The Restriction of Hazardous Substances Directive 2002/95/EC (RoHS 1), short for Directive on the restriction of the use of certain hazardous substances in electrical and electronic equipment, was adopted in February 2003 by the European Union.

The initiative was to limit the amount of hazardous chemicals in electronics.

The RoHS 1 directive took effect on 1 July 2006, and is required to be enforced and became a law in each member state. This directive restricts (with exceptions) the use of ten hazardous materials in the manufacture of various types of electronic and electrical equipment.  In addition to the exceptions, there are exclusions for products such as solar panels.  It is closely linked with the Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment Directive (WEEE) 2002/96/EC (now superseded) which sets collection, recycling and recovery targets for electrical goods and is part of a legislative initiative to solve the problem of huge amounts of toxic electronic waste. In speech, RoHS is often spelled out, or pronounced , , , or , and refers to the EU standard, unless otherwise qualified.

Details
Each European Union member state will adopt its own enforcement and implementation policies using the directive as a guide.

RoHS is often referred to as the "lead-free directive", but it restricts the use of the following ten substances:

 Lead (Pb)
 Mercury (Hg)
 Cadmium (Cd)
 Hexavalent chromium (Cr6+)
 Polybrominated biphenyls (PBB)
 Polybrominated diphenyl ether (PBDE)
 Bis(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP)
 Butyl benzyl phthalate (BBP)
 Dibutyl phthalate (DBP)
 Diisobutyl phthalate (DIBP)

Maximum Permitted Concentration: 0.1%

Max for Cadmium: 0.01%

DEHP, BBP, DBP and DIBP were added as part of DIRECTIVE (EU) 2015/863 which was published on 31 March 2015.

PBB and PBDE are flame retardants used in several plastics. Hexavalent chromium is used in chrome plating, chromate coatings and primers, and in chromic acid.

The maximum permitted concentrations in non-exempt products are 0.1% or 1000 ppm (except for cadmium, which is limited to 0.01% or 100 ppm) by weight. The restrictions are on each  homogeneous material in the product, which means that the limits do not apply to the weight of the finished product, or even to a component, but to any single material that could (theoretically) be separated mechanically – for example, the sheath on a cable or the tinning on a component lead.

As an example, a radio is composed of a case, screws, washers, a circuit board, speakers, etc. The screws, washers, and case may each be made of homogenous materials, but the other components comprise multiple sub-components of many different types of material. For instance, a circuit board is composed of a bare printed circuit board (PCB), integrated circuits (IC), resistors, capacitors, switches, etc. A switch is composed of a case, a lever, a spring, contacts, pins, etc., each of which may be made of different materials. A contact might be composed of a copper strip with a surface coating. A loudspeaker is composed of a permanent magnet, copper wire, paper, etc.

Everything that can be identified as a homogeneous material must meet the limit. So if it turns out that the case was made of plastic with 2,300 ppm (0.23%) PBB used as a flame retardant, then the entire radio would fail the requirements of the directive.

In an effort to close RoHS 1 loopholes, in May 2006 the European Commission was asked to review two currently excluded product categories (monitoring and control equipment, and medical devices) for future inclusion in the products that must fall into RoHS compliance. In addition the commission entertains requests for deadline extensions or for exclusions by substance categories, substance location or weight. New legislation was published in the official journal in July 2011 which supersedes this exemption.

Note that batteries are not included within the scope of RoHS. However, in Europe, batteries are under the European Commission's 1991 Battery Directive (91/157/EEC), which was recently increased in scope and approved in the form of the new battery directive, version 2003/0282 COD, which will be official when submitted to and published in the EU's Official Journal. While the first Battery Directive addressed possible trade barrier issues brought about by disparate European member states' implementation, the new directive more explicitly highlights improving and protecting the environment from the negative effects of the waste contained in batteries. It also contains a programme for more ambitious recycling of industrial, automotive, and consumer batteries, gradually increasing the rate of manufacturer-provided collection sites to 45% by 2016. It also sets limits of 5 ppm mercury and 20 ppm cadmium to batteries except those used in medical, emergency, or portable power-tool devices. Though not setting quantitative limits on quantities of lead, lead–acid, nickel, and nickel–cadmium in batteries, it cites a need to restrict these substances and provide for recycling up to 75% of batteries with these substances. There are also provisions for marking the batteries with symbols in regard to metal content and recycling collection information.

The directive applies to equipment as defined by a section of the WEEE directive. The following numeric categories apply:
 Large household appliances
 Small household appliances
 IT & telecommunications equipment (although infrastructure equipment is exempt in some countries)
 Consumer equipment
 Lighting equipment – including light bulbs
 Electronic and electrical tools
 Toys, leisure, and sports equipment
 Medical devices (exemption removed in July 2011)
 Monitoring and control instruments (exemption removed in July 2011)
 Automatic dispensers
Other EEE not covered by any of the categories above.

It does not apply to fixed industrial plant and tools. Compliance is the responsibility of the company that puts the product on the market, as defined in the Directive; components and sub-assemblies are not responsible for product compliance. Of course, given the fact that the regulation is applied at the homogeneous material level, data on substance concentrations needs to be transferred through the supply chain to the final producer. An IPC standard has recently been developed and published to facilitate this data exchange, IPC-1752. It is enabled through two PDF forms that are free to use.

RoHS applies to these products in the EU whether made within the EU or imported. Certain exemptions apply, and these are updated on occasion by the EU.

Examples of product components containing restricted substances
RoHS restricted substances have been used in a broad array of consumer electronics products. Examples of components that have contained lead include:
 paints and pigments
 PVC (vinyl) cables as a stabiliser (e.g., power cords, USB cables)
 solders
 printed circuit board finishes, leads, internal and external interconnects
 glass in television and photographic products (e.g., CRT television screens and camera lenses)
 metal parts
 lamps and bulbs
 batteries
 integrated circuits or microchips

Cadmium is found in many of the components above; examples include plastic pigmentation, nickel–cadmium (NiCd) batteries and CdS photocells (used in night lights). Mercury is used in lighting applications and automotive switches; examples include fluorescent lamps and mercury tilt switches (these are rarely used nowadays). Hexavalent chromium is used for metal finishes to prevent corrosion. Polybrominated biphenyls and diphenyl ethers/oxides are used primarily as flame retardants.

Hazardous materials and the high-tech waste problem
RoHS and other efforts to reduce hazardous materials in electronics are motivated in part to address the global issue of consumer electronics waste. As newer technology arrives at an ever-increasing rate, consumers are discarding their obsolete products sooner than ever. This waste ends up in landfills and in countries like China to be "recycled".

In the fashion-conscious mobile market, 98 million U.S. cell phones took their last call in 2005. All told, the EPA estimates that in the U.S. that year, between 1.5 and 1.9 million tons of computers, TVs, VCRs, monitors, cell phones, and other equipment were discarded. If all sources of electronic waste are tallied, it could total 50 million tons a year worldwide, according to the UN Environment Programme.

American electronics sent offshore to countries like Ghana in West Africa under the guise of recycling may be doing more harm than good. Not only are adult and child workers in these jobs being poisoned by heavy metals, but these metals are returning to the U.S. "The U.S. right now is shipping large quantities of leaded materials to China, and China is the world's major manufacturing center," Dr. Jeffrey Weidenhamer says, a chemistry professor at Ashland University in Ohio. "It's not all that surprising things are coming full circle and now we're getting contaminated products back."

Changing toxicity perceptions
In addition to the high-tech waste problem, RoHS reflects contemporary research over the past 50 years in biological toxicology that acknowledges the long-term effects of low-level chemical exposure on populations. New testing is capable of detecting much smaller concentrations of environmental toxicants. Researchers are associating these exposures with neurological, developmental, and reproductive changes.

RoHS and other environmental laws are in contrast to historical and contemporary law that seek to address only acute toxicology, that is direct exposure to large amounts of toxic substances causing severe injury or death.

Life-cycle impact assessment of lead-free solder
The United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has published a life-cycle assessment (LCA) of the environmental impacts of lead-free and tin–lead solder, as used in electronic products. For bar solders, when only lead-free solders were considered, the tin/copper alternative had the lowest (best) scores. For paste solders, bismuth/tin/silver had the lowest impact scores among the lead-free alternatives in every category except non-renewable resource consumption. For both paste and bar solders, all of the lead-free solder alternatives had a lower (better) LCA score in toxicity categories than tin/lead solder. This is primarily due to the toxicity of lead, and the amount of lead that leaches from printed wiring board assemblies, as determined by the leachability study conducted by the partnership. The study results are providing the industry with an objective analysis of the life-cycle environmental effects of leading candidate alternative lead-free solders, allowing industry to consider environmental concerns along with the traditionally evaluated parameters of cost and performance. This assessment is also allowing industry to redirect efforts toward products and processes that reduce solders' environmental footprint, including energy consumption, releases of toxic chemicals, and potential risks to human health and the environment. Another life-cycle assessment by IKP, University of Stuttgart, shows similar results to those of the EPA study.

Life-cycle impact assessment of BFR-free plastics
The ban on concentrations of brominated flame retardants (BFR) above 0.1% in plastics has affected plastics recycling. As more and more products include recycled plastics, it has become critical to know the BFR concentration in these plastics, either by tracing the origins of the recycled plastics to establish the BFR concentrations, or by measuring the BFR concentrations from samples. Plastics with high BFR concentrations are costly to handle or to discard, whereas plastics with levels below 0.1% have value as recyclable materials.

There are a number of analytical techniques for the rapid measurement of BFR concentrations. X-ray fluorescence spectroscopy can confirm the presence of bromine (Br), but it does not indicate the BFR concentration or specific molecule. Ion attachment mass spectrometry (IAMS) can be used to measure BFR concentrations in plastics. The BFR ban has significantly affected both upstream (plastic material selection) and downstream (plastic material recycling).

2011/65/EU (RoHS 2)
The RoHS 2 directive (2011/65/EU) is an evolution of the original directive and became law on 21 July 2011 and took effect on 2 January 2013. It addresses the same substances as the original directive while improving regulatory conditions and legal clarity. It requires periodic re-evaluations that facilitate gradual broadening of its requirements to cover additional electronic and electrical equipment, cables and spare parts. The CE logo now indicates compliance and RoHS 2 declaration of conformity is now detailed (see below).

In 2012, a final report from the European Commission revealed that some EU Member States considered all toys under the scope of the primary RoHS 1 Directive 2002/95/EC, irrespective of whether their primary or secondary functions were using electric currents or electromagnetic fields. From the implementation of RoHS 2 or RoHS Recast Directive 2011/65/EU on, all the concerned Member States will have to comply with the new regulation.

The key difference in the recast is that it is now necessary to demonstrate conformity in a similar way to the LVD and EMC directives.  Not being able to show compliance in sufficiently detailed files, and not ensuring it is implemented in production is now a criminal offence.  Like the other CE marking directives it mandates production control and traceability to the technical files.  It describes two methods of achieving presumption of conformity (Directive 2011/65/EU Article 16.2), either technical files should include test data for all materials or a standard accepted in the official journal for the directive, is used.  Currently the only standard is EN IEC 63000:2018 (based on IEC 63000:2016 superseded EN 50581:2012), a risk based method to reduce the amount of test data required (Harmonised Standards list for RoHS2, OJEU C363/6).

One of the consequences of the requirement to demonstrate conformity is the requirement to know the exemption use of each component, otherwise it is not possible to know compliance when the product is placed on the market, the only point in time the product must be 'compliant'.  Many do not understand that 'compliance' varies depending on what exemptions are in force and it is quite possible to make a non-compliant product with 'compliant' components.  Compliance must be calculated on the day of placing on the market.  In reality this means knowing the exemption status of all components and using up stock of old status parts before the expire date of the exemptions (Directive 2011/65/EU Article 7.b referring to Decision 768/2008/EC Module A Internal production control).   Not having a system to manage this could be seen as a lack of diligence and a criminal prosecution could occur (UK Instrument 2012 N. 3032 section 39 Penalties).

RoHS 2 also has a more dynamic approach to exemptions, creating an automatic expiration if exemptions are not renewed by requests from industry.  Additionally new substances can be added to the controlled list, with 4 new substances expected to be controlled by 2019.  All these mean greater information control and update systems are required.

Other differences include new responsibilities for importers and distributors and markings to improve traceability to the technical files.  These are part of the NLF for directives and make the supply chain a more active part of the policing (Directive 2011/65/EU Articles 7, 9, 10).

There has been a recent additional amendment 2017/2102 to 2011/65

2015/863 (RoHS 2 amendment)

The RoHS 2 directive (2011/65/EU) contains allowance to add new materials and 4 materials are highlighted for this attention in the original version, the amendment 2015/863 adds four additional substances to Annex II of 2011/65/EU (3/4 of the new restrictions are recommended for investigation in the original directive, ref Para 10 of preamble).   This is another reason that simple component RoHS compliance statements are not acceptable as compliance requirements vary depending on the date the product is placed on the market (ref IEC 63000:2016).   The additional four substances restriction and evidence requirements shall be applied for products placed on the market on or after 22 July 2019 except where exemptions permit as stated in Annex III., although at the time of writing no exemptions exist or have been applied for, for these materials.
The four additional substances are
 Bis(2-Ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP)
 Benzyl butyl phthalate (BBP)
 Dibutyl phthalate (DBP)
 Diisobutyl phthalate (DIBP)
The maximum permitted concentrations in non-exempt products are 0.1%.

The new substances are also listed under the REACH Candidate list, and DEHP is not authorised for manufacturing (use as a substance) in the EU under Annex XIV of REACH.

Scope exclusions
With the recast of the original RoHS (I) Directive (2002/95/EC), the scope of the directive was decoupled from the scope of the WEEE Directive and an open scope was introduced. The RoHS (II) Directive (2011/65/EU) was applicable to all electrical and electronic equipment. Scope limitations and exclusions were specifically introduced in Article 2(4) a) – j) of the recast Directive. All other EEE was in scope of the Directive, unless specific exemptions have been granted through Commission delegated acts (see next paragraph).

The scope exclusions are listed below

This Directive does not apply to:

equipment which is necessary for the protection of the essential interests of the security of Member States, including arms, munitions and war material intended for specifically military purposes;
equipment designed to be sent into space;
equipment which is specifically designed, and is to be installed, as part of another type of equipment that is excluded or does not fall within the scope of this Directive, which can fulfil its function only if it is part of that equipment, and which can be replaced only by the same specifically designed equipment;
large-scale stationary industrial tools;
large-scale fixed installations;
means of transport for persons or goods, excluding electric two-wheel vehicles which are not type-approved;
non-road mobile machinery made available exclusively for professional use;
active implantable medical devices;
photovoltaic panels intended to be used in a system that is designed, assembled and installed by professionals for permanent use at a defined location to produce energy from solar light for public, commercial, industrial and residential applications;
equipment specifically designed solely for the purposes of research and development only made available on a business-to-business basis.

Restriction exemptions

There are over 80 exemptions, some of which are quite broad.  Exemptions will automatically expire after 5 or 7 years unless renewed.

According to Hewlett-Packard: "The European Union is gradually narrowing the scope of and expiring many of the current RoHS exemptions. In addition, it is likely that new substance restrictions will be introduced in the next several years."

Some exemptions:

 Lead as an alloying element in steel containing up to 0.35% lead by weight, aluminium containing up to 0.4% lead by weight, and copper alloy containing up to 4% lead by weight is permitted. (Category 6c)
 Lead in high melting temperature type solders (i.e. lead-based solder alloys containing 85% or more lead by weight). (Category 7a)
 "Lead in solders for servers, storage and storage array systems, network infrastructure equipment for switching, transmission, and network management for telecommunications." (Category 7b)
 Limited amounts of mercury in fluorescent and other light bulbs where it is essential to their functioning comprise RoHS 2 Categories 1, 2, 3, and 4

Medical devices were exempt in the original directive. RoHS 2 narrowed the exemption's scope to active implantable medical devices only (Category 4h). In vitro diagnostic devices (IVDD) and other medical devices are now included.

Automotive vehicles are exempt (Category 4f). Vehicles instead are addressed in the End of Life Vehicles Directive (Directive 2000/53/EC).

Labeling and documentation

Products within scope of the RoHS 2 directive must display the CE mark, the manufacturers name and address and a serial or batch number. Parties needing to know more detailed compliance information can find this on the EU Declaration of Conformity for the product as created by the manufacturer (Brand owner) responsible for the design or the EU representative. The regulation also requires most actors in the supply chain for the product (importer and distributors) to keep and check this document, as well as ensuring a conformance process has been followed and the correct language translation for instructions are provided. The manufacturer must keep certain documentation to demonstrate conformity, known as a technical file or technical records. The directive requires the manufacturer to demonstrate conformity by the use of test data for all materials or by following a harmonised standard (IEC 63000:2016 is the only standard at the time of writing). Regulators may request this file or, more likely, specific data from it as it will likely be very large.

History

RoHS did not require any specific product labelling, but many manufacturers have adopted their own compliance marks to reduce confusion. Visual indicators have included explicit "RoHS compliant" labels, green leaves, check marks, and "PB-Free" markings. Chinese RoHS labels, a lower case "e" within a circle with arrows, can also imply compliance.

RoHS 2 attempts to address this issue by requiring the aforementioned CE mark whose use is policed by the Trading Standards enforcement agency. It states that the only permitted indication of RoHS compliance is the CE mark.
The closely related WEEE (Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment Directive), which became law simultaneously with RoHS, depicts a waste-can logo with an "X" through it and often accompanies the CE mark.

Future possible additions
New substance restrictions being considered for introduction in the next few years include phthalates, brominated flame retardants (BFRs), chlorinated flame retardants (CFRs), and PVC.

Other regions

Asia / Pacific
China Order No. 39 Final Measures for the Administration of the Control and Electronic Information Products (often referred to as China RoHS) has the stated intent to establish similar restrictions, but in fact takes a very different approach. Unlike EU RoHS, where products in specified categories are included unless specifically excluded, there will be a list of included products, known as the catalogue – see Article 18 of the regulation – which will be a subset of the total scope of Electronic Information Products, or EIPs, to which the regulations apply. Initially, products that fall under the covered scope must provide markings and disclosure as to the presence of certain substances, while the substances themselves are not (yet) prohibited. There are some products that are EIPs, which are not in scope for EU RoHS, e.g. radar systems, semiconductor-manufacturing equipment, photomasks, etc. The list of EIPs is available in Chinese and English. The marking and disclosure aspects of the regulation were intended to take effect on 1 July 2006, but were postponed twice to 1 March 2007. There is no timeline for the catalogue yet.
Japan Japan does not have any direct legislation dealing with the RoHS substances, but its recycling laws have spurred Japanese manufacturers to move to a lead-free process in accordance with RoHS guidelines. A ministerial ordinance  Japanese industrial standard for Marking of Specific Chemical Substances (J-MOSS), effective from 1 July 2006, directs that some electronic products exceeding a specified amount of the nominated toxic substances must carry a warning label.
South Korea South Korea promulgated the Act for Resource Recycling of Electrical and Electronic Equipment and Vehicles on 2 April 2007. This regulation has aspects of RoHS, WEEE, and ELV.

United States
The Consumer Product Safety Act was enacted in 1972 followed by the Consumer Product Safety Improvement Act in 2008.

California has passed the Electronic Waste Recycling Act of 2003 (EWRA). This law prohibits the sale of electronic devices after 1 January 2007, that are prohibited from being sold under the EU RoHS directive, but across a much narrower scope that includes LCDs, CRTs, and the like and only covers the four heavy metals restricted by RoHS. EWRA also has a restricted material disclosure requirement.

Effective 1 January 2010, the California Lighting Efficiency and Toxics Reduction Act applies RoHS to general purpose lights, i.e. "lamps, bulbs, tubes, or other electric devices that provide functional illumination for indoor residential, indoor commercial, and outdoor use."

Other US states and cities are debating whether to adopt similar laws, and there are several states that have mercury and PBDE bans already.

United Kingdom
On January 31, 2020, the United Kingdom completed its withdrawal from the European Union and subsequently entered a transition phase spanning from February 1 to December 31, 2020. This event is commonly referred to as Brexit. During this transitional period, the United Kingdom conducted a comprehensive assessment of various regulations, including RoHS. UK RoHS stays well aligned with EU RoHS, with similar scopes, restricted substances, thresholds, and exemptions.

Ireland
Worldwide standards and certification are available under the QC 080000 standard, governed by the National Standards Authority of Ireland, to ensure the control of hazardous substances in industrial applications.

Sweden

In 2012 Sweden's Chemicals Agency (Kemi) and Electrical Safety Authority tested 63 consumer electronics products and found that 12 were out of compliance. Kemi claims that this is similar to testing results from prior years. "Eleven products contained prohibited levels of lead, and one of polybrominated diphenyl ether flame retardants. Details of seven companies have been passed to Swedish prosecutors. Kemi says that levels of non-compliance with RoHS are similar to previous years, and remain too high."

Other standards
RoHS is not the only environmental standard of which electronic product developers should be aware. Manufacturers will find that it is cheaper to have only a single bill of materials for a product that is distributed worldwide, instead of customising the product to fit each country's specific environmental laws. Therefore, they develop their own standards, which allow only the strictest of all allowable substances.

For example, IBM forces each of their suppliers to complete a Product Content Declaration form to document compliance to their environmental standard 'Baseline Environmental Requirements for Materials, Parts and Products for IBM Logo Hardware Products'. Thus, IBM banned DecaBDE, even though there was formerly a RoHS exemption for this material (overturned by the European Court in 2008).

Similarly, here is Hewlett-Packard's environmental standard.

Criticism
Adverse effects on product quality and reliability, plus high cost of compliance (especially to small business) are cited as criticisms of the directive, as well as early research indicating that the life cycle benefits of lead-free solder versus traditional solder materials are mixed.

Criticism earlier on came from an industry resistant to change and a misunderstanding of solders and soldering processes. Deliberate misinformation was espoused to resist what was perceived as a "non-tariff barrier created by European bureaucrats." Many believe the industry is stronger now through this experience and has a better understanding of the science and technologies involved.

One criticism of RoHS is that the restriction of lead and cadmium does not address some of their most prolific applications, while being costly for the electronics industry to comply with . Specifically, the total lead used in electronics makes up only 2% of world lead consumption, while 90% of lead is used for batteries (covered by the battery directive, as mentioned above, which requires recycling and limits the use of mercury and cadmium, but does not restrict lead). Another criticism is that less than 4% of lead in landfills is due to electronic components or circuit boards, while approximately 36% is due to leaded glass in cathode ray tube monitors and televisions, which can contain up to 2 kg per screen.This study was done right after the tech boom.

The more common lead-free solder systems have a higher melting point, e.g. a 30 °C typical difference for tin-silver-copper alloys, but wave soldering temperatures are approximately the same at ~255 °C; however at this temperature most typical lead-free solders have longer wetting times than eutectic Pb/Sn 37:63 solder. Additionally wetting force is typically lower, which can be disadvantageous (for hole filling), but advantageous in other situations (closely spaced components).

Care must be taken in selection of RoHS solders as some formulations are harder with less ductility, increasing the likelihood of cracks instead of plastic deformation, which is typical for lead-containing solders. Cracks can occur due to thermal or mechanical forces acting on components or the circuit board, the former being more common during manufacturing and the latter in the field. RoHS solders exhibit advantages and disadvantages in these respects, dependent on packaging and formulation.

The editor of Conformity Magazine wondered in 2005 if the transition to lead-free solder would affect long-term reliability of electronic devices and systems, especially in applications more mission-critical than in consumer products, citing possible breaches due to other environmental factors like oxidation. The 2005 Farnell/Newark InOne "RoHS Legislation and Technical Manual", cites these and other "lead-free" solder issues, such as:

 Warping or delamination of printed circuit boards;
 Damage to through-holes, ICs and components on circuit boards; and,
 Added moisture sensitivity, all of which may compromise quality and reliability.

Effect on reliability
Potential reliability concerns were addressed in Annex item #7 of the RoHS directive, granting some specific exemptions from regulation until 2010. These issues were raised when the directive was first implemented in 2003 and reliability effects were less known.

Another potential problem that some lead-free, high tin-based solders may face is the growth of tin whiskers. These thin strands of tin can grow and make contact with an adjacent trace, developing a short circuit. Lead in the solder suppresses the growth of tin whiskers. Historically tin whiskers have been associated with a handful of failures, including a nuclear power plant shutdown and pacemaker incident where pure tin plating was used. However, these failures pre-date RoHS. They also do not involve consumer electronics, and therefore may employ RoHS-restricted substances if desired. Manufacturers of electronic equipment for mission-critical aerospace applications have followed a policy of caution and therefore resisted the adoption of lead-free solders.

To help mitigate potential problems, lead-free manufacturers are using a variety of approaches such as tin-zinc formulations that produce non-conducting whiskers or formulations that reduce growth, although they do not halt growth completely in all circumstances. Fortunately, experience thus far suggests deployed instances of RoHS compliant products are not failing due to whisker growth. Dr. Ronald Lasky of Dartmouth College reports: "RoHS has been in force for more than 15 months now, and ~$400B RoHS-compliant products have been produced. With all of these products in the field, no significant numbers of tin whisker-related failures have been reported." Whisker growth occurs slowly over time, is unpredictable, and not fully understood, so time may be the only true test of these efforts. Whisker growth is even observable for lead-based solders, albeit on a much smaller scale.

Some countries have exempted medical and telecommunication infrastructure products from the legislation. However, this may be a moot point, since as electronic component manufacturers convert their production lines to producing only lead-free parts, conventional parts with eutectic tin-lead solder will simply not be available, even for military, aerospace and industrial users. To the extent that only solder is involved, this is at least partially mitigated by many lead-free components' compatibility with lead-containing solder processes. Leadframe-based components, such as Quad Flat Packages (QFP), Small Outline Integrated Circuits (SOIC), and Small outline packages (SOP) with gull wing leads, are generally compatible since the finish on the part leads contributes a small amount of material to the finished joint. However, components such as Ball grid arrays (BGA) which come with lead-free solder balls and leadless parts are often not compatible with lead-containing processes.

Economic effect
There are no de minimis exemptions, e.g., for micro-businesses. This economic effect was anticipated and at least some attempts at mitigating the effect were made.

Another form of economic effect is the cost of product failures during the switch to RoHS compliance. For example, tin whiskers were responsible for a 5% failure rate in certain components of Swiss Swatch watches in 2006, prior to the July implementation of RoHS, reportedly triggering a US$1 billion recall. Swatch responded to this by applying for an exemption to RoHS compliance, but this was denied.

Benefits

Health benefits
RoHS helps reduce damage to people and the environment in third-world countries where much of today's "high-tech waste" ends up.
The use of lead-free solders and components reduces risks to electronics industry workers in prototype and manufacturing operations. Contact with solder paste no longer represents the same health hazard as it used to.

Reliability concerns unfounded
Contrary to the predictions of widespread component failure and reduced reliability, RoHS's first anniversary (July 2007) passed with little fanfare. Most contemporary consumer electronics are RoHS compliant. As of 2013, millions of compliant products are in use worldwide.

Many electronics companies keep "RoHS status" pages on their corporate websites. For example, the AMD website states:

Although lead containing solder cannot be completely eliminated from all applications today, AMD engineers have developed effective technical solutions to reduce lead content in microprocessors and chipsets to ensure RoHS compliance while minimizing costs and maintaining product features. There is no change to fit, functional, electrical or performance specifications. Quality and reliability standards for RoHS compliant products are expected to be identical compared to current packages.

RoHS printed circuit board finishing technologies are surpassing traditional formulations in fabrication thermal shock, solder paste printability, contact resistance, and aluminium wire bonding performance and nearing their performance in other attributes.

The properties of lead-free solder, such as its high temperature resilience, has been used to prevent failures under harsh field conditions. These conditions include operating temperatures with test cycles in the range of −40 °C to +150 °C with severe vibration and shock requirements. Automobile manufacturers are turning to RoHS solutions now as electronics move into the engine bay.

Flow properties and assembly
One of the major differences between lead-containing and lead-free solder pastes is the "flow" of the solder in its liquid state. Lead-containing solder has a lower surface tension, and tends to move slightly to attach itself to exposed metal surfaces that touch any part of the liquid solder. Lead-free solder conversely tends to stay in place where it is in its liquid state, and attaches itself to exposed metal surfaces only where the liquid solder touches it.

This lack of "flow" – while typically seen as a disadvantage because it can lead to lower quality electrical connections – can be used to place components more tightly than they used to be placed due to the properties of lead-containing solders.

For example, Motorola reports that their new RoHS wireless device assembly techniques are "...enabling a smaller, thinner, lighter unit." Their Motorola Q phone would not have been possible without the new solder. The lead-free solder allows for tighter pad spacing.

Some exempt products achieve compliance
Research into new alloys and technologies is allowing companies to release RoHS products that are currently exempt from compliance, e.g. computer servers. IBM has announced a RoHS solution for high lead solder joints once thought to remain a permanent exemption. The lead-free packaging technology "...offers economical advantages in relation to traditional bumping processes, such as solder waste reduction, use of bulk alloys, quicker time-to-market for products and a much lower chemical usage rate."

Test and measurement vendors, such as National Instruments, have also started to produce RoHS-compliant products, despite devices in this category being exempt from the RoHS directive.

Practical

RoHS compliance can be misleading because RoHS3 (EU) allows exemptions, ex. up to 85% lead content for high-temperature soldering alloys.

Therefore good companies should clearly define their level of compliance in their product main datasheets (DS); ideally, they should provide a product content sheet (PCS) with full substance declaration by mass. Similarly, good developers (and users) should carefully validate the product info to make sure they get the exact material safety expected.

Industry Examples:

 RoHS3 compliant without exemptions
 RoHS3 compliant with all applicable exemptions
 RoHS3 compliant with exemption 7a
 RoHS3 compliant, lead-free
 RoHS3 compliant, green (where the term green is a company-specific standard, ex. lead-free and halogen-free)
 RoHS3 compliant with exemptions, lead-free finish

Ideal: RoHS3 compliant without exemptions

Good Minimum Standard: RoHS3 compliant with exemption for lead-content on internal-only material (to help prevent lead-exposure on touch, lead-leakage in water)

See also
 REACH
 Battery Directive
 Electronic waste
 Green computing
 Ion attachment mass spectrometry – used to enforce RoHS limits on banned substances
 Lead safe work practices in the US
 List of European Union directives
 Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment Directive

References

Further reading

External links
 RoHS Compliance in the EU – www.rohs.eu
 Official United Kingdom site on RoHS
 EU RoHS Enforcement Guidance Document, V.1; EU RoHS Enforcement Authorities Informal Network; May 2006
 Properties of Lead-Free Solders National Institute of Standards and Technology
 Support of Industry Compliance with the EU Directive on Restriction of Certain Hazardous Substances (RoHS) on nist.gov
 Case study on RoHS2 compliance

European Union directives
Environmental chemistry
Regulation of chemicals in the European Union
Waste legislation in the European Union
Waste legislation in the United Kingdom
2003 in law
2003 in the European Union
Environmental protection
Electronic waste in Europe
2003 in the environment
Mercury (element)


The coach in ice hockey is the person responsible for directing the team during games and practices, prepares strategy and decides which players will participate in games.

Role
As each game is given great importance, a coach will analyse past games and prepare for future games. Coaches are important in determining the style of hockey the team plays.  While winning is a primary goal at the professional level, at the other extreme of minor hockey, teaching is given greater importance.

The specific responsibilities of a coach vary according to the level at which they are coaching.  For example, unique to coaching at the professional level, a coach, especially a head coach, needs to have skills in dealing with the media. In sport, the role of an expert coach entails more than teaching. Position or skill coaches such as for goaltenders or skating development. Support coaches include Video coaches and Strength and conditioning coach. Professional coaching staffs will include multiple Assistant coaches and sometimes an Associate coach. Associate coaches are a step above a normal assistant coach and one step below a head coach.

Youth Hockey

The role of a youth ice hockey coach is a combination of teacher, motivator, organizer, listener, and disciplinarian.  In addition, there are many other responsibilities that a youth hockey coach will fulfill.  Some responsibilities include: facilitator, demonstrator, evaluator, supporter, and planner.

In the case of coaching of youth hockey, while strategy and tactic skills are still required, there would be the added responsibility of teaching participants the fundamental skills and rules of the game; providing a fun and safe environment; developing character; teaching physical fitness; and having the ability to communicate in a positive manner.

Youth coaches influence the degree of enjoyment experienced by youth and their desire to continue participating in sport.  This influence occurs through the coaches' goals, values, attitudes, and behaviors.

Coaching preparation
Prior to coaching on the ice in the United States, coaches must complete a certification course and age specific modules sanctioned by USA Hockey and then register with USA Hockey.  Coaching clinics for certification are offered at various locations across the country, broken down by districts.  Formal coaching education programs are not the only way coaches are developed.  Other learning opportunities, such as playing experience, mentoring, and discussions with other coaches play a significant role.

Game plan
A coach should focus their attention on individual skill development first.  Individual skill development should be mastered prior to focusing on competition.  For players to become successful in a team situation, they must develop their skating, stick handling, passing, and shooting skills.  Individual skill development is the foundation for every player and of primary importance before advancing in competitive situations.

See also
 Coach (sport)

References

External links
 Hockey Canada Coaching Program
 USA Hockey coaching
 Usahockeymagazine.com

Ice

Coach (ice hockey)


Binche-Chimay-Binche 2017 var den 30. udgave af cykelløbet Binche-Chimay-Binche. Løbet var en del af UCI Europe Tour-kalenderen og blev arrangeret 3. oktober 2017. Løbet blev vundet af belgiske Jasper De Buyst fra .

Hold og ryttere

Danske ryttere
Lasse Norman Hansen kørte for

Resultater

Eksterne henvisninger

Binche-Chimay-Binche
UCI Europe Tour 2017

Binche-Chimay-Binche 2017


was a town located in Hazu District, Aichi Prefecture, Japan.

As of May 1, 2004, the town had an estimated population of 22,280 and a population density of 619.2 persons per km2. Its total area was 35.98 km2.

Kira was a coastal settlement in southern Aichi Prefecture, on Mikawa Bay. The town economy was based on commercial fishing and seasonal tourism. The town was founded in 1906, and expanded in March 1955 by merging with adjacent Yokosuka Village.

On April 1, 2011, Kira, along with the towns of Hazu and Isshiki (all from Hazu District), was merged into the expanded city of Nishio. Hazu District was dissolved as a result of this merger.

External links
 Nishio official website

Dissolved municipalities of Aichi Prefecture
Nishio, Aichi

Kira, Aichi


Mirsad Türkcan (Sırpça: Мирсад Јаховић, d. 7 Haziran 1976; Novi Pazar), eski profesyonel basketbolcu. NBA'de oynayan ilk Türk basketbolcu unvanına sahiptir.

Asıl adı Mirsad Jahović olan Türkcan, Boşnak kökenli üç çocuklu bir ailenin tek oğlu olarak Yugoslavya Sosyalist Federal Cumhuriyeti'nin günümüz Sırbistan sınırları içerisinde kalan şehri Novi Pazar'da dünyaya gelmiştir. Birçok önemli Amerikan, Rus, Fransız, İtalyan ve Türk basketbol takımlarında oynamıştır. En küçük kardeşi Emina Jahović, Sıbistan'da ve diğer eski Yugoslavya'dan ayrılmış devletlerde oldukça tanınmış bir pop müzik şarkıcısı, oyuncu ve mankendir. Ablası Sabina psikolog, üvey kız kardeşi Anastasia S. Jahovic, annesi Doktor Seniya Hanım pediyatrist, babası Doktor Nusret Bey ise kardiyologdur. Altyapıdan itibaren Türk basketbol takımlarında görev almaya başladıktan sonra, Türkiye Cumhuriyeti vatandaşlığına geçerek Türkiye millî basketbol takımı'nda oynamayı tercih etmiştir. 18 Aralık 2005 ile 2012 arasında Sırbistan ve Karadağ Güzeli unvanı kazanmış manken Dina Dzanković ile evli kalmıştır. Nusret (adını dedesinden alan) adında bir oğlu vardır.

1994-1998 yılları arasında Efes Pilsen'de forma giydi ve takımının pek çok başarısında rol aldı. Mirsad Türkcan, 1998'de Houston Rockets tarafından ilk turda seçildi. Kısa bir süre NBA'e giderek bu ligde oynayan ilk Türk basketbolcu unvanını da aldı. Fransa, İtalya ve Rusya Liglerinde oynadı. Ancak 2005 yılında Ülkerspor'la kontrat imzalayarak Türkiye Basketbol Ligi'ne geri döndü. Son olarak Fenerbahçe Ülker takımında oynayan oyuncu, Türkiye Ligi'nde bu takımla şampiyonluk yaşadı.16 Eylül 2012'de Ülker Spor ve Etkinlik Salonu'nda jübile yaparak basketbolu bıraktı. Euroleague tarihinde toplam 1.287 ribaund alan Mirsad, kendi döneminde en çok ribaund alan oyuncu rekorunu elinde bulunduruyordu. Bu rekoru 29 Ocak 2015 tarihinde Felipe Reyes tarafından kırıldı.

Basketbol Sonrası
Mirsad Türkcan FutureBall adlı menajerlik şirketinin sahibidir. Şirket Cengiz Ünder, Emirhan İlkhan, Mert Günok ve diğer başka futbolcuların menajerliğini yapmaktadır.

Kişisel Başarılar
 1994 En İyi Genç Basketbolcu
 1994 Avrupa Gençler Basketbol Şampiyonası En İyi Ribaundcı
 1995 22 Yaş Altı En İyi Türk Basketbolcu
 1996 22 yaş altı Avrupa Gençler Basketbol Şampiyonası En İyi Ribaundcı
 1997 Avrupa Basketbol Şampiyonası En İyi Ribaundcı
 1997 Türkiye Basketbol Ligi Playoffları MVP Ödülü
 1997 Türkiye Basketbol Ligi En İyi Ribaundcı
 2001-01 EuroLeague Normal Sezon MVP Ödülü
 2002-03 EuroLeague İlk 16 MVP Ödülü
 2001-01 EuroLeague En İyi Ribaundcı
 2002-03 EuroLeague En İyi Ribaundcı
 2002-03 İtalya Ligi En İyi Ribaundcı
 2004-05 Rus Ligi En İyi Ribaundcı
 2002 İndiana'da düzenlenen Dünya Basketbol Şampiyonası'nda En İyi Ribaundcı
 2002 Belgrad'ta düzenlenen Zepter Turnuvası'nda MVP Ödülü
 2002 Dünya Basketbol Şampiyonası'nda ikinci 5 kadrosuna seçildi.
 2006 Türkiye Ligi Şampiyonluğu Ülker ile kazandı.
 2007 Türkiye Ligi şampiyonluğunu Fenerbahçe ile kazandı.
 Euroleague'de 1000 ribaund'a ulaşan ilk oyuncu oldu.
 2008 Türkiye Ligi şampiyonluğunu Fenerbahçe ile kazandı.
 2009 EuroLeague TOP 16 MVP Ödülü
 2010 Türkiye Ligi şampiyonluğunu Fenerbahçe ile kazandı.
 2011 Türkiye Ligi şampiyonluğunu Fenerbahçe ile kazandı.

NBA istatistikleri

Sezonlar

|-
| align="left" | 1999-00
| align="left" | New York
| 7 || 0 || 3.6 || .200 || .000 || .000 || 1.4 || .1 || .3 || .0 || .6
|-
| align="left" | 1999-00
| align="left" | Milwaukee
| 10 || 0 || 6.5 || .429 || .000 || .625 || 2.3 || .4 || .4 || .1 || 2.9
|-
| align="left" | Kariyer
| align="left" |
| 17 || 0 || 5.3 || .368 || .000 || .625 || 1.9 || .3 || .2 || .0 || 1.9

Play Off

|-
| align="left" | 1999-00
| align="left" | Milwaukee
| 2 || 0 || 5.0 || .200 || .000 || 1.000 || 1.0 || .0 || .0 || .0 || 20.5
|-
| align="left" | Kariyer
| align="left" |
| 2 || 0 || 5.0 || .200 || .000 || 1.000 || 1.0 || .0 || .0 || .0 || 2.0

Kaynakça

Dış bağlantılar
 TurkSports.Net, Mirsad Türkcan Profili
 TBLStat.net Oyuncu Profili

Sırp erkek basketbolcular
Houston Rockets basketbolcuları
New York Knicks basketbolcuları
Milwaukee Bucks basketbolcuları
Philadelphia 76ers basketbolcuları
1976 doğumlular
Sırbistan Boşnakları
Boşnak asıllı Türkler
Sırbistan doğumlular
Türk erkek basketbolcular
Uzun forvet basketbolcular
Fenerbahçe SK basketbolcuları
Anadolu Efes SK basketbolcuları
Ülkerspor basketbolcuları
Houston Rockets seçimleri
Türkiye vatandaşlığına kabul edilenler
Yaşayan insanlar
Türkiye'deki Sırp göçmenler
Rusya'daki Türk gurbetçiler
Rusya'daki gurbetçi basketbolcular
Amerika Birleşik Devletleri'ndeki gurbetçi basketbolcular
Fransa'daki gurbetçi basketbolcular
İtalya'daki gurbetçi basketbolcular
Amerika Birleşik Devletleri'ndeki Türk gurbetçiler
Fransa'daki Türk gurbetçiler
İtalya'daki Türk gurbetçiler
Montepaschi Siena basketbolcuları
PBK CSKA basketbolcuları
BK Dinamo Moskva basketbolcuları
İtalya Basketbol Ligi basketbolcuları
Paris Basket Racing basketbolcuları
Kısa forvet basketbolcular
Türkiye'deki Yugoslav göçmenler
Türk NBA basketbolcuları

Mirsad Türkcan


Martuthunira var et australsk sprog, der taltes i Vest-Australien; det var et pama-nyungansk sprog, der blev talt af områdets oprindelige befolkning.

Sprog i Australien

Martuthunira


Çomudüz, Kahramanmaraş ilinin Afşin ilçesine bağlı bir mahalledir.

Coğrafya
Kahramanmaraş iline 173 km, Afşin ilçesine 23 km uzaklıktadır.

Nüfus

Dış bağlantılar

Afşin'in mahalleleri

Çomudüz, Afşin


Humboldt Sıradağları, adını doğabilimci Alexander von Humboldt'dan alan, ABD eylaleti Nevada'da bulunan bir dağ sırası.

Humboldt Sıradağları, Great Basin bölgesinin kuzey kısmında, birbirlerinden 220 km mesafede, Kuzey - Güney doğrultusunda ilerleyen iki paralel dağ sırtı oluşturur. Bunlar 40° ve 41° kuzey enlemleri ile 115° ve 118° batı boylamları aralığında bulunur.

Doğu Humboldt Sıradağları
Doğu sırasının kuzeyinde 3.677 m'lik bir zirve vardır.

Batı Humboldt Sıradağları
Batı sırasına, Humboldt Nehri'nin aşağı kısmı ve Humboldt Gölü eşlik eder.

Ayrıca bakınız
 Humboldt Sıradağları (Asya)

Nevada'daki sıradağlar

Humboldt Sıradağları (Amerika Birleşik Devletleri)


Le Laboratoire national de calcul scientifique (), abrégé LNCC, est une institution brésilienne de recherche scientifique et de développement technologique du ministère de la Science, de la Technologie, de l'Innovation et des Communications (MCTIC), spécialisée dans le calcul scientifique. Son siège et unique antenne dans le pays se situe depuis 1998 dans la ville de Petrópolis (état de Rio de Janeiro). Jusqu'à lors et depuis sa fondation, de 1980 à 1998, il était localisé dans la ville de Rio de Janeiro.

L'objectif du LNCC est de mener des recherches dans le domaine du calcul scientifique. Les axes de recherche du laboratoire se concentrent sur des thématiques interdisciplinaires tels que les biosystèmes, la bioinformatique, la biologie computationnelle, les sciences de l'environnement et les sciences multi-échelles. Ces axes de recherche s'appuient sur les domaines de compétence du LNCC tels que la mécanique des fluides numérique, le calcul haute performance, la simulation des réservoirs pétroliers, l'optimisation et l'analyse non linéaire des structures, des systèmes et du contrôle, l'analyse numérique des équations différentielles et l'analyse de sensibilité.

Enseignement
Le programme d'études supérieures en modélisation numérique du LNCC est de niveau master et doctorat. Ce dernier vise l'excellence académique et délivre une formation pluridisciplinaire à destination de futurs professionnels de la recherche et de l'ingénierie. Il s'agit ainsi d'un programme exigeant et de haut niveau scientifique qui vise à développer les compétences des étudiants qui y participent dans trois domaines : les mathématiques appliquées, l'informatique et la modélisation numérique. Le programme, actif depuis l'an 2000, met l'accent sur la modélisation dans des domaines interdisciplinaires. Il est labellisé par le CAPES et bénéficie également du soutien du CNPq et de la FAPERJ en vue de répondre aux exigences stratégiques de la communauté scientifique et technologique nationale.

En 2010, c'était l'un des cinq programmes d'études supérieures brésiliens recommandés pour la 6e année par le CAPES, dans le domaine "Interdisciplinaire". En 2017, neuf autres programmes avaient obtenu une note de 6 et un seul une note de 7 (qui est la note maximale) .

Notes et références

Liens externes

Organisme fondé en 1980
Association ou organisme lié à l'informatique


Romulus Molin (n. 27 septembrie 1881, Maidan, Comitatul Caraș-Severin, Regatul Ungariei – d. secolul al XX-lea) a fost un delegat în Marea Adunare Națională de la Alba Iulia, organismul legislativ reprezentativ al "tuturor românilor din Transilvania, Banat și Țara Ungurească", cel care a adoptat hotărârea privind Unirea Transilvaniei cu România, la 1 decembrie 1918.

Biografie
Romulus Molin a fost locotenent în rezervă în 1918, când organizează Batalionul de gărzi naționale pentru Banatul de sud și apoi în calitate de aghiotant îl predă sub comanda colonelului român Gavril Mihailov din Vârșeț. A studiat dreptul la Universitatea din București, fiind și redactorul ziarelor Poporul român și Lupta  ale mișcărilor naționale ale Românilor de dincolo de Carpați. La Vârșeț, odată cu fondarea și organizarea Batalionului de gărzi, Romulus Molin publică ziarul Opinca, cel dintâi ziar de pe acele meleaguri, și cel dintâi ziar românesc, care apare în toiul Revoluției Române din decembrie 1989, chiar în luna noiembrie 1918, înainte de  adunarea de la Alba Iulia. Este ziarist profesionist  de 33 de ani, din care 5 ani în fosta Ungarie și 15 în străinătate, fiind fondator de ziar în Belgia, iar în Franța corespondent pentru Genova, Viena, Daiting D etc. al cotidianului catolic La Croix.

A făcut studii de jurnalism la Perugia - Italia, Lille în Franța, Zürich- Elveția și alte universități din Germania. A studiat la Grenoble. În cei 15 ani de ziaristică în străinătate, Romulus Molin rămâne totuși corespondentul unei duzine de ziare și reviste din țară. Despre datoria sa de ziarist român și de activitate națională au vorbit mai multe ziare din provincie ( Țara, Știrea, Progresul, Romanațul, Ardealul-Brașov etc.) care niciuna n-au știut cine este fiindcă, a semnat ani de zile cu numele de Dr. Jon Garovina.

Activitatea politică
Ca deputat în Adunarea Națională din 1 decembrie 1918 a fost delegat  ales de 28 de comune fruntașe ale Banatului iugoslav, cercul electoral Vârșeț-Stamora, jud. Timiș. Despre activitatea sa din acele timpuri vorbește istoria revoluției lui Ion Clopoțel, și voluntar de amintiri ale acelor timpuri editate de Dr. M. Gropșianu.  Între 1918 a avut diferite procese de presă în fața tribunalelor ungurești pentru activitatea sa național - politică ziaristică. După ocuparea orașlui Timișoara  de către trupele românești, la 3 august 1919, este numit prefect de poliție al orașului și Comisar al Consiliului Dirigent pentru inventarierea averilor fostului stat unguresc în orașul Timișoara, și este încredințat  cu preluarea  și predarea acelor averi și instituții publice - toate școlile, Camera de Comerț, Direcțiunile Moșiilor Statului, Societatea de navigație și a canalului navigabil Bega etc. A fost șeful cenzurii și al presei minoritare din Transilvania, fiind ales deputat al circumscripției Reșița din jud. Caraș, pentru primul parlament al României Mari. A fost ales a doua oară  tot în cercul electoral Reșița în anul 1923.

Note

Bibliografie
Ioachim Crăciun: Documente de la un sfert de veac de la Marea Unire de la Alba Iulia, în  Mircea Vaida Voevod, Gelu Neamțu: 1 decembrie 1918. Mărturii ale participanților, Vol II, Editura Academiei Române, 2008, pp. 184–185.

Lectură suplimentară
 Daniela Comșa, Eugenia Glodariu, Maria M. Jude, Clujenii și Marea Unire, Muzeul Național Transilvania, Cluj-Napoca, 1998
 Florea Marin, Medicii și Marea Unire, Editura Tipomur, Târgu Mureș, 1993
 Silviu Borș, Alexiu Tatu, Bogdan Andriescu, (coord.), Participanți din localități sibiene la Marea Adunare Națională de la Alba Iulia din 1 decembrie 1918, Editura Armanis, Sibiu, 2015

Legături externe
  Membrii de drept ai Marii Adunării Naționale de la Alba-Iulia din 1 decembrie 1918, lista publicată în "Gazeta Oficială", Sibiu, nr. 1, 1/14 decembrie 1918
 1 decembrie 1918, Marea Unire de la Alba Iulia. Mărturii, documente și semnificații

Vezi și
 Lista delegaților la Marea Adunare Națională de la Alba Iulia

Nașteri în 1886
Decese în secolul al XX-lea
Delegați la Marea Adunare Națională de la Alba Iulia
Jurnaliști români
Oameni din județul interbelic Caraș-Severin
Români din Austro-Ungaria
Transilvăneni

Romulus Molin


EBCDIC (Extended Binary Coded Decimal Interchange Code = Genişletilmiş İkilik kodlu Ondalık Değişim Kodu; okunuşu: ebsedik) IBM tarafından kullanılan bir karakter kümesi ailesidir. Daha çok OS/360 işletim sistemi ve S/390 sunucularında kullanılır. Harf, rakam, işaretleri karşılayan 256 farklı sembolü kodlayabilir.

EBCDIC sisteminin değişik alt türleri vardır. Bu türler karşılıklı
olarak uyum içinde değildir. IBM, kendine özgü olmak üzere türleri birbirine çeviren yazılımlar da üretmiştir. Örneğin; EBCDIC kodunda büyük A harfi 193 (C1hex), küçük a harfi ise 129 (81hex) sayısıyla kodlanmıştır.

Ebcdic 500 alt türü

Ayrıca bak: ASCII

Karakter kodlamaları

EBCDIC


O ENGIE OPEN Biarritz (anteriormente conhecido como Open GDF Suez de Biarritz) é um torneio para tenistas profissionais disputado em quadras de saibro ao ar livre, realizado em Biarritz, França, desde 2003.

Histórico
Criado em 2003 como um torneio da categoria US$ 25.000, Durante um período foi promovido à categoria de US$ 100.000, sendo realizado no "Parc des Sports D'Aguilera"

Hoje em dia, realizado no mês de junho, o evento é classificado como um torneio do "ITF Women's Circuit" de US$ 60.000 e é realizado no "Biarritz Olympique Tennis".

Finais

Simples

Duplas

Ligações externas
 Website oficial do torneio

Torneios de tênis na França
Circuito Feminino ITF
Fundações em 2003

Open de Biarritz


L'Interstate 14 (I-14), aussi connue comme 14th Amendment Highway, Gulf Coast Strategic Highway et Central Texas Corridor, est une autoroute qui est, en 2022, entièrement située dans le centre du Texas, le long de la US 190 mais devrait atteindre à terme la Géorgie.

La proposition initiale pour l'autoroute remonte à 2005. La route était initialement planifiée pour relier Natchez (Mississippi) à l'ouest à Augusta (Géorgie) ou à North Augusta (Caroline du Sud) à l'est après avoir traversé la Louisiane, le Mississippi et l'Alabama. C'est peu après que des propositions d'extension au Texas ont été mises de l'avant. Le corridor de l'I-14, s'il est réellement construit, fournira un lien stratégique entre plusieurs grandes bases militaires le long du Golfe du Mexique et des ports importants de l'Atlantique qui sont utilisés pour les déploiements à l'étranger.

En novembre 2021, le corridor a été considéré comme une priorité élevée par le gouvernement mais pourrait nécessiter encore 15 à  avant d'être achevé.

Histoire
L'autoroute a été proposée en 2005 comme la "14th Amendment Highway" sans un numéro officiel avec un terminus ouest à Natchez (Mississippi), s'étendant dans les états du Mississippi et de l'Alabama avant d'entrer en Géorgie. L'autoroute est nommée en honneur au  amendement puisque la route traversera la "ceinture noire" du sud, région qui a été le cœur de l'économie esclavagiste des plantations.

Il a été proposé que l'autoroute soit étirée jusqu'à Austin à l'ouest et à Grand Strand (Caroline du Sud) à l'est. Le terminus ouest a par la suite été changé pour la jonction avec l'I-49 à Alexandria (Louisiane).

Le concept de l'I-14 est devenu réalité en 2015 lorsqu'une loi a été votée pour créer le Central Texas Corridor. L'axe suit généralement la US 190 sur son parcours. C'est en décembre 2015 que la désignation officielle a été approuvée par le gouvernement.

En 2017, le numéro I-14 a été officialisé et la signalisation a commencé plus tard cette année là.

En août 2021, il est proposé que l'I-14 relie finalement les états du Texas et de la Géorgie, comme il était initialement prévu. Le terminus ouest se trouverait à Odessa (Texas) et le terminus est à Augusta (Géorgie).

Liste des sorties
Les numéros de sortie suivent les marqueurs de la US 190.

Notes et références

Voir aussi

14

Interstate 14


Die Indische Badmintonmeisterschaft der Saison 1988/1989 fand Anfang 1989 in Jalandhar statt. Es war die 53. Austragung der nationalen Titelkämpfe im Badminton in Indien.

Finalergebnisse

Weblinks
https://badmintonindia.org/application/index.php?url=beta/players/national-winners/

1989
Badminton 1989
Sport (Punjab, Indien)
Jalandhar

Indische Badmintonmeisterschaft 1988/89


Natalia Romero Franco (Jaén, 17 de noviembre de 1988) es una atleta española. Inicialmente especializada en los 400 metros, a partir de 2015 ha competido también en 800 metros, prueba a la que se ha dedicado casi exclusivamente desde 2017. Ha competido como integrante de la selección de atletismo de España en diversas competiciones internacionales. Ha pertenecido al Club de Atletismo Unicaja durante toda su carrera.

Palmarés

Campeonatos de España

Absoluta
 Subcampeona de España Absoluta de 400 m en 2008, 2011
 Campeona de España Absoluta de 400 m en pista cubierta en 2009, 2011
 Subcampeona de España Absoluta de 400 m en pista cubierta en 2007, 2010, 2012

Promesa
 Campeona de España Promesa de 400 m en 2008
 Subcampeona de España Promesa de 400 m en 2009, 2010
 Campeona de España Promesa de 400 m en pista cubierta en 2008, 2009, 2010

Campeonatos de España Universitarios
 Campeona de España Universitaria de 400 m en 2008
 Subcampeona de España Universitaria de 400 m en 2009
 Campeona de España Universitaria de 800 m en 2010

Mejores marcas y distinciones

 Plusmarquista Absoluta de Andalucía de 800 m (2.06.60 en 2010)
 Plusmarquista Absoluta de Jaén de 400 m (54.32 en 2010)
 Mejor Deportista Femenina Universitaria de España 2009, 2010, 2011 (Universidad de Jaén)

Enlaces externos
 Datos en la Real Federación Española de Atletismo
 Entrevista en Diario Jaén (febrero de 2010)
 Entrevista en 20 minutos (septiembre de 2009)

Referencias

Atletas de España
Alumnado de la Universidad de Jaén
Deportistas de la provincia de Jaén
Nacidos en Jaén

Natalia Romero Franco


En géométrie différentielle, le théorème de Fenchel stipule que la courbure moyenne de toute courbe convexe fermée dans le plan euclidien est égale à , où  est la longueur de la courbe. Il porte le nom de Werner Fenchel, qui l'a publié en 1929. Plus généralement, pour une courbe fermée arbitraire de l'espace, la courbure moyenne est  avec égalité uniquement pour les courbes planes convexes.

Références

 ; voir en particulier l'équation 13, p. 49

Théorème de géométrie différentielle

Théorème de Fenchel


La Unión Internacional de Ciencia Psicológica (en inglés, International Union of Psychological Science), también conocida por sus siglas IUPsyS es una federación internacional de asociaciones nacionales de psicología. Se trata de una asociación para la promoción de la investigación científica en el ámbito de la psicología.

Organización y funciones

Son miembros de la IUPsyS 93 asociaciones o consorcios nacionales de psicología, 7 organizaciones regionales y 19 organizaciones científicas "afiliadas".

Desde 1952 es miembro del Consejo Internacional para la Ciencia y del Consejo Internacional para las Ciencias Sociales.

Los objetivos de la IUPsyS, según el artículo 6 de sus Estatutos, son:

 Mejorar y promover el desarrollo de la psicología científica y de la profesión de psicólogo.
 Intercambio de ideas e información científica entre los psicólogos de los diferentes países.
 La organización del Congreso Internacional de Psicología y otros eventos sobre temas de interés general o especial de la psicología.
 Difundir el conocimiento psicológico a través de la actividad periodística.
 Promover el intercambio de publicaciones y otras comunicaciones entre los distintos países.
 Promover la excelencia en los estándares para la educación, formación, investigación y aplicaciones de la psicología.
 Promover el desarrollo de los investigadores y las organizaciones nacionales.
 Promover los intercambios internacionales, especialmente entre los estudiantes y jóvenes investigadores.
 Cooperación con otras organizaciones internacionales, regionales y nacionales sobre temas de interés mutuo.

La IUPsyS publica también una revista, "The International Journal of Psychology" (IJP), fundada en 1966.

Comité Ejecutivo desde 2008 hasta 2012

 Rainer K. Silbereisen, presidente, Alemania
 J. Bruce Overmier, expresidente, EE.UU.
 Kan Zhang, vicepresidente, China
 Pierre L.-J. Ritchie, Secretario General, Canadá
 Michel Sabourin, Tesorero, Canadá
 Merry Bullock, Secretario General Adjunto, Estados Unidos (2008-2010)
 Ann D. Watts, Secretario General Adjunto, Sudáfrica (2010-2012)

Historia

La organización surgió a partir de los Congresos Internacionales de Psicología, llevados a cabo regularmente desde 1889. Inicialmente hubo un Comité Permanente, que coordinó la orientación y el diseño del programa de los congresos. En 1905, el Comité contaba ya con 16 países miembros y representantes de 76. A partir de 1932 (X. Congreso) se estableció un Comité Ejecutivo de siete miembros y fue designado un secretario como representante general. Su primer secretario fue el suizo Édouard Claparède hasta su muerte en 1940, y luego se hizo cargo de esta función el estadounidense Herbert S. Langfeld. En 1948 se decidió crear la organización por 1951 contra 13, aprobando el Congreso el Acta Constitutiva, con 11 países miembros fundadores. El nombre de la sociedad fue, hasta 1965, International Union of Scientific Psychology (Unión Internacional de Psicología Científica).

Congresos Internacionales de Psicología

La primera conferencia fue una iniciativa de Julian Ochorowicz, que en 1881 organizó los actos de Théodule A. Ribot.

Congresos antes de la creación de una sociedad internacional

 I. París 1889 (Jean Martin Charcot, Théodule A. Ribot)
 II. Londres 1892 (Henry Sidgwick)
 III. Múnich 1896 (Carl Stumpf)
 IV. París 1900 (Théodule A. Ribot)
 V. Roma 1905 (Giuseppe Sergi, Presidente de Honor Leonardo Bianchi)
 VI. Ginebra 1909 (Théodore Flournoy)
 VII. Oxford 1923 (Charles S. Myers)
 VIII. Groningen 1926 (Gerardus Heymans)
 IX. New Haven 1929 (James McKeen Cattell)
 X. Copenhague 1932 (Harald Höffding, Edgar Rubin)
 XI. París 1937 (Henri Pieron, Presidente de Honor: Pierre Janet)
 XII. Edimburgo 1948 (James Drever Sr.) se toma la decisión de establecer la Sociedad Internacional
 XIII. Estocolmo 1951 (David Katz) Estatutos de la Sociedad Internacional

Congresos de la International Union of Scientific Psychology - a partir de 1965 International Union of Psychological Science

 XIV Montreal 1954 (Edward A. Bott, Edward C. Tolman )
 XV. Bruselas 1957 (Albert Michotte)
 XVI. Bonn 1960 (Wolfgang Metzger, Presidente de Honor: Karl Bühler)
 XVII. Washington 1963 (Otto Klineberg, Presidente de Honor: Edwin G. Boring)
 XVIII. Moscú, 1966 (Aleksei N. Leontiev)
 XIX. Londres 1969 (George C. Drew)
 XX. Tokio 1972 (Moriji Sagara)
 XXI. París 1976 (Paul Fraisse)
 XXII. Leipzig 1980 (Friedhart Klix)
 XXIII. Acapulco 1984 (Rogelio Díaz-Guerrero)
 XXIV. Sídney 1988 (Peter Sheehan)
 XXV. Bruselas 1992 (Paul Bertelson y Géry d'Ydewalle)
 XXVI. Montreal 1996 (David Bélanger)
 XXVII. Estocolmo 2000 (Lars-Göran Nilsson)
 XXVIII. Beijing 2004 (Quicheng Jing)
 XXIX. Berlín, 2008 (Peter A. Frensch)

Previstos
 XXX. Ciudad del Cabo 2012 (Saths Cooper)
 XXXI. Yokohama 2016 (Kazuo Shigemasu)

Referencias

Enlaces externos
 Página de la IUPsyS

Organizaciones de psicología
Uniones miembros del Consejo Internacional para la Ciencia
Organizaciones fundadas en 1888
Instituciones y organismos con sede en Montreal


حرب ناغورني قره باغ (أرتساخ) صراع مسلح حصل من الفترة فبراير 1988 إلى مايو 1994، في مكتنف ناغورني قره باغ (أرتساخ)، في جنوب غرب أذربيجان، على يد جماعات عرقية أرمنية في ناجورنو قرة باغ مدعومة عن طريق الحكومة الأرمينية لمواجهة الحكومة الأذربيجانية. أرمينيا وأذربيجان، هما من الجمهوريات السوفيتية السابقة، حاولت أذربيجان ضد الانفصاليين في المنطقة. طلب البرلمان في المنطقة الانضمام إلى أرمينيا، والاستطلاعات في أواخر الثمانينات أظهرت طلب سكان المنطقة الانضمام إلى أرمينيا، وفي الأشهر التالية، ومع تفكك الإتحاد السوفيتي، نمت الصراعات بشكل تدريجي ونفذت الجهتان التطهير العرقي لبعضهما.

ترجع جذور الصراع إلى عام 1923 عندما أعطت الحكومة الروسية منطقة ناغورنو-كرباخ رسمياً لأذربيجان. ولكن بعد أن تفتت العقد السوفيتي وبعد أن استقلت جمهورية أذربيجان، اندلعت الحروب بين كل من أذربيجان وجمهورية أرمينيا، كل منهما يريد ضم تلك البقعة إلى أراضيه. وكان السبب في ذلك الصراع هو ادعاء أرمينيا بأن تلك المنطقة ملكاً لها معللة ذلك بأغلبية سكانها الأرمن. أدى ذلك الصراع إلى نزوح مئات الآلاف من الأرمن من أذربيجان إلى أرمينيا ونزوح مئات الآلاف من الأذريين من أرمينيا إلى أذربيجان.

طلب البرلمان في جمهورية ناغورني قره باغ (أرتساخ) الانضمام إلى أرمينيا، وتم التصويت على ضم المنطقة إلى أرمينيا 20 فبراير 1988. وإعلان الانفصال كان نتيجة نهائية للآتي:
"إن السلطة الأذرية السوفيتية منعت الجالية الأرمينية من ممارسة عقائدها واستخدام القيود على الحريتين الفكرية والدينية"، ولكن الأهم من ذلك، اعتبرت الحرب صراعاً من أجل الأرض.

جنبا إلى جنب مع الحركات الانفصالية في دول البلطيق (أستونيا ولاتفيا وليتوانيا)، والحركات الانفصالية في القوقاز التي ساعدت على تمزق الاتحاد السوفيتي، أعلنت أذربيجان الانفصال عن الاتحاد السوفيتي ونقل الصلاحية إلى سلطتها، صوتت الغالبية الأرمنية على الانفصال عن أذربيجان وانضمام ناغورني قره باغ (أرتساخ) إلى أرمينيا.

اندلعت الحرب أواخر شتاء 1992. ولم تتمكن المنظمات الدولية من احتواء الصراع، وفي ربيع 1993 استولت القوات الأرمنية على مناطق خارج الوصيدة بما يعادل 9% من الأراضي الأذربيجانية، وقد وصل عدد المشردين من الجهتين إلى 23000 مشرد أذري، و 80000 أرميني وأرتساخي. وقد وضعت روسيا حلاً لوقف الصراع تم التوقيع عليه في أيار / مايو 1994، بواسطة مؤتمر الأسس الأمنية والتعاونية الأوروبية (مجموعة مينسك)، وقد عقدت من جانب أرمينيا وأذربيجان.

خلفية تاريخية
تُعد ملكية منطقة ناغورنو قرة باغ محل صراع محتدم اليوم بين الأرمينيين والأذربيجان. تعود جذور هذا الصراع إلى الأحداث التي تلت الحرب العالمية الأولى. قبل فترة قصيرة من استسلام الإمبراطورية العثمانية في الحرب، انهارت الإمبراطورية الروسية في نوفمبر 1917 ووقعت تحت سيطرة البلاشفة. أعلنت الدول الثلاثة المشكلة للقوقاز، أرمينيا وأذربيجان وجورجيا، إنشاء الاتحاد الترانسقوقازي الذي تفكك بعد ثلاث أشهر فقط من تشكيله.

الحرب الأرمينية الأذربيجانية
اندلع القتال سريعًا بين جمهورية أرمينيا الأولى وجمهورية أذربيجان الديمقراطية في ثلاث مناطق محددة: ناكشيفان وزانغيزور (مقاطعة سيون الأرمنية في الوقت الحالي) وقرة باغ نفسها.

اختلفت أرمينيا وأذربيجان على الحدود الوهمية للمقاطعات الثلاث. حاول الأرمن في قرة باغ إعلان الاستقلال لكنهم فشلوا في إنشاء اتصال مع جمهورية أرمينيا. بعد هزيمة الإمبراطورية العثمانية في الحرب العالمية الأولى، دخل الجنرال الأرميني أندرانيك أوزانيان قرة باغ بنجاح عسكري وتوجه إلى العاصمة الإقليمية شوشا في ديسمبر 1918. احتلت القوات البريطانية جنوب القوقاز عام 1919، واقترحت القيادة البريطانية على أندرانيك أن يوقف هجومه ويعطي الصراع فرصةً للحل السلمي في مؤتمر باريس للسلام. بعد فترة، وافقت بريطانيا مؤقتًا على تعيين رجل الدولة الأذربيجاني خورسوف بيك سلطانوف كحاكم للمنطقة، ولكنها أصرت أن القرار النهائي حول ملكية المنطقة يجب أن يُقرر في مؤتمر سلام مستقبلي. في ذلك الوقت، حدثت مذبحة شوشا.

التقسيم السوفيتي
في أبربل 1920، غزا الجيش السوفيتي الحادي عشر القوقاز، وخلال سنتين شُكلت جمهوريات القوقاز ضمن الجمهورية الترانسقوقازية الفيدرالية الاشتراكية السوفيتية التابعة للاتحاد السوفيتي. شكل البلاشفة بعد ذلك لجنة من سبعة أشخاص باسم مكتب القوقاز (يُشار إليه عادةً باسم كافبارو). تحت إشراف المفوض الشعبي للأمم، جوزيف ستالين (وُلد وترعرع في جورجيا)، الذي أصبح لاحقًا حاكم الاتحاد السوفيتي، أوكلت المهمة إلى الكافبارو لاستلام المسائل التي تخص القوقاز. في الرابع من يوليو 1921، صوتت اللجنة بأربع أصوات مؤيدة مقابل ثلاث أصوات معارضة لصالح تعيين منطقة قرة باغ في جمهورية أرمينيا السوفيتية الاشتراكية ولكن بعد يوم تراجع الكافبارو عن قراره وصوّت لصالح ترك المنطقة في جمهورية أذربيجان السوفيتية الاشتراكية. وفقًا للسياسة السوفيتية التي تسعى إلى إثارة النزاع بين الأرمن والأذريين، لضمان قتالهم ضد بعضهم وليس ضد السوفييت، أنشِئ أوبلاست ناغورنو- قرة باغ المستقل عام 1923، وكان 94% من سكانه من الأرمن وذلك لغاية إستراتيجية. دُعم الانعكاس في القرار بالصلات التجارية التي تملكها أذربيجان مع المنطقة. نُقلت العاصمة من شوشا إلى خانكندي، والتي سُميت لاحقًا ستيناباكرت.

توقع المثقفون الأذريين والأرمن أن القرار كان تطبيقًا لمبدأ «فرق تَسُد» من قبل الاتحاد السوفيتي. يمكن النظر إلى ذلك، على سبيل المثال، من خلال التوظيف الغريب لمكتنف ناخيشيفان، والذي فصله الأرمن ولكنه جزء من أذربيجان. افترض آخرون أن القرار كان بادرة حسن نية من قبل الحكومة السوفيتية للحفاظ على علاقات جيدة مع تركيا الأتاتوركية. على مدى العقود المتوالية للحكم السوفيتي، احتفظ الأرمن برغبة قوية لتوحيد مكتنف ناغورنو- قرة باغ مع أرمينيا، وهي رغبة لطالما سعى أعضاء الحزب الشيوعي الأرمني لبلوغها. قُتل السكرتير الأول للحزب الشيوعي الأرمني أغاسي خانيجيان من قبل نائب رئيس (الذي أصبح لاحقًا رئيس) المفوضية الشعبية للشؤون الداخلية لافنتري بيريا، بعد تسليمه لمظالم الأرمن لستالين، والتي تضمنت مطالب بإعادة ناغورنو- قرة باغ وناخيشيفان إلى أرمينيا. أصر الأرمن أن مطالبهم الوطنية قُمعت وأن حريتهم الثقافية والاقتصادية اختُصرت.

إحياء قضية قرة باغ
بعد وفاة ستالين، عاد التعبير عن السخط الأرمني للظهور. في عام 1963، وقع حوالي 2500 من أرمن قرة باغ عريضةً تدعو إلى وضع قرة باغ تحت السيطرة الأرمينية أو نقلها إلى روسيا. أيضًا في عام 1963، وقعت اشتباكات عنيفة في ستيباناكيرت، ما أدى إلى مقتل 18 أرمني. في عامي 1965 و1977، كانت هناك مظاهرات كبيرة في يريفان، والتي دعت أيضًا إلى توحيد قرة باغ مع أرمينيا. عندما وصل الأمين العام الجديد للاتحاد السوفيتي، ميخائيل غورباتشوف، إلى السلطة عام 1985، بدأ في تنفيذ خططه لإصلاح الاتحاد السوفيتي. تضمنت هذه الخطط في سياستين: البيريسترويكا والغلاسنوست. في حين أن البيريسترويكا كان لها علاقة أكبر بالإصلاح الاقتصادي، فقد منح الغلاسنوست أو الانفتاح حريةً محدودة للمواطنين السوفييت للتعبير عن المظالم بشأن النظام السوفييتي نفسه وقادته. بناءً على هذه السياسة الجديدة لموسكو، قرر قادة مجلس السوفيات الإقليمي لقرة باغ التصويت لصالح توحيد منطقة الحكم الذاتي مع أرمينيا في 20 فبراير 1988. نص القرار كما يلي:«ترحيبًا برغبات عمال منطقة ناغورني قرة باغ المتمتعة بالحكم الذاتي في مطالبة مجلس السوفييت الأعلى في جمهورية أذربيجان الاشتراكية السوفيتية وجمهورية أرمينيا الاشتراكية السوفيتية بإظهار شعور بالفهم العميق لتطلعات السكان الأرمن في ناغورني قرة باغ وحل مسألة نقل منطقة ناغورني قرة باغ المتمتعة بالحكم الذاتي من جمهورية أذربيجان الاشتراكية السوفيتية إلى جمهورية أرمينيا الاشتراكية السوفيتية، وفي ذات الوقت للتوسط مع مجلس السوفيات الأعلى لاتحاد الجمهوريات الاشتراكية السوفياتية للتوصل إلى حل إيجابي بشأن مسألة نقل المنطقة من جمهورية أذربيجان الاشتراكية السوفياتية إلى جمهورية أرمينيا الاشتراكية السوفياتية».في الرابع والعشرين من فبراير طُرد بوريس كيفوركوف، سكرتير الحزب في منطقة ناغورني قرة باغ المتمتعة بالحكم الذاتي والموالي لأذربيجان، من عمله.

اشتكى قادة قرة باغ الأرمن من أن المنطقة لا تحتوي على كتب مدرسية للغة الأرمينية في المدارس ولا في البث التلفزيوني، وأن الأمين العام للحزب الشيوعي الأذربيجاني حيدر علييف حاول على نطاق واسع تأذير (تحويل المنطقة للثقافة الأذربيجانية) المنطقة وزيادة نفوذ الأذربيجانيين الذين يعيشون في ناغورنو وعددهم. بينما في الوقت نفسه خفض عدد سكانها الأرمن (في عام 1987، تنحى علييف عن منصب الأمين العام للمكتب السياسي الأذربيجاني). بحلول عام 1988، انخفض عدد السكان الأرمن في قرة باغ إلى ما يقرب من ثلاثة أرباع مجموع السكان.

قادت الحركة شخصيات أرمينية شعبية ووجدت دعمًا بين المثقفين في روسيا أيضًا. وفقا للصحفي توماس دي وال، أعرب بعض المثقفين الروس، مثل المنشق أندريه ساخاروف عن دعمهم للأرمن. فُسر التأييد الأبرز للحركة بين النخبة في موسكو من قبل بعض العامة: في نوفمبر 1987، نشر صحيفة لوأومانيتيه التعليقات الشخصية التي أدلى بها أبيل أغانبيغيان، المستشار الاقتصادي لغورباتشوف، للأرمن الذين يعيشون في فرنسا، إذ اقترح أنه يمكن التنازل عن ناغورنو قرة باغ لأرمينيا. قبل الإعلان، بدأ الأرمن في الاحتجاج وتنظيم إضرابات العمال في يريفان، مطالبين بالوحدة مع المكتنف. دفع هذا باحتجاجات أذربيجانية مضادة في باكو. بعد بدء المظاهرات في يريفان للمطالبة بتوحيد ناغورنو قرة باغ مع أرمينيا، التقى غورباتشوف بزعيمين من حركة قرة باغ، زوري بالايان وسيلفا كابوتيكيان في 26 فبراير 1988. طلب غورباتشوف منهما بوقف المظاهرات لمدة شهر واحد. عندما عادت كابوتيكيان إلى أرمينيا في نفس الليلة، أخبرت الحشود أن الأرمن انتصروا رغم أن غورباتشوف لم يقدم أي وعود ملموسة. وفقا لسفانتي كورنيل، كانت هذه محاولة للضغط على موسكو. في 10 مارس، ذكر غورباتشوف أن الحدود بين الجمهوريات لن تتغير، وفقًا للمادة 78 من الدستور السوفياتي. وذكر غورباتشوف أيضًا أن العديد من المناطق الأخرى في الاتحاد السوفيتي كانت تتوق إلى تغييرات إقليمية وإعادة رسم الحدود في قرة باغ سيشكل بذلك سابقة خطيرة. لكن الأرمن نظروا إلى قرار الكافبورو عام 1921 بازدراء وشعروا أنهم في جهودهم يقومون بتصحيح خطأ تاريخي من خلال مبدأ تقرير المصير، وهو حق منحه الدستور أيضًا. من ناحية أخرى، وجد الأذربيجانيون أن مثل هذه الدعوات للتخلي عن أراضيهم من قبل الأرمن لا يمكن فهمها وانحازوا إلى موقف غورباتشوف.

في 19 فبراير 1988، خلال اليوم السابع من التجمعات الأرمنية، عُقد أول احتجاج مضاد في باكو. نشر الشاعر بختيار فاهب زاده والمؤرخ سليمان علياروف رسالة مفتوحة في صحيفة أذربيجان، معلنين أن كاراباخ كانت أراضي أذربيجانية تاريخيًا.

الوضع الحالي
أصدر عدد من المنظمات بعض القرارات التي تخص النزاع بعد سنوات قليلة من انتهاء الحرب. على سبيل المثال، اعتمدت الجمعية البرلمانية لمجلس أوروبا (PACE) في 25 يناير 2005 القرار رقم 1416 المثير للجدل، وغير الملزم، والذي انتقد «الطرد الإثني واسع النطاق وإنشاء مناطق أحادية الإثنية» وأكد أن وجود القوات الأرمنية في أراضي أذربيجان احتلال. وأشارت الجمعية إلى أن احتلال دولة عضو لدولة أجنبية يعد انتهاكًا خطيرًا للالتزامات التي تعهدت بها تلك الدولة بصفتها عضوًا في مجلس أوروبا، وأكدت مجددًا بحق النازحين في العودة إلى وطنهم بأمان. وتبنت 39 دولةً من الجمعية العامة للأمم المتحدة القرار 62/243 الذي دعا إلى «الانسحاب الفوري والكامل وغير المشروط لجميع القوات الأرمينية من جميع الأراضي المحتلة في جمهورية أذربيجان» في 14 مايو 2008. وامتنعت قرابة مئة دولة عن التصويت، في جين صوتت سبع دول ضد القرار، بما في ذلك الرؤساء المشاركون الثلاثة لمجموعة مينسك وروسيا والولايات المتحدة وفرنسا.

اعتمدت الدول الأعضاء خلال قمة منظمة التعاون الإسلامي ودورة مجلس وزراء خارجيتها قرار منظمة المؤتمر الإسلامي رقم 10/11 وقرار مجلس وزراء خارجية منظمة التعاون الإسلامي رقم 10/37، في 14 مارس 2008 و18-20 مايو 2010 على التوالي. أدان القراران العدوان المزعوم لأرمينيا على أذربيجان ودعيا إلى التنفيذ الفوري لقرارات مجلس الأمن الدولي رقم 822 و853 و874 و884. وردًا على ذلك، صرح القادة الأرمن أن أذربيجان «تستغل الإسلام لحشد دعم دولي أكبر».

أشارت مجلة موسكو ديفينس بريف في عام 2008 إلى أن النمو السريع لنفقات الدفاع الأذربيجانية، بسبب إعادة تسليح القوات المسلحة الأذربيجانية أدى إلى رجوح كفة الميزان العسكري لصالح أذربيجان، إذ جاء فيها: «... بشكل عام، الظروف العامة تصب في صالح أذربيجان بشكل واضح، ويبدو أن أرمينيا لن تكون قادرة على التفوق في سباق تسلح مع اقتصاد أذربيجان الذي يغذيه النفط. وقد يؤدي ذلك إلى زعزعة استقرار الصراع المجمد بين هاتين الدولتين». وقد أبدى محللون آخرون ملاحظات أكثر حذرًا، مشيرين إلى وجود أوجه قصور إدارية وعسكرية في الجيش الأذربيجاني بشكل واضح وأن جيش الدفاع في ناغورنو قرة باغ يحافظ على «حالة استعداد دائمة للمواجهة ...».

المناوشات العسكرية

تصاعدت التوترات بين أرمينيا وجمهورية قرة باغ وأذربيجان في أوائل عام 2008. على الصعيد الدبلوماسي، كرر الرئيس إلهام علييف تصريحاته بأن أذربيجان ستلجأ إلى القوة، إذا لزم الأمر، لاستعادة أراضيها؛ في الوقت نفسه، ازدادت المناوشات العسكرية والمعارك النارية على طول خط التماس. وقع خرق كبير لوقف إطلاق النار في ماردكيرت في 5 مارس 2008، وقتل خلاله ما يصل إلى ستة عشر جنديًا، واتهم الطرفان بعضهما البعض ببدء المعركة. وكان استخدام المدفعية في المناوشات بمثابة تحول كبير عن الاشتباكات السابقة، والتي عادةً ما تضمنت الأسلحة القناصة أو الرشاشات فقط. ووقعت العديد من المناوشات أيضًا خلال منتصف عام 2010 متسببةً بمقتل العديد من الجنود.

تصاعدت التوترات مرةً أخرى بين يوليو وأغسطس 2014، مع حدوث خروقات لوقف إطلاق النار من قبل أذربيجان وتوعد الرئيس علييف لأرمينيا بالحرب.

وبدلًا من الانحسار، ازداد التوتر في المنطقة في أبريل 2016 مع اشتباكات ناغورنو قرة باغ في عام 2016؛ عندما اندلعت أسوأ المناوشات منذ وقف إطلاق النار عام 1994. وزعمت وزارة الدفاع الأرمينية أن أذربيجان شنت هجومًا على 16 موقعًا في المنطقة. أفادت أذربيجان بمقتل 12 من جنودها أثناء القتال، كما تم تدمير مروحية ودبابة من طراز Mi-24. صرح الرئيس الأرميني سيرج سركسيان بمقتل 18 جنديًا أرمنيًا وجرح 35 آخرين.

الإرث الحضاري
تحول الصراع لاحقًا ليتمثل في أشكال مختلفة من وسائل الإعلام في أرمينيا وأذربيجان. عرض فيلم تشاكاتا غيرل (ديستيني) لأول مرة في يريفان وستيباناكيرت. الفيلم من بطولة وكتابة جور فاردانيان، وهو سرد خيالي للأحداث التي تدور حول عملية لاينغ العسكرية. كلف إنتاج الفيلم 3.8 مليون دولار، وهو أغلى فيلم أُنتج في البلاد، وكان أول فيلم صُور عن حرب ناغورنو قرة باغ الأولى. أصدر الأذربيجانيون في منتصف عام 2012 لعبة فيديو بعنوان تحت الاحتلال: شوشا؛ لعبة إطلاق نار مجانية تسمح للاعب بتولي دور جندي أذربيجاني يشارك في معركة شوشا لعام 1992. لاحظ البعض أن اللعبة «ليست لضعاف القلوب: فهناك الكثير من القتل والدماء التي ينتجها الحاسوب في اللعبة. كما تُعد إلى حد كبير، احتفالية ملؤها العنف، إذ يجب على اللاعبين التعامل مع مجموعة متنوعة من المهام، بما في ذلك إطلاق النار كثيرًا على الأرمن الأعداء، وإنقاذ جندي أذربيجاني مصاب، واستعادة وثيقة، وتفجير مبنى في بلدة شوشا». تبع ذلك لعبة أخرى، تحت الاحتلال: أغدام، والتي صدرت في عام 2013. تشبه هذه اللعبة الإصدار السابق منها، ولكن الأحداث هذه المرة تجري في أغدام. وفي أبريل 2018، عُرض فيلم وثائقي عن الأذربيجاني عمران قربانوف، أحد المشاركين في حرب ناغورنو قرة باغ، بعنوان العودة لأول مرة في باكو؛ من إخراج روفات أسدوف وكتابة أورخان فكرات أوغلو.

مراجع

وصلات خارجية
 Articles and Photography on Artsakh/Nagorno-Karabakh - War and its Legacy, from Russell Pollard UK Photojournalist
 Information Site about Nagorno-Karabakh, history and background of the present-day conflict, maps and resolutions
 Crisis Briefing Nagorno-Karabakh From Reuters Alertnet
 Military Analysis of the Nagorno-Karabakh conflict by GlobalSecurity.org
 A 2005 report on the status of undetonated land mines in Nagorno-Karabakh compiled by the الحملة الدولية لمنع الألغام الأرضية
 A chronology of the events of Nagorno-Karabakh from 1988 to Present by Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty

الاتحاد السوفيتي في 1988
جمهورية مرتفعات قرة باغ في 1988
جمهورية مرتفعات قرة باغ في 1989
جمهورية مرتفعات قرة باغ في 1990
جمهورية مرتفعات قرة باغ في 1991
جمهورية مرتفعات قرة باغ في 1992
جمهورية مرتفعات قرة باغ في 1993
جمهورية مرتفعات قرة باغ في 1994
الانفصالية في أذربيجان
العلاقات الأذربيجانية الأرمنية
العلاقات الأذربيجانية التركية
أرمينيا في القرن 20
تاريخ خانكندي
حرب ناغورنو قرة باغ
ناجورني قرة باغ
ناجورني قرة باغ
صراعات ما بعد الاتحاد السوفيتي
معاداة الأذربيجاني
معاداة الأرمن
نزاعات في 1988
نزاعات في 1989
نزاعات في 1990
نزاعات في 1991
نزاعات في 1992
نزاعات في 1993
نزاعات في 1994
ناجورني قرة باغ
نزاع مرتفعات قره باغ

حرب مرتفعات قره باغ الأولى


Kochetinski  es un posiólok del raión de Dinskaya del krai de Krasnodar del sur de Rusia. Está situado en las llanuras de Kubán-Priazov, a orillas del río Kochety, afluente del Kirpili, 4 km al sur de Dinskaya y 22 km al nordeste de Krasnodar, la capital del krai. Tenía 616 habitantes en 2010.

Pertenece al municipio Michurinskoye.

Enlaces externos y referencias

 Este artículo contiene datos geográficos extraídos de Google Earth y el mapa de Rusia de Yandex.ru, accesible desde este enlace.
 Este artículo es en parte una traducción de su correspondiente en la edición en ruso de Wikipedia, Кочетинский.
 Sitio web del municipio
 El municipio en el sitio web del raión .
  en Panoramio
 Mapa topográfico soviético en maps.vlasenko.net

Localidades del raión de Dinskaya del krai de Krasnodar

Kochetinski


Bronzarea este un proces în care culoarea pielii se schimbă, respectiv, se închide la culoare. Este cel mai adesea rezultatul unei expuneri la radiațiile ultraviolete (UV) produse de soare sau de altă formă artificială, cum ar fi lămpile pentru bronzare.

Unele persoane stau în mod intenționat în lumina soarelui pentru a se bronza. Este considerată o activitate recreațională de cele mai multe persoane.

Unii preferă produse care produc efectul de bronzare, fără ajutorul soarelui. Aceste produse se numesc produse autobronzante.

Expunerea moderată la soare ajută la producerea de melanină și de vitamina D. Dar expunerea pentru un timp îndelungat are efecte negative asupra sănătății, ca de exemplu arsurile solare, creșterea riscului de cancer și accelerarea îmbătrânirii pielii. Unii se bronzează sau se ard mai mult decât alții, depinzând de anumiți factori (culoarea pielii, utilizarea cremei de protecție etc.)

Aspecte de sănătate

Cel mai frecvent risc de expunere la radiații ultraviolete este arsurile solare, a căror viteză și severitate variază în rândul persoanelor. Acest lucru poate fi atenuat cel puțin într-o oarecare măsură prin aplicarea prealabilă a unui produs de protecție solară adecvată, care va împiedica, de asemenea, procesul de bronzre  datorită blocării luminii UV.

Este cunoscut faptul că supraexpunerea la radiații ultraviolete provoacă cancer de piele, face ca vârsta pielii și ridurile să apară mai repede, mută ADN și afectează sistemul imunitar. Folosirea patului de bronzare (solarul sau bronzarea artificială) frecventă triplează riscul de apariție a melanomului, cea mai mortală formă de cancer de piele, potrivit unui studiu din 2010. Studiul sugerează că, riscul de melanom este legat mai mult de expunerea totală, decât de vârsta la care o persoană utilizează mai întâi un pat de bronzare. Agenția Internațională pentru Cercetare a Cancerului pune utilizarea paturilor de bronzare în categoria cea mai înaltă de risc pentru cancer, caracterizându-le ca fiind cancerigene pentru oameni, chiar dacă sunt utilizate așa cum se recomandă.

Astăzi, se știe că insolația excesivă reduce fertilitatea la femei, iar la bărbați poate provoca infertilitate pe termen scurt (pentru câteva zile). În plus, pasiunea pentru bronzare duce la o asemenea boală ca tanorexia.

Soarele, în general afectează în mod negativ starea pielii, provocând evaporarea rapidă a umidității din celulele nu numai ale straturilor superioare, dar și a celor adânci, perturbând echilibrul lipidic al epidermei. Ca urmare, elasticitatea pielii scade, ceea ce provoacă apariția ridurilor.

Lubrifierea pielii cu uleiuri vegetale grase (nuc, piersic etc.) pentru bronzarea rapidă îl protejează de uscare și într-o anumită măsură de arsuri.

În același timp, unele componente de uleiuri esențiale (bergamot, portocale și alte fructe citrice), suc de hogweed, pătrunjel și alte plante provoacă arsuri ale pielii, cu fototoxicitate.

Acțiunea razelor ultraviolete
Prima fază a arsurilor solare este eritemul fiziologic ușor. Apoi, pielea se întunecă treptat, «dobândind un bronz».

Cu o supradoză, se produce arsuri în loc de bronzare. Cu arsuri solare există un sentiment fals de frig (cunoscut ca frisoane).

Bronz artificial
Există modalități alternative de a obține un bronz: agenți de colorare pe bază de dihidroxiacetonă și bronzeri.

Multe produse de bronzare sunt disponibile sub formă de creme, geluri, loțiuni și spray-uri care se aplică pe piele. Există de asemenea un bronz instant sau "solar" oferit de stațiuni, saloane.

Note

Piele
Radiație ultravioletă

Bronzare


Električna kolica ili akumulatorska kolica su vrsta prenosila povremena dobave koja se koriste za prijenos (prijevoz) većih tereta. Električna kolica su vrsta motornih kolica, koja rjeđe mogu biti i dizelska. Imaju platformu ili koš za smještaj tereta, a upravlja vozač, koji stoji ili sjedi. Njima su nalik i kompozicije koje se sastoje od tegljača za koji se prikapčaju kolica bez vlastitoga pogona. Za vrlo učestali prijevoz koriste se tegljači bez vozača, koji s pomoću automatskog upravljanja voze k odredištu.

Prenosila povremene dobave

U prenosila povremene dobave ubrajaju se podna prenosila, pružna prenosila, sredstva za prijevoz teških tereta i viseća prenosila.

Podna prenosila bez uređaja za podizanje
Podna prenosila za prijenos lakih tereta (do 1 tone) na male udaljenosti (do 50 metara) vuku se ili guraju ručno. Među ručna podna prenosila spadaju tačke, zahvatne dvokolice za vreće i sanduke, različiti tipovi kolica s nepokretnom platformom i slično. Sva ta prenosila služe samo za povremeni prijenos (transport).

Za veće količine tereta i duže vrijeme rada služe motorna kolica: električna kolica ili dizelska kolica. Ta se vozila grade s nepokretnim ili nagibnim platformama ili koševima za smještaj tereta, imaju nosivost obično od 0,5 do 5 tona, a nekad i do 40 tona, te najveću brzinu do 20 km/h kad upravljač sjedi, a 15 km/h kad upravljač stoji. Pod punim opterećenjem brzina iznosi oko 12 km/h. Upotrebljavaju se za prijevoz na udaljenosti do 1 000 i više metara. Prikladna su za neredovit pojedinačni prijevoz.

Za redoviti prijevoz prikladniji su vlakovi sastavljeni od tegljača i prikopčanih kolica bez vlastitog pogona. Tegljači nemaju platformu za teret i služe samo za vuču.

Po dobroj betonskoj podlozi električni tegljači vuku od 3 do 6 kolica s ukupnom korisnom masom od 3 do 30 tona, brzinom od 8 do 12 km/h. Njihova vučna sila iznosi od 0,5 do 4 kN, a s jednim akumulatorskim punjenjem mogu prijeći od 30 do 50 kilometara. Dizelski tegljači imaju veće brzine vožnje (do 20 km/h, iznimno do 35 km/h) i veće vučne sile (do 15 kN), pa mogu tegliti privješeni teret i do 60 tona.

Kad tegljač dovuče prikopčana kolica do odredišta, može odmah prihvatiti druga kolica i odvući ih natrag ne čekajući istovar ili utovar. Prilično složen mehanizam za prisilno upravljanje vlakom omogućuje prolaz kroz oštrije zavoje i uže prolaze, ali zahtijeva osobito spretna vozača. Za veoma učestali prijevoz često se primjenjuju tegljači bez vozača, koji pomoću automatskog upravljanja samostalno voze k odredištu. Na prednjoj strani takvi tegljači imaju zaštitne lukove koji pri naletu na zapreku aktiviraju kočenje.

Izvori

Vanjske poveznice

Strojevi
Cestovna infrastruktura
Građevinarstvo
Metaloprerađivačka industrija
Alati

Električna kolica


Hürriyet, şu anlamlara gelebilir:

 Hürriyet (felsefe)
 Hürriyet (gazete, 1868)
 Hürriyet, bir Türkçe günlük gazete.
 Hürriyet Abidesi
 Hürriyet Film, Türkiye'de bir film prodüksiyon şirketi.
 Hürriyet Gösteri, Sanat Edebiyat Dergisi
 Hürriyet (şiir)

Yerleşim birimleri
 Hürriyet, Altınordu, Ordu'nun Altınordu ilçesine bağlı mahalle
 Hürriyet, Bağcılar, İstanbul ili Bağcılar ilçesine bağlı mahalle
 Hürriyet, Bahçelievler, İstanbul ili Bahçelievler ilçesine bağlı mahalle
 Hürriyet, Büyükçekmece, İstanbul ili Büyükçekmece ilçesine bağlı mahalle
 Hürriyet, Çarşamba, Samsun ili Çarşamba ilçesine bağlı mahalle
 Hürriyet, Gaziosmanpaşa, İstanbul ili Gaziosmanpaşa ilçesine bağlı mahalle
 Hürriyet, İncirliova, Aydın'ın İncirliova ilçesine bağlı mahalle
 Hürriyet, Kâğıthane, İstanbul ili Kâğıthane ilçesine bağlı mahalle
 Hürriyet, Karasu, Sakarya'nın Karasu ilçesine bağlı mahalle
 Hürriyet, Kartal, İstanbul ili Kartal ilçesine bağlı mahalle
 Hürriyet, Kemalpaşa, İzmir ili Kemalpaşa ilçesine bağlı mahalle
 Hürriyet, Onikişubat, Kahramanmaraş'ın Onikişubat ilçesine bağlı mahalle
 Hürriyet, Osmangazi, Bursa'nın Osmangazi ilçesine bağlı mahalle
 Hürriyet, Pazarcık, Kahramanmaraş'ın Pazarcık ilçesine bağlı mahalle
 Kavaklı Hürriyet, Silivri, İstanbul ili Silivri ilçesine bağlı mahalle
 Hürriyet, Tarsus, Mersin'in Tarsus ilçesine bağlı mahalle

Hürriyet (anlam ayrımı)


A Life as Jimmy er en dansk dokumentarfilm fra 2012 instrueret af Mai Rasmussen og Rachel Charlotte Smith efter deres eget manuskript.

Handling
Mens Sydsudan fejrer fred efter 21 års krig, forsøger Jimmy at balancere sit familieansvar, sit personlige liv og sin identitet. 'A Life as Jimmy' undersøger, hvordan man kan gribe livet, når man kun har oplevet krig, og der så endelig bliver fred. Samtidig viser den hovedpersonens eksistentielle overvejelser, der ligner alle andres.

Referencer

Eksterne henvisninger

Krig
Dokumentarfilm fra Danmark
Danske film fra 2012

A Life as Jimmy


Bilmece, bir şeyin adını anmadan niteliklerini üstü kapalı söyleyerek o şeyin ne olduğunu bulmayı dinleyene veya okuyana bırakan oyun, muamma. Bilmecelerde sorular; betimsel bir düzey içinde abartılarak, kavram tersine çevrilerek ve değiştirilerek oluşturulur. İfade bir "soru cümlesi" olmak zorunda değildir. Bilmeceler birkaç kelimeden oluşan bir tümce halinde olabildiği gibi beyitler veya kıtalar halinde de olabilir. Pek çok bilmece tekerleme hâlindedir. Tüm bunlara ek olarak bilmeceler içinde birden fazla soru içerebilir ve çoklu cevaba sahip olabilirler.

Tarihi
Bilmeceler tarihi, antik Mısır ve Yunanistan gibi eski medeniyetlere kadar uzanır. Örneğin, Mısır'daki piramitlerin duvarında yer alan yazıtlarda, Mısır'da yaşamış olan insanların dil becerilerini test etmek için kullanılan bilmeceler bulunmaktadır.

Ayrıca, Yunanistan'da da bilmecelerin kullanıldığı görülmektedir. Örneğin, Platon'un "Gorgias" adlı eserinde, bir bilmece olarak bilinen "tanrıların tahtı" örneği verilmektedir. Bu örnek, tanrıların tahtının üzerinde dört kuş bulunduğunu ve bu kuşların ikisi gelecekteki olayları, diğer ikisi de geçmiş olayları gördüklerini anlatmaktadır.

Bilmeceler, tarih boyunca insanlar tarafından yüzyıllardır kullanılan bir dil oyunudur ve eski medeniyetlerden bu yana farklı formlarıyla bulunmaktadır. Bilmeceler, dil becerilerini ve zihinsel yeteneklerini test etmek için kullanılır ve eğlence amaçlı olarak da kullanılır. Ayrıca, bilmeceler, insanlar arasında bilgi paylaşımı için de kullanılabilir ve bu nedenle tarih boyunca önemini koruyan bir dil oyunudur.

Örnekler
 Yerde turuncu çivi (havuç)
 İki camlı pencere / Bakıp durur her yere. (gözlük)
 Dal üstünde kilitli sandık. (ceviz)
 Varma sakın yanına, on parmağın bal olur. / Tutar isen yavaş tut, İki elin kan olur. (karadut)
 Pazardan aldım bir tane / Eve geldim bin tane. (nar)
 Çam ağacını oyarlar / İçine nağme koyarlar / Ağlama tintonum ağlama / Şimdi kulağını burarlar. (bağlama)
 3 tane E kelimesi ile başlayan meyveler vardır. / İlk ikisi yenir biri yenmez. (Elma, Erik, EVLAT)
 Ağzı var odun yutar, bacası var duman tüter. (Soba)
 Ağzı var dili yok, nefesi var canı yok, derisi var kanı yok. (Balon)
 Sıra sıra odalar, birbirini kovalar. (Tren)
 Kar gibi beyaz, gece gibi siyah, yemesi haram, içmesi helal, erkekler günde 3 defa görür kızlar ömründe bir defa görür. (Kar gibi beyaz olan kefendir gece gibi siyah olan şey ise kabirdir. Yemesi haram içmesi helal olan şey ölüm şerbetidir. Erkekler günde 3 kere cenaze namazına katılabilir ama kadınlar ömürlerinde 1 kere cenaze namazına katılabilir o da kendi cenaze namazlarıdır.)

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