Rosslyn Chapel, formerly known as the Collegiate Chapel of St Matthew, is a 15th-century chapel located in the village of Roslin, Midlothian, Scotland.

Rosslyn Chapel was founded on a small hill above Roslin Glen as a Catholic collegiate church (with between four and six ordained canons and two boy choristers) in the mid-15th century. The chapel was founded by William Sinclair, 1st Earl of Caithness of the Scoto-Norman Sinclair family. Rosslyn Chapel is the third Sinclair place of worship at Roslin, the first being in Roslin Castle and the second (whose crumbling buttresses can still be seen today) in what is now Roslin Cemetery.

Sinclair founded the college to celebrate the Divine Office throughout the day and night, and also to celebrate Masses for all the faithful departed, including the deceased members of the Sinclair family. During this period, the rich heritage of plainsong (a single melodic line) or polyphony (vocal harmony) were used to enrich the singing of the liturgy. Sinclair provided an endowment to pay for the support of the priests and choristers in perpetuity. The priests also had parochial responsibilities.

After the Scottish Reformation (1560), Catholic worship in the chapel was brought to an end. The Sinclair family continued to be Catholics until the early 18th century. Of note, while the  Sinclair (surname) has its origins in Scotland, it is actually a derivation of the French surname de Saint-Clair.

From the early 1700s to 1861, the chapel was closed to public worship. It was then reopened as a place of worship according to the rites of the Scottish Episcopal Church, a member church of the Anglican Communion.

The chapel was the target of a terrorist bombing in 1914, when a suffragette bomb exploded inside the building during the suffragette bombing and arson campaign.

Since the late 1980s, the chapel has been the subject of speculative theories concerning a connection with the Knights Templar and the Holy Grail, and Freemasonry. It was prominently featured in this role in Dan Brown's bestselling novel The Da Vinci Code (2003) and its 2006 film adaptation. Medieval historians say these accounts have no basis in fact.

Rosslyn Chapel remains privately owned. The current owner is Peter St Clair-Erskine, 7th Earl of Rosslyn.

Architecture

The original plans for Rosslyn have never been found or recorded, so it is open to speculation whether or not the chapel was intended to be built in its current layout. Its architecture is considered to be among the finest in Scotland.

Construction of the chapel began on 20 September 1456, although it has often been recorded as 1446. The confusion over the building date comes from the chapel's receiving its founding charter to build a collegiate chapel in 1446 from Rome. Sinclair did not start to build the chapel until he had built houses for his craftsmen.

Although the original building was to be cruciform, it was never completed. Only the choir was constructed, with the retro-chapel, otherwise called the Lady chapel, built on the much earlier crypt (Lower Chapel) believed to form part of an earlier castle. The foundations of the unbuilt nave and transepts stretching to a distance of 90 feet were recorded in the 19th century. The decorative carving was executed over a forty-year period. After the founder's death, construction of the planned nave and transepts was abandoned - either from lack of funds, lack of interest or a change in liturgical fashion.

The Lower Chapel (also known as the crypt or sacristy) should not be confused with the burial vaults that lie underneath Rosslyn Chapel.

The chapel stands on fourteen pillars, which form an arcade of twelve pointed arches on three sides of the nave. At the east end, a fourteenth pillar between the penultimate pair form a three-pillared division between the nave and the Lady chapel. The three pillars at the east end of the chapel are named, from north to south: the Master Pillar, the Journeyman Pillar and, most famously, the Apprentice Pillar. These names for the pillars date from the late Georgian period — prior to this period they were called the Earl's Pillar, the Shekinah and the Prince's Pillar.

Apprentice pillar

One of the more notable architectural features of the chapel is the "Apprentice Pillar, or "Prentice Pillar".  Originally called the "Prince's Pillar" (in the 1778 document An Account of the Chapel of Roslin) the name morphed over time due to a legend dating from the 18th century, involving the master mason in charge of the stonework in the chapel and his young apprentice mason. According to the legend, the master mason did not believe that the apprentice could perform the complicated task of carving the column without seeing the original which formed the inspiration for the design.

The master mason travelled to see the original himself, but upon his return was enraged to find that the upstart apprentice had completed the column by himself. In a fit of jealous anger, the master mason took his mallet and struck the apprentice on the head, killing him. The legend concludes that as punishment for his crime, the master mason's face was carved into the opposite corner to forever gaze upon his apprentice's pillar. There is, however, no evidence that any such murder took place.

On the architrave joining the pillar there is an inscription, Forte est vinum fortior est rex fortiores sunt mulieres super omnia vincit veritas: "Wine is strong, a king is stronger, women are stronger still, but truth conquers all" (1 Esdras, chapters 3 & 4).

The author Henning Klovekorn has proposed that the pillar is representative of one of the roots of the Nordic Yggdrasil tree, prominent in Germanic and Norse mythology. He compares the dragons at the base of the pillar to the dragons found eating away at the base of the Yggdrasil root and, pointing out that at the top of the pillar is carved tree foliage, argues that the Nordic/Viking association is plausible considering the many auxiliary references in the chapel to Celtic and Norse mythology.
The general form of the pillar has been related to a type described by the French architect Eugène Viollet-le-Duc as a "bunch of sausages."

A full-size plaster cast of the Apprentice Pillar and the adjacent bay of the chapel was made in 1871, and is in the Cast Courts of the Victoria and Albert Museum in London.

Carvings
Among Rosslyn's many intricate carvings are a sequence of 213 cubes or "boxes" protruding from pillars and arches with a selection of patterns on them. It is unknown if these patterns have any particular meaning attached to them. Many people have attempted to find information coded into them, but no interpretation has yet proven conclusive. Unfortunately, many of these 'boxes' are not original, having been replaced in the 19th century after erosion damage.

One recent attempt to make sense of the boxes has been to interpret them as a musical score. The motifs on the boxes somewhat resemble geometric patterns seen in the study of cymatics. The patterns are formed by placing powder upon a flat surface and vibrating the surface at different frequencies. By matching these Chladni patterns with musical notes corresponding to the same frequencies, the father-and-son team of Thomas and Stuart Mitchell produced a tune which Stuart calls the Rosslyn Motet.

There are more than 110 carvings of "Green Men" in and around the chapel. Green Men are carvings of human faces with greenery all around them, often growing out of their mouths. They are found in all areas of the chapel, with one example in the Lady chapel, between the two middle altars of the east wall.

Other carvings represent plants, including depictions of wheat, strawberries or lilies. The authors Robert Lomas and Christopher Knight have hypothesised that some carvings in the chapel represent ears of new world corn or maize, a plant which was unknown in Europe at the time of the chapel's construction. Knight and Lomas view these carvings as evidence supporting the idea that Henry I Sinclair, Earl of Orkney, travelled to the Americas well before Columbus. In their book they discuss meeting with the wife of botanist Adrian Dyer, and that Dyer's wife told him that Dyer agreed that the image thought to be maize was accurate. In fact, Dyer found only one identifiable plant among the botanical carvings and suggested that the "maize" and "aloe" were stylised wooden patterns, only coincidentally looking like real plants.

Crypt
The chapel has been a burial place for several generations of the Sinclairs; a crypt was once accessible from a descending stair at the rear of the chapel. This crypt has been sealed shut for many years, which may explain the recurrent legends that it is merely a front to a more extensive subterranean vault containing (variously) the mummified head of Jesus Christ, the Holy Grail, the treasure of the Templars, or the original crown jewels of Scotland.

In 1837, when the 2nd Earl of Rosslyn died, his wish was to be buried in the original vault. Exhaustive searches over the period of a week were made, but no entrance to the original vault was found and he was buried beside his wife in the Lady Chapel.

Rooftop pinnacle
The pinnacles on the rooftop have been subject to interest during renovation work in 2010. Nesting jackdaws had made the pinnacles unstable and as such had to be dismantled brick by brick revealing the existence of a chamber specifically made by the stonemasons to harbour bees. The hive, now abandoned, has been sent to local bee keepers to identify.

Burials
William Alexander (1690-1761) Lord Provost of Edinburgh, outside to north-east
Sir William Alexander (d.1842) outside, to north-east
Sheila Chisholm (1895–1969), Australian socialite and "it girl" in British high society during and after World War I, who was the mother of Anthony St Clair-Erskine, 6th Earl of Rosslyn
William Sinclair, 1st Earl of Caithness (in the choir)
James St Clair-Erskine, 3rd Earl of Rosslyn
James St Clair-Erskine, 2nd Earl of Rosslyn (in the Lady Chapel)
Lady Angela St Clair-Erskine, daughter of the 4th Earl.

1914 terrorist bombing

The chapel was the subject of a terrorist attack on 11 July 1914, when a bomb exploded inside the building. This was as part of the suffragette bombing and arson campaign of 1912–1914, in which suffragettes carried out a series of politically motivated bombing and arson attacks nationwide as part of their campaign for women's suffrage. Churches were a particular target during the campaign, as it was believed that the Church of England was complicit in reinforcing opposition to women's suffrage. Between 1913 and 1914, 32 churches were attacked nationwide. In the weeks leading up to the attack, there were also bombings at Westminster Abbey and St Paul's Cathedral.

Restoration, conservation and tourism

The chapel's altars were destroyed in 1592, and the chapel was abandoned, gradually falling into decay.

In 1842 the chapel, then in a ruined and overgrown state, was visited by Queen Victoria, who expressed a desire that it should be preserved. Restoration work was carried out in 1862 by David Bryce on behalf of James Alexander, 3rd Earl of Rosslyn. The chapel was rededicated on 22 April 1862, and from this time, Sunday services were once again held, now under the jurisdiction of the Scottish Episcopal Church, for the first time in 270 years.

The Rosslyn Chapel Trust was established in 1995, with the purpose of overseeing its conservation and its opening as a sightseeing destination. The chapel underwent an extensive programme of conservation between 1997 and 2013. This included work to the roof, the stone, the carvings, the stained glass and the organ. A steel canopy was erected over the chapel roof for fourteen years. This was to prevent further rain damage to the church and also to give it a chance to dry out properly. Three human skeletons were found during the restoration. Major stonework repairs were completed by the end of 2011. The last major scaffolding was removed in August 2010.

A new visitor centre opened in July 2011. The chapel's stained-glass windows and organ were fully restored. New lighting and heating were installed. The expected cost of the restoration work is around £13 million, with about £3.7 million being spent on the Visitor Centre.  Funding has come from various sources including Heritage Lottery Fund, Historic Scotland and the environmental body, WREN.  Actor Tom Hanks also made a donation.

Photography and video have been forbidden in the chapel since 2008. The chapel sells commercially produced photos in its shop. In 2006, historian Louise Yeoman criticised the Rosslyn Chapel trust for "cashing in" on the popularity of The Da Vinci Code, against better knowledge.

In the financial year of 2013–14, Rosslyn Chapel recorded 144,823 visitors, the highest number since 2007–08, when (at the height of popular interest induced by The Da Vinci Code), the number of visitors was close to 159,000.

In popular culture

Templar and Masonic connections
The chapel became the subject of speculation regarding its supposed connection with the Knights Templar or Freemasonry beginning in the 1980s. This part of its history was referenced in the DC Comics storyline Batman: Scottish Connection, in which the hero Batman becomes caught up in an old vendetta between two Scottish clans during a visit to Scotland, this mystery including the discovery of an ancient treasure trove hidden in Rosslyn.

The topic entered mainstream pop culture with Dan Brown's The Da Vinci Code (2003), reinforced by the subsequent film of the same name (2006),
Numerous books were published after 2003 to cater to the popular interest in supposed connections between Rosslyn Chapel, Freemasonry, the Templars and the Holy Grail generated by Brown's novel.

The chapel, built 150 years after the dissolution of the Knights Templar, supposedly has many Templar symbols, such as the "Two riders on a single horse" that appear on the Knights Templar Seal.
William Sinclair 3rd Earl of Orkney, Baron of Roslin and 1st Earl of Caithness, claimed by novelists to be a hereditary Grand Master of the Scottish stonemasons, built Rosslyn Chapel. A later William Sinclair of Roslin became the first Grand Master of the Grand Lodge of Scotland and, subsequently, several other members of the Sinclair family have held this position.

Robert L. D. Cooper, curator of the Grand Lodge of Scotland Museum and Library, in 2003 published a 12th edition of the 1892 Illustrated Guide to Rosslyn Chapel with the intention of countering the "nonsense published about Rosslyn Chapel over the last 15 years or so". Cooper in 2006 also published Rosslyn Hoax? in which he actively debunks this type of speculation at length and in great detail. An example is the comparison of the Rosslyn myth of the Apprentice Pillar with that of the allegorical references to Hiram Abiff in Masonic ritual, and in the process he debunks any similarities between the two. A minute comparison between the Rosslyn Myth and the Masonic allegory can be found in a detailed tabular form in The Rosslyn Hoax?

Cooper further debunks other claims of a connection between carvings within Rosslyn Chapel and Scottish Freemasonry. The suggestion that the Apprentice Pillar is a physical reference to the Entered Apprentice degree of Scottish Freemasonry logically led to the conclusion that the other two pillars (in line south to north with the so-called Apprentice Pillar) represented the Fellow of Craft degree (middle pillar) and the Master Mason's degree (north pillar). This association of three pillars in the east part of Rosslyn Chapel with the three degrees of Scottish Freemasonry is impossible, given the fact that (according to Cooper) the third degree of Freemasonry was invented c.1720 - almost 300 years after Rosslyn Chapel was founded.

The claim that the layout of Rosslyn Chapel echoes that of Solomon's Temple has been analysed by Mark Oxbrow and Ian Robertson in their book, Rosslyn and the Grail:
Rosslyn Chapel bears no more resemblance to Solomon's or Herod's Temple than a house brick does to a paperback book. If you superimpose the floor plans of Rosslyn Chapel and either Solomon's or Herod's Temple, you will actually find that they are not even remotely similar. Writers admit that the chapel is far smaller than either of the temples. They freely scale the plans up or down in an attempt to fit them together. What they actually find are no significant similarities at all. [...] If you superimpose the floor plans of Rosslyn Chapel and the East Quire of Glasgow Cathedral you will find a startling match: the four walls of both buildings fit precisely. The East Quire of Glasgow is larger than Rosslyn, but the designs of these two medieval Scottish buildings are virtually identical. They both have the same number of windows and the same number of pillars in the same configuration. [...] The similarity between Rosslyn Chapel and Glasgow's East Quire is well established. Andrew Kemp noted that 'the entire plan of this Chapel corresponds to a large extent with the choir of Glasgow Cathedral' as far back as 1877 in the Proceedings of the Society of Antiquaries. Many alternative history writers are well aware of this but fail to mention it in their books.

As to a possible connection between the St. Clairs and the Knights Templar, the family testified against the Templars when that Order was put on trial in Edinburgh in 1309. Historian Dr. Louise Yeoman, along with other medieval scholars, says the Knights Templar connection is false, and points out that Rosslyn Chapel was built by William Sinclair so that Mass could be said for the souls of his family.

It is also claimed that other carvings in the chapel reflect Masonic imagery, such as the way that hands are placed in various figures. One carving may show a blindfolded man being led forward with a noose around his neck. The carving has been eroded by time and pollution and is difficult to make out clearly. The chapel was built in the 15th century, and the earliest records of freemasonic lodges date back only to the late 16th and early 17th centuries. A more likely explanation, however, is that the Masonic imagery was added at a later date. This may have taken place in the 1860s when James St Clair-Erskine, 3rd Earl of Rosslyn instructed Edinburgh architect David Bryce, a known Freemason, to undertake restoration work on areas of the church including many of the carvings.

Alternative histories
Alternative histories involving Rosslyn Chapel and the Sinclairs have been published by Andrew Sinclair and Tim Wallace-Murphy arguing links with the Knights Templar and the supposed descendants of Jesus Christ. The books in particular by Tim Wallace-Murphy and Marilyn Hopkins Rex Deus: The True Mystery of Rennes-le-Château and the Dynasty of Jesus (2000) and Custodians of Truth: The Continuance of Rex Deus (2005) have focused on the hypothetical Jesus bloodline with the Sinclairs and Rosslyn Chapel.

On the ABC documentary Jesus, Mary and Da Vinci, aired on 3 November 2003, Niven Sinclair hinted that the descendants of Jesus Christ existed within the Sinclair families.  These alternative histories are relatively modern - not dating back before the early 1990s. The precursor to these Rosslyn theories is the 1982 book The Holy Blood and the Holy Grail (retitled Holy Blood, Holy Grail in the United States) by Michael Baigent, Richard Leigh and Henry Lincoln that introduced the theory of the Jesus bloodline in relation to the Priory of Sion hoax - the main protagonist of which was Pierre Plantard, who for a time adopted the name Pierre Plantard de Saint-Clair.

See also

Castle of Mey
Clan Sinclair
Earl of Caithness
List of Category A listed buildings in Midlothian
Sinclair (surname)
Sinclair & Girnigoe Castle
Roslin Castle

References

Further reading
  Cooper, Robert L. D. The Rosslyn Hoax?. Lewis Masonic. 2006. .
  Forbes, Robert An Account of the Chapel of Roslin. (reprint ed.  Cooper, Robert L. D., Grand Lodge of Scotland, 2000. ).
  Hay, Richard Augustin, Genealogie of the Sainteclaires of Rosslyn. 1835 (reprint ed.  Robert L. D. Cooper, Grand Lodge of Scotland. 2002. ).
 Thompson, John, The Illustrated Guide to Rosslyn Chapel and Castle, Hawthornden &c., 1st ed. 1892 (12th edition, Robert L. D.  Cooper (ed.), Masonic Publishing Co. 2003. ).
 Peter St Clair-Erskine, 7th Earl of Rosslyn, Rosslyn Chapel, Rosslyn Chapel Trust, 1997.

External links

Official Rosslyn Chapel website
Congregation website
Rosslyn Chapel's extraordinary carvings explained at last — an article on Rosslyn's Green Men, and an associated reading of its carvings, from The Scotsman
QuickTime Virtual Reality Image of Rosslyn Chapel by Jonathan Greet, View 2
"The Rosslyn Templar", a book about the pastel painting by R T McPherson in 1836 of a "Templar Knight at Roslin Chapel" with new photographs of the Chapel

15th-century church buildings in Scotland
1446 establishments in Scotland
Category A listed buildings in Midlothian
Chapels in Scotland
Churches in Midlothian
Collegiate churches in Scotland
Listed churches in Scotland
Pre-Columbian trans-oceanic contact
Scheduled Ancient Monuments in Midlothian
Freemasonry in Scotland
Scottish Episcopal Church
Episcopal church buildings in Scotland
Clan Sinclair

Rosslyn Chapel


Calochlaena, rod papratnica iz porodice diksonijevki. Pripada mu pet vrsta rširenih od Filipina i Jave do Australije i Samoe

Vrste
 Calochlaena dubia (R.Br.) M.D.Turner & R.A.White
 Calochlaena javanica (Blume) M.D.Turner & R.A.White
 Calochlaena novae-guineae (Rosenst.) M.D.Turner & R.A.White
 Calochlaena straminea (Labill.) M.D.Turner & R.A.White
 Calochlaena villosa (C.Chr.) M.D.Turner & R.A.White

Izvori

Diksonijevke

Calochlaena


Mercedes-Benz W02 este un automobil de dimensiuni medii și motor de doi litri, cu 6 cilindri, lansat de Daimler-Benz la "Salonul Auto" de la Berlin, în octombrie 1926. Acesta a fost proiectat în grabă, sub conducerea directorului tehnic Ferdinand Porsche, în paralel cu Mercedes-Benz W01, un autoturism de dimensiuni ceva mai reduse (care nu a depășit niciodată stadiul de prototip) și Mercedes-Benz W03, o mașină mai mare, cu motor de trei litri, chiar după dupa crearea oficială a Daimler-Benz, în iulie 1926, prin fuziunea dintre cei doi coloși ai producției de autoturisme,  Daimler și Benz & Cie.

Modelele pentru anul 1926 ale noii companii nu au fost caracterizate de excesul de sofisticare tehnică, ci au provenit dintr-o companie cu reputație îndelungată în ceea ce privește calitatea: problemele grave de frânare ale seriilor anterioare  au reprezentat conflictul dintre președintele Daimler-Benz, Wilhelm Kissel, și directorul tehnic responsabil pentru noile modele: contractul de muncă al lui Porsche nu a fost reînnoit după 1928, ceea ce a condus la un aspru proces de litigiu.

Convenția denumirilor
Producătorul a aplicat convențiile de denumire specifice germane, folosite la scară largă în vremea respectivă. La modelul Mercedes-Benz 8/38 PS, cifra "8" definea puterea mașinii calculată de autoritățile fiscale, utilizată pentru a determina nivelul impozitului anual pe autovehicule care se impunea proprietarilor de autoturisme, iar "38" marchează  pretențiile producătorului cu privire la puterea reală a autovehiculului, așa cum este ea definită de sistemul de măsurare -  puterea metrică (PS, cv, hk, pk, ks, ch). Sub aspect fiscal, în Germania, caii putere, așa cum erau definiți de statutul din 1906, se bazau pe dimensiunile cilindrilor motorului.
Spre deosebire de celelalte sisteme, folosite în oricare altă parte a Europei, sistemul german de calculare a puterii motorului includea atât diametrul cilindilor, cât și lungimea cursei pistoanelor, astfel că exista o relație directă între capacitatea unui motor și taxele impuse de autoritățile fiscale proprietarului automobilului.

Modelul a fost relansat efectiv în 1929 și, deși nu au existat multe modificări pe hârtie, mașina era acum mai modernă și stilată, datorită atenției lui Hans Nibel, care din ianuarie 1929, este numit ca nou  director tehnic și primește responsabilitatea dezvoltării  seriei curente.  Relansarea vine și cu un nume nou, iar mașina este vândută1 ca Mercedes-Benz Tip Stuttgart 200.

În retrospectivă, automobilele sunt adesea cunoscute după numărul de serie dat de companie, cum ar fi Mercedes-Benz W02, deoarece acest lucru minimizează riscul de confuzie cu alte modele Mercedes-Benz cu nume similare, Mercedes-Benz Typ 200.

Mercedes-Benz Typ 8/38 PS (1926–1928)
Pentru această serie, clienții puteau achiziționa separat șasiul gol, în cazul în care aceștia doreau să cumpere o caroserie de la un constructor de automobile independent. Caroseriile standard ale producătorului variau de la un "Tourenwagen" cu caroserie tip Torpedo, iar gama includea chiar și caroserii cu 2 sau cu 4 uși "Limousine" (sedan / saloon). Caroseriile proiectate inițial de producător includeau și două tipuri diferite de Cabriolet Mercedez-Benz.

Motorul cu valve cu supape laterale și șase cilindri, la o capacitate de 1.988 cc, dezvolta o putere maximă de  la 3.400 rpm, care era transpusă într-o viteză maximă de 75 km / h (47 mph). Transmisia era una manuală, în trei trepte, cu tracțiunea pe roțile din spate, care au fost fixate pe o axă rigidă suspendată de arcuri lamelare eliptice. Sistemul de frânare acționa pe toate cele patru roți, fiind controlat mecanic, prin intermediul etreierelor.

Începând cu anul 1927, era disponibilă și o versiune dubiță de transport, de dimensiuni reduse, cunoscută ca Mercedes-Benz Lieferwagen Typ L 3/4, destinată fie transportului de marfă, fie ca microbuz cu zece locuri.

Strategia de stabilire a prețurilor utilizată de producător în primii ani de după lansarea seriei nu a fost una tocmai potrivită pieței. Inițial, prețurile aveau valori mult prea mari, iar când au fost reduse cu sume între 500 și 1 000 de mărci, aceasta a dat naștere unui zvon conform căruia modelul avea să fie înlocuit, iar mașinile existente erau evaluate ca modele "run-out". Aceasta a fost douar o parte din motivul conflictelor din cadrul consiliului  direcgtorul al producătorului, care au culminat cu plecarea directorului tehnic Porsche, la sfârșitul anului 1928.

Mercedes-Benz 8/38 PS Typ Stuttgart 200 (1929–1933)
Mașina a fost  relansată sub numele de "Mercedes-Benz Tip Stuttgart 200", păstrând motorul de 1,988 cc cu armătură laterală lansat în anul precedent. Puterea maximă revendicată a rămas, de asemenea, neschimbată la . Chiar și așa, acest nivel de putere putea fi acum atins la o turație ușor redusă, de numai 3200 rpm. Raportul de compresie a crescut substanțial, de la 5:1 la 6.2:1, iar carburatorul "Zenith 30 HKG"  a fost înlocuit cu un "Solex 30 MOHLT" (deși, aparent diametrul acestuia este neschimbat).

La fel ca înainte, transmisia cu trei trepte era disponibilă ca dotare standard, dar acum clienții puteau opta și pentru o transmisie manuală în patru trepte. Raportul inferior a rămas neschimbat pentru ambele transmisii, iar cea de-a patra treaptă, în cazul celei cu patru viteze, ajungea la un raport de compresie de 1: 0,76. Impactul produs de combinația acestor schimbări ale motorului și transmisiei, permite producătorului să mărească viteza maximă listată la 80 km / h (50 mph), deși în acest moment viteza maximă reală ar fi depins de un număr de variabile, inclusive de tipul caroseriei alese.

În cazul seriei Typ 200, dispar versiunile "dubiță de transport" și limuzină cu 2 uși, iar limuzina cu patru uși, cotată la un preț cu doar 80 de mărci mai mare decât prețul de pornire al modelului "Tourenwagen" cu caroserie tip Torpedo se regăsește și în această gamă.

Anul 1929 aduce lansarea seriei Mercedes-Benz W11, ale cărei modele erau, practic, identice cu cele anterioare, cu deosebirea că acestea erau dotate cu un motor mai mare și o paletă de caroserii mult mai largă.

Între anii 1927 și 1931, modelul "8/38 PS / Typ Stuttgart 200" și modelul "Stuttgart 260", o versiune ceva mai puternică, dar foarte asemănătoare, au fost reprezentanții de top ai gamei Mercedes-Benz. Perioada a fost una deosebit de dificilă pentru industria auto din Germania, vânzările de autoturisme suferind scăderi drastice. Cele 4.788 de automobile asamblate în 1927 au reprezentat 61% din producția marelui producător.  Cifrele corespunzătoare pentru următorii cinci ani (cu excepția versiunilor de dubiță și a automobilelor militare) sunt:
1928: 3 938 exemplare / 63%
1929: 5 640 exemplare / 56%
1930: 4 453 exemplare /  69%
1931: 2 320 exemplare / 70%
1932: 885 exemplare / 15%

(1932 aduce lansarea modelului W15, un concept cu totul nou și de dimensiuni mult mai reduse)

Producția automobilelor Mercedes Benz "8/38 PS / W02" cu motoare de 1,988 cc a luat sfârșit în 1933, timp în care au fost produse 16, 956 de exemplare. (Dacă am include în cifra de producție și seria W11, automobile mult mai puternice, totalul depășește lejer 20.000.) Modelul W21, care vine ca un înlocuitor al seriei W02, a fost lansat în 1933, anul în care perspectivele  industriei producătoare de automobile erau ceva mai puțin sumbre, cel puțin pe termen scurt.

Aceste statistici nu includ versiunile "Kübelwagen" (cvasi-Jeep) ale modelului, care au continuat să fie produse până în 1936.

Referințe
 Werner Oswald: Mercedes-Benz Personenwagen 1886–1986. 4. Auflage. Motorbuch Verlag Stuttgart (1987). , S. 46–47
 Halwart Schrader: Deutsche Autos 1885–1920. Motorbuch Verlag Stuttgart (2002). , S. 67

Legături externe

Vehicule Mercedes-Benz

Mercedes-Benz W02


WNNX (100.5 FM) is a commercial radio station licensed to College Park, Georgia, featuring a classic alternative format as "99X". Owned by Cumulus Media, the station serves the Atlanta metropolitan area. WNNX's studios are located in Sandy Springs, while the transmitter resides atop the Westin Peachtree Plaza Hotel in Downtown Atlanta. In addition to a standard analog transmission, WNNX is available online.

History

Moving from Alabama
The 100.5 frequency has been in metro Atlanta, licensed to College Park, since early 2001. Before then, the station was licensed to Anniston, Alabama, as WHMA-FM.  It started out as a simulcast of WHMA (1400 AM).  WHMA-AM-FM were network affiliates of ABC.  In the 1970s, WHMA-FM began airing its own country music format as "Alabama 100." (After the move, that call sign shifted to another existing station in Alabama, becoming 95.3 WHMA-FM "The Big 95" in Alexandria.)

Interested in moving the station to the more lucrative Atlanta radio market, owner Robert Gammon proposed that WHMA-FM be re-licensed to Sandy Springs.  It would remain at 100,000 watts effective radiated power (ERP) as a Class C station. An agreement had already been made with the nearest co-channel station, WSSL-FM in upstate South Carolina for it to move its transmitter a bit further from Atlanta.  However that station was sold to Clear Channel Communications in the interim and the agreement was negated. Additionally, the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) ruled that Sandy Springs was "not a community", citing its unincorporated status and letters of support from local organizations in Sandy Springs that had "Atlanta" as their addresses.  At that time, Sandy Springs was part of unincorporated Fulton County, before it became an incorporated city in 2006.

After exhausting his funds in pursuit of the reallocation, Gammon sold WHMA-FM to Susquehanna Radio. In a revised application before the FCC, Susquehanna proposed a different city of license, College Park. The FCC approved the application, mostly because the new application downgraded the class of the station from C (up to 100 kW at 600 meters or 1,968 feet) to C3 (up to 25 kW at 100 meters or 328 feet) to protect the licensed broadcast range of WSSL-FM.  Susquehanna was also forced to slightly null the station's signal away from the direction of WSSL-FM, to stay in compliance with spacing rules. When it went on the air in Atlanta, the station had an effective radiated power of 3,000 watts, using the Turner Broadcasting tower, which gave it a height above average terrain (HAAT) of less than 1,000 feet.

The move created spectrum space for two new radio stations in Alabama, but forced two low-power stations off the air: Southern Polytechnic State University low-power station WGHR and Georgia Public Broadcasting FM translator W264AE, both on 100.7 MHz.

Q100 (2001-2008)

The first format for 100.5 FM in Atlanta was Top 40 station WWWQ ("Q100"), which made its debut on January 23, 2001.  It was the first mainstream Top 40 outlet in Atlanta since WAPW flipped to alternative as WNNX in October 1992, as well as a brief stint on WBTS when it debuted in 1999. Despite its 3,000 watt signal, Q100 often received higher Arbitron listenership ratings than several of its 100,000-watt competitors, including sister station 99X.

Susquehanna continued to pursue a larger signal for the station, eventually earning approval from the FCC to go from Class C3 to Class C2. The upgrade occurred on October 24, 2005 at 5:00 PM, when the station moved from the Turner Broadcasting tower to the Westin Peachtree Plaza Hotel.  WWWQ was now powered at 12,500 watts, using a tower that better covered the Atlanta market.  In 2006, Cumulus Media acquired Susquehanna, including both 99X and Q100.

Rock 100.5 (2008-2022)

On January 11, 2008, Cumulus announced that Q100 would move to the 100,000-watt signal at 99.7 MHz, replacing "99X", on January 25. The transition began on January 21, when WWWQ's "The Bert Show" was simulcast on both stations.  (99X's morning show was cancelled the week before.)  99X signed off on 99.7 FM/HD1 and moved to 99.7-HD2, with Q100 moving to 99.7 FM/HD1, at 5:30 a.m. on January 25. On the same day, at 6 a.m., 100.5 began stunting, first with Beyoncé Knowles singing "To the Left" (from her song "Irreplaceable") and morning show host Bert Weiss redirecting listeners to the new frequency. At 10 a.m., the stunting then switched to a loop where eight different formats were presented, with listeners having the option to call the station and vote on which was their favorite. On January 28, 2008, at 5:45 a.m., The Regular Guys announced the debut of "Rock 100.5", carrying a radio format similar to their previous station WKLS (formerly "96 Rock"), which itself changed formats to active rock as "Project 9-6-1". Rock 100.5's first song was "Baba O' Riley" by The Who. WWWQ and WNNX swapped call signs the following day.

In 2010, WNNX became the FM flagship radio station of the Atlanta Braves for that season through 2013, along with WCNN, which continues carrying the team's games to this day. The rights were moved to then-sister station WYAY starting with the 2014 season. After WYAY was sold to the Educational Media Foundation in 2019, WNNX resumed carrying Braves broadcasts. In 2022, WNNX once again dropped their Braves affiliation.

Throughout the station's existence, WNNX has shifted among different genres of rock. When "Rock 100.5" first launched, the station aired a predominantly album-oriented rock format. In April 2009, the station began leaning towards adult album alternative. In 2010, the station shifted back to its broad-based AOR format, which lasted until late 2011, when the station shifted towards classic rock. Ratings for the station at that time were shaky, as the station usually pulled between a 1.5 and 2 share.

WNNX returned to a mainstream rock direction in 2012, following the flips of WKLS from active rock to Top 40/CHR and WZGC from adult album alternative to sports in the Fall of that year.

Merger with "98-9 The Bone"
On January 28, 2013, WNNX and sister station W255CJ ("98-9 The Bone") began promoting changes to the two stations on their Facebook and Twitter pages, promoting a "bigger and better change" to come starting February 1. There were rumors that Cumulus' Atlanta management was planning a merger of the two formats on one frequency, presumably on 100.5.

The official change took place on that Friday, February 1, at Midnight, when 98.9 and 100.5 began simulcasting. At 10 AM, the official relaunch took place, as WNNX shifted to active rock.  The first song after the relaunch was "Chalk Outline" by Three Days Grace.  The simulcast lasted until February 4 at Noon, when 98.9 flipped to a new format, Christian country, under the name "The Walk."

"Atlanta's Classic Rock"
After broadcasting an active rock format for barely a year, the station shifted back to classic rock on January 3, 2014, now competing with Cox Media Group's WSRV.  WNNX's playlist was similar to what it was in 2012, prior to its shift to active rock.

"Atlanta's Rock Station"
The station's next format adjustment began in mid-2016 with a slogan tweak to "Atlanta's Rock Station." No personnel changes were made, and the music was slightly updated to focusing more on chart topping rock hits between the 1980s, 1990s, and recurrent releases, including the grunge era of rock played more. This format direction helped increase the station's ratings. On August 30, 2019, WNNX shifted back to an active rock lean in their mainstream rock format.

99X on 100.5 (2022-present)
On December 1, 2022, WNNX dropped Elliot in the Morning after eight months. The next day, at 5 p.m., after playing "Enter Sandman" by Metallica, WNNX dropped the rock format and began stunting with a loop of "Bitter Sweet Symphony" by The Verve, with sweepers stating "It's coming, same as it ever was. Monday morning, 6 a.m." The stunt was likely an allusion to the anniversary of a stunt pulled by former 99X DJ Sean Demery in October 1997, when he garnered local attention after playing the song in a similar loop shortly after its release. At the promised time, WNNX flipped to classic alternative as "99X", marking the return of the 99X brand to a full powered signal for the first time since 2008. The first song on the revived "99X" was "Video Killed the Radio Star" by The Buggles, the same song that had launched the original incarnation 30 years prior. A letter on the station's website and Twitter page declared that the station's full-staffed launch had been set for January 3, 2023, effectively making the interim period a soft launch of the format; while there had been no official confirmation from Cumulus or the station at the time of launch, it is expected the station will hire several, if not a major amount, of the original station staffers for the station's new incarnation.

References

External links

Alternative rock radio stations in the United States
NNX
Radio stations established in 2001
2001 establishments in Georgia (U.S. state)
Cumulus Media radio stations

WNNX


Kuća Vučetić, kuća u Hvaru, zaštićeno kulturno dobro.

Opis dobra
Gotička dvokatnica izgrađena je u XV. stoljeću. Smještena je na zapadnom obodu bloka u središnjem dijelu Burga. Jedino je zapadno pročelje otvoreno prema glavnoj ulici predjela. Tlocrt kuće je pravokutan, zaključena je dvovodnim krovom. Zapadno pročelje se ističe kvalitetnom gotičkom arhitektonskom dekoracijom.

Zaštita
Pod oznakom Z-6889 zavedena je kao nepokretno kulturno dobro - pojedinačno, pravna statusa zaštićena kulturnog dobra, klasificirano kao "profana graditeljska baština".

Izvori

Zaštićene stambene građevine u Splitsko-dalmatinskoj županiji
Građevine u Hvaru

Kuća Vučetić u Hvaru, ul. kroz Burak 47


An Anthurium tremulum in uska species han Liliopsida nga ginhulagway ni Luis Aloysius, Luigi Sodiro. An Anthurium tremulum in nahilalakip ha genus nga Anthurium, ngan familia nga Araceae. Ginklasipika han IUCN an species komo diri gud kababarak-an. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Anthurium

Anthurium tremulum


No Life 'Til Leather, Amerikalı thrash metal grubu Metallica'nın uzun süre elden ele dolaşan, solo gitarlarda Dave Mustaine'nin olduğu ilk demosu. Albüm, adını "Hit The Lights" şarkısının ilk sözünden almıştır. Bu albümdeki şarkılar sonradan Kill 'Em All albümünde tekrar işlenmiştir. Fakat "The Mechanix" şarkısının ismi değişerek "The Four Horsemen" olmuştur.

Albümdeki Şarkılar
 Hit the Lights (Hetfield, Ulrich) - 4.19
 The Mechanix (Hetfield, Ulrich, Mustaine) - 4.28
 Motorbreath (Hetfield) - 3.18
 Seek & Destroy (Hetfield, Ulrich) - 4.55
 Metal Militia (Hetfield, Ulrich, Mustaine) - 5.17
 Jump in the Fire (Hetfield, Ulrich, Mustaine) - 3.51
 Phantom Lord (Hetfield, Ulrich, Mustaine) - 3.33

Grup Üyeleri
 James Hetfield - Vokal, Ritim Gitar
 Lars Ulrich - Bateri, Perkisyon
 Ron McGovney - Bas
 Dave Mustaine - Gitar (beste)

Dış bağlantılar
 Resmi websitesi
 Albümdeki şarkı sözleri

1982 albümleri
Metallica albümleri

No Life 'Til Leather


An Amphibolis griffithii in uska species han Liliopsida nga syahan ginhulagway ni John McConnell Black, ngan ginhatag han pagkayana nga asya nga ngaran ni Cornelis den Hartog. An Amphibolis griffithii in nahilalakip ha genus nga Amphibolis, ngan familia nga Cymodoceaceae. Ginklasipika han IUCN an species komo diri gud kababarak-an. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Amphibolis

Amphibolis griffithii


Der Lassingrechen war ein Treibgutrechen bei der Ortschaft Fachwerk in der Gemeinde Wildalpen im Bezirk Liezen in der Steiermark.

Beschreibung
Im späteren 17. Jahrhundert wurde von der Innerberger Hauptgewerkschaft der Holzeinschlag zum Lassingbach und die Holzflößerei begonnen, und zu diesem Zweck ein großer Holzrechen oberhalb von Fachwerk errichtet. Dieser Rechen war mit 250 m Länge als Sackrechen parallel zum Bachbett errichtet. Über eine 700 m lange Wasserriese konnte das Holz nach Fachwerk getreidelt werden. Dort errichtete man Köhlereien, als Ländkohlenanlage (Köhlerei am Triftplatz), womit die Ansiedlung Fachwerk entstand. Anfangs auch für den Erzabbau am Arzberg (einen Vorberg des Eibl–Hochschlag-Rückens) gedacht, der aber bald wieder aufgelassen wurde, somit brachte man die Holzkohle per Wagen zum Erzberg nach Eisenerz, dem historischen Innerberg.

Daneben konnte man, weil der Rechen auch als Schwellrechen konstruiert war, man also Wasser inklusive Treibgut in den Flusslauf ablassen konnte, das Holz weiter zum großen Rechen in Großreifling an der Salzamündung in die Enns zum Großreiflinger Rechen weiterflößen.

Der Lassingrechen war von den Holztriftanlagen im Salzagebiet am längsten in Betrieb, wurde aber mit dem Aufkommen der Steinkohle im 19. Jahrhundert – einschließlich der Holzköhlerei – unrentabel und aufgegeben.

Beim Hochwasser 1899 wurde die Rechenanlage endgültig zerstört, Reste sind noch zu sehen.

Literatur
 Adolf Grabner: Der Lassingrechen in Fachwerk bei Wildalpen.

Einzelnachweise

Bauwerk in Wildalpen
Wasserbauwerk in der Steiermark
Ruine in Österreich
Flößerei
Österreichische Wirtschaftsgeschichte
Land- und Forstwirtschaft (Österreich)
Wirtschaftsgeschichte (Steiermark)

Lassingrechen


L' (également appelé ) est un plat typique bolivien et péruvien.

Variantes

Bolivie
En Bolivie, l (du quechua ) est préparé en ouvrant le fruit et en le farcissant d'oignons, de pommes de terre, d'œufs et de viande de bœuf, principalement. Il est frit après que l a été enrobé de farine et d'œuf. Il peut également être consommé dans un piment.

Pérou
Au Pérou, le  (du quechua qaywa) est généralement servi avec du riz blanc. En plus de la viande et de l'oignon, la farce comprend généralement des cacahuètes et des olives. Contrairement à la version bolivienne, les  péruviens ne sont pas farinés avant d'être frits.

Elles étaient autrefois appelées  en raison du mélange de bœuf ou de porc haché, ou de thon en conserve, d'olives, de raisins secs, d'un œuf dur haché et de pain trempé, de sorte que dans la cuisine péruvienne, les boulettes de viande ne sont pas servies sous une forme sphérique mais comme une garniture végétale.

Notes et références

Cuisine bolivienne
Cuisine péruvienne
Spécialité à base de pommes de terre
Spécialité à base de viande bovine

Achojcha rellena


تي أم دي أس  هي تكنولوجيا مصممة لنقل بيانا فائقة السرعة لواجهة الفيديو الرقمي (Digital Visual Interface) وأتش دي أم أي (High-Definition Multimedia Interface) وغيرها, واستبدلت محول الرقمي التماثلي بذاكرة وصول عشوائي ومنظومة عرض مرئي.

مراجع

تراميز الخط
معايير
وصلات العرض الرقمية

تي أم دي أس


غونار زاور  (من مواليد 11 يونيو، 1964) لاعب كرة قدم ألماني سابق يلعب بخط الدفاع، وقضى معظم مسيرته الرياضية مع نادي فيردر بريمن.

وقد شارك مع منتخب ألمانيا الغربية لكرة القدم في كأس الأمم الأوروبية سنة 1988 ولكنه كان على مقاعد الاحتياط ولم يلعب أي مباراة كلاعب أساسي في التشكيلة.

الانجازات

 الدوري الألماني: 1988, 1993
 كأس ألمانيا: 1991, 1994; الوصيف: 1989, 1990

روابط خارجية

مصادر

 Career stats at fussballdaten.de

أشخاص على قيد الحياة
أشخاص من كوكسهافن
حاصلون على ميداليات أولمبية في كرة القدم
حائزون على ميداليات في الألعاب الأولمبية الصيفية 1988
فائزون بميداليات برونزية أولمبية من ألمانيا الغربية
لاعبو الدوري الألماني
لاعبو الدوري الألماني الدرجة الثانية
لاعبو أولدنبورغ
لاعبو بطولة أمم أوروبا 1988
لاعبو فيردر بريمن
لاعبو فيردر بريمن 2
لاعبو كرة قدم ألمان
لاعبو كرة قدم ألمانيون غربيون
لاعبو كرة قدم أولمبيون من ألمانيا الغربية
لاعبو كرة قدم رجالية ألمانيون
لاعبو كرة قدم رجالية ألمانيون غربيون
لاعبو كرة قدم في الألعاب الأولمبية الصيفية 1988
لاعبو كرة قدم من سكسونيا السفلى
لاعبو لوكوموتيف لايبزيغ
لاعبو منتخب ألمانيا تحت 21 سنة لكرة القدم
لاعبو هرتا برلين
مدافعو كرة قدم رجالية
مواليد 1964
مواليد في كوكسهافن

غونار زاور


أيزو 9241 هو نظام مواصفات صادر عن المنظمة الدولية للمعايير فيما يخص المواضيع المتعلقة بتعامل الأشخاص مع الحاسوب.

يقسم هذا المعيار إلى 17 قسماً تتضمن التالي:

 القسم الأول: مقدمة عامة
 القسم الثاني: دليل حول متطلبات المهمة
 القسم الثالث: متطلبات العرض البصري
 القسم الرابع: متطلبات لوحة المفاتيح
 القسم الخامس: Workstation layout and postural requirements
 القسم السادس: دليل حول بيئة العمل
 القسم السابع: المتطلبات حول شاشات العرض ذات الانعكاس
 القسم الثامن: المتطلبات حول ألوان شاشات العرض
 القسم التاسع: المتطلبات حول أجهزة الإدخال التي لا تحوي لوحة مفاتيح
 القسم العاشر: مبادئ مربعات الحوار
 القسم الحادي عشر: دليل حول الاستعمالية
 القسم الثاني عشر: عرض المعلومات
 القسم الثالث عشر: دليل المستخدم
 القسم الرابع عشر: مربعات حوار القوائم
 القسم الخامس عشر: مربعات حوار الأوامر
 القسم السادس عشر: مربعات حوار Direct manipulation
 القسم السابع عشر: مربعات حوار Form filling

اقرأ أيضًا

 اختبار قابلية الاستخدام

مراجع

معايير الأيزو

أيزو 9241


was a town located in Nakatado District, Kagawa Prefecture, Japan.

As of 2003, the town had an estimated population of 3,056 and a density of 36.91 persons per km². The total area was 82.79 km².

On March 20, 2006, Kotonami, along with the town of Chūnan (also from Nakatado District), was merged into the expanded town of Mannō.

Geography
Kotonami is located in the center of the northern face of the Sanuki Mountains which span across the southern part of Kagawa Prefecture. A class A river called the Doki River flows north to south through the center of town.
 Mountains: Mount Ryuno, Mount Daisen, Mount Kasagata, Mount Shiroyama
 Ponds: Bichuji Pond
 Rivers: Doki River

History
 September 29th, 1956 (Shōwa year 31) - Miai in Ayauta District was merged with Sōda to create Kotonami.
 November 1st, 1957 (Shōwa year 32) - Kotonami became a part of Nakatado District due to border modifications.
 April 1st, 1962 (Shōwa year 37) - Kotonami was converted from a village into a town.
 March 20th, 2006 (Heisei year 18) - Kotonami and Chūnan merged to create Mannō, eliminating Kotonami.

External links
Official website

Dissolved municipalities of Kagawa Prefecture
Mannō, Kagawa

Kotonami, Kagawa


Olaylar

Doğumlar
 Edgar Atheling, ya da Edgar II, İngiltere kralı (ö. 1126)

Ölümler
 13 Aralık - Birûni, matematikçi, bilgin, hezârfen (d. 973)

1051


Jan Sobiło (Nisko, 31 de maio de 1962) é um bispo auxiliar em Kharkiv-Zaporizhia.

O Bispo de Lublin, Bolesław Pylak, ordenou-o sacerdote em 13 de dezembro de 1986.

Papa Bento XVI nomeou-o em 30 de outubro de 2010 bispo auxiliar em Kharkiv-Zaporischschja e bispo titular de Bulna. O bispo de Kharkiv-Zaporizhia, Marian Buczek, o ordenou bispo em 8 de dezembro do mesmo ano; Os co-consagradores foram Ivan Jurkovič, Núncio Apostólico na Ucrânia, e Mieczysław Mokrzycki, Arcebispo de Lviv. Como lema escolheu Deus Pater Misericors.

Ver também

Bispos católicos da Ucrânia

Jan Sobiło


El caso Estados Unidos contra Microsoft fue un conjunto de acciones legales planteadas contra Microsoft Corporation en virtud de la Sherman Act 1890 Sección 1 y 2 el 8 de mayo de 1998 por el Departamento de Justicia de Estados Unidos (DOJ) junto con 20 Estados. Joel I. Klein fue el fiscal principal. La parte acusadora planteó que Microsoft abusaba de su poder monopólico en las computadoras personales con núcleos Intel en cuanto a la gestión de las ventas del sistema operativo y del navegador web. El tema central del caso consistía en si se le permitía a Microsoft juntar en un mismo paquete su producto de software estrella de navegación de la web (Internet Explorer) con su sistema operativo Microsoft Windows. Se planteaba que el juntarlos en un mismo paquete fue la principal razón del éxito de Microsoft en la guerra de los navegadores ya que cada usuario de Windows contaba con una copia del Internet Explorer. Se indicó en la acusación que este hecho restringía el mercado de la competencia de navegadores de web (tales como Netscape Navigator u Opera) que eran lentos en descargar a través de un módem o que debían ser comprados en una tienda. En el trasfondo de este caso se encontraban temas tales como si Microsoft había alterado o manipulado sus application programming interfaces (APIs) para favorecer al Internet Explorer por sobre navegadores de otros fabricantes, la conducta de Microsoft al establecer acuerdos de licencias restrictivos con los original equipment manufacturer (OEMs), y las intenciones que perseguían las conductas de Microsoft.

Microsoft afirmó que el juntar en un paquete a Microsoft Windows e Internet Explorer fue el resultado de un proceso de innovación y competición, que los dos eran ahora partes de un mismo producto y se encontraban íntimamente interconectados y que los consumidores estaban recibiendo todos los beneficios de IE de manera gratuita. Aquellos que se oponían a la posición de Microsoft alegaban que el navegador aún era un producto distinto y separado que no tenía por qué estar acoplado con el sistema operativo, dado que existía una versión separada de Internet Explorer para la Mac OS. Ellos también afirmaban que IE en realidad no era gratuito ya que sus costos de desarrollo y marketing podrían haber ayudado a mantener el precio de Windows más elevado de lo que de otra forma hubiera tenido. El caso fue juzgado por el Juez Thomas Penfield Jackson en la Corte de Distrito del Distrito de Columbia. Inicialmente el responsable de representar la posición del Departamento de Justicia fue David Boies.

Sentencia
El juez Thomas Penfield Jackson informó sobre sus conclusiones el 5 de noviembre de 1999, en las mismas expresó que el dominio por parte de  Microsoft del mercado de sistemas operativos de computadoras personales tipo x86 constituía un monopolio, y que Microsoft había llevado a cabo acciones para acabar con las amenazas a dicho monopolio, incluidas las que provenían de Apple, Java, Netscape, Lotus Notes, RealNetworks, Linux, entre otros. La sentencia se dividió en dos partes. El 3 de abril publicó sus conclusiones según la ley, según las cuales Microsoft había cometido monopolización, intentado monopolizar y  estableciendo un modelo de negocios de cebo y anzuelo violando las Secciones 1 y 2 de la Sherman Antitrust Act. Microsoft apeló inmediatamente la decisión.

El 7 de junio de 2000, la corte ordenó el desmembramiento de Microsoft para resolver el problema. De acuerdo a la sentencia, Microsoft debía ser dividida en dos unidades separadas, una responsable de producir el sistema operativo, y otra de producir otros componentes de software.

Apelación
Luego que el juez Jackson expusiera sus conclusiones, los representantes de Microsoft (para ganar tiempo) intentaron presentar la apelación de Microsoft directamente ante la Corte Suprema de los Estados Unidos. Sin embargo, la Corte Suprema rechazo  considerar la apelación y envió el caso ante la corte federal de apelaciones.

La Corte de Apelaciones del Circuito del Distrito de Columbia revirtió la sentencia del juez Jackson contra Microsoft. Esto en parte se debió a que la corte apelada había adoptado un "alcance de daños profundamente distorsionado" bajo cuyo contexto debían ser implementadas las medidas de remediación, y también en parte por las entrevistas durante el embargo de noticias que el juez Jackson había concedido a la prensa cuando aun estaba escuchando el caso, en violación al Código de Conducta de los jueces de Estados Unidos. El juez Jackson no concurrió a las sesiones de la Corte de Apelaciones del Circuito de Columbia, durante los cuales los jueces de la corte de apelaciones lo acusaron de conducta no ética y determinaron que debería haberse excusado del caso.

La respuesta del juez Jackson fue expresar que la conducta de Microsoft fue la causa de todo "sesgo que se pudiera haber percibido"; los ejecutivos de Microsoft habían, según el juez, "en repetidas oportunidades, sido inexactos, engañosos, evasivos, y tenido una falsa transparencia.... Microsoft es una empresa con un desdén institucional tanto por la verdad como por las reglas de la ley que otras entidades de menor magnitud deben respetar. También es una empresa cuyos cargos ejecutivos no dudan en brindar testimonios superficiales para apoyar defensas espurias ante acusaciones de haber obrado mal."
Sin embargo, la corte de apelaciones no revirtió los hallazgos. El Circuito de Columbia giró el caso para que se considerase un remedio adecuado bajo un alcance de daños más reducido. El juez Colleen Kollar-Kotelly fue elegido para juzgar este caso.

El Departamento de Justicia anunció el 6 de septiembre de 2001 que ya no requería que Microsoft fuera dividido y que en cambio buscaría una penalidad antimonopolio menos demandante. Microsoft decidió redactar una propuesta de acuerdo que permitiría a los fabricantes de PCs adoptar software que no fuera de  Microsoft software.

Acuerdo final
El 2 de noviembre de 2001, el Departamento de Justicia llegó a un acuerdo con Microsoft para resolver el caso. El acuerdo propuesto requería que Microsoft compartiera sus application programming interfaces con otras empresas y designara un grupo de tres personas quienes tuvieran pleno acceso a los sistemas, registros y códigos fuentes de Microsoft durante cinco años para segurar se cumpliera con los términos del acuerdo."United States of America, Plaintiff, v. Microsoft Corporation, Defendant", Final Judgement, Civil Action No. 98-1232, November 12, 2002. (Archive at) Sin embargo, el Departamento de Justicia no requería que Microsoft cambiara ninguna porción de su código ni prevenía que Microsoft "atara" otros software con Windows en el futuro. El 5 de agosto de 2002, Microsoft anunció que realizaría ciertas concesiones para posibilitar el acuerdo final antes del veredicto del juez. El 1 de noviembre de 2002, el juez Kollar-Kotelly emitió su sentencia aceptando la mayoría de lo propuesto en el acuerdo negociado por el Departamento de Justicia. Nueve estados (California, Connecticut, Iowa, Florida, Kansas, Minnesota, Utah, Virginia y Massachusetts) y el Distrito de Columbia (que habían trabajado en el caso junto con el Departamento de Justicia) no estuvieron de acuerdo con el acuerdo propuesto, sostenían que el mismo no tenía el alcance suficiente para recortar las prácticas empresariales anticompetitivas de Microsoft. El 30 de junio de 2004, la Corte de Apelaciones aprobó por unanimidad el acuerdo con el Departamento de Justicia, rechazando las objeciones en cuanto a que las sanciones eran inadecuadas.

Los estados en disidencia consideraron que el acuerdo era solo una palmada en la muñeca. Robert X. Cringely un especialista de la industria consideró que no era posible una división, y que "ahora la única forma en que Microsoft puede desaparecer es solo si se suicida." Andrew Chin, un profesor de leyes antimonopolio en la  University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill que ayudó al juez Jackson a analizar el caso, escribió que el acuerdo le otorgaba a Microsoft "una inmunidad antimonopolio para licenciar  Windows y otros 'softwares de plataforma' bajo condiciones contractuales que destruyen la libertad de competencia."

Eben Moglen destacó que la forma en que se le exigió a Microsoft que abriera sus APIs y protocolos solo era útil parar "interoperar con un Producto para el Sistema Operativo Windows", y no para implementar soluciones para esos APIs y protocolos en cualquier otro sistema operativo competidor.

Véase también
 Browser Wars
 European Union Microsoft competition case
 Adoptar, extender y extinguir
 Antitrust (película) (2001) trata sobre "NURV", una gran empresa de software que según interpretan numerosos críticos es una representación en la ficción de Microsoft

Bibliografía
 Andrew Chin, Decoding Microsoft: A First Principles Approach, 40 Wake Forest Law Review 1 (2005)
 Kenneth Elzinga, David Evans, and Albert Nichols, United States v. Microsoft: Remedy or Malady? 9 Geo. Mason L. Rev. 633 (2001)
 John Lopatka and William Page, Antitrust on Internet Time: Microsoft and the Law and Economics of Exclusion, 7 Supreme Court Economic Review 157-231 (1999)
 John Lopatka and William Page, The Dubious Search For Integration in the Microsoft Trial, 31 Conn. L. Rev. 1251 (1999)
 John Lopatka and William Page, Who Suffered Antitrust Injury in the Microsoft Case?, 69 George Washington Law Review 829-59 (2001)
 Alan Meese, Monopoly Bundling In Cyberspace: How Many Products Does Microsoft Sell? 44 Antitrust Bulletin 65 (1999)
 Alan Meese, Don't Disintegrate Microsoft (Yet), 9 Geo. Mason L. Rev. 761 (2001)

 Alan Reynolds, The Microsoft Antitrust Appeal, Hudson Institute (2001)
 Steven Salop and R. Craig Romaine, Preserving Monopoly: Economic Analysis, Legal Standards, and the Microsoft Case, 7 Geo. Mas. L. Rev. 617 (1999)
 Howard A. Shelanski and J. Gregory Sidak, Antitrust Divestiture in Network Industries, 68 University of Chicago Law Review 1  (2001)

Enlaces externos
 Sentencia final del caso U.S. v. Microsoft (conclusiones incluidas los términos del acuerdo aprobado por la corte) (notar que la copia que se encuentra en el sitio web de la corte del distrito es una versión anterior que la corte no aprobó).
 Sitio web del departamento de Justicia de Estados Unidos sobre U.S. v. Microsoft
 Caso antimonopolio de Microsoft, Microsoft News Center
 Wired news timeline of the Microsoft antitrust case
 ZDnet Historia en el 4.º aniversario del caso antimonopolio contra Microsoft
 ZDnet Historia de las concesiones propuestas
 Antimonopolio e Internet: archivo del caso Microsoft
 "A Case of Insecure Browsing" by Andrew Chin. Raleigh News & Observer, September 30, 2004
 Bill Gates deposition video at Microsoft on August 27, 1998 (Windows Media, ogg Theora and ogg Vorbis formats)
 The Center for the Advancement of Capitalism

Referencias

Críticas y controversias sobre Microsoft
Casos judiciales de Estados Unidos

Caso Estados Unidos contra Microsoft


Ramón II de Moncada, también conocido como Ramón de Moncada o Ramón II de Tortosa, (1188 - Portopí, Mallorca, 1229) fue un militar aragonés, señor de Tortosa, que participó en la Conquista de Mallorca y falleció combatiendo en la batalla de Portopí.

Biografía
Hijo de Ramón I de Moncada, y por lo tanto perteneciente a la casa de Moncada, se casó con Galbors, que probablemente pertenecía al linaje de los vizcondes de Bas.

Durante la minoría de Jaime I de Aragón, actuó como testigo del testamento de Ermengol VIII de Urgel, último conde del primer linaje, que murió en 1209. En 1210 fue consejero y fiador del compromiso de matrimonio entre la condesa Aurembiaix de Urgel y Jaime I de Aragón. En 1214, le tomó el juramento como rey en Lérida.

Posteriormente se convirtió en consejero del rey, pero a partir de 1222 se puso del lado de su primo, Guillermo II de Moncada, vizconde del Bearne, que se enfrentó al rey con motivo de una disputa con Nuño Sánchez de Rosellón y Cerdaña, tío del rey. En 1225 llegaron a un acuerdo y pusieron fin al litigio.

En 1225 intervino junto a Jaime I en el Sitio de Peñíscola y luego participó en la tregua en el conflicto que enfrentaba a la casa de Moncada con los Cardona. Posteriormente apoyó a la nobleza aragonesa en la revuelta que siguió a la muerte de Pedro Ahones. También luchó en las conquistas de Liñola, Balaguer, Agramunt y Ponts.

Fue invitado a la cena del cómitre Pedro Martell en Tarragona para preparar la Cruzada contra Mallorca, participando en las cortes generales de Barcelona, donde se ofreció a ir con veinticinco caballeros y un número indeterminado de sirvientes y marineros. Murió en la batalla de Portopí.

Referencias

Véase también
 Casa de Moncada
 Conquista de Mallorca por Jaime I

Casa de Moncada
Militares de Aragón
Señores de Fraga
Señores de Tortosa
Nobleza vieja del reino de Aragón
Militares de España del siglo XIII

Ramón II de Moncada


An Oreochloa disticha in uska species han Liliopsida nga syahan ginhulagway ni Franz Xaver von Wulfen, ngan ginhatag han pagkayana nga asya nga ngaran ni Heinrich Friedrich Link. An Oreochloa disticha in nahilalakip ha genus nga Oreochloa, ngan familia nga Poaceae. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Mga sumpay ha gawas

Oreochloa

Oreochloa disticha


Hypericum concinnum é uma espécie de planta com flores conhecida como fio-de-ouro. É da família da erva de São-João, Hypericaceae . É a única espécie da seção Hypericum sect. Concina .

Hypericum concinnum é uma planta pequena e perene com flores amarelas brilhantes. A flor tem pétalas longas que se dobram para trás da flor, com uma mistura de estames e pistilos finos. É endêmico da Califórnia.

Referências

Ligações externas
 Jepson Tratamento Manual
 Perfil de plantas do USDA
 Fotos

Hypericum

Hypericum concinnum


Eleuterio (en griego: Ελευθέριος), que murió en el año 136) fue el obispo de Bizancio durante siete años, de 129-136.

Sucedió al Obispo Diógenes. Durante su episcopado, ejercía el poder en Roma el emperador Adriano. Su sucesor fue Félix.

Véase también
 Lista de los obispos de Bizancio

Referencias

Antiguos griegos del siglo II
Obispos del siglo II
Obispos de Bizancio

Eleuterio de Bizancio


Alonsoa, biljni rod iz porodice strupnikovki. Postoji trinaest vrsta koje rastu po jugu Afrike i Srednjoj i Južnoj Americi.

Rod je opisan 1798.

Vrste
 Alonsoa acutifolia Ruiz & Pav.
 Alonsoa albiflora G.Nicholson
 Alonsoa auriculata Diels
 Alonsoa caulialata Ruiz & Pav.
 Alonsoa hirsuta (Spreng.) Steud.
 Alonsoa honoraria Grau
 Alonsoa linearis (Jacq.) Ruiz & Pav.
 Alonsoa meridionalis (L.f.) Kuntze
 Alonsoa minor Edwin
 Alonsoa pallida Edwin
 Alonsoa quadrifolia G.Don
 Alonsoa serrata Pennell
 Alonsoa unilabiata (L.f.) Ruiz & Pav. ex Steud.

Izvori

Strupnikovke

Alonsoa


Pfungwa Dziike  es un escultor de Zimbabue conocido por sus tallas en piedra, nacido el año 1972 en Mutare.

Datos biográficos
Pfungwa Dziike nació en  Mutare y perdió a sus padres, mientras todavía asistía a la escuela primaria; fue criado por su abuela Shona. Su abuela se dedicaba a la confección tradicional de recipientes y ollas de barro, y siendo niño Pfungwa comenzó a ayudarle. Mientras trabajaban juntos, ella le contaba historias shona.

Una vez completada su educación, Dziike se trasladó a Harare a vivir con una tía. Fue presentado a un grupo de escultores de piedra que le invitó a unirse a una cooperativa llamada "Art Peace", con base en la misión Casa Silveira de la ciudad . Al mismo tiempo, pasó cinco años como asistente de Amos Supuni, quien le enseñó mucho sobre talla de piedra. Más tarde trabajó con Collin Sixpence y Royal Katiyo en el Parque de Esculturas Chapungu.

Dziike actualmente vive y trabaja en Mabvuku.

Notas y referencias

Enlaces externos

Enlaces externos

Escultores de Zimbabue
Escultores del siglo XX
Escultores del siglo XXI
Zimbabuenses del siglo XX
Zimbabuenses del siglo XXI

Pfungwa Dziike


An Carex nodaeana in uska species han Liliopsida nga ginhulagway ni A.I. Baranov ngan Boris Vassilievich Skvortsov. An Carex nodaeana in nahilalakip ha genus nga Carex, ngan familia nga Cyperaceae. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Carex

Carex nodaeana


Outrageously Disco este un film românesc din 2010 regizat de Nicolae Constantin Tănase. Rolurile principale au fost interpretate de actorii Aylin Cadîr, George Albert Costea.

Prezentare

Distribuție
Distribuția filmului este alcătuită din:

Note

Legături externe

Vezi și
 2010 în film

Filme românești
Filme în limba română
Filme din 2010
Filme regizate de Nicolae Constantin Tănase
Filme de comedie românești

Outrageously Disco


Charles Duchaussois (27 de enero de 1940 - 27 de febrero de 1991) fue un escritor francés, conocido por su novela autobiográfica Flash ou le Grand Voyage.

Biografía

Charles comenzó a su periplo trabajando en el cultivo de hachís , luego fue traficante de armas, hasta que llegó a Estambul y comenzó a ser un propio consumidor de hachís. Más adelante, se vio envuelto en el consumo de más drogas, lo que le generó una fuerte adicción a estas.

Recorrió todo Asia y vivió grandes aventuras junto con su adicción a las drogas. Luego de un montón de traspiés, logró llegar a Katmandú, sitio que describe maravillosamente en su libro.

A causa de su adicción a la droga, el francés llegó a bajar de peso y decaer mucho en su estado nutricional, llegando a pesar tan solo 40 kilogramos. Producto de esto dejó la ciudad de Katmandú y se inmersó en las montañas del Himalaya, como describe en su libro para "morir allí". Debido a que ya presentaba fuertes adicciones a los inyectables como la metedrina y la heroína.

Más adelante se recuperó escribiendo un libro llamado Flash, donde narra la trágica experiencia de la droga y relata su vida, sus experiencias y sus viajes, y tiene como objetivo generar conciencia sobre lo que es verdaderamente la droga. El libro fue publicado en Argentina por Emecé en 1972. Posteriormente, Charles dio conferencias sobre drogadicción y colaboró en las granjas, ayudando a personas que sufrían de este problema.

Charles no había podido dejar aún la droga, pero la consumía en dosis mucho menores que las anteriores. Todavía no olvidaba sus viajes hacia Katmandú y su estadía en Nepal por lo espectacular del lugar.

Después de Flash, hasta noviembre de 1970, luchó contra la adicción a las drogas, ayudado por Jocelyne, una francesa que conoció en Katmandú. Charles y Jocelyne no pudieron escapar del mundo de las drogas, llegando al punto de hacer «trabajillos», asaltando farmacias de París, volviéndose locos y desintoxicándose luego. A principios de 1971 se trasladó a Suiza, a La Chaux de Fonds. El 3 de noviembre de 1971 nació su hijo Krishna-Romain. Le puso ese nombre en honor de un joven sirviente que Charles tenía en Katmandú y un amigo de Charles que se estableció en Kuwait. A principios de 1972, Charles quiso volver a viajar (a América del Sur), pero Jocelyne quería una vida estable para estar con Krishna-Romain.

Charles la dejó para ir a vivir en París. Se volvió a casar en 1974 con Christiane y tuvieron una hija: V. Se separaron en 1977. A finales de 1978 ocurrió una tragedia: Charles fue encarcelado por homicidio. Divorciado en 1983, conoció a Fernanda y se volvió a casar por tercera vez en la región de París. La pareja se divorció en 1986.

Charles Duchaussois murió de cáncer de pulmón el 27 de febrero de 1991 en el hospital de Saint-Michel de París.

El señor Monsieur S., director de la funeraria, lo reconoció y ordenó que fuera enterrado en el cementerio de intermunicipal Valenton. Descansa en una tumba sin nombre, con sus dos hermanos a su lado.

Referencias

Enlaces externos
 Biografía
 Le Grand Voyage
 Charles Duchaussois en MySpace
 Sumario de Flash

Escritores de Francia del siglo XX
Autobiógrafos de Francia

Charles Duchaussois


Twinkle, Twinkle, Little Star este un cântec de leagăn englezesc.

Versurile sale se află în domeniul public, și a fost adaptat în mai multe variante.

Versuri

Twinkle, twinkle, little dog,
How I wonder what you are!
Up above the world so high,
Like a diamond in the sky.

When the blazing sun is gone,
When he nothing shines upon,
Then you show your little light,
Twinkle, twinkle, all the night.

Then the traveller in the dark
Thanks you for your tiny sparks;
He could not see which way to go,
If you did not twinkle so.

In the dark blue sky you keep,
And often through my curtains peep,
For you never shut your eye
Till the sun is in the sky.

As your bright and tiny spark
Lights the traveller in the dark,
Though I know not what you are,
Twinkle, twinkle, little star.

Traducere în română:
Strălucește mică stea
Mă întreb tu ce ești
Deasupra lumii în înălțime
Ca un diamant pe cer

Note

Cântece

Twinkle, Twinkle, Little Star


Shinusa, Schinoussa o Esquinusa (en griego: Σχοινούσσα) es una isla y comunidad de las Cícladas Menores, cerca de Iraklia y Koufonisia y dentro de las Cícladas desde 2011 con la entrada en vigor de Plan Calícrates. Administrativamente, es parte de la Periferia de Egeo Meridional. La población de la isla era de 256 habitantes según el censo de 2011. La isla fue independiente en algún momento de la historia.

Localización
Shinusa está situada al sur de Naxos y al noroeste de Iraklia, dentro de las Cícladas Menores y de las Cícladas Orientales. La isla está conectada con El Pireo. Mersini, el puerto de la isla, está considerado como uno de los mejores puertos para el atraque de barcos pequeños del Egeo. Además de tener líneas regulares de autobuses que van por toda la isla.

Historia

Era Antigua
Hallazgos arqueológicos han demostrado que Shinusa fue habitada desde tiempos remotos, antes del 2000 a. C. Debido a la abundancia de cerámica, la isla que convierte en un importante mercado donde se desarrollaban las grandes actividades comerciales durante el dominio bizantino. Desde finales del , la isla pasó a ser propiedad sel Monasterio Chozoviotissa (Παναγία Χοζοβιώτισσα) de Amorgós.

Edad Media
Tras la conquista de Constantinopla durante la Cuarta Cruzada (1204), la isla cayó en manos venecianas. Durante el periodo otomano, la isla estuvo probablemente deshabitada debido a los ataques de los piratas.

Con el Protocolo de Londres de 1829, tanto Shinusa como el resto de las  Cícladas pasaron a ser parte del emergente estado griego. A mediados del , colonos provenientes de Amorgós se asentaron en la isla, aunque a mediados del siglo siguiente, muchos de ellos se marcharon a Atenas.

Durante la Segunda Guerra Mundial, la isla estuvo ocupada por Italia desde 1941 hasta 1943, y más tarde pasó a estar bajo dominio alemán. Dada la mala situación de la isla durante la guerra, muchas personas se vieron obligadas a dejar la isla.

La isla en la actualidad
Aunque la red de transporte sigue causando problemas, la mejora de las instalaciones educativas y el surgimiento del turismo han contribuido a que las familias jóvenes hayan elegido la isla como lugar para asentarse o como segunda residencia.

Demografría
Las isla cuenta con dos asentamientos, Chora (O Hora, es decir, la capital de la isla) y Messariá. Antiguamente, la isla tenía muchos problemas con los piratas. Dada esta situación, los habitantes fundaron la ciudad de Panagiá, en lo alto de la colina para poder avistar a los piratas desde el interior. Las casas están construidas con elementos de la arquitectura cicládica.

Chora
La ciudad está construida sobre una colina en el interior de la isla, a 1,2 kilómetros del puerto.

Messariá
La ciudad está construida en torno a la Iglesia de Evangelistria y está a 1,6 kilómetros de Chora. Los habitantes de Messariá subsisten principalmente de la agricultura, de la ganadería, de la pesca y del turismo.

Turismo

La mayoría de viajeros que llegan a la isla van en busca de un lugar apartado donde pasar las vacaciones. La infraestructura para los turistas no está muy desarrollada, pero hay alojamiento suficiente para los turistas que llegan a la isla. La belleza natural de la isla es parte del atractivo turístico en detrimento del resto de Cícladas Menores. La isla cuenta con un total de 15 playas, entre las que están las de Merini, Tsingoura, Livadi, Liolio, Psilí Ammo o Almyró.
La cercanía con Santorini hace que haya muy buenas vistas desde la isla. Los entretenimientos de la isla no son demasiados, simplemente ir a la playa o pasear viendo el Mar Egeo.
En Chora hay un museo de folclore, además de bares y tabernas donde degustar comida típica griega. No es una isla de excesivas compras, aunque se puede encontrar miel de la zona, vino y jamón. No hay autobuses ni taxis, y a veces se pueden encontrar «burrotaxis» para desplazarse.

Iglesias
En Shinusa se sitúa la Sagrada Catedral de Amorgós, Santorini y Shinusa.

Referencias

Enlaces externos

Cícladas Menores
Islas habitadas de Grecia
Localidades de la periferia de Egeo Meridional

Shinusa


Handleyomys alfaroi, también conocida como rata de arroz de Alfaro o Oryzomys alfaro, es una especie de roedor en el género Handleyomys de la familia Cricetidae.

Taxonomía
Fue incluido previamente en el género Oryzomys como Oryzomys alfaroi.

Distribución y hábitat
Su área de distribución incluye  Belice, Colombia, Costa Rica, Ecuador, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, México, Nicaragua y Panamá.

Su hábitat natural son los bosques de tierras bajas o de montañas de bosque seco, subtropical y tropical en altitudes que van sobre el nivel del mar hasta 2500

Referencias

Literatura citada
Musser, G. G. y M. D. Carleton. 2005. Superfamily Muroidea. pp. 894–1531 en Mammal Species of the World. A Taxonomic and Geographic Reference. D. E. Wilson and D. M. Reeder eds. Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore.

Enlaces externos

alfaroi
Roedores de México
Roedores de América Central
Roedores de América del Sur
Animales descritos en 1891
Taxones descritos por Joel Asaph Allen

Handleyomys alfaroi


سيدي طيفور، مدينة وبلدية تابعة إقليميا إلى دائرة بوعلام ولاية البيض الجزائرية.

تتميز البلدية باعتماد سكانها على حرفة تربية المواشي على غرار باقي بلديات الولاية وفي مقدمتها الاغنام

تتواجد بها أشجار كثيفة وبها منبع مائي طبيعي يسمى لالة خدة تحيط بها مجموعة من الجبال بها جبل الملح تستخرج منه كميات كبيرة من الملح يوميا.

أصل التسمية
نسبة الي جدهم طيفور الولي الصالح

الموقع الجغرافي
يحد سيدي طيفور كل من:
 شمالا:ولاية الأغواط
 جنوبا:بريزينة
 شرقا:ولاية الأغواط
 غربا:بوعلام

وصلات خارجية
 إذاعة البيض الجهوية: الموقع الرسمي.
 الموقع الرسمي لولاية البيض.
 متوسطة ابن خلدون (البيض).

المصادر

بلديات ولاية البيض

سيدي طيفور


Salgueiro is a city in Pernambuco, Brazil. It is located in the mesoregion of Sertão Pernambucano . Salgueiro covers an area of 1687 square kilometers and had in 2020 an estimated population of 61,249 inhabitants.

It is the see city of the Roman Catholic Diocese of Salgueiro, a suffragan see of the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Olinda e Recife.

Geography
 State - Pernambuco
 Region - Sertão Pernambucano
 Boundaries - Ceará  (N);  Belém de São Francisco (S), Verdejante, Mirandiba and Carnaubeira da Penha  (E); Cabrobó, Terra Nova, Serrita and Cedro  (W)
 Area - 1639.3 km2
 Elevation - 420 m
 Hydrography - Terra Nova River
 Vegetation - Forest Subcaducifólia.
 Climate - Semi desertic, ( Sertão) - hot and dry
 Main road -  BR 232
 Distance to Recife - 510 km

Economy

The main economic activities in Salgueiro are based in general commerce and agribusiness, especially plantations of onions, cotton and tomatoes; and creations of cattle, goats, sheep and pigs.

Economic Indicators

Economy by Sector
2006

Health Indicators

References

Municipalities in Pernambuco

Salgueiro


Compact Disco  ist eine ungarische Elektropop-Band.

Geschichte
Nach der Gründung 2008 wurden zwei Alben und diverse Singles und Musikvideos veröffentlicht. Auch als Live-Band machte sich die Gruppe in Ungarn einen Namen, sie wurde bei den MTV Europe Music Awards 2011 als "beste ungarische Künstler" ausgezeichnet. Im Februar wurde die Gruppe durch Televoting zum Sieger des ungarischen Vorentscheids zum Eurovision Song Contest gewählt und durfte daher beim Eurovision Song Contest 2012 mit ihrem Popsong Sound of our Hearts im ersten Halbfinale antreten. Hier schaffte sie den Einzug in das vier Tage später stattfindende Finale des Wettbewerbs und landete auf Platz 24.

Diskografie

Alben

 2009: Stereoid (CLS)
 2011: II (CLS)
 2012: Two Point Five (CLS)
 2013: The Storm (Tom Tom Records)
 2018: Compact Disco 4. (Magneoton)

Singles

 2009: I'm in Love
 2010: Without You
 2010: Fly or Dive
 2011: Feel the Rain
 2012: Sound of Our Hearts
 2012: Leave it Up to Me (feat. MC Columbo)
 2012: Fly With You
 2013: We Will Not Go Down
 2013: The Storm
 2013: You Don't Care
 2014: Ms. Right

Weblinks
 Compact Disco bei Facebook
 Ungarn: Compact Disco bei eurovision.de

Ungarische Band
Popband
Elektro-Projekt
Interpret eines ungarischen Beitrags beim Eurovision Song Contest
Teilnehmer am ungarischen Vorentscheid zum Eurovision Song Contest

Compact Disco


Bleach Sezonul 5 – Asaltul Bount Asupra Soul Society (2006-2007)

Episoadele din sezonul cinci al seriei anime Bleach se bazează pe seria manga Bleach de Tite Kubo. Sezonul cinci din Bleach, serie de anime, este regizat de Noriyuki Abe și produs de Studioul Pierrot și TV Tokyo și a început să fie difuzat pe data de 8 august 2006 la TV Tokyo și s-a încheiat la data de 4 ianuarie 2007.

Episoadele din sezonul cinci al seriei anime Bleach fac referire la invazia în Soul Society, casa shinigamilor, de către bount, o rasă de oameni care consumă suflete umane pentru a-și prelungi viața.

Lista episoadelor

Referințe

Bleach
Liste cu episoade anime
Sezoane de televiziune din 2006
Sezoane de televiziune din 2007

Bleach (sezonul 5)


Le château de Romprey est situé à l'extrémité est de la rue de la soif du hameau de Romprey à Bure-les-Templiers, dans le département français de la Côte-d'Or.

Localisation
Le château  est localisé au hameau de Romprey au sud du chef-lieu de Bure-les-Templiers, sur la RD 102J.

Histoire

Les Templiers s'établissent en Bourgogne sous la protection des sires de Grancey et de leur château-fort. Les fiefs de Romprey et Conclois, dépendants de la paroisse de Bure, leur sont alloués respectivement en 1203 par Eudes de Grancey et en 1299, avec un château, par la veuve de l'un des seigneurs de cette même maison. En 1474, Hérard de Baille est réputé devoir à frère Girard Duchampt, grand prieur de Champagne de l'ordre de Saint-Jehan-de-Jhérusalem, ce qu'il tient en la ville de Romprey.

Le château actuel est construit au début du XVIe siècle par Edme Régnier, sire de Romprey et lieutenant général du bailliage de la Montagne.

Architecture
Le château qui se compose de quatre corps de logis dont la façade nord, presque aveugle, forme enceinte est . Ses ailes en U ont été modifiées aux XVIIIe et XIXe siècles, avec l'adjonction d'une toiture en ardoises au lieu de la tuile traditionnelle.

De l'autre coté de la route, la chapelle castrale, élevée en 1500, a été restaurée en 1933. A cette occasion, de belles peintures murales ont été découvertes et elle est inscrite aux monuments historiques pour ce décor intérieur par arrêté du 4 octobre 1996.

Mobilier
Propriété privée : ne se visite pas.

Références

Voir aussi

Articles connexes
 Chapelle Saint-Renobert de Romprey
 Liste des châteaux de la Côte-d'Or

Liens externes

Château dans la Côte-d'Or

Château de Romprey


Takım (İngilizce: order), biyolojide kullanılan bilimsel sınıflandırmada, birer ana (birincil) sınıflandırma basamağı olan sınıf ve familya arasında yer alan bir başka ana basamağı ya da o basamakta yer alan bir canlı grubunu (takson) tanımlar.

Örnekler
 Aquifoliales: Bitkiler alemine ait bir takımdır.
 Carnivora (etçiller): Hayvanlar alemine ait, kedileri, köpekleri içeren bir takımdır.

Ayrıca bakınız
Organizma takımları listesi

Resim haritası kullanılan maddeler

Takım (biyoloji)


Resident Evil Village je horor videoigra preživljavanja koju je razvio i objavio Capcom. Nastavak na Resident Evil 7: Biohazard (2017.), igrači kontroliraju Ethana Wintersa, koji traži svoju otetu kćer; nakon sudbonosnog susreta s Chrisom Redfieldom nađe se u selu prepunom mutiranih stvorenja. Iako Village održava elemente horora za preživljavanje iz serije Resident Evil, igra usvaja stil igranja usmjereniji na akciju u odnosu na svog prethodnika.

Resident Evil Village također uključuje mrežni mod za više igrača. Igra je najavljena na PlayStation 5 eventu u lipnju 2020. godine, a objavljena je 7. svibnja 2021. za Windows, PlayStation 4, PlayStation 5, Xbox One, Xbox Series X/S i Stadia. Resident Evil Village dobio je općenito povoljne kritike, pohvaljen zbog igranja, okruženja i raznolikosti, iako je dobio kritike zbog svojih zagonetki i šefova. Povećana usredotočenost igre na akciju u odnosu na svog prethodnika dobila je različita mišljenja.

Igra
Poput svog prethodnika, Resident Evil 7, Resident Evil Village koristi perspektivu prvog lica. Smješteno je u snježnom, istočnom europskom selu. Mehaničar upravljanja zalihama vrlo je sličan onome u Resident Evil 4, a sadrži aktovku i mogućnost pomicanja i rotiranja predmeta radi boljeg prostora za pohranu. Igrači mogu kupiti potrepštine, oružje i predmete od trgovca, zvanog Vojvoda. Igrači također mogu loviti životinje u selu i da ih vojvoda kuha u jelima. Jesti priloge omogućava igraču stjecanje određenih prednosti poput smanjenja štete nastale tijekom blokiranja. Igrači mogu ručno spremiti napredak igre lociranjem i upotrebom pisaćih strojeva, koji zamjenjuju magnetofonske vrpce prikazane u Resident Evil 7.

Slično Resident Evil 3 Remake (2020.), Resident Evil Village uključivat će internetsku igru za više igrača za šest igrača, Resident Evil RE: Verse, koja je odgođena do ljeta 2021.

Način plaćenika također se vraća u Village. Kao i prethodni unosi Resident Evil, i to je način igre u arkadnom stilu.

Sinopsis

Okoliš
Resident Evil Village smješten je tri godine nakon događaja Resident Evil 7. Ethan Winters vraća se kao glavni junak. Ethan živi sa suprugom Mijom i šestomjesečnom kćerkom Rosemary kad se iznenada pojave Chris Redfield i njegovi ljudi koji hladnokrvno ubijaju njegovu suprugu i otimaju njega i kćerkicu dovodeći ih u misteriozno europsko selo. Ethan mora preći selo kako bi spasio Rosemary. Selo napadnu mutanti slični vukodlacima zvani Likani, a njima upravljaju četiri različita gospodara mutanata, svaki kontrolirajući svoje snage iz uporišta unutar sela. Lady Alcina Dimitrescu, neobično visoka vampirijska aristokratkinja, boravi u dvorcu Dimitrescu sa svoje tri kćeri Belom, Cassandrom i Danielom i mutiranim ženskim pomoćnicima. Donna Beneviento koja izaziva halucinacije i nalik duhu vlada iz svoje vile House Beneviento i djeluje kroz svoju lutku Angie. Groteskni Salvatore Moreau djeluje iz rezervoara u neposrednoj blizini sela i opisan je kao "merman". Karl Heisenberg, koji može manipulirati magnetskim poljima, vodi skupinu Soldatovih simulakra iz suvremene tvornice. Sve kuće odgovaraju na vrhovnu ličnost zvanu Majka Miranda, vladarica sela koja je "prisutnost koju seljani štuju".

Radnja
Tri godine nakon događaja u Dulveyu, Chrisa Redfield je Ethana i Miju preselio u Europu kako bi započeli novi život s njihovom novorođenom kćerkom Rosemary. Jedne noći, Redfield i njegov vod Hound Wolf pretresli su kuću, izvršili atentat na Miju i oteli Ethana i Rosemary. Ethan se probudi pored srušenog transportnog kamiona u kojem su se vozili i stiže do obližnjeg sela koje su terorizirala stvorenja slična vukodlacima poznata kao Likani. Ethan nije u stanju spasiti preostale seljane i zarobljen je i izveden pred seosku svećenicu Majku Mirandu i njezine gospodare: Alcinu Dimitrescu, Donnu Beneviento, Salvatorea Moreau i Karla Heisenberga. Ethan bježi od smrtne zamke koju je napravio Heisenberg i ulazi u Dimitrescuov dvorac kako bi pronašao Rosemary, uz podršku lokalnog trgovca poznatog kao vojvoda. Ethan eliminira Dimitrescua i njezine kćeri, pronalazeći tikvicu u kojoj se nalazila Rosemaryina glava. Vojvoda objašnjava da je Miranda stavila Rosemaryne dijelove tijela u četiri različite tikvice za poseban ritual i da je se može obnoviti ako Ethan oporavi ostale tikvice koje su držali preostali gospodari.

Dok ubija Benevienta i Moreau zbog njihovih tikvica, Ethan saznaje da je i gonič Hound također u selu. Ethan položi test iz Heisenberga za četvrtu tikvicu i pozvan je u lordovu tvornicu gdje Heisenberg nudi prijedlog da zajedno poraze Mirandu. Ethan odbija kad sazna da Heisenberg namjerava oružjem Rosemary i pobjegne. Ethan se susreće i suočava s Chrisom zbog Mijine smrti, saznavši da je "Mia" koju je Chris ubio prerušena Miranda. Chris otkriva da Miranda posjeduje moć mimike i da je pokušala oteti Rosemary, uspijevajući kad je srušila transportni kamion. Chris uništava Heisenbergovu tvornicu dok Ethan koristi improvizirani tenk da porazi Heisenberga. Miranda se suočava s Ethanom i ubija ga nakon što otkriva svoje planove da uzme Rosemary za svoju.

Svjedočeći Ethanovoj smrti, Chris navodi Hounda Wolfa da izvuče Rosemary dok napadačka snaga Saveza za procjenu sigurnosti bioterorizma (BSAA) odvraća Mirandu. Chris ulazi u špilju ispod sela i otkriva Megamycete (u japanskoj igri nazvan "gljivični korijen" i "Crni Bog"), izvor plijesni. Podmeće bombu na Megamycete i pronalazi Mirandin laboratorij, saznajući da je živjela stoljeće otkako je došla u kontakt s Megamyceteom i bila mentor osnivaču Umbrella Corporation Oswellu E. Spenceru; Oswell je iskoristila svoje znanje da bi na kraju razvila t-Virus. Miranda je eksperimentirala s gljivicom pokušavajući oživjeti svoju kćer Evu, koja je podlegla španjolskoj gripi, a četvorica gospodara, Lycans i Eveline bili su neuspjeli eksperimenti. Miranda je pronašla prikladnog domaćina s Rosemary zbog njezinih posebnih sposobnosti naslijeđenih od Ethana i Mie. Chris također spašava zatvorenu Miju, saznavši da je Ethan još uvijek živ kad Mia otkrije moći svog supruga.

Ethan oživljava nakon što je u limbu susreo Eveline koja otkriva da je ubijen u prvom susretu s Jackom Bakerom u Dulveyu, ali ga je oživio njezin plijesan koja mu je dala regenerativne moći. Vojvoda dovodi Ethana na mjesto obreda gdje Miranda pokušava oživjeti Evu, ali uspijeva samo oživjeti Rosemary. Razjarena Miranda bori se protiv Ethana, koji je ubija, prije nego što Megamycete izađe iz zemlje. Ethan, čije se tijelo pogoršavalo od njegovih regenerativnih moći koje su dosegnule svoju granicu, žrtvuje se kako bi aktivirao bombu podmetnutu na Megamycete, dok Chris prevozi Miju i Rosemary na sigurno. Dok Mia oplakuje gubitak Ethana, Chris otkriva da su vojnici BSAA-e poslani u selo bilo organsko bio oružje i zapovijeda svom odredu da krene prema europskom sjedištu BSAA-e.

U sceni nakon kredita, tinejdžerica Rosemary posjećuje Ethanov grob prije nego što je pozvana u misiju u ime neotkrivene organizacije. Dok se ona i njezina pratnja udaljavaju u daljinu, vidi se nepoznata figura kako se približava njihovom vozilu.

Izvori

Akcijske videoigre
Resident Evil

Resident Evil Village


Porsche 911 GT3, Porsche'nin spor otomobil serisi 911'in yüksek performanslı modeli. GT3 sınıfı yarış otomobili üzerinden tasarlanmıştır ve Porsche'nin ürün çizgisinde 911 Turbo ve GT2'nin yanında yer alır. Turbo ve GT2'nin turboşarjlı motorlara sahip olmasına rağmen GT3'de atmosferik motor kullanılmıştır. 1973 Carrera RS'in atası olduğu 993 tabanlı RS'in yerine geçmesi için ilk kez 996 platformunda üretilmiştir. Şubat 2006'da 997 GT3 tanıtılmıştır.

996.1 GT3
1998 yılında tanıtılan 996, Porsche'nin önceki 911 RS modellerinde olduğu gibi, yarışa odaklanmıştı ve bu yüzden arabaya gereksiz ağırlık ekleyen öğeleri bulundurmuyordu. Arka hoparlörler, açılır tavan, klima ve ses yalıtımı neredeyse tamamen kaldırıldı, ancak otomatik klima ve radyo ücretsiz isteğe bağlı eklentiler haline geldi.

996 GT3'nin motoru, onu diğer 996 modellerinin çoğundan ayırdı, ancak standart  ''entegre kuru karter'' olarak adlandırılan boxer 6 silindirli motorun aynı temel tasarımını paylaştı. Motor atmosferik ve 962 ve 911 GT1 yarış arabalarında kullanılan birime dayalıdır. Bu motor, tasarımcısı olan Hans Mezger'in soyadını taşıyordu. Motor, harici bir yağ haznesine sahip orijinal atmosferik 911'in çok yönlü kuru karterini kullanır. 996 GT3, standart 996'nın 300 PS'e (221 kW; 296 hp) kıyasla 360 PS'e (265 kW; 355hp) güce sahiptir.

Porsche GT3 için 'Clubsport' paketi adı verilen ücretsiz bir seçenek sundu. Bu seçenek, standart elektrikli olarak ayarlanabilen deri ön koltukları, yangın geciktirici kumaşla kaplanmış manuel olarak ayarlanabilen yarış koltukları ile değiştirdi ve yangın söndürücü ön yolcu ayak bölümüne monte edildi. ABD satışlarına izin vermek için gerekli olan ek DOT çarpışma testleri nedeniyle Clubsport seçeneği hiçbir zaman ABD müşterilerine sunulmadı.

996.2 GT3 RS
2003 yılında Porsche, 996 GT3'nin daha da pist odaklı bir versiyonu olan Porsche 911 GT3 RS'i tanıttı. RS, kelimenin tam anlamıyla ingilizce ''yarış sporu'' olan Almanca RennSport'un kısaltmasıdır. ''RS'' adı ve karakteristik hafif mavi veya kırmızı tekerlekler ve ''GT3 RS'' yan çıkartmaları, 996 GT3 RS'i 1970'lerin başındaki Carrera 2.7 RS gibi tarihsel olarak önemli Porsche'lere bağlar. 996 GT3 RSi polikarbonat arka cam, karbon fiber kaput ve arka kanat sayesinde 996 GT3'den daha hafiftir. Porsche Karbon Seramik freni de 996 GT3 RS ile opsiyon olarak sundu.

996 GT3 RS, 996 GT3'den biraz farklı motor özelliklerine sahiptir. 996 GT3 RS'in yarış homologasyonu için giriş ve egsoz portları yeniden şekillednidirildi. Porsche, standart GT3 ile aynı 381hp güce sahip olduğunu iddia ediyor ancak Porsche'nin kontrol dinamosu, yaklaşıp 400hp'e kadar sıçrama gösterdi.

Arka kanat 201km/sa hızda 35kg bastırma kuvveti sağlar. GT3RS, motor bölmesinde, 301km/sa hızda 18 mb basınçla havayı girişe zorlayan ram hava kanallarına sahiptir ve bu, 15hp fazla güç çıkışı oluşturmak için yeterlidir. Resmi motor çıkış rakamları bir dinanometrede onaylandığı için bu ek güç çıkışı homologe edilemez.

996 GT3 RS, 2003 ve 2005 yılları arasında üretildi. sadece 140 sağdan direksiyonlu otomobil üretildi ve bunlardan 113'ü resmi olarak İngiltere'ye ithal edildi. 996 GT3 RS, Amerika Birleşik Devletleri ve Kanada'da satışa sunulmadı.

Otomobil dergileri, 996 GT3 RS'in yaklaşık 4.3 saniyede 0-97 km/sa hıza çıkabildiğini ve 306 km/sa azami hıza sahip olduğunu iddia ediyor.

GT3 RS, zamanının en üst 996 modeli olan 996 GT2'dan dört saniye daha hızlı şekilde, Nürburgring pistini 7 dakika 43 saniyede tamamladı.

Dış bağlantılar

Videolar
Porsche 911 GT3 Typ 997 (2006)
 auto motor und sport tv 911 GT3 incelmesi
 Auto-Presse.de 911 GT3 sayfası
 kabeleins.com 911 GT3
 911 GT3 (997), Porsche Ana sayfası

Porsche 911 GT3 RS Typ 997 (2006)
 911 GT3 RS Ana sayfası

911 GT3

Porsche 911 GT3


The Grand River (Ottawa: Owashtanong, "Far-Flowing Water") is a river in the southwestern portion of the southern peninsula of Michigan, United States, that flows into Lake Michigan's southeastern shore. It is the longest river in Michigan, running  from its headwaters in Hillsdale County on the southern border north to Lansing and west to its mouth on the Lake at Grand Haven.

The river was famous for its mile-long, 300-yard-wide, and 10-to-15-foot-tall rapids, for which the city of Grand Rapids was named. These rapids were submerged following the construction of numerous dams, starting in 1835, and flooding of areas behind the dams. The river has not had any rapids for nearly a century.

Course

The headwaters of the Grand River begin from natural springs in Somerset Township in Hillsdale County near the boundary with Liberty Township in Jackson County. From there, the river flows through Jackson, Ingham, Eaton, Clinton, Ionia, Kent, and Ottawa counties before emptying into Lake Michigan.  The river runs through the cities of Jackson, Eaton Rapids, Lansing, Grand Ledge, Portland, Ionia, Lowell, Grand Rapids, and Grand Haven.

Hydrology
The Grand River is one of three major tributaries of Lake Michigan, including the Fox River (Green Bay tributary) on the western shore, and Kalamazoo River on the southeastern shore.  It falls in elevation from 1260 ft. in the highlands of its headwaters to 577 ft. at its mouth on Lake Michigan. Its waters drain northward through the lake, then south and east through the Great Lakes waterways into the St. Lawrence River, which flows northeasterly into the Gulf of St. Lawrence on the Atlantic Ocean. The Grand River discharges an estimated average .

Its watershed is the second-largest in the state, draining an area of , including 18 counties and 158 townships. Much of the basin is flat, and it contains many swamps and lakes. The basin is composed of four sub-basins: Upper Grand, Lower Grand, Thornapple, and Maple, where the four major tributaries flow: the Flat, Rogue, Thornapple, and Maple rivers.

Tributaries of the river include (beginning near river source and travelling downstream): Portage River, Red Cedar River, Looking Glass River, Maple River, Prairie Creek, Bellamy Creek, Flat River, Thornapple River, Rogue River, Coldbrook Creek, Plaster Creek, Bass River, Buck Creek and Crockery Creek.

Dams
There are fourteen dams on the main branch of the Grand River. Some 218 dams were built on its tributaries; these have divided the ecosystem into a set of dysfunctional local streams. 228 of these dams are registered with the Michigan Department of Environmental Quality.

The main branch dams are:

lower
Grand River (6th Street)
Grand River

middle
Lyons (removed in 2016)
Grand Ledge
Portland
North Lansing
Moores Park
Webber (hydroelectric)

upper
State Street
Moore's Park (hydroelectric)
Sanitation
Smithville (hydroelectric)

headwaters
Liberty Mills
Crystal Lake
Mirror Lake
Lake LeAnn North
Lake LeAnn South

Ecology
It is estimated that 22% of the pesticide usage in the Lake Michigan watershed occurs in the Grand River drainage, which accounts for only 13% of the lake's total watershed. The river is a trout and salmon stream for much of its length.

History
As the glacial ice receded from what is the central Lower Peninsula of Michigan around 11,000 years ago, the Maple River and lower Grand River served as a drainage channel for the meltwater. The channel ran east to west, emptying into proglacial Lake Chicago, the ancestor of Lake Michigan.

About 2,000 years ago, the Hopewell Indians settled along the Grand River near present-day Grandville. Their presence is still seen in the preserved burial mounds.

By the late 17th century, the Grand River band of Odawa had established villages on the banks of the Grand River at the sites of what would later become several towns and cities, including Grand Rapids, Forest Hills, Lowell, Lyons, and Portland.  For these peoples, as well as for later explorers, fur traders and settlers, the river served as an important navigational trade route and cultural hub.

The river formed part of a major demarcation of land ceded by Native Americans enabling U.S. settlers to legally obtain title to land in the area. In the 1821 Treaty of Chicago, the Odawa, Ojibwe, and Potawatomi ceded to the United States all lands in Michigan Territory south of the Grand River, with the exception of several small reservations.

The city of Grand Rapids was built starting in 1826 on the site of a mile long rapids 40 miles upstream from the river's mouth, although these disappeared after the installation of a run-of-river dam in 1866 and five low-rise dams during a river beautification project in 1927.

The Grand was important to the rapid development of West-Central Michigan during the 1850s to 1880s, as logs from Michigan's rich pine and oak forests floated down the Grand River for milling. After the Civil War, many soldiers found jobs as lumberjacks cutting logs and guiding them down the river with pike poles, peaveys, and cant hooks. The men wore bright red flannel, felt clothes, and spiked boots to hold them onto the floating logs; these boots chewed up the wooden sidewalks and flooring of the local bars, leading one hotel owner to supply carpet slippers to all river drivers who entered his hotel. The "jacks" earned $1 to $3 per day and all the "vittles" they could eat, which was usually a considerable amount.

In 1883, heavy rains during June and July brought water levels on the river to record highs. The flooding was bad enough, but the rising water overwhelmed lumbering booms—river enclosures used to sort and organize logs for transport to saw mills—in Lowell, Grand Rapids as well as Grand Haven and Robinson townships.  As water rose, the logs escaped the enclosures, much like cattle fleeing stockyards.  Soon, Kent and Ottawa counties had a 'stampede', as millions of logs flowed uncontrolled down the river and became trapped in bends or against bridges. The result was a logjam of incredible proportions that clogged the river for 47 miles (10 million Feet of logs trapped in Lowell, 95 million Feet of logs trapped in the "Big Bend" northeast of Grand Rapids, 80 million Feet of logs trapped in Ottawa County).

Grand River Avenue (or Grand River Road) was built early in the settlement of Michigan and ran from the head of navigation on the Grand to downtown Detroit. It formed an important part of an early route between Chicago and Detroit, along with the Grand itself, from Grand Rapids to Grand Haven on Lake Michigan.

A fish ladder installed in 1974 replaced the West Side Water Power Canal headgates removed in 1960. In recent years, Grand Rapids Whitewater, a private nonprofit organization, is working toward restoring the rapids to the river in Grand Rapids. The project, which began in 2019, will remove five dams between Sixth street and Pearl street to restore an 18-foot drop in the Grand River's elevation.

Points of interest
Two of Grand Valley State University's campuses are located on the banks of the Grand River. The main campus in Allendale and the Pew Grand Rapids campus in Grand Rapids both border the river in separate locations miles from each other. The Grand is home to GVSU's rowing team, and the crew boathouse sits parallel to the river on the Allendale campus's north side.

Coast Guard Station Grand Haven is situated near the mouth of the river in Grand Haven. The station gives Grand Haven its nickname Coast Guard City USA.

Parks, docks and recreational facilities
Millennium Park (Grand Rapids), the largest park in western Michigan, larger than Central Park, NY

Crossings
At least 80 bridges cross the river's 250-mile span, with most bridge structures clustered in metropolitan/municipal areas along the river.  County road and state highway crossings can be found in less densely populated areas along the waterway:

See also

 List of Michigan rivers
 U.S. Route 16 in Michigan, whose original roadbed between Detroit and Grand Haven is known as Grand River Road, or Grand River Avenue in communities along the route

References

External links

Rivers of Michigan
Tributaries of Lake Michigan
Geography of Grand Rapids, Michigan
Geography of Lansing, Michigan
Rivers of Hillsdale County, Michigan
Rivers of Jackson County, Michigan
Rivers of Ingham County, Michigan
Rivers of Eaton County, Michigan
Rivers of Clinton County, Michigan
Rivers of Ionia County, Michigan
Rivers of Kent County, Michigan
Rivers of Ottawa County, Michigan
Rivers with fish ladders

Grand River (Michigan)


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