Efesli Heraklitos (, Herakleitos) (MÖ 535? - 475), Efes'te yaşamış Sokrates öncesi Yunan filozof.

Efes'in yerlisi olduğu ve babasının adının Bloson olduğu gibi detaylar dışında hayatı hakkında pek az şey bilinmektedir. Batı felsefe tarihinde dinamik bir felsefi sistem ortaya koyan ilk kişidir.

Yaşamı
Herakleitos'un hayatı hakkında hemen hemen kesin olan hiçbir şey bilinmemektedir. Yaşamına ilişkin pek çok bilgiyi Diogenes Laertios'tan öğreniyoruz. İyonya'nın sonuncu ve en büyük filozofu olan Herakleitos'un Bloson'un oğlu olduğu ve MÖ 540 civarında Efes'te doğmuş olduğu söylenmektedir. Apollodoros'a göre 69. Olimpiyatta sivrilmiştir (MÖ 504-501). Efes'te kral-rahipler veren bir aileden geldiği anlaşılmaktadır. Antisthenes bu görevi kullanma sırası Herakleitos'a geldiğinde, bu hakkını kardeşine bıraktığını söyler.

Kendisinin çağdaşları ile karşıtlık içinde bulunduğunu görmüş ve topluluk içinde yaşamaktan uzaklaşmıştır. Bu büyük filozofun söylediklerinden döneminin siyasal durumundan hoşlanmadığı ve sert bir dille bu durumu eleştirdiği anlaşılıyor. Yalnızca siyasal durumu değil, kendi yurttaşlarını da eleştiriyor. Arkadaşı Hermodoros'u sürgüne yolladıkları için Ephesoslulara şöyle diyor:

"Bütün yetişkin Efesliler kendilerini asıp kenti çocuklara bıraksalar iyi olur; çünkü onlar 'hiç kimse bizden çok değerli olmamalı; böyle biri varsa, gitsin, başka yerde başkalarının arasında yaşasın!' diyerek, aralarındaki en değerli adamı, Hermodoros'u sürgüne yolladılar."

Yurttaşları ondan kanunlar yapmasını isteyince, kent artık kötü yönetim biçiminin hâkimiyetinde olduğundan bu isteği geri çevirmiştir. Herakleitos'un zenginleşmiş yeni sınıfa karşı duyduğu nefreti şu parçadan anlıyoruz:

"Hiç eksik olmasın zenginliğiniz Efesliler. Olmasın ki alçaklığınız belli olsun."

Bir öyküye göre Herakleitos Artemis Tapınağına çekilerek aşık oynuyormuş. Efesliler çevresinde toplandıklarında şöyle demiş: "Ne şaşıyorsunuz, reziller? Yoksa böyle yapmak sizinle birlikte devlet yönetmekten daha iyi değil mi?"

Halka "yığın, anlayışsızlar" gözüyle bakıyor, bu küçümseme onların geleneksel inançlarını da içine alıyordu. Herakleitos'un Ksenophanes'in yerleşik din anlayışına eleştirici tutumunu sürdürdüğünü görüyoruz:

"Gece dolaşanlar, Magos'lar, Bakkhos rahipleri, Dionysos'un rahipleri, gizemlere erenler. Ölümden sonra ceza çekmekle tehdit ediyorlar ve ateşte yanacaklarını kehanet ediyorlar; halkın arasında kabul gören bu gizli ayinler böyle kutsal olmayan tarzda cereyan eder."

"Kana bulanarak arındırmaya çalışıyorlar kendilerini, çamura batmış birinin kendini çamurlu suyla yıkaması gibi. Çamurla temizlenen birine herkes deli der. Karşılarındaki tanrı heykellerine yakarıyorlar, konuşur gibi duvarlarıyla evlerin. Ne tanrılar ne de kahramanlar hakkında bir şey bildikleri var"

"İnsanlar bu töreni Dionysos'a saygıda bulunmak için düzenlemeyip, sadece Phallus'a övgüler düzseydiler, o zaman bu gerçekten utanmazca bir iş olurdu. Oysa kendilerinden geçerek saygıda bulundukları Dionysos ile Hades tek ve aynı şeydir."

Bu büyük filozof, daha önceki büyük Yunan bilginlerini, filozoflarını ve şairlerini de küçümsüyor:

"Homeros'u yarışmalardan kovmalı ve sopalamalı, aynı şekilde Arkhilokhos'u da."

"Çok bilgi insanı uslandırmaz; öyle olsa Hesiodos'u, Pisagor'u, Ksenophanes'i ve Hekataios'u uslandırırdı."

Herakleitos'un yukarıdaki parçalarından anlaşıldığı gibi Yunan dünyasında kabul görmüş bu isimleri eleştiriyor. Platon da Herakleitos gibi Yunan dünyasında çok önemli olan Homeros ve Hesiodos'u insanları yanlış şekillendirdikleri konusunda eleştirmiştir. Platon'un beğenmediği o efsanelerdeki evren tasarımıdır.

Diogenes'e göre Herakleitos çocukluğundan beri olağanüstü bir kişiydi; gençliğinde hiçbir şey bilmediğini ileri sürerdi ve kendini incelediğini söylerdi: "Kendimi keşfettim", "Ruhun ucu bucağı yok".

Herhangi bir filozofun öğrencisi olmamasına karşın Ksenophanes'in derslerini dinlediğini söyleyenler vardır. Herakleitos Miletli filozoflardan da etkilenmiştir. Zıtlıkların çatışması ve birliği ana öğretisinde Anaksimandros ve Pisagor'dan etkilendiği görülmektedir. Ruh öğretisinde de Anaksimenes'ten etkilenmiştir.

Şu ana kadar ele geçen kayıtlarda Herakleitos'un bir eserinden çokça parça bulunan ilk filozoftur. Eserinin adı "Doğa üzerine". Diogenes'ten öğrendiğimize göre eseri üç bölümdür; Birinci evren üzerine, ötekiler siyaset ve tanrı bilim üzerine. Bu eser atasözlerini andırır ifadelerden oluşan şiirsel bir düz yazıdır. Yığına karşı gösterdiği küçümseme üslubunda da kendini gösterir. Geniş halk yığınları tarafından anlaşılmayı isteyen bir insanın diliyle konuşmaz. Bilmeceyi andıran sözleri ancak kendisini anlayabilecek niteliği olan seçkinlere hitap etme arzusunun ifadesidir. Dilinin bu özelliklerinden dolayı kendisine "karanlık" denmiştir.

Herakleitos'un sözlerini anlamak için çaba harcamak gerekir. Bilmeceyi çözmek gerekir. Çünkü ona göre hakikat gizlenmeyi sever:

"Delphoi'daki [kâhin] tanrının kehaneti ne açıklıyor ne de gizliyor, yalnızca işaret ediyor."

Kitabını adak olarak Artemis Tapınağına koydu. Diogenes'ten öğrendiğimize göre eseri o kadar ünlü oldu ki Herakleitosçular denen ardılları ondan kaynaklandı.

Varlık kuramı

Ana madde ateş
Herakleitos, nesnelerin kendisinden gelip, kendisine gittikleri ilk maddenin ateş olduğunu söylemiştir. Ona göre dünyamız sonsuz canlı ateşten değişmeyle meydana gelmiştir ve bir vakit gelecek sonunda tüm-ateşe girecektir, böylece akış yeniden başlayacaktır:

"Bütünün kendisi olan bu evreni ne bir tanrı, ne de bir insan oluşturmuştur. O, sürekli belli ölçülere göre yanan, belli ölçülere göre sönen ezeli ve ebedi ateştir."

Ona göre ateş hem gereksinim ve hem de tokluktur. Çünkü gereksinim ya da açlık, ateşin evrensel düzenine işaret eder; tokluk ise bir nesnenin ölümü, ateşe dönüşmesi anlamına gelir.

Herakleitos'a göre her şey ateşten geldi ve yok olup yeniden ateşe dönecek. Ateşin gelip her şeyi yargılayıp mahkûm edeceğini söyler. Ateşin kendisinden meydana gelen şey değiştiği hâlde, ateşin kendisi değişmez. O hep var olan ateştir.
Belli bir ölçü içerisinde ateş ile maddeler karşılıklı olarak birbirlerine dönüşürler. Bu dönüşümler evren düzenini oluşturur:

"Her şey ateşle takas olur, ateş de her şeyle; tıpkı altın ile malların ve mallar ile altının takas edilmesi gibi"

Karşıtların birliği ve savaşı
Karşıtların savaşı, oluşun zorunlu ve tek koşuludur. Eğer karşıtlıklar arasındaki savaş olmasaydı hiçbir şey olmazdı. Evren karşıtlıkların savaşının oluşturduğu bir uyum harmonia'dır:

"Karşıt olan şeyler bir araya gelir ve uzlaşmaz olanlardan en güzel uyum doğar. Her şey çatışma sonucunda oluşur."

Varlıkların oluşumu ancak birbirlerine zıt olan ve bundan ötürü birbirlerini sürdüren zıtların çatışmasına bağlıdır. Herakleitos savaşın her şeyin babası ve kralı olduğunu; kimini tanrı, kimini insan olarak ortaya çıkardığını; kimini köle, kimini özgür kıldığını söyler.
Herakleitos, tanrılarda, insanlarda yok olsun o kavga diyen ozanı kınıyor. O, pes ve tiz sesler olmazsa uyum olmaz, birbirine karşıt erkek ve dişi olmazsa canlı varlıklar olmaz, diyerek gerekçesini sunar.

Evren zıt öğelerden oluşmuştur. Bu zıtlıklar arkasında ise "bir olan" hep durmakta olup tanrı adıyla anılır. Bu ayrılıklı birliği filozof çeşitli simgelerde ve şekillerde görüyor. İnen ve çıkan yolun aynı olduğunu, iyi ile kötünün aynı olduğunu, çemberin çevresinde başlangıç ve sonun ortak olduğunu, yazının yolunun düz ve eğri olduğunu, soğuğun ısınıp, sıcağın soğuduğunu; nemlinin kuruyup kurunun nemlendiğini söylüyor. Bütün bu zıtlıklar, ikililiklerine karşın aynı şey olup birin ayrı ayrı yanlarıdır. Parçalarında şöyle sıkça belirtiyor:

"Bağlanışlar; bütünler ve bütün olmayanlar, bir arada duran ve ayrı duran, birlikte söylenen ve ayrı söylenen. Her şeyden bir, birden her şey."

"τω ουν τοξω ονομα βιος, εργον δε θανατος."

"Yayın adı yaşamdır, işi ise ölüm."

"αθανατοι θνητοι θνητοι αθαντατοι ζωντες τον εκεινων θανατον τον δε εκεινων βιον τεθνεωτες."

"Ölümsüzler ölümlü, ölümlüler ölümsüz. Biri ötekinin ölümünü yaşar, öteki de ötekinin yaşamına ölür."

Akış öğretisi
Herakleitos'a göre her şey akar ve sürekli değişir. Ana madde olarak gördüğü Ateş bir an için bile hareketsiz kalmayan bir maddedir. Bu büyük filozofun akış öğretisini ifade eden sözleri şunlardır:

"ποταμοῖσι τοῖσιν αὐτοῖσιν ἐμϐαίνουσιν, ἕτερα καὶ ἕτερα ὕδατα ἐπιρρεῖ."

"Aynı ırmaklara girenlerin üzerinden farklı sular akar"

"Ποταμοῖς τοῖς αὐτοῖς ἐμβαίνομέν τε καὶ οὐκ ἐμβαίνομεν, εἶμέν τε καὶ οὐκ εἶμεν."

"Aynı ırmaklara gireriz ve girmeyiz. Hem varız hem yokuz."

Oluş ve değişmenin değişmeyen yasası logos

Logos sözcüğü dillere çevrilmesi çok zor bir kelimedir. Söz, düşünce, akıl, anlam anlamlarına gelir. Herakleitos'un logos'u halen tartışılmaktadır. Değişmenin kendisine göre gerçekleştiği yasaya logos diyor. Ateş ölçüyle yanar ve ölçüyle söner. O halde her şeyin kaynağı olan ve ateşin en saf biçimde kendisinde bulunduğu güneş bile bu yasaya uymaktadır. Güneşin ölçülerini aşmayacağını, eğer bunu yaparsa adaletin hizmetkarları olan Erinys'lerin onu yakalayacağını söyler. Herakleitos eserine logos ile başlıyor:

"Bu her zaman var olan logos'u insanlar yalnızca işitmeden önce değil, işittikten sonra da anlamıyorlar. Her şey bu logos'a göre olup bittiği ve ben her şeyi doğasına göre ayırt ettiğim ve nasıl olduğunu bildirip açıkladığım halde, söylediklerimle ve yaptıklarımla karşılaştıklarında acemi gibi davranıyorlar. Uykudayken ne yaptığını unutan öteki insanlar gibi bunlar da uyanıkken ne yaptıklarının farkında değiller."

Logos herkeste ortak olan düşünmedir. Ancak logos her şeyde ortaklaşa olmasına karşın çoğunluğun sanki kendilerine özgü düşünceleri varmış gibi yaşadığını söyler. Ona göre nasıl ateşe yaklaştırılan kömürler başkalaşarak ateşleşirler, uzaklaştırılınca da sönerlerse ruhumuz da ortaklaşa olanın ardından giderse logos'tan pay alır, ayrılırsa logos'suzdur.

"Akla uygun konuşmak isteyenler yasasına bağlı bir kentten daha güçlü bir biçimde her şeyde ortak olana sıkıca sarılmalıdır. Çünkü bütün insan yasaları tanrısal olandan beslenir. Bu tanrısal yasa her şeyi dilediğince yönetir ve her şeye fazlasıyla yeter."
Herakleitos evreni logos'un yönetmesine karşın insanların bunu anlayamamalarından böyle yakınmıştır.

Görelik kuramı
Herakleitos'ta her şeyin göreli olduğu görüşü vardır. Ondan kalan parçalarda evrensel göreliliği şöyle ifade ediyor:

"İnsan tanrı tarafından küçük çocuk olarak çağrılır, nasıl ki çocuk da yetişkin insan tarafından öyle çağrılırsa"... "En bilge insan, tanrıyla karşılaştırılırsa bilgelik, güzellik ve bütün öteki şeyler bakımından bir maymundur"... "En güzel maymun, insanla karşılaştırılırsa çirkindir"... "Deniz suyu en temiz ve en pistir. Balıklar onu içebilirler ve onlar için o kurtarıcıdır. Buna karşılık insanlar için o içilemezdir ve öldürücüdür" (DK. B 79, 83, 82)

Bu evrensel görelilik iyinin, kötünün; doğrunun, yanlışın; adaletin, adaletsizliğin aslında göreli kavramlar oldukları düşüncesini doğurur. Ancak Herakleitos'a göre iyiliğin var olması için kötülüğün, ışığın var olması için karanlığın, tokluğun var olması için açlığın olması gereklidir. Adaletsizlik olmasaydı adaletin adı bilinmezdi. Herakleitos hastalığın sağlığı; açlığın tokluğu; yorgunluğun dinlenmeyi hoş kıldığını söyler.

İnsan kuramı
Herakleitos'a göre insan üç şeyden oluşmuştur; ateş, su ve toprak. Sürekli bir dönüşüm vardır. Ruhlar için ölümün su olmak olduğunu, su için ölümün toprak olmak olduğunu, topraktan ise su olduğunu, sudan da ruh olduğunu söyler.

İnsan ruhu aslında ateşten oluşmuştur; ancak bu ateş ruh haline dönüşürken nemlenen bir ateştir.

Herakleitos ruhların nemden buharlaştığını belirtiyor. Ona göre ruhsal durumların en alt seviyesi su veya nem olmaktır. Su veya nemli olmak Hades'in çamurlu yollarında son bulur. Ruhsal durumların en üstü seviyesi sıcak ve kuru hava olmaktır. Parlak ve kuru olan ruhun en iyi ve en bilgedir.

Herakleitos'un genel olarak insanlar hakkındaki düşünceleri şöyledir:

"En değerli kişilerin birdir yeğ tuttuğu, o da geçici şeylerin ölümsüz ünü. Oysa kitle sığır gibi tıkınmakla geçiriyor gününü"

Herakleitos insanlara yığınlar gözüyle bakmaktadır. Yığınları küçümsemiştir. Logos'u anlamadıkları için dinlerken sağır gibi olduklarını söyleyip "varken, yoklar" deyişinin onlara uyduğunu ifade etmiştir.

Çoğunluğun anlayışı ve düşüncesi olmadığını ima ediyor. Onların halk ozanlarına inandıklarını, çoğunluğun kötü, azınlığın ise iyi olduğunu bilmeden yığını öğretmen kabul ettiklerini düşünüyor.

Bilgi kuramı
Herakleitos'un en çok önem verdiği şey bilgeliktir. Ama bu aynı zamanda geleneksel Yunan düşüncesidir. Bilgeliğin her şeyden üstün olduğunu ifade ediyor. Ona göre bilgece olan şey saf ateştir. Biz ruhumuzda bulundurduğumuz ateş oranında bilgeyiz. Ruhu kuru olan daha bilge, ruhu ıslak olan ise daha az bilgedir. Herakleitos  bilgeliği şöyle ifade ediyor:

"Ölçülü olmak en büyük erdemdir. Bilgelik doğaya kulak vererek doğruluğu dile getirmek ve doğru olanı yapmaktır."

"Bilgelik tektir; her şeyi her şeyle yöneten düşünceyi bilmektir."Herakleitos-Frag.111 çev. Cengiz Çakmak

"Beni değil, logos'u işiterek her şeyin bir olduğunu kabul etmek bilgeliktir."

Herakleitos insan bilgisinin sınırlı olduğundan söz ediyor. Bunu şu parçasından anlıyoruz:

"En denenmiş kişinin anlayıp savunduğu şey bile bir kanıdan öteye gitmez. Ama yalancılarla yardakçıları gerçek mutlaka yakalayacaktır"

Ahlak kuramı
Herakleitos iki tür kişinin varlığını ayırt etmektedir: Logos'u kavrayamayan ve kavrayabilen kişiler. Logos'u kavrama bu kavrayışa uygun yaşamayı gerektirir. Evrenin yasası olan logos'u bilmek usun (aklın) ödevidir. Logos'u tanıyıp anlayan kimse bu us yasasını kendi eylemine de ölçü olarak alacaktır.

Herakleitos'un amacı insanları logos'a uygun davranmaya yöneltmektir. En üstün amaç bilgelik ve doğruyu bulmak, doğruya uygun yaşamaktır. Mutluluk doğruluğu bilerek, ona uygun yaşayarak elde edilir. Mutluluk bedensel hazlardan kaynaklanmaz.
Tutkulara karşı koymak ve ölçülü olmak gerekir. Tutkulara karşı koymanın güç olduğunu ancak arzu edilen şeyin bedelini ruhun ödediğini söyler.

İnsanlar yasaya uygun davranmalıdır:

"Halk yasayı kentin surlarını savunur gibi dirençle korumalıdır."

Evren anlayışı
Ona göre tüm evren ateşten var olmuştur ve bir süre sonra yine ateşe dönecektir. Evrenin var oluşu ve yok oluşu olayı belirli aralıklarla olarak sonsuz kere yinelenecektir. Evren, belirli dönemlerde var olan ve yine belirli bir dönemde yok olan bir olgudur.

Herakleitos'ta yeni olan yan; evrenin birdenbire bir oluş ve yok oluş olgusu olarak görülmesidir. Milet Okuluna göre evren özü somut olan bir şeyden; sudan ya da havadan yapılmıştır, her şeyin özünde bu maddeler bulunur. Herakleitos ise ateşi ana madde yapmakla, varlıkların özde bir madde değil, bir güç, erk (enerji) olduğuna dikkat çekmiştir.

Etkisi

Antik felsefe
Herakleitos, kendisinden sonraki antik filozofların üzerinde büyük bir etki bırakmıştır. Protagoras gibi sofistler, Herakleitos'un her şeyin aktığı öğretisi ve görecelilik fikrinden etkilenmiştir. Stoacılar da Herakleitos'un fikirlerini takip etmiştir. Marcus Aurelius, Herakleitos'tan etkilenerek kişinin başkalarının fikirlerini tam anlamıyla kabul etmemesi gerektiğini söylemiştir. Pyrrhonizm de Aenesidemus tarafından karşıtların görünüşü hakkındaki fikirleri nedeniyle Herakleitos'un felsefesine giden bir yol olarak tanımlanmıştır.

Sokrates, gençliğinde Kratylos'tan aldığı derslerle oluş dünyasının akış içerisinde olduğu fikrini benimsemiştir. Bu yaklaşım, Herakleitos'un fikirleriyle benzer olarak değerlendirilmektedir. Platon, Kratylos'un hiçbir şeyin sağlıklı olmadığını ve her şeyin gidiş içerisinde olduğunu düşündüğünden bahsetmektedir.

Antisthenes'in, belirsizliğini korumasına rağmen antik bir eserde Herakleitos'un öğrencisi olduğu yazmaktadır.

Parmenides, Herakleitos'un değişimle ilgili yaklaşımını şiirinde sert bir şekilde eleştirmiştir:

"Aynı olduğunu ve olmadığını ve her şeyin zıt yönlerde hareket ettiğini düşünen, ayırt etmeyen kalabalıklar!"

Platon, ilerleyen zamanlarda bu iki filozofun fikirlerini uzlaştırmaya çalışmıştır. Batı felsefesinde Herakleitos ve Parmenides'in yer bulması, Platon sayesinde gerçekleşmiştir.

Hristiyan felsefesi üzerinde etkili olan isimlerden Hippolytus, Herakleitos'un fikirlerine şiddetle karşı çıkarken, Justin Martyr daha olumlu bir yaklaşım sergilemiştir.

Modern felsefe
Montaigne, Herakleitos ve Demokritos'un fikirlerine dayanan insan meselelerine dair iki arketip önermiş, kendi yazılarında Demokritos'un yaklaşımını sergilemiştir.

Hegel, felsefenin kökenini Herakleitos'a dayandırmış ve kendi düşüncelerini buna göre şekillendirmiştir.

Friedrich Nietzsche, Herakleitos'u Anaksimandros'un karamsarlığı karşısında başarılı yaklaşımlar sergilediği gerekçesiyle övmüştür.

Carl Jung, Herakleitos'un tüm psikolojik yasaların en harikası olarak tanımladığı her şeyin kendi karşıtına dönüşmesi yasasını analitik psikoloji içerisinde incelemiştir.

Bertrand Russell, Herakleitos'u bir proto-empirist olarak görmüş ve fikirlerini desteklemiştir.

Notlar

Kaynakça

 Wikipedia - Heraclitus

 Prof. Dr. Tansu Açık'ın Ders Notları

Yaşamı

 Encyclopædia Britannica Onbirinci Baskı - Heraclitus

Dış bağlantılar

MÖ 530'larda doğanlar
MÖ 470'lerde ölenler

Antik Yunan filozoflar
Antik Yunan fizikçiler
Antik Efesliler
Sokrates öncesi filozoflar
Doğa filozofları
Ontologlar
Efes Okulu
Ödemden ölümler
MÖ 6. yüzyılda Yunanlar
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سوريا لها تاريخ اقتصادي مضطرب. في عام 1963، جاء حزب البعث العربي الاشتراكي إلى السلطة، ووضع سياسات اشتراكية للتأميم والإصلاح الزراعي. وفي عام 1970، تولى الجنرال حافظ الأسد السلطة. وجرى تخفيف القيود المفروضة على المشاريع الخاصة، ولكن لا يزال جزء كبير من الاقتصاد تحت سيطرة الحكومة. وبحلول الثمانينات، وجدت سوريا نفسها معزولة سياسيا واقتصاديا، وفي خضم أزمة اقتصادية عميقة. انخفض نصيب الفرد من الناتج المحلي الإجمالي الحقيقي بنسبة 22 في المائة بين عامي 1982 و1989. وفي عام 1990، وضعت حكومة الأسد سلسلة من الإصلاحات الاقتصادية، على الرغم من أن الاقتصاد لا يزال يخضع لتنظيم كبير. شهد الاقتصاد السوري نمواً قوياً طوال التسعينات، وفي عقد 2000. وبلغ نصيب الفرد من الناتج المحلي الإجمالي في سوريا 4,058 دولار أمريكي في عام 2010. ولا تتوافر بيانات رسمية عن الناتج المحلي الإجمالي بعد عام 2012 بسبب الحرب الأهلية السورية.

قبل الحرب الأهلية، كان القطاعان الرئيسيان للاقتصاد السوري هما الزراعة والنفط، اللذان كانا معاً يمثلان نحو نصف الناتج المحلي الإجمالي. ومثلت الزراعة، على سبيل المثال، نحو 26 في المائة من الناتج المحلي الإجمالي ووظفت 25 في المائة من إجمالي قوة العمل. غير أن الظروف المناخية السيئة والجفاف الشديد كان له أثر سلبي على القطاع الزراعي، وبذلك انخفض نصيبه في الاقتصاد إلى حوالي 17 في المائة من الناتج المحلي الإجمالي في عام 2008، بعد أن كان 20.4 في المائة في عام 2007، وفقا للبيانات الأولية الصادرة عن المكتب المركزي للإحصاء. ومن ناحية أخرى، قوبل ارتفاع أسعار النفط الخام بانخفاض في إنتاج النفط وأدى إلى زيادة إيرادات الميزانية والصادرات.

منذ اندلاع الحرب الأهلية السورية، تأثر الاقتصاد السوري بشدة بالعقوبات الاقتصادية المفروضة على التجارة مع جامعة الدول العربية وأستراليا وكندا والاتحاد الأوروبي (وكذلك مع البلدان الأوروبية ألبانيا وأيسلندا وليختنشتاين ومولدوفا والجبل الأسود ومقدونيا الشمالية والنرويج وصربيا وسويسرا) وجورجيا واليابان وكوريا الجنوبية وتايوان وتركيا والولايات المتحدة.

وقد أدت العقوبات والتدمير والاضطراب المرتبطة بالحرب الأهلية إلى خراب اقتصاد سوريا. وبحلول نهاية عام 2013، قدرت الأمم المتحدة الأضرار الاقتصادية الكلية الناجمة عن الحرب الأهلية السورية بمبلغ 143 مليار دولار. وسيصل مجموع الخسائر الاقتصادية من الحرب الأهلية السورية إلى 237 مليار دولار بنهاية عام 2015، وفقا لما أفادت به لجنة الأمم المتحدة الاقتصادية والاجتماعية لغرب آسيا، وسيكلف استيلاء المعارضة السورية على معبر نصيب الحدودي ما بين 500 إلى 700 مليون دولار في السنة كذلك. وفي عام 2018، قدر البنك الدولي أن حوالي ثلث مجموع مساكن سوريا ونصف مرافقها الصحية والتعليمية قد دمرها النزاع. ووفقا للبنك الدولي، فقد ما مجموعه 226 مليار دولار من الناتج المحلي الإجمالي بسبب النزاع من عام 2011 إلى عام 2016.

عانى الاقتصاد السوري من التضخم المفرط المرتبط بالنزاع. معدل التضخم السنوي السوري هو من أعلى المعدلات في العالم.

نبذة تاريخية
حيث تمتد المرحلة الأولى لغاية سنة 1963 م، وتعاقب على الحكم في هذه المرحلة قوى برجوازية واقطاعية.

المرحلة الثانية والتي تمتد ما بين (1963 م - 1970 م) (تاريخ قيام الحركة التصحيحية)، ففي هذه الفترة ظهرت التوجهات الاشتراكية سوريا من خلال التأميم والإصلاح الزراعي والتوجه نحو دعم الصناعة وعمليات التصنيع وإصدار بعض القوانين المتعلقة بالاستثمارات، لكن التناقضات والصراعات داخل القيادة أثرت على النشاط السياسي والاقتصادي مما أدى إلى اعتماد إصلاحات جديدة تجسدت في الحركة التصحيحية التي أعتبرت آن ذاك بداية عهد جديد لتحقيق النهضة التنموية وذلك بالعمل على نقل البلاد من بلد زراعي إلى بلد صناعي متقدم، وبالتالي تم إنشاء مؤسسات تابعة للقطاع العام تلعب فيها الدولة دورا هاما في توجيه الاقتصاد الوطني، بالإضافة إلى تشجيع الحرفيين والصناعيين في القطاع الخاص بإقامة مؤسسات صغيرة ومتوسطة وتشجيع المبادرات الفردية وجلب رؤوس الأموال المهاجرة، وبناء على ما تقدم فإن الاقتصاد السوري عرف بعض النتائج الإيجابية في فترة التصحيح والانطلاق يمكن إيجازها كما يلي:

 مواصلة بناء مشاريع البنى الأساسية من طرقات وجسور وسكك حديدية وشبكات كهرباء وماء واتصالات وتقنيات متطورة وغيرها.
 تحقيق نوع من التوازن بين مستوى الأجور ومستوى الأسعار، وذلك برفع القدرة الشرائية للمواطنين.
 زيادة معدلات نمو الإنتاج، إذ بلغ إجمالي الناتج المحلي نحو 6.8 مليار ليرة سورية أي (136 مليون دولار) سنة 1970 م إلى 51.2 مليار ليرة سورية (1.024 مليار دولار) سنة 1980 م، و127.7 مليار ليرة سورية (2.554 مليار دولار) سنة 1987 م وتراوح معدل النمو السنوي في هذه الفترة ما بين 7.5% و 8.5%.
 بلغت حصة الفرد من الناتج المحلي الإجمالي 1087 ليرة سورية سنة 1970 م ثم 5890 ليرة سورية سنة 1980 م لتصل إلى 11643 ليرة سورية سنة 1987 م.
 بلغ معدل البطالة 4% سنة 1987 م حيث كانت المؤسسات العامة للدولة تشغل أكثر السكان القادرين على العمل.

غير أن هذه النتائج الإيجابية في الاقتصاد السوري عرفت تراجعا ملموسا بعد سنة 1987 م، تجلى في انخفاض قيمة الليرة السورية بحوالي 12 ضعفا منذ منتصف الثمانينات وبالتالي بادرت السلطات السورية إلى اتخاذ إجراءات وخطوات جديدة تمثلت في إصدار مرسوم سنة 1986 م يتعلق بالاستثمار الزراعي وتقديم المساعدات اللازمة للمستثمرين لتأسيس مجموعة من الشركات الزراعية والتي أدت إلى المساهمة في زيادة إنتاج المواد الغذائية ومنه ظهور موارد تحقيق الأمن الغذائي ابتداء من سنة 1988 م بشكل جيد جدآ، بالإضافة إلى صدور القانون رقم 10 بتاريخ  الخاص بتشجيع الاستثمار المحدد لمجالات الاستثمار المستفيدة من تسهيلاته، فقد أعطى هذا القانون لجميع المستثمرين وبغض النظر عن جنسيتهم الحق في إقامة المشاريع الاسثمارية دون اشتراط مشاركة المواطنين السوريين بأية نسبة من رأس المال، وهذا بهدف جلب رؤوس الأموال العربية المحلية والأجنبية إلى سوريا، وكذا القانون رقم 20 المؤرخ في  المتضمن تعديل نسب وشرائح الضريبة على المداخيل والأرباح الصناعية.

برزت خلال التسعينات عدة تحديات أمام الاقتصاد السوري بدأت تسيطر على التوجهات المستقبلية لهذا البلد يمكن إيجازها كما يلي:

 أن النفط ثروة زائلة لا يعول عليها كمصدر أساسي لموارد الدولة في ظل التقلبات الكثيرة في أسعارها واتجاهها نحو الانخفاض.
 أن معدل النمو السكاني لسوريا يتزايد بمعدل 3.3% سنويا وهو من أعلى نسب النمو في العالم، وما يترتب على ذلك من زيادة الطلب في سوق العمل وتجنيد الموارد اللازمة لمواجهة الإنفاق في مجالات التعليم، الصحة، الرعاية الاجتماعية وغيرها.
 سيترتب عن الانفتاح التجاري الناجم عن منطقة التجارة الحرة العربية أو تلك الناجمة عن الشراكة مع الاتحاد الأوروبي أو الانضمام للمنظمة العالمية للتجارة انعكاسات تمس النسيج الصناعي السوري، باعتبار أن عدد كبير من الصناعات السورية ستتأثر أمام هذا الانفتاح.

وقصد مواجهة هذه التحديات والمتغيرات الإقليمية والعالمية بادرت الهيئات المختصة بذلك في سورية إلى اعتماد جملة من الإجراءات يمكن إيجازها كما يلي:
 ربط الاستيراد بالتصدير وتشجيع الصادرات السورية والسماح للمصدر الاحتفاظ بنسبة 75% من قيمة صادراته بالعملات الصعبة (الأجنبية) من أجل إعادة الاستيراد.
 تخفيض الرسوم الجمركية على الكثير من السلع الغذائية والصناعية مقارنة مع المرحلة السابقة.
 إصدار قانون المهاجرين لسنة 1990 م والذي يسمح للسوريين المهاجرين بإدخال سيارات وأثاث منزلي وآلات وتجهيزات صناعية بهدف الاستثمار في المجال الصناعي أو الزراعي.
 إصدار قانون الاستثمار لسنة 1991 م والذي يسمح للقطاع الخاص الوطني والعربي والأجنبي من إقامة استثمارات صناعية، فلاحية وخدمية وسياحية وتقديم إعفاءات ومزايا عديدة لتشجيع القطاع الخاص وإعطائه دورا هاما في تنمية الاقتصاد السوري بعد أن كان القطاع العام يسيطر على أكثر من 80% من الإنتاج والتسويق في البلاد.
 تسهيلات مصرفية والسماح للمواطنين السوريين بفتح حسابات مصرفية بالعملات الأجنبية من دون قيد أو شرط، وبالتالي إلغاء القانون المانع لتداول العملات الأجنبية داخل البلاد.
 في سياق التطور الاقتصادي والانفتاح حققت المؤسسات المالية والاقتصادية ارتفاعآ ملموسآ منها ارتفاع عدد البنوك في سورية والمؤسسات المالية إلى أكثر من 20 بنك، وإنشاء بورصة دمشق - سوق دمشق للاوراق المالية.

البنية العامة
يعتبر الاقتصاد السوري اقتصادًا ناميًا ومتعددًا، أثرت الأزمة المندلعة منذ 2011 بشكل بالغ السلبية عليه وبلغت نسبة الانكماش الاقتصادي حوالي 20%. يقدر حجم العمالة في البلاد بحوالي 5.5 مليون شخص يزدادون بمقدار 200 ألف شخص سنويًا، وتبلغ نسبة البطالة 8.4% من مجموع القوى العاملة وقد تفاقمت ما بعد الأزمة السورية لتصل إلى 39%، وحوالي 70% من العاطلين هم من الشباب؛ كما وبنتيجة الأزمة فقد قدّرت الأمم المتحدة نصف السكان بوصفهم ضمن دائرة الفقر. ومما قبل الأزمة، فإنّ عجز السوق عن خلق فرص عمل جيدة لهذه العمالة، دفع عدد كبير من الشباب السوري إلى الهجرة.

بلغت قيمة الصادرات السوريّة عام 2010 حوالي 10.5 مليار دولار نصفها تقريبًا مع الأقطار العربية وعلى رأسها العراق والسعودية وحوالي 30% من الصادرات إلى دول الاتحاد الأوروبي أما سائر النسب توزعت على كوريا الجنوبية والصين والولايات المتحدة الإمريكية. أما واردات البلاد بلغت قيمتها 15 مليار دولار حوالي 16% منها من الدول العربية على رأسها مصر والسعودية وحوالي ربع الواردات جاءت من دول الاتحاد الأوروبي في حين كان نصيب الدول الأوروبية الأخرى نسبة 18% وتوزعت سائر النسب على الصين وتركيا والولايات المتحدة وكوريا الجنوبية والبرازيل. وعمومًا فإن الواردات السورية تنتمي إلى القطاع التقني والمعدات والآليات الصناعية الثقيلة إلى جانب بعض المواد الخام.

الزراعة وتربية الحيوان

تعتبر الزراعة من أهم مقومات الاقتصاد السوري، تبلغ مساحة مجمل الأراضي الصالحة للزراعة 32% وتشكل 26% من مجموع الدخل القومي، ويعمل بالمجال الزراعي فقط دون الصناعات المعتمدة على الزراعة وفق الإحصاءات الرسمية لعام 2007 نحو مليون عامل في سوق العمل. أهم المحاصيل، هي القمح والشعير والقطن التي تعتبر سوريا العاشرة عالميًا في إنتاجه، والزيتون وتعتبر السادسة عالميًا في إنتاجه؛ إلى جانب الخضار والفواكة من الأشجار المثمرة وسواها، والأزهار؛ ويعتبر الأمن الغذائي في سوريا محققًا، وتعتبر الخضار والفواكة وسائر المحاصيل الزراعية من صادرات البلاد لاسيّما لدول الخليج العربي.

أما تربية الحيوان، فإلى جانب بعض البدو الرحّل في البادية والذين يعتاشون بشكل رئيسي على تربية الماعز والغنم والجمال؛ فانتشار مزارع تربية الأبقار والأغنام ومداجن الدجاج منتشرة في الريف السوري؛ ويقدر عدد الأبقار بحوالي 1.165 مليون رأس تنتج 1.516 مليون طن من الحليب و62 ألف طن من اللحوم، أما عدد الأغنام فيصل إلى مليوني رأس تنتج 750 ألف طن من الحليب و184 ألف طن من اللحوم و23 ألف طن من الصوف سنويًا. أما الدجاج فيبلغ عدده حوالي 120 مليون دجاجة تؤمن حوالي 4000 مليون بيضة سنويًا؛ وينتشر صيد الأسماك في المناطق الساحلية ومناطق الأنهار والبحيرات ويصل الإنتاج السنوي منه إلى 17 ألف طن.

الثروات الباطنية

تحتل سوريا المركز 27 عالميًا بإنتاج النفط، وتقع آباره بشكل أساسي في محافظتي الحسكة ودير الزور، ويكرر محليًا في مصفاتي حمص وبانياس، ويبلغ الإنتاج 400 ألف برميل يوميًا؛ وهناك دراسات حديثة حول وجود نفط قبالة الشاطئ السوري في البحر الأبيض المتوسط؛ وبكل الأحوال فإنه يتم تصدير النفط الخام واستيراد مشتقاته لتغطية حاجات السوق المحلية. ويعتبر الغاز الطبيعي المكشتف في محافظات الحسكة وإدلب وحمص ودير الزور، ثاني الثروات الباطنية في سوريا، ويبلغ الإنتاج اليومي منه 28 مليون متر مكعب، ويطرح في السوق المحلية لإنتاج الكهرباء والحاجات الأخرى، مع احتمال وجود آبار جديدة من النفط غير مكتشفة بعد. أما ثالث الثروات الباطنية هو الفوسفات، وقد بلغ حجم الإنتاج منه عام 2010، حوالي 3.6 مليون طن يصدر معظمه.

الصناعة

تعتبر سوريا بلدًا صناعيًا من الدرجة المتوسطة، والاستثمار الصناعي مقسوم بدوره إلى قطاعين، الاستثمار في القطاع العام الذي تديره الحكومة والاستثمار في القطاع الخاص الممثل بالمصانع والشركات الصناعية والمساهمة الخاصة أو المشتركة، تبلغ مساهمة القطاع الخاص الصناعي في الناتج المحلي 60%، وهو ما يعتبر نسبة مرتفعة خصوصًا في ظل تحوّل البلاد إلى «نظام السوق الاجتماعي». سعت الدولة خلال التحوّل نحو نظام السوق الاجتماعي، تشجيع الصناعات الخاصة من خلال قوانين تشجيع الاستثمار، والإعفاء لسبع سنوات في الضرائب من تاريخ بدء الإنتاج، وافتتاح وتطوير عدد من المدن الصناعية الملحقة بالمدن الكبرى.

أبرز الصناعات السوريّة هي الصناعات النسجية كالحلج والغزل والنسج، والصناعات الغذائية، والصناعات المعتمدة على مواد الإنشاء والتعمير؛ والصناعات الكهربائية والإلكترونية كالادوات المنزلية وشاشات الحاسوب والتلفاز (شركة تريفيو وسيرونيكس والحافظ)؛ وهناك معملان لصناعة وتجميع السيارات لتلبية حاجة السوق المحليّة أساسًا؛ فضلاً عن الصناعات المرتبطة بالثروات الباطنية كصناعة الأسمدة والاسمنت؛ أما فيما يخص الطاقة، فقد بلغ إنتاج البلاد عام 2010 45.9 مليار كيلوواط ساعي، يستهلك القسط الأكبر محليًا ويصدر الباقي إلى لبنان. وبشكل عام فإنّ الصناعات الإلكترونية ضعيفة للغاية وتستورد البلاد غالب احتياجاتها منها.

التجارة والخدمات
يشكل قطاع الخدمات حوالي 42% من الناتج المحلي الإجمالي و39% من مجموع القوى العاملة في البلاد. الخدمات المصرفية تقسم بين القطاعين العام والخاص وأغلب المصارف الكبرى في الشرق الأوسط تملك فروعًا في سوريا، ويدير مصرف سورية المركزي مجمل العملية المالية في الدولة. كانت القيود على حركة انتقال رؤوس الأموال من وإلى سوريا تشوبها العديد من العوائق قبل التحوّل نحو الاقتصاد المفتوح والسماح لغير الجهات العامة بالاستثمار في قطاع البنكية والمؤسسات المالية، وهو ما توّج بافتتاح سوق دمشق للأوراق المالية عام 2009.

السياحة

بلغت نسبة عائدات سوريا من السياحة عام 2007 14.4% من مجمل الدخل القومي السوري، وتوفر السياحة عمالة لحوالي 13% من مجموع القوى العاملة في البلاد إلى جانب 31% من احتياطي النقد الأجنبي، وبلغ عدد السياح في عام 2007 4.6 مليون سائح حسب إحصاءات وزارة السياحة دون احتساب السوريين المقيمين في الخارج، وأبدت الحكومة السورية اهتمامًا خاصًا بالسياحة من خلال رفع نسبة الإنفاق عليها في الموازنة العامة للدولة عام 2007 بنسبة 350% عما كانت عليه في السابق، كما بلغت قيمة الاستثمار في المجال السياحي من قبل القطاعين العام والخاص 6 مليارات دولار. اهتمام السوّاح بسوريا، يعود لاحتوائها على العديد من القلاع والمواقع الأثرية لحقبات تاريخية مختلفة ويزيد عدد المواقع المكتشفة في سوريا والتي تعود إلى العصر الحجري القديم إلى 700 موقع أثري، إضافة إلى المواقع الأثرية التي تعود للمراحل اللاحقة حتى العصر العثماني، إلى جانب انتشار المصايف والغابات ذات الحرارة المعتدلة والمناظر الطبيعية في مناطق واسعة منها. كما أن تكلفة إقامة السوّاح في سوريا تعتبر أقل بكثير مما يدفعه السائح في بلدان مجاورة كتركيا أو لبنان؛ وتقام في سوريا مهرجانات سنوية عديدة أهمها معرض دمشق الدولي، ومهرجان القلعة والوادي، وتحوي البلاد أيضًا على عدد كبير من المتاحف، أهمها المتحف الوطني بدمشق المؤسس عام 1919. وقد أفضت الأزمة السورية منذ 2011، لاختفاء السياحة في البلاد.

القوة العاملة
القوة العاملة هي مجموع السكان الذين يقدمون على عرض العمل سواءً أكانوا يعملون فعلاً أم يبحثون عنه، وقد بلغ عدد أفراد القوّة العاملة في سوريا عام 2002 5.5 ملوين نسمة، بتزايد 0.3 مليون سنويًا، أي بنسبة نمو 4.3% وهي تعتبر من النسب المرتفعة للغاية، وأما نسبة قوة العمل إلى مجموع السكان فهو منخفض بالمقارنة مع الدول المجاورة سيّما المتقدمة، إذ لا تتجاوز 32% من مجموع السكان، والسبب الرئيسي في ذلك كون المجتمع السوري عمومًا مجتمعًا فتيًا ترتفع فيه نسبة الأطفال وبالتالي تقلّ نسبة قوة العمالة، والثاني ضعف مشاركة الإناث في القوة العاملة وبقاء كثير منهنّ في البيوت لتربية الأطفال ورعاية المنزل، وهو ما يؤدي ليس فقط لانخفاض نسبة القوة العاملة، بل أيضًا إلى ارتفاع معدل الإعالة وانخفاض حصة الفرد من الناتج المحلي الإجمالي، ويؤثر سلبًا على مستوى المعيشة. ويذكر أن المشاركة الأنثويّة قد تضاعفت خلال الآونة الأخيرة فبينما كانت تشكل 7% فقط من القوّة العاملة عام 1980 أصبحت عام 2000 13% من مجموعها.

وفيما يخصّ المكتسبات التعليمية للقوة العاملة السوريّة، فبدورها قد شهدت تطورًا ملحوظًا، فبعد أن كان 49% من القوة العاملة من الأميين عام 1970 انخفضت النسبة إلى 16.5% عام 1994، وارتفع في المقابل مساهمة حملة الشهادات الجامعيّة في سوق العمل من 1.6% إلى 6%، رغم ذلك تعتبر النسب إذا ما قورنت بالمعدلات العالميّة ذات نمو ضعيف. وترتفع نسبة الأميّة بين سكان الأرياف سيما ريف محافظة حلب والرقة والحسكة ودير الزور، بالمقارنة مع سكان المدن، وعلى الرغم من الجهود التي بذلتها الدولة السوريّة لمحو الأميّة وعلى رأسها إصدار قانون التعليم عام 1970 إلا أنها فشلت في القضاء عليها، وبحسب «التقرير الوطني للتنمية البشرية» الصادر عام 2005 فإن وجود 16.5% من القوة العاملة أميّة تعتبر مشكلة خطيرة، إن كان من ناحية نوعية إنتاجها، أم من ناحية تطور الحركة الاقتصادية والاجتماعية بشكل عام.

نحو 23.5% من القوة العاملة تمتهن الزراعة، وهي نسبة مرتفعة وتؤثر سلبًا على تطور الاقتصاد، رغم ذلك فهي انخفضت إلى نصف ما كانت عليه عام 1970، في حين تزايدت نسبة العاملين في المنشآت الصناعيّة الكبيرة والقطاع الخدمي والأعمال الإدارية. وفيما يخصّ الصناعة فإن 12.5% من القوة العاملة تتجه نحوها، على أن مشكلة الصناعة في سوريا كون 85% من المنشآت الصناعيّة منشآت صغيرة من الطراز الذي يوظف أقل من عشرة عمال، وبين المسح الذي أجري عام 2000 أنّ 2.3% من المنشآت فقط يعمل بها أكثر من مائة عامل. هذا ينسحب بدوره على نوعية الآلات التي تستخدمها العمالة، فحوالي 13% من المنشآت تستخدم تجهيزات يدويّة و49% منها تجهيزات نصف آليّة في حين أن 38% من المنشآت فقط تستخدم تجهزيات آلية. كما بدوره، يؤثر على عدم حاجة السوق المحلي، لكفاءات علمية عاليّة بنفس المقدار لحاجته لعمالة غير متقدمة علميًا بسبب عدم اعتماد المنشآت أساسًا على تجهيزات آلية حديثة، تتطلب كوادر علمية وفنية لإدارة عمليات الإنتاج.

سائر العمالة، تتوزع وفق إحصاء العام 2001، وفق الشكل التالي: قطاع البناء 11%، وقطاع السياحة 13%، وقطاع النقل 5%، والمال والعقارات 2%، والخدمات 20% والنسبة الباقية عاطلة عن العمل.

العقوبات
- فرضت الولايات المتحدة عقوبات جديدة في منتصف حزيران/يونيه 2020، مما زاد من الضغط السياسي والاقتصادي على النظام السوري. وتهدف هذه الخطوة إلى عزل الرئيس بشار الأسد ودفعه إلى العودة إلى محادثات السلام التي توسطت فيها الأمم المتحدة. ووفقاً للعقوبات الأمريكية الجديدة المفروضة على دمشق، فإن الدول التي تتعامل مع النظام السوري مثل الصين والإمارات العربية المتحدة وأي دولة أخرى، معرضة أيضاً لخطر العقوبات.

المراجع

المصادر
 حمدي عبد العظيم، الإصلاح الاقتصادي في الدول العربية بين سعر الصرف والموازنة العامة، ص(204).
 نهاد خليل محمد محمود أبو حميد محموداوي حمود دير الزوراوية، التكامل الصناعي السوري العربي الأوربي- اللبناني، الإمكانيات والفرص، مركز دراسات الوحدة العربية، بيروت، الطبعة 1، 2002، ص(34-35).

مصادر خارجية
 US Department of State

 Economy of Syria textual and chart data from the world bank and CIA factbook, hosted by the Lebanese Economy Forum

اقتصاد جامعة الدول العربية
اقتصاد دولي

اقتصاد سوريا


The government of New York City, headquartered at New York City Hall in Lower Manhattan, is organized under the New York City Charter and provides for a mayor-council system. The mayor is elected to a four-year term and is responsible for the administration of city government. The New York City Council is a unicameral body consisting of 51 members, each elected from a geographic district, normally for four-year terms. Primary elections for local offices use ranked choice voting, while general elections use plurality voting. All elected officials are subject to a two consecutive-term limit. The court system consists of two citywide courts and three statewide courts.

New York City government employs approximately 330,000 people, more than any other city in the United States and more than any U.S. state but three: California, Texas, and New York. The city government is responsible for public education, correctional institutions, public safety, recreational facilities, sanitation, water supply, and welfare services.

New York City consists of five boroughs, each coextensive with one of five counties of New York State: Brooklyn is Kings County, the Bronx is Bronx County, Manhattan is New York County, Queens is Queens County, and Staten Island is Richmond County. When New York City was consolidated into its present form in 1898, all previous town and county governments within it were abolished in favor of the present five boroughs and a unified, centralized city government. However, each county retains its own district attorney to prosecute crimes, and most of the court system is organized around the counties.

New York City is divided between two federal judicial districts.  Bronx County and New York County are in the Southern District while Kings County, Queens County, and Richmond County are in the Eastern District, although both districts have concurrent jurisdiction over the waters in their respective districts.

Executive branch
The executive branch of New York City consists of the Mayor, and numerous departments, boards and commissions. The Mayor also appoints several deputy mayors to head major offices within the executive branch of the city government. The City Record is the official journal published each weekday (except legal holidays) containing legal notices produced by city agencies, and regulations are compiled in the Rules of the City of New York.

Mayor

The Mayor is the chief executive officer of the city and a magistrate, appoints and removes all unelected officers and exercises all the powers vested in the city except otherwise provided by law, and is responsible for the effectiveness and integrity of city government operations. The mayor is directly elected by popular vote for a four-year term. The mayor is also responsible for creating the city's budget through the New York City Mayor's Office of Management and Budget, submitted for approval, not drafting, to the Council.

Mayoral agencies

Other citywide offices
Along with the mayor, the Public Advocate and the Comptroller are the only three directly elected citywide officials in New York City.

Public Advocate

The Public Advocate is an elected official with responsibility to ease public relations with the government, investigate complaints regarding city agencies, mediate disputes between city agencies and citizens, serve as the city's ombudsman and advise the mayor on community relations. The Public Advocate is a member of the Council. The Public Advocate stands first in line of succession to the mayoralty.

Comptroller

The Comptroller conducts performance and financial audits of all city agencies, serves as a fiduciary to the city's five public pension funds totaling nearly $160 billion in assets, provides comprehensive oversight of the city's budget and fiscal condition, reviews city contracts for integrity, accountability and fiscal compliance, manages the fair, efficient and effective resolution of claims against the city, ensures transparency and accountability in the prevailing wage rate-setting process and enforces prevailing wage and living wage laws. The Comptroller stands second, after the Public Advocate, in the line to succeed a mayor who has become unable to serve.

Non-mayoral agencies

There are also numerous commissions, boards, tribunals and offices that are independent of the mayor's office.

Legislative branch

Legislative power in the City of New York is vested in the New York City Council. The New York State Constitution empowers local governments to adopt local laws in addition to ordinances, resolutions, rules and regulations.

The Council is a unicameral body consisting of 51 Council members, whose districts are defined by geographic population boundaries that each contain approximately 157,000 people. Council members are elected every four years, except that after every census held in years divisible by twenty, districts are redrawn, requiring two consecutive two-year terms, the second of which is held in the redrawn districts. The Speaker of the Council, selected by the 51 Council members, is often considered the second most powerful post in New York City's government after the Mayor.

Bills passed by a simple majority are sent to the mayor, who may sign them into law. If the mayor vetoes a bill, the Council has 30 days to override the veto by a two-thirds majority vote. A local law has a status equivalent with a law enacted by the New York State Legislature (subject to certain exceptions and restrictions), and is superior to the older forms of municipal legislation such as ordinances, resolutions, rules and regulations. The codified local laws of New York City are contained in the New York City Administrative Code.

The Council has several committees with oversight of various functions of the city government. Each council member sits on at least three standing, select or subcommittees. The standing committees meet at least once per month. The Speaker of the Council, the Majority Leader, and the Minority Leader are all ex officio members of every committee.

Prior to 1990, the city also had a powerful Board of Estimate, a unique legislative-executive hybrid. Although it could not pass laws, it shared authority for the city budget with the council and controlled functions such as land use, municipal contracts, franchises, and water and sewer rates. The Board's membership consisted of the mayor, comptroller, president of the City Council, and the five borough presidents. The three citywide officials each cast two votes, and the borough presidents one each. In 1989, the Supreme Court of the United States struck down the Board of Estimate as violating the principle of "one man, one vote", due to the dramatically unequal numbers of constituents being represented by each borough president. The city subsequently adopted its current arrangement by referendum.

Courts

The state court system in New York City has two citywide courts, the Criminal Court and the Civil Court, and several statewide courts, the Supreme Court, Surrogate's Court, and Family Court. Unlike the rest of New York, New York City counties do not have a typical County Court. Each statewide court is located in each of New York City's five counties (boroughs). There are also numerous extrajudicial administrative courts such as OATH, which are executive agencies and not part of the state Unified Court System.

The Criminal Court of the City of New York handles summons court appearance tickets, violations, misdemeanors (generally, crimes punishable by fine or imprisonment of up to one year), and conducts arraignments (initial court appearances following arrest) and preliminary hearings in felony cases.

The Civil Court of the City of New York includes Housing Court for landlord-tenant matters, Small Claims Court for cases involving amounts up to $5000, and generally has jurisdiction for damages up to $25,000. It handles about 25% of all the New York state and local courts' total filings. There are also several extrajudicial administrative courts, e.g. the Office of Administrative Trials and Hearings (OATH) adjudicates matters for city agencies unless otherwise provided for by law, and the city Parking Violations Bureau adjudicates parking violations.

The Supreme Court of the State of New York is the trial court of general jurisdiction, which in New York City hears felony cases and major civil cases. (Lesser criminal and civil cases are heard in the Criminal Court and Civil Court, respectively.) The Family Court of the State of New York is a family court that hears cases involving children and families. The Surrogate's Court of the State of New York is the probate court which oversees the probate of wills and administers estates.

Borough and community government
New York City is composed of five boroughs or counties, collectively comprising 59 community districts.

Borough presidents

Each of the five boroughs has an elected borough president. The borough presidents can have legislation introduced in the council, recommend capital projects, hold public hearings on matters of public interest, make recommendations to the mayor and to other city officials, make recommendations on land use and planning, and make recommendations regarding the performance of contracts providing for the delivery of services, in the interests of the people of their borough.

Borough boards

Each of the five boroughs has a borough board. They are composed of the borough president, Council members from the borough, and the chairperson of each community board in the borough. The borough boards can hold or conduct public or private hearings, adopt by-laws, prepare comprehensive and special purpose plans and make recommendations for land use and planning, mediate disputes and conflicts among two or more community boards, submit a comprehensive statement of the expense and capital budget priorities and needs, evaluate the progress of capital developments and the quality and quantity of services provided by agencies, and otherwise consider the needs of the borough.

Community boards

Each of the fifty-nine community districts has a community board composed of up to 50 volunteer members appointed by the local borough president, half from nominations by Council members representing the community district (i.e., whose council districts cover part of the community district). Community boards advise on land use and zoning, participate in the city budget process, and address service delivery in their district. Community boards act in an advisory capacity, wielding no official authority to make or enforce laws.

State and county government

District attorneys

Each of the five counties of New York City elects a district attorney (DA) for a four-year term, whose duty it is to prosecute all crimes and offenses cognizable by the courts of the county. There is also a sixth DA, the Office of the Special Prosecutor for Narcotics, who is unelected, but appointed by the five elected DAs.

Public authorities

The Brooklyn Public Library and Queens Public Library are public library systems within their respective boroughs. The New York Public Library is a private, non-governmental library serving the Bronx, Manhattan, and Staten Island, that receives government funding. The New York City Housing Authority (NYCHA) provides public housing for low- and moderate-income residents. NYC Health + Hospitals (New York City Health and Hospitals Corporation, or HHC) operates public hospitals and clinics. The New York City Economic Development Corporation (NYCEDC) is the city's economic development corporation.

The Metropolitan Transportation Authority (MTA) manages public transportation in the city, through its arm the New York City Transit Authority. Despite this name, the NYCTA, like the rest of the MTA, was created by the New York State Legislature as a public-benefit corporation, which the legislature and governor of New York control. The MTA also operates the Staten Island Railway within the city of New York, as well as the Long Island Rail Road and Metro-North Railroad, both of which are commuter lines that have termini in the city but run largely in the suburban counties of New York State and Connecticut.

Other regional transportation is managed by the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey, including the bridges and tunnels between New York City and New Jersey, and all airports and seaports within the city. The Port Authority is an interstate compact operating agency jointly controlled by the Governor of New Jersey and Governor of New York.

Political parties

State Election Law defines the structure of political parties. It requires each party to have a state committee and allows them to organize county committees. The county committees are composed of at least two members elected from each election district (containing a maximum of 950–1150 registered voters). The law also allows the election of assembly district leaders. The political parties' county executive committees typically select candidates for local offices, to be ratified by the full county committees. Many small parties do not have county committees and designate candidates at the state level. The political parties' judicial nominating conventions select candidate New York Supreme Court justices. Candidates for the citywide offices of mayor, comptroller and public advocate are designated jointly by the five county executive committees of each party. In most cases, insurgents who are party members can challenge party-designated candidates by petitioning for a primary election.

Heraldry

The seal of New York City, adopted in an earlier form in 1686, bears the legend SIGILLVM CIVITATIS NOVI EBORACI, which means simply "The Seal of the City of New York". Eboracum was the Roman name for York, the titular seat of James II as Duke of York. The two supporters represent the unity between Native Americans and colonists, the four windmill sails recall the city's Dutch history as New Amsterdam, and the beavers and flour barrels the city's earliest trade goods (see History of New York City). The crest over the seal is the American eagle, added after the American Revolution. "1625", the date at the bottom, was chosen to emphasize the city's Dutch roots but has been characterized as "arbitrary" and "simply wrong" by notable city historians (New Amsterdam was actually settled in 1624).

The flag of New York City was adopted in 1915. Its blue, white, and orange bands represent the colors of the Dutch flag that flew over the city, then New Amsterdam, between the 1620s and 1660s. Located in the center is a blue print of the official Seal of New York City minus its Latin motto.

There are two official variants of the New York City flag. The Mayor's Office version adds an arc of five five-pointed stars (representing each of the five boroughs) in blue above the seal, and the Councilmanic version adds the word "COUNCIL" in blue below the seal.

See also

Government and politics in Brooklyn
Government of New York (state)
List of New York City borough halls and municipal buildings
Politics of New York City

References

External links

 NYC.gov
 New York City Charter, the New York City Administrative Code, and the Rules of the City of New York from New York Legal Publishing
 Checkbook NYC 2.0 from the New York City Comptroller
 NYC Open Data from the New York City DoITT and Socrata
 City of New York on GitHub
 CityAdmin, a collection of NYC administrative decisions from New York Law School

Local government in New York (state)

Government of New York City


مسجد الخميس، يُعتقد بأنه أول مسجد في البحرين حيث بني في عهد الخليفة الأموي عمر بن عبد العزيز.

يعتبر أحد أقدم المساجد في المنطقة إذ يُعتقد أن تأسيسه يعود إلى عام قد 692. منذ ذلك الحين أُعيد بناؤه مرتين في القرنين 14 و 15.

بلاطة المحراب
بُني المحراب من الحجر الجيري. تم اكتشاف لوح خلال ترميم المسجد ويُعتقد أن يكون قد أُنشئ في القرن 12. نُقشت آيتان قرآنيتان هما الآية 34 و 35 من سورة الأنبياء  (سورة الأنبياء)، والتي تُستخدم عادة على شواهد القبور.

المصادر

 لفتنانت کولونیل، سیر آرنولد ویلسون،  «(تاریخ عمان والخلیج)» ، طُبع عام 1409 للهجرة.

آثار البحرين
مساجد البحرين
مساجد تاريخية
مساجد في المنامة

مسجد الخميس


An Aristida mendocina in uska species han Liliopsida nga ginhulagway ni Rodolfo Amando Philippi. An Aristida mendocina in nahilalakip ha genus nga Aristida, ngan familia nga Poaceae. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Aristida

Aristida mendocina


MediaWiki, GNU lisansıyla korunan, kullanımı açık bir viki yazılımıdır. PHP ile yazılmıştır ve MySQL veya PostgreSQL ilişkisel veritabanı yönetim sistemi kullanır. MediaWiki; 1.7 sürümünden itibaren PHP 5 desteğini zorunlu tutmaktadır. Eğer PHP'nin eski bir sürümünü kullanıyorsanız MediaWiki'nin 1.6.10 sürümünü kullanmak zorundasınız.

İlk başta MediaWiki, özgür bir ansiklopedi olan Vikipedi için geliştirilmişti, ancak daha sonra, en yaygın kullanılan wiki yazılımı oldu. Bugün, Wikimedia Vakfı'ın tüm projelerinde, Wikia'da barındırılan tüm sitelerde, ve pek çok diğer büyük wikide kullanılmaktadır.

Ayrıca, müesseseler tarafından kurumsal bilgi yönetimi veya içerik yönetimi amacıyla da kullanılmaktadır. En büyük örneği, halka açık geniş çaplı sitelerini bu sistemle (değişiklikler halka kapalı olarak) yöneten Novell'dir.

Test Vikipedisi

Test Vikipedisi sadece test alanı olarak kullanmak üzere 13 Ocak 2006 tarihinde açılmıştır. Yayındaki diğer Wikimedia Vakfı projelerine test yapmak amacıyla herhangi bir zarar vermemek için kullanılmaktadır. Bu daha çok ileri safhada kod ve yazılım kullanabilen Vikipedistler içindir. Bu yüzden katılım çok azdır. Bunun nedeni viki kodlamasında programcılık yapabilecek Vikipedistlerin çok az olmasıdır. Daha çok wiki kodlaması yapabilen kullanıcılar için diğer projeleri aksatmamak için testlerini yapabilecekleri bir alan sağlanmak istenmiştir. İngilizce dışında başka bir sürüm oluşturulmamıştır.

Kaynakça

Dış bağlantılar
 MediaWiki resmî web sitesi
 Test Vikipedisi
 Proje sayfası SourceForge'da
 Meta-Wiki'de MediaWiki, Wikimedia Vakfı'nın meta web sitesi.
 Kullanım kılavuzu
 MediaWiki kullanan siteler

2002 yazılımları
İletişim ve işbirliği sistemleri
Ücretsiz çapraz platform yazılımları
Ücretsiz içerik yönetim sistemleri
PHP ile programlanmış ücretsiz yazılımlar
Çokdilli web siteleri
Reklamsız web siteleri
Sürüm kontrol sistemi

MediaWiki


Dérapage contrôlé () est un film policier italien réalisé par Luciano Ercoli et sorti en 1973.

Synopsis
Rodolfo Patti, dit Rudy, est un champion de Formule 1. Après avoir été impliqué dans un meurtre, il est arrêté : sa petite amie Nina a été retrouvée morte par Scotland Yard et il ne peut fournir d'alibi. Après s'être échappé de prison, il tente de prouver son innocence avec l'aide de ses amis.

Fiche technique
 Titre français : Dérapage contrôlé
 Titre original italien :
 Réalisateur : Luciano Ercoli
 Scénario : Luciano Ercoli, Ernesto Gastaldi, Giorgio Capitani, Luigi De Santis, Rodolfo Cappellini, Franco Nano
 Photographie : Claudio Cirillo
 Montage : Angelo Curi
 Musique : Giampaolo Chiti
 Décors : Lucio Lucentini
 Costumes : Barbara Pugliese
 Maquillage : Walter Cossu
 Production : Luciano Ercoli, Alberto Pugliese, Antonio Negri
 Sociétés de production : Cinecompany
 Pays de production :
 Langue originale : italien
 Format : Couleur - 2,35:1 - Son mono - 35 mm
 Durée : 110 minutes
 Genre : Giallo
 Dates de sortie :
 Italie :
 France :

Distribution
Giuliano Gemma : Rodolfo Patti, dit « Rudy »
Nieves Navarro (sous le nom de « Susan Scott ») : Mina
Venantino Venantini : Piero Albertini
Michael Forest : Brauner
Stella Carnacina : Eva
Mario Erpichini : Mitridates
Glauco Onorato : Grossmann
Giancarlo Zanetti : Donald
Carlo Gentili : Inspecteur Forrest.
Isabelle Marchall : Isabelle
Christa Linder : Ingrid
Hansi Linder : Helga
Nello Pazzafini : un détenu
Margherita Horowitz : la femme de chambre de Rodolfo.
Paolo Figlia : un homme de main de Mithridates
Giovanni Cianfriglia : un voyou.
Franco Beltramme
Bernard Berat
Emerson Fittipaldi : lui-même (non crédité)
Jackie Stewart : lui-même (non crédité)

Notes et références

Liens externes

Film italien sorti en 1971
Film réalisé par Luciano Ercoli
Film scénarisé par Ernesto Gastaldi
Film policier italien
Giallo
Film en italien

Dérapage contrôlé (film)


Das 1979 eröffnete Gärtner- und Häckermuseum widmet sich der Geschichte und Kultur der Bamberger Gärtner und Häcker (fränkisch für Winzer).

Es ist in einem typischen Gärtnerhaus im Bamberger Gärtnerviertel eingerichtet. Das Museum zeigt mit Wohn- und Schlafraum, Küche, Vorratsraum, Hofplatz, Wirtschaftsräumen und Garten die Lebens- und Arbeitsumgebung einer Gärtnerfamilie um 1900. Eine gesonderte Ausstellung zeigt Objekte der religiösen Brauchtumspflege der Gärtner. Anlässlich der Landesgartenschau Bamberg 2012 wurde das Museum neu konzipiert und am 22. April 2012 neu eröffnet.

Literatur
 Ralph Lessmeister u. a.: Visionen für die Bamberger Gärtnerstadt. Interdisziplinärer Hochschul-Workshop und Symposium 2008. München: Technische Universität München, Fakultät für Architektur
 Maria Scheinost: Vom Wirtschaftsfaktor zum Weltkulturerbe – Bambergs Gärtner und Häcker. Veröffentlichung des Stadtarchiv Bamberg 2009
 Wolfgang Wußmann: "Ein Zwiebeltreter bin ich gern." Bamberg und seine Gärtner. Gundelsheim: Genniges 2002
 30 Jahre Gärtner- und Häckermuseum 1979–2009. Ein Begleitheft zu den Feierlichkeiten am 14. Oktober 2009. Herausgegeben vom Verein Gärtner- und Häckermuseum Bamberg e. V.

Weblinks
 http://www.ghm-bamberg.de  Internetpräsenz des Museums
 "Ein einzigartiges Museum": Neueröffnung zur Landesgartenschau im April 2012
 Gärtner- und Häckermuseum erhält neues Konzept
 Die Gärtnerstadt. Magazin zur Landesgartenschau Bamberg. Juli 2009. (PDF-Datei; 6,60 MB)
 Vom Wirtschaftsfaktor zum Welterbe. Bambergs Gärtner und Häcker. Sonderausstellung im Historischen Museum der Stadt Bamberg vom 17. April – 31. Juli 2010 (PDF-Datei; 2,03 MB)

Museum in Bamberg
Agrarmuseum in Deutschland
Gartenbaumuseum
Gegründet 1979

Gärtner- und Häckermuseum


Als Burgruine Birkenstein werden Reste von Höhenburgen auf dem Höhenzug Dün im thüringischen Eichsfeldkreis angesprochen. Die 1256 erstmals urkundlich erwähnte Burg wurde im 13. Jahrhundert an das Kurfürstentum Mainz verkauft.
Im Ergebnis der Feldforschung wurde in den 1970er-Jahren eine als "Birkenstein II" bezeichnete Burgstelle, kaum 300 Meter von der Hauptburg entfernt, vom Museum für Ur- und Frühgeschichte Weimar untersucht.

Lage
Die beiden Burgstellen Birkenstein befinden sich an der Westflanke auf dem nördlichen Teil des Wingert genannten Höhenzuges ungefähr einen Kilometer südlich des Ortes Birkungen im Landkreis Eichsfeld.
Die Burgen waren Teil eines Systems hochmittelalterlicher Befestigungsanlagen, die das Umland von Dingelstädt beherrschte, zu dem auch das spätere Kloster Reifenstein gehört.

Befunde

Birkenstein I
Die Hauptburg Birkenstein I befindet sich in Hanglage, ein Steinbruch hat das Burggelände bereits im 19. Jahrhundert stark verändert. Eine Vermessung der Baureste ergab ein Viereck von 70 × 50 Meter Kantenlänge mit abgerundeten Ecken. Die Wälle und Gräben sind nur auf der Bergseite deutlicher erkennbar. Oberirdische Mauerreste wurden vermutlich von den Steinbrucharbeitern abgetragen. Die wissenschaftliche Grabung fand im südöstlichen Teil der Burgfläche noch Gebäudestrukturen und Keramikreste. Hohlziegel und Brandschutt bedecken den Hang unterhalb der Burgstelle.

Birkenstein II
Die zuvor unbekannte Anlage wurde in den 1980er Jahren von Bodendenkmalpflegern gemeldet und befindet sich 300 m nordöstlich der Anlage Birkenstein I. Die Gräben bilden ein Viereck mit abgerundeten Ecken, die Ausdehnung beträgt 19 × 17 Meter. Der bereits teilweise zugerutschte Graben hat eine Restbreite von 3 m im Sohlenbereich. Im Nordosten liegt ein vorgelagerter Wall in Richtung auf den Berghang. Die angrenzende eingeebnete Fläche könnte mit Gebäuden bebaut gewesen sein.

Geschichte
Im Jahr 1035 verkauft Kaiser Konrad II. dem Kloster Fulda ein Gut in "loco Birkene in germara marca in comitatu Lutgeri comitis", ob damit aber das hiesige Birkungen gemeint ist, ist nicht erwiesen.
Die erste Erwähnung des Ortes Birkungen fand im Jahr 1191 durch eine Schenkungsurkunde an das Zisterzienserkloster Reifenstein statt, bei der als Zeugen Bürger des Ortes "Bircunchen" anwesend waren. Schon 1206 wird ein Reinher von Birkenstein erwähnt, die Burg Birkenstein selbst erst 1256 durch eine Schenkung an das Kloster Reifenstein durch Ernst von Birkenstein. Die Größe von 50 × 70 Meter spricht aber für ein höheres Alter der Anlage bis ins 9./10. Jahrhundert. Im 13. Jahrhundert war die Burg Birkenstein im Besitz der Grafen von Gleichenstein. Diese standen im Dienst der Erzbischöfe von Mainz. Sie verfügten dadurch über große Gebiete Thüringens, vor allem in der Gegend um Erfurt und im Eichsfeld. 1287 wurden die Burgen Birkenstein, Gleichenstein und Scharfenstein an Mainz verpachtet und schließlich 1294 infolge hoher Verschuldung der Grafen von Gleichen dem Kurfürsten Gerhard II. von Eppstein verkauft. Damit ging der Verkauf des Eichsfeldes an das Kurfürstentum Mainz einher, das bis zur Säkularisation 1802 auch eine Mainzer Exklave blieb. 1323 soll die Burg noch in einem guten Zustand gewesen sein. Die unten stehende Sage berichtet von der Zeit des Bauernkrieges, doch kann man davon ausgehen, dass der Ritter von Birkenstein in diesem schon keine Rolle mehr gespielt hat und die Burg aufgegeben wurde. Heute kann man die ehemalige Burg nur noch erahnen. Lediglich der Burggraben und eine mit Hochwald bewachsene Mauer sind erkennbar.

Amt Birkenstein
Eine genaue Angabe zum Umfang des Burgbezirkes und späteren Amtes Birkenstein kann nicht gemacht werden. Die dazugehörigen Dörfer sind wohl schon sehr früh zum benachbarten Amt Scharfenstein gekommen. Folgende Burgmänner oder Vögte als Lehnsnehmer sind bekannt:
 1242 Ernst von Birkenstein
 1258 Christian (Christianus advocatus in Birkenstein)
 1290 Alexander von Berlingerode

Adelige Familie von Birkenstein

Die Herren von Birkenstein wurden vermutlich im 13. Jahrhundert von den Besitzern der Burg Birkenstein als Burgherren eingesetzt, nach der sie sich benannten. Nach Siebmachers Wappenbuch sollen sie noch im 15. und 16. Jahrhundert im Eichsfeld begütert gewesen sein und sind danach erloschen. Das Wappen zeigt eine gestürzte Spitze und in jedem Feld ein Kleeblatt. Folgende Vertreter sind nachgewiesen:
 1209 Reinher von Birkungen oder Birkenstein
 1242 Ernst von Birkenstein
 1256 Adelheid von Birkenstein, Tochter von Ernst (und Nichte von Hugo von Salza), schenkte 1½ Hufen und einen Hof zu Breitenholz an das Kloster Reifenstein als Ersatz des Schadens, welchen ihre Vorfahren diesem Kloster zugefügt haben
 1266 Burchard von Birkenstein

Sage
Bis heute hat die Sage der Kellerjungfrau zu Birkenstein eine große Rolle im Ort Birkungen:
Eines Tages soll die Burg Birkenstein von wütenden Bürgern des Ortes überfallen worden sein. Alle Bewohner der Burg bis auf eine Jungfrau konnten entfliehen. Diese versteckte sich im Vorratskeller der Burg und wartete, bis die Bauern verschwunden waren. Doch dann zog ein Sturm auf, der die Burg verwüstete. Erst als der Sturm vorüber war, schaffte es die Kellerjungfrau mühevoll nach draußen zu gelangen. Sie rannte in das Dorf, um nach der gräflichen Familie zu suchen. Mit einem Reisigbesen in der Hand befragte sie die Bewohner, doch diese gaben ihr die Nachricht, dass der Ritter von Birkenstein in der Schlacht bei Frankenhausen umgekommen sei. Nie wurde erzählt, dass die Kellerjungfrau gestorben sei – das Gegenteil ist der Fall: noch jüngere Generationen erzählen, dass sie die Jungfrau mit dem Reisigbesen gesehen haben wollen.

Literatur

 Karl Wüstenfeld: Schloß Birkenstein. In: Heimatborn. Beilage zum Eichsfelder Volksblatt 3 Nr. 4.
 Richard Linke: Ausflug zum versteckten Birkenstein. In: Eichsfelder Heimatzeitschrift Verlag Mecke Duderstadt 1995, Heft 10, S. 303–304

Weblinks

 Stefan Grathoff: Birkenstein 18. Juni 2005, in: Burgenlexikon, abgerufen am 6. Mai 2012

Einzelnachweise

Birkenstein
Birkenstein
Bauwerk in Leinefelde-Worbis
Birken
Birkenstein, Eichsfeld
Scharfenstein, Eichsfeld

Burgruine Birkenstein (Eichsfeld)


Partizanski poslijeratni zločini u Mrtvom jarku kod Suhopolja počinjeni su u svibnju 1945. Lokacija Mrtvi jarak nalazi se jugoistočno od Suhopolja između sela Bukova i Velika Trapinska u šumovitom predjelu istočne Bilogore. Tijekom svibnja do kolovoza 1945. jedinice Jugoslavenske armije iz 5. crnogorske proleterske brigade na ovaj su šumski predjel dovodile zarobljenike i bivše vojnike Nezavisne Države Hrvatske, većina iz kolona s Križnog puta, te civile koji su osumnjičeni kao protivnici nove jugoslavenske vlasti sa šireg virovitičkog područja. Pripadnici navedene partizanske brigade, kasnije su se po usmenoj predaji, hvalili po okolnim selima da su prije prelaska u partizane bili u četnicima. Lokacija Mrtvi jarak prije se nazivao Duboki jarak, a radi se manjoj kotlini skrivenoj šumovitim predjelom. Tijekom 2007. pronađena je tokom probnog iskapanja jedna masovna grobnica, iako po sjećanju starijih mještana u okolici se nalaze četiri lokacije s procjenom oko 700 ubijenih.

Ostala ratna i poratna stratišta u virovitičkom kraju
Uz spomenuto stratište Mrtvi jarak, postoji još uz ciglanu u Pčeliću, te u Virovitici na više lokacija, kod Šećerane, na Đolti kod današnje zapadne obilaznice, na kraju Bečke ulice i u Milanovcu kod Kaže.

Ostalo
Svake godine 23. kolovoza povodom Europskog dana sjećanja na žrtve totalitarnih i autoritarnih režima, održava se komemorativni skup uz sjećanje na spomenute žrtve. Uz lokaciju Mrtvi jarak, skup uz polaganje vijenaca i paljenje svijeća održava se i u Virovitici na kraju Bečke ulice. Organizatori su uz predstavnike vlasti Virovitičko-podravske županije i udruge Hrvatski domobran Virovitica i Udruge hrvatskih branitelja iz Domovinskog rata.

Povezani članci
Bleiburški pokolj
Križni put

Izvori

Vanjske poveznice
 https://www.suhopolje.hr/obavijesti/2017/08/Komemorativni-skup-u-mrtvom-jarku-u-utorak-23-kolovoza-u-11-sati/
 https://www.icv.hr/2018/08/U-mrtvom-jarku-obiljezen-europski-dan-sjecanja-na-zrtve-totalitarnih-i-autoritarnih-rezima/

Partizanski zločini u Drugom svjetskom ratu i poraću


Onthophagus pastillatus é uma espécie de inseto do género Onthophagus, família Scarabaeidae, ordem Coleoptera.

Foi descrita cientificamente por Boucomont em 1919.

Referências

Ligações externas

pastillatus
Coleópteros descritos em 1919

Onthophagus pastillatus


Epithemateae, tribus gesnerijevki sio potporodice Didymocarpoideae. Sastoji se od četiri podtribusa. Tipični rod je Epithema iz Afrike i Azije

Podribusi
 Tribus Epithemateae C. B. Clarke
 Subtribus Loxotidinae G. Don
 Rhynchoglossum Blume (16 spp.)
 Subtribus Monophyllaeinae A. Weber & Mich. Möller
 Monophyllaea Bennet & R. Br. (38 spp.)
 Whytockia W. W. Sm. (8 spp.)
 Subtribus Loxoniinae A. DC.
 Loxonia Jack (2 spp.)
 Stauranthera Benth. (7 spp.)
 Gyrogyne W. T. Wang (1 sp.)
 Subtribus Epithematinae DC. ex Meisn.
 Epithema Blume (24 spp.)

Izvori

Gesnerijevke

Epithemateae


An Deiregyne falcata in uska species han Liliopsida nga syahan ginhulagway ni Louis Otho Otto Williams, ngan ginhatag han pagkayana nga asya nga ngaran ni Leslie Andrew Garay. An Deiregyne falcata in nahilalakip ha genus nga Deiregyne, ngan familia nga Orchidaceae. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Deiregyne

Deiregyne falcata


حسين أميني (ولد عام 1966) هو كاتب سيناريو إيراني. كتب سيناريو العديد من الأفلام منها : أجنحة الحمامة و قيادة و شانجهای ومسلسل مكمافيا.

روابط خارجية

مراجع

انظر أيضا
 أصغر فرهادي

أشخاص على قيد الحياة
أشخاص من طهران
إيرانيون مهاجرون إلى المملكة المتحدة
بريطانيون متجنسون
خريجو كلية وادهام (أكسفورد)
سينمائيون إيرانيون
كتاب سيناريو إيرانيون
كتاب سيناريو بريطانيون
مخرجو أفلام بريطانيون
مدربو كتابة السيناريو
مواليد 1385 هـ
مواليد 1966
مواليد في إيران

حسين أميني


Gajary este o comună slovacă, aflată în districtul Malacky din regiunea Bratislava. Localitatea se află la , se întinde pe o suprafață de  și în 2017 număra 3.050 de locuitori.

Istoric
Localitatea Gajary este atestată documentar din 1373.

Note

Legături externe

Localități din Slovacia

Gajary


Sérgio Pinho Alves (Paulista, ) é um advogado, político e cinófilo brasileiro. Foi deputado estadual entre 1999 e 2002, eleito com 26.759 votos .

Deputados estaduais de Pernambuco

Sérgio Pinho Alves


A Associação Onçafari é uma organização não governamental que atua com a conservação de espécies ameaçadas e com ecoturismo no Brasil. A associação foi fundada pelo ex-piloto de fórmula 1 Mario Haberfeld em agosto de 2011.

Entre outras atividades, a organização monitora onças-pintadas no Pantanal do Mato Grosso do Sul.

Uma das formas de atuação é o monitoramento com armadilhas fotográficas, que também contribuem com registros de espécies raras, como o cachorro-vinagre.

A associação também atua com pesquisa científica, tendo, por exemplo, identificado interações de mobbing entre queixadas e onças-pintadas.

Referência

Ligações externas

 Página oficial

Organizações não governamentais do Brasil
Conservação da vida selvagem
Onças-pintadas

Onçafari


هنا قائمة بالبطولات الأسترالية لكرة المضرب, المعروفة الآن باسم أستراليا المفتوحة لسنة 1960:

الكبار

فردي رجال

 رود لافر هزم  نيل فريجر 5-7 3-6 6-3 8-6 8-6

فردي سيدات

 مارغريت كورت هزم  جان ليهان 7-5, 6-2

مراجع

أحداث فبراير 1960 الرياضية
أحداث يناير 1960 الرياضية
البطولات الأسترالية حسب السنة
بطولة أستراليا لكرة المضرب حسب السنة
كرة مضرب أسترالية في 1960
أحداث فبراير 1960 الرياضية في أستراليا
أحداث يناير 1960 الرياضية في أستراليا

البطولات الأسترالية 1960 (كرة مضرب)


An Epidendrum capricornu in uska species han Liliopsida nga ginhulagway ni Friedrich Fritz Wilhelm Ludwig Kraenzlin. An Epidendrum capricornu in nahilalakip ha genus nga Epidendrum, ngan familia nga Orchidaceae. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Mga sumpay ha gawas

Epidendrum

Epidendrum capricornu


Djent este un gen de heavy metal, care provine din genul metal progresiv. Se folosesc 7 sau mai multe corzi la chitara si efect overdrive.
Cu timpul a aparut si Djent atmosferic. Este folosit de formații precum Meshuggah și SikTh.

Note

Subgenuri ale muzicii heavy metal

Djent


The 60th (2/2nd London) Division was an infantry division of the British Army raised during the First World War. It was the second line-formation of the 47th (1/2nd London) Division, and was the second of two such Territorial Force divisions formed from the surplus of London recruits in 1914.

The divisional insignia was a bee.

Role
At first the division, headquartered at Sutton Veny, Wiltshire, merely supplied the first-line Territorial divisions with drafts to replace losses through casualties. In late 1915 the division began to be equipped for field operations although it was not sent to France until July 1916, after 88 trains had conveyed the men to Southampton from camps around Warminster, Heytesbury, and Codford stations.

Its engagements included the Third Battle of Gaza, the Battle of Beersheba (1917), the Battle of Jerusalem (1917), the Second Transjordan attack on Shunet Nimrin and Es Salt (1918), the Battle of Megiddo (1918), the Battle of Sharon (1918), and the Battle of Nahr el Faliq.

As a "lesser" division it was sent to the minor fronts of Salonika and finally Palestine.  In mid-1918, most of its British battalions were replaced with Indian battalions and sent to the Western Front, the division effectively becoming a British Indian Army division.

Order of Battle

The division had the following composition:
 179th (2/4th London) Brigade
 2/13th (County of London) Battalion, The London Regiment
 2/14th (County of London) Battalion, The London Regiment – left 30 May 1918
 2/15th (County of London) Battalion, The London Regiment – left 30 May 1918
 2/16th (County of London) Battalion, The London Regiment – left 30 May 1918
 2nd Battalion, 19th Punjabis – joined 23 June 1918
 2nd Battalion, 127th Baluchis – joined 26 June 1918
 3rd Battalion, 151st Punjabi Rifles – joined 4 June 1918
 179th Brigade Machine Gun Company – joined 29 June 1916; to No 60 MG Battalion 14–27 April 1918
 179th Brigade Trench Mortar Battery – joined 4 July 1916
 Small Arms Ammunition Section – attached from Divisional Ammunition Column while in Macedonia

180th (2/5th London) Brigade
 2/17th (County of London) Battalion, The London Regiment – left 27 May 1918
 2/18th (County of London) Battalion, The London Regiment – disbanded 4–7 July 1918
 2/19th (County of London) Battalion, The London Regiment
 2/20th (County of London) Battalion, The London Regiment – left 27 May 1918
 2nd Battalion, Guides Infantry – joined 13 July 1918
 2nd Battalion, 30th Punjabis – joined 1 August 1918
 1st Battalion, 50th Kumaon Rifles – joined 23 July 1918
 180th Brigade Machine Gun Company – joined 29 June 1916; to No 60 MG Battalion 14–27 April 1918
 180th Brigade Trench Mortar Battery – joined 4 July 1916
 Small Arms Ammunition Section – attached from Divisional Ammunition Column while in Macedonia

181st (2/6th London) Brigade
 2/21st (County of London) Battalion, The London Regiment – disbanded 3 June 1918
 2/22nd (County of London) Battalion (The Queen's)
 2/23rd (County of London) Battalion – left 26 May 1918
 2/24th (County of London) Battalion (The Queen's) – left 26 May 1918
 2nd Battalion, 97th Deccan Infantry – joined 28 June 1918
 130th Baluchis – joined 26 June 1918
 2nd Battalion, 152nd Punjabis – joined 30 June 1918
 181st Brigade Machine Gun Company – joined 29 June 1916; to No 60 MG Battalion 14–27 April 1918
 181st Brigade Trench Mortar Battery – joined 4 July 1916
 Small Arms Ammunition Section – attached from Divisional Ammunition Column while in Macedonia

Divisional Mounted Troops
 2/2nd County of London Yeomanry – joined 24 June 1915; transferred to 61st (2nd South Midland) Division 21 January 1916
 60th (2/2nd London) Cyclist Company – formed May 1915; transferred to Cavalry Corps 5 September 1916
 B Squadron, 1/1st Hampshire Carabiniers – joined 26 April 1916; to 1/1st Yorkshire Hussars 8 July 1916
 B Squadron, 1/1st Duke of Lancaster's Own Yeomanry – attached during August 1917

Divisional Artillery
In Britain and France
 2/V London Brigade, Royal Field Artillery – joined 9 June 1915; renamed CCC (300) Bde and original batteries became A, B & C 17–18 May 1916; broken up 30–31 August 1916
 2/12th London Battery – 4 x 18-pounder guns – A Bty; joined CCCII Bde 30–31 August 1916
 2/13th London Battery – 4 x 18-pounders – B Bty; joined CCCII and CCCIII Bdes 30–31 August 1916
 2/14th London Battery – 4 x 18-pounders – C Bty; broken up between A and C Btys 30–31 August 1916
 1/3rd Wessex Battery – 4 x 18-pounders – joined 28 April 1916; became A/CCCIII Bty May 1916
 2/21st London (H) Battery – 4.5-inch howitzer – joined from CCCIII Bde and became D (H) Bty May 1916; became D (H)/CCCI Bty 30–31 August 1916
 2/V London Brigade Ammunition Column – absorbed by Divisional Ammunition Column before embarkation for France
 2/VI London Brigade, RFA – joined 15 June 1915; renamed CCCI (301) Bde and original batteries became A, B & C 17–18 May 1916
 2/15th London Battery – 4 x 18-pounders – A Bty; broken up between B and C Btys 30–31 August 1916; reformed in Macedonia
 2/16th London Battery – 4 x 18-pounders – B Bty
 2/17th London Battery – 4 x 18-pounders – C Bty
 3/2nd Wessex Battery – 4 x 18-pounders – joined 28 April 1916; became B/CCCIII Bty May 1916
 D (H) Battery – 4 x 4.5-inch – joined from CCC Bde 30–31 August 1916
 519 (H) Battery – 4 x 4.5-inch – joined from England 20 October 1916 and became A (H) Bty; became D (H)/CCC Bty, then joined 3rd (Lahore) Division.
 2/VI London Brigade Ammunition Column – absorbed by Divisional Ammunition Column before embarkation for France
 2/VII London Brigade, RFA – joined 9 April 1915; renamed CCCII (302) Bde and original batteries became A, B & C 17–18 May 1916
 2/18th London Battery – 4 x 18-pounders – A Bty; made up to six guns by R Section A/CCC Bty August 1916
 2/19th London Battery – 4 x 18-pounders – B Bty; made up to six guns by L Section A/CCC Bty August 1916
 2/20th London Battery – 4 x 18-pounders – C Bty; made up to six guns by a Section of B/CCC Bty August 1916
 3/3rd Wessex Battery – 4 x 18-pounders – joined 28 April 1916; became C/CCCIII Bty May 1916
 2/22nd London (H) Battery – joined from CCCIII Bde and became D (H) Bty May 1916
 2/VII London Brigade Ammunition Column – absorbed by Divisional Ammunition Column before embarkation for France
 2/VIII London Howitzer Brigade, RFA – joined 9 April 1915; renamed CCCIII (303) Bde and reorganised 17–18 May 1916
 2/21st London (H) Battery – 4 x 4.5-inch – became D (H)/CCC Bty 17–18 May 1916
 2/22nd London (H) Battery – 4 x 4.5-inch – became D (H)/CCCII Bty 17–18 May 1916
 4/LX (H) Bty – joined 28 April 1916; became D (H)/CCCIII Bty 17–18 May 1916
 1/3rd Wessex Battery – joined and became A/CCCIII Bty May 1916; made up to six guns by a Section of B/CCC Bty August 1916
 3/2nd Wessex Battery – joined and became B/CCCIII Bty May 1916; made up to six guns by L Section C/CCC Bty August 1916
 3/3rd Wessex Battery – joined and became C/CCCIII Bty May 1916; made up to six guns by R Section C/CCC Bty August 1916
 2/VIII London (H) Brigade Ammunition Column – absorbed by Divisional Ammunition Column before embarkation for France
 2/2nd London Heavy Battery, Royal Garrison Artillery – joined 9 April 1915; to 61st (2nd South Midland) Division 24 January 1916
 1/1st Wessex (Hampshire) Heavy Battery, RGA – attached (without guns) 7 April 1915; to 61st (2nd South Midland) Division 24 January 1916
 2/1st Wessex (Hampshire) Heavy Battery, RGA – joined April 1915; to 61st (2nd South Midland) Division 24 January 1916
 Trench Mortar Brigade
 X.60, Y.60, Z.60 Medium Trench Mortar Batteries – joined 6 July 1916
 W.60 Heavy Trench Mortar Battery – formed in France 28 July 1916; remained in France when division left for Macedonia
 60th (2/2nd London) Divisional Ammunition Column

Before leaving for Macedonia the 18-pounder batteries reverted to four-gun establishment: A/CCC Bty was reformed from its original two sections and one from B/CCC; B/CCC Bty was reformed from the other section and those of C/CCC. A/CCC Battery then joined 5th Division and B/CCC Bty became an instructional battery at First Army School.

In Macedonia, Egypt and Palestine
 CCCI Brigade, RFA
 A Bty – 6 x 18-pdr – from B Bty + half A Bty, 20 December 1916
 B Bty – 6 x 18-pdr – from C Bty + half A Bty, 20 December 1916; to 74th (Yeomanry) Division 17 June 1917; rejoined 25 March 1918
 D (H) Bty – 4 x 4.5-inch – C (H) Bty from 20 June 1917
 CCCI Brigade Ammunition Column – reformed in Macedonia; disbanded on arrival in Egypt
 CCCII Brigade, RFA
 A Bty – 6 x 18-pdr – from A Bty + half C Bty, 22 December 1916
 B Bty – 6 x 18-pdr – from B Bty + half C Bty, 22 December 1916
 D (H) Bty – 4 x 4.5-inch – to 74th (Yeomanry) Division 17 June 1917
 413 (H) Bty – 4 x 4.5-inch – joined and became C (H) Bty 10 October 1917
 CCCII Brigade Ammunition Column – reformed in Macedonia; disbanded on arrival in Egypt
 CCCIII Brigade, RFA
 A Bty – 6 x 18-pdr – from A Bty + R Section C Bty, 10 January 1917
 B Bty – 6 x 18-pdr – from B Bty + L Section C Bty, 10 January 1917
 D (H) Bty – 4 x 4.5-inch – C (H) Bty from 20 June 1917
 CCCIII Brigade Ammunition Column – reformed in Macedonia; disbanded on arrival in Egypt
 Trench Mortar Brigade
 X.60, Y.60, Z.60 Medium Trench Mortar Batteries – disbanded on arrival in Egypt
 60th (2/2nd London) Divisional Ammunition Column

60th (2/2nd London) Divisional Engineers
 2/3rd London Field Company, Royal Engineers – to 47th (1/2nd London) Division 23 June 1915
 3/3rd London Field Company, Royal Engineers – became 519th (3/3rd London) Field Company, Royal Engineers on 5 February 1917
 2/4th London Field Company, RE – became 521st (2/4th London) Field Company, Royal Engineers on 7 February 1917
 1/6th London Field Company, RE – became 522nd (1/6th London) Field Company, Royal Engineers on 1 February 1917; to 7th (Meerut) Division 18 July 1918
 No 1 Company, King George V's Own Bengal Sappers and Miners, joined 18 July 1918
 60th (2/2nd London) Divisional Signal Company, Royal Engineers

Divisional Pioneers
 1/12th Battalion, Loyal North Lancashire Regiment – joined 1 June 1916; to 32nd Division16 November 1916; rejoined in Macedonia 13 February 1917; to 74th (Yeomanry) Division 10 April 1918
 2nd Battalion, 155th Pioneers – joined 28 June 1918; to 10th (Irish) Division 19 July 1918
 2nd Battalion, 107th Pioneers – joined 16/17 September 1918

Divisional Machine Guns
 No 60 Battalion, Machine Gun Corps – formed 14–27 April 1918
 179th MG Company – from 179th Brigade
 180th MG Company – from 180th Brigade
 181st MG Company – from 181st Brigade

Divisional Medical Services
 2/4th, 2/5th, 2/6th London Field Ambulances, Royal Army Medical Corps – broken up between 30 June and 4 July 1918
 121st Combined Field Ambulance – joined 26 June 1918
 160th Combined Field Ambulance – joined 30 June 1918
 179th Combined Field Ambulance – joined 1 July 1918
 60th Sanitary Section

Divisional Transport
 60th (2/2nd London) Divisional Transport and Supply Column, Army Service Corps
 No 1 (HQ) Company (Horse Transport) – became 517 Company, ASC
 No 2 Company (Horse Transport) – became 518 Company, ASC
 No 3 Company (Horse Transport) – became 519 Company, ASC
 No 4 Company (Horse Transport) – became 520 Company, ASC

On arrival in Macedonia the HT companies became the Wheeled Echelon and a Pack Echelon was formed on 27 October 1916; merged back into the wheeled echelon June 1917 in Egypt):
 861, 862, 863, 864 Companies, ASC

Engagements

The division was engaged in the following actions:

Macedonian Campaign
1917
 Battle of Doiran

Sinai and Palestine Campaign
1917
 Third Battle of Gaza
 Battle of Beersheba
 Battle of Jerusalem

1918
 Attack on Shunet Nimrin and Es Salt
 Battle of Megiddo
 Battle of Sharon
 Battle of Nahr el Faliq

General Officer Commanding
The following officers commanded the division:
 Colonel E.W.D. Baird (acting) 9–24 October 1914
 Brigadier-General Thomas Charles Pleydell Calley 24 October 1914 – 20 December 1915
 Major-General Edward Stanislaus Bulfin 20 December 1915 – 6 August 1917
 Major-General John Stuart Mackenzie Shea 6 August 1917 – 31 May 1919

See also

 List of British divisions in World War I

Notes

References
 Becke, Maj A.F. History of the Great War: Order of Battle of Divisions, Part 2b: The 2nd-Line Territorial Force Divisions (57th–69th), with the Home-Service Divisions (71st–73rd) and 74th and 75th Divisions, London: HM Stationery Office, 1937/Uckfield: Naval & Military Press, 2007, .
 Dalbiac, Col P.H. (2003) History of the 60th Division (2/2nd London Division, London: George Allen & Unwin, 1927/Uckfield: Naval & Military Press, .
 Watson Graham E. & Rinaldi, Richard A. (2018) The Corps of Royal Engineers: Organization and Units 1889–2018, Tiger Lily Books, .
 Young, Lt-Col Michael (2000) Army Service Corps 1902–1918, Barnsley: Leo Cooper, .

External links
 The Long, Long Trail

Infantry divisions of the British Army in World War I
Military units and formations established in 1914
Military units and formations disestablished in 1919
1914 establishments in the United Kingdom
Military units and formations in London

60th (2/2nd London) Division


Project Daedalus (named after Daedalus, the Greek mythological designer who crafted wings for human flight) was a study conducted between 1973 and 1978 by the British Interplanetary Society to design a plausible uncrewed interstellar probe. Intended mainly as a scientific probe, the design criteria specified that the spacecraft had to use existing or near-future technology and had to be able to reach its destination within a human lifetime. Alan Bond led a team of scientists and engineers who proposed using a fusion rocket to reach Barnard's Star 5.9 light years away.  The trip was estimated to take 50 years, but the design was required to be flexible enough that it could be sent to any other target star.

All the papers produced by the study are available in a BIS book, Project Daedalus: Demonstrating the Engineering Feasibility of Interstellar Travel,

Concept
Daedalus would be constructed in Earth orbit and have an initial mass of 54,000 tonnes including 50,000 tonnes of fuel and 500 tonnes of scientific payload. Daedalus was to be a two-stage spacecraft. The first stage would operate for two years, taking the spacecraft to 7.1% of light speed (0.071 c), and then after it was jettisoned, the second stage would fire for 1.8 years, taking the spacecraft up to about 12% of light speed (0.12 c), before being shut down for a 46-year cruise period. Due to the extreme temperature range of operation required, from near absolute zero to 1600 K, the engine bells and support structure would be made of molybdenum alloyed with titanium, zirconium, and carbon, which retains strength even at cryogenic temperatures. A major stimulus for the project was Friedwardt Winterberg's inertial confinement fusion drive concept, for which he received the Hermann Oberth gold medal award.

This velocity is well beyond the capabilities of chemical rockets or even the type of nuclear pulse propulsion studied during Project Orion. According to Dr. Tony Martin, controlled-fusion engine and the nuclear–electric systems have very low thrust, equipment to convert nuclear energy into electrical has a large mass, which results in small acceleration, which would take a century to achieve the desired speed; thermodynamic nuclear engines of the NERVA type require a great quantity of fuel, photon rockets have to generate power at a rate of 3 W per kg of vehicle mass and require mirrors with absorptivity of less than 1 part in 106, interstellar ramjet's problems are tenuous interstellar medium with a density of about 1 atom/cm3, a large diameter funnel, and high power required for its electric field. Thus the only suitable propulsion method for the project was thermonuclear pulse propulsion.

Daedalus would be propelled by a fusion rocket using pellets of a deuterium/helium-3 mix that would be ignited in the reaction chamber by inertial confinement using electron beams. The electron beam system would be powered by a set of induction coils trapping energy from the plasma exhaust stream. 250 pellets would be detonated per second, and the resulting plasma would be directed by a magnetic nozzle. The computed burn-up fraction for the fusion fuels was 0.175 and 0.133 producing exhaust velocities of 10,600 km/s and 9,210 km/s respectively. Due to scarcity of helium-3 on Earth, it was to be mined from the atmosphere of Jupiter by large hot-air balloon supported robotic factories over a 20-year period, or from a less distant source, such as the Moon.

The second stage would have two 5-metre optical telescopes and two 20-metre radio telescopes. About 25 years after launch these telescopes would begin examining the area around Barnard's Star to learn more about any accompanying planets. This information would be sent back to Earth, using the 40-metre diameter second stage engine bell as a communications dish, and targets of interest would be selected. Since the spacecraft would not decelerate, upon reaching Barnard's Star, Daedalus would carry 18 autonomous sub-probes that would be launched between 7.2 and 1.8 years before the main craft entered the target system. These sub-probes would be propelled by nuclear-powered ion drives and would carry cameras, spectrometers, and other sensory equipment. The sub-probes would fly past their targets, still travelling at 12% of the speed of light, and transmit their findings back to the Daedalus' second stage, mothership, for relay back to Earth.

The ship's payload bay containing its sub-probes, telescopes, and other equipment would be protected from the interstellar medium during transit by a beryllium disc, up to 7 mm thick, weighing up to 50 tonnes.  This erosion shield would be made from beryllium due to its lightness and high latent heat of vaporisation. Larger obstacles that might be encountered while passing through the target system would be dispersed by an artificially generated cloud of particles, ejected by support vehicles called dust bugs about 200 km ahead of the vehicle. The spacecraft would carry a number of robot wardens capable of autonomously repairing damage or malfunctions.

Specifications
Overall length: 190 metres

Payload mass: 450 tonnes

Variants
A quantitative engineering analysis of a self-replicating variation on Project Daedalus was published in 1980 by Robert Freitas. The non-replicating design was modified to include all subsystems necessary for self-replication. Use the probe to deliver a seed factory, with a mass of about 443 metric tons, to a distant site. Have the seed factory replicate many copies of itself on-site, to increase its total manufacturing capacity, then use the resulting automated industrial complex to construct probes, with a seed factory on board, over a 1,000-year period. Each REPRO would weigh over 10 million tons due to the extra fuel needed to decelerate from 12% of lightspeed.

Another possibility is to equip the Daedalus with a magnetic sail similar to the magnetic scoop on a Bussard ramjet to use the destination star heliosphere as a brake, making carrying deceleration fuel unnecessary, allowing a much more in-depth study of the star system chosen.

See also

 Breakthrough Starshot
 Project Icarus
 Project Longshot
 Enzmann starship

Further reading

References

External links

Project Daedalus, The Encyclopedia of Astrobiology Astronomy and Spaceflight
Starship Daedalus
Project Daedalus – Origins
The Daedalus Starship
Renderings of the Daedalus Starship to scale
PROJECT DAEDALUS
PROJECT DAEDALUS: THE PROPULSION SYSTEM Part 1; Theoretical considerations and calculations. 2. REVIEW OF ADVANCED PROPULSION SYSTEMS
Title: Project Daedalus. Authors: Bond, A.; Martin, A. R. Publication: Journal of the British Interplanetary Society Supplement, p. S5-S7 Publication Date: 00/1978 Origin: ARI ARI Keywords: Miscellanea, Philosophical Aspects, Extraterrestrial Life Comment: A&AA ID. AAA021.015.025 Bibliographic Code: 1978JBIS...31S...5B

Hypothetical spacecraft
Interstellar travel
Nuclear spacecraft propulsion

Project Daedalus


Puumala er en kommune og en by i Finland. Den er lokaliseret i landskabet Østfinlands len og det er en del af Södra Savolax. Kommunen har et befolkningstal på 2.291 (30. juni 2015) og dækker et areal på 1.237,7 kvadratkilometer. Befolkningstætheden er på 2,88 pr. km2.

98,9 % af befolkningen har finsk som modersmål.

Hovedruten gennem regionen er rute 62, som forbinder Mikkeli med det nordlige Imatra i syd.

Indtil 1995 udgjorde en kabelfærge forbindelsen mellem de to sider af Puumalansalmi-strædet. I 1995 erstattede en 781 meter lang bro kabelfærgen. Broen fremstår som en dominant struktur, når den på afstand ses fra Puumala bycentrum.

Puumala har i forhold til indbyggertallet relativt god service. I byens centrum er der et posthus, en alkobutik, en kiosk, flere supermarkeder og enkelte restauranter. Årsagen, til at disse virksomheder kan overleve, er at Puumalas indbyggertal tredobles i sommermånederne.

Galleri

Eksterne henvisninger

Municipality of Puumala  – Official website

Kommuner i Södra Savolax
Etableret i 1868

Puumala


Christian Maclagan (Braehead, Denny, 1811 – Ravenscroft, Stirling, 10 de maio de 1901) foi uma antiquária escocesa e uma das primeiras arqueólogas. Ela é conhecida por sua coleção de ruínas de cruzes celtas e pedras pictas de toda a Escócia, sendo pioneira na escavação estratigráfica. Embora ela tenha perdido o uso da mão direita devido a uma condição médica, ela produziu vários desenhos, esboços e pinturas com a mão esquerda. Ela agiu para ajudar as pessoas afetadas pela pobreza em Stirling. Ela se recusou a posar para retratos, embora um obituário a descrevesse como alta. Ela era sufragista. Ela escreveu uma autobiografia, mas o roteiro permanece perdido. Ela foi escolhida para ser uma das Heroínas da Escócia homenageadas no Salão dos Heróis do Monumento Nacional Wallace. Ela morreu em Ravenscroft, Stirling.

Primeiros anos

Filha do destilador e químico George Maclagan e Janet Colville de Stirling, ela nasceu na fazenda da família em Braehead perto de Denny. Seu pai morreu em 1818, assim como seu avô paterno, Frederick Maclagan, ministro da paróquia na cidade de Melrose, e sua mãe mudou a família para Stirling. Ela morava em uma casa em Pitt Terrace, uma parte rica da cidade perto de St Ninian's Well e dos modernos escritórios do Conselho de Stirling.

Sua mãe morreu em 1858, e até então Christian Maclagan se engajou em atividades filantrópicas, estabelecendo uma Escola Dominical e assinando o custo de uma biblioteca. Após a ruptura de 1843, ela se juntou à Igreja Livre da Escócia e, em 1865, financiou a construção de uma nova igreja. Seu relacionamento com a Igreja Livre azedou na década de 1870 e ela processou para recuperar a igreja que ela então presenteou à Igreja da Escócia estabelecida. Ela aparentemente recebeu um legado de um de seus irmãos na época da morte de sua mãe, e isso a estabeleceu como uma mulher de alguma riqueza. Sua propriedade foi avaliada em 3100 libras esterlinas em sua morte.

Ela era bem educada, conhecia bem latim, francês, grego e gaélico — seu avô paterno havia tentado uma tradução da Bíblia para o gaélico. Ela também falava um pouco de italiano e era uma artista de alguma habilidade.

Atividades do antiquário

Maclagan teorizou que os círculos e túmulos megalíticos eram os restos de casas e fortes. Ela acreditava que um exame acadêmico de todos esses locais revelaria uma mensagem, através da 'linguagem' arqueológica necessária para tal exame. As descobertas de suas investigações incluíram escombros de centenas de espécimes arqueológicos de vários locais e foram publicadas às suas próprias custas. Ela realizou uma escavação no Mither Tap, na aldeia de Bennachie. Algumas de suas teorias foram consideradas excêntricas para seus contemporâneos. A rejeição de seus pontos de vista pode ser devido a atitudes sexistas de sua época, ou devido aos comentários antropológicos que Maclagan faria ao lado de seus estudos arqueológicos. Pelo menos um autor criticou seu trabalho apesar de, presumivelmente por causa de seu nome de batismo, confundi-la com um homem.

Um de seus principais interesses eram os brochs da Escócia e ela também foi uma das pioneiras da escavação estratigráfica. Ela concebeu um método especial para tirar detritos de pedras esculpidas; os detalhes exatos de como isso foi feito foram mantidos em segredo. Possivelmente, sua maior contribuição para a posteridade foi sua coleção meticulosa de gravuras de cruzes cristãs celtas e pedras de símbolos pictos, feitas a partir de 1850. Essas depurações incluem algumas das primeiras feitas na Caverna de Wemyss.

Por ser mulher, Maclagan foi impedida de obter uma bolsa da Sociedade de Antiquários da Escócia (em inglês: Society of Antiquaries of Scotland) e, em vez disso, ela era apenas uma Lady Associate como Lady John Scott e Rainha Vitória. Ela disse a amigos que era antiquária antes do nascimento da rainha Vitória. Mais tarde, ela ameaçou renunciar ao título, já que a sociedade leu seus papéis em sua ausência, sem que ela tivesse a oportunidade de responder. Ela não podia publicar formalmente, pois a Society não permitia que um homem publicasse seu trabalho em seu nome. Como resultado disso, supõe-se, ela optou por enviar suas gravuras para o Museu Britânico. Ela, portanto, permaneceu uma Lady Associate até o dia de sua morte por volta dos 92 anos. O Museu Smith, em Stirling, contém um de seus modelos de uma torre de broch e uma escultura de madeira como homenagem a ela. Ela foi enterrada no cemitério da cidade velha de Stirling.

Esse sexismo também pode ter levado seu trabalho a ser negligenciado e uma de suas principais descobertas, Livilands Broch, perdida. Um projeto de financiamento coletivo foi lançado em 2016 pelo arqueólogo do Stirling Council, Dr. Murray Cook, para redescobrir o broch que ela descobriu.

Comemoração
Uma placa comemorativa do Historic Environment Scotland foi revelada na 19 Clarendon Place, na Escócia, em agosto de 2019.

Obras publicadas

 The Hill Forts Stone Circles and Others Structural Remains of Ancient Scotland (em inglês), Edmonston and Douglas, 1875.
 Chips from old stones (em inglês), 1881
 What Mean These Stones? (em inglês) D. Douglas, 1894 (described as a "slight and idiosyncratic work" by Euan MacKie).
 A catalogue raisonné of the British Museum collection of rubbings from ancient sculptured stones (em inglês). 1898
 On the Round Castles and Ancient Dwellings of the Valley of the Forth, and its Tributary the Teith (em inglês).
 Notes of a Roman Sculptured Stone recently discovered at Cumbernauld, and of an Inscribed Stone at Stirling (em inglês), &c. (com fotografia e cópia de inscrição). pp 178–179.

Bibliografia

 The Biographical Dictionary of Scottish Women edited by Elizabeth L. Ewan, Sue Innes, Sian Reynolds, Rose Pipes (2008).

Scotsman, 13 de maio de 1901;
Sentinel (Stirling), 14 de maio de 1901;
Athenæum, 18 de maio de 1901;
Scots Magazine, 1818;
Hew Scott's Fasti Eccles. Scot.;
notes de Miss Maclagan's MS. autobiografia, fornecido by J. W. Barty, LL.D.;
notes de W. B. Cook, Stirling;

Arqueólogos da Escócia
Artistas da Escócia
Feministas do Reino Unido
Mortos em 1901
Nascidos em 1811
!Mais Teoria da História na Wiki (Wikiconcurso de edição)

Christian Maclagan


Ondřej Sosenka es un exciclista checo nacido el 9 de diciembre de 1975 en Praga.

Pasó a profesional en 2000. Fue un especialista en la contrarreloj y sus más de dos metros de altura hicieron de él uno de los más altos del pelotón, además se defendía bastante bien en la montaña. A pesar de su talento, siempre destacó en formaciones modestas. Entró en la historia del ciclismo mundial batiendo el récord de la hora con 49,7 kilómetros en una hora en Moscú en 2005, el récord precedente lo tenía Chris Boardman

En agosto del 2008, el ciclista dio positivo en un control por el estimulantes metanfetamina en los campeonatos nacionales checos. Provocando su retirada a los 33 años.

También hizo ciclismo en pista obteniendo el Campeonato de la República Checa Persecución en 2005.

Palmarés

Carretera

Pista
2005
 Campeonato de la República Checa Persecución
 Récord de la hora

Resultados en el Giro de Italia
 2004 : abandono

Equipos
 Riso Scotti-MG Boys Maglificio (1998)
 PSK-Unit Expert (2000)
 CCC (2001-2003)
 CCC-MAT-Ceresit (2001)
 CCC-Polsat (2002-2003)
 Acqua & Sapone (2004-2006)
 Acqua & Sapone-Caffè Mokambo (2004)
 Acqua & Sapone-Adria Mobil (2005)
 Acqua & Sapone-Caffè Mokambo (2006)
 CK Pribram Bei (2007)
 PSK Whirlpool-Author (2008)

Notas y referencias

Enlaces externos
 Web oficial
 Ficha de Ondřej Sosenka (cqranking.com)

Ciclistas de la República Checa
Casos de dopaje en ciclismo
Ciclistas en los Juegos Olímpicos de Atenas 2004
Ciclistas de pista
Nacidos en Praga

Ondřej Sosenka


Podocarpus glomeratus er sígrænt tré fráá Bólivíu, Perú og Ekvador.

Tilvísanir

Gagnviðarætt

Podocarpus glomeratus


α-Carotene (alpha-carotene) is a form of carotene with a β-ionone ring at one end and an α-ionone ring at the opposite end. It is the second most common form of carotene.

Human physiology
In American and Chinese adults, the mean concentration of serum α-carotene was 4.71 μg/dL. Including 4.22 μg/dL among men and 5.31 μg/dL among women.

Dietary sources
The following vegetables are rich in alpha-carotene:
 Yellow-orange vegetables: Carrots (the main source for U.S. adults), sweet potatoes, pumpkin, winter squash
 Dark-green vegetables: Broccoli, green beans, green peas, spinach, turnip greens, collards, leaf lettuce, avocado

References

Carotenoids
Tetraterpenes
Cyclohexenes
Vitamin A

Α-Carotene


PCU can refer to:

Education
Pacific Coast University, a law school in Long Beach, California
Pai Chai University in Daejeon, South Korea
Philippine Christian University in Manila, Philippines

Finance
PCU, a former NYSE ticker symbol for Southern Copper Corporation
Patelco Credit Union, a credit union in California

Politics
Partido Comunista de Unificación, the Communist Unification Party in Spain
Partido Comunista del Uruguay, the Communist Party of Uruguay

Technology
PCU, the IATA airport code for Poplarville-Pearl River County Airport
Packet Control Unit, part of the Base Station Subsystem in a GSM network
Passenger Car Unit, a metric used in transportation engineering
Photo conductor unit, the fuser drum unit used in laser printers

Other
PCU (film), a 1994 film lampooning political correctness on college campuses, set at the fictitious Port Chester University
Portage Credit Union Centre, an ice hockey and recreational complex in Portage la Prairie, Manitoba
Pre-Commissioning Unit, a description used for United States Navy vessels prior to commission and the personnel units assigned to them
Progressive care unit, an intermediate coronary care unit

PCU