The Petlyakov Pe-2 () was a Soviet twin-engine dive bomber used during World War II. One of the outstanding tactical attack aircraft of the war, it also proved successful as a heavy fighter, as a night fighter (Pe-3 variant) and as a reconnaissance aircraft. The Pe-2 was, numerically, the most important Soviet bomber of World War II, at their peak comprising 75% of the Soviet twin-engine bomber force. The Soviets manufactured Pe-2s in greater numbers (11,430 built) during the war than any other twin-engine combat aircraft except for the German Junkers Ju 88 and the British Vickers Wellington. Several communist air forces flew the type after the war, when it became known by the NATO reporting name Buck.

Development
In 1937, Vladimir Petlyakov was the leader of the Heavy Aircraft Brigade at the Tupolev OKB responsible for the development of the ANT-42 four-engined long-range bomber (which would eventually enter service as the TB-7/Pe-8). However, that same year saw the start of Stalin's Great Purge, and none were spared suspicion; Andrei Tupolev, the head of the OKB, was coerced into signing a "confession"  in October 1937 that he had formed an anti-Soviet group that included Petlyakov, and both men along with many others were arrested.

Too valuable to be simply executed, unlike many others arrested during the Great Purge, Petlyakov and other weapons designers were instead sent to sharashkas, special prisons run by the NKVD where such valuable prisoners could continue their work under close scrutiny. In 1938, Petlyakov was tasked with leading the first Special Technical Department (STO — SpetsTekhOd'yel) for aviation that also included other future well-known designers such as Vladimir Myasishchev, a colleague of Petlyakov's at the Tupolev OKB.

VI-100
Because the Russian word for "100" (сотка — "sotka") sounds somewhat like the pronunciation of "STO", the STO was later renamed KB-100, and there Petlyakov proposed the development of a twin-engine interceptor against high-altitude long-range bombers, particularly those being developed in Germany such as the Junkers Ju 86P and Henschel Hs 130. His proposal was accepted in March 1938, with the requirement that the first prototype be ready for its first flight before the end of 1939. The project was initially given the name Samolyot 100 (lit. "Aircraft 100") and later called VI-100 (Vysotnyi Istrebitel — "High-Altitude Fighter").

The VI-100 project was an ambitious one for its time, with advanced features such as a pressurised cabin, all-metal construction, turbo-superchargers, and many electrically actuated systems. In addition, the performance requirements were also quite demanding: it was to be capable of reaching 630 km/h (391 mph) at an altitude of 10,000 m, a ceiling of 12,500 m, and a range of 1,400 km. The aircraft would also need a reinforced structure in order to withstand the Mach stresses of making diving attacks from high altitude against enemy bomber formations. In order to assist with the challenging development of the "100", other OKBs such as those of Yakovlev, Mikoyan & Gurevich, and Sukhoi were also enlisted. The first full-scale VI-100 mock-up was completed in May 1939, and the first flight of the prototype occurred on 22 December 1939.

The VI-100 was an all-metal low-wing cantilever monoplane powered by two Klimov M-105R engines, licence-built Hispano-Suiza 12Y engines that were the most advanced then available in the Soviet Union, driving VISh-42 three-blade variable-pitch propellers, enhanced by two TK-3 turbo-superchargers fitted in the engine nacelles. Its primary armament were two 20 mm ShVAK cannon and two 7.62 mm ShKAS machine guns, with another ShKAS machine gun in a fixed mounting in the tailcone for self-defence. The first prototype VI-100 was also designed to carry KS-76 (48 modified 76 mm artillery shells with timed fuses) or KS-100 (96 AO-25 bomblets) cassettes in the fuselage for dropping on enemy bomber formations. The second prototype was instead fitted with external bomb racks for 1,000 kg of bombs and internal bomb bays for 600 kg of bombs instead of the cassettes of the first prototype.

The first VI-100 prototype was demonstrated publicly during the 1940 May Day parade, flown by Maj. Stefanovsky, as Petlyakov and his team watched on from the roofs of their sharashka. During testing in 1940, the second prototype VI-100 suffered a cockpit fire due to an improperly tightened nut in the fuel supply and crashed into a kindergarten, killing a group of young children and a teacher. Despite the loss of the second prototype and several defects being found in the first prototype, the VI-100 was judged satisfactory and suitable for further development. Its performance was superior to other Soviet high altitude fighters such as the Mikoyan-Gurevich I-200 (the future MiG-3), and compared favourably with contemporary aircraft such as the Potez 630, Messerschmitt Bf 110 C, and Bristol Beaufighter Mk. I. However, events were to lead to substantial changes in the direction of the VI-100 project.

PB-100
The value of tactical dive bombing had been proven by the Junkers Ju 87 Stuka dive bombers of the Luftwaffe during the Blitzkrieg campaigns of 1939 and 1940, and the need for such an aircraft in the VVS-RKKA (Workers & Peasants' Red Army Air Force) suddenly became very apparent. Furthermore, following the Molotov–Ribbentrop Non-Aggression Pact, Soviet experts were able to visit German aircraft factories, where they discovered that Germany had no large-scale development of high-altitude long-range bombers underway. Existing aircraft were also judged to be within the capabilities of single-engined fighters like the I-200.

As a result, in May 1940, it was decided that a dive-bomber using the good aerodynamics of the VI-100 would be designed and put into production. The new aircraft, now designated the PB-100 (Pikiruyushchiy Bombardirovshchik — "Dive-Bomber"), was required to achieve a maximum speed of 535 km/h at an altitude of 4800–4900 m, a range of 1,600 km at an altitude of 5,000  m, and a ceiling of 8000 m. Petlyakov and his team were instructed to redesign the two-seat high altitude fighter into a three-seat dive-bomber within 45 days. In order to meet this deadline, Petlyakov's team were assisted by some 300 specialists from other OKBs.

The fuselage of the VI-100 had to be redesigned for the dive-bombing role. Initially, the PB-100 featured three pressurised cabins for the three-man crew, but the VVS judged that pressurisation was an inessential luxury for the dive-bombing role, and this was dropped. Furthermore, the high altitude performance provided by the turbo-superchargers was also unnecessary, and these too were dropped. Extensive glazing was added to the lower portion of the nose to give the pilot maximum visibility during a dive-bombing attack. A bomb bay for a single 100 kg bomb was added in each engine nacelle, while the engines remained the same. The wing was modified, with dive brakes added. The cockpit was redesigned, bringing the navigator and pilot together, and given extensive glazing, while a defensive machine gun was added in the ventral position, operated by a gunner.

The redesign was completed in time, and the PB-100 was ordered into production without the construction of a prototype (only static tests were conducted for new components such as the fuselage), with the first two series production PB-100s completed by Zavod 39 in the late autumn of 1940. The trials of the lead machine (No. 390101) began on 15 December 1940. In accordance with the new rules also adopted in December 1940, the aircraft was also redesignated Pe-2 2M-105.

Design features
The Pe-2 inherited the basic low-wing twin-engine monoplane configuration of the VI-100. It had an all-metal stressed-skin structure, with cloth only used to cover the ailerons and control surfaces. The tail had twin fins and rudders with a pronounced 8-degree dihedral on the tailplane; this had been added to the PB-100 to correct the poor lateral stability found on the VI-100 during testing.

The wing design of the Pe-2 was also inherited from the VI-100, but this had been optimised for high altitude performance at the cost of lower lift at low altitude, resulting in suboptimal manoeuvreability and take-off and landing characteristics. For example, while the Pe-2's flying characteristics were generally good once it was airborne, it took a good amount of force to pull the elevators up to rotate the plane for takeoff. Russian night bombing missions often flew with female pilots, and some of the women were not strong enough to get the airplane airborne by themselves. When such a situation occurred, the procedure was to have the navigator get behind the pilot's seat and wrap her arms around the control wheel and help the pilot pull the wheel back. Once the aircraft was airborne, the navigator returned to her duties and the pilot continued to fly the plane without assistance. In addition, the Pe-2 had a reputation for hard landings, as well as for its notorious "bounce" on landing due to the inadequate shock absorbers in the landing gear. This could be fatal if the pilot was not prepared for it. As designed, the wings were also fitted with "Venetian blind"-type slatted dive brakes for the dive-bombing role.

Pe-2s were equipped with an inert gas fire-suppression system for the self-sealing fuel tanks, which progressively filled the fuel tanks with nitrogen in order to reduce the risk of ignition when hit by enemy fire.

Armament

The Pe-2 had an internal capacity for six 100 kg bombs, for a total of 600 kg; this was no better than that of the older Tupolev SB bomber. The internal capacity consisted of a fuselage bomb bay capable of carrying four 100 kg bombs or an additional fuel tank, with two small internal bomb bays in the rear of the engine nacelles for a single 100 kg bomb each. This was supplemented by four external underwing racks. These were capable of carrying four 100 kg or 250 kg bombs, or two 500 kg bombs in overload configuration, giving a maximum bombload of 1,000 kg. Only the bombs in the external racks could be used in a dive-bombing attack; the internally carried bombs had no dive release gear and could not be dropped in a steep dive.

The offensive armament originally consisted of two  7.62 mm ShKAS fixed forward-firing machine guns in the nose. The right ShKAS was replaced by the more powerful 12.7 mm UBK heavy machine gun from Series 13 production aircraft onwards. From Series 32 onwards, provisions were made for underwing guide rails for up to ten RS-132 or RS-82 unguided rockets.

The defensive armament originally consisted of a single ShKAS machine gun in a dorsal TSS mounting, later MV-3 turret, manned by the navigator in the cockpit behind the pilot, and a ventral 7.62 mm ShKAS machine gun in a mounting in the fuselage behind the bomb bay aimed by a periscope. This defensive armament was found to be totally inadequate: from Series 13 onwards, the ventral ShKAS was replaced by one 12.7 mm UBT in an MV-2 mounting, while the dorsal ShKAS was also replaced by a UBT in various different mountings, some modified in the field and others from the factory:
 MV-7 turret: Turret mounting tested in September 1941. Unsatisfactory and not adopted.
 FT (Frontovoye Trebovaniye — "Frontline Demand") mounting: designed by Leonid Selyakov at Zavod 22 in response to the requests of Pe-2 crews to fit the standard Pe-2 with minimal changes to production and can be fitted in the field. Standardised from Series 83 onwards. This mounting required the canopy over the navigator to be removed, resulting in reduced comfort for the navigator manning the gun.
 VUB-1 turret: Turret mounting, standardised from Series 110 onwards. Pe-2s with this mounting are often known as "Pe-2FT" in Western literature, even though the VUB-1 turret has no connection to the actual FT mounting whatsoever.
 FZ (Frontovoye Zadaniye — "Frontline Mission") turret: Experimental turret mounting introduced in 1943. Uses magazines for the UBT instead of belts for easier and faster handling of the turret. Tests were successful, recommended for production, but not adopted in order to not disrupt Pe-2 production.

The replacement of the ShKAS defensive guns with the UBT was reported to increase the life expectancy of a Pe-2 from 20 sorties to 54.

Operational service

The Pe-2 was first publicly demonstrated in the May Day Parade of 1941. Testing of the Pe-2 was completed and it was accepted for service in June 1941, shortly before the German invasion of the Soviet Union. During the early stages of the invasion, Pe-2 crews, who were poorly trained and unfamiliar with their new aircraft, were often sent on near-suicidal low-level bombing missions against advancing German forces, where they were highly vulnerable to light anti-aircraft guns and German fighters, or bombed from altitude with minimal accuracy and effectiveness against moving troops.

The aircraft did not show its true potential until the end of 1941, after the Soviet Air Force had a chance to regroup after the German onslaught, during the Winter. The Pe-2 quickly proved itself to be a highly capable aircraft, able to elude the Luftwaffe's interceptors and allowing their crews to develop great accuracy with their bombing. It could give German fighters fits when it could outrun them, at times reaching over .

The records of the 16th and 39th BAPs of the Western Front Air Force note that the Pe-2's crews had the greatest success in repelling the attacks of enemy fighters in June and July 1941. On 1 July, for example, six Pe-2s fended off attacks by four Messerschmitt Bf 109s, shooting down two of them. A week later a group of Pe-2s was attacked by four Bf 109s and again brought down two of the attackers. On both occasions the Petlyakovs suffered no losses. On the southern front, a bombing mission against Ploiești, in Romania, by six Pe-2s, led by Capt. A. Tsurtsulin, was a great success:  of petroleum were burnt in the raid. The Romanian information agency claimed that at least 100 Soviet planes had bombed Ploiești.

The Pe-2 regiments' operations were not always successful and the service pilots complained about insufficient defensive armament and survivability: there was a great risk of fire and insufficient armour protection, especially for the navigators and gunners. German pilots soon discovered the limited sighting angles of the ventral gun mounting and its poor reliability. The ammunition belt of the UBT machine-gun often jammed after the first burst of fire when shooting in extreme positions. The navigator and the radio operator were poorly protected. On average, ten Pe-2 gunners were wounded for every pilot, and two or three were killed for the loss of one pilot.

Throughout 1942 the design was steadily refined and improved, in direct consultation with pilots who were actually flying them in combat. Improved armour protection and a fifth ShKAS machine-gun was installed and fuel tanks modified. Despite anecdotal reports by Soviet fliers, Pe-2s were daylight bombers, often crewed by comparative novices in the early years of the war, and took significant losses, even when well protected by fighters. In December 1942 General  of the Soviet Air Force estimated the life expectancy of a Pe-2 was 30 combat flights. An example of loss rates after the Soviets gained the upper hand can be gained by the losses suffered by the 1st and 2nd BAK. The former started the month of July 1943 with 179 machines, and lost 52 that month, and 59 the next, ending August with 156 bombers after receiving replacements. The 2nd BAK started July with 122 Pe-2s, with monthly losses of 30 and 20, ending August 1943 with 114 Pe-2s after replacements arrived.  Most of these losses were at the hands of the thinly stretched German fighter groups, which continued to inflict significant losses when present in strength, even in the closing months of the war. For example, in the Baltic where JG54 Grünherz were the main opposition, and greatly outnumbered, the Soviet 1st Gv BAK lost 86 Pe-2s shot down (another 12 to other causes), mostly to German fighters between 23 July 1944 and 8 February 1945.  Western sources use mark Pe-2FT for production series after 83, where FT stands for Frontovoe Trebovanie (Frontline Request), although Soviet documents do not use this identification. Final versions Pe-2K (transitional version of Pe-2I) and Pe-2I were produced in small numbers, due to the unwillingness of Soviet industry to decelerate production numbers.

Starting on 14 April 1945, some Pe-2FT aircraft were operated by the 1st Czechoslovak Mixed Air Division made up of exiled Czechoslovakian pilots in the Soviet Union. After the war, the reinstated Czechoslovakian Air Force operated 32 Pe-2FT and 3 UPe-2 between May 1946 and mid 1951. The first aircraft arrived at Prague-Kbely airfield in April 1946 and formed two squadrons of the 25 Air Regiment in Havlíčkův Brod. Czechoslovakian aircraft were known under the designation B-32 (Pe-2FT) and CB-32 (UPe-2).

Finnish Air Force
In 1941, after the outbreak of the Continuation War, Finland purchased six captured Pe-2 aircraft from Germany. These arrived at State Aircraft Factory facilities at Härmälä, near Tampere, in January 1942, where the airframes were overhauled and given Finnish serial numbers. The seventh Pe-2 was bought from the Germans in January 1944, and it was flown to Finland at the end of the month.

It was initially planned to use these planes as dive bombers in the 1st flight of LeLv 48, which began to receive its aircraft in July 1942, but during the training it was found out that this caused too much strain for the engines. Thus, the role of Pe-2s was changed to fly long-range photographic and visual reconnaissance missions for the Army General Headquarters. These sorties began in late 1942, and were often flown with two 250 kg (551 lb) bombs for harassment bombing and in order to cover the true purpose of missions.

By the time the Soviet Fourth strategic offensive started in June 1944, the secondary bombing role had already ended and the surviving Pe-2s began to be used solely over the Karelian Isthmus on photographic reconnaissance flights in order to find out enemy troop concentrations, usually escorted by four Finnish Air Force Bf 109 Gs. These vital missions allowed artillery and bombers of the Finnish Air Force and the Luftwaffes Detachment Kuhlmey to strike against formations preparing for attack, which had an important impact on the outcome of the Battle of Tali-Ihantala, where the Soviet advance was halted.

During the Continuation War, three Pe-2s were lost in accidents or technical failures, one was destroyed in bombing of Lappeenranta airfield, one was shot down by Soviet fighters and one went missing in action. In the Lapland War the only remaining machine flew a single reconnaissance sortie in October 1944. On average, the aircraft flew some 94 hours per plane during the war.

The Finnish Air Force also operated one Petlyakov Pe-3 (PE-301) that had been captured in 1943.

PE-301 and PE-215 were destroyed when Soviet aircraft bombed the Lappeenranta airfield on 2 July 1944. PE-212 went down in 1943, PE-213 was destroyed in an emergency landing in 1942. PE-214 was destroyed in a failed take-off attempt at Härmälä on 21 May 1942. As Härmälä airfield was quite short, the pilot had to tried to lift off with too little speed, which caused the aircraft to stall and crash, killing the crew. PE-217 managed to shoot down a Soviet fighter in 1944. PE-216 was destroyed in a forced landing in 1944. PE-211 survived the war and was removed from FAF lists in 1946. It was still standing beside the Kauhava airfield in 1952, but further information on its fate is unknown.

Variants

In total, around 11,400 Pe-2s were built; a large number of minor variants were also developed.

PB-100
Prototype of the Pe-2 modified from the VI-100 in 1940.
Pe-2
First production variant.

Pe-2B

Standard bomber version from 1944.
Pe-2D
Three-seat bomber version, powered by two VK-107A piston engines.
Pe-2FT
Main production variant. In Czechoslovakia known as the B-32. Improved defensive armament (7.62 mm machine gun in dorsal turret), removal of the dive brakes, and an uprated engine. Nose glazing was also reduced.
Pe-2FZ
Built in small numbers.
Pe-2I
Improved version designed by Vladimir Myasishchev. VK-107 engines; revised wing profile; remote-controlled tail gun. Top speed 656 km/h (408 mph). Could carry 1,000 kg (2,204 lb) bombs. Five examples built.
Pe-2K
Radial-engined version, small number built.
Pe-2K RD-1
One Pe-2K equipped with additional RD-1 rocket engine. The 300 kg (661 lb) Glushko RD-1 rocket engine was installed in the tail of the aircraft.
Pe-2M
Variant of Pe-2I with heavier armament.
Pe-2MV
This version was armed with 20 mm ShVAK cannons and two 12.7 mm (0.5 in) in an underfuselage gondola, it also had one 7.62 mm (0.3 in) machine gun in the dorsal turret.
Pe-2R
Three-seat photo reconnaissance version, with a larger fuel tanks and extended range. small number built.
Pe-2S
Two-seat training version.
Pe-2Sh
The PB-100 prototype was fitted with two 20 mm ShVAK cannons, and a single 12.7 mm (0.5 in) machine gun was fitted beneath the fuselage.
Pe-2VI
High altitude fighter version.
Pe-2UTI (UPe-2)
Dedicated trainer version, small number built. In Czechoslovakia known as the CB-32.
Pe-2 Paravan
Anti-barrage balloon version.
Pe-3
Long-range night fighter version.
Pe-2 M-82FN
Pe-2 with Shvetsov M-82FN engines. Also known unofficially as the Pe-4.

Operators

 Bulgarian Air Force

 People's Liberation Army Air Force

 Czechoslovakian Air Force

 Finnish Air Force operated seven captured aircraft (given the Finnish serial numbers PE-211 to PE-217).

 Hungarian Air Force

 Air Force of the Polish Army (after 1947 Polish Air Force)
 Polish Navy

 Soviet Air Force

 SFR Yugoslav Air Force operated 123 Pe-2FT and 9 UPe-2 between 1945 and 1954.
 41st Bomber Aviation Regiment (1945–1948)
 42nd Bomber Aviation Regiment (1945–1948)
 43rd Bomber Aviation Regiment (1947–1948)
 Night Bomber Aviation Regiment (1948)
 88th Bomber Aviation Regiment (1948–1952)
 97th Bomber Aviation Regiment (1948–1952)
 109th Bomber Aviation Regiment (1948–1952)
 185th Mixed Aviation Regiment (1949–1952)
 715th Independent Reconnaissance Squadron (1949–1952)

Aircraft on display
Norway
 16/141 – Pe-2FT on display at the Norwegian Aviation Museum in Bodø, Nordland. Only the cockpit section is on display, with the remainder of the aircraft awaiting restoration.
Poland
 Pe-2FT on display at the Museum of the Polish Army in Warsaw, Mazovia.
Russia
 Composite – On display at the Central Air Force Museum in Monino.
 On display at the UMMC Museum Complex in Verkhnyaya Pyshma, Sverdlovsk.

Specifications (Petlyakov Pe-2)

See also

References

Notes

Bibliography
 And'al, Jozef, Hans-Heiri Stapfer & Peter Novorol'ník. Petljakov Pe-2 a Pe-3 (HT Model Speciál no.911) (in Slovak with four-page English summary sheet). Bratislava, Slovakia: Magnet Press s.r.o., 2005. ISSN 1335-3667.
 Angelucci, Enzo and Paolo Matricardi. World Aircraft: World War II, Volume II (Sampson Low Guides). Maidenhead, UK: Sampson Low, 1978. .
 "From Sotka to Peshka:The Story of Petlyakov's Pe-2, Its Origins and its Derivatives". Air International. August 1979, Vol. 17 No. 2. pp. 76–83, 93–94.
 Drabkin, Artem. The Red Air Force at War: Barbarossa and the Retreat to Moscow – Recollections of Fighter Pilots on the Eastern Front. Barnsley, UK: Pen & Sword Military, 2007. .
 Gordon, Yefim and Khazanov, Dmitri. Soviet Combat Aircraft of the Second World War, Volume 2: Twin-Engined Fighters, Attack Aircraft and Bombers. Earl Shilton, UK: Midland Publishing Ltd., 2006. .
 Gunston, Bill. Aircraft of World War 2. London, Octopus book limited, 1980. .
 Gustin, Emmanuel and Anthony G. Williams. Flying Guns: The Development of Aircraft Guns, Ammunition and Installations 1933–45. Ramsbury (MA), Airlife, 2003. .
 Jackson, Robert. Aircraft of World War II – Development – Weaponry – Specifications Enderby Le, Silverdale Books, 2003. .
 Keskinen, Kalevi; Stenman, Kari and Niska, Klaus. Suomen Ilmavoimien Historia 9, Venäläiset Pommittajat (Soviet Bombers) (in Finnish with English summary). Espoo, Finland: Tietoteos, 1982. .
 Karhunen, Joppe. Taistelulentäjien Jatkosota (in Finnish). Tammi, Finland: Kirjat, 1994. .
 Khazanov, Dimitry; Vladimir Kotelnikov and Aleksandr Medved. Le Petlyakov Pe-2 (in French). Outreau, France: Lela Presse, 2007. .
 Khazanov, Dimitry and Medved, Aleksander. Combat Aircraft 96: Pe-2 Guards Units of World War 2. Oxford, UK: Osprey Publishing, 2013. .
 Медведь, А.Н. и Хазанов, Д.Б. Пикирующий бомбардировщик Пе-2. «Пешка», ставшая ферзём. Москва: Коллекция, Яуза, ЭКСМО, 2007. Medved', A.N and Khazanov, D.B. Pikiruyushchiy bombardirovshchik Pe-2. "Peshka", stavshaya ferzyom (Pe-2 Dive Bomber. A "Pawn" That Became a Queen). Moscow, Russia: Collection, Yauza, EKSMO, 2007. .
 Medved, Aleksandr Nikolaevich and Dmitrij B. Khazanov. Pe-2, part 1 (Armada no.13) (in Russian). M-Hobby Publishing, 1999.
 Medved, Aleksandr Nikolaevich and Dmitrij B. Khazanov. Pe-2, part 2 (Armada no.18) (in Russian). M-Hobby Publishing, 2000.
 Passingham, Malcolm and Klepacki, Waclaw. Petlyakov Pe-2 and Variants (Aircraft in Profile No. 216). Windsor, Berkshire, UK: Profile Publications Ltd., 1971.
 Smith, Peter C. Petlyakov Pe-2 'Peshka'''. Ramsbury, UK: The Crowood Press, 2003. .
 Smith, Peter C. Petlyakov Pe-2: Stalin's Successful Red Air Force Light Bomber. Barnsley, UK: Air World, 2020.
 Stapfer, Hans-Heiri. Petlyakov Pe-2 in Action (Aircraft number 181)''. Carrollton, Texas: Squadron/Signal Publications, Inc., 2002. .

External links

 Flight 10 February 1944 p142-144 "A Russian Dive Bomber"
 Pe-2 variants, by V.M. Petlyakov, V.M. Myasichev, A.M. Izakson and A.I. Putilov
 Photo gallery of Polish Petlyakov Pe-2FT

1930s Soviet bomber aircraft
World War II Soviet medium bombers
World War II dive bombers
Petlyakov aircraft
Low-wing aircraft
Aircraft first flown in 1939
Twin piston-engined tractor aircraft
World War II aircraft of Finland

Petlyakov Pe-2


الجولة الأولى (خروج مغلوب)

ربع النهائي

نصف النهائي

النهائي

كأس كوسافا
كرة القدم الإفريقية في 2000

كأس كوسافا 2000


منير بن عدنان الخباز هو رجل دين وخطيب مفكر وكاتب شيعي سعودي يعد من أحد علماء القطيف ومن خطبائها، ينتهي نسبه إلى الامام علي بن أبي طالب. ولد عام 1384هـ (حوالي 1964م) في قرية المدارس بالقطيف، المملكة العربية السعودية. يلقي الدروس في مدينة قم البحث الخارج في الفقه والأصول.

ولادته ونشأته
ولد في حي المدارس، إحدى احياء القطيف في سنة 1384 هـ. و ينتمي لعائلة الخباز، وهم من نسل الامام علي بن أبي طالب تعود أصولهم إلى مكة، وقد نزحوا إلى القطيف قديمًا. والدته هي فاطمة بنت الشيخ فرج العمران، وخاله هو الشيخ حسين العمران.

درس الابتدائية وشيئً من الإعدادية، ثم هاجر إلى النجف لطلب العلوم الدينية سنة 1398 هـ، وكان عمره آنذاك أربعة عشرة سنة، ودرس هناك النحو والمنطق، حتى حصلت الأحداث التي أخلت بالأمن في العراق سنة 1399 هـ.

دراسته
تميز عن أقرانه من الطلاب، ولكنه رغم ذلك لم يكن يجد فيها تلبية لطموحه، فهاجر إلى النجف لطلب العلوم الدينية سنة 1398ه، وكان عمره آنذاك (14) سنة، ودرس هناك النحو والمنطق، حتى حصلت الأحداث التي أخلت بالأمن في العراق سنة 1399ه.
ثم تركها متوجهاً نحو مدينة قم، وبقي فيها حتى سنة 1402ه، أنهى خلالها المقدمات ودرس شيئاً من السطوح، ورجع إلى القطيف لظروف خاصة، وبقي فيها معلماً ومتعلماً ما يزيد على السنة، ثم سافر إلى سوريا وحضر هناك عند السيد جمال نجل الإمام الخوئي في (الكفاية)، في سنة 1405ه هاجر إلى النجف، فأتمّ السطوح العليا، وشرع في درس بحث الخارج، ففي النجف حضر بحث السيد أبو القاسم الخوئي، وبحث أعمال الشيخ مرتضى البروجردي، كما حضر بحث أعمال السيد علي السيستاني، وكان ذلك بتوجيه من أستاذه السيد حبيب حسينيان، حيث قدمه للسيستاني، وكان حضوره لديه لمدة شهرين كفترة تجربة، وكان من ثمار هذه التجربة أن حوَّل السيد السيستاني بحثه إلى اللغة العربية.
وكانت هذه المرحلة من المراحل الرئيسة في صقل شخصيته العلمية، حيث استفاد من أستاذه آية الله العظمى السيد السيستاني بذور التفكير في علم الأصول، والقدرة على المقارنة بين المدارس الأصولية المختلفة، كما استفاد منه السعة والشمولية والاطلاع على العلوم الحديثة، والاستفادة منها في تعميق المطالب الأصولية وفي استنطاق النصوص. وفي قم؛ حضر مجموعة من البحوث، منها بحث الشيخ الوحيد في الأصول لمدة أربع سنوات، ثم ركَّز حضوره لدى الشيخ ميرزا جواد التبريزي لما وجد فيه من تضلع بارع في الفقه ومهارة في الأصول ورحابة صدر في استقبال استفهامات الطالب والاهتمام بتربيته. وقد أولاه أستاذه الشيخ التبريزي عناية خاصة لما رأى فيه من التوقد العلمي، وكان التبريزي يلتقي به ساعات طويلة في كل يوم، حتى جعله عضواً في مجلس استفتائه.
وكانت هذه المرحلة أيضاً من المراحل الرئيسة في مسيرته العلمية، حيث كان الشيخ التبريزي يرعاه رعاية أبوية وتربوية، من خلال التمرين على الاستنباط، والتنبيه على النكات العلمية ودائماً ما يقول السيد "إنه لم يستفد من أستاذ بقدر ما استفاد من أستاذه التبريزي". وظل ملازماً إلى آخر حياته وقد كتب فيه أنه نال مرتبة الاستنباط والاجتهاد.
كما حضر مجلس استفتاء السيد الكوكبي، فترة معتداً بها حتى نال مكانة مرموقة عنده وكتب فيه أنه حاز ملكة الاجتهاد وأن له العمل بما يستنبطه، كما أشاد به السيد صادق الروحاني، وأفاد أن لديه القدرة على البحث الاستدلالي. وما زال يخفي هذه الكتابات، ويؤكد على أن الشهادات لا تضيف للعالم شيئاً، وإنما ينال العالم مكانته العلمية من حيث تميُّزه العلمي، ودروسه وطلابه ومؤلفاته.

تدريسه
مارس التدريس منذ سن 15 في النحو والبلاغة والفقه والأصول، ودرَّس المنظومة، وبداية الحكمة، ونهاية الحكمة، وغيرها من المقررات العلمية في الحوزات العلمية.

بدأ بحثه الخارج في الأصول عام 1418ه، في (فروع العلم الإجمالي)، وقد قرّره بعض تلامذته، ولكنه آثر أن يعيده بقلمه ضاغطاً للعبارات، وقد تميَّز بحثه في (فروع العلم الإجمالي)، بتناول مناقشات وإشكالات ومحاولات للتأسيس لم يسبقه إليها غيره، ويمكن ملاحظة ذلك بمقارنة ما كتبه بعض أساتذته في نفس الفترة.
كما بحث أيضاً في (صلاة المسافر)، وغيرها من أبواب الفقه المختلفة. ثم بدأ البحث الرسمي في الفقه في باب الإجارة ثم الحج، وفي الأصول بدأ دورة أصولية من بدايتها، كما فتح بحثاً آخر في الفقه تناول فيه المسائل المستحدثة، وكان أن نقل بحثه إلى بيت الشيخ التبريزي، حيث أوصى المرجع الراحل أن لا يخلو بيته من العلم، وأن يحيا بخواصِّ طلابه عبر بحوثهم العلمية.
و قام سماحة السيد بتقرير بحث الأصول لأستاذه السيد السيستاني، وطبع في مجلد جميل البيان وجزل العبارة تحت عنوان (الرافد في علم الأصول)، مبتعداً عن المألوف في الحوزة العلمية من تعقيد العبارة وضغطها، وله كتابات في الإجارة والحج والمسائل المستحدثة في طريقها للطبع.

شخصيته العلمية
تميّزت الشخصية العلمية للخباز بميزات مهمة وعديدة منها:
1/ بيانه الساحر والجذاب.
2/ تدريب طلابه على النقاش والكتابة والبحث وإمكانياته.
3/ دأبه على المقارنة بين المدارس المختلفة والتدقيق في نقدها واختيار الصائب.
ومضافاً لذلك كله فإنه شاعر منذ نعومة أظفاره، تميَّزت شاعريته بالرقة والعذوبة، فتناول مختلف جوانب الشعر، كالرثاء والمدح والغزل والوصف، ومن ذلك أرجوزته (خير الأراجيز في الوطن العزيز) وخطيب مشهور في المجتمعات الشيعية العربية.

مؤلفاته
 الرافد في علم الأصول.
 فروع العلم الإجمالي.
 الدين بين معطيات العلم وإثارات الإلحاد.
 آفاق مهدوية.
 في ظلال دعاء الافتتاح.
 حوار عبر الأثير.
 الذبح بالمكائن.

المصادر

الكتب
 معجم المؤلفات الشيعيَّة في الجزيرة العربيَّة. حبيب آل جميع، طبع بيروت - لبنان، 1417 هـ / 1997 م، منشورات دار الملاك للطباعة والنشر والتوزيع.

مراجع

علماء دين شيعة سعوديون
أشخاص على قيد الحياة
هاشميون
حسنيون
كتاب دينيون سعوديون
فقهاء سعوديون
مواليد 1384 هـ
مواليد 1964
أشخاص من القطيف

منير الخباز


البارود اللادخاني هو اسم يطلق على مجموعة من المواد الدافعة التي تستخدم في الذخيرة التي ينتج عنها دخان قليل حين استخدامها.

البارود اللادخاني أو البارود القطني مادة متفجرة دافعة أساسها النتروسلولوز [C6H7O2(OH)3-X(ONO2)x]n والنتروسلولوز مادة بيضاء ليفية القوام تشبه القطن، ومن أهم ما تتصف به اختلاف مواصفاتها الفيزيائية والكيمياوية باختلاف نسبة ما تحتويه من الآزوت (النتروجين). يستعمل البارود اللادخاني في ذخائر الأسلحة النارية والصواريخ الصغيرة التي تعمل بالوقود الصلب وفي أدوات العمل التي تتطلب ضغطا عاليا وسرعة تنفيذ، وهو ليس ذرورا كما قد يتبادر إلى الأذهان، بل ينتج على شكل أقراص أو صفيحات أو أسطوانات أو حبال أو كريات من حجوم مختلفة. ويسمى «لا دخانيا» أو «غير مدخن» للتفريق بينه وبين البارود الأسود المدخن. والبارود اللادخاني سريع الاشتعال لا يحتاج إلى أوكسجين خارجي، وينتج عند احتراقه كميات هائلة من الغازات العديمة اللون وحرارة عالية. ومن أهم خصائصه احتراق حبيباته عموديا على سطح الاحتراق، وتعتمد سرعة الاحتراق وحجم الغازات المنطلقة على تركيب حبيبات البارود وشكلها ومساحة سطح الاحتراق، وتزداد سرعة الاحتراق بازدياد الضغط، فإذا احترق البارود في حيز محكم الإغلاق فإن الغازات المنطلقة تولد ضغطا متزايدا يتسبب في زيادة تسارع الاحتراق. ويتفوق البارود اللادخاني على البارود الأسود بصفاته الدفعية العالية وعدم تركه بقايا احتراق تذكر وقلة امتصاصه للرطوبة ومحافظته على مواصفاته عند تخزينه في شروط طبيعية لمدة طويلة وقلة حساسيته للمؤثرات الخارجية وإمكانية تشكيله بأشكال وحجوم مختلفة.

إن اختراع أول مادة شديدة الانفجار ينسب عموما إلى الكيميائي السويسري من أصل ألماني كريستيان شونباين Christian Friedrich Schonbein الذي توصل في عام 1845 إلى صنع البارود القطني (النتروسلولوز) بنقع القطن في مزيج من حمض الآزوت وحمض الكبريت ثم غسل الناتج بالماء لإزالة بقايا الحمض. وفي عام 1860 توصل ضابط بروسي يدعى إرنست شولتزه E.Schultze إلى صنع مادة دافعة شبيهة بسابقتها من نقع قطع صغيرة من الخشب في حمض الآزوت، وبعد أن أزال بقايا الحمض أشبع الناتج بالباريوم ونترات البوتاسيوم. وكان البارود الذي حصل عليه شولتزه وحمل اسمه جيداً جداً لبنادق الصيد، ولكنه قليل الصلاحية للمدافع وأكثر البنادق الحربية.

في سنة 1884 توصل الكيميائي الفرنسي بول فييّ Paul Vieill إلى صنع بارود لا دخاني غرواني مكثف، هو «البارود ـ ب» powder B، قريب في صيغته من البارود اللادخاني المعروف اليوم.

وفي عام 1888 أنتج الكيميائي السويدي الشهير ألفرد نوبل Alfred Nobel مادة جديدة أسماها بالستيت ballestite، تتألف من مزيج هلامي القوام gelatinized من النتروسلولوز (40%) المخفف الآزوت مع النيتروغليسرين (60%) وقطعها شرائح، وقد ظلت هذه المادة تستعمل بنجاح مدة زادت على 75 عاماً، وطور البريطانيون فيما بعد عدداً من المنتجات المماثلة لها أطلقوا عليها اسماً عاماً هو الكوردايت cordite.

كذلك توصلت الولايات المتحدة الأمريكية في عام 1909 إلى نوع من البارود اللادخاني أكثر أماناً أساسه القطن المنترج nitrocotton الحاوي على نسبة منخفضة من الآزوت، ويدعى بيروسلولوز pyrocellulose، وهو قابل للانحلال في الإتير والكحول. وقد تبين أن هذا النوع من البارود يصلح للاستعمال في جميع أنواع المدافع، وكان المادة الدافعة الرئيسية المستخدمة في الحرب العالمية الأولى.

أنواع البارود اللادخاني: يستعمل البارود اللادخاني اليوم على نطاق واسع، وهو يصنف عموما في صنفين: وحيد الأساس وثنائي الأساس. يحتوي البارود اللادخاني الوحيد الأساس على النتروسلولوز مع بعض الإضافات، وقد حل فيه سلولوز الخشب محل ألياف القطن، ولا تزيد نسبة الآزوت فيه على 12.5- 13.5%. أما البارود الثنائي الأساس وهو أكثر أنواعه فيشتمل على نسبة 70-80% نترو سلولوز و20-30% نتروغليسرين. وقد يضاف إلى الصنفين إضافات لضمان ثباتهما وتحسين مواصفاتهما، أما أشهر أنواع البارود اللادخاني فهي: البارود البيروكسيليني والبارود النتروغليسريني وبارود الأمونيوم وبارود ثالث نترو تولوين.

المصدر
  البارود اللادخاني - موسوعة المورد، منير البعلبكي، 1991

مراجع

ذخيرة
متفجرات
وقود صلب

كوردايت

بارود لادخاني


Edward Grubb ( - ) est un quaker anglais influent qui apporte d'importantes contributions à la revitalisation du pacifisme et à une préoccupation pour les problèmes sociaux dans la Société religieuse des amis à la fin du  en tant que chef du mouvement connu sous le nom de Quaker Renaissance. Il écrit également un certain nombre d'hymnes dont Notre Dieu, vers qui nous nous tournons . Il joue un rôle majeur dans la No-Conscription Fellowship, une organisation qui unit et soutient les objecteurs de conscience en Grande-Bretagne pendant la Première Guerre mondiale.

Début de carrière
Grubb est né à Sudbury, Suffolk, fait ses études à la Bootham School  à York et étudie à l'Université de Leeds et à l'Université de Londres . Il commence sa carrière d'enseignant lorsqu'il retourne à la Bootham School  à York, en Angleterre. Bootham est un pensionnat pour garçons de la Société Religieuse des Amis. Grubb a lui-même fréquenté l'école à partir de 1868 à l'âge de quatorze ans . Il enseigne plus tard dans un certain nombre d'autres écoles, notamment d'autres écoles Quaker. Il  obtient son BA en 1876 et en 1877 épouse Emma M. Horsnail de Bulford Mill, qu'il a courtisé pendant sept ans .

Luttes avec la foi et la science
Alors qu'il se prépare à son examen de maîtrise en 1879, il a une crise de foi résultant de son incapacité à concilier la science avec les croyances religieuses avec lesquelles il a grandi. Il trouve d'abord impossible de voir comment un intellectuel sérieux pouvait aussi être religieux. Il ne trouve aucune satisfaction dans l'agnosticisme ; cependant, et reste ouvert à une solution à ses problèmes intellectuels qui incluent la croyance en Dieu . Dans les années 1880, Grubb commence à s'intéresser aux préoccupations sociales, réduisant même son enseignement pour consacrer du temps à l'étude de l'économie et aux travaux publics . Conformément à son désir de réconcilier la foi avec la science, Grubb est parmi ceux qui s'opposent vocalement et avec succès à l'adoption de la Déclaration de Richmond par l'Assemblée annuelle de Londres en 1888 . Peu de temps après, à la suite de sa participation régulière à des réunions de culte, Grubb est officiellement enregistré comme ministre dans la Société religieuse des Amis. À l'époque, il ne sent toujours pas qu'il a une base solide pour sa foi, mais il est convaincu que cela viendrait avec le temps .

Contributions majeures
Grubb devient un leader majeur du quakerisme britannique, un auteur religieux prolifique et un membre clé d'un certain nombre d'organisations religieuses et sociales, notamment la No-Conscription Fellowship. Comme la plupart des pacifistes de sa génération, sa position pacifiste absolue est née de la désillusion de la guerre des Boers . De 1901 à 1906, il est secrétaire de la Howard Association.

Mort
L' Oxford Dictionary of National Biography rapporte que Grubb est enterré le 26 janvier 1939 au cimetière Hitchin Quaker. Cependant, le procès-verbal de la réunion mensuelle de Hertford & Hitchin du 4 février 1939  indique assez clairement: "Il a été incinéré à Golders Green 27 1. 39., le décès ayant été enregistré à Letchworth 25 1er mois 1939".

Écrits

 Aspects sociaux de la foi Quaker (Londres: Headley Brothers, 1899).
 Quakerism in England: Its Present Position (Londres: Headley Brothers, 1901).
 L'autorité et la lumière intérieure (Philadelphie : JC Winston, 1908).
 Le silence de Dieu (Londres: Headley Brothers, 1909).
 Notes sur la vie et l'enseignement de Jésus (Londres: James Clark & Co.; Headley Brothers, 1910).
 La personnalité de Dieu et autres essais dans la pensée chrétienne constructive (Londres: Headley Brothers, 1911).
 Le vrai mode de vie (Londres: Headley Brothers, 1915).
 Qu'est-ce que le quakerisme ? : Une exposition des principaux principes et pratiques de la société des amis, basée sur l'expérience de "la lumière intérieure" (Londres : Swarthmore, 1917).
 Christ dans la pensée chrétienne: Notes sur le développement de la doctrine de la personne du Christ (Londres: James Clark, 1919).
 La Bible; Sa nature et son inspiration (Londres: Swarthmore, 1920).
 Le sens de la croix: une histoire de l'expiation (Londres: Allen et Unwin, 1922).
 Autorité en religion (New York: MacMillan, 1924).
 Pensée et histoire Quaker: un volume d'essais (New York: MacMillan, 1925).
 Christianisme comme vie (Londres: Swarthmore, 1927).
 La nature du christianisme (Londres: Swarthmore, 1927).
 Le christianisme comme vérité (Londres: Swarthmore, 1928).
 The Worth of Prayer: And Other Essays (Londres: James Clark, 1930).
 Réflexions sur le divin chez l'homme (Londres: Friends Book Center, 1931).

Références

Liens externes

Quaker britannique
Décès en janvier 1939
Naissance en octobre 1854
Décès à 84 ans
Personnalité britannique incinérée
Personnalité incinérée à Golders Green

Edward Grubb


Gwent er et walisisk grevskab og et tidligere lokalstyret område i det sydøstlige Wales. Det blev etableret den 1. april 1974 under Local Government Act 1972, og blev opkaldt efter det tidligere kongerige af samme navn. Myndigheden var en efterfølger til både det administrative county i Monmouthshire (med mindre grænsemæssige ændringer) og county boroughet Newport, hvilket endeligt afsluttede en lang diskussion om myndighederne legalt var en del af England.

Under Local Government (Wales) Act 1994 blev Gwent nedlagt den 1. april 1996. Det er dog fortsat et walisisk county for ceremonielle formål som Lieutenancy og High Shrievalty, og flere af områdets titler fortsatte såsom Gwent Police, Royal Gwent Hospital, Gwent Wildlife Trust, Coleg Gwent og rugbyholdet Newport Gwent Dragons. "Gwent" bruges nogle gange som synonym for det historiske county Monmouthshire — eksempelvis i Gwent Family History Society beskrive sig selv som "The key to roots in the historic county of Monmouthshire".

Det tidligere administrative county blev opdelt i flere distrikter: Blaenau Gwent, Islwyn, Monmouth, Newport og Torfaen. Efterfølgeren til myndighederne er Blaenau Gwent County Borough, Caerphilly County Borough (hvoraf en del som kom fra Mid Glamorgan), Monmouthshire (der dækker omkring 60 % af den østlige del af det historiske county), City of Newport og Torfaen County Borough.

I 2003 blev grevskabet Gwent udvidet til også at inkludere Caerphilly County Borough; Gwent Polices myndighedsområde var allerede blevet udvidet til at dække dette større område i 1996. I 2007 blev befolkningstallet i dette område estimeret til 560.500, hvilket gør det til det mest folkerige af de walisiske grevskaber.

Se også
 Liste over Lord Lieutenants af Gwent
 Liste over High Sheriffs af Gwent
 Gwent Police
 Gwent Police and Crime Commissioner

Referencer

Eksterne henvisninger
 Ralph A. Griffiths, general editor, Gwent County History, University of Wales, 5 vols, 2004 —

Grevskaber i Wales

Gwent


Malmö FF, İsveç'in Malmö şehrinde 1910'da kurulmuş olan bir futbol kulübüdür. Renkleri mavi ve beyazdır.

22 İsveç Lig Şampiyonluğu, 14 Kupa Şampiyonluğunun yanı sıra bir de Avrupa Kupası finali oynama başarısı vardır.

IFK Göteborg ve AIK ile birlikte toplam 43 lig şampiyonluğunu paylaşmış durumdadır ve İsveç Futbol Kulüplerinin Üç Büyükler'i olarak adlandırılır. 1979 yılında Nottingham Forest ile oynadığı Avrupa Şampiyon Kulüpler Kupası finali ile bunu başaran tek İsveç kulübü olmuştur.

Eski MFF oyuncuları Martin Dahlin, Stefan Schwarz, Patrik Andersson ve Zlatan Ibrahimović vb. hem millî takımı hem de Avrupa'nın Ajax, Arsenal, Barcelona, Bayern Münih, Benfica, Juventus ve Roma gibi büyük kulüplerini temsil etmişlerdir.

Aynı zamanda Malmö FF'e bağlı kadın futbol takımı da süper ligde mücadele etmektedir.

Takım kadrosu

Başarıları
 İsveç şampiyonu
Şampiyon (25): 1944, 1949, 1950, 1951, 1953, 1965, 1967, 1970, 1971, 1974, 1975, 1977, 1985, 1986, 1987, 1988, 1989, 2004, 2010, 2013, 2014, 2016, 2017, 2020, 2021
 Kupa
Şampiyon (14): 1944, 1946, 1947, 1951, 1953, 1967, 1973, 1974, 1975, 1978, 1980, 1984, 1986, 1989
 UEFA Şampiyonlar Ligi
İkinci (1): 1978-79
 Kıtalararası Kupa
İkinci (1): 1979

Kaynakça
Özel

Dış bağlantılar
 Malmö FF resmi sitesi (İsveççe)

Malmö'deki futbol kulüpleri
İsveç'te kurulan oluşumlar
1910'da Avrupa'da kurulan oluşumlar
1910'da kurulan futbol kulüpleri

Malmö FF


Jeonnam Dragons (koreansk: 전남 드래곤즈) er en fodboldklub i byen Gwangyang, Sydkorea.

Titler
Korean FA Cup
Vinder (4): 1997, 2006, 2007, 2021

Eksterne henvisninger

 hjemmeside (koreansk)
Fodboldklubber i Sydkorea
Sport i Sydkorea

Jeonnam Dragons


The Dan Ryan Expressway is an expressway in Chicago that runs from the Circle Interchange with Interstate 290 (I-290) near Downtown Chicago through the South Side of the city. It is designated as both I-90 and I-94 south to 66th Street, a distance of . South of 66th Street, the freeway meets the Chicago Skyway, which travels southeast; the I-90 designation transfers over to the Skyway, while the Dan Ryan Expressway retains the I-94 designation and continues south for , ending at an interchange with I-57. This is a total distance of . The freeway was named for Dan Ryan Jr., a former president of the Cook County Board of Commissioners.

Route description
On an average day, up to 307,100 vehicles use a portion of the Dan Ryan (2005 data). The Dan Ryan, and its North Side counterpart the Kennedy Expressway, are the busiest roads in the entire state of Illinois. Utilizing an express-local system, the Dan Ryan has 14 lanes of traffic; seven in each direction, with four of those as express lanes and the other three providing access for exit and on-ramps. Because of its width, the Dan Ryan is very popular with commuters who live south of the Loop, making the road prone to traffic jams during weekday  rush hour.

The posted directions on the Dan Ryan are different from the actual compass direction of the expressway, which may cause confusion to many travelers. The Dan Ryan for its entire  length runs north–south. However, the Dan Ryan is a part of the larger Interstates 90 and 94, which both run east–west through the United States. Therefore, one who is traveling "west" on I-90/94 is actually driving north on the Dan Ryan as it passes through Chicago; I-90 continues northwest from the Kennedy split, while I-94 runs north–south until the Marquette Interchange in Milwaukee. Similarly, "east" on 90 and 94 on the entire system is really south through Chicago; the interstates will continue on an easterly path outside of the city. Chicagoans also typically refer to the direction of travel as either "inbound" or "outbound" from the downtown area.

Four miles of continuous high-rise housing projects (Stateway Gardens and the Robert Taylor Homes) formerly ran parallel to the expressway on its eastern side from Cermak Road south to Garfield Boulevard. However, nearly all of these buildings have been demolished as part of the CHA's transformation plan.

The Red Line runs in the median of the Dan Ryan. This section of the Chicago "L" opened on September 28, 1969. Chicago pioneered the location of rapid transit line in expressway medians, a practice that has since been followed in several other cities, such as Toronto, and Pasadena.

The control cities for the Dan Ryan Expressway are Indiana south, and the Chicago Loop northbound.

History
The first segment of the Dan Ryan, opened on December 12, 1961 and ran between US 12/US 20, 95th Street north to 71st Street in Chicago's Grand Crossing neighborhood. It was named after the recently deceased Dan Ryan, Jr., who was President of the Cook County Board of Commissioners who had worked to accelerate construction of Chicago-area expressways. A year later on December 15, 1962, the  stretch of the Dan Ryan between 71st Street and I-90/Eisenhower Expressway (now signed as I-290) opened to the public as well as a  stretch that connected it to the Bishop Ford Freeway (then known as the Calumet Expressway). During the planning stages it was also known as the South Route Expressway.

In 1988–1989, the northern  of the Dan Ryan, known as the Elevated Bridge, were completely reconstructed.

In 2006 and 2007, the Illinois Department of Transportation reconstructed the entire length of the Dan Ryan Expressway, including the addition of a travel lane from 47th Street to 95th Street. The project was the largest expressway reconstruction plan in Chicago history. The total cost of the project was $975 million, nearly twice the $550 million original estimate for the project.

Exit list

References

External links

 Dan Ryan Expressway (I-90 and I-94) at Steve Anderson's ChicagoRoads.com
 Historic, Current & Average Travel Times For The Dan Ryan Expressway

Interstate 90
Interstate 94
Transport infrastructure completed in 1962
Expressways in the Chicago area

Dan Ryan Expressway


Cultura igbo (în igbo: Ọmenala ndị Igbo) reprezintă normele sociale, practicile și tradițiile poporului igbo. Aceasta cuprinde atât practicile arhaice cât și conceptele noi adăugate culturii igbo de evoluția culturală sau de influențe exterioare. Aceste obiceiuri și tradiții includ arta vizuală, muzica, dansurile, bucătăria și limba poporului igbo.

Muzica

Poporul igbo are un stil muzical melodic și sinfonic. Instrumentele lor muzicale includ udu (cel din imagine), opi (un instrument asemanător cu un flaut), igba și ichaka.

O altă formă de muzică populară a poporului igbo este highlife ce este o fuziune dintre jazz și muzica tradițională. Highlife-ul igbo modern poate să fie observat în lucrările lui:
 Prince Nico Mbarga
  Dr Sir Warrior
 Oliver De Coque
 Bright Chimezie
 Chief Osita Osadebe, unii dintre cei mai importanți muzicinei ai Highlife-ului igbo ce aparțin secolului al XX-lea. De asemenea mai există și alți artiști ai Highlife-ului igbo ca:
 Mike Ejeagha
 Paulson Kalu
 Ali Chukwuma
 Ozoemena Nwa Nsugbe.

Arta vizuală

Arta vizuală igbo (în igbo: Ǹkà Igbo) este cunoscută pentru mascaradele ceremoniale, măștile și îmbrăcămințile ce simbolizează animale, oameni sau concepte abstracte. Arta igbo este cunoscută și pentru sculpturile în bronz din secolul al IX-lea, din orașul Igbo Ukwu.
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Mitologia

Deși astăzi mulți oameni igbo sunt creștini, religia tradițională igbo este cunsocută ca Odinani. În mitologia igbo, zeul suprem este numit Chukwu (în traducere în limba română: "mare spirit"). Conform mitologiei igbo Chukwu a creat lumea și este asociat cu toate lucrurile de pe Pământ. De asemenea Chukwu este o divinitate solară. Din perspectiva religiei igbo, cosmosul este împărțit în 4 mari părți:
 Okike (Creația)
 Alusi (Forțe și Divinități Supranaturale)
 Mmuo (Spirit)
 Uwa (Lumea)

Ignama
Ignama este foarte importantă pentru poporul igbo ca mâncare de bază a lor. Oamenii igbo sărbătoresc Festivalul noii igname (în igbo: Iri Ji).

Vezi și
 Poporul igbo
 Arta africană
 Muzeul Național al Nigeriei din Lagos
 Festivalul Igbo al Noii Igname

Referințe

Nigeria

Cultura igbo


Za božicu, pogledajte "Sati (hinduistička božica)".
Sati (ili Suttee na engleskom) indijski je film iz 1989. godine. Redateljica i scenaristica filma jest Aparna Sen. Radnja se temelji na djelu bengalskog pisca Kamala Kumara Majumdara.

Glavni je lik mlada žena imenom Umi (Uma; glumi ju Shabana Azmi), koja je nijema, a njezin horoskop kaže da će joj suprug umrijeti ubrzo nakon vjenčanja te će ona morati postati (ili počiniti) sati — izgorjeti živa na pogrebnoj lomači svog muža. Nakon što lokalni svećenik naredi njezinoj obitelji da se mora udati jer je grijeh za ženu ostati u celibatu, Umin ujak udaje Umi za stablo smokve, kako bi poštedio nećakinju stravičnog umiranja.

Glumci
Shabana Azmi
Arun Banerjee
Kali Banerjee
Pradip Mukherjee
Arindam Ganguli
Shakuntala Barua
Laboni Sarkar

Pogledajte također
Žene u hinduizmu

Izvori

Vanjske poveznice
Sati (YouTube)
Indijski filmovi
Filmovi 1980-ih

Sati (indijski film)


Cape Clear may refer to:
 Cape Clear (software company)
 Cape Clear Island, on the southern coast of Ireland
 Cape Clear, Victoria, a town in Australia

Cape Clear


Das Haus zum Gaul in der Wiege ist ein unter Denkmalschutz stehendes Gebäude in der oberschwäbischen Stadt Memmingen. Es steht im ensemblegeschützten Bereich der Stauferstadt in der Kalchstraße. Das namensgebende Gemälde an der Außenfassade gehört zu den sogenannten sieben Memminger Wahrzeichen.

Das viergeschossige Haus hat drei Achsen und stammt im Kern aus dem 15. Jahrhundert; es besitzt ein Walmdach und ein Zwerchhaus. Der dreiseitige Erker beginnt im ersten Geschoss und zieht sich hinauf bis zum dritten Obergeschoss. Das korbbogige Portal wird von Pilastern und Gebälk umrahmt und stammt aus der Zeit um 1700. Die Oberlichter sind mit Gittern aus Stäben mit Girlanden vom Anfang des 19. Jahrhunderts verziert, aus derselben Zeit stammen die Eichenholztürflügel. Die Durchfahrt des Erdgeschosses ist in sechs Abschnitte mit dreiteiligem Kreuzgratgewölbe aus dem 15. Jahrhundert geteilt. Die östlich anliegenden Räume waren ehemals eine Folge von fünfeinhalb Jochen Kreuzrippengewölben, die Rippen sind jedoch nur in den drei nördlichen Jochen erhalten geblieben. Es wurden moderne Zwischenwände eingezogen. Im Keller befindet sich eine tonnengewölbte Halle, welche auf einem quadratischen Mittelpfeiler ruht. Zwischen dem ersten und dem zweiten Stock verläuft eine durch einen Wandschrank zu betretende geheime Treppe. Das Treppenhaus zwischen dem zweiten und dritten Stock ist dreiseitig umlaufend. Das Geländer besteht aus schlanken Holzbalustern des 18. Jahrhunderts. Im zweiten Obergeschoss ist ein Zimmer mit geschwungenem Rahmenstuck erhalten.

Am unteren Abschluss des Erkers befindet sich ein Gemälde mit einem Gaul in der Wiege, das auf die Sage mit demselben Namen Bezug nimmt.

Literatur

Weblinks

Baudenkmal in Memmingen
Erbaut im 15. Jahrhundert
Bauwerk in Memmingen

Haus zum Gaul in der Wiege


A análise de estabilidade de declive ou encostas é um método estático ou dinâmico, analítico ou empírico para avaliar a estabilidade de barragens de terra e enrocamento, aterros, encostas escavadas e encostas naturais em solo e rocha. A estabilidade da encosta refere-se à condição do solo inclinado ou encostas rochosas para resistir ou sofrer movimento. A condição de estabilidade de encostas é objeto de estudo e pesquisa em mecânica dos solos, engenharia geotécnica e geologia de engenharia.

Exemplos

Encostas de terra podem desenvolver uma área de fraqueza esférica de corte. A probabilidade de isso acontecer pode ser calculada com antecedência usando um pacote de análise circular 2-D simples. Uma dificuldade primária com a análise é localizar o plano de deslizamento mais provável para qualquer situação. Muitos deslizamentos só foram analisados após o fato. Mais recentemente, a tecnologia de radar de estabilidade de taludes tem sido empregada, particularmente na indústria de mineração, para reunir dados em tempo real e auxiliar na determinação da probabilidade de falha em taludes.

Medindo o Ângulo de Repouso
O ângulo de repouso é definido como o ângulo mais íngreme de material granular não confinado medido a partir do plano horizontal no qual o material granular pode ser empilhado sem colapsar, variando entre 0-90 °. Para materiais granulares, o ângulo de repouso é o principal fator que influencia a estabilidade da encosta sob diferentes condições em relação à coesão/fricção do material, o tamanho do grão e a forma da partícula.

Medição Teórica

Um diagrama de corpo livre simples pode ser usado para entender a relação entre o ângulo de repouso e a estabilidade do material na encosta. Para que o material acumulado entre em colapso, as forças de atrito devem ser equivalentes ao componente horizontal da força gravitacional , onde  é a massa do material,  é a aceleração gravitacional e  é o ângulo de inclinação:

A força de atrito  é equivalente ao produto da multiplicação do coeficiente de atrito estático  e a Força Normal  ou :

Onde  é o ângulo de repouso, ou o ângulo em que a inclinação falha em condições regulares, e  é o coeficiente de atrito estático do material na encosta.

Geomorfologia
Mecânica dos solos
Geofísica

Análise de estabilidade de declive


Curt Hoffmann (* 24. Oktober 1898 in Dahlen; † 1. Juni 1959 in Kiel) war ein deutscher Botaniker.

Leben
Der Sohn des Dahlener Arztes Oskar Hoffmann und Bruder des Zoologen Hans Hoffmann besuchte ab 1909 das Königin-Carola-Gymnasium in Leipzig, das er während des Ersten Weltkrieges 1917 mit dem Notreifezeugnis verließ. Von 1917 bis 1924 studierte er – unterbrochen von der Kriegsgefangenschaft – Naturwissenschaften an der Universität Leipzig. Im Verlauf des Ersten Weltkrieges wurde er zum Kriegsdienst eingezogen und war von 1918 bis 1919 in britischer Kriegsgefangenschaft. Nach seiner Promotion am 24. Juni 1924 war er wissenschaftlicher Assistent des Karyologen Georg Tischler am Botanischen Institut der Universität Kiel.

Aus einer Freundschaft zu Wilhelm Nienburg entwickelte sich sein Interesse an der Algologie.

1937 wurde Curt Hoffmann Leiter des meeresbotanischen Laboratoriums des unter Adolf Remane neu errichteten Instituts für Meereskunde in Kiel, das im Zweiten Weltkrieg zerstört wurde.

Curt Hoffmann hatte nach 1945 wesentlichen Anteil am Neuaufbau dieses Instituts. 1946 wurde er außerordentlicher Professor und 1956 Ordinarius für Meeresbotanik an der Universität Kiel. Neben seiner Lehrtätigkeit richtete sich das Interesse seiner Forschungen insbesondere auf die Physiologie und Ökologie höherer Meeresalgen.

Er war Mitherausgeber der wissenschaftlichen Fachzeitschrift Botanica Marina.

Schriften (Auswahl)
 Ueber das diosmotische Verhalten von Beggiatoa mirabilis Cohn, Dissertationsschrift, 1924
 gemeinsam mit W. Ruhland: Beiträge zur Ultrafiltertheorie des Plasmas, in: Beiträge der mathematisch-physikalischen Klasse der Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Leipzig, Bd. 76, Leipzig 1924, S. 47–62
 gemeinsam mit W. Ruhland: Die Permeabilität von Beggiatoa mirabilis. Ein Beitrag zur Ultrafiltertheorie des Plasmas, in: Planta, Bd. 1, S. 1–83 (1925)
 Über die Durchlässigkeit kernloser Zellen, in Planta, Bd. 4, S. 584–605 (1927)
 Über eine in der Kieler Förde neu aufgetauchte Rotalge: Porphyra atropurpurea de Toni, in: Wissenschaftliche Meeresuntersuchungen Abteilung Kiel, N.F., Bd. 21, S. 1–9 (1928)
 Die Atmung der Meeresalgen und ihre Beziehung zum Salzgehalt, in: Jahrbuch wissenschaftlicher Botanik, Bd. 71, S. 214–268 (1929)
 Die Bestimmung des osmotischen Druckes an Meeresalgen, in: Planta, Bd. 16, S. 413–432

Literatur
 Tore Levring: In Memoriam Curt Hoffmann, in: Botanica Marina, Jg. 1, H. 3/4, S. 65 (1960)

Einzelnachweise

Botaniker (20. Jahrhundert)
Meeresbiologe
Hochschullehrer (Christian-Albrechts-Universität zu Kiel)
Person (Leipzig)
Deutscher
Geboren 1898
Gestorben 1959
Mann

Curt Hoffmann (Botaniker)


Moronobea, biljni rod iz porodice kluzijevki kojemu pripada nekoliko vrsta drveća u tropskoj Africi.

Rod je opisan 1824.

Vrste
 Pentadesma butyracea Sabine
 Pentadesma exelliana Staner
 Pentadesma grandifolia Baker f.
 Pentadesma lebrunii Staner
 Pentadesma reyndersii Spirlet

Izvori

Symphonieae

Pentadesma


Euptelea, biljni rod koji čini samostalnu porodicu Eupteleaceae, i dio je reda žabnjakolike. Priznate su dvije vrste, od kojih jedna raste na japanskim otocima Honshu, Shikoku i Kyushu (E. polyandra), a druga u istočnoj Aziji, od Assama do Kine i u Tibetu, Butanu i Indiji (Arunachal Pradesh)

Opis porodice
Eupteleaceae, porodica dikotiledonih cvjetnica (red Ranunculales) s jednim rodom, Euptelea, i dvije vrste drveća ili velikih grmova. Njegovi članovi, E. polyandra, porijeklom iz Japana, i E. pleiosperma, porijeklom iz jugozapadne Kine i Assama, Indija, ponekad se uzgajaju kao ukrasi uglavnom zbog svog lišća, koje je crveno kad je mlado, a zeleno u zrelosti. U jesen listopadno lišće postaje jarko crveno ili žuto.

Pripadnici Eupteleaceae imaju jednostavne, naizmjenično raspoređene, rubno nazubljene listove. Dvospolni cvjetovi imaju 6 do 18 tučkova (ženskih organa) na kratkim peteljkama i brojne prašnike (muške strukture koje proizvode pelud), ali nemaju čašice ili latice. Grozdasti plodovi su suhe samare (krilati jednosjemeni orasi) s usjekom na jednoj strani.

Vrste
 Euptelea pleiosperma Hook. fil. & Thomson
 Euptelea polyandra Siebold & Zucc.

Izvori

Žabnjakolike

Euptelea


Sous la Troisième République, l'Union des droites est le nom d'un groupe parlementaire français réunissant les monarchistes légitimistes et orléanistes ainsi que des bonapartistes, hostiles à l'idée même de République, pendant les deux premières décennies de la Troisième République.

D'abord autonomes, ces différentes familles se rassemblent progressivement afin de mieux peser face aux républicains, majoritaires à la Chambre des députés à partir de 1876. Leur influence diminue durant les années 1880-1890, à la suite du ralliement des plus modérés au régime républicain et à l'apparition de nouvelles idéologies comme le boulangisme ou le nationalisme.

Histoire

Troisième République

Composition
Siégeant à droite, par opposition aux républicains, trois mouvances se distinguent au sein de cette famille conservatrice :

 les légitimistes : royalistes fidèles à la branche des Bourbons, ils souhaitent placer le comte de Chambord sur le trône et sont partisans d'un retour à une monarchie forte (comme les ultra-royalistes sous la Restauration) ;
 les orléanistes : plus modérés, siégeant au centre droit, ils veulent réinstaurer un régime constitutionnel (à l'image de la monarchie de Juillet), avec à sa tête le comte de Paris, petit-fils de  ;
 les bonapartistes : fortement affaiblis après la chute du Second Empire, ils sont partisans au retour d'un « Empire autoritaire » (en opposition à « l'Empire libéral » instauré à la fin du règne de Napoléon III) et forment le groupe de l'Appel au peuple.

1871-1876 : groupe majoritaire à l'Assemblée nationale
À la suite des élections législatives de 1871, qui ont lieu dans le cadre de la convention d'armistice afin d'avoir une assemblée légitime pour signer la paix, les partis conservateurs prônant la fin de la guerre remportent une large majorité des sièges à l'Assemblée nationale.

Mais faute de pouvoir s'entendre pour la restauration de la monarchie, l'Union des droites fait élire le maréchal de Mac Mahon à la présidence de la République mais se désagrège lors du vote des lois constitutionnelles de 1875, les quelques bonapartistes refusant ces lois et les légitimistes étant divisés. Elle garde la majorité jusqu'aux élections législatives de 1876, qui voient la victoire des Républicains opportunistes et lors desquelles les droites ne font pas d'alliance électorale nationale. Le groupe de l'Union des droites est donc dissout de fait.

Le Sénat passe quant à lui à gauche en 1879.

1881-1893 : déclin à la Chambre des députés
Après les élections de 1889, le choix d'un groupe unique de la droite est débattu, notamment par Eugène Jolibois qui souhaite créer un groupe dissident pour permettre l'indépendance des députés. Il s'agit aussi d'un questionnement de positionnement, entre l'intransigeance et la modération. La modération est notamment soutenue par Jacques Piou et Jean Hély d'Oissel, refusant notamment la proposition de Charles-Émile Freppel de renommer le groupe en « la Droite » ou « la Droite conservatrice ».

Le Ralliement d'une partie des conservateurs à la République à partir de 1893, au sein de la Droite républicaine, provoque la fin définitive de l'Union des droites.

Un nouveau rassemblement des députés royalistes a lieu de 1910 à 1919, au sein du groupe des droites.

Évolution des effectifs

Notes et références

Bibliographie

Groupe parlementaire de la Troisième République
Droite en France
Monarchisme français

Union des droites (groupe parlementaire)


John Duncombe henviser til blandt andre:

 John Duncombe (politiker) (1622-1687) – engelsk politiker
 John Duncombe (forfatter) (1729-1786) – engelsk forfatter

Se også

 John Duncumb (1765-1839) – engelsk forfatter

John Duncombe


Marcel Novick Rettich (Montevideo, Uruguay, 11 de octubre de 1983) es un exfutbolista uruguayo.

Su último club fue Racing Club de Montevideo.

Hijo de Solveig Rettich y Edgardo Novick, tiene 3 hermanos entre ellos el también futbolista Hernán Novick.

Trayectoria
Luego de jugar en varios equipos, llegó a Peñarol a comienzos del 2012. Con el club logró el Campeonato Uruguayo 2012-13 y también el Campeonato Uruguayo 2015-16. En esta última temporada, en el clásico del Torneo Clausura 2016 frente a Nacional, marcó un gol con la nuca en el último minuto, finalizando 2 a 2, resultado que sería clave para la obtención del título.

El 12 de junio de 2016, en la semifinal frente a Plaza Colonia, que Peñarol ganó 3 a 1, Marcel desafortunadamente se rompe el tendón de aquiles faltando pocos minutos para el final del partido, quedando sin jugar durante 6 meses y siendo sometido a una operación. Con Peñarol también obtuvo el Campeonato Uruguayo 2017 donde anotó 1 gol.

Ya en la temporada 2018, el 26 de enero de 2018, se consagra campeón de la Supercopa Uruguaya tras derrotar por 3-1 a Nacional, partido donde no tuvo minutos.
En esa misma temporada lograría el tercer puesto en el Apertura e Intermedio, logrando conquistar el Clausura y la Anual, para posteriormente salir bicampeón uruguayo con el Manya.

En marzo de 2021, Peñarol anunció la no renovación de su contrato, por lo que el jugador quedó libre.

En abril de 2021, Racing Club de Montevideo haría oficial su llegada.

Clubes

 Actualizado al último partido disputado en el año 2019.

Palmarés

Títulos nacionales

Referencias

Enlaces externos
 Ficha en footballdatabase.eu

Nacidos en Montevideo
Futbolistas de Uruguay
Futbolistas del Centro Atlético Fénix
Futbolistas del Club Atlético Peñarol
Futbolistas del Rocha Fútbol Club
Futbolistas del Centro Cultural y Deportivo El Tanque Sisley
Futbolistas del Club Social y Deportivo Villa Española
Futbolistas del Rampla Juniors Fútbol Club
Hermanos futbolistas
Futbolistas del Club Atlético Peñarol en los años 2010
Futbolistas del Club Atlético Peñarol en los años 2020

Marcel Novick


Capitanejo peut désigner :

Toponymes

Capitanejo : une municipalité du département de Santander.

Capitanejo : la capitale de la paroisse civile de Pedro Briceño Méndez de la municipalité d'Ezequiel Zamora dans l'État de Barinas ;
 le río Capitanejo : un cours d'eau dans l'État de Barinas.

Homonymie de toponyme

Capitanejo


Allium saxatile es una especie de planta bulbosa del género Allium, perteneciente a la familia de las amarilidáceas, del orden de las Asparagales.
Se distribuye desde el sudeste de Europa hasta China.

Descripción
Allium saxatile tiene bulbos, generalmente agrupados, ovoides, cilíndricos, de 0,7 - 1,5 cm de diámetro; con túnica marrón a marrón rojizo, coriáceos. Las hojas más cortas que la inflorescencia, de 0,5 - 1,5 mm de ancho, semicilíndricas, adaxialmente canalizadas, suave, a veces escabrosas-denticuladas. Escapo de 20 a 60 cm, cilíndricos, sólidos, lisos, cubiertos con las vainas de las hojas en 1 / 3 de su longitud. Umbela globosa, densamente cubierta con muchas flores. Perianto de color rojo púrpura a rojo pálido, rara vez blanco, con segmentos de nervio central más oscuro. Tiene un número cromosomático de 2 n = 16, 32.

Distribución y hábitat
Se encuentra en las laderas secas; a una altitud de 1100 - 3100 metros en Xinjiang, (Altay Shan, Tarbagatay Shan, Tian Shan), Kazajistán, Rusia y Europa.

Taxonomía

Allium saxatile fue descrita por Friedrich August Marschall von Bieberstein y publicado en Tableau des provinces situees sur la cote occidentale de la Mer caspinne..." 114, en el año 1798.
Etimología
Allium: nombre genérico muy antiguo. Las plantas de este género eran conocidos tanto por los romanos como por los griegos. Sin embargo, parece que el término tiene un origen celta y significa "quemar", en referencia al fuerte olor acre de la planta. Uno de los primeros en utilizar este nombre para fines botánicos fue el naturalista francés Joseph Pitton de Tournefort (1656-1708).

saxatile: epíteto latino que significa "que crece entre rocas".
Sinonimia

Referencias

Enlaces externos

saxatile
Flora de Asia central
Plantas descritas en 1798
Plantas descritas por M.Bieb.

Allium saxatile


The Six Divisions of Cavalry (), also known as the Kapıkulu Süvarileri ("Household Slave Cavalry"), was a corps of elite cavalry soldiers in the army of the Ottoman Empire (Sipahi). There were not really six, but four, divisions in the corps. Two of the six were sub-divisions. The divisions were:

 Sipāhiyān (, roughly, "Armymen")
 Silah-dārān (From Persian, translated roughly as "weaponbearers")
 Ulufeciyān (; translated as "stipendiaries"), organised into two sub-divisions:
 ()
  ()
 Garibān (; translated roughly as "strangers"), organised into two sub-divisions:
 Garips of the Left

The elite cavalry was the mounted counterpart to the Janissaries and played an important part in the Ottoman Army. The Six Divisions were probably founded during the reign of Sultan Mehmed II (r. 1451–1481), but the Sipahis had existed since 1326.

Sources

See also
 Military of the Ottoman Empire

Cavalry units and formations of the Ottoman Empire
Corps of Janissaries

Six Divisions of Cavalry


Glenea subarida é uma espécie de escaravelho da família Cerambycidae. Foi descrita por Stephan von Breuning em 1958.

Referências

Borneo catalog 2005

subarida
Coleópteros descritos em 1958

Glenea subarida


HMS Hurricane  was an H-class destroyer that had originally been ordered by the Brazilian Navy in the late 1930s with the name Japura, but was bought by the Royal Navy after the beginning of World War II in September 1939 and later renamed. When completed in June 1940, the ship was temporarily assigned to the Home Fleet before she began escorting convoys and conducting anti-submarine patrols. She was badly damaged during a German air raid on Liverpool in May 1941 and her repairs were not completed until the beginning of 1942. Hurricane was then assigned as the flotilla leader of Escort Group B1 assigned to the Mid-Ocean Escort Force, escorting convoys in the North Atlantic for the next two years. The ship was torpedoed by a German submarine on Christmas Eve 1943, and had to be scuttled the next day as she was unable to steam back to port.

Description
Hurricane displaced  at standard load and  at deep load. The ship had an overall length of , a beam of  and a draught of . She was powered by Parsons geared steam turbines, driving two shafts, which developed a total of  and gave a maximum speed of . Steam for the turbines was provided by three Admiralty 3-drum water-tube boilers. Hurricane carried a maximum of  of fuel oil, giving her a range of  at . The ship's complement was 152 officers and men.

The vessel was designed for four 4.7-inch Mk IX guns in single mounts, designated 'A', 'B', 'X', and 'Y' from front to rear, but 'Y' gun was removed to compensate for the additional depth charges added. For anti-aircraft (AA) defence, Hurricane had two quadruple Mark I mounts for the 0.5 inch Vickers Mark III machine gun. She was fitted with two above-water quadruple torpedo tube mounts for  torpedoes. One depth charge rail and two throwers were originally fitted, but this was increased to three sets of rails and eight throwers while fitting-out. The ship's load of depth charges was increased from 20 to 110 as well. She was fitted with an ASDIC set to detect submarines by reflections from sound waves beamed into the water.

Wartime modifications
Little data on Hurricanes modifications during the war has survived, although it is known that she had her rear torpedo tubes replaced by a 12-pounder AA gun by October 1940. The ship's short-range AA armament may have been augmented by two Oerlikon 20 mm guns on the wings of the ship's bridge and the .50-calibre machine gun mounts may have also been replaced by a pair of Oerlikons. The ship's director-control tower and rangefinder above the bridge may have been removed in exchange for a Type 271 target indication radar. A Type 286 short-range surface search radar was probably also fitted midway through the war. The ship probably also received a HF/DF radio direction finder mounted on a pole mainmast. It is not known at what point the dazzle camouflage paint scheme was applied.

Service
Japura was ordered by Brazil on 6 December 1937 from Vickers-Armstrongs, Barrow-in-Furness. The ship was laid down on 3 June 1938 and she was purchased by the British on 5 September 1939 after the beginning of World War II. Renamed HMS Hurricane, the ship was launched on 29 September and commissioned on 21 June 1940. She was assigned to the 9th Destroyer Flotilla of the Home Fleet upon commissioning until new construction replaced the losses suffered over the previous few months. Hurricane then began escorting convoys and conducting anti-submarine patrols until May 1941. On 17 September, the ship rescued survivors of , a small passenger ship evacuating 90 children from the United Kingdom to Canada, and the freighter . She rescued 451 survivors from the passenger-cargo liner  and landed them at Greenock, Scotland on 1 May 1941.

Hurricane was bombed and sunk in a German air raid on Liverpool during the night of 7/8 May 1941. She was struck by a bomb that passed through the hull and detonated underneath her. The explosion blew a large hole in her bottom and flooded her engine room and oil tanks. The ship's structure was badly damaged enough that her stern began to sag downwards and Hurricane was moved to Bidston Dock lest she sink and block traffic in the harbour. No one was killed in the attack, although a few crewmen received minor injuries.

The ship was repaired and returned to service in January 1942 as flotilla leader of Escort Group B1 assigned to the Mid-Ocean Escort Force. Hurricane remained as the leader for the next two years. Whilst escorting Convoy OS 62/KMS 36, the ship was hit by an acoustic T5 torpedo fired by the  on the evening of 24 December 1943. The torpedo homed in on the ship's propeller noises and blew off  of her stern. The explosion killed three and wounded nine of her crew, and rendered her unable to move. The following morning, she was scuttled by the destroyer  at .

Notes

References

External links

Jurua-class destroyers
Ships built in Barrow-in-Furness
1939 ships
G and H-class destroyers of the Royal Navy
World War II destroyers of the United Kingdom
Ships sunk by German submarines in World War II
World War II shipwrecks in the Atlantic Ocean
Maritime incidents in May 1941
Maritime incidents in December 1943

HMS Hurricane (H06)


Gabriel Carrasco (Rosario el 28 de noviembre de 1854 − Buenos Aires, 5 de junio de 1908) fue un pedagogo, estadístico, periodista, historiador, geógrafo, intendente municipal, ministro, diputado y convencional argentino. Participó como estadístico en todos los censos de su época. Falleció a los 53 años.

Biografía
Era hijo del maestro y concejal Eudoro Carrasco y de Eutemia Benítez.
Su padre fue fundador ―junto con Ovidio Lagos (1825-1891)― del diario La Capital (1867−), y fundador del periódico El Comercio. Como concejal, diseñó el escudo de la ciudad.

Nació en el «palacio Arijón» (que estaba en la esquina noroeste de Laprida y Santa Fe, sobre parte del terreno que había ocupado hasta 1886 la casa del partidario rosista Martín Santa Coloma y que había sido tomada por Domingo Faustino Sarmiento para instalar la imprenta con la que editaba el boletín del Ejército Grande. Fue demolido en 1982.

Realizó sus estudios en el Convento de San Francisco (en Santa Fe). En 1879 obtuvo el título de abogado.

Desempeñó numerosas funciones públicas en su provincia: secretario de la Jefatura de la Policía de Rosario; miembro de la Convención Constituyente de Santa Fe; oficial mayor del Ministerio del Interior; intendente municipal de Rosario; ministro de Instrucción Pública y Hacienda, y procurador fiscal de la provincia.

Ejerció la docencia como profesor de física en el Colegio Nacional de Rosario; inspector de escuelas y vocal del Consejo Nacional de Educación. Perteneció a varias instituciones académicas de Rosario, siendo miembro de la Junta de Historia y Numismática.

Fue autor de obras de investigación histórica y de estudios estadísticos. Colaboró mucho en periódicos y revistas.

En 1862 escribió con su padre Eudoro los Anales de la ciudad de Rosario.

En 1874 inició sus trabajos y publicaciones sobre estadística en el Almanaque de Rosario, donde presentaba el calendario correspondiente a cada año, los eclipses y fases de la Luna, datos estadísticos sobre servicios públicos, bancos, hospitales, profesiones y colegios.

El 25 de enero de 1876, Carrasco (de ) publicó la novedosa Guía civil y comercial de la ciudad del Rosario. Del relevamiento resultó que el pueblo ―de 30.000 habitantes― contaba con 244 almacenes, 45 casas de billares, 31 fondas, bodegones o restaurantes, 27 panaderías, 27 zapateros, 23 carnicerías, 23 herrerías, 17 cónsules, 16 médicos, 16 peluquerías, 15 cigarrerías, 13 abogados, 6 sociedades de beneficencia, 5 librerías, 5 clubes, 4 bancos, 4 templos católicos, 4 imprentas, 3 dentistas, 3 cervecerías, 2 hoteles, 2 teatros, 2 bibliotecas, 1 asilo de inmigrantes, 1 hospital y 1 línea de ferrocarril.

En 1881 publicó Datos estadísticos de la provincia de Santa Fe. En 1887, Primer censo general de la provincia de Santa Fe.

El 27 de noviembre de 1888, Antonio Dónovan (1849-1897, gobernador de Chaco y amigo íntimo de Carrasco) puso en vigencia el Código de policía urbano y rural, redactado por Carrasco. Este fue el primer instrumento normativo de la Policía del Territorio del Chaco.

Carrasco presenció la fundación de la Colonia General Vedia. Inspirado en ese lugar, proyectó el escudo del Territorio Nacional del Chaco, oficializado el 12 de octubre de 1888, por Decreto del Gobernador Antonio Dónovan y puesto en uso como timbre oficial hasta el año 1909. El mismo ha sufrido supresión de uso y después de casi 50 años, con muy pocas modificaciones en sus concepciones originales, fue aprobado por Decreto 1006 el 20/12/1955, para uso oficial de la Provincia, cuyo proyecto fue presentado por el historiador Carlos López Piacentini.

Carrasco hizo publicar conferencias y cartas como La provincia de Santa Fe y el territorio del Chaco (conferencia pronunciada en el Instituto Geográfico Argentino el 22 de abril de 1887) y "Cartas de viaje por el Paraguay, los territorios del Chaco, Formosa y Misiones y las Provincias de Corrientes y Entre Ríos" (publicado en Buenos Aires en 1889).

Publicó la Sinopsis histórica del primer censo de la provincia de Santa Fe de 1887 elaborada por su director Gabriel Carrasco y por Ramón J. Lassaga.

En las viejas bibliotecas de la ciudad de Rosario existen los tomos originales de todos los trabajos realizados por él en Rosario y en la provincia de Santa Fe. Varios de sus censos fueron premiados en las ferias que se realizaban en esa época y fueron traducidos a distintos idiomas con el fin de difundir las riquezas de la provincia y promocionar la inmigración.

Intendencia
Carrasco fue intendente de Rosario ―cargo al que en esa época se accedía sin voto popular― entre el 25 de agosto de 1890 y el 4 de noviembre de 1891.

En 1891, le puso nombre «El Salvador» al cementerio del pueblo, que estaba en las afueras y había sido habilitado el 7 de julio de 1856.

Publicó datos sobre el puerto de Rosario, comparándolo con otros puertos del mundo.

A su iniciativa se debe la construcción del actual Palacio Municipal (la sala principal lleva su nombre)

Fue uno de los principales difusores de las ventajas que Santa Fe ofrecía para la radicación de inmigrantes y capitales.

Según Carrasco, «en casi todas las ciudades argentinas la hora local dependía de la voluntad del relojero con más clientes».

Para fines del  con la propagación de los ferrocarriles y el uso del telégrafo comenzó a haber una necesidad de coordinación de actividades entre distintos puntos del país. El citado Carrasco impulsó el decreto que establecía la hora oficial según la latitud de la ciudad de Córdoba (64° 11' 1").

Estadísticas Nacionales
En 1895 participó en el segundo censo de la República Argentina.
En 1899 es nombrado director de la Oficina Demográfica Nacional, cargo en lo cual se quedaría hasta 1906. En esa función participó de la Segundo Congreso Médico Latinoamericano (1904). La Oficina Demográfica fue creada como una forma de darle continuidad a la obra estadística del Segundo Censo Nacional de población (1895). En 1899 publicó el Boletín demográfico argentino y realizó cálculos de población y cloacas de la ciudad de Buenos Aires. También publicó Cartas de viaje (Buenos Aires).

Legado
Según el historiador Miguel de Marco (hijo), que escribió un libro sobre su vida, Carrasco es conocido en Rosario porque llevan su nombre una escuela, un hospital, una calle, el salón principal de la municipalidad de Rosario y un centro de estudios estadísticos.

 En 1914, la Casa de Aislamiento (1897), un hospital para pacientes con enfermedades contagiosas ―en las afueras de la ciudad (en la actual bulevar Avellaneda esquina calle Nueve de Julio, en el macrocentro de la ciudad)―, se convirtió en el hospital Gabriel Carrasco. Según una encuesta realizada por el Centro de Estudios Estadísticos «Gabriel Carrasco», la inmensa mayoría de ciudadanos de Rosario creen que ―por el nombre del hospital Carrasco― Carrasco era médico. Muy pocos han reparado en el nombre del hospital: «Intendente Gabriel Carrasco».
 Escuela Provincial n.º 69 «Dr. Gabriel Carrasco», en calle Agrelo 1768, del barrio Alberdi de la ciudad de Rosario. Entre 1935 y 1950, las hermanas Cossettini desarrollaron un proyecto llamado «Escuela Serena», que aplicaron en la entonces Escuela Experimental «Dr. Gabriel Carrasco». En 1944, el escritor porteño Leopoldo Marechal ―interventor del Consejo de Educación Nacional (de Buenos Aires)― hizo suprimir el decreto que reconocía a esta escuela su carácter de experimental. El 28 de agosto de 1950, por la fuerza, Olga Cossetini fue separada de su Escuela Serena. El Concejo Municipal declaró este edificio de interés histórico, arquitectónico y cultural de la ciudad de Rosario.
 Escuela de Educación Técnica n.º 632 «Doctor Gabriel Carrasco», en Ricchieri 350.
 Centro de Estudios Estadísticos «Gabriel Carrasco».
 Una calle de 3,2 km de longitud en el norte de la ciudad de Rosario, entre bulevar Avellaneda entre calles French y Juan José Paso, a 600 m del río Paraná) hasta calle Campbell, en el oeste.
 Gabriel Carrasco es el patrono de la Escuela n.º 21 de Basail (provincia de Chaco).
 Una calle que nace al 1300 (ex 5) en la avenida Nueve de Julio de la ciudad de Resistencia (provincia de Chaco) lleva su nombre.

Referencias

Intendentes de Rosario
Estadísticos de Argentina
Demógrafos de Argentina
Periodistas masculinos de Argentina
Escritores de Rosario (Argentina)
Políticos de Rosario
Historia de Rosario (Argentina)
Sepultados en el Cementerio El Salvador
Concejales de Argentina
Académicos de la Academia Nacional de la Historia de la República Argentina
Nacidos en Rosario (Argentina)

Gabriel Carrasco (intendente)