İspanyol Armadası, 1588 yılında İspanya'nın emrinde, Kuzey Denizi'ni geçerek İngiltere'ye çıkarma yapmayı amaçlayan orduya eşlik eden filo. Katolik İspanya kralı II. Felipe (1527-1598) tarafından I. Elizabeth'i (II. Felipe, Elizabeth'in aynı zamanda kayınbiraderidir) tahtından düşürmek için gönderilen Dük Medina Sidonia komutasındaki filo, ilan edilmemiş İngiltere-İspanya Savaşı'nın (1585-1604) en büyük seferini yürüttü.

İngiliz deniz kuvvetleri, 131 savaş gemisi ve savaş gemisine dönüştürülmüş ticaret gemisinden oluşan İspanyol filosuna karşı önceleri çok önemli bir üstünlük kuramadı. Ancak İngilizler, Gravelines Muharebesi'nde, ateşe verilmiş gemileri üzerlerine salarak, topçuların da desteğiyle, İspanyol denizcilerin etkili formasyonlarını dağıtabildi. Armada böylece çıkarmanın parçası olan, Dunkirk'de bekleyen kara kuvvetleriyle buluşmayı başaramadı ve İngiltere'nin doğu kıyısı boyunca kuzeye doğru püskürtüldü.

Armada seferde

II. Felipe'nin, seferi yürüten Dük Medina Sidonia'ya tam olarak talimatı şöyleydi: Emirlerimi aldıktan sonra Armada ile yola çıkacaksınız, Manş Denizi'ne doğru yelken açacaksınız, onu geçerek Kap Margaret'e kadar gideceksiniz ve yeğenim Dük Parma'ya elinizi uzatıp karşı tarafa geçireceksiniz.

Armada, 28 Mayıs 1588'de 131 gemi, 2600 top ve 35 bin mürettebatla Lizbon'dan Manş Denizi'ne doğru yola çıktı. İngiliz filosu Plymouth'da hazırda dururken İspanyolların harekâtıyla ilgili haberleri bekliyordu. İspanya'nın bütün gemileri ancak 30 Mayıs'ta limanı terk edebildi. Aynı gün Elizabeth'in elçisi Dr. Valentin Dale, Parma'nın temsilcileriyle barış müzakerelerine başladı ve 27 Temmuz'a kadar müzakerelerden vazgeçilmedi. Seferin sonucu geçmiş zamanlarda İngiltere'nin büyük zaferi olarak adlandırılmış olsa da, doğrudan çatışma içinde sadece üç geminin battığı küçük bir çarpışmadan öte bir şey değildi. Nihayet 1604 yılında biten bir savaşın sadece bir parçasıydı ve İspanya'nın 1805'e dek süren denizlerdeki egemenliğini  önleyemedi.

İki tarafın stratejisi

İspanyollar ağır ve yavaş gemilerine, az mesafede büyük hasar veren kısa menzilli toplar yüklemişlerdi. Bu yüzden düşman gemiye yanaşıp, askerlerini karşı güverteye çıkarıp, yakın dövüşle İngiliz  gemilerini ele geçirmek istiyorlardı. İngilizler ise tam aksine, az askerleri olduğundan yakın dövüşten kaçınıyorlardı, süratli gemileri ve uzun menzilli toplarıyla düşmanı uzaktan atışlarla batırmak istiyorlardı. Ancak, hilal şeklinde formasyonlarını sıkı koruyan İspanyol denizcilerin müthiş disiplini sayesinde, nispeten fazla bir zarar veremediler.
İngilizler resmen Lord Howard'ın komutasında olmalarına rağmen, Howard, fiilen kontrolü, teknik açıdan kendi emrinde olan, daha tecrübeli deniz komutanı Sir Francis Drake'e bıraktı.

Manş Denizi'nde

Kötü hava şartlarının hızını yavaşlatmasıyla Armada ilk kez ancak 27 Temmuz'da, The Lizard yarımadası açıklarında gözlendi. İngiltere'nin güney kıyısı boyunca dizili, sinyal ateşinden oluşan uyarı sistemi sayesinde haberi iki gün içinde Londra'ya ulaştı. Armada güney sahilini kendisini İngiliz filosunun 55 gemisinin beklediği Plymouth'a kadar izledi.

'Çizgi şeklinde formasyon' oluşturan İngilizler, Armada'nın peşine takılarak rüzgâr sayesinde stratejik manevra avantajı elde ettiler. Gelişmeleri sonraki haftalarda Eddystone ve Portland açıklarında sonuçlanamayan iki çarpışma takip etti. İspanyollar geride kaza sonucu harap olan iki gemi enkazı bıraktı. Armada, Parma'nın ordusundan haber beklemek için Wight Adası açıklarında geçici bir üs kurma olanağı elde etti. Bunu mutlaka engellemek için İngilizler dört kola ayrılarak saldırıya geçerken, Drake güçlü bir birlikle güneyden yaklaşıyordu. Bu kritik anda, Medina Sidonia, güneye takviye gönderdi ve Armada'nın akıntı yüzünden kayalara oturmasını önlemek için açık denize yönlenmesini emretti. İspanyol filo Calais'e doğru yol almak zorunda kalmıştı.

Robert Dudley, Earl of Leicester, aynı anlarda, Thames'in nehir ağzını İspanyol çıkarmasına karşı korumak için Tilbury Fort, Essex'de 4000 kişilik bir güç topladı. İngiliz donanmasının planı, Armada'nın Parma'nın çıkarma güçlerini taşıyan kayıklarına eşlik ederek korumasını önlemekti. Plan gerçekleşirse Robert Dudley'in topladığı söz konusu birliklerin ve sahillerdeki diğer savunma güçlerinin önemi kalmayacaktı.

Calais'deki ateşe verilmiş gemiler

Parma'nın 16000 kişilik ordusu Dunkirk'de beklerken, 5 Ağustos'ta İspanyol donanması hilal şeklindeki sıkı savunma formasyonunu koruyarak Calais'nin birkaç mil önünde demir attı. Fransa ve Hollanda'da, Armada'nın kendine sığınak arayabileceği, derin suları olan limanların eksikliği İspanyolları böyle bir adıma zorladı. Hatta Avrupa çapında Armada gibi bir filonun ihtiyaçlarını karşılayabilecek bir liman neredeyse yoktu. Bu durumu gözden kaçırmak Kral II. Felipe'nin hatasıydı.

8 Ağustos gece yarısı, İngilizler sekiz gemilerini ateşe vererek rüzgârın da desteğiyle İspanyol deniz araçlarının üstüne saldılar. İki yanan gemi karşılanarak, zarar veremeden kenara çekildi. Ancak diğer altı yanan geminin hala üstlerine geldiğini gören İspanyollar, sıyrılmak için demir hatlarını kestiler. Yanan İngiliz gemileri tek bir İspanyol gemisine zarar veremese de, yaratılan kargaşa sayesinde Armada'nın muhteşem formasyonu dağıtılmıştı. İspanyolların moralleri bozulmuştu ve çok daha vahim olanı, rüzgâr güney-batıdan estiğinden Calais'ye geri dönebilmek için rüzgâraltına doğru yol almak zorundaydılar. Daha hafif ve daha süratli olan İngiliz gemileri, İspanyolların dağılmış formasyonlarından faydalanarak gemilerini birer birer köşeye sıkıştırmaya başladılar.

Gravelines Muharabesi
Günümüzde Fransa'nın bir şehri olan Gravelines, 1588 yılında İspanyol-Hollanda'nın Flaman Bölgesi'ne aitti. İspanya'nın İngiltere'ye en yakın bölgesiydi. Filosunu yeniden toparlamaya çalışan Medina-Sidonia, Flaman sahilini kaplayan sığ denizde kumsala oturmaktan çekindiği için, doğusundaki kıyıya yanaşmak istemiyordu. Parma'nın ordusunun, kayıklarıyla, Flaman sahili boyunca dizilen limanlardan yola çıkarak, bir an önce gelmesini bekliyordu. Ancak o zamanlarda iletişim kurmak tahmin ettiklerinden çok daha zor olduğu için, Parma gelişmeleri tam olarak takip edememişti. Ordusunu İspanyol filosuyla birleştirmeye hazır olması için altı güne daha ihtiyacı olduğunu söyledi. Bu arada, Medina Sidonia, Calais ile Gravelines arasında bir mevkiide bekletiliyordu. İngilizler, Manş Denizi'ndeki çarpışmalar sayesinde, Armada'nın gücü ve zaafları hakkında fikir edinmişlerdi. İngiliz donanması saldırıya geçerek İspanyolların üç gemisini batırdı sekiz gemisini hasara uğrattı. Ancak en değerli gemileri fazla yara almadan kurtuldu. İngilizlerin cephanesi bitene kadar, saldırı sonucu ve hastalıklar yüzünden İspanyollar 2000 kayıp verdi. İspanyolların ağır toplarının menzilleri yetersiz kalıyordu. Ayrıca İngilizler, yukarıda belirtildiği gibi, daha hızlı ve daha kıvrak gemileri ile ve de daha seri top atışlarıyla savaş düzeni bozulmuş rakibe karşı üstünlük elde etmişlerdi.

Ertesi gün rüzgârın tekrar güneyden esmeye başlaması Medina Sidonia'ya Armada'yı kuzeye yönlendirmesine olanak tanıdı. İngilizler İspanyol filosunu kovalayarak, Armada'nın toparlanarak geri dönüp Parma'ya eşlik etmesini önlediler. Zamanla bitmek üzere olan cephane İngilizleri İspanyolların peşini bırakmaya zorladı. Kendi cephanesi de bitmek üzere olan Medina Sidonia artık yenilgiyi kabullenmişti ve bundan sonraki görevinin, İspanya kralına gemilerini mümkün olduğu kadar az kayıpla teslim etmek olduğunu düşündü.

İspanya'ya dönüşü

İspanyol filosu İskoçya ve İrlanda'nın etrafından dolanarak Kuzey Atlantik'e geçti. Uzun seferin gemileri yıprattığı artık iyice gözükmeye başlamıştı. Su ve yiyecek erzakları büyük ölçüde azalmıştı. Süvarilerin atları denize atıldı. İrlanda açıklarında Armada kasırgaya kapıldı ve iki düzine gemisi İrlanda sahiline fırlatıldı.

Bir başka teoriye göre Meksika Körfezi'nin akıntısına yenildi. Sebebiyse felaket bir denizcilik hatası sonucu İrlanda'ya planlandığından çok daha fazla yaklaşılmasıydı. Boğularak, açlıktan ölerek ve İrlanda'da karaya çıktıktan sonra İngiliz hükûmeti tarafından yakalanıp infaz edilerek toplam 5000 denizcinin hayatını kaybettiği düşünülüyor. Hayatta kalanlar İrlandalı Keltler'den yardım gördü, çoğu İskoçya'ya kaçmayı başardı.

Sonunda 67 gemisi ve 10000 sağ adamıyla geri döndü. Erzakları tükenmiş olduğundan çoğu hastalıktan ölmek üzereydi. Çoğu İspanya'da ve limandaki hastane gemilerinde öldü. Rivayete göre II. Felipe haberi duyduktan sonra şöyle demiş. Ben gemilerimi düşmanla savaşmaya gönderdim, Tanrı'nın rüzgârıyla savaşmaya değil.

Sonrası

Tek bir gemileri bile batmayan İngilizlerin can kayıpları asgari düzeydeydi. Ancak, geri döneceğini sandıkları Armada'yı beklerlerken, tifo ve dizanteri tahminen 6000-8000 arasında tayfa ve askerin ölümüne sebep oldu . Ayrıca, sağ kalan askerlerine destek sağlayan İspanyol hükûmetinin aksine, İngiliz hükûmeti bütçe sorunları sebebiyle aylarca askerlerinin maaşlarını ödemedi . Galibiyeti tarihlerinin en büyük zaferi olarak kutlayan İngilizler, bir sonraki yıl kendileri de İspanya kıyılarında hezimete uğramaktan kurtulamadı. Milli gururun şahlanışı yıllar sürerken, Elizabeth'in efsanesi ölümünden sonra da devam etti . İspanyol donanmasının geri püskürtülmesi, Avrupa çapında Protestanları cesaretlendirdi. İspanyol ticaret gemilerine korsan saldırıları çoğaldı. İspanyollar hatalardan ders çıkararak, İngilizlerin icatlarına da  bakarak, takip eden yıllarda filolarını tutarlılıkla geliştirdiler .

Savaşa katılmış gemiler

İngiltere ve Hollanda

Ark (flag, Lord High Admiral Charles Howard)
Elizabeth Bonaventure
Rainbow (Lord Henry Seymour)
Golden Lion (Thomas Howard)
White Bear (Alexander Gibson)
Vanguard (William Winter)
Revenge (Francis Drake)
Elizabeth (Robert Southwell)
Victory (Rear Admiral Sir John Hawkins)
Antelope (Henry Palmer)
Triumph (Martin Frobisher)
Dreadnought (George Beeston)
Mary Rose (Edward Fenton)
Nonpareil (Thomas Fenner)
Hope (Robert Crosse)
Galley Bonavolia
Swiftsure (Edward Fenner)
Swallow (Richard Hawkins)
Foresight
Aid
Bull
Tiger
Tramontana
Scout
Achates
Charles
Moon
Advice
Merlin
Spy (pinnace)
Sun (pinnace)
Cygnet
Brigandine
George (hoy)
34 ticaret gemisi
63 barka
66 kıyı gemisi
Disdain
Margaret and John
30 Hollandalı cromsterler Flaman sahilinde devriye
7 Ağustos'ta ateşe verilmiş gemiler:
Bark Talbot
Hope
Thomas
Bark Bond
Bear Yonge
Elizabeth
Angel
"Hastahane gemisi"

İspanya

İsimlerin arkasındaki rakamlar top sayısını ifade ediyor

Portekizler
São Martinho 48 (section flag, Dük Medina Sidonia)
São João 50 (section vice-flag)
São Marcos 33 (Don Diogo Pimental or Penafiel) — 8 Ağustos'ta Ostend yakınlarında karaya oturdu
São Felipe 40 (Don Francisco de Toledo) — 8 Ağustos'ta Nieupoort ve Ostend arasında karaya oturdu, 9 Ağustos'ta Hollandalılar ele geçirdi
San Luis 38
San Mateo 34 — 8 Ağustos'ta Nieupoort ve Ostend arasında karaya oturdu, 9 Ağustos'ta Hollandalılar ele geçirdi
Santiago 24
Galeon de Florencia 52 (başka ismi San Francesco ex-Levantine, Niccolo Bartoli)
San Crístobal 20
San Bernardo 21
Augusta 13
Julia 14

Biskayan

Santa Ana 30 (section flag, Juan Martínez de Recalde)
El Gran Grin 28 (section vice-flag) — 24 Eylül'de Clare Island açıklarında karaya oturdu
Santiago 25
La Concepcion de Zubelzu 16
La Concepcion de Juan del Cano 18
La Magdalena 18
San Juan 21
La María Juan 24 — 8 Ağustos'ta Gravelines'in kuzeyinde battı
La Manuela 12
Santa María de Montemayor 18
María de Aguirre 6
Isabela 10
Patache de Miguel de Suso 6
San Esteban 6

Castillian
San Crístobal 36 (section flag, Diego Flores de Valdés)
San Juan Bautista 24 (section vice-flag)
San Pedro 24
San Juan 24
Santiago el Mayor 24
San Felipe y Santiago 24
La Asuncion 24
Nuestra Señora del Barrio 24
San Linda y Celedon 24
Santa Ana 24
Nuestra Señora de Begoña 24
La Trinidad 24
Santa Catalina 24
San Juan Bautista 24
Nuestra Señora del Rosario 24
San Antonio de Padua 12

Andalusian
Nuestra Señora del Rosario 46 (section flag, Don Pedro de Valdés) — 31 Temmuz'da Santa Catalina ile çarpıştı, 1 Ağustos'ta Revenge tarafından ele geçirildi
San Francisco 21 (section vice-flag)
San Juan Bautista 31
San Juan de Gargarin 16
La Concepcion 20
Duquesa Santa Ana 23 (hulk) — 29 Eylül'de İrlanda kıyısında hurda oldu
Santa Catalina 23 — 31 Temmuz'da Nuestra Señora del Rosario ile çarpıştı
La Trinidad 13
Santa María de Juncal 20
San Bartolome 27
Espiritu Santo

Guipúzcoan
Santa Ana 47 (section flag, Miguel de Oquendo)
Santa María de la Rosa 26 (section vice-flag) — 8 Ağustos'ta hasar gördü, 16 Eylül'de Blaskett Sound, İrlanda açıklarında hurda oldu,
San Salvador 25 — 31 Temmuz'da patlama sonucu hasar gördü ve ele geçirildi
San Esteban 26 — 20 Eylül'de İrlanda'da hurda oldu,
Santa Marta 20
Santa Bárbara 12
San Buenaventura 21
La María San Juan 12
Santa Cruz 18
Doncella 16 — İspanya'ya geri dönerken Santander açıklarında battı
Asuncion 9
San Bernabe 9
Nuestra Señora de Guadalupe 1
La Madalena 1

Levant
La Regazona 30 (section flag, Martín de Bertandona)
La Lavia 25 (section vice-flag)
La Rata Santa María Encoronada 35 (Leiva)
San Juan de Sicilia 26 (formerly Brod Martolosi) — 5 Kasım'da Tobermory Bay, İskoçya açıklarında patlama sonucu havaya uçtu (İngiliz ajanlarından sabotaj ihtimali var)
La Trinidad Valencera 42 — 8 Ağustos'ta karaya oturdu
La Anunciada 24 (formerly Presveta Anuncijata) — 19 Eylül'de Shannon Nehri ağzında batırıldı
San Nicolas Prodaneli 26 (formerly Sveti Nikola)
La Juliana 32
Santa María de Vison 18
La Trinidad de Scala 22

Hulklar
El Gran Grifón 38 (section flag, Juan Gómez de Medina) — 8 Ağustos'ta karaya oturdu
San Salvador 24 (section vice-flag)
Perro Marino 7
Falcon Blanco Mayor 16
Castillo Negro 27
Barca de Amburg 23 — sank
Casa de Paz Grande 26
San Pedro Mayor 29
El Sanson 18
San Pedro Menor 18
Barca de Danzig 26
Falcon Blanco Mediano 16 (Don Luis de Cordoba?) — 25 Eylül'de hurda oldu
San Andres 14
Casa de Paz Chica 15
Ciervo Volante 18
Paloma Blanca 12
La Ventura 4
Santa Bárbara 10
Santiago 19
David 7
El Gato 9
San Gabriel 4
Esayas 4

Neapolitan galleasslar
San Lorenzo 50 (Don Hugo de Moncado) — 8 Ağustos'ta karaya oturup ele geçirildi, İngiliz filosunu oyaladı
Zúñiga 50
Girona 50 — Ulster'da hurda oldu
Napolitana ("Patrona")

22 patacheler ve zabralar (Don Antonio Hurtado de Medoza)
4 kürek gemisi, her biri 5 toplu (Diego de Medrano)
Parma'nın kayıkları

Kaynakça

 Armada (1988)
 A History of England, from the Defeat of the Armada to the Death of Elizabeth Edward Cheyney
 The Defeat of the Spanish Armada Garrett Mattingly
 England and the Spanish Armada (1990)
 The Expedition of Sir John Norris and Sir Francis Drake to Spain and Portugal, 1589 RB Wernham
 The Enterprise of England (1988)
 The Return of the Armadas: the Later Years of the Elizabethan War against Spain, 1595-1603 RB Wernham
 Sir Francis Drake: the Queen's Pirate Harry Kelsey
 The Spanish Armada by Michael Lewis. (1960).
 The Spanish Armada by C. Martin & G. Parker. (1988)
 The Spanish Armada: the Experience of the War in 1588 Felipe Fernández-Armesto
 The voyage of the Armada (1981)
 Richard Bagwell, Ireland under the Tudors vols. 2 & 3 (London, 1885–1890)
 John O'Donovan (ed.) Annals of Ireland by the Four Masters (1851).
 Cyril Falls Elizabeth's Irish Wars (1950; reprint London, 1996)
 T. P.Kilfeather Ireland: Graveyard of the Spanish Armada (Anvil Books, 1967)
 Winston Graham The Spanish Armadas (1972; 2.Baskı 2001)
 The Prince Nicolo Machiavelli
 Historic Bourne etc. J.J.Davies (1909)
 Chambers Biographical Dictionary J.O. Thorne. (1969)
 BBC-ZDF vs TV coproduction Natural History of Europe
 Discovery Civilization Battlefield Detectives - What Sank The Armada?

İspanyol Armadası


Amlaíb Cenncairech fue un caudillo hiberno-nórdico, probablemente monarca del reino de Limerick, con una trayectoria notable de actividad militar en la Irlanda del  (c. 930), especialmente en Connacht y posiblemente en Ulster y Leinster. La década 920 y 930 corresponde al periodo de máximo apogeo del dominio vikingo en Irlanda y cuando Limerick llegó casi a igualar al reino de Dublín en poder.

Etimología
Cennc(h)airech se traduce normalmente como "cabeza-de-costras" pero posiblemente no sea la más adecuada para Amlaíb. El adjetivo cairech significa, según el diccionario de la lengua irlandesa, "criminal; culpable; pecador", y por lo tantoCennc(h)airech podría traducirse como "Cabeza pecadora".

Vida
Amlaíb aparece brevemente mencionado en los Anales de los cuatro maestros y Anales de Clonmacnoise. Los eventos también se recogen en Chronicon Scotorum pero no se menciona a Amlaíb por su nombre.

Anales de los cuatro maestros
AFM931.15[933]: La victoria sobre Duibhthir fue ganada por Amhlaeibh Ceanncairech de Luimneach [Limerick], donde algunos nobles de Uí Maine fueron asesinados.

AFM932.2[934]: Los extranjeros de Luimneach saquearon Connaught hasta Magh-Luirg hacia el norte, y hasta Badhbhghna al este.

AFM934.6[936]: Amhlaibh Ceannchairech, con los extranjeros, vinieron desde Loch Eirne a través de Breifne a Loch Ribh. Una noche de Navidad cruzaron el Sinainn, y permanecieron siete meses allí; y Magh-Aei fue destruida y saqueada por ellos.

AFM935.16[937]: Amhlaeibh, hijo de Godfrey, señor de los extranjeros, llegó a Lughnasadh desde Ath-cliath, fueron llevados como prisioneros Amhlaeibh Ceanncairech desde Loch Ribh, y los extranjeros que iban con él [con Cairech], tras destruir sus naves.

AFM935.17[937]: Los extranjeros de Athcliath perdieron su fortaleza, y marcharon a Inglaterra.

La interpretación de los dos últimos párrafos es que Amlaíb mac Gofraid reclutó a Amlaíb Cenncairech para la batalla contra Athelstan, la que sería la batalla de Brunanburh.

Algunos historiadores intentaron interpretar estos acontecimientos como la culminación del conflicto y rivalidad entre los vikingos de Dublín y Limerick, desde la llegada de Tomrair mac Ailchi en 922. Asumen que ambos Amlaíb se enzarzaron en una batalla donde mac Gofraid tuvo una "victoria decisiva" sobre Cenncairech, Limerick dejaría de desempeñar un rol importante en Irlanda durante dos o tres décadas.

Anales de Clonmacnoise
Sin seguridad absoluta, parece que Cenncairech sucedió a Colla ua Báirid (m. 932) según Chronicon Scotorum como rey escandinavo de Limerick, y por lo tanto se vio involucrado en los acontecimientos del año 933.:

AC928[933]: Los daneses de Loghernie apresaron y destruyeron Irlanda, sin respetar persona, edad, o sexo hasta llegar a Loghgawney (hoy Lough Gowna, baronía de Granard, Longford).<ref>
MacGeoghegan, Connell (trans.) y Denis Murphy (ed.), The Annals of Clonmacnoise, trad. 1627. Printed in Dublin by The University Press in 1896, p. 150</ref>

AC929[934]: Los daneses de Lymbrick apresaron y destruyeron todo Connought hasta Moylerge al norte y hasta Bowgna al este.AC930[936]: Los daneses de Logherney llegaron a Loghrie en la víspera de Navidad, Awley Keanchyreagh, y permanecieron allí siete meses destruyendo y saqueando las fronteras de Connought, llamadas Moyenoye.De nuevo se menciona la "expedición a Inglaterra", pero no aparece ninguna cita sobre conflictos con Dublín:
AC931[937]: Los daneses de Loghrie, llegaron a Dublin. Awley [mac Gofraid] con todos los daneses de Dublín y parte del norte de Irlanda marcharon a ultramar. Los daneses que partieron desde Dublín llegaron a Inglaterra, y con la ayuda de los daneses de aquel reino, ofrecieron batalla a los sajones de las llanuras de Othlyn, donde hubo gran matanza de nórdicos y daneses, entre los cuales se encontraban muertos los capitanes Sithfrey y Oísle y dos hijos de Sithrick, Galey, Awley <...> Chronicon Scotorum
De nuevo, no aparece ninguna cita sobre conflictos con Dublín:
CS932: Colla nieto de Bairid, rey de Luimnech, muere.CS933: Los extranjeros marcharon sobre Loch Érne y devastaron muchos pueblos e Iglesias hasta Loch Gamna.CS934: Los extranjeros de Luimnech hicieron incursion en Connacht hasta el norte de Magh Luirg y al este de Badhgna.CS936: Los extranjeros de Loch Érne marcharon sobre Loch Ríbh.CS937: Los extranjeros de Loch Ríbh se fueron a Áth Cliath. Teorías
 Aparece un Amlaíb de Limerick como personaje protohistórico de una saga del  Caithréim Chellacháin Chaisil, que muere a manos del mismo Cellachán Caisil. El historiador Alexander Bugge no toma partido sobre la historicidad, pero apuesta por Amlaíb Cenncairech como primer ejemplo de un histórico Amlaíb asociado con Limerick.
 Donnchadh Ó Corráin recuerda que el "Amlaíb del texto recuerda vagamente a Amlaíb Cennchairech pero hay que tener en cuenta que Amlaíb era uno de los nombres vikingos más comunes en Irlanda."Bugge también cree que Amlaíb de Limerick se puede identificar como el padre de Amlaíb mac Amlaíb citado en Cogad Gáedel re Gallaib (obra contemporánea a Caithréim Chellacháin Chaisil), como aliado de Ivar de Limerick. Amlaíb mac Amlaíb fue desterrado junto a Ivar tras la pérdida de los nórdicos en la batalla de Sulcoit (967) contra los Dál gCais dirigidos por Mathgamain mac Cennétig. Ambos aparecen como los que "intentaron conquistar Britania" juntos, aparentemente sin éxito, ya que Amlaíb "murió en manos del rey de Inglaterra" e Ivar ocupó de nuevo el trono de Limerick en solitario.

 Véase también
 Donnubán mac Cathail, possible nieto de Amlaíb

 Referencias

 Bibliografía
 Lee, Timothy, "The Northmen of Limerick", in Journal of the Royal Historical and Archaeological Association of Ireland, Fourth Series, Vol. 9, No. 80 (Jul. – Oct., 1889): 227–231. JSTOR
 Mac Niocaill, Gearóid (ed. & tr.), Chronicon Scotorum. Unpublished manuscript. edition and translation
 MacGeoghegan, Connell (trans.), Denis Murphy (ed.), The Annals of Clonmacnoise. Translated 1627. Printed in Dublin by The University Press in 1896.
 Shetelig, Haakon, Viking Antiquities in Great Britain and Ireland, Volume I. Oslo: H. Aschehoug & Co. 1940.
 Steenstrup, Johannes C. H. R., Normannerne, Vols. 3–4''. Copenhague: Forlagt af Rudolph Klein, I. Cohens Bogtrykkeri. 1882. alternative scan

Historia medieval de Irlanda
Reyes vikingos
Vikingos de Limerick
Irlandeses del siglo X

Amlaíb Cenncairech


Asim Šehić (nacido el 16 de junio de 1981) es un futbolista bosnio, actualmente jugando en Arabia Saudita en el Al-Faisaly. También jugó un partido en la selección de fútbol de Bosnia y Herzegovina en 2004.

Clubes

Enlaces externos
Asim Šehić en nogometni-magazin.com (en croata)
Asim Šehić en National-Football-Teams.com (en inglés)
Estadísticas internacionales de Asim Šehić en la web oficial de la Federación Croata de Fútbol (en inglés)

Futbolistas de la selección de fútbol de Bosnia y Herzegovina
Futbolistas del Istra 1961
Futbolistas del NK Slaven Belupo

Asim Šehić


An Elymus woroschilowii in uska species han Liliopsida nga ginhulagway ni N.S. Probatova. An Elymus woroschilowii in nahilalakip ha genus nga Elymus, ngan familia nga Poaceae. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Elymus

Elymus woroschilowii


Karl Weber (* 8. März 1885 in Lehnin; † 15. April 1945 in Verden (Aller)) war ein deutscher Jurist und Politiker (NSDAP).

Leben
Weber war seit 1904 aktiver Instandsetzungsoffizier und nahm als Soldat am Ersten Weltkrieg teil, zuletzt als Hauptmann. Während des Krieges wurde er mit dem Eisernen Kreuz II. Klasse ausgezeichnet. 1918 wurde er kriegsdienstbeschädigt aus der Armee entlassen. Im Anschluss wurde er informatorisch beim Magistrat der Stadt Bad Orb beschäftigt. Später fungierte Weber als Kurdirektor und Gemeindevorsteher des Nordseebades Wittdün auf Amrum. Von 1925 bis 1930 studierte er Rechts- und Staatswissenschaften an den Universitäten in Kiel, München und Hamburg. Darüber hinaus promovierte er zum Doktor der Rechte.

Während der Zeit der Weimarer Republik trat Weber in die Deutschvölkische Freiheitspartei ein. Er wurde im November 1926 Mitglied der NSDAP und war seit 1931 Kreisleiter der Partei für Lüneburg-Land. Von 1932 bis 1933 war er Mitglied des Preußischen Landtages. Von 1933 bis 1945 amtierte er als Landrat des Kreises Verden. Von 1939 bis 1943 übernahm er zudem die kommissarische Leitung des Kreises Rotenburg.

Am 15. April 1945 erschoss Weber seine Frau und sich mit einem Jagdgewehr.

Literatur
 Ernst Kienast (Hrsg.): Handbuch für den Preußischen Landtag, Ausgabe für die 5. Wahlperiode, Berlin 1933, S. 394.
 Joachim Woock: Hitlers willige Helfer – Nationalsozialisten im Landkreis Verden, Folge 1. Landrat Dr. Weber, in: Heimatkalender für den Landkreis Verden 50 (2007), S. 215–228.

Einzelnachweise

Mitglied des Preußischen Landtags (Freistaat Preußen)
Landrat (Provinz Hannover)
DVFP-Mitglied
NSDAP-Mitglied
Person im Ersten Weltkrieg (Deutsches Reich)
Deutscher
Jurist (Nationalsozialismus)
Jurist in der Kommunalverwaltung
Geboren 1885
Gestorben 1945
Mann
Person (Kloster Lehnin, Gemeinde)
Kreisleiter (NSDAP)

Karl Weber (Politiker, 1885)


القبر هو مكان دفن الإنسان بعد موته وهو عبارة عن حفرة تأخذ الشكل المستطيل بمساحة جسم الإنسان المتوفي وبعمق لا يتجاوز المترين في الغالب تُوضع فيه جثة الإنسان ويُغطى بالتراب بعد ذلك وتسمى قطعة الأرض التي تُخصص للقبور بالمقبرة.

القبور في العالم

تختلف هيئة وأشكال ومكان القبور باختلاف البلدان والمجتمعات والأديان كما تعتبر بعض القبور معالما سياحية في أماكن متفرقة في العالم. تكون القبور في بعض البلدان داخل أضرحة مخصصة لها. في الهند يعتبر ضريح تاج محل هو أحد القبور والأماكن القاطبة للسياح في العالم بسبب هندسة معمار البنيان وتاريخه كما تم تصنيفه من موقع التراث العالمي ضمن عجائب الدنيا السبع الجديدة.

كذلك قبر الملك خوفو في مصر يعتبر من المعالم المثيرة للجدل، كما يعتبر المعلم الوحيد المتبقي إلى يومنا هذا من عجائب الدنيا السبع القديمة.

كما تكون بعض القبور في النُّصُب الصخريَّة الضَّخمة وهي مبان شيدها إنسان ما قبل التاريخ من أحجار كبيرة لأغراض الدفن أو لأغراض دينية. يزن الحجر الواحد الذي يسمى مغليث من هذه المباني بين 23 و91 طنًا متريًا. توجد النصب الصخرية الضخمة في أرجاء مختلفة في العالم، إلا أن أشهرها يوجد في أوروبا الغربية، وقد بُنيت بين عامي 4000ق.م و 1500ق.م.

كان كثير من المباني الصخرية الضخمة يستخدم كمقابر. وكان لبعض هذه المقابر ممرات، بينما كانت مقابر أخرى، تسمى الدولمنات، يتألف كل منها من غرفة صغيرة بسيطة. وقد اكتُشفت هذه المقابر في أرجاء كثيرة من أوروبا.

كان اليهود ينحتون قبورهم من الصخر وكان النصارى القدامى يبنون قبورهم في غرف تحت الأرض تسمى بسرداب الموتى.

القبر في الأديان

القبر في الإسلام
القبر هو أول منازل الآخرة وهو إما روضة من رياض الجنة أو حفرة من حفر النار وفيه يعيش الإنسان حياة البرزخ بعد موته وفيه يسأل سؤال الملكين، وهذه الأشياء غيبيّة لا تُرى بالعين المجردة في الحياة الدنيا ولا تكون بواقع الحال في القبر بعينه.
 أنواع القبر:
 الشق: وهو أن يحفر في وسط القبر حفرة على قدر الميت، ويُبنى جانباها بالطوب اللبن حتى لا تنضم على الميت، ويوضع فيها الميت على جنبه الأيمن مستقبلاً القبلة، ثم تسقف هذه الحفرة بأحجار أو غيرها ويرفع السقف قليلاً بحيث لا يمس الميت، ثم يهال التراب عليه.
 اللحد: أن يحفر في أسفل جدار القبر الأقرب إلى القبلة مكاناً يوضع فيه الميت على جنبه الأيمن مستقبل القبلة ثم تسد هذه الحفرة بالطوب اللبن خلف ظهر الميت، ثم يهال التراب عليه.

القبر في المسيحية
يرى المسيحيون بأن القبر يكون مدفن للأجساد فقط بينما الأرواح تجتمع في مكان معين ما يسمى بالهاوية وهو ما يعرف لدى المسيحية بمستودع الأرواح، حيث تنقسم الهاوية إلى قسمان الهاوية العليا والهاوية السفلى، تكون الهاوية العليا للمؤمنين حيث فيه نعيم أبدي إلى القيامة، بينما الهاوية السفلى للأشرار ويكون فيه جحيم وعذاب إلى القيامة.

القبر في اليهودية
يحظى القبر في ديانة اليهودية بأهمية كبيرة.(سفر تثنية الاشتراع 26:28) (سفر إرميا 19:22) فهو من وصايا رب (سفر التكوين 19:3) وحق واجب لجميع الموتى، بما فيهم المجرمين (سفر تثنية الاشتراع 23:21).

و يتمّ إنشاء المدافن عادة في أملاك العائلة، في قبور ثابتة ودائمة، سواء أكان ذلك في مغارة كتلك التي اشتراها إبراهيم، مغارة المكفيلة، أو في الأرض (سفر القضاة 9:2) (سفر صموئيل الأوّل 1:25). ولتجنّب التدنيس، كان يوضع حجر أبيض عند المدفن. وفي بعض الأحيان، توضع مسلّة كتلك التي وضعها يعقوب لرحيل (سفر التكوين 20:35).

أمّا حرق جتث الموتى، فقد كانوا يستعملونه كنوع من العقاب. (سفر التكوين 24:38) (سفر الأحبار 14:20) (سفر الأحبار 9:21)

لم يذكر عذاب القبر في العهد القديم، المصدر الأول للتشريع في اليهودية، ولا في المصدرين الآخرين؛ المِشنَا والتلمود. لكننا نقرأ أن فصلا كاملا في نصوص القبالا يتناول عذاب القبر تحت عنوان خبطات/ضربات القبر  حيث يسأل ملك الموت الميت: ما اسمك؟ فإن كان الميت صالحًا تذكر اسمه وأجاب، فينصرف ملك الموت عنه. وإن كان طالحًا نسي اسمه، عندئذ يقوم ملك الموت بتعذيبه.

كما ورد في الإسلام حديث نبوي شريف عن عذاب القبر عند اليهود فقد خلت يهودية على عائشة  فقالت لها: (أعَاذَكِ اللَّهُ مِن عَذَابِ القَبْرِ، فَسَأَلَتْ عَائِشَةُ رَسولَ اللَّهِ  عن عَذَابِ القَبْرِ، فَقالَ: نَعَمْ، عَذَابُ القَبْرِ، قالَتْ عَائِشَةُ : فَما رَأَيْتُ رَسولَ اللَّهِ صَلَّى اللهُ عليه وسلَّمَ بَعْدُ صَلَّى صَلَاةً إلَّا تَعَوَّذَ مِن عَذَابِ القَبْرِ).

كذالك ما جاء عن أبي أيوب قال: خرج النبي  وقد وجبت الشمس فسمع صوتاً فقال (يهود تعذب في قبورها).

أجزاء القبر
يتكون القبر العادي من:
 قطع القبر: الحفر الذي يعطي القبر شكله المعروف. وهذا يتفاوت ما بين أعمال الكشط الخفيفة وصولاً إلى إزالة تربة فوقية بعمق 6 أقدام (1.8 متر) أو يزيد حيث يوجد القبو أو غرفة الدفن. ومع ذلك، يلاحظ أن أغلب القبور الحديثة في الولايات المتحدة يبلغ عمقها 4 أقدام فقط، حيث يُوضع التابوت في صندوق خشبي يحول دون الوقوع في الحفر البالوعية ويكون ضخمًا بحيث يتحمل مرور السيارات ولا يعوم مع الفيضانات.
 التراب المنقب فيه: التربة التي يحفر فيها عند التنقيب عن القبر. تكوّم الأتربة غالبًا على مقربة من القبر لتستخدم في الردم حيث تُعاد إلى القبر عند تغطية التابوت. لا تتسع الحفرة لكل التراب نتيجة تخفيف ضغط التراب عند التنقيب وبسبب الحيز الذي يشغله القبر، لذا يترك التنقيب أثرًا بوجود بقايا التراب. وتصير هذه البقايا الترابية طبقة سميكة تعلو السطح الأصلي لأرضية المقابر.
 الدّفن: يوضع الجسد في تابوت أو حاوية أخرى، في واحد من الأوضاع غير المتناهية، بمفرده أو مع غيره، وقد يُوضع معه بعض من مقتنياته الشخصية.
 قبو الدفن: القبو هو هيكل داخلي في القبر يؤهله لاستقبال الجسد. ومن بين فوائده أنه يمنع تحطيم بقايا الجسد، ويسمح بتعدد الدفن كما في قباب العائلات ويتيح إمكانية استرداد البقايا لنقلها إلى صندوق عظام الموتى أو لتوضع في زمرة الآثار التاريخية.
 ردم القبر: التراب الذي يُعاد إلى قطع القبر بعد الدفن. وهذا التراب قد يحتوي على مواد تعود إلى التنقيب الأصلي أو الاستخدامات السابقة للمكان أو الأمتعة أو الأدوات الموضوعة عن قصد أو المواد التي ألحقت بها فيما بعد. وقد يُسوى هذا التراب بمستوى سطح الأرض أو يترك على شكل ربوة صغيرة.
 النصب أو العلامة: شواهد القبور هي الأكثر شهرة ولكن قد تضاف إليها أهداب زخرفية أو شواهد سفلية أو مواد داعمة أو غطاء صلد وما إلى ذلك.

المدافن والمقابر

كانت تبنى المدافن بالتزامن مع بناء مكان العبادة المناسب لكل دين (وهذا قد يعود تاريخه إلى ما بين القرن الثامن والقرن الرابع عشر) وكان يستخدمه أغلب العائلات التي لا تستطيع تحمل تكلفة الدفن داخل مكان العبادة أو تحته. وفي أغلب الحضارات، كان أصحاب الثراء الفاحش أو ذوي المناصب الرفيعة أو المنتمين إلى النبلاء أو من لهم مكانة اجتماعية عالية يدفنون في سراديب خاصة داخل مكان العبادة أو تحته، وكانت توضع علامة عليها اسم المتوفَّى وتاريخ وفاته وغيرها من البيانات التي تتعلق بسيرته. وفي أوروبا يكون هذا مصحوبًا برسم شعار نبالة الأسرة.

واستبدلت المدافن فيما بعد بما يُسمى المقابر.

انظر أيضًا
 القبر الأجوف
 السرداب
 دولمن
 حجر المقبرة
 محرقة الجثث
 الجبانة
 الضريح
 نقش الضريح التذكاري
 مدن الموتى
 دفن الأحياء
 هرم
 مقبرة
 توفة

مراجع

آثار وهياكل مدافن
خرافه (هولندا)
موت
نصب عسكرية ومقابر

قبر


Aceasta este o listă de persoane executate în România. Lista include execuții judiciare desfășurate pe teritoriul României de astăzi, fie prin acest stat, fie prin antecedentele sale.

Jurisdicții anterioare

Gheorghe Doja, conducătorul Războiului țărănesc, 1514
Principatul Transilvaniei (1570–1711)
, nobil anti-Habsburg, 1594
Baltazar Báthory, nobil anti-Habsburg, 1594
, nobil anti-Habsburg, 1594
István Jósika,  cancelar al Transilvaniei, 1598
Baba Novac, prizonier de răzoi, 1601
Monarhia Habsburgică
Horea și Cloșca, conducători ai Răscoalei lui Horea, Cloșca și Crișan, 1785
, colonel în Revoluția din 1848, 1849
Cei 13 de la Arad, generali în Revoluția din 1848, 1849
Principatul Moldovei
, diplomat, 1523
Bartolomeo Brutti, diplomat, 1592
Andronikos Kantakouzenos, om de stat, 1601
Nichifor Beldiman, om de stat, cca. 1616
Alexandru Coci, om de stat, 1653
Vasile Gheuca și Gavril Costachi, oameni de stat, 1680
Manolache Bogdan și Ioniță Cuza, oameni de stat, 1778
Țara Românească
Udrea Băleanu, om de stat, 1600 sau 1601
Postelnicul Leca, om de stat, 1616
Hrizea-Vodă, pretendent, 1657
Istratie Leurdeanu, om de stat, 1658
Diicul Buicescul, pretendent, 1659
Constantin I Cantacuzino, om de stat, 1663
Staicu Bucșanu, om de stat, cca. 1691
Imperiul Otoman
Lupu Mehedințeanu, om de stat, 1618
Constantin Hangerli, Domn al Țării Românești, 1799
Revoluția Maghiară din 1848
Stephan Ludwig Roth, revoluționar la 1848, 1849
Ioan Buteanu, revoluționar la 1848, 1849
Austro-Ungaria
Emil Rebreanu, ofițer, 1917

Regatul României
Filimon Sârbu, activist comunist și militant antifascist, 1941
Francisc Panet, activist comunist, 1941
Pompiliu Ștefu, activist comunist și militant antifascist, 1942
Nicolae Mohănescu, activist socialist și militant anti-fascist, 1942
Petre Gheorghe, activist comunist și militant antifascist, 1943
Ion Antonescu, conducător în timpul celui de-Al Doilea Război Mondial, 1946
Mihai Antonescu, ministru de externe sub Ion Antonescu, 1946
Gheorghe Alexianu, guvernator al Transnistriei, 1946
Constantin Vasiliu, general, 1946

Perioada comunistă
Nicolae Dabija, luptător în rezistența anticomunistă, 1949
Lucrețiu Pătrășcanu, fost ministru al justiției, 1954
Eugen Țurcanu, Experimentul Pitești, 1954
Iosif Capotă, luptător în rezistența anticomunistă, 1958
Oliviu Beldeanu, participant principal în incidentul de la Berna, 1960
Banda Ioanid, grup de cinci jefuitori de bănci, 1962
Gheorghe Arsenescu, luptător în rezistența anticomunistă, 1962
Ion Rîmaru, ucigaș în serie, 1971
, om de afaceri condamnat pentru infracțiuni economice, 1981
, criminal condamnat, 1987

Revoluția Română
Nicolae Ceaușescu, dictator, 1989
Elena Ceaușescu, soția lui Nicolae, 1989

Vezi și
 Pedeapsa capitală în România

Liste de oameni după cauza decesului
Persoane executate în România

Listă de persoane executate în România


AEW x NJPW: Forbidden Door é um evento pay-per-view (PPV) de wrestling profissional co-promovido pela promoção americana All Elite Wrestling (AEW) e pela promoção japonesa New Japan Pro-Wrestling (NJPW). Criado em 2022, é realizado anualmente no mês de junho e conta com a competição direta entre os lutadores das duas promoções. O evento leva o nome do mesmo termo frequentemente usado pela AEW quando se refere ao trabalho com outras empresas de wrestling profissional.

História
Em fevereiro de 2021, a promoção americana de wrestling profissional All Elite Wrestling (AEW) iniciou uma parceria com a promoção japonesa New Japan Pro-Wrestling (NJPW). Desde então, tanto a AEW quanto a NJPW tiveram seus lutadores aparecendo nos shows uma da outra nos Estados Unidos. Em 15 de abril de 2022, foi relatado que um evento planejado co-promovido pelas duas promoções estava em andamento.

No episódio de 20 de abril de 2022 do AEW Dynamite, o presidente da AEW, Tony Khan, apresentou o presidente da NJPW, Takami Ohbari, para fazer um grande anúncio sobre suas respectivas empresas. Eles foram interrompidos pelo lutador da AEW Adam Cole, que anunciou oficialmente que um evento pay-per-view (PPV) co-promovido intitulado Forbidden Door seria realizado em 26 de junho de 2022, no United Center em Chicago, Illinois. O evento recebeu o nome do mesmo termo frequentemente usado pela AEW quando se refere ao trabalho com outras promoções de wrestling profissional.

Em 15 de março de 2023, um segundo evento Forbidden Door entre AEW e NJPW foi programado para ser realizado em 25 de junho de 2023, na Scotiabank Arena em Toronto, Ontário, Canadá, estabelecendo assim o Forbidden Door como um evento anual entre as duas empresas.

Eventos

Referências

Ligações externas

Eventos da AEW

AEW x NJPW: Forbidden Door


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احتفالية فلسطين للأدب مهرجان أدبي هو الأول من نوعه في الأراضي الفلسطينية اُقيمت دورته الأولى عام 2008 في رام الله، وعدة مدن فلسطينية أخرى منها القدس وبيت لحم، احتفالاً بتراث فلسطين الثقافي، وتضامنا مع الشعب الفلسطيني في الذكرى الستين للنكبة. شارك فيه 17 كاتبا عالميا في احتفالية أدبية عالمية، مستلهما كلمات المفكر الفلسطيني الراحل الكبير إدوارد سعيد، الذي نادى بأن «تتصدى قوة الثقافة لثقافة القوة». وحسب جريدة الجارديان البريطانية سوف يكون هذا الحدث سنويا.

المشاركة
يشارك في الاحتفالية مجموعة من الأدباء والشعراء العالميين والعرب والفلسطينيين. كذلك عدد كبير من طلاب جامعات فلسطينية كجامعة بيرزيت وجامعة بيت لحم، حيث تتم هذه الفعاليات في عدة مراكز ثقافية فلسطينية في الضفة الغربية منها المسرح الوطني الفلسطيني - القدس، ومسرح القصبة - رام الله، ودار الندوة - بيت لحم، ومتحف دار الطفل العربي - القدس، ومسرح الحرية - جنين.

مشاكل وصعوبات
واجه المهرجان صعوبات كثيرة وضعهتا إسرائيل بوجه الجمهور الفلسطيني والأجنبي، تقول الكاتبة أهداف سويف، رئيسة مؤسسة Engaged Events المنظمة للاحتفالية، «إننا في أول عام تتحقق فيه هذه الاحتفالية الأدبية لا نستطيع أن نقول أننا أتينا إلى فلسطين حاملين كل ما نود حمله، فلن نستطيع أن نزور كل المدن التي نحب أن نزورها، ولا أن نلتقي كل الناس الذين نود أن نلتقيهم. لكننا نأمل أن تكون هذه الاحتفالية، للعام 2008، باكورة فعاليات ثقافية نقيمها مع شركائنا الفلسطينيين، ونتطلع إلى اليوم الذي تقام فيه هذه الفعاليات في مدن فلسطينية تتمتع بالحرية».
رعت الاحتفالية عدة منظمات ومؤسسات دولية مثل «المجمع الدولي للبحوث العلمية» وجمعية الأدب العالمي في اسطنبول.

وصلات خارجية
 الموقع الرسمي.
 أهداف سويف / الجارديان  - كاتبة، ورئيسة مؤسسة Engaged Events البريطانية المنظمة للمهرجان (22.5.08)
 إيان جاك / الجارديان  (17.5.08)

مراجع

أدب فلسطيني
احتفاليات ثقافية
تأسيسات سنة 2008
مناسبات فلسطينية
مهرجانات في فلسطين
مهرجانات أدبية في فلسطين
مهرجانات أدبية في إسرائيل

احتفالية فلسطين للأدب


Sousveillance ( ) is the recording of an activity by a member of the public, rather than a person or organisation in authority, typically by way of small wearable or portable personal technologies. The term, coined by Steve Mann, stems from the contrasting French words sur, meaning "above", and sous, meaning "below", i.e. "surveillance" denotes the "eye-in-the-sky" watching from above, whereas "sousveillance" denotes bringing the means of observation down to human level, either physically (mounting cameras on people rather than on buildings) or hierarchically (ordinary people doing the watching, rather than higher authorities or architectures).

While surveillance and sousveillance both usually refer to visual monitoring, they can denote other forms of monitoring such as audio surveillance or sousveillance. With audio (e.g. recording of phone conversations), sousveillance is sometimes referred to as "one party consent".

Undersight (inverse oversight) is sousveillance at high-level, e.g. "citizen undersight" being reciprocal to a congressional oversight committee or the like.

Inverse surveillance is a subset of sousveillance with an emphasis on "watchful vigilance from underneath" and a form of surveillance inquiry or legal protection involving the recording, monitoring, study, or analysis of surveillance systems, proponents of surveillance, and possibly also recordings of authority figures. Inverse surveillance is typically undertaken by those who are subjected to surveillance, so it can be thought of as a form of ethnography or ethnomethodology (i.e. an analysis of the surveilled from the perspective of a participant in a society under surveillance). Sousveillance typically involves community-based recording from first person perspectives, without necessarily involving any specific political agenda, whereas inverse surveillance is a form of sousveillance that is typically directed at, or used to collect data to analyze or study, surveillance or its proponents (e.g., the actions of police or protestors at a protest rally).

Sousveillance is not necessarily countersurveillance. Sousveillance can be used to "counter" surveillance or it can be used with surveillance to create a more complete "veillance" ("Surveillance is a half-truth without sousveillance").  The question of "Who watches the watchers" is dealt with more properly under the topic of metaveillance (the veillance of veillance) than sousveillance.

Inverse surveillance
Inverse surveillance is a type of sousveillance. The more general concept of sousveillance goes beyond just inverse surveillance and the associated twentieth-century political "us versus them" framework for citizens to photograph police,  shoppers to photograph shopkeepers, or passengers to photograph taxicab drivers. Howard Rheingold commented in his book Smart Mobs that this is similar to the pedestrian−driver concept, i.e. these are roles that many of us take both sides on, from time to time. Many aspects of sousveillance were examined in the general category of "reciprocal accountability" in David Brin's 1997 non-fiction book The Transparent Society, and also in Brin's novels. The first International Workshop on Inverse Surveillance, IWIS, took place in 2004, chaired by Dr. Jim Gemmell, (MyLifeBits), Joi Ito, Anastasios Venetsanopoulos, and Steve Mann, among others.

One of the things that brought inverse surveillance to light was the reactions of security guards to electric seeing aids and similar sousveillance practices.  It seemed, early on, that the more cameras that were in an establishment, the more the guards disliked the use of an electric seeing aid, such as the EyeTap eyeglasses.  It was through simply wearing electric seeing aids, as a passive observer, that it was discovered that surveillance and sousveillance can cause conflict and sometimes confrontation.  This led some researchers to explore why the perpetrators of surveillance are suspicious of sousveillance, and thus defined the notion of inverse surveillance as a new and interesting facet of studies in sousveillance.

Since the year 2001, December 24 has been World Sousveillance Day with groups of participants in New York City, Toronto, Boston, Florida, Vancouver, Japan, Spain and the United Kingdom.  However, this designated day focuses only on hierarchical sousveillance, whereas there are a number of groups around the world working on combining the two forms of sousveillance.

An essay from Wired magazine predicts that sousveillance is an important development that will be on the rise in 2014.

Sousveillance of a state by its citizens has been credited with addressing many problems such as election fraud or electoral misdeeds, as well as providing good governance. For example, mobile phones were used in Sierra Leone and Ghana in 2007 for checking malpractices and intimidation during elections.

A recent area of research further developed at IWIS was the equilibrium between surveillance and sousveillance. Current "equiveillance theory" holds that sousveillance, to some extent, often reduces or eliminates the need for surveillance.  In this sense it is possible to replace the Panoptic God's eye view of surveillance with a more community-building ubiquitous personal experience capture. Crimes, for example, might then be solved by way of collaboration among the citizenry rather than through the watching over the citizenry from above. But it is not so black-and-white as this dichotomy suggests.  In particular, citizens watching over their neighbors is not necessarily "better" than the alternative: an increase in community self-reliance might be offset by an uncomfortable "nosy neighbor" effect. "Personal sousveillance" has been referred to as "coveillance" by Mann, Nolan and Wellman.

Copwatch is a network of American and Canadian volunteer organizations that "police the police." Copwatch groups usually engage in monitoring of the police, videotaping police activity, and educating the public about police misconduct. Fitwatch is a group that photograph Forward Intelligence Teams (police photographers) in the United Kingdom.

In 2008, Cambridge researchers (in the MESSAGE project) teamed with bicycle couriers to measure and transmit air pollution indicators as they travel the city.

In 2012 the Danish daily newspaper and online title Dagbladet Information crowdmapped the positions of surveillance cameras by encouraging readers to use a free Android and iOS app to photograph and geolocate CCTV cameras.

Personal sousveillance

Personal sousveillance is the art, science, and technology of personal experience capture, processing, storage, retrieval, and transmission, such as lifelong audiovisual recording by way of cybernetic prosthetics, such as seeing-aids, visual memory aids, and the like. Even today's personal sousveillance technologies like camera phones and weblogs tend to build a sense of community, in contrast to surveillance that some have said is corrosive to community.

The legal, ethical, and policy issues surrounding personal sousveillance are largely yet to be explored, but there are close parallels to the social and legal norms surrounding recording of telephone conversations.  When one or more parties to the conversation record it, it is called "sousveillance", whereas when the conversation is recorded by a person who is not a party to the conversation (such as a prison guard violating a client-lawyer relationship), the recording is called "surveillance".

"Targeted sousveillance" refers to sousveillance of a specific individual by one or more other individuals. Usually, the targeted individual is a representative or proponent of surveillance, so targeted sousveillance is often inverse surveillance or hierarchical sousveillance. "Hierarchical sousveillance" refers, for example, to citizens photographing the police, shoppers photographing shopkeepers, or taxicab passengers photographing cab drivers. So, for example, targeting former White House security official Admiral John Poindexter with sousveillance follows this more political narrative.

Classy's Kitchen describes sousveillance as "another way to add further introspection to the commons that keeps society open but still makes the world smaller and safer". In this way sousveillance may be regarded as a possible replacement for surveillance. In this sur/sousveillance replacement, one can consider an operative social norm that would require cameras to be attached to a human operator. Under such a scenario, any objections to the camera could be raised by another human more easily than it would be to interact with a lamp post upon which is mounted a surveillance camera. Thus, the argument is that cameras attached to people ought to be less offensive than cameras attached to inanimate objects, because there is at least one responsible party present to operate the camera. This responsible-party argument is analogous to that used for the operation of a motor vehicle, where a responsible driver is present, in contrast to the remote or automated operation of a motor vehicle.

Beyond the political or breaching of hierarchical structure explored in academia, the more rapidly emerging discourse on sousveillance within the industry is "personal sousveillance", namely the recording of an activity by a participant in the activity.

As the technologies get smaller and easier to use, the capture, recording, and playback of everyday life get that much easier to initiate spontaneously in unexpected situations. For example, David Ollila, a manufacturer of video camera equipment, was trapped for four hours aboard a Comair plane at JFK Airport in New York City. When he recorded an interview with the pilot about the situation, the pilot called the police who then removed Ollila for questioning and removed everyone from the plane.

Recording a situation is only part of the sousveillance process. Communicating is also important. Video-sharing sites such as YouTube and photo-sharing sites such as Flickr play a vital role. For example, police agents provocateur were quickly revealed on YouTube when they infiltrated a demonstration in Montebello, Quebec, against the leaders of Canada, Mexico and the United States (August 2007). When the head of the Quebec police publicly stated that there was no police presence, a sousveillance video showed him to be wrong. When he revised his statement to say that the police provocateurs were peaceful observers, the same video showed them to be masked, wearing police boots, and in one case holding a rock.

There are many similar examples, such as the widely viewed YouTube video of UCLA campus policemen tasering a student. In Russia, as well as in some other countries where road users trust neither each other nor police, onboard cameras are so ubiquitous that thousands of videos of automobile accidents and near-miss incidents have been uploaded. The unanticipated 2013 Russian meteor event was well documented from a dozen angles via the use of these devices. Similarly, in February 2015, dashcams caught valuable footage of the crash of TransAsia Airways Flight GE235.

Alibi sousveillance

Alibi sousveillance is a form of sousveillance activity aimed at generating an alibi as evidence to defend against allegations of wrongdoing.

Hasan Elahi, a University of Maryland professor, has produced a sousveillance for his entire life, after being detained at an airport because he was erroneously placed on the US terrorist watchlist. Some of his sousveillance activities include using his cell phone as a tracking device, and publicly posting debit card and other transactions that document his actions.

One specific use of alibi sousveillance is the growing trend of police officers wearing body cameras while on patrol. Well-publicized events involving police-citizen altercations (such as the case of Michael Brown in Ferguson, Missouri) have increased calls for police to wear body cameras and so capture evidence of the incidents, for their benefit and  the criminal justice system as a whole. By having officers use sousveillance, police forces can generate hours of video evidence to be used in cases like that of Michael Brown, and the video evidence can act as an important alibi in the judicial proceedings in regards to who is truly at fault. Regardless of the outcome of such events, contemporaneous audio-video evidence can be extremely valuable in respect of compliance- and enforcement-related events.

Police use
Use of wearable cameras by police officers combined with video streaming and recording in an archive produces a record of the interactions of the officer with civilians and criminals. Experiments with police use in Rialto, California from 2012 to 2013 resulted in a reduction of both complaints against officers and a reduction in the use of violence by officers. The public is shielded from police misconduct and the police officer from bogus complaints.

Because these body cameras are turned on for every encounter with the public, privacy issues have been brought up with specific emphasis on special victim cases such as rape or domestic violence.  Police worry that with a camera right in front of the victim, they will not feel comfortable revealing all the information that they know.  There have been two case studies done in the United States that have revealed that police officers who have cameras have fewer encounters with citizens than officers who do not have cameras, due to fear of being reprimanded for committing a mistake.

Sousveillance cultures
Prior to contemporary sousveillance cultures, Simone Browne (2015) used "dark sousveillance" to refer to the ways that enslaved Black Americans refashioned techniques and technologies to facilitate survival and escape. Browne (2015) notes how pranks and other performative practices and creative acts were used to resist enslavement from experiential insight.

In the era of web-based participatory media and convergence cultures, non-governmental and non-state actors, with their own virtual communities and networks that cut across national borders, use what Bakir (2010) calls the sousveillant assemblage to wield discursive power. The sousveillant assemblage comprises Haggerty & Ericson's (2000) surveillant assemblage (or loosely linked, unstable, systems of data flows of people's activities, tracked by computers, and data-mined so that we are each reconfigured as (security) risks or (commercial) opportunities, but data-fattened by the proliferation of web-based participatory media and personal sousveillance that we willingly provide online). Verde Garrido (2015) has also explored Mann's concept of sousveillance and reinterpreted Michel Foucault's notion of parrhesia (i.e., confronting authority and power with the truth) to explain that in contemporary societies, which are global and digital, 'parrhesiastic sousveillance' allows to resist and contest social, economic, and political relations of power by means of technology. These acts of resistance and contestation, in turn, enable civil societies to change old meanings and offer new ones, using a newborn digital agency to create new and contemporary politics of truth.

Features of sousveillance cultures:
 Dissent, and holding power-holders to account, is easier
Undoubtedly, the urge and practice of dissent have been common, and people exploit the participatory media technologies at hand to mark and spread their dissent. However, the rise of web-based participatory media and sousveillance cultures have made it easier for many more to record and spread this dissent globally, unimpeded by traditional media's commercial distribution restrictions such as pre-defined circulation runs or paid-for airtime, or the need for expert knowledge in media production. Mann has long maintained that the 'informal nature of sousveillance, with its tendency to distribute recordings widely, will often expose inappropriate use to scrutiny, whereas the secret nature of surveillance will tend to prevent misuse from coming to light' (Mann, 2005, p. 641). Just as Foucault's Panopticon operates through potential or implied surveillance, sousveillance might also operate through the credible threat of its existence. As the ubiquity and awareness of sousveillance widen, it is this that may most empower citizens – by making officials realise that their actions may, themselves, be monitored and exposed at any time. The permanent potential for sousveillance from so many (as opposed to more formalised exposés at the hands of investigative reporters, a small media elite) raises the likelihood that power abuses will be captured on record which can then be used to hold power-abusers and manipulators to account, providing of course, that there is a functioning legal system and/or public sphere (with mechanisms in place to translate popular demands and moral outrage into real-world change).
 Emancipation, resistance and social change are unpredictable.
In the case of police body camera implementation in the US, there are multiple responses and social implications to this form of sousveillance. The case against police brutality and the Black Lives Matter movement has garnered an immense and impassioned following in a very short amount of time. There are two different social movements that have arisen in response to police body cameras. One school of thought that has manifested support is that police body cameras are necessary in fighting and ending police brutality. The other is the opposing stance to this one that raises the issue of privacy that police body cameras may violate. There have not been many case studies that have taken place in implementing police body cameras. This means that police worn body cameras have not been proven as a definite method to solve the problem of police brutality.  Studies have also shown that people, both policemen and civilians, act differently when they are aware that they are being surveilled on camera.  This leaves a lot of room for unpredictability surrounding the consequences of the use of this form of sousveillance.

In Mann's original conception, sousveillance had an emancipatory political thrust, with hierarchical sousveillance a conscious act of resistance to surveillance. Yet, the nature of the social change generated is unpredictable and dependent on the sousveillant content, the context of its subsequent sharing, and, of course, the strength of the traditions of deliberation for democratic purposes. ISIS' use of sousveillance, then, may result in social change, but not in a progressive fashion.
 Sousveillers' anonymity is crucial.
Given the lack of secrecy inherent in placing sousveillant content online, the anonymity of the sousveillers is of prime importance if hierarchical (politically or legally motivated) sousveillance is to proliferate. There is a real need for spaces online that are willing to protect users' anonymity and keep their subversive content online despite political or corporate pressure. With this sort of situation in mind, whistle-blowing websites have been set up that guarantee anonymity, such as Wiki-leaks, launched in December 2006. More such sites are needed.
 Agenda-building power comes from the searchable and recirculated, semi-permanent, eyewitness archive.
Social media provide what could be described as a semi-permanent, and easily accessible database of eyewitness accounts. Given that the web can be used and searched in the manner of a database to find examples of sousveillance; and given the recirculation of sousveillant footage in memes and in mainstream media, ever-hungry for new content in a media environment of convergence and expanding capacity, the longevity of sousveillant footage is perhaps what gives sousveillance its agenda-building power. It allows journalists, citizens, activists, insurgents, strategic communicators and researchers the opportunity to discover and partially relive both the eye-witnessed, sousveillant account, and the discourse surrounding specific moments of sousveillance, as well as reflecting on, and marshalling, their significance.

In art

Referred to as an early proponent of lifelogging and perhaps the most extreme example of self-tracking since 2003, conceptual media artist Alberto Frigo has embarked on an ambitious project, 2004–2040, to understand himself. Starting with tracking everything his right (dominant) hand has used, he's slowly added on different tracking and documentation projects. Keeping the focus on himself and his surrounding has helped him connect to himself and the world around him.

Artist, scientist, and inventor S. Mann also created a wearable interactive art piece, the HeartCam, July 2001 in order to reverse the male gaze.  Others, including Nestle, have built upon this concept of reversing the "male gaze" by using a bra as a point-of-view for a camera.

Invisibility/Aposematic Suit

Invisibility/Aposematic Suit, S. Mann, 2001, is a wearable art piece that has two modes of operation: it either (1) becomes "transparent", suggestive of a chameleon's invisibility cloak (to hide from predators).  In this mode of operation the video displays show what is behind the wearer as if we can see through the wearer from both front and back; or
(2) reflective like a mirror, thus aposematic, to deter predators (i.e., to let them know they're being watched by the many hidden wearable cameras).  In this mode, the wearer becomes like a two-sided video mirror.  A potential attacker, whether approaching the wearer from the front or sneaking up behind the wearer, sees themselves displayed on the aposematic suit, in a manner similar to the way that department stores often place large video displays of their surveillance camera feed at the entrance to let potential shoplifters know they are being watched.

Other similar projects include the work of Shinseungback Kimyonghun: "[the] Aposematic Jacket is a wearable computer for self-defense. The lenses on the jacket give off the warning signal, " ... I can record you"..., to prevent possible attack. When the wearer pushes a button under threat, the jacket records the scene in 360 degrees and sends the images to the Web."

In fiction
David Brin's 1989 novel Earth portrays citizens equipped with both augmented reality gear ("Tru-Vu Goggles") and cameras exercising reciprocal accountability, with each other and with authority figures, discussing effects on crime and presaging today's "cop cam" developments. Elites are allowed only temporary, cached secrecy. In Robert Sawyer's Neanderthal Parallax trilogy, the Homo neanderthalensis occupying a parallel universe have what are called companion implants. These are comprehensive recording and transmission devices, mounted in the forearm of each person. Their entire life is constantly monitored and sent to their alibi archive, a repository of recordings that are only accessible by their owner, or by the proper authorities when investigating an infraction, and in the latter case only in circumstances relevant to the investigation. Recordings are maintained after death; it is not made clear what the reasoning is for this and under what circumstances and or by whom a deceased person's archive can be accessed.

The plot of the 1995 movie Strange Days is based on a future where sousveillance recordings are made and sold as entertainment. The plot of the movie revolves around the murder of a celebrity by police officers that is recorded by a person secretly wearing one of the devices. In the movie, the recordings are made by a flat array of sensors that pick up signals from the brain stem. The sensors are usually hidden under a wig, and they record everything the person wearing them sees and hears. Recordings made while the person making them dies are called "blackjack" tapes.

The plot of the 1985 John Crowley short story Snow revolves around a suspended camera recording the whole of a subject's life being sold as a consumer product.

The 2007 novel Halting State by Charles Stross and its sequel Rule 34 depict a 2020s Scotland in which wearable computing has a level of ubiquity similar to that of 2013's cell phones. The implications of a society in which anyone might be recording anything at any time are explored at length, particularly with respect to policing.

The open source science fiction role-playing game Eclipse Phase has sousveillance as a common part of life in the setting, as a result of data storage technology and high-definition digital cameras becoming commonplace and often integrated into any and all objects.

Orson Scott Card's novel, the Worthing Chronicle also investigates the effect of (apparently) omnipotent watchers, and how it can degrade human experience—the moral dilemma leading the watchers to cease. Vernor Vinge's character, Pham Nuwen presciently recognizes the stage of "ubiquitous surveillance" in the collapse-and-rebuild cycle that plagues human planetary civilization in a Deepness in the Sky.

Sousveillance efficiency or efficacy
There is a need for efficacy, efficiency or effectiveness of sousveillance, which can be met by social media, such as through widespread dissemination on social media, and when used as an output modality in conjunction with sousveillance as an input modality, is called "swollag", or gallows spelled backwards. For example, filming or streaming an abusive situation, like police abuse, doesn't always lead to justice and punishment of the abuser without some means (i.e. swollag) for sousveillance to take effect.  For example, in 2014, a man named Eric Garner was choked to death by a police officer in Staten Island after being arrested on suspicion of selling loose cigarettes.  "Garner's death was documented by his friend Ramsey Orta, and the video was widely disseminated. Despite the video evidence, a grand jury declined to indict Garner's killer, leading to widespread outrage and protest. (In an ironic twist, the only person indicted in connection with Garner's death was Orta, who came under police scrutiny and was arrested on an "unrelated" weapons possession charge. Orta is now in prison in New York. Sousveillance is not without its costs.)"

However, it appeared that a filmed abusive behavior is more likely to be punished if the video is widely spread. This makes sousveillance more efficient and politically meaningful, insofar it shows to a significant proportion of the population the abuses of the authority. Thus, the development of video platforms, like YouTube and Snapchat, and streaming platforms like Periscope and Twitch, are key components to sousveillance's efficiency. This was shown during French demonstrations against the "Loi Travail" in 2016, during which a Periscope stream showing authority forces, called abusive by one part of the demonstrators, was watched by 93,362 people. This video was posted on Twitter. Nevertheless, it can be considered whether this creates a dangerous dependence on private platforms, often ruled by Internet giants (like Google, for YouTube) which have common interests with governments, and who adapt their content through algorithms users don't have control on.

In addition, some argue that sousveillance may aid in state surveillance, despite being conducted by the people. Examples include mobile apps used to help people signal public threats, such as the Israeli app c-Now (previously known as Reporty). In January 2018, c-Now was tested in Nice by the mayor Christian Estrosi, sparking virulent public debates, with security advocates reporting spyware associated with the app Furthermore, the director of c-Now is Ehud Barack, former prime minister of Israel, who is suspected to have kept close links with Israeli and American governments. For these reasons, security advocates consider the app to serve America's global surveillance program (revealed by Edward Snowden in 2013), and raise the question of whether sousveillance really serves as "inverse surveillance".

See also
 Body camera
 Eyetap
 Helmet camera
 Lifelogging
 Memoto
 Quantified self
 Quis custodiet ipsos custodes?
 Surveillance capitalism

References

Surveillance
Technology in society
Civil disobedience
Culture jamming techniques

Sousveillance


Adobe Flash Player, Adobe şirketinin Macromedia şirketinden satın alıp çıkardığı Windows ve Mac OS işletim sistemleri üzerinde çalışabilen bir vektörel grafik yazılımıdır.

Geçmişi
Macromedia şirketinin 1997 yılında Future Splash Animator adlı yazılımı satın almasıyla ortaya çıkmıştır.
Bu yazılım "Flash" ismini alarak 2.0 sürümüyle birlikte kullanıma sunulmuştur. Aynı yıl içinde Macromedia Flash 3.0 ismindeki yeni sürümüne yükseltilmiştir. Yazılım, web sitelerine getirdiği eklentilerle kullanıcıların sayfalar arasında daha fazla vakit geçirmesini hedeflemektedir.

1999 yılında Flash 4.0 olarak güncellenmiştir. Geliştirmeye devam edilerek 2000 yılında Flash 5.0, 2002'de Flash 6.0, 2004'te Flash MX ve 2005 yılında Flash 8 olarak piyasaya sürülmeye devam etmiştir.

18 Nisan 2005 tarihinde Macromedia, Adobe tarafından satın alındı. Günümüzde yazılımın en güncel sürümü CC'dir.

Flash, çalışma tekniği olarak vektör grafik kullanmaktadır. Flash animasyonlarının, çizgi filmlerinin, efektlerinin temelinde matematiksel işlemler yer almaktadır. Flash'ta çizilen her şey tek tek piksellerden oluşturulmak yerine, tamamen matematiksel denklemler üzerine kurulmaktadır. Flash ile çizilen bir nesneye ne kadar yakınlaştırılsa yakınlaştırılsın görüntüde herhangi bir bozulma meydana gelmemektedir.

Flash ile beraber Macromedia, grafiksel animasyonları ve ara yüzleri yaparken daha kullanıcı dostu ve etkileşimli yapıya sahip olması için ActionScript adı verilen bir dili de kullanıma sunmuştur.

Erişilebilirlik

Adobe AIR
Adobe AIR'ın son versiyonu olan versiyon 18, Adobe Flash Player 18 içermekte ve Windows XP ile üst yazılımları ve OS X için kullanılabilmektedir. Linux masaüstü sürümleri için olan destek ise Haziran 2011'de versiyon 2.6 ile durdurulmuştur.

Dış bağlantılar
 Macromedia Flash

Kaynakça

Flash

Adobe Flash


Naboer er en animationsfilm instrueret af Morten Thorning, Kristian Paludan efter manuskript af Kristian Paludan.

Handling
Tegnefilm. En fortælling om to familier, der lever fedt og godt i et stort, frodigt træ. De producerer på livet løs og lægger vægt på, at børnene får de rigtige og fine vaner. Og de lever fedt af en arbejdskraft, som udgøres af magre og sultne arbejdere, der får træet til at gro. Men familierne begynder at bekæmpe hinanden, produktionen sviner, og det hele bryder ud i regulær kamp. Børnene ' drengen fra den ene og pigen fra den anden familie ' forelsker sig i hinanden og flygter sammen ned til de undertrykte. En allegori om den jord, vi er fælles om. Til undervisning.

Referencer

Eksterne henvisninger

Danske film fra 1990
Animationsfilm fra Danmark

Naboer


Sylvius Ferdinand von Stwolinsky (* 1717 in Schlesien; † 4. Juni 1787 in Minden) war preußischer Generalmajor, Chef des Infanterieregiments Nr. 10 sowie Ritter des Ordens Pour le Mérite.

Leben
Er war der Sohn von Gottfried Leopold von Stwolinsky, Herr auf Naßadel, und dessen Ehefrau Rosine Sophie, geborene von Sternberg aus dem Hause Böhmisch-Rudelsdorf.

Er kam 1733 in preußische Dienste. Im Dezember 1740 wurde er Gefreitenkorporal im neuerrichteten Füsilier-Regiment Nr. 35, im Jahre 1752 wurde er Sekondeleutnant der Grenadiere. Am 19. Februar 1757 war er Stabshauptmann als das Regiment in seinen Quartieren bei Hirschfeld angegriffen wurde. Für seine Tapferkeit wurde er mit dem Pour le Merite ausgezeichnet. 1760 wurde er Major, 1771 Oberstleutnant. 1778 wurde er Oberst und Kommandant des Regiments. Am 6. August 1781 wurde er zum Generalmajor und Chef des Infanterieregiments Nr. 10 ernannt.

Stwolinsky starb 1787 unverheiratet in Minden.

Literatur
 Kurt von Priesdorff: Soldatisches Führertum. Band 2, Hanseatische Verlagsanstalt Hamburg, o. O. [Hamburg], o. J. [1937], , S. 156f., Nr. 672.

Regimentsinhaber der Frühen Neuzeit
Träger des Pour le Mérite (Militärorden)
Person im Siebenjährigen Krieg (Preußen)
General der Frühen Neuzeit (Brandenburg-Preußen)
Geboren 1717
Gestorben 1787
Mann

Sylvius Ferdinand von Stwolinsky


الملك مر نفر رع أي : أحد ملوك الأسرة الثالثة عشر. إمتدت مدة حكم الملك مر نفر رع ثلاثة وعشرين عاما وثمانية أشهر وثمانية عشر يوما طبقا لما ذكر في قائمة الملوك ببردية تورين مما يجعل فترة حكمه أطول فترة في الأسرة الثالثة عشر .

وقد عثر للملك مر نفر رع أي على العديد من الآثار معظمها من الجعارين وقد وجدت في مصر العليا والسفلى مما يدل على أن مصر في حكمه كانت ما تزال موحدة ولم يكن الهكسوس قد احتلوها بعد، ويبدو أن نهاية حكم هذا الفرعون تعتبر نهاية جزء من حكم هذه الأسرة.

عثر له على جعران في قفط وأخر في أبيدوس وأخر في أواريس وثان في تل بسطة واللشت كما توجد له جعارين محفوظة بمتحف برلين وعدد آخر من المتاحف.

كما عثر له على مقبرة هرمية الشكل في أواريس منقوش عليها اسمه، وعليها نقوش أهداء إلى الإله بتاح معبود ممفيس مما يجعل بعض العلماء يعتقدون أنه تم الأستيلاء على مقبرته من قبل ملوك الهكسوس لأن الإله بتاح معبود ممفيس وليس أواريس.

المراجع

فراعنة الأسرة المصرية الثالثة عشر

مر نفر رع اى


Le rameau méningé du nerf mandibulaire est une branche du nerf mandibulaire qui innerve la dure-mère.

Trajet
La branche méningée du nerf mandibulaire pénètre dans le crâne par le foramen épineux avec l'artère méningée moyenne.

Elle se divise en deux branches, une antérieure et une postérieure, qui accompagnent les principales divisions de l'artère méningée moyenne et innervent la dure-mère :

 La branche postérieure innerve la muqueuse des cellules mastoïdiennes.
 La branche antérieure communique avec le rameau méningé du nerf maxillaire.

Notes et références

Nerf crânien

Rameau méningé du nerf mandibulaire


24265 Banthonytwarog este un asteroid din centura principală de asteroizi.

Descriere
24265 Banthonytwarog este un asteroid din centura principală de asteroizi. A fost descoperit pe  la Eskridge de Gary Hug și Graham E. Bell. Asteroidul prezintă o orbită caracterizată de o semiaxă mare de 2,17 ua, o excentricitate de 0,18 și o înclinație de 5,5° în raport cu ecliptica.

Vezi și
 Lista planetelor minore: 24001-25000
 Centura de asteroizi

Referințe

Obiecte astronomice descoperite în 1999
Centura de asteroizi

24265 Banthonytwarog


Üyücek, Ankara ilinin Kızılcahamam ilçesine bağlı bir mahalledir.

Tarihçe
Eski dilde "büyük yıkıntı" anlamına gelmektedir. Adını 15. yüzyılda almıştır.

Coğrafya
Ankara iline 106 km, Kızılcahamam ilçesine 28 km uzaklıktadır.

Nüfus

Kaynakça

Kızılcahamam'ın mahalleleri

Üyücek, Kızılcahamam


Sebastião Couto, mais conhecido como Tunga (Bananal, 17 de Dezembro de 1908), é um ex-futebolista brasileiro que atuava como volante.

A trajetória de Tunga no futebol profissional discorreu entre os anos de 1932 e 1941, o mesmo tempo que durou sua passagem pelo Palestra Itália. Tendo apenas atuado pela agremiação italiana em toda sua carreira, Sebastião Couto conquistou o título estadual com a camisa alviverde em cinco oportunidades, sendo uma delas invicto, em 1932. Ainda foi titular da Seleção Brasileira na campanha do vice-campeonato Sul-Americano (atual Copa América) de 1936, tendo atuado em todos os jogos como titular.

Títulos
Estaduais:

Campeonato Paulista: 1932, 1933, 1934, 1936 e 1940

Campeonato Paulista Extra: 1938

Inter-Estaduais:

Torneio Rio-São Paulo: 1933

Futebolistas da Sociedade Esportiva Palmeiras

Sebastião Couto


El conquistador Francisco Vázquez fue un explorador español del . En 1561 participó en la malograda expedición amazónica de Pedro de Ursúa en busca de El Dorado. Sobrevivió a los crímenes de Lope de Aguirre, de quien escapó en Isla Margarita. Hacia 1562 terminó su Relación de todo lo que sucedió en la jornada de Omagua y Dorado, una de las crónicas más detalladas y valiosas de aquel viaje.

Gobernación de Veragua
Francisco Vásquez fue el primer Gobernador de La Provincia de Veraguas, erigida en 1560 en los territorios del antiguo Ducado del mismo nombre. Este territorio, ligeramente ampliado hacia el oeste y el sur, pasó después a depender de la Intendencia de Panamá y a partir de 1821, de la República de Colombia. Con el nombre de Veraguas, constituye hoy una provincia de la República de Panamá.

Orígenes
La Gobernación de Veragua (1502-1537), se extendía por la costa caribeña de las actuales Repúblicas de Nicaragua y Costa Rica, y la de Panamá hasta el río Belén, es decir, el litoral recorrido por Cristóbal Colón en su cuarto viaje, en 1502. De este territorio fueron Gobernadores Diego de Nicuesa y Felipe Gutiérrez y Toledo.

Ducado de Veragua
El Ducado de Veragua fue erigido en 1537 en territorios hoy pertenecientes a Panamá, cuyo primer titular fue Luis Colón y Toledo, quien en 1556 devolvió a la Corona de Castilla el señorío territorial, aunque conservó el título de Duque.

Referencias
Calbarro, Juan Luis: "El retrato retórico en la Relación de Francisco Vázquez", Cádiz e Iberoamérica, núm. 10, Cádiz: Diputación Provincial de Cádiz, 1992; reproducido como "Lope de Aguirre, el maldito. Retrato retórico", Historia 16, núm. 342, Madrid: Historia Viva, octubre de 2004.
Vázquez, Francisco: El Dorado. Crónica de la expedición de Pedro de Ursúa y Lope de Aguirre, Madrid, 2007, Alianza Editorial. ISBN 978-84-206-6694-5.

Conquista de América
Conquista de Centroamérica
Militares de España del siglo XVI

Francisco Vázquez (conquistador)