School psychology is a field that applies principles from educational psychology, developmental psychology, clinical psychology, community psychology, and behavior analysis to meet the learning and behavioral health needs of children and adolescents. It is an area of applied psychology practiced by a school psychologist. They often collaborate with educators, families, school leaders, community members, and other professionals to create safe and supportive school environments.

They carry out psychological testing, psychoeducational assessment, intervention, prevention, counseling, and consultation in the ethical, legal, and administrative codes of their profession.

Historical foundations
School psychology dates back to the beginning of American psychology in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. The field is tied to both functional and clinical psychology. School psychology actually came out of functional psychology. School psychologists were interested in childhood behaviors, learning processes, and dysfunction with life or in the brain itself. They wanted to understand the causes of the behaviors and their effects on learning. In addition to its origins in functional psychology, school psychology is also the earliest example of clinical psychology, beginning around 1890. While both clinical and school psychologists wanted to help improve the lives of children, they approached it in different ways. School psychologists were concerned with school learning and childhood behavioral problems, which largely contrasts the mental health focus of clinical psychologists.

Another significant event in the foundation of school psychology as it is today was the Thayer Conference. The Thayer Conference was first held in August 1954 in West Point, New York in Hotel Thayer. The 9 day-long conference was conducted by the American Psychological Association (APA). The purpose of the conference was to develop a position on the roles, functions, and necessary training and credentialing of a school psychologist.  At the conference, forty-eight participants that represented practitioners and trainers of school psychologists discussed the roles and functions of a school psychologist and the most appropriate way to train them.

At the time of the Thayer Conference, school psychology was still a very young profession with only about 1,000 school psychology practitioners. One of the goals of the Thayer Conference was to define school psychologists.  The agreed upon definition stated that school psychologists were psychologists who specialize in education and have specific knowledge of assessment and learning of all children.  School psychologists use this knowledge to assist school personnel in enriching the lives of all children. This knowledge is also used to help identify and work with children with exceptional needs. It was discussed that a school psychologist must be able to assess and develop plans for children considered to be at risk.  A school psychologist is also expected to better the lives of all children in the school; therefore, it was determined that school psychologists should be advisors in the planning and implementation of school curriculum.
Participants at the conference felt that since school psychology is a specialty, individuals in the field should have a completed a two-year graduate training program or a four-year doctoral program. Participants felt that states should be encouraged to establish certification standards to ensure proper training.  It was also decided that a practicum experience be required to help facilitate experiential knowledge within the field.

The Thayer Conference is one of the most significant events in the history of school psychology because it was there that the field was initially shaped into what it is today.  Before the Thayer Conference defined school psychology, practitioners used seventy-five different professional titles. By providing one title and a definition, the conference helped to get school psychologists recognized nationally.  Since a consensus was reached regarding the standards of training and major functions of a school psychologist, the public can now be assured that all school psychologists are receiving adequate information and training to become a practitioner. It is essential that school psychologists meet the same qualifications and receive appropriate training nationwide.  These essential standards were first addressed at the Thayer Conference. At the Thayer Conference some participants felt that in order to hold the title of a school psychologist an individual must have earned a doctoral degree.

The issues of titles, labels, and degree levels are still debated among psychologists today. However, APA and NASP reached a resolution on this issue for the US in 2010.

Social reform in the early 1900s
The late 19th century marked the era of social reforms directed at children. It was due to these social reforms that the need for school psychologists emerged. These social reforms included compulsory schooling, juvenile courts, child labor laws as well as a growth of institutions serving children. Society was starting to "change the 'meaning of children' from an economic source of labor to a psychological source of love and affection". Historian Thomas Fagan argues that the preeminent force behind the need for school psychology was compulsory schooling laws. Prior to the compulsory schooling law, only 20% of school aged children completed elementary school and only 8% completed high school. Due to the compulsory schooling laws, there was an influx of students with mental and physical defects who were required by law to be in school. There needed to be an alternative method of teaching for these different children. Between 1910 and 1914, schools in both rural and urban areas created small special education classrooms for these children. From the emergence of special education classrooms came the need for "experts" to help assist in the process of child selection for special education. Thus, school psychology was founded.

Important contributors to the founding

Lightner Witmer
Lightner Witmer has been acknowledged as the founder of school psychology. Witmer was a student of both Wilhelm Wundt and James Mckeen Cattell. While Wundt believed that psychology should deal with the average or typical performance, Cattell's teachings emphasized individual differences. Witmer followed Cattell's teachings and focused on learning about each individual child's needs. Witmer opened the first psychological and child guidance clinic in 1896 at the University of Pennsylvania. Witmer's goal was to prepare psychologists to help educators solve children's learning problems, specifically those with individual differences. Witmer became an advocate for these special children. He was not focused on their deficits per se, but rather helping them overcome them, by looking at the individual's positive progress rather than all they still could not achieve. Witmer stated that his clinic helped "to discover mental and moral defects and to treat the child in such a way that these defects may be overcome or rendered harmless through the development of other mental and moral traits". He strongly believed that active clinical interventions could help to improve the lives of the individual children.

Since Witmer saw much success through his clinic, he saw the need for more experts to help these individuals. Witmer argued for special training for the experts working with exceptional children in special educational classrooms. He called for a "new profession which will be exercised more particularly in connection with educational problems, but for which the training of the psychologist will be a prerequisite".

As Witmer believed in the appropriate training of these school psychologists, he also stressed the importance of appropriate and accurate testing of these special children. The IQ testing movement was sweeping through the world of education after its creation in 1905. However, the IQ test negatively influenced special education. The IQ test creators, Lewis Terman and Henry Goddard, held a nativist view of intelligence, believing that intelligence was inherited and difficult if not impossible to modify in any meaningful way through education. These notions were often used as a basis for excluding children with disabilities from the public schools. Witmer argued against the standard pencil and paper IQ and Binet type tests in order to help select children for special education. Witmer's child selection process included observations and having children perform certain mental tasks.

Granville Stanley Hall
Another important figure to the origin of school psychology was Granville Stanley Hall. Rather than looking at the individual child as Witmer did, Hall focused more on the administrators, teachers and parents of exceptional children He felt that psychology could make a contribution to the administrator system level of the application of school psychology. Hall created the child study movement, which helped to invent the concept of the "normal" child. Through Hall's child study, he helped to work out the mappings of child development and focused on the nature and nurture debate of an individual's deficit. Hall's main focus of the movement was still the exceptional child despite the fact that he worked with atypical children.

Arnold Gesell
Bridging the gap between the child study movement, clinical psychology and special education, Arnold Gesell, was the first person in the United States to officially hold the title of school psychologist. He successfully combined psychology and education by evaluating children and making recommendations for special teaching. Arnold Gesell paved the way for future school psychologists.

Gertrude Hildreth
Gertrude Hildreth was a psychologist with the Lincoln School at Teacher's College, Columbia then at Brooklyn College in New York. She authored many books including the first book pertaining to school psychology titled, "Psychological Service for School Problems" written in 1930. The book discussed applying the science of psychology to address the perceived problems in schools. The main focus of the book was on applied educational psychology to improve learning outcomes. Hildreth listed 11 problems that can be solved by applying psychological techniques, including: instructional problems in the classroom, assessment of achievement, interpretation of test results, instructional groupings of students for optimal outcomes, vocational guidance, curriculum development, and investigations of exceptional pupils. Hildreth emphasized the importance of collaboration with parents and teachers. She is also known for her development of the Metropolitan Readiness Tests and for her contribution to the Metropolitan Achievement test. In 1933 and 1939 Hildreth published a bibliography of Mental Tests and Rating Scales encompassing a 50-year time period and over 4,000 titles. She wrote approximately 200 articles and bulletins and had an international reputation for her work in education.

Controversies and debates

Assessment process
Empirical evidence has not confirmed biases in referral, assessment, or identification. Some have claimed that a better assessment process would not necessarily focus on if a student qualifies for a special education program, but rather the unique learning style of each student, and how to best help them succeed.

The National Research Council has called attention to the questionable reliability of educational decision making in special education as there can be vast numbers of false positives and/or false negatives. Misidentified students in special education is problematic and can contribute to long term negative outcomes. The effects of these outcomes differs based on many factors, including race or location.

During the identification process, school psychologists must consider ecological factors and environmental context such as socioeconomic status. Socioeconomic status may limit funding and materials, impact curriculum quality, increase teacher-to-student ratios, and perpetuate a negative school climate.

Technology
With the ever growing use of technology, school psychologists are faced with several issues, both ethical and within the populations they try to serve. As it is so easy to share and communicate over technology, concerns are raised as to just how easy it is for outsiders to get access to the private information that school psychologists deal with every day. Thus exchanging and storing information digitally may come under scrutiny if precautions such as password protecting documents and specifically limiting access within school systems to personal files.

Another issue is that of how students communicate using this technology. There are both concerns on how to address these virtual communications and on how appropriate it is to access them. Concerns on where the line can be drawn on where intervention methods end and invasion of privacy begin are raised by students, parents, administrators, and faculty. Addressing these behaviors becomes even more complicated when considering the current methods of treatment for problematic behaviors, and implementation of these strategies can become complex, if not impossible, within the use of technology.

Racial disproportionality in special education

Disproportionality refers to a group's under or overrepresentation in comparison to other groups within a certain context. In the field of school psychology, disproportionality of minority students in special education is a concern. Special Education Disproportionality has been defined as the relationship between one's membership to a specific group and the probability of being placed in a specific disability category. Systemic prejudice is believed by some to be one of the root causes of the mischaracterization of minority children as being disabled or problematic. "Research on disproportionality in the U.S. context has posited two overlapping types of rationales: those who believed disproportionate representation is linked to poverty and health outcomes versus those who believed in the systemwide racist practices that contributed to over-representation of minority students."

The United States Congress recently received an annual report on the implementation of IDEA which stated that proportionally Native Americans (14.09%) and African Americans (12.61%) were the two most highly represented racial groups within the realm of special education. In particular, African American males have been overidentified as having emotional disturbances and intellectual disabilities. They account for 21% of the special education population with emotional disturbances and 12% with learning disabilities. American Indian and Alaska Native students are also overrepresented in special education. They are shown to be 1.53 times more likely to receive services for various learning disabilities and 2.89 more likely to obtain services targeting developmental delays than all other Non-Native American student groups combined. Overall, Hispanic students are often overidentified for special education in general; however, it is common for them to be under-identified for Autism Spectrum Disorder and speech and language impairments in comparison to White students.

Minority populations often have an increased susceptibility to economic, social and cultural disadvantages that can affect academic achievement. According to the US Department of Education, "Black children were three times as likely to live in poor families as white children in 2015. 12 percent of white and Asian children lived in poor families, compared with 36 percent of black children, 30 percent of Hispanic children, 33 percent of American Indian children, and 19 percent of others." There may be other alternative explanations for behavior and academic performance as well. For example, Black children are twice as likely as Whites to experience heightened levels of lead in the blood due to prolonged lead exposure. Lead poisoning can be known to affect a child's behavior by increasing their levels of irritability, hyperactivity, and inattentiveness even in less severe cases.

Cultural bias
Some school psychologists realize the need to understand and accept their own cultural beliefs and values in order to understand the impact it may have when delivering services to clients and families. For example, these school psychologists ensure that students who are minorities, including African Americans, Hispanics, Asians, and Native Americans are being equally represented at the system level, in the classroom, and receiving a fair education.

For staff, it is important to look at one's own culture while seeing the value in diversity. Making sure that each individual student has an equal opportunity for education can greatly increase the general quality of that education. It is also vital to learn how to adapt to diversity and integrate a comprehensive way to understand cultural knowledge. Staff members should keep the terms race, privilege, implicit bias, micro aggression, and cultural relevance in mind when thinking about social justice.

Services

Intervention
One of the primary roles and responsibilities of school psychologists working in schools is to develop and implement programs geared towards the optimal learning and mental well being of students. School psychologists call these programs 'interventions' when they are implemented in response to a significant issue affecting one or more students.  Interventions in school psychology are typically classified as "direct" when practitioners work with students to rectify their own academic or behavioral problems and as "indirect" when they collaborate with the student's family or teachers to correct academic or behavioral problems. Popular intervention formats include individual meetings, school assemblies, parent-teacher conferences, workshops, and awareness campaigns. After significant developments in related psychological fields over the latter half of the twentieth century, school psychologists have begun to move towards intervention frameworks that center on individually tailored assessments and evidence-based interventions, rather than diagnosed disabilities. This is part of a larger movement to expand the role of school psychologists outside of special education.

School psychologists, as researchers and practitioners, can make important contributions to the development and implementation of scientifically based intervention and prevention programs to address learning and behavioral needs of students. Newly designed interventions must be empirically tested through a series of randomized studies conducted by researchers in order to be proven effective for school environments. Evidence-based interventions, known within the field as EBIs, while widely circulated amongst researchers, can be difficult to implement within school environments. This is due in small part to the fledgling nature of school psychology as a field, but also due to the difference between research settings and clinical or classroom settings, with the later being generally more unpredictable and vulnerable to outside influences than the former. Thus, practitioners often modify research-based interventions in order to suit the particular needs of a student or student population.

Intervention and prevention research needs to address a range of questions related not only to efficacy and effectiveness, but also to feasibility given resources, acceptability, social validity, integrity, and sustainability.

A specific example of an intervention that has recently become popular among school psychologists is the School-Wide Positive Behavioral Interventions and Supports (SWPBIS) intervention. The SWPBIS involves a communal effort among school staff to establish school-wide behavioral expectations, which are reinforced by reward systems in order to promote positive forms of coaching and mentorship. Authorized under Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act (IDIEA), the SWPBIS system has been implemented in over 25,000 schools as of 2018. Like other Evidence-based interventions, the SWPBIS has a large body of research supporting its effectiveness in promoting positive academic and interpersonal behaviors among students.

School psychologists are involved in the implementation of academic, behavioral, and social/emotional interventions within a school across a continuum of supports. These systems and policies should convey clear behavior expectations and promote consistency among educators. Continuous reinforcement of positive behaviors can yield extremely positive results. Schoolwide positive behavior supports A systematic approach that proactively promotes constructive behaviors in a school can yield positive outcomes. These programs are designed to improve and support students' social, behavioral, and learning outcomes by promoting a positive school climate and providing targeted training to students and educators within a school.  Data should be collected consistently to assess implementation effectiveness, screen and monitor student behavior, and develop or modify action plans.

Check and Connect

C&C is a structured mentoring intervention to promote student success and engagement at school with learning through relationship building and systematic use of data. It is structured to maximize personal contact and opportunities to build trusting relationships. It was developed in 1990 at the Institute on Community Integration University of Minnesota in collaboration with the Minneapolis Public School System. It emphasizes school completion, with academic, social, and emotional competencies. Students may be referred to the program if they exhibit signs of withdrawal in academic, emotional, or behavioral areas. The team consists of the student, check and connect coordinator, community services, school staff, monitor, and family. The essential components of this intervention are the mentor component, the check component, and the connect component. The program is implemented by a monitor, who serves multiple roles as a mentor, an advocate, and a service coordinator. These serve to build a strong relationship with the student based on mutual trust and open communication, nurtured through a long-term commitment focused on success at school and with learning. The "check" component is observed from the student levels of engagement. These are things such as attendance, suspension, credits, grades, and behavior that are "checked" for progress regularly by mentors and used to guide their efforts to increase and maintain students' "connection" with the school. The "connect" component is timely, personalized, data-based interventions designed to provide support tailored to individual student needs, based on the student's level of engagement with school. The monitor's goal is to make education a priority for withdrawn students. This intervention gives students a person to motivate, encourage, and inform them on how important graduating is.

Academic interventions
Academic interventions can be conceptualized as a set of procedures and strategies designed to improve student performance with the intent of closing the gap between how a student is currently performing and the expectations of how they should be performing. Short term and long term interventions used within a problem-solving model must be evidence-based. This means the intervention strategies must have been evaluated by research that utilized rigorous data analysis and peer review procedures to determine the effectiveness. Implementing evidence-based interventions for behavior and academic concerns requires significant training, skill development, and supervised practice. Linking assessment and intervention is critical for determining that the correct intervention has been chosen.  School psychologists have been specifically trained to ensure that interventions are implemented with integrity to maximize positive outcomes for children in a school setting.

Assessment
Historically, the main role of school psychologists has been to assess and diagnose students with behavioral or learning disabilities and determine their eligibility for exceptional needs programs. Within the contemporary field, the roles and responsibilities of individual practitioners have expanded significantly beyond the service of special needs students; however, assessment remains a central service performed by school psychologists.

Current trends in the field of school psychology call for practitioners to move away from IQ-based assessment practices and encourage assessments that consider students' individual profiles and attainable, more tailored intervention practices. Individualized education programs (IEPs) are reports summarizing the student's current performance, goals to guide the student's progress, and proposed resources to meet any special educational needs.

School psychologists are equipped to provide assessment and to determine when an assessment is warranted. School psychologist have completed in depth advanced preparation in selecting and administering tests as well as interpreting and evaluating information obtained from assessment. Advanced training allows school psychologists to be extremely familiar with the central principles of measurement employing multi-method, multi-source, and multi-setting approaches that are sensitive to contextual influences. They select and use the most appropriate assessment instruments and techniques, for the purpose for which they were designed, and for which there is supporting psychometric evidence. School psychologists are aware of the limitations of assessment and the information that is collected, interpreted, and reported. School psychologists use assessment information in a manner that minimizes the potential for misunderstanding and misuse. School psychologists play a substantial role in data-driven decision-making in each of the following areas: routine decisions, screening, progress monitoring, problem identification, school-wide decisions, problem analysis for instruction, problem analysis for intervention planning, program evaluation, accountability, eligibility, and diagnostic decisions.

Systems-level services
Leaders in the field of school psychology recognize the practical challenges that school psychologists face when striving for systems-level change and have highlighted a more manageable domain within a systems-level approach – the classroom. Overall, it makes sense for school psychologists to devote considerable effort to monitoring and improving school and classroom-based performance for all children and youth because it has been shown to be an effective preventive approach.

Universal screening
School psychologists play an important role in supporting youth mental wellness, but identifying youth who are in distress can be challenging. Some schools have implemented universal mental health screening programs to help school psychologists find and help struggling youth. For instance, schools in King County, Washington are using the Check Yourself digital screening tool designed by Seattle Children's Hospital to measure, understand, and nurture individual students' well-being. Check Yourself collects information about lifestyle, behaviour, and social determinants of health to identify at-risk youth so that school psychologists can intervene and direct youth to the services they need. Mental health screening provides school psychologists with valuable insights so that interventions are better fitted to student needs.

Crisis intervention
Crisis intervention is an integral part of school psychology. School administrators view school psychologists as the school's crisis intervention "experts". Crisis events can significantly affect a student's ability to learn and function effectively. Many school crisis response models suggest that a quick return to normal rituals and routines can be helpful in coping with crises. The primary goal of crisis interventions is to help crisis-exposed students return to their basic abilities of problem-solving so the student can return to their pre-crisis level of functioning.

Prevention
A way in which school psychologists can help students is by creating primary prevention programs. Information about prevention should also be connected to current events in the community.

Social Justice
The three major elements that comprise social justice include equity, fairness, and respect. The concept of social justice includes all individuals having equal access to opportunities and resources. A major component behind social justice is the idea of being culturally aware and sensitive. American Psychological Association (APA) and the National Association of School Psychologists (NASP) both have ethical principles and codes of conduct that present aspirational elements of social justice that school psychologists may abide by. Although ethical principles exist, there is federal legislation that acts accordingly to social justice. For example, the Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 1965 (ESEA) and the Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act of 2004 (IDEA) address issues such as poverty and disability to promote the concept of social justice in schools.

Schools are becoming increasingly diverse with growing awareness of these differences. Cultural diversity factors that can be addressed through social justice practice include race/ethnicity, gender, socioeconomic status (SES), religion, and sexual orientation. With the various elements that can impact a student's education and become a source of discrimination, there is a greater call for the practice of social justice in schools. School psychologists that consider the framework of social justice know that injustices that low SES students face can sometimes be different when compared to high SES students.

Advocacy
A major role of school psychologists involves advocating and speaking up for individuals as needed. Advocacy can be done at district, regional, state, or national level. School psychologists advocate for students, parents, and caregivers.

Consultation and collaboration are key components of school psychology and advocacy. There may be times when school personnel may not agree with the school psychologist. Differing opinions can be problematic because a school psychologist advocates for what is in the best interest of the student. School psychologists and staff members can help facilitate awareness through courageous conversations.

Multicultural competence
School psychologists offer many types of services in order to be multiculturally competent. Multicultural competence extends to race, ethnicity, social class, gender, religion, sexual orientation, disability, age, and geographic region. Because the field of school psychology serves such a diverse range of students, maintaining representation for minority groups continues to be a priority. Despite such importance, history has seen an underrepresentation of culturally and linguistically diverse (CLD) school psychologists. which may appear alarming given that the diversity of our youth continues to increase exponentially. Thus, current professionals in the field have prioritized the acquisition of CLD school psychologists. School psychologists are trained to use their skills, knowledge, and professional practices in promoting diversity and advocating for services for all students, families, teachers, and schools. School psychologists may also work with teachers and educators to provide an integrated multicultural education classroom and curriculum that allows more students to be represented in learning. Efforts to increase multicultural perspectives among school psychologists have been on the rise to account for the increased diversity within schools. Such efforts include establishing opportunities for individuals representative of minority groups to become school psychologists and implementing a diverse array of CLD training programs within the field.

Education
In order to become a school psychologist, one must first learn about school psychology by successfully completing a graduate-level training program. A B.A. or B.S. is not sufficient.

United States
School psychology training programs are housed in university schools of education or departments of psychology. School psychology programs require courses, practica, and internships.

Degree requirements
Specific degree requirements vary across training programs. School psychology training programs offer masters-level (M.A., M.S., M.Ed.), specialist-level degrees (Ed.S., Psy.S., SSP, CAGS), and doctoral-level degrees (Ph.D., Psy.D. or Ed.D.) degrees. Regardless of degree title, a supervised internship is the defining feature of graduate-level training that leads to certification to practice as a school psychologist.

Specialist-level training typically requires 3–4 years of graduate training including a 9-month (1200 hour) internship in a school setting.

Doctoral-level training programs typically require 5–7 years of graduate training. Requirements typically include more coursework in core psychology and professional psychology, more advanced statistics coursework, involvement in research endeavors, a doctoral dissertation, and a one-year (1500+ hour) internship (which may be in a school or other settings such as clinics or hospitals).

In the past, a master's degree was considered the standard for practice in schools. As of 2017, the specialist-level degree is considered the entry-level degree in school psychology. Masters-level degrees in school psychology may lead to obtaining related credentials (such as Educational Diagnostician, School Psychological Examiner, School Psychometrist) in one or two states.

International

In the UK, the similar practice and study of School Psychology is more often termed Educational Psychology and requires a doctorate (in Educational Psychology) which then enables individuals to register and subsequently practice as a licensed educational psychologist.

Employment in the United States
In the United States, job prospects in school psychology are excellent. Across all disciplines of psychology, the abundance of opportunities is considered among the best for both specialist and doctoral level practitioners. They mostly work in schools. Other settings include clinics, hospitals, correctional facilities, universities, and independent practice.

Demographic information

According to the NASP Research Committee, 74% of school psychologists are female with an average age of 46. In 2004–05, average earnings for school practitioners ranged from $56,262 for those with a 180-day annual contract to $68,764 for school psychologists with a 220-day contract. In 2009–10, average earnings for school practitioners ranged from $64,168 for those with a 180-day annual contract to $71,320 for school psychologists with a 200-day contract. In 2019-2020, average earnings for full-time practitioners ranged from $65,397 to $81,458, with a median of 74,000. For university faculty in school psychology, the salary estimate is $77,801.

Based on surveys performed by NASP in 2009–2010, it's shown that 90.7% of school psychologists are white, while minority races make up the remaining 9.3%. Of this remaining percentage, the next largest populations represented in school psychology, are African-Americans and Hispanics, at 3% and 3.4%  respectively.

Shortages in the Field
There is a lack of trained school psychologists within the field. While jobs are available across the country, there are just not enough people to fill them.

Due to the low supply and high demand of school psychologists, being a school psychologist is very demanding. School psychologists may feel under pressure to supply adequate mental health and intervention services to the students in their care. Burnout is a risk of being a school psychologist. This risk has increased in recent years due to a shortage of school psychologists nationwide, increases in school enrollment in small cities, and the mental health effects that the COVID-19 pandemic had on children of all ages.

In January, 2022, NASP published updated statistics on the shortages of school psychologists nationwide and per state. NASP states that the recommended ratio of students to school psychologists is 500 to 1, however the national ratio for the 2020-2021 school year was 1162 students per 1 school psychologist. States that currently have the largest ratio between students and school psychologists (>2000 to 1, respectively) are Texas, New Mexico, Arkansas, Oklahoma, Louisiana, Mississippi, Alabama, and Georgia. Alabama has the largest disparity of any state: 369,280 students to 1 school psychologist. As of the publication of this data, Connecticut is the only state meeting NASP standards of a ratio of up to 500 students per 1 school psychologist.

Bilingual School Psychologists
Approximately 21% of school-age children ages 5–7 speak a language other than English. For this reason, there is an enormous demand for bilingual school psychologists in the United States. The National Association of School Psychologists (NASP) does not currently offer bilingual certification in the field. However, there are a number of professional training opportunities that bilingual LSSPs/School Psychologists can attend in order to prepare to adequately administer assessments. In addition, there are 7 NASP-Approved school psychology programs that offer a bilingual specialization:
 Brooklyn College-City University of New York- Specialist Level
 Gallaudet University- Specialist Level
 Queens College-City University of New York- Specialist Level
 San Diego State University- Specialist Level
 Texas State University- Specialist Level
 University of Colorado Denver- Doctoral Level
 Fordham University- Lincoln Center- Doctoral Level
New York and Illinois are the only two states that offer a bilingual credential for school psychologists.

School psychology internationally
The role of a school psychologist in the United States and Canada may differ considerably from the role of a school psychologist elsewhere.  Especially in the United States, the role of school psychologist has been closely linked to public law for education of students with disabilities.  In most other nations, this is not the case.  Despite this difference, many of the basic functions of a school psychologist, such as consultation, intervention, and assessment are shared by most school psychologists worldwide.

It is difficult to estimate the number of school psychologists worldwide.  Recent surveys indicate there may be around 76,000 to 87,000 school psychologists practicing in 48 countries, including 32,300 in the United States and 3,500 in Canada.  Following the United States, Turkey has the next largest estimated number of school psychologists (11,327), followed by Spain (3,600), and then both Canada and Japan (3,500 each).

Credentialing in the United States
In most states (excluding Texas and Hawaii), a state education agency credentials school psychologists for practice in the schools.

The Nationally Certified School Psychologist (NCSP) credential is offered by the National Association of School Psychologists (NASP). The NCSP credential is an example of a non-practice credential as holding the NCSP does not make one eligible to provide services without first meeting the state requirements to work as a school psychologist.

State psychology boards (which may go by different names in each state) also offer credentials for school psychologists in some states. For example, Texas offers the LSSP credential which permits licensees to deliver school psychological services within public and private schools.

Subspecializations in the United States

Pediatric School Psychology
Pediatric School Psychology is a sub-specialty that includes competencies of school, educational, and health psychology. Pediatric school psychologists bring knowledge of human learning and development, as well as understanding of school systems, chronic health conditions, and bio-psycho-social influences. Pediatric school psychologists work across multiple settings and share similar roles. Both professionals focus on prevention and intervention efforts related to students' behavior, education, and physical health. Additionally, pediatric school psychologists can simplify collaboration between school systems, healthcare providers, and family systems to address the academic, social-emotional, behavioral, and overall health of students. Pediatric school psychologists also contribute to developing and maintaining Tier 1 prevention activities and the facilitation of health promotion programs structured to address the population they are serving.

The field of Pediatric School Psychology is relatively new and requires doctoral level education. Traditional school psychology training programs are beginning to endorse pediatric school psychology subspecializations. For example, the University of South Florida requires students in the School Psychology Ph.D. program to have an area of emphasis, one option being pediatric school psychology. Lehigh University in Pennsylvania has a similar option to complete an endorsement in Pediatric School Psychology as part of their doctoral training, which requires 8 credit hours beyond the regular doctoral requirements. Students at Lehigh University enroll in the Pediatric School Psychology endorsement as a part of the competitive Leadership Training project supported by the U.S. Department of Education.

While the majority of traditional school psychology programs do not offer a subspecialization in pediatric school psychology, this does not necessarily limit students. When a formal subspecialization option is not available, one may request and select field experiences in typical pediatric school psychology settings. Typical settings include hospitals, school-based health clinics, and medical centers. The Pediatric School Psychology Interest Group is an interest group within the National Association of School Psychologists where members can discuss topics related to the subspecialization with experts in the field. The group also holds an annual meeting at the Annual Convention.

Behavioral School Psychology
Behavioral school psychology uses the same principals as behavioral psychology which dates back to 1913 where it became established by John B. Watson. There are several other thinkers that influenced the field of behavioral psychology. The field really blossomed from the ideas of Ivan Pavlov's classical conditioning and B.F. Skinner's operant conditioning. Operant conditioning uses rewards and punishments to increase and decrease behaviors. School psychologists use these ideas to increase positive behaviors and decrease problem behaviors that interfere with a student's learning. While the idea of behavioral psychology has its critics, and a lot of them say there are other factors that go into one's behaviors, one of the strengths is that behaviors are observable, therefore much easier to measure, collect data and recognize a change.

Behavioral psychology in schools has expanded largely during the last 15 years, because of two main reasons. Inclusive schooling has become increasingly prevalent in today's world, starting with the "Free and Appropriate Public Education" (FAPE) (1997) requiring that students who have developmental disabilities, cognitive impairments, and behavior disorders will be provided with the opportunity to attend their chosen public schools with their peers who do not have disorders or disabilities. Before the implementation of the regular education initiative (REI), a response to identified problems in the system for educating low-performing children. It was common for this population to be enrolled in private programs or other educational settings other than the public schools with outside resources. Because of the increased enrollment of students with these complications, public schools have recognized the benefits of collaborating with behavior consultants to improve academic instruction and reduce discipline problems. This produces many referrals to professionals who provide consultation as psychologists or behavior specialists affiliated with a private practice, clinic, or human services agency.

School Based Mental Health
Mental health in children is an important factor that influences success in school and life. If mental health problems within children go unresolved, negative outcomes such as academic and behavior problems can arise. Mental health is not only the absence of mental illness, but also includes social, emotional, and behavioral health, along with the ability to cope with life's challenges. As the need for mental health services for children and youth grow, schools are becoming an ideal place to provide this form of service.

The benefits of addressing mental health problems in the life of a child are significant in a number of different ways. Quality of life for the child increases, physical health can improve, and they have better chances at attaining a quality education, as well as healthy social skills. It is even more cost efficient to address mental health problems in young people than it is later in life.

Professional organizations

International
 International School Psychology Association

National
 American Psychological Association's Division 16: School Psychology
 Australian Psychologists and Counsellors in Schools
  ('Educational Psychology Specialty Group') of the  ('German Psychological Society')
 Indian School Psychology Association
 National Association of School Psychologists (America)
 New Zealand Psychological Society's Institute of Educational and Developmental Psychology

Journals
 Canadian Journal of School Psychology
 International Journal of School & Educational Psychology
 Journal of Psychoeducational Assessment
 Psychology in the Schools
 School Psychology Forum: Research in Practice
 School Psychology International
 School Psychology Quarterly
 School Psychology Review

See also
 Applied psychology
 Educational Psychology
 School Counselor
 School Psychological Examiner
 School Social Worker
 Special Education
 Washington County Closed-Circuit Educational Television Project
 Outline of psychology

References

Works cited

 Kennedy, Janice H.; Kennedy, Charles E. (2004)."Attachment theory: Implications for school psychology" Psychology in the Schools.41 (2): 47-259. https://doi.org/10.1002/pits.10153
 Hosp, John L.; Daniel J. Reschly, Daniel J. (2002)."Regional Differences in School Psychology Practice" School Psychology Review.31 (1): 11-29.
 Merrell, K. W., Ervin, R. A., & Peacock, G. G. (2012). School psychology for the 21st Century: Foundations and practices. Guilford Press.
 Simon, D. J. (2016). School-centered interventions: Evidence-based strategies for social, emotional, and academic success. American Psychological Association.
 American Psychological Association. (n.d.). Individuals with disabilities education act (ACT). American Psychological Association. Retrieved February 27, 2022, from https://www.apa.org/advocacy/education/idea
 University of Wisconsin Population Health Institute. (n.d.). School-wide positive behavioral interventions and supports (tier 1). County Health Rankings & Roadmaps. Retrieved April 16, 2022, from https://www.countyhealthrankings.org/take-action-to-improve-health/what-works-for-health/strategies/school-wide-positive-behavioral-interventions-and-supports-tier-1
 Bradshaw, C. P., Waasdorp, T. E., & Leaf, P. J. (2012). Effects of school-wide positive behavioral interventions and supports on child behavior problems. Pediatrics, 130(5). https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2012-0243

Further reading
American Psychological Association Commission for the Recognition of Specialties and Proficiencies in Professional Psychology (n.d.). Archival description of school psychology. Retrieved on December 29, 2007 from American Psychological Association
 Curtis, M.J.; Castillo, J.M.; Cohen, R.M. (2009). "Best practices in systems-level change". Communique Online. 38 (2). Archived from the original on 2010-01-23. Retrieved 2012-04-09.
 Fagan, T. K. (1996). Witmer's contributions to school psychological services. American Psychologist, 51.
Fagan, T. K. & Wise, P. S. (2007). School Psychology: Past, present, and future, (3rd ed.). Bethesda, MD: National Association of School Psychologists.
 Harrison, P. L. & Thomas, A. (Eds.). (2014). Best practices in school psychology. Bethesda, MD: National Association of School Psychologists.
National Association of School Psychologists (July 15, 2000). Standards for Training and Field Placement Programs in School Psychology / Standards for the Credentialing of School Psychologists. National Association of School Psychologists.
 Oritz, Samuel O. (2008). Best Practices in School Psychology V: Best Practices in Nondiscriminatory Assessment Practices. National Association of School Psychologists. .

External links
 National Association of School Psychologists
 American Psychological Association
 Division 16-School Psychology
 Student Affiliates of School Psychology
 The Standards for Educational and Psychological Testing
 International School Psychology Association
 Global School Psychology Network
 School Psychology India

Education and training occupations
Educational psychology

School psychology


Rádio Juazeiro é uma emissora de rádio brasileira sediada em Juazeiro, cidade do estado da Bahia. Opera no dial AM, na frequência de 1190 kHz. Seus estúdios estão localizados no centro de Juazeiro, e seus transmissores estão no bairro Alto da Aliança.

História
Em 21 de junho de 1946, a concessão para operar nos 1190 kHz de Juazeiro foi adquirida por Adys Casalino e Floriano Ferreira através do então Ministério dos Correios e Telégrafos. Por motivos desconhecidos, Casalino e Floriano venderam-na aos comerciantes Joaquim Borges e Camerino Muniz.

A Rádio Juazeiro foi inaugurada em 12 de julho de 1953, operando com 250 watts, sendo, então, a primeira emissora de rádio da região. A rádio entrou no ar às 10h, com um discurso do então prefeito de Juazeiro, Edson Ribeiro. A inauguração também contou com a presença de um representante da prefeitura de Petrolina, do então Vigário da Paróquia de Juazeiro, Pe. Clementino Tressor, e diversas outras autoridades, além de um discurso do proprietário Joaquim Borges. Outras atrações, como homenagens e participações de artistas, também fizeram parte do evento.

No entanto, a concessão não havia sido repassada aos atuais proprietários da rádio pelos donos originais. Devido a esta irregularidade, a Rádio Juazeiro foi retirada do ar tempos depois. Em 1959, a emissora foi vendida ao ex-prefeito Américo Tanuri e seu sócio, o jornalista Clésio Rômulo Athanásio. Os novos proprietários reativaram a Rádio Juazeiro no ano seguinte.

Anos depois, a Rádio Juazeiro foi novamente vendida, desta vez para Joca de Souza, que em 1967 viria a ser empossado prefeito de Juazeiro.

Em 1971, Joca de Souza resolve desfazer-se da emissora, que estava em problemas econômicos e irregularidades técnicas e judiciais. Por isso, negocia a venda da Rádio Juazeiro com o comunicador Oswaldo Benevides. A venda foi oficializada em 23 de março daquele ano.

Após adquirir a emissora, Oswaldo vai ao Rio de Janeiro, à procura dos donos originais da licença da Rádio Juazeiro. Através de pagamento, conseguiu obter assinaturas de Casalino e Floriano, que repassaram a concessão para ele, possibilitando a legalização da rádio.

Em 26 de novembro de 1974, a Rádio Juazeiro foi finalmente regularizada junto ao Ministério das Comunicações, tornando-se a primeira emissora de rádio a conseguir uma renovação de licença na Bahia. Em 3 de outubro de 1975, conseguiu vencer uma concorrência para operar uma estação de onda tropical com 5 kW de potência.

Em 1979, a emissora inaugurou um novo parque irradiante no bairro Alto da Aliança, onde foram instalados dois transmissores: o principal, de 10 kW, e o reserva, de 1 kW.

Em 14 de abril de 1981, a Rádio Juazeiro inaugurou a estação-irmã Transrio FM, primeira emissora de frequência modulada da região do Vale do São Francisco.

Em 2008, a emissora passou a investir em um sistema de Web TV. A RJ WebTV, como era chamada, transmitia ao vivo pela internet alguns dos programas da Rádio Juazeiro, contando também com reportagens em vídeo. Com isso, a Rádio Juazeiro se torna uma das primeiras emissoras de rádio a transmitir sua programação em imagem através da internet. O projeto foi descontinuado aos poucos, sendo encerrado definitivamente em 2013.

Em 7 de outubro de 2013, Oswaldo Benevides, proprietário da emissora, faleceu aos 76 anos, por insuficiência múltipla dos órgãos.

Programas
Atualmente, a Rádio Juazeiro produz ou transmite os seguintes programas:

 A Voz e a Verdade: Religioso, com Paulo Pinto;
 Alvorada Nordestina: Variedades, com Sérgio Rego;
 Agente Policial 459: Jornalístico policial, com Wuinston Monteclaro;
 Forrozão da RJ: Musical, com Arielson Leal;
 Giro Policial: Jornalístico policial, com Geraldo Messias;
 Mensagem da Cruz: Religioso;
Na Sombra do Juazeiro: Variedades, com Marinalva Rodrigues;
 No Mundo do Esporte: Jornalístico esportivo, com Marilene Silva;
 Professor André do Maranhão: Religioso, com André do Maranhão;
 Programa Geraldo José: Jornalístico, com Geraldo José;
 Programa Joãozinho Maravilha: Variedades, com João Batista;
 RJ Notícias: Jornalístico;
 Sem Fronteiras: Jornalístico, com Ramos Filho;
 Som Alegre: Musical gospel;
 Toque de Primeira: Jornalístico esportivo, com Charles Gray;

Diversos outros programas compuseram a grade da emissora, e foram descontinuados:

 A Cidade Reclama
 Ao Cair da Tarde
 Bodega do Brocoió
 Brasil de Fato Bahia
 Discofilando
 E nós, para onde vamos?
 Gincana Estudantil
 Giro Cultural
 Juazeiro Panorama
 Luz, Mulher
 Melhor da Tarde
 Mensageiro Rural
 Momento Cultural
 Pagão
 Paradinha das 4
 Repórter 1190
 Quando Nasce uma Esperança
 Sento Sé Agora
 Supra-Sumo
 Tarde com Deus
 Viver Melhor

Equipe

Membros atuais

 Arielson Leal
 Charles Gray
 Geraldo José
 Geraldo Messias
 João Batista
 Marilene Silva
 Marinalva Rodrigues
 Ramos Filho
 Sérgio Rego
 Wuinston Monteclaro

Membros antigos

 Charles Alexandre
 Edmundo Rastelli
 Elias Cruz
 Francisco José
 Herbet Mouze
 Iago Nunes
 Jean Rêgo †
 José Raimundo Neves †
 Lúcio Manoel
 Marta Luz
 Moacyr Alexandrino dos Santos
 Nilton Ferreira
 Ronaldo Lopes †
 Sibelle Fonseca (hoje na Transrio FM)
 Valmir Pires

Ligações externas

Estações de rádio fundadas em 1953
Estações de rádio da Bahia
Juazeiro (Bahia)

Rádio Juazeiro


Montes Finisterre es una cadena montañosa en el noreste de Papúa Nueva Guinea, El punto más alto de la cordillera es un punto sin nombre que ocupa el puesto número 45 en el mundo por importancia, por lo general se registra a 4175 m, pero otras fuentes sugieren que está se acerca a 4120 m. Sin ascensos exitosos registrados confirmados, este pico es posiblemente el pico no escalado más prominente en el mundo.

Véase también
Geografía de Papúa Nueva Guinea
Geografía de Oceanía

Referencias

Cordilleras de Papúa Nueva Guinea
Finisterre

Montes Finisterre


Gara Adjudu Vechi este o stație de cale ferată care deservește Adjud, județul Vrancea, România.

Adjudu Vechi

Gara Adjudu Vechi


"Replay" er en sang opført af den geogiansk-græske sanger Tamta. Sangtitel og kunstner blev afsløret den 21. december 2018 af CyBC. Sangen er skrevet af Alex P.

Sangen vil repræsentere Cypern i Eurovision Song Contest 2019, efter at Tamta blev valgt internt af det cypriotiske tv-selskab.

Referencer

Sange fra 2019
Eurovision Song Contest-sange fra Cypern
Sange fra Eurovision Song Contest 2019

Replay (Tamta sang)


An Pinalia eriopsidobulbon in uska species han Liliopsida nga syahan ginhulagway ni E.C.Parish ngan Heinrich Gustav Reichenbach, ngan ginhatag han pagkayana nga asya nga ngaran ni Carl Ernst Otto Kuntze. An Pinalia eriopsidobulbon in nahilalakip ha genus nga Pinalia, ngan familia nga Orchidaceae. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Pinalia

Pinalia eriopsidobulbon


Cardinal Newman can refer to:

 John Henry Newman, an Anglican and later Roman Catholic theologian and cardinal.

Roman Catholic educational institutions named after the theologian include:

 Schools
 Cardinal Newman Catholic School, England
 Blessed Cardinal Newman Catholic High School, Toronto, Ontario
 Cardinal Newman Catholic High School (Warrington), England
 Cardinal Newman Catholic School and Community College, Coventry, England
 Cardinal Newman Catholic School (Hove), England
 Cardinal Newman College, Preston, Lancashire, England
 Cardinal Newman High School (Santa Rosa, California)
 Cardinal Newman High School (West Palm Beach, Florida)
 Cardinal Newman High School (Columbia, South Carolina)
 Cardinal Newman High School, Bellshill, Scotland
 Cardinal Newman Secondary School, Hamilton, Ontario
 Cardinal Newman Roman Catholic Comprehensive, Rhydyfelin, Wales
 The John Henry Newman School, Stevenage, England
 Newman Catholic High School (disambiguation)

 Universities
Newman University (disambiguation)

Cardinal Newman (disambiguation)


Paul John Moore (* 5. August 1868 in Newark, New Jersey; † 10. Januar 1938 ebenda) war ein US-amerikanischer Politiker. Zwischen 1927 und 1929 vertrat er den Bundesstaat New Jersey im US-Repräsentantenhaus.

Werdegang
Paul Moore besuchte die öffentlichen Schulen seiner Heimat sowie das St. Benedict's College. Am 1. November 1892 begann er eine Laufbahn bei der städtischen Feuerwehr in Newark. Moore blieb bis zum August 1924 aktiv im Feuerwehrdienst. Zum Zeitpunkt seines Ausscheidens aus der Feuerwehr war er leitender Maschinist. In den folgenden Jahren handelte er mit Brandbekämpfungsmitteln. Politisch war er Mitglied der Demokratischen Partei.

Bei den Kongresswahlen des Jahres 1926 wurde Moore im achten Wahlbezirk von New Jersey in das US-Repräsentantenhaus in Washington, D.C. gewählt, wo er am 4. März 1927 die Nachfolge von Herbert W. Taylor antrat. Da er im Jahr 1928 dem Republikaner Fred A. Hartley unterlag, konnte er bis zum 3. März 1929 nur eine Legislaturperiode im Kongress absolvieren. Nach dem Ende seiner Zeit im US-Repräsentantenhaus arbeitete Moore wieder als Händler für Brandbekämpfungsmittel in Newark, wo er am 10. Januar 1938 starb.

Weblinks

Mitglied des Repräsentantenhauses der Vereinigten Staaten für New Jersey
Mitglied der Demokratischen Partei (Vereinigte Staaten)
US-Amerikaner
Geboren 1868
Gestorben 1938
Mann

Paul J. Moore


A royal commission is a major ad-hoc formal public inquiry into a defined issue in some monarchies. They have been held in the United Kingdom, Australia, Canada, New Zealand, Norway, Malaysia, Mauritius and Saudi Arabia. A royal commission is similar in function to a commission of inquiry (or, less commonly, enquiry) found in other countries such as Ireland, South Africa, and Hong Kong. It has considerable powers, generally greater even than those of a judge but restricted to the terms of reference of the commission. These powers include subpoenaing witnesses, taking evidence under oath and requesting documents.

The commission is created by the head of state (the sovereign, or their representative in the form of a governor-general or governor) on the advice of the government and formally appointed by letters patent. In practice—unlike lesser forms of inquiry—once a commission has started the government cannot stop it. Consequently, governments are usually very careful about framing the terms of reference and generally include in them a date by which the commission must finish.

Royal commissions are called to look into matters of great importance and usually controversy. These can be matters such as government structure, the treatment of minorities, events of considerable public concern or economic questions. Many royal commissions last many years and, often, a different government is left to respond to the findings.

Notable royal commissions

Australia
Royal commissions (sometimes called commissions of inquiry) have been held in Australia at a federal level since 1902. Royal commissions appointed by the governor-general operate under the Royal Commissions Act 1902 passed by the Parliament of Australia in 1902.

Royal commissions are the highest form of inquiry on matters of public importance. A royal commission is formally established by the governor-general on behalf of the Crown and on the advice of government ministers. The government decides the terms of reference, provides the funding and appoints the commissioners, who are selected on the basis of their independence and qualifications. They are never serving politicians.

Royal commissions are usually chaired by one or more notable figures. Because of their quasi-judicial powers the commissioners are often retired or serving judges. They usually involve research into an issue, consultations with experts both within and outside government and public consultations as well. The warrant may grant immense investigatory powers, including summoning witnesses under oath, offering of indemnities, seizing of documents and other evidence (sometimes including those normally protected, such as classified information), holding hearings in camera if necessary and—in a few cases—compelling all government officials to aid in the execution of the commission. The results of royal commissions are published in reports, often massive, of findings containing policy recommendations.

Due to the verbose nature of the titles of these formal documents they are commonly known by the name of the commission's chair. For example, the "Royal Commission into whether there has been corrupt or criminal conduct by any Western Australian Police Officer" is known as the Kennedy Royal Commission.

While these reports are often quite influential, with the government enacting some or all recommendations into law, the work of some commissions have been almost completely ignored by the government. In other cases, where the commissioner has departed from the Warranted terms, the commission has been dissolved by a superior court.

Federal

 Royal Commission in the matter of an inquiry into a statement that there was a document missing from the official files in relation to "The Brisbane Line" (1943)
 Royal Commission on loss of HMAS Voyager (1964), investigated the collision between HMAS Melbourne and HMAS Voyager
 Royal Commission on the statement of Lieutenant Commander Cabban and matters incidental thereto (1967–1968), investigated claims that the captain of HMAS Voyager frequently drank to excess and was unfit for command
 Royal Commission on Intelligence and Security ("Hope Commission") investigated the country's intelligence agencies (1974–1977)
Royal Commission On Human Relationships (1974–1977), inquired into and reported on the family, social, educational and sexual aspects of male and female relationships.
 Royal Commission on the activities of the Federated Ship Painters and Dockers Union ("Costigan Royal Commission") (1980–1984), investigated organised crime influences and drug trafficking in a large trade union
 Royal Commission of Inquiry into Drug Trafficking ("Stewart Royal Commission") (1981–1983)
 Royal Commission into British nuclear tests in Australia (1984–1985)
 Royal Commission into Aboriginal Deaths in Custody (1987–1991), investigated the allegedly disproportionate number of deaths of Australian Aboriginals while in custody
 Royal Commission into HIH Insurance (2001–2003), investigated the collapse of HIH Insurance, then Australia's second largest insurance company
 Royal Commission into the Building and Construction Industry ("Cole Royal Commission"), (2001–2003), investigated the conduct of industrial relations within the building industry
 Inquiry into certain Australian companies in relation to the UN Oil-For-Food Programme ("Cole Inquiry"), (2005–2006), investigation into the alleged participation of the AWB into the Oil for Food program
 Royal Commission into Institutional Responses to Child Sexual Abuse (2013–2017)
 Royal Commission into the Home Insulation Program (2013–2014), investigated the death of four male workers, ninety-four house fires related to insulation, and allegations of fraud as a result of the implementation of the Home Insulation Program
 Royal Commission into Trade Union Governance and Corruption (2014–2015)
 Royal Commission into the Protection and Detention of Children in the Northern Territory (2016–2017)
 Royal Commission into Misconduct in the Banking, Superannuation and Financial Services Industry (2017–2019)
 Royal Commission into Aged Care Quality and Safety (2018–2021)
 Royal Commission into Violence, Abuse, Neglect and Exploitation of People with Disability (2019–2023)
 Royal Commission into National Natural Disaster Arrangements (2020)
 Royal Commission into the Robodebt Scheme (2022–2023)

New South Wales

Royal Commission into the New South Wales Police Service ("Wood Royal Commission") (1994–1997) investigated Police corruption in New South Wales.
Royal Commission into Drug Trafficking ("Woodward Royal Commission"), (1977–1980) investigated drug trafficking in New South Wales, especially links between the Mafia and New South Wales Police and the disappearance of Donald Mackay
Royal Commission into New South Wales Prisons ("Nagle Royal Commission"), (1976–1978)
Royal Commission of Inquiry in respect of certain matters relating to allegations of organised crime in clubs ("Moffitt Royal Commission") (1973–1974) investigated organised crime in New South Wales.
Chelmsford Royal Commission (1989–1990) investigated patient deaths due to induced comas at the Chelmsford psychiatric hospital in Sydney during the 1960s and 1970s

Queensland

Commission of Inquiry into Possible Illegal Activities and Associated Police Misconduct ("Fitzgerald Inquiry"), (1987–1989) into Queensland Police corruption
Grantham Flood Commission of Inquiry
Barrett Adolescent Centre Commission of Inquiry

South Australia

Commission appointed by the Governor-in-Chief to inquire into the loss of the "Admella" (1859)
Royal Commission in regard to Rupert Max Stuart (1959)
Splatt Royal Commission (1983–1984)
Hindmarsh Island Royal Commission (1995) investigating the legal and political controversy that involved the clash of Indigenous Australian religious beliefs and property rights regarding the construction of a bridge to Hindmarsh Island
Kapunda Road Royal Commission (2005) investigating the circumstances of the hit and run death of Ian Humphrey and those of the trial and conviction of Eugene McGee
Child Protection Systems Royal Commission (2014–2016) investigating the effectiveness of the child protection systems that are currently in place
Nuclear Fuel Cycle Royal Commission (2015) investigating opportunities and risks for South Australia
Murray-Darling Basin Royal Commission (2018–2019) investigating the operations and effectiveness of the Murray-Darling Basin system

Victoria

Royal Commission into the King Street Bridge failure, (1962–1963)
Royal Commission into the West Gate Bridge collapse, (1970–1971)
Royal Commission into the Longford gas plant accident, (1998–1999)
2009 Victorian Bushfires Royal Commission ("Black Saturday Royal Commission"), (2009–2010) investigating the events and conditions surrounding the 2009 Victorian bushfires
Royal Commission into Family Violence (2015–2016)
Royal Commission into Victoria's Mental Health System (22 February 2019 – 2 March 2021)
Royal Commission into the Management of Police Informants (2018–present)

Western Australia

Royal Commission into alleged killing and burning of bodies of Aborigines in East Kimberley and into police methods when effecting arrests ("1927 Wood Royal Commission"), (1927) investigating the Forrest River massacre of Indigenous Australians
Royal Commission into Commercial Activities of Government and Other Matters ("WA Inc Royal Commission") (1990–1992) investigated the collapse of Bond Corporation, Rothwells, Bell Group, and other large businesses in Western Australia as well as government commercial enterprises
Royal Commission into the use of Executive Power ("Marks Royal Commission") (1995) to determine the circumstances of the tabling of a petition in a family law case and the alleged misleading of WA Parliament by Carmen Lawrence
Royal commission into whether there has been corrupt or criminal conduct by any Western Australian Police Officer ("WA Police Royal Commission"), (2002–2004) investigated high-level corruption in the Western Australian police force

Northern Territory
Royal Commission into Juvenile Correction Facilities in the Northern Territory (2016). On 25 July 2016 Prime Minister Turnbull announced a Royal Commission will be established after an investigation by Four Corners uncovered serious mistreatment of inmates within the Northern Territory's juvenile detention system.

Bahamas
 Royal Commission of Inquiry into Drug Trafficking and Government Corruption (November 1983 – December 1984) (formerly The Commission of Inquiry Appointed to Inquire Into the Illegal Use of the Bahamas for the Transshipment of Dangerous Drugs Destined for the United States of America) A three-person Commission of Inquiry was appointed after US-television reports alleged the government was taking bribes from drug traffickers to look the other way as drugs flowed through the Bahamas bound for the United States.

Bahrain
 Royal Independent Investigation Commission (June 2011), to examine the episodes of civil disobedience and alleged human rights offences committed in the aftermath of the February 2011 protests.

Canada

Ceylon

Colebrooke–Cameron Commission

Hong Kong
 Commission of Inquiry into the Construction Works at and near the Hung Hom Station Extension under the Shatin to Central Link Project (2019–2020)
 Commission of Inquiry into Excess Lead Found in Drinking Water (2015–2016)
 Commission of Inquiry into the Collision of Vessels near Lamma Island (2012)
 Commission of Inquiry on Allegations relating to the Hong Kong Institute of Education (2007)
 Commission of Inquiry on the New Airport (1998–1999)
 Commission of Inquiry into the Garley Building Fire (1996–1997)

India

Royal Commission on Opium (1895)
Royal Commission on Labour (1929)
Royal Commission on Agriculture (1928)

Mauritius
 Royal Commission on Slave Trade: Commissioners of Eastern Inquiry, Mauritius (1826–1828)
 Fever Inquiry Commission in Mauritius (1866–1868)
 Commission of Enquiry on living conditions of Indentured Coolies in Mauritius (1872–1874)
 Commission of Enquiry into Unrest on Sugar Estates (Hooper Commission, 1937)
 Commission of Enquiry into Disturbances in the North of Mauritius (Moody Commission, 1943)
 Trustram-Eve Electoral Boundaries Commission (1957–1958)
 Commission of Inquiry Sugar Industry by Balogh & Bennett (1962)
 Banwell Commission on the Electoral System of Mauritius (1966)
 Commission of Inquiry in corruption with Ministry of Social Security and Ministry of Cooperatives (1978–1979)
 Commission of Enquiry on the Sugar Industry (1984)
 Commission of Enquiry on Drugs (1986–1987)
 Margo Commission of Enquiry on crash of South African Airways Flight 295 (1987)
 Truth and Justice Commission on the lasting impact of slavery and indentured labour (2009–2011)
 Commission of Inquiry on Horse Racing in Mauritius (2014–2016)
 Commission of Enquiry on Drug Trafficking (2015–2018)
 Commission of Inquiry on the sale of Britam and BAI (2017–ongoing)
 Commission of Inquiry on violation of the Constitution and other laws by former President Ameenah Gurib-Fakim (2018–ongoing)

Malaysia
Royal Commission on Salaries and Conditions of Service of the Public Service (1965)
Royal Commission of Inquiry to Investigate the Workings of Local Authorities in West Malaysia (1968)
Royal Commission on the Teaching Services (1971)
Royal Commission of Inquiry on the collapse of the upper deck of the Pengkalan Sultan Abdul Halim ferry terminal in Butterworth (1988)
Royal Commission of Inquiry to investigate a fire at Sekolah Agama Rakyat Taufikah al-Halimah in Padang Lumat, Yan, Kedah (1989)
Royal Commission of Inquiry into the fire at the Bright Sparklers factory in Sungai Buloh New Village (1991)
Royal Commission to investigate alleged injuries suffered by Datuk Seri Anwar Ibrahim while in police custody (1999)
Royal Commission for Police Reform (2004)
Royal Commission of Inquiry into the Lingam Video Clip (2007–2008)
Royal Commission of Inquiry into the Teoh Beng Hock case (2010–present)
Royal Commission of Inquiry on illegal immigrants in Sabah (2012–2014)
Royal Commission of Inquiry on Wang Kelian mass graves (2015–present)
Royal Commission of Inquiry into BNM forex losses (2017–present)

New Zealand
Royal Commission on Mines (1911)
Royal Commission of Inquiry into the Ballantyne's fire (1947–1948)
Royal Commission on Accident Compensation (1966–1967), which produced the Woodhouse Report and led to the formation of the Accident Compensation Corporation in 1974
Royal Commission on Contraception, Sterilisation and Abortion (1975–1977)
Royal Commission into the Courts (1976–1978)
Royal Commission on Nuclear Power Generation in New Zealand (1976–1978)
Royal Commission on Maori Courts (1978–1980)
Royal Commission to Inquire into and Report upon the Circumstances of the Convictions of Arthur Allan Thomas for the Murders of David Harvey Crewe and Jeanette Lenore Crewe (1980–1981)
 Royal Commission of Inquiry into the crash of Air New Zealand Flight 901 (Also known as "The Mahon Inquiry") (1980–1981). The findings were successfully appealed to the Privy Council, setting new legal standards for the conduct of royal commissions.
 Royal Commission into Certain Matters Related to Drug Trafficking (1982–83)
Royal Commission on the Electoral System (1984–1986) investigated the electoral system, and led to New Zealand adopting the Mixed Member Proportional voting system in 1993.
 Royal Commission on Broadcasting and Related Telecommunications (1985–1986)
 Royal Commission on Social Policy (1986–1988)
Royal Commission on Genetic Modification (2000–2001) to look into and report on the issues surrounding genetic modification in New Zealand
Royal Commission on Police Conduct (2004–2007)
Royal Commission on Auckland Governance (2007–2009)
Royal Commission on the Pike River Mine tragedy (2011–2012)
Royal Commission of Inquiry into Building Failures Caused by Canterbury Earthquakes (2011–2012)
Royal Commission of Inquiry into Historical Abuse in State Care (2018–present)
Royal Commission of Inquiry into Christchurch mosque shootings (2019–2020)

United Kingdom

 Royal Commission for inquiring into the nature and extent of the Instruction afforded by the several Institutions in Ireland established for the purpose of Education (1824)
 Royal Commission on the Poorer Classes in Ireland (1833)
Royal Commission of Inquiry into the condition of the Hand-loom Weavers in England and Wales, Gloucestershie section (Miles, W.A., c.1938)/ (archive.org)
 Royal Commission of Inquiry into Children's Employment (1840–1843)
 Royal Commission on Defaults of Official Assignees of Court of Bankruptcy (1841–1843)
 Royal Commission on Improvement of the Metropolis (1842–1851)
 Royal Commission on Midland Mines (1842–1843)
 Royal Commission on Health of Towns (1843–1848)
 Royal Commission on South Wales Turnpikes (1843–1844)
 Royal Commission on Framework Knitters (1844–1845)
 Royal Commission on Collapse of Mill at Oldham and Prisons at Northleach (1844–1855)
 Royal Commission on Tidal Harbours (1845–1846)
 Royal Commission on Judicial Circuits (1845)
 Royal Commission on Railway Gauges (1845–1846)
 Royal Commission on Metropolitan Railway Termini (1846)
 Royal Commission on Millbank Prisons (1846–1847)
 Royal Commission on New Bishoprics (1847)
 Royal Commission on Registration and Conveyancing (1847–1854)
 Royal Commission on the British Museum (1847–1850)
 Royal Commission on Merchant Seamen's Fund (1847–1848)
 Royal Commission on Marriage Laws (1847–1850)
 Royal Commission of Application of Iron to Railway Structures (1847–1849)
 Royal Commission on Health of the Metropolis (1847–1850)
 Royal Commission on Episcopal and Capitular Revenues (1849–1851)
 Royal Commission on Subdivision of Parishes (1849–1856)
 Royal Commission on Charities (1849–1851)
 Royal Commission on Smithfield (1849–1850)
 Royal Commission on Common Law (Pleading) (1850–1860)
 Royal Commission on Oxford University (1850–1852)
 Royal Commission on Cambridge University (1850–1852)
 Royal Commission on Divorce Law (1850–1853)
 Royal Commission on Chancery (1850–1856)
 Royal Commission for the Exhibition of 1851 (1850) planned the Great Exhibition and still exists as a charitable body endowed by the proceeds
 Royal Commission on the Corporation of the City of London (1853–1854) led to the establishment of the Metropolitan Board of Works, the first London-wide local government body.
 Royal Commission on County Courts (1853–1855)
 Royal Commission on Birmingham Borough Prison (1853–1854)
 Royal Commission on Bankruptcy Law (1853–1854)
 Royal Commission on Leicester County Gaol (1853–1854)
 Royal Commission on Newcastle Cholera (1853–1854)
 Royal Commission on the Health of the Army (1856–1857) based on Florence Nightingale's reports on medical care during the Crimean War
 Royal Commission on the Defence of the United Kingdom (1859)
 Royal Commission on the State of Popular Education in England (1858–1861), also known as the Newcastle Commission, looked into the state of public education in England in order to report what measures were required "for the extension of sound and cheap elementary instruction to all classes of the people"
 Royal Commission on Transportation and Penal servitude (1863)
 Royal Commission on the Sanitary State of the Army in India (1863)
 Royal Commission on the Public Schools (1861–1864), also known as the Clarendon Commission, looked into the state of nine old-established public schools
 Royal Commission on Capital Punishment (1864–1866)
 Royal Commission on Historical Manuscripts (1869)
 Royal Commission on Scientific Instruction and the Advancement of Science (1875)
 Royal Commission on the Factory Acts (1876)
 Royal Commission on the Working of the Penal Servitude Actc &c (1878)
 Royal Commission on Ship′s Tonnage Measurement (1880)
 Royal Commission on Technical Instruction (1881–1884)
 Royal Commission on Smallpox and Fever Hospitals (1881–1882)
 Royal Commission of Inquiry into the Condition of Crofters and Cottars in the Highlands and Islands (1883–1884), also known as the Napier Commission
 The Royal Commission on the Housing of the Working Classes (1884–1885)
 Royal Commission on the Depression in Trade and Industry (1885–1886)
 Royal Commission on the Blind, the Deaf and Dumb and Others (1889)
 Royal Commission on Market Rights and Tolls (1889–1891)
 Royal Commission on the Amalgamation of the City and County of London (1889–1894)
 Royal Commission on Labour (1891–1892)
 Royal Commission Appointed to Inquire into the Water Supply of the Metropolis (1891–1893)
 Royal Commission on Secondary Education (1895), also known as the Bryce Commission
 Royal Commission on Indian Expenditure (1896)
 Royal Commission on Tuberculosis (1896–1898), also known as the First Royal Commission on Tuberculosis
 Royal Commission on Sewage Disposal (1898–1912)
 Royal Commission on Water Supply within the Limits of the Metropolitan Water Companies (1899), which led to the creation of the Metropolitan Water Board
 Royal Commission on the Port of London (1900–1902)
 Royal Commission on South African Hospitals (1901)
 Royal Commission on Tuberculosis (1901–11), also known as the Second Royal Commission on Tuberculosis
 Royal Commission on University Education in Ireland (1901–1903)
 Royal Commission on the War in South Africa (1902–1903), also known as the Elgin Commission
 Royal Commission on Superannuation in the Civil Service (1903)
 Royal Commission on London Traffic (1903–1905)
 Royal Commission on the Control of the Feeble-Minded (1904)
 Royal Commission on the Poor Laws and Relief of Distress (1905–09)
 Royal Commission on the Ancient and Historical Monuments of Scotland (1908–2015)
 Royal Commission on the Ancient and Historical Monuments of Wales (1908–present)
 Royal Commission on the Historical Monuments of England (1908–1999)
 Royal Commission on the Registration of Title in Scotland (1910)
 Royal Commission on Public Records (1910–1918)
 Royal Commission on Divorce and Matrimonial Causes (1912)
 Royal Commission on Fuel and Engines (1912)
 Royal Commission on Vivisection (1912)
 Royal Commission on the Housing of the Industrial Population of Scotland, Rural and Urban (1917), also known as the Ballantyne Commission
 Royal Commission on the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge (1919), also known as the Asquith Commission
 Royal Commission on London Government (1921–1923), also known as the Ullswater Commission
 Royal Commission on Cross River Traffic in London (1926)
 Royal Commission on Agriculture in India (1926–1928)
 Royal Commission on Land Drainage (1927), chaired by Charles Bathurst, 1st Viscount Bledisloe, suggested sweeping changes in the administration of land drainage which were embodied in the Land Drainage Act 1930
 Royal Commission on Police Powers and Procedure (September 1928 – March 1929)
 Royal Commission on Local Government (1929)
 Royal Commission on the Civil Service (1929–1931)
 Royal Commission on Transport (1932)
 Royal Commission on the University of Durham (1935), chaired by Lord Moyne
 Royal Commission on Tithe Rentcharge in England and Wales (1936)
 Palestine Royal Commission (1937)
 Rhodesia-Nyasaland Royal Commission (1937–1939), also known as the Bledisloe Commission, examined the possible closer union of Southern Rhodesia, Northern Rhodesia and Nyasaland, and recommended a union of Northern Rhodesia and Nyasaland but ruled out any political amalgamation involving Southern Rhodesia due to its overtly racial policies. The Commission's recommendations were not put in place owing to the Second World War.
 Royal Commission on the Distribution of the Industrial Population (1940)
 Royal Commission on the Press (1947–1949)
 Royal Commission on Betting, Lotteries and Gaming (1949–1951)
 Royal Commission on Population (1949)
 Royal Commission on Capital Punishment (1949–1953), also known as the Gowers Commission
 Royal Commission on the Civil Service (1953–1955)
 Royal Commission on Marriage and Divorce (1956)
 Royal Commission on Local Government in Greater London (1957–1960), also known as the Herbert Commission, which made recommendations for the overhaul of the administration of the capital that were implemented in a modified form by the London Government Act 1963
 Royal Commission on the Press (1961–1962)
 Royal Commission on the Police (1962)
 Royal Commission on Medical Education (1965–1968)
 Royal Commission on Local Government in England (1966–1969), also known as the Redcliffe–Maud Commission
 Royal Commission on Local Government in Scotland (1966–1969), also known as the Wheatley Commission, which made recommendations that led to a new system of regional and district councils in Scotland introduced in 1975 under the Local Government (Scotland) Act 1973
 Royal Commission on Trade Unions and Employers' Associations (1968)
 Royal Commission on the Constitution (1969–73), also known as the Kilbrandon Commission or the Crowther Commission
 Royal Commission on Environmental Pollution (1970–2011)
 Royal Commission on the Press (1974–1977)
 Royal Commission on Standards of Conduct in Public Life (1974–1976)
 Royal Commission on Legal Services (1976), also known as the Benson Commission
 Royal Commission on Civil Liability and Compensation for Personal Injury (1973–78), also known as the Pearson Commission
 Royal Commission on the Distribution of Income and Wealth (1977–1979)
 Royal Commission on the National Health Service (1975–1979), chaired by Sir Alec Merrison
 Royal Commission on Criminal Procedure (1981)
 Royal Commission on Criminal Justice (1991)
 Royal Commission on Long Term Care for the Elderly (1998)
 Royal Commission on the Reform of the House of Lords (1999)

See also
Presidential Commission (United States)

References

Administrative law

Government commissions

Royal commission


Santa Rosa est une station de la ligne 9 du métro de Barcelone.

Situation sur le réseau
La station se situe sous l'avenue d'Ébène (), sur le territoire de la commune de Santa Coloma de Gramenet. Elle s'intercale entre les stations Can Peixauet et Fondo de la ligne 9 du métro de Barcelone.

Histoire
La station ouvre au public le , deux ans après l'ouverture du premier tronçon de la ligne 9.

Services aux voyageurs

Accès et accueil
La station dispose de deux voies superposées, dotées chacune d'un quai latéral équipé de portes palières, un aménagement caractéristique de la L9.

Desserte

Intermodalité

À proximité

Notes et références

Voir aussi

Articles connexes
 Métro de Barcelone
 Liste des stations du métro de Barcelone
 Ligne 9 du métro de Barcelone

Liens externes
 .

Station de la ligne 9 du métro de Barcelone
Station de métro mise en service en 2011

Santa Rosa (métro de Barcelone)


Der Silberfalke (Falco hypoleucos) ist ein seltener, mittelgroßer Vogel aus der Familie der Falkenartigen (Falconidae). Er bewohnt aride und semiaride Gebiete Australiens.

Beschreibung
Silberfalken sind mittelgroße, gedrungene Falken. Mit einer Körperlänge von 33 bis 43 cm sind sie etwas größer als die kleinen Buntfalken und etwas kleiner als die Weibchen des Wanderfalken. Männliche Tiere haben eine Flügelspannweite von 75 bis 85 cm, weibliche 95 bis 100 cm. Er hat lange, spitze Flügel, sein Schnabel ist kurz und kraftvoll und mit jeweils einem ausgeprägten Falkenzahn an jeder Seite versehen. Der Silberfalke ist in jedem Alter größtenteils grau gefärbt und mit einer feinen Strichelung, die nur aus der Nähe erkennbar ist. Seine Oberseite ist blaugrau, die Unterseite weißlich grau, Kehle und Untersteiß sind weiß. Der Oberkopf ist etwas dunkler. Die Handschwingen sind schwärzlich, die Steuerfedern grau und fein gebändert mit einem breiten, dunkleren subterminalem Band und weißlichen Spitzen.

Die Iris des Falken ist braun. Bei adulten Tieren ist die Nasenwachshaut und die nackte Haut um die Augen sowie der Schnabel orange-gelb, bei Jungtieren sind die Nasenwachshaut und die nackte Haut um die Augen blaugrau. Die Beine adulter Silberfalken sind leuchtend gelb, die der Jungtiere matter.

Verbreitung
Der Silberfalke ist in ariden und semiariden Teilen Australiens inklusive des Murray-Darling-Beckens, des Lake Eyre Einzugsgebietes, Central Australia und Western Australia verbreitet. Hauptsächlich bewohnt er Gebiete mit einer jährlichen Niederschlagshöhe von weniger als 500 mm. Immature Vögel scheinen außerhalb der Brutzeit regelmäßig in Nördliche- und in Küstengebiete zu ziehen. In Western Australia kommt der Silberfalke südlich von 26° Geographische Breite nicht vor, im Bundesstaat Victoria ist er ein extrem seltener Irrgast.

Lebensraum und Lebensweise

Silberfalke leben in Halbwüsten, Gras- und Buschland und in den Bäumen an Flussufern. Sie kommen in Höhen bis 1000 m in ariden Gebieten und manchmal in feuchtem, offenem Gelände vor.

Fortpflanzung
Seine Nester befinden sich in Höhen von 9 bis 26 Metern. Allerdings übernimmt er oft verlassene Nester von anderen Arten (z. B.: von Krähen- oder Greifvögeln) und polstert sie mit weichem Material aus. Das Gelege besteht aus 2–4 Eiern. Die Brutzeit beträgt 35 Tage und die Nestlingsperiode 41–52 Tage.

Ernährung
Silberfalken ernähren sich von Vögeln, hauptsächlich von Tauben und Papageien, von kleinen Säugetieren, Eidechsen und großen Insekten. Auch Aas wird gefressen. Silberfalken jagen in schnellem, niedrigem Flug oder gleiten von einem Ansitz um Nahrung am Boden zu erbeuten.

Bestand und Gefährdung
Das Verbreitungsgebiet des Silberfalken ist sehr groß, die Bestandsdichte jedoch sehr gering. Der Bestand wird auf weniger als 1000 geschlechtsreife Vögel geschätzt. Sein Lebensraum und seine Nistplätze sind durch Überweidung und durch die Abholzung offener Wälder bedroht. Die Verfügbarkeit von Nistplätzen, insbesondere im baumarmen Landesinnern, könnte ein limitierender Faktor für den Bestand sein, vor allem dort, wo eingeführte Beweidung die Regeneration der Bäume verhindert. Seine Eier sind von Eiersammlern gefragt. Eier und Jungvögel werden möglicherweise für die Falknerei entnommen. Die International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN) stuft die Art inzwischen wieder als gefährdet (Vulnerable, VU) ein.

Einzelnachweise

Weblinks

Falkenartige

Silberfalke


Becila fue un eclesiástico hispano, obispo arriano de Lugo a finales del .

En el año 585 el rey visigodo Leovigildo conquistó el reino suevo, imponiendo el arrianismo como religión oficial; el obispo católico de Lugo Nitigisio fue desterrado y Becila fue nombrado en su lugar. Simultáneamente la diócesis, que desde el concilio de Lugo del año 569 era metropolitana, perdió esta condición para volver a ser sufragánea de la de Braga.

En el 589, ya bajo el reinado de Recaredo, se celebró el III Concilio de Toledo en el que se decretó el catolicismo como única religión en todo el reino visigodo y se restituyó en sus respectivas sedes a los obispos católicos desterrados por Leovigildo. Becila fue uno de los obispos que en este concilio abjuraron del arrianismo; se supone que tras su conversión le fue reservada la diócesis para serle entregada tras la muerte del ya anciano Nitigisio, como ocurrió en otros casos similares, aunque no hay constancia de que esto se llevara a cabo.

Referencias

Obispos de Lugo
Obispos de España del siglo VI
Conversos al catolicismo desde el arrianismo
Hispania visigoda

Becila


Ambon (en indonesio: Kota Ambon, ciudad Ambon), a veces llamada Amboina, es una ciudad de Indonesia, capital de la isla de Ambon y de la provincia de Molucas. Tiene el estatuto de kota ("ciudad" en indonesio). Ambon es el principal puerto de la isla y su ciudad más poblada, con 330 355 habitantes censados en 2010. Es también una de las ciudades más pobladas del este de Indonesia. Se la conoce como Ambon Manise, "Ambon la hermosa".

Geografía
La ciudad de Ambon está situada al sur de la isla, en la costa de la península de Leitimor que está unida a la isla (Hitoe) por un estrecho istmo y forma con esta dos profundas bahías sucesivas: la bahía de Baguala y la bahía de Ambon, que se abre al mar de Banda.

Historia

Historia moderna
En los siglos XV y XVI, la isla de Ambon pertenecía al área de influencia del sultanato de Ternate, que controlaba el comercio del clavo de olor y de la nuez moscada en las islas Molucas, conocidas como islas de las especias. A principios del , los portugueses fueron los primeros europeos en implantarse en las Molucas, estableciendo puestos militares y comerciales en las islas Molucas del norte, y misiones católicas. Expulsados de Ternate por las tropas del sultanato, se retiraron a la isla de Ambon que les había sido concedida por el sultán Tabariji, tras su conversión al catolicismo. Allí construyeron en 1575 un fuerte al que nombraron Nossa Seinhora da Annunciada, y que pasó a ser la base de operaciones de los portugueses en esa región. Al ser este fuerte el núcleo original de la ciudad de Ambon, se toma la fecha de su construcción como fecha fundacional de la ciudad, a la que los portugueses llamaban Amboina.

En 1605, el fuerte portugués de Ambon fue el primero en rendirse ante las primeras campañas militares de la recién creada Compañía Neerlandesa de las Indias Orientales (VOC). El almirante Steven van der Hagen tomó la plaza sin un solo disparo, y la VOC instaló allí su cuartel general de 1610 a 1619. La fortaleza fue remodelada y ampliada, su nombre cambiado a Kasteel Nieuw Victoria (nuevo castillo de Victoria), y un poblado empezó a desarrollarse al amparo de su murallas. En 1619, el gobernador general de la VOC, Jan Pieterszoon Coen, salió de Ambon con una flota que tomó y arrasó la ciudad de Jayakarta, en Java, para fundar en su lugar la ciudad de Batavia (la actual Yakarta), nueva capital de la VOC en las Indias Neerlandesas.

Aquel mismo año, los directores de la VOC en Ámsterdam firmaron un tratado de cooperación con la Compañía Británica de las Indias Orientales a fin de hacer frente común en el Sureste Asiático ante su enemigo común, el reino de España. El tratado repartió el monopolio del comercio de las especias en las islas Molucas entre ambas compañías, atribuyendo los dos tercios del comercio del clavo de olor de Ambon y de la nuez moscada y del macis de las islas de Banda a la VOC, y el tercio restante a la compañía británica. Tanto en las islas Banda como en Ambon, los habitantes estaban obligados a vender sus cosechas a la VOC. Las condiciones desventajosas de estos intercambios les reducían al hambre y a la pobreza, por lo que las hostilidades contra los holandeses fueron en aumento. Coen reaccionó eliminando la competencia de los ingleses en la región, en contra de los acuerdos firmados, y sometiendo militarmente a sus habitantes. En 1621, invadió Banda donde aplastó la rebelión e impuso una férrea administración colonial; en 1623 en Ambon, eliminó a los negociantes británicos ejecutando a 10 de ellos tras obligarles bajo tortura a confesar actos de traición. Aquel acto jurídicamente legal puso fin al tratado de 1619 con la Compañía Británica de las Indias Orientales, y selló el poder casi absoluto de la VOC y de las Provincias Unidas de los Países Bajos en la región.

Historia contemporánea
Hasta el , los neerlandeses limitaron el cultivo del clavo de olor a la isla de Ambon para asegurarse su monopolio, y lo prohibieron en las demás islas que controlaban. La ciudad de Ambon fue tomada en dos ocasiones por los británicos, en 1796 y 1810, pero los neerlandeses la reconquistaron en 1814. Por el Tratado anglo-neerlandés de 1824 consiguieron mantener su dominio sobre la isla hasta el . La ciudad era la sede del gobernador civil y militar neerlandés de las islas Molucas. La población se dividía en dos clases sociales: los orang burger, o "habitantes de la ciudad", compuestos de nativos cristianos protestantes a cuyos antepasados la antigua Compañía Neerlandesa de las Indias Orientales había concedido una serie de privilegios, y los orang negri o "campesinos". La población de la ciudad contaba también con minorías musulmanas árabes, indias y de otras islas del archipiélago malayo, chinos y algunos descendientes de colonos portugueses.

Frente a la ciudad de Ambon, en la bahía del mismo nombre, los holandeses crearon una base militar cuya guarnición consistía en soldados indonesios del Real Ejército de las Indias Orientales o KNIL (Koninklijk Nederlandsch-Indisch Leger), a las órdenes de oficiales holandeses. En 1941, durante la Segunda Guerra Mundial, los ejércitos australianos y holandeses decidieron reforzar la base aérea por temor a que pudiese ser tomada por lo japoneses que desde allí alcanzarían fácilmente Australia. La base y la ciudad fueron efectivamente atacadas por los japoneses en 1942, en lo que se conoce como la batalla de Ambon; tras la toma, las tropas japonesas ejecutaron sumariamente a 300 prisioneros de guerra holandeses (mayoritariamente indonesios) y australianos. Este episodio trágico fue uno de los crímenes de guerra del Imperio del Japón que fueron juzgados en 1946 por tribunales aliados.

Indonesia fue declarada independiente en 1945. En abril de 1950 en la ciudad de Ambon, la República de las Molucas del Sur (RMS) fue proclamada por un grupo de indonesios amboneses cristianos (así como de Seram y de Buru) apoyados por antiguos soldados indonesios del KNIL. El intento separatista fue aplastado por el ejército indonesio y 12.500 personas, entre militantes de la RMS y sus familiares, fueron exiliados a los Países Bajos que les ofrecieron un asilo temporal.

El programa de transmigración (tansmigrasi en indonesio) aplicado por el presidente Suharto a fin de aliviar los problemas causados por la superpoblación de Java, trajo a Ambon miles de familias javanesas en los años 1970-1980. En una isla tradicionalmente dominada política y económicamente por cristianos, la llegada masiva de indonesios javaneses, de tradición musulmana, modificó la balanza de poderes en la isla. El nombramiento en los años 1990 de un gobernador musulmán por el presidente Suharto, permitió que más musulmanes accedieran a altos puestos de la administración local y que los cristianos empezaran a perder peso tanto en la esfera política como en los negocios.

En 1999-2000, la ciudad de Ambon fue el epicentro de un conflicto religioso que opuso a cristianos y musulmanes durante 3 años y que se extendió al conjunto de las islas Molucas. Parte de la ciudad quedó destruida, y se contabilizaron numerosos muertos, heridos y desplazados. Desde entonces, ambas comunidades religiosas están segregadas en dos zonas separadas por una franja de terreno desierta. Un nuevo brote de violencia se produjo en septiembre de 2011. En 2011, el alcalde de Ambon es cristiano protestante, y el vicealcalde, musulmán.

Economía
Enfrente de Ambón, en el pueblo de Laha situado en la otra orilla de la bahía, se encuentra el aeropuerto de Pattimura (Código IATA: AMQ). Está a 36 km de Ambon, dando la vuelta a la bahía. Tanto usando el ferry que cruza la bahía, como en coche, el trayecto se suele hacer en una hora. Dispone de una terminal internacional, pero solo tiene vuelos nacionales.

El puerto de Ambon se dedica principalmente a la exportación de la producción local de Ambon y de las islas vecinas. El empleo en la ciudad depende principalmente de las administraciones locales, como la gobernación de la isla (PEMDA), el ayuntamiento (PEMKOT) y el destacamento del ejército indonesio en la isla (Raiders 733). El centro neurálgico de la actividad comercial de la isla se está desplazando de la vieja ciudad hacia el nuevo centro de negocios de Passo, en el istmo, situado en una zona plana con mayores posibilidades de expansión y edificación.

Ambon centra su oferta turística en las actividades de buceo, debido a los fondos marinos excepcionalmente ricos y vírgenes del mar de Banda.

Lengua
El idioma hablado tradicionalmente en la isla es el criollo malayo ambonés, una variante del malayo con préstamos léxicos del neerlandés y del portugués. Pero en Ambon, al igual que en las demás áreas urbanas de la isla, los aportes étnicos de otras regiones de Indonesia han hecho que aumentara el uso del idioma indonesio oficial, o malayo indonesio, por lo que la población de la ciudad de Ambon es bilingüe. Ambas lenguas comparten 81 % de léxico común. Las poblaciones procedentes de pueblos de la isla o de otras islas cercanas, mantienen sus dialectos locales, casi todos pertenecientes a la rama malaya, y manejan la lingua franca tradicional de la isla, el malayo ambonés.

El ternateño, un antiguo criollo de base portuguesa que trajeron consigo los colonos procedentes de Ternate y otras islas Molucas septentrionales en el , se ha extinguido.

Notas y referencias

Enlaces externos

 Kota Ambon en indahnesia.com

Localidades de Indonesia
Islas Lease

Ambon (Indonesia)