Funaria, brojan biljni rod mahovnjača (Bryophyta) koji je opisao njemački botaničar Johann Hedwig. Rodu pripada najmanje preko 180 priznatih vrsta (pa do preko 200) koje vole tamna, hladna i sjenovita mjesta. Rod je rasprostranjen po Sjevernoj, Srednjoj i Južnoj Americi, Africi, Europi, Australiji, Aziji (uključujući Indoneziju)  i pacifičkim otocima.

Svijetlozelene su do žućkastozelene boje, visine 3 do 5 centimetara. Razmnožavaju se sporama.

Vrste

 Funaria acicularis Müll. Hal.
 Funaria aequidens Lindb. ex Broth.
 Funaria altissima Dixon
 Funaria angustata Turton
 Funaria anomala Jur.
 Funaria arctica (Berggr.) Kindb.
 Funaria aristatula Müll. Hal.
 Funaria berteroana Hampe ex Müll. Hal.
 Funaria beyrichii Hampe
 Funaria bogosica Müll. Hal.
 Funaria calvescens Schwägr.
 Funaria cameruniae Dixon
 Funaria capillaris Warnst.
 Funaria capillipes Broth.
 Funaria chevalieri P. de la Varde
 Funaria chilensis (Thér.) Thér.
 Funaria clavellata (Mitt.) Broth.
 Funaria commixta Thér.
 Funaria costesii Thér.
 Funaria decaryi Thér.
 Funaria delicatula Thér.
 Funaria discelioides Müll. Hal.
 Funaria eberhardtii (Broth. & Paris) Broth.
 Funaria erectiuscula Mitt.
 Funaria euryloma Dixon
 Funaria excurrentinervis Cardot & P. de la Varde
 Funaria flava (Müll. Hal.) Broth.
 Funaria flavicans Michx.
 Funaria flaviseta Warnst.
 Funaria fritzei Geh.
 Funaria fuscescens Mitt.
 Funaria grossidens Broth.
 Funaria groutiana Fife
 Funaria gymnostoma Dixon
 Funaria hosseusii E.B. Bartram
 Funaria hygrometrica Hedw.
 Funaria imerinensis Cardot
 Funaria incompleta Müll. Hal.
 Funaria incurvifolia Müll. Hal. ex E. Britton
 Funaria inflata Müll. Hal.
 Funaria japonica Broth.
 Funaria kilimandscharica Müll. Hal.
 Funaria laxissima Müll. Hal.
 Funaria linearidens Müll. Hal.
 Funaria ludovicae Broth. & Paris
 Funaria luteolimbata Broth.
 Funaria macrocarpa (Schimp.) R.H. Zander
 Funaria macrospora R.S. Williams
 Funaria maireana Copp.
 Funaria mayottensis (Besch.) Broth. ex Paris
 Funaria meeseacea Müll. Hal.
 Funaria microstoma Bruch ex Schimp.
 Funaria minuticaulis (Müll. Hal. ex Geh.) Watts & Whitel.
 Funaria nubica Müll. Hal.
 Funaria orizabensis Müll. Hal.
 Funaria orthocarpa Mitt.
 Funaria perlaxa Thér.
 Funaria pilifera (Mitt.) Broth.
 Funaria polaris Bryhn
 Funaria porteri Thér.
 Funaria pulchella H. Philib.
 Funaria pulchra Dixon & P. de la Varde
 Funaria pulchricolor Müll. Hal.
 Funaria ramulosa (Hampe) Paris
 Funaria renauldii (Thér.) Cardot
 Funaria rhizophylla (Sakurai) Sakurai
 Funaria rhomboidea J. Shaw
 Funaria riparia Lindb.
 Funaria robustior (Müll. Hal.) Broth.
 Funaria saharae Trab.
 Funaria sartorii Müll. Hal.
 Funaria sickenbergeri Müll. Hal.
 Funaria sinuatolimbata Cardot & P. de la Varde
 Funaria sovatensis Schimp. ex Müll. Hal.
 Funaria subimmarginata Cardot & P. de la Varde
 Funaria subleptopoda Hampe
 Funaria submarginata (Müll. Hal.) Broth.
 Funaria subplanifolia Broth.
 Funaria succuleata (Wager & C.H. Wright) Broth. ex Magill
 Funaria tenella Müll. Hal.
 Funaria valdiviae Müll. Hal.
 Funaria varia (Mitt.) Broth.
 Funaria wijkii R.S. Chopra

Galerija

Izvori

Funariales

Funaria (Plantae)


NGC 6668 (NGC 6667, NGC 6678) je prečkasta spiralna galaktika u zviježđu Liri. Naknadno je utvrđeno da su NGC 6667 i NGC 6678 iste galaktike.

Izvori

Vanjske poveznice

  Hartmut Frommert: Revidirani Novi opći katalog
  Izvangalaktička baza podataka NASA-e i IPAC-a
  Astronomska baza podataka SIMBAD
   VizieR
 DSS-ova slika NGC 6668
  Auke Slotegraaf: NGC 6668 Deep Sky Observer's Companion
  NGC 6668  DSO-tražilica
  Courtney Seligman: Objekti Novog općeg kataloga: NGC 6650 - 6699

6668

NGC 6668


Jean-Georges Klein (* 27. Oktober 1950 in Ingwiller) ist ein französischer Koch.

Leben
Klein wuchs in einer elsässischen Gastronomen-Familie auf. Er studierte ab 1967 an der Straßburger Hotelfachschule Lycée hôtelier de Strasbourg und schloss dort 1969 mit dem Brevet de technicien en hôtellerie ab.

Von 1970 bis 1987 war er Oberkellner im Restaurant seiner Mutter, dem L'Arnsbourg in Baerenthal in Lothringen, wo auch seine Schwester Cathy Klein arbeitete. Nachdem er 1987 das Restaurant erbte, wechselte er in die Küche, wo er bereits ein Jahr später mit einem Michelin-Stern ausgezeichnet wurde. 1998 kam der zweite Stern hinzu. Der Autodidakt Klein bildete sich bei Pierre Gagnaire und 1999 bei Ferran Adrià im elbulli fort.

Ab 2002 wurde Klein mit drei Michelin-Sternen ausgezeichnet. Der Gault Millau wählte Klein 2008 "zum besten französischen Koch des Jahres" und bewertete ihn 2012 mit 18 von 20 Punkten.

Anfang 2015 verließ Jean-Georges Klein sein Restaurant L'Arnsbourg; das Hotel wurde zunächst von seiner Schwester Cathy Klein weitergeführt. Im September 2015 öffnete er das Restaurant Villa René Lalique im 20 Kilometer von Baerenthal entfernten Wingen-sur-Moder im Elsass. Es befindet sich in der ehemaligen Villa von René Lalique, die er bis 1945 bewohnte. Seit 2016 wird das Restaurant Villa René Lalique mit zwei Michelinsternen ausgezeichnet. Im Herbst 2017 wurde Paul Stradner, mit dem Klein schon fünf Jahre zuvor zusammengearbeitet hatte, gleichberechtigter Küchenchef.

2020 wurde Stradner alleiniger Chefkoch. Klein ist noch beratend tätig.

Auszeichnungen
1988: Ein Stern im Guide Michelin
1998: Zwei Sterne im Guide Michelin
2002: Drei Sterne im Guide Michelin

Mitgliedschaften
Relais & Châteaux

Literatur
Buffet toqué : 25 Étoiles livrent leurs secrets von  Jean Bardet, Carlo Crisci, Émile Jung und Jean-Georges Klein, Librio 2007
L'Alchimie des éléments : La terre, l'eau, le feu von Sophie Brissaud, Richard Haughton und Jean-Georges Klein, Editions de la Martinière 2010

Weblinks
 Restaurant Villa René Lalique (Webarchiv 2019)
 Jean-Georges Klein in den Restaurant-Ranglisten

Einzelnachweise

Koch (Frankreich)
Person (Elsass)
Franzose
Geboren 1950
Mann

Jean-Georges Klein


A tracheid is a long and tapered lignified cell in the xylem of vascular plants. It is a type of conductive cell called a tracheary element. Angiosperms use another type of conductive cell, called vessel elements, to transport water through the xylem. The main functions of tracheid cells are to transport water and inorganic salts, and to provide structural support for trees. There are often pits on the cell walls of tracheids, which allows for water flow between cells. Tracheids are dead at functional maturity and do not have a protoplast. The wood (softwood) of gymnosperms such as pines and other conifers is mainly composed of tracheids. Tracheids are also the main conductive cells in the primary xylem of ferns.

The tracheid was first named after the German botanist Carl Gustav Sanio in 1863, from the German Tracheide.

Evolution
Tracheids were the main conductive cells found in early vascular plants.

In the first 140-150 million years of vascular plant evolution, tracheids were the only type of conductive cells found in fossils of plant xylem tissues.  Ancestral tracheids did not contribute significantly to structural support, as can be seen in extant ferns.

The fossil record shows three different types of tracheid cells found in early plants, which were classified as S-type, G-type and P-type. The first two of them were lignified and had pores to facilitate the transportation of water between cells. The P-type tracheid cells had pits similar to extant plant tracheids. Later, more complex pits appeared, such as bordered pits on many tracheids, which allowed plants to transport water between cells while reducing the risk of cavitation and embolisms in the xylem.

As tracheids evolved along with secondary xylem tissues, specialized inter-tracheid pits appeared. Tracheid length and diameter also increased, with tracheid diameter increasing to an average length of 80 μm by the end of the Devonian period.

Tracheids then evolved into the vessel elements and structural fibers that make up angiosperm wood.

References

Further reading

External links

Pictures of softwood tracheids in cross section and  in maceration; both in pine.

Plant anatomy
Plant physiology

Tracheid


The Northern Isles (; ; ; ) are a pair of archipelagos off the north coast of mainland Scotland, comprising Orkney and Shetland. They are part of Scotland, as are the Hebrides. The climate is cool and temperate and much influenced by the surrounding seas. There are a total of 36 inhabited islands. The landscapes of the fertile agricultural islands of Orkney contrast with the more rugged Shetland islands to the north, where the economy is more dependent on fishing and on the oil wealth of the surrounding seas.  Both island groups have a developing renewable energy industry.  Both have a Pictish and Norse history. Both were part of the Kingdom of Norway until they were absorbed into the Kingdom of Scotland in the 15th century. They remained part of it until the 1707 formation of the Kingdom of Great Britain and the 1801 formation of the United Kingdom. They both played a significant naval role during the world wars of the 20th century.

Tourism is important to both archipelagos, and there are regular ferry and air connections between them and with mainland Scotland. Their distinctive prehistoric ruins play a key role in their attraction for tourists. The Scandinavian influence remains strong, especially in local folklore, and the place-names of the islands are dominated by their Norse heritage, although some may retain pre-Celtic elements. Both island groups have strong, although distinct, local cultures.

Geography

The phrase "Northern Isles" generally refers to the main islands of the Orkney and Shetland archipelagos. The Island of Stroma, which lies between mainland Scotland and Orkney, is part of Caithness, so for local government purposes it falls under the jurisdiction of the Highland council area, rather than that of Orkney. It is nevertheless clearly one of the "northern isles" of Scotland. Fair Isle and Foula are outliers of Shetland, but would normally be considered part of Shetland, and thus of the Northern Isles. Similarly, Sule Skerry and Sule Stack, although distant from the main group, are part of Orkney, and therefore technically amongst the Northern Isles. However, the other small islands that lie off the north coast of Scotland are in Highland, and are thus not usually considered to be part of the Northern Isles.

Orkney has 20 inhabited islands and Shetland has 16.

Orkney is situated  north of the coast of mainland Scotland, separated from it by the waters of the Pentland Firth. The largest island of Orkney, known as the "Mainland" has an area of , making it the sixth largest Scottish island. Its total population in 2001 was 19,245, and its largest town is Kirkwall. Shetland is around  north of mainland Scotland. It covers an area of  and its coastline is  long. Lerwick, the capital and largest settlement, has a population of around 7,500. About half of the archipelago's total population of 22,000 people live within  of the town.

Geology

The superficial rock of Orkney is almost entirely Old Red Sandstone, mostly of Middle Devonian age. As in the neighbouring mainland county of Caithness, this sandstone rests upon the metamorphic rocks of the Moine series. This can be seen on the Orkney Mainland, where a narrow strip of the older rock is exposed between Stromness and Inganess, and also on the small island of Graemsay.

Middle Devonian basaltic volcanic rocks are found on western Hoy, on Deerness in eastern Mainland and on Shapinsay. A correlation between the Hoy volcanics and the other two exposures has been proposed, but because of differences in their chemical makeup, this remains uncertain. Lamprophyre dykes of Late Permian age are found throughout Orkney. Glacial striation and the presence of chalk and flint erratics that originated from the bed of the North Sea demonstrate the influence of ice action on the geomorphology of the islands. Boulder clay is also abundant, and moraines cover substantial areas.

The geology of Shetland is quite different from that of Orkney. It is extremely complex, with numerous faults and fold axes. The Shetland Islands are the northern outpost of the Caledonian orogeny, and there are outcrops of Lewisian, Dalriadan and Moine metamorphic rocks whose histories are similar to those of their counterparts on the Scottish mainland. There are also small Old Red Sandstone deposits and granite intrusions. Shetland's most distinctive geological feature is the ultrabasic ophiolite, peridotite and gabbro on Unst and Fetlar, which are remnants of the Iapetus Ocean floor. There are oil-bearing sediments in the surrounding seas, on which much of Shetland's economy depends.

Geological evidence shows that, sometime around 6100 BC, a tsunami caused by the Storegga Slides hit the Northern Isles (as well as much of the east coast of Scotland), and may have created a wave of up to  high in the voes of Shetland, where modern populations are largest.

Climate

The Northern Isles have a cool, temperate climate that is remarkably mild and steady for such a northerly latitude, due to the influence of the surrounding seas and the Gulf Stream. In Shetland, average peak temperatures are  in February and  in August. Temperatures over  are rare. The frost-free period may be as short as three months.

The average annual rainfall is  in Orkney and  in Shetland. Winds are a key feature of the climate. In summer, there are almost constant breezes. In winter, there are frequent strong winds: Orkney has an average of 52 hours of gales annually. The Burradale wind farm in Shetland, which operates with five Vestas V47 660 kW turbines, achieved a world record of 57.9% capacity over the course of 2005 due to the persistent strong winds.

Snowfall is usually confined to the period of November to February and seldom lies on the ground for more than a day. Less rain falls between April and August than at other times of the year, but no month has an average rainfall of less than . In Shetland there are 1082 hours of bright sunshine per year, on average, and overcast days are common.

To tourists, one of the fascinations of the islands is their "nightless" summers. On the longest day in Shetland there are over 19 hours of daylight, and it never gets completely dark. The long twilight is known in the Northern Isles as the "simmer dim". Winter nights are correspondingly long, with less than six hours of daylight at midwinter. At this time of year the aurora borealis can occasionally be seen on the northern horizon during moderate auroral activity.

Prehistory

There are numerous important prehistoric remains in Orkney, especially from the Neolithic period. Four of these remains comprise the Heart of Neolithic Orkney UNESCO World Heritage Site (designated as such in 1999). They are: Skara Brae; Maes Howe; the Stones of Stenness; and the Ring of Brodgar. The Knap of Howar Neolithic farmstead on the island of Papa Westray is probably the oldest preserved house in northern Europe. This structure was inhabited for 900 years, beginning around 3700 BC, but it had evidently been built on the site of an even older settlement. The Shetland Islands are also extremely rich in physical remains from prehistoric eras: They contain a total of over 5,000 archaeological sites. On the island of Fetlar, there is a dividing wall, dating from the Neolithic period, that at one time extended for  across the island. It is known as Funzie Girt. But it is the Iron Age that has provided the most outstanding archaeology in Shetland. Numerous brochs were erected during that period. The finest preserved example of these distinctive round towers is the Broch of Mousa. In 2011, a site known as "the Crucible of Iron Age Shetland", which includes the Broch of Mousa, Old Scatness and Jarlshof, joined the UK's "Tentative List" of World Heritage Sites.

History, culture and politics

Pictish times
The culture that built the brochs is unknown, but by the late Iron Age the Northern Isles had become part of the Pictish kingdom. The most common archaeological relics from that period are symbol stones. One of the best examples of these stones is on the Brough of Birsay: It depicts three warriors with spears and sword scabbards, as well as characteristic Pictish symbols. In 1958, a trove of silver metalwork, known as the St Ninian's Isle Treasure, was discovered. The silver bowls, jewellery and other pieces it contains are believed to date from around 800 AD.  According to O'Dell (1959), "The treasure is the best survival of Scottish silver metalwork from the period .... [T]he brooches show a variety of typical Pictish forms, with both animal-head and lobed geometrical forms of terminal".

Christianity probably arrived in Orkney in the 6th century, and organised church authority emerged in the 8th century. An Ogham–inscribed artefact known as the Buckquoy spindle-whorl was found at a Pictish site on Birsay. There has been controversy about its origin and meaning, but it is now generally considered to be of Irish Christian origin.

Norse era

The 8th century was also the time when the Vikings started invading the Scottish seaboard. They brought to the Northern Isles a new culture and a new language; rendering the fate of the existing indigenous peoples uncertain. According to the Orkneyinga Saga, Vikings then made the islands the headquarters of the pirate expeditions they carried out against Norway and the coasts of mainland Scotland. According to some sources, in 875, the Norwegian king Harald Hårfagre ("Harald Fair Hair") annexed the Northern Isles and gifted Orkney and Shetland to Rognvald Eysteinsson as an earldom in recompense for the death of his son in battle in Scotland. (Some scholars believe this story is apocryphal and is based instead on events connected with the later voyages of Magnus III of Norway, known as Magnus Barelegs.)

In 995, King Olaf I of Norway (Olav Tryggvasson) fully Christianised the islands by fiat, when he stopped in South Walls on his way from Ireland to Norway. The king summoned the jarl Sigurd the Stout and said, "I order you and all your subjects to be baptised. If you refuse, I'll have you killed on the spot and I swear I will ravage every island with fire and steel." Unsurprisingly, Sigurd agreed, and the islands became Christian at a stroke. In the early 11th century, they received their own bishop (the Bishop of Orkney).

Annexation by Scotland

In the 14th century, Orkney and Shetland remained a Norwegian province, but Scottish influence was growing. Jon Haraldsson, who was murdered in Thurso in 1231, was the last of an unbroken line of Norse jarls, and thereafter the earls were Scots noblemen of the houses of Angus and St. Clair. In 1468 Shetland was pledged by Christian I, in his capacity as King of Norway, as security against the payment of the dowry of his daughter Margaret, betrothed to James III of Scotland. As the money was never paid, the connection with the crown of Scotland became permanent. In 1470 William Sinclair, 1st Earl of Caithness ceded his title to James III and the following year the Northern Isles were directly annexed to Scotland.

17th, 18th and 19th centuries
From the early 15th century on the Shetlanders had sold their goods through the Hanseatic League of German merchantmen. This trade with the North German towns lasted until the 1707 Act of Union when high salt duties prohibited the German merchants from trading with Shetland. Shetland then went into an economic depression as the Scottish and local traders were not as skilled in trading with salted fish. However, some local merchant-lairds took up where the German merchants had left off, and fitted out their own ships to export fish from Shetland to the Continent. For the independent farmer/fishermen of Shetland this had negative consequences, as they now had to fish for these merchant-lairds.

British rule came at a price for many ordinary people as well as traders. The Shetlanders' nautical skills were sought by the Royal Navy: some 3,000 served during the Napoleonic Wars from 1800 to 1815 and press gangs were rife. During this period 120 men were taken from Fetlar alone and only 20 of them returned home. By the late 19th century 90% of all Shetland was owned by just 32 men, and between 1861 and 1881 more than 8,000 Shetlanders emigrated. With the passing of the Crofters' Act in 1886 the Liberal prime minister William Gladstone emancipated crofters from the rule of the landlords. The Act enabled those who had effectively been landowners' serfs to become owner-occupiers of their own small farms.

The Orcadian experience was somewhat different. An influx of Scottish entrepreneurs helped to create a diverse and independent community that included farmers, fishermen and merchants that called themselves comunitatis Orcadie and who proved themselves increasingly able to defend their rights against their feudal overlords. In the 17th century, Orcadians formed the overwhelming majority of employees of the Hudson's Bay Company in Canada. The harsh climate of Orkney and the Orcadian reputation for sobriety and their boat-handling skills made them ideal candidates for the rigours of the Canadian north. During this period, burning kelp briefly became a mainstay of the islands' economy.  For example, on Shapinsay over  of burned seaweed were produced per annum to make soda ash, bringing in £20,000 to the local economy. Agricultural improvements beginning in the 17th century coincided with the enclosure of the commons and in the Victorian era the emergence of large and well-managed farms using a five-shift rotation system and producing high-quality beef cattle. There is little evidence of an Orcadian fishing fleet until the 19th century but it grew rapidly and 700 boats were involved by the 1840s with Stronsay and then later Stromness becoming leading centres of development. Many Orcadian seamen became involved in whaling in Arctic waters during the 19th century, although the boats were generally based elsewhere in Britain.

World Wars

Orkney was the site of a naval base at Scapa Flow, which played a major role in World War I. After the Armistice in 1918, the German High Seas Fleet was transferred in its entirety to Scapa Flow while a decision was to be made on its future; however, the German sailors opened the sea-cocks and scuttled all the ships. During World War I the 10th Cruiser Squadron was stationed at Swarbacks Minn in Shetland and during a single year from March 1917 more than 4,500 ships sailed from Lerwick as part of an escorted convoy system. In total, Shetland lost more than 500 men, a higher proportion than any other part of Britain, and there were waves of emigration in the 1920s and 1930s.

One month into World War II, the Royal Navy battleship  was sunk by a German U-boat at Scapa Flow. As a result, barriers were built to close most of the access channels; these had the advantage of creating causeways enabling travellers to go from island to island by road instead of being obliged to rely on ferries. The causeways were constructed by Italian prisoners of war, who also constructed the ornate Italian Chapel. The Scapa Flow base was neglected after the war, eventually closing in 1957.

During World War II, a Norwegian naval unit nicknamed the "Shetland Bus" was established by the Special Operations Executive in the autumn of 1940 with a base first at Lunna and later in Scalloway to conduct operations around the coast of Norway. About 30 fishing vessels used by Norwegian refugees were gathered, and the Shetland Bus conducted covert operations, carrying intelligence agents, refugees, instructors for the resistance, and military supplies. It made over 200 trips across the sea, with Leif Larsen, the most highly decorated allied naval officer of the war, making 52 of them.

The problem of a declining population was significant in the post-war years, although in the last decades of the 20th century there was a recovery and life in the islands focused on growing prosperity and the emergence of a relatively classless society.

Modern times

Politics
Due to their history, the islands have a Norse, rather than a Gaelic flavour, and have historic links with the Faroes, Iceland, and Norway. The similarities of both geography and history are matched by some elements of the current political process. Both Orkney and Shetland are represented in the House of Commons as constituting the Orkney and Shetland constituency, which elects one Member of Parliament (MP), the current incumbent being Alistair Carmichael. Both are also within the Highlands and Islands electoral region for the Scottish Parliament.

In the 2014 Scottish independence referendum, 65.4% of the constituency's electors voted for Scotland to stay part of the United Kingdom.

However, there are also two separate constituencies that elect one Member of the Scottish Parliament each for Orkney and Shetland by the first past the post system. Orkney and Shetland also have separate local Councils which are both dominated by independents.

The Orkney Movement, a political party that supported devolution for Orkney from the rest of Scotland, contested the 1987 general election as the Orkney and Shetland Movement (a coalition of the Orkney movement and its equivalent for Shetland). Their candidate, John Goodlad, came 4th with 3,095 votes, 14.5% of those cast.

Transport

Ferry services link Orkney and Shetland to the rest of Scotland, the main routes being Scrabster harbour, Thurso to Stromness and Aberdeen to Lerwick, both operated by NorthLink Ferries. Inter-island ferry services are operated by Orkney Ferries and SIC Ferries, which are operated by the respective local authorities and Northlink also run a Lerwick to Kirkwall service. Automatic lighthouses are commonly sited across the islands as an aid to navigation at various locations.

Kirkwall Airport serves as the sole commercial airport in Orkney, which is operated by Highland and Islands Airports. Loganair provides services to Aberdeen, Edinburgh, Glasgow and Inverness for both Kirkwall and Sumburgh Airport.

Inter-Island flights are available from Kirkwall to several Orkney islands and from the Shetland Mainland to most of the inhabited islands including those from Tingwall Airport.  There are frequent charter flights from Aberdeen to Scatsta near Sullom Voe, which are used to transport oilfield workers and this small terminal has the fifth largest number of international passengers in Scotland. The scheduled air service between Westray and Papa Westray is reputedly the shortest in the world at two minutes' duration.

Economics
The very different geologies of the two archipelagos have resulted in dissimilar local economies. In Shetland, the main revenue producers are agriculture, aquaculture, fishing, renewable energy, the petroleum industry (offshore crude oil and natural gas production), the creative industries and tourism. Oil and gas was first landed at Sullom Voe in 1978, and it has subsequently become one of the largest oil terminals in Europe. Taxes from the oil have increased public sector spending in Shetland on social welfare, art, sport, environmental measures and financial development. Three-quarters of the islands' workforce is employed in the service sector and Shetland Islands Council alone accounted for 27.9% of output in 2003. Fishing remains central to the islands' economy today, with the total catch being  in 2009, valued at over £73.2 million.

Orkney and Shetland have significant wind and marine energy resources, and renewable energy has recently come into prominence. The European Marine Energy Centre is a Scottish Government-backed research facility that has installed a wave testing system at Billia Croo on the Orkney Mainland and a tidal power testing station on the island of Eday. This has been described as "the first of its kind in the world set up to provide developers of wave and tidal energy devices with a purpose-built performance testing facility." Billia Croo also houses an experimental underwater data center run by Microsoft.

Culture

The Northern Isles have a rich source of folklore. There are many Orcadian tales concerning trows, a form of troll that draws on the islands' Scandinavian connections. Local customs in the past included marriage ceremonies at the Odin Stone that forms part of the Stones of Stenness.
The best known literary figures from modern Orkney are the poet Edwin Muir, the poet and novelist George Mackay Brown and the novelist Eric Linklater.

Shetland has a strong tradition of local music. The Forty Fiddlers was formed in the 1950s to promote the traditional fiddle style, which is a vibrant part of local culture today. Notable exponents of Shetland folk music include Aly Bain and the late Tom Anderson and Peerie Willie Johnson.  Thomas Fraser was a country musician who never released a commercial recording during his life, but whose work has become popular more than 20 years after his untimely death in 1978.

Language
The Norn language, formerly spoken in the islands, is descendant of Old Norse brought by the Vikings in the 9th century. Since 1468-1469, after Orkney and Shetland were absorbed by the Kingdom of Scotland, Norn gradually began to fade as the influx of Scots-speaking settlers migrated to the islands. Norn as such became an extinct language around 1850, after the death of its last-known speaker Walter Sutherland. The local dialects of the Scots language, collectively known as Insular Scots, are distinctive and retain strong Nordic influences.

Main settlements
List of the main centres of population in the Orkney and Shetland islands as of 2020.

Island names
The etymology of the island names is dominated by Norse influence. There follows a listing of the derivation of all the inhabited islands in the Northern Isles.

Shetland
The oldest version of the modern name Shetland is Hetlandensis recorded in 1190 becoming Hetland in 1431 after various intermediate transformations. This then became Hjaltland in the 16th century. As Shetland's Norn was gradually replaced by Scots Hjaltland became . When use of the letter yogh was discontinued, it was often replaced by the similar-looking letter z, hence Zetland, the mispronounced form used to describe the pre-1975 county council. However the earlier name is Innse Chat – the island of the cats (or the cat tribe) as referred to in early Irish literature and it is just possible that this forms part of the Norse name. The Cat tribe also occupied parts of the northern Scottish mainland – hence the name of Caithness via the Norse Katanes ("headland of the cat"), and the Gaelic name for Sutherland, Cataibh, meaning "among the Cats".

The location of "Thule", first mentioned by Pytheas of Massilia when he visited Britain sometime between 322 and 285 BC is not known for certain. When Tacitus mentioned it in AD 98 it is clear he was referring to Shetland.

Orkney

Pytheas described Great Britain as being triangular in shape, with a northern tip called Orcas. This may have referred to Dunnet Head, from which Orkney is visible. Writing in the 1st century AD, the Roman geographer Pomponius Mela called the Orkney islands Orcades, as did Tacitus in AD 98 "Orc" is usually interpreted as a Pictish tribal name meaning "young pig" or "young boar". The old Irish Gaelic name for the islands was Insi Orc ("island of the pigs"). The ogham script on the Buckquoy spindle-whorl is also cited as evidence for the pre-Norse existence of Old Irish in Orkney. The Pictish association with Orkney is lent weight by the Norse name for the Pentland Firth – Pettaland-fjörðr i.e "Pictland Firth".

The Norse retained the earlier root but changed the meaning, providing the only definite example of an adaption of a pre-Norse place name in the Northern Isles. The islands became Orkneyar meaning "seal islands". An alternative name for Orkney is recorded in 1300—Hrossey, meaning "horse isle" and this may also contain a Pictish element of ros meaning "moor" or "plain".

Unlike most of the larger Orkney islands, the derivation of the name "Shapinsay" is not obvious. The final 'ay' is from the Old Norse for island, but the first two syllables are more difficult to interpret. Haswell-Smith (2004) suggests the root may be hjalpandis-øy (helpful island) due to the presence of a good harbour, although anchorages are plentiful in the archipelago. The first written record dates from 1375 in a reference to Scalpandisay, which may suggest a derivation from "judge's island". Another suggestion is "Hyalpandi's island", although no one of that name is known to have been associated with Shapinsay.

Uninhabited islands
Stroma, from the Norse Straumøy means "current island"
or "island in the tidal stream", a reference to the strong currents in the Pentland Firth. The Norse often gave animal names to islands and these have been transferred into English in, for example, the Calf of Flotta and Horse of Copinsay. Brother Isle is an anglicisation of the Norse breiðareøy meaning "broad beach island". The Norse holmr, meaning  "a small islet" has become "Holm" in English and there are numerous examples of this use including Corn Holm, Thieves Holm and Little Holm. "Muckle" meaning large or big is one of few Scots words in the island names of the Nordreyar and appears in Muckle Roe and Muckle Flugga in Shetland and Muckle Green Holm and Muckle Skerry in Orkney. Many small islets and skerries have Scots or Insular Scots names such as Da Skerries o da Rokness and Da Buddle Stane in Shetland, and Kirk Rocks in Orkney.

See also
 Kingdom of the Isles

References
Notes

Footnotes

General references
 Armit, Ian (2006) Scotland's Hidden History. Stroud. Tempus.
 Ballin Smith, B. and Banks, I. (eds) (2002) In the Shadow of the Brochs, the Iron Age in Scotland. Stroud. Tempus.
 Clarkson, Tim (2008) The Picts: A History. Stroud. The History Press.

 Gammeltoft, Peder (2010) "Shetland and Orkney Island-Names – A Dynamic Group". Northern Lights, Northern Words. Selected Papers from the FRLSU Conference, Kirkwall 2009, edited by Robert McColl Millar.
 General Register Office for Scotland (28 November 2003) Occasional Paper No 10: Statistics for Inhabited Islands. Retrieved 22 January 2011.
 Gillen, Con (2003) Geology and landscapes of Scotland. Harpenden. Terra Publishing.
 Keay, J. & Keay, J. (1994) Collins Encyclopaedia of Scotland. London. HarperCollins.

 Omand, Donald (ed.) (2003) The Orkney Book. Edinburgh. Birlinn.
 Nicolson, James R. (1972) Shetland. Newton Abbott. David & Charles.
 Sandnes, Berit (2003) From Starafjall to Starling Hill: An investigation of the formation and development of Old Norse place-names in Orkney. (pdf) Doctoral Dissertation, NTU Trondheim.
 Sandnes, Berit (2010) "Linguistic patterns in the place-names of Norway and the Northern Isles" Northern Lights, Northern Words. Selected Papers from the FRLSU Conference, Kirkwall 2009, edited by Robert McColl Millar.
 Schei, Liv Kjørsvik (2006) The Shetland Isles. Grantown-on-Spey. Colin Baxter Photography.
 Shetland Islands Council (2010) "Shetland in Statistics 2010" (pdf) Economic Development Unit. Lerwick. Retrieved 6 March 2011
 Thomson, William P. L. (2008) The New History of Orkney Edinburgh. Birlinn.
 Turner, Val (1998) Ancient Shetland. London. B. T. Batsford/Historic Scotland.
 Wickham-Jones, Caroline (2007) Orkney: A Historical Guide. Edinburgh. Birlinn.
 Watson, W. J. (1994) The Celtic Place-Names of Scotland. Edinburgh. Birlinn. . First published 1926.

Archipelagoes of the Atlantic Ocean
Scottish toponymy
Archipelagoes of Scotland

Northern Isles


Oberost-Mark a fost o monedă ce a circulat în perioada 1918-1922 în teritoriile estice Baltikum, Memel și Lituania, care se aflau sub ocupație germană. Ea a constat din bani de hârtie emiși de Darlehnskassen Ost din Kovno, de valori identice cu marca de hârtie germană (Papiermark).

Introducerea și circulația monedei
După victoriile în Bătălia de la Tannenberg, în Prima bătălie de pe Lacurile Mazuriene și în Bătălia de iarnă de pe Lacurile Mazuriene din anii 1914-1915, Imperiul German a înlăturat pericolul unui atac rus asupra Prusiei Răsăritene și a ocupat, în același timp, zone semnificative ale statelor baltice (ce fuseseră ocupate anterior de ruși). Acele regiuni au fost denumite Ober Ost și administrate începând din noiembrie 1915 de către Comandamentul General Estic (în ).

Introducerea monedei
În regiunea Ober Ost a fost introdusă o monedă separată denumită Ost-Mark sau Oberost-Mark, care a circulat în paralel cu rubla rusească și cu ost-rubla (care a supraviețuit la sfârșitul războiului), care au fost timbrate și folosite acolo la un curs de 2 Ostmark = 1 Ostruble.

În acest scop, Darlehenskasse Ost din Kowno (Kaunas) a emis la 4 aprilie 1918 o serie de bancnote cu valori nominale de ½ marcă, 1 marcă, 2 mărci, 5 mărci, 20 de mărci, 50 de mărci, 100 de mărci și 1000 de mărci. Pe reversul bancnotelor se aflau avertismente împotriva falsificării monedei, scrise în limbile germană, letonă și lituaniană. Valoarea unei Oberost-Mark era egală cu cea a unei mărci de hârtie germane (Papiermark).

Circulația monedei după război
Oberost-Mark era legată de marca germană și s-a bucurat, prin urmare, de un nivel ridicat de acceptare în rândul populației. După sfârșitul războiului, nou-creatul stat Lituania a preluat Oberost-Mark ca monedă. Chiar și în teritoriul Memel această monedă a fost folosită alături de moneda de necesitate (notgeld) emisă de Camera de Comerț din Memel. Hiperinflația ce a afectat marca germană a făcut ca Oberost Mark să-și piardă o mare parte din valoare. Astfel, ca urmare a reducerii valorii monedei Oberost-Mark, Republica Lituania a introdus în iunie 1922 propria sa monedă națională, litas-ul lituanian, iar puterea circulatorie a ostmărcii și ostrublei a încetat la 1 octombrie 1922. Noua monedă lituaniană a fost introdusă cu rata de schimb de 10 litas = 1 dolar SUA.

În 1923 teritoriul Memel a fost ocupat de Lituania. Prin urmare, aici a fost introdus la 1 iunie 1923 litas-ul lituanian.

Bancnote

Note

Bibliografie

 N. Jakimovs and V. Marcilger, The Postal and Monetary History of Latvia 1918–1945, own book, 1991, pp. 14-13 - 14-15.
 Wilhelm Georg Kapust: Die Entwicklung der memelländischen Wirtschaft seit der Abtrennung vom Deutschen Reiche unter besonderen Berücksichtigung der Währungs- und Kreditverhältnisse, Diss, 1928

Legături externe
 German banknotes, a.o. Ostrubles and Ostmarks.

Monede ieșite din circulație
Foste unități monetare

Fondări în 1918
Desființări în 1922
Monede germane

Oberost-Mark


Remi d'Auxerre, conocido también como Remigius Antissiodorensis (Borgoña, c. 850 — París, 908) fue un teólogo y monje benedictino francés del Renacimiento carolingio, gramático y muy prolífico autor de comentarios y glosas a textos clásicos en latín y griego.

Biografía
Fue alumno de Lupus Servatus o Lope de Ferrières y de Erico de Auxerre y maestro de la Escuela de la Abadía de San Germán de Auxerre (Saint Germain d'Auxerre) y luego en París y Reims.
Acompañó a su maestro Erico (876) y luego tomó su puesto distinguiéndose en la enseñanza de las artes liberales y particularmente en el de la gramática, la dialéctica y la música. En 883 dejó Auxerre y marchó a Reims, adonde el arzobispo Fulco lo había llamado como profesor de la Escuela Catedralicia y allí permaneció hasta 900, cuando se fue a París para enseñar hasta que le llegó la muerte en 908.

Obras
Su pensamiento está influido por el Platonismo y la Teología del irlandés Juan Escoto Erígena, su contemporáneo. Su obra, enteramente escrita en latín, está en parte perdida. Lo que queda de él son amplios comentarios y reflexiones sobre algunos libros bíblicos y sobre la literatura y el pensamiento filosófico de la época romana. Entre sus obras representativas se citan sus comentarios al Génesis (Expositio super Genesim), a los Salmos (Enarrationes in Psalmos) y al Evangelio según San Mateo. Gran difusión tuvieron en la Edad Media sus reflexiones ligadas a los gramáticos y comentaristas de la antigüedad tardía (Donato, Prisciano, etc.) y a escritores latinos como Boecio (De Consolatione Philosophiae y Opuscula sacra) y Marciano Capella (De Nuptiis Philologiae et Mercurii et de septem Artibus liberalibus libri novem). Sus obras aparecen recogidas en el volumen CXXXI de la Patrología latina de Migne y en Documenta Catholica Omnia.

Enlaces externos

Obras en Documenta Catholica Omnia

Benedictinos de Francia del siglo IX
Gramáticos de Francia
Gramáticos del siglo IX
Platonismo
Escritores en latín
Teólogos de Francia del siglo IX
Escritores medievales que trataron temas de mitología griega
Fallecidos en París
Benedictinos de Francia del siglo X

Remigio de Auxerre


"Miss Brasil Sou Eu" foi estreado a 25 anos atrás  conta a história de um concurso de Miss Brasil. A beleza sempre foi motivo de disputa e em um concurso de beleza, a concorrência é maior ainda. Serão dez homens representando as dez mulheres mais bonitas de dez importantes estados do Brasil. Quando o concurso vai começar, uma inesperada notícia chega. Um corre e corre se estabelece e o caos das mães na plateia que desesperadamente querem saber se as filhas vão desfilar. A coisa piora com as palavras da apresentadora que não tem um pingo de noção acentuando o conflito.

Como o local do concurso estava lotado com os principais meios de comunicação e o dinheiro arrecadado era para um lar de crianças carentes da Madre Superiora. O produtor do concurso decide pegar o pipoqueiro, o faxineiro, o filho da camareira, o bilheteiro, o contra regra, o segurança e o porteiro.  A Madre Superiora diz que não vai sair do local sem o dinheiro dela e se junta na organização e também decide desfilar. Nada vai dar certo e o que não vai faltar é um concurso totalmente atípico. A decisão da miss do ano retrasado de não entregar a coroa a um grupo de misses traz um total desequilíbrio a todas. A vontade de ganhar a faixa a qualquer custo; A interferência das mães de misses. O autor aproveitou as diferenças, dos estados brasileiros, criando cenas hilárias, intercaladas com músicas e danças, mostrando um pouco do nosso Brasil tão diverso e rico, tanto pelo seu povo como por seus costumes e cultura. Tudo isso numa comédia com todo talento de atores consagrados no humor brasileiro. o Espetáculo foi escrito por Ronaldo Ciambroni e é dirigido pela grande atriz e apresentadora Mamma Bruschetta  tem no elenco: Silvetty Montilla Kaka De Lyma, Caique Aguiar, Ricardo Cavadas, Didi Guerreiro, Dan Gomez, Lukas Caprezzi, Eduardo Guimarães, Gretta Sttar, Augusto Antunes.

Peças de teatro do Brasil

Espetáculo miss brasil sou eu


U23 herrernes enkeltstart ved VM i landevejscykling 2018 blev afholdt mandag den 24. september. Ruten var 27,8 km lang. Løbet blev vundet af danske Mikkel Bjerg for andet år i træk.

Hold og ryttere

Danske ryttere
 Mikkel Bjerg
 Mathias Norsgaard Jørgensen
 Johan Price-Pejtersen

Resultater

Eksterne henvisninger

Enkeltstart (U23 herrer)

VM i landevejscykling 2018 – Enkeltstart (U23 herrer)


Cheilanthes bolborrhiza, vrsta papratnjača iz porodice bujadovki. Izdvojena je u zaseban rod Cheilanthes, u kojemu je jedina vrsta . Domovina su joj Meksiko (Oaxaca, Jalisco, Morelos, država Mexico) i Srednja Amerika (Salvador)

Sinonimi
 Hemionitis bolborrhiza (Mickel & Beitel) Christenh.

Izvori

Cheilanthoideae
Flora Meksika
Flora Salvadora

Cheilanthes bolborrhiza


Cağ kebabı, oğlak veya kuzu etinden yapılan Türk mutfağında bir çeşit kebaptır. Geleneksel olarak Erzurum'un Oltu ilçesinde yapılan cağ kebabı, önceden terbiye edilmiş etin yatık bir şişe geçirilip odun ateşi üzerinde pişirilmesiyle hazırlanır. Cağ (veya bico) adı verilen şişler kullanılarak servis yapıldığından bu adı almıştır. Günümüzde Türkiye'nin birçok yerinde yapılıp tüketilmektedir. Hazırlanan parça etler, bu malzemeye eklenen soğan, reyhan, tuz ve karabiber gibi baharatlar ile birlikte iyice yoğrulur. Daha lezzetli olması istenirse hazırlanan et 24 saat serin ortamda veya buzdolabında dinlendirilir ve bu süre sonunda cağ kebabı pişirilmeye başlanabilir. Et yatık biçimde odun ateşinin kızgın közüne 10–15 cm yüksekte pişirilir ve döner bıçağı ile birer porsiyon kesilip cağ, bico üzerinde ızgaraya konulur. Burada biraz daha pişirilir.

Kebap, yanında soğan, domates ve sivri biber ve tandır ekmeği veya lavaş ile birlikte servis edilir.

Oltu ve çevre ilçeler Olur, Tortum yörelerinde ahşaptan yapılan şişlere "bico" adı verilir.

Cağ kebabı olacak kuzunun seçimi esnasında özellikle 6 aylık olmasına ve yaşıtlarından daha boylu ve dolgun olmasına dikkat edilmektedir.

Cağ kebabı, Türk Patent ve Marka Kurumu tarafından ''Erzurum Oltu Cağ Kebabı'' olarak 2010 yılında tescillenmiş ve coğrafi işaret almıştır.

Coğrafi Tescil
Oltu Cağ Kebabını diğer kebap türlerinden ayıran en önemli özellik, söz konusu kebabın üretiminde kullanılan etin bölgeye ait, doğal ortamda veya yaylalarda doğal besinlerle yetiştirilen koyunlardan elde edilmiş olmasıdır. Ayrıca kebap Oltu yöresindeki ustalara has üretim şekli ve usulü ile hazırlandığı için diğer kebap türlerinden ayrılır.

Oltu ilçesine ait üretim tekniği zaman içerisinde devlet ve kamuoyu tarafından kabul edilmiş ve ilgili kebap üretim şekli ile 1.baskısı 1945 yılında Türk Dil Kurumu tarafından hazırlanan sözlükte ''OLTU KEBABI'' şeklinde tanımlanmıştır. Ayrıca söz konusu tanım çeşitli sivil toplum kuruluşları tarafından kabul edilmiş. Anadolu Halk Mutfağı Platformu mevcut ürünü ''OLTU CAĞ KEBABI'' olarak kabul etmiştir. Söz konusu kebabın üretiminde sadece bu yöreye has teknik ve usuller kullanıldığı için ürün ile ilgili mahreç işareti talebinde bulunulmuştur. 22 Şubat 2010'da Türk Patent ve Marka Kurumu tarafından ''Erzurum Oltu Cağ Kebabı'' olarak tescillenmiş ve coğrafi işaret almıştır.

Dünyada
Cağ kebabı, 2022 yılında TasteAtlas'ın yayınladığı Dünya'nın en lezzetli yemekleri listesinde 9. sırada yer aldı. Coğrafi tescili bulunan Erzurum'un Oltu Cağ Kebabı Türkiye'nin en lezzetli yemeği seçildi. Dünya lezzetlerinde ilk 10'a girmesi ve Türk mutfağının en iyisi seçilmesiyle Türkiye'yi ve Erzurum bölgesini temsil etti.

Resim galerisi

Kaynakça

Dış bağlantılar

Akdeniz mutfağı
Orta Doğu mutfağı
Türk mutfağındaki kebaplar
Erzurum mutfağı
Oltu
Şişe geçirilen kebaplar
Doğu Anadolu mutfağı

Cağ kebabı


Zora film bilo je poduzeće za proizvodnju i distribuciju filma koje je osnovano 1947. godine u Zagrebu. Vodeći je proizvođač obrazovnih filmova u SFR Jugoslaviji, sve do produkcije 3 igrana filma i gašenja 1963.

Povijest
Ovo filmsko poduzeće nastaje na osnovu poduzeća Nastavni film, oformljenog 1. VII 1947. (rješenjem Savezne vlade FNRJ) kao poduzeće saveznog značaja za proizvodnju nastavno-prosvjetnih filmova. Donekle može se reći da se nastavlja i na rad hrvatskog filmskog poduzeća Zora, zavod za nacionalno edukativni film koje je grupa filmskih entuzijasta, poduzetnika, filmskih i prosvjetnih djelatnika (među kojima su bili i redatelji Oktavijan Miletić, Aleksandar Gerasimov, Marko Graf te Kamilo Brössler) osnovala 1935. radi proizvodnje namjenskih filmova za Savsku banovinu, odnosno kasnije za Banovinu Hrvatsku, a koje je uspješno djelovalo do početka Drugog svjetskog rata.

Ime Zora film preuzima tek 1953., a u tijeku svog postojanja do 1963. godine, kao najjači jugoslavenski proizvođač obrazovnih filmova, proizvelo je ukupno 355 projekata kratkog metra: obrazovnih, nastavnih, instruktivnih, popularnoznanstvenih te dokumentarnih, kratkih igranih, lutkarskih i crtanih animiranih. Od 1960. do 1963. proizvelo je i 3 dugometražna igrana filma čija je produkcijska ambicioznost možda i dovela do propasti ovog važnog filmskog poduzeća.

Važnija filmografija

Dugometražni igrani filmovi
 Carevo novo ruho (1961.), redatelj: Ante Babaja; scenaristi: Hans Christian Andersen i Božidar Violić, 1h 20'
 Veliko suđenje (1961.), redatelj: Fedor Škubonja; scenaristica: Stanislava Borisavljević, 1h 13'
 Igre na skelama (1961.), redatelj: Srećko Weygand; scenaristica: Zora Dirnbach, 1h 39'
 Veliko putovanje (1958.), redatelj i scenarist: Ivan Hetrich, 1h 5'

Kratko i srednje metražni igrani filmovi
 Ženidba gospodina Marcipana (1963.), redatelj i scenarist: Vatroslav Mimica, 11' 48"
 Priča o djevojčici i sapunu (1962.), redatelj: Obrad Glušćević; scenarist: Svetislav Ruškuc, 27'
 Žiri (1962.), redatelj i scenarist: Ante Babaja; scenarist: Božidar Violić, 14'
 Iznenadjenje (1962.), redatelj: Ivan Hetrich; scenarist: Mario Hladnik, 6'
 Dolje plotovi (1962.), redatelj: Dušan Makavejev ; scenaristica: Stasa Jelic, - kratki dječji igrani film, 11'
 Dolje pješaci (1960.), redatelj: Mate Bogdanović; scenarist: Andro Lušičić, 14' 34"
 Posve obična priča (1960.), redatelj: Ivan Hetrich; scenarist: Dredvin Ferber, 20'
 Izgubljena olovka (1960.), redatelj: Fedor Škubonja; scenaristica: Stanislava Borisavljević, 47'
 Jurnjava za motorom (1959.), redatelj: Branko Majer, 34'
 Piko (1959.), redatelj: Srećko Weygand - kratki dječji igrani film, 47'
 Plačljivica uobražena princeza (1958.), redatelj: Josef Kluge; scenarist: Ivan Hetrich, 17'
 U našeg Martina (1958.), redatelj i scenarist: Branko Majer, 46'
 Klempo (1958.), redatelj: Nikola Tanhofer; scenarist: Vjekoslav Dobrinčić, 40'
 Veliko putovanje (1958.), redatelj i scenarist: Ivan Hetrich, 7'
 Takva pjesma sve osvaja (1958.), redatelj i scenarist: Branko Majer, 34'
 Nesporazum (1958.), redatelj: Ante Babaja; scenarist: Božidar Violić, 13'

Animirani filmovi
 Tri junaka (1962.), redatelj: Branko Ranitović, 10' 12"
 Zahvalna metla (1962.), redatelj i scenarist: Andro Lušičić; 11' 39"
 Luda graja zbog tramvaja (1962.), redatelj: Branko Ranitović, 10' 2"
 Strah: lopta (1962.), režija i scenarij: Andro Lušičić, 10' 56"
 2+2=3 (1961.), redatelj i scenarist: Andro Lušičić; scenarist: Saša Dobrila, 9' 35"
 Bodljan pticolovac (1961.), redatelj: Mate Bogdanović; scenarist: Krešo Golik, 11' 18"
 Pijana ulična lampa (1961.), redatelj: Saša Dobrila; scenarist: Saša Dobrila, 10' 12"
 Robot (1960.), redatelj: Saša Dobrila; 8'
 Instrument čarobnjak (1960.), redatelj: Branko Ranitović, 14' 34"
 Nisu znali jer su mali (1960.), redatelj: Branko Ranitović; scenarist: Danko Oblak, 15'
 Gliša, Raka, Njaka (1960.), redatelj: Mate Bogdanović; scenarist: Krešo Golik, 9' 50"
 Jaje (1959.) režija i scenarij: Vatroslav Mimica, 11'
 Srce u snijegu (1959.), redatelj: Branko Ranitović; scenarist: Andro Lušičić, 10' 30"
 Tri ljenčine (1959.), redatelj: Saša Dobrila; scenarist: Norbert Neugebauer, 6' 59"
 Prometni znaci ulični junaci (1958.), redatelj: Branko Ranitović, 12' 23"
 Crvenkapica (1954.), redatelji: Josip Sudar, Nikola Kostelac i Aleksandar Marks; scenarist: Marcel Čukli, 14'

Dokumentarni, TV i namjenski filmovi
 Ljeto medvjedića (1963.) redatelj i scenarist: Branko Marjanović, 15'
 Svijet gluhe tame (1963.) redatelj i scenarist: Mate Bogdanović, 14' 34"
 Kugina kuća (1963.), redatelj i scenarist: Ivo Vrbanić, 9' 48"
 Hobotnica (1963.), redatelj: Branko Marjanović; scenaristi: Branko Marjanović i  Kruno Quien, 18' 05"
 Hiljadu stubova dalekovoda (1962.), redatelj: Ivan Hetrich; scenaristi: Ivan Hetrich i Branko Knezoci
 Ivan Meštrović (1962.), redatelj i scenarist: Šime Šimatović, 12' 02"
 Spomenici starog Egipta (1962.) redatelj i scenarist: Mate Bogdanović, 14' 34"
 Tragom medvjeda (1962.) redatelj i scenarist: Branko Marjanović, 18'
 Hramovi oteti Nilu (1962.) redatelj i scenarist: Mate Bogdanović,  14' 34"
 Plameni cvijet (1962.), redatelj: Branko Ranitović; scenaristi: Borivoje Đorđević i Branko Ranitović, 15'
 U susret oceanima (1961.), redatelj i scenarist: Mate Bogdanović, 14' 34"
 Otvoreni horizonti (1962.), redatelj: Rudolf Sremec, 12' 45"
 Radnici uče (1962.), redatelj: Rudolf Sremec, 11' 18"
 Heroji ne umiru I (1961.), redatelj: Vojdrag Berčić, 16' 02"
 Heroji ne umiru II (1961.), redatelj: Vojdrag Berčić, 15' 29"
 Od zvjezde do života (1961.), redatelj: Stjepan Velić, 8' 44"
 Romantično putovanje (1961.), redatelj i scenarist: Branko Majer, 11' 39"
 Tragom šume (1961.), redatelj i scenarist: Frano Vodopivec, 12' 45'
 Bios (1961.), redatelj: Branko Marjanović; scenaristi: Branko Marjanović i  Kruno Quien, 18' 16"
 Dioklecijanova palča u Splitu (1960.), redatelj i scenarist: Šime Šimatović, 11' 22"
 Putovanje u nevidljivi svijet (1960.), redatelj: Branko Marjanović; scenarist:  Kruno Quien, 15'
 Žute i plave poljane (1960.), redatelj: Frano Vodopivec; scenarist: Krešo Golik, 12' 45"
 Zmije otrovnice (1960.), redatelj: Branko Marjanović; scenaristi: Branko Marjanović i Antun Markić, 15'
 Pogreb Štefa Halačeka (1960.), redatelj: Branko Ranitović, 15'
 Plantaže šuma (1960.), redatelj i scenarist: Rudolf Sremec, 14' 34"
 Riječka luka (1960.), redatelj: Ante Babaja; scenaristi: Ante Babaja i Petar Cujec, 15'
 Ovaj sud ne priznajem (1960.), redatelj: Fedor Hanžeković; scenaristi: Božidar Novak i Vladimir Stopar, 18' 13"
 Uradi sam (1960.), redatelj: Ante Babaja; scenarist: Ante Babaja, 4' 34"
 Dozvane vode (1960.), redatelj: Frano Vodopivec; scenarist: Krešo Golik, 12' 45"
 Jedrenjaci (1960.), redatelj: Branko Majer; scenarist: Grgo Gamulin, 10' 03"
 Na pragu grada (1960.), redatelj: Frano Vodopivec; scenarist: Krešo Golik
 Nove obale (1960.), redatelj: Hrvoje Sarić
 Zaigrane osovine (1960.), redatelj: Frano Vodopivec; scenarist: Krešo Golik, 12' 45"
 Briga za potomstvo (1959.), redatelj: Branko Marjanović; scenaristi: Sanja Begović i Srećko Weygand, 11'
 Opasne Igre (1959.), redatelj i scenarist: Nikša Fulgosi, 13' 36"
 Proučavanje (1959.), redatelj i scenarist: Ivan Hetrich, 7' 34"
 Građani upravljaju (1959.), redatelj: Fedor Škubonja, 7'
 Svojim putem (1959.), redatelj: Fedor Škubonja; scenaristi: Fedor Škubonja i Vojo Terić, 17'
 Opasnosti pri radu u lukama (1959.), redatelj: Ante Babaja, 8'
 Jugoslavenski kras (1959.), redatelj i scenarist: Branko Marjanović,
 Koks (1959.), redatelj: Srećko Weygand; scenaristi: Sanja Begovic i Srećko Weygand, 16'
 Biljka i životinja (1959.), redatelj: Stjepan Velić, scenarist: Krešimir Kuna, 11' 30"
 Rat koji još traje (1959.), redatelj: Branko Ranitović; scenarist: Nikša Fulgosi, 14'
 Slavni sude (1959.), redatelj: Fadil Hadžić; scenarist: Krešo Novosel, 17'
 Skulptor i materija (1959.), redatelj i scenarist: Rudolf Sremec, 19' 03"
 Široki front (1959.), redatelj i scenarist: Rudolf Sremec, 5' 36"
 Zabranjena istina partijska štampa (1959.) redatelj i scenarist: Mate Bogdanović, 14' 34"
 U starom kraju (1959.), redatelj i scenarist: Mate Bogdanović, 22' 25"
 Bjeloglavi sup - lesinar (1959.), redatelj: Branko Marjanović, scenarist: Ivica Gluščević, 17'
 Kućna radinost (1958.), redatelj i scenarist: Mate Bogdanović, 12' 58"
 I radnica i majka (1958.), redatelj: Fedor Škubonja, 7'
 Za vlastite proizvode (1958.), redatelj: Fedor Škubonja; scenarist: Vojo Terić, 15'
 Male svečanosti (1958.), redatelj: Branko Ranitović, scenaristica: Ana Deanović, 16'
 Slikarske tehnike (1958.), redatelj: Srećko Weygand; scenaristi: Dimitrije Bašičević Mangelos, Hrvoje Sarić i Srećko Weygand, 14'
 Ukorak s vremenom: jugoslavensko selo (1958.), redatelj i scenarist: Rudolf Sremec, 19' 03"
 Bolest usta (1958.), redatelj: Fedor Škubonja; scenarist: Lazar Petrović, 7'
 I radnica i majka (1958.), redatelj: Fedor Škubonja; scenarist: Zvonimir Berković, 7'
 Za bolji hljeb (1958.), redatelj: Nikola Radošević, 13'
 Uzgoj šećerne repe: njega i zaštita (1958.), redatelj i scenarist: Mate Bogdanović, 9'19"
 Uzgoj šećerne repe: šećer (1957.), redatelj i scenarist: Mate Bogdanović, 9' 19"
 Uzgoj šećerne repe: selekcija (1957.), redatelj i scenarist: Mate Bogdanović, 8' 14"
 Uzgoj šećerne repe: prerada (1957.), redatelj i scenarist: Mate Bogdanović, 4' 39"
 Uzgoj šećerne repe: uvod i ugovaranje (1957.), redatelj i scenarist: Mate Bogdanović, 17' 51"
 Uzgoj šećerne repe: predsjetvena obrada (1957.), redatelj i scenarist: Mate Bogdanović, 6' 03"
 Uzgoj šećerne repe: osnovna priprema zemlje (1957.), redatelj i scenarist: Mate Bogdanović, 5' 28"
 Uzgoj šećerne repe: korištenje nuzproizvoda (1957.), redatelj i scenarist: Mate Bogdanović, 5' 19"
 Uzgoj šećerne repe: berba i prijem repe (1957.), redatelj i scenarist: Mate Bogdanović, 5' 49"
 Od zvijezda do života (1957.), redatelj: Stjepan Velić; scenarist: Nasko Frnoić, 8' 34"
 Zadruge u Virovitičkom kraju (1957.), redatelj: Srećko Weygand; scenarist: Milan Sabol, 12'
 Svetkovina kamena (1957.), redatelj i scenarist: Branko Marjanović; 17' 12"
 Iza kazališne rampe (1957.), redatelj i scenarist: Srećko Weygand; 14'
 Višestruki plodovi (1957.), redatelj: Oldrich Kadrnka; scenaristi: Ladislav Ivanček i Srećko Weygand, 7'
 Đaci i saobračaj (1957.), redatelj i scenarist: Srećko Weygand; 3'
 Rak na maternici (1957.), redatelj: Dušan Prebil; scenaristi: Ivan Bonac i Dušan Reja, 10' 08"
 Rijeka, naša najveća luka (1956.), redatelj: Srećko Weygand; scenarist: Veljko Rogić, 7'
 Gledalac i mi (1956.), redatelj: Antun Marti; scenarist: Krešo Novosel, - TV igra
 Singamoza (1955.), redatelj: Srećko Weygand; scenarist: Zvonimir Aleraj, 7'
 Kućno vatrogastvo (1955.), redatelj: Dušan Vukotić; scenarist: Bozidar Puhovski, 23'
 Takmičenje aeromodela na trgovima i aerodromima (1955.), redatelj i scenarist: Žarko Manojlović, 9'
 O kugi peradi (1954.), redatelj: Srećko Weygand; scenarist: Zvonimir Aleraj, 7'
 Izložba i sajam stoke u Prelogu (1954.), redatelj: Srećko Weygand; scenarist: Zvonimir Aleraj, 3'
 Rijeka u obnovi (1947.), redatelj i scenarist: Branko Marjanović; 14'

Nagrade
Godine 1956. za najbolju kameru na Festivalu jugoslovenskog dokumentarnog i kratkometražnog filma u Beogradu nagrađen je Frano Vodopivec za dokumentarni film "Crne vode" redatelja Rudolfa Sremca. Na festivalu kratkog filma u Oberhausenu, godine 1959., za svoju kratku igranu komediju Nesporazum (glavne uloge: Špiro Guberina, Fahro Konjhodžić; snimatelj Tomislav Pinter) redatelj Ante Babaja dobiva specijalnu diplomu. Godine 1959. za svoj dokumentarni film "Slavni sude" redatelj Fadil Hadžić dobio je specijalnu diplomu na festivalu u Puli. Iste godine za svoje dokumentarne filmove "Briga za potomstvo" i "Bjeloglavi sup - lešinar" redatelj Branko Marjanović dobio je nagradu za fotografiju, preciznije, snimatelj tih filmova Antun Markić. Na festivalu u Veneciji 1960. godine kratki animirani film "Prometni znaci, ulični junaci" redatelja  Branka Ranilovića dobio je nagradu "Zlatni lav" u kategoriji filmova za uzrast od 7 do 12 godina. Na istom festivalu također je nagradu "Zlatni lav" te "Zlatna grana" dobio kratki igrani film za djecu  "Piko" redatelja  Srećka Weyganda . Te iste godine na Festivalu jugoslovenskog dokumentarnog i kratkometražnog filma u Beogradu za svoj dokumentarni film "Pogreb Štefa Halačeka" o slici  Ivana Generalića iz 1934., redatelj Branko Ranilović dobiva nagradu za režiju, a Krunoslav Quien treću nagradu za scenarij za film "Briga za potomstvo"  Branka Marjanovića. Godine 1962. za kratki dokumentarni film "Plameni cvijet" o  I. L. Ribaru, redatelj Branko Ranilović dobiva nagradu Zlatna medalju »Beograd« (ex aequo s filmovima "Osmeh 61"  Dušana Makavejeva, "Pod ljetnim suncem"  Obrada Gluščevića i "On" Puriše Đorđevića na Festivalu jugoslovenskog dokumentarnog i kratkometražnog filma. Za svoj kratki igrani film "Dolje plotovi" redatelj Dušan Makavejev dobiva III nagradu na Festivalu jugoslovenskog dokumentarnog i kratkometražnog filma godine 1962., a Stjepan Katušić glavnu nagradu za najbolju kameru za film "Biljka i životinja"  Stjepana Velića.

Dramaturzi Zora filma
 Ivan Hetrich - 5 godina
 Georgij Paro - (1957. – 1959.)
 Zlatko Sudović - (1957. – 1963.)
 Kruno Quien - do 1961.
 Ante Peterlić - (1961. – 1963.)

Popis animiranih filmova

 Crvenkapica (1955.)
 Aumsum (1956.)
 Krada I Mali (1956.)
 Ipak Se Kreće (1957.)
 Isključuje (1957.)
 Isključeno (1957.)
 Hrt 3. faze stranica (1957.)
 Krtica (1957.)
 Naš 101 Krećes (1958.)
 Sakac (1958.)
 Usfvonija (1959.)
 Sva mjesta na Zemlji (1959.)
 Djecja I Radost (1960.)
 Umjetnikov san (1960.)
 Skavac Čežponia (1960.)
 Balablok Jabuka (1961.)
 Sreća Tan (1961.)

Izvori

Vanjske poveznice
IMDb – Zora Film - Filmografija
Zora film na Enciklopedija.hr

Hrvatska filmska umjetnost
Kultura u Zagrebu
Hrvatske tvrtke
Filmski studiji
Hrvatski filmovi 1950-ih
Hrvatski filmovi 1960-ih

Zora film


This is a list of aviation-related events from 1914.

The outbreak of World War I accelerates all aspects of aviation which in turn changes war in a twofold way. The aeroplane turns the sky into a new battlefield and eliminates the distinction between frontline and hinterland, with the civilian population far behind the frontline also becoming a target. The war results in the deaths of approximately 20,000 flyers, most of them trained pilots.

Events
 The Austro-Hungarian Navy formally creates an air arm.
 Fiat establishes its Società Italiana Aviazione subsidiary, beginning its involvement in the manufacture of aircraft.
 The Yokosuka Naval Arsenal begins to produce seaplanes, the first manufacture of naval aircraft in Japan.
 The Aeromarine Plane and Motor Company is founded in Keyport, New Jersey, with Inglis M. Uppercu as president.

January
 1 January
The Naval Wing of the Royal Flying Corps is given the responsibility for the operation of all British military airships. The Royal Navy retained control of all British airships until December 1919.
The St. Petersburg-Tampa Airboat Line starts services between St. Petersburg and Tampa, Florida, becoming the first airline to provide regular services with heavier-than-air aircraft, with Anthony Jannus conveying passengers in a Benoist XIV flying boat. A.C. Pheil is the first airline passenger.
 2 January – Riding as a passenger in an airplane piloted by the British aviator Gustav Hamel, Trehawke Davies becomes the first woman to experience an aerobatic loop.

February
 The Sikorsky Ilya Muromets sets a load-to-altitude record, lifting 16 people to .
1 February – The Aero Club of America announces plans to sponsor an around-the-world airplane race.
3 February – German aviator Bruno Langer sets a new flight endurance record, flying nonstop for 14 hours 7 minutes.
7 February – Karl Ingold sets a new world flight endurance record, flying nonstop for 16 hours 20 minutes in an Aviatik biplane. The flight, from Mulhouse to Munich, Germany, covers a distance of .
8–10 February – Berliner, Haase and Nikolai fly 3,053 km (1,896 statute miles) in their free balloon from Bitterfeld to Perm. This record stands until 1950.
11 February – Flying an LFG Roland Pfeilflieger biplane, German aviator Bruno Langer attempts to break the flight endurance record Karl Ingold set on 7 February, but falls 20 minutes short, landing at Kreuz after 16 continuous hours in the air.

March
1 March – Pioneer of Argentine aviation Jorge Newbery (b. 1875) is killed in a crash at Estancia "Los Tamarindos" while performing aerobatics prior to an attempt to cross the Andes by air.

April
20 April
Howard Pixton wins the Schneider Trophy at Monaco. Pixton averages  over the course in a Sopwith Schneider.
Three U.S. Navy aircraft depart Pensacola, Florida on board the battleship USS Mississippi in support of troops at Vera Cruz, Mexico. They will fly reconnaissance missions until 12 May.
25 April – The first combat flight by a U.S. Navy aircraft takes place. It is a flight to observe Mexican positions during the Veracruz Incident.

May
 The Royal Navy purchases an unfinished merchant ship for a complete redesign as the United Kingdoms first ship designed specifically for aviation activities. She will become the seaplane carrier Ark Royal.
8 May – A civilian pilot, René Caudron, makes the first French shipboard takeoff in an airplane from a ramp constructed over the foredeck of the seaplane carrier Foudre, using a Caudron G.3 amphibian floatplane.
19 May – Performing aerobatics in a Morane-Saulnier monoplane over the hippodrome at Riga in the Russian Empire, Russian pilot Lydia Zvereva becomes the first woman to execute a loop.
23 May – German-born British aviator Gustav Hamel disappears aged 24 over the English Channel while returning from Villacoublay in a new 80 hp Gnome Monosoupape engined Morane-Saulnier monoplane he has just collected, and intended to compete with in the Aerial Derby the same day (postponed).

June
6 June – The third annual Aerial Derby – postponed from 23 May due to poor weather – is held, sponsored by the Daily Mail. Eleven participants fly over a 94-mile (151-kilometer) circuit beginning and ending at Hendon Aerodrome in London with control points at Kempton Park, Esher, Purley, and Purfleet. Walter Brock is the overall winner for the second consecutive year, completing the course in 1 hour 18 minutes 54 seconds in a Morane-Saulnier G with a handicap of 20 minutes 24 seconds. The outbreak of World War I during the summer will prevent the event from being held again until 1919.
9 June – Using a ramp constructed over the foredeck of the seaplane carrier Foudre, French Navy Lieutenant de Vaisseau Jean de Laborde attempts Frances second airplane takeoff from a ship and the first by a French naval aviator, but crashes.
20 June – While the Austro-Hungarian airship Militärluftschiff III (or M.III) hovers over Fischamend testing new camera equipment, an Austro-Hungarian Army pilot tries to loop M.III in a Farman biplane. The airplane strikes the top of the airship, tearing a hole and igniting the escaping hydrogen gas. Both aircraft are destroyed, and both men in the airplane and all seven men aboard M.III are killed. It is the end of the Austro-Hungarian airship program.
23 June – The first flight of the flying boat America, which businessman Rodman Wanamaker has ordered with a goal of sponsoring the first transatlantic flight, occurs at Hammondsport, New York. The outbreak of World War I five weeks later will prevent the transatlantic attempt from taking place.
24 June – At Johannistal, Germany, German aviator Gustav Basser sets a new flight endurance record, flying nonstop for 18 hours 10 minutes.

July
1 July
The Naval Wing of the British Royal Flying Corps is separated from the RFC and established as a separate service, the Royal Naval Air Service, under the control of the Royal Navy.
The United States Navy establishes its first air department, the Bureau of Aeronautics.
10–11 July – German Reinhold Böhm flies his Albatros-biplane 24 hours and 12 minutes without refueling and nonstop. This one-man-flight record lasts until 1927.
11 July – London–Paris return air race won by the American Walter L. Brock.
18 July – The United States Congress creates an Aviation Section in the United States Army Signal Corps.
22 July – The Austro-Hungarian Navy battleships Erzherzog Franz Ferdinand, Radetzky, and SMS Zrínyi each transport one flying boat from Pola to the Gulf of Cattaro. The following day they carry out a reconnaissance of the border with Montenegro. These are the first operational flights in Europe by naval aircraft.
28 July
World War I begins as Austria-Hungary declares war on Serbia, following the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand a month earlier.
Royal Naval Air Service Squadron Commander Arthur M. Longmore successfully releases a 14-inch (356-mm) torpedo from a Short Admiralty Type 81 floatplane. This may be the first successful aerial launch of a torpedo, although Captain Alessandro Guidoni of Italys drop of a dummy torpedo from the experimental Pateras Pescara monoplane in "mid-1914" may have been earlier.
30 July – Flying the Blériot XI-2 monoplane Ca Flotte, Norwegian aviator Tryggve Gran makes the first crossing of the North Sea by aeroplane, flying  from Cruden Bay, Scotland, to Jæren, Norway, in 4 hours 10 minutes.
Unknown date – Republic of China uses airplanes to bomb targets in the Bai Lang Rebellion.

August

 French military aviators "attempted to destroy buildings near Wesel; others have been seen in the district of the Eifel; one has thrown bombs on the railway near Carlsruhe and Nuremberg."
 Imperial German Navy Rear Admiral Paul Behncke, Chief of the Naval Staff, urges that the navys Zeppelins begin attacks on London, arguing that Zeppelin attacks "may be expected, whether they involve London or the neighborhood of London, to cause panic in the population which may possibly render it doubtful that the war may be continued."
 As World War I breaks out, neutral Italy has 28 combat-ready aircraft and 18 military aircraft in reserve. Italy will join the war on the side of the Allies in May 1915.
1 August – Russia enters World War I with Russian declaration of war on Austria.
3 August
France and Belgium enter World War I when Germany invades Belgium and declares war on France.
The Imperial German Navy leases the cargo-passenger ship Answald for conversion into Germanys first seaplane carrier, SMS Answald, designated Flugzeugmutterschiff I (Airplane Mothership I).
4 August – The United Kingdom enters World War I, declaring war on Germany. At the time, the Royal Naval Air Service has 52 seaplanes, of which only 26 are serviceable, with 46 more on order.
5 August – The Netherlands decrees that all Dutch military aircraft display an orange disc on each side of the fuselage and on the upper and lower surfaces of the wings.
6 August – The first airship lost in combat is the Imperial German Army Zeppelin Z VI. Badly damaged by artillery and infantry gunfire on her first combat mission while bombing Liège, Belgium, at low altitude, she limps back into Germany and is wrecked in a crash-landing in a forest near Bonn.
8 August – A French aerial observer is injured by small-arms fire, becoming that nation's first air casualty in a war.
9–10 August – Conducting a reconnaissance mission, the French dirigible Fleurus becomes the first Allied aircraft to fly over Germany during World War I.
12 August – Lieutenant Robin R. Skene and mechanic R. Barlow crash their Blériot monoplane on the way to Dover, becoming the first members of the Royal Flying Corps to die on active duty.
13 August – Twelve Royal Aircraft Factory B.E.2 observation aircraft from No. 2 Squadron, Royal Flying Corps, flying from Dover, become the first British aircraft to arrive in France for the war.
14 August – The first true bomber, the French Voisin III, is used in combat for the first time in an attack on German airship hangars at Metz-Frascaty, Germany.
17 August – The Imperial Japanese Navy's first aviation ship, Wakamiya, is recommissioned as a seaplane carrier.
21 August – Two Imperial Germany Army Zeppelins on their first combat missions become the second and third airships lost in combat after being damaged by French infantry and artillery fire during low-altitude missions in the Vosges mountains. Z VII limps back into Germany to crash near St. Quirin in Lothringen, while Z VIII crash-lands in Badonvillers Forest near Badonvillers, France, where French cavalry drives off her crew and loots her. The loss of three airships on their first combat missions in August sours the German Army on the further combat use of airships.
22 August
An Avro 504 of the Royal Flying Corpss No. 5 Squadron on patrol over Belgium is shot down by German rifle fire, the first British aircraft ever to be destroyed in action.
 An early attempt to get a Lewis gun into action in air-to-air combat fails when a Royal Flying Corps Farman armed with one scrambles to intercept a German Albatros and takes 30 minutes to climb to  because of the gun's weight. On landing, the pilot is ordered to remove the Lewis gun and carry a rifle on future missions.
23 August – Japan enters World War I, declaring war on Germany.
25 August – Flying a Morane-Saulnier Type G monoplane, Imperial Russian Army pilot Pyotr N. Nesterov becomes the first pilot to down an enemy aircraft in aerial combat. After firing unsuccessfully with a pistol at an Austro-Hungarian Albatros B.II crewed by Franz Malina (pilot) and Baron Friederich von Rosenthal (observer), Nesterov rams the Albatros. Both aircraft crash, killing all three men.
27 August – The Royal Naval Air Services famed Eastchurch Squadron arrives in France for World War I service, commanded by Wing Commander Charles Samson.
30 August – Paris is bombed by a German aircraft for the first time – by an Etrich Taube flown by Lt Ferdinand von Hiddessen.

September
Early September – In a memorandum, First Sea Lord Winston Churchill establishes the policy for the air defense of the United Kingdom. He calls for the use of antiaircraft artillery and searchlights around likely targets; the deployment of aircraft forward in Europe to attack all Zeppelin and other enemy air bases within reach; the interception of enemy aircraft between Dover and London by British aircraft, coordinated by telephone and telegraph; the basing of aircraft at Hendon specifically for the defense of London, with their crews specifically trained and equipped for night-fighting and their operations also coordinated by telephone; a blackout in major cities; and warning the public of the dangers of air attack, precautions against it, and how to take shelter when under air attack.
1 September – The Imperial Japanese Navy seaplane carrier Wakamiya arrives off Kiaochow Bay, China, to participate in operations during the siege of Qingdao. It is the first combat deployment of an aviation ship by any country.
5 September – During the siege of Qingdao, the Imperial Japanese Navy carries out its first air combat mission. A three-seat Farman seaplane from the Wakamiya bombs German fortifications at Qingdao, China, and conducts a reconnaissance of Kiaochow Bay.
16 September – The Canadian Aviation Corps is formed.
22 September – In the first British air raid against Germany in history, Royal Naval Air Service BE.2 aircraft of No. 3 Squadron based at Antwerp, Belgium, attack German airship hangars at Cologne and Düsseldorf, Germany, but fail to inflict damage due to bad weather and the failure of bombs to explode.
23 September – In France the British No. 2 Anti Aircraft Section Royal Garrison Artillery, in III Corps, commanded by Lieutenant O.F.J. Hogg became the first anti-aircraft unit to shoot down an aircraft, by firing 75 rounds from a QF 1 pdr Mark II ("pom-pom").
27 September – The first French bomber group is formed.
28 September – The first report by British observers of German military aircraft using the initial form of the wartime Eisernes Kreuz national markings.
30 September –
The Wakamiya is damaged by a naval mine and forced to retire from the siege of Qingdao, ending the first combat deployment of an aviation ship in history.
The two America prototypes prepared for the Daily Mail sponsored transatlantic contest in August are shipped to the United Kingdom aboard  for the Royal Naval Air Service, spawning a fleet of aircraft which saw extensive military service during World War I, developed extensively in the process for anti-submarine patrol craft and air-sea rescue.

October
 The Imperial Japanese Navy auxiliary cruiser Chikezen Maru carries two floatplanes during an unsuccessful search for the Imperial German Navy armed merchant raider Wolf in the Indian Ocean.
5 October – Sergeant Joseph Frantz and Corporal Louis Quenault of the French Escadrille VB24 are the first aviators in history to shoot down another aircraft with gunfire, downing a German Aviatik B.II with machine gun fire from their Voisin III over Jonchery, Reims.
8 October – In a raid planned by Royal Naval Air Service Wing Commander Charles Samson, two RNAS Sopwith Tabloids set out to attack the Zeppelin sheds at Düsseldorf. One of the aircraft attacks the Cologne railway station instead, but the other, piloted by Flight Lieutenant Reggie Marix, finds his target and destroys a shed holding the Imperial German Army Zeppelin Z IX (or LZ25) as well as Z IX itself. It is the first time that an airplane destroys a dirigible.
13 October – The Imperial Japanese Navy attempts air-to-air combat for the first time, as a naval airplane joins three Imperial Japanese Army airplanes in an attempt to attack a German reconnaissance plane during the siege of Qingdao. The German aircraft escapes.
26 October – The British Admiralty issues instructions to paint the Union Jack on the underside of the wings on Royal Naval Air Service aircraft.

November
 The first Imperial German Navy shipboard air operations take place, when the armored cruiser Friedrich Karl embarks two seaplanes with which to scout Russian ports in the Baltic Sea. One is still aboard when Friedrich Karl strikes a mine and sinks on 17 November.
1 November – The Ottoman Empire enters World War I when Russia declares war on it.
18 November – The Secretary of State for the German Navy, Admiral Alfred von Tirpitz, advocating massed Zeppelin attacks on London, writes, "The English are now in terror of the Zeppelin, perhaps not without reason...[S]ingle bombs from flying machines are wrong; they are odious when they hit and kill old women, and one gets used to them. If [however] one could set fire to London in thirty places, then what in a small way is odious would retire before something fine and powerful."
21 November – Three Royal Naval Air Service Avro 504s based at Belfort, France, conduct historys first long-range strategic bombing raid, attacking German airship sheds on the shore of Lake Constance at Friederichshafen. Carrying four  bombs each, they cause a gas works to explode and badly damage a dirigible, losing one aircraft shot down.
27 November – The first air–sea battle in history occurs when Imperial Japanese Navy Farman seaplanes make an unsuccessful attempt to bomb German and Austro-Hungarian ships in Jiaozhou Bay during the siege of Qingdao.

December
 Upon the conclusion of the siege of Qingdao, Wakamiya returns Japanese naval seaplanes deployed at Qingdao to Japan. The Japanese naval air arm sees no further combat during World War I.
10 December – HMS Ark Royal is completed. She is the first ship with an internal hangar enclosed by her hull, and the first with specially designed internal spaces to accommodate aviation fuel, lubricants, ordnance, and spares and machinery required for aircraft maintenance.
14 December – A Royal Naval Air Service Avro 504 of the Eastchurch Squadron drops four  bombs on the Ostend-Bruges railway in Belgium.
16 December – SMS Glyndwr is the first Imperial German Navy aviation ship to be commissioned. She serves initially as a seaplane pilot training ship.
21 December
The United Kingdom is bombed by a German aircraft for the first time, when an Etrich Taube drops two bombs near the Admiralty Pier, Kent.
Flying a Maurice Farman biplane, Royal Naval Air Service Wing Commander Charles R. Samson conducts historys first night bombing raid, attacking Ostend, Belgium.
25 December – HMS Empress, HMS Engadine, and HMS Riviera launch a seaplane attack on the Zeppelin sheds at Nordholz Airbase. It is the first attempt in history to exert sea power on land by means of the air. Fog prevents the aircraft from reaching their target, and only three of the nine aircraft find their way back to their mother ships.

First flights
 Aviatik B.I
 Nieuport 10

January
 Sikorsky Ilya Muromets

February
23 February − Bristol Scout

June
23 June − America flying boat

July
 Avro 510
 Avro 514
 Vickers F.B.5 Gunbus

Entered service
 Aviatik B.I with the Imperial German Flying Corps

Retirements

May
 Avro Type D

Notes

References
Bruce, J. M. "The Bristol Scout: Historic Military Aircraft No. 18: Part I". Flight, 28 September 1958, Vol. 74, No. 2592. pp. 525–528.
Chant, Chris, The World's Great Bombers, New York: Barnes & Noble Books, 2000,
Crosby, Francis, The Complete Guide to Fighters & Bombers of the World: An Illustrated History of the World's Greatest Military Aircraft, From the Pioneering Days of Air Fighting in World War I Through the Jet Fighters and Stealth Bombers of the Present Day, London: Hermes House, 2006,
Peattie, Mark R., Sunburst: The Rise of Japanese Naval Air Power 1909–1941, Annapolis, Maryland: Naval Institute Press, 2001,
Layman, R.D., Before the Aircraft Carrier: The Development of Aviation Vessels 1849–1922, Annapolis, Maryland: Naval Institute Press, 1989,
Brigadier N.W. Routledge, History of the Royal Regiment of Artillery: Anti-Aircraft Artillery, 1914–55. London: Brassey's, 1994.

Aviation
Aviation by year

1914 in aviation


Hard Line ist das fünfte Album der kalifornischen Rockband The Blasters um die Brüder Phil und Dave Alvin. Hard Line erschien 1985 auf dem Label Slash.

Musikstil und Entstehungsgeschichte
Auf ihren vorigen Veröffentlichungen hatten die Blasters sich stilistisch stark am Rockabilly orientiert, doch trotz guter Kritiken von Seiten der Fachpresse war es ihnen nicht gelungen, mit ihrer Musik kommerziell erfolgreich zu sein. Mit Hard Line wollten sie mit Hilfe des Produzenten Jeff Eyrich einen Spagat zwischen traditionellem Rock 'n' Roll und dem zu dieser Zeit erfolgreichen Alternative Rock vollbringen.

Um einen moderneren – und damit verkäuflicheren – Sound zu erreichen, wurde Bill Batemans Schlagzeug weiter in den Vordergrund gemischt als früher und teilweise ersetzte ihn Stan Lynch von Tom Petty & the Heartbreakers an der Percussion. Auch Dave Alvins Leadgitarre wurde mehr betont. Das größte Entgegenkommen an den Massengeschmack war die Verpflichtung von John Mellencamp, der zu dieser Zeit verhältnismäßig erfolgreich war, als Autor des Titels Colored Lights. Allerdings wandte sich die Band nicht ganz von ihren Vorbildern ab: so wirkten bei vier Titeln die Jordanaires, die langjährigen Backgroundsänger von Elvis Presley, mit. Mit Samson and Delilah war auch ein Gospel vertreten. Durch die Mitwirkung von David Hidalgo von der Band Los Lobos erhielten manche Stücke einen deutlichen Tex-Mex-Einschlag. Auf Little Honey spielte Larry Taylor von Canned Heat den Kontrabass.

Phil Alvins Texte sind oft düster und kritisch. Bei Dark Night geht es um Lynchjustiz in einer Kleinstadt, Common Man ist ein "Anti-Reagan-Song" und Just Another Sunday, das gemeinsam mit John Doe (John Nommensen Duchac) von der Band X entstand, erzählt beispielsweise von einer gescheiterten Liebe.

Titelliste
 Trouble Bound (Alvin) – 3:48
 Just Another Sunday (Alvin, Doe) – 4:15
 Hey, Girl (Alvin) – 3:11
 Dark Night (Alvin) – 3:51
 Little Honey (Alvin) – 3:35
 Samson and Delilah (Traditional) – 3:47
 Colored Lights (John Mellencamp) – 3:27
 Help You Dream (Alvin) – 3:40
 Common Man (Alvin) – 3:43
 Rock & Roll Will Stand (Alvin) – 2:38

Rezeption und Charterfolg

Im Februar 1985 erreichte Hard Line Platz 86 der Billboard 200.

Das italienische E-Zine Viceversa führt das Album in seiner Liste der 100 wichtigsten Rockalben aller Zeiten.

Durch das Album wurden die Blasters auch in Europa einem größeren Publikum bekannt und sie wurden in Folge im Sommer 1985 zum Rockpalast-Festival auf der Loreley eingeladen.

Quentin Tarantino und Robert Rodriguez verwendeten den Song Dark Night 1995 für ihren Film From Dusk Till Dawn. Bereits 1985 war der Song in der Folge Schmutzige Hände der Serie Miami Vice verwendet worden.

Einzelnachweise

Weblinks

 robertchristgau.com, Robert Christgau über die Blasters und das Album

Album 1985

Album (Rock)

Hard Line


La plaza Benjamín Vicuña Mackenna es una plaza ubicada en el sector céntrico de la ciudad de Santiago, Chile, a un costado del cerro Santa Lucía. Fue construida en 1901 y su nombre es en honor al político e historiador Benjamín Vicuña Mackenna. En el centro de la misma se encuentra una estatua de bronce de Vicuña Mackenna, obra del escultor francés Jules-Félix Coutan.

Historia
El terreno que ocupa la plaza era propiedad de Rodrigo de Quiroga, quien lo habilitó como lugar de descanso para las carretas que efectuaban viajes largos. Años más tarde, en 1607, se construyó una ermita en honor a San Saturnino, patrono de la ciudad ante los sismos que la afectaban. Sin embargo, la iglesia se derrumbó en 1609 debido a una crecida del río Mapocho. En 1723 se construyó en el lugar una casa de recogidas, cuyo objetivo era corregir las costumbres de las mujeres que se alejaban de lo considerado moralmente correcto por la Iglesia católica; la casa funcionó durante algunas décadas sin mucho éxito. A comienzos del siglo XIX el edificio fue ocupado como banco de sangre y posteriormente como cuartel de artillería. El cuartel fue escenario del llamado motín de Urriola, efectuado el 20 de abril de 1851, y llevado a cabo por opositores al gobierno de Manuel Bulnes y la candidatura de Manuel Montt. La toma del cuartel fue evitada, y el coronel insurgente Pedro Urriola murió durante el enfrentamiento.

El edificio fue demolido en 1901, año en que se construyó la actual plaza. La decisión de erigir una estatua de Benjamín Vicuña Mackenna había sido adoptada por la Municipalidad de Santiago en 1886, mismo año en que falleció el político. Se creó una comisión civil que estuvo a cargo de elegir al escultor que realizaría la obra. Entre los candidatos estuvo Auguste Rodin, quien envió una maqueta de yeso, pero la comisión no la aceptó. En 1902 se optó por el modelo del escultor francés Jules-Félix Coutan, quien creó la estatua que fue inaugurada el 17 de septiembre de 1908. En la obra, Vicuña Mackenna se encuentra sobre un pedestal de granito rojo, sujetando un lápiz en su mano derecha y unas hojas en la izquierda. A su alrededor se instalaron símbolos y alegorías relativas a su actividad. La estatua se encuentra en el centro de una fuente, la cual a su vez está ubicada en el centro de la plaza.

La plaza fue remodelada en 2012 junto a la calle Miraflores como parte del "Plan de Recuperación del Casco Histórico de Santiago".

Ubicación
La plaza se encuentra a un costado de la Avenida Libertador General Bernardo O'Higgins, entre el cerro Santa Lucía y la Biblioteca Nacional. Se encuentra además cerca de la estación Santa Lucía del Metro de Santiago.

Referencias

Benjamín Vicuña Mackenna, Plaza
Santiago (comuna)
Epónimos de Benjamín Vicuña Mackenna

Plaza Benjamín Vicuña Mackenna (Santiago de Chile)


The first USS Panther (AD-6), the former SS Venezuela, was an auxiliary cruiser and naval troop transport in the United States Navy. Panther was designated AD-6 in 1920.

Construction, acquisition, and commissioning
Panther was built by William Cramp & Sons, Philadelphia, in 1889.  As SS Venezuela, a merchant steamship, she was used for several years as a cargo freighter transporting bananas from Central and South America. The U.S. Navy purchased Panther from the Red D Line Steamship Company on 12 April 1898, and commissioned her at New York on 22 April 1898, Commander George Cook Reiter in command.

Service history

Spanish–American War, 1898–1899
Panther was pressed into service immediately after commissioning on the outbreak of the Spanish–American War, and was hastily converted into a troop transport. On 27 April 1898 the ship took aboard the First Marine battalion commanded by Lieutenant Colonel Robert W. Huntington in preparation for combat operations in Cuba, sailing from Brooklyn, New York just five days later. As a converted 'banana boat', the Panther proved totally inadequate as a troop transport, and the morale of the Marines suffered in the tight and sweaty confines of the hastily converted ship as it steamed southward. As the Panther was unarmed, it was forced to stop at Hampton Roads, Virginia to obtained an armed escort before steaming to Key West, Florida, to await orders while the Marines disembarked for battalion drills, rifle practice, and route marches. The ship then joined the North Atlantic Fleet, portions of which blockaded Cuba throughout the conflict. Admiral William T. Sampson received word from Key West early in May that Spanish Admiral Pascual Cervera y Topete's squadron was very likely to sortie against U.S. naval forces at Santiago, Cuba. Panther and other ships of the American fleet patrolled off that port until she steamed to Guantánamo with a battalion of 633 enlisted Marines and 24 officers commanded by Lt. Col. Robert W. Huntington.

On 9–10 June 1898 the Panther disembarked the First Marine Battalion at Caimanera, Guantánamo Bay, Cuba in preparation for seizure of the harbor. During the landings, Commander Reiter of the Panther, who had continually argued over control of the Marine battalion while it was aboard ship, refused to permit the Marines to unload their small arms and artillery ammunition for their offensive, stating that he needed it for ship's ballast. He was overruled by another Navy Commander, Bowman H. McCalla, who instructed Reiter to give the Marine Lieutenant Colonel whatever he desired.

From 11 to 14 June 1898 the Marines engaged Spanish forces in the land battles of the Guantánamo Bay campaign.  After a series of sharp engagements, the marines routed the 500 Spanish defenders, while suffering casualties of six killed and 16 wounded. The Panther then withdrew to her former position with the fleet in the successful campaign at Santiago. After the destruction of the Spanish fleet, Panther steamed to New York, to cruise between New York, Boston, Norfolk, and Portsmouth until 20 October 1899, when she went into ordinary at Philadelphia.

Caribbean Squadron, 1902–1903
She remained in ordinary until recommissioning on 19 June 1902, when she fitted out as a training ship. In July, she steamed to New York to begin operations with various state militias. In this connection, she embarked crews from New Jersey in July, Pennsylvania in early August, and Connecticut later that month. In 1902, disturbing conditions in the West Indies and Caribbean required the constant presence of U.S. ships to maintain order and preserve U.S. treaty rights. In September 1902, Panther embarked a Marine battalion and departed for Caribbean waters to serve as a station ship to protect American interests during unrest in Honduras. She continued with the Caribbean Squadron until 21 October 1903, when she decommissioned at Philadelphia.

North Atlantic & Asiatic Station, 1907–1923
Panther recommissioned on 18 November 1907 to serve as an auxiliary repair ship for the United States Atlantic Fleet until April 1917. She served as one of the auxiliary ships supporting the Great White Fleet's cruise around the world (16 December 1907 to 22 February 1909). She sailed for Brest on 1 July 1917 to serve as tender for the U.S. destroyer force during World War I.

After the war, her duties took her to ports such as Kirkwall, Scotland; Devonport, England; Lisbon, and Ponta Delgada.  In 1921, American interest shifted to China; the Navy's Yangtze River Patrol had operated there for some years, guaranteeing the prevention of strife and the protection of persons and interests in the region.  Panther joined the Asiatic Station's Yangtze River Patrol, where she patrolled on station until May 1922, when she returned stateside to decommission. She subsequently was sold to Tioga Steel Co., Philadelphia, 24 March 1923.  She was broken up for scrap at Philadelphia in April 1923.

References

Bibliography

External links
 Naval Historical Center

Auxiliary cruisers of the United States Navy
Repair ships of the United States Navy
Banana Wars ships of the United States
Spanish–American War naval ships of the United States
Tenders of the United States Navy
Destroyer tenders of the United States
Ships built by William Cramp & Sons
Banana boats (ships)

USS Panther (1889)


Yucca desmetiana est une espèce Mexicaine de plante à fleurs appartenant à la famille des Asparagaceae.

Distribution et habitat
Elle est native du nord du Mexique depuis Chihuahua à Aguascalientes de San Luis Potosí à Tamaulipas.

Description
Yucca desmetiana est cultivé comme plante ornementale dans de nombreux endroits principalement en raison de la couleur de son feuillage. Les feuilles sont  gris bleuâtre lorsqu'elle sont jeune, virant au bordeaux à mesure qu'elles vieillissent. Elle necessite peu d'entretien, avec des faible besoin en eau. Il convient comme bordure de jardin en sol sablonneux. Il produit un tronc prostré. Il ne fleurit que très rarement et ne donne jamais de graines. La fécondation de ces yuccas est certainement uniquement réalisée par quelques espèces de Microlépidoptères dans son milieu naturel. On ne peut le multiplier que par bouturage. Il est probable que Yucca desmetiana soit en réalité un hybride, bien que ses parents ne soient pas connus avec certitude. Sa résistance au froid est assez bonne; correspondant approximativement une Zone de rusticité 8a (-12°C).

Certains auteurs indiquent l'épithète de "de-smetiana". La publication originale de Baker mentionnait la plantes sous le nom de "Yuca De Smetiana". L'orthographe correcte est sans tiret (selon le code de nomenclature, article CIE 60.9 et  recommandation 60C.5c) Et sans espace et sans majuscule (recommandation 60C 5C).

Taxonomie
Yucca desmetiana a été décrit par John Gilbert Baker et publié dans The Gardeners' Chronicle & Agricultural Gazette en 1870: 1217. 1870.

 Étymologie

Yucca: Nom générique donné par Carl von Linné et qui dérive par erreur du mot taína: yuca (écrit avec une seule "c").

desmetiana: épithète relatif , peut-être,  à une situation locale « de smetiana »

Références

Liens externes

desmetiana
Espèce d'Asparagaceae (nom scientifique)
Monocotylédone du Mexique

Yucca desmetiana


වෛරසවේදය, ක්ෂුද්‍ර ජීව විද්‍යාවේ හා ව්‍යාධි වේදයේ කොටසක් වන අතර වෛරස හා වෛරස වැනි දෙකාරකයන් සමඟ සම්බන්ධව අධ්‍යයනය කරන්නෙකි. එහි ව්‍යුහය වර්ගීකරණය, පරිණාමය, අසාදනය වන අයුරු, වෛරස නිෂ්පාදනයට සෛල යොදා ගන්නා ආකාරය, ඔවුන් සාදන රෝග, ඔවුන් වගා කිරීමට යොදනු ලබන ක්‍රම, සමීක්ෂණ හා ප්‍රතිකාර ක්‍රමවල ඔවුන් යොදා ගන්නා අයුරුද අධ්‍යයනය කරයි.

ව්‍යුහය හා වර්ගීකරණය
මෙහි ප්‍රධාන ශාඛාවක් වනුයේ වෛරස වර්ගීකරණයයි. ඔවුන් ආසාදනය කරනු ලබන සෛල, වර්ගය අනුව ද වර්ගීකරණය කරයි. ඒ සත්ත්ව වෛරස ශාඛ, දිලීර, බැක්ටීරියා භක්ෂක (ඉතා සංකීර්ණ වෛරස මෙසේ බැක්ටීරියා ද ආසාදනය කරයි) වෛරස ලෙසයි. අනෙක් වර්ගීකරණයක කැප්සිඩය නම් කොටසේ බාහිර හැඩය අනුව හෙලික්ස, ඉකසොකෙඩ්රන් ලෙසත්, ව්‍යුහය අනුව ලිපිඩ කවරය ඇති ද නැත් ද යන්නත් ලෙස වර්ගීකරණය කරයි. 30mm සිට 450mm දක්වා ප්‍රමාණ පරාසයක් හි විහිදේ. එහි අරුත බොහෝ අය ආලෝක අන්වීක්ෂය යටතේ දැකිය නොහැකි බවය. ඉලෙක‍්ට්‍රෝන අන්වීක්ෂය මඟින් හැඩය, ව්‍යුහය අධ්‍යයනය කළ හැක. තවද NMR ඉලෙක්ට්‍රොන අන්වීක්ෂය හා X - කිරණ ස්පඨිකරණ වලින් ද කළ හැක.

බොහෝ පුළුල් ලෙස යොදා ගනු ලබන වෛරස වර්ගීකරණ ලෙස යොදා ගත හැක. වෛරස එහි ප්‍රවේනි ද්‍රව්‍ය ලෙස යොදා ගන්නා න්‍යෂ්ටික අම්ලය අනුවත් වෛරස හෙවත් ගුණනය වීමේ ක්‍රමයට ධාරක සෛල වෛරස නිෂ්පාදනය සඳහා වෙනස් කරනු ලබන න්‍යෂ්ටික අම්ල අනුව වෛරස වෙන් කරයි.

වෛරස වර්ගීකරණයේ ජාත්‍යන්තර සංගමය මඟින් නිකුත් කරන ලද අලුත්ම වාර්තාවලට අනුව වෛරස 5450 ක් ද විශේෂ 2,000 ක් ද 287 ක්ද පවුල් 73 ක් හා orders 3ක් ද හඳුනාගෙන ඇත.

තක්ෙසා්න වර්ගීකරණ සෑම විටම තනිවංශාත්මක නොවන අතර විවිධ වෛරස කණ්ඩායම් අතර ඇති පරිණාමික සබඳතා එතරම් පැහැදිලි නොවන අතර ඒ සඳහා උපකල්පන 3ක් ඇත.

වෙන වෙනත් වෛරස කණ්ඩාම්වලට ඉහත වෙන වෙනත් ක්‍රම ඇත්තෙන්ම උපයෝගී වන්නට ඇත.

ඉතා උනන්දුවක් ඇති වෙන්නක් ලෙස මිමි වෛරස නම් ඇමීබාවන් ආසාධනය කරන බැක්ටීරියාවලට සමාන අණුක ක්‍රියාකාරීත්වයක් ඇති මහා වෛරස් හැඳින්විය හැක. ඇත්තෙන්ම එය ප්‍රෝකාරීයෝටා පරපෝෂිතයන්ගේ ඉතා සරල ආකාරයක් ද නැතහොත් සරල වෛරසයක් ලෙස ඇතිව ධාරක සෛලයෙන් ප්‍රවේණි ද්‍රව්‍ය ලබා ගත්තේද?

වෛරසවල පරිණාමය, ධාරක සෛලවල පරිණාමය සමඟ ඇතිවන්නට ඇත යන්න සිතන අතර "වෛරස පරිණාමය" යන ක්ෂේත්‍රයේ එය අධ්‍යයනය කරයි.

වෛරස පරිණාමය වුවත්, වර්ගය, බෝකරත්, ඒ සඳහා පරිවෘත්තිය ක්‍රියාවල නොයෙදෙන අතර ඒ සඳහා ධාරක සෛල මත යැපේ. නිතර විවාදයේ යෙදෙන කරුණක් වූ එය අජීවී ද ජීවී ද යන්න වෛරසවල ජීවී ගුණවලට බාධාවක් නොවේ.

අණුක ජීව විද්‍යාව පරීක්ෂණ හා වෛරස ප්‍රතිකාර ක්‍රම
බැක්ටීරියා භක්ෂකයින් වු වෛරස (බැක්ටීරියාවන් අසාදනය කරන බැක්ටිරීයා) බැක්ටීරීයා වගා මාධ්‍ය වල ලෙහේසියෙන්ම වයිරස ප්ලාක ලෙස වගා කළ හැක. බැක්ටිරියා භක්ෂකයින් එක බැක්ටීරියා සෛලයකින් තවෙකකට ඉතා කලාතුරකින් ප්‍රවේණික ද්‍රව්‍ය යවන අතර එම ක්‍රියාවලිය transduction,  - පරනායකය නම් වේ. මෙම තිරස් ජාන මාරුව නිසාම ඔවුන් පරීක්ෂණ වලට බොහෝ විට යොදා ගන්නා උපකරණ (අණුක විද්‍යාවේ) බවට පත් වි ඇත. ජාන කේත, රයිබොසෝම වල ක්‍රියාකාරීත්වය පළමු recombinant DNA හෙවත් DNA ප්‍රතිසංයෝජනය සහ මුල් ජාන පුස්තකාල බැක්ටීරියාභක්ෂණයින් කරණකොට ඇති වුව සොයාගැනීමයි. ඉතා කාර්යක්ෂම අනුග්‍රහකයින් ආදී සමහර ප්‍රවේණික මූල ද්‍රව්‍ය වෛරස වලින් සොයාගත් අතර අණුක ජීව විද්‍යාවේ සමීක්ෂණ වලට අද බහුලව යොදා ගැනේ.

ජීවි දායක සත්ත්වයා ගෙන් පිටතදී සත්ව වෛරස වගාකිරීම ඉතා අමාරුයි. දර්ශීයව සාමානයයෙන් සංසේචිත කුකුල් බිත්තර මේ සඳහා බහුලව යොදා ගත්තද අද සෛල තුළ වගා කිරීම වැඩිවෙමින් පවතී.

වෛරස ඉයුකාරි ගෝවන්ට ආසාදනය වන නිසා ඔවුන්ගේ ප්‍රවේණි ද්‍රව්‍ය කාරක සෛලයේ න්‍යෂ්ඨියට පරිවහණය කළ යුතුයි. මෙය ධාරකයාට අළුත් ජාන හඳුන්වාදීමට යොදා ගන්නා වැදගත් මෙවලමක් ලෙස භාවිතා කරයි. මෙය transformation හෙවත් පරිවර්තනය ලෙස හඳුන්වයි. නවීකරණය කළ රෙට්රෝවයිරස ද මෙම අරමුණ සඳහා යොදා ගත හැක. එසේ කළ හැකි වන්නේ ඔවුන් තමන්ගේ ජානධාරක ප්‍රවේණී දේහ වලට ඇතුළත් කරන බැවිණි.

මෙම වෛරස ජාන වාහකයා ලෙස යොදා ගැනීම ප්‍රවේණික රෝගි තත්ව වල ජාන ප්‍රතිකර්ම වලදී දිගටම කරගෙන යයි. මෙහිදී ඇති වන විසඳාගත යුතු ඉතා පැහැදිලි ප්‍රශ්න නම් ප්‍රතිශක්ති පද්ධතියෙන් පරිවර්තන වෛරසය ප්‍රතික්ෂේප කිරීමයි.

භක්ෂනික ප්‍රතිකර්මය, ප්‍රතිජීවක සොයා ගැනීමට පෙර බැක්ටීරියා ආසාධිත රෝග වලට ප්‍රතිකර්ම කිරීම යොදා ගැනුනු අතර ලඟකදී එය පිළිබඳ නැවත යොමු වී ඇත.පිළිකා කඩනOncolytic viruses  වෛරස පිළිකා සෛල ආසාදනය කරන අතර, පිලිකා ප්‍රතිකාරක ක්‍රමයක් ලෙසට පසුගිය කාල තුළදී ගත් උත්සාහයන් අසාර්ථක වුවද 2005 හා 2006 දී ධෛර්ය එළවන සුළු ප්‍රතිඵල ලැබී ඇත.

වෛරස රෝග හා ධාරක ආරක්ෂා විධි
වෛරස පිළිබඳ අධ්‍යයනයට මුල් පෑදීමට හේතු වූ එක් ප්‍රධාන කරුණක් නම් වෛරස මඟින් ඉතා වැදගත් ආසාදන කිහිපයක් ඇති කිරීමයි. ඒ අතරින් සාමාන්‍ය හෙම්බිරිසාව, ඉන්ෆුලුවෙන්සා, ජල භීතිකාව, සරම්ප, අතීසාරය, හෙපටයිටිස්, කහ උණ, පෝලියෝ, වසූරිය, ඒඩ්ස් වැදගත් වේ. සමහර පිළිකා ජනක වෛරස සමහරක් පිළිකා සෑදීමට උපයෝගී වේ. හොඳම උදා - වන්නේ ගැබ්ගෙල පිළිකා හා මානව පැපිලෝමා වෛරසය අතර ඇති සම්බන්ධතාවයයි. සමහර උප වෛරස ද රෝගී තත්ව සාදයි. කුරු සහ කෘට්ස් ෆීල්ඩ් - ජෙකොබ් රෝගය ප්‍රයෝන විසින් ද සැටලයිට් වයිරස මඟින් හෙපටයිටිස් D ද ඇති කරයි. වෛරසයක් රෝගයක් ඇති කරන ආකාරය සොයා බැලීම වෛරස් ව්‍යාධි ජනනය නම් වේ. යම් වෛරසයට රෝගයක් ඇති කිරීමට ඇති හැකියාව එහි ප්‍රචණ්ඩත්වය නම් වේ. පෘෂ්ට වංශිකයෙක්ට වෛරසයක් ඇතුල් වූ විට ප්‍රතිශක්තිකරණ පද්ධතිය විසින් ප්‍රතිදේහ නම් විශේෂිත දෙයක් තනන අතර ඒවා වෛරස හා බැඳී එය විනාශ කරයි. සිරුරේ එම ප්‍රතිදේහ තිබේදැයි ELISA වැනි පරීක්ෂණ මඟින් සොයා බලා අතීතයේ දී එම පුද්ගලයාට එම වෛරස වැළ දී ඇත්දැයි සොයා ගත හැක. ෆ්ලුරොසන්ස අන්වීක්ෂ මඟින් මොනොක්ලෝනල් ප්‍රතිදේහ මඟින් ද වෛරස ඇත් ද යන වග සොයා බැලිය හැක. එන්නත්කරණය මඟින් සමහර අවස්ථාවලදී එම වෛරසයට එරෙහිව ප්‍රතිදේහ ශරීරයේ ඇති කර ආරක්ෂාව සපයා දේ.

වෛරසවලට එරෙහිව පෘෂ්ට වංශිකයන්ගේ ඇති දෙවැනි ආරක්ෂණය නම් සෛල මැදිහත් ප්‍රතිශක්තිකරණයයි. T සෛල නම් ප්‍රතිශක්තිකරණ සෛල ඉවහල් වේ. ශරීරය තුළ ඇති සෛල නිරන්තරයෙන් ඔවුන්ගේ සෛල මතුපිට ප්‍රෝටීන කොටස් එළියට ඇති අයුරින් තබා ගෙන ඇත. T සෛලයක් එහි ඇති වෛරස කොටසක් හඳුනාගත් විට එම ධාරක සෛලය විනාශ කනර අතර එම වෛරසයට විශේෂිත T සෛල ගුණනය වේ. සමහර ප්‍රතිශක්තිකරණවල මෙම යාන්ත්‍රණය ඉතාමත් ඉක්මනින් පටන්ගෙන ඇත. RNA මැදිහත් වීම ශාක, සත්ව, බොහෝ ඉයුකැරියෝටාවන්ගේ, වැදගත් සෛලීය යාන්ත්‍රණයක් වන අතර බොහෝ දුරට වෛරසවලට එරෙහි ආරක්ෂණයක් හට ගැනෙන්නට ඇත. එකිනෙකට අන්තර් ක්‍රියා කරන එන්සයිමවලින් යුත් විස්තෘත යාන්ත්‍රණයකින් RNA ද්විත්ව අණු (බොහෝ වෛරසවල ජීවන චක්‍රයේ කොටසක් ලෙසට හට ගැනෙන) හඳුනාගෙන මෙම හඳුනාගත් RNA අණුවල ඒක තනි RNA  රැහැන් සියල්ල විනාශ කිරීමට පටන් ගනී. සෑම මරණීය වෛරස රෝගයක්ම විරෝධභාසය ධාරකයා විනාශ කිරීම වෛරසයට කිසිම වාසියක් නැත. නමුත් ඔවුන් කෙලෙස කොහොම එය කරයි ද? අද විශ්වාස කරන හැටියට බොහෝ වෛරස සාමාන්‍යයෙන් ඔවුන්ගේ ස්භාවික ධාරකයා තුළ අහිතකර නොවන අතර යම් වයිරසයක් එම ධාරකයාගේ සිට නපුරුදු ධාරකයෙක්ම (වෙනත් විශේෂයකට) හදිසි මාරුවක් සිදු වූ විට මාරාන්තික වෛරස රෝග එම ධාරකයාට වැළදේ. උදා- ලෙස දරුණු ඉන්ෆ්ලුවෙන්සා වෛරසවලට ස්වභාවික ධාරකයා ලෙසට ඌරන්, කුරුල්ලන් ඇති අතර HIV අහිතකර නොවන SIV නම් වඳුරු  වෛරසයෙන් හට ගෙන ඇත. වෛරස් රෝග සෑදීමෙන් වැලකී සිටීමට ප්‍රතිශක්තිකරණ එන්නත්කරණය භාවිතා කර ද අද ඒ සඳහා බෙහෙත් ද නිපදවා ඇත. ඉන්ටර්ෆෙරෝන් යනු එම පළමු බෙහෙතයි. මෙම ඉන්ටර්ෆෙරෝන් ස්වාභාවිකව සමහර ප්‍රතිශක්තිකරණ සෛලවල නිපදවෙන අතර ආසාදනයක් ඇති වූ විට ඒවා ප්‍රතිශක්තිකරණ පද්ධතියේ අනෙකුත් කොටස් ද උත්තේජනය කරයි.

ඉතිහාසය

"වෛරස" (virus) යන වදන පළමුවෙන් ම හමුවනුයේ, "විෂ" (venom) යන අරුතෙන් 1599 දී ය.

ආශ්‍රිත ලිපි
 වෛරස

මූලාශ්‍ර

වෛරසවේදය
ව්‍යාධිවේදය
ජීව විද්‍යාව
ක්‍ෂුද්‍රජීවවේදය

වෛරසවේදය