Integrationsydelse er en særlig lav dansk overførselsindkomst, der gives til indvandrere og øvrige indbyggere, der har opholdt sig i Danmark i mindre end syv ud af de seneste otte år. Integrationsydelsen gives i stedet for kontanthjælp og er omtrent på niveau med et SU-stipendium. Integrationsydelsen er indført fra 1. september 2015, men minder meget om starthjælpen, der var i kraft i årene 2002-12.

Historie

Den nytiltrådte Venstre-regering indgik i starten af juli 2015 forlig med Dansk Folkeparti, Liberal Alliance og De Konservative om indførelsen af en særlig integrationsydelse med virkning fra 1. september 2015. Ydelsen træder i stedet for kontanthjælp til personer med lovligt ophold i Danmark, der har boet uden for EU's grænser i mere end ét ud af de sidste otte år. Formålet med ydelsen er at gøre det "mindre attraktivt at komme til Danmark og mere attraktivt at arbejde og bidrage til det danske samfund."

Integrationsydelsen kan ses som en de facto genindførsel af starthjælpen, der var en tilsvarende særlig nedsat ydelse for personer, der havde opholdt sig uden for Danmark og EU. Starthjælpen blev indført af regeringen i 2002, men forsvandt som led i afskaffelsen af de såkaldte "fattigdomsydelser" med finansloven for 2012.

Integrationsydelsens beløb

Satserne i 2015 sammenlignet med kontanthjælp fremgår af nedenstående tabel.

Har man danskkundskaber svarende til en bestået danskprøve 2, kan man opnå et tillæg på 1.500 kr. om måneden.

For en udeboende SU-modtager er SU-stipendiet i 2015 på 5.903 kr. pr. måned før skat. Der er en række andre økonomiske forskelle i praksis mellem betingelserne for SU-støtte og integrationsydelse. Således kan modtagere af SU-stipendier udnytte beskæftigelsesfradraget i deres skattebetaling, ligesom de kan supplere med SU-lån.

Økonomiske konsekvenser

Ved indførelsen skønnedes forslaget at skabe en offentlig netto-besparelse på knap 400 mio. kr. på lang sigt.

Ud over indvandrerne, som er hovedmålgruppen, forventes integrationsydelsen at berøre ca. 1.700 danske statsborgere, der tidligere har opholdt sig i udlandet og dermed heller ikke opfylder kriterierne for at modtage fuld kontanthjælp. Ligeledes rammes tidligere hjemløse, der har været "faldet ud af systemet", herunder CPR-registret, idet de ikke kan dokumentere deres ophold i Danmark.

Kritik

Juraprofessor Kirsten Ketscher fra Københavns Universitet har kritiseret ordningen for at være i strid med EU-retten, ifølge hvilken danske statsborgere har ret til at bevæge sig frit i EU og ikke må stilles ringere af den grund.

Kilder

Overførselsindkomster

Integrationsydelse


An Aechmea brassicoides in uska species han Liliopsida nga ginhulagway ni John Gilbert Baker. An Aechmea brassicoides in nahilalakip ha genus nga Aechmea, ngan familia nga Bromeliaceae.

Mabibilngan ini ha Guyana. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Aechmea

Aechmea brassicoides


A série de livros Assassin's Creed, de Anton Gill e Andrew Holmes (ambos sob o pseudônimo Oliver Bowden), Christie Golden, Matthew Kirby e Gordon Doherty é uma coleção de romances ambientados no universo dos videogames Assassin's Creed. Os livros se passam em vários períodos de tempo e como os jogos, giram em torno da guerra secreta travada por séculos entre a Irmandade dos Assassinos e a Ordem dos Templários. A maioria dos romances são adaptações diretas dos jogos, com vários elementos adicionados ou ligeiramente modificados.

Série

Assassin's Creed
 Renaissance (2009) Assassins Creed - Renascença (por Oliver Bowden)
 Brotherhood (2010) Assassins Creed - Irmandade (por Oliver Bowden)
 The Secret Crusade (2011) Assassin's Creed: A Cruzada Secreta (por Oliver Bowden)
 Revelations (2011) Assassins Creed - Revelações (por Oliver Bowden)
 Forsaken (2012) Assassins Creed - Renegado (por Oliver Bowden)
 Black Flag (2013) Assassins Creed - Bandeira Negra (por Oliver Bowden)
 Unity (2014) (por Oliver Bowden)
 Underworld (2015) Assassins Creed - Submundo (por Oliver Bowden)
 Heresy (2016) Heresia (por Christie Golden)

Livros relacionados
 The Invisible Imam (2007)
 The Ming Storm (2021)
 The Desert Threat (2022)

Assassin's Creed: Last Descendants
 Last Descendants (2016)
 Tomb of the Khan (2016)
 Fate of the Gods (2018)

Baseado no filme
 Assassin's Creed (2016) Assassin s Creed: Livro Oficial do Filme (por Christie Golden)

Assassin's Creed Origins
 Desert Oath (2017) Assassin's Creed Origins: Juramento do Deserto (por Oliver Bowden)

Assassin's Creed Odyssey
 Assassin's Creed Odyssey (2018)

Assassin's Creed Valhalla
 Geirmund's Saga (2020) Assassin's Creed: Valhalla: A Saga de Geirmund (por Matthew J. Kirby)

Outro
 The Magus Conspiracy (2022)

Livros da Série
Assassin's Creed: Renascença (livro) é o primeiro livro baseado na série Assassin's Creed, escrito por Oliver Bowden e publicado pela Penguin Books, em janeiro de 2009. Trata-se de uma versão literária do jogo Assassin's Creed II mas, em vez de estender por um bom período de tempo o livro passa-se somente no século XV, sem menção ao eventos do presente do jogo. Em março de 2011, a editora Galera Record publicou o livro, sob o nome de Assassin's Creed: Renascença. O primeiro livro da série retrata o inicio da jornada de Ezio Auditore de Florença, em busca de vingança e erradicar a corrupção pelo o qual o seu povo estava submetido, além de tentar restaurar a honra de sua família.

Assassin's Creed: Brotherhood é o segundo livro baseado na série Assassin's Creed, escrito por Oliver Bowden e é uma continuação de "Renascença". Foi publicado pela Penguin Books em fevereiro de 2010 e, assim como o livro anterior, é uma versão literária do jogo Assassin's Creed: Brotherhood. Também como o anterior, não há menção sobre os eventos vividos por Desmond no presente, somente uma referência sobre um "fantasma" feita por Ezio. Diferentemente dos eventos do jogo, que começaram em 1499, a trama do livro começa em 1503. Assim como o anterior, a editora Galera Record publicou o livro no Brasil sob o título de Assassin's Creed: Irmandade, e foi lançado em março de 2012.

Assassin's Creed: A Cruzada Secreta é o terceiro livro baseado na série Assassin's Creed, escrito por Oliver Bowden e é uma continuação de "Brotherhood". Foi publicado pela Penguin Books em junho de 2011. A história é narrada por Niccolo Polo, pai do explorador Marco Polo. A história é sobre a vida de Altaïr ibn la-Ahad. A editora Galera Record publicou o livro no Brasil em agosto de 2012 com o nome de Assassin's Creed: A Cruzada Secreta.

Assassin's Creed: Revelations é o quarto livro da série Assassin's Creed, escrito por Oliver Bowden e é uma continuação de "The Secret Crusade". Foi publicado pela editora Penguin Books em maio de 2012. Assim como Renaissance e Brotherhood, Revelations é uma versão literária de jogo Assassin's Creed: Revelations. Igualmente os outros livros, não contém nenhum dos eventos do presente incluindo Desmond. Como no jogo, Ezio tem que deixar sua vida para trás em busca de respostas, em busca da verdade. Em Assassin's Creed Revelations, o agora Mestre Assassino Ezio Auditore segue os passos do seu lendário mentor, Altair, numa jornada de descobertas e revelações. É um caminho perigoso - um caminho que levará Ezio a Constantinopla, à "encruzilhada do mundo", ao coração do Império Otomano, onde um exército crescente de Templários ameaça desestabilizar a região. A editora Galera Record publicou o livro no Brasil em abril de 2013 com o nome de Assassin's Creed: Revelações.

Assassin's Creed: Renegado (livro) é o quinto livro da série Assassin's Creed, escrito por Oliver Bowden. Conta a história do jogo centrado na Revolução Americana. Drama vivido por Haytham Kenway. Diferentemente dos demais livros, que são divididos em diversos capítulos, Renegado é constituido por quatro partes, que são: Parte Um - Trechos do diário de Haytham E. Kenway; Parte Dois - 1747, doze anos depois; Parte Três - 1753, seis anos depois e; Parte Quatro - 1774, dezesseis anos depois. Seguido de um epílogo, sendo que as quatro primeiras partes são narradas a partir da visão de Haytham Kenway e a última na de Connor. De forma contrária ao jogo, tal obra tem como protagonista o próprio Haytham, não o seu filho Connor. No Brasil, a editora Galera Record publicou o livro em novembro de 2012 com o nome de Assassin's Creed: Renegado.

Assassin's Creed: Black Flag é uma novelização inspirada na franquia de games Assassin's Creed. Escrito por Oliver Bowden, o sexto livro começa em 1715 e conta a história de Edward Kenway, um notável pirata e corsário que viveu na Era Dourada dos Piratas. Ele é o pai de Haytham Kenway e avô de Ratonhnhaké:ton (Connor Kenway), personagens apresentados aos leitores em Assassin's Creed: Renegado. Assassin's Creed: Bandeira Negra mistura exploração naval com combate e aventuras, tanto em terra quanto no mar das Caraíbas.

Assassin's Creed: União é o equivalente ao jogo Assassin's Creed Unity e uma continuação da série de livros da franquia Assassin's Creed escrito por Oliver Bowden. O sétimo livro é ambientado na França durante a Revolução Francesa. O livro centra-se nos acontecimentos da Revolução na perspectiva da templária Élise De La Serre, que junto do assassino Arno Victor Dorian investigam a morte do pai de Élise bem como o crescimento de uma ideologia dentro da Ordem dos Cavaleiros Templários que ameaça a própria organização. Arno está apaixonado por Élise, cuja família o adotou após a morte do pai biológico de Arno, que ocorreu quando este tinha apenas 8 anos, sendo que na época Arno não sabia que o pai era um Assassino. Quando o seu pai adotivo é assassinado, parte numa tentativa de redenção juntando-se à Irmandade dos Assassinos, subindo gradualmente de nível e vivendo mais tarde um romance proibido com Élise (esta havia traído os templários na tentativa de unir Assassinos e Templários). Outros personagens incluem o libertino Marquês de Sade e o político templário Maximilien de Robespierre. Foi lançado em 2014.

Assassin's Creed: Submundo é o equivalente ao jogo Assassin's Creed Syndicate, lançado também em 2015. Ambos os títulos se passam na Inglaterra da Era Vitoriana, com o livro se iniciando no ano de 1862, antes de concluir com o enredo de Jacob e Evie Frye em Assassin's Creed: Syndicate. Neste livro, o foco da história é ninguém menos que Henry Green, o Assassino de Londres que direciona os irmãos Jacob e Evie Frye no jogo. No livro, ficamos sabendo mais sobre o passado do personagem (que, na verdade, se chama Jayadeep Mir, filho de Arbaaz Mir, personagem principal dos quadrinhos Assassin's Creed Brahman e estrelando o jogo Assassin's Creed Chronicles India).

Assassin's Creed: Heresia é um livro escrito por Christie Golden e lançado em 15 de novembro de 2016. Christie Golden traz uma história original ambientada no universo de Assassin's Creed. Revivendo as memórias de seu ancestral Gabriel Laxart, que lutou ao lado de Joana d'Arc, o Templário de alto escalão, Simon Hathaway, revela lentamente segredos do passado que poderiam perigosamente impactar o seu presente... e de toda a ordem dos Templários.

Assassin's Creed: Livro Oficial do Filme é a adaptação da Ubisoft do filme de 2016 Assassin's Creed, escrito por Christie Golden. Foi lançado em 21 de dezembro de 2016. Além de adaptar o filme em si, que conta a história de Callum Lynch e seu antepassado que viveu durante a Inquisição Espanhola, Aguillar de Nehar, o livro também vem com "Regressões", uma antologia de histórias curtas de Nathan, Emir, Moussa e Lin com seus respectivos antepassados Duncan Walpole, Yusuf Tazim, Baptiste e Shao Jun. Também contem um trecho de Assassin's Creed: Heresy.

Assassin's Creed Origins - Juramento do Deserto é uma romantização escrita por Oliver Bowden, que foi lançado em 10 de outubro de 2017. É uma prequela de Assassin's Creed: Origins, ambientada em 70 a.C. Antes de Assassin's Creed: Origins, houve um juramento. Egito, 70 a.C, um assassino implacável vagueia pela terra. Sua missão: encontrar e destruir os últimos membros de uma ordem antiga, os Medjay - para erradicar a linhagem. Em uma Síua pacífica, o protetor da cidade parti abruptamente, deixando seu filho adolescente, Bayek, com perguntas sobre seu próprio futuro e uma sensação de propósito que ele sabe que ele deve cumprir. Bayek partiu em busca de respostas, sua jornada levando-o ao longo do Nilo e através de um Egito em tumulto, de frente para os perigos e os mistérios dos "Medjay".

Assassin's Creed: Odisseia é a adaptação literária de Assassin's Creed Odyssey. Kassandra foi criada por seus pais para ser feroz e indiferente, a criança espartana ideal, destinada à grandeza. Mas quando uma tragédia terrível a deixa encalhada na ilha de Kephallonia, perto da Grécia, ela decide encontrar trabalho como mercenária, longe das restrições de Esparta. Muitos anos depois, Kassandra é atormentada por dívidas e vive sob a sombra de um tirano quando um estranho misterioso oferece a ela um acordo: assassinar o Lobo, um renomado general espartano, e ele vai limpar sua dívida. A oferta é simples, mas a tarefa não é, pois para ter sucesso ela precisará se infiltrar na guerra entre as duas principais cidades-estados da Grécia Antiga: a democrática Atenas e a ditatorial Esparta.

Assassin's Creed: Valhalla - A Saga de Geirmund é uma romantização de Assassin's Creed Valhalla escrito por Matthew J. Kirby. Descreve a épica jornada por trás da lenda do guerreiro viking Geirmund Hel-hide, do século IX. Os orgulhosos reis de Wessex sonham há séculos com a unificação da Bretanha. No entanto, precisam lutar contra uma terrível ameaça que vem do Leste, capaz de colocar em xeque sua soberania. Pela primeira vez na História, os clãs vikings decidem juntar suas forças e concentrar seus esforços na conquista dos verdes litorais controlados pelos saxões. E eles estão armados e prontos para roubar esse reino tão cheio de riquezas para seu povo. Descendente de grandes reis nórdicos, Geirmund Hel-hide parte em uma missão para provar seu valor como viking e como grande guerreiro. Na perigosa jornada pelos mares do Norte, ele cruza caminhos com um ser mitológico, que lhe concede um bracelete repleto de mistérios. O artefato promete grande poder àquele que o carrega... mas também traz a profecia de uma terrível traição. Conforme Geirmund sobe na hierarquia do temido exército do rei Guthrum, ele tem de usar sua astúcia para encarar e vencer todos os desafios que aquela terra, arrasada pela morte e pela guerra, lhe traz. E na luta ao lado de guerreiros leais, o caminho de Geirmund logo o levará a um conflito tão antigo quanto os próprios deuses.

An Assassin's Creed Series Last Descedants

An Assassin's Creed Series Last Descedants - Revolta em Nova York O jovem Owen finalmente tem a chance de limpar a honra do pai, que morreu na prisão, acusado de um crime que o garoto tem certeza de que ele não cometeu. Por meio do Animus, máquina que permite quem a usa viver as memórias dos seus antepassados, o lendário Tridente do Éden é revelado. Duas organizações secretas, a Irmandade dos Assassinos e a Ordem dos Templários, estão em guerra há séculos e não irão descansar enquanto não tiverem esse artefato sob seu poder. Logo, Owen percebe que a única forma de permanecer a salvo é encontrando o Tridente antes de todos.

Ele e outros jovens partem numa jornada dentro de uma memória que dividem, em seu DNA: a Nova York de 1863, em meio aos motins que tomaram a cidade naquela época. O grupo será testado pela violência das pessoas em meio à revolta, e tudo sem poder interferir nas injustiças e crueldades que presenciam. Afinal, o passado já está escrito. O que nenhum deles sabe é que sua experiência com o passado terá grandes implicações no presente. E aqui que o futuro é incerto. Tudo pode acontecer.

An Assassin's Creed Series Last Descedants - O Túmulo do Khan Quando localizaram o primeiro pedaço do Tridente do Éden, parecia que poucas coisas poderiam deter Owen e seus amigos... E, então, eles o perderam. A amizade entre os adolescentes foi destruída – Owen e Javier tomaram o partido dos Assassinos, e os outros, dos Templários. Mas nem tudo está perdido. Ainda restam dois Pedaços do Éden para encontrar, e os grupos estão determinados a não cometer erros. Quando boatos de que uma das peças foi enterrada com o chefe mongol Möngke Khan começam a aparecer, os adolescentes dos dois lados do conflito embarcam em simulações na China mongol, devastada pela guerra, em uma corrida contra o tempo para encontrar a próxima peça.

An Assassin's Creed Series Last Descedants - O Destino dos Deuses Apenas um pedaço do Tridente do Éden ainda permanece oculto. O agente Templário Isaiah, traidor da Ordem, descobriu e se apoderou de dois dentes da poderosa relíquia. Caso encontre a última parte, nada o impedirá de liberar o Ragnarök: o fim do mundo segundo a mitologia nórdica.

Na tentativa de impedir Isaiah enquanto é tempo, Templários e Assassinos selam um frágil acordo. Mas o inimigo também empunha a própria arma: Sean. O garoto tem como antepassado um guerreiro viking que pode ter sido o último a usar o dente. A história foi escrita. O resto depende de Owen, Javier e dos outros membros de sua improvável aliança.

Ligações externas
 Série de livros do Assassin's Creed no Fantastic Fiction

Séries de livros
Romances baseados em jogos eletrónicos
Assassin's Creed

Assassin's Creed (série de livros)


Ctenus crulsi est une espèce d'araignées aranéomorphes de la famille des Ctenidae.

Distribution
Cette espèce est endémique du Brésil. Elle se rencontre en Amazonie au Pará, en Amazonas et au Rondônia.

Description
La femelle holotype mesure .

Les mâles mesurent de  à  et les femelles de  à .

Systématique et taxinomie
Cette espèce a été décrite par Mello-Leitão en 1930.

La femelle holotype était déposée au Musée national de l'université fédérale de Rio de Janeiro. Elle a été détruite par l'incendie de celui-ci qui a eu lieu dans la nuit du 2 au 3 septembre 2018.

Étymologie
Cette espèce est nommée en l'honneur de Gastão Cruls.

Publication originale
 Mello-Leitão, 1930 : « Aranhas do Cuminá. » Arquivos do Museu Nacional do Rio de Janeiro, , .

Liens externes

Notes et références

Espèce d'araignées (nom scientifique)
Ctenidae
Faune endémique du Brésil

Ctenus crulsi


Bornholm rundt er en turistfilm instrueret af Niels Grunnet efter manuskript af Niels Grunnet.

Handling
Turistfilm om Bornholm, dens natur og industri. Visse scener om silderøgning er taget fra "De røgede Bornholmere" (samme år).

Referencer

Eksterne henvisninger

Danske film fra 1942
Rundt
Turistfilm fra Danmark

Bornholm rundt (film)


An Aechmea involucrata in uska species han Liliopsida nga ginhulagway ni Éduard-François André. An Aechmea involucrata in nahilalakip ha genus nga Aechmea, ngan familia nga Bromeliaceae.

Mabibilngan ini ha Ecuador. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Aechmea

Aechmea involucrata


Hasang, usa na respiratory organ o organ gamit sa pagginhawa sa mga aquatic na mga hayop sugad san isda, kinis, banagan, sahang, o mga ulo-ulo san katsapa. Nagkukuha an hasang dissolved oxygen tikang sa tubig ngan magluluwa sin carbon dioxide. An hasang san iba na mga specie, sugad san umang (hermit crab), pupwede magginhawa sa tuna basta pirmi ini humoy o mahulos.

May'ada an hasang mga mali-ulang na struktura na tinatawag na filaments. An kada filament may'ada capillary network na may darako na surface area para san pagsalyo oxygen sa carbon dioxide. Nakuha an isda hangin pinaagi sa pagsurop tubig na mayaman sa oxygen ngan igluluwa pagawa

Mga kasarigan

Hasang


An Elymus caucasicus in uska species han Liliopsida nga syahan ginhulagway ni Karl Heinrich Koch, ngan ginhatag han pagkayana nga asya nga ngaran ni Nikolai Nikolaievich Tzvelev. An Elymus caucasicus in nahilalakip ha genus nga Elymus, ngan familia nga Poaceae. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Mga sumpay ha gawas

Elymus

Elymus caucasicus


An Fimbristylis splendida in uska species han Liliopsida nga ginhulagway ni Charles Baron Clarke. An Fimbristylis splendida in nahilalakip ha genus nga Fimbristylis, ngan familia nga Cyperaceae. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Fimbristylis

Fimbristylis splendida


Grønlandske dialektoptagelser og trommedans fra Thuledistriktet er en dansk dokumentarfilm fra 1968 med instruktion og manuskript af Jørgen Roos.

Handling
Dokumentationsmateriale optaget i årene 1963-66 i forbindelse med Jørgen Roos arbejde på blandt andet dokumentarfilmen Knud. Optagelser af læbesynkrone dialektoptagelser og syv trommedanse. Kun til videnskabeligt brug.

Referencer

Eksterne henvisninger

Dokumentarfilm fra Danmark
Danske film fra 1968


USS Montpelier may refer to:

 , a German freighter initially named  seized in 1917 during World War I
 , a Cleveland-class light cruiser in commission from 1942–1947
 , an active-duty Los Angeles-class submarine commissioned in 1993

United States Navy ship names
Montpelier, Vermont

USS Montpelier


The James Webb Space Telescope (JWST) is a space telescope designed to conduct infrared astronomy. Its high-resolution and high-sensitivity instruments allow it to view objects too old, distant, or faint for the Hubble Space Telescope. This enables investigations across many fields of astronomy and cosmology, such as observation of the first stars and the formation of the first galaxies, and detailed atmospheric characterization of potentially habitable exoplanets.

The Webb was launched on 25 December 2021 on an Ariane 5 rocket from Kourou, French Guiana. In January 2022 it arrived at its destination, a solar orbit near the Sun–Earth L2 Lagrange point, about  from Earth. The telescope's first image was released to the public on 11 July 2022.

The U.S. National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) led Webb's design and development and partnered with two main agencies: the European Space Agency (ESA) and the Canadian Space Agency (CSA). The NASA Goddard Space Flight Center (GSFC) in Maryland managed telescope development, while the Space Telescope Science Institute in Baltimore on the Homewood Campus of Johns Hopkins University operates Webb. The primary contractor for the project was Northrop Grumman. The telescope is named after James E. Webb, who was the administrator of NASA from 1961 to 1968 during the Mercury, Gemini, and Apollo programs.

Webb's primary mirror consists of 18 hexagonal mirror segments made of gold-plated beryllium, which together create a  mirror, compared with Hubble's . This gives Webb a light-collecting area of about 25 square meters, about six times that of Hubble. Unlike Hubble, which observes in the near ultraviolet and visible (0.1 to 0.8 μm), and near infrared (0.8–2.5 μm) spectra, Webb observes a lower frequency range, from long-wavelength visible light (red) through mid-infrared (0.6–28.3 μm). The telescope must be kept extremely cold, below , so that the infrared light emitted by the telescope itself does not interfere with the collected light. Its five-layer sunshield protects it from warming by the Sun, Earth, and Moon.

Initial designs for the telescope, then named the Next Generation Space Telescope, began in 1996. Two concept studies were commissioned in 1999, for a potential launch in 2007 and a US$1 billion budget. The program was plagued with enormous cost overruns and delays. A major redesign was accomplished in 2005, with construction completed in 2016, followed by years of exhaustive testing, at a total cost of US$10 billion.

Features
The mass of the James Webb Space Telescope is about half that of the Hubble Space Telescope. Webb has a -diameter gold-coated beryllium primary mirror made up of 18 separate hexagonal mirrors. The mirror has a polished area of , of which  is obscured by the secondary support struts, giving a total collecting area of . This is over six times larger than the collecting area of Hubble's  diameter mirror, which has a collecting area of . The mirror has a gold coating to provide infrared reflectivity and this is covered by a thin layer of glass for durability.

Webb is designed primarily for near-infrared astronomy, but can also see orange and red visible light, as well as the mid-infrared region, depending on the instrument being used. It can detect objects up to 100 times fainter than Hubble can, and objects much earlier in the history of the universe, back to redshift z≈20 (about 180 million years cosmic time after the Big Bang). For comparison, the earliest stars are thought to have formed between z≈30 and z≈20 (100–180 million years cosmic time), and the first galaxies may have formed around redshift z≈15 (about 270 million years cosmic time). Hubble is unable to see further back than very early reionization at about z≈11.1 (galaxy GN-z11, 400 million years cosmic time).

The design emphasizes the near to mid-infrared for several reasons:
 high-redshift (very early and distant) objects have their visible emissions shifted into the infrared, and therefore their light can be observed only via infrared astronomy;
 infrared light passes more easily through dust clouds than visible light;
 colder objects such as debris disks and planets emit most strongly in the infrared;
 these infrared bands are difficult to study from the ground or by existing space telescopes such as Hubble.

Ground-based telescopes must look through Earth's atmosphere, which is opaque in many infrared bands (see figure at right). Even where the atmosphere is transparent, many of the target chemical compounds, such as water, carbon dioxide, and methane, also exist in the Earth's atmosphere, vastly complicating analysis. Existing space telescopes such as Hubble cannot study these bands since their mirrors are insufficiently cool (the Hubble mirror is maintained at about ) which means that the telescope itself radiates strongly in the relevant infrared bands.

Webb can also observe objects in the Solar System at an angle of more than 85° from the Sun and having an apparent angular rate of motion less than 0.03 arc seconds per second. This includes Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune, Pluto, their satellites, and comets, asteroids and minor planets at or beyond the orbit of Mars. Webb has the near-IR and mid-IR sensitivity to be able to observe virtually all known Kuiper Belt Objects. In addition, it can observe opportunistic and unplanned targets within 48 hours of a decision to do so, such as supernovae and gamma ray bursts.

Location and orbit
Webb operates in a halo orbit, circling around a point in space known as the Sun–Earth L2 Lagrange point, approximately  beyond Earth's orbit around the Sun. Its actual position varies between about  from L2 as it orbits, keeping it out of both Earth and Moon's shadow. By way of comparison, Hubble orbits  above Earth's surface, and the Moon is roughly  from Earth. Objects near this Sun–Earth  point can orbit the Sun in synchrony with the Earth, allowing the telescope to remain at a roughly constant distance with continuous orientation of its sunshield and equipment bus toward the Sun, Earth and Moon. Combined with its wide shadow-avoiding orbit, the telescope can simultaneously block incoming heat and light from all three of these bodies and avoid even the smallest changes of temperature from Earth and Moon shadows that would affect the structure, yet still maintain uninterrupted solar power and Earth communications on its sun-facing side. This arrangement keeps the temperature of the spacecraft constant and below the  necessary for faint infrared observations.

Sunshield protection

To make observations in the infrared spectrum, Webb must be kept under ; otherwise, infrared radiation from the telescope itself would overwhelm its instruments. Its large sunshield blocks light and heat from the Sun, Earth, and Moon, and its position near the Sun–Earth  keeps all three bodies on the same side of the spacecraft at all times. Its halo orbit around the L2 point avoids the shadow of the Earth and Moon, maintaining a constant environment for the sunshield and solar arrays. The resulting stable temperature for the structures on the dark side is critical to maintaining precise alignment of the primary mirror segments.

The five-layer sunshield, each layer as thin as a human hair, is made of Kapton E film, coated with aluminum on both sides and a layer of doped silicon on the Sun-facing side of the two hottest layers to reflect the Sun's heat back into space. Accidental tears of the delicate film structure during deployment testing in 2018 led to further delays to the telescope deployment.

The sunshield was designed to be folded twelve times (concertina style) so that it would fit within the Ariane 5 rocket's payload fairing, which is  in diameter, and  long. The shield's fully deployed dimensions were planned as .

Keeping within the shadow of the sunshield limits the field of regard of Webb at any given time. The telescope can see 40 percent of the sky from any one position, but can see all of the sky over a period of six months.

Optics

Webb's primary mirror is a -diameter gold-coated beryllium reflector with a collecting area of . If it had been designed as a single, large mirror, it would have been too large for existing launch vehicles. The mirror is therefore composed of 18 hexagonal segments (a technique pioneered by Guido Horn d'Arturo), which unfolded after the telescope was launched. Image plane wavefront sensing through phase retrieval is used to position the mirror segments in the correct location using precise actuators. Subsequent to this initial configuration, they only need occasional updates every few days to retain optimal focus. This is unlike terrestrial telescopes, for example the Keck telescopes, which continually adjust their mirror segments using active optics to overcome the effects of gravitational and wind loading. The Webb telescope uses 132 small actuation motors to position and adjust the optics. The actuators can position the mirror with 10 nanometer accuracy.

Webb's optical design is a three-mirror anastigmat, which makes use of curved secondary and tertiary mirrors to deliver images that are free from optical aberrations over a wide field. The secondary mirror is  in diameter. In addition, there is a fine steering mirror which can adjust its position many times per second to provide image stabilization. Photographs taken by Webb have six spikes plus two fainter ones due to the spider supporting the secondary mirror.

Scientific instruments

The Integrated Science Instrument Module (ISIM) is a framework that provides electrical power, computing resources, cooling capability as well as structural stability to the Webb telescope. It is made with bonded graphite-epoxy composite attached to the underside of Webb's telescope structure. The ISIM holds the four science instruments and a guide camera.
 NIRCam (Near Infrared Camera) is an infrared imager which has spectral coverage ranging from the edge of the visible (0.6 μm) through to the near infrared (5 μm). There are 10 sensors each of 4 megapixels. NIRCam serves as the observatory's wavefront sensor, which is required for wavefront sensing and control activities, used to align and focus the main mirror segments. NIRCam was built by a team led by the University of Arizona, with principal investigator Marcia J. Rieke.
 NIRSpec (Near Infrared Spectrograph) performs spectroscopy over the same wavelength range. It was built by the European Space Agency at ESTEC in Noordwijk, Netherlands. The leading development team includes members from Airbus Defence and Space, Ottobrunn and Friedrichshafen, Germany, and the Goddard Space Flight Center; with Pierre Ferruit (École normale supérieure de Lyon) as NIRSpec project scientist. The NIRSpec design provides three observing modes: a low-resolution mode using a prism, an R~1000 multi-object mode, and an R~2700 integral field unit or long-slit spectroscopy mode. Switching of the modes is done by operating a wavelength preselection mechanism called the Filter Wheel Assembly, and selecting a corresponding dispersive element (prism or grating) using the Grating Wheel Assembly mechanism. Both mechanisms are based on the successful ISOPHOT wheel mechanisms of the Infrared Space Observatory. The multi-object mode relies on a complex micro-shutter mechanism to allow for simultaneous observations of hundreds of individual objects anywhere in NIRSpec's field of view. There are two sensors, each of 4 megapixels.
 MIRI (Mid-Infrared Instrument) measures the mid-to-long-infrared wavelength range from 5 to 27 μm. It contains both a mid-infrared camera and an imaging spectrometer. MIRI was developed as a collaboration between NASA and a consortium of European countries, and is led by George Rieke (University of Arizona) and Gillian Wright (UK Astronomy Technology Centre, Edinburgh, Scotland). The temperature of the MIRI must not exceed : a helium gas mechanical cooler sited on the warm side of the environmental shield provides this cooling.
 FGS/NIRISS (Fine Guidance Sensor and Near Infrared Imager and Slitless Spectrograph), led by the Canadian Space Agency under project scientist John Hutchings (Herzberg Astronomy and Astrophysics Research Centre), is used to stabilize the line-of-sight of the observatory during science observations. Measurements by the FGS are used both to control the overall orientation of the spacecraft and to drive the fine steering mirror for image stabilization. The Canadian Space Agency also provided a Near Infrared Imager and Slitless Spectrograph (NIRISS) module for astronomical imaging and spectroscopy in the 0.8 to 5 μm wavelength range, led by principal investigator René Doyon at the Université de Montréal. Although they are often referred together as a unit, the NIRISS and FGS serve entirely different purposes, with one being a scientific instrument and the other being a part of the observatory's support infrastructure.

NIRCam and MIRI feature starlight-blocking coronagraphs for observation of faint targets such as extrasolar planets and circumstellar disks very close to bright stars.

Spacecraft bus

The spacecraft bus is the primary support component of the James Webb Space Telescope, hosting a multitude of computing, communication, electric power, propulsion, and structural parts. Along with the sunshield, it forms the spacecraft element of the space telescope. The spacecraft bus is on the Sun-facing "warm" side of the sunshield and operates at a temperature of about .

The structure of the spacecraft bus has a mass of , and must support the  space telescope. It is made primarily of graphite composite material. The assembly was completed in California in 2015. It was integrated with the rest of the space telescope leading to its 2021 launch. The spacecraft bus can rotate the telescope with a pointing precision of one arcsecond, and isolates vibration to two milliarcseconds.

Webb has two pairs of rocket engines (one pair for redundancy) to make course corrections on the way to L2 and for station keepingmaintaining the correct position in the halo orbit. Eight smaller thrusters are used for attitude controlthe correct pointing of the spacecraft. The engines use hydrazine fuel ( at launch) and dinitrogen tetroxide as oxidizer ( at launch).

Servicing
Webb is not intended to be serviced in space. A crewed mission to repair or upgrade the observatory, as was done for Hubble, would not be possible, and according to NASA Associate Administrator Thomas Zurbuchen, despite best efforts, an uncrewed remote mission was found to be beyond available technology at the time Webb was designed. During the long Webb testing period, NASA officials referred to the idea of a servicing mission, but no plans were announced. Since the successful launch, NASA has stated that nevertheless limited accommodation was made to facilitate future servicing missions. These accommodations included precise guidance markers in the form of crosses on the surface of Webb, for use by remote servicing missions, as well as refillable fuel tanks, removable heat protectors, and accessible attachment points.

Software
Ilana Dashevsky and Vicki Balzano write that Webb uses a modified version of JavaScript, called Nombas ScriptEase 5.00e, for its operations; it follows the ECMAScript standard and "allows for a modular design flow, where on-board scripts call lower-level scripts that are defined as functions". "The JWST science operations will be driven by ASCII (instead of binary command blocks) on-board scripts, written in a customized version of JavaScript. The script interpreter is run by the flight software, which is written in the programming language C++. The flight software operates the spacecraft and the science instruments."

Comparison with other telescopes

The desire for a large infrared space telescope traces back decades. In the United States, the Space Infrared Telescope Facility (later called the Spitzer Space Telescope) was planned while the Space Shuttle was in development, and the potential for infrared astronomy was acknowledged at that time. Unlike ground telescopes, space observatories are free from atmospheric absorption of infrared light. Space observatories opened a "new sky" for astronomers.

However, infrared telescopes have a disadvantage: they need to stay extremely cold, and the longer the wavelength of infrared, the colder they need to be. If not, the background heat of the device itself overwhelms the detectors, making it effectively blind. This can be overcome by careful spacecraft design, in particular by placing the telescope in a dewar with an extremely cold substance, such as liquid helium. The coolant will slowly vaporize, limiting the lifetime of the instrument from as short as a few months to a few years at most.

In some cases, it is possible to maintain a temperature low enough through the design of the spacecraft to enable near-infrared observations without a supply of coolant, such as the extended missions of the Spitzer Space Telescope and the Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer, which operated at reduced capacity after coolant depletion. Another example is Hubble's Near Infrared Camera and Multi-Object Spectrometer (NICMOS) instrument, which started out using a block of nitrogen ice that depleted after a couple of years, but was then replaced during the STS-109 servicing mission with a cryocooler that worked continuously. The James Webb Space Telescope is designed to cool itself without a dewar, using a combination of sunshields and radiators, with the mid-infrared instrument using an additional cryocooler.

Webb's delays and cost increases have been compared to those of its predecessor, the Hubble Space Telescope. When Hubble formally started in 1972, it had an estimated development cost of US$300 million (), but by the time it was sent into orbit in 1990, the cost was about four times that. In addition, new instruments and servicing missions increased the cost to at least US$9 billion by 2006 ().

Development history

Background (development to 2003)

Discussions of a Hubble follow-on started in the 1980s, but serious planning began in the early 1990s. The Hi-Z telescope concept was developed between 1989 and 1994: a fully baffled  aperture infrared telescope that would recede to an orbit at 3 Astronomical unit (AU). This distant orbit would have benefited from reduced light noise from zodiacal dust. Other early plans called for a NEXUS precursor telescope mission.

Correcting the flawed optics of the Hubble Space Telescope (HST) in its first years played a significant role in the birth of Webb. In 1993, NASA conducted STS-61, the Space Shuttle mission that replaced HST's camera and installed a retrofit for its imaging spectrograph to compensate for the spherical aberration in its primary mirror.

The HST & Beyond Committee was formed in 1994 "to study possible missions and programs for optical-ultraviolet astronomy in space for the first decades of the 21st century." Emboldened by HST's success, its 1996 report explored the concept of a larger and much colder, infrared-sensitive telescope that could reach back in cosmic time to the birth of the first galaxies. This high-priority science goal was beyond the HST's capability because, as a warm telescope, it is blinded by infrared emission from its own optical system. In addition to recommendations to extend the HST mission to 2005 and to develop technologies for finding planets around other stars, NASA embraced the chief recommendation of HST & Beyond for a large, cold space telescope (radiatively cooled far below 0 °C), and began the planning process for the future Webb telescope.

Preparation for the 2000 Astronomy and Astrophysics Decadal Survey (a literature review produced by the United States National Research Council that includes identifying research priorities and making recommendations for the upcoming decade) included further development of the scientific program for what became known as the Next Generation Space Telescope, and advancements in relevant technologies by NASA. As it matured, studying the birth of galaxies in the young universe, and searching for planets around other starsthe prime goals coalesced as "Origins" by HST & Beyond became prominent.

As hoped, the NGST received the highest ranking in the 2000 Decadal Survey.

An administrator of NASA, Dan Goldin, coined the phrase "faster, better, cheaper", and opted for the next big paradigm shift for astronomy, namely, breaking the barrier of a single mirror. That meant going from "eliminate moving parts" to "learn to live with moving parts" (i.e. segmented optics). With the goal to reduce mass density tenfold, silicon carbide with a very thin layer of glass on top was first looked at, but beryllium was selected at the end.

The mid-1990s era of "faster, better, cheaper" produced the NGST concept, with an  aperture to be flown to , roughly estimated to cost US$500 million. In 1997, NASA worked with the Goddard Space Flight Center, Ball Aerospace & Technologies, and TRW to conduct technical requirement and cost studies of the three different concepts, and in 1999 selected Lockheed Martin and TRW for preliminary concept studies. Launch was at that time planned for 2007, but the launch date was pushed back many times (see table further down).

In 2002, the project was renamed after NASA's second administrator (1961–1968), James E. Webb (1906–1992). Webb led the agency during the Apollo program and established scientific research as a core NASA activity.

In 2003, NASA awarded TRW the US$824.8 million prime contract for Webb. The design called for a de-scoped  primary mirror and a launch date of 2010. Later that year, TRW was acquired by Northrop Grumman in a hostile bid and became Northrop Grumman Space Technology.

Early development and replanning (2003–2007)
Development was managed by NASA's Goddard Space Flight Center in Greenbelt, Maryland, with John C. Mather as its project scientist. The primary contractor was Northrop Grumman Aerospace Systems, responsible for developing and building the spacecraft element, which included the satellite bus, sunshield, Deployable Tower Assembly (DTA) which connects the Optical Telescope Element to the spacecraft bus, and the Mid Boom Assembly (MBA) which helps to deploy the large sunshields on orbit, while Ball Aerospace & Technologies was subcontracted to develop and build the OTE itself, and the Integrated Science Instrument Module (ISIM).

Cost growth revealed in spring 2005 led to an August 2005 re-planning. The primary technical outcomes of the re-planning were significant changes in the integration and test plans, a 22-month launch delay (from 2011 to 2013), and elimination of system-level testing for observatory modes at wavelengths shorter than 1.7 μm. Other major features of the observatory were unchanged. Following the re-planning, the project was independently reviewed in April 2006.

In the 2005 re-plan, the life-cycle cost of the project was estimated at US$4.5 billion. This comprised approximately US$3.5 billion for design, development, launch and commissioning, and approximately US$1.0 billion for ten years of operations. The ESA agreed in 2004 to contributing about €300 million, including the launch. The Canadian Space Agency pledged CA$39 million in 2007 and in 2012 delivered its contributions in equipment to point the telescope and detect atmospheric conditions on distant planets.

Detailed design and construction (2007–2021)

In January 2007, nine of the ten technology development items in the project successfully passed a Non-Advocate Review. These technologies were deemed sufficiently mature to retire significant risks in the project. The remaining technology development item (the MIRI cryocooler) completed its technology maturation milestone in April 2007. This technology review represented the beginning step in the process that ultimately moved the project into its detailed design phase (Phase C). By May 2007, costs were still on target. In March 2008, the project successfully completed its Preliminary Design Review (PDR). In April 2008, the project passed the Non-Advocate Review. Other passed reviews include the Integrated Science Instrument Module review in March 2009, the Optical Telescope Element review completed in October 2009, and the Sunshield review completed in January 2010.

In April 2010, the telescope passed the technical portion of its Mission Critical Design Review (MCDR). Passing the MCDR signified the integrated observatory can meet all science and engineering requirements for its mission. The MCDR encompassed all previous design reviews. The project schedule underwent review during the months following the MCDR, in a process called the Independent Comprehensive Review Panel, which led to a re-plan of the mission aiming for a 2015 launch, but as late as 2018. By 2010, cost over-runs were impacting other projects, though Webb itself remained on schedule.

By 2011, the Webb project was in the final design and fabrication phase (Phase C).

Assembly of the hexagonal segments of the primary mirror, which was done via robotic arm, began in November 2015 and was completed on 3 February 2016. The secondary mirror was installed on 3 March 2016. Final construction of the Webb telescope was completed in November 2016, after which extensive testing procedures began.

In March 2018, NASA delayed Webb's launch an additional 2 years to May 2020 after the telescope's sunshield ripped during a practice deployment and the sunshield's cables did not sufficiently tighten. In June 2018, NASA delayed the launch by an additional 10 months to March 2021, based on the assessment of the independent review board convened after the failed March 2018 test deployment. The review identified that Webb launch and deployment had 344 potential single-point failures – tasks that had no alternative or means of recovery if unsuccessful, and therefore had to succeed for the telescope to work. In August 2019, the mechanical integration of the telescope was completed, something that was scheduled to be done 12 years before in 2007.

After construction was completed, Webb underwent final tests at Northrop Grumman's historic Space Park in Redondo Beach, California. A ship carrying the telescope left California on 26 September 2021, passed through the Panama Canal, and arrived in French Guiana on 12 October 2021.

Cost and schedule issues
NASA's lifetime cost for the project is expected to be US$9.7 billion, of which US$8.8 billion was spent on spacecraft design and development and US$861 million is planned to support five years of mission operations. Representatives from ESA and CSA stated their project contributions amount to approximately €700 million and CA$200 million, respectively.

A study in 1984 by the Space Science Board estimated that to build a next-generation infrared observatory in orbit would cost US$4 billion (US$7B in 2006 dollars, or $10B in 2020 dollars). While this came close to the final cost of Webb, the first NASA design considered in the late 1990s was more modest, aiming for a $1 billion price tag over 10 years of construction. Over time this design expanded, added funding for contingencies, and had scheduling delays.

By 2008, when the project entered preliminary design review and was formally confirmed for construction, over US$1 billion had already been spent on developing the telescope, and the total budget was estimated at about US$5 billion (equivalent to $ billion in ). In summer 2010, the mission passed its Critical Design Review (CDR) with excellent grades on all technical matters, but schedule and cost slips at that time prompted Maryland U.S. Senator Barbara Mikulski to call for external review of the project. The Independent Comprehensive Review Panel (ICRP) chaired by J. Casani (JPL) found that the earliest possible launch date was in late 2015 at an extra cost of US$1.5 billion (for a total of US$6.5 billion). They also pointed out that this would have required extra funding in FY2011 and FY2012 and that any later launch date would lead to a higher total cost.

On 6 July 2011, the United States House of Representatives' appropriations committee on Commerce, Justice, and Science moved to cancel the James Webb project by proposing an FY2012 budget that removed US$1.9 billion from NASA's overall budget, of which roughly one quarter was for Webb. US$3 billion had been spent and 75% of its hardware was in production. This budget proposal was approved by subcommittee vote the following day. The committee charged that the project was "billions of dollars over budget and plagued by poor management". In response, the American Astronomical Society issued a statement in support of Webb, as did Senator Mikulski. A number of editorials supporting Webb appeared in the international press during 2011 as well. In November 2011, Congress reversed plans to cancel Webb and instead capped additional funding to complete the project at US$8 billion.

While similar issues had affected other major NASA projects such as the Hubble telescope, some scientists expressed concerns about growing costs and schedule delays for the Webb telescope, worrying that its budget might be competing with those of other space science programs. A 2010 Nature article described Webb as "the telescope that ate astronomy". NASA continued to defend the budget and timeline of the program to Congress.

In 2018, Gregory L. Robinson was appointed as the new director of the Webb program. Robinson was credited with raising the program's schedule efficiency (how many measures were completed on time) from 50% to 95%. For his role in improving the performance of the Webb program, Robinsons's supervisor, Thomas Zurbuchen, called him "the most effective leader of a mission I have ever seen in the history of NASA." In July 2022, after Webb's commissioning process was complete and it began transmitting its first data, Robinson retired following a 33-year career at NASA.

On 27 March 2018, NASA pushed back the launch to May 2020 or later, with a final cost estimate to come after a new launch window was determined with the European Space Agency (ESA). In 2019, its mission cost cap was increased by US$800 million. After launch windows were paused in 2020 due to the COVID-19 pandemic, Webb was launched at the end of 2021, with a total budget of just under US$10 billion.

Partnership
NASA, ESA and CSA have collaborated on the telescope since 1996. ESA's participation in construction and launch was approved by its members in 2003 and an agreement was signed between ESA and NASA in 2007. In exchange for full partnership, representation and access to the observatory for its astronomers, ESA is providing the NIRSpec instrument, the Optical Bench Assembly of the MIRI instrument, an Ariane 5 ECA launcher, and manpower to support operations. The CSA provided the Fine Guidance Sensor and the Near-Infrared Imager Slitless Spectrograph and manpower to support operations.

Several thousand scientists, engineers, and technicians spanning 15 countries have contributed to the build, test and integration of Webb. A total of 258 companies, government agencies, and academic institutions participated in the pre-launch project; 142 from the United States, 104 from 12 European countries (including 21 from the U.K., 16 from France, 12 from Germany and 7 international), and 12 from Canada. Other countries as NASA partners, such as Australia, were involved in post-launch operation.

Participating countries:

Naming concerns

In 2002, NASA administrator (2001–2004) Sean O'Keefe made the decision to name the telescope after James E. Webb, the administrator of NASA from 1961 to 1968 during the Mercury, Gemini, and much of the Apollo programs.

In 2015, concerns were raised around Webb's possible role in the lavender scare, the mid-20th-century persecution by the U.S. government targeting homosexuals in federal employment. In 2022, NASA released a report of an investigation, based on an examination of more than 50,000 documents. The report found "no available evidence directly links Webb to any actions or follow-up related to the firing of individuals for their sexual orientation", either in his time in the State Department or at NASA.

Mission goals
The James Webb Space Telescope has four key goals:
 to search for light from the first stars and galaxies that formed in the universe after the Big Bang
 to study galaxy formation and evolution
 to understand star formation and planet formation
 to study planetary systems and the origins of life

These goals can be accomplished more effectively by observation in near-infrared light rather than light in the visible part of the spectrum. For this reason, Webb's instruments will not measure visible or ultraviolet light like the Hubble Telescope, but will have a much greater capacity to perform infrared astronomy. Webb will be sensitive to a range of wavelengths from 0.6 to 28 μm (corresponding respectively to orange light and deep infrared radiation at about ).

Webb may be used to gather information on the dimming light of star KIC 8462852, which was discovered in 2015, and has some abnormal light-curve properties.

Additionally, it will be able to tell if an exoplanet has methane in its atmosphere, allowing astronomers to determine whether or not the methane is a biosignature.

Orbit design

Webb orbits the Sun near the second Lagrange point () of the Sun–Earth system, which is  farther from the Sun than the Earth's orbit, and about four times farther than the Moon's orbit. Normally an object circling the Sun farther out than Earth would take longer than one year to complete its orbit. But near the  point, the combined gravitational pull of the Earth and the Sun allow a spacecraft to orbit the Sun in the same time that it takes the Earth. Staying close to Earth allows data rates to be much faster for a given size of antenna.

The telescope circles about the Sun–Earth  point in a halo orbit, which is inclined with respect to the ecliptic, has a radius varying between about  and , and takes about half a year to complete. Since  is just an equilibrium point with no gravitational pull, a halo orbit is not an orbit in the usual sense: the spacecraft is actually in orbit around the Sun, and the halo orbit can be thought of as controlled drifting to remain in the vicinity of the  point. This requires some station-keeping: around  per year from the total ∆v budget of . Two sets of thrusters constitute the observatory's propulsion system. Because the thrusters are located solely on the Sun-facing side of the observatory, all station-keeping operations are designed to slightly undershoot the required amount of thrust in order to avoid pushing Webb beyond the semi-stable  point, a situation which would be unrecoverable. Randy Kimble, the Integration and Test Project Scientist for the James Webb Space Telescope, compared the precise station-keeping of Webb to "Sisyphus [...] rolling this rock up the gentle slope near the top of the hill – we never want it to roll over the crest and get away from him".

Infrared astronomy

Webb is the formal successor to the Hubble Space Telescope (HST), and since its primary emphasis is on infrared astronomy, it is also a successor to the Spitzer Space Telescope. Webb will far surpass both those telescopes, being able to see many more and much older stars and galaxies. Observing in the infrared spectrum is a key technique for achieving this, because of cosmological redshift, and because it better penetrates obscuring dust and gas. This allows observation of dimmer, cooler objects. Since water vapor and carbon dioxide in the Earth's atmosphere strongly absorbs most infrared, ground-based infrared astronomy is limited to narrow wavelength ranges where the atmosphere absorbs less strongly. Additionally, the atmosphere itself radiates in the infrared spectrum, often overwhelming light from the object being observed. This makes a space telescope preferable for infrared observation.

The more distant an object is, the younger it appears; its light has taken longer to reach human observers. Because the universe is expanding, as the light travels it becomes red-shifted, and objects at extreme distances are therefore easier to see if viewed in the infrared. Webb's infrared capabilities are expected to let it see back in time to the first galaxies forming just a few hundred million years after the Big Bang.

Infrared radiation can pass more freely through regions of cosmic dust that scatter visible light. Observations in infrared allow the study of objects and regions of space which would be obscured by gas and dust in the visible spectrum, such as the molecular clouds where stars are born, the circumstellar disks that give rise to planets, and the cores of active galaxies.

Relatively cool objects (temperatures less than several thousand degrees) emit their radiation primarily in the infrared, as described by Planck's law. As a result, most objects that are cooler than stars are better studied in the infrared. This includes the clouds of the interstellar medium, brown dwarfs, planets both in our own and other solar systems, comets, and Kuiper belt objects that will be observed with the Mid-Infrared Instrument (MIRI).

Some of the missions in infrared astronomy that impacted Webb development were Spitzer and the Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe (WMAP). Spitzer showed the importance of mid-infrared, which is helpful for tasks such as observing dust disks around stars. Also, the WMAP probe showed the universe was "lit up" at redshift 17, further underscoring the importance of the mid-infrared. Both these missions were launched in the early 2000s, in time to influence Webb development.

Ground support and operations
The Space Telescope Science Institute (STScI), in Baltimore, Maryland, on the Homewood Campus of Johns Hopkins University, was selected in 2003 as the Science and Operations Center (S&OC) for Webb with an initial budget of US$162.2 million intended to support operations through the first year after launch. In this capacity, STScI was to be responsible for the scientific operation of the telescope and delivery of data products to the astronomical community. Data was to be transmitted from Webb to the ground via the NASA Deep Space Network, processed and calibrated at STScI, and then distributed online to astronomers worldwide. Similar to how Hubble is operated, anyone, anywhere in the world, will be allowed to submit proposals for observations. Each year several committees of astronomers will peer review the submitted proposals to select the projects to observe in the coming year. The authors of the chosen proposals will typically have one year of private access to the new observations, after which the data will become publicly available for download by anyone from the online archive at STScI.

The bandwidth and digital throughput of the satellite is designed to operate at 458 gigabits of data per day for the length of the mission (equivalent to a sustained rate of 5.42 Mbps). Most of the data processing on the telescope is done by conventional single-board computers. The digitization of the analog data from the instruments is performed by the custom SIDECAR ASIC (System for Image Digitization, Enhancement, Control And Retrieval Application Specific Integrated Circuit). NASA stated that the SIDECAR ASIC will include all the functions of a  instrument box in a  package and consume only 11 milliwatts of power. Since this conversion must be done close to the detectors, on the cold side of the telescope, the low power dissipation is crucial for maintaining the low temperature required for optimal operation of Webb.

The telescope is equipped with a solid-state drive (SSD) with a capacity of 68GB, used as temporary storage for data collected from its scientific instruments. By the end of the 10-year mission, the usable capacity of the drive is expected to decrease to 60GB due to the effects of radiation and read/write operations.

Micrometeoroid strike
The C3 mirror segment suffered a micrometeoroid strike from a large dust mote-sized particle between 23 and 25 May, the fifth and largest strike since launch, reported 8 June 2022, which required engineers to compensate for the strike using a mirror actuator. Despite the strike, a NASA characterization report states "all JWST observing modes have been reviewed and confirmed to be ready for science use" as of July 10, 2022.

From launch through commissioning

Launch

The launch (designated Ariane flight VA256) took place as scheduled at 12:20 UTC on 25 December 2021 on an Ariane 5 rocket that lifted off from the Guiana Space Centre in French Guiana. The telescope was confirmed to be receiving power, starting a two-week deployment phase of its parts and traveling to its target destination. The telescope was released from the upper stage 27 minutes 7 seconds after launch, beginning a 30-day adjustment to place the telescope in a Lissajous orbit around the L2 Lagrange point.

The telescope was launched with slightly less speed than needed to reach its final orbit, and slowed down as it travelled away from Earth, in order to reach L2 with only the velocity needed to enter its orbit there. The telescope reached L2 on 24 January 2022. The flight included three planned course corrections to adjust its speed and direction. This is because the observatory could recover from underthrust (going too slowly), but could not recover from overthrust (going too fast) – to protect highly temperature-sensitive instruments, the sunshield must remain between telescope and Sun, so the spacecraft could not turn around or use its thrusters to slow down.

An  orbit is unstable, so JWST needs to use propellant to maintain its halo orbit around L2 (known as station-keeping) to prevent the telescope from drifting away from its orbital position. It was designed to carry enough propellant for 10 years, but the precision of the Ariane 5 launch and the first midcourse correction were credited with saving enough onboard fuel that JWST may be able to maintain its orbit for around 20 years instead. Space.com called the launch "flawless".

Transit and structural deployment

Webb was released from the rocket upper stage 27 minutes after a flawless launch. Starting 31 minutes after launch, and continuing for about 13 days, Webb began the process of deploying its solar array, antenna, sunshield, and mirrors. Nearly all deployment actions are commanded by the Space Telescope Science Institute in Baltimore, Maryland, except for two early automatic steps, solar panel unfolding and communication antenna deployment. The mission was designed to give ground controllers flexibility to change or modify the deployment sequence in case of problems.

At 7:50p.m. EST on 25 December 2021, about 12 hours after launch, the telescope's pair of primary rockets began firing for 65 minutes to make the first of three planned mid-course corrections. On day two, the high gain communication antenna deployed automatically.

On 27 December 2021, at 60 hours after launch, Webb's rockets fired for nine minutes and 27 seconds to make the second of three mid-course corrections for the telescope to arrive at its L2 destination. On 28 December 2021, three days after launch, mission controllers began the multi-day deployment of Webb's all-important sunshield. On 30 December 2021, controllers successfully completed two more steps in unpacking the observatory. First, commands deployed the aft "momentum flap", a device that provides balance against solar pressure on the sunshield, saving fuel by reducing the need for thruster firing to maintain Webb's orientation.

On 31 December 2021, the ground team extended the two telescoping "mid booms" from the left and right sides of the observatory. The left side deployed in 3 hours and 19 minutes; the right side took 3 hours and 42 minutes. Commands to separate and tension the membranes followed between 3 and 4 January and were successful. On 5 January 2022, mission control successfully deployed the telescope's secondary mirror, which locked itself into place to a tolerance of about one and a half millimeters.

The last step of structural deployment was to unfold the wings of the primary mirror. Each panel consists of three primary mirror segments and had to be folded to allow the space telescope to be installed in the fairing of the Ariane rocket for the launch of the telescope. On 7 January 2022, NASA deployed and locked in place the port-side wing, and on 8 January, the starboard-side mirror wing. This successfully completed the structural deployment of the observatory.

On 24 January 2022, at 2:00p.m. Eastern Standard Time, nearly a month after launch, a third and final course correction took place, inserting Webb into its planned halo orbit around the Sun–Earth L2 point.

The MIRI instrument has four observing modes—imaging, low-resolution spectroscopy, medium-resolution spectroscopy and coronagraphic imaging. "On Aug. 24, a mechanism that supports medium-resolution spectroscopy (MRS), exhibited what appears to be increased friction during setup for a science observation. This mechanism is a grating wheel that allows scientists to select between short, medium, and longer wavelengths when making observations using the MRS mode," said NASA in a press statement.

Commissioning and testing
On 12 January 2022, while still in transit, mirror alignment began. The primary mirror segments and secondary mirror were moved away from their protective launch positions. This took about 10 days, because the 132 actuator motors are designed to fine-tune the mirror positions at microscopic accuracy (10 nanometer increments) and must each move over 1.2 million increments (12.5 mm) during initial alignment.

Mirror alignment requires each of the 18 mirror segments, and the secondary mirror, to be positioned to within 50 nanometers. NASA compares the required accuracy by analogy: "If the Webb primary mirror were the size of the United States, each [mirror] segment would be the size of Texas, and the team would need to line the height of those Texas-sized segments up with each other to an accuracy of about 1.5 inches".

Mirror alignment was a complex operation split into seven phases, that had been repeatedly rehearsed using a 1:6 scale model of the telescope. Once the mirrors reached , NIRCam targeted the 6th magnitude star HD 84406 in Ursa Major. To do this, NIRCam took 1560 images of the sky and used these wide-ranging images to determine where in the sky each segment of the main mirror initially pointed. At first, the individual primary mirror segments were greatly misaligned, so the image contained 18 separate, blurry, images of the star field, each containing an image of the target star. The 18 images of HD 84406 are matched to their respective mirror segments, and the 18 segments are brought into approximate alignment centered on the star ("Segment Image Identification"). Each segment was then individually corrected of its major focusing errors, using a technique called phase retrieval, resulting in 18 separate good quality images from the 18 mirror segments ("Segment Alignment"). The 18 images from each segment, were then moved so they precisely overlap to create a single image ("Image Stacking").

With the mirrors positioned for almost correct images, they had to be fine tuned to their operational accuracy of 50 nanometers, less than one wavelength of the light that will be detected. A technique called dispersed fringe sensing was used to compare images from 20 pairings of mirrors, allowing most of the errors to be corrected ("Coarse Phasing"), and then introduced light defocus to each segment's image, allowing detection and correction of almost all remaining errors ("Fine Phasing"). These two processes were repeated three times, and Fine Phasing will be routinely checked throughout the telescope's operation. After three rounds of Coarse and Fine Phasing, the telescope was well aligned at one place in the NIRCam field of view. Measurements will be made at various points in the captured image, across all instruments, and corrections calculated from the detected variations in intensity, giving a well-aligned outcome across all instruments ("Telescope Alignment Over Instrument Fields of View"). Finally, a last round of Fine Phasing and checks of image quality on all instruments was performed, to ensure that any small residual errors remaining from the previous steps, were corrected ("Iterate Alignment for Final Correction"). The telescope's mirror segments were then aligned and able to capture precise focused images.

In preparation for alignment, NASA announced at 19:28 UTC on 3 February 2022, that NIRCam had detected the telescope's first photons (although not yet complete images). On 11 February 2022, NASA announced the telescope had almost completed phase 1 of alignment, with every segment of its primary mirror having located and imaged the target star HD 84406, and all segments brought into approximate alignment. Phase 1 alignment was completed on 18 February 2022, and a week later, phases 2 and 3 were also completed. This meant the 18 segments were working in unison, however until all 7 phases are complete, the segments were still acting as 18 smaller telescopes rather than one larger one. At the same time as the primary mirror was being commissioned, hundreds of other instrument commissioning and calibration tasks were also ongoing.

Allocation of observation time
Webb observing time is allocated through a General Observers (GO) program, a Guaranteed Time Observations (GTO) program, and a Director's Discretionary Early Release Science (DD-ERS) program. The GTO program provides guaranteed observing time for scientists who developed hardware and software components for the observatory. The GO program provides all astronomers the opportunity to apply for observing time and will represent the bulk of the observing time. GO programs are selected through peer review by a Time Allocation Committee (TAC), similar to the proposal review process used for the Hubble Space Telescope.

Early Release Science program
In November 2017, the Space Telescope Science Institute announced the selection of 13 Director's Discretionary Early Release Science (DD-ERS) programs, chosen through a competitive proposal process. The observations for these programs—Early Release Observations (ERO) – were to be obtained during the first five months of Webb science operations after the end of the commissioning period. A total of 460 hours of observing time was awarded to these 13 programs, which span science topics including the Solar System, exoplanets, stars and star formation, nearby and distant galaxies, gravitational lenses, and quasars. These 13 ERS programs were to use a total of 242.8 hours of observing time on the telescope (not including Webb observing overheads and slew time).

General Observer Program
For GO Cycle 1 there were 6,000 hours of observation time available to allocate, and 1,173 proposals were submitted requesting a total of 24,500 hours of observation time. Selection of Cycle 1 GO programs was announced on 30 March 2021, with 266 programs approved. These included 13 large programs and treasury programs producing data for public access. The Cycle 2 GO program was announced on May 10, 2023. Webb science observations are nominally scheduled in weekly increments. The observation plan for every week is published on Mondays by the Space Telescope Science Institute.

Scientific results
James Webb Space Telescope completed its commissioning and was ready to begin full scientific operations on 11 July 2022. With some exceptions, most experiment data is kept private for one year for the exclusive use of scientists running that particular experiment, and then the raw data will be released to the public.

First full-color images
The first full-color images and spectroscopic data were released on 12 July 2022, which also marked the official beginning of Webb's general science operations. United States President Joe Biden revealed the first image, Webb's First Deep Field, on 11 July 2022. Additional releases around this time include:
 Carina Nebula  young, star-forming region called NGC 3324 displaying "Cosmic Cliffs" about 8500 light-years from Earth.
 WASP-96b  including an analysis of atmosphere with evidence of water around a giant gas planet orbiting a distant star 1120 light-years from Earth.
 Southern Ring Nebula  clouds of gas and dust expelled by a dying star 2500 light-years from Earth.
 Stephan's Quintet  a visual display of five galaxies with colliding gas and dust clouds creating new stars; four central galaxies are 290 million light-years from Earth.
 SMACS J0723.3-7327  a galaxy cluster at redshift 0.39, with distant background galaxies whose images are distorted and magnified due to gravitational lensing by the cluster. This image has been called Webb's First Deep Field.
On 14 July 2022, NASA presented images of Jupiter and related areas by the James Webb Space Telescope, including infrared views.

In a preprint released around the same time, NASA, ESA and CSA scientists stated that "almost across the board, the science performance of JWST is better than expected". The document described a series of observations during the commissioning, when the instruments captured spectra of transiting exoplanets with a precision better than 1000 ppm per data point, and tracked moving objects with speeds up to 67 milliarcseconds/second, more than twice as fast as the requirement. It also obtained the spectra of hundreds of stars simultaneously in a dense field towards the Milky Way Galactic Center. Other targets included:
 Moving targets: Jupiter (including rings and the moons Europa, Thebe and Metis), asteroids 2516 Roman, 118 Peitho, 6481 Tenzing, 1773 Rumpelstilz, 216 Kleopatra, 2035 Stearns, 4015 Wilson-Harrington and 2004 JX20
 NIRCam grism time-series, NIRISS SOSS and NIRSpec BOTS mode: the Jupiter-sized planet HAT-P-14b
 NIRISS aperture masking interferometry (AMI): A clear detection of the very low-mass companion star AB Doradus C, which had a separation of only 0.3 arcseconds to the primary. This observation was the first demonstration of AMI in space.
 MIRI low-resolution spectroscopy (LRS): a hot super-Earth planet L 168-9 b (TOI-134) around a bright M-dwarf star (red dwarf star)

Bright early galaxies
Within two weeks of the first Webb images, several preprint papers described a wide range of high redshift and very luminous (presumably large) galaxies believed to date from 235 million years (z=16.7) to 280 million years after the Big Bang, far earlier than previously known. On 17 August 2022, NASA released a large mosaic image of 690 individual frames taken by the Near Infrared Camera (NIRCam) on Webb of numerous very early galaxies. Some early galaxies observed by Webb like CEERS-93316, which has an estimated redshift of approximately z=16.7 corresponding to 235.8 million years after the Big Bang, are high redshift galaxy candidates. In September 2022, primordial black holes were proposed as explaining these unexpectedly large and early galaxies.

Subsequent noteworthy observations and interpretations
In June 2023 detection of organic molecules 12 billion light-years away in a galaxy called SPT0418-47 using the Webb telescope was announced.

On 12 July 2023, NASA celebrated the first year of operations with the release of Webb's image of a small star-forming region in the Rho Ophiuchi cloud complex, 390 light years away.

In September 2023, two astrophysicists questioned the accepted Standard Model of Cosmology, based on the latest James Webb Space Telescope studies.

Gallery

See also

 Timeline of the James Webb Space Telescope

 List of largest infrared telescopes
 List of largest optical reflecting telescopes
 List of space telescopes
 Nancy Grace Roman Space Telescope – planned launch no later than May 2027
 New Worlds Mission – proposed occulter for the JWST

 Collier Trophy – presented to the JWST in 2023 for "the greatest achievement in aeronautics or astronautics in America during the preceding year"

Notes

References

Further reading
  The formal case for JWST science presented in 2006.
  A review of JWST capabilities and scientific opportunities.

External links

 Official NASA / STScI / ESA / French website
 JWST NASA – Tracking Page − Launch to Final Calibrations (and more)
 JWST NASA – About page − Timeline details / Webb orbit / L2 / Communicating
 JWST Text – Most Critical Events – Launching and Deployment (2021)
 JWST Video (031:22): Highlights − Technical Engineering Details (2021)
 JWST Video (012:02): 1st Month – Launching and Deployment (animation; 2017)
 JWST Video (008:06): 1st Month − Launching and Deployment (update; 2021)
 JWST Video (003:00): 2nd Month − Mirror Alignment details (2/11/2022)
 JWST Videos (Mission Control Live) – Deployment Events − Now Successfully Completed (2022):
  ⇒  (mirror) ⇒ James Webb Space Telescope: Sunshield Deployment – Mission Control Live  ⇒
 James Webb Space Telescope: Secondary Mirror Deployment – Mission Control Live  ⇒ James Webb Space Telescope: Primary Mirror Deployment – Mission Control Live  ⇒ News Update on James Webb Space Telescope's Full Deployment  ⇒
 Media Briefing: What's Next for the James Webb Space Telescope  ⇒ JAMES WEBB TELESCOPE First Photos, Data & Calibrations Explained  ⇒ The First Thing That James Webb Will See
 "Unknown: Cosmic Time Machine (Netflix; 2023) – film documentary about the development and deployment of the James Webb Space Telescope.

2021 in French Guiana
2021 in science
Articles containing video clips
Artificial satellites at Earth-Sun Lagrange points
European Space Agency space probes
Exoplanet search projects
Goddard Space Flight Center
Infrared telescopes
NASA programs
NASA space probes
Northrop Grumman spacecraft
Space program of Canada
Space telescopes
Spacecraft launched by Ariane rockets
Spacecraft launched in 2021
Spacecraft using halo orbits

James Webb Space Telescope


Hangar 18 hrvatski je proizvođač pametnih telefona iz Koprivnice. Poznat je svojoj seriji pametnih telefona NOA.

Povijest
Hangar 18 osnovan je u Koprivnici 2005. godine kao malo obiteljsko poduzeće.

Godine 2014. tvrtka je plasirala vlastiti brend pametnih telefona NOA. Iste godine prodala je 80 000 primjeraka postavši vodeći proizvođač pametnih telefona na području tržišta Srednje Europe.

Britanski Deloitte je 2015. poduzeće proglasio drugim najbrže rastućim u Hrvatskoj u području visoke tehnologije, a sljedeće se godine tvrtka našla i na popisu 500 najbrže rastućih tehnoloških tvrtki (Deloitte Technology Fast 500 EMEA) na području Srednje Europe, zauzevši 216. mjesto. Uz Hangar 18, na tom su se popisu našli još samo Rimac Automobili (151. mjesto) i Serengeti (296. mjesto).

Za pametni telefon NOA H10le, europska udruga stranih časopisa za potrošačku elektroniku, video i audio aparate EISA dodijelila je nagradu Best Buy smartphone (Najprodavaniji pametni telefon) 2017. godine.  Time je Hangar 18 postao prva hrvatska tvrtka koja je tu nagradu primila otkad se to priznanje dodjeljuje.

Izvori

Hrvatske tvrtke
Mobilna telefonija

Hangar 18


رويال داتش شل  المعروفة باسم شل، هي شركة نفط متعددة الجنسيات بريطانية وهولندية الأصل، تعتبر ثاني أكبر شركة طاقة خاصة في العالم. تأسست شل عام 1907 ويقع مقرها الرئيسي في لاهاي بهولندا، ولها مكتب مركزي في لندن بالمملكة المتحدة. وتمتلك الولايات المتحدة نسبة 40 % من رأس مالها.

شل مصر
تتمثل استثمارات شل مصر في شركة بابتيكو - (وهي الشركة المشتركة بين شل والهيئة المصرية العامة للبترول)
في مناطق امتياز بدر الدين وغرب سترا في الصحراء الغربية وقد حققت الشركتان أربعة اكتشافات منها اكتشافان في حقول بدر الدين التي تقوم بتشغيلها بابتيكو واكتشافان في حقول غرب سترا التي تقوم بتشغيلها شل مصر.
 في ديسمبر 2006 حققت شل مصر أول اكتشاف في طبقة العصر الجوراسى في منطقة امتياز غرب سترا. فقد تم حفر البئر WS-J1-1 على عمق 5,077 متر للوصول إلى طبقة «خريطة». وقد توصلت الشركة إلى طبقة حاملة للهيدروكاربون سمكها الصافى 39 متر في منطقة صفا العليا. وتم اختبار البئر لتحديد إنتاجه.
 في ديسمبر 2006، أكملت شل حفر البئر WS-C1-3 الواقع في امتياز غرب سترا للوصول إلى طبقة بحرية على عمق 2406 متر. وقد تم اكتشاف الهيدروكربون في طبقة سمكها الصافى 16 مترا في هذا الموقع. وتم اختبار البئر بعد الانتهاء من اختبار البئر WS-J1-1

طالع أيضاً
 حقل برنت النفطي

مراجع

وصلات خارجية

تأسيسات سنة 1907 في المملكة المتحدة
تأسيسات سنة 1907 في إنجلترا
تأسيسات سنة 1907 في هولندا
شركات النفط والغاز في تركيا
شركات بريطانية أسست في 1907
شركات تجارة تجزئة أسست في 1907
شركات طاقة أسست في 1907
شركات كيميائية في المملكة المتحدة
شركات كيميائية في هولندا
شركات متعددة الجنسيات مقرها في مدينة لندن
شركات مدرجة في بورصة لندن
شركات مدرجة في بورصة نيويورك
شركات مقرها في لاهاي
شركات مقرها لندن
شركات موارد غير متجددة أسست في 1907
شركات نفط
شركات نفط وغاز في المملكة المتحدة
شركات نفطية في هولندا
شركات هولندية أسست في 1907
علامات تجارية بريطانية
علامات تجارية هولندية
منظمات مقرها في هولندا وتحظى برعاية بملكية سامية

رويال داتش شل


The national flag of Zimbabwe consists of seven even horizontal stripes of green, gold, red and black with a white triangle containing a red five-pointed star with a Zimbabwe Bird. The present design was adopted on 18 April 1980. The soapstone bird featured on the flag represents a statuette of a bird found at the ruins of Great Zimbabwe. The bird symbolises the history of Zimbabwe; the red star beneath it officially stands for the nation's aspirations but is commonly thought to symbolise socialism, and the revolutionary struggle for freedom and peace. The design is based on the flag of Zimbabwe's ruling party, the Zimbabwe African National Union – Patriotic Front.

History

The country now known as Zimbabwe was formally known as Southern Rhodesia from 1895 to 1980—although simply Rhodesia was used locally between 1964 until June 1979 after Northern Rhodesia obtained its independence—and then Zimbabwe Rhodesia between June and December 1979. Southern Rhodesia achieved responsible government in 1923, and thereby became a British self-governing colony following three decades of rule by the British South Africa Company. Following the granting of responsible government a flag was adopted which followed the standard British colonial practice, being a Blue Ensign, defaced with the shield from the Southern Rhodesian coat of arms. This basic design was used until 1968, although a light blue ensign was introduced in April 1964 following the break-up of the Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland.  On 11 November 1968, three years after the predominantly white government unilaterally declared independence from Britain, a national flag based on a completely new design was adopted.  This was a green-white-green vertical triband, charged centrally with the national coat of arms. This was the first national flag to contain the Zimbabwe Bird, which had been present in the coat of arms since 1924.

In 1979, when the country reconstituted itself as Zimbabwe Rhodesia following the Internal Settlement between the government and moderate black nationalists, a new flag was adopted to mark the transition on 4 September of that year. The flag of Zimbabwe Rhodesia was designed by Flight Lieutenant Cedric Herbert of the Rhodesian Air Force and a member of the Rhodesian Heraldry and Genealogy Society.

The design incorporated the pan-African colours of yellow, black, green and red, with the soapstone bird of Great Zimbabwe, representing an older, pre-colonial source of power and identity in yellow on a vertical black stripe, symbolising the importance of majority rule, and three horizontal stripes, one red representing the blood spilled in the struggle for majority rule, one white, representing the integral part of the European community and other minorities in all aspects of the country's life, and one green, reflecting the importance of agriculture to the country's well-being, but the new design had little support from black politicians, who described it as "the flag with two names", a reference to "Zimbabwe Rhodesia".

In response, the Voice of Zimbabwe radio service operated by Robert Mugabe's ZANU PF from Maputo in Mozambique, carried a commentary entitled "The proof of independence is not flags or names", dismissing the changes as aimed at "strengthening the racist puppet alliance's position at the Zimbabwe conference in London".

This flag was officially superseded in December 1979 when the UK took interim control of the country following the Lancaster House Agreement which ended the Rhodesian Bush War. The UK's Union Jack was used as the official flag of the country, although de facto the Zimbabwe Rhodesia flag continued to be flown, while fresh elections were held in February 1980.  At midnight between 17 and 18 April 1980, the country was granted independence by the UK under the name Zimbabwe and a new national flag was adopted, the draft for which had been handed to the Minister of Public Works Richard Hove by an unspecified designer. The initial design did not include the Zimbabwe Bird.  This was added at the suggestion of Cederic Herbert, who pointed out its uniqueness and history. The final draft went through the approval of the then-Prime Minister-elect Robert Mugabe. The adoption of the new flag coincided with the swearing-in of Canaan Banana as the country's new president. The Zimbabwe Bird, used on every flag since 1968, is based on a statue discovered from the medieval ruined city of Great Zimbabwe in the country's south-east.

Colonial flags (de jure)

UDI flags (de facto)

Display and use

Display on uniforms
Some police officers in Zimbabwe have the national flag displayed on their uniforms' sleeve tops.

Design

Colours and symbolism

The national flag of Zimbabwe is made up of five different colours: Green, gold, red, black and white. Officially, the colours of the flag of Zimbabwe carry political, regional, and cultural meanings. Green represents the agriculture and rural areas of Zimbabwe. Yellow stands for the wealth of minerals in the country, predominantly gold. The red symbolises the blood shed during the first and second Chimurenga (wars) in the "struggle for independence". The black indicates the heritage, race and ethnicity of the black majority.

The white triangle is a symbol for peace. The golden bird, known as the "Great Zimbabwe Bird" (Hungwe) is the national symbol of Zimbabwe and is most likely a representation of the African fish eagle. It "exemplifies the strong bond that ancestral humans had with animals, nature and spiritual guides" and it is treated with a high level of importance and respect. The red star represents the nation's aspirations, taken to be socialism as promoted by the ruling Zimbabwe African National Union – Patriotic Front (ZANU-PF), and whose party flag was used as the basis for the flag of the nation.

Specifications and the correct rendering of the Great Zimbabwe Bird

The Great Zimbabwe Bird first appeared in an armorial sense when it was incorporated in the coat of arms of Southern Rhodesia, which were granted by Royal Warrant on 11 August 1924. It was first used on a national flag when the full arms were displayed on the Rhodesian flag that was adopted on 11 November 1968. It then appeared alone on the Zimbabwe Rhodesian flag of 1979, and it is now displayed on the flag of Zimbabwe. The arms of 1924 were initially retained by the Zimbabwean Government until a new coat of arms were adopted on 12 September 1981.

The Zimbabwe Bird depicted on the flag is rendered in the same format as it appeared on the arms of 1924 and as it appeared on the Rhodesian flag of 1968 and the Zimbabwe Rhodesian flag of 1979. The red star on which the bird is placed is a regular star. However, a different, rather flattened version of the bird, sometimes displayed on an irregular, flattened star, is often seen on flags that are manufactured outside of Zimbabwe. The origin of this discrepancy appears to be an illustration of the proposed new flag that was first released by the Zimbabwe Ministry of Information in April 1980, just prior to the country attaining full independence. This illustration showed the bird in a flattened version positioned over an irregular star. The poor quality of the illustration, with the star appearing as irregular on the flag, but regular under the description of the meanings on the right, and with the Zimbabwe Bird being omitted completely from where it should be next to the words The National Emblem, would suggest that it was done in haste and without accuracy. Nevertheless, in the absence of a better source, vexillologists outside of Zimbabwe have used this illustration as the basis for their rendering of the emblem on the flag, which has then been copied by many flag manufacturers outside of Zimbabwe. Meanwhile, flag manufacturers inside Zimbabwe continue to produce flags emblazoned with the original version of the bird sitting on a regular star. As a result, these two variations of the Zimbabwean flag are both in common use, however the version of the flag with the regular star is the correct one according to official specifications.

Similarities

The colours used on the flag of Zimbabwe are closely shared with that of the ruling Zimbabwe African National Union – Patriotic Front. This is viewed as a sign of humble submission and respect towards the party.

In popular culture
On 7 August 1980, Samora Machel made a famous speech involving the national flag of Zimbabwe, in which he said while holding the flag, "This flag covers everyone. There are no blacks in Zimbabwe, there are no whites, there are no mulattos and Indians, today there are just Zimbabweans."

In Harare, Zimbabwe, in 2011, every other car had one too many miniature national flags plastered onto it. Sales of the national flag were sky-high in the country. According to Petina Gappah in The Guardian in 2010, the flag is a "reminder that the nation was born of pain".

See also

 List of Zimbabwean flags
 List of Rhodesian flags

References

External links

Zimbabwe

National symbols of Zimbabwe
Zimbabwe
Zimbabwe

Flag of Zimbabwe


Tiebaghi es una mina y antiguo pueblo de Koumac, Nueva Caledonia. Situado en un macizo de rocas ultramáficas, que fue la mayor mina de cromo en el mundo en 1941, produciendo cerca de 54 000 toneladas por año. Durante la Segunda Guerra Mundial se produjo alrededor de 4400 toneladas de níquel por año. La mina está explotada por la firma francesa Eramet.

Referencias

Localidades de Nueva Caledonia
Minas de Nueva Caledonia

Tiebaghi


Limestone County er navnet på 2 counties i USA:

 Limestone County, Alabama
 Limestone County, Texas

Limestone County


Aderus andrewesi es una especie de coleóptero de la familia Aderidae. Fue descrita científicamente por George Charles Champion en 1916.

Distribución geográfica
Habita en la India.

Referencias

andrewesi
Coleópteros de India
Insectos descritos en 1916
Taxones descritos por George Charles Champion

Aderus andrewesi


A Escola Naval Militar () é o centro de formação de futuros oficiais da Armada Espanhola. Está localizada em Marín (Pontevedra, Galiza) desde 1943, data em que foi transferida de sua localização anterior na Cidade naval de San Carlos, San Fernando (Província de Cádis).

Naval Militar
Marinha da Espanha
Academias navais
Campus de Pontevedra

Escola Naval Militar (Espanha)


Revoluția din Februarie din Paraguay a fost o lovitură de stat militară realizată la 17 februarie 1936 care l-a adus la putere pe colonelul Rafael Franco. Revoluția a marcat sfârșitul guvernării haotice a Partidului Liberal din Paraguay și a început ascensiunea dictaturilor militare care a durat mai mult de o jumătate de secol.

Guvernul lui Franco a efectuat rapid multe reforme, dintre care principala a fost reforma agrară. Franco a fost înlăturat la 13 august 1937, dar influența sa și cea a febreiristasr au continuat să influențeze politica paraguayană și, în cele din urmă, au condus la războiul civil paraguayan din 1947 și la înființarea Partidului Revoluționar Febrerista în 1951.

Revoluția a fost descrisă ca o "lovitură marxisto-fascistă", care "a pus bazele dictaturii pro-naziste a lui Higinio Morínigo din 1940".

Fundament

Ideea principală din spatele Revoluției poate fi evocată cu un fragment dintr-o piesă a lui Julio Correa despre război: "După acest război ... vom îmbrățișa tricolorul, în acest război am demonstrat cine suntem ... că suntem puternici în fața răului, că avem putere și inimă. Vom expulza toți bolivienii și mai târziu vom expulza pe toți trădătorii și hoții, țara noastră este a noastră ... am câștigat-o cu transpirație, lacrimi și sânge. după acest război toți paraguayenii vor avea o bucată de pământ pe care să-și construiască casele."

După ce armistițiul a fost semnat la 12 iunie 1935, președintele Eusebio Ayala a lăsat repede la vatra mulți soldați din armată și, din cauza recesiunii economice, au rămas fără loc de muncă, mulți dintre aceștia rămânând în Asuncion în căutarea unor oportunități mai bune. Acești veterani și ofițeri ai războiului din Chaco, nemulțumiți de conducerea slabă a politicianului liberal în timpul războiului și de tratamentul soldaților demobilizați, care au fost trimiși acasă fără pensii, au găsit un lider într-un ofițer populist, colonelul Rafael Franco. El tulbura apele politice și militare, la acest moment fiind numit șef al Colegiului Militar și al Asociației Naționale a Veteranilor de Război, care avea peste 100 000 de membri.

Până la sfârșitul războiului din Chaco, mandatul președintelui Ayala se încheia și el l-a sprijinit pe popularul comandantul al forțelor paraguayene din Chaco, José Félix Estigarribia ca posibil candidat. Au existat, de asemenea, suspiciuni că Ayala, cu ajutorul lui Estigarribia, ar fi putut să-și obțină un alt mandat. Estigarribia avea și adversari în cadrul armatei, care erau nemulțumiți de conducerea sa în timpul războiului.

Îngrijorat de ascensiunea lui Estigarribia, colonelul Franco a început o campanie împotriva sa, acuzându-l de greșeli militare și de faptul ca nu a reușit să captureze Santa Cruz de la Sierra. La 6 februarie 1936, Franco a fost arestat și exilat la Buenos Aires pentru complot împotriva guvernului. Acest lucru i-a determinat pe suporterii săi sa acționeze.

În noaptea de 16 februarie, trupele conduse de locotenent-coloneii Federico Wenman Smith și Camildo Recalde au ocupat Asuncionul. Comisariatul de poliție a fost atacat cu o pierdere de aproximativ 50 de vieți. Luptele din oraș au durat toată ziua, iar seara, președintele Ayala s-a predat la Recalde. Estigarribia a zburat la Asuncion de la sediul său din Chaco, dar a fost arestat în aeroport. Franco a revenit în capitală la 19 februarie și a preluat Președinția.

Principalele realizări

Suporterii lui Franco au fost cei care urau guvernarea politicienilor liberali și a marilor proprietari de teren - veterani de război, studenți și țărani, unind tot felul de ideologii politice, de la socialism la naționalism. Franco a insistat că revoluția sa este una de solidaritate națională menită să sporească bunăstarea oamenilor obișnuiți. La 15 noiembrie 1936 a fost înființată o nouă Unión Nacional Revolucionaria, menită să unească toți susținătorii revoluției, însă a eșuat.

Revoluția din februarie a reușit în trei domenii:
 a înlocuit liberalismul cu naționalismul militar. Franco l-a ridicat pe Francisco Solano Lopez, pe care liberalii l-au criticat pentru distrugerea Paraguayului, la statutul de erou național. Au fost descoperite rămășițele sale și împreună cu cele ale tatălui său, Carlos Antonio Lopez, au fost îngropate în Panteonul Național al Eroilor.
 a lansat prima reformă agrară serioasă. În mai 1936 a fost adoptată Legea privind reforma agrară, care a ordonat naționalizarea a 5 milioane de hectare de teren și distribuirea acestora între micii agricultori. După căderea lui Franco aproape o jumătate de milion de hectare au fost distribuite la 10.000 de fermieri.
 a recunoscut oficial drepturile lucrătorilor. În iunie 1936 a fost creat Ministerul Muncii și a fost adoptat primul Cod al Muncii. Au fost introduse opt ore lucrătoare, vacanțe plătite, sfârșitul de săptămână, dreptul la grevă și sindicatele. A fost înființată Confederația muncitorilor din Paraguay.

Un alt rezultat al Revoluției a fost începutul utilizării oficiale a limbii native Guarani. Guarani era vorbită pe scară largă printre soldați și a fost folosită la ordinul lui Jose Felix Estigarribia în comunicațiile militare paraguayene în timpul războiului Chaco, pentru a face decodificarea mai grea pentru bolivieni.

Motivele eșecului

Guvernul lui Franco s-a definit ca fiind în opoziție cu era liberală anterioară, dar nu avea o viziune unificată asupra a ceea ce susținea și ce voia să obțină.

Pentru a liniști grevele revoluționare, naționalizările de teren și tulburările în armată, la 10 martie 1936 Franco a emis Decretul 152 prin care a interzis toate partidele politice și a proclamat că revoluția din februarie va urma regimurile totalitare ale Europei. Legea din 10 martie 1936 a fost elaborată de ministrul de interne Gomes Freire Esteves, care era un simpatizant fascist și care în 1915 a condus o revoltă împotriva președintelui Eduardo Schaerer. Legea propunea crearea unui stat corporatist. Aceasta i-a îndepărtat pe mulți dintre susținătorii lui Franco.  Vrajba printre susținătorii politici ai lui Franco a fost atât de mare încât a fost forțat să anuleze acest decret. Inepția politică a lui Franco a dus la retragerea Partidului Colorado din guvernul său.

Între timp, Conferința de pace din Chaco continua și, în ianuarie 1937, Franco a acceptat să renunțe la anumite cerințe teritoriale boliviene. Acest lucru a provocat nemulțumire în cadrul armatei și a comandantului trupelor din Chaco, colonelul Ramon Paredes, care era un susținător liberal. La 13 august 1937, soldații săi au ocupat Asuncion și l-au răsturnat pe Franco. Doi ani mai târziu, politicienii liberali au reușit să-l aleagă Estigarribia ca președinte al republicii.

Referințe

Istoria Paraguayului
1936 în America de Sud
Lovituri de stat

Revoluția din Februarie (Paraguay)