The Space Interferometry Mission, or SIM, also known as SIM Lite (formerly known as SIM PlanetQuest), was a planned space telescope proposed by the U.S. National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), in conjunction with contractor Northrop Grumman. One of the main goals of the mission was the hunt for Earth-sized planets orbiting in the habitable zones of nearby stars other than the Sun. SIM was postponed several times and finally cancelled in 2010. In addition to detecting extrasolar planets, SIM would have helped astronomers construct a map of the Milky Way galaxy. Other important tasks would have included collecting data to help pinpoint stellar masses for specific types of stars, assisting in the determination of the spatial distribution of dark matter in the Milky Way and in the local group of galaxies and using the gravitational microlensing effect to measure the mass of stars. The spacecraft would have used optical interferometry to accomplish these and other scientific goals.

The initial contracts for SIM Lite were awarded in 1998, totaling US$200 million. Work on the SIM project required scientists and engineers to move through eight specific new technology milestones, and by November 2006, all eight had been completed. SIM Lite was originally proposed for a 2005 launch, aboard an Evolved Expendable Launch Vehicle (EELV). As a result of continued budget cuts, the launch date was pushed back at least five times. NASA had set a preliminary launch date for 2015. As of February 2007, many of the engineers working on the SIM program had moved on to other areas and projects, and NASA directed the project to allocate its resources toward engineering risk reduction. However, the preliminary budget for NASA for 2008 included zero dollars for SIM.

In 2007, the Congress restored funding for fiscal year 2008 as part of an omnibus appropriations bill which the President later signed. At the same time the Congress directed NASA to move the mission forward to the development phase. In 2009 the project continued its risk reduction work while waiting for the findings and recommendations of the Astronomy and Astrophysics Decadal Survey, Astro2010, performed by the National Academy of Sciences, which would determine the project's future.

In 2010, the Astro2010 Decadal Report was released and did not recommend that NASA continue the development of the SIM Lite Astrometric Observatory.  This prompted NASA Astronomy and Physics Director, Jon Morse, to issue a letter on 24 September 2010 to the SIM Lite project manager, informing him that NASA was discontinuing its sponsorship of the SIM Lite mission and directing the project to discontinue Phase B activities immediately or as soon as practical.  Accordingly, all SIM Lite activities were closed down by the end of calendar year 2010.

Mission

SIM Lite would have operated in an Earth-trailing heliocentric orbit, drifting away from Earth at the rate of 0.1 AU per year ultimately reaching a distance of 82 million km from Earth. This would have taken approximately  years. The Sun would have continuously shone on the spacecraft, allowing it to avoid the occultations of target stars and eclipses of the Sun that would occur in an Earth orbit.

Had it been launched, SIM would have performed scientific research for five years.

Planet hunting

SIM Lite would have been the most powerful extrasolar planet hunting space telescope ever built. Through the technique of interferometry the spacecraft would be able to detect Earth-sized planets. SIM Lite was to perform its search for nearby, Earth-like planets by looking for the "wobble" in the parent star's apparent motion as the planet orbits. The spacecraft would have accomplished this task to an accuracy of one millionth of an arcsecond, or the thickness of a nickel viewed at the distance from Earth to the Moon. Titled the Deep Search, the planet hunting program was intended to search approximately 60 nearby stars for terrestrial planets (like Earth and Venus) in the habitable zone (where liquid water can exist throughout a full revolution (one "year") of the planet around its star). The Deep Search was to be the most demanding in terms of astrometric accuracy, hence the name, Deep Search. This program would have used the full capability of the SIM Lite spacecraft to make its measurements.

A flexible search strategy tunes SIM Lite's mass sensitivity at each star to a desired level in the habitable planet search.  The value of ηEarth (Eta_Earth), the fraction of stars carrying Earth-analog planets, will be estimated by the Kepler Mission some time before SIM Lite launches. One strategy for a habitable planet search is to do a 'deeper' search (i.e. to lower mass sensitivity in the habitable zone) of a smaller number of targets if Earth analogs are common. A 'shallower' search of a larger number of targets could have been done if Earth analogs are rarer. For example, assuming that 40% of mission time is allocated for the planet search, SIM Lite could have surveyed:

 65 stars for planets down to one Earth mass, in scaled 1 AU orbits, OR
 149 stars for planets down to two Earth masses, in scaled 1 AU orbits, OR
 239 stars for planets down to three Earth masses, in scaled 1 AU orbits.

Aside from searching for Earth-sized planets SIM Lite was scheduled to perform what has been dubbed the "Broad Survey". The Broad Survey would have looked at approximately 1,500 stars to help determine the abundance of Neptune-mass and larger planets around all star-types in Earth's sector of the Milky Way.

A third part of the planet finding mission was the search for Jupiter-mass planets around young stars. The survey would have helped scientists understand more about solar system formation, including the occurrence of hot Jupiters. This portion of the planet hunt was designed to study systems with one or more Jupiter mass planets before the system has reached long term equilibrium. Planet hunting techniques using a star's radial velocity cannot measure the regular, tiny to-and-fro wobble motions induced by planets against the strong atmospheric activity of a youthful star. It is through the techniques pioneered by Albert A. Michelson that the SIM would have been able to execute its three primary planet-finding missions.

The mission's planet finding component was set up to serve as an important complement to the future missions designed to image and measure terrestrial and other exoplanets. SIM Lite was to perform an important task that these missions will not be capable of: determining planet masses. Another task that the SIM was envisioned to perform for the future missions will include providing the orbital characteristics of the planets. With this knowledge other missions can estimate the optimal times and projected star–planet separation angles for them to observe the terrestrial (and other) planets SIM has detected.

Stellar mass

Another key aspect of SIM Lite's mission was determining the upper and lower limits of star's masses. Today, scientists understand that there are limits to how small or large a star can be. Objects that are too small lack the internal pressure to initiate thermonuclear fusion, which is what causes a star to shine. These objects are known as brown dwarfs and represent the lower end of the stellar mass scale. Stars that are too large become unstable and explode in a supernova.

Part of the SIM's mission was to provide pinpoint measurements for the two extremes in stellar mass and evolution. The telescope will not be able to measure the mass of every star in the Galaxy, since there are over 200 billion, but instead, it will take a "population census." Through this technique, SIM will be able to output accurate masses for representative examples for nearly every star type, including brown dwarfs, hot white dwarfs, red giant stars, and elusive black holes. Current space telescopes, including NASA's Hubble Space Telescope, can accurately measure mass for some types of stars, but not all. Estimates put the range for stellar mass somewhere between 8% the mass of the Sun and in excess of 60 times the mass of the Sun. The entire study was to focus on binary star systems, stars coupled through a mutual gravitational attraction.

Galactic mapping

Interferometric measurements of stellar positions over the course of the mission would have permitted SIM to precisely measure the distances between stars throughout the Milky Way. This would have allowed astronomers to create a "roadmap" of the Galaxy, answering many questions about its shape and size.

Currently, astronomers know little about the shape and size of our galaxy relative to what they know about other galaxies; it is difficult to observe the entire Milky Way from the inside. A good analogy is trying to observe a marching band as a member of the band. Observing other galaxies is much easier because humans are outside those galaxies. Steven Majewski and his team planned to use SIM Lite to help determine not only the shape and size of the Galaxy but also the distribution of its mass and the motion of its stars.

SIM Lite measurements of Milky Way stars were to yield data to understand four topics: fundamental galactic parameters, the Oort Limit, disk mass potential, and mass of the Galaxy to large radii. The first, fundamental galactic parameters, was aimed at answering key questions about the size, shape and the rotation rate of the Milky Way. The team hoped to more accurately determine the distance from the Sun to the Galactic Center. The second topic, the Oort Limit, would have attempted to determine the mass of the galactic disk.

The third project topic was disk mass potential. This topic was designed to make measurements of the distances to disk stars as well as their proper motions. The results of the third topic of study were to be combined with the results of the fundamental galactic parameters portion of the study to determine the Solar System's position and velocity in the galaxy. The final topic dealt with dark matter distribution in the Milky Way. SIM data was to be used to create a three-dimensional model of mass distribution in the Galaxy, out to a radius of 270 kiloparsecs (kps). Astronomers were to then use two different tests to determine the galactic potential at large radii.

Dark matter

Dark matter is the matter in the universe that cannot be seen. Because of the gravitational effect it exerts on stars and galaxies, scientists know that approximately 80% of the matter in the universe is dark matter. The spatial distribution of dark matter in the universe is largely unknown; SIM Lite would have helped scientists answer to this question.

The strongest evidence for dark matter comes from galactic motion. Galaxies rotate much faster than the amount of visible matter suggests they should; the gravity from the ordinary matter is not enough to hold the galaxy together. Scientists theorize that the galaxy is held together by huge quantities of dark matter. Similarly, clusters of galaxies do not appear to have enough visible matter to gravitationally balance the high speed motions of their component galaxies.

Besides measuring stellar motions within the Milky Way, SIM Lite was to measure the internal and average galactic motion of some of the neighboring galaxies near the Milky Way. The telescope's measurements were to be used in conjunction with other, currently available, data to provide astronomers with the first total mass measurements of individual galaxies. These numbers would enable scientists to estimate the spatial distribution of dark matter in the local group of galaxies, and by extension, throughout the universe.

Development

Beginnings
The Space Interferometry Mission began as a four-month preliminary architecture study in March 1997. NASA selected TRW's Space & Electronics Group, Eastman Kodak and Hughes Danbury Optical Systems to conduct the study. In 1998, TRW Inc. was selected as the contractor for the SIM Lite project; Northrop Grumman acquired part of TRW in 2002 and took over the contract. Also selected was Lockheed Martin Missiles and Space located in Sunnyvale, California. The two contracts, which included the mission formulation and implementation phases, were announced in September 1998 and worth a total of over US$200 million. The formulation phase of the mission included initial mission design and planning for the full scale implementation of the mission. At the time of the NASA announcement, launch was scheduled for 2005 and the mission was part of the Origins Program, a series of missions designed to answer questions such as the origin of life Earth.

In August 2000, NASA asked project managers to consider looking at the Space Shuttle, instead of the previously proposed EELV, as a launch vehicle. In late November 2000, NASA announced that the project's scientific team was selected. The group included notable names from the world of extrasolar planet research. The entire group consisted of 10 principal investigators and five mission specialists. At the time of this NASA announcement launch was scheduled for 2009 and the mission was still part of the Origins Program.

New technologies
SIM's new technology was meant to lead to the development of telescopes powerful enough to take images of Earth-like extrasolar planets orbiting distant stars and to determine whether those planets are able to sustain life. NASA has already started developing future missions that will build on SIM's technological legacy. The technological development phase of the mission was completed in November 2006 with the announcement that the eight, mission-technology-milestones set by NASA were reached. The milestones were necessary steps in the technological development before flight control instruments could begin to be designed. The completion of each milestone meant that new systems had to be developed for nanometer control as well as picometer knowledge technology; these systems enable the telescope to make its accurate measurements with extreme accuracy.

One of the new technologies developed for the mission were high-tech "rulers", capable of making measurements in increments a fraction of the width of a hydrogen atom. In addition, the rulers were developed to work as a network. The mission team also created "shock absorbers" to alleviate the effects of tiny vibrations in the spacecraft which would impede accurate measurements. Another of the milestones involved combining the new "rulers" and "shock absorbers" to prove that the Space Interferometry Mission craft could detect the tiny wobbles in stars caused by Earth-sized planets. The fifth of the technology milestones required the demonstration of the Microarcsecond Metrology Testbed at a performance of 3,200 picometers over its wide angle field of view. The wide angle measurements were to be used to determine the fixed positions of stars each time they were measured. This level of performance demonstrated SIM Lite's ability to calculate the astrometric grid. Another key development, known as gridless narrow-angle astrometry (GNAA), was the ability to apply the measurement capability worked out in the wide angle milestone and take it a step further, into narrow-angle measurements. Aiming to give an accuracy of 1 micro-arcsecond to the early stages of the SIM, the technique allows star positions to be measured without first setting up a grid of reference stars; instead, it sets up a reference frame using several reference stars and a target star observed from different locations, and star positions are calculated using delay measurements from separate observations. The narrow angle field was to be used by SIM to detect terrestrial planets; the team applied the same criteria to both the narrow and wide angle measurements. The final requirement before beginning work on flight controls was to make sure that all of the systems developed for the mission worked cohesively; this final NASA technology goal was completed last as it was dependent upon the others.

Status after 2006
Between the end of April and June 2006 the project completed three engineering milestones and from 2–8 November 2006 SIM completed a "Spacecraft Internal Design Review." As of June 2008, all of the eight engineering milestones were successfully completed.

The project had been in Phase B since June 2003. Jet Propulsion Laboratory's "Phase B" is called the "Preliminary Design" phase. Phase B further develops the mission concept developed during Phase A to prepare the project for entry into the Implementation Phase of the project. Requirements are defined, schedules are determined, and specifications are prepared to initiate system design and development." In addition, as part of Phase B, the SIM Lite project was to go through a number of reviews by NASA including System Requirements Review, System Design Review, and Non-Advocate Review. During this phase, experiments would have been proposed, peer reviewed, and eventually selected by NASA's Office of Space Science. Experiment selections are based on scientific value, cost, management, engineering, and safety.

Planned launch

The launch date for the SIM Lite mission was pushed back at least five times. At the program's outset, in 1998, the launch was scheduled for 2005. By 2000, the launch date had been delayed until 2009, a date that held through 2003; though some project scientists cited 2008 in late 2000. Between 2004 and 2006, contractor Northrop Grumman, the company designing and developing SIM, listed a launch date of 2011 on their website. With the release of the FY 2007 NASA budget, predictions changed again, this time to a date no earlier than 2015 or 2016. The delay of the launch date was primarily related to budget cuts made to the SIM Lite program. The 2007 change represented a difference of about three years from the 2006 launch date, outlined in NASA's FY 2006 budget as being two years behind 2005 budget predictions.
Other groups predicted dates matching officially predicted launch dates; the NASA Exoplanet Science Institute (formerly the Michelson Science Center) at the California Institute of Technology also set the date at 2015. As of June 2008, NASA has postponed the launch date "indefinitely".

A May 2005 NASA operating plan put the mission into a replanning phase through the spring of 2006. The launch was planned to be via an Evolved Expendable Launch Vehicle (EELV), likely an Atlas V 521 or equivalent.

Budget
SIM Lite was to be considered the flagship mission of NASA's Exoplanet Exploration Program (formerly known as the Navigator Program). According to the 2007 Presidential Budget for NASA, the program is, "a coherent series of increasingly challenging projects, each complementary to the others and each mission building on the results and capabilities of those that preceded it as NASA searches for habitable planets outside of the Solar System." The program, in addition to the Space Interferometry Mission, includes the Keck Interferometer and the Large Binocular Telescope Interferometer. When originally approved in 1996, the mission was given a $700 million cap (in 1996 dollars) which included launch costs and five years of operation. The first contracts, for the preliminary architecture study, were worth $200,000 each.

NASA's budget outlined plans for the three projects for fiscal year (FY) 2007. Of the three missions, SIM Lite was delayed further and the Keck Interferometer saw budget cuts. The 2007 NASA budget stipulated, "SIM Phase B activity will continue while new cost and schedule plans are developed, consistent with recent funding decisions." The funding decisions included a US$118.5 million cut over the FY 2006 NASA budget request for the Exoplanet Exploration Program. The budget also laid out projections for the program through the year 2010. Each year will have successive funding cuts, if compared to the 2006 request numbers. Starting with FY 2008, the Exoplanet Exploration Program will receive around $223.9 million less compared to 2006. The following years will have cuts of $155.2 million in 2009 and $172.5 million in 2010, compared to the 2006 request.

When SIM Lite entered what JPL terms "Phase B" in 2003 Fringes: Space Interferometry Mission Newsletter, called it a most important milestone on the way to a 2009 launch. The delays are budgetary in nature. In 2006, the mission received $117 million, an increase of $8.1 million over the previous year, but 2007 cuts amounted to $47.9 million less for the SIM program. In 2008, $128.7 million of the $223.9 million estimated to be cut from the Exoplanet Program budget would come from the SIM Lite mission. After an additional $51.9 million decrease in FY 2009, the program was reduced to $6 million in FY 2010 supplemented by substantial carryover from the previous year while awaiting the results of the Astronomy and Astrophysics Decadal Survey, Astro2010.

By February 2007 many of the budget cuts outlined in the FY 2007 budget were already being felt within the project. Engineers who worked on SIM were forced to find other areas to work in. A February 2007 editorial in the Space Interferometry Mission Newsletter described the situation as, "entirely due to budget pressures and priorities within the Science Mission Directorate at NASA (with) scientific motivation for the mission...as strong as ever." NASA, per the budget cuts, directed the SIM project to refocus its efforts toward engineering risk reduction. As of the February 2007 newsletter the plans for the refocus were in the process of being completed.

Instruments

Optical interferometry

Interferometry is a technique pioneered by Albert A. Michelson in the 19th century. Optical interferometry, which has matured within the last two decades, combines the light of multiple telescopes so that precise measurements can be made, akin to what might be accomplished with a single, much larger telescope. It is the interaction of light waves, called interference, that makes this possible. Interference can be used to cancel out the glare of bright stars or to measure distances and angles accurately. The construction of the word partially illustrates this: interfere + measure = interfer-o-metry. At radio wavelengths of the electromagnetic spectrum, interferometry has been used for more than 50 years to measure the structure of distant galaxies.

The SIM Lite telescope functions through optical interferometry. SIM was to be composed of one science interferometer (50 cm collectors, 6 m separation [baseline]), a guide interferometer (30 cm collectors, 4.2 m baseline), and a guide telescope (30 cm aperture). The sophisticated guide telescope stabilizes instrument pointing in the third dimension. The spacecraft's operational limiting magnitude would have gone down to 20 at 20 millionths of an arcsecond (μas) and its planet-finding, astrometric accuracy of 1.12 μas is for single measurements. The accuracy of its global, all-sky astrometric grid would have been 4 μas.

SIM's design since 2000 consisted of two light collectors (strictly speaking, they are Mersenne telescopes) mounted on opposite ends of a six-meter structure. The observatory would have been able to measure the small wobbles in stars and detect the planets causing them down to one Earth mass at distances up to 33 light years (10 parsecs) from the Sun.

See also

Notes

References

External links

 "Fringes: Space Interferometry Mission Newsletter" Index
 SIM Lite Astrometric Observatory (formerly SIM PlanetQuest), from NASA
 SIM PlanetQuest Mission Profile by NASA's Solar System Exploration
 Optical Long Baseline Interferometery News, from NASA

Interferometric telescopes
Cancelled spacecraft
Space astrometry missions
Space telescopes
Exoplanet search projects
Lockheed Corporation
Astronomy projects

Space Interferometry Mission


La Olimpiada Nacional de la Ciencia es un certamen anual auspiciado por la Universidad San Carlos de Guatemala que concentra a los mejores estudiantes de Guatemala, con el motivo de elegir a los representantes guatemaltecos para competencias internacionales: la Olimpiada Centroamericana de Física y la Olimpiada Iberoamericana de Física y Matemáticas.

En ella pueden participar estudiantes de secundaria, bachillerato y diversificado de todas las modalidades tecnológicas y propedéuticas matriculados en cualquier plantel, público o privado. Los concursantes deben pasar primero por exámenes a nivel Departamental, para conseguir a 10 representantes para que pasen a la segunda fase o nivel regional para el cual se elege uno de treinta jóvenes para que represente a cada región de Guatemala.

Los exámenes son individuales y el jurado está integrado por la Coordinadora Nacional y por los delegados de la Universidad San Carlos de Guatemala.

Los ganadores se agrupan en bloque llamados Primero, Segundo y Tercer Lugares Nacionales, sin distinguir entre los miembros del mismo bloque. Los premios son individuales y consisten, en medallas y diplomas.

Historia

La Olimpiada Nacional de la Ciencia, dieron inicio en 1995 en la Ciudad de Guatemala y, desde un principio, se estableció la meta de llegar a atender todos los departamentos de Guatemala, a más tardar en el año 2000. Así, ya en 1999 se instaló en Retalhuleu, luego en Jutiapa y, posteriormente, en San Marcos. Actualmente se desarrolla en la Capital, para todos los departamentos. En 2007 participaron más de 300 profesores de todo el país.

El Programa Galileo se fundamenta en una unidad didáctica que cubre tres aspectos que se interrelacionan: clase, motivación y comunidad.

El certamen, que está dedicado a estudiantes de educación media, en la actualidad cubre todo el territorio nacional, y año con año, aumenta el número de participantes. Se cuenta con la colaboración de establecimientos educativos y profesores de ciencias, quienes seleccionan y preparan a sus alumnos para participar en la Olimpiada.

Expresados en forma breve, los objetivos generales de la Olimpiada Nacional de Ciencias son: Motivar a la juventud al estudio de la ciencia y fomentar interés por la ciencia en todos los sectores de la comunidad guatemalteca.

Adicionalmente, sus objetivos específicos son: a) Seleccionar y premiar a los estudiantes mejor preparados en el campo de la ciencia; b) Dar reconocimiento, por su esfuerzo, a estudiantes y profesores que participan; c) Promover la actualización permanente de los profesores de ciencias del nivel medio.

Coordinación nacional

La coordinadora nacional es por parte de la Universidad San Carlos de Guatemala.

El Comité Académico de la Olimpiada Nacional de la Ciencia está integrado por los presidentes y voceros de los Centros Universitarios de la USAC

Ediciones

Cada año, la Olimpiada tiene la misma sede la cual es la Ciudad de Guatemala. Y tiene 22 delegaciones superiores las cuales se ubican en las cebeceras departamentales, en los Centros Universitarios de La USAC, las cuales son sedes de las etapas departamental y regional.

Materias

Véase también
 Universidad San Carlos de Guatemala

Referencias

Competiciones académicas
Competiciones académicas de Guatemala

Olimpiada Nacional de Ciencias Guatemala


Adenopeltis, monotipski rod iz porodice mlječikovki, dio reda malpigijolike. Jedina vrsta je A. serrata, endem iz Čilea.

Rod je opisan 1832.

Sinonimi
 Excoecaria colliguaya (Bertero ex A.Juss.) Baill.
 Excoecaria marginata Kunze ex Baill.
 Excoecaria serrata W.T.Aiton, bazionim
 Stillingia glandulosa Dombey ex Baill.

Izvori

Euphorbioideae

Adenopeltis


Þæfing er aðferð til að búa til eða þétta textílefni, með því að núa, vinda og pressa náttúrulega þræði eða trefjar saman. Afurðin kallast jafnan filt og það er hægt að búa til úr náttúrulegum trefjum eins og ull eða skinni, eða úr tilbúnum trefjum eins og jarðolíugrunni akrýl eða akrýlónítríl eða fjölliðum unnum úr trjákvoðu. Blandaðar trefjar eru einnig algengar.

Filt hefur sérstaka eiginleika sem gera kleift að nota það í fjölbreyttum tilgangi. "Það er eldhindrandi og sjálfslökkvandi; það dempar titring og gleypir hljóð; og það getur geymt mikið magn af vökva án þess að verða blautt. . . "  : 10

Filt úr ull er talið vera elsta þekkta textílefni jarðar.

Þæfing á Íslandi
Vaðmál, ofið efni úr ull, var jafnan þæft fyrir notkun hvort sem um var að ræða gróft vaðmál í vinnuflíkur eða fínt vaðmál í spariföt. Vettlingar, sólar í vaðmálsskó og sjófatnaður var einnig þæft og vatnsþétt með ýmsum hætti.

Þæfing í sögulegu ljósi
Margir menningarheimar hafa þjóðsögur varðandi uppruna þæfingar og filtgerðar. Súmersk goðsögn fullyrðir að leyndarmál þæfingar hafi uppgötvast af Urnamman frá Lagash .  Sagan af dýrðlingunum Saint Clement og Saint Christopher segir frá því að flóttamennirnir hafi troðið skó sína fulla af ull til að koma í veg fyrir nuddsár og blöðrur á flóttanum undan ofsóknum. Í lok ferðar þeirra hafði núningur og sviti breytt ullinni í þæfða filtsokka.

Upprunann er líklegast að finna í Mið-Asíu þar sem vísbendingar eru um þæfingu í Síberíu (Altaí-fjöllum) í Norður-Mongólíu og nýlega vísbendingar frá fyrstu öld e.Kr. í Mongólíu. Síberísk grafhýsi (7. til 2. öld f.Kr.) sýna víðtæka notkun filts í þeirri menningu, þar á meðal í fatnað, skartgripi, vegghengi og vönduð hnakkteppi.

Handverkfólk notaði sérgerða liti, ísaum, þæfingu og aðrar textílaðferðir til að skapa einstök filtlistaverk sem bera listfengi þess og hugmyndaauðgi vitni bæði í mynstri og myndum. Þæfðu verkin sýna bæði óhlutbundna hönnun og ímyndun sem og raunverulega atburði, dýr, menn og hluti.

Með tímanum urðu þessir listamenn þekktir fyrir verk sem sýndu falleg óhlutbundin mynstur sem sækja tilvíisanir í plöntur, dýr og önnur tákn  : 21

Frá Síberíu og Mongólíu dreifðist þæfing  um svæði tyrknesk-mongólsku ættkvíslanna . Sauðfé- og úlfaldahjarðir voru megin auðæfi og lífsstíll þessara ættbálka, en báðar tegundirnar voru mikilvægar til að framleiða ullina sem þarf til að þæfa. Hirðingjar ferðast oft og búa á sléttum, fannst húsnæði (yurts, tjöld osfrv.), Einangrun, gólfefni og innveggir, svo og margar nauðsynjar heimilanna frá rúmfötum og klæðningum til fatnaðar. Hjá hirðingjaþjóðunum var svæði þar sem filtagerð var sérstaklega sýnileg í gripum fyrir dýr þeirra og til ferða. Felt kom oft fram í teppunum sem fóru undir hnakkana.

Þæfing er enn stunduð af hirðingjum (svo sem Mongólum og Túrkum ) í Mið-Asíu, þar sem teppi, tjöld og fatnaður eru reglulega þæfð.  Sum þæfðu verkin eru hefðbundnir munir, svo sem klassísk yurt (Gers) tjöld,  meðan aðrir eru hannaðir fyrir ferðamannamarkaðinn, svo sem skreyttir inniskór.  Í hinum vestræna heimi er filt víða notað sem miðill til tjáningar bæði í textíllist og samtímalist  og hönnun, þar sem það hefur þýðingu sem vistfræðilegt textíl- og byggingarefni.
Byggingarefni

Þæfing


Uskok može značiti:
 Senjski uskoci, borci protiv Osmanlija
 Ured za suzbijanje korupcije i organiziranog kriminaliteta, skraćeno USKOK, tijelo u sastavu Državnog odvjetništva Republike Hrvatske

Uskok (razdvojba)


The South African Army is the principal land warfare force of South Africa, a part of the South African National Defence Force (SANDF), along with the South African Air Force, South African Navy and South African Military Health Service. The Army is commanded by the Chief of the Army, who is subordinate to the Chief of the SANDF.

Formed in 1912, as the Union Defence Force in the Union of South Africa, through the amalgamation of the South African colonial forces following the unification of South Africa. It evolved within the tradition of frontier warfare fought by Boer Commando (militia) forces, reinforced by the Afrikaners' historical distrust of large standing armies. Following the ascension to power of the National Party, the Army's long-standing Commonwealth ties were afterwards cut.

The South African Army was fundamentally changed by the end of Apartheid and its preceding upheavals, as the South African Defence Force became the SANDF. This process also led to the rank and age balance of the army deteriorating desperately, though this has greatly improved.

During its history, the South African Army has fought in a number of major wars, including the First and Second World Wars, Rhodesian Bush War, and the long and bitter Border War. The South African Army has also been involved in many peacekeeping operations such as in the Lesotho intervention, Central African Republic Civil War, and multiple counter-insurgencies in Africa; often under the auspices of the United Nations, or as part of wider African Union operations in Southern Africa. It also played a key role in controlling sectarian political violence inside South Africa during the late 1980s and early 1990s.

History

After the Union of South Africa was formed in 1910, General Jan Smuts, the Union's first Minister of Defence, placed a high priority on creating a unified military out of the separate armies of the union's four provinces (the British Cape Colonial Forces, and the forces of the Natal Colony, the Transvaal, and the Orange River Colony). The Defence Act (No. 13) of 1912 established a Union Defence Force (UDF) that included a Permanent Force (or standing army) of career soldiers, an Active Citizen Force of temporary conscripts and volunteers as well as a Cadet organisation. The 1912 law also obligated all white males between seventeen and sixty years of age to serve in the military, but this was not strictly enforced as there were a large number of volunteers. Instead, half of the white males aged from 17 to 25 were drafted by lots into the ACF. For training purposes, the Union was divided into 15 military districts.

Initially, the Permanent Force consisted of five regiments of the South African Mounted Riflemen (SAMR), each with a battery of artillery attached. Dorning says that '..the SAMR was in reality a military constabulary similar to the Cape Mounted Riflemen, tasked primarily with police work in their respective geographical areas.' In 1913 and 1914, the new 23,400-member Citizen Force was called on to suppress several industrial strikes on the Witwatersrand.

In accordance with the 1912 Defence Act, the Active Citizen Force was established under Brig. Gen. C.F. Beyers on 1 July 1913. The authorised strength of the ACF and Coast Garrison Force was 25,155 and by 31 December actual strength stood at 23,462.

First World War

Following the British declaration of war against Germany on 4 August 1914, South Africa was an extension of the British war effort due to her status as a Dominion within the Empire. Although self-governing, South Africa, along with other Dominions such as Australia, Canada and New Zealand, were only semi-independent from Britain.

General Louis Botha, the then prime minister, faced widespread Afrikaner opposition to fighting alongside Great Britain so soon after the Second Boer War, and had to quell a militarily rebellion by some of the more extremist elements before he could send an expeditionary force of some 67,000 troops to invade German South West Africa (now Namibia). The German troops stationed there eventually surrendered to the South African forces in July 1915. In 1920 South Africa received a League of Nations mandate to govern the former German colony and to prepare it for independence within a few years, however South African occupation continued, illegally, until 1990.

Later, the South African Infantry Brigade, and various other supporting units such as the South African Native Labour Corps, were deployed to France in order to fight on the Western Front as the South African Overseas Expeditionary Force under British command. The 1st South African Brigade consisted of four infantry battalion sized regiments, representing men from all four provinces of the Union of South Africa, as well as Rhodesia. The 1st Regiment was from the Cape Province, the 2nd Regiment was from Natal and the Orange Free State and the 3rd Regiment was from Transvaal and Rhodesia. The 4th Regiment was called the South African Scottish and was raised from members of the Transvaal Scottish and the Cape Town Highlanders; they wore the Atholl Murray tartan. Supporting units included five batteries of heavy artillery, a field ambulance unit, a Royal Engineers signals company and a military hospital.

The most costly action that the South African forces on the Western Front fought in was the Battle of Delville Wood in 1916 – of the 3,000 men from the brigade who entered the wood, only 768 emerged unscathed. Another tragic loss of life for the South African forces during the war was the Mendi sinking on 21 February 1917, when the troopship Mendi – while transporting 607 members of the South African Native Labour Corps from Britain to France – was struck and cut almost in half by another ship.

In addition, the war against the German and Askari forces in German East Africa also involved more than 20,000 South African troops; they fought under General Jan Smuts's command when he directed the British campaign against there in 1915. (During the war, the army was led by General Smuts, who had re-joined the army from his position as Minister of Defence on the outbreak of the war.)

Coloured South Africans also saw notable action with the Cape Corps in Palestine.

With a population of roughly 6 million, between 1914 - 1918, over 250,000 South Africans of all races voluntarily served their country. Thousands more served in the British Army directly, with over 3,000 joining the British Royal Flying Corps and over 100 volunteering for the Royal Navy. More than 146,000 whites, 83,000 black Africans and 2,500 Coloureds and Asians also served in either German South-West Africa, East Africa, the Middle East, or on the Western Front in Europe. Suffering roughly 19,000 casualties, over 7,000 South Africans were killed, and nearly 12,000 were wounded during the course of the war. Eight South Africans won the Victoria Cross for gallantry, the Empire's highest and prestigious military medal. The Battle of Delville Wood and the sinking of the SS Mendi being the greatest single incidents of loss of life.

Interwar period
Wartime casualties and post-war demobilisation weakened the UDF. New legislation in 1922 re-established conscription for white males over the age of 21 for four years of military training and service and re-constituted the Permanent Force. UDF troops assumed internal security tasks in South Africa and quelled several revolts against South African domination in South-West Africa. South Africans suffered high casualties, especially in 1922, when an independent group of Khoikhoi – known as the Bondelswarts-Herero for the black bands that they wore into battle – led one of numerous revolts; in 1925, when a mixed-race population – the Basters – demanded cultural autonomy and political independence; and in 1932, when the Ovambo (Ambo) population along the border with Angola demanded an end to South African domination. During the Rand strike of 1922, 14,000 members of the ACF and certain A class reservists were called up.

Expenditure cuts saw the UDF as a whole reduced. The last remaining regiment of the South Africa Mounted Riflemen was disbanded on 31 March 1926 and the number of military districts was reduced from 16 to six on 1 April 1926. The Brigade HQ of the SA Field Artillery was also disbanded. In 1933 the six military districts were redesignated Commands. As a result of its conscription policies, the UDF increased its active-duty forces to 56,000 by the late 1930s; 100,000 men also belonged to the National Riflemen's Reserve, which provided weapons training and practice.

Second World War

During World War II, the South African Army fought in the East African, North African and Italian campaigns. In 1939, the army at home in South Africa was divided between a number of regional commands. These included Cape Command (with its headquarters at the Castle of Good Hope, Cape Town), Orange Free State Command, Natal Command, Witwatersrand Command (5th and 9th Brigades plus the Transvaal Horse Artillery), Robert's Heights and Transvaal Command (HQ Robert's Heights) and Eastern Province Command at East London.

With the declaration of war in September 1939, the South African Army numbered only 5,353 regulars, with an additional 14,631 men of the Active Citizen Force (ACF) which gave peace time training to volunteers and in time of war would form the main body of the army. Pre-war plans did not anticipate that the army would fight outside southern Africa and it was trained and equipped only for bush warfare.

One of the problems to continuously face South Africa during the war was the shortage of available men. Due to its racial policies it would only consider arming men of European descent which limited the available pool of men aged between 20 and 40 to around 320,000. In addition the declaration of war on Germany had the support of only a narrow majority in the South African parliament and was far from universally popular. Indeed, there was a significant minority actively opposed to the war and under these conditions conscription was never an option. The expansion of the army and its deployment overseas depended entirely on volunteers.

The 1st South African Infantry Division took part in several actions in East Africa in 1940, North Africa in 1941 and 1942, including the Second Battle of El Alamein, before being withdrawn to South Africa.

The 2nd South African Infantry Division also took part in a number of actions in North Africa during 1942, but on 21 June 1942 two complete infantry brigades of the division as well as most of the supporting units were captured at the fall of Tobruk.

The 3rd South African Infantry Division never took an active part in any battles but instead organised and trained the South African home defence forces, performed garrison duties and supplied replacements for the South African 1st Infantry Division and the South African 2nd Infantry Division. However, one of this division's constituent brigades – 7th South African Infantry Battalion in Phalaborwa – did take part in the invasion of Madagascar in 1942.

The 6th South African Armoured Division fought in numerous actions in Italy from 1944 to 1945.

Of the 334,000 men volunteered for full time service in the South African Army during the war (including some 211,000 whites, 77,000 blacks and 46,000 Cape Coloureds and Asians), about 9,000 were killed in action, though the Commonwealth War Graves Commission has records of 11,023 known South African war dead during World War II.

Post-war period
Wartime expansion was again followed by rapid demobilisation after World War II. By then, a century of Anglo-Boer clashes followed by decades of growing British influence in South Africa had fuelled Afrikaner resentment. Resurgent Afrikaner nationalism was an important factor in the growth of the National Party (NP) as the 1948 elections approached.
After the narrow election victory by the NP in 1948, the government began the steady Afrikanerisation of the military; it expanded military service obligations and enforced conscription laws more strictly. Most UDF conscripts underwent three months of Citizen Force training in their first year of service, and an additional three weeks of training each year for four years after that.

In 1948, the new Minister of Defence, Frans Erasmus, aimed ' to level the playing-fields' within the Union Defence Force, which was strongly British-oriented in usages, structures, uniforms and nomenclature. This developed from an attempt at affirmative action into a 'politically tinged purge'.

The various Commando units, previously 'Skietverenigings', were later classified as Type A, B or C independent Commandos and continued as single-battalion or small independent units. As part of the post-war reorganisation, the Defence Rifle Associations were disbanded in 1948 and replaced by a new Commando organisation with a strength of 90,000 men. At the same time, the Afrikaans-oriented single-battalion regiments founded in 1934 underwent at least one change of name and sometimes more. An early victim was the renowned Middellandse Regiment, which became Regiment Gideon Scheepers in 1954.

It was also decided to establish and maintain two complete army divisions in the UDF: namely 1 SA Infantry Division and 6 SA Armoured Division, consisting of 1, 2, 3, 12, and 13 (CF) Infantry Brigades and the (PF) 11th Armoured Brigade. The divisions were formally established with effect from 1 July 1948, but with the exception of 11 Brigade they were disbanded on 1 November 1949, mainly as a result of difficulties in obtaining volunteer recruits to man the Citizen Force brigades. The 11th Armoured Brigade was itself disbanded on 1 October 1953. In the early 1950s the Union undertook, however, to provide one armoured division for active service in the Middle East in the event of war in the region. To this end some 200 Centurion tanks were ordered, and the first were delivered in July 1952.  During Exercise Oranje, conducted in 1956, the Army trialled its Centurions for the first time in a simulated nuclear war situation.

The Defence Act (No. 44) of 1957 renamed the UDF the South African Defence Force (SADF) and established within it some quick-reaction units, or Commandos, to respond to localised threats. The SADF, numbering about 20,000 in 1958, would grow to almost 80,000 in the next two decades.

In 1960 there was another wave of regimental name-changing. Regiment Gideon Scheepers became Regiment Groot Karoo, and three regiments named after famous Boer generals Regiment De La Rey (given its 13 World War 2 battle honours, the most celebrated of the 1934 battalions), Regiment Louw Wepener and Regiment De Wet were inexplicably renamed Regiment Wes-Transvaal, Regiment Oos-Vrystaat and Regiment Noord-Vrystaat. After strenuous efforts, Regiment Wes-Transvaal, Regiment Oos-Vrystaat and Regiment Noord-Vrystaat regained their honoured names.

Following the declaration of the Republic of South Africa in 1961, the "Royal" title was dropped from the names of army regiments like the Natal Carbineers and the Durban Light Infantry, and the Crown removed from regimental badges.

"Border War" (1966–1989)

In the early 1960s, the military threat by the South-West Africa People's Organisation (SWAPO) and its Communist backers in South West Africa prompted the South African government to increase military service obligations and to extend periods of active duty. The Defence Act (No. 12) of 1961 authorised the minister of defence to deploy Citizen Force troops and Commandos for "riot" control, often to quell anti-apartheid demonstrations, especially when it deteriorated into mob riots with loss of life. The Defence Act (No. 85) of 1967 also expanded military obligations, requiring white male citizens to perform national service, including an initial period of training, a period of active duty, and several years in reserve status, subject to immediate call-up.

From 1966 to 1989 the SADF, with its South West African Territorial Force auxiliary, fought the counter-insurgency South African Border War against SWAPO rebels in South-West Africa (Namibia). These operations included the raising of special units such as the South African 32 Battalion. They also carried out operations in support of UNITA rebels in Angola and against the Cuban troops that supported the Angolan government.

As far as conventional formations were concerned, 7 SA Division and 17, 18 and 19 Brigades were established on 1 April 1965. Difficulties with manning levels saw the disestablishment of 7 SA Division on 1 November 1967 and its replacement by the Army Task Force (HQ) and 16 Brigade.

Also during the 1970s, the SADF began accepting "non-whites" and women into the military as career soldiers, not only as temporary volunteers or reservists; however, the former served mostly, if not exclusively, in segregated units while the latter were not assigned to combat roles. By the end of the 1970s, the South African military was increasingly called upon to confront external threats and internal unrest which started escalating to armed confrontation between the South African state and the liberation forces. Principal among these armed groups was that of the ANC's  (Spear of the Nation), the AZAPO's Azanian People's Liberation Army and the PAC's Poqo.

In 1973 two new infantry units were established: 7 South African Infantry Battalion (Bourke's Luck) and 8 SA Infantry Battalion (Upington), as well as 11 Commando (Kimberley), which to a great extent took over the functions of the Danie Theron Combat School's training wing. In 1973 the SADF also took over responsibility for the defence of South West Africa (today Namibia) from the South African Police. During the succeeding months the Army became involved in combat operations for the first time since the Second World War, clashing with groups of SWAPO infiltrating into South West Africa.

From 1 September 1972 Army Task Force Headquarters was redesignated HQ 7 South African Infantry Division. Two years later, it was decided to organise the Army's conventional force into two divisions under a corps headquarters. Both were primarily reserve (Citizen Force) formations, though the division and brigade HQs were Permanent Force. The headquarters of the two divisions were established on 1 August 1974, and 8th Armoured Division was active at its headquarters at Lord's Grounds, Durban, until at least 27 September 1992. 1 SA Corps itself was established in August 1974 and was active until 30 January 1977. It appears from Colonel Lionel Crook's book on 71 Brigade that four of the six brigades were redesignations of 16, 17, 18, and 19 Brigades. 71 Motorised Brigade was the former 17 Brigade, 72 Brigade was the former 18 Brigade, 73 Brigade was a new formation, 81 Brigade was the former 16 Brigade, 82 Brigade was the former 19 Brigade, and 84 Brigade was new.

In the early 1980s, the Army was restructured in order to counter all forms of insurgency while at the same time maintaining a credible conventional force. To meet these requirements, the Army was subdivided into conventional and counterinsurgency forces. The counterinsurgency forces were further divided into nine territorial commands, each of which was responsible to the Chief of the Army. This force consisted of members of the Permanent Force, Commandos, and a few selected Citizen Force units. The Citizen Force, through the 7 and 8 Divisions, provided the conventional defence force. By July 1987 the number of territorial commands was expanded to ten, and the Walvis Bay military area was often counted as an eleventh. The commands were the Western Province Command (HQ Cape Town, 1959-1998); Eastern Province Command (HQ Port Elizabeth, 1959-1998); Northern Cape Command (HQ Kimberley); Orange Free State Command (HQ Bloemfontein, 1959-1998); Northern Transvaal Command (HQ Pretoria); Witwatersrand Command (HQ Johannesburg, subject of a bombing in 1987); Northwestern Command (HQ Potchefstroom); Eastern Transvaal Command (HQ Nelspruit); Natal Command (Durban), and Far North Command (HQ Pietersburg, which in late 1993 and early 1994 included Regiment Hillcrest which was then part of 73 Motorised Brigade, and 73 Brigade itself). The part-time force also operated in the military area of Walvis Bay.

During this same period, the Engineers and Signals were grouped into the first of the 'type' formations, the South African Army Engineer Formation (in 1982) and the South African Army Signals Formation (in 1984). Both these formations were made directly responsible to Chief of Army.

In 1984 Northern Transvaal Command was subdivided and Eastern Transvaal Command (Nelspruit) and Far North Command (Pietersburg) formed. The two new Commands were regarded as theatres and as such also had responsibility for conventional operations (and units) within their areas. For example, Far North Command had 73 Motorised Brigade within its area. Southern Cape Command may have been disbanded, and Northern Cape Command established, in 1986. In 1989 the RLI became the conventional reserve for Far North Command. The area of responsibility of each commands followed the boundaries of the Economic Development Regions. Before the dissolution of the territorial commands General Derrick Mgwebi is also reported to have headed Mpumalanga Command.

During the 1980s, the legal requirements for national service were to register for service at age sixteen and to report for duty when called up, which usually occurred at some time after a man's eighteenth birthday or on leaving school. National service obligations could be fulfilled by active-duty military service for two years and by serving in the reserves, generally for ten or twelve years. Reservists generally underwent fifty days per year of active duty or training, after their initial period of service. The system was for the most part that the National Service requirement was for 720 days (two years) and subsequent reserve duty was a further 720 days. The reserve duty was broken up depending on the needs of the units and of the individual concerned. This generally worked out as a ninety-day "operational" commitment one year, followed the next year by a thirty-day commitment in addition to any courses, parades or admin evenings that might be required. Members of the Reserve were able to volunteer for further duty in addition to that mandated. This additional, voluntary, service was recognised with the award of the Emblem for Voluntary Service (EVS) (now the Badge for Reserve Voluntary Service (BRVS)) for five years of voluntary service over and above the mandated commitment. The requirements for national service changed several times during the 1980s and the early 1990s in response to national security needs, and they were suspended in 1993.

Post-1994

From the early 1990s (after 1992) to 1 April 1997, the SA Army maintained three 'small' divisions, the 7th (HQ Johannesburg), 8th (HQ Durban) and 9th (HQ Cape Town). They consisted of a reconnaissance battalion, two anti-aircraft defence battalions (AA guns), two battalions of artillery (G-5s and G-6s), a battalion of 127 mm MRLs, an engineer battalion, two battalions of Olifant MBTs, two battalions mounted in Ratel ICVs, and finally two battalions mounted in Buffel APCs. They were all amalgamated into the 7th South African Division on 1 April 1997, and became the 73rd, 74th and 75th Brigades respectively.

On 1 April 1997 Regiment Louw Wepener (Bethlehem), Regiment De Wet (Kroonstad) and Regiment Dan Pienaar (Bloemfontein) were absorbed into Regiment Bloemspruit.

7th Division was disbanded on 1 April 1999 and all army battalions were assigned to 'type' formations, in accordance with the recommendations of the South African Defence Review 1998. The 'type' formation force structure was implemented in accordance with the recommendations of auditing firm Deloitte and Touche, who were contracted to draw up a plan to make the SA Army more economically efficient. The Deloitte and Touche plan had the army separate its combat forces into 'silo' style formations for armour, infantry, artillery, and engineers. Deane-Peter Baker of the South African Institute for Security Studies said that the D&T plan, while alleviating, to an extent, the mistrust of the new South African leadership of the remaining apartheid-era South African Defence Force personnel in middle management positions, reduced the combat effectiveness of the Army, and was seen by 2011 as a mistake. Another mistaken decision was the decision to limit the force design of the SANDF to rely on short logistic lines for highly mechanised mobile forces in defence of national territory, as it causes many supply issues during modern foreign deployments. This is one of the major problems of the army and various solutions are being considered by the government to better equip forces deployed in out-of-area force projection operations.

Though non-white personnel did serve as unarmed labourers with the army in both World Wars, a number of non-whites were employed in segregated units during the Border War, and a number of units were completely desegregated, it was not until 1994 – when South Africa achieved full democracy – that the army as a whole was made open to all races. Today the South African National Defence Force (SANDF) has racial quotas to make sure that White, Black, Coloured, and Indian South Africans are proportionately represented in the armed forces.

During 2006 the Army released its ARMY VISION 2020 guidelines document, in a fresh attempt to reassess the 1998 structures which had proved wanting. The army planned a return to a division based structure, from the previous structure where units are simply provided as needed to the two active brigades. In many respects the plan was an attempt to undo the effects of the Deloitte and Touche-inspired force design that came into effect in 2001. The new plan was to create two divisions and a special operations brigade to conduct mountain, jungle, airborne and amphibious operations. Specialised training would have had to be carried out, as and when funds become available. A works regiment was also to have been created, to help with the maintenance of army and Defence Force buildings and infrastructure. However the plan was not implemented, and appeared to stall until the issue of the 2014 South African Defence Review. With the release of that review in mid-2014 it appears possible that the 2006 planning may be reinvigorated.

Concerns have been raised as to the operational capabilities of the army given the high proportion of the army's budget spent on salaries (around 80%) and low amounts budgeted for capital (5%) and operational (15%) capacity. In addition to the large ratio of officers to soldiers, critical skills shortages, high average age of service personnel (48 years), and low proportion that are medically fit enough to be readily deployable (about 10% of personnel).

Peacekeeping and other operations

The post-1994 South African Army has been extensively involved in peacekeeping operations under United Nations and African Union command in other African countries such as the United Nations Mission in Sudan (UNMIS), the United Nations Operation in Burundi (ONUB) and the United Nations Organization Stabilization Mission in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (MONUSCO), and is doing well with these challenges, despite some pitfalls and budget cuts.

Other operations that the Army was tasked with by government include: Operation Boleas (Lesotho), Operation Fibre (Burundi), Operation Triton (five times in the Comoros), Operation Amphibian (Rwanda), Operation Montego (Liberia), Operation Espresso (Ethiopia)
, Operation Cordite (Sudan), Operation Teutonic and Operation Bulisa (both in the Democratic Republic of the Congo), Operation Pristine (Ivory Coast), Operation Vimbezela (Central African Republic) and Operation Bongane (Uganda).

The most notable UN deployments since 1994 have been Operation Vimbezela (Central African Republic) and Operation Mistral, the South African contribution to the United Nations mission to the Democratic Republic of the Congo. The Central African deployment developed rapidly into a combat mission and led to the loss of 15 soldiers from 1 Parachute Battalion in Bangui. The contribution to Ops Mistral, while starting in 2009, became a completely different tasking with the contingent sent in 2013 to the United Nations Force Intervention Brigade, a ~3000-strong intervention brigade that was authorised by the United Nations Security Council on 28 March 2013 through United Nations Security Council Resolution 2098. It is the first United Nations peacekeeping unit that has been specifically tasked to carry out offensive operations against armed rebel groups operating in the Eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo, specifically those that threaten the State authority and civilian security. They can also carry out their mandate without the help of the Congolese Army. The brigade is made up of troops from Tanzania, South Africa and Malawi and has had several successes against rebel groups such as M23 militia.

All Southern African Development Community (SADC) countries, including South Africa, are working on establishing the SADC Standby Brigade as an element of the African Standby Force. Working towards the creation and strengthening of these regional brigades should contribute to the peace and security of the region. The major challenges that the Army face today is to readdress its current force design, to balance its budget, to integrate new equipment to replace several ageing systems, and to prepare forces for the African Standby Force and African Capacity for Immediate Response to Crises.

Structure
Since the Defence Act of 1912, the South African Army has been comprised, in general terms, of three groupings. The first is the standing army, also known since the 1970s as the Permanent Force. A military reserve force was also established by the terms of the 1912 Act and initially designated the Active Citizen Force. The force was established on 1 July 1913. Other designations through the years have included Active Reserve Force, Citizen Force, Conventional Reserve and Territorial Reserve. The Deloitte and Touche plan, as well as various policies over the years have referred to a 'One Force Concept' where reservists and reserve units are supposed to be treated on an equal footing with the permanent force counterparts. This is often not the case.

Due to the restructuring of the Reserves, the exact number of reserves is difficult to ascertain. However the 2011/12 planning target was 12,400 reserves.

The third grouping was initially the Defence Rifle Associations, which later became the Commandos, a rural self-defence force. There were several thousand other members in the Commandos. Each Commando was responsible for the safeguarding and protection of a specific community (both rural or urban). However, this system was phased out between 2003 and 2008 "because of the role it played in the apartheid era", according to the Minister of Safety and Security Charles Nqakula. The last commando unit, that at Harrismith in the Free State, was disbanded in March 2008.

South African military ranks are derived from that of the British Armed Forces, with Army ranks derived from the British Army.

The SA Army command structure is as follows:

Directorates
Chief of the SA Army Force Structure - To structure the SA Army in order to provide the SA Army component of the Landward Defence Capability.
Chief of the SA Army Force Preparation - Responsible for directing, orchestrating and controlling the combat readiness of SA Army Forces
Chief of the SA Army Corporate Services - Directing corporate resources, services and advice directed towards operationalising the SA Army strategy.
Inspector General - Provides an internal audit service within the Army strategy.
Chief of the SA Army Reserves - To give specialist advice to Chief of the SA Army and his staff in all Reserves related issues
Sergeant Major of the Army - To enhance discipline in the SA Army and enforce standards of discipline.

Formations and units

The two standing army brigades are Headquarters 43 South African Brigade and Headquarters 46 South African Brigade. Each of these two headquarters are organised to provide four headquarters groups. Two of these units should be available for deployment at any one time whilst the other two are on leave and in training.

In accordance with the Deloitte and Touche structure plan, the army was reorganised into single-branch 'formations':
 South African Armoured Corps
 South African Army Infantry Formation
 South African Army Artillery Formation
 South African Army Air Defence Artillery Formation
 South African Army Engineer Formation
 South African Army Signal Formation
 South African Army Support Formation
 South African Army Training Formation
 Army Combat Training Centre (Lohatla)

Existing and former administrative corps and branches of the South African Army can be seen at South African Army corps and branches.

Many Army units are routinely placed under the nine joint operational-tactical headquarters that the SANDF Chief of Joint Operations supervises directly through Joint Operations Division (IISS 2013). Brigadier-General McGill Alexander took over as General Officer Commanding RJTF South in 2002, but in 2003 he was tasked to close down all the RJTFs.

The South African Army is changing structure into "4 Modern Brigades". The first of which - The Mechanized brigade has already been established at Lohatlha in the Northern Cape.

Bases
The South African Army maintains large bases in all 9 provinces of the country, mostly in or around major cities and towns:
The army has 10 general support bases, seemingly part of the South African Army Support Formation.

Eastern Cape
 The Grahamstown army base houses the 6 South African Infantry Battalion (Air Assault) and the Chief Makhanda Regiment (Air Assault).
 Port Elizabeth is home to Chief Maqoma Regiment (Air Assault).
 The Mthatha army base is home to the 14 South African Infantry Battalion (Motorised Infantry).
 Port Elizabeth is home to the Nelson Mandela Regiment (Light Infantry).
 East London is home to the Buffalo Volunteer Rifles (Light Infantry).

Free State

 One of the largest bases in the country is Tempe Military Base which is located in Bloemfontein and is home to 1 South African Tank Regiment, 1 Special Service Battalion (Armoured Car Regiment), the South African School of Armour (which offers decentralized training to regular and reserve regiments), 44 Parachute Regiment and 1 South African Infantry Battalion (Mechanized Infantry). The parachute training wing is also located here. Bloemfontein is also home to the Mangaung Regiment (Light Infantry), General Dan Pienaar Artillery Regiment (Artillery) and Thaba Bosiu Armoured Regiment (Tank Regiment) as well as 3 Military Hospital.
 Kroonstad is home to the School of Engineers, and an Army Band.
 Bethlehem is home to 2 Field Engineer Regiment SAEC.

Gauteng
 Army headquarters is located at Dequar Road, Pretoria, which also houses the State Artillery Regiment (Artillery) and the Pretoria Armoured Regiment (Tank Regiment).
Pretoria is home to a large joint services base called Thaba Tshwane, which is also home to the South African Army College, the National Ceremonial Guard and Band, the Military Police School, 1 Military Hospital, Madzhakandila Anti-Aircraft Regiment (Air Defence Artillery), Tshwane Regiment (Motorised Infantry), and Steve Biko Artillery Regiment (airborne mortars). Just south of Thaba Tshwane and within a separate area is Technical Base Complex Centurion, which is home to Bagaka Regiment, Ukhosi Parachute Engineer Regiment, 1 Military Printing Regiment, 4 Survey and Map Regiment, and the Army Engineer Formation. Reportedly it also houses the Technical Service Training Centre, and units from the SAMHS and the SAAF. The base, whose TEK appellation may be derived from "Tegnies Basis Werkswinkel", is located at Centurion, south of Pretoria. It has a housing complex for active members.
 Wallmannsthal is home to 43 SA Brigade Headquarters.
 Centurion is home to 3 Parachute Battalion.
 The Joint Support Base in Wonderboom houses the School of Signals, 1 Signal Regiment, 2 Signal Regiment, 3 Electronic Workshop, 4 Signal Regiment and 5 Signal Regiment.
 Several army bases in Johannesburg house 21 South African Infantry Battalion, 46 South African Brigade headquarters, 6th Field Engineers Regiment, 1 Construction Regiment, 35th Engineering Supply Regiment, the Rand Light Infantry (Motorised Infantry), The Johannesburg Regiment (Motorised Infantry), the Solomon Mahlangu Regiment (Motorised Infantry), OR Tambo Regiment (Motorised Infantry), the Andrew Mlangeni Regiment (Motorised Infantry), Lenong Regiment (Motorised Infantry), the Sandfontein Artillery Regiment (Artillery) and the Johannesburg Light Horse Regiment (Armoured Car Regiment).
 Benoni is home to IWombe Anti-Aircraft Regiment (Air Defence Artillery).
 Springs is home to Sekhukhune Anti-Aircraft Regiment (Air Defence Artillery).
 The Heidelberg Army Base is home to the SA Army Gymnasium.
 Germiston is home to the Bambatha Rifles (Mechanized Infantry).
 Vereeniging is home to Galeshewe Anti-Aircraft Regiment (Air Defence Artillery).

Western Cape
 Several army bases are located in Cape Town and are home to the 9th South African Infantry Battalion (Seaborne Infantry), The Army Band, the Gonnema Regiment (Mechanized Infantry), General Jan Smuts Regiment (Mechanized Infantry), the Chief Langalibalele Rifles (Motorised Infantry), Nelson Mandela Artillery Regiment (Artillery), Autshumato Anti-Aircraft Regiment (Air Defence Artillery), Blaauwberg Armoured Regiment (Armoured Car Regiment) and Ihawu Field Engineer Regiment.
 The Oudtshoorn army base houses the South African Infantry School.

Northern Cape
 An Army base in Kimberley is home to the Air Defence Artillery School, 10 Anti-Aircraft Regiment (Air Defence Artillery),  3 South African Infantry Battalion (the basic training unit for the Army), the Kimberley Regiment (Motorised Infantry) and Madzhakandila Anti-Aircraft Regiment (Air Defence Artillery).
 The Lohatla training area is home to the SA Army Combat Training Centre where large army field exercises take place. It also houses 101 Field Workshop and 16 Maintenance Unit.
 An Army base in Upington is home to 8 South African Infantry Battalion (Mechanized Infantry).

North-West
  The Potchefstroom army base is home to the School of Artillery, 4 Artillery Regiment (Artillery), Artillery Mobile Regiment (Artillery), the School of Tactical Intelligence, 1 Tactical Intelligence Regiment, General de la Rey Regiment (Mechanized Infantry), Regiment Potchefstroom Universiteit (Artillery) and Molapo Armoured Regiment (Armoured Car Regiment).
 The Mahikeng Army base is home to 10 South African Infantry Battalion (Motorised Infantry).
 Orkney is home to Regiment Skoonspruit (Motorised Infantry).
 The Zeerust Army Base is home to 2 South African Infantry Battalion (Motorised Infantry).

KwaZulu-Natal
 Durban is home to an Army Band, the Durban Light Infantry (Mechanized Infantry), King Cetshwayo Artillery Regiment (Artillery), Queen Nandi Mounted Rifles (Tank Regiment), Umvoti Mounted Rifles (Armoured Car Regiment), the King Shaka Regiment (Motorised Infantry) and the 19 Field Engineer Regiment SAEC.
 Pietermaritzburg is home to the Ingobamakhosi Carbineers (Motorised Infantry).
 The Mtubatuba army base is home to 121 South African Infantry Battalion (Motorised Infantry).
 The Ladysmith army base is home to 5 South African Infantry Battalion.

Mpumalanga
 Middelburg Army base is home to 4 South African Infantry Battalion (Motorised Infantry).
 Barberton is home to General Botha Regiment (Motorised Infantry).

Limpopo
 The Polokwane army base is home to an Army Band and Mapungubwe Regiment (Motorised Infantry).
 The Phalaborwa army base is home to 7 South African Infantry Battalion (Motorised Infantry).
 The Thohoyandou army base is home to 15 South African Infantry Battalion (Motorised Infantry).

The main South African Army Headquarters are located in Salvokop, Pretoria in the Dequar Road Complex along with 102 Field Workshop SAOSC, 17 Maintenance Unit and the South African Military Health Service Military Health Department.

Budget
A budget of approximately R15.7 billion was allocated for fiscal year 2023.

The vast majority of army equipment is nearing the end of its service life, with some items (like the Olifant main battle tank) dating from decades ago.

The South African National Defence Force has however started to remedy the situation with the procurement of 244 Badger infantry fighting vehicles under the Hoefyster programme. Other procurements are planned and should follow in line with the guideline document – Army Vision 2020. The SANDF has launched a project called "African Warrior" which is aimed in modernising the equipment and weapons of the SANDF. The project has been very successful in recent years and the South African Army has now put in service a 21st-century R4 assault rifle.

Equipment

The South African Army maintains a wide variety of military equipment.

Equipment summary

Future programmes
Source

Project Aorta: A scheme for a new main battle tank. The South African Armoured Corps operated up to a 168 Olifant Mk1B and Mk2 MBT, modified Centurion cruiser tanks. The Centurion tank in its early versions first saw action in Germany in the closing weeks of the Second World War (three were rushed to Northern Germany but failed to arrive in time to see action). Between 90 and 110 MBT were to have formed part of the government's ongoing Strategic Defence Package but fell by the wayside for a variety of reasons.
Project Hoefyster: Partial acquisition of a new generation infantry fighting vehicle. 244 Badger Infantry Combat Vehicles on order at a cost of R8.4 billion. Denel Land Systems awarded contract.
Project Musuku: Development and partial acquisition of an advanced multi-role light artillery gun capability in the form of the 105 mm "Light Experimental Ordnance".
Project Outcome (GBADS III): Planned acquisition of the Umkhonto all weather surface-to-air-missile (AWSAM). No dates as yet.
Project Protector (GBADS II): Development and partial acquisition of a mobile ground-based air defence system. Possible R3bn budget for land-based Umkhonto IR missile.
Project Sepula: A new generation armoured personnel carrier for the SA Army to replace the 440+ Mamba and 370+ Casspir that remain in service. The thinking is the Sepula vehicle should have a high level of commonality with the Vistula choice and at least share the drive train to form a "family" of vehicles. Assuming about 90 vehicles a motorised infantry battalion and multiplying that with the number of regular units as well as "some" Reserve Force regiments, about 1000 will be required at a cost of about R3 to R4 million each.
Project Tladi: "Zone 1" anti-tank. New generation portable infantry A/T rocket launcher to replace RPG7 and FT5.
Project Vistula: A drive to acquire up to 3000 new tactical 5t and 10t trucks for the SA Army and its sister Services. To replace the SAMIL series.
Project Warrior: Dismounted soldier system. Acquisition study for low risk items completed 2006. Development plan for complex sub-systems underway.

Gallery

See also

 South African military ranks
 List of South African military chiefs

Notes

References

Further reading

  (also possibly is a 1971 edition)

External links

Official South African Army Website

South African Army


Visul lui Coleridge este un film românesc din 2003 regizat de Radu Ignătescu. Rolurile principale au fost interpretate de actorii Mircea Rusu, Gelu Nițu.

Prezentare

Distribuție
Distribuția filmului este alcătuită din:

Note

Legături externe

Vezi și
 2003 în film

Filme românești
Filme în limba română
Filme din 2003

Visul lui Coleridge


Papatya Gibisin Beyaz ve İnce, popüler Türk tangolarından birisidir. Necdet Koyutürk tarafından sözleri yazılmış  ve bestelenmiştir. Asıl ismi "Papatya" olup, Papatya gibisin beyaz ve ince olan ilk satırı ile de bilinir.

Tango

Papatya Gibisin Beyaz ve İnce


8380 Tooting este un asteroid din centura principală de asteroizi.

Descriere
8380 Tooting este un asteroid din centura principală de asteroizi. A fost descoperit pe  la Observatorul Palomar de Henry E. Holt. Asteroidul prezintă o orbită caracterizată de o semiaxă mare de 2,75 ua, o excentricitate de 0,16 și o înclinație de 14,0° în raport cu ecliptica.

Vezi și
 Lista planetelor minore: 8001-9000
 Centura de asteroizi

Referințe

Obiecte astronomice descoperite în 1992
Centura de asteroizi

8380 Tooting


La scala di seta (título original en italiano, La scala di seta; en español, La escala de seda) es una farsa comica en un acto con música de Gioachino Rossini y libreto en italiano de Giuseppe Maria Foppa. Se estrenó en el Teatro San Moisè de Venecia el 22 de mayo de 1812. En España se estrenó en 1823 en el Teatro de la Santa Cruz de Barcelona.

Esta ópera se representa muy poco. En las estadísticas de Operabase aparece con sólo 4 representaciones en el período 2005-2010.

Referencias
Notas

Licencia

Enlaces externos

 Notas, discografía y libreto (italiano / español) en Kareol

Óperas de Gioacchino Rossini
Óperas de 1813
Óperas en italiano
Óperas estrenadas en Venecia
Óperas en un acto

La escala de seda


الجسم الحامل  هو علامة تجارية مسجلة من قبل الشركة الألمانية إيه جي أي دي أي، وأنها تستخدم من قبلها لتشير إلى تقنية توصيل الدواء. الناقل هو حويصلة اصطناعية مصممة لتكون بمثابة خلايا حويصلة، وبالتالي مناسبة لعملية ايصال الدواء وبصورة مسيطر عليها.

الاستخدام
الجسم الحامل من التقنيات الأنسب لتقديم العلاج عبر الحواجز الحيوية وبدون تدميرها. فإن حويصلات الجسم الحامل يمكن نقلها عبر الجلد، على سبيل المثال، التي هي جزيئات كبيرة جدا لنشرها من خلال الحاجز. ومن الأمثلة على ذلك في تقديم جزيئات الدواء، مثل الانسولين أو مضاد للفيروسات، عبر الجلد من غير تدميره أو تضرره.

التصنيع
حويصلات الجسم الحامل تعد بطريقة مماثلة لاعداد الجسم الدهني (اللايبوسوم)، إلا أنه لا يوجد فصل للحويصلة المرتبطة ووجود الدواء الحر.

مراجع

وصلات خارجية
 الفرق بين الجسم الحامل والجسم الدهني (اللايبوسوم)

أجهزة توصيل الدواء
أشكال صيدلانية معادلة للجرعة
طب النانو
علم الأحياء الخلوي

جسم حامل


Çağrı Yarkın (* 10. Januar 1989 in Salihli) ist ein türkischer Fußballspieler.

Karriere

Vereinskarriere
Çağrı Yarkın begann mit dem Vereinsfußball in der Jugend von Yeni Salihlispor und spielte später in der Jugend von Salihli Belediyespor. 2004 wechselte er mit einem Profivertrag in die Jugend von Galatasaray Istanbul. Hier spielte er vier Spielzeiten lang ausschließlich für die Jugend- bzw. später für die Reservemannschaft.

2008 holte Galatasaray Ferdi Elmas von Çaykur Rizespor. Neben einer vereinbarten Transfersumme wurde auch Çağrı Yarkın an Rizespor abgegeben. Yarkın debütierte am 3. September 2008 bei einem Pokalspiel gegen Orduspor. In der Saison 2012/13 wurde er mit dem Verein Vizemeister und stieg somit in die Süper Lig auf.

Vor der Spielzeit wurde er an den Zweitligisten Boluspor abgegeben. Im Sommer 2014 wechselte er zum Zweitligisten Antalyaspor. Mit diesem Klub beendete er die Zweitligasaison 2014/15 als Play-off-Sieger und damit als letzter Aufsteiger. Nach Saisonende wurde sein auslaufender Vertrag nicht verlängert.

Zur Saison 2015/16 wechselte  zum Zweitligisten Kayseri Erciyesspor.

Nationalmannschaft
Çağrı Yarkın durchlief ab der U-16 nahezu alle türkischen Jugendmannschaften.

Erfolge
 Mit Çaykur Rizespor
 Vizemeister der TFF 1. Lig und Aufstieg in die Süper Lig: 2012/13

 Mit Antalyaspor
 Play-off-Sieger der TFF 1. Lig und Aufstieg in die Süper Lig: 2014/15

Weblinks

Fußballspieler (Antalyaspor)
Fußballspieler (Boluspor)
Fußballspieler (Çaykur Rizespor)
Fußballspieler (Galatasaray Istanbul)
Fußballspieler (Kayseri Erciyesspor)
Fußballspieler (Yeni Salihlispor)
Türkischer Meister (Fußball)
Geboren 1989
Person (Salihli)
Türke
Mann

Çağrı Yarkın


Alejandra Gabriela Gutiérrez Oraa (La Guaira, 9 de diciembre de 1987) es una periodista venezolana y presentadora de noticias en televisión. Actualmente, trabaja para CNN en Español en Atlanta, Georgia.

Biografía
Es nativa de La Guaira, Venezuela. Alejandra se trasladó a Estados Unidos siendo una adolescente, debido a un evento catastrófico en su ciudad natal, conocida como la tragedia de Vargas. En 1999, el centro geográfico del estado La Guaira sufrió devastadoras inundaciones y deslizamientos de tierra, lo que provocó una gran pérdida de vidas y bienes, movimientos forzados de población, y la virtual desaparición de varios pueblos pequeños en el estado La Guaira.

Estudio en Saint Thomas University en Miami, Florida.

Carrera
Alejandra Oraa presenta el programa matutino de CNN en Español Café CNN, trasmitido desde Atlanta. También conduce Destinos, el programa que visita los rincones turísticos y tesoros históricos más populares del planeta, e Impulso latinoamericano, un dinámico programa de CNN en Español y CNN International que explora un país de la región en las áreas de cultura, negocios, turismo, deportes, tecnología e innovación, y desarrollo, para mostrar la realidad de una nueva América Latina que, a base de creatividad, talento y trabajo, se abre paso en la escena mundial.

Nominada en tres ocasiones como parte de Destinos y Café CNN, y ganadora del premio Emmy por este último en el 2016, Oraa tiene experiencia como productora y personalidad en cámara. A los veintitrés años de edad, se convirtió en el periodista más joven de noticias de CNN en Español y CNN en Inglés. Inició su carrera en televisión a los dieciocho años como reportera de espectáculos de TV Azteca en Miami. Además, trabajó con Fox Sports, en cobertura de eventos especiales, tales como el Super Bowl XLI.

En 2009, Oraa fue elegida para un nuevo estilo de programa matutino en una de las más populares estaciones de radio hispana en Miami: Romance 106.7 FM. Mientras trabajaba en la radio, a Oraa se la conocía como «la voz» de las numerosas campañas internacionales para HBO, Ford, McDonald's y Marshalls, entre otros.

Actualmente, Alejandra Oraa es embajadora de buena voluntad para América Latina y el Caribe para ONUSIDA y promueve el acercamiento completo a los derechos humanos relacionados con el VIH como parte del programa de salud para mujeres y jóvenes, así como en incrementar la concienciación y la comprensión de los problemas de desigualdad de género.

Premios

Alejandra recibió en múltiples ocasiones el máximo galardón otorgado por la Academia Nacional de las Artes y las Ciencias de Televisión (NATAS) en los Estados Unidos<ref>Los Angeles Times: "Alejandra Oraa, una periodista y embajadora de buena voluntad" https://www.latimes.com/espanol/vida-y-estilo/articulo/2023-03-21/alejandra-oraa-una-periodista-y-embajadora-de-buena-voluntad</ref>: tiene siete premios Emmy nacionales: mejor programa matutino en español (2), mejor programa de entretenimiento en español (3), mejor presentadora en español (1), mejor breaking news en español (1; como equipo CNN en Español); todas por su trabajo en Café CNN, noticiero matutino que ella inauguró junto con Lucía Navarro y Carlos Montero, así como por su trabajo en Destinos'' (2015-2016, 2021-presente). También cuenta con un reconocimiento de NATAS.

En 2011 Alejandra, junto con el equipo de noticias matutino, recibió un George Foster Peabody Awards por su trabajo de reportaje durante la Primavera Árabe. Alejandra reportó la Primavera Árabe en vivo al igual que la muerte de Muammar Gadafi. Los premios Peabody son generalmente considerados como los más prestigiosos premios de honor y distinción en Estados Unidos a los logros dentro de los ámbitos de la emisión periodística.

Embajadora de la ONU

En su papel como embajadora de buena voluntad de ONUSIDA, el trabajo de Alejandra se centrará en promover el conocimiento y la comprensión acerca de la relación entre las desigualdades de género y la vulnerabilidad al VIH, promoviendo un abordaje integral del VIH basado en los derechos humanos y en el marco de la agenda de salud de las mujeres y jóvenes. Es la única embajadora de buena voluntad de las Naciones Unidas para toda Iberoamérica y las Antillas.

Referencias

Enlaces externos
 CNN: Alejandra Oraa

Guaireños
Mujeres periodistas de Venezuela
Presentadores de CNN en Español
Presentadores de televisión de Venezuela
Embajadores de las Naciones Unidas

Alejandra Oraa


Şifre kırma, anlaşılamayan veya okunamayan yazının analiz edilerek anlaşılması anlamına gelir. Kriptolojide şifrelenmiş gizli metinlerin çözülmesi ve arkeolojide bilinmeyen bir dil veya yazıyla yazılmış metinlerin açığa çıkarılması, dilbilim, edebiyat bilimi ve paleografi gibi alanlarda da kullanılır.

Kaynakça

Yazı sistemleri
Arkeolojik yöntemler
Kriptoloji

Şifre kırma


حب في الزنزانة هو فيلم مصري من إنتاج عام 1983 بطولة سعاد حسني وعادل إمام.

قصة الفيلم
رجل أعمال يدعى الشرنوبي (جميل راتب) يتاجر في الأغذية الفاسدة يدفعه جشعه وجبروته للاتفاق مع أحد الشباب (عادل إمام) للاعتراف بجريمة بدلا منه ويحكم عليه بالسجن. وخلف أبواب الزنزانة يتعرف على سجينة تدعى فايزة (سعاد حسني) بسجن النساء وقع في حبها وتبادلا كل منهما مشاعر الحب من خلال الرسائل، وعندما تم الإفراج عنهما تزوجا وقررا الانتقام من ذلك التاجر الجشع.

فريق العمل

إخراج: محمد فاضل (مخرج)

تاليف: إبراهيم الموجي

بطولة
 سعاد حسني
 عادل إمام
 جميل راتب
 يحيى الفخراني
 عبد المنعم مدبولي

مراجع

روابط خارجية

أفلام مصرية إنتاج 1983
أفلام جميل راتب
أفلام سعاد حسني
أفلام عادل إمام
أفلام يحيى الفخراني
أفلام محمد فريد

حب في الزنزانة (فيلم)


Sarah Philipp (* 10. März 1983 in Duisburg) ist eine deutsche Politikerin (SPD). Sie ist seit 2012 direkt gewählte Abgeordnete im Landtag von Nordrhein-Westfalen und war von 2018 bis 2023 Parlamentarische Geschäftsführerin der SPD-Landtagsfraktion. Seit 2023 ist Philipp neben Achim Post Co-Vorsitzende der SPD Nordrhein-Westfalen.

Biografie
Sarah Philipp wuchs im Duisburger Süden auf und legte 2002 ihr Abitur am Steinbart-Gymnasium ab. Anschließend studierte sie Wirtschaftsgeografie, Politische Wissenschaft und Geografie an der RWTH Aachen. 2008 schloss sie ihr Studium als Magistra Artium der Wirtschaftsgeografie mit dem Schwerpunkt Wirtschaftsförderung/Wirtschaftsraumanalyse ab.

Zunächst war Philipp als wissenschaftliche Mitarbeiterin in Dortmund tätig, anschließend war sie bis zu ihrem Einzug in den Landtag NRW im Jahr 2012 als Projektmanagerin in einem Stadtplanungsbüro in Dortmund beschäftigt.

Politik
1998 trat Philipp in die SPD ein. Von 2010 bis 2021 war sie Ortsvereinsvorsitzende des SPD-Ortsvereins Duisburg-Buchholz. Seit 2011 ist sie Mitglied im Duisburger SPD-Unterbezirksvorstand. Außerdem engagiert sie sich im Vorstand der ASF (Arbeitsgemeinschaft der Frauen in der SPD) in Duisburg.

Während ihres Studiums machte Philipp ein Praktikum bei der Duisburger Landtagsabgeordneten Gisela Walsken. Als diese bei der Landtagswahl in Nordrhein-Westfalen 2012 nicht wieder antrat, entschied Philipp sich, erstmals für den Landtag NRW zu kandidieren. Im Landtagswahlkreis Duisburg I errang sie 2012, 2017 und 2022 jeweils das Direktmandat. Im Landtag ist sie ordentliches Mitglied im Ausschuss für Heimat, Kommunales, Bauen und Wohnen. Im April 2018 wurde sie von ihrer Fraktion zur parlamentarischen Geschäftsführerin gewählt und im Jahr 2020 im Amt bestätigt. Seitdem vertritt sie ihre Fraktion auch im Ältestenrat des Landtags.

Am 26. August 2023 wurde sie neben Achim Post zur Co-Vorsitzenden der SPD Nordrhein-Westfalen gewählt. Am 5. September wurden daraufhin Ina Blumenthal zu ihrer Nachfolgerin als parlamentarischer Geschäftsführerin sowie André Stinka als Fraktionsgeschäftsführer gewählt, Philipp selber wurde stellvertretende Fraktionsvorsitzende.

Mitgliedschaften
Sarah Philipp ist unter anderem Mitglied der IG BCE, der GdP, der AWO, der Europa-Union und des Deutschen Mietervereins Rhein-Ruhr sowie weiteren Vereinen und Organisationen in Duisburg und Umgebung.

Sie war von 2017 bis 2018 außerdem Mitglied im Beirat für Wohnraumförderung der NRW.BANK und von 2019 bis 2021 Mitglied im Verwaltungsrat des Studierendenwerk Essen-Duisburg AöR. Sie war Mitglied des Vorstandes Regenbogen e.V., Duisburg.

Kritik
Im Zuge der Aufarbeitung der Flutkatastrophe in NRW und der hierbei aufgekommenen Mallorca-Affäre um den Urlaub der CDU-Abgeordneten Ursula Heinen-Esser kurz nach der Flut, wurde Philipp eine versuchte Ausspähung vorgeworfen. Über ihren Instagram-Account und den einer ihrer Mitarbeiter soll versucht worden sein, die Instagram-Seite der minderjährigen Tochter Heinen-Essers auszuspähen. Dieses Vorgehen wurde durch Recherchen des Kölner Stadt-Anzeigers publik. Auf Nachfrage dementierte Philipp eine Beteiligung an der Aktion und sprach von einer unabgestimmten Tätigkeit ihres Mitarbeiters.

Weblinks

 Website von Sarah Philipp

Einzelnachweise

Landtagsabgeordneter (Nordrhein-Westfalen)
Parteivorsitzender der SPD Nordrhein-Westfalen
Politiker (Duisburg)
Politiker (21. Jahrhundert)
Deutscher
Geboren 1983
Frau

Sarah Philipp


El arroyo Quebracho Grande es un curso de agua uruguayo que atraviesa el departamento de  Paysandú perteneciente a la cuenca hidrográfica del Río de la Plata.

Nace en la Cuchilla del Queguay y desemboca en la río Queguay Grande tras recorrer alrededor de  32 km.

Referencias

Quebracho Grande
Quebracho Grande
Cuenca del río Queguay Grande

Arroyo Quebracho Grande


Davide Zanotti, né à Bologne en 1733 et mort en 1808 dans la même ville, est un peintre italien de Quadratura.

Biographie
Davide Zanotti naît en 1733 à Bologne et se spécialise dans la peinture de Quadratura.

Il achète une maison en 1783 sur la rue Borgo di San Pietro et y meurt en 1808.

Œuvres
L'œuvre de Zanotti était réputé pour ses couleurs et son imagination.

Il décore au  deux salles à la chinoise de fresques mythologiques avec Vincenzo Armani. Il a aussi peint les chambres du Palazzo Tacconi à Bologne et les décorations sur la voûte de l'oratoire San Rocco.

Davide Zanotti a aussi décoré l'intérieur de la petite église del Santissimo Nome di Maria.

Notes et références

Annexes

Articles connexes
 Liste de peintres italiens

Bibliographie
 .
 .
 .
 .
 .

Liens externes

Peintre italien du XVIIIe siècle
Naissance en 1733
Naissance à Bologne
Naissance dans les États pontificaux
Décès en 1808
Décès à Bologne

Davide Zanotti


Ermenistan millî futbol takımı, Ermenistan Futbol Federasyonu tarafından yönetilen, Ermenistan'ı uluslararası futbol müsabakalarında temsil eden takımdır. Sovyetler Birliği'nin dağılmasından sonra ilk maçını Moldova'ya karşı oynamışlardır (12 Ekim 1992).

Turnuva tarihi
 Şampiyon   İkincilik   Üçüncülük   Dördüncülük    Yükseldi   Aynı ligde kaldı   Düştü   Finaller ev sahibi

FIFA Dünya Kupası tarihi

Avrupa Futbol Şampiyonası tarihi

UEFA Uluslar Ligi tarihi

Takım kadrosu
Aşağıdaki oyuncular, 16 ve 19 Haziran 2023 tarihlerinde Galler ve Letonya ile oynanacak UEFA Euro 2024 eleme maçları için çağrıldı.

Futbolcu istatistikleri

En çok millî olan oyuncular

En çok gol atan oyuncular

Kaynakça

Dış bağlantılar
 Ermenistan Futbol Federasyonu

Asya'da millî futbol takımları
Millî futbol takımı
Ermenistan millî futbol takımı

Ermenistan millî futbol takımı