Attachment parenting (AP) is a parenting philosophy that proposes methods aiming to promote the attachment of parent and infant not only by maximal parental empathy and responsiveness but also by continuous bodily closeness and touch. The term attachment parenting was coined by the American pediatrician William Sears. There is no conclusive body of research that shows Sears' approach to be superior to "mainstream parenting".

History

Context
Attachment parenting is just one of many responsiveness and love-oriented parenting philosophies that entered the pedagogical mainstream after World War II, and it owes many of its ideas to older teachings, such as Benjamin Spock's influential handbook Baby and Child Care (1946). Spock had mothers advised to raise their infants according to their own common sense and with plenty of physical contact – a guideline that radically broke with the preceding doctrines of L. Emmett Holt and John B. Watson; the book became a bestseller, and Spock's new child-rearing concept greatly influenced the upbringing of the post-war generations.

Thirty years later, Jean Liedloff caused a stir by a "continuum concept" that she presented to the public in a book of the same title (1975). In Venezuela, Liedhoff had studied Ye'kuana people, and later she recommended to Western mothers to nurse and to wear their infants and to share their bed with them. She argued that infants, speaking in terms of evolution, have not arrived in the modernity yet, so that today's way of child care – with bottle feeding, use of cribs and baby carriages, etc. – does not meet their needs. Later, authors such as Sharon Heller and Meredith Small contributed further ethnopediatric insights.

In 1984, developmental psychologist Aletha Solter published her book The Aware Baby about a parenting philosophy that advocates attachment, extended breastfeeding, and abstinence from punishment, similarly to what William Sears later wrote; however, the point that Solter stressed most was an encouragement of the child's emotional expression to heal stress and trauma.

In the 1990s, T. Berry Brazelton invigorated  the discussion. He contributed new research about the capacity of newborn infants to express themselves and their emotions, sensitized parents for these signals, and encouraged them – just like Spock – to follow their own judgment.

Origin
William Sears came upon the term "attachment parenting" in 1982 by reading Liedloff. Initially, he referred to his new philosophy as "the new continuum concept" and "immersion mothering". When he published his book Creative Parenting in 1982, the concept was largely elaborate already. The "7 Baby-Bs" were not explicitly presented as a canon yet, but as basic elements of a new parenting philosophy, they were distinctly clear even at that early point. In 1985, William Sears and his wife Martha Sears began to link the concept – ex post – with attachment theory which they had begun to recognize at that time. From then on, they used the term "attachment parenting".

In 1993, William Sears and Martha Sears published The Baby Book which became the first comprehensive manual for AP-parents and which was occasionally dubbed "the attachment parenting bible". The first attachment parenting organization, Attachment Parenting International, formed in 1994 in Alpharetta, Georgia, and was founded by Lysa Parker and Barbara Nicholson. The first book that carried the term attachment parenting in the title was written by Tammy Frissell-Deppe, a mother who gave an account of her personal experiences and of those of her friends and acquaintances. In 1999, blogger Katie Allison Granju followed with another book, to which William Sears contributed a foreword, before he, together with Martha Sears, published his own work, The Attachment Parenting Book in 2001. All three books stood – with their opposition against a crude behavioristic infant anthropology – in the tradition of Spock, but radicalized the concept of a contingency-oriented parenting on the one hand, and incorporated Liedloff's idea of an instinct-guided resp. "natural" childrearing on the other hand.

In the same year as Sears and Sears' Attachment Parenting Book, Jan Hunt published her essay collection The Natural Child. Parenting from the Heart. Hunt who sees herself as a child advocate, campaigned in this book not only for attachment parenting, but also for unschooling. A more recent AP proponent is parenting advisor Naomi Aldort, who published her book Raising Our Children, Raising Ourselves in 2006.

In practice

Baby Reading
Consistent with the founders of attachment theory, especially Mary Ainsworth, William Sears teaches that a strong mother-child-attachment emerges from contingency, that is, when mother and child are attuned to each other, which in turn is based on the mother's sensitivity. Since the mother "reads" the signals of her infant, Sears speaks in this context of "baby reading". Another metaphor that he uses is "to be in the groove".

The Seven B's
William Sears strongly believes in the existence of child rearing practices that support "baby reading" and that augment maternal sensitivity. The methods of attachment parenting include seven practices/principles that according to Sears form a "synergetic" ensemble and that are based on the child's "biological needs".
Birth bonding
Breastfeeding
Baby wearing
Bedding close to baby
Belief in the language value of your baby's cry
Beware of baby trainers
Balance

Until 1999, Sears named only five Baby Bs. The last two were only added in 2001 with the publication of the Attachment Parenting Book.

Birth bonding

William Sears postulates the existence of a brief time slot immediately after birth during which the newborn is in a "quiet alert state" and particularly accessible for bonding. He refers to this birth bonding as "imprinting" and bases himself on a study by Drs. Marshall Klaus and John Kennell from 1967; however, Klaus and Kennell later modified their original assumptions, including the one cited by Sears. Sears advises women to abstain from analgesics during childbirth, since those drug the child, too, and according to Sears interfere with the birth bonding.

Breastfeeding
William Sears argues that breastfeeding greatly accommodates mother-child-attachment because it triggers the release of oxytocin in the mother which supports her emotional bonding with the child, notably in the first ten days after childbirth. In opposition to bottle feeding which tends to be done in three to four hour intervals. Breastfeeding enables the mother to perceive the child's moods and needs exactly. Since the half-life period of the hormones prolactin and oxytocin (which promote bonding) are very short, Sears recommends to breastfeed very frequently, newborns in particular (8 to 12 times a day). He claims that the hours between 1 am and 6 am are the most beneficial for breastfeeding. In general, Sears argues that breastfeeding is beneficial for the health of both child and mother. He claims that infants up to six months should be exclusively fed with breast milk, since he believes that, at that age, children are allergic to all other foods.

William and Martha Sears advise mothers to breastfeed every child for 1–4 years:

William Sears advocates extended breastfeeding, since he is convinced that breastfeeding supports attachment even of older children and that it is a valid instrument to comfort older children or to bring mother and child together on turbulent days. Neither does he object nighttime breastfeeding of toddlers. As early as in 1992, Norma Jane Bumgarner had campaigned for extended breastfeeding.

Sears' recommendations are in accordance with the WHO guidelines on breastfeeding, which recommend exclusive breastfeeding in the first six months and complementary breastfeeding in the first two years for all countries.

Since breastfeeding studies are, for ethical reasons, never conducted as randomized controlled trials, critics have repeatedly suspected that studies may have produced the superiority of breastfeeding as an artifact. Both the physical, emotional and mental development of children and the preferences of women for a feeding method are strongly determined by socioeconomical factors such as the mother's ethnicity, social class, and education. If researchers go without randomization and turn a blind eye to those possible alternative factors, they fundamentally run a risk to falsely credit the feeding method for effects of socioeconomic factors. A loophole from this problem was first presented by Cynthia G. Colen (Ohio State University), who successfully factored out socioeconomical determinants by comparing siblings only; her study demonstrated that formula fed children showed only minimal differences to their breastfed siblings, insofar as their physical, emotional and mental thriving was concerned.

William Sears' assumptions about the benefit of breastfeeding for the attachment have been studied. In 2006, John R. Britton and a research team (Kaiser Permanente) found that highly sensitive mothers are more likely than less sensitive mothers to breastfeed and to breastfeed over a long time period. However, the study showed no effect of the feeding method on the attachment quality.

Baby wearing

Sears advises mothers to wear infants on the body as many hours during the day as possible, for example in a sling. He argues that this practice makes the child happy and allows the mother to involve the child into everything she does and never to lose sight of the child. He advises working mothers to wear the child at least 4–5 hours every night in order to make good for her absence during the day.

In 1990, a research team from New York revealed in a randomized study that children of lower class mothers who to the age of 13 months spent a lot of time in a child carrier on their mother's body showed significantly more frequently a secure attachment as defined by Ainsworth than the control group children, who spend more time in an infant seat. For middle-class families, an equivalent study doesn't exist yet.

Sears argues furthermore that baby wearing exercises the child's sense of balance; since a child who is worn on the mother's experiences more of her conversations, he believes that baby wearing is also beneficial for the child's language acquisition. However, there are not studies that confirm such effects.

It is undisputed that baby wearing can calm children down. Infants cry the most at the age of six weeks; in 1986, a research team at McGill University showed in a randomized study that infants of that age cried significantly less if their parents wore them a lot on the body during the day. Sears recommends babywearing for the purpose of settling a baby to sleep, too. He approves on the use of a sling up to the age of three, since child wearing can also be used to calm a misbehaving toddler down. Other pediatricians find it disputable to wear children beyond the age of nine months permanently on the body, arguing that this is against the child's natural desire for autonomy.

Co-sleeping

William Sears states that any sleeping arrangement that a family practices is acceptable as long as it works; but he advises mother to sleep close to the child. He thinks of co-sleeping as the ideal arrangement and refers to it as the nighttime equivalent of baby wearing: co-sleeping supports, in his opinion, the mother-child-attachment, makes breastfeeding more convenient, and prevents not only separation anxiety, but also SIDS Sears is convinced that mother and child, in spite of frequent nighttime breastfeeding, have the best sleep when they sleep close together. He is also convinced that due to the extra nighttime feedings, a child that sleeps close to the mother thrives better than a child "crying, alone, behind bars". Moreover, Katie Allison Granju argued that co-sleeping is beneficial for children, too, because it gives children a vivid notion of the concept of bedtime.

The idea of co-sleeping was not new in modern Western societies; as early as in 1976, Tine Thevenin had campaigned for the "family bed". Sears doesn't see a problem when a three-year-old still shares their mother's bed every night. He doesn't even object if a child is in the habit of spending the whole night with her mother's nipple in her mouth, except when the mother really feels uncomfortable. Sears advises working mothers to co-sleep on all accounts in order to compensate the child for her daytime absence.

Sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS) occurs with an incidence of roughly 33 per 100,000 live births. James J. McKenna studied five pairs of co-sleeping mothers and infants and found them to synchronize nighttime arousals. With the study, he raised the questions of 1) whether there's a relationship between these synchronized nighttime waking and breathing stability and 2) whether this could be related to some forms of SIDS. Studies that investigate SIDS directly have shown that co-sleeping raises the SIDS risk instead of lowering it. Things that increase the risk of SIDS include: 1) when the infant is younger than four months, 2) the parents were especially tired, 3) the parents consumed alcohol, 4) parents were smokers, 5) slept on a sofa, or 6) the baby was in a duvet. Even in the absence of these risk factors, studies have still shown there to be an increased risk of SIDS when bed sharing. The U.S. Consumer Product Safety Commission also warns against co-sleeping. Attachment Parenting International issued a response which stated that the data referenced in the Consumer Product Safety Commission statement were unreliable, and that co-sponsors of the campaign had created a conflict of interest. The American Academy of Pediatrics' policy on SIDS prevention opposes bed-sharing with infants, although room-sharing is encouraged.

In general, research doesn't confirm an advantage of co-sleeping over separate beds. A meta study from Israel has pointed out in 2000 that sleeping aids such as pacifiers and teddy bears significantly improve the child's sleep, while co-sleeping and frequent nighttime breastfeeding if anything hinder the formation of wholesome sleeping patterns. Co-sleeping mothers breastfeed three times as frequently during the night as mothers who have their bed for themselves. The most important factor for a child to get a good sleep proved to be the mother's emotional accessibility, not her permanent physical closeness.

"Crying is an attachment tool"

William Sears determines crying as the child's pivotal mean of self-expression. Parents are challenged to "read" the crying – which is initially generalized – and to provide the child with empathic feedback in order to help them to differentiate and elaborate the repertoire of  their signals gradually. Furthermore, he recommends prevention of crying: parents are advised not only to practice breastfeeding, baby wearing and co-sleeping as much as possible, but also to get into the habit of properly responding to the early warning signals so that crying doesn't happen in the first place. Likewise, parents must teach their child that some trivial occasions are no cause for alarm at all.

In general, Sears argues that infants should never be left crying because this would harm them. But as early as in 1962, T. Berry Brazelton had shown in a study that a certain amount of crying in young infants does not indicate emotional or physical problems, but is to be considered normal and harmless.

No sleep training
William Sears names two reasons why infants should not undergo sleep training: he believes that infant training hardens the mother emotionally and that children who underwent such training don't sleep better but merely resign and become apathetic, a state that he refers to as "shut down syndrome", although a condition of this name doesn't exist in DSM or ICD. Frissell-Deppe and Granju believe that sleep training is traumatic for children.

Sears argues that advocates of sleep training are professionally incompetent and merely business oriented, and that there is no scientific proof that sleep training is beneficial for children.

Balance
For parents and particularly for mothers, attachment parenting is more strenuous and demanding
than most other present-day ways of parenting, placing high responsibility on them without allowing for a support network of helpful friends or family. William Sears is fully aware of the arduousness of the methods. He suggests a whole package of measures that aim to prevent an emotional burnout of the mother, like the prioritization and delegation of duties and responsibilities, streamlining of daily routines, and collaboration between both parents. Sears advises mothers to turn to a psychotherapist if necessary, but to stick to attachment parenting at all costs.

Sears finds the burden of attachment parenting just and reasonable, and describes the opponents of this philosophy as "authoritarian males ... caught up in their role of advice giver". Granju, too, takes a swipe at "the male dominated 'scientific' childcare guidance". She argues that the low reputation that breastfeeding, namely extended breastfeeding in the Western world has, arises from a sexualization of the female breast: from the perspective of a sexist society, the breast "belongs" to men, not to children. Mayim Bialik, too, considers attachment a feminist option, since it constitutes an alternative to the – male dominated – superiority of physicians who traditionally shaped the spheres of pregnancy, childbirth, and motherhood.

Since attachment parenting poses a considerable challenge to the reconcilability of motherhood and female career, the philosophy has been greatly criticized, most notably in the context of the attachment parenting controversy from 2012.

Parental authority
Sears states that in attachment families, parents and children practice a highly developed and sophisticated type of communication that makes it unnecessary for parents to use practices such as scolding; often, all it takes is a mere frown. He is convinced that children who trust their parents are cooperative and don't resist parental guidance. He therefore recommends positive discipline. But in contrast to many AP parents, he isn't fundamentally opposed to confrontative methods (firm, corrective response), and he gives high significance to child obedience and conscience. Sears is a decided advocate for authoritative parenting.

As studies have shown, it is indeed possible to use discipline strategies that are sensitive and, therefore, one should not equate discipline and insensitive caregiving.

In theory

Claim
Like Benjamin Spock before them, William and Martha Sears consider their parenting philosophy as a common sense and instinct-guided ad hoc way of parenting. In contrast to Spock who derived his ideas in a straight line from Freud's psychoanalysis, the Searses in fact didn't start out from a theory; even the tie to attachment theory was only engineered ex post, when the philosophy was already largely complete. Apart from Liedloff's rather eclectic thoughts, they came to their ideas mainly from their own personal impressions:

Despite the lack of a consistent theory, William and Martha Sears consider attachment parenting scientifically proven:

Their belief in such scientific proof doesn't hinder the Searses to advise AP parents not to engage in discussions with AP critics. They also favor some science while they refuse other:

Fundamental terms and criticism
Critics consider a lack of a consistent theoretical foundation – notably the lack of precise definitions of the fundamental terms – a shortcoming of the attachment parenting concept.

Sensitivity

The concept of mutual emotional fine-tuning has been known in psychology since Franz Mesmer, who introduced it under the term "rapport", before Freud adopted it for psychoanalysis. In relation to the mother-child-tie, behaviorists and developmental psychologists rather speak of "contingency" today; Daniel Stern coined the term "attunement", too.

For Williams Sears, attachment parenting is a kind of parenting that is radically characterized by maternal responsivity. For that, he adopted Mary Ainsworth's term of "maternal sensitivity": The woman directs her attention completely on the child ("babyreading") and responds continuously to every signal that the child sends; the result is a state of harmony between mother and child that leads to mutual attachment. Sears believes that the maternal "tuning-in" begins during pregnancy already.

Attachment
Within the framework of infant cognitive development studies, the child's attachment to the parents has been well researched. We know that attachments and parental love and care are vitally important. Back in 1958, Harry Harlow demonstrated that baby monkeys would choose comfort and affection over food. As early as in the late 1940s, Donald Winnicott gave a detailed account of the development of the child's attachment; at the latest after the sixth month, healthy children begin to disengage from the mother-child symbiosis quite normally. However, it was Margaret Mahler who gave the most accurate description of the attachment development during the first three years. William Sears' publications reveal no knowledge of this relevant literature.

Sears' use of the term "attachment" is merely colloquial. He applies it synonymously with terms like trust, harmony, closeness, bonding, love bonds, and connection: "Attachment describes the whole caregiving relationship between mother or father and baby." He mentions that attachment emerges from contingency, but in his further accounts, he never differentiates between attachment and contingency. The readers must therefore assume that attachment is a deeply vulnerable state that never stabilizes and that requires constant reestablishment through incessant sensitivity.

Later in the book, in contradiction to his own preceding statements, Sears reassures adoptive parents: "Don't worry about the attachment your child may have 'missed' in foster care. Infants are extremely resilient."

Insecure attachment
The establishment of a secure mother-child attachment is the declared and pivotal goal of attachment parenting.

In numerous scientific studies, the normal development of attachment has been well documented. The same applies for deviant or pathological developments. Problematic or disturbed attachment has been described in three contexts:
In extreme and rare conditions, the child may not form an attachment at all and may suffer from reactive attachment disorder. Children who suffer from reactive attachment disorder have often experienced extremely traumatic childhoods with a lot of neglect and abuse. An example of such a case is for children in orphanages in Romania where babies have been known to be left for 18–20 hours by themselves in their cribs. As adults, people with reactive attachment disorder show severe emotional abnormalities and a severely impaired social behavior.
Mary Ainsworth described a type of disorganized attachment that appears, too, mostly in children who suffered child abuse; boys are more frequently affected than girls. Those children show distress, and their mothers reveal an obvious lack of empathy. Disorganized attachment is no mental disturbance in terms of ICD, but a type of behavior that can be observed in the strange situation test only. In "normal" middle-class families, about 15% of all children show a disorganized attachment. In social problem groups, the percentage can be significantly higher.

A third group of problematic attachment is constituted by the types of insecure-avoidant and insecure-ambivalent attachment, both described by Mary Ainsworth, too. Children who are insecurely attached behave in the strange situation test either aloof towards their mothers, or they fluctuate between clinginess and rejection. As Beatrice Beebe (Columbia University) has substantiated in a study in 2010, these children experience from their mothers constantly behavior like under- or overstimulation, intrusiveness, or volatility. Nonetheless, their mothers displayed empathy and were fully able to respond to their children's emotional expressions appropriately; the children showed no signs of emotional distress. Insecure attachment as defined by Ainsworth is very common and applies for example in the U. S. to about one out of three children.

William Sears uses the terms "lesser quality of attachment", "insecure attachment", and "non-attachment" synonymously. His formulations don't reveal which kind of problematic attachment is meant: reactive attachment disorder (ICD), disorganized attachment (Ainsworth) or the two forms of insecure attachment (Ainsworth). Still in 1982, he mentioned "diseases of non-attachment" not referring to the attachment theorists Bowlby and Ainsworth, but to Selma Fraiberg, a psychoanalyst who studied blindly born children in the 1970s. Due to the vague description of problematic attachment, Sears and AP organizations who use his criteria have been reproached to produce a high rate of false positives. The same applies to definitions of attachment therapy, a concept that frequently appears to be partially overlapping with attachment parenting. Attachment parenting supporters have distanced themselves from attachment therapy, notably from its methods, but not from its diagnostic criteria.

Sears offers a discrimination between (good) attachment and (bad) enmeshment, but again without explaining to his readers how exactly they can identify the difference.

There is no conclusive body of research that shows Sears' approach to be superior to "mainstream parenting". In field studies in Uganda, Ainsworth has observed that sometimes even children who spend plenty of time with their mothers and who were breastfed on cue, developed signs of insecure attachment; she concluded that it is not the quantity of mother-child interaction that determines the attachment type, but the quality. It is, therefore, not practices like co-sleeping, babywearing or feeding on cue that Ainsworth identifies as the crucial determinant for a secure attachment, but the maternal sensitivity.

Need

The theoretical starting point of attachment parenting – the idea of contingency – would suggest a concept of the infant as a creature who is essentially defined by their feelings and communication. William Sears, though, defines infants even more essentially by their needs. Need is therefore another basic term; attachment parenting means quintessentially to attend to the child's needs.

As early as in the 1940s, psychologists such as Abraham Maslow shaped detailed models of the human needs; ever since, scientists have made a clear distinction between needs on the one hand and desires on the other hand. In 2000, T. Berry Brazelton, a pioneer in the field of newborn psychology, and child psychiatrist Stanley Greenspan published their book The Irreducible Needs of Children, in which they re-assessed the term for pediatrics. When the Searses published their Attachment Parenting Book one year later, they responded neither to Maslow nor to Brazelton and Greenspan, but used the word need merely in a colloquial sense. Although they stressed that parents must distinguish between needs and desires of children, in particular of older children, they denied their readers a guideline of how to tell needs and desires apart. With a view to infants, they believe that needs and desires are plainly identical. In general, they use both terms synonymously. With a view to toddlers, they often phrase it: a child is not ready yet (to do without breastfeeding, without co-sleeping, etc.); but even in contexts like these, they speak of needs, too.

Opponents of attachment parenting have questioned that the behavior of a 3½ year old who still demands to nurse can actually be classified as a need. Most likely the child is seeking consolation. To give a child comfort is an important parental responsibility; but parents are just as well liable to teach their child to take heart by their own power.

Stress

Stress has been surveyed and documented in many studies. The theoretical foundation was created in the 1960s by Richard Lazarus. In 1974, Hans Selye introduced the differentiation between distress and eustress, and in 1984, psychoanalyst Heinz Kohut proposed the concept of optimal frustration; Kohut postulated that the harmony between parents and child needs some well allotted disruption in order to empower the child to develop a healthy personality. In resilience psychology, too, there is broad agreement today that it harms children if their parents keep any stress away from them indiscriminately; by doing so, they suggest to the child that everyday problems are painful and overall to be avoided.

Even though stress is one of the fundamental terms of attachment parenting, William Sears' publications don't reveal acquaintance with pertinent literature about this topic. Sears links stress and distress with the release of cortisol, but uses both terms synonymously and in a purely colloquial sense. He refers the term to any uncomfortable or frustrating state which makes the child cry – a signal which AP mothers are supposed to carefully attend to since stress sickens the child. On the other hand, Sears advises mothers not to overreact and to teach the child imperturbation ("Caribbean approach"). He leaves it up to the parents to decide which type of response individual situations ask for.

For parenting, any fuzziness of the term stress as well as of the term need have far-reaching consequences. If it is assumed that any crying of the child indicates harmful stress and that any of his demands indicate a true need, parents are bound to confuse rapport, sensitivity, responsivity, emotional availability, and wise protection with behaviors that, from an educational standpoint, are highly dysfunctional and that William Sears mostly wouldn't agree with himself:

with anxious continuous monitoring of the child
with over-parenting, that is the continuous removal of such problems which the child could actually cope with herself
with continuous micromanagement of the child's moods, aimed to keep the child happy around the clock; indeed, William Sears considers happiness "the end result and the bottom line of child-rearing".

Instinct and nature

Instinct is another basic term of attachment parenting. The Searses describe attachment parenting as the natural, biological, intuitive and spontaneous behavior of mothers who rely on their instincts, sixth sense, inner wisdom or common sense. They attribute even motherliness itself to instincts, whereas they attest men a reduced instinct for children's needs.

Instinct theory developed in the 1930s within the framework of ethology. It owes its basic ideas to William McDougall among others, and its elaboration mainly to Konrad Lorenz and Nikolaas Tinbergen. Lorenz believed that instincts are physiological processes and assumed they could be described as neuronal circuitry in the brain. But already Arnold Gehlen had disputed that humans still have much instinct at their disposal; for him, plasticity and learning aptitude outranked instinct. In today's research, the term instinct is regarded as obsolete. Recent studies have demonstrated that motherly behavior is not inbred but biologically and socially determined. It is partly triggered by oxytocin, partly learned.

William Sears' writings show no knowledge of this current state of research. The Searses use the word instinct in a purely colloquial sense and synonymous with terms like hormonal and natural; as an antipole of instinct and nature, they identify the things that "childcare advisors" say.

William Sears, who owes his formative impressions to Jean Liefloff, points to mammals, primates, "other", "primitive", and "traditional cultures", namely on Bali and in Zambia. Developmental psychologist Heidi Keller who comparatively researched the mother-child relationship in a large bandwidth of cultures, disputes that attachment parenting can be described as a return to a "natural motherliness", like many supporters advertise it. Keller doesn't rank attachment parenting as a counteragent to the high-tech world but asserts that it "paradoxically fits optimally into a society of individualists and lone warriors how we experience it in the Western world". Many of the methods that the representatives of attachment parenting attribute to the evolutionary history of life don't actually play the major role in non-western cultures that is attributed to them. In Cameroon for example, children are actually carried in a sling initially, but then have to learn to sit and to walk much earlier than European and North American children; rather than to cultivate affectionate eye contact, mothers blow into their children's face in order to get them out of the habit of making eye contact.

Even in the United States, there are minority groups which can be classified as highly "traditional", none of them practicing attachment parenting. Amish mothers for example co-sleep with their infants, but only for the first several months; they never let their infants and toddlers out of view, but they don't wear them while they are working. From very early on, Amish children are raised to serve God, family, and community rather than to express their own needs. The infants of orthodox Jews traditionally sleep in cradles. In communities where there is no eruv, Jewish parents are not allowed to carry their children about on Shabbat. Native Americans traditionally used cradleboards which could be worn, but which involved minimal physical touch of mother and child.

Optimal development of the child
As Suzanne M. Cox (Northwestern University) has pointed out, neither attachment theory nor attachment parenting offer a general outline of the optimal development of the child, which could be used to empirically measure the efficacy of attachment parenting. The Searses promise parenting results such as increased independence, confidence, health, physical growth, improved development of the motor and language skills, good manners, conscientiousness, social competence, sense of justice, altruism, sensitivity, empathy, concentration, self-control, and intelligence. However, there is no conclusive evidence from empirical research that supports such claims.

The ultimate target of child rearing is, according to Sears, happiness. Similar to the German catholic Albert Wunsch, Sears therefore ranks among those parenting advisors whose philosophies reflect stray aspects of their religious beliefs, but result in a purely worldly target. In the year of the publication of the Attachment Parenting Book, Wendy Mogel, by contrast, suggested her own very influential concept of character education that was straightforwardly based on her Jewish faith (The Blessings of a Skinned Knee, 2001).

Distribution and acceptance

Attachment parenting is particularly popular among educated urban women in Western countries, who are interested in ecological and social issues.

In the United States, parenting tips of well-known people like the actresses Mayim Bialik and Alicia Silverstone contributed to the popularity of the philosophy. Many North American Women are organized in support groups of Attachment Parenting International (API), the movement's umbrella organization, in which Martha Sears serves as a board member. In Canada, there are further AP organizations such as the Attachment Parenting Canada Association (Calgary); even some public health organizations promote attachment parenting. William Sears has close ties to the international La Leche League (LLL) which feature him as a conference speaker and published several of his books. In LLL groups, many mothers get in touch with attachment parenting for the first time. There are also attachment parenting organizations in Australia and in New Zealand.

In Europe, Attachment Parenting Europe (APEU, in Lelystad, Netherlands) campaigns for attachment parenting; in the Dutch language the philosophy is referred to as natuurlijk ouderschap ("natural parenthood"). This organization keeps liaisons to representatives in Belgium, Denmark, Germany, Ireland, Italy, Norway, the United Kingdom, and Switzerland. In 2012, there were 30 AP groups in England and Wales.

In Germany, there are independent AP institutions in several cities. Hamburg, the movement's central point in Germany, hosted a first Attachment Parenting Congress in 2014, under the patronage of Federal Minister of Family Affairs, Manuela Schwesig. A second one has been announced for 2016.

In Austria and Switzerland there exist a small number of AP institutions, too. In Sweden, fantasy and science fiction writer Jorun Modén solicits attachment parenting, which she refers to as nära föräldraskap ("proximal parenthood"). In France where the philosophy is dubbed as maternage intensif or maternage proximal, the movement has virtually no followers; due to the success of the Napoleonic education reforms, the French traditionally have a deeply rooted belief that educated child care specialists educate children at least as well as mothers do.

Controversy
Since 2012, there has been a controversy about Sears' positions which has been mostly carried out in the English-speaking world.

It began in 2012 with a cover picture on Time magazine that showed a Californian mother breastfeeding her almost 4-year-old. In the accompanying article "The Man Who Remade Motherhood", journalist Kate Pickert argued that even if William Sears' positions are much less radical than those of his followers, they are misogynistic and give mothers a chronically guilty conscience, and that they frequently disagree with relevant research results. The cover picture and article became the starting point of agitated disputes in many media.

At the same time, attachment parenting attracted attention of sociologists like Ellie Lee, Charlotte Faircloth, Jan Macvarish, and Frank Furedi who described the phenomenon an example of 21st century "Parental Determinism". As early as in 1996, sociologist Sharon Hays had described the sociocultural phenomenon of an "Intensive Mothering"; with attachment parenting, this phenomenon finally became tangible and recognizable. In 2004, media critic Susan J. Douglas and philosopher Meredith W. Michaels followed with their account of a "New Momism".

Time cover picture and article
The Time magazine cover picture and article were published May 21, 2012. Pickert described how parents who follow Sears tend to take opinions that are much more radical than Sears himself. Nevertheless, many parents catch from Sears' books an outlook that Pickert jestingly describes as a "post-traumatic Sears disorder": a severe sense of insufficiency that seems to appear in particular in such mothers who want to follow Sears' advice, for the sake of their children's mental health, but cannot, e.g. because they can't afford to be stay-at-home-moms.

"Parental tribalism"
Katha Pollitt referred to attachment parenting as a fad. Parents who follow the philosophy have been reproached as acting according to their own helplessness and unsatisfied emotional neediness which may be the true reasons for their decision to incessantly pacify their child by breastfeeding and babywearing even into toddlerhood, as the belief that the child actually needs all that permanent intimacy for their healthy development is only a subterfuge. Emma Jenner argued that parents who are in the habit of stereotypically attending to each of the child's signals with physical proximity will not learn to perceive the child's needs in the full extent of their bandwidth and complexity.

Katie Allison Granju, who advocates attachment parenting and who published comprehensive guidelines for AP parents, offers a different perspective. She characterizes attachment parenting as not just a parenting style, but "a completely fulfilling way of life".

Sociologist Jan Macvarish (University of Kent), a pioneer in the recent field of parenting culture study, described how AP parents utilize their parenting philosophy as a strategy of individualization, as a way to find personal identity and to join a group of congenial adults. Macvarish even speaks of "parental tribalism". According to Macvarish, it is characteristic for such choices that they are much more angled towards the parents' self-perception than towards the child's needs. Sociologist Charlotte Faircloth, too, considers attachment parenting a strategy that women pursue in order to gain and to express personal identity.

Child-rearing and lifestyle preferences of AP parents
Multiple authors have stated that many parents choose attachment parenting as part of an individualization strategy and as a statement of personal identity and of social affiliation. This assumption is supported by the observation that most AP parents show further distinctive parenting and life style preferences that are based on a particular set of attitudes (notably: a striving for naturalness), which, however, are mostly not directly tied to the declared goal of attachment parenting:
"gentle" childbirth, "natural" childbirth, home birth;
use of homemade toddler food from organic ingredients, veganism, paleolithic diet;
 use of washable cloth diapers, elimination communication;
 "gentle discipline", "positive discipline", non-confrontative parenting;
 naturopathy, holistic health, homeopathy, and decline of vaccination. William Sears' son Robert Sears published a Vaccine Book in 2007 which fueled the vaccine skepticism among parents, and in some AP groups, parents are explicitly asked not to have their children vaccinated. Vaccine skepticism is not universal among AP groups, however.

Some practices and preferences of AP parents are prevalent only in North America:
 decline of infant circumcision (in Europe, infant circumcision is relatively rare).
 naturism.
 homeschooling or unschooling (in Europe, the legality of homeschooling depends on the specific country).

The Sears encourage some of these practices explicitly, for example non-smoking, healthy and home-prepared food, no circumcision, but don't comment on how they are supposed to be linked to the core ideas of attachment parenting. Only in the case of positive discipline, the link is quite obvious.

Feminist perspective
In his Complete Book of Christian Parenting and Child Care (1997), William Sears opposes maternal occupation, because he is convinced that it harms the child:

Any form of intensive, obsessive mothering has, as Katha Pollitt stated, devastating consequences for the equality of treatment of women in the society. In France, Élisabeth Badinter argued that over-parenting, obsession with washable diapers and organic, home made infant food, and parenting practices as the ones recommended by Sears, with breastfeeding into toddlerhood, bring women inevitably back into outdated patterns of gender role. In the United States, Badinter's book The Conflict: How Modern Motherhood Undermines the Status of Women (2010) had a partially critical reception, because there is no publicly paid childcare leave in this country, and many women consider it a luxury to be able to be a stay-at-home-mom during the child's first years. Still, gynecologist Amy Tuteur (formerly Harvard Medical School) stated that attachment parenting amounts to a new subjection of the woman's body under social control – a trend that is more than questionable in the face to the hard-fought achievements of women's movement.

As Erica Jong observed, the rise of attachment parenting followed a surge of glamourized motherhood of popular stars (Angelina Jolie, Madonna, Gisele Bündchen) in the mass media. She stated that the effort to model exceptional children under sacrifice of the parent's own well-being transformed motherhood into a "highly competitive race"; all attempts of women to radically monopolize their parental responsibilities very much accommodate right-wing politics.

A "culture of total motherhood"
In her 2005 book Perfect Madness. Motherhood in the Age of Anxiety, Judith Warner, too, described how attachment parenting has taken a strong influence on mainstream parenting and how it has established a "culture of total motherhood"; due to these cultural changes, mothers are convinced today that they have to instantly attend to every need of their children in order to protect them from the risk of lifelong abandonment issues. As early as in 1996, sociologist Sharon Hays wrote about a newly formed "ideology of intensive mothering". Characteristic of this ideology is the tendency to impose parenting responsibility primarily on mothers and to favor a kind of parenting that is child-centered, expert-guided, emotionally absorbing, labor, and financially intensive. Hays saw the motives for the overloading of motherhood in the idealistic endeavor to cure an overly egoistical and competitive society through a counterbalancing principle of altruistic motherliness. But according to Hays, any kind of "intensive motherhood" that systematically privileges children's needs over mothers' needs happens without fail to the economical and personal disadvantage of mothers.

In 2014, a team of researchers at the University of Mary Washington showed in a study that mothers endorsing the belief that parenting is challenging (e.g. "It is harder to be a good mother than to be a corporate executive"), which is associated with intensive motherhood, have statistically more signs of depression

Fathers in attachment parenting
Sears has taken an adamant stance against fathers being primary caregivers in attachment parenting. On his website, he claims that fathers should "help" by supporting mothers and creating an environment which allows the mother to devote herself to the baby. Sears has claimed infants have a natural preference for a mother in the early years; although, little scientific literature actually supports this conjecture since these studies are typically done in situations where the mother is the primary caregiver and not the father. It is biased to say that infants have a "natural" preference for the mother when their mother is the one who is their primary caregiver; a more correct statement would be that infants have an attachment preference for the parent who is their primary caregiver. Studies have found that between 5 and 20% of children actually have a primary attachment with their father.

One specific caregiving activity in which Sears claims fathers should be supportive rather than primary is feeding. Breastfeeding includes nutritional benefits which are undeniable, but the main reason breastfeeding is promoted in attachment parenting is for the mother-child bonding through skin to skin contact and intimacy; however, the benefits of skin to skin contact and intimacy are still present for fathers. Dr. Sigmund Freud theorized that infants tend to prefer mothers since it is the mother who fulfills the infant's oral needs; however, if the father is fulfilling this need, it would be reasonable to assume that attachment would form with the father. Through what is called "bottle nursing", fathers and other caregivers who cannot breastfeed hold the infant touching their bare torso and feed gently and intimately, focusing their attention on the baby.

Other common mother-child AP practices, such as bonding after birth and co-sleeping, may also be equally beneficial for fathers.

Notes

References

Further reading

Sears, Martha; Sears, William (1997).  Complete Book of Christian Parenting and Child Care: A Medical and Moral Guide to Raising Happy Healthy Children
The Benefits of Attachment Parenting for Infants and Children: A Behavioral Developmental View

External links

Attachment theory
Breastfeeding
Parenting

Attachment parenting


බාබඩෝස් කැරිබියන් මුහුදේ නැගෙනහිර ප්‍රදේශයේ පිහිටා ඇත. එය බටහිර ඉන්දියානු මහාද්වීපික දූපත් වන අතර බටහිර අත්ලාන්තික් සාගරයේ පිහිටා ඇත. 1942 ස්පාඤ්ඤය සතු වුවත් හා පසුව පෘතුගාලයෙත්, බාබඩෝස්, එක්සත් රාජධානියේත් පාලනයට නතුවු වාස භූමියක් සේ ශතවර්ෂ 03ක් පැවතුණි. වර්තමානයේ 2 වැනි එළිසබෙත් රැජින රට පාලනය කරයි. සමකයට උතුරින්  අංශක 13 හා මූලික මධ්‍යයනය රේඛාවට  අංශක 59 පිහිටා ඇත. එය ලෙසර් ඇන්ටිලස් හි කොටසක් ලෙස සඳහන් කර ඇත. එහි ළඟම දූපත් වන්නේ මාර්ටින්ක්ස්, සේන්ට් ලුසියා, සෙන්ට් වින්ස්න්ට් සහ බටහිර ගෙරනඩීන්ස් වේ. දකුණට වන්නට ට්‍රිනිඩෑඩ් හා ට්‍රබෑගෝදුපත් පිහිටයි. වර්තමානයේ බාබඩෝස් නිල වශයෙන් නාවික දේශ සීමා පවත්වන දකුණු ඇමරිකානු භූමියකි.  බාබඩෝස්හි බිම් ප්‍රමාණය වර්ග කිලෝමීටර් 430 (166 වර්ග සැතැක්ම) හා මූලිකව පහත් මට්ටමක පවතින අතර රට අභ්‍යන්තරයේ සමහර ස්ථාන උස්ව පවතී. බාබඩෝස්හි උසම ස්ථානය වන්නේ හිලබි කන්දයි(340 මීටර්). එය සෙන්ට්ඇන්ඩෲ හි පිහිටා ඇත.

බාබේඩොස්


العَصَب الوَجْهِيّ أو  السابع  هو أحد الأعصاب قحفية المزدوجة الاثنى عشر. و يتحكم في العضلات الخاصة بتعابير الوجه و ثلثي الجزء الداخلي من اللسان المتعلق بعملية التذوق وتجويف الفم. ويوفر أيضًا ألياف سابقة للعقدة العصبية بالجهاز الجارسمبثاوي للعديد من العقد العصبية في الرأس والرقبة.  يُغادر العصب الوجهي القحف عبر الثقبة الإبرية الخشائية ثم يمر داخل الغدة النكفية، وينقسم فيها عادةً إلى جذعين علوي وسفلي. يسيران ضمن مادة الغدة النكفية، حيث قد يتواجد المزيد من التفرعات والتفاغرات بين الأعصاب.

توجد خمس مجموعات انتهائية من فروع العصب الوجهي الفروع الصدغية والوجنية والشدقية والهامشية الفكّية السفلية والرقبية تنبثق من الحافّة العلوية والأمامية والسفلية للغدة النكفية.

المسار
الجزء الحركي للعصب الوجهي ينشأ من نواة العصب الوجهي في جسر المخ في حين ان الجزء الحسي للعصب الوجهي ينبع من العصب المتوسط.

الجزء الحركي والجزءالحسي من العصب الوجهي يدخلان الجزء الصخري من العظم الصدغي ثم إلى الفتحة السمعية الداخلية(وثيقا بالقرب من الأذن الداخلية) ثم يمتد في مسار متعرج (يتضمن تحولين ضيقين) من خلال قناة الوجه، ويخرج من الثقبة الإبرية الخشائية ويمر عبر الغدة النكفية، حيث ينقسم إلى خمسة فروع رئيسية. وعلى الرغم من انه يمر عبر الغدة النكفية، فإنه لا يغذيها عصبيا. هذا العمل هو من مسؤولية العصب القحفي التاسع، العصب البلعومي اللساني.

العصب الوجهي يشكل العقدة الركبية قبل دخول القناة الوجه.

الفروع
 العصب الصخري الأكبر - يوفر امداد عصبي جارسمبثاوي للغدة الدمعية، الجيب الوتدي، الجيب الجبهي، جيب الفك العلوي، الجيب الغربالي، تجويف الأنف، وكذلك ألياف حسية خاصة إلى الحنك عبر عصب فيديوس.
 عصب الركابية - يوفرامداد عصبي حركي للعضلة الركابية في الأذن الوسطى
 حبل طبلة الأذن - يوفرامداد عصبي جارسمبثاوي إلى الغدة تحت الفك والغدة تحت اللسان وألياف تذوق حسية خاصة للثلثين الاماميين من اللسان.

داخل القناة الوجهية
 عصب صخري كبير - ينقل التعصيب السمبتاوي إلى الغدة الدمعية، كما يصل ألياف التذوق الحسّية الخاصة إلى الحنك عبر .
 العصب الواصل للعظم الركابي - بوفر التعصيب المحرّك لعضلة العظم الركابي في الأذن الوسطى.
 حبل الطبل - يوفر التعصيب السمبتاوي للغدة تحت الفك السفلي والغدة تحت اللسان وألياف التذوق الحسية الخاصة لثلثي اللسان من الناحية الأمامية.

خارج الجمجمة
(بعيدا عن الثقبة الإبرية الخشائية)
 العصب السمعي الخلفي—يتحكم في حركات بعض عضلات فروة الرأس الموجودة حول الأذن
 فرع للبطن الخلفي للعضلة ذات البطنين والعضلة الإبرية اللامية
 خمسة فروع وجهية رئيسية (في الغدة النكفية) -- من أعلى إلى أسفل :
 الفرع الصدغي(الأمامي) من العصب الوجهي
 الفرع الوجني من العصب الوجهي
 الفرع الشدقي من العصب الوجهي
 الفرع الفكي الهامشي من العصب الوجهي
 الفرع العنقي من العصب الوجهي

في المرحلة الجنينية
العصب الوجهي ينشأ من القوس اللامي (القوس البلعومي الخيشومي الثاني)

الوظيفة

الصادر
وتتمثل مهمته الرئيسية في التحكم الحركي بمعظم عضلات التعبير الوجهي. وأيضا يوفر امداد عصبي للبطن الخلفي من العضلة ذات البطنين والعضلة الإبرية اللامية والعضلة الركابية للأذن الوسطى. كل هذه العضلات هي عضلات مخططة من أصل قسيمي خيشومي ينمو من القوس البلعومي الثاني.

العصب الوجهي أيضا يوفرألياف جارسمبثاوية إلى الغدة تحت الفك والغدة تحت اللسان عبر حبل طبلة الأذن. الامداد العصبي الجارسمبثاوي يعمل على زيادة تدفق اللعاب من هذه الغدد. ويوفر أيضا امداد عصبي جارسمبثاوي إلى الغشاء المخاطي للأنف والغدة الدمعية عبر العقدة الجناحية الحنكية.

العصب الوجهي أيضا يعمل كطرف صادر لمنعكس القرنية ومنعكس الرَمش

الوارد
وبالإضافة إلى أنه يتلقى أحاسيس التذوق من الثلثين الأماميين من اللسان، ويرسلها إلى الجزء التذوقي من النواة الانفرادية. يقوم أيضا العصب الوجهي بتزويد البلعوم الفموي تحت اللوزة الحنكية بكمية صغيرة من الامداد العصبي الصادر. وهناك أيضا كمية صغيرة من الإحساس الجلدي يحملها العصب المتوسط من الجلد في صوان الأذن (شحمة الأذن) وحوله.

موقع أجسام الخلية
أجسام الخلية للعصب الوجهي تتجمع في مناطق تشريحية تسمى النواة أو العقدة العصبية. أجسام الخلية للأعصاب الواردة توجد في العقدة العصبية الركبية لكل من الذوق والإحساس العام الصادر. أجسام الخلايا للأعصاب العضلية الصادرة توجد في النواة الوجهية الحركية في حين أن أجسام الخلية للأعصاب الجارسمبثاوية الصادرة توجد في النواة اللعابية العليا.

الأهمية السريرية
الناس قد يعانون من شلل العصب الوجهي الحاد، الذي يتجلى عادة في شلل في الوجه.
شلل بيل (شلل الوجه النصفي) هو أحد أنواع شلل العصب الوجهي الحاد المجهول السبب، ويوصف بشكل أدق بأنه الإتهاب المتعدد للعقد العصبية للعصب القحفي والذي يشمل العصب الوجهي، وعلى الأرجح ينتج عن عدوى فيروسية وأيضا في بعض الأحيان نتيجة لمرض لايم. شلل بيل يمكن أن ينتج عن خطأ طبي كوضع مخدر الأسنان الموضعي بموضع غير صحيح (شلل العصب السنخي السفلي). وعلى الرغم من أنه يعطي مظهر جلطة الشلل النصفي، فأن أثاره تتبدد مع استخدام الدواء.

اختبار العصب الوجهي
حركات الوجه الإرادية مثل تجعيد الحاجب، وإظهار الأسنان، والتقطيب، وإغماض العينين بإحكام (عدم القدرة على القيام بذلك يسمى لاجوفثالموس)
،و زم الشفاه ونفخ الخدين، كلها تختبر العصب الوجهي. ينبغي ألا يكون هناك عدم تناسق ملحوظ.

في أحد أنواع اصابة الأعصاب الحركية العلوية يسمى السبع المركزية، فقط الجزء السفلي من الوجه على الجانب المقابل سوف يتأثر، وذلك بسبب وجود سيطرة ثنائية على عضلات الوجه العليا (العضلة الجبهية والعضلة الدويرية العينية).

إصابات الأعصاب الحركية السفلية يمكن أن تؤدي إلى شلل في العصب القحفي السابع (شلل بيل هو المصطلح المستخدم لوصف شلل العصب الوجهي المجهول السبب)، والذي يتبدى في ضعف في كل من الجزء العلوي والسفلي للوجه على نفس جهة الإصابة.

ويمكن اختبار التذوق على الثلثين الأماميين من اللسان. يتم ذلك باستخدام مسحة غُمست في محلول منكه، أو مع التحفيز الإلكتروني (على غرار وضع لسانك على بطارية).

منعكس القرنية. القوس الوارد يتم بواسطة واردات حسية عامة من العصب ثلاثي التوائم. القوس الصادر يتم عن طريق العصب الوجهي. وينطوي رد الفعل على رَمش كلتا العينين لاإراديا ردا على تحفيز عين واحدة. هذا بسبب أن الامداد العصبي من العصب الوجهي لعضلات التعبير الوجهي، أي العضلة الدويرية العينية، مسؤول عن الرَِمش. وبالتاي، فإن منعكس القرنية يختبر على نحو فعال حسن سير كل من العصب القحفي الخامس والعصب القحفي السابع.

صور إضافية

المراجع

وصلات خارجية

 موضع العصب الوجهي في التصوير بالرنين المغناطيسي
 WUSTL -- خريطة

عصب وجهي
تعصيب الوجه
أعصاب قحفية
تشريح فم الإنسان
جهاز التذوق
الجهاز الحركي
جهاز عصبي ذاتي
مقالات تتضمن نصوصا من الطبعة العشرين لكتاب تشريح جرايز (1918)

عصب وجهي


Oscilator je elektronički sklop za stvaranje titraja stalne amplitude. Frekvencija titraja najviše ovisi o vrijednosti ugrađenih električnih zavojnica, električnih kondenzatora i električnih otpornika. Različite vrste oscilatora grade se za pojedine frekvencije, od najnižih (dijelovi herca) do najviših (do 30 GHz i više). U sklopovima oscilatora primjenjuju se pojačala s pozitivnom povratnom vezom ili pak element s negativnim dinamičkim otporom.

Zatvoreni električni titrajni krug

Priključimo paralelno na izvor istosmjerne struje električnu zavojnicu L i električni kondenzator C. Uzmimo na primjer zavojnicu od 1000 zavoja i bateriju kondenzatora od 15 μF. Izvor istosmjerne struje neka ima napon od 100 do 200 V. Najprije nabijemo kondenzator, a zatim ga izbijemo tako da otvorimo prekidač. Kondenzator će se izbijati preko zavojnice L. Za vrijeme izbijanja vidjet ćemo da kazaljka miliampermetra titra i to tako da je prvi titraj najveći, a ostali sve manji. Iz toga izlazi da električni krug, koji se sastoji od kondenzatora C i zavojnice L, može izvoditi električne titraje ako mu dovedemo električnu energiju, a onda ga prepustimo samom sebi. Ovakav električni krug, koji se sastoji od izvora struje, kondenzatora i zavojnice u paralelnom spoju, zove se zatvoreni titrajni ili oscilatorni krug.

Kad titrajni krug priključimo preko prekidača na izvor istosmjerne struje, na primjer na električni generator, kondenzator C će se nabiti, a među njegovim pločama vladat će električno polje. Kad iskopčamo prekidač, kondenzator se počne prazniti, a električna struja teći kroz zavojnicu u kojoj se javlja magnetsko polje. Nakon potpunog izbijanja kondenzatora električno polje više ne postoji, kao ni razlika potencijala među njegovim pločama. Ali u tom trenutku postoji najjače magnetsko polje, te jakost struje postiže svoju najveću vrijednost. Električna energija kondenzatora pretvorila se, dakle, u magnetsku energiju zavojnice.

Sada struja u zavojnici, koja je stvorila magnetsko polje, postepeno opada, zbog čega nestaje magnetsko polje. Ovo nestajanje magnetskog polja stvara prema Lenzovu zakonu induciranu struju istoga smjera, pa će se kondenzator nabiti u protivnom smjeru. Nakon toga napon između obloga kondenzatora postizava svoju najvišu vrijednost, ali sada u protivnom smjeru, dok je jakost struje pala na nulu. Magnetska energija iz zavojnice pretvorila se u električnu energiju koja je nagomilana u dielektriku kondenzatora.

Nakon toga ponovo nastaje pražnjenje kondenzatora preko zavojnice u protivnom smjeru, pa se električna energija opet pretvara u magnetsku energiju. Napon između obloga kondenzatora padne na nulu, a jakost struje poprima svoju maksimalnu vrijednost u suprotnom smjeru. Ta struja ponovo prouzrokuje nabijanje kondenzatora u istom smjeru, kao što je bilo na samom početku.

Takav se proces nastavlja dalje, te električni naboj kondenzatora u titrajnom krugu neprestano oscilira. Jedanput kondenzator djeluje kao generator, i to za vrijeme izbijanja, a zavojnica kao trošilo, a drugi put je stvar obratna. U času kada je električna energija najveća, magnetska energija je jednaka nuli, i obrnuto. U svim ostalim slučajevima postoji zajedno električna i magnetska energija. Električna i magnetska energija zovu se zajedničkim imenom elektromagnetska energija. Odatle vidimo da su električna i magnetska energija međusobno povezane. Kad jedna nestaje, javlja se druga. Ovo izmjenično pretvaranje električne energije u magnetsku i obrnuto pomoću kondenzatora i zavojnice zovemo električnim oscilacijama.

Kada u oscilatornom krugu ne bi bilo gubitaka, oscilacije bi trajale beskonačno dugo, a njihova amplituda bila bi uvijek ista. To bi bile neprigušene oscilacije. Međutim, za vrijeme oscilacija svako je nabijanje kondenzatora manje od prethodnog, pa se tako električna energija postepeno smanjuje sve dok oscilacije ne prestanu. Takve oscilacije zovemo prigušenim oscilacijama. Glavni uzrok tome prigušivanju je omski otpor električnih vodiča. Što je taj otpor veći, to je prigušivanje veće. Ako je otpor vrlo velik, ne postoje električne oscilacije, već se kondenzator izbija najedanput i više se ne puni. To je aperiodsko izbijanje.

Otvoreni električni titrajni krug

Kod zatvorenog titrajnog kruga skoro je sva energija sakupljena u dielektriku kondenzatora, a magnetska u zavojnici. Udaljuju li se ploče kondenzatora jedna od druge, električne silnice će se produljivati i rasipati. Kada se ploče sasvim udalje, a zavojnica rastegne, zatvoreni titrajni krug poprimit će oblik ispruženog električnog vodiča s pločama kondenzatora na krajevima. Takav ispruženi vodič zove se otvoreni oscilatorni krug.

On ne mora imati na krajevima ploče kondenzatora, već je kapacitet i induktivitet raspoređen uzduž samoga vodiča, a u sredini se napaja iz nekog izvora visoke frekvencije, na primjer preko induktora i iskrišta. Donju žicu možemo čak ispustiti i zamijeniti dobro vodljivom zemljom. U tom se slučaju može električno polje utvrditi i na većim daljinama od oscilatornog kruga, pa kažemo da dolazi do isijavanja ili emisije elektromagnetske energije. Ovakva žica, okomito ispružena, zove se antena.

Izvori

Elektrotehnika

Oscilator (elektrotehnika)


El río das Mortes (que en español, significa «río de las Muertes»), también conocido como el río Manso en su curso alto, es un río de Brasil que discurre íntegramente por el estado de Mato Grosso. Pertenece a la cuenca del Tocantins-Araguaia y es el principal afluente del río Araguaia, al que le da sus aguas por la margen izquierda, y por lo tanto, es también un subafluente del río Tocantins y del río Pará. Tiene una longitud de 850 km y una profundidad mínima de 0,8 m.

Gracias a la pureza de sus aguas, el río das Mortes se convirtió en uno de los mayores atractivos para el ecoturismo en la región.

Origen del nombre

El río debe su nombre de río de las Muertes a los indios xavantes, debido a los intensos combates que tuvieron lugar en sus orillas entre los ellos y los bandeirantes portugueses. (No debe confundirdr con el homónimo río das Mortes que baña el estado de Minas Gerais y es un afluente del río Grande, cuyo principal afluente es el río Carandaí y que desemboca a la altura de São João del-Rei).

Geografía

El río das Mortes nace a menos de cien kilómetros al este de la ciudad de Cuiabá y a un centenar de kilómetros al suroeste de las fuentes del río Xingu. Después de recorrer unos cincuenta kilómetros en dirección noreste, se encamina hacia el este, acercándose a al río Araguaiaen ese tramo es el límite estatal con Goiás. En ese tramo recibe a los ríos Sapé y Cumbuco y luego pasa por el Área Indígena Sangradouro. Alcanza la pequeña localidad de Toricoeije, antes de ser el límite occidental de la Reserva Indígena São Marcos y dirigirse al norte, discurriendo en paralelo al Araguaia. Tras recibir al río Barbosa, sigue por Nova Xavantina, una pequeña ciudad que es la más poblada de todo su curso (19.475 hab. en 2010). Es de nuevo límite del Área Indígena Areoes, un tramo en el que recibe al río Pindaíba. A partir de aquí discurre por un área inundable, pantanosa, en la que recibe a los ríos Mangarura dos Antigos y Caruru, siendo en este tramo nuevamente el límite del Área Indígena Pimentel Barbosa. Emprende su tramo final recibiendo al principal de sus afluentes, el Río São João, y después de una distancia total de unos 800 km, termina desembocando, por la orilla izquierda en el Araguaia, a la altura de la gran isla del Bananal, unos 7 km aguas arriba de São Félix do Araguaia (10.531 hab. en 2010).

El río das Mortes es famoso por la pureza de sus aguas y la alta calidad de su ecosistema, considerándose a veces el tercer río del mundo por su estado natural. Casi el 40% de su curso se lleva a cabo en zonas de reserva ecológica en las que se permite la entrada sólo con la aprobación previa de los organismos brasileños competentes, como la FUNAI o el IBAMA. La pendiente del río das Mortes es baja, el lecho es de arena y la fluctuación del nivel del agua,entre entrante y saliente, es muy importante. Las aguas altas se producen entre diciembre y mayo y el estiaje es máximo en los meses de septiembre u octubre.

Municipios bañados
El río atraviesa los siguientes municipios:

 Campo Verde
 Primavera do Leste
 Novo São Joaquim
 Nova Xavantina
 Cocalinho
 São Félix do Araguaia

Hidrometria

El caudal del río ha sido observado durante 18 años (1969-86) en Santo Antonio do Leverger, una pequeña ciudad localizada a unos 100 km de su confluencia con el río Araguaia. El caudal medio anual y el módulo observado en Santo Antonio durante ese período fue de  para una cuenca de , más del 90% del total de la cuenca del río.

La lámina de agua que fluye en esa parte, la más importante de la cuenca del río, alcanzó los 494 mm/año, que puede considerarse alta, pero en consonancia con los valores observados en la región.

El río das Mortes es curso de agua bastante regular, con un período de estiaje largo, de casi seis meses, de junio a noviembre, lo que corresponde a la estación seca del invierno austral.  El caudal medio mensual de los meses del período de aguas bajas es inferior en cinco veces al caudal medio mensual del período de crecidas (de septiembre:  - febrero: ). En el período de observación de 18 años, el caudal mensual mínimo fue de  (septiembre), mientras que el caudal mensual máximo ascendió a  y fue observado en febrero.

Notas

Los uruguayos Dardo Gutiérrez Fabre y su esposa Norma Serrés estuvieron y filmaron en la zona, escribiendo un libro llamado "Más allá del río Das Mortes" en 1961. En épocas recientes se recuperó una copia de la película documental de 1957 en Buenos Aires, que fue entregada a Uruguay para su Patrimonio Fílmico.

Véase también
 Cuenca del Amazonas
 Río Araguaia
 Isla del Bananal
 Río Tocantins

Enlaces externos

Ríos de Mato Grosso

Río das Mortes


Sax es una estación ferroviaria situada en el municipio español homónimo en la provincia de Alicante, Comunidad Valenciana. Dispone de servicios de Media Distancia.

Situación ferroviaria
La estación se encuentra en el punto kilométrico 407 de la línea férrea de ancho ibérico La Encina-Alicante a 481,48 metros de altitud, entre las estaciones de Villena y de Elda-Petrel. El tramo es de vía única y está electrificado.

Historia

Lo antecedentes de la llegada del ferrocarril a Sax se sitúan en los deseos de conectar Madrid con Alicante tomando como punto de partida la línea Madrid-Aranjuez y su prolongación hasta Albacete vía Alcázar de San Juan por parte de la Compañía del Camino de Hierro de Madrid a Aranjuez que tenía a José de Salamanca como su principal impulsor. El 1 de julio de 1856 José de Salamanca, que se había unido con la familia Rothschild y con la compañía du Chemin de Fer du Grand Central obtuvieron la concesión de la línea Madrid-Zaragoza que unida a la concesión entre Madrid y Alicante daría lugar al nacimiento de la Compañía de los Ferrocarriles de Madrid a Zaragoza y Alicante o MZA. Esta última fue la encargada de inaugurar la estación el 26 de mayo de 1858 con la apertura del tramo Almansa-Alicante. El viaje inaugural fue presidido por Isabel II. A pesar de ello, y según consta en los documentos oficiales de la compañía y en las Memorias de las obras públicas la puesta efectiva en servicio se realizó algo antes, el 15 de marzo de 1858. En 1941 la nacionalización de ferrocarril en España supuso la integración de MZA en la recién creada RENFE.

Desde el 31 de diciembre de 2004 Renfe Operadora explota la línea mientras que Adif es la titular de las instalaciones ferroviarias.

La estación
Se sitúa al noreste del núcleo urbano. El edificio para viajeros es una estructura de base rectangular de dos plantas con pequeños anexos de una planta que albergan los aseos y el antiguo taller de lampistería. Responde así al esquema usado por MZA en el diseño de las estaciones de tercera categoría del presente tramo. La sencillez y sobriedad del diseño solo se ve alterada por tres grandes vanos realizados con arcos de medio punto que sirven de acceso principal al recinto. El resto de los huecos que aparecen en la fachada son adintelados o de arco rebajado. Las siglas de la compañía que vio nacer al edificio todavía son visibles en los frisos situados en los laterales. Por último toda la estructura es cubierta con un sencillo tejado de cuatro aguas. Como es habitual en las estaciones pasantes tiene disposición lateral a las vías.

Servicios ferroviarios

Media Distancia
Los servicios de Media Distancia de Renfe en la estación cubren los siguientes trayectos.

Referencias

Enlaces externos
 Media Distancia Valencia en la web de Renfe.

Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Estaciones de ferrocarril de la Comunidad Valenciana inauguradas en el siglo XIX

Estación de Sax


Patronyme

 Jacob Ettlinger (1798-1871), rabbin allemand ;
 Karl Etlinger (1879-1946), acteur austro-allemand ;
 Yona Ettlinger (1924-1981), clarinettiste allemand qui a joué et enseigné en Israël, en France et en Angleterre.
 Patronyme juif

Ettlinger


Kaoru İkeya adlı Japon bir amatör astronom tarafından bulunmuştur. Bu yıldıza kendi adı verilmiştir.

Güneş çevresinde büyük bir elips veya bir parabol yörüngede dolaşan, Güneş'e yaklaştığında yüzeyinde ortaya çıkan gazların ve tozların oluşturduğu kuyruk denilen ışıklı bir uzantısı olan gök cismine "kuyruklu yıldız" denir.

Kuyrukluyıldızlar çoğunlukla kendilerini keşfedenin (ya da keşfedenlerin) ismini alır. Bir Japon amatör astronomu olan Kaoru Ikeya'nın Temmuz 1964'te keşfettiği, kendi adıyla anılan 1964 VIII Kuyrukulu Yıldız'ı 12 Ağustos tarihinde dünyanın 30.5 milyon km kadar yakınından geçmiş ve aynı ay içinde çıplak gözle gözlenebilecek parlaklığa erişmiştir. 2 Ağustos'ta Güneş'in 118.500.000 km ötesindeki enberi noktasına ulaşan Ikeya Kuyruklu Yıldızı'nın, Mount Palomar Rasathanesi'nin 5,08 m lik teleskobu kulanılarak yapılan tayf gözlemleri sonucunda, Dr. Jesse L. Greenstein ve Dr. Antoni Stawikowski bu Kuyruklu Yıldız üzerinde karbon atomunun ender görülen izotoplarından birinin varlığını ispatlamışlardır. Bu buluş, Güneş'in yakınlarına kadar gelen bu gökyüzü ziyaretçilerinin Güneş Sistemi'mizin ilk dönemlerinde dünya yakınında ve gezegenlerin oluşmasında arta kalan maddelerden ortaya çıktığını, daha sonra Güneş rüzgârının etkisiyle geniş eliptik yörüngelerine savrulduklarını göstermektedir.

Bu değerli incelemeler sayesinde ilk defa bir Kuyruklu Yıldız'da ender rastlanan bir izotop kesin bir şekilde bulunmuş ve yoğunluğu ölçülmüştür. Ikeya Kuyruklu Yıldızı'ndaki C 13 atomonun C 12 atomuna oranının 1'e 70 olarak bulunduğu göz önüne alınırsa bu sayının dünyanınkine oldukça yakın olduğu (1'e 90) hemen farkedbilir. Astronomlar bu izotopun keşfinin Ikeya Kuyruklu Yıldızı'ının alışılmadık parlaklığına dayandırmışlardır.

Başarılı olan pek çok kuyruklu yıldız avcısının bir kuyruklu yıldız keşfedebilmek için ortalama en az 100-300 saat sabırla gözlem yaptığını görürüz. Kaoru Ikeya, 1963 kuruklu yıldızını bulmadan önce 335 saatini harcamıştır. Japon amatör astronomu Kaoru Ikeya, keşfettiği yarım düzine kuyruklu yıldızı gözlerken, kendi yapımı olan 20 cm'lik f/15 bir aynalı teleskoptan yararlanmıştır.

Japon amatör astronomu Kaoru Ikeya'ya göre: "Bir kuyruklu yıldız keşfetmek, ismini gökyüzüne yazdırmaktır".

Galeri

Dış bağlantılar
 NASA JPL Small-Body Database Browser on C/1965 S1-A
 NASA JPL Small-Body Database Browser on C/1965 S1-B

1965'te keşfedilen astronomik cisimler
Japonya'da bilim ve teknoloji
Kuyruklu yıldız

İkeya seki kuyruklu yıldızı


Urocystis anemones est une espèce de champignons (Fungi) de la famille des Urocystidaceae et du genre Urocystis. Ce phytopathogène provoque la maladie du charbon des feuilles de l'anémone, également nommé Charbon de l'anémone sur les feuilles de certaines Anémones.

Description

Les symptômes du charbon des feuilles de l'anémone se présentent sous la forme de sores sur les feuilles, les pétioles et les tiges. Ils présentent des callosités allongées ou des vésicules gonflées de formes et de tailles variées d'abord recouvertes de l'épiderme de la plante et prenant une couleur gris-plomb translucide. Elles finissent par se déchirer irrégulièrement et libérer une masse brun noirâtre, granuleuse et poudreuse de boules de spores globuleuses à irrégulières.

Les boules de spores qui mesurent de  de diamètre, comportent généralement une seule spore et parfois deux ou trois. Celles-ci sont lisses, de forme ovoïdes, subglobuleuses ou allongées et irrégulières, mesurent  de long pour  de large et sont colorées d'un brun rougeâtre plus ou moins foncé. Elles sont entourées d'une couche discontinue de cellules stériles, cette dernière caractéristique étant typique du genre Urocystis. Ces cellules sont hyalines à jaunes claires, lisses, subglobuleuses à irrégulièrement allongées, généralement aplaties sur le côté en contact avec les spores, mesurent  de long. Elles sont parfois absentes.

Biologie
La germination des spores donne lieu à une baside courte composé de 2 à  basidiospores apicales à partir desquels se développent des hyphes dikaryotes qui pénètrent dans la plante par leurs haustorias. L'infection est systémique et persistante d'une année sur l'autre.

Impact parasitaire et répartition

Urocystis anemones est exclusivement référencé sur quelques Ranunculaceae dont
une majorité d'Anémones : Anemone apennina, Anemone blanda, Anemone hortensis, Anemone nemorosa, Anemone ranunculoides, Anemone sylvestris, Anemone trifolia, Anemone virginiana ainsi quAnemonoides seemenii et Anemonastrum narcissiflorum.

L'espèce est présente dans le monde entier. En Europe centrale et occidentale, elle est visible d'avril à juin, et répandue, surtout sur A. nemorosa, de la plaine à la montagne.

Confusions possibles
Urocystis antipolitana est une espèce méditerrannéene beaucoup plus rare qui se développe sur Anemone hortensis, A. baldensis et A. coronaria. Elle est également répertoriée sur 'A. sylvestris. Cette espèce diffère par ses boules de spores qui mesurent  de long pour  de large composées en moyenne de 2 à  spores, parfois  et jusqu'à . Ces dernières ont des dimensions analogues mais sont entièrement entourées de nombreuses cellules stériles.

Des symptômes morphologiquement proches présent sur la Renoncule rampante ont été autrefois attribués à Urocystis anemones et sont maintenant considérés comme appartenant à U. ranunculi.

Publication originale
 Gottlob Ludwig Rabenhorst, Fungi Europaei exsiccati, Klotzschii herbarii vivi mycologici continuatio. Editio nov. Series secunda. Cent. 12: no. 1195 (1868).
 Cette espèce est également publiée dans le Botanische Zeitschrift 26(34): 560 de 1868. Une combinaison également mise en place par Heinrich Georg Winter dans l'Hedwigia 19: 60 (1880).

Synonymie

Notes et références

Liens externes

Urocystidaceae
Espèce de champignons (nom scientifique)
Basidiomycète phytopathogène

Urocystis anemones


එංගලන්ත කාන්තා ක්‍රිකට් කණ්ඩායම 2018 අප්‍රේල් මාසයේදී ඉන්දියාවේ සංචාරය කිරීමට නියමිතය. එහිදී කාන්තා එක්දින ජාත්‍යන්තර ක්‍රිකට් (කාඑදිජා) තරග තුනක් ක්‍රීඩා කිරීමට නියමිතය. ඉන්දියානු කාන්තා කණ්ඩායම තරගමාලාව 2–1 ක් ලෙස ජයග්‍රහණය කළේය.

මෙම තරගමාලාව 2017-20 අයිසීසී කාන්තා ශූරතාවයේ කොටසක් නොවන අතර මෙය 2021 කාන්තා ක්‍රිකට් ලෝක කුසලානය වෙනුවෙන් පැවැත්වෙන පුහුණු තරගමාලාවකි.

ඉන්දීය නායිකා මිතාලි රාජ් සිය 192වන කාන්තා එදිජා තරගයට ක්‍රීඩා කිරීමත් සමග වැඩිම කාන්තා එදිජා තරග ගණනකට ක්‍රීඩා කළ ක්‍රීඩිකාව බව‍ට පත්විය. එමෙන්ම ඇය සිය 50වන අර්ධ ශතකය ලබාගැනීමත් සමග කාන්තා එදිජා තරගවල වැඩිම අර්ධ ශතක ප්‍රමාණයක් ලබාගත් ක්‍රීඩිකාව බව‍ට පත්විය.

පුහුණු තරගය

එක්දින තරගය: ඉන්දියානු කාන්තා ඒ සහ එංගලන්ත කාන්තා

කාඑදිජා තරගමාලාව

පළමුවන කාඑදිජා

දෙවන කාඑදිජා

තෙවන කාඑදිජා

සටහන්

මුලාශ්‍ර

බාහිර සබැඳි
 Series home at ESPN Cricinfo

එංගලන්ත කාන්තා ක්‍රිකට් කණ්ඩායමේ ඉන්දීය සංචාරය 2018


Arroyo Concepción puede referirse a:

 Arroyo Concepción, en la Provincia de Entre Ríos en Argentina.
 Arroyo Concepción, en la Provincia de Misiones en Argentina.
 Arroyo Concepción, en la Provincia Germán Busch en Bolivia.

Arroyo Concepción


Smith County is the name of four counties in the United States:

Smith County, Kansas
Smith County, Mississippi
Smith County, Tennessee
Smith County, Texas

See also
Smyth County, Virginia

Smith County


Andrija Mandić (srpska ćirilica: Андрија Мандић; Šavnik, 19. siječnja 1965.) crnogorski je političar srpskog porijekla, dugogodišni poslanik u Skupštini Crne Gore, čelnik prosrpske koalicije Demokratski front i predsjednik Nove srpske demokratije.

Izvori

Životopisi, Šavnik
Crnogorski političari od 1989.

Srbi u Crnoj Gori

Andrija Mandić


El Museo Nacional de Medicina de Ecuador, en Quito, fue fundado por el Dr. Eduardo Estrella el 5 de marzo de 1983.

La misión del Dr. Estrella fue la de pintar un cuadro completo de la medicina nativa -natural de América del Sur- para preservar el patrimonio de la Historia de la Medicina. Los principales elementos del museo incluyen la medicina aborigen, la nutrición y la salud, la arqueología médica y las plantas medicinales. También hay una sección dedicada a la medicina colonial en América del Sur. Por otro lado, tiene documentos de la institucionalización de la medicina académica, los hospitales y la educación médica, la medicina religiosa e instrumentos de la farmacia colonial. Hay elementos de la medicina republicana: instrumental médico-quirúrgico, artículos del laboratorio clínico y de consultorios dentales.

Referencias

Enlaces externos
paisturistico.com
IntraMed
Museo Nacional de Medicina
Algunas fotos del Museo Nacional de Medicina, Quito - Ecuador
Museo Nacional de Medicina del Ecuador, Página web oficial

Museos nacionales
Historia de la medicina
Museos de Quito
Ecuador
Ecuador
Museos inaugurados en 1983

Museo Nacional de Medicina del Ecuador


The commune of Agen (, ; ) is the prefecture of the Lot-et-Garonne department in Nouvelle-Aquitaine, southwestern France. It lies on the river Garonne  southeast of Bordeaux.

Geography
The city of Agen lies in the southwestern department of Lot-et-Garonne in the Aquitaine region. The city centre lies on the east bank of the river Garonne, the Canal de Garonne flows through the city, approximately halfway between Bordeaux  and Toulouse .

Climate
Agen features an oceanic climate (Cfb), in the Köppen climate classification. Winters are mild and feature cool to cold temperatures while summers are mild and warm. Rainfall is spread equally throughout the year; however, most sunshine hours are from March–September.

Toponymy
From Occitan Agen (1197), itself from Latin Aginnum (3rd century Itinéraire d'Antonin), from a Celtic root agin- meaning "rock or height".

Population

Economy
The town has a higher level of unemployment than the national average. Major employers include the pharmaceutical factory UPSA.

Sights

The old centre of town contains a number of medieval buildings.

The twelfth century Agen Cathedral, dedicated to Saint Caprasius, is one of the few large churches in France with a double nave, a regional trait also found in the Church of the Jacobins in nearby Toulouse.

The Saint Hilaire church, dedicated to the theme of the Holy Trinity which the Saint in question did a lot to defend, is notable for its unusual statues in front of the Church – Moses on the right, and St Peter on the left.

The art museum, the , contains artefacts, furniture and sculptures from prehistoric times onwards. The art gallery contains several hundred works, including several by Goya, and others by Bonnard and Seurat. The collection also contains a large number of works by artists who lived locally. The museum is made up of twenty or so rooms.

The Canal des Deux Mers, which joins the Mediterranean with the Atlantic, crosses the river Garonne at Agen via the town's famous canal bridge.

Colour photography pioneer

Louis Arthur Ducos du Hauron (1837 – 1920), a pioneer of colour photography lived and worked in Agen. He developed practical processes for colour photography on the three-colour principle, using both additive and subtractive methods. In 1868 he patented his ideas (French Patent No. 83061) and in 1869 he published them in Les couleurs en photographie, solution du problème.

The most widely reproduced of his surviving colour photographs is the View of Agen, an 1877 landscape, printed by the subtractive assembly method which he pioneered. Several different photographs of the view from his attic window, one dated 1874, also survive.

Entertainment
The municipal theatre "Théâtre Ducourneau" presents theatre, and occasionally classical concerts. The smaller "Théâtre du jour" has a resident theatre company presenting a variety of recent or older plays (Shakespeare, Beckett, as well as lesser known playwrights).

There are two cinemas, one a commercial multiscreened affair, the other an arts cinema run by a voluntary organization. The latter organizes film festivals every year.

Sport
Rugby is extremely popular in the town, and the local team, SU Agen, is enthusiastically supported. The town also serves as the base for the Team Lot-et-Garonne cycling team.

Transport
The Gare d'Agen connects Agen with Toulouse and Bordeaux as well as Périgueux. It is around an hour from Toulouse and around an hour from Bordeaux. The TGV train to Paris takes three hours and thirteen minutes with a stop in Bordeaux.

Agen is connected, by the A62 autoroute, to both Toulouse and Bordeaux.

The Agen Airport is serviced by Airlinair service to Paris Orly 6 days a week. It is also used for business and leisure flying.

Agen stands on the voie verte cycle path between the Mediterranean and close to Bordeaux.

Diocese

Agen is the seat of a Roman Catholic diocese that comprises the Département of Lot and Garonne. It is a suffragan of the archdiocese of Bordeaux.

Twin towns – sister cities

Agen is twinned with:
 Corpus Christi, United States
 Dinslaken, Germany
 Galena, Illinois, United States
 Llanelli, Wales, United Kingdom
 Toledo, Spain
 Tuapse, Russia

Notable people

As place of birth
Saint Caprasius of Agen, a Christian martyr and saint of the 4th. century
Phoebadius of Agen (died ca. 392) a Catholic bishop of the fourth century.
Bernard Palissy (ca.1510–1590), potter, he may have been born in Saintes.
Joseph Justus Scaliger (1540–1609), Calvinist religious leader and scholar.
Pierre Dupuy (1582–1651), writer and scholar.
Francés de Corteta (1586-1667), nobleman and poet
Joseph Barsalou (1600–1660), apothecary and physician.
Godefroi, Comte d'Estrades (1607–1686), diplomatist and Marshal of France.
Bernard Germain de Lacépède (1756–1825), naturalist and active freemason.
Jean Hilaire Asté (1775–1840), professor of music and instrument-maker, inventied the ophicleide
Jean Baptiste Bory de Saint-Vincent (1780–1846), naturalist and politician.
Jacques Jasmin (1798–1864), Provençal poet.
Victor Rabu (1834–1907), architect, built many churches in Montevideo, Uruguay
Joseph Chaumié (1849–1919), politician
Les Lalanne, artists and sculptors François-Xavier Lalanne (1927–2008) and Claude Lalanne (1924–2019).
Michel Serres (born 1930), philosopher and author
Jacques Sadoul (born 1934), novelist, book editor and non-fiction author
Jean Cruguet (born 1939), jockey who won the U.S. Triple Crown of thoroughbred racing
Alain Aspect (born 1947), physicist and Nobel Prize in Physics winner in 2022
Francis Cabrel (born 1953), singer-songwriter and guitarist
Bernard Campan (born 1958), actor, film director and writer
Emmanuel Flipo (born 1958), artist
Bernard Andrieu (born 1959, philosopher and historian
Béatrice Uria-Monzon (born 1963), mezzo-soprano.
Stéphane Rideau (born 1976), actor
Fabien Barcella (born 1983), former rugby union player with 20 caps for France
Aymeric Laporte (born 1994), footballer with 20 caps for Spain
Brice Dulin, (born 1990), rugby union player with 36 caps for France.

As residence
Julius Caesar Scaliger In 1525 he became physician to Antonio della Rovera, bishop of Agen, and remained until his death in 1558.
Nostradamus lived in Agen from 1531 until at least 1534. He was married to a local woman with whom he had two children.

Miscellaneous
Agen is the "capital of the prune", a local product consumed as a sweet, either stuffed with prune purée or in pastries, or as a dessert, e.g., prunes soaked in Armagnac, a type of brandy. On the last weekend of August, a prune festival comprises rock concerts, circus performances and prune tastings.

Jewish presence
The first Jews settled in the town in the twelfth century AD. They were expelled from the town in 1306. A number of Jews returned to the town in 1315, and a "Rue des Juifs" is documented ever since this period. In 1968, about 600 Jews lived in the town, though most of them had emigrated from North Africa. A Jewish synagogue still exists in the town.

See also
 SU Agen Lot-et-Garonne, a French rugby union club based in Agen
 Agenais, or Agenois, a former province of France
 Tulipa agenensis, a red tulip named after a wild colony growing near the town

References

External links

 Site de la ville
 Office de tourisme
 Diocese of Agen – Catholic Encyclopædia article

Communes of Lot-et-Garonne
Prefectures in France
Gallia Aquitania
Agenais
Lot-et-Garonne communes articles needing translation from French Wikipedia

Agen


Wilton puede hacer referencia a: gastronomía

Lugares
 Wilton (Escocia)

 Estados Unidos:
 Wilton, un pueblo en el estado de Alabama.
 Wilton, una ciudad en el estado de Arkansas.
 Wilton, un pueblo en el estado de Connecticut.
 Wilton, un lugar designado por el censo en el estado de California.
 Wilton, una ciudad en el estado de Dakota del Norte.
 Wilton, un municipio ubicado en el estado de Illinois.
 Wilton, un municipio en el estado de Iowa.
 Wilton, una ciudad en el estado anterior.
 Wilton, un pueblo en el estado de Maine.
 Wilton, un lugar designado por el censo en el estado anterior.
 Wilton, un municipio en el estado de Minnesota.
 Wilton, una ciudad en el estado anterior.
 Wilton, un lugar designado por el censo en el estado de Nuevo Hampshire.
 Wilton, un pueblo en el estado anterior.
 Wilton, un pueblo en el estado de Nueva York.
 Wilton, una villa en el estado de Wisconsin.
 Wilton, un pueblo en el estado anterior.

 Inglaterra:
 Wilton (Cumbria)
 Wilton (Herefordshire)
 Wilton (Shropshire)
 Wilton, una parroquia civil y una villa en el condado de Wiltshire.
 Wilton (Grafton), Wiltshire
 Wilton (Redcar and Cleveland), Yorkshire del Norte
 Wilton, una parroquia civil y un pueblo en el condado de Yorkshire del Norte.

Personas
 Cecil Louis Wilton, aracnólogo.
 Penelope Wilton, actriz británica.

Wilton


Snježana Bažaj-Bočkaj, hrvatska šahistica iz Đakova, iz ŠK Đakovo. Pionirska prvakinja Hrvatske 1977. i 1978., omladinska prvakinja Hrvatske 1979. i 1982., seniorska prvakinja Hrvatske 1984. 1992. je godine bila članica olimpijske momčadi Hrvatske u Manili (1992.),  Istanbulu (2000.) i Beču (2002.) godine. Danas ima naslov FIDE majstorice. Višestruko proglašena za najbolju športašicu Đakova.

Izvori

Hrvatski šahisti
Šport u Đakovu

Snježana Bažaj


Sébastien Hamel (født 20. november 1975 i Arpajon, Frankrig) er en fransk tidligere fodboldspiller (målmand).

Fischer spillede hele sin karriere i hjemlandet, og repræsenterede blandt andet Le Havre, Lorient og Auxerre. Hos Lorient var han i 2002 med til at vinde pokalturneringen Coupe de France efter finalesejr over Bastia.

Titler
Coupe de France
 2002 med Lorient

Referencer

Eksterne henvisninger

Fodboldspillere fra Frankrig
Fodboldspillere fra AJ Auxerre
Fodboldspillere fra Olympique Marseille
Fodboldspillere fra RC Lens
Fodboldspillere fra FC Lorient
Fodboldspillere fra Le Havre AC
Fodboldspillere fra Toulouse FC
Fodboldspillere fra AS Monaco FC

Sébastien Hamel


An Crepidium rheedei in uska species han Liliopsida nga ginhulagway ni Carl Ludwig von Blume. An Crepidium rheedei in nahilalakip ha genus nga Crepidium, ngan familia nga Orchidaceae. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Mga sumpay ha gawas

Crepidium

Crepidium rheedei


An Festuca hatico in uska species han Liliopsida nga ginhulagway ni Stancík. An Festuca hatico in nahilalakip ha genus nga Festuca, ngan familia nga Poaceae. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Festuca

Festuca hatico


Vice-Admiral Sir John Lockhart-Ross, 6th Baronet (11 November 1721 – 9 June 1790), known as John Lockhart from 1721 to 1760, was an officer of the Royal Navy who saw service during the War of the Austrian Succession, Seven Years' War, and the American War of Independence, and served for a time as a Member of Parliament.

Lockhart was born into a gentry family in 1721 and embarked on a naval career. He served on a number of ships during the War of the Austrian Succession, seeing action at both the First and Second Battles of Cape Finisterre, having by then risen to the rank of lieutenant. He had his own commands by the outbreak of the Seven Years' War, and enjoyed particular success as a frigate captain, cruising against privateers while in command of . Further commands followed, including roles in detached squadrons at the Battle of Quiberon Bay. Taking the additional name Ross after he inherited a deceased relative's estates, he served as a member of parliament and undertook land reforms and improvements during the years of peace before the outbreak of the American War of Independence.

Lockhart-Ross returned to sea on the outbreak of war, commanding a ship at the Battle of Ushant, and later being promoted to flag rank. He served in several actions as a junior commander of Rodney's fleet, including the capture of the Caracas convoy, the Battle of Cape St. Vincent and the relief of Gibraltar. He then retired ashore, devoting himself to his estates until his death in 1790. He was succeeded in the baronetcy he had inherited in 1778 by his son.

Family and early life
Lockhart was born on 11 November 1721 at Lockhart Hall, Lanarkshire, the fifth son of Sir James Lockhart, 2nd Baronet. His mother, Grizel, was the third daughter of William Ross, 12th Lord Ross. Lockhart joined the navy in September 1735, serving first aboard the 50-gun  under Captain Henry Osborne. He transferred to the 50-gun  under Captain Charles Knowles in the West Indies between 1737 and 1738, and went on to serve aboard the 54-gun  under Captain Henry Medley in 1739, and the 14-gun sloop  under Captain Frogmere in 1740. Lockhart followed Frogmere to several of his ships, serving under him aboard the 20-gun  and then the 54-gun . He passed his lieutenant's examination on 28 September 1743, and received his commission with a posting on 21 October that year to the 44-gun  in the North Sea, and afterwards on the coast of North America. While serving on the North American station he was moved into the 50-gun  and returned to England with her in late 1746.

Lockhart's next appointment was to the 66-gun  in April 1747. Devonshire was the flagship of Rear-Admiral Peter Warren, under whom Lockhart saw action at the First Battle of Cape Finisterre on 3 May 1747. He was then appointed to his first command, that of the fireship , in which he saw action with Sir Edward Hawke's fleet at the Second Battle of Cape Finisterre on 16 October 1747. One of the captains in the battle, Thomas Fox of the 64-gun , was later relieved of his command after controversy over his actions in the engagement, and Lockhart was given temporary command of Kent in his place. During 1748 Lockhart was first lieutenant of the Portsmouth guardship , and for the next few years was on half pay in Scotland. In January 1755 he was appointed first lieutenant of the 90-gun  with Captain Charles Saunders, and on 22 April 1755 he was promoted to command the 8-gun sloop , attached during the year to the western squadron cruising under the command of Sir Edward Hawke or Vice-Admiral John Byng.

Command

On 23 March 1756 Lockhart was posted to the 28-gun , which he commanded for several cruises in the Channel, capturing several large privateers of equal or superior force, among them the 22-gun Cerf with 211 men, the 26-gun Grand Gideon with 190 men, and the 20-gun Mont-Ozier of Rochelle with 170 men. Lockhart was severely wounded in the capture of the Mont-Ozier on 17 February 1757, and had to be invalided on shore for the next two months. He rejoined the Tartar and on 15 April, off Dunnose, Isle of Wight, he captured the 26-gun Duc d'Aiguillon of St. Malo with 254 men; and on 2 November the 36-gun Melampe with 320 men. The latter ship was added to the navy as the 36-gun frigate .

As a reward for Lockhart's services, the Admiralty offered him the command of the 50-gun , which was then nearing completion, and making several promotions from Tartars crew. He was also presented by the merchants of London and of Bristol with pieces of plate 'for his signal service in supporting the trade;' and by the corporation of Plymouth with the freedom of the borough in a gold box. Lockhart spent the next few months recuperating at Bath and waiting for the Chatham to be launched. She was duly launched in April 1758 and Lockhart took command, taking many of his officers and men from Tartar to crew her, with the Admiralty's permission. Lockhart had her fitted for sea by May, and spent June to September cruising against privateers in the North Sea.

Chatham was then ordered into the Channel and later joined the fleet under Sir Edward Hawke. She spent the summer under Rear-Admiral George Brydges Rodney, taking part in the Raid on Le Havre before rejoining Hawke in October, and then being sent to join a squadron under Commodore Robert Duff, to watch the French in Quiberon Bay. The squadron observed the French fleet sail out, and were chased by them as they rushed to report the news to Hawke. Hawke brought his fleet against them and decisively defeated them at the Battle of Quiberon Bay on 20 November 1759. Four days later Hawke appointed Lockhart to command  in the place of Captain John Campbell, who was sent home with the despatches. In the end of January 1760 the Royal George came to Spithead, and a month later Lockhart was appointed to command the 64-gun , forming part of the fleet under Hawke or Edward Boscawen.

Later naval and parliamentary career

With the death of his brother James in September 1760 Lockhart succeeded to the Ross estate of Balnagown, the entail of which obliged him to take the name of Ross; this he formally did in the following spring, announcing the change to the admiralty on 31 March 1761. He was then at Lockhart Hall, where he seems to have passed the winter on leave, but afterwards rejoined the Bedford during the summer. In September he applied to be relieved from the command, and on 27 September was placed on half pay. In the previous June he had been elected member of parliament for Lanark Burghs, but it does not appear that he took any active interest in parliamentary business. He devoted himself principally to the improvement of his estates and the condition of the peasantry, and became known as 'the best farmer and the greatest planter in the country; his wheat and turnips showed the one, his plantation of a million of pines the other'. He was MP for Lanark Burghs from 1761 to 1768 and in 1762, he initiated land tenure reform which would later evolve into the Highland Clearances. He was MP for Lanarkshire from 1768 to 1774.

In 1777, when war with France appeared imminent, Ross returned to active service, and was appointed to the 74-gun , joining the fleet under Admiral Augustus Keppel in the Battle of Ushant on 27 July 1778. On 13 August, by the successive deaths of his elder brothers without male issue, he succeeded to the baronetcy. On 19 March 1779 he was promoted to the rank of rear-admiral, and during the summer, with his flag in the Royal George, he was fourth in command in the Channel. In September he was sent with a small squadron into the North Sea to look out for John Paul Jones, but Jones, after capturing the Serapis in 1779, made good his escape. Continuing in the Channel Fleet, Ross was with Rodney at the capture of the Caracas convoy, the Battle of Cape St. Vincent and the relief of Gibraltar in January 1780; with George Darby at the relief of Gibraltar in April 1781; and with Lord Howe during the early summer of 1782. On the return of the fleet to Spithead in August he resigned his command, and had no further employment afloat. He became a vice-admiral on 24 September 1787, and died at Balnagown Castle in Ross-shire on 9 June 1790. He married Elizabeth, daughter of Robert Dundas of Arniston, the younger, in 1762 and had a number of children. Among them was his eldest son, Charles Lockhart-Ross, an army officer who inherited the baronetcy on his father's death, and George Ross, father of distinguished legal writer George Ross.

References

Royal Navy vice admirals
Highland Clearances
1721 births
1790 deaths
Baronets in the Baronetage of Nova Scotia
Royal Navy personnel of the War of the Austrian Succession
Royal Navy personnel of the Seven Years' War
Royal Navy personnel of the American Revolutionary War
Members of the Parliament of Great Britain for Scottish constituencies
British MPs 1761–1768
British MPs 1768–1774

John Lockhart-Ross


An Plectrophora suarezii in uska species han Liliopsida nga ginhulagway ni Dodson ngan Mark W. Chase. An Plectrophora suarezii in nahilalakip ha genus nga Plectrophora, ngan familia nga Orchidaceae. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Plectrophora

Plectrophora suarezii


Jean-Charles Faugère est un chercheur français en mathématiques et informatique. Il est responsable de l'équipe POLSYS (Solvers for ALgebraic Systems and Applications) du Laboratoire d'informatique de Paris 6 (LIP6) et du centre Paris–Rocquencourt d'INRIA, à Paris.

Faugère obtient son doctorat en mathématiques en 1994 à l'université de Paris VI, avec le mémoire Résolution des systèmes d'équations algébriques, sous la direction de .

Il travaille sur les bases de Gröbner et leurs applications, notamment en cryptologie. Avec ses collaborateurs, il met au point l' pour changer l'ordre monomial d'une base de Gröbner de certains idéaux particuliers . Il invente également les  pour le calcul des bases de Gröbner. En particulier, son algorithme F5 lui permet de résoudre divers problèmes en cryptographie tels que HFE ; il a également introduit un nouveau type de cryptanalyse, appelée cryptanalyse algébrique.

Références

Liens externes

 La page personnelle de Jean-Charles Faugère

Informaticien français
Étudiant de l'université Pierre-et-Marie-Curie

Jean-Charles Faugère