La ligne ferroviaire d'Olten à Berne est l'une des principales lignes ferroviaires en Suisse. Elle fait partie de la ligne principale Zurich – Genève.

Historique

Histoire
Alors que la ligne du Hauenstein de Bâle à Olten est encore en construction, les Chemins de fer du central suisse commencent déjà à construire d'autres lignes au départ d'Olten. Ainsi, le tronçon Olten-Aarburg est ouvert le  dans le cadre de la liaison Olten-Lucerne.

Sur la ligne entre Aarburg et Berne, un premier tronçon est ouvert entre Aarburg et Herzogenbuchsee le . En 1857 également, les Chemins de fer du central suisse connectent Herzogenbuchsee à Soleure. Le prolongement de la ligne de Herzogenbuchsee à Berne a été achevé le 16 juin de la même année. La ligne s'arrêtait alors au portes de la ville, à Wylerfeld. Ce n'est qu'avec la construction du "pont rouge" que l'itinéraire a pu être prolongé de l'autre côté de l'Aar. Le , la gare de Berne est mise en service comme terminus.

Le , la commune de Niederwil et la gare rattachée sont rebaptisées Rothrist.

Lors de la nationalisation des Chemins de fer du central suisse en 1902, la ligne Olten–Berne revient également aux Chemins de fer fédéraux suisses.

Au fil du temps, le "pont rouge" de Berne n'est plus en mesure de faire face à l'augmentation du volume de transport et est remplacé par le viaduc de Lorraine en 1941.

Pour décharger la gare d'Olten et la ligne Olten-Aarburg qui avait également absorbé le trafic en direction de Lucerne, la ligne du Born a été construite puis inaugurée le . Cette ligne relie les gares d'Olten et de Rothrist en contournant la gare d'Aarburg-Oftringen. La ligne du Born n'est généralement utilisée que par le trafic longue distance. Les trains régionaux empruntent toujours l'ancien itinéraire via Aarburg.

La gare de Bützberg a été fermée au changement d'horaire du printemps 1983. Le village est désormais relié par une ligne de bus entre Herzogenbuchsee et Langenthal.

Le tunnel du Grauholz qui contourne la gare de Zollikofen a été ouvert en 1995.

La nouvelle ligne Mattstetten – Rothrist ouverte en 2004 a nécessité quelques ajustements. Alors que le prolongement vers la nouvelle ligne était déjà prévu lors de la construction du tunnel du Grauholz, le système de voies du côté de Rothrist a été revu. Un court tunnel à voie unique a été construit sur la ligne d'Aarburg pour servir de passage souterrain sous la ligne du Born. La ligne existante entre Roggwil et Langenthal dans la Wassermatte a été allongée et une courte ligne a été posée parallèlement à la ligne Mattstetten-Rothrist. Le tracé a également été posé parallèlement à la ligne Mattstetten-Rothrist entre Langenthal et Herzogenbuchsee, où l'itinéraire passe par le tunnel de Thunstetten. L'ancienne ligne via Bützberg a été fermée et démolie.

Accidents
Le , un train régional venant de Bienne heurte une locomotive circulant seule entre Berne Wylerfeld et Berne Löchligut. Les deux conducteurs sont tués et 18 passagers blessés.

Le , un train express Brigue- Bâle heurte un tracteur ferroviaire à la gare de Herzogenbuchsee. Le conducteur du tracteur est transporté à l'hôpital, où il succombe à ses blessures.

Tracé de la ligne
La ligne de chemin de fer part de la gare de Berne vers l'est en traversant l'Aar sur le viaduc de Lorraine et continue sur la rive droite de la rivière avant d'atteindre Zollikofen. Elle atteint le fond de la vallée de l'Urtene près de Schönbühl, puis arrive à la liaison avec la nouvelle ligne et le tunnel du Grauholz près de Mattstetten. L'Emmental est traversé jusqu'à Berthoud. Après avoir traversé l'Emme, la ligne serpente plus au nord-est dans de petits sillons de vallée (Ösch, Chänerechbach) jusqu'à Wynigen, d'où la ligne suit l'Önz depuis le fond de la vallée jusqu'à Herzogenbuchsee. La ligne suivait la crête presque en ligne droite jusqu'à Langenthal, aujourd'hui la ligne est reliée à travers le tunnel Thunstetten et rejoint l'ancienne ligne à Bützberg. La route abandonnée est encore bien visible dans le paysage.

La plaine de la Langeten et – brièvement – de la Murg sont utilisées jusqu'à Murgenthal, avant d'atteindre Rothrist sur le côté droit de la vallée de l'Aar, où la nouvelle ligne rejoint la ligne existante. Le tracé continue en ligne droite jusqu'à Aarburg en traversant la vallée de la Wigger. La voie ferrée s'oriente ensuite vers le nord en longeant la rive droite de l'Aar pour rejoindre la gare d'Olten.

Exploitation

Relations

La ligne ferroviaire Olten-Berne fait partie de la liaison de Bâle et Zurich en direction de Lausanne-Genève ou Thoune (-Interlaken, Lötschberg). C'est une partie importante du réseau ferroviaire suisse. Elle dessert de tout temps le trafic voyageurs et marchandises longue distance ainsi que le trafic local.

En 1981, le trafic sur le tronçon Olten-Rothrist est allégé par l'ouverture de la ligne du Born, tout comme celui sur le tronçon Mattstetten-Berne avec la ligne du Grauholz en 1995. En 2004, les lignes du Born et du Grauholz sont reliées par la nouvelle ligne Mattstetten – Rothrist. Un itinéraire alternatif est disponible parallèlement à l'ancienne ligne. Cette nouvelle ligne étant conçue pour supporter des vitesses atteignant 200 kilomètres à l'heure, le temps de trajet est inférieur de 13 minutes à celui de la ligne principale. La ligne principale est toujours utilisée pour le trafic de marchandises longue distance ainsi que le trafic local.

Transport de marchandises
Pendant longtemps, le transit de marchandises depuis Bâle et Zurich en direction de la Suisse romande et du Lötschberg a été acheminé presque exclusivement via la ligne d'Olten à Soleure via Bienne pour des raisons de capacité. Les trains de transport combiné d'une hauteur de quatre mètre qui transportent des véhicules (Simplon-Inter-Modal) doivent continuer à circuler via Bienne, car seul cet itinéraire a été construit pour ces trains.

Transport de passagers
Les trains de voyageurs InterRegio circulent toutes les demi-heures sur la ligne Olten–Berne. Les trains s'arrêtent à Langenthal, Herzogenbuchsee et Berthoud, ainsi que toutes les heures à Wynigen. La ligne S23 couvre le parcours d'Olten à Langenthal. De Berthoud à Berne, l'itinéraire est emprunté par les lignes S4 et S44 du réseau express régional bernois.

Notes et références

Notes

Références

Voir aussi

Articles connexes
 Chemins de fer fédéraux suisses
 Ligne du Hauenstein

Liens externes

Ligne de chemin de fer en Suisse
Fondation en 1856
Ligne ferroviaire du canton de Berne
Chemins de fer fédéraux suisses
Ligne ferroviaire du canton d'Argovie

Ligne d'Olten à Berne


La Maratón de Hokkaido celebrada en Sapporo, Hokkaidō, Japón, es una de las maratones más destacadas del calendario anual.

La carrera comienza en la parte Este del Parque de Nakajima y termina en el Nishi 8-chome del Parque de Odori. La carrera está reconocida por ambos, la Asociación Japonesa de Federaciones Atléticas (JAAF) y la AIMS, lo que implica que sus marcas son reconocidas para plusmarcas mundiales.

Ganadores

Referencias

Enlaces externos
 Página web oficial
 Marathon info
 2010 race review

Hokkaido
Deporte en Sapporo
Competiciones de atletismo en Japón

Maratón de Hokkaido


Nazismul ezoteric este un termen generic utilizat în descrierea a diferite interpretări mistice și adapătări ale ideologiei naziste în perioada de după cel de-al Doilea Război Mondial. După 1945, elementele ezoterice ale celui de-al Treilea Reich au fost adoptat de câtre noile religii völkisch ale naționalismului alb.

Adepți importanți

Savitri Devi

Scriitoarea greacă Savitri Devi a reprezentat primul exponent important din perioada post-belică a ceea ce a devenit cunoscut drept Hitlerism esoteric. Conform acestei ideologii, în urma distrugerii celui de-al Treilea Reich și sinuciderii lui Hitler la sfârșitul războiului, acesta din urmă ar putea fi deificat. Devi a asociat ideologia ariană a lui Hitler cu aceea a panhinduismului specific Mișcării de Independență a Indienilor și cu activiști precum Subhas Chandra Bose. Pentru ea, svastica reprezenta un simbol important deoarece reprezenta unitatea ariană a hindușilor și germanilor. Savitri Devi era, mai presus de orice, interesată de sistemul indian de caste pe care îl considera drept modelul legilor rasiale prin care se urmărea guvernarea segregării diferitelor rase și menționerii purității sângelui arianilor. Caracteriza supraviețuirea minorității albe din Bramans în cadrul unei populații enorme de diferite rase indiene timp de șase secole drept un omagiu adus valorii sistemului castelor ariane. Savitri Devi a implementat nazismul într-un cadru ciclic mai larg al istoriei hinduse. Îl considera pe Hitler cel de-al nouălea Avatar a lui Vișnu și îl numea "individul zeificat al timpurilor noastre; Omul împotriva Timpului; cel mai mare European din toate timpurile", având o imagine ideală a reîntoarcerii poporului său arian la un timp mai perfect și mijloacele necesare luptei împotriva forțelor distrugătoare "în Timp". A considerat eșecul - și acapararea procesului de materializare a perspectivei sale – drept consecință a firii sale "prea mărinimoase, prea încrezătoare, prea bune", faptului că nu a fost suficient de nemilos, că a avut în "psihicul său prea mult "soare" și nu suficientă "străfulgerare", spre deosebire de viitoarea sa reîncarnare:"Kalki" va acționa cu o cruzime fără precedent. Spre deosebire de Adolf Hitler, El nu va cruța nici măcar un singur inamic al Cauzei divine: nici măcar unul singur din inamicii săi, însă nici din cei indiferenți, din cei oportuniști, din cei eretici din punct de vedere ideologic, din cei ilegitimi din punct de vedere rasial, din cei bolnavi, din cei nehotărâți, din cei prea-oameni; nici măcar unul dintre cei care poartă semnul Vremurilor decăzute în trup sau în caracter sau în minte.

Robert Charroux

Spre deosebire de majoritatea susținătorilor teoriei astronauților antici, Robert Charroux a fost puternic interesat de rasialism. Conform afirmațiilor lui Charroux, Hiperboreea era situată între Islanda și Groenlanda și reprezenta casa rasei nordice albe cu păr blond și ochi albaștri. Charroux declara că această rasă avea origini extraterestre, fiind aduși de pe o planetă situată departe de soare. De asemenea, acesta susținea că rasa albă a hiperboreenilor și urmașii acestora, celții, au dominat întreaga lume în trecutul antic. Unele dintre aceste declarații au influențat credințele nazismului esoteric precum bibliografia lui Miguel Serrano.

Miguel Serrano

Următoare figură importantă în hitlerismul esoteric este Miguel Seranno, un fost diplomat de origine chiliană. Autorul a numeroase lucrări printre care regăsim The Golden Ribbon: Esoteric Hitlerism (1978) și Adolf Hitler, the Last Avatar (1984), Seranno face parte din adepții esoterismului nazist care caracterizau "sângele arian" ca având origine extraterestră: Seranno găsește dovezi mitologice care susțin origine extraterestre ale omului în nefilimii din cartea Genezei... Seranno sugerează că apariția subită a omului de cro-magnon cu realizările sale artistice și culturale în Europa preistorică consemnează trecerea unei anume rase descendente din divya printre extrem de inferiorii oameni de Neandethal, o abominație și creație vădită a demiurgului... Dintre toate rasele de pe pământ, arianii singuri conservă memoria urmașilor divini în propriul sânge nobil, încă amestecat cu lumina Soarelui Negru. Toate celelalte rase sunt progeniturile omului-bestie – creat de demiurg - nativ acestei planete.

Serrano sprijină această idee pe diferite mituri care asociază originea divină cu poporul "arian", inclusiv pe cea a mitului aztec a lui Quetzalcoatl, personificarea lui Venus. De asemenea, acesta citează respectabila, însă nu și foarte acceptata, ipoteză științifică a lui Bal Gangadhar Tilak cu privire la patria arctică a indo-arianilor cu scopul de a idntifica centrul pământesc al migrației ariane cu Hiperboreea, continentul arctic "pierdut". Astfel, zeii extraterești ai lui Serrano sunt identificați ca fiind hiperboreeni. În încercarea de a accentua dezvoltarea spirituală a raselor pământene, hiperboreenii divyas (termen din limba sanscrită care înseamnă "oameni-zei") au suferit un tragic regres. Extinzându-și discuțiile în baza unei povești din Cartea lui Enoh, Serrano deplânge decizia unui grup renegat de zei de a reproduce cu rasele terestre, diluând astfel sângele binefăcătorilor și diminuând nivelul de conștientizare divină de pe planetă.

Conceptul de Hiperboreea are concomitent semnificație rasială și mistică pentru Serrano. Acesta crede că Hitlera era în Shambala, un centru subteran în Antarctica (situat înainte la Polul Nord și în Tibet), unde se afla în contact cu zeii hiperboreeni și de unde va reveni într-o zi urmat de flotă de obiecte zburătoare neidentificate cu scopul de a conduce forțele luminii – hiperboreenii, uneori asociați cu Vril – împotriva forțelor întunericului – evreii care-l slăvesc pe Iehova – într-un conflict final în urma căruia va fi întemeiat cel de-al Patrulea Reich.Serrano este adeptul tradiției gnostice a catarismului (fl. 1025 – 1244) prin identificarea demiurgului diavolesc drept Iehova, Dumnezeul Vechiului Testament. În calitate de dualiști ai Evului Mediu, acești eretici ai secolului unsprezece l-au respins pe Iehova ca fiind un zeu fals și un simplu meșteșugar în comparație cu adevăraul Dumnzezeu care transcende tărâmul nostru pământesc. Această doctrină gnostică avea implicații periculoase pentru evrei. Dat fiind faptul că Iehova era o divinitate tribală a evreilor, evreii erau considerați adepți ai diavolului. Caracterizând poporul evreu drept copii ai Satanei, erezia catarilor ridica antisemitismul la statutul de doctrină teologică fundamentată pe o vastă cosmologie. Dacă arianii hiperboreeni reprezintă arhetipul și sângele urmașilor divyas din Soarele Negru, atunci arhetipul Lordului Întunericului necesită o rasă antagonică. Demiurgul a cautat și găsit cel mai potrivit agent pentru arhetipul său în evrei.După cum teologii Frederick C. Grant și Huam Maccoby accentuează, în perspectiva gnosticilor dualiști "evreii sunt considerați drept poporul special al Demiurgului și aveau ca rol istoric împiedicarea muncii eliberatoare a emisarilor Marelui Dumnezeu". Serrano l-a considerat deci pe Hitler ca fiind unul dintre cei mai mari emisari ai acestui Mare Dumnezeu, respins și crucificat de către tirania mulțimii evreicizate asemenea celorlalți luciferi. Acesta avea un loc special în ideologia sa pentru SS pe care, în căutarea lor de a recrea antica rasă a oamenilor-zei ariani, îi considera ca fiind amorali și prin urmare legitimi, urmând exemplul violenței mizantropice predată în textul Bhagavad Gita.

Inconștientul colectiv arian
În lucrarea Black Sun, Nicholas Goodrick-Clarke preciza că psihanalistul Carl Gustav Jung îl descria pe Hitler ca fiind "posedat de arhetipul inconștientului arian colectiv și nu se putea opune comenzilor vocii interioare" . Într-o serie de interviuri realizate între 1936 și 1939, Jung l-a caracterizat pe Hitler drept un model, deseori manifestându-se până la excluderea integrală a propriei sale personalități. "Hitler este un vas spiritual, o semi-divinitate; mai mult, un mit. Benito Mussolini este un om ... mesia Germaniei care predă virtutea sabiei. Vocea pe care o aude este aceea a inconștientului colectiv al rasei sale".

Ideea lui Jung conform căreia Hitler materializează inconștientul arian colectiv l-a interesat și influențat puternic pe Miguel Serrano care a concluzionat mai târziu că Jung doar psihologiza anticul, misterul sacru al posesiunii arhetipale de către zei, puteri metafizice independente care guvernează rasele și ocazional le posedează membrii. O teză ezoterică similară este susținută de Michael Moynihan în lucrarea Lords of Chaos.

Teorii ale conspirației și pseudoștiință
Lucrările lui Miguel Serrano, Savitri Devi și a altor susținători ai nazismului esoteric au reprezentat fundamenul unor lucrări care asociază credințele rasei ariane și scenariile evadării naziștilor cu teorii conspiraționiste despre civilizații intraterestre și noua ordine mondială. Din 1945, scriitorii neonaziști au propus Shambhala și steaua Aldebaran ca fiind patria arianilor. Lucrarea Arktos: The Polar Myth in Science, Symbolism, and Nazi Survival redactată de învățatul Joscelyn Godwin discută teoriile pseudoștiințifice legate de existența unor elemente naziste în Antarctica. Godwin și alți autori, precum Nicholas Goodrick-Clarke, au discutat conexiunile dintre nazismul ezoteric și energia Vril, enigmaticele civilizații Shambhala și Agartha, bazele OZN subpământene, respectiv presupusa supraviețuire a lui Hitler și a SS-ului în oazele subterane din Antarctica în New Swabia sau în alianță cu hiperboreenii din lumea subterană.

Legături cu neopăgânismul
Organizații precum Armanen-Ordern reprezintă dezvoltări semnificative ale esoterismului neopăgân și "ariosophiei" imediat după încheierea celui de-al Doilea Război Mondial, însă nu toate constituie forme ale esoterismului nazist. Unele grupuri europene nordice neopăgâne – de exemplu, Theods, Ásatrúarfélagið și  Viðartrúar – au declarat explicit că neonazismul nu este comun printre membrii acestora. Pe de altă parte, există și organizații neopăgâne cu legături neonaziste precum Artgemeinschaft sau Heathen Front, iar atracția a numeroși neonaziști față de păgânismul germanic rămâne o problemă particulară în Germania.

Mișcările neo-völkisch

Există o mică rețea contemporană de formații muzicale care combină neofascismul și satanismul. Aceste grupuri pot fi găsite în Marea Britanie, Franța și Noua Zelandă sub denumiri precum "Black Order" sau "Infernal Alliance". Acestea sunt inspirate de ezoterismul hitlerist al lui Miguel Serrano și militează în favoarea neotribalismul antimodern și "tradiționalismului" specific idealurilor mistice "păgâne" ale Nouvelle Droite, gândire politică propusă de Alain de Benoist și inspirată de Julius Evola. Temele ezoterice, inclusiv referințe la artefacte ca lancea lui Longinus, sunt deseori întâlnite în muzica neonazistă (e.g. Rock Against Communism) și în special în black metalul național socialist.

Vezi și
 OZN-uri naziste

Referințe și Note

Bibliografie
 Joscelyn Godwin. 1996. Arktos: The Polar Myth in Science, Symbolism, and Nazi Survival. Kempton, Ill.: Adventures Unlimited Press. ISBN 0-932813-35-6.
 Nicholas Goodrick-Clarke. 2002. Black Sun: Aryan Cults, Esoteric Nazism and the Politics of Identity. New York: New York University Press. ISBN 0-8147-3124-4. (Paperback, 2003. ISBN 0-8147-3155-4)
 Nicholas Goodrick-Clarke. 1998. Hitler's Priestess: Savitri Devi, the Hindu-Aryan Myth and Neo-Nazism. New York: New York University Press. ISBN 0-8147-3110-4.
 Carrie B. Dohe. Jung's Wandering Archetype: Race and Religion in Analytical Psychology. London: Routledge, 2016. ISBN 978-1138888401
 Julian Strube. 2012. Die Erfindung des esoterischen Nationalsozialismus im Zeichen der Schwarzen Sonne. In: Zeitschrift für Religionswissenschaft. vol. 20/2 ISSN 0943-8610, pp. 223–268, doi:10.1515/zfr-2012-0009.

Ocultism
Nazism și ocultism

Nazism ezoteric


Riga (rikula; lat. Eruca), manji biljni rod iz porodice kupusovki (Brassicaceae) rasprostranjen od Makronezije preko Sredozemlja na istok do Kine.

Postoje dvije priznate vrste koje mogu biti, jednogodišnje i dvogodišnje biljke i trajnice. Najznačajnija je povrtna ili sjetvena riga, koj raste i u Hrvtskoj, a uvezena je i u obje Amerike.

Vrste
 Eruca foleyi (Batt.) Lorite, Perfectti, J.M.Gómez, Gonz.-Megías & Abdelaziz
 Eruca vesicaria (L.) Cav.

Sinonimi
 Euzomum Link
 Velleruca Pomel

Izvori

Vanjske poveznice

Brassiceae

Riga (biljni rod)


En ny Hat til Madammen er en dansk stumfilm fra 1906, der er instrueret af Viggo Larsen.

Handling
En ung kvinde er ude at handle og køber en hat efter allernyeste mode. Desværre er hatten så enorm, at den fejer alt og alle omkuld, så hun efterlader en slipstrøm af destruktion, hvor end hun går. En ganske almindelig spadseretur bliver pludselig dybt problematisk.

Referencer

Eksterne henvisninger

 Filmen  på stumfilm.dk

Danske film fra 1906
Stumfilm fra Danmark

En ny Hat til Madammen


Fas'ın askeri işgali nedeniyle, Batı Sahra'da henüz bir İnternet Ülke kodu üst-düzey alan adı kullanılmamaktadır, fakat .eh Batı Sahra için ayrılmıştır.

Batı Sahra'da iletişim
Batı Sahra medyası
eh

.eh


Pittonia, (abreviado Pittonia), fue una revista ilustrada con descripciones botánicas que fue editada en Berkeley California. Se editaron cinco números en los años 1887-1905 con el nombre de Pittonia; a Series of Papers Relating to Botany and Botanists. Berkeley, CA.

Referencias

Enlaces externos
en IPNI
en Botanicus

Revistas de botánica

Pittonia


Dili, Doğu Timor Demokratik Cumhuriyeti'nin başkenti ve en büyük şehri. Şehrin nüfusu 193.563'tür ve ülkenin kent denilebilecek tek şehridir.

Dili, uzun yıllar Portekiz idaresinde kaldıktan sonra 1975 yılında Endonezya topraklarına katıldı. Şehir 1999 yılında yapılan referandumun ardından 2002'de bağımsızlığını kazanan Doğu Timor'un başkenti oldu. 1999 referendum sonrası ve 2006 yılında rakip siyasi partiler, çeteler ve kabileler arasındaki çatışmalar ve ayaklanmalar sırasında başkent Dili ve diğer Doğu Timor kasabaları yakılarak ağır hasar görmüştür. Nüfusun çoğu mülteci kamplarına kaçmıştır ve şehir ıssızlaşmıştır.

Dili


Fanny Polly, née en 1987 à Cannes, et a grandi à Mouans-Sartoux est une chanteuse rappeuse française.

Biographie
Artiste pluridisciplinaire et sportive depuis son plus jeune âge, elle découvre le Hip-Hop à 13 ans, alors qu'elle voulait faire de la danse. A 15 ans, elle découvre le Breakdance, qu'elle décrit comme une révélation. Elle commence à donner des cours de danse à 17 ans. En 2006, elle fonde, avec des amis, l'association "X Pression Art d'Corps" (qui sera également un titre sur son premier album). Elle a un diplôme de coach sportif/prof de fitness et travaille également dans l'animation avec des enfants et de jeunes (notamment dans le département de Paris où elle réside).

Elle revendique le fait que son style de rap soit influencé par sa pratique de la danse, tout en spécifiant qu'elle n'a pas très envie qu'on la situe.

Première femme à avoir intégré le collectif Scred Connexion, Fanny Polly porte les valeurs d'un rap poétique et engagé. Ses textes s'engagent sur plusieurs sujets de sociétés. En ce qui concerne le féminisme, elle ne se définit pas comme féministe : « Pour moi, par définition, une femme est féministe. À partir du moment où tu es une femme, tu dois te défendre tous les jours. Pour moi, ce terme devrait être réservé aux hommes. » ou encore : « Quand je suis sur scène avec 5 meufs devant mille gars, c'est une manif en soi ».

Discographie

Albums studio
 2019 : Tout une histoire
 2022 : Fanny Polly

Notes et références

Liens externes

 Le Môme, Yass Sogo, Fanny Polly, Mas Kit... Le rap de la Côte d'Azur entre dans le game
  Rendez-vous Hip-Hop 2019 : cinq découvertes féminines à ne pas manquer
 Fanny Polly : la nouvelle pépite du rap Français
 Fanny Polly sur Scred Connexion

Rappeuse française
Nom de scène
Naissance en 1987
Naissance à Cannes

Fanny Polly


Andreea Rebeca Târșoagă (n. 27 octombrie 2001, în Târgu Mureș) este o handbalistă română care joacă pentru clubul Gloria Bistrița pe postul de intermediar stânga. Târșoagă este și componentă a echipelor naționale de junioare și tineret ale României. Handbalista a făcut parte din echipa de junioare a României care s-a clasat pe locul al șaptelea la Campionatul European din 2017.

În noiembrie 2017, după 11 etape, Andreea Târșoagă a înscris pentru echipa târgu-mureșeană golul cu numărul 100 în Divizia A.

Palmares
Echipa națională
FOTE:
 Medalie de argint: 2017

Trofeul Carpați pentru junioare:
Medalie de argint: 2017

Note

Legături externe
Profilul Andreei Târșoagă pe pagina oficială a CS "Olimpic" Târgu Mureș

Jucătoare de handbal din România
Sportivi români în viață
Târgumureșeni

Andreea Târșoagă


Prvi razred Nogometnog podsaveza Osijek je predstavljalo drugi stupanj natjecanja u podsavezu. Prvak lige bi bio promoviran u Podsaveznu nogometnu ligu, dok bi posljednjeplasirani klubovi ispali u Drugi razred.

U podsaveznu ligu se plasirao prvak FD Proleter Belišće, dok su iz lige ispali NK Crvena zvezda Palača i NK Bošnjaci.

Tablica

Bilješke
U ovoj sezoni je sudjelovao i drugi sastav NK Proletera Osijek, koji je bio izvan konkurencije, odnosno mečevi protiv njega se nisu računali u konačnom plasmanu klubova na tablici.

Izvori

 Dragutin Kerže: "Olimpija, simbol Donjega grada 1923. – 2003.", Nogometni klub Olimpija, Osijek, 2003.,
 Sportsko društvo GRAFIČAR Osijek 1926. – 1981., monografija NK Grafičar Osijek

1952-53 1
Osijek-1

1. razred NP Osijek 1952./53.


An Carex archeri in uska species han Liliopsida nga ginhulagway ni Francis M.B. Boott. An Carex archeri in nahilalakip ha genus nga Carex, ngan familia nga Cyperaceae. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Carex

Carex archeri


An Carex simensis in uska species han Liliopsida nga ginhulagway ni Ferdinand von Hochstetter ngan Achille Richard. An Carex simensis in nahilalakip ha genus nga Carex, ngan familia nga Cyperaceae. Ginklasipika han IUCN an species komo diri gud kababarak-an. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Carex

Carex simensis


Allomaieta, biljni rod iz tropske Amerike svrstan u porodicu melastomovki. Postoji nekoliko priznatih vrsta, sve su endemi iz Kolumbije

Vrste
 Allomaieta caucana Lozano
 Allomaieta ebejicosana Lozano
 Allomaieta grandiflora Gleason
 Allomaieta hirsuta (Gleason) Lozano
 Allomaieta javierbarrigae H. Mend., 2018
 Allomaieta pancurana Lozano
 Allomaieta pterocalycina J.S.Murillo & H.David
 Allomaieta strigosa (Gleason) Lozano, 2021.
 Allomaieta villosa (Gleason) Lozano
 Allomaieta zenufanasana Lozano

Sinonimi
 Cyphostyla Gleason

Izvori

Vanjske poveznice

Melastomovke
Endemska flora Kolumbije

Allomaieta


Kluit ist der Familienname folgender Personen:

 Adrian Kluit (1735–1807), niederländischer Pädagoge und Historiker
 Hendrik Provó Kluit (1803–1860), niederländischer Jurist

Siehe auch:
Klüt
Klütt

Kluit


Ronald Howard "Ron" Davis (Phoenix, Arizona; ) es un exjugador de baloncesto estadounidense que disputó tres temporadas en la NBA y cinco más en la CBA. Con 1,98 metros de estatura, jugaba en la posición de escolta.

Trayectoria deportiva

Universidad
Jugó durante dos temporadas en los Cougars de la Universidad Estatal de Washington, en las que promedió 14,3 puntos y 6,6 rebotes por partido.

Estadísticas

Profesional
Fue elegido en la septuagésima posición del Draft de la NBA de 1976 por Atlanta Hawks, quienes lo rechazaron en un primer instante, pero fue repescado una vez comenzada la competición. Pero únicamente llegó a disputar 7 partidos, en los que promedió 2,9 puntos y 1,0 rebotes.

Al quedarse sin equipo, fichó en 1977 por los Anchorage Northern Knights de la EBA, que al año siguiente se convertiría en la CBA. En su primera temporada sería elegido Debutante del Año (Newcomer of the Year), y en la última, además de ganar el campeonato, fue elegido mejor jugador de la competición.

En  fichó por los Seattle Supersonics, quienes finalmente lo descartaron antes del comienzo de la temporada, fichando poco después por los San Diego Clippers. Allí jugó una temporada como suplente de Freeman Williams, promediando 5,8 puntos y 1,9 rebotes por partido.

Dos semanas después de comenzada la temporada 1981-82 es despedido, jugando dos años más en la CBA antes de retirarse.

Estadísticas de su carrera en la NBA

Temporada regular

Referencias

Enlaces externos

 Estadísticas en la NCAA

Baloncestistas de Arizona
Baloncestistas de la NBA
Baloncestistas de los Washington State Cougars
Baloncestistas de los Atlanta Hawks
Baloncestistas de los San Diego Clippers
Baloncestistas de los Anchorage Northern Knights
Baloncestistas de los Billings Volcanos

Ron Davis (baloncestista de 1954)


NGC 7301 je prečkasta spiralna galaktika u zviježđu Vodenjaku.

Izvori

Vanjske poveznice

  Hartmut Frommert: Revidirani Novi opći katalog
  Izvangalaktička baza podataka NASA-e i IPAC-a
  Astronomska baza podataka SIMBAD
   VizieR
 DSS-ova slika NGC 7301
  Auke Slotegraaf: NGC 7301 Deep Sky Observer's Companion
  NGC 7301 DSO-tražilica
  Courtney Seligman: Objekti Novog općeg kataloga: NGC 7300 - 7349

7301

NGC 7301


Benito Prieto Coussent (Ribadeo, Lugo; 6 de junio de 1907 – Granada, 3 de febrero de 2001) fue un pintor español, cuya obra, ligada a una personal comprensión del realismo, se desarrolló entre su Galicia natal y Granada. Formado en la Real Academia de San Fernando de Madrid, donde coincide, entre otros, con Salvador Dalí, su carrera se desarrollará en torno a la docencia y fundamentalmente a la práctica pictórica.

Su más emblemática obra, Cristo en la Cruz, es reconocida como una singular y revolucionaria aportación a la tradicional iconografía de Cristo crucificado.

Su mundo interior, su independencia y la fuerza expresiva del artista, han hecho que la crítica considere a Benito Prieto como "El pintor de la soledad reflexiva", según José García Román.

Biografía

Formación
Nació en Ribadeo, Lugo, el 6 de junio de 1907. Hijo de un fotógrafo de prestigio, de quien Benito aprendió los secretos de la luz, la composición y la expresión de los retratos. Desde muy joven muestra gran curiosidad e inquietud por todo y siempre a la búsqueda del ideal y la belleza, manifestándose mediante el dibujo primero, y muy pronto también por la pintura. Las primeras experiencias artísticas le llegan casi jugando, cuando le dejan utilizar los utensilios del pintor tardo romántico Dionisio Fierros, a cuya casa acudía el joven en compañía de Dionisio Gamallo Fierros, su nieto, que llegó a ser gran literato y humanista, y que compartió con Benito amistad e influencia mutua desde aquella niñez hasta el resto de sus vidas.

Las incipientes obras pictóricas del joven Benito Prieto, sin duda influenciadas por los clichés de los modelos de tipos populares fotografiados por su padre, apuntan ya las maneras del futuro artista, con obras ya muy depuradas. A los quince años es pensionado por la Diputación de Lugo para estudiar en Madrid, y al no tener la edad mínima reglamentaria para el ingreso en la Academia de Bellas Artes de San Fernando, pasó en la capital de España un año bajo la tutela de su paisano, gran grabador, Manuel Castro Gil.  Finalmente fue admitido en la Escuela Especial de Pintura, Escultura y Grabado, donde cursó estudios con gran aprovechamiento y consiguió varios premios especiales. Tuvo maestros tan prestigiosos como Cecilio Plá, Manuel Benedito, José Moreno Carbonero y Julio Romero de Torres, y compañeros tan singulares como Salvador Dalí, con quien Prieto mantendría una tormentosa relación amor-odio desde entonces.

Docencia
Terminada su formación consigue inmediatamente plaza de profesor de dibujo y, gracias a su brillante expediente, se le ofrece destino en Barcelona y Madrid, pero el joven profesor elige Galicia y se incorpora al Instituto de Tuy. Allí participa en los novedosos sistemas pedagógicos impulsados por la República y desarrolla toda su inquietud didáctica experimental. No se contenta con programas y horarios establecidos, sino que los amplía dando clases nocturnas y gratuitas a los obreros. Realiza, junto con sus alumnos, numerosas actividades, entre las que destacan la fundación de la revista cultural Tude, que fue órgano difusor de arte, literatura y pensamiento del colectivo estudiantil. Otras actividades a destacar fueron la ejecución de monumentos de granito a Sócrates y al literato Valle Inclán, o la realización de final de curso con trabajos y experiencias tan significativas que la prensa de la época titula, por ejemplo "Resurrección del Románico en el Instituto Tuy".
Por toda esta labor, Benito Prieto fue nombrado Director honorario del Instituto y celebran banquetes y homenajes en su honor.

Etapas artísticas

Guerra Civil
 Recién terminado el curso 1935-1936 estalla la Guerra Civil. Benito Prieto es detenido en su casa de Ribadeo, acusado de simpatizar y ayudar a obreros y anarquistas, por lo que es encarcelado en el presidio de Tuy. Aquel oscuro episodio de la cárcel marcará profundamente el carácter y la sensibilidad del artista para toda su vida. Se salva de la muerte de milagro, habiendo pintado en la mazmorra hasta 24 retratos de sus compañeros de infortunio, en los últimos momentos de sus vidas, ya que muchos de ellos fueron fusilados.

Al salir de la cárcel, Benito es llamado a filas e incorporado al batallón Zaragoza 530, pero será conducido al Monasterio de Guadalupe, donde se le aparta de las filas y es acogido y protegido por los frailes franciscanos.

Allí también retrata el pintor a militares y religiosos, dejando varias obras, entre ellas, el cuadro que el cierra el ciclo de los milagros de la Virgen, en el claustro mudéjar del monasterio.

Padul
Acabada la Guerra sale el pintor de Guadalupe y contrae matrimonio con una farmacéutica y maestra granadina que ejercía en tierras gallegas. El matrimonio traslada pronto su residencia a la pequeña localidad de Padul, cerca de Granada, lugar en el que discurrirán los años centrales de la vida de Prieto, y donde realiza la parte más significativa y emblemática de su obra, como sus famosas versiones de Cristo en la Cruz. Entra el artista en este periodo en una etapa de introspección, de creativa soledad, apartándose del mundo exterior. El aislamiento es roto solo por esporádicos viajes a Madrid, donde era reclamado como retratista y, excepcionalmente, un largo viaje y estancia en Turquía entre 1955 y 1956, donde pinta entre otras obras Las ruinas de Éfeso. En Granada, y a pesar de su voluntaria vida de retiro en el pueblo de Padul, el artista traba amistad con distintos personajes de la vida social y cultural de la época, como Antonio Gallego Burín, García Velez, Gabriel Morcillo, Elena Martín Vivaldi, etc., y de los que muchos dejó plasmada la efigie, reafirmando su ya afamada calidad de retratista.

En esta época, el pintor se ve interesado por la búsqueda de la belleza y el alma profunda de las cosas y las personas. Pinta una serie de retratos de gran introspección psicológica y estudios y bodegones de objetos humildes, de extraña poesía.

En el año 1970 se data su cuadro El padre Damián, paradigma de la pintura expresiva y rotunda de Benito Prieto, obra de gran calidad técnica. El cuadro, de grandes dimensiones, fue donado por su autor a la Real Academia de Bellas Artes de Nuestra Señora de las Angustias de Granada, al ser nombrado académico numerario en el año 1983, ocupando el sillón de D. Gabriel Morcillo, artista a quien Prieto admiró profundamente. En la actualidad se ha planteado y gestiona por la Academia el traslado del cuadro para su exhibición permanente en la iglesia de Santa María de la Alhambra.

Madurez
Dentro del inconformismo que caracteriza su quehacer artístico, la obra de Prieto se va haciendo cada vez más exigente. El artista especula y destruye gran parte de su producción, y acomete proyectos de gran envergadura, cargados de crítica y de mensajes dirigidos al hombre y a la sociedad. Ejemplo de ello son dos gigantescos cuadros: Quién me librará de este cuerpo de muerte y El peregrino de la Paz. En este último cuadro trabajó el pintor durante más de veinte años.

Obra

"Los Cristos"
"En cada pincelada , en cada sombra, hay una gota de mi propia sangre y mi sudor de esclavo sometido al yugo del amor y el esfuerzo. Mi Cristo es también mi calvario, y acaso mi gloria".
La obra más representativa de Prieto Coussent es sin duda Cristo en la Cruz, datada en 1948, cuadro que marcó drásticamente su carrera. Obra de larguísima gestación, fue precedida de multitud de estudios y bocetos, con los que el pintor nunca estaba satisfecho, y de los que acabó rehaciendo y destruyendo en muchos casos. Además, el pintor encontró numerosas y muy serias dificultades que hicieron más difícil aún el proyecto.

Este cuadro tuvo continuamente obsesionada la mente del artista, en torno a la idea de desarrollar una nueva y original visión de Cristo en la Cruz. La obra, en la que ya venía pensando desde mucho tiempo atrás, fue comenzada a mediados de la década de los años cuarenta. La idea y su materialización en el lienzo tomaron un largo periodo de tiempo, motivada, de una parte, por la búsqueda incansable de los ideales en los que el pintor venía reflexionando ; y retardada, por otra parte, por la inconformidad de los resultados a los que llegaba que acababa rompiendo y destrozando.

Uno de los problemas principales a los que se enfrentó Benito Prieto fue a la censura de la obra por parte de la Iglesia, que llegó a considerar el cuadro como "blasfematorio". El párroco de El Padul llegó a organizar trisagios para la destrucción del cuadro y la salvación del alma del pintor. Fue incluso llamado ante un tribunal de teólogos, presidido por el cardenal D.Agustín Parrado García, para explicar o defender el proyecto.
Finalmente, la primera versión del cuadro (llegó a pintar otras tres más) fue expuesta en la Exposición Nacional de 1948. El impacto social de la obra fue enorme, dando lugar a multitud de críticas y comentarios, a favor y en contra, de lo que se hizo eco la prensa nacional e internacional. Se trataba de una visión cruda y terrible de un Cristo que rompía con la iconografía imperante hasta el momento. La obra obtuvo medalla en aquel certamen, aunque el autor renunció a tal honor y al premio para poder mantener la propiedad sobre el cuadro.

La segunda versión, de 1951, de un tamaño cercano a los 4 metros de altura, nos presenta una visión del Crucificado mucho más dramática y exacerbada que la primera, aunque el cuadro sería después destruido por su autor.
La tercera versión, el Cristo de la Paz, hoy en paradero desconocido, ofrece algunas diferencias formales sobre las anteriores. En una composición horizontal, la figura de Cristo aparece entre dos representaciones de la Muerte, que portan sendas imágenes de las explosiones nucleares, como signos del espanto de la Humanidad que crea su propia destrucción.

El llamado Cristo de Kennedy es la cuarta y última versión del tema y es un homenaje al presidente asesinado. La efigie del estadista aparece a los pies del Crucificado, en actitud orante, representado en las páginas de una revista. El cuadro preside actualmente la Biblioteca-Museo Kennedy de la Universidad de Harvard, en EE. UU.
El Cristo de Benito Prieto Coussent presenta profundas modificaciones con respecto a la imagen clásica de Cristo representado en la cruz. Está considerada por la crítica como pieza de capital importancia en la iconografía religiosa y la obra de arte religioso más importante del siglo XX.

La idea del artista era la búsqueda de una imagen de Cristo crucificado que se acercara lo más posible a lo que debió ser la imagen "real", sin contaminación alguna de los sedimentos que fue dejando en la cultura una iconografía reiterativa de los diferentes crucificados.
Desde el punto de vista plástico, se nos presenta una imagen de exacerbado realismo, paradigma de lo que se ha dado en llamar "tremendismo", tan característico del arte de Benito Prieto. Parte de los bocetos del proceso de gestación de estas obras son la serie de ocho magníficos dibujos al carbón, que hoy se conservan en la Facultad de Bellas Artes de Granada.

Desde el punto de vista antropomórfico, Prieto realizó numerosos estudios ante el natural sobre modelos vivos y muertos. Los cadáveres, donde el pintor estudiaba la mecánica de la muerte, le eran facilitados por el Dr. Guirao en las salas de anatomía del Hospital de San Juan de Dios.

Desde el prisma teológico y arqueológico, innumerables lecturas y conversaciones con el jesuita, P. Juan Leal, eminente teólogo, sobre la adecuación de las innovaciones que aportaban los bocetos de Cristo.

El Retrato
Uno de los géneros cultivados con gran éxito por Benito Prieto es el retrato, donde despliega su conocimiento de la técnica dibujística y pictórica, consiguiendo obras de gran capacidad expresiva. Muchos de ellos fueron elaborados al carbón. Sus modelos, entre otros muchos, fueron Ramón Menéndez Pidal, Antonio Vallejo Nájera, Ignacio Barraquer, Gregorio Marañón, Francisco Javier Sánchez Cantón, Juan Ossorio Morales, Antonio Bienvenida o El Cordobés, personajes y personalidades que profesaron profunda admiración para con el pintor.
La obra póstuma del pintor, que quedó inacabada, fue el Retrato de Don Manuel Fraga, encargo oficial del que fuera Presidente de la Junta de Galicia.

Estilo
La crítica ha calificado la obra de Benito Prieto como trágica o tremendista. Es una obra escasa, consecuencia del carácter inconformista de su autor y de su extremo deseo de perfección, que le llevó a rectificar y destruir muchos de los trabajos acabados. No firmaba sus cuadros y realizó escasas exposiciones.

Observando la relativamente poca producción, se podrían trazar varias líneas temáticas bien definidas, dejando aparte el importante capítulo de los "Cristos": una es el acercamiento a las formas y elementos sencillos y cotidianos; otra, la retratística, en la que tanto destacó Prieto, y otra, cuyo eje central es el ser humano y su trascendencia espiritual, como los personajes humildes y anónimos, los mendigos, los toreros o esos héroes como El Padre Damián, apóstol de los leprosos. Además de otras obras, más simbolistas que meramente realistas como El peregrino de la paz y Quien me librará de este cuerpo de muerte, de gran formato y mensaje trascendente.

La obra, de Benito Prieto Coussent, siempre al servicio del sentimiento, de impecable resolución plástica y técnica, podemos resumirla como la propia vida de su autor: apasionada, rotunda, vitalista y humanista.
F. Gil Tovar escribió:

"Si hubiera que hacer una definición telegráfica de Benito Prieto como pintor, podría decirse: Magnífico dibujante. Realista expresivo, es decir, clásico y moderno. Apasionado en la concepción y mental en la ejecución. Artista integral, del corte de los del Renacimiento, duro y sensible. Y eterno repulsivo de las medias tintas."

Obra en colecciones públicas
La obra de Prieto Coussent está repartida en museos y colecciones de Estados Unidos, México, La Habana, Buenos Aires, Estambul, Estoril, Londres, Ciudad del Cabo, Madrid, Barcelona, Santiago de Compostela, La Coruña, Vigo, Ribadeo, Tuy, Guadalupe (Cáceres), Almería, Granada, y entre otras, en las colecciones de la Casa Real Española, Ministerio de Educación y Ciencia, Banco Nacional de París, Diputación Provincial de Lugo, Parroquia de Galdó (Vivero), Monasterio de Samos, Monasterio de Guadalupe, Decanato de la Facultad de Farmacia y Rectorado de la Universidad de Granada, Real Academia de Bellas Artes de Nuestra Señora de las Angustias de Granada, Museo de Bellas Artes de Granada, señores de Marañón, Vallejo-Nájera, Marqués de Magallanes, Natalia Figueroa, Duquesa de Alba, Carlos y Emilio Zurita, González de Vega, Prieto-Moreno, Castro Nievas, Elena Martín-Vivaldi, Gallego Burín, Gentile, Alfredo Danao, Enrique Hernández, García-Vélez, Osorio Morales, Excma. Sra. Dñª. Corona González, Infante don Fernando de Baviera, Conde de los Gaitanes, Condesa de Santo Venia, Conde de Barcelona, Doctor Cardenal, Piñerúa, Aróstegui, etc., etc.

Exposiciones
Ha expuesto en El Palacio de Cristal de Madrid (1948), Galería Bética de Madrid, Galería Layetana de Barcelona (1948), Centro Artístico de Granada (1952), Museo Casa de los Tiros de Granada (1953), Galería Bética de Madrid, en Atarfe (Granada), Málaga, Santiago de Compostela, Monasterio de Santo Domingo y Diputación de Granada (Donde expuso Cristo en la Cruz a beneficio de la Campaña de la Lucha Contra el Cáncer), Banco de Granada, Palacio de la Madraza de la Universidad de Granada (1983), Galería L'Aguada de Granada, Galería de "La General" de Granada en Madrid (1985), Casa das Artes de la Concejería de Cultura de Vigo (1992) y Centro Cultural Caixavigo, Vigo (1996)
Otras exposiciones destacadas en las que participó son:
"Primer Encuentro Hispano-Árabe de Almuñécar". Almuñécar (Granada). 1988
"Granada, un proyecto para el 92" Universidad de Granada. 1992
"Obras maestras del patrimonio de la Universidad de Granada", 2006
"Benito Prieto Coussent (1907-2001). Dibujos". Galería Jesús Puerto, Granada. 2001 (Exposición póstuma)
"Benito Prieto Coussen y la tauromaquia". Galería Ceferino Navarro, Granada .2008 (Exposición póstuma)

Sociedad Cultural Benito Prieto
Tras la muerte del pintor se constituye la "Sociedad Cultural Benito Prieto", promovida por los herederos del artista, su viuda, Doña Amparo Serrano Sánchez y por su discípulo y biógrafo Luis Ruiz Rodríguez y con el respaldo del Ayuntamiento de Ribadeo (Lugo), El Ayuntamiento de El Padul (Granada) y el Ayuntamiento y la Universidad de Granada; con el objetivo de salvaguardar el legado de Benito Prieto y difundir su memoria.
Luis Ruiz Rodríguez, profesor del Departamento de Pintura de la Universidad de Granada, prepara la tesis doctoral sobre la figura y la obra del gran pintor.

Enlaces externos

 Nombramiento de Benito Prieto Coussent como "Hijo adoptivo de la villa de Padul"
 Web de Benito Prieto Coussent.

Referencias

Pintores de Galicia
Dibujantes de España
Escultores de Galicia
Pintores de España del siglo XX
Escultores de España del siglo XX
Académicos de la Real Academia de Bellas Artes de Nuestra Señora de las Angustias
Nacidos en Ribadeo
Fallecidos en Granada
Pintores de Granada

Benito Prieto Coussent


Michael Richard Jackson (born 11 February 1958) is a British television producer and executive. He was one of only three people to have been Controller of both BBC1 and BBC2, the main television channels of the British Broadcasting Corporation, and for being the first media studies graduate to reach a senior level in the British media. He was also the Chief Executive of British television station, Channel 4, between 1997 and 2001. In 2018, he co-founded Two Cities TV, with Wall to Wall Media founder and ex-CEO Alex Graham

Early life and career
Born in Macclesfield, Cheshire, Jackson was the son of Ernest Jackson, a baker, and his wife Margaret. He was educated at The King's School, at the time a direct-grant grammar school, and now an independent school in Macclesfield, Cheshire and his sister, Hilary, later claimed in a newspaper feature that he was already focused on a media career by the age of twelve. Following school, Jackson studied at the Polytechnic of Central London (renamed the University of Westminster in 1992), from which he graduated with a First Class Honours BA in Media Studies in 1979. The media studies degree at the Polytechnic of Central London had been launched by David Cardiff in 1969, when the institution was still known by its former title of Regent Street Polytechnic, and was the first such degree course ever to have been established in the United Kingdom.

Immediately after graduating, Jackson became the organiser of "The Channel Four Group", having written his final year dissertation at college on the prospect of a fourth national television channel in Britain. The Channel Four Group was a collective of television producers lobbying the British Government to establish a new independent television channel outside of the BBC / ITV duopoly, to act as a "publisher" of programmes produced by independent production companies rather than using the almost exclusively in-house production methods the existing channels then employed. This channel, named Channel 4, was eventually launched in 1982, and Jackson was the producer of one of its first major documentary series, The Sixties, screened that year.

The following year he joined the staff of the independent production company Beat Productions Ltd, where he continued to make programmes for Channel 4. Two of the programmes he worked on for the channel during the 1980s were Open the Box, which looked at the way television programmes were both produced and viewed and the attitudes held towards them, and The Media Show, of which he was founding editor when it launched in 1987. The Media Show was described by Waldemar Januszczak in The Guardian newspaper in 1997 as "one of the defining television programmes of the 1980s... In Michael Jackson, its first producer, it gave us a media-genius."

Despite his success in the independent sector however, in 1988 Jackson was persuaded by Alan Yentob, the then Controller of BBC Two, to join the staff of the BBC. Jackson came to be seen as something of a protégé of Yentob's during his time at the corporation, both coming from a background in arts and media programming, and Yentob immediately installed Jackson as the founding editor of the new late-night BBC 2 arts magazine series The Late Show.

BBC
Prior to the launch of The Late Show in January 1989, there was some scepticism as to whether or not the programme, running four nights per week on BBC 2 in a late night slot after Newsnight, would be a success. In a feature for The Times newspaper on television arts coverage, published two months prior to the show's launch, Bryan Appleyard wrote that: "the real tension is building up around The Late Show and its young creator, Michael Jackson." Appleyard pointed out that: "the investment financial, intellectual and egotistical in the programme is enormous... Yentob is determined to put his own cultural stamp on BBC2 and Jackson has everything to prove." However, the programme went on to be a success, running for six years. Looking back at The Late Show and other television arts programming in a feature for The Guardian in 2003, David Herman felt that the programme represented the last great era of television arts coverage. "The Late Show cast its net wider in terms of formats... What drove it was the enthusiasm and passions of its presenters, producers and editors, and this built a certain eclecticism and unashamed highbrowness into its agenda... It could be argued that the real high point of intellectual life on British television was not the 1960s or the 1970s, but the decade between the beginning of Channel 4 and the end of The Late Show in 1995."

Jackson remained as editor of The Late Show for the next two years, until in 1991 he was promoted to become BBC television's Head of Music and Arts. At the age of thirty-three, he was the youngest Head of Department in the history of the BBC.

In 1993, at the age of thirty-five, he became the second youngest Channel Controller in the BBC's history when he was promoted to succeed Yentob, who had been promoted to Controller of BBC 1, as Controller of BBC 2. Jackson's time at BBC 2 was generally seen as a great success — he was described by The Guardian in 1996 as "one of the best controllers BBC2 has ever had." During his time in charge of the channel it increased its average audience share from 10% to 11%, and was the only channel during that period to increase its audience share in households which had cable or satellite television.

Jackson enjoyed particular success with drama at BBC 2, finally commissioning the production of Peter Flannery's serial Our Friends in the North (1996) in 1994 after the drama had spent a decade in development and been commissioned and then cancelled on two previous occasions. Its £7 million budget was a record for BBC 2, but the serial was a great success, garnering huge critical acclaim and many accolades at the British Academy Television Awards (BAFTAs), Royal Television Society Awards and others. Other drama successes came with This Life (1996–97) and the American import The X-Files (1994–96; its ratings success on BBC 2 saw it transferred to BBC 1).

Other successes Jackson oversaw at the channel included the documentary series The Death of Yugoslavia (1995) and The House (1996), the daytime television series Ready Steady Cook (1994–2010) and Esther (1996–98) and the comedies The Day Today (1994), Knowing Me, Knowing You with Alan Partridge (1994) and The Fast Show (1994–2000). However, he also took the decision to cancel The Late Show, the series he himself had initiated, in 1995. "I think it simply boils down to Michael not wanting to spend that much money that late," was how one "insider" described the decision to The Sunday Times newspaper. He also delayed the transmission of the second series of the sitcom Joking Apart; this has been seen as ruining the momentum that the series needed to become established.

Jackson's next move came somewhat unexpectedly in the summer of 1996, when the Director-General of the BBC, John Birt, unveiled a series of major — and controversial — changes to the structure of the corporation. The administration of the BBC was to be split into two main divisions; BBC Broadcast, responsible for the commissioning of programmes and the running of the channels, and BBC Production, responsible for producing in-house programme content. Some of these changes were made very suddenly — Alan Yentob was informed that he was to be moved on from his post as Controller of BBC 1, and allegedly given just forty-eight hours to decide whether he wanted to run BBC Broadcast as Director of Television or BBC Production as Director of Programmes.

Yentob chose the latter, which although technically a promotion was interpreted by some as him having effectively been sidelined. In his place, Jackson was promoted to a dual role as both Controller of BBC 1 and Director of Television, responsible overall for all BBC television broadcasting as well as the implementation of planned future services on the new digital television platforms. The Guardian suggested, in reference to Jackson's replacement of Yentob at BBC 1, that "in the end Yentob was eclipsed by his protege."

Jackson had little time to make a significant impact in his new senior role at BBC One, however. He did commission a new range of idents for the channel, keeping the traditional "globe" theme used since 1963, but now based around the globe in the form of a roaming hot air balloon. But in May 1997, after less than a year in his new post and in what The Guardian described as "a hammer blow" to the BBC, Jackson was tempted away from the corporation to succeed Michael Grade as the Chief Executive of Channel 4. He took up the post at the end of June.

Channel 4
At Channel 4, Jackson enjoyed several successes. In 1998 the channel won the rights to broadcast the England cricket team's home Test matches in a £103 million deal, for the first time in history taking the coverage away from the BBC, which had broadcast television coverage of such matches since 1938. Channel 4's coverage of the sport went on to win a British Academy Television Award (BAFTA) for Best Sports Coverage in 2000.

The channel's comedy output enjoyed particular success under Jackson's aegis, with the sitcoms Spaced (1999–2001) and Black Books (2000–04), sketch show Smack the Pony (1999–2003) and the more generally comic Da Ali G Show (2000) and So Graham Norton (1998–2002) all proving to be popular successes. However, it was the launch of the British version of Big Brother (2000–2018) that proved to be his longest-lasting legacy, with the reality television series becoming an immediate popular culture event and proving to be a returning mainstay of the Channel 4 schedules.

Jackson is often cited as the reason for the channel's once flagship soap opera Brookside being removed from primetime in 2002 before finally being axed in 2003 after 21 years, so much so that the main antagonist in the soap's final few episodes was named Jack Michaelson, a drug dealer who was hated by the residents of the Close and eventually hanged from a bedroom window in the final episode.

In drama, Jackson was at times criticised for relying more on US imports than home-grown material, with Ally McBeal, The West Wing and Sex and the City all arriving at the broadcaster during his time there. In 1999, he also spent £100 million reacquiring the rights to the US drama series ER — in a joint deal which also included the sitcom Friends — which Channel 4 had lost first-run rights for to rival broadcaster Sky1 in 1996. Home-grown drama successes were rarer, as he himself admitted in a 2001 interview with The Guardian. He did, however, point to significant British drama successes with Queer as Folk (1999–2000) and Teachers (2001–04), describing the former as one of the "signature shows" of his time at the channel.

The high spending on imported shows, however, contributed to a financial shortfall at Channel 4 that saw the channel negotiating a £55 million overdraft in his final year in charge, and by October that year having already used up most of a £49 million reserve it had set aside for the year. Jackson also later admitted that he had made a mistake in setting up the channel's independent film production company FilmFour Limited in 1998. Channel 4 had participated in feature film production ever since its launch in 1982, backing successful films such as Four Weddings and a Funeral (1994), but FilmFour Limited was an attempt to set up a full-blown rival to Hollywood studio productions. The studio saw several of its big-budget films flop, and was eventually closed down in 2002, with the channel going back to its original more modest film backing strategy. More successful spin-offs from the main channel under Jackson's control were the establishment of the offshoot digital television channels E4 and Film4, which continued to grow successfully.

In 2001 Channel 4 won eleven BAFTAs, but on 23 July that year Jackson shocked many in the British television industry when he announced that he had decided to leave the channel to work for Barry Diller's USA Entertainment company. Jackson had first been approached by Diller in 2000, but had declined his initial offer as he had wanted to remain at Channel 4 to oversee the launch of the E4 digital channel. The reaction to Jackson's departure was similar to that which had greeted his equally unexpected move from the BBC four years previously. One producer for Channel 4 told The Independent the week that his decision was announced that: "We are devastated."

America
Jackson's initial role in the US was as President and Chief Executive of USA Entertainment. In this role he was responsible for overseeing the cable television networks USA Network and Sci-Fi, as well as the feature film production company USA Films. After various mergers, his job became Chairman of Universal Television, and in this role he commissioned the successful drama series Monk (2002–2009) and The Dead Zone (2002–2007) and Battlestar Galactica (2004-2009) In January 2006, he was made President of Programming of Barry Diller's IAC/InterActiveCorp internet business responsible for developing and acquiring content-based web businesses.   While at IAC he acquired majority control of Connected Ventures, comprising Collegehumor.com and Vimeo.com for a reported $25M. In 2021 Vimeo was spun out of IAC with a market capitalisation of $8B.

Since his move to the US, Jackson has been linked at various times with a return to a senior media position in the United Kingdom. In 2006, he was offered the role of CEO of ITV as a part of a proposed merger between the NTL cable company (now Virgin Media) and ITV plc, however BSkyB effectively blocked the merger by controversially buying a 17.9% stake in ITV plc.

Independent Producer & Board Member
Since 2010, Jackson has been an active producer while also sitting on a number of boards.

He has executive produced factual programmes including: Arena: Flames of Passion (BBC, 2007, 1x90m) about the under-appreciated parts of British cinema; The Genius of Photography (BBC, 2007, 6x1hr), the first television history of photography; America: The Story of US (The History Channel, 2011, 9x1hr); Civilisations (BBC, 2018, 9x1hr); and Creativity [Working Title] (BBC, 2022, 6x1hr).

Board positions during his career have included EMI Group plc (1999-2002); Nutopia (2008-2016); Scottish Television plc (2009-2018); DIC Entertainment 2006-2009), Peters Fraser and Dunlop 2015-2020).  He was Chairman of the leading UK photography non-profit The Photographers Gallery between 1998 and 2001

Two Cities Television Ltd
In 2018, Jackson Executive Produced his first drama series – Patrick Melrose, starring Benedict Cumberbatch (Sky Atlantic/Showtime, 2018, 5x1hr). The series was nominated for four Emmy awards including Best Drama Series and won four BAFTA's including Best mini-series. Patrick Melrose was produced by Two Cities TV, Sunnymarch, Rachael Horotvitz'  company West Fourth Films, and Little Island.

Two Cities TV was founded in 2018 by Jackson, Stephen Wright and Alex Graham with funding from  BBC Studios, based in Belfast, London, and New York. In 2020, Scottish Television  became Two Cities' backer and Graham left the company. Also in 2020, Two Cities was commissioned by BBC One to make the Belfast set police drama Blue Lights (6x1hr).

Jackson is a Fellow of the Royal Television Society (1997) and holds an Honorary DLitt from the  University of Westminster (1995).

References

External links

1958 births
People from Macclesfield
Living people
BBC executives
BBC Two controllers
BBC One controllers
Alumni of the University of Westminster
People educated at The King's School, Macclesfield

Michael Jackson (television executive)


الهياكل المعدنية تمتاز البنايات الصناعية عن غيرها بكبر المساحة المغطاة ولهذا الغرض ازداد الطلب على الهياكل المعدنية بمجرد التفكير في بناء مصانع وورشات ذات الأهمية الكبرى بكون هذا الهيكل يلبي الطلب أحسن من الهياكل الأخرى (الخرسانة الخشبية).

تعريفها وخصائصها

تتكون الهياكل المعدنية من عناصر سابقة الإجهاد تنجز في مصانع خاصة تكون ذات أبعاد نظامية تستعمل في مختلف المشاريع الكبرى ذات الارتفاع والمدى الكبيرين مثل (الجسور، أغطية الملاعب) والمادة الأولية المستعملة في صناعة هذه الهياكل هي عبارة عن الحديدو الكربون بنسبة قليلة لهذا الأخير تتراوح بين 0.1 %إلى 0.2 %و هذا الخليط يتمتع بخصائص ميكانيكية جيدة.

أنواع الهياكل المعدنية

تتشكل الهياكل المعدنية في العناصر العمودية والأفقية من بينها:
 الروافد المعدنية
 الاعمدة المعدنية
 الجدران

الروافذ المعدنية

و تنقسم إلى شكلين حسب شكلها وتركيبها.

 الروافذ المعدنية المملؤة:

و تنقسم بنوعها إلى نوعين أساسيين:

 روافد معدنية مملوءة جاهزة: تنجز مباشرة في المصنع وهي على عدة أشكال هندسية منها: T-L-U-C-H-I ثم تنقل إلى الورشات قصد تركيبها.
 روافد معدنية مملوءة مركبة: تتكون من روافد مسطحة عموديا وأخرى أفقية ترتبط فيما بينها بواسطة وصلات.
 الروافد المعدنية المثلثية:
تتكون الروافد المعدنية المثلثية من قضبان أفقية وعمودية مائلة تكون فيما بينها مجموعة مثلثية هذه القضبان تكون متبوعة تبعا لنظام مثلثي مدروس بدقة لضمان الاستقرار.

الأعمدة المعدنية
توجد عدة أنواع نذكر من بينها مايلي:

 الأعمدة المقطعية: ونجدها على عدة أنواع منها:IPN-HEM-IPE-HEPوتكون على عدة أشكال منها: '''T-U-H-C
 الأعمدة المركبة: تنجز بواسطة عناصر مسطحة ترتبط فيما بينها بواسطة التلحيم، البراغي، البرشمة.
 الأعمدة المفرغة :و تتكون من عصبين ملتحمين فيما بينهما
 مكونا ت العمود :يتكون العمود من ثلاث نقاط أساسية.
 جسم العمود :و يتمثل في العمود المعدني في حد ذاته
 قاعدة العمود: عبارة عن كتلة خرسانية تتركب عليها العمود بواسطة مجموعة من السيقان ويتكون ملولبة من الأعلى ويتمثل دورها في ربط
العمود للأساس.
 تراكيب على العمود: وهي عبارة عن عناصر خارجية متنوعة كصفيحة التي تكون أسفل العمود وعناصر الربط التي تكون أعلى العمود لربطه مع الرافدة.

استقرار الهياكل المعدنية وتركيبها

طرق تجميع وربط الهياكل فيما بينها

هناك ثلاث طرق أساسية:
 البرشمة العادية
 البرشمة المضغوطة:و تنجز بواسطة براغي أو لوالب التثبيت العادية
 التلحيم

طرق تركيب الهياكل المعدنية وجعلها مستقرة

لتركيب عمود أساس يتطلب ان تكون الأرضية مسطحة هذه الأرضية عاذة ما تكون عبارة عن قاعدة خرسانية تثبت عليها سقان مثبتة من الأعلى ومقوسة من الأسفل توضع باحكام وتضبط مواضعها بدقة بحيث تتناسب مع ثقوب الصفيحة المثبتة اسفل العمود.

الغماء وهياكله

يشكل الغماء الهيكل الحامل لعناصر التغطية باختلاف أنواعها من قرميد وصفائح ونصنف نوعين منه:

 الغماء الخشبي:والذي يستعمل خصيصا لتغطية المباني السكنية أو
المباني التي لا تحتاج إلى مساحات كبيرة.

 الغماء المعدني : الذي يستعمل عموما لتغطية المنشآت الصناعية أو المنشات التي تحتاج إلى مساحات كبيرة مثل (قاعات رياضية، مسابح...)

مكونات الغطاء الخشبي ومختلف اشكاله وأنواعه
مهما اختلف شكل الغماء فانه يتكون من مجموعة عناصر خشبية تعمل مع بعضها البعض لتشكل هيكل متجانس يعمل بطريقة متكاملة.

الغطاء التقليدي

يستعمل الغماء التقليدي خاصة في المباني الصغيرة المعزولة ويتميز باستعمال الخشب ذومقاطع هامة يثبت بلوالب ويتكون هذا الغماء من عناصر مثلثية مربوطة ببعضها البعض بجوائز افقية التي تتحمل بدورها (الشاربات).

الاغطية

تقصد بالاغطية تلك العناصر الصغيرة التي توضع على الهيكل أو الغماء التي تلعب دور الحماية ضد العوامل المناخية من الأمطار، الثلوج، الشمس، تركب على هياكل ذات ميولات متفاوتة تختلف مع اختلاف الظروف المناخية وذلك لتسهيل صرف المياه والثلوج تختلف ميولة الأغطية مع اختلاف الظروف المناخية للمنطقة حيث ترتفع إذا كانت المنطقة ثلجية في المناطق التي تقل فيها العواصف والأمطار ولهذا الغرض تختار الأغطية حسب المنطقة المناخية وذلك حسب المعايير المعمارية الخاصة بالمنطقة ويستعمل هذا النوع من الأغطية عموما في ألماني الشخصية المنفصلة عن بعضها البعض كما بدى استعمالها مؤخرا في العمارات الجماعية وذلك لما توفره من مجال فارغ تحت
الأغطية والأجهزة التقنية مثل (المصاعد، المحولات الكهربائية....).

مساند التغطية

يستقبل الغماء غطاء متباعد أو مملؤء من الخشب وذلك حسب نوع عناصر التغطية المستعملة وتتكون هذه المساند أو الصفائح من قضبان متباعدة أو حسب ثقل العوامل المناخية التي تؤثر عليها حسب ثقل العناصر وثقل الصيانة.

 الصفائح الخشبية:

وهي عبارة عن صفائح من الخشب تسمح لنا بالحصول على شكل نهائي لسقف وذلك باستعمال الورق اللاصق أو الدهن كما تسمح بالحصول على مساحة لاستقبال العزل الحراري لتشكل غطاء غير نفوذي للهواء والغبار.

 القضبان الخشبية المتقاربة:

وهي عبارة عن صفائح من اخشاب توضع الجانب مع الجانب لتشكل مساحة متكاملة مملؤة تغطى الغماء.

 القضبان الخشبية المتباعدة:

وهي عبارة عن قضبان متباعدة ذات مقطع مستطيل تبلغ ابعاده (40/20) بالتقريب توضع لاستقبال القرميد وتثبت بالمسامير على الشوارب وتستخرج ابعاد هذه العناصر بطريقة دقيقة حسب الظروف المحلية للمناخ حيث نستعمل الاثقال المذكورة اعلاه.

 اللفائف اللينة:

في غالب الأحيان نلجا إلى وضع تحت عناصر التغطية لفائف بلاستكية بحيث تشكل لنا عازل ضد الرطوبة.

انظر أيضا
 جدار القص
 هيكل خشبي

مراجع

تشييد
فولاذ إنشائي

هيكل معدني


A t-test is a type of statistical analysis used to compare the averages of two groups and determine whether the differences between them are more likely to arise from random chance. It is any statistical hypothesis test in which the test statistic follows a Student's t-distribution under the null hypothesis. It is most commonly applied when the test statistic would follow a normal distribution if the value of a scaling term in the test statistic were known (typically, the scaling term is unknown and is therefore a nuisance parameter). When the scaling term is estimated based on the data, the test statistic—under certain conditions—follows a Student's t distribution. The t-test's most common application is to test whether the means of two populations are different.

History

The term "t-statistic" is abbreviated from "hypothesis test statistic". In statistics, the t-distribution was first derived as a posterior distribution in 1876 by Helmert and Lüroth. The t-distribution also appeared in a more general form as Pearson type IV distribution in Karl Pearson's 1895 paper. However, the t-distribution, also known as Student's t-distribution, gets its name from William Sealy Gosset, who first published it in English in 1908 in the scientific journal Biometrika using the pseudonym "Student" because his employer preferred staff to use pen names when publishing scientific papers. Gosset worked at the Guinness Brewery in Dublin, Ireland, and was interested in the problems of small samples for example, the chemical properties of barley with small sample sizes. Hence a second version of the etymology of the term Student is that Guinness did not want their competitors to know that they were using the t-test to determine the quality of raw material. Although it was William Gosset after whom the term "Student" is penned, it was actually through the work of Ronald Fisher that the distribution became well known as "Student's distribution" and "Student's t-test".

Gosset had been hired owing to Claude Guinness's policy of recruiting the best graduates from Oxford and Cambridge to apply biochemistry and statistics to Guinness's industrial processes. Gosset devised the t-test as an economical way to monitor the quality of stout. The t-test work was submitted to and accepted in the journal Biometrika and published in 1908.

Guinness had a policy of allowing technical staff leave for study (so-called "study leave"), which Gosset used during the first two terms of the 1906–1907 academic year in Professor Karl Pearson's Biometric Laboratory at University College London. Gosset's identity was then known to fellow statisticians and to editor-in-chief Karl Pearson.

Uses
The most frequently used t-tests are one-sample and two-sample tests:
 A one-sample location test of whether the mean of a population has a value specified in a null hypothesis.
 A two-sample location test of the null hypothesis such that the means of two populations are equal. All such tests are usually called Student's t-tests, though strictly speaking that name should only be used if the variances of the two populations are also assumed to be equal; the form of the test used when this assumption is dropped is sometimes called Welch's t-test. These tests are often referred to as unpaired or independent samples t-tests, as they are typically applied when the statistical units underlying the two samples being compared are non-overlapping.

Assumptions

Most test statistics have the form , where  and  are functions of the data.

 may be sensitive to the alternative hypothesis (i.e., its magnitude tends to be larger when the alternative hypothesis is true), whereas  is a scaling parameter that allows the distribution of  to be determined.

As an example, in the one-sample t-test

where  is the sample mean from a sample , of size ,  is the standard error of the mean,  is the estimate of the standard deviation of the population, and  is the population mean.

The assumptions underlying a t-test in the simplest form above are that:
  follows a normal distribution with mean  and variance .
  follows a  distribution with  degrees of freedom. This assumption is met when the observations used for estimating  come from a normal distribution (and i.i.d. for each group).
  and  are independent.

In the t-test comparing the means of two independent samples, the following assumptions should be met:
 The means of the two populations being compared should follow normal distributions. Under weak assumptions, this follows in large samples from the central limit theorem, even when the distribution of observations in each group is non-normal.
 If using Student's original definition of the t-test, the two populations being compared should have the same variance (testable using F-test, Levene's test, Bartlett's test, or the Brown–Forsythe test; or assessable graphically using a Q–Q plot). If the sample sizes in the two groups being compared are equal, Student's original t-test is highly robust to the presence of unequal variances. Welch's t-test is insensitive to equality of the variances regardless of whether the sample sizes are similar.
 The data used to carry out the test should either be sampled independently from the two populations being compared or be fully paired. This is in general not testable from the data, but if the data are known to be dependent (e.g. paired by test design), a dependent test has to be applied. For partially paired data, the classical independent t-tests may give invalid results as the test statistic might not follow a t distribution, while the dependent t-test is sub-optimal as it discards the unpaired data.

Most two-sample t-tests are robust to all but large deviations from the assumptions.

For exactness, the t-test and Z-test require normality of the sample means, and the t-test additionally requires that the sample variance follows a scaled χ distribution, and that the sample mean and sample variance be statistically independent.  Normality of the individual data values is not required if these conditions are met. By the central limit theorem, sample means of moderately large samples are often well-approximated by a normal distribution even if the data are not normally distributed. For non-normal data, the distribution of the sample variance may deviate substantially from a χ distribution.

However, if the sample size is large, Slutsky's theorem implies that the distribution of the sample variance has little effect on the distribution of the test statistic. That is, as sample size  increases:
  as per the Central limit theorem,
  as per the law of large numbers,
 .

Unpaired and paired two-sample t-tests

Two-sample t-tests for a difference in means involve independent samples (unpaired samples) or paired samples.  Paired t-tests are a form of blocking, and have greater power (probability of avoiding a type II error, also known as a false negative) than unpaired tests when the paired units are similar with respect to "noise factors" (see confounder) that are independent of membership in the two groups being compared. In a different context, paired t-tests can be used to reduce the effects of confounding factors in an observational study.

Independent (unpaired) samples
The independent samples t-test is used when two separate sets of independent and identically distributed samples are obtained, and one variable from each of the two populations is compared. For example, suppose we are evaluating the effect of a medical treatment, and we enroll 100 subjects into our study, then randomly assign 50 subjects to the treatment group and 50 subjects to the control group. In this case, we have two independent samples and would use the unpaired form of the t-test.

Paired samples

Paired samples t-tests typically consist of a sample of matched pairs of similar units, or one group of units that has been tested twice (a "repeated measures" t-test).

A typical example of the repeated measures t-test would be where subjects are tested prior to a treatment, say for high blood pressure, and the same subjects are tested again after treatment with a blood-pressure-lowering medication. By comparing the same patient's numbers before and after treatment, we are effectively using each patient as their own control. That way the correct rejection of the null hypothesis (here: of no difference made by the treatment) can become much more likely, with statistical power increasing simply because the random interpatient variation has now been eliminated. However, an increase of statistical power comes at a price: more tests are required, each subject having to be tested twice. Because half of the sample now depends on the other half, the paired version of Student's t-test has only  degrees of freedom (with  being the total number of observations). Pairs become individual test units, and the sample has to be doubled to achieve the same number of degrees of freedom. Normally, there are  degrees of freedom (with  being the total number of observations).

A paired samples t-test based on a "matched-pairs sample" results from an unpaired sample that is subsequently used to form a paired sample, by using additional variables that were measured along with the variable of interest. The matching is carried out by identifying pairs of values consisting of one observation from each of the two samples, where the pair is similar in terms of other measured variables. This approach is sometimes used in observational studies to reduce or eliminate the effects of confounding factors.

Paired samples t-tests are often referred to as "dependent samples t-tests".

Calculations
Explicit expressions that can be used to carry out various t-tests are given below. In each case, the formula for a test statistic that either exactly follows or closely approximates a t-distribution under the null hypothesis is given. Also, the appropriate degrees of freedom are given in each case. Each of these statistics can be used to carry out either a one-tailed or two-tailed test.

Once the t value and degrees of freedom are determined, a p-value can be found using a table of values from Student's t-distribution. If the calculated p-value is below the threshold chosen for statistical significance (usually the 0.10, the 0.05, or 0.01 level), then the null hypothesis is rejected in favor of the alternative hypothesis.

One-sample t-test
In testing the null hypothesis that the population mean is equal to a specified value , one uses the statistic

where  is the sample mean,  is the sample standard deviation and  is the sample size. The degrees of freedom used in this test are . Although the parent population does not need to be normally distributed, the distribution of the population of sample means  is assumed to be normal.

By the central limit theorem, if the observations are independent and the second moment exists, then  will be approximately normal .

Slope of a regression line
Suppose one is fitting the model

where  is known,  and  are unknown,  is a normally distributed random variable with mean 0 and unknown variance , and  is the outcome of interest. We want to test the null hypothesis that the slope  is equal to some specified value  (often taken to be 0, in which case the null hypothesis is that  and  are uncorrelated).

Let

Then

has a t-distribution with  degrees of freedom if the null hypothesis is true. The standard error of the slope coefficient:

can be written in terms of the residuals. Let

Then score is given by

Another way to determine the score is

where r is the Pearson correlation coefficient.

The score, intercept can be determined from the score, slope:

where  is the sample variance.

Independent two-sample t-test

Equal sample sizes and variance
Given two groups (1, 2), this test is only applicable when:
 the two sample sizes are equal,
 it can be assumed that the two distributions have the same variance.
Violations of these assumptions are discussed below.

The  statistic to test whether the means are different can be calculated as follows:

where

Here  is the pooled standard deviation for , and  and  are the unbiased estimators of the population variance. The denominator of  is the standard error of the difference between two means.

For significance testing, the degrees of freedom for this test is , where  is sample size.

Equal or unequal sample sizes, similar variances ( <  < 2)
This test is used only when it can be assumed that the two distributions have the same variance (when this assumption is violated, see below).
The previous formulae are a special case of the formulae below, one recovers them when both samples are equal in size: .

The  statistic to test whether the means are different can be calculated as follows:

where

is the pooled standard deviation of the two samples: it is defined in this way so that its square is an unbiased estimator of the common variance, whether or not the population means are the same. In these formulae,  is the number of degrees of freedom for each group, and the total sample size minus two (that is, ) is the total number of degrees of freedom, which is used in significance testing.

Equal or unequal sample sizes, unequal variances (sX1 > 2sX2 or sX2 > 2sX1)

This test, also known as Welch's t-test, is used only when the two population variances are not assumed to be equal (the two sample sizes may or may not be equal) and hence must be estimated separately. The  statistic to test whether the population means are different is calculated as

where

Here  is the unbiased estimator of the variance of each of the two samples with  = number of participants in group  ( = 1 or 2). In this case
is not a pooled variance. For use in significance testing, the distribution of the test statistic is approximated as an ordinary Student's t-distribution with the degrees of freedom calculated using

This is known as the Welch–Satterthwaite equation. The true distribution of the test statistic actually depends (slightly) on the two unknown population variances (see Behrens–Fisher problem).

Exact method for unequal variances and sample sizes

The test deals with the famous Behrens–Fisher problem, i.e., comparing the difference between the means of two normally distributed populations when the variances of the two populations are not assumed to be equal, based on two independent samples.

The test is developed as an exact test that allows for unequal sample sizes and unequal variances of two populations. The exact property still holds even with small extremely small and unbalanced sample sizes (e.g. ).

The statistic to test whether the means are different can be calculated as follows:

Let  and  be the i.i.d. sample vectors () from  and  separately.

Let  be an  orthogonal matrix whose elements of the first row are all , similarly, let  be the first n rows of an  orthogonal matrix (whose elements of the first row are all ).

Then  is an n-dimensional normal random vector.

From the above distribution we see that

Dependent t-test for paired samples
This test is used when the samples are dependent; that is, when there is only one sample that has been tested twice (repeated measures) or when there are two samples that have been matched or "paired". This is an example of a paired difference test. The t statistic is calculated as

where  and  are the average and standard deviation of the differences between all pairs. The pairs are e.g. either one person's pre-test and post-test scores or between-pairs of persons matched into meaningful groups (for instance, drawn from the same family or age group: see table). The constant  is zero if we want to test whether the average of the difference is significantly different. The degree of freedom used is , where  represents the number of pairs.
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Worked examples

Let  denote a set obtained by drawing a random sample of six measurements:

and let  denote a second set obtained similarly:

These could be, for example, the weights of screws that were chosen out of a bucket.

We will carry out tests of the null hypothesis that the means of the populations from which the two samples were taken are equal.

The difference between the two sample means, each denoted by , which appears in the numerator for all the two-sample testing approaches discussed above, is

The sample standard deviations for the two samples are approximately 0.05 and 0.11, respectively. For such small samples, a test of equality between the two population variances would not be very powerful.  Since the sample sizes are equal, the two forms of the two-sample t-test will perform similarly in this example.

Unequal variances
If the approach for unequal variances (discussed above) is followed, the results are

and the degrees of freedom

The test statistic is approximately 1.959, which gives a two-tailed test p-value of 0.09077.

Equal variances
If the approach for equal variances (discussed above) is followed, the results are

and the degrees of freedom

The test statistic is approximately equal to 1.959, which gives a two-tailed p-value of 0.07857.

Related statistical tests

Alternatives to the t-test for location problems
The t-test provides an exact test for the equality of the means of two i.i.d. normal populations with unknown, but equal, variances. (Welch's t-test is a nearly exact test for the case where the data are normal but the variances may differ.)  For moderately large samples and a one tailed test, the t-test is relatively robust to moderate violations of the normality assumption. In large enough samples, the t-test asymptotically approaches the z-test, and becomes robust even to large deviations from normality.

If the data are substantially non-normal and the sample size is small, the t-test can give misleading results. See Location test for Gaussian scale mixture distributions for some theory related to one particular family of non-normal distributions.

When the normality assumption does not hold, a non-parametric alternative to the t-test may have better statistical power. However, when data are non-normal with differing variances between groups, a t-test may have better type-1 error control than some non-parametric alternatives. Furthermore, non-parametric methods, such as the Mann-Whitney U test discussed below, typically do not test for a difference of means, so should be used carefully if a difference of means is of primary scientific interest. For example, Mann-Whitney U test will keep the type 1 error at the desired level alpha if both groups have the same distribution. It will also have power in detecting an alternative by which group B has the same distribution as A but after some shift by a constant (in which case there would indeed be a difference in the means of the two groups). However, there could be cases where group A and B will have different distributions but with the same means (such as two distributions, one with positive skewness and the other with a negative one, but shifted so to have the same means). In such cases, MW could have more than alpha level power in rejecting the Null hypothesis but attributing the interpretation of difference in means to such a result would be incorrect.

In the presence of an outlier, the t-test is not robust. For example, for two independent samples when the data distributions are asymmetric  (that is, the distributions are skewed) or the distributions have large tails, then the Wilcoxon rank-sum test (also known as the Mann–Whitney U test) can have three to four times higher power than the t-test. The nonparametric counterpart to the paired samples t-test is the Wilcoxon signed-rank test for paired samples. For a discussion on choosing between the t-test and nonparametric alternatives, see Lumley, et al. (2002).

One-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) generalizes the two-sample t-test when the data belong to more than two groups.

A design which includes both paired observations and independent observations
When both paired observations and independent observations are present in the two sample design, assuming  data are missing completely at random (MCAR), the paired observations or independent observations may be discarded in order to proceed with the standard tests above. Alternatively making use of all of the available data, assuming normality and MCAR, the generalized partially overlapping samples t-test could be used.

Multivariate testing

A generalization of Student's t statistic, called Hotelling's t-squared statistic, allows for the testing of hypotheses on multiple (often correlated) measures within the same sample. For instance, a researcher might submit a number of subjects to a personality test consisting of multiple personality scales (e.g. the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory). Because measures of this type are usually positively correlated, it is not advisable to conduct separate univariate t-tests to test hypotheses, as these would neglect the covariance among measures and inflate the chance of falsely rejecting at least one hypothesis (Type I error). In this case a single multivariate test is preferable for hypothesis testing. Fisher's Method for combining multiple tests with alpha reduced for positive correlation among tests is one. Another is Hotelling's T statistic follows a T distribution. However, in practice the distribution is rarely used, since tabulated values for T are hard to find. Usually, T is converted instead to an F statistic.

For a one-sample multivariate test, the hypothesis is that the mean vector () is equal to a given vector (). The test statistic is Hotelling's t:

where  is the sample size,  is the vector of column means and  is an  sample covariance matrix.

For a two-sample multivariate test, the hypothesis is that the mean vectors () of two samples are equal. The test statistic is Hotelling's two-sample t:

The two-sample t-test is a special case of simple linear regression

The two-sample t-test is a special case of simple linear regression as illustrated by the following example.

A clinical trial examines 6 patients given drug or placebo. 3 patients get 0 units of drug (the placebo group). 3 patients get 1 unit of drug (the active treatment group). At the end of treatment, the researchers measure the change from baseline in the number of words that each patient can recall in a memory test.

Data and code are given for the analysis using the R programming language with the t.test and lmfunctions for the t-test and linear regression. Here are the (fictitious) data generated in R.

> word.recall.data=data.frame(drug.dose=c(0,0,0,1,1,1), word.recall=c(1,2,3,5,6,7))

Perform the t-test. Notice that the assumption of equal variance, var.equal=T, is required to make the analysis exactly equivalent to simple linear regression.

> with(word.recall.data, t.test(word.recall~drug.dose, var.equal=T))

Running the R code gives the following results.
The mean word.recall in the 0 drug.dose group is 2.
The mean word.recall in the 1 drug.dose group is 6.
The difference between treatment groups in the mean word.recall is 6 – 2 = 4.
 The difference in word.recall between drug doses is significant (p=0.00805).

Perform a linear regression of the same data. Calculations may be performed using the R function lm() for a linear model.
> word.recall.data.lm =  lm(word.recall~drug.dose, data=word.recall.data)
> summary(word.recall.data.lm)

The linear regression provides a table of coefficients and p-values.

The table of coefficients gives the following results.
The estimate value of 2 for the intercept is the mean value of the word recall when the drug dose is 0.
The estimate value of 4 for the drug dose indicates that for a 1-unit change in drug dose (from 0 to 1) there is a 4-unit change in mean word recall (from 2 to 6). This is the slope of the line joining the two group means.
The p-value that the slope of 4 is different from 0 is p = 0.00805.

The coefficients for the linear regression specify the slope and intercept of the line that joins the two group means, as illustrated in the graph. The intercept is 2 and the slope is 4.

Compare the result from the linear regression to the result from the t-test.
 From the t-test, the difference between the group means is 6-2=4.
From the regression, the slope is also 4 indicating that a 1-unit change in drug dose (from 0 to 1) gives a 4-unit change in mean word recall (from 2 to 6).
 The t-test p-value for the difference in means, and the regression p-value for the slope, are both 0.00805. The methods give identical results.

This example shows that, for the special case of a simple linear regression where there is a single x-variable that has values 0 and 1, the t-test gives the same results as the linear regression. The relationship can also be shown algebraically.

Recognizing this relationship between the t-test and linear regression facilitates the use of multiple linear regression and multi-way analysis of variance. These alternatives to t-tests allow for the inclusion of additional explanatory variables  that are associated with the response. Including such additional explanatory variables using regression or anova reduces the otherwise unexplained variance, and commonly yields greater power to detect differences than do two-sample t-tests.

Software implementations
Many spreadsheet programs and statistics packages, such as QtiPlot, LibreOffice Calc, Microsoft Excel, SAS, SPSS, Stata, DAP, gretl, R, Python, PSPP, MATLAB and Minitab, include implementations of Student's t-test.

See also

  (ANOVA)

References

Citations

Sources

Further reading

External links

 Trochim, William M.K. "The T-Test", Research Methods Knowledge Base, conjoint.ly
  by Mark Thoma

Statistical tests
Parametric statistics

Student's t-test


Evenimente

 Eclipsa de Soare din 13 iulie 2037

Nașteri

Decese

2037


HNLMS De Ruyter () was a light cruiser of the Royal Netherlands Navy. She was originally designed as a  ship with a lighter armament due to financial problems and the pacifist movement. Later in the design stage, an extra gun turret was added and the armor was improved. She was the seventh ship of the Dutch Navy to be named after Admiral Michiel Adriaenszoon de Ruyter.

De Ruyter was laid down on 16 September 1933 at the Wilton-Fijenoord dockyard in Schiedam and commissioned on 3 October 1936, commanded by Captain A. C. van der Sande Lacoste. She was sunk in the Battle of the Java Sea in 1942.

Design

De Ruyter was designed during the Great Depression, which, in addition to being a period of economic depression, was also a period in which pacifism was widespread in the Netherlands. For these reasons, the design was officially called a flottieljeleider (flotilla leader) instead of a cruiser, and every effort was made to cut costs.

Its function was to aid the two existing cruisers of the  in the defence of the Dutch East Indies; the idea was that with three cruisers, there would always be two cruisers available, even if one cruiser had to be repaired.

However, due to the cost-cutting policy that went into her design, De Ruyter was not quite up to her task. Her main battery (7 × 150 mm guns) was underpowered in comparison to other light cruisers of the time (for example the British ), and the class had inadequate armour as well and lacked long range anti-aircraft guns. However, her fire control system was excellent.

Service history

During World War II, De Ruyter saw repeated action in the Dutch East Indies in fruitless attempts to ward off the Japanese invasion. She was damaged by air attack in the Battle of Bali Sea on 4 February 1942, but not seriously. She fought in the Battle of Badung Strait on 18 February.

In the Battle of the Java Sea on 27 February, De Ruyter was the flagship of the Dutch Rear-Admiral Karel Doorman, with his flag captain Eugène Lacomblé (who had previously served on board the ship as a lieutenant). Off the north coast off Java on the evening of the 27th the remains of the ABDA fleet was surprised by the Japanese heavy cruisers  and . Several minutes after the Dutch cruiser Java had been torpedoed and sunk, De Ruyter was hit by a single Type 93 torpedo fired by Haguro at about 23:40 and was set on fire; the torpedo also disabled the ship's electrical systems and left the crew unable to combat the fire or the flooding. The De Ruyter sank at about 02:30 the next morning with the loss of 367 men, including Admiral Doorman and Captain Lacomblé.

Wreck
The wreck of De Ruyter was discovered by specialist wreck divers on 1 December 2002 and declared a war grave, with the ship's two bells—one now in the Kloosterkerk in the Hague—being recovered. The wreck of , was also found the same day by the same divers. The same dive group then found   on 12 August 2004.

In 2016 it was discovered that the wrecks of De Ruyter and Java, and much of Kortenaer had disappeared from the seabed, although their imprints on the ocean floor remained. Over 100 ships and submarines of various countries sank during the war in the seas around Indonesia, Singapore and Malaysia; many are designated as war graves. There is known to be illegal scavenging of these wrecks, often using explosives; the Netherlands Defence Ministry suggested that De Ruyter, Java, and  Kortenaer may have been illegally salvaged. In February 2017 a report was issued confirming the salvaging of the three wrecks.

According to Indonesian journalist Aqwam Hanifan, the remains of Dutch sailors on De Ruyter and the other illegally salvaged ships were dumped in a mass grave in east Java.

References in text

References
 van Oosten, Franz Christiaan. "Her Netherlands Majesty's Ship De Ruyter." In Profile Warship, edited by Antony Preston, 73-96. Windsor: Profile Publishing, 1974. . .

External links

 Tabular record of movement
 De Ruyter-class cruiser

Cruisers of the Royal Netherlands Navy
1935 ships
Ships built by Wilton-Fijenoord

World War II cruisers of the Netherlands
World War II shipwrecks in the Java Sea
Maritime incidents in February 1942

HNLMS De Ruyter (1935)


Barbara Colby (* 2. Juli 1939 in New York City, New York; † 24. Juli 1975 in Venice, Los Angeles, Kalifornien) war eine US-amerikanische Schauspielerin. In Deutschland wurde sie am ehesten für ihre Rolle des Mordopfers Lilly La Sanka in der dritten Folge der Krimiserie Columbo (1971) bekannt.

Leben
Nach ersten Rollen am Theater folgte 1971 ihr erster beachteter Fernsehauftritt in der Columbo-Folge Tödliche Trennung unter der Regie von Steven Spielberg. Es folgten weitere Auftritte in bekannten Serien wie Männerwirtschaft, FBI, Kung Fu oder Rauchende Colts. Daneben wirkte sie auch weiterhin am Theater, u. a. am Broadway. Ab 1974 folgte auch sporadische Filmarbeit. Aus einer Mitwirkung an der Mary Tyler Moore-Show entwickelte sich schließlich eine feste Serienhauptrolle für Colby in dem Serien-Spin-off Phyllis (1975), wo sie an der Seite von Cloris Leachman spielte. Nach drei Folgen wurde Colby jedoch unter bis heute nicht geklärten Umständen in Venice ermordet, ihre Rolle wurde von der später mehrfach für den Emmy nominierten Schauspielerin Liz Torres weitergespielt.

Filmografie
 1967: Der Tiger schlägt zurück  (The Tiger Makes Out)
 1968: Petulia
 1969: N.Y.P.D. (Fernsehserie, eine Folge)
 1971: Columbo: Tödliche Trennung (Murder by the Book, Fernsehreihe)
 1971: Männerwirtschaft (The Odd Couple, Fernsehserie, eine Folge)
 1972: Look Homeward, Angel (Fernsehfilm)
 1973: A Brand New Life (Fernsehfilm)
 1973: FBI (The F.B.I., Fernsehserie, eine Folge)
 1973: McMillan & Wife (Fernsehserie, eine Folge)
 1973: Junge Schicksale (ABC Afterschool Specials, Fernsehserie, eine Folge)
 1974: Judgment: The Trial of Julius and Ethel Rosenberg (Fernsehfilm)
 1974: Medical Center (Fernsehserie, eine Folge)
 1974: Kung Fu (Fernsehserie, eine Folge)
 1974: Memory of Us
 1974: California Split
 1974: Rauchende Colts (Gunsmoke, Fernsehserie, eine Folge)
 1974–1975: Oh Mary (Mary Tyler Moore, Fernsehserie, zwei Folgen)
 1975: Rafferty und die wilden Mädchen (Rafferty and the Gold Dust Twins)
 1975: Phyllis (Fernsehserie, drei Folgen)
 1976: The Ashes of Mrs. Reasoner (Fernsehfilm)

Quellen
 Armin Block/Stefan Fuchs: Columbo, bearbeitete Ausgabe 2012, bei Schwarzkopf & Schwarzkopf

Weblinks

 Barbara Colby in der Internet Off-Broadway Database (englisch)
 Filmografie von Barbara Colby in: The New York Times
 Barbara Colby in: findadeath

Filmschauspieler
Theaterschauspieler
US-Amerikaner
Geboren 1939
Gestorben 1975
Frau

Barbara Colby