان عراقي عانى ويلات الحرب منذ 1980، وتجارب الهجر ويصفها من خلال صورة تعبيرية درامية مليئة بمشاعر الألم التي حملتها الحرب، وعن الإشكالات التي واجهته في بلاد المهجر، وعن كيفية نجاته ومقاومته لكل الضيقات والصعوبات التي انتصر عليها وتجاوزها.

أقيم مهرجان تكريم للشاعر في العاصمة النمساوية فينا حيث حظي ديوانه صدفة نجوت بتكريم من الأدباء النمساويين.

مراجع

دواوين شعر

صدفة نجوت


كتابٌ الذخيرة في محاسن أهل الجزيرة، ألفه أبو الحسن علي بن بسَّام الشنتريني، من أعلام الكُتَّاب والنقاد الأندلسيين، في القرنين الخامس والسادس الهجريين. ولد بجزيرة شنترين، وإليها نسب، في أسرة ميسورة الحال، عنيت بتربيته وتعليمه وإعداده لمستقبل زاهر. أظهر ابن بسام قدرًا من الموهبة الأدبية منذ الصغر، وبدأ يكتب الشعر والنثر فلفت الأنظار إليه.

وكتاب «الذخيرة في محاسن أهل الجزيرة» مصدر على جانب كبير من الأهمية للباحث في تاريخ الأندلس وأدبها في فترة ملوك الطوائف، التي تلت نهاية خلافة قرطبة الأموية، القرن الخامس الهجري/الحادي عشر الميلادي.

أما أهمية الكتاب التاريخية فترجع، إلى احتفاظه بفقرات مطولة من كتاب «المتين» لشيخ مؤرخي الأندلس أبي مروان بن حيان (ت 469هـ/ 1076م)، وهو التاريخ الذي لم يصلنا، وفيه تناول ابن حيان - بأسلوبه البليغ وصدقه وصراحته المعهودتين- تاريخ الأندلس على عهد ملوك الطوائف. إن هذه الفقرات التي أوردها ابن بسام في كتاب «الذخيرة في محاسن أهل الجزيرة» هي كل ما وصلنا من كتاب «المتين»، وأضاف إليها ابن بسام تأريخه هو للثلث الأخير من القرن الحادي عشر بعد وفاة ابن حيان.

وأما من الناحية الأدبية، فإن ابن بسام يعرض لنا بأسلوب بديع مرسل -من دون إغراق في السجع كبعض معاصريه- نماذج ومقتطفات من شعر دفتر أعلام الأدباء في تلك الفترة التي شهد جانبًا منها، أو استقى أخبارها من مصادر قريبة العهد بها.

ويتجلى في «الذخيرة» علم ابن بسام وإلمامه بتاريخ العرب وتمثّله وحفظه أشعارهم وأمثالهم. وقد قدم لأقسام الكتاب بتمهيد تاريخي، ذكر فيه أنه كفاه مؤونته مؤرخ قرطبة ابن حيان، كما اعتمد تاريخًا منظومًا للأندلس لأبي طالب عبد الجبار المتيني من جزيرة شَقَر، وقد عاش هذا المؤرخ في حدود سنة 520هـ، وبعد هذا التمهيد بدأ تراجم الأعلام فذكر اسم المترجم له ولقبه ونسبه وبلده وبعضًا من شعره ونثره.

أقسام الكتاب
قسم ابن بسام كتابه إلى أربعة أقسام:

 القسم الأول: - خصصه لأهل قرطبة، وما يجاورها من بلاد في وسط الأندلس. وقد تضمن ترجمة لأربعة وثلاثين شاعراً وأديباً وسياسياً ومؤرخاً من أبرزهم: ابن دراج القسطلي - ابن حزم الأندلسي - ابن شهيد - ابن زيدون وغيرهم.
 القسم الثاني: خصصه لأهل الجانب الغربي من الأندلس، فذكر أهل إشبيلية وما اتصل بها من بلاد ساحل البحر المحيط الرومي. وقد ذكر في هذا القسم ستة وأربعين من الرؤساء والكتاب أشهرهم القاضي أبو القاسم بن عباد وابنه المعتضد، والمعتمد وكيفية خلعه من الحكم وابن عماد ومقتله.
 القسم الثالث: خصصه لأهل الجانب الشرقي من الأندلس. وعرض فيه لكوكبة من نابهى العصر في أفق ذلك الثغر حتى غروب شمس الإسلام هناك. فعرّف فيه بعدد من الرؤساء والكتاب والشعراء من بينهم ابن خفاجة - ابن اللبّانة - ابن أبي الخصال وغيرهم.
 القسم الرابع: خصصه لمن طرأ على جزيرة الأندلس من أدباء وشعراء وكتاب وألحق بهم من لمع في عصره بإفريقيا والشام والعراق. وقد ترجم في هذا القسم لاثنين وثلاثين شخصاً يأتي في مقدمتهم أبو العلاء صاعد البغدادي وابن حمديس الصقلي وغيرهم، ومن أهل المشرق الشريف الرضي - الثعالبي - ابن رشيق القيرواني وغيرهم.

مصادر
الذخيرة في معرفة محاسن أهل الجزيرة

مراجع

كتب باللغة العربية
كتب تراجم عربية

الذخيرة في محاسن أهل الجزيرة


Denis Walerjewitsch Gratschow (, englische Transkription Denis Grachev; * 18. Januar 1992) ist ein russischer Badmintonspieler.

Karriere
Denis Gratschow spielte 2011 und 2012 in der höchsten russischen Liga, der Superliga, für den Klub Primorje Wladiwostok. Bei den russischen nationalen Titelkämpfen 2011 belegte er in allen drei möglichen Disziplinen Rang fünf. Ein Jahr später wiederholte er diese Platzierung im Herreneinzel und im Herrendoppel. Außerhalb seiner Heimat startete er unter anderem bei den Cyprus International 2009, den Kharkiv International 2009, den Macau Open 2010, den Cyprus International 2010, den Hungarian International 2010, den Turkey International 2010, der Korea Open Super Series 2010, den Croatian International 2011, den Kharkiv International 2011 und den Swiss International 2011. 2012 qualifizierte er sich mit seinem Nationalteam für die Endrunde des Thomas Cups und schied dort im Viertelfinale aus.

Weblinks

Badmintonspieler (Russland)
Russe
Geboren 1992
Mann

Denis Walerjewitsch Gratschow


Noget om de praktiserende læger i Danmark er en dokumentarfilm fra 2003 instrueret af Henning Carlsen efter manuskript af Henning Carlsen.

Handling
Denne dokumentarfilm er en opfølgning på Henning Carlsens »Noget om det danske sygehusvæsen« (2001). Intentionen og metoden er den samme: At lade en række danske læger reflektere over deres fag og tingenes aktuelle tilstand - uden at blive afbrudt af næste hurtige indslag i en sensationslysten debat. 24 læger fortæller her om, hvorfor de er blevet praktiserende læger, om den traditionelle huslæge vs. den moderne, om at gøre raske mennesker syge, om medicinalindustrien og det permanente pres herfra, om forholdet mellem almen praksis og hospitalsvæsenet, om efteruddannelse, om en læges største udfordringer - og om fremtiden.

Referencer

Eksterne henvisninger

Dokumentarfilm fra Danmark
Danske film fra 2003


Tomie Arai, née en , est une artiste et activiste new yorkaise.

Elle réalise des œuvres in situ, abordant les thématiques du genre, de la communauté et de l'identité raciale. Impliquée dans le dialogue entre les communautés, elle a notamment cofondé le collectif .

Biographie
Tomie Arai nait à New York en . Issue de troisième génération de Sino-Américains,  ses grands-parents étaient des paysans qui se sont installés aux États-Unis au début du  ; ses parents ont grandi à Hawaï et en Californie.

Au début de sa carrière, à la fin des années 1960 et au début des années 1970, elle a l'impression que le monde de l'art new-yorkais n'arrive pas à intégrer son vécu d'Américaine d'origine asiatique. Elle décide alors de s'impliquer dans l'art communautaire. En 1972, elle rejoint le , première organisation politique et artistique asio-américaine de New York. Elle y découvre l'activisme et des artistes asio-américains, comme Arlan Huang. Entre 1972 et 1979, Tomie Arai travaille au  en tant que coordinatrice du centre de ressources et directrice des peintures murales, réalisant plusieurs fresques dans le Lower East Side de New York. De nombreux membres du  s'investissent dans le premier projet de Cityarts à Chinatown, Une histoire de l'immigration chinoise aux États-Unis.

Après Cityarts, Arai travaille comme graphiste indépendante pour Alan Okada de Citibank. À l'époque, Arai crée des affiches, des brochures et du matériel promotionnel pour des communautés, dans le cadre du programme de soutien de Citibank. Dans les années 1980, Arai commence à se tourner vers la gravure.

Pendant plus de , elle est membre du conseil d'administration et gérante du , une imprimerie associative. Elle participe également à des résidences d'impression au , au , au  et au Brandywine Workshop à Philadelphie. Ces espaces de travail à but non lucratif encouragent les artistes à collaborer et à expérimenter l'image imprimée.

Arai est également membre cofondatrice du collectif d'arts asio-américains , actif à New York dans les années 1990.

Œuvre
Dans son œuvre, Tomie Arai explore les rapports entre art et histoire, et le rôle de la mémoire. Elle utilise de nombreux médiums : la sérigraphie, l'installation in-situ, la collecte de l'histoire orale, de la mémoire et des images des différentes communautés. Elle documente les récits des connumautés tout en engageant les spectateurs dans un dialogue avec les luttes sociales contemporaines.

Arai est une ardente défenseure du déplacement de l'art en dehors du système hiérarchique des galeries, elle cherche à redéfinir l'art et sa relation au public. Si l'art public se résume souvent à une sculpture monumentale placée dans l'espace public, sans liens avec les habitants, elle préfère une approche en dialogue avec les communautés d'habitants, qui leur permet de s'approprier l'œuvre.

Elle répondu à des commandes de l', du , du Bronx Museum of the Arts, du National Endowment for the Arts ou du . De plus, Arai crée des œuvres in situ, dans le cadre du 1 % artistique du  ou commandées par l'Administration des services généraux, par le programme  de New York ou par le .

En 1997-1998, elle est la première artiste en résidence de l'Institut Asie/Pacifique/Amérique de l'Université de New York. Elle bénéficie également de résidences, entre autres, au MoMA PS1 (1991), au Bronx Museum of the Arts (2003) ou à l'Haverford College (2017).

Avec ManSee Kong et Betty Yu, Tomie Arai fonde en  la  (CAB), un collectif d'artistes, de créateurs et d'activistes qui conçoit des œuvres artistiques et multimédia pour promouvoir la justice sociale.

Projets publics

Commandé en 2005, Renewal est installé sur la façade du  en 1998. Cette œuvre, superpositions de sérigraphies sur toile, honore le African Burial Ground et les premiers Noirs-Américains de New York.

En 2006, Arai installe à Philadelphie l'œuvre in-situ  (Tournillon), qui met en lumière l'histoire méconnue des Asio-Américains de la ville. Cette œuvre en bois et en acier, montrant des portraits photographiques d'habitants sérigraphiés, est une réponse au projet du maire de l'époque, John F. Street, de construire un stade de baseball pour les Phillies de Philadelphie, détruisant une partie des bâtiments de Chinatown. L'œuvre est un grand patchwork de photos de famille, en forme de bi chinois (disque percé, généralement en jade), situé sur la Vine Street Expressway.

Arai elle crée Back to the Garden en 2007, situé dans la station de métro , une sorte de vitrail montrant un motif de feuilles d'arbres locaux. Des photographies des environs sont intérés dans les fenêtres.

Collections permanentes
Les œuvres d'Arai sont dans les collections permanentes de plusieurs musées, notamment au Museum of Modern Art et à la Bibliothèque du Congrès.

Récompenses
 1997 : Prix Anonymous Was A Woman
 2003 et 2005 :
 2007 : bourse  de l'
 2007 : bourse  de l'
 2010 : lauréate de l'
 2012 : bourse  du programme  du
 2013 : prix de la
 2013 : bourse  de l'

Bibliographie
 1990 : .
 1998 : .

Elle fait partie des 14 artistes participant à l'ouvrage collectif , dirigé par Harriet Rohmer (Harriet Rohmer, 1997, , ).

Références

Liens externes

Naissance à New York
Naissance en 1949
Plasticien américain contemporain
Artiste contemporain américain
Prix Anonymous Was A Woman

Tomie Arai


Ampfrach ist ein Gewässername:
 Ampfrach, rechter Zufluss der Wörnitz beim Dorf Reichenbach der Stadt Feuchtwangen im Landkreis Ansbach, Bayern

Ampfrach ist ein Ortsnamensbestandteil:
 Oberampfrach, Pfarrdorf der Gemeinde Schnelldorf im Landkreis Ansbach, Bayern
 Unterampfrach, Pfarrdorf der Gemeinde Schnelldorf im Landkreis Ansbach, Bayern

Ampfrach (Begriffsklärung)


Princípios elementares da propaganda de guerra (Principes élémentaires de propagande de guerre) é um livro publicado em 2001 da historiadora Anne Morelli, professora da Universidade Livre de Bruxelas e especialista em crítica histórica aplicada à mídia moderna. O subtítulo recomenda sua usabilidade "em caso de guerra fria, quente ou morna" ("Utilisables en cas de guerre froide, chaude ou tiède"). Foi republicado com acréscimos em 2006, e outra edição foi publicada em 2010 para acrescentar ao livro as guerras do Iraque e Afeganistão, junto de uma análise do discurso de Barack Obama no Prêmio Nobel da Paz de 2009, no qual ele foi premiado. Foi traduzido para holandês, italiano, espanhol, alemão, japonês e para o português europeu em 2008, mas não para o português brasileiro.

Os dez "mandamentos" da propaganda que Anne Morelli elabora neste trabalho são, sobretudo, um referencial analítico para fins pedagógicos e de análise midiática. Morelli não quer tomar partido ou defender "ditadores", mas mostrar a regularidade do uso dos dez princípios na mídia e na sociedade:

"Não vou pôr à prova a pureza das intenções de um ou de outro. Não vou descobrir quem está mentindo e quem está dizendo a verdade, quem está acreditando no que diz e quem não está. Minha única intenção é ilustrar os princípios da propaganda que são usados e descrever seu funcionamento" (p. 6).

No entanto, parece inegável para a autora que após as guerras que caracterizam nossa época (Guerra do Kosovo, Segunda Guerra do Golfo, Guerra do Afeganistão, Guerra do Iraque), as democracias ocidentais e seus meios de comunicação devem ser discutidos.

Como mostra Rudolph Walther em sua resenha no Die Zeit, Morelli nesta obra adapta as formas típicas de diversos conteúdos de propaganda às notícias de seu tempo. Ela retoma Falsehood in War-Time, do diplomata trabalhista britânico Arthur Ponsonby, um pacifista hostil à entrada da Grã-Bretanha na guerra em 1914 que contribuiu largamente para o desenvolvimento dos princípios da propaganda de guerra, cuja autora agradeceu em sua publicação por suas contribuições, e La mobilization des consciences. La guerre de 1914, de George Demartial, sobre a propaganda na Primeira Guerra Mundial, sistematiza-os na forma de dez princípios, e os aplica a ambas as guerras mundiais, a guerra nos Balcãs e a guerra no Afeganistão. Quatro dos seguintes princípios, de acordo com Walther, apenas emanam diretamente do princípio de amigo ou inimigo, mentalidade de "nós e eles" e pensamento simplista em termos de preto e branco.

Conteúdo

1. Não queremos guerra, estamos apenas nos defendendo!
Segundo Morelli, os próprios estadistas de todos os países sempre garantiram solenemente que não querem a guerra. As guerras são sempre indesejadas, só muito raramente uma guerra é vista positivamente pela população.

Com o surgimento da democracia, o consentimento da população torna-se indispensável, por isso a guerra deve ser rejeitada e todos devem ser pacifistas de coração, ao contrário da Idade Média, quando a opinião da população era de pouca importância. "Assim, o governo francês mobiliza o exército e anuncia ao mesmo tempo que a mobilização não é uma guerra, mas, ao contrário, a melhor maneira de garantir a paz". "Se todos os líderes são inspirados pela mesma vontade de paz, pode-se perguntar por que as guerras irrompem, afinal". O segundo princípio fornece uma resposta a essa pergunta.

2. Nosso adversário é o único responsável por esta guerra!
Morelli afirma que esse princípio decorre do fato de que cada parte assegura ser compelida a declarar guerra para evitar que o adversário "destrua nossos valores, ponha em risco nossa liberdade ou nos destrua por completo". É o paradoxo de uma guerra que é travada para evitar guerras. Isso nos leva quase à frase mítica de George Orwell: "Guerra é paz". De acordo com esse entendimento, os EUA foram forçados a travar uma guerra contra o Iraque, porque o Iraque não lhe deixou outra escolha.

Eles reagem apenas, defendendo-se das provocações do inimigo, que é totalmente responsável pela eclosão da guerra. "Édouard Daladier assegura em seu 'Chamado à Nação' em 3 de setembro de 1939 - assumindo a responsabilidade da França pelas consequências do Tratado de Versalhes: 'A Alemanha já se recusou a responder às pessoas de bom coração neste momento levantaram sua voz pela paz no mundo. (...) Fazemos a guerra porque eles nos forçam'". "Ribbentrop justificou a guerra contra a Polônia dizendo: 'O Führer não quer a guerra. Ele resolve isso com o coração pesado. Mas a decisão sobre guerra e paz não depende dele. Depende da Polônia. Em certas questões vitais para o Reich, a Polônia tem que ceder e cumprir as exigências que não podemos prescindir. Se a Polônia recusar, a responsabilidade pelo conflito é dela e não da Alemanha'" (p. 16 no original francês). No mesmo sentido, em 9 de janeiro de 1991, podemos ler sobre a Guerra do Golfo em Le Soir: "A paz que o mundo inteiro deseja mais do que qualquer outra coisa, não pode ser construída sobre simples concessões a um ato de pirataria". O mesmo vale para a guerra do Iraque, porque antes do início da guerra, em 12 de setembro de 2002 Le Parisien intitulou: "Como Saddam se prepara para a guerra".

3. O líder do nosso adversário é inerentemente mau e se assemelha ao diabo
Morelli escreve: "Você não pode odiar um grupo de pessoas completamente, nem mesmo como seus inimigos. Portanto, é mais eficaz direcionar o ódio para a personalidade principal do país inimigo. Assim, 'o inimigo' terá um rosto, e esse rosto naturalmente se tornará objeto de ódio".

Ela comenta: "O vencedor sempre se retratará como um pacifista que ama acordos pacíficos e compreensão mútua, mas é forçado a entrar em guerra pelo campo oposto, como Bush ou Blair fizeram". "O campo inimigo é certamente dirigido por um maníaco, um monstro (Milosevic, Bin Laden, Saddam Hussein), (...) que nos desafia e do qual devemos libertar a humanidade".

O primeiro passo no processo de demonização, segundo Morelli, é a redução de um país inteiro a uma única pessoa, como se ninguém vivesse no Iraque, exceto Saddam Hussein com seus "assustadores" guardas republicanos e suas "assustadoras" armas de massa destruição.

Personalizar os conflitos é típico de uma visão particular da história, segundo a qual a história é feita por heróis, por "grandes pessoas". Anne Morelli rejeita essa visão da história e escreve incansavelmente sobre o que a historiografia oficial esconde. O relato oficial da história é idealista e metafísico na medida em que assume que a história é o resultado de grandes ideias e grandes pessoas. Ela contrapõe essa visão a uma visão dialética e materialista, na qual a história é explicada a partir das relações entre as pessoas e dos movimentos sociais.

O oponente é caracterizado por todos os males concebíveis. Eles vão desde a aparência física até a vida sexual. Assim, Le Vif em L'Express em 8 de abril de 1999 retrata o "terrível Milosevic", ela não cita nenhuma declaração ou documento escrito do "governante de Belgrado", mas destaca suas mudanças anormais de humor, suas explosões mórbidas e brutais de raiva: "Quando fica com raiva, seu rosto fica distorcido. Mas, de repente, ele recupera a compostura". É claro que essa demonização também é usada para outros fins, como todas as ferramentas de propaganda. Pierre Bourdieu, por exemplo, relata que nos Estados Unidos professores universitários que não gostavam da popularidade de Michel Foucault em suas escolas secundárias escreveram livros sobre a vida privada de Foucault. Segundo eles, esse "homossexual masoquista e louco" praticava "práticas sexuais não naturais, escandalosas e inaceitáveis".  Ao desqualificar Foucault como pessoa, eles poderiam se poupar do mais difícil confronto com o pensamento do autor ou com os discursos de uma pessoa política e "refutá-lo" com base em juízos morais.

4. Defendemos uma causa nobre, não nossos interesses particulares!
Morelli analisa que os objetivos econômicos e geopolíticos da guerra devem ser mascarados por um ideal, por valores morais e legítimos. Assim, George W. Bush declarou: "Há pessoas que nunca vão entender isso. A luta não é pelo petróleo, a luta é contra a agressão brutal". Le Monde escreveu em 22 de janeiro de 1991: "Os objetivos desta guerra são, antes de tudo, os objetivos do Conselho de Segurança da ONU. Participamos desta guerra pelas razões por trás das decisões do Conselho de Segurança e o objetivo essencialmente é a libertação do Kuwait".

"Em nossas sociedades modernas, diferentemente do tempo de Luís XIV, uma guerra só pode ser iniciada com o consentimento do povo. Gramsci mostrou até que ponto a supremacia cultural e o consentimento às decisões governamentais são necessários. Essa aprovação é fácil de conquistar se as pessoas acreditarem que sua liberdade, suas vidas e sua honra dependem desta guerra".

"Por exemplo, os objetivos da Primeira Guerra Mundial podem ser resumidos em três pontos: 'destruir o militarismo', 'defender os estados menores', e 'preparar o mundo para a democracia'. Esses objetivos muito honrosos vêm sendo repetidos quase literalmente às vésperas de cada conflito, embora não se ajustem ao verdadeiro propósito. (...) É necessário persuadir a opinião pública de que nós, ao contrário de nossos inimigos, vamos à guerra por motivos infinitamente honrosos".

"Para a guerra iugoslava, encontramos o mesmo desvio dos objetivos oficiais dos objetivos não reconhecidos do conflito. (...) A OTAN intervém oficialmente para preservar a natureza multiétnica do Kosovo e para evitar que as minorias sejam abusadas, para estabelecer a democracia e, assim, acabar com o governo de um ditador. É pela defesa das sagradas preocupações dos direitos humanos. Mas não é apenas no final desta guerra que você pode ver que nenhum desses objetivos foi alcançado: você se afastou notavelmente de uma sociedade multiétnica e da não-violência contra minorias, desta vez sérvios e ciganos; essa violência faz parte da vida cotidiana, mas você percebe que os objetivos econômicos e geopolíticos que nunca foram mencionados foram alcançados".

Morelli acrescenta: "O princípio tem um complemento: que o inimigo é um monstro sanguinário que representa uma sociedade bárbara".

5. O inimigo está cometendo atrocidades propositalmente; se estamos cometendo erros isso acontece sem intenção
Morelli sustenta que as histórias sobre as atrocidades do inimigo são um elemento essencial da propaganda. As crueldades fazem parte de todas as guerras. Mas insistir na visão de que apenas o inimigo cometeu atrocidades e que o exército "humanitário" era amado pela população faz com que histórias de atrocidades façam parte da propaganda.

Além disso, continua Morelli, a propaganda de guerra não se contenta com os incidentes reais, ela precisa inventar atrocidades desumanas para fazer o inimigo parecer o alter ego de Hitler.

Ela quase não vê diferenças na forma como as atrocidades são descritas em diferentes guerras. Para o período da Primeira Guerra Mundial, Ponsonby retrata a prestação de estupro coletivo, assassinato, maus-tratos e mutilação de crianças por soldados alemães. Morelli mostra como são semelhantes os relatos de guerras no Iraque, Afeganistão e Kosovo.

6. O inimigo faz uso de armas ilegais
Morelli vê este princípio como um complemento ao anterior. "Não cometemos atrocidades mas, pelo contrário, vamos guerrear com cavalheirismo, seguindo as regras, como num concurso, claro, são regras duras e masculinas". Houve protestos furiosos na Primeira Guerra Mundial contra o uso de gás venenoso. Cada parte em conflito acusou a outra de tê-la iniciado. Embora ambos usassem o gás como arma e estivessem fazendo pesquisas nesse campo, era a expressão simbólica da guerra desumana. Portanto, conclui Morelli, foi atribuída ao inimigo como arma indecente e enganosa.

7. Sofremos poucas perdas, as perdas do inimigo são consideráveis
Morelli explica esse princípio ou mandamento da seguinte forma: "Com raras exceções, as pessoas tendem a se unir à causa vitoriosa. No caso da guerra, a preferência da opinião pública depende muito dos resultados aparentes do conflito. Se os resultados não forem bons, a propaganda deve disfarçar nossas perdas e exagerar as do inimigo".

Ela cita o fato de que já na Primeira Guerra Mundial as perdas se acumularam no primeiro mês e subiram para 313 mil baixas. Mas o Comando Supremo nunca relatou a perda de um cavalo e não publicou uma lista dos mortos.

Morelli vê a guerra do Iraque como outro exemplo da proibição da publicação de fotografias de caixões de soldados americanos. As perdas do inimigo, no entanto, foram gigantescas, seu exército não ofereceu resistência. "Esse tipo de informação eleva o moral em ambos os campos e torna a opinião pública convencida da eficácia do conflito".

8. Intelectuais e artistas reconhecidos apoiam nossa causa
Morelli afirma que, desde a Primeira Guerra Mundial, os intelectuais apoiaram massivamente seu próprio campo. Cada partido de guerra contou com o apoio de artistas, escritores e músicos que apoiaram as preocupações de seus países por meio de iniciativas em seus campos de atuação.

Ela se refere a caricaturistas que ela acha que são usados para justificar a guerra e retratar o "açougueiro" e suas atrocidades, enquanto outros com sua câmera na mão produzem documentos emocionantes sobre refugiados albaneses, selecionando cuidadosamente aqueles que são mais semelhantes ao público, como a linda criança albanesa loira com saudades de casa, que deveria nos lembrar das vítimas albanesas.

Em todos os lugares, escreve Morelli, "manifestos" são publicados. O Manifesto dos Cem, visando apoiar a França na Primeira Guerra Mundial, foi assinado por André Gide, Claude Monet, Claude Debussy e Paul Claudel. Mais próximo do presente está o Manifesto dos 12 contra o "novo totalitarismo" do islamismo. Esses grupos de intelectuais, artistas e personalidades ilustres justificam as ações de seu respectivo poder estatal.

9. Nossa causa é sagrada
Esse critério é entendido por Morelli de duas maneiras diferentes: no sentido literal, a guerra se apresenta como uma cruzada, respaldada por uma missão divina. Não se deve fugir da vontade de Deus, deve-se cumpri-la. Essa visão ganhou nova importância desde que George W. Bush assumiu o cargo, afirma Morelli. A guerra do Iraque aparece nesta visão como uma cruzada contra o "eixo do mal", como a "luta do bem contra o mal". É visto como um dever levar a democracia ao Iraque, um valor que brotou diretamente da vontade de Deus. A guerra era, portanto, a realização da vontade divina. As decisões políticas assumem um caráter bíblico que elimina todas as questões sociais e econômicas. A referência a Deus é feita de várias maneiras (In God We Trust ["Em Deus nós confiamos"], God Save the Queen ["Deus salve a Rainha"], Gott mit uns ["Deus conosco"], ...) e serve para justificar as ações do soberano sem qualquer chance de contradição.

10. Quem duvida da nossa propaganda ajuda o inimigo e é um traidor
Este último princípio complementa todos os outros, explica Morelli. Quem questiona apenas um dos princípios é necessariamente um colaborador. Existem apenas duas áreas, boas e ruins. Você só pode ser a favor ou contra o mal. Os opositores da guerra do Kosovo são, portanto, cúmplices de Milošević. Grupos inteiros são considerados antiamericanos, Pierre Bourdieu, Régis Debray, Serge Halimi, Noam Chomsky ou Harold Pinter. A "família pacifista" inclui Gisèle Halimi, Renaud, Abbé Pierre... e seus órgãos de imprensa, ou seja, Le Monde Diplomatique e o PCF.

Assim, diz Morelli, fica impossível emitir opinião divergente sem correr o risco de um "processo de linchamento da mídia". O pluralismo normal de opiniões não existe mais, toda oposição é silenciada e desacreditada por falsos argumentos.

Segundo Morelli, esse procedimento foi aplicado novamente na guerra do Iraque, embora o público mundial estivesse muito mais dividido do que no conflito de Kosovo. Ser contra a guerra significava defender Saddam Hussein. O mesmo desenho foi utilizado num contexto completamente diferente, nomeadamente durante a votação da Constituição Europeia. Ser contra a Constituição significava ser contra a Europa.

Comentários e recepção
O jornalista alemão Rudolf Walther elogia o arcabouço teórico de Morelli: Em sua opinião, a publicação de Morelli funciona como um "instrumento intelectual" para qualquer leitor de jornal ou telespectador para "examinar e criticar a propaganda imposta pela mídia moderna". Com muitas evidências de todos os grandes conflitos desde a Primeira Guerra Mundial, Morelli examinou os mecanismos das partes em conflito, com os quais eles conseguem apresentar seu ponto de vista como uma causa justa. Morelli, resumiu sucintamente os fundamentos de Ponsonby e Georges Demartial.

Jochen Stöckmann é mais crítico da investigação de Morelli. Ele acha surpreendente "que Morelli não descreva como as engrenagens da mídia se entrelaçam, ela não pesquisa os mecanismos e detalhes, mas argumenta exclusivamente com citações, baseando sua crítica nos próprios produtos da propaganda. Esse tipo de crítica superficial do A mídia há muito se tornou parte integrante da máquina de infoentretenimento, sustenta Stöckman. Para aqueles que são tão "iluminados", mas na verdade bastante endurecidos à crítica, cada reportagem de guerra deve parecer propaganda, desde que não seja baseada em uma atitude pacifista Morelli deveria ter esclarecido a situação confusa, insiste Stockmann, em vez de apenas recomendar a 'dúvida sistemática' como um 'antídoto'. Mas é provável que sua eficácia se esgote rapidamente, pois o historiador vê quase todas as notícias contaminadas pelos produtos venenosos do modo correto de pensar que são derramados pela mídia todos os dias.

Em sua resenha ao H-Soz-Kult em 29 de junho de 2005, Lars Klein da Universidade de Göttingen escreve depois de elogiar a relevância do tópico e a utilidade de sua análise, Morelli não esclarece se a própria mídia está agindo de forma independente , se seguem interesses políticos ou comerciais e se abusam conscientemente ou apenas irrefletidamente da "boa fé" dos cidadãos. "Precisamente porque ela usa todo o décimo capítulo [...] para mostrar o quão importante a mídia mantém seu 'próprio lado', explicações mais claras e adicionais seriam desejáveis."

Ciência da religião
Relações públicas


قرار مجلس الأمن الدولي رقم 248 الصادر في عام 1968 بتاريخ 24 مارس والذي يدين فيه الهجوم العسكري الإسرائيلي الواسع النطاق والمتعمد ضد الأردن والذي نتج عنه معركة الكرامة.

المراجع

إسرائيل في 1968
عنصرية إسرائيل
قرارات مجلس الأمن التابع للأمم المتحدة بشأن إسرائيل
قرارات مجلس الأمن التابع للأمم المتحدة بشأن الأردن
قرارات مجلس الأمن التابع للأمم المتحدة عام 1968
أحداث مارس 1968

قرار مجلس الأمن التابع للأمم المتحدة رقم 248


Schukowka () ist ein russischer, weißrussischer und ukrainischer Orts- und auch Flussname:

Ortsname:

in Russland:
 Schukowka, Stadt im Rajon Schukowka, Oblast Brjansk
 Schukowka (Kaliningrad), Siedlung im Rajon Bagrationowsk, Oblast Kaliningrad (Quilitten, Kreis Heiligenbeil, Ostpreußen)
 Schukowka (Moskau, Odinzowo), Dorf im Rajon Odinzowo, Oblast Moskau
 Schukowka (Moskau, Wolokolamsk), Dorf im Rajon Wolokolamsk, Oblast Moskau

in der Ukraine:
 Schukowka (Kiew), Dorf im Rajon Sgurowka, Oblast Kiew

Flussname:
 Schukowka (Moskwa), Nebenfluss der Moskwa, Russland

Schukowka (Begriffsklärung)


Nicol Williamson (Hamilton, South Lanarkshire, 14 de septiembre de 1936 - Ámsterdam, Países Bajos, 16 de diciembre de 2011) fue un actor escocés, definido según el escritor John Osborne como "el mejor actor desde Marlon Brando".

Debutó en 1961 en Londres en la producción de Tony Richardson de A Midsummer Night's Dream. Se consagró en 1964 en Inadmisible evidencia de John Osborne. En 1968, fue Hamlet dirigida por Tony Richardson, con sir Anthony Hopkins y Marianne Faithfull. Por este papel, recibió el Premio a la Interpretación.

En 1976 encarnó al detective Sherlock Holmes en la película The Seven-Per-Cent Solution.

Ese mismo año desempeñó el papel de Little John en Robin y Marian de Richard Lester.

En 1981 fue Merlín en Excalibur, de John Boorman, con Helen Mirren.

En 1985 fue Rey de Nomo en Oz, un mundo fantástico.

Se casó en 1971 con la actriz Jill Townsend, tuvieron a su hijo Luke y se divorciaron en 1977.

Premios
Festival Internacional de Cine de San Sebastián

Nicol Williamson fue tres veces nominado para los Premios BAFTA, y dos para los Premios Tony.

En los años 1969 y 1974 obtuvo el Premio a la Interpretación por sus papeles en las obras Hamlet y Tío Vania, respectivamente.

Referencias

Enlaces externos

 Nicol Williamson
 Obituario NYT

Actores de cine de Escocia
Actores de teatro de Escocia
Fallecidos por cáncer de esófago
Fallecidos en Ámsterdam
Fallecidos por cáncer en Países Bajos

Nicol Williamson


The National Emblem of the People's Republic of China is a national symbol of the People's Republic of China and contains in a red circle a representation of Tiananmen Gate, the entrance gate to the Forbidden City, where Mao Zedong declared the foundation of the People's Republic of China (PRC) in 1949. Above this representation are the five stars found on the national flag. The largest star represents the Chinese Communist Party (CCP), while the four smaller stars represent the four social classes as defined in Maoism. The emblem is described as being "composed of patterns of the national flag":
...The red color of the flag symbolizes revolution and the yellow color of the stars the golden brilliant rays radiating from the vast red land. The design of four smaller stars surrounding a bigger one signifies the unity of the Chinese people under the leadership of the Communist Party of China (CPC).

—China Yearbook 2004

The outer border of the red circle shows sheaves of wheat and the inner sheaves of rice, which together represent agricultural workers. At the center of the bottom portion of the border is a cog-wheel that represents industrial workers.

According to The Description of the National Emblem of the People's Republic of China (), these elements taken together symbolise the revolutionary struggles of the Chinese people since the May Fourth Movement and the coalition of the proletariat which succeeded in founding the People's Republic of China.

History
The national emblem appearing in modern times is often designed directly based on European heraldry. But in fact, the development of national emblem design in human society also has a long process. As a symbol of a country, even without the artistic concept of European heraldry, human beings will explore totem worship with similar concept in social practice. For example, there was no legal national emblem in the Qing Dynasty, but the "dragon" totem in the "Yellow Dragon flag" was widely used as a substantive national emblem in the official designs of the government such as silver coins and passports.

In the early days of the People's Republic of China, there was also the design of the national seal with the nature of the national emblem. In ancient China, the national seal was the certificate of the emperors of the orthodox dynasties in previous dynasties. Its symbolic power and stamping effect were similar to that of the modern national emblem. When the people's Republic of China was just established, it also took the traditional seal designed based on the traditional seal as an official duty (for example, the national seal "seal of the Central People's Government of the people's Republic of China" in the National Museum of China), but later it was officially changed to the European round seal design.

Beiyang period

The Empire of China during the Manchu-led Qing dynasty did not have an official state emblem, but the flag featured the azure dragon on a plain yellow field with a red sun of the three-legged crow in the upper left corner. It became the first national flag of China and is usually referred to as the Yellow Dragon Flag.

Following the end of Manchu rule, new national symbols were deemed necessary by the leaders to represent the changed circumstances. The renowned writers Lu Xun, Qian Daosun, and Xu Shoushang from the Ministry of Education were tasked with designing a new national emblem. It was presented on August 28, 1912, and was adopted as national emblem in February 1913. President-Emperor Yuan Shikai continued its use during his short imperial reign from 1915 to 1916. The emblem is based on the ancient symbols of the Twelve Ornaments. These are first mentioned as already ancient in the Book of Documents by Emperor Shun, who was one of the legendary Three Sovereigns and Five Emperors. Oral tradition holds that he lived sometime between 2294 and 2184 BC. According to the book, the emperor wished for the symbols to be used on official robes of the state.

Nationalist period

The Northern Expedition led by General Chiang Kai-shek and the Kuomintang party led to the overthrow of the fractious yet internationally recognized Beiyang government in 1928. This ushered in a one-party state under the Kuomintang known as the Nanjing decade. The state emblem was therefore replaced with the Kuomintang Blue Sky with a White Sun party symbol. The "Blue Sky, White Sun, and a Wholly Red Earth" flag has remained the flag of the Republic of China to this day. During this period, under the KMT's political tutelage, the Blue Sky with a White Sun Flag shared the same prominence as the ROC flag. A common wall display consisted of the KMT flag perched on the left and the ROC flag perched on the right, each tilted at an angle with a portrait of National Father Sun Yat-sen displayed in the center. After the promulgation of the Constitution of the Republic of China, the party flag was removed from such a display and the national flag was moved to the center.

Since the ROC government moved to Taiwan and especially in the years since the end of martial law the Kuominmtang flag has lost some of its prominence. However, it is still frequently seen on KMT party buildings in political rallies and other meetings of KMT and the pan-blue coalition.

Communist period

The first communist government in China known as the Chinese Soviet Republic had the emblem adopted in 1934. It consisted of an hammer and sickle on a globe, and the grain ears are placed under and on both sides of the earth. Above the earth and the five-pointed star is written the "Chinese Soviet Republic" on the top, and the "Workers of the world, unite!" written on the bottom.

On July 10, 1949, the government held a public competition for the design of the national emblem, however no satisfactory designs were selected. Therefore, on September 27, 1949, the First Plenary Session of Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference (CPPCC) decided to invite designers for the proposals of the national emblem and two groups from two universities were selected in September 1949. Three proposals were selected for the first round discussion:

The designers from China Central Academy of Fine Arts, Zhang Ding, Zhang Guangyu, Zhou Lingzhao and Zhong Ling, handed out their proposals with 5 variations on September 25, 1949. The symbolism of their first design was: The red star symbolizes Communism and the CCP. The cog and wheat/rice symbolizes unification of industrial workers and peasants. The rising earth with China in red symbolizes the socialist revolution in China and the world revolution ideal on Asian counties. 31 rays behind the earth symbolizes the 31 provincial administrative divisions at that time. The name of the People's Republic of China is written on the red ribbon below. The design was based on their design of the emblem of CPPCC, and was influenced by Socialist heraldry of the Eastern Bloc.
The designers from the Department of Architecture at Tsinghua University, Liang Sicheng, Lin Huiyin, Mo Zongjiang, Zhu Changzhong, Li Zongjin and Gao Zhuang, handed their proposal on October 30, 1949. According to their proposal, the design was a mixture of traditional Chinese culture and Maoist New Democratic Revolution ideals. The design imitated the style of mirrors in Han dynasty, symbolizing brightness. The disc was made of jade, a symbol of peace and unity. Decorative carvings on the disc was in Tang dynasty style. The stars from national flag and a cog were placed in the center of the disc, surrounded by wheats, symbolizing unity of working class and socialism. The red ribbon tied a smaller jade ring, symbolising the unification of Chinese people.
The other proposal by Zhang Ding, Zhang Guangyu, Zhou Lingzhao, was a perspective depiction of Tian'anmen gate.

Members of the first CPPCC committee discussed these three proposals on June 10, 1950. The result of the discussion was, the China Central Academy of Fine Arts proposal was too colourful to be regarded as trademarks, and proposal from Tsinghua University was regarded as bourgeois due to its use of traditional symbols. The committee suggested the groups include the Tian'anmen Gate, a symbol of Chinese revolution that served as the location of the May Fourth Movement and foundation ceremony of the People's Republic of China on October 1, 1949.

The two groups then worked on a second round of proposals. The second proposal from Tsinghua University standardized the design of the Tian'anmen Gate on the emblem and selected red and yellow as the main colours. Their proposal was selected and the design was standardized and simplified by Gao Zhuang. This design was officially made the national emblem on 20 September 1950 by the Central People's Government.

The emblem is also displayed, along with the national flag, at the end of a video clip with the national anthem, March of the Volunteers, regularly played on Chinese television such as state-run China Central Television (CCTV) on a daily basis.

Construction

National standard of China: GB 15093-2008 specifies the construction, material and color of the national emblem.

Emblems of subdivisions
Before the Communist takeover of Mainland China, the ROC had provinces design their own emblems. Only two emblems were used so far.

On April 15, 1985, Taiyuan City officially announced its emblem, becoming the first city in the People's Republic of China to have a city emblem.

Hong Kong and Macao each have their own emblem.  The National People's Congress have passed the standardized use of the two special administrative regions' emblems.

Under Chinese law since November 1997, only Hong Kong and Macau are allowed to have their own emblems and other localities that had them had to stop using theirs. This rule was ignored in 2011 when the city of Chengdu chose the Golden Sun Bird found under the city's Jinsha site as its emblem.

Provinces

Cities

Special administrative regions

Historical emblems

References

External links

See also

 Flag of China
 March of the Volunteers

National symbols of the People's Republic of China
China
China
China People's Republic
China People's Republic
China People's Republic
China People's Republic
China People's Republic
Chinese heraldry
China


Mary Lambert (13 de octubre de 1951) es una directora de cine estadounidense.

Ha dirigido videos musicales, episodios en series de televisión y películas, principalmente en el género de terror.

Especialmente recordada es su colaboración con Madonna, a quien dirigió en varios de los vídeos musicales que la catapultaron al estrellato en la década de 1980, como los de «Borderline», «Like a Virgin», «Material Girl», «La isla bonita» y «Like a Prayer». También dirigió vídeos de Janet Jackson, Mick Jagger, Annie Lennox, Whitney Houston y Chris Isaak, entre otras muchas estrellas. Muchos de estos trabajos los realizó en su primera etapa y la ayudaron a dar el salto a la industria del cine.

Debutó en la gran pantalla con Siesta (1987), filme rodado en España con un llamativo reparto: Ellen Barkin, Gabriel Byrne, Isabella Rossellini, Jodie Foster, Julian Sands. Contó con la participación musical de Miles Davis y fue etiquetado como un filme «experimental» sobre la muerte y el sexo. No recibió críticas muy favorables, pero ello no impidió a Mary Lambert dirigir varios filmes más.

Filmografía
 Siesta (1987)
 Pet Sematary (1989)
 Grand Isle (1991)
 Pet Sematary 2 (1992)
 Clubland (1999)
 The In Crowd (2000)
 Strange Frequency (2001)
 Halloweentown II: Kalabar's Revenge (2001)
 Urban Legends: Bloody Mary (2005)
 14 Women (2007, documental)
 The Attic (2008)
 Mega Python vs. Gatoroid (2011)

Referencias

Enlaces externos
 Mary Lambert en Imdb

Directores de cine de Estados Unidos

Mary Lambert