Albertus Magnus, (y. 1193, Lauingen, Kutsal Roma İmparatorluğu - 15 Kasım 1280, Köln, Kutsal Roma İmparatorluğu), Orta Çağ'da kendisine doktor üniversalis unvanı verilmiş olan 13. yüzyıl Alman skolastik filozofu ve tanrıbilimcisi.

Zamanının hemen her alandaki tüm bilgilerini serimleyip yorumlayışıyla ün kazanmış olan Büyük Albertus, inanç ve vahiy yoluyla kazanılan bilgiyi birbirinden ayırmış ve bu ikisinin birbirine karşıt olmadığını söyleyerek inanç için bir hakikat, akıl için de ona çelişik bir hakikat bulunmadığını iddia etmiştir.

Papa XI. Pius tarafında Kilise Doktoru ilan edilmiştir. Yortusu 15 Kasımdır.

Biyografi
Albertus Magnus, Bavyera'nın Lauingen şehrinde dünyaya gelen Magnus, çok geniş kapsamlı bilgiye sahip olduğu için daha sonraları Doctor Universalis unvanını kazanmıştır. Padova Üniversitesi'nde okuduktan sonra ailesinin isteği üzerine Dominiken rahibi olmuştur. Daha sonra Paris Üniversitesi'ne giderek burada yabancı kürsüsünün başına geçmiştir. Yedi yıl sonra Köln şehrinde Studium Generaleyi kurmuştur. Magnus hayatının büyük bir kısmını vaaz vermekle ve öğretmekle geçirmiştir. İnanç ve vahiy yoluyla kazanılan bilgiyi birbirinden ayırmış ve bu ikisinin birbirine karşıt olmadığını ileri sürmüştür. Ona göre, biri akıl ve öbürü ise inanç için doğru olan ve birbirleriyle çelişen iki doğru yoktur; gerçekten doğru olan her şey büyük bir uyum içinde birleşmiştir. Gözleme dayalı bilginin önemini vurgulamış ve bilimin sadece dilden dile aktarılan bilgi olmadığını aynı zamanda nesnelerin doğasının araştırılmasıyla bilime katkı sağlanacağını söylemiştir. Bu görüşü eserlerine de yansımıştır.

Yunan ve İslam biliminin Batı Avrupa üniversitelerine girişinde önemli rol oynayan Magnus, Aristoteles'in eserlerini 1240 yılında, Paris'te bulunduğu sırada tanıdı. Bu eserlerden o kadar o kadar etkilendi ki bu eserlerin bilimle alakalı kısımlarını açıklamaya karar verdi ve yalnızca Aristotelesçi bilimi değil, Aristoteles'in mantık, matematik, ahlak, siyaset ve metafiziğini de açıkladı. Diğer âlimlerin aksine Aristoteles'in yanılabileceğine ihtimal verdi. Muhtemelen başlangıçta Aristoteles'in kitapları ile Padova Üniversitesi'nde eğitim gördü. Meryem ile tanışması Albertus'un Kutsal Tarikatlar'a katılmaya ikna olmasını sağlamıştır. 1223 yılında ailesi istemese de Dominikan Tarikatı'nın bir üyesi oldu ve Bolonya ve başka yerlerde teoloji eğitimi gördü. Köln'de bir hocanın yerine geçmesi için seçildi, burada Dominikan Tarikatı'nın bir evi vardı ve birkaç yıl Regensburg, Freiburg, Strazburg ve Hildesheim'da hocalık yaptı.

Köln'deki görev süresi boyunca Summa de bono'yu yazdı. 1245 yılında din alimi olan Magnus, bu sayede Dominikan Tarikatı'nda bir saygınlığa ulaştı. Bu olaylara müteakiben Paris Üniversitesi'nde tam zamanlı profesör olarak teoloji okutmaya başladı ve bu zamanlarda Thomas Aquinas da Magnus'tan öğrenim görmeye başladı. Magnus Aristoteles'in neredeyse tüm yazılarını yorumlayan ilk kişi oldu ve böylelikle onları daha geniş akademik çalışmalar için ulaşılabilir hale getirdi. Aristo'nun çalışmaları onu İbn-i Sina, İbn-i Rüşd gibi Müslüman bilim adamlarının çalışma ve öğretilerini yorumlamaya götürdü ve bu durum Magnus'un akademik düşünmenin kalbine inmesini sağladı.

1254 yılında Dominikan Tarikatı'nın dini yöneticisi oldu ve bu görev boyunca Dominikanlar'ı Paris Üniversitesi'nin saldırıları karşısında savundu, St. John'u eleştirdi ve İslam filozofu İbn-i Rüşd'den yanlış algıladıklarını cevapladı. 1260 yılında Papa Alexander IV tarafından Regensburg piskoposu yapıldı, üç yıl sonra istifa etti. Görev süresince at sürmeyi reddederek alçak gönüllülüğü konusundaki saygınlığını artırdı. 1263'te Papa IV. Urban onu piskopos görevinden aldı ve Almanca konuşulan ülkelerde Sekizinci Haçlı Seferi için vaaz vermesini istedi. Bundan sonra Magnus daha çok görüş ayrılıklarına düşen partilerin ara bulucusu olarak bilinmeye başlandı. Köln'de sadece Almanya'nın en eski üniversitesinin kurucusu olarak değil, aynı zamanda Köln halkı ve kilise arasındaki çatışmaları sonlandırarak isim yaptı. Onun son uğraşları arasında eski öğrencisi Thomas Aquinas'ın inancını savunması vardı. Thomas Aquinas'ın 1274'teki ölümü Magnus'u yasa boğdu. 1278 yılında sağlığındaki çöküşten sıkıntı çekmeye başladı, 15 Kasım 1280 yılında, Köln'deki Dominikan manastırında öldü.

Yazıları
Albertus'un yazıları 1899'da toplandı ve otuz sekiz cilt kadardı. Bunlar Albertus Magnus'un verimliliğini ve mantık, teoloji, botanik, coğrafya, astronomi, mineraloji, simya, zooloji, fizyoloji, frenoloji, adalet, hukuk, arkadaşlık ve aşk gibi konulardaki ansiklopedik bilgi birikimini göstermiştir. Aristoteles'in tüm çalışmalarını özümsemiş, değerlendirmiş, yorumlamış, Arap yorumcuların Latince çevirilerini ve notlarını derlemiş, kilise doktrinine uygun şekilde sistemleştirmiştir. Aristo'nun en modern bilgi birikimi Albertus tarafından korunmuş ve sunulmuştur.

Erken dönem teolojik çalışmaları üç cilt olarak Paris'te 1160'ta vefat eden İtalyan skolastik ilahiyatçı Pietro Lombardo'nın Magister Sententiarum ve iki cilt olarak Summa Theologiae kitaplarının tefsiridir.

Albertus'un çalışmaları teolojik olmaktan çok felsefi olmuştu. Felsefi çalışmalar genel olarak Aristoteles'in çalışmalarının yorumlanışı ve Aristoteles'in görüşleriyle alakalıydı. Albertus Aristoteles'in doğa felsefesine yaklaşımı Hristiyan felsefesinin doğal düzenine hiçbir engel teşkil etmeyeceğine inanıyordu.

Çalışmaları ve eserleri
Bitkilerle ilgili olarak kendi gözlemlerinin yanı sıra Aristoteles'ten ve Theophrastus'tan yararlanmıştır. Kaba hatları ile çevresinde gördüğü bitkileri bilhassa genel çerçevede tüketilenleri derlemiştir. Bu çalışmalarını De Vegetabilibus et Plantis (Sebzeler ve Bitkiler Üzerine) adlı kitabında toplamıştır. Bu eserinde İtalya'ya yaptığı gezilerinde gördüğü bir portakal ağacını tanımlamıştır. Buna göre ağacın yaprak morfolojisini "biri büyük diğeri küçük iki formdan oluşmakta" diyerek doğru biçimde anlatmış ve çizimlerinde göstermiştir. Bitkiler âlemi için basit bir sınıflandırma sistemini ortaya koyarak; en alta mantarları en üste ise çiçek veren bitkileri yerleştirmiştir. Dikenler ile iğneleri, oluşumlarına ve yapılarına göre ayırmıştır. Bitkilerle çalışmasında morfolojik görünümlerini nesne ve hayvan biçimlerine benzeterek; çan, kuş ve yıldız biçiminde olanlar şeklinde genel bir sistematik sınıflandırma yapmıştır. Mevcut bitkilerin bazılarının "aşılama" yoluyla yeni türlere dönüştürülebileceğini söylemiştir. Meyvelerin karşılaştırmalı bir incelemesini de yaptı, ısı ve ışığın ağaçların büyümesi üzerinde etkilerini gözleyen ilk kişi oldu. Bu gözlemlerden, bitki öz suyunun köklerde tatsız olduğunu fakat yukarı çıktığında tatlandığını ortaya koydu. Batı'da ıspanaktan bahseden ilk kişidir.

Hayvanlarla ilgili yaptığı çalışmalarında Aristoteles'in Historia Animalium adlı eserinden ve Galenus'un çalışmalarından yararlanarak ve kendi gözlemlerini de ilave ederek De Animalibus (Hayvanlar Üzerine) adını verdiği 26 ciltlik bir eser yazmıştır. Bu risalede hayal ürünü bazı yaratıkların tasvirleri yer alır. Bu eserde kuş ve balıkların kan damarlarının dağılımı konusunda Aristoteles'in verdiği bilgilerden ayrılmıştır. Pek çok yeni hayvan çeşidinin morfolojik özelliklerini ayrıntılı bir biçimde ele almıştır. Doğuran hayvanlar ile insanı en üst kategoriye koymuş, sırasıyla kuşlar, sürüngenler, balıklar, yumuşakçalar, kabuklular ile böcekleri alt sınıflara yerleştirmiştir. Böceklerin çiftleşmesinden, çekirgelerde üreme organları, balık ve memelilerde gelişim evrelerine ait yaptığı gözlemlerde organların sırasıyla nasıl şekillendiğini, göbek kordonu denen yapının yerini gelişim süreci içinde hangi damarın aldığını açık ve net bir şekilde anlatmıştır. Ayrıca tavuklar yumurtladıktan sonra çeşitli zaman aralıklarıyla yumurtaları açarak civcivlerin gelişmesini gözlemiştir. Yumurtadan itibaren embriyonun gelişmesini ele almıştır. Avrupa'nın Kuzey bölgelerinde ve kutuplarda yaşayan hayvan varlığına değinmiş, hayatta kalmaları için kalın derilere ve beyaz kürklere sahip olmaları gerektiğini söylemiştir.

Psikopos olduğu dönemde köylere yaptığı gezilerde madenleri ve tarihi yerlerdeki arkeolojik kazıları incelemiş ve bu incelemeler ışığında yüzden fazla minerali sınıflandırmıştır. De Mineralibus et Rebus Metallica (Mineraller ve Metaller Hakkında) adlı eserinde fosilleri, Nuh Tufanı'ndan kalan kalıntılar olarak nitelemiş ve bir zamanlar yaşamış hayvanların mineralleşmiş kalıntıları olduğunu öne sürmüştür.

Aynı zamanda Aristoteles'in oklar ve diğer fırlatılan cisimlerin hareketini ele alış şeklini beğenmedi. Samanyolu'nun yıldızlardan oluştuğunu düşündü. Ay da Aristoteles'in söylediği gibi kusursuz bir cisim değildi. Ay'ın yüzeyindeki koyu lekelerin, Yer'in yaptığı gölgeler olmaktan ziyade Ay'ın kendi yüzeyindeki engebelerden kaynaklandığını ileri sürdü. Elementlerin kimyasal bileşikleri nasıl meydana getirdiği konusundaki fikirleri ve Demokritos'un atom teorisine olumlu bakması da yeniydi

Kaynakça

Doğum tarihi bilinmeyenler
Bavyera doğumlular
1280 yılında ölenler
13. yüzyılda Almanlar
13. yüzyıl filozofları
Alman piskoposlar
Alman filozoflar
Alman ilahiyatçılar
Almanya'da defnedilenler
Dominikan piskoposlar
Doğa felsefesi
Alman Dominikanlar
Alman astronomlar
Alman kimyagerler
13. yüzyıl ilahiyatçıları
Skolastik filozoflar
13. yüzyıl Hristiyan aziz ve azizeleri
Kilise Doktoru
Hristiyan ilahiyatçılar
Katolik aziz ve azizeleri
Dominikan ilahiyatçılar
Katolik ilahiyatçılar
Dominikan azizleri
Alman aziz ve azizeler
Dominikanlar
Dominikan Tarikatı üyeleri

Albertus Magnus


Lazy eye refers to several specific ophthalmic disorders:

Medicine
 Amblyopia, a disorder of visual development in which the brain partially or wholly ignores input from one or both eyes
 Strabismus, a disorder of ocular alignment in which the eyes aim in different directions
 Ptosis (eyelid), drooping or falling of the upper or lower eyelid

Art and entertainment
 Lazy Eye (film), 2016 American film
 Lazy Eye (Goo Goo Dolls song), a song recorded by the Goo Goo Dolls for the soundtrack of the 1997 film Batman & Robin
 Lazy Eye (Silversun Pickups song), the third single from Silversun Pickups' debut album Carnavas

Lazy eye


Francisco Montana (* 5. November 1969 in Miami, Florida) ist ein ehemaliger US-amerikanischer Tennisspieler.

Leben
Montana, dessen Vater ein Tennisclub in Miami gehörte, begann schon früh mit dem Tennissport. Als Juniorenspieler gewann er zahlreiche nationale Meisterschaften und erreichte das Viertelfinale des Juniorenturniers von Wimbledon 1987. Er studierte an der University of Georgia und wurde 1989 in die Bestenauswahl All-American berufen. Im darauf folgenden Jahr wurde er Tennisprofi. Im Einzel gelangen ihm keine größeren Erfolge, zu seinen besten Resultaten zählen die Finalteilnahmen bei den ATP-Challenger-Turnieren in Segovia 1991 und San Luis Potosí 1992.

Deutlich erfolgreicher war er im Herrendoppel. Hier gelangen ihm elf Titelgewinne auf der ATP Challenger Tour, acht Siege auf der ATP World Tour sowie zwei Masters-Titel. Er stand zudem in sieben Finalpartien, darunter 1997 beim ATP Championship Series-Turnier in Stuttgart. 1997 und 1998 konnte er sich mit seinem Partner Donald Johnson für die ATP-Weltmeisterschaft qualifizieren. Hierbei erreichten sie 1998 das Halbfinale, in dem sie Paul Haarhuis und Jacco Eltingh unterlagen. Im Laufe seiner Karriere trat er meist an der Seite von Donald Johnson an, spielte aber unter anderem auch neben David Wheaton, Jim Pugh und Marc-Kevin Goellner. Seine höchste Notierung in der Tennis-Weltrangliste erreichte er 1992 mit Position 100 im Einzel sowie 1998 mit Position 13 im Doppel.

Montana trat im Einzel bei allen vier Grand-Slam-Turnieren an, konnte jedoch nie die zweite Runde erreichen. In der Doppelkonkurrenz erreichte er zwei Mal das Viertelfinale der French Open. Im Mixed stand er 1998 neben Kristine Kunce im Halbfinale der French Open, sie unterlagen jedoch Justin Gimelstob und Venus Williams.

Turniersiege

Doppel

Weblinks

Tennisspieler (Vereinigte Staaten)
College-Tennis-Spieler
Geboren 1969
Mann
US-Amerikaner

Francisco Montana


est une revue scientifique américaine consacrée à l'arménologie. Elle est publiée deux fois par an à Watertown depuis 1948.

Notes et références

Voir aussi

Articles connexes
 Arméno-Américains
 Association Hairenik
 Hairenik

Liens externes

Presse arménienne des États-Unis
Titre de presse créé en 1948
Revue de sciences humaines et sociales
Presse écrite au Massachusetts
Revue scientifique aux États-Unis
Revue scientifique en anglais
Diaspora arménienne

The Armenian Review


جزيرة الحجر إحدى قرى مركز الشهداء التابع لمحافظة المنوفية في جمهورية مصر العربية.

التاريخ
قرية جزيرة الحجر من القرى القديمة، حيث وردت باسم «جزيرة الحجر» في أعمال جزيرة بني نصر ضمن قرى الروك الصلاحي التي أحصاها ابن مماتي في كتاب قوانين الدواوين، كما وردت باسم «جزيرة الحجر» في أعمال جزيرة بني نصر ضمن قرى الروك الناصري التي أحصاها ابن الجيعان في كتاب «التحفة السنية بأسماء البلاد المصرية». وفي العصر العثماني وردت باسم «جزيرة الحجر» في التربيع العثماني الذي أجراه الوالي العثماني سليمان باشا الخادم في عصر السلطان العثماني سليمان القانوني ضمن قرى ولاية جزيرة بني نصر، وفي تاريخ 1228هـ/1813م الذي عدّ قرى مصر بعد المسح الذي قام به محمد علي باشا باسم «جزيرة الحجر» ضمن قرى مديرية المنوفية.

السكان
بلغ عدد سكان جزيرة الحجر 13,941 نسمة، حسب الإحصاء الرسمي لعام 2006.

انظر أيضاً
قائمة قرى محافظة المنوفية

مصادر

قرى الشهداء

جزيرة الحجر


الأبد هو استمرار الوجود في أزمنة مقدرة غير متناهية في جانب المستقبل، كما أن الأزل استمرار الوجود في أزمنة مقدرة غير متناهية في جانب الماضي، مدة لا يتوهم انتهاؤها بالفكر والتأمل البتة؛ وهو الشيء الذي لا نهاية له. والسرمدي ما لا أول له ولا آخر، والأزلي ما لا أول له، والأبدي ما لا آخر له.

كما يمكن تعريف الأبد على أنه استمرار الوجود في أزمنة مستقبلة لامتناهية، فهو لا آخر له، ولا يطرأ عليه العدم، ويقابل الأزل.

الأبد في الفلسفة الإسلامية
والقول بالأزلية والأبدية بالنسبة للعالم نجده عند أكثر فلاسفة العرب، ونفي الأزلية والأبدية بالنسبة للعالم نجده عند الأشاعرة وبعض الفلاسفة المسلمين كالكندي، والغزالي، والرازي. وموقف الفلاسفة المسلمين عامة يقوم على الربط بين فكرة الأزلية بمعنى اللامتناهي في الماضي، وفكرة الأبدية بمعنى اللامتناهي في المستقبل. فكل ما له انقضاء ونهاية له مبدأ، وكذلك: ما لا نهاية له (أبدي) لا بداية له (أزلي). ومعنى هذا: إن القول بأبدية العالم إذا كان قد ارتبط بالأزلية، فإن القول بفناء العالم يرتبط بمسألة الحدوث، إذ إن صحة فناء العالم بعد وجوده يعد فرعا من الحدوث، فمن قال: إن العالم حادث، فقد قال بجواز فنائه. بمعنى أن العدم قبل الوجود كالعدم بعده لا تمايز بينهما ولا اختلاف فيهما، فما جاز على أحدهما جاز على الآخر.

حدوث العالم وقدمه
ويرتبط البحث في الأبد بالعديد من المشكلات الكلامية والفلسفية عند متكلمي وفلاسفة المسلمين، ومن بينها مشكلة حدوث العالم وقدمه، وكما نجد مناقشات عديدة حول الحدوث والقدم من جانب الأشاعرة من جهة، والفلاسفة من جهة أخرى. كما يتضح ذلك في رد الغزالي الأشعري على الفلاسفة في كتابه تهافت الفلاسفة وتكفيره إياهم للقول بقدم العالم. ورد ابن رشد عليه بعد ذلك في كتايبه: فصل المقال وتهافت التهافت، وقوله بالهيولى وهي المادة الوسيطة التي خلقها الإله وصدر عنها العالم المادي.

معرض صور

انظر أيضًا
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 قديم
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مراجع

إلهيات
فلسفة الدين
فلسفة الزمن
فلسفة العلوم
فلسفة دينية
لانهاية
مفاهيم ميتافيزيقية

أبد


Kreka je naselje, predgrađe grada Tuzle, koja se nalazi istočno.

Zemljopis
Nalazi se južno od rijeke Jale. S druge strane rijeke su Suljetovići, Solana, Moluhe i Irac. S istoka prema jugu su Crvene njive, Krojčica, Kužići i Miladije. Poslovna zona Kreka i željeznička postaja Kreka su zapadno od Miladija, pokraj Vilušića.

Uprava
Mjesna je zajednica općine Tuzle. Spada u urbano područje općine Tuzle. U njoj je 31. prosinca 2006. godine prema statističkim procjenama živjelo 6.120 stanovnika u 2.065 domaćinstava.

Povijest
Kreka je u prošlosti bila prostorno veća od Tuzle. Imala je dvije željezničke postaje. Bila je lijepo i uređeno naselje kolonista. Imala je cvijetnjake, vrtove, razvijeni šport, bogatu kulturu i zabavu i za Kreku se znalo više nego za susjednu Tuzlu.
Mještani Kreke bili su pokapani na husinskom groblju Svih Svetih.

Dolaskom Austro-Ugarske došla je zbog potreba industrijalizacije i povratka zapadne civilizacije koje je donijela sa sobom potreba za stručnim radnicima. Razvilo se rudarstvo i industrija. Doselili su iz drugih dijelova Austro-Ugarske Talijani, Slovenci, Rusi, Česi, Slovaci, Austrijanci, Židovi, Mađari, Nijemci, Ukrajinci i drugi. Donijeli su svoje običaje i kulturu. U Tuzli su doseljenici bili 32% stanovništva, a najviše u Kreki gdje je živjelo 27 nacija. Zapadna kršćanska civilizacija napravila je od ovog kraja simbol zajedništva i ljudske tolerancije. Isticala se Kreka koja je sve do 1930-ih bila glavni pokazivač napretka, kulturnog, društvenog, športskog u najširem smislu te riječi.

Iz Rudnika Kreka prvi su tereti ugljena iskopani 22. rujna 1884. godine,na dnevnom kopu izdanku glavnog sloja na lijevoj obali potoka Kreke. Rudnik je isprva radio kao dio Solane u Simin Hanu, za čije je potrebe vađen ugljen. Već sljedeće godine rudnik se osamostalio. Poslije je otvoreno novo okno, Vilma, a potom se otvorio južni revir Krojčica. U svezi s rudnikom je razvitak prometne mreže. Vlak Doboj - Simin Han krenuo je 1886. godine.

Godine 1897. godine napravljena je Narodna osnovna škola. 1959. godine, u Titovoj Jugoslaviji ponijela je ime Franje Rezača. 1901. otvorena je solana. Ta je solana poslije zatvorena, a na 100. obljetnicu otvaranja prve Solane u Simin Hanu, Solana Kreka je pretvorena u Muzej solarstva.
Električna centrala u Kreki izgrađena je i dana u uporabu 18. srpnja 1906. godine.

Kreka je 1913. godine imala Puhački orkestar, poslije Limenu glazbu, vatrogasnu postrojbu i postrojbu za intervencije. Tijekom 1920. godine KPJ je vrlo aktivno djelovala među rudarima Kreke - svake nedjelje rudari su održavali svoje zborove u Radničkom domu u Kreki, na kojima su raspravljali o svom položaju.

U Kreki je bila tvornica špirita u većinskom vlasništvu inozemnog kapitala i koksna peć.

Godine 1943. su prvi početci stolnog tenisa u Tuzli, a 1945. prvi javni nastup u Tuzli održan je 1945., kad se i u Kreki se počinje s igranjem stolnog tenisa. Naslove momčadskih prvaka osvojila je 1996. godine.

Poslije Drugog svjetskog rata razvio se cestovni promet. Posljedica je pogona za prijevoz radnika, 1957. godine. Kreka je odigrala važnu ulogu prebrođivanja krize u tuzlanskom kraju. Kriznih 1970-ih godina, izgradila je više tvornica kao što su tvornica obuće "Aida", "Siporeks" itd.

Kultura
Muzej solarstva

Gospodarstvo
Poslovna zona Kreka.

Tvornica i rafinerija špirita i ugljične kiseline (Špiritana), jedno od najstarijih poduzeća u BiH.

Rudnici lignita leže na krekanskoj sinklinali.

Šport
Prije nego što je sagrađen stadion Tušanj, tuzlanska Sloboda igrala je utakmice na stadionu Proletera (prije Rudara) iz Kreke. Česte su bile navijačke nesuglasice na relacijama između Slobode i Proletera iz Kreke. Nesuglasicama je došao kraj spajanjem ova dva kluba u jedan 1956. godine.

Jedini športski objekt trenutno je stolnoteniski dom Stens za čiju se izgradnju izborio Josip Brumec. Nositelj športskog života je bio DTV Partizan, čija zgrada je danas u ruševnom stanju.

STK Kreka, čiji je najveći uspjeh ostvarila 1996. godine kad je osvojila sve naslove ekipnih prvaka BiH i u muškoj i ženskoj konkurenciji. Klub se danas natječe u premijer ligi Bosne i Hercegovine, ima prvake u mladim kategorijama i bh. kadetske i juniorske reprezentativce.

Poznate osobe
Poznati Krečani su Josip Brumec, Oto Stuhli i Džemo Arnautović.

Izvori

Kreka


Der Gnadenkirchhof in Jelenia Góra (polnisch Cmentarz Łaski w Jeleniej Górze; Cmentarz przy Kościele Łaski w Jeleniej Górze; Dawny cmentarz ewangelicki w Jeleniej Górze) ist eine barocke Friedhofsanlage in der Stadt Jelenia Góra (Hirschberg) in Niederschlesien (Polen). Er wurde ab 1709 nach dem Vorbild der deutschen frühneuzeitlichen Camposanto-Anlagen errichtet und war bis 1881 in Gebrauch. Zu seiner Bezeichnung waren auch die Namen Hirschberger Stadtgottesacker, Gnadenfriedhof oder Evangelischer Friedhof in Hirschberg gebräuchlich.

Geschichte und Kunstgeschichte

Die evangelische Gemeinde in Hirschberg

Im Laufe des 16. Jahrhunderts kam es infolge des starken Bevölkerungswachstums zu einer Überbelegung der innerstädtischen Kirchhöfe. Deswegen und weil die Reformation die mit der besonderen Anlage der Kirchhöfe verbundene Reliquienverehrung ablehnte, verlegte man besonders in den evangelischen Herrschaften, wie ursprünglich in vorchristlicher Zeit, die Kirchhöfe vor die Ortschaften. So entstand auch der "Gnadenkirchhof in Hirschberg". Er lag zur Zeit seiner Begründung im Jahr 1710 außerhalb der Stadtmauern, vor dem alten "Schildauer Tor".

Die Reformation fand bald auch in Hirschberg Anhänger; im Jahr 1524 hielt der von der Stadt Hirschberg berufene Prediger Georg Langnickel aus Goldberg in der Hirschberger Pfarrkirche seine erste evangelische Predigt. Spätestens 1528 bekannte sich der ehemals katholische Stadtpfarrer Johann Sauermann zur neuen Lehre. Bis zum Beginn des Dreißigjährigen Krieges wuchs die evangelische Gemeinde in Hirschberg stetig und bildete bald die Bevölkerungsmehrheit, begünstigt durch eine relativ tolerante Religionspolitik der böhmischen Landesherren Maximilian II. und Rudolph II. Die Zeit des Dreißigjährigen Kriegs brachte Hirschberg 1634 einen schweren Stadtbrand und wechselnde Besatzungen. Nach dem Westfälischen Frieden wurde im Zuge der Gegenreformation 1650 der evangelische Gottesdienst in der Stadtpfarrkirche untersagt, die den Katholiken übereignet wurde. So besuchten die Evangelischen in den Jahren 1650 bis 1709 die Gotteshäuser in Jauer, Harpersdorf, Propsthain, Nieder Wiesa bei Greiffenberg sowie Gebhardsdorf in der Oberlausitz.

Nach der Altranstädter Konvention 1707, die der schwedische König Karl XII. dem Kaiser Joseph I. abgetrotzt hatte, erhielten die evangelischen Hirschberger die Erlaubnis zur Errichtung einer eigenen Gnadenkirche, einer evangelischen Schule und eines evangelischen Friedhofs. Am 22. April 1709 war der Grundriss der geplanten Gnadenkirche in einer feierlichen Zeremonie abgesteckt worden. 1718 wurde der fertiggestellte Bau eingeweiht. 1709–1711 wurde das evangelische Gymnasium errichtet und 1710 der Gnadenfriedhof in Gebrauch genommen. Finanziert wurden die neuen Bauten vornehmlich durch Mitglieder der reichen, 1658 entstandenen Hirschberger "Kauffmanns-Societät", die auch die einflussreichsten Mitglieder des neuen evangelischen Kirchenrats stellte. Der katholische Stadtpfarrer behielt jedoch noch bis 1758 bei den kirchlichen evangelischen Feierlichkeiten wie Taufe, Heirat und Begräbnis verschiedene – besonders finanzielle – Ansprüche. Den evangelischen Hirschbergern war es erst nach der preußischen Eroberung Schlesiens im Jahr 1741 wieder erlaubt, Mitglied des Stadtrats zu werden, den sie dann aber ab 1742 auf königliche Anordnung Friedrichs II. sogar dominierten.

Nutzung des Gnadenkirchhofs

Bis zum Pfingstfest am 19. Mai 1709 wurde auf dem Gelände des Gnadenkirchhofs eine provisorische Holzkirche, damals "Interims-Kirche" genannt, fertiggestellt. Sie lag "am Abhange des nordwestlichen Berges" des heutigen Kirchhofes, also vermutlich vor den Grufthäusern Nr. 7 und Nr. 8. Am 15. September 1709 hielt der erste Pfarrer der Gnadenkirche, Johann Neunhertz (1652–1737) seine Antritts-Predigt. Seit 1650 konnten in Hirschberg erstmals wieder evangelische Gottesdienste, Taufen und Beerdigungen in einem – wenn auch provisorischem – Gotteshaus gefeiert werden. Neun Jahre lang war die Behelfskirche in Gebrauch.

Am 16. Januar 1710 wurde auf dem "Evangelischen Gottes-Acker" der erste Leichnam begraben. Die Verstorbene war Anna Maria Köhler, Gattin des bekannten Hirschberger Arztes, George Gottlieb Koehler von Mohrenfeld († 1748). Der neue Hirschberger Gnadenfriedhof wurde in seiner Anlage von vornherein als parkähnliche Umrahmung auf die neu entstehende imposante Gnadenkirche in seiner Mitte hin ausgerichtet. Es sollte nicht nur ein bloßer Begräbnisplatz entstehen, sondern im Sinne des 18. Jahrhunderts ein friedvoller Ort der Trauer, Ruhe, Besinnung und des Gedenkens geschaffen werden. Hier sollte der Vergänglichkeit alles Irdischen und der Verheißung des ewigen Lebens gedacht werden. Für 171 Jahre wurden auf dem Hirschberger Gnadenfriedhof die in der Stadt Verstorbenen evangelischen Glaubens beerdigt.

Aus hygienischen Gründen einigte sich die Stadt Hirschberg mit der evangelischen Kirchengemeinde schließlich, dass der Gnadenkirchhof zum 1. April 1881 geschlossen wird. Der Mediziner Rimann begründete dies in seinem Gutachten vom 6. Februar 1875. Er halte es für einen  Nur in bestehenden Erbbegräbnissen und Grufthäusern durften noch Bestattungen stattfinden. Nach dem Ende des Zweiten Weltkriegs 1945, mit dem Schlesien an Polen fiel, verwahrloste der Gnadenkirchhof. Die meisten Grabsteine wurden entfernt, die Grüfte aufgebrochen und ausgeplündert sowie viele Skulpturen und bildhauerische Elemente beschädigt oder gestohlen. Trotz einiger Sicherungsmaßnahmen nach 1989 blieb die bauliche Erhaltung der Grufthäuser bedroht.

Beschreibung der historischen Anlage

Der Gnadenkirchhof befindet sich rund um die bis 1945 evangelische Hirschberger Gnadenkirche. Das jetzt katholische Gotteshaus trägt heute die Bezeichnung "Kościół garnizonowy" (Garnisonskirche), "Kościół Świętego Krzyża" (Heilig-Kreuz-Kirche) oder auch "Kościół Łaski" (Gnadenkirche). Die Friedhofsanlage ist von einer hohen Umfriedungsmauer umgeben. Entlang der Innenseite der Mauer reihen sich insgesamt 18 prunkvolle barocke Grufthäuser sowie mehrere Grabmonumente und Epitaphien. Etwa von 1715 bis 1770 entstanden entlang der Friedhofsmauer die prachtvollen Grufthäuser der überaus reichen so genannten "Schleierherren", Mitglieder der 1658 entstandenen Hirschberger "Kauffmanns-Societät". Die reich verzierten barocken Grufthäuser sind außerordentlich bedeutende Monumente der Kultur- und Kunstgeschichte Schlesiens. Sie zeugen bis heute von Einfluss, Selbstverständnis und Reichtum der Schleierherren, die es in der Zeit von 1648 bis 1806 vermochten, schlesische Leinenwaren und Leinenschleier über die europäischen Häfen bis nach Amerika, Afrika und Asien zu exportieren.

Auf der großen Fläche zwischen Gnadenkirche und Grufthäusern befand sich früher eine Vielzahl von Grabmälern, die aber nach 1945 nahezu ausnahmslos entfernt wurden. Heute erstreckt sich hier eine Rasenfläche, die von großen Bäumen flankierten Wegen in einzelne Parzellen unterteilt wird. Das viele Grün verleiht dem Friedhof eine parkähnliche Atmosphäre, die auch schon bei seiner Anlage im Jahr 1709 beabsichtigt war. Der Kunsthistoriker Günther Grundmann beschrieb 1916 die gärtnerische Anlage des Kirchhofs wie folgt:
 Wenn man die durch die Wege erreichte Aufteilung in Gräberfelder betrachtet, so erkennt man unschwer den Gedanken, strahlenförmig von den Hauptausgängen der Kirche aus den Blick über den Gottesacker führen zu wollen. … Alle diese Wege münden auf dem Umgang, an dem die Grabkapellen liegen und vermitteln zugleich zu den Ausgängen, …
Das einheitliche Bild von Gnadenkirche, Grabmälern und den von Bäumen gesäumten Wegen wird von den Grufthäusern entlang der Umfriedungsmauer malerisch umrahmt.

Bauliche Vorbilder des Hirschberger Gnadenfriedhofs

Günther Grundmann geht bei der Suche nach historischen Vorbildern für den Hirschberger Gnadenkirchhof von zwei Entwicklungssträngen aus. Einerseits von der italienischen "Campo-Santo-Anlage", andererseits von den bekannten umfriedeten mittelalterlichen Wehrkirch- und Wehrfriedhofsanlagen. "Campo Santo" bedeutet "Heiliges Feld". Dieser Begriff wird kunstgeschichtlich in erster Linie für solche Friedhofsanlagen verwendet, die an der Innenseite ihrer Außenummauerung mit einem offenen Arkadengang geschmückt sind. Der Campo Santo Monumentale in Pisa ist das berühmteste architektonische Beispiel einer solchen Anlage. Mit seiner Errichtung wurde in den Jahren 1278–1283/83 begonnen. Er ähnelt einem überdimensionalen Kreuzgang mit Grabmonumenten. Im deutschsprachigen Kulturraum begann man im Zuge der Neuanlage städtischer Friedhöfe außerhalb der Stadtmauern ab Mitte des 16. Jahrhunderts erneut, derartige Campo-Santo-Anlagen zu schaffen. Manche Kunsthistoriker sind der Auffassung, dass der in Deutschland in der Reformationszeit entstandene Campo Santo eine eigenständige, von italienischen Vorbildern unabhängige Entwicklung nahm.

Den größten Bekanntheitsgrad eines Campo Santo in Deutschland hat der ab 1557 im Renaissancestil angelegte Stadtgottesacker in Halle (Saale), wo entlang der Friedhofsmauer eine Galerie mit 94 Arkaden angelegt wurde. Unter den Arkaden, die mit Gittern abgeschlossen wurden, befinden sich Grüfte. Es ist wahrscheinlich, dass mehrere Hirschberger Patrizier den Hallenser Stadtgottesacker gesehen haben, weil sie an der Universität Halle studiert haben. Ein weiteres Vorbild für den Hirschberger Gnadenfriedhof war vermutlich der Görlitzer Nikolaifriedhof.

Auch der Zittauer Kreuzfriedhof beherbergt zahlreiche prächtige barocke Grufthäuser, die wie in Hirschberg die reichen Leinenkaufleute und Stadtpatrizier errichten ließen. Die bemerkenswertesten Grabkapellen des Kreuzfriedhofs entstanden 1710–1730 fast zeitgleich mit den Hirschberger Grabkapellen. Auch in den schlesischen Leineweberstädten Landeshut und Schmiedeberg errichteten die reichen Kaufleute Grabkapellen. Die auf dem Kirchhof der katholischen Schmiedeberger Pfarrkirche St. Maria befindlichen drei barocken Grabkapellen stammen etwa aus dem Zeitraum von 1728 bis 1740.

Grufthäuser

Bis heute haben sich auf dem Gnadenkirchhof 18 prachtvolle Grufthäuser erhalten, die als Familiengrablegen der reichen Schleierherren der Hirschberger "Kauffmanns-Societät" genutzt wurden. Die prachtvolle Skulpturen- und der Relief- und Ornamentschmuck der Grufthäuser sowie die verschnörkelten Inschriften ihrer Epitaphe sollen das tiefe Gottvertrauen und die Hoffnung der Verstorbenen auf Auferstehung und ewiges Leben symbolisieren. Im krassen Gegensatz zur Fülle des Lebens und dessen Vergänglichkeit wurden die Todes- und Vanitasmotive mit drallen, lebenslustigen Putti kombiniert. Allerdings spielte wohl auch der irdische Aspekt eine Rolle, wonach die einstige Größe und Macht des Verstorbenen dargestellt werden sollten.

Liste der Grufthäuser (im Uhrzeigersinn links vom Haupteingang, an der ul. 1ego Maja beginnend):
 Nr. 1; Familie Glogner; vollendet 1725
 Nr. 2; Familie Glafey (Schäffer); vollendet 1716
 Nr. 3; Familie Schneider; vollendet nach dem 27. August 1763
 Nr. 4; Familie Winckler (Frantz); vollendet um 1740–1745
 Nr. 5; Familie Martens; vollendet um 1758
 Nr. 6; Familie Tietze; vollendet 1756
 Nr. 7; Familie Baumgart[hen]; vollendet 1727
 Nr. 8; Familie Köhler von Mohrenfeld (Thomann); vollendet um 1725–1728
 Nr. 9; Familie Baumgart[hen] (von Schweinichen); vollendet 1712–1719
 Nr. 10; Familie Kätzler (Linke); vollendet um 1720
 Nr. 11; Familie Mentzel; vollendet 1726
 Nr. 12; Familie Sparr (Kühn); vollendet um 1765
 Nr. 13; Familie Tralles; vollendet 1724
 Nr. 14; Familie Ihle (Lampert); vollendet um 1770
 Nr. 15; Familie Gottfried (Hess); vollendet um 1738
 Nr. 16; Familie Streit (Thielsch); vollendet um 1770
 Nr. 17; Familie Ullmann (Kuntze); um 1760 vollendet
 Nr. 18; Familie Adolph (von Uechtritz); vollendet 1719

Restaurierung

Die Stadt Jelenia Góra führt als Lead-Partner zusammen mit dem deutsch-polnischen Verein zur Pflege Schlesischer Kunst und Kultur (VSK) im Rahmen des von der Europäischen Gemeinschaft teilfinanzierten "Operationellen Programms der grenzüberschreitenden Zusammenarbeit Sachsen-Polen 2007–2013" ein Projekt zur Restaurierung der Grufthäuser und der Sanierung des Gnadenkirchhofs durch. Von 2010 bis 2012 wird der Gnadenkirchhof mit den Grufthäusern grundlegend instand gesetzt. Neben der professionellen Restaurierung der Grufthäuser soll sich der Gnadenkirchof wieder in einen Raum der Andacht, Ruhe und Besinnung zurückverwandeln.

Bekannte Personen

Auf dem Gnadenfriedhof wurden u. a. begraben:
 Balthasar Adolph (* wohl in Hirschberg, 1. Februar 1651; † 8. Februar 1696); Kaufmann und Mäzen; Vater von Christian Michael Adolphi; Arzt, Medizinwissenschaftler sowie Sachsen-Naumburgischer Leib-Medicus
 Gottlob Adolph (1685–1745); Pfarrer an der Hirschberger Gnadenkirche; er wurde beim Predigen auf der Kanzel vom Blitz erschlagen
 Daniel von Buchs (* 10. Dezember 1676; † Hirschberg, 14. Juli 1735); geadelter Gutsbesitzer; Kaufmann und Mäzen Hirschbergs und der evangelischen Gnadenkirche
 Johann Gottfried Glafey (Glaffein), (* in Breslau, 16. Oktober 1656; † Hirschberg, 24. November 1720); Gutsbesitzer; Kaufmann und Mäzen Hirschbergs und der evangelischen Gnadenkirche
 Johann Martin Gottfried (* Großenhain/Sachsen, 13. Februar 1685; † Hirschberg, 26. Juli 1737); Kaufmann; Mäzen Hirschbergs und der evangelischen Gnadenkirche
 George Gottlieb Köhler von Mohrenfeld († 1748); Hirschberger Arzt und Edelmann
 Christian Mentzel(* Hirschberg, 9. September 1667; † ebenda, 23. Februar 1748); der reichste und bekannteste der Hirschberger Kaufleute; Gutsbesitzer; Mäzen seiner Heimatstadt Hirschberg und der evangelischen Gnadenkirche
 Adam Christian Thebesius (1686–1732); Arzt, Medizinwissenschaftler und Hirschberger Stadtphysicus
 Johannes Ehrenfried Thebesius (1717–1758); Arzt, Medizinwissenschaftler und Autor
 Friedrich Wilhelm Winckler (* Leipzig, 4. August 1693; † Hirschberg, 27. Februar 1742); stammte aus dem Leipziger Patriziergeschlecht der Wincklers; Gutsbesitzer; Kaufmann und Mäzen Hirschbergs und der evangelischen Gnadenkirche
 Conrad Streit (* wohl um 1700; † 1772); Kaufmann und Mäzen Hirschbergs; Großvater von Karl Konrad Streit
 Melchior Süßenbach, (* Lissa, 1648; † Hirschberg; 7. Juli 1721); Arzt und Stadtphysicus von Hirschberg

Literatur
 Günther Grundmann: Gruftkapellen des achtzehnten Jahrhunderts in Niederschlesien und der Oberlausitz. In: Studien zur Deutschen Kunstgeschichte. Strassburg 1916.
 Günther Grundmann: Kulturgeschichtliche Überlieferungen zum Gnadenkirchhof in Hirschberg. In: ders. (Hrsg.): Kunstwanderungen im Riesengebirge. Studien aus 50 Jahren, 1917–1967. München 1969, S. 49–58.
 Siegfried Kühn: Der Hirschberger Leinwand- und Schleierhandel von 1648–1806. In: Breslauer historische Forschungen H. 7, 1938, S. 158
 Hans Lutsch: Die Kunstdenkmäler des Regierungs-Bezirks Liegnitz. In: Verzeichnis der Kunstdenkmäler der Provinz Schlesien, Bd. 3, Der Regierungs-Bezirk Liegnitz Breslau 1891, 791 S.
 Hans Lutsch: Schlesiens Kunstdenkmäler. Text- und Bildband, Gütersloh 1985². [Nachdr. d. Ausg. Breslau, 1903], Bildband: 456, S., Textband: 510 S.
 Mika Matthies: Skulpturen der Grabkapellen rund um die Hirschberger Gnadenkirche. In: Gruß aus Lomnitz Nr. 45 (2010), S. 26–30. vskschlesien.de
 Gerhard Schiller: Hirschberger Schleier. Von der Sonderanfertigung zum Exportschlager. Die Schleierherren und ihre Grablegen. Teil II. In: Schlesien heute Nr. 3 (2011), S. 39–41. vskschlesien.de
 Gerhard Schiller: Vom Campo-Santo-Monumentale in Pisa und mittelalterlichen Wehrkirchhöfen zu den barocken Grabkapellen von Görlitz, Zittau und Hirschberg. Die Schleierherren und ihre Grablegen. Teil IV. In: Schlesien heute Nr. 9 (2011), S. 50–52. vskschlesien.de
 Gerhard Schiller: Welthandel "made in Silesia". Die Kaufmannssozietät der Hirschberger Schleierherren. Die Schleierherren und ihre Grablegen. Teil I. In: Schlesien heute Nr. 9 (2010), S. 37–39. vskschlesien.de
 Gerhard Schiller: Zeugnisse einstigen Glanzes. Die Grabkapellen der Schleierherren rund um die Hirschberger Gnadenkirche werden saniert. In: Schlesien heute Nr. 6 (2010), S. 36–38. vskschlesien.de
 David Zeller: Vermehrte Hirschbergische Merkwürdigkeiten … Zwölfter Theil. Hirschberg [um 1738]; Archiwum Państwowe w Wrocławiu. Oddział w Jeleniej Górze, Sign. 83/3/2897. microsofttranslator.com

Weblinks

 Projektinfo über die Restaurierung des Gnadenkirchhofs auf den Seiten des dt.-pl. Vereins zur Pflege Schlesischer Kunst und Kultur e. V./Stowarzyszenie Pielęgnowania Sztuki i Kultury Śląskiej (VSK)
 Aufnahmen des Cmentarz Łaski/Gnadenkirchhof – Jelenia Góra (Hirschberg) PL auf Facebook (Ansehen ohne Mitgliedschaft u. Verpflichtung möglich)

Einzelnachweise
vgl.

Bauwerk in Jelenia Góra
Friedhof in Polen
Barockbauwerk in Polen
Sakralbau in der Woiwodschaft Niederschlesien
Jelenia Gora
Kulturdenkmal in Jelenia Góra
Gegründet 1709
Aufgelöst 1881
Christentum in der Woiwodschaft Niederschlesien
Jelenia Gora

Gnadenkirchhof in Jelenia Góra


විකිපීඩියා, නිදහස් විශ්වකෝෂය වෙතින්

අප රටේ විශේෂයෙන්ම උතුරු මැද හා උතුරු පළාත්වල ජනප්‍රිය රනිල බෝගයකි. එය අඩු ජල ප්‍රමාණයක් යටතේ සාර්ථකව වගා කළ හැකිය. අසල්වැසි ඉන්දියාව සමග නිපදවිය හැකි බෝග කිහිපයෙන් උඳු ද එක් බෝගයක් වේ.

කෘමි පාලනය

බෝංච් මැස්සා
කොදුරුවෙකුට සමාන මැස්සෙකි. ප ත්‍ර 2 -3 ඇති විට හානි කිරීම නිසා ලපටි කද පුපුරා පැල විනාශ වේ. මේ සදහා විශේෂයෙන් යල කන්නයේදී ප්‍රමාද නොවී වගාව ආරම්භ කරන්න. නිර්දේශිත කෘමිනාශකයක් වගාවට යොදන්න.

Urad dal


Decision theory (or the theory of choice; not to be confused with choice theory) is a branch of applied probability theory and analytic philosophy concerned with the theory of making decisions based on assigning probabilities to various factors and assigning numerical consequences to the outcome.

There are three branches of decision theory:
 Normative decision theory: Concerned with the identification of optimal decisions, where optimality is often determined by considering an ideal decision-maker who is able to calculate with perfect accuracy and is in some sense fully rational.
 Prescriptive decision theory: Concerned with describing observed behaviors through the use of conceptual models, under the assumption that those making the decisions are behaving under some consistent rules.
 Descriptive decision theory: Analyzes how individuals actually make the decisions that they do.

Decision theory is a broad field from management sciences and is an interdisciplinary topic, studied by management scientists, medical researchers, mathematicians, data scientists, psychologists, biologists, social scientists, philosophers and computer scientists.

Empirical applications of this theory are usually done with the help of statistical and discrete mathematical approaches from computer science.

Normative and descriptive
Normative decision theory is concerned with identification of optimal decisions where optimality is often determined by considering an ideal decision maker who is able to calculate with perfect accuracy and is in some sense fully rational. The practical application of this prescriptive approach (how people ought to make decisions) is called decision analysis and is aimed at finding tools, methodologies, and software (decision support systems) to help people make better decisions.

In contrast, descriptive decision theory is concerned with describing observed behaviors often under the assumption that those making decisions are behaving under some consistent rules. These rules may, for instance, have a procedural framework (e.g. Amos Tversky's elimination by aspects model) or an axiomatic framework (e.g. stochastic transitivity axioms), reconciling the Von Neumann-Morgenstern axioms with behavioral violations of the expected utility hypothesis, or they may explicitly give a functional form for time-inconsistent utility functions (e.g. Laibson's quasi-hyperbolic discounting).

Prescriptive decision theory is concerned with predictions about behavior that positive decision theory produces to allow for further tests of the kind of decision-making that occurs in practice. In recent decades, there has also been increasing interest in "behavioral decision theory", contributing to a re-evaluation of what useful decision-making requires.

Types of decisions

Choice under uncertainty

The area of choice under uncertainty represents the heart of decision theory. Known from the 17th century (Blaise Pascal invoked it in his famous wager, which is contained in his Pensées, published in 1670), the idea of expected value is that, when faced with a number of actions, each of which could give rise to more than one possible outcome with different probabilities, the rational procedure is to identify all possible outcomes, determine their values (positive or negative) and the probabilities that will result from each course of action, and multiply the two to give an "expected value", or the average expectation for an outcome; the action to be chosen should be the one that gives rise to the highest total expected value.  In 1738, Daniel Bernoulli published an influential paper entitled Exposition of a New Theory on the Measurement of Risk, in which he uses the St. Petersburg paradox to show that expected value theory must be normatively wrong. He gives an example in which a Dutch merchant is trying to decide whether to insure a cargo being sent from Amsterdam to St Petersburg in winter. In his solution, he defines a utility function and computes expected utility rather than expected financial value.

In the 20th century, interest was reignited by Abraham Wald's 1939 paper pointing out that the two central procedures of sampling-distribution-based statistical-theory, namely hypothesis testing and parameter estimation, are special cases of the general decision problem.  Wald's paper renewed and synthesized many concepts of statistical theory, including loss functions, risk functions, admissible decision rules, antecedent distributions, Bayesian procedures, and minimax procedures.  The phrase "decision theory" itself was used in 1950 by E. L. Lehmann.

The revival of subjective probability theory, from the work of Frank Ramsey, Bruno de Finetti, Leonard Savage and others, extended the scope of expected utility theory to situations where subjective probabilities can be used. At the time, von Neumann and Morgenstern's theory of expected utility proved that expected utility maximization followed from basic postulates about rational behavior.

The work of Maurice Allais and Daniel Ellsberg showed that human behavior has systematic and sometimes important departures from expected-utility maximization (Allais paradox and Ellsberg paradox). The prospect theory of Daniel Kahneman and Amos Tversky renewed the empirical study of economic behavior with less emphasis on rationality presuppositions. It describes a way by which people make decisions when all of the outcomes carry a risk. Kahneman and Tversky found three regularities – in actual human decision-making, "losses loom larger than gains"; persons focus more on changes in their utility-states than they focus on absolute utilities; and the estimation of subjective probabilities is severely biased by anchoring.

Intertemporal choice

Intertemporal choice is concerned with the kind of choice where different actions lead to outcomes that are realised at different stages over time. It is also described as cost-benefit decision making since it involves the choices between rewards that vary according to magnitude and time of arrival. If someone received a windfall of several thousand dollars, they could spend it on an expensive holiday, giving them immediate pleasure, or they could invest it in a pension scheme, giving them an income at some time in the future.  What is the optimal thing to do?  The answer depends partly on factors such as the expected rates of interest and inflation, the person's life expectancy, and their confidence in the pensions industry.  However even with all those factors taken into account, human behavior again deviates greatly from the predictions of prescriptive decision theory, leading to alternative models in which, for example, objective interest rates are replaced by subjective discount rates.

Interaction of decision makers

Some decisions are difficult because of the need to take into account how other people in the situation will respond to the decision that is taken.  The analysis of such social decisions is often treated under decision theory, though it involves mathematical methods. In the emerging field of socio-cognitive engineering, the research is especially focused on the different types of distributed decision-making in human organizations, in normal and abnormal/emergency/crisis situations.

Complex decisions
Other areas of decision theory are concerned with decisions that are difficult simply because of their complexity, or the complexity of the organization that has to make them. Individuals making decisions are limited in resources (i.e. time and intelligence) and are therefore boundedly rational; the issue is thus, more than the deviation between real and optimal behaviour, the difficulty of determining the optimal behaviour in the first place. Decisions are also affected by whether options are framed together or separately; this is known as the distinction bias.

Heuristics

Heuristics are procedures for making a decision without working out the consequences of every option. Heuristics decrease the amount of evaluative thinking required for decisions, focusing on some aspects of the decision while ignoring others. While quicker than step-by-step processing, heuristic thinking is also more likely to involve fallacies or inaccuracies.

One example of a common and erroneous thought process that arises through heuristic thinking is the gambler's fallacy — believing that an isolated random event is affected by previous isolated random events. For example, if flips of a fair coin give repeated tails, the coin still has the same probability (i.e., 0.5) of tails in future turns, though intuitively it might seems that heads becomes more likely. In the long run, heads and tails should occur equally often; people commit the gambler's fallacy when they use this heuristic to predict that a result of heads is "due" after a run of tails. Another example is that decision-makers may be biased towards preferring moderate alternatives to extreme ones. The compromise effect operates under a mindset that the most moderate option carries the most benefit. In an incomplete information scenario, as in most daily decisions, the moderate option will look more appealing than either extreme, independent of the context, based only on the fact that it has characteristics that can be found at either extreme.

Alternatives
A highly controversial issue is whether one can replace the use of probability in decision theory with something else.

Probability theory
Advocates for the use of probability theory point to:
   the work of Richard Threlkeld Cox for justification of the probability axioms,
   the Dutch book paradoxes of Bruno de Finetti as illustrative of the theoretical difficulties that can arise from departures from the probability axioms, and
   the complete class theorems, which show that all admissible decision rules are equivalent to the Bayesian decision rule for some utility function and some prior distribution (or for the limit of a sequence of prior distributions). Thus, for every decision rule, either the rule may be reformulated as a Bayesian procedure (or a limit of a sequence of such), or there is a rule that is sometimes better and never worse.

Alternatives to probability theory
The proponents of fuzzy logic, possibility theory, quantum cognition, Dempster–Shafer theory, and info-gap decision theory maintain that probability is only one of many alternatives and point to many examples where non-standard alternatives have been implemented with apparent success; notably, probabilistic decision theory is sensitive to assumptions about the probabilities of various events, whereas non-probabilistic rules, such as minimax, are robust in that they do not make such assumptions.

Ludic fallacy

A general criticism of decision theory based on a fixed universe of possibilities is that it considers the "known unknowns", not the "unknown unknowns": it focuses on expected variations, not on unforeseen events, which some argue have outsized impact and must be considered – significant events may be "outside model". This line of argument, called the ludic fallacy, is that there are inevitable imperfections in modeling the real world by particular models, and that unquestioning reliance on models blinds one to their limits.

See also

 Bayesian epistemology
 Bayesian statistics
 Causal decision theory
 Choice modelling
 Constraint satisfaction
 Daniel Kahneman
 Decision making
 Decision quality
 Emotional choice theory
 Evidential decision theory
 Game theory
 Multi-criteria decision making
 Newcomb's paradox
 Operations research
 Optimal decision
 Preference (economics)
 Prospect theory
 Quantum cognition
 Rational choice theory
 Rationality
 Secretary problem
 Signal detection theory
 Small-numbers game
 Stochastic dominance
 TOTREP
 Two envelopes problem

References

Further reading

  (an overview of the philosophical foundations of key mathematical axioms in subjective expected utility theory – mainly normative)

  (covers normative decision theory)

  (translation of 1931 article)

 de Finetti, Bruno.  "Foresight: its Logical Laws, Its Subjective Sources," (translation of the 1937 article in French) in H. E. Kyburg and H. E. Smokler (eds), Studies in Subjective Probability, New York: Wiley, 1964.
 de Finetti, Bruno. Theory of Probability, (translation by AFM Smith of 1970 book) 2 volumes, New York: Wiley, 1974-5.
 De Groot, Morris, Optimal Statistical Decisions. Wiley Classics Library. 2004. (Originally published 1970.) .
  (covers both normative and descriptive theory)

 Khemani, Karan, Ignorance is Bliss: A study on how and why humans depend on recognition heuristics in social relationships, the equity markets and the brand market-place, thereby making successful decisions, 2005.
 Klebanov, Lev. B., Svetlozat T. Rachev and Frank J. Fabozzi, eds. (2009). Non-Robust Models in Statistics, New York: Nova Scientific Publishers, Inc.
  A rational presentation of probabilistic analysis.

  Reprinted in Shafer & Pearl. (also about normative decision theory)
  http://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Peirce/small-diffs.htm

 Ramsey, Frank Plumpton; "Truth and Probability" (PDF), Chapter VII in The Foundations of Mathematics and other Logical Essays (1931).

Statistical inference
Risk
Control theory
Formal sciences
Epistemology of science
Mathematical and quantitative methods (economics)

Decision theory


ග්‍රිම් සොහොයුරන්ගේ සුරංගනා කථා () යනු ග්‍රිම් සොහොයුරන්, යාකොබ් සහ විල්හෙල්ම් විසින් 1812 දී පළමුව ප්‍රකාශයට පත් කෙරුණු ජර්මානු ජන කථා එකතුවකි. එම එකතුව වර්තමානයෙහිදී පොදුවේ හැඳින්වෙන්නේ  ග්‍රිම් සොහොයුරන්ගේ සුරංගනා කථා  () ලෙසිනි.

ග්‍රිම් සොහොයුරන්ගේ සුරංගනා කථා


බ්‍රභාම් BT49  Formula One ෆොර්මියුලා මෝටර් රථය නිෂ්පාදනය කරනු ලැබුවේ දකුණු අප්‍රිකානු ජාතික Gordon Murray විසිනි. එ බ්‍රිතාන්‍ය ජාතික කණ්ඩායමක් වූ Brabham වෙනුවෙනි. BT49 රථය  හා   කාලය තුල Formula One World Championships තරඟාවලියට සහභාගී වූ අතර එහි ධාවක බ්‍රසීල ජාතික Nelson Piquet ඔහුගේ ප්‍රථම ජයග්‍රහණය (World Championship)දී ලබා ගත්තේය.

1979 වසරේදී ප්‍රථම වරට Alfa Romeo-engined BT48 මෝටර් රථය වෙනුවට මෙය නිපදවන ලදී.   after Brabham team owner Bernie Ecclestone decided to end his relationship with the Italian engine manufacturer. BT49 ෆොර්මියුලා රථය BT48 රථයෙහි කොටස් හා එම කාලය තුල බහුලව භාවිතා වූ Cosworth DFV එන්ජිම යොදා නිපදවූ අතර ඒ සදහා වැයවී ඇත්තේ සති හයක තරම් කාලයක් පමණි. මෙය තනි ආසන විවෘත නියමු කුටියකින් හා අනාවෘත රෝද කට්ටල වලින් සමන්විත වේ. monocoque චැසිය ඇලුමිනියම් ඇලොය් හා  කාබන් ෆ්ය්බර් කොටස්වලින් නිමවා ඇත. The car was fitted with controversial hydropneumatic suspension and water-cooled brakes at different points in its life.

See also
 Williams FW07
 Lotus 88

Notes

References
Books

Magazines

External links

 Brabham BT49 in spherical 360° image

බ්‍රභාම් BT49


Agrilus cadoli é uma espécie de inseto do género Agrilus, família Buprestidae, ordem Coleoptera.

Foi descrita cientificamente por Baudon, 1968.

Referências

cadoli

Agrilus cadoli


مسجد السقيا، بُني هذا المسجد في مكان قبّة الرسول عند خروجه لغزوة بدر، واستعراض جيشه ، ووعده الله ـ تعالى ـ أن تكون إحدى الطائفتين له، إما العير أو النفير، بقوله سبحانه: }وإذ يعدُكم الله إحدى الطائفتين أنّها لكم وتودّون أنّ غير ذات الشوكة تكون لكم ويريد الله أن يحقّ الحقّ بكلماته ويقطع دابر الكافرين.
ولقد صلّى الرسول في هذا المكان ودعا لأهل المدينة بالبركة، وقال عليه أفضل الصلاة وأتم التسليم: "اللهم إن إبراهيم خليلك وعبدك دعاك لأهل مكة، وأنا عبدك ورسولك أدعوك لأهل المدينة مثل ما دعاك به إبراهيم لمكة، ندعوك أن تبارك لهم في صاعهم، ومدّهم، وثمارهم، اللهم حبب إلينا المدينة، كما حببت إلينا مكة، اللهم إني حرّمت ما بين لابتيها كما حرّمت على لسان إبراهيم الحرم. وروي أن عمر بن الخطاب—استسقى بالعباس بن عبدالمطلب في هذا المكان.

التسمية
ترجع تسميته لوقوعه قرب "بئر السقيا" الذي كان ملكًا للصحابي سعد بن أبي وقاص والتي تقع إلى الجنوب من هذا المسجد، والتي توضأ منها الرسول ، ويروى عن علي بن أبي طالب قائلاً: " خرجنا مع رسول الله  في غزوة، حتى إذا كنا بحرة السقيا التي كانت لسعد بن أبي وقاص، فقال رسول الله : ائتوني بوضوء، ثم توضأ، ثم قام فاستقبل القبلة وقال:" اللهم إن إبراهيم كان عبدك وخليلك ودعاك لأهل مكة بالبركة وأنا عبدك ورسولك أدعوك لأهل المدينة المنورة أن تبارك لهم في مدهم وصاعهم مثل ما باركت لأهل مكة ومع البركة بركتين".

الموقع
يقع مسجد السقيا في المدينة المنورة بباب العنبرية، وبالتحديد داخل سور محطة السكة الحديد، ويقابل حاليًّا مبنى أمانة المدينة. وذكر أنه كان أرضًا للصحابي الجليل سعد بن أبي وقاص .

وصف المسجد
مسجد صغير تعلوه 3 قباب، ويقع على مساحة 56 مترًا، بلا مئذنة، تصميم بنائه عثماني، أعيد ترميمه في عهد خادم الحرمين الشريفين الملك فهد بن عبد العزيز -ي- في 1423-1424هـ.

انظر ايضاً
 مسجد قباء
 مسجد الفضيخ

وصلات خارجية
 مسجد السقيا.. مسقى سيد البشر في رمضان.

مراجع

مساجد المدينة المنورة
مساجد بنيت في القرن 7
مساجد تاريخية في المدينة المنورة
مساجد في السعودية

مسجد السقيا


Louis Jules Mancini, 4th (and last) Duke of Nevers (Louis Jules Barbon; 16 December 1716 – 25 February 1798) was a French diplomat and writer.

The Duke was the sixth member elected to occupy seat No. 4 of the Académie française in 1742. In England, he was styled Duke of Nivernois.

Biography
Mancini was born in Paris, son of Philippe Jules François Mancini (the 3rd duke of Nevers from 1707 until his death in 1768), and Anna Maria Spinola, whom he married in 1709. His father, Philippe, was a great-nephew of Cardinal Mazarin and a great-grandson of the famous beauty Gabrièlle de Rochechouart de Mortemart, sister of Madame de Montespan.

Mancini was educated at Lycée Louis le Grand before he joined the French Army serving in the Italian campaigns (1733) and in Bohemia (1740); but, he had to give up soldiering on account of weak health. In 1738, he sold property including the château de Druyes to Louis Damas, Marquis of Anlezy.

He was subsequently French Ambassador to Rome (1748–1752), Berlin (1755–1756) and London, where he negotiated the Treaty of Paris (10 February 1763). From 1787 to 1789 he was a member of the Council of State. He chose not to emigrate during the Revolution, which led to the loss of all his money and he was imprisoned in 1793. He regained his liberty after the fall of Maximilien Robespierre, and died in Paris on 25 February 1798.

In 1743 the Duke was elected to the Académie française for a poem entitled Délie, and from 1763 he devoted the greater part of his time to the administration of his Burgundian estates in Nevers as well as to Belles-lettres. He wrote a great deal and with great facility; but his writings nowadays are generally considered to be of little value, his Fables being his best work. His Œuvres complètes were published in Paris in 1796; an edition of his Œuvres posthumes was brought out in Paris by Nicolas-Louis François de Neufchâteau in 1807, and his Correspondance secrète was published in Paris by De Lescure in 1866.

Marriage
At the age of fourteen, he was married to Hélène Phélypeaux (1715–1781), daughter of Jérôme Phélypeaux, Count of Pontchartrain.

Children

unnamed Mancini (1737)
 Hélène Mancini (1740–1780) married Louis Marie Foucquet de Belle-Isle, Count of Gisors (1732–1758), son of the Duke of Belle-Isle, himself son of Nicolas Fouquet who purchased Belle-Isle; married again to Charles Louis, Count of Marsan, brother of the Duchess of Bouillon without issue;
 Adélaïde Diane Mancini (1742–1808) married Louis Hercule Timoléon de Cossé, Duke of Brissac.
 Jules Frédéric Mancini, styled Count of Nevers (1745–1753) died in infancy.
 Louis Mancini (1748–1748) died in infancy.

Styled Prince de Vergagne whilst heir to his father's titles, he was also a Prince of the Holy Roman Empire and a Knight of the Golden Fleece and of the Holy Spirit. The dukedom became extinct upon his death.

See also
 Mancini family
 List of Ambassadors of France to the United Kingdom

References

External links

 www.burkespeerage.com

1716 births
1798 deaths
Writers from Paris
Dukes of Nivernais
18th-century French poets
18th-century French male writers
18th-century French diplomats
Ambassadors of France to the Holy See
Ambassadors of France to Prussia
Ambassadors of France to Great Britain
Members of the Académie Française
Mancini Mazarini
Princes of the Holy Roman Empire
Grandees of Spain
Peers of France
French fabulists
Members of the Conseil d'État (France)
State ministers of France
Lycée Louis-le-Grand alumni
Mancini family

Louis Jules Mancini, Duke of Nevers


Živa zajednica (njem. Lebendige Gemeinde) mjesečni je dvojezični list hrvatskih katoličkih zajednica u Njemačkoj. Izdaje ga Hrvatski dušobrižnički ured u Njemačkoj.

Prvi je broj objavljen u rujnu 1978. List je u početku bio biltenskog karaktera, ali je vremenom osim vjersko-crkvenih počeo obuhvaćati i općedruštvene teme, posebno one vezanu uz život Hrvata u Njemačkoj, prateći život i djelovanje hrvatskih katoličkih misija i njihovih članova. Izdaje se u Frankfurtu na Majni.

U sklopu proslave 40. obljetnice izlaska prvog broja, pokrenuto je i izdanje časopisa na međumrežju, u obliku mrežnog portala.

Časopis ima važnu ulogu u očuvanju identiteta Njemačkih Hrvata, kulture i hrvatskog jezika, kao i u komunikaciji s matičnom domovinom i hrvatskim iseljeništvom u svijetu.

Od 2015. list umjesto deset puta godišnje izlazi sedam puta godišnje.

Glavni urednici
 fra Bernard Dukić (1978. – 1979.)
 fra Ignacije Vugdelija (1979. – 1991.)
 don Ante Živko Kustić (1991. – 1993.)
 fra Anto Batinić (1994. – 2002.)
 dr. sc. Adolf Polegubić (2002. do danas)

Izvor: Hrvatski dušobrižnički ured u Njemačkoj

Izvori

Vanjske poveznice
Mrežna mjesta
 Živa zajednica, službeno mrežno mjesto
 arhiva

Hrvatski katolički tisakTiskani mediji na hrvatskom jeziku u Njemačkoj

Živa zajednica


Avenida Minnesota es una estación en la línea Naranja del Metro de Washington, administrada por la Autoridad de Tránsito del Área Metropolitana de Washington. La estación se encuentra localizada en 4000 Minnesota Avenue NE en Washington D. C.. La estación Avenida Minnesota fue inaugurada el 20 de noviembre de 1978.

Descripción
La estación Avenida Minnesota cuenta con 1 plataforma central. La estación también cuenta con 333 de espacios de aparcamiento, 8 espacios para bicicletas y con 4 casilleros.

Conexiones
La estación es abastecida por las siguientes conexiones de autobuses:
 Rutas del MetroBus

Referencias

Enlaces externos

 WMATA: Estación Avenida Minnesota
 Líneas del Metro de Washington

Estaciones de Metro de Estados Unidos inauguradas en 1978
Estaciones de la línea Naranja (Metro de Washington)

Avenida Minnesota (Metro de Washington)


Emanuil Manolov (; 7 January 1860 – 2 February 1902) was a Bulgarian composer.

Born at Gabrovo, Manolov is thought to be one of the founders of the Bulgarian professional musical culture. He composed the first Bulgarian opera Siromahkinia, based on Ivan Vazov's work with the same title, consisting of two parts. Very popular are his works in the genres of the "kitka" and the school song. One of his famous works is the song "What a Girl I saw, Mama" (Kakva moma vidiah, mamo). He died at Kazanlak.

Honours
Manolov Glacier in Antarctica is named after Emanuil Manolov.

1860 births
1902 deaths
Bulgarian composers
People from Gabrovo
19th-century Bulgarian people
People from the Ottoman Empire

Emanuil Manolov


The Valiant class were a class of nuclear-powered fleet submarines in service with the Royal Navy from the mid-1960s until 1994. They were the first fully British nuclear fleet submarine; the earlier  used an American nuclear reactor. There were only two boats in the class, the first, Valiant (the nameship) commissioned in 1966 three years after Dreadnought, and Warspite the following year. Both were built by Vickers at Barrow-in-Furness.

Design

The class were based on Dreadnought, but were enlarged by 20 feet (6 m) and had a dived displacement of 4,900 tons compared to 4,000 tons. Improvements made since the original Dreadnought meant that they ran significantly quieter under main power, and also had a Paxman diesel-electric generator that could be used for silent running. In most other respects (outside the power plant), the Valiants were identical to Dreadnought.

According to former head of the Royal Corps of Naval Constructors R.J. Daniel, when US Admiral Hyman G. Rickover, widely regarded as the father of the nuclear submarine, initially learned of the proposed rafting system for the Valiant class, (in which ship's machinery is acoustically isolated from the hull by padding known as "rafts"), he was dismissive of the concept, with the result that the Royal Navy gained an advantage in submarine silencing that the United States Navy did not introduce until considerably later.

The Valiants were primarily used in the anti-submarine role, important during the Cold War. In 1967 Valiant set a Royal Navy (RN) record of sailing 12,000 miles (19,312 km) submerged in twenty-eight days, from Singapore to the UK. Both boats received a number of refits, including the capability to use the Harpoon missile. Valiant and other nuclear fleet submarines served in the Falklands War in 1982.

The Valiants had long careers: Warspite was decommissioned in 1991, and Valiant in 1994, due to cracks being discovered in her primary to secondary cooling system. They were very successful and served as the template for the  ballistic missile submarine and subsequent  fleet submarines.

Construction Programme

See also
List of submarines of the Royal Navy

References

Cited footnotes

Cited texts

 The Encyclopedia of Warships, From World War Two to the Present Day, General Editor Robert Jackson

Nuclear submarines of the Royal Navy

Valiant-class submarine


Kirstine Stubbe Teglbjærg (født 1973 i Holstebro) er en dansk komponist, sangskriver og producer. Juni 2021 launchede hun sit nye soloprojekt Sitrekin. Hun er kendt for at have været forsanger og sangskriver i bandet Blue Foundation. Co-grundlægger og co-ceo af Hun Solo.

Karriere
Hun var forsanger i Blue Foundation indtil 2009 og er blevet nomineret til mange priser for sit arbejde med bandet.

Siden hun forlod bandet, har hun lavet undergrundsmusik. Hun arbejdede i sit eget studie i København indtil udgivelsen af sit første soloalbum i 2012. For at finde sin egen unikke lyd komponerede og producerede hun selv al musikken.

Diskografi

Blue Foundation
Albums
 2001: Blue Foundation (April Records)
 2004: Sweep of Days (Virgin/EMI)
 2006: Solid Origami – Blue Foundation Collected and Re-worked (Only Japan, Popgroup)
 2007: Life of a Ghost (Virgin/EMI)

Singles
 1999: Hide/Hollywood (MoshiMoshi)
 2000: Wise Guy/Hollywood. Inclusive remixes by The Prunes, Future 3 and Pelding (April Records)
 2003: As I moved on. Inclusive remixes by Run Jeremy Band and Bichi (Virgin/EMI)
 2004: End of the day (Virgin/EMI)
 2005: Embers (Jack to Phono)
 2005: This is goodbye (Virgin/EMI)
 2006: Crosshair (Virgin/EMI)
 2006: Sweep – Mikkel Metal, 16 Bit Lolitas, Jim Rivers Remixes (Okyo/Renaissance)
 2007: Enemy (Virgin/EMI)
 2009: Eyes on Fire (Astralwerks USA)
 2009: Watch you sleeping Featuring Mark Kozelek – Sun kil Moon (Dead Peoples Choice)

Solo-arbejde
Album
 2013: Hamskifte (A:larm/Universal)

EP
 2013: Hamskifte Remixes (A:larm/Universal)
 2022: Open Chest (Hun Solo Records) som Sitrekin

Singles
 2012: Drømmenes Lyd (A:larm/Universal)
 2013: Tæppet er faldet (A:larm/Universal)

Samarbejde
 2014: Never be apart (Bottled in England featuring Kirstine Stubbe Teglbjærg)
 2015: Runnin' (Bogan Via featuring Kirstine Stubbe Teglbjærg)

Moderne danseforestillnger
Hun har komponeret musik til følgende forestillinger med moderne dans:

 2015: Men Nu Har Jeg En Hjærne. Det menneskelige Teater/KBH's Musikteater.
 2014: "Alting Mødes"Det Flydende Teater
 2012: Blackout! (MUTE Comp. Physical Theatre)
 2009: Når jeg forsvinder under mig. (JacoBole Teatret/CampX)
 2004: Baby/Baby (Copenhagen Performance House)
 2003: SnapShots (Nyt Dansk Danseteater)
 2003: Hendrix House: (Tim Feldmann/Wilda Dance)

Priser

|-
| 2005
| Sweep of Days
| Danish Music Awards: Best Urban Album of the year
|
|-
| 2005
| Blue Foundation
| Danish Music Awards: Best Act of the year
|
|-
| 2005
| Kirstine Stubbe Teglbjærg
| Danish Music Awards: Female singer of the year
|
|-
| 2005
| Blue Foundation
| Steppeulven (The critics prize): Band of the year
|
|-
| 2005
| Blue Foundation
| Steppeulven (The critics prize): Best live act of the year
|
|-
| 2006
| Blue Foundation's "This is Goodbye" (From the film Drabet)
| Robert Awards: Song of the year
|
|}

Kilder

Musikere fra Danmark
Personer fra Holstebro

Kirstine Stubbe Teglbjærg


Ilısu Barajı ve Hidroelektrik Santrali; yaygın adıyla Veysel Eroğlu Ilısu Barajı, Güneydoğu Anadolu Projesi kapsamında, enerji üretimi amacıyla Dicle Nehri üzerinde inşa edilen santraldir.

Ağustos 2019'da su tutulmaya başlanan barajın altı türbininden ilki 19 Mayıs 2020 tarihinde yapılan açılış töreniyle enerji üretimine başladı.

Tarihçesi

Ilısu Barajı ve Hidroelektrik Santrali Projesi (Ilısu Projesi), 1954 yılında Dicle Nehri'nin toprak ve su kaynaklarının geliştirilmesine ilişkin çalışmalar doğrultusunda, DSİ tarafından başlatılmıştır.

Ilısu Barajı; Güneydoğu Anadolu Bölgesi'nde, Suriye sınırına yaklaşık 45 km. mesafede, Dicle Nehri üzerinde inşa edilecek olup, tamamlandığında 1 200 MW kurulu güç ile yılda ortalama 4,120 GWh enerji üretecektir.

Tesis işletmeye alındığında; gövde hacmi açısından Türkiye'nin 2. kurulu güç bakımından da 4. büyük barajı olacaktır.

Özellikleri
2015 yılında hizmete alınması planlanan proje, kurulu güç ve yıllık enerji üretim kapasitesi bakımından da, Atatürk Barajı, Karakaya Barajı ve Keban Barajı'ndan sonra 4. büyük HES olma özelliğini kazanacak.

Ilısu Barajı; Mardin ve Şırnak İl sınırları arasında Dargeçit ilçesinin 15 Km. doğusunda, Dicle Nehri üzerinde yer alacak. Ilısu Barajı ön Yüzü Beton Kaplı kaya dolgu tipinde olup temelden yüksekliği 135 m olacak. Barajın maksimum su kotu 526,82 metre, toplam gövde hacmi 23,7 milyon metreküp, rezervuar hacmi ise 10,6 milyar metreküp olacak. Barajın kurulu gücü 1200 MW olup üreteceği toplam enerji 4,12 milyar KWh'tır. Ilısu Barajı ile üretilecek olan elektrik enerjisi, şu an Türkiye'de hidroelektrik santralleri vasıtasıyla üretilecek olan enerjinin %10'unu oluşturacak.

Bu enerji üretiminin yanı sıra Ilısu Barajı'nda tutulacak ve daha sonra inşa edilecek Cizre Barajına bırakılacak sularla Nusaybin, Cizre, İdil, Silopi ovalarında toplam 121 bin hektar alanın modern sulama teknikleriyle sulanması da mümkün olacak.

Hasankeyf Kültür Varlıklarının Korunması ve Kurtarılması

Bazı kaynaklar tarafından, yapılacak barajın Hasankeyf'teki kültürel varlıkların yok edilmesine neden olacağı iddia edilmektedir.

Ilısu Projesi'nin maksimum su kotundan etkilenmeyen Hasankeyf Yukarı Şehir Alanı'nda yer alan kültürel varlıklar "Arkeolojik Park ve Açık Hava Müzesi"nde sergilenecektir.

Ilısu Baraj Gölü altında kalacak olan kültürel varlıklar ve yerleri YYEP çalışmaları çerçevesinde belirlenmektedir.

Her yıl için %15'lik yüzey çalışması ve %15'lik kazı ve taşımanın yapılacağı kabul edilmektedir. Bu kabule göre yüzey çalışmaları, kazılar ve taşımalar için ayrılan tahmini bütçe 53.000.000 ABD doları olarak belirlenmiştir.

Ayrıca bakınız
 Türkiye'deki barajlar listesi

Kaynakça

Dış bağlantılar
 Devlet Su İşleri Genel Müdürlüğü
 Hasankeyf kurtuluyor - Gezi- ntvmsnbc.com

Şırnak ilindeki barajlar
Mardin ilindeki barajlar
Hasankeyf
Güneydoğu Anadolu Projesi
Baraj tartışmaları
Türkiye'deki hidroelektrik santralleri

Ilısu Barajı ve Hidroelektrik Santrali


The Winner Is … (engl. für "Der Gewinner ist …") ist eine deutsch-niederländische Talent-Game-Show, die vom 11. April bis 25. Mai 2012 von dem Fernsehsender Sat.1 ausgestrahlt wurde. Sie basiert auf einer Idee von John de Mol. Die deutsche Ausgabe wurde von Talpa und Schwartzkopff TV-Productions produziert.

Konzept
64 Music-Acts aus acht verschiedenen Kategorien treten in K.-o.-Battles gegeneinander an. Die Entscheidung, wer weiterkommt, trifft eine 101-köpfige Zuschauerjury, deren Vorsitz Mousse T. hat. Die Kandidaten können im Anschluss ihre Leistung einschätzen und mit dem anderen Kandidaten um einen Geldgewinn spielen. Nach Beratung mit Familienmitgliedern bzw. Freunden kann entweder einer von ihnen das Geld nehmen oder beide die "Alles-oder-Nichts"-Entscheidung wählen, bei der dann die Jury entscheidet. In jedem Battle steigt die mögliche Gewinnsumme. Während sie zu Beginn noch bei 5000 Euro pro Battle liegt, treten im Finale die jeweiligen Sieger der acht Kategorien gegeneinander im Wettstreit um eine Million Euro an. Hierbei wird auch ein Zuschauervoting miteinbezogen.

Ablauf
Für die Teilnahme konnte man sich vom 6. bis 17. Dezember 2011 bewerben. Es gewann die in Köln lebende Jazz-Sängerin Onita Boone.

Kategorien

Die K.-o.-Battles
 Show 1

 Show 2

 Show 3

 Show 4

Viertelfinale
 Show 5 (1. Viertelfinale)

 Show 6 (2. Viertelfinale)
Der Deal von Valerie war der einzige Deal der gesamten Show, bei dem ein Kandidat ohne den Deal weitergekommen wäre.

Halbfinale
Das Halbfinale fand am 18. Mai 2012 statt. Die Höhe der Summe bei der Entscheidung für einen Deal betrug 20.000 Euro.

Finale
Die Finalsendung fand am 25. Mai 2012 statt. Gewinnerin ist die Gospelsängerin Onita Boone aus der Kategorie 40+.

Quoten

Weblinks
 Offizielle Website

Einzelnachweise

Fernsehsendung (Sat.1)
Fernsehsendung der 2010er Jahre
Castingshow
Musiksendung (Fernsehen)
Spielshow

The Winner Is …


Vigor steht für:

 Vigor Alimentos, brasilianischer Molkereikonzern
 Vigor Industrial, US-amerikanische Werftengruppe
 Acura Vigor, Pkw-Modell von Honda
 Vigor, Computerspiel von Bohemia Interactive

Siehe auch:

Vigor


The year 1610 in science and technology involved some significant events.

Astronomy
 January 7 – Galileo Galilei first observes the four large Galilean moons of Jupiter: Ganymede, Callisto, Europa and Io, although he is unable to distinguish the latter two until the following night. In the same year he publishes his first observations by telescope in a short treatise entitled Sidereus Nuncius ("Sidereal Messenger").
 December – English scientist Thomas Harriot becomes one of the first to view sunspots through a telescope
 The Orion Nebula is discovered by Nicolas-Claude Fabri de Peiresc.

Medicine
 Diphtheria epidemic in Naples, during which Marco Aurelio Severino performs successful tracheotomies.

Technology
 Jean Beguin publishes Tyrocinium Chymicum, the first book of chemistry lectures.
 Tinsel is invented by a German silversmith, who uses real silver for the metal strands.
 Bagels are created in Krakow, Poland and given as gifts to women after childbirth.

Births
 February 2 – Pierre Bourdelot, French physician, anatomist, freethinker, abbé and libertine (died 1685)
 March 1 – John Pell, English mathematician (died 1685)
 Maria Cunitz, Silesian astronomer (died 1664)
 Marie Meurdrac, French chemist and alchemist (died 1680)

Deaths
 Abul Qasim ibn Mohammed al-Ghassani, Moroccan physician (born 1548)
 Nikola Vitov Gučetić, Ragusan polymath (born 1549)
 Peter Lowe, Scottish surgeon (born c. 1550)
 Paarangot Jyeshtadevan Namboodiri, Keralan mathematician and astronomer (born c. 1500)
 December 31 – Ludolph van Ceulen, German mathematician (born 1540)

References

17th century in science
1610s in science

1610 in science


نظام العد الاثنا عشري  هو نظام عد ذو رقم أساس 12. في هذا النظام يرمز للرقم 10 بالحرف 'A'، وللرقم 11 بالحرف 'B'، ويكتب الرقم 12 بالشكل 10 في نظام العد الثنائي عشر.

مراجع

أنظمة عد
12 (عدد)

نظام عد اثنا عشري


Whitbread Round the World Race 1973–74, er den første udgave af Whitbread Round the World Race og startede fra Portsmouth, England den 8. september 1973. Sytten yachts i forskellige størrelser og rigge deltog. Under løbet blev tre sejlere fejet overbord og døde: Paul Waterhouse, Dominique Guillet og Bernie Hosking. Waterhouse og Guillet blev aldrig set igen.

Besætningen på den mexicanske yacht Sayula II, en helt ny Swan 65, vandt 9. april 1974 den samlede kapsejlads på 133 dage og 13 timer med ejer Ramón Carlin som skipper. Hendes faktiske tid var 152 dage.  I 2016 blev dette eventyr fortalt i en dokumentarfilm kaldet The Weekend Sailor.

Etaper

Kilder

1973-74
Sport i 1973
Sport i 1974

Whitbread Round the World Race 1973–74


O referendo da independência das Bermudas de 1995 foi um referendo realizado nas Bermudas em 16 de agosto de 1995 sobre se as Bermudas deveriam se tornar um estado soberano independente ou permanecer um Território Dependente do Reino Unido. Com uma participação eleitoral de 58,8%, 73,6% votaram contra a independência e 25,7% votaram a favor. Após o resultado do referendo decisivo, Sir John Swan, a favor da independência, renunciou ao cargo de Premier das Bermudas.

Antecedentes e detalhes do referendo
Depois de ser uma extensão da colônia da Virgínia, Bermuda foi feita uma colônia da coroa com seus próprios direitos em 1609 e tornou-se uma colônia autônoma em 1620, com a fundação do Parlamento das Bermudas. Após a Segunda Guerra Mundial, grande parte do Império Britânico obteve a independência. Em 1968, Bermuda ganhou uma constituição, mas o governo britânico determinou que Bermuda não estava pronta para a independência e, portanto, Bermuda foi incluída na lista das Nações Unidas de Territórios Não-Autônomos. Em 1981, as Bermudas se tornaram um Território Dependente do Reino Unido como resultado da Lei da Nacionalidade Britânica de 1981.

Em 25 de março de 1995, a Câmara da Assembleia das Bermudas aprovou por pouco o Projeto de Lei do Referendo da Independência 20-18,  o Senado aprovou o projeto de lei sem oposição duas semanas depois. Para a independência ser aprovada, o voto sim teve que ser apoiado por pelo menos 40% dos votantes e mais de 50% dos que votaram.

A questão do referendo (conforme estabelecido pelo Independence Referendum Act 1995) foi esta:

Embora a favor da independência, o Partido Trabalhista Progressivo da oposição, liderado por Frederick Wade, votou contra a Lei do Referendo, convocou um boicote ao próprio referendo e afirmou que a independência deveria ser determinada em uma eleição geral . O governante Partido das Bermudas Unidas estava dividido sobre a questão, com o primeiro -ministro Sir John Swan apoiando a independência, enquanto muitos de seus defensores se opuseram.

Durante a campanha, o Comitê para a Independência das Bermudas afirmou que, se houvesse um voto "sim", a independência não viria imediatamente. Em vez disso, haveria uma conferência constitucional em Londres, que levaria as Bermudas a se tornarem um reino independente da Commonwealth, com a Rainha Elizabeth II como Chefe de Estado e o Conselho Privado permanecendo como a corte suprema.

A votação estava inicialmente marcada para 15 de agosto de 1995, mas foi adiada para o dia seguinte devido à passagem do furacão Félix pelas ilhas. As votações foram abertas das 10h às 21h. A decisão de adiar o referendo foi objeto de inquérito público, que apurou que o Governo agiu em conformidade com a lei.

Resultado

Bermudas
Bermudas
Bermudas
1995 nas Bermudas
Política das Bermudas

Referendo de independência das Bermudas de 1995


مبارك بنيه متعب فهد الخرينج الرشيدي ، من مواليد الكويت في عام 1948، نائب سابق في مجلس الأمة الكويتي.

سيرته الذاتية
مبارك بنيه متعب فهد الخرينج من مواليد الكويت لعام 1948 وحاصل على شهادة الثانوية العامة، وعمل في وزارة الخارجية كملحق سياسي في المملكة العربية السعودية من 1970 حتى 1973 ثم في سوريا من عام 1973 إلى 1977 وفي المملكة المتحدة ما بين 1984 و1987، وفاز بعضوية مجلس الأمة الكويتي للأعوام 1992، و1996 و1999 و2006 و2009، وعضوية المجلس الوطني عام 1990، وعضوية مجلس الأمة ديسمبر 2012 المبطل بحكم المحكمة الدستورية، وترأس العديد من اللجان الخارجية في مجلس الامة الكويتي في أعوام مختلفة.

الحياة البرلمانية
شارك في انتخابات مجلس الأمة الكويتي 1992 في الدائرة السادسة عشر، وحصل على المركز الثاني برصيد 1351 صوت وفاز بالانتخابات، وشارك في انتخابات مجلس الأمة الكويتي 1996 في الدائرة السادسة عشر، وحصل على المركز الأول برصيد 2548 صوت وفاز بالانتخابات ، وشارك في انتخابات مجلس الأمة الكويتي 1999 في الدائرة السادسة عشر، وحصل على المركز الثاني برصيد 2262 صوت وفاز بالانتخابات ، وشارك في انتخابات مجلس الأمة الكويتي 2003 في الدائرة السادسة عشر، وحصل على المركز الثالث برصيد 2140 صوت وخسر الانتخابات ، وشارك في انتخابات مجلس الأمة الكويتي 2006 في الدائرة السادسة عشر، وحصل على المركز الثاني برصيد 5272 صوت وفاز بالانتخابات.

مراجع

{{Navboxes colour
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أشخاص يحتمل أن يكونوا أحياء
أعضاء مجلس الأمة الكويتي 1992
أعضاء مجلس الأمة الكويتي 1996
أعضاء مجلس الأمة الكويتي 1999
أعضاء مجلس الأمة الكويتي 2006
أعضاء مجلس الأمة الكويتي 2009
أعضاء مجلس الأمة الكويتي 2013
أعضاء مجلس الأمة الكويتي ديسمبر 2012
مواليد 1948

مبارك الخرينج


Christian Weinlig ist der Name folgender Personen:

* Christian Weinlig (Politiker) (1681–1762), deutscher Politiker, Bürgermeister von Dresden
 Christian Ehregott Weinlig (1743–1813), deutscher Komponist und Kreuzkantor
 Christian Theodor Weinlig  (1780–1842), deutscher Musikpädagoge, Komponist und Chordirigent
 Christian Traugott Weinlig (1739–1799), deutscher Architekturtheoretiker und Architekt

Christian Weinlig


Patronyme

 Arthur Schutt (1902-1965), pianiste de jazz et compositeur américain ;
 Sophie Schütt (1974-), actrice allemande.

Toponyme

 Île Schütt, île de Slovaquie.

Schutt


Thomas Hoy henviser til:

 Thomas Hoy (læge) (1659-1718) – engelsk læge og digter
 Thomas Hoy (botaniker) (omtrent 1750-1822) – engelsk botaniker og gartner

Thomas Hoy


ريكاردو بيربيتويني  (مواليد 4 أغسطس 1990 في لاتينا - إيطالي) لاعب كرة قدم إيطالي يلعب حاليا لصالح نادي الدرجة الأولى لاتسيو الإيطالي منذ 2007 في مركز الوسط المحوري .

روابط خارجية

مراجع

لاعبو لاكويلا 1927
أشخاص على قيد الحياة
رياضيون من لاتينا (لاتسيو)
لاعبو الدوري الإيطالي
لاعبو الدوري الإيطالي الدرجة الثالثة
لاعبو الدوري الإيطالي الدرجة الثانية
لاعبو ساليرنيتانا
لاعبو كروتوني
لاعبو كرة قدم إيطاليون
لاعبو كرة قدم من لاتسيو
لاعبو لاتسيو
لاعبو منتخب إيطاليا لكرة القدم للشباب
لاعبو نادي فوجيا
لاعبو نادي كريمونيسي
لاعبو نادي مانتوفا
لاعبو وسط كرة قدم رجالية
مواليد 1990
مواليد في لاتينا

ريكاردو بيربيتويني


خوسي ماريا أولزابال  هو لاعب غولف إسباني محترف.

روابط خارجية

مراجع

أشخاص على قيد الحياة
أشخاص من فوينتيرابيا
أعضاء قاعة مشاهير عالم الغولف
رياضيون من غيبوثكوا
لاعبو غولف إسبان
لاعبو غولف بغا تور
مواليد 1966
مواليد في فوينتيرابيا
لاعبو غولف من منطقة الباسك ذاتية الحكم
لاعبو بطولة أوروبا للغولف

خوسي ماريا أولزابال


7304 Namiki este un asteroid care intersectează orbita planetei Marte.

Descriere
7304 Namiki este un asteroid care intersectează orbita planetei Marte. Asteroidul prezintă o orbită caracterizată de o semiaxă mare de 2,62 ua, o excentricitate de 0,42 și o înclinație de 9,6° în raport cu ecliptica.

Vezi și
 Lista planetelor minore: 7001-8000
 Centura de asteroizi

Referințe

Asteroizi care intersectează orbita planetei Marte

7304 Namiki


La propagación multicamino o propagación multitrayecto, en telecomunicaciones vía radio, es el fenómeno dado cuando las señales de radio llegan a la antena o antenas receptoras por dos o más caminos y en diferentes tiempos. Este fenómeno puede causar problemas en la recepción de la señal, debido a la interacción entre las señales recibidas. Ésta desviación se produce normalmente por el medio de transmisión de la señal, el cual define el camino que seguirá la onda. A fines prácticos, la señal obtenida en recepción difiere de la original y causa efectos que se han de compensar.

Causas

Existen diferentes fenómenos naturales que causan este fenómeno. En su gran mayoría se debe al camino que siguen las ondas al propagarse, actuando con la atmósfera terrestre. Se produce reflexión y refracción de las ondas en la ionosfera, algo que ayuda a la propagación de éstas a grandes distancias en la Tierra, debido a las partículas de iones presentes en ésta capa. Además, también puede producirse una desviación del camino por la reflexión en el agua, o en imperfecciones en la capa terrestre como valles o montañas. Incluso las construcciones humanas pueden intervenir en el fenómeno de la propagación multicamino.

Efectos físicos en la señal

Como se ha comentado antes, los diferentes medios de transmisión causan una propagación de la señal por diferentes caminos, que hace que obtengamos una señal en recepción formada por la interacción de las diferentes señales que han viajado por caminos diferentes.

Pueden darse diferentes tipos de fenómenos entre varias señales. Los efectos más típicos son las interferencias constructivas y destructivas. En la interferencia constructiva, dos ondas en fase de parecida frecuencia se juntan en punto y esto da lugar a una onda de mayor amplitud. Por el contrario, si dos ondas de parecida frecuencia pero en oposición de fase concurren en un punto, la onda resultante sería de menor amplitud, pudiendo llegar incluso a anularse. Es la llamada interferencia destructiva. En cualquier caso siempre obtendremos en recepción un desfase de las señales entre ellas debido al camino diferente recorrido en la propagación.

Consecuencias del fenómeno

Todas estas interacciones físicas de la señal hacen que obtengamos diferentes desperfectos en diferentes aplicaciones que las que se trabaje.

Televisión

El problema más común es que aparezca la denominada imagen fantasma. Aparece en la pantalla una imagen superpuesta a la original, desplazada y de menor intensidad, correspondiente a una onda que ha llegado más tarde a recepción debido a una reflexión en algún punto del medio. Apreciamos un efecto de la imagen borrosa. Es un problema típico también en la transmisión de fax. También se produce el efecto de Jitter, causado también por la desviación temporal de las señales recibidas. Estos problemas aparecerán en las transmisiones de televisión analógica.

Comunicaciones Digitales

La propagación multicamino puede producir en las comunicaciones digitales una interferencia intersimbólica. Puede haber una superposición entre los símbolos al recibir la señal digital. Para corregirlo se lleva a cabo el uso de ecualizadores, multiplexación ODFM, o rake receivers, un conjunto sub-receptor de radio, que analizando el retraso de cada onda y la correlación entre ellas puede recuperar los símbolos originales.

Radar

En aplicaciones de radar, ésta desviación temporal puede hacer que aparezcan objetivos fantasma en el receptor. Estos objetivos llegan a ser molestos ya que se comportan como objetivos normales sobre el mapa y es costoso encontrar el objetivo original. A menudo se hace uso de mapas de altura para diferenciar el origen de la señal y eliminar los objetivos provenientes de una cierta altitud.

Véase también
 Interferencia

Enlaces externos

 Fading

Ingeniería de radiodifusión
Propagación de radiofrecuencia

Propagación multicamino


The Red River flood of 1997 was a major flood that occurred in April and May 1997 along the Red River of the North in Minnesota, North Dakota, and southern Manitoba. It was the most severe flood of the river since 1826. The flood reached throughout the Red River Valley, affecting the cities of Fargo and Winnipeg, but none so greatly as Grand Forks and East Grand Forks, where floodwaters reached more than   inland. They inundated virtually everything in the twin communities. Total damages for the Red River region were US$3.5 billion. The flood was the result of abundant snowfall and extreme temperatures.

In Grand Forks, thousands of people, including Air Force personnel from Grand Forks Air Force Base, tried to prepare for the 1997 flood by building sandbag dikes. These dikes were constructed based on a 49-foot estimate of flooding set by the National Weather Service. The river crested at 54 feet in Grand Forks. Grand Forks mayor Pat Owens had to order the evacuation of more than 50,000 people, most of the population of the city, as a huge area was flooded. A large fire started in downtown Grand Forks, engulfing eleven buildings and sixty apartment units before being extinguished. Those affected by the flood in the U.S. received donations from across the nation, along with billions of dollars in federal aid. City officials and flood-forecasters were criticized for the difference in estimates and actual flood levels.

As a result of the 1997 flood and its extensive property losses, the United States and state governments made additional improvements to the flood protection system in North Dakota and Minnesota. A dike system was built on both sides of the river to protect the twin Forks cities. In the aftermath, the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) worked with the cities of Grand Forks and East Grand Forks to clear residential and business development from a large area of floodplain, because of the certainty of future regional floods, and also as the floodplain is intended to be a natural means to absorb floodwaters. They also redeveloped the floodplain along the river as the Greater Grand Forks Greenway, including several parks, a Minnesota state campground recreation area, and a 20-mile biking and walking trail.

Flooding in Manitoba resulted in over $500 million in damages. The Red River Floodway, an artificial waterway completed in 1968 and nicknamed "Duff's Ditch", exceeded its capacity flow but managed to divert the floodwaters around Winnipeg which minimized damage. From 2005 to 2010, the province made substantial upgrades to inlet control structures and fire protection, increased elevation of existing dikes (including the Brunkild dike), and widened the floodway channel.

Previous floods

The Red River of the North has flooded repeatedly through the centuries. It is highly prone to spring flooding because of its northward flow, the nearly flat former lake bed of the valley, and ice formation on the river. As spring approaches, the snow melts from south to north in the same direction as the riverflow. At times high waters encounter ice on the river and back up, spreading out of the banks. The wide flatness of the terrain, formed from an ancient lake bed, and the low slope of the river also contribute to severe flooding in the region.

Serious floods occurred in 1948 and 1950. The 1950 flood reached a high of 30 ft (9.2 m) at Winnipeg and caused the largest evacuation in Canada's history: an estimated 70,000 to 100,000 people had to be evacuated. An estimated $606 million CAD (1997) of damage resulted. In the aftermath, the government of Manitoba and the Canadian federal government constructed flood safety measures.

The first known records of floods along the Red River were documented in the 1770s. Severe floods have occurred throughout the 19th and 20th centuries, including in 1979. Residents and officials incorrectly assumed that homes that were safe in 1979 would be beyond the reach of a future flood.

Impacts

North Dakota and Minnesota

The Red River forms the border between Minnesota and North Dakota. A few sets of "sister cities" developed along opposite sides of the river. Grand Forks, North Dakota and its counterpart East Grand Forks, Minnesota, were the pair most severely affected by the 1997 flood. Fargo, North Dakota/Moorhead, Minnesota (Fargo-Moorhead) and Wahpeton, North Dakota/Breckenridge, Minnesota also had severe flooding. Much of the flooding accumulated not only because of the rising river levels, but also from overland flooding, as meltwater did not drain away. Temporary dikes were erected along the riverfront and around the edges of towns, but were sometimes overwhelmed.

It was difficult for the cities to prepare for such an enormous flood. The National Weather Service (NWS) had forecast that the river would crest at 49 feet (14.9 m), which was its highest level during the 1979 flood. The cities had built dikes to this level, but the river continued to rise past it. Taken by surprise, the NWS did not upgrade its forecast until April 16, the day the river reached 49 feet.

The dikes in the low-lying Lincoln Drive neighborhood of Grand Forks were the first to break, doing so early on April 18, as the river kept rising. Other dikes in the Grand Forks and East Grand Forks area failed that day and the next, flooding thousands of homes. During this time, Grand Forks mayor Pat Owens ordered the evacuation of more than 50,000 people, much of the population of the city. This was the largest evacuation in the United States since the evacuation of residents in Atlanta, Georgia during the Civil War.

Water reached areas more than two miles (3 km) inland from the Red River, requiring evacuation of all of East Grand Forks and 75% of Grand Forks. School was cancelled in both cities for the remainder of the term, as were classes at the University of North Dakota. All transportation was cut off between the two cities (and for many miles, the two states). East Grand Forks residents were evacuated to nearby Crookston, namely to the University of Minnesota Crookston. Residents of Grand Forks were given mandatory evacuation orders on April 18, and retreated to Grand Forks Air Force Base (residents stayed in airplane hangars, which were supplied with more than 3,000 cots). Many residents also evacuated to motels and homes in outlying communities.

The river crested at 54.35 feet (16.6 m) on April 21, and the river level did not fall below 49 feet (14.9 m) until April 26. Because water drained so slowly out of the most low-lying areas, some homeowners could not visit their damaged properties until May. By May 30, the Red River had receded below flood stages everywhere in North Dakota.

Manitoba

The province of Manitoba completed the Red River Floodway in 1968 after six years of construction, built permanent dikes in eight towns south of Winnipeg, and built clay dikes and diversion dams in the Winnipeg area. Other flood control structures completed later were the Portage Diversion and the Shellmouth Dam on the Assiniboine River. Even with these flood protection measures, in 1997 the province had a flood cresting at . It caused 28,000 people to be evacuated and $500 million CAD in damage to property and infrastructure.

The 1997 flood was a 100-year flood. It came close to overwhelming Winnipeg's existing flood protection system. At the time, the Winnipeg Floodway was designed to protect against a flow of , but the 1997 flow was .

To compensate, the province broke operational rules for the Floodway, as defined in legislation, during the night of April 30 / May 1, to prevent waters in Winnipeg from rising above the designed limit of  above the "James Avenue datum", but causing additional flooding upriver. Winnipeg Mayor Susan Thompson, announcing that the design limit had been reached, misinterpreted this as good news that the flooding had peaked. City sand-bagging stopped, and national reporters left the city, but the water continued to rise inside and outside of the city until the peak late on May 3 / early on May 4. The city officials have said that the peak occurred on May 1; scientific reports record a peak on May 3/4.

Towns upriver of Winnipeg, forewarned by footage of buildings in Grand Forks burning and covered in meters of water, built ring dikes to protect their homes and properties. The province of Manitoba called in the Canadian Forces, the Royal Canadian Mounted Police, and the provincial Department of Natural Resources. Many people chose to evacuate, including residents from Morris, who had only two days notice to evacuate to Winnipeg. Thousands of volunteers helped to build sandbag dikes around homes and property. An emergency  long dike, later called the Brunkild Z-dike, was constructed in a matter of days when officials realized that overland flooding threatened the city of Winnipeg. It cost $10 million (CAD).

Almost all of the ring dikes around the towns held, except for that at Ste. Agathe. The town's dike system was prepared for the river approaching from the south, but the river had spread widely and floodwaters swamped the town from the west. At the flood's peak in Canada on May 4, the Red River occupied an area of 1,840 km2 (710 mi2) with more than 2,560 km2 (990 mi2) of land underwater, which earned it the nickname "Red Sea."

While the flooding was still underway, the federal Liberal government led by Jean Chrétien called a snap election. Several of the party's MPs from the province, including Reg Alcock, requested a delay until the flooding was under control. When Chrétien let the election go ahead as originally planned, Alcock transformed his campaign office into a volunteer relief centre, spending his time in relief efforts instead of campaigning, and won re-election.

Aftermath
In July, Canadian Prime Minister Jean Chrétien and United States President Bill Clinton appointed the International Red River Basin Task Force, comprising members from both countries. The task force's purpose was to find ways to improve flood forecasting.

The province of Manitoba asked the International Joint Commission (IJC) to provide a report on the flood event and to recommend measures to ensure further flood protection for the city of Winnipeg. Largely as a result of this study, the province widened the floodway between 2004 and 2010.

Societal response
 Catastroffiti
 Catastroffiti, a form of graffiti related to natural disasters, starts to appear as affected residents gut their houses, placing damaged materials on the berms.  At first, this graffiti was placed on trashed appliances to prevent theft and resale, but soon expanded in medium and purpose.  The graffiti done mostly in spray paint (also mud) started to not only be a precaution, but a dialogue of emotions related to the effects of the flood.  Post-flood emotions driving this largely consisted of frustration with the National Weather Service after it predicted a flood crest about five feet less than the actual.  As this developed, catastroffiti was appearing on not just household appliances, but also houses, garages, and signs.  In the aftermath of the 1997 Red River Flood, catastroffiti became a method of commentary and coping in the affected areas.

See also
1950 Red River flood
1997 Red River flood in the United States
2009 Red River flood
2011 Red River flood
2022 Red River flood

References

Further reading

External links

Selected Bibliography, Red River of the North Flooding
The Great Flood of 1997—10 Years Later, from Minnesota Public Radio, Retrieved on March 25, 2009
North Dakota State University's Fargo Flood website

Natural disasters in Manitoba
Red River Flood, 1997
Red River Flood, 1997
Red River
Red River Flood, 1997
1990s floods in North America
1997 floods
Red River
Red River
Greater Grand Forks
Natural disasters in Minnesota
Natural disasters in North Dakota
History of Winnipeg
Grand Forks, North Dakota
Red River Flood
Red_River_flood, 1997
Red_River_flood, 1997
Red River floods
1997 in North Dakota
1997 in Minnesota

1997 Red River flood


Talazan Köprüsü, Tokat ili, Niksar ilçesine 15 km mesâfede, Kelkit Çayı üzerindeki bir köprü. Talazan kelime anlamıyla sağlam, güvenilir demektir.

Tarihi
Niksar'ın Buzköy köyünü Erbaa-Reşadiye yoluna bağlayan köy yolunda Kelkit Çayı üzerindedir. Erbaa-Reşadiye yoluna 1,5 km mesafededir. Kitabesi günümüze ulaşamadığından yapım tarihi kesinlik kazanamamakla birlikte, yapı üslubundan ve bazı kaynaklardan 13. yüzyılın ilk yarısında inşa edildiği tahmin edilmektedir.

Tanımlama
Köprü kesme ve moloz taştan yapılmış olup sivri kemerlerden oluşan 8 açıklığı bulunmaktadır. Boyu 147 metre eni 10 metre yüksekliği 9 metredir. Duvar örgüleri arasındaki taş işçiliğinin farklılığından ötürü değişik zamanlarda onarıldığı anlaşılmaktadır. Köprünün ortasındaki en büyük kemer depremlerde yıkıldıktan sonra bu açıklık çelik kirişlerle birleştirilerek kullanılmaya devam edilmiştir. Tescilli tarihi eser statüsünde bulunan köprü 2010 -2012 yılları arasında Karayolları 7. Bölge Müdürlüğünce yürütülen restorasyon çalışması ile eski haline getirilmiş olup koruma altına alınmıştır.

Fotoğraflar

Ayrıca bakınız
 Türkiye'deki köprüler listesi
 Türkiye'deki tarihi köprüler

Kaynakça

Türkiye'deki köprüler
Tokat ilindeki altyapı
Niksar
Tokat ilinde ulaşım

Talazan Köprüsü


Zrakkoplovno jedriličarstvo je grana športskog zrakoplovstva u kojem se natječe letenjem u zrakoplovnoj jedrilici. Osniva se na težnji što duljega zadržavanja jedrilice u zraku i ostvarivanja što veće duljine puta (prelet), apsolutne visine i brzine na zadanoj ruti. Prelet može biti ravnom crtom, neravnom crtom, oko trokuta ili oko višekutnika. Priznanja za športske uspjehe u jedriličarstvu značke su Međunarodnoga zrakoplovnog saveza (francuski: Fédération Aéronautique Internationale). Postoje različite značke, za početnike: A, B i C, te za napredne: srebrno C, zlatno C, zlatno C s 3 dijamanta, klub 1000. Zmačke se dodjeljuju se prema trajanju jedrenja, postignutom preletu i apsolutnoj visini.

Hrvatska
Najveći je uspjeh hrvatskog zrakoplovnog jedriličarstva titula svjetskih prvaka, koju su 1954. osvojili Zvonimir Rain i Božidar Komac u dvosjedu. Jedriličarstvo je pod nadzorom Komisije za zrakoplovno jedriličarstvo, unutar Hrvatskoga zrakoplovnog saveza.

Izvori

Vidi još
 Zračna jedrilica
 Svjetsko prvenstvo u jedriličarstvu

Vanjske poveznice

 Sportsko jedriličarstvo

Zrakoplovno jedriličarstvo
Športsko zrakoplovstvo
Zrakoplovstvo

Zrakoplovno jedriličarstvo


Hrvatska:
 Dubovec, naselje u Republici Hrvatskoj, u sastavu Općine Gornja Stubica, Krapinsko-zagorska županija
 Dubovec Bisaški, naselje u sastavu grada Svetog Ivana Zeline

Slovačka:
 Dubovec (Rimavská Sobota, Slovačka), naselje u okrugu Rimavská Sobota

Dubovec (razdvojba)