The Ottoman Empire was founded c. 1299 by Osman I as a small beylik in northwestern Asia Minor just south of the Byzantine capital Constantinople. In 1326, the Ottomans captured nearby Bursa, cutting off Asia Minor from Byzantine control. The Ottomans first crossed into Europe in 1352, establishing a permanent settlement at Çimpe Castle on the Dardanelles in 1354 and moving their capital to Edirne (Adrianople) in 1369. At the same time, the numerous small Turkic states in Asia Minor were assimilated into the budding Ottoman sultanate through conquest or declarations of allegiance.

As Sultan Mehmed II conquered Constantinople (today named Istanbul) in 1453, transforming it into the new Ottoman capital, the state grew into a substantial empire, expanding deep into Europe, northern Africa and the Middle East. With most of the Balkans under Ottoman rule by the mid-16th century, Ottoman territory increased exponentially under Sultan Selim I, who assumed the Caliphate in 1517 as the Ottomans turned east and conquered western Arabia, Egypt, Mesopotamia and the Levant, among other territories. Within the next few decades, much of the North African coast (except Morocco) became part of the Ottoman realm.

The empire reached its apex under Suleiman the Magnificent in the 16th century, when it stretched from the Persian Gulf in the east to Algeria in the west, and from Yemen in the south to Hungary and parts of Ukraine in the north. According to the Ottoman decline thesis, Suleiman's reign was the zenith of the Ottoman classical period, during which Ottoman culture, arts, and political influence flourished. The empire reached its maximum territorial extent in 1683, on the eve of the Battle of Vienna.

From 1699 onwards, the Ottoman Empire began to lose territory over the course of the next two centuries due to internal stagnation, costly defensive wars, European colonialism, and nationalist revolts among its multiethnic subjects. In any case, the need to modernise was evident to the empire's leaders by the early 19th century, and numerous administrative reforms were implemented in an attempt to forestall the decline of the empire, with varying degrees of success. The gradual weakening of the Ottoman Empire gave rise to the Eastern Question in the mid-19th century.

The empire came to an end in the aftermath of its defeat in World War I, when its remaining territory was partitioned by the Allies. The sultanate was officially abolished by the Government of the Turkish Grand National Assembly in Ankara on 1 November 1922 following the Turkish War of Independence. Throughout its more than 600 years of existence, the Ottoman Empire has left a profound legacy in the Middle East and Southeast Europe, as can be seen in the customs, culture, and cuisine of the various countries that were once part of its realm.

Ottoman etiology
With the end of the First World War and the Dissolution of the Ottoman Empire, questions arose in a geopolitical and historical context about the reasons for the emergence and decline of the Ottomans, the reasons for the emergence and decline of their empire and how both events were defined. On the eve of World War II, the geographical position and the geopolitical weight of Turkey, the major historical heir to the Ottoman Empire, gave weight to the issues as propaganda. The first item on the agenda of the Tehran conference was the issue of Turkey's participation in World War II by the end of 1943.

Formulable theses

Those about the emergence of the Ottoman Empire

 Ghaza thesis — it is formulated first, but it is the most criticized and politicized. The thesis most clearly advocates the ethnic pan-Turkic principle. It was developed by Paul Wittek;
 Renegade thesis — represented in studies, articles and books by various authors. It is based on numerous eyewitness accounts. It is supplemented by the hypothesis of the geographical and to some extent civilizational succession of the Ottoman Empire (Rûm) by the Eastern Roman Empire;
 Socio-economic thesis — the newest and most modern, sustained in the traditions of Marxist historiography. The thesis is found in various articles and studies. It is based on the aftermath of the Black Death and the legacy of the Byzantine civil wars.

Those about the decline of the Ottoman Empire
 Classic thesis — as a result of the Russo-Turkish War (1768–1774) with the subsequent Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca. Previously marked by the beginning of the reign of Catherine the Great, the writing of "Istoriya Slavyanobolgarskaya" and the death of Koca Ragıp Pasha;
 Ottoman decline thesis — now-controversial thesis clearly formulated for the first time in 1958 by Bernard Lewis. Aligns with Koçi Bey's risalets, but arguably ignores the Köprülü era and its reform of the Ottoman state, economy and navy heading into the 18th century;
 Neoclassical thesis — to some extent it unites the previous ones about the beginning of the Ottoman decline, which are divided even nearly two centuries in time. The beginning of the end was marked by the Treaty of Karlowitz, the Edirne event and the reign of Ahmed III.

Rise of the Ottoman Empire (1299–1453)

With the demise of the Seljuk Sultanate of Rum during 12th to 13th century, Anatolia was divided into a patchwork of independent states, the so-called Anatolian Beyliks. For the next few decades, these Beyliks were under the sovereignty of Mongolians and their Iranian Kingdom Ilkhanids. By 1300, a weakened Byzantine Empire had lost most of its Anatolian provinces to these Turkish principalities. One of the beyliks was led by Osman I (d. 1323/4), from which the name Ottoman is derived, son of Ertuğrul, around Eskişehir in western Anatolia. In the foundation myth expressed in the story known as "Osman's Dream", the young Osman was inspired to conquest by a prescient vision of empire (according to his dream, the empire is a big tree whose roots spread through three continents and whose branches cover the sky). According to his dream the tree, which was Osman's Empire, issued four rivers from its roots, the Tigris, the Euphrates, the Nile and the Danube. Additionally, the tree shaded four mountain ranges, the Caucasus, the Taurus, the Atlas and the Balkan ranges. During his reign as Sultan, Osman I extended the frontiers of Turkish settlement toward the edge of the Byzantine Empire.

During this period, a formal Ottoman government was created whose institutions would change drastically over the life of the empire.

In the century after the death of Osman I, Ottoman rule began to extend over the Eastern Mediterranean and the Balkans. Osman's son, Orhan, captured the city of Bursa in 1326 and made it the new capital of the Ottoman state. The fall of Bursa meant the loss of Byzantine control over Northwestern Anatolia.

After securing their flank in Asia Minor, the Ottomans then crossed into Europe from 1352 onwards; within a decade, almost all of Thrace had been conquered by the Ottomans, cutting off Constantinople from its Balkan hinterlands. The Ottoman capital was moved to Adrianople Edirne in 1369. The important city of Thessaloniki was captured from the Venetians in 1387. The Ottoman victory at Kosovo in 1389 effectively marked the end of Serbian power in the region, paving the way for Ottoman expansion into Europe. The Battle of Nicopolis in 1396, widely regarded as the last large-scale crusade of the Middle Ages, failed to stop the advance of the victorious Ottoman Turks. With the extension of Turkish dominion into the Balkans, the strategic conquest of Constantinople became a crucial objective. The Empire controlled nearly all former Byzantine lands surrounding the city, but the Byzantines were temporarily relieved when Timur invaded Anatolia in the Battle of Ankara in 1402. He took Sultan Bayezid I as a prisoner. The capture of Bayezid I threw the Turks into disorder. The state fell into a civil war that lasted from 1402 to 1413, as Bayezid's sons fought over succession. It ended when Mehmed I emerged as the sultan and restored Ottoman power, bringing an end to the Interregnum.

Part of the Ottoman territories in the Balkans (such as Thessaloniki, Macedonia and Kosovo) were temporarily lost after 1402, but were later recovered by Murad II between the 1430s and 1450s. On 10 November 1444, Murad II defeated the Hungarian, Polish and Wallachian armies under Władysław III of Poland (also King of Hungary) and János Hunyadi at the Battle of Varna, which was the final battle of the Crusade of Varna. Four years later, János Hunyadi prepared another army (of Hungarian and Wallachian forces) to attack the Turks, but was again defeated by Murad II at the Second Battle of Kosovo in 1448.

The son of Murad II, Mehmed the Conqueror, reorganized the state and the military, and demonstrated his martial prowess by capturing Constantinople on 29 May 1453, at the age of 21.

Classical Age (1453–1566)

The Ottoman conquest of Constantinople in 1453 by Mehmed II cemented the status of the Empire as the preeminent power in southeastern Europe and the eastern Mediterranean. After taking Constantinople, Mehmed met with the Orthodox patriarch, Gennadios and worked out an arrangement in which the Eastern Orthodox Church, in exchange for being able to maintain its autonomy and land, accepted Ottoman authority. Because of bad relations between the latter Byzantine Empire and the states of western Europe as epitomized by Loukas Notaras's famous remark "Better the Sultan's turban than the Cardinal's Hat", the majority of the Orthodox population accepted Ottoman rule as preferable to Venetian rule.

Upon making Constantinople (present-day Istanbul) the new capital of the Ottoman Empire in 1453, Mehmed II assumed the title of Kayser-i Rûm (literally Caesar Romanus, i.e. Roman Emperor.) In order to consolidate this claim, he would launch a campaign to conquer Rome, the western capital of the former Roman Empire. To this aim he spent many years securing positions on the Adriatic Sea, such as in Albania Veneta, and then continued with the Ottoman invasion of Otranto and Apulia on 28 July 1480. The Turks stayed in Otranto and its surrounding areas for nearly a year, but after Mehmed II's death on 3 May 1481, plans for penetrating deeper into the Italian peninsula with fresh new reinforcements were given up on and cancelled and the remaining Ottoman troops sailed back to the east of the Adriatic Sea.

During this period in the 15th and 16th centuries, the Ottoman Empire entered a long period of conquest and expansion, extending its borders deep into Europe and North Africa. Conquests on land were driven by the discipline and innovation of the Ottoman military; and on the sea, the Ottoman Navy aided this expansion significantly. The navy also contested and protected key seagoing trade routes, in competition with the Italian city states in the Black, Aegean and Mediterranean seas and the Portuguese in the Red Sea and Indian Ocean.

The state also flourished economically due to its control of the major overland trade routes between Europe and Asia.

The Empire prospered under the rule of a line of committed and effective Sultans. Sultan Selim I (1512–1520) dramatically expanded the Empire's eastern and southern frontiers by defeating Shah Ismail I of Safavid Persia, in 1514 at the Battle of Chaldiran. Selim I established Ottoman rule in Egypt, and created a naval presence on the Red Sea. After this Ottoman expansion, a competition started between the Portuguese Empire and the Ottoman Empire to become the dominant power in the region. This conquest ended with the execution of Tuman Bay II.

Selim's successor, Suleiman the Magnificent (1520–1566), further expanded upon Selim's conquests. After capturing Belgrade in 1521, Suleiman conquered the southern and central parts of the Kingdom of Hungary (the western, northern and northeastern parts remained independent).

After his victory in the Battle of Mohács in 1526, he established Turkish rule in the territory of present-day Hungary (except the western region) and other Central European territories, (See also: Ottoman–Hungarian Wars). He then laid siege to Vienna in 1529, but failed to take the city after the onset of winter forced his retreat.

In 1532, he made another attack on Vienna, but was repulsed in the Siege of Güns,  south of the city at the fortress of Güns. In the other version of the story, the city's commander, Nikola Jurišić, was offered terms for a nominal surrender. However, Suleiman withdrew at the arrival of the August rains and did not continue towards Vienna as previously planned, but turned homeward instead.

After further advances by the Turks in 1543, the Habsburg ruler Ferdinand officially recognized Ottoman ascendancy in Hungary in 1547. During the reign of Suleiman, Transylvania, Wallachia and, intermittently, Moldavia, became tributary principalities of the Ottoman Empire. In the east, the Ottoman Turks took Baghdad from the Persians in 1535, gaining control of Mesopotamia and naval access to the Persian Gulf. By the end of Suleiman's reign, the Empire's population totaled about 15,000,000 people.

Under Selim and Suleiman the Magnificent, the Empire became a dominant naval force, controlling much of the Mediterranean. The exploits of the Ottoman admiral Barbarossa Hayreddin Pasha, who commanded the Ottoman Navy during Suleiman's reign, led to a number of military victories over Christian navies. Important naval victories of the Ottoman Empire in this period include the Battle of Preveza (1538); Battle of Ponza (1552); Battle of Djerba (1560); conquest of Algiers (in 1516 and 1529) and Tunis (in 1534 and 1574) from Spain; conquest of Rhodes (1522) and Tripoli (1551) from the Knights of St. John; capture of Nice (1543) from the Holy Roman Empire; capture of Corsica (1553) from the Republic of Genoa; capture of the Balearic Islands (1558) from Spain; capture of Aden (1548), Muscat (1552) and Aceh (1565–67) from Portugal during the Indian Ocean expeditions; among others.

The conquests of Nice (1543) and Corsica (1553) occurred on behalf of France as a joint venture between the forces of the French king Francis I and the Ottoman sultan Suleiman I, and were commanded by the Ottoman admirals Barbarossa Hayreddin Pasha and Turgut Reis. A month prior to the siege of Nice, France supported the Ottomans with an artillery unit during the Ottoman conquest of Esztergom in 1543. France and the Ottoman Empire, united by mutual opposition to Habsburg rule in both Southern and Central Europe, became strong allies during this period. The alliance was economic and military, as the sultans granted France the right of trade within the Empire without levy of taxation. By this time, the Ottoman Empire was a significant and accepted part of the European political sphere. It made a military alliance with France, the Kingdom of England and the Dutch Republic against Habsburg Spain, Italy and Habsburg Austria.

Suleiman I's policy of expansion throughout the Mediterranean basin was however halted in Malta in 1565. During a summer-long siege which was later to be known as the Siege of Malta, the Ottoman forces which numbered around 50,000 fought the Knights of St. John and the Maltese garrison of 6000 men. Stubborn resistance by the Maltese led to the lifting of the siege in September. The unsuccessful siege (the Turks managed to capture the Isle of Gozo together with Fort Saint Elmo on the main island of Malta, but failed elsewhere and retreated) was the second and last defeat experienced by Suleiman the Magnificent after the likewise inconclusive first Ottoman siege of Vienna in 1529. Suleiman I died of natural causes in his tent during the Siege of Szigetvár in 1566. The Battle of Lepanto in 1571 (which was triggered by the Ottoman capture of Venetian-controlled Cyprus in 1570) was another major setback for Ottoman naval supremacy in the Mediterranean Sea, despite the fact that an equally large Ottoman fleet was built in a short time and Tunisia was recovered from Spain in 1574.

As the 16th century progressed, Ottoman naval superiority was challenged by the growing sea powers of western Europe, particularly Portugal, in the Persian Gulf, Indian Ocean and the Spice Islands. With the Ottoman Turks blockading sea-lanes to the East and South, the European powers were driven to find another way to the ancient silk and spice routes, now under Ottoman control. On land, the Empire was preoccupied by military campaigns in Austria and Persia, two widely separated theatres of war. The strain of these conflicts on the Empire's resources, and the logistics of maintaining lines of supply and communication across such vast distances, ultimately rendered its sea efforts unsustainable and unsuccessful. The overriding military need for defence on the western and eastern frontiers of the Empire eventually made effective long-term engagement on a global scale impossible.

Transformation of the Ottoman Empire (1566–1700)

European states initiated efforts at this time to curb Ottoman control of the traditional overland trade routes between East Asia and Western Europe, which started with the Silk Road. Western European states began to avoid the Ottoman trade monopoly by establishing their own maritime routes to Asia through new discoveries at sea. The Portuguese discovery of the Cape of Good Hope in 1488 initiated a series of Ottoman-Portuguese naval wars in the Indian Ocean throughout the 16th century. Economically, the Price Revolution caused rampant inflation in both Europe and the Middle East. This had serious negative consequences at all levels of Ottoman society.

The expansion of Muscovite Russia under Ivan IV (1533–1584) into the Volga and Caspian region at the expense of the Tatar khanates disrupted the northern pilgrimage and trade routes. A highly ambitious plan to counter this conceived by Sokollu Mehmed Pasha, Grand Vizier under Selim II, in the shape of a Don-Volga canal (begun June 1569), combined with an attack on Astrakhan, failed, the canal being abandoned with the onset of winter. Henceforth the Empire returned to its existing strategy of utilizing the Crimean Khanate as its bulwark against Russia. In 1571, the Crimean khan Devlet I Giray, supported by the Ottomans, burned Moscow. The next year, the invasion was repeated but repelled at the Battle of Molodi. The Crimean Khanate continued to invade Eastern Europe in a series of slave raids, and remained a significant power in Eastern Europe and a threat to Muscovite Russia in particular until the end of the 17th century.

In southern Europe, a coalition of Catholic powers, led by Philip II of Spain, formed an alliance to challenge Ottoman naval strength in the Mediterranean. Their victory over the Ottoman fleet at the Battle of Lepanto (1571) was a startling blow to the image of Ottoman invincibility. However, historians today stress the symbolic and not the strictly military significance of the battle, for within six months of the defeat a new Ottoman fleet of some 250 sail including eight modern galleasses had been built, with the shipyards of Istanbul turning out a new ship every day at the height of the construction. In discussions with a Venetian minister, the Ottoman Grand Vizier commented: "In capturing Cyprus from you, we have cut off one of your arms; in defeating our fleet you have merely shaved off our beard". The Ottoman naval recovery persuaded Venice to sign a peace treaty in 1573, and the Ottomans were able to expand and consolidate their position in North Africa. However, what could not be replaced were the experienced naval officers and sailors. The Battle of Lepanto was far more damaging to the Ottoman navy in sapping experienced manpower than the loss of ships, which were rapidly replaced.

By contrast, the Habsburg frontier had settled into a reasonably permanent border, marked only by relatively minor battles concentrating on the possession of individual fortresses. The stalemate was caused by a stiffening of the Habsburg defences and reflected simple geographical limits: in the pre-mechanized age, Vienna marked the furthest point that an Ottoman army could march from Istanbul during the early spring to late autumn campaigning season. It also reflected the difficulties imposed on the Empire by the need to support two separate fronts: one against the Austrians (see: Ottoman wars in Europe), and the other against a rival Islamic state, the Safavids of Persia (see: Ottoman wars in Near East).

Changes in European military tactics and weaponry in the military revolution caused the Sipahi cavalry to lose military relevance. The Long War against Austria (1593–1606) created the need for greater numbers of infantry equipped with firearms. This resulted in a relaxation of recruitment policy and a significant growth in Janissary corps numbers. Irregular sharpshooters (Sekban) were also recruited for the same reasons and on demobilization turned to brigandage in the Jelali revolts (1595–1610), which engendered widespread anarchy in Anatolia in the late 16th and early 17th centuries. With the Empire's population reaching 30,000,000 people by 1600, shortage of land placed further pressure on the government.

However, the 17th century was not an era of stagnation and decline, but a key period in which the Ottoman state and its structures began to adapt to new pressures and new realities, internal and external. The Sultanate of women (1533–1656) was a period in which the political influence of the Imperial Harem was dominant, as the mothers of young sultans exercised power on behalf of their sons. This was not wholly unprecedented; Hürrem Sultan, who established herself in the early 1530s as the successor of Nurbanu, the first valide sultan, was described by the Venetian baylo Andrea Giritti as "a woman of the utmost goodness, courage and wisdom" even though she "thwarted some while rewarding others". But the inadequacy of Ibrahim I (1640–1648) and the minority accession of Mehmed IV in 1646 created a significant crisis of rule, which the dominant women of the Imperial Harem filled. The most prominent women of this period were Kösem Sultan and her daughter-in-law Turhan Hatice, whose political rivalry culminated in Kösem's murder in 1651.

This period gave way to the highly significant Köprülü Era (1656–1703), during which effective control of the Empire was exercised by a sequence of Grand Viziers from the Köprülü family. On 15 September 1656 the octogenarian Köprülü Mehmed Pasha accepted the seals of office having received guarantees from the Valide Turhan Hatice of unprecedented authority and freedom from interference. A fierce conservative disciplinarian, he successfully reasserted the central authority and the empire's military impetus. This continued under his son and successor Köprülü Fazıl Ahmed (Grand Vizier 1661–1676). The Köprülü Vizierate saw renewed military success with authority restored in Transylvania, the conquest of Crete completed in 1669 and expansion into Polish southern Ukraine, with the strongholds of Khotyn and Kamianets-Podilskyi and the territory of Podolia ceding to Ottoman control in 1676.

This period of renewed assertiveness came to a calamitous end when Grand Vizier Kara Mustafa Pasha in May 1683 led a huge army to attempt a second Ottoman siege of Vienna in the Great Turkish War of 1683–1699. The final assault being fatally delayed, the Ottoman forces were swept away by allied Habsburg, German and Polish forces spearheaded by the Polish king Jan at the
Battle of Vienna.

The alliance of the Holy League pressed home the advantage of the defeat at Vienna and, thus, fifteen (15) years of see-sawing warfare, culminated in the epochal Treaty of Karlowitz (26 January 1699), which ended the Great Turkish War. For the first time, the Ottoman Empire surrendered control of significant European territories (many permanently), including Ottoman Hungary. The Empire had reached the end of its ability to effectively conduct an assertive, expansionist policy against its European rivals and it was to be forced from this point to adopt an essentially defensive strategy within this theatre.

Only two Sultans in this period personally exercised strong political and military control of the Empire: the vigorous Murad IV (1612–1640) recaptured Yerevan (1635) and Baghdad (1639) from the Safavids and reasserted central authority, albeit during a brief majority reign. Mustafa II (1695–1703) led the Ottoman counterattack of 1695–96 against the Habsburgs in Hungary, but was undone at the disastrous defeat at Zenta (11 September 1697).

Stagnation and reform (1700–1827)

During this period threats to the Ottoman Empire were presented by the traditional foe—the Austrian Empire—as well as by a new foe—the rising Russian Empire. Certain areas of the Empire, such as Egypt and Algeria, became independent in all but name, and later came under the influence of Britain and France. Later, in the 18th century, centralized authority within the Ottoman Empire gave way to varying degrees of provincial autonomy enjoyed by local governors and leaders.

However, Russian expansion presented a large and growing threat. Accordingly, King Charles XII of Sweden was welcomed as an ally in the Ottoman Empire following his defeat by the Russians at the Battle of Poltava in 1709 (part of the Great Northern War of 1700–1721.) Charles XII persuaded the Ottoman Sultan Ahmed III to declare war on Russia, which resulted in the Ottoman victory at the Pruth River Campaign of 1710–1711. Following the Austro-Turkish War (1716–1718), the subsequent Treaty of Passarowitz signed on 21 July 1718, brought a period of peace between wars. However, the Treaty also revealed that the Ottoman Empire was on the defensive and unlikely to present any further aggression in Europe.

During the Tulip Era (1718–1730), named for Sultan Ahmed III's love of the tulip flower and its use to symbolize his peaceful reign, the Empire's policy towards Europe underwent a shift. The Empire began to improve the fortifications of its cities in the Balkan peninsula to act as a defence against European expansionism. Cultural works, fine arts and architecture flourished, with more elaborate styles that were influenced by the Baroque and Rococo movements in Europe. A classic example is the Fountain of Ahmed III in front of the Topkapı Palace. The famous Flemish-French painter Jean-Baptiste van Mour visited the Ottoman Empire during the Tulip Era and crafted some of the most renowned works of art depicting scenes from daily life in the Ottoman society and the imperial court.

Upon the death of Peter the Great in 1725, Catherine, Peter's wife succeeded to the throne of the Russian Empire as Czarina Catherine I. Together with Austria, Russia, under Empress Anne, Catherine I's niece, engaged in a war against the Ottoman Empire from 1735 until 1739. The Treaty of Belgrade signed on 18 September 1739, ended this war and resulted in Ottoman recovery of Belgrade and other territories from Austria, but the loss of the port of Azov to the Russians. However following the Treaty of Belgrade, the Ottoman Empire was able to enjoy a generation of peace as Austria and Russia were forced to deal with the rise of the Prussians under King Frederick the Great.

This long period of Ottoman peace and, indeed, stagnation is typically characterized by historians as an era of failed reforms. In the latter part of this period there were educational and technological reforms, including the establishment of higher education institutions such as the Istanbul Technical University. Ottoman science and technology had been highly regarded in medieval times, as a result of Ottoman scholars' synthesis of classical learning with Islamic philosophy and mathematics, and knowledge of such Chinese advances in technology as gunpowder and the magnetic compass. By this period, though, the influences had become regressive and conservative. In 1734, when an artillery school was established with French teachers in order to impart Western-style artillery methods, the Islamic clergy successfully objected under the grounds of theodicy. Not until 1754 was the artillery school reopened on a semi-secret basis. Earlier, the guilds of writers had denounced the printing press as "the Devil's Invention", and were responsible for a 53-year lag between its invention by Johannes Gutenberg in Europe in c. 1440 and its introduction to the Ottoman society with the first Gutenberg press in Istanbul that was established by the Sephardic Jews of Spain in 1493 (who had migrated to the Ottoman Empire a year earlier, escaping from the Spanish Inquisition of 1492.) However, the printing press was used only by the non-Muslims in the Ottoman Empire until the 18th century. In 1726, Ibrahim Muteferrika convinced the Grand Vizier Nevşehirli Damat İbrahim Pasha, the Grand Mufti, and the clergy on the efficiency of the printing press, and later submitted a request to Sultan Ahmed III, who granted Muteferrika the permission to publish non-religious books (despite opposition from some calligraphers and religious leaders.) Muteferrika's press published its first book in 1729, and, by 1743, issued 17 works in 23 volumes (each having between 500 and 1,000 copies.)

Other tentative reforms were also enacted: taxes were lowered, there were attempts to improve the image of the Ottoman state, and the first instances of private investment and entrepreneurship occurred.

Following the period of peace, which had lasted since 1739, Russia began to assert its expansionistic desires again in 1768. Under the pretext of pursuing fugitive Polish revolutionaries, Russian troops entered Balta an Ottoman-controlled city on the border of Bessarabia and massacred its citizens and burned the town to the ground. This action provoked the Ottoman Empire into the First Russo-Turkish War of 1768–1774. The Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca of 1774 ended the First Russo-Turkish War and allowed that the Christian citizens of the Ottoman-controlled Rumanian provinces of Wallachia and Moldavia would be allowed freedom to worship. Russia was made the guarantor of their right to Christian worship.

A series of wars were fought between the Russian and Ottoman empires from the 18th to the 19th century. By the late 18th century, a number of defeats in several wars with Russia led some people in the Ottoman Empire to conclude that the reforms of Peter the Great had given the Russians an edge, and the Ottomans would have to keep up with Western technology in order to avoid further defeats.

Ottoman military reform efforts begin with Selim III (1789–1807) who made the first major attempts to modernize the army along European lines. These efforts, however, were hampered by reactionary movements, partly from the religious leadership, but primarily from the Janissary corps, who had become anarchic and ineffectual. Jealous of their privileges and firmly opposed to change, they created a Janissary revolt. Selim's efforts cost him his throne and his life, but were resolved in spectacular and bloody fashion by his successor, the dynamic Mahmud II, who eliminated the Janissary corps in 1826.

The Serbian revolution (1804–1815) marked the beginning of an era of national awakening in the Balkans during the Eastern Question. Suzerainty of Serbia as a hereditary monarchy under its own dynasty was acknowledged de jure in 1830. In 1821, the Greeks declared war on the Sultan. A rebellion that originated in Moldavia as a diversion was followed by the main revolution in the Peloponnese, which, along with the northern part of the Gulf of Corinth, became the first parts of the Ottoman empire to achieve independence (in 1829). By the mid-19th century, the Ottoman Empire was called the "sick man" by Europeans. The suzerain states – the Principality of Serbia, Wallachia, Moldavia and Montenegro – moved towards de jure independence during the 1860s and 1870s.

Decline and modernization (1828–1908)

During this period, the empire faced challenges in defending itself against foreign invasion and occupation. The empire ceased to enter conflicts on its own and began to forge alliances with European countries such as France, the Netherlands, Britain and Russia. As an example, in the 1853 Crimean War, the Ottomans united with Britain, France and the Kingdom of Sardinia against Russia.

Modernization

During the Tanzimat period (from Arabic: تنظيم tanẓīm, meaning "organisation") (1839–76), the government's series of constitutional reforms led to a fairly modern conscripted army, banking system reforms, the decriminalisation of homosexuality, the replacement of religious law with secular law and guilds with modern factories. In 1856, the Hatt-ı Hümayun promised equality for all Ottoman citizens regardless of their ethnicity and religious confession; which thus widened the scope of the 1839 Hatt-ı Şerif of Gülhane.

Overall, the Tanzimat reforms had far-reaching effects. Those educated in the schools established during the Tanzimat period included Mustafa Kemal Atatürk and other progressive leaders and thinkers of the Republic of Turkey and of many other former Ottoman states in the Balkans, the Middle East and North Africa. These reforms included guarantees to ensure the Ottoman subjects perfect security for their lives, honour and property; the introduction of the first Ottoman paper banknotes (1840) and opening of the first post offices (1840); the reorganisation of the finance system according to the French model (1840); the reorganisation of the Civil and Criminal Code according to the French model (1840); the establishment of the Meclis-i Maarif-i Umumiye (1841) which was the prototype of the First Ottoman Parliament (1876); the reorganisation of the army and a regular method of recruiting, levying the army and fixing the duration of military service (1843–44); the adoption of an Ottoman national anthem and Ottoman national flag (1844); the first nationwide Ottoman census in 1844 (only male citizens were counted); the first national identity cards (officially named the Mecidiye identity papers, or informally kafa kağıdı (head paper) documents, 1844); the institution of a Council of Public Instruction (1845) and the Ministry of Education (Mekatib-i Umumiye Nezareti, 1847, which later became the Maarif Nezareti, 1857); the abolition of slavery and slave trade (1847); the establishment of the first modern universities (darülfünun, 1848), academies (1848) and teacher schools (darülmuallimin, 1848); establishment of the Ministry of Healthcare (Tıbbiye Nezareti, 1850); the Commerce and Trade Code (1850); establishment of the Academy of Sciences (Encümen-i Daniş, 1851); establishment of the Şirket-i Hayriye which operated the first steam-powered commuter ferries (1851); the first European style courts (Meclis-i Ahkam-ı Adliye, 1853) and supreme judiciary council (Meclis-i Ali-yi Tanzimat, 1853); establishment of the modern Municipality of Istanbul (Şehremaneti, 1854) and the City Planning Council (İntizam-ı Şehir Komisyonu, 1855); the abolition of the capitation (Jizya) tax on non-Muslims, with a regular method of establishing and collecting taxes (1856); non-Muslims were allowed to become soldiers (1856); various provisions for the better administration of the public service and advancement of commerce; the establishment of the first telegraph networks (1847–1855) and railways (1856); the replacement of guilds with factories; the establishment of the Ottoman Central Bank (originally established as the Bank-ı Osmanî in 1856, and later reorganised as the Bank-ı Osmanî-i Şahane in 1863) and the Ottoman Stock Exchange (Dersaadet Tahvilat Borsası, established in 1866); the Land Code (Arazi Kanunnamesi, 1857); permission for private sector publishers and printing firms with the Serbesti-i Kürşad Nizamnamesi (1857); establishment of the School of Economical and Political Sciences (Mekteb-i Mülkiye, 1859); the Press and Journalism Regulation Code (Matbuat Nizamnamesi, 1864); among others.

The Ottoman Ministry of Post was established in Istanbul on 23 October 1840. The first post office was the Postahane-i Amire near the courtyard of the Yeni Mosque. In 1876 the first international mailing network between Istanbul and the lands beyond the vast Ottoman Empire was established. In 1901 the first money transfers were made through the post offices and the first cargo services became operational.

Samuel Morse received his first ever patent for the telegraph in 1847, at the old Beylerbeyi Palace (the present Beylerbeyi Palace was built in 1861–1865 on the same location) in Istanbul, which was issued by Sultan Abdülmecid who personally tested the new invention. Following this successful test, installation works of the first telegraph line (Istanbul-Adrianople–Şumnu) began on 9 August 1847. In 1855 the Ottoman telegraph network became operational and the Telegraph Administration was established. In 1871 the Ministry of Post and the Telegraph Administration were merged, becoming the Ministry of Post and Telegraph. In July 1881 the first telephone circuit in Istanbul was established between the Ministry of Post and Telegraph in the Soğukçeşme quarter and the Postahane-i Amire in the Yenicami quarter. On 23 May 1909, the first manual telephone exchange with a 50 line capacity entered service in the Büyük Postane (Grand Post Office) in Sirkeci.

The reformist period peaked with the Constitution, called the Kanûn-u Esâsî (meaning "Basic Law" in Ottoman Turkish), written by members of the Young Ottomans, which was promulgated on 23 November 1876. It established the freedom of belief and equality of all citizens before the law. The empire's First Constitutional era, was short-lived. But the idea of Ottomanism proved influential. A group of reformers known as the Young Ottomans, primarily educated in Western universities, believed that a constitutional monarchy would give an answer to the empire's growing social unrest. Through a military coup in 1876, they forced Sultan Abdülaziz (1861–1876) to abdicate in favour of Murad V. However, Murad V was mentally ill and was deposed within a few months. His heir-apparent, Abdülhamid II (1876–1909), was invited to assume power on the condition that he would declare a constitutional monarchy, which he did on 23 November 1876. The parliament survived for only two years before the sultan suspended it. When forced to reconvene it, he abolished the representative body instead. This ended the effectiveness of the Kanûn-ı Esâsî.

The Christian millets gained privileges, such as in the Armenian National Constitution of 1863. This Divan-approved form of the Code of Regulations consisted of 150 articles drafted by the Armenian intelligentsia. Another institution was the newly formed Armenian National Assembly. The Christian population of the empire, owing to their higher educational levels, started to pull ahead of the Muslim majority, leading to much resentment on the part of the latter. In 1861, there were 571 primary and 94 secondary schools for Ottoman Christians with 140,000 pupils in total, a figure that vastly exceeded the number of Muslim children in school at the same time, who were further hindered by the amount of time spent learning Arabic and Islamic theology. In turn, the higher educational levels of the Christians allowed them to play a large role in the economy. In 1911, of the 654 wholesale companies in Istanbul, 528 were owned by ethnic Greeks.

Railways
New railways were built during this period, including the first in the Ottoman Empire.

Crimean War

The Crimean War (1853–1856) was part of a long-running contest between the major European powers for influence over territories of the declining Ottoman Empire. Britain and France successfully defended the Ottoman Empire against Russia.

Most of the fighting took place when the allies landed on Russia's Crimean Peninsula to gain control of the Black Sea. There were smaller campaigns in western Anatolia, the Caucasus, the Baltic Sea, the Pacific Ocean and the White Sea. It was one of the first "modern" wars, as it introduced new technologies to warfare, such as the first tactical use of railways and the telegraph. The subsequent Treaty of Paris (1856) secured Ottoman control over the Balkan Peninsula and the Black Sea basin. That lasted until defeat in the Russo-Turkish War of 1877–1878.

The Ottoman Empire took its first foreign loans on 4 August 1854, shortly after the beginning of the Crimean War.

The war caused an exodus of the Crimean Tatars. From the total Tatar population of 300,000 in the Tauride Province, about 200,000 Crimean Tatars moved to the Ottoman Empire in continuing waves of emigration. Toward the end of the Caucasian Wars, 90% of the Circassians were exiled from their homelands in the Caucasus and settled in the Ottoman Empire. Since the 19th century, the exodus to present-day Turkey by the large portion of Muslim peoples from the Balkans, Caucasus, Crimea and Crete, had great influence in molding the country's fundamental features. These people were called Muhacir under a general definition. By the time the Ottoman Empire came to an end in 1922, half of the urban population of Turkey was descended from Muslim refugees from Russia. Crimean Tatar refugees in the late 19th century played an especially notable role in seeking to modernise Turkish education.

Ethnic nationalism

The rise of nationalism swept through many countries during the 19th century, and it affected territories within the Ottoman Empire. A burgeoning national consciousness, together with a growing sense of ethnic nationalism, made nationalistic thought one of the most significant Western ideas imported to the Ottoman Empire. It was forced to deal with nationalism both within and beyond its borders. The number of revolutionary political parties rose dramatically. Uprisings in Ottoman territory had many far-reaching consequences during the 19th century and determined much of Ottoman policy during the early 20th century. Many Ottoman Turks questioned whether the policies of the state were to blame: some felt that the sources of ethnic conflict were external, and unrelated to issues of governance. While this era was not without some successes, the ability of the Ottoman state to have any effect on ethnic uprisings was seriously called into question.

In 1804 the Serbian Revolution against Ottoman rule erupted in the Balkans, running in parallel with the Napoleonic invasion. By 1817, when the revolution ended, Serbia was raised to the status of self-governing monarchy under nominal Ottoman suzerainty. In 1821 the First Hellenic Republic became the first Balkan country to achieve its independence from the Ottoman Empire. It was officially recognised by the Porte in 1829, after the end of the Greek War of Independence.

Balkans

The Tanzimat reforms did not halt the rise of nationalism in the Danubian Principalities and the Principality of Serbia, which had been semi-independent for almost six decades. In 1875, the tributary principalities of Serbia and Montenegro, and the United Principalities of Wallachia and Moldavia, unilaterally declared their independence from the empire. Following the Russo-Turkish War of 1877–1878, the empire granted independence to all three belligerent nations. Bulgaria also achieved independence (as the Principality of Bulgaria); its volunteers had participated in the Russo-Turkish War on the side of the rebelling nations.

Congress of Berlin

The Congress of Berlin (13 June – 13 July 1878) was a meeting of the leading statesmen of Europe's Great Powers and the Ottoman Empire. In the wake of the Russo-Turkish War (1877–1878) that ended with a decisive victory for Russia and her Orthodox Christian allies (subjects of the Ottoman Empire before the war) in the Balkan Peninsula, the urgent need was to stabilise and reorganise the Balkans, and set up new nations. German Chancellor Otto von Bismarck, who led the Congress, undertook to adjust boundaries to minimise the risks of major war, while recognising the reduced power of the Ottomans, and balance the distinct interests of the great powers.

As a result, Ottoman holdings in Europe declined sharply; Bulgaria was established as an independent principality inside the Ottoman Empire, but was not allowed to keep all its previous territory. Bulgaria lost Eastern Rumelia, which was restored to the Turks under a special administration; and Macedonia, which was returned outright to the Turks, who promised reform. Romania achieved full independence, but had to turn over part of Bessarabia to Russia. Serbia and Montenegro finally gained complete independence, but with smaller territories.

In 1878, Austria-Hungary unilaterally occupied the Ottoman provinces of Bosnia-Herzegovina and Novi Pazar, but the Ottoman government contested this move and maintained its troops in both provinces. The stalemate lasted for 30 years (Austrian and Ottoman forces coexisted in Bosnia and Novi Pazar for three decades) until 1908, when the Austrians took advantage of the political turmoil in the Ottoman Empire that stemmed from the Young Turk Revolution and annexed Bosnia-Herzegovina, but pulled their troops out of Novi Pazar in order to reach a compromise and avoid a war with the Turks.

In return for British Prime Minister Benjamin Disraeli's advocacy for restoring the Ottoman territories on the Balkan Peninsula during the Congress of Berlin, Britain assumed the administration of Cyprus in 1878 and later sent troops to Egypt in 1882 with the pretext of helping the Ottoman government to put down the Urabi Revolt; effectively gaining control in both territories (Britain formally annexed the still nominally Ottoman territories of Cyprus and Egypt on 5 November 1914, in response to the Ottoman Empire's decision to enter World War I on the side of the Central Powers.) France, on its part, occupied Tunisia in 1881.

The results were first hailed as a great achievement in peacemaking and stabilisation. However, most of the participants were not fully satisfied, and grievances regarding the results festered until they exploded into world war in 1914. Serbia, Bulgaria and Greece made gains, but far less than they thought they deserved. The Ottoman Empire, called at the time the "sick man of Europe", was humiliated and significantly weakened, rendering it more liable to domestic unrest and more vulnerable to attack. Although Russia had been victorious in the war that occasioned the conference, it was humiliated at Berlin, and resented its treatment. Austria gained a great deal of territory, which angered the South Slavs, and led to decades of tensions in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Bismarck became the target of hatred of Russian nationalists and Pan-Slavists, and found that he had tied Germany too closely to Austria in the Balkans.

In the long-run, tensions between Russia and Austria-Hungary intensified, as did the nationality question in the Balkans. The Congress succeeded in keeping Istanbul in Ottoman hands. It effectively disavowed Russia's victory. The Congress of Berlin returned to the Ottoman Empire territories that the previous treaty had given to the Principality of Bulgaria, most notably Macedonia, thus setting up a strong revanchist demand in Bulgaria that in 1912 led to the First Balkan War in which the Turks were defeated and lost nearly all of Europe. As the Ottoman Empire gradually shrank in size, military power and wealth, many Balkan Muslims migrated to the empire's remaining territory in the Balkans or to the heartland in Anatolia. Muslims had been the majority in some parts of the Ottoman Empire such as the Crimea, the Balkans and the Caucasus as well as a plurality in southern Russia and also in some parts of Romania. Most of these lands were lost with time by the Ottoman Empire between the 19th and 20th centuries. By 1923, only Anatolia and eastern Thrace remained Muslim land.

Egypt

After gaining some amount of autonomy during the early 1800s, Egypt had entered into a period of political turmoil by the 1880s. In April 1882, British and French warships appeared in Alexandria to support the khedive and prevent the country from falling into the hands of anti-European nationals. In August 1882 British forces invaded and occupied Egypt on the pretext of bringing order. The British supported Khedive Tewfiq and restored stability with was especially beneficial to British and French financial interests. Egypt and Sudan remained as Ottoman provinces de jure until 1914, when the Ottoman Empire joined the Central Powers of World War I. Great Britain officially annexed these two provinces and Cyprus in response. Other Ottoman provinces in North Africa were lost between 1830 and 1912, starting with Algeria (occupied by France in 1830), Tunisia (occupied by France in 1881) and Libya (occupied by Italy in 1912).

Armenians

Although granted their own constitution and national assembly with the Tanzimat reforms, the Armenians attempted to demand implementation of Article 61 from the Ottoman government as agreed upon at the Congress of Berlin in 1878. Following pressure from the European powers and Armenians, Sultan Abdul Hamid II, in response, assigned the Hamidiye regiments to eastern Anatolia (Ottoman Armenia). These were formed mostly of irregular cavalry units of recruited Kurds. From 1894 to 1896, between 100,000 and 300,000 Armenians living throughout the empire were killed in what became known as the Hamidian massacres. Armenian militants seized the Ottoman Bank headquarters in Istanbul in 1896 to bring European attention to the massacres, but they failed to gain any help.

Defeat and dissolution (1908–1922)

The Ottoman Empire had long been the "sick man of Europe" and after a series of Balkan wars by 1914 had been driven out of nearly all of Europe and North Africa. It still controlled 28 million people, of whom 17 million were in modern-day Turkey, 3 million in Syria, Lebanon and Palestine, and 2.5 million in Iraq. Another 5.5 million people were under nominal Ottoman rule in the Arabian peninsula.

The Second Constitutional Era began after the Young Turk Revolution (3 July 1908) with the sultan's announcement of the restoration of the 1876 constitution and the reconvening of the Ottoman Parliament. It marked the beginning of the dissolution of the Ottoman Empire. This era is dominated by the politics of the Committee of Union and Progress (CUP), and the movement that would become known as the Young Turks. Although it began as a uniting progressive party, the CUP splintered in 1911 with the founding of the opposition Freedom and Accord Party (Liberal Union or Entente), which poached many of the more liberal Deputies from the CUP. The remaining CUP members, who now took a more dominantly nationalist tone in the face of the enmity of the Balkan Wars, dueled Freedom and Accord in a series of power reversals, which ultimately led to the CUP (specifically its leadership, the "Three Pashas") seizing power from the Freedom and Accord in the 1913 Ottoman coup d'état and establishing total dominance over Ottoman politics until the end of World War I.

Profiting from the civil strife, Austria-Hungary officially annexed Bosnia and Herzegovina in 1908, but pulled its troops out of the Sanjak of Novi Pazar, another contested region between the Austrians and Ottomans, to avoid a war. During the Italo-Turkish War (1911–12) in which the Ottoman Empire lost Libya, the Balkan League declared war against the Ottoman Empire. The Empire lost the Balkan Wars (1912–13). It lost its Balkan territories except East Thrace and the historic Ottoman capital city of Adrianople during the war. Some 400,000 Muslims, out of fear of Greek, Serbian or Bulgarian atrocities, left with the retreating Ottoman army. The Baghdad Railway under German control was a proposal to build rail lines into Iraq. The railway was not actually built at this time but its prospect worried the British until that issue was resolved in 1914. The railway did not play a role in the origins of World War I.

World War I (1914–1918)

The Young Turk government had signed a secret treaty with Germany and established the Ottoman-German Alliance in August 1914, aimed against the common Russian enemy but aligning the Empire with the German side. The Ottoman Empire entered World War I after the Goeben and Breslau incident, in which it gave safe harbour to two German ships that were fleeing British ships. These ships then—after having officially been transferred to the Ottoman Navy, but effectively still under German control—attacked the Russian port of Sevastopol, thus dragging the Empire into the war on the side of the Central Powers, in which it took part in the Middle Eastern theatre. There were several important Ottoman victories in the early years of the war, such as the Battle of Gallipoli and the Siege of Kut, but there were setbacks as well, such as the disastrous Caucasus Campaign against the Russians. The United States never declared war against the Ottoman Empire.

In 1915, as the Russian Caucasus Army continued to advance in eastern Anatolia with the help of Armenian volunteer units from the Caucasus region of the Russian Empire, and aided by some Ottoman Armenians, the Ottoman government decided to issue the Tehcir Law, which started the deportation of the ethnic Armenians, particularly from the provinces close to the Ottoman-Russian front, resulting in what became known as the Armenian genocide. Through forced marches and gang skirmishes, the Armenians living in eastern Anatolia were uprooted from their ancestral homelands and sent southwards to the Ottoman provinces in Syria and Mesopotamia. Estimates vary on how many Armenians perished, but scholars give figures ranging from 300,000 (per the modern Turkish state), 600,000 (per early estimates by Western researchers) to up to 1.5 million (per modern Western and Armenian scholars).

The Arab Revolt which began in 1916 turned the tide against the Ottomans at the Middle Eastern front, where they initially seemed to have the upper hand during the first two years of the war. When the Armistice of Mudros was signed on 30 October 1918, the only parts of the Arabian peninsula that were still under Ottoman control were Yemen, Asir, the city of Medina, portions of northern Syria and portions of northern Iraq. These territories were handed over to the British forces on 23 January 1919. The Ottomans were also forced to evacuate the parts of the former Russian Empire in the Caucasus (in present-day Georgia, Armenia and Azerbaijan), which they had gained towards the end of World War I, following Russia's retreat from the war with the Russian Revolution in 1917.

Under the terms of the Treaty of Sèvres, the partitioning of the Ottoman Empire was solidified. The new countries created from the former territories of the Ottoman Empire currently number 39.

Turkish War of Independence (1919–1923)

The occupation of Constantinople along with the occupation of İzmir mobilized the establishment of the Turkish national movement, which won the 1919–1923 Turkish War of Independence under the leadership of Mustafa Kemal Pasha. The Sultanate was abolished on 1 November 1922, and the last sultan, Mehmed VI Vahdettin (), left the country on 17 November 1922. The new independent Grand National Assembly of Turkey (GNA) was internationally recognized with the Treaty of Lausanne on 24 July 1923. The GNA officially declared the Republic of Turkey on 29 October 1923. The Caliphate was constitutionally abolished several months later, on 3 March 1924. The Sultan and his family were declared personae non gratae of Turkey and exiled.

Ottoman dynasty after dissolution

In 1974, descendants of the dynasty were granted the right to acquire Turkish citizenship by the Grand National Assembly, and were notified that they could apply. Mehmed Orhan, son of Prince Mehmed Abdul Kadir of the Ottoman Empire, died in 1994, leaving the grandson of Ottoman Sultan Abdülhamid II, Ertuğrul Osman, as the eldest surviving member of the deposed dynasty. Osman for many years refused to carry a Turkish passport, calling himself a citizen of the Ottoman Empire. Despite this attitude, he put the matter of an Ottoman restoration to rest when he told an interviewer "no" to the question of whether he wished the Ottoman Empire to be restored. He was quoted as saying that "democracy works well in Turkey." He returned to Turkey in 1992 for the first time since the exile, and became a Turkish citizen with a Turkish passport in 2002.

On 23 September 2009, Osman died at the age of 97 in Istanbul, and with his death the last of the line born under the Ottoman Empire was extinguished. In Turkey, Osman was known as "the last Ottoman".

Harun Osmanoğlu, the 3rd generation grandson of Abdul Hamid II, is the eldest living member of the former ruling dynasty.

Fall of the Empire

In many ways, the circumstances surrounding the Ottoman Empire's fall were a result of tensions between the Empire's different ethnic groups and the various governments' inability to deal with these tensions. The introduction of increased cultural rights, civil liberties and a parliamentary system during the Tanzimat proved too late to reverse the nationalistic and secessionist trends that had already been set in motion since the early 19th century.

See also
 Outline of the Ottoman Empire
 Territorial evolution of the Ottoman Empire
 Timeline of the Ottoman Empire
 Wikilala

References

Further reading

General surveys

 The Cambridge History of Turkey
 Volume 1: Kate Fleet ed., "Byzantium to Turkey 1071–1453." Cambridge University Press, 2009.
 Volume 2: Suraiya N. Faroqhi and Kate Fleet eds., "The Ottoman Empire as a World Power, 1453–1603." Cambridge University Press, 2012.
 Volume 3: Suraiya N. Faroqhi ed., "The Later Ottoman Empire, 1603–1839." Cambridge University Press, 2006.
 Volume 4: Reşat Kasaba ed., "Turkey in the Modern World." Cambridge University Press, 2008.

  Two volumes.
 Kia, Mehrdad, ed. The Ottoman Empire: A Historical Encyclopedia (2 vol 2017u)
 McCarthy, Justin. The Ottoman Turks: An Introductory History to 1923. 1997
  Mikaberidze, Alexander. Conflict and Conquest in the Islamic World: A Historical Encyclopedia (2 vol 2011)
 Quataert, Donald. The Ottoman Empire, 1700–1922. 2005. .

The Early Ottomans

The Classical Age

 Şahin, Kaya.  "The Ottoman Empire in the Long Sixteenth Century," Renaissance Quarterly 70#1 (Spring 2017): 220–234.

Military

 Hall, Richard C. ed. War in the Balkans: An Encyclopedic History from the Fall of the Ottoman Empire to the Breakup of Yugoslavia (2014)

History of the Ottoman Empire


Coupable d'innocence ou Quand la raison dort est un film franco-polonais, sorti en 1992.

Synopsis

Fiche technique
 Titre : Coupable d'innocence ou Quand la raison dort
 Réalisation : Marcin Ziebinski
 Scénario : Andrzej Rychcik et Wojciech Ziminski
 Musique : Jean-Claude Petit
 Pays d'origine :  -
 Genre : drame
 Date de sortie : 1992

Distribution
 Jonathan Zaccaï : Maximilien Bardo
 Ute Lemper : Catherine Gless
 Philippine Leroy-Beaulieu : Jeanne Eberlen
 André Wilms : Henri Bicken
 Jan Peszek : Jacques Kaltfish
 Witold Debicki : Giacomo Cinquedea
 Wojciech Pszoniak : Karl Ottenhagen
 Janusz Gajos
 Piotr Szulkin

Liens externes

Film polonais sorti en 1992
Film français sorti en 1992
Film dramatique français
Film dramatique polonais


Kröfuhafaskipti er þegar kröfuhafa er skipt út fyrir annan. Útskipting fer fram með þeim hætti að kröfuhafinn sem fer út (framseljandi) framselur kröfu sinni til kröfuhafans sem kemur í hans stað (framsalshafa).

Almenna reglan er sú að kröfuhafa hverju sinni er heimilt að framselja kröfu sína á hendur skuldara án samþykkis hins síðarnefnda, að því gefnu að krafan geymi ekki reglur sem banna eða takmarka slíkt framsal. Réttlætingin fyrir þessu eru þarfir viðskiptalífsins auk þess sem (nær) engar breytingar verða á skyldum skuldarans.

Kröfuréttur
Lögfræði

Kröfuhafaskipti


لوسيان جاسيرون  (29 ديسمبر 1913 - 15 نوفمبر 1999) لاعب كرة قدم فرنسي حيث لعب لصالح نادي لوهافر ونادي راسينغ باريس كما شارك مع منتخب فرنسا في نهائيات بطولة كأس العالم 1938 التي أقيمت في فرنسا . وبعد اعتزاله اتجه إلى التدريب .

روابط خارجية

مراجع

لاعبو كرة قدم رجالية فرنسيون
لاعبو وسط كرة قدم رجالية
أشخاص من الاحتلال الفرنسي للجزائر
أعلام أقدام سوداء
لاعبو الدوري الفرنسي
لاعبو راسينغ باريس
لاعبو كأس العالم 1938
لاعبو كرة قدم فرنسيون
لاعبو كرة قدم من وهران
لاعبو لوهافر
لاعبو منتخب فرنسا لكرة القدم
مدربو باستيا
مدربو كرة قدم فرنسيون
مدربو لوهافر
مدربو أولمبيك ليون
مواليد 1332 هـ
مواليد 1913
مواليد في ولاية وهران
وفيات 1420 هـ
وفيات 1999
وفيات في ستراسبورغ

لوسيان جاسيرون


Le GRX-810 est un type d'alliage  : un mélange de métal contenant des particules d'oxyde à l'échelle nanométrique. Il a été mis au point par la National Aeronautics and Space Administration aux États-Unis en avril 2022 . Dale Hopkins, est chef de projet adjoint du projet Transformational Tools and Technologies, département à la tête de ce projet .

Spécialement conçu pour être utilisé dans les systèmes aérospatiaux à haute performance, ce matériau a été créé pour l'impression 3D métallique. Ce  matériau peut résister à des températures supérieures à 1090 ° C, tout en étant plus malléable que les alliages aérospatiaux existants et tout en alliant résistance et durabilité .

La NASA a déjà testé l'alliage pour imprimer en 3D une chambre de combustion de moteur à turbine ainsi qu'une pièce monolithique conçue pour mélanger le carburant et l'air .

GRX-810 : un alliage miracle ?

En raison de la nature hostile de l'espace extra-atmosphérique, les efforts de la NASA visent à améliorer des propriétés mécaniques dans des conditions environnementales extrêmes. Le GRX-810 offre des améliorations de performances remarquables par rapport à de nombreux alliages de pointe .

À 1 090 °C, le GRX-810 présente une résistance à la rupture deux fois supérieure, une ductilité et une malléabilité trois fois et demie supérieures et une durabilité sous contrainte plus de 1 000 fois supérieure à celle des meilleurs alliages .

Notes et références

Voir aussi

Lien externe

Alliage

GRX-810


කලාසූරී අරිසෙන් අහුබුදු (1920 මාර්තු 18 – 2011 මැයි 26)  සිංහල බස පිලිබද වියතෙකි. එතුමා ශ්‍රී ලංකාවේ කීර්තිමත් කතුවරයෙක්, කථිකයෙක්, ශාස්ත්‍රඥයෙක්, නාට්‍ය රචකයෙක්, ගුරුවරයෙක්, සිංහල ගීත රචකයෙක්, සහ කවියෙක් වීය. තව ද හෙළ හවුලේ කැපී පෙනෙන සාමාජිකයෙක් ලෙස ද ඔහු ප්‍රසිද්ධියක් ඉසිළීය. ඔහු රාජ්‍ය සාහිත්‍ය සම්මාන තුනක් ද කලාශූරී නාමය ද හොඳම ගීත රචකයාට පිරිනැමෙන සරසවි සම්මානය ද හිමි කරගෙන ඇත.

රචිත ග්‍රන්ථ

 අඩුව
 හදිය
 කුමරතුඟු දෑ ඇල්ම
 කුමරතුඟු ඇසුර
 සිංහල වංස කතාව
 රන් කිරුළ
 අරුත නිරුත
 මහා පාවා දීමේ ජාතකය
 එන කපේ බණ කතා
 කලට පිපෙන මල්
 හෙළ දෙරණ වග
 කොග්ගල පවත
 මංගල කිංකිණි
 දම් රස දහර
 අසම්මතය රජ වීම
 අරිසෙන් අහුබුදු හරසරණිය
 සක්විති රාවණ
 ලංකා ගම් නම් වහර
 අතු අග දිලි වන මල්
 නූතන ජාතක
 හෙළ අවුරුදු වග
 සමන අස්න
 ඉර හඳ නැඟි රට
 මනු වස

Links

Official Website of Arisen Ahubudu
Information on Arisen Ahubudu

Press Articles

Arisen Ahubudu recommends Cumaratunga's works to posterity
Ahubudu presented books to President

ආශ්‍රිත

 Profile of Arisen Ahubudu
 Official website of Arisen Ahubudu

සිංහලයෝ
සිංහල සාහිත්‍යය
හෙළ හවුල
ශ්‍රී ලාංකික බෞද්ධයෝ
1920 උපත්
2011 මරණ

අරිසෙන් අහුබුදු


Hertia est un genre de plantes à fleurs de la famille des Astéracées, originaire d'Afrique et d'Asie du sud-ouest .

Taxonomie
Le genre a été décrit par Christian Friedrich Lessing et publié dans Synopsis Generum Compositarum 88. 1832.

 Espèces .

 Hertia alata (L.f.) ined. - Province du Cap en Afrique du Sud
 Hertia angustifolia (DC.) Kuntze  - Iran
 Hertia cheirifolia (L.) Kuntze      - Algérie, Tunisie
 Hertia ciliata     Kuntze       - Afrique du Sud
 Hertia clutiifolia (DC.) Kuntze    - Province du Cap
 Hertia intermedia (Boiss.) Kuntze   - Iran, Afghanistan
 Hertia kraussii   (Sch.Bip.) Fourc.   - Afrique du Sud
 Hertia maroccana  (Batt.) Maire      - Maroc
 Hertia pallens    Kuntze         - Afrique du Sud

Références

Senecioneae
Genre d'Asteraceae (nom scientifique)

Hertia


Omloop Het Nieuwsblad for kvinder 2019 var den 14. udgave af cykelløbet Omloop Het Nieuwsblad. Løbet var en del af den internationale UCI-kalender for damer og blev arrangeret 2. marts 2019. Det blev vundet af hollandske Chantal Blaak fra Boels-Dolmans.

Hold og ryttere

Danske ryttere
 Christina Siggaard kørte for Team Virtu Cycling Women
 Josefine Huitfeldt kørte for Multum Accountants

Resultater

Startliste

Eksterne henvisninger

2019
Cykelløb i 2019

Omloop Het Nieuwsblad for kvinder 2019


Noriyuki Sakemoto (født 8. september 1984) er en japansk fodboldspiller, som spiller for den japanske fodboldklub Kagoshima United FC.

Referencer

Eksterne henvisninger

Fodboldspillere fra Japan

Noriyuki Sakemoto


Padrón İspanya'nın özerk bölgelerinden biri olan Galiçya'nın kuzeybatısında bulunan A Coruña eyaletine bağlı belediyesi.

Kayda değer insanlar
Padrón, önemli bir yazarın ev sahibi olmuştur:
Camilo José Cela (1916–2002), yazar ve Nobel Ödülü sahibidir.

Dış bağlantılar

 Padron rehberi
 Rosalía de Castro Muze ve  Vakfı

Padrón


Vadkert Gölü, (Macarca: Büdös-tó / Kokuşmuş Göl) Macaristan'ın Bács-Kiskun ili sınırları içinde yer alan Soltvadkert kentinde yer alan bir göldür. Balaton Gölü'ndan sonra en çok turist çeken bölgelerden biri olan göl daha ucuz ve daha az kalabalık olması nedeni ile rağbet görür. Göl çevresinde yüzme ve balıkçılık aktiviteleri oldukça sık yapılır. Birçok yazlık ev ve restaurantın bulunduğu gölde birçok festival de düzenlenir.

Macaristan'daki göller

Vadkert Gölü


Darkest Hour er en britisk dramafilm fra 2017 instrueret af Joe Wright med Gary Oldman i hovedrollen som Winston Churchill.

Medvirkende
 Gary Oldman som Winston Churchill
 Ben Mendelsohn som Kong Georg VI
 Kristin Scott Thomas som Clementine Churchill
 Lily James som Elizabeth Layton
 Stephen Dillane som Viscount Halifax
 Samuel West som Sir Anthony Eden
 Jordan Waller som Randolph Churchill
 Hannah Steele som Abigail Walker
 Hilton McRae som Arthur Greenwood
 Ronald Pickup som Neville Chamberlain

Eksterne henvisninger

Dramafilm fra Storbritannien
Britiske film fra 2017
Film om 2. verdenskrig
Biografiske film fra Storbritannien

Darkest Hour (film)


Tabanıyassı Mehmed Paşa IV. Murad saltanatında 18 Mayıs 1632 - 2 Şubat 1637 tarihleri arasında dört yıl sekiz buçuk ay sadrazamlık yapmış bir Osmanlı devlet adamıdır.

Hayatı
Arnavutluk'da Taşlıca'da doğmuştu. Kızlarağası Hacı Mustafa Ağa'nın hizmetinde yetişmişti. Mirahor oldu. Sonra vezirlikle Mısır valiliğine gönderildi.

18 Mayıs 1632'de bir yeniçeri isyanı çıkarması sebebi ile IV. Murat emriyle idam edilen Topal Recep Paşa'nın yerine sadrazamlığa getirildi. Tabanıyassı Mehmet Paşa şehirde asayişi geri getirmek için tedbirler almaya başladı. 9 Haziran günü mülazım yazılmak dolayısı ile isyan eden kapıkulu askerleri Okmeydanı'nda toplandılar ve hanlarda oda döşemeyenlere mülazımlık verilmemesi isteklerinde ısrar ettiler. Atmeydanı'nda yeni bir isyan başlayacağı haberi etrafa yayıldı. IV. Murat bir ferman yayınlayarak mülazımlık uygulamasının yasak olduğunu bildirdi. Bu durumu görüşmek üzere Sinan Paşa Köşkü'nde bir ayak divanı toplanacağını ilan etti. Bu toplantıya devlet ricalinden vezirler, ulema ve ocak ağaları katıldı. Atmeydanı'nda isyancıların elebaşısı olan ocak ihtiyarları da geldiler ve halk sahili doldurdu. IV. Murat köşk önünde bir tahta oturup bu toplantıyı idare etti. Bu divana katılanlar Kuran üzerine yemin ederek padişaha sadık olacaklarını bildirdiler. Bir hüccet yazılarak isyancıların elebaşlarının yakalanıp otoritelere teslim edilmesi emredildi. Sadrazam her gün konağında toplantı yaptıktan sonra ya tebdil kıyafetle ya da açıkça şehirde kol gezmeye başladı. Bunu takip eden günlerde otoriteler isyan elebaşısı olan Saka Mehmed, Cin Ali ve diğerlerini yakalayıp idam ettirdiler. Kapıkulu askerlerinin bulunduğu hanlar boşaltıldı. Şehir sokaklarında görülen disiplinsiz, eğri sarıklı sipahi askerleri hemen idam edildiler. İsyan elebaşısı olduğu bildirilen ve yakalanmamış olan kapıkulları askerlerinin kayıtları silindi. Eyaletlere fermanlar gönderilerek celalilik yapanların hemen idam edilmeleri ve eyalette bulunup sırf ulufe elde etmek için kapıkulu askeri esamesi taşıyanların da elimine edilmeleri emredildi.

Böylece sadrazam kapıkulu isyanını bastırarak, kapıkulu ocaklarında temizlik yapıp ocaklarda disiplin ve ülkede, özellikle İstanbul'da, asayiş sağlandı.

Tabaniyassı Mehmet Paşa, 22 Ekim 1633'te doğu seferine çıkmak üzere Üskudar'dan ayrıldı. İstanbul'da sadaret kaymakamı olarak Bayram Paşa kaldı. IV. Murat ise (sonradan Revan Seferi) adı verilecek olan) doğu seferine 28 Mart 1635'te başladı. Sadrazam da IV. Murat'ın Revan Seferi'ne katıldı. Bu seferde Revan kalesi kuşatılıp alındı ve yakınındaki Maku, Cors, Hoy ve Tebriz kaleleri de ele geçirilip bu yerlerdeki kaleler yıktırıldı. Revan'ın ve bu kalelerin ele geçirilmesinde gösterdiği üstün hizmet dolayısı ile Sadrazama sadaret görevine ek olarak Rumeli beylerbeyliği verildi. IV. Murat İstanbul'a geri döndüğü zaman sadrazam Tabanıyassı Mehmet Paşa Diyarbakır'da bırakıldı.

İran Şahı çok geçmeden Revan'a hücum edip son seferde Osmanlılar eline geçmiş toprakları geri almaya başladı. Diyarbakır'da bırakılan ve Osmanlı güçlerinin serdarı olan Tabanıyassı Mehmet Paşa doğuda kışın çok şiddetli geçmesinden dolayı bu hücumları önlemeye imkân bulamadı ve İran kaybettiği arazileri geri almayı başardı. Bu nedenle Tabanıyassı Mehmet Paşa Diyarbakır'da iken Şubat 1636'da sadrazamlıktan azledildi. Mayıs 1636'da İstanbul'a geri geldiği zaman Çinili Köşk'de tutuklandı ve idam edilmesi beklenmekteydi. Fakat hava ve iklimin bu başarısızlığına neden olduğu açıkça anlaşıldığı için affolundu.

Merkezi Silistre'de bulunan Ozi Valiliğine tayin edildi. Burada vali iken Eflak ve Boğdan voyvodaları ile arası açıldı. Ocak 1638'de Budin Valiliğine nakloldu.

IV. Murat 1639 yaz başlangıcında Bağdat Seferi sonunda İstanbul'a döndüğü sırada acele olarak İstanbul'a çağrıldı ve kaptan-ı derya olarak atanan padişahın ünlü silahtarı Mustafa Paşa yerine İstanbul'da sadaret kaymakamı olarak görevlendirildi. Bu görevde iken daha önceki görevi sırasında kendisiyle araları açılan Eflak ve Boğdan voyvodalarını görevlerinden azlettirdi. Fakat bunlar yeni kaptan-ı derya olan ve kaymakamlıkta ve başvezirlikte gözü olan Silahtar Mustafa Paşa'ya değerli hediyeler vererek onun bu değişiklikleri IV. Murat'a söyleyip şikayet etmesini sağladılar. Bunun üzerine Tabanıyassı Mehmet Paşa sadaret kaymakamlığından azledildi ve yerine Deli Hüseyin Paşa kaymakamlığa getirildi. IV. Murat da Silahtar Mustafa Paşa'nın kışkırtması ile voyvodoların bu azilleri ile Tabanıyassı Mehmet Paşa'nın bir hainlik yapıp bu bölgelerde isyana sebep olmak ve devlete yeni gaileler çıkarmak istediğini düşünerek onu önce Yedikule'de tutuklattı. 1639 günü ise burada boğularak idam edildi.

Kaynakça

Dış bağlantılar
 Uzunçarşılı, İsmail Hakkı, (1954) Osmanlı Tarihi III. Cilt, 2. Kısım , XVI. Yüzyıl Ortalarından XVII. Yüzyıl Sonuna kadar), Ankara: Türk Tarih Kurumu (Altıncı Baskı 2011 ISBN 978-975-16-0010) say.384-385
 Buz, Ayhan, (2009) Osmanlı Sadrazamları, İstanbul: Neden Kitap, ISBN978-975-254-278-5,
 Danişmend, İsmail Hami, (2011), İzahlı Osmanlı Tarihi Kronolojisi 6 Cilt, İstanbul:Doğu Kütüphanesi, ISBN 9789944397681
 Tektaş, Nazım. (2009), Sadrâzamlar - Osmanlı'da İkinci Adam Saltanatı. İstanbul:Çatı Kitapları. ISBN 9789758845000
 Sakaoglu, Necedet (1999) Bu Mulkun Sultanlari, Istanbul:Oglak Yayinlari ISBN 975-329-2996 say. 241-244

Popüler kültürdeki yeri
Muhteşem Yüzyıl Kösem dizisinde 2. sezonda Tabanıyassı Mehmed Paşa karakterini Cengiz Okuyucu canlandırmaktadır.

Doğum tarihi bilinmeyenler
1637 yılında ölenler
Osmanlı sadrazamları
17. yüzyılda Osmanlılar
Osmanlı Arnavutları
Osmanlı Mısır valileri
İstanbul'da ölenler
Boğularak idam edilmiş kişiler
İdam edilmiş Osmanlılar

Tabanıyassı Mehmed Paşa


Nine ships of the Royal Navy have been named HMS Amazon, after the mythical female warriors.

 was a 26-gun frigate, formerly the French ship Panthère, built in 1744 and captured in 1745.  She was sold in 1763.
 was a 32-gun frigate launched in 1773 and broken up in 1794.
 was a 36-gun frigate launched in 1795 at Rotherhithe. She ran aground and was lost in 1797 when  and HMS Amazon defeated the  in 1797.
 was a 38-gun frigate launched in 1799 at Woolwich and broken up in 1817.
 was a 46-gun frigate launched in 1821. She was converted to carry 24 guns in 1844 and sold in 1863.
 was an  wooden screw sloop launched in 1865 and sunk on 9 July 1866 in a collision in the English Channel.
, launched in 1908, was a  destroyer stationed at Dover, England during the First World War.  She was broken up in 1919.
, launched in 1926, was a prototype destroyer, the first new build for the Royal Navy after World War I. She served in the Second World War, and was broken up in 1948.
, launched in 1971, was the first Type 21 frigate, and the only one not to take part in the Falklands War.  She was sold to Pakistan in 1993 and renamed Babur.

Battle honours
Ships named Amazon have earned the following battle honours:
Martinique, 1762
Droits de L'Homme, 1797
Copenhagen, 1801
Belle Poule, 1806
Belgian Coast, 1914−16
Atlantic, 1939−43
Norway, 1940
Malta Convoys, 1942
Arctic, 1942
North Africa, 1942−43

See also

Royal Navy ship names

HMS Amazon


Helvacı, Adana ilinin Karataş ilçesine bağlı bir mahalledir.

Coğrafya
Adana il merkezine 35 km, Karataş ilçesine 21 km uzaklıktadır.

Nüfus

Dış bağlantılar

 Yerelnet

Karataş'ın mahalleleri

Helvacı, Karataş


Un nuevo sol es el nombre del sexto álbum de estudio grabado por el cantautor argentino Axel. Fue lanzado al mercado por la empresa discográfica Universal Music Latino el 6 de septiembre de 2011.

El primer sencillo es «Te voy a amar», una canción romántica, lanzada en estreno mundial el lunes 25 de abril de 2011. Solo 8 días después del lanzamiento de Un nuevo sol, obtuvo los galardones de disco de oro y disco de platino por las ventas físicas del mismo, posteriormente alcanzó la certificación de doble disco de platino en Argentina.

Grabación

Bajo la producción de Áureo Baqueiro, Juan Blas Caballero y Axel, el disco fue grabado entre Los Ángeles y Buenos Aires en los estudios Mondomix y Brava! Music. Masterizado por Tom Baker, la producción cuenta con 13 canciones que representan el espíritu de vida característico de Axel, buscando transmitir emociones y sentimientos con sus composiciones. Mostrando su faceta instrumental Axel grabó Pianos, Rhodes y varios instrumentos en cada una de las canciones.

Lista de canciones

Sencillos
 «Te voy a amar» (2011)
 «Todo vuelve» (2012)
 «Todo mi mundo» (2012)
 «Sólo tu amor» (sencillo para la radio) (2012)
 «Pensando en ti» (2013)

Referencias

Álbumes de 2011
Álbumes de Axel

Un nuevo sol


Zephyra, biljni rod iz porodice Tecophilaeaceae, dio reda Asparagales. Postoje tri priznate vrsta, geofiti s lukovicom) iz Čilea

Rod je kao monotipičan opisan 1832.

Vrste
 Zephyra compacta C.Ehrh.
 Zephyra elegans D.Don; tipična

Sinonimi
 Dicolus Phil.

Izvori

Tecophilaeaceae

Zephyra


Guillermo Patricio Vera Soto (Isla de Maipo, 7 de junho de 1958) é um clérigo chileno e bispo católico romano de Rancagua.

Biografia
Guillermo Patricio Vera Soto completou seus estudos filosóficos e teológicos no Pontifício Seminário de Santiago do Chile e foi ordenado em 12 de junho de 1982 para a Arquidiocese de Santiago do Chile. Foi pároco em Talagante, Curacaví e na Catedral de Melipilla.

O Papa João Paulo II o nomeou Prelado de Calama em 10 de abril de 2003. O arcebispo de Antofagasta, Dom Patricio Infante Alfonso, consagrou-o em 31 de maio do mesmo ano; os co-consagrantes foram Dom Pablo Lizama Riquelme, bispo militar do Chile, e Dom Enrique Troncoso Troncoso, bispo de Melipilla.

Com a elevação à diocese em 20 de fevereiro de 2010, foi nomeado bispo de San Juan Bautista de Calama.

Em 22 de fevereiro de 2014, Papa Francisco o nomeou bispo de Iquique; a posse ocorreu em 29 de março do mesmo ano. Em 8 de junho de 2021, o Papa Francisco o nomeou bispo de Rancagua; a posse ocorreu em 23 de julho do mesmo ano.

Ver também

Naturais de Talagante (província)
Bispos católicos do Chile

Guillermo Patricio Vera Soto


Garden City Township ist der Name folgender Townships in den Vereinigten Staaten:

 Garden City Township (Kansas)
 Garden City Township (Minnesota)

Garden City Township


12310 Londontario este un asteroid din centura principală de asteroizi.

Descriere
12310 Londontario este un asteroid din centura principală de asteroizi. A fost descoperit pe  la Kitt Peak National Observatory în cadrul proiectului Spacewatch. Asteroidul prezintă o orbită caracterizată de o semiaxă mare de 2,73 ua, o excentricitate de 0,19 și o înclinație de 1,7° în raport cu ecliptica.

Vezi și
 Lista planetelor minore: 12001-13000
 Centura de asteroizi

Referințe

Obiecte astronomice descoperite în 1992
Centura de asteroizi

12310 Londontario


El Espinillo bezeichnet:

 El Espinillo (Chaco), Ort in Argentinien
 El Espinillo (Formosa), Ort in Argentinien
 El Espinillo (Madrid), Stadtteil der spanischen Hauptstadt

Siehe auch:
 El Espino

El Espinillo


Kazuyuki Otsuka (født 7. juli 1982) er en tidligere japansk fodboldspiller.

Han har spillet for flere forskellige klubber i sin karriere, herunder Avispa Fukuoka og V-Varen Nagasaki.

Eksterne henvisninger

Fodboldspillere fra Japan

Kazuyuki Otsuka


Lupta de la Turnu Severin a fost o acțiune militară de nivel tactic, desfășurată pe Frontul Român, în timpul campaniei din anul 1916 a participării României la Primul Război Mondial. Ea s-a desfășurat în perioada 10/23 noiembrie 1916 - 11/24 noiembrie 1916 și a avut ca rezultat retragerea trupelor române, în ea fiind angajate forțe române din Brigada 1 Infanterie și Brigada 2 Infanterie și forțe ale Puterilor Centrale din Brigada 10 Cavalerie austro-ungară și Brigada 145 Infanterie austro-ungară. A făcut parte din acțiunile militare care au avut loc în acțiunile militare din Oltenia.

Contextul operativ strategic

Forțe participante

Dispozitivul forțelor române

Dispozitivul forțelor inamice

Comandanți

Comandanți români
 Colonel Scarlat Demetriade
 Colonel Teodor Tăutu

Comandanți ai Puterilor Centrale
 Colonel Johann Szivó de Bunya
 Colonel Rudolf von Fiebich-Ripke

Planurile de luptă

Desfășurarea acțiunilor militare

Rezultate și urmări

Note

Bibliografie
 Kirițescu, Constantin, Istoria războiului pentru întregirea României, Editura Științifică și Enciclopedică, București, 1989
 Ioanițiu Alexandru (Lt.-Colonel), Războiul României: 1916-1918, vol I, Tipografia Geniului, București, 1929
 ***, Istoria militară a poporului român, vol. V, Editura Militară, București, 1989

Vezi și
 Participarea României la Primul Război Mondial

Bătălii de pe frontul românesc în Primul Război Mondial

Lupta de la Turnu Severin (1916)


Modena (Modena lehçesi: Mòdna), kuzey İtalya'da Emilia-Romagna bölgesinde kendi ismini taşıyan Modena ilinin merkezi olan bir komündür.

1545 yılında Po Nehri ovası ortasında kurulmuş olan, sanat başyapıtlarının kenti Modena, muhteşem katedrali ile tanınmıştır.

Ekonomi

Modena "otomobil motorları başkenti" olarak tanınmaktadır. Dünyaca ünlü İtalyan lüks spor otomobil üreticileri Ferrari, Maserati, De Tomaso ve Pagani Modena'da konumlanmışlardır ve diğer bir üretici Lamborghini üretim merkezi ise Bologna ilinde bulunmakta ama Modena'ya çok yakın bulunmaktadır. Ferrari marka otomobilin önemli bir modeli (360 Modena) şehrin ismini taşır ve Ferrari'nin özel bir ün kazanan otomobil rengi "Modena sarısı"dır.

Ayrıca dünyaca ünlü tenor Pavarotti'nin doğduğu yerdir.

Coğrafi konum

Modena, Po Nehri ovasında bulunur. İki tarafında Po Nehri'ne akan "Secchia Çayı" ve "Panaro Çayı" vardır. Şehir merkezini Panaro Çayı'na bağlayan "Naviglio" adlı bir kanal bulunmaktadır.

İtalya yarımadasının bel kemiğini teşkil eden Apeninler şehrin güneyinde 10 km uzakta başlamaktadırlar.

Modena'nin iklimi ılımandır. Yazları çok az yağışlı ama sıcak ve nemli geçmekte ve kışları ise soğuk ve ıslak geçmektedir.

Semtler ve komşu komünler

Modena şehri içinde bulunan semtler yerel idare hizmetleri için dört "circoscrizioni" adı verilen semt grubuna ayrılmıştır:
Centro storico (Tarihi merkez, San Cataldo)
Crocetta (San Lazzaro-East Modena, Crocetta)
Buon Pastore (Buon Pastore, Sant'Agnese, San Damaso)
San Faustino (S. Faustino-Saliceta San Giuliano, Madonnina-Quattro Ville)

Modena komününe bağlı olan alt semt/köy yerel idareleri  şunlardır:
Albareto, Baggiovara, Ca' Fusara, Cognento, Cittanova, Collegara, Ganaceto, Lesignana, Marzaglia, Navicello, Portile, San Damaso, San Donnino, Tre Olmi, Villanova

Modena komünü etrafında bulunan komşu komünler şunlardır:
Bastiglia, Bomporto, Campogalliano, Carpi, Casalgrande (Revanna ili), Castelfranco Emilia, Castelnuovo Rangone, Formigine, Nonantola, Rubiera (Revanna ili), San Cesario sul Panaro, Soliera, Spilamberto.

Modena muftağı

Modena yemekleri ve mutfağı ile ünlüdür.

Modena jambonu ve Parma jambonu devamlı rakiptirler.

Modena'nın kaynatılmış mercimek veya beyaz fasulye ve patates püresi veya mısır unundan yapılmış  "polenta" ile birlikte sunulan domuz paçasından "zampone" (yağlı ve doyurucu) veya "cotechino Modena" (daha az yağlı) taze sosisleri Avrupa Birliği tescilli olarak İtalya'da geleneksel olarak yeni yılın ilk yemeği olarak yenmektedir.

Modena ayrıca özel ve çoğu özel Avrupa Birliği tescilli "Modena balsamlı sirke" ve "lambrasco" tipi kırmızı şarap üretim merkezidir.

Eğitim

Modena Üniversitesi 1175'te kurulmuştur ve 1686'da Modena Dükü II. Fransesco D'Este tarafından genişletilmiştir. Günümüzde yaklaşık 20.000 öğrencisi bulunup İktisat, Hukuk ve Tıp bilimleri üzerinde geleneksel olarak ünü bulunmaktadır.

Modena, İtalyan ordusunun subaylarını yetiştirmek için kurulmuş "İtalyan Harp Akademisi"'nin bulunduğu şehirdir. Bu kurum kısmen tarihi Barok Düklük Sarayı'nda konumlanmıştır.

"Biblioteca Estense" kütüphanesinde çok sayıda yazma eserler ve eski baskı eserler bulunmaktadır.

Kardeş şehirler

Modena şu kentlerle kardeş şehir bağlantısı kurmuştur:

Resimler

Modena

Kaynakça

Dış bağlantılar

Modena ili belediyeleri

Modena


was a village located in Tōhaku District, Tottori Prefecture, Japan.

As of 2003, the village had an estimated population of 3,036 and a density of 208.52 persons per km2. The total area was 14.56 km2.

On October 1, 2004, Tomari, along with the towns of Hawai and Tōgō (all from Tōhaku District), was merged to create the town of Yurihama.

External links
Yurihama official website (in Japanese)

Dissolved municipalities of Tottori Prefecture
Tōhaku District, Tottori
Yurihama, Tottori

ja:湯梨浜町

Tomari, Tottori


O Dvenadsat Apostolov (Двенадцать Апостолов) foi um couraçado pré-dreadnought operado pela Marinha Imperial Russa. Sua construção começou em agosto de 1889 no Estaleiro do Almirantado Nikolaev e foi lançado ao mar em setembro do ano seguinte, sendo comissionado na frota russa em junho de 1893. Era armado com uma bateria principal composta por quatro canhões de 305 milímetros montados em duas barbetas duplas, tinha um deslocamento de quase nove mil toneladas e conseguia alcançar uma velocidade máxima de pouco mais de catorze nós.

O Dvenadsat Apostolov teve uma carreira tranquila e sem grandes incidentes, marcada apenas pela tentativa fracassada de tentar abalroar o amotinado couraçado  em 1905. Ele foi descomissionado em abril de 1911 e transformado em depósito flutuante no ano seguinte. Foi capturado pelos alemães em maio de 1918 na Primeira Guerra Mundial e depois repassado aos Aliados em dezembro, sendo então capturado pelos dois lados da Guerra Civil Russa até ser abandonado em 1920 na Crimeia, onde permaneceu até ser desmontado em 1931.

Desenvolvimento
O Dvenadsat Apostolov foi originalmente encomendado como um de dois couraçados para a Frota do Mar Negro, porém a construção da outra embarcação ficou com um estaleiro à beira da falência e este fez pouquíssimo progresso. O armamento foi inicialmente planejado para ser composto por oito canhões de 229 milímetros, quatro montados em duas torres de artilharia duplas e os restantes em casamatas a meia-nau. O Comitê Técnico Naval da Marinha Imperial decidiu depois do início da construção aumentar a espessura do cinturão principal de blindagem na linha d'água de 330 para 356 milímetros em troca de 76 toneladas a mais de deslocamento. Também foi decidido mover a torre de artilharia dianteira 2,3 metros para trás porque se achou que o navio ficaria muito pesado na proa, enquanto o armamento principal foi revisado para quatro canhões de 305 milímetros em barbetas duplas, com quatro canhões de 152 milímetros ficando em uma casamata reduzida. Todas essas mudanças de projeto aumentaram o deslocamento em cem toneladas.

Projeto

Características
O Dvenadsat Apostolov tinha 102,3 metros de comprimento da linha de flutuação e 104,2 metros de comprimento de fora a fora. Tinha uma boca de 18,3 metros e um calado de 8,4 metros. Seu deslocamento exato nunca foi medido, porém foi estimado em 8 850 toneladas, 605 toneladas a mais do que seu deslocamento projetado de 8 206 toneladas.

O formato do casco era similar aos navios blindados da Classe Imperator Alexandr II, porém seu rostro era 1,2 metros mais comprido. O casco era subdividido por onze anteparas estanques transversais e uma longitudinal, possuindo também um casco duplo completo com novecentos milímetros de profundidade. A altura metacêntrica era de oitenta centímetros. O Dvenadsat Apostolov demonstrou que tinha uma melhor navegabilidade que os antigos navios blindados da Classe Ekaterina II, porém balançava muito e tinha vazamentos por suas portinholas e escotilhas. O historiador naval N. J. M. Campbell avaliou que o couraçado, apesar dessas deficiências, era superior que a Classe Imperator Alexandr II.

O sistema de propulsão do Dvenadsat Apostolov era composto por dois motores a vapor de tripla-expansão com três cilindros construídos pelo Estaleiro do Báltico e foram projetados para produzirem uma potência indicada de 8,5 mil cavalos-vapor (6 250 quilowatts). Os motores giravam duas hélices de 5,26 metros de diâmetros com o vapor proporcionado por oito caldeiras cilíndricas que queimavam carvão. Seus motores foram capazes de produzir 8 758 cavalos-vapor (6 440 quilowatts) de potência durante seus testes marítimos em setembro de 1894 para uma velocidade máxima de 15,2 nós (28,2 quilômetros por hora) em calado forçado; em um calado normal sua velocidade era de 14,5 nós (26,9 quilômetros por hora). As chaminés foram elevadas em 3,81 metros depois dos testes marítimos com o objetivo de melhorar o calado e manter a superestrutura livre dos gases. O Dvenadsat Apostolov podia carregar até 720 toneladas de carvão, o que proporcionava uma autonomia de 1,9 mil milhas náuticas (3,5 mil quilômetros) a uma velocidade de dez nós (dezenove quilômetros por hora). O navio também tinha seis dínamos Siemens que produziam 540 quilowatts de energia elétrica.

Armamento e blindagem

O armamento principal consistia em quatro canhões Obukhov Modelo 1877 calibre 30 de 305 milímetros em duas barbetas, na proa e na popa. Eles tinham uma elevação máxima de quinze graus e podiam abaixar até cinco graus negativos, tendo uma rotação de 270 graus. Cada arma tinha à disposição 66 projéteis. Elas disparavam um projétil de 331,7 quilogramas a uma velocidade de saída de 570 metros por segundo, tendo um alcance de cinco quilômetros a uma elevação de seis graus. A cadência de tiro era de um disparo a cada cinco minutos, porém o maquinário de carregamento poderia travar se o navio subisse e descesse mais do que cinco graus.

O armamento secundário tinha quatro canhões Modelo 1877 calibre 35 de 152 milímetros em montagens giratórias na casamata central. As laterais do casco tinham um recesso para permitir disparos axiais, tendo uma rotação de cem graus e um arco de disparo de 130 graus. Cada arma tinha à disposição 130 projéteis. Disparavam projéteis de 41,5 quilogramas a uma velocidade de saída de novecentos metros por segundo. Para defesa contra barcos torpedeiros, haviam doze canhões Hotchkiss de 47 milímetros em canhoneiras no casco e superestrutura. Disparavam projéteis de 1,5 quilogramas a uma velocidade de saída de 569 metros por segundo. Dois canhões rotativos Hotchkiss de 37 milímetros com cinco canos foram instalados na extremidade dianteira da superestrutura e dois outros em uma plataforma à ré da segunda chaminé. Seis versões de cano único foram instaladas no mastro dianteiro e dois em pequenas canhoneiras à ré da superestrutura. Não se sabe a localização de duas das armas de 37 milímetros e é possível que sua intenção era armarem os botes do couraçado. Por fim, haviam seis tubos de torpedo acima da linha d'água, um na proa, um na popa e dois em cada lateral.

O navio era protegido principalmente por uma blindagem composta produzida pela Johnson Cammell & Co. no Reino Unido. O cinturão principal de blindagem tinha uma espessura máxima de 356 milímetros nas áreas de maquinários, porém afinava-se para 305 milímetros nos depósitos de munição, enquanto na extremidade inferior ele diminuía para entre 178 e 203 milímetros. O cinturão tinha setenta metros de comprimento e 1,68 metros de altura, mas 1,3 metros deste valor ficavam abaixo da linha d'água pois o Dvenadsat Apostolov foi finalizado com sobrepeso. As anteparas tinham entre 229 e 305 milímetros e proporcionavam proteção transversal para as áreas vitais da embarcação. A blindagem da casamata inferior tinha 65,2 metros de comprimento e 305 milímetros de espessura. Acima ficavam placas de aço de 127 milímetros de espessura que protegiam os canhões de 152 milímetros. A blindagem da barbeta ficava de 254 a 305 milímetros de espessura. A barbeta e seus canhões inicialmente ficavam abertos, mas uma cobertura hemisférica de 64 milímetros de espessura foi adicionada posteriormente, possivelmente em 1893. A torre de comando era protegida por uma blindagem de 203 milímetros.

História

O Dvenadsat Apostolov foi construído pelo Estaleiro do Almirantado Nikolaev em Nikolaev, na Gubernia de Querson. Seu batimento de quilha ocorreu em 21 de agosto de 1889 e ele foi lançado ao mar em 13 de setembro de 1890, partindo para Sebastopol em 11 de maio de 1892 para terminar seu processo de equipagem. Ele foi finalizado em meados dezembro e comissionado na frota russa em 17 de junho de 1893, porém só ficou totalmente pronto para o serviço no ano seguinte. O navio foi usado em 1895 para testes de um novo sistema de lançamento de minas navais por trilhos que tinha sido inventado pelo tenente A. P. Igrumov e também para avaliar as dimensões adequadas para uma rede anti-torpedo e suas varas. Para este último, torpedos foram disparados contra o couraçado com suas redes estendidas. Um de seus canhões, não se sabe qual, explodiu em 1903 e matou um tripulante e feriu dois.

A embarcação participou em 30 de junho de 1905 junto de outros navios de uma tentativa fracassada de recapturar o amotinado couraçado  próximo do litoral de Odessa. O Dvenadsat Apostolov tentou abalroar o Kniaz Potemkin Tavricheski, mas marinheiros simpatizantes dos amotinados conseguiram reverter seus maquinários e em seguida impediram que seu oficial comandante, o capitão M. N. Kolands, explodisse seu próprio navio ao cortarem os cabos de detonação.

A Autoridade Portuária de Sebastopol tinha proposto substituir suas caldeiras em 1904 por novas caldeiras Belleville, porém isto foi adiado por um plano para reusar aquelas do navio blindado Chesma, algo que no final nunca ocorreu. Uma proposta três anos depois para rearmar o Dvenadsat Apostolov com quatro canhões de 254 milímetros em duas torres de artilharia duplas e vários canhões de 152 milímetros em novas casamatas feitas pelo Estado-Maior Geral Naval. Isto teria um custo estimado de 1,275 milhões de rublos e adicionaria apenas quinze toneladas a seu deslocamento, porém isto foi rejeitado pelo Comitê Técnico Naval, que acreditava que seria um desperdício de dinheiro dado sua obsolescência. Outra proposta foi feita em 1909 para rearma-lo com armas menores com o objetivo de transformá-lo em um navio de guarda para defender Sebastopol de forças navais inimigas pequenas. Isto foi originalmente aprovado em junho pelo almirante Ivan Grigorovich, o Ministro da Marinha, porém isto foi depois revertido.

O Dvenadsat Apostolov foi transferido em 1º de abril de 1911 para o controle da Autoridade Portuária de Sebastopol, sendo removido na lista naval da Marinha Imperial no dia 15 do mesmo mês e desarmado logo em seguida. Se tornou no ano seguinte um navio depósito para submarinos. Foi renomeado para Casco Nº 8 em 4 de setembro de 1914, sendo usado para deveres portuários. Foi capturado pelos alemães em Sebastopol em maio de 1918 na Primeira Guerra Mundial e depois entregue aos Aliados em dezembro. Foi então capturado pelos bolcheviques durante a Guerra Civil Russa e em seguida pelos russos brancos. O navio acabou abandonado pelos brancos quando estes evacuaram a Criméia em 1920. No ano seguinte os maquinários de seu sistema de propulsão foram removidos. Supostamente serviu de dublê do Kniaz Potemkin Tavricheski nas filmagens do longa-metragem Bronenosets Potyomkin, enquanto era usado como depósito de minas. Foi vendido para desmontagem em 28 de janeiro de 1931.

Referências

Bibliografia

Ligações externas

Navios de 1890
Navios construídos na Rússia
Couraçados da Marinha Imperial Russa

Dvenadsat Apostolov (couraçado)


Unter Absalzung versteht man die Ausschleusung von Kessel- oder Kreislaufwasser aus z. B. Dampfkesseln oder Verdunstungskühlern mit dem Ziel, den Salzgehalt des Wassers und damit Korrosion und Ablagerungen zu verringern.

Hintergrund

Bei Dampfkesseln führen die Speisewasserpumpen ständig frisches Wasser nach, um den Wasserverlust, der durch die Verdampfung entsteht, zu kompensieren. Ebenso muss bei Verdunstungskühlern der Verlust durch Verdunstung ständig durch Nachspeisung von Frischwasser ausgeglichen werden. Stets wird dem Wasser lediglich chemisch reines Wasser entzogen, Salze und Härtebildner bleiben zurück. Dadurch steigt deren Konzentration im zurückbleibenden Wasser stetig an, was zu verstärkter Korrosion und Ablagerungen führen kann. Deswegen muss durch Ausschleusung von Wasser regelmäßig der Salzgehalt reduziert werden, um selbigen in gewissen Grenzen zu halten. Dies geschieht manuell oder automatisch durch sogenannte Absalzventile.

Wichtige Größen

Eindickungszahl

Die Eindickungszahl  ist eine Größe der Dimension Zahl, die das Verhältnis zwischen dem zulässigen Salzgehalt des Wassers im Prozess  und dem Salzgehalt des nachgeführten Wassers  beschreibt:

Zusatzwassermenge

Die Zusatzwassermenge , die notwendig ist, um  nicht zu überschreiten, berechnet sich aus der verdunstenden bzw. verdampfenden Wassermenge  und der Eindickungszahl  zu

.

Das Zusatzwasser  gleicht also einerseits den Wasserverlust  aus, andererseits "verdünnt" es das verbleibende Wasser so weit, dass  nicht überschritten wird.

Absalzverlust

Der Absalzverlust  ist die Differenz zwischen dem zugeführten Wasser  und dem entweichenden Wasser , welche aus dem Prozess entfernt werden muss, um die Gesamtwassermenge konstant zu halten:

Der Absalzverlust kann auch in Abhängigkeit von der Eindickungszahl ausgedrückt werden:

Minimierung des Wasserbedarfs

Aus den Formeln geht hervor, dass durch Erhöhung der Eindickungszahl, also durch Reduktion des Salzgehaltes im Nachspeisewasser , die zuzuführende Wassermenge  reduziert und damit Wasser gespart werden kann. Insbesondere für Eindickungszahlen kleiner ca. 2 steigt die benötigte Zusatzwassermenge  stark an. Für große , also wenn im Vergleich zum Wasser im Prozess sehr salzarmes Wasser zugesetzt wird, nähert sich  an  an. Es wird dann fast nur der Verlust  kompensiert, der Absalzverlust  geht dann gegen null.

In der Praxis kann  nicht beliebig klein gewählt werden, sondern hängt vom zur Verfügung stehenden Versorgungswasser ab. Die Eindickungszahl  gibt dann an, um welchen Faktor der Salzgehalt im Prozess  höher ist. Es wird dann in der Regel eine Eindickungszahl von 2 bis 4 gewählt, um einerseits die Zusatzwassermenge  möglichst gering zu halten und andererseits den Salzgehalt  nicht zu stark ansteigen zu lassen. Ein höheres  und damit ein höheres  würde nur zu einer unwesentlichen weiteren Wasserersparnis führen.

Absalzventile

Absalzventile dienen der kontrollierten Ausschleusung des Absalzverlustes . Ihre Funktion ähnelt damit derer von Abschlammventilen. Durch permanente Kesselwasserüberwachung leisten die Armaturen einen erheblichen Beitrag zum Anlagen- und Personenschutz.

Ihre bevorzugten Einsatzgebiete sind:

 Großwasserraumkessel
 Abhitzekessel
 Reindampferzeuger

Manuelle Absalzventile

Bei manuellen Absalzventilen erfolgt über den Handhebel anhand der Skalierung eine Einstellung der kontinuierlichen
Absalzmenge. Durch geeignete Konstruktion des Kegels der Absalzventile, der Stufendüse, kann die Ausschleusung geräusch-
und verschleißarm erfolgen. Eine freie Wahl der Ventilkennlinie ermöglicht eine optimale Anpassung an die Speisewasser- und Kesselwasserqualität sowie an die Kesselleistung. Für eine manuelle Probenentnahme ist in der Regel unterhalb des Ventiles druckseitig ein Probenentnahmeventil vorhanden.

Automatische Absalzventile

Bei den automatischen Absalzventilen erfolgt die Einstellung der Absalzmenge über einen elektrischen Stellantrieb, der auf
dem manuellen Absalzventil montiert ist. Die Ansteuerung des Stellantriebes erfolgt über einen Leitfähigkeitsregler. Ob und wie weit das Ventil geöffnet wird, ist abhängig von der über eine Leitfähigkeitselektrode mit automatischer Temperaturkompensation gemessene Leitfähigkeit im Kesselwasser. Die automatischen Absalzventile finden besonders in Anlagen Anwendung, die wachfrei betrieben werden.

Literatur

 GESTRA AG Bremen: GESTRA Prospekt Ausrüstung von Energiezentralen
 GESTRA AG Bremen: GESTRA Information B 1-2

Dampfkesseltechnik
Kühltechnik

Absalzung


An Xanthosoma pariense in uska species han Liliopsida nga ginhulagway ni George Sydney Bunting. An Xanthosoma pariense in nahilalakip ha genus nga Xanthosoma, ngan familia nga Araceae. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Xanthosoma

Xanthosoma pariense