Algiers  is a historic neighborhood of New Orleans and is the only Orleans Parish community located on the West Bank of the Mississippi River. Algiers is known as the 15th Ward, one of the 17 Wards of New Orleans. It was once home to many jazz musicians Algiers frequently although dubiously bills itself as the second oldest neighborhood in the city.

History

Early settlement
Algiers was established in 1719 as a plantation, not a neighborhood. Originally called the "King's Plantation," it was first used as the location for the city's powder magazine, a holding area for the newly arrived African slaves.  Decades later it became a port call for the displaced Cajuns.

Developed as a town by Barthelemy Duverjé, Algiers expanded due mainly to the shipbuilding and repair industries of the dry docks and the extensive railroad yards. A large part of the town in the area surrounding the Courthouse was destroyed by fire in 1895 but rose again like a Phoenix from the ashes.
In 1870, Algiers was annexed to the city as the 15th Ward, an arrangement which has remained although there have been repeated discussions of secession. Until the latter 1930s, rail yards housed large amounts of freight and rolling stock, which was brought back and forth across the Mississippi River by barge. Then, the Huey P. Long Bridge, which included a railway bridge, was built upriver at Bridge City, Louisiana. The largest railroad presence had been the Southern Pacific yard. That location is still known to Algerines as "the SP yard." For decades it was largely a vacant strip. Portions of the tract were redeveloped for housing in the early 21st century. In the yard's active days, a steam-powered Southern Pacific train ferry brought railroad cars from there across the Mississippi River|date=September 2023}}

20th Century
In 1901, the U.S. Navy established a naval station in Algiers.
During the early 20th Century, Algiers was segregated due to the Jim Crow Laws of the south. Under Jim Crow, blacks were not allowed to live in Algiers Point which was for whites or Creoles of color whom passed as white. Blacks occupied the area downriver from Algiers Point called McDonoghville (locals refer to it as "Over the Hump"). The neighborhood was named after John McDonogh. Before his death in 1850, McDonogh established "Freetown" for freed slaves and other people of color. Freetown was renamed McDonoghville in 1815. When Algiers became apart of Orleans Parrish in 1870, it became the largest populated black community on the West bank of the Mississippi river. Many Jazz artists such as Kid Thomas Valentine, Red Allen and Papa Celestin all grew up in McDonoghville section in Algiers during the 1910s.
Some of the early black neighborhoods included Riverview, Tunisbourg McCLendonville, LeBeoufville, Hendeeville, Oakdale and Whitney. In 1938 L.B. Landry High School opened as the first all black school in Algiers. The school was named after Dr. Lord Beaconsfield Landry, who lived in the area and died in 1934. It was also one of the first schools to serve African-Americans in New Orleans.
Around the 1930s and 40s, several other schools and neighborhoods were built for blacks, including Peter S. Lawton School and Oakdale. Oakdale once stood on the edge of Jefferson Parish and stretched from Whitney Avenue to the Mississippi River. It was completely destroyed in the late 1950's to make room for the Greater New Orleans Bridge.
McDonoghville's Newton Street became the heart of Algiers's black community as it was once filled with ballrooms, saloons and Juke joints. Poplar hangout spots like Kohlman's Tavern, Ping Pong Club and Whitney's Ballroom attracted hundreds of people every weekend. The most famous, Greystone Voter's League, became the place for Rhythm & Blues shows and great singers such as Ray Charles, Son House, and B. B. King, who all played there. Most of the jazz venues in Algiers closed by the 1970s.

Algiers began a slow decline after suburban neighborhoods were developed and expanded along Gen. Meyer and Gen De Gaulle. Many white families from the older parts of the city began moving into the newly built sections of Algiers. Behrman Heights which was originally built to house military families regardless of race, became the first racially integrated community. Aurora and Walnut Bend sub divisions remained mostly white. The oil industry provided many jobs and sustained the growth of commerce. In 1970, New Orleans Public Schools opened a second high school O' Perry Walker. O' Perry Walker was named after former New Orleans Public School superintendent Oliver Perry Walker who supported segregation. During the early 1970s, Whites had began to move out of Behrman Heights after the Housing Authority of New Orleans opened the Christopher Park Homes for low-income black families. The building of public housing led to White flight. The White flight resulted to a major decline as many businesses left Algiers for more sustainable neighborhoods in the neighboring Jefferson Parish.

Jazz culture
Algiers was home to various jazz pioneers such as Red Allen, Peter Bocage,  George Lewis, Papa Celestin, Kid Thomas Valentine and many others. Jazz musicians of the 1920s referred to Algiers as the "Brooklyn of the South", the latter for its proximity to New Orleans as compared to New York and Brooklyn, both separated by a river. Algiers also has a long history of Brass bands. The most notable is the Algiers Brass Band which is one of the oldest traditional brass bands still active in the city. There were a number of social halls including Algiers Masonic Hall, the Elks hall, and the Ladies of Hope Benevolent Hall where early jazz was played. There is some jazz parading in the neighborhood today.

Demographics
Algiers is predominantly African American, with 89.4% of residents identifying as such in the 2000 Census. Algiers' total population pre-Katrina, according to the census, was 28,385 of whom 45.9 were male and 54.1 female. The average age is 29.6, while the population for children under 5 was 2,515. Aged 18 and over was 19,204, while 65 and over were a total of 2,839. Whites make up 21.8 per cent of the population in Algiers Point, while African-Americans make up 73.6. Native Americans and Alaskan Natives are 0.2 per cent of the population. Hawaiians barely registered, and Latino/as make up 4.3 percent. The average household size is 2.68; the average family size is 3.41. The total number of housing units in Algiers was 12,351; of those, 83.9 per cent were occupied, and 16.1 vacant. 40.6 of those units are owned by home owners, while 59.4 are rented. Socially speaking, 72.3% are high school graduates, and 14.3% hold at least a bachelor's degree. The married population is 41.2 percent male, and 33.2 are female. Families that are below the poverty level are at 30.3%; individuals below the poverty level are 35.3%.

Crime
Algiers lies within NOPD's 4th District jurisdiction of Orleans Parish. The 4th District violent crime rate in low income neighborhoods have been high since the late 1980's. These areas includes the notorious Fischer Projects, Whitney and Behrman Heights neighborhoods.
Between 1987-1988, 4th District's violent crime rate doubled with the biggest increase in gun homicides and robberies.
Algiers made national headlines during 1981 with the "Algiers 7" case in which 7 officers were indicted for killing and torturing black families in revenge for the slaying of NOPD officer Gregory Newport in 1980.

In 2017, the 4th District teamed with the NOPD's street-gang unit to quell gun battles spurred by conflicts between neighborhood groups, NOPD officer Ruffin said. The groups were formed of loose associations among people, not stable enough to be considered traditional gangs, and had "some very petty, petty beefs that led to very violent encounters," he said. To reduce Crime Law enforcement installed 13 crime surveillance cameras, including 10 fixed cameras and three mobile cameras, along with five license-plate readers, including three fixed readers and two mobile readers.
In 2015 4th District tallied 25 homicides to 26 in 2021. In 2022 the district was second in homicides behind Eastern New Orleans with 38 homicides.

Neighborhoods

Algiers contains many neighborhoods such as
 Algiers Point
 McDonogh
 Old Aurora
 New Aurora
 Lower Algiers (Cutoff, River Park)
 Whitney
 Behrman
 Fischer Housing Development
 Tall Timbers/Brechtel
 McClendonville

Education

Primary and secondary schools
Algiers is zoned to schools in the Orleans Parish School Board (OPSB), also known as New Orleans Public Schools (NOPS). The district has its headquarters in the Westbank area of Algiers.

The schools include:
 Martin Behrman Elementary School (K-8)- Algiers Point
 Dwight D. Eisenhower Elementary School (K-8)- Tall Timbers/Brechtel
 William J. Fischer Elementary School (K-8)- Fischer Development
 McDonogh #32 Elementary School (K-8)- McDonogh
 L.B. Landry High School - Old Algiers
 O.P. Walker High School - Old Algiers
The InspireNola Charter Schools operate
 Edna Karr High School- Old Aurora
 Alice M. Harte Elementary School (K-8)- Old Aurora
Crescent City Schools include
 Harriet Tubman Charter Elementary School
 Paul B Habans Elementary School

One campus of the International School of Louisiana (ISL) is in Algiers.

Notable people

 Henry "Red" Allen, jazz trumpeter and singer raised at 414 Newton St.
 Joe Blakk, rapper
 Peter Bocage, jazz trumpeter and violinist, raised at 425 Brooklyn Ave.
 Gary Carter, Jr.,  politician
 Papa Celestin, jazz trumpeter moved to Algiers in 1900
 J. Lawton Collins, World War II general
 Frankie Duson, jazz trombonist
 G-Slimm, rapper
 Alvin Haymond, retired NFL player
 Rich Jackson, former NFL defensive end
 Anthony Johnson, NFL defensive tackle for the New England Patriots
 Cee Pee Johnson, jazz drummer and vocalist
 Freddie Kohlman, jazz drummer raised at 428 Homer St.
 George Lewis, jazz clarinetist
 Kendrick Lewis, NFL free safety for the Baltimore Ravens
 Lance Louis, NFL offensive guard for the Indianapolis Colts
 Manuel Manetta, jazz musician raised at 416 Powder St.
 Memphis Minnie, blues singer and guitarist
 Jimmy Palao, jazz musician raised at 900 Verret St.
 Malik Rahim, Black Panther Party member and activist
 James Ray, Denver Nuggets power forward
 Cyril Richardson, NFL guard for the Buffalo Bills
 Virgil Robinson former NFL New Orleans Saints running back
 Lou Sino, jazz trombonist and singer
 Herb Tyler, LSU quarterback
 Kid Thomas Valentine, jazz trumpeter and pioneer of the Preservation Hall Jazz band raised at 825 Vallette St.
 Mike Wallace, NFL wide receiver for the Baltimore Ravens
 Eddie Bo, singer
 Joe Thomas, jazz clarinetist
 Lester Young, jazz saxophonist
 Bobby Mitchell, singer
 Herman Riley, jazz saxophonist
 Jim Robinson, jazz trombonist, moved to Algiers in 1911
 Clarence "Frogman" Henry, rhythm and blues singer
 Tom Albert, jazz violinist, and trumpeter
 Shawn Wilson, politician

See also
Algiers Point
Canal Street Ferry
History of New Orleans
National Register of Historic Places listings in Orleans Parish, Louisiana
Neighborhoods in New Orleans
Wards of New Orleans

References

External links

 Algiers Point Association
 Algiers Point Information and Links page
 City of New Orleans

Louisiana populated places on the Mississippi River
Neighborhoods in New Orleans
15

Algiers, New Orleans


Friedrich Amann (latinisiert Fridericus; † 1465 in Regensburg) war ein deutscher Benediktiner, Mathematiker und Astronom des 15. Jahrhunderts.

Über Amanns Herkunft war bis vor Kurzem wenig bekannt. Er ist nicht, wie vermutet wurde, mit einem Fridericus Ammon de Wysenfelt (vielleicht Waischenfeld in Oberfranken) identisch, der 1427 an der Universität Leipzig immatrikulierte, sondern stammt, wie von Scharf urkundlich nachgewiesen werden konnte, aus dem Ort Hohengebraching (Gemeinde Pentling) bei Regensburg.

Amann verfasste in den Jahren zwischen 1445 und 1465 in der Benediktinerabtei St. Emmeram in Regensburg eine Reihe von Schriften, die sich zum Teil mit Fragen der Mathematik, Astronomie und Geographie befassten. Inwiefern er als Autor oder eher als Kompilator zu sehen ist, bleibt allerdings unklar.

Eine dieser Schriften ist der Codex latinus Monacensis (Clm) 14908 von 1461. Diese Sammelhandschrift enthält einen Text, der als das erste Lehrbuch der Algebra in deutscher Sprache gilt. Amann beschreibt darin die Auflösung der sechs auf Al-Chwarizmi zurückgehenden Typen linearer und quadratischer Gleichungen. Die Schrift beginnt mit den Worten "Machmet [Al-Chwarizmi] in dem puech algebra vnd almalcobula hat gespruchet diese wort: Census, radix, numerus." Amann geht also davon aus, dass Al-Chwarizmi diese Begriffe eingeführt hätte.

Amanns Schriften wurden versehentlich dem gleichzeitig in St. Emmeram lebenden Mönch Friedrich Gerhart zugeschrieben, da beide Religiosen meist nur als frater fridericus in den Manuskripten und Urkunden erscheinen.
Da Amman in einigen Handschriften mit vollem Autorennamen in Kolophonen aufscheint, konnten durch Vergleich der Handschrift die mathematisch-astronomischen Texte jedoch sämtlich ihm zugeordnet werden.
Er ist der Verfasser der mathematisch-astronomischen Texte in Clm 14111, 14504, 14583, 14622, 14783, 14908. Auch die theologischen Texte in Clm 14670, 14786, 14808, 14940, 14952 und 14969 stammen von ihm.
Die Handschriften befinden sich heute in der Bayerischen Staatsbibliothek in München.

Literatur

 Dana Bennett Durand: The Vienna-Klosterneuburg Map Corpus of the fifteenth century : A study in the transition from medieval to modern science. Brill, Leiden 1952, S. 71–76
 Dana Bennett Durand: The earliest modern maps of Germany and Central Europe. In: Isis 19, Cambridge 1933, S. 486–502
 Armin Gerl: Fridericus Amann. In: Rainer Gebhardt (Hg.): Rechenbücher und mathematische Texte der frühen Neuzeit. Tagungsband zum Wissenschaftlichen Kolloquium "Rechenbücher und Mathematische Texte der Frühen Neuzeit" anlässlich des 440. Todestages des Rechenmeisters Adam Ries vom 16. – 18. April 1999 in der Berg- und Adam-Ries-Stadt Annaberg-Buchholz. Adam-Ries-Bund, Annaberg-Buchholz 1999, ISBN 3-930430-31-2

 Elisabeth Wunderle: Katalog der lateinischen Handschriften der Bayerischen Staatsbibliothek München. Ps. 2: Die Handschriften aus St. Emmeram in Regensburg. Bd. 1: Clm 14000 – 14130. Harrassowitz, Wiesbaden 1995, ISBN 3-447-03474-2, S. XIVf
 Rainer Scharf: Gelehrte in St. Emmeram im Zeichen von Adelsdominanz und Reforminitiativen. In: Peter Schmid/Rainer Scharf (Hg.): Gelehrtes Leben im Kloster. Sankt Emmeram als Bildungszentrum im Spätmittelalter, München 2012, S. 37–56, hier S. 47–49
Menso Folkerts: Friedrich Amann und seine Bedeutung für die mathematischen Wissenschaften im 15. Jahrhundert. In: ebenda S. 187–211

Einzelnachweise

Benediktiner
Mathematiker des Mittelalters
Astronom des Mittelalters
Deutscher
Geboren im 14. oder 15. Jahrhundert
Gestorben im 15. Jahrhundert
Mann

Friedrich Amann


Zbigniew Robert Promiński (d. 30 Aralık 1978, Tczew, Polonya) sahne ismiyle Inferno, Polonyalı ekstrem metal grubu Behemoth'un bateristi. Behemoth başta olmak üzere, Azarath, Deus Mortem, Christ Agony, Witchmaster, Damnation(grup), Artrosis ve Devilyn gruplarına olan katkılarıyla bilinir.Spaundrums adlı bateri şirketi tarafından "black metalin en hızlı ve en iyi" bateristi olarak gösterilen Inferno'ya özel snare davul üretildi. Davulun üzerinde Behemoth grubunun simgesi ve Inferno'nun adı yazılıdır.

Kaynakça

1978 doğumlular
Polonyalı bateristler
Yaşayan insanlar
Bilgi kutusu bulunmayan kişiler

Zbigniew Robert Promiński


El contador de arena (en griego: Ἀρχιμήδου Ψαμμίτης, Archimédou Psammítes) es una obra de Arquímedes en la que el autor intenta establecer un límite superior para el número de granos de arena necesarios para llenar el universo. Para hacer esto tuvo que estimar el tamaño del universo según el modelo vigente en ese momento y, además, inventar una manera de expresar números muy grandes.

Este trabajo de Arquímedes se conoce también en latín como Archimedis Syracusani arenarius et Dimensio Circuli, cuya traducción tiene unas 8 páginas. En la obra se dirige al rey de Siracusa Gelón II (hijo del rey Hierón II). Probablemente esta es la obra más accesible de Arquímedes y una de las primeras publicaciones científicas de la historia.

Nombrando números grandes

El primer paso de Arquímedes fue inventar un sistema para nombrar números grandes. El sistema de numeración en uso en aquel tiempo podía expresar números hasta 10.000 (una miríada, en griego antiguo μυριάς), y mediante el uso de la combinación "miríada de miriadas" el alcance se podía extender hasta 108. Arquímedes llamó a los números menores de 108 los "números de primer orden"; y al 108 lo llamó la "unidad de los números de segundo orden". Los múltiplos de esta unidad se convirtieron en los "números de segundo orden", que llegaban de nuevo hasta la miríada de miríadas, igual a 108•108= 1016, que pasaba a ser la "unidad de los números de tercer orden", cuyos múltiplos son los números de tercer orden, y así sucesivamente. Arquímedes siguió nombrado de esta manera a los números hasta .

Al llegar aquí, Arquímedes llamó a los números así definidos los "números del primer período", y llamó al último, , la "unidad del segundo período". De esta manera, Arquímedes construyó los "números del segundo período" tomando múltiplos de esta unidad, de forma análoga a la forma en que construyó los "números del primer período". Continuando así, con el tiempo llegó a los "números del período número una miríada de miríadas". El mayor número nombrado por Arquímedes fue el último número de este período, que es:

Otra forma de escribir este número es un uno (1) seguido de ochenta mil billones de ceros (80·1015). El sistema de Arquímedes recuerda un sistema de numeración posicional con base 108, lo que es notable, ya que los antiguos griegos usaron un sistema muy sencillo para escribir los números, que emplea las 27 letras de su alfabeto para las unidades del 1 al 9, las decenas del 10 al 90, y las centenas del 100 al 900.

Arquímedes también descubrió y demostró la ley de los exponentes, necesaria para operar con potencias de 10, según la cual 10a · 10b = 10a+b.

Estimación del tamaño del universo
Arquímedes calculó un límite superior para el número de granos de arena necesarios para llenar el universo. Para esto, utilizó el modelo heliocéntrico de Aristarco de Samos. Este trabajo de Aristarco se ha perdido, El contador de arena de Arquímedes, es una de las pocas referencias de su teoría que sobreviven). La razón para el gran tamaño que atribuyó Arquímedes a este modelo es la imposibilidad de detectar paralaje estelar con las técnicas de que disponían los griegos, lo que implica que las estrellas debían estar a gran distancia de la Tierra (suponiendo que el heliocentrismo fuese cierto).

Según Arquímedes, Aristarco no precisó a qué distancia estaban las estrellas, por lo que Arquímedes supuso que el universo es esférico y que la relación entre su diámetro y el diámetro de la órbita de la Tierra alrededor del sol debe ser igual a la relación entre el diámetro de la órbita de la tierra alrededor del sol y el diámetro de la Tierra. Esta suposición también puede expresarse diciendo que el paralaje estelar causado por el movimiento de la Tierra alrededor de su órbita es igual al paralaje solar causado por el movimiento de este alrededor de la Tierra.

Conclusiones
Para hacer sus cálculos, Arquímedes se apoyó en las siguientes suposiciones:
 que el perímetro de la órbita de la Tierra no es mayor que 300 miríadas de estadios (lo que es igual a 5·105km);
 que la luna no es más grande que la Tierra, y el sol no es más de treinta veces más grande que la luna;
 que el diámetro angular del sol, visto desde la tierra, es mayor que 1/200 de un ángulo recto sisisi yo tmbn escribi en vicebersa.
De este modo, Arquímedes calculó que el diámetro del universo era de unos 1014 estadios (en unidades modernas, unos 2 años luz), y que, por lo tanto, no requeriría más de 1063 granos de arena para llenarlo.

Para llegar a estas conclusiones, Arquímedes hizo algunos experimentos y cálculos interesantes. Uno de los experimentos consistió en estimar el tamaño angular del sol visto desde la Tierra. El método que empleó Arquímedes es especialmente interesante, ya que tomó en cuenta el tamaño finito de la pupila del ojo. Este puede ser el primer ejemplo conocido de la experimentación en psicofísica, la rama de la psicología que se ocupa de la mecánica de la percepción humana, cuyo desarrollo generalmente se atribuye a Hermann von Helmholtz. Otro cálculo interesante es el que utilizó para calcular el paralaje solar y las diferentes distancias entre el espectador y el sol, ya sea desde el centro de la Tierra o desde la superficie de la Tierra al amanecer. Este puede ser el primer cálculo conocido sobre el paralaje estelar.

Extracto

Referencias

Enlaces externos
Texto original en griego
El Contador de arena (inglés)
The Sand Reckoner (annotated)

Trabajos de Arquímedes
Obras astronómicas de la Antigua Grecia
Obras matemáticas de la Antigua Grecia

El contador de arena


Cannibal! The Musical (originally known as Alferd Packer: The Musical) is a 1993 American black comedy musical film directed, written, produced, co-scored by and starring Trey Parker in his directorial debut while studying at the University of Colorado at Boulder, before reaching fame with South Park alongside his friend Matt Stone who also stars in and produced the film. It is loosely based on the true story of Alferd Packer and the sordid details of the trip from Utah to Colorado that left his five fellow travelers dead and partially eaten. Trey Parker (credited as Juan Schwartz) stars as Alferd Packer, with frequent collaborators Stone, Dian Bachar, and others playing the supporting roles.

A live staged version was performed at Sierra College, in Rocklin, California, in May 1998. It was followed by Dad's Garage Theater, Atlanta Georgia, in the fall of 1998. The Dad's Garage version is highlighted in the special features of Troma's DVD release of the movie. The show has continued to find small theaters and audiences across America and beyond for many years. In 2001, a production was staged Off-Broadway at the Kraine Theater on East 4th Street in New York.

Jason McHugh, who both produced and acted in the film, served as executive producer for a production of the staged version performed by The Rival Theatre Company at 2008 Edinburgh Festival Fringe. It featured West End performers and was directed by Frazer Brown.

In 2011, producer Jason McHugh released a book titled Shpadoinkle: The Making of Cannibal! The Musical which chronicles all aspects of the creation and continuation of the Cannibal! The Musical cult phenomenon.

Plot

The film begins with a reenactment of the gruesome act of cannibalism described by the prosecuting attorney during Alferd Packer's 1883 trial. During this sensationalized account, a haggard Packer repeatedly insists that was not how it happened. During a break in the trial, Packer is enticed by journalist Polly Pry to tell his side of the story, which he proceeds to do, via flashback. He opens his tale with better times, galloping freely over green fields on his trusty horse Liane.

In 1873, Packer was part of a group of miners in Bingham Canyon, Utah who hear of new prospects in Breckenridge. Together, the small group decide to travel together into Colorado Territory to stake a claim. Packer is appointed as the replacement for the original guide, since he claimed knowledge of the area. He and Liane set off on what Packer estimates will be a three-week journey with a party of five miners: Shannon Wilson Bell, an aspiring Mormon priest; James Humphrey, who was forced by his father to join the party; Frank Miller, a cynical butcher who reluctantly joins their party at the mine; George Noon, a teenager hoping to meet women in Breckenridge; and Israel Swan, an optimist.

Four weeks later, while attempting to visit Provo for supplies they become convinced they are lost. An attempt to ask a local for directions to Provo proves unsuccessful, with the local warning them of impending doom awaiting them in the mountains. Finally arriving at a frontier post in Provo, they run into a group of three fur trappers bound for Saguache; O.D. Loutzenheiser, Preston Nutter, and their diminutive leader, Jean "Frenchy" Cabazon. The trappers despise the miners, whom they contemptuously call "diggers", yet seem to like Packer's Arabian horse, telling Packer that she's a "trapper horse". Making camp, Packer and company reveal their goals for traveling to each other in song. The next day, Packer wakes up to discover his horse and friend, Liane, is missing. After Bell wounds his leg in a bear trap, the men attempt to cross the Green River near the Utah border. They camp out for the night after their crossing, with Packer singing a heartfelt song about Liane. Eventually, after a disastrous crossing of the Colorado River the Packer party is spotted by two "Nihonjin" Indians. They are taken back to the tribe's encampment near Delta where the chief warns them of a winter storm, allowing them to wait it out with the tribe. Packer's party also find the trappers camping out with the tribe, who proceed to brag about their lives in song, but then argue over the key of said song before a small altercation breaks out over Liane, whose feedbag Packer finds in their possession.

In the present time, Packer is sentenced to death by hanging, with his execution to occur in Lake City. That night, alone, Polly muses over the case and Packer's testimony, and she reveals her growing affection for him through song. The next day, Polly visits Packer once again in prison, where he continues his story.

The men set out in the wilderness and begin to suspect that Packer is really only interested in following the trappers to find his horse, and Bell's temper begins to shorten as his wound from the bear trap becomes infected and develops gangrene. They encounter a foreboding "Cyclops", a tall mountain man with a wounded, pus-spurting eye, while unwittingly trying to steal one of his sheep for sustenance. Later, the badly frostbitten Swan tries to cheer everybody up with a song about building a snowman, only for Miller to destroy Swan's snowman with a pickaxe. They soon run out of food, resorting to eating their shoes as they become lost in the snow-covered Rocky Mountains. Out of frustration, Bell shoots Swan in the head while in the middle of a song, because he does not appreciate his (Swan's) Pollyanna-esque perspective on their predicament. The men discuss their dire situation that night over the fire, speaking of the cannibalism that the Donner Party had to resort to in California. They decide to consume the body of their dead companion as Miller cuts up Swan's body, and only Bell refuses to partake in the cannibalism. Packer then has a ballet-inspired nightmare involving himself, Liane, and Cabazon. After a few more days, the party loses hope, which leads to talk of sacrificing one of their own. Packer convinces them for one more chance for a scouting trip, but when he returns, Bell has killed the others, claiming they planned to kill and eat him after Packer left. Packer is forced to throw a cleaver at Bell, seemingly killing him, after threatening to turn him in, realizing he has gone insane. He is then forced to cannibalize the others to wait out the rest of the winter.

Arriving in Saguache sometime later, Packer finds Liane, who has taken to Cabazon, upsetting Packer. The sheriff of Saguache, suspicious of Packer arriving without the rest of his party, eventually finds out the fate of the other members and attempts to arrest Packer for cannibalism at a saloon. A bar-fight between Packer and the trappers occurs, which Packer wins after brutally attacking Cabazon's groin using fighting techniques he learned from the Nihonjin chief, leaving Cabazon incapacitated with a high-pitched voice. Following this, Packer attempts to flee to Wyoming, only to later be arrested there and brought back to Colorado to await judgment. On the day of Packer's execution in Lake City, the town breaks into song, celebrating Packer's impending death. However, he is saved at the last minute by Polly, who arrives on the scene with Liane. Polly reveals that Packer had gotten a stay of execution from the governor stating that he could not be convicted of a state crime since Colorado was not a state at the time of the incident. Meanwhile, Cabazon, whose voice is still high pitched and wants revenge against Packer for their fight in Saguache, states the townsfolk came to see bloodshed and tries to trigger the gallows. The Nihonjin chief saves Packer by cutting his rope with a katana before beheading Cabazon, satisfying the crowd's blood-lust. Packer, seeing that Polly brought back Liane, realizes he does not need her anymore and chooses Polly (much to the excitement of the chief, who takes off after Liane with his katana), and the two kiss, only to be frightened by a still-alive but badly maimed Bell.

Cast
 Trey Parker as Alferd Packer (credited as Juan Schwartz)
 Toddy Walters as Polly Pry
 Matt Stone as James Humphrey (credited as Mathew Stone)
 Dian Bachar as George "California" Noon
 Jason McHugh as Frank Miller
 Jon Hegel as Israel Swan
 Ian Hardin as Shannon Wilson Bell
 Duster as Packer's horse, Liane
 Robert Muratore as Jean "Frenchy" Cabazon
 Edward Henwood as O.D. Loutzenheiser/The Cyclops
 Andrew Kemler as Preston Nutter
 Masao Maki as the Chief of the fictitious Nihonjin Indian tribe (credited as Maseo Maki)
 Japanese foreign exchange students as Nihonjin Indians
 Junichi as Junichi
 Tomomi as Tomomi, a young Indian girl whom Noon swoons over
 Audrey Stafferd as the Voice of Doom
 Randy Parker (Trey Parker's father) as Judge Jerry
 Jessica James Kelly as Tiny Tim/Baby Packer
 Martin Leeper as the Sheriff of Saguache (credited as Marty Leeper)
 Brad Gordon as Mills
 Steve Jackson as the Sheriff of Lake City
 Stan Brakhage as Noon's father
 Don Yannacito as Humphrey's father
 Kevin Allen as a passerby who glances over Polly Pry with a confused look as she performs "This Side of Me"
 Liane Adamo as one of the dancers during the "Hang the Bastard" number (uncredited)
 Chris Graves as a drunken man who plays a cowbell break in "Hang the Bastard" (uncredited)
 Joe McHugh (Jason McHugh's father) as General Store Clerk (uncredited)
 Brody McHugh (Jason McHugh's sister) as Woman leaving store (uncredited)

Cast notes

Musical numbers
 "Shpadoinkle" – Alferd
 "Shpadoinkle (Reprise)" – George, Alferd, Shannon, Frank, Swan, and Humphrey
 "That's All I'm Asking for" – George, Alferd, Shannon, Frank, Swan, and Humphrey.
 "When I Was on Top of You" – Alferd
 "Trapper Song" – Frenchy (voice of Parker), Loutzenheiser, and Nutter
 "This Side of Me" – Polly
 "Let's Build a Snowman" – Swan
 "Let's Build a Snowman (Reprise)" – Swan
 "That's All I'm Asking for (Reprise)" – George, Alferd, Shannon, Frank and Humphrey
 "Hang the Bastard" – Company
 "Shpadoinkle (Finale)" – Polly, Alferd, and Company

Contrasting with the musical's generally dark and morbid humor are its cheerful songs, all composed by Parker, including "Let's Build a Snowman", "When I Was on Top of You", "Hang the Bastard", and "Shpadoinkle" (pronounced shpah-doink-ul). The last of these is a transparent parody of the song "Oh, What a Beautiful Mornin'" from the Rodgers & Hammerstein musical Oklahoma!.

Two songs that were originally going to be in the film, but later taken out, were "Shatterproof", a rap song to be sung by Packer during the bar fight scene, and "Don't Be Stupid", a song to be sung by some of the Bingham Canyon miners after the reprise of "Shpadoinkle". An interview with Ian Hardin (now known as Ian Keldin) revealed that Trey thought "Shatterproof" made Packer seem too tough.

Production

The film began as a 3-minute trailer made for a film class, having been an idea Parker and his friends had for a while but also inspired in part by Parker's resentment towards his ex-fiancée Lianne Adamo after discovering her cheating on him not long before their wedding, with Packer's disloyal horse "Liane" in the final film being based on her. After the trailer drew much attention, Parker and Stone raised around $125,000 and began shooting the full-length film. The film was shot during weekends and on spring break in 1993, and according to Ian Hardin, most of the crew failed their film history class as a result. Filming was done on location throughout Colorado in Denver, Colorado National Monument, Black Canyon, and Ouray, with the courtroom scenes being shot in the actual courthouse that Alferd Packer was tried in, in Lake City, and the town scenes taking place in Provo, Saguache, and the hanging scene being shot in different parts of the Buckskin Joe Old West theme park in Canyon City.

A few incidents happened during filming, such as Parker getting a hairline hip fracture after being thrown from one of the horses playing "Liane", fights occasionally breaking out among the crew, some of the main cast experiencing cold shock and almost being swept away by strong currents from crossing the icy Gunnison River that doubled for the Green River, as well as inclement weather and even an avalanche complicating shooting.

This film was originally titled Alferd Packer: The Musical in 1993. The film premiered on October 31, 1993, in Boulder, Colorado, at a cinema near the University of Colorado campus. A fake protest organized by friends of Parker and Stone, organized along the lines of an animal rights demonstration, took place in front of the theater. The film then played at Raindance Film Festival in October 2004. Parker and Stone attended.

It was not released generally until 1996, however, when Troma Entertainment picked it up and renamed it Cannibal! The Musical out of concern that not enough people outside of Colorado knew who Packer was. Few people outside of Colorado ever saw the film since Troma did not distribute it widely. Parker and Stone's animated satire South Park debuted the following year.

Several live productions of the show have been mounted, with excerpts from one live version available on the DVD.

Home media
Following Matt and Trey's success with South Park, Troma re-released the film on VHS and DVD and it enjoyed a decent cult following. The DVD contains a "Drunken Director's Commentary" where Parker and Stone along with most of the cast get drunk as they watch the film, although there are a few times when the commentary cuts out.

The film has since been released on UMD for the Sony PSP. A special edition 13th anniversary DVD was released by Troma with added features, including all-new interviews with the cast and crew.

The film was re-released in November 2008 as the first of the "Tromasterpiece Collection," as Troma considers Cannibal! to be one of its best films. Included in the new two-disc version, with over three hours of special features, never-before-seen deleted material and stage shows. Songs such as "Shatter Proof" and the early short films of Parker and Stone were considered to be a part of the new DVD, but these additions were ultimately rejected.

Stage productions
There have been several amateur productions of Cannibal! The Musical since 1996. The first was at the Sierra College in Northern California and then at Dad's Garage Theater where it won accolades by fans and the press.

In 2001, Saturday Players launched a six-month off-off-Broadway run of the show that earned critical acclaim and returning audience members.

In 2004, Cannibal made its European debut in Rome at the Teatro di Servi.

In 2005, the first High School group attempted the show at The Ironwood Ridge High School in Tucson, Arizona, but the show was censored by the school and performed off campus as a benefit. Later that year the show made its German debut at the University of Regensburg and played many small colleges and community houses in the US.

In 2006, the show debuted at its first Fringe Festivals in Minneapolis and Victoria, Canada and continued to find adoption by small colleges and community theaters.

In 2008, The Insurgo Theater Movement launched the show in Las Vegas for the first of several runs by their company. Unexpected Productions launched the first of four October runs of Cannibal in Seattle.

Also in 2008, The Rival Theatre Company produced the first large-scale professional production. The show ran from July 31 to August 25 at the George Square Theatre, Edinburgh for a total of 26 performances. It starred Aimie Atkinson as Polly Pry and James Topping as Alferd Packer. Original film cast member Jason McHugh made a guest appearance as Mr. Mills. Other guest stars included Jim Bowen and The Q Brothers.

This production was planned a six-week run to the West End from July 27, 2010, at the Leicester Square Theatre. However, after copyright holder Jason McHugh withdrew the rights in May 2010, the show was canceled.

In 2011, M.P.M.M. Productions, performed the musical in Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada during the 2011 Winnipeg Fringe Festival. It won "The Best of Fest" for its venue (meaning it outsold other shows in the venue and was awarded an additional show). The show also debuted in St Louis and Denver with great reviews and enthusiastic casts and audience members.

In May 2012, Logan Donahoo Presents performed a version of the musical in Orlando, Florida during the 2012 Orlando International Fringe Theatre Festival, in the Yellow venue. The show was successful, receiving positive reviews, and winning Patron's Pick for its venue, meaning that it had outsold all of the other shows and was awarded an additional performance.

Trey Parker's Cannibal! The Musical played in Toronto at David Mirvish's Panasonic Theatre for a four-week run (February 10 to March 8, 2015). Additional book, lyrics, and music by Christopher Bond, Aaron Eyre, and Trevor Martin.

It was announced in early 2014 that a production of the show is being produced at the Waterfront Theatre in Vancouver, B.C. by independent traveling theatre troupe Last Chance Productions. The show ran from June 12, 2014, until March 8, 2015, with two separate seating areas (a "Gore Zone" where audience members are subject to splash-zone-esque involvement, and a less messy "Gore-Free Zone".)

Trey Parker's CANNIBAL THE MUSICAL! had its first national tour in 2017 which rehearsed out of Toronto before heading to the Captiol Theatre in Windsor, ON  the Canadian cast featured Greg Carruthers, David DiFrancesco, Shaeane Jimenez, Michelle Nash, Taylor Lavigne, Lucas Popowich, and Brandon Knox. This production toured to the Overture Center in Madison, Wisconsin  and Tennessee Performing Arts Center Andrew Johnson Theater in Nashville, Tennesse.

In 2019, Cannibal the Musical had its Bay Area premiere. It was performed by The Other Other Theatre Company in San Francisco. The show ran from July 21–29 at MoonSpace.

Reception

Cannibal! currently holds a 63% "Fresh" approval rating on Rotten Tomatoes based on 19 reviews, with a weighted average of 5.2/10. The site's critical consensus says: "If you're only going to watch one black comedy about a real-life explorer whose fellow travelers ended up eaten, make it Cannibal! The Musical."

See also
 Ravenous, a similar film about Packer and the Donner Party
 "Helen Keller! The Musical", an episode of South Park
 The Book of Mormon, a Tony Award-winning Broadway musical about The Book of Mormon by Stone, Parker, and Robert Lopez
 Poultrygeist: Night of the Chicken Dead, a 2006 film directed by Lloyd Kaufman
 BASEketball, a 1998 sports comedy film
 South Park: Bigger, Longer & Uncut, a 1999 adult animated black-comedy musical film
 Team America: World Police, a 2004 adult puppet film

References

External links

 UK Production

1993 black comedy films
1993 comedy films
1993 directorial debut films
1993 films
1990s American films
1990s English-language films
1990s historical comedy films
1990s Japanese-language films
1990s musical comedy films
1990s Western (genre) comedy films
American black comedy films
American films based on actual events
American independent films
American musical comedy films
American splatter films
American student films
American Western (genre) comedy films
Films about cannibalism
Films directed by Trey Parker
Films produced by Matt Stone
Films produced by Trey Parker
Films scored by Trey Parker
Films set in Colorado
Films set in the 1870s
Films set in the 1880s
Films with screenplays by Trey Parker
Mormonism in fiction
Troma Entertainment films
Works about Alferd Packer
Works by Trey Parker and Matt Stone

Cannibal! The Musical


مجلة ليبيا للاتصالات والتقنية هي مجلة تأسست بموجب قرار مدير عام الإدارة العامة للمطبوعات رقم (3) لسنة 1375و.ر (2006م) بشأن الإذن بإصدار مجلة علمية كل شهرين تعنى بشؤون الاتصالات والتقنية تحت اسم مجلة (ليبيا للاتصالات والتقنية). وهي مجلة علمية غير ربحية مبسطة تعنى بالتقنية والاتصالات عموما، تصدر كل شهرين عن شركة ليبيا للاتصالات والتقنية، على هيئتين، ورقية، وإلكترونية. المجلة موجهة بشكل أساس لفئة الشباب، لملء الفراغ التقني الناتج عن عدم وجود مطبوعات متخصصة مبسطة في السوق المحلي الليبي، إضافة إلى الارتفاع النسبي لأسعار المطبوعات الوافدة. وتتميز المجلة بصغر حجمها ليتناسب مع طبيعتها والغرض المنشأة من أجله، فمثلما جاء حجم الصحف التقليدية متماشيا مع جمهورها المتسهدف (فئة المدراء ورجال الأعمال ذوي الدخل العالي)، وجاء حجم الصحف الشعبية النصفية متماشيا مع جمهورها المستهدف (فئة الموظفين والعمال متوسطي الدخل)، فإن حجم المجلة جاء لتناسب وحياة الشباب الطلاب خصوصا لتكون رفيقا لهم في تنقلاتهم بالمواصلات العامة وضمن حافظات دفاترهم دون أن يشكل حجمها إزعاجا.

أسرة التحرير
مكونة من بعض موظفي شركة ليبيا للاتصالات والتقنية بالإضافة إلى متعاونين خارجيين.

التحرير وإعادة النشر

التحرير
توطئة: تسعى المجلة -ككيان معنوي- جاهدة لتقديم موادها بشكل موضوعي بعيدا عن الأغراض التجارية أو الدعائية البحثة، وبعيدا عن الانحياز لفكر دون آخر، فهي -ولو اتفقت فكريا مع البرمجيات مفتوحة المصدر مثلا- لا تقف ضد البرمجيات التجارية، ولا مع لينوكس ضد ويندوز، حتى وإن جاء هذا صراحة عبر قلم أحد الكتاب، إلا أنه لا يمثل بالضرورة فكر وتوجه المجلة.

 تعتمد المجلة على المواد التحريرية المجهزة من قبل أسرة التحرير بشكل رئيس.
 تستعين بمواد خارجية وفق اتفاق مباشر مع عدة مجلات علمية مثل:
 1- مجلة ويندوز الشرق الأوسط .
 2- مجلة تشانيل .
 3- مجلة بي سي ماجازين العربية .
 4- مجلة عالم الكومبيوتر .
 5- مجلة لينوكس العرب .

إعادة النشر
 لا تمانع المجلة في إعادة نشر المواضيع المحررة من قبل أسرة التحرير.
 المواد المحررة من قبل المحررين المتعاونين يتفق بشأنها معهم مباشرة.
 المواد المعاد نشرها من المجلات الأخرى لا تمتلك المجلة حق منح إذن إعادة النشر بشأنها، يجب طلب الإذن من المجلات صاحبة المواد مباشرة.

معلومات فنية (عن النسخة المطبوعة)
 الحجم : A5.
 الألوان: ملونة.
 عدد الصفحات: 48 صفحة (3ملازم).
 نوع الورق: 90 جرام مصقول.
 عدد النسخ المطبوعة للعدد: 5000.

الأبواب الثابتة
 تغطية (أحد المناشط العلمية أو التقنية).
 تقنية ومعلومات.
 البرمجيات الحرة.
 تعلم معي.
 إشادات.
 حياتنا والتقنية.
 ترفيه.
 أخبار.
 بريد المجلة.

الإعلانات
على الرغم من اعتماد المجلة بشكل رئيس على الإعلانات كمصدرٍ أساس للدخل، الذي يتم تدويره مجددا من أجل تغطية نفقات الإصدار، وعلى الرغم من عدم وجود عائد مادي جراء التوزيع بسبب مجانيتها، إلا أنها تنتهج سياسة حازمة في قبول المواد الإعلانية للنشر عبرها، واضعة أمامها ضوابط الشرع والقانون فوق كل اعتبار، فهي لا تقبل:
 الإعلان الذي يسخر المرأة كمادة إعلانية.
 الإعلان للمنتجات الدنماركية.
 الإعلان للشركات غير المسجلة قانونا في ليبيا.
 الإعلان للمنتجات المقلدة أو التي تسبب خلطا وتشويشا على المستهلك.
 الإعلان عن المسابقات القائمة على المشاركة عبر الرسائل النصية.

التوزيع
 دار المختار: تقوم بالتوزيع على المكتبات العامة والجهات العلمية والبحثية.
  الخطوط الجوية الإفريقية : تقوم بالتوزيع على الركاب المسافرين عبر متن طائرتها.

وصلات خارجية
 الصفحة الرئيسية لموقع شركة ليبيا للاتصالات والتقنية
 الصفحة الرئيسية لموقع مجلة ليبيا للاتصالات والتقنية
 الصفحة الرئيسية لموقع خدمة ليبياماكس

مجلات الحاسوب

مجلة ليبيا للاتصالات والتقنية


Durando peut faire référence à:

Patronymie
 Giacomo Durando (1807-1894) est un général et homme politique italien.
 Giovanni Durando (1804-1869) est un général italien du XIX siècle
 Marc-Antoine Durando (1801-1880) est un prêtre lazariste fondateur des sœurs nazaréennes de la Passion
 Richard Durando (1910- ) est un peintre d'origine argentine

Durando


Elaine Smith peut faire référence à :

 Elaine Smith (1963-), femme politique travailliste écossaise
 , représentante de l'État démocrate de l'Idaho
  (1962-), actrice australienne d'origine écossaise
  (1958-), actrice et comédienne écossaise

Elaine Smith


Fyodor Mihayloviç Dostoyevski (Rusça: Фёдор Миха́йлович Достое́вский, ; d. 11 Kasım 1821, Moskova – ö. 9 Şubat 1881, Sankt-Peterburg), Rus roman yazarıdır.

Çocukluğunu sarhoş bir baba ve hasta bir anne arasında geçiren Dostoyevski, annesinin ölümünden sonra Sankt-Peterburg'daki Mühendis Okulu'na girdi. Babasının ölüm haberini de burada aldı. Okulu başarıyla bitirdikten sonra istihkâm bölüğüne girdi. Bir yıl sonra istifa ederek buradan ayrıldı. Ordudan ayrıldıktan sonra edebiyata yönelen Dostoyevski, ilk kitabı İnsancıklar'ı 1846 yılında yayımladı. Bu eserinin ardından yazdığı kitaplarla beklediği başarıya ulaşamayan Dostoyevski'nin umudu kırıldı ve politikayla ilgilenmeye başladı.

1849 yılında devlet aleyhindeki bir komploya karıştığı iddiası ile tutuklandı. 4 ay hapishanede kalan Dostoyevski, kurşuna dizilmek üzereyken diğer sekiz tutuklu arkadaşı ile affedildi. Cezası dört yıl kürek, dört yıl da adî hapse dönüştürüldü. Cezasını çekmesi için Sibirya'da bulunan Omsk Cezaevi'ne gönderildi. Burada geçirdiği dört yılın ardından er rütbesi ile hizmete verildi. Subaylığa kadar yükseldi. 1857 yılında Mariya Dmitriyevna İsayeva ile evlendi. Beş yıl boyunca görev yapan Dostoyevski, 1859 yılında özgür bırakıldı ve Sankt-Peterburg'a yerleşti.

Sankt-Peterburg'a döndükten sonra Ezilenler (1861) ve Ölüler Evinden Anılar (1862) adlı eserlerini yazdı. Kardeşiyle birlikte iki dergi çıkardı. 1862'de, arzuladığı Avrupa seyahatini gerçekleştirdi. Sara nöbetleri ve kumar bağımlılığı yüzünden maddi açıdan darlığa düştü. Bu dönemde Yeraltından Notlar (1864), Suç ve Ceza (1866), Kumarbaz (1866), Budala (1868), Ebedi Koca (1870) ve Ecinniler (1872) gibi eserleri yazdı. Eşinin ölümünden sonra sekreteriyle evlendi. Yeniden borçlandı ve kumarhanelerde gezmeye başladı. Kızının ölümünün ardından büyük bir sarsıntı geçirdi. Delikanlı (1875), Bir Yazarın Günlüğü (1876) ve Karamazov Kardeşler (1879) adlı eserlerinde yazarlık hayatı boyunca konu edindiği temaları yeniden ele aldı. Karamazov Kardeşler adlı yapıtını üç yılda bitiren Dostoyevski, bir ciğer kanamasıyla yatağa düştü ve 28 Ocak 1881 tarihinde öldü. Dostoyevski için 31 Ocak 1881 tarihinde yapılan cenaze töreninde yaklaşık otuz bin kişi tabutunun arkasından yürüdü. Dünya edebiyatını en çok etkileyen ve en çok okunan yazarlardan biri olan Dostoyevski'nin eserleri birçok 20. yüzyıl düşünürünün fikirlerini derinden etkiledi.

Yaşamı

Çocukluğu ve gençliği
Dostoyevski, Mihail ve Mariya Dostoyevski'nin oğlu olarak 11 Kasım 1821 tarihinde Moskova'da doğdu. Altı çocuklu ailenin ikinci çocuğuydu. Babası Mihail, askeri cerrahlıktan emekli olduktan sonra Mariinskiy Hastanesi'nde yoksullara hizmet etmeye başladı. Hastane, Moskova'nın en kötü yerlerinden birinde bulunuyordu. Dostoyevski de bu hastanede doğdu. Mihail, alkole bağımlıydı ve evini sıkı disiplin ile yönetiyordu. Çok kolay sinirlenebiliyordu. Dostoyevski'nin annesi Mariya ise bir tüccar kızıydı.

Dostoyevski, çocukluğunu çoğu zaman sarhoş bir baba ve hasta bir anne arasında geçirdi. Babasının çalıştığı huzurevi hastanelerinde bulunan hastalar ile vakit geçirmeyi ve onların hikâyelerini dinlemeyi çok seven Dostoyevski, ilköğrenimini Moskova'da yaptı. Annesi tüberküloz hastalığı yüzünden öldüğü zaman, sert disipliniyle tanınan Sankt-Peterburg Mühendis Okulu'na gönderildi. Arkadaşlarının, sinirli ve aşırı duyarlı bir yapıya sahip olduğu için "Ateş Fedya" lakabını verdikleri Dostoyevski, Sankt-Peterburg'da zamanını kitap okuyarak, düşüncelere dalarak ya da kardeşi Mihail ile söyleşerek geçirdi. Babasının 1839'daki ani ölümünü burada öğrendi.

Eşinin ölümünden sonra kendisini içkiye daha çok veren babası Mihail bu olayın ardından sahibi olduğu toprağa çekilmişti. Mihail'in ölümünün sebebi tam olarak bilinmiyor. İddialardan biri, eşinin ölümünden sonra toprağına çekilen Mihail'in buradaki köylülere çok kötü davrandığı ve onun kötülüklerine katlanamayan köy halkının en sonunda onu öldürdüğüdür. Bir başka iddia da Mihail'in tamamen doğal sebeplerden öldüğüdür. Babasının ölümünü Sankt-Peterburg'da haber alan Dostoyevski, onun ölümünü istediği düşüncesi yüzünden depresyona girdi. Sara nöbetlerinin ilkini hayatının bu evresinde geçirmeye başladı. Sankt-Peterburg Mühendis Okulu'ndaki öğrenimini başarıyla bitirerek, asteğmen rütbesiyle Sankt-Peterburg'daki İstihkâm Müdürlüğü'nde göreve verildi. Ancak bu görevi bir yıl sürdürebildi. Askerlikten nefret eden Dostoyevski görevinden istifa ederek yazarlığa başladı.

İlk yazarlık dönemi

Ordudan ayrıldıktan sonra kurgusal roman yazmaya başladı. Dostoyevski'nin ilk kitabı olan İnsancıklar (Bednye Lyudi) ilk olarak 1846 yılında yayımlandı. Dostoyevski, toplumunu acımasız kurallarında yaşlı bir adamın öksüz bir kıza duyduğu sevdayı iç dünyasındaki derin çatışmalarla işledi. Halkın sıcak ilgisiyle karşılanan bu kitap, eleştirmenlerden de övgüler aldı. Ünlü eleştirmen Belinski, romanı okuduktan sonra Dostoyevski'ye gelecekte büyük bir yazar olacağına dair övgü dolu sözler söyledi. Şair Nikolay Neksarov, Dostoyevski hakkında "Yeni bir Gogol doğdu" diye konuştu. Yazarlıkta ün sağladıktan sonra 1846 yılında Gogol esintileri bulunan kitabı Öteki (Dvoynik) yayımlandı. Yazar bu romanda, kendini ortadan kaldırmaya çalışan benzeriyle sürekli çatışma hâlinde bulunan bir memurun hikâyesini anlattı. Bu romanda ele aldığı çift kişilik temasını daha sonra bazı romanlarında kullansa da roman, Belinsky dahil hiçbir eleştirmence beğenilmedi. Eleştirmenler romanı sıkıcı buldu ve alay etti.

1847 yılında ise Ev Sahibesi (Hozyayka) isimli romanı yayımlandı. Dostoyevski bu eseri ile de beklediği övgülerin aksine olumsuz eleştiriler aldı. Dostoyevski, ruhsal çöküntüye düştü ve üzüntüden hasta oldu. Ancak yazarlığı bırakmayan Dostoyevski, 1848 senesinde Beyaz Geceler (Belıye Noçi) ve Bir Yufka Yürekli (Slaboye Serdtse) adlı kitapları yayımlattı. Bir Yufka Yürekli, yazara itibarını yeniden kazandırsa da beklediği başarıyı elde edemeyen Dostoyevski'nin umudunu kırdı. Yazarlıkta umudunu kırılan Dostoyevski, politikayla ilgilenmeye başladı ve genç liberallerin (Tetrashevski) grubuna girdi.

Sibirya'ya sürgün
Dostoyevski, 23 Nisan 1849 tarihinde devlet aleyhindeki bir komploya karıştığı iddiasıyla sekiz arkadaşı ve ağabeyi ile birlikte tutuklandı. Ölüm cezasına çarptırılan Dostoyevski, sekiz ay hapishanede yattıktan sonra diğer dokuz komplocu ile idam edilecekleri yere götürüldü. Tam kurşuna dizilmek üzerelerken af kararı çıktı. İdam cezası, dört yıl kürek ve altı yıl adî hapis cezasına dönüştürüldü. Sibirya'daki Omsk Kalesi'ne sürüldü. Suç ve ceza kavramları ile en yoğun şekilde burada tanıştı. Kürek mahkûmu olduğu süre içinde, kolları damgalandı, kafası tıraş edildi ve taş kırdı. Sara nöbetleri yüzünden birçok kere hastaneye kaldırıldı. Burada geçirdiği yıllar İncil'i ve mahkûmlardaki gönül zenginliğini keşfetmesine olanak sağladı.

Sürgünde geçirdiği dört senenin ardından 1854 yılında kürek cezasından kurtularak er rütbesi ile kışla hizmetine verildi. Semipalatinsk'te zorunlu ikamete mahkûm edildi. Burada bulunan Alayın Yedinci Hat Taburunda beş yıl görev yaptı. Subaylığa kadar yükseldi. 1857 yılının Şubat ayında, veremli ve dul Mariya Dmitriyevna İsayeva ile, subay kocasının ölümünden sonra evlendi.

İkinci yazarlık dönemi
1859'da ordudan terhis edilerek Moskova dışında küçük bir yerde kalmaya zorlanan Dostoyevski, özgürlüğüne kavuştuktan sonra Sankt-Peterburg'a döndü. Kardeşi Mihail ve arkadaşı N.N. Strahov ile birlikte Vremya (Zaman) ve sonra da Epoha (Dönem) adlı dergileri hazırladı. Bu dergilerde Slavcı düşünceyi savunduğunu belirten yazılar yazdı. Ezilenler (Unijenniye i Oskorblyonniye) ve Ölüler Evinden Anılar (Zapiski iz Mertvogo Doma) ile kendinden söz ettirdi. 1863 yılında arzuladığı Avrupa seyahatini gerçekleştirdi. Sara nöbetleri ve kumar borçları yüzünden sıkıntıya düşen ve yayımcılardan yazmadığı romanların avanslarını alarak yaşayan Dostoyevski, Yeraltından Notlar adlı yapıtı 1864 yılında yayımlandı. Romanda bir zihnin derinliklerine indi. Suç ve Ceza (Prestuplenie i Nakazanie) ve Kumarbaz (İgrok) adlı yapıtları 1866 yılında yayımlandı. Dostoyevski, Suç ve Ceza'yı 1868 yılında Semipalatinsk'te bulunduğu zaman Roussky Slovo dergisi için uzun bir hikâye olarak tasarlamıştı. Bunun nedeni, Sibirya'dan ayrılana dek roman yazmama kararı almasıydı. Dostoyevski, kardeşi Mihail'e gönderdiği bir mektupta kitap hakkında  diye yazdı.

Dostoyevski, bu eserinde bir Rus aydını olan Raskolnikov'un kendi doğrusu adına işlediği cinayetleri ve vicdanıyla hesaplaşmasını konu edindi. Yazar, küçük bir otel odasında ve kötü bir ekonomik durumla yazdığı Suç ve Ceza'yı 1866 yılında tamamlamıştı. Dostoyevski'nin yazdığı Budala (Idiot) eseri 1866, Ebedi Koca (Veçnıy Muj) 1870, Ecinniler (Besı) 1872 yılında yayımlandı. Bütün bu başyapıtlar birbirinin izledi. Karısı öldükten sonra sekreteri Anna Grigoriyevna Snitkina ile evlendi. Yeniden borçlanan ve kumaranelerde dolaşmaya başlayan Dostoyevski, bir kız çocuk sahibi oldu. Ancak kızı fazla yaşayamadı ve doğduktan kısa süre sonra öldü. Dostoyevski de bu yüzden büyük bir sarsıntı geçirdi. 1875'te Delikanlı (Podrostok), 1876'da Bir Yazarın Günlüğü (Dnevnik Pisatelya) ve 1879'da Karamazov Kardeşler (Bratya Karamazovi) adlı romanları yayımlandı. Hayatı boyunca eserlerinde işlediği temaları yeniden ele aldığı, insan duygularının derinliğine inen eserler yazan Dostoyevski, Karamazov Kardeşler'de Ivan ve Alyosha Karamazov adlı karakterler için filozof Vladimir Sergeyeviç Solovyov'dan ilham aldı. Zosima ve Alyosha'nın öne çıkacağı Bir Büyük Günahkarın Yaşamı adlı eseri tamamlayamadı. 1881 yılının Ocak ayında bir ciğer kanaması geçirerek yatağa düştü ve 28 Ocak 1881 tarihinde öldü. Dostoyevski için 31 Ocak 1881 tarihinde yapılan cenaze töreninde yaklaşık otuz bin kişi tabutunun arkasında yürüdü.

Temalar
Fyodor Dostoyevski, beğeniyle karşılanan ilk romanı İnsancıklar'dan sonra yazdığı Öteki ve Ev Sahibesi ile olumsuz yorumlar aldı ve depresyona girdi. Ancak yazar, kendisini ruhsal çöküntüye götüren düşüncelerden uzaklaşmayı bildi. Dış dünyadan kopan zihninin parçalanışını kendi çözen yazarın eserlerindeki ruhbilimsel açıdan en zengin tema da çift kişilik temasıdır. Kendini ortadan kaldırmaya çalışan benzeriyle sürekli çatışma hali içerisinde bulunan bir memuru anlattığı Öteki adlı yapıtında daha sonra da işleyeceği bir tema olan çift kişilik temasını işlemişti.

Ellili yaşlarında içine bazen bir karamsarlık ve ağırlık çöken Dostoyevski, bu durumu ikinci eşi Anna Grigoriyevna Snitkina'ya "Sanki bir suç işlemişim gibi bir çeşit sebepsiz hüzün ve keder içindeyim" diye açıklamıştı. Ecinniler'de Stavrogin'i bir çocuğa tecavüz ettirmiş olması yüzünden de kendini hep suçlamıştı.

Dostoyevski kendi çocukluğunda, annesine acı çektirmesinden, sürekli sarhoş olmasından ve hizmetkârlara kötü davranmasından dolayı babasından nefret ediyordu. Eserlerinde kullandığı, kaderine boyun eğen ve uysal kadın örneğini kendi evinde; annesinde gördü. Kadının alttan alması, erkeği daha da kızdırmaktan başka bir işe yaramayacağını görmüştü. Çok duyarlı biri olan Dostoyevski, bu yüzden babasına kin besliyordu. Babasının ölümünü haber aldığında, "Babamın ölümünde benim hiçbir suçum yok, ama bu öldürmenin kefaretini ödemeye hazırım; çünkü içimden onu öldürmek geçiyordu" diyerek Karamazov Kardeşler adlı romanında yer alan Dimitri Karamazov'un tepkisinin benzerini gösterdi. Dostoyevski, babasının ölümünü istediğini düşünerek depresyona girdi. Bazı yazarlara göre de ilk sara nöbetlerine de bu düşünce sebep oldu. Sigmund Freud ve birçok psikanalizci, babaya duyulan bu nefrete ve bunu izleyen suçluluk düşüncesine dayanarak Dostoyevski'nin hastalığının sinirsel kökenli olduğunun ortaya çıkardı.

Andre Gide, Ezilenler adlı romanın, aşağılanışın insanı cehennemlik ettiği, alçakgönüllüğünse kutsallaştırdığı fikriyle dolu olduğunu söylemişti. George Steiner ise Charles Dickensvari bir havanın olduğunu söylediği Ezilenler'de bulunan temanın Ebedi Koca'da, Ecinniler'de ve Karamozov Kardeşler'de de yer aldığını söyledi. Nicholas Berdyaev, Dostoyevski'nin bütün yaratıcı gücünü insana ve insanın kaderi temasına adadığını, bunun da onu ölümsüz kılmaya yettiğini belirtti.

Devlet aleyhinde bir komploya katıldığı iddiası ile tutuklandıktan sonra sekiz ay hapishanede kalan Dostoyevski, suç ve ceza kavramlarıyla en yoğun şekilde burada karşılaştı. İdam edilmek üzereyken affedildi. Cezası dört yıl kürek ve altı yıl adî hapse dönüştürüldü. Dört yılın sonunda er rütbesi ile kışlaya verildi ve 1859 yılında terhis edildi. Suç ve Ceza adlı eserini 1858 yılında oluşturmaya başladı. Bu eserinde ahlak kavramını ve siyaseti harmanladı. Dostoyevski, bu romanda sadece Rus halkını değil, tüm insanlığı tehdit eden bir kısır döngüden kurtulmanın gerçekleşebileceğini vurguladı. Yazar, John Stuart Mill'in ekonomik refah için bireysel bencilleşmeyi öneren kuramını Semyon Zaharoviç Marmeladov'un ağzından eleştirdi.

Dostoyevski, düşünce ve sanat deneyimini sürekli olarak arttırdı. Tanrı'dan, ateizmden, kötülükten, özgürlükten söz eden roman karakterleri, gerçekte aynı bilincin farklı anları gibidir. Bu karakterler aracılığıyla Dostoyevski, cinleri ruhundan uzaklaştırır. Bakış açısı değişmekle beraber eserleri, gerçeğin hep aynı coşkulu ve acı veren arayışı içerisindedir.

Eserleri

Romanlar
 (1846) Bednye lyudi (Бедные люди); Türkçe yayım adı: İnsancıklar
 (1846) Dvoynik (Двойник. Петербургская поэма); Türkçe yayım adları: "İkiz," "Öteki"
 (1849) Netoçka Nezvanova (Неточка Незванова); Türkçe yayım adı: Netochka Nezvanova
(1859) Selo Stepançikovo i ego obitateli (Село Степанчиково и его обитатели); Türkçe yayım adı: Stepançikovo Köyü
 (1861) Unijennye i oskorblennye (Униженные и оскорбленные); Türkçe yayım adı: Ezilmiş ve Aşağılanmışlar
 (1862) Zapiski iz mertvogo doma (Записки из мертвого дома); Türkçe yayım adı: Ölüler Evinden Anılar
 (1864) Zapiski iz podpolya (Записки из подполья); Türkçe yayım adı: Yeraltından Notlar
 (1866) Prestuplenie i nakazanie (Преступление и наказание); Türkçe yayım adı: Suç ve Ceza
 (1867) Igrok (Игрок); Türkçe yayım adı: Kumarbaz
 (1869) Idiot (Идиот); Türkçe yayım adı: Budala
 (1872) Besy (Бесы); Türkçe yayım adı: Ecinniler
 (1875) Podrostok (Подросток); Türkçe yayım adı: Delikanlı
 (1881) Brat'ya Karamazovy (Братья Карамазовы); Türkçe yayım adı: Karamazov Kardeşler

Kısa Öyküler
 (1847) Roman v devyati pis'mah (Роман в девяти письмах); Türkçe yayım adı: "Dokuz Mektupluk Roman"
 (1847) "Gospodin Prokharçin" (Господин Прохарчин); Türkçe yayım adı: "Bay Proharçin"
 (1847) "Hozyayka" (Хозяйка); Türkçe yayım adı: "Ev Sahibesi"
 (1848) "Polzunkov" (Ползунков); Türkçe yayım adı: "Polzunkov"
 (1848) "Slaboe serdtse" (Слабое сердце); Türkçe yayım adı: "Bir Yufka Yürekli"
 (1848) "Çujaya jena i muj pod krovat'yu" (Чужая жена и муж под кроватью); Türkçe yayım adı: "The Jealous Husband" Kıskanç Koca
 (1848) "Çestnıy vor" (Честный вор); Türkçe yayım adı: "Namuslu Bir Hırsız"
 (1848) "Elka i svad'ba" (Елка и свадьба); Türkçe yayım adı: "A Christmas Tree and a Wedding" Bir Noel Ağacı Ve Düğün
 (1848) Belye noçi (Белые ночи); Türkçe yayım adı: Beyaz Geceler
 (1857) "Malen'kiy geroy" (Маленький герой); Türkçe yayım adı: "Küçük Kahraman"
 (1859) "Dyadyuşkin son" (Дядюшкин сон); Türkçe yayım adı: "Amcanın Rüyası"
 (1862) "Skvernıy anekdot" (Скверный анекдот); Türkçe yayım adı: "Tatsız Bir Olay"
 (1865) "Krokodil" (Крокодил); Türkçe yayım adı: "Timsah"
 (1870) "Veçnıy muj" (Вечный муж); Türkçe yayım adı: "Ebedi Koca"
 (1873) "Bobok" (Бобок); Türkçe yayım adı: "Bobok"
 (1876) "Krotkaya" (Кроткая); Türkçe yayım adı: "Uysal Bir Ruh"
 (1876) "Mujnik Marey" (Мужик Марей); Türkçe yayım adı:Köylü Marey
 (1876) "Mal'çik u Hrista na elke" (Мальчик у Христа на елке); Türkçe yayım adı: Mesih'in Noel ağacı Boy de
 (1877) "Son smeşnogo çeloveka" (Сон смешного человека); Türkçe yayım adı: "Bir Adamın Düşü"

Kurgusal olmayan eserler
 Yaz İzlenimleri Üzerine Kış Notları (Zimniye zametki o letnih vpeçatleniyah - Зимние заметки о летних впечатлениях) (1863)
 Bir Yazarın Günlüğü (Dnevnik pisatelya - Дневник писателя) (1873–1881)

Kaynakça

Ayrıca bakınız

 Rus edebiyatı
 Tikhvin Mezarlığı (Dostoyevski'nin de gömülü olduğu Sankt-Peterburg'daki mezarlık)
 Lev Tolstoy

Dış bağlantılar
 FyodorDostoevsky.com  - Dostoyevski hayran sitesi
 Fyodor Dostoyevski'nin biyografisi ve eserleri
 Penn Librarys Dijital Kütüphane Projesi'nde seçilen Dostoyevski eserleri
 Dostoyevski'nin eserlerinin bazıları Rusça olan tam metinleri
 Dostoyevski'nin eserlerinin bazıları Rusça olan tam metinlerinin yer aldığı diğer site
 Fyodor Dostoyevsky  - Biyografisi, yorumlar ve diğer kaynaklar
 Dostoyevski Araştırma İstasyonu
 ALEXANDER II AND HIS TIMES: Alexander II, Tolstoy, ve Dostoyevski dönemindeki Rusya'nın öyküsel tarihi
 Dostoevsky, Joseph Frank. Princeton University Press, Princeton, 1979-2003 (5 bölüm).

 Dostoyevsky 'Bookweb' on literary website The Ledge, with suggestions for further reading.
 Medya galerisi ve etkileşimli zaman çizelgesi

1821 doğumlular
Moskova doğumlu yazarlar
1881 yılında ölenler

Rus yazarlar
19. yüzyıl Rus roman yazarları
Rus milliyetçiler
Rus monarşistler
Rus mühendisler
St Petersburg Bilimler Akademisi'nin muhabir üyeleri
Hristiyan varoluşçular
Hristiyan yazarlar
Anfizemden ölenler
Realist yazarlar
Tihvin Mezarlığı'na defnedilenler
Epilepsi olan kişiler
Ateizm eleştirmenleri

Fyodor Dostoyevski


Pallidol es un dímero de resveratrol. Se encuentra en el vino tinto, en Cissus pallida o en Parthenocissus laetevirens.

Referencias

Enlaces externos
 Pallidol on www.phenol-explorer.eu

Alcoholes
Antioxidantes
Fitoquímicos

Pallidol


Gregory II may refer to:

 Pope Gregory II (715–731)
 Gregory II of Naples (766–794)
 Gregory II, Count of Tusculum (1044–1058)
 Gregory II the Martyrophile (1066–1105)
 Patriarch Gregory II of Constantinople (1283–1289)
 Patriarch Gregory II of Alexandria (1316–1354)
 Gregory II Bulgarian (–1474)
 Gregory II Youssef (1864–1897)
 Joseph Gregorio II (1857–1868)

Gregory II


Léopards Douala () ist ein kamerunischer Fußballverein aus der Stadt Douala.

Geschichte
Seinen ersten Erfolg erreichte der Verein mit dem Erreichen des Finales des kamerunischen Fußballpokals 1942. Auch 1956 und 1957 scheiterte man erst im Finale. 1972 gewann man erstmals die Meisterschaft und wiederholte diesen Erfolg 1973. Beim folgenden African Cup of Champions Clubs 1973 schaffte es der Verein bis ins Halbfinale und scheiterte erst an Vita Kinshasa. 1993 erreichte der Verein noch einmal das Pokalfinale, konnte dies aber gegen Canon Yaoundé erneut nicht gewinnen. 1998 spielte der Verein letztmals in der MTN Elite 1.

Erfolge
 Cameroon Premiere Division (2): 1972, 1973
 Coupe de Cameroun Finalist (4): 1942, 1956, 1957, 1993

Léopards Douala in den afrikanischen Wettbewerben

Bekannte Spieler
 Roger Milla (1970–1974)
 Jerry-Christian Tchuíssé (1996–1997)

Einzelnachweise

Weblinks
 Léopards Douala auf footballdatabase.eu

Kamerunischer Fußballverein
Sport (Douala)
Organisation (Douala)

Léopards Douala


Levadiakos Football Club () er en græsk fodboldklub belligende i Livadeia. Klubben spiller til dagligt i den græske liga .

Fodboldklubber i Grækenland
Etableret i 1961

Levadiakos F.C.


Judd Seymore Hirsch (født 15. marts 1935) er en amerikansk skuespiller kendt for at spille Alex Rieger i tv-komedieserien Taxi (1978-1983), John Lacey i NBC-serien Dear John (1988-1992) og Alan Eppes i CBS-serien NUMB3RS (2005-2010). Han er også kendt for sin karriere på teater og for sine roller i film som Ordinary People: En ganske almindelig familie (1980), Running on Empty (1988), Independence Day (1996) og A Beautiful Mind (2001).

Eksterne henvisninger

Skuespillere fra USA
Personer fra New York City
Amerikanere i 1900-tallet
Amerikanere i 2000-tallet
Oscar-nominerede skuespillere
Jøder fra USA

Judd Hirsch


Zerfaliu (sardinski: Tzorfolìu) je mjesto i općina (comune) u pokrajini Oristanu u regiji Sardiniji, Italija. Nalazi se na nadmorskoj visini od 15 metara i ima 1 092 stanovnika. Teritorij općine se prostire na 15,56 km². Gustoća naseljenosti je 70 st/km².Susjedne općine su: Ollastra, Paulilatino, Simaxis, Solarussa i Villanova Truschedu.

Izvori

Općine u pokrajini Oristano

Zerfaliu


Die Hardangerbrua () ist eine Hängebrücke über den Eidfjord in Norwegen.

Bedeutung
Die Brücke ersetzt die Fährverbindung zwischen Brimnes und Bruravik und ist Teil der Riksveier bzw. Fylkesveier 7 und 13. Letztere ist eine wichtige Nord-Süd-Verbindung zwischen der Sognefjord-Region und Stavanger, erstere ist die kürzeste Verbindung zwischen Oslo und Bergen – allerdings ist die Hauptverbindung die Europastraße 16, da sie nicht über die Hardangervidda verläuft und somit wintersicher, aber 70 km länger ist. Vor Fertigstellung der Brücke im Jahr 2013 fuhren Fähren alle 20 bis 60 Minuten; die Überfahrt dauerte 10 Minuten.

Dimensionen
Die Brücke hat eine Gesamtlänge von 1.380 m und eine lichte Höhe von 55 m. Wegen der großen Wassertiefe des Hardangerfjords (nahe der Brücke bis 500 m) müssen die 202,5 m hohen Pylonen an Land stehen, damit hat die Brücke eine Spannweite von 1.310 m und war bei Eröffnung die längste Brücke in Norwegen und weltweit auf Platz 10. Der Hardangerfjord ist tief genug für alle Schiffe, allerdings können wegen der lichten Höhe der Brücke keine großen Kreuzfahrtschiffe mehr in den inneren Hardangerfjord fahren.

Die Brücke hat zwei Fahrspuren mit einer Gesamtbreite von 7,5 m sowie einen Fuß-/Fahrradweg. An beiden Enden führt die Brücke direkt in Tunnel, in denen jeweils durch Kreisverkehre die auf der Brücke verbundenen Verkehrswege wieder getrennt werden.

Verbaut wurden 15.000 Tonnen Stahl, davon entfällt knapp die Hälfte auf die Tragseile, der Rest auf den Fahrbahnkasten. Außerdem wurden 22.400 Kubikmeter Beton verbaut, davon 13.000 Kubikmeter in den Pylonen, der Rest in den Verankerungen und Tunnelportalen.

Bau und Finanzierung
Baubeginn war am 26. Februar 2009. Am 7. Oktober 2009 begann der Bau der Pylonen; fertiggestellt waren sie im Mai 2011. Am 6. November 2011 begann das Luftspinnen der Tragseile. Am 17. August 2013 wurde die Brücke planmäßig dem Verkehr übergeben.

Die Brücke wurde von Statens vegvesen gebaut, die Kabelsattellager und die Befestigungen der Hänger stammen von Goodwin Steel Castings, der Fahrbahnträger von ZMPC in Shanghai und die Tragkabel von Bridon.

Die Kosten betrugen 2,3 Milliarden Norwegische Kronen; die Finanzierung erfolgt, wie in Norwegen üblich, über eine zeitlich begrenzte Maut, derzeit 150 NOK.

Trivia
In dem norwegischen Fantasyfilm Mortal – Mut ist unsterblich aus dem Jahr 2020 findet eine zentrale Szene des Films auf der Hardangerbrua statt. Sie wurde für die Dreharbeiten gesperrt.

Einzelnachweise

Weblinks

 Offizielle Website

Hängebrücke
Straßenbrücke in Norwegen
Brücke in Europa
Brücke in Vestland
Bauwerk in Ullensvang
Ulvik
Erbaut in den 2010er Jahren

Hardangerbrua


Gheorghe (Giorgio) Caragață (n. 28 octombrie 1907, Corbasca, fostul județ Tecuci, în prezent județul Bacău – d. 9 octombrie 1978, Florența, Italia) a fost un lingvist român, profesor la Universitatea din Florența.

Date biografice
Urmează studiile liceale la Tecuci. Din studiază filologie modernă la Facultatea de Litere și Filosofie a Universității din Iași, avându-i profesori pe Alexandru Philippide, Iorgu Iordan, Giorge Pascu, Dimitrie Găzdaru și Garabet Ibrăileanu. Este trimis de Iorgu Iordan ca bursier al Statului la Școala Română din Roma, unde lucrează sub îndrumarea romanistului Giulio Bertoni (1878-1942). În anul 1935 își susține teza de doctorat Pluralele românești și italienești în "-ora", sub conducerea lui Giulio Bertoni.

Devine lector la Universitatea din Florența, recomandat de Giulio Bertoni și Claudiu Isopescu, cel care a întemeiat studiile de limbă română în învățământul superior din Italia. Gheorghe Caragață activează ca profesor la această universitate timp de 44 de ani, până la moarte. După aprecierea lui Lorenzo Renzi (Padova), Gheorghe Caragață "a ținut sus flacăra românisticii în Italia vreme de mai bine de trei decenii".

În paralel cu bogata activitate didactică, publică lucrări în domeniul lingvisticii române și romanice, făcând și anchete în teren pe teritoriul Italiei. Frecventează Circolo linguistico fiorentino, înființat după război, unde prezintă peste 30 de comunicări privind limba și literatura română.

În 1958 ia poziție față de teza sovietică privind existența unei limbi moldovenești, publicând în italiană broșura Câteva documente cu privire la unitatea limbii române.

Este membru fondator al Societății Academice Române, academia românilor din exilul anticomunist, înființată în Italia după război.

Importanta sa teză de doctorat a servit în cercetările lingvistice din România de după 1947; dar din cauza statutului său de exilat politic, contribuția sa a fost folosită fără a fi citată.

Opera
 Pluralele românești și italienești în -ora (în Buletinul Institutului de Filologie Română "A. Philippide", III, 1936),
 Formele de salutare în limba română (în Buletinul Institutului de Filologie Română "A. Philippide", VI, 1939),  .
 Breve sguardo sullo sviluppo della letteratura romena, Roma: Istituto per l'Europa Orientale, 1943.
 La distribuzione odierna delle lingue italiana e tedesca nell'Alto Adige in base ai censimenti 1890-1939, Firenze : Istituto geografico militare, 1945.
 Letteratura romena, estratto dalla storia delle letterature moderne d'Europa e d'America, Milano: Casa Editrice dr. Francesco Vallardi, 1959.
 Sul romeno 'dunăre''', Firenze: Leo S. Olschki, 1970.

Bibliografie
 Teodor Onciulescu, Profesorul Gheorghe Caragață, în "Vatra", 1979, p. 23-24.
 Ioan Dănilă, Romanitate, românitate, românistică în cazul Gheorghe Caragață. Omagiu la centenar, în The Proceedings of the "European Integration - Between Tradition and Modernity" Congress, 2, Târgu-Mureș, Editura Universității "Petru Maior", 2007, p. 257-264.

Legături externe
 Associazione Italiana di Romenistica
 Aldo Cuneo, Ricordo del prof. Caragață  Teodor Onciulescu, Profesorul Gheorghe Caragață, în "Vatra", 1979, p. 23-24.
 Ioan Dănilă, Romanitate, românitate, românistică în cazul Gheorghe Caragață. Omagiu la centenar, în The Proceedings of the "European Integration - Between Tradition and Modernity" Congress'', 2, Târgu-Mureș, Editura Universității "Petru Maior", 2007, p. 257-264.

Nașteri în 1907
Nașteri pe 28 octombrie
Decese în 1978
Diaspora română
Filologi români
Lingviști români
Romaniști români
Pedagogi români
Absolvenți ai Universității din Iași
Accademia di Romania

Gheorghe Caragață


Fabrizio Meoni (1957-2005), motard italien.
 Giovanni Meoni (?-), baryton italien.
 Marco Meoni (1973-), joueur de volley-ball italien.
 Mario Meoni (1965-2021), homme politique argentin.

Meoni


Bleeding Kansas, Bloody Kansas, or the Border War was a series of violent civil confrontations in Kansas Territory, and to a lesser extent in western Missouri, between 1854 and 1859. It emerged from a political and ideological debate over the legality of slavery in the proposed state of Kansas.

The conflict was characterized by years of electoral fraud, raids, assaults, and murders carried out in the Kansas Territory and neighboring Missouri by proslavery "border ruffians" and retaliatory raids carried out by antislavery "free-staters". According to Kansapedia of the Kansas Historical Society, 56 political killings were documented during the period, and the total may be as high as 200. It has been called a Tragic Prelude, or an overture, to the American Civil War, which immediately followed it.

The conflict centered on the question of whether Kansas, upon gaining statehood, would join the Union as a slave state or a free state. The question was of national importance because Kansas's two new senators would affect the balance of power in the U.S. Senate, which was bitterly divided over the issue of slavery. The Kansas–Nebraska Act of 1854 called for popular sovereignty: the decision about slavery would be made by popular vote of the territory's settlers rather than by legislators in Washington. Existing sectional tensions surrounding slavery quickly found focus in Kansas.

Missouri, a slave state since 1821, was populated by many settlers with Southern sympathies and proslavery views, some of whom tried to influence the Kansas decision by entering Kansas and claiming to be residents. The conflict was fought politically, and between civilians, where it eventually degenerated into brutal gang violence and paramilitary guerrilla warfare.

Kansas had a state-level civil war that would soon be replicated on a national basis. It had two different capitals (proslavery Lecompton and antislavery Lawrence and Topeka), two different constitutions (the proslavery Lecompton Constitution and the antislavery Topeka Constitution), and two different legislatures (the so-called "bogus legislature" in Lecompton and the antislavery body in Lawrence). Both sides sought and received help from outside, the proslavery side from the federal government; Presidents Franklin Pierce and James Buchanan openly helped the proslavery partisans. Both claimed to reflect the will of the people of Kansas. The proslavers used violence and threats of violence, and the free-soilers responded in kind. After much commotion, including a congressional investigation, it became clear that a majority of Kansans wanted Kansas to be a free state, but this required congressional approval, which Southerners in Congress blocked.

Kansas was admitted to the Union as a free state the same day that enough Southern senators had departed, during the secession crisis that led to the Civil War, to allow it to pass (effective January 29, 1861). Partisan violence continued along the Kansas–Missouri border for most of the war, though Union control of Kansas was never seriously threatened. Bleeding Kansas demonstrated that armed conflict over slavery was unavoidable. Its severity made national headlines, which suggested to the American people that the sectional disputes were unlikely to be resolved without bloodshed, and it, therefore, acted as a preface to the American Civil War. The episode is commemorated with numerous memorials and historic sites.

Origins
As abolitionism became increasingly popular in the United States and tensions between its supporters and detractors grew, the U.S. Congress maintained a tenuous balance of political power between Northern and Southern representatives. At the same time, the increasing emigration of Americans to the country's western frontier and the desire to build a transcontinental railroad that would connect the eastern states with California urged incorporation of the western territories into the Union. The inevitable question was how these territories would treat the issue of slavery when eventually promoted to statehood. This question had already plagued Congress during political debates following the Mexican–American War. The Compromise of 1850 had at least temporarily solved the problem by permitting residents of the Utah and New Mexico Territories to decide their own laws with respect to slavery by popular vote, an act which set a new precedent in the ongoing debate over slavery.

In May 1854, the Kansas–Nebraska Act created from Indian lands the new territories of Kansas and Nebraska for settlement by U.S. citizens. The act was proposed by Senator Stephen A. Douglas of Illinois as a way to appease Southern representatives in Congress, who had resisted earlier proposals to admit states from the Nebraska Territory because of the Missouri Compromise of 1820, which had explicitly forbidden the practice of slavery in all U.S. territory north of 36°30' latitude and west of the Mississippi River, except in the state of Missouri. Southerners feared the incorporation of Nebraska would upset the balance between slave and free states and thereby give abolitionist Northerners an advantage in Congress.

Douglas's proposal attempted to allay these fears with the organization of two territories instead of one, and with the inclusion of a "popular sovereignty" clause that would, like the condition previously prescribed for Utah and New Mexico, permit settlers of Kansas and Nebraska to vote on the legality of slavery in their own territories—a notion which directly contradicted and effectively repealed the Missouri Compromise, as both Kansas and Nebraska were located entirely north of parallel 36°30' north and west of the Mississippi. Like many others in Congress, Douglas assumed that settlers of Nebraska would ultimately vote to prohibit slavery and that settlers of Kansas, further south and closer to the slave state of Missouri, would vote to allow it, and thereby the balance of slave and free states would not change. Regarding Nebraska, this assumption was correct; the idea of slavery had little appeal for Nebraska's residents and its fate as a free state was already solidly in place. In Kansas, however, the assumption of legal slavery underestimated abolitionist resistance to the repeal of the long-standing Missouri Compromise. Southerners saw the passage of the Kansas–Nebraska Act as an emboldening victory; Northerners considered it an outrageous defeat. Each side of the slavery question saw a chance to assert itself in Kansas, and it quickly became the nation's prevailing ideological battleground, and the most violent place in the country.

The term "Bleeding Kansas" was popularized by Horace Greeley's New-York Tribune. The Tribunes first reference to "Kansas, bleeding", came on June 16, 1856, in a report on the North American National Convention. There, a Colonel Perry of Kansas reported that "Kansas, bleeding at every pore, would cast more votes indirectly for [the presidential candidate the convention settled upon] ... than any other State in the Union." The Tribunes first mention of "bleeding Kansas" is in a poem by Charles S. Weyman, published on September 13, 1856:

Early elections
Immediately, immigrants supporting both sides of the slavery question arrived in the Kansas Territory to establish residency and gain the right to vote. Among the first settlers of Kansas were citizens of slave states, especially Missouri, many of whom strongly supported Southern ideologies and emigrated to Kansas specifically to assist the expansion of slavery. Proslavery immigrants settled towns, including Leavenworth and Atchison. The administration of President Franklin Pierce appointed territorial officials in Kansas aligned with its own proslavery views, and heeding rumors that the frontier was being overwhelmed by Northerners, thousands of nonresident slavery proponents soon entered Kansas with the goal of influencing local politics. Proslavery factions thereby captured many early territorial elections, often by fraud and intimidation. In November 1854, thousands of armed proslavery men known as "Border Ruffians" or "Southern Yankees", mostly from Missouri, poured into the Kansas Territory and swayed the vote in the election for a nonvoting delegate to Congress in favor of proslavery Democratic candidate John Wilkins Whitfield. The following year, a congressional committee investigating the election reported that 1,729 fraudulent votes were cast compared to 1,114 legal votes. In one location, only 20 of the 604 voters were residents of the Kansas Territory; in another, 35 were residents and 226 nonresidents.

At the same time, Northern abolitionists encouraged their own supporters to move to Kansas in the effort to make the territory a free state, hoping to flood Kansas with so-called "Free-Soilers" or "Free-Staters". By far the most famous of these, and their leader, was John Brown of Leavenworth, who moved from Ohio. Many citizens of Northern states arrived with assistance from benevolent societies such as the Boston-based New England Emigrant Aid Company, founded shortly before passage of the Kansas–Nebraska Act with the specific goal of assisting anti-slavery immigrants to reach Kansas Territory. In a colorful story that may be legend, the abolitionist minister Henry Ward Beecher, Harriet Beecher Stowe's brother, shipped them Sharps rifles in crates labelled "Bibles"; they became known as Beecher's Bibles. Despite boasts that 20,000 New England Yankees would be sent to the Kansas Territory, only about 1,200 settlers had emigrated there by the end of 1855. Nevertheless, aid movements like these, heavily publicized by the Eastern press, played a significant role in creating the nationwide hysteria over the fate of Kansas, and were directly responsible for the establishment of towns which later became strongholds of Republican and abolitionist sentiment, including Lawrence, Topeka, and Manhattan, Kansas.

First Territorial Legislature

On March 30, 1855, the Kansas Territory held the election for its first territorial legislature. Crucially, this legislature would decide whether the territory would allow slavery. Just as had happened in the election of November 1854, "Border Ruffians" from Missouri again streamed into the territory to vote, and proslavery delegates were elected to 37 of the 39 seats—Martin F. Conway and Samuel D. Houston from Riley County were the only Free-Staters elected. Free-Staters loudly denounced the elections as fraudulent. Territorial Governor Andrew Reeder pleased neither side when he invalidated, as tainted by fraud, the results in only 11 of the 40 legislative races. A special election was held on May 22 to elect replacements, and the results were dramatically different; eight of the 11 delegates elected in the special election were Free-Staters. This still left the proslavery camp with an overwhelming 29–10 advantage.

The proslavery legislature convened in the newly created territorial capital of Pawnee on July 2, 1855. The legislature immediately invalidated the results from the special election in May and seated the proslavery delegates elected in March. After only one week in Pawnee, the legislature moved the territorial capital to the Shawnee Mission, on the Missouri border, where it reconvened, adopted a slave code for Kansas modeled largely on that of Missouri, and began passing laws favorable to slaveholders.

Free-Staters quickly elected delegates to a separate legislature based in Topeka, which proclaimed itself the legitimate government and called the proslavery government operating in Lecompton "bogus".  This body created the first territorial constitution, the Topeka Constitution. Charles L. Robinson, a Massachusetts native and agent of the New England Emigrant Aid Company, was elected territorial governor.

Reeder had not been elected, but appointed by President Pierce, at whose pleasure he served. Pierce fired him on August 16, 1855, replacing him with the very pro-Southern Wilson Shannon. Reeder left the territory and found it prudent to do so in disguise.

Pierce refused to recognize the Free-State legislature. In a message to Congress on January 24, 1856, Pierce declared the Topeka government "insurrectionist". The presence of dual governments was symptomatic of the strife brewing in the territory and further provoked supporters of both sides of the conflict.

In response to the disputed votes and rising tension, Congress sent a three-man special committee to the Kansas Territory in 1856. The committee reported, in July 1856, that if the election of March 30, 1855, had been limited to "actual settlers", it would have elected a Free-State legislature. The report also stated that the legislature actually seated in Lecompton "was an illegally constituted body, and had no power to pass valid laws". In other words, the Free-Staters' allegations of fraud were well founded, and the Lecompton legislature was indeed bogus.

Constitutional fight

Much of the early confrontation of the Bleeding Kansas era centered formally on the creation of a constitution for the future state of Kansas. The first of four such documents was the Topeka Constitution, written by anti-slavery forces unified under the Free-Soil Party in December 1855. This constitution was the basis for the Free-State territorial government that resisted the federally authorized government, elected by Missourians who, congressional investigation soon revealed, committed fraud by voting in Kansas as residents and then returning to Missouri. On June 30, 1856, after Pierce's declaration that the Topeka government was extralegal, Congress rejected ratification of the Topeka Constitution.

Pierce was succeeded in 1857 by James Buchanan. Like his predecessor, Buchanan was a Northerner sympathetic to the South and proslavery interests. That year, a second constitutional convention met in Lecompton, and by early November had drafted the Lecompton Constitution, a proslavery document endorsed by President Buchanan. The constitution was submitted to Kansans for a vote on a special slavery article, but Free-Staters refused to participate, since they knew that the constitution would allow Kansas slaveholders to keep existing slaves even if the article in question was voted against. The Lecompton Constitution, including the slavery article, was approved by a vote of 6,226 to 569 on December 21. Congress instead ordered another election because of voting irregularities uncovered. On August 2, 1858, Kansas voters rejected the document by 11,812 to 1,926.

While the Lecompton Constitution was pending before Congress, a third document, the Leavenworth Constitution, was written and passed by Free State delegates. It was more radical than other Free-State proposals in that it would have extended suffrage to "every male citizen," regardless of race. Participation in this ballot on May 18, 1858, was a fraction of the previous and there was even some opposition by Free-State Democrats. The proposed constitution was forwarded to the U.S. Senate on January 6, 1859, where it was met with a tepid reception and left to die in committee.

The fourth and final Free State proposal was the Wyandotte Constitution, drafted in 1859, which represented the anti-slavery view of the future of Kansas. It was approved in a referendum by a vote of 10,421 to 5,530 on October 4, 1859. With Southern states still in control of the Senate, confirmation of the Wyandotte Constitution was indefinitely postponed. When senators from the seceding states left in January 1861, Kansas was immediately admitted—the same day—as a free state.

Open violence
On November 21, 1855, the so-called Wakarusa War began in Douglas County when a proslavery settler, Franklin Coleman, shot and killed a Free-Stater, Charles W. Dow, with whom Coleman had long been engaged in a feud that was unrelated to local or national politics. Dow was the first American settler to be murdered in the Kansas Territory. The decision by Douglas County Sheriff Samuel J. Jones to arrest another Free-Stater rather than Coleman and the prisoner's subsequent rescue by a Free-State posse erupted into a conflict that pitted, for the first time, armed pro-slavery settlers against antislavery settlers. Governor Wilson Shannon called for the Kansas militia, but the assembled army was composed almost entirely of proslavery Missourians, who camped outside the town of Lawrence with stolen weapons and a cannon.

In response, Lawrence raised its own militia, led by Charles L. Robinson, the man elected governor by the Topeka legislature, and James H. Lane. The parties besieging Lawrence reluctantly dispersed only after Shannon negotiated a peace agreement between Robinson and Lane and David Rice Atchison. The conflict had one other fatality, when Free-Stater Thomas Barber was shot and killed near Lawrence on December 6.

Summer of 1856

On May 21, 1856, proslavery Democrats and Missourians invaded Lawrence, Kansas, and burned the Free State Hotel, destroyed two antislavery newspaper offices, and ransacked homes and stores in what became known as the Sacking of Lawrence. A cannon used during the Mexican–American War, called the Old Kickapoo or Kickapoo Cannon, was stolen and used on that day by a proslavery group including the Kickapoo Rangers of the Kansas Territorial Militia. It was later recovered by an anti-slavery faction and returned to the city of Leavenworth.

In May 1856, Republican Senator Charles Sumner of Massachusetts took to the floor to denounce the threat of slavery in Kansas and humiliate its supporters. Sumner accused Democrats in support of slavery of lying in bed with "the harlot of slavery" on the House floor during his "Crimes Against Kansas" speech. He had devoted his enormous energies to the destruction of what Republicans called the slave power, that is the efforts of slave owners to control the federal government and ensure both the survival and the expansion of slavery. In the speech (called "The Crime against Kansas") Sumner criticized South Carolina Senator Andrew Butler, portraying Butler's pro-slavery agenda towards Kansas with the raping of a virgin, and characterizing his affection for it in sexual terms. Two days later, Butler's cousin, the South Carolina Congressman Preston Brooks, nearly killed Sumner on the Senate floor with a heavy cane. The action electrified the nation, brought violence to the floor of the Senate, and deepened the North–South split. After nearly killing Sumner, Brooks was praised by Southern Democrats for the attack. Many pro-slavery newspapers concluded that abolitionists in Kansas and beyond "must be lashed into submission," and hundreds of Southern Democrat lawmakers after the attack sent Brooks new canes as an endorsement of the attack, with one of the canes being inscribed with the phrase "hit him again." Towns and counties renamed themselves to honor Brooks (Brooksville, Florida, Brooks County, Georgia, and others). Two weeks after the attack, American philosopher and Harvard graduate Ralph Waldo Emerson condemned Brooks and the pro-slavery lawmakers, stating: "I do not see how a barbarous community and a civilized community can constitute one state. I think we must get rid of slavery, or we must get rid of freedom." In the coming weeks, many proslavery Democrats wore necklaces made from broken pieces of the cane as a symbol of solidarity with Preston Brooks.

The violence continued to increase. John Brown led his sons and other followers to plan the murder of settlers who spoke in favor of slavery. At a proslavery settlement at Pottawatomie Creek on the night of May 24, the group seized five proslavery men from their homes and hacked them to death with broadswords. Brown and his men escaped and began plotting a full-scale slave insurrection to take place at Harpers Ferry, Virginia, with financial support from Boston abolitionists.

The proslavery territorial government, serving under President Pierce, had been relocated to Lecompton. In April 1856, a congressional committee arrived there to investigate voting fraud. The committee found that non-Kansas residents had illegally voted in the election, resulting in the proslavery government. President Pierce refused recognition of its findings and continued to authorize the proslavery legislature, which the Free State people called the "Bogus Legislature".

On July 4, 1856, proclamations of President Pierce led to nearly 500 U.S. Army troops arriving in Topeka from Fort Leavenworth and Fort Riley. With their cannons pointed at Constitution Hall and the long fuses lit, Colonel E.V. Sumner, cousin to the senator of the same name who was beaten on the Senate floor, ordered the dispersal of the Free State Legislature.

In August 1856, thousands of proslavery men formed into armies and marched into Kansas. That month, Brown and several of his followers engaged 400 proslavery soldiers in the Battle of Osawatomie. The hostilities raged for another two months until Brown departed the Kansas Territory, and a new territorial governor, John W. Geary, took office and managed to prevail upon both sides for peace.

1857–1861
This was followed by a fragile peace broken by intermittent violent outbreaks for two more years. The last major outbreak of violence was touched off by the Marais des Cygnes massacre in 1858, in which Border Ruffians killed five Free State men. In the so-called Battle of the Spurs, in January 1859, John Brown led escaped slaves through a proslavery ambush en route to freedom via Nebraska and Iowa; not a shot was fired. About 56 people, though, died in Bleeding Kansas by the time the violence ended in 1859.

There were still ongoing acts of violence even after Kansas adopted a free state constitution in 1859. In 1860, the Indian agent Col. Cowan and sixty United States dragoons burned down many free state supporting settlers' homes, while sparing settlers who came from the South or supported slavery.

Kansas admitted as a free state

The congressional legislative deadlock was broken in early 1861, when following the election of Abraham Lincoln as President, seven Southern states seceded from the Union. Kansas's entry as a free state had already been approved by the House of Representatives, but had been blocked by Southern senators. When, early in 1861, the senators of the seceding states withdrew from Congress or were expelled, Kansas was immediately, within days, admitted to the Union as a free state, under the Wyandotte Constitution. While pro-Confederates in Missouri attempted to effect that state's secession from the Union, and succeeded in having a pro-Confederate government recognized by and admitted to the Confederacy, by the end of 1861, even that state was firmly in control of its Unionist government. Without control of Missouri, regular Confederate forces were never in a position to seriously threaten the newly recognized free state government in Kansas.

Nevertheless, following the commencement of the American Civil War in 1861, additional guerrilla violence erupted on the border between Kansas and Missouri and sporadically continued until the end of the war.

Legacy

Heritage area
In 2006, federal legislation defined a new Freedom's Frontier National Heritage Area (FFNHA) and was approved by Congress. A task of the heritage area is to interpret Bleeding Kansas stories, which are also called stories of the Kansas–Missouri border war. A theme of the heritage area is the enduring struggle for freedom. FFNHA includes 41 counties, 29 of which are in eastern Kansas and 12 in western Missouri.

In popular culture
The "Bleeding Kansas" period has been dramatically rendered in countless works of American popular culture, including literature, theater, film, and television.
 Santa Fe Trail (1940) is an American Western film set before the Civil War, which depicts John Brown's campaign during Bleeding Kansas, starring Ronald Reagan, Errol Flynn, and Raymond Massey.
 In Seven Angry Men (1955), Raymond Massey again plays John Brown.
 Wildwood Boys (William Morrow, New York; 2000) is a biographical novel of "Bloody Bill" Anderson by James Carlos Blake.
 Bleeding Kansas (2008) by Sara Paretsky is a novel depicting social and political conflicts in present-day Kansas with many references to the 19th-century events.
 The Good Lord Bird (2013) by James McBride is a limited-episode series based on the books released starring Ethan Hawke.
 The Outlaw Josey Wales (1976), an American western film set during and after the Civil War which depicts violence in the aftermath of Bleeding Kansas.  The character of Granny, who is from Kansas, had a son who she said "was killed by Missouri ruffians in the Border War".
 Bad Blood, the Border War that Triggered the Civil War (2007), a documentary film
 The November 8, 2014, episode of Hell on Wheels, titled "Bleeding Kansas", depicts a white family being slain for having slaves, who were then freed, in the name of religion
 When Kings Reigned (2017), a docudrama directed by Ian Ballinger and Alison Dover is about fishermen living along the Kansas River during and after the Bleeding Kansas era and the persecution they faced from local governments.
 The Kents, a 12-issue miniseries of comics written by John Ostrander, explores the history of Superman's adoptive family set against the conflicts of the Bleeding Kansas era.

See also

 Constitutions of Kansas
 Origins of the American Civil War

References

Further reading

Web

Primary sources

 At least 24 pamphlets were published in 1858 dealing with Kansas issues. A listing is in the papers of John Brown biographer Oswald Garrison Villard, here.

Scholarship
 Childers, Christopher. "Interpreting Popular Sovereignty: A Historiographical Essay", Civil War History Volume 57, Number 1, March 2011 pp. 48–70 in Project MUSE
 Earle, Jonathan and Burke, Diane Mutti. Bleeding Kansas, Bleeding Missouri: The Long Civil War on the Border. Lawrence, KS: University Press of Kansas, 2013.
 Epps, Kristen. Slavery on the Periphery: The Kansas-Missouri Border in the Antebellum and Civil War Eras. Athens: University of Georgia Press, 2016.
 Etcheson, Nicole. "The Great Principle of Self-Government: Popular Sovereignty and Bleeding Kansas", Kansas History 27 (Spring-Summer 2004):14–29, links it to Jacksonian Democracy
 Etcheson, Nicole. Bleeding Kansas: Contested Liberty in the Civil War Era (2006)
 Goodrich, Thomas. War to the Knife: Bleeding Kansas, 1854–1861 (2004)
 Johannsen, Robert W. "Popular Sovereignty and the Territories", Historian 22#4 pp. 378–395,
 Malin, James C. John Brown and the Legend of Fifty-six. (1942)
 Miner, Craig (2002). Kansas: The History of the Sunflower State, 1854–2000.
 Nevins, Allan. Ordeal of the Union: vol. 2 A House Dividing, 1852–1857 (1947), Kansas in national context
 Nichols, Roy F. "The Kansas–Nebraska Act: A Century of Historiography", Mississippi Valley Historical Review (1956) 43#2 pp. 187–212 in JSTOR
 Potter, David M. The Impending Crisis, 1848–1861 (1976), Pulitzer Prize; ch. 9, 12
 Reynolds, David S. John Brown, Abolitionist: The Man Who Killed Slavery, Sparked the Civil War, and Seeded Civil Rights (2005)

External links
 Documentary On Bleeding Kansas
 Kansas State Historical Society: A Look Back at Kansas Territory, 1854–1861
 Access documents, photographs, and other primary sources on Kansas Memory, the Kansas State Historical Society's digital portal
  NEEAC. History of the New-England Emigrant Aid Company. Boston: John Wilson & Son, 1862.
 PBS article on Bleeding Kansas.
 Territorial Kansas Online: A Virtual Repository for Kansas Territorial History.
 U-S-History.com.
 Online Exhibit – Willing to Die for Freedom, Kansas Historical Society
 Map of North America during Bleeding Kansas at omniatlas.com

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