Northrop Grumman B-21 Raider američki je strateški bombarder koji razvija Northrop Grumman za Zračne snage Sjedinjenih Država (USAF). Kao dio programa Long Range Strike Bomber (LRS-B), to će biti dalekometni, nevidljivi interkontinentalni strateški bombarder za USAF, sposoban isporučiti konvencionalno i termonuklearno oružje.

Od 2022. godine očekuje se da će B-21 ući u službu do 2026. ili 2027. Trebao bi nadopuniti i eventualno zamijeniti Northrop Grumman B-2 Spirit, ali ne i bombardere Boeing B-52 Stratofortress koji su imali remont koji produljuje njihov radni vijek do 2050.  Također,  B-21 se ne može mjeriti s nosivosti B52 niti s najvećom brzinom od više od 2 macha bombardera Rockwell B-1B.

Tajni program dugometnog udarnog bombardera (LRS-B) započeo je 2011. godine, a Zračne snage izdale su zahtjev za ponudu za razvoj LRS-B zrakoplova u srpnju 2014. Ugovor o razvoju dodijeljen je tvrtki Northrop Grumman u listopadu 2015. Boeing i Lockheed Martin, koji su predali gubitničke ponude za projekt, uložili su prigovore u listopadu 2016. Vladin ured za odgovornost (GAO) odbacio je prigovore i podržao odluku USAF-a da ugovor za LRS-B dodijeli tvrtki Northrop Grumman. Izvješće GAO-a otkrilo je da je trošak bio odlučujući čimbenik pri odabiru Northrop Grummana u odnosu na tim Boeing-Lockheed Martin.

U ožujku 2016. USAF je najavio sedam prvorazrednih dobavljača za program: Pratt & Whitney, BAE Systems, Spirit AeroSystems, Orbital ATK, Rockwell Collins, GKN Aerospace i Janicki Industries.

Sposobnosti i dizajn
Mnogi aspekti programa B-21 vrlo su povjerljivi; program je označen kao program s posebnim pristupom. Istraživačka služba Kongresa Sjedinjenih Američkih Država  navela je u izvješću da tehnički detalji i specifikacije B-21 kao što su brzina, sustavi za omogućavanje, veličina, potrebna nevidljivost, struktura, broj i vrsta motora, projektirano oružje i ugrađeni senzori ostaju tajni, iako se neke informacije o drugim aspektima programa objavljuju od 2015. godine. U medijskom izvješću iz 2015. navodi se da su Zračne snage željele da bombarder također funkcionira kao platforma za prikupljanje obavještajnih podataka i zrakoplov presretač. Godine 2016. tadašnja tajnica zračnih snaga Deborah Lee James rekla je da će B-21 biti "peta generacija globalne platforme za precizne napade" s umreženom senzorskom sposobnošću. Northrop Grumman opisao je B-21 na njegovom "otkrivanju" 2022. kao "prvi svjetski zrakoplov šeste generacije".

Voditelj programa F-35 Chris Bogdan rekao je da će motori B-21 biti dovoljno slični motoru F-35 Pratt&Whitney F135 kako bi se smanjila njegova cijena.

U siječnju 2020. dužnosnici zračnih snaga objavili su nove računalne slike B-21 koji pokazuju prepoznatljive ujednačene usise i dizajn glavnog stajnog trapa s dva kotača. Čini se da slika prikazuje manji, lakši zrakoplov od B-2.

Proizvodnja i montaža
Šef Globalnog zapovjedništva zračnih snaga rekao je kako očekuje da će dati početnu narudžbu za 100 zrakoplova B-21 i izgraditi punu flotu od 175 do 200 komada. Dvije studije USAF-a sugerirale su da bi ratno zrakoplovstvo moglo povećati svoju početnu kupnju s 80 na 100 na 145 zrakoplova. Očekuje se da će početna operativna sposobnost (IOC) biti dostignuta do 2030.

U travnju 2016. objavljeno je da Zapovjedništvo za globalne udare USAF-a očekuje da će se potrebni broj povećati na najmanje 100 zrakoplova B-21.

Sastavljanje B-21 odvija se u tvornici 42 Zračnih snaga Sjedinjenih Američkih Država u blizini Palmdalea u Kaliforniji, u istom postrojenju koje je Northrop Grumman koristio tijekom 1980-ih i 1990-ih za izradu bombardera B-2. U siječnju 2017. Northrop Grumman je dobio 35,8 milijuna dolara vrijednu modifikaciju ugovora za veliki pogon za premaze u tvornici 42, koji treba biti dovršen do kraja 2019., u objavi ugovora nije se izričito spominjao B-21, ali je postrojenje vjerojatno bilo namijenjeno za B-21 stealth premaz. Budući da je program povjerljiv, dužnosnici su objavili vrlo malo informacija o njemu. U ljeto 2019. objavljeno je da je izgradnja prve jedinice u tijeku. Početkom 2021. nekoliko je medija izvijestilo da je s približavanjem završetka prve jedinice B-21 započela izgradnja druge jedinice.

Do veljače 2022. šest B-21 bilo je u izgradnji. Prvi B-21 je sljedeći mjesec premješten u postrojenje za kalibraciju. Oko 5000 zaposlenika Northrop Grummana radilo je na programu u prosincu 2022.

Troškovi programa
U prosincu 2022. trošak zrakoplova B-21 procijenjen je na 700 milijuna USD. U to su vrijeme dužnosnici Zračnih snaga procijenili da bi troškovi razvoja, kupnje i upravljanja flotom od 100 B-21 u razdoblju od 30 godina iznosili najmanje 203 milijarde dolara.

Održavanje B-21 koordinirat će Tinker Air Force Base, Oklahoma, dok će zrakoplovna baza Edwards u Kaliforniji voditi testiranje i procjenu. Očekuje se da će B-21 djelovati iz baza u kojima se trenutno nalaze teški bombarderi, poput Dyess Air Force Base, Texas; Ellsworth Air Force Base, Južna Dakota; i Whiteman Air Force Base, Missouri. U ožujku 2019. Ellsworth je odabran kao baza za prvu operativnu jedinicu B-21 i prvu jedinicu za obuku.

Izvori

Američki bombarderi
B-21 Raider

Northrop Grumman B-21 Raider


Büyük Ayı takımyıldızı (Lat. Ursa Maior), modern 88 takımyıldızdan biridir. Kuzey yarım küreden tüm yıl boyunca görülebilir. Callisto efsanesiyle ilişkilendirilir.

Dikkat çekici noktalar

Ayının arka ayakları ve kuyruğunda bulunan yedi parlak yıldız, tanınmış Büyük Kepçe şeklini oluşturur. Büyük Britanya'da bu şekil saban veya pulluk (İng. plough) olarak adlandırılır. Büyük Kepçe'nin Dubhe ve Alkaid hariç diğer yıldızları Yay takımyıldızı bölgesinde kalan bir noktanın çevresinde özdevinim hareketi yapmaktadırlar. Bu tarz bir hareket gösteren diğer başka yıldızlar da belirlenmiştir.

Büyük Kepçe'ye ek olarak, kökenini Arap kültüründen alan bir başka yapı daha vardır – üç grup yıldızdan oluşan "ceylanın sıçramaları":

 ν ve ξ Ursae Majoris, Alula Borealis ve Australis, ilk sıçrama;
 λ ve μ Ursae Majoris, Tania Borealis ve Australis, ikinci sıçrama;
 ι ve κ Ursae Majoris, Talitha Borealis ve Australis, üçüncü sıçrama.

Bu yıldızlar takımyıldızın güneybatı sınırında, yani ayının ayak parmaklarında bulunurlar.

W Ursae Majoris parlaklığı 7.75m ve 8.48m arasında değişen bir çift yıldızdır. Temaslı çiftler türündeki çift yıldızların prototipini oluşturur.

47 Ursae Majoris Jüpiter kütlesinin 2,54 ve 0,76 katı kütlelere sahip belirlenmiş iki gezegene sahip bir gezegen sistemine sahiptir.

Dikkat çekici derin uzay nesneleri
Büyük Ayı takımyıldızı bölgesinde pek çok parlak gökada bulunmaktadır. Ayının başının üzerindeki M81 ve M82 ikilisi, η Ursae Majoris'in kuzeybatısındaki bir sarmal gökada olan M101, yine Messier kataloğunda bulunan M108 ve M109 bunlardan bazılarıdır. Takımyıldız bölgesinde amatör astronomların teleskoplarıyla gözlemleyebilecekleri, çoğu 10. kadirden daha sönük 50 kadar gökada bulunmaktadır. Parlak bir gezegenimsi bulutsu olan M97, fotoğraflardaki görüntüsünden ötürü Baykuş Bulutsusu olarak da bilinir, büyük kepçenin çanağının hemen altında bulunur. Bir yıldız çifti olan Messier 40'ta – her ne kadar derin uzay nesnesi olmasa da – Messier'in kataloğuna eklemiş olduğu bir cisim olduğu için dikkate değerdir.

Hubble Derin Alan δ UMa yıldızının kuzeydoğusunda bulunur.

Tarihi

Ursa Major Batlamyus tarafından listelenmiş 48 takımyıldızdan biridir. En çok tanınan takımyıldızlardan biridir. Homeros, Spenser, Shakespeare, Tennyson ve Bertrand Cantat gibi pek çok şairin şiirlerinde Büyük Ayı'nın adı geçer.

Ursa Major takımyıldızı pek çok uygarlık tarafından bir ayı olarak tanımlanmıştır. Yanı başındaki Küçük Ayı takımyıldızıyla birlikte Callisto efsanesinin kökenini oluşturur.

Mitoloji
Ursa Major ismi Callisto'dan gelmektedir. Arkadya Kralı Lycaon'un kızı olan Callisto avcılığa düşkündür. Av tanrıçası Artemis, Callisto'yu ilk gençlik çağlarından itibaren görevlileri arasına alır.

Artemis, Apollon'un kız kardeşidir. Çocukların doğumlarını, bebeklerin korunmasını ve beslenmesini gözeten tanrıçadır. Tanrıçalar dünyasının rahibesidir. Genç Nymph'leri yetiştirirdi. Başı örtülü, yani gelin anlamına gelen Nymph'ler, kırlarda, sularda, ormanlarda yaşayan tanrısal varlıkların dişi olanlarına verilen isimdir. Eski Yunan inanışına göre bütün dünya Nymph'lerle doludur. Nymph'ler Artemis'le birlikte avlanırlar, şarap tanrısı Dionysos'la eğlencelere katılırlar. Güneş ve güzel sanatlar tanrısı Apollon ile tanrıların habercisi Hermes'e refakat ederlerdi. Artemis yanına kabul ettiği genç kızlardan sadakat yemini etmelerini isterdi. Bu yeminle genç kızlar, Dünya nimetlerinden uzak duracaklarına söz verirlerdi. Callisto'da bu kızlardan biridir ve bir süre sonra Artemis'in en gözde görevlisi olmuştur.

Zeus bir gün Callisto'yu ormanda uyurken görür ve ona âşık olur. Zeus, Artemis'in kılığına girerek Callisto'nun yanına gider. Callisto, baş tanrıyı Artemis sandığından ondan çekinmez ve iyi karşılar. Bu birlikteliğin sonucunda Callisto hamile kalır ve Arcas adında bir oğlan çocuğu Dünya'ya getirir. Bunu fark eden Artemis, sözünü tutmayan Callisto'yu bir ayıya çevirir. Callisto, artık avcıların peşinden koştuğu bir avdır.

Uzun yıllar sonra Callisto, ormanda oğlu Arcas ile karşılaşır. Annesini tanımayan Arcas, bu avı kaçırmak istemez ve onu vurmaya karar verir. Tam bu sırada Zeus, araya girer ve Arcas'ı yutan, Callisto'yu ise cennete uçuran bir hortum gönderir. Callisto, gökyüzünde Büyük Ayı olarak belirir, Arcas da Küçük Ayı olarak gökyüzündeki yerini alır.

Başka bir öykü ise şöyledir: Zeus'un annesi Rhea, babası ise Kronos'tur. Bir kehanete göre Kronos'un oğullarından biri onu tahttan indirecektir. Bu durumdan hiç hoşnut olmayan Kronos, çareyi her doğan çocuğunu yok etmekte bulur. Doğar doğmaz çocuklarını yutmaktadır. Kronos, Zeus doğana kadar pek çok çocuğundan bu şekilde kurtulmuştur. Ancak Zeus, annesi sayesinde hayatta kalabilmiştir. Zeus doğduğunda annesi Rhea, onun kundak bezinin içine bir taş koyar ve Kronos da bir çocuğunu daha yok ettiğini sanarak taşı yutar. Rhea, bebeği Girit Adası'na kaçırır. Burada Dikte Mağarası'nda birer su perisi olan İda ile Adrasteia, Zeus'a bakıcılık yapar. Mağara, Giritli askerler tarafından korunur. Yıllar sonra Zeus büyüdüğünde babası Kronos'a karşı galip gelir ve ondan yuttuğu bütün çocuklarını tekrar kusmasını ister. Bu çocukların hepsi ileride genç tanrıların liderleri olup evrenin yönetimini Titanlar'ın elinden alırlar.

Mitolojide İda Küçük Ayı, Adrasteia ise Büyük Ayı olarak geçer. Ancak, bu su perilerinin nasıl ayıya dönüştükleri bilnmemektedir.

Kaynakça

 Ian Ridpath and Wil Tirion (2007). Stars and Planets Guide, Collins, London. ISBN 978-0007251209. Princeton University Press, Princeton. ISBN 978-0691135564.

Notlar

Ayrıca bakınız
 Ursa Minor (takımyıldız)

Dış bağlantılar

 The Deep Photographic Guide to the Constellations: Ursa Major (İngilizce)
 AAVSO: The Myths of Ursa Major (İngilizce)

Ursa Major (takımyıldız)


ෆේස්බුක් වැනි බොත්තම යනු ෆේස්බුක් සමාජ ජාල වෙබ් අඩවියේ විශේෂාංගයකි. එය මුලින් ම සක්‍රීය කළේ 2009 පෙබරවාරි මාසයේදී ය. කැමති බොත්තම පරිශීලකයින්ට තත්ත්ව යාවත්කාලීන, අදහස්, ඡායාරූප සහ වීඩියෝ, මිතුරන් විසින් බෙදා ගන්නා සබැඳි සහ වෙළඳ දැන්වීම් සමඟ පහසුවෙන් අන්තර් ක්‍රියා කිරීමට හැකියාව ලබා දෙයි. පරිශීලකයෙකු විසින් ක්ලික් කළ පසු, නම් කරන ලද අන්තර්ගතය එම පරිශීලකයාගේ මිතුරන්ගේ ප්‍රවෘත්ති සංග්‍රහවල දිස් වන අතර, එම පරිශීලකයින්ගේ සම්පූර්ණ හෝ අර්ධ ලැයිස්තුවක් ඇතුළුව අන්තර්ගතයට කැමති වූ අනෙකුත් පරිශීලකයින් සංඛ්‍යාව ද බොත්තම පෙන්වයි. කැමති බොත්තම 2010 ජූනි මාසයේ දී අදහස් දක්වා දීර්ඝ කරන ලදී. "අකමැත්ත" බොත්තමක් ඇතුළත් කිරීමේ අභිප්‍රායක් තිබේ ද යන්න පිළිබඳ ව පුළුල් පරීක්‍ෂණයකින් සහ මහජනයාගෙන් වසර ගණනාවක ප්‍රශ්නවලින් පසුව, Facebook නිල වශයෙන් 2016 පෙබරවාරි 24 දින ලොව පුරා පරිශීලකයින්ට "ප්‍රතික්‍රියා" නිකුත් කරන ලද අතර, පරිශීලකයින්ට කැමති බොත්තම දිගු වේලාවක් එබීමට ඉඩ සලසයි. "ආදරය", "හහා", "වාව්", "දුක", හෝ "කෝප" ඇතුළුව, පෙර නිර්වචනය කළ හැඟීම් පහෙන් එකක් භාවිතා කිරීමට විකල්පයක්. 2017 මැයි මාසයේ දී අදහස් දැක්වීම් සඳහා ද ප්‍රතිචාර දීර්ඝ කරන ලද අතර, 2019 අප්‍රේල් මාසයේ දී විශාල චිත්‍රක ප්‍රතිසංස්කරණයක් සිදු කරන ලදී.

කැමති බොත්තම යනු ෆේස්බුක් සමාජ ප්ලග් ඉන් එකකි, එහි බොත්තම තෙවෙන පාර්ශවී ය වෙබ් අඩවි මත තැබිය හැකි ය. එහි භාවිතය මධ්‍යස්ථාන වන්නේ වෙළඳ ප්‍රචාරණ ජාලයක ආකාරයක් වටා වන අතර, කුමන පරිශීලකයින් කුමන වෙබ් අඩවි වලට පිවිසෙන්නේ ද යන්න පිළිබඳ තොරතුරු රැස් කරයි. මෙම ආකාරයේ ක්‍රියාකාරීත්වය, එක්තරා ආකාරයක වෙබ් බීකනය, පුද්ගලිකත්ව ය සඳහා සැලකිය යුතු ලෙස විවේචනයට ලක් ව ඇත. ප්ලග් ඉන් හරහා දත්ත රැස් කිරීම නවත්තන ලෙස රහස්‍යතා ක්‍රියාකාරී සංවිධාන ෆේස්බුක් වෙතින් ඉල්ලා ඇති අතර, සිදු විය හැකි රහස්‍යතා නීති උල්ලංඝණය කිරීම් සඳහා ක්‍රියාකාරකම් පිළිබඳ ව රජය න් පරීක්ෂණ ආරම්භ කර ඇත. Facebook විසින් මාස තුනකට පසු තොරතුරු නිර්නාමික කරන බව ප්‍රකාශ කර ඇති අතර, එකතු කරන ලද දත්ත තෙවෙන පාර්ශවයකට බෙදා නො ගැනීම හෝ විකිණීම සිදු නො කෙරේ. මීට අමතරව, ජනප්‍රියත්වයේ මිනුමක් ලෙස කැමති බොත්තම භාවිතා කිරීම සමහර සමාගම් ව්‍යාජ ෆේස්බුක් ගිණුම් හරහා කැමති විකිණීමට හේතු වී ඇති අතර, එමඟින් නිසි පරිශීලක ප්‍රමිතික විකෘති කර ඇති ව්‍යාජ ලයික් බහුලව ලැබී ඇති බවට ෆේස්බුක් හි ප්‍රචාරණ කරන සමහර සමාගම්වලින් පැමිණිලි ඇති විය. . Facebook එහි සේවා කොන්දේසි ගිවිසුමේ සඳහන් කරන්නේ පරිශීලකයින්ට එක් පුද්ගලික පිටුවක් පමණක් නිර්මාණය කළ හැකි බවත්, ව්‍යාජ ගිණුම් ව්‍යාප්ත කිරීමට එරෙහිව එහි අඛණ්ඩ උත්සාහයන් පවතින බවත් ය.

ෆේස්බුක් හි භාවිතා කරන්න
කැමති බොත්තම යනු සමාජ ජාල සේවාව වන Facebook හි විශේෂාංගයකි, පරිශීලකයින්ට තත්ත්ව යාවත්කාලීන කිරීම්, අදහස්, ඡායාරූප සහ වීඩියෝ, මිතුරන් විසින් බෙදා ගන්නා සබැඳි සහ වෙළඳ දැන්වීම් වැනි අන්තර්ගත යන්ට කැමති විය හැක. විශේෂාංගය 2009 පෙබරවාරි 9 සක්‍රීය කරන ලදී  එය ෆේස්බුක් වේදිකාවේ විශේෂාංගයක් වන අතර එය සහභාගී වන වෙබ් අඩවි වලට වෙබ් අඩවියේ අන්තර්ගතය මිතුරන් සමඟ බෙදා ගැනීමට හැකි බොත්තමක් ප්‍රදර්ශනය කිරීමට ඉඩ සලසයි.

පරිශීලකයෙකු කැමති බොත්තම ක්ලික් කළ විට, එම පරිශීලකයාගේ මිතුරන්ගේ පුවත් සංග්‍රහවල අන්තර්ගතය දිස් වේ.   බොත්තම එක් එක් අන්තර්ගතයට කැමති පරිශීලකයින් සංඛ්‍යාව ද පෙන්වයි, එම පරිශීලකයින්ගේ සම්පූර්ණ හෝ අර්ධ ලැයිස්තුවක් පෙන්විය හැක.  පරිශීලකයින්ගේ අදහස් වලට කැමති වීමේ හැකියාව 2010 ජුනි මාසයේ දී එකතු කරන ලදී,  සහ "ආදරය", "හහා", "වාව්", "සැඩ්", හෝ "කෝපාවිෂ්ට" ඇතුළුව පූර්ව නිර්වචනය කළ හැඟීම් පහෙන් එකක් සමඟ ප්‍රතික්‍රියා කිරීමේ හැකියාව ", 2017 මැයි මාසයේ දී එකතු කරන ලදී.

වසරකට වැඩි කාලයක් පරීක්‍ෂා කිරීමෙන් පසුව,  අයර්ලන්තයේ සහ ස්පාඤ්ඤයේ 2015 ඔක්තෝබර් ලබා ගත හැකි වීම ඇතුළුව,  Facebook විසින් 2016 පෙබරවාරි 24 වන දින ලොව පුරා සිටින පරිශීලකයින්ට "ප්‍රතික්‍රියා" නිල වශයෙන් ඉදිරිපත් කරන ලදී. "Love", "Haha", "Wow", "Sad", "angry" වැනි පූර්ව නිර්වචනය කළ හැඟීම් පහක් අතර විකල්ප ලබා ගැනීමට කැමති බොත්තම දිගු වේලාවක් එබීම සඳහා මෙම විශේෂාංගය පරිශීලකයින්ට ඉඩ සලසයි.   2017 ජුනි මාසයේ දී, අභිමානවත් මාසය සැමරීමේ දී, Facebook එහි ප්‍රතික්‍රියා විකල්පවල කොටසක් ලෙස දේදුනු ධජයක් හඳුන්වා දුන්නේ ය.

ප්‍රතික්‍රියා වල සැලසුම 2019 අප්‍රේල් මාසයේ දී යාවත්කාලීන කරන ලදී, අයිකන වල සජීවි කරණ මෙන්ම සාමාන්‍ය චිත්‍රක ප්‍රතිසංස්කරණයකින් සමන්විත තවත් රාමු .  ප්‍රතික්‍රියා පළමු ව ප්‍රතිලෝම ඉංජිනේරු විශේෂඥ ජේන් මැන්චුන් වොන්ග් විසින් ට්විටර් හි  ප්‍රතිචාර ලෙස සහ ෆේස්බුක් හි මිශ්‍ර ප්‍රතික්‍රියා සහිත ව පෙන්වා දෙන ලදී.

2019 සැප්තැම්බරයේ දී හෙළිදරව් වූයේ ෆේස්බුක් විසින් පෝස්ට් වල ලයික් ගණන සැඟවීමට ඕස්ට්‍රේලියාවේ අත්හදා බැලීමක් පවත්වන බවයි.  2020 දී COVID-19 පුපුරා යාමේ දී, "Care" ප්‍රතික්‍රියාවක් Facebook වෙත එක් කරන ලදී.

"අකමැත්ත" බොත්තම
2014 දෙසැම්බරයේ මහජන ප්‍රශ්නෝත්තර සැසියක දී, ප්‍රධාන විධායක නිලධාරී මාර්ක් සකර්බර්ග් ෆේස්බුක් හි "අකමැත්ත" බොත්තමක් තිබීමට මහජනතාවගේ කැමැත්ත සම්බන්ධයෙන් ප්‍රශ්නවලට පිළිතුරු දුන්නේ ය. සකර්බර්ග් මෙසේ පැවසීය: "'කැමති' බොත්තම' ගැන ඉතා සරල දෙයක් තිබේ ... නමුත් මිනිසුන්ට වැඩි හැඟීම් ප්‍රකාශ කිරීමට තවත් ක්‍රම ලබා දීම බලවත් වනු ඇත. අපි එය කිරීමට නිවැරදි මාර්ගය සොයා ගත යුතුය, එවිට එය නරක සඳහා බලවේගයක් නොව යහපත සඳහා බලවේගයක් වන අතර මිනිසුන් එහි පළ කරන පෝස්ට් හෑල්ලූ වට ලක් කරයි. කැමති බොත්තම සුදුසු නොවන බව හැඟෙන පරිශීලකයින් සඳහා අදහස් දැක්වීමේ ක්ෂේත්‍රය යෝජනා කරන අතරම, ඔහු පැවසු වේ අකමැති බොත්තමක් හඳුන්වා දීමට Facebook හට "සැලසුම් නොමැති" බවයි.

2015 සැප්තැම්බරයේ නව ප්‍රශ්නෝත්තර යක දී, සකර්බර්ග් පැවසු වේ ඛේදවාචකවලට ගොදුරු වූ වන්ට සහය දැක්වීම වැනි "සංවේදක බොත්තමක්" මත Facebook කටයුතු කරන බවයි. ඔහු වැඩිදුරටත් අදහස් දක්වමින්, "මිනිස්සු අන් අයගේ තනතුරු අඩු කිරීමට හැකියාවක් සොයන්නේ නැත. ඔවුන්ට ඇත්තටම අවශ්‍ය වන්නේ සංවේදනය ප්‍රකාශ කිරීමට හැකි වීමයි. හැම මොහොතක් ම හොඳ අවස්ථාවක් නෙ වෙයි නේද? ඔබ දුකට පත් වන දෙයක් බෙදා ගන්නේ නම්, එය සරණාගත අර්බුදය වැනි වර්තමාන සිදුවීම්වල දී ඔබ ව ස්පර්ශ කරන දෙයක් හෝ පවුලේ සාමාජිකයෙකු මිය ගිය හොත්, එම පෝස්ටය ට Like කිරීම පහසු නො වනු ඇත."  2016 පෙබරවාරි මාසයේ දී Facebook විසින් එහි "ප්‍රතික්‍රියා" නිවේදනය කරන ලද අතර, පරිශීලකයින්ට "Love", "Haha", "Wow", "Sad", සහ "Angry",   COVID-19 වසංගතය හේතුවෙන් 2020 මාර්තු මාසයේ දී "Care" පසුව එකතු කිරීමත් සමඟ .

මහජන
Like බොත්තම යනු Facebook සමාජ ප්ලග්-ඉන් වලින් එකකි, එය එහි විවෘත ප්‍රස්ථාර යේ කොටසක් ලෙස Facebook වලින් පිටත වෙබ් අඩවි සඳහා විශේෂාංග වේ.   2010 අප්‍රේල් 21 වන දින සමාගමේ F8 සංවර්ධක සමුළුවේදී අදහස් දක්වමින් ප්‍රධාන විධායක නිලධාරී මාර්ක් සකර්බර්ග් පැවසුවේ "අපි පෙරනිමිය සමාජීය වන වෙබ් අඩවියක් ගොඩනඟමු" යනුවෙනි.   කැමති බොත්තම වෙළඳ ප්‍රචාරණ ජාලයකට සමානව ක්‍රියාත්මක වේ, එහි වැඩි වෙබ් අඩවි සහභාගී වන විට, කුමන වෙබ් අඩවි වලට පිවිසෙන්නේ ද සහ කවදාද යන්න පිළිබඳ ව ෆේස්බුක් වෙත විශාල තොරතුරු ප්‍රමාණයක් ලබා දේ. කැමති බොත්තම සක්‍රීය කර ඇති වෙබ් අඩවියක් පූරණය කරන විට, පරිශීලකයාගේ වෙබ් බ්‍රවුසරය Facebook හි සේවාදායකයන් වෙත සම්බන්ධ වන අතර එමඟින් කුමන වෙබ් අඩවියට පිවිසුණේ ද සහ කුමන පරිශීලකයා විසින් ද යන්න වාර්තා කරයි.

සමාජ ප්ලගීන නිකුත් කර සතියකට පසු, ෆේස්බුක් වෙබ් අඩවි 50,000 ක් වැනි බොත්තම ඇතුළු විශේෂාංග ස්ථාපනය කර ඇති බව නිවේදනය කළේ ය.  මාස පහකට පසු එම සංඛ්‍යාව වෙබ් අඩවි මිලියන 2 දක්වා වැඩි විය.

2010 දෙසැම්බරයේ දී සහ එක්සත් ජනපදයේ, Microsoft හි Bing සෙවුම් යන්ත්‍රය Facebook සමඟ හවුල් වී සෙවුම් ප්‍රතිඵලවල ඇති සබැඳි සෙවුම් කරුගේ Facebook මිතුරන් විසින් "කැමති" කර ඇත්තේ කුමක් දැයි හඳුනා ගැනීමට.

විවේචනය

ව්යාජ "කැමති"
Facebook හි ඇති "කැමති" සංඛ්‍යාව යම් වෙළඳ නාමයක්, නිෂ්පාදනයක් හෝ පෞරුෂයක් තුළ ඇති උනන්දුව සහ/හෝ ජනප්‍රියත්වය මැන බැලීමක් ලෙස ක්‍රියා කළ හැකි නමුත්, කැමති වල "අති පිරුණු වැදගත්කම" පිළිබඳ වාර්තා ද ඇත.  කීර්තිය හැඩගැස්වීමේ දී සමාජ මාධ්‍යවල බලපෑම හේතුවෙන්,  ව්‍යාජ ගිණුම් වලින් "කැමති" විකිණීමේ විශේෂිත සමාගම් තිබේ.  සත්‍ය පරිශීලක ප්‍රමිතික විකෘති කරන විශ්වසනීයත්වයකින් තොරව කැමති ප්‍රමාණයක් ලැබීම හේතුවෙන් මෙය Facebook හි ප්‍රචාරණය කරන සමාගම්වලට ගැටළු ඇති කර තිබේ.  Facebook හි සේවා කොන්දේසි ගිවිසුමේ සඳහන් වන්නේ පරිශීලකයින්ට එක් පුද්ගලික පිටුවක් පමණක් තිබීමට අවසර ඇති බවත්,  එයට ව්‍යාජ ගිණුම් වලට එරෙහිව "යුද්ධයක්" පවතින බවත්ය.   2015 මැයි මස ඇස්තමේන්තුවක් මගින් ව්‍යාජ ගිණුම් සංඛ්‍යාව මිලියන 170 ක් ලෙස දක්වා ඇත,  සහ 2011 සැප්තැම්බර් මාසයේ දී Symantec අධ්‍යයනයකින් හෙළි වූයේ මිලියන 3.5 ක වීඩියෝ පළ කිරීම් වලින් 15% ව්‍යාජ ලයික් හරහා සිදු කර ඇති බවයි.

අඩු ළඟා
අන්තර්ගත විශ්ලේෂණයක් මගින් පෙන්වා දෙන්නේ "කැමති" ප්‍රතික්‍රියාව "තිරිංග ආචරණයක්" ලෙස ලබා දී ඇති Facebook සටහනෙහි කාබනි ක ප්‍රවේශය අඩු කිරීමට ඉඩ ඇති බවයි. Facebook භාවිතා කරන්නන් බොහෝ විට මෙම අන්තර්ක්‍රියා බොත්තම යොදන්න, සමහර විට මේ නිසා Facebook ඇල්ගොරිතම අන්තර්ගත ශ්‍රේණිගත කිරීමේ දී ඍණාත්මක අංගයක් ලෙස "like" ප්‍රතික්‍රියාව භාවිතා කරයි.

ලුහුබැඳීම

පුද්ගලික ව හඳුනා ගත හැකි තොරතුරු සමඟ චර්යා ඉලක්ක කිරීම වැනි ඉලක්ක ගත වෙළඳ ප්‍රචාරණ සඳහා පරිශීලක ක්‍රියාකාරකම් නිරීක්ෂණය කිරීමට වෙබ් බීකන්ස් ලෙස ඔවුන්ගේ වෙබ් අඩවි හැර වෙනත් වෙබ් අඩවිවල බොත්තම් වැනි සමාජ ජාලය බොහෝ විට භාවිතා වන අතර එය අන්තර්ජාල පෞද්ගලිකත්වය උල්ලංඝනය කිරීමක් ලෙස සැලකිය හැකි ය.     2010 ජූනි මාසයේ දී, ඇමරිකානු සිවිල් නිදහස් සංගමය, ප්‍රජාතන්ත්‍රවාදය සහ තාක්ෂණ මධ්‍යස්ථානය, ඩිජිටල් ප්‍රජාතන්ත්‍රවාදය සඳහා මධ්‍යස්ථානය, පාරිභෝගික ක්‍රියාව, පාරිභෝගික මුර කරු, ඉලෙක්ට්‍රොනික මායිම් පදනම, ඉලෙක්ට්‍රොනික පෞද්ගලිකත්ව තොරතුරු මධ්‍යස්ථානය, රහස්‍යතා ක්‍රියාකාරීත්වය, පෞද්ගලිකත්ව අයිතිවාසිකම් සහ රහස්‍යතා අයිතිවාසිකම් විවෘත ලිපියක් එවන ලදී. ෆේස්බුක් වෙත ඉල්ලා සිටින්නේ "අඩවි නරඹන්නන් එම මෙවලම් සමඟ අන්තර් ක්‍රියා කිරීමට තෝරා ගන්නේ නම් මිස, "සමාජ ප්ලගීන" හෝ "වැනි" බොත්තම ඇතුළත් තෙවෙන පාර්ශවීය අඩවි වෙත නිශ්චිත අමුත්තන් පිළිබඳ දත්ත රඳවා නො ගන්න.

මෙම ක්‍රියාකාරකම සම්බන්ධයෙන් විවිධ රජයන් ද පරීක්ෂණ ආරම්භ කර ඇත. 2010 සැප්තැම්බර් මාසයේ දී එවකට කැනඩාවේ රහස්‍යතා කොමසාරිස් Jennifer Stoddart Facebook ට එරෙහිව නව විමර්ශනයක් ප්‍රකාශයට පත් කරන ලද අතර, Facebook වෙතින් පිටත ඇති කැමති බොත්තම කැනඩාවේ රහස්‍යතා නීති උල්ලංඝනය කරන බවට චෝදනා කළේය.  2011 අගෝස්තු මාසයේ දී, ජර්මානු දත්ත ආරක්ෂණ කොමසාරිස් කාර්යාලය ෆෙඩරල් ආයතනවලට ෆේස්බුක් භාවිතය නතර කරන ලෙසත් ඔවුන්ගේ වෙබ් අඩවිවලින් කැමති බොත්තම ඉවත් කරන ලෙසත් නියෝග කළේය.  2015 නොවැම්බරයේ දී, බෙල්ජියමේ රජය Facebook වෙත පුරනය නොවූ පුද්ගලයින් ලුහුබැඳීම නැවැත්වීමට Facebook වෙත පැය 48ක් ලබා දී ඇත, එසේත් නැතිනම් EUR € 250,000 ක දෛනික දඩයක් ලැබෙනු ඇත,  එය අභියාචනා කරන බව Facebook පැවසීය.

එහි ආරක්ෂාව සඳහා, Facebook 2010 ජූනි මාසයේ දී CNET වෙත පැවසු වේ කුමන වෙබ් අඩවි වලට පිවිසියේ ද යන්න පිළිබඳ තොරතුරු මාස තුනකට පසුව නිර්නාමික කර ඇති අතර, තෙවෙන පාර්ශවයත් සමඟ බෙදා නො ගැනී ම හෝ විකිණීම සිදු නො කරන බවයි.

නිදහස් අදහස්
2009 දී , වර්ජිනියාවේ හැම්ප්ටන් හි ෂෙරිෆ් බීජේ රොබට්ස් ෂෙරිෆ්ගේ මැතිවරණයේ දී ඔහුගේ ප්‍රතිවාදියාගේ ෆේස්බුක් පිටුවට "ලයික්" කළ සේවකයින් කිහිප දෙනෙකු සේවයෙන් පහ කළේය. භාෂණයේ නිදහස පිළිබඳ එක්සත් ජනපද ආණ්ඩුක්‍රම ව්‍යවස්ථාවේ පළමු සංශෝධනය මගින් "කැමති" එකක් ආරක්ෂා කළ යුතු බවට තර්කයක් සමඟ එක් සේවකයෙක් උසාවියේ දී නැවත සටන් කළේ ය.   2013 සැප්තැම්බරයේ දී, ෆෙඩරල් අභියාචනාධිකරණයක් "කැමති" යනු සංශෝධන යටතේ ආරක්ෂිත කථන ආකාරයක් බවට තීන්දු කරන ලද අතර, "වඩාත් ම මූලික මට්ටමින්, 'ලයික්' බොත්තම ක්ලික් කිරීම වචනාර්ථයෙන් පරිශීලකයා' යන ප්‍රකාශය ප්‍රකාශයට පත් කිරීමට හේතු වන බව ප්‍රකාශ කළේ ය. යමක් කැමති, එය ම වැදගත් ප්‍රකාශයකි. දේශපාලන ව්‍යාපාරයක පිටුවක සන්දර්භය තුළ, පරිශීලකයා කැමති පිටුවට කැමති අපේක්ෂකත්වය අනුමත කරයි යන අර්ථය නොවරදවා ම වේ. පරිශීලකයෙකුට එම පණිවිඩය තනි යතුරු පහරවල් කිහිපයකින් ටයිප් කරනවා වෙනුවට ඔහු පිටුවට කැමති බවට එම පණිවිඩය නිපදවීමට තනි මූසික ක්ලික් කිරීමක් භාවිතා කළ හැකි බව ව්‍යවස්ථාම ය වශයෙන් වැදගත් නොවේ."

සමාගම් පිටු සඳහා කාබනික ප්‍රවේශය අඩු වීම
2014 දී, ඔගිල්වි සහ මාදර් ප්‍රචාරණ ආයතනයේ අංශයක් වන Social@Ogilvy විසින් "Facebook Zero: Considering Life After the Demise of Organic" නමින් පුළුල් ලෙස උපුටා දක්වන ලද      ධවල පත්‍රිකාවක් ප්‍රකාශයට පත් කරන ලදී. Reach", ව්‍යාපාර සහ වෙළඳ නාම පිටු වලින් ප්‍රකාශනය කරන ලද අන්තර්ගත සීමා කිරීම Facebook හි ලේඛන ගත කිරීම. බිංදුව යනු ඕනෑම පිටුවක අනුගාමිකයින්ගේ ප්‍රක්ෂේපණය කළ ප්‍රතිශතයට හෝ "Likes" ඔවුන්ගේ පුද්ගලික පුවත් සංග්‍රහවල එම පිටුවෙන් පළ කිරීම් දැකීමට හැකි වේ. ෆේස්බුක් ඇල්ගොරිතමවල ගැලපීම් මගින් නො ගෙවන ව්‍යාපාරික පිටු සඳහා කාබනික ප්‍රවේශය (අවම වශයෙන් 500,000 Likes ඇති) 2012 හි සියයට 16 සිට 2014  වන විට සියයට 2 දක්වා අඩු වී ඇති බව පුවත්පතේ කතුවරයා නිරීක්ෂණය කරයි.

බාලවයස්කරුවන්ට ප්‍රචාරණයට "කැමති" වීමේ හැකියාව
2010 දී නඩුවක් ගොනු කරන ලද්දේ ෆේස්බුක් බාලවයස්කරුවන්ට වෙළඳ දැන්වීම් වලට "ලයික්" කිරීම ට ඉඩ නොදි ය යුතු බව පවසමි නි. ෆේස්බුක් පැවසු වේ ඇඳුම "සම්පූර්ණයෙන්ම කුසලතාවකින් තොර ව" බවයි.

සමීප පරිශීලක විස්තර
ලිංගික දිශානතිය, දේශපාලන සහ ආගමික අදහස්, ජාතිය, මත් ද්‍රව්‍ය භාවිතය, බුද්ධිය සහ පෞරුෂය වැනි පුද්ගලයෙකු පිළිබඳ සමීප තොරතුරු අනුමාන කිරීමට Facebook කැමැත්ත ස්වයංක්‍රීය ව සැකසිය හැකි බව පර්යේෂණවලින් පෙනී යයි. ඵලදායි ලෙස, තනි පුද්ගල අදහස් සහ මනාපය න් සෘජු ව ප්‍රකාශ නො කළත් හෝ ආශ්‍රිත අන්තර්ගතයට කැමති වීමෙන් ඇඟවුම් නො කළත් හෙළි කළ හැක.

"Surfbook" නීතිමය ක්‍රියාමාර්ග
2013 පෙබරවාරියේ දී, පේටන්ට් බලපත්‍ර හිමි සමාගමක් වන Rembrandt Social Media විසින් Facebook වෙත එරෙහිව නීතිමය ක්‍රියාමාර්ග ගෙන ඇත. 2004 දී මිය ගිය ලන්දේසි ක්‍රමලේඛකයෙකු වන ජොආන්ස් ජොසෙෆ් එවරාර්ඩස් වැන් ඩර් මීර් විසින් ලබාගත් පේටන්ට් බලපත්‍ර කිහිපයක් රෙම්බ්‍රාන්ඩ් සතු ව ඇත  මේවාට 1998 දී වැන් ඩර් මීර්ගේ නව සමාජ ජාලය වන Surfbook සම්බන්ධව ගොනු කරන ලද පේටන්ට් බලපත්‍ර ඇතුළත් වේ, පේටන්ට් බලපත්‍ර හිමියා විසින් ගොනු කරන ලද නීතිමය පත්‍රිකාවලට අනුව, පරිශීලකයින්ට "කැමති" බොත්තමක් භාවිතයෙන් දත්ත අනුමත කිරීමේ හැකියාව ඇතුළුව.

"ප්‍රයිඩ්" ප්‍රතික්‍රියාවේ සීමිත භූගෝලීය ප්‍රවේශය
2017 ජුනි මාසයේ දී, අභිමානවත් මාසය සැමරීමේ දී, Facebook එහි ප්‍රතික්‍රියා විකල්පවල කොටසක් ලෙස දේදුනු ධජයක් හඳුන්වා දුන්නේ ය.    කෙසේ වෙතත්, දේදුනු ප්රතික්රියාව ට ප්රවේශ ය ස්ථානය මත රඳා පවතී. "ප්‍රයිඩ් සැමරුම් සහිත ප්‍රධාන වෙලඳ පොලවල්" සඳහා, අභිමානවත් ප්‍රතික්‍රියාව පෙරනිමියෙන් ලබා ගත හැකි අතර අනෙකුත් ප්‍රදේශවල, Facebook හි LGBTQ පිටුවට "Like" කිරීම විශේෂාංගය සබල කරයි. සමලිංගිකත්ව ය නීති විරෝධී වන ප්‍රදේශවල, විශේෂාංගය කිසිසේත්ම නො ලැබේ.  මෙය විවාදයට තුඩු දුන් අතර, වයිස්ගේ මවු පුවරුවේ ජිලියන් යෝර්ක් විසින්  ෆේස්බුක් හි අරමුණ ලෝකය වඩාත් විවෘත හා සම්බන්ධ කිරීම නම්, එය ආරම්භ කළ හැක්කේ විකාර ප්‍රජාවන්ට සමානාත්මතාවයෙන් සැලකීමෙන්",  සහ ද නෙක්ස්ට් වෙබ් ලිවීමේ ට්‍රිස්ටන් ග්‍රීන් "මට නොතේරෙන දේ, ෆේස්බුක්, ඔබ මේ දේවල් කිසිසේත් සීමා කරන්නේ ඇයි? නැඟෙනහිර අර්ධගෝලයේ ෆේස්බුක් වසා දැමීමට පෙර ඔබට බොහෝ දේදුන්නක් පමණක් ඇති මතකයේ වාරිකයක් ති බේද?"  බ්ලොග් සටහනක ෆේස්බුක් ප්‍රකාශ කළේ "මෙය අප විසින් පරීක්‍ෂා කරන ලද නව අත්දැකීමක් බැවින්" විවිධ මට්ටමේ ප්‍රවේශයන් අවශ්‍ය වූ බවයි, නමුත් පරිශීලක ප්‍රතිපෝෂණය කැප වූ හැලොවීන් සහ මව්වරු න් ඇතුළු කලින් තාවකාලික ප්‍රතික්‍රියා පෙන්වා දීමෙන් මෙම චින්තනය ප්‍රශ්න කර ඇත. හැමෝම සමරන්නේ නැතත් සියලු ම පරිශීලකයින්ට ලබා ගත හැකි දින ප්‍රතිචාර.

Facebook like button


The Second Avenue Subway (internally referred to as the IND Second Avenue Line by the MTA and abbreviated to SAS) is a New York City Subway line that runs under Second Avenue on the East Side of Manhattan. The first phase of this new line, with three new stations on Manhattan's Upper East Side, opened on January 1, 2017. The full Second Avenue Line, if and when it will be funded, will be built in three more phases to eventually connect Harlem–125th Street in Harlem to Hanover Square in Lower Manhattan. The proposed full line would be  and 16 stations long, serve a projected 560,000 daily riders, and cost more than $17 billion.

The line was originally proposed in 1920 as part of a massive expansion of what would become the Independent Subway System (IND). In anticipation of the Second Avenue Subway being built to replace them, parallel elevated lines along Second Avenue and Third Avenue were demolished in 1942 and 1955, respectively, despite several factors causing plans for the Second Avenue Subway to be cancelled. Construction on the line began in 1972 as part of the Program for Action. It was halted in 1975 because of the city's fiscal crisis, leaving only a few short segments of tunnels completed. Work on the line restarted in April 2007 following the development of a financially secure construction plan. The first phase of the line, consisting of the 96th Street, 86th Street and 72nd Street stations, as well as  of tunnel, cost $4.45 billion. A , $6 billion second phase from 96th to 125th Streets is in planning .

Phase 1 is served by the Q train at all times and limited rush-hour N and R trains. Phase 2 will extend the line's northern terminus from 96th Street to Harlem–125th Street. Both the Q and limited N services will be extended to 125th Street. Phase 3 will extend the line south from 72nd Street to Houston Street in Manhattan's Lower East Side. Upon completion, a new T train will serve the entire line from Harlem to Houston Street. Phase 4 will again extend the line south from Houston Street to Hanover Square, maintaining the T designation for the entire line. The T will be colored  since it will use the Second Avenue Line through Midtown Manhattan.

Extent and service
Services that use the Second Avenue Line through Midtown Manhattan are to be colored . The following services use part or all of the Second Avenue Line:

Phase 1
Phase 1 of the Second Avenue Line opened in January 2017. It runs under Manhattan's Second Avenue from 65th Street to 105th Street, with stations at 72nd Street, 86th Street, and 96th Street. It is double-tracked along its entire length, with tracks in parallel tubes bored by tunnel boring machines, and central island platforms at all stations. North of 96th Street, both tracks continue as storage tracks until they end at 105th Street.

As part of Phase 1, the Second Avenue Subway connects to the BMT Broadway Line using an existing connection via the 63rd Street Line. The Q, as well as limited rush-hour N and R, operates northward from 57th Street–Seventh Avenue on the Broadway Line, curving east under Central Park on the 63rd Street Line. Broadway Line trains then stop at Lexington Avenue–63rd Street with a cross-platform interchange to the  train before merging with the Second Avenue Line near 65th Street. This connection also connects to the Sixth Avenue Line allowing for trains from the Sixth Avenue line to access the Second Avenue Subway, though this connection has been unused in regular service . The northbound 63rd Street Connector track dips below the level of Phase 3's planned tunnels, providing for a future flying junction between the connector and the rest of the Second Avenue Line.

Plans for expansion
The long-term plans for the Second Avenue Subway involve digging  of new tunnels north to Harlem–125th Street in Harlem and south to Hanover Square in the Financial District of Lower Manhattan. The entire line would also be double-tracked, except for a tentatively four-tracked segment between 21st and 9th Streets, including the 14th Street station, with the outer two tracks used to store trains. After Phase 4 is completed, the residents of East Harlem and the Upper East Side will have mass transit service down both Second Avenue and Broadway to the Financial District (the latter via transfer to Broadway local trains), as well as across the Manhattan Bridge to Brooklyn via the Q train.

An additional two-track connection is planned at around 63rd Street that will connect the Lower Manhattan-bound tracks on the Second Avenue Line with the Queens-bound tracks on the IND 63rd Street Line, using existing bellmouths at 63rd Street and First Avenue. Current plans do not call for it to be used by regular service. Instead, it would be used for moving out-of-service trains. The connection would allow for trains to run from the Financial District to Queens if the capacity of the IND Queens Boulevard Line were increased, or if the Queens Bypass were built.

Service from Queens via the 63rd Street Tunnel would allow for the full capacity of the line south of 63rd Street to be used. The whole line will be designed to accommodate 30 trains per hour, with the exception of the terminal at Hanover Square, which will only be able to handle 26 trains per hour (TPH). The portion north of 63rd Street is planned to have 14 TPH on the Q and 14 TPH on the T, for a combined 28 trains per hour on both routes. South of there, only 14 TPH on the T are planned, although 12 additional TPH could be provided in the future via the 63rd Street Tunnel. The 2004 plans for the Second Avenue Subway include the construction of short track segments to allow a future extension north under Second Avenue past 125th Street to the Bronx, as well as an extension south to Brooklyn.

In order to store the 330 additional subway cars needed for the operation of the line, storage tracks would be built between 21st Street and 9th Street along the main alignment. The 36th–38th Street Yard in Sunset Park, Brooklyn, would also be reconfigured.

The Second Avenue Subway is chained as "S". The track map in the 2004 FEIS showed that all stations, except for 125th Street, would have two tracks and one island platform. 72nd Street and 125th Street were conceived as three-track, two-platform stations. 72nd Street was eventually scaled down to a two-track, center island platform station in order to reduce costs, A three-tracked 72nd Street station would have allowed trains from the Broadway Line to short-turn (reverse) without interfering with mainline service on Second Avenue, as well as provided additional operational flexibility for construction work and non-revenue moves. In July 2018, the 125th Street station was also scaled down to a two-track, one-platform station because the MTA had ascertained that two-tracked terminals would be sufficient to handle train capacities, and that building a third track would have caused unnecessary impacts to surrounding buildings.

History

Initial attempts

After World War I, the New York City Subway experienced a surge in ridership. By 1920, 1.3 billion annual passengers were riding the subway, compared to 523 million annual riders just seven years before the war. In 1919, the New York Public Service Commission launched a study at the behest of engineer Daniel L. Turner to determine what improvements were needed in the city's public transport system. Turner's final paper, titled Proposed Comprehensive Rapid Transit System, was a massive plan calling for new routes under almost every north-south Manhattan avenue, extensions to lines in Brooklyn and Queens, and several crossings of the Narrows to Staten Island. Among the plans was a massive trunk line under Second Avenue consisting of at least six tracks and numerous branches throughout Brooklyn, Queens, and the Bronx. The Second and Third Avenue elevated lines were to be knocked down to make room for the 6-track subway. The paper was revised in January 1927.

In September 1929, the Board of Transportation of the City of New York (BOT) tentatively approved the expansion, which included a Second Avenue Line with a projected construction cost of $98.9 million (equivalent to $ in ), not counting land acquisition. In the north, several spur lines in the Bronx would merge into a four-track trunk line, crossing the Harlem River south to 125th Street. There would be six tracks from 125th Street to a link with the IND Sixth Avenue Line at 61st Street, then four tracks from 61st Street to Chambers Street, and two tracks from Chambers Street to Pine Street.

The Great Depression began that year and the soaring costs of the expansion became unmanageable. Construction on the first phase of the IND was already behind schedule, and the city and state were no longer able to provide funding. In 1930, the line was scaled down, with the line from 125th to Houston Streets to be complete by 1940, as well as a spur along 34th Street to be done by 1948. This scaled-down plan was postponed in 1931. In 1932, the Board of Transportation modified the plan to further reduce costs, omitting a branch in the Bronx, and truncating the line's southern terminus to the Nassau Street Loop.

Further revision of the plan and more studies followed. By 1939, construction had been postponed indefinitely, with only a short length being completed above the Second Avenue station. The Second Avenue Line was relegated to "proposed" status, and was number 14 on the Board of Transportation's list of important transportation projects. The line was cut to two tracks with single northern branch through Throggs Neck, Bronx, a connection to the BMT Broadway Line in Manhattan, and a continuation south onto the IND Fulton Street Line in Brooklyn via that line's Court Street station. The subway's projected cost went up to US$249 million (equivalent to $ in ). The United States' entry into World War II in 1941 halted all but the most urgent public works projects, delaying the Second Avenue Line once again.

As part of the unification of the three subway companies that comprised the New York City Subway in 1940, elevated lines were being shut down all over the city and replaced by subways. The northern half of the Second Avenue Elevated, serving the Upper East Side and East Harlem, closed on June 11, 1940. The southern half, running through Lower Manhattan, East Midtown and across the Queensboro Bridge to Queens, closed on June 13, 1942. The demolition of the Second Avenue elevated caused overcrowding on the Astoria and Flushing Lines in Queens, which no longer had direct service to Manhattan's far East Side. The elevated line's closure, as well as a corresponding increase in the East Side's population, increased the need for a Second Avenue subway.

In 1944, BOT superintendent Philip E. Pheifer put forth a proposal for Second Avenue Subway services, which would branch extensively off to B Division. The subway was originally to be opened by 1951, but in 1945, plans for the Second Avenue Subway were again revised. Another plan was put forth in 1947 by Colonel Sidney H. Bingham, a city planner and former Interborough Rapid Transit Company (IRT) engineer. O'Dwyer and Gross believed that construction of a Second Avenue subway line would be vital to both increasing capacity on existing lines and allowing new branch lines to be built. Bingham's proposal involved more branch lines and track connections than did Phiefer's, and similar to the 1960s and 1990s phased proposals, was to be built in sections. In 1948, New York City was short $145 million of the $800 million program needed for rehabilitation and proposed capital improvements. The City petitioned the New York State Legislature to exceed its $655 million debt ceiling so that the city could spend $500 million on subway construction, but this request was denied.

The BOT then ordered ten new prototype subway cars made of stainless steel from the Budd Company. These R11 cars, so called because of their contract number, were delivered in 1949 and specifically intended for the Second Avenue Subway. They cost US$100,000 (equivalent to $ in ) each; the train became known as the "million dollar train". The cars featured porthole style round windows and a new public address system. Reflecting public health concerns of the day, especially regarding polio, the R11 cars were equipped with electrostatic air filters and ultraviolet lamps in their ventilation systems to kill germs.

In 1949, Queens and Lower Manhattan residents complained that the Second Avenue Subway would not create better transit options for them. In 1950, a revised plan involved connections from Queens. New York voters approved a bond measure for its construction in 1951, and the city was barely able to raise the requisite $559 million for the construction effort. However, the onset of the Korean War caused soaring prices for construction materials and saw the beginning of massive inflation. Money from the 1951 bond measure was diverted to buy new cars, lengthen platforms, and maintain other parts of the aging New York City Subway system. Out of a half-billion-dollar bond measure, only $112 million (equivalent to $ in ), or 22% of the original amount, went toward the Second Avenue Subway. By then, construction was due to start by either 1952 or 1957, with estimated completion by 1958 at the earliest.

The Third Avenue Elevated, the only other elevated line in the area, closed on May 13, 1955, and was demolished in 1956. The Lexington Avenue Line was now the only subway transportation option on the East Side, leading to overcrowding. By 1957, the 1951 bond issue had been almost entirely used for other projects, and The New York Times despaired of the line's ever being built. "It certainly will cost more than $500 million and will require a new bond issue", wrote one reporter.

1970s construction

As the early 1960s progressed, the East Side experienced an increase in development, and the Lexington Avenue Line became overcrowded. In 1962, construction began on a connection between the Manhattan and Williamsburg Bridges and the Sixth Avenue Line. This segment, the Chrystie Street Connection, was first proposed in the 1947 plan as the southern end of the Second Avenue line, which would feed into the two bridges. When opened in November 1967, the connection included the new Grand Street station on the Sixth Avenue Line (another station, 57th Street, opened in July 1968), and introduced the most significant service changes ever carried out in the subway's history. Grand Street, located under Chrystie Street (the southern end of Second Avenue) was designed to include cross-platform transfers between the Sixth Avenue and Second Avenue Lines.

Separately, in 1967, voters approved a $ (worth about $ in current dollars) Transportation Bond Issue, which provided over $ (worth $ today) for New York City projects, including for a 1968 Program for Action. The City secured a $25 million Urban Mass Transportation Act (UMTA) grant for initial construction. The Program for Action proposed a Second Avenue line to be built in two phases: a first phase north of 34th Street and a second phase south of there. The Second Avenue project, for a line from 34th Street to the Bronx, was given top priority.

The line's planned stops in Manhattan, spaced farther apart than those on existing subway lines, proved controversial. The Second Avenue line was criticized as a "rich man's express, circumventing the Lower East Side with its complexes of high-rise low- and middle-income housing and slums in favor of a silk stocking route." In response to protests, the MTA added stations at 72nd Street and 96th Street. The MTA issued a plan for a spur line, called the "cuphandle", to serve the heart of the Lower East Side. Branching off from the IND Sixth Avenue Line near the Second Avenue station, the spur would run east on Houston Street, turn north on Avenue C, and turn west on 14th Street, connecting to the BMT Canarsie Line.

A combination of Federal and State funding was obtained for the project. In March 1972, the entire cost of the section between 34th Street and 126th Street, according to the project's Draft Environmental Study, was estimated to be $381 million. In June 1972, it was announced that UMTA would grant $25 million for the construction of this section of the line. The MTA had requested $254 million in federal funds for the northern part of the line. Preliminary estimates of the cost of the southern portion of the line came to $450 million.

Construction on a tunnel segment between 99th and 105th Streets began in October 1972.  A second segment between 110th and 120th Street in East Harlem started construction in March 1973. In October 1973, the line's Chinatown segment began construction at Canal Street under the foot of the Manhattan Bridge between Canal and Division Streets. A fourth segment started construction in July 1974, between Second and Ninth Streets in the East Village. In total, construction on the Second Avenue Line during the 1970s spanned over 27 blocks.

The city soon experienced its most dire fiscal crisis yet, due to the stagnant economy of the early 1970s, combined with the massive outflow of city residents to the suburbs. The system was already in decline. The subway had seen a 40% decrease in ridership since 1947, and a $200 million subsidy for the MTA, as well as a 1952 fare increase had not been enough to pay for basic upkeep for the subway system, let alone fund massive expansion projects like the Second Avenue Subway. When plans were finalized in 1971, the subway had been proposed for completion by 1980, but two years later, its completion date was forecast as 2000. In October 1974, the MTA chairman, David Yunich, announced that the completion of the line north of 42nd Street was pushed back to 1983 and the portion to the south in 1988.

In December 1974, New York City mayor Abraham Beame proposed a six-year transit construction program that would reallocate $5.1 billion of funding from the Second Avenue Line to complete new lines in Queens and to modernize the existing infrastructure, which was rapidly deteriorating and in dire need of repair. Beame issued a stop-work order for the line in September 1975, whereupon construction of the section between Second and Ninth Streets was halted, and no other funding was allocated to the line's construction. Besides the Chrystie Street Connection, only three sections of tunnel had been completed. These tunnels were sealed.

In 1978, when the New York City Subway was at its lowest point in its existence, State Comptroller Arthur Levitt stated that there were no plans to finish the line. During the 1980s, plans for the Second Avenue line stagnated. Construction on the 63rd Street Lines continued. The IND portion of the line opened in 1989 and extended to 21st Street–Queensbridge in Long Island City, Queens, but it did not include a connection to the Second Avenue line. Of this failure to complete construction, Gene Russianoff, an advocate for subway riders since 1981, stated: "It's the most famous thing that's never been built in New York City, so everyone is skeptical and rightly so. It's much-promised and never delivered."

1990s plans

With the city's economic and budgetary recovery in the 1990s, there was a revival of efforts to complete construction of the SAS. Rising ridership on the IRT Lexington Avenue Line, the only subway trunk line east of Central Park, demonstrated the need for the Second Avenue Line, as capacity and safety concerns rose. The four-track IRT Lexington Avenue Line, the lone rapid transit option in the Upper East Side and East Harlem since the 1955 closure of the Third Avenue elevated, is the most crowded subway line in the country. The line saw an average of 1.3 million daily riders in 2015. This is more than the daily ridership of the second-busiest subway system in the U.S., the Washington Metro, as well as more than the combined daily riderships of San Francisco's and Boston's transit systems. Local bus routes are just as crowded during various times of the day, with the parallel M15 local and M15 Select Bus Service routes seeing 46,000 passengers per weekday in 2016, translating to 14.5 million passengers that year.

In 1991, then-New York Governor Mario Cuomo allocated $22 million to renew planning and design efforts for the Second Avenue line, but two years later, the MTA, facing budget cuts, removed these funds from its capital budget. In 1995, the MTA began its Manhattan East Side Alternatives (MESA) study, both a MIS and a DEIS, seeking ways to alleviate overcrowding on the Lexington Avenue Line and improve mobility on Manhattan's East Side.. Second Avenue was chosen over First Avenue for logistical reasons. The MTA started the Lower Manhattan Access Study (LMA) in November 1997. The construction of the Second Avenue Subway from 63rd Street to Lower Manhattan was one of the five building alternatives developed by the study. A 1999 DEIS only proposed new subway service on Second Avenue from 63rd to 125th Street, as well as swapping the local and express services on the Broadway Line. A spur to Grand Central Terminal was considered, but later dropped due to its infeasibility.

Due in part to strong public support, the MTA Board committed in April 2000 to building a full-length subway line along the East Side, from East Harlem to Lower Manhattan. In May 2000, the MTA Capital Program Review Board approved the MTA's 2000–2004 Capital Program, which allocated $1.05 billion for the construction of the Second Avenue Subway. The next year, a contract for subway design was awarded to DMJM Harris/Arup Joint Venture. A new draft statement proposed the full-length line from 125th to 14th Streets; in Lower Manhattan; it was decided to build the line under Water Street.

In December 2001, the Federal Transit Administration approved the start of preliminary engineering on a full-length Second Avenue Subway. The MTA's final environmental impact statement (FEIS) was approved in April 2004. This latest proposal is for a two-track line from 125th Street and Lexington Avenue in Harlem, down Second Avenue to Hanover Square in the Financial District. The final plan called for the full-length Second Avenue line to carry two services: the T, with a route emblem colored , as well as a rerouted Q train. Phase 1 rerouted the Q, the Broadway Express via the BMT 63rd Street Line and north along Second Avenue, to the Upper East Side at 96th Street. Phase 2 will extend the rerouted Q train to 125th Street and Lexington Avenue. In Phase Three, the new T train will run from 125th Street to Houston Street. The final phase will extend T train service from Houston Street to Hanover Square in Lower Manhattan.

The  first phase was built within budget, at $4.45 billion. Its construction site was designated as being from 105th Street and Second Avenue to 63rd Street and Third Avenue. Deep bore tunneling methods were to be used in order to avoid the disruptions for road traffic, pedestrians, utilities and local businesses produced by cut-and-cover methods of past generations. Stations were to retain cut-and-cover construction. The total cost of the  line is expected to exceed $17 billion. In 2014, MTA Capital Construction President Dr. Michael Horodniceanu stated that the whole line may be completed as early as 2029, and would serve 560,000 daily passengers upon completion. As of December 2016, only Phases 1 and 2 would be completed by 2029. The line is described as the New York City Subway's "first major expansion" in more than a half-century. It would add two tracks to fill the gap that has existed since the elevated Second and Third Avenue Lines were demolished in the 1950s. According to the line's final environmental impact statement, the catchment area of the line's first phase would include 200,000 daily riders.

Phase 1 construction
New York voters passed a transportation bond issue in November 2005, allowing for dedicated funding allocated for that phase. Its passage had been seen as critical to its construction, but the bond was passed only by a narrow margin, with 55% of voters approving and 45% disapproving. At the time, the MTA said that the project would be done in 2012 in case the city's 2012 Summer Olympics bid succeeded, which it had not. In December 2006, the United States Department of Transportation (USDOT) announced that they would allow the MTA to commit up to $693 million in funds to begin construction of the Second Avenue Subway and that the federal share of such costs would be reimbursed with FTA transit funds, subject to appropriations and final labor certification. The USDOT also later gave $1.3 billion in federal funding for the project's first phase, to be funded over a seven-year period. Preliminary engineering and a final tunnel design was completed by a joint venture between AECOM and Arup.

In March 2007, upon completion of preliminary engineering, the MTA awarded a contract for constructing the tunnels, a launch box for the tunnel boring machine (TBM), and access shafts to S3, a joint venture of Schiavone Construction, Skanska USA Civil, and J.F. Shea Construction. A ceremonial groundbreaking took place on April 12, 2007, at the 99th Street tunnel segment built in the 1970s. Actual construction work began on April 23, 2007. At the time, it was announced that passengers would be able to ride trains on the new line by the end of 2013.  Due to cost increases, several features of the subway were cut back soon after construction started: for instance, the 72nd Street station was downsized. The MTA also postponed its completion date several times to 2016.

In 2009, contracts were awarded for the 96th Street station box, as well as for excavation around the 86th Street stations. The TBM began boring the western tunnel southward from 96th Street in 2010. Contracts for tunnels to the Lexington Avenue–63rd Street station, and for the excavation of the 72nd Street station, were awarded in 2010. The following year, contracts were awarded for excavation of the cavern at the 86th Street station, as well as construction for the Lexington Avenue–63rd Street station.

The TBM, digging at a rate of approximately  per day, finished its run at the planned endpoint under 65th Street on February 5, 2011, and started digging the eastern tunnel. On March 28, 2011, S3, having completed its task of completing the  west tunnel to 65th Street, began drilling the east tunnel to the bellmouth at the existing Lexington Avenue–63rd Street station. The portion of the west tunnel remaining to be created was then mined using conventional drill-and-blast methods. In September 2011, the TBM completed its run to the Lexington Avenue–63rd Street station's bellmouth.

In July 2013, the MTA opened a Second Avenue Subway Community Information Center for Phase 1 at 1628 Second Avenue between 84th and 85th Streets. In the three years that followed, the center was visited over 20,000 times. The final contract for Phase 1 was awarded in June 2013.  Blasting for the station caverns was finished in November 2013, and the muck houses were taken down at around the same time. In late 2013, many of the tracks and signal panels began to arrive at the construction site, to be installed on the line over the next few years.

In February 2016, the MTA allocated $66 million to speed up the construction of the first phase so that it could open in December. Concerns about the line's timely opening persisted through October and November. Test trains started running on October 9, 2016, and out-of-service Q trains started running through the subway in November 2016. The new Third Avenue entrance to the Lexington Avenue–63rd Street station opened on December 30, 2016. The ceremonial first train, with several prominent officials in attendance, ran on New Year's Eve, and regular service began at noon the next day. About 48,200 passengers entered the new stations on January 1, excluding passengers who toured the line by entering at a station in the rest of the system.

Because of the opening of Phase 1, ridership on the Lexington Avenue Line at the 68th Street, 77th Street, 86th Street, and 96th Street stations decreased in January 2017 compared to January 2016. The Second Avenue Line's three stations and the renovated Lexington Avenue–63rd Street station saw an average weekday ridership of more than 150,000 by the end of January. The 72nd Street station was the busiest of the line's new stations, with an average daily ridership of 44,000. By April, taxi usage in the area also saw a decline of more than 20% compared to before the line's opening.

By February 2018, there were 190,000 riders per weekday, within the 5% margin of error for the 200,000-daily-rider estimate given in the Environmental Impact Statement. Rush-hour ridership was within 2% of projections. In November 2017, because of the increasing demand, Q service was increased by one trip during each rush hour, and one northbound R trip was rerouted from the IND Queens Boulevard Line to further boost service. This trip returns southbound in Q service.

Phase 2 construction

The second phase, between 125th and 96th Streets, was allocated $535 million in the MTA's 2015–2019 Capital Plan for planning, design, environmental studies and utility relocation. Three new stations will be constructed at 125th Street, 116th Street and 106th Street. A transfer to the Lexington Avenue Line and an intermodal connection with Metro-North Railroad would be available at the Harlem–125th Street station.

The original plan called for the main line to turn west onto 125th Street with tail tracks to Fifth Avenue, while tail tracks would continue north on a spur via Second Avenue to 129th Street. However, the tail tracks to 129th Street, as well as a proposed ancillary building at 127th Street and Second Avenue, were removed in a June 2018 update to the plans. The change in tail tracks was made because it was found that providing tail tracks at the line's terminal will more efficiently facilitate subway service.

A bellmouth provision for extension to the Bronx remains, though shifted closer to the 116th Street station at 118th Street. Here, two outer tracks will head west toward 125th Street while space for two inner tracks will allow for an extension to the Bronx. North of 120th Street, the line will be constructed through the use of TBMs. South of 120th Street, the line will utilize the 99th–105th and 110th–120th Streets tunnel sections built during the 1970s, with a cut-and-cover tunnel connecting the segments between 105th and 110th Streets.

The Phase 2 budget was originally $1.5 billion, which would be used to start construction of the tunnels. The MTA reduced the amount of money allocated in the budget, projecting that the agency would not be able to start construction by the end of the 5-year cycle in 2019. In April 2016, the MTA and the State of New York reached a deal to restore funding to Phase 2, with a total of $1.035 billion allocated. This budget was raised by $700 million in May 2017. By August 2017, preliminary work on the line was underway, and design of the project was being performed by Phase 2 Partnership, a joint venture of Parsons-Brinckerhoff and STV. The EIS and design were finished in 2018. In July 2018, the MTA published a Supplemental Environmental Assessment for the SAS FEIS. The FTA issued a Finding of No Significant Impact for the project on November 15, 2018.

A Second Avenue Subway Community Information Center for Phase 2, along 125th Street between Park and Madison Avenues, opened in September 2017, delayed by four months. The administration of Joe Biden approved funding for Phase 2 of the Second Avenue Subway in November 2021, and land acquisition for Phase 2 started in April 2022. The MTA began soliciting bids for the first construction contracts in July 2023, and estimated that construction would start by the end of the year.

Phases 3 and 4
Phase 3, which has no funding commitments, would extend the line southward along Second Avenue from 63rd Street to Houston Street. Upon its completion, a new service will operate running between 125th and Houston Streets. Phases 2 and 3, classified as a high-priority project by the Trump administration, may cost up to a combined total of $14.2 billion.

Phase 4, which also has no funding commitments, will provide an extension from Houston Street to a permanent terminus, with storage tracks, at Hanover Square. These storage tracks, initially recommended in the SDEIS, would allow for the storage of four trains, and they would run south of Hanover Square from Coenties Slip to a traffic island located near Peter Minuit Plaza at a depth of . The Hanover Square terminal is only planned to be able to turn back 26 trains per hour instead of 30 as less capacity will be needed on the line south of 63rd Street. The Hanover Square station will be deep enough to allow for the potential extension of Second Avenue Subway service to Brooklyn through a new tunnel under the East River.

Design and cost

Features
The stations on the line were built to be wider than most other underground subway stations in the system. Because of this, Horodniceanu likened the Second Avenue Subway stations to the stations on the Washington Metro. All stations on the line feature  platforms, with  overall lengths to provide space for power stations and ventilation plants. Tracks are built on rubber pads, which reduces noise from trains.

In August 2006, the MTA revealed that all future subway stations—including stations on the Second Avenue Subway and the 7 Subway Extension, as well as the new South Ferry station—would be outfitted with air-cooling systems to reduce the temperature along platforms by as much as . In early plans, the Second Avenue Subway was also to have platform screen doors to assist with air-cooling, energy savings, ventilation, and track safety, but this plan was scrapped in 2012 as cost-prohibitive. Stations constructed as part of Phase 2 may receive platform screen doors depending on the results of studies being conducted for their installation elsewhere.

Construction methods
The construction of the  of the Second Avenue Subway underneath densely populated Manhattan will require the use of several construction methods, depending on the section of the line. The line's tunnels will largely consist of twin tunnels with diameters of up to . About 90% of the tunneling is to be performed by tunnel boring machines. The rest will be done using the cut-and-cover method, or through the use of mined drill-and-blast, for sections averaging  in length, namely the station boxes. The methods used to construct the sections of the line were confirmed in 2003, with a modification of the section north of 120th Street announced in 2016.

Phase 1
Phase 1 of the Second Avenue Subway was constructed between the Lexington Avenue–63rd Street station on the 63rd Street Lines and an existing tunnel segment between 99th Street and 105th Street, with a terminal station at 96th Street. In Phase 1, tunneling was completed between East 63rd Street and East 92nd Streets through the use of TBMs. The TBM launch box was , and is now part of the 96th Street station. Two access shafts were constructed for the 72nd Street station. Slurry or diaphragm walls,  wide and  long and about  deep, were built alongside the sections between East 93rd and 95th Streets.

Since the rock is shallower between East 91st and 93rd Streets,  secant piles did the same work at shallower depths. Earth excavation was conducted between walls once they were installed, and box structures were built using a bottom-up construction method. Temporary decking constituted the top of the boxes, and the decking both braced the excavation and supported the walls and Second Avenue traffic.

The stations at 86th and 72nd Streets were mined. This was challenging, given the number of expensive high rise properties in their vicinities. The 96th Street cut-and-cover station was about  deep, making it one of the shallowest stations being built on the line. The shallowness was so that the new line could align with the preexisting piece of subway tunnel built in the 1970s between 99th and 105th Streets. Stations at the two mined stations are between  deep in rock. The construction method that was used was supposed to ease concerns for buildings above the station sites, because only two shafts were required for excavation.

Of the below-ground obstacles, Arup director of construction David Caiden stated: "It's a spaghetti of tunnels, utilities, pipes and cables—I've never seen anything like it." Complicating the process, the project must go over, or under, subway lines, Amtrak railway lines, and the Queens-Midtown Tunnel linking Manhattan and Queens, in later phases. There were geological anomalies along the way of Phase 1. Manhattan's geology changes along the subway's length, passing through rock and soft ground, consisting of sands, silts, and clays over Manhattan schist, and there are faults and shear zones as well as fractured rock.

Hard-rock TBMs  in diameter,  in length, and  in weight were used to tunnel during the first phase, progressing at a rate of about  per day. The tunnels near the 125th Street station would need to go through soft soil in addition to diving underneath the existing IRT Lexington Avenue Line. The soft-soil tunnels are in contrast to the hard-rock bored tunnels south of 92nd Street and the cut-and-cover tunnels north of that point (necessitated because Manhattan's rock profile drops sharply north of 92nd Street).

Phase 2
Phase 2 will extend the line north from the 96th Street station to the Harlem–125th Street subway station at Lexington Avenue. North of 120th Street, it will be constructed through the use of TBMs. The TBM Launch Box will be located between 121st Street and 122nd Street on Second Avenue. The TBMs will head north under Second Avenue to 118th Street before turning slightly east to curve under the East River Houses, turning west on 125th Street, crossing Lexington Avenue, before ending either  east of Lenox Avenue or  to the west of Lenox Avenue to accommodate storage tracks. The line is designed as to not preclude the construction of a station at Lenox Avenue and the extension of the line west along 125th Street.

South of 120th Street, the line will utilize a tunnel section built during the 1970s, located between 110th Street and 120th Street. This section will have tracks and other essential equipment installed, like that of the rest of the line. Cut-and-cover will be used to connect the existing tunnel section to the bored section to the north (at 120th Street) and to the portion of the line already in operation to the south (at 105th Street) to maximize the use of the tunnel sections built in the 1970s. A bellmouth will be constructed to allow for a future extension to the Bronx at 118th Street. The storage tracks west of the 125th Street station would replace the storage tracks north of the 96th Street station, which would then be used in revenue service as part of Phase 2.

A transfer will be constructed at the eastern end of the Second Avenue Subway's Harlem–125th Street station to connect to the IRT Lexington Avenue Line's 125th Street station. A new lower-level mezzanine will house the connection between the two stations, directly connecting to the downtown platform for Lexington Avenue service. The direct connection to the staircases to the upper level will be rebuilt. At the western end of the station, staircases will lead to Park Avenue, allowing passengers to walk to the Metro-North Railroad's Harlem–125th Street station.

The station entrances for 106th Street and 116th Street will be located on the east side of Second Avenue so as to avoid utilities located on the west side of the street and to avoid potential adverse effects to the East Harlem Historic District.

Phases 3 and 4
Phases 3 and 4 will extend the line south from 63rd Street to Houston Street and Hanover Square, respectively. As part of Phase 3, a connection to the IND 63rd Street Line would be built, allowing for non-revenue moves into Queens. This connection will be constructed through underground drilling and blasting. Bellmouths already exist for this connection east of the Lexington Avenue–63rd Street station. This section, like the rest of the line, will mainly consist of a two-track line. Between 21st Street and 9th Street, two additional tracks will be constructed on either side of the main alignment to allow for the storage of eight trains. This location was selected due to the sufficient depth of the area. The third phase would pass above several East River tunnels, including the 63rd Street Tunnel, the 60th Street Tunnel, the 53rd Street Tunnel, the Steinway Tunnel at 42nd Street, and the East River Tunnels at 32nd and 33rd Streets.

Like Phase 1, the sections between stations will largely be constructed through the use of TBMs, while stations will be constructed through cut-and-cover and mining, allowing for the construction of station caverns, shafts, and entrances. Five transfers are planned to connect stations on the Second Avenue Line and nearby stations on adjacent lines, increasing travel options for passengers. The transfer at Grand Street will require the construction of a mezzanine below the existing station, allowing for a vertical transfer to be constructed. The existing station will have to be rebuilt to accommodate the increased volume of passengers using the station. The Houston Street station's transfer to the Second Avenue station of the IND Sixth Avenue Line would require some construction within the existing station.

The remaining three transfers are being proposed, and will be constructed, barring the increased cost of their construction. The transfer to the BMT Canarsie Line's Third Avenue station would consist of a passageway that will be  long. The most complicated of the transfers will be the connection between the 42nd Street station and the Grand Central station on the IRT Flushing Line. To allow for the connection to be built, a 900-foot long tunnel would be built under 42nd Street from the west side of Third Avenue to Second Avenue.

The Flushing Line station might have to be significantly reconstructed in anticipation of the increased volume of passengers and due to Americans with Disabilities Access requirements for the transfer. To allow for necessary vents and emergency exits to be built, cut-and-cover would be used. The final transfer would be between the 55th Street station and the Lexington Avenue–53rd Street station on the IND Queens Boulevard Line. Either shielded mining or cut-and-cover would be used to complete the connection. The existing station would have to be modified to allow for the transfer passageway to be built.

Three construction options were evaluated during the project's Environmental Impact Study for the portion of the line between 11th Street and Hanover Square. One option known as the Shallow Chrystie Option would mainly use cut and cover, while the Deep Chrystie Street and Forsyth Options would use a combination of tunneling by Earth Pressure Balance Machines (EPBMs) and cut and cover. The Shallow Chrystie Option would have used the existing Confucius Plaza tunnel section between Canal and Division Streets. Like the plan from the 1970s, there would have been a cross-platform transfer to the existing Grand Street station, with the transfer expected to be heavily used.

This option would require digging up Sara Delano Roosevelt Park to the east as Chrystie Street is not wide enough to fit four tracks. Under this option, a track connection would be built to allow trains from Second Avenue to run via the Manhattan Bridge north tracks to allow service to Brooklyn. The Forsyth Option would curve below the park to Forsyth Street and the station would be built under Forsyth Street, requiring a 200-foot transfer passageway that would be less convenient than the other options.

The Deep Chrystie Option would have the Second Avenue Subway run deeper underground, running underneath the existing Grand Street station, with a mezzanine in between the two stations. In order to allow for sufficient room for stairways to transfer to the Second Avenue Line, the Grand Street station would be widened to have twenty foot wide platforms. No track connection would be built under this option, and the Confucius Plaza tunnel section would not be used for subway service, but it instead might be used for ancillary subway facilities. Currently, this is the preferred option.

South of the terminal at Hanover Square, two tail tracks will be constructed through the use of a TBM to allow for the storage of four trains. The tracks would be built at a depth of about  under Water Street, allowing the line to be deep enough to tunnel under the East River for a possible future extension into Brooklyn. Cut-and-cover would be used to build a vent facility at a traffic island located at Water and Whitehall Streets.

Cost
There was controversy over the high cost of the line as a whole. The project was divided up into four phases, in part, to maximize the ability of the project to receive funding from the Federal Government as part of the Department of Transportation's New Starts Program. The initial projections for the cost of the line were made in the 2004 FEIS, with Phase 1 estimated to cost $3.8 billion, Phase 2 estimated to cost $3.4 billion, and Phases 3 and 4 each estimated to cost $4.8 billion.

Phase 1 ended up costing $500 million over its original budget of $3.8 billion—still a very high price compared to other new subway systems worldwide. Regulations set by the Buy America Act forced the MTA to purchase materials made in the United States, which led to objections when an MTA contractor bought a fire suppression system made in Finland. Finally, the private and public sector could not cooperate smoothly on the project, further raising costs. Of the $4.5 billion cost for Phase 1, $2.4 billion was allocated to building the three new stations and renovating the Lexington Avenue–63rd Street station. Meanwhile, $500 million was spent on design and engineering, and another $734 million was for building tunnels between the stations, tracks, signals, and trackside systems.

The rest of the cost, $800 million, was spent on "construction management, real estate, station artwork, fare-collection systems and other sundry items." The stations' cost was magnified by the depth of the stations and the enormity of the caverns that needed to be excavated. The Second Avenue Subway stations have full-length mezzanines, like the original IND but unlike other deep-level projects such as London's Crossrail. The stations will have full-length mezzanines as opposed to smaller mezzanines for each entrance to accommodate anticipated ridership for the full-length line and to comply with emergency egress requirements.

In December 2016, after it was announced that Phase 2 might cost $6 billion, transit experts expressed concern that the Second Avenue Subway might be so excessively costly as to preclude construction of Phases 3 and 4, as well as future expansions. One expert stated that the Phase 1 project was the most expensive subway project in the world, and that compared to other subway systems around the world, the cost of building new subways in New York City was much higher. The Second Avenue Subway's per-mile construction cost is higher than that of other projects in similar cities like London's Crossrail and Paris's Grand Paris Express, which themselves are among the most expensive underground-railway projects in the world. MTA officials stated that the Second Avenue Subway cost as much as it did only because of the complex underground infrastructure in Manhattan, as well as the fact that the New York City Subway operates 24/7 service.

Artwork
For Phase 1 of the Second Avenue Subway, four contemporary artists were chosen to design artwork for the 96th, 86th, 72nd, and 63rd Street stations. The project consisted of four permanent installations: Blueprint for a Landscape by Sarah Sze at 96th Street; Subway Portraits by Chuck Close at 86th Street; Perfect Strangers by Vik Muniz at 72nd Street; and Elevated by Jean Shin at 63rd Street. These public artworks were sponsored and commissioned as part of the MTA Arts & Design program.

Service patterns

Routes

The opening of Phase 1 extended Q service to 96th Street from its former terminal at 57th Street. The Q service has a rush-hour service frequency of 7 to 10 trains per hour. By contrast, the IRT Lexington Avenue Line's express tracks () have an estimated rush-hour frequency of 30 trains per hour, or one train approximately every 2 minutes in each direction. As part of the 2004 Final Environmental Impact Study (FEIS) for the line, the Q service was planned to have a frequency of 14 trains per hour during rush hours, but this was revised due to MTA schedule changes.

A few rush hour N trains that formerly short-turned at 57th Street began to run to 96th Street in January 2017. The northbound trips are labeled as Q trains via the Sea Beach Line to reduce passenger confusion. Starting in November 2017, one northbound R train has served the line during weekday mornings, boosting service. From April 2019 to April 2020, weekend and evening M service was also diverted on the Second Avenue Subway to accommodate extra passengers during the 14th Street Tunnel shutdown.

In Phase 2, all current services will be extended to 125th Street and Lexington Avenue. As part of the 2004 FEIS, it was planned for the Q service to be increased to 19 trains per hour to accommodate the projected increase in ridership. In order to allow for the construction of Phase 3, bellmouths have been constructed at the turnoff to the BMT 63rd Street Line.

Future full-length designation

When the construction of Phase 3 is completed, a new T service will operate from Harlem–125th Street to Houston Street. After Phase 4 opens, T service will run the full length of the line, from Harlem–125th Street to Hanover Square. T service is planned to operate at a frequency of 14 trains per hour during rush hours, with the combined frequency north of 72nd Street with Q service being 28 trains per hour. With the opening of Phase 3, the frequency of Q service is planned to be reduced from 19 to 14 trains per hour.

The MTA decided to designate the future service with the letter T, in part because:

 H is the Rockaway Park Shuttle's internal route designator, which has occasionally been used publicly, most notably from 1986–93 and again in 2012–13 following Hurricane Sandy.
 The letters I and O are too easily confused with the numbers 1 and 0, respectively.
 The letter K was used until the late 1980s to denote services on the IND Eighth Avenue Line, and earlier on the BMT Jamaica Line, and thus is not preferred.
 The letters P, U and Y are more easily confused with common words.
 The letter V was in use at the time (and until 2010) to denote services on the IND Sixth Avenue Line and IND Queens Boulevard Line.

The Ts route emblem is colored  (hex triplet #00ADD0, which could also be considered robin's egg blue or teal) because the color had also been used for the JFK Express in the past. In 2011, turquoise was considered "the color of the year", and at the time of the color's selection in the 2000s, it was considered a very upscale color.

Station listing
Three stations are part of Phase 1, which opened in January 2017. Three more are planned for Phase 2 (including one transfer to an existing line); six more in Phase 3 (including up to four transfers); and four more in Phase 4 (including one transfer).

See also

 Fulton Center
 Lower Manhattan–Jamaica/JFK Transportation Project
 Transportation in New York City

References
Informational notes

Citations

Further reading

External links

 Second Avenue Subway – Phase 2

 Official MTA Flickr webpage
 Second Avenue Subway: A New York Transit Museum online exhibit

 New York's Second Ave Subway: A Century in Maps

2nd Avenue
2nd Avenue Subway
New York City Subway projects
Program for Action
2nd Avenue
Second Avenue (Manhattan)

Second Avenue Subway


.ml ist die länderspezifische Top-Level-Domain (ccTLD) des Staates Mali. Sie wurde am 29. September 1993 eingeführt und wird seitdem von der Societe des Telecommunications du Mali (kurz SOTELMA) mit Hauptsitz in Bamako verwaltet.

Eigenschaften
Neben der Top-Level-Domain existieren zahlreiche Endungen wie .com.ml oder .net.ml, die für bestimmte Interessenten vorgesehen wurden. Die Vergabekriterien der SOTELMA sind vergleichsweise restriktiv: Ein Wohnsitz oder eine Niederlassung in Mali sind zwingend erforderlich, um eine .ml-Domain zu registrieren. Daher ist die ccTLD international eher wenig verbreitet.

Im Februar 2013 hat die ICANN über einen Wechsel der Vergabestelle beraten. Ergebnisse waren bis zum März 2013 nicht bekannt. Erst im April trat das Unternehmen Dot ML Registry als neue Vergabestelle auf und kündigte den Neustart der Domain für den 15. Juli 2013 an. Ab diesem Zeitpunkt soll jede natürliche oder juristische Person weltweit eine .ml-Domain registrieren können, auch ohne Präsenz im Land selbst. Im Vergleich zu anderen Top-Level-Domains werden für .ml-Domains keine Gebühren fällig, weshalb die ccTLD verstärkt für Phishing-Websites verwendet wird. Im September 2013 waren insgesamt sechs Prozent aller registrierten .ml-Domains aus diesem Grund zwangsweise blockiert.

Weblinks
 Website der Vergabestelle

Einzelnachweise

Länderspezifische Top-Level-Domain
Mali

.ml


The Ambassadors Theatre (formerly the New Ambassadors Theatre), is a West End theatre located in West Street, near Cambridge Circus on Charing Cross Road in the City of Westminster. It is one of the smallest of the West End theatres, seating a maximum of 444, with 195 people in the dress circle and 251 in the stalls.

History
The theatre was, along with the adjacent St Martin's conceived by their architect, W. G. R. Sprague, as companions, born at the same time in 1913, but the First World War interrupted the construction of the latter for three years. The Ambassadors was built with the intention of being an intimate, smaller theatre and is situated opposite the renowned restaurant The Ivy, favourite haunt of the theatrical elite.

The theatre was Grade II listed by English Heritage in March 1973.

New Ambassadors era
In 1996, the venue was bought by its namesake the Ambassador Theatre Group, now the largest operator of theatres in the West End. It was first split into two small spaces, by creating a false floor at circle level, and used by the Royal Court. Then in 1999 the venue was returned to its original design, renamed the New Ambassadors and hosted niche works and plays not normally seen outside of smaller fringe venues. However, within a few years the theatre had largely reverted to playing material seen as more commercially viable for its location in the West End.

On 4 April 2007 it was announced that ATG had sold the venue to Stephen Waley-Cohen, who renamed the venue The Ambassadors as it once was, and began an extensive programme of refurbishments. In 2014, Waley-Cohen announced plans to sell the Ambassadors to Delfont Mackintosh Theatres, who said it intended to rename the theatre after Stephen Sondheim once the sale was completed. The sale was later postponed pending redevelopment approval, and was ultimately cancelled in November 2018. In December 2018, Waley-Cohen instead sold the theatre back to ATG for £12 million, more than twice what Mackintosh was slated to pay.

Productions
Vivien Leigh made her West End debut in the Ambassadors, starring in The Mask of Virtue (1935); this was the play in which Laurence Olivier first saw her perform.

The theatre's most famous production is Agatha Christie's The Mousetrap, which showed from 1952 to 1974 before moving next door to the St Martin's Theatre, where it is still running.

After its purchase by the Ambassador Theatre Group under producer Sonia Friedman, productions included Some Explicit Polaroids by Mark Ravenhill, Spoonface Steinberg by Lee Hall, Krapp's Last Tape by Samuel Beckett and starring John Hurt, and was the West End's first home of Marie Jones' Stones in His Pockets and The Vagina Monologues by Eve Ensler.

Recent productions have included the multi-award-winning production of John Doyle's Sweeney Todd which subsequently transferred to Broadway, Ying Tong – A Walk with the Goons, Someone Who'll Watch Over Me, Journey's End and the world première of Kate Betts' On the Third Day which won the Channel 4 television series The Play's the Thing. In 2006, the theatre played host to the landmark revival of Peter Hall's production of Waiting for Godot which ran for a strictly limited autumn season.

Recent productions include the Menier Chocolate Factory production of Little Shop of Horrors, the Bush Theatre's production of Whipping it Up, starring Richard Wilson and Robert Bathurst, and Love Song, starring Cillian Murphy and Neve Campbell (November 2006 to February 2007).

In September 2007, renowned dance show Stomp transferred to the theatre for a ten year run, which had its last performance in January 2018.

Nearby Tube stations

 Leicester Square
 Covent Garden

References

 Guide to British Theatres 1750–1950, John Earl and Michael Sell pp. 98 (Theatres Trust, 2000)

External links

 Theatre History

West End theatres
Grade II listed buildings in the City of Westminster
Theatres completed in 1913
Theatres in the City of Westminster
1913 establishments in England

Ambassadors Theatre (London)


The Christian Credit Party was a short-lived Canadian political party founded in 1982 by perennial candidate and social credit activist, John Turmel who has, at various times, been involved in the Social Credit Party of Canada, the Green Party of Canada, and the Libertarian Party of Canada.

Turmel and his brother Raymond ran unsuccessfully in federal by-elections in 1982 under the Christian Credit Party banner. The party disbanded in 1983 due to a lack of support. Turmel subsequently founded the Abolitionist Party of Canada with a similar program. The Abolitionist Party nominated candidates in the 1993 federal election.

See also
 List of political parties in Canada

References
The biggest loser: John Turmel is making his 99th try for office this fall

Social credit parties in Canada
Federal political parties in Canada
Political parties established in 1982
Defunct political parties in Canada
Defunct Christian political parties
1982 establishments in Canada
Christian organizations based in Canada

Christian Credit Party


ناصر موسى قنديل

بطاقة شخصية
ناصر قنديل.

مؤهلاته العلمية
رئيس المركز وكالة أخبار الشرق الجديد

نشاطه السياسي
 أحد مؤسسي المؤتمر الدائم للعلمانيين اللبنانيين الذي يرأسه المطران غريغوار حداد عام 1986.
 تأثر بأفكار الأحزاب اليسارية والناصرية، وانضم لـ «رابطة الشغيلة» عام 1975 والقيادة المركزية حتى عام 1989.
 ناضل في سبيل الإصلاح السياسي والاقتصادي والاجتماعي ويكافح من أجل العدالة والمساواة والتضامن.
 شارك عام 1978 أثناء الاجتياح الإسرائيلي لجنوب لبنان في أعمال مقاومة لبنانية خلف خطوط الاحتلال.
 شارك في القتال على محاور الجبهة الجنوبية من بيروت أثناء الاجتياح الإسرائيلي للبنان عام 1982 وخصوصاً في معارك مطار بيروت الدولي.
 تولى مهام التنسيق السياسي في الاعداد لانتفاضة 6 شباط 1984 التي حررت العاصمة بيروت من القوات المتعددة الجنسيات وادت إلى إسقاط اتفاق 17 أيار
 ربطته بالرئيسين العماد إميل لحود ونبيه بري علاقة سياسية متينة، كما أظهر تعاطفًا كبيرًا مع الحركات الراديكالية الفلسطينية.
 نائب لبناني سابق مقرّب من حركة امل وحزب الله وسوريا، داعم للمقاومة.
 وثق علاقاته مع حركة «أمل» وعمل مستشاراً لرئيس المجلس الإسلامي الشيعي الأعلى الشيخ (الراحل) محمد مهدي شمس الدين.
 انتخب نائبًا في البرلمان اللبناني في دورة العام 2000 على لائحة الرئيس رفيق الحريري وانضم إلى كتلته البرلمانية عن المقعد الشيعي في مدينة بيروت، قبل أن ينفصل عنه ويستقل في خطه السياسي ونهجه ورؤيته الوطنية والقومية.
 في إطار نشاطه النيابي كان مقررًا للجنة الإعلام والاتصالات وعضوًا في لجنة الشؤون الخارجية والمغتربين.
 عضو كتلة قرار بيروت ومقرر لجنة الاعلام والاتصالات النيابية وعضو لجنة الشؤون الخارجية.
 أحد مؤسسي منتدى الحوار الاهلي الحكومي عام 2001 الذي يعنى بإدارة الحوار بين الحكومة ومؤسسات المجتمع المدني حول القضايا الساخنة.
 حائز على مركز أحد الأوائل الاربعة لأفضل خطاب نيابي في مناقشات الموازنة حسب استطلاع رأي مركز الدراسات الدولية للمعلومات لعام 2003 والمنشور في جريدة النهار اللبنانية.

في حقل الإعلام
 تولى أثناء انتفاضة شباط 1984 الاشراف على وزارة الاعلام والتلفزيون الرسمي.
 أنشأ جريدة الدنيا «الحقيقة» (1985) واسس إذاعة المقاومة عام 1985 وإذاعة «صوت المقاومة الوطنية» عام 1987.
 ساهم في تأسيس «تلفزيون المشرق» عام 1988.
 شغل موقع رئيس تحرير صحيفة الديار عام 1990، ورئيس مركز كون للدراسات الاستراتيجية.
 أشرف على أول بث فضائي لبناني جامع للمؤسسات التلفزيونية أثناء العدوان الإسرائيلي في نيسان 1996 ومجزرة قانا تحت اسم «اخبار لبنان».
 اختير إلى عضوية «المجلس الوطني للاعلام المرئي والمسموع» فور تأليفه في 7 أيار (مايو) 1999 مدعوماً من رئيس مجلس النواب نبيه بري،
 انتخب نائبًا للرئيس سنة 1995، وترأسه في 11 حزيران (يونيو) 1999حتى عام 2000 موعد انتخابه نائباً عن العاصمة بيروت.
 حائز على المركز الأول لأفضل اعلامي لعام 2000 في استطلاع رأي مركز ماء داتا عن دوره كرئيس لمجلس الاعلام وكمحاور اعلامي أثناء تحرير الجنوب.
 حائز على المركز الأول لأفضل اعلامي لعام 2001 في استطلاع رأي الشبكة الوطنية للإرسال عن ادائه كمحاور تلفزيوني.
 أطلق في أكتوبر 2011 شبكة توب نيوز الإخبارية

رئيس تحرير جريدة «البناء» التابعة الحزب السوري القومي الاجتماعي

له برنامج سياسي على يوتيوب اسمه «ستون دقيقة» يحلل فيه استراتيجيا المنطقة العربية وخصوصا في الهلال الخصيب

من نشاطه
 أسس مركز الدراسات الاستراتيجية «كون» عام 1991
 عضو شرف في جمعية الاجتماع العالمية - كوريا.

مؤلفاته
 «6 شباط الثورة التي لم تنته» في تأريخ احداث الانتفاضة عام 1984 التي حررت بيروت من القوات المتعددة الجنسيات.
 «نحو فهم أدق لإشكالية الإسلام المسيحية الماركسية» حوارات مع السيد محمد حسين فضل الله والمطران غريغوار حداد عام 1985.
 «هكذا تفجر البركان» عن احداث اليمن عام 1986.
 «ماذا يجري في موسكو؟» عن مقدمات الانهيار في الاتحاد السوفياتي عام 1987.

المصادر
 من هم { للانتخابات التشريعية في لبنان 2009 }
 انتخابات لبنان
 focusonlebanon
 سانا

أعضاء مجلس النواب اللبناني
سياسيون من جبل عامل
مقاومة لبنانية
مواليد 1958

ناصر قنديل


Robert Lanier may refer to:
Bob Lanier (1948–2022), American basketball player and coach
Bob Lanier (politician) (1925–2014), American politician
Rob Lanier (born 1968), American basketball coach

Robert Lanier


An Festuca maleschevica in uska species han Liliopsida nga ginhulagway ni Velchev ngan P.Vassil.. An Festuca maleschevica in nahilalakip ha genus nga Festuca, ngan familia nga Poaceae. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Festuca

Festuca maleschevica


Dolovi su naseljeno mjesto u sastavu općine Tuzla, Federacija Bosne i Hercegovine, BiH.

Zemljopis
Nalazi se uz cestu R 304, R-459 i rijeku Solinu, južno od Doknja, Brđana, sjeverno od Vojne ekonomije Kozlovac, Novog Naselja i sjeverozapadno od Soline i Gradovrha. Postojalo je na popisima do 1981., poslije kojih je ukinuto i pripojeno drugom naselju.
1980. godine pripojeni su Tuzli (Sl.list SRBIH 33/90).
Nalazi se u slivu rijeke Soline. Zbog brdsko-planinske naravi ovog područja, usklađeno se njime oblikovao se prostorni razmještaj, veličini i razvitak svih naselja ovog kraja.

Povijest
Kuće su izgrađene na iskrčenim brežuljcima, kosama i dolinskim stranama i dosta su udaljene između sebe. Očigledno je da su predci današnjih stanovnika krčili šume radi naseljavanja, odnosno sela su podignuta na krčevinama.

Stanovništvo

Izvor

Naseljena mjesta u Tuzli

Dolovi (Tuzla, BiH)


ديمبل كاباديا (8 يونيو 1957 -) ممثلة هندية ظهرت بشكل أساسي في الأفلام الهندية. ولدت ونشأت في بومباي لأبوين أثرياء، كانت تطمح لأن تصبح ممثلة منذ صغرها وحصلت على أول فرصة لها من خلال جهود والدها لإطلاقها في صناعة السينما. اكتشفها المخرج راج كابور عندما كانت في سن 14 عامًا، وأسند إليها دور البطولة في فيلمه الرومانسي بوبي (1973) الذي حقق نجاحًا كبيرًا واكتسب اعترافًا جماهيريًا واسعًا بها.

قبل وقت قصير من إطلاق الفيلم في عام 1973، تزوجت من الممثل راجيش خانا واعتزلت التمثيل. عادت كاباديا إلى السينما عام 1984 بعد عامين من انفصالها عن خانا. وشاركت في فيلم البحر (Saagar) الذي صدر بعد عام وأعاد إحياء حياتها المهنية. فازت بجائزة أفضل ممثلة في مهرجان فيلم فير عن دورها في الفيلمين. من خلال عملها على مدار عقد من الزمان أثبتت نفسها كواحدة من الممثلات الرائدات في السينما الهندية.

بداية الحياة

كاباديا هي الابنة البكر للالغوجاراتية منظم تشونبهاى كاباديا وبيتي.

حياتها المهنية

اكتشفت عن طريق راج كابور، الذي قدمها في فيلم بوبي عام 1973. وكان عمرها لا يتجاوز السادسة عشرة في ذلك الوقت.
تزوجت من الممثل راجيش خانا في سن ال 16 وعلى الرغم من نجاح فيلمها بوبي ، إلا إنها غادرت صناعة السينما لتربية أطفالها.

بعد الطلاق، عادت إلى صناعة السينما في عام 1985، في فيلم ساجار ، حيث بدت مرة أخرى أمام نجم فيلمها بوبي ، ريشي كابور. ظهرت كاباديا في فيلم ساجار في مشهد قصير عاري الصدر، والتي كانت مثيرة للجدل في ذلك الوقت. وبعد ذلك ظهرت في لم الكثير من الأدوار التي كانت جريئة. مشهدها الجنسي مع أنيل كابور في جانباز لا يزال يعتبر أنها جريئة جدا.

ظهرت في أفلام كثيرة خلال الثمانيات والتسعينيات. فازت بالجائزة القومية للأفلام التسجيلية لأفضل صورة ممثلة لدورها في رودالي في عام 1993. اشيدت لادائها كمدمنة كحول في ديل شاهتا هاي في عام 2001. في عام 2005 تألقت مرة أخرى مع ريشي كابور في بيار مين تويست. مضى عشرون عاما على آخر مشاركة لهم على الشاشة، واثنين وثلاثين عاما منذ أول مشاركة. في عام 2006 تألقت في أول فيلم لها ناطق باللغة الإنجليزية أن تكون سايروس. وقد اختيرت دمبل لأدوار ناضجة في الآونة الأخيرة. إما تقوم بأدوار الأم أو الجدة، بما في ذلك أداء كوميدي بما في ذلك اداء لا ينسى كأُم في مرحلة انتهازية «الحظ بالصدفة»

الحياة الشخصية

تزوجت من الممثل راجيش خانا قبل ستة أشهر من إطلاق عن فيلمها الأول، بوبي ، في عام 1973. ثم تقاعد عن العمل بعد ذلك لمدة اثني عشر عاما لتربي ابنتيها، توينكل خانا ورينك خانا.

طلقت خانا في عام 1984 وعادت إلى التمثيل. بناتها أيضا أصبحتا ممثلات كما فعلت شقيقتها الصغرى، سيمبل كاباديا. شقيقتها الأخرى، ريم كاباديا، انتحرت في ظروف غامضة. ابنتها، توينكل خانا، تزوجت من الممثل أكشاي كومار.

الجوائز

 1973 -- جائزة أفضل ممثلة فيلمفير، عن فيلم بوبي
 1985 -- جائزة أفضل ممثلة فيلمفير، عن فيلم ساجار
 1991—جوائز جمعية الصحافيين السينمائيين بـولاية البنغال—جائزة أفضل ممثلة، عن فيلم دريزتى
 1993—جوائز السينما القومية جائزة أفضل ممثلة، رودالى
 1993—جائزة النقاد فيلمفير لأفضل أداء، رودالى
 1994 -- جائزة فلم فير لأفضل ممثلة مساعدة، كرانتيفير

قائمة أفلامها

 بوبي (1973)
 زاخمى شير (1984)
 منزل منزل (1984)
 ساجار (1985)
 باتال بهيايرافى (1985)
 لافا (1985)
 ايتبار (1985)
 ارجون (1985)
 فيكرام (1986) (التاميل فيلم)
 رخا الله (1986)
 جانباز (1986)
 الإنصاف (1987)
 إنسانيات كى دوشمان (1987)
 كاش (1987)
 ساذيش (1988)
 ميرا شيكار (1988)
 جوناهون كا فايسلا (1988)
 النحل سال باد (1988)
 أخرى ادالت (1988)
 كابذا (1988)
 ماهافيرا (1988)
 زاخمى أورات (1988)
 جانجا تيري ديش مين (1988)
 رام لاخان (1989)
 العمل (1989)
 توهيان (1989)
 باتوارا (1989)
 سيكّا (1989)
 شيهزادا (1989)
 لاداى (1989)
 باتى بارميشوار (1990)
 جانجا كالي (1990)
 جاي شيف شانكار (1990)
 دريشتى (1990)
 مجموعة الاهلي كا غولا (1990)
 باياركي نعم كوربان (1990)
 ليكين (1990)
 باهاار: الهجوم النهائي (1991)
 نارامسيمها (1991)
 كالاندار الصاري (1991)
 انعام الحق (1991)
 خون كا كرز (1991)
 دوشمان ديفتا (1991)
 أجوبا (1991)
 رانبهومى (1991)
 أنجار (1992)
 كرم يودها (1992)
 ديل أشنا هاي (1992)
 رودالى (1993)
 جوناه (1993)
 آج أورات كيي (1993)
 جارديش (1993)
 باثريلا راستا (1994)
 كرانتفير (1994)
 أنتارين (1994)
 حصة بازار (1997)
 اجنى شقرا (1997)
 مريتي يوداتا (1997)
 2001 (1998)
 لاواريس (1999)
 الطنين بي مارتي هين (1999)
 ديل شاهتاهاي (2001)
 ليلا (2002)
 همهمة كاين هاي؟ (2004)
 بيار مين تويست (2005)
 يجري سايروس (2006)
 باناراس -- قال الصوفي قصة حب (2006)
 الحظ عن طريق الصدفة (2008)
 جامبو (2008)

انظر أيضا

| --
! colspan = "3" على غرار = «الخلفية: # DAA520 ؛» | جائزة فيلمفير
| --

| --
| --

| --
| --

| --
| --

| --
! colspan = "3" على غرار = «الخلفية: # DAA520 ؛» | القومي للأفلام التسجيلية جائزة
| --

| --

مراجع

وصلات خارجية

أشخاص على قيد الحياة
إسماعيليون هنود
حائزون على جوائز فيلم فير
غجراتيون
ممثلات أفلام تاميلية
ممثلات أفلام هنديات
ممثلات أفلام هندية
ممثلات من مومباي
ممثلات هنديات في القرن 20
ممثلات هنديات في القرن 21
مواليد 1957
هندوس هنود

ديمبل كاباديا


Eucherius de Lyon (370-449) s-a născut într-o familie bogată galo-romană, deținătoare de proprietăți în regiunea Aigues. Eucherius a fost senator în Aquæ Sextiæ, și apoi călugăr în Lérins, pustnic în Luberon și în cele din urmă episcop de Lyon, între 435 și 449. Este sărbătorit ca sfânt în Biserica Catolică și în Biserica Ortodoxă.

Biografie
Cultivat și preocupat de cultura latină, senatorul Eucherius a fost căsătorit cu Galla, cu care a avut două fiice, Consorce (sau Consorția) și Tul (sau Tullia), și doi fii, Veran (Veranus), care l-a însoțit pe tatăl său la Lérins împreună cu un călugăr Ilarie și Salon (Salonius), episcop de Geneva.

Context istoric
Imperiul Roman de Apus a fost zguduit în secolul al V-lea de o succesiune de mari invazii, care s-au revărsat asupra Europei occidentale. Obligați de învingători să cedeze o parte a teritoriilor deținute, mulți nobili galo-romani au preferat să fugă din calea invaziei.

Scrieri
Cea mai cunoscută scriere a sa este Passio Agaunensium martyrum, despre martiriul Legio Thebaica și al sfântului Mauriciu, redactată în jurul anului 430.

Note

Decese în 449
Nașteri în 370
Oameni din Lyon
Sfinți în Biserica Catolică
Sfinți în Biserica Ortodoxă
Scriitori de limbă latină din secolul al V-lea

Eucherius de Lyon


Bernard Rollin (* 18. Februar 1943; † 19. November 2021) war ein US-amerikanischer Philosoph und Tierethiker. Er war Professor für Philosophie und Nutztierwissenschaften an der Colorado State University.

Wirken
Rollin promovierte 1972 an der Columbia University. Seine wissenschaftlichen Interessen umfassten traditionelle und angewandte Philosophie. Bekannt wurde er neben dem zweibändigen Werk The Experimental Animal in Biomedical Research (1989 & 1995) auch durch den 2012 vorgestellten Film "The Superior Human?" ("Der überlegene Mensch?"), in dem er gegen die von René Descartes vertretene philosophische Position, der gemäß es sich bei nichtmenschlichen Tieren um empfindungslose und nichtdenkende Maschinen handelt, dafür argumentiert, dass andere Tiere denken und fühlen können.

In dem anthologischen Werk The Unheeded Cry. Animal Consciousness, Animal Pain and Science (1989) rekapitulierte Rollin die wissenschaftliche Diskussion um tierisches Bewusstsein und insbesondere der Schmerzempfindungsfähigkeit von Tieren ab Charles Darwin bis in das späte 20. Jahrhundert. Er analysierte darin, dass das Zusammenspiel von philosophischen und geschichtlichen Entwicklungen, vor allem der Leugnung der res cogitans durch Descartes in Bezug auf Tiere und dem Aufschwung des bewusstseinsskeptischen Behaviorismus auf der einen Seite sowie der Emanzipation und Spezialisierung der Einzelwissenschaften, darunter in besonderem Maße der Psychologie, auf der anderen Seite zu einer äußerst ungünstigen Ausgangslage für die Tiere des 20. Jahrhunderts führte. Die wissenschaftliche Folklore proklamierte eine durchgehende Trennung von Wissenschaft und Ethik, die Einschränkungen in den Verlauf sowie die Ausrichtung von Forschung als unwissenschaftlich und restriktiv gänzlich ablehnte. Gleichzeitig erlaubte die behavioristische Ausrichtung für Jahrzehnte eine bestenfalls agnostische, aber meist dezidiert ablehnende Haltung im Bezug auf jegliche moralisch relevante Eigenschaften von nichtmenschlichen Tieren. Damit war den Wissenschaftlern der Weg geebnet, Tiere uneingeschränkt und unkontrolliert für alle erdenklichen Arten von Experimenten zu benutzen. Rollin wies auf die Absurdität einer Geisteshaltung hin, die auf der einen Seite über Jahrzehnte mit angeblich wissenschaftlicher Begründung (welche in Wirklichkeit ein Produkt der Akzeptanz des behavioristischen Paradigmas war) mit Nachdruck behauptete, Tiere seien nicht in der Lage, Schmerz zu empfinden und können daher z. B. ohne Einsatz von Analgetika chirurgischen Eingriffen jeglicher Art unterzogen werden, und auf der anderen Seite an Tieren vorgenommene Experimente als Prüfstein für Erkenntnisse über Menschen verteidigt, insbesondere wenn es dabei um menschliche Schmerzen oder Beschwerden geht.

Rollin setzte sich ab den 1970er Jahren aktiv für eine Verbesserung der Benutzung von Tieren ein, besonders in den Bereichen Veterinärmedizin und wissenschaftliche Verwendung von Tieren. Durch seinen Einsatz erzielte er an vielen Universitäten und Forschungseinrichtungen weitreichende Verbesserungen bei der Benutzung von Labortieren. Rollin war weit renommiert als philosophischer Redner zum Thema Tierethik – im medizinischen, wissenschaftlichen, politischen und Tierrechts-/Tierschutzbereich – und war Beratungsmitglied zahlreicher Gremien. Er argumentierte für einen angemessenen moralischen Status von Tieren, die in der Philosophiegeschichte meist unberücksichtigt geblieben sind und forderte, dass Tiere ihrem arteigenen Telos gemäß leben können sollten. In Putting the Horse before Descartes. My Life`s Work on Behalf of Animals (2011) beschrieb Rollin detailliert seine Rolle bei der allmählichen Verbesserung der Position von Tieren im wissenschaftlichen, medizinischen und politischen Kontext.

Schriften

Weblinks
 Kontaktdaten bei der Colorado State University.

Einzelnachweise

Bioethiker
Philosoph (20. Jahrhundert)
Hochschullehrer (Colorado State University)
US-Amerikaner
Geboren 1943
Gestorben 2021
Mann

Bernard Rollin


Dino Maiuri (eigentlich Arduino Maiuri, * 8. Dezember 1916 in Frosinone; † 13. September 1984 in Ceprano) war ein italienischer Drehbuchautor und Filmregisseur.

Leben
Maiuri war Journalist und leitete diverse Zeitungen und Periodika; 1949 und 1950 schrieb er einige interessante Drehbücher für italienische Filme. Nach seiner Hochzeit mit Schauspielerin Irasema Dilián folgte er dieser nach Mexiko, wo er zahlreiche Filme, meist für sie, schrieb und 1957 bei La estrella del rey auch einmalig Regie führte. Nach seiner Rückkehr nach Italien 1966 folgte ein zweiter, auch selbst produzierter, Kinofilm in Ko-Regie mit Henry Levin und weitere Drehbücher, darunter interessante Genreproduktionen – oft Kriminalfilme – wie Gefahr: Diabolik!, Der blauäugige Bandit oder Das Verfahren ist eingestellt: Vergessen Sie's. Für Carlo Lizzanis Die Banditen von Mailand wurde Maiuri 1969 mit ein David di Donatello ausgezeichnet.

Filmografie (Auswahl)

Regie
 1957: La estrella del rey
 1966: Unser Mann in Rio (Se tutte le donne del mondo) (Ko-Regie und Drehbuch)

Drehbuch

Weblinks

 Maiuri bei cine mexicano

Einzelnachweise

Drehbuchautor
Filmregisseur
Italiener
Geboren 1916
Gestorben 1984
Mann

Dino Maiuri