Oxygen therapy, also referred to as supplemental oxygen, is the use of oxygen as medical treatment. Supplemental oxygen can also refer to the use of oxygen enriched air at altitude. Acute indications for therapy include hypoxemia (low blood oxygen levels), carbon monoxide toxicity and cluster headache. It may also be prophylactically given to maintain blood oxygen levels during the induction of anesthesia. Oxygen therapy is often useful in chronic hypoxemia caused by conditions such as severe COPD or cystic fibrosis. Oxygen can be delivered via nasal cannula, face mask, or endotracheal intubation  at normal atmospheric pressure, or in a hyperbaric chamber. It can also be given through bypassing the airway, such as in ECMO therapy.

Oxygen is required for normal cellular metabolism. However, excessively high concentrations can result in oxygen toxicity, leading to lung damage and respiratory failure. Higher oxygen concentrations can also increase the risk of airway fires, particularly while smoking. Oxygen therapy can also dry out the nasal mucosa without humidification. In most conditions, an oxygen saturation of 94–96% is adequate, while in those at risk of carbon dioxide retention, saturations of 88–92% are preferred. In cases of carbon monoxide toxicity or cardiac arrest, saturations should be as high as possible. While air is typically 21% oxygen by volume, oxygen therapy can increase O2 content of air up to 100%.

The medical use of oxygen first became common around 1917, and is the most common hospital treatment in the developed world. It is currently on the World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines. Home oxygen can be provided either by oxygen tanks or oxygen concentrator.

Medical uses

Oxygen is widely used by hospitals, EMS, and first-aid providers in a variety of conditions and settings. A few indications frequently requiring high-flow oxygen include resuscitation, major trauma, anaphylaxis, major bleeding, shock, active convulsions, and hypothermia.

Acute conditions
In context of acute hypoxemia, oxygen therapy should be titrated to a target level based on pulse oximetry (94–96% in most patients, or 88–92% in people with COPD).  This can be performed by increasing oxygen delivery, described as FIO2(fraction of inspired oxygen). In 2018, the British Medical Journal recommended that oxygen therapy be stopped for saturations greater than 96% and not started for saturations above 90 to 93%. This may be due to an association between excessive oxygenation in the acutely ill and increased mortality. Exceptions to these recommendations include carbon monoxide poisoning, cluster headaches, sickle cell crisis, and pneumothorax.

Oxygen therapy has also been used as emergency treatment for decompression sickness for years. Recompression in a hyperbaric chamber with 100% oxygen is the standard treatment for decompression illness. The success of recompression therapy is greatest if given within four hours after resurfacing, with earlier treatment associated with a decreased number of recompression treatments required for resolution. It has been suggested in literature that heliox may be a better alternative to oxygen therapy.

In the context of stroke, oxygen therapy may be beneficial as long as hyperoxic environments are avoided.

People receiving outpatient oxygen therapy for hypoxemia following acute illness or hospitalization should be re-assessed by a physician prior to prescription renewal to gauge the necessity of ongoing oxygen therapy. If the initial hypoxemia has resolved, additional treatment may be an unnecessary use of resources.

Chronic conditions
Common conditions which may require a baseline of supplementary oxygen include chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), chronic bronchitis, and emphysema. Patients may also require additional oxygen during acute exacerbations. Oxygen may also be prescribed for breathlessness, end-stage cardiac failure, respiratory failure, advanced cancer, or neurodegenerative disease in spite of relatively normal blood oxygen levels. Physiologically, it may be indicated in people with arterial oxygen partial pressure Pa ≤ 55mmHg (7.3kPa) or arterial oxygen saturation Sa ≤ 88%.

Careful titration of oxygen therapy should be considered in patients with chronic conditions predisposing them to carbon dioxide retention (e.g., COPD, emphysema). In these instances, oxygen therapy may decrease respiratory drive, leading to accumulation of carbon dioxide (hypercapnia), acidemia, and increased mortality secondary to respiratory failure. Improved outcomes have been observed with titrated oxygen treatment largely due to gradual improvement of the ventilation/perfusion ratio. The risks associated with loss of respiratory drive are far outweighed by the risks of withholding emergency oxygen, so emergency administration of oxygen is never contraindicated. Transfer from the field to definitive care with titrated oxygen typically occurs long before significant reductions to the respiratory drive are observed.

Contraindications
There are certain situations in which oxygen therapy has been shown to negatively impact a person's condition.
 Oxygen therapy can exacerbate the effects of paraquat poisoning and should be withheld unless severe respiratory distress or respiratory arrest is present. Paraquat poisoning is rare, with about 200 deaths globally from 1958 to 1978.
 Oxygen therapy is not recommended for people with pulmonary fibrosis or bleomycin-associated lung damage.
 ARDS caused by acid aspiration may be exacerbated with oxygen therapy according to some animal studies.
 Hyperoxic environments should be avoided in cases of sepsis.

Adverse effects
In some instances, oxygen delivery can lead to particular complications in population subsets.
 In infants with respiratory failure, administration of high levels of oxygen can sometimes promote overgrowth of new blood vessels in the eye leading to blindness. This phenomenon is known as retinopathy of prematurity (ROP).
 In rare instances, people receiving hyperbaric oxygen therapy have had seizures, which has been previously attributed to oxygen toxicity.
 There is some evidence that extended HBOT can accelerate development of cataracts.

Alternative medicine

Some practitioners of alternative medicine have promoted "oxygen therapy" as a cure for many human ailments including AIDS, Alzheimer's disease and cancer. According to the American Cancer Society, "available scientific evidence does not support claims that putting oxygen-releasing chemicals into a person's body is effective in treating cancer", and some of these treatments can be dangerous.

Physiologic Effects
Oxygen supplementation has a variety of physiologic effects on the human body. Whether or not these effects are adverse to a patient is dependent upon clinical context. Cases in which an excess amount of oxygen is available to organs is known as hyperoxia. While the following effects may observed with noninvasive high-dose oxygen therapy (i.e., not ECMO), delivery of oxygen at higher pressures is associated with exacerbation of the following associated effects.

Absorption atelectasis
It has been hypothesized that oxygen therapy may promote accelerated development of atelectasis (partial or complete lung collapse), as well as denitrogenation of gas cavities (e.g., pneumothorax, pneumocephalus). This concept is based on the idea that oxygen is more quickly absorbed compared to nitrogen within the body, leading oxygen-rich areas that are poorly ventilated to be rapidly absorbed, leading to atelectasis. It is thought that higher fractions of inhaled oxygen (FIO2) are associated with increasing rates of atelectasis in the clinical scenario. In clinically healthy adults, it is believed that absorption atelectasis typically does not have any significant implications when managed properly.

Airway inflammation
In regard to the airway, both tracheobronchitis and mucositis have been observed with high levels of oxygen delivery (typically >40% O2). Within the lungs, these elevated concentrations of oxygen have been associated with increased alveolar toxicity (coined the Lorrain-Smith effect). Mucosal damage is observed to increase with elevated atmospheric pressure and oxygen concentrations, which may result in the development of ARDS and possibly death.

Central nervous system effects
Decreased cerebral blood flow and intracranial pressure (ICP) have been reported in hyperoxic conditions, with mixed results regarding impact on cognition. Hyperoxia as also been associated with seizures, cataract formation, and reversible myopia.

Hypercapnea
Among  retainers, excess exposure to oxygen in context of the Haldane effect causes decreased binding of deoxyhemoglobin to  in the blood. This unloading of  may contribute to the development of acid-base disorders due to the associated increase in PaCO2 (hypercapnea).  Patients with underlying lung disease such as COPD may not be able to adequately clear the additional  produced by this effect, worsening their condition. In addition, oxygen therapy has also been shown to decrease respiratory drive, further contributing to possible hypercapnea.

Immunological effects
Hyperoxic environments have been observed to decrease granulocyte rolling and diapedesis in specific circumstances in humans. In regard to anaerobic infections, cases of necrotizing fasciitis have been observed to require fewer debridement operations and have improvement in regard to mortality in patients treated with hyperbaric oxygen therapy. This may stem from oxygen intolerance of otherwise anaerobic microorganisms.

Oxidative Stress
Sustained exposure to oxygen may overwhelm the body's capacity to deal with oxidative stress.  Rates of oxidative stress appears to be influenced by both oxygen concentration and length of exposure, with general toxicity observed to occur within hours in certain hyperoxic conditions.

Reduction in erythropoiesis
Hyperoxia is observed to result in a serum reduction in erythropoietin, resulting in reduced stimulus for erythropoiesis. Hyperoxia at normobaric environments does not appear to be able to halt erythropoiesis completely.

Pulmonary vasodilation
Within the lungs, hypoxia is observed to be a potent pulmonary vasoconstrictor, due to inhibition of an outward potassium current and activation of inward sodium current leading to pulmonary vascular muscular contraction. However, the effects of hyperoxia do not seem to have a particularly strong vasodilatory effect from the few studies that have been performed on patients with pulmonary hypertension. As a result, an effect appears to be present but minor.

Systemic vasoconstriction
In the systemic vasculature, oxygen serves as a vasoconstrictor, leading to mildly increased blood pressure and decreased cardiac output and heart rate. Hyperbaric conditions do not seem to have a significant impact on these overall physiologic effects. Clinically, this may lead to increased left-to-right shunting in certain patient populations, such as those with atrial septal defect. While the mechanism of the vasoconstriction is unknown, one proposed theory is that increased reactive oxygen species from oxygen therapy accelerates the degradation of endothelial nitric oxide, a vasodilator. These vasoconstrictive effects are thought to be the underlying mechanism helping to abort cluster headaches.

Dissolved oxygen in hyperoxic conditions may make also a significant contribution to total gas transport.

Storage and sources

Oxygen can be separated by a number of methods (e.g., chemical reaction, fractional distillation) to enable immediate or future use. The main methods utilized for oxygen therapy include:
 Liquid storage – Liquid oxygen is stored in insulateded tanks at low temperature and allowed to boil (at a temperature of 90.188 K (−182.96 °C)) during use, releasing gaseous oxygen. This method is widely utilized at hospitals due to high oxygen requirements. See Vacuum Insulated Evaporator for more information on this method of storage.
 Compressed gas storage – Oxygen gas is compressed in a gas cylinder, which provides a convenient storage method (refrigeration not required). Large oxygen cylinders hold a volume of  and can last about two days at a flow rate of 2 litres per minute (LPM). A small portable M6 (B) cylinder holds  and weighs about . These tanks can last 4–6 hours with a conserving regulator, which adjust flow based on a person's breathing rate. Conserving regulators may not be effective for patients who breathe through their mouth.
 Instant usage – The use of an electrically powered oxygen concentrator  or a chemical reaction based unit can create sufficient oxygen for immediate personal use. These units (especially the electrically powered versions) are widely used for home oxygen therapy as portable personal oxygen. One particular advantage includes continuous supply without need for bulky oxygen cylinders.

Hazards and risk
Highly concentrated sources of oxygen also increase risk for rapid combustion. Oxygen itself is not flammable, but the addition of concentrated oxygen to a fire greatly increases its intensity, and can aid the combustion of materials that are relatively inert under normal conditions. Fire and explosion hazards exist when concentrated oxidants and fuels are brought together in close proximity, although an ignition event (e.g., heat or spark) is needed to trigger combustion.

Concentrated oxygen will allow combustion to proceed rapidly and energetically. Steel pipes and storage vessels used to store and transmit both gaseous and liquid oxygen will act as a fuel; and therefore the design and manufacture of oxygen systems requires special training to ensure that ignition sources are minimized. Highly concentrated oxygen in a high-pressure environment can spontaneously ignite hydrocarbons such as oil and grease, resulting in a fire or explosion. The heat caused by rapid pressurization serves as the ignition source. For this reason, storage vessels, regulators, piping and any other equipment used with highly concentrated oxygen must be "oxygen-clean" prior to use to ensure the absence of potential fuels. This does not only apply to pure oxygen; any concentration significantly higher than atmospheric (approximately 21%) carries a potential ignition risk.

Some hospitals have instituted "no-smoking" policies which can help keep ignition sources away from medically piped oxygen. These policies do not eliminate the risk of injury among patients with portable oxygen systems, especially among smokers. Other potential sources of ignition include candles, aromatherapy, medical equipment, cooking, and deliberate vandalism.

Delivery
Various devices are used for oxygen administration. In most cases, the oxygen will first pass through a pressure regulator, used to control the high pressure of oxygen delivered from a cylinder (or other source) to a lower pressure. This lower pressure is then controlled by a flowmeter (which may be preset or selectable) which controls the flow at a measured rate (e.g., litres per minute [LPM]). The typical flowmeter range for medical oxygen is between 0 and 15 LPM with some units capable of obtaining up to 25 LPM. Many wall flowmeters using a Thorpe tube design are able to be dialed to "flush" oxygen which is beneficial in emergency situations.

Low-dose oxygen
Many people only require slight increases in inhaled oxygen, rather than pure or near-pure oxygen. These requirements can be met through a number of devices dependent on situation, flow requirements, and personal preference.

A nasal cannula (NC) is a thin tube with two small nozzles inserted into a person's nostrils. It can provide oxygen at low flow rates, 1–6 litres per minute (LPM), delivering an oxygen concentration of 24–40%.

There are also a number of face mask options, such as the simple face mask, often used at between 5 and 10 LPM, capable of delivering oxygen concentrations between 35% and 55%. This is closely related to the more controlled air-entrainment masks, also known as Venturi masks, which can accurately deliver a predetermined oxygen concentration from 24 to 50%.

In some instances, a partial rebreathing mask can be used, which is based on a simple mask, but features a reservoir bag, which can provide oxygen concentrations of 40–70% at 5–15 LPM.

Demand oxygen delivery systems (DODS) or oxygen resuscitators deliver oxygen only when the person inhales or the caregiver presses a button on the mask (e.g., nonbreathing patient). These systems greatly conserve oxygen compared to steady-flow masks, and are useful in emergency situations when a limited supply of oxygen is available and there is a delay in transporting the person to higher care. Due to utilization of a variety of methods for oxygenation requirements performance differences arise. They are very useful in CPR, as the caregiver can deliver rescue breaths composed of 100% oxygen with the press of a button. Care must be taken not to over-inflate the person's lungs, for which some systems employ safety valves. These systems may not be appropriate for people who are unconscious or in respiratory distress because of the required respiratory effort.

High flow oxygen delivery

For patients requiring high concentrations of oxygen, a number of devices are available. The most commonly utilized device is the non-rebreather mask (or reservoir mask). Non-rebreather masks draw oxygen from attached reservoir bags with one-way valves that direct exhaled air out of the mask. If flow rate is not sufficient (~10L/min), the bag may collapse on inspiration. This type of mask is indicated for acute medical emergencies. The delivered FIO2 (Inhalation volumetric fraction of molecular oxygen) of this system is 60–80%, depending on oxygen flow and breathing pattern.

Another type of device is a humidified high flow nasal cannula which enables flows exceeding a person's peak inspiratory flow demand to be delivered via nasal cannula, thus providing FIO2 of up to 100%  because there is no entrainment of room air.  This also allows the person to continue to talk, eat, and drink while still receiving therapy. This type of delivery method is associated with greater overall comfort, improved oxygenation, respiratory rates and reduced sputumstatis compared with face mask oxygen.

In specialist applications such as aviation, tight-fitting masks can be used. These masks also have applications in anaesthesia, carbon monoxide poisoning treatment and in hyperbaric oxygen therapy.

Positive pressure delivery
Patients who are unable to breathe on their own will require positive pressure to move oxygen into their lungs for gaseous exchange to take place. Systems for delivery vary in complexity and cost, starting with a basic pocket mask adjunct which can be used to manually deliver artificial respiration with supplemental oxygen delivered through a mask port.

Many emergency medical service members, first aid personnel, and hospital staff may use a bag-valve-mask (BVM), which is a malleable bag attached to a face mask (or invasive airway such as an endotracheal tube or laryngeal mask airway), usually with a reservoir bag attached, which is manually manipulated by the healthcare professional to push oxygen (or air) into the lungs. This is the only procedure allowed for initial treatment of cyanide poisoning in the UK workplace.Automated versions of the BVM system, known as a resuscitator or pneupac can also deliver measured and timed doses of oxygen directly to people through a facemask or airway. These systems are related to the anaesthetic machines used in operations under general anaesthesia that allow a variable amount of oxygen to be delivered, along with other gases including air, nitrous oxide and inhalational anaesthetics.

Drug delivery
Oxygen and other compressed gases are used in conjunction with a nebulizer to allow delivery of medications to the upper and/or lower airways. Nebulizers use compressed gas to propel liquid medication into therapeutically sized aerosol droplets for deposition to the appropriate portion of the airway. A typical compressed gas flow rate of 8–10 L/min is used to nebulize medications, saline, sterile water, or a combination these treatments into a therapeutic aerosol for inhalation. In the clinical setting, room air (ambient mix of several gasses), molecular oxygen, and Heliox are the most common gases used to nebulize a bolus treatment or a continuous volume of therapeutic aerosols.

Exhalation filters for oxygen masks
Filtered oxygen masks have the ability to prevent exhaled particles from being released into the surrounding environment. These masks are normally of a closed design such that leaks are minimized and breathing of room air is controlled through a series of one-way valves. Filtration of exhaled breaths is accomplished either by placing a filter on the exhalation port or through an integral filter that is part of the mask itself. These masks first became popular in the Toronto (Canada) healthcare community during the 2003 SARS Crisis. SARS was identified as being respiratory based, and it was determined that conventional oxygen therapy devices were not designed for the containment of exhaled particles.  In 2003, the HiOx80 oxygen mask was released for sale. The HiOx80 mask is a closed design mask that allows a filter to be placed on the exhalation port. Several new designs have emerged in the global healthcare community for the containment and filtration of potentially infectious particles. Other designs include the ISO- oxygen mask, the Flo2Max oxygen mask, and the O-Mask.

Typical oxygen masks allow a person to breathe in a mixture of room air and therapeutic oxygen. However, as filtered oxygen masks use a closed design that minimizes or eliminates the person's contact with and ability to inhale room air, delivered oxygen concentrations in such devices have been found to be elevated, approaching 99% using adequate oxygen flows. Because all exhaled particles are contained within the mask, nebulized medications are also prevented from releasing into the surrounding atmosphere, decreasing the occupational exposure to healthcare staff and other people.

Aircraft
In the United States, most airlines restrict the devices allowed on board an aircraft. As a result, passengers are restricted in what devices they can use. Some airlines will provide cylinders for passengers with an associated fee. Other airlines allow passengers to carry on approved portable concentrators. However, the lists of approved devices varies by airline so passengers may need to check with any airline they are planning to fly on. Passengers are generally not allowed to carry on personal cylinders. In all cases, passengers need to notify the airline in advance of their equipment.

Effective May 13, 2009, the Department of Transportation and FAA ruled that a select number of portable oxygen concentrators are approved for use on all commercial flights. FAA regulations require larger airplanes to carry D-cylinders of oxygen for use in case of an emergency.

Oxygen conserving devices
Since the 1980s, devices have been available which conserve stored oxygen by delivering it during the portion of the breathing cycle when it is more effectively used. This has the effect of stored oxygen lasting longer, or a smaller, and therefore lighter, portable oxygen delivery system being practicable. This class of device can also be used with portable oxygen concentrators, making them more efficient.

The delivery of supplemental oxygen is most effective if it is made at a point in the breathing cycle when it will be inhaled to the alveoli, where gas transfer occurs. oxygen delivered later in the cycle will be inhaled into physiological dead space, wher it serves no useful purpose as it cannot diffuse into the blood. Oxygen delivered during stages of the breathing cycle in which it is not inhaled is also wasted.

A continuous constant flow rate uses a simple regulator, but is inefficient as a high percentage of the delivered gas does not reach the alveoli, and over half is not inhaled at all. A system which accumulates free-flow oxygen during resting and exhalation stages, (reservoir cannulas) makes a larger part of the oxygen available for inhalation, and it will be selectively inhaled during the initial part of inhalation, which reaches furthest into the lungs. A similar function is provided by a mechanical demand regulator which provides gas only during inhalation, but requires some physical effort by the user, and also ventilates dead space with oxygen. A third class of system (pulse dose oxygen conserving device, or demand pulse devices) senses the start of inhalation and provides a metered bolus, which if correctly matched to requirements, will be sufficient and effectively inhaled into the alveoli.Such systems can be pneumatically or electrically controlled.

Adaptive demand systems
A development in pulse demand delivery are devices that automatically adjust the volume of the pulsed bolus to suit the activity level of the user. This adaptive response in intended to reduce desaturation responses caused by exercise rate variation.

Pulsed delivery devices are available as stand alone modules or integrated into a system specifically designed to use compressed gas, liquid oxygen or oxygen concentrator sources. Integrated design usually allows optimisation of the system for the source type at the cost of versatility.

Transtracheal oxygen catheters are inserted directly into the trachea through a small opening in the front of the neck for that purpose. The opening is directed downward, towards the bifurcation of the bronchi. Oxygen introduced through the catheter bypasses the dead spaces of the nose, pharynx and upper trachea during inhalation, and during continuous flow, will accumulate in the anatomic dead space at the end of exhalation and be available for immediate inhalation to the alveoli on the following inhalation. This reduces wastage and provides efficiency roughly three times greater than with external continuous flow. This is roughly equivalent to a reservoir cannula. Transtracheal catheters have been found to be effective during rest, exercise and sleep.

See also

 Redento D. Ferranti - Early use of oxygen therapy in the U.S. as an effective approach to rehabilitation for COPD patients.

References

Further reading

Diving medicine
Medical treatments
Oxygen
Respiratory therapy
Industrial gases
World Health Organization essential medicines
Wikipedia medicine articles ready to translate

de:Sauerstofftherapie

Oxygen therapy


Percloratul este anionul provenit de la acidul percloric și are formula ClO4-, astfel că atomul central de clor are numărul de oxidare maxim, egal cu +7. Perclorații sunt compușii chimici ionici care conțin anionul perclorat, fiind sărurile cu metale ale acidului percloric (de exemplu, perclorat de potasiu KClO4 sau perclorat de sodiu NaClO4). Conform teoriei RPESV, anionul perclorat are o geometrie tetraedrică.

Vezi și
Hipoclorit
Clorit
Clorat

Legături externe

Anioni

Perclorat


Manden uden navn (på engelsk: Man with no name, på italiensk Uomo senza nome) er helten, der bliver spillet af Clint Eastwood i Sergio Leones Dollars-trilogi af spaghettiwesternfilms: En nævefuld dollars (A Fistful of Dollars) fra 1964, Hævn for dollars (For a Few Dollars More) fra 1965 og den Den gode, den onde og den grusomme (The Good, the Bad and the Ugly) fra 1966.

I 2008 valgte filmtidsskriftet Empire "Manden uden navn" som den 33. bedste filmkarakter nogensinde.

Koncept og skabelse
En nævefuld Dollars blev direkte omskrevet fra Akira Kurosawas frilm Yojimbo fra 1961. Den blev sagsøgt af Yojimbos producere, hvilket lykkedes. Filmens protagonist er en ukonventionel ronin (en samurai uden herre), der spilles af Toshiro Mifune, og han har en slående lighed med Eastwoods karakter: begge er stille, bistre, excentriske fremmede med en stærk, men uortodokse følelse af retfærdighed og ekstraordinære færdigheder med en bestemt våben (i Mifunes tilfælde et katanasværd og i Eastwoods en revolver.

Ligesom Eastwoods westernkarakter spiller Mifune en karakter uden navn. Da han bliver presset giver han pseudonymet Sanjuro Kuwabatake (der betyder "Trediveårig morbærmark"), som er en reference til hans alder, og noget som han ser igennem et vindue (selvom han med hensyn til alderen spøgende siger "tættere på 40 faktisk"). Konventionen med at skjule karakterens arme deles også i de to film; Mifunes karakter gemmer dem typisk i sin kimono, og har således tomme ærmer. Inden Eastwood skrev under på kontrakten til En nævefuld Dollars havde han set Kurosawas film og var imponeret over karakteren. During filming, he did not emulate Mifune's performance beyond what was already in the script. He also insisted on removing some of the dialogue in the original script, making the character more silent and thus adding to his mystery. As the trilogy progressed, the character became even more silent and stoic.

Yojimbo selv antages at være baseret på Dashiell Hammetts roman Red Harvest fra 1929. Filmprofessoren David Desser og filmkritiker Manny Farber, har blandt andre kategorisk hævdet at Red Harvest var inspirationen til Kurosawasfilm Yojimbo. Leone selv troede også på denne teori og udtalte at "Kurosawas Yojimbo var inspireret af den hårdkogte amerikanske roman så jeg tog i virkeligheden bare historien hjem igen."

Selvom Kurosawa aldrig krediterede Hammett offentligt, hævder Roger Corman at Kurosawa privat anerkendte Red Harvest som sin inspiration. Hovedpersonen i Hammetts Red Harvest er ligeledes uden navn, og bliver kun identificeret som en Kontinental Op efter detektivbureauet som han arbejder for.

I den efterfølgende film, Last Man Standing, fra 1996 med Bruce Willis er et remake af Yojimbo.

Faktiske navne
 I En nævefuld Dollars bliver han kaldt "Joe" af fbedemanden, Piripero, og Eastwood bliver krediteret som "Joe".
 I Hævn for Dollars bliver han kaldt "Manco" (spansk for en-armet) fordi han gør alt med sin venstre hånd, undtagen at skyde.
 I Den gode, den onde og den grusomme kalder Tuco ham for "Blondie", fordi han er relativt lys i huden. Han er "Den gode" i filmtitlen.
 Dollars bogserien bliver han kaldt "The Hunter", "The Bounty Killer", "Mister Sudden Death", "Nameless", "No Name" og "Señor Ninguno" eller den direkte oversættelse "Mr. Nobody".

Optræden i litteraturen
Krakterens popularitet har bragt ham tilbage i adskillige spin-offbøger, kaldet Dollar-serien, da den deler samme tema som filmserien:

 A Fistful of Dollars, omskrivning til bog af Frank Chandler
 For a Few Dollars More, omskrivning til bog af Joe Millard
 The Good, the Bad and the Ugly, omskrivning til bog af Joe Millard
 A Coffin Full of Dollars af Joe Millard
 A Dollar to Die For af Brian Fox
 The Devil's Dollar Sign af Joe Millard
 The Million-Dollar Bloodhunt af Joe Millard
 Blood For a Dirty Dollar af Joe Millard

Tuco fra Den gode, den onde og den grusomme optræder som en af hovedpersonerne i A Dollar to Die For. Igen bliver Manden uden navn nødt til at angive ham for guld, og igen hjælper han ham med at flygte fra fængsel fordi "en verden uden Tuco vil være meget mindre interessant".

Referencer

Eksterne henvisninger
 Manden uden navn på IMDb

Fiktive personer

Manden uden navn


Scars of the Crucifix sedmi je studijski album američkog death metal-sastava Deicide. Diskografska kuća Earache Records objavila ga je 23. veljače 2004.

Popis pjesama

Osoblje

Izvori

Albumi sastava Deicide
Albumi iz 2004.

Scars of the Crucifix


مرصد دبليو. إم. كيك غالباً ما يعرف بـ مرصد كيك، . هو عبارة عن مرصدين يقعان على ارتفاع 4.145 م على قمة ماونا كيا في هاواي. المرايا الرئيسية لكلا المرصدين يبلغ قطرها 10 متر مما يجعلهما أكبر مرصدين بصريين في العالم.

تم بنائه بعد أن منح هاورد ب. كيك رئيس مؤسسة دبليو. إم كيك مبلغ 70 مليون دولار للقيام بتصميم المرصد وإنشائه. تم بناء المرصد الأول «كيك I» في عام 1993 والثاني «كيك II» في عام 1996.

اقرأ أيضا
 مرصد بارانال
 مرصد هابل الفضائي
 مرصد ديناميكا الشمس
 التلسكوب العظيم VLT
 مصفوف المراصد العظيم VLA
 بصريات نشيطة
 بصريات مكيفة
 كوكب كابيتين بي
 كوكب LkCa 15b

مراجع

وصلات خارجية

 مرصد دبليو. إم. كيك (موقع رسمي)
 مرصد مونا كيا (موقع رسمي)

آلات فلكية
تأسيسات سنة 1990 في هاواي
تلسكوبات تداخل
جامعة كاليفورنيا
جامعة كاليفورنيا (سانتا كروز)
مبان ومنشآت اكتملت في 1993
مبان ومنشآت اكتملت في 1996
مبان ومنشآت في مقاطعة هاواي (هاواي)
مراصد فلكية
مراصد فلكية في هاواي
معاهد وأقسام علم الفلك

مرصد كيك


Špilja Gospe Lurdske u Heiligenkreuzu kršćansko je spomen-mjesto u istoimenoj općini u Bečkoj šumi u kotaru Baden kod Beča, koje je opatija Heiligenkreuz 2017. godine uredila kao vjerski spomenik u čast Blažene Djevice Marije. Kao i sve slične špilje Gospe Lurdske diljem svijeta, i ova podsjeća na svjetski poznatu špilju ukazanja u francuskom hodočasničkom gradu Lourdesu.

Mjesto i povijest
Heiligenkreuz leži na hodočasničkom putu Via Sacra, koji od Beča vodi prema austrijskom nacionalnom marijanskom svetištu Mariazell: od davnina je Heiligenkreuz bio postaja mnogih hodočasnika koji su u njemu zastali i tražili okrjepu. Cisterciti opatije Heiligenkreuz o štovanju Bogorodice Marije  kažu: "Gdje se Mariju štuje i Njoj se moli, tamo vjera biva duboko ukorijenjena te živa i snažna. Gdje se Mariju voli, voli se i Crkvu". Stoga je u neposrednoj blizini opatije Heiligenkreuz uređeno posebno mjesto za hodočasnike – špilja Gospe Lurdske. Ta je Marijina špilja uređena u ljeto 2017. u prirodnoj stijeni tik uz potok Sattelbach u blizini srednjovjekovne žitnice, a svečano ju je u predvečerje blagdana Velike Gospe (14. kolovoza) posvetio nadbiskup Peter Stephan Zurbriggen, tadašnji apostolski nuncij u Austriji. Jedna statua lurdske Madone s početka 20. stoljeća, dar opatiji Heiligenkreuz, obnovljena je i postavljena u prirodnu udubinu stijene, ispred koje je postavljen oltar izrađen od istoga kamena. Od kolovoza 2020. i jedan je mali kip svete Bernardice Soubirous, koji je donirao neznani dobrotvor, također dio špilje Gospe Lurdske u Heiligenkreuzu: opat donjoaustrijske cistercitske opatije Lilienfeld Pius Martin Maurer blagoslovio ju je 14. kolovoza 2020. tijekom velike svečane procesije sa svijećama.

 »Čak i ako je Marija s Bogom, ona i dalje želi biti među nama. Stoga mjesta marijanskih ukazanja poput Lourdesa i Fátime ukazuju na Marijinu majčinsku blizinu i ljubav.« — Maximilian Heim OCist

 »Prepustimo Mariji da nas vodi kako bismo po njoj postali sličniji Isusu. Pustimo da nas Bezgrješna sve više vodi kamo i kako god ona želi, da bismo tako u izvršavanju svojih vjerničkih dužnosti sve ljude približili njenoj ljubavi.« — Maksimilijan Kolbe OFMConv

 »Po Mariji i s Marijom Duh Sveti djeluje za spasenje čovječanstva.« — Bernhard Vošicky OCist

 »Gdje je Marija, tu je iskonska slika potpunog sebedarja i nasljedovanja Krista. Gdje je Marija, tu je i duhovska prisutnost Duha Svetoga, tu je buđenje i istinska obnova.« — Papa Benedikt XVI.

Izvori

Vanjske poveznice

Sestrinski projekti

Mrežna mjesta
 YouTube – Stift Heiligenkreuz: Ein Hauch von Lourdes | Die Lourdesgrotte in Heiligenkreuz
 YouTube – Stift Heiligenkreuz: Segnung Lourdes-Grotte Stift Heiligenkreuz
 MeinBezirk.at / Robert Rieger: Besuch der Lourdes – Grotte Heiligenkreuz 12.12.2020
 Stiftspfarre Heiligenkreuz: Neue Lourdes-Grotte in Heiligenkreuz

Opatija Heiligenkreuz
Katolički vjerski objekti u Austriji

Špilja Gospe Lurdske u Heiligenkreuzu


Josef Casimir Hofmann (originally Józef Kazimierz Hofmann; January 20, 1876February 16, 1957) was a Polish-American pianist, composer, music teacher, and inventor.

Biography
Josef Hofmann was born in Podgórze (a district of Kraków), in Austro-Hungarian Galicia (present-day Poland) in 1876. His father was the composer, conductor and pianist Kazimierz Hofmann, and his mother the singer Matylda Pindelska. He had an older sister – Zofia Wanda (born June 11, 1874, also in Krakow). Throughout their childhood, their father, Kazimierz, was married to Aniela Teofila née Kwiecińska (born on January 3, 1843, in Warsaw), who, after moving to Warsaw in 1878 with her husband, died there on October 12, 1885. Then the next year Kazimierz Mikołaj Hofmann married on June 17, 1886, Matylda Franciszka Pindelska - the mother of his children, (daughter of Wincenty and Eleonora née Wyszkowska, b. in 1851 in Kraków) in the Holy Cross Basilica in Warszawa.

In order to ensure their son Josef a thorough musical education, the whole family moved to Berlin from 1886. Josef Hofmann, a child prodigy, gave a debut recital in Warsaw at the age of 5, and a long series of concerts throughout Europe and Scandinavia, culminating in a series of concerts in America in 1887-88 that elicited comparisons with the young Mozart and the young Mendelssohn. The young Hofmann took music lessons from Heinrich Urban (composition) and with the pianist and composer Moritz Moszkowski. Subsequently, Anton Rubinstein took Hofmann as his only private student in 1892 and arranged the debut of his pupil in Hamburg, Germany, in 1894. Hofmann toured and performed extensively over the next 50 years as one of the most celebrated pianists of the era. In 1913, he was presented with a set of keys to the city of St. Petersburg, Russia.

As a composer, Hofmann published over one hundred works, many of those under the pseudonym Michel Dvorsky, including two piano concertos and ballet music. He made the United States his base during World War I and became a US citizen in 1926. In 1924, he became the first head of the piano department at the inception of the Curtis Institute of Music, Philadelphia; he became the institute's director in 1927 and remained so until 1938.

He was instrumental in recruiting illustrious musicians such as Efrem Zimbalist, Fritz Reiner, Marcella Sembrich, Isabella Vengerova, Moriz Rosenthal, Wilhelm Backhaus, Benno Moiseiwitsch, Abram Chasins, David Saperton, Wanda Landowska, and Leopold Auer to the Curtis faculty. Hofmann's pupils included  Jacques Abram, Jeanne Behrend, Abram Chasins, Shura Cherkassky, William Harms, Harry Kaufman, Angelica Morales von Sauer, Ezra Rachlin, Nadia Reisenberg (see ), Abbey Simon, Lucie Stern, and Ruth Slenczynska. While not a pupil, Jorge Bolet benefited from Hofmann's interest. In 1937, the 50th anniversary of his New York debut performance was celebrated with gala performances including a "Golden Jubilee" recital at the Metropolitan Opera, New York City. In 1938 he was forced to leave the Curtis Institute of Music over financial and administrative disputes. In the years from 1939 to 1946, his artistic eminence deteriorated, in part due to family difficulties and alcoholism. In 1946, he gave his last recital at Carnegie Hall, home to his 151 appearances, and retired to private life in 1948.

He spent his last decade in Los Angeles in relative obscurity, working on inventions and keeping a steady correspondence with associates.

As an inventor, Hofmann had over 70 patents, and his invention of pneumatic shock absorbers for cars and airplanes was commercially successful from 1905 to 1928. Other inventions included a windscreen wiper, a furnace that burned crude oil, a house that revolved with the sun, a device to record dynamics (U.S. patent number 1614984) in reproducing piano rolls that he perfected just as the roll companies went out of business, and piano action improvements adopted by the Steinway Company (U.S. patent number 2263088).

Hofmann moved to Los Angeles in 1939. He died there of pneumonia on February 16, 1957, at a nursing home. He had four children; a daughter and three sons. In 1928, it became public that Hofmann had divorced his first wife—Marie Eustis, with whom he had a daughter—in 1924 and had married his second wife—Betty Short, who had initially been one of his students—shortly thereafter. His eldest son, Josef Anton Hofmann, became a noted audio engineer.

Legacy
The Josef Hofmann Piano Competition, co-sponsored by the American Council for Polish Culture and the University of South Carolina Aiken, was established in his honor in 1994.

Career as a child prodigy

Anton Rubinstein heard the seven-year-old Hofmann play Beethoven's C minor Piano Concerto in Warsaw and declared him to be an unprecedented talent. At Rubinstein's suggestion, German impresario Hermann Wolff offered career management and offered to send the boy on a European tour, but Hofmann's father refused to let the boy travel until he was nine years old. At that age, Hofmann gave concerts in Germany, France, Holland, Norway, Denmark, Sweden, and Great Britain.

At the age of 12, young Josef Hofmann was probably the first pianist of note to record on Edison's phonograph; Hans von Bülow recorded a Chopin Mazurka on Edison's improved phonograph the same year, i.e., 1888.

In 1887, an American tour was arranged, with three months of performances that included fifty recitals, seventeen of which were at the Metropolitan Opera House. Yet soon after, the Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Children stepped in, citing the boy's fragile health. However, as per the contract that had paid Hofmann $10,000, he was legally obliged to complete the tour. The contract was rendered void by Alfred Corning Clark who donated $50,000 and, in turn, legally forbade Hofmann to perform in public until he turned 18 years old. The final segment of the tour was cancelled and the family returned to Potsdam, outside Berlin. This marked the end of Hofmann's child prodigy years. (See  and  for details.)

Education in music
Clark's donation enabled Hofmann to continue individual study in science and mathematics, and he continued to take music lessons from Heinrich Urban (composition) and with the pianist and composer Moritz Moszkowski. In 1892, Rubinstein accepted Hofmann as his only private pupil, the two meeting for 42 sessions in Dresden's Hotel d'Europe. Initial lessons, a week apart, included ten Bach Preludes and Fugues and two Beethoven sonatas, from memory. Hofmann was never allowed to bring the same composition twice, as Rubinstein said as a teacher he would probably forget what he told the student during the previous lesson.  Rubinstein never played for Hofmann, but gave ample evidence of his pianistic outlook during many recitals the boy heard.  In a three-day period Hofmann heard in Berlin's new Bechstein Hall recitals by Hans von Bülow, Johannes Brahms and Rubinstein, and commented on their radically different playing.  Rubinstein arranged Hofmann's adult debut on March 14, 1894, in Hamburg's Symphonic Assembly Hall, the piece being Rubinstein's Piano Concerto No. 4 in D minor, with the composer conducting. After the concert, Rubinstein told Hofmann there would be no more lessons, and they never saw each other again. Rubinstein returned to Russia and died later that year. In later years Hofmann referred to his relationship with the titanic Russian master as the "most important event in my life.".

Hofmann at the end of his career
By the early 1930s, Hofmann had become an alcoholic but he retained exceptional pianistic command throughout this decade; Rudolf Serkin and a young Glenn Gould have recounted magical impressions created on them by Hofmann's concerts in the middle and late 1930s.  After his departure from the Curtis Institute in 1938, a combination of his drinking, marital problems and a loss of interest in performing caused a rapid deterioration in his artistic abilities. Commenting on Hofmann's sharp decline, Sergei Rachmaninoff said, "Hofmann is still sky high ... the greatest pianist alive if he is sober and in form. Otherwise, it is impossible to recognize the Hofmann of old". Oscar Levant wrote, "one of the terrible tragedies of music was the disintegration of Josef Hofmann as an artist. In his latter days, he became an alcoholic. …[H]is last public concert … was an ordeal for all of us".

Technique and style

Hofmann's views on technique and musicianship are explained in his book Piano Playing with Questions Answered.
He had small but exceptionally strong hands. Steinway eventually built for him custom keyboards with slightly narrower keys (pianist/critic Stephen Hough has commented on how Hofmann's mechanical understanding of the Steinway piano action set him apart from all other pianists.)
His concert instruments had subtle action changes for faster repetition, two pedals rather than three (he liked the older Steinway trap work geometry), faultless regulation, and were accompanied on tours by his own recital chair, built with a short folding back and a 1½" slope from rear to front. After playing Hofmann's special concert instrument in the Steinway New York basement, Gunnar Johansen reported that the piano had the biggest sonority of any he had ever tried.

Unlike Rubinstein, Hofmann sat quietly at the piano, striking the keys in a kneading manner. His finger staccato was at the time unequaled, as was his orchestral sonority. According to his student Nadia Reisenberg, he continuously used a combination of finger pedalling and foot pedalling. The New York Times critic Harold C. Schonberg said Hofmann had all of Leopold Godowsky's technique, a claim approved by Godowsky himself. By his own admission, Sergei Rachmaninoff, in his 40s, prepared for a career as a concert pianist by practicing over 15 hours a day with the goal of attaining the level of Hofmann's technique. When pianist Ralph Berkowitz was asked if Vladimir Horowitz had the greatest technique of all the pianists he had heard, Berkowitz replied that Horowitz indeed was the supreme master of the technical parts of performance, but one older era pianist was his equal - Hofmann.

Hofmann's approach and style can be summarized by his motto "an aristocrat never hurries".
 He often stated that Rubinstein and Moriz Rosenthal were the only pianists who had influenced his art, and admired singers Mattia Battistini and Marcella Sembrich. He adopted a more demonstrative style in live performances but a subtle and restrained style for his studio recordings; in both cases, he mostly adhered to the printed score, occasionally doubling left-hand octaves, and shunned sentimentality. He put spontaneity rather than structure foremost and admitted to Rachmaninoff that "I do not know how to build a composition ... occasionally, it happens to sound well". Schonberg wrote that among Hofmann's contemporaries, only Godowsky had the finish and refinement of Hofmann but lacked Hofmann's color, fire, and "red blood", while only Ferruccio Busoni and Rachmaninoff were ever mentioned by contemporaries as Hofmann's equals. After hearing a performance of Chopin's B minor Sonata by Hofmann, Rachmaninoff cut that piece from his own repertoire saying "not since Anton Rubinstein have I heard such titanic playing".

Suggested examples illustrating Hofmann's style:
 Rubinstein's Contradanses
 Chopin's Andante Spianato and Grande Polonaise Op.22
 Chopin's Ballade Op.23
 2nd Movement from Beethoven's Sonata Op.31 No.3
 Rachmaninoff's Prelude Op.23 No.5
 Liszt's Hungarian Rhapsody No.2
 Stojowski's Caprice Orientale (dedicated to him by Sigismond Stojowski).

Repertoire, musical ear and memory
Hofmann's repertoire was mostly confined to music written before the start of the 20th century.
Much like Rubinstein's seven historic recitals of 1885, he gave 21 consecutive concerts in St. Petersburg without repeating a single piece, playing 255 different works from memory during that marathon cycle in 1912–1913.  In the diary his wife kept during his 1909 Russian tour, she mentions his raising his eyebrows when he saw Brahms' Handel Variations on a program—a piece he had not played or even looked at for two and a half years.  He played the work at the concert without hesitation.
Although a poor sight reader, he was said to possess the ability of Franz Liszt and Camille Saint-Saëns
to hear a composition once and play it back correctly without seeing the printed notes.  Rosina Lhévinne recalled that Hofmann heard her husband Josef Lhévinne play Liszt's Lorelei, a piece Hofmann had never heard but went on to play it "just like my Josef (Lhevinne)"  for an encore at his concert later that day.
Maurice Aronson, who served as Leopold Godowsky's assistant, recalled Hofmann learning Godowsky's Fledermaus transcription. Godowsky and Hofmann met in Berlin in 1900, becoming friends until Godowsky's death in 1938.  Hofmann would visit Godowsky's studio and listen while Godowsky was composing Fledermaus.  A week later Hofmann visited Godowsky again and played the entire transcription, and he had never seen the music. Godowsky, in fact, had not yet written it down.  Schonberg has added that Godowsky's Fledermaus is one of the most resourceful and complicated stunts ever written for the piano.

Recordings
Hofmann started recording in studios in the 1880s but was never satisfied with the available technology and made only test pressings after 1923;  he considered the test pressings made for HMV in November 1935 to be a worthwhile representation of his art.

In the 1940s he recorded for the Bell Telephone Hour radio programs of which some rare footage remains, including Rachmaninoff's Prelude in C-sharp minor, Op. 3, No. 2, and Beethoven's Concerto in E-flat major, "Emperor".  Gregor Benko has remarked that Hofmann should not have appeared on many of the Bell Telephone Hour broadcasts since, by this time,
his pianistic control had deteriorated considerably though the tonal palette was still immense and the phrasing provocative (see  and ). Hofmann's student Jeanne Behrend, after first hearing the recordings from 1940 to 1946, stated "well, it's his playing, but nothing like what we heard in the 1920s."

Cylinders recorded c. 1890 for Thomas Edison were some of the earliest recordings of classical music and were lost during World War I. Four cylinders made in Russia in 1895–1896, with music by Mendelssohn, Louis Brassin and Rubinstein, have been recently discovered and issued on CD.  He made two series of reproducing piano rolls, including in 1913 23 pieces for Welte-Mignon but did not trust rolls as an accurate representation of his playing. Hofmann recorded acoustic discs from 1912 to 1923 for Columbia and Brunswick, but felt the representation of his chaste and prismatic tonal palette was not captured. Hofmann experimented with short studio test  recordings for RCA Victor in 1935 (which were released on LP by RCA in 1970),  and in retirement in California experimented with piano string electrical pickups and designing an additional spruce soundboard under the piano lid. RCA Victor privately recorded the 50th anniversary concert of Hofmann's New York debut at the Metropolitan Opera House on November 28, 1937. At least two of his other concerts in 1930's were recorded live. These concert recordings exhibit an older Hofmann (age 60–62) in public just prior to the sharp decline in his pianistic command, and include sensational readings of Chopin's G minor Ballade, Andante Spianato and Grand Polonaise, A-flat Waltz (Op. 42) and F minor Ballade. All of these recordings have been published on compact discs under the auspices of Gregor Benko and audio restoration specialist Ward Marston.

Stature

Harold C. Schonberg has argued that Hofmann was the most flawless and possibly the greatest pianist of the 20th century. HMV and RCA unsuccessfully pursued recording projects with Hofmann in the 1930s. Sergei Rachmaninoff dedicated his Piano Concerto No. 3 in D minor (1909) to Hofmann, although Hofmann disliked it and never played it. Older generation critics such as James Huneker labeled Hofmann the "king of pianists", and Samuel Chotzinoff called him the "greatest pianist of our time."
Contemporaries such as Rachmaninoff, Ignaz Friedman, Josef Lhévinne, and Godowsky considered Hofmann to be, overall, the greatest pianist of their generation, but the acclaim was not so universal from the next generation of pianists.
In his autobiography Arthur Rubinstein criticized Hofmann as someone who took interest in only the mechanics of music and not in its heart or spirituality, and commented that at the end of Hofmann's career "he was left with nothing after his technique left him". Claudio Arrau dismissed Hofmann (along with Paderewski) as someone who only happened to be very famous and said "I didn't know what to do with him". Sviatoslav Richter, after listening to a Hofmann RCA test pressing of the Scherzo from Beethoven's Sonata in E-flat, Op. 31, No. 3, considered the older pianist to be technically "stunning", but noted that Hofmann ignored the composer's sforzando markings; while György Sándor has called him the greatest of all 20th-century pianists in terms of music, interpretation, and technique.  Hofmann's own student Shura Cherkassky compared Horowitz favorably with Hofmann as follows: "Hofmann was possibly the greater musical mind. But, I think, Horowitz was the greater pianist, the greater virtuoso—he somehow appealed to the whole world. Hofmann could not communicate on that level".

To balance the record, Earl Wild acknowledged Hofmann's style as the biggest influence on him gaining a fluid and flexible technique: 'His interpretations were always delivered with great logic and beauty.' Jorge Bolet is reported to have said that whenever he heard either Rachmaninoff or Hofmann, he always thought to himself, 'Every note that they play – that is what I would like to play.'

Bibliography

Hofmann's books were based on his frequent articles in the Ladies' Home Journal:

 Piano Playing: A Little Book of Simple Suggestions (1907) — e-text
 Piano Questions Answered (1909)
 Piano Playing: With Piano Questions Answered (1920, compilation of the first two books) — e-text,  and

References

External links

 Josef Hofmann Collection at the International Piano Archives at Maryland (accessed 12 July 2013)

 Piano Rolls ()
 Jan Żdżarski: Józef Hofmann Geniusz zapomniany, Wydawnictwo STO, www.sto.com.pl
 Historical Marker Database Josef Hofmann Historical Marker, Aiken, SC

1876 births
1957 deaths
Musicians from Kraków
Musicians from the Kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria
Polish Austro-Hungarians
Polish emigrants to the United States
American classical pianists
American male classical pianists
20th-century American inventors
American male composers
American composers
Child classical musicians
Polish classical pianists
Polish composers
Polish inventors
Burials at Forest Lawn Memorial Park (Glendale)
Eustis family

Josef Hofmann


Malay cuisine is the traditional food of the ethnic Malays of Southeast Asia, residing in modern-day Malaysia, Indonesia (parts of Sumatra and Kalimantan), Singapore, Brunei, Southern Thailand and the Philippines (mostly southern) as well as Cocos Islands, Christmas Island, Sri Lanka and South Africa.

The main characteristic of traditional Malay cuisine is the generous use of spices. Coconut milk is also important in giving Malay dishes their rich, creamy character.  The other foundation is belacan (prawn paste), which is used as a base for , a rich sauce or condiment made from , chilli peppers, onions and garlic. Malay cooking also makes plentiful use of lemongrass and galangal.

Nearly every Malay meal is served with rice, which is also the staple food in many other Asian cultures. Although there are various types of dishes in a Malay meal, all are served at once, not in courses.
A typical meal consists of a plate of rice for each person on the table. Dishes are meant to be shared among the diners and each dish is provided with a spoon. The diner proceeds to spoon the dishes of his choosing onto his rice plate.
Food is eaten delicately with the fingers of the right hand, never with the left which is used for personal ablutions, and Malays rarely use utensils.

History and influences
It is uncertain when the Malay culinary traditions took shape, but the earliest record of the tradition is from the 15th century when Malacca Sultanate became the important trade centre in the Malay archipelago. The most important legacy of Malacca derived from its involvement in the spice trade, its openness to the ingredients and culinary techniques introduced by foreigners notably the Arabs, Persians, Chinese and Indians and its cultivation of a rich eclectic gastronomy. Malacca was also a catalyst for the development of two other rich and unique culinary cultures which are the fusion of Malay with Chinese and European traditions, cuisines respectively known as Nyonya and Eurasian. In the centuries before and after Malacca, there were other non-Malay groups from Buginese and Javanese to Minangkabau who were absorbed into Malay society at different times, aided by similarity in lifestyle and a common religion, and had varying degrees of influence on Malay food.

It is important to understand the nuance and differences of what makes a dish Malay, which is intertwined with the differences between the concept of Malay as an ethnic group or as a race. In Indonesia, Malay cuisine more specifically refers to the cuisine of ethnic Malay people who traditionally inhabit the east coast of Sumatra, the Malay Peninsula and coastal Borneo. In Malaysia, Singapore, Brunei and outside the Malay archipelago (such as Sri Lanka and South Africa) however, the term "Malay cuisine" often takes a broader scope, which includes the culinary traditions of other neighbouring common Austronesian peoples, often including Minangkabaus, Javanese and Bugis, or even their fusion derivatives.

Nasi lemak, rice cooked in rich coconut milk, is probably the most popular dish, ubiquitous in Malay towns and villages.  is considered Malaysia's national dish. Another example is ketupat or nasi himpit, compressed rice cooked in palm leaves. It is popular especially during Hari Raya. Various meats and vegetables could be made into gulai or kari, a type of curry dish with variations of spice mixtures that display an Indian influence long present in Malay cuisine. Since most Malays are Muslims, Malay cuisine rigorously observes Islamic halal dietary law.  Protein intake is mostly taken from beef, water buffalo, goat, and lamb, and also includes poultry and fish. Pork, non-halal meat, and alcohol are prohibited. Laksa, a fusion of Malay and Chinese cuisine, is also a popular dish. Malay cuisine has also adopted some neighbouring food traditions, such as rendang adopted from Minangkabau cuisine in Sumatra, nasi ulam from Betawi cuisine and satays from Javanese cuisine in Java. However, the Malays have developed distinctive tastes and recipes.

Malay cuisine has also spread outside the Malay archipelago and influenced other cuisine there. Bobotie is a South African dish with its origins in Cape Malay. It consists of spiced minced meat baked with an egg-based topping. Of the many dishes common to South Africa,  is perhaps closest to being the national dish because it is not commonly found in any other country. The recipe originates from the Dutch East India Company colonies in Batavia, with the name derived from the Indonesian bobotok. In other countries, kalu dodol is a Sri Lankan dessert with Sri Lankan Malay origins. It consists of  jaggery (from the sap of the toddy palm), rice flour and coconut milk.

Terminology
Nearly every culture and language has contributed to the culinary language, including Malay with its own food terminology embracing its preparation, methods of cooking, and numerous food names. Malay food terminology has been shaped by cultural transmission over many generations. Traditionally Malay parents would pass down the skills and processes of cooking to their children through daily cooking activities as well as traditional events, including wedding ceremonies.

Food preparation

In Malay food preparation, the ingredients used are often described as spicy and flavorful as it is a melting pot of spices, herbs and roots. Strong, tangy and flavorful fresh herbs, spices and ingredients such as  (lemongrass),  (screwpine),  (a type of basil),  (polygonum),  (nutmeg),  (turmeric) and  (wild ginger buds),  (mustard seeds) and  (fenugreek) are often used. There are also a number of terms used for the equipment and utensils used for food preparation. Traditional cooking equipment includes several types of grinders called  (pestle and mortar),  (stone roller), and the  (mill) used for preparing spices and pastes. Vegetables are diced on a  (wooden cutting board); while a coconut scraper or  is indispensable in making both curries and sweets. Pastries are also made for desserts and for this a  (rolling pin) and  (pastry board) are considered essential.

Cooking methods

Traditional cooking methods in Malay cuisine are quite similar to life in Malay villages, slow and relaxed, as most Malay food is cooked on low heat for a long time compared to Chinese food. There are numerous methods of cooking which consist of dry and moist methods.  (using a small amount of oil or fat in a shallow pan over relatively high heat),  (food smoked or grilled with the ingredients often cut into pieces or thinly sliced to facilitate fast cooking),  (food, mainly dried spices, fried without oil), and  (warmed over low heat to dry) are examples of terms for dry-heat cooking methods. On the other hand, moist-heat cooking methods includes terms such as  (cooking in a pot, especially rice),  (boiling or simmering),  (blanching or dipping food such as vegetables into hot water) and  (simmering or boiling food).

Characteristics
As defined by Ainuddin, Malay food has five characteristics:
 It is rich in herbs and spices;
 Coconut milk is one of the main ingredients;
 It is usually spicy;
 Meat is usually stewed with a thick gravy; and
 Fried fish and seafood are usually seasoned with turmeric powder.

Regional cuisine variations

Brunei

Bruneian Malay cuisine is often spicy and commonly eaten with either rice or noodles. Beef rendang, nasi lemak and  are popular foods in Brunei. Among the few dishes peculiar to Brunei is ambuyat, a sticky ball of flavourless sago starch, which is wrapped around a bamboo fork and dipped into a spicy and sour gravy.

, which literally means "knock rice", is a popular meal which consists of plain rice, fried chicken and sambal, a spicy relish made from ground chilli peppers and a variety of secondary ingredients including but not limited to shrimp paste, garlic, ginger, shallot, scallion, palm sugar, lime juice, vinegar and anchovies.  is traditionally served wrapped in brown paper.

Indonesia

The cuisine of Malay Indonesians spread on the east coast of Sumatra and Kalimantan, primarily West Kalimantan. Because of the close ethnic kinship and proximity to Malaysian Malays, many dishes are shared between the two countries. For example, nasi lemak and nasi ulam are considered native dishes of Riau and Jambi. Malay cuisine also shares many similarities with the neighboring Minangkabau cuisine of West Sumatra, Palembangese cuisine of South Sumatra and Acehnese cuisine of Aceh, such as sharing gulai, asam pedas, kari, lemang, nasi minyak, pempek, pindang, rendang and roti canai. This is due to the fact that the Minangkabaus are culturally closely related to the Malays. Malay Indonesian cuisine has also been influenced by Arab, Betawi, Chinese, Indian and Javanese cuisine.

Otak-otak is a dish involving fish pieces wrapped in banana leaves. The grilled fish cake is made of ground fish mixed with tapioca starch and spices.

Tempoyak is a fermented durian sauce and  belacan is a Malay-style sambal made of fresh chillies and toasted belacan in a stone mortar. Both are familiar condiments in Sumatra.

Other Malay Indonesian dishes include acar, amplang, ayam goreng, ayam pansuh, ayam penyet, ayam percik, begedil, bihun goreng, bobotok, bubur asyura, bubur cha cha, bubur lambuk, bubur pedas, cincalok, epok-epok, various gulai, ikan bakar, various ikan patin dishes, kangkung belacan, kemplang, ketupat, kwetiau goreng, various laksa, lepat, lontong, martabak, mi celor, mi goreng, mi kari, mi rebus, nasi ambeng, nasi briyani, various nasi goreng, nasi kari, nasi kebuli, pekasam, rojak, roti jala, roti john, roti tisu, sambal sotong, samosa, satay, sayur lodeh, various siput gonggong dishes, soto, soto mi, sup ikan, sup kambing, sup rusa, tauhu goreng, tekwan, terang bulan and ulam.

Malaysia

Malaysian Malay cuisine bears many similarities to Malay Indonesian cuisine. It has also been influenced by Chinese, Indian, Thai, Javanese and Minangkabau cuisine. Many Malay dishes revolve around the rempah, which is usually sauteed in oil to draw out its flavours to form the base of a dish. A dipping relish called  is an essential accompaniment for most Malay dishes.

Nasi lemak is rice cooked in rich coconut milk and considered Malaysia's national dish.

The drink sirap bandung consists of evaporated or condensed milk flavoured with rose syrup, giving it a pink colour. The drink is an adaptation of rose milk from India.

Other Malay dishes in Malaysia include apam balik, ayam goreng, ayam masak merah, ayam pansuh, ayam percik, bubur pedas, char kway teow, cincalok, ikan bakar, various kari, karipap, kebebe, kerabu, keropok lekor, kerutuk daging, various laksa, Maggi goreng, masak lemak, mee bandung, mee Jawa, mee kolo, mee siam, mee soto, mee wantan, nasi ambeng, nasi beriani, nasi dagang, Nasi kerabu, nasi goreng, nasi paprik, nasi tumpang, pek nga, roti canai, roti john, satay, taugeh ayam, tempoyak and ulam.

Singapore
Situated between Malaysia and Indonesia, Singaporean Malay dishes are influenced by the food of the neighbouring Malay Peninsula, Sumatra, Java and the Riau Islands. Despite absorbing regional influences, it tends to be adapted to local tastes and differ from its counterparts in neighbouring countries. Hence, Singaporean Malay cuisine features a unique set of influences, especially from Minangkabau and Javanese cuisine.

Dendeng is a thinly sliced dried meat. It is preserved through a mixture of sugar and spices and dried via a frying process and shows Minangkabau influences.

Other Malay Singaporean dishes include assam pedas, bakso, curry puff, gulai daun ubi, Katong laksa, ketupat, lemak siput, mee siam, mee goreng, naan, nasi goreng, nasi lemak, nasi padang, rojak bandung, roti john, sambal stingray, satay, satay bee hoon, soto and sup tulang.

South Africa

Cape Malay cuisine is a tradition of the Cape Malay people in South Africa. It has been influenced by Malay and Javanese cuisine. Thus, Cape Malay influence has brought spicy curries, , pickled fish and a variety of fish stews to South Africa. Adaptations of traditional foods such as bobotie and sosatie are staples in many South African homes. Faldela Williams wrote three cookbooks, including the Cape Malay Cookbook, which was instrumental in preserving the cultural traditions of Cape Malay cuisine.

Sosatie is a traditional Cape Malay dish of meat (usually lamb or mutton) cooked on skewers. The term is derived from sate (skewered meat) and saus (spicy sauce). To prepare it, mutton chunks are marinated overnight in fried onions, chillies, garlic, curry leaves and tamarind juice, then threaded on skewers and either pan-fried or grilled.

Cape Malay yellow rice, a sweet dish made with raisins, cinnamon and sugar, also has its origins in Cape Malay cookery, often referred to as Cape Malay yellow rice.

Other Cape Malay dishes include biryani, boeber, chutney, falooda, frikkadel, koesister, roti, sambals, samoosa and tomato bredie.

Sri Lanka
Sri Lankan Malay cuisine has played a significant role in shaping Sri Lankan cuisine. Achcharu is a dish that originates from the local Malay community and is now widely popular among all ethnic groups in the country. It is a selection of vegetables in a pickled sauce and blends sweet, sour and spicy flavours. Mee goreng and nasi goreng are also popular, a result of cultural influences from Indonesia and the country's Malay community.

Other Sri Lankan Malay dishes include varieties of curry, ekor sop, kalu dodol, sambals and watalappam.

List of Malay dishes

Dishes
 Acar, pickled vegetables or fruits with dried chilli, peanuts, and spices
 Ambuyat, a dish derived from the interior trunk of the sago palm. It is a starchy bland substance, similar to tapioca starch. It is the national dish of Brunei.
 Amplang, a cracker made from Spanish mackerel, tapioca starch and other seasonings, and then deep fried.
 Apam johol, a sweetened rice cake, wrapped in rambai leaves to preserve the aroma and make it look good. It is sometimes eaten with ,  tumis and bean porridge.
 Arisa, a boiled, cracked, or coarsely-ground wheat, mixed with meat and seasoned. Its consistency varies between a porridge and a dumpling.
 Asam pedas, a sour stew of fish (usually mackerel), tamarind, chilli, tomatoes, okra and Vietnamese coriander.
 Ayam golek or ayam percik, grilled chicken with spicy sauce.
 Ayam goreng, a generic term for deep-fried chicken, typically marinated in a base of seasonings prior to cooking.
 Ayam goreng kunyit, deep-fried chicken, marinated in a base of turmeric and other seasonings.
 Ayam masak merah, a casserole of chicken pieces in dried chilli sambal. It tends to be a home-cooked dish, so many variations on the recipe exist.
 Ayam pansuh, a dish prepared by cooking chicken in a bamboo stalk, filled with water (which will later be the soup), seasonings and covered with tapioca leaves from the cassava plant.
 Begedil, spherical fritters made from mashed potato and occasionally ground meat.
 Bihun belacan, rice vermicelli dressed in a gravy made from ground chillies, , tamarind, and dried shrimp. It is garnished with cured cuttlefish, julienned cucumber, bean sprouts and century egg wedges.
 Bihun goreng, stir-fried rice vermicelli.
 Bihun kari, rice vermicelli mixed with curry, served with mung bean sprout, fried tofu and red chilli .
 Bobotie, Cape Malay dish consisting of spiced minced meat baked with an egg-based topping.
 Bubur cha cha, breakfast dish prepared using pearled sago, sweet potatoes, yams, bananas, coconut milk, pandan leaves, sugar and salt.
 Bubur lambuk, a savoury rice porridge consumed during the fasting month of Ramadhan, made with a mixture of lemongrass, spices, vegetables, and chicken or beef. It is usually cooked communally at a local mosque, which is then distributed to the congregation as a meal to break the fast every evening.
 Bubur pedas, a traditional porridge made from finely-ground sauteed rice and grated coconut, a specialty of West Kalimantan.
 Cincalok, fermented small shrimp or krill. It is usually served as a condiment together with chillies, shallots and lime juice.
 Dalca, a stewed vegetable curry with lentils.
 Dendeng,  a thinly-sliced dried meat.
 Frikkadel, Cape Malay dish comprising usually baked, but sometimes deep-fried, meatballs prepared with onion, bread, eggs, vinegar and spices.
 Gulai, a type of soupy curry-like dishes made from various ingredients: meats, fish or vegetables. This dish originates from Minangkabau.
 Gulai ayam, chicken .
 Gulai kambing, goat or mutton .
 Gulai ketam, crab , a speciality of the Deli Malays of Medan, North Sumatra.
 Ikan bakar, grilled/barbecued fish with either chilli,  (turmeric) or other spice-based sauce.
 Ikan mas panggang, barbecued common carp dish, a specialty of Jambi.
 Ikan pari bakar, barbecued stingray dish.
 Ikan patin, large catfish cooked in various ways such as  and , a speciality of Riau, Sumatra and Pahang.
 Kacang pool, a stew of cooked broad beans served with vegetable oil, cumin, and optionally with chopped parsley, garlic, onion, lemon juice, chilli pepper and other vegetable, herb and spice ingredients.
 Kangkung belacan, water spinach wok-fried in shrimp paste () and hot chilli peppers. Various other items are cooked this way, including petai (which is quite bitter when eaten raw) and yardlong beans.
 Kari, the Malay adaptation of curry dishes. Just like , it can be made from various meats or vegetables. A popular style is kari ayam (chicken curry).
 Kari ayam, chicken curry.
 Kari kambing, goat curry.
 Kari kepala ikan, fish head curry.
 Kebebe, food made of thirteen ingredients with a bitter, salty, sweet, sour and spicy taste. It is allegedly able to cure indigestion after a large meal.
 Kemplang, traditional savoury fish cracker commonly found in southern parts of Sumatra, made of wahoo or Spanish mackerel.
 Kerabu, a type of salad-like dish which can be made with any combination of cooked or uncooked fruits and vegetables, as well as the occasional meat or seafood ingredient. There are many kerabu recipes; a popular style is .
 Kerutuk daging, a type of coconut milk-based curry. Traditionally it is eaten with white rice,  and .
 Ketupat, a type of glutinous rice dumpling wrapped in a woven palm leaf pouch and boiled. As the rice cooks, the grains expand to fill the pouch and the rice becomes compressed. This method of cooking gives the  its characteristic form and texture. Usually eaten with  (a type of dry beef curry) or served as an accompaniment to satay or .  is also traditionally served at open houses on festive occasions such as Eid al-Fitr.
 Kuning, rice dish cooked with turmeric, lemongrass, salt, bay leaves, and other spices to taste.
 Kurma,  chicken or mutton braised with a medley of ground spices, nuts, and coconut milk or grated coconut.
 Kuzi ayam, a thick curry. Traditionally it is eaten with white rice,  and .
 Kwetiau goreng, a stir-fried flat rice noodle dish from Indonesia. The Malay version is without pork.
 Laksa, a spicy noodle soup that consists of thick wheat noodles or rice vermicelli with chicken, prawn or fish, served in spicy soup based on either rich and spicy curry coconut milk or sour  (tamarind or ) of various types.
 Laksa asam, sour, fish and tamarind-based soup of .
 Laksa kari, coconut-based curry soup of .
 Lakso, noodle dish served in savoury yellowish coconut milk-based soup, flavoured with fish, and sprinkled with fried shallots.
 Lekor, a speciality of the state of Terengganu and other states on the east coast of the Malaysian Peninsula. It is a savoury cake made from a combination of batter and shredded fish. Sliced and fried just before serving, it is eaten with hot sauce.
 Lemang, glutinous rice and coconut milk cooked in a hollowed bamboo stick lined with banana leaves.
 Lepat, a sticky rice dumpling mixed with peanuts cooked with coconut milk and packed inside a young coconut leaf or palm leaf.
 Lontong, compressed rice cake in the form of a cylinder wrapped inside a banana leaf.
 Masak lemak, a style of cooking which employs liberal amounts of turmeric-seasoned coconut milk.
 Mi bandung, a famous noodle dish cooked with dried shrimp and blended chilli. Often served with half-boiled egg.
 Mi celor, a noodle soup served in a coconut milk and shrimp-based broth, specialty of Palembang, South Sumatra.
 Mi goreng, spicy stir-fried noodle dish, originating from Indonesia
 Maggi goreng, a variant of mi goreng using Maggi instant noodles.
 Mi jawa, noodle dish made up of yellow egg noodles drenched in a blended sweet potato base with tomato sauce and prawn stock.
 Mi kari, thin yellow noodles or rice vermicelli with spicy curry soup, sambal, coconut milk, spices and a choice of toppings.
 Mi kolo, light and tossed noodles in a transparent sauce.
 Mi rebus, a famous noodle dish which consisting of  (noodle, salt and egg) served with a tangy, spicy, sweet potato-based sauce. It is sometimes also called , perhaps as a nod to its Javanese origins.
 Mi siam, noodle dish of fried rice vermicelli with spicy gravy.
 Mi wantan, thin egg noodles with wonton dumplings.
 Murtabak, a stuffed pancake or pan-fried bread eaten with curry gravy, commonly found in Indonesia and Peninsular Malaysia.
 Nasi ambeng, a fragrant rice dish that consists of steamed white rice, chicken curry or chicken stewed in soy sauce, beef or chicken , , urap, perkedel and serundeng.
 Nasi Beringin, a fragrant rice dish that used to be served to Johor royalties in the late 1890s; the sultans would have this fragrant dish especially when guests were invited to dine in the palace.
 Nasi briyani, Malay style of flavoured rice dish cooked or served with mutton, chicken, vegetable or fish curry.
 Beriani gam, a flavoured rice dish usually served with chicken or mutton, specialty of Johor.
 Nasi berlauk, plain rice served with a variety of dishes.
 Nasi dagang, the east coastal counterpart of  found mostly in the states of Terengganu and Kelantan, as well as Riau province in Indonesia.
 Nasi goreng, a fried rice dish with various types.
 Nasi goreng kampung, a typical variant, traditionally flavoured with pounded fried fish (normally mackerel), though recently fried anchovies are used in place of it.
 Nasi goreng kari, fried rice cooked with curry.
 Nasi goreng masak pedas, spicy fried rice served with chicken or beef.
 Nasi goreng pattaya, chicken fried rice covered or wrapped in a thin fried egg or omelette.
 Nasi goreng teri medan, anchovy fried rice. This dish is a Malay Deli speciality of North Sumatra.
 Nasi kari, curry rice dish with Indonesian origin.
 Nasi katok, rice dish consisting of plain rice, fried chicken and .
 Nasi kerabu, a type of rice which is blue in colour (dyed by Clitoria ternatea flowers), originating from Kelantan.
 Nasi lemak, rice steamed with coconut milk.
 Nasi Lemuni, It's like nasi lemak but cooked with herb that's called daun lemuni(English: Vitex trifolia leaves).
 Nasi minyak, rice flavoured with whole dried spices and ghee, usually served with . As the name implies, it is buttery and rich ( means oil). A variation of dyed in multiple shades is called .
 Nasi padang, steamed white rice served with an array – sometimes twelve or more– pre-cooked dishes, a miniature banquet usually laid out on small plates.
 Nasi paprik, a rice dish with , typically chicken, originating from southern Thailand.
 Nasi tumpang, rice packed in a cone-shaped banana leaf. It consists of an omelette, meat floss, chicken or shrimp curry and sweet gravy. The dish originates from Kelantan.
 Nasi ulam, a steamed rice dish mixed with various herbs, especially the leaves of Centella asiatica or often replaced with kemangi, vegetables, and spices and accompanied with various side dishes.
 Otak-otak, a spicy fish cake grilled in a banana leaf wrapping.
 Pekasam, the Malay term for fermented food. In Malay cookery,  usually refers to freshwater fish fermented with salt, palm sugar, toasted rice grains and pieces of . Making  is a tradition in South Kalimantan as well as the northern states of Peninsular Malaysia. Chenderoh Lake in the state of Perak is a hub for freshwater fishing as well as the production of .
 Pasembur, a salad of shredded cucumber, boiled potatoes, fried bean curd, turnip, bean sprouts, prawn fritters, spicy fried crab, and fried octopus.
 Pempek, a savoury fishcake, made of fish and tapioca, from Palembang, South Sumatra.
 Perut ikan, a spicy stew comprising mainly vegetables and herbs which gets its distinctive taste mainly from fish bellies preserved in brine and piper sarmentosum.
 Pindang, fish or eggs cooked in salt and certain spices.
 Pulut, glutinous rice, is a type of short-grained Asian rice that is especially sticky when cooked. It is widely eaten during the Raya festive seasons as traditional food.
 Rendang, a spicy meat stew originating from the Minangkabau ethnic group of Indonesia, and adopted by Malay throughout the archipelago.  is traditionally prepared by the Malay community during festive occasions.
 Rojak, a traditional fruit and vegetable salad of various types which shows Javanese influences.
 Rojak bandung, a  dish consisting of boiled water spinach, cucumber, and cuttlefish, dressed with a black shrimp paste sauce with added garlic and chilli paste.
 Roti, a term encompassing all forms of bread in the Malay and Indonesian languages. In Cape Malay cuisine,  is a round flatbread usually made from wheat flour.
 Roti canai, a thin unleavened bread with a flaky crust, fried on a skillet with oil and served with condiments or curry.
 Roti prata, Singaporean Malay fried flatbread cooked over a flat grilling pan.
 Roti jala, a special bread with a five-hole perforation used to make the bread look like a fishing net. It is usually eaten as an accompaniment to a curried dish or served as a sweet with .  is made from a mixture of boiled coconut milk, brown sugar and pandan leaves.
 Roti john, a spiced meat omelette sandwich, popularly eaten for breakfast or as a snack.
 Roti kaya bakar, a traditional breakfast dish. Kaya is a sweet coconut and egg jam which is spread over toasted bread.
 Roti tissue, a variant of  made as thin as a piece of tissue paper and  in diameter. It is then carefully folded by the cook into a tall, conical shape and left to stand upright.  may be served with curry gravy,  and chutneys, or finished off with sweet ingredients such as caramelised sugar and eaten as a dessert.
 Samosa or samoosa, Malay-style of samosa—a fried or baked pastry with a savoury filling, such as spiced potatoes, onions, , cheese, beef or other meats.
 Sata, a traditional dish from Terengganu, consisting of spiced fish wrapped in banana leaves and cooked on a grill.
 Satay, a dish originally from Java and Sumatra in Indonesia, and distributed widely across the Malay Archipelago. It is widely popular and common in Indonesian cuisine with rich variations and recipes. Malay chicken satay closely resembles Madura satay with a rich peanut sauce. In Malaysia, the most popular variant is  satay.
 Satay celup, a dish in which an assortment of raw and semi-cooked seafood, meats (including raw meat) and vegetables on skewers are dunked into a boiling pot of satay gravy.
 Sayur lodeh, a stew of vegetables cooked in a lightly spiced coconut milk gravy. It has Javanese influences and is mostly popular in the southern region of Malaysia.
 Siput gonggong, a seafood dish made of Laevistrombus canarium, a specialty of the Riau Islands and Bangka Belitung.
 Sosatie, a traditional Cape Malay dish of meat (usually lamb or mutton) cooked on skewers. The term derives from  (skewered meat) and  (spicy sauce).
 Soto, a noodle soup. The most popular variety is , chicken soup with rice vermicelli and ketupat, with influences from Indonesian cuisine.
 Soto mi, a spicy noodle soup dish with  gravy.
 Sup ikan, a fish soup specialty of the Riau Islands usually made of red snapper and dried shrimp, seasoned with shallot, garlic, pepper, soy sauce, and fish sauce, with tomato, scallion and fried shallots.
 Sup kambing, a hearty mutton soup slowly simmered with aromatic herbs and spices and garnished with fried shallots and fresh cilantro.
 Sup rusa, a soup dish made of venison, carrots, cabbage, celery and spices.
 Sup tulang, a soup dish made of mutton or beef leg bones stewed in spices. The bones are broken to allow the marrow to be eaten.
 Tahu goreng, fried bean curd served with condiments, such as  or sweet sauce.
 Taugeh ayam, steamed chicken with bean sprouts and light soya sauce flavoured with oil.
 Tekwan, surimi fishcake akin to ,  rice noodles, jicama and mushroom soup.
 Telur pindang, marbled eggs boiled with herbs and spices.
 Tharid, a lamb stew of pieces of bread in a vegetable and lamb broth.
 Tomato bredie, mutton stew cooked for a long time; its seasonings include cinnamon, cardamom, ginger and cloves as well as chilli.
 Tumis kangkung, stir-fried water spinach.
 Ulam, a traditional salad of undressed herbs, greens and vegetables which may be cooked or uncooked. An  spread may include items such as banana blossoms, cucumber, winged beans, pegaga leaves, petai, and yardlong beans.  is typically eaten with a pungent dipping sauce like .

Condiments

 Balado, a hot and spicy sauce, made by stir-frying ground red hot chilli pepper with other spices including garlic, shallot, tomato and key lime juice in coconut or palm oil.
 Budu, a fermented anchovy sauce.
 Kerisik, coconut-based condiment made with coconut which is grated, toasted, and ground to a paste. It is sometimes referred to as coconut butter. It is used in dishes such as  salads and .
 Sambal, a common chilli-based condiment to accompany many foods.
 Sambal belacan,  made with chillies, shallots, garlic, stewed tomatoes, tamarind paste, coconut sugar, salt and  (shrimp paste).
 Sambal gesek,  made by pounding fried anchovies, bird's eye chilli, onions, and garlic together and frying until fragrant.
 Sambal sotong, squid cooked in a -based sauce made with chillies, shallots, garlic, stewed tomatoes, tamarind paste and .
 Serikaya, a jam made from a base of coconut milk, eggs and sugar.
 Serunding, spiced meat floss originating from Javanese cuisine.  may also refer to any dish where the primary meat or vegetable ingredient is shredded and pulled into thin strands. In Indonesia, this term strictly refers to a dry-toasted grated coconut mix.
 Tempoyak, a popular Malay condiment made of durian extract which is preserved and kept in an urn. Commonly eaten with chillies and other dishes.

Snacks

 Keropok Lekor, a traditional fried fish cracker (keropok) from Terengganu.
 Mee Siput Muar, a deep-fried circular dried noodle snack from Muar, Johor made from flour and eaten with .

Kue and kuih

Kue and kuih (plural: ) is a selection of confectionery eaten as a snack during the morning or during midday, and is an important feature of festive occasions. It is a tradition shared by both the Malay and the Peranakan communities.
 Agar-agar, the Malay word for a species of red algae. A natural vegetarian gelatin counterpart, it is used to make puddings and flavoured jellies such as almond tofu, as well as fruit aspics.
 Akok, a traditional sweet dessert in Kelantan, Malaysia. Made mainly from eggs, coconut milk, flour and brown sugar,  has a distinctive caramel taste. It is often served during afternoon snack together with coffee.  is prepared in a cooking utensil called  made of solid brass, which is surrounded with charcoal.
 Apam balik, terang bulan or martabak manis (in Indonesia), a bread-like puff with sugar, corn, and coarsely-ground nuts in the middle.
 Bahulu, a traditional round sponge cake.
 Batik, a type of chocolate cake similar to a hedgehog slice, made using Marie biscuits.
 Bika ambon, a sponge cake made from ingredients such as tapioca flour, eggs, sugar, yeast and coconut milk. This cake is a specialty of North Sumatra.
 Bingka ubi, a baked  of grated tapioca mixed with a little tapioca flour, coconut milk and white or brown sugar.  The  is yellow if white caster sugar is used and brown if raw sugar or palm sugar is used. After baking, a dark brown crust tops the cake.
 Cara berlauk, a cake made of flour, egg, coconut milk and turmeric. The mixture is mixed thoroughly before being cooked in a special mould until it hardens. Before it hardens, a filling of either spiced beef or chicken is added. This  is very popular in the month of Ramadhan.
 Cincin, a deep fried dough pastry-based snack.
 Clorot, a traditional cake with Javanese influences made from a mixture of  and rice flour, then rolled with palm leaves into cones and steamed.
 Dadar gulung or ketayap, a pancake mix filled with coconut filling. Traditionally, the juice of pandan leaves is added to the batter to get the green colour. Today green colouring is added and the flavour of the pandan leaves is obtained with artificial essence or by using pandan leaves to flavour the filling.
 Dodol, a sweet, sticky, and thick toffee-like confection, made with heavily reduced coconut milk, jaggery, and rice flour.
 Epok epok or karipap, a small pie consisting of curry with chicken and potatoes in a deep-fried pastry shell. The curry is especially thick and rich to keep it from running.
 Jemput-jemput, a traditional fritter made from flour and then fried.
 Kalu dodol, a solid toffee- and jelly-like confection made by lengthy reduction of coconut milk, thickened with rice flour and sweetened with jaggery. This dish is a specialty of Sri Lankan Malay cuisine.
 Kochi, a pyramid of glutinous rice flour filled with a sweet peanut paste.
 Koe'sister, a traditional Cape Malay pastry often described as a spicy dumpling with a cake-like texture, finished off with a sprinkling of coconut.
 Kaswi, rice cakes made with palm sugar. The ingredients are mixed into a batter and poured into small cups (traditionally Chinese teacups). When served, the cup is removed and the rice cake is topped with grated coconut.
 Keria, sweet potato doughnuts. Each doughnut is rolled in caster sugar. They are usually eaten in Malaysia for breakfast or morning tea along with other cakes such as  or the more savoury .
 Ku, a small round or oval-shaped cake made of a soft, sticky glutinous rice flour skin wrapped around a sweet filling.
 Lapis sagu or sembilan lapis, a steamed multicoloured and multilayered firm  made from tapioca flour, coconut milk, and flavoured with pandan. The layers are separately steamed.
 Lapis sarawak, a layered cake served in Sarawak on special occasions. It originates as a form of layer cake with various spices found in Indonesia called lapis legit.
 Makmur, a traditional cake made from butter, ghee and flour. Served during Eid al-Fitr and identified by its white colour and typical round shape.
 Pai ti, a thin and crispy pastry tart shell filled with a spicy, sweet mixture of thinly-sliced vegetables and prawns.
 Pinjaram, a saucer-shaped deep fried fritter with crisp edges and a dense, chewy texture towards the centre.
 Pisang goreng, battered fried bananas.
 Pulut inti, glutinous rice topped with caramelised grated coconut and wrapped in a cut banana leaf to resemble a square pyramid.
 Pulut tartal, glutinous rice served with white coconut milk sauce.
 Pulut tekan, a glutinous rice cake. It is served with kaya coconut jam (jam from pandan leaves). The glutinous rice cakes are coloured with bunga telang. Half-cooked glutinous rice is divided into two portions. Both have coconut milk added but one half has  juice added. This gives the rice cake a bright blue-indigo colour. The half-cooked glutinous rice is then scooped in an alternating fashion into the tray to give it a blue and white marble effect. The rice is cooked longer and cut into tall rectangles after cooling.
 Seri muka, a two-layered dessert with steamed glutinous rice forming the bottom half and a green custard layer made with pandan juice. Coconut milk is a key ingredient in this variety of . It is used as a substitute for water when cooking the glutinous rice and making the custard layer.
 Talam (lit. tray cake), a  consisting of two layers. The top white layer is made from rice flour and coconut milk, while the bottom green layer is made from green pea flour and extract of pandan leaf.
 Wajik, a compressed confection made of glutinous rice cooked with coconut milk and palm sugar.

Drinks

 Air janda pulang, a traditional drink from Negeri Sembilan. It is suitable to drink with lunch and on hot days.
 Ais kacang, a dessert drink made of shaved ice and red beans.
 Ais krim potong, a popsicle made from coconut milk or milk, flavoured with ingredients such as red beans, rose syrup, durian, pandan, creamed corn and jackfruit.
 Boeber, a Cape Malay sweet milk drink made with vermicelli, sago, sugar, and flavoured with cardamom, stick cinnamon and rose water.
 Cendol, an iced dessert that contains droplets of green rice flour jelly, coconut milk and palm sugar syrup.
 Dadiah, a dairy-based dessert made from milk, sugar and salt which has been acidified with whey (obtained by fermenting milk overnight with asam gelugur) and steamed to form a custard-like texture. It shows influences from Minangkabau cuisine.
 Faluda, a cold drink made by mixing rose syrup, vermicelli, and sweet basil seeds with milk, often served with ice cream.
 Kopi tarik, a coffee drink made of dark roasted coffee with margarine and sugar, sweetened with condensed milk and frothed.
 Laksamana mengamuk, a traditional drink from Riau made from mango mixed with coconut milk and sugar.
 Milo dinosaur, a beverage made of a cup of iced Milo with undissolved Milo powder on top.
 Sirap bandung, a drink made of evaporated or condensed milk flavoured with rose syrup, giving it a pink colour. The drink is an adaptation of rose milk served in India.
 Teh krisan, a Chrysanthemum tea.
 Teh tarik, a popular hot milk tea beverage most commonly found in Indonesia, Malaysia and Singapore. It is made from a strong brew of black tea blended with condensed milk.

See also

 Kue
 Acehnese cuisine
 Betawi cuisine
 Indonesian Arab cuisine
 Indonesian Chinese cuisine
 Indonesian Indian cuisine
 Javanese cuisine
 Malaysian cuisine
 Malaysian Chinese cuisine
 Malaysian Indian cuisine
 Minangkabau cuisine
 Palembangese cuisine
 Peranakan cuisine

Notes

External links

 Malay Cuisine, Melayu Online (archived 19 April 2015)

Cuisine

Malay cuisine
Indonesian cuisine-related lists

Malay cuisine


Woodswallows are soft-plumaged, somber-coloured passerine birds in the genus Artamus. The woodswallows are either treated as a subfamily, Artaminae, in an expanded family Artamidae (also including the subfamily Cracticinae), or as the only genus in that family (with the butcherbirds, currawongs, and allies placed in a separate family, Cracticidae). The generic name, which in turn gives rise to the family name, is derived from the Ancient Greek artamos, meaning butcher or murder. The name was given due to their perceived similarity to shrikes. A former common name for the group was "swallow-starlings".

The woodswallows have an Australasian distribution, with most species occurring in Australia and New Guinea. The ashy woodswallow has an exclusively Asian distribution, ranging from India and Sri Lanka through South East Asia to China, and the most widespread species is the white-breasted woodswallow, which ranges from Peninsular Malaysia through to Australia in the south and Vanuatu and New Caledonia. The group reaches the easternmost extent of its distribution in Fiji with the endemic Fiji woodswallow.

Woodswallows are smooth, agile flyers with moderately large, semi-triangular wings. They are among the very few passerines birds that soar, and can often be seen feeding just above the treetops. One sedentary species aside, they are nomads, following the best conditions for flying insects, and often roosting in large flocks.

Although woodswallows have a brush-tipped tongue they seldom use it for gathering nectar.

The nests of woodswallows are loosely constructed from fine twigs, and both parents help rear the young.

Species of Artamus

References

External links
Woodswallow videos on the Internet Bird Collection

Artamidae

Woodswallow