Hans-Ulrich Rudel (2 July 1916 – 18 December 1982) was a German ground-attack pilot during World War II and a post-war neo-Nazi activist.

The most decorated German pilot of the war and the only recipient of the Knight's Cross with Golden Oak Leaves, Swords, and Diamonds, Rudel was credited with the destruction of 519 tanks, one battleship, one cruiser, 70 landing craft and 150 artillery emplacements. He claimed nine aerial victories and the destruction of more than 800 vehicles. He flew 2,530 ground-attack missions exclusively on the Eastern Front, usually flying the Junkers Ju 87 "Stuka" dive bomber.

Rudel surrendered to US forces in 1945 and emigrated to Argentina. An unrepentant Nazi, he helped fugitives escape to Latin America and the Middle East, and sheltered Josef Mengele, the former SS doctor at Auschwitz. He worked as an arms dealer to several right-wing regimes in South America, for which he was placed under observation by the US Central Intelligence Agency.

In the West German federal election of 1953, Rudel was the top candidate for the far-right German Reich Party but was not elected. Following the fall of Perón, Rudel moved to Paraguay, where he acted as a foreign representative for several German companies.

In 1976, Rudel attended a conference in the United States with various members of the United States military and defense industry as part of the development of the A-10 Thunderbolt II; Rudel's status as a highly decorated attack aircraft pilot and particularly his experience at destroying Soviet tanks from the air was considered relevant to a potential conflict between NATO and the Warsaw Pact.

Early life
Rudel was born on 2 July 1916, in Konradswaldau, in Lower Silesia, Prussia. He was the third child of Lutheran minister Johannes Rudel. As a boy, Rudel was a poor scholar but a keen sportsman. Rudel attended the humanities oriented Gymnasium, in Lauban. He joined the Hitler Youth in 1933. After graduating with Abitur in 1936, he participated in the compulsory Reich Labour Service (RAD). Following the labour service, Rudel joined the Luftwaffe in the same year and began his military career as an air reconnaissance pilot.

World War II

German forces invaded Poland in 1939 starting World War II in Europe. As an air observer, Rudel flew on long-range reconnaissance missions over Poland. During 1940, he served as a regimental adjutant for the 43rd Aviators Training Regiment, based at Vienna.

In early 1941, he underwent training as a Stuka pilot. He was posted to 1 Staffel Sturzkampfgeschwader 2 (StG 2), which was moved to occupied Poland in preparation for Operation Barbarossa, the invasion of the Soviet Union, in June 1941. On 21 September 1941, Rudel took part in an attack on the Soviet battleship Marat of the Baltic Fleet. Marat was sunk at her moorings on 23 September 1941 after being hit by one  bomb near the forward superstructure. It caused the explosion of the forward magazine which demolished the superstructure and the forward part of the hull. 326 men were killed and the ship gradually settled to the bottom in  of water. Her sinking is commonly credited to Rudel alone, but Rudel dropped only one of the two bombs that sank her. Rudel's unit then took part in Operation Typhoon, Army Group Center's attempt to capture the Soviet capital.

Rudel's gunner from October 1941 was Erwin Hentschel, who served with Rudel for the next two and a half years, both men earning the Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross during that period. Hentschel completed 1,400 sorties with Rudel and drowned on 21 March 1944 when they were making their way to the German lines following a forced landing.

In early 1942, Rudel got married while home on leave. Later in the year, he took part in the Battle of Stalingrad. From May 1941 to January 1942, Rudel flew 500 missions. In February 1943, Rudel flew his 1,000th combat mission, which made him into a national hero. He then participated in the experiments with using the Ju 87 G in the anti-tank role. The anti-tank unit took part in operations against the Soviet Kerch–Eltigen Operation. The footage from an onboard gun camera was used in Die Deutsche Wochenschau, a Reich Ministry of Propaganda newsreel. In April 1943, Rudel was awarded the Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves, receiving the Oak Leaves from Hitler personally in Berlin. Rudel participated in the Battle of Kursk with the same unit. On 12 July 1943 Rudel claimed 12 Soviet tanks in one day. In October 1943, Rudel was credited with the destruction of his 100th tank and was awarded the Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves and Swords (one of only 160 awarded) on 25 November.

Rudel was appointed Gruppenkommandeur of III. Gruppe on 22 February 1944. On 20 March, Rudel performed a forced landing behind Soviet lines and he and Hentschel (his gunner, mentioned above) escaped to the German lines. The men attempted to swim across the Dniester River but Hentschel drowned in the attempt. Upon his return, Ernst Gadermann, previously the troop doctor of III. Gruppe, joined Rudel as his new radio operator and air gunner. Rudel was awarded the Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves, Swords and Diamonds (one of only 27 awarded) on 29 March 1944, the tenth member of the Wehrmacht to receive this award. The presentation was made by Hitler personally.

Rudel was promoted to Oberstleutnant on 1 September 1944, and appointed leader of SG 2, replacing Stepp, on 1 October 1944. On 22 December 1944, Rudel completed his 2,400th combat mission, and the next day, he reported his 463rd tank destroyed. On 29 December 1944, Rudel was promoted to Oberst (colonel), and was awarded the Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross with Golden Oak Leaves, Swords, and Diamonds, the only person to receive this decoration. This award, intended as one of 12 to be given as a post-war victory award for Nazi Germany, was presented to him by Hitler on 1 January 1945, four months before Nazi Germany was defeated.

On 8 February 1945, Rudel was badly wounded in the right foot, and landed inside German lines as his radio operator shouted flight instructions. Rudel's leg was amputated below the knee. He returned to flying on 25 March 1945. He claimed 26 more tanks destroyed by the end of the war. On 19 April 1945, the day before Hitler's final birthday, Rudel met with Hitler in the Führerbunker at the Reich Chancellery in Berlin. On 8 May 1945, Rudel fled westward from an airfield near Prague, landing in US controlled territory, and surrendered. The Americans refused to hand him over to the Soviet Union.

Neo-Nazi activist
While Rudel had been interned, his family fled from the advancing Red Army and had found refuge with Gadermann's parents in Wuppertal. Rudel was released in April 1946 and went into private business. In 1948, he emigrated to Argentina via the ratlines, travelling via the Austrian Zillertal to Italy. In Rome, with the help of South Tyrolean smugglers, and aided by the Austrian bishop Alois Hudal, he bought himself a fake Red Cross passport with the cover name "Emilio Meier", and took a flight from Rome to Buenos Aires, where he arrived on 8 June 1948. Rudel authored books on the war, supporting the regime and attacking the Oberkommando der Wehrmacht for "failing Hitler".

In South America
After Rudel moved to Argentina, he became a close friend and confidant of the President of Argentina Juan Perón, and Paraguay's dictator Alfredo Stroessner. In Argentina, he founded the "Kameradenwerk" (lit. "comrades work" or "comrades act"), a relief organization for Nazi war criminals. Prominent members of the "Kameradenwerk" included SS officer Ludwig Lienhardt, whose extradition from Sweden had been demanded by the Soviet Union on war crime charges, Kurt Christmann, a member of the Gestapo sentenced to 10 years for war crimes committed at Krasnodar, Austrian war criminal Fridolin Guth, and the German spy in Chile, August Siebrecht. The group maintained close contact with other internationally wanted fascists, such as Ante Pavelić and Carlo Scorza. In addition to these war criminals that fled to Argentina, the "Kameradenwerk" also assisted Nazi criminals imprisoned in Europe, including Rudolf Hess and Karl Dönitz, with food parcels from Argentina and sometimes by paying their legal fees. In Argentina, Rudel became acquainted with notorious Nazi concentration camp doctor and war criminal Josef Mengele. Rudel, together with Willem Sassen, a former Waffen-SS and war correspondent for the Wehrmacht, who initially worked as Rudel's driver, helped to relocate Mengele to Brazil by introducing him to Nazi supporter Wolfgang Gerhard. In 1957, Rudel and Mengele together travelled to Chile to meet with Walter Rauff, the inventor of the mobile gas chamber.

In Argentina, Rudel lived in Villa Carlos Paz, roughly  from the populous Córdoba City, where he rented a house and operated a brickworks. There, Rudel wrote his wartime memoirs Trotzdem ("Nevertheless" or "In Spite of Everything"). The book was published in November 1949 by the Dürer-Verlag in Buenos Aires. Dürer-Verlag (1947–1958) issued a variety of apologia by former Nazis and their collaborators. Besides Rudel, among the early editors were Wilfred von Oven, the personal Press adjutant of Goebbels, and Naumann. Sassen convinced Adolf Eichmann to share his view on The Holocaust. Together with Eberhard Fritsch, a former Hitler Youth leader, Sassen began interviewing Eichmann in 1956 with the intent of publishing his views. The Dürer-Verlag went bankrupt in 1958.

Discussion ensued in West Germany on Rudel being allowed to publish the book, because he was a known Nazi. In the book, he supported Nazi policies. This book was later re-edited and published in the United States, as the Cold War intensified, under the title, Stuka Pilot, which supported the German invasion of the Soviet Union. Pierre Clostermann, a French fighter pilot, had befriended Rudel and wrote the foreword to the French edition of his book Stuka Pilot. In 1951, he published a pamphlet Dolchstoß oder Legende? ("Stab in the Back or Legend?"), in which he claimed that "Germany's war against the Soviet Union was a defensive war", moreover, "a crusade for the whole world". In the 1950s, Rudel befriended Savitri Devi, a writer and proponent of Hinduism and Nazism, and introduced her to a number of Nazi fugitives in Spain and the Middle East.

With the help of Perón, Rudel secured lucrative contracts with the Brazilian military. He was also active as a military adviser and arms dealer for the Bolivian regime, Augusto Pinochet in Chile and Stroessner in Paraguay. He was in contact with Werner Naumann, formerly a State Secretary in Goebbels' Ministry of Public Enlightenment and Propaganda in Nazi Germany. Following the Revolución Libertadora in 1955, a military and civilian uprising that ended the second presidential term of Perón, Rudel was forced to leave Argentina and move to Paraguay. During the following years in South America, Rudel frequently acted as a foreign representative for several German companies, including Salzgitter AG, Dornier Flugzeugwerke, Focke-Wulf, Messerschmitt, Siemens and Lahmeyer International, a German consulting engineering firm.

According to the historian Peter Hammerschmidt, based on files of the German Federal Intelligence Service and the US Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), the BND, under the cover-up company "Merex", was in close contact with former SS and Nazi Party members. In 1966, Merex, represented by Walter Drück, a former Generalmajor in the Wehrmacht and BND agent, helped by the contacts established by Rudel and Sassen, sold discarded equipment of the Bundeswehr (German Federal armed forces) to various dictators in Latin America. According to Hammerschmidt, Rudel assisted in establishing contact between Merex and Friedrich Schwend, a former member of the Reich Security Main Office and involved in Operation Bernhard. Schwend, according to Hammerschmidt, had close links with the military services of Peru and Bolivia. In the early sixties, Rudel, Schwend and Klaus Barbie, founded a company called "La Estrella", the star, which employed a number of former SS officers who had fled to Latin America. Rudel, through La Estrella, was also in contact with Otto Skorzeny, who had his own network of former SS and Wehrmacht officers.

Rudel returned to West Germany in 1953 and became a leading member of the Neo-Nazi nationalist political party, the German Reich Party (Deutsche Reichspartei or DRP). In the West German federal election of 1953, Rudel was the top candidate for the DRP, but was not elected to the Bundestag. According to Josef Müller-Marein, editor-in-chief of Die Zeit, Rudel had an egocentric character. In his political speeches, Rudel made generalizing statements, claiming that he was speaking on behalf of most, if not all, former German soldiers of World War II. Rudel heavily criticized the Western Allies during World War II for not having supported Germany in its war against the Soviet Union. Rudel's political demeanor subsequently alienated him from his former comrades, foremost Gadermann. Müller-Marein concluded his article with the statement: "Rudel no longer has a Geschwader (squadron)!" In 1977, he became a spokesman for the German People's Union, a nationalist political party founded by Gerhard Frey.

Public scandals
In October 1976, Rudel inadvertently triggered a chain of events, which were later dubbed the Rudel Scandal (Rudel-Affäre). The German 51st Reconnaissance Wing, the latest unit to hold the name "Immelmann", held a reunion for members of the unit, including those from World War II. The Secretary of State in the Federal Ministry of Defence, Hermann Schmidt authorized the event. Fearing that Rudel would spread Nazi propaganda on the German Air Force airbase in Bremgarten near Freiburg, Schmidt ordered that the meeting could not be held at the airbase. News of this decision reached Generalleutnant Walter Krupinski, at the time commanding general of NATO's Second Allied Tactical Air Force, and a former World War II fighter pilot. Krupinski contacted Gerhard Limberg, Inspector of the Air Force, requesting that the meeting be allowed to be held at the airbase. Limberg later confirmed Krupinski's request, and the meeting was held on Bundeswehr premises, a decision to which Schmidt still had not agreed. Rudel attended the meeting, at which he signed his book and gave a few autographs but refrained from making any political statements.

During a routine press event, journalists, who had been briefed by Schmidt, questioned Krupinski and his deputy Karl Heinz Franke about Rudel's presence. In this interview, the generals compared Rudel's past as a Nazi and Neo-Nazi supporter to the career of prominent Social Democrat leader Herbert Wehner, who had been a member of the German Communist Party in the 1930s, and who had lived in Moscow during World War II, where he was allegedly involved in NKVD operations. Calling Wehner an extremist, they described Rudel as an honorable man, who "hadn't stolen the family silver or anything else". When these remarks became public, the Federal Minister of Defense Georg Leber, complying with §50 of the  (Military law), ordered the generals into early retirement as of 1 November 1976. Leber, a member of the Social Democratic Party of Germany (SPD), was heavily criticized for his actions by the Christian Democratic Union (CDU) opposition, and the scandal contributed to the minister's subsequent retirement in early 1978. On 3 February 1977, the German Bundestag debated the scandal and its consequences. The Rudel Scandal subsequently triggered a military-tradition discussion, which the Federal Minister of Defense Hans Apel ended with the introduction of "Guidelines for Understanding and Cultivating Tradition" on 20 September 1982.

During the 1978 World Cup, held in Argentina, Rudel visited the Germany national football team in its training camp in Ascochinga. The German media criticized the German Football Association, and viewed Rudel's visit as being sympathetic to the military dictatorship that ruled Argentina following the 1976 Argentine coup d'état. During the 1958 FIFA World Cup in Sweden, he visited the German team at Malmö on 8 June 1958. There he was welcomed by team manager Sepp Herberger.

Personal life, death and funeral

Rudel was married three times. His 1942 marriage to Ursula Bergmann, nicknamed "Hanne", produced two sons, Hans-Ulrich and Siegfried. They divorced in 1950. According to the news magazine Der Spiegel, one reason for the divorce was that his wife had sold some of his decorations, including the Oak Leaves with Diamonds, to an American collector, but she also refused to move to Argentina. On 27 March 1951, Der Spiegel published Ursula Rudel's denial of selling his decorations, and further stated she had no intention of doing so. Rudel married his second wife, Ursula née Daemisch, in 1965. The marriage produced his third son, Christoph, born in 1969. Rudel survived a stroke on 26 April 1970. Following his divorce in 1977, he married Ursula née Bassfeld.

Rudel died following another stroke in Rosenheim on 18 December 1982, and was buried in Dornhausen on 22 December 1982. During Rudel's burial ceremony, two Bundeswehr F-4 Phantoms appeared to make a low altitude flypast over his grave. Dornhausen was situated in the middle of a flightpath regularly flown by military aircraft, and Bundeswehr officers denied deliberately flying aircraft over the funeral. Four mourners were photographed giving Nazi salutes at the funeral, and were investigated under a law banning the display of Nazi symbols. The Federal Minister of Defence Manfred Wörner declared that the flight of the aircraft had been a normal training exercise.

Summary of military career
Rudel flew 2,530 combat missions on the Eastern Front of World War II. The majority of these were undertaken while flying the Junkers Ju 87, although 430 were flown in ground-attack variants of the Focke-Wulf Fw 190. He was credited with the destruction of 519 tanks, severely damaging the battleship Marat, as well as sinking a cruiser (incomplete and heavily damaged Petropavlovsk), a destroyer (the  ) and 70 landing craft. Rudel also claimed to have destroyed more than 800 vehicles of all types, over 150 artillery, anti-tank or anti-aircraft positions, 4 armored trains, as well as numerous bridges and supply lines. Rudel was also credited with 9 aerial victories, 7 of which were fighter aircraft and 2 Ilyushin Il-2s. He was shot down or forced to land 30 times due to anti-aircraft artillery, was wounded five times and rescued six stranded aircrew from enemy-held territory.

Rudel received the following decorations:
 Honor Goblet of the Luftwaffe as Oberleutnant in a Sturzkampfgeschwader (20 October 1941)
 Iron Cross (1939) 2nd Class (10 November 1939) & 1st Class (15 July 1941)
 Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross with Golden Oak Leaves, Swords, and Diamonds
 Knight's Cross on 6 January 1942 as Oberleutnant and Staffelkapitän of the 9./Sturzkampfgeschwader 2
 229th Oak Leaves on 14 April 1943 as Oberleutnant and Staffelkapitän of the 1./Sturzkampfgeschwader 2 "Immelmann"
 42nd Swords on 25 November 1943 as Hauptmann and Gruppenkommandeur of the III./Sturzkampfgeschwader 2 "Immelmann"
 10th Diamonds on 29 March 1944 as Major and Gruppenkommandeur of the III./Schlachtgeschwader 2 "Immelmann"
 1st, and only, Golden Oak Leaves on 29 December 1944 as Oberstleutnant and Geschwaderkommodore of Schlachtgeschwader 2 "Immelmann"
Pilot/Observer Badge In Gold with Diamonds
 Wound Badge In Gold
 German Cross In Gold
 Front Flying Clasp of the Luftwaffe in Gold with Diamonds and a badge for 2,000 missions
 Wehrmacht Long Service Award 4th class
 Sudetenland Medal
 Eastern Front Medal
 Silver Medal of Military Valor (Italy)
 8th (1st and only foreign) Hungarian Gold Medal of Bravery (14 January 1945)

In fringe culture
Rudel remained popular with the German far-right after his death, especially with the German People's Union, the DVU, and its leader Gerhard Frey. Frey and the DVU established the Ehrenbund Rudel – Gemeinschaft zum Schutz der Frontsoldaten (Honour federation Rudel – Community for the protection of the front soldiers) in 1983 during a memorial service for Rudel. British holocaust denier David Irving was given the Hans-Ulrich Rudel Award by Frey in June 1985; he delivered a memorial speech on the death of Rudel.

Publications

References

Citations

Bibliography

Further reading

External links

1916 births
1982 deaths
People from Wałbrzych County
Military personnel from the Province of Silesia
Deutsche Reichspartei politicians
German World War II flying aces
German World War II bomber pilots
German prisoners of war in World War II held by the United States
German amputees
German anti-communists
German emigrants to Argentina
German expatriates in Argentina
Nazis in South America
Recipients of the Gold German Cross
Recipients of the Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves, Swords and Diamonds
Reich Labour Service members
Hitler Youth members
German politicians with disabilities

Hans-Ulrich Rudel


ISO 3166-2:GN is the entry for Guinea in ISO 3166-2, part of the ISO 3166 standard published by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO), which defines codes for the names of the principal subdivisions (e.g., provinces or states) of all countries coded in ISO 3166-1.

Currently for Guinea, ISO 3166-2 codes are defined for two levels of subdivisions:
 7 administrative regions and 1 governorate
 33 prefectures

The governorate Conakry is the capital of the country and has special status equal to the administrative regions.

Each code consists of two parts, separated by a hyphen. The first part is , the ISO 3166-1 alpha-2 code of Guinea. The second part is either of the following:
 one letter: administrative regions and governorate
 two letters: prefectures

Current codes
Subdivision names are listed as in the ISO 3166-2 standard published by the ISO 3166 Maintenance Agency (ISO 3166/MA).

Click on the button in the header to sort each column.

Administrative regions and governorate

Prefectures

Changes
The following changes to the entry have been announced in newsletters by the ISO 3166/MA since the first publication of ISO 3166-2 in 1998:

See also
 Subdivisions of Guinea
 FIPS region codes of Guinea
 Neighbouring countries: CI, GW, LR, ML, SL, SN

References

External links
 ISO Online Browsing Platform: GN
 Prefectures of Guinea, Statoids.com

2:GN
ISO 3166-2
ISO 3166-2
Guinea geography-related lists

ISO 3166-2:GN


Yarenler, Sinop ilinin Ayancık ilçesine bağlı bir köydür.

Tarihçe
Köyün, 1925 yılından beri aynı adı taşımaktadır.

Coğrafya
Köy, Sinop il merkezine 70 km, Ayancık ilçe merkezine 29 km uzaklıktadır.

Nüfus

Kaynakça

Dış bağlantılar

Ayancık belde ve köyleri

Yarenler, Ayancık


André Moulonguet était un médecin français. Il a exercé la profession d'oto-rhino-laryngologiste aux Hôpitaux de Paris .

Histoire
Moulonguet a publié plusieurs livres au long de sa carrière, dont un traitant des vertiges en 1927  et un autre traitant sur l'otologie en 1933 .

Il a étudié le fonctionnement du larynx humain en 1952-1953 .

Références

Naissance en janvier 1887
Naissance à Pau
Médecin français du XXe siècle
Membre de l'Académie nationale de médecine
Décès en décembre 1983
Décès à Louveciennes
Décès à 96 ans

André Moulonguet


Dayren Chávez (Quintana Roo, 6 de agosto de 1994), é uma atriz mexicana de televisão.

Biografia e carreira
Ela apareceu pela primeira vez na televisão em 2016 na novela Sueño de amor, onde interpretou a personagem Estrela Gallo, au lado de Betty Monroe y Cristián de la Fuente.

Em 2017,  interpretou Luz Marina na novela de El bienamado, junto com Marilúz Bermúdez, Andrés Palacios e Mark Tacher.

Em 2018, interpreta Simona em Tenías que ser tú, en um papel juvenil, junto com Ariadne Díaz e novamente com Andrés Palacios.

Em 2019, também atou nas novelas Por amar sin ley e Los elegidos.

Em 2020, interpretou Rosa de Te doy la vida, junto com Eva Cedeño e José Ron.

Em 2021 interpretou Ceci, na novela Fuego ardiente, junto com Mariana Torres, Carlos Ferro e Kuno Becker. Também no final daquele ano ela interpreta Valentina na novela Mi fortuna es amarte junto com Susana González e David Zepeda.

Filmografia

Televisão

Referências

Prêmios e Indicações

Ligações externas

Atrizes do México
Atrizes de televisão do México
Nascidos em 1994
Naturais do México

Dayren Chávez


The Memoirs of Sherlock Holmes is a collection of short stories by British writer Arthur Conan Doyle, first published late in 1893 with 1894 date. It was first published in the UK by G. Newnes Ltd., and was published in the US by Harper & Brothers in February 1894. It was the second collection featuring the consulting detective Sherlock Holmes, following The Adventures of Sherlock Holmes. Like the first it was illustrated by Sidney Paget.

The twelve stories were originally published in The Strand Magazine from December 1892 to December 1893 as The Adventures number 13 to 24. For instance, "The Final Problem" was published under the subheading "XXIV.—The Adventure of the Final Problem." In the United States, the stories were first published in Harper's Weekly, except for "The Final Problem," which appeared in McClure's Magazine.

Doyle determined that these would be the last Holmes stories, and intended to kill off the character in "The Final Problem". Reader demand stimulated him to write another Holmes novel in 1901–1902, The Hound of the Baskervilles, set before "The Final Problem". The next year a new series, The Return of Sherlock Holmes, begins with the aftermath of "The Final Problem", in which it is revealed that Holmes actually survived.

Contents
The sequence of stories matches that of the magazine series, December 1892 to December 1893, when "The Adventure of the Naval Treaty" was published in two parts, October and November.
 "The Adventure of Silver Blaze"
 "The Adventure of the Cardboard Box" – not in the first British edition, nor many other eds.
 "The Adventure of the Yellow Face"
 "The Adventure of the Stockbroker's Clerk"
 "The Adventure of the Gloria Scott"
 "The Adventure of the Musgrave Ritual"
 "The Adventure of the Reigate Squire"
 "The Adventure of the Crooked Man"
 "The Adventure of the Resident Patient"
 "The Adventure of the Greek Interpreter"
 "The Adventure of the Naval Treaty"
 "The Final Problem"

Omissions of "The Adventure of the Cardboard Box"

The first London edition of the Memoirs in 1894 did not include "The Adventure of the Cardboard Box", although all twelve stories had appeared in the Strand Magazine. The first U.S. edition included the story, but it was very quickly replaced with a revised edition that omitted it.

The reasoning behind the suppression is unclear. In Britain the story was apparently removed at Doyle's request as it included adultery and so was unsuitable for younger readers. This may have also been the cause for the rapid removal of the story from the U.S. edition, and some sources state that the publishers believed the story was too scandalous for the American public.

As a result, this story was not republished until many years later, when it was added to His Last Bow. Today, most American editions of the canon include it with His Last Bow, while most British editions keep the story in its original place in The Memoirs of Sherlock Holmes.

Additionally, when the story was removed from the Memoirs, its opening pages, where Holmes emulates Dupin, were transferred to the beginning of "The Adventure of the Resident Patient". In some later U.S. editions of the Memoirs, which still omit "The Adventure of the Cardboard Box", this transfer still appears.

Adaptations
Several series have included adaptations of all or almost all of the stories in The Memoirs of Sherlock Holmes. All the stories in the collection were adapted as short films for the Sherlock Holmes Stoll film series (1921–1923), and as part of the radio series The Adventures of Sherlock Holmes (1930–1936). All except "The Yellow Face" and "The Final Problem" were dramatised in the radio series The New Adventures of Sherlock Holmes (1939–1950), and all except "The Yellow Face" and "The Gloria Scott" were adapted for BBC radio in the Sherlock Holmes 1952–1969 radio series.

Eight of the stories were adapted as episodes of the Granada television series (1984–1994). Only one story, "The Cardboard Box" was adapted for the last part of the series which had the title The Memoirs of Sherlock Holmes. All the stories in the collection were adapted for BBC Radio 4 as part of the BBC Sherlock Holmes 1989–1998 radio series, and all were adapted for the radio series The Classic Adventures of Sherlock Holmes (2005–2016). The individual stories included in the collection have also been adapted for various other productions.

References

External links

Wikisource

1894 short story collections
Collections of Sherlock Holmes stories by Arthur Conan Doyle
George Newnes Ltd books

The Memoirs of Sherlock Holmes


An Carex petricosa in uska species han Liliopsida nga ginhulagway ni Chester Dewey. An Carex petricosa in nahilalakip ha genus nga Carex, ngan familia nga Cyperaceae.

Subspecies

Ini nga species ginbahin ha masunod nga subspecies:

 C. p. misandroides
 C. p. petricosa

Mga kasarigan

Carex

Carex petricosa


Pet Rana Kristovih također poznatih kao pet svetih rana, pet su probodnih rana koje je Isus Krist zadobio tijekom raspeća. Rane su bile žarište pojedinih pobožnosti, osobito u kasnom srednjem vijeku, a često su se odražavale u crkvenoj glazbi i umjetnosti.

Tijekom svoje muke, Isus je zadobio razne rane, poput onih od trnove krune i od bičevanja na stupu, a također i najveću ranu na ramenu. Srednjovjekovna pučka pobožnost usredotočila se na pet rana povezanih izravno s Kristovim raspećem, tj. rane na njegovim rukama i nogama, kao i ranu od koplja koja mu je probila bok.

Oživljavanje redovničkog života i revno djelovanje sv. Bernarda iz Clairvauxa i Franje Asiškog u 12. i 13. stoljeću, zajedno s entuzijazmom križara koji su se vraćali iz Svete zemlje, potaknuli su pobožnost muci Isusa Krista.

Sačuvane su mnoge srednjovjekovne molitve u čast Svetih rana, uključujući neke koje se pripisuju sv. Klari Asiškoj. Sv. Mehthilda iz Hackenborna i sv. Gertruda Velika bile su posvećene Svetim ranama, a potonja je svakodnevno izgovarala molitvu u čast 5466 rana, koje su, prema srednjovjekovnoj predaji, nanesene Isusu za vrijeme njegove muke. U 14. stoljeću bio je običaj u južnoj Njemačkoj recitirati petnaest Oče naša svaki dan (što je tako iznosilo 5475 tijekom godine dana) u spomen na Svete rane.

U srednjovjekovnim misalima postojala je posebna misa u čast Kristovih rana, poznata kao Zlatna misa, za vrijeme njezina slavlja uvijek se palilo pet svijeća.

Krunica je također pomogla u promicanju pobožnosti prema svetim ranama, jer dok se pedeset malih perli odnosi na Djevicu Mariju, pet velikih perli i odgovarajući Oče naši namijenjeni su počasti pet Kristovih rana. Opet je ponegdje bio običaj, da se petkom u podne zvoni zvono, kako bi se vjernici podsjećali da izgovaraju pet Oče naša i Zdravo Marija u čast svetih rana.

Obavljanje euharistijskog klanjanja pred tabernakulom (posebno pred najzaboravljenim i napuštenim tabernakulima) u sklopu pobožnosti šest prvih četvrtaka katolička je pobožnost koja nudi zadovoljštinu za svete Kristove rane.

Kod križanja koriste se svih pet prstiju, koji simboliziraju pet Isusovih rana (dvije rane kroz šake prilikom razapinjanja, dvije kroz probodene noge i proboden bok kopljem).

Pet križeva jeruzalemskoga križa sjedinjuju se u jedan simbol, koji simbolizira pet Kristovih Rana.

Još 1139. Afonso I. Portugalski stavio je amblem Rana Kristovih na svoj grb kao kralj Portugala i taj grb Portugala koristi se i danas.

Nevjerni Toma slavno je ulje na platnu talijanskog baroknog slikara Caravaggia, koja prikazuje sv. Tomu kako stavlja prst u Ranu Kristovu.

Izvori

Vanjske poveznice
Molitva pet Oče naša na čast pet Rana Kristovih.

Isus
Kršćanstvo

Pet Rana Kristovih


Diese Liste der Michigan State Historic Sites im Isabella County nennt alle als Michigan State Historic Site eingestuften historischen Stätten im Isabella County im US-Bundesstaat Michigan. Die mit † markierten Stätten sind gleichzeitig im National Register of Historic Places eingetragen.

Siehe auch
 Liste der Denkmäler im National Register of Historic Places im Isabella County

Weblinks
 Historic Sites Online – Isabella County. Michigan State Housing Developmental Authority.

Belege

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Isabella County


තක්ෂිලා මධ්‍ය විද්‍යාලයය ශ්‍රී ලංකාවේ හොරණ පිහිටා ඇති ද්විතීයික පාසලකි. වර්තමානයේදී සිසු/සිසුවියන් 3000 පමණ අධ්‍යාපනය හදාරන අතර 6 වසරේ සිට 13 වසර දක්වා පංති පැවැත්වේ.

ඉතිහාසය

ආරම්භය
ක්‍රි.ව. 1905දී හොරණ බෞද්ධ ඉංග්‍රීසි පාසල,බෞද්ධ පාසැල් අරම්භ කිරීමේ වැඩසටහන මගින් පිහිටුවන ලදී.මෙම වැඩසටහන දියත් කරනු ලැබුවේ හෙන්රි ස්ටීල් ඕල්කට්තුමාගෙ යුත් ලංකා බෞද්ධ පරමවිඥ්නාර්ථ සංගමය මගිනි.මෙම පාසල ස්ථාපිත කරනු ලැබුවේ එවකට ඉඩම් හිමිකරුවෙකු වූ සතිස් විමලසේකර මහතා විසින් ලබා දුන් කුඩා ඉඩමක ය.1930දී පමණ එවකට මහජන හිතෛෂියෙකු වූ ආතර්.වී.ඩයස් මහතා විසින් ප්‍රදානය කරනු ලැබූ ඉඩම් කැබැල්ලකට ගෙන යනු ලැබුණි.එවකට විදුහල්පතිවරයා වූ ඩබ්ලිව්.එස්.සිරිසේන මහතාගේ අනුමතය ඇතිව,පාසලේ ගුරුවරයෙක්ව සිටි ඩබ්ලිව්.කේ.එස්.ෆොන්සේකා මහතාගේ අදහස අනුව හොරණ බෞද්ධ ඉංග්‍රීසි පාසල යන නම තක්ෂිලා බෞද්ධ ඉංග්‍රීසි පාසල යන නමින් එහි නාමයේ වෙනසක් කිරීමට තීරණය කෙරුණි. 1946 පිහිටුවන ලද අතර අද වන විට ශ්‍රී ලාංකීය අධ්‍යාපන පද්ධතිය තුල   දස දහස් ගණන් දරුවන්ගේ නැණ නුවණ පාදන ප්‍රමුඛතම පාසලක් බවට පත් වී ඇත.

මධ්‍ය විද්‍යාල තත්වය
1943දී සී.ඩබ්ලිව්.ඩබ්ලිව්.කන්නන්ගර කමිටුව විසින් ඉදිරිපත් කෙරුණු අධ්‍යාපනික සංශෝධනයේ ප්රිතිඵලයක් වශයෙන් මධ්‍ය පාසල් 54ක් ලංකාව පුරා ස්ථාපනය කිරීමට පියවර ගැනුණි.

විදුහල්පතිවරු

 එඩ්මන්ඩ් සිල්වා
 ඊ.ආර්.එරත්න
 ජයවීර බණ්ඩාර
 ඊ.සී.කේ.අබේසේකර
 ජේ.එම්.ආර්.පෙරේරා
 එස්.අතුකෝරළ
 ඩී.එස්.සේනානායක

 එෆ්.එම්.ඒ.ජේ.මායාදුන්නෙ
 එම්.එල්.ජිනදාස
 වෝල්ටර් සිල්වා
 එම්.ඒ.පෙරේරා
 ආර්.මිත්‍රසේන
 යූ.ආර්.රන්දෙනි මයා
 බී.ඩී.දයානන්ද මයා

 දයානන්ද බස්නායක මයා
 ඒ.ඒ.එච්.අබේසිංහ මයා
 සෝමා රත්නායක මිය
 පී.ගීගනගේ මයා
 එච්.කේ.ඒ.අබේපාල මයා
 කේ.කේ.පී.එම්.ජයතිලක මිය

පහසුකම්
චෙස් සංගමය
තක්ෂිලා මධ්‍ය මහා විද්‍යාලයේ චෙස් සංගමයේ rating players දෙදෙනෙක් සිටි.  ආදිත්‍ය කරුණාරත්න rating 1023 yovindu osena 1578 නිසල් අදීශ ratings 1981 Seniru Hansith 1034

ක්ෂේත්‍ර අධ්‍යයන මධ්‍යස්ථානය

ඉතිහාසය
1979 වසරේ මුල් භාගයේ කළුතර දිස්ත්‍රික්කයේ විද්‍යා ගුරුවරුන්ට හා විද්‍යා අධ්‍යාපන නිලධාරී ඇතුළු පිරිස හට යාපනය නගරයේ තොන්ඩමනරු නම් ප්‍රදේශයේ ක්ෂෙත්‍ර අධ්‍යයන මධ්‍යස්ථානයේ තිබූ කඳවුරකට සහභාගී වන ලෙස ආරධනයක් ලබිණි.එය නේවාසික කඳවුරක් වූ අතර, එය දකුණේ ගුරුවරුන්ට උතුරේ ගුරුවරුන්ට එකට හමුවීමත්ට ලෑබුණු අගනා අවස්ථාවක් විය. අවසන දිනයේ ක්ෂෙත්‍ර අධ්‍යයන මධ්‍යස්ථානයක් කළුතර පිහිටුවීමට ගුරුවරු තීරණයක් ගත්තෝය. විද්‍යා අධ්‍යාපනික නිලධරී විසින් පවත්වන  ලද සාකච්ඡා වලින් අනතුරුව ක්ෂෙත්‍ර අධ්‍යයන මධ්‍යස්ථානයක් කළුතර අවට පිහිටුවීමට තීරණය කෙරිණි.එම පුද්ගලයින් පසුව ක්ෂේත්‍ර අධ්‍යයන මධ්‍යස්ථානයක් තක්ෂිලා මධ්‍ය විදුහලේ හි පිහිටුවීමට එකඟ විය.විදුහලේ විදුහල්පති සතුටු සිතින් වසා තබන ලද නේවාසිකාගාරය ක්ෂේත්‍ර අධ්‍යයන් මධ්‍යස්ථානය ස්ථාපිත කිරීමත ලබා දෙන ලදී.පළමුවන ක්ෂෙත්‍ර අධ්‍යයන කඳවුර 1979 අගෝස්තු මස තුන් වෙනිදා පවත්වූයේ කළුතර දිස්ත්‍රික්කයේ පරිසර වියපෘතියක් ලෙසටය.(1979-1983). අධ්‍යාපන දෙපර්තමේන්තුව මෙම මධ්‍යස්ථානයක් දියුණු කිරීමත කටයුතු කළේය.

ක්‍රියාකාරකම්
1981 වන විට ක්ෂේත්‍ර මධ්‍යස්ථානය සම්පූර්ණ විද්‍යාගාරයක් විය. අධ්‍යාපන දෙපාර්තමේන්තුව ඵළිමහනේ කරන ක්‍රියකාරකම් සඳහා උන්නදු කරවන බැවින්, අරමුදල් අධ්‍යාපනික කඳවුරු සඳහා වෙන් කරවන ලදී. දවස් තුනේ නේවාසික කඳවුරු සෑම වාර අවසානයකම පැවතුණි. මෙහිදී කරන ලද පාරිසරික අධ්‍යාපනය සදාහරිත,සතුන්ගෙන් ගහන කළු ගඟ හා  ඵ් අවට ප්‍රදේශය මත පදනම් වුණි.

පිහිනුම් තටාක අංගනය

ඉතිහාසය
2004 වසරේදී පොලිස් ජීවිතාරක්ෂක නායක තනතුර දරන W.S බන්දුල මහතාගේ යෝජනාවක් පරිදි තක්ෂිලා මධ්‍ය මහා විද්‍යාලය තුල පිහිනුම් ක්‍රීඩාවක් ලෙස ආරම්ඹ කිරිනි.මේ සාදහා රම්‍යලතා මායාදුන්නෙ මහත්මියගේ හා විදුහල්පති H.K.අහයපාල මහතා විසින් දායකත්වය ලබාදනලදී.හොරණ ප්‍රදේශය තුල පිහිනුම් ක්‍රීඩාවක් ලෙස ආරම්ඹ කරන ලද එකම පාසැල වූයේ තක්ෂිලා මධ්‍ය මහා විද්‍යාලයය්.පාසැල තුල පිහිනුම් තටාක අංගනයක් නොතැබීම මෙහි දියුණුවට බාධවක් විය ,එබැවින් සිසුන් පෞද්ගලික පිහිනුම් තටාක අංගනයන් තුල පුහුණුව ලබාගැනීමට පානදුර වැනි ප්‍රෙදේශයන් වලට යාමට සිදුවිය .බන්දුල මහතා හා R.K.T රාජකරුණා මහතා මේ පුහුණුවීම් කටයුතු සඳහා සහය ලබදෙනලදී. පිහිනුම් තටාක අංගනයක් නොමැති බැවින් එවකට ශ්‍රී ලංකාවේ අගමැති ධූරය දරූ රත්නසිරි වික්‍රමනායක මහතා හට ඉල්ලීමක් යවූ අතර ,එහි ප්‍රථිපලයක් ලෙස තක්ෂිලා මධ්‍ය මහා විද්‍යාලය තුල පිහිනුම් තටාක අංගනයක් ගොඩනැන්වීමට අවස්ථාවක් ලැබුණි.මෙය ජපානයේ නෙත්බුට්ස්හු බෞද්ධ පදනමේ පුරෝගාමි - පුජ්‍ය ක්යුසේ එන්ශින්ජෝ විසින් පරිත්‍යාග කරනලද්දකි.අගමැති රත්නසිරි වික්‍රමනායක මහතා විසින් පිහිනුම් තටාක අංගනය 2009වසෙර් ජුනි මස 29 වන දින වීවෘත්ථ කරන ලදී.
පිහිනුම් තටාක අංගනයේ තොරතුරු

අධ්‍යයන කටයුතු
අප පාසලේ හය වසරේ සිට දහතුන වසර දක්වා  3500කට අධික සිසුන් ප්‍රමණයක් ඉගෙනුම ලබයි. උසස් පෙළ විද්‍යා[මිෂ්‍ර ගාණිතය,ජීව විද්‍යාව], කලා වණිජ හා තාක්ෂණ ලෙස කොටස් හතරකට බෙදා වෙන් කර ඇත.

සාමාන්‍ය පෙළ

6,7,8 අංශය

තක්ෂිලා මධ්‍ය විද්‍යාලයේ 6 , 7 හා 8 ශ්‍රේණිවල A , B , C , D , E , F හා G ලෙස පන්ති හතක් පවතී.

9,10,11 අංශය

උසස් පෙළ

වාණිජ අංශය

ඉතා වැදගත් සිද්ධි
1968 වර්ෂයේ තක්ෂිලා වාණිජ අංශය එක් 12 වසර පන්තියක් ආරම්භ කරමින් පිහිටුවන ලදී.
1995 වර්ෂයේ අ.පො.ස. උසස් පෙළ දිස්ත්‍රික් ප්‍රථමයා.
1998 වර්ෂයේ තක්ෂිලා මධ්‍ය මහා විද්‍යාලයෙන් අ.පො.ස. උසස් පෙළ විභාගය සදහා පෙනී සිටි නිමල් ද සිල්වා ශිෂ්‍යයා එම වර්ෂයේ ලංකාවේ ප්‍රථමයා වීම.

පාසල සමගාමී ක්‍රියා
වාර්ෂික වාණිජ දිනය පැවැත්වීම.
පාසල් පරිසරය අලංකාර කිරීමට විවිධ වැඩසටහන් පැවැත්වීම.
පාසලේ අලංකාරය වැඩිකිරීමට හා විවිධ උත්සව අවස්ථා සදහා යොදාගැනීමට ඕකිඩ් සහ ඇන්තූරියම් මල් වැවීම.

විද්‍යා අංශය

සන්ධිස්ථාන
1963 දී ඉංජිනේරු පීඨයට තෝරාගත් ජී.ඩී. ධර්මසේන නම් සිසුවා ඉංජිනේරු පීඨයට තෝරාගත්  පළමු තක්ෂිලානුවා විය.සුනිල් සේනානායක වෛද්‍ය විද්‍යාලයට  1981 දී තොරා ගත්තේය .ඔහු වෛද්‍ය විද්‍යාලයට තෝරාගත් පළමු තක්ෂිලනුවා විය.(ඔහු තක්ෂිලා ආරම්භක  විද්‍යා කාණ්ඩයේ සිසුවෙක් විය)

විද්‍යාගාර සංකීර්ණය
මෙය 1962 දී ඇරඹුණි.ආරම්භක අවදියේදී විද්‍යාගාර සංකීර්ණය රසායනික විද්‍යා,භෞතික විද්‍යා හා කෘෂි විද්‍යා ලෙස කොටස් තුනක් විය.1986 දී ලැබුණු තුන්මහල් ගොඩනැගිල්ල ලැබුණු නිසා විද්‍යාගාර පද්ධතිය රසායනික ,භෞතික ,උද්භිද හා සත්ව විද්‍යාගාරය ලෙස වෙනස් විය.උසස් පෙළ විෂය නිර්දේශය වෙනස් වීමෙන් පසුව සත්ව විද්‍යාගාරය වස දැමුණු අතර උද්භිද විද්‍යාගාරය ජීව විද්‍යාගාරය ලෙස වෙනස් කෙරිණි.

විෂය බාහිර ක්‍රියාකාරකම්

සංගම්

 ජ්‍යෙෂ්ඨ විද්‍යා සංගමය.
 පරිගණක විද්‍යා සංගමය
 විවාද සංගමය
 ගුවන් විදුලි සංගමය
 විද්‍යා සංගමය
 බෞද්ධ සංගමය
 වාණිජ සංගමය
 කලා සංගමය
 ඉංග්‍රීසි ඒකකය

 ඡායාරූප සංගමය
 නව ගවේෂකයන්ගේ සංගමය
 තාරකා විද්‍යා සංගමය
 ඉංග්‍රීසි සංගමය
 දැනුම සොයන සිසු හවුල
 සිංහල සාහිත්‍ය සංගමය
 ජෙ‍යෂ්ට ශිෂ්‍ය නායක සංසදය
 කණිෂ්ට ශිෂ්ය නායක සංසදය
 ශිෂ්‍ය භට බාලක ඛණ්ඩය

 ශිෂ්‍ය භට බාලිකා ඛණ්ඩය
 ශිෂ්‍ය භට බටහිර තූර්ය වාදක කණ්ඩායම
 තූර්ය වාදක කණ්දායම(බාලිකා)
 නර්තන සංගමය
 බාලදක්ෂ සංගමය
 බාලදක්ෂිකා සංගමය
 සෞඛ්‍යදාන සංගමය
 පරිසරභට සංගමය
 චෙස් සංගමය

ක්‍රීඩා

 කැරම්
 ක්‍රිකට්
 පාපන්දු
 චෙස්

 බැඩ්මින්ටන්
 කරාතේ
 පිහිනුම්
 මළල ක්‍රීඩා

 අත්පන්දු
 දැල්පන්දු

නිවාස
තක්ෂිලා මධ්‍ය මහා විද්‍යාලයේ සිසුන් නිවාස සතරකට බෙදා ඇත ඒවා නම්
 තිස්ස
වර්ණය -  රතු
 ගැමුණු
වර්ණය -  කොළ
 විජය
වර්ණය -  කහ
 පරාක්‍රම
වර්ණය -  නිල්

මෙම නිවාස නම් කොට අත්තේ ලක්දිව සිටි වැදගත් රජවරුන්ගේ නම් වලිනි . වාර්ෂිකව ක්‍රීඩා උත්සවයක් පාසල් මුල් වාරයේ පැවත්වෙන අතර එම තරගයන් වලදී තම නිවාස හා පාසැල වෙනුවෙන් ඔවුන් ක්‍රීඩා කරයි.

ශ්‍රී ලංකාවේ රජයේ පාසල්

තක්‍ෂිලා මධ්‍ය මහා විද්‍යාලය, හොරණ


Albert Tomàs (født 19. december 1970) er en tidligere spansk fodboldspiller.

Han har spillet for flere forskellige klubber i sin karriere, herunder Vissel Kobe.

Eksterne henvisninger

Fodboldspillere fra Spanien

Albert Tomàs


Jules Henri François Charles-Roux (* 4. Oktober 1909 in Sorgues; † 19. April 1999) war ein französischer Diplomat.

Leben
Jules Henri François Charles-Roux war der Sohn von Madeleine Yvaren und Charles Wulfran Marie Louis Charles-Roux. Er heiratete am 22. Juni 1936 in Marseille Fanny Zarifi. Er trat 1938 in den auswärtigen Dienst. Von 30. Juni 1938 bis Oktober 1941 war er Attaché in New York City. Im Oktober 1941 wurde sein Rücktrittsantrag vom Vichy-Regime angenommen. 1942 war er im Commissariat National aux Affaires étrangères in London Botschaftssekretär zweiter Klasse. Von 1943 bis 1948 war er in Washington D.C. Botschaftsrat zweiter Klasse. Von 1948 bis 1952 wurde er am Quai d'Orsay beschäftigt. Von 1952 bis 1955 war er Generalkonsul in Boston.

Marokko wurde am 2. März 1956 von Frankreich und am 7. April 1956 von Spanien unabhängig. Von 1956 bis 1961 war Jules Henri François Charles-Roux Konsul in Rabat. Von 1961 bis 1964 wurde er am Quai d'Orsay beschäftigt. Von 21. Mai 1964 bis 7. März 1969 war er außerordentlicher und bevollmächtigter Botschafter in Damaskus. Vom 7. März 1969 bis 4. Juli 1972 war er außerordentlicher und bevollmächtigter Botschafter in Teheran. 1972 wurde er in den Ruhestand versetzt.

Einzelnachweise

Französischer Botschafter in Syrien
Französischer Botschafter im Iran
Franzose
Geboren 1909
Gestorben 1999
Mann

Jules Henri François Charles-Roux


sau PAMP (in românǎ) este un cântec creat de Daimaou Kosaka, cunoscut sub numele de Piko-Taro. A atins prima poziție a clasamentului Japan Hot 100 și este cel mai scurt single care a intrat în Billboard Hot 100.

Note

Discuri single din 2016

PPAP (Pen-Pineapple-Apple-Pen)


Montecoral, teils auch als Monte Coral bezeichnet, ist eine Ortschaft in Uruguay.

Geographie
Montecoral befindet sich auf dem Gebiet des Departamento Florida in dessen Sektor 7. Nächstgelegene Ansiedlungen sind Estación Capilla del Sauce, Capilla del Sauce und Pueblo Ferrer im Nordosten. Während das Gebiet nördlich des Ortes als Cuchilla del Rosario bezeichnet wird, erstreckt sich südlich die Cuchilla de Mansavillagra.

Infrastruktur
Durch den Ort führt die Ruta 6.

Einwohner
Die Einwohnerzahl von Montecoral beträgt 51 (Stand: 2011), davon 27 männliche und 24 weibliche.

Quelle: Instituto Nacional de Estadística de Uruguay

Weblinks
 Stadtplan von Montecoral (PDF; 79 kB)

Einzelnachweise

Ort im Departamento Florida

Montecoral


Quantum dots (QDs), also called semiconductor nanocrystals, are semiconductor particles a few nanometres in size, having optical and electronic properties that differ from those of larger particles as a result of quantum mechanical effects. They are a central topic in nanotechnology and materials science. When the quantum dots are illuminated by UV light, an electron in the quantum dot can be excited to a state of higher energy. In the case of a semiconducting quantum dot, this process corresponds to the transition of an electron from the valence band to the conductance band. The excited electron can drop back into the valence band releasing its energy as light. This light emission (photoluminescence) is illustrated in the figure on the right. The color of that light depends on the energy difference between the conductance band and the valence band, or the transition between discrete energy states when the band structure is no longer well-defined in QDs.

Nanoscale semiconductor materials tightly confine either electrons or electron holes. The confinement is similar to a three-dimensional particle in a box model. The quantum dot absorption and emission features correspond to transitions between discrete quantum mechanically allowed energy levels in the box that are reminiscent of atomic spectra. For these reasons, quantum dots are sometimes referred to as artificial atoms, emphasizing their bound and discrete electronic states, like naturally occurring atoms or molecules. It was shown that the electronic wave functions in quantum dots resemble the ones in real atoms. By coupling two or more such quantum dots, an artificial molecule can be made, exhibiting hybridization even at room temperature. Precise assembly of quantum dots can form superlattices that act as artificial solid-state materials that exhibit unique optical and electronic properties.

Quantum dots have properties intermediate between bulk semiconductors and discrete atoms or molecules. Their optoelectronic properties change as a function of both size and shape. Larger QDs of 5–6 nm diameter emit longer wavelengths, with colors such as orange, or red. Smaller QDs (2–3 nm) emit shorter wavelengths, yielding colors like blue and green. However, the specific colors vary depending on the exact composition of the QD.

Potential applications of quantum dots include single-electron transistors, solar cells, LEDs, lasers, single-photon sources, second-harmonic generation, quantum computing, cell biology research, microscopy, and medical imaging. Their small size allows for some QDs to be suspended in solution, which may lead to their use in inkjet printing, and spin coating. They have been used in Langmuir–Blodgett thin films. These processing techniques result in less expensive and less time-consuming methods of semiconductor fabrication.

Production

There are several ways to fabricate quantum dots. Possible methods include colloidal synthesis, self-assembly, and electrical gating.

Colloidal synthesis
Colloidal semiconductor nanocrystals are synthesized from solutions, much like traditional chemical processes. The main difference is the product neither precipitates as a bulk solid nor remains dissolved. Heating the solution at high temperature, the precursors decompose forming monomers which then nucleate and generate nanocrystals. Temperature is a critical factor in determining optimal conditions for the nanocrystal growth. It must be high enough to allow for rearrangement and annealing of atoms during the synthesis process while being low enough to promote crystal growth. The concentration of monomers is another critical factor that has to be stringently controlled during nanocrystal growth. The growth process of nanocrystals can occur in two different regimes: "focusing" and "defocusing". At high monomer concentrations, the critical size (the size where nanocrystals neither grow nor shrink) is relatively small, resulting in growth of nearly all particles. In this regime, smaller particles grow faster than large ones (since larger crystals need more atoms to grow than small crystals) resulting in the size distribution focusing, yielding an improbable distribution of nearly monodispersed particles. The size focusing is optimal when the monomer concentration is kept such that the average nanocrystal size present is always slightly larger than the critical size. Over time, the monomer concentration diminishes, the critical size becomes larger than the average size present, and the distribution defocuses.

There are colloidal methods to produce many different semiconductors. Typical dots are made of binary compounds such as lead sulfide, lead selenide, cadmium selenide, cadmium sulfide, cadmium telluride, indium arsenide, and indium phosphide. Dots may also be made from ternary compounds such as cadmium selenide sulfide. Further, recent advances have been made which allow for synthesis of colloidal perovskite quantum dots.
These quantum dots can contain as few as 100 to 100,000 atoms within the quantum dot volume, with a diameter of approximately 10 to 50 atom diameters. This corresponds to about 2 to 10 nanometers, and at 10 nm in diameter, nearly 3 million quantum dots could be lined up end to end and fit within the width of a human thumb.

Large batches of quantum dots may be synthesized via colloidal synthesis. Due to this scalability and the convenience of benchtop conditions, colloidal synthetic methods are promising for commercial applications.

Plasma synthesis
Plasma synthesis has evolved to be one of the most popular gas-phase approaches for the production of quantum dots, especially those with covalent bonds. For example, silicon and germanium quantum dots have been synthesized by using nonthermal plasma. The size, shape, surface and composition of quantum dots can all be controlled in nonthermal plasma. Doping that seems quite challenging for quantum dots has also been realized in plasma synthesis. Quantum dots synthesized by plasma are usually in the form of powder, for which surface modification may be carried out. This can lead to excellent dispersion of quantum dots in either organic solvents or water (i. e., colloidal quantum dots).

Fabrication
The electrostatic potential needed to create a quantum dot can be realized with several methods. These include external electrodes, doping, strain, or impurities. Self-assembled quantum dots are typically between 5 and 50 nm in size. Quantum dots defined by lithographically patterned gate electrodes, or by etching on two-dimensional electron gases in semiconductor heterostructures can have lateral dimensions between 20 and 100 nm.
Some quantum dots are small regions of one material buried in another with a larger band gap. These can be so-called core–shell structures, for example, with CdSe in the core and ZnS in the shell, or from special forms of silica called ormosil. Sub-monolayer shells can also be effective ways of passivating the quantum dots, such as PbS cores with sub-monolayer CdS shells.
Quantum dots sometimes occur spontaneously in quantum well structures due to monolayer fluctuations in the well's thickness.

Self-assembled quantum dots nucleate spontaneously under certain conditions during molecular beam epitaxy (MBE) and metalorganic vapour-phase epitaxy (MOVPE), when a material is grown on a substrate to which it is not lattice matched. The resulting strain leads to the formation of islands on top of a two-dimensional wetting layer. This growth mode is known as Stranski–Krastanov growth. The islands can be subsequently buried to form the quantum dot. A widely used type of quantum dots grown with this method are indium gallium arsenide () quantum dots in gallium arsenide (). Such quantum dots have the potential for applications in quantum cryptography (that is, single-photon sources) and quantum computation. The main limitations of this method are the cost of fabrication and the lack of control over positioning of individual dots.
Individual quantum dots can be created from two-dimensional electron or hole gases present in remotely doped quantum wells or semiconductor heterostructures called lateral quantum dots. The sample surface is coated with a thin layer of resist and a lateral pattern is then defined in the resist by electron beam lithography. This pattern can then be transferred to the electron or hole gas by etching, or by depositing metal electrodes (lift-off process) that allow the application of external voltages between the electron gas and the electrodes. Such quantum dots are mainly of interest for experiments and applications involving electron or hole transport and they are also used as spin qubits. A strength of this type of quantum dots is that their energy spectrum can be engineered by controlling the geometrical size, shape, and the strength of the confinement potential with gate electrodes. These quantum dots can be easily connected by tunnel barriers to conducting leads, which allows the application of the techniques of tunneling spectroscopy for their investigation.
 Complementary metal–oxide–semiconductor (CMOS) technology can be employed to fabricate silicon quantum dots. Ultra small (20 nm × 20 nm) CMOS transistors behave as single electron quantum dots when operated at cryogenic temperature over a range of −269 °C (4 K) to about −258 °C (15 K). The transistor displays Coulomb blockade due to progressive charging of electrons (holes) one by one. The number of electrons (holes) confined in the channel is driven by the gate voltage, starting from an occupation of zero electrons (holes), and it can be set to one or many.

Viral assembly
Genetically engineered M13 bacteriophage viruses allow preparation of quantum dot biocomposite structures. It had previously been shown that genetically engineered viruses can recognize specific semiconductor surfaces through the method of selection by combinatorial phage display. Additionally, it is known that liquid crystalline structures of wild-type viruses (Fd, M13, and TMV) are adjustable by controlling the solution concentrations, solution ionic strength, and the external magnetic field applied to the solutions. Consequently, the specific recognition properties of the virus can be used to organize inorganic nanocrystals, forming ordered arrays over the length scale defined by liquid crystal formation. Using this information, Lee et al. (2000) were able to create self-assembled, highly oriented, self-supporting films from a phage and ZnS precursor solution. This system allowed them to vary both the length of bacteriophage and the type of inorganic material through genetic modification and selection.

Electrochemical assembly
Highly ordered arrays of quantum dots may also be self-assembled by electrochemical techniques. A template is created by causing an ionic reaction at an electrolyte–metal interface which results in the spontaneous assembly of nanostructures, including quantum dots, onto the metal which is then used as a mask for mesa-etching these nanostructures on a chosen substrate.

Bulk manufacture
Quantum dot manufacturing relies on a process called high temperature dual injection which has been scaled by multiple companies for commercial applications that require large quantities (hundreds of kilograms to tons) of quantum dots. This reproducible production method can be applied to a wide range of quantum dot sizes and compositions.

The bonding in certain cadmium-free quantum dots, such as III–V-based quantum dots, is more covalent than that in II–VI materials, therefore it is more difficult to separate nanoparticle nucleation and growth via a high temperature dual injection synthesis. An alternative method of quantum dot synthesis, the molecular seeding process, provides a reproducible route to the production of high-quality quantum dots in large volumes. The process utilises identical molecules of a molecular cluster compound as the nucleation sites for nanoparticle growth, thus avoiding the need for a high temperature injection step. Particle growth is maintained by the periodic addition of precursors at moderate temperatures until the desired particle size is reached. The molecular seeding process is not limited to the production of cadmium-free quantum dots; for example, the process can be used to synthesise kilogram batches of high-quality II–VI quantum dots in just a few hours.

Another approach for the mass production of colloidal quantum dots can be seen in the transfer of the well-known hot-injection methodology for the synthesis to a technical continuous flow system. The batch-to-batch variations arising from the needs during the mentioned methodology can be overcome by utilizing technical components for mixing and growth as well as transport and temperature adjustments. For the production of CdSe based semiconductor nanoparticles this method has been investigated and tuned to production amounts of kilograms per month. Since the use of technical components allows for easy interchange in regards of maximum throughput and size, it can be further enhanced to tens or even hundreds of kilograms.

In 2011 a consortium of U.S. and Dutch companies reported a milestone in high-volume quantum dot manufacturing by applying the traditional high temperature dual injection method to a flow system.

On 23 January 2013 Dow entered into an exclusive licensing agreement with UK-based Nanoco for the use of their low-temperature molecular seeding method for bulk manufacture of cadmium-free quantum dots for electronic displays, and on 24 September 2014 Dow commenced work on the production facility in South Korea capable of producing sufficient quantum dots for "millions of cadmium-free televisions and other devices, such as tablets". Mass production is due to commence in mid-2015. On 24 March 2015, Dow announced a partnership deal with LG Electronics to develop the use of cadmium free quantum dots in displays.

Heavy-metal-free quantum dots
In many regions of the world there is now a restriction or ban on the use of toxic heavy metals in many household goods, which means that most cadmium-based quantum dots are unusable for consumer-goods applications.

For commercial viability, a range of restricted, heavy-metal-free quantum dots has been developed showing bright emissions in the visible and near-infrared region of the spectrum and have similar optical properties to those of CdSe quantum dots. Among these materials are InP/ZnS, CuInS/ZnS, Si, Ge, and C.

Peptides are being researched as potential quantum dot material.

Health and safety

Some quantum dots pose risks to human health and the environment under certain conditions. Notably, the studies on quantum dot toxicity have focused on particles containing cadmium and have yet to be demonstrated in animal models after physiologically relevant dosing. In vitro studies, based on cell cultures, on quantum dots (QD) toxicity suggest that their toxicity may derive from multiple factors including their physicochemical characteristics (size, shape, composition, surface functional groups, and surface charges) and their environment. Assessing their potential toxicity is complex as these factors include properties such as QD size, charge, concentration, chemical composition, capping ligands, and also on their oxidative, mechanical, and photolytic stability.

Many studies have focused on the mechanism of QD cytotoxicity using model cell cultures. It has been demonstrated that after exposure to ultraviolet radiation or oxidation by air, CdSe QDs release free cadmium ions causing cell death. Group II–VI QDs also have been reported to induce the formation of reactive oxygen species after exposure to light, which in turn can damage cellular components such as proteins, lipids, and DNA. Some studies have also demonstrated that addition of a ZnS shell inhibits the process of reactive oxygen species in CdSe QDs. Another aspect of QD toxicity is that there are, in vivo, size-dependent intracellular pathways that concentrate these particles in cellular organelles that are inaccessible by metal ions, which may result in unique patterns of cytotoxicity compared to their constituent metal ions. The reports of QD localization in the cell nucleus present additional modes of toxicity because they may induce DNA mutation, which in turn will propagate through future generation of cells, causing diseases.

Although concentration of QDs in certain organelles have been reported in in vivo studies using animal models, no alterations in animal behavior, weight, hematological markers, or organ damage has been found through either histological or biochemical analysis. These findings have led scientists to believe that intracellular dose is the most important determining factor for QD toxicity. Therefore, factors determining the QD endocytosis that determine the effective intracellular concentration, such as QD size, shape, and surface chemistry determine their toxicity. Excretion of QDs through urine in animal models also have demonstrated via injecting radio-labeled ZnS-capped CdSe QDs where the ligand shell was labeled with 99mTc. Though multiple other studies have concluded retention of QDs in cellular levels, exocytosis of QDs is still poorly studied in the literature.

While significant research efforts have broadened the understanding of toxicity of QDs, there are large discrepancies in the literature, and questions still remain to be answered. Diversity of this class of material as compared to normal chemical substances makes the assessment of their toxicity very challenging. As their toxicity may also be dynamic depending on the environmental factors such as pH level, light exposure, and cell type, traditional methods of assessing toxicity of chemicals such as LD50 are not applicable for QDs. Therefore, researchers are focusing on introducing novel approaches and adapting existing methods to include this unique class of materials. Furthermore, novel strategies to engineer safer QDs are still under exploration by the scientific community. A recent novelty in the field is the discovery of carbon quantum dots, a new generation of optically active nanoparticles potentially capable of replacing semiconductor QDs, but with the advantage of much lower toxicity.

Optical properties

In semiconductors, light absorption generally leads to an electron being excited from the valence to the conduction band, leaving behind a hole. The electron and the hole can bind to each other to form an exciton. When this exciton recombines (when the electron resumes its ground state), the exciton's energy can be emitted as light. This is called fluorescence. In a simplified model, the energy of the emitted photon can be understood as the sum of the band gap energy between the highest occupied level and the lowest unoccupied energy level, the confinement energies of the hole and the excited electron, and the bound energy of the exciton (the electron–hole pair):

As the confinement energy depends on the quantum dot's size, both absorption onset and fluorescence emission can be tuned by changing the size of the quantum dot during its synthesis. The larger the dot, the redder (lower-energy) its absorption onset and fluorescence spectrum. Conversely, smaller dots absorb and emit bluer (higher-energy) light. Recent articles suggest that the shape of the quantum dot may be a factor in the coloration as well, but as yet not enough information is available . Furthermore, it was shown that the lifetime of fluorescence is determined by the size of the quantum dot. Larger dots have more closely spaced energy levels in which the electron–hole pair can be trapped. Therefore, electron–hole pairs in larger dots live longer causing larger dots to show a longer lifetime.

To improve fluorescence quantum yield, quantum dots can be made with shells of a larger bandgap semiconductor material around them. The improvement is suggested to be due to the reduced access of electron and hole to non-radiative surface recombination pathways in some cases, but also due to reduced Auger recombination in others.

Applications
Quantum dots are particularly promising for optical applications due to their high extinction coefficient and ultrafast optical nonlinearities with potential applications for developing all-optical systems. They operate like a single-electron transistor and show the Coulomb blockade effect. Quantum dots have also been suggested as implementations of qubits for quantum information processing, and as active elements for thermoelectrics.

Tuning the size of quantum dots is attractive for many potential applications. For instance, larger quantum dots have a greater spectrum shift toward red compared to smaller dots and exhibit less pronounced quantum properties. Conversely, the smaller particles allow one to take advantage of more subtle quantum effects.

Being zero-dimensional, quantum dots have a sharper density of states than higher-dimensional structures. As a result, they have superior transport and optical properties. They have potential uses in diode lasers, amplifiers, and biological sensors. Quantum dots may be excited within a locally enhanced electromagnetic field produced by gold nanoparticles, which then can be observed from the surface plasmon resonance in the photoluminescent excitation spectrum of (CdSe)ZnS nanocrystals. High-quality quantum dots are well suited for optical encoding and multiplexing applications due to their broad excitation profiles and narrow/symmetric emission spectra. The new generations of quantum dots have far-reaching potential for the study of intracellular processes at the single-molecule level, high-resolution cellular imaging, long-term in vivo observation of cell trafficking, tumor targeting, and diagnostics.

CdSe nanocrystals are efficient triplet photosensitizers. Laser excitation of small CdSe nanoparticles enables the extraction of the excited state energy from the quantum dots into bulk solution, thus opening the door to a wide range of potential applications such as photodynamic therapy, photovoltaic devices, molecular electronics, and catalysis.

Subcutaneous record-keeping
In December 2019, Robert S. Langer and his team developed and patented a technique whereby transdermal patches could be used to apply an identification tattoo to people with invisible ink to store information subcutaneously. This was presented as a boon to "developing nations" where lack of infrastructure means an absence of medical records. The technology, which is assigned to the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, uses a "quantum dot dye that is delivered, in this case along with a vaccine, by a microneedle patch." The research "was funded by the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation and the Koch Institute for Integrative Cancer Research."

Biology
In modern biological analysis, various kinds of organic dyes are used. However, as technology advances, greater flexibility in these dyes is sought. To this end, quantum dots have quickly filled in the role, being found to be superior to traditional organic dyes on several counts, one of the most immediately obvious being brightness (owing to the high extinction coefficient combined with a comparable quantum yield to fluorescent dyes) as well as their stability (allowing much less photobleaching). It has been estimated that quantum dots are 20 times brighter and 100 times more stable than traditional fluorescent reporters. For single-particle tracking, the irregular blinking of quantum dots is a minor drawback. However, there have been groups which have developed quantum dots which are essentially nonblinking and demonstrated their utility in single-molecule tracking experiments.

The use of quantum dots for highly sensitive cellular imaging has seen major advances. The improved photostability of quantum dots, for example, allows the acquisition of many consecutive focal-plane images that can be reconstructed into a high-resolution three-dimensional image. Another application that takes advantage of the extraordinary photostability of quantum dot probes is the real-time tracking of molecules and cells over extended periods of time. Antibodies, streptavidin, peptides, DNA, nucleic acid aptamers, or small-molecule ligands can be used to target quantum dots to specific proteins on cells. Researchers were able to observe quantum dots in lymph nodes of mice for more than 4 months.

Quantum dots can have antibacterial properties similar to nanoparticles and can kill bacteria in a dose-dependent manner. One mechanism by which quantum dots can kill bacteria is through impairing the functions of antioxidative system in the cells and down regulating the antioxidative genes. In addition, quantum dots can directly damage the cell wall. Quantum dots have been shown to be effective against both gram- positive and gram-negative bacteria.

Semiconductor quantum dots have also been employed for in vitro imaging of pre-labeled cells. The ability to image single-cell migration in real time is expected to be important to several research areas such as embryogenesis, cancer metastasis, stem cell therapeutics, and lymphocyte immunology.

One application of quantum dots in biology is as donor fluorophores in Förster resonance energy transfer, where the large extinction coefficient and spectral purity of these fluorophores make them superior to molecular fluorophores It is also worth noting that the broad absorbance of QDs allows selective excitation of the QD donor and a minimum excitation of a dye acceptor in FRET-based studies. The applicability of the FRET model, which assumes that the Quantum Dot can be approximated as a point dipole, has recently been demonstrated

The use of quantum dots for tumor targeting under in vivo conditions employ two targeting schemes: active targeting and passive targeting. In the case of active targeting, quantum dots are functionalized with tumor-specific binding sites to selectively bind to tumor cells. Passive targeting uses the enhanced permeation and retention of tumor cells for the delivery of quantum dot probes. Fast-growing tumor cells typically have more permeable membranes than healthy cells, allowing the leakage of small nanoparticles into the cell body. Moreover, tumor cells lack an effective lymphatic drainage system, which leads to subsequent nanoparticle accumulation.

Quantum dot probes exhibit in vivo toxicity. For example, CdSe nanocrystals are highly toxic to cultured cells under UV illumination, because the particles dissolve, in a process known as photolysis, to release toxic cadmium ions into the culture medium. In the absence of UV irradiation, however, quantum dots with a stable polymer coating have been found to be essentially nontoxic. Hydrogel encapsulation of quantum dots allows for quantum dots to be introduced into a stable aqueous solution, reducing the possibility of cadmium leakage. Then again, only little is known about the excretion process of quantum dots from living organisms.

In another potential application, quantum dots are being investigated as the inorganic fluorophore for intra-operative detection of tumors using fluorescence spectroscopy.

Delivery of undamaged quantum dots to the cell cytoplasm has been a challenge with existing techniques. Vector-based methods have resulted in aggregation and endosomal sequestration of quantum dots while electroporation can damage the semi-conducting particles and aggregate delivered dots in the cytosol. Via cell squeezing, quantum dots can be efficiently delivered without inducing aggregation, trapping material in endosomes, or significant loss of cell viability. Moreover, it has shown that individual quantum dots delivered by this approach are detectable in the cell cytosol, thus illustrating the potential of this technique for single-molecule tracking studies.

Photovoltaic devices

The tunable absorption spectrum and high extinction coefficients of quantum dots make them attractive for light harvesting technologies such as photovoltaics. Quantum dots may be able to increase the efficiency and reduce the cost of today's typical silicon photovoltaic cells. According to an experimental report from 2004, quantum dots of lead selenide (PbSe) can produce more than one exciton from one high-energy photon via the process of carrier multiplication or multiple exciton generation (MEG). This compares favorably to today's photovoltaic cells which can only manage one exciton per high-energy photon, with high kinetic energy carriers losing their energy as heat. On the other hand, the quantum-confined ground-states of colloidal quantum dots (such as lead sulfide, PbS) incorporated in wider-bandgap host semiconductors (such as perovskite) can allow the generation of photocurrent from photons with energy below the host bandgap, via a two-photon absorption process, offering another approach (termed intermediate band, IB) to exploit a broader range of the solar spectrum and thereby achieve higher photovoltaic efficiency.

Colloidal quantum dot photovoltaics would theoretically be cheaper to manufacture, as they can be made using simple chemical reactions.

Quantum dot only solar cells
Aromatic self-assembled monolayers (SAMs) (such as 4-nitrobenzoic acid) can be used to improve the band alignment at electrodes for better efficiencies. This technique has provided a record power conversion efficiency (PCE) of 10.7%. The SAM is positioned between ZnO–PbS colloidal quantum dot (CQD) film junction to modify band alignment via the dipole moment of the constituent SAM molecule, and the band tuning may be modified via the density, dipole and the orientation of the SAM molecule.

Quantum dot in hybrid solar cells
Colloidal quantum dots are also used in inorganic–organic hybrid solar cells. These solar cells are attractive because of the potential for low-cost fabrication and relatively high efficiency. Incorporation of metal oxides, such as ZnO, TiO2, and Nb2O5 nanomaterials into organic photovoltaics have been commercialized using full roll-to-roll processing. A 13.2% power conversion efficiency is claimed in Si nanowire/PEDOT:PSS hybrid solar cells.

Quantum dot with nanowire in solar cells
Another potential use involves capped single-crystal ZnO nanowires with CdSe quantum dots, immersed in mercaptopropionic acid as hole transport medium in order to obtain a QD-sensitized solar cell. The morphology of the nanowires allowed the electrons to have a direct pathway to the photoanode. This form of solar cell exhibits 50–60% internal quantum efficiencies.

Nanowires with quantum dot coatings on silicon nanowires (SiNW) and carbon quantum dots. The use of SiNWs instead of planar silicon enhances the antiflection properties of Si. The SiNW exhibits a light-trapping effect due to light trapping in the SiNW. This use of SiNWs in conjunction with carbon quantum dots resulted in a solar cell that reached 9.10% PCE.

Graphene quantum dots have also been blended with organic electronic materials to improve efficiency and lower cost in photovoltaic devices and organic light emitting diodes (OLEDs) compared to graphene sheets. These graphene quantum dots were functionalized with organic ligands that experience photoluminescence from UV–visible absorption.

Light-emitting diodes

Several methods are proposed for using quantum dots to improve existing light-emitting diode (LED) design, including quantum dot light-emitting diode (QD-LED or QLED) displays, and quantum dot white-light-emitting diode (QD-WLED) displays. Because quantum dots naturally produce monochromatic light, they can be more efficient than light sources which must be color filtered. QD-LEDs can be fabricated on a silicon substrate, which allows them to be integrated onto standard silicon-based integrated circuits or microelectromechanical systems.

Quantum dot displays

Quantum dots are valued for displays because they emit light in very specific Gaussian distributions. This can result in a display with visibly more accurate colors.

A conventional color liquid crystal display (LCD) is usually backlit by fluorescent lamps (CCFLs) or conventional white LEDs that are color filtered to produce red, green, and blue pixels. Quantum dot displays use blue-emitting LEDs rather than white LEDs as the light sources. The converting part of the emitted light is converted into pure green and red light by the corresponding color quantum dots placed in front of the blue LED or using a quantum dot infused diffuser sheet in the backlight optical stack. Blank pixels are also used to allow the blue LED light to still generate blue hues. This type of white light as the backlight of an LCD panel allows for the best color gamut at lower cost than an RGB LED combination using three LEDs.

Another method by which quantum dot displays can be achieved is the electroluminescent (EL) or electro-emissive method. This involves embedding quantum dots in each individual pixel. These are then activated and controlled via an electric current application. Since this is often light emitting itself, the achievable colors may be limited in this method. Electro-emissive QD-LED TVs exist in laboratories only.

The ability of QDs to precisely convert and tune a spectrum makes them attractive for LCD displays. Previous LCD displays can waste energy converting red-green poor, blue-yellow rich white light into a more balanced lighting. By using QDs, only the necessary colors for ideal images are contained in the screen. The result is a screen that is brighter, clearer, and more energy-efficient. The first commercial application of quantum dots was the Sony XBR X900A series of flat panel televisions released in 2013.

In June 2006, QD Vision announced technical success in making a proof-of-concept quantum dot display and show a bright emission in the visible and near infrared region of the spectrum. A QD-LED integrated at a scanning microscopy tip was used to demonstrate fluorescence near-field scanning optical microscopy (NSOM) imaging.

Photodetector devices
Quantum dot photodetectors (QDPs) can be fabricated either via solution-processing, or from conventional single-crystalline semiconductors. Conventional single-crystalline semiconductor QDPs are precluded from integration with flexible organic electronics due to the incompatibility of their growth conditions with the process windows required by organic semiconductors. On the other hand, solution-processed QDPs can be readily integrated with an almost infinite variety of substrates, and also postprocessed atop other integrated circuits. Such colloidal QDPs have potential applications in visible- and infrared-light cameras, machine vision, industrial inspection, spectroscopy, and fluorescent biomedical imaging.

Photocatalysts

Quantum dots also function as photocatalysts for the light driven chemical conversion of water into hydrogen as a pathway to solar fuel. In photocatalysis, electron hole pairs formed in the dot under band gap excitation drive redox reactions in the surrounding liquid. Generally, the photocatalytic activity of the dots is related to the particle size and its degree of quantum confinement. This is because the band gap determines the chemical energy that is stored in the dot in the excited state. An obstacle for the use of quantum dots in photocatalysis is the presence of surfactants on the surface of the dots. These surfactants (or ligands) interfere with the chemical reactivity of the dots by slowing down mass transfer and electron transfer processes. Also, quantum dots made of metal chalcogenides are chemically unstable under oxidizing conditions and undergo photo corrosion reactions.

Theory
Quantum dots are theoretically described as a point-like, or zero dimensional (0D) entity. Most of their properties depend on the dimensions, shape, and materials of which QDs are made. Generally, QDs present different thermodynamic properties from their bulk materials. One of these effects is melting-point depression. Optical properties of spherical metallic QDs are well described by the Mie scattering theory.

Quantum confinement in semiconductors

The energy levels of a single particle in a quantum dot can be predicted using the particle in a box model in which the energies of states depend on the length of the box. For an exciton inside a quantum dot, there is also the Coulomb interaction between the negatively charged electron and the positively charged hole. By comparing the quantum dot's size to the exciton Bohr radius, three regimes can be defined. In the 'strong confinement regime', the quantum dot's radius is much smaller than the exciton Bohr radius, respectively the confinement energy dominates over the Coulomb interaction. In the 'weak confinement' regime, the quantum dot is larger than the exciton Bohr radius, respectively the confinement energy is smaller than the Coulomb interactions between electron and hole. The regime where the exciton Bohr radius and confinement potential are comparable is called the 'intermediate confinement regime'.

Band gap energy The band gap can become smaller in the strong confinement regime as the energy levels split up. The exciton Bohr radius can be expressed as:

 where aB = 0.053 nm is the Bohr radius, m is the mass, μ is the reduced mass, and εr is the size-dependent dielectric constant (relative permittivity). This results in the increase in the total emission energy (the sum of the energy levels in the smaller band gaps in the strong confinement regime is larger than the energy levels in the band gaps of the original levels in the weak confinement regime) and the emission at various wavelengths. If the size distribution of QDs is not enough peaked, the convolution of multiple emission wavelengths is observed as a continuous spectra.
Confinement energy The exciton entity can be modeled using the particle in the box. The electron and the hole can be seen as hydrogen in the Bohr model with the hydrogen nucleus replaced by the hole of positive charge and negative electron mass. Then the energy levels of the exciton can be represented as the solution to the particle in a box at the ground level (n = 1) with the mass replaced by the reduced mass. Thus by varying the size of the quantum dot, the confinement energy of the exciton can be controlled.

Bound exciton energy There is Coulomb attraction between the negatively charged electron and the positively charged hole. The negative energy involved in the attraction is proportional to Rydberg's energy and inversely proportional to square of the size-dependent dielectric constant of the semiconductor. When the size of the semiconductor crystal is smaller than the exciton Bohr radius, the Coulomb interaction must be modified to fit the situation.

Therefore, the sum of these energies can be represented by Brus equation:

where μ is the reduced mass, a is the radius of the quantum dot, me is the free electron mass, mh is the hole mass, and εr is the size-dependent dielectric constant.

Although the above equations were derived using simplifying assumptions, they imply that the electronic transitions of the quantum dots will depend on their size. These quantum confinement effects are apparent only below the critical size. Larger particles do not exhibit this effect. This effect of quantum confinement on the quantum dots has been repeatedly verified experimentally and is a key feature of many emerging electronic structures.

The Coulomb interaction between confined carriers can also be studied by numerical means when results unconstrained by asymptotic approximations are pursued.

Besides confinement in all three dimensions (that is, a quantum dot), other quantum confined semiconductors include:
 Quantum wires, which confine electrons or holes in two spatial dimensions and allow free propagation in the third.
 Quantum wells, which confine electrons or holes in one dimension and allow free propagation in two dimensions.

Models
A variety of theoretical frameworks exist to model optical, electronic, and structural properties of quantum dots. These may be broadly divided into quantum mechanical, semiclassical, and classical.

Quantum mechanics
Quantum mechanical models and simulations of quantum dots often involve the interaction of electrons with a pseudopotential or random matrix.

Semiclassical
Semiclassical models of quantum dots frequently incorporate a chemical potential. For example, the thermodynamic chemical potential of an N-particle system is given by

whose energy terms may be obtained as solutions of the Schrödinger equation. The definition of capacitance,

with the potential difference

may be applied to a quantum dot with the addition or removal of individual electrons,

Then

is the quantum capacitance of a quantum dot, where we denoted by  the ionization potential and by  the electron affinity of the N-particle system.

Classical mechanics
Classical models of electrostatic properties of electrons in quantum dots are similar in nature to the Thomson problem of optimally distributing electrons on a unit sphere.

The classical electrostatic treatment of electrons confined to spherical quantum dots is similar to their treatment in the Thomson, or plum pudding model, of the atom.

The classical treatment of both two-dimensional and three-dimensional quantum dots exhibit electron shell-filling behavior. A "periodic table of classical artificial atoms" has been described for two-dimensional quantum dots. As well, several connections have been reported between the three-dimensional Thomson problem and electron shell-filling patterns found in naturally occurring atoms found throughout the periodic table. This latter work originated in classical electrostatic modeling of electrons in a spherical quantum dot represented by an ideal dielectric sphere.

History
For thousands of years, glassmakers were able to make colored glass by adding different dusts and powders elements such as silver, gold and cadmium and then played with different temperatures to produce shades of glass. In the 19th century, scientist started to understand how glass color depended on elements and heating-cooling techniques. It was also found that for the same element and preparation, the color depended on the dust particles' size.

Herbert Fröhlich in the 1930s first explored the idea that material properties can depend on the macroscopic dimensions of a small particle due to quantum size effects.

The first quantum dots were synthesized in a glass matrix by Alexei A. Onushchenko and Alexey Ekimov in 1981 at the Vavilov State Optical Institute and independently in colloidal suspension by Louis E. Brus team at Bell Labs in 1983. They were first theorized by Alexander Efros in 1982. It was quickly identified that the optical changes that appeared for very small particles were due to quantum mechanical effects.

The term quantum dot first appeared in a paper first authored by Mark Reed in 1986. According to Brus, the term "quantum dot" was coined by  while they were working at Bell Labs.

In 1993,  David J. Norris, Christopher B. Murray and Moungi Bawendi at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology reported on a hot-injection synthesis method for producing reproducible quantum dots with well-defined size and with high optical quality. The method opened the door to the development of large-scale technological applications of quantum dots in a wide range of areas.

The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 2023 was awarded to Bawendi, Brus and Ekimov "for the discovery and synthesis of quantum dots."

See also

 Paul Alivisatos
 Uri Banin
 Cadmium-free quantum dot
 Carbon quantum dot
 Core–shell semiconductor nanocrystal
 Langmuir–Blodgett film
 Nanocrystal solar cell
 Shuming Nie
 Quantum dot laser
 Quantum dot single-photon source
 Quantum point contact
 Mark Reed (physicist)
 Superatom
 Trojan wave packet

References

Further reading

 </ref> Methods to produce quantum-confined semiconductor structures (quantum wires, wells, and dots via grown by advanced epitaxial techniques), nanocrystals by gas-phase, liquid-phase, and solid-phase approaches.
  Photoluminescence of a QD vs. particle diameter.

External links
 Quantum Dots: Technical Status and Market Prospects
 Quantum dots that produce white light could be the light bulb's successor
 Single quantum dots optical properties
 Quantum dot on arxiv.org
 Quantum Dots Research and Technical Data
 Simulation and interactive visualization of Quantum Dots wave function

Emerging technologies
Mesoscopic physics
Quantum chemistry
Quantum electronics
Semiconductor structures

Quantum dot


පැලැටියක් රෝග කාරයක් තුළින් ආපාදනය විමට කරැණු තුනක් හේතු විය හැකිය. රෝග ත්‍රිකෝණය ලෙසින් මෙය හදුන්වයි.

දීලිරබොහොසයක් ශාඛා ව්‍යාධි විද්‍යාවට අයත් දීලිර අස්කොවස්ටේස් ඛණ්ඩය හෝ බයිඩියොම්සේටේස් ඛණ්ඩයට  අයත් වේ.

ශෘඛ බීජානු නිස්පාදනය කරන අවස්ථාවේදි ලිංගිකව හෝ අලිංගිකව දිලිර ද නැවතනිපද වේ. මෙම දීලිර බොහෝ දුරක් වායුවෙන් ජලයෙන් හෝ පස තුලින් පැති යාම සිදු විය හැකිය. පස තුළින් ව්‍යාප්ක වන බොහෝ දිලිර තම ජිවින වක්‍රයේ මුල් අවධිය පස් තුළ ගත කරයි. දීලිර රෝග දීලිර නාශක යෙදිම තුලින් පානය කර ගත හැකිය නමුත් වර්තමානයේ බොහෝ දිලිර මෙම දිලිර නාශක වලටද ක්‍රමයෙන් විකසනය වී ඇත.

බැක්ටිරියා

ශාක අනුසාරයෙන් ඇති බොහෝ බැක්ටිරියාවන් මෘක්‍යවීයන් වන අතර එම බැක්ටිරියාවන් ශාක වලට හානි සිදු කරන්නේ නැත. නමුත් ඉතා අල්ප බැක්ටිරියා ප්‍රමාණයක් රෝග ඇති කිරිම සිදු කරනු ලබයි. බැක්ටිරියා ආසාදන නිර්වර්තන සහ අර්ධ නිර්වර්තන කලාබ වල පැතිරිම යාම බහුල වේ.

වෛරයිරසයන් සහ වෛරසන් වැනි වු ජීවින්

ශඹාක වෛරස බොහෝ ප්‍රමාණයක් පවතින අතර සමහර ශාක වෛරසයන් ස්පර්ශනේ ව්‍යාප්ත වේ. බොහෝ අවස්ථවන්හිදි ශාක වෛරසයන් අස්වැන්න ලබා ගැනිම අහිමි කරයි. ශාක වෛරසයන් රෝග වාහකයන් තුළින් ව්‍යාප්ත වේ. බොහෝ විට කෘමි සත්ත්වයන් මගින් මෙය ව්‍යාප්ත වුවුද සමහර අවස්ථාවන්හි දි දිලිර පණුවන් මගින් සහ මුල සත්ත්වයන් තුළින් රෝගය ව්‍යාප්ත වේ.

පෑලැටි වල රෝග කාරක බීජ සහ රෝග විනිශ්චය


An Juncus kelloggii in uska species han Liliopsida nga ginhulagway ni Georg George Engelmann. An Juncus kelloggii in nahilalakip ha genus nga Juncus, ngan familia nga Juncaceae. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Juncus

Juncus kelloggii


Datisca cannabina, vrsta trajnice iz porodice Datiscaceae, jedna je od dva predstavnika u rodu datiska. raširena je od Mediterana istočno do središnje Azije. Svojim izgledom sliči konoplji. Naraste do dva metra visine a listovi su joj nazubljeni. Iz korijena biljke dobiva se žuta boja.

Sinonimi
 Thladiantha dubia Bunge
 Cannabina laevis Moench
 Datisca glabra Stokes
 Datisca nepalensis D.Don

Izvori

Datiska

Datisca cannabina


Radhika Coomaraswamy (; * 17. September 1953 in Colombo) ist eine sri-lankische Juristin und Expertin im Bereich der Menschenrechte. Sie wirkte von 1994 bis 2003 als Sonderberichterstatterin der Vereinten Nationen zu Gewalt gegen Frauen und von 2006 bis 2012 als UN-Untergeneralsekretärin und Beauftragte für Kinder und bewaffnete Konflikte. Sie lehrt als Professorin Internationales Recht an der School of Law der New York University.

Leben
Radhika Coomaraswamy wurde 1953 in Colombo geboren und studierte zunächst an der Yale University, an der sie 1974 einen B.A. erhielt. Sie erlangte außerdem drei Jahre später an der Columbia University einen rechtswissenschaftlichen Abschluss als J.D. und 1981 an der Harvard University einen LL.M.

Ab 1982 wirkte sie als stellvertretende Direktorin und ab 1989 als Direktorin des International Centre for Ethnic Studies in Colombo und darüber hinaus ab 2003 auch als Vorsitzende der Menschenrechtskommission ihres Heimatlandes. Von 1994 bis 2003 fungierte sie für die Vereinten Nationen (UN) als Sonderberichterstatterin zu Gewalt gegen Frauen. Kofi Annan, der damalige UN-Generalsekretär, ernannte sie im April 2006 zur Untergeneralsekretärin und Beauftragten für Kinder und bewaffnete Konflikte. Von Annans Nachfolger Ban Ki-moon wurde sie im Februar des folgenden Jahres in diesem Amt bestätigt.

Auszeichnungen

Radhika Coomaraswamy erhielt in Anerkennung ihres Einsatzes für die Menschenrechte verschiedene Preise und Ehrungen, so unter anderem 1995 den International Human Rights Lawyer Award der American Bar Association sowie im Jahr 2000 den Bruno-Kreisky-Preis und die Goler-T.-Butcher-Medaille. Das Amherst College, die University of Edinburgh, die University of Essex, die Katholieke Universiteit Leuven und die University of Ulster verliehen ihr die Ehrendoktorwürde.

Werke (Auswahl)

 A Manual on Economic, Social, and Cultural Rights. Colombo 1988
 Introduction to Social Theory.  Colombo und Neu-Delhi 1994 (als Mitherausgeberin)
 Reinventing International Law: Women's Rights as Human Rights in the International Community. Cambridge MA 1997
 Peace Work: Women, Armed Conflict, and Negotiation. Neu-Delhi 2004 (als Mitherausgeberin)
 Constellations of Violence: Feminist Interventions in South Asia. Neu-Delhi 2008 (als Mitherausgeberin)
 The Optional Protocol to the Convention on the Rights of the Child on the Involvement of Children in Armed Conflict - Towards Universal Ratification, 18 The International Journal of Children's Rights  535, 2010

Literatur

 Radhika Coomaraswamy. In: Charles A. Gunawardena: Encyclopedia Of Sri Lanka. Zweite Auflage. Sterling Publishers Pvt. Ltd, Neu-Delhi 2005, ISBN 1-932705-48-1, S. 88/89
 Coomaraswamy Radhika. In: Ernest Kay: The World Who's Who of Women. 11. Ausgabe. International Biographical Centre, Cambridge 1992, ISBN 0-948875-80-1, S. 204

Weblinks
 Radhika Coomaraswamy, New York University School of Law
 Office of the Special Representative of the Secretary-General for Children and Armed Conflict: Radhika Coomaraswamy - Biographical Note (englisch, mit Bild)

Menschenrechtsaktivist (Sri Lanka)
UN-Sonderbeauftragter
Ehrendoktor des Amherst College
Ehrendoktor der University of Edinburgh
Ehrendoktor der University of Essex
Ehrendoktor der University of Ulster
Ehrendoktor der Katholischen Universität Löwen
Hochschullehrer (New York University)
Träger des Bruno-Kreisky-Preises für Verdienste um die Menschenrechte
Sri-Lanker
Geboren 1953
Frau
UN-Sonderberichterstatter zu Gewalt gegen Frauen, deren Gründe und Konsequenzen

Radhika Coomaraswamy


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