Un balon de observație este un tip de balon care este folosit ca platformă aeriană pentru colectarea de informații și de dirijare a tirului artileriei. Utilizarea baloanelor de observație a început în timpul războaielor revoluționare franceze, ajungând la zenitul lor în timpul Primului Război Mondial și continuă să fie utilizate astăzi în mod limitat.

La început, baloanele de observație au fost umplute cu hidrogen, a cărei natură inflamabilă a dus la distrugerea a sute de baloane de ambele părți. Echipajul baloanelor de observație trebuiau să folosească în mod frecvent o parașută pentru a evacua balonul când acesta era atacat. Pentru a evita aceste consecințe, baloanele de observație de după Primul Război Mondial au fost adesea umplute cu heliu neinflamabil.

Istoric

Prima utilizare militară a baloanelor de observație a fost făcută de Corpul Aerostatic Francez în timpul războaielor revoluționare franceze, prima dată în timpul bătăliei de la Fleurus (1794). Cel mai vechi balon de observație, L'Intrépide, este expus într-un muzeu din Viena. Acestea au fost folosite de ambele părți în timpul Războiului civil american (1861-65) și au continuat să fie folosite în timpul războiului franco-prusac (1870-71). Baloanele au fost desfășurate pentru prima oară de Inginerii Regali ai Armatei Britanice în timpul expedițiilor la Bechuanaland în 1884 și la Suakin în 1885. Aceștia au fost de asemenea dislocați în timpul celui de-al doilea Război Boer (1899-1902), unde au fost folosiți în observarea artileriei la Bătălia de la Magersfontein și în timpul asediului de la Ladysmith.

Primul Război Mondial a fost punctul culminant pentru utilizarea militară a baloanelor de observație, care au fost desfășurate pe scară largă de ambele părți. Artileria s-a dezvoltat până în punctul în care era capabilă să tragă ținte dincolo de raza vizuală a unui observator la sol. Poziționarea observatorilor de artilerie pe baloane, în general la câțiva kilometri în spatele liniilor de front și la altitudine, le-a permis să vadă ținte la o distanță mai mare decât ar fi putut la sol. Acest lucru a permis artileriei să profite de domeniul său sporit.

Britanicii, în ciuda experienței lor de la sfârșitul anilor 1800 din Africa, se afla in urma evoluțiilor și foloseau încă baloane sferice. Acestea au fost repede înlocuite de tipuri mai avansate, cunoscute sub denumirea de baloane-zmeu, care au fost modelate aerodinamic pentru a fi stabile și care ar putea funcționa în condiții meteorologice mai extreme. Germanii au dezvoltat pentru prima dată balonul de tip Parseval-Siegsfeld, iar francezii au răspuns repede cu tipul Caquot.

Datorită importanței lor ca platforme de observație, baloanele au fost apărate de arme anti-aeriene, grupuri de mitraliere pentru apărare la altitudine mică și avioane de luptă. Atacul unui balon era o provocare riscantă, dar unii piloți s-au bucurat de provocare.

Echipajele de observație din Primul Război Mondial au fost primii care au folosit parașute, cu mult înainte de a fi adoptate de către echipajele avioanelor. Parașutele au fost adoptate pentru prima oară de germani și apoi de britanici și francezi pentru echipajele lor de observare a baloanelor.

Baloanele-zmeu au început să fie folosite pe mare pentru atacurile anti-submarin spre sfârșitul Primului Război Mondial. Baloanele de observație au jucat, de asemenea, un rol important în timpul Războiului Rece; de exemplu, proiectul Mogul a folosit baloane de observație la mare altitudine pentru a monitoriza testele nucleare sovietice. Cu toate acestea, aeronavele mai grele decât aerul efectuează acum majoritatea operațiunilor. Aerostatele au fost folosite de forțele militare americane și de coaliție în Irak și în Afganistan.

Vezi și
 Dirijabil
 Balon
 Aviația în Primul Război Mondial
 Balon captiv "Drachen"
 Balon captiv "Caquot"
 Proiectul Mogul
 Listă de Zeppeline
 Listă de dirijabile Schütte-Lanz
 Listă de dirijabile Parseval
 Aeronavă rigidă
 Listă de dirijabile britanice
 Listă de dirijabile ale Marinei Statelor Unite
 Noile tehnologii în timpul Primului Război Mondial
 Balon cu aer cald
 Aerostat

Aviație
Aerostate
Aeronave
Transporturi aeriene
Zbor aerian

Balon de observație


Running Scared (La prueba del crimen en España) es una película de 2005 escrita y dirigida por Wayne Kramer y lanzada por Media 8 Entertainment . La película es protagonizada por Paul Walker, Cameron Bright, Vera Farmiga, Chazz Palminteri, Alex Neuberger y Johnny Messner.

Fue lanzada en Estados Unidos el 24 de febrero de 2006. Recibió críticas mixtas.

Sinopsis
Joey Gazelle (Paul Walker) es un sicario padre de familia de la banda italiana de los perello que participa en la muerte de algunos policías corruptos. Solo que, en vez de tirar el arma del crimen al río, decíde guardarla en el sótano de su casa. Nicky (Alex Neuberger), su hijo de 10 años, y su amigo Oleg (Cameron Bright) lo ven escondiendo el arma. Cuando Oleg ve a su padrastro Anzor (Karel Roden) golpeando a su madre, Mila (Ivana Miličević), Oleg no lo piensa dos veces: roba el arma y hiere al padrastro. Solo que Anzor es sobrino de un mafioso ruso psicótico, que desea a todo costo descubrir quien hirió a un integrante de la familia. De esta forma luego los Perello, la mafia rusa y la policía están atrás de Joey, que necesita recuperar el arma lo antes posible.

Mientras tanto la esposa de Joey, Teresa (Vera Farmiga) trata de rescatar a los niños de unos secuestradores: los Hansel, una pareja adinerada pedófila (Bruce Altman) y (Elizabeth Mitchell), que los quiere utilizar para satisfacer sus bajas pasiones.

Elenco
 Paul Walker como Joey Gazelle.
 Cameron Bright como Oleg Yugorsky.
 Vera Farmiga como Teresa Gazelle.
 Alex Neuberger como Nick "Nicky" Gazelle.
 Ivana Miličević como Mila Yugorsky.
 Johnny Messner como Tommy "Tombs" Perello.
 Chazz Palminteri como Rydell.
 Michael Cudlitz como Sal "Gummy Bear" Franzone.
 Bruce Altman y Elizabeth Mitchell como Dez y Edele Hansel.
 Arthur J. Nascarella como Frankie Perello.
 Karel Roden como Anzor Yugorsky.
 John Noble como Ivan Yugorsky.
 David Warshofsky como Lester.
 Idalis DeLeon como Divina.

Referencias

Cine de suspenso de los años 2000
Películas policíacas de los años 2000
Películas policíacas de Estados Unidos
Cine de acción de los años 2000

Running Scared (película de 2006)


Živko Juzbašić (Jošavica, pokraj Petrinje, Savska banovina, Kraljevina SHS / Jugoslavija,18. svibnja 1924. - Zagreb, Republika Hrvatska, 20. listopada 2015.), antifašist, hrvatski političar srpske nacionalnosti i mirotvorac.

Mladost
Rođen je u selu Jošavica, pokraj Petrinje, u obitelji Petra i Draginje Juzbašić. Osnovnu školu i gimnaziju je završio u Petrinji, gdje je 1940. upisao Učiteljsku školu, koju je prekinuo zbog izbijanja Travanjskog rata 1941., potom kao sedamnaestogodišnjak pristupa Komunističkoj partiji, te se po izbijanju ustanka na Baniji priključuje NOB-u.  Bio je pripadnik Sedme banijske divizije s kojom je sudjelovao u bitkama na Neretvi i Sutjesci 1943. Završetak Drugog svjetskog rata je dočekao u činu majora JA, te je karijeru nastavio u vojsci, da bi bio 1961. umirovljen u činu pokovnika JNA.

Srednje godine
Nakon izlaska iz vojske postao je pomoćnik ravnatelja Instituta za historiju radničkog pokreta Hrvatske 1962.-1963. Nakon čega je izabran za predsjednika Skupštine općine Petrinja, koju je obnašao u razdoblju 1963.-1967. Od 1963. Do 1965. Bio je poslanik u Saveznij skupštini SFRJ, a u razdbolju 1965.-1969. Bio je zastupnik u Saboru SR Hrvatske. Bio je prepoznat i kao direktor Mesne industrije Gavrilović, u Petrinji. Tu je dužnost obnašao od 1967.do 1973., kada je pod pritiskom novih strujanja u SKH, nakon sloma hrvatskog proljeća, i zbog kritiziranja aktualne gospodarske politike, bio je prisljen podnijeti ostavku.

Politička karijera u samostalnoj Hrvatskoj
Nakon demokratskih promjena u Hrvatskoj, na izričitu zamolbu hrvatskog predsjednika Franje Tuđmana bio je imenovan za nestranačkog ministra bez portfelja u tzv. Vladi demokratskog jedinstva pod predsjednikom Vlade RH Franjom Gregorićem, u vremenskom razdoblju od 31. srpnja 1991.godine do kolovoza 1992.godine.  Pri izvršavanju tog mandatu dodatno je bio imenovan članom Kriznog štaba Vlade RH. u ime hrvatske Vlade, bio je imenovan članom Povjerenstva za pregovore o primirju i razmjeni zarobljenika, zatim član Savezne komisije za prekid vatre, te je bio imenovan za člana Delegacije za pregovore u Den Haagu, potom imenovan članom Ekspertne grupe za ljudska prava i prava nacionalnih zajednica, te za člana Radne grupe za pripremu Ustavnog zakona o ljudskim pravima i slobodama te pravima etničkih i nacionalnih zajednica ili manjina.

Na dužnosti ministra bez portfelja Vlade demokratskog jedinstva iznio prijedlog za formiranje srpske brigade "Nikola Tesla" u sklopu HV-a, što je tadašnji ministar obrane Gojko Šušak odbio.

Nakon prestanka mandata, na prijedlog predsjednika SDP-a Ivice Račana, kandidirao se kao nestranački kandidat na parlamentarnim izborima 1992., za Zastupnički dom Sabora RH, te je u razdoblju od 1992. do 1995. Bio zastupnik u Zastupničkom domu Sabora RH. U tom je mandatu kratko vrijeme bio član Komisije za istraživanje ratnih i poratnih žrtava Drugog svjetskog rata. U tom je razdoblju, kao zastupnik u Zastupničkom domu Sabora RH, bio prisiljen suočavati se s brojnim šovinističkim ispadima dijela zastupnika iz jednog krila HDZ-a, među kojima je prednjačio bivši partizanski borac i nekadašnji udbaš Milivoj Kujundžić (HDZ).  "Moja principijelna stajališta i isticanje antifašizma bili su crvena krpa mnogima. Sjećam se žestokih napada od strane (...), začudo, i jednog antifašističkog borca, Milivoja Kujundžića. (...) HDZ-ova desnica zauzimala je važna mjesta u državi, posebno u upravi, vojsci i policiji, među lokalnim političarima i u Saboru, i nije joj odgovarao mir, normalizacija i demokratizacija. Treba imati na umu da su u Sabor 1992. izabrani "zaslužni hadezeovci, vrlo radikalni i ekstremni u svojim stavovima. Sanader ih se, kao što znamo, uglavnom odrekao, a neki su i napustili HDZ." U to je vrijeme jedna od Kujundžićevih dosjetljivih izjava bila "da Sabor nema što raspravljati o odnosu prema Srbima u Hrvatskoj, te je poručio: "Vi se Srbi morate pomiriti sa statusom nacionalne manjine u Hrvatskoj, inače, sretan Vam put!""Trebalo se boriti za svakog lojalnog Srbina, jer svaki lojalni Srbin bit će sutra most za zajednički život. Nikad, ni u prošlom ratu, četnici i ustaše nisu predstavljali Hrvate i Srbe, bio je to najveći ološ jednog i drugog naroda. I danas je slična situacija: nerijetko najgori uzimaju vlast u ruke i dijele pravdu. To ne može biti, takvi su protiv bilo kakvog pokušaja zajedničkog života. A on je ipak neminovnost. Zato nam treba mir. A on nema cijenu ni alternativu. Samo se u miru može razviti prava demokratska Hrvatska koja će ući u međunarodnu zajednicu demokratskih država."Sam Živko Juzbašić, kao uvjereni antifašist i mirotvorac uvijek se nastojao založiti za smirivanje političke situacije, za pokušaje ponovnih pregovaranja i mirenje usijanih glava kako u Saboru, tako i na terenu, te pokušaj postizanja dogovora, iako je sve to u tom vremenu bilo izrazito otežano te je kao takav često bio u Saboru izložen verbalnim napadima HDZ-ovih zastupnika.

Bio je među prvima prilikom osnivanja Hrvatskog helsinškog odbora za ljudska prava (HHO) 1993.godine, te je ujedno i  jedan od suosnivača političke stranke Akcija socijaldemokrata Hrvatske, čiji je prvi predsjednik bio Miko Tripalo.

O okolnostima događaja iz tog vremena i svojim saznanjima, na Županijskom sudu u Zagrebu, u rujnu 2012., u postupku za ratne zločine protiv okrivljenog Tomislava Merčepa, kao svjedok se pojavio i Živko Juzbašić, koji je iznio saznanja o zločinima počinjenim nad srpskim civilima tijekom 1991. godine na zagrebačkom, kutinskom i pakračkom području poznatijima kao zločini u Pakračkoj poljani. Tom je prilikom Juzbašić iznio saznanja kako su 1991. "najveći kriminalci" pušteni iz zatvora i naoružani te da je, po njegovim podacima, 'daleko od bojišnice' bilo ubijeno ili je nestalo više od 700 ljudi. Također je tom prilikom iznio zaključak je da je paviljon na Zagrebačkom velesajmu bio 'privatni sabirni logor', te kako je riječ o crnoj mrlji u povijesti Grada Zagreba. Na istom je ročištu kao drugi svjedok bio Josip Manolić, koji je potvrdio podatak o postojanju tog ilegalnog sabirnog centra na zagrebačkom Velesajmu, te kako je tamo vladala samovolja pojedinaca koji su njime upravljali.

U mandatu predsjednika RH Ive Josipovića (2010.-2015.), u travnju 2010., bio je imenovan članom Savjeta predsjednika RH za ratne veterane  u kojem su se razmatrale, analizirale i obrađivale teme iz područja problematike hrvatskih branitelja i njihovih obitelji proizašlih iz vremena Domovinskog rata, ratnih veterana i antifašističkih boraca NOB-a proizašlih iz vremena Drugog svjetskog rata.

Bio je oženjen i otac dvoje djece. Umro je u Zagrebu, 20.listopada 2015.godine, u 92-oj godini života.

Odlikovanja i priznanja
Bio je nositelj više odlikovanja i priznanja za zasluge tijekom NOB-a, među ostalim Partizanske spomenice 1941., a zbog donošenja Zakona o otkupu vojnih stanova, te dodjeljivanja odlikovanja osobama koje se sumnjičilo za ratne zločine, odbio je dva odlikovanja koja mu je ponudio predsjednik Tuđmana prilikom pedesete godišnjice pobjede nad fašizmom, ali je odlikovan spomenicom Domovinskog rata

Djela
Autor je više radova i monografija:

 Partizanski rat na Baniji 1941.-1945., Zagreb, 1962.
 Gdje su šanse razvoja nerazvijenih područja Hrvatske, Zagreb, 1970.
 Veliki jubilej Gavrilovića: posticaj i obaveza, objavljenom u: 150 godina mesne industrije "Gavrilović" Petrinja: 1821.-1971., au.Milan Nožinić, Zagreb, Informator, 1971.
 Srpsko pitanje i hrvatska politika: svjedočanstva i dokumenti: 1990.-2000., Zagreb, Prometej, 2009.

Vanjske poveznice:

 https://snv.hr/znameniti-srbi/zivko-juzbasic-politicar/
 https://www.portalnovosti.com/banijski-prvoborac-i-mirotvorac
 https://www.vecernji.hr/enciklopedija/zivko-juzbasic-18298

Izvori

Hrvatski političari od 1989.
Srbi u Hrvatskoj

Živko Juzbašić


Ahmet Oğuz Çetin (d. 15 Şubat 1963, Sakarya) orta saha (oyun kurucu) mevkiinde forma giymiş Türk eski millî futbolcu ve teknik direktör. Türkiye liginde 503 karşılaşmada forma giymiştir.

Kariyeri

Futbol Kariyeri

Futbola Almanya'nın SSV Bobingen takımının alt yapısında başladı. 1978 yılında Sakaryaspor'un genç takımına transfer oldu.  1981 yılında Sakaryaspor kulübü ile profesyonel anlaşma yaptı. Bu kulüpte 1988 yılında Türkiye Kupası sevinci yaşadı.

1988-89 sezonunda Fenerbahçe'ye transfer oldu, sarı lacivertli forma altında 8 yılda 2 Süper Lig,  1 Cumhurbaşkanlığı Kupası, 2 Başbakanlık Kupası coşkusu yaşadı. Fenerbahçe'de 1991-92 sezonunda takım kaptanlığına getirilmiştir. 1995-96 sezon sonunda takım şampiyon olmasına rağmen dönemin Fenerbahçe Spor Kulübü başkanı Ali Şen tarafından takım arkadaşı Aykut Kocaman ile birlikte gerekçe gösterilmeden takımdan tasfiye edilmiştir. Takımdan ayrılmasına rağmen taraftarlar her zaman ikiliye sahip çıkmıştır.

1996-97 sezonunda İstanbulspor'a transfer olmuştur. İki yıl burada oynadıktan sonra, iki yıl da Adanaspor forması giymiş ve aktif futbolu bırakmıştır.

Millî takım kariyeri

70 kez A milli oldu ve 33 defa sahaya kaptan olarak çıktı. A millî takımda oynadığı maçlarda 3 gol attı. Millî takım ile 1996 Avrupa Futbol Şampiyonası'na katılmıştır ve şampiyona boyunca üç maçta forma giymiştir.

Teknik direktörlük kariyeri

2000-01 sezonunda Mustafa Denizli'nin kadrosunda yer alarak Fenerbahçe'ye yardımcı antrenör olarak transfer olmuştur. Ardından aynı görevde Werner Lorant ile çalışmıştır. Lorant'ın ayrılmasını müteakip bir süreliğine Fenerbahçe'nin teknik direktörlüğünü üstlenmiştir.

2004 yılında  Kayseri Erciyesspor ve Gençlerbirliği, 2005 yılında ise Diyarbakırspor futbol takımlarının teknik direktörlüğünü yaptı.

2005 yılında dönemin Türkiye millî futbol takımı teknik direktörü Fatih Terim'in isteğiyle A Millî Takım Sorumlu Yardımcılığı (1. yardımcı antrenör) görevine getirildi. 2009 yılında Fatih Terim'in görevden ayrılmasının ardından teknik direktörlük görevine getirilen Guus Hiddink döneminde de yardımcı antrenörlük görevine devam etmiştir. 2012 Avrupa Futbol Şampiyonası elemelerinde gruptan çıkılmasına rağmen Hırvatistan'la oynanan baraj maçlarında başarılı olunamayınca teknik direktör Hiddink, görevinden ayrılmış ve yeni teknik direktör Abdullah Avcı'nın göreve gelmesinden bir süre sonra da antrenör kadrosunun da değişeceği açıklanarak Oğuz Çetin'in sözleşmesi, federasyonla yaptığı görüşmeler neticesinde karşılıklı olarak feshedilmiştir.

Oğuz Çetin; 29 Kasım 2012'de sezon sonuna kadar geçerli olmak üzere, 1. Lig takımlarından Boluspor'un teknik direktörlüğüne getirilmiştir. 2013 yılının nisan ayında istifa etmiştir.

Mustafa Denizli'nin, Azərbaycan Premyer Liqası takımlarından Hazar Lenkeran'la anlaşmasından sonra Denizli'nin yardımcılığını Oğuz Çetin'in yapacağı öğrenildi.

Özel Yaşamı

İTÜ Sakarya Mimarlık - Mühendislik Fakültesi İnşaat Mühendisliği Bölümü mezunudur.

Kaynakça

Dış bağlantılar

 TFF Resmi İnternet Sitesi - Teknik Direktör Oğuz Çetin Profili

Yaşayan insanlar
1963 doğumlular
Sakarya doğumlu futbolcular
Almanya'daki Türk göçmenler
Türk erkek futbolcular
Resim aranan futbolcular
Sakaryaspor futbolcuları
Fenerbahçe SK futbolcuları
İstanbulspor futbolcuları
Adanaspor futbolcuları
Türkiye millî futbol takımı futbolcuları
Türk teknik direktörler
Diyarbakırspor teknik direktörleri
Kayseri Erciyesspor teknik direktörleri
Gençlerbirliği SK teknik direktörleri
Fenerbahçe teknik direktörleri
Boluspor teknik direktörleri
Gaziantep FK teknik direktörleri
Türkiye 21 yaş altı millî futbol takımı futbolcuları
Süper Lig futbolcuları
Süper Lig teknik direktörleri
1. Lig teknik direktörleri
Türk gurbetçi teknik direktörler
Azerbaycan'daki gurbetçi teknik direktörler
Azerbaycan'daki Türk gurbetçiler
Türkiye 18 yaş altı millî futbol takımı futbolcuları
Orta saha futbolcuları

Oğuz Çetin


Die US-amerikanische Badmintonmeisterschaft 2011 fand vom 22. bis zum 24. April 2011 im Affinity Badminton Club in San Carlos, Kalifornien, statt.

Medaillengewinner

Weblinks
 http://www.affinitybadminton.com/abc2/?p=1023

Badminton 2011
2011
Sportveranstaltung in Kalifornien
San Carlos (Kalifornien)


A siphon (; also spelled syphon) is any of a wide variety of devices that involve the flow of liquids through tubes. In a narrower sense, the word refers particularly to a tube in an inverted "U" shape, which causes a liquid to flow upward, above the surface of a reservoir, with no pump, but powered by the fall of the liquid as it flows down the tube under the pull of gravity, then discharging at a level lower than the surface of the reservoir from which it came.

There are two leading theories about how siphons cause liquid to flow uphill, against gravity, without being pumped, and powered only by gravity. The traditional theory for centuries was that gravity pulling the liquid down on the exit side of the siphon resulted in reduced pressure at the top of the siphon. Then atmospheric pressure was able to push the liquid from the upper reservoir, up into the reduced pressure at the top of the siphon, like in a barometer or drinking straw, and then over. However, it has been demonstrated that siphons can operate in a vacuum and to heights exceeding the barometric height of the liquid. Consequently, the cohesion tension theory of siphon operation has been advocated, where the liquid is pulled over the siphon in a way similar to the chain fountain. It need not be one theory or the other that is correct, but rather both theories may be correct in different circumstances of ambient pressure. The atmospheric pressure with gravity theory cannot explain siphons in vacuum, where there is no significant atmospheric pressure. But the cohesion tension with gravity theory cannot explain  gas siphons, siphons working despite bubbles, and the flying droplet siphon, where gases do not exert significant pulling forces, and liquids not in contact cannot exert a cohesive tension force.

All known published theories in modern times recognize Bernoulli's equation as a decent approximation to idealized, friction-free siphon operation.

History

Egyptian reliefs from 1500 BC depict siphons used to extract liquids from large storage jars.

Physical evidence for the use of siphons by Greeks are the Justice cup of Pythagoras in Samos in the 6th century BC and usage by Greek engineers in the 3rd century BC at Pergamon.

Hero of Alexandria wrote extensively about siphons in the treatise Pneumatica.

The Banu Musa brothers of 9th-century Baghdad invented a double-concentric siphon, which they described in their Book of Ingenious Devices. The edition edited by Hill includes an analysis of the double-concentric siphon.

Siphons were studied further in the 17th century, in the context of suction pumps (and the recently developed vacuum pumps), particularly with an eye to understanding the maximum height of pumps (and siphons) and the apparent vacuum at the top of early barometers. This was initially explained by Galileo Galilei via the theory of  ("nature abhors a vacuum"), which dates to Aristotle, and which Galileo restated as , but this was subsequently disproved by later workers, notably Evangelista Torricelli and Blaise Pascal – see barometer: history.

Theory
A practical siphon, operating at typical atmospheric pressures and tube heights, works because gravity pulling down on the taller column of liquid leaves reduced pressure at the top of the siphon (formally, hydrostatic pressure when the liquid is not moving). This reduced pressure at the top means gravity pulling down on the shorter column of liquid is not sufficient to keep the liquid stationary against the atmospheric pressure pushing it up into the reduced-pressure zone at the top of the siphon. So the liquid flows from the higher-pressure area of the upper reservoir up to the lower-pressure zone at the top of the siphon, over the top, and then, with the help of gravity and a taller column of liquid, down to the higher-pressure zone at the exit.

The chain model is a useful but not completely accurate conceptual model of a siphon. The chain model helps to understand how a siphon can cause liquid to flow uphill, powered only by the downward force of gravity. A siphon can sometimes be thought of like a chain hanging over a pulley, with one end of the chain piled on a higher surface than the other. Since the length of chain on the shorter side is lighter than the length of chain on the taller side, the heavier chain on the taller side will move down and pull up the chain on the lighter side. Similar to a siphon, the chain model is obviously just powered by gravity acting on the heavier side, and there is clearly no violation of conservation of energy, because the chain is ultimately just moving from a higher to a lower location, as the liquid does in a siphon.

There are a number of problems with the chain model of a siphon, and understanding these differences helps to explain the actual workings of siphons. First, unlike in the chain model of the siphon, it is not actually the weight on the taller side compared to the shorter side that matters. Rather it is the difference in height from the reservoir surfaces to the top of the siphon, that determines the balance of pressure. For example, if the tube from the upper reservoir to the top of the siphon has a much larger diameter than the taller section of tube from the lower reservoir to the top of the siphon, the shorter upper section of the siphon may have a much larger weight of liquid in it, and yet the lighter volume of liquid in the down tube can pull liquid up the fatter up tube, and the siphon can function normally.

Another difference is that under most practical circumstances, dissolved gases, vapor pressure, and (sometimes) lack of adhesion with tube walls, conspire to render the tensile strength within the liquid ineffective for siphoning. Thus, unlike a chain, which has significant tensile strength, liquids usually have little tensile strength under typical siphon conditions, and therefore the liquid on the rising side cannot be pulled up in the way the chain is pulled up on the rising side.

An occasional misunderstanding of siphons is that they rely on the tensile strength of the liquid to pull the liquid up and over the rise. While water has been found to have a significant tensile strength in some experiments (such as with the z-tube), and siphons in vacuum rely on such cohesion, common siphons can easily be demonstrated to need no liquid tensile strength at all to function. Furthermore, since common siphons operate at positive pressures throughout the siphon, there is no contribution from liquid tensile strength, because the molecules are actually repelling each other in order to resist the pressure, rather than pulling on each other.

To demonstrate, the longer lower leg of a common siphon can be plugged at the bottom and filled almost to the crest with liquid as in the figure, leaving the top and the shorter upper leg completely dry and containing only air. When the plug is removed and the liquid in the longer lower leg is allowed to fall, the liquid in the upper reservoir will then typically sweep the air bubble down and out of the tube. The apparatus will then continue to operate as a normal siphon. As there is no contact between the liquid on either side of the siphon at the beginning of this experiment, there can be no cohesion between the liquid molecules to pull the liquid over the rise. It has been suggested by advocates of the liquid tensile strength theory, that the air start siphon only demonstrates the effect as the siphon starts, but that the situation changes after the bubble is swept out and the siphon achieves steady flow. But a similar effect can be seen in the flying-droplet siphon (see above). The flying-droplet siphon works continuously without liquid tensile strength pulling the liquid up.

The siphon in the video demonstration operated steadily for more than 28 minutes until the upper reservoir was empty. Another simple demonstration that liquid tensile strength is not needed in the siphon is to simply introduce a bubble into the siphon during operation. The bubble can be large enough to entirely disconnect the liquids in the tube before and after the bubble, defeating any liquid tensile strength, and yet if the bubble is not too big, the siphon will continue to operate with little change as it sweeps the bubble out.

Another common misconception about siphons is that because the atmospheric pressure is virtually identical at the entrance and exit, the atmospheric pressure cancels, and therefore atmospheric pressure cannot be pushing the liquid up the siphon. But equal and opposite forces may not completely cancel if there is an intervening force that counters some or all of one of the forces. In the siphon, the atmospheric pressure at the entrance and exit are both lessened by the force of gravity pulling down the liquid in each tube, but the pressure on the down side is lessened more by the taller column of liquid on the down side. In effect, the atmospheric pressure coming up the down side does not entirely "make it" to  the top to cancel all of the atmospheric pressure pushing up the up side. This effect can be seen more easily in the example of two carts being pushed up opposite sides of a hill. As shown in the diagram, even though the person on the left seems to have his push canceled entirely by the equal and opposite push from the person on the right, the person on the left's seemingly canceled push is still the source of the force to push the left cart up.

In some situations siphons do function in the absence of atmospheric pressure and due to tensile strength – see vacuum siphons – and in these situations the chain model can be instructive. Further, in other settings water transport does occur due to tension, most significantly in transpirational pull in the xylem of vascular plants. Water and other liquids may seem to have no tensile strength because when a handful is scooped up and pulled on, the liquids narrow and pull apart effortlessly. But liquid tensile strength in a siphon is possible when the liquid adheres to the tube walls and thereby resists narrowing. Any contamination on the tube walls, such as grease or air bubbles, or other minor influences such as turbulence or vibration, can cause the liquid to detach from the walls and lose all tensile strength.

In more detail, one can look at how the hydrostatic pressure varies through a static siphon, considering in turn the vertical tube from the top reservoir, the vertical tube from the bottom reservoir, and the horizontal tube connecting them (assuming a U-shape). At liquid level in the top reservoir, the liquid is under atmospheric pressure, and as one goes up the siphon, the hydrostatic pressure decreases (under vertical pressure variation), since the weight of atmospheric pressure pushing the water up is counterbalanced by the column of water in the siphon pushing down (until one reaches the maximal height of a barometer/siphon, at which point the liquid cannot be pushed higher) – the hydrostatic pressure at the top of the tube is then lower than atmospheric pressure by an amount proportional to the height of the tube. Doing the same analysis on the tube rising from the lower reservoir yields the pressure at the top of that (vertical) tube; this pressure is lower because the tube is longer (there is more water pushing down), and requires that the lower reservoir is lower than the upper reservoir, or more generally that the discharge outlet simply be lower than the surface of the upper reservoir. Considering now the horizontal tube connecting them, one sees that the pressure at the top of the tube from the top reservoir is higher (since less water is being lifted), while the pressure at the top of the tube from the bottom reservoir is lower (since more water is being lifted), and since liquids move from high pressure to low pressure, the liquid flows across the horizontal tube from the top basin to the bottom basin. The liquid is under positive pressure (compression) throughout the tube, not tension.

Bernoulli's equation is considered in the scientific literature to be a fair approximation to the operation of the siphon. In non-ideal fluids, compressibility, tensile strength and other characteristics of the working fluid (or multiple fluids) complicate Bernoulli's equation.

Once started, a siphon requires no additional energy to keep the liquid flowing up and out of the reservoir. The siphon will draw liquid out of the reservoir until the level falls below the intake, allowing air or other surrounding gas to break the siphon, or until the outlet of the siphon equals the level of the reservoir, whichever comes first.

In addition to atmospheric pressure, the density of the liquid, and gravity, the maximal height of the crest in practical siphons is limited by the vapour pressure of the liquid. When the pressure within the liquid drops to below the liquid's vapor pressure, tiny vapor bubbles can begin to form at the high point, and the siphon effect will end. This effect depends on how efficiently the liquid can nucleate bubbles; in the absence of impurities or rough surfaces to act as easy nucleation sites for bubbles, siphons can temporarily exceed their standard maximal height during the extended time it takes bubbles to nucleate. One siphon of degassed water was demonstrated to  for an extended period of time and other controlled experiments to . For water at standard atmospheric pressure, the maximal siphon height is approximately ; for mercury it is , which is the definition of standard pressure. This equals the maximal height of a suction pump, which operates by the same principle. The ratio of heights (about 13.6) equals the ratio of densities of water and mercury (at a given temperature), since the column of water (resp. mercury) is balancing with the column of air yielding atmospheric pressure, and indeed maximal height is (neglecting vapor pressure and velocity of liquid) inversely proportional to density of liquid.

Modern research into the operation of the siphon
In 1948, Malcolm Nokes investigated siphons working in both air pressure and in a partial vacuum; for siphons in vacuum he concluded: "The gravitational force on the column of liquid in the downtake tube less the gravitational force in the uptake tube causes the liquid to move. The liquid is therefore in tension and sustains a longitudinal strain which, in the absence of disturbing factors, is insufficient to break the column of liquid". But for siphons of small uptake height working at atmospheric pressure, he wrote: "... the tension of the liquid column is neutralized and reversed by the compressive effect of the atmosphere on the opposite ends of the liquid column."

Potter and Barnes at the University of Edinburgh revisited siphons in 1971. They re-examined the theories of the siphon and ran experiments on siphons in air pressure. They concluded: "By now it should be clear that, despite a wealth of tradition, the basic mechanism of a siphon does not depend upon atmospheric pressure."

Gravity, pressure and molecular cohesion were the focus of work in 2010 by Hughes at the Queensland University of Technology. He used siphons at air pressure and his conclusion was: "The flow of water out of the bottom of a siphon depends on the difference in height between the inflow and outflow, and therefore cannot be dependent on atmospheric pressure…"
Hughes did further work on siphons at air pressure in 2011 and concluded: "The experiments described above demonstrate that ordinary siphons at atmospheric pressure operate through gravity and not atmospheric pressure".

The father and son researchers Ramette and Ramette successfully siphoned carbon dioxide under air pressure in 2011 and concluded that molecular cohesion is not required for the operation of a siphon, but: "The basic explanation of siphon action is that, once the tube is filled, the flow is initiated by the greater pull of gravity on the fluid on the longer side compared with that on the short side. This creates a pressure drop throughout the siphon tube, in the same sense that 'sucking' on a straw reduces the pressure along its length all the way to the intake point. The ambient atmospheric pressure at the intake point responds to the reduced pressure by forcing the fluid upwards, sustaining the flow, just as in a steadily sucked straw in a milkshake."

Again in 2011, Richert and Binder (at the University of Hawaii) examined the siphon and concluded that molecular cohesion is not required for the operation of a siphon but relies upon gravity and a pressure differential, writing: "As the fluid initially primed on the long leg of the siphon rushes down due to gravity, it leaves behind a partial vacuum that allows pressure on the entrance point of the higher container to push fluid up the leg on that side".

The research team of Boatwright, Puttick, and Licence, all at the University of Nottingham, succeeded in running a siphon in high vacuum, also in 2011. They wrote: "It is widely believed that the siphon is principally driven by the force of atmospheric pressure. An experiment is described that shows that a siphon can function even under high-vacuum conditions. Molecular cohesion and gravity are shown to be contributing factors in the operation of a siphon; the presence of a positive atmospheric pressure is not required".

Writing in Physics Today in 2011, J. Dooley from Millersville University stated that both a pressure differential within the siphon tube and the tensile strength of the liquid are required for a siphon to operate.

A researcher at Humboldt State University, A. McGuire, examined flow in siphons in 2012. Using the advanced general-purpose multiphysics simulation software package LS-DYNA he examined pressure initialisation, flow, and pressure propagation within a siphon. He concluded: "Pressure, gravity and molecular cohesion can all be driving forces in the operation of siphons".

In 2014, Hughes and Gurung (at the Queensland University of Technology) ran a water siphon under varying air pressures ranging from sea level to 11.9 km () altitude. They noted: "Flow remained more or less constant during ascension indicating that siphon flow is independent of ambient barometric pressure". They used Bernoulli's equation and the Poiseuille equation to examine pressure differentials and fluid flow within a siphon. Their conclusion was: "It follows from the above analysis that there must be a direct cohesive connection between water molecules flowing in and out of a siphon. This is true at all atmospheric pressures in which the pressure in the apex of the siphon is above the vapour pressure of water, an exception being ionic liquids".

Practical requirements
A plain tube can be used as a siphon. An external pump has to be applied to start the liquid flowing and prime the siphon (in home use this is often done by a person inhaling through the tube until enough of it has filled with liquid; this may pose danger to the user, depending on the liquid that is being siphoned). This is sometimes done with any leak-free hose to siphon gasoline from a motor vehicle's gasoline tank to an external tank. (Siphoning gasoline by mouth often results in the accidental swallowing of gasoline, or aspirating it into the lungs, which can cause death or lung damage.) If the tube is flooded with liquid before part of the tube is raised over the intermediate high point and care is taken to keep the tube flooded while it is being raised, no pump is required. Devices sold as siphons often come with a siphon pump to start the siphon process.

In some applications it can be helpful to use siphon tubing that is not much larger than necessary. Using piping of too great a diameter and then throttling the flow using valves or constrictive piping appears to increase the effect of previously cited concerns over gases or vapor collecting in the crest which serve to break the vacuum. If the vacuum is reduced too much, the siphon effect can be lost. Reducing the size of pipe used closer to requirements appears to reduce this effect and creates a more functional siphon that does not require constant re-priming and restarting. In this respect, where the requirement is to match a flow into a container with a flow out of said container (to maintain a constant level in a pond fed by a stream, for example) it would be preferable to utilize two or three smaller separate parallel pipes that can be started as required rather than attempting to use a single large pipe and attempting to throttle it.

Automatic intermittent siphon
Siphons are sometimes employed as automatic machines, in situations where it is desirable to turn a continuous trickling flow or an irregular small surge flow into a large surge volume. A common example of this is a public restroom with urinals regularly flushed by an automatic siphon in a small water tank overhead. When the container is filled, all the stored liquid is released, emerging as a large surge volume that then resets and fills again. One way to do this intermittent action involves complex machinery such as floats, chains, levers, and valves, but these can corrode, wear out, or jam over time. An alternate method is with rigid pipes and chambers, using only the water itself in a siphon as the operating mechanism.

A siphon used in an automatic unattended device needs to be able to function reliably without failure. This is different from the common demonstration self-starting siphons in that there are ways the siphon can fail to function which require manual intervention to return to normal surge flow operation. A video demonstration of a self-starting siphon can be found here, courtesy of The Curiosity Show.

The most common failure is for the liquid to dribble out slowly, matching the rate that the container is filling, and the siphon enters an undesired steady-state condition. Preventing dribbling typically involves pneumatic principles to trap one or more large air bubbles in various pipes, which are sealed by water traps. This method can fail if it cannot start working intermittently without water already present in parts of the mechanism, and which will not be filled if the mechanism starts from a dry state.

A second problem is that the trapped air pockets will shrink over time if the siphon is not operating due to no inflow.  The air in pockets is absorbed by the liquid, which pulls liquid up into the piping until the air pocket disappears, and can cause activation of water flow outside the normal range of operating when the storage tank is not full, leading to loss of the liquid seal in lower parts of the mechanism.

A third problem is where the lower end of the liquid seal is simply a U-trap bend in an outflow pipe. During vigorous emptying, the kinetic motion of the liquid out the outflow can propel too much liquid out, causing a loss of the sealing volume in the outflow trap and loss of the trapped air bubble to maintain intermittent operation.

A fourth problem involves seep holes in the mechanism, intended to slowly refill these various sealing chambers when the siphon is dry. The seep holes can be plugged by debris and corrosion, requiring manual cleaning and intervention. To prevent this, the siphon may be restricted to pure liquid sources, free of solids or precipitate.

Many automatic siphons have been invented going back to at least the 1850s, for automatic siphon mechanisms that attempt to overcome these problems using various pneumatic and hydrodynamic principles.

Applications and terminology

When certain liquids needs to be purified, siphoning can help prevent either the bottom (dregs) or the top (foam and floaties) from being transferred out of one container into a new container. Siphoning is thus useful in the fermentation of wine and beer for this reason, since it can keep unwanted impurities out of the new container.

Self-constructed siphons, made of pipes or tubes, can be used to evacuate water from cellars after floodings. Between the flooded cellar and a deeper place outside a connection is built, using a tube or some pipes. They are filled with water through an intake valve (at the highest end of the construction). When the ends are opened, the water flows through the pipe into the sewer or the river.

Siphoning is common in irrigated fields to transfer a controlled amount of water from a ditch, over the ditch wall, into furrows.

Large siphons may be used in municipal waterworks and industry. Their size requires control via valves at the intake, outlet and crest of the siphon. The siphon may be primed by closing the intake and outlets and filling the siphon at the crest. If intakes and outlets are submerged, a vacuum pump may be applied at the crest to prime the siphon. Alternatively the siphon may be primed by a pump at either the intake or outlet. Gas in the liquid is a concern in large siphons. The gas tends to accumulate at the crest and if enough accumulates to break the flow of liquid, the siphon stops working. The siphon itself will exacerbate the problem because as the liquid is raised through the siphon, the pressure drops, causing dissolved gases within the liquid to come out of solution. Higher temperature accelerates the release of gas from liquids so maintaining a constant, low temperature helps. The longer the liquid is in the siphon, the more gas is released, so a shorter siphon overall helps. Local high points will trap gas so the intake and outlet legs should have continuous slopes without intermediate high points. The flow of the liquid moves bubbles thus the intake leg can have a shallow slope as the flow will push the gas bubbles to the crest. Conversely, the outlet leg needs to have a steep slope to allow the bubbles to move against the liquid flow; though other designs call for a shallow slope in the outlet leg as well to allow the bubbles to be carried out of the siphon. At the crest the gas can be trapped in a chamber above the crest. The chamber needs to be occasionally primed again with liquid to remove the gas.

Siphon rain gauge
A siphon rain gauge is a rain gauge that can record rainfall over an extended period. A siphon is used to automatically empty the gauge. It is often simply called a "siphon gauge" and is not to be confused with a siphon pressure gauge.

Siphon drainage
A siphon drainage method is being implemented in several expressways as of 2022. Recent studies found that it can reduce groundwater level behind expressway retaining walls, and there was no indication of clogging. This new drainage system is being pioneered as a long-term method to limit leakage hazard in the retaining wall. Siphon drainage is also used in draining unstable slopes, and siphon roof-water drainage systems have been in use since the 1960s.

Siphon spillway
A siphon spillway in a dam is usually not technically a siphon, as it is generally used to drain elevated water levels. However, a siphon spillway operates as an actual siphon if it raises the flow higher than the  surface of the source reservoir, as sometimes is the case when used in irrigation. In operation, a siphon spillway is considered to be "pipe flow" or "closed-duct flow". A normal spillway flow is pressurized by the height of the reservoir above the spillway, whereas a siphon flow rate is governed by the difference in height of the inlet and outlet. Some designs make use of an automatic system that uses the flow of water in a spiral vortex to remove the air above to prime the siphon. Such a design includes the volute siphon.

Flush toilet
Flush toilets often have some siphon effect as the bowl empties.

Some toilets also use the siphon principle to obtain the actual flush from the cistern. The flush is triggered by a lever or handle that operates a simple diaphragm-like piston pump that lifts enough water to the crest of the siphon to start the flow of water which then completely empties the contents of the cistern into the toilet bowl. The advantage of this system was that no water would leak from the cistern excepting when flushed. These were mandatory in the UK until 2011.

Early urinals incorporated a siphon in the cistern which would flush automatically on a regular cycle because there was a constant trickle of clean water being fed to the cistern by a slightly open valve.

Devices that are not true siphons

Siphon coffee

While if both ends of a siphon are at atmospheric pressure, liquid flows from high to low, if the bottom end of a siphon is pressurized, liquid can flow from low to high. If pressure is removed from the bottom end, the liquid flow will reverse, illustrating that it is pressure driving the siphon. An everyday illustration of this is the siphon coffee brewer, which works as follows (designs vary; this is a standard design, omitting coffee grounds):
 a glass vessel is filled with water, then corked (so air-tight) with a siphon sticking vertically upwards
 another glass vessel is placed on top, open to the atmosphere – the top vessel is empty, the bottom is filled with water
 the bottom vessel is then heated; as the temperature increases, the vapor pressure of the water increases (it increasingly evaporates); when the water boils the vapor pressure equals atmospheric pressure, and as the temperature increases above boiling the pressure in the bottom vessel then exceeds atmospheric pressure, and pushes the water up the siphon tube into the upper vessel.
 a small amount of still hot water and steam remain in the bottom vessel and are kept heated, with this pressure keeping the water in the upper vessel
 when the heat is removed from the bottom vessel, the vapor pressure decreases, and can no longer support the column of water – gravity (acting on the water) and atmospheric pressure then push the water back into the bottom vessel.
In practice, the top vessel is filled with coffee grounds, and the heat is removed from the bottom vessel when the coffee has finished brewing. What vapor pressure means concretely is that the boiling water converts high-density water (a liquid) into low-density steam (a gas), which thus expands to take up more volume (in other words, the pressure increases). This pressure from the expanding steam then forces the liquid up the siphon; when the steam then condenses down to water the pressure decreases and the liquid flows back down.

Siphon pump
While a simple siphon cannot output liquid at a level higher than the source reservoir, a more complicated device utilizing an airtight metering chamber at the crest and a system of automatic valves, may discharge liquid on an ongoing basis, at a level higher than the source reservoir, without outside pumping energy being added. It can accomplish this despite what initially appears to be a violation of conservation of energy because it can take advantage of the energy of a large volume of liquid dropping some distance, to raise and discharge a small volume of liquid above the source reservoir. Thus it might be said to "require" a large quantity of falling liquid to power the dispensing of a small quantity. Such a system typically operates in a cyclical or start/stop but ongoing and self-powered manner. Ram pumps do not work in this way. These metering pumps are true siphon pumping devices which use siphons as their power source.

Inverted siphon

An inverted siphon is not a siphon but a term applied to pipes that must dip below an obstruction to form a "U" shaped flow path.

Large inverted siphons are used to convey water being carried in canals or flumes across valleys, for irrigation or gold mining. The Romans used inverted siphons of lead pipes to cross valleys that were too big to construct an aqueduct.

Inverted siphons are commonly called traps for their function in preventing sewer gases from coming back out of sewers and sometimes making dense objects like rings and electronic components retrievable after falling into a drain. Liquid flowing in one end simply forces liquid up and out the other end, but solids like sand will accumulate. This is especially important in sewerage systems or culverts which must be routed under rivers or other deep obstructions where the better term is "depressed sewer".

Back siphonage
Back siphonage is a plumbing term applied to the reversal of normal water flow in a plumbing system due to sharply reduced or negative pressure on the water supply side, such as high demand on water supply by fire-fighting; it is not an actual siphon as it is suction. Back siphonage is rare as it depends on submerged inlets at the outlet (home) end and these are uncommon. Back siphonage is not to be confused with backflow; which is the reversed flow of water from the outlet end to the supply end caused by pressure occurring at the outlet end. Also, building codes usually demand a check valve where the water supply enters a building to prevent backflow into the drinking water system.

Anti-siphon valve
Building codes often contain specific sections on back siphonage and especially for external faucets (See the sample building code quote, below). Backflow prevention devices such as anti-siphon valves are required in such designs. The reason is that external faucets may be attached to hoses which may be immersed in an external body of water, such as a garden pond, swimming pool, aquarium or washing machine. In these situations the unwanted flow is not actually the result of a siphon but suction due to reduced pressure on the water supply side. Should the pressure within the water supply system fall, the external water may be returned by back pressure into the drinking water system through the faucet. Another possible contamination point is the water intake in the toilet tank. An anti-siphon valve is also required here to prevent pressure drops in the water supply line from suctioning water out of the toilet tank (which may contain additives such as "toilet blue") and contaminating the water system. Anti-siphon valves function as a one-direction check valve.

Anti-siphon valves are also used medically. Hydrocephalus, or excess fluid in the brain, may be treated with a shunt which drains cerebrospinal fluid from the brain. All shunts have a valve to relieve excess pressure in the brain. The shunt may lead into the abdominal cavity such that the shunt outlet is significantly lower than the shunt intake when the patient is standing. Thus a siphon effect may take place and instead of simply relieving excess pressure, the shunt may act as a siphon, completely draining cerebrospinal fluid from the brain. The valve in the shunt may be designed to prevent this siphon action so that negative pressure on the drain of the shunt does not result in excess drainage. Only excess positive pressure from within the brain should result in drainage.

The anti-siphon valve in medical shunts is preventing excess forward flow of liquid. In plumbing systems, the anti-siphon valve is preventing backflow.

Sample building code regulations regarding "back siphonage" from the Canadian province of Ontario:
126.96.36.199.Back Siphonage
 Every potable water system that supplies a fixture or tank that is not subject to pressures above atmospheric shall be protected against back-siphonage by a backflow preventer.
 Where a potable water supply is connected to a boiler, tank, cooling jacket, lawn sprinkler system or other device where a non-potable fluid may be under pressure that is above atmospheric or the water outlet may be submerged in the non-potable fluid, the water supply shall be protected against backflow by a backflow preventer.
 Where a hose bibb is installed outside a building, inside a garage, or where there is an identifiable risk of contamination, the potable water system shall be protected against backflow by a backflow preventer.

Other anti-siphoning devices
Along with anti-siphon valves, anti-siphoning devices also exist. The two are unrelated in application. Siphoning can be used to remove fuel from tanks. With the cost of fuel increasing, it has been linked in several countries to the rise in fuel theft. Trucks, with their large fuel tanks, are most vulnerable. The anti-siphon device prevents thieves from inserting a tube into the fuel tank.

Siphon barometer
A siphon barometer is the term sometimes applied to the simplest of mercury barometers. A continuous U-shaped tube of the same diameter throughout is sealed on one end and filled with mercury. When placed into the upright, "U", position, mercury will flow away from the sealed end, forming a partial vacuum, until balanced by atmospheric pressure on the other end. The term "siphon" derives from the belief that air pressure is involved in the operation of a siphon. The difference in height of the fluid between the two arms of the U-shaped tube is the same as the maximum intermediate height of a siphon. When used to measure pressures other than atmospheric pressure, a siphon barometer is sometimes called a siphon gauge; these are not siphons but follow a standard 'U'-shaped design leading to the term. Siphon barometers are still produced as precision instruments. Siphon barometers should not be confused with a siphon rain gauge.,

Siphon bottle

A siphon bottle (also called a soda syphon or, archaically, a siphoid) is a pressurized bottle with a vent and a valve. It is not a siphon as pressure within the bottle drives the liquid up and out a tube. A special form was the gasogene.

Siphon cup
A siphon cup is the (hanging) reservoir of paint attached to a spray gun, it is not a siphon as a vacuum pump extracts the paint. This name is to distinguish it from gravity-fed reservoirs. An archaic use of the term is a cup of oil in which the oil is transported out of the cup via a cotton wick or tube to a surface to be lubricated, this is not a siphon but an example of capillary action.

Heron's siphon
Heron's siphon is not a siphon as it works as a gravity driven pressure pump, at first glance it appears to be a perpetual motion machine but will stop when the air in the priming pump is depleted. In a slightly differently configuration, it is also known as Heron's fountain.

Venturi siphon
A venturi siphon, also known as an eductor, is not a siphon but a form of vacuum pump using the Venturi effect of fast flowing fluids (e.g. air), to produce low pressures to suction other fluids; a common example is the carburetor. See pressure head. The low pressure at the throat of the venturi is called a siphon when a second fluid is introduced, or an aspirator when the fluid is air, this is an example of the misconception that air pressure is the operating force for siphons.

Siphonic roof drainage
Despite the name, siphonic roof drainage does not work as a siphon; the technology makes use of gravity induced vacuum pumping to carry water horizontally from multiple roof drains to a single downpipe and to increase flow velocity.  Metal baffles at the roof drain inlets reduce the injection of air which increases the efficiency of the system. One benefit to this drainage technique is reduced capital costs in construction compared to traditional roof drainage.  Another benefit is the elimination of pipe pitch or gradient required for conventional roof drainage piping. However this system of gravity pumping is mainly suitable for large buildings and is not usually suitable for residential properties.

Self-siphons
The term self-siphon is used in a number of ways. Liquids that are composed of long polymers can "self-siphon" and these liquids do not depend on atmospheric pressure. Self-siphoning polymer liquids work the same as the siphon-chain model where the lower part of the chain pulls the rest of the chain up and over the crest. This phenomenon is also called a tubeless siphon.

"Self-siphon" is also often used in sales literature by siphon manufacturers to describe portable siphons that contain a pump. With the pump, no external suction (e.g. from a person's mouth/lungs) is required to start the siphon and thus the product is described as a "self-siphon".

If the upper reservoir is such that the liquid there can rise above the height of the siphon crest, the rising liquid in the reservoir can "self-prime" the siphon and the whole apparatus be described as a "self-siphon". Once primed, such a siphon will continue to operate until the level of the upper reservoir falls below the intake of the siphon. Such self-priming siphons are useful in some rain gauges and dams.

In nature

Anatomy
The term "siphon" is used for a number of structures in human and animal anatomy, either because flowing liquids are involved or because the structure is shaped like a siphon, but in which no actual siphon effect is occurring: see Siphon (disambiguation).

There has been a debate if whether the siphon mechanism plays a role in blood circulation. However, in the 'closed loop' of circulation this was discounted; "In contrast, in 'closed' systems, like the circulation, gravity does not hinder uphill flow nor does it cause downhill flow, because gravity acts equally on the ascending and descending limbs of the circuit", but for "historical reasons", the term is used. One hypothesis (in 1989) was that a siphon existed in the circulation of the giraffe. But further research in 2004 found that, "There is no hydrostatic gradient and since the 'fall' of fluid does not assist the ascending arm, there is no siphon. The giraffe's high arterial pressure, which is sufficient to raise the blood 2 m from heart to head with sufficient remaining pressure to perfuse the brain, supports this concept." However, a paper written in 2005 urged more research on the hypothesis:

The principle of the siphon is not species specific and should be a fundamental principle of closed circulatory systems. Therefore, the controversy surrounding the role of the siphon principle may best be resolved by a comparative approach. Analyses of blood pressure on a variety of long-necked and long-bodied animals, which take into account phylogenetic relatedness, will be important. In addition experimental studies that combined measurements of arterial and venous blood pressures, with cerebral blood flow, under a variety of gravitational stresses (different head positions), will ultimately resolve this controversy.

Species
Some species are named after siphons because they resemble siphons in whole or in part.  Geosiphons are fungi.  There  are species of alga belonging to the family Siphonocladaceae in the phylum Chlorophyta which have tube-like structures. Ruellia villosa is a tropical plant in the family Acanthaceae that is also known by the botanical synonym, 'Siphonacanthus villosus Nees'.

Geology

In speleology, a siphon or a sump is that part of a cave passage that lies under water and through which cavers have to dive to progress further into the cave system, but it is not an actual siphon.

Rivers

A river siphon occurs when part of the water flow passes under a submerged object like a rock or tree trunk. The water flowing under the obstruction can be very powerful, and as such can be very dangerous for kayaking, canyoning, and other river-based watersports.

Explanation using Bernoulli's equation
Bernoulli's equation may be applied to a siphon to derive its ideal flow rate and theoretical maximum height.

Let the surface of the upper reservoir be the reference elevation.
Let point A be the start point of siphon, immersed within the higher reservoir and at a depth −d below the surface of the upper reservoir.
Let point B be the intermediate high point on the siphon tube at height +hB above the surface of the upper reservoir.
Let point C be the drain point of the siphon at height −hC below the surface of the upper reservoir.

Bernoulli's equation:

  = fluid velocity along the streamline
  = gravitational acceleration downwards
  = elevation in gravity field
  = pressure along the streamline
  = fluid density

Apply Bernoulli's equation to the surface of the upper reservoir. The surface is technically falling as the upper reservoir is being drained. However, for this example we will assume the reservoir to be infinite and the velocity of the surface may be set to zero. Furthermore, the pressure at both the surface and the exit point C is atmospheric pressure. Thus:

Apply Bernoulli's equation to point A at the start of the siphon tube in the upper reservoir where P = PA, v = vA and y = −d

Apply Bernoulli's equation to point B at the intermediate high point of the siphon tube where P = PB, v = vB and y = hB

Apply Bernoulli's equation to point C where the siphon empties. Where v = vC and y = −hC. Furthermore, the pressure at the exit point is atmospheric pressure. Thus:

Velocity
As the siphon is a single system, the constant in all four equations is the same. Setting equations 1 and 4 equal to each other gives:

Solving for vC:

Velocity of siphon:

The velocity of the siphon is thus driven solely by the height difference between the surface of the upper reservoir and the drain point. The height of the intermediate high point, hB, does not affect the velocity of the siphon. However, as the siphon is a single system, vB = vC and the intermediate high point does limit the maximum velocity. The drain point cannot be lowered indefinitely to increase the velocity. Equation 3 will limit the velocity to retain a positive pressure at the intermediate high point to prevent cavitation. The maximum velocity may be calculated by combining equations 1 and 3:

Setting PB = 0 and solving for vmax:

Maximum velocity of siphon:

The depth, −d, of the initial entry point of the siphon in the upper reservoir, does not affect the velocity of the siphon. No limit to the depth of the siphon start point is implied by Equation 2 as pressure PA increases with depth d. Both these facts imply the operator of the siphon may bottom skim or top skim the upper reservoir without impacting the siphon's performance.

This equation for the velocity is the same as that of any object falling height hC. This equation assumes PC is atmospheric pressure. If the end of the siphon is below the surface, the height to the end of the siphon cannot be used; rather the height difference between the reservoirs should be used.

Maximum height
Although siphons can exceed the barometric height of the liquid in special circumstances, e.g. when the liquid is degassed and the tube is clean and smooth, in general the practical maximum height can be found as follows.

Setting equations 1 and 3 equal to each other gives:

Maximum height of the intermediate high point occurs when it is so high that the pressure at the intermediate high point is zero; in typical scenarios this will cause the liquid to form bubbles and if the bubbles enlarge to fill the pipe then the siphon will "break". Setting PB = 0:

Solving for hB:

General height of siphon:

This means that the height of the intermediate high point is limited by pressure along the streamline being always greater than zero.

Maximum height of siphon:

This is the maximum height that a siphon will work. Substituting values will give approximately  for water and, by definition of standard pressure,  for mercury. The ratio of heights (about 13.6) equals the ratio of densities of water and mercury (at a given temperature). As long as this condition is satisfied (pressure greater than zero), the flow at the output of the siphon is still only governed by the height difference between the source surface and the outlet. Volume of fluid in the apparatus is not relevant as long as the pressure head remains above zero in every section.  Because pressure drops when velocity is increased, a static siphon (or manometer) can have a slightly higher height than a flowing siphon.

Operation in a vacuum

Experiments have shown that siphons can operate in a vacuum, via cohesion and tensile strength between molecules, provided that the liquids are pure and degassed and surfaces are very clean.

Oxford English Dictionary
The Oxford English Dictionary (OED) entry on siphon, published in 1911, states that a siphon works by atmospheric pressure. Stephen Hughes of Queensland University of Technology criticized this in a 2010 article which was widely reported in the media. The OED editors stated, "there is continuing debate among scientists as to which view is correct. ... We would expect to reflect this debate in the fully updated entry for siphon, due to be published later this year." Hughes continued to defend his view of the siphon in a late September post at the Oxford blog. The 2015 definition by the OED is:
A tube used to convey liquid upwards from a reservoir and then down to a lower level of its own accord. Once the liquid has been forced into the tube, typically by suction or immersion, flow continues unaided.

The Encyclopædia Britannica currently describes a siphon as:

Siphon, also spelled syphon,  instrument, usually in the form of a tube bent to form two legs of unequal length, for conveying liquid over the edge of a vessel and delivering it at a lower level. Siphons may be of any size. The action depends upon the influence of gravity (not, as sometimes thought, on the difference in atmospheric pressure; a siphon will work in a vacuum) and upon the cohesive forces that prevent the columns of liquid in the legs of the siphon from breaking under their own weight. At sea level, water can be lifted a little more than 10 metres (33 feet) by a siphon.

In civil engineering, pipelines called inverted siphons are used to carry sewage or stormwater under streams, highway cuts, or other depressions in the ground. In an inverted siphon the liquid completely fills the pipe and flows under pressure, as opposed to the open-channel gravity flow that occurs in most sanitary or storm sewers.

Standards in engineering or industry
The American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME) publishes the following Tri-Harmonized Standard:

 ASSE 1002/ASME A112.1002/CSA B125.12 on Performance Requirements for Anti-Siphon Fill Valves (Ballcocks) for Gravity Water Closet Flush Tanks

See also

 1992 Guadalajara explosions for details of an accident where a plumbing method (trap, also known as an inverted siphon) was partially responsible for gas explosions.
 Communicating vessels
 Concentric siphon
 Gravity feed
 Jiggle syphon
 Marot jar
 Pythagorean cup
 Water level (device)

References

External links

 xkcd on the siphon

Articles containing video clips
Egyptian inventions
Fluid dynamics
Tools
16th-century BC establishments

Siphon


Luis Leante (Caravaca de la Cruz, Murcie, 1963) est un écrivain espagnol qui a cultivé différents genres littéraires : la nouvelle, le théâtre, le roman, la poésie, l'essai et l'article journalistique. Par ailleurs, il a également réalisé des scénarios pour le cinéma et certaines de ses nouvelles ont été adaptées à l'écran. Son œuvre a été traduite dans les langues officielles d'Espagne le galicien et le catalan, mais également en anglais, allemand, italien, français, roumain, coréen, lituanien, hongrois, danois, croate, russe, grec, letton, polonais, portugais, turque, hollandais, tchèque, slovène, hébreux et le chinois.

Biographie
Luis Leante a obtenu une licence en Philosophie Classique à l'Université de Murcie. Depuis 1992, il vit à Alicante, où il a travaillé comme professeur de secondaire jusqu'en 2009.

À seulement vingt ans, il publie son premier roman : Camino el jueves rojo. Ce roman court est un drame rural qui se déroule durant la période post-guerre espagnole et dont le sujet en toile de fond est le straperlo. La trame se situe à Caravaca de la Cruz.

Plus tard, les thèmes de ses œuvres se sont universalisés et les intrigues se sont diversifiées : Paisaje con Río y Baracoa de Fondo se déroule à Cuba ; El canto del zaigú prend place dans le petit village de Valderas dans la province de León ; La Luna Roja voyage entre Istanbul, Munich et Alicante. Luis Leante a également traité différentes genres romanesques, du roman noir au roman historique : El vuelo de las termitas y La Edad de Plata, en s'essayant également à la littérature de jeunesse. Ses œuvres ont en commun une structure narrative non linéaire, accordant parfois plus d'importance à la manière dont l'histoire est racontée qu'à l'intrigue elle-même.

Les critiques soulignent souvent la force des personnages secondaires chez Leante, les perdants, les personnages marginalisés. En 2007, il remporte le Premio Alfaguara pour son roman Mira si yo te querré, traduit de l'espagnol par Marianne Million et vendu dans plus de quarante pays. Bien qu'à l'époque il avait déjà publié une dizaine de livres, ce n'est que ce roman qui l'a enfin fait connaître du grand public et qui l'a consacré en tant qu'écrivain. Leante avait néanmoins déjà remporté une cinquante de prix pour ses nouvelles, bien que seulement deux recueils soient à ce jour publiés.

Œuvres
Deux recueils de nouvelles :

 El último viaje de Efraín (1986).
 El criador de canarios (1996).

Romans :

 Camino del jueve rojo (1983).
 Paisaje con río y Baracoa de fondo (1997, 2009).
 Al final del trayecto (1997).
 La Edad de la Plata (1998).
 El canto del zaigú(2000, 2009).
 El vuelo de las termitas (2003, 2005).
 Academia Europa (2003, 2008).
 Mira si yo te querré (2007).
Sahara, trad. de Marianne Millon, éd. Points, 2011.
 La Luna Roja (2009).
 Cárceles imaginarias(2012).
 Annobón (2017).

Littérature de jeunesse :

 La puerta trasera del paraíso (2007).
 Rebelión en Nueva Granada (2008).
 Justino Lumbreras detective privado (2012).
 Justino Lumbreras y el fantasma del museo (2012).
 Justino Lumbreras y el collar de Cleopatra (2013).
 Justino Lumbreras y el Gran Caruso (2013).
 Huye sin mirar atrás (2016).
 Maneras de vivir (2020).
Théâtre:

Théâtre:

 Tópicos, típicos, cómicos (2016).
 Fuera del tiempo (2016. MurciaLibro, 2018).
 Se ofrece mezzosoprano para labores del hogar (MurciaLibro, 2018).
 Historia de una cornisa (Fundación Ciudad de Requena, 2019).
 Los resistentes (Ediciones Irreverentes, 2019).

Prix
Il a déjà remporté plusieurs prix littéraires pour ses nouvelles et ses romans.

 1982.- Premio Albacara de roman court : Camino del jueves rojo.
 1990.- Premio de nouvelles Murcia jeune 90: El Negro Malone.
 1993.- Premio Juan José Relosillas de nouvelles : Las Malvinas.
 1995.- Premio Teruel de nouvelles : Tiempos modernos.
 1997.- Premio Odaluna de roman : Al final del trayecto.
 1997.- Premio Ciudad de Irún de roman : La Edad de Plata.
 1999.- Premio Rodrigo Rubio de roman noir : El canto del zaigú.
 2003.- Premio Ciudad de Barbastro de roman court : Academia Europa.
 2007.- Premio Alfaguara de Roman : Mira si yo te querré.
 2009.- Premio Mandarache des lecteurs : Mira si yo te querré.
 2016.- Premio Edebé de Littérature pour Enfants : Huye sin mirar atrás.
 2017.- Premio Hache des lecteurs : Huye sin mirar atrás.
 2020.- Premio Edebé de Littérature pour Enfants : Maneras de vivir

Notes et références

Liens externes

 X Premio Alfaguara
  Blog del autor
  Página personal

Écrivain espagnol du XXIe siècle
Écrivain espagnol du XXe siècle
Étudiant de l'université de Murcie
Naissance en juin 1963

Luis Leante


Takuya Miyamoto (født 21. maj 1993) er en japansk fodboldspiller, som spiller for den japanske fodboldklub Mito HollyHock.

Referencer

Eksterne henvisninger

Fodboldspillere fra Japan

Takuya Miyamoto (fodboldspiller, født 1993)


Zdjela je posuda u kojoj se hrana iznosi ili priređuje miješanjem i sličnim postupcima. Zdjela je najčešće napravljena od porculana i stakla. Zbog svog kupastog oblika, zdjele se lako mogu držati u ruci bez straha da će se prosuti ono što se u njima nalazi. Veličina i dubina činija može biti različita.

Često se pogrešno smatra da su posuda i zdjela sinonimi.

Etimologija
Riječ zdjela dolazi od starijeg *skъděla, a ona od latinskoga scutella.

Izvori

Vidi još
 Posuda
 Posuđe
 Tepsija

Posude

Zdjela


Crepidonellus es un género de coleópteros adéfagos perteneciente a la familia Carabidae.

Especies
Relación de especies:

 Crepidonellus endroedyi Basilewsky, 1975
 Crepidonellus latipalpis Basilewsky, 1988
 Crepidonellus migromaculatus Basilewsky, 1959
 Crepidonellus pusillus (Peringuey, 1888)
 Crepidonellus youngai Basilewsky, 1988

Referencias

Enlaces externos

 Nomenclator Zoologicus

Crepidogastrini

Crepidonellus


Fallow is a farming technique in which arable land is left without sowing for one or more vegetative cycles. The goal of fallowing is to allow the land to recover and store organic matter while retaining moisture and disrupting pest life cycles and soil borne pathogens by temporarily removing their hosts. Crop rotation systems typically called for some of a farmer's fields to be left fallow each year.

The increase in intensive farming, including the use of cover crops in lieu of fallow practices, has caused a loss of acreage of fallow land, as well as field margins, hedges, and wasteland. This has reduced biodiversity; fallows have been the primary habitat for farmland bird populations.

Fallow syndrome

Fallow syndrome is when a crop has insufficient nutrient uptake due to the lack of arbuscular mycorhizae (AM fungi) in the soil following a fallow period. Crops such as corn that are prone to fallow syndrome should not follow a period of fallow, but instead should follow a cover crop which is a host for AM fungi, such as oats or other small grain crops. The presence of any plant roots, including weeds, can reduce occurrence of fallow syndrome. Nowadays, agricultural fields are routinely planted with cover crops to prevent erosion, keep down weeds, provide a green manure, and reduce the risk of fallow syndrome.

See also
 Dryland farming
 Crop rotation
 No-till farming
 Shifting cultivation
 Shmita

References

Rural geography

Fallow


Der König der Bernina ist ein österreichisch-schweizerischer Heimatfilm von Alfred Lehner aus dem Jahr 1957.

Handlung
Zur Zeit Napoléons Anfang des 19. Jahrhunderts: Nach drei Jahren im entfernten Kloster kehren Cilgia und Monika ins von den Franzosen besetzte Engadin zurück. Cilgia ist die Nichte des Dorfpfarrers. Auf ihrem Weg ins Dorf treffen sie auf Markus Paltram, der einst im Dorf lebte. Sein Vater war der Dorfschmied, verließ den Ort jedoch, als man ihn nach einem Unglück am Berg für einen Mörder hielt. In der Ferne ist er vor Gram gestorben. Sein Sohn kehrt nun als Erwachsener ins Dorf zurück. Er will sich als Büchsenmacher oder Schmied verdingen. Im Dorf begegnet man ihm jedoch mit Argwohn und Ablehnung. Vor allem der großsprecherische Seni macht ihm das Leben schwer. Seni hat es zudem auf die schöne Zigeunerstochter Pia abgesehen. Deren Familie verlässt das Dorf. Auf halbem Weg finden sie den schwerverletzten Siegesmund Gruber, den Sohn eines wohlhabenden Gutsbesitzers. Er wurde von Franzosen gejagt und fast erschossen. Pia und Markus bringen Siegesmund über die Grenze nach Österreich. Seni will Markus dafür vor Gericht stellen, da er Racheakte der Franzosen fürchtet. Erst als deutlich wird, dass Siegesmund der Gerettete ist, geben die Männer im Dorf Ruhe.

Wenig später wird bekannt gegeben, dass das Engadin frei ist und Napoléon sich zurückgezogen hat. Zur Feier wird ein Schützenfest veranstaltet, das Markus gewinnt. Er tanzt seinen Siegertanz mit Cilgia, die er liebt, und wird dafür von Seni und seinen Männern verspottet. Als er zu seinem Platz zurückkehrt, ist seine Büchse verschwunden. Es stellt sich heraus, dass die Zigeuner sie gestohlen haben. Pia jedoch entwendet ihrem Vater heimlich die Büchse und bringt sie zu Markus zurück, den sie verführen will. Da Markus nicht im Haus ist, sucht sie ihn auf dem Berg. Beim Versuch, ihn auf sich aufmerksam zu machen, stürzt Pia ab. Markus nimmt sie in sein Haus auf und pflegt sie gesund. Auch Siegesmund ist inzwischen gesund und besucht Cilgia. Er hat sich in sie verliebt und will sie heiraten, doch weist Cilgia ihn zurück. Sie liebt Markus. Der jedoch ist eifersüchtig und glaubt, Cilgia ziehe den reichen Siegesmund vor, zumal Markus sie erst heiraten will, wenn er seinen Namen im Dorf reingewaschen hat. Unter anderem setzt er sich dafür ein, dass in der Bernina nicht mehr gejagt wird – ein weiterer Grund, warum Seni Markus aus der Gegend vertreiben will, war die Jagd doch schon immer frei.

Siegesmund veranstaltet für seine Retter Cilgia und Markus ein Dankesfest, auf dem er Cilgia eine Kette schenkt. Markus jedoch hat sich von dem Fest eifersüchtig ferngehalten, erscheint schließlich betrunken und pöbelt Siegesmund an. Er wird von Cilgia fortgeschickt und kehrt frustriert in seine Hütte zurück. Pia nutzt ihre Gelegenheit und verführt den betrunkenen Markus. Einige Zeit später bestellt Markus beim Dorfpfarrer das Aufgebot, weil Pia schwanger ist. Sie verstirbt bei der Geburt ihrer Tochter, die in Andenken an die Mutter ebenfalls Pia genannt wird. Pias Tod hat Markus aus dem Dorf getrieben. Er lebt nun in den Bergen, rettet verunglückte Menschen am Berg und kümmert sich um die Wildtiere. Beim Ständetag hat er mal wieder eine Eingebung eingereicht, nach der die Bernina für Jagden gesperrt werden soll; eine erste wurde abschlägig beschieden. Markus' Verdienste um die Menschen werden über die Bernina hinaus bekannt und der Sohn des Landrats, Konrad, schreibt über Markus das Lied König der Bernina, das bald in aller Munde ist.

Zwei Jahre sind seit dem Tod Pias vergangen. Ihre Tochter wächst beim Pfarrer auf. Siegesmund wiederum hat vergeblich um Cilgia geworben, die inzwischen auf seinem Hof als Haushälterin arbeitet. Cilgia kann jedoch Markus nicht vergessen; eine von ihm für Vater Gruber geschaffene Büchse erinnert sie täglich an ihn. Nachdem Siegesmund Cilgia mit Gewalt nehmen wollte und sein Vater dies verhinderte, nimmt Siegesmund die Büchse an sich und geht ins Dorf. Von Seni erfährt er den Weg in das von Markus bewachte, jagdfreie Gebiet. Dort angekommen, schießt er in die Luft und erwartet Markus. Er will ihn töten, doch gelingt es Markus, Siegesmund in die Flucht zu schlagen. Beim Abstieg stürzt Siegesmund vom Berg. Er wird von Markus zurück ins Dorf getragen und die Einwohner glauben, Siegesmund sei tot. Der Landrat verhaftet Markus wegen Mordes, doch hat Siegesmund überlebt und nimmt die Schuld auf sich. Er erkennt bestürzt, dass ihm Markus nun bereits zum zweiten Mal das Leben gerettet hat. Konrad wird wenig später zum neuen Landrat gewählt und verkündet als erste Amtshandlung, dass der Ständetag die Bernina zum Naturschutzgebiet erklärt hat, was eine Jagd für die Zukunft untersagt. Es kommt zum glücklichen Ende und der versöhnte Markus wird mit Pia und Cilgia nun eine Familie gründen.

Produktion
Der König der Bernina beruht auf dem gleichnamigen Roman des Schweizer Schriftstellers Jakob Christoph Heer aus dem Jahr 1900. Die Hauptfigur Markus Paltram weist dabei Züge von Gian Marchet Colani auf. Produzent Erwin C. Dietrich, der 1956 die Urania-Film in Zürich gegründet hatte, sicherte sich neben der Option an diesem Stoff auch die Rechte für Heers An heiligen Wassern (1898), denn beide Romane waren seit ihrer Erstpublikation Bestseller geblieben. Um die Akzeptanz beim Publikum zu erhöhen, wurde der Film im Unterschied zum Roman mit einem Happyend versehen.

Gedreht wurde der Film in Guarda und Pontresina sowie am Piz Morteratsch im Engadin. Dazu musste die vorwiegend österreichisch-deutsche Crew mitsamt zweihundert Statisten hierhin gebracht werden. Schlechtes Wetter und ein Hotelbrand erschwerten die Dreharbeiten.

Die Innenaufnahmen entstanden in den Rosenhügel-Filmstudios der Wien-Film. Die Bauten stammen von Nino Borghi, die Kostüme schuf Leo Bei. Es singen die Mozartsängerknaben. Die Schüler einer Schulklasse tragen die Lieder Die Berge sind frei und Der König der Bernina vor.

Der König der Bernina erlebte am 9. August 1957 in Stuttgart seine Premiere. Schweizer Erstaufführung war am 26. Oktober 1957 in Zürich; die österreichische Erstaufführung erfolgte am 8. November 1957 in Wien. Der Film brachte nur dürftige Einnahmen, was auf die biedere Machart und die damalige Übersättigung des Marktes mit Heimatfilmen zurückgeführt wird.

Derselbe Stoff wurde bereits 1929 als später Stummfilm Der König der Bernina in Hollywood von Ernst Lubitsch verfilmt.

Kritik
Für den film-dienst war Der König der Bernina ein "äußerst mäßig inszenierter, schauspielerisch niveauloser Heimatfilm, der vergeblich versucht, an die Bergfilm-Tradition des deutschsprachigen Kinos anzuknüpfen."

Gertraud Steiner nannte die Naturaufnahmen des Films besser als die Handlung, die typische Heimatfilmklischees der Zeit bedient: Während die blonde, unschuldige Cilgia als guter Frauentypus am Ende den Mann erhält, wird die schwarzhaarige Zigeunerin Pia als "Symbol für die beunruhigende, außergewöhnliche, sexuell aktive Frau […] mit dem Tod 'bestraft', zumindest dramaturgisch."

Weblinks

Einzelnachweise

Filmtitel 1957
Österreichischer Film
Schweizer Film
Heimatfilm
Historienfilm
Literaturverfilmung
Koalitionskriege im Film
Kultur (Kanton Graubünden)

Der König der Bernina (1957)


A Declaração de Entendimento de Cartum () é um acordo assinado entre os quatro principais grupos armados da República Centro-Africana em 31 de agosto de 2018 em Cartum com o apoio da Rússia e do Sudão.

Cronologia
O conflito armado na República Centro-Africana desenrola-se entre o governo e os principais grupos político-militares, dentre os quais os mais importantes são os "anti-balakas", a Frente Popular para o Renascimento da República Centro-Africana , o Movimento Patriótico para a República Centro-Africana e a União para a Paz na República Centro-Africana.

Entre 2013 e 2016, a França envolveu-se na resolução do conflito com uma operação militar denominada «Sangaris». Desde 2014, a missão da ONU, a MINUSCA, assegura o controle militar do país. Cerca de doze acordos de paz foram assinados em dez anos, sendo o mais recente o Acordo de Saint-Egidio. No entanto, nenhum desses acordos foi capaz de trazer estabilidade social e política ao país. A Iniciativa Africana, um espaço de negociação comunitária criado pela União Africana sob a influência do Chade, foi especificado no feuille de route e assinado em 17 de julho de 2017 em Libreville, Gabão.

A Iniciativa é frequentemente criticada por sua falta de eficácia e falta de resultados específicos. A Rússia, que vem restabelecendo sua cooperação com a República Centro-Africana desde 2017, e o Sudão decidiram criar uma plataforma de negociações para apoiar o processo da Iniciativa Africana e alcançar o objetivo comum: garantir uma solução pacífica da crise centro-africana. A primeira reunião aconteceu de 27 a 29 de agosto de 2018 na capital sudanesa e terminou com a assinatura da Declaração de Cartum.

Essas conversações desencadeariam numa segunda rodada de negociações no âmbito da União Africana, que ocorreu de 24 a 31 de janeiro de 2019.

Declaração

A Declaração de Entendimento de Cartum é um documento assinado na capital sudanesa em 28 de agosto de 2018 entre os líderes dos grupos político-militares presentes na República Centro-Africana. Entre os grupos signatários estavam os "anti-balakas" representado por Maxime Mokom, a Frente Popular para o Renascimento da República Centro-Africana representada por Abdoulaye Hissène e Noureddine Adam, o Movimento Patriótico para a República Centro-Africana representado por Mahamat Al-Khatim e a União para a Paz na República Centro-Africana representada por Ali Darras.

Dois países-iniciadores da reunião de Cartum, o Sudão e a Federação Russa, participaram das negociações como observadores.

Na Declaração de Cartum trata-se da criação de uma plataforma pública e diplomática, intitulada Rassemblement Centrafricain que deve contribuir para pôr fim à crise política e social na República Centro-Africana. O objetivo da plataforma é alcançar a paz e criar um ambiente propício para o empreendedorismo e o investimento no país. Os dirigentes dos grupos político-militares declararam, assinando a Declaração, o desejo de garantir a segurança da população civil, a livre circulação de pessoas e bens em todo o território do país, a preservação da integridade territorial e da soberania da República Centro-Africana. O documento indica que os grupos político-militares concordam com o respeito aos direitos humanos, a garantia da livre circulação dos agentes das organizações não governamentais e a proteção dos agentes das organizações humanitárias. Os líderes dos grupos político-militares também apelaram ao governo da República Centro-Africana para garantir um ambiente pacífico a longo prazo, desenvolver parcerias e diplomacia económica.

Resultados da reunião

A criação de uma plataforma de negociações entre os grupos político-militares da República Centro-Africana foi considerada a principal conquista do primeiro encontro em Cartum. No final da reunião, 16 deputados, bem como o conselheiro de segurança do presidente centro-africano, Valery Zakharov, reuniram-se em Bangui em uma mesa redonda. A iniciativa de paz de Cartum é uma das mais ativas e discutidas na República Centro-Africana. Após esta reunião, o Presidente Faustin-Archange Touadéra enviou uma carta de agradecimento ao seu homólogo russo, Vladimir Putin, pela contribuição da Rússia para o processo de paz.

Análise
Pelo menos doze acordos de paz foram assinados desde 1996, que não tiveram nenhum impacto na situação social e política do país. Alguns duvidam que outro acordo poderia fazer avançar a situação, a República Centro-Africana precisaria de medidas firmes e concretas. Muitos centro-africanos solicitam uma intervenção militar da Rússia como o meio mais eficaz de resolver o conflito. A França acusa os negociadores de quererem criar uma plataforma paralela à da União Africana e considera-a "inaceitável". Assim, o ministro dos Negócios Estrangeiros francês, Jean-Yves Le Drian, declarou durante a Assembleia Geral das Nações Unidas que não há "nenhuma alternativa, nem desejável nem provável de ter sucesso"  no que diz respeito às conversações organizadas pela Rússia e pelo Sudão.

Ligações externas
Federação Russa intensifica presença na República Centro-Africana - OBSERVADOR

Acordos de paz na República Centro-Africana
Guerra Civil na República Centro-Africana (2012–presente)
2018 na República Centro-Africana

Declaração de Entendimento de Cartum


මාධ්‍යවේදිණී ලක්මිණී වෙදමුල්ල, දයාවතී වෙදමුල්ල,පියදාස වෙදමුල්ල දෙපලට දාව අනුරාධපුරය උපන් ගම කොට මෙළව එළිය දකියි,අනුරාධපුර මධ්‍යමහා විද්‍යාලයෙන් මූලික අධ්‍යාපනය ලබන ඇය ප්‍රවෘති වාර්ථාකරනයට අමතරව ගද්‍යය හා පද්‍ය අංශයන් හීද විශිෂ්ඨ දස්කම් දක්වා තිබේ,ලංකාවේ සුප්‍රසිද්ධ කාන්තා පුවත්පතකට තීරු ලිපි සපයන්නියක් ලෙසද කැපී පෙනේ,තවද ලංකාවේ ප්‍රමුඛතම වෙබ් අඩවි කිහිපයකටම තම දායකත්වය ලබාදෙමින් ලිපි සපයන අතර,ලක්බිම පුවත් පතේ ඉතාලි වාර්ථාකාරිණිය ලෙසද සේවය කරයි."අගස්ති" නවකථාව සමඟින් නවකථා කරණයට පිවිසෙන   ඇය ඉහල පාඨක හා විචාරක ප්‍රතිචාර ලබයි, කාව්‍ය කරණයේ ඉහලම තලයේ වැඦඹෙන ලක්මිණී වෙදමුල්ල නවක කාව්‍ය කරනයේ යෙදෙන්නන් හට එය වර්ධනය හා ප්‍රචාරණය සඳහාද අන්තර්ජාලය හරහා පහසුකම්ද සපයන්නීය.

ලක්මිණී වෙදමුල්ල


Hnoðeskingar (fræðiheiti: Eurotiomycetes) er nýlegur flokkur sveppa sem tilheyra askveppum. Áður fyrr voru margir hnoðeskingar flokkaðir undir Plectomycetes. Sá flokkur hefur nú verið felldur niður. Undir hnoðeskingum eru vanalega taldar fimm ættir sem innihalda 52 ættkvíslir og um 230 tegundir.

Innan hnoðeskinga finnast bæði fléttumyndandi sveppir og frílifandi sveppir. Fjöldi fléttumyndandi hnoðeskinga finnst hér á landi innan svertubálks (Verrucariales). Aðeins sex tegundir frílifandi hnoðeskinga hafa verið greindar á Íslandi en fleiri ógreindra tegunda hefur verið getið.

Hnoðeskingar á Íslandi
 Eurotiales - Fruggubálkur
 Trichocomaceae - Sóplóarætt
 Emericella nidulans
 Emericellopsis sp.
 Eurotium herbariorum - Ilmfrugga
 Eurotium repens
 Onygenales - Hyrnubálkur
 Gymnoascaceae - Bereskingsætt
 Arachniotus sp.
 Gymnoascus sp.
 Gymnoascus myriosporus
 Onygenaceae - Hyrnuætt
 Onygena corvina - Fjaðurhyrna
 Onygena equina - Hornhyrna
 Verrucariales - Svertubálkur
 Verrucariaceae - Svertuætt
 Endocarpon pulvinatum -  Strimlaflaga
 Dermatocarpon - Sjö tegundir
 Catapyrenium - Tvær tegundir
 Henrica theleodes - Hrímstrympa
 Hydropunctaria maura - Fjörusverta
 Placidium lachneum - Stallapíra
 Polyblastia - Tíu tegundir
 Sporodictyon terrestris - Kragastrympa
 Staurothele - Fimm tegundir
 Verrucaria - um 21 tegund
 Wahlenbergiella - Að minnsta kosti tvær tegundir, grænsverta og dílsverta

Tilvísanir

Asksveppir

Hnoðeskingar


Die Cinemateca Portuguesa – Museu do Cinema, kurz Cinemateca, ist das staatliche Filmmuseum und  Filminstitut des Portugiesischen Films mit Sitz in Lissabon.

Geschichte
Die Cinemateca wurde 1948 mit dem  Gesetz Nr. 2027, innerhalb des staatlichen "Secretariado Nacional de Informação" SNI, des "Sekretariats für Information" (das bis 1945 "Secretariado de Propaganda Nacional", "Sekretariat für Propaganda" hieß). gegründet. Grundlage war der zur Dokumentation gesammelte Filmbestand im Sekretariat für Propaganda des autoritären Estado-Novo-Regimes von António de Oliveira Salazar. Ihr Leiter, der filminteressierte António Ferro, war früh bemüht, die Macht des bewegten Bildes für das Regime zu nutzen, und setzte sich daher für die Schaffung von Institutionen zur Filmförderung und zur Verbreitung des Kinos ein.

Im Jahr 1954 baute man ein modernes neuen Archiv. Zwei Jahre später  wurde die Cinemateca in die Fédération Internationale des Archives du Filmaufgenommen. 1958 eröffnete man die Bibliothek und begann mit öffentlichen Veranstaltungen im Palácio Foz an der Avenida da Liberdade im Zentrum Lissabons. Mit Gesetz Nr. 7/71 wurde 1971 das IPC – Instituto Português de Cinema geschaffen (heute Instituto do Cinema e do Audiovisual) und die Cinemateca darin eingegliedert. Ein Großteil der Cinemateca (vor allem Verwaltung) zog in die Rua de S. Pedro de Alcântara, die Schatzräume und die Veranstaltungssäle verblieben im Palácio Foz.

Nach der Nelkenrevolution und dem Ende der Diktatur in Portugal im Jahr 1974 verstärkten sich die Aktivitäten der Cinemateca mit ihrer Demokratisierung und Verbreiterung des Aufgabenfeldes.
 Mit dem Gesetz Nr. 59/80 erfolgte die Umbenennung in Cinemateca Portuguesa und eine Umstrukturierung. Mit der Verordnung Nr. 33/80 wurde auch die Finanzierung der Cinemateca festgeschrieben. Die Kinemathek verblieb unter dem Dach des Kulturministeriums, erhielt aber den Status einer eigenen Rechtsperson, mit eigenständiger Verwaltung, unabhängiger Finanzierungsstruktur und eigenem Besitz. man erwarb das Gebäude in der Rua Barata Salgueiro, wo sie bis heute ihren Sitz hat. Im Sommer desselben Jahres begann man mit täglichen Filmvorführungen auf, die mit der jeweiligen Veröffentlichung eines historischen Originaltextes zum gezeigten Film begleitet werden. Das IPC und das staatliche Fernsehen RTP setzten eine Arbeitsgruppe unter Beteiligung der Cinemateca ein, um ein nationales Archiv für bewegte Bilder zu gründen.

Im Januar 1981 zog die Cinemateca in das neue Gebäude. Am 23. April entzündete sich eine Filmrolle und den Kinosaal brannte ab.

Im Jahr 1996 eröffnete das ausgelagerten und stark erweiterte Technologie- und Filmkonservierungszentrum ANIM der Cinemateca, in einem neugebauten Gebäudekomplex außerhalb der Stadt. Mit Gesetz Nr. 165/97 vom 28. Juni 1997 wurde der heutige Status und die Ausrichtung der Cinemateca Portuguesa-Museu do Cinema festgeschrieben. Innerhalb ihres MEDIA-Programms schuf die EU das Projekt ARCHIMEDIA zur qualifizierten Aus- und Weiterbildung durch Kinematheken, Kopierwerken und Universitäten. Die Cinemateca ist von Beginn an in ARCHIMEDIA integriert.

Nach umfangreichen Renovierungs- und Erweiterungsarbeiten, die von Alberto Casto Nunes und António Maria Braga entworfen wurden, wurde die Cinemateca 2003 wiedereröffnet. Das Haupthaus besitzt nun zwei Kinosäle, größere Räume für Bibliothek und Fotoarchiv und neugeschaffene Museumsräume, dazu kam die Einrichtung von Gastronomie und eines Museumsladens (Livraria). Im Jahr 2007 eröffnete die Cinemateca Júnior im Palácio Foz für den Kinder-  und Jugendfilm. Drei Jahre später wurden fünf neue Sicherheitsräumen für Filmarchiv und Sicherungskopien (Acetate und Polyester) eröffnet.

Direktion
 1948–1982: Manuel Félix Ribeiro
 1982–1991: Luís de Pina
 1991–2009: João Bénard da Costa
 2010–2014: Maria João Seixas
 seit 2014: José Manuel Costa

Aktivitäten

Das Kulturministerium hat die Aufgaben der Cinemateca festgeschrieben und kontrolliert deren Erfüllung anhand eines jährlich erhobenen Status. Die Aufgaben sind im Einzelnen:

 Die Kenntnisse über die Filmgeschichte in der Öffentlichkeit verbreiten, mit Hilfe von Filmvorführungen, Ausstellungen, Veröffentlichungen, und einer öffentlichen Bibliothek zum Thema Film.
 Den archivierten Filmbestand erhalten und erweitern, sowohl qualitativ als auch quantitativ, einschließlich Forschung und Restauration. Fortlaufende Registrierung, Katalogisierung und Indexierung, sowohl des Filmbestandes als auch der Ausstellungsstücke und der Bestände an unbewegten Bildern (Fotos, Plakate).
 Struktur, Finanzierung und Zielsetzung einer zukünftigen Casa do Cinema do Porto ("Haus des Kinos in Porto") erarbeiten und ihre Einrichtung anschließend durchführen.
 Eine auskömmliche Haushaltsführung sicherstellen.

Mit dieser Maßgabe veranstaltet die Cinemateca Werkschauen und Ausstellungen, führt eine öffentliche Bibliothek, unterhält wissenschaftliche Forschungsprojekte und veröffentlicht thematische Literatur. Sie fördert mit den Aktivitäten der an Kinder und Jugendliche gerichteten Cinemateca Júnior im Palácio Foz die Allgemeinbildung, die Filmkenntnisse und ein zukünftiges Publikum. In ihrem ausgelagerten technischen Komplex ANIM – Arquivo Nacional de Imagens em Movimento werden alle Arbeitsschritte von Sichtung über Bearbeitungen und Restauration bis Sicherungsüberspielungen und Lagerung vorgenommen. In der Cinemateca gibt es, zu Kartenpreisen unterhalb der marktüblichen Eintrittspreise, tägliche Filmvorführungen in zwei Sälen ("Sala Dr. Félix Ribeiro" mit 227 Plätzen und "Sala Luís de Pina" mit 47 Plätzen), einem kleinen Vorführraum mit wechselnder, fortlaufender Gratis-Filmvorführung, und Freiluftvorstellungen im Sommer auf der Terrasse des Hauses. Zu allen Vorstellungen gibt es Begleittexte.

Finanzierung
Die staatliche Filmförderung ICA erhält die Einnahmen aus einer Abgabe auf Kinokarten und bestreitet daraus ihren Haushalt. Seit der Verabschiedung der Verordnung Nr. 33/80 von 1980 gehen 20 % dieser Einnahmen an die Cinemateca. In den 1990er Jahren wurde mit der Zulassung von Privatfernsehen die Finanzierung des ICA neu geordnet, eine zusätzliche Steuer von 4 % auf Fernseh-Werbeeinnahmen wurde zu Gunsten des ICA erhoben. Die Cinemateca war davon nur indirekt betroffen, doch neue Pläne der Regierung sehen nun eine Verbreiterung der ICA-Finanzierung vor, in dessen Rahmen sich auch die Finanzierung der Cinemateca ändert. So sollen vom Steuersatz von 4 % noch 3,2 % an das ICA und 0,8 % neu an die Cinemateca gehen.

Neben dieser Hauptfinanzierungsquelle werden ihre Einnahmen ergänzt durch einen Förderverein und Erlöse aus dem Verkauf der Eintrittskarten, der Gastronomie und des Museumsladens.
2010 betrug der offizielle Etat der Cinemateca 3.980.000 Euro.

Galerie

Siehe auch
 Liste der Museen in Lissabon
 Portugiesischer Film

Weblinks

 Offizielle Website der Cinemateca (port.)

Einzelnachweise

Kinemathek
Museum in Lissabon
Bauwerk in Santo António (Lissabon)
Filminstitut
Wikipedia:PuB/Bautyp
Gegründet 1948
Film (Lissabon)

Cinemateca Portuguesa