HMAS Melbourne (R21) was a Majestic-class light aircraft carrier operated by the Royal Australian Navy (RAN) from 1955 until 1982, and was the third and final conventional aircraft carrier to serve in the RAN.  Melbourne was the only Commonwealth naval vessel to sink two friendly warships in peacetime collisions.

Melbourne was laid down for the Royal Navy as the lead ship of the Majestic class in April 1943, and was launched as HMS Majestic (R77) in February 1945.  At the end of the Second World War, work on the ship was suspended until she was purchased by the RAN in 1947.  At the time of purchase, it was decided to incorporate new aircraft carrier technologies into the design, making Melbourne the third ship to be constructed with an angled flight deck.  Delays in construction and integrating the enhancements meant that the carrier was not commissioned until 1955.

Melbourne never fired a shot in anger during her service career, having only peripheral, non-combat roles in relation to the Indonesia-Malaysia confrontation and the Vietnam War.  She was, however, involved in two major collisions with allied vessels; though Melbourne was not found to be the primary cause of either incident.  The first collision occurred on the evening of 10 February 1964, in which Melbourne rammed and sank the RAN destroyer , when the latter altered course across her bow.  82 of Voyagers personnel were killed, and two Royal Commissions were held to investigate the incident.  The second collision occurred in the early morning of 3 June 1969, when Melbourne also rammed the United States Navy (USN) destroyer  in similar circumstances.  74 American personnel died, and a joint USN–RAN Board of Inquiry was held.  These incidents, along with several minor collisions, shipboard accidents and aircraft losses, led to the belief that Melbourne was jinxed.

Melbourne was paid off from RAN service in 1982.  A proposal to convert her for use as a floating casino failed, and a 1984 sale was cancelled, before she was sold for scrap in 1985 and towed to China for breaking.  The scrapping was delayed so Melbourne could be studied by the People's Liberation Army Navy (PLAN) as part of a secret project to develop a Chinese aircraft carrier and used to train PLAN aviators in carrier flight operations.

Construction and acquisition
Melbourne was constructed by Vickers-Armstrongs at their Naval Construction Yard in Barrow-in-Furness, North West England.  The ship was laid down as HMS Majestic on 15 April 1943, and was launched on 28 February 1945 by Lady Anderson, the wife of Sir John Anderson, the British Chancellor of the Exchequer. Following the end of World War II, the Admiralty ordered the suspension of many British shipbuilding projects, including the fitting out of Majestic and her five sister ships. Construction resumed in 1946, and major modifications to the design were incorporated.

A review by the Australian Government's Defence Committee held after  recommended that the post-war forces of the RAN be structured around a Task Force incorporating multiple aircraft carriers. Initial plans were for three carriers, with two active and a third in reserve, although funding cuts led to the purchase of only two carriers in June 1947: Majestic and sister ship HMS Terrible, for the combined cost of AU£2.75 million, plus stores, fuel, and ammunition. As Terrible was the closer of the two ships to completion, she was finished without modification, and was commissioned into the RAN on 16 December 1948 as . Work progressed on Majestic at a slower rate, as she was upgraded with the latest technology and equipment. The Colossus-class carrier  was loaned to the RAN from 13 November 1952 until 12 August 1955 to cover Majestics absence.

The Majestic experienced delays in its construction due to labour difficulties, late delivery of equipment, additional requirements for Australian operations and the prioritisation of the construction of merchant ships.  Incorporation of new systems and enhancements caused the cost of the RAN carrier acquisition program to increase to AU£8.3 million. Construction and fitting out did not finish until October 1955.  As the carrier neared completion, a commissioning crew was formed in Australia and first used to return Vengeance to the United Kingdom.

The completed carrier was commissioned into the RAN as HMAS Majestic on 26 October 1955.  Two days later, the ship was renamed Melbourne by Lady White, the wife of Sir Thomas White, the Australian High Commissioner to the United Kingdom, and recommissioned.

Design

As the lead ship of the Majestic-class of light aircraft carriers, Melbourne was conceived as a modified version of the Colossus-class carrier, incorporating improvements in flight deck design and habitability.  Majestic- and Colossus-class carriers were almost identical in hull design and both were considered subclasses of the "1942 design" light aircraft carrier program.  These carriers were intended as "disposable warships": to be disposed of at the end of World War II or within three years of entering service.

Melbourne had a standard displacement of , which increased to  at full load.  At launch, the carrier was  long overall, but this was increased by  during a refit in 1969.  She had a beam of , and a draught of .  Melbournes two propellers were driven by two Parsons single-reduction geared turbine sets providing 40,000 shp, which were powered by four Admiralty 3-drum boilers.  The carrier could achieve a top speed of , and a range of  at  or  at .  The size of the ship's company averaged 1,350 officers and sailors, including 350 personnel from the embarked Fleet Air Arm squadrons.

Modifications during construction

Following the recommencement of construction, modifications were made to the ship, based on wartime experience and Britain's post-war carrier warfare technology and innovations.  These included an angled flight deck, steam catapult and a mirror landing aid, making Melbourne the third aircraft carrier (following  and ) to be constructed with these features, instead of having them added later.

The main modifications centred around the need to operate jet aircraft, which were larger and heavier than those propeller-driven aircraft that the carrier was originally designed for.  The flight deck was angled 5.5 degrees left of the carrier's centreline, to allow for the simultaneous launch and recovery of aircraft. Despite an increase to approximately one acre (4,000 square metres, 4,800 square yards) in area, the deck was still significantly smaller than other Cold War era carriers; S-2 Trackers, with their  wingspan, had less than a metre's clearance for their starboard wingtip when landing, and pilots from other navies often refused to attempt landing. Water rationing was required in the early years of the carrier's operation, as the ship's fresh water supply was insufficient to freely provide for the steam catapult, propulsion turbines and crew. The flight deck, hangar deck and aircraft lifts were strengthened, and reinforced arrestor cables were installed. Flight direction radar was included, making Melbourne the only military airfield in the Australasian region at the time capable of operating aircraft at night and in poor weather.

Refits

Early in her career, Melbourne underwent a series of short annual refits, commencing in September and ending in January or February of the next year. As time passed, the refits increased in duration or were replaced by major upgrades or overhauls.

Melbournes first major refit started in December 1967 and continued until February 1969, during which she was upgraded to operate S-2 Tracker and A-4 Skyhawk aircraft. The modifications cost A$8.5 million, and included an overhaul of the hull and machinery, strengthening of the flight deck, improvements to the catapult and arrestor cables, modification of the aviation fuel systems and flight control arrangements, and upgrades of the navigational aids and radar. Air conditioning systems and a liquid oxygen generation plant were also installed. Melbourne re-entered service at the conclusion of the refits on 14 February, and performed sea trials in Jervis Bay from 17 February until 5 May. This was the largest project undertaken by Garden Island Dockyard to that date.

The next major refit was required in 1971 for the scheduled rebuilding of the catapult, which was only possible after components were sourced from  and . The flight deck was again reinforced and strengthened, and attempts were made to increase the effectiveness of the air conditioning system installed in 1969. Melbourne had been designed to operate in North Atlantic and Arctic climates, and the original ventilation systems were inappropriate for her primary operating climate, the tropics. The 1969 and 1971 refits did improve conditions, although there was little scope for upgrade, and the system was still inadequate: temperatures inside the ship continued to reach over , and on one occasion a hold reached . The refit took seven months to complete, and cost A$2 million.

More large-scale refits occurred throughout the rest of the 1970s. Melbourne was back in dock from November 1972 until August 1973, with further work done to her catapult. The next major refit ran from April 1975 to June 1976, and was intended to increase the operational lifespan of the carrier to at least 1985. The refit was lengthened by industrial action at the dockyard. Melbourne underwent another refit from late 1978 until August 1979. A refit scheduled to begin in late 1981 was postponed in September until a decision regarding the new carrier was made, then cancelled in January 1982, after the announcement that the RAN would be acquiring HMS Invincible.

Armament
Melbourne carried a defensive armament of anti-aircraft guns and an air group comprising both attack and anti-submarine aircraft. As the ship was never directly involved in a conflict, her weapons and embarked aircraft did not fire a shot in anger.

Weapons and systems
Melbournes initial armament included 25 40 mm Bofors anti-aircraft guns: six twin and thirteen single mountings. The radar suite consisted of three Type 277Q height-finding sets, a Type 293Q surface search set, and a Type 978 navigational set. Between entering service and 1959, four of the single Bofors were removed.

During the 1967–1969 refit, thirteen Bofors were removed, leaving four twin and four single mountings. The three 277Q radars were replaced with updated American and Dutch designs: a LW-02 air search set and a SPN-35 landing aid radar. A TACAN aerial and electronic countermeasures pods were also installed during this refit. The four Bofors twin mountings were removed in 1980.

Aircraft

Melbourne carried three Fleet Air Arm squadrons. Initially, she had up to 22 fixed wing and 2 rotary wing aircraft embarked at any time. The number of aircraft gradually increased until 1972, when the air group peaked at 27 aircraft. Approximately 350 Fleet Air Arm personnel were stationed aboard the carrier.

Initially, two types of fixed-wing aircraft were operated from Melbourne. de Havilland Sea Venom FAW.53 fighter aircraft were flown by 805 Squadron RAN and 808 Squadron RAN, while Fairey Gannet anti-submarine strike aircraft were operated by 816 Squadron RAN and 817 Squadron RAN. At the time of their arrival, the Sea Venoms were the only radar equipped and all-weather combat aircraft in the Southern Hemisphere. At Melbournes commissioning, the standard air group consisted of eight Sea Venoms and two squadrons of eight Gannets, with two Bristol Sycamore search-and-rescue helicopters added shortly after the carrier entered service.

These aircraft were due to become obsolete in the late 1950s, and the RAN considered purchasing modern aircraft of French or Italian design, which were better suited to light carrier operations than equivalent British aircraft, or replace Melbourne with a larger carrier. Instead of pursuing either alternative, the Australian government announced in 1959 that Melbourne would be reconfigured during her 1963 refit to operate as a helicopter carrier. The fixed-wing aircraft of the Fleet Air Arm were marked for replacement by 27 Westland Wessex anti-submarine helicopters. A reduction of embarked plane numbers to four Sea Venoms and six Gannets, along with regular rotation and careful use of the aircraft, extended their service life until the mid-1960s, while the size of the air group was maintained by carrying up to ten Wessex helicopters. The decision to retire the fixed-wing component of the Fleet Air Arm was rescinded in 1963, and on 10 November 1964, a AU£212 million increase in defence spending included the purchase of new aircraft for Melbourne.

The RAN planned to acquire 14 Grumman S-2E Tracker anti-submarine aircraft, and modernise Melbourne to operate the aircraft. The acquisition of 18 Douglas A-4 Skyhawk fighter-bombers was also suggested, but these were dropped from the initial plan. A separate proposal to order 10 A-4G Skyhawks, a variant of the Skyhawk designed specifically for the RAN and optimised for air defence, was approved in 1965. Both aircraft types entered RAN service in 1968, with the Trackers operated by 816 Squadron RAN and 851 Squadron RAN, and the Skyhawks by 805 Squadron RAN and 724 Squadron RAN. The aircraft did not fly from Melbourne until the conclusion of her refit in 1969. In 1969, the RAN purchased another ten A-4G Skyhawks, instead of the proposed seventh and eighth Oberon-class submarines. Melbourne operated a standard air group of four Skyhawks, six Trackers, and ten Wessex helicopters until 1972, when the Wessexes were replaced with ten Westland Sea King anti-submarine warfare helicopters and the number of Skyhawks doubled. Although replaced by the Sea King, up to three Wessex helicopters could be carried as search-and-rescue aircraft.

On 5 December 1976, a fire at the Naval Air Station  destroyed or heavily damaged 12 of the Fleet Air Arm's 13 S-2E Trackers. The carrier was sent to the United States in 1977 to transport back 16 S-2G Tracker aircraft as replacements.

Over the course of her career, over thirty aircraft were either lost or heavily damaged while operating from Melbourne. The majority of the aircraft ditched or crashed over the side, but some losses were due to catapult or arrestor cable failures. After Melbourne was decommissioned, the Fleet Air Arm ceased fixed-wing combat aircraft operation in 1984, with the final Tracker flight saluting the decommissioned carrier.

Role

Melbourne was the third and final conventional aircraft carrier to operate with the RAN. Following the first decommissioning of sister ship  in 1958, Melbourne became the only aircraft carrier in Australian service. Melbourne was unavailable to provide air cover for the RAN for up to four months in every year; this time was required for refits, refuelling, personnel leave, and non-carrier duties, such as the transportation of troops or aircraft. Although one of the largest ships to serve in the RAN, Melbourne was one of the smallest carriers to operate in the post-World War II period. A decision was made in 1959 to restrict Melbournes role to helicopter operations only, but was reversed shortly before its planned 1963 implementation.

As well as an operational aircraft carrier, Melbourne was Flagship of the RAN, a role she received almost immediately following her 1956 arrival in Australia, and fulfilled until her decommissioning in 1982. During her service, the carrier was deployed overseas on 35 occasions, visited over 22 countries, and was seen as the physical and psychological centrepiece of the RAN fleet.

As Melbourne was the only ship of her size (both in dimensions and ship's company) in the RAN, the carrier underwent a regular rotation of commanding officers to give them experience. Commanding officers were changed on average every fifteen months, with few remaining on board for more than two years. The majority of Melbournes commanders later reached flag rank. The carrier was also called on to perform underway replenishments and command and control functions.

Operational history

1955–1964

Following a working-up period in British waters, Melbourne departed Glasgow on 11 March 1956 on her maiden voyage to Australia via the Suez Canal. Aboard were the 64 aircraft of RAN squadrons 808, 816, and 817, as well as the racing yacht Samuel Pepys (named after the English naval administrator and diarist), which was a gift to the RAN Sailing Association from the Royal Navy. The ship visited Gibraltar, Naples, Malta, Port Said, Aden, and Colombo, before arriving in Fremantle on 24 April 1956. Melbourne sailed east via the Great Australian Bight, meeting sister ship  near Kangaroo Island a week later. After visiting Melbourne and Jervis Bay, where the aircraft were offloaded and sent to Naval Air Station , the carrier concluded her maiden voyage in Sydney on 10 May. The role of flagship was transferred from Sydney to Melbourne three days later. The carrier immediately underwent a two and a half-month refit, allowing for the inspection of machinery and repair of defects detected during the maiden voyage. Melbourne spent from September to November in Southeast Asian waters, during which she participated in Exercise Albatross and received an official visit by Philippines president Ramon Magsaysay. On return to Australia in mid-November, the carrier visited Melbourne for the 1956 Olympics, where 200 of Melbournes complement were provided to work as signallers, event marshals, carpenters, and medical workers.

In February 1957, Melbourne was sent to the Royal Hobart Regatta. Following this, she travelled to New Zealand, where she participated in exercises with HMNZS Royalist and visited several New Zealand ports. The first of several annual three-month deployments to Southeast Asia as part of the Far East Strategic Reserve began in April, with Melbourne returning to Darwin at the end of June. The carrier spent the rest of the year visiting Australian ports for open inspections by the public. During the visit to Port Adelaide, on 28 October 1957, Melbourne was slightly damaged when she was struck by MV Straat Lanka—the first of several minor collisions the carrier would experience throughout her career. Operations for the year concluded with participation in Exercise Astrolabe off Lord Howe Island, with ships from the RAN, Royal Navy, and Royal New Zealand Navy, before returning to Sydney on 13 December.

From February until July 1958, Melbourne was deployed on a  flag-showing cruise. During this cruise the carrier participated in four inter-fleet exercises and visited Singapore, Hong Kong, the Philippines, Japan, Pearl Harbor and Fiji. On return to Sydney, Melbourne entered a short refit, which concluded on 13 October and was immediately followed by a visit to Port Phillip, where the carrier was displayed to Australian Army and Royal Australian Air Force officer cadets before the carrier returned to Sydney. At the start of 1959, Melbourne spent four days in her namesake city, where she was used for the filming of On The Beach, based on Nevil Shute's post-apocalyptic novel of the same name. After filming concluded, the carrier participated in a demonstration exercise off the coast of Sydney before embarking on a Far East Strategic Reserve deployment from March until May. The rest of the year was spent visiting Australian and New Zealand ports.

The following year, 1960, was a bad year for the carrier's air group, with four Sea Venoms and two Gannets damaged in separate incidents aboard Melbourne. All four Sea Venom incidents occurred in March, with three attributed to aircrew error and one to brake failure. The year began with exercises en route to Adelaide, followed by a visit to the Royal Hobart Regatta. The carrier's Strategic Reserve deployment ran from April to June, and was followed by manoeuvres along the east coast of Australia until September. In the lead up to Melbournes 1961 deployment to the Strategic Reserve, the carrier visited Bombay, Karachi, and Trincomalee. It was the first time a flagship of the RAN had entered Indian waters. Melbourne returned to Australia in June, and on 15 June led several ships in a ceremonial entry to Sydney Harbour to commemorate the 50th anniversary of the RAN. In August, Melbourne was called upon to lead Exercise Tuckerbox, in the Coral Sea. Following the conclusion of Tuckerbox, the carrier visited several New Zealand ports before returning to Sydney for demonstration exercises and public relations activities.

In 1962, Melbourne began the year's activities at the Royal Hobart Regatta, before sailing to her Strategic Reserve deployment, by way of Adelaide and Fremantle. After Strategic Reserve duties were completed, the carrier visited Japan, Guam, and Manus Island before returning to Sydney in late July. In September, Melbourne reprised her role as the leader of Exercise Tuckerbox II. The 10,000th catapult launch from Melbourne occurred in late 1962. The carrier's annual refit began in Sydney on 1 October. At the beginning of 1963, Melbourne again visited to the Royal Hobart Regatta, which was immediately followed by a deployment to the Strategic Reserve, including involvement in SEATO Exercise Sea Serpent. The 20,000th landing on Melbourne was performed in April by a Gannet, and in September, Melbourne participated in Exercise Carbine near Hervey Bay, Queensland.

Voyager collision

On 10 February 1964, Melbourne was performing trials in Jervis Bay under the command of Captain John Robertson, following the annual refit. The Daring-class destroyer  was also present, undergoing her own trials following refit, under the command of Captain Duncan Stevens. The trials involved interactions between both ships, and when Melbourne performed night-flying exercises that evening, Voyager acted as the carrier's plane guard escort. This required Voyager to maintain a position 20° off Melbournes port quarter at a distance from the carrier of .

Early in the evening, Voyager had no difficulties maintaining her position during the manoeuvres both ships performed. Following a series of turns intended to reverse the courses of both ships beginning at 8:40 pm, Voyager ended up to starboard of Melbourne. At 8:52 pm, Voyager was ordered to resume the plane guard station. The procedure to accomplish this required Voyager to turn away from Melbourne in a large circle, cross behind the carrier, then take position off Melbournes port side. Instead, Voyager first turned to starboard, away from Melbourne, then turned to port without warning. It was initially assumed by Melbournes bridge crew that Voyager was conducting a series of tight turns to lose speed before swinging behind Melbourne, but Voyager did not alter course again. At 8:55 pm, with Voyager approaching, Melbournes navigator ordered the carrier's engines to half astern speed, with Robertson ordering an increase to full astern a few seconds later. At the same time, Stevens, having just become aware of the situation, gave the order "Full ahead both engines. Hard-a starboard.", before instructing the destroyer's Quartermaster to announce that a collision was imminent. Both ships' measures were too late to avoid a collision; Melbourne hit Voyager at 8:56 pm.

Melbourne struck Voyager just aft of the destroyer's bridge, rolling the destroyer to starboard before cutting her in half. Voyagers forward boiler exploded, briefly setting fire to the bow of the carrier before it was extinguished by seawater. The destroyer's forward section sank quickly, under the weight of the two  gun turrets. The aft section did not begin sinking until half an hour after the collision, completely submerging just after midnight. Messages were immediately sent to the Fleet Headquarters in Sydney, although staff in Sydney initially underestimated the extent of the damage to Voyager. Melbourne launched her boats to recover survivors, and the carrier's wardroom and C Hangar were prepared for casualties. At 9:58 pm, Melbourne was informed that search-and-rescue boats from , helicopters from , and five Ton-class minesweepers had been despatched to assist in the search.

Melbourne arrived in Sydney with the survivors on 14 February, and after spending time alongside at Garden Island, was moved to Cockatoo Island Dockyard on 25 March, where repairs were undertaken; the damaged section of the bow was cut away and repairs to the ship's internal structure were undertaken in drydock, while a 40-ton prefabricated bow was constructed. Once this was completed, Melbourne was removed while the new bow was put in place in the drydock. The work was completed on 27 April, with the shipyard receiving a commendation.

Of the 314 personnel aboard Voyager at the time of the collision, 14 officers, 67 sailors, and 1 civilian dockyard worker were killed, including Stevens and all but two of the bridge team. A Royal Commission into the events of the collision was held in 1964, and found that while Voyager'''s crew was primarily at fault for neglecting to maintain an effective lookout and awareness of the larger ship's location, Melbournes bridge crew was also at fault, for failing to alert Voyager and not taking measures to avoid the collision. Robertson was posted to the training base —a move that he and the Australian media saw as tantamount to a demotion—but resigned instead. The Royal Commission and its aftermath were poorly handled, and following pressure from the public, media, and politicians, combined with revelations by Voyagers former executive officer that Stevens may have been unfit for command, a second Royal Commission was opened in 1967.Stevens et al., The Royal Australian Navy, p. 202 This is the only time in Australian history two Royal Commissions have been held for a single incident. The second commission found that Stevens was medically unfit for command and that some of the findings of the first Royal Commission were therefore based on incorrect assumptions. Robertson and the other officers of Melbourne were absolved of blame for the incident.

1964–1969Melbourne spent ten weeks at Cockatoo Island Dockyard, having her new bow fitted. Following the repairs, Melbourne was involved in Strategic Reserve deployments and exercises in Southeast Asia from June until September 1964. During this deployment, the carrier visited Subic Bay, where the RAN performed flight deck trials with S-2 Tracker anti-submarine aircraft and A-4 Skyhawk attack fighters. The success of the trials, along with the discovery that Melbourne was able to operate both aircraft with relatively minor modification, led the Australian Government to approve the purchase of these aircraft.

From March 1965 until mid-1967, Melbourne underwent a regular pattern of deployments to Southeast Asia, exercises, and flag-showing visits to nations in the Asia-Pacific region. Several of the Southeast Asian deployments were related to the Indonesia–Malaysia confrontation, and involved participation in show of force exercises off the coast of Malaysia. During 1965 and 1966, Melbourne escorted sister ship , which had been recommissioned as a troop transport, for short periods during the latter's first, third, and fourth transport voyages to Vietnam. Despite the carrier being the centrepiece of several plans to involve Australian forces in the Vietnam War, the escort runs were the extent of Melbournes participation in the conflict, and the carrier remained outside the Market Time area while Sydney and her other escorts proceeded to Vũng Tàu.Stevens et al., The Royal Australian Navy, pp. 204, 208 As the carrier was optimised for anti-submarine warfare, there was little need for her at the start of the war. Utilising the carrier was suggested again by RAN officials in March 1966, when the United States Seventh Fleet was having difficulties maintaining anti-submarine patrols around Yankee Station, but Melbourne could only remain on station for a single, ten-day period, a third of the time that US carriers were operational for on rotating deployments. Seventh Fleet staff suggested in April 1967 that Melbourne deploy in the anti-submarine role, but nothing came of these talks. Consideration was also given to using Melbourne as a floating helicopter base, but only ten Wessex helicopters could be provided, and modifications were required for them to operate as troop carriers. Both options were made more prohibitive by the need to supply at least two escorts for the carrier at a time when the RAN was having difficulty meeting deployment commitments with the available destroyers and destroyer escorts.

In September 1967, Melbourne travelled to the United States to collect new aircraft: 14 Trackers and 10 Skyhawks. To operate the new aircraft, the carrier received a major refit on her return to Sydney, which began in December 1967. In May 1967, it was proposed that while Melbourne was out of service, A-4 Skyhawk pilots and maintenance personnel could be attached to a United States Marine Corps Skyhawk squadron in South Vietnam. Australian aircraft were not to be provided, as the A-4G Skyhawks used by the RAN were optimised for air defence, not the fighter-bomber role performed by the Marines, and would have suffered heavy losses from North Vietnam's heavy anti-aircraft defences. This deployment did not occur; the Skyhawk pilot training program was experiencing delays because US squadrons were being shipped training equipment and replacement parts in priority to the RAN, and sending qualified pilots overseas would have caused further holdups with the program, while also disrupting Melbournes post-refit reactivation. Melbourne re-entered service at the conclusion of the refit on 14 February 1969. She performed sea trials in Jervis Bay from 17 February until 5 May, then sailed for Subic Bay, Philippines, to participate in SEATO Exercise Sea Spirit.Frame, Pacific Partners, p. 126

Frank E. Evans collisionMelbournes commanding officer during the SEATO exercise was Captain John Phillip Stevenson. Rear Admiral John Crabb, the Flag Officer Commanding Australian Fleet, was also embarked on the carrier. During Sea Spirit, Melbourne was assigned five escorts: US Ships , , and , HMNZS Blackpool, and . Stevenson held a dinner for the five escort captains at the start of the exercise, during which he recounted the events of the Melbourne–Voyager collision, emphasised the need for caution when operating near the carrier, and provided written instructions on how to avoid such a situation developing again. Additionally, during the lead up to the exercise, Admiral Crabb had strongly warned that all repositioning manoeuvres performed by the escorts had to commence with a turn away from Melbourne. Despite these warnings, a near-miss occurred in the early hours of 31 May when Larson turned towards the carrier after being ordered to the plane guard station. Subsequent action narrowly  prevented a collision. The escorts were again warned about the dangers of operating near the carrier and informed of Stevenson's expectations, while the minimum distance between carrier and escorts was increased from .

On the night of 2–3 June 1969, Melbourne and her escorts were involved in anti-submarine training exercises in the South China Sea. In preparation for launching a Tracker, Stevenson ordered Evans to the plane guard station, reminded the destroyer of Melbournes course, and instructed the carrier's navigational lights to be brought to full brilliance.Smith and Lancaster, USS Frank E. Evans: Disaster in the South China Sea, p. 1 Evans had performed the manoeuvre four times over the course of the night. Evans was positioned on Melbournes port bow, but began the manoeuvre by turning starboard, towards the carrier. A radio message was sent from Melbourne to Evans bridge and Combat Information Centre, warning the destroyer that she was on a collision course, which Evans acknowledged.Hall, HMAS Melbourne, p. 178 Seeing the destroyer take no action and on a course to place herself under Melbournes bow, Stevenson ordered the carrier hard to port, signalling the turn by both radio and siren blasts. At approximately the same time, Evans turned hard to starboard to avoid the approaching carrier. It is uncertain which ship began to manoeuvre first, but each ship's bridge crew claimed that they were informed of the other ship's turn after they commenced their own. After having narrowly passed in front of Melbourne, the turns quickly placed Evans back in the carrier's path. Melbourne hit Evans amidships at 3:15 am, cutting the destroyer in two.

Seventy-four of the 273 personnel from Evans were killed in the collision, with the majority of these believed to have been asleep or trapped inside the bow section, which sank within minutes. Melbourne deployed her boats, life rafts, and lifebuoys, before carefully manoeuvring alongside the stern section of Evans, where both ships' crews used mooring lines to lash the ships together. Sailors from Melbourne dived from the flight deck into the water to rescue overboard survivors close to the carrier, while the carrier's boats and helicopters collected those farther out. All of the survivors were located within 12 minutes of the collision and rescued before half an hour had passed, although the search continued for fifteen more hours. After Evans stern was evacuated, it was cast off, while the carrier moved away to avoid damage. The stern did not sink, and was later recovered, stripped of parts, and sunk for target practice.

Following the collision, Melbourne travelled to Singapore for temporary repairs to her bow, arriving on 6 June. Melbourne departed Singapore on 27 June and arrived in Sydney on 9 July, where the carrier underwent almost identical repairs at Cockatoo Island Dockyard as in 1964 (primarily the installation of a new bow section). However, an industrial dispute amongst the shipyard workers meant that, although the work was completed in early September, the ship remained in the drydock until 11 October.

A Joint RAN-USN board of inquiry was established to investigate the incident, and was in session over June and July 1969. The board found Evans partially at fault for the collision, but also faulted Melbourne for not taking evasive action sooner, even though international sea regulations dictated that in the lead-up to a collision, the larger ship was required to maintain course and speed. It was learned during the inquiry that Evans commanding officer was asleep in his quarters at the time of the incident, and charge of the vessel was held by Lieutenants Ronald Ramsey and James Hopson; the former had failed the qualification exam to stand watch, while the latter was at sea for the first time.Hall, HMAS Melbourne, p. 200 Subsequent to the inquiry, the three USN officers and Stevenson were court-martialled by their respective navies on charges of negligence, with the three USN officers found guilty and Stevenson 'Honourably Acquitted'. Despite the findings, Stevenson's next posting was as a minor flag officer's chief of staff, seen by him as a demotion in all but name. In a repeat of the aftermath of the Voyager collision, Melbournes captain resigned amid accusations of scapegoating. In December 2012, Stevenson announced that he had received a letter from the Minister for Defence, apologising for his treatment by the RAN and the government of the day.

1970–1976

During the 1970s and early 1980s, replacing parts became an increasing problem. Components were failing due to wear and age, but the companies responsible for manufacturing the parts had gone out of business during the previous twenty years, sometimes immediately after World War II ended. The carrier's engineers often resorted to making replacements from scratch. The ship's catapult was replaced with parts from the decommissioned HMCS Bonaventure in 1970.

In 1970, Melbourne participated in three major inter-navy exercises: Sea Rover with SEATO forces in the South China Sea, Bersatu Padu with British Commonwealth forces off Malaysia, and Swan Lake with the Royal Navy and Royal New Zealand Navy off Western Australia.Gillett, HMAS Melbourne – 25 Years, p. 61 During this year, the carrier also visited Japan to participate in Expo '70, and was hit by Manly ferry South Steyne while alongside at Garden Island, causing minor damage to both vessels. Melbourne was out of service for most of 1971 while she underwent refits, which concluded in early August. In mid-1971, the Australian military's Joint Planning Committee considered using Melbourne as a transport to help complete the withdrawal of the Australian Task Force from Vietnam before the end of 1971. While the Army supported this proposal, the Navy successfully argued against its implementation, claiming that transporting troops and cargo would be misusing Australia's only active aircraft carrier, and would prevent Melbourne from participating in several major multi-national exercises. The refit concluded in late 1971, with the carrier participating in the first RIMPAC exercise, RIMPAC 71, before the end of the year.

Operations in 1972 commenced with a three-month deployment to Southeast Asia. During this deployment, Melbourne led a fleet of 17 ships from the RAN, Royal Navy, Royal New Zealand Navy, US Navy, Philippine Navy, and Royal Thai Navy in Exercise Sea Hawk. This was followed by goodwill visits to numerous Southeast Asian ports, including Hong Kong, Jakarta, Manila, Singapore, and Surabaya, before Melbourne returned to Sydney at the end of April. The carrier spent May performing exercises off the New South Wales coast, during which she was called on to rescue three fisherman who had been stranded at sea for the previous two days. In August, Melbourne sailed for Hawaii to participate in RIMPAC 72. At the conclusion of this exercise, Melbourne proceeded to Japan on a diplomatic visit, then sailed to the Philippines to exercise with SEATO ships. During this deployment, a fire ignited inside the ship's main switchboard. The carrier returned to Australia on 27 November after 101 days at sea, and underwent a seven-month refit. On 24 August 1973, Melbourne returned to Hawaii to participate in RIMPAC 73. She returned to Australia on 12 October, but sailed out ten days later to participate in Exercise Leadline off Malaysia, before reaching Sydney again in December.Melbourne began 1974 by transporting 120 Australian soldiers to a temporary assignment with an American infantry battalion based in Hawaii. She then sailed to San Francisco to collect 12 new Chinook and five UH-1 Iroquois helicopters for the Royal Australian Air Force, arriving in Australia with her cargo in April. In June, the carrier took part in Exercise Kangaroo in the Coral Sea, before returning to Sydney in July. On 11 July, the passenger liner SS Australis hit and damaged Melbourne in Sydney Harbour. In November, the carrier took part in disaster relief exercises. These were prophetic, as on the night of 24–25 December 1974, Cyclone Tracy destroyed the city of Darwin. Melbournes ship's company was recalled immediately from leave, the ship was loaded with supplies, and the carrier departed Sydney on 26 December in the company of . Melbourne, Brisbane, and eleven other ships were deployed as part of the largest peacetime rescue effort ever organised by the RAN: Operation Navy Help Darwin. Melbourne remained off Darwin until 18 January 1975, acting as operational headquarters and a helicopter base. During this operation, the seven Wessex helicopters embarked on Melbourne performed 2,493 flights, carrying 7,824 passengers and 107 tons of cargo.

Following Navy Help Darwin, Melbourne participated in RIMPAC 75, then returned to Sydney for a fourteen-month refit, which was delayed by industrial action at the dockyard. While moored in Sydney Harbour, on 24 July, Melbourne was struck by Japanese cargo ship Blue Andromeda. While working up following the refit, Melbourne and  provided assistance to MV Miss Chief off the coast of Bundaberg, Queensland on 16 August 1976. In October, Melbourne participated in Exercise Kangaroo II, before sailing to her namesake city for the carrier's 21st birthday celebrations, then returning to Sydney on 5 November.Gillett, HMAS Melbourne – 25 Years, p. 79

1976–1983

On 5 December 1976, a fire deliberately lit at  by a member of the Fleet Air Arm damaged or destroyed all but one of Australia's S-2 Trackers.Hall, HMAS Melbourne, p. 19 Following participation in RIMPAC 77, Melbourne was sent to San Diego to collect replacement aircraft. Arriving back in Sydney on 5 April, the carrier was sent on a five-month deployment to the United Kingdom on 28 April, accompanied by  and .Stevens et al., The Royal Australian Navy, p. 231 En route, Melbourne lost a Sea King in the Indian Ocean on 9 May, with the aircrew recovered by Brisbane. A Tracker from Melbourne located the disabled Dutch vessel Impala Princess in the Gulf of Aden on 25 May and directed a French destroyer to assist. Two Bofors naval guns were deposited by Melbourne at Souda Bay, Crete on 2 June, marking the first visit of an Australian warship to Crete since June 1941. These weapons were donated to the Australian War Memorial at Stavromenos, in Crete's Rethymno regional unit. The highlight of the deployment saw the three ships represent Australia and New Zealand at the Silver Jubilee Naval Review on 28 June 1977. A two-seat Harrier jump jet demonstrator undertook a series of trial takeoffs and landings aboard Melbourne on 30 June: a trial organised as part of the project overseeing the ship's potential replacement.Mison, Sea Harrier Down Under Following the Jubilee Review and participation in Exercise Highwood in July, Melbourne and her escorts returned to Australia, arriving in Fremantle on 19 September and Sydney on 4 October. Melbourne was docked in Garden Island's drydock on arrival, where she remained until January 1978.

At the end of March 1978, Melbourne left Sydney for RIMPAC 78. During this exercise, Melbourne acquired the nickname 'Little M' after working with 'Big E' —the smallest and largest aircraft carriers (respectively) in operation at the time. On return in July, the carrier entered a major refit, which continued until 3 August 1979. During this refit, on 3 March, a boiler explosion caused minor damage to the carrier. The remainder of the year involved participation in three exercises, Tasmanex off Wellington, New Zealand, Sea Eagle I in the Tasman Sea, and Kangaroo III in the Coral Sea. During Tasmanex, Melbourne lost her LW-02 radar aerial and a Skyhawk (N13-154907), both of which fell overboard during heavy seas.

During February and March 1980, Melbourne participated in RIMPAC 80, as the flagship of Battle Group Two. This was immediately followed by a visit to the Solomon Islands in early April. The carrier was in Sydney from mid-April until mid-August, during which the 25th anniversary of Melbournes service in the RAN was celebrated on 15 August with a cocktail party aboard the carrier, popularly referred to as 'The Night of the Admirals'. On 18 August, Melbourne sailed for Fremantle to participate in Exercise Sandgroper 80. On 8 September, Melbourne, accompanied by , , , , and  deployed to the Indian Ocean as the Australian Squadron for a flag-showing cruise. During this cruise two Skyhawks were lost: on 2 and 21 October. On 24 October, a Tracker from Melbourne observed Soviet warships Storozhevoy and Ivan Rogov shadowing the squadron. The squadron's return in November 1980 concluded the largest and longest RAN deployment since World War II.

Following her return, the carrier spent six months in Australian waters, before a two-month deployment to Southeast Asia. During this deployment, on 21 June 1981, Melbourne rescued 99 Vietnamese refugees from a disabled fishing vessel in the South China Sea. The carrier's deployments for the second half of the year consisted of two exercises, Sea Hawk and Kangaroo 81. A major refit scheduled to begin in late 1981 was postponed pending the decision on a replacement carrier. After docking at Garden Island in December, the carrier was accidentally flooded by an officer who was impatient to commence leave. In his haste to shut down the carrier, he failed to deactivate the water pumps, and over 180 tons of fresh water were pumped in before a maintenance party discovered the flooding the next day. Melbourne remained in dock at the start of 1982, and did not leave before the decision regarding her replacement was made.

Replacement

A replacement for Melbourne was under consideration as early as 1956, and the question was revisited on several occasions until the 1980s. In every situation, a new aircraft carrier was turned down due to the increases in manpower and operating costs required to operate the ship when compared to Melbourne.

Between 1956 and 1959, the RAN considered acquiring a larger carrier to replace Melbourne, as the Fleet Air Arm was becoming obsolete and the RAN did not believe the ship could be modified to operate newer, heavier aircraft. Under consideration were British carrier  and a ship of the United States' Essex class. Both options were turned down, and it was instead proposed to operate Melbourne as a helicopter carrier.

In 1960, the United States Navy offered an Essex-class carrier to the Australian government, in the interest of improving relations between the two nations and their navies. The only cost to the RAN would have been the modifications required to make the carrier operationally compatible with the RAN's primarily British-designed fleet. In the late 1960s, the British made a similar offer, following a 1966 review indicating that  was a superfluous naval unit. In 1968, Hermes took part in a combined exercise with the RAN, during which the carrier was visited by RAN and Australian government officials, while RAN Skyhawks and Trackers practised landings on the larger carrier. Both offers were turned down due to operating and manpower costs.

The need to secure a replacement for Melbourne grew as the carrier's age caused the operating costs to increase to over A$25 million per year. In June 1977, the Defence Force Development Committee approved an investigation into acquiring a STOVL/helicopter carrier. By August 1979, the decision was limited to three ships: a modified American Iwo Jima-class amphibious assault ship, an Italian Giuseppe Garibaldi-class carrier, and a Sea Control Ship design that later became the Spanish Navy's Principe de Asturias. By February 1981, the Iwo Jima class was the preferred option.

HMS Invincible

Plans to replace Melbourne changed in July 1981; the British 1981 Defence White Paper had marked the recently commissioned  as surplus to requirements, and she was offered to the RAN for the 'bargain' price of GB£175 million (A$285 million). The Invincible class had been considered and discarded during the investigation, but the decreased price and the fact the already-constructed carrier would be ready for RAN service in 1983 prompted the Australian government to announce its intention to purchase Invincible on 25 February 1982 and close the carrier acquisition program. The government also announced that the ship would be renamed  and operated as a helicopter carrier, and that a decision on the purchase of fixed wing aircraft would be made after acquisition.

The deal was put on hold in April 1982, following the outbreak of the Falklands War. The performance of Invincible and other Royal Navy aircraft carriers during the conflict showed that the report which suggested reductions in the size of Britain's carrier fleet—with the follow-on effect of making Invincible available for sale—was flawed, and both sides withdrew from the deal in July. The RAN was again offered HMS Hermes, and again declined due to the carrier's age and manpower requirements. The Australian government began to reconsider the previous contenders for replacement, as well as considering requesting the United Kingdom or United States to build a simple carrier capable of operating F/A-18 Hornet strike fighters, but the issue was suspended at the commencement of the 1983 Australian Federal Election. On 14 March, following the election of Bob Hawke's Labor Government, the announcement was made that Melbourne would not be replaced.

Decommissioning and fate
Following the decision to replace Melbourne with HMS Invincible, the postponed refit was cancelled outright. The Australian carrier was prepared for disposal, and was decommissioned and placed in reserve on 30 June 1982. She was towed to the mooring dolphins near Bradley's Head, where she remained until 1985. Melbourne was capable of being reactivated as a helicopter-equipped anti-submarine warfare carrier within 26 weeks, but was never required to do so. A Sydney-based group proposed in 1984 to purchase Melbourne and operate her as a floating casino moored in international waters off Eden, New South Wales, but nothing came of this. Melbournes air wing was disbanded at HMAS Albatross on 2 July 1982, with the transfer of 805 Squadron's Skyhawks to 724 Squadron and 816 Squadron being absorbed into 851 Squadron.Wilson, Phantom, Hornet and Skyhawk in Australian Service, pp. 171–2 The Skyhawks remained in service as fleet support aircraft until 30 June 1984, while the Trackers were withdrawn from service on 31 August 1984 after being used as land-based maritime patrol aircraft.

The carrier was initially sold for breaking up as scrap metal for A$1.7 million, although the sale fell through in June 1984.  She was sold again in February 1985 to the China United Shipbuilding Company for A$1.4 million, with the intention that she be towed to China and broken up for scrap. Prior to the ship's departure for China, the RAN stripped Melbourne of all electronic equipment and weapons, and welded her rudders into a fixed position so that she could not be reactivated.  Her steam catapult, arresting equipment and mirror landing system were not removed.  At this time, few western experts expected that the Chinese government would attempt to develop aircraft carriers in the future.  The carrier departed Sydney on 27 April 1985, heading for Guangzhou, under the tow of tug De Ping.  The journey was delayed when the towing line began to part, requiring the carrier and tug to shelter in Queensland's Moreton Bay, on 30 April.  The towing gear broke a day later, requiring a second tug to secure the carrier while repairs were made to De Ping.  Three days later, Melbourne ran aground while still in Moreton Bay.  Melbourne arrived in China on 13 June.  The Australian government received a Telex on this day, reading:

The ship was not scrapped immediately; instead she was studied by Chinese naval architects and engineers as part of the nation's top-secret carrier development program.  It is unclear whether the People's Liberation Army Navy (PLAN) orchestrated the acquisition of Melbourne or simply took advantage of the situation; Rear Admiral Zhang Zhaozhong, a staff member at the National Defence College, has stated that the Navy was unaware of the purchase until Melbourne first arrived at Guangzhou.  Melbourne was the largest warship any of the Chinese experts had seen, and they were surprised by the amount of equipment which was still in place.  The PLAN subsequently arranged for the ship's flight deck and all the equipment associated with flying operations to be removed so that they could be studied in depth.  Reports have circulated that either a replica of the flight deck, or the deck itself, was used for clandestine training of PLANAF pilots in carrier flight operations.  It has also been claimed that the Royal Australian Navy received and "politely rejected" a request from the PLAN for blueprints of the ship's steam catapult.  The carrier was not dismantled for many years; according to some rumours she was not completely broken up until 2002.  A 2012 article in Jane's Navy International stated that the large quantity of equipment recovered from Melbourne "undoubtedly helped" Admiral Liu Huaqing secure the Chinese government's support for his proposal to initiate an aircraft carrier development programme.Melbournes service is commemorated with a stained-glass window at the Garden Island Naval Chapel. One of the ship's anchors is incorporated into a memorial to naval aviation at Nowra, New South Wales. Another anchor and the starboard side ship's bell are on display at the RAN Heritage Centre at Garden Island. Memorabilia from Melbourne's voyages with the Fleet Air Arm embarked, and examples of all the types of aircraft deployed on Melbourne, are on permanent static display in the Fleet Air Arm Museum at HMAS Albatross.

Following an overhaul of the RAN battle honours system completed in 2010, Melbourne'' was retroactively awarded the honour "Malaysia 1965–66" for her service during the Indonesia-Malaysia Confrontation.

See also
 Canberra-class
 HMAS Adelaide (L01)
 HMAS Canberra (L02)
 Majestic class
 HMAS Sydney (R17)

Notes

References

Citations

Sources

 Books

 Articles

 Websites

External links

 HMAS Melbourne Association
 A sailor's recollections of several tours of duty aboard the carrier

Majestic-class aircraft carriers of the Royal Australian Navy
Ships built in Barrow-in-Furness
1945 ships
Cold War aircraft carriers of Australia

HMAS Melbourne (R21)


ياكوب ميخائيل راينهولد لينتس  (ولد في 23 يناير 1751 في زيسفيجن في ليفلاند، وهي حاليا تقع في ليتوانيا، - ومات في 4 يونيو 1792 في موسكو) هو أحد أدباء فترة العاصفة والاندفاع.

حياته

ولد لينتس في زيسفيجن التي تبعد عن مدينة ريغا 150 كم شرقاً، وكان أبوه كريستيان ديفيد لينتس قسيساً تقوياً. انتقلت العائلة وهو في سن التاسعة إلى دوربات حيث عمل الأب هناك قسيساً. نشرت أولى قصائده وهو ما زال في الخامسة عشرة من عمره. درس من عام 1768 حتى 1770 بمنحة دراسية علم اللاهوت في دوربات ثم في كونيجسبورج. وفي كونيجسبورج كان يحضر محاضرات إيمانويل كانت، وقرأ تحت تأثيره كتابات جان جاك روسو، واستغرق في ميوله الأدبية وأهمل علم اللاهوت. ونشر أول كتبه في عام 1769 وهو قصيدة طويلة بعنوان «العذاب الأرضي» Die Landplagen.

وفي عام 1771 قطع لينتس دراسته في كونيجسبورج وذهب ضد إرادة والده الذي قطع اتصاله بابنه لأجل ذلك، إلى شتراسبورج وعمل موظفاً لدي الأخوين فريدريش جيورج وإرنست نيكولاوس فون كلايست الذي كان كل منهما باروناً وضابطاً محامياً وقد اختارا الالتحاق بالخدمة العسكرية. وهناك كان على اتصال بيوهان دانييل زالتسمان والذي تكونت حوله دائرة من المثقفين والأدباء وكان على صلة بها يوهان فولفغانغ فون غوته، والذي كان مقيماً في تلك الفترة في شتراسبورج وكان على صلة أيضا بشتيلينج ولينتس. وقد أصبح غوته مثله الأدبي الأعلى وكان مفتوناً به وبأعماله الأدبية، وتعرف من خلاله على يوهان جوتفريد هردر ويوهان كاسبر لافاتر والذين كانا في منافسة معه. وفي العام التالي 1772 رافق سيديه إلى الحاميات العسكرية في لانداو وفورت لويس وفايسنبورج. وقد أحب فريدريكه بريون التي أحبها غوته من قبل، لكن مشاعره تلك ظلت من طرف واحد. وفي عام 1773 عاد لينتس إلى شتراسبورج واستأنف دراسته مرة أخرى. وترك العمل لدى الأخوين فون كلايست في عام 1774 وتفرغ للكتابة الحرة وكان يكتسب قوته بعمله مدرساً خصوصياً. وتطورت علاقته بغوته ليصبح صديقاً له، وقد قدمه غوته خلال زيارة في إميندنجن لأخته كورنيليا وزوجها يوهان جيورج شلوسر.

وفي أبريل 1776 رافق لينتس غوته إلى بلاط فايمار، حيث قدمه إلى المجتمع الراقي هناك. لكنه تصرف تصرفات غير لائقة أدت إلى إبعاده عن البلاط، وقطع غوته صلته به.

وذهب لينتس بعد ذلك إلى إميندنجن حيث استقبلته كورنيليا وزوجها شلوسر. ومن هناك قام بعدة رحلات إلى الإلزاس وكذلك إلى سويسرا، وزار في مايو 1777 لافاتر في زيورخ. وحين وصله خبر وفاة كورنيليا شلوسر في شهر مايو ترك في نفسه أثراً عميقاً، وعاد إلى إميندنجن. وبعد عدة زيارات طويلة لدي لافاتر، ذهب لينتس في نوفمبر إلى فينترتور لدى كريستوف كاوفمان. وأرسله كاوفمان في منتصف يناير 1778 إلى المصلح الاجتماعي القس يوهان فريدريش أوبرلين في فالدرسباخ في الإلزاس، حيث أقام من 20 يناير حتى 8 فبراير. وبرغم رعاية أوبرلين وزوجته للينتس فقد ساءت حالته الروحية. ثم عاد إلى شلوسر في إميندنجن، حيث نزل عند صانع أحذية وغاباتي.

وفي يونيو 1779 أحضره أخوه الأصغر كارل من هيرتنجن، حيث كان يعالج، إلى ريغا حيث كان والده قد رقي إلى مدير عام. لكن لينتس فشل في أن يحصل على وظيفة مدير لمدرسة الكاتدرائية. وكذلك لم يحقق نجاحاً في سانت بطرسبورج التي أقام بها من فبراير حتى سبتمبر 1780. فذهب بعد ذلك إلى دوربات حيث عمل مديراً لقصر في إحدى الضياع. وبعد إقامة أخرى في سانت بطرسبورج في العام التالي، ذهب لينتس في سبتمبر 1781 إلى موسكو، حيث نزل لدى المؤرخ فريدريش ميلر وتعلم الروسية. وعمل مدرساً منزلياً، واتصل بالكتاب الماسونيين الروس، وكانت لديه الكثير من الأفكار الإصلاحية، وترجم عدة كتب روسية حول التاريخ الروسي إلى اللغة الألمانية. وفي تلك الفترة ازدادت حالته النفسية سوءاً. لكنه في النهاية تخطى تلك الأزمة النفسية بمساعدة أحد المانحين الروس من أوساط الماسونيين. ألقى لينتس كلمة تذكارية في عام 1780 في ريغا في محفل Zum Schwert الماسوني، وكان في موسكو في الفترة المزدهرة للماسونية الروسية بقيادة نيكولاي إيفانوفيتش نوفيكوف 1781- 1792. وفي 30 أغسطس 1783 استقبل في محفل Sphinx الماسوني في موسكو، وانضم عضواً في 30 أكتوبر 1783 في محفل Drei Fahnen. وكان يساعد موظفي المحفل في الأعمال التي كانت بالغة الروسية، وكان هو موظفاً لدي المحفل فترة قصيرة في عام 1784.

وفي صباح الرابع من يونيو 1792 وجد لينتس ميتاً في إحدى شوارع موسكو. وبقي مكان قبره مجهولاً.

وتخليداً لذكراه أنشأت مدينة يينا جائزة ياكوب ميشائيل راينهولد لينتس للمسرح التي تمنح كل ثلاثة أعوام.

لينتس كشخصية أدبية

تناول جيورج بوشنر زيارة لينتس للقس الإنجيلي يوهان فريدريش أوبرلين في شتاينتال، وخلق منها أقصوصة بعنوان «لينتس» Lenz. وكان لينتس قد زار أوبرلين بناء على نصيحة لصديقه كاوفمان، وقد اشتهر أوبرلين بأنه معالج روحي وطبيب نفسي. واستقى بوشنر قصته مما كتبه أوبرلين حول الأحداث التي دارت حول لينتس في تلك الفترة. كما شكلت تلك الزيارة مادة استخدمها فولفجانج ريمس فكتب أوبرا «ياكوب لينتس». وفي القرن العشرين تناول عدد من الأدباء حياة لينتس وصاغوها في شكل أدبي، منهم الأديب بيتر شنايدر في قصته «لينتس» عام 1973 وجيرت هوفمان في قصته «عودة لينتس الضائع إلى ريغا» عام 1981.

كما يجب ذكر رواية «جريمة قتل لجوته» التي نشرها في عام 1999 الكاتب هوجو شولتس والذي يلقي فيها مسؤولية موت لينتس على جوته. كما نشرت في العام 2002 رواية «قطعة الدومينو الحمراء» للكاتب مارك بول ويتناول فيها قصة نهاية علاقة الصداقة بين جوته ولينتس.

من أعماله
 العذاب الأرضي (ملحمة شعرية 1769)
 مدرس القصر، أو فوائد التربية الخاصة (مسرحية كوميدية 1774)
 مينوتسا الجديدة (مسرحية 1774)
 ملاحظات حول المسرح (1774)
 الجنود (مسرحية كوميدية 1776، وقد كتب بيرنت أويس تسيمرمان أوبرا مستنداً إليها)
 الأصدقاء يصنعون الفيلسوف (مسرحية 1776)

روابط خارجية

المصادر

أشخاص من سيسفين
أشخاص من محافظة ليفونيا
ألمان بلطيقيون
شعراء ألمان
شعراء باللغة الألمانية
شعراء وشاعرات ألمان
كتاب دراما ومسرح ألمان
كتاب دراما ومسرح ألمان في القرن 18
كتاب ذكور ألمان في القرن 18
كتاب في القرن 18
متعصبون ألمان
مصابون بالفصام
مواليد 1751
مواليد في سيسفين
وفيات 1792
وفيات في موسكو

ياكوب ميخائيل راينهولد لينتس


සෞඛ්‍ය අමාත්‍යාංශය මගින් මාතෘ හා ළමා සෞඛ්‍ය වැඩසටහන දීප ව්‍යාප්තව ක්‍රියාත්මක කිරීම සඳහාත්, මාතෘ හා ළමා සෞඛ්‍ය
පිලිබඳ අභිමතාර්තයන් සාධනය සඳහාත්, ශ්‍රී ලංකාවේ 1962 දී පිහිටුවන ලද ආයතනය පවුල් සෞඛ්‍ය කාර්යාංශයයි.

මෙය ආරම්භයේ දී මාතෘ හා ළමා සෞඛ්‍ය කාර්යාංශය ලෙස නම් කරනු ලැබූවත් පසුව පවුල් සෞඛ්‍ය කාර්යාංශය ලෙස නැවත නම්
කරනු ලැබීය.

"මාතෘ සෞඛ්‍ය", "ළමා සෞඛ්‍ය", "පවුල් සංවිධානය", ශ්‍රී ලංකාවේ සෞඛ්‍ය අමාත්‍යාංශය මගින් දැනට සපයන සුව සේවා අතර වැදගත් තැනක් ගනී.

මෙම සේවා සපයනු ලබන්නේ සෞඛ්‍ය අමාත්‍යාංශයේ පුළුල් වෛද්‍යය ආයතන ජාලයත්, සෞඛ්‍ය වෛද්‍ය නිලධාරී කාර්යාල සමූහයත් යන මනාව සැකසුනු යටිතල පහසුකම් ඔස්සේ ය.

මූලික සෞඛ්‍ය පහසුකම් සැපයීම රජයේ පරම වගකීමක් වන අතර මාතෘ හා ළමා සෞඛ්‍ය සුවසේවා පද්ධතියේ වැදගත් අංගයකි. මාතෘ හා ළමා සෞඛ්‍ය සේවා සැපයීමට ගත් මුල්ම සංවිධානාත්මක උත්සාහය වනුයේ 1926 "සෞඛ්‍ය ඒකක" ක්‍රමය හඳුන්වා
දී පළමු සෞඛ්‍ය ඒකකය කලුතර පිහිටුවා කාර්යභාර සෞඛ්‍ය වෛද්‍ය නිලධාරිවරයෙක් පත් කිරීම ය.

1965 දී "පවුල් සැලසුම" රජය විසින් ප්‍රතිපත්තියක් ලෙස පිළිගැනුනු අතර එය මාතෘ හා ළමා සෞඛ්‍ය වැඩ සටහන සමඟ ඒකාබද්ධ කෙරිනි.

1968 දී ජාතික වැදගත්කම සලකා මෙම වැඩසටහන් දිවයින පුරා ක්‍රියාත්මක කිරීමට සෞඛ්‍ය අමාත්‍යාංශය තුල වෙනම ඒකකයක් පිහිටුවනු ලැබීය.

මෙය ආරම්භයේ දී මාතෘ හා ළමා සෞඛ්‍ය කාර්යාංශය ලෙස නම් කල අතර පසුව එය "පවුල් සෞඛ්‍ය කාර්යාංශය" ලෙස නැවත
නම් කරන ලදී. මාතෘ හා ළමා සෞඛ්‍ය පිළිබඳ සහකාර අධ්‍යක්ෂකවරයෙක් නම් කර එහි ප්‍රධානියා බවට පත් කරන ලදී. 1986 දී එම
තනතුර මාතෘ හා ළමා සෞඛ්‍ය පිළිබඳ අධ්‍යක්ෂ යනුවෙන් උසස් කෙරින.

මුල්ම අධ්‍යක්ෂකවරයා වශයෙන් පත් වූයේ වෛද්‍ය ටෙරන්ස් පෙරේරා මහතා ය. (1968 ජන-1970 දෙසැ) එතැන් පටන් පහත සඳහන් අධ්‍යක්ෂවරු යටතේ මෙම ආයතනය අද පවත්නා තත්ත්වයට විකාශය විනි.

	වෛද්‍ය එස්.වයි.එස්.බී හේරත් (1971මැයි - 1979 පෙබරවාරි)
	වෛද්‍ය ආර්.එ.එස් රබෙල් (1979 මාර්තු - 1981 ජූලි)
	වෛද්‍ය එන්.ඩබ්ලිව් විද්‍යාසාගර (1981 අගෝස්තු- 1986 ඔක්තෝබර්)
	වෛද්‍ය මාලනී සිල්වා (1986 නොවැ - 1994 ඔක්තෝබර්)
	වෛද්‍ය කේ.පී වික්‍රමසූරිය (1994 නොවැ- 1998 අප්‍රේල්)

සෑහීමකට පත්විය හැකි මට්ටමේ සෞඛ්‍ය තත්ත්වයක් ජනතාව තුල පවත්වා ගෙන යාම රජයේ ප්‍රධාන අරමුණක් විය.

එබැවින් නව සෞඛ්‍ය සංකල්ප වලට අනුව සෞඛ්‍ය උපායමාර්ග වරින්වර සංශෝධනය කෙරිනි.
1980 දී ශ්‍රී ලංකාව සෞඛ්‍ය ප්‍රඥප්තියට අත්සන් කිරීමත් සමඟ ප්‍රාථමික සෞඛ්‍ය සේවය අතිවිශාල ජවයක් ලැබීය.

වසර 2000 දී සැමට සුවසෙත යන අභිමතාර්ථය ඉටු කර ගැනීමට ශ්‍රී ලංකාව කැපවන බවට මෙම ප්‍රතිපත්තියට අත්සන් කිරීම
මඟින් ප්‍රකාශ කෙරිනි.

ශ්‍රී ලංකා රජය මගින් සකස් කල ප්‍රාථමික සෞඛ්‍ය සේවා උපාය මාර්ග අතර පවුල් සෞඛ්‍ය සේවා වැදගත් තැනක් ගනී.

1991 දී රජයේ ජනගහන ප්‍රතිපත්තිය අලුතින් සකස් කෙරිනි. අවම වශයෙන් වසර 2000 වන විට සරු වයසේ කාන්තාවකට දරුවන් දෙදෙනෙක් ( සාමාන්‍ය අගය) වශයෙන් යෝජනා කොට මීලග ශත වර්ෂයේ මැද වන විට ස්ථාවර ජනගහනයක් ඇතිකර ගැනීම බලාපොරොත්තු විය.

මේ අතර 1994 කයිරෝහි දී පැවති ජනගහනය හා සංවර්ධය පිළිබඳ ජාත්‍යන්තර සමුලුව ප්‍රජනන සෞඛ්‍ය සංකල්පය හඳුන්වා දුනි.

මෙය පවුල් සෞඛ්‍ය ජීවන චක්‍රය තුලින් පිවිසීමකි. "ප්‍රජනක සෞඛ්‍ය" වැඩසටහන ක්‍රියාත්මක කිරීමේ දී පවුල් සෞඛ්‍ය කාර්යාංශය අනෙකුත් ජාතික වැඩසටහන් සමඟ සමීප සම්බන්ධතාවක් පවත්වමින් මූලික කාර්යභාරයක් ඉටු කරයි.

පුළුල් අරමුණූ

1.
	පුර්ව-ගර්භණී සමය ගර්භණී සමය දරූ ප්‍රසුර්තිය සහ පසු ප්‍රසව සමය යන ගර්භණී භවය හා සම්බන්ධ සියලු
  	කලයන් සඳහාසෑම මවකටම ගුණාත්මක සත්කාර සේවා සැපයුමක් මගින් මව සහ බිළිඳා යන දෙදෙනාගේම සුවය සහ යහපත තහවුරු කිරිම.
2.
	ගුණාත්මක සත්කාර සේවා සැපයුම තුලින් සියලු නව ජන්යමයන්ගේ ජිවිත සුරක්ෂිතතාවය සහ ප්‍රශස්ත සෞඛ්‍ය
  	තත්වය තවුරු කිරිම.
3.
	ප්‍රශස්ත සත්කර සේවා සැපයුම මගින් සියලු ළඳරුවන් හට සහ පෙර පාසල් දරුවන් හට ඔවුන්ගේ ජීවිත
  	සුරක්ෂිතතාව සහ උරුම වූ උපරිම විභවයම වර්ධන හා විකසන හැකියාව ළඟා කර ගැනීම තවුරු කිරීම.
4.
	දරුවන් ( වයස අවුරුදු 5-9 අතර ) සහ නව යෞවන-යෞවනියන් ( වයස අවුරුදු 10-19 අතර ) හට ඔවුන්ට උරුම වූ
  	උපරිම විභවය වර්ධන හා විකසන හැකියාව ළඟා කර ගැනීමට යෝග්‍ය වූ සම්පත් සපිරි භෞතික හා මනෝ සමාජීය පරිසරික පවත්ම තවුරු කිරීම.
5.
	සම්පත් ඌන අභියෝගාත්මක පාරිසරික තත්වයන් යටතේ හැදී වැඩෙන දරුවන් හ විශේෂිත අවශ්‍යතා සහිත දරුවන්
  	හට සමාජයෙහි පලදායී සමජයන් ලෙස  කටයුතු කිරිමට හැකිවන සේ ඔවුන්ගේ මානසික කායික සහ සමජීය හැකියාව ප්‍රශස්ත ලෙස
  	වර්ධනය වීමට අවස්ථාව සලසා දීම.

6.
	උචිත ප්‍රශස්ත පරතරය සහිතව තමන් අපේක්ෂා කරනු ලබන දරුවන් සංඛ්‍යාව හිමිකර ගැනීමට අවස්ථාව සලස දීම.
7. 	කාන්තාවන්ගේ ප්‍රජනක සෞඛ්‍ය අවශ්‍යතාවයන් සඳහා අවශ්‍ය උපදෙස් හා සේවා පහසුකම් සැපයීම මෙන්ම
  	අවදානම් සහිත කාන්තාවන් වෙත විශේෂිත අවදානය යොමුකිරිම.
8. 	මතෘ හා ළමා සෞඛ්‍ය කාර්යන්හිදී පුමතිරි ( ස්ත්‍රී- පුරුෂ ) සමානාත්මතාවය සහ සමසාධාරණත්වය තවුරු කිරිම.
  	ගුණාත්මක බවින් උසස්  තොරතුරු උත්පාදනය තුලින් මතෘ හා ළමා සෞඛ්‍ය වැඩ සටහන් නිසි පරිදි නියාමනය සහ
  	ඇගයීම සිදුවන බව තවුරු කිරිම.
9. 	ගුණාත්මක බවින් උසස් සැමට සමාන වූ අයිතීන් පාදක මාතෘ හා ළමා සෞඛ්‍ය සත්කාර සේව සෑම මට්ටමකදීම ප්
  	රශස්ත ලෙස සැපයිමට අවශ්‍ය සම්පත් පවතින බව තවුරු කිරීම.
10. 	මාතෘ හා ළමා සෞඛය රක්ෂණ වැඩ සටහන කළමනාකරණය සඳහා සාධක මත පදනම් වු තොරතුරු පැවතීම තහවුරු කිරිම.

මෙම ප්‍රතිපත්ති මත පිහිටා කටයුතු කිරීමත්, ජනතාවට වඩාත් උසස් වන තත්ත්වයක් උදා කර දීමේ පරම අභිලාෂයත් නිසා මාතෘ
සෞඛය, ළමා සෞඛ්‍ය, පවුල් සැළසුම හා අනෙකුත් කාන්තා සෞඛය කටයුතු සැලකිය යුතු ප්‍රගතියක් ලබා ඇත.

වගකීම දරණ ජාතික වැඩසටහන්

	මාතෘ හා නව ජන්ම සෞඛ්‍ය 		ළමා සෞඛ්‍ය
	පවුල් සැලසුම් 		කාන්තා සෞඛ්‍ය

ප්‍රධාන කාර්යයන්

	මාතෘ හා ළමා සෞඛ්‍ය පිළිබඳ ගැටලු වෙනුවෙන් පෙනී සිටීම.

	අදාළ සෞඛ්‍ය කාර්යමණ්ඩල වල මූලික විෂය මාලා සංවර්ධනයට හා සේවාස්ථ පුහුණු සඳහා අවශ්‍ය තාක්ෂණික හා විශේෂඥ දැනුම ලබා දීම.

මාතෘ හා ළමා සෞඛ්‍ය පිළිබඳ ප්‍රතිපත්ති සම්පාදනය හා සංශෝධනය කිරීමට සෞඛ්‍ය අමාත්‍යාංශයට සහ අදාල අනෙකුත් අමාත්‍යාංශ වලට අවශ්‍ය මග පෙන්වීම හා තාක්ෂණික උපදෙස් ලබා දීම.

	මාතෘ හා ළමා සෞඛ්‍ය වැඩසටහන් වලට අදාල සැපයුම් කළමණාකරනය

	මාතෘ හා ළමා සෞඛ්‍ය පිළිබද ප්‍රතිපත්ති මත පදනම් වූ උපායමාර්ග සකස් කිරීම.

	ශ්‍රී ලංකා රජයෙන් සහ අනෙකුත් ජාතික හා ජාත්‍යන්තර මාර්ගවලින් ලැබෙන ආධාර ප්‍රයෝජනයට යෙදවීම. උදා- උද්දේශණය

	මාතෘ හා ළමා සෞඛ්‍ය පිළිබද උපාය මාර්ග මත පදනම් වූ වැඩ සටහන් සැලසුම් කිරීම.

	හදිසි සහ විශේෂ අවස්ථාවලදී මාතෘ හා ළමා සෞඛ්‍ය සේවාවන් නිසි ආකාරයෙන් පවත්වාගෙන යාමට වග බලා ගැනීම

	වඩාත් හොඳ ක්‍රියාමාර්ග හඳුනාගැනීම, නියාමක වැඩසටහන් සිදු කිරීම, හා ඒවා මාතෘ හා ළමා සෞඛ්‍ය වැඩසටහනට ඇතුලත් කිරීම.

	පළාත් සෞඛ්‍ය කාර්ය මණ්ඩල හා සංවර්ධනයේ කොටස්කරුවන් සමඟ අනුබද්ධිත ව මූල්‍යමය ආධාර ලබන ව්‍යාපෘති ක්‍රියාත්මක කිරීම.

ජාතික වැඩසටහන් ක්‍රියාත්මක කිරීමට, පර්යන්ත කළමණාකරුවන්ට අවශ්‍ය යොමුකිරීම්, මග පෙන්වීම, සම්බන්ධීකරණය හා සහයෝගය ලබා දීම.

	මාතෘ හා ළමා සෞඛය පිළිබඳ සෘණාත්මක ප්‍රතිඵල (විශේෂයෙන් මාතෘ, නව ජන්ම, ළදරු යන සියල්ලන්ගේ රෝගී තත්ත්ව හා මරණ) පිළිබඳ නිරන්තර විමසිල්ලෙන් පසුවීම, හා විශේෂ අවධානයක් යොමු කිරීම.

	තාක්ෂණික හා කළමණාකරීත්ව මගපෙන්වීම, රාජකාරී ලැයිස්තු ඇතුලක් දල සැලසුම් ලබාදීම.

	ජාතික මට්ටමේ දී මාතෘ හා ළමා සෞඛ්‍ය සේවා නිසි පරිදි නිරීක්ෂණය කිරීම හා ඇගැයීමට ලක් කීරීම.

	වැඩසටහන් ක්‍රියාත්මක කරන විවිධ පාර්ශව අතර සම්බන්ධතා ජාලයක් ගොඩනැගීම.

	.සෞඛ්‍ය අමාත්‍යාංශයට, සංවර්ධන කොටස්කරුවන්ට , ක්‍රියාත්මක කිරීමේ බලධාරීන්ට හා අදාල අනෙකුත් පාර්ශවයන්ට ප්‍රතිපෝෂණ වාර්තා ලබා දීම.

	එක් එක් වැඩසටහන් සඳහා විශේෂිත වූ අධ්‍යාපනික සහ පුහුණු කටයුතු සංවිධානය කිරීම.

	ප්‍රජනන සෞඛ්‍යයට අදාල පර්යේෂණ ක්‍රියාත්මක කිරීම හා සම්බන්ධීකරණය .

	පූර්ව සේවා පුහුණුව, සේවාස්ථ පුහුණුව හා පශ්චාත් උපාධි පුහුණුව අදාළ කාර්ය මණ්ඩල වල ධාරිතාව වැඩි කිරීම.

පවුල් සෞඛ්‍ය කාර්යාංශය


Stod Station (Stod stasjon) er en tidligere jernbanestation på Nordlandsbanen, der ligger i Steinkjer kommune i Norge.

Stationen åbnede som holdeplads 30. oktober 1926, da banen blev forlænget fra Sunnan til Snåsa. Den blev opgraderet til station i 1945 men nedgraderet til trinbræt 1. november 1958. Den blev kortvaret opgraderet til station 3. juni 1984, indtil den blev fjernstyret 23. november 1984. Betjeningen med persontog blev indstillet 29. maj 1988, hvorefter den tidligere station fik status af fjernstyret krydsningsspor. Betjeningen blev dog genoptaget et års tid fra 28. maj 1995 til 2. juni 1996.

Stationsbygningen blev opført i 1923 efter tegninger af Eivind Gleditsch. Den toetages bygning blev opført i træ i laftekonstruktion og rummede oprindeligt ventesal, ekspedition og telegraf i stueetagen og tjenestebolig for stationsmesteren på første sal. Desuden var der en tilbygning, der fungerede som pakhus. Bygningen blev revet ned i 1989. Gleditsch stod også for en toiletbygning på stationen.

Litteratur

Eksterne henvisninger

Stationer på Nordlandsbanen
Jernbanestationer i Trøndelag
Jernbanestationer i Norge uden persontrafik
Etableret i 1926

Stod Station


es un escritor y músico japonés que trabaja para la compañía Key, de la cual es uno de sus fundadores, desempeñándose como escritor y compositor musical. Es originario de la Prefectura de Mie, Japón; estudió Psicología en la Universidad Chukyo (Chukyo Daigaku).

Maeda ha trabajado en títulos como Kanon, Charlotte, CLANNAD, Angel Beats!, Air, Little Busters! y Kami-sama ni Natta Hi. Además, es autor de una serie manga llamada Hibiki's magic junto con la mangaka Rei Izumi.

Véase también
 Key
 CLANNAD
 Kanon
 Air
 Angel Beats! (2010)
 One: Kagayaku Kisetsu e
 Little Busters!
 Hibiki's magic
 Charlotte (2015)
 Kami-sama ni Natta Hi (2020)

Referencias

Maeda
Compositores de bandas sonoras de anime
Compositores masculinos de Japón

Jun Maeda


Ein Hashofet sau Ein HaShofet (în ebraică:עֵין הַשּׁוֹפֵט, înseamnă "Izvorul judecătorului") este un kibuț în nordul Israelului. Situat pe Înălțimile Menashe (Ramat Menashe), la circa 30 km de orașul Haifa și 3 km sud de orașul Yokneam Ilit , kibuțul face parte din teritoriul aflat sub jurisdicția Consiliului regional Megiddo.

Ein Hashofet a fost întemeiat de doua grupuri de tineri evrei, membri ai Hashomer Hatzair veniți din Polonia și din Highland Mills, New York. În 1937 ei s-au așezat inițial în 1937 pe colina Ji'ara, iar ulterior , în 1938 în actuala așezare.
Localitatea  a fost numită Ein Hashofet - Izvorul Judecătorului  - în cinstea lui Louis D. Brandeis (1856-1941), judecător la Curtea Supremă a Statelor Unite, care a fost și un conducător de seamă al mișcării sioniste din Statele Unite. Lângă kibuț curge un izvor.
Kibuțul posedă trei companii industriale care produc piese metalice, majoritatea pentru vehicole, și produse de iluminat.

Geografie
Eih Hashofet se află pe Înălțimile Menashe (Ramat Menashe), la 5 kn sud de orașul Yokneam Ilit. În apropiere se mai află kibuțurile Ramat Hashofet, Dalia și dealul Ji'ara. Se poate ajunge la kibuț prin drumurile 6954 și 6953, care sunt conectate la șoseaua rapidă 66 și șoseaua regională 672.

Istorie

Întemeierea așezării
Fondatorii kibuțului proveneau din două grupuri de tineri evrei. Cel dintâi grup numit Banir era format din membri ai mișcării Hashomer Hatzair veniți din Polonia. El s-a format în anul 1931 în orașul Częstochowa și au sosit în Palestina mandatară în 1934. Mai întâi au urmat un curs de pregătire la Ein Hahoresh. Al doilea grup erau tot membri ai Hashomer Hatzair, dar din Highland Mills, New York. Acesta s-a format în 1922 și a ajuns în Palestina în 1931, fiind instruiți în domeniul agriculturii la Mishmar Haemek. Numărul lor era 17 în 1931 și a crescut la 30 în 1933. În 1934 ei s-au mutat în așezarea de tip moshavá Hadera. Ei s-au unit acolo cu tovarășii lor veniți din Polonia în mai 1934, alcătuind nucleul Banir-Amerika. Ei au muncit împreună în Hadera.

Kibuțul a fost înființat inițial pe locul așezării arabe și dealului Ji'ara (în ebraică - Ghivat Noah), la circa un kilometru distanță de actuala lui așezare. Pământurile satului aparțineau unui moșier palestinian din familia Salah care locuia la Haifa și erau locuite de țărani arendași arabi locali. În 1936 ele au fost achiziționate de la proprietar de către Fondul Național Evreiesc (Keren Kayemet), care a despăgubit pe țăranii evacuați.
Fondurile pentru cumpărare - circa 70,000 USD au fost adunate de Louis D. Brandeis, renumit avocat și judecător, care se număra printre conducătorii sioniștilor din S.U.A. Kibuțul a fost numit în onoarea sa "Izvorul Judecătorului" - Ein Hashofet.
Ein Hashofet este și primul kibuț întemeiat de evrei din Statele Unite.

Primii ani

La 5 iulie 1937 primii coloniști au ajuns pe dealul Ji'ara, venind cu echipament, arbori și materiale de construcții din Mishmar Haemek și escortați de luptători din Hagana. Aceasta în vremea Marii Răscoale arabe din Palestina din anii 1936-1939. Ein Hashofet a fost cea dintâi așezare agricolă evreiască înființată pe Înălțimile Menashe.
Tinerii au șezut pe dealul Ji'ara vreme de un an, mutându-se apoi în octombrie 1938 pe locul definitiv al așezării.  Mulți dintre ei  au devenit membri in organizația paramilitară subterană evreiască Hagana și în poliția evreiască palestiniană (Notrim).
În martie-aprilie 1938 așezarea a fost atacată în mai multe rânduri de către arabi. Doi locuitori au fost uciși.
În anul 1943 numărul locuitorilor a ajuns la 137 adulți și 80 copii, iar suprafața localității era de 500 hectare.
În ciuda lipsei de apă și a reabilitării dificile a pământului deluros, în 1948, cu o populatie de 450 persoane, kibuțul Ein Hashofet devenise o fermă reușită, cu livezi, culturi de cereale, crescătorie de vaci, oi și pui.

Din 1939, în anii 1940 la Ji'ara a funcționat o bază centrală de antrenamente a organizației evreiești de luptă Hagana, unde au fost instruiți luptători ai unităților de elită ale acesteia - Palmah,între care Moshe Dayan, Itzhak Rabin, Tzvi Tzur, Haim Bar-Lev, Yeshayahu Gavish etc. În fruntea cursurilor de antrenament a stat un timp Igal Allon.
Între membrii kibuțului s-a numărat Shimon Avidan (1911-1994), general, comandantul brigăzii Givati (Ghivati) în Războiul de independență al Israelului

După întemeierea statului Israel

Până în anul 1962 kibuțul a mai integrat cinci grupuri de aderenți. Două din ele erau ale unor supraviețuitori ai Holocaustului, mai ales din Austria, iar celelalte ale unor tineri din Israel.
Ji'ara a continuat să servească drept bază de antrenament a Nahal, unitățile de luptători agricultori ale armatei israeliene și cursuri de ofițeri ale brigazii Golani. Ulterior a fost baza de antrenament a unităților premilitare de tineret Gadna. Până în 2015 a funcționat în clădirea de piatră de pe deal un muzeu închinat organizației Haganá.

Ein Hashofet este un "kibuț shitufí" care a trecut în ultimile decenii printr-un proces de privatizare parțială.
Principala sursă de venituri a kibuțului este industria reprezentată de trei întreprinderi: Mivrag (începând din 1950) - care produce șuruburi și alte piese metalice prelucrate prin presare rece, "Eltam" (din 1967 (care produce produse de iluminat și 1999 "Mag EH" care produce piese de metal pentru industria vehiculelor. (dupa 2001 cu o filială la Knoxville, Tennessee, în Statele Unite) De asemenea sunt prezente și alte ramuri economice:  creșterea de vite (circa 270 capete) pentru lapte și carne, creșterea de păsări de curte, plantații de avocado și cereale. De asemenea s-a înființat o companie de servicii în domeniul computerizării.
Kibuțul beneficiază de o infrastructură dezvoltată - două magazine,  o sală de cinema, o piscină, o sală de gimnastică, o seră de plante ornamentale, o mică grădină zoologică, o spălătorie, o bibliotecă , terenuri de tenis, o cantină și un cămin de bătrâni.

Lectură suplimentară
Avraham Yaari -  Ein HaShofet,Haishuv harishon beharey Efraim (Ein Hashofet - prima asezare din Munții Efraim), Zikhronot Eretz Israel, din jurnalele coloniștilor 1937-1938,
Eyal Levi - Adama harukhá (Pamânt pârjolit) - reportaj despre Ji'ara în Maariv, musaf shabat, 29.12.2017

Surse
Imanuel Hareuveni - "Leksikon Eretz Israel" ("Lexicon al Țării Israel"), Yediot Aharonot, Sifrey Chemed  1999
Yuval Elezri (red.), Lexikon Mapa - Eretz Israel (în ebraică),  Mapa - cartografie și casă de editură, Tel Aviv, 2003

Legături externe
saitul oficial al kibuțului
pe saitul consiliului regional megiddo

Note

Kibuțuri
Fondări în 1937

Ein Hashofet


Suurlahti (en , en , en ) est une municipalité du raïon de Karhumäki en république de Carélie.

Géographie
Suurlahti est situé au bord de la baie Suurlahti lac Onega, à 110 kilomètres au sud de Karhumäki et à 80 kilomètres au nord-est de Petrozavodsk.

La municipalité de Suurlahti a une superficie de .
Suurlahti est bordée au nord par Sunku et Tolvoja du raïon de Karhumäki, à l'est par les communes d'Avdejevo et de Šalla du raïon de Poudoj, au sud par Soksu du raïon des rives de l'Onega et l'ouest par Novinka, Käppäselkä et Tedjärvi du raïon de Kontupohja.

Patrimoine
En face de la péninsule d'Äänisniemi se trouve l'Île de Kiji dont les bâtiments en bois en font un site du patrimoine mondial de l'UNESCO.

Le site comprend les églises en bois de Jandomjärvi et de Kosmojärvi datant de 1656 et 1769, ainsi que les chapelles des XVIIe et XVIIIe siècles à Korba, Seletskaya, Ust-Jandoma, Vasilyev et Volkostrov.

Il existe aussi d'autres églises anciennes, des chapelles orthodoxes, des maisons d'habitation et des dépendances dans les villages.

L'église Alexius de la déesse, construite en 1866. Le village a le statut de site historique.

Démographie
Recensements (*) ou estimations de la population

Galerie

Bibliographie

Références

Voir aussi

Articles connexes
 Île de Kiji

Liens externes

Village dans la république de Carélie
Raïon de Medvejegorsk

Suurlahti


Pedro Ramón Palacios Gil Arratia (Hacienda Santa Cruz, Guatire, Virreinato de Nueva Granada, 17 de enero de 1739 - Chacao, Caracas, Capitanía General de Venezuela julio 1799) fue un sacerdote y maestro de música. Conocido en la historiografía venezolana como el Padre Sojo. Era hijo de Feliciano Palacios de Aguirre y Ariztía-Sojo y Gedler y de Isabel María Gil de Arratia y Aguirre-Villela, bisabuelos por línea materna del Simón Bolívar, por lo que el Padre Sojo era tío abuelo del Libertador. Nació en la Hacienda Santa Cruz, en Guatire, propiedad de la familia Palacios Gedler.

Pedro Ramón Palacios estudió en el Seminario de Caracas y fue ordenado sacerdote en 1762. Después de su regreso de un viaje a Europa, en 1769 fundó el Oratorio San Felipe Neri, que se dedicó al cultivo de la música sacra. Alrededor de 1784 fundó una Escuela de Música en una de sus propiedades en el pequeño pueblo de Municipio Chacao, cercano a Caracas. En esta escuela estudiaron músicos de gran significación en Venezuela a fines del  y principios del  como José Ángel Lamas, Juan José Landaeta (quien será el autor de la música del Himno Nacional de Venezuela), Cayetano Carreño, Lino Gallardo, entre otros. La escuela era dirigida por él y por Juan Manuel Olivares. Por ello se considera al Padre Sojo como el que dio inicio a los estudios musicales en Venezuela.

El padre Sojo fue el destinatario de la primera carta conocida de Simón Bolívar, escrita el 20 de marzo de 1799, en Veracruz (Virreinato de Nueva España).

Referencias

Músicos de Venezuela
Guatireños
Simón Bolívar

Pedro Palacios y Sojo


Ana muharebe tankı, kısaca AMT (İngilizce: Main Battle Tank; MBT) modern orduların zırh korumalı doğrudan saldırı ve manevra gerçekleştiren tank türüdür.

Tarihçe
Ana muharebe tankı, taarruz gücünün önemli bileşenlerinden birisidir. Özellikle II. Dünya Savaşı sırasında pek çok devlet tarafından kullanılmıştır. Kullanımlarına Soğuk Savaş döneminde tankın güncellenmiş halleriyle devam edilmiştir. Amerikan Ordusu'nca kullanılan M26 Pershing ile Sovyetler'in kullandığı T54, T55 ve T44 tankları AMT'lere bazı örneklerdir. Tarihteki ilk AMT örneği ise Birleşik Krallık'ın Chieftain (FV4201) tankıdır.

Özellikleri

AMT'ler günümüzde ağırlık, motor gücü veya silah gücüne göre değil piyadeye verdiği destek, taarruz ve faydalanma oranına göre sınıflandırılmaktadır. Aynı zamanda AMT'ler, kara savaşlarında da önemli güç değerine sahiptir. AMT'lerin öncelik görevleri ise düşman tanklarını ve tanksavar silahlarını yok etmektir. Öte yandan, AMT'ler tanksavar, mayın ve topçulara karşı birçok zayıf noktası vardır. En zayıf noktaları namlusu, alt kısmı ve paletleridir. Bu sebepten ötürü zırh üreticileri, tankın zırh özelliklerini, tanksavar silahların gelişimini engellemek için, gizli tutmaya çalışmıştır.

1970'lı yılların sonlarına kadar tanklar, HEAT mermileri nedeniyle kalın zırhlar taşımakta ve bu nedenle hantal kalmaktaydı. Günümüzde gelişen tank dizayn, zırh ve motor teknolojileri sayesinde tankların kapasiteleri büyük ölçüde artmıştır. Buradaki önemli gelişme Birleşik Krallık tarafından üretilen Chobnam zırhıdır. Bu zırh HEAT mermilerinin zırhı geçmesini önlemektedir. Zırh özelliğinin gelişmesi ile kalın çelik levhalar kullanan ağır tanklar yerine orta sınıf gibi daha hafif ve daha hızlı tank üretilme şansı doğdu. Ayrıca gelişen silah teknolojisi tanklara daha uzaktan ve daha isabetli atış kabiliyeti getirdi. Bunun sonucunda hem piyadeye destek verebilen hem de diğer tanklarla mücadele edebilen tanklar geliştirildi. Bu sayede tankın zırhı eski nesil silahlara karşı büyük ölçüde koruma sağlamaktadır.

1991 Körfez Savaşı sırasında ABD yapımı Hellfire tanksavar füzesi dost ateşi ile vurduğu bir M1 Abrams tankını imha etmesi ve aynı şekilde 2003 yılındaki Irak'ın işgali sırasında İngiliz Challenger 2 tankı diğer bir Challenger 2 tankını vurması AMT'lerin savaş alanındaki isabet kabiliyetleri hakkında kuşkuya sebep olmuştur.

Kaynakça

Ana muharebe tankı


Ein toter Taucher nimmt kein Gold ist ein deutscher Abenteuer- und Actionfilm aus dem Jahre 1974. Regie führte Harald Reinl.

Handlung
Drei abenteuerlustige junge Deutsche sind in Besitz eines Plans gekommen. Dieser zeigt die Stelle auf, wo vor über vier Jahrhunderten ein mit mehreren Kisten Gold beladenes spanisches Segelschiff während eines Sturms untergegangen sein soll. Der an Bord verborgene Schatz soll 4,5 Milliarden DM wert sein. Daraufhin machen sich die drei Freunde in die Karibik auf, um, zusammen mit einem Tauchlehrer und dessen Partnerin, den Goldschatz zu bergen.

Das Leben an Bord des Bergungsschiffes wird jedoch bald durch Spannungen zwischen den einzelnen Protagonisten erschwert. Auch spielen der schwer bewaffnete Tauchlehrer und seine Freundin ein falsches Spiel -- sie wollen den Schatz für sich allein. Aber auch im Meer lauert die Gefahr während der Tauchgänge in Form von angriffslustigen Haien und einem Riesenkraken. Schließlich bekommen andere Glücksritter Wind von der Schatzsuche und attackieren die fünf mit ihren Booten. Als nach vielen Mühen der Schatz schließlich geborgen wird, beschlagnahmt ihn die Polizei.

Produktionsnotizen
Der Film entstand zwischen dem 19. November und dem 14. Dezember 1973 in Südafrika und auf Mauritius. Die Unterwasseraufnahmen wurden in einem speziellen Bassin in Eckernförde gedreht. Ein toter Taucher nimmt kein Gold wurde am 15. März 1974 uraufgeführt.

Die Vorlage zu diesem Film war ein Roman von Heinz G. Konsalik. Gert Günther Hoffmann trat als Erzähler auf.

Die Bauten entwarf F.-Dieter Bartels, die Unterwasserkamera hatte Peter H. Krause. Zur musikalischen Untermalung wurden Archivaufnahmen verwendet. Aufgrund der internationalen Besetzung wurde auf Englisch gedreht.

Der Film hatte eine von diversen Produktionsproblemen begleitete Entstehungsgeschichte. Der Schauspieler Jürgen Goslar hatte in Windhuk in im damals noch von Südafrika mitverwalteten Südwestafrika, dem heutigen Namibia, eine Produktionsfirma gegründet, die Centaurus-Film, mit der er diesen Abenteuerstreifen herstellen wollte. Als Regisseur war Jürgen Roland vorgesehen. Als Goslar aus dieser Produktion ausstieg, musste auch Roland gehen und statt seiner wurde Reinl vom neuen Produzent Wolf C. Hartwig verpflichtet.

Ein toter Taucher nimmt kein Gold galt auch als "Pärchen-Film": Sowohl die Deutschen Horst Janson, der sich nicht selbst synchronisierte, und Monika Lundi als auch die beiden Südafrikaner Marius Weyers und Sandra Prinsloo, in ihrer Heimat zwei Kinostars der 70er Jahre, waren zum Zeitpunkt der Dreharbeiten liiert. Weyers und Prinsloo wirkten zu dieser Zeit gemeinsam in einer beträchtlichen Anzahl von im heimatlichen Markt recht erfolgreichen, südafrikanischen Filmen mit. Ihr größter internationaler, gemeinsamer Hit sollte 1980 die Komödie Die Götter müssen verrückt sein werden. Der ausgebootete Centaurus-Produzent Jürgen Goslar drehte mit dem Paar kurz nach Ein toter Taucher nimmt kein Gold in Südafrika mit Entmündigt 1974 eine weitere Konsalik-Adaption, die in Deutschland auch unter dem Titel … und die Nacht kennt kein Erbarmen lief.

Infolge des großen Erfolgs von Steven Spielbergs Der weiße Hai wurde Ein toter Taucher nimmt kein Gold unter dem reißerischen Titel Deadly Jaws in den USA mit wenig Erfolg herausgebracht.

Kritik
Das Lexikon des Internationalen Films schrieb: "Abenteuerfilm mit einer grob gezimmerten Story."

Weblinks

Einzelnachweise

Filmtitel 1974
Deutscher Film
Abenteuerfilm
Heinz-G.-Konsalik-Verfilmung
Heinz G. Konsalik
Tauchen im Film

Ein toter Taucher nimmt kein Gold


An Masdevallia oscitans in uska species han Liliopsida nga syahan ginhulagway ni Carlyle August Luer, ngan ginhatag han pagkayana nga asya nga ngaran ni Carlyle August Luer. An Masdevallia oscitans in nahilalakip ha genus nga Masdevallia, ngan familia nga Orchidaceae. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Masdevallia

Masdevallia oscitans


Fernando Álvares de Andrade foi um fidalgo e administrador colonial português, tendo sido o primeiro donatário da Capitania do Maranhão.

A fim de colonizar o litoral brasileiro, associou-se aos também donatários João de Barros, feitor da Casa da Índia, e Aires da Cunha, mas fracassou após o naufrágio de sua armada nos baixios do Maranhão em 1536. Investiu na lavoura de cana-de-açúcar nos Ilhéus, mas seus engenhos foram arrasados pelos aimorés.

Dele escreveria Varnhagen: "Fernando Álvares de Andrade, do conselho do rei, era então tesoureiro-mor do Reino. Enquanto viveu, diz-nos o conde da Castanheira, foi solicitador acérrimo em favor de providências a bem do Brasil".

Referências

Pessoas do Brasil Colonial

Fernando Álvares de Andrade


Orangeville ist eine Kleinstadt vom Typ einer City im Nordwesten des Emery County im US-Bundesstaat Utah und hat 1224 Einwohner (Stand 2020). Orangeville liegt am Cottonwood Creek auf der Ostflanke des Wasatch Plateaus oberhalb seiner Zwillings-Stadt Castle Dale, dem County Seat von Emery County.

Die wirtschaftliche Basis der Gemeinde sind die Wilberg Mine, ein Kohlebergwerk, und ein Kohlekraftwerk der PacifiCorp bei Castle Dale. Dazu kommt langsam zunehmend der Tourismus im Manti La Sal National Forest oberhalb des Ortes.

Geografie
Das Tal des Cottonwood Creeks ist das mittlere von drei Zuflüssen zum San Rafael River, der das Castle Valley durchquert und bewässert, bevor er zum Green River abfließt. Orangeville liegt am Ausgang des Flusstales aus dem Canyon vom Wasatch Plateau, zwischen der Utah State Route 29 und der Utah 57, die vom Castle Valley auf das Plateau führen. Entsprechend der Geländestruktur dehnen sich landwirtschaftliche Flächen am Fluss, südöstlich und südwestlich des Ortes und in einer kleinen Talstruktur im Nordwesten aus.

Geschichte
Die indianische Besiedlung der Region geht bis in die Archaische Periode zurück. Die Fremont-Kultur hat unzählige Felsmalereien und Petroglyphen hinterlassen. Zum Zeitpunkt des ersten Kontakts mit Weißen war die Region Streifgebiet der Ute. Das Castle Valley liegt nahe dem Old Spanish Trail von Nuevo Mexico nach Alta California und wurde von weißen Händlern und Pionieren sporadisch besucht.

Die erste wirtschaftliche Nutzung der Region ging von Viehzüchtern aus dem Sanpete County jenseits des Wasatch Plateau aus, die ab 1875 ihre Herden in das Castle Valley führten. 1877 begann die systematische Besiedelung des Castle Valley durch Mormonische Pioniere, die von der Kirche Jesu Christi der Heiligen der letzten Tage (Mormonen) in das Tal gesandt wurden, um die Siedlungsregion zu beanspruchen, bevor es nicht-mormonische Siedler tun könnten.

Orangeville ging aus dem 1878 gegründeten Castle Dale hervor, das sich rund zehn Kilometer dünn besiedelt am Cottonwood Creek entlang zog. Es wurde 1880 offiziell vermessen und dabei in zwei Siedlungskerne, Upper Castle Dale und Lower Castle Dale, geteilt. Upper Castle Dale nannte sich 1882 in Orangeville um, als wegen eines neuen Postamtes ein eigener Name benötigt wurde. Der Name stammt von Orange Seely, dem ersten Bischof der Kirche Jesu Christi HLT im Castle Valley. Die Siedler kamen vorwiegend aus der Region um Manti jenseits des Wasatch Plateau als das Tal des Cottonwood Creek durch Bewässerungskanäle für die Landwirtschaft erschlossen wurde. Den Stadtstatus erhielt Orangeville im März 1921. Etwa um diese Zeit wurden auch die Kohle-Vorkommen am Hang des Wasatch Plateau erschlossen.

In den 1930er Jahren litt der Kohlebergbau unter der Great Depression, die Stadt erholte sich für mehrere Jahrzehnte nicht vom Rückgang der Arbeitsplätze. In den 1960er Jahren wurde der Cottonwood Creek in den Bergen zum Joe's Valley Reservoir gestaut, wodurch nicht nur die Bewässerung der landwirtschaftlichen Flächen stabilisiert wurde, sondern auch ein heute beliebtes Freizeitgebiet mit Wassersport und Erholung um den Stausee geschaffen wurde.

In den 1970er Jahren errichtete die Utah Power and Light Company ein Kohlekraftwerk nahe Castle Dale, das auch Arbeitskräfte aus Orangeville beschäftigte. Es wird heute nach einer Fusion durch die PacifiCorp betrieben. Seitdem stieg die Bevölkerung der beiden Siedlungen am Cottonwood Creek deutlich an.

Außerhalb des Ortes eröffnete 2022 in einem ehemaligen Lagerhaus das San Rafael Energy Research Center, eine Forschungseinrichtung unter Beteiligung der Brigham Young University, die die Transformation der Region von fossilen Rohstoffen in eine CO2-freie Energieversorgung organisieren soll. Während das Kohlekraftwerk eine Betriebsgenehmigung bis 2042 hat, wurde 2023 beschlossen, es bis 2032 stillzulegen. Für die weitere Laufzeit soll zur Reduktion der Emissionen eine Reinigungsanlage nach dem Prinzip der Selektiven nichtkatalytischen Reduktion nachgerüstet werden. 2032 soll am selben Standort als Ersatz ein neuartiger Small Modular Reactor ans Netz gehen. Parallel werden in der Region erneuerbare Energien ausgebaut.

2019 wurde eine bedeutende Fossilien-Lagerstätte östlich des Ortes als Jurassic National Monument als Schutzgebiet der Bundesregierung ausgewiesen.

Einzelnachweise

Weblinks

 Emerycounty.com - Orangeville
 www.city-data.com - Orangeville, Utah

Ort in Utah
Gegründet 1878

Orangeville (Utah)


La Ligue1 Québec féminine, anciennement appelée Première ligue de soccer du Québec féminine et abrégé PLSQ-F, est une ligue de soccer créée en 2018 sous l'égide de Soccer Québec, affiliée à l'Association canadienne de soccer.

Cette ligue est la plus haute division de soccer au Québec et est reconnue de niveau division 3 au Canada.

Le championnat de la Ligue1 Québec regroupe des équipes de la province dans un championnat de type fermé sans descente. La saison débute en mai et s'achève en août. À la fin de la saison, tous les clubs de la ligue participent à la Coupe PLSQ.

Histoire

Palmarès

Organisation

Format de la compétition

Le format de la compétition évolue au fil des saisons, le nombre d'équipes participant à la ligue étant variable. Pour la saison 2021, les équipes s'affrontent chacune une fois dans une poule unique. L'équipe la mieux classée est sacrée championne de Ligue1 Québec. Elle participe au championnat interprovincial canadien.

Équipes

Notes et références

Annexes

Articles connexes
 Soccer Québec
 Ligue1 Canada
 Ligue1 Québec

Lien externe

 Page officielle sur le site de la FSQ

Quebec F
Compétition fondée en 2018

Ligue1 Québec féminine


භාණ්ඩ හෝ සේවා නොමිලේ ලබා දෙන ස්ථානය දන්සල ලෙස හැඳින්වෙයි. ශ්‍රී ලංකාවේ වෙසක් පොහොය දිනය විවිධ දන්සල් වලට ප්‍රසිද්ධ දිනයකි.

මූලාශ්‍ර

දන්සල


Atherinomorus es un género de peces ateriniformes de la familia Atherinidae.

Especies
Se reconocen las siguientes especies:
 Atherinomorus aetholepis Kimura, Iwatsuki y Yoshino, 2002
 Atherinomorus duodecimalis (Valenciennes, 1835)
 Atherinomorus endrachtensis (Quoy & Gaimard, 1825)
 Atherinomorus forskalii (Rüppell, 1838)
 Atherinomorus insularum (Jordan y Evermann, 1903)
 Atherinomorus lacunosus (Forster, 1801)
 Atherinomorus lineatus (Günther, 1872)
 Atherinomorus pinguis (Lacepède, 1803)
 Atherinomorus regina (Seale, 1910)
 Atherinomorus stipes (Müller y Troschel, 1848) - tinícalo cabezón
 Atherinomorus vaigiensis (Quoy y Gaimard, 1825)

Referencias

Atherinidae

Atherinomorus


Clyde-Green Springs Schools er et skoledistrikt i byerne Clyde og Green Springs i Sandusky County, Ohio, USA. Skoledistriktet omfatter fire skoler, inkl. én high school, én middle school, og to elementary schools.

Skoler

Elementary schools
 Clyde Elementary School (Clyde)
 Green Springs Elementary School (Green Springs)

Middle schools
 McPherson Middle School (Clyde)

High schools
 Clyde High School (Clyde)

Externe henvisninger
 Clyde-Green Springs Schools' officielle webside (engelsk)

Uddannelsesinstitutioner i USA

Clyde-Green Springs Schools


فانيسا بيل  ( 1961 - 1879 ) رسامة بريطانية ومصممة داخلية، وهي شقيقة الكاتبة فرجينيا وولف.

حياتها

ولدت فانيسا بيل عام 1879 للكاتب الفكتوري السير ليسلي ستيفن وزجته جوليا دكورث، كانت الأخت الكبرى لأربعة أبناء ثوبي أدريان وفرجينا, كانت تنتمي لعائله مثقفة تهتم بتطوير مواهب أبنائها دفعتها لتعلم الرسم. بعد وفاة والدة فانيسا عام 1895 وباعتبارها الابنة الكبرى وقعت عليها اعباء إدارة المنزل فكان عليها أن توازن بينها وبين تطوير موهبة الرسم إلا أنها تحررت من هذا العبأ في عام 1904 بعد وفاة والدها فباعوا منزل العائلة وبدأت حياتها من جديد بالانتقال هي وأخوتها إلى البلوزمبري. في عام 1905 عاشت ثلاثية الحب حين طلب منها الشاعر والناقد الفني كليف بيل صديق أخوها توبي أن يتزوجها إلا أنها رفضت ثم تقدم لها مرة أخرى بعد سنة فرفضت مجددا إلا أن وفاة أخوها توبي سنة 1907 المفاجأة بسبب حمى التيفؤيد جعلت تغير رأيها فتزوجته وأنجبت منه جوليان وكونتين, مرت بعلاقة حب مع الرسام والناقد الفني روجر فري, بعد ذلك وقعت في حب دونكان جرانت وانجبت منه انجليكليا بالرغم من أنها ما زالت متزوجة من كليف بيل  وقد أدعوا أن الوالد هو زوجها حتى بلغت الابنة تسعة عشر عاما. فترة الثلاثينات كانت فترة الأحزان لفانيسا، ففي خريف سنة 1934 توفي صديقها المقرب روجر فري، وفي سنة 1937 قُتل ابنها جوليان في الحرب الأهلية الأسبانية الذي كان حينها يخدم كسائق لسيارة الأسعاف، لحقها انتحار شقيقتها فرجينيا سنة 1941, والجفاء من ابنتها انجليكا بعد زواجها من حبيب صديقها دونكان جرانت الذي كان مثليا جنسيا 1942.

مسيرتها الفنية
بدأت فانيسا بتلقي دروس في الرسم ثم قبلت في مدارس الأكاديمية الملكية عام 1899. في الأكاديمية كانت معجبة جدا بأعمال جون سنغر سارغنت وتأثرت بالفنان جيمس ويستلر وقد أشارت لذلك في رسائلها لصديقتها مارجري سنودون. كانت أول أعمالها التجارية رسم السيدة روبرت سيسيل وكانت أيضا أول أعمالها التي عرضتها، وكان أول عرض لها في المعرض الجديد في لندن عام 1905. كانت بداية حياتها الفنية محبطة وغير مشجعة فقد باعت لوحات معدودة بعد عرضها عدد من أعمالها في نادي الفن البريطاني الحديث. لكنها وصلت لأفضل مستوياتها الفنية بعد أن أقام روجر فري معرض ما بعد الانطباعية عام 1910 الذي تأثرت به كثيرا وتأثرت بعدد من الرسامين الفرنسين مثل بول سيزن وماتيس. وفي أثناء الحرب العالمية الأولى في الوقت الذي خرج فيه معظم الرجال للحرب بدأت الرسامات يكتسبن الشهرة وكانت منهم فانيسا التي اشتهرت بالألوان المشرقة الحرة وميلها لاظهار الأشكل الهندسية للأشياء  كما في لوحة Interior With a Table التي بدت فيها الأشياء ككتل سميكة بألوان مشرقة وقد شبهها الناقد الفني ويتني شادويك بالأعمال المبكرة لكاندينسكي ومندريان لكن حس فانيسا كان أكثر دفئأ. كانت معظم الأوقات ترسم مع جرانت وقد رسما عدد من اللوحات تحتوي على نفس المواضيع مثل The tube وStill Life on a Mantelpiece. كانت فانيسا ترسم الصور التوضيحية وأغلفة كتب شقيقتها فرجينيا منها على سبيل المثال غلاف كتاب The Common Reader
.

من أهم لوحاتها

لوحة زهور الخشخاش
في العام 1940 تعرض معرض الرسامة لانفجار دمر معظم اللوحات التي رسمتها في بداية مسيرتها الفنية قبل أن تتأثر بالحركة الانطباعية ومن اللوحات القلائل المتبقية كانت لوحة زهور الخشخاش  لذا اكتسبت هذا الشهرة من بين لوحاتها المتبقية بالإضافة أنها كانت من أفضل الأعمال التي رسمتها في بداية مسيرتها الفنية. كانت فينيسا تقدر هذه اللوحة واحتفظت بها وأهدتها في نهاية حياتها إلى حفيدتها، علقت هذه اللوحة في تشارلستون في غرفة الحديقة بجانب أفضل الأعمال التي جمعتها مجموعة بلومزبري لكبار الرسامين أمثال فلامينك، هنري ماتيس، بابلو بيكاسو دلالة على أهمية هذه اللوحة بالذات. تبدوا المواد المجمعة في هذه اللوحة قد اختيرت بعناية تامة جرة فرنسية من القرن الثامن عشر احضرتها من منزلها القديم في الهايد بارك التي تعرض الآن في معرض الشارلستون، قارورة سم صغيرة خضراء، زهرة الخشخاش التي استقدمت إلى إنجلترا في وسط القرن الثامن عشر، بالرغم أنه لاتوجد علاقة بين المورفين أو الإفيون وزهرة الخشخاش، إلا أن العلاقة بينهم هو النوم التي تذكر بالإسطور الرومانية سومنوس إله النوم الذي قلد بتاج من زهرة الخشخاش صنعه سيريز إله الحصاد والخصوبة له بعد فقدان ابنته بيرسيفون. حتى لو لم تكن بيل تقصد بهذا الرموز القصة اليونانية إلا أنها خلقت جوا رمزيا في اللوحة تتعدد الأراء لتفسيره.

لوحة شاطيء ستوتلاند

هذه اللوحة  تظهر مدى تأثير معرض ما بعد الانطباعية الذي أقامه روجر فري على فن فانيسا بيل مقارنة بلوحة زهور الخشخاش تعتبر اللوحة تجريدية ثنائية الأبعاد تفتقد للتفاصيل واعتمدت على اظهار أشكال الأشياء وعلى الرغم من اللوحة تسمى شاطيء ستوتلاند إلا أن الناظر يكاد لايرى أي شاطيء. اللوحة يلفها بعض الغموض بابتعاد شخصيات اللوحة عن الناظر فالمشاهد يلتفت سريعا إليها محاولا فهم ماذا يحدث. الشخصية التي تجلس بعيدا عن المجموعة قرب الخيمة، القبعة, الملابس الداكنة، شعر المرأة الغير مربوط التي تقف قرب البحر كل هذه الأمور ساهمت في اضفاء الغموض.

أعمالها
 لوحة Iceland Poppies عام 1909
 لوحة Gordon Square عام 1909-10
 لوحة Stutland Beach عام 1912
 لوحة Lytton Strachey عام 1912
 لوحة Virginia Woolf a Asheham عام 1912
 لوحة Portrait of Roger Fry عام 1912
 لوحة Frederick and Jessie Etchells painting عام 1912
 لوحة Portrait of a Model عام 1913
 لوحة Street Corner Conversationc عام 1913
 لوحة Bathers in a Landscape gouache screen عام 1913-14
 لوحة Still Life on a Mantelpiece عام 1914
 لوحة Abstract Painting, circa عام 1914
 لوحة Oranges and Lemons عام 1914
 لوحة David Garnett painted عام 1915
 لوحة Mrs St John Hutchinson عام 1915
 لوحة Portrait of Duncan Grant Paintingc عام 1915
 لوحة Portrait of Iris Tree عام 1915
 لوحة Natura morta عام 1916
 لوحة The Tub عام 1917
 لوحة Chrysanthemums عام 1920
 لوحة Interior with a Table عام 1921
 غلاف كتاب Monday or Tuesday لفرجينيا وولف عام 1921
 غلاف كتاب Jacob's Room لفرجينيا وولف عام 1922
 رسمة Stage Set Design على ورق عام 1925
 غلاف كتاب The Legend of Monte Della Sibilla لكليف بيل مع دونكان جرانت عام 1923
 غلاف كتاب Henry James at Work لثيودر بوسانكويت عام 1924
 غلاف كتاب Mrs. Dalloway لفرجينيا وولف عام 1925
 غلاف كتاب The common reader لفرجينيا وولف عام 1925
 غلاف كتاب To the Lighthouse لفرجينيا وولف عام 1927
 غلاف كتاب A Room of One's Own لفرجينيا وولف عام 1929
 غلاف كتاب Foreigner in the Family لويلفريد بونسون عام 1929
 غلاف كتاب On Being Ill لفرجينيا وولف عام 1930
 غلاف كتاب The Waves لفرجينيا وولف عام 1931
 لوحة Pheasants عام 1931
 غلاف كتاب Change Your Sky لآنا وايت عام 1935
 غلاف كتاب The Years لفرجينيا وولف عام 1937
 غلاف كتاب The Years لفرجينيا وولف (نسخة جديدة) عام 1937
 غلاف كتاب Three Guineas عام 1938
 سكيتش بقلم رصاص Portrait of Leonard Woolf عام 1940
 لوحة A portrait painting of Leonard Woolf عام 1940
 غلاف كتاب Between the Acts لفرجينيا وولف عام 1941
 لوحة Berwick Chapel Murals عام 1942
 لوحة The Memoir Club عام 1943
 غلاف كتاب The Haunted House لفرجينيا وولف عام 1943
 غلاف كتاب The Moment and Other Essays لفرجينيا وولف عام 1947
 لوحة Canal Scene, Venice عام 1948
 غلاف كتاب The Captain's Death Bed and Other Essays لفرجينيا وولف عام 1950
 لوحة Gondolas in Venice عام 1950
 لوحة Amaryllis في الخمسينات
 لوحة The Conversation العام غير معروف
 كتاب Sketches in Pen and Ink
 كتاب Sketches in Pen and Ink : A Bloomsbury Notebook
 الرسم على جدار الكنيسة الأبريشية لبرويك

وصلات خارجية

 معرض لبعض أعمالها

 معرض آخر لأعمالها
 صور نسخ حديث لأغلفة كتب بتصميم فانيسا
 الرسومات على جدران الكنيسة

المصادر

فنانون من وستمنستر
أشخاص من وستمينستر
خريجو كلية كينجز لندن
رسامات إنجليزيات
رسامات توضيحيات
رسامون من لندن
رسامون ورسامات بريطانيون
فنانات إنجليزيات في القرن 20
فنانات بريطانيات في القرن 20
فيرجينيا وولف
مجموعة بلومزبري
مصممو ديكور إنجليز
مواليد 1879
مواليد في لندن
نساء بريطانيات
وفيات 1961

فانيسا بيل