Railway electrification is the use of electric power for the propulsion of rail transport. Electric railways use either electric locomotives (hauling passengers or freight in separate cars), electric multiple units (passenger cars with their own motors) or both.
Electricity is typically generated in large and relatively efficient generating stations, transmitted to the railway network and distributed to the trains. Some electric railways have their own dedicated generating stations and transmission lines, but most purchase power from an electric utility. The railway usually provides its own distribution lines, switches, and transformers.

Power is supplied to moving trains with a (nearly) continuous conductor running along the track that usually takes one of two forms: an overhead line, suspended from poles or towers along the track or from structure or tunnel ceilings, or a third rail mounted at track level and contacted by a sliding "pickup shoe". Both overhead wire and third-rail systems usually use the running rails as the return conductor, but some systems use a separate fourth rail for this purpose.

In comparison to the principal alternative, the diesel engine, electric railways offer substantially better energy efficiency, lower emissions, and lower operating costs. Electric locomotives are also usually quieter, more powerful, and more responsive and reliable than diesel. They have no local emissions, an important advantage in tunnels and urban areas. Some electric traction systems provide regenerative braking that turns the train's kinetic energy back into electricity and returns it to the supply system to be used by other trains or the general utility grid. While diesel locomotives burn petroleum products, electricity can be generated from diverse sources, including renewable energy. Historically concerns of resource independence have played a role in the decision to electrify railway lines. The landlocked Swiss confederation which almost completely lacks oil or coal deposits but has plentiful hydropower electrified its network in part in reaction to supply issues during both World Wars.

Disadvantages of electric traction include: high capital costs that may be uneconomic on lightly trafficked routes, a relative lack of flexibility (since electric trains need third rails or overhead wires), and a vulnerability to power interruptions. Electro-diesel locomotives and electro-diesel multiple units mitigate these problems somewhat as they are capable of running on diesel power during an outage or on non-electrified routes.

Different regions may use different supply voltages and frequencies, complicating through service and requiring greater complexity of locomotive power. There used to be a historical concern for double-stack rail transport regarding clearances with overhead lines but it is no longer universally true , with both Indian Railways and China Railway regularly operating electric double-stack cargo trains under overhead lines.

Railway electrification has constantly increased in the past decades, and as of 2022, electrified tracks account for nearly one-third of total tracks globally. Electrification projects are constantly undertaken to service rapidly growing suburbs formerly served by non-electrified trains which typically have low capacities,.

History
Railway electrification is the development of powering trains and locomotives using electricity instead of diesel or steam power. The history of railway electrification dates back to the late 19th century, when the first electric tramways were introduced in cities like Berlin, London, and New York City.

In 1895, the first railway in the world to be electrified was the Gross-Lichterfelde Tramway in Berlin, Germany. It was followed by the electrification of the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad's Baltimore Belt Line in the United States in 1895–96, the first electrified mainline railway.

The early electrification of railways used direct current (DC) power systems, which were limited in terms of the distance they could transmit power. However, in the early 20th century, alternating current (AC) power systems were developed, which allowed for more efficient power transmission over longer distances.

In the 1920s and 1930s, many countries around the world began to electrify their railways. In Europe, Switzerland, France, and Italy were among the early adopters of railway electrification. In the United States, the New York, New Haven and Hartford Railroad was one of the first major railways to be electrified.

Railway electrification continued to expand throughout the 20th century, with improvements in technology and the development of high-speed trains and commuters. Today, many countries have extensive electrified railway networks with  of standard lines in the world, including China, India, Japan, France, Germany, and the United Kingdom. Electrification is seen as a more sustainable and environmentally friendly alternative to diesel or steam power, and is an important part of many countries' transportation infrastructure.

Classification

Electrification systems are classified by three main parameters:
 Voltage
 Current
 Direct current (DC)
 Alternating current (AC)
 Frequency
 Contact system
 Overhead lines (catenary)
 Third rail
 Fourth rail
 Ground-level power supply

Selection of an electrification system is based on economics of energy supply, maintenance, and capital cost compared to the revenue obtained for freight and passenger traffic. Different systems are used for urban and intercity areas; some electric locomotives can switch to different supply voltages to allow flexibility in operation.

Standardised voltages
Six of the most commonly used voltages have been selected for European and international standardisation. Some of these are independent of the contact system used, so that, for example, 750VDC may be used with either third rail or overhead lines.

There are many other voltage systems used for railway electrification systems around the world, and the list of railway electrification systems covers both standard voltage and non-standard voltage systems.

The permissible range of voltages allowed for the standardised voltages is as stated in standards BSEN50163 and IEC60850. These take into account the number of trains drawing current and their distance from the substation.

Direct current

Overhead lines

1,500V DC is used in Japan, Indonesia, Hong Kong (parts), Ireland, Australia (parts), France (also using , the Netherlands, New Zealand (Wellington), Singapore (on the North East MRT Line), the United States (Chicago area on the Metra Electric district and the South Shore Line interurban line and Link light rail in Seattle, Washington). In Slovakia, there are two narrow-gauge lines in the High Tatras (one a cog railway). In the Netherlands it is used on the main system, alongside 25kV on the HSL-Zuid and Betuwelijn, and 3,000V south of Maastricht. In Portugal, it is used in the Cascais Line and in Denmark on the suburban S-train system (1650V DC).

In the United Kingdom, 1,500VDC was used in 1954 for the Woodhead trans-Pennine route (now closed); the system used regenerative braking, allowing for transfer of energy between climbing and descending trains on the steep approaches to the tunnel. The system was also used for suburban electrification in East London and Manchester, now converted to 25kVAC. It is now only used for the Tyne and Wear Metro. In India, 1,500V DC was the first electrification system launched in 1925 in Mumbai area. Between 2012 and 2016, the electrification was converted to 25kV 50Hz, which is the countrywide system.

3kV DC is used in Belgium, Italy, Spain, Poland, Slovakia, Slovenia, South Africa, Chile, the northern portion of the Czech Republic, the former republics of the Soviet Union, and in the Netherlands on a few kilometers between Maastricht and Belgium. It was formerly used by the Milwaukee Road from Harlowton, Montana, to Seattle, across the Continental Divide and including extensive branch and loop lines in Montana, and by the Delaware, Lackawanna and Western Railroad (now New Jersey Transit, converted to 25kVAC) in the United States, and the Kolkata suburban railway (Bardhaman Main Line) in India, before it was converted to 25kV 50Hz.

DC voltages between 600V and 800V are used by most tramways, trolleybus networks and underground (subway) systems as the traction motors accept this voltage without the weight of an on-board transformer.

Medium-voltage DC
Increasing availability of high-voltage semiconductors may allow the use of higher and more efficient DC voltages that heretofore have only been practical with AC.

The use of medium-voltage DC electrification (MVDC) would solve some of the issues associated with standard-frequency AC electrification systems, especially possible supply grid load imbalance and the phase separation between the electrified sections powered from different phases, whereas high voltage would make the transmission more efficient. UIC conducted a case study for the conversion of the Bordeaux-Hendaye railway line (France), currently electrified at 1.5kV DC, to 9kV DC and found that the conversion would allow to use less bulky overhead wires (saving €20 million per 100route-km) and lower the losses (saving 2GWh per year per 100route-km; equalling about €150,000 p.a.). The line chosen is one of the lines, totalling 6000km, that are in need of renewal.

In the 1960s the Soviets experimented with boosting the overhead voltage from 3 to 6kV. DC rolling stock was equipped with ignitron-based converters to lower the supply voltage to 3kV. The converters turned out to be unreliable and the experiment was curtailed. In 1970 the Ural Electromechanical Institute of Railway Engineers carried out calculations for railway electrification
at , showing that the equivalent loss levels for a  system could be achieved with DC voltage between 11 and 16kV. In the 1980s and 1990s  was being tested on the October Railway near Leningrad (now Petersburg). The experiments ended in 1995 due to the end of funding.

Third rail

Most electrification systems use overhead wires, but third rail is an option up to 1,500V. Third rail systems almost exclusively use DC distribution. The use of AC is usually not feasible due to the dimensions of a third rail being physically very large compared with the skin depth that AC penetrates to  in a steel rail. This effect makes the resistance per unit length unacceptably high compared with the use of DC. Third rail is more compact than overhead wires and can be used in smaller-diameter tunnels, an important factor for subway systems.

Fourth rail

The London Underground in England is one of few networks that uses a four-rail system. The additional rail carries the electrical return that, on third-rail and overhead networks, is provided by the running rails. On the London Underground, a top-contact third rail is beside the track, energized at , and a top-contact fourth rail is located centrally between the running rails at , which combine to provide a traction voltage of . The same system was used for Milan's earliest underground line, Milan Metro's line 1, whose more recent lines use an overhead catenary or a third rail.

The key advantage of the four-rail system is that neither running rail carries any current. This scheme was introduced because of the problems of return currents, intended to be carried by the earthed (grounded) running rail, flowing through the iron tunnel linings instead. This can cause electrolytic damage and even arcing if the tunnel segments are not electrically bonded together. The problem was exacerbated because the return current also had a tendency to flow through nearby iron pipes forming the water and gas mains. Some of these, particularly Victorian mains that predated London's underground railways, were not constructed to carry currents and had no adequate electrical bonding between pipe segments. The four-rail system solves the problem. Although the supply has an artificially created earth point, this connection is derived by using resistors which ensures that stray earth currents are kept to manageable levels. Power-only rails can be mounted on strongly insulating ceramic chairs to minimise current leak, but this is not possible for running rails, which have to be seated on stronger metal chairs to carry the weight of trains. However, elastomeric rubber pads placed between the rails and chairs can now solve part of the problem by insulating the running rails from the current return should there be a leakage through the running rails.

The Expo and Millennium Line of the Vancouver SkyTrain use side-contact fourth-rail systems for their  supply. Both are located to the side of the train, as the space between the running rails is occupied by an aluminum plate, as part of stator of the linear induction propulsion system used on the Innovia ART system. While part of the SkyTrain network, the Canada Line does not use this system and instead uses more traditional motors attached to the wheels and third-rail electrification.

Rubber-tyred systems

A few lines of the Paris Métro in France operate on a four-rail power system. The trains move on rubber tyres which roll on a pair of narrow roll ways made of steel and, in some places, of concrete. Since the tyres do not conduct the return current, the two guide bars provided outside the running 'roll ways' become, in a sense, a third and fourth rail which each provide , so at least electrically it is a four-rail system. Each wheel set of a powered bogie carries one traction motor. A side sliding (side running) contact shoe picks up the current from the vertical face of each guide bar. The return of each traction motor, as well as each wagon, is effected by one contact shoe each that slide on top of each one of the running rails. This and all other rubber-tyred metros that have a  track between the roll ways operate in the same manner.

Alternating current
Railways and electrical utilities use AC as opposed to DC for the same reason: to use transformers, which require AC, to produce higher voltages.
The higher the voltage, the lower the current for the same power (because power is current multiplied by voltage), and power loss is proportional to the current squared. The lower current reduces line loss, thus allowing higher power to be delivered.

As alternating current is used with high voltages, this method of electrification is only used on overhead lines, never on third rails for safety reasons. Inside the locomotive, a transformer steps the voltage down for use by the traction motors and auxiliary loads.

An early advantage of AC is that the power-wasting resistors used in DC locomotives for speed control were not needed in an AC locomotive: multiple taps on the transformer can supply a range of voltages.
Separate low-voltage transformer windings supply lighting and the motors driving auxiliary machinery.
More recently, the development of very high power semiconductors has caused the classic DC motor to be largely replaced with the three-phase induction motor fed by a variable frequency drive, a special inverter that varies both frequency and voltage to control motor speed.
These drives can run equally well on DC or AC of any frequency, and many modern electric locomotives are designed to handle different supply voltages and frequencies to simplify cross-border operation.

Low-frequency alternating current

Five European countries  Germany, Austria, Switzerland, Norway and Sweden  have standardized on 15kV Hz (the 50Hz mains frequency divided by three) single-phase AC. On 16 October 1995, Germany, Austria and Switzerland changed from Hz to 16.7Hz which is no longer exactly one-third of the grid frequency. This solved overheating problems with the rotary converters used to generate some of this power from the grid supply.

In the US, the New York, New Haven, and Hartford Railroad, the Pennsylvania Railroad and the Philadelphia and Reading Railway adopted 11kV 25Hz single-phase AC. Parts of the original electrified network still operate at 25Hz, with voltage boosted to 12kV, while others were converted to 12.5 or 25kV 60Hz.

In the UK, the London, Brighton and South Coast Railway pioneered overhead electrification of its suburban lines in London, London Bridge to Victoria being opened to traffic on 1December 1909. Victoria to Crystal Palace via Balham and West Norwood opened in May 1911. Peckham Rye to West Norwood opened in June 1912. Further extensions were not made owing to the First World War. Two lines opened in 1925 under the Southern Railway serving Coulsdon North and Sutton railway station. The lines were electrified at 6.7kV 25Hz. It was announced in 1926 that all lines were to be converted to DC third rail and the last overhead-powered electric service ran in September 1929.

Standard frequency alternating current

25 kV AC is used at 60Hz on some US lines, western Japan, South Korea and Taiwan; and at 50Hz in a number of European countries, India, Saudi Arabia, eastern Japan, countries that used to be part of the Soviet Union, on high-speed lines in much of Western Europe (including countries that still run conventional railways under DC but not in countries using 16.7Hz, see above). On "French system" HSLs, the overhead line and a "sleeper" feeder line each carry 25kV in relation to the rails, but in opposite phase so they are at 50kV from each other; autotransformers equalize the tension at regular intervals.

Three-phase alternating current

Various railway electrification systems in the late nineteenth and twentieth centuries utilised three-phase, rather than single-phase electric power delivery due to ease of design of both power supply and locomotives. These systems could either use standard network frequency and three power cables, or reduced frequency, which allowed for return-phase line to be third rail, rather than an additional overhead wire.

Comparisons

AC versus DC for mainlines
The majority of modern electrification systems take AC energy from a power grid that is delivered to a locomotive, and within the locomotive, transformed and rectified to a lower DC voltage in preparation for use by traction motors. These motors may either be DC motors which directly use the DC or they may be three-phase AC motors which require further conversion of the DC to variable frequency three-phase AC (using power electronics). Thus both systems are faced with the same task: converting and transporting high-voltage AC from the power grid to low-voltage DC in the locomotive. The difference between AC and DC electrification systems lies in where the AC is converted to DC: at the substation or on the train. Energy efficiency and infrastructure costs determine which of these is used on a network, although this is often fixed due to pre-existing electrification systems.

Both the transmission and conversion of electric energy involve losses: ohmic losses in wires and power electronics, magnetic field losses in transformers and smoothing reactors (inductors). Power conversion for a DC system takes place mainly in a railway substation where large, heavy, and more efficient hardware can be used as compared to an AC system where conversion takes place aboard the locomotive where space is limited and losses are significantly higher. However, the higher voltages used in many AC electrification systems reduce transmission losses over longer distances, allowing for fewer substations or more powerful locomotives to be used. Also, the energy used to blow air to cool transformers, power electronics (including rectifiers), and other conversion hardware must be accounted for.

Standard AC electrification systems use much higher voltages than standard DC systems. One of the advantages of raising the voltage is that, to transmit certain level of power, lower current is necessary (). Lowering the current reduces the ohmic losses and allows for less bulky, lighter overhead line equipment and more spacing between traction substations, while maintaining power capacity of the system. On the other hand, the higher voltage requires larger isolation gaps, requiring some elements of infrastructure to be larger. The standard-frequency AC system may introduce imbalance to the supply grid, requiring careful planning and design (as at each substation power is drawn from two out of three phases). The low-frequency AC system may be powered by separate generation and distribution network or a network of converter substations, adding the expense, also low-frequency transformers, used both at the substations and on the rolling stock, are particularly bulky and heavy. The DC system, apart from being limited as to the maximum power that can be transmitted, also can be responsible for electrochemical corrosion due to stray DC currents.

Electric versus diesel

Energy efficiency
Electric trains need not carry the weight of prime movers, transmission and fuel. This is partly offset by the weight of electrical equipment.
Regenerative braking returns power to the electrification system so that it may be used elsewhere, by other trains on the same system or returned to the general power grid. This is especially useful in mountainous areas where heavily loaded trains must descend long grades.

Central station electricity can often be generated with higher efficiency than a mobile engine/generator. While the efficiency of power plant generation and diesel locomotive generation are roughly the same in the nominal regime, diesel motors decrease in efficiency in non-nominal regimes at low power while if an electric power plant needs to generate less power it will shut down its least efficient generators, thereby increasing efficiency. The electric train can save energy (as compared to diesel) by regenerative braking and by not needing to consume energy by idling as diesel locomotives do when stopped or coasting. However, electric rolling stock may run cooling blowers when stopped or coasting, thus consuming energy.

Large fossil fuel power stations operate at high efficiency, and can be used for district heating or to produce district cooling, leading to a higher total efficiency. Electricity for electric rail systems can also come from renewable energy, nuclear power, or other low-carbon sources, which do not emit pollution or emissions.

Power output
Electric locomotives may easily be constructed with greater power output than most diesel locomotives. For passenger operation it is possible to provide enough power with diesel engines (see e.g. 'ICE TD') but, at higher speeds, this proves costly and impractical. Therefore, almost all high speed trains are electric. The high power of electric locomotives also gives them the ability to pull freight at higher speed over gradients; in mixed traffic conditions this increases capacity when the time between trains can be decreased. The higher power of electric locomotives and an electrification can also be a cheaper alternative to a new and less steep railway if train weights are to be increased on a system.

On the other hand, electrification may not be suitable for lines with low frequency of traffic, because lower running cost of trains may be outweighed by the high cost of the electrification infrastructure. Therefore, most long-distance lines in developing or sparsely populated countries are not electrified due to relatively low frequency of trains.

Network effect
Network effects are a large factor with electrification. When converting lines to electric, the connections with other lines must be considered. Some electrifications have subsequently been removed because of the through traffic to non-electrified lines. If through traffic is to have any benefit, time-consuming engine switches must occur to make such connections or expensive dual mode engines must be used. This is mostly an issue for long-distance trips, but many lines come to be dominated by through traffic from long-haul freight trains (usually running coal, ore, or containers to or from ports). In theory, these trains could enjoy dramatic savings through electrification, but it can be too costly to extend electrification to isolated areas, and unless an entire network is electrified, companies often find that they need to continue use of diesel trains even if sections are electrified. The increasing demand for container traffic, which is more efficient when utilizing the double-stack car, also has network effect issues with existing electrifications due to insufficient clearance of overhead electrical lines for these trains, but electrification can be built or modified to have sufficient clearance, at additional cost.

A problem specifically related to electrified lines are gaps in the electrification. Electric vehicles, especially locomotives, lose power when traversing gaps in the supply, such as phase change gaps in overhead systems, and gaps over points in third rail systems. These become a nuisance if the locomotive stops with its collector on a dead gap, in which case there is no power to restart. This is less of a problem in trains consisting of two or more multiple units coupled together, since in that case if the train stops with one collector in a dead gap, another multiple unit can push or pull the disconnected unit until it can again draw power. The same applies to the kind of push-pull trains which have a locomotive at each end. Power gaps can be overcome in single-collector trains by on-board batteries or motor-flywheel-generator systems.
In 2014, progress is being made in the use of large capacitors to power electric vehicles between stations, and so avoid the need for overhead wires between those stations.

Maintenance costs
Maintenance costs of the lines may be increased by electrification, but many systems claim lower costs due to reduced wear-and-tear on the track from lighter rolling stock. There are some additional maintenance costs associated with the electrical equipment around the track, such as power sub-stations and the catenary wire itself, but, if there is sufficient traffic, the reduced track and especially the lower engine maintenance and running costs exceed the costs of this maintenance significantly.

Sparks effect
Newly electrified lines often show a "sparks effect", whereby electrification in passenger rail systems leads to significant jumps in patronage / revenue. The reasons may include electric trains being seen as more modern and attractive to ride, faster, quieter and smoother service, and the fact that electrification often goes hand in hand with a general infrastructure and rolling stock overhaul / replacement, which leads to better service quality (in a way that theoretically could also be achieved by doing similar upgrades yet without electrification). Whatever the causes of the sparks effect, it is well established for numerous routes that have electrified over decades.

Double-stack rail transport

Due to the height restriction imposed by the overhead wires, double-stacked container trains have been traditionally difficult and rare to operate under electrified lines. However, this limitation is being overcome by railways in India, China and African countries by laying new tracks with increased catenary height.

Such installations are in the Western Dedicated Freight Corridor in India where the wire height is at  to accommodate double-stack container trains without the need of well-wagons.

Advantages

There are a number of advantages including the fact there is no exposure of passengers to exhaust from the locomotive and tower cost of building, running and maintaining locomotives and multiple units. Electric trains have a higher power-to-weight ratio (no onboard fuel tanks), resulting in fewer locomotives, faster acceleration, higher practical limit of power, higher limit of speed, less noise pollution (quieter operation). The faster acceleration clears lines more quickly to run more trains on the track in urban rail uses.
 Reduced power loss at higher altitudes (for power loss see Diesel engine)
 Independence of running costs from fluctuating fuel prices
 Service to underground stations where diesel trains cannot operate for safety reasons
 Reduced environmental pollution, especially in highly populated urban areas, even if electricity is produced by fossil fuels
 Easily accommodates kinetic energy brake reclaim using supercapacitors
 More comfortable ride on multiple units as trains have no underfloor diesel engines
 Somewhat higher energy efficiency  in part due to regenerative braking and less power lost when "idling"
 More flexible primary energy source: can use coal, natural gas, nuclear or renewable energy (hydro, solar, wind) as the primary energy source instead of diesel fuel
 If the entire network is electrified, diesel infrastructure such as fueling stations, maintenance yards and indeed the diesel locomotive fleet can be retired or put to other uses – this is often the business case in favor of electrifying the last few lines in a network where otherwise costs would be too high. Having only one type of motive power also allows greater fleet homogeneity which can also reduce costs.

Disadvantages

 Electrification cost: electrification requires an entire new infrastructure to be built around the existing tracks at a significant cost. Costs are especially high when tunnels, bridges and other obstructions have to be altered for clearance. Another aspect that can raise the cost of electrification are the alterations or upgrades to railway signalling needed for new traffic characteristics, and to protect signalling circuitry and track circuits from interference by traction current. Electrification typically requires line closures while new equipment is being installed.
 Appearance: the overhead line structures and cabling can have a significant landscape impact compared with a non-electrified or third rail electrified line that has only occasional signalling equipment above ground level.
 Fragility and vulnerability: overhead electrification systems can suffer severe disruption due to minor mechanical faults or the effects of high winds causing the pantograph of a moving train to become entangled with the catenary, ripping the wires from their supports. The damage is often not limited to the supply to one track, but extends to those for adjacent tracks as well, causing the entire route to be blocked for a considerable time. Third-rail systems can suffer disruption in cold weather due to ice forming on the conductor rail.
 Theft: the high scrap value of copper and the unguarded, remote installations make overhead cables an attractive target for scrap metal thieves. Attempts at theft of live 25kV cables may end in the thief's death from electrocution. In the UK, cable theft is claimed to be one of the biggest sources of delay and disruption to train services – though this normally relates to signalling cable, which is equally problematic for diesel lines.
 Incompatibility: Diesel trains can run on any track without electricity or with any kind of electricity (third rail or overhead line, DC or AC, and at any voltage or frequency). Not so for electric trains, which can never run on non-electrified lines, and which even on electrified lines can run only on the single, or the few, electrical system(s) for which they are equipped. Even on fully electrified networks, it is usually a good idea to keep a few diesel locomotives for maintenance and repair trains, for instance to repair broken or stolen overhead lines, or to lay new tracks. However, due to ventilation issues, diesel trains may have to be banned from certain tunnels and underground train stations mitigating the advantage of diesel trains somewhat.
 Birds may perch on parts with different charges, and animals may also touch the electrification system. Dead animals attract foxes or other scavengers, bringing risk of collision with trains.
 In most of the world's railway networks, the height clearance of overhead electrical lines is not sufficient for a double-stack container car or other unusually tall loads. To upgrade electrified lines to the correct clearances () to take double-stacked container trains, besides renewing bridges over it, would normally mean need for special pantographs violating standardisation and requiring custom made vehicles.

Railway electrification around the world

As of 2012, electrified tracks accounted for nearly one third of total tracks globally.

As of 2018, there were  of railways electrified at 25kV, either 50 or 60Hz;  electrified at ;  electrified at 15kV 16.7 or Hz and  electrified at .

As of 2023, the Swiss rail network is the largest fully electrified network in the world and one of only eleven countries to achieve this. Japan has the 2nd highest electrification rate, with 75% of its system electrified. China has the 3rd highest electrification rate with over 65% of the network, after India overtook China, with an electrification rate of 90%. Overall, China takes first place, with around 100,000km of electrified railway, followed by India with over 84,000km of electrified railway, and topping out with Russia, with over 54,000km of electrified railway. A number of countries have zero electrified railways, instead relying on diesel multiple units, locomotive hauled services and many alternate forms of transport. The European Union contains the longest amount of electrified railways (in length), with over 114,000km of electrified railway, however only making up around 55% of the total railway length.

Several countries have announced plans to electrify all or most of their railway network such as Indian Railways and Israel Railways.

The Trans-Siberian Railway mainly in Russia is completely electrified, making it one of the longest stretches of electrified railways in the world.

See also

 Battery electric multiple unit
 Battery locomotive
 Conduit current collection
 Current collector
 Dual electrification
 Electromote
 Fifth rail system
 Ground-level power supply
 History of the electric locomotive
 Initial Electrification Experiments NY NH HR
 List of railway electrification systems
 List of tram systems by gauge and electrification
 Multi-system (rail)
 Overhead conductor rails
 Railroad electrification in the United States
 Stud contact system
 Traction current pylon
 Traction powerstation
 Traction substation

References

Further reading

Sources

English

 Gomez-Exposito A., Mauricio J.M., Maza-Ortega J.M. "VSC-based MVDC Railway Electrification System" IEEE transactions on power delivery, v. 29, no. 1, Feb. 2014 pp.422–431. (suggests 24 kV DC)
 (Jane's) Urban Transit Systems

Russian
 Винокуров В.А., Попов Д.А. "Электрические машины железно-дорожного транспорта" (Electrical machinery of railroad transportation), Москва, Транспорт, 1986. , 520 pp.
 Дмитриев, В.А., "Народнохозяйственная эффективность электрификации железных дорог и применения тепловозной тяги" (National economic effectiveness of railway electrification and application of diesel traction), Москва, Транспорт 1976.
 Дробинский В.А., Егунов П.М. "Как устроен и работает тепловоз" (How the diesel locomotive works) 3rd ed. Moscow, Транспорт, 1980.
 Иванова В.Н. (ed.) "Конструкция и динамика тепловозов" (Construction and dynamics of the diesel locomotive). Москва, Транспорт, 1968 (textbook).
 Калинин, В.К. "Электровозы и электропоезда" (Electric locomotives and electric train sets) Москва, Транспорт, 1991
 Мирошниченко, Р.И., "Режимы работы электрифицированных участков" (Regimes of operation of electrified sections [of railways]), Москва, Транспорт, 1982.
 Перцовский, Л. М.; "Энергетическая эффективность электрической тяги" (Energy efficiency of electric traction), Железнодорожный транспорт (magazine), #12, 1974 p.39+
 Плакс, А.В. & Пупынин, В. Н., "Электрические железные дороги" (Electric Railways), Москва "Транспорт" 1993.
 Сидоров Н.И., Сидорожа Н.Н. "Как устроен и работает электровоз" (How the electric locomotive works) Москва, Транспорт, 1988 (5th ed.). 233 pp, . 1980 (4th ed.).
 Хомич А.З. Тупицын О.И., Симсон А.Э. "Экономия топлива и теплотехническая модернизация тепловозов" (Fuel economy and the thermodynamic modernization of diesel locomotives). Москва: Транспорт, 1975. 264 pp.

External links

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Trains

Railway electrification


මැරිලින් මොන්රෝ (උපත නෝර්මා ජීන් මෝර්ටෙන්සන්; ජූනි 1, 1926 – අගෝස්තු 5, 1962) යනු ඇමරිකානු නිළියක, නිරූපිකාවක සහ ගායිකාවකි. ඇය වඩාත් ප්‍රචලිත වූයේ ප්‍රහසන "ගොළු බ්ලොන්ඩ්" චරිත නිරූපණය නිසායි. 1950 දශකයේ වඩාත්ම ජනප්‍රිය ලිංග සංකේතයක් වූ ඇය ලිංගිකභාවය කෙරෙහි යුගයේ අනන්‍යතාවයේ සංකේතයක් ලෙස ද සැලකේ. දශකයක් පුරා පමණක් ඇය චිත්‍රපට නම්පෙළවල්හි ඉහළින්ම පසුවූ නිළිය වුවද, 1962 ඇගේ අනපේක්ෂිත මරණය සිදුවන විට ඇගේ චිත්‍රපට වාර්තා කළ ආදායම $ මිලියන 200ක් විය. ඇගේ මරණින් පසු අඩ සියවසකට අධික කාලයක් පුරා ඇය ප්‍රමුඛ ජනප්‍රිය සංස්කෘතියේ සංකේතයක් ලෙස සැලකිණි.

ආශ්‍රේයයන්

1926 උපත්
1962 මරණ
20වන සියවසේ ඇමරිකානු නිළියෝ

මැරිලින් මොන්රෝ


USS Tennessee (SSBN-734) is a United States Navy  ballistic missile submarine that has been in commission since 1988. She is the fourth ship and first submarine of the U.S. Navy to be named for Tennessee, the 16th state.

Construction and commissioning
Tennessee construction was authorized in fiscal year 1980, and the contract to build her was awarded to the Electric Boat Division of General Dynamics Corporation in Groton, Connecticut, on 7 January 1982. Her keel was laid down there on 9 June 1986. She was launched on 13 December 1986, sponsored by Mrs. Landess Kelso, and commissioned on 17 December 1988, with Captain Dennis Witzenburg in command of the Blue Crew and Captain Kenneth D. Barker in command of the Gold Crew.

The Tennessee was the first Ohio-class submarine commissioned capable of launching the Trident II ballistic missile (D5). On 21 March 1989, off the coast of Cape Canaveral, Florida, the Tennessee attempted the first submerged launch of the D5 which failed four seconds into the flight. Once the problem was understood, relatively simple changes were made and the first successful submerged test launch of a D5 missile was completed on 2 August 1989 by the Tennessee Gold Crew.

In popular culture
In Tom Clancy's 1994 novel Debt of Honor, Tennessee is one of several submarines sent to deal with a Japanese invasion of the Northern Mariana Islands. She is used as a "slow-attack" submarine, relying on her stealthiness and her torpedo tubes in combating Japanese forces. Tennessee is also used as a refueling point for a group of attack helicopters.

Notes

References

External links

USS Tennessee at GlobalSecurity.org

Ohio-class submarines
Cold War submarines of the United States
Nuclear submarines of the United States Navy
Ships built in Groton, Connecticut
1986 ships
Submarines of the United States

USS Tennessee (SSBN-734)


Die Bahnradsport-Weltmeisterschaften der Junioren 2012 (UCI Juniors World Track Championships 2012) fanden vom 22. bis 26. August im ILT Velodrome im neuseeländischen Invercargill statt.

Das Velodrom verfügt über eine 250 Meter lange Bahn und hat 43,2 Grad Kurvenüberhöhung. Geplant wurde die Radrennbahn vom Münsteraner Architekten Ralph Schürmann und ausgeführt von Calder Stewart. Im Mai 2006 wurde die einzige Hallenradrennbahn Neuseelands eröffnet.

Es waren rund 200 Sportlerinnen und Sportler aus 23 Nationen am Start, darunter keine aus Deutschland.

Schon am ersten Wettkampftag wurden drei neue Junioren-Weltrekorde aufgestellt: Lidija Pluschnikowa und Darja Schmeljowa fuhren neuen Rekord in der Qualifikation des Teamsprints und erneut im Finale mit 34,155 s. In der Mannschaftsverfolgung der Juniorinnen gelang den Australierinnen Georgia Baker, Taylah Jennings und Kelsey Robson in 3:24,372 min eine neue Bestzeit mit einer Verbesserung von mehr als einer Sekunde. Ein weiterer Weltrekord der australischen Teamsprint-Mannschaft der Männer konnte wegen eines Wechselfehlers nicht anerkannt werden.

Erfolgreichster Sportler der Weltmeisterschaften war die russische Fahrerin Darja Schmeljowa, die nicht nur vier Goldmedaillen in allen Kurzzeitdisziplinen errang, sondern zusätzlich im 500-Meter-Zeitfahren und im Teamsprint neue Weltrekorde aufstellte.

Resultate

Sprint

Keirin

Teamsprint

Zeitfahren

Einerverfolgung

Mannschaftsverfolgung

Scratch

Punktefahren

Omnium

Madison

Siehe auch
 UCI-Bahn-Weltmeisterschaften 2012

Weblinks
 Website der Junioren-WM

Einzelnachweise

2012
Radsportveranstaltung 2012
Bahnradrennen in Neuseeland
Sportveranstaltung in Invercargill


Nimfa surprinsă este o pictură în ulei pe pânză din 1861 realizată de pictorul francez Édouard Manet. Modelul a fost Suzanne, pianistă și iubita sa secretă pentru câțiva ani de zile, cu care s-a căsătorit doi ani mai târziu. Pictura este o lucrare importantă în opera lui Manet, marcând începutul unei noi perioade în cariera sa artistică și, în general, în istoria modernismului în pictura franceză. Acum se află la Museo Nacional de Bellas Artes din Buenos Aires și este considerat ca unul dintre tablourile importante din muzeu. Manet a ținut mult la acest tablou, care a rămas în posesia artistului întreaga sa viață și există dovezi care indică faptul că Manet a considerat acest tablou drept una dintre lucrările sale cele mai importante.

Istoria
Modelul tabloului este iubita lui Édouard Manet, care a fost și profesoara sa de pian, fata olandeză Suzanne Leenhoff, cu care a avut o aventură amoroasă secretă. Această poveste de dragoste s-a desfășurat în timp ce tânărul Manet trăia încă în casa părinților săi. Fata era cu trei ani mai mare decât Manet, în vârstă de 17 ani, iar relația lor a fost ținută secretă de familia sa mult timp. Manet și Suzanne s-au căsătorit după zece ani de relație în 1863, doi ani după finalizarea acestui tablou în 1861. Relația a durat de-a lungul vieții lor.

Nimfele erau spirite feminine ale naturii, zeități feminine din mitologia greacă, adesea înfățișate ca femei tinere, care locuiesc în munți și păduri mici, prin izvoare și râuri. Mai mulți autori consideră că ideea tabloului este similară cu Susanna și bătrânii, tabloul lui Rembrandt, considerând că numele modelului este Suzanne, era olandeză, iar poziția personajului este identică cu cea din tablou. Manet a păstrat acest tablou în atelierul său. Pictura a fost expusă la Salon des Artistes Français în 1865. Acest tablou a fost pictat cu doi ani înainte de Micul dejun la iarbă verde și Olympia. Pictura a fost achiziționată de Museo Nacional de Bellas Artes și este orezentată ca una din atracțiile principale ale muzeului.

Note

Picturi din 1861
Picturi realizate de Édouard Manet

Nimfa surprinsă


Robert Kaskoreff, né le  à Berck et mort le  à Rennes, est un horticulteur, industriel et résistant français, Compagnon de la Libération. Mobilisé au début de la Seconde Guerre mondiale, il décide, après l'armistice du 22 juin 1940, d'entrer en résistance et organise un réseau dans la région de Caen. Au cours de la guerre, il accède à de hautes fonctions au sein des mouvements de résistance des régions du Nord-Ouest de la France et participe à l'action des forces françaises de l'intérieur en Normandie et en Bretagne.

Biographie

Jeunesse et engagement

Robert Kaskoreff naît le  juin 1909 à Berck d'un père immigré russe. La famille se déplace ensuite à Caen où le père devient propriétaire des pépinières du quartier de La Maladerie et y emploie son fils Robert. Après son service militaire effectué au  régiment d'artillerie de défense contre aéronef de 1929 à 1930, il retourne travailler dans la pépinière familiale dont il devient directeur général.

Seconde Guerre mondiale

Lors de la mobilisation de 1939, Robert Kaskoreff est affecté au  régiment d'artillerie antiaérienne à Sedan. Après la drôle de guerre et au moment où va débuter la bataille de France, il est détaché à Vincennes où il suit les cours d'élève-aspirant. Il part ensuite pour Biscarosse pour y suivre un stage pratique de défense antiaérienne. Après l'armistice du 22 juin 1940, il est démobilisé sans avoir eu l'occasion de combattre et repart pour Caen. Désireux de poursuivre la lutte, il crée un réseau de résistance dans le Calvados en octobre 1941 puis, au début de l'année 1942, adhère à l'organisation civile et militaire (OCM). Quittant son entreprise pour entrer en clandestinité, il devient chef départemental de l'OCM et, après avoir recruté un grand nombre de résistants, les organise en différents groupes et forme leurs chefs. Dans le même temps, il travaille pour le réseau Centurie d'Alfred Touny qui opère pour le bureau central de renseignements et d'action et est promu capitaine. Il fournit au réseau un grand nombre de renseignements sur les infrastructures locales utilisées par les allemands, notamment l'aérodrome de Carpiquet et les installations du mur de l'Atlantique. Il travaille également en collaboration avec un groupe de résistants installés à l'Abbaye d'Ardenne qui constitue clandestinement un arsenal et un centre d'instruction aux explosifs.

L'OCM étant intégrée à l'Armée secrète (AS), Robert Kaskoref devient en 1943 adjoint du chef du  bureau (conduite des opérations) de l'AS pour les départements du Calvados, de l'Orne et de l'Eure. À travers cette zone, il communique avec les chefs des différents groupes de l'AS et mets en place des plans de destructions des emprises allemandes. En vue de saboter les liaisons ennemies, il noue des liens avec les chefs de Résistance-Fer et des postes. Il fournit toujours également au réseau Centurie des plans de défenses côtières, d'aérodromes et d'usines. À la mi-décembre 1943, une dénonciation provoque une perquisition de la gestapo à l'abbaye d'Ardennes et une vague d'arrestations dont le propre père de Robert Kaskoreff. En danger, celui-ci doit se cacher à Paris où il continue cependant son action sur les départements normands par l'intermédiaire d'agents de liaison.

Au début de l'année 1944, avec la création des forces françaises de l'intérieur (FFI), Robert Kaskoreff est nommé chef du  bureau de la région M regroupant quatorze départements de la Normandie, de la Bretagne et des Pays de la Loire. Promu lieutenant-colonel après le débarquement de Normandie, il prend le commandement des sous-régions M1 et M2 correspondant à la Normandie et à la Bretagne. Dans le cadre de la bataille de Normandie, ses hommes procèdent à la destruction de convois, au sabotage de voies ferrées et de lignes téléphoniques et font de nombreux prisonniers allemands. Le 24 juin, il devient également délégué militaire régional de la région M après l'arrestation de Jean Kammerer qui occupait alors le poste. Au fur et à mesure de l'avancée alliée et du recul des troupes allemandes, Robert Kaskoreff assure des missions de maintien de l'ordre dans les territoires libérés et participe à l'intégration des résistants FFI au sein de l'armée française de la Libération. Promu colonel en septembre 1944, il part le mois suivant pour Le Mans où il est adjoint du général commandant la  région militaire. En novembre 1944, il est élu délégué représentant l'OCM à l'assemblée consultative provisoire puis il est démobilisé en août 1945.

Après-Guerre

Après la guerre, il s'installe au Maroc où il gère une exploitation minière. Robert Kaskoreff meurt le 13 février 1988 à l'hôpital Pontchaillou de Rennes et est inhumé au cimetière Saint-Gabriel de Caen.

Décorations

Hommages

 À Caen, une rue a été baptisée en son honneur.

Références

Voir aussi

Bibliographie

 .
 .
 .
 .
 .
 .
 .

Articles connexes

 Ordre de la Libération
 Libération de la France
 Résistance intérieure française

Liens externes

Personnalité liée à Caen
Colonel français
Résistant français
Organisation civile et militaire
Chevalier de la Légion d'honneur
Compagnon de la Libération
Titulaire de la croix de guerre 1939-1945
Titulaire de la King's Medal for Courage in the Cause of Freedom
Naissance en juin 1909
Naissance à Berck (Pas-de-Calais)
Décès en février 1988
Décès à Rennes
Décès à 78 ans

Robert Kaskoreff


NGC 7727 es una galaxia situada en la constelación de Acuario a una distancia de 23,3 megaparsecs (76 millones de años luz) de la Vía Láctea ,que puede verse con telescopios de aficionado.

Se trata de una galaxia peculiar que aparece en el Atlas de galaxias peculiares de Halton C. Arp como Arp 222 y la consideración de galaxia con brazos espirales amorfos, y con toda probabilidad es el resultado de la colisión y posterior fusión de dos galaxias espirales previas ocurrida hace mil millones de años, pudiéndose apreciar en su centro dos puntos de luz brillantes, al menos uno de los cuales es de una de las dos galaxias previas que colisionaron para dar lugar a éste objeto.

Esa zona central está rodeada por plumas y corrientes de estrellas restos también de las galaxias que colisionaron, además de existir un total de 23 objetos candidatos a cúmulos globulares jóvenes nacidos en la colisión que dio lugar a NGC 7727.

NGC 7727 es considerada muy similar a NGC 7252, otra galaxia que también se piensa es el resultado de la colisión y fusión de dos galaxias previas situadas en la misma constelación; sin embargo contiene bastante menos gas (hidrógeno neutro e hidrógeno molecular) que ésta

El destino último de este sistema con toda probabilidad es acabar convertido en una galaxia elíptica, con apenas polvo interestelar y formación estelar.

Referencias

Constelación de Acuario
Galaxias peculiares
Objetos NGC

NGC 7727


Finch, nom de scène de Nils Wehowsky (né le  à Francfort-sur-l'Oder) est un rappeur allemand.

Biographie
Wehowsky grandit à Fürstenwalde. Il suit une formation en mécatronique. Il travaille ensuite dans le secteur privé pendant cinq ans avant d'étudier génie électrique. Il vit à Berlin-Lichtenberg depuis 2013, où il a déménagé pour des raisons professionnelles.

Wehowsky gagne en notoriété grâce à sa participation à la battle de Rap am Mittwoch. Il a également une chaîne YouTube, sur laquelle il présente régulièrement ses propres chansons à partir de 2014. Son premier single Ostdeutscher Hasselhoff sort en . Tout de suite il se caractérise par son ostalgie. En  suit l'EP Fliesentisch Romantik. En , il assiste à TopTierTakeover, qui voit une bataille de rap entre lui et Clep. Il entre dans les meilleures ventes avec le single Departure, sorti en . Après deux semaines, la chanson atteint la  place en Allemagne. Son premier album studio Dorfdisko paraît le  et atteint immédiatement la deuxième place en Allemagne. Paru le , son deuxième album Finchi's Love Tape se classe également numéro deux des ventes.

Début , il annonce sur Instagram qu'il n'apparaîtrait désormais que sous le nom de scène de Finch simplement et non plus Finch Asozial.

Son troisième album Rummelbums sort le . L'album atteint la première place des ventes en Allemagne.

Discographie

Albums
 2019 : Dorfdisko
 2020 : Finchi's Love Tape
 2022 : Rummelbums

Références

Liens externes

Rappeur allemand
Nom de scène
Naissance en avril 1990
Naissance à Francfort-sur-l'Oder

Finch (rappeur)


An Bromus mucroglumis in uska species han Liliopsida nga ginhulagway ni Wagnon. An Bromus mucroglumis in nahilalakip ha genus nga Bromus, ngan familia nga Poaceae. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Bromus

Bromus mucroglumis


An Leymus ordensis in uska species han Liliopsida nga ginhulagway ni Galina A. Peschkova. An Leymus ordensis in nahilalakip ha genus nga Leymus, ngan familia nga Poaceae. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Leymus

Leymus ordensis


El Metro de Novosibirsk (en ruso: Новосибирский метрополитен) es el sistema de metro que da servicio a la ciudad de Novosibirsk, Rusia y es el primer y único sistema de metro de Siberia. Fue inaugurado en 1986, se extiende a lo largo de 16 km de largo y cuenta con 13 estaciones repartidas entre las dos líneas que componen la red. El Metro de Novosibirsk es el tercero más concurrido de Rusia, con 80 millones de pasajeros (2015).

Historia

Novosibirsk es la tercera ciudad más poblada de Rusia, con una población de 1,4 millones de habitantes. Fue fundada como ciudad cruce de una de las principales rutas de Siberia, el ferrocarril Transiberiano y el río Obi. Por lo tanto, los planes para implantar un sistema de metro no tardaron en aparecer. Los primeros diseños fueron realizados a finales de los años 1960 y las obras comenzaron el 12 de mayo de 1979. Con la importante experiencia lograda previamente con anteriores sistemas de metro en la Unión Soviética, las cinco primeras estaciones del Metro de Novosibirsk fueron completadas en siete años y medio, que fue inaugurado el 7 de enero de 1986 por las autoridades soviéticas, convirtiéndose en el undécimo sistema de metro de la Unión Soviética y el cuarto de Rusia.

Los trabajos para expandir el sistema de metro a la idea original de cuatro líneas de metro y 62 km de red comenzaron poco después de la inauguración, pero las dificultades económicas de la región a comienzos de los años 1990 detuvieron el proyecto. Sin embargo, los trabajos de expansión fueron retomados recientemente.

Líneas

Estadísticas
De acuerdo con las estadísticas del Metro de Novosibirsk, el número total de pasajeros en los últimos años es el siguiente:

Galería

Véase también
 Anexo: Sistemas de metro

Referencias

Enlaces externos

 Sitio web oficial
 Metro de Novosibirsk en Urbanrail.net

Novosibirsk
Transporte de Novosibirsk

Metro de Novosibirsk


ප්‍රසිද්ධියට පත් සිංහල ගීත වලින් දිගම ගීත ඇතුලත් ලැයිස්තුව.

දිගම සිංහල ගීය
දිගම කාලයක් ගායනා කරන සිංහල ගීතය ලෙස සෑහෙන කලක් රැදී සිටි මොහිදීන් බෙග් විසින් ගායනා කල ඔබෙ රාගී මන කැළඹේදෝ (බුද්ධං සරණං ගච්ඡාමී) යන ගීතය අභිබවා 2012 වසරේදී දිගම සිංහල ගීතය ලෙස සමන් ලෙනින් ගායනා කරන රාවන ගීතය ඉදිරියට එන ලදී.  එම වාර්තාව 2013 මැයි මසදී රාවන සොයුරන් විසන්ම නිපදවූ සක්වස් ගීතය විසින් බිද දමන ලදී. 2013 නොවැම්බර් මස රාවන සොයුරන් විසින් නිමකරන ලද ප්‍රජාපතී ගීතය දිගම ගීතය වූ අතර එහි වාර්තාව විනාඩි 17කුත් තත්පර 45කි. නැවත අවුරුදු 2කට පසු 2016දී කුවේණි ගීතය ලංකාවේ දිගම ගීතය බවට පත් වූයේ විනාඩි 18කුත් තත්පර 40ක් සටහන් කරමිනි.

ගීත ලයිස්තුව

ආශ්‍රිත ලිපි
 දිගම සිංහල ගීත (වෙනත් බසක ගී තනු වලට නිමැවූ ගී හැර) ලැයිස්තුව

සකිය සද

දිගම සිංහල ගීත ලැයිස්තුව


The Demetae were a Celtic people of Iron Age and Roman period, who inhabited modern Pembrokeshire and Carmarthenshire in south-west Wales. The tribe also gave their name to the medieval Kingdom of Dyfed, the modern area and county of Dyfed and the distinct dialect of Welsh spoken in modern south-west Wales, Dyfedeg.

Classical references
They are mentioned in Ptolemy's Geographia, as being west of the Silures. He mentions two of their towns, Moridunum (modern Carmarthen) and Luentinum (identified as the Dolaucothi Gold Mines near Pumsaint, Carmarthenshire). They are not mentioned in Tacitus' accounts of Roman warfare in Wales, which concentrate on their neighbours the Silures and Ordovices.

Vortiporius, "tyrant of the Demetae", is one of the kings condemned by Gildas in his 6th century polemic De Excidio et Conquestu Britanniae. This probably signifies the sub-Roman petty kingdom of Dyfed.

Etymology and relationship to Dyfed
The tribal name is thought to derive from a Common Celtic element related to the modern Welsh word defaid (sheep) as well as the Ancient Brythonic word defod (wealth, property or riches). This element persists in the name for the area of West Wales that the tribe inhabited, with the post-Roman Kingdom of Dyfed (proto-Celtic *dametos) a clear continuation of the Pre-Roman etymon. The name even survived the Norman conquest of Wales and the introduction of the Shire system, with Thomas Morgan noting that the Welsh inhabitants of Pembrokeshire still referred to the area as Dyfed in the nineteenth century.

This etymology is supported by the tribal area being especially noted for the cultivation of sheep, from which the Demetae would have generated much of their wealth. Even in the modern era, etymologists and antiquarians such as William Baxter noted the names Dyfed and Demetae derived as "a country fit for the pasture of sheep" and that the local people were noted for their cultivation of large numbers of sheep and goats from ancient times.

References

Dyfed
History of Pembrokeshire
Prehistoric Wales
Celtic Britons
Historical Celtic peoples

Demetae


Die Norwich University – The Military College of Vermont ist eine private Militär-Hochschule in Northfield im Bundesstaat Vermont der Vereinigten Staaten von Amerika. Sie bietet verschiedene Studiengänge an, die zum Bachelor- oder Master-Grad führen. Ungefähr 1200 Studenten absolvieren online ein Master-Studium. Als Senior Military College haben die Studenten des Kadettenkorps das Recht, mit Absolvierung des Reserve Officer Training Corps (ROTC) als aktive Offiziere (engl. active duty) in den US-Streitkräften zu dienen.

Geschichte
Die heutige Hochschule wurde im Jahr 1819 von Alden Partridge als American Literary, Scientific and Military Academy in Norwich gegründet. Sie war die erste private Militärakademie in den USA und wurde mit dem Ziel ins Leben gerufen, Offiziere auszubilden, die nicht nur militärisch, sondern auch humanistisch gebildet sind. Dieses Ziel verfolgt die Hochschule bis zum heutigen Tag. Dementsprechend war die Akademie auch die erste Hochschule, die eine Klasse des Reserve Officer Training Corps ausbildete, das genau diese Idee verfolgt. Von 1825 bis 1835 wurde die Akademie in Middletown in Connecticut geführt, von 1835 bis 1866 wieder in Norwich. Nach einem Großfeuer zog die Akademie in jenem Jahr nach Northfield um, wo sie noch heute existiert.

Organisation
Der akademische Bereich der Hochschule ist in fünf Colleges gegliedert:
 College of Professional Schools
 School of Architecture + Art
 School of Business and Management
 David Crawford School of Engineering
 School of Nursing
 College of Science & Mathematics
 College of Liberal Arts
 College of Graduate & Continuing Studies
 College of National Services

Kadettenkorps

Für das Studium selbst und einen Hochschulabschluss ist die Mitgliedschaft im Kadettenkorps und die Teilnahme am ROTC nicht mehr notwendig. Jedoch ist die Mitgliedschaft eine Voraussetzung, um mit Abschluss an der Hochschule ein Offizierspatent (comission) zu erhalten. Die Kadetten sind keine Soldaten, gehören nicht zu den US-Streitkräften und unterliegen damit nicht der Militärgerichtsbarkeit. Das Kadettenkorps ist als Regiment mit fünf Bataillone organisiert, in dem die Führungspositionen durch Kadetten der oberen Jahrgänge besetzt werden. Im ROTC-Programm gibt es als Besonderheit eine Mountain Cold Weather Company, die Kadetten in der Gebirgskriegsführung und der Gefechtsführung unter kalten klimatischen Bedingungen ausbildet. Es kann zwischen dem ROTC-Programm aller vier Teilstreitkräfte gewählt werden.

Zahlen zu den Studierenden, den Dozenten und zum Vermögen
Im Herbst 2021 waren 3.672 Studierende an der Norwich University eingeschrieben. Davon strebten 2.988 (81,4 %) ihren ersten Studienabschluss an, sie waren also undergraduates. Von diesen waren 26 % weiblich und 74 % männlich; 3 % bezeichneten sich als asiatisch, 4 % als schwarz/afroamerikanisch, 10 % als Hispanic/Latino und 74 % als weiß. 684 (18,6 %) arbeiteten auf einen weiteren Abschluss hin, sie waren graduates. Es lehrten 392 Dozenten an der Universität, davon 163 in Vollzeit und 229 in Teilzeit.

2012 waren es etwa 2.300 Studierende gewesen.

Der Wert des Stiftungsvermögens der Universität lag 2021 bei 328,1 Mio. US-Dollar.

Sport
Wie an allen Militärakademie wird sportlichen Tätigkeiten besondere Aufmerksamkeit geschenkt. So erreichte die Eishockey-Mannschaft der Hochschule in den Jahren 2000, 2003 und 2010 die Meisterschaft der 3. Liga der NCAA. Aus diesem Team erwuchsen mehrere professionelle Eishockeyspieler, zum Beispiel die Brüder Keith und Phil Aucoin. Die Sportteams der Universität nennen sich die Cadets.

Bekannte Absolventen

Militär

Während seiner fast zweihundertjährigen Geschichte haben 138 Absolventen der Universität Generalsränge oder Admiralsränge erreicht.
 Gordon R. Sullivan (* 1937), General der US Army
 George Dewey (1837–1917), Admiral der US Navy

Politik und Verwaltung
 Alvan E. Bovay (1818–1903), einer der Gründer der Republikanischen Partei der Vereinigten Staaten
 Thomas Green Clemson (1807–1888), Politiker und Diplomat, Stifter der Clemson University
 Ryland Fletcher (1799–1885), Gouverneur von Vermont
 Edward Stanly (1810–1872), Abgeordneter im US-Repräsentantenhaus
 Caleb Lyon (1822–1875), Gouverneur des Idaho-Territoriums und Abgeordneter im US-Kongress
 Grenville M. Dodge (1831–1916), Offizier im Bürgerkrieg und Abgeordneter im US-Repräsentantenhaus
 Burleigh F. Spalding (1853–1934), Abgeordneter im US-Repräsentantenhaus
 Ernest Gibson senior (1871–1940), Mitglied in beiden Kammern des US-Kongresses
 Charles Albert Plumley (1875–1964), Abgeordneter im US-Repräsentantenhaus
 Ernest Gibson junior (1901–1969), Gouverneur von Vermont und US-Senator

Weblinks

 Homepage der Norwich University (englisch)

Einzelnachweise

Universität in Vermont
Private Hochschule in den Vereinigten Staaten
Militärische Ausbildungsstätte (Vereinigte Staaten)
Organisation (Washington County, Vermont)
Gegründet 1819
Norwich (Vermont)
Organisation (Windsor County)

Norwich University


Antonín Pugzík (* 5. Oktober 1955 in Kladno) ist ein tschechischer Offizier. Er wurde am 28. Oktober 2006 zum Generalmajor befördert.

Pugzík besuchte von 1974 bis 1978 die Offizierhochschule der Luftstreitkräfte (Vojenská vysoká letecká škola) in Košice und von 1983 bis 1986 die Militärakademie Brünn (Postgraduiertenstudium).

Im Jahr 1979 nahm er eine Tätigkeit im Stab der in Hradec Králové stationierten 10. Luftarmee auf. Als das Kommando dieses Großverbands im Oktober 1990 in das Kommando 1. gemischtes Fliegerkorps und schließlich 1993 in das 3. taktische Fliegerkorps (das bis 1997 bestand) überführt wurde, war er dort für operative Angelegenheiten zuständig. Im Jahr 1998 wurde er stellvertretender Chef des Stabes und im Jahr darauf Chef des Stabes der Luftstreitkräfte. 2003 wechselte er zu den Unterstützungs- und Ausbildungskräften, wo er zunächst als Chef des Stabes und ab September 2006 als stellvertretender Befehlshaber fungierte. 2007, nach dem Rücktritt von Generalmajor Jiří Halaška, wurde er kurzzeitig zum Befehlshaber ernannt, bevor noch im selben Jahr Generalmajor František Malenínský diesen Posten übernahm.

Zum gegenwärtigen Zeitpunkt (2012) ist Pugzík Militärattaché an der tschechischen Botschaft in Griechenland.

Pugzík spricht außer seiner Muttersprache noch Englisch und Russisch. Er ist verheiratet und zweifacher Vater.

Weblinks
 Biografie (tschechisch; DOC-Datei; 35 kB)
 Befehlshaber der Unterstützungs- und Ausbildungskräfte (tschechisch)
 Militärattaché (tschechisch)

Stellvertreter des Chefs des Generalstabes der Streitkräfte der Tschechischen Republik
Militärperson (NATO)
Generalmajor (Tschechien)
Tschechoslowake
Tscheche
Geboren 1955
Mann

Antonín Pugzík


Rajmil Fischman (* 1956 in Lima) ist ein peruanischer Komponist und Musikpädagoge.

Fischman besuchte das Nationalkonservatorium in Lima und absolvierte ein Studium als Elektroingenieur am Israel Institute of Technology. An der Rubin-Musikakademie der Universität Tel Aviv studierte er Dirigieren und Komposition bei Abel Ehrlich. Ab 1985 setzte er sein Studium an der University of York bei John Paynter und Richard Orton fort und schloss es 1991 als Ph.D. ab.

Von 1990 bis 1995 war er Chefdirigent und künstlerischer Leiter der Keele Philharmonic Society, von 1998 bis 2000 Musikdirektor und von 2001 bis 2004 Direktor des Musiktechnologieprogramms der Keele University. Dort etablierte er den Studienzweig für digitale Musiktechnologie, gründete das Laboratorium für Computermusik und wirkt als Direktor für musiktechnologische Forschung und Professor für Komposition. Er ist außerdem Mitglied der Red de Arte Sonoro Latinoamericano, (RedASLA), des Círculo de Composición del Perú (Circomper) und des Sonic Arts Network.

Für seine Komposition Cold Fire für Streichquartett und Tonband erhielt Fischman 1998 den Zweiten Preis beim Pierre-Schaeffer-Wettbewerb für Computermusik. Alma Latina erschien beim Label Lontano Records, und seine Orchesterkomposition Magister Ludi wurde vom Israel Music Institute veröffentlicht. Neben seiner Tätigkeit als Musikpädagoge und Komponist arbeitet Fischman auch wissenschaftlich auf dem Gebiet der Theorie und Ästhetik der elektroakustischen Musik.

Quellen
 Keele University – Rajmil Fischman
 NMC Recordings – Rajmil Fischman
 Manuella Blackburn: Electroacoustic Music Incorporating Latin American Influences

Komponist (Peru)
Komponist klassischer Musik (20. Jahrhundert)
Komponist klassischer Musik (21. Jahrhundert)
Komponist (elektronische Musik)
Musikpädagoge
Hochschullehrer (Keele University)
Peruaner
Geboren 1956
Mann

Rajmil Fischman


Buchbach ist ein Ortsteil der Stadt Gräfenthal im Landkreis Saalfeld-Rudolstadt in Thüringen.

Lage
Der Ortsteil liegt südwestlich von Gräfenthal im Thüringer Schiefergebirge und ist über die Landesstraße 1150 und die Kreisstraße 176 zu erreichen. Die kupierte Gemarkung des Dorfes liegt in einer typischen Mittelgebirgslandschaft. Sie ist durch Tal-, Hang- und Höhenlagen gekennzeichnet. Rodungsinseln und -flächen sind immer noch erkennbar. Entlang des dahinschlängelnden gleichnamigen Baches führt die Alte Handels- und Heeresstraße von Gräfenthal nach Buchbach und weiter.

Geschichte
1180 wurde das Dorf erstmals urkundlich erwähnt. Forstwirtschaft und in begrenztem Maß Landwirtschaft sind neben dem Tourismus Erwerbsquellen der im Dorf lebenden 151 Personen.

Am 9. April 1994 (juristisches Wirkungsdatum) wurde der Ort nach Gräfenthal eingemeindet.

Einzelnachweise

Weblinks

Gräfenthal
Ort im Landkreis Saalfeld-Rudolstadt
Ehemalige Gemeinde (Landkreis Saalfeld-Rudolstadt)
Ersterwähnung 1180
Gemeindeauflösung 1994

Buchbach (Gräfenthal)


Tuğlacıbaşı Camii, Türkiye'nin İstanbul ilinin Kadıköy ilçesindeki bir camidir. Üst Feneryolu'nda konumlanan duvarları kâgir, çatısı ahşap olan cami, Kâğıthane'de tuğla harmanları bulunan Hacı Mustafa Efendi tarafından 1860'ta yaptırılmıştır. Mimarı Vasıf Efendi'dir.

Kadıköy'deki camiler
1860'larda tamamlanan camiler

Tuğlacıbaşı Camii


Green Mountain College was a private liberal arts college in Poultney, Vermont, at the foot of the Taconic Mountains between the Green Mountains and Adirondacks. The college was affiliated with the United Methodist Church and offered a liberal arts undergraduate education with a focus on the environment, and some graduate degrees. For part of its history it was a women's college. It was founded in 1834 and closed at the end of the 2018–19 academic year.

History
Green Mountain was founded in 1834 as Troy Conference Academy, a coeducational Methodist institution. It opened in 1837. In 1863, during a period of private operation, it became Ripley Female College; in 1874 it reopened as a Methodist college, again as Troy Conference Academy. In 1937 it was renamed Green Mountain Junior College.  Green Mountain became a two-year junior college for women in 1943. In 1974, the school changed its name to Green Mountain College and returned to coeducational status, offering four-year baccalaureate degrees. In the late 1990s the college began to focus on environmental literacy and citizenship.

Closure
On January 23, 2019, Green Mountain's President, Robert W. Allen, announced that, despite a 2018 loan from the Department of Agriculture Rural Development Community Facilities Programs, the college had insufficient income to continue and would close that summer, at the end of the academic year. Arizona's Prescott College — which also focuses on the environment and sustainability — agreed to allow Green Mountain students to complete their degrees at Prescott. Prescott also said it would maintain the college's student records and hire some Green Mountain faculty. There were approximately 430 students when the college closed. The campus was offered for sale and then at auction. In 2020 entrepreneur Raj Bhakta purchased the former Green Mountain campus for $4.5 million.

Academics
Green Mountain College's core courses were known as the Environmental Liberal Arts curriculum, in environmental and natural sciences, writing, reading, history and philosophy. The college offered 23 undergraduate majors and the following graduate degrees: MBA in Sustainable Business; MS in Environmental Studies; MS in Sustainable Food Systems; and MS in Resilient and Sustainable Communities.

It was part of the Eco League, a group of liberal arts colleges committed to environmental sustainability.

Progressive program
GMC offered an educational track known as the Progressive Program. Based on the ideas of philosopher John Dewey and formed on a philosophy similar to that of Goddard College, a Vermont institution recognized for its dedication to progressive education, the students in the program defined their own education goals and worked with faculty members individually to meet them.

Green campus
In 2007, the Association for the Advancement of Sustainability in Higher Education awarded Green Mountain College the Campus Sustainability Leadership Award in the "Under 1,000" category. The award recognizes Green Mountain for commitment to environmental sustainability in its governance and administration, curriculum and research, operations, campus culture, and community outreach. GMC was also named the Sierra Club's #1 Cool School for 2018.

Green Mountain was named an EPA Energy Star Showcase Campus following campus-wide retrofitting of light fixtures.

Students installed a wind turbine to power the campus greenhouse and solar panels on the roof of the student center. On April 22, 2010, GMC formally opened a new combined heat and power biomass plant costing $5.8m.

Through the Student Campus Greening Fund every GMC student contributed $30 from the college activities fee. Students designed projects and submitted proposals. Awards were based on a student vote. SCGF money was used to install bike racks, purchase recycling bins, use bio-diesel in campus maintenance equipment, and upgrade the alternative energy systems that powered the farm greenhouse.

Student clubs
According to the college, its choral group was the only collegiate choir in the United States with a repertoire of Welsh language music.

Notable alumni

 Amsale Aberra – Ethiopian-born American fashion designer and entrepreneur
 William Duell – actor and singer
Burton D. Esmond – lawyer and New York assemblyman
 Richie Grant – soccer coach
 Anna Katharine Green – novelist and poet
 Edward H. Ripley – businessman and Union Army officer in the Civil War
 William Y. W. Ripley – Union Army officer in the Civil War and recipient of the Medal of Honor
 George E. Royce – businessman and banker

See also
 List of colleges and universities in the United States
 List of colleges and universities in Vermont

References

Further reading

Former women's universities and colleges in the United States
Defunct private universities and colleges in Vermont
Poultney, Vermont
Educational institutions established in 1834
Buildings and structures in Poultney, Vermont
Education in Rutland County, Vermont
Tourist attractions in Rutland County, Vermont
1834 establishments in Vermont
Educational institutions disestablished in 2019
Universities and colleges affiliated with the United Methodist Church
2019 disestablishments in Vermont

Green Mountain College


Kapustin  es un jútor del raión de Beloréchensk del krai de Krasnodar, en Rusia. Se sitúa junto al límite con Adiguesia, en la orilla derecha de un afluente del río Psenafa, tributario por la izquierda del Labá, afluente del río Kubán, 16 km al norte de Beloréchensk y 73 km al este de Krasnodar, la capital del krai. Con una población de 28 habitantes, según censo de 2011.

Pertenece al municipio Shkólnenskoye.

Referencias

Enlaces externos
 Este artículo contiene datos geográficos extraídos de Google Earth y el mapa de Rusia de Yandex.ru, accesible desde este enlace.
 Mapa topográfico en maps.vlasenko.net .

Localidades del raión de Beloréchensk del krai de Krasnodar

Kapustin (Beloréchensk, Krasnodar)


The RIVA TNT, codenamed NV4, is a 2D, video, and 3D graphics accelerator chip for PCs that was developed by Nvidia. It was released in March 1998 and cemented Nvidia's reputation as a worthy rival within the developing consumer 3D graphics adapter industry. The first RIVA TNT based card was released on June 15, 1998, by STB Systems: Velocity 4400. RIVA is an acronym for Real-time Interactive Video and Animation accelerator. The "TNT" suffix refers to the chip's ability to work on two texels at once (TwiN Texel).

Overview

The TNT was designed as a follow-up to the RIVA 128 and a response to 3Dfx's introduction of the Voodoo2. It added a second pixel pipeline, practically doubling rendering speed, and used considerably faster memory. Unlike the Voodoo2 (but like the slower Matrox G200) it also added support for a 32-bit (truecolor) pixel format, 24-bit Z-buffer in 3D mode, an 8-bit stencil buffer and support for 1024×1024 pixel textures. Improved mipmapping and texture filtering techniques, including newly added support for trilinear filtering, dramatically improved quality compared to the TNT's predecessor. TNT also added support for up to 16 MiB of SDR SDRAM. Like RIVA 128, RIVA TNT is a single chip solution.

The TNT shipped later than originally planned, ran quite hot, and was clocked lower than Nvidia had planned at 90 MHz instead of 110 MHz. Originally planned specifications should have placed the card ahead of Voodoo2 in theoretical performance for Direct3D applications, but at 90 MHz it did not quite match the Voodoo2. At the time, most games supported 3dfx's proprietary Glide API which gave the Voodoo2 a large advantage in speed and image quality, and some games only used the Glide API for 3D acceleration, leaving TNT users no better off than people who didn't have a 3D accelerator. Even in "OpenGL only" comparisons such as the case in Quake 2, the Voodoo2 had the upper hand as a custom "MiniGL" driver was made specifically for 3dfx cards to run the game (and most other OpenGL games at the time). The 3dfx MiniGL driver was not a fully featured OpenGL driver, but a wrapper that mapped certain OpenGL functions to their equivalents in Glide, and was able to attain a speed advantage because of that. Later on when fully featured OpenGL drivers were made for the 3dfx line of cards, it was noticed that it was much slower when compared to its cut down MiniGL brother. The TNT had 32-bit color support while the Voodoo2 only supported 16-bit (although internally dithered down from 24-bit color, beating the TNT in 16bit quality). Voodoo2 cards also gained an even larger speed advantage over the TNT because of the ability to link two Voodoo2 cards together in an "SLI" setup.

TNT did not match the sales of the incredibly popular Voodoo2. 3Dfx's customer mind share was at its peak during this time and Nvidia was still a somewhat new player. Again, like with the RIVA 128, the lack of Glide API support hindered Nvidia's opportunities for market share growth. Glide was still considered the best 3D gaming API available by both gamers and developers. However, TNT gained Nvidia much attention and paved the way for the refreshed version called the RIVA TNT2. After all, unlike the rest of the competition, Nvidia had come close to the Voodoo2 in performance in some games, and beaten it in 32bit image quality.

In what would become standard industry practice on a massive scale in later years, Nvidia released a budget version of TNT called Vanta. This board used the same TNT chip but lowered its clock speed and halved both memory data bus width (to 64-bit) and memory size (to 16 MiB). By doing this, Nvidia was able to still sell TNT chips that couldn't reach the TNT's specified clock speeds, a practice known as binning, and cut board costs significantly by using a narrower bus and less RAM. The board proved popular with OEM computer builders because of its capable feature-set and low price. Vanta also was implemented as integrated graphics on some motherboards.

TNT itself was used on several popular cards, such as the Diamond Viper V550 and STB Velocity 4400, both of which managed OEM wins with the likes of Dell and Gateway, among others.

Drivers
Nvidia's driver development with TNT was the beginning of their notably aggressive efforts to maintain the best set of drivers possible.  TNT received the first branded driver within the industry, called Detonator.

These drivers were a huge success.  While the TNT had always performed well on Intel based systems, it previously lagged behind in terms of performance on then current AMD based systems.  At the time, Quake2 was the benchmark for performance and the 3dfx-made Voodoo2 enjoyed a large performance difference over the TNT because it had 3DNow! optimizations that negated the performance penalty of the weak, unpipelined FPU on then current AMD processors.  The Detonator drivers included 3DNow! optimizations and the TNT's Quake2 performance jumped 30%.   In fact, all OpenGL and DirectX applications benefited from such optimizations.  This made the TNT a much more attractive 3D accelerator for AMD owners than previously.

The Detonator drivers also fixed compatibility issues with motherboards of the time, and improved overall software compatibility.

The TNT was the last Nvidia graphics accelerator to have support for Windows 3.1x.

Competing chipsets
 3dfx Voodoo2
 3dfx Voodoo Banshee
 Matrox G200
 ATI Rage Pro
 S3 Savage

See also
 Comparison of Nvidia graphics processing units

References

External links

 Nvidia Riva TNT last supported Forceware Unified Display Driver (version 44.03)

Computer-related introductions in 1998
Nvidia graphics processors
Graphics cards

RIVA TNT


Davutlar, Aydın'ın Kuşadası ilçesine bağlı bir mahalle. Dilek Yarımadası'nın kuzeyinde, Kuşadası'nın güneyinde yer alır. Ege Denizi'ne kıyısı vardır ve deniz kenarında yazlık bölgesi vardır. Kuşadası'na uzaklığı 15 kilometre ve Aydın'a uzaklığı 55 kilometredir. 2021 Nüfus Sayımına göre, 15.023 kişi ikamet etmektedir. Ana ekonomik sektör, meyve ve sebze üretimi ve yaz turizmidir.

Kuşadası'nın mahalleleri

Davutlar, Kuşadası


An Scleria stipularis in uska species han Liliopsida nga ginhulagway ni Christian Gottfried Daniel Nees von Esenbeck. An Scleria stipularis in nahilalakip ha genus nga Scleria, ngan familia nga Cyperaceae. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Scleria

Scleria stipularis


Sofronio Aguirre Bancud SSS (* 8. Dezember 1948 in Atulayan) ist Bischof von Cabanatuan.

Leben
Sofronio Aguirre Bancud trat der Ordensgemeinschaft der Eucharistiner bei und empfing am 2. Mai 1977 die Priesterweihe. Papst Benedikt XVI. ernannte ihn am 24. Mai 2001 zum Weihbischof in Cabanatuan und Titularbischof von Bida.

Die Bischofsweihe spendete ihm der Apostolische Nuntius auf den Philippinen, Antonio Franco, am 2. August desselben Jahres; Mitkonsekratoren waren Diosdado Aenlle Talamayan, Erzbischof von Tuguegarao, und Sofio Guinto Balce, Bischof von Cabanatuan.

Am 6. November 2004 wurde er zum Bischof von Cabanatuan ernannt und am 25. Januar des nächsten Jahres in das Amt eingeführt.

Weblinks

Römisch-katholischer Bischof (21. Jahrhundert)
Eucharistiner
Philippiner
Geboren 1948
Mann

Sofronio Aguirre Bancud


Suboxidul de carbon sau dioxidul de tricarbon este un oxid de carbon cu formula chimică C3O2 sau O = C = C = C = O. Cele patru legături duble cumulative îi fac drept o cumulenă. Acesta este unul dintre membrii stabili ai seriei de oxocarburi lineare O = Cn = O, care include de asemenea dioxidul de carbon (CO2) și dioxid de pentacarbon (C5O2). Dacă este purificat cu grijă, deoarece poate exista la temperatura camerei în întuneric fără a se descompune, se va polimeriza în anumite condiții.

Substanța a fost descoperită în 1873 de către Benjamin Brodie prin supunerea monoxidului de carbon la un curent electric. El a susținut că produsul face parte dintr-o serie de "oxicarboni" cu formulele Cx + 10x, și anume C, C20, C3O2, C4O3, C5O4, și a identificat ultimele două. În 1891, Marcellin Berthelot a observat că încălzirea monoxidului de carbon pur la temperaturi de circa 550 de grade Celsius a creat mici cantități de dioxid de carbon, dar fără urmă de carbon și a presupus că în locul acestuia a fost creat un oxid bogat în carbon, numit și "sub-oxid". El a presupus că același produs a fost obținut prin descărcarea electrică și a propus formula de C2O. Mai târziu, Otto Diels a afirmat că mai multe denumiri organice precum dicarbonilmetanul și dioxalenul sunt de asemenea, corecte.

Este frecvent descris ca un lichid uleios sau gaz la temperatura camerei cu un miros extrem de nociv.

Referințe

Compuși ai carbonului

Suboxid de carbon


البُرنوس أو (نقحرة: البورنوس) (بالإسبانية: Albornos) بلدية تقع في مقاطعة آبلة التابعة لمنطقة قشتالة وليون وسط إسبانيا.

الديموغرافيا
يبلغ عدد سكان بلدية البُرنوس 228 نسمة عام 2011 (وفقاً للمعهد الوطني للإحصاء الإسباني).

مراجع

مصادر
  الموقع الرسمي لبلدية البُرنوس

أماكن مأهولة في آبلة
بلديات آبلة

البورنوس


Meniscium, rod papratnjača iz porodice Thelypteridaceae, dio reda osladolike. Postoje 25 vrsta u tropskom Novom svijetu

Vrste

 Meniscium andreanum Sodiro
 Meniscium angustifolium Willd.
 Meniscium arborescens Humb. & Bonpl. ex Willd.
 Meniscium arcanum (Maxon & C. V. Morton) Pic. Serm.
 Meniscium chrysodioides Fée
 Meniscium cocleanum (A. R. Sm. & Lellinger) R. S. Fernald & Salino
 Meniscium consobrinum (Maxon & C. V. Morton) Pic. Serm.
 Meniscium delicatum R. S. Fernald & Salino
 Meniscium divergens R. S. Fernald & Salino
 Meniscium falcatum Liebm.
 Meniscium giganteum Mett.
 Meniscium hostmannii (Klotzsch) R. S. Fernald & Salino
 Meniscium lanceum (A. R. Sm.) R. S. Fernald & Salino
 Meniscium lingulatum (C. Chr.) Pic. Serm.
 Meniscium longifolium Desv.
 Meniscium macrophyllum Kunze
 Meniscium maxonianum (A. R. Sm.) R. S. Fernald & Salino
 Meniscium membranaceum (Mett.) Pic. Serm.
 Meniscium minusculum (Maxon) Pic. Serm.
 Meniscium nesioticum (Maxon & C. V. Morton) Pic. Serm.
 Meniscium pachysorum (Hieron.) R. S. Fernald & Salino
 Meniscium reticulatum (L.) Sw.
 Meniscium serratum Cav.
 Meniscium triangulare R. S. Fernald & Salino
 Meniscium turrialbae (Rosenst.) Pic. Serm.

Sinonimi
 Thelypteris subgen.Meniscium (Schreb.) C.F.Reed
 Phegopteris subgen.Meniscium (Schreb.) Christ

Izvori

Thelypteridaceae

Meniscium


The Genootskap van Regte Afrikaners (Afrikaans for "Society of True Afrikaners") was formed on 14 August 1875 in the town of Paarl by a group of Afrikaans speakers from the current Western Cape region. From 15 January 1876 the society published a journal in Afrikaans called Die Afrikaanse Patriot ("The Afrikaans Patriot") as well as a number of books, including grammars, dictionaries, religious material and histories. Die Afrikaanse Patriot was succeeded in 1905 by today's Paarl newspaper.

Arnoldus Pannevis, a teacher, is generally considered to be the spiritual father of the society. He had observed that most of the South Africans from Dutch descent could not speak the "pure" form of their original mother tongue anymore. In the course of its (then) 200-year-old history, the language of the immigrants from the Netherlands had been thoroughly changed by the influence of other European immigrants, indigenous tribes such as the Khoikhoi, and especially the Cape Malays.  In 1874 Pannevis expressed these views in the journal de Zuid-Afrikaan under the title "Is die Afferkaans wesenlijk een taal?"

The eight founding members were Gideon Malherbe, the Dutch immigrant CP Hoogenhout, DF du ToitAF (nicknamed Dokter, i.e. "Doctor"), a journalist coincidentally named Daniel Francois du ToitAF  (nicknamed Oom Lokomotief, i.e. "Uncle Locomotive"), his brother Rev SJ du Toit, August Ahrbeck, Petrus Malherbe and SG du Toit. Everybody except Hoogenhout and Ahrbeck were related. Many of them were of Huguenot descent.

On 14 August 1975 the Afrikaans Language Museum was opened in the former house of Gideon Malherbe in Paarl, the building in which the Society was founded.  The Afrikaans Language Monument was also opened in Paarl in 1975, commemorating the 100th anniversary of the founding of the Society.

References

External links
 Afrikaans Museum and Monument

1875 establishments in the British Empire
Afrikaans
Afrikaner organizations
Afrikaans words and phrases
History of South Africa
Organizations established in 1875

Genootskap van Regte Afrikaners


Das Mahnmal am Bahnhof Fischerhof in Hannover ist ein vom Niedersächsischen Verband Deutscher Sinti e. V. gestiftetes  Mahnmal für die Opfer des Nationalsozialismus. Anders als etwa das Mahnmal für die ermordeten Juden Hannovers am zentralen Opernplatz ist der vergleichsweise bescheidene Gedenkstein "Für alle Verfolgten des Nationalsozialismus" errichtet worden. Standort des etwas abgelegenen Mahnmals im Stadtteil Linden-Süd ist der Abzweig der Elise-Meyer-Allee kurz vor dem Eingang des ehemaligen Bahnhofs Fischerhof.

Geschichte

Deportationen von Juden 1941–1944
Über den von dichter Wohnbebauung etwas abgelegenen Bahnhof Fischerhof wurden im Dritten Reich die meisten Transporte von Opfern der rassistischen Verfolgung aus dem südlichen Niedersachsen durch das NS-Regime organisiert. Von hier aus wickelte die Gestapo-Leitstelle Hannover insgesamt sieben Transporte von Juden ab in die Ghettos und Vernichtungslager im Osten. Zwischen dem 15. Dezember 1941 und dem 11. Januar 1944 wurden insgesamt 2.174 jüdische Opfer, die zuvor in der Israelitischen Gartenbauschule in Ahlem zusammengezogen worden waren, deportiert in das Ghetto Riga und das Warschauer Ghetto, in das Konzentrationslager Auschwitz und das KZ Theresienstadt.

Vor allem beim zweiten Abtransport, der am Abend des 31. März 1942 nach Warschau gehen sollte, kam es zu schlimmen Szenen: 491 Menschen mussten erst fünf Stunden lang in strömendem Regen frierend auf den verspäteten Zug warten und wurden dann von der Gestapo in die schon überfüllten Waggons gepresst.

Deportationen von Sinti 1943
Anfang März 1943 organisierte die Kriminalpolizeistelle Hannover am Bahnhof Fischerhof "den großen Auschwitz-Transport": Etwa 100 Sinti aus Hannover und mindestens 25 Sinti aus der Umgebung der Stadt wurden in das "Familiensammellager" in Auschwitz-Birkenau deportiert.

Zwangsarbeiter
Der Bahnhof Fischerhof war auch Ankunftsstelle für Zwangsarbeiter. Hier trafen in Güterzügen Häftlinge aus den Konzentrationslagern Ravensbrück, Mauthausen und KZ Auschwitz ein, die zur Zwangsarbeit vor allem auf die mehr als 500 Lager der verschiedenen Rüstungsbetriebe verteilt wurden. Wenige Wochen vor Ende des Zweiten Weltkriegs, kurz vor dem Einmarsch der US-Truppen in Hannover, ermordeten Angehörige der Gestapo-Leitstelle Hannover hunderte von Zwangsarbeitern und verscharrten sie auf dem Seelhorster Friedhof, um ihr Unrecht und ihre Grausamkeiten zu vertuschen. Daran erinnert seit 1945 der Ehrenfriedhof am Maschsee-Nordufer.

Mahnmal 1996
Das Mahnmal wurde vom Niedersächsischen Verband Deutscher Sinti e. V. gestiftet und am 1. März 1996 eingeweiht. Mit seiner Form erinnert der Gedenkstein an die traditionelle Form der zwei Tafeln des Dekalogs. Über der Inschrift "Für alle Verfolgten des Nationalsozialismus" zeigt der Gedenkstein zwei für Sinti-Grabsteine traditionelle Symbole:
 ein "Z", das Sinti und Roma als weithin sichtbares Kennzeichen für "Zigeuner" in den nationalsozialistischen Konzentrationslagern tragen mussten;
 den Davidstern als Symbol für die Juden.

Ganz bewusst hatte der Niedersächsische Verband Deutscher Sinti dieses Mahnmal allen Opfern des Nationalsozialismus gewidmet. Der Verband wollte damit ein Zeichen setzen, da bei zahlreichen Gedenkstätten an den Holocaust die Sinti und Roma oft nicht erwähnt wurden.

Siehe auch
 Mahnmal für die Sinti im Altwarmbüchener Moor

Literatur
 Reinhold Baaske: Aus Niedersachsen nach Auschwitz. Die Verfolgung der Sinti und Roma in der NS-Zeit, Katalog zur Ausstellung des Niedersächsischen Verbandes Deutscher Sinti e. V., unter Mitarbeit von Dirk Götting sowie den Studierenden Dora Alapi u. a. Verlag für Regionalgeschichte, Bielefeld 2004, ISBN 3-89534-557-1 (107 Seiten, mit Illustrationen)
 Ursula Krause-Schmitt, Heinz Koch (Redaktion): Heimatgeschichtlicher Wegweiser zu Stätten des Widerstandes und der Verfolgung 1933–1945. Band 3: Niedersachsen. – 2. Regierungsbezirke Hannover und Weser-Ems, mit einem Vorwort von Rolf Wernstedt, in Zusammenarbeit mit Barbara Bromberger, Werner Müller und dem Landesverband Niedersachsen des VVN – Bund der Antifaschisten, hrsg. vom Studienkreis zur Erforschung und Vermittlung der Geschichte des Deutschen Widerstandes 1933–1945. 1986, ISBN 3-7609-0983-3
 Ulrike Dursthoff, Michael Pechel (Redaktion): Gedenkstein am Bahnhof Fischerhof / Hannover-Linden. In: Orte der Erinnerung. Wegweiser zu Stätten der Verfolgung und des Widerstands während der NS-Herrschaft in der Region Hannover, hrsg. vom Netzwerk Erinnerung und Zukunft in der Region Hannover, Eigenverlag, ohne Jahr [2007], S. 75f.
 Orte der Erinnerung: Gedenkstein am Bahnhof Fischerhof. Netzwerk Erinnerung und Zukunft Region Hannover, erinnerungundzukunft.de
 Rüdiger Fleiter: Stadtverwaltung im Dritten Reich. Verfolgungspolitik auf kommunaler Ebenen am Beispiel Hannovers, zugleich Dissertation an der Universität Hannover 2005 unter dem Titel: Die Mitwirkung der hannoverschen Stadtverwaltung an der NS-Verfolgungspolitik, Band 10 in der Reihe Hannoversche Studien. Schriftenreihe des Stadtarchivs Hannover. Hahn, Hannover 2006, ISBN 3-7752-4960-5, S. 277ff.
 Cornelia Maria Hein, Heike Krokowski: "Es war unmenschenmöglich". Sinti aus Niedersachsen erzählen – Verfolgung und Vernichtung im Nationalsozialismus und Diskriminierung bis heute, hrsg. vom Niedersächsischen Verband Deutscher Sinti e. V. Hannover 1995, ISBN 3-00-000005-4
 Klaus Mlynek: Sinti. In: Klaus Mlynek, Waldemar R. Röhrbein (Hrsg.) u. a.: Stadtlexikon Hannover. Von den Anfängen bis in die Gegenwart. Schlütersche, Hannover 2009, ISBN 978-3-89993-662-9, S. 568.

Weblinks

Einzelnachweise

Gedenkstätte für NS-Opfer
Linden-Süd
Judentum in Hannover
Hannover
Aufarbeitung des Porajmos
NS-Zwangsarbeit
Inschrift in Deutschland
Jüdische Geschichte (Niedersachsen)
Denkmal in Hannover

Mahnmal am Bahnhof Fischerhof


An Pachyphyllum squarrosum in uska species han Liliopsida nga ginhulagway ni John Lindley. An Pachyphyllum squarrosum in nahilalakip ha genus nga Pachyphyllum, ngan familia nga Orchidaceae. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Pachyphyllum

Pachyphyllum squarrosum


تَرن أو (نقحرة: تارن) : هو إقليم فرنسي تابع لمنطقة ميدي بيرينه. رقمه التسلسي هو 81. أخذ اسمه من نهر تَرن. حسب إحصاءات عام 1999، يبلغ عدد سكان تَرن 343,402 نسمة.

أعلام
 جان ماري تشارلز أبادي
 كليمنت بوير
 بول أوسارس

معرض صور

المراجع

أقاليم لانغيدوك-روسيون-ميدي بيرينه
تأسيسات سنة 1790 في فرنسا
جبال الكتلة الوسطى
دول وأقاليم أسست في 1790

ترن (إقليم فرنسي)


المزيرعة بلدية بولاية بسكرة الجزائرية.

تتكون من أربعة مناطق منطقة:
 تاجموت وبها عرش بني ملكم
 منطقة لمزيرعة وبها عرش اولاد عبد الرجمان
 منظقة سيدي مصمودي وبها عرش اولاد أيوب
 لولاش وبها عرش اولاد سليمان بن عيسى

بها عدة مناطق اثرية للحضارة الامازغية وبها معاقل اثوار أثناء حرب التحرير وتوجد بها أكبر غابة على مستوى الولاية وهي تقع في حدود مع ولاية باتنة

مصادر

مزيرعة
دوائر ولاية بسكرة

المزيرعة (ولاية بسكرة)


Ioan Mihăilă ()  a fost un deputat în Marea Adunare Națională de la Alba Iulia, organismul legislativ reprezentativ al "tuturor românilor din Transilvania, Banat și Țara Ungurească", cel care a adoptat hotărârea privind Unirea Transilvaniei cu România, la 1 decembrie 1918.

Educația
Educația primară și-o dobândește învățând în satul natal. A fost ales delegat supleant al cercului electoral Ileanda Mare, la Marea Adunare Națională de la Alba Iulia.

Note

Bibliografie
 Ioan I. Șerban, Dorin Giurgiu, Ionela Mircea, Nicolae Josan, Dicționarul personalităților Unirii. Trimișii românilor transilvăneni la Marea Adunare Națională de la Alba Iulia, Muzeul Național al Unirii, Alba Iulia, 2003, ISBN 973-8141-90-7

Lectură suplimentară
 Daniela Comșa, Eugenia Glodariu, Maria M. Jude, Clujenii și Marea Unire, Muzeul Național Transilvania, Cluj-Napoca, 1998
 Florea Marin, Medicii și Marea Unire, Editura Tipomur, Târgu Mureș, 1993
 Silviu Borș, Alexiu Tatu, Bogdan Andriescu, (coord.), Participanți din localități sibiene la Marea Adunare Națională de la Alba Iulia din 1 decembrie 1918, Editura Armanis, Sibiu, 2015

Legături externe
  Membrii de drept ai Marii Adunării Naționale de la Alba-Iulia din 1 decembrie 1918, lista publicată în "Gazeta Oficială", Sibiu, nr. 1, 1/14 decembrie 1918

Vezi și
 Lista delegaților la Marea Adunare Națională de la Alba Iulia

Nașteri în 1876
Decese în 1950
Delegați la Marea Adunare Națională de la Alba Iulia

Ioan Mihăilă


O massacre de Phocaea (, I Sfagí tis Fókaias; em turco: Foça Katliamı) ocorreu em 12 de junho de 1914, como parte das políticas de limpeza étnica do Império Otomano que incluíam exílio, massacre e deportações. Foi perpetrado por bandos irregulares de turcos contra a cidade predominantemente de etnia grega de Phocaea, na costa leste do Mar Egeu. O massacre foi parte de uma ampla campanha anti-grega de genocídio lançado pelas autoridades dos Jovens Turcos Otomanos, que incluiu boicote, intimidação, deportações forçadas e assassinatos em massa; e foi um dos piores ataques durante o verão de 1914.

Fontes

Massacres
Genocídio grego

Massacre de Phocaea


AMC හි ඇමරිකානු පශ්චාත්-එළිදරව් ත්‍රාසජනක රූපවාහිනී කතා මාලාවක් වන ද වොකින් ඩෙඩ් හි එකොළොස් වන සහ අවසාන වාරය 2021 අගෝස්තු 22 වන දින තිරගත වීමට නියමිත අතර එය කථාංග 24 කින් සමන්විත වේ. ෆ්‍රෑන්ක් ඩාරබොන්ට් විසින් රූපවාහිනිය සඳහා වැඩි දියුණු කරන ලද මෙම කතා මාලාව රොබර්ට් කිර්ක්මන්, ටෝනි මුවර් සහ චාලි ඇඩ්ලාර්ඩ්ගේ නම් සහිත විකට පොත් මාලාව මත පදනම් වේ. විධායක නිෂ්පාදකයින් වන්නේ කර්ක්මන්, ඩේවිඩ් ඇල්පර්ට්, ස්කොට් එම්. ජිම්පල්, ඇන්ජෙලා කැන්ග්, ග්‍රෙග් නිකොටෙරෝ, ජෝශප් ඉන්කප්‍රෙරා, ඩෙනිස් හත් සහ ගේල් neන් හර්ඩ් වන අතර, කැං ඇගේ තුන්වන සහ අවසාන වාරය සඳහා නිරූපිකාවක් ලෙස කටයුතු කරයි.

මෙම සමය විකට පොත් මාලාවේ #175-193 නිකුතුවලින් කරුණු අනුවර්තනය කරන අතර උසස් උපකරණ ඇති විශාල ප්‍රජාවක් සහ විවිධ ජනාවාස වල ජීවත් වන පනස් දහසකට ආසන්න සංඛ්‍යාවක් වන පොදුරාජ්‍ය මණ්ඩලය සමඟ කණ්ඩායමේ හමුවීම කෙරෙහි අවධානය යොමු කරයි.

sanush herath
The walking dead (tv siries) seosones
Introduction articles

The Walking Dead (season 11)


Anne Frank, ma meilleure amie (Mijn beste vriendin Anne Frank) est un film néerlandais sorti en 2021 inspiré de l'amitié réelle entre Anne Frank et Hannah Goslar.

Le film montre leur amitié depuis Amsterdam sous l'occupation nazie jusqu'à leurs retrouvailles douloureuses dans un camp de concentration.

Synopsis
Ce film décrit l'amitié entre Goslar et Frank en interposant leurs souvenirs communs de 1941, quand elles étaient toutes deux libres, bien que vivant sous les lois raciales, à Amsterdam et à Bergen-Belsen en 1945, quand Hanneli était dans la section des privilégiés, titulaires de passeports de pays neutres tandis qu'Anne était dans la section des moins privilégiés.

Fiche technique

Distribution

Liens externes

Film néerlandais sorti en 2021
Anne Frank au cinéma

Anne Frank, ma meilleure amie