The 2nd New Zealand Division, initially the New Zealand Division, was an infantry division of the New Zealand Military Forces (New Zealand's army) during the Second World War. The division was commanded for most of its existence by Lieutenant-General Bernard C. Freyberg. It fought in Greece, Crete, the Western Desert and Italy. In the Western Desert Campaign, the division played a prominent role in the defeat of German and Italian forces in the Second Battle of El Alamein and the British Eighth Army's advance to Tunisia.

In late 1943, the division was moved to Italy, taking part in the Eighth Army's campaign on Italy's Adriatic coast, which ground to a halt at the end of the year. In early 1944, the division formed the nucleus of the New Zealand Corps, fighting two battles attempting unsuccessfully to penetrate the Gustav Line at Monte Cassino. The division saw further action on the Gothic Line in Italy in 1944 and took part in the Allied 1945 Spring offensive, which led to the surrender of German forces in Italy in May. After returning to New Zealand, reorganised elements of the division formed part of the occupational forces in Japan from 1945.

History

Formation

At the outbreak of the Second World War in September 1939, it was decided that New Zealand should provide an Expeditionary Force. Initially a 'Special Force' was to be raised, of one battalion in each of the three military districts, but the requirement was then raised, to that of a division. Major-General Bernard C. Freyberg, of the British Army, but with strong New Zealand connections, was appointed as General Officer Commanding. This force became known as 2nd New Zealand Expeditionary Force and the division, initially, as the New Zealand Division. The first echelon, 2NZEF Headquarters and a Brigade Group, left NZ shores in January and landed in Egypt on 12 February 1940. The second echelon, also a Brigade Group, was diverted to Britain on Italy's entry into the war, joining the British VII Corps. Composite elements were formed into an extra brigade, 7th Brigade, to strengthen the invasion defences. The second echelon did not reach Egypt until March 1941. The third echelon arrived in Egypt on 27 October 1940 and concentration of the division was completed just before it was deployed to northern Greece in March 1941.

The division remained as part of the British Eighth Army to the end of World War II in 1945, during which it fought in the Battle of Greece (March–April 1941), the Battle of Crete (May 1941), Operation Crusader (November–December 1941), Minqar Qaim (June 1942), First Battle of El Alamein (July 1942), Second Battle of El Alamein (October–November 1942), Libya and Tunisia (December 1942 – May 1943), the Sangro (October–December 1943), Battle of Monte Cassino (February–March 1944), Central Italy (May–December 1944), and the Adriatic Coast (April–May 1945).

Defence of Greece
In April 1941, the division was deployed to Greece to assist British and Australian forces in defending the country from the invading Germans. (The Second Echelon of the 2 NZEF had been diverted to the United Kingdom between June 1940 and January 1941, and had had an anti-invasion role with British VII Corps.) The New Zealanders were combined with Australian and British forces as 'W Force' under Lieutenant-General Sir Henry Maitland Wilson. The immediate operational commander was Australian Lieutenant-General Thomas Blamey with his I Australian Corps headquarters, which was briefly renamed Anzac Corps. The Germans soon joined what became the Battle of Greece, overwhelming the British and Commonwealth forces and forcing them to retreat to Crete and Egypt by 6 April. The last New Zealand troops had evacuated mainland Greece by 25 April 1941, having sustained losses of 291 men killed, 387 seriously wounded, and 1,826 men captured in this campaign.

Battle of Crete

Since most 2nd New Zealand Division troops had evacuated to Crete from mainland Greece, they were very much involved in the defence of Crete against further German attacks. As Freyberg was judged to have performed extremely well during the evacuation of Greece, he was given command of all Allied forces for the defence of the island. Consequently, the New Zealand Division temporarily lost him as its commander. However, the attempt to defend Crete was as doomed as that to defend Greece had been.

The German paratroopers landed in May 1941. While suffering many casualties, the Germans gradually gained the upper hand over the Allied forces in the Battle of Crete. By the end of the month, German soldiers had once again overwhelmed British and Commonwealth forces, and it was decided to evacuate the division from the island, again without its heavy weapons. This evacuation was to Egypt, with the forces landing in Alexandria in June. The unit's ability to help itself to enemy—and Allied—heavy weapons and transport led to it being nicknamed "Freyberg's Forty Thousand Thieves" . In the Battle for Crete, 671 New Zealanders were killed, 967 wounded and 2,180 captured. During the battle, Charles Upham was awarded the first of his two Victoria Crosses.

North Africa

Operation Crusader

Following the disasters in Europe, the division was then integrated into the regular order of battle of the British Eighth Army. It fought in many of the critical battles in the North African Campaign over the next year and a half. On 18 November 1941, the division took part in Operation Crusader. The New Zealand troops crossed the Libyan frontier into Cyrenaica, and linked up with the British 70th Infantry Division of the Tobruk Garrison on 26 November. Operation Crusader was an overall success for the British and the New Zealand troops withdrew to Syria to recover. The Operation Crusader campaign was the most costly that the 2nd New Zealand Division fought during the Second World War, with 879 men killed, and 1,700 wounded.

Originally known as the 'New Zealand Division', the division became known as 2nd New Zealand Division from June 1942 onward as part of the Operation Cascade deception scheme and the 'formation' of Maadi Camp, the division's base area in Egypt, as "6th NZ Division".

Mersa Matruh

After the Eighth Army's defeat in the Gazala battles, fresh forces were brought up to check the Axis forces in their drive into Egypt. The 2nd New Zealand Division was transported from Syria to Mersa Matruh. In the ensuing battle, the division's retreat was cut off on 27 June when the 21st Panzer Division got to the east of the division. That night, the division's 4th Brigade broke through the German positions, and the division retired to El Alamein.

El Alamein

The division played a prominent role in both Battles of El Alamein. During the First Battle of El Alamein, in July 1942, the division put in a night attack against the Afrika Korps, commanded by Erwin Rommel. As no armoured support was available to the division after their night attack against the Germans at Ruweisat Ridge, the 4th New Zealand Brigade was shattered, with the loss of around 3,000 men, during the fighting that resulted when German Panzers counter-attacked the New Zealand infantry the following morning. It was for his actions in this battle that Charles Upham was awarded the Bar to his VC, becoming only the third man to be awarded the VC twice and the first soldier in a combatant role. Also at Ruweisat, Sergeant Keith Elliott of 22nd Battalion was awarded the VC for continuing to lead his company, despite wounds, in assaults which led to the destruction of five machine guns plus an anti-tank gun and the capture of 130 prisoners.

During the Second Battle of El Alamein, the division broke through the German positions and got behind Rommel's flank. During the night of 1–2 November 1942, the British 9th Armoured Brigade was to have advanced in support of an attack by the division. However, it was stopped in the minefield lanes by the 15th Panzer and 90th Light Divisions; the following morning, the armour continued to be attacked, suffering heavy losses. However, the 9th Armoured Brigade's sacrifice had made the follow-up successes possible.

Tunisia

Following the victory at Alamein, the Eighth Army advanced west through Libya to El Agheila. For much of this time, Lieutenant General Bernard Montgomery, the Eighth Army commander since August 1942, was obliged to maintain a relatively small forward force because of the difficulties caused by a very extended supply line and the New Zealand Division was therefore held in reserve at Bardia. At the Battle of El Agheila, the New Zealand Division was brought forward with supporting tanks to conduct an outflanking movement while two divisions made a frontal attack. The battle started on the night of 11 December. Looking to preserve his forces, Rommel commenced a withdrawal to Buerat on the 12th.

The division then formed the left flank of the advancing Eighth Army and on 16 December had an opportunity to trap the retreating Axis forces. However, the division's troops were strung out and without anti-tank guns. The 15th Panzer Division was therefore able to punch through and secure the line of retreat.

A further unsuccessful attempt to get to the rear of the withdrawing Axis forces took place at Nofaliya. The division then remained in reserve in the Nofaliya area until early January, when it was ordered forward to take part in the final push through Buerat and advance the remaining  to Tripoli. The operation began on 15 January; by 21 January, Tripoli was less than  ahead. However, skilful delaying tactics allowed the Axis forces to withdraw in good order and when leading elements of Eighth Army entered Tripoli in the early morning of 23 January its defenders had left.

The Eighth Army arrived on the Mareth defensive line on the border with Tunisia shortly after the fall of Tripoli. After an unsuccessful attempt to break through the Axis defenses at Mareth, the New Zealand Division was reinforced to form a New Zealand Corps to execute a left hook around the main Axis defenses through the Tebaga Gap. The attack was launched on 21 March and the entrance to the gap had been secured after four days fighting but no break through made. Further reinforcements from British X Corps were sent to the Tebaga Gap and overall control of the operation transferred to X Corps commander Brian Horrocks. Operation Supercharge II was launched on 26 March and by 28 March the main Axis forces on the Mareth Line had been forced to withdraw by the flanking threat from the advancing British 1st Armoured and New Zealand Divisions.

At the end of Supercharge II, the New Zealand Corps was broken up and its elements allocated between X and XXX Corps. On 30 March, Montgomery sent the following message to Freyberg:

The division continued to fight in Tunisia with Eighth Army until Tunis fell to First Army on 7 May, prompting the surrender of the remaining Axis forces.

During 1943, the division was involved in what was called the "Furlough Mutiny". This was "an affair that has received little attention in the literature of the Second World War" but which according to the military historian Jonathan Fennell had significant military and political implications for New Zealand's subsequent wartime role. Fennell asserts that the aftermath of the 'mutiny' meant that "the New Zealand soldier, to all intents and purposes, was able to negotiate the terms of his service in the second half of the war. As a result, 2nd New Zealand Division would fight some of its hardest battles without its most experienced veterans."

Italian Campaign

Following the Axis surrender in Tunisia the 2nd New Zealand Division was withdrawn to refit and therefore took no part in the Allied invasion of Sicily. The refit included the conversion of the 4th Infantry Brigade into the 4th Armoured Brigade. The division returned to battle in the Italian Campaign in late 1943, rejoining the Eighth Army. The division came into the front line in November and took part in the advance across the Sangro at the end of the month. During December the division was involved in very heavy fighting during the Moro River Campaign at Orsogna. By the end of the year the deteriorating winter weather made movement of even tracked vehicles impossible except on metaled roads and severely impeded vital close air support operations. This, together with the failure to capture Orsogna led the Allies to call off the Adriatic coast offensive until spring brought better conditions in the skies and under foot.

Monte Cassino

Meanwhile, to the west of the Eighth Army on the other side of the Apennine Mountains, Italy's central mountain spine, the U.S. Fifth Army had also been fighting its way north. By the end of January 1944, the Fifth Army's attacks against the Cassino massif had ground to a halt and the "Battle for Rome" had stalled. The 15th Army Group commander General Sir Harold Alexander and Fifth Army commander Lieutenant General Mark W. Clark looked around for solutions to penetrate the defences, as their careers and reputations were irrevocably linked with success on this front, particularly due to Winston Churchill's insistence at this time, that Italy was the key to the ultimate success in the war. As part of the solution, Alexander withdrew the 2nd New Zealand Division from the Eighth Army line to establish a small Army Group Reserve with a view to reinforcing the Fifth Army front. Clark was initially apprehensive of making use of an ex-British Eighth Army Division. As an American, he was even more apprehensive of having Freyberg, whom he considered a "prima donna" who "had to be handled with kid gloves" leading the Army Reserve. Clark feared that, due to Freyberg's extensive experience, he would question or dispute his orders. What concerned him most was that he feared that General Alexander might decide to use the New Zealand Corps to replace Major General Geoffrey Keyes' U.S. II Corps and "snatch the victory which the Americans had so dearly bought". The failure of the New Zealand Corps to capture Cassino reduced these fears and eventually made Clark more amenable towards the New Zealand Corps. Alexander also withdrew the 4th Indian Infantry Division as well as the British 78th Infantry Division from Eighth Army to join this strategic reserve. This formation was initially known as "Spadger Force" to confuse German intelligence, with the commander, General Freyberg being known as "Spadger". The Corps later became known as the New Zealand Corps under command of the U.S. Fifth Army. The New Zealand Corps was not, however, a truly of corps size, since it lacked a full staff and set of corps troops. It was more a temporary extension of the division - New Zealand simply did not have the resources to fully man a corps level formation.

Second Battle for Cassino
On 8 February, Clark conceded to Alexander that U.S. II Corps would not succeed with any further attacks and he "allowed" the British (and Dominions) to attempt to strike the final blow against the Axis line at Cassino. By this time, U.S. VI Corps had already landed at Anzio and were under heavy threat from the reinforcing Germans. An outright destruction of the Anzio beachhead was a possibility, given the relentless enemy air, artillery, and ground assaults against VI Corps. General Alexander advised Freyberg to ready the NZ Corps to take over from U.S. II Corps, under Major General Geoffrey Keyes, also advising him that enemy reinforcements had arrived and that even greater resistance could be expected.

Freyberg's plan initially included a wide flanking attack—differentiating it from the approach previously used by Keyes' II Corps. This flanking movement was eventually excluded from the final plan and Freyberg dictated that the attack be along the same unsuccessful lines as used by the Americans the month before. Major-General Francis Tuker, commander of the 4th Indian Division, voiced strong disapproval regarding the plan to Freyberg, his new Corps Commander—as his division was to lead the now, frontal assault. Tuker also expressed his concern over Freyberg's apparent obsession with reducing the monastery on Monte Cassino, arguing that (supported by General Juin, commanding the French Expeditionary Corps) they were attempting to breach the strongest and most fortified point of the Gustav Line. As part of his plan, and encouraged by the complaints from Tucker, Freyberg insisted to Clark that the monastery should be flattened by bombing in the preparatory stage of the attack. General Alexander, although expressing the opinion that it would be regrettable to destroy the Benedictine Order monastery-built around AD 529—supported Freyberg's insistence that reducing the monastery be considered a military necessity.

The Allied planes dropped 442 tons of bombs on the Abbey and its immediate environs in two separate attacks on 15 February, one between 09:30 and 10:00 and the other between 10:30 and 13:30, but the infantry attack, which was to commence directly after the second bombing mission, was delayed due to differences regarding H-Hour between Freyberg and his 7th Indian Brigade. Also, the division commanders were insisting that a preliminary high-point (Point 593) was to be captured as a prelude to the main attack.

The 4th Indian Division was to attack in an arc towards the south and south west, taking Point 593 and then moving south east, up the heights towards the Abbey. The 4th Indian Division would only advance on the Abbey, once the NZ Division had attacked south and south east taking the town of Cassino. The main attack eventually commenced just after last light with the 28th (Maori) Battalion tasked to cross the Rapido River and to seize the station south of Cassino town, to establish a bridgehead for the corps armour to move into the town and to the foot of the Cassino massif—the attack starting at 21:30. By dawn, German 10th Army artillery had stopped the 28th Battalion advance on the Rapido River bridgehead and the NZ Division were forced to use all their guns to fire smoke onto the bridge and railway station areas to mask the withdrawal of the 28th Battalion. The attack had failed, and so had the 4th Indian Division attack on Point 593.

Third Battle
On the evening of 14 March, the battalions of the NZ Corps were alerted that Operation Bradman, the bombing of Cassino, was approved for the next day. In a third attempt to penetrate the Gustav Line, the Corps was again launched against Cassino town and the monastery on top of the massif. By this time, U.S. VI Corps, which had landed at Anzio some two months before, had still not been able to break out of its beachhead, though pressure on the beachhead had significantly decreased since the beginning of the month. This third assault on Cassino was intended to not only penetrate the Gustav Line, but to draw away the German forces to further alleviate the pressure on the VI Corps at Anzio.

The bombing started at 08:00 and continued till 12:00—dropping an equivalent of four tons per acre. By 12:30, an 890 gun artillery bombardment started, which would continue for eight hours. The 6th NZ Brigade lead the attack, assaulting Cassino town, supported by the tanks of the 19th Armoured Regiment and at the same time, the 4th Indian Division was to advance on Hangman's Hill after which they were to assault the Monastery. The next morning, the 4th NZ Armoured Brigade was to take over from American tanks in the Liri Valley while the 7th Indian Infantry Brigade and small NZ tank groups were to advance up the Cavendish Road (built by Indian engineers) to clear any pockets of resistance on the Cassino slopes.

The advance into Cassino town by the 6th NZ Brigade went wrong from the start as the 19th Armoured tanks were unable to pass through the badly damaged roads, covered in rubble and bomb craters. The infantry, advancing without tanks came under severe fire from German paratroopers in the town, their fire further preventing armoured engineer bulldozers from clearing access routes for the tanks. Although the armour had been stopped, the NZ Infantry still held some parts of the town, including the strategic Castle Hill. Freyberg's orders had defined that the 4th Indian Division would only commence their advance on the Abbey, once Castle Hill had been secured, as they were to pass through the NZ lines on the hill as they progressed up the mountain. It took two hours to pass the message that the hill had been secured and as it was already dark, further delays were encountered by the Indian Division struggling to find Castle Hill. The Indian advance on Hangman's Hill only commenced after midnight, further compounded by heavy rain.

The next morning, while concentrated German artillery fire and house to house fighting pinned the 2nd New Zealand Division in that portion of the town which they held, the 4th Indian Division was making no progress up the mountain. The 20th Armoured Regiment which was to have supported them, considered the road too risky, as numerous hairpin bends had not been secured. German reinforcements continued to arrive, bolstering the defences in town, as well as on the Cassino massif. Attempts by the NZ Division to expand their perimeter in town continued on 16 March—XIV Panzer Corps reported in this regard "... south of the town, the enemy [the NZ Division] fought our foremost posts to a standstill by weight of fire and then occupied the station after hand-to-hand fighting ... [but] the centre of the town is still in our hands."

By the afternoon of 19 March, it was evident that no further progress would be made by the NZ Division in Cassino town—the German paratrooper line held firm, with machine gun, mortar and sniper fire and continued counter-attacks to reduce the NZ perimeter. By 20 March a company of Gurkhas overran Point 435 on Hangman's Hill, 500 yards from the Abbey, but were again driven back by German fire from unassailable positions. The NZ Division re-occupied the railway station and the botanical gardens in the town and the process of attack and counterattack continued until 23 March when Alexander decided to call off the offensive. The Monte Cassino Abbey, although totally destroyed by now, remained firmly in German hands.

Advance to the Gothic Line

Following the two assaults at Monte Cassino, the New Zealand Division was withdrawn and when redeployed found itself in the high Apennine sector north east of Cassino under the British Eighth Army's X Corps, commanded by Lieutenant-General Richard L. McCreery. When in May 1944 the Allies launched their final and successful offensive on the Cassino front, X Corps was employed in a holding role making diversionary feints and anchoring the right flank of the Eighth Army attack. Some of the division's armoured elements were detached, however, and placed under command of the British 4th Infantry Division and 8th Indian Infantry Division to take part in XIII Corps attack in the centre of the front. When the New Zealand tanks returned from 8th Indian Division in early June, Major-General Dudley Russell, the 8th Indian Division's commander wrote to Freyberg saying: As the main attack advanced, X Corps with the New Zealand Division moved forward to maintain protection of Eighth Army's right flank. After the fall of Rome in early June X Corps formed a pursuit force comprising 2nd New Zealand and 8th and 10th Indian Infantry Divisions. On 10 June elements of the division entered Avezzano and the division passed into army reserve to spend a period of rest and training.

In mid July, the division joined British XIII Corps, under Lieutenant-General Sidney C. Kirkman, at the Trasimene Line as reinforcements ahead of a set piece offensive planned to carry an advance to Arezzo. The New Zealand Division acted as guard to the right flank of the corps. Arezzo was captured on 16 July and the advance was continued towards the River Arno and Florence. The New Zealand Division's capture of the eastern crests of the Pian dei Cerri hills at the start of August was the turning point of the battle for Florence. Florence was declared an open city and Allied troops entered on 4 August. Lieutenant-General Oliver Leese, the Eighth Army commander wrote:

Kirkman, the Corps commander also wrote:

Gothic Line to Trieste

In the autumn of 1944, the division fought as part of I Canadian Corps during Operation Olive, the offensive on the Gothic Line. In November 1944 it was then transferred to British V Corps. With one armoured and two infantry brigades, the division was well organized for mobile warfare as experienced in North Africa. In the mountainous terrain and difficult conditions underfoot found in Italy, however, tank mobility was very restricted and the division always found itself short of infantry. During the winter of 1944–45 the Divisional Cavalry Regiment and 22nd (Motor) Battalion were converted to infantry, giving each infantry brigade a fourth battalion. By the spring of 1945 the machine-gun battalion had also been converted to infantry and the division's infantry reorganized into three brigades each with three battalions. Manpower shortages in the division were also eased when the 3rd New Zealand Division, then fighting in the Pacific War against the Japanese, had been disbanded in October 1944 and 4,000 of its officers and men then transferred to the 2nd NZ Division.

In April 1945, the division, still as part of British V Corps with 8th Indian Division, was performing assault crossings of first the Senio stream and then the river Santerno between Ravenna and Bologna, marking the start of the Allied spring 1945 offensive in Italy. The division was subsequently transferred to XIII Corps and the closing days of the Second World War saw the 2nd New Zealand Division race to Trieste in northern Italy to work with Josip Broz Tito's partisans, and liberate the city from German troops.

Aftermath
By the end of the war, the New Zealand Division had a reputation as a tough formation with good troops. This opinion had earlier been expressed by Rommel in his report to the Oberkommando der Wehrmacht on 21 July 1942 (at the end of the First Battle of El Alamein) in which he highly rated the New Zealand Division. This view was repeated within the German 5th Panzer Division intelligence reports. Rommel also paid tribute to the division in his memoirs:

General Bernard Montgomery, who commanded the British Eighth Army and who would later command the Allied land forces in the invasion of Normandy, recommended that the division should be used in the invasion of Normandy but the New Zealand government did not approve the move. This was because the division was fighting at Monte Cassino at the time.

Captain Charles Upham, VC and Bar, of the New Zealand Division, was the only person to be awarded the Victoria Cross twice during the Second World War. Other Victoria Crosses were awarded to John 'Jack' Hinton, Alfred Hulme, Keith Elliott, and Moana-Nui-a-Kiwa Ngarimu. Lance Sergeant Haane Manahi of the Māori Battalion was posthumously honoured in 2007 by representatives of the Queen after it was decided that his Distinguished Conduct Medal, awarded for actions at Takrouna, was not to be upgraded to a Victoria Cross, despite recommendations from senior officers, including Lieutenant-General Brian Horrocks.

Elements of the division, the 9th Brigade, were reorganized as the division disbanded to become J Force, (Japan), the New Zealand contribution to the British Commonwealth Occupation Force in Japan.

Order of battle

Initial composition, 1940–41

Headquarters New Zealand Division
 Divisional Cavalry Regiment
 HQ Divisional Artillery
 4th Field Regiment
 5th Field Regiment
 6th Field Regiment
 7th Anti-Tank Regiment
 1 Survey Troop
 14th Light Anti-Aircraft Regiment - established at Papakura Military Camp in January 1941, arrived in Egypt with 5th Reinforcements in May 1941. Disbanded during the later stages of the Italian campaign, late 1944. The regiment served in Egypt, Palestine, Syria, Lebanon, Libya, Tunisia and Italy.
 HQ Divisional Engineers
 5,6,7,8 Companies
 Divisional Signals
 HQ 4 Infantry Brigade — 4th New Zealand Armoured Brigade from 1943
 18th Battalion
 19th Battalion
 20th Battalion
 HQ 5th Infantry Brigade
 21st Battalion
 22nd Battalion
 23rd Battalion
 HQ 6th Infantry Brigade
 24th Battalion
 25th Battalion
 26th Battalion
 27th Machine-Gun Battalion
 28th (Māori) Battalion
 HQ Divisional Army Service Corps
 Divisional Ammunition Company
 Divisional Petrol Company
 Divisional Supply Column
 Reserve MT Company
 4, 5, 6 Field Ambulances
 4 Field Hygiene Section
 Divisional Provost Company
 Divisional Intelligence Section
 Divisional Postal Unit
 Divisional Employment Platoon
 Divisional Salvage Unit
 Divisional Mobile Bath Unit
 Divisional Mobile Laundry and Decontamination Unit
 Divisional Ordnance Field Park

Order of Battle as at 11 May 1944
Order of battle taken from the New Zealand Official History.
 HQ 2 NZ Division
 2 NZ Divisional Cavalry
 HQ 4 Armoured Brigade
 4 Squadron, 2 NZ Divisional Signals
 18 Armoured Regiment
 19 Armoured Regiment
 20 Armoured Regiment
 22 (Motor) Battalion
 HQ 2 NZ Divisional Artillery
 4 Field Regiment
 5 Field Regiment
 6 Field Regiment
 7 Anti-Tank Regiment
 14 Light Anti-Aircraft Regiment
 36 Survey Battery
 HQ 2 NZ Divisional Engineers
 5 Field Park Company
 6 Field Company
 7 Field Company
 8 Field Company
 HQ 5 Infantry Brigade
 5 Infantry Brigade Defence Platoon
 21 Battalion
 23 Battalion
 28 (Maori) Battalion
 HQ 6 Infantry Brigade
 6 Infantry Brigade Defence Platoon
 24 Battalion
 25 Battalion
 26 Battalion
 27 (Machine Gun) Battalion
 HQ Command NZ Army Service Corps
 1 Ammunition Company
 2 Ammunition Company
 1 Petrol Company
 1 Supply Company
 4 Reserve Mechanical Transport Company
 6 Reserve Mechanical Transport Company
 18 Tank Transporter Company
 Water Issue Section
 NZ Section, Motor Ambulance Convoy
 Medical
 4 Field Ambulance
 5 Field Ambulance
 6 Field Ambulance
 4 Field Hygiene Section
 1 Mobile Casualty Clearing Station
 2 Field Transfusion Unit
 1 Field Surgical Unit
 2 Anti-Malarial Control Unit
 3 Anti-Malarial Control Unit
 102 Mobile Venereal Disease Treatment Centre
 Dental
 1 Mobile Dental Unit
 Ordnance
 2 NZ Divisional Ordnance Field Park
 Mobile Laundry and Bath Unit
 Electrical and Mechanical Engineers
 2 NZ Divisional Workshops
 4 Armoured Brigade Workshops
 5 Infantry Brigade Workshop Section
 6 Infantry Brigade Workshop Section
 1 Armoured Troops Recovery Unit
 2 NZ Divisional Provost Company
 1 Field Cash Office
 2 NZ Divisional Postal Unit
 Reinforcement Transit Unit

See also
 Military history of New Zealand during World War II
 Official History of New Zealand in the Second World War

Notes

Citations

References

Divisions of New Zealand in World War II
2nd
Infantry divisions of World War II
Crete in World War II
Military units and formations established in 1939
Military units and formations disestablished in 1945

2nd New Zealand Division


නිරුපමා දීපිකා රාජපක්ෂ යනු ශ්‍රී ලාංකික දේශපාලඥවරියක, පාර්ලිමේන්තු මන්ත්‍රීවරියක සහ රජයේ අමාත්‍යවරියක වෙයි. නිරූපමා විවාහ වූවේ දමිළ ජාතිකයෙකු වූ තිරුකුමරන් නඩේසන් සමගයි. ඇය හිටපු ජනපති මහින්ද රාජපක්ෂ මහතාගේ ඥාතී දියණියක වෙයි.

මේවාද බලන්න
 රාජපක්ෂ පවුල

මූලාශ්‍ර

බාහිර සබැඳි

1962 උපත්
රාජපක්ෂ පවුල

නිරුපමා රාජපක්ෂ


Le  district congressionnel de l'Arizona est un district du Congrès des États-Unis situé dans l'État américain de l'Arizona. Il est situé dans le coin sud-est de l'État et comprend environ les deux tiers de Tucson. C'est le seul des neuf districts de l'État qui n'inclut aucune partie du Comté de Maricopa.

Histoire du district
Lorsque l'Arizona a été divisé en districts congressionnels pour la première fois après le recensement de 1950, le  district comprenait tout l'État en dehors de la région de Phoenix. L'Arizona a obtenu une troisième circonscription après le recensement de 1960, et le  district a été réduit à peu près au tiers sud de l'État, s'étendant de frontière à frontière du Nouveau-Mexique à la Californie. Il s'étendait sur toute la longueur de la frontière avec le Mexique. La plus grande ville du district était de loin Tucson. La ville suivante était Yuma, à l'extrême ouest. Après un redécoupage au milieu de la décennie, en 1967, la circonscription a été légèrement déplacée vers le nord et a récupéré une partie du sud de Phoenix. Cette configuration est restée largement inchangée jusqu'au recensement de 1980, lorsqu'une grande partie de l'est de Tucson a été intégrée au nouveau  district.

Le  district est resté basé dans le sud de l'Arizona jusqu'au recensement de 2000, lorsque l'Arizona a gagné deux districts. À ce moment-là, l'ancien  district est devenu essentiellement le nouveau  district, tandis que la majeure partie de l'ancien  district est devenue le nouveau  district. Situé dans le coin nord-ouest de l'État, il s'étendait jusqu'à la banlieue ouest de Phoenix, connue sous le nom de West Valley. Elle comprenait toute la ville de Peoria (à l'exception de la partie de cette ville située dans le comté de Yavapai) et Surprise, la majeure partie de Glendale et une grande partie de l'ouest de Phoenix dans le Comté de Maricopa, tout le Comté de Mohave et la Nation Hopi dans les Comtés de Navajo et Coconino.

La taille et la diversité du  district (il comprenait la quasi-totalité de la partie nord-ouest de l'État) le faisaient apparaître rural sur une carte. Cependant, plus de 90 % de sa population vivait dans la West Valley, fortement conservatrice, historiquement une zone Républicaine assez sûre.

La forme étrange de la circonscription était révélatrice de l'utilisation du gerrymandering dans sa construction. Cette division inhabituelle n'a cependant pas été dessinée pour favoriser des politiciens, mais est due à des tensions historiques entre les tribus amérindiennes Hopi et Navajo. Les litiges relatifs aux frontières tribales étant de compétence fédérale, il a longtemps été considéré comme inapproprié d'inclure les réserves des deux tribus dans la même circonscription congressionnelle, mais la réserve Hopi est complètement entourée par la réserve Navajo. Afin de se conformer aux lois actuelles de redécoupage de l'Arizona, il fallait trouver un moyen de connexion qui évite d'inclure de grandes portions de terres Navajo, d'où l'étroite connexion fluviale.

George W. Bush a remporté la circonscription en 2004 avec 61 % des voix. John McCain a remporté la circonscription en 2008 avec 60,75 % des voix, tandis que Barack Obama a obtenu 38,07 %.

Lors de la Primaire Démocrate de l'Arizona du Super Tuesday, le 5 février 2008, la circonscription a été remportée par Hillary Clinton avec 54,52 % des voix, contre 35,62 % pour Barack Obama et 7,43 % pour John Edwards. Lors de la Primaire Républicaine de l'Arizona, le  district a été remporté par John McCain avec 49,51 % des voix, tandis que Mitt Romney a obtenu 29,51 % et Mike Huckabee 10,46 %.

Après le recensement de 2012, la majeure partie de la portion du Comté de Maricopa de l'ancien  district est devenue le  district, tandis que le nouveau  district a repris la majeure partie du territoire de l'ancien  district. Ce dernier, à son tour, avait été le  district de 1983 à 2003.

Lors des midterms de 2014, le district a été la dernière élection à la Chambre des Représentants à être décidée, car le recomptage officiel a commencé le  décembre en raison de l'avance de la Républicaine Martha McSally sur son adversaire démocrate sortant Ron Barber de moins de 200 voix. En fin de compte, Barber a perdu contre McSally par 167 voix.

Lors des midterms de 2018, McSally s'est retirée pour se présenter au Sénat américain, et la Démocrate Ann Kirkpatrick a été facilement élue pour la remplacer. Après sa défaite dans la course au Sénat de 2018, McSally a été nommée au siège de classe III du Sénat américain rendu vacant par le décès du sénateur John McCain.

Histoire et démographie
Les Amérindiens de langue athabascane vivaient dans cette région bien avant l'arrivée des Européens qui ont établi le Territoire de l'Arizona. À la fin du XIXe siècle, le chef apache Cochise et une bande de Chiricahuas ont construit leur fief sur la chaîne de montagnes Dragoon. La tribu tendait souvent des embuscades et volait les passants afin d'empêcher les intrus d'accéder à leurs terres. La présence de la tribu a dissuadé la colonisation de la région pendant bien plus longtemps que le reste du territoire de l'Arizona. Le district, qui contient un comté portant désormais son nom, s'est développé lorsque ses ressources variées et précieuses ont été découvertes dans les années 1870. La découverte de mines d'argent en 1878 dans le district de Tombstone a stimulé la croissance et les investissements dans la région.

Géographie
Le district est couvert de montagnes et de larges vallées. Le district est constitué de prairies désertiques de haute altitude, dont l'altitude varie entre 3 500 et 6 000 pieds. Plusieurs chaînes de montagnes traversent le district, le sommet le plus élevé étant celui des Chiricahua Mountains, à 9 796 pieds. Le sud-est de l'Arizona se trouve à un carrefour écologique où l'on trouve des habitats et des espèces de la Sierra Madre du Mexique, des Rocheuses et des déserts de Sonoran et de Chihuahuan. L'élévation abrupte des montagnes à partir des prairies environnantes crée des habitats uniques abritant des espèces et des communautés de plantes et d'animaux rares. La région a un climat semi-aride avec des hivers modérés et des étés chauds. Les précipitations dépassent rarement 2.5cm par mois, sauf en juillet, août et septembre, où des tempêtes de forte intensité, mais de courte durée, peuvent se produire.

Principales industries
Les principaux domaines d'activité des habitants du district sont l'agriculture, l'élevage, le bétail, l'exploitation minière et le tourisme. Les principales cultures irriguées sont le coton, le blé, le maïs, les céréales, le sorgho, la luzerne, le foin, les pommes, les pêches, les cerises, les raisins, les pistaches, les noix de pécan, la laitue, les piments et d'autres légumes. La région compte une multitude de fermes d'autocueillette de légumes et de vergers, dont plusieurs fermes biologiques. Des exploitations de tomates et de concombres en serre ont été réalisées au cours des dernières années avec beaucoup de succès. Dans le Comté de Cochise se trouve la base de l'armée américaine de Fort Huachuca et de nombreuses entreprises militaro-industrielles. Dans les zones suburbaines et urbaines, les Walmarts sont les supermarchés les plus abondants.

Écoles
Le Cochise College, un établissement d'enseignement supérieur de deux ans, est situé dans le district. L'Université de l'Arizona est située à quelques kilomètres de la frontière du district, dans le centre de Tucson. Environ 2,8 % des adultes de 25 ans et plus ont terminé leur scolarité avant la  année ; 5,5 % ont terminé leur scolarité entre la  et la  année, mais n'ont pas obtenu de diplôme ; 17,9 % ont obtenu un diplôme d'études secondaires ; 26,8 % ont fait des études collégiales, mais n'ont pas obtenu de diplôme ; 7,5 % ont obtenu un diplôme d'associé ; 26,1 % ont obtenu un baccalauréat ; et 13,5 % ont obtenu un diplôme d'études supérieures ou professionnelles.

Tourisme et loisirs
Le tourisme est une industrie importante car le district compte de nombreuses merveilles naturelles, des forêts nationales, des parcs et des zones de conservation. De nombreuses cavernes (dont les célèbres Kartchner Caverns) et canyons peuvent être visités. On peut faire de la randonnée, du camping, de la pêche et de la navigation de plaisance dans toute la région. Il y a aussi des sites historiques Apache, des mémoriaux de guerre, des musées, des trains touristiques et des visites de mines. Le golf est populaire, et plusieurs terrains de golf sont situés dans le district.

Historique des votes

Liste des Représentants du district
Á partir des élections de 1948, l'Arizona commence à utiliser des districts séparés pour élire ses membres à la Chambre des Représentants plutôt que d'utiliser un ticket global car l'État a gagné un second siège dans la Chambre grâce aux données du Recensement de 1940.

Résultats des récentes élections
Voici les résultats des 10 précédents cycles électoraux dans le  district.

2002

2004

2006

2008

2010

2012

2014

2016

2018

2020

2022

L'Arizona a tenu ses Primaires le 2 août 2022, Tom O'Halleran (D) et Eli Crane (R) ont respectivement remportés les Primaires Démocrates et Républicaines, ils s'affronteront donc lors de l'Élection Générale du 8 novembre 2022.

Notes
En raison du redécoupage, les numéros des districts congressionnels en Arizona ont changé pour le cycle électoral de 2022. Dans le cadre de ce processus, les numéros des districts ont changé de la manière suivante :

 Le  district congressionnel d'Arizona devient le  district du Congrès de l'Arizona.
 Le  district congressionnel d'Arizona devient le  district du Congrès d'Arizona.
 Le  district congressionnel d'Arizona devient le  district du Congrès d'Arizona.
 Le  district congressionnel d'Arizona devient le  district du Congrès d'Arizona.
 Le  district congressionnel d'Arizona reste le  district congressionnel d'Arizona.
 Le  district congressionnel d'Arizona devient le  district congressionnel d'Arizona.
 Le  district congressionnel d'Arizona devient le  district congressionnel d'Arizona.
 Le  district congressionnel d'Arizona reste le  district congressionnel d'Arizona.
 Le  district congressionnel d'Arizona devient le  district congressionnel d'Arizona.

Références

2

Deuxième district congressionnel d'Arizona


Yugo, Zastava tarafından üretilmiş olan bir otomobildir. 1954 yılında Zastava'nın Fiat ile yaptığı ortaklık sonrasında otomobil üretimine başlanmıştır. Ortağı Fiat'ın onayı olmadan üretilen Yugo'nun üretimi Amerika'da "dünyanın en tehlikeli otomobili" olarak seçilmesi üzerine durdurulmuştur.

Yugo'ların üretimi o zaman mevcut olan eski Yugoslavya'nın Kragujevac şehrindeki fabrikaya dayanır. İlk olarak askeriye için kamyon üreten fabrika daha sonra Fiat firması ile otomobil üretimine geçmiştir. 1971'de Fiat 128 üretimi yapan fabrika Fiat 127'lerin üretimine geçtikten sonra buna Yugo 45 ismini vermiştir. 903, 1100, 1300 cc lik modelleri olan araba Amerika Birleşik Devletleri'nde Yugo GV, GVL, GVS, GVX adlı versiyonlarla satılmıştır. 1980'lerin ortalarına doğru IVECO kamyon üretimine de başlayan fabrikada o zamana dek Zastava markası ile üretilen tüm araçların adı Yugo olmuştur. Yugo Koral, Yugo Skala gibi değişik varyasyonların da üretimi başlamıştır.

1985 yazında Amerika'da satılan en ucuz araba özelliğini almıştır. Fiyatı sadece 3990 dolar idi. Ve en yakın rakibinden bin dolar daha ucuzdu. 1989 yılında ise Yugo America iflas bayrağını çekerek buradaki satışları bırakmıştır.

1990'larda iç savaş nedeni ile üretim aksamış, 1999'da ise NATO tarafından stratejik silah üretimi nedeni ile fabrika bombalanmıştır.

Savaş sonrası için fabrika Macarlar ile iş ortaklığına başlamıştır.

Bugün yeniden üretime geçen eski dost Yugo'lar ise Sırbistan'ın ticari nedenlerle olan bazı anlaşma sıkıntıları nedeni ile yeniden dünya ya yayılmaya başlayamamıştır.

Koral
Otomobil markaları

Yugo


Spaniens Grand Prix 2017 (officielt navn: Formula 1 Gran Premio de España Pirelli 2017) var et Formel 1-løb som blev arrangeret 14. maj 2017 på Circuit de Barcelona-Catalunya i Montmeló, Spanien. Det var den femte runde i Formel 1-sæsonen 2017 og det 59. Spaniens Grand Prix. Løbet blev vundet af Lewis Hamilton fra Mercedes, som også tog pole position og hurtigste omgang. Andenpladsen gik til Ferraris Sebastian Vettel og tredjepladsen til Daniel Ricciardo fra Red Bull.

Resultater

Kvalifikation

Løbet
{| class="wikitable" style="font-size: 95%"
! Pos.
! Nr
! Kører
! Konstruktør
! Omgange
! Tid/Udgået
! Startpos.
! Point
|-
!1
|align="center"|44
| Lewis Hamilton
|Mercedes
|66
|1.35.56,497
|1
|align="center"|25
|-
!2
|align="center"|5
| Sebastian Vettel
|Ferrari
|66
| +3,490
| 2
|align="center"|18|-
!3
|align="center"|3
| Daniel Ricciardo|Red Bull Racing-TAG Heuer|66
| +1.15,820
|6
|align="center"|15|-
!4
|align="center"|11
| Sergio Pérez|Force India-Mercedes|65
| +1 omgang
|8
|align="center"| 12|-
!5
|align="center"|31
| Esteban Ocon|Force India-Mercedes|65
| +1 omgang
|10
|align="center"|10|-
!6
|align="center"|27
| Nico Hülkenberg|Renault|65
| +1 omgang
|13
|align="center"|8|-
!7
|align="center"|55
| Carlos Sainz, Jr.|Toro Rosso|65
| +1 omgang
|12
|align="center"|6|-
!8
|align="center"|94
| Pascal Wehrlein|Sauber-Ferrari|65
| +1 omgang
|15
|align="center"|4|-
!9
|align="center"|26
| Daniil Kvjat|Toro Rosso|65
| +1 omgang
|19
|align="center"|2|-
!10
|align="center"|8
| Romain Grosjean|Haas-Ferrari|65
| +1 omgang
|14
|align="center"|1|-
!11
|align="center"|9
| Marcus Ericsson
|Sauber-Ferrari
|64
| +2 omgange
|16
|
|-
!12
|align="center"|14
| Fernando Alonso
|McLaren-Honda
|64
| +2 omgange
|7
|
|-
!13
|align="center"|19
| Felipe Massa
|Williams-Mercedes
|64
| +2 omgange
|9
|
|-
!14
|align="center"|20
| Kevin Magnussen
|Haas-Ferrari
|64
| +2 omgange
|11
|
|-
!15
|align="center"|30
| Jolyon Palmer
|Renault
|64
| +2 omgange
|17
|
|-
!16
|align="center"|18
| Lance Stroll
|Williams-Mercedes
|64
| +2 omgange
|18
|
|-
!Ret
|align="center"|77
| Valtteri Bottas
|Mercedes
|38
|Motor
|3
|
|-
!Ret
|align="center"|2
| Stoffel Vandoorne
|McLaren-Honda
|32
|Kollision
|20
|
|-
!Ret
|align="center"|33
| Max Verstappen
|Red Bull Racing-TAG Heuer
|1
|Kollision
|5
|
|-
!Ret
|align="center"|7
| Kimi Räikkönen
|Ferrari
|0
|Kollision
|4
|
|-
!colspan="8" |Kilde:
|-
|}Noter til tabellerne:'''
  - Stoffel Vandoorne fik en gridstraf på ti pladser for at have skiftet diverse motorelementer.
  - Pascal Wehrlein fik en tidsstraf på 5 sekunder for ikke at have holdt til højre for markøren ved indgangen til pit, og blev dermed flyttet ned fra 7. til 8. pladsen.

Stillingen i mesterskaberne efter løbet

Kørermesterskabet

Konstruktørmesterskabet

Referencer

Eksterne henvisninger

Spaniens Grand Prix
Formel 1 2017

Spaniens Grand Prix 2017


Rutube é um serviço online russo para hospedagem e visualização de vídeos. Construído com base em uma plataforma tecnológica própria. Fornece um conjunto diferente de ferramentas para criar e processar conteúdo de vídeo. Suporta vários formatos de vlog e streaming. Ele usa seus próprios modelos de promoção e monetização de conteúdo.

Ambos os vlogs privados e corporativos estão disponíveis na plataforma. Os formatos mais populares são programas de entretenimento, transmissões online, streaming de canais de TV, blogs, master classes, programas de TV, filmes e séries.

Rutube produz seu próprio conteúdo original em várias categorias: entretenimento, humor, esportes, ciberesportes, educação, viagens, conteúdo infantil e outros.

O aplicativo Rutube está disponível em iOS, Android, dispositivos HarmonyOS, plataformas Smart TV.

A Rutube faz parte dos ativos digitais da Gazprom-Media, controlada pela Ruform LLC, 100% dos quais foram consolidados pela holding no final de 2020.

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Falhas na Operação
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Referências
Web 2.0
Empresas fundadas em 2006
Sites de vídeos

Rutube


An Tillandsia nuptialis in uska species han Liliopsida nga ginhulagway ni Pedro Ivo Soares Braga ngan Dimitri Sucre Benjamin. An Tillandsia nuptialis in nahilalakip ha genus nga Tillandsia, ngan familia nga Bromeliaceae. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Tillandsia

Tillandsia nuptialis


Alexander Niedner (* 24. August 1862 in Kalkberge; † 21. Mai 1930 in München) war ein deutscher Jurist und Senatspräsident am Reichsgericht. Niedner war die bekannteste und schillerndste Richterpersönlichkeit der Weimarer Justiz, die "auf dem rechten Auge blind war", d. h. die politisch rechte Straftäter wesentlich milder bestrafte als politisch linke.

Leben
Christian Morgenstern notierte 1905: "Ich kenne zwei Leute, die ich als Staatsmänner auf unsere alleröffentlichsten Posten wünschte: Werner Sombart und Alexander Niedner".

Familie
Morgenstern widmete der Hochzeit Niedners mit Hilde Zitelmann 1892 ein Gedicht. Hilde war die Schwester Franz Karl Zitelmanns (1872–1947) Morgensterns Sorauer Freund. Hilde Zitelmann war eine Cousine Ernst Zitelmanns. Niedner war verwandt mit dem Kirchenhistoriker Christian Wilhelm Niedner. Seine Brüder waren Heinrich Oswald (1867–) Generaldirektor der Donnersmarck'schen Berg- und Hüttenwerke und Johannes Niedner (1868–1920) Professor des öffentlichen Rechts und Oberverwaltungsgerichtsrat in Jena.

Kaiserreich
1892 wurde Niedner Amtsrichter in Myslowitz und 1896 Landrichter in Meiningen. 1905 wurde er als Hilfsarbeiter an das Oberlandesgericht Frankfurt am Main abgeordnet. 1906 wurde Niedner zum Oberlandesgerichtsrat in Kiel befördert. 1910 ernannte man ihn zum hauptamtlichen Mitglied der großen Prüfungskommission in Berlin und wurde an das Kammergericht versetzt. Ein Disziplinarverfahren, weil er einmal mit Karl Liebknecht am Biertisch gesehen worden war, war seiner Karriere nicht abträglich. 1913 wurde er an das Reichsgericht berufen.

Republik
1924 wurde er dort Senatspräsident und Vorsitzender zunächst im III. dann im IV. Strafsenat. Bekannt geworden ist er als Mitglied des Staatsgerichtshofs zum Schutze der Republik (RepSchStGH), der in Reaktion auf die rechtsradikalen Attentaten an Scheidemann, Erzberger, Rathenau errichtet wurde. Er wurde für eine gute Wahl gehalten, denn er entsprach den Erwartungen: Mit seiner Schrift "Sozialisierung der Rechtspflege" aus dem Jahr 1919 sprach er sich für eine Demokratisierung der Rechtspflege aus und er war Mitglied des linksliberalen Republikanischen Richterbunds. Dass Niedner als Spezialist für internationales Privatrecht bisher im Strafrecht nicht tätig war, galt als Pluspunkt, da befürchtet wurde, dass die Staatsanwälte, die im Kaiserreich sozialisiert wurden, kein guter Schutz für die Republik sind. Übersehen wurde, dass der Förderer Niedners Ministerialrat Curt Joël war, die unentbehrliche Graue Eminenz der Weimarer Justizpersonalpolitik und Bremsklotz jeglicher demokratischer Erneuerung des Richterkorps durch Entlassungen. Seit 1922 war Niedner beim RepSchStGH stellvertretendes Mitglied. 1924 wurde er Vorsitzender des von Berufsrichtern geprägten süddeutschen Senats und von 1924 bis 1927 Vorsitzender des Gerichtshofs. Gegen seine Ernennung zum Präsidenten des Staatsgerichtshofs zum Schutz der Republik hat sich die Bayrische Regierung in München hartnäckig gewehrt.

Prozesse gegen rechts
Im März 1924 führte er den Vorsitz im Prozess gegen Höß und Bormann. Höß bekam zehn Jahren Zuchthaus, Bormann erhielt für seine Rolle beim "Parchimer Fememord" an dem Volksschullehrer Walter Kadow ein Jahr Freiheitsstrafe. 1928 kam Höß aufgrund einer allgemeinen Amnestie wieder frei.
Der Staatsgerichtshof zum Schutz der Republik hob durch Beschluss vom 13. Oktober 1926 die vom Preußischen Innenministerium auf Grund des Republikschutzgesetzes (RSG) verfügten Verbote von "Bund Wiking" und der "Sportverein Olympia" auf: "Der Staatsgerichtshof zum Schutze der Republik hat Wiking und Olympia auf Herz und Nieren geprüft, nichts Verdächtiges gefunden und daraufhin das Verbot des Preußischen Innenministeriums vom 12. Mai aufgehoben. Vorbereitungen zum Rechtsputsch sind in Deutschland nicht strafbar ... Die neue Leistung des Staatsgerichtshofs zum Schutze der Republik trägt die Unterschrift des Herrn Niedner, der als Richter ja längst einen Ruf genießt, aber von der demokratisch-republikanischen Presse nicht viel behelligt wurde, weil er klugerweise die Kommunisten als Jagdobjekt bevorzugte. Nach diesen kleinen Vorpostengefechten wagt sich Herr Niedner nun an höheres Wild, und sein Debüt ist in der Tat ein Treffer mitten ins Schwarz-Rot-Goldne. Vielleicht werden die demokratischen Blätter sich jetzt endlich mit diesem Richter kritisch befassen, der zudem ihre höchsteigne Entdeckung ist, und den sie vor ein paar Jahren noch als »bon juge« gefeiert haben."(Carl von Ossietzky)

Prozesse gegen links
Senatspräsident Niedner legte in den Prozessen gegen Kommunisten einen aggressiven Antikommunismus an den Tag. Niedner war zudem dem Alkohol zugetan. Dass Niedner vor diesem Hintergrund im Umgang mit Angeklagten und Verteidigung nicht zimperlich war, geht aus einem Vorfall während des Tschekaprozesses hervor. Niedner ließ häufig die Fragen nicht zu oder entzog dem betreffenden Anwalt das Wort. Schließlich wollte Rechtsanwalt Dr.  Samter eine Erklärung abgeben, die sich im Namen aller Verteidiger gegen die Art der Prozessführung durch den Vorsitzenden richtete. Samter redete trotz Wortentziehung abermals weiter und weigerte sich, die dem Gerichtsschreiber übergebene Erklärung zurückzunehmen. Samter wurde daraufhin auf Anweisung Niedners von zwei Schutzpolizisten gewaltsam aus dem Gerichtssaal geführt.  Die Anwaltschaft protestierte einmütig, während die Richterschaft von einem "Schauspiel bewußter Sabotage des Verfahrens durch einen 'Anwalt des Rechts'"sprach und den bis "dahin musterhaft geduldige[n] Vorsitzende[n]" lobte.

Linksliberale Zeitschriften kritisierten: "Herr Niedner, (...), hat sich, da er zwar geringe Kenntnis der Strafprozeßordnung, aber umso größern Überfluß an cholerischem Temperament zu besitzen scheint, dem Zuge der Zeit folgend vom Sozialismus ab- und dem Militarismus zugewandt: er betreibt jetzt Militarisierung der Rechtspflege." Dass es auch anders ging, bemerkte Ossietzky: "Die Blätter der Linken rühmen dem Vorsitzenden, Herrn Senatspräsidenten Reichert, vornehme Verhandlungsführung nach. Gewiß wars nicht à la Niedner, es ging ohne Krach, Polizei und alkoholische Intermezzi ab."
Zunächst versuchte erfolglos die KPD-Fraktion im Reichstag im August 1924 auf Grund der Verhandlungsführung Niedners die Auflösung des Staatsgerichtshofs und eine Anklage gegen Niedner wegen Rechtsbeugung zu erreichen.
In weiteren Reichstagsdebatten prangerte die KPD-Fraktion in Reden und Zwischenrufen Niedner an. Einer der Rechtsanwälte Dr. Brandt überreichte im Dezember 1925 dem Reichsjustizminister eine veröffentlichte Denkschrift über den Tscheka-Prozess, in der Niedner der Rechtsbeugung bezichtigt wurde.

Senatspräsident Niedner gilt als Urheber der Rechtsprechung, in der jede Betätigung für die KPD eine Vorbereitung zum Hochverrat darstellte. Zu dieser extensiven Interpretation des § 86 StGB hinzu kam, dass jedes KPD-Mitglied außerdem Mitglied einer antirepublikanischen Verbindung im Sinne des §§ 7, 4 RSG war. Damit wurden im Falle der Hochverratsvorbereitung in Idealkonkurrenz mit § 7 RSG Zuchthausstrafen statt Festungshaft ermöglicht. Am 17. August 1925 hatte der Reichstag die Hindenburg-Amnestie beschlossen. Ausgenommen von der Amnestierung waren neben schweren Straftaten wie Tötungsdelikte auch Zuchthausstrafen, die nach Kurt Rosenfeld "nur in seltensten Fällen gegen rechts" verhängt wurden.
Verurteilt wurden Flugblattverteiler, Buchhändler und Setzer. Berühmt wurde der Fall des "Schauspieler[s] Josef Gärtner wegen Rezitationen von Gedichten Ernst Tollers, John Henry Mackays, [der] zu einem Jahr und drei Monaten Gefängnis verurteilt [wurde]. ... Wir entrüsten uns über die Moskauer Justiz, wir fühlen uns erhaben über die amerikanischen Richter, aber wir ertragen mit einer Stumpfheit, deren wir uns vor der ganzen Welt schämen müssen, die Leipziger Niednertracht." (Das Tage-Buch)
Da solche Urteile des "literarischen Hochverrats" nicht Einzelfälle blieben, sondern wöchentlich gleichlautend gefällt wurden, rief diese Praxis heftige Kritik hervor. "Die Parole: Für die Freiheit der Kunst! ist die bequemere, dem liberalen Spießer schmackhaftere. Die andere: Fort mit dem Republikschutzgesetz, fort mit Niedner! die riskantere, weniger zum Unterschreiben einladende, aber politisch realere. Sie trifft das Problem im Kern." (Ossietzky)

Der Hamburger Strafrechtler Moritz Liepmann kritisierte die Urteile als "obrigkeitliches Angst- und Phantasieprodukt" und  die unzureichende Beweiswürdigung. Alexander Graf zu Dohna-Schlodien sprach von der "Bedenklichkeit" dieser Judikatur. Politiker, wie Johannes Bell (Z) forderte, "daß vor allem bei den politischen Prozessen unbedingte Objektivität gewahrt bleiben müsse, damit der Gedanke an irgendwelche parteiliche oder einseitige Stellung nicht aufkeimen könne; in dieser Hinsicht wäre es auch erwünscht, wenn namentlich auch manche unvorsichtigen Redewendungen von Vorsitzenden in Zukunft unterblieben". Gustav Ehlermann (DDP) sprach in diesem Zusammenhang von Urteilen, die "juristisch falsch, menschlich ungerecht, politisch untragbar und für das Vertrauen des Volkes zur Rechtspflege außerordentlich bedenklich" seien. Johannes Wunderlich (DVP), Beisitzer des Staatsgerichtshofs, sprach Fehler in der Prozeßleitung an. Wolfgang Heine (SPD), ebenfalls Mitglied beim Staatsgerichtshof, trat aus Protest gegen das Gärtner-Urteil zurück.

Der Reichstag versuchte durch drei Gesetze, die Rechtsprechung zu ändern. Mit Wirkung vom 1. April 1926 wurde der Staatsgerichtshof als einzige Instanz in Republikschutzprozessen beseitigt. Seine Aufgaben gingen wieder auf den IV. Strafsenat des Reichsgerichts über. Der Senat übernahm aber die Praxis des Staatsgerichtshofs, weil Niedner Senatspräsident des IV. Strafsenats wurde. Zugleich erwirkte die SPD die Streichung der Zuchthausstrafe im § 7 RSG. Der vierte Strafsenat verurteilte 1927 in Altfällen weiterhin zu Zuchthaus, obwohl das Ziel der Gesetzesänderungen die Verhinderung von Zuchthausstrafen gewesen sei. Wilhelm Kahl (DVP) hatte auf eine offizielle Anfrage des Senats hin bestätigt, dass die Neufassung die reichsgerichtliche Rechtsprechung korrigieren sollte. Der Senat hielt sich zwar an den Rahmen des Gesetzes, missachtete aber den Willen des Gesetzgebers.

Er trat "aus gesundheitlichen Gründen" in den Ruhestand zum 1. Februar 1928. Er starb 1930 in München-Schwabing. Die Kommunisten riefen ihm ins Grab nach, er sei der Typ des Henkers der kapitalistischen Republik gewesen.

Schriften
 Bestandteil und Zubehör, Dr. J. A. Seuffert's Blätter für Rechtsanwendung Band 72 (1907), S. 8.
 Zu § 866 Abs. 3 CPO. Sicherungshypotheken unter M. 300, Deutsche Juristen-Zeitung, Jahrgang 5 (1900) S. 203.
 Fristbestimmung bei Verweigerung der Erfüllung, Deutsche Juristen-Zeitung Jahrgang 6 (1901), S. 443.
 Bedingte Eigentumsübertragung und Vermieterpfandrecht, Deutsche Juristen-Zeitung, Jahrgang 12 (1907) S. 569/570
 Zur Verständigung über die Justizreform, Deutsche Juristen-Zeitung Jahrgang 12 (1907) S. 793/794.
 Kommentar zum Bürgerlichen Gesetzbuch und seinen Nebengesetzen / Band 1. Kommentar zum bürgerlichen Gesetzbuch / Bd. 6. Das Einführungsgesetz vom 18. August 1896, 2.  Auflage, Berlin 1901 (Digitalisat des MPIER).
 Sozialisierung der Rechtspflege, Leipzig 1919.

Literatur
 Berthold Jacob: Niedner, Die Weltbühne vom 27. Januar 1927, S.136ff..
 Josef Bornstein: Richter Niedner, Das Tage-Buch vom 30. Oktober 1926, S. 1621ff..
 Gotthard Jasper: Justiz und Politik in der Weimarer Republik, VfZ, Jahrgang 30 (1982), Heft 2, S. 177ff. (PDF; 9,6 MB).
 Ludwig Ebermayer: Zum Rücktritt des Senatspräsidenten b. Reichsgerichte Dr. Niedner, Deutsche Juristen-Zeitung 33. Jahrgang (1928), Sp. 155.
 "Die Verurteilung Niedners", Das Tagebuch 1928, S. 305ff.

Weblinks

Einzelnachweise

Richter (Reichsgericht)
Richter (Schleswig-Holsteinisches Oberlandesgericht)
Richter (Kammergericht)
Deutscher
Geboren 1862
Gestorben 1930
Mann

Alexander Niedner


The Seduction of Mimi () is a 1972 Italian comedy-drama film written and directed by Lina Wertmüller, starring Giancarlo Giannini as Mimi and featuring Mariangela Melato, Turi Ferro and Agostina Belli. It was entered into the 1972 Cannes Film Festival, and was very loosely adapted for the 1977 American film Which Way Is Up? starring Richard Pryor.

Plot
Set in both Sicily and mainland Italy, the film follows the adventures of a man nicknamed Mimi (Giancarlo Giannini). Mimi is a poor laborer who is pressured by his employers to vote for the mafia candidate in a local election. Frustrated by the system and assured that the ballot will be secret Mimi votes for the communist representative instead. However he is fired and assured he will never work again as the ballot was not secret. Disgusted Mimi flees to Turin, while his wife, Rosalia, stays in Sicily.

In Turin Mimi finds illegal construction work. When he witnesses one of the labourers falling to his death he helps the man into a van thinking that he is being taken to the hospital. When he discovers that his mafia bosses plan on dumping the body, Mimi tells him that his wife is the goddaughter of Liggio, a powerful mafioso. As a result, he is given a good union job at a factory. He also becomes further embroiled with the communist party.

One day, Mimi sees the beautiful Fiore on the street, selling sweaters. When she and her friend are attacked he helps them and learns that she is a Trotskyist. When they walk in the park he sexually assaults and tries to rape her, but Fiore fends Mimi off and says that she is a virgin, and will not make love with a man until she falls in love. Mimi continues to see her until finally, heartbroken he tells her that he loves her, but cannot bear to be around her as he feels she will never return his love. Fiore finally tells Mimi she loves him. Aware that Mimi is married, Fiore nevertheless takes him as a lover, and finally becomes pregnant, giving birth to a son, Mimi.

At the christening for their child Mimi goes to get more champagne and happens upon a murder perpetrated by the mob. Though he is supposed to be shot Mimi nevertheless ends up with only a scratch and, when the police question him, refuses to divulge any answers. As a result, he is promoted at work to a management job in Sicily. Terrified that his wife will discover his second family, Mimi hides Fiore and their child, and pretends to always be too tired for sex. That causes the townspeople to gossip, and begin to believe that Mimi is a homosexual. He is finally taken out by a few of his friends who tell him that Rosalia is pregnant with the child of another man, Amilcare. Mimi is outraged, and, after attacking Rosalia, tells her about Fiore and his son. Rosalia then decides to keep her child and refuses to divorce Mimi, gloating that her bastard child will bear his last name, while his son with Fiore will have a different name.

To avenge his honour, Mimi attempts to rape and then seduces Amalia, the wife of Amilcare. After sleeping with her he informs her that Amilcare had impregnated his wife, Rosalia. Initially horrified, Amalia decides that the best way for the two of them to get back at their cheating spouses is to conceive a child together, leading to monthly visits between the two.

When Amalia is several months pregnant, Mimi confronts her husband on the town steps, telling everyone there that Amalia is bearing Mimi's child. Enraged, Amilcare threatens to shoot Mimi, but Mimi is unconcerned; having considered the possibility, he warned Amalia to empty Amilcare's pistol. However, a man from the mafia, assigned to watch over Mimi, sees Amilcare reach for the pistol and shoots him, then shoves the smoking gun in Mimi's hand; Mimi is then jailed for Amilcare's murder. While in jail, Mimi is visited by a mafia man who informs him that, for taking the blame for the Amilcare murder, he is now a respected man and will be assured a job when he is released from jail. Mimi refuses; however, when released, Mimi is excited to see Fiore and little Mimi awaiting him. He is soon overwhelmed by Amalia and their child, and Rosalia's bastard son, all of whom clamor for him, calling him "Papa". In desperate need of money, Mimi goes to work for the mafia, promoting the election of Vico Tricarico. Disgusted that Mimi has abandoned his communist ideals, Fiore leaves him, taking young Mimi with her. Mimi chases after her, then collapses on the ground mourning his lost ideals.

Cast
 Giancarlo Giannini as Carmelo Mardocheo / Mimí
 Mariangela Melato as Fiorella Meneghini
 Turi Ferro as Don Calogero / Vico Tricarico / Salvatore Tricarico
 Agostina Belli as Rosalia Capuzzo in Mardocheo
 Luigi Diberti as Pippino
 Elena Fiore as Amalia Finocchiaro
 Tuccio Musumeci as Pasquale
 Ignazio Pappalardo as Massaro 'Ntoni
 Gianfranco Barra as Serg. Amilcare Finnocchiaro
 Livia Giampalmo as Violetta

Cast notes
Giancarlo Giannini starred in three other films Wertmuller made during this period: Love and Anarchy, Swept Away and Seven Beauties.

Release
Though filmed before Love and Anarchy, The Seduction of Mimi did not receive a U.S. release until June 1974, two months after the successful U.S. release of Love and Anarchy.

References

External links

1972 films
1972 comedy-drama films
1970s Italian-language films
1970s political comedy-drama films
1970s satirical films
1970s sex comedy films
Commedia all'italiana
Films directed by Lina Wertmüller
Films scored by Piero Piccioni
Films set in Sicily
Films set in Turin
Films shot in Sicily
Films shot in Turin
Italian political comedy-drama films
Italian political satire films
Italian sex comedy films
1970s Italian films

The Seduction of Mimi


Oddervej er en af de otte radiale hovedveje Grenåvej, Randersvej, Viborgvej, Silkeborgvej, Århus Syd Motorvejen, Skanderborgvej, Gl. Horsens Landevej og Oddervej, der fører fra oplandet ind til Aarhus. Vejen er en del af hovedlandevej 451.

Linjeføring
Oddervej er hovedlandevejen mellem Odder og Aarhus. Vejen begynder hvor Strandvejen ophører som større indfaldsvej til Aarhus Centrum og bevæger sig herefter i sydlig retning gennem bydelene Højbjerg og Skåde. Efter at have forladt Aarhus By passerer den vest om stationsbyen Beder-Malling og ved kommunegrænsen til Odder Kommune skifter den navn til Århusvej.

Vejens historie
Indtil 1939 hed Oddervej, Hads Herreds Landevej. Denne betegnelse dækkede tidligere også det stykke vej, som i dag er Strandvejen. I 1938 blev vejen gravet op, udvidet og omlagt, så den kom til at fremstå, som den gør i dag. Før dette havde byrådet modtaget flere klager over vejens beskaffenhed. Frederikshøj Kro var i slutningen af 1800-tallet blevet et populært udflugtsmål, ligesom resten af Marselisborgskovenes traktørsteder, men turen derud foregik over støvet og hullet vej.

Omkring 1920 begyndte Oddervejs sydlige side at blive bebygget med villaer, og fra 1936 blev også den nordlige side udstykket. I 1810 blev Frederiksminde opført langs Oddervej (i dag Oddervej 32). Gården blev bygget som skovfogedbolig, men fungerede det meste af 1800-tallet og starten af 1900-tallet som sommerresidens. Først for kradsuldsproducenten Marcus Galthen Bech, og senere for borgmester Drechsel.

Kilder og henvisninger

Gader i Aarhus
Indfaldsveje i Danmark

Oddervej (Aarhus Kommune)


Iannaccone ist der Familienname folgender Personen:

 Anthony Iannaccone (* 1943), US-amerikanischer Komponist und Musikpädagoge
 Laurence R. Iannaccone (* 1954), US-amerikanischer Ökonom

Iannaccone


تحرير باريس (تعرف أيضاً بمعركة باريس) حدث مهم في تاريخ الحرب العالمية الثانية تم في الفترة من 19 أغسطس 1944 إلى 25 أغسطس حيث استسلمت القوات الألمانية المحتلة لباريس، وتعد آخر المعارك في حملة نورماندي والنقلة التي جعلت غزو الحلفاء في عملية أوفرلورد ينتقل إلى الهجوم المباشر على الجبهة. فقد كانت عاصمة فرنسا تحت إدارة ألمانيا النازية منذ كومبياني الثانية في يونيو 1940، عندما احتلت ألمانيا شمال وغرب فرنسا وعندما أقيمت حكومة فيشي الدمية واتخذت من مدينة فيشي عاصمة لها.

كانت معركة التحرير ثورة من قبل المقاومة الفرنسية ضد التجمع الألماني في باريس. في 24 أغسطس تلقت قوات المقاومة الداخلية الفرنسية دعماً من جيش التحرير الفرنسي الحر، ومن قطاع المشاة الرابع بالولايات المتحدة في اليوم التالي.
تطورت الثورة إلى حرب مدن تفتح النيران على الألمان وقناصة الميليس باستخدام السواتر والبنادق الآلية والدبابات، حتى الاستسلام الألماني في 25 أغسطس.

حددت تلك المعركة نهاية عملية أوفرلورد، وتحرير الحلفاء لفرنسا وإعادة الجمهورية الفرنسية، ونفي حكومة فيشي إلى سيجمارينجن في ألمانيا.

الخلفية
كانت إستراتيجية الحلفاء تقوم على تدمير القوات الألمانية المتراجعة نحو نهر الراين، ومع ذلك فإن قوات المقاومة الفرنسية بقيادة هنري رول تانغوي بدأت انتفاضة باريس المسلحة. حدثت معركة جيب فاليز (12 – 21 أغسطس 1944) بينما كانت عملية أوفرلود ما تزال مستمرة. لم يجعل الجنرال دوايت آيزنهاور -القائد الأعلى لقوات الحلفاء- من تحرير باريس هدفًا رئيسيًا، بل ركزت الولايات المتحدة الأمريكية وبريطانيا على تدمير القوات الألمانية وإنهاء الحرب العالمية الثانية في أوروبا، ما سمح للحلفاء بتركيز كل جهودهم على جبهة المحيط الهادئ. وهكذا عندما بدأت المقاومة الفرنسية في تصعيد هجماتها ضد الألمان في باريس اعتبارًا من 15 أغسطس 1944، لم ترغب في اشتراك الحلفاء في معركة تحرير باريس، صرح أيزنهاور أيضًا بأنَّ الوقت مبكر للهجوم على باريس، لأنه كان على علم بأن أدولف هتلر أمر الجيش الألماني بتدمير المدينة بالكامل في حال هجوم الحلفاء عليها، واعتبر باريس ذات قيمة ثقافية وتاريخية أكبر من أن يخاطر بتدميرها. كان أيزنهاور حريصًا أيضًا على تجنب معركة استنزاف طويلة مثل معركة ستالينغراد أو حصار لينينغراد، وقد قدر أيضًا أنه في حالة حصار باريس سيحتاج نحو 3600 طن من الغذاء يوميًا بالإضافة إلى كميات كبيرة من مواد البناء والقوى العاملة والفرق الهندسية التي ستكون مطلوبة لإعادة إعمار باريس ودعم سكانها بعد التحرير، وكانت كل هذه الإمدادات مطلوبة في مناطق أخرى ضمن المجهود الحربي.

أعرب ديغول عن قلقه من أن الحكم العسكري سيُفرض من قبل قوات الحلفاء على فرنسا، وكان الرئيس الأمريكي فرانكلين روزفلت قد وافق على هذه الخطة التي اتفق عليها رؤساء الأركان الأمريكيين، لكن آيزنهاور عارضها بشدة. رغم ذلك عندما علم ديغول أن المقاومة الفرنسية قد صعَّدت من أعمالها ضد المحتلين الألمان، خشي من تعرض مواطنيه لمذبحة كما حدث للمقاومة البولندية في انتفاضة وارسو، فالتمس من الحلفاء هجومًا فوريًا، وهدد بفصل الفرقة المدرعة الفرنسية الثانية عن قوات الحلفاء وأمرها بمهاجمة القوات الألمانية بمفردها في باريس، متجاوزة تسلسل القيادة في قوات الحلفاء، إذا أجَّل آيزنهاور الموافقة على الهجوم دون مبرر.

الإضراب العام (15 – 19 أغسطس 1944)
أرسلت القوات الألمانية في 15 أغسطس جميع السجناء السياسيين الفرنسيين (1,654 رجل من بينهم 168 طيارًا و546 امرأة) إلى معسكرات الاعتقال في بوخنوالد للرجال ورافينسبروك للنساء، وكانت هذه قافلة السجناء الأخيرة التي دخلت ألمانيا. في اليوم نفسه أضرب موظفو مترو باريس مترو وعناصر الشرطة، ثم تبعهم عمال البريد في اليوم التالي، وسرعان ما انضم إليهم جميع العمال في مختلف أنحاء المدينة، ما تسبب في إضراب عام في 18 أغسطس.

تعرَّض 35 من أعضاء المقاومة الفرنسية للخيانة في 16 أغسطس، عندما ألقى الغستابو القبض عليهم وهم في طريقهم إلى اجتماع سري بالقرب من غراند كاسكيد في بوا دي بولون، وأعدموا رميًا بالرصاص. وفي 17 أغسطس علم رئيس مجلس باريس البلدي بيير تايتنغر أن القوات الألمانية تزرع المتفجرات في نقاط إستراتيجية حول المدينة لتدميرها في حال تقدم الحلفاء لتحريرها، وحاول تايتنغر مع القنصل السويدي راؤول نوردلينغ إقناع الحاكم العسكري الألماني ديتريش فون تشولتيتز بعدم تدمير المدينة.

المعركة والتحرير

انتفاضة قوات المقاومة الفرنسية (19 – 23 أغسطس)
علم جميع الفرنسيين عن طريق إذاعة فرنسا الحرة التي كانت تبث عبر أثير إذاعة بي بي سي بزحف الحلفاء نحو باريس بعد نهاية معركة نورماندي، لأن الإذاعة الفرنسية كانت تحت سيطرة وزير الإعلام في حكومة فيشي فيليب هنريوت منذ نوفمبر 1942 وحتى تولي شارل ديغول رئاسة فرنسا في 4 أبريل 1944.

انسحبت المدرعات الألمانية نحو شرق باريس في 19 أغسطس، وبدأ أعضاء المقاومة الفرنسية بوضع ملصقات تدعو سكان باريس للتسلح والتعبئة العامة، ودعوا الشرطة الباريسية والحرس الجمهوري والدرك وجميع الفرنسيين الذين تتراوح أعمارهم من 18 إلى 50 عامًا للانضمام إلى المقاومة ضد المحتلين. وأكدت ملصقات أخرى أن «النصر قريب» ووعدت «بمعاقبة الخونة» أي أنصار فيشي والمتعاونين مع الألمان. حملت الملصقات توقيع لجنة التحرير الباريسية بالاتفاق مع الحكومة المؤقتة للجمهورية الفرنسية وبموجب أوامر القائد الإقليمي العقيد هنري رول تانغوي قائد قوات المقاومة الفرنسية في منطقة إيل دو فرانس. بدأت المناوشات الأولى بين المحتلين الفرنسيين والألمان، وخلال القتال انتقلت وحدات متنقلة صغيرة تابعة للصليب الأحمر إلى المدينة لمساعدة الفرنسيين والألمان الذين أصيبوا، وفي نفس اليوم فجَّر الألمان الألغام وأحرقوا المطاحن التي كانت تزود باريس بالطحين. وصلت المعارك إلى ذروتها في 22 أغسطس عندما حاولت بعض الوحدات الألمانية الانسحاب من مواقعها، وفي الساعة التاسعة من يوم 23 أغسطس فتح الجنود الألمان النار على معاقل المقاومة الفرنسية بناءً على أوامر شولتيتز، وأطلقت الدبابات الألمانية النار على الحواجز في الشوارع، إذ إن أدولف هتلر أمر بإلحاق أكبر قدر من الدمار بالمدينة.

تشير التقديرات إلى مقتل ما بين 800 و1000 من مقاتلي المقاومة الفرنسية خلال معركة باريس، وإصابة 1500 آخرين.

معرض صور

مراجع

باريس في 1944
أحداث أغسطس 1944
التاريخ العسكري باريس
انتفاضات في الحرب العالمية الثانية
تاريخ فرنسا العسكري في الحرب العالمية الثانية
حرب المدن
شغب في القرن 20
عمليات ألمانيا العسكرية في الحرب العالمية الثانية
عمليات عسكرية
عملية أوفرلورد
قتال عصابات
قناصون عسكريون
معارك ألمانيا
معارك عسكرية في فرنسا الفيشية
معارك فرنسا
نزاعات في 1944

تحرير باريس


Granica između Irana i Iraka duga je 1.599 km, od tromeđe s Turskom na sjeveru do plovnog puta Shatt al-Arab (poznat kao Arvand Rud u Iranu) i prema Perzijskom zaljevu na jugu. Iako je granica prvi put određena 1639. godine, i danas traju određeni sporovi, posebno oko plovidbe Šat al-Arabom.

Granična crta

Granica započinje na sjeveru, na tromeđi s Turskom (na . Zatim nastavlja prema jugu nizom nepravilnih linija kroz planine Zagros, otprilike prema jugoistoku, osim kratkih dijelova gdje prati rijeke (kao što su Zab as Saghir i Diyala) i mjesta gdje se irački teritorij uvlači u Iran istočno od grada Silêmanî u okrugu Penjwen. Istočno od Al Amaraha nepravilne crte prestaju, a granica se nastavlja prema jugu kroz četiri ravne dionice kroz močvaru do rijeke Nahr al-Khayin. Granica slijedi ovu rijeku kratko prema Shatt al-Arab, čiji thalweg zatim slijedi do Perzijskog zaljeva na "najnižoj točki niske vode" na ušću Šat al-Araba u  (WGS84).

Povijest

Osmansko doba (1500. – 1920.)
Osmansko je carstvo osvojilo veći dio današnjeg Iraka od Safavidske Perzije u Osmansko-safavidskom ratu 1532.–1555. Rat je zaključen amasijskim mirom kojim je potvrđena osmanska vlast nad Mezopotamijom. Osmanska kontrola Mezopotamije potvrđena je nakon Osmansko-safavidskog rata (1623. - 1639.), koji je okončan Zuhabskim ugovorom. Zuhabskim ugovorom bilo je određeno da će granica između dva carstva ići između planina Zagros i rijeke Tigris, iako u to vrijeme nisu povučene precizne crte.

Tijekom osmansko-hotakijskog rata (1722. - 1727.) Osmanlije su u savezu s Rusijom napale Iran, te su kroz ugovor iz Hamedana dobili velike dijelove sjeverozapadnog Irana. Sljedeći je rat uslijedio u 1740-ima, koji je okončan Kerdenskim ugovorom 1746., kojim su iranske dobio natrag svoje zapadne pokrajine i čime je ponovno potvrđena granica Zuhaba iz 1639.

Osmansko-perzijski rat (1821. - 1823.) završio je potpisivanjem Prvog ugovora iz Erzuruma, kojim je ponovno potvrđena granica Zuhaba iz 1639. godine. Pogranična komisija u kojoj su sudjelovali iranski, osmanski, ruski i britanski dužnosnici pomogla je u određivanju granice, što je rezultiralo Drugim ugovorom iz Erzuruma iz 1847. godine, koji je granicu iz 1639. godine potvrdio s nekim malim izmjenama.  Novi ugovor prvo je pokrenuo pitanje plovnog puta Šat al-Arab. Granica je postavljena na istočnoj obali rijeke tako da je čitav plovni put ostao pod osmanskom kontrolom, istovremeno dopuštajući da "perzijska plovila imaju pravo slobodno ploviti bez ikakvih smetnji i smetnji". Četverosmjerno granično povjerenstvo nastavilo je s radom sljedećih godina, a nakon mnogo rada i kartografskih rasprava izrađena je detaljna karta 1869. godine.

Unatoč radu komisije, sporovi oko preciznog poravnanja granica nastavili su se. Osmanlije i Iran dogovorili su se da će raditi na preciznijem razgraničenju 1911. godine, na nagovor Rusije i Britanije, koje su oboje imale kolonijalne težnje u regiji. Od studenog 1913. do listopada 1914. granična komisija uspostavila je Carigradski protokol, pružajući detaljno razgraničenje cijele granice, a također je potvrdila osmansku kontrolu nad Shatt al-Arabom. Općenito je linija trebala pratiti istočnu obalu plovnog puta, osim u regiji koja okružuje iranski grad Horamšaher, gdje je trebala slijediti thalweg. Povjerenstvo za granice s četiri države potom je pregledalo granicu na terenu i razgraničilo je stupovima, izradivši detaljnu seriju karata s prikazom potvrđene granice.

Kolonijalni i neovisni Irak (1920.-danas)
Tijekom Prvog svjetskog rata arapska pobuna, podržana od Britanije, uspjela je ukloniti Osmanlije s većine Bliskog istoka. Kao rezultat tajnog anglo-francuskog sporazuma Sykes-Picot iz 1916. godine Britanija je stekla kontrolu nad osmanskim vilajetima Mosula, Bagdada i Basre, koje je organizirala u Irački mandat 1920. Zadržana je bivša osmansko-iranska granica, koja sada tvori granice između Irana i Iraka, a također i Irana i nove Republike Turske uspostavljene 1923. Irak je stekao neovisnost 1932.

Granicu je 1934. Iran osporio u Ligi naroda, dovodeći u pitanje valjanost i Erzurumskog ugovora i Carigradskog protokola. Spor je riješen 1937. godine, slijedeći opće crte stare granice, s izuzetkom područja neposredno oko iranskog grada Abadana, gdje je granica pomaknuta s istočne obale do talvega, kao što je to učinjeno oko Khorramshahra dva desetljećima ranije.

Iako je to riješilo glavne pritužbe Irana, nije uspjelo odgovoriti na pitanje slobode plovidbe u Shatt al-Arabu. Pitanje je ostalo otvoreno u sljedećim desetljećima, a Irak 1970-ih, nakon uspona Sadama Husseina, usvoja asertivniju vanjsku politiku. Iran je 1969. godine objavio da napušta ugovor iz 1937. godine, što je rezultiralo sukobima 1974.-1975. s Irakom na Shatt al-Arab. Za odmazdu, Irak je podržao arapske separatiste u iranskoj naftom bogatoj provinciji Khuzestan, a Iran je podržavao kurdske pobunjenike u Iraku. Mirovni sporazum potpisan je 6. ožujka 1975. u Alžiru u kojem su se obje strane obvezale na daljnje razgraničenje granice, kako na kopnu, tako i u Shatt al-Arab, na temelju Ugovora o Ezurumu i Carigradskog protokola. Te je godine u Bagdadu potpisan dodatni ugovor kojim se potvrđuju odredbe Alžirskog ugovora, zajedno s kartama koje označavaju granicu.

Odnosi su se još jednom pokvarili 1979. godine, kad je Saddam Hussein formalno stupio na dužnost, a iranski šah zbačen u Islamskoj revoluciji i zamijenjen šiitskom teokracijom pod ajatolahom Ruhollah Homeinijem. Rat je izbio 1980. kada je Irak napao Iran, što je dovelo do osmogodišnjeg iransko-iračkog rata. Gotovo čitav kopneni rat vodio se u neposrednoj blizini međunarodne granice. Sukob je rezultirao pat-pozicijom, a nakon završetka borbi nije došlo do promjena na granici. Odnosi su obnovljeni 1990. i znatno su se poboljšali od svrgavanja Sadama Husseina 2003. godine.

Naselja u blizini granice

Iran

Irak

Granični prijelazi

Četiri su granična prijelaza između Irana i iračkog Kurdistana : Hadži Omeran (u guvernorati Erbil ), Parviz Khan, Bashmaq, i (od 2016.) kod Sayran Bana koji se nalazi u gradu Penjwen u guvernuratu Sulaymaniyah.

Između ostatka Iraka i Irana postoje granični prijelazi kod Khosravija, Mehrana, Chazabeha / Al Shaiba, Salamcheha i Soomara / Mandalija. Mehran/Zurbatiyah, Chazabeh/Al Shaib, Shalamcheh i Soomar/Mandali.

Povezani članci

 Polje Al-Fakkah - sporno naftno polje na granici
 Iransko-irački odnosi

Izvori

Iran
Irak
Stranice s nepregledanim prijevodima

Iračko-iranska granica


විල්බර් පැපිරසය යනු, 1893 වසරෙහිදී  චාල්ස් එඩ්වින් විල්බර් නමැති නිව්යෝර්ක් මාධ්‍යවේදියා විසින් අස්වාන් අසල එලිෆන්ටයින් දිවයිනෙහි කල සංචාරය අතරතුර මිලදී ගත්  පැපිරසයකි. එහිදී දේශීය ගොවියෙකුගෙන් ඔහු පැපිරස දහහතක් මිලදී ගෙන ඇත. ඔහුගේ මෙම ලාභයෙහි වටිනාකම පිළිබඳ තේරුම් ගැනීමට ඔහු අසමත් වූ අතර, පැරිසියෙහි හෝටලයක ඔහු මිය ගිය පසු, පැපිරසද ( බෲක්ලීන් පැපිරසය සහ එලිෆන්ටයින් පැපිරස එය අතර විය) ඇතුළු ඔහුගේ  දේපළ, හෝටලය විසින් ගබඩාවෙහි බහාලන ලද අතර, අඩ සියවසක පමණ කාලයක් ඉක්මවන තුරු ඔහුගේ පවුල වෙත යළි භාර නොදෙන ලදි. ඔහුගේ වැන්දඹුවගේ ඉල්ලීම පරිදී, ඒවා  බෲක්ලීන් කෞතුකාගාරය වෙත ප්‍රදානය කෙරිණි.

වර්තමානයෙහි අපට ජනලේඛන සහ සංඛ්‍යාලේඛන දෙපාර්තමේන්තුව යමක් වෙයිද පුරාතන ඊජිප්තු වැසියනට විල්බර් පැපිරසය එය විය.

විල්බර් පැපිරසය


Black Arrow, officially capitalised BLACK ARROW, was a British satellite carrier rocket. Developed during the 1960s, it was used for four launches between 1969 and 1971, all launched from the Woomera Prohibited Area in Australia. Its final flight was the first and only successful orbital launch to be conducted by the United Kingdom, and placed the Prospero satellite into low Earth orbit.

Black Arrow originated from studies by the Royal Aircraft Establishment for carrier rockets based on the Black Knight rocket, with the project being authorised in 1964. It was initially developed by Saunders-Roe, and later Westland Aircraft as the result of a merger.

Black Arrow was a three-stage rocket, fuelled by RP-1 paraffin (kerosene) and high test peroxide, a concentrated form of hydrogen peroxide (85% hydrogen peroxide + 15% water). It was retired after only four launches in favour of using American Scout rockets, which the Ministry of Defence calculated to be cheaper than maintaining the Black Arrow programme.

Development
Black Arrow originated from a Royal Aircraft Establishment proposal for a rocket capable of placing a  payload into low Earth orbit, in order to test systems designed for larger spacecraft. In the autumn of 1964, the programme was authorised by Conservative Aviation Minister Julian Amery.  Then, following a general election in October, the incoming Labour government put the project on hold to reduce expenditure.  Following another election, the government approved the continuation of the programme with several modifications, including the reduction of the test programme from five to three launches. The maiden launch was set for 1968.

Most of the technology and systems used on Black Arrow had already been developed or flight-proven on the Black Knight rocket, or the Blue Steel missile. Black Arrow was designed to reuse as much technology from the earlier programmes as possible in order to reduce costs, and simplify the development process. Many senior staff of the Black Knight programme transferred directly to Black Arrow, including the Chief Missile Scientist Roy Dommett, the Chief Design Engineer Ray Wheeler, and the Deputy Chief Engineer John Underwood.

Initial development was conducted by Saunders-Roe, which merged into Westland Aircraft in 1964. Westland was subsequently the prime contractor for the Black Arrow, and assembled the first and second stages at East Cowes on the Isle of Wight, later testing the rockets from the 1950s up until the rocket launch on 28 October 1971. Bristol Siddeley produced the first and second stage engines at a factory in Ansty, Warwickshire. The engines were test fired at the factory before being shipped to the Isle of Wight, where they were integrated into the rocket and the first stage engines were fired again at High Down. Bristol Aerojet produced the third stage in Somerset, while the Explosives Research and Development Establishment produced its solid propellant in Waltham Abbey, Essex. The Rocket Propulsion Establishment, based in Westcott, Buckinghamshire, was responsible for the design and integration of the stage.

The name Black Arrow came from the Ministry of Supply policy of assigning designations consisting of a colour and a noun, unofficially known as Rainbow Codes, to research programmes conducted by the Armed Forces. It was unofficially nicknamed the "Lipstick Rocket", as the fairing, which was painted bright red for visibility, made the rocket resemble a tube of lipstick.

Vehicle

The first and second stages of the Black Arrow were fuelled by RP-1 paraffin (kerosene), burnt using high test peroxide as an oxidiser. Due to the optimum mixture ratio being about 7, a larger oxidiser tank was required compared to many contemporary launch systems. The oxidiser tanks were located below the fuel tanks, following the practice of putting the more dense propellant at the top in order move the centre of gravity higher and make the rocket more stable, when in flight, and thus easier to control. This arrangement had been pioneered by Germany and the United States, whereas the Soviet Union had placed oxidiser tanks above fuel tanks, making it easier for the lower tank to be filled first.

Thrust vectoring was used to provide attitude control on the first two stages. The eight first stage combustion chambers were arranged in pairs which could gimbal either way along one axis. Two of the pairs were arranged perpendicular to the other two, and when all four pairs were used together, they provided roll, pitch and yaw control. The second stage had two combustion chambers, which could gimbal along two axes, providing the same level of control. During a coast phase after second stage cut-off, the rocket was controlled by a reaction control system. The third stage did not have an attitude control system, and was instead spin-stabilised.

The first stage was powered by a single Gamma 8 engine, which burned for 127 seconds. The Gamma 8 was an eight-chamber engine, derived from the Gamma 301 engine used on the Black Knight. It was  long, and had a diameter of , the same diameter as the French Coralie. Coralie was used as the second stage of the Europa rocket, and the decision to give Black Arrow the same diameter as Coralie was taken in order to make it compatible with Blue Streak, which was used as the first stage of Europa. This would have allowed Black Arrow's payload capacity to have been increased, and would also have allowed Britain to use the first stage of Black Arrow as a backup to the Coralie. For this reason, all dimensions in the original specification were given in imperial units except the first stage diameter, which was given in metric units.

The first and second stages were connected by an interstage structure containing four Siskin IB separation and ullage motors, which separated and ignited seven seconds after the first stage had cut off. The interstage separated from the second stage six seconds later. The second stage, which was  long and measured  in diameter, was powered by a two-chamber Gamma 2 engine which ignited shortly after the separation motors, and continued to burn for 123 seconds. Three minutes after launch, during the second stage burn, the payload fairing separated.

About 257 seconds into the flight, the second stage cut off, and the rocket entered a coast phase to apogee. Immediately after cut-off, the second stage attitude control system was pressurised. During the coast the correct orientation for third stage separation was maintained by means of the attitude control system. Towards the end of the coast period, the third stage was spun up to a rate of 3 hertz (180 rpm) by means of six Imp rockets. Five seconds later, the third stage separated, and following ten more seconds of coasting, it ignited. The third stage was a Waxwing solid rocket motor, which burned for 55 seconds.

Just over a minute after the third stage had burned out, the payload was released, and gas generators were used to push the spacecraft and spent upper stage apart. The delay between burnout and separation was intended to reduce the risk of recontact between the upper stage and payload due to residual thrust. Despite this, following spacecraft separation on the R3 launch, the upper stage collided with the Prospero satellite, damaging one of the spacecraft's communications antennae; however the spacecraft was still able to successfully complete its mission. On the R3 launch, the ascent took  from liftoff to spacecraft separation.

Although none were ever built, several derivatives of Black Arrow were also proposed, as ways of increasing its payload capacity. One proposal added eight Raven solid rocket motors from the Skylark programme to the first stage as booster rockets. Another suggestion was to mount the entire rocket atop a Blue Streak missile, while a third proposal involved replacing the Gamma engines with the more powerful Larch.

Launches

Four Black Arrows were launched between 1969 and 1971. The first two launches were demonstration flights, with battleship third stages and a boilerplate payload. On the maiden flight an electrical fault caused a pair of first stage combustion chambers to pivot back and forth. Before it cleared the launch pad, the rocket was rolling erratically, and about a minute later it began to disintegrate. After the first stage engine failed, and the rocket began to fall back to earth, it was destroyed by range safety. The second launch was successful. The first all-up launch on 2 September 1970 was the third launch of the Black Arrow, and Britain's first attempt to launch a satellite. The launch failed due to a leak in the second stage oxidiser pressurisation system, which caused it to cut out early. The third stage fired, but the rocket did not reach orbit, and re-entered over the Gulf of Carpentaria. The fourth launch successfully orbited the Prospero (before the R2 mission, it was named Puck) satellite, making the United Kingdom the sixth nation to place a satellite into orbit by means of an indigenously developed carrier rocket. The satellite, also known as X-3, was named Prospero after the character Prospero in Shakespeare's The Tempest. The name was chosen as a reference to events in the play, in which Prospero, a sorcerer, gives up his powers. Prior to the cancellation of the Black Arrow programme, the satellite was to be named after Puck from A Midsummer Night's Dream.

All four launches were conducted from Launch Area 5B at the Woomera Prohibited Area in Australia, which had previously been used as a test site for the Black Knight rocket. During the development programme, launch sites in Barbados, Uist and Norfolk were also considered. The launch sites at Uist and Norfolk were rejected because the former was too remote, while there was a risk that a rocket launched from the latter might drop spent stages on an oil rig in the North Sea.

Cancellation

The Minister of State for Trade and Industry, Frederick Corfield, announced the cancellation of the Black Arrow project in the House of Commons on 29 July 1971. As the R3 rocket had already been shipped to the launch site, the second stage having arrived three days earlier, permission was given for it to be launched.

The programme was cancelled on economic grounds, as the Ministry of Defence decided that it would be cheaper to use the American Scout rocket, which had a similar payload capacity, for future launches. Prior to the cancellation of Black Arrow, NASA had offered to launch British payloads for free; however, this offer was withdrawn following the decision to cancel Black Arrow.

The final Black Arrow to be completed was R4, which did not fly, and is preserved in the Science Museum, London, along with the flight spare for the Prospero satellite. A replica of the Black Arrow rocket stands in the Rocket Park at Woomera. In addition, the remains of the first stage of Black Arrow R3 were recovered from the Anna Creek cattle station and were displayed in the William Creek Memorial Park. Due to weather and vandalism related damage, the first stage was returned to the United Kingdom in an initiative led by Skyrora to preserve the artefact. It was displayed in Penicuik, Scotland, in early 2019; as of 2021, the rocket is on loan to the Farnborough Air Sciences Trust Museum through 2024.

The launch facilities at Woomera were demolished within a year of the final flight, and half of the engineers who had worked on the programme were laid off. The X-4 satellite, which had been manifested for launch by Black Arrow R4, was eventually launched on 9 March 1974, by an American Scout D-1 rocket flying from Space Launch Complex 5 at the Vandenberg Air Force Base in California.

As of 2022, the United Kingdom is the only country to have successfully developed and then abandoned a satellite launch capability. All other countries that have developed such a capability have retained it either through their own space programme or, in the case of France, through its involvement in the Ariane programme.

See also

 Comparison of orbital launchers families
 Comparison of orbital launch systems
Ariel 1
British National Space Centre
Diamant
Juno I
Lambda (rocket family)
Satellite Launch Vehicle
Sputnik (rocket)
 Black Knight

References

External links
 Listen Ray Wheeler, Chief Design Engineer, discussing Black Arrow - part of a life story interview recorded for An Oral History of British Science at the British Library

1969 in spaceflight
1971 in spaceflight
Cold War military equipment of the United Kingdom
High-test peroxide
Saunders-Roe
Space launch vehicles of the United Kingdom
History of science and technology in the United Kingdom

Black Arrow


The Masterplan is a compilation album by English rock band Oasis. It was released on 2 November 1998 by Creation Records, the band's final release through the label. It comprises B-sides which never made it onto an album up to that point. Originally intended for release only in areas such as the United States and Japan, where the tracks were previously only available on expensive European-import singles, The Masterplan reached number 2 in the UK, where it initially went platinum, and number 51 in the United States. However, it did reach the Top 20 in various charts around the world, going on to sell 3 million copies. It has since been certified triple platinum in the UK. Four songs from the album appear on the 2006 compilation album Stop the Clocks.

Reception

The Masterplan received mixed reviews from music critics on release. Reviewing in Rolling Stone, Barney Hoskyns criticised the collection as containing unimaginative songs, save for "Half the World Away" and "Headshrinker". Similarly, Matt Diehl of Entertainment Weekly considered the compilation "struttingly inconsistent", further criticising the band's consistent use of Beatles influences. On the other hand, Robert Hilburn in the Los Angeles Times was more favourable, writing: "virtually all the tunes on The Masterplan are appealing enough to have deserved a spot on one of Oasis' regular albums, and the best rank with the group's finest moments." James Oldham in NME expressed similar sentiments, finding that many of the collection's B-sides were better than the A-sides they were supporting. He continues that the collection further showcases the group's influences, overall considering it the band's "third best album". Reviewing the compilation in 2000, Michael Sandlin of Pitchfork gave the album an unfavourable review. He found that while some tracks, naming "Fade Away" and "Headshrinker" were better than some of their studio album tracks, the collection overall contained outtakes that were overall forgettable, stating "some outtakes are initially scrapped for good reason".

Retrospectively, The Masterplan has received positive reviews, with many considering it one of Oasis' finest. In 2008, Spin magazine's David Marchese praised The Masterplan as a "greatest hits" collection, featuring "swirling epics, pop-rock confections, [and] headbutt hard rockers". Writing for AllMusic, Stephen Thomas Erlewine gave immense praise to The Masterplan, stating: "Apart from the sludgy instrumental "The Swamp Song", there isn't a weak track here, and the brilliant moments are essential not only for Oasis fans, but any casual follower of Britpop or post-grunge rock & roll." On the eve of the collection's 20th anniversary in 2018, Ian King of Stereogum also praised The Masterplan. While he likewise found "The Swamp Song" the collection's weak point, he wrote that the collection features many of the band's best songs. As the band would feature personnel changes following its release, King considers the compilation "the last refuge of the band's dreaming, climbing past; Manchester, Britpop, and all". In 2017, Henry Yates of NME ranked The Masterplan as Oasis' third best album, writing, "by the time this compilation arrived in '98, it came laced with forehead-slapping frustration that Noel didn't hold [these tracks] for a great third album."

Track listing

Personnel
 Liam Gallagher – lead vocals (1, 2, 5, 7-9, 11-13), tambourine
 Noel Gallagher – lead guitar, acoustic guitar, backing vocals, lead vocals (1, 3, 4, 10, 14), bass (4, 6, 14) drums (10), strings and horn arrangements (4, 14)
 Paul "Bonehead" Arthurs – rhythm guitar, acoustic guitar, keyboards (2, 3, 8-11, 14), accordion (11)
 Paul "Guigsy" McGuigan – bass
 Alan White – drums, percussion (2, 4, 6, 9, 12, 14)
 Tony McCarroll – drums (1, 5, 7, 8, 11, 13)

Additional personnel
 Mike Rowe – keyboards (4, 12)
 Paul Weller – harmonica, lead guitar (6)
Nick Ingman – strings and horn arrangements (4, 14)
Owen Morris - bass (10), production

Charts and certifications

Weekly charts

Certifications

References

External links

The Masterplan at YouTube (streamed copy where licensed)

Oasis (band) compilation albums
B-side compilation albums
1998 compilation albums
Creation Records compilation albums
Epic Records compilation albums
Albums produced by Owen Morris

The Masterplan (album)