The Quebec Bridge () is a road, rail, and pedestrian bridge across the lower Saint Lawrence River between Sainte-Foy (a former suburb that in 2002 became a western area of Quebec City) and Lévis, in Quebec, Canada. The project failed twice during its construction, in 1907 and 1916, at the cost of 88 lives and additional people injured. It took more than 30 years to complete and eventually opened in 1919.

The Quebec Bridge is a riveted steel truss structure and is  long,  wide, and  high. Cantilever arms  long support a  central structure, for a total span of , still the longest cantilever bridge span in the world. (It was the all-categories longest span in the world until the Ambassador Bridge was completed in 1929.) It is the easternmost (farthest downstream) complete crossing of the Saint Lawrence River.

The bridge accommodates three highway lanes (there were none until 1929, when one was added; another was added in 1949 and a third in 1993), one rail line (two until 1949), and a pedestrian walkway (originally two). At one time, it also carried a streetcar line. Since 1993, it has been owned by the Canadian National Railway.

The Quebec Bridge was designated a National Historic Site in 1995.

Background
Before the Quebec Bridge was built, the only way to travel from the south shore of the St. Lawrence in Lévis to the north shore at Quebec City was to take a ferry or to use the wintertime ice bridge. The construction of a bridge over the St. Lawrence River at Quebec was considered as early as 1852. It was further discussed in 1867, 1882, and 1884. After a period of political instability during which Canada had four prime ministers in five years, Wilfrid Laurier, the Member of Parliament for the federal riding of Quebec East, was elected on a Liberal platform in 1896 and led the push to build the Quebec Bridge until he left office in 1911.

A March 1897 article in the Quebec Morning Chronicle noted:
The bridge question has again been revived after many years of slumber, and business men in Quebec seem hopeful that something will come of it, though the placing of a subsidy on the statute book is but a small part of the work to be accomplished, as some of its enthusiastic promoters will, ere long, discover. Both Federal and Provincial Governments seem disposed to contribute towards the cost, and the City of Quebec will also be expected to do its share. Many of our people have objected to any contribution being given by the city unless the bridge is built opposite the town, and the CHRONICLE like every other good citizen of Quebec would prefer to see it constructed at Diamond Harbor, and has contended in the interests of the city for this site as long as there seemed to be any possibility of securing it there. It would still do so if it appeared that our people could have it at that site. A bridge at Diamond Harbor would, it estimated, cost at least eight millions. It would be very nice to have, with its double track, electric car track, and roads for vehicles and pedestrians, and would no doubt create a goodly traffic between the two towns, and be one of the show works of the continent.

First design and collapse of August 29, 1907
 The Quebec Bridge was included in the National Transcontinental Railway project, undertaken by the federal government. The Quebec Bridge Company was first incorporated by Act of Parliament under the government of Sir John A. Macdonald in 1887, later revived in 1891, and revived for good in 1897 by the government of Wilfrid Laurier, who granted them an extension of time in 1900.

In 1903, the bond issue was increased to $6,000,000 and power to grant preference shares was authorised, along with a name change to the Quebec Bridge and Railway Company (QBRC).  An Act of Parliament the same year was necessary to guarantee the bonds by the public purse. Laurier was the MP for Quebec East riding, while the president of the QBRC, Simon-Napoleon Parent, was Quebec City's mayor from 1894 to 1906 and simultaneously served as Premier of Quebec from 1900 to 1905.

Edward A. Hoare was selected as Chief Engineer for the Company throughout this time, while Collingwood Schreiber was the Chief Engineer of the Department of Railways and Canals in Ottawa. Hoare had never worked on a cantilever bridge structure longer than .  Schreiber was assisted until July 9, 1903 by Department bridge engineer R.C. Douglas, at which time Douglas was deposed for his opposition to the calculations that were submitted by the contractors.  Schreiber subsequently requested the support of another qualified bridge engineer, but was effectively overruled by the Cabinet on August 15, 1903.  Thereafter, QBRC consulting engineer Theodore Cooper was completely in charge of the works. On July 1, 1905, Schreiber was demoted and replaced as deputy minister and chief engineer by Matthew J Butler.

By 1904, the southern half of the structure was taking shape. However, preliminary calculations made early in the planning stages were never properly checked when the design was completed. The bridge's own weight was far in excess of its carrying capacity. The dead load was too heavy. All went well until the bridge was nearing completion in the summer of 1907, when the QBRC site engineering team under Norman McLure began noticing increasing distortions of key structural members already in place.

McLure became increasingly concerned and wrote repeatedly to QBRC consulting engineer Theodore Cooper, who at first replied that the problems were minor. The Phoenix Bridge Company officials claimed that the beams must already have been bent before they were installed, but by August 27 it had become clear to McLure that this was wrong. A more experienced engineer might have telegraphed Cooper, but McLure wrote him a letter, and went to New York to meet with him two days later. Cooper agreed that the issue was serious, and promptly telegraphed to the Phoenix Bridge Company: "Add no more load to bridge till after due consideration of facts." The two engineers went to the Phoenix offices.

But, Cooper's message was not passed on to Quebec before it was too late. Near quitting time on the afternoon of August 29, after four years of construction, the south arm and part of the central section of the bridge collapsed into the St. Lawrence River in 15 seconds. Of the 86 workers on the bridge that day, 75 were killed and the rest were injured, making it the world's worst bridge construction disaster. Of these victims, 33 (some sources say 35) were Mohawk steelworkers from the Kahnawake reserve near Montreal; they were buried at Kahnawake under crosses made of steel beams.

On August 30, 1907, a Royal Commission of inquiry into the disaster was provisionally appointed by the Deputy Minister in charge of the Department of Railways and Canals (Butler), with the concurrence of the Minister.  The Royal Commission, which was granted by Edward VII by advice of his Governor General, Albert Grey, on August 31, 1907, consisted of three members, who were all engineers of good standing: Henry Holgate, of Montreal, JGG Kerry, of Campbellford, Ontario, also an instructor at McGill University, and Professor John Galbraith, then dean of the Faculty of Applied Science and Engineering at the University of Toronto.  The Commission document conferred upon the commissioners full powers to summon witnesses and documents, and to express "any opinion they may see to express thereon".

The Commissioners presented their Report in full on February 20, 1908, issued 15 conclusions, and included the hindsight work of consulting bridge engineer C.C. Schneider, of Philadelphia (a fulfillment of the 1903 request of Schreiber, supra).

The Commissioners attributed responsibility for the failure to two men, consulting engineer Theodore Cooper and Peter L. Szlapka, Chief Designing Engineer for Phoenix Bridge Company:

(c) The design of the chords that failed was made by Mr. P.L. Szlapka, the designing engineer of the Phoenix Bridge Company

(d) This design was examined and officially approved by Mr. Theodore Cooper, consulting engineer of the Quebec Bridge and Railway Company.

(e) The failure cannot be attributed directly to any cause other than errors in judgment on the part of these two engineers.

Cooper escaped penal sanction. It is presumed that Szlapka escaped as well.  The Commissioners also found that:

(k) The failure on the part of the Quebec Bridge and Railway Company to appoint an experienced bridge engineer to the position of chief engineer was a mistake.  This resulted in a loose and inefficient supervision of all parts of the work on the part of the Quebec Bridge and Railway Company.

The abortive construction of the Quebec Bridge spanned the careers of two Ministers of Railways and Canals, and one temporary replacement, who was on the job for five months immediately preceding the disaster. A popular myth is that the iron and the steel from the collapsed bridge, which could not be reused for construction, was used to forge the early Iron Rings that started to be worn by graduates of Canadian engineering schools in 1925.

Second design and collapse of September 11, 1916
After a Royal Commission of Inquiry into the collapse, construction started on a second bridge. Three engineers were appointed: H. E. Vautelet, a former engineer for the Canadian Pacific Railways, Maurice FitzMaurice from Britain, who worked on the construction of the Forth Bridge, and Ralph Modjeski from Chicago, Illinois. Vautelet was President and Chief Engineer. The new design was again for a bridge with a single long cantilever span but with a more massive structure.

On September 11, 1916, when the central span was being raised into position, it fell into the river, killing 13 workers. The chief engineer was made aware of the problem six weeks before the collapse. The chief engineer had been alerted to a problem by Frants Lichtenberg, the engineer responsible for the construction of the centre section. Lichtenberg was also working as an inspector for the federal government of Canada at the time. Fears of German sabotage were reported because the Great War had begun, but it became apparent that the central span had collapsed because of the failure of a casting in the erection equipment.

Re-construction began almost immediately after the accident, and the government granted special permission for the bridge builders to acquire the needed steel. It was in high demand because of the War effort. The fallen central span still lies at the bottom of the river. After the bridge was completed in 1917, special passes were required for those wanting to cross the bridge. Armed soldiers, and later Dominion Police, guarded the structure and checked passes until the end of the War.

Completion

Construction was ultimately completed in September 1917 at a total cost of $23 million and the lives of 88 bridgeworkers. On the 17 October, the first train crossed the bridge from Quebec to Lévis and on December 3, 1917, the Quebec Bridge officially opened for rail traffic, after almost two decades of construction. Its centre span of 549 m (1800 ft) remains the longest cantilevered bridge span in the world and is considered a major engineering feat. The Quebec Bridge was declared an International Historic Civil Engineering Landmark in 1987 by the Canadian and American Society of Civil Engineers.

Post-completion history

The bridge was built and designed primarily as a railway bridge, but the streetcar lines (used by Quebec Railway, Light & Power Company) and one of the two railway tracks were converted into automobile and pedestrian/cycling lanes in subsequent years. In 1970, the Pierre Laporte Suspension Bridge opened just upstream to accommodate freeway traffic on Autoroute 73.

On January 24, 1996, the bridge was declared a National Historic Site.

The bridge has been featured on two commemorative postage stamps, one issued by the Post Office Department in 1929, and another by Canada Post in 1995.

The bridge was built as part of the National Transcontinental Railway, which was merged into the Canadian Government Railways and later became part of the Canadian National Railway (CN). The Canadian Government Railways company was maintained by the federal government until 1993, when a Privy Council order dated July 22 authorized the sale of Canadian Government Railways to the Crown corporation CN for one Canadian dollar. On that date, the Quebec Bridge also came under complete ownership of CN. CN was privatized in November 1995, making the bridge privately owned.

Despite its private ownership, CN receives federal and provincial funding to undertake repairs and maintenance on the structure. Its railway designation is mile 0.2 subdivision Bridge.

Aftermath

The disaster showed the power an engineer that could have in a project that was improperly supervised. As one result, Galbraith and others formed around 1925 what are now recognized as organizations of Professional Engineers (P.Engs). Professional Engineers are under different rules and regulations based on the organization to which they belong. General guidelines include that an engineer must pass an ethical examination, be able to show good character through the use of character witnesses, and have applicable engineering experience (in Canada that constitutes a minimum of four years' practice under a certified Professional Engineer). Moreover, engineers must be registered in the province in which they work. These engineering organizations are regulated by the respective provinces and the title "Professional Engineer" (or "Ingénieur" in Quebec) is reserved only to members who belong to this organization.

On August 29, 2006, a year-long commemoration was begun in the Kahnawake Reserve for the lives of the 33 Mohawk men who died in 1907.  One year later, on August 29, 2007, memorial services were held to dedicate a concrete structure displaying the victims' names on the Lévis side of the bridge, and to unveil a steel replica of the bridge in Kahnawake.

Corrosion and maintenance controversy
In 2015, the Quebec Bridge was included in a list of the 10 most endangered historic sites in Canada by the National Trust of Canada because of long-overdue paint and repair work.

In May 2016, Jean-Yves Duclos, the Canadian federal cabinet minister in charge of the Quebec region, revealed that a lease agreement between the CN and the federal government indicated that the CN would not be required to pay more than $10 million towards the paint work until the lease expires in 2053. The Canadian government is now proposing to invest $75 million to paint the bridge and is asking the Quebec provincial government to step in and invest an estimated additional $275 million to complete the work. The mayor of Quebec City, Regis Labeaume, accused the federal government of breaching a promise made during the 2015 electoral campaign to act upon the maintenance of the bridge

See also
 List of crossings of the Saint Lawrence River
 List of bridges in Canada
High Steel, a 1966 documentary on Mohawk high steel workers that also documents the 1907 collapse

References

External links

 Pont de Québec timeline
 The Collapse of the Quebec City Bridge
 Ritual of the Calling of an Engineer
 The Iron Ring (archive)
 Photo Centre Span Collapse
 Article on "Bridge Collapse Cases/Quebec Bridge" at MatDL

 3D model

Canadian National Railway bridges in Canada
Railway bridges in Quebec
Bridges in Quebec City
Bridges completed in 1917
Cantilever bridges in Canada
Truss bridges in Canada
Road-rail bridges
Bridge disasters in Canada
Bridge disasters caused by engineering error
Bridge disasters caused by construction error
Historic Civil Engineering Landmarks
Bridges over the Saint Lawrence River
National Historic Sites in Quebec
Transport in Lévis, Quebec
Buildings and structures in Lévis, Quebec
Road bridges in Quebec
1919 establishments in Quebec
Former toll bridges in Canada
Steel bridges in Canada
1907 disasters in Canada
1916 disasters in Canada

Quebec Bridge


Jerry Kenneth Martin (* 18. August 1950 in Minneapolis, Minnesota) ist ein ehemaliger US-amerikanischer Skispringer.

Werdegang
Martin, dessen älterer Bruder Jay ebenfalls Skispringer war, begann im Alter von fünf Jahren unter Anleitung seines Vaters Ken mit dem Skispringen. Im Alter von sieben Jahren sprang er erstmals von einer 30-Meter-Schanze. Er begann mit dem Training bei Ed Brisson. 1965 im Alter von 14 Jahren wurde er in Bend US-Junioren-Meister. Er war damit der bis dahin jüngste Springer der diesen Titel erreichte. Bereits mit 12 sprang er erstmals über 70 Meter weit, mit 15 setzte er seinen Sprung über die Marke von 90 Metern. Im Alter von 17 Jahren wurde er in das Nationalteam aufgenommen.

Seine internationale Karriere begann er mit dem Start bei der Vierschanzentournee 1967/68. Nachdem er das Springen in Oberstdorf ausgelassen hatte, konnte er sich auch in den anderen drei Springen nicht durchsetzen und beendete die Tournee als 60. der Gesamtwertung. Auch zwei Jahre später bei der Vierschanzentournee 1969/70 gelang ihm nicht der Durchbruch. Bestes Ergebnis war ein 49. Platz in Oberstdorf auf der Schattenbergschanze. In der Gesamtwertung erreichte er den 59. Platz. Bei der Nordischen Skiweltmeisterschaft 1970 in Štrbské Pleso startete er in beiden Einzeldisziplinen. Nach Rang 44 von der Normalschanze erreichte er Rang 48 auf der Großschanze.

1971 wurde Martin zum ersten Mal US-amerikanischer Meister. Wenig später verletzte er sich mit einem Nagel schwer am Auge. Er verlor dabei sein rechtes Augenlicht. Trotz dieses Handicaps startete er bei den Olympischen Winterspielen 1972 in Sapporo. Dort belegte er von der Normalschanze Rang 34 und von der Großschanze Rang 36.

1973 gewann er zum zweiten Mal den nationalen Titel. Dabei wurden die US-Meisterschaften diesmal auf der Skiflugschanze Copper Peak in Ironwood ausgetragen.

Bei der Vierschanzentournee 1973/74 gelang ihm erstmals der Sprung in die Top 20. In Oberstdorf erreichte er mit dem 13. Platz sein bestes Einzelergebnis bei einer Tournee. Nachdem er in Garmisch-Partenkirchen und Innsbruck die Plätze 24 und 20 erreichte, beendete er die Tournee auf der Paul-Außerleitner-Schanze in Bischofshofen als 61. In der Gesamtwertung erreichte er punktgleich mit Jaromír Liďák den 26. Platz.

Bei der Nordischen Skiweltmeisterschaft 1974 in Falun startete Martin von der Normalschanze und erreichte nach Sprüngen auf 75 und 76 Metern punktgleich mit Josef Schwinghammer den 39. Platz.

1975 wurde Martin zum dritten und letzten Mal US-amerikanischer Meister. Ein Jahr später konnte er in Innsbruck bei den  Olympischen Winterspielen 1976 auf die Ränge 27 und 32 springen.

Nachdem er kurz darauf seine aktive Skisprung-Karriere beendet hatte, übernahm er den Junioren-Trainerposten beim Minneapolis Ski Club. 2008 wurde er gemeinsam mit seinem Bruder in die American Ski Jumping Hall of Fame aufgenommen.

Erfolge

Vierschanzentournee-Platzierungen

Schanzenrekorde

Literatur

Weblinks

 Jerry Martin auf The-Sports.org
 Biografie Jerry Martin auf Intergarten.com (PDF, englisch)

Einzelnachweise

Skispringer (Vereinigte Staaten)
Olympiateilnehmer (Vereinigte Staaten)
US-amerikanischer Meister (Skispringen)
Teilnehmer der Olympischen Winterspiele 1972
Teilnehmer der Olympischen Winterspiele 1976
US-Amerikaner
Geboren 1950
Mann

Jerry Martin (Skispringer)


Shahbad es una ciudad de la India en el distrito de Kurukshetra, estado de Haryana.

Geografía
Se encuentra a una altitud de 266  a 71 km de la capital estatal, Chandigarh, en la zona horaria UTC +5:30.

Demografía
Según estimación 2011 contaba con una población de 42 225 habitantes.

Referencias

Enlaces externos
 Este artículo contiene datos geográficos extraídos de Google Earth.

Localidades de Haryana

Shahbad


An Scleria muehlenbergii in uska species han Liliopsida nga ginhulagway ni Ernst Gottlieb von Steudel. An Scleria muehlenbergii in nahilalakip ha genus nga Scleria, ngan familia nga Cyperaceae. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Mga sumpay ha gawas

Scleria

Scleria muehlenbergii


The Subaru Vivio is a kei car that was introduced in March 1992, and manufactured by Subaru until October 1998. It is small enough to place it in the kei car class, giving its owners large tax breaks in Japan. The Vivio has a spacious interior considering its small size, thanks to a relatively tall profile and large windows. The name "Vivio" is a reference to the engine's displacement of 660 written in an approximation of Roman numerals (VI, VI, O), and also inspired by the word vivid. It replaced the Rex nameplate that was introduced in the 1970s, and was itself superseded by the Subaru Pleo. The Vivio was available in 3 and 5-door versions, with a two-door targa top version named T-top also available.

Drivetrain
The Vivio was available with a variety of 658 cc normally aspirated or supercharged four-cylinder "Clover" engines with different gearbox options (including ECVT – an electronically controlled continuously variable transmission) and multiple trim packages. Aside from the top-of-the-line RX-R, all engines were SOHC 8-valve designs. The ECVT equipped supercharged model claimed  with such a setup, and while the Twin Cam 16-valve RX-R version claimed to make no more power than the SOHC, this was only to stay within the limitations laid down by Japan's kei car legislations. Claimed torque was higher, at  versus . Front- or four-wheel drive versions were offered on most of the lineup.

The most common version of the Vivio has a multi-point fuel-injected EN07E engine. This produces  in manual transmission cars, while ECVT cars have to make do with .  DIN was claimed in Europe for the same engine. There was also a carbureted version with  in Japan, which equipped the Vivio Van versions (two-seater and ef-s).

History
The Vivio was sold in many European markets, where it is unusual in not receiving a larger engine than in the home market. The preceding Subaru Rex, the Suzuki Alto, and the Daihatsu Cuore all utilized larger engines when sold in Europe, but the Vivio's technical specifications were nearly identical to the Japanese Domestic Market version - including fuel injection, while its kei competitors still had carbureted engines in export trim.

In May 1993 the Vivio T-top arrived, available only for special order. Only 3,000 were released, to celebrate Subaru's 40th anniversary, fitted with the fuel-injected EN07E engine and either a five-speed manual or the ECVT transmission. The T-top version was built by Takada Kogyo, a convertible specialist who also assembled Nissan's Figaro and Silvia Varietta amongst other specialty cars. An additional 1,000 GX-T models were released in February 1994; these are fitted with the SOHC supercharged engine from the GX (EN07Z), only available coupled to the ECVT.

In November 1995 the Vivio Bistro was introduced. This was a modified version with a retro theme, with Mini-esque front and rear fascias, matching upholstery and modifications to the dashboard. The Bistro series became a hit, causing Subaru to release multiple succeeding versions of the Bistro, called the "Bistro B-Custom", the "Bistro Chiffon", the "Bistro White Edition", the "L Bistro", the "Sports Bistro" with BBS wheels, the "Bistro SS" using the engine package from the Vivio RX-SS, and the "Club Bistro" with a British black cab appearance. The trend of retro-styled cars was quite popular in 1990s Japan, following the success of Nissan's "Pike" series cars like the Pao and Figaro. Subaru also tried this approach with the larger Subaru Impreza in a trim called the Casa Blanca with limited success.

The suspension setup used was inspired by the Legacy, a setup that avoided strictly using MacPherson struts to save on production costs.

Gallery

Motorsport

The supercharged RX-R and RX-RA was widely used for rallying in Japan. RX-RA was a motorsports trim grade with closer ratio gearing and stiffer suspensions than RX-R. Some entrants still enter Vivios at WRC Rally Japan.

In 1992, at the Paris-Beijing marathon raid, a private entrant ran the Vivio RX-R with the EN07X engine. Most people who saw the car thought it wouldn't last long, but it was faster than the Mitsubishi Pajero works team during the prologue stage, and ran for more than a week until it broke its suspension. The car made it to the finishing line unofficially after repairs were carried out, with no other serious troubles.

The most famous appearance of the Vivio in an international motorsport event was in the 1993 round of the Safari Rally under the control of former factory driver and Subaru Technica International founder and team owner Noriyuki Koseki to promote the car. He made the decision to enter three of the sports model Vivio Super KK driven by Masashi Ishida, local driver Patrick Njiru and up and coming WRC star Colin McRae in his Safari debut. "Super KK" is the FIA homologation name for the RX-R grade, and in rally trim the 658 cc engine produced  at 6,000 rpm.

Only Njiru finished the race, achieving 12th place. McRae did manage to set the fastest stage time before going for two stages in Makindu before retiring with suspension failure on Special Stage 16. He later said "You can hide the whole car in every single pothole along the route!" Ishida had to retire with head gasket failure on Special Stage 45.

This appearance was satirized by cartoonist Jim Bamber for the Yumping Yarns cartoon of Car & Car Conversions magazine, in which he depicted McRae driving his Vivio underneath an elephant.

Notes

Vivio
Kei cars
Front-wheel-drive vehicles
All-wheel-drive vehicles
Vehicles with CVT transmission
Cars introduced in 1992
Retro-style automobiles
Rally cars

Subaru Vivio


ذكاء جمعي أو ذكاء تكافلي أو مشترك، (بالإنجليزية: Collective Intelligence) هو الذكاء الذي ينشأ نتيجة التعاون أو حتى التنافس بين أفراد مجموعة بشريَّة معيَّنة وصولاً لصنع قرار مشترك، يُستخدم هذا المصطلح في علم الاجتماع وفي العلوم السياسيَّة ؤخصوصاً في مواضيع أنظمة التصويت المتنوِّعة ووسائل الإعلام وغيرها من وسائل قياس النشاط الجماعي في المجتمع، ويمكن قياسه من خلال معدَّل الذكاء الجماعي Collective IQ، كما أنَّ مفهوم الذكاء الجماعي موجود أيضاً عند الحيوانات وحتى الجراثيم.

أشار نورمان لي جونسون إلى الذكاء الجماعي باسم «الذكاء التكافلي» ويستخدم هذا المفهوم في علم الاجتماع وإدارة الأعمال وعلوم الكومبيوتر والبرمجيات وفي مواضيع الخيال العلمي أيضاً، بينما عرَّفه بيير ليفي بأنَّه شكل من أشكال الذكاء المنتشر على مستوي عالمي والذي يهدف إلى تنسيق وتعاون مشترك وصولاً لأفكار ومفاهيم جديدة بدلاً من الالتزام بعادات وتقاليد المجتمع البالية، ويؤكِّد بيير ليفي وديريك كيركوف إلى أهميَّة تكنولوجيا المعلومات والاتصالات وشبكات الإنترنت وقدرتها على تعزيز الذكاء الجماعي وتوسيع نطاق التفاعل البشري على مستوى العالم.

يساهم الذكاء الجماعي بشكل فعَّال في انتقال المعرفة من المستوى الفردي إلى المستوى الجماعي العام، ووفقاً لإريك ريموند وجي سي هيرز فإنَّ هذا النوع من الذكاء المفتوح والعام ستكون نتائجه في نهاية المطاف أكبر وأكثر تفوقاً من الذكاء والمعرفة الناتجة عن البرمجيَّات التي تطوِّرها وتحتكرها بعض الشركات، ويرى الباحث الإعلامي هنري جينكينز أنَّ الذكاء الجماعي مصدر بديل عن الإعلام التقليدي لأنَّه يساهم في تمازج الثقافات والمعارف البشريَّة خارج إطار التعليم المدرسي الرسمي، وينتقد جينكينز المدارس لأنَّها تروِّج للحلول المستقلَّة الفرديَّة وتحارب التعليم الذي توفِّره الطرق المعرفيَّة البديلة الناتجة عن الذكاء الجماعي، بل يذهب بيير ليفي وهنري جينكينز إلى أبعد من ذلك حين يؤكِّدان أنَّ الذكاء الجماعي هام جداً في عملية التحوُّل الديمقراطي لأنَّه يرتبط بثقافة جماعيَّة قائمة على المعرفة وبالتالي فهو يساهم في فهم تنوُّع المجتمع وتعدُّديَّته.

تأثَّر العديد من الكتَّاب بمفهوم الذكاء الجماعي ومن أشهرهم: فرانسيس غالتون ودوغلاس هوفشتادتر (1979)، بيتر روسل (1983)، توم أتلي (1993)، بيار ليفي (1994)، هاوارد بلوم (1995)، فرانسيس هيليغن ودوغلاس إنجيلبرت وولويس روزينبرغ (2003).

نظرة تاريخيَّة
نشأ مفهوم الذكاء الجماعي «رغم عدم استخدام المصطلح بشكل صريح» عام 1785 مع الماركيز دي كوندروسيه والذي ابتدع نظريَّة «هيئة المُحلَّفين»، والتي تنصُّ على أنَّه إذا كان من المُرجَّح أن يقوم كل عضو في مجموعة تصويت باتخاذ القرار الصحيح فإنَّ احتمال الوصول لأفضل وأصحِّ قرار يزيد كلَّما زاد عدد أعضاء مجموعة التصويت ، لقد طرح أرسطو مثالاً شهيراً في كتابه السياسة فقال: «الوليمة التي ساهم فيها كثيرون ستكون أفضل ومتنوِّعة أكثر وترضي أذواق الجميع أكثر من تلك التي يُحضِّرها شخص واحد»، وفسَّر العديد من المُفكِّرين هذا المثال بأنَّ المشاورات التي يشترك فيها أكبر عدد من الناس ستشمل معلومات وآراء متنوِّعة وسينتج عنها قرار أفضل ، في حين ترى دراسات حديثة أنَّ مقصد أرسطو لم يكن هكذا بالتحديد ولكنَّ نظريَّات الذكاء الجماعي المعاصرة هي التي قادت لهذا التفسير.

كذلك عُثر على توضيح تمهيدي لفكرة الذكاء الجماعي في ملاحظات عالم الحشرات ويليام ويلر عام 1910، والذي أوضح أنَّ الأفراد يمكن أن يتعاونوا بشكل وثيق لدرجة أنَّه لا يمكن تمييزهم عن كائن حي واحد، وأعطى ويلر مثالاً عن هذا الأداء التعاوني الجماعي في النمل الذي يتصرَّف أفراده وكأنَّهم خلايا من كائن حي واحد.

في عام 1912 أكَّد إيميل دوركهايم في كتابه «الأشكال الأوليَّة للحياة الدينيَّة» أنَّ المجتمع هو المصدر الوحيد للفكر البشري المنطقي، لأنَّه يشكِّل ذكاءً جماعيَّاً يتجاوز الفرد الواحد زمانيَّاً ومكانيَّاً، من جهته استخدم هيلبيرت جورج ويلس مفهوم الدماغ العالمي global brain، في حين أنشأ كلٌّ من بيتر راسل وإليزابيث ساهتوريس وباربرا هوبارد مصطلح التطور الواعي، وربط دوغلاس إنجيلبيرت الذكاء الجماعي بالتنظيم البشري الفعَّال وتوقَّع أن يؤدي الذكاء البشري المُتزايد إلى تأثير إيجابي أكبر على حل المشكلات الجماعيَّة، وقال بأنَّ فعاليَّة ثلاثة أشخاص يعملون معاً على حل مُشكلة مُعقَّدة ستكون أكبر بثلاثة أضعاف من فعالية شخص واحد يعمل بمفرده، وفي عام 1994 صاغ إنجيلبيرت مصطلح «معدَّل الذكاء الجماعي»، ودعا لتركيز الاهتمام على رفع معدَّل الذكاء الجماعي وخصوصاً في قطاع الأعمال.

يُشكِّل مفهوم الذكاء الجماعي أيضاً إطاراً للنظريَّات الديمقراطيَّة المُعاصرة والتي يُشار إليها عادةً بالديمقراطيَّة المعرفيَّة، وتؤكِّد هذه النظريَّات على قدرة الجماهير على الوصول للحقيقة عن طريق تداول الأفكار وتجميع المعارف أي عن طريق الذكاء الجماعي.

أبعاد وآراء
يناقش هوارد بلوم السلوك الجماعي من مستوى الذرات إلى مستوى مستعمرات الجراثيم والمجتمعات النباتية والحيوانيَّة والبشريَّة، ويؤكِّد أنَّ التكيُّف البيولوجي هو الذي جعل معظم الكائنات الحيَّة على الأرض «آلة تعلُّم» بحسب وصفه، وفي عام 1986 صاغ نظريَّة متكاملة عن آليَّة عمل الذكاء الجماعي ، واستخدم نظريَّته لتفسير كيفيَّة استخدام الذكاء الجماعي على مستوى المجتمعات البشريَّة وحتى المستعمرات الجرثوميَّة المتنافسة.

تتبَّع بلوم تطوُّر الذكاء الجماعي إلى أسلافنا الأولى كالجراثيم والكائنات وحيدة الخليَّة منذ مليار سنة، وأظهر كيف أنَّ الذكاء الجماعي بأنواعه المختلفة قد عمل منذ بداية الحياة على الأرض ، ورأى أنَّ مجتمع النمل يُظهِر من الناحية التقنيَّة ذكاءً جماعياً أكثر من كلِّ الحيوانات الأخرى باستثناء البشر، واستشهد بمثال المنَّ الذي يستخدمه النمل للحلب، وتقطيع أوراق الأشجار ونقلها للأعشاش لتغذية الفطريات فيها.

من جهته يستخدم ديفيد سكربينا مفهوم العقل الجماعي ويرى أنَّه يعود للفيلسوف أفلاطون الذي قال إنَّ العقل أو الوعي كليُّ الوجود، وموجود في كل شيء، ويطوِّر ذات المفهوم الذي استخدمه توماس هوبز في كتابه لوياثان للبحث عن الآثار الفلسفية للعقل الجماعي ، أمَّا توم أتلي فيركِّز في المقام الأول على البشر ويدعو للعمل على ترقية الذكاء الجماعي للتغلُّب على التحيُّز المعرفي الفردي من أجل السماح للمجتمع البشري بالتعاون لتنفيذ المهام وتعزيز الأداء الفكري، لقد عرَّف جورج بور ظاهرة الذكاء الجماعي بأنَّها قدرة المجتمعات البشريَّة على التطوُّر نحو التعقيد والانسجام من خلال آليات الابتكار والإبداع المتنوعة مثل التكامل والتنافس والتعاون، ويعتقد كلٌّ من أتلي وبور أنَّ الذكاء الجماعي سيؤدي إلى مستوى من التركيز والاهتمام يقود لتوفير عتبة مناسبة للعمل، وقد ترسَّخ هذا المنهج وبقي له أهميَّة خاصة في المجتمع العلمي.

إنَّ معدَّل الذكاء الجماعي لمجموعة بشريَّة معيَّنة يُقدِّم لنا قسماً كبيراً من صفات هذه المجموعة وخصائصها وخصوصاً تكوينها وحجم التفاعل والتعاون ضمنها وتنوِّع الأشخاص فيها، ويقترح أتلي وبور أنَّ الذكاء الجماعي يجب أن يُنظَر إليه في المقام الأول على أنَّه مشروع بشري تكون فيه الأفكار والرغبة في المشاركة والانفتاح لتحقيق المصلحة العامة لها أولويَّة قصوى، وبالطبع فإنَّ ذلك لا يعني أنَّ الأفراد الذين يدعمون الذكاء الجماعي لا يثقون بقدراتهم الفرديَّة ولكنَّهم يعترفون بأنَّ المعرفة الكليَّة أكبر وأنفع من الأجزاء المعرفيَّة الفردية، تظهر الفائدة العظمى للذكاء الجماعي من خلال قدرة الجماعة على قبول اقتراحات الأفراد وتطوير الأفضل من بينها ودعم تلك التي تحقِّق فائدة أفراد الجماعة، وإنَّ الحدَّ من عدد المقترحات المُقدَّمة من قبل الأفراد وعدم تطوير الآراء النافعة من بينها يعيق الذكاء الجماعي ويقلِّل من أهميَّته.

قضايا ذات صلة
يتأثَر ذكاء الفرد بعاملين أساسيَّين هما الوراثة والبيئة، وفي هذا الصدد يهدف الذكاء الجماعي لمعرفة الأسباب التي تجعل مجموعات معيَّنة تعمل بشكل أكثر ذكاءً من مجموعات أخرى، علماً أنَّ الذكاء الجماعي يرتبط فقط بذكاء الأفراد ضمن الجماعة ، ووفقاً للنتائج التي خلص إليها ويللي وزملاؤه فإنَّ هناك ثلاثة عوامل ترتبط ارتباطاً وثيقاً بذكاء مجموعة ما وهي: عدد الأعضاء الذين يشتركون في صياغة الحلول «عدد المُتكلمين»، الحساسيَّة الاجتماعية لأفراد المجموعة، نسبة الإناث في المجموعة، ويبدو أنَّ الحساسية الاجتماعية هي الأهم من بين هذه العوامل. وتشير النتائج أيضاً إلى أنَّ المجموعات التي يسيطر أو يتحكم فيها عدد قليل من الأفراد كانت أقل ذكاءً جماعيَّاً من تلك التي فيها توزيع متساوي للحوار واتخاذ القرار ، وإنَّ إتاحة الفرصة لأعضاء المجموعة المختلفين في الكلام والحوار جعلهم أكثر ذكاءً، ويمكن قياس الحساسيَّة الاجتماعية عند أعضاء المجموعة من خلال العديد من الاختبارات التي تكشف عن تفكير الفرد أو شعوره نحو معتقدات ورغبات وتقاليد الشعوب الأخرى التي تختلف عن جماعته الأم ويطلق على هذا الاختبار أحياناً اسم «قراءة العقل».

أدلَّة ودراسات
قام ويللي وشابريس ومالون وهاشمي بدراسة إحصائيَّة واسعة النطاق على 192 مجموعة تحوي أشخاص اختيروا بشكل عشوائي لدراسة الذكاء الجماعي على أساس الفهم العلمي، أُجْرِّيَت دراستين أوليَّتين وطلب من المجموعات القيام بمهام متنوعة معاً مثل الألغاز البصريَّة والتحليل الذهني وإصدار الأحكام الأخلاقيَّة على جماعات أخرى والتفاوض على الموارد المحدودة ، بعدها أُجْرِيَ تحليل عام لنتائج الدراسة، وقد أظهرت كلتا الدراستين دعماً وتأكيداً على عامل الذكاء الجماعي C، وتكرَّرت نفس النتائج مع أنجل وزملائه في دراستهم عام 2014 ، وحصل باحثون على نتائج مماثلة من خلال المجموعات التي تتواصل عبر الإنترنت عن طريق الرسائل النصيَّة وبرز هنا دور نسبة الإناث في المجموعة وأهميَّة الحساسيَّة الاجتماعيَّة في الذكاء الجماعي، إنَّ مفهوم الحساسيَّة الاجتماعيَّة تهدف لقياس قدرة الناس على تحديد الحالة المعرفية أو العقلية للمجتمعات البشريَّة الأخرى، ولكنَّ المشتركين في دراسة التواصل عبر الرسائل النصيَّة لم يعرفوا أو يروا بعضهم مطلقاً واعتمدوا على قدرات التفكير الاجتماعي أكثر من التعبير البصري أو الشكلي للآخرين.

صحة التنبؤات
إنَّ التنبُّؤ بأداء المجموعة البشريَّة أكثر تعقيداً ممَّا تظهره التجارب والدراسات السابقة، ولكن يبدو أنَّ عامل الذكاء الجماعي C قادر على التنبُّؤ بأداء مهام متعدِّدة لمجموعة من طلاب الماجستير في إدارة الأعمال تستمر لعدة أشهر، ونلاحظ أيضاً أنَّ هذه المجموعات حقَّقت ذكاء جماعي أكبر بكثير رغم أنَّ أفرادها لم ينجزوا أي مهام بشكل فردي على نحو أفضل من غيرهم، بالإضافة لذلك فإنَّ الفرق ذات الذكاء الجماعي المرتفع يتحسَّن أداؤهم مع مرور الوقت ممَّا يشير إلى أنَّ الأفراد يتعلَّمون بشكل أسرع وأفضل عندما يكونون ضمن فريق مرتفع الذكاء الجماعي.

ولكن يجب الإشارة هنا إلى أنَّ معدَّل ذكاء الفرد له تطبيقات مختلفة في الحياة الشخصيَّة، ويمكن استخدامه للتنبؤ بنتائج التحصيل الدراسي، النجاح الوظيفي ، الوضع الصحي، وحتى الوفاة، إنَّ الذكاء الجماعي قادر على التنبؤ بأداء المجموعات، أمَّا قدرة معدَّل الذكاء الجماعي على التنبؤ بالنتائج والمعطيات السابقة فهو أمرٌ غير واضح حتى الآن ويحتاج لمزيد من الدراسات.

تطبيقات
تقدير القيمة الوسطيَّة: نستخدم هذا التطبيق لمحاولة الحصول على تقدير وسطي برقم أو قيمة واحدة لشيء ما، على سبيل المثال: تقدير وزن شيء ما أو تاريخ إنتاج مادة ما أو احتمال نجاح مشروع معين... إنَّ التقدير الجماعي أو قدرة التنبؤ لأفراد المجموعة يعطينا متوسط قيمة تقديرات أعضاء المجموعة ويكون أدق من التقدير الفردي.

تجميع الآراء
 في هذه الحالة نجمع آراء الجمهور أو عينة معينة حول بعض الأفكار أو القضايا أو المنتجات، على سبيل المثال الحصول على تقييم أو آراء الجمهور ضمن نطاق معين حول منتج يباع عبر الإنترنت عن طريق نظام التقييم الذي يستخدم النجوم وبعدها يُحْسَب عدد ونسبة العملاء وآرائهم.

جمع الحلول والأفكار: هنا نجمع الأفكار والحلول أو التصاميم التي يقدِّمها أفراد المجموعة حول مشروع أو مشكلة ما، وهذه الطريقة مطبَّقة في العديد من مواقع الإنترنت التي تستقبل تصاميم العملاء في الأزياء، أو حتى حلول بعض المشاكل أو الأسئلة البسيطة التي تهمُّ قطاعاً كبيراً من المجتمع وبعده تُجَمَّع الاقتراحات المُقدَّمة واختيار الأفضل من بينها عن طريق اِعْتِمَاد معايير خاصَّة، يُقسِّم جيمس سوروييكي مزايا صنع القرار عن طريق الذكاء الجماعي إلى ثلاث فئات رئيسيَّة هي: المعرفة والتعاون والتنسيق، وصولاً لاتخاذ أفضل قرار ممكن.

انظر أيضا
 كائن خارق
 ذكاء عملي
 ذكاء مدني
 إدراك موزع نفسيا
 ديمقراطية إلكترونية تعاونية
 ذكاء جماعي

المراجع

وصلات خارجية

 الإنسان يسعى إلى الاقتداء بالنمل في طريقته لتنظيم حركة المرور
 MIT Center for Collective Intelligence
 الأبحاث في مجال محاكاة الذكاء الجمعي ستضاعف من ذكاء الكمبيوترات

الذكاء حسب النوع
ذكاء
ذكاء اصطناعي

ذكاء جمعي


Transfer RNA (abbreviated tRNA and formerly referred to as sRNA, for soluble RNA) is an adaptor molecule composed of RNA, typically 76 to 90 nucleotides in length (in eukaryotes), that serves as the physical link between the mRNA and the amino acid sequence of proteins. Transfer RNA (tRNA) does this by carrying an amino acid to the protein synthesizing machinery of a cell called the ribosome. Complementation of a 3-nucleotide codon in a messenger RNA (mRNA) by a 3-nucleotide anticodon of the tRNA results in protein synthesis based on the mRNA code. As such, tRNAs are a necessary component of translation, the biological synthesis of new proteins in accordance with the genetic code.

Typically, tRNAs genes from Bacteria are shorter (mean = 77.6 bp) than tRNAs from Archaea (mean = 83.1 bp) and eukaryotes (mean = 84.7 bp). The mature tRNA follows an opposite pattern with tRNAs from Bacteria being usually longer (median = 77.6 nt) than tRNAs from Archaea (median = 76.8 nt), with eukaryotes exhibiting the shortest mature tRNAs (median = 74.5 nt).

Overview
While the specific nucleotide sequence of an mRNA specifies which amino acids are incorporated into the protein product of the gene from which the mRNA is transcribed, the role of tRNA is to specify which sequence from the genetic code corresponds to which amino acid. The mRNA encodes a protein as a series of contiguous codons, each of which is recognized by a particular tRNA. One end of the tRNA matches the genetic code in a three-nucleotide sequence called the anticodon. The anticodon forms three complementary base pairs with a codon in mRNA during protein biosynthesis.

On the other end of the tRNA is a covalent attachment to the amino acid that corresponds to the anticodon sequence. Each type of tRNA molecule can be attached to only one type of amino acid, so each organism has many types of tRNA. Because the genetic code contains multiple codons that specify the same amino acid, there are several tRNA molecules bearing different anticodons which carry the same amino acid.

The covalent attachment to the tRNA 3' end is catalysed by enzymes called aminoacyl tRNA synthetases. During protein synthesis, tRNAs with attached amino acids are delivered to the ribosome by proteins called elongation factors, which aid in association of the tRNA with the ribosome, synthesis of the new polypeptide, and translocation (movement) of the ribosome along the mRNA. If the tRNA's anticodon matches the mRNA, another tRNA already bound to the ribosome transfers the growing polypeptide chain from its 3' end to the amino acid attached to the 3' end of the newly delivered tRNA, a reaction catalysed by the ribosome. A large number of the individual nucleotides in a tRNA molecule may be chemically modified, often by methylation or deamidation. These unusual bases sometimes affect the tRNA's interaction with ribosomes and sometimes occur in the anticodon to alter base-pairing properties.

Structure

The structure of tRNA can be decomposed into its primary structure, its secondary structure (usually visualized as the cloverleaf structure), and its tertiary structure (all tRNAs have a similar L-shaped 3D structure that allows them to fit into the P and A sites of the ribosome). The cloverleaf structure becomes the 3D L-shaped structure through coaxial stacking of the helices, which is a common RNA tertiary structure motif. The lengths of each arm, as well as the loop 'diameter', in a tRNA molecule vary from species to species.
The tRNA structure consists of the following:
The acceptor stem is a 7- to 9-base pair (bp) stem made by the base pairing of the 5′-terminal nucleotide with the 3′-terminal nucleotide (which contains the CCA 3′-terminal group used to attach the amino acid). In general, such 3′-terminal tRNA-like structures are referred to as 'genomic tags'. The acceptor stem may contain non-Watson-Crick base pairs.
The CCA tail is a cytosine-cytosine-adenine sequence at the 3′ end of the tRNA molecule. The amino acid loaded onto the tRNA by aminoacyl tRNA synthetases, to form aminoacyl-tRNA, is covalently bonded to the 3′-hydroxyl group on the CCA tail. This sequence is important for the recognition of tRNA by enzymes and critical in translation. In prokaryotes, the CCA sequence is transcribed in some tRNA sequences. In most prokaryotic tRNAs and eukaryotic tRNAs, the CCA sequence is added during processing and therefore does not appear in the tRNA gene.
The D loop is a 4- to 6-bp stem ending in a loop that often contains dihydrouridine.
 The anticodon loop is a 5-bp stem whose loop contains the anticodon. The tRNA 5′-to-3′ primary structure contains the anticodon but in reverse order, since 3′-to-5′ directionality is required to read the mRNA from 5′-to-3′.
 The TΨC loop is named so because of the characteristic presence of the unusual base Ψ in the loop, where Ψ is pseudouridine, a modified uridine. The modified base is often found within the sequence 5'-TΨCGA-3', with the T (ribothymidine, m5U) and A forming a base pair.
 The variable loop sits between the anticodon loop and the ΨU loop and, as its name implies, varies in size from 3 to 21 bases.

Anticodon
An anticodon is a unit of three nucleotides corresponding to the three bases of an mRNA codon. Each tRNA has a distinct anticodon triplet sequence that can form 3 complementary base pairs to one or more codons for an amino acid. Some anticodons pair with more than one codon due to wobble base pairing. Frequently, the first nucleotide of the anticodon is one not found on mRNA: inosine, which can hydrogen bond to more than one base in the corresponding codon position. In genetic code, it is common for a single amino acid to be specified by all four third-position possibilities, or at least by both pyrimidines and purines; for example, the amino acid glycine is coded for by the codon sequences GGU, GGC, GGA, and GGG. Other modified nucleotides may also appear at the first anticodon position—sometimes known as the "wobble position"—resulting in subtle changes to the genetic code, as for example in mitochondria.
Per cell, 61 tRNA types are required to provide one-to-one correspondence between tRNA molecules and codons that specify amino acids, as there are 61 sense codons of the standard genetic code. However, many cells have under 61 types of tRNAs because the wobble base is capable of binding to several, though not necessarily all, of the codons that specify a particular amino acid. At least 31 tRNAs are required to translate, unambiguously, all 61 sense codons.

Aminoacylation

Aminoacylation is the process of adding an aminoacyl group to a compound. It covalently links an amino acid to the CCA 3′ end of a tRNA molecule.
Each tRNA is aminoacylated (or charged) with a specific amino acid by an aminoacyl tRNA synthetase. There is normally a single aminoacyl tRNA synthetase for each amino acid, despite the fact that there can be more than one tRNA, and more than one anticodon for an amino acid. Recognition of the appropriate tRNA by the synthetases is not mediated solely by the anticodon, and the acceptor stem often plays a prominent role.
Reaction:
 amino acid + ATP → aminoacyl-AMP + PPi
 aminoacyl-AMP + tRNA → aminoacyl-tRNA + AMP
Certain organisms can have one or more aminophosphate-tRNA synthetases missing. This leads to charging of the tRNA by a chemically related amino acid, and by use of an enzyme or enzymes, the tRNA is modified to be correctly charged. For example, Helicobacter pylori has glutaminyl tRNA synthetase missing. Thus, glutamate tRNA synthetase charges tRNA-glutamine(tRNA-Gln) with glutamate. An amidotransferase then converts the acid side chain of the glutamate to the amide, forming the correctly charged gln-tRNA-Gln.

Interference with aminoacylation may be useful as an approach to treating some diseases: cancerous cells may be relatively vulnerable to disturbed aminoacylation compared to healthy cells. The protein synthesis associated with cancer and viral biology is often very dependent on specific tRNA molecules. For instance, for liver cancer charging tRNA-Lys-CUU with lysine sustains liver cancer cell growth and metastasis, whereas healthy cells have a much lower dependence on this tRNA to support cellular physiology. Similarly, hepatitis E virus requires a tRNA landscape that substantially differs from that associated with uninfected cells. Hence, inhibition of aminoacylation of specific tRNA species is considered a promising novel avenue for the rational treatment of a plethora of diseases.

Binding to ribosome

The ribosome has three binding sites for tRNA molecules that span the space between the two ribosomal subunits: the A (aminoacyl), P (peptidyl), and E (exit) sites. In addition, the ribosome has two other sites for tRNA binding that are used during mRNA decoding or during the initiation of protein synthesis. These are the T site (named elongation factor Tu) and I site (initiation). By convention, the tRNA binding sites are denoted with the site on the small ribosomal subunit listed first and the site on the large ribosomal subunit listed second. For example, the A site is often written A/A, the P site, P/P, and the E site, E/E. The binding proteins like L27, L2, L14, L15, L16 at the A- and P- sites have been determined by affinity labeling by A. P. Czernilofsky et al. (Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci, USA, pp. 230–234, 1974).

Once translation initiation is complete, the first aminoacyl tRNA is located in the P/P site, ready for the elongation cycle described below. During translation elongation, tRNA first binds to the ribosome as part of a complex with elongation factor Tu (EF-Tu) or its eukaryotic (eEF-1) or archaeal counterpart. This initial tRNA binding site is called the A/T site. In the A/T site, the A-site half resides in the small ribosomal subunit where the mRNA decoding site is located. The mRNA decoding site is where the mRNA codon is read out during translation. The T-site half resides mainly on the large ribosomal subunit where EF-Tu or eEF-1 interacts with the ribosome. Once mRNA decoding is complete, the aminoacyl-tRNA is bound in the A/A site and is ready for the next peptide bond to be formed to its attached amino acid. The peptidyl-tRNA, which transfers the growing polypeptide to the aminoacyl-tRNA bound in the A/A site, is bound in the P/P site. Once the peptide bond is formed, the tRNA in the P/P site is acylated, or has a free 3' end, and the tRNA in the A/A site dissociates the growing polypeptide chain. To allow for the next elongation cycle, the tRNAs then move through hybrid A/P and P/E binding sites, before completing the cycle and residing in the P/P and E/E sites. Once the A/A and P/P tRNAs have moved to the P/P and E/E sites, the mRNA has also moved over by one codon and the A/T site is vacant, ready for the next round of mRNA decoding. The tRNA bound in the E/E site then leaves the ribosome.

The P/I site is actually the first to bind to aminoacyl tRNA, which is delivered by an initiation factor called IF2 in bacteria. However, the existence of the P/I site in eukaryotic or archaeal ribosomes has not yet been confirmed. The P-site protein L27 has been determined by affinity labeling by E. Collatz and A. P. Czernilofsky (FEBS Lett., Vol. 63, pp. 283–286, 1976).

tRNA genes
Organisms vary in the number of tRNA genes in their genome. For example, the nematode worm C. elegans, a commonly used model organism in genetics studies, has 29,647  genes in its nuclear genome, of which 620 code for tRNA. The budding yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae has 275 tRNA genes in its genome. The number of tRNA genes per genome can vary widely, with bacterial species from groups such as Fusobacteria and Tenericutes having around 30 genes per genome while complex eukaryotic genomes such as the zebrafish (Danio rerio) can bear more than 10 thousand tRNA genes.

In the human genome, which, according to January 2013 estimates, has about 20,848 protein coding genes  in total, there are 497 nuclear genes encoding cytoplasmic tRNA molecules, and 324 tRNA-derived pseudogenes—tRNA genes thought to be no longer functional (although pseudo tRNAs have been shown to be involved in antibiotic resistance in bacteria). As with all eukaryotes, there are 22 mitochondrial tRNA genes in humans. Mutations in some of these genes have been associated with severe diseases like the MELAS syndrome. Regions in nuclear chromosomes, very similar in sequence to mitochondrial tRNA genes, have also been identified (tRNA-lookalikes). These tRNA-lookalikes are also considered part of the nuclear mitochondrial DNA (genes transferred from the mitochondria to the nucleus). The phenomenon of multiple nuclear copies of mitochondrial tRNA (tRNA-lookalikes) has been observed in many higher organisms from human to the opossum suggesting the possibility that the lookalikes are functional.

Cytoplasmic tRNA genes can be grouped into 49 families according to their anticodon features. These genes are found on all chromosomes, except the 22 and Y chromosome. High clustering on 6p is observed (140 tRNA genes), as well on 1 chromosome.

The HGNC, in collaboration with the Genomic tRNA Database (GtRNAdb) and experts in the field, has approved unique names for human genes that encode tRNAs.

Evolution
The top half of tRNA (consisting of the T arm and the acceptor stem with 5′-terminal phosphate group and 3′-terminal CCA group) and the bottom half (consisting of the D arm and the anticodon arm) are independent units in structure as well as in function. The top half may have evolved first including the 3′-terminal genomic tag which originally may have marked tRNA-like molecules for replication in early RNA world. The bottom half may have evolved later as an expansion, e.g. as protein synthesis started in RNA world and turned it into a ribonucleoprotein world (RNP world). This proposed scenario is called genomic tag hypothesis. In fact, tRNA and tRNA-like aggregates have an important catalytic influence (i.e., as ribozymes) on replication still today. These roles may be regarded as 'molecular (or chemical) fossils' of RNA world.

Genomic tRNA content is a differentiating feature of genomes among biological domains of life: Archaea present the simplest situation in terms of genomic tRNA content with a uniform number of gene copies, Bacteria have an intermediate situation and Eukarya present the most complex situation. Eukarya present not only more tRNA gene content than the other two kingdoms but also a high variation in gene copy number among different isoacceptors, and this complexity seem to be due to duplications of tRNA genes and changes in anticodon specificity .

Evolution of the tRNA gene copy number across different species has been linked to the appearance of specific tRNA modification enzymes (uridine methyltransferases in Bacteria, and adenosine deaminases in Eukarya), which increase the decoding capacity of a given tRNA. As an example, tRNAAla encodes four different tRNA isoacceptors (AGC, UGC, GGC and CGC). In Eukarya, AGC isoacceptors are extremely enriched in gene copy number in comparison to the rest of isoacceptors, and this has been correlated with its A-to-I modification of its wobble base. This same trend has been shown for most amino acids of eukaryal species. Indeed, the effect of these two tRNA modifications is also seen in codon usage bias. Highly expressed genes seem to be enriched in codons that are exclusively using codons that will be decoded by these modified tRNAs, which suggests a possible role of these codons—and consequently of these tRNA modifications—in translation efficiency.

It is important to note that many species have lost specific tRNAs during evolution. For instance, both mammals and birds lack the same 14 out of the possible 64 tRNA genes, but other life forms contain these tRNAs. For translating codons for which an exactly pairing tRNA is missing, organisms resort to a strategy called wobbling, in which imperfectly matched tRNA/mRNA pairs still give rise to translation, although this strategy also increases to propensity for translation errors. The reasons why tRNA genes have been lost during evolution remains under debate but may relate improving resistance to viral infection. Because nucleotide triplets can present more combinations than there are amino acids and associated tRNAs, there is redundancy in the genetic code, and several different 3-nucleotide codons can express the same amino acid. This codon bias is what necessitates codon optimization.

tRNA-derived fragments
tRNA-derived fragments (or tRFs) are short molecules that emerge after cleavage of the mature tRNAs or the precursor transcript. Both cytoplasmic and mitochondrial tRNAs can produce fragments. There are at least four structural types of tRFs believed to originate from mature tRNAs, including the relatively long tRNA halves and short 5'-tRFs, 3'-tRFs and i-tRFs. The precursor tRNA can be cleaved to produce molecules from the 5' leader or 3' trail sequences. Cleavage enzymes include Angiogenin, Dicer, RNase Z and RNase P. Especially in the case of Angiogenin, the tRFs have a characteristically unusual cyclic phosphate at their 3' end and a hydroxyl group at the 5' end. tRFs appear to play a role in RNA interference, specifically in the suppression of retroviruses and retrotransposons that use tRNA as a primer for replication. Half-tRNAs cleaved by angiogenin are also known as tiRNAs. The biogenesis of smaller fragments, including those that function as piRNAs, are less understood.

tRFs have multiple dependencies and roles; such as exhibiting significant changes between sexes, among races and disease status. Functionally, they can be loaded on Ago and act through RNAi pathways, participate in the formation of stress granules, displace mRNAs from RNA-binding proteins or inhibit translation. At the system or the organismal level, the four types of tRFs have a diverse spectrum of activities. Functionally, tRFs are associated with viral infection, cancer, cell proliferation  and also with epigenetic transgenerational regulation of metabolism.

tRFs are not restricted to humans and have been shown to exist in multiple organisms.

Two online tools are available for those wishing to learn more about tRFs: the framework for the interactive exploration of mitochondrial and nuclear tRNA fragments (MINTbase) and the relational database of Transfer RNA related Fragments (tRFdb). MINTbase also provides a naming scheme for the naming of tRFs called tRF-license plates (or MINTcodes) that is genome independent; the scheme compresses an RNA sequence into a shorter string.

Engineered tRNAs
Artificial suppressor elongator tRNAs are used to incorporate unnatural amino acids at nonsense codons placed in the coding sequence of a gene. Engineered initiator tRNAs (tRNAfMet2 with CUA anticodon encoded by metY gene) have been used to initiate translation at the amber stop codon UAG. This type of engineered tRNA is called a nonsense suppressor tRNA because it suppresses the translation stop signal that normally occurs at UAG codons. The amber initiator tRNA inserts methionine and glutamine at UAG codons preceded by a strong Shine-Dalgarno sequence. An investigation of the amber initiator tRNA showed that it was orthogonal to the regular AUG start codon showing no detectable off-target translation initiation events in a genomically recoded E. coli strain.

tRNA biogenesis
In eukaryotic cells, tRNAs are transcribed by RNA polymerase III as pre-tRNAs in the nucleus.
RNA polymerase III recognizes two highly conserved downstream promoter sequences: the 5′ intragenic control region (5′-ICR, D-control region, or A box), and the 3′-ICR (T-control region or B box) inside tRNA genes.
The first promoter begins at +8 of mature tRNAs and the second promoter is located 30–60 nucleotides downstream of the first promoter. The transcription terminates after a stretch of four or more thymidines.

Pre-tRNAs undergo extensive modifications inside the nucleus. Some pre-tRNAs contain introns that are spliced, or cut, to form the functional tRNA molecule; in bacteria these self-splice, whereas in eukaryotes and archaea they are removed by tRNA-splicing endonucleases. Eukaryotic pre-tRNA contains bulge-helix-bulge (BHB) structure motif that is important for recognition and precise splicing of tRNA intron by endonucleases. This motif position and structure are evolutionarily conserved. However, some organisms, such as unicellular algae have a non-canonical position of BHB-motif as well as 5′- and 3′-ends of the spliced intron sequence.
The 5′ sequence is removed by RNase P, whereas the 3′ end is removed by the tRNase Z enzyme.
A notable exception is in the archaeon Nanoarchaeum equitans, which does not possess an RNase P enzyme and has a promoter placed such that transcription starts at the 5′ end of the mature tRNA.
The non-templated 3′ CCA tail is added by a nucleotidyl transferase.
Before tRNAs are exported into the cytoplasm by Los1/Xpo-t, tRNAs are aminoacylated.
The order of the processing events is not conserved.
For example, in yeast, the splicing is not carried out in the nucleus but at the cytoplasmic side of mitochondrial membranes.

Nonetheless, In March 2021, researchers reported evidence suggesting that a preliminary form of transfer RNA could have been a replicator molecule in the very early development of life, or abiogenesis.

History
The existence of tRNA was first hypothesized by Francis Crick as the "adaptor hypothesis" based on the assumption that there must exist an adapter molecule capable of mediating the translation of the RNA alphabet into the protein alphabet. Paul C Zamecnik and Mahlon Hoagland discovered tRNA  Significant research on structure was conducted in the early 1960s by Alex Rich and Donald Caspar, two researchers in Boston, the Jacques Fresco group in Princeton University and a United Kingdom group at King's College London. In 1965, Robert W. Holley of Cornell University reported the primary structure and suggested three secondary structures. tRNA was first crystallized in Madison, Wisconsin, by Robert M. Bock. The cloverleaf structure was ascertained by several other studies in the following years and was finally confirmed using X-ray crystallography studies in 1974. Two independent groups, Kim Sung-Hou working under Alexander Rich and a British group headed by Aaron Klug, published the same crystallography findings within a year.

See also

 Cloverleaf model of tRNA
 Kim Sung-Hou
 Kissing stem-loop
 mRNA
 non-coding RNA and introns
 Slippery sequence
 tmRNA
 Transfer RNA-like structures
 Translation
 tRNADB
 Wobble hypothesis
 Aminoacyl-tRNA

References

External links

 tRNAdb (updated and completely restructured version of Spritzls tRNA compilation)
 tRNA surprising role in breast cancer growth
 tRNA link to heart disease and stroke
 GtRNAdb: Collection of tRNAs identified from complete genomes
 HGNC: Gene nomenclature of human tRNAs
Molecule of the Month © RCSB Protein Data Bank:
Transfer RNA
Aminoacyl-tRNA Synthetases
Elongation Factors
 Rfam entry for tRNA

RNA
Protein biosynthesis
Non-coding RNA
Articles containing video clips

Transfer RNA


Rudolf Jelínek (* 27. Februar 1935 in Kutná Hora) ist ein tschechischer Schauspieler.

Der in seiner Jugend sehr sportbegeisterte Jelínek besuchte die Theaterfakultät der Akademie der Musischen Künste in Prag (DAMU) und schloss seine Ausbildung 1957 ab. Sein erstes Engagement erhielt er in Nový Jičín; später spielte er in Prag, von 1973 bis 2004 am Divadlo na Vinohradech. Sein Filmdebüt hatte er bereits 1955 gegeben; Miloš Formans Stenata brachte ihm größere Aufmerksamkeit. In einigen Klassikern des tschechischen Films ist Jelínek zu sehen, der auch Synchronarbeiten übernahm.

Jelínek war mit Jarmila Hlavatá verheiratet.

Filmografie (Auswahl)
 1956: Fräulein Robinson (Robinsonka)
 1958: Der Tod im Sattel (Smrt v sedle)
 1958: Ausgerechnet die Oma (Páté kolo u vozu)
 1959: König des Böhmerwaldes (Král Sumavy)
 1960: Leute wie du und ich (Lidé jako ty)
 1960: Die das Gesetz nicht schützt (Mstitel)
 1961: Baron Münchhausen (Baron Prašil)
 1962: Die schwarze Dynastie (Cerná dynastie)
 1962: Schneesturm (Vánice)
 1962: Fackeln (Pochodne)
 1963: Himmel ohne Geigen (Zivot bez kytary)
 1963: Von neuem beginnen (Zacit znova)
 1965: 10 Uhr 30: Attentat (Atentat)
 1968: Die Brücke von Remagen (The Bridge at Remagen)
 1969: Mörder GmbH (The Assassination Bureau)
 1972: Der schwarze Wolf (Cerný vlk)
 1973: Welche Farbe hat die Liebe? (Jakou barvu ma laska?)
 1974: Anonyme Anzeige (Zatykac na kralovnu)
 1973: Verdacht (Podezrení)
 1973: Chronik eines weißen Sommers (Kronika zhavého léta)
 1975: Motiv für einen Mord (Motiv pro vrazdu)
 1976: Die Stadt weiß nichts (Mesto nic nevi)
 1976–1980: Die Kriminalfälle des Majors Zeman (30 případů majora Zemana)
 1978: Die Befreiung Prags (Osvobození Prahy)
 1978: Das Geheimnis des Weidenkorbs (Tajemství prouteného kosíku) (Fernsehserie)
 1979: Prinz und Abendstern (Princ a Vecernice)
 1980: Flucht nach Hause (Úteky domu)
 1981: Die Mahd der Habichtswiese (Kosenie jastrabej luky)
 1982: Liebe auf den zweiten Blick (Laska na dryhy pohled)
 1982: Ein schönes Wochenende (Zelená vlna)
 1985: Razzia (Zatah)
 2006: Ich habe den englischen König bedient (Obsluhoval jsem anglického krále)

Weblinks

 ausführliche Biografie (tschechisch)

Einzelnachweise

Filmschauspieler
Theaterschauspieler
Tschechoslowake
Tscheche
Geboren 1935
Mann

Rudolf Jelínek


Parkway Drive er et australsk metalcore band fra Byron Bay, New South Wales, dannet i 2003. I 2018 har Parkway Drive udgivet seks fulde album (Killing with a Smile, Horizons, Deep Blue, Atlas, Ire og Reverence), to dvd'er, et split album og én bog, Ten Years of Parkway Drive. Bandets seneste fire albums har nået top 10 af de australske ARIA Charts, med Ire som nummer 1 i oktober 2015.

Medlemmer

Nuværende
 Ben "Gaz" Gordon – Trommer (2003–nu)
 Luke "Pig" Kilpatrick – rytmeguitar (2003–present)
 Jeff Ling – lead guitar (2003–nu)
 Winston McCall – forsanger (2003–nu)
 Jia "Pie" O'Connor – basguitar (2006–nu)

Tidligere
 Brett "Lagg" Versteeg – basguitar, vokal (2003–2004)
 Shaun "Cashy" Cash – basguitar (2004–2006)

Tidslinje

Diskografi

Referencer

Eksterne henvisninger

 Officielle Hjemmeside
 Parkway Drive på AllMusic.com

Musikgrupper fra 2003
Musikgrupper fra Australien
Metalgrupper fra Australien

Parkway Drive


Die Filialkirche Federaun steht am westlichen Ortsrand von Unterfederaun im Gemeindegebiet von Villach. Die Kirche gehört zur römisch-katholischen Pfarre Fürnitz und ist dem heiligen Matthäus geweiht.

Beschreibung
Dem einheitlich gotischen Bau mit Dreiachtelschluss ist im Norden eine offene Vorlaube auf zwei Pfeilern angebaut. Der Südturm mit Doppelschallfenstern wird von einem Spitzhelm bekrönt. An der Außenmauer hat sich ein um 1400 entstandenes, spätgotisches Freskenfragment mit einer Stifterin erhalten. Man betritt die Kirche durch das Rundbogenportal im Westen.
Der durchgehende Innenraum mit einer großen Holzempore endet in einer halbrunden Apsis mit einem Segmentbogenfenster. im Süden führt ein Portal mit geradem Sturz in die kreuzgratgewölbte Sakristei.

Der um 1680 entstandene Hauptaltar zeigt im Mittelbild den Evangelisten Matthäus.

Literatur
 Dehio-Handbuch. Die Kunstdenkmäler Österreichs. Kärnten. Anton Schroll, Wien 2001, ISBN 3-7031-0712-X, S. 116.

Kirchengebäude in Villach
Federaun
Federaun
Federaun
Baudenkmal (Kärnten)

Filialkirche Federaun


باغُه قرطبة ، هي إحدى بلديات مقاطعة قرطبة إحدى مقاطعات إسبانيا، و التي تقع في منطقة الأندلس جنوب إسبانيا.

يبلغ عدد سكانها 22.999 نسمة وفقاً لإحصائية سنة (2007).

أعلام
 خوسيه أنطونيو مانسو دي فيلاسكو
 نيسيتو ألكالا زامورا
 خوسيه ألفاريز
 رافاييل لوبيز

مراجع

بلديات قرطبة

بريغو دي قرطبة (قرطبة)


1801 (MDCCCI) yılı Gregoryen takvimine göre Perşembe ve Jülyen takvimine göre Salı günü başlayan bir yıldır.

Olaylar
 1 Ocak - Cüce gezegen Ceres, Giuseppe Piazzi tarafından keşfedildi.
 3 Şubat - Genç William, Birleşik Devletler Başbakanlığı görevinden istifa etti.
 9 Şubat - Lunéville Anlaşması ile Marengo Savaşı sona erdi ve Fransa ile Avusturya arasında ikinci koalisyon dönemi başladı.
 4 Mart - John Adams'''ın yerine ABD Başkanı olarak Thomas Jefferson seçildi.
 23 Mart - Rus Çarı I. Pavel öldürüldü. Yerine oğlu I. Aleksandr geçti.
 7 Haziran - Portekiz ve İspanya Badajoz Antlaşmasını imzaladılar. Portekiz Olivenza şehrini kaybetti.
 25 Haziran - Kahire'''deki Fransız işgal orduları, Türk ordusuna teslim oldu.
 27 Haziran - Kahire İngilizler'in eline geçti.
 18 Temmuz - Napolyon, Papa ile 1801 Antlaşmasını imzaladı.
 16 Kasım - New York Evening Postun ilk sayısı basıldı.

Tarihlenemeyen
 İlk nüfus sayımı Londra'da yapıldı. Şehirde 860,035 kişi sayıldı.
 Fransa'da ilk nüfus sayımı yapıldı.
 Joseph-Marie Jacquard dokuma tezgâhını geliştirdi.
 Ultraviole radyasyon, Johann Wilhelm Ritter tarafından keşfedildi.

Süregelen olaylar
 Fransız İhtilali (1792-1802).
 Napolyon Savaşları (1799-1815).

Doğumlar

Ocak-Haziran
 3 Ocak - Gijsbert Haan, Hollandalı-Amerikalı dini lider (ö. 1874)
 9 Ocak - Józef Kowalewski, Polonyalı doğubilimci (ö. 1878)
 14 Ocak - Jane Welsh Carlyle,  Thomas Carlyle adlı deneme yazarının eşi (ö. 1866)
 1 Şubat
 Jean-Baptiste Boussingault, Fransız kimyager (ö. 1887)
 Thomas Cole, Amerikan artist (ö. 1848)
 13 Şubat - János Kardos, evangelist rahip, öğretmen ve yazar (ö. 1875)
 21 Şubat – John Henry Newman, İngiliz Katolik Kardinal (ö. 1890)
 5 Mayıs – Pío Pico, Alta California'nın son Valisi (d. 1894)
 11 Mayıs - Henri Labrouste, Fransız mimar (ö. 1875)
 17 Mayıs – Lovisa Åhrberg, İsveç'te ilk kadın doktor, cerrah (ö. 1881)
 1 Haziran – Brigham Young, Amerikan Mormon lider sömürgeci (ö. 1877)
4 Haziran - James Pennethorne, İngiliz mimar (ö. 1871)
 5 Haziran – William Scamp, İngiliz mimar ve mühendis (ö. 1872)
 14 Haziran – Heber C. Kimball, Amerikan dini lider (ö. 1868)
 16 Haziran – Julius Plücker, Alman matematikçi ve fizikçi (ö. 1868)
 24 Haziran – Caroline Clive, İngiliz yazar (ö. 1873)
30 Haziran - Frederic Bastiat, Fransız filozof (ö. 1850)

Temmuz-Aralık
 5 Temmuz – David Farragut, Amerikan amiral (ö. 1870)
 14 Temmuz – Johannes Peter Müller, Alman fizyolog, karşılaştırmalı anatomist, ihtiyolog (ö. 1858)
 27 Temmuz – George Biddell Airy, İngiliz matematikçi ve astronom (ö. 1892)
 1 Eylül – Hortense Allart, Fransız yazar (ö. 1879)
 3 Eylül – Christian Erich Hermann von Meyer, Alman paleontolog (ö. 1869)
 12 Ekim
 – Friedrich Frey-Herosé, İsviçre Federal Konsey'in üyesi (ö. 1873)
 – Carl August von Steinheil, Alman mühendis ve astronom (ö. 1870)
 3 Kasım
Karl Baedeker, Alman yazar (ö. 1859)
Vincenzo Bellini, İtalyan besteci (ö. 1835)
10 Kasım - Vladimir Dal, Rus sözlük yazarı (ö. 1872)
 13 Kasım – Elisabeth Ludovika, Prusya kraliçesi (ö. 1873)
11 Aralık - Christian Dietrich Grabbe, Alman yazar (ö. 1836)
tarihi bilinmeyenler
Dai Xi, Çinli ressam (ö. 1860)
Franciszek Ksawery Godebski, Polonyalı yazar
Kazasker Mustafa İzzet Efendi, Türk hattat, bestekâr, devlet adamı (ö. 1876)

Ölümler

Ocak-Haziran
 7 Şubat - Daniel Chodowiecki, Polonyalı ressam (d. 1726)
21 Mart - Andrea Luchesi, İtalyan besteci (d. 1741)
23 Mart - Rus Çarı I. Pavel (d. 1754)
25 Mart - Novalis, Alman yazar (d. 2 Mayıs 1772)
 28 Mart  – Ralph Abercromby, İngiliz komutan (d. 1734)
2 Nisan - Thomas Dadford Junior, İngiliz mühendis
7 Nisan - Noël François de Wailly, Fransız sözlük yazarı (d. 1724)
 3 Mayıs – Cyrus Trapaud, İngiliz Ordusu komutanu (d. 1715)
17 Mayıs - William Heberden, İngiliz fizikçi (d. 1710)
 14 Haziran – Benedict Arnold, Amerikan Devrimi kahramanı, daha sonra haini (d. 1741)

Temmuz-Aralık
 4 Temmuz – Leendert Viervant, Hollandalı mimar (d. 1752)
 31 Ağustos – Nicola Sala, İtalyan opera bestecisi (d. 1713)
 19 Eylül - Johann Gottfried Koehler, Alman astronom (d. 1745)
4 Kasım - William Shippen, Amerikalı fizikçi (d. 1712)
5 Kasım - Motoori Norinaga, Japon filolog ve bilim insanı (d. 1730)

Ayrıca
1801'de Osmanlı İmparatorluğu

Notlar

1801


بابلو ألفاريز نونيز  (مواليد 14 مايو 1980 في أوفييدو - إسبانيا) لاعب كرة قدم إسباني يلعب حاليا لصالح نادي الدرجة الأولى ديبورتيفو لاكورونيا الإسباني منذ 2006 في مركز الجناح الأيمن .

روابط خارجية

مراجع

لاعبو كرة قدم رجالية إسبان مغتربون
لاعبو كرة قدم رجالية إسبان
لاعبو كرة قدم رجالية مغتربون في الولايات المتحدة
لاعبو وسط كرة قدم رجالية
أشخاص على قيد الحياة
رياضيون إسبان مغتربون في الولايات المتحدة
رياضيون من أوفييدو
لاعبو الأستورية
لاعبو الدوري الأمريكي لكرة القدم
لاعبو الدوري الإسباني
لاعبو الدوري الإسباني الدرجة الثالثة
لاعبو الدوري الإسباني الدرجة الثانية
لاعبو الدوري الإسباني الدرجة الثانية ب
لاعبو بطولة دوري كرة القدم المتحدة
لاعبو ديبورتيفو لاكورونيا
لاعبو راسينغ سانتاندير
لاعبو ريال سبورتينغ خيخون
لاعبو ريال سبورتينغ خيخون ب
لاعبو كرة قدم إسبان
لاعبو كرة قدم إسبان مغتربون
لاعبو كرة قدم مغتربون في الولايات المتحدة
لاعبو كرة قدم من أوفييدو
لاعبو نادي لوغو
لاعبو نادي نيويورك سيتي
مواليد 1980
مواليد في أوفييدو

بابلو ألفاريز نونيز


Cette liste comporte tous les 36 ambassadeurs en fonction à la tête d'une ambassade de la Guinée, et pas seulement les diplomates ayant le titre d'« ambassadeurs de la Guinée ».

La deuxième liste comprend les ambassadeurs de la Guinée auprès d'organisations internationales.

Liste

Notes et références

Notes

Références

Voir aussi

Articles connexes
 Représentations diplomatiques de la Guinée
 Liste des actuels ambassadeurs étrangers en Guinée
 Ambassadeur thématique

Bibliographie

Liens externes

Liste des ambassadeurs guinéens


Le Leader fantôme de la Chambre des Lords, également appelé Leader de l'Opposition à la Chambre des Lords,  est la personne qui dirige l'opposition officielle à la Chambre des lords. Leur travail consiste à travailler avec le leader, le Lord Speaker et d'autres Lords seniors pour organiser les affaires. Ils travaillent également avec le whip en chef de l'opposition et d'autres porte-parole du parti pour organiser le parti. Le titulaire de ce poste deviendrait normalement Leader de la Chambre des lords si le parti remporte une élection et forme le gouvernement. Ce poste est occupé par la Baronne Smith de Basildon depuis le 27 mai 2015. Au XIXe siècle, les affiliations partisanes étaient généralement moins fixes et les dirigeants des deux chambres avaient souvent un statut égal. Un leader unique et clair de l'opposition n'était définitivement établi que si le leader de l'opposition à la Chambre des communes ou à la Chambre des lords était le premier ministre sortant. Cependant, depuis le Parliament Act 1911, il n'y a pas eu de contestation sur le fait que le leader de la Chambre des communes est prééminent et a toujours détenu le titre principal.

Leaders fantôme de la Chambre des Lords (1911-aujourd'hui)

Cela ne répertorie que les leaders depuis le Parliament Act 1911, car c'est à ce moment-là que le Leader de l'opposition des communes a été placé comme prééminent sur les lords. Les anciens Leader sont ici

Notes et références

Notes
  Pendant le gouvernement de coalition d'Asquith de 1915–1916, il n'y avait pas d'opposition formelle ni aux Communes ni aux Lords.
   Le Parti travailliste n'a pas nommé de leader parmi les Lords avant de former son premier gouvernement en 1924.
  Le Marquis de Salisbury à partir de 1947
  Le Comte Alexander d'Hillsborough à partir de 1963

Annexes

Articles connexes
 Official Opposition frontbench
 Cabinet fantôme de Keir Starmer
 Leader fantôme de la Chambre des communes

Opposition officielle (Royaume-Uni)
Gouvernement de l'Irlande du Nord

Leader fantôme de la Chambre des lords


O colapso de ponte em Morbi ocorreu em 30 de outubro de 2022, quando uma ponte suspensa com 143 anos sobre o rio Machchhu colapsou em Morbi, Gujarate, na Índia. Cerca de 400 pessoas estavam na ponte no momento do colapso, sendo que 135 morreram e mais de 180 ficaram feridas. Dezenas de pessoas ficaram feridas e há muitos desaparecidos. O acidente ocorreu quatro dias após a reabertura da ponte, que esteve fechada para reparações que duraram dois anos. A reabertura fora no dia 26 de outubro, por ocasião do ano novo em Gujarat.

2022 na Índia
Desastres de transporte na Índia
Desastres em 2022
Eventos de outubro de 2022
Guzerate
Colapso de pontes

Colapso de ponte em Morbi em 2022


Stjepan Krešić (Donje Hrasno kraj Neuma, BiH, 22. veljače 1915. – Ottawa, Kanada, 21. travnja 1984.), hrvatski klasični filolog i književni prevoditelj

Životopis
Rođen u Donjem Hrasnom kraj Stoca u Hercegovini. U Zagrebu 1941. diplomirao i doktorirao filologiju. U Kanadu se iselio 1959. godine. Predavao na Odsjeku za klasičnu filologiju Sveučilišta u Ottawi. Autor grecističkih i latinističkih studija. Ističu se Krešićevi prijevodi Krika i bijesa Williama Faulknera te Dickensovih Posmrtnih spisa Pickwickova kluba  koje se smatra primjerom književnog prevođenja, Istočno od raja Johna Steinbecka i druge.
Bavio se književnom hermeneutikom. Urednik zbornika Suvremena književna hermeneutika i interpretacija klasičnih tekstova (Contemporary Literary Hermeneutics and Interpretation of Classical Texts). Član američke Hrvatske akademije.

Izvori

Hrvatski prevoditelji iz Bosne i Hercegovine
Hrvati u Kanadi
Filolozi
Hrvatski filolozi
Životopisi, Neum
Kanadski znanstvenici

Stjepan Krešić (filolog)


سبخة الأفيال سبخة بولاية القصرين بالوسط الغربي التونسي، تقع على بعد 18  جنوب غربي مدينة القصرين و 4  شمال شرقي مدينة فريانة.

المراجع

أفيال

سبخة الأفيال


Skidegate (Hlgaiu, Hlgagilda), jedan od najvažnijih haidskih gradova u otočju kraljice Charlotte. Pravi naziv grada je Hlgaiu ili Hlgagilda, a njegovo ime Skidegate iskrivljeni je naziv poglavice Sgedagits. Skidegate je svoje ime dao i haidskoj jezičnoj porodici Skittagetan.

Prvi stanovnici grada bila je porodica Hlgaiu-lanas iz klana Orla, a kasnije u njemu žive i porodice kolerktivno nazvane Gitins. Između 1836 i 1841. grad ima 48 kuća i 738 stanovnika. Nešto kasnije tamo se nalazi 20 kuća s 300 - 400 stanovnika; 239 (1909).

Vodeće porodice koje su živjele u Skidegati su Nayuuns-haidagai, Nasagas-haidagai i podčinjene Lagalaiguahl-lanas, Gitin-gidjats.

Izvori

Indijanska sela, Haida

Skidegate


Chuck Brown ist der Name folgender Personen:

* Chuck Brown (Musiker) (1936–2012), US-amerikanischer Gitarrist und Sänger
 Chuck Brown (Politiker) (1951–2003), US-amerikanischer Politiker

Chuck Brown


Privativ betegner inden for grammatik et affiks, der betyder mangel på eller ophævelse af en egenskab. Det er en stavelse (bundet morfem), der hæftes på et adverbium, verbum, substantiv eller adjektiv.

På dansk kan en privativ være forstavelserne u-, mis- m.v.
Eksempler: uønsket, misvisende, asocial, inhabil, illegitim, irrelevant.

En privativ kan også være efterled som -løs, -fri.
Eksempler: værdiløs, sukkerfri.

Ordet kommer af latin privare = berøve.

Privativ kan også være en betegnelse for abessiv (kasus).

Grammatik
Kasus

Privativ


Henry Albers (* 28. Mai 1904 in Hamburg; † 4. Juli 1987 in Wiesbaden) war ein deutscher Chemiker und Professor.

Leben

Während seines Studiums in Erlangen wurde er 1924 Mitglied der Burschenschaft der Bubenreuther. Nach dem Studium der Chemie an der Universität Hamburg und der 1928 erfolgten Promotion bei Paul Rabe (Chemiker) war Albers dort wissenschaftlicher Hilfsassistent von 1928 bis 1934.

Zum 1. Mai 1933 trat er in die NSDAP (Mitgliedsnummer 3.041.837) ein. Ferner war er zuerst Mitglied im NSKK sowie bei der Motor-SA, später trat er dem NSFK und ab 1. April 1937 dem NSDDB bei.

1934 wurde er in Hamburg habilitiert. Danach erhielt er ein Stipendium der Rockefeller-Stiftung und war am Biochemischen Institut der Universität Stockholm tätig. Von 1935 bis 1938 war er Dozent am Institut für organische Chemie an der TH Hannover, wo er 1937 zum außerplanmäßigen Professor ernannt wurde. 1941 erhielt Henry Albers einen Lehrstuhl an der TH Danzig.

Ab 1950 war er Gastprofessor und ab 1955 Ordinarius an der Universität Mainz. Von 1963 bis 1971 war er Direktor des Instituts für Biochemie der Universität Mainz. Albers war Giftgasspezialist und erhielt Förderung durch die Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft.

Seine letzte Ruhestätte erhielt Henry Albers auf dem Friedhof Ohlsdorf im Planquadrat AE 11.

Literatur
 Ernst Klee: Das Personenlexikon zum Dritten Reich. Fischer, aktualisierte 2. Auflage, Frankfurt am Main 2007, ISBN 978-3-596-16048-8.
 Otto Renkhoff: Nassauische Biographie. Kurzbiographien aus 13 Jahrhunderten. 2. Auflage. Wiesbaden 1992. ISBN 3-922244-90-4, S. 7, Nr. 33.
 TH Hannover (Hg.): Catalogus Professorum. Der Lehrkörper der Technischen Hochschule Hannover 1831–1956. TH Hannover, Hannover 1956, S. 41.

Weblinks

 Henry Albers Universität Hamburg Fachbereich Chemie
 Henry Albers im Mainzer Professorenkatalog

Einzelnachweise

Chemiker (20. Jahrhundert)
Hochschullehrer (Universität Hamburg)
Hochschullehrer (Technische Universität Danzig)
Hochschullehrer (Johannes Gutenberg-Universität Mainz)
Burschenschafter (20. Jahrhundert)
NSDAP-Mitglied
SA-Mitglied
Deutscher
Geboren 1904
Gestorben 1987
Mann

Henry Albers


En Maria-Maluca-flerbåndsantenne er en radioantenne med to elementer til at modtage eller sende radiobølger i dele af kortbølgebåndet.

Den oprindelige Maria-Maluca-flerbåndsantenne er designet og anvendt til tre bånd (20, 15 og 10 meter) og bliver så kaldt en Maria-Maluca-trebåndsantenne. Maria-Maluca-trebåndsantennen blev opfundet i 1957 af den brasilianske radioamatør José Luiz Salvador Victor Marinaro (PY2BBP) og antennen blev populær i 1960'erne.

Med en antennetuner kan en anden variant klare seks bånd (20, 17, 15, 12, 10 og 6 meter) og kaldes så en Maria-Maluca-seksbåndsantenne. Maria-Maluca-seksbåndsantennen er opfundet af den tyske radioamatør Helmut Oeller (DC6NY) i 2005.

Maria-Maluca-trebåndsantenne
Maria-Maluca-flerbåndsantenne anvendes af mange radioamatører i latinamerika. Antennen er enkel og dermed relativ billig eller let at lave selv, sammenlignet med "traditionelle" flerbåndsantenner. (De "traditionelle" retningsbestemte flerbåndsantenner indeholder mange bølgefælder og forkorterspoler, der typisk kræver omfattende målinger og justeringer.)
Maria-Maluca-trebåndsantennen blev designet til radioamatørbåndene 10, 15 og 20 meter.

Kilder/referencer

Antennetyper

Maria-Maluca-flerbåndsantenne


Haworth Inc. is a privately held, family-owned office furniture manufacturer headquartered in Holland, Michigan, United States. Founded in 1948 by G. W. Haworth, the company designs and manufactures seating, tables, movable walls, panels, storage, and wood casegoods. Haworth's furniture pieces, combined with interior design and technology, are intended to create a focus on "organic workspaces that help people perform their best." Haworth employs 7,500 workers and has 650 dealerships in more than 120 countries. 2021 global sales reached $1.96 billion, a 6.2-percent increase from 2020.

Brands/companies
Haworth's brand portfolio includes Italian design brands Poltrona Frau, Cassina, and Cappellini; technology software Bluescape; and outdoor furniture maker JANUS et Cie.  The Haworth Health Environments brand offers healthcare furniture. Haworth also owns shares in BuzziSpace, a Belgium-based company focusing on acoustic and collaborative workspace.

History

1940s–70s
During the 1940s, while teaching Industrial Arts at Holland High School, G.W. Haworth started a woodworking shop as a hobby in his garage. His intention was to increase the income for his children's future college education by producing and selling special-order wood products. As his reputation and orders grew, he expanded to a 4,800-square-foot plant in Holland, Michigan and decided to turn his sideline into a full-time business, launching Modern Products in 1948. In the 1950s, the focus of Modern Products shifted toward office environments in response to the development of modular office partitions, and the company changed its name to Modern Partitions.

In 1976, G.W.'s son, Dick Haworth, took over as president and CEO. Under Dick's leadership, the company's name changed to Haworth and focused exclusively on contract office furniture. Dick invented the first cubicle wall panels with internal wiring. These panels could be snapped together and eliminated the client's need to pay electricians to wire office spaces. In 1977, Haworth International Inc. was formed to set up foreign licenses for the manufacture and marketing of office interior systems. A year later, Haworth opened a national showroom in Chicago's Merchandise Mart.

1980–2000: Rise and expansion
During the next two decades, Haworth developed and patented a number of industry innovations, including panel-to-panel cabling systems. In the early 1980s, the company moved its headquarters to One Haworth Center in Holland, while showrooms were open or renovated in 18 North American cities and four international locations. Office seating was also added to the Haworth product offering being built in Holland, Michigan. By 1986, Haworth had become the third-largest office furniture manufacturer in the U.S., with sales topping $300 million and a workforce of 2,600 employees.

In 1988, Haworth became a global company after undertaking a strategic expansion. The business acquired 15 companies in Europe and North America, then built in Asia to expand its sales and dealer network. In 1995, the company's Ideation Group formed, applying user-based research to concepts and products.  In 1996, competitor Steelcase was found at fault in a patent infringement suit brought by Haworth in 1985. Steelcase was ordered to pay $211.5 million in damages and interest.

2000 to present: a global focus
In 2000, Haworth passed the $2 billion mark in annual revenues. In 2008, Haworth's new corporate headquarters, a LEED-NC Gold-certified facility, opened to serve as a living lab. In 2009, Haworth became the first company in the industry to achieve zero waste to landfill in all U.S. manufacturing facilities. That same year, Dick Haworth stepped aside and his son, Matthew, then 40, became chairman.

The company purchased Italian furniture group Poltrona Frau in 2014, gaining a majority stake in several Italian design brands including Cappellini, Cassina, and Poltrona Frau.
In 2013, Bluescape was launched to support virtual work and visual collaboration.  "We recognized that our deep insight into the physical workplace could be translated into user experience in a virtual workspace," Dick Haworth said.
The company purchased outdoor furniture company JANUS et Cie for an undisclosed amount in 2016.  In 2017, the company's headquarters was given a design refresh by Patricia Urquiola and Haworth Collection, which partnered with Pablo Designs and GAN rugs.

Current leadership
Franco Bianchi has served as CEO and president of the company since 2005. In 2009, Dick Haworth stepped aside and his son, Matthew, became chairman of the family-owned business. The company's founder, G.W. Haworth, died in 2006 at age 95.

Company culture
Haworth issued special bonuses to workers totaling more than $5 million for the company's 70th anniversary in 2018.

Haworth became the first in the contract furniture industry to achieve zero waste to landfill in all U.S. manufacturing facilities in 2009.
The company also donated 42 acres of wetland for restoration to Outdoor Discovery Center-Macatawa Greenway's Project Clarity, an organized effort to improve the water quality of Holland's Lake Macatawa.

Haworth maintains research partnerships with several global partners, including Fraunhofer-Gesellschaft in Germany, University of Michigan, Western Michigan University and London's Royal College of Art. The company's Human Performance Lab studies the impact of visual distractions on workplace performance.

Noteworthy products/projects
Popular Haworth products include its research-backed ergonomic office chairs Fern, Zody, and Very, and Planes Height-Adjustable tables.

Haworth has partnered with numerous designers, including Patricia Urquiola, a Spanish architect and designer who has been a Haworth collaborator since 2013. Studio Urquiola designed Haworth's Chicago showroom for NeoCon 2013, 2014, and 2015, and gave the company's corporate headquarters a refresh in 2017.

Spectrum Health, West Michigan's largest healthcare provider, tapped Haworth to furnish their idea for a new kind of doctor's office, with the Strive health care office opening in downtown Grand Rapids in 2017. The facility functions as a learning lab for Spectrum to test new ideas and develop a deeper understanding of consumer needs.

In June 2021, a nearly 2-year project to renovate the Haworth Hotel in Holland was completed. The renovation, funded jointly by Hope College and the Haworth family, was led by designer Patricia Urquiola. The newly remodeled building is intended to "foster interactions between Hope College staff and students, community members and Haworth guests."

The headquarters site includes a .

References

Manufacturing companies based in Michigan
Holland, Michigan
Mackinac Center for Public Policy
Furniture companies of the United States
Manufacturing companies established in 1948
1948 establishments in Michigan
Family-owned companies of the United States

Haworth (company)


Et dab er et dansetrin, hvor danseren gentagne gange trykker hovedet ned ved indersiden af albuen og strækker den anden arm ca. 60 ° i vejret.

Rich The Kid har på YouTube lavet en videogennemgang af det populære dansetrin. Videoen blev uploadet den 7. november 2016 og er blevet set mere end 2 millioner gange.

Oprindelse

Dab har sin oprindelse på Atlantas hip-hop-scene, men der er uenighed om, hvem der opfandt dansetrinnet.

NFL-quarterback Cam Newton fra Carolina Panthers blev kendt for at udføre dette dansetrin, når han scorede et touchdown i sæsonen 2015-2016.

Se også
 Cancan
 Nae Nae
 Twerking
 Whip

Kilder

Henvisninger

Danse

Dab (dans)


Margareta I. Velika (Søborg, 1353. – kraj Flensburga, 28. listopada 1412.), regentica i kraljica Danske, Norveške i Švedske iz danske dinastije Estridsen. Osnovala je Kalmarsku uniju 1397. godine s ciljem učvršćenja jedinstva nordijskih država. Bila je jedan od najistaknutijih skandinavskih vladara, istaknula se u odbijanju njemačkih prinčeva i Hanzeatske lige od njenih teritorija i sjedinila je gotovo čitav prostor Skandinavije, zbog čega je prozvana Semiramidom Sjevera.

Životopis
Rodila se 1353. godine kao šesto i najmlađe dijete danskog kralja Valdemara IV. i Helvige od Schleswiga. Godine 1359. zaručena je za norveškog kralja Haakona VI., sina švedskog i norveškog kralja Magnusa IV. Erikssona. Dinastičke zaruke koje su provedene kako bi se spriječile pretenzije knezova Mecklenburških na skandinavska prijestolja, dovedene su u opasnost kada se 1360. godine zaoštrio sukob između danskog kralja Valdemara IV. i švedsko-norveškog kralja Magnusa IV. Međutim, vojni porazi i opozicija među švedskim plemstvom prisilili su Magnusa IV. na uzmak, nakon čega se Margareta ipak udala za njegova sina u Kopenhagenu 1363. godine.

Margareta je odgojena i obrzovana na dvoru u Norveškoj pod tutorstvom Märte Ulfsdotter, kćeri sv. Brigite Švedske.

Nakon očeve smrti 1375. godine proglašena je regenticom Danske u ime maloljetnnog sina Olafa II. Godine 1380. umro je njen suprug, norveški kralj Haakon VI. nakon čega je Margareta proglašena i regenticom Norveške u ime svog sina. Međutim, Olaf II. je umro već 1387. godine pa je Margareta preuzela punu kraljevsku vlast nad Danskom i Norveškom. Unija između Danske i Norveške trajala je sve do 1814. godine.

Uspjela je još 1385. godine zauzeti od Hanzeatske lige ekonomski važna uporišta na zapadnoj obali Skanije. Godine 1389. pobijedila je u bici švedskog kralja Alberta poslije čega je priznata i za švedsku kraljicu. Iste godine proglasila je svog nećaka Erika Pomeranskog za norveškog kralja, a 1396. godine postavila ga je za danskog i švedskog kralja, ali je pritom zadržala jak utjecaj na državne poslove.

Godine 1397. utemeljila je Kalmarsku uniju kako bi osigruala jedinstvo triju nordijskih država. Erik je proglašen zajedničkim kraljem, ali Margareta je zadržala stvarnu vlast. Glavni ciljevi njene politike bili su obnova vlasti nad izgubljenim pokrajinama, u čemu je bila uspješna, zaštita južnih granica Danske od njemačkih pretenzija te povećanje prihoda krune što je ostvarila povratom kraljevskih dobara.

Margareta I. umrla je iznenada 1412. godine tijekom sukoba s Holsteinom. Nasljedio ju je nećak Erik Pomeranski na sva tri prijestolja.

Izvori

Vanjske poveznice

 Margareta I. - Hrvatska enciklopedija
 Margareta I. Velika - Proleksis enciklopedija
 Margareta I., kraljica Danske, Norveške i Švedske - Britannica Online

Danski kraljevi
Norveški kraljevi
Švedski monarsi
Kraljice
Kalmarska unija

Margareta I. Velika


Malling fue un distrito rural en el condado administrativo de Kent (Inglaterra) entre 1894 y 1974.

Fue constituido bajo la Ley de Gobierno Local de 1894 y estaba dividido en veinticinco parroquias: Addington, Allington, Aylesford, Birling, Borough Green, Burham, Ditton, East Malling and Larkfield, East Peckham, Ightham, Leybourne, Mereworth, Offham, Platt, Plaxtol, Ryarsh, Shipbourne, Snodland, Stansted, Trottiscliffe, Wateringbury, West Malling, West Peckham, Wouldham y Wrotham.

Su superficie fue reducida a principios de los años 1930 al ceder una parte (38 acres) de Allington a Hollingbourne, parte (688 acres) de esta última, de Aylesford y de East Peckham a Maidstone, parte (10 acres) de Trottiscliffe a Strood y parte de Ightham (129 acres) a Dartford y otra (308 acres) a Sevenoaks. Por otro lado, la superficie total (8359 acres) del distrito urbano de Wrotham fue anexionada a Malling tras su abolición, junto con una parte (1 acre) de la parroquia de Nettlestead, en Maidstone.

Malling fue abolido en 1974 bajo la Ley de Gobierno Local de 1972 y su territorio pasó a formar parte del nuevo distrito de Tonbridge and Malling.

Referencias
 Ficha de Malling en Vision of Britain (en inglés).

Malling

Distrito rural de Malling


الشيخ جوعان بن حمد آل ثاني (1984 -)، هو شقيق أمير دولة قطر تميم بن حمد بن خليفة آل ثاني ونجل الأمير السابق الشيخ حمد بن خليفة آل ثاني من زوجته الشيخة موزة المسند. يعمل ضابط بالقوات المسلحة القطرية برتبة نقيب، بالإضافة إلى رئاسة اللجنة الأولمبية القطرية.

انتقادات
وصفت منظمة "حقوق الإنسان العربي" جوعان بن حمد ب "رجل الظل" في قصر الحكم في قطر واتهمته بدعم الإرهاب والاعتداء على أفراد من داخل أسرة آل ثاني وخارجها. وبحسب تقارير المنظمة، فإن جوعان بن حمد متورط ب"الاعتداء على أفراد من أسرة آل ثاني، ترحيل الجاليات المصرية، تمكين الإرهابيين من المؤسسات الحكومية، شراء ذمم غير القطريين، اعتقالات عشوائية للمواطنين القطريين، تهديد الأرامل والمطلقات بالأسرة الحاكمة بسحب أطفالهن، تلفيق تهم ضد أبناء القبائل، مخوِل من قِبل والده حمد بن خليفة بدفع رشى للقبائل بغرض زرع مخبرين داخلها."

وتتهم للمعارضة القطرية جوعان بن حمد بقمع الشعب القطري والاعتقالات الجائرة، وأفادت أنه يأمر جهاز الأمن باعتقال أي قطري يتم الشك بوطنيته وولاءه.

وأشارت "منظمة حقوق الإنسان العربي" إلى تضاعف عدد سجناء الرأي في قطر في 2017.

قام جوعان بن حمد بشراء أول سيارة باللون الأسود من طراز "Lykan hyper sport" التي تحتوي على كشافات مرصعة بالألماس وأغطية الصالون في داخلها مصممة بخيوط من الذهب الخالص وقيمتها 2.2 مليون جنيه استرليني.

حياته العائلية
في 24 أبريل 2008 تزوج من المها بنت سالم بن شبيب الرمل المناعي وأنجبا:
 حمد.
 تميم.
 الظبي.
 خليفة.
 موزة.
 جاسم.
مريم.

جوائز
نال الشيخ جوعان جائزة الشخصية الرياضية العربية، كونه نجح منذ رئاسته اللجنة الأولمبية القطرية في العام 2015 في تحقيق العديد من الإنجازات الرياضية العالمية، وفي مقدمتها تحقيـق الرياضيين القطريين خلال دورة الألعـاب الأولمبيـة في طوكيو 2020 أفضل إنجازات فـي تاريخهم الأولمبي بلغت ميداليتين ذهبيتين وميدالية برونزية، كما ترأس الشيخ جوعان اللجنـة المنظمـة لبطولـة العالـم لكـرة اليـد فـي الدوحـة عام 2015 وأسهم في استضافة قطر للعديد من الفعاليات الرياضية الدولية على مستوى جميع الرياضات، وكذلك تطويـر رياضـة الفروسـية وتحقيـق الخيول القطريـة إنجازات عالمية، كما أسهم في فوز بلاده بتنظيم دورة الألعاب الآسيوية المقررة سنة 2030 لتكون المرة الثانية التي تستضيف فيها قطر هذه الدورة بعد عام 2006.

المراجع

آل ثاني
أبناء حمد بن خليفة آل ثاني
أشخاص على قيد الحياة
خريجو مدرسة سان سير العسكرية
مواليد 1406 هـ
مواليد 1984
مواليد 1986

جوعان بن حمد آل ثاني


كوتارو ناكاغاوا (中川幸太郎 ناكاغاوا كوتارو) هو ملحن ياباني ولد في 7 فبراير 1969.

أعماله في السينما اليابانية
 فيلم هياكوجو سنتاي غاورينجر: زئير البركان
 غوغو سنتاي بوكينجر ذا موفي: البريشس الأقوى
 فيلم كامن رايدر ديكيد: أول رايدر في مواجهة داي شوكر (بالتعاون مع شوهي ناروسي)
 كامن رايدر x كامن رايدر دبل آند ديكيد: موفي تايسن 2010 (بالتعاون مع شوهي ناروسي)
 كامن رايدر x كامن رايدر أوز آند دبل بالإشتراك مع سكال: موفي تايسن كور (بالتعاون مع شوهي ناروسي)
 أوز, دين-أو, أول رايدر: إنطلاق كامن رايدر
 فيلم كامن رايدر أوز وندرفل: الشوغن و الأحد و عشرون كور ميدال
 كامن رايدر x كامن رايدر فورزي آند أوز: موفي تايسن ميغاميكس (بالتعاون مع شوهي ناروسي)
 كامن رايدر x سوبر سنتاي: صراع الأبطال الخارقين (بالتعاون مع كوسكي ياماشيتا)
 كامن رايدر x كامن رايدر ويزارد آند فورزي: موفي تايسن ألتيميتوم (بالتعاون مع شوهي ناروسي)
 كامن رايدر x سوبر سنتاي x أوتشو كيجي: صراع الأبطال الخارقين Z (بالتعاون مع كوسكي ياماشيتا)
 فيلم كامن رايدر ويزارد إن ماجيك لاند
 كامن رايدر x كامن رايدر غايم آند ويزارد: موفي دايغاسين سنغوكو المصيرية (بالتعاون مع كوسكي ياماشيتا)
 هيسيه رايدر في مواجهة شوا رايدر: صراع كامن رايدر بالإشتراك مع سوبر سنتاي (بالتعاون مع كوسكي ياماشيتا)
 كامن رايدر x كامن رايدر درايف آند غايم: موفي تايسن فل ثروتل (بالتعاون مع شوهي ناروسي وكوسكي ياماشيتا)
 فيلم كامن رايدر درايف: سربرايز فيوتشر (بالتعاون مع شوهي ناروسي)
 كامن رايدر x كامن رايدر غوست آند درايف: تشو موفي تايسن جينيسيس (بالتعاون مع غو ساكابي و شوهي ناروسي)
 كامن رايدر رقم 1 (بالتعاون مع غو ساكابي وشوهي ناروسي)

أعماله في التوكوساتسو
 هياكوجو سنتاي غاورينجر
 غوغو سنتاي بوكينجر
 كامن رايدر ديكيد (بالتعاون مع شوهي ناروسي)
 كامن رايدر دبل (بالتعاون مع شوهي ناروسي)
 كامن رايدر أوز
 كامن رايدر ويزارد
 كامن رايدر درايف (بالتعاون مع شوهي ناروسي)
 كامن رايدر ريفايس

أعماله في الأنمي

مسلسلات أنمي تلفزيونية
 كود غياس: لولوش الثائر (بالتعاون مع هيتومي كورويشي)
 كود غياس: لولوش الثائر R2 (بالتعاون مع هيتومي كورويشي)
 نشأة الآليين
 زيتاي كارين تشيلدرين
 ذي أنليميتد: كيوسكي هيوبو
 هاياتي نو غوتوكو!
 هاياتي نو غوتوكو!!
 كروس غيم
 سفن غوست
 بلانيتيس
 سكرايد
 غان x سورد
 أميرتا توأم الكوكب الغامض
 غوسيك
 ديفل سرفايفر 2 ذي أنيميشن
 أكاديمية ستيلا للفتيات قسم الثانوية نادي C3
 أرجيفولون
 بريزون سكول
 بطولات فارس فاشل
 أكتيف رايد: الفريق الثامن من قسم الإقتحام المتنقل
 هاكاتا تونكوتسو رامنز
 يوغي ARC-V
 تشيبي ديفي!
 ميجر (الموسم الرابع-الموسم السادس)
 ميجر سكند
 محققا فوتو (بالتعاون مع شوهي ناروسي)

أنمي الإنترنت
 سورد غاي ذي أنيميشن

أوفا أنمي
 فانتوم: فانتوم ذي أنيميشن
 جيوبريدرز

أفلام أنمي
 فيلم ميجر: رمية الصداقة
 سلسلة أفلام كود غياس: لولوش الثائر
 كود غياس: لولوش الثائر I النهوض (بالتعاون مع هيتومي كورويشي)
 كود غياس: لولوش الثائر II الثورة (بالتعاون مع هيتومي كورويشي)
 كود غياس: لولوش الثائر III الملكية (بالتعاون مع هيتومي كورويشي)
 كود غياس: لولوش العائد للحياة

وصلات خارجية

مراجع

أشخاص على قيد الحياة
خريجو جامعة طوكيو للفنون
ملحنو أنمي
ملحنون وملحنات يابانيون
ملحنون يابانيون
مواليد 1969

موزعون موسيقيون يابانيون
مؤلفو موسيقى أفلام
مؤلفو موسيقى أفلام يابانيون

كوتارو ناكاغاوا


An Dinochloa malayana in uska species han Liliopsida nga ginhulagway ni Soejatmi Dransfield. An Dinochloa malayana in nahilalakip ha genus nga Dinochloa, ngan familia nga Poaceae. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Mga sumpay ha gawas

Dinochloa

Dinochloa malayana


Sir Bani Yas (en árabe: صير بنى ياس) es una isla natural situada a 250 km (160 millas) al suroeste de Abu Dhabi, la capital de los Emiratos Árabes Unidos. Se encuentra a 9 km (5,6 millas) de la costa de Jebel Dhanna, que sirve como un punto de paso a otras islas como Dalma. Sir Bani Yas tiene 17,5 km (10,9 millas) de norte a sur y 9 km (5,6 millas) de este a oeste por lo que constituye la más grande, isla natural en los Emiratos Árabes Unidos.

Situada justo al lado de la orilla de la región occidental de Abu Dhabi, Sir Bani Yas es la mayor reserva de vida silvestre de la región de Arabia y un santuario de aves. Abarcando más de 87 km² (34 millas cuadradas), la reserva fue creada en 1971 por el gobernante y fundador de los Emiratos Árabes Unidos, el jeque Zayed bin Sultán Al Nahayan. Gracias a décadas de trabajo intensivo y la conservación de la inversión ecológica, es ahora el hogar de miles de grandes animales que vagan libremente y varios millones de árboles y plantas.

Véase también
 Geografía de Emiratos Árabes Unidos
 Geografía de Asia

Referencias

Enlaces externos
 Mapa de la isla en Wikimapia

Archipiélagos e islas de Abu Dabi
Arqueología de los Emiratos Árabes Unidos

Sir Bani Yas


بلدة العادلية بلدة سورية تابعة لمحافظة ريف دمشق، سوريا، تقع بين ناحيتي الغزلانية ومدينة الكسوة، وترتفع عن سطح البحر 665م. توجد بالقرب منها بعض الآثار القديمة كما ويوجد فيها وحدة إرشادية زراعية تهتم بالشؤون الزراعية للمنطقة والمناطق المحيطة بها. كما تحيط بها القرى والبلدات التالية: نجها - المعلقة - الحرجلة - المطلة - القرمشية.

انظر أيضًا

 قائمة بلدات سوريا

مصادر

أماكن مأهولة في منطقة مركز ريف دمشق
بلدات سوريا
قرى محافظة ريف دمشق

العادلية (ريف دمشق)


An Arisaema schimperianum in uska species han Liliopsida nga ginhulagway ni Heinrich Wilhelm Schott. An Arisaema schimperianum in nahilalakip ha genus nga Arisaema, ngan familia nga Araceae. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Arisaema

Arisaema schimperianum


Sommer-Kærlighed er en stumfilm fra 1916 instrueret af Lau Lauritzen Sr. efter manuskript af Valdemar Andersen.

Handling

Referencer

Eksterne henvisninger

Film instrueret af Lau Lauritzen Sr.
Stumfilm fra Danmark
Danske film fra 1916

Sommer-Kærlighed


මුල් ළමාවියේ වින්දන හැසිරීම් (en:Gratification disorder) යනු මුල් ළමාවියේ සිදුකරන ශාරීරික වින්දනය ලබාගැනීමේ චර්යාවන්වේ. සමහර වින්දන හැසිරීම් often been mistaken for අපස්මාරය, බඩේ කැක්කුම, හෝ paroxysmal dystonia or dyskinesia. මේ පිලිබඳ පර්යේශන තවමත් සිදුකර ඇත්තේ මද වශයෙනි. However, most pediatricians agree that masturbation is a normal and common behaviour in young children and should be recognized as such. Failure to recognize this behavior can lead to unnecessary and invasive testing.

නිදසුන්

  ඇඟිලි ඉරීම
 කකුල් එකිනෙක ඇතිල්ලීම
 කැසීම

Miscellaneous
The disorder was featured in the episode, Euphoria, Part 2, of the TV series medical drama, House, in which the main protagonist diagnoses the symptoms in a fidgety pre-school girl.

References

මානව ලිංගිකත්වය

ළමා වෛද්‍ය විද්‍යාව
ලිංගිකවේදය

සාමන්‍ය තත්වයකි

මාපියන් සඳහා උපදෙස්

දරුවා සමග ඒ පිලිබඳ කථා නොකරන්න.
මෙය සිදුකරන අවස්ථාවල හැකිතාක් දරුවා වෙනත් කාර්යක යොදවාගන්න.විෂේශයෙන් දරුවා

මුල් ළමාවියේ වින්දන හැසිරීම්