Biodynamic agriculture is a form of alternative agriculture based on pseudo-scientific and esoteric concepts initially developed in 1924 by Rudolf Steiner (1861–1925). It was the first of the organic farming movements. It treats soil fertility, plant growth, and livestock care as ecologically interrelated tasks, emphasizing spiritual and mystical perspectives.

Biodynamics has much in common with other organic approaches – it emphasizes the use of manures and composts and excludes the use of synthetic (artificial) fertilizers, pesticides and herbicides on soil and plants. Methods unique to the biodynamic approach include its treatment of animals, crops, and soil as a single system, an emphasis from its beginnings on local production and distribution systems, its use of traditional and development of new local breeds and varieties. Some methods use an astrological sowing and planting calendar. Biodynamic agriculture uses various herbal and mineral additives for compost additives and field sprays; these are prepared using methods that are more akin to sympathetic magic than agronomy, such as burying ground quartz stuffed into the horn of a cow, which are said to harvest "cosmic forces in the soil".

No difference in beneficial outcomes has been scientifically established between certified biodynamic agricultural techniques and similar organic and integrated farming practices. Biodynamic agriculture is a pseudoscience as it lacks scientific evidence for its efficacy because of its reliance upon esoteric knowledge and mystical beliefs.

As of 2020, biodynamic techniques were used on 251,842 hectares in 55 countries, led by Germany, Australia and France. Germany accounts for 41.8% of the global total; the remainder average 1,750 ha per country. Biodynamic methods of cultivating grapevines have been taken up by several notable vineyards. There are certification agencies for biodynamic products, most of which are members of the international biodynamics standards group Demeter International.

History

Origin of a theory

Biodynamics was the first modern organic agriculture. Its development began in 1924 with a series of eight lectures on agriculture given by philosopher Rudolf Steiner at Schloss Koberwitz in Silesia, Germany (now Kobierzyce in Poland). These lectures, the first known presentation of organic agriculture, were held in response to a request by farmers who noticed degraded soil conditions and a deterioration in the health and quality of crops and livestock resulting from the use of chemical fertilizers. The 111 attendees, less than half of whom were farmers, came from six countries, primarily Germany and Poland. The lectures were published in November 1924; the first English translation appeared in 1928 as The Agriculture Course.

Steiner emphasized that the methods he proposed should be tested experimentally. For this purpose, Steiner established a research group, the "Agricultural Experimental Circle of Anthroposophical Farmers and Gardeners of the General Anthroposophical Society". Between 1924 and 1939, this research group attracted about 800 members from around the world, including Europe, the Americas and Australasia. Another group, the "Association for Research in Anthroposophical Agriculture" (Versuchsring anthroposophischer Landwirte), directed by the German agronomist Erhard Bartsch, was formed to test the effects of biodynamic methods on the life and health of soil, plants and animals; the group published a monthly journal, Demeter. Bartsch was also instrumental in developing a sales organisation for biodynamic products, Demeter, which still exists today. The Research Association was renamed the Imperial Association for Biodynamic Agriculture (Reichsverband für biologisch-dynamische Wirtschaftsweise) in 1933. It was dissolved by the National Socialist regime in 1941. In 1931 the association had 250 members in Germany, 109 in Switzerland, 104 in other European countries and 24 outside Europe. The oldest biodynamic farms are the Wurzerhof in Austria and Marienhöhe in Germany.

In 1938, Ehrenfried Pfeiffer's text, Bio-Dynamic Farming and Gardening, was published in five languages – English, Dutch, Italian, French, and German; this became the standard work in the field for several decades. In July 1939, at the invitation of Walter James, 4th Baron Northbourne, Pfeiffer travelled to the UK and presented the Betteshanger Summer School and Conference on Biodynamic Farming at Northbourne's farm in Kent. The conference has been described as the 'missing link' between biodynamic agriculture and organic farming because, in the year after Betteshanger, Northbourne published his manifesto of organic farming, Look to the Land, in which he coined the term 'organic farming' and praised the methods of Rudolf Steiner. In the 1950s, Hans Mueller was encouraged by Steiner's work to create the organic-biological farming method in Switzerland; this later developed to become the largest certifier of organic products in Europe, Bioland.

Geographic developments

Today biodynamics is practiced in more than 50 countries worldwide and in a variety of circumstances, ranging from temperate arable farming, viticulture in France, cotton production in Egypt, to silkworm breeding in China. Demeter International is the primary certification agency for farms and gardens using the methods. In 2020 Demeter International and the International Biodynamic Association joined to become the Biodynamic Federation – Demeter International.

 In the United States, biodynamic farming dates from 1926. From 1926 through to 1938, 39 farmers and gardeners in the US pursued biodynamic practices. The Biodynamic Farming & Gardening Association was founded in 1938 as a New York state corporation.
 In Great Britain, biodynamic farming dates from 1927. In 1928 the Anthroposophical Agricultural Foundation was founded in England; this is now called the Biodynamic Agriculture Association. In 1939, Britain's first biodynamic agriculture conference, the Betteshanger Summer School and Conference on Biodynamic Agriculture, was held at Lord Northbourne's farm in Kent; Ehrenfried Pfeiffer was the lead presenter.
 In Australia, the first biodynamic farmer was Ernesto Genoni who in 1928 joined the Experimental Circle of Anthroposophical Farmers and Gardeners, followed soon after by his brother Emilio Genoni. Ernesto Genoni's first biodynamic farm was at Dalmore, in Gippsland, Victoria, in 1933. The following year, Ileen Macpherson and Ernesto Genoni founded Demeter Biological Farm at Dandenong, Victoria, in 1934 and it was farmed using biodynamic principles for over two decades. Bob Williams presented the first public lecture in Australia on biodynamic agriculture on 26 June 1938 at the home of the architects Walter Burley Griffin and Marion Mahony Griffin at Castlecrag, Sydney. Since the 1950s research work has continued at the Biodynamic Research Institute (BDRI) in Powelltown, near Melbourne under the direction of Alex Podolinsky. In 1989 Biodynamic Agriculture Australia was established, as a not for profit association.
 In France the International Federation of Organic Agriculture Movements (IFOAM) was formed in 1972 with five founding members, one of which was the Swedish Biodynamic Association.
 The University of Kassel had a Department of Biodynamic Agriculture from 2006 to March 2011.
Emerson College (UK) was founded in 1962 and named after Ralph Waldo Emerson, American poet and transcendentalist. Since then it has held courses inspired by the philosophy and teachings of Rudolf Steiner, including on biodynamic agriculture.
In Canada, there are currently three biodynamic organizations, The Society for Biodynamic Farming and Gardening in Ontario, The Biodynamic Agricultural Society of British Columbia and the Association de Biodynamie du Québec that are members of Demeter Canada.

Biodynamic method of farming
In common with other forms of organic agriculture, biodynamic agriculture uses management practices that are intended to "restore, maintain and enhance ecological harmony". Central features include crop diversification, the avoidance of chemical soil treatments and off-farm inputs generally, decentralized production and distribution, and the consideration of celestial and terrestrial influences on biological organisms. The Demeter Association recommends that "(a) minimum of ten percent of the total farm acreage be set aside as a biodiversity preserve. That may include but is not limited to forests, wetlands, riparian corridors, and intentionally planted insectaries. Diversity in crop rotation and perennial planting is required: no annual crop can be planted in the same field for more than two years in succession. Bare tillage year round is prohibited so land needs to maintain adequate green cover."

The Demeter Association also recommends that the individual design of the land "by the farmer, as determined by site conditions, is one of the basic tenets of biodynamic agriculture. This principle emphasizes that humans have a responsibility for the development of their ecological and social environment which goes beyond economic aims and the principles of descriptive ecology." Crops, livestock, and farmer, and "the entire socioeconomic environment" form a unique interaction, which biodynamic farming tries to "actively shape ...through a variety of management practices. The prime objective is always to encourage healthy conditions for life": soil fertility, plant and animal health, and product quality. "The farmer seeks to enhance and support the forces of nature that lead to healthy crops, and rejects farm management practices that damage the environment, soil, plant, animal or human health....the farm is conceived of as an organism, a self-contained entity with its own individuality," holistically conceived and self-sustaining. "Disease and insect control are addressed through botanical species diversity, predator habitat, balanced crop nutrition, and attention to light penetration and airflow. Weed control emphasizes prevention, including timing of planting, mulching, and identifying and avoiding the spread of invasive weed species."

Biodynamic agriculture differs from many forms of organic agriculture in its spiritual, mystical, and astrological orientation. It shares a spiritual focus, as well as its view toward improving humanity, with the "nature farming" movement in Japan. Important features include the use of livestock manures to sustain plant growth (recycling of nutrients), maintenance and improvement of soil quality, and the health and well-being of crops and animals. Cover crops, green manures and crop rotations are used extensively and the farms to foster the diversity of plant and animal life, and to enhance the biological cycles and the biological activity of the soil.

Biodynamic farms often have a cultural component and encourage local community, both through developing local sales and through on-farm community building activities. Some biodynamic farms use the Community Supported Agriculture model, which has connections with social threefolding.

Compared to non-organic agriculture, BD farming practices have been found to be more resilient to environmental challenges, to foster a diverse biosphere, and to be more energy efficient, factors Eric Lichtfouse describes being of increasing importance in the face of climate change, energy scarcity and population growth.

Biodynamic preparations
In his "agricultural course" Steiner prescribed nine different preparations to aid fertilization, and described how these were to be prepared. Steiner believed that these preparations mediated terrestrial and cosmic forces into the soil. The prepared substances are numbered 500 through 508, where the first two are used for preparing fields, and the other seven are used for making compost. A long term trial (DOK experiment) evaluating the biodynamic farming system in comparison with organic and conventional farming systems, found that both organic farming and biodynamic farming resulted in enhanced soil properties, but had lower yields than conventional farming. Regarding compost development beyond accelerating the initial phase of composting, some positive effects have been noted:
 The field sprays contain substances that stimulate plant growth including cytokinins.
 Some improvement in nutrient content of compost is evident from the ingredients included, but not necessarily as a result of the practices and exact preparations as Steiner described them.

Although the preparations have direct nutrient values, modern biodynamic practitioners believe their benefit is to support the self-regulating capacities of the biota already present in the soil and compost. Critics of the practice have pointed out that no evidence or logic underlies the practices themselves, which instead are dependent on magical thinking and debunked theories of Steiner himself. There is no evidence that biodynamic practices have any benefit beyond the direct nutrients they add as fertilizer, which may itself be of smaller benefit than other traditionally organic or commercial fertilizers.

Field preparations
Field preparations, for stimulating humus formation:
 500: A humus mixture prepared by filling a cow's horn with cow manure and burying it in the ground (40–60 cm below the surface) in the autumn. It is left to decompose during the winter and recovered for use as fertilizer the following spring.
 501: Crushed powdered quartz stuffed into a cow's horn and buried in the ground in springtime and taken out in autumn. It can be mixed with 500 but is usually prepared on its own. The mixture is sprayed under very low pressure over the crop during the wet season, as a supposed antifungal.

Compost preparations
The compost preparations Steiner recommended employ herbs which are frequently used in alternative medical remedies. Many of the same herbs Steiner referenced are used in organic practices to make foliar fertilizers, green manure, or in composting. The preparations Steiner discussed were:
 502: Yarrow blossoms (Achillea millefolium) stuffed into the urinary bladders from red deer (Cervus elaphus), placed in the sun during summer, buried in the ground during winter, and retrieved in the spring.
 503: Chamomile blossoms (Matricaria recutita) stuffed into the small intestines of cattle, buried in humus-rich earth in the autumn, and retrieved in the spring.
 504: Stinging nettle (Urtica dioica) plants in full bloom stuffed together underground surrounded on all sides by peat for a year.
 505: Oak bark (Quercus robur) chopped in small pieces, placed inside the skull of a domesticated animal, surrounded by peat, and buried in the ground in a place near rain runoff.
 506: Dandelion flowers (Taraxacum officinale) stuffed into the mesentery of a cow, buried in the ground during winter, and retrieved in the spring.
 507: Valerian flowers (Valeriana officinalis) extracted into water.
 508: Horsetail (Equisetum).

Planting calendar

The approach considers that there are lunar and astrological influences on soil and plant development—for example, choosing to plant, cultivate or harvest various crops based on both the phase of the moon and the zodiacal constellation the moon is passing through, and also depending on whether the crop is the root, leaf, flower, or fruit of the plant. This aspect of biodynamics has been termed "astrological" and "pseudoscientific" in nature.

Seed production
Biodynamic agriculture has focused on the open pollination of seeds (with farmers thereby generally growing their own seed) and the development of locally adapted varieties.

Biodynamic certification
The Demeter biodynamic certification system established in 1924 was the first certification and labelling system for organic production. As of 2018, to receive certification as biodynamic, the farm must meet the following standards: agronomic guidelines, greenhouse management, structural components, livestock guidelines, and post-harvest handling and processing procedures.

The term Biodynamic is a trademark held by the Demeter association of biodynamic farmers for the purpose of maintaining production standards used both in farming and processing foodstuffs. The trademark is intended to protect both the consumer and the producers of biodynamic produce. Demeter International an organization of member countries; each country has its own Demeter organization which is required to meet international production standards (but can also exceed them). The original Demeter organization was founded in 1928; the U.S. Demeter Association was formed in the 1980s and certified its first farm in 1982. In France, Biodyvin certifies biodynamic wine. In Egypt, SEKEM has created the Egyptian Biodynamic Association (EBDA), an association that provides training for farmers to become certified. As of 2006, more than 200 wineries worldwide were certified as biodynamic; numerous other wineries employ biodynamic methods to a greater or lesser extent.

Effectiveness
Research into biodynamic farming has been complicated by the difficulty of isolating the distinctively biodynamic aspects when conducting comparative trials. Consequently, there is no strong body of material that provides evidence of any specific effect.

Since biodynamic farming is a form of organic farming, it can be generally assumed to share its characteristics, including "less stressed soils and thus diverse and highly interrelated soil communities".

A 2009/2011 review found that biodynamically cultivated fields:
 had lower absolute yields than conventional farms, but achieved better efficiency of production relative to the amount of energy used;
 had greater earthworm populations and biomass than conventional farms.

Both factors were similar to the result in organically cultivated fields.

Reception

In a 2002 newspaper editorial, Peter Treue, agricultural researcher at the University of Kiel, characterized biodynamics as pseudoscience and argued that similar or equal results can be obtained using standard organic farming principles. He wrote that some biodynamic preparations more resemble alchemy or magic akin to geomancy.

In a 1994 analysis, Holger Kirchmann, a soil researcher with the Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, concluded that Steiner's instructions were occult and dogmatic, and cannot contribute to the development of alternative or sustainable agriculture. According to Kirchmann, many of Steiner's statements are not provable because scientifically clear hypotheses cannot be made from his descriptions. Kirchmann asserted that when methods of biodynamic agriculture were tested scientifically, the results were unconvincing. Further, in a 2004 overview of biodynamic agriculture, Linda Chalker-Scott, a researcher at Washington State University, characterized biodynamics as pseudoscience, writing that Steiner did not use scientific methods to formulate his theory of biodynamics, and that the later addition of valid organic farming techniques has "muddled the discussion" of Steiner's original idea. Based on the scant scientific testing of biodynamics, Chalker-Scott concluded "no evidence exists" that homeopathic preparations improve the soil.

In Michael Shermer's The Skeptic Encyclopedia of Pseudoscience, Dan Dugan says that the way biodynamic preparations are supposed to be implemented are formulated solely on the basis of Steiner's "own insight". Skeptic Brian Dunning writes "the best way to think of 'biodynamic agriculture' would be as a magic spell cast over an entire farm. Biodynamics sees an entire farm as a single organism, with something that they call a life force."

Florian Leiber, Nikolai Fuchs and Hartmut Spieß, researchers at the Goetheanum, have defended the principles of biodynamics and suggested that critiques of biodynamic agriculture which deny it scientific credibility are "not in keeping with the facts...as they take no notice of large areas of biodynamic management and research". Biodynamic farmers are "charged with developing a continuous dialogue between biodynamic science and the natural sciences sensu stricto", despite important differences in paradigms, world views, and value systems.

Philosopher of science Michael Ruse has written that followers of biodynamic agriculture rather enjoy the scientific marginalisation that comes from its pseudoscientific basis, revelling both in its esoteric aspects and the impression that they were in the vanguard of the wider anti-science sentiment that has grown in opposition to modern methods such as genetic modification.

Steiner's theory was similar to those of the agricultural scientist Richard Krzymowski, who was teaching in Breslau since 1922. The environmental scientist Frank M. Rauch mentioned in 1995, concerning the reprint of a book from Raoul Heinrich Francé, another source probably used by Steiner.

According to a scientific paper of Holger Kirchmann in 2021, the auras and forces mentioned by Steiner are not known to science. His statement (hypothesis) of "living forces" affecting crops cannot be tested, and is thus not falsifiable. However, when a hypothesis is not falsifiable, this is a sign of pseudoscience.

A research team from the Botanical Garden and Department of Experimental and Social Sciences Education of the Faculty of Teacher Training of the University of Valencia warned in 2021 about the risk of pseudoscience in relation with myths or beliefs about the influence of the moon on agriculture. The findings of this scientific review of over 100 papers (including scientific articles, papers and higher education textbooks) have been published in the journal Agronomy. They found that there is no reliable, science-based evidence for any relationship between lunar phases and plant physiology in any plant–science related textbooks or peer-reviewed journal articles justifying agricultural practices conditioned by the Moon. Nor does evidence from the field of physics support a causal relationship between lunar forces and plant responses. Therefore, popular agricultural practices that are tied to lunar phases have no scientific backing.

See also

 Agroecology
 Alan Chadwick
 Biointensive agriculture
 Permaculture
 The Real Dirt on Farmer John – documentary on a conventional farm which converted to biodynamic and community-supported agriculture
 Wild farming

References

Further reading

  Introduction

Bibliography

External links
 Biodynamics Section at the Rudolf Steiner Archive, An Online Library

Agriculture by type
Anthroposophy
Organic farming
Pseudoscience

Biodynamic agriculture


Pruské este o comună slovacă, aflată în districtul Ilava din regiunea Trenčín. Localitatea se află la , se întinde pe o suprafață de  și în 2017 număra 2.288 de locuitori.

Istoric
Localitatea Pruské este atestată documentar din 1224.

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Localități din Slovacia

Pruské


Duryodhana (, ), also known as Suyodhana, is the primary antagonist in the Hindu epic Mahabharata. He was the eldest of the Kauravas, the hundred sons of the king Dhritarashtra and his queen Gandhari.

Being the first-born son of the king, he was the crown prince of the Kuru Kingdom and its capital of Hastinapura, often forced into ceding the title to his cousin Yudhishthira, who was one of the Pandava brothers and older than he. Aided by his maternal uncle Shakuni, Duryodhana tricked the Pandavas into surrendering their kingdom and forced them to go into exile. Later, Duryodhana waged the Kurukshetra War against his cousins and was helped by the warriors Bhishma, Drona and Karna. On the eighteenth day of the war, he was killed by Bheema. Duryodhana used his greater skill in wielding the mace to defeat his opponents. He was also an extremely courageous warrior but his greed and arrogance were the two qualities said to have led to his downfall.

Birth
When Gandhari's pregnancy continued for an unusually long period of time, Her mother-in-law Ambika and Ambalika were very upset with her. Pandu and Kunti earlier bore a son whom they named Yudhishthira. So she beat her womb in frustration. This caused a hardened mass of grey-coloured flesh to issue from her womb. She implored Vyasa, the great sage who had blessed her as "Shata Putra Praptirasthu" (Sanskrit for "blessed with a hundred sons"), to redeem his words. Vyasa divided the ball of flesh into one hundred and one equal pieces and put them in pots of milk, which were sealed and buried into the earth for two years. At the end of the second year, the first pot was opened, and Duryodhana emerged.

Early years

Although loved by his family, Duryodhana and most of his brothers were not seen on the same level as the Pandavas in their adherence to virtue, duty, and respect for elders. Duryodhana felt that the partiality everyone showed to the Pandavas was only due to the circumstances of their birth. Duryodhana was mentored by his maternal uncle Shakuni, who masterminded most of Duryodhana's plots to humiliate and kill the Pandavas.

Duryodhana's hatred for the Pandavas stemmed from his sincere belief that he being the son of the eldest brother should be the heir apparent to the throne of Hastinapura. Because of his father's (Dhritarashtra) blindness, his father had to renounce the throne in favour of his younger brother, Pandu. Duryodhana deeply believed that what was rightfully his was being given away to his older cousin Yudhishthira. He also felt that the Pandavas were the sons of Kunti and devas/deities, and not of Pandu. He never believed that their divine origin alone proved their superiority. On many occasions he questioned their merits and always called them 'Kaunteya' (sons of Kunti). He would never accept the Pandavas as his brothers but always did his best to restrain them. He also bore a deep hatred of Bhima, who was younger and  but stronger than he and dominated his brothers in sport and skill with his immense physical power and strength. Out of anger and jealousy, he even tried to poison Bhima, but was unsuccessful.

Training

Learning martial skills from his gurus Dronacharya, he proved to be extremely skilled with the mace. He then went to specialize in mace fighting under Balarama, so as to gain sympathy from him and went on to become his favourite pupil. Balarama described Duryodhana's body to be "lightning made flesh" and declared him to be the greatest mace fighter of his generation.

Relationship with Karna
At the martial exhibition where the Kaurava and Pandava princes demonstrated their skills before their elders, their guru Drona and the people of that kingdom, Karna appeared and challenged an unsuspecting Arjuna, who is considered to be the best of the princes. But Karna was stopped when Kripa asked him to ascertain his lineage, as it would be inappropriate for unequal to compete. Karna, not being a kshatriya, bowed his head in shame.

Duryodhana immediately defended Karna, arguing that it is skill and bravery, and not birth, that defines a warrior. Using the boon granted to him by Dhritarashtra, Duryodhana made Karna king of Anga so that he was regarded as Arjuna's equal. Karna pledged his allegiance and friendship to Duryodhana. Neither of them knew that Karna was in fact Kunti's oldest son, born to (the sun god) Surya, before her marriage to Pandu.

In the Kurukshetra War, Karna was Duryodhana's greatest champion and served as commander from the fifteenth day. Duryodhana sincerely believed that Karna was superior to Arjuna, and would defeat his four brothers. When Karna was killed, Duryodhana mourned his death intensely, even more so than the death of his own brothers and was inconsolable. When Karna's identity was revealed to him, Duryodhana's love for Karna only grew and it is said to be he, and not the Pandavas, who performed Karna's last rites. Krishna confirmed that he had the highest right over Karna, as they loved and supported each other truly.

Tendencies and schemes

During their childhood, Bhima used his brute strength to inflict injuries on the Kaurava brothers. As Bhima was gluttonous, Duryodhana, guided by Shakuni attempted to kill Bhima by feeding him poison, but Bhima survived the trap and emerged even stronger than before. Duryodhana then participated in a plot by Shakuni to burn the Pandavas in a house of wax at Varnavata; however, they managed to escape the trap having been warned by Vidura.

Marriage and children
In the Shanti Parva, the divine sage Narada narrated the marriage of Duryodhana with the daughter of King Chitrangada of Kalinga. The wife of Duryodhana are unnamed in the original epic, are named Bhanumati in later renditions and adaptations of the pic .

Duryodhana abducted them from their swayamvara (self-choice ceremony) with the help of his friend Karna in the wake of having been rejected by them. On reaching Hastinapur, Duryodhana justified his act by giving the example of his great grandfather Bhishma abducting three princesses of Kashi for his stepbrother.

Laxman Kumara and Lakshmanā were the children of Duryodhana and Bhanumati. Little is revealed about them in the Mahabharata other than Laxman's death in the Kurukshetra War and Laxmanaa's marriage to Krishna's son Samba. According to Mahabharatha Duryodhana had only one wife and he loved her immensely.

Usurping the Kingdom

After the Pandavas revealed that they had survived the wax house, with a new wife to boot, Bhishma suggested that the kingdom be divided in order to ease the obvious tension. Yudhishthira is given half the kingdom and made king of Khandavprastha, so as to avoid a clash with the Kaurava princes over the whole Kuru Kingdom. Duryodhana became the crown prince of Hastinapura, and owing to the age and blindness of his father, he accumulated much control and influence, managing the state affairs himself with a group of his advisers that included his uncle Shakuni, brother Dushasana, Bhishma, Vidura, and Karna.
But Duryodhana remained jealous of Yudhishthira, especially after the Pandavas along with Krishna transformed Khandavaprastha to Indraprastha. Moreover, Yudhishthira performed the Rajasuya Yagna and gained authority over several other kingdoms; Indraprastha's prosperity and fame appeared to exceed Hastinapura's. Duryodhana was unable to contain his anger, which was intensified when Bhima, Arjuna, the twins and the servants laughed at him when he slipped into a pool of water during a visit to Indraprastha.

In popular culture, television shows and post-modern novels on Mahabharata attribute this blame to Draupadi with an added statement "the son of the blind man also is blind", but the scene in the canonical text of Vyasa's Sanskrit epic is different. As per original scripture written by Ved Vyasa Draupadi didn't taunt Duryodhana.
This enraged Duryodhana and increases his hostility towards the Pandavas.

The dice plot, and Draupadi's humiliation

Duryodhana's jealousy of the prosperity and fame of Indraprastha and being humiliated by the Pandavas made him furious and he wished to throw down the Pandavas. To support his will, Shakuni devised a scheme to rob Yudhishthira of his kingdom and wealth by defeating him in a Pakida or game of dice, in which Shakuni couldn't lose as he had dice which he could control.

Unable to decline the invitation, due to diplomacy, Yudhishthira gambled away his entire kingdom, his wealth, his four brothers and even his wife, in a series of gambits to retrieve one by staking another. After Yudhishthira lost Draupadi, Duryodhana encouraged his brother Dushasana to drag her into the court as she was now his property. Dushsana pulled Draupadi's hair and dragged her into the court. Duryodhana ordered Draupadi to sit on his left thigh, showing and patting it to insult her for revenge. Draupadi refused and Duryodhan ordered Dushashan to disrobe her. Following his brother's orders, Dushashan laughed and started pulling Draupadi's saree. Duryodhan, Shakuni, and the other Kauravas (except Vikarna,karna) also started laughing. However, by Krishna's grace, Draupadi's amount of clothing remained the same.

Due to this action, Bhima pledged that he would break Duryodhana's thigh.

As an enraged Draupadi was about to curse the Kuru clan, Gandhari intervened. Fearing retribution by the Pandavas, their allies, and history, Dhritarashtra and Gandhari reversed all of Yudhishthira's losses. But then (either through Duryodhana forcing his father to command the Pandavas to play again or through Shakuni's vicious tricks) the game was repeated. For this game of dice Shakuni set the condition that upon losing, Yudhishthira and his brothers must spend thirteen years in exile in the forest and one year of Agyatavasa (remain unknown to others possibly by a disguise) before they reclaim their kingdom. The thirteenth year must be passed incognito, or else the term of exile would be repeated. The Pandavas lost and began their exile.

Virata War
Duryodhana was a good friend of Matsya Kingdom's commander-in-chief Kichaka. When Bhima killed him for humiliating Draupadi, Duryodhana blamed Matsya's King Virata for his friend Kichaka's death. Virata got angry and ordered Duryodhana to get out of his Kingdom after insulting him. Duryodhana took his army and attacked Matsya. He ordered his two wives cousin Susharma to attack Matsya from other side but they failed to conquer it because Arjuna and Bhima defended it.

The Kurukshetra War

Peace Talks and Buildup

At the end of the exile term, Duryodhana refused to return Yudhishthira's kingdom, despite the counsel of Bhishma, Dronacharya, and Vidura. Although Dhritarashtra openly criticized his son, he tacitly desired that Durd with the Pandavas' final proposal: the Pandavas would give up all claims to Indraprastha and Hastinapura in exchange for five villages. Scoffing, Duryodhana said he will not even give even a needlepoint of land to the Pandavas. Egged on by Krishna, Duryodhana attempted to arrest him. Krishna revealed his Vishvarupa form. The entire Kaurava court, saved for Bhishma, Drona, Vidura, Krip and Dhritarashtra (who was granted a divine vision in order to see that by supporting his son, he was going against God), was temporarily blinded by the form. This confirmed to those present that Krishna was indeed the Surpreme being. Duryodhana, being vastly egoistic (in some versions of the story an outright atheist), brushed off the incident, not convinced of Krishna's divinity, and believing that strength of arms, not philosophy, would win him a war.

Gathering the army

With war inevitable, Duryodhana gathered support from his powerful vassals. The most powerful warriors – Bhishma, Drona, Karna, Kripa, Shalya, Bhurisravas, Ashwatthama, even those who were critical of him were forced to fight for Duryodhana due to their previous commitments. He ended up amassing a larger army than his rivals.

Shakuni also advised Duryodhana to seek Krishna's help. Duryodhana rushed to Dwarika only to find Krishna sleeping; he waited at the head of Krishna's bed when suddenly, Arjuna arrived with the same goal in mind. Arjuna waited at the foot of Krishna's bed. When Krishna woke up, both Duryodhana and Arjuna appealed for his alliance. Krishna offered a choice of himself, completely unarmed or the entire Vrishni army. Duryodhana proclaimed that because he arrived first, he should get first pick. However, Krishna said that because he saw Arjuna first and because Arjuna was younger, that Arjuna gets the first choice. Duryodhana became worried but was overjoyed when Arjuna elected to reject Krishna's army in favour of Krishna alone. Joyously, Duryodhana returned to Hastinapura with the Vrishni army in hand, only to be rebuked by Shakuni, who comments that Krishna is worth many armies by himself.

Duryodhana also managed to win the army of Shalya, the maternal uncle of Nakula and Sahadeva. Duryodhana intercepted Shalya's army as it came to Kurukshetra and offered hospitality; Shalya accepted thinking Yudhishthira had made the offer. After Shalya had enjoyed Duryodhana's comforts, Duryodhana revealed the duplicity and indicated that Shalya is now indebted to him. He used this indebtedness to extract Shalya's army and support. Duryodhana wanted Shalya mainly so that Karna would have an equivalent charioteer to Arjuna's Krishna.

4th day
Bhima attacked Duryodhana, pierced him and cut off his bow. In return, Duryodhana pierced Bhima, his Charioteer and cut off his bow. Duryodhana pierced Bhima with shafts on his breast. Bhima feeling great pain fled away from the battlefield.

8th day
On the 8th day, Rakashasaas of Ghatotkacha's army attacked Duryodhana. Duryodhana slew many rakshasas like Vegavat, Maharudra, Vidyujihva and Pramathin. Later, he killed Visharada, son of Kunti-Bhoja.

14th day
Uttamauja and Yudhamanyu (sons of Drupad) attacked Duryodhana and Duryodhana defeated them in mace fighting. After the death of Jayadratha, Duryodhana became very angry and he started killing the Pandava army. However, he is later defeated by Yudhishthira and flees.

15th day
Nakula attacked Duryodhana. Duryodhana fought with him and defeated Nakula, forcing him to flee. On the sixteenth day, he tried to face Yudishthira and bravely withstood his onslaught. But soon, Yudishthira defeated him and destroyed his chariot. Luckily, he was rescued by Karna.

17th day
Nakula and Sahadeva attacked Duryodhana. Duryodhana pierced them and nearly killed them. Later, Dhrishtadyumna saved them. Then many Pandava warriors, including Yudhishthira, Bhima, Dristadyumna, Satyaki, etc. all together attacked Duryodhana. However Duryodhana alone managed to resist all the Pandavas and he repelled the Pandavas' group attack single-handedly.

18th day
On the 18th day, the Pandavas together had attacked Duryodhana but they were unsuccessful as Duryodhana alone resisted and defeated all of them. Duryodhana had also killed a Yadava warrior named Chekitana on that day. Later, he tried to defeat Dhrishtadyumna who was destroying the retreating Kaurava army. However, Dhrishtadyumna killed Duryodhana's charioteer and destroyed his chariot, forcing Duryodhana to flee. He was the one of the only warriors who was able to defeat Duryodhana that day.

Gada-Yuddha

On the eighteenth day of the war, with his army reduced to himself, Ashwatthama, Kripa and Kritvarma, Duryodhana went to meditate in a lake. When the Pandavas and Krishna eventually found him, Duryodhana told them that he wanted to gift the kingdom to them and retire to the forest. Yudhishthira rejected the offer, telling him that Hastinapur is not Duryodhana's to gift. Instead, he offered that Duryodhana may pick any of the Pandava brothers to fight against one-to-one with a weapon of his choice, with the winner of the conflict being the victor of the war.

Despite his proposed advantage over Yudhishthira, Arjuna, Nakula, or Sahadeva with the gada, Duryodhana picked his nemesis Bhima. Despite Bhima's physical advantage, Duryodhana had the better technique due to his devotion to his craft. After a long and brutal battle between the two disciples of Balarama, Duryodhana began to exhaust Bhima and nearly made Bhima faint.

At this point, observing the fight, he called out to Bhima and signaled him by repeatedly clapping his thigh with his hand. As intended, Bhima was reminded of an oath he had taken after the game of dice to crush Duryodhana's thighs. Bhima victoriously attacked Duryodhana with his mace and struck his thigh, mortally wounding Duryodhana. After having his face insultingly kicked by Bhima, Duryodhana moaned that he was slain by unfair means, given that it was illegal to attack below the waist in a mace fight.

Infuriated at the violation, Balarama, the brother of Lord Krishna, raised his weapon to attack. Lord Krishna consoled Balarama by reminding him of Duryodhana's evil deeds and reprimanded him for trying to influence a war he refused to participate in.

Lying defeated, Duryodhana boasted to the Pandavas about how he would die a glorious death, about how he got to enjoy Hastinapur while the Pandavas were in exile, and about how he would now spend the afterlife in the company of his friends and relatives. He again eviscerated the Pandavas for all their chicanery during the war and decried their legacy. Venerating his character, Duryodhana proclaimed he would die happily.

Death

When the coast was clear, Ashwatthama, Kripacharya, and Kritvarma, having witnessed the fight and not wanting to interrupt so as to rob Duryodhana of his honor, came to Duryodhana's broken body. Ashwatthama promised Duryodhana that he would dispatch the Pandavas and their allies to the abode of Yama and requests his permission to continue the war.

After killing the Upapandavas and the last remnants of the Panchalas, Ashwatthama returns to Duryodhana. He showed Duryodhana the blood on his sword which belonged to the Upapandavas, hearing Duryodhana peacefully left his body satisfied with revenge. Concomitant with Duryodhana's death, Sanjaya loses his divine sight, which he had been using to update Duryodhana's father Dhritarashtra. This symbolizes the conclusion to the war.

After the Pandavas retired, only Yudhishthira reached heaven alive. There, he saw Duryodhana, which shocked him. When asked by Yudhishthira, Narada replied that Duryodhana fulfilled his religious duties.

Evaluation

Duryodhana is a popular choice of analysis. His merits, flaws, symbolism, and relevance are widely discussed.

Urubhangam is a Sanskrit play written by Bhasa in the 2nd or 3rd century AD with Duryodhana as its primary protagonist. Written as a tragedy, the drama focuses on his point of view of the events of Mahabharata. His portrayal as a tragic hero is especially unique within the body of works in Sanskrit drama.

Many Hindus believe that Duryodhana was the personification of Kali with demoniac qualities such as greed, ego and lust. Many critics argue that he is not without positives; many consider Duryodhana as a fair king and there are temples dedicated to him and the Kauravas. Scholars believe that like most other characters of the Mahabharata, the true picture is not black and white. His name is often mistaken to mean bad ruler, however, his name is actually coined from the Sanskrit words "du"/"duh" which means "difficult" and "yodhana" which means "fight"/"war". So Duryodhana actually means someone who is extremely difficult to fight/defeat or wage war against.

Duryodhana is viewed, by some, as the product of Dhritarashtra's ambition and also in a metaphorical sense, his "blindness". He is also praised for his adherence to his duties as a Kshatriya, and even in his last combat, fights bravely. He chooses to face Bhima in combat over all the other Pandavas, with whom he has an advantage in mace fighting. His skills in the mace are also praised; many stories call him the greatest mace-fighter of the age.

Friendship with Karna

The friendship between Karna and Duryodhana is considered to be a great one, and is used as an example of friendship and loyalty.
A lesser-known story is told about Karna, Duryodhana, and his wives Bhanumati and Mayuri, as an example of honest friendship.
With the help of Karna, Duryodhana married Bhanumati and Mayuri. According to the Mahabharata, Duryodhana abducted Bhanumati and Mayuri, the maidens of the fairest complexion, from their swayamvara with the help of his best friend Karna in the wake of having been rejected by them.

As per a Tamil folktale, when Duryodhana had recently wedded Bhanumati and Mayuri, one day, he requested Karna to take care of them and entertain her for the evening as he had duties to be taken care of. To pass time, Karna and Bhanumati and Sudeshnavati began playing a game of dice. The game soon got very interesting, engrossing the two of them completely. Gradually, Karna started winning. Meanwhile, Duryodhana had returned early and entered the room. Seeing her husband come in, Bhanumati  and Mayuri immediately stood up as a mark of respect. Karna, whose back was facing the door, did not realize this and misconstrued her intent, thinking that they was leaving because she was on the losing side.

He immediately reached for their pearl-trimmed shawl, and accidentally pulled so hard that the trimming broke, and the pearls were scattered all over the floor. Her veil also slipped along with the shawl, so she was half-dressed. Bhanumati and Mayuri, who were  yet, not so familiar with Karna, froze at the thought of how her husband would react. She had heard of his ego and had personally been present the last time he was insulted, which had resulted in her own abduction.

Karna, following Bhanumati and Mayuri's stunned gaze, turned around to see Duryodhana observing them both carefully. He stood in shame, embarrassment and guilt, considering the wrath and inevitable punishment he was going to face from his friend. He was sure Duryodhana would immediately accuse them of impropriety. However, much to both their surprise, Duryodhana looked past Karna, and addressed his wives, "Should I just collect the beads, or would you like me to string them, as well?"

Bhanumati and Karna could only look at each other in shock, mutely, feeling ashamed at the way they had both severely misjudged him. He had implicit faith and great love for his queen, and even greater was his faith in his friend Karna. Not for a moment did he suspect that the man he had considered his brother would ever betray him, and only quietly picked up the pearls trustfully. This story is not present in the Vyasa Mahabharata, but is often commonly told when discussing Karna and Duryodhana's genuine friendship.

Modern Worship
 At Poruvazhy Peruviruthy Malanada Temple in Kerala's Kollam district, Duryodhana is worshipped as the main deity. It is the only temple in South India where a Kaurava is considered a God.
 In the Kumaon region of Uttarakhand, several beautifully carved temples are dedicated to Duryodhana and he is worshipped as the deity. The mountain tribes of Kumaon fought along with Duryodhana in the Mahabharata war; he was venerated as a capable and generous administrator.
 There is a temple in Osla, Garhwal division of Uttarakhand. This was built by the inhabitants of Saur. People believe he stayed here with the blessings of Lord Mahasu to care for the people.

In media
 Krishnavatara (Hindi: कृष्णअवतार), a series of seven novels written by Dr. K.M. Munshi (Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan)
 Duryodhana by Viswanathan Raghunathan (2014, Harper Collins).

Television & films
Mammootty played a character based on Duryodhana in the 1991 Kollywood film Thalapathi. The theme of the film is based on the friendship between Karna and Duryodhana.
Manoj Bajpayee played a character based on Duryodhana in the 2010 Bollywood film Raajneeti.

See also
Kaurava
Kali (demon)
Mahabharata

References

External links

Duryodhana Temples and Lineage
karna great personalities
THE RELEVANCE OF "KARNA AND DURYODHANA'S" FRIENDSHIP IN THE MODERN INDIAN SOCIETY
From Duryodhana's perspective

Characters in the Mahabharata
Forms of Kali (demon)
Mythological princes

Duryodhana


Viscount Massereene is a title in the Peerage of Ireland. It was created in 1660, along with the subsidiary title of Baron Loughneagh. From 1665 to 1816 the Skeffington Baronetcy of Fisherwick was attached to the viscountcy and from 1756 to 1816 the Viscounts also held the title of Earl of Massereene. Since 1843 the peerages are united with titles of Viscount Ferrard, of Oriel and Baron Oriel, both in the Peerage of Ireland, and Baron Oriel, in the Peerage of the United Kingdom. The Viscount also holds the subsidiary titles of Baron Loughneagh (1660) and Baron Oriel (1790) in the Peerage of Ireland and Baron Oriel (1821) in the Peerage of the United Kingdom. As Baron Oriel, he sat in the House of Lords until 1999.

The family seat was Chilham Castle, near Canterbury, Kent.

Viscount Massereene

John Clotworthy was a prominent Anglo-Irish politician during the Civil War. In 1660 he was created Baron Loughneagh (after Lough Neagh) and Viscount Massereene in the Peerage of Ireland, with remainder to his son-in-law Sir John Skeffington, 4th Baronet, of Fisherwick, the husband of his daughter the Hon. Mary Clotworthy, and in default thereof to his heirs general. This makes the peerages unique in being the only extant Irish peerages that can descend through heirs general rather than heirs male only. Lord Massereene was succeeded according to the special remainder by his son-in-law, the second Viscount. In 1756 his great-grandson, the fifth Viscount, was created Earl of Massereene in Peerage of Ireland. However, the earldom and baronetcy became extinct in 1816 on the death of his grandson, the fourth Earl. The barony of Loughneugh and viscountcy of Massereene were inherited according to the special remainder (which allowed them to be passed on through the female line) by his daughter Harriet, the ninth Viscountess. She was the wife of Thomas Henry Foster, 2nd Viscount Ferrard (see below). Lord Ferrard and Lady Massereene were both succeeded by their son, the tenth Viscount Massereene and third Viscount Ferrard. In 1817 he assumed by Royal licence the surname of Skeffington in lieu of Foster. His son, the eleventh and fourth Viscount, notably served as Lord Lieutenant of County Louth. His son, the twelfth and fifth Viscount, was Lord Lieutenant of Antrim and a member of the Senate of Northern Ireland.  the titles are held by the latter's grandson, the fourteenth and seventh Viscount, who succeeded his father in 1992. Both he and his father have been presidents of the Conservative Monday Club.

Viscount Ferrard and Baron Oriel

John Foster served as Chancellor of the Irish Exchequer and as Speaker of the Irish House of Commons and also represented County Louth in the British House of Commons. In 1821 he was created Baron Oriel, of Ferrard in the County of Louth, in the Peerage of the United Kingdom. His wife Margaretta Amelia Foster was created Baroness Oriel, of Collon, in 1790, and Viscountess Ferrard, of Oriel in 1797, both in the Peerage of Ireland. Both Lord Oriel and Lady Ferrard were succeeded by their son, the second Viscount. He was the husband of Harriet Skeffington, 9th Viscountess Massereene. Both he and his wife were succeeded by their son, the tenth Viscount Massereene and third Viscount Ferrard. The titles remain united. For later history of the peerages, see above.

Skeffington baronets, of Fisherwick

William Skeffington was High Sheriff of Staffordshire in 1601 and 1623. On 8 May 1627 he was created a Baronet, of Fisherwick in the County of Stafford, in the Baronetage of England. The second Baronet was Member of Parliament for Newcastle-under-Lyme and served as High Sheriff of Staffordshire in 1637. The fourth Baronet married Hon. Mary Clotworthy, daughter of John Clotworthy, 1st Viscount Massereene. In 1665 he succeeded his father-in-law as second Viscount Massereene according to a special remainder in the letters patent. The titles remained united until the extinction of the baronetcy in 1816. For later history of the titles, see above.

Viscounts Massereene (1660)
John Clotworthy, 1st Viscount Massereene (died 1665)
John Skeffington, 2nd Viscount Massereene (died 1695)
Clotworthy Skeffington, 3rd Viscount Massereene (1660–1714)
Clotworthy Skeffington, 4th Viscount Massereene (died 1738)
Clotworthy Skeffington, 5th Viscount Massereene (1715–1757) (created Earl of Massereene in 1756)

Earls of Massereene (1756)
Clotworthy Skeffington, 1st Earl of Massereene, 5th Viscount Massereene (1715–1757)
Clotworthy Skeffington, 2nd Earl of Massereene, 6th Viscount Massereene (1743–1805)
Henry Skeffington, 3rd Earl of Massereene, 7th Viscount Massereene (died 1811)
Chichester Skeffington, 4th Earl of Massereene, 8th Viscount Massereene (died 1816)

Viscounts Massereene (1660; reverted)
Harriet Skeffington, 9th Viscountess Massereene (died 1831)
John Skeffington, 10th Viscount Massereene, 3rd Viscount Ferrard (1812–1863)
Clotworthy John Skeffington, 11th Viscount Massereene, 4th Viscount Ferrard (1842–1905)
Algernon William John Clotworthy Skeffington, 12th Viscount Massereene, 5th Viscount Ferrard (1873–1956)
John Clotworthy Talbot Foster Whyte-Melville-Skeffington, 13th Viscount Massereene, 6th Viscount Ferrard, 6th Baron Oriel (1914–1992)
John David Clotworthy Whyte-Melville Foster Skeffington, 14th Viscount Massereene, 7th Viscount Ferrard, 7th Baron Oriel (born 1940)

The heir apparent is the present holder's son, the Hon. Charles Clotworthy Whyte-Melville Foster Skeffington (born 1973).
The heir apparent's heir apparent is his son, James Algernon Foster Clotworthy Skeffington (born 2014).

Skeffington baronets, of Fisherwick (1627)
Sir William Skeffington, 1st Baronet (died 1635)
Sir John Skeffington, 2nd Baronet (–1651).
Sir William Skeffington, 3rd Baronet (died 1652)
Sir John Skeffington, 4th Baronet (died 1695) (succeeded as 2nd Viscount Massereene in 1665)
See above for further succession.

Viscounts Ferrard (1797)
Margaretta Amelia Foster, 1st Viscountess Ferrard (died 1821)
Thomas Henry Skeffington, 2nd Viscount Ferrard (1772–1843)
John Skeffington, 3rd Viscount Ferrard (1812–1863) (succeeded as 10th Viscount Massereene in 1831)
See above for further succession.

Barons Oriel (1821)
John Foster, 1st Baron Oriel (1740–1828)
Thomas Henry Skeffington, 2nd Baron Oriel (1772–1843) (succeeded as 2nd Viscount Ferrard in 1821)
See above for further succession.

References

Kidd, Charles, Williamson, David (editors). Debrett's Peerage and Baronetage (1990 edition). New York: St Martin's Press, 1990.

Cracroft-Brennan, Patrick (editor). Cracroft's Peerage

Further reading
The Extraordinary Career of the 2nd Earl of Massereene, 1743–1805; a volume of select documents with explanatory notes and introduction by A. P. W. Malcomson. (Ulster Characters.) Belfast: Her Majesty's Stationery Office, 1972

Viscountcies in the Peerage of Ireland
Peerages created with special remainders
Noble titles created in 1660

Viscount Massereene


Mölln, Almanya'nın kuzeyinde Schleswig-Holstein eyaletinde, Herzogtum Lauenburg iline bağlı kent. 25,05 km² yüzölçüme sahiptir. Nüfusu, 31 Aralık 2006 itibarıyla yaklaşık 18642 olarak tespit edilmiştir. Belediye Başkanlığı Wolfgang Engelmann tarafından yürütülmektedir.

Mölln Katliamı
Michael P. (olay esnasında 25 yaşında) ile Lars C. (19) adlı 2 Neonazi, Mölln kentinde Aslan ailesinin oturduğu evi 23 Kasım 1992'de kundakladı. Yangında Aslan ailesinin 3 ferdi; Bahide (51), Yeliz (10) ve Ayşe (14) öldü. Ayten Aslan, oğlu Emrah'ı battaniyelere sararak evin 7 metre yüksekliğindeki penceresinden atlayarak kurtuldu. Çok sayıda kırıkla ağır yaralı olarak hastaneye kaldırılan Ayten Aslan, yaklaşık 2 yıllık tedavi döneminden sonra normal yaşantısına dönebildi. Olay nedeniyle sakat kalan Aslan iş bulamadı. Tazminat olarak 30 bin mark, oğlu için 10 bin mark, ayrıca ev işleri için de 3500 mark aldı.

Michael P. ömür boyu hapse mahkûm edildi. Lars C. ise yaşının küçüklüğü nedeniyle 10 yıl hapis cezasına çarptırıldı, daha sonra erken tahliye edildi.

Kaynakça

Dış bağlantılar
 www.moelln.de

Herzogtum Lauenburg iline bağlı yerleşim birimleri

Mölln


Cobham Hall est un manoir historique dans le comté de Kent, en Angleterre. Le bâtiment classé grade I  est l'une des maisons les plus grandes et les plus importantes du Kent, reconstruite dans le style Tudor par William Brooke (10e baron Cobham) (1527-1597). Le bloc central est reconstruit en 1672-1682 par Charles Stewart (3e duc de Richmond) (1639-1672).

Aujourd'hui, le bâtiment abrite la Cobham Hall School, un pensionnat privé pour filles, créé en 1962, qui conserve 150 acres de l'ancien domaine .

La laiterie historique, conçue par l'architecte James Wyatt pour attirer le regard, est restaurée par le Landmark Trust  et a ouvert ses portes en tant que destination de vacances en 2019.

Histoire

Il y a un manoir sur le site depuis le . Le bâtiment actuel se compose d'une paire d'ailes Tudor construites pour William Brooke (10e baron Cobham) au  et d'un bloc central classique plus tardif, le «Cross Wing», remodelé en 1661-63 par Peter Mills de Londres pour Charles Stewart (3e duc de Richmond) . L'étage du grenier est agrandi et d'autres modifications sont apportées pour John Bligh (3e comte de Darnley) par William Chambers, vers 1767–70 . Une cour de cuisine est ajoutée à l'arrière en 1771–73. La caractéristique la plus notable de l'intérieur est le Gilt Hall à deux étages, conçu et installé par George Shakespear, maître charpentier et architecte de Londres, qui apporte d'importantes modifications à l'intérieur, de 1770 à 1781 . L'orgue est construit par John Snetzler en 1778-1797 .

Le quatrième comte, qui hérite en 1781, emploie James Wyatt pour les intérieurs, qui comprennent la galerie de peintures et la salle à manger, ainsi que pour les écuries et une laiterie gothique . La bibliothèque est aménagée par George Stanley Repton en 1817-1820  et avec son frère, John Adey Repton, dans le style Jacobéen, notamment le plafond de la « Chambre de la reine Elizabeth » (1817) . Leur père, Humphry Repton, est embauché pour concevoir un plan d'aménagement paysager du domaine et termine l'un de ses célèbres « Livres rouges » pour Cobham en 1790. Cobham Hall reste la maison familiale des comtes de Darnley jusqu'en 1957 et abrite maintenant l'école. Il est ouvert au public un nombre limité de jours chaque année .

Le bâtiment est utilisé comme lieu de tournage. Une scène dans Agent Cody Banks 2 dans laquelle Frankie Muniz combat Keith Allen dans une pièce pleine de trésors inestimables est tournée dans le Gilt Hall. Des scènes d'une adaptation de Bleak House sont également tournées à l'extérieur du bâtiment et sont également utilisées dans quelques scènes de l'émission de sketchs humoristiques Tittybangbang. Le hall est utilisé comme école "Abbey Mount" dans le film Wild Child de 2008 avec Emma Roberts et comme Foundling Hospital dans l'adaptation CBBC de Hetty Feather.

Références

Bibliographie

 Six testaments relatifs à Cobham Hall, Archaeologia Cantiana, Vol. 11, 1877, p. 199-304  (1. William Brooke, 10e baron Cobham ; 2. Frances comtesse de Kildare ; 3. Frances Duchesse de Richmond et Lenox; 4. Charles Stuart Duc de Richmond et Lenox; 5. Sir Joseph Williamson ; 6. Dame Catherine O'Brien).
 Waller, JG, Les seigneurs de Cobham, leurs monuments et l'église, Archaeologia Cantiana, Vol. 11, 1877, p. 49–112  & Vol. 12, p. 113-166 ;
 Stephens, PG, On the Pictures at Cobham Hall, Archaeologia Cantiana, Vol. 11, 1877, p. 160-188.
 Cobham et ses Manoirs
 Glover, Robert (Somerset Herald), Mémoriaux de la famille de Cobham, Collectanea Topographica et Genealogica, Vol.7, 1841, Chap. XXVII, p. 320-354
 John Gough Nichols, Sepulchral Memorials of the Cobham Family, 1841 : projet jamais achevé/publié
 FC Brooke, Mémoriaux sépulcraux de la famille Cobham (1836-1874), achèvement des travaux de Nichols.
 Esme Wingfield-Stratford, Les seigneurs de Cobham Hall, Londres, 1959.

Liens externes

Monument classé de Grade I dans le Kent

Cobham Hall


Samsun, Türkiye'nin Samsun ilinin merkezi olan şehirdir. Karadeniz Bölgesi'ndeki Orta Karadeniz Bölümü'nde, Türkiye coğrafyasının en kuzeyinde merkezî bir noktada yer alır. Karadeniz Bölgesi'nin eğitim, sağlık, sanayi, ticaret, ulaşım ve ekonomi açılarından en gelişmiş şehri olan Samsun kalkınmada birinci derecede öncelikli yörelerden biridir.

Yerleşim geçmişi MÖ 60.000 yılına dek uzanan Samsun'da varlığı bilinen en eski halk MÖ 12. yüzyıla kadar burada bulunan Kaşkalardır. Kaşkaların ardından Hitit dönemini yaşayan şehir, MÖ 1182 ile MÖ 546 yılları arasında birkaç kez el değiştirmiş ve devamında Pers hâkimiyetine girmiştir. Perslerin ardından Makedonya, Pontus, Roma, Bizans egemenliği gören Samsun, bunların ardından bir Ceneviz kolonisi hâline gelmiştir. Bu dönemde Dânişmendliler Beyliği tarafından kuşatılan şehir alınamamış ve şehrin hemen yanına "Müslüman Samsun" adıyla bilinen yeni bir şehir kurulmuştur. I. Mehmed dönemine dek iki Samsun şehri de varlığını sürdürmüş, bu dönemde her iki şehir de Osmanlı Devleti topraklarına katılarak birleştirilmiştir. 1422-1428 yılları arasında Kubadoğulları eline geçen Samsun, 1923 yılında Türkiye Cumhuriyeti'nin ilânına dek Osmanlı hakimiyetinde kalmıştır. Türkiye'nin kurulmasına dek uzanan 19 Mayıs 1919'da Mustafa Kemal'in Samsun'a çıkışıyla başlayan sürecin başlangıç durağı olması nedeniyle özel bir konumu bulunan Samsun 19 Mayıs Atatürk'ü Anma, Gençlik ve Spor Bayramı'na ev sahipliği yapmaktadır. Buna izafeten resmî mahiyete sahip "Güneşin Doğduğu Şehir" sloganıyla tanıtılmakta, Samsun 19 Mayıs Marşı ise Samsun'un resmî marşı mahiyeti taşımaktadır. Öte yandan "Karadeniz'in Başkenti" ve "Atatürk'ün Şehri" olarak da anılmaktadır.

Cumhuriyetin ilk yıllarında ekonomisi tarım ve hayvancılık temelli olan ilin topraklarının %47'si hâlen tarım amaçlı kullanılsa da günümüzde ekonomik etkinlik büyük oranda ticaret ve sanayiye dayalı olup tarım ve hayvancılığın ağırlığı giderek azalmaktadır. Karayollarıyla Karadeniz Bölgesi'ni İç Anadolu Bölgesi ve Doğu Anadolu Bölgesi'ne bağlayan Samsun aynı zamanda bir liman şehri ve geniş hinterlandı ile bir lojistik noktasıdır. Samsun ve civarındaki kamu ile özel sektör yatırımları zaman içerisinde başka illerden nüfus göçünü teşvik etmiş olup 1927 yılındaki cumhuriyet döneminin ilk nüfus sayımından günümüze nüfusu %394 oranında artmıştır. Aldığı göçler nedeniyle karmaşık bir folklorik yapısı bulunan Samsun'da dil, halk oyunu ve yemek gibi halk kültürüne dair alanlarda bu yapısı hissedilmektedir. Şehir siyasi açıdan muhafazakârdır ve ağırlıklı olarak sağ partilere oy verilmektedir.

Denizyolu, havayolu ve karayoluyla ulaşımın mümkün olduğu Samsun'a Samsun-Kalın demiryolu üzerinde yer alan yedi ilden ulaşım sağlanabilmektedir. Genellikle ticari amaçlarla ve karayolu aktarması için kullanılan denizyolunun haricinde gelişkin bir karayolu ağının bulunduğu il, dört farklı devlet yolu ile tüm Türkiye'ye ve Avrupa'ya bağlanmaktadır. Havayolu taşımacılığında ise Ankara, İstanbul, İzmir ve Antalya'nın yanı sıra dönemsel olarak Almanya, Avusturya ve Kuveyt'in toplam sekiz şehrine direkt uçuş gerçekleştirilmektedir.

Toponim

Şehrin Hititler döneminde Eneti adını taşıdığı düşünülmekteyse de buna dair kesin bir kanıt yoktur. Yaklaşık MÖ 670 yılında Greklerin kolonize ettiği bölgeye Perikles'in onuruna Peiraieus () adı verilmiş, yapılan arkeolojik kazılarda bu döneme ait bir tarafında puhu bir tarafında da Peiraieus yazısı bulunan sikkeler bulunmuştur. Daha sonraları şehir Luvice "Ana tanrıçanın şehri" anlamına gelen Amissa (ya da Amissavana) adını almış, Grekler tarafından Amisene olarak telaffuz edilen bu ad zamanla Amisou () ve Amisos () biçimlerine dönüşmüştür. Buna karşın Amisos kelimesinin aslının Luvice değil Palaca olduğu ve "Hamis" kökenine dayandığına yönelik iddialar da bulunmaktadır. Pontus Krallığı döneminde Amisos adını koruyan şehir Romalılar tarafından Missos olarak anılmış (kimi kaynaklarda Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus tarafından Pompeiopolis adı verildiği de savunulmaktadır), Bizans İmparatorluğu döneminde özellikle 10. yüzyıldan sonra Aminsos () biçimine dönüşmüştür. Grekçede omega yerine omikron ile yazılan şehrin adı iki harf arasındaki benzerlik nedeniyle Latin alfabesine çeviride hatalı biçimde Amisus olarak yazılabildiğinden Batılı kaynaklarda hem Amisos hem de Amisus şeklinde kullanımlara rastlanmaktadır.

1100'lerin ilk çeyreğinde Melik Gazi tarafından Amisos'un yanına yeni bir şehir kurulmuş ve Türk akıncıları yeni kurulan kente kendi aralarında "Amisos'un yanındaki şehir" anlamına gelen İsamisos adını vermişlerdir. 1200'lerin ilk çeyreğinde Cenevizlilerin yerleştiği Amisos çeşitli kaynaklara göre Amisum, Simissi, Sinuso, Semiso vb. ad varyasyonlarıyla anılmıştır. Aynı dönemlerde şehrin ismi Türkler tarafından  şeklinde yazılmaya ve Samisun şeklinde söylenmeye başlamıştır. İbn Bîbî'nin el-Evâmirü'l-Alâiyye fi'l-umûri'l-Alâiyyesinde, Kerimüddin Mahmud-i Aksarayî'nin kaleme aldığı Müsâmeretü'l-Ahbârda ve erken dönem Osmanlı tarihçilerinden Şükrullah'ın Behcetü't-Tevârîh ile Nişancı Mehmed Paşa'nın Risâle-i Selâtîn-i Osmâniyye adlı eserlerinde kentin ismi Samisun şeklinde geçmektedir.

Kentin adını  yani Samsun şeklinde yazıp okuyan ilk kişi tespit edilebildiği kadarıyla İbn Saîd'dir. Selçuklu Sultanı II. Gıyâseddin Mesud ve İlhanlı Hükümdarı Olcaytu adına basılmış sikkelerde de yer alan Samsun sözcüğü bu sikkelerde İbn Saîd'in yazdığı gibi yazılmıştır.

Osmanlı İmparatorluğu'nun neredeyse tüm dönemlerinde şehrin adı  Samsun olarak yazılmıştır. Özellikle de Osmanlı tarihçileri Hoca Sâdeddin Efendi ve Cenâbî Mustafa Efendi ile bundan sonra gelenler arasında bu yazım esas alınmıştır. Erken Osmanlı döneminde ise farklı kullanımlar mevcuttu. Şehrin adı ilk Osmanlı tarihçilerinden Neşrî'nin Kitâb-ı Cihannümâ adlı eserinde hem  Samsun hem de  S[a]msun, Ahmedî'nin İskendernâmesinde heceleri ayrı şekilde  Sam Sun, Oruç Bey'in Tevârîh-i Âl-i Osmanında ise hem  S[a]msun hem de  Sam Sun şeklinde geçmektedir.

Efsaneler
Samsun adının kökeninin İbraniceden ve Osmanlı Türkçesinden geldiği hakkında iki farklı görüş vardır. İsmin İbranice kökenli olduğunu savunan görüşe göre İbrani lider Samson, Karadeniz kıyılarına kadar gelip bir kent kurmuş ve kente kendi ismini vermiştir. Diğer bir görüşe göre ise isim Nuh'un oğullarından biri olan Sam'dan türemiştir. Bu iki görüş de kanıtlanamamıştır.

İsmin Türkçe olduğunu savunan görüşe göre ise isim Osmanlı Türkçesindeki "köpek" anlamına gelen kelimeden türemiştir. Kamûs-ı Türkîde yazılışı  yani s[a]nsun olarak gösterilen kelimenin anlamı "iri köpek" olarak verilmektedir. Yine Kamûs-ı Türkîde bulunan  yani s[a]nsuncu ise "kavga köpeklerini idare eden askerî birim" anlamına gelmektedir. Nef'î'nin Sihâm-ı Kazâ hicviyesinde de "a samsun-ı muazzam a köpek" ifadesi geçmektedir. Joseph von Hammer-Purgstall'ın Devlet-i Osmâniye Tarihi eserinde ise II. Bayezid döneminde Osmanlı ordusunda samsuncular adıyla bir avlanma birimi bulunduğu yazmaktadır. Ayrıca I. Süleyman döneminde İstanbul'da Samsunhane mesiresi adında bir mesire yeri olduğu da bilinmektedir. Ancak Samsun ile s[a]nsun, samsuncular ya da Samsun hane mesiresi arasında bir bağ olduğu ve ismin bunlardan türediğine dair bir kanıt bulunmamaktadır.

Tarihçe

Tarihöncesi ve erken çağlar
Samsun'daki yerleşim geçmişi Eski Taş Çağı'na dek uzanmaktadır. Tekkeköy Mağaralarında keşfedilen ve MÖ 60.000 yılına dek uzandığı düşünülen katman, şimdiye dek Karadeniz Bölgesi'nde keşfedilen en eski yerleşimdir. Aynı zamanda Türkiye'deki en eski üçüncü, dünyada ise sekizinci yerleşim olduğu tahmin edilmektedir. Mağara yerleşiminde yaşayan bu insanlar topluluk bilinci gelişmemiş ve henüz üretici pozisyonuna geçmemişlerdi.

Karanlık çağların ardından, MÖ 5000-3000 yıllarından itibaren Anadolu'da var oldukları bilinen ve Hattilerin bir kolu olduğu düşünülen Kaşkalar, MÖ 3500'lü yıllarda Mert Irmağı kenarında, günümüzde Dündartepe Höyüğü'nün bulunduğu yerde bir site oluşturmuşlardır. Höyüğün kazıları sırasında en eski yerleşimin Bakır Çağı'na ait olduğu; burada yerleşik toplulukların avcılık ve hayvancılık yaparak geçindiği, kumaş ve deri işleyebildiği; bakırdan alet, silah ve takı yapabildikleri saptanmıştır.

Kent, Kaşkaların ardından I. Murşili tarafından fethedilerek Hitit Krallığı topraklarına katılmıştır. Hitit döneminde özel bir durumu olmayan yerleşim yerinde Enetler adı verilen halkın yaşadığı ve Eneti adıyla anıldığı düşünülmektedir. Kent, MÖ 1182 civarında Hitit İmparatorluğu'nun çöküşünü takiben Frigler tarafından ele geçirilmiş ve tahrip edilmiştir. Aynı dönemde Kimmerler de Doğu Karadeniz'de yer alan kentleri yakıp yıkmışlardır. Lidya Kralı Gigis Kimmerleri yenilgiye uğratıp bölgeden kovmuşsa da bu dönemde şehir harabe hâline dönüşmüştür. Bunun üzerine eski kentin güneybatısına yeni bir yerleşim kurulmuş, tarıma elverişli toprakları ve artan nüfus baskısı nedeniyle MÖ 7. yüzyılda Foçalıların veya Miletlilerin ilgisini çeken bölge kolonileştirilmiştir. Ahameniş İmparatoru II. Kiros'un dönemindeyse Pers hâkimiyetine girmiştir.

Ahameniş İmparatorluğu'nu yeniden örgütlemeye girişen I. Darius döneminde kent, Kapadokya satraplığının hâkimiyet bölgesi içine alınmış ve tiran unvanı taşıyan askerî valiler tarafından yönetilmeye başlanmıştır. MÖ 331 yılında İskender'in Persleri Gaugamela Muharebesi'nde yenilgiye uğratıp Ahameniş İmparatorluğu'nu Makedonya topraklarına katmasıyla birlikte Samsun da Makedon hâkimiyetine girmiş, böylece kentte askerî temelli bir yönetim anlayışından tekrar demokratik yönetime dönülmüştür. İskender'in ölümüyle birlikte zayıflayan ve parçalanan Makedonya'dan bağımsızlığını ilân eden bölgelerden biri de I. Antiohos liderliğindeki Seleukos İmparatorluğu olmuş, Samsun MÖ 315'te bu devletin idaresi altına altına girmişse de kısa süre sonra Ariobarzanis ya da II. Mithridatis döneminde Pontus Krallığı toprakları içerisine sokulmuştur. VI. Mithridatis'in döneminde kraliyet ikâmetgâhı olarak kullanılan Samsun'da geniş bir imar hareketi başlatılarak şehir önemli bir gelişme kaydetmiştir.

Roma ve Bizans dönemi
MÖ 63 yılında Romalı general Lucius Licinius Lucullus lejyonlarıyla Amisos, Sinopi ve Trebizond'u ele geçirmiştir. Lucullus tarafından ele geçirilen şehir bir gün boyunca yağma edilse de bütünüyle yıkılmaktan kurtarılarak kısmen de olsa tamirat görmüş, Bitinya ve Pontus eyaletine bağlanmıştır.

Samsun MÖ 48 sonlarına doğru Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus ve Jül Sezar'ın arasındaki çekişmeyi fırsat bilen Pontus kralı II. Farnakis tarafından kuşatılmış, Roma'ya sadık kalmak isteyen kent dirense de düşmüş ve halk Pontus ordusunca kılıçtan geçirilmiştir. Tekrar Pontus egemenliğine girene kent bir yıl sonra gerçekleşen Zela Muharebesi'nde muzaffer olan Roma ordusu tarafından bir kez daha alınmıştır. Samsun ise Roma Cumhuriyeti'ne olan bağlılığından dolayı hür şehir olarak tanımlanmış ve vergiden bağımsız, kendi kendini yöneten bir kent olarak devlete bağlanmıştır. Jül Sezar'ın suikaste uğramasının ardından kurulan ikinci triumvirlik döneminde Marcus Antonius'un hâkimiyet sahasında kalan ve Pontus Polemoniacus eyaletine bağlanan şehir Augustus'un hâkimiyetine girdiğinde tekrar serbest şehir ve Roma'nın müttefiki olarak ilân edilmiş, sonraları Galatya eyaletine bağlanmıştır. 111-113 yılları arasında Samsun valisi olan olan Plinius'un İmparator Trajan'a yazdığı mektuptan şehrin yerel bir meclis tarafından kendi yasalarıyla yönetildiği öğrenilmektedir. Samsun, 2. yüzyılın sonlarından itibaren hür şehir imtiyazını yavaş yavaş kaybetmeye başlamış olup merkezî yönetime daha bağlı bir yönetim anlayışı gelişmiştir.

Geleneksel anlatıma göre Andreas'ın bizzat ziyaret ettiği şehir henüz 1. yüzyılda Hristiyanlaşmış; 303-305 yıllarında Diocletianus'un imparatorluğu sürerken bu dinin takipçilerine yönelik zulümler diğer yerlerde olduğu gibi Samsun'da da kendini göstermiş, Galerius'un iktidarında da baskılar sürmüştür. Bu durum Roma İmparatorluğu'nun 395'te bölünmesiyle birlikte sona ermiş, doğu topraklarına hükmeden ve resmî din olarak Hristiyanlığı benimseyen Bizans İmparatorluğu'nun hâkimiyet bölgesinde kalan Samsun Hristiyan bir şehir olarak varlığını sürdürmüştür. İeroklis'in 6. yüzyıla tarihlenen Sinekdimos adlı eserinde Samsun, Pontiki piskoposluğunun Helenopontos eyaletine bağlı bir sahil kasabası olarak tanımlanmaktadır. I. Justinianus dönemiyle birlikte Armeniakon eyaletine bağlanan şehir, Orta Bizans döneminde Paflagonya ile Armeniakon themalarının kuzey sınırını oluşturmaktaydı. Geniş hinterlandı, iç kısımlardan gelen tahıl ürünleri ve bol zeytin hasadı nedeniyle Konstantinopolis ile Kırım arasında bir ara liman görünümünde olan şehir ayrıca Pontos Polimoniakos eyaleti ile yapılan denizyolu ticaretinin üssü olarak önemli liman kenti konumunu korumuştur.

Mutasım'ın emriyle 863 yılında Malatya Emiri Ömer bin Abdullah şehri ele geçirilip yağmalasa da şehir tekrar Bizans hâkimiyetine girmiştir. Samsun, 9. yüzyılın ikinci yarısında, 10. yüzyıl boyunca kommerkion ve ihracat merkezi olarak kalmıştır. Tarihî Grek şehri olan Samsun 11. yüzyılın ikinci yarısında Türklerin Küçük Asya'ya girmesi ile yoğun Ermeni göçü almış, 13. yüzyılın ilk çeyreğinden itibaren anlaşma yolu ile Ceneviz Cumhuriyeti egemenliğine bırakılmıştır. Bu dönemden itibaren kent bir ticaret kolonisi olarak yaşamaya devam etmiştir.

Türk beylikleri dönemi

Malazgirt Meydan Muharebesi sonrasında Anadolu'ya giriş yapan Türk ailelerinden olan Dânişmendliler Orta Karadeniz'e doğru akınlar yapmaya başlamışlar ve 1150 ya da 1155'te Sivas Emiri Nizâmeddin Yağıbasan komutasında Amisos'u da kuşatarak Dânişmendliler Beyliğine dâhil etmek isteseler de başarısız olmuşlardır. Bunun üzerine Melik Gazi mevcut kentin yanına "Amisos'un yanındaki şehir" anlamına geldiği düşünülen İsamisos adında yeni bir yerleşim kurmuştur. Böylece günümüz Samsununu oluşturan antik Amisos ile hemen yanındaki İsamisos adında iki farklı şehir ortaya çıkmıştır. Samsun Kalesi'ni inşa eden Dânişmendlilerin tahkim ettiği İsamisos, 1178 yılında II. Kılıç Arslan tarafından Anadolu Selçuklu Devleti topraklarına katılmıştır. 1228 yılında I. Andronikos Samsun ve Sinop limanlarını yağmalasa da I. Alâeddin Keykubad sefere çıkarak bölgede otoriteyi sağlamıştır. 1230'ların ikinci yarısında patlak veren Babaî Ayaklanması Samsun'da da taraftar bulmasına karşın devlet kısa zaman içerisinde bölgedeki egemenliğini yeniden tesis etmeyi başarmıştır.

Bir hafta sürdükten sonra 3 Temmuz 1243'te sonlanan Kösedağ Muharebesi sonucunda Moğol İmparatorluğu'na bağlı bir devlet hâline gelen Anadolu Selçuklu Devleti II. İzzeddin Keykâvus, IV. Kılıç Arslan ve II. Alâeddin Keykubad'ın üçlü idaresiyle yönetilmeye başlamıştır. Samsun II. Alâeddin Keykubad'ın yönetim bölgesi içerisinde yer almış, onun ölümünden sonra ise bölge IV. Kılıç Arslan'a kalmıştır. 1260 yılında Trabzon İmparatorluğu tarafından işgal edilen kent kısa süre içerisinde tekrar Türklerin hâkimiyetine girmiştir. Bu dönemde Samsun, Canik mıntıkasının idaresi için Moğollarca görevlendirilen Mücîrüddin Emîrşah'a bağlı olan Nizâmüddîn Yahyâ ve yine ona bağlı olan Rükneddin Rahad tarafından idare edilmekteydi. Moğolların en önemli limanlarından biri olan Samsun 14. yüzyılın ortalarında Eretna Beyliği'ne geçmiş, Alâeddin Eretna'nın ölümünden sonra başta Kubadoğulları Emirliği olmak üzere Canik beylikleri arasında sık sık el değiştirmiştir.

Osmanlı İmparatorluğu dönemi
1395 yılında Candaroğulları Beyliği'nin elinde bulunan Samsun kısa bir süreliğine Kadı Burhâneddin Devleti tarafından ele geçirilmiş, Kadı Burhâneddin'in ölümünün ardından 1398 yılında I. Bayezid Samsun'u Osmanlı topraklarına katmış ve Bulgar çarının oğlu İskender'i vali tayin etmiştir. Hristiyanların bulunduğu eski Samsun'a ise Ceneviz ile barış içerisinde bulunulması nedeniyle dokunulmamıştır.

1402'de I. Bayezid'in Ankara Muharebesi'nde Timur'a yenilmesi sonrası Fetret Devri'ne giren Osmanlı Devleti'nin zayıflığından yararlanan Kubadoğulları tekrar Samsun'da hâkimiyet kurmuşlardır. Timur'un atamasıyla Amasya çevresinde emirliğini ilân eden Mehmed Çelebi ise Kubadoğlu Ali Bey'i bozguna uğratarak Taşanoğlu Ahmed Bey'i Samsun valisi olarak atamıştır. 1414 yılına kadar Osmanlı himâyesindeki Taşanoğulları Beyliği tarafından yönetilen Samsun, Kubadoğlu Ali Bey'in oğlu Kubadoğlu Cüneyd Bey tarafından kuşatılmış ve ele geçirilmiştir. Kubadoğlu Cüneyd Bey daha sonra Osmanlı padişahından af dilemiş, bunun üzerine vali olarak makamında bırakılmıştır. Kastamonu Emiri Celâleddin Bayezid'in oğlu Candaroğulları Beyi Hızır Bey, Kubadoğlu Cüneyd Bey'i öldürterek Samsun'u işgal etmiş, daha önce çelebi sanıyla anılan fakat padişah olunca I. Mehmed adıyla tahta oturan Osmanlı padişahı bölgenin tamamen devlete bağlanması için Biçeroğlu Hamza Bey'i görevlendirmiştir. Amisos'a saldıran Biçeroğlu Hamza Bey, şehirde çıkan yangına rağmen tüm imkânlarıyla şehri savunan Cenevizlilere karşı muvaffak olarak Amisos'u ele geçirmiştir. Amasya Valisi Murad Çelebi ise Hızır Bey'in elinde bulunan Samsun'a yönelmiş, Hızır Bey kenti rızaen Osmanlılara teslim etmiştir. Böylece farklı kaynaklara göre 1416 ya da 1419 yılında Osmanlı hâkimiyeti altına giren Amisos ile İsamisos ilk kez aynı siyasi çatı altında yer almıştır. İki şehir birleştirilerek Canik adıyla Rum eyaletine bağlı bir sancak olarak Osmanlı idari yapısında dâhil edilmiştir.

Osmanlı egemenliğinde geçen 15, 16 ve 17. yüzyıllarda önemsiz bir iskele kentine dönüşen Samsun, bu dönemlerde çevre bataklıklarda imâl edilen kendir ve halatlar ile savaşlarda orduya erzak yardımı yapması dışında unutulmuş bir kent görünümündeydi. Bu nedenle de birçok kez eşkıya saldırılarına maruz kalmıştır. Küçük Kaynarca Antlaşması ile Kırım Hanlığı Osmanlı İmparatorluğu'nun elinden çıkınca Karadeniz'deki Osmanlı hâkimiyeti son bulduğundan şehrin ticareti de iyice gerilemiştir. Şehir bu dönemde Trabzon eyaletine bağlanmıştır. Osmanlı devrindeki en zor zamanlarını 17. yüzyılda yaşayan şehir, III. Mehmed'in saltanatı sırasında Kazakların saldırısına uğramış, büyük zarar görmüştür. Zamanla halkın kenti terk etmesiyle Samsun nüfusu 1642 ve 1643 yıllarında köy düzeyine kadar inmiştir.

1869'da büyük bir yangın felâketi yaşanmıştır.

Samsun'da 20. yüzyılın başlarından itibaren Amasya Metropoliti Germanos Karavangelis'in öncülüğünde Megali İdea faaliyetlerine rastlanmaktadır.

Kurtuluş Savaşı ve cumhuriyet dönemi
I. Dünya Savaşı sırasında Osmanlı İmparatorluğu'nun hasmı olan Rus İmparatorluğu filosu tarafından 1915 ve 1916'da üç sefer bombalanan şehirde savaş sonrasında Rumlar, Ermeniler ve Türkler arasında çatışmalar baş göstermiştir. 9 Mart 1919 tarihinde 15. Tümen Kumandanı Mustafa Asım Bey ve Samsun Mutasarrıfı İbrahim Ethem Bey'in şehirde sıkıyönetim ilân etmesiyle 200 kişilik Britanya askerî müfrezesi tarafından Mondros Mütarekesi şartları gerekçe gösterilerek şehir işgal edilmiştir. Sonrasında 9. Ordu müfettişi unvanı verilerek bölgede asayişin sağlanmasıyla görevlendirilen Ferîk-i Sânî Mustafa Kemal 19 Mayıs günü Samsun'a ulaşmıştır. Görevinin gereklerini yerine getirmeye koyulan Mustafa Kemal bazı incelemelerde bulunmuş; bu incelemeler sonucunda Rum çetelerinin Müslüman halka saldırdığı, yerel yöneticilerinse dış devletlerin de duruma karışmasıyla bu olaylara müdahale edemediği kanısına varmıştır. Bunun üzerine Canik mutasarrıfını görevden alarak yenisini atamış ve bölgede oluşan karışıklıklara yabancı askerlere aldırmaksızın doğrudan müdahale etmesini emretmiştir.

Mustafa Kemal'in Samsun'dan ayrıldıktan sonra başkanlık ettiği Erzurum Kongresi ve Sivas Kongresi'nin ortaya koyduğu millî heyecan Samsun'da da etkisini göstermiş ve Samsun Müdâfaa-i Hukuk Cemiyeti kurulmuştur. Millî Mücadele'de Ankara Hükûmeti'nden yana tavır ortaya koyan Samsun 1922'de Amerikan destekli Yunan filosunca bombalanmıştır. Bombardımandan sonra Türkiye Büyük Millet Meclisinin 12 Haziran ve 16 Haziran 1922 tarihli toplantıları sonucu bütün Karadeniz sahili savaş alanı ilân edilerek bölgedeki Rumların tehcirine karar verilmiş, 1913'ten beri uygulanan ancak 1921'de savaş şartlarında hız kazanan Samsun tehcirleri adı verilen zorunlu göçler sistematik hâle gelmiştir. Bu sürgün hareketleri sırasında Samsun'dan gönderilen Rumlar için 360 bine ulaşan sayılar verilmektedir. 10. Tümen Tugay Kumandanı Kurmay Kaymakam Hafız Zühtü Bey'in Çarşamba ve Ünye civarındaki çeteleri temizlemesiyle Samsun ve yöresi Rum çetelerinden tamamen temizlenmiştir.

Osmanlı döneminde ve cumhuriyetin ilk aylarında yaklaşık olarak günümüz Samsun il sınırlarını kapsayan idari birim Canik adıyla bir sancak, sancağın merkezi ise Samsun kazasıydı. Millî Mücadele'nin sonlanması ve Türkiye Cumhuriyeti'nin ilânı ile Türkiye sınırları içerisinde kalan Canik de sancak ve mutasarrıflıkların il yapılmaları üzerine Samsun adıyla il statüsü kazanmıştır. 1923 mübadelesi ile şehirdeki Rumlar Yunanistan'a göç etmiş, Rumlardan boşalan yerler ise mübadillere tahsis edilmiştir. Tehcirler ve mübadele sonucunda ildeki Ermenilerin ve Rumların sayısı neredeyse yok seviyesine kadar inmiş, şehrin demografik yapısı tamamen değişmiştir. Günümüzde Yunanistan'ın Karagözlü belediyesine bağlı Yeni Amisos, Preveze iline bağlı Yeni Samsun adında yerleşim yerleri bulunmaktadır.

Cumhuriyetle birlikte il olan Samsun il merkezi hâricinde Bafra, Çarşamba, Havza, Terme ile Vezirköprü olmak üzere beş farklı ilçeye bölünmüştür. Cumhuriyet öncesinde de var olan bu idari birimler dışında ilk olarak 1 Haziran 1928 tarihinde Ladik'in ilçe yapılmasıyla Samsun'daki ilçe sayısı altıya yükselmiş; 1934'te Kavak, 1944'te de Alaçam ilçelerinin kurulmasıyla şehirdeki toplam ilçe sayısı sekiz olmuştur. 19 Haziran 1987 tarihinde kabul edilen 3392 numaralı kanun ile de Salıpazarı, Asarcık, Ondokuzmayıs ve Tekkeköy ilçeleri kurulmuştur. 9 Mayıs 1990'da kabul edilen 3644 numaralı kanunla ise Ayvacık ve Yakakent adında iki ilçe daha kurulmuştur. 2 Eylül 1993 tarihinde kabul edilen 504 numaralı kanun hükmünde kararname ile büyükşehir belediyesi kapsamına alınan Samsun'un merkez ilçesi de büyükşehir ilçesi statüsü almıştır. 6 Mart 2008'de 5747 numaralı kanun ile Atakent, Kurupelit, Altınkum, Çatalçam ve Taflan beldelerinin birleşerek Atakum beldesine katılmasıyla Atakum; Gazi ve Yeşilkent beldelerinin İlkadım'a katılmasıyla İlkadım adında bir ilçe kurulması ve Canik beldesinin de ilçe yapılması karara bağlanmıştır. Bu değişiklik ile büyükşehir ilçeleri Atakum, İlkadım, Canik, Tekkeköy olarak belirlenmiştir. 2012 yılında çıkarılan 6360 sayılı kanun ile de 2014 Türkiye yerel seçimlerinin ardından büyükşehir belediyesinin sınırları il mülki sınırları ile eşitlenmiş, merkez ilçe kavramı kaldırılmıştır. İlçelerin ardından gelen alt idari birim mahalle olup mevcûden il genelindeki 17 ilçeye bağlı olarak toplam 1.247 mahalle bulunmaktadır.

Cumhuriyetin ilk yıllarından 1950'li yıllara kadar demiryolu atılımı yapılan Samsun'da bu yıllarda karayolu ağına öncelik verilmeye başlanmıştır. 1928'de elektrik santralinin hizmete başladığı şehrin merkezî su şebekesine kavuşması 1929 yılını bulmuş, ilk doğalgaz ise 2005 yılında verilmiştir.

İklim
Samsun iklimi şehrin konumu ve coğrafyası dolayısıyla sahil ve iç kesimlerde değişiklik göstermektedir. Köppen iklim sınıflandırmasına göre "Cfa" türünde ılıman dönencealtı iklimi görülen ilin tipik Karadeniz ikliminin yaşandığı sahil şeridinde yaz ayları sıcak ve nemli, kışlar ise ılık-serin geçmekte; buna karşın Akdağ ve Canik Dağlarının etkisiyle karasal iklime sahip olan iç kesimlerde kışlar soğuk, yağmurlu ve kar yağışlı, yazlar ise serin geçmektedir. Meteoroloji Genel Müdürlüğünün 1929-2018 yılları arasındaki ölçüm değerlerine göre Samsun'un yıllık sıcaklık ortalaması 14.5 °C olup ölçülen en yüksek sıcaklık 15 Ağustos 1938 günü kayda geçen 39.0 °C, en düşük sıcaklık ise 9 Şubat 1929 günü kayda geçen -9.8 °C'dir.

Hava kirliliği
2013 yılında Çevre Yönetimi Genel Müdürlüğü tarafından dönemin büyükşehir ilçeleri olan Atakum, Canik, İlkadım ve Tekkeköy kapsamında hazırlanan Samsun Hava Kalitesi Değerlendirme Raporu'na göre ısınma amacıyla kullanılan yakıtlardan, sanayide kullanılan hammaddelerden ve motorlu araçların yarattığı kirlilik nedeniyle açığa çıkan azot oksit, kükürt dioksit ve partiküller Samsun'un en önemli hava kirliliği sorununu teşkil etmektedir. Çevre, Şehircilik ve İklim Değişikliği Bakanlığının Atakum, Bafra, Canik ve Tekkeköy'de kurduğu hava izleme istasyonlarının Aralık 2019 verilerine göre bu noktalardaki hava kalitesi 29-77 arası değişmekte ve hava kalitesi indeksine göre orta ile iyi olarak sınıflanmaktadır. Yüzüncüyıl istasyonununki hava kalitesi ise 107 ile hassas olarak sınıflanmaktadır. Yine aynı istasyonlardan elde edilen aynı tarihli verilerine göre ildeki en yüksek partikül madde kirliliği 51  ile Tekkeköy'de, en yüksek kükürt dioksit kirliliği oranı 5 µg/m³ ile Atakum'da, en yüksek azot oksit kirliliği oranı ise 56 µg/m³ ile İlkadım'da ölçülmektedir.

Nüfus

2008 yılında merkez ilçe Atakum, Canik ve İlkadım ilçelerine ayrılmıştır ve Tekkeköy ilçesi de büyükşehir sınırlarına girmiştir. Bu ilçelerle birlikte il merkezi nüfusu aşağıdaki gibidir.

2012 yılında ilin tamamı büyükşehir sınırlarına girmiştir.

Kardeş şehirler

Kültürel, kalkınma, ticari gibi farklı programlar vasıtasıyla yardımlaşmayı amaçlayan bir işbirliği akdi olan kardeş şehir uygulaması belediyelerce sağlanmaktadır. Samsun Büyükşehir Belediyesi 2006 yılında Kuzey Kıbrıs Türk Cumhuriyeti'nin İskele ilçesi ve Amerika Birleşik Devletlerinin Arkansas eyaletine bağlı North Little Rock şehri ile imzaladığı anlaşmalarla geçtiği kardeş şehir uygulamasını yıllar içerisinde Darüsselam, Novorossiysk, Kalmar, Sühbatur, Kiel, Gürgan, Brčko, Sumgayıt, Donetsk, Bizerte, Akra, Bişkek, Aktau, Zerka Fervaniye, Bitlis, Kurtalan, Gevaş, Tuşba ile de genişletmiştir. Bunların haricinde Bordeaux, Odessa ve Kavala ile de işbirliği protokolü imzalamıştır.

Büyükşehir belediyesinin hâricinde ilçe belediyelerinin de kardeş şehirleri bulunuyor olup en eski kardeş şehir anlaşmasına sahip olan ilçe 1964'te Kuşimoto ile buna dair anlaşma imzalayan Yakakent'tir. En fazla kardeş şehri bulunan ilçe olan Havza 1996'da Koşehabl, 2010'da Czerniejewo, 2015'te Esenyurt, 2016'da Darıca, Havsa, Merkez Jupa ve Küçükçekmece, 2017'de ise Kâğıthane ile anlaşma imzalamıştır. Havza'yı 2013'te Ğar el-Mileh, 2015'te Değirmenlik, 2016'da Şirvan ve 2017'de Hamur ile imzaladığı protokoller ile 4 kardeş şehri olan Canik takip etmektedir.

Samsun'daki belediyelerin toplamda 4 kıta 24 ülkeden 47 kardeş şehri bulunuyor olup Kuzey Kıbrıs Türk Cumhuriyeti dört şehir ile en fazla anlaşma imzalanan dış ülkedir.

Kaynakça
Özel

Genel

Dış bağlantılar

Samsun


Le Rose Pompadour est un nom de couleur de fantaisie désignant une nuance de rose.

Il a été créé en 1757 par le peintre sur porcelaine liégeois, Philippe Xhrouet. Cette couleur est désignée dans les registres de la manufacture de Sèvres comme « un rose très frais et fort agréable ». Les premières porcelaines de cette couleur vendues, des vases à oreilles, sont achetés par Louis XV, Madame de Pompadour et le Prince de Condé, en 1758. D'abord qualifiée de lilas, la couleur est très vite désignée par le roi « rose Pompadour », du nom de sa favorite
.

Le personnage de la marquise de Pompadour étant à la mode en 1839, le nom Pompadour sert pour une étoffe de satin brodé qui peut être marron clair ou blanc, puis pour une ombrelle en taffetas rose-pompadour. Il se trouve en 1841 dans la description des couleurs  de costumes de carnaval. Théophile Gautier reprend la même série de  dans la description de maisons madrilènes.

Autres usages
On trouve le nom commercial Pompadour pour de la peinture couleur lilas d'une marque anglophone.

Il existe aussi une rose Pompadour.

C'est aux couleurs du rose Pompadour que les parterres du Jardin français de Trianon fleurissent chaque année jusqu'en octobre ou novembre .

Galerie

Annexes

Bibliographie

Articles connexes
 Noms et adjectifs de couleurs
 Madame de Pompadour

Références

Rose

Rose Pompadour


غود ويل هانتنغ  هو فيلم دراما أمريكي صدر في 1997 من إخراج غس فان سانت وبطولة مات ديمون وبن أفليك وروبين ويليامز وميني درايفر وستيلان سكارسغارد. الفيلم من كتابة مات ديمون وبن أفليك.

تدور أحداث الفيلم في بوستون ، ماساتشوستس حول شاب أيرلندي كاثوليكي مضطرب من جنوب بوسطن و على الرغم من عبقريته وألمعيته بالرياضيات وقدرته على التعلم الذاتي فهو يعمل كحارس لمعهد ماساتشوستس للتقنية. في الفيلم ينبغي لويل أن يتعلم كيف يتغلب على خوفه العميق من الانتفاء والعزلة كي يصبح قادراً على مبادلة الثقة والحب لمن يهتمون لأمره.

تلقى غود ويل هانتنغ مديح كبير من النقاد وحقق نجاح تجاري كبير أيضاً. وصلت أرباحه إلى 225 مليون $ مقابل ميزانية 10 مليون $. رشح الفيلم لتسع جوائز أوسكار، بما في ذلك جائزة الأوسكار لأفضل فيلم، وفاز باثنتين: أفضل ممثل مساعد لوليامز وأفضل سيناريو أصلي لأفليك ودامون.

القصة
على الرغم من تمتعه بمستوى تفكير العبقري، وذاكرته التصويرية وموهبته اللامعة في الرياضيات فإنه يعمل حارساً في MIT ويعيش وحيدا بشقة غير متكاملة الأثاث بأحد الأحياء في جنوب بوسطن .

بفضل المعاملة السيئة التي لاقاها ويل في طفولته، فهو يلوم نفسه بطريقة لا واعية لنشأته التعيسة ويحول كراهيته لذلك إلى نوع من التخريب الذاتي في حياته العاطفية والمهنية على حد السواء.

في أول أسابيع الدراسة يقوم ويل بحل معادلة مأخوذة من نظرية بعلم الجبر والتي كان البروفيسور جيرالد لامبو قد وضعها على أحد اللوحات كتحدي موجه لطلابه على أمل أن يكتشف أحدهم حلها بنهاية الفصل الدراسي .

عندما تم حل المسألة بسرعة دون أن يكتشف من الفاعل، يقوم لامبو بوضع معادلة أكثر تعقيداً بكثير – واحدة قد استغرقت منه ومن طلابه عامان لإثباتها . عندما يلحظ لامبو بالصدفة أحد البوابين يكتب على اللوحة، يطارده لامبو على الفور، ومع ذلك حين يعود لامبو للوحة، يقف متسمراً بادياً علي وجهه الذهول التام أمام الأجابة الصحيحة، حينئذ يخطط لامبو لتعقب ويل هانتنج .

في هذه الأثناء يتعارك ويل مع شاب كان قد قام بالتعدي عليه منذ 15 عام في الروضة، والآن يواجه ويل السجن الأبدي بتعديه على أحد الشرطيين والذي كان يحاول فض العراك .
بإدراكه لأن ويل يحمل كامناً ضخماً، يذهب لامبو لجلسة محاكمة ويل ويبدي الوقوف بجانبه مقترحاً عليه خيار : إما أن يُزج به في السجن وإما أن يُطلق سراحه تحت رقابة لامبو الشخصية لدراسة الرياضيات وخضوعه لمعالج نفساني، يفضل ويل الاختيار الثاني على الرغم من عدم اقتناعه بحاجته للعلاج النفسي .

يقابل ويل الأطباء النفسيين الخمس الأوائل باستهزاء وتهكم شديدين، وفي محاولة يائسة منه يستدعي لامبو أخيراً (شون ماجواير) صديقه القديم ورفيق دراسته ب معهد ماساتشوستس للتقنية والذي تصادف أنه يقيم بنفس الحي الذي يعيش فيه ويل . يختلف شون عن سابقيه أنه ينبش للوراء في ماضي ويل واستخراج حيل ويل الدفاعية القديمة .

يُصعق ويل على وجه أخص عندما يخبره شون أنه تخلى عن تذكرته لرؤية مباراة بوسطن (ريد سوكس) على Game 6 في الدوري العالمي لعام 1975 لكي يقابل أحد الغرباء ويقضي معها الوقت بأحد الحانات، والتي أصبحت زوجته فيما بعد، هذا بدوره يشجع ويل على تأسيس علاقة مع سكايلر، فتاة كان قد قابلها من قبل بحانة قرب جامعة هارفارد .

بالرغم من علاقة الطبيب بمريضه تلك، إلا أنها لم تكن غير متكافئة، فويل يتحدى شون ليلقي نظرة موضوعية على حياته الخاصة، لم يكن شون حينها قد تأقلم على موت زوجته المبكر جراء السرطان قبل عامين .

في هذه الأثناء يضغط لامبو على ويل بطريقة جعلته في النهاية يرفض حضور المقابلات الشخصية للوظائف التي كان لامبو ينظمها من أجله . يستمع ويل بالصدفة لمصايحة كلامية حانقة بين لامبو وشون حول اتجاه مستقبله .

تطلب سكايلر من ويل الانتقال معها لكاليفورنيا حيث ستبدأ دراسة الطب بكلية الطب، جامعة ستامفورد . يذعر ويل بسماعه للفكرة، وعندما تبدي سكايلر شفقتها حول ماضيه، يهيج ذلك ثورة ويل ليترك المكان في أوج غضبه .

يدعو ويل باستهزاء العمل الذي يطلبه منه لامبو بالأضحوكة ويقوم بإشعال النار بأحد المعادلات، حينها يتوسل إليه لامبو بألا يرميها لتحترق بالكامل حينها يمضي ويل في سبيله غير مبالياً به .

يشير شون إلى أن ويل بارع جداً في توقع فشله المستقبلي بعلاقاته الرومانسية بحيث أنه إما يتركها لتذبل أو تموت بترو بطريقة تجعله يتفادى الألم العاطفي . عندما يرفض ويل أن يعطي شون إجابة صادقة لسؤاله عن ماذا يريد أن يفعله بحياته، يطرده شون من مكتبه بأدب .

يخبر ويل صديقه (شاكي) أنه يريد أن يعمل بتكسير البناء لباقي حياته، يصبح شاكي صريحاً بقسوة مع ويل : فهو يشعر بأن تلك سبة لويل لأن يهدر قدراته الكامنة في عمل كهذا، وأن أجمل أوقاته هي تلك العشر ثواني التي يأتي لمنزله ويجده موجود فيه فقط، فهو خائف من أن يأتي إليه ويجده قد رحل، نظرًا لطبيعة شخصية ويل.

يذهب ويل لجلسة نفسانية أخرى، حيث يتفق شون وويل بأنهما كانا ضحايا لإساءة المعاملة في الطفولة . أخيراً، بعد الكثير من مجابهة الذات، يقرر ويل بالتوقف عن كونه ضحية لشياطينه الداخلية ويتولى مسؤولية حياته .

عندما يفاجئه رفاقه بسيارة Chevrolet Nova مُعادة التركيب كهدية بمناسبة عيد ميلاده ال21 ، يقرر ويل الذهاب وراء سكايلر، طارحاً خلفه عروض العمل المربحة بالشركات والوظائف الحكومية . يترك ويل لشون ملحوظة مختصرة مستخدماً أحد تعبيرات شون الساخرة "I had to go see about a girl" . يكتشف شاكي أن ويل قد رحل أخيراً . يظهر ويل بعدها وهو يشق أفق كاليفورنيا ليبدأ بداية جديدة مع سكايلر .

طاقم الفيلم
 مات ديمون بدور ويل هانتنج .
 روبين ويليامز بدور شون ماجواير .
 بن أفليك بدور شاكي سوليفان .
 ستيلان سكارسغارد بدور البروفيسور جيرالد لامبو .
 ميني درايفر بدور سكايلر .
 كيسي أفليك بدور مورجان أومالي .
 كول هوسر بدور بيلي مكبرايد .
 John Mighton بدور طوم .

مراجع

وصلات خارجية

 صفحة الفيلم على موقع IMDB .
 Box Office Mojo.
 Rotten Tomatoes .
 سيناريو مبكر للفيلم من تأليف مات ديمون وبن أفليك (يختلف النص قليلاً عن الفيلم) .

أفلام أمريكية في عقد 1990
أفلام أمريكية
أفلام أمريكية مستقلة
أفلام إنتاج 1997
أفلام إنتاج عقد 1990
أفلام باللغة الإنجليزية
أفلام باللغة الإنجليزية في عقد 1990
أفلام بلوغ سن الرشد الأمريكية
أفلام تقع أحداثها في 1997
أفلام تقع أحداثها في بوسطن
أفلام تقع أحداثها في جامعات وكليات
أفلام تقع أحداثها في جامعة هارفارد
أفلام حاز كاتبها على جائزة الأوسكار لأفضل سيناريو أصلي
أفلام حول المدرسين
أفلام دراما إنتاج عقد 1990
أفلام دراما رومانسية أمريكية
أفلام درامية 1997
أفلام درامية نفسية
أفلام درامية نفسية أمريكية
أفلام درامية نفسية عقد 1990
أفلام سجلها داني إلفمان
أفلام عن أكاديمية
أفلام عن الأمراض العقلية
أفلام عن الأيتام
أفلام عن الرياضيات
أفلام عن إساءة معاملة الأطفال
أفلام مستقلة 1997
أفلام مستقلة عقد 1990
أفلام مصورة في بوسطن
أفلام مصورة في تورونتو
أفلام مصورة في ماساتشوستس
أفلام ميراماكس
إليوت سميث
بوسطن (ريد سوكس)
تصوير ثقافي عن رياضياتيين
موسيقى تصويرية 1997
نصوص سينمائية كتبها بن أفليك
نصوص سينمائية كتبها مات ديمون

غود ويل هانتينغ


El lago de Genval (en neerlandés: Meer van Genval; en francés: Lac de Genval) es un lago situado en el país europeo de Bélgica, en el sureste de Bruselas, cerca del Bosque de Soignes en los municipios de Rixensart en Región Valona y Overijse en Región Flamenca. El río del lago es llamado río Argentine. Este es un lugar de esparcimiento para el pueblo de Bruselas. En sus alrededores hay hermosas casas de la Belle Époque. Una de estas casas se llama Château du lac (Castillo del lago) que es un hotel cinco estrellas.

Véase también
 Geografía de Bélgica
 Geografía de Europa

Referencias

Enlaces externos
Mapa de localización

Lagos de Flandes
Lagos de Valonia

Lago de Genval


Martine Smeets (født 5 maj 1990 i Geesteren, Holland) er en kvindelig håndboldspiller fra Holland som spiller venstre fløj for Molde HK og Hollands kvindehåndboldlandshold.

Kilder
 Martine Smeets - Eurohandball

Håndboldspillere fra Nederlandene

Martine Smeets


Joncourt ist eine Gemeinde mit  Einwohnern (Stand ) 14 Kilometer nördlich von Saint-Quentin im französischen Département Aisne in der Region Hauts-de-France.

Geschichte
Die Region um Joncourt war Teil des Schlachtfeldes der Hunderttageoffensive der Alliierten während des Ersten Weltkrieges im Herbst 1918. Im September 1918 wurden in diesem Gebiet nach der Schlacht von Épehy die Angriffe auf die Stadt Saint-Quentin und den Saint-Quentin-Kanal ausgeführt, die die Schlacht um den Canal de la Sambre à l'Oise östlich von Joncourt am 4. November 1918 vorbereiteten.

Am 1. Oktober 1918 führte der englische Offizier und Dichter Wilfred Owen einen erfolgreichen Angriff auf deutsche Stellungen bei Joncourt. Owen wurde für sein Verhalten bei diesem Angriff das Military Cross verliehen.

Bevölkerungsentwicklung

Sehenswürdigkeiten

 Kirche Saint-Martin

Weblinks

Einzelnachweise

Ort in Hauts-de-France
Träger des Croix de guerre 1914–1918 (Ort in Frankreich)

Joncourt


Unter dem Titel Solidarität wurden von der Deutschen Post der DDR sechzehn Zuschlagmarken ausgegeben. Die ersten beiden ausgegebenen Motive war eine vorhandene Briefmarke, die nur einen Aufdruck erhielt.

Liste der Ausgaben und Motive

Literatur
 Michel-Katalog Deutschland 1999/2000, Schwaneberger Verlag, 1999, ISBN 3-87858-028-2
 LIPSIA Farbkatalog DDR 1983, transpress VEB Verlag für Verkehrswesen, VLN 162-925/197/83, SV 9197

Liste (Philatelie)
Briefmarke der Deutschen Post (DDR)

Solidarität (Zuschlagmarke)


මහාරාෂ්ට්‍රී හෙවත් මහාරාෂ්ට්‍රී ප්‍රාකෘත () යනුවෙන් හැඳින්වෙන්නේ පුරාතන සහ මධ්‍යකාලීන භාරතයේ පැවති භාෂාවකි. මෙය මරාඨී සහ කෝන්කණී යන භාෂාවන් හි පූර්වජ භාෂාවයි.

මහාරාෂ්ට්‍රී ප්‍රාකෘත භාෂාව ක්‍රි.ව.875 පමණ තෙක් සුලබව භාවිතයේ පැවති අතර, එය සාතවාහන රාජවංශයේ නිල භාෂාව විය. කර්පූරමඤ්ජරී සහ ගාහා සත්තසයී (ක්‍රි.පූ. 150 පමණ) වැනි කෘති එම භාෂාවෙන් ලියැවී ඇත. ජෛන ආචාර්ය හේමචන්ද්‍ර මහාරාෂ්ට්‍රී ප්‍රාකෘතයේ ව්‍යාකරණවේදියා ලෙස සැළැකේ. මහාරාෂ්ට්‍රී භාෂාව, බටහිර සහ දක්ෂිණ භාරතයේ වඩාත්ම පුළුල්ව භාවිතා වූ ප්‍රාකෘත භාෂාවයි.

මේවාත් බලන්න
 මාල්වානී කෝන්කණී

ආශ්‍රේයයන්

ඉන්දියාවේ භාෂා
මරාඨි භාෂාව
ප්‍රාකෘත භාෂා
ඉන්දු-ආර්ය භාෂා

මහාරාෂ්ට්‍රී ප්‍රාකෘත


Pandora se poate referi la:

 Pandora a fost în mitologia greacă prima femeie de pe pământ
 Pandora (satelit), satelit al lui Saturn descoperit în 1980 de către sonda spațială Voyager 1
 55 Pandora, asteroid din centura principală, descoperit pe 10 septembrie 1858
 Pandora Prod, companie producătoare de textile din Focșani, România

Pandora (dezambiguizare)


Draconinae es una subfamilia de reptiles dentro de la familia Agamidae naturales del sur de Asia. Para algunas taxonomías estos géneros pertenecen a la subfamilia Agaminae.

Géneros
Draconinae incluye los siguientes géneros:
 Acanthosaura
 Aphaniotis
 Bronchocela
 Calotes
 Ceratophora
 Cophotis
 Draco
 Gonocephalus
 Japalura
 Lyriocephalus
 Lyriocephalus scutatus (Linnaeus, 1758)
 Mantheyus
 Mantheyus phuwuanensis (Manthey & Nabhitabhata, 1991)
 Otocryptis
 Ptyctolaemus
 Rankinia
 Salea
 Sitana

Referencias

Enlaces externos

Draconinae


1. FFC Turbine Potsdam er en fodboldklub for kvinder, baseret i Potsdam, Tyskland. Klubbens fulde navn er 1. Frauen-Fußball-Club Turbine Potsdam 71 e. V. (FFC står for "Kvindernes fodboldklub" på tysk). De er en af de mest succesfulde hold i Tyskland. Holdet spiller på Karl-Liebknecht-Stadion i Babelsberg området i Potsdam.

Aktuel trup

Europæisk deltagelse

1 Gruppespil. Highest-ranked eliminated team in case of qualification, lowest-ranked qualified team in case of elimination.

Referencer

Kvindefodboldklubber i Tyskland

1. FFC Turbine Potsdam


Woodwardioideae,  potporodica papratnica, dio porodice Blechnaceae. Postoje 3 roda (dva su monotipična) sa ukupno 15 vrsta.

Rodovi
 Lorinseria C. Presl (1 sp.)
 Anchistea C. Presl (1 sp.)
 Woodwardia J. E. Sm. (13 spp.)

Izvori

Vanjske poveznice

Rebračevke

Woodwardioideae


ملفن شفارتز   عالم فيزيائي أمريكي حاز على جائزة نوبل للفيزياء عام 1988. شاركه في الجائزة العالمان ليون ليدرمان وجاك شتاينبرجر عن ابتكار طريقة فيض النيورينو وتفسيرهم للبناء المزدوج لليبتونات بواسطة اكتشافهم نيوترينو الميون. ولد ملفن شفارتز في 2 نوفمبر 1932، وتوفي في 28 أغسطس 2006.

روابط خارجية

مراجع

أشخاص من كيتشوم (أيداهو)
أعضاء الأكاديمية الوطنية الأمريكية للعلوم
أمريكيون حازوا جائزة نوبل
حائزون على جائزة نوبل في الفيزياء
حائزون على زمالة غوغنهايم
خريجو ثانوية البرونكس للعلوم
خريجو جامعة كولومبيا (نيويورك)
علماء أمريكيون يهود
علماء الفيزياء التجريبية
علماء فيزياء الجسيمات
فيزيائيون أمريكيون
فيزيائيون يهود
مواليد 1932
مواليد في نيويورك
أعضاء هيئة تدريس جامعة كولومبيا
وفيات 2006
وفيات بأمراض معدية في إيداهو
وفيات بسبب التهاب الكبد
وفيات بسبب مرض باركنسون
وفيات في توين فولز
يهود حازوا جائزة نوبل

ملفن شفارتز


Eskikızılcakese, Ordu ilinin Ünye ilçesine bağlı bir mahalledir. Eskikızılcakese doğal orman yapısıyla 1988 yılında millî park statüsüne alınmış ve nesli tükenmekte olan dağ keçisi ve ceylan gibi hayvanların avlanması kısmen engellenmiştir. Son yıllarda artan kene olayları mahallede avlanma yasağını daha önemli bir hale getirmiştir. Çünkü doğaya salınan sülünlerin kene ile mücadelede
ne kadar önemli bir yer tuttuğu herkes tarafından bilinmektedir.

Coğrafya
Ordu iline 77 km, Ünye ilçesine 11 km uzaklıktadır.

Nüfus

Kaynakça

Dış bağlantılar

 Ünye Belediyesi Resmi Sitesi
 Ünye Kaymakamlığı Resmi Sitesi

Ünye'nin mahalleleri

Eskikızılcakese, Ünye