İskenderiye Feneri, Mısır'ın İskenderiye şehrinde inşa edilmiş; ancak günümüzde bulunmayan, Dünyanın Yedi Harikası'ndan biri ve tarihte inşa edilmiş deniz fenerlerinin en yüksek olanı.

İnşaası MÖ 285-246 yılları arasında süren fener, bu devletin ilk iki kralı I. Ptolemaios Soter ve II. Ptolemaios tarafından Mısır'da İskenderiye Limanı'nın karşısındaki Pharos Adası üzerine yaptırılmıştı.

Üç bölümden oluşan fenerin mimarı Knidoslu Sostratus'tur. Kaidesi ile birlikte 135 metre yüksekliğinde olan fener, beyaz mermerden yapılmıştı. Tepesinde bulunan, tunçtan yapılmış büyük bir ayna 70 kilometre uzaklıktan görülüyor ve limana giren gemilere rehberlik ediyordu. Alt bölümü dikdörtgen şeklinde ve yaklaşık 55 metre yüksekliğindeydi. Orta bölüm, yukarıya doğru giden rampası olan bir silindir şeklindeydi. Yaklaşık 27 metre yüksekliğindeydi. Üst bölüm ise silindir şeklindeydi ve üzerinde alevin bulunduğu bir odası vardı.

İskenderiye Feneri, antik çağın yedi harikası içinde günlük yaşam için kullanılan tek eserdir.

Üst kısmı MS 955 yılında bir deprem ve fırtınada kopan fenerin gövde kısmı da 1302'de başka bir depremde yıkıldı. 1500 yılında ise bu yapıya ait kalıntılar tamamen yok oldu.

Üzerinde inşa edildiği adadan dolayı Pharos olarak anılmış ve bu kelime birçok dile yerleşmiştir. İspanyolca, Fransızca ve İtalyancada Pharos, deniz feneri anlamına gelmektedir. Yıkılmadan önce yapılan resimleri, dünyadaki deniz fenerlerine yüzlerce yıldan beri örnek olmuştur.

Kaynakça

Fener
Fener
Dünyanın Yedi Harikası
Deniz fenerleri
Helenistik mimari
Yıkılmış yapılar
MÖ 3. yüzyılda tamamlanan yapılar
14. yüzyılda feshedilmiş oluşumlar
1960'larda arkeolojik buluntular

İskenderiye Feneri


Villamarco es una pedanía y localidad española perteneciente al municipio de Santas Martas, en la provincia de León, comunidad autónoma de Castilla y León. Está situado en la CV-195-14.

Demografía

Tiene 204 habitantes, 105 varones y 99 mujeres.

Referencias

Localidades de Santas Martas

Villamarco


Ulysse et Diomède dans la tente de Rhésos est un tableau du peintre italien Corrado Giaquinto.

L'œuvre, conservée à la Pinacothèque métropolitaine de Bari, en 2015 a été exposée quelques mois au musée du Louvre de Paris, dans le cadre de l'exposition L'Èpopée des rois thraces.

Giaquinto illustre l'un des épisodes célèbres concernant la guerre de Troie. Ulysse et Diomède viennent d'entrer dans le somptueux pavillon de Rhésos, le jeune seigneur et demi-dieu de Thrace, allié des Troyens, qui avec quelques-uns de ses hommes sera massacré dans le sommeil par les deux héros achéens.

La source littéraire à laquelle puise Giaquinto n'est pas l'Iliade (où il y a une disposition différente du contingent thrace, avec le roi dormant au centre du camp, parmi trois rangées de guerriers) mais le Rhesos, d'après un élément sûr : à gauche en bas, près du lit à baldaquin où est couché le demi-dieu, montré comme un beau jeune homme presque nu, il y a un autre bel homme, avec d'épais cheveux noirs, plus ou moins du même âge, en tenue militaire, dormant assis sur un siège tenant la bride à la main ; c'est le conducteur du char de Rhésos, personnage qui n'apparaît que dans l'œuvre tragique. Dans la tente se trouvent aussi deux autres guerriers Thraces, également endormis : l'un en bas à droite, armé d'une lance et assis par terre, l'autre plus en arrière, appuyé contre les rideaux.

Au lieu d'immortaliser le massacre proprement dit, Giaquinto met en scène l'instant immédiatement précédent, plaçant au centre le significatif jeu de regards entre les deux chefs grecs, encouragés par la circonstance favorable, ou plutôt l'imprudence des ennemis destinés donc à subir leurs coups. La caractérisation du conducteur de char - le seul qui ne sera que blessé - s'avère particulièrement réussie du fait de sa fidélité au texte théâtral : la grimace faciale des yeux et de la bouche pas tout à fait fermés, en tension, reproduit magistralement le mauvais rêve qui dérange ce jeune homme. Le guerrier au premier plan à droite, aussi robuste que le conducteur de char, porte un manteau militaire assez inhabituel de couleur verte. Le couple achéen et Rhésos sont illuminés par la lueur des torches, répandant un jaune intense.

Notes et références

Tableau d'un peintre italien
Tableau du XVIIIe siècle
Ulysse dans la peinture
Sommeil dans la peinture
Bari


Andrei Petrovici Riabușkin (în , n. 29 octombrie (Stil vechi 17 octombrie) 1861, Stanichnaya Sloboda, gubernia Tambov -- d. 10 mai (Stil vechi 27 aprilie 1904, Didvino) a fost un pictor rus. Cele mai reprezentative dintre operele sale au fost dedicate vieții rușilor obișnuiți ai secolului al XVII-lea.

Biografie
Andrei Petrovici Riabușkin s-a născut în satul Stanichnaya Sloboda, oblastul Borisoglebskiy, gubernia Tambov în anul 1861. Tatăl și fratele său au fost pictori de icoane, și Andrei a început să-i ajute din copilărie. La 14 ani a rămas orfan.

Nașteri în 1861
Decese în 1904
Pictori ruși

Andrei Riabușkin


The James–Younger Gang was a notable 19th-century gang of American outlaws that revolved around Jesse James and his brother Frank James. The gang was based in the state of Missouri, the home of most of the members.

Membership fluctuated from robbery to robbery, as the outlaws' raids were usually separated by many months. As well as the notorious James brothers, at various times it included the Younger brothers (Cole, Jim, John, and Bob), John Jarrett (married to the Youngers' sister Josie), Arthur McCoy, George Shepherd, Oliver Shepherd, William McDaniel, Tom McDaniel, Clell Miller, Charlie Pitts, Chadwell (alias Bill Stiles), and Matthew "Ace" Nelson.

The James–Younger Gang had its origins in a group of Confederate bushwhackers that participated in the bitter partisan fighting that wracked Missouri during the American Civil War. After the war, the men continued to plunder and murder, though the motive shifted to personal profit rather than in the name of the Confederacy. The loose association of outlaws did not truly become the "James–Younger Gang" until 1868 at the earliest, when the authorities first named Cole Younger, John Jarrett, Arthur McCoy, George Shepherd and Oliver Shepherd as suspects in the robbery of the Nimrod Long bank in Russellville, Kentucky.

The James–Younger Gang dissolved in 1876, following the capture of the Younger brothers in Minnesota during the unsuccessful attempt to rob the Northfield First National Bank. Three years later, Jesse James organized a new gang, including Clell Miller's brother Ed and the Ford brothers (Robert and Charles), and renewed his criminal career. This career came to an end in 1882 when Robert Ford shot James from behind, killing him.

For nearly a decade following the Civil War, the James–Younger Gang was among the most feared, most publicized, and most wanted confederations of outlaws on the American frontier. Though their crimes were reckless and brutal, many members of the gang commanded a notoriety in the public eye that earned the gang significant popular support and sympathy. The gang's activities spanned much of the central part of the country; they are suspected of having robbed banks, trains, and stagecoaches in at least eleven states: Missouri, Kentucky, Tennessee, Iowa, Kansas, Minnesota, Texas, Arkansas, Louisiana, Alabama, and West Virginia.

History

Origins
From the beginning of the American Civil War, the state of Missouri had chosen not to secede from the Union but not to fight for it or against it either: its position, as determined by an 1861 constitutional convention, was officially neutral. Missouri, however, had been the scene of much of the agitation leading up to the outbreak of the war, and was home to dedicated partisans from both sides. In the mid-1850s, local Unionists and Secessionists had begun to battle each other throughout the state, and by the end of 1861, guerrilla warfare erupted between Confederate partisans known as "bushwhackers" and the more organized Union forces. The Missouri State Guard and the newly elected Governor of Missouri, Claiborne Fox Jackson, who maintained implicit Southern sympathies, were forced into exile as Union troops under Nathaniel Lyon and John C. Frémont took control of the state. Still, pro-Confederate guerrillas resisted; by early 1862, the Unionist provisional government mobilized a state militia to fight the increasingly organized and deadly partisans. This conflict (fought largely, though not exclusively, between Missourians themselves) raged until after the fall of Richmond and the surrender of General Robert E. Lee, costing thousands of lives and devastating broad swathes of the Missouri countryside.

The conflict rapidly escalated into a succession of atrocities committed by both sides. Union troops often executed or tortured suspects without trial and burned the homes of suspected guerrillas and those suspected of aiding or harboring them. Where credentials were suspect, the accused guerrilla was often executed, as in the case of Lt. Col. Frisby McCullough after the Battle of Kirksville. Bushwhackers, meanwhile, frequently went house to house, executing Unionist farmers.

The James and Younger brothers belonged to families from an area known as "Little Dixie" in western Missouri with strong ties to the South. Zerelda Samuel, the mother of Frank and Jesse James, was an outspoken partisan of the South, though the Youngers' father, Henry Washington Younger, was believed to be a Unionist. Cole Younger's initial decision to fight as a bushwhacker is usually attributed to the death of his father at the hands of Union forces in July 1862. He and Frank James fought under one of the most famous Confederate bushwhackers, William Clarke Quantrill, though Cole eventually joined the regular Confederate Army. Jesse James began his guerrilla career in 1864, at the age of sixteen, fighting alongside Frank under the leadership of Archie Clement and "Bloody Bill" Anderson.

At the war's end, Frank James surrendered in Kentucky; Jesse James attempted to surrender to Union militia but was shot through the lung outside of Lexington, Missouri. He was nursed back to health by his cousin, Zerelda "Zee" Mimms, whom he eventually married. When Cole Younger returned from a mission to California, he learned that Quantrill and Anderson had both been killed. The James brothers, however, continued to associate with their old guerrilla comrades, who remained together under the leadership of Archie Clement. It was likely Clement who, amid the tumult of Reconstruction in Missouri, turned the guerrillas into outlaws.

Early years: 1866 to 1870
On February 12, 1866, a group of gunmen carried out one of the first daylight, peacetime, armed bank robberies in U.S. history when they held up the Clay County Savings Association in Liberty, Missouri. The outlaws stole some $60,000 in cash and bonds and killed a bystander named George Wymore on the street outside the bank. State authorities suspected Archie Clement of leading the raid, and promptly issued a reward for his capture. In later years, the list of suspects grew to include Jesse and Frank James, Cole Younger, John Jarrett, Oliver Shepherd, Bud and Donny Pence, Frank Greg, Bill and James Wilkerson, Joab Perry, Ben Cooper, Red Mankus, and Allen Parmer (who later married Susan James, Frank and Jesse's sister).

Four months later, on June 13, 1866, two members of Quantrill's Raiders were freed from prison in Independence, Missouri; the jailer, Henry Bugler, was killed. The James brothers are believed to have been involved. The gang began a string of robberies, many of which were linked to Clement's group of bushwhackers. The hold-up most clearly linked to the group was of Alexander Mitchell and Company in Lexington, Missouri, on October 30, 1866, which netted $2,011.50. Clement was also linked to violence and intimidation against officials of the Republican government that now held power in the state. On election day, Clement led his men into Lexington, where they drove Republican voters away from the polls, thereby securing a Republican defeat. A detachment of state militiamen was dispatched to the town. They convinced the bushwhackers to disperse, then attempted to capture Clement, who still had a price on his head. Clement refused to surrender and was shot down in a wild gunfight on the streets of Lexington.

Despite the death of Clement, his old followers remained together, and robbed a bank across the Missouri River from Lexington in Richmond, Missouri, on May 22, 1867, in which the town mayor John B. Shaw and two lawmen [Barry and George Griffin] were killed. This was followed on March 20, 1868, by a raid on the Nimrod Long bank in Russellville, Kentucky. In the aftermath of the two raids, however, the more senior bushwhackers were killed, captured or simply left the group. This set the stage for the emergence of the James and Younger brothers, and the transformation of the old crew into the James–Younger Gang. John Jarrett and Arthur McCoy were mentioned in numerous newspaper accounts, so they were likely active in gang activities up to 1875.

On December 7, 1869, Frank and Jesse James are believed to have robbed the Daviess County Savings Association in Gallatin, Missouri. Jesse is suspected of having shot down the cashier, John W. Sheets, in the mistaken belief that he was Samuel P. Cox, the Union militia officer who had ambushed and killed "Bloody Bill" Anderson during the Civil War. The James brothers were unknown up to this point; this may have been their first robbery. Their names were later added to previous robberies as an afterthought.

1871 to 1873

John Younger was almost arrested in Dallas County, Texas in January 1871. He killed two lawmen [Nichols and Mcmahan] during the attempt and escaped. On June 3, 1871, the gang robbed a bank in Corydon, Iowa; the James and Younger brothers were suspects. The bank contacted the Pinkerton National Detective Agency in Chicago, the first involvement of the famous agency in the pursuit of the James–Younger Gang. Agency founder Allan Pinkerton dispatched his son, Robert Pinkerton, who joined a county sheriff in tracking the gang to a farm in Civil Bend, Missouri. A short gunfight ended indecisively as the gang escaped. On June 24, Jesse James wrote a letter to the Kansas City Times, claiming Republicans were persecuting him for his Confederate loyalties by accusing him and Frank of carrying out the robberies. "But I don't care what the degraded Radical party thinks about me," he wrote, "I would just as soon they would think I was a robber as not."

On April 29, 1872, the gang robbed a bank in Columbia, Kentucky. One of the outlaws shot the cashier, R. A. C. Martin, who had refused to open the safe. On September 23, 1872, three men (identified by former bushwhacker Jim Chiles as Jesse James and Cole and John Younger) robbed a ticket booth of the Second Annual Kansas City Industrial Exposition, amid thousands of people. They took some $900, and accidentally shot a little girl in the ensuing struggle with the ticket-seller. Apart from Chiles' testimony, there is no other evidence this crime was committed by the James or Younger brothers, and Jesse later wrote a letter denying his or the Youngers' involvement. Cole was furious over this, because neither he nor brother John had been linked to the crime before the letter. The crime was praised by Kansas City Times editor John Newman Edwards in a famous editorial entitled, "The Chivalry of Crime." Edwards soon published an anonymous letter from one of the outlaws (believed to be Jesse) that referred to the approaching presidential election: "Just let a party of men commit a bold robbery, and the cry is hang them. But [President Ulysses S.] Grant and his party can steal millions and it is all right," the outlaw wrote. "They rob the poor and rich, and we rob the rich and give to the poor."

On May 27, 1873, the James–Younger Gang robbed the Ste. Genevieve Savings Association in Ste. Genevieve, Missouri. As they rode off they fired in the air and shouted, "Hurrah for Hildebrand!" Samuel S. Hildebrand was a famous Confederate bushwhacker from the area who had recently been shot dead in Illinois. Arthur McCoy had lived in this area and knew it quite well; he was likely involved and may have been the planner and leader.

On July 21, 1873, the gang carried out what was arguably the first train robbery west of the Mississippi River, derailing a locomotive of the Rock Island Railroad near Adair, Iowa. Engineer John Rafferty died in the crash. The outlaws took $2,337 from the express safe in the baggage car, having narrowly missed a transcontinental express shipment of a large amount of cash.

On November 24, John Newman Edwards published a lengthy glorification of the James brothers, Cole and John Younger, and Arthur McCoy, in a twenty-page special supplement to his newspaper the St. Louis Dispatch (Edwards had moved from the Kansas City Times to the Dispatch in 1873). Most of the supplement, entitled "A Terrible Quintet," was devoted to Jesse James, the gang's public face, and the article stressed their Confederate loyalties.

1874 to 1876
In January 1874, the outlaws were suspected of holding up a stagecoach in Bienville Parish, Louisiana. Later another suspected stage robbery took place between Malvern and Hot Springs, Arkansas. There, the gang returned a pocket watch to a Confederate veteran, saying that Northern men had driven them to outlawry and that they intended to make them pay for it. On January 31, the gang robbed a southbound train on the Iron Mountain Railway at Gads Hill, Missouri. For the first of two times in all their train robberies, the outlaws robbed the passengers. In both train robberies, their usual target, the safe in the baggage car belonging to an express company, held an unusually small amount of money. On this occasion, the outlaws reportedly examined the hands of the passengers to ensure that they did not rob any working men. Many newspapers reported this was actually done by the "Arthur McCoy" gang.  To correct errors, the gang telegraphed a report of the Gads Hill robbery to the St. Louis Dispatch newspaper for publication.

The Adams Express Company, which owned the safe robbed at Gads Hill, hired the Pinkerton National Detective Agency. On March 11, 1874, Joseph W. Whicher, the agent who was sent to investigate the James brothers, was found shot to death alongside a rural road in Jackson County, Missouri. Two other agents, John Boyle and Louis J. Lull, accompanied by Deputy Sheriff Edwin B. Daniels to track the Youngers, posed as cattle buyers. On March 17, 1874, the trio was stopped and attacked by John and Jim Younger on a rural stretch of road near Monegaw Springs, Missouri. Daniels was killed instantly, Lull and John Younger shot and killed each other, while Boyle and Jim Younger escaped. Lull lived long enough to testify before a coroner's inquest before succumbing to his wounds a few days later.

The Pinkerton deaths added to the growing embarrassment suffered by Missouri's first post-war Democratic governor, Silas Woodson. He issued a $2,000 reward offer for the Iron Mountain robbers (the reward usually offered for criminals was $300). He also persuaded the state legislature to provide $10,000 for a secret fund to track down the famous outlaws. The first agent, J. W. Ragsdale, was hired on April 9, 1874. On August 30, three of the gang held up a stagecoach across the Missouri River from Lexington, Missouri, in view of hundreds of onlookers on the bluffs of the town. A passenger identified two of the robbers as Frank and Jesse James. The acting governor, Charles P. Johnson, dispatched an agent selected from the St. Louis police department to investigate.

The gang was observed during this period by William Eleroy Curtis, a journalist-turned-hostage. Curtis interviewed his captors, who allowed him to send dispatches to the Chicago Inter-Ocean.

The gang next robbed a train on the Kansas Pacific Railroad near Muncie, Kansas, on December 8, 1874. It was one of the outlaws' most successful robberies, gaining them $30,000. William "Bud" McDaniel was captured by a Kansas City police officer after the robbery, and later was shot during an escape attempt.

On the night of January 25, 1875, Pinkerton agents surrounded the James farm in Kearney, Missouri. Frank and Jesse James had been there earlier but had already left. When the Pinkertons threw an iron incendiary device into the house, it exploded when it rolled into a blazing fireplace. The blast nearly severed the right arm of Zerelda Samuel, the James boys' mother (the arm had to be amputated at the elbow that night), and killed their 9-year-old half-brother, Archie Samuel. On April 12, 1875, an unknown gunman shot dead Daniel Askew, a neighbor and former Union militiaman who may have been suspected of providing the Pinkertons with a base for their raid. Allan Pinkerton then abandoned the chase for the James–Younger Gang.

By September 1875, at least part of the gang had ventured east to Huntington, West Virginia, where they robbed a bank on September 7. Two new members participated: Tom McDaniel (brother of Bud) and Tom Webb (a Confederate veteran who had been at Lawrence with Frank and Cole). McDaniel was killed by a posse and Webb was caught. The other two robbers, Frank and Cole, escaped.

Also in 1875, the two James brothers moved to the outskirts of Nashville, Tennessee, probably to save their mother from further raids by detectives. Once there, Jesse James began to write letters to the local press, asserting his place as a Confederate hero and a martyr to Radical Republican vindictiveness.

On July 7, 1876, Frank and Jesse James, Cole and Bob Younger, Clell Miller, Charlie Pitts, Bill Chadwell and Hobbs Kerry robbed the Missouri Pacific Railroad at the "Rocky Cut" near Otterville, Missouri. The new man, Kerry, was arrested soon after and he readily identified his accomplices.

Northfield, Minnesota Raid

The Rocky Cut raid set the stage for the final act of the James–Younger Gang: the famous Northfield, Minnesota raid on September 7, 1876. The target was the First National Bank of Northfield, which was far outside the gang's usual territory. The idea for the raid came from Jesse and Bob Younger. Cole tried to talk his brother out of the plan, but Bob refused to back down. Reluctantly, Cole agreed to go, writing to his brother Jim in California to come home. Jim Younger had never wanted anything to do with Cole's outlaw activities, but he agreed to go out of family loyalty. The Northfield bank was not unusually rich. According to public reports, it was a perfectly ordinary rural bank, though rumors persisted that General Adelbert Ames, son of the owner of the Ames Mill in Northfield, had deposited $50,000 there.

Shortly after the robbery, Bob Younger declared that they had selected it because of its connection to two Union generals and Radical Republican politicians: Benjamin Butler and his son-in-law Adelbert Ames. General Ames had just stepped down as Governor of Mississippi, where he had been strongly identified with civil rights for freedmen. He had recently moved to Northfield, where his father owned the mill on the Cannon River and had a large amount of stock in the bank. One of the outlaws "had a spite" against Ames, Bob said. Cole Younger said much the same thing years later and recalled greeting "General Ames" on the street in Northfield just before the robbery.

Cole, Jim and Bob Younger, Frank and Jesse James, Charlie Pitts, Clell Miller and Bill Chadwell took the train to St. Paul, Minnesota, in early September 1876. After a layover in St. Paul they divided into two groups, one going to Mankato, the other to Red Wing, on either side of Northfield. They purchased expensive horses and scouted the terrain around the towns, agreeing to meet south of Northfield along the Cannon River near Dundas on the morning of September 7, 1876. The gang attempted to rob the bank about 2:00 p.m. on September 7. Northfield residents had seen the gang leave a local restaurant near the mill shortly after noon, where they dined on fried eggs. They testified at the Younger brothers' trial that the group smelled of alcohol and that the gang was obviously under the influence when they greeted General Ames.

Three of the outlaws (Bob Younger, Frank James and Charlie Pitts) crossed the bridge by the Ames Mill and entered the bank; the other five (Jesse James, Cole and Jim Younger, Bill Stiles and Clell Miller) stood guard outside. Two were standing outside the bank's front door and the other three were waiting in Mills Square to guard the gang's escape route. According to some reports, J. S. Allen shouted to the townspeople, "Get your guns, boys, they're robbing the bank!" Once local citizens realized a robbery was in progress, several took up arms from local hardware stores. Shooting from behind cover, they poured deadly fire on the outlaws. During the gun battle, medical student Henry Wheeler killed Miller, shooting from a third-floor window of the Dampier House Hotel, across the street from the bank. Another civilian named A. R. Manning, who took cover at the corner of the Sciver building down the street, killed Stiles. Other civilians wounded the Younger brothers (Cole was shot in his left hip, Bob suffered a shattered elbow, and Jim was shot in the jaw). The only civilian fatality on the street was 30-year-old Nicholas Gustafson, an unarmed recent Swedish immigrant, who was killed by Cole Younger at the corner of 5th Street and Division.

Thirteen Swedish families lived west of Northfield in the Millersburg area in 1876, including Peter Gustafson, who had recently been joined by his brother Nicolaus and nephew Ernst from Sweden. West of Millersburg that morning, Peter Youngquist harnessed his mules and headed for Northfield to sell farm produce, accompanied by Gustafson and three others. The Swedes arrived in Northfield about 1:00 p.m. and set up their vegetable wagon along the Cannon River near 5th Street. About 2:00 p.m., they heard gunshots. Nicolaus Gustafson ran to the intersection of Division and 5th a block away, where he was shot in the head as the bank was being robbed. Gustafson died four days later. Another Swede named John Olson was an eyewitness to the Gustafson shooting and later testified against Cole Younger.

Inside the bank, the assistant cashier Joseph Lee Heywood refused to open the safe and was murdered for resisting. The two other employees in the bank were teller Alonzo Bunker and assistant bookkeeper Frank Wilcox. Bunker escaped from the bank by running out the back door despite being wounded in the right shoulder by Pitts as he ran. The three robbers then ran out of the bank after hearing the shooting outside and mounted their horses to make a run for it, having taken only several bags of nickels from the bank. Every year in September, Northfield hosts "Defeat of Jesse James Days", a celebration of the town's victory over the James–Younger Gang.

In addition to the death of Miller and Stiles, every one of the rest of the gang was wounded, including Frank James and Pitts, both shot in their right legs. Jesse James was the last one to be shot, taking a bullet in the thigh as the gang escaped. The six surviving outlaws rode out of town on the Dundas Road toward Millersburg where four of them had spent the night before.

Aftermath
Minnesotans joined posses and set up picket lines by the hundreds. After several days the gang had only reached the western outskirts of Mankato when they decided to split up (despite persistent stories to the contrary, Cole Younger told interviewers that they all agreed to the decision). The Youngers and Pitts remained on foot, moving west, until finally they were cornered in a swamp called Hanska Slough, just south of La Salle, Minnesota, on September 21, two weeks after the Northfield raid. In the gunfight that followed, Pitts was killed and the Youngers were again wounded. The Youngers surrendered and pleaded guilty to murder in order to avoid execution. Frank and Jesse secured horses and fled west across southern Minnesota, turning south just inside the border of the Dakota Territory. In the face of hundreds of pursuers and a nationwide alarm, Frank and Jesse escaped, but the infamous James–Younger Gang was no more.

On September 23, 1876, the Younger brothers were taken to the Rice County jail in Faribault. On November 16, a grand jury issued four indictments—one each for the first-degree murders of Joseph Heywood and Nicolaus Gustafson, one for bank robbery, and one for assault with deadly weapons on the wounded bank clerk, Bunker. The three brothers pleaded guilty on November 20, 1876, and were sentenced to life terms in the Minnesota Territorial Prison at Stillwater.

Nicolaus Gustafson was buried in Northfield because the Millersburg Swedes had no cemetery in 1876. After his death, the Millersburg Swedes determined to establish their own church and burial ground. Peter Youngquist and Carl Hirdler donated an acre of land adjacent to their homes overlooking Circle Lake and in 1877 John Olson was hired to build the Christdala Evangelical Swedish Lutheran Church  west of Millersburg. Today the church is listed on the National Register of Historic Places and historical markers in front of the church tell the story of Nicolaus Gustafson and the founding of Christdala.

Final years

Having escaped, Frank James joined Jesse in Nashville, Tennessee, where they spent the next three years living peacefully. Frank in particular seems to have thrived in his new life farming in the Whites Creek area. Jesse did not adapt well to peace; he gathered up recruits, formed a new gang and returned to a life of crime. On October 8, 1879, Jesse and his gang robbed the Chicago and Alton Railroad near Glendale, in Jackson County, Missouri. Unfortunately for Jesse, one of the men, Tucker Basham, was captured by a posse. He told authorities he had been recruited by Bill Ryan.

On September 3, 1880, Jesse James and Bill Ryan robbed a stagecoach near Mammoth Cave, Kentucky. On October 5, 1880, they robbed the store of John Dovey in Mercer, Kentucky. On March 11, 1881, Jesse, Ryan, and Jesse's cousin Wood Hite robbed a federal paymaster at Muscle Shoals, Alabama, taking $5,240. Shortly afterward, a drunk and boastful Ryan was arrested in Whites Creek, near Nashville, and both Frank and Jesse James fled back to Missouri.

On July 15, 1881, Frank and Jesse James, Wood and Clarence Hite, and Dick Liddil robbed the Rock Island Railroad near Winston, Missouri, of $900. Train conductor William Westfall and passenger John McCullough were killed. On September 7, 1881, Jesse James carried out his last train robbery, holding up the Chicago and Alton Railroad. The gang held up the passengers when the express safe proved to be nearly empty.

With this new outbreak of train robberies, the new Governor of Missouri, Thomas T. Crittenden, convinced the state's railroad and express executives to put up the money for a large reward for the capture of the James brothers. Creed Chapman and John Bugler were arrested for participating in the robbery on September 7, 1881. Though they were confirmed as having participated in the robbery by convicted members of the gang, neither was ever convicted.

In December 1881, Wood Hite was killed by Liddil in an argument over Martha Bolton, the sister of the Fords. Bob Ford, not yet a member of the gang, assisted Liddil in his gunfight. Ford and Liddil, with Bolton as an intermediary, made deals with Governor Crittenden. On February 11, 1882, James Timberlake arrested Wood Hite's brother Clarence, who made a confession but died of tuberculosis in prison. Ford, on the other hand, agreed to bring down Jesse James in return for the reward.

On April 3, 1882, Ford fatally shot Jesse James behind the ear at James's rented apartment in St. Joseph, Missouri. Bob and his brother Charley surrendered to the authorities, pleaded guilty, and were promptly pardoned by Crittenden. On October 4, 1882, Frank James surrendered to Crittenden. Accounts say that Frank surrendered with the understanding that he would not be extradited to Northfield, Minnesota. Only two cases ever came to trial: one in Gallatin, Missouri, for the July 15, 1881, robbery of the Rock Island Line train at Winston, Missouri in which a train crewman and a passenger were killed, and one in Huntsville, Alabama, for the March 11, 1881, robbery of a United States Army Corps of Engineers payroll at Muscle Shoals, Alabama. Frank James was found not guilty by juries in both cases (July 1883 at Gallatin and April 1884 at Huntsville). Missouri kept jurisdiction over him with other charges but they never came to trial and they kept him from being extradited to Minnesota. Frank James died on February 8, 1915, at the age of 72.

The Youngers remained loyal to the Jameses when they were in prison and never informed on them. They ended up being model prisoners and in one incident helped keep other prisoners from escaping during a fire at the prison. Cole Younger also founded the longest-running prison newspaper in the United States during his stay at the Minnesota Territorial Prison in Stillwater. Bob Younger died in prison of tuberculosis on September 15, 1889, at the age of 36. After much legal dispute, Cole and Jim Younger were paroled in 1901 on the condition they remain in Minnesota. Jim committed suicide on October 19, 1902, while on parole in St. Paul, at the age of 54. Cole Younger received a pardon in 1903 on the condition that he leave Minnesota and never return. He traveled to Missouri where he joined a "Wild West" show with Frank James and died there on March 21, 1916, at the age of 72.

Legacy
Bill Ayers and Diana Oughton headed a splinter group of the Students for a Democratic Society (SDS) that called itself the "Jesse James Gang" and evolved into the Weather Underground.

In popular culture

See also

Film
 The James Boys in Missouri (1908)
 The Younger Brothers (1908)
 Jesse James (1939)
 Days of Jesse James (1939)
 Bad Men of Missouri (1941)
 Jesse James at Bay (1941)
 The Younger Brothers (1949)
 Kansas Raiders (1950)
 The Great Missouri Raid (1951)
 The True Story of Jesse James (1957)
 Young Jesse James (1960)
 The Great Northfield Minnesota Raid (1972)
 The Long Riders (1980)
 Frank and Jesse (1994)
 American Outlaws (2001)
 The Assassination of Jesse James by the Coward Robert Ford (2007)

Literature
 The James and Younger brothers are major characters in Wildwood Boys (William Morrow, 2000; New York), a biographical novel of "Bloody Bill" Anderson by James Carlos Blake
 The Story of Cole Younger, by Himself (Cole Younger, 1903; Chicago)

See also
 History of Missouri
 Bushwhackers
 Reconstruction Era
 List of Old West gangs

References

Other sources

Further reading
 McLachlan, Sean (2012) The Last Ride of the James–Younger Gang; Jesse James and the Northfield Raid 1876. Osprey Raid Series #35. Osprey Publishing.

External links

 Northfield Bank Raid in MNopedia, the Minnesota Encyclopedia
 Website for the American Experience documentary on Jesse James, broadcast on PBS, with transcript and additional material
 Website for T. J. Stiles's biography of Jesse James, with excerpts of primary sources and additional essays
 Official website for the family of Frank & Jesse James: Stray Leaves, A James Family in America Since 1650
 John Koblas, author of several Jesse James books
 Yesterday's News blog 1901 newspaper interview with Cole and Jim Younger upon their release from a Minnesota prison
 Northfield (Minnesota) Historical Society Bank Raid Wiki
 Defeat of Jesse James Days, held annually the weekend after Labor Day in Northfield, Minnesota
 The Younger Brothers: After the Attempted Robbery, a podcast by the Minnesota Historical Society on the Younger brothers' time in Stillwater State Prison
 Newspapers report the rise, exploits, and fall of Jesse James and the James–Younger Gang
 Today's James Younger Gang

19th century in Missouri
Crime families
Gangs in Missouri
Missouri in the American Civil War
Outlaw gangs in the United States

James–Younger Gang


Edward Theodore Riley (born October 8, 1967) is an American record producer and songwriter credited with the creation of the R&B-hip hop fusion genre new jack swing. He is the creator and lead singer of the musical group Blackstreet, as well as its precedessor, Guy. The genre also gained popularity from artists who heavily utilized Riley's production and songwriting distinction, namely Michael Jackson, Bobby Brown, Heavy D & the Boyz, Keith Sweat, Hi-Five, and the Jackson 5, among others.

With Blackstreet and Guy, Riley has released four and three respective studio albums to commercial success. Riley's production became notable for its influence on contemporary R&B, leading to more samples, sound effects and rapping segments as well as singing—a practice which in part was reminiscent of the Jackson family. Riley is also credited with popularizing modern use of the talk box vocoder.

Riley, a two-time Grammy Award winner, achieved his furthest commercial success and notability handling the production for Michael Jackson's "Remember the Time" in 1992, Bobby Brown's "My Prerogative" in 1988, SWV's "Right Here (Human Nature Remix)" in 1992, and his group Blackstreet's hit single "No Diggity" (featuring Dr. Dre and Queen Pen) in 1993. In the 2010s and 2020s, Riley began to work with musical groups in the Eastern pop market, producing the hit songs "Call Me Baby" for Exo in 2015, "The Boys" for Girls' Generation in 2011, and "Mamacita" for Super Junior in 2014.

Early life
Riley was raised in St. Nicholas Houses in Harlem, New York City. A child prodigy from the age of five, he began playing instruments in church. His uncle, who owned the famed Harlem club The Rooftop, built a studio in the club in which Riley would spend most of his time while growing up. By 14, upstate  New York rappers began making music to his tracks.

Career
Under the guidance of local music producer Gene Griffin, Riley formed the short-lived group Kids at Work. At the age of 18, Riley produced Kool Moe Dee's 12" single "Go See the Doctor". Released on an independent label in 1986, the song became a crossover hit, reaching number 89 on the Billboard Hot 100. Riley had previously worked on the production of Doug E. Fresh and the Get Fresh Crew's "The Show" in 1985.

In 1987, Riley, Aaron Hall, and Timmy Gatling formed the R&B group Guy. Managed by Gene Griffin, Riley's work with Guy pioneered the "new jack swing" style of R&B. Riley infused his own blend of hip-hop beats, R&B progressions and the gospel vocal stylings of Hall to create the archetypal new jack swing sound on Guy's eponymous debut album. In 1989, Riley produced Big Daddy Kane's "I Get the Job Done", as well as other work for the Jacksons, the Winans, and James Ingram. That same year, he helped produce the debut album of his rap group, Wrecks-n-Effect. He also created the highly successful remix of Jane Child's "Don't Wanna Fall in Love", which became a crossover pop smash.

After the release and tour of Guy's second album, The Future, Riley co-produced half of Michael Jackson's album Dangerous on the recommendation of Jackson's long-time producer Quincy Jones. After the disbandment of Guy in 1992, Riley moved to production, performance on, and promotion of Wreckx-n-Effect's second album Hard or Smooth.

In late 1991, Riley formed a second group, Blackstreet. The group would go on to release several major hits, including "Don't Leave Me" (1997), the number one single "No Diggity" (featuring Dr. Dre and Queen Pen) (1996), and "Girlfriend/Boyfriend" (with Janet Jackson featuring Ja Rule and Eve) (1999). By 2011, the group had disbanded and reformed several times.

In 2000, Riley worked with Spice Girl Melanie B on the tracks "ABC 123", "I Believe", and "Pack Your Shit" for her solo debut album Hot. He also worked on an album with Outsiderz 4 Life, producing "Wil' Out" and other songs.

At the start of 2006, he was part of the New Jack Reunion Tour, featuring Blackstreet and Guy, in addition to After 7, SWV, and Tony! Toni! Toné!. In May 2006, Riley announced that he would be working on two key projects: a new Blackstreet album and a new Guy album.

In 2008, Riley was the victim of a Ponzi scheme that left him bankrupt. In June 2008, a fire destroyed Riley's Virginia Beach recording studio. Fire investigators said that an electrical problem caused the blaze that burned the abandoned recording studio. The Virginia Beach Fire Department said lightning in the area also could have been a factor, although there was no direct
strike.  The empty studio was for sale and was insured for $336,000.

In 2009, Riley performed with Guy at the BET Awards. In the same year, Riley worked with Amerie and Robin Thicke on their respective albums. Leading on from his work on Snoop Dogg's album Ego Trippin', Riley became part of the production supergroup QDT, which features DJ Quik as well as Snoop Dogg.

Riley produced and co-wrote the song "Teeth" with Lady Gaga for her EP The Fame Monster. Speaking in March 2010 to Blues & Soul's Pete Lewis, Riley said that he was no longer affiliated with Guy (Riley had last performed with the group in October 2010). Riley also said that the current lineup of Blackstreet consisted of himself, Chauncey "Black" Hannibal, Dave Hollister, and Sherman "J-Stylz" Tisdale.  He confirmed that he was working on a new Blackstreet album, though intended to release his own album – entitled TRX – first. Artists he could possibly be working with for the project included Stevie Wonder and Elton John, plus his own new, upcoming acts. However, Hannibal stopped performing with the group and the lineup became Riley, Hollister, Mark Middleton, and Eric Williams. In 2012, Hannibal returned to Blackstreet; Middleton and Williams left the group. As of 2019, the group's lineup now consists of Riley, Hollister, J-Stylz, and Rodney Poe under the name "Blackstreet 2".

In an August 2010, co-executor of the Michael Jackson estate, John Branca, confirmed that a posthumous album of Jackson would be released, containing work done in the previous five years with producers Theron "Neff-U" Feemster, Christopher "Tricky" Stewart, and Riley, as well as work written and produced solely by Jackson himself. The album Michael was released on December 14, 2010, in the United States. After the release, several people questioned some of the music Riley produced for the project. Riley insisted all of the songs were sung by Jackson and claimed that vocal artifacts were added from overprocessing Jackson's voice. However, Riley made comments in an interview with Dan Dodds (also known as Soul Jones) in which he stated that there were some elements of his voice in the music. Riley is reported to have said, "They may use some elements from me, put together ideas but I haven't been working on the new album."

Recently, Riley has stepped into the Korean music market. Riley worked with rapper Jay Park on an English track titled "Demon", which was originally meant for Michael Jackson. Riley produced a mini-album for the girl group Rania.

He produced the tracks "Believe" and "Flow" by the R&B group Boyz II Men for the album Twenty. He has also produced Korean girl group Girls' Generation's single "The Boys" for the group's first international release. He has also produced songs for Girls' Generation's labelmates Shinee and Exo.  He worked with Shinee on "Beautiful", "Shine", and "Dangerous" from their two-part third studio album The Misconceptions of Us. Riley also produced the songs "Milk" and "All Night" for f(x)'s third studio album Red Light and the song "What Is Love" for Exo.

Discography

With Kids at Work
 Kids at Work (1984)

With Guy
 Guy (1988)
 The Future (1990)
 Guy III (2000)

With Blackstreet
 Blackstreet (1994)
 Another Level (1996)
 Finally (1999)
 Level II (2003)

Production discography

Singles

Production credits

References

1967 births
Living people
African-American record producers
Record producers from New York (state)
African-American  male singer-songwriters
American dance musicians
Blackstreet members
Grammy Award winners
New jack swing musicians
Musicians from Harlem
Singers from New York City
American contemporary R&B singers
Record producers from Virginia
People from Virginia Beach, Virginia
21st-century African-American male singers
20th-century African-American male singers
Singer-songwriters from New York (state)

Teddy Riley


Hylliebadet er Malmøs største indendørs badeanlæg og ligger i bydelen Hyllie. Det blev åbnet 15. august 2015.

Svømmehallen, der har et areal på 11.500 m2, har et 50 meter-bassin, to lege/træningsbassiner, to vandrutsjebaner, en familieafdeling og en afslapningsafdeling med sauna, varmtvandsbassin, koldtvandsbassin og et udendørsbassin. Derudover findes der en fitnessafdeling.

Med blandt andet 700 m2 solcellepaneler på taget og energibesparende løsninger, er anlægget selvforsørgende med energi. Bygningen er tegnet af PP Arkitekter og bygget af NCC.

Referencer

Eksterne henvisninger
 Hylliebadet

Svømmehaller i Sverige
Malmø
Etableret i 2015

Hylliebadet


ස්වර ශාස්ත්‍රය (ග්‍රීක ෆෝන්) හඩ ශබ්දය + (ලෝගෝස්) වචන කථනය, සාකච්ඡාවට භායනය වු විෂය යනු යම් නිශ්චිත භාෂාවක ශබ්ද ක්‍රමය අධ්‍යනය කරන වාග් විද්‍යාවෙහි උප ක්ෂේත්‍රයකි. ශබ්ද විද්‍යාව කථානයේදි ඇතිවන ශබ්දයන්හි භෞතික නිෂ්පාදනය සහ අවබෝධය පිළිබදව වන අතර ස්වර ශාස්ත්‍රය දෙන ලද කිසියම් භාෂාවක හෝ භාෂාවන් අතර ශබ්ද ක්‍රියා කරන අකාරය විස්තර කරයි.

ස්වර ශාස්ත්‍රයෙහි වැදගත් කොටසක් වනුයේ භාෂාවක් තුල කිනම් ශබ්ද වශේෂණය ඒකකයන් වන්නේද යන්න අධ්‍යනය කිරීමයි. උදාහරණයන් පෙස ඉංග්‍රිසි භාෂාවෙන්   /P/ සහ  /B/ ශබ්දයේ විශේෂණිය එක්යන් ව්. (ඒවා ශබ්දානුය./ වෙනස වන්නේ ශබ්දානුක හෝ ශබ්දානුමිතික බවයි) මෙය (pin) සහ "බින්"  (bin) වැනි වෙනෙස් දේවල් හදුන්වන නමුත් ශබ්දයට ස්ථානගත වි ඇති අන්දම අනුව දේශිය කථිකයින් විසින් තවමත් එකම ඹප්දය ලෙස සැලකේ. උදාහරණය ලෙස පින් (pin) යන වචනනය පී  (p) අකුර මහාප්‍රාණක්ෂරයක් ලෙස ශබ්ද කරන අතර ස්පින් යන වචනයෙහි ශබ්දානුව ශබ්දයෙන් පමණක් වෙනස්වන කුඩාම යුගයන් ගන් දැකගත හැකිය.අනෙක් අතට පී  (p) අක්ෂරය බොහෝ විට අනෙකුත් ශබ්දවලට සාපේක්ෂය එය සමාන වි ඇති අන්දමට අනුව වෙනස් ආකාරකින් උච්චාරණය කිරිම හෝ නොකිරිම පිලිබද මෙම වෙනස් ශබ්දානු අතර වෙනස්කම්ක් ලස දැක්වේ.

අවම අර්ථ පුර්ණය ශබ්ද (ශබ්දානු) වලට අමතරව ස්වර ශාස්ත්‍රය ඉහත විස්තර කල ඉංග්‍රිසි භාවේ "පි" අක්ෂණය යෙදුනු අන්දම සහ මාත්‍රාව,ව්‍යුහය, අවධාරණය, උච්චාරණය සහ ස්වර භේදය වැනි මාතෘකාවන්හිදි ද ශබ්ද එකිනෙකට අතර වෙනස් වන අන්දම අධ්‍යනය කෙරේ.

ස්වර ශාස්ත්‍රමය ඒකකයන් හි ශබ්ද ඇතුලත් නොවුවද සංඥා භාෂා විග්‍රහ කිරිම සදහා ද ස්වර ශාස්ත්‍ර න්‍යායේ මුලධර්මයෙන් යොදා ගනු ලැබිය. ස්වර ශාස්ත්‍ර විග්‍රහ‍යේ දී  උපකරණය ලෙස යාදා ගැනිම සදහා නිර්මාණය කර ඇති නිසා ප්‍රකාරයෙන් නිදහස්ව යොදා ගැනිමට හැකියාව ඇත.

සටහන්

| Phonology
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ස්වර ශාස්ත්‍රය


Le palais Ziller-Lovérdos (en  / ) est un palais urbain construit en 1882 à Athènes, en Grèce. Conçu par l'architecte allemand Ernst Ziller, qui en fit sa résidence principale et son lieu de travail, l'édifice fut acheté en 1912 par le banquier grec . Ce dernier transforma une partie de la demeure pour y abriter son importante collection d'art post-byzantin. Le palais fut légué à l'État grec à partir de 1979 et d'importants travaux de restauration furent conduits dans les années 2010 en vue de le transformer en musée. Le lieu abrite depuis  une partie de la collection Lovérdos en tant qu'annexe du Musée byzantin et chrétien d'Athènes.

Histoire

La résidence de ville d'Ernst Ziller (1882–1912)
Établi en Grèce de manière permanente en 1868, Ernst Ziller fut l'un des principaux architectes néo-classiques dans le pays. Il logea à partir de 1875 au sein d'un vaste domaine qu'il avait acheté au Pirée, à proximité du port de Zéa. En 1882, il acheta une parcelle à proximité du chantier de l'Académie d'Athènes et lança les travaux de construction de sa propre villa. Les fonds nécessaires provenaient entre autres du baron Simon von Sina, avec lequel Ziller était lié d'amitié depuis ses années à Vienne. Sina légua  à Ziller dans son testament, somme qui correspondait au quart de ce que coûtait une villa en ville. Il fallut à Ziller des années de négociations avec les administrateurs de la succession du baron, mort à Vienne en 1876, pour qu'il puisse obtenir cet argent. Ziller dut vendre en plus  de sa propriété du Pirée.

Les travaux de la villa athénienne furent achevés en 1885. Le monument fut à la fois la résidence principale de l'architecte et de sa famille, son atelier et son bureau. Il comporta également un salon de musique pour l'épouse d'Ernst Ziller, Sofía Doúdou, pianiste de renom. De nombreuses personnalités artistiques et politiques, telles Wilhelm Dörpfeld, Aléxandros Rízos Rangavís et Panagís Tsaldáris, fréquentèrent les lieux à l'invitation du couple Ziller.

La maison-musée de la famille de Dionýsios Lovérdos (1912–1979)
Ruiné par des choix financiers infructueux en 1900, Ziller fut contraint de vendre sa maison pour , malgré la transformation d'une partie de l'édifice en internat pour percevoir quelques revenus locatifs. Elle fut acquise par l'économiste, banquier et collectionneur d'art Dionýsios Lovérdos en 1912. Ce dernier fit remanier l'étage du corps principal puis, quelques années plus tard, fit ériger une chapelle dans le jardin de Ziller et réaménager l'ancien atelier de l'architecte dans le but de présenter sa collection de près de .

De la donation privée à la collection publique (1979–2021)

Les deux héritières de Dionýsios Lovérdos, María Lovérdou et Ioánna Vassiliádis, confièrent la collection de leur père au ministère de la Culture en 1979. En 1980, le palais fut victime d'un incendie alors qu'il abritait les loges de l'Opéra national de Grèce. L'édifice fut inscrit sur la liste des bâtiments protégés en Grèce l'année suivante.

La donation de la propriété, actée en 1992, contractualisa le rattachement du lieu au Musée byzantin et chrétien et la conversion de la bâtisse en musée ouvert au public. Les projets initiaux, au milieu des années 2000, prévoyaient que le lieu abrite une collection de dessins, de plans et d'archives photographiques du Musée byzantin et chrétien d'Athènes. Toutefois, ruiné par les tremblements de terre, l'incendie, les pillages et son utilisation pour des cérémonies sataniques, le monument resta près de deux décennies dans un état d'abandon manifeste. Des études furent finalement engagées en 2011 par les services du ministère de la Culture et les travaux de restauration commencèrent en 2014. Avec cinq années de retard et un budget total de , le palais Ziller-Lovérdos est ouvert au public en . Il abrite une partie des icônes, iconostases et sculptures en bois de l'école crétoise et ionienne formant la collection Lovérdos.

Architecture
Le palais Ziller-Lovérdos, qui comporte plus  de trois niveaux et un terrain de près de , consiste en un ensemble de bâtiments d'époque et de fonction différentes. Les deux propriétaires privés que furent Ernst Ziller et Dionýsios Lovérdos introduisirent de multiples modifications à la configuration originelle.

L'œuvre néo-classique et néo-Renaissance de Ziller
D'après les plans initiaux, le corps principal présente un sous-sol surélevé servant d'espace de stockage et de service, le rez-de-chaussée est dévolu aux pièces de réception et aux bureaux, tandis que l'étage est occupé par les chambres à coucher. La façade néo-classique présente huit bustes de caryatides en haut-relief supportant le linteau en saillie des fenêtres de l'étage. À l'intérieur, du marbre de l'Hymette orne le sol du rez-de-chaussée et les décors peints sont l'œuvre de l'artiste slovène . L'art de la fresque est particulièrement sensible dans le salon dit « de Pompéi », exemple du style néo-Renaissance en vogue à l'époque, dans les plafonds à volutes, ainsi que dans les détails des monogrammes des époux Ziller dans les appartements privés. Une aile à l'est formait une terrasse et permettait de relier le logis à l'atelier, situé plus au sud de la propriété. Une petite fontaine occupait le centre du jardin. Les plans originaux de Ziller sont actuellement conservés à la Pinacothèque nationale d'Athènes. L'architecte apporta quelques modifications à l'édifice entre 1900 et 1905, aménageant notamment certaines parties du sous-sol en salons familiaux.

Les transformations muséales d'inspiration byzantine de Lovérdos
Devenu propriétaire des lieux, Dionýsios Lovérdos fit plusieurs modifications d'envergure entre 1913 et 1925. Un étage fut notamment ajouté à l'aile orientale et des cuisines furent aménagées, alors que l'ancien atelier fut transformé en salle de réception. Entre 1925 et 1930 furent conduits les travaux visant à transformer le palais en musée privé, sous l'égide de l'architecte Aristotélis Záchos et de l'historienne . La collection fut principalement installée dans l'ancien atelier de Ziller, au sein duquel une niche inspirée de l'abside des églises fut créée. Une chapelle à la coupole en mosaïque de style byzantin, communiquant avec l'escalier sud du logis, fut construite dans l'aile ouest de la propriété. Les circulations furent par ailleurs modifiées et de nouveaux escaliers en boiseries fines mis en place. Après le décès de Dionýsios Lovérdos en 1936, quelques modifications mineures furent engagées par ses héritières, comprenant en particulier la transformation de l'une des deux chambres de Sofía Doúdou-Ziller en cuisine.

Galerie

Notes et références

Voir aussi

Bibliographie

 .

Articles connexes
 Musée byzantin et chrétien d'Athènes
 Palais Andréas-Syngrós
 Palais Melás
 Palais Psýcha

Liens externes

Monument à Athènes
Musée à Athènes
Édifice construit en 1885
Architecture néo-classique en Grèce

Palais Ziller-Lovérdos


Cláudio André Mergen Taffarel (d. 8 Mayıs 1966 Santa Rosa, Brezilya), eski futbolcu ve futbol antrenörüdür. Kaleci pozisyonunda görev aldığı futbolculuk kariyerini sonlandırmış olup, Galatasaray ve Brezilya millî takımında kaleci antrenörü olarak görev yapmıştır.

Kariyeri

Taffarel, 101 kez ile Brezilya millî futbol takımı tarihinde en fazla kaleci forması giymiş oyuncudur. 1994'teki zafer dışında, 1990 ve 1998 FIFA Dünya Kupası'nda da forma giymiştir.

8 Mayıs 1966 yılında Brezilya, Santa Rosa'da doğan André Cláudio Mergen Taffarel'in, profesyonel olarak ilk forma giydiği kulüp ülkesinin Internacional takımı oldu. 1990 yılına kadar bu kulübün formasını giyen Taffarel, 1990 yılında İtalya'nın Parma takımına transfer oldu. 1993 yılına kadar Parma'da forma giyen Taffarel, 1993 yılının sonunda bir başka 'Seria A' takımı Reggina'ya transfer oldu. Bir sezon Reggina'da forma giyen Taffarel, 1994-1997 yılları arasında ise ülkesinin takımlarından Atlético Mineiro'da forma giydi.

1998 yılındaki Dünya Kupası'nın ardından Avrupa'ya Galatasaray forması altında dönüş yapan Taffarel, 2001 yılına kadar sayısız başarılar yakaladığı Galatasaray formasını giydi. 2001-2003 yılları arasında ise Avrupa'da ilk forma giydiği takım olan Parma'ya transfer olan Taffarel'in son durağı İtalya oldu.

Cláudio Taffarel, 2004-2005 sezonunda ise Galatasaray'da kaleci antrenörü olarak görev yaptı. Galatasaray'da 3 sezon görev yapan Taffarel, iki Süper Lig şampiyonluğu ve iki Türkiye Kupası şampiyonluğunun, yanı sıra UEFA ve Süper Kupa şampiyonluklarında kaleyi koruyan isimdi. 2000 yılında Galatasaray ile Arsenal arasında oynanan UEFA Kupası finalinde 120 dakika boyunca kalesinde gol görmeyen Taffarel maçın oyuncusu seçilmiştir.

1990, 1994 ve 1998 olmak üzere üç ayrı dünya kupasında Brezilya millî takımının formasını giymiş olan Cláudio Taffarel, 101 kere millî takım formasını giyerek, millî formayı en çok giyen kaleci olmuştur.

2011-12 sezonunun başında Galatasaray'da kaleci antrenörü olarak görev yapmaya başladı. 17 Temmuz 2016'da görevinden ayrıldı.

2014 yılında Brezilya'nın kaleci antrenörü olması için çağrıldı. Böylece hem Galatasaray'ın hem de Brezilya'nın kaleci antrenörü oldu.

Emeklilik sonrası

Taffarel ve Atlético Mineiro'dan eski takım arkadaşı Paulo Roberto, özellikle gelecek vadeden gençlere odaklanarak bir oyuncu ajansı kurdu.

1998 Dünya Kupası sırasında, Brezilya millî takımı Paris'in güneydoğusunda bir banliyösü olan Ozoir-la-Ferriere'deki Trois-Sapins stadyumunda antrenman yaparken, belediye başkanı stadyumun adını kendi ismiyle değiştirmeyi teklif etti.

2004 yılında Taffarel, eski takım arkadaşı Gheorghe Hagi'nin altında kaleci antrenörü olarak Galatasaray'a tekrar katıldı ve yine 2011-12 sezonunda kulübe geri döndü ve Fatih Terim tekrar teknik direktör oldu. Galatasaray ve Brezilya millî takımı için kaleci antrenörü olarak görev almıştır. 2021 yılında Liverpool da göreve başlamıştır.

Özel hayatı
Brezilya, Rio Grande do Sul, Santa Rosa'da doğan Taffarel, Alman ve İtalyan kökenlidir.

Taffarel, birçok mekanda inancını aktif olarak paylaşan bir Hristiyandır. 1988'den beri Hristiyan Sporcu Bursu'nun bir üyesiydi ve 15 tanesini evlat edindiği ile beraber 17 çocuğu bulunmaktadır.

Başarıları

Parma
 Coppa Italia: 1991-92,2001-02
 UEFA Kupası: 1992-93

Galatasaray
 UEFA Kupası: 1999-2000
 UEFA Süper kupa: 2000
 Süper Lig: 1998-99,1999-2000
 Türkiye Kupası: 1998-99,1999-2000

Atlético Mineiro
 Campeonato Mineiro Kupası: 1995
 Copa Conmebol: 1997

Millî takım
 FİFA Dünya Kupası: 1994
 FİFA Dünya Kupası: 1998 Finalist
 Copa Amerika: 1989,1997,Yarı finaller: 1991,1995
 Yaz Oplimtiyat Oyunları: Gümüş Madalya 1988
 FİFA 20 Yaş Altı Dünya Kupası: 1985

Bireysel
 Bola De Ouro: 1988
 Bola De Prata: 1988
 İFFHS Dünyanın En iyi Kalecisi: 1991,1994
 FİFA İlk 11: 1998

Kaynakça

1966 doğumlular
Brezilyalı futbolcular
Bola de Ouro
SC Internacional futbolcuları
Parma Calcio 1913 futbolcuları
Reggina 1914 futbolcuları
Atlético Mineiro futbolcuları
1988 Yaz Olimpiyatları futbolcuları
1990 FIFA Dünya Kupası futbolcuları
1994 FIFA Dünya Kupası futbolcuları
1998 FIFA Dünya Kupası futbolcuları
1989 Copa América futbolcuları
1991 Copa América futbolcuları
1993 Copa América futbolcuları
1995 Copa América futbolcuları
1997 Copa América futbolcuları
1998 CONCACAF Altın Kupa futbolcuları
Yaşayan insanlar
Süper Lig futbolcuları
Serie A futbolcuları
La Liga futbolcuları
FIFA Dünya Kupası kazanan futbolcular
Brezilyalı gurbetçi futbolcular
İtalya'daki gurbetçi futbolcular
Türkiye'deki gurbetçi futbolcular
İtalya'daki Brezilyalı gurbetçiler
Türkiye'deki Brezilyalı gurbetçiler
Kaleci futbolcular
Brezilya millî futbol takımı futbolcuları
AC Reggiana 1919 futbolcuları
Brezilya 20 yaş altı millî futbol takımı futbolcuları
Brezilyalı teknik direktörler
Série A (Brezilya) futbolcuları
Copa América kazanan futbolcular
FIFA Century Club
Galatasaray SK teknik direktörleri
Brezilyalı Olimpiyat futbolcuları
Gümüş Olimpiyat madalyalı Brezilyalı sporcular
Rio Grande do Sul doğumlular
1988 Yaz Olimpiyatları'nda madalya kazananlar
UEFA Kupası'nı kazanan futbolcular
Gümüş Olimpiyat madalyalı futbolcular
Brezilyalı gurbetçi teknik direktörler
Alman asıllı Brezilyalılar
İtalyan asıllı Brezilyalılar
Türkiye'deki gurbetçi teknik direktörler
1987 Panamerikan Oyunları futbolcuları
Galatasaray SK yabancı futbolcuları
Altın Panamerikan Oyunları madalyalı Brezilyalı sporcular
Panamerikan Oyunları madalyalı futbolcular
Süper Lig teknik direktörleri

Cláudio Taffarel


In fluid dynamics, d'Alembert's paradox (or the hydrodynamic paradox) is a contradiction reached in 1752 by French mathematician Jean le Rond d'Alembert. D'Alembert proved that – for incompressible and inviscid potential flow – the drag force is zero on a body moving with constant velocity relative to the fluid. Zero drag is in direct contradiction to the observation of substantial drag on bodies moving relative to fluids, such as air and water; especially at high velocities corresponding with high Reynolds numbers. It is a particular example of the reversibility paradox.

D'Alembert, working on a 1749 Prize Problem of the Berlin Academy on flow drag, concluded: "It seems to me that the theory (potential flow), developed in all possible rigor, gives, at least in several cases, a strictly vanishing resistance, a singular paradox which I leave to future Geometers [i.e. mathematicians - the two terms were used interchangeably at that time] to elucidate". A physical paradox indicates flaws in the theory.

Fluid mechanics was thus discredited by engineers from the start, which resulted in an unfortunate split – between the field of hydraulics, observing phenomena which could not be explained, and theoretical fluid mechanics explaining phenomena which could not be observed – in the words of the Chemistry Nobel Laureate Sir Cyril Hinshelwood.

According to scientific consensus, the occurrence of the paradox is due to the neglected effects of viscosity.  In conjunction with scientific experiments, there were huge advances in the theory of viscous fluid friction during the 19th century. With respect to the paradox, this culminated in the discovery and description of thin boundary layers by Ludwig Prandtl in 1904. Even at very high Reynolds numbers, the thin boundary layers remain as a result of viscous forces.  These viscous forces cause friction drag on streamlined objects, and for bluff bodies the additional result is flow separation and a low-pressure wake behind the object, leading to form drag.

The general view in the fluid mechanics community is that, from a practical point of view, the paradox is solved along the lines suggested by Prandtl. A formal mathematical proof is lacking, and difficult to provide, as in so many other fluid-flow problems involving the Navier–Stokes equations (which are used to describe viscous flow).

Viscous friction: Saint-Venant, Navier and Stokes

First steps towards solving the paradox were made by Saint-Venant, who modelled viscous fluid friction. Saint-Venant states in 1847:
"But one finds another result if, instead of an ideal fluid – object of the calculations of the geometers of the last century – one uses a real fluid, composed of a finite number of molecules and exerting in its state of motion unequal pressure forces or forces having components tangential to the surface elements through which they act; components to which we refer as the friction of the fluid, a name which has been given to them since Descartes and Newton until Venturi."
Soon after, in 1851, Stokes calculated the drag on a sphere in Stokes flow, known as Stokes' law. Stokes flow is the low Reynolds-number limit of the Navier–Stokes equations describing the motion of a viscous liquid.

However, when the flow problem is put into a non-dimensional form, the viscous Navier–Stokes equations converge for increasing Reynolds numbers towards the inviscid Euler equations, suggesting that the flow should converge towards the inviscid solutions of potential flow theory – having the zero drag of the d'Alembert paradox. Of this, there is no evidence found in experimental measurements of drag and flow visualisations. This again raised questions concerning the applicability of fluid mechanics in the second half of the 19th century.

Inviscid separated flow: Kirchhoff and Rayleigh

In the second half of the 19th century, focus shifted again towards using inviscid flow theory for the description of fluid drag—assuming that viscosity becomes less important at high Reynolds numbers. The model proposed by Kirchhoff
and Rayleigh
was based on the free-streamline theory of Helmholtz and consists of a steady wake behind the body. Assumptions applied to the wake region include: flow velocities equal to the body velocity, and a constant pressure. This wake region is separated from the potential flow outside the body and wake by vortex sheets with discontinuous jumps in the tangential velocity across the interface.
In order to have a non-zero drag on the body, the wake region must extend to infinity.  This condition is indeed fulfilled for the Kirchhoff flow perpendicular to a plate. The theory correctly states the drag force to be proportional to the square of the velocity.
In first instance, the theory could only be applied to flows separating at sharp edges. Later, in 1907, it was extended by Levi-Civita to flows separating from a smooth curved boundary.

It was readily known that such steady flows are not stable, since the vortex sheets develop so-called Kelvin–Helmholtz instabilities. But this steady-flow model was studied further in the hope it still could give a reasonable estimate of drag. Rayleigh asks "... whether the calculations of resistance are materially affected by this circumstance as the pressures experienced must be nearly independent of what happens at some distance in the rear of the obstacle, where the instability would first begin to manifest itself."

However, fundamental objections arose against this approach: Kelvin observed that if a plate is moving with constant velocity through the fluid (at rest far from the plate, except for the wake) the velocity in the wake is equal to that of the plate. The infinite extent of the wake—widening with the distance from the plate, as obtained from the theory—results in an infinite kinetic energy in the wake, which must be rejected on physical grounds. Reprinted in: Mathematical and Physical Papers 4: 215–230.
Moreover, the observed pressure differences between front and back of the plate, and resulting drag forces, are much larger than predicted: for a flat plate perpendicular to the flow the predicted drag coefficient is CD=0.88, while in experiments CD=2.0 is found. This is mainly due to suction at the wake side of the plate, induced by the unsteady flow in the real wake (as opposed to the theory which assumes a constant flow velocity equal to the plate's velocity).

So, this theory is found to be unsatisfactory as an explanation of drag on a body moving through a fluid.  Although it can be applied to so-called cavity flows where, instead of a wake filled with fluid, a vacuum cavity is assumed to exist behind the body.

Thin boundary layers: Prandtl

The German physicist Ludwig Prandtl suggested in 1904 that the effects of a thin viscous boundary layer possibly could be the source of substantial drag.  Prandtl put forward the idea that, at high velocities and high Reynolds numbers, a no-slip boundary condition causes a strong variation of the flow speeds over a thin layer near the wall of the body. This leads to the generation of vorticity and viscous dissipation of kinetic energy in the boundary layer. The energy dissipation, which is lacking in the inviscid theories, results for bluff bodies in separation of the flow. The low pressure in the wake region causes form drag, and this can be larger than the friction drag due to the viscous shear stress at the wall.

Evidence that Prandtl's scenario occurs for bluff bodies in flows of high Reynolds numbers can be seen in impulsively started flows around a cylinder. Initially the flow resembles potential flow, after which the flow separates near the rear stagnation point. Thereafter, the separation points move upstream, resulting in a low-pressure region of separated flow.

Prandtl made the hypothesis that the viscous effects are important in thin layers – called boundary layers – adjacent to solid boundaries, and that viscosity has no role of importance outside.  The boundary-layer thickness becomes smaller when the viscosity reduces.  The full problem of viscous flow, described by the non-linear Navier–Stokes equations, is in general not mathematically solvable.  However, using his hypothesis (and backed up by experiments) Prandtl was able to derive an approximate model for the flow inside the boundary layer, called boundary-layer theory; while the flow outside the boundary layer could be treated using inviscid flow theory.  Boundary-layer theory is amenable to the method of matched asymptotic expansions for deriving approximate solutions.  In the simplest case of a flat plate parallel to the incoming flow, boundary-layer theory results in (friction) drag, whereas all inviscid flow theories will predict zero drag.  Importantly for aeronautics, Prandtl's theory can be applied directly to streamlined bodies like airfoils where, in addition to surface-friction drag, there is also form drag. Form drag is due to the effect of the boundary layer and thin wake on the pressure distribution around the airfoil.Batchelor (2000) pp. 302–314 & 331–337.

Open questions

To verify, as Prandtl suggested, that a vanishingly small cause (vanishingly small viscosity for increasing Reynolds number) has a large effect – substantial drag —
may be very difficult.

The mathematician Garrett Birkhoff in the opening chapter of his book Hydrodynamics from 1950,  addresses a number of paradoxes of fluid mechanics (including d'Alembert's paradox) and expresses a clear doubt in their official resolutions:
"Moreover, I think that to attribute them all to the neglect of viscosity is an unwarranted oversimplification The root lies deeper, in lack of precisely that deductive rigor whose importance is so commonly minimized by physicists and engineers."
In particular, on d'Alembert's paradox, he considers another possible route to the creation of drag: instability of the potential flow solutions to the Euler equations. Birkhoff states:
"In any case, the preceding paragraphs make it clear that the theory of non-viscous flows is incomplete. Indeed, the reasoning leading to the concept of a "steady flow" is inconclusive; there is no rigorous justification for the elimination of time as an independent variable. Thus though Dirichlet flows (potential solutions) and other steady flows are mathematically possible, there is no reason to suppose that any steady flow is stable."

In his 1951 review of Birkhoff's book, the mathematician James J. Stoker sharply criticizes the first chapter of the book:
"The reviewer found it difficult to understand for what class of readers the first chapter was written. For readers that are acquainted with hydrodynamics the majority of the cases cited as paradoxes belong either to the category of mistakes long since rectified, or in the category of discrepancies between theory and experiments the reasons for which are also well understood. On the other hand, the uninitiated would be very likely to get the wrong ideas about some of the important and useful achievements in hydrodynamics from reading this chapter."

In the second and revised edition of Birkhoff's Hydrodynamics in 1960, the above two statements no longer appear.

The importance and usefulness of the achievements, made on the subject of the d'Alembert paradox, are reviewed by Stewartson thirty years later. His long 1981 survey article starts with:
"Since classical inviscid theory leads to the patently absurd conclusion that the resistance experienced by a rigid body moving through a fluid with uniform velocity is zero, great efforts have been made during the last hundred or so years to propose alternate theories and to explain how a vanishingly small frictional force in the fluid can nevertheless have a significant effect on the flow properties. The methods used are a combination of experimental observation, computation often on a very large scale, and analysis of the structure of the asymptotic form of the solution as the friction tends to zero. This three-pronged attack has achieved considerable success, especially during the last ten years, so that now the paradox may be regarded as largely resolved."

For many paradoxes in physics, their resolution often lies in transcending the available theory. In the case of d'Alembert's paradox, the essential mechanism for its resolution was provided by Prandtl through the discovery and modelling of thin viscous boundary layers – which are non-vanishing at high Reynolds numbers.

Proof of zero drag in steady potential flow

Potential flow

The three main assumptions in the derivation of d'Alembert's paradox is that the steady flow is incompressible, inviscid and irrotational.
An inviscid fluid is described by the Euler equations, which together with the other two conditions read

where u denotes the flow velocity of the fluid, p the pressure, ρ the density, and ∇ is the gradient operator.

We have the second term in the Euler equation as:

where the first equality is a vector calculus identity and the second equality uses that the flow is irrotational. Furthermore, for every irrotational flow, there exists a velocity potential φ such that u = ∇φ. Substituting this all in the equation for momentum conservation yields

Thus, the quantity between brackets must be constant (any t-dependence can be eliminated by redefining φ). Assuming that the fluid is at rest at infinity and that the pressure is defined to be zero there, this constant is zero, and thus

which is the Bernoulli equation for unsteady potential flow.

Zero drag

Now, suppose that a body moves with constant velocity v through the fluid, which is at rest infinitely far away. Then the velocity field of the fluid has to follow the body, so it is of the form , where x is the spatial coordinate vector, and thus:

Since u = ∇φ, this can be integrated with respect to x:

The force F that the fluid exerts on the body is given by the surface integral

where A denotes the body surface and n the normal vector on the body surface. But it follows from (2) that

thus

with the contribution of R(t) to the integral being equal to zero.

At this point, it becomes more convenient to work in the vector components. The kth component of this equation reads

Let V be the volume occupied by the fluid. The divergence theorem says that

The right-hand side is an integral over an infinite volume, so this needs some justification, which can be provided by appealing to potential theory to show that the velocity u must fall off as r−3 – corresponding to a dipole potential field in case of a three-dimensional body of finite extent – where r is the distance to the centre of the body. The integrand in the volume integral can be rewritten as follows:

where first equality (1) and then the incompressibility of the flow are used. Substituting this back into the volume integral and another application of the divergence theorem again. This yields

Substituting this in (3), we find that

The fluid cannot penetrate the body and thus n · u = n · v'' on the body surface. So  and

Finally, the drag is the force in the direction in which the body moves, so

Hence the drag vanishes. This is d'Alembert's paradox.

Notes

References

Historical

Further reading

External links
 Potential Flow and d'Alembert's Paradox at MathPages

Fluid dynamics
Physical paradoxes

D'Alembert's paradox


La  est une gare ferroviaire japonaise située à Matsudo dans la préfecture de Chiba. Elle est gérée par la compagnie Shin-Keisei.

Situation ferroviaire
La gare de Yabashira est située au point kilométrique (PK) 3,8 de la ligne Shin-Keisei.

Histoire
La gare a été inaugurée le .

Services aux voyageurs

Accès et accueil
La gare dispose d'un bâtiment voyageurs, avec guichet, ouvert tous les jours.

Desserte
 Ligne Shin-Keisei :
 voie 1 : direction Matsudo
 voie 2 : direction Shin-Kamagaya et Keisei Tsudanuma

Intermodalité
La gare de Shin-Yahashira de la JR East est située à proximité.

Notes et références

Voir aussi

Lien externe
  Page de la gare sur le site Shin-Keisei

Gare dans la préfecture de Chiba
Gare mise en service en 1955

Gare de Yabashira


Faiz, ekonomi biliminde iki anlamda kullanılmaktadır. Birinci anlamda faiz, bir borç anlaşmasının satışı sonucu elde edilen gelir oranıdır. İkinci anlamda ise üretim amaçlı girdi olarak kullanılan sermayenin gelir oranıdır. Bu iki anlam iktisadi açıdan birbirlerinden farklı değillerdir ve iktisatçılar tarafından faiz olarak nitelendirilirler.

Faiz oranı, nominal ve reel olmak üzere ikiye ayrılabilir. Nominal oran, bankalar gibi organizasyon ve kurumlar tarafından açıklanan faiz oranıdır. Reel faiz oranı ise enflasyona göre düzeltilmiş faiz oranıdır ve nominal orandan enflasyon oranının çıkarılması ile bulunur.

Tarihçe
Kredinin madeni paranın varlığından binlerce yıl önce ortaya çıktığı düşünülmektedir. Kaydedilen ilk kredi örneği, hem tahıl hem de metal ödünç vermek için sistematik kredi kullanımını gösteren MÖ 3000'den kalma eski Sümer belgeleri koleksiyonudur. Faizin bir kavram olarak ortaya çıkışı bilinmemekle birlikte, Sümer'deki kullanımı, daha önceden var olup olmadığı tam bilinmese de MÖ 3000'de bir kavram olarak iyice yerleşmiş olduğunun göstergesidir ancak tarihçiler, modern anlamıyla kavramın üretken amaçlar için hayvan veya tohum kiralanmasından doğmuş olabileceğine inanmaktadır.  Satın alınan tohumların ve hayvanların kendilerini yeniden üretebileceği argümanı faizi haklı çıkarmak için kullanılmıştır, ancak tefeciliğe karşı eski Yahudi dini yasakları (נשך NeSheKh) "farklı bir görüşü" savunmuştur.

Bileşik faizin ilk yazılı kanıtı MÖ 2400'lere dayanmaktadır.

Daha gelişmiş ve ticari bir ekonomiye sahip toplumlarda faiz, sermayenin verimli kullanılmasını ve yatırımları teşvik etmek için önemli bir araç olarak görülebilirken, daha pastoral veya kabilevi toplumlarda faizin kabul edilmemesi daha yaygındır.

MÖ 2. binyılın başlarında, hayvan veya tahıl karşılığında kullanılan gümüş kendi kendine çoğalamayacağından, Eşnunna Kanunları, özellikle çeyiz mevduatlarına yasal bir faiz oranı getirmiştir. İlk Müslümanlar buna riba adını vermişlerdir ve günümüzde faiz almak olarak tercüme edilmektedir.

325'teki Birinci İznik Konsili, din adamlarının tefecilik yapmasını yasaklamış ve bu yasak aylık yüzde 1'in üzerinde faizle borç verme olarak tanımlanmıştır. Dokuzuncu yüzyıl ekümenik konsilleri bu düzenlemeyi dindarlara da uygulamıştır. Katolik Kilisesi'nin faize karşı muhalefeti, bunu savunmanın bile bir sapkınlık olarak görüldüğü skolastikler döneminde sertleşmiştir. Katolik Kilisesi'nin önde gelen ilahiyatçısı Aziz Thomas Aquinas, faiz almanın yanlış olduğunu çünkü bunun "çifte ücretlendirme" anlamına geldiğini, hem bir şey hem de o şeyin kullanımı için ücretlendirme anlamına geldiğini savunmuştur.

Ortaçağ ekonomisinde borçlar tamamen zorunluluğun bir sonucuydu (kötü hasat, bir işyerinde yangın) ve bu koşullar altında faiz almak ahlaki açıdan ayıp sayılıyordu. Ayrıca, borç para verilerek herhangi bir mal üretilmediği ve bu nedenle demircilik veya çiftçilik gibi doğrudan fiziksel çıktısı olan diğer faaliyetlerden farklı olarak telafi edilmemesi gerektiği için ahlaki açıdan da şüpheli görülmüştür. Aynı nedenle, faiz İslam medeniyetinde genellikle hor görülmüştür ve neredeyse tüm akademisyenler Kuran'ın faiz almayı açıkça yasakladığı konusunda hemfikirdir.

Orta Çağ hukukçuları, sorumlu borç vermeyi teşvik etmek ve faiz yasağını aşmak için çeşitli finansal araçlar geliştirmiştir. Bu araçlardan biri olan "Contractum trinius" olarak adlandırılan yöntem; faiz yasağına tabi olan orta çağ toplumlarında kullanılan bir finansal düzenlemeydi. Bu düzenleme, üç ayrı sözleşmenin kombinasyonunu içeriyordu. İlk olarak, borçlu, bir mülkünü borç verene sattığını açıkça beyan ederdi. İkincisi, satışı takiben mülkü tekrar geri kiralar ve bu kira bedelini öderdi. Son olarak, borçlu ve borç veren, bir kâr paylaşımı anlaşması yaparak borçlu mülkünü geri satın alır ve bu süreçte borç verene bir miktar ödeme yapar. Bu şekilde, formel olarak üç ayrı işlem gerçekleşirken, aslında borç verenin faiz kazanması amaçlanıyordu.

Rönesans döneminde insanların daha fazla hareket kabiliyetine sahip olması ticaretin artmasını ve girişimcilerin yeni, kazançlı işler kurması için uygun koşulların ortaya çıkmasını kolaylaştırdı. Ödünç alınan para artık sadece tüketim için değil, üretim için de kullanıldığından, faize artık aynı gözle bakılmıyordu.

Faiz türleri

Basit faiz
Bir yatırımın, yatırım dönemi süresince sadece anaparasının kazandığı faiz oranıdır. Basit faiz şu formül ile hesaplanır:

Basit Faiz = Anapara * Faiz oranı * Süre

Bileşik faiz
Bir yatırımın yatırım dönemi boyunca kazandığı faizin de yeni yatırım döneminde yatırıma tabi tutulması sonucu elde edilen getiriyi gösteren faizdir. Diğer bir deyişle faizin de faiz kazanmasıdır.

Birikmiş faiz
Bir yatırımın, yatırım dönemi içerisinde, ödeme tarihine kadar üzerinde biriken faizdir.

Dönemsel faiz
Bir yatırımın fiilen elde tutulma süresince getireceği faizi ifade eder.

Akdi faiz
Bir sözleşmenin taraflarının sözleşmede kararlaştırdıkları faiz oranını ifade eder.

Temerrüt faizi
Bir hukuki ilişkide taraflardan birisinin ödemesinin gecikmesi halinde uygulanan genellikle akdi faizden daha yüksek orandan uygulanan faizi ifade eder.

Kanuni (yasal) faiz
Bir hukuki ilişkide uygulanacak faiz oranının belirlenmemesi halinde uygulanan ve kanun ile belirlenen faiz oranıdır.

Faizin hukuki niteliği

Faiz hukuki olarak asıl alacaktan ayrı fakat ona bağlı bir yan edimdir. Faiz asıl alacağın varlığına bağlı olduğundan, asıl alacak sona erdiğinde faiz borcu da sona erer. Faiz alacaklısı bu alacağını anaparadan ayrı olarak talep edebilir. Sona ermiş bir alacağın faizini talep edebilmek için bu hakkı daha önceden saklı tutmak gerekir. Asıl alacağın zamanaşımına uğramış olması, faizi de zamanaşımına uğratır. Alacaklı asıl alacağı devrettiğinde işlemiş ve işleyecek faizi de devretmiş olur. Fakat aksinin kararlaştırılarak, faiz alacağının anaparadan ayrı devredilmesi de mümkündür. Asıl alacak ile faiz genellikle farklı zamanaşımı sürelerine tabidir. Bu nedenle faiz alacaklarının asıl alacaktan önce zamanaşımına uğraması mümkündür. Asıl alacak yönünden zamanaşımının kesilmiş olması faiz alacağı için de kesildiği anlamına gelmez.

Kaynakça

 Yücel E., Özmen M., "Faiz Oranı, Döviz Kuru Ve Borsa Endeksi Nedensellik İlişkisi: 1989-2009 Türkiye Uygulaması", Muhasebe Bilim Dünyası Dergisi-MÖDAV, vol.12, pp. 213–244, 2010

Borç
Kiralama

Finans terimleri

Faiz


Dame Judith Anderson, AC, DBE (født Frances Margaret Anderson; 10. februar 1897, død 3. januar 1992)  var en australskfødt britisk teater- og filmskuespiller. I 1960 blev hun udnævnt til Dame Commander of the British Empire.

Hun gjorde sin scenedebut i Sydney i 1915 og optrådte i New York for første gang i 1918. Hun foretrak teatret fremfor filmen og medvirkede i mange Shakespeare-skuespil, herunder Lady Macbeth i Macbeth. I modsætning hertil indspillede hun kun film sporadisk. For sin præstation i rollen som Fru Danvers i Alfred Hitchcocks Rebecca blev hun nomineret en Oscar for bedste kvindelige birolle. Senere medvirkede hun i flere tv-produktioner.

Som en af de fremtrædende teaterskuespiller i sin æra vandt hun to Emmy Awards og en Tony Award og blev også nomineret til en Grammy Award. Hun betragtes som et af det 20. århundredes største klassiske teaterskuespillere.

Referencer

Eksterne henvisninger

Skuespillere fra Storbritannien
Personer fra Adelaide
Briter i 1800-tallet
Briter i 1900-tallet
Personer tildelt Commander of the Order of the British Empire
Pseudonymer
Emmy-vindere
Grammy-vindere
Tony-vindere
Oscar-nominerede skuespillere

Judith Anderson


An Schiedeella violacea in uska species han Liliopsida nga syahan ginhulagway ni Achille Richard ngan Henri Guillaume Galeotti, ngan ginhatag han pagkayana nga asya nga ngaran ni Leslie Andrew Garay. An Schiedeella violacea in nahilalakip ha genus nga Schiedeella, ngan familia nga Orchidaceae. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Schiedeella

Schiedeella violacea


Oceanapia spinisphaera est une espèce d'éponges de la famille des Phloeodictyidae.

Distribution
L'espèce est décrite des fjords des côtes chiliennes, dans l'Océan Pacifique.

Taxinomie
L'espèce Oceanapia spinisphaera est décrite en 2013 par Eduardo Hajdu, Ruth Desqueyroux-Faúndez, Mariana De Souza Carvalho, Gisele Lôbo-Hajdu et Philippe Willenz.

Voir aussi

Bibliographie

Références biologiques

Notes et références

Phloeodictyidae
Espèce d'éponges (nom scientifique)

Oceanapia spinisphaera


The Uncompahgre River is a tributary of the Gunnison River, approximately 75 mi (121 km) long, in southwestern Colorado in the United States.  Lake Como at 12,215 ft (3723m) in northern San Juan County, in the Uncompahgre National Forest in the northwestern San Juan Mountains is the headwaters of the river. It flows northwest past Ouray, Ridgway, Montrose, and Olathe and joins the Gunnison at Confluence Park in Delta.

The river forms Poughkeepsie Gulch and the Uncompahgre Gorge.  The major tributaries are all creeks draining the northwest San Juan Mountains.

There are two dams on the Uncompahgre River, a small diversion dam in the Uncompahgre Gorge, and Ridgway Dam below the town of Ridgway which forms Ridgway Reservoir.

The river is used for irrigation in the Uncompahgre Valley. Additionally, water from the Gunnison is diverted to the valley via the Gunnison Tunnel. The Uncompahgre is unnavigable except at high water.

The name Uncompahgre () comes from the Ute word Uncompaghre, which loosely translates to "dirty water," "red lake," or "red water spring" and is likely a reference to the many hot springs in the vicinity of Ouray.

Conservation
In October 2020, the City of Montrose announced a multi-year, multi-million dollar river restoration project along the Uncompahgre, including $785,000 total grants from the Colorado Water Conservation Board. The project will enhance fishing habitats, provide bank stabilization, increase river access and fishing opportunities for the public.

The public-private partnership includes Colorado Parks & Wildlife, Colorado Trout Unlimited, and fly fishing company Mayfly Outdoors.

See also
List of rivers of Colorado
List of tributaries of the Colorado River
Water Conservation

References

Gunnison River
Rivers of Colorado
Rivers of Ouray County, Colorado
Rivers of San Juan County, Colorado
Tributaries of the Colorado River in Colorado
Colorado Western Slope

Uncompahgre River


Der Große Preis von Spanien 2012 (offiziell Formula 1 Gran Premio de España Santander 2012) fand am 13. Mai auf dem Circuit de Catalunya in Montmeló statt und war das fünfte Rennen der Formel-1-Weltmeisterschaft 2012.

Berichte

Hintergrund
Nach dem Großen Preis von Bahrain führte Sebastian Vettel in der Fahrerwertung mit vier Punkten vor Lewis Hamilton und mit fünf Punkten vor Mark Webber. In der Konstruktionswertung führte Red Bull-Renault mit neun Punkten vor McLaren-Mercedes und mit 44 Punkten vor Lotus-Renault.

Beim Großen Preis von Spanien stellte Pirelli den Fahrern die Reifenmischungen P Zero Hard (silber) und P Zero Soft (gelb), sowie für nasse Bedingungen Cinturato Intermediates (grün) und Cinturato Full-Wets (blau) zur Verfügung.

Bei Mercedes übernahm Bob Bell für diese Veranstaltung die sportliche Leitung des Teams, da Teamchef Ross Brawn aus gesundheitlichen Gründen nicht anreisen konnte.

Mit Michael Schumacher (sechsmal), Kimi Räikkönen (zweimal), Fernando Alonso, Felipe Massa, Jenson Button, Webber und Vettel (jeweils einmal) traten sieben ehemalige Sieger zu diesem Grand Prix an.

Als Rennkommissare fungierten Silvia Bellot (ESP), Gerd Ennser (DEU), Tom Kristensen (DNK) und Radovan Novak (CZE).

Training
Im ersten freien Training fuhr Alonso die Bestzeit vor Vettel und Kamui Kobayashi. Jules Bianchi übernahm in diesem Training den Force India von Paul di Resta, Valtteri Bottas den Williams von Bruno Senna, Alexander Rossi den Caterham von Heikki Kovalainen und Dani Clos den HRT von Narain Karthikeyan. Rossi und Clos nahmen erstmals an einem Formel-1-Wochenende teil.

Im zweiten freien Training erzielte Button die schnellste Runde vor Vettel und Nico Rosberg.

Im dritten freien Training war Vettel Schnellster vor Pastor Maldonado und Kobayashi.

Qualifying
Im ersten Abschnitt des Qualifyings erzielte Romain Grosjean die schnellste Runde. Die HRT-, Marussia- und Caterham-Piloten sowie Senna schieden aus. Senna landete bei seiner letzten Runde im Kiesbett. Karthikeyan schaffte keine Zeit innerhalb der 107-Prozent-Regel und scheiterte somit an der Qualifikation. Da Karthikeyans Zeit im dritten freien Training eine Qualifikation ermöglicht hätte, entschieden die Rennkommissare ihn nachträglich zum Rennen zuzulassen. Im zweiten Abschnitt fuhr Maldonado die schnellste Zeit. Die Toro-Rosso- und Force-India-Piloten sowie Massa, Webber und Button schieden aus. Kobayashi, der den neunten Platz erzielte, rollte in der Auslaufrunde aus, weshalb nur neun Piloten am letzten Segment teilnahmen.

Vettel stellte sich vor dem letzten Segment in etwa eine Minute vor der roten Ampel an, um als Erster auf die Strecke zu gehen. Er erzielte keine gezeitete Runde. Da er der erste Pilot von denjenigen ohne gezeitete Runde war, lag er innerhalb dieser Fahrer auf dem ersten Platz, welcher der achte im Gesamtklassement war. Im letzten Segment war Maldonado erneut Schnellster und erzielte seine erste Pole-Position vor Alonso und Grosjean.

Ursprünglich war Hamilton im ersten und dritten Segment der schnellste Pilot. Er wurde jedoch disqualifiziert. Er war von seinem Team angewiesen worden, sein Auto in der Auslaufrunde abzustellen, da es ein technisches Problem gab. Zu diesem Zeitpunkt befanden sich noch 1,3 Liter Treibstoff im Tank. Die Mindestmenge, die nach einer Sitzung im Tank sein muss beträgt 1 Liter. McLaren argumentierte mit höherer Gewalt, die das Abstellen des Fahrzeugs notwendig machte. Die Rennkommissare kamen zu dem Schluss, dass es sich nicht um ein technisches Problem handelte, sondern dass Hamilton die Auslaufrunde abgebrochen hat, was nach dem Reglement verboten ist. Die Rennkommissare stellten einen Verstoß des Artikels 6.6.2 des technischen Reglements fest und disqualifizierten Hamilton. Die offizielle Begründung der FIA lautete: "Weil die Benzinmenge, die ins Auto gefüllt wird, vollständig unter der Kontrolle des Teilnehmers ist, können die Kommissare dies nicht als Fall von höherer Gewalt anerkennen." Hamilton erhielt eine Starterlaubnis für das Rennen, musste jedoch vom letzten Platz starten.

Rennen
Beim Start zum Großen Preis von Spanien verlor Pole-Setter Maldonado die Führung an Alonso, der vom zweiten Platz startete. Räikkönen verbesserte sich auf den dritten, Rosberg auf den vierten Platz. Sergio Pérez, der vom fünften Platz startete, erlitt in der ersten Runde einen Reifenschaden und musste zu einem Reparaturstopp an die Box. Hamilton, der vom letzten Platz ins Rennen ging, machte in der Startphase einige Positionen gut und lag nach der dritten Runde auf dem 17. Platz.

In der sechsten Runde begann Webber die Phase der ersten Boxenstopps. Er wechselte auf die härtere Reifenmischung. Eine Runde später folgte sein Teamkollege Vettel auf der gleichen Strategie. In der Zwischenzeit setzten sich Alonso und Maldonado an der Spitze etwas von Räikkönen ab. In der zehnten Runde ging Alonso als Erster des Führungstrios an die Box und wechselte auf die härteren Reifen. Eine Runde später folgen Maldonado und Räikkönen. Während Maldonado es Alonso gleichtat und auf die härtere Mischung wechselte, blieb Räikkönen auf der weicheren Reifenmischung.

In der 13. Runde kam es am Ende der Start-Ziel-Geraden zu einer Kollision zwischen Schumacher und Senna. Während Schumacher sein Fahrzeug sofort abstellen musste, schaffte es Senna noch in den zweiten Sektor, wo er schließlich aufgab. Schumacher war seinem Kontrahenten, der ältere Reifen als er hatte aufgefahren. Die Rennkommissare untersuchten den Vorfall nach dem Rennen und sprachen eine Strafversetzung um fünf Plätze für das nächste Rennen gegen Schumacher aus.

Wenig später überholte Grosjean, der in der Startphase hinter Rosberg zurückgefallen war, Rosberg mit Hilfe des Drag Reduction Systems. Webber fiel indes zurück und wechselte schließlich seinen Frontflügel an der Box. Nach 10 Runden führte Alonso mit etwa 2 Sekunden vor Maldonado. Räikkönen lag circa 8 Sekunden hinter dem Führenden auf dem dritten Platz. Alle anderen Piloten hatten mindestens 20 Sekunden Rückstand auf Alonso.

In der 24. Runde begann Maldonado die zweite Boxenstopp-Phase des Führungstrios. Alonso blieb zwei weitere Runden draußen und kam schließlich hinter Maldonado zurück auf die Strecke. Alonso lief nach Maldonados Stopp auf Charles Pic zum Überrunden auf. Dieser behinderte Alonso. Die Rennkommissare verhängten später einen Durchfahrtsstrafe gegen Pic. Kurz darauf kam auch Räikkönen an die Box und wechselte auf die härtere Reifenmischung. In der Zwischenzeit hatte Karthikeyan sein Fahrzeug am Streckenrand abgestellt.

In der 28. Runde wurde eine Durchfahrtsstrafe gegen Massa und Vettel ausgesprochen. Beide waren infolge des Unfalls zwischen Schumacher und Senna zu schnell in diesem Streckenabschnitt gewesen und die Rennkommissare erkannten eine Missachtung der gelben Flaggen.

Zur Rennhalbzeit führte Maldonado mit circa sieben Sekunden Vorsprung vor Alonso. Räikkönen und Grosjean belegten mit einem größeren Rückstand die Plätze drei und vier. Hamilton, der erst einmal an der Box war, hatte sich zu diesem Zeitpunkt auf den fünften Platz vorgearbeitet. Pic und Pérez fielen in dieser Phase mit technischen Problemen aus.

Nachdem Alonso etwas aufgeholt hatte, ging Maldonado in der 41. Runde an die Box. Alonso folgte in der 44. Runde und fiel dadurch wieder hinter Maldonado zurück. Die Führung hatte zwischenzeitlich Räikkönen inne, der, nachdem er von Maldonado und Alonso überholt worden war, in der 49. Runde erneut an die Box ging. Alonso holte anschließend zunächst auf Maldonado auf, wenige Runden vor Rennende gelang es ihm aber nicht mehr, den Abstand auf Maldonado bei circa einer Sekunde zu halten und verlor etwas. Räikkönen holte in dieser Phase auf das Führungsduo auf. Er kam zwar noch auf unter eine Sekunde an Alonso heran, für ein Überholmanöver fehlte jedoch die Zeit.

Maldonado gewann schließlich seinen ersten Formel-1-Grand-Prix vor Alonso und Räikkönen, die beide zwischen 3 und 4 Sekunden Rückstand hatten. Auf dem vierten Platz folgte Grosjean mit einem Rückstand von etwa 15 Sekunden. Alle anderen Fahrer lagen mindestens eine Minute hinter Maldonado. Kobayashi komplettierte die Top-5.

Vettel überholte in den letzten Runden noch Hamilton und Rosberg und erreichte das Ziel schließlich auf dem sechsten Platz. Die weiteren Punkte gingen an Rosberg, Hamilton, Button und Nico Hülkenberg.

Es war der erste Sieg für Williams seit dem Großen Preis von Brasilien 2004. Damals gewann Juan Pablo Montoya. Maldonado ist der erste Venezolaner, der einen Formel-1-Grand-Prix gewann. Er ist der dritte Venezolaner, der zu einem Formel-1-Rennen startete. Zu seinem Erfolg beglückwünschten ihn umgehend der venezolanische Staatspräsident Hugo Chávez, sowie Henrique Capriles, der Präsidentschaftskandidat der Opposition für die nächsten Wahlen in Venezuela. In Venezuelas Hauptstadt Caracas kam es zu spontanen Siegesfeiern.

Erstmals seit der Formel-1-Weltmeisterschaft 1983 gab es in den ersten fünf Rennen fünf verschiedene Sieger.

In der Weltmeisterschaft behielt Vettel die Führung. Alonso schloss punktgleich zu Vettel auf und übernahm den zweiten Platz. Hamilton fiel vom zweiten auf den dritten Platz zurück. Maldonado verbesserte sich durch den Sieg vom 14. auf den 9. Platz. Bei den Konstrukteuren blieben die ersten drei Positionen unverändert.

Zwischenfall nach dem Rennen
Nach dem Rennen kam es zu einem Zwischenfall in der Boxengasse. In der Box des siegreichen Williams-Rennstalls brach ein Feuer aus, das auch auf die benachbarte Box des Caterham-Teams übergriff. Da das Williams-Team kurz zuvor das Sieger-Gruppen-Foto erstellt hatte, befanden sich keine Personen in dem Teil der Box, in dem das Feuer ausbrach. Insgesamt wurden 31 Personen (Mitarbeiter der Rennställe Caterham, Force India und Williams, sowie der FIA) wegen Atembeschwerden, Schnittverletzungen und leichten Verbrennungen behandelt, sieben davon mussten ins Krankenhaus. Einer der Williams-Mitarbeiter musste wegen schwerer Verbrennungen mit dem Hubschrauber ins Krankenhaus geflogen werden. Der im Rollstuhl sitzende Teamchef Frank Williams wurde rechtzeitig aus der Box gerettet. Maldonado trug bei der Evakuierung seinen Cousin, der aufgrund einer Fußverletzung nicht richtig laufen konnte, auf den Schultern aus dem Gefahrenbereich heraus.

Die Brandursache wird vom Team, der Feuerwehr und der Polizei untersucht. Ein durch Augenzeugenberichte untermauerter Verdacht deutet darauf hin, dass das Feuer beim Entleeren des Tanks von Bruno Sennas Auto entstanden ist. Bisher gibt es noch keine Regelung zur Lagerung von gefährlichen Materialien in der Box.

Das Team wurde bei der Löschung des Feuers von einigen Mitarbeitern der anderen Teams unterstützt. Speziell von Caterham und Force India halfen einige Mitarbeiter. Williams bedankte sich anschließend bei allen Helfern für die Unterstützung bei den Löscharbeiten. Der stellvertretende Teamchef von Force India, Robert Fernley, kritisierte die Sicherheitskräfte anschließend für ihr unkoordiniertes Verhalten.

Die Williams-Box brannte fast vollständig aus und die Ausrüstung des Teams wurde dabei zerstört. Der Rennbetrieb für das nächste Rennen soll jedoch nicht beeinträchtigt sein. McLaren bot Williams an, dem Rennstall fehlende Ausrüstungsgegenstände für das nächste Rennen auszuleihen. Maldonados Fahrzeug befand sich zu diesem Zeitpunkt noch im Parc fermé und wurde somit nicht beschädigt. Sennas Fahrzeug, das während des Feuers in der Box stand, wurde zur Schadensanalyse in die Fabrik gebracht. Bei Untersuchungen an der Strecke wurden keine Beschädigungen festgestellt.

Williams-Berater Alexander Wurz kommentierte den Vorfall wie folgt: "Ich glaube, der Sachschaden ist sehr groß und ich weiß auch nicht, wie es versicherungstechnisch aussieht. Im Augenblick ist es aber erst einmal das Wichtigste, dass den Menschen nichts Ernstes passiert ist. Das Feuer breitete sich blitzschnell aus – das war brutal. Du musstest richtig laufen, um aus dem Rauch herauszukommen."

Meldeliste

Anmerkungen

Klassifikationen

Qualifying

Anmerkungen

Rennen

Anmerkungen

WM-Stände nach dem Rennen
Die ersten zehn des Rennens bekamen 25, 18, 15, 12, 10, 8, 6, 4, 2 bzw. 1 Punkt(e).

Fahrerwertung

Konstrukteurswertung

Einzelnachweise

Weblinks

 Wochenendstatistiken bei Motorsport-Total.com

2012
Spanien
Sportveranstaltung in Montmeló
Circuit de Barcelona-Catalunya

Großer Preis von Spanien 2012


Die Saison 1995/1996 der GFA League Second Division war die 41. Spielzeit der zweithöchsten Spielklasse im gambischen Fußball.

Es spielten zehn Mannschaften in einer Hin- und Rückrunde um den Titel, so dass für jede Mannschaft 18 Spiele angesetzt waren. Aus der GFA League First Division sind zuvor die zwei Mannschaften Augustians Bathurst und Joggifans Football Club abgestiegen und zur Liga dazu gestoßen. Aus der GFA League Third Division sind die zwei Mannschaften Roots und Police Football Club aufgestiegen.

Am Saisonende mussten die beiden Tabellenletzten Roots und Police Football Club in die Third Division absteigen. Aufsteigen in die First Division durften die beiden in der Tabelle führenden Mannschaften Augustians Bathurst und Ports Authority Football Club.

Eine Abschlusstabelle ist nicht belegt.

Beteiligte Vereine
Alphabetisch sortiert

 Augustians Bathurst
 SK Jaiteh
 Joggifans FC
 Justice
 Kaira Silo
 Linguere
 Police FC
 Ports Authority FC
 Roots
 Sukuta Tigers

Einzelnachweise

1995
Fußballsaison 1995/96

GFA League Second Division 1995/96


Daniela Gustin er en svensk håndboldspiller, som spiller for HH Elite og Sveriges kvindehåndboldlandshold. Hun er venstrehåndet og spiller højre fløj.

Hun har tidligere spillet i Kärra HF, TSV Harrislee og Füchse Berlin, hvorfra hun i 2016 skiftede til Randers.

Gustin debuterede på landsholdet i en træningskamp mod Island 7. oktober 2016.

Privat danner hun par med den svenske landsholdsspiller Hampus Wanne.

Referencer

Eksterne henvisninger
 Spillerprofil hos HH Elite

Håndboldspillere fra Sverige
Håndboldspillere fra SG BBM Bietigheim
Håndboldspillere fra Randers HK
Håndboldspillere fra HH Elite

Daniela Gustin