Novi Lički Osik je gradsko naselje podignuto 1950-ih godina. Primjer je realsocijalističkih novih gradova. Podignut je uz novosagrađenu tvornicu oružja Marko Orešković Lika (tada imena Ivan Gošnjak). U njega su naseljeni pretežno Srbi. Nakon velikosrpske pobune 1991. pobunjeni Srbi preimenovali su naselje u Teslingrad. U urbanističko-arhitektonskom smislu rezultat je socijalizma. Neposredno poslije Drugoga svjetskog rata donesena je odluka da se u Lici izgradi veliki industrijski sklop metaloprerađivačke industrije koji je trebao raditi za potrebe tadašnjeg vojno-obrambenog sustava. S obzirom na planiranih 1500 radnika u tvornici, odlučeno je da se uz tvornicu izgradi i novi grad. Novi Lički Osik planiran je kao novi industrijski grad, nedaleko od Ličkog Osika, ali ostvaren kao samostalna cjelina sa svim potrebnim sadržajima. Planirano je da u njemu živi 4.000-5.000 stanovnika, no nikad se nije prešlo 3.000 stanovnika. Već 1948. izrađen je prvi regulacijski plan. 1950. godine osnovana je tvrtka Ivan Gošnjak. 1952. izrađeni su novi regulacijski planovi. Prostorni koncept grada zamišljen je u duhu modernizma i funkcionalizma. Grad je trebao je predstavljati samoodrživi industrijski grad radničke klase u kojem postoje sve osnovne gradske funkcije i stvarno su prostor bio sustavno promišljen. Urbanističko planiranje neprekidno je do sredine 1980-ih godina kada su rađeni generalni urbanistički plan i provedbeni planovi za pojedine gradske predjele. Nakon velikosrpske pobune 1990. i okupacije, Novi Lički Osik našao se u pobunjeničkoj paradržavi i preimenovali su ga u Teslingrad. Uoči i tijekom oslobađanja u Oluji 1995., veliki broj stanovnika srpske nacionalnosti napustio je Lički Osik. U ispražnjeni grad naselili su se Hrvati izbjegli i prognani u ratnim stradanjima u Bosni i Hercegovini.

Izvori

Naselja u sastavu Grada Gospića

Novi Lički Osik


Olaylar
 23 Ekim - III. Valentinianus Roma İmparatoru oldu.

Doğumlar
 Flavius Zeno, iki defa tahta geçmiş Doğu Roma İmparatorluğu İmparatoru (ö. 491)

Ölümler
 Joannes, Batı Roma İmparatoru & Gaspçı

425


Violeta Parra, también conocido como Isabel Parra canta recopilaciones y cantos inéditos de Violeta Parra es el cuarto álbum de estudio como solista de la cantautora chilena Isabel Parra, hija de Violeta Parra, lanzado en 1970 por su propio sello discográfico Peña de los Parra, creado en 1968 junto a su hermano Ángel Parra, y distribuido por el sello DICAP.

Este es un álbum tributo de Isabel a su madre. Los nombres de ambas aparecen en la cubierta del álbum. El Lado A está conformado en su totalidad por canciones tradicionales recopiladas por Violeta Parra, en tanto que el Lado B contiene textos inéditos de Violeta, tres de los cuales fueron musicalizados por Isabel: la tonada «Como el roble en el verano», el vals-canción «Qué palabra te dijera» y la canción «Lo que más quiero», que al año siguiente se haría famosa gracias a la versión de Inti-Illimani en su álbum Autores chilenos.

En la música participan su hermano Ángel Parra, el cantautor Víctor Jara y Horacio Salinas, director musical de Inti-Illimani.

Lista de canciones

Todas las canciones provenientes del folclore chileno, recopiladas por Violeta Parra, salvo que se indique lo contrario.

Créditos
 Músicos
 Isabel y Ángel Parra: voces, guitarra, cuatro, charango, bombo
 Víctor Jara
 Horacio Salinas
 Otros
 Vicente + Antonio Larrea: diseño gráfico

Referencias

Álbumes de 1970
Álbumes de Isabel Parra
Álbumes de Peña de los Parra
Álbumes de Discoteca del Cantar Popular
Álbumes tributo a Violeta Parra
Álbumes en español

Violeta Parra (álbum)


An Pitcairnia delicata in uska species han Liliopsida nga ginhulagway ni Harry Edward Luther. An Pitcairnia delicata in nahilalakip ha genus nga Pitcairnia, ngan familia nga Bromeliaceae.

Mabibilngan ini ha Colombia. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Pitcairnia

Pitcairnia delicata


الحرب الأهلية السودانية الأولى المعروفة أيضا باسم أنانيا (أي سم الأفعى) أو تمرد أنانيا صراع كان دائرا بين أعوام 1955 إلى 1972 بين الجزء الشمالي من السودان والجنوبي منه التي طالبت بمزيد من الحكم الذاتي الإقليمي.

يعتقد بأن ضحايا الحرب خلال 17 عاما من الحرب أكثر من نصف مليون، ويمكن تقسيم هذه الحرب إلى ثلاث مراحل: الأولى هي حرب العصابات ثم الأنانيا وحركة تحرير جنوب السودان. ومع ذلك، فإن الاتفاق الذي أنهى القتال في 1972 فشل تماما في تبديد التوتر الذي تسبب في نشوب الحرب الأهلية، مما أدى إلى إطلاق شرارة الصراع بين الشمال والجنوب خلال الحرب الأهلية السودانية الثانية (أو حرب أنانيا الثانية) (1983—2005).

أصول النزاع
حتى 1946، الحكومة البريطانية, بالتعاون مع الحكومة المصرية تحت سيادة مشتركة، أدارتا جنوب السودان وشمال السودان كمناطق منفصلة عن بعضهما البعض. في هذا الوقت، تم دمج المنطقتين في منطقة إدارية واحدة كجزء من الاستراتيجية البريطانية في الشرق الأوسط و تم هذا دون استشارة من القادة الجنوبيين الذين كان لهم شعور بالخوف من انتقال جزء كبير من السلطة إلى نظرائهم الشماليين. في الغالب كان يسكن جنوب السودان المسيحيون والوثنيون و هو يعتبر ثقافيا جزء من منطقة جنوب الصحراء الكبرى أما شمال السودان فأغلب سكانه مسلمون و يعتبر جغرافيا وثقافيا جزء من المنطقة العربية.

بعد فبراير 1953، وقع اتفاق من قبل المملكة المتحدة ومصر على منح الاستقلال للسودان لكن هذا ساهم في زيادة التوترات الداخلية في طبيعة العلاقة بين الشمال والجنوب. في 1 يناير 1956 أخد السودان الاستقلال وظهر أن قادة الشمال تراجعوا عن التزاماتهم بإنشاء الحكومة الاتحادية التي من شأنها أن تعطي الجنوب قدرا كبيرا من الحكم الذاتي.

مسار الحرب

في 18 أغسطس 1955, تمرد أعضاء الإدارة البريطانية التي تسير فيلق قوات الدفاع الاستوائية في توريت و في الأيام التالية في جوبا، ياي ومريدي. الأسباب المباشرة للتمرد كانت محاكمة عضو جنوبي في الجمعية الوطنية السودانية وزعموا أن مذكرة اعتقالته كاذبة وهي حثت الإداريين الشماليين الذين يعملون في الجنوب إلى قمع الجنوبيين. في الأخير قمع التمرد, على الرغم من أن الناجين فروا من البلدات وبدؤوا تمردا غير منسق في المناطق الريفية بسوء تسليح وتنظيم وكانوا يشكلون خطرا قليلا فقط على القوة الاستعمارية البريطانية-المصرية أو الحكومة السودانية. المصادر في 1977 قالت أن الفترة من 1955 إلى 1963 كانت فترة من حرب العصابات للبقاء على قيد الحياة في جنوب السودان.

ومع ذلك، أنشأ المتمردين تدريجيا حركة انفصالية في 1955 تتكون من المتمردين والطلاب الجنوبيين. هذه المجموعات شكلت جيش عصابات الأنيانيا و عرفت أيضا باسم أنيانيا 1 بالمقارنة مع أنيانيا 2, التي بدأت في 1974 تمردها من حامية عسكرية في أكوبو. ابتداء من ولاية الاستوائية الوسطى في ما بين 1963 و1969، انتشرت حركة الأنيانيا في اثنين من المحافظات الجنوبية الأخرى: ولاية أعالي النيل وشمال بحر الغزال. ومع ذلك، أصيبت الحركة الانفصالية بشلل داخلي جراء الانقسامات العرقية. في ذلك الوقت، كان هناك أربعة ألوية مشاة من الجيش السوداني متمركزة في مقاطعة الاستوائية منذ 1955, تجري دوريات عسكرية بشكل مستمر.

لم تتمكن الحكومة من الاستفادة من نقاط ضعف المتمردين بسبب الطائفية وعدم الاستقرار. أول حكومة مستقلة في السودان, بقيادة رئيس الوزراء إسماعيل الأزهري, سرعان ما تم استبدالها من قبل تحالف من مختلف القوى المحافظة، التي بدورها، تم الإطاحة بها في انقلاب عسكرية بقيادة رئيس الأركان الجنرال إبراهيم عبود في عام 1958. أدى الاستياء من الحكومة العسكرية إلى موجة من الاحتجاجات الشعبية التي ساهمت في إنشاء حكومة مؤقتة في أكتوبر 1964. هذه الاحتجاجات كان هي المثول الأول للإسلامي حسن الترابي, الذي كان بعد ذلك زعيما طلابيا. بين 1966 و1969, سلسلة من الإسلاميين الذين هيمنوا على الشؤون الإداراية أثبتوا عدم قدرتهم على التعامل مع مشاكل التنوع العرقي و الصراع الاقتصادي في السودان. بعد ثاني انقلاب عسكري في 25 مايو 1969, أصبح العقيد جعفر نميري رئيس مجلس الوزراء وعلى وجه السرعة، حظر الأحزاب السياسية. أدت مكافحة الفصائل الماركسية وغير الماركسية و هي الطبقة العسكرية الحاكمة إلى انقلاب آخر في يوليو 1971 و إدارة قصيرة الأجل من قبل الحزب الشيوعي السوداني و مكافحة الفصائل الشيوعية وضع نميري مرة أخرى في كرسي الحكم و السيطرة على البلاد. في هذا العام نفسه, الألماني الوطني رولف شتاينر, الذي كان قد قدّم سرا المشورة للمتمردين، تم اعتقاله في كمبالا عاصمة أوغندا و تم ترحيله إلى الخرطوم حيث تمت محاكمته وحكم عليه بالموت شنقا على أن يخدم ثلاث سنوات في السجن قبل إعدامه لكن تم الإفراج عنه بعد مفاوضات وضغط من حكومة ألمانيا الغربية. بعدها غير جنوب السودان اسمه إلى جمهورية نهر النيل لاستكمال الحرب ضد الشمال بدعم من أوغندا وإسرائيل والإمبراطورية الإثيوبية حتى تدخل المجلس العالمي للكنائس ومجلس كنائس أفريقيا لعقد المفاوضات التي توجت بالتوقيع على اتفاق أديس أبابا في 1972 لكن هذا الأخير لم يصمد لإبعاد شبح الحرب الأهلية السودانية الثانية التي اندلعت في 1983.

آثار الحرب
قُتل حوالي 500.000 شخص، بحيث واحدا فقط من خمسة أشخاص كان يعتبر مقاتلا مسلحا، قتلوا في سبعة عشر سنة من الحرب و مئات الآلاف أجبروا على ترك منازلهم. أثبت اتفاقية أديس أبابا نفسها أنها فترة راحة مؤقتة فقط. أدت الخلافات التي مصدرها من الشمال إلى زيادة الاضطرابات في الجنوب في منتصف 1970, مما أدى في 1983 إلى تمرد الجيش مرة أخرى مما أثار الحرب الأهلية السودانية الثانية. في الجنوب لأول مرة بقيادة الزعيم الراحل أغري جادين، تغادر حركة تحرير جنوب السودان في عام 1969 بسبب النزاعات السياسية الداخلية. في نفس العام، انتخب جوردون موارتات ماين بالإجماع بوصفه الزعيم الجديد للجنوب. جنوب السودان في هذا الوقت غيّر اسمه إلى جمهورية نهر النيل لاستئناف الحرب ضد شمال السودان, ومع ذلك، بعض من قوات الزعيم السابق أغري جادين لم تقبل بزعيم من قبيلة الدينكا و حاربت حركة أنيانيا. في عام 1971, قامت قوات الجيش السابق بقيادة الملازم جوزيف لاغو بانقلاب ناجح ضد جوردون موارتات بمساعدة من إسرائيل التي تعهدت له بدعمه. بعد ذلك تجمع كل قوات حرب العصابات تحت راية حركة تحرير جنوب السودان (SSLM) مرة أخرى لاستئناف الحرب.

مراجع

ببليوغرافيا
 Assefa, Hizkias. 1987. Mediation of Civil Wars, Approaches and Strategies – The Sudan Conflict. Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press.
 Eprile, Cecil. War and Peace in the Sudan, 1955 – 1972. David and Charles, London. 1974. ISBN 0-7153-6221-6.
 Johnson, Douglas H. 1979. "Book Review: The Secret War in the Sudan: 1955–1972 by Edgar O'Ballance". African Affairs 78 (310):132–7.
 O'Ballance, Edgar. 1977. The Secret War in the Sudan: 1955–1972. Hamden, Connecticut: Archon Books. (Faber and Faber edition ISBN 0-571-10768-0).
 Poggo, Scopas Sekwat. 1999. War and Conflict in Southern Sudan, 1955–1972. PhD Dissertation, University of California, Santa Barbara.

تاريخ جنوب السودان
سودان
حروب إفريقيا الأهلية
حروب أهلية بسبب العرقية
حروب أهلية بسبب تمرد انفصالي
حروب أهلية فيما بعد 1945
سودان
حروب السودان
حروب بالوكالة
حروب جنوب السودان
حروب عصابات
عسكرية السودان
نزاعات في القرن 20
سودان
سودان
سودان

الحرب الأهلية السودانية الأولى


Željezno crnilo ili željezno oksidno crna je oksid željeza crne boje, koji se obično opisuje jednadžbe Fe3O4. To je zapravo, složeni oksid sa strukturom inverznog spinela, Fe3+(Fe2+Fe3+)O4. U prirodi se taj oksid pojavljuje u željeznoj rudi magnetitu, iz koje se kao pigment može pripraviti mljevenjem i klasiranjem. Taj prirodni crni pigment slabo se cijeni zbog male izdašnosti i u industrijskom se mjerilu praktički ne upotrebljava.

Željezno crnilo bit će boljih svojstava i veće upotrebljivosti ako se iz otopina željeznih soli pripravi sintetski taloženjem s amonijakom uz istodobno propuhivanje zrakom. Pigment je plavkastocrne boje, kemijski otporan, svjetlostalan, ne migrira i vrlo je dobre pokrivne moći. Lakovi pigmentirani željeznim crnilom služe za zaštitu od korozije. Osim toga željezno crnilo upotrebljava se kao crni pigment za bojenje cementa i cementnih proizvoda, polimernih materijala, za nijansiranje u bijelim i obojenim lakovima, a zbog svoje netoksičnosti i za bojenje prehrambene ambalaže, te u kozmetici.

Prirodni oksidi željeza

Prirodni oksidi željeza rasprostranjeni su u željeznim rudama širom svijeta, ali je relativno malo ruda dovoljno čisto da bi se isplatilo njihovo iskorištavanje u proizvodnji pigmenata. Oksidni prirodni pigmenti željeza obično se nazivaju prema nalazištima rude. Poznati su španjolski crveni, perzijski crveni, sijena žuti pigmenti i tako dalje. S obzirom na kemijski sastav prirodni oksidni pigmenti željeza sadrže, uz mnoge primjese, određene kemijske spojeve željeza: željezo(III) oksid (α Fe2O3) u crvenim pigmentima, odnosno hidratizirani željezo(III) oksid, getit (α FeOOH) u žutim pigmentima. Prvi se spoj susreće u željeznoj rudi hematitu, a drugi u rudi limonitu. Da bi se iz ruda proizveo pigment, podvrgavaju se one postupcima koji ovise o sastavu rude i o primjesama koje treba ukloniti. Ruda se usitnjuje, primjese se po mogućnosti što bolje odstrane, zatim se proizvod suši, ponekad kalcinira, i melje. Sušenje i kalciniranje osjetljivi su postupci jer se gubitkom vode, što se tom prilikom događa, može promijeniti nijansa pigmenta. Zbog toga su trajanje i temperatura sušenja i žarenja veoma važni i treba ih pažljivo kontrolirati.
Poznati prirodni oksidni pigmenti željeza jesu željezno crvenilo, oker i umbra.

Sintetski oksidi željeza
Sintetski oksidi željeza jesu željezovi oksidi različita sastava i boje, koji su u usporedbi s prirodnim pigmentima željeza podjednako inertni i kemijski otporni, postojani prema djelovanju svjetla i povišenih temperatura, ali su čišćeg tona, veće izdašnosti boje i izvenredne pokrivne moći. Na ta poboljšana svojstva utječe, osim ostalog, i ujednačena veličina, oblik i raspodjela čestica. S obzirom na kemijski sastav, i ti pigmenti sadrže jednostavne i hidratizirane okside željeza (α Fe2O3, α FeOOH, γ FeOOH, Fe3O4), ali se sintezom mogu pripraviti u čistom obliku i u čistom tonu boje kao crveni, žuti, narančasti i crni pigment. Međutim, smeđi sintetski željezni pigmenti rijetko su homogeni, već su to obično smjese crvenog, žutog i crnog pigmenta.

Za sintezu pojedinih oksidnih pigmenata željeza postoji više mogućnosti. Tako se, na primjer, sintetsko željezno crvenilo može proizvesti jednim od sljedećih postupaka: pregradnjom željeznih spojeva u čvrstom stanju (žarenjem), redukcijom aromatskih nitro spojeva pomoću metalnog željeza, hidrolizom ranije oksidiranih otopina željeza(II) u prisutnosti metalnog željeza, toplinskom razgradnjom željeznih spojeva i taloženjem iz otopina željeza(II) uz istodobnu oksidaciju zrakom. Vrlo je važno da se te reakcije provode uz strogo kontrolirane uvjete kako bi se dobio željeni proizvod najboljih svojstava. Varijacijom reakcijskih uvjeta neka se reakcija može usmjeriti u više smjerova i mogu se dobiti različiti proizvodi. Taloženjem iz otopina željeza(II) može se, na primjer, uz različite okolnosti proizvesti crveni, žuti ili crni pigment.

Upotreba sintetskih oksidnih pigmenata željeza slična je upotrebi takvih pigmenata dobivenih iz prirodnih izvora, ali se sintetski pigmenti zbog svojih prednosti u mnogim svojstvima više cijene i upotrebljavaju za kvalitetnije proizvode. Oko 2/3 proizvedenih količina troši se za bojenje građevinskog materijala (beton, kamen za popločenje, bitumen, fasadna žbuka), nešto manje od 1/3 upotrebljava se za pigmentiranje lakova, uljenih i disperzijskih boja (naliča), a ostatak se primjenjuje za bojenje u proizvodnji papira, sintetskih materijala, emajla i tako dalje. Zbog svoje neotrovnosti upotrebljavaju se i za bojenje ambalažnog materijala za hranu, na primjer smeđeg papira za bombonijere. Osim kao obojeni pigmenti, upotrebljavaju se vrlo čisti željezni oksidi Fe3O4 i γ Fe2O3, kao prenosioci informacija na magnetskim vrpcama.

Izvori

Pigmenti
 Materijali

Željezno crnilo


"II. zonska nogometna liga BiH – Tuzla, također i kao "II. zonska nogometna liga BiH – grupa A", "Druga zonska nogometna liga BiH – grupa A", ali i kao "Prva zonska nogometna liga BiH – grupa A"  je bila liga trećeg stupnja nogometnog prvenstva Jugoslavije u sezoni 1959./60.
Sudjelovalo je 12 klubova s područja podsaveza Tuzla, Brčko i Doboj, a prvak je bilo "Jedinstvo" iz Brčkoga.

Ljestvica

Rezultatska križaljka

 Izvori:

Povezani članci
 Kvalifikacije za Drugu saveznu nogometnu ligu 1960.
 II. zonska nogometna liga BiH – Banja Luka 1959./60.
 III. zonska nogometna liga BiH 1959./60.
 Podsavezna nogometna liga Brčko 1959./60.

Vanjske poveznice

Izvori

 Godišnjak FSJ 1959-60, Beograd, 1960., ISSN: 0351-2894, str. 165
  Rajko Petrović, Sonja Petrović: Fudbalski klub "Radnik" Bijeljina : (1919-2003) , Bijeljina, 2010,  (karton), str. 122-130
 Milan Ždrale: FK "Jedinstvo"-Brčko (1919 - 1989), Brčko, 1989.
 forum.sportsport.ba, "Vremeplov 4: Ligaška takmičenja od 1945-1992. godine", objava od 4. travnja 2012., preuzeto 6. travnja 2020.

1959-60 III Tuzla
 II Tuzla
1959-60 * II Tuzla

II. zonska nogometna liga BiH – Tuzla 1959./60.


A Capela İspanya'nın otonom bölgelerinden biri olan Galiçya'nın kuzeybatısında bulunan A Coruña eyaletine bağlı belediyesi. 2009 yılındaki nüfusu; 1.417 kişidir. Belediye, 58 km²'lik bir alanı kaplamaktadır.

Nüfus

Kaynak: INE (Spain)

Dış bağlantılar
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  Site devoted to the art of landscape and nature of Ferrolterra

A Coruña belediyeleri

A Capela, Galiçya


ලන්කාවට ආවේනික උරගයින් උදා:සර්පයින් කටුසුවර්ග ගෙම්බන් ඉබ් විශේශ ආදීන්
ආදීන්

ක්‍රොකඩීලියා


Agannaga Rüşvet, 1992 yılında Raks Müzik'ten çıkan MFÖ albümü. Grubun yedinci solo albümüdür. Dönmem Yolumdan albümünden sadece bir ay sonra yayınladı. "Rüşvet" ve "Belediye Nerede?" adlı şarkılarda gazelhan Sami Özer'in eşlik ettiği ve politik taşlamaların ağırlıkta olduğu bu albüm bir önceki MFÖ albümü olan Dönmem Yolumdan ile aynı kaderi paylaştı ve fazla ses getirmedi. Albümün "Rüşvet" ve "Patlamalar"ın yer almadığı bir versiyonu Petrol Ofisi tarafından müşterilerine ücretsiz dağıtıldı. "Agannaga Rüşvet", 2003 ve 2011 yıllarında CD formatında tekrar piyasaya çıkarıldı.

Şarkı listesi
 "Agannaga" (4:03) (Söz: Mazhar Alanson, Müzik: Mazhar Alanson, Fuat Güner, Özkan Uğur)
 "Yaz Tatili" (3:12) (Söz: Mazhar Alanson, Müzik: Mazhar Alanson, Fuat Güner)
 "Rüşvet" (2:51) (Söz-Müzik: Mazhar Alanson, Fuat Güner)
 "Çok Problem Var" (2:38) (Söz: Mazhar Alanson, Müzik: Mazhar Alanson, Fuat Güner)
 "Bir Ben Var Bende" (3:30) (Söz: Yunus Emre, Müzik: Anonim)
 "Deneylere Doğru" (2:46) (Söz: Mazhar Alanson, Müzik: Mazhar Alanson, Özkan Uğur)
 "Patlamalar" (3:39) (Söz: Mazhar Alanson, Müzik: Mazhar Alanson, Fuat Güner, Özkan Uğur)
 "Belediye Nerede?" (3:27) (Söz: Mazhar Alanson, Müzik: Mazhar Alanson, Fuat Güner, Özkan Uğur)
 "Borsazede" (3:12) (Söz: Mazhar Alanson, Müzik: Mazhar Alanson, Fuat Güner)
 "İdare Edip Gidiyoruz" (3:39) (Söz: Mazhar Alanson, Müzik: Mazhar Alanson, Özkan Uğur)
 "Hâlâ Devam" (3:35) (Söz-Müzik: Mazhar Alanson)

Künye

 Mazhar Alanson: Vokal
 Fuat Güner: Vokal, gitar, klavyeli çalgılar, kayıt, mix
 Özkan Uğur: Vokal, bas gitar, perdesiz gitar
 Fahir Atakoğlu: Klavyeli çalgılar
 Başar Yünören: Klavyeli çalgılar
 Sami Özer: Davul, gazel (3, 8)
 Turgay Özüfler: Klarnet (2)
 Kerim Çaplı: Gitar (3)

 Taner Öngür: Kayıt, mix
 Martin Cru Spencer: Kayıt, mix
 Turgut Berkes: Editing
 Selmin Tunçel: Grafik Tasarım

Kaynakça

Mazhar Fuat Özkan albümleri
1992 albümleri

Agannaga Rüşvet


Agrilus meticulosus é uma espécie de inseto do género Agrilus, família Buprestidae, ordem Coleoptera.

Foi descrita cientificamente por Deyrolle, 1864.

Referências

meticulosus

Agrilus meticulosus


A paddy field is a flooded field of arable land used for growing semiaquatic crops, most notably rice and taro. It originates from the Neolithic rice-farming cultures of the Yangtze River basin in southern China, associated with pre-Austronesian and Hmong-Mien cultures. It was spread in prehistoric times by the expansion of Austronesian peoples to Island Southeast Asia, Southeast Asia including Northeastern India, Madagascar, Melanesia, Micronesia, and Polynesia. The technology was also acquired by other cultures in mainland Asia for rice farming, spreading to East Asia, Mainland Southeast Asia, and South Asia.

Fields can be built into steep hillsides as terraces or adjacent to depressed or steeply sloped features such as rivers or marshes. They require a great deal of labor and materials to create and need large quantities of water for irrigation. Oxen and water buffalo, adapted for life in wetlands, are important working animals used extensively in paddy field farming.

Paddy field farming remains the dominant form of growing rice in modern times. It is practiced extensively in Bangladesh, Cambodia, China, Northeast India, Indonesia, Northern Iran, Japan, Laos, Malaysia, Myanmar, Nepal, North Korea, Pakistan, the Philippines, South Korea, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Taiwan, and Vietnam. It has also been introduced elsewhere since the colonial era, notably in Northern Italy, the Camargue in France, and in Spain, particularly in the Albufera de València wetlands in the Valencian Community, the Ebro Delta in Catalonia and the Guadalquivir wetlands in Andalusia, as well as along the eastern coast of Brazil, the Artibonite Valley in Haiti, Sacramento Valley in California, and West Lothian in Scotland among other places.

Paddy cultivation should not be confused with cultivation of deepwater rice, which is grown in flooded conditions with water more than 50 cm (20 in) deep for at least a month.

Etymology
The word "paddy" is derived from the Malay word padi, meaning "rice plant", which is itself derived from Proto-Austronesian *pajay ("rice in the field", "rice plant"). Cognates include Amis panay; Tagalog pálay; Kadazan Dusun paai; Javanese pari; and Chamorro fai, among others.

History

Neolithic southern China

Genetic evidence shows that all forms of paddy rice, including both indica and japonica, spring from a domestication of the wild rice Oryza rufipogon by cultures associated with pre-Austronesian and Hmong-Mien-speakers. This occurred 13,500 to 8,200 years ago south of the Yangtze River in present-day China.

There are two likely centers of domestication for rice as well as the development of the wet-field technology. The first is in the lower Yangtze River, believed to be the homelands of the pre-Austronesians and possibly also the Kra-Dai, and associated with the Kuahuqiao, Hemudu, Majiabang, Songze, Liangzhu, and Maquiao cultures. The second is in the middle Yangtze River, believed to be the homelands of the early Hmong-Mien speakers and associated with the Pengtoushan, Nanmuyuan, Liulinxi, Daxi, Qujialing, and Shijiahe cultures. Both of these regions were heavily populated and had regular trade contacts with each other, as well as with early Austroasiatic speakers to the west, and early Kra-Dai speakers to the south, facilitating the spread of rice cultivation throughout southern China.

The earliest paddy field found dates to 4330 BC, based on carbon dating of grains of rice and soil organic matter found at the Chaodun site in Kunshan. At Caoxieshan, a site of the Neolithic Majiabang culture, archaeologists excavated paddy fields. Some archaeologists claim that Caoxieshan may date to 4000–3000 BC. There is archaeological evidence that unhusked rice was stored for the military and for burial with the deceased from the Neolithic period to the Han dynasty in China.

By the late Neolithic (3500 to 2500 BC), population in the rice cultivating centers had increased rapidly, centered around the Qujialing-Shijiahe and Liangzhu cultures. There was also evidence of intensive rice cultivation in paddy fields as well as increasingly sophisticated material cultures in these two regions. The number of settlements among the Yangtze cultures and their sizes increased, leading some archeologists to characterize them as true states, with clearly advanced socio-political structures. However, it is unknown if they had centralized control.

In the terminal Neolithic (2500 to 2000 BC), Shijiahe shrank in size, and Liangzhu disappeared altogether. This is largely believed to be the result of the southward expansion of the early Sino-Tibetan Longshan culture. Fortifications like walls (as well as extensive moats in Liangzhu cities) are common features in settlements during this period, indicating widespread conflict. This period also coincides with the southward movement of rice-farming cultures to the Lingnan and Fujian regions, as well as the southward migrations of the Austronesian, Kra-Dai, and Austroasiatic-speaking peoples to Mainland Southeast Asia and Island Southeast Asia.

Austronesian expansion

The spread of japonica rice cultivation and paddy field agriculture to Southeast Asia started with the migrations of the Austronesian Dapenkeng culture into Taiwan between 3500 and 2000 BC. The Nanguanli site in Taiwan, dated to ca. 2800 BC, has yielded numerous carbonized remains of both rice and millet in waterlogged conditions, indicating intensive wetland rice cultivation and dryland millet cultivation.

From about 2000 to 1500 BC, the Austronesian expansion began, with settlers from Taiwan moving south to colonize Luzon in the Philippines, bringing rice cultivation technologies with them. From Luzon, Austronesians rapidly colonized the rest of Maritime Southeast Asia, moving westwards to Borneo, the Malay Peninsula and Sumatra; and southwards to Sulawesi and Java. By 500 BC, there is evidence of intensive wetland rice agriculture already established in Java and Bali, especially near very fertile volcanic islands.

Rice did not survive the Austronesian voyages into Micronesia and Polynesia; however, wet-field agriculture was transferred to the cultivation of other crops, most notably for taro cultivation. The Austronesian Lapita culture also came into contact with the non-Austronesian (Papuan) early agriculturists of New Guinea and introduced wetland farming techniques to them. In turn, they assimilated their range of indigenous cultivated fruits and tubers before spreading further eastward to Island Melanesia and Polynesia.

Rice and wet-field agriculture were also introduced to Madagascar, the Comoros, and the coast of East Africa around the 1st millennium AD by Austronesian settlers from the Greater Sunda Islands.

Korea
There are ten archaeologically excavated rice paddy fields in Korea. The two oldest are the Okhyun and Yaumdong sites, found in Ulsan, dating to the early Mumun pottery period.

Paddy field farming goes back thousands of years in Korea. A pit-house at the Daecheon-ni site yielded carbonized rice grains and radiocarbon dates, indicating that rice cultivation in dry-fields may have begun as early as the Middle Jeulmun pottery period (c. 3500–2000 BC) in the Korean Peninsula. Ancient paddy fields have been carefully unearthed in Korea by institutes such as Kyungnam University Museum (KUM) of Masan. They excavated paddy field features at the Geumcheon-ni Site near Miryang, South Gyeongsang Province. The paddy field feature was found next to a pit-house that is dated to the latter part of the Early Mumun pottery period (c. 1100–850 BC). KUM has conducted excavations, that have revealed similarly dated paddy field features, at Yaeum-dong and Okhyeon, in modern-day Ulsan.

The earliest Mumun features were usually located in low-lying narrow gullies, that were naturally swampy and fed by the local stream system. Some Mumun paddy fields in flat areas were made of a series of squares and rectangles, separated by bunds approximately 10 cm in height, while terraced paddy fields consisted of long irregular shapes that followed natural contours of the land at various levels.

Mumun Period rice farmers used all of the elements that are present in today's paddy fields, such as terracing, bunds, canals, and small reservoirs. We can grasp some paddy-field farming techniques of the Middle Mumun (c. 850–550 BC), from the well-preserved wooden tools excavated from archaeological rice fields at the Majeon-ni Site. However, iron tools for paddy-field farming were not introduced until sometime after 200 BC. The spatial scale of paddy-fields increased, with the regular use of iron tools, in the Three Kingdoms of Korea Period (c. AD 300/400-668).

Japan
The first paddy fields in Japan date to the Early Yayoi period (300 BC – 250 AD). The Early Yayoi has been re-dated, and it appears that wet-field agriculture developed here after the Korean peninsula.

Culture

China

Although China's agricultural output is the largest in the world, only about 15% of its total land area can be cultivated. About 75% of the cultivated area is used for food crops. Rice is China's most important crop, raised on about 25% of the cultivated area. Most rice is grown south of the Huai River, in the Yangtze valley, the Zhu Jiang delta, and in Yunnan, Guizhou, and Sichuan provinces.

Rice appears to have been used by the Early Neolithic populations of Lijiacun and Yunchanyan in China. Evidence of possible rice cultivation from ca. 11,500 BP has been found, however it is still questioned whether the rice was indeed being cultivated, or instead being gathered as wild rice. Bruce Smith, an archaeologist at the Smithsonian Institution in Washington, D.C., who has written on the origins of agriculture, says that evidence has been mounting that the Yangtze was probably the site of the earliest rice cultivation. In 1998, Crawford & Shen reported that the earliest of 14 AMS or radiocarbon dates on rice from at least nine Early to Middle Neolithic sites is no older than 7000 BC, that rice from the Hemudu and Luojiajiao sites indicates that rice domestication likely began before 5000 BC, but that most sites in China from which rice remains have been recovered are younger than 5000 BC.

During the Spring and Autumn period (722–481 BC), two revolutionary improvements in farming technology took place. One was the use of cast iron tools and beasts of burden to pull plows, and the other was the large-scale harnessing of rivers and development of water conservation projects. Sunshu Ao of the 6th century BC and Ximen Bao of the 5th century BC are two of the earliest hydraulic engineers from China, and their works were focused upon improving irrigation systems. These developments were widely spread during the ensuing Warring States period (403–221 BC), culminating in the enormous Du Jiang Yan Irrigation System engineered by Li Bing by 256 BC for the State of Qin in ancient Sichuan. During the Eastern Jin (317–420) and the Northern and Southern Dynasties (420–589), land-use became more intensive and efficient, rice was grown twice a year and cattle began to be used for plowing and fertilization.

By about 750, 75% of China's population lived north of the Yangtze, but by 1250, 75% of China's population lived south of it. Such large-scale internal migration was possible due to introduction of quick-ripening strains of rice from Vietnam suitable for multi-cropping.

Famous rice paddies in China include the Longsheng Rice Terraces and the fields of Yuanyang County, Yunnan.

India

India has the largest paddy output in the world and is also the largest exporter of rice in the world as of 2020. In India, West Bengal is the largest rice producing state. Paddy fields are a common sight throughout India, both in the northern Gangetic Plains and the southern peninsular plateaus. Paddy is cultivated at least twice a year in most parts of India, the two seasons being known as Rabi and Kharif respectively. The former cultivation is dependent on irrigation, while the latter depends on the Monsoon. The paddy cultivation plays a major role in socio-cultural life of rural India. Many regional festivals celebrate the harvest, such as Onam, Bihu, Thai Pongal, Makar Sankranti, and Nabanna. The Kaveri delta region of Thanjavur is historically known as the rice bowl of Tamil Nadu, and Kuttanadu is called the rice bowl of Kerala. Gangavathi is known as the rice bowl of Karnataka.

Indonesia

Prime Javanese paddies yield roughly 6 metric tons of unmilled rice (2.5 metric tons of milled rice) per hectare. When irrigation is available, rice farmers typically plant Green Revolution rice varieties allowing three growing seasons per year. Since fertilizer and pesticide are relatively expensive inputs, farmers typically plant seeds in a very small plot. Three weeks following germination, the 15-20 centimetre (6–8 in) stalks are picked and replanted at greater separation, in a backbreaking manual procedure.

Rice harvesting in Central Java is often performed not by owners or sharecroppers of paddies, but rather by itinerant middlemen, whose small firms specialize in the harvest, transport, milling, and distribution of rice.

The fertile volcanic soil of much of the Indonesian archipelago—particularly the islands of Java and Bali—has made rice a central dietary staple. Steep terrain on Bali resulted in complex irrigation systems, locally called subak, to manage water storage and drainage for rice terraces.

Italy

Rice is grown in Northern Italy, especially in the valley of the Po River. The paddy fields are irrigated by fast-flowing streams descending from the Alps. In the 19th century and much of the 20th century, the paddy fields were farmed by the mondine, a subculture of seasonal rice paddy workers composed mostly of poor women.

Japan

The acidic soil conditions common in Japan due to volcanic eruptions have made the paddy field the most productive farming method. Paddy fields are represented by the kanji  (commonly read as ta or as den) that has had a strong influence on Japanese culture. In fact, the character , which originally meant 'field' in general, is used in Japan exclusively to refer to paddy fields. One of the oldest samples of writing in Japan is widely credited to the kanji  found on pottery at the archaeological site of Matsutaka in Mie Prefecture that dates to the late 2nd century.

Ta () is used as a part of many place names as well as in many family names. Most of these places are somehow related to the paddy field and, in many cases, are based on the history of a particular location. For example, where a river runs through a village, the place east of the river may be called Higashida (), literally "east paddy field." A place with a newly irrigated paddy field, especially those made during or after the Edo period, may be called Nitta or Shinden (both ), "new paddy field." In some places, lakes and marshes were likened to a paddy field and were named with ta, like Hakkōda ().

Today, many family names have ta as a component, a practice which can be largely attributed to a government edict in the early Meiji Period which required all citizens to have a family name. Many chose a name based on some geographical feature associated with their residence or occupation, and as nearly three-fourths of the population were farmers, many made family names using ta. Some common examples are Tanaka (), literally meaning "in the paddy field;" Nakata (), "middle paddy field;" Kawada (川田), "river paddy field;" and Furuta (), "old paddy field."

In recent years, rice consumption in Japan has fallen and many rice farmers are increasingly elderly. The government has subsidized rice production since the 1970s, and favors protectionist policies regarding cheaper imported rice.

Korea

Arable land in small alluvial flats of most rural river valleys in South Korea are dedicated to paddy-field farming. Farmers assess paddy fields for any necessary repairs in February. Fields may be rebuilt, and bund breaches are repaired. This work is carried out until mid-March, when warmer spring weather allows the farmer to buy or grow rice seedlings. They are transplanted (usually by rice transplanter) from the indoors into freshly flooded paddy fields in May. Farmers tend and weed their paddy fields through the summer until around the time of Chuseok, a traditional holiday held on 15 August of the Lunar Calendar (circa mid-September on the Solar Calendar). The harvest begins in October. Coordinating the harvest can be challenging because many Korean farmers have small paddy fields in a number of locations around their villages, and modern harvesting machines are sometimes shared between extended family members. Farmers usually dry the harvested grains in the sun before bringing them to market.

The Hanja character for 'field', jeon (), is found in some place names, especially small farming townships and villages. However, the specific Korean term for 'paddy' is a purely Korean word, "non" ().

Madagascar

In Madagascar, the average annual consumption of rice is 130 kg per person, one of the largest in the world.

According to a 1999 study of UPDRS / FAO:

The majority of rice is related to irrigation (1,054,381 ha). The choice of methods conditioning performance is determined by the variety and quality control of water.

The "tavy", is traditionally the culture of flooded upland rice on burning of cleared natural rain forest (135,966 ha). Criticized as being the cause of deforestation, "tavy" is still widely practiced by farmers in Madagascar, who find a good compromise between climate risks, availability of labour and food security.

"Tanety" means hill. By extension, the "tanety" is also growing upland rice, carried out on the grassy slopes that have been deforested for the production of charcoal. (139,337 ha)

Among the many varieties, rice of Madagascar includes: "Vary lava"- a translucent long and large grain rice; it is a luxury rice. "Vary Makalioka"- a translucent long and thin grain rice. "Vary Rojofotsy"- a half-long grain rice. "Vary mena" or red rice; exclusive to Madagascar.

Malaysia

Paddy fields can be found in most states on the Malaysian Peninsula, with most of the fields being located in the northern states such as Kedah, Perlis, Perak, and Penang. Paddy fields can also be found on Malaysia's east coast region, in Kelantan and Terengganu. The central state of Selangor also has its fair share of paddy fields, especially in the districts of Kuala Selangor and Sabak Bernam.

Before Malaysia became heavily reliant on its industrial output, people were mainly involved in agriculture, especially in the production of rice. It was for that reason, that people usually built their houses next to paddy fields. The very spicy chili pepper that is often eaten in Malaysia, the bird's eye chili, is locally called cili padi, literally "paddy chili". Some research pertaining to Rainfed lowland rice in Sarawak has been reported

Myanmar

Rice is grown in Myanmar primarily in three areas – the Irrawaddy Delta, the area along and the delta of the Kaladan River, and the Central plains around Mandalay, though there has been an increase in rice farming in Shan State and Kachin State in recent years. Up until the later 1960s, Myanmar was the main exporter of rice. Termed the rice basket of Southeast Asia, much of the rice grown in Myanmar does not rely on fertilizers and pesticides, thus, although "organic" in a sense, it has been unable to cope with population growth and other rice economies which utilized fertilizers.

Rice is now grown in all the three seasons of Myanmar, though primarily in the Monsoon season – from June to October. Rice grown in the delta areas relies heavily on the river water and sedimented minerals from the northern mountains, whilst the rice grown in the central regions require irrigation from the Irrawaddy River.

The fields are tilled when the first rains arrive – traditionally measured at 40 days after Thingyan, the Burmese New Year – around the beginning of June. In modern times, tractors are used, but traditionally, buffalos were employed. The rice plants are planted in nurseries and then transplanted by hand into the prepared fields. The rice is then harvested in late November – "when the rice bends with age". Most of the rice planting and harvesting is done by hand. The rice is then threshed and stored, ready for the mills.

Nepal

In Nepal, rice (Nepali: धान, Dhaan) is grown in the Terai and hilly regions. It is mainly grown during the summer monsoon in Nepal.

Philippines

Paddy fields are a common sight in the Philippines. Several vast paddy fields exist in the provinces of Ifugao, Nueva Ecija, Isabela, Cagayan, Bulacan, Quezon, and other provinces. Nueva Ecija is considered the main rice growing province of the Philippines and the leading producer of onions in the Municipality of Bongabon in Southeast Asia. It is currently the 9th richest province in the country.

The Banaue Rice Terraces are an example of paddy fields in the country. They are located in Banaue in Northern Luzon, Philippines and were built by the Ifugaos 2,000 years ago. Streams and springs found in the mountains were tapped and channeled into irrigation canals that run downhill through the rice terraces. Other notable Philippine paddy fields are the Batad Rice Terraces, the Bangaan Rice Terraces, the Mayoyao Rice Terraces and the Hapao Rice Terraces.

Located at Barangay Batad in Banaue, the Batad Rice Terraces are shaped like an amphitheatre, and can be reached by a 12-kilometer ride from Banaue Hotel and a 2-hour hike uphill through mountain trails. The Bangaan Rice Terraces portray the typical Ifugao community, where the livelihood activities are within the village and its surroundings. The Bangaan Rice Terraces are accessible by a one-hour ride from Poblacion, Banaue, then a 20-minute trek down to the village. It can be viewed best from the road to Mayoyao. The Mayoyao Rice Terraces are located at Mayoyao, 44 kilometers away from Poblacion, Banaue. The town of Mayoyao lies in the midst of these rice terraces. All dikes are tiered with flat stones. The Hapao Rice Terraces are within 55 kilometers from the capital town of Lagawe. Other Ifugao stone-walled rice terraces are located in the municipality of Hungduan.

Sri Lanka

Sri Lankan paddy cultivation history dates back to more than 2000 years ago. The historical reports say that Sri Lanka is regarded as the "paddy store of the east" because it produced an excessive quantity of rice. Paddy cultivation can be found all over the island and a considerable amount of land is allocated for it. Both upcountry and low country wetlands use paddy cultivation. The majority of paddy land is in the dry zone, and it uses special irrigation systems for cultivation. The water storing tank called "Wewa" facilitates a supply of water to paddy lands in the cultivation period. Agriculture in Sri Lanka mainly depends on rice production. Sri Lanka sometimes exports rice to its neighboring countries. Around 1.5 million hectares of land are cultivated in Sri Lanka for paddy in 2008/2009 maha: 64% of which is cultivated during the dry season and 35% cultivated during the wet season. Around 879,000 farmer families are engaged in paddy cultivation in Sri Lanka. They make up 20% of the country's population and 32% of the employment.

Thailand

Rice production in Thailand represents a significant portion of the Thai economy. It uses over half of the farmable land area and labor force in Thailand.

Thailand has a strong tradition of rice production. It has the fifth-largest amount of land used for rice cultivation in the world and is the world's largest exporter of rice. Thailand has plans to further increase its land available for rice production, with a goal of adding 500,000 hectares to the 9.2 million hectares of rice-growing areas already cultivated. The Thai Ministry of Agriculture expected rice production to yield around 30 million tons of rice for 2008. The most produced strain of rice in Thailand is jasmine rice, which has a significantly lower yield rate than other types of rice, but also normally fetches more than double the price of other strains in a global market.

Vietnam

Rice fields in Vietnam (ruộng or cánh đồng in Vietnamese) are the predominant land use in the valley of the Red River and the Mekong Delta. In the Red River Delta of northern Vietnam, control of seasonal river flooding is achieved by an extensive network of dykes which over the centuries total some 3000 km. In the Mekong Delta of southern Vietnam, there is an interlacing drainage and irrigation canal system that has become the symbol of this area. The canals additionally serve as transportation routes, allowing farmers to bring their produce to market. In Northwestern Vietnam, Thai people built their "valley culture" based on the cultivation of glutinous rice planted in upland fields, requiring terracing of the slopes.

The primary festival related to the agrarian cycle is "lễ hạ điền" (literally "descent into the fields") held as the start of the planting season in hope of a bountiful harvest. Traditionally, the event was officiated with much pomp. The monarch carried out the ritual plowing of the first furrow while local dignitaries and farmers followed suit. Thổ địa (deities of the earth), thành hoàng làng (the village patron spirit), Thần Nông (god of agriculture), and thần lúa (god of rice plants) were all venerated with prayers and offerings.

In colloquial Vietnamese, wealth is frequently associated with the vastness of the individual's land holdings. Paddy fields so large as for "storks to fly with their wings out-stretched" ("đồng lúa thẳng cánh cò bay") can be heard as a common metaphor. Wind-blown undulating rice plants across a paddy field in literary Vietnamese is termed figuratively "waves of rice plants" ("sóng lúa").

Ecology

Paddy fields are a major source of atmospheric methane, having been estimated to contribute in the range of 50 to 100 million tonnes of the gas per annum. Studies have shown that this can be significantly reduced while also boosting crop yield by draining the paddies to allow the soil to aerate to interrupt methane production.  Studies have also shown the variability in assessment of methane emission using local, regional and global factors and calling for better inventorization based on micro level data.

See also
 Kuk Swamp
 Rice-fish system

References

Bibliography
 Bale, Martin T. Archaeology of Early Agriculture in Korea: An Update on Recent Developments. Bulletin of the Indo-Pacific Prehistory Association 21(5):77–84, 2001.
 Barnes, Gina L. Paddy Soils Now and Then. World Archaeology 22(1):1–17, 1990.
 Crawford, Gary W. and Gyoung-Ah Lee. Agricultural Origins in the Korean Peninsula. Antiquity 77(295):87–95, 2003.
 Kwak, Jong-chul. Urinara-eui Seonsa – Godae Non Bat Yugu [Dry- and Wet-field Agricultural Features of the Korean Prehistoric].In Hanguk Nonggyeong Munhwa-eui Hyeongseong [The Formation of Agrarian Societies in Korea]: 21–73. Papers of the 25th National Meetings of the Korean Archaeological Society, Busan, 2001.

External links

 How a paddy-field works
 Paddy cultivation

Chinese inventions
Crops
Land management
Rice
Riparian zone
Sustainable agriculture
Water and the environment

Paddy field


Maurice Desimpelaere, foi um ciclista belga nascido a 28 de maio de 1920 em Ledegem, e falecido a 30 de janeiro de 2005 em Wevelgem.

Palmarés
 1944
 Paris-Roubaix

 1945
 Grande Prêmio de Espéraza

 1946
 Através de Flandres, mais 1 etapa

 1947
 Gante-Wevelgem
 De Drie Zustersteden

 1949
 Paris-Saint-Étienne, mais 1 etapa

Referências

Ciclistas da Bélgica
Vencedores da Paris-Roubaix

Maurice Desimpelaere


Olaylar
 1759 - George Washington, Martha Dandridge ile evlendi.
 1781 - Amerikan İç Savaşı: Richmond, Benedict Arnold komutasındaki Kraliyet Donanması tarafından yakıldı.
 1809 - 1807-1809 Osmanlı-İngiliz Savaşı'nı sona erdiren Kale-i Sultaniye Antlaşması imzalandı.
 1854 - San Francisco adlı buharlı gemi battı: 300 kişi öldü.
 1889 - Alman fizikçi Martin Brendel, ilk kez auroraları fotoğrafladı.
 1895 - Dreyfus davası: Casusluk suçlamasıyla Fransa'da yargılandığı davada, Yüzbaşı Alfred Dreyfus ömür boyu hapse mahkûm oldu.
 1919 - Weimar Cumhuriyeti'nde Alman İşçi Partisi kuruldu. Bu parti daha sonra "Nasyonal Sosyalist Alman İşçi Partisi" adını alacaktı.
 1921 - Çerkez Ethem ve kardeşleri, Yunan İşgal Kuvvetleri'ne sığındılar.
 1922 - Adana'nın düşman işgalinden kurtuluşu.
 1929 - Anadolu-Bağdat ve Mersin-Tarsus Demiryolları ile Haydarpaşa Garı devletleştirildi.
 1930 - Sovyetler Birliği'nde tarımın kolektivizasyonu başladı.
 1933 - San Francisco'daki Golden Gate Bridge inşa edilmeye başlandı.
 1961 - Yassıada duruşmaları devam ediyor. 6-7 Eylül Olayları davası sonuçlandı. Sanıklardan Adnan Menderes, Fatin Rüştü Zorlu ve eski İzmir valisi Kemal Hadımlı mahkûm oldular. Aynı gün Fuad Köprülü ve Fahrettin Kerim Gökay Yassıada'dan tahliye edildi.
 1968 - Çekoslovakya'da iktidara Prag Baharı'nı başlatacak olan Alexander Dubček geldi.
 1974 - Peru'nun Başkenti Lima'da oluşan depremde, 6 kişi öldü ve yüzlerce ev hasar gördü.
 1979 - DİSK'in çağrısıyla Türkiye çapında 5 dakika iş bırakma eylemi (Faşizmi Lanetleme Eylemi) yapıldı.
 1981 - Türkiye'de Atatürk Yılı, Devlet Başkanı Orgeneral Kenan Evren'in TBMM'de yaptığı konuşmayla kutlamalara açıldı.
 1989 - ABD jetleri, Libya'ya ait iki MiG-23 uçağını düşürdü.
 1993 - ABD'de 1965'ten sonra ilk kez asılarak idam gerçekleştirildi. Seri katil Westley Allan Dodd Washington'da asıldı.
 1993 - Kabardey-Balkarya Cumhuriyeti'nin ilan edilişi.
 1997 - Rus güçleri Çeçenistan'dan çekildi.
 2005 - Bilinen en büyük cüce gezegen Eris keşfedildi.
 2014 - Hindistan, diğer motorlara göre daha fazla yük kaldırabilen, ilk yerli üretim kriyojenik motorla güçlendirilmiş GSLV-D5 roketini uzaya fırlattı.
 2017 - İzmir saldırısı: İzmir Adliyesi'ne bomba yüklü araç ile saldırı düzenlendi. Saldırıda bir polis memuru ve bir adliye çalışanı hayatını kaybetti. Üçü polis, 7 kişi yaralandı.

Doğumlar
 1548 - Francisco Suárez, İspanyol Cizvit rahibi, filozof ve teolog (ö. 1617)
 1592 - Şah Cihan, Babür İmparatorluğu'nun 5. Hükümdarı (ö. 1666)
 1620 - Miklós Zrínyi, Hırvat ve Macar soylusu asker, devlet adamı ve şair (ö. 1664)
 1759 - Jacques Cathelineau, Fransız çerçi ve Vendée isyanı lideri (ö. 1793)
 1767 - Jean-Baptiste Say, Fransız felsefeci ve ekonomist (d. 1832)
 1846 - Rudolf Christoph Eucken, Alman felsefeci, yazar ve Nobel Edebiyat Ödülü sahibi (ö. 1926)
 1851 - Böcüzade Süleyman Sami, Osmanlı yazar, bürokrat ve siyasetçi (ö. 1932)
 1855 - King Camp Gillette, Amerikalı girişimci, mucit ve iş insanı (ö. 1932)
 1867 - Dimitrios Gunaris, Yunan hukukçu, siyasetçi ve Yunanistan Başbakanı (ö. 1922)
 1871 - Leonid Bolhovitinov, Rus asker ve doğubilimci (ö. 1925)
 1874 - Joseph Erlanger, Amerikan fizyolog (ö. 1965)
 1876 - Konrad Adenauer, Alman devlet adamı ve Almanya şansölyesi (ö. 1967)
 1880 - İbrahim Etem Ulagay, Türk tıp profesörü, hekim ve kimyager (ö. 1943)
 1883 - Döme Sztójay, Macar asker, diplomat ve Macaristan Krallığı Başbakanı (ö. 1946)
 1884 - Ahmed Ağdamski, Azeri operacı ve oyuncu (ö. 1954)
 1897 - Kiyoşi Miki, Japon Marksist düşünür (ö. 1945)
 1900 - Yves Tanguy, Fransız-Amerikalı ressam (ö. 1955)
 1902 - Stella Gibbons, İngiliz yazar ve romancı (ö. 1989)
 1904 - Jeane Dixon, Amerikalı astrolog ve psişik (ö. 1997)
 1911 - Jean-Pierre Aumont, Fransız aktör (ö. 2001)
 1913 - Nejat Eczacıbaşı, Türk kimyacı ve sanayici (ö. 1993)
 1914 - Nicolas de Staël, Fransız ressam (ö. 1955)
 1917 - Jane Wyman, Amerikalı oyuncu ve En İyi Kadın Oyuncu Akademi Ödülü sahibi (ö. 2007)
 1921 - Friedrich Dürrenmatt, İsviçreli yazar (ö. 1990)
 1921 - Jean, Lüksemburg Büyük Dükü (ö. 2019)
 1921 - Kemal Ergüvenç, Türk tiyatro, sinema oyuncusu ve seslendirme sanatçısı (ö. 1975)
 1923 - Boris Leskin, Amerikalı sinema, tiyatro ve dizi oyuncusu (ö. 2020)
 1923 - Endel Taniloo, Eston heykeltıraş (ö. 2019)
 1923 - Jan Matocha, Çekoslovak kano yarışçısı (ö. 2016)
 1924 - Gerry Plamondon, Kanadalı buz hokeyi oyuncusu (ö. 2019)
 1924 - Marc Bonnefous, Fransız diplomat (ö. 2002)
 1925 - Jean-Paul Roux, Fransız oryantalist ve Türkolog (ö. 2009)
 1928 - Girish Chandra Saxena, Hint bürokrat (ö. 2017)
 1928 - Preben Hertoft, Danimarkalı psikiyatrist (ö. 2017)
 1928 - Walter Mondale, Amerikalı siyasetçi (ö. 2021)
 1928 - Zülfikar Ali Butto, Pakistanlı avukat, politikacı ve Pakistan'ın 9. Başbakanı (ö. 1979)
 1929 - Ümit Utku, Türk yönetmen, senarist ve yapımcı (ö. 2016)
 1930 - Kay Lahusen, Amerikalı gazeteci
 1931 - Alvin Ailey, Amerikalı dansçı, koreograf ve eylemci (ö. 1989)
 1931 - Robert Duvall, Amerikalı oyuncu, yönetmen ve En İyi Erkek Oyuncu Akademi Ödülü sahibi
 1932 - Bill Foulkes, İngiliz millî futbolcu (ö. 2013)
 1932 - Raisa Gorbaçov, Mihail Gorbaçov'un eşi (ö. 1999)
 1932 - Umberto Eco, İtalyan dil bilimci ve yazar (ö. 2016)
 1933 - Anthony Bailey, İngiliz yazar ve sanat tarihçisi (ö. 2020)
 1934 - Antoni Pitxot, İspanyol ressam (ö. 2015)
 1934 - Phil Ramone, Amerikalı aranjör, yapımcı ve 14 Grammy Ödülü sahibi (ö. 2013)
 1935 - Füruğ Ferruhzad, İranlı şair, yazar, yönetmen ve ressam (ö. 1967)
 1935 - Jack Hirsh, Kanadalı bilim insanı
 1935 - Öner Ünalan, Türk yazar, çevirmen ve araştırmacı (ö. 2011)
 1936 - Sylvestre Nsanzimana, Ruandalı siyasetçi (ö. 1999)
 1937 - Hélène Cixous, Fransız yazar
 1938 - Brian Crowe, İngiliz diplomat (ö. 2020)
 1938 - I. Juan Carlos, İspanya Kralı
 1938 - Ngũgĩ wa Thiong'o, Kenyalı yazar
 1940 - Adnan Mersinli, Türk oyuncu (ö. 2016)
 1941 - Hayao Miyazaki, Japon manga ve anime sanatçısı
 1942 - Vicki Lansky, Amerikalı çocuk hikâyeleri yazarı ve yayıncı (ö. 2017)
 1943 - Atilla Özdemiroğlu, Türk müzisyen (ö. 2016)
 1946 - Diane Keaton, Amerikalı oyuncu ve En İyi Kadın Oyuncu Akademi Ödülü sahibi
 1947 - Osman Arpacıoğlu, Türk futbolcu ve spor yazarı (ö. 2021)
 1949 - Anne-Marie Lizin, Belçikalı siyasetçi (ö. 2015)
 1950 - Mehmet Mümtaz Tuzcu, Türk şair
 1952 - Uli Hoeneß, Alman eski futbolcudur
 1953 - George Tenet, Amerikalı bürokrat, istihbaratçı ve akademisyendir
 1954 - László Krasznahorkai, Macar senarist ve romancıdır
 1956 - Gérard Berliner, Fransız şarkıcı, söz yazarı, besteci ve oyuncu (ö. 2010)
 1956 - Frank-Walter Steinmeier, bir Alman politikacı
 1959 - Maya Lin, Çin asıllı Amerikalı mimar ve sanatçı
 1960 - Phil Thornalley, İngiliz müzisyen ve yapımcı
 1961 - Iris DeMent, Amerikalı şarkıcı ve söz yazarıdır
 1965 - Vinnie Jones, İngiliz eski futbolcudur
 1965 - Okday Korunan, Türk oyuncu ve oyun yazarı
 1966 - Özgür Ozan, Türk oyuncu
 1968 - DJ Bobo, İsviçreli şarkıcı
 1969 - Marilyn Manson, Amerikalı müzisyen
 1970 - Erdal Beşikçioğlu, Türk oyuncu
 1972 - Sakis Ruvas, Yunan şarkıcı
 1975 - Bradley Cooper, Amerikalı tiyatro, dizi ve sinema oyuncusudur
 1976 - Diego Tristán, İspanyol futbolcu
 1977 - Alaaddin Şahintekin, Türk karateci
 1978 - January Jones, Amerikalı aktris ve model
 1980 - Sebastian Deisler, Alman futbolcu
 1981 - deadmau5, Kanadalı progressive house müzik yapımcısı ve sanatçı
 1982 - Janica Kostelić, Hırvat kayakçı
 1986 - Deepika Padukone, Hint film aktrisi ve modeldir
 1987 - Kristin Cavallari, Amerikalı oyuncu ve şarkıcı
 1989 - Clara Cleymans, Belçikalı oyuncu ve seslendirme sanatçısı
 1989 - Krisztián Németh, Macar millî futbolcudur
 1991 - Soner Aydoğdu, Türk futbolcu
 1991 - Denis Alibec, Rumen futbolcudur
 1996 - Max Baldry, İngiliz oyuncu
 1997 - Egehan Arna, Türk basketbolcu
 1998 - Merve Arı, Türk basketbolcu
 1999 - Berkin Elvan, Türk öğrenci (ö. 2014)

Ölümler
 842 - Mutasım, Abbâsîler'in 8. Halifesi (d. 794)
 1066 - Edward, İngiltere Kralı (d. 1003)
 1173 - IV. Bolesław, Polonya Yüksek Dükü (d. 1122)
 1387 - IV. Pedro, Aragon Kralı (d. 1319)
 1477 - I. Charles, Burgonya'nın Valois Hanedanı'ndan son Dükü (d. 1433)
 1588 - Qi Jiguang, Çinli general ve ulusal kahraman (d. 1528)
 1589 - Catherine de' Medici, Fransa Kraliçesi (d. 1519)
 1616 - Simeon Bekbulatoviç, Kasım Hanlığı'nın Hanlarından ve Rus Çarlığı'nın Çarlarından (d. ?)
 1713 - Jean Chardin, Fransız kuyumcu ve gezgin (d. 1643)
 1714 - III. Mamia Gurieli, İmereti Kralı (d. ?)
 1735 - Carlo Ruzzini, Venedikli devlet adamı, diplomat ve Venedik Cumhuriyeti Doçe'si (d. 1653)
 1762 - Yelizaveta, Rus İmparatoriçesi (d. 1709)
 1776 - Philipp Ludwig Statius Müller, Alman zoolog (d. 1725)
 1796 - Anna Barbara Reinhart, İsviçreli matematikçi (d. 1730)
 1818 - Marcello Bacciarelli, İtalyan ressam (d. 1731)
 1858 - Josef Wenzel Radetzky von Radetz, Avusturyalı general (d. 1766)
 1863 - Johann Wilhelm Zinkeisen, Alman tarihçi (d. 1803)
 1908 - Smbat Şahaziz, Ermeni eğitimci, yazar ve gazeteci (d. 1840)
 1913 - Lewis A. Swift, Amerikalı gök bilimci (d. 1820)
 1917 - Isobel Lilian Gloag, İngiliz ressam (d. 1865)
 1922 - Ernest Shackleton, İrlandalı-İngiliz kâşif (d. 1874)
 1925 - Yevgeniya Boş, Alman asıllı Rus Bolşevik aktivist ve siyasetçi (d. 1879)
 1929 - Nikolay Nikolayeviç Romanov, Rus general (d. 1856)
 1933 - Calvin Coolidge, Amerikalı siyasetçi ve ABD'nin 30. Başkanı (d. 1872)
 1951 - Andrey Platonov, Rus yazar (d. 1899)
 1951 - Phillip Jaisohn, Koreli aktivist, gazeteci, politikacı ve hekim (d. 1864)
 1953 - Ramiz Gökçe, Türk karikatürist (d. 1900)
 1970 - Max Born, Alman fizikçi ve Nobel Fizik Ödülü sahibi (d. 1882)
 1972 - Tevfik Rüştü Aras, Türk siyasetçi ve diplomat (d. 1883)
 1975 - Arif Nihat Asya, Türk şair ve yazar (d. 1904)
 1976 - Hamit Kaplan, Türk Olimpiyat ve Dünya şampiyonu güreşçi (d. 1933)
 1976 - Necmeddin Okyay, Türk hattat ve ebru sanatçısı (d. 1883)
 1981 - Harold Clayton Urey, Amerikalı kimyacı ve Nobel Kimya Ödülü sahibi (d. 1893)
 1982 - Ahmet Zaim, Kıbrıslı Türk siyasetçi ve diplomat (d. 1927)
 1982 - Edmund Herring, Avustralyalı asker (d. 1892)
 1985 - Robert Surtees, Amerikalı görüntü yönetmeni ve Oscar Ödülü sahibi (d. 1906)
 1986 - Aynur Gürkan, Türk halk müziği sanatçısı
 1990 - Arthur Kennedy, Amerikalı oyuncu (d. 1914)
 1998 - Sonny Bono, Amerikalı şarkıcı, oyuncu ve politikacı (d. 1935)
 2001 - Elizabeth Anscombe, İngiliz analitik filozof (d. 1919)
 2003 - Roy Jenkins, İngiliz siyaset adamı (d. 1920)
 2004 - Tug McGraw, Amerikalı beyzbol oyuncusu (d. 1944)
 2009 - Mustafa Ok, Türk asker ve siyasetçi (d. 1925)
 2010 - Beverly Aadlen, Amerikalı oyuncu (d. 1942)
 2012 - Don Carter, Amerikalı bowling oyuncusu (d. 1926)
 2014 - Alma Muriel, Meksikalı oyuncu (d. 1951)
 2014 - Annamária Kinde, Macar asıllı Romanyalı gazeteci, yazar ve editör (d. 1956)
 2014 - Carmen Zapata, Amerikalı oyuncu (d. 1927)
 2014 - Eusébio, Portekizli futbolcu (d. 1942)
 2014 - Mustapha Zitouni, Cezayirli millî futbolcu (d. 1928)
 2014 - Uday Kiran, Hint oyuncu (d. 1980)
 2015 - Eylül Cansın, Türk transeksüel kadın (d. 1992)
 2015 - Jean-Pierre Beltoise, Fransız Formula 1 yarışçısı (d. 1937)
 2015 - Joy Ali, Fijili boksör (d. 1978)
 2015 - Khan Bonfils, Doğu Asya kökenli İngiliz oyuncu (d. 1972)
 2016 - Elizabeth Swados, Amerikalı yazar, besteci, müzisyen ve tiyatro yönetmeni (d. 1951)
 2016 - Jean-Paul L'Allier, Kanadalı liberal siyasetçi ve gazeteci (d. 1938)
 2016 - Memduh Abdülalim, Mısırlı oyuncu (d. 1956)
 2016 - Percy Freeman, İngiliz futbolcu (d. 1945)
 2016 - Pierre Boulez, Fransız besteci, koro şefi, yazar ve piyanist (d. 1925)
 2016 - Rudolf Haag, Alman teorik fizikçi (d. 1922)
 2017 - Alfonso Humberto Robles Cota, Meksikalı piskopos (d. 1931)
 2017 - Géori Boué, Fransız kadın soprano ve opera sanatçısı (d. 1918)
 2017 - Leonardo Benevolo, İtalyan mimar, sanat tarihçisi ve şehir plancısı (d. 1923)
 2017 - Rafiq Subaie, Suriyeli aktör, yazar ve yönetmen (d. 1930)
 2018 - Antonio Valentín Angelillo, İtalyan futbolcu ve teknik direktör (d. 1937)
 2018 - Aydın Boysan, Türk mimar ve gazeteci (d. 1921)
 2018 - Henry Jean-Baptiste, Fransız siyasetçi (d. 1933)
 2018 - Jerry Van Dyke, Amerikalı komedyen, oyuncu ve seslendirme sanatçısı (d. 1931)
 2018 - John W. Young, Amerikalı astronot (d. 1930)
 2018 - Marián Labuda, Slovak oyuncu (d. 1944)
 2018 - Münir Özkul, Türk meddah, tiyatro ve sinema oyuncusu (d. 1925)
 2018 - Thomas Bopp, Amerikalı astronom, bilim insanı ve kaşif (d. 1949)
 2019 - Bernice Sandler, Amerikalı kadın hakları aktivisti, eğitimci ve yazar (d. 1928)
 2019 - Dragoslav Šekularac, Sırp futbolcu ve futbol antrenörü (d. 1937)
 2019 - Emil Brumaru, Rumen şair ve yazar (d. 1938)
 2019 - Erick Haydock, İngiliz müzisyen ve gitarist (d. 1943)
 2019 - Maria Dolores Malumbres, İspanyol piyanist, müzik eğitimcisi ve besteci (d. 1931)
 2019 - Rudolf Raff, Kanadalı-Amerikalı biyolog ve akademisyen (d. 1941)
 2020 - Antoni Morell Mora, İspanyol asıllı Andorralı diplomat, hukukçu, bürokrat ve yazar (d. 1941)
 2020 - Walter Learning, Kanadalı tiyatro yönetmeni, oyun yazarı ve oyuncu (d. 1938)
 2021 - Annasif Døhlen, Norveçli ressam ve heykeltıraş (d. 1930)
 2021 - Bonifácio José Tamm de Andrada, Brezilyalı siyasetçi, hukuk akademisyeni ve gazeteci (d. 1930)
 2021 - Christina Crosby, Amerikalı eğitimci, aktivist ve yazar (d. 1953)
 2021 - Colin Bell, İngiliz millî futbolcu (d. 1946)
 2021 - James Greene, Kuzey İrlandalı aktör (d. 1931)
 2021 - João Cutileiro, Portekizli heykeltıraş (d. 1937)
 2021 - John Richardson, İngiliz oyuncu (d. 1934)
 2021 - José Carlos Silveira Braga, Brezilyalı futbolcu (d. 1930)
 2021 - Tyberii Korponai, Sovyet-Ukraynalı futbolcu (d. 1958)
 2022 - Lawrence Brooks, Amerika Birleşik Devletleri Ordusu'nun Amerikan gazisi (d. 1909)
 2022 - Kim Mi-soo, Güney Koreli aktris ve model (d. 1992)
 2022 - Anatole Novak, Fransız profesyonel yol bisikleti yarışçısı (d. 1937)
 2022 - George Rossi, İskoç aktör (d. 1961)
 2022 - Olga Szabó-Orbán, Rumen eskrimci (d. 1938)
 2023 - Kim Deok-ju, Güney Koreli hukukçu (d. 1933)
 2023 - Nate Colbert, Amerikalı beyzbolcu (d. 1946)

Tatiller ve özel günler
 Adana'nın ve Tarsus'un Fransız işgalinden kurtuluşu (1922)

Kaynakça

0105
05

5 Ocak


Achterhoek (donjonjemački: Achterhook; nizozemski izgovor: [ˈɑxtərˌɦuk]) je regija na istoku Nizozemske.

Njegovo ime (što znači "stražnji kutak") geografski je prikladno jer se područje nalazi u najistočnijem dijelu Gelderlanda, a time i na istoku Nizozemske, koja se proteže u Njemačku. Područje Achterhoeka nalazi se između rijeka IJssel i Oude IJssel, i graniöi s pokrajinom Overijssel i nekadašnje grofovije Zutphen. Regija je uglavnom ruralna, s puno otvorenog prostora, šuma i farmi. Područje oko grada Winterswijk smatra se vrlo lijepim.

Jezik

Izvorni jezik Achterhoeka je Achterhoeks, varijanta donjeg saskog. Jezik se također može razlikovati po općini/gradu, čak i na takav način da će osoba koja govori varijanti "Grol" (tj. dijalekt Groenla) drugačije izgovarati od osobe iz Winterswijka koji je samo 10 km istočno, iako će se vjerojatno međusobno razumjeti. Broj stanovnika čiji je jedini jezik Achterhooks uvelike je smanjen tijekom proteklih 60 godina, stanovnici se podučavaju u školama na standardnom nizozemskom, a dijalekt se govori (ponekad) kod kuće. Djelomično zbog imigracije izvan područja Achterhoeka i učinaka nacionalne vlade, nizozemski jezik ima značajan utjecaj na dijalekt. Mnoge su stare riječi zaboravljene i zamijenjene njihovim nizozemskim izvedenicama.

Općine u Achterhoeku

Najveći gradovi u Achterhoeku su: Doetinchem, Winterswijk i Zutphe. Doesburg i Zutphen su stari hanseatski gradovi. Oba imaju središta s dobro očuvanim povijesnim građevinama.

Aalten

Berkelland

Bronckhorst

Doesburg

Doetinchem

Lochem

Montferland

Oost Gelre

Oude IJsselstreek

Winterswijk

Zutphen

Zemljopis Nizozemske

Achterhoek


El arroyo Marmarajá es un curso de agua uruguayo ubicado en el departamento de Lavalleja, perteneciente a la cuenca hidrográfica de la laguna Merín.

Nace en la cuchilla Grande, desemboca en el arroyo del Aiguá. Su principal afluente es el arroyo Calera.

Marmarajá
Marmarajá

Arroyo Marmarajá


The Northrop F-89 Scorpion is an all-weather, twin-engined interceptor aircraft designed and produced by the American aircraft manufacturer Northrop Corporation. It was the first jet-powered aircraft to be designed for the Interceptor role from the outset to enter service, as well as the first combat aircraft to be armed with air-to-air nuclear weapons in the form of the unguided Genie rocket. The name Scorpion came from the aircraft's elevated tail unit and high-mounted horizontal stabilizer, which kept it clear of the engine exhaust.

The Scorpion was designed by Northrop in response to a specification issued by the United States Army Air Forces (USAAF) during August 1945. Internally designated as the N-24, it was originally designed with a relatively slim fuselage, buried Allison J35 turbojet engines, and a swept wing configuration, however, the unfavourable low speed characteristics of this wing led to its substitution for a relatively thin straight wing instead. While its straight wings limited its performance, the Scorpion was among the first American fighters to be equipped with guided missiles. During March 1946, the USAAF selected both the N-24 and the rival Curtiss-Wright XP-87 Blackhawk for development, leading to an initial contract for two aircraft, designated XP-89, being approved on 13 June 1946.

On 16 August 1948, the prototype performed its maiden flight from Muroc Army Air Field. Following competitive evaluations of the XP-89, officials opted to cancel the competing XP-87 to concentrate resources on the Scorpion, it having proven to be the fastest aircraft evaluated and was viewed as the most promising. Various alterations and improvements were made following a fatal accident on 22 February 1950; prior to this, officials had already specified the adoption of more powerful afterburner-equipped Allison J33-A-21 turbojet engines, AN/ARG-33 radar, and the Hughes E-1 fire-control system. During September 1950, the Scorpion entered service with the United States Air Force (USAF), its sole operator.

Only 18 F-89As were completed as it was quickly superseded by the more capable F-89B configuration, most of the changes being avionics-based, that arrived in June 1951. It was soon followed by the F-89C, which featured engine upgrades. During 1954, the definitive F-89D was introduced, which installed a new Hughes E-6 fire control system with AN/APG-40 radar and an AN/APA-84 computer in place of the cannon armament, being instead armed with  "Mighty Mouse" FFAR rocket pods. The final variant to enter service was the F-89J, which was typically armed with the AIR-2 Genie nuclear air-to-air rocket. They served with the Air Defense Command, later renamed the Aerospace Defense Command (ADC), through 1959, and with the Air National Guard, into the late 1960s. The last Scorpions were withdrawn during 1969.

Design and development

Background
The origins of the Scorpion can be traced back to a United States Army Air Forces (USAAF) Air Technical Service Command specification ("Military Characteristics for All-Weather Fighting Aircraft") for a night fighter to replace the Northrop P-61 Black Widow. The preliminary specification, issued to aircraft manufacturers on 28 August 1945, required two engines and an armament of six guns, either  machine guns or  autocannon. The revised specification was issued on 23 November; it did not specify jet propulsion, but the desired maximum speed of  was challenging to meet via alternative means. The aircraft was to be armed with aerial rockets stored internally and six guns split between two flexible mounts, four guns forward and two in the rear. Each mount had to be capable of 15° of movement from the aircraft's longitudinal axis; each mount's guns were to be automatically controlled by radar. For ground attack, it had to be capable of carrying  bombs and to be able to carry a minimum of eight rockets externally. Further requirements included the ability to ascend to 35,000 feet within 12 minutes and a mission radius of 600 nautical miles.

Proposals were submitted by six aircraft companies: Bell Aircraft, Consolidated-Vultee, Douglas Aircraft, Goodyear, Northrop and Curtiss-Wright. The majority of these submissions were powered by jet engines. During March 1946, the USAAF selected the Curtiss-Wright XP-87 Blackhawk, adapted from its proposed XA-43 attack aircraft and the Northrop N-24, one of four designs submitted by the company.

The N-24, designed by Jack Northrop, was a slim-bodied, swept-wing aircraft with a two-person, pressurized cockpit and conventional landing gear. To reduce drag, the two Allison J35 turbojet engines were buried in the lower fuselage, directly behind their air intakes, and they exhausted underneath the rear fuselage. The horizontal stabilizer was mounted just above the junction of the vertical stabilizer with the fuselage and had some dihedral.

Contract and redesign
On 13 June 1946, an initial $4 million contract for two aircraft, designated XP-89, along with a full-scale mock-up, was approved. However, the mock-up construction had commenced immediately after the USAAF announced that the N-24 had been selected. It was inspected on 25 September, at which point the USAAF expressed some reservations. The inspectors believed that the radar operator needed to be moved forward, closer to the pilot, with both crewmen under a single canopy, the magnesium alloy components of the wing replaced by aluminum alloy, and the fuel tankage directly above the engines moved. Other changes were made in response to the results from wind tunnel and other aerodynamic tests conducted. The swept wings proved less satisfactory at low speeds, and a thin straight wing was selected, instead. Delivery of the first prototype was scheduled for November 1947, 14 months after the inspection. The requested alterations to the design were formalized in a series of change orders issued to Northrop. Another mockup presentation took place in December 1946.

Further changes included the position of the horizontal stabilizer also proved to be unsatisfactory, as it was affected by the engine exhaust, and it would be "blanked-out" by airflow from the wing at high angles of attack. It was moved halfway up the tail, but its position flush with the leading edge of the vertical stabilizer proved to cause extra drag through turbulence and reduced the effectiveness of the elevators and rudder. Moving the horizontal stabilizer forward solved the problem. Another major change occurred when USAAF revised its specification to delete the rear gun installation on 8 October. Another mock-up inspection was held on 17 December, and the inspectors suggested only minor changes, though the fuselage fuel tanks were still above the engines. Northrop's efforts to protect the fuel tanks were considered sufficient, as the only alternative was redesigning the entire aircraft.

The XP-89 had a thin, straight, mid-mounted wing and a crew of two seated in tandem. The slim rear fuselage and the high-mounted horizontal stabilizer led to Northrop employees calling it the Scorpion—a name later formally adopted by the Air Force. The intended armament of four 20-mm M24 cannon in a small nose turret was not ready when the XP-89 was completed in 1948. Pending the availability of either turret under development, an interim six-gun fixed installation, with 200 rounds per gun, was designed for the underside of the nose. The thin wing had an aspect ratio of 5.88, a thickness-to-chord ratio of 9% and used a NACA 0009-64 section, which was selected for its low drag at high speed and stability at low speeds. A further advantage of the straight wing was that it could accommodate heavy weights at the wingtips. The wing could not fit the circular-type (rotating) spoilerons used in the P-61, so Northrop used the "decelerons" designed for the unsuccessful XP-79 prototype. These were clamshell-style split ailerons, which could be used as conventional ailerons, as dive brakes, or function as flaps as needed. All flying surfaces, the flaps, and the landing gear were hydraulically powered. The thin wing dictated tall, thin, high-pressure () mainwheel tires, while the low height of the fuselage required the use of dual wheels for the nose gear.

Flight testing
On 21 May 1947, the terms of the initial contract were revised and formalized, at which point the price was increased to $5,571,111. The delivery date of the first aircraft was scheduled for 14 months (July 1948) from signing and the second two months after that. During June 1948, an engineering acceptance inspection found that numerous discrepancies were present in the first prototype, specifically related to stability and structural integrity; remedial changes were incorporated on the second prototype. On 16 August 1948, the first prototype performed its maiden flight at Muroc Army Air Field; this milestone was reached nine months later than originally scheduled. One month prior to this first flight, the USAF changed its designation for fighter aircraft from "P" to "F". The XF-89, which was fitted with  Allison J35-A-9 turbojets, quickly proved to be fundamentally underpowered. Initial flights were performed with conventional ailerons as the decelerons were not installed until December.

Several months earlier, the Air Force conducted a competitive evaluation of the three existing all-weather interceptor prototypes, the XF-87, the XF-89, and the US Navy's XF3D. The evaluators were qualified night-fighter pilots, radar operators, and experienced maintenance non-commissioned officers. The pilots were not impressed with any of the aircraft and recommended procurement of an interim aircraft that resulted in the development of the Lockheed F-94 Starfire from the training version of the Lockheed F-80 Shooting Star. The F-89 was the fastest of the three contenders, although it was in last place in cockpit arrangement and ease of maintenance. One pilot claimed that the XF-89 was the only real fighter and compared the XF-87 to a medium bomber and the XF3D to a trainer. The full Committee on Evaluation overruled those evaluators, preferring the Northrop design, as it had the greatest potential for development. The Air Force subsequently canceled the production contract for the F-87 to free up money for the Scorpion.

During May 1949, the Air Force issued a cost-plus-fixed-fee contract, valued at roughly $48 million, which covered the modifications to the second prototype as well as the supply of the first 48 production standard aircraft, spare parts, tooling, ground-handling equipment, and a single static test frame. Two months later, the Air Force officially accepted the first prototype, roughly one year behind schedule. By November 1949, the second aircraft was virtually complete. Around this point, Air Force officials were concerned about the aircraft's poor thrust-to-weight ratio and ordered the implementation of a weight-reduction program, as well as upgrade the engines to the more powerful Allison J33-A-21 fitted with an afterburner. Other major changes included the replacement of the nose gun turret by the Hughes-designed six-gun nose, AN/ARG-33 radar, and Hughes E-1 fire-control system, permanent wingtip fuel tanks, and the ability to lower the complete engine for better maintenance access. The new nose added  to the length of the aircraft. It was redesignated YF-89A to reflect its role as a pre-production testbed to evaluate equipment and changes planned for the F-89A production aircraft. The aircraft was complete by February 1950.

After repairs from a crash landing on 27 June 1949, the XF-89 was flown to March AFB to participate in the RKO movie Jet Pilot in February 1950. Shortly afterward, the aircraft crashed on 22 February, killing the observer, when flutter developed in the elevator, and the subsequent vibrations caused the entire tail to break off. Construction of the production models was suspended until the reasons for the accident were discovered. Engineering and wind tunnel tests revealed that the geometry of the rear fuselage and the engine exhaust created flutter-inducing turbulence aggravated by the exhaust's high-frequency acoustic energy. Fixes for the problem involved the addition of a "jet wake fairing" at the bottom rear of the fuselage between the engines, external ("ice tong") mass balances for the elevator, pending the design of internal mass balances, and the addition of exhaust deflectors to the fuselage to reduce the turbulence and the consequent flutter. These modifications were initially applied to the second prototype to validate their effectiveness.

Operational history

On 28 September 1950, the first F-89A was accepted by the Air Force for evaluation purposes; a further two aircraft were accepted by the end of the year. Two months later, the Air Force decided to give its endorsement to the programme, albeit with stringent conditions being applied. These included the remaining flight test programme being accelerated, special tests being performed upon early production aircraft to prove the flutter issue had been resolved, and a deadline of January 1951 was set for the final resolution of this issue. As a result of increased unit costs, in part due to modifications, the number of production aircraft on order was reduced somewhat. Production aircraft were equipped with the AN/APG-33 radar and an armament of six 20-millimeter T-31 cannon with 200 rounds per gun. The swiveling nose turret was abandoned, and  fuel tanks were permanently fitted to the wingtips. Underwing racks could carry 16  aerial rockets or up to  of bombs.

Only 18 F-89As were completed, all of which being delivered within FY1951; they were mainly used for tests and trials, seeing little operational use. They were soon upgraded to F-89B standard, being outfitted  with new avionics. During June 1951, the Scorpion entered service with the 84th Fighter-Interceptor Squadron. However, the F-89B experienced considerable problems with both the engines and other systems, resulting in its withdrawal from frontline duties during 1954. The improved F-89C had started to be introduced in September 1951, although the Air Force opted to halt allocations four months later due to issues. Despite repeated engine changes and other modifications, problems had persisted, compounded by the discovery of structural problems with the wings that led to the grounding of the F-89 and forced a refit of 194 -A, -B, and -C models. On 22 September 1952, all Scorpions, save for those involved in flight testing, were grounded until the following year. The F-89C left active service with the Air Force in 1954, it was operated by the Air National Guard as late as 1960.

The definitive production model was the F-89D. While it performed its first flight on 23 October 1951, quantity production was disrupted by the issues encountered on early models, resulting in major structural modifications, after which full production was resumed during 1953. Approximately 170 F-89Ds, the majority of which having been built prior to the resumption of production, were retrofitted to bring them up to the same standard as later-built aircraft. On 7 January 1953, the F-89D was introduced to service. It removed the cannon in favor of a new Hughes E-6 fire control system with AN/APG-40 radar and an AN/APA-84 computer. Armament was two pods of fifty-two  "Mighty Mouse" FFAR rockets. A total of 682 F-89Ds were built. In August 1956, a pair of F-89D interceptors were scrambled from Oxnard Air Force Base to shoot down a runaway F6F-5K drone leading to the so-called Battle of Palmdale.

Proposed re-engined F-89s, designated F-89E and F-89F, were not built, nor was a proposed F-89G that would have used Hughes MA-1 fire control and GAR-1/GAR-2 Falcon air-to-air missiles like the Convair F-106 Delta Dart.

The subsequent F-89H, which entered service in 1956, had an E-9 fire control system like that of the early F-102 and massive new wingtip pods, each holding three Falcons (usually three semi-active radar homing GAR-1s and three infrared GAR-2s) and 21 FFARs, for a total of six missiles and 42 rockets. Problems with the fire-control system delayed the -H's entry into service, by which time its performance was notably inferior to newer supersonic interceptors, so it was phased out of USAF service by 1959.

The final variant was the F-89J, which was based on the F-89D, but replaced the standard wingtip missile pod/tanks with  fuel tanks and fitted a pylon under each wing for a single MB-1 Genie nuclear rocket (sometimes supplemented by up to four conventional Falcon air-to-air missiles). The F-89J became the only aircraft to fire a live Genie as the John Shot of Operation Plumbbob on 19 July 1957. There were no new-build F-89Js, but 350 -Ds were modified to this standard. They served with the Air Defense Command, later renamed the Aerospace Defense Command (ADC), through 1959 and with ADC-gained units of the Air National Guard through 1969. This version of the aircraft was extensively used within the Semi Automatic Ground Environment (SAGE) air-defense system.

A total of 1,050 Scorpions of all variants were produced.

Variants
XF-89
First prototype, powered by two  Allison J35-A-9 engines.
XF-89A
Second prototype. Fitted with more powerful  dry ( wet) Allison J35-A-21A engines and revised, pointed nose with cannon armament.
F-89A
First production version, eight built. Fitted with a revised tailplane and six cannon armaments.
DF-89A
F-89As converted into drone control aircraft.
F-89B
Second production version with upgraded avionics. 40 built.
DF-89B
F-89Bs converted into drone control aircraft.
F-89C
Third production version with more powerful  dry ( wet) Allison J35-A-33 engines. 164 built.
YF-89D
Conversion of one F-89B to test new avionics and armament of F-89D.
F-89D
Main production version, which saw the deletion of the six 20-millimeter cannons in favor of 104 rockets in wing pods, installation of a new Hughes E-6 fire-control system, AN/APG-40 radar, and the AN/APA-84 computer. This new system allowed a lead-collision attack in place of the previous lead-pursuit-curve technique. A total of 682 were built.
YF-89E
One-off prototype to test the  dry ( wet) Allison YJ71-A-3 engine, converted from an F-89C.
F-89F
Proposed version with revised fuselage and wings, powered by  dry ( wet) Allison J71-A-7 engines, never built.
F-89G
Proposed version equipped with Hughes MA-1 fire control and GAR-1/GAR-2 Falcon air-to-air missiles, never built.
YF-89H
Modified F-89D to test features of F-89H. Three converted.
F-89H
Version with E-9 fire control system, six Hughes GAR-1/GAR-2 Falcon missiles, and 42 Folding Fin Aircraft Rockets (FFAR). 156 built.

F-89J
Conversion of F-89D with underwing hardpoints for two MB-1 (later AIR-2) Genie nuclear-armed rocket and four Falcon missiles, and carrying either the standard F-89D rocket/fuel pod or pure fuel tanks. 350 were converted from F-89Ds.

Operators
 see also: F-89 Scorpion units of the United States Air Force

 United States Air Force
 Air National Guard

Aircraft on display

F-89B
 49-2457 – Lakeview Park, Nampa, Idaho.

F-89D
 52-1862 – Elmendorf AFB, Anchorage, Alaska. Marked as 53-2453 (actual 53-2453 is an F-89J below) Previously displayed at Tyndall AFB, Florida.
 53-2463 – Museum of Aviation, Robins Air Force Base, Georgia.
 53-2494 – home base of the 158th Fighter Wing, Vermont Air National Guard, Burlington Air National Guard Base, Vermont.
 53-2517 – Planes of Fame Museum, Chino, California. The rudder of 53-2519 was added to the aircraft at the museum.
 53-2536 – EAA AirVenture Museum, Oshkosh, Wisconsin.
 53-2610 – Air Force Armament Museum, Eglin Air Force Base, Florida.
 53-2646 – Friendship Park, Smithfield, Ohio.
 53-2674 – Pima Air & Space Museum (adjacent to Davis-Monthan Air Force Base), Tucson, Arizona.
 53-2677 – Minnesota Air National Guard Museum, Minneapolis, Minnesota.

F-89H
 54-0298 – Dyess Linear Air Park, Dyess Air Force Base, Texas.
 54-0322 – Hill Aerospace Museum, Hill Air Force Base, Utah.

F-89J
 52-1856 – Bangor International Airport / Bangor Air National Guard Base (former Dow AFB), Maine.
 52-1868 – Selfridge Military Air Museum, Selfridge ANGB, Michigan.
 52-1896 – New England Air Museum, Windsor Locks, Connecticut.
 52-1911 (painted as 53-2509) – National Museum of the United States Air Force, Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, Dayton, Ohio. This aircraft was the last F-89 remaining in service when it was transferred to the Museum from the Maine Air National Guard in July 1969.
 52-1927 – Castle Air Museum (former Castle AFB), Atwater, California.
 52-1941 – Peterson Air and Space Museum, Peterson Air Force Base, Colorado.
 52-1949 – March Field Air Museum, March Air Reserve Base (former March AFB), Riverside, California.
 52-2129 – Air Power Park and Museum (near Langley Air Force Base), Hampton, Virginia.
 53-2547 – 120th Fighter Wing of the Montana Air National Guard at Great Falls Air National Guard Base, Great Falls International Airport, Montana. It is the only F-89 to have ever fired a Genie rocket with a live nuclear warhead, having done so as part of Operation Plumbob.
 53-2453 – Heritage Flight Museum, Burlington, Washington. (note: see 52-1862 above, marked as 53-2453)
 53-2604 – 119th Wing of the North Dakota Air National Guard, Fargo Air National Guard Base / Hector Field, Fargo, North Dakota.

Specifications (F-89D)

See also

References

Citations

Bibliography

External links

 Joe Baugher F-89 pages
 "First Look Inside The USAF F-89 Scorpion Fighter," Popular Science 1951 article with cutaway of F-89 with original six 20 mm cannon nose, article at bottom of page

1940s United States fighter aircraft
F-089 Scorpion
Twinjets
Mid-wing aircraft
Aircraft first flown in 1948

Northrop F-89 Scorpion


Jorge Luis Burruchaga (d. 9 Ekim 1962, Entre Ríos), Arjantinli eski futbolcu, şu anda teknik direktörlük yapmaktadır. Futbolculuk kariyerinde hem ofansif orta saha hem de santrafor olarak oynamıştır.

El Burru lakaplı Burruchaga, 1986 FIFA Dünya Kupası'nı kazanan Arjantin kadrosundaydı ve final maçında Arjantin'i Almanya karşısında 3-2 öne geçiren golü attı ve kupayı kazandırdı. 1990 FIFA Dünya Kupası'nda bütün Arjantin maçlarında forma giydi. Independiente ile 1983 yılında Arjantin Ligi'ni, 1984 yılında da CONMEBOL Libertadores ile Kıtalararası Kupa'yı kazandı.

1994 yılında Valenciennes takmında oynarken adı bir maç ayarlama skandalına karıştı ve iki yıl boyunca Fransız futbolundan men cezası aldı.
[2002 yılında futbola teknik direktör olarak geri döndü ve Arsenal Sarandi takımını 2005 yılına kadar çalıştırdı. 2005/06 sezonunda Estudiantes de La Plata takımına 2006 yılında da Independiente'ye geçti.

Kaynakça

Dış bağlantılar
 Ceza olayı
 Ceza olayı 2
 İspanyolca Biyografi
 İspanyolca Biyografi

1962 doğumlular
Arjantinli futbolcular
Arjantin millî futbol takımı futbolcuları
Arjantinli teknik direktörler
Orta saha futbolcuları
Forvet futbolcular
Arsenal FC (Arjantin) futbolcuları
CA Independiente futbolcuları
FC Nantes futbolcuları
Valenciennes FC futbolcuları
1983 Copa América futbolcuları
1986 FIFA Dünya Kupası futbolcuları
1989 Copa América futbolcuları
1990 FIFA Dünya Kupası futbolcuları
Yaşayan insanlar
FIFA Dünya Kupası kazanan futbolcular
Arsenal FC (Arjantin) teknik direktörleri
Estudiantes de La Plata teknik direktörleri
CA Independiente teknik direktörleri
CA Banfield teknik direktörleri
Primera División (Arjantin) futbolcuları
Arjantinli gurbetçi futbolcular
Bask asıllı Arjantinliler
AMSyD Atlético de Rafaela teknik direktörleri
Fransa'daki gurbetçi futbolcular
Ligue 1 futbolcuları

Jorge Burruchaga


Serhij Viktorovitj Skatjenko ( født 28. november 1972) er en tidligere ukrainsk fodboldspiller.

Ukraines fodboldlandshold

|-
|1994||4||0
|-
|1995||0||0
|-
|1996||0||0
|-
|1997||0||0
|-
|1998||4||3
|-
|1999||7||0
|-
|2000||0||0
|-
|2001||0||0
|-
|2002||2||0
|-
!Total||17||3
|}

Eksterne henvisninger

Fodboldspillere fra Ukraine

Serhij Skatjenko


Das Fischereischiff Fairfree war der weltweit erste kommerziell eingesetzte Heckfänger.

Geschichte

Vorgeschichte

Gebaut wurde das Schiff 1944 durch die Werft Redfern Shipbuilders in Toronto als kanadischer Minensucher HMCS Coppercliff. Das Schiff zählte zu den 110 gebauten Einheiten der Algerine-Klasse und wurde bei Fertigstellung an die Royal Navy übertragen, die es als HMS Felicity in Dienst stellte.

1946 erwarb ein Konsortium, das zuvor schon den experimentellen Heckfänger Oriana betrieben hatte, das nach Kriegsende zum Verkauf stehende Schiff für 5000 £ und überführte es zum Umbau zu Fairfield Shipbuilders nach Glasgow. Dort wurde ein überzähliger Kessel ausgebaut und für 3000 £ an eine lokale Brauerei veräußert. Nachdem weitere ausgebaute Teile etwa den Rest der ursprünglichen Kaufsumme aufgebracht hatten, baute Fairfields den Minensucher nach den Plänen des Ingenieurs Charles Dennistoun Burney zum Heckfänger Fairfree um. Der neue Name soll auf die Bauwerft Fairfields und den praktisch kostenfreien Erwerb des Minensuchers zurückzuführen sein.

Einsatz als Fischereischiff
Im Oktober 1947 setzte man das umgebaute Schiff als Fairfree mit dem Glasgower Fischereikennzeichen GW19 wieder in Fahrt und begann mit den Probefahrten. Nach ausführlicher Erprobung aber noch im selben Monat übernahm die Reederei Christian Salvesen aus Leith das Schiff und setzte es unter der Fischereinummer LH217 vom neuen Heimathafen Granton/Leith und später sporadisch von Immingham aus ein. Im August 1949 erhielt die Fairfree eine neue Antriebsanlage aus zwei Zwölfzylinder-Viertakt-Dieselmotoren des Herstellers Mirrlees, Bickerton & Day aus Stockport. Weitere zwei Jahre darauf übertrug Salvesen die Fairfree an die South Georgia Company aus Leith, blieb aber weiter Betreiber des Schiffs. Ab September 1951 wurde die Fairfree in Shore, Leith Docks aufgelegt und schließlich im August 1957 für 15.000 £ an den Schiffsabbrecher Ship Breaking Industries in Charlestown Fife verkauft.

Ermutigt durch den erfolgreichen Einsatz der Fairfree gab Salvesen in den folgenden Jahren den allerersten komplett neugebauten Heckfänger Fairtry (1954) und weitere Nachbauten Fairtry II (1959) und Fairtry III (1960) in Auftrag. Schon 1954 begannen auch die Kieler Howaldtswerke mit dem Heckfängerbau (Puschkin-Serie für den Export in die Sowjetunion) und 1957 lieferte die Rickmerswerft den ersten Heckfänger für den Betrieb unter deutscher Flagge, die Heinrich Meins.

Weblinks
 die Fairfree bei grantontrawlers (englisch)
 die Fairfree bei hulltrawler (englisch)

Einzelnachweise

Dampfmaschinenschiff
Motorschiff
Fischereischiff (Vereinigtes Königreich)
Geschichte der Fischerei

Fairfree


An Tillandsia polita in uska species han Liliopsida nga ginhulagway ni Lyman Bradford Smith. An Tillandsia polita in nahilalakip ha genus nga Tillandsia, ngan familia nga Bromeliaceae. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Tillandsia

Tillandsia polita


Yenidam, Adana ilinin Seyhan ilçesine bağlı bir mahalledir.

Tarihçe
200 yıllık bir geçmişe sahiptir.

Coğrafya
Adana iline 8 km, Seyhan ilçesine 4 km uzaklıktadır.

Nüfus

Seyhan'ın mahalleleri

Yenidam, Seyhan


The District of Maine was the governmental designation for what is now the U.S. state of Maine from October 25, 1780 to March 15, 1820, when it was admitted to the Union as the 23rd state. The district was a part of the Commonwealth of Massachusetts and before American independence had been part of the British province of Massachusetts Bay.

Colonial history

Originally settled in 1607 by the Plymouth Company, the coastal area between the Merrimack and Kennebec rivers, as well as an irregular parcel of land between the headwaters of the two rivers, became the province of Maine in a 1622 land grant. In 1629, the land was split, creating an area between the Piscataqua and Merrimack rivers which became the province of New Hampshire. It existed through a series of land patents made by the kings of England during this era, and included New Somersetshire, Lygonia, and Falmouth. The province was incorporated into the Massachusetts Bay Colony during the 1650s, beginning with the formation of York County, Massachusetts, which extended from the Piscataqua River to just east of the mouth of the Presumpscot River in Casco Bay. Eventually, its territory grew to encompass nearly all of present-day Maine. The large size of the county led to its division in 1760 through the creation of Cumberland and Lincoln counties.

The northeastern portion of present-day Maine was first sparsely occupied by Maliseet Indians and French settlers from Acadia. The lands between the Kennebec and Saint Croix rivers were granted to the Duke of York in 1664, who had them administered as Cornwall County, part of his proprietary Province of New York. In 1688, these lands (along with the rest of New York) were subsumed into the Dominion of New England. English and French claims in western Maine would be contested, at times violently, until the British conquest of New France in the French and Indian War. With the creation of the Province of Massachusetts Bay in 1692, the entirety of what is now Maine became part of that province.

District history
When Massachusetts adopted its state constitution in 1780, it created the District of Maine to manage its northernmost counties, bounded on the west by the Piscataqua River and on the east by the Saint Croix River. By 1820, the District had been further subdivided with the creation of Hancock, Kennebec, Oxford, Penobscot, Somerset, and Washington counties.

A movement for Maine statehood began as early as 1785, and in the following years, several conventions were held to effect this. Starting in 1792 five popular votes were taken but all failed to reach the necessary majorities. During the War of 1812,  British and Canadian forces occupied a large portion of Maine including everything from the Penobscot River east to the New Brunswick border with the goal of annexing them to Canada as the Colony of New Ireland. A weak response by Massachusetts to this occupation and possible British annexation contributed to increased calls in the district for statehood.

Statehood
The Massachusetts General Court passed enabling legislation on June 19, 1819, separating the District of Maine from the rest of the Commonwealth. The following month, on July 19, voters in the district approved statehood by 17,091 to 7,132.

The results of the election were presented to the Massachusetts Governor's Council on August 24, 1819. The Maine Constitution was unanimously approved by the 210 delegates to the Maine Constitutional Convention in October 1819. On February 25, 1820, the General Court passed a follow-up measure officially accepting the fact of Maine's imminent statehood.

At the time of Maine's request for statehood, there were an equal number of free and slave states. Pro-slavery members of the United States Congress saw the admission of another free state, Maine, as a threat to the balance between slave and free states. They would support statehood for Maine only if Missouri Territory, where slavery was legal, would be admitted to the Union as a slave state. Maine became the nation's 23rd state on March 15, 1820, following the Missouri Compromise, which allowed Missouri to enter the Union as a slave-holding state and Maine as a free state.

References

External links
 Willis, William, History of Portland, 1865. (Ch. 24: Separation of Maine from Massachusetts)

Former regions and territories of the United States
District of Maine
Defunct administrative divisions in Massachusetts
District of Maine
District of Maine
District of Maine
States and territories established in 1780
States and territories disestablished in 1820
Exclaves in the United States
Former exclaves
1780 establishments in the Province of Massachusetts Bay
1780s establishments in Maine
18th century in Maine
19th century in Maine
1820 disestablishments in Maine
1820 disestablishments in Massachusetts

District of Maine


Johann Heinrich Günther, seit 1798 Freiherr von Günther (* 8. Dezember 1736 in Neu-Ruppin; † 22. April 1803 in Tykoczyn) war ein preußischer Generalleutnant und galt als Meister des Kleinen Krieges.

Leben

Herkunft
Johann Heinrich Günther war der Sohn des Feldprediger im Infanterieregiment "Kronprinz" David Heinrich Günther († 1742) und dessen Ehefrau Sophie Dorothea, geborene Thile (1718–1781).

Militärkarriere
Nach dem frühen Tod des Vaters wuchs Johann Heinrich bei seiner verwitweten Mutter in beengten Verhältnissen auf. Er besuchte 1752/55 das Joachimsthalsche Gymnasium und immatrikulierte sich 1755 an der Universität Frankfurt (Oder). Zunächst studierte er Jura und ab 1757 Evangelische Theologie an der Universität Halle. Mit den befreundeten Kommilitonen Anton Wilhelm von L'Estocq, Johann Georg Scheffner und David von Neumann trat er aber bald in die Preußische Armee, um am Siebenjährigen Krieg teilnehmen zu können. Zunächst beim Commissariat, kämpfte er im Freibataillon Angelelli, im Trümbachschen Freikorps und im Regiment des Generals Friedrich Wilhelm Bauer, dessen Adjutant er wurde. Ausgezeichnet und verwundet, wurde er 1763 im Kürassierregiment "Vasold" zum Stabsrittmeister befördert.

Als Major wurde Günther am 9. Juni 1773 in den erblichen preußischen Adelsstand erhoben. Er nahm 1778/79 am Bayerischen Erbfolgekrieg teil, wurde Ende Mai 1783 Oberstleutnant und am 15. Oktober 1783 zum Kommandeur des Husarenregiments "von Hohenstock" ernannt. Seit 1785 Oberst, wurde Günther Mitte Januar 1788 durch König Friedrich Wilhelm II. zum Chef des Bosniakenregiments ernannt und Mitte Mai 1789 zum Generalmajor befördert. Anlässlich der Revue bei Heiligenbeil erhielt er am 2. Juni 1789 den Orden Pour le Mérite.

Nach 25 Friedensjahren glänzte Günther 1794 im Preußisch-Polnischen Krieg als "rascher und kühner Reitergeneral" vom Schlage Zietens. Die Angriffe von Antoni Madaliński auf Südpreußen wurden abgewehrt, die Aufständischen unter General Tadeusz Kościuszko vernichtend geschlagen. Der Niederlage folgte 1795 die Dritte Teilung Polens. Obwohl der organisatorisch begabte Günther erst der drittälteste General des Korps war, ernannte Friedrich Wilhelm ihn zum Befehlshaber aller auf dem linken Weichselufer stehenden Truppen. Mit dem russischen General Alexander Wassiljewitsch Suworow sollte er Warschau besetzen und als Herd des Aufstands ausschalten. Als Praga sich ohne sein Zutun Suworow ergeben hatte, kehrte er mit seinen Bosniaken in die Garnisonen zurück.

Als er von 1794 bis 1796 Militärgouverneur von Neuostpreußen war, wurde Günther Mitte Juli 1794 mit dem Großen Roten Adlerorden ausgezeichnet und im Jahr darauf zum 1795 Generalleutnant befördert. Zudem war er seit dem 17. Juli 1795 Drost von Friedeburg in Ostfriesland. Friedrich Wilhelm III. erhob ihn gleich nach seiner Thronbesteigung im November 1797 in den Freiherrnstand. 1799 entspann sich ein Briefwechsel zwischen Günther und dem späteren Bischof Ludwig Ernst von Borowski. Einige Briefe wurden 1836 in den Preußischen Provinzial-Blättern (Königsberg 1836) veröffentlicht. Unter Verleihung des Schwarzen Adlerordens wurde er am 3. Mai 1800 Generalinspekteur des Regiments und Bataillons "Towarczys".

Von seinem Gehalt nahm er für seine Person nur 300 Taler; das Übrige verwendete er zu Gunsten des Offizierkorps und der Armee. In seinen Wanderungen durch die Mark Brandenburg widmet Theodor Fontane Günther ein ganzes Kapitel.

Johann Heinrich Günther starb unverheiratet in Ausübung seines Dienstes am 22. April 1803. Seinem letzten Willen gemäß wurde er am 26. April 1803 auf dem deutschen Friedhof in Tycoczyn beigesetzt. 1840 wurden seine sterblichen Überreste nach Lyck überführt, wo ihm über dem Grab ein großes Denkmal gesetzt wurde.

Hermann von Boyen, Günthers Adjutant und Biograf, schrieb:

Literatur
 Hermann von Boyen: Erinnerungen aus dem Leben des Generallieutenant Freiherrn von Günther. Berlin 1834.
 Allgemeines Militärisches Almanach: Generallieutenant Freiherr von Günther und die Bosniaken, Tataren und Towarczys. Glogau 1838.
 Theodor Fontane: General von Günther. In: Unser Vaterland. I. Band, S. 224, und Wanderungen durch die Mark Brandenburg. I, S. 71.
 Rede über den verstorbenen Generallieutenant Freiherrn von Günther. In: Preussische Provinzial-Blätter, Band 13, S. 217 ff.

 Kurt von Priesdorff: Soldatisches Führertum. Band 2. Hanseatische Verlagsanstalt Hamburg, o. O. [Hamburg], o. J. [1937], S. 302–307, Nr. 791, .
 Johann David von Dziengel: Geschichte des Königlichen Zweiten Ulanen-Regiments. (Digitalisat).
 A. Grabe: Generalleutnant Freiherr von Günther. In: Altpreussische Monatsschrift, Band 28, S. 451 ff.;

Weblinks

 Theodor Fontane: General von Günther.

Einzelnachweise

General der Frühen Neuzeit (Brandenburg-Preußen)
Person im Kościuszko-Aufstand (Preußen)
Person im Siebenjährigen Krieg (Preußen)
Kavallerist (Brandenburg-Preußen)
Träger des Pour le Mérite (Militärorden)
Ritter des Schwarzen Adlerordens
Träger des Roten Adlerordens 1. Klasse
Freiherr
Nobilitierter (Preußen)
Person (Provinz Neuostpreußen)
Deutscher
Geboren 1736
Gestorben 1803
Mann

Johann Heinrich von Günther