Le gouvernement local (Local government) est le troisième échelon administratif en Australie. Il administre une portion de territoire avec une certaine autonomie mais en restant sous l'autorité des États ou des territoires ainsi que du gouvernement fédéral. Le gouvernement local n'est pas mentionné dans la Constitution de l'Australie. En 1974 et en 1988, deux référendums ont été proposés pour modifier le texte de la Constitution concernant le gouvernement local et n'ont pas abouti. Tous les États et territoires d'Australie reconnaissent le gouvernement local dans leurs constitutions respectives. Les États et territoires australiens ne reconnaissent qu'un seul niveau de gouvernement local et ne font pas de distinctions entre comtés et villes contrairement au Canada ou aux États-Unis qui reconnaissent deux niveaux.

Le gouvernement local australien est généralement dirigé par un conseil (council). Le Bureau australien des statistiques désigne le territoire qu'il administre par le terme générique de « Zone d'administration locale » (Local Government Area ou LGA).  Chaque zone peut englober plusieurs banlieues ou localités disposant souvent chacune de codes postaux différents. Toutefois, les dénominatifs variables utilisés, tels que « ville », « arrondissement » ou « comté » peuvent également faire référence à une origine géographique ou historique. Les membres du conseil d' administration sont généralement appelés « conseillers » (councillors), et le conseiller en chef est appelé « mayor ». En août 2016, on comptait 547 conseils de gouvernement locaux en Australie.

Bien qu'il n'y ait qu'un seul niveau de gouvernance locale en Australie, il existe un certain nombre de régions étendues et faiblement peuplées qui ne font partie d'aucune LGA officielle. L'administration de ces secteurs non constitués en collectivités est alors exercée par des organes directeurs spécifiques établis en dehors du cadre législatif local. C'est par exemple le cas des stations alpines de Victoria. Ces régions peuvent aussi être directement administrées par les gouvernements des États ou des Territoires, comme c'est le cas pour l'intégralité du Territoire de la capitale australienne. La zone administrative couverte par les conseils de gouvernement locaux en Australie peut varier de 1,5 km2 pour le comté de Peppermint Grove dans la métropole de Perth, jusqu'à 380 000 km2 pour la zone gouvernementale non organisée dans la région de Coober en Australie-Méridionale  (une zone géographique plus vaste que l'Égypte ou le Pakistan) .

Types de gouvernement locaux

Les gouvernements locaux sont des subdivisions de chacun des six États fédérés et du Territoire du Nord. Le Territoire de la capitale australienne (ACT) n'a pas de gouvernement local. Les fonctions municipales de la ville de Canberra et de sa région sont exercées directement par le gouvernement territorial alors que dans les autres états elles relèvent des gouvernements locaux. Toutefois, le Bureau australien des statistiques (ABS) considère l'ensemble de l'ACT comme un secteur non constitué en municipalité, même s'il s'agit, de fait, d'une entité administrative du même niveau que celui d'un État.

Bien que tous les gouvernements locaux australiens ont tous exactement les mêmes fonctions et les mêmes attributions juridiques, ils peuvent porter une grande variété de noms. Le Bureau Australien des Statistiques utilise le terme générique de « Zone d'administration locale » (LGA) pour désigner toutes les zones administratives de gouvernement local, quel que soit le titre qu'elles portent, tandis que les autorités locales utilisent plutôt le terme de « conseil » . En général, une LGA urbaine ou suburbaine est appelée « ville » (city). C'est le cas par exemple de la ville de Melbourne, la ville de Canada Bay ou la ville de Bunbury. Une LGA de banlieue lointaine ou rurale couvrant des zones agricoles ou naturelles est généralement appelée « comté » (shire), comme par exemple le comté de la péninsule de Mornington, le comté de Banana ou le comté de Lachlan.

Parfois, des désignations autres que « ville » ou « comté » sont utilisées pour les noms de LGA. On peut voir ainsi des appellations telles que town (bourg), borough (arrondissement), municipality (municipalité), district, region , community government (gouvernement communautaire), Aboriginal council/shire (Conseil ou comté aborigène) ou island (île).

Le mot « municipalité » est utilisé dans certains États avec des significations différentes : en Nouvelle-Galles du Sud, il est généralement utilisé pour les zones urbaines plus anciennes, et le terme est utilisé pour certaines villes rurales d'Australie-Méridionale. Les grandes villes et les petits centres métropolitains extra-urbains du Queensland et de l'Australie-Occidentale utilisent simplement le terme « city », tandis qu'au Victoria, ils sont désignés par « ville rurale ». Historiquement, le mot borough était courant pour les petites villes et les centres suburbains de Victoria, mais de nos jours, il n'en existe plus qu'un seul : le borough de Queenscliffe. La Nouvelle-Galles du Sud et le Queensland ont également introduit un nouveau terme « région » pour les LGA de l'arrière-pays profond qui ont été formées par la fusion de comtés plus petits et de villes rurales. En Nouvelle-Galles du Sud, où la loi sur le gouvernement local n'impose pas l'adoption d'une dénomination précise, certaines zones de gouvernement local sont officiellement connues sous le nom de « conseil ». C'est le cas du Conseil de Port Macquarie-Hastings, du Conseil de l'Inner West et du Conseil de la Fédération. Certaines zones rurales d'Australie-Méridionale portent le nom de « conseil de district », et toutes les LGA de Tasmanie auparavant nommées « municipalités » ont été renommées « conseil ».

Les conseils locaux exercent quasiment tous les mêmes fonctions administratives et ont tous les mêmes structures politiques, indépendamment du nom qu'ils portent (comté, arrondissement, bourg, ville). Ils ont généralement un conseil élu et un maire ou un président de comté chargé de présider les réunions du conseil. Dans certains conseils, le maire est une personnalité directement élue, mais dans la plupart des cas, le maire est élu par le bureau du conseil. Les pouvoirs des maires varient également selon les états ; par exemple, les maires du Queensland ont d'importantes fonctions exécutives, tandis que les maires de la Nouvelle-Galles du Sud ont juste des fonctions représentatives et ne peuvent qu'acter les décisions prises par le conseil.

La plupart des LGA des capitales d'État n'administrent que le cœur historique de la ville, le quartier des affaires et l'hypercentre. Une exception notable est celle de la ville de Brisbane qui a la LGA la plus peuplée du pays et qui administre une partie importante de la zone métropolitaine de Brisbane. Généralement, quand on indique la population d'une ville, on indique celle de la division statistique plutôt que celle de la zone de gouvernement local.

Gouvernements locaux par types et par États
Le tableau suivant fournit une synthèse des Zones d'Administration Locale (LGA) par États ou territoires et par types en janvier 2017 :

Classification
La Classification Australienne des Gouvernements Locaux (ACLG) répertorie les administrations locales en fonction de la taille de leur population, de leur densité de population et de la proportion de population urbaine dans le conseil . Leur code à deux lettres est le suivant :

 RARural Agricultural (Rural Agricole)
 RSRural Significant (Fortement Rural)
 RTRural Remote (Rural Lointain)
 UCUrban Capital (Urbain capitale)
 UDUrban Developed (Urbain industrialisé)
 UFUrban Fringe ( Urbain périphérique)
 URUrban Regional (Urbain régional)

Tous les gouvernements locaux ont en théorie à peu près les mêmes pouvoirs. Toutefois, les LGA qui englobent de grandes villes, comme Brisbane ou la Gold Coast par exemple, sont plus puissantes. En effet, elles disposent de plus grandes ressources du fait de leur population plus importante. En Australie, les services tels que la police, la protection contre les incendies et l'enseignement relèvent de la compétence des États ou des Territoires et non pas des conseils locaux comme pour les administrations locales de nombreux autres pays.

Durant la première moitié du , l'essentiel des attributions des Conseils concernait l'assainissement et la voirie (notamment la construction des ouvrages d'art) . À partir des années 1970, leur rôle s'est concentré sur la construction des équipements collectifs (bibliothèques, parcs), l'entretien des routes locales, les permis de construire, l'urbanisme ainsi que la gestion de services locaux tels que la gestion des déchets. La petite enfance, le tourisme et la rénovation urbaine commencent également à faire partie des attributions des administrations locales. Toutes ces missions sont financées par la perception d'impôts fonciers locaux nommés « rates » et les subventions de l'état et des gouvernements du Commonwealth. Les Conseils sont parfois surnommés de façon moqueuse « Les trois R » car ils ont la réputation de ne s'intéresser qu'aux Taxes, aux Routes et aux Déchets (Rates, Roads and Rubbish).

Les attributions des gouvernements locaux australiens se sont récemment élargies car les deux niveaux supérieurs d'administration ont délégué certaines de leurs compétences. C'est notamment le cas pour les services de santé publique, les aéroports régionaux et le contrôle de la pollution ainsi que la sécurité et les transports publics. L'évolution des services a été décrite comme un déplacement des « services aux biens » vers les « services aux personnes ». Les attentes de la société australienne à l'égard des administrations locales se sont accrues au  siècle, en partie en raison d'une implication plus large dans la prise des décisions et du besoin de transparence.

Ces dernières années, certains États ont attribué des pouvoirs supplémentaires aux LGA. Dans le Queensland et en Australie-Occidentale, les LGA ont maintenant la faculté d'établir une législation subsidiaire. Les Conseils peuvent également organiser leurs propres structures représentatives comme par exemple les Associations Locales de Conseils ou les Organisations Régionales de Conseils.

Les principes de la nouvelle gestion publique ont influencé la législation des États qui tend de plus en plus à accroitre les libertés et l'autonomie des administrations locales.

Histoire
Le Gouvernement Local n'est pas mentionné dans la Constitution de l'Australie mais il est cité à plusieurs reprises dans la Constitution annotée de l'Australie. Il apparait sous les termes de « Institutions municipales » et « gouvernement local » dans l'annotation 447, et « Pouvoir du Parlement d'une colonie » apparaît  dans « Pouvoirs législatifs résiduels » aux pages 935 et 936.

Le premier gouvernement local officiel en Australie a été le Perth Town Trust. Il a été créé en 1838, trois ans seulement après le début de la colonisation britannique. L'Adélaïde Corporation est apparue ensuite dans la province d'Australie-Méridionale en octobre 1840. Ce fut ensuite le tour de la ville de Melbourne et de la Sydney Corporation en 1842. Ces premières formes de gouvernement ont fini par disparaitre. C'est dans les années 1860 et 1870 que les colonies parvinrent à établir des formes de gouvernement local stables et normalisées, essentiellement dans le but de réunir des fonds pour la construction des routes dans les régions rurales et périurbaines. Chronologiquement, les représentants des conseils ont œuvré avant ceux de la Fédération, pour autant, le gouvernement local n'a pas été considéré comme un objet devant figurer dans la constitution.

Dans les années 1970, le gouvernement du Premier ministre Gough Whitlam a permis aux gouvernements locaux australiens de recevoir des subventions pour des projets d'ordre général. Avant cette décision, seule la construction des routes pouvait être subventionnée .

Les réformes
Les gouvernements des états ont effectué d'importantes réformes dans les années 1980 et 1990. Leur intention était d'appliquer les méthodes du secteur privé dans les administrations locales. Au cours des années 1990, les États on mené des enquêtes pour évaluer l'intérêt de fusionner certains conseils. Ainsi, au début des années 1990, l'État de Victoria a fait passer le nombre de ses conseils locaux de 210 à 78. L'Australie-Méridionale, la Tasmanie et le Queensland ont également procédé à la réduction du nombre de leurs gouvernements locaux mais l'Australie-Occidentale et la Nouvelle-Galles du Sud ont rejeté les fusions obligatoires. La Nouvelle-Galles du Sud a finalement forcé la fusion de certains Conseils. L'objectif principal de ces fusions était d'accroître le rendement et l'efficacité des Conseils, mais ces fusions forcées ont parfois été considérées comme une atteinte à la démocratie représentative.

Certaines études universitaires ont noté que ces fusions avaient permis d'élargir l'éventail des services proposés à la population mais que les économies de fonctionnement obtenues étaient inférieures à 10%. En revanche, les fusions de Conseils ont entraîné d'importantes suppressions d'emplois et une charge de travail plus importante pour le personnel restant .

L'accroissement du nombre d'Organisations Régionales de Conseils a également pesé dans la réforme des administrations locales d'Australie. En 1995, il y avait 50 ententes de ce type dans le pays et une étude de 2002 en dénombrait 55 ; la plus grande d'entre elles comptait 18 Conseils.

Point de vue constitutionnel
Ce sont les États qui déterminent les compétences des administrations locales, ils ont la charge d'assurer leur financement et de les contrôler.

Le gouvernement local est cité dans le texte de la constitution australienne annotée. Il est également mentionné dans la constitution de chacun des six États.

La Constitution ne permet pas au gouvernement fédéral de financer directement les gouvernements locaux. Le référendum de 1974 avait pour but de modifier la Constitution afin d'autoriser le gouvernement fédéral à financer directement les gouvernements locaux, il a été rejeté.

Le référendum de 1988 a tenté de mentionner de façon claire dans la constitution fédérale l'existence du gouvernement local. Cette tentative a échoué. Un nouveau référendum a été proposé en 2013, mais a été annulé en raison du changement de la date des élections.

Le gouvernement fédéral intervient régulièrement dans la gestion des conseils locaux en accordant des subventions pour aider le financement de certains projets locaux.

Contrôle des États ou des territoires
Les gouvernements locaux en Australie ont des pouvoirs législatifs très limités et n'ont aucun pouvoir judiciaire. Leur exécutif est soumis à la juridiction exclusive de l'État ou du territoire dont ils font partie. Les fonctions et les attributions des conseils locaux sont principalement centrées sur la gestion des services publics et de l'utilisation de l'espace public, elles sont semblables dans toute l'Australie, mais peuvent varier dans une certaine mesure selon les juridictions. Les ministères supervisent les activités des conseils locaux et peuvent intervenir dans leurs affaires en cas de besoin, dans le cadre autorisé par la loi .

Pour plus de précisions, voir les détails de chaque état dans la liste suivante :

 Zones d'administration locale d'Australie-Méridionale
 Zones d'administration locale d'Australie-Occidentale
 Zone d'administration locale de Nouvelle-Galles du Sud
 Zones d'administration locale du Queensland
 Zones d'administration locale de Tasmanie
 Zones d'administration locales du Territoire du Nord
 Zone d'administration locale du Victoria

Le Territoire de la capitale australienne n'est pas divisé en zones d'administration locales, il est considéré comme une seule zone de gouvernement local « non constituée en collectivité » lors du recensement.

Zones non constituées en collectivités
Contrairement à de nombreux autres pays, l'Australie n'a qu'un seul échelon d'administration locale après celui des États ou des territoires. Hormis les zones très peu peuplées et quelques autres cas particuliers, la quasi-totalité du territoire australien fait partie d'une zone d'administration locale. Les zones non constituées en collectivités se trouvent généralement dans des endroits éloignés, et couvrent de vastes superficies avec de très faibles populations.

Territoire de la capitale australienne
Le Territoire de la capitale australienne n'a pas de municipalités et est d'une certaine manière une zone non constituée en municipalité. Le gouvernement du Territoire a donc la charge des affaires gérées habituellement par un gouvernement local.

De nombreux districts de Canberra disposent d'organisations communautaires appelées « Conseils communautaires ». Malgré leur nom, et bien qu'ils reçoivent des financements du gouvernement, ils n'en font pas partie. Ils n'ont pas de pouvoir législatif ou exécutif et n'ont qu'un rôle de conseil. En fait, ce ne sont que des associations d'habitants.

La Nouvelle-Galles du Sud compte deux zones non constituées en collectivités :

 La région non constituée de l'Extrême Ouest (Unincorporated Far West Region) couvre le tiers ouest de l'État (hormis la ville de Broken Hill), elle est peu peuplée. Les fonctions relevant d'un gouvernement local sont assurées directement par le gouvernement de l'État et ses agences.
 L'île Lord Howe.

Territoire du Nord
Dans le Territoire du Nord, 1,45 % de la superficie totale et 4,0 % de la population se trouvent dans des zones non constituées en collectivité, en particulier les régions de l'extrémité supérieure (Top End Region) régies par le Northern Territory Rates Act Area :  Finniss-Mary (la plus grande), Nhulunbuy, Alyangula (sur l'île de Groote Eylandt) dans la région nord et Yulara dans la région sud .

Australie Méridionale
En Australie-Méridionale, 60 % du territoire n'est pas constitué en collectivités. Ces terres situées dans l'arrière-pays reçoivent les services de base d'une agence de l'État : l'Autorité des Communautés de l'Outbac (Outback Communities Authority).

Victoria
Le Victoria compte 10 zones non constituées en collectivités. Ce sont soit des stations de ski, soit des petites îles :

 Station alpine de Falls Creek
 French Island et
 Île Élisabeth
 Île Gabo
 Île de Lady Julia Percy
 Station alpine de Lake Mountain
 Station alpine du mont Baw Baw
 Station alpine du mont Buller
 Station alpine du mont Hotham
 Station alpine du mont Stirling

Australie-Occidentale
L'Australie-Occidentale compte 3 zones non constituées en collectivité :

 Les îles Abrolhos qui, officiellement, sont inhabitées et contrôlées par le ministère de la pêche d'Australie-Occidentale.
 Les Réserves naturelles de classe A situées dans la région métropolitaine de Perth ou à proximité, comme Kings Park (Autorité des jardins botaniques et des parcs).

Voir aussi

Articles connexes
 Gouvernement de l'Australie
 Zone d'administration locale

Liens externes
 Cartes de juillet 2008, Australian Standard Geographical Classification (ASGC)
 Bureau australien des statistiques : Australian Standard Geographical Classification (ASGC) 2005
   – Tableau des données démographiques pour les zones d'administration locales dans les recensements australiens de 2006 et 2011
 Gouvernement australien
 australianpolitics.com
 Local Government Focus (journal)
 Conseil des ministres de l'administration locale et de la planification
 Administration locale et base de connaissances municipales
  une explication détaillée sur le site statoids.com

Notes et références

Notes

Références

Subdivision en Australie
Zone d'administration locale en Australie
Politique en Australie
Bureau australien des statistiques

Gouvernement local en Australie


La microrregión de Criciúma es una de las microrregiones del estado brasileño de Santa Catarina perteneciente a la mesorregión Sur Catarinense. Su población fue recensada en 2010 por el IBGE en 369.366 habitantes y está dividida en diez municipios. Posee un área total de 2.089,375 km².

Municipios

 Cocal do Sul
 Criciúma
 Forquilhinha
 Içara
 Lauro Müller
 Morro da Fumaça
 Nova Veneza
 Siderópolis
 Treviso
 Urussanga

Criciúma

Microrregión de Criciúma


An Anthurium geitnerianum in uska species han Liliopsida nga ginhulagway ni A.Regel. An Anthurium geitnerianum in nahilalakip ha genus nga Anthurium, ngan familia nga Araceae. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Anthurium

Anthurium geitnerianum


Kara Ali Acar Spor Salonu, Bandırma Basketbol Kulübü'nün spor salonudur. Bandırma'da bulunan salon 3.000 kişi kapasitesine sahiptir.

Kaynakça

Dış bağlantılar
Kara Ali Acar Spor Salonu Foto Galeri

Balıkesir'deki spor salonları
Bandırma
Türkiye'deki basketbol salonları
Bandırma BK

Kara Ali Acar Spor Salonu


Valdivia, Pasifik'ten  yaklaşık 15 km içeride Şili'nin güneyinde bir şehir. Nüfusu 140.700 (2004 yılının sayımı) kişidir. Valdivia aynı isimli eyaletin başkenti ve "Universidad Austral de Chile" üniversitesinin olduğu şehirdir.

Coğrafya

Valdivia, gemilerin girebildiği Calle-Calle bölgesinin, sahil sıradağlarının  arasında oluşan vadiye kurulmuş bir şehirdir. Aynı zamanda Rio Cruces ve Rio Valdivia nehirleri burada birleşir.

Yıl boyunca yumuşak ve rutubetli bir iklimi vardır. Güney yarımkürenin kış mevsiminde bu bölgede özellikle yağmur yoğundur. Isı ise, Temmuz ayında 4 °C ile Ocak ayında 16 °C civarında oynamaktadır.

Tarihi

1544 yılında  Juan Bautista Pastene, Pedro de Valdivia'nın verdiği  görev ile bu bölgeyi araştırmıştır. Şehrin ilk ismi Ainilebo iken 9 Şubat 1552  tarihinde  Pedro de Valdivia bu şehrin ismini Valdivia olarak değiştirmiştir. 1553 yılında Mapuchelere karşı savaşta, Pedro de Valdivia öldükten sonra 18 Mart 1553 İspanya kralı I. Karl tarafından, resmi olarak da şehrin adi Valdivia diye verilmiştir.

Valdivia, Pasifik sahillerinde tamamen surlarla kuşatılmış nadir İspanyol kentlerinden biriydi. Şehir, Mapuchelere karşı  savaşta  güçlü bir kale rolü oynamıştır.

16 Aralık 1575 tarihinde çok ağır  bir deprem yüzünden şehir yıkıldı. Bu depremin şiddeti yaklaşık  22 Mayıs 1960 yılında olan ve yakın tarihte  tespit edilen en şiddetli deprem olarak bilinen Büyük Şili Depremi'nin   şiddetinde olduğu tahmin ediliyor. Deprem büyük toprak kaymalarına neden oldu ve Rinihue gölünün deniz akışı imkânını tıkadı. Gölde biriken su 4 ay sonra bu toprak barajı yıktı ve şehre sel bastı. Şehrin valisi ve Şili'nin tarihçisi Pedro Marino de Lobera şehrin yeninden kurulmasını sağladı  ve deprem- ve selzedelere yardımda bulundu.

1599 yılında  şehir  Mapuchelerin eline düştü ve İspanyollar onlarca yıl bu şehirden uzak durmak zorunda kaldılar. 1645 yılında Valdivia Peru kralı emri üzerine yeniden ele geçirildi. 1770 yılından itibaren Valdivia deniz tarafından gelen   saldırılara  karsı emniyet altına alındı (Corral Kalesi, Niebla, Mancera vs.). 1818 yılında Şili'nin  bağımsızlığından sonra da  Valdivia hala İspanya  kontrolü altında kalmıştır. 1820 yılının  Ocak ayında Lord Thomas Cochrane altında olan Şili deniz donanması Valdivia'yi ele geçirmeyi başarmıştır. İspanyollar Chiloe Adası' na  çekilseler de bu ada 1826 yılının ocak ayında ele geçirilmiştir.

1846 yılından itibaren özellikle Alman göçmenler bu bölgeye yerleşmiş, yaklaşık 1850 yılından itibaren nüfusun artması, şehrin ekonomik açıdan zenginleşmesini sağlamıştır. Şili'de ilk bira fabrikası, demir ve çelik sanayisi, tren vagonları imalatı, marangozluk sanayisi, deri sanayisi ve liman endüstrisi başlamıştır.

1909 yılında şehrin büyük bir kısmı çıkan bir yangında zarar görmüştür.

22 Mayıs 1960 tarihinde dünyada bugüne kadar ölçülmüş en şiddetli depreme ve tsunamiye uğramıştır. Deprem 9,50 derece şiddetindeydi ve Valdivia'daki binaların %40'ı yıkılmıştı.

Görülmeye değer yerler

Görülmeye değer bir yer olan balık pazarı  şehrin en sevilen fotoğraf  motiflerini oluşturur. Bunun dışında "Alman Göçmenler Müzesi", İspanyol kalesinin kalıntıları,  botanik bahçesine sahip üniversitesi ve doğal Park "Saval" görülmeye değer diğer  yerlerdir.  Ayrıca şehirde bir tane de çağdaş sanatlar müzesi de bulunur (Museo de Arte Contemporáneo).

En sevilen turistik unsurlardan biri, Valdivia nehri üzerinde ve bu nehrin denize döküldüğü yere kadar yapılan tekne turudur.

Bu esnada Isla de Mancera adası,Corral ve Niebla 'daki kaleler de görülebilir.

Ekonomi

Valdivia, 1909  yılındaki  büyük yangına  kadar Şili'nin  2. büyük ekonomi merkeziydi. Şehir bu görevini çoktan  başka şehirlere bırakmıştır. Şehrin ekonomisini   burada bulunan endüstriler belirler. (ahşap endüstrisi, gemi üretimi, gıda maddesi üretimi ve bira fabrikası). Valdivia'nın en büyük işvereni "Universidad Austral de Chile" üniversitesidir. Ormancılık, tarım, veterinerlik, jeoloji bölümleriyle uluslararası ün yapmış bir üniversitedir. Nobel ödülü alan Prof. Dr. Manfred Max Neef 1983 yılından  sonra rektör olarak üniversiteyi yönetmiştir

Kaynakça

Los Ríos Bölgesi'ndeki şehirler
Şili'deki liman kentleri
1552'de kurulan yerleşim birimleri

Valdivia


Horton Kirby and South Darenth es una parroquia civil del distrito de Sevenoaks, en el condado de Kent (Inglaterra).

Geografía
Según la Oficina Nacional de Estadística británica, Horton Kirby and South Darenth tiene una superficie de 10,53 km².

Demografía
Según el censo de 2001, Horton Kirby and South Darenth tenía 2942 habitantes (48,27% varones, 51,73% mujeres) y una densidad de población de 279,39 hab/km². El 19,51% eran menores de 16 años, el 70,36% tenían entre 16 y 74 y el 10,13% eran mayores de 74. La media de edad era de 40,72 años. Del total de habitantes con 16 o más años, el 25,76% estaban solteros, el 54,94% casados y el 19,3% divorciados o viudos.

El 97,01% de los habitantes eran originarios del Reino Unido. El resto de países europeos englobaban al 0,92% de la población, mientras que el 2,07% había nacido en cualquier otro lugar. Según su grupo étnico, el 98,44% eran blancos, el 0,71% mestizos, el 0,44% asiáticos, el 0,1% negros, el 0,1% chinos y el 0,2% de cualquier otro. El cristianismo era profesado por el 80,59%, el budismo por el 0,1%, el judaísmo por el 0,2%, el islam por el 0,31%, el sijismo por el 0,17% y cualquier otra religión, salvo el hinduismo, por el 0,37%. El 11,45% no eran religiosos y el 6,8% no marcaron ninguna opción en el censo.

1419 habitantes eran económicamente activos, 1370 de ellos (96,55%) empleados y 49 (3,45%) desempleados. Había 1240 hogares con residentes y 57 vacíos.

Referencias

Enlaces externos

Parroquias civiles de Kent

Horton Kirby and South Darenth


Public-interest immunity (PII), previously known as Crown privilege, is a principle of English common law under which the English courts can grant a court order allowing one litigant to refrain from disclosing evidence to the other litigants where disclosure would be damaging to the public interest.  This is an exception to the usual rule that all parties in litigation must disclose any evidence that is relevant to the proceedings.  In making a PII order, the court has to balance the public interest in the administration of justice (which demands that relevant material is available to the parties to litigation) and the public interest in maintaining the confidentiality of certain documents whose disclosure would be damaging. PII orders have been used in criminal law against large organised criminal outfits and drug dealers where the identity of paid police informants could be at risk.

Seeking the order
An order that PII applies would usually be sought by the British government to protect official secrets, and so can be perceived as a gagging order.  Where a minister believes that PII applies, he signs a PII certificate, which then allows the court to make the final decision on whether the balance of public interest was in favour of disclosure or not.  Generally, a court will allow a claim of PII without inspecting the documents: only where there is some doubt will the court inspect the documents to decide whether PII applies.

Originally, a government minister was under a duty to advance a PII point where PII could be relevant, and the court took a certificate from a minister claiming PII as final and conclusive.  However, over time, there has been an increase in both the ability of a minister to make a disclosure, notwithstanding the potential application of PII, and the ability of the courts to review a claim of PII.  In Conway v Rimmer [1968], the House of Lords held that the courts retained the final decision on whether PII should be upheld, and, in R v Chief Constable of West Midlands, ex parte Wiley [1995], the House of Lords decided that a minister could discharge his duty by making his own judgment of where the public interest lies (that is, to disclose or to assert PII).  In practice, this is thought to have led to a reduction in the number of cases when PII is asserted.

History
PII was previously known as Crown Privilege, and derived from the same principle as the sovereign immunity of the Crown from prosecution before the Crown Proceedings Act 1947.  However, PII is not limited to the Crown (see the NSPCC case mentioned below), and cannot be waived save in exceptional circumstances.

A number of PII certificates were signed in relation to the prosecutions of individuals involved in the Matrix Churchill "Arms to Iraq" case, a subject that was subsequently investigated in the Scott Report.

Examples
Duncan v. Cammell Laird and Co. Ltd [1942] AC 624.  The submarine HMS Thetis sank on 1 June 1939 during sea trials with the loss of 99 lives.  The families of the sailors who had been killed in the disaster claimed damages from the builders, Cammell Laird.  The House of Lords upheld a certificate issued by the Admiralty claiming PII in relation to the plans of the submarine.  The House of Lords also held that the courts should take a PII certificate at face value.
Tomlinson v HMG. In 1995, former MI6 officer Richard Tomlinson attempted to bring MI6 before an employment tribunal to seek compensation for unfair dismissal. MI6 argued that this would "damage national security" and obtained a PII from the then Foreign Secretary Sir Malcolm Rifkind to block Tomlinson's application. Tomlinson argued vociferously that the real reason that MI6 obtained the PII certificate was to cover up their incompetent and dishonest personnel management.
Conway v Rimmer [1968].  The House of Lords held that the courts are the final arbiters of whether PII applies or not.
D v. National Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Children [1978] AC 171.  The NSPCC investigated an allegation that D was mistreating her child.  D claimed damages, and sought documents from the NSPCC to identify who had made the allegation.  The House of Lords upheld the NSPCC's claim of PII, since its legitimate role in protecting the welfare of children was clearly in the public interest and would be threatened by disclosure.
Air Canada v. Secretary of State for Trade [1983] 2 AC 384.  A group of airlines claimed that the British Airports Authority had unlawfully increased landing fees at the instigation of a government minister.  The minister disclosed some documents, but claimed PII in respect of others.  The House of Lords decided not to inspect the disputed documents, holding that inspection was only required if they were "reasonably likely" to assist or damage a party's case.
R v Chief Constable of West Midlands, ex parte Wiley [1995] 1 AC 274.  The House of Lords decided that a minister could discharge his duty by making his own judgment of where the public interest lies, and was not obliged to claim PII in all cases where it may be applicable.
 The Scott Inquiry found that public interest immunity certificates had been issued which withheld from defence counsel certain documents which would have exonerated the defendants in the Matrix Churchill trial.
 R v Paul Burrell [2002] – A public-interest immunity certificate allowed the prosecution to apply to the judge for a ruling that disclosure of certain information would be harmful to the public interest and should not be made public.
 R v Hicks, Nute and Rowe [2002] – A public-interest immunity certificate was presented to the court by the Crown Prosecution Service after about ten minutes of this hearing. A possible reason for the introduction of the PII certificate was that the Duchy of Cornwall refuses to reveal the circumstances under which it transferred several of its properties (including Tintagel Castle) to the care of English Heritage.
 R v. Yam [2008] (trial of Wang Yam for the murder of Allan Chappelow) – In December 2007 the Crown Prosecution Service indicated it would ask for this trial for murder, burglary and deception to be held "in camera", making it the first UK murder trial ever heard behind closed doors without access by press or public. A public-interest immunity certificate was sought by the Home Secretary Jacqui Smith; it was reported by the Times on 13 December 2007 that the grounds were "on the basis of protecting national security interests and to protect the identity of informants". A further order was made under the Contempt of Court Act 1981 prohibiting the press from any speculation as to the reasons for parts of the trial being held in private. In the Court of Appeal on 28 January, the "gagging order" was upheld, with the Lord Chief Justice insisting that a fair trial would be possible even if some or all of it is held "in camera".
R (Mohamed) v Foreign Secretary [Feb 2010]

European Convention on Human Rights
Article 6 of the European Convention on Human Rights protects the right to a fair trial; an "implied" right stemming from this is that of "equality of arms" – the idea that hearings should be adversarial and both parties should have access to the same evidence and witnesses. The European Court of Human Rights has held that Article 6 (especially the "implied" rights) is not an absolute right and that measures restricting the rights of the defence so as to safeguard an important public interest are lawful if "strictly necessary".

It is of note that fewer PII certificates have been issued in recent years. For example, MI6 have not succeeded in obtaining a PII certificate since the 1995 Tomlinson case, and have thus been subject to court scrutiny for investigations such as the inquest into the death of the Princess of Wales, and allegations that their officers partook in torture.

See also
English law
State secrets privilege – similar doctrine under United States law
Executive privilege – similar doctrine under United States law
Deliberative process privilege – similar doctrine under United States law

External links
 Legal guidance published by the Crown Prosecution Service on PII in criminal proceedings
 Reforming Public Interest Immunity
 The Use of Public Interest Immunity Claims in Criminal Cases

References

Evidence law
English law
Privileged communication
Legal immunity

Public-interest immunity


The Elizabethan Religious Settlement is the name given to the religious and political arrangements made for England during the reign of Elizabeth I (1558–1603). The settlement, implemented from 1559 to 1563, marked the end of the English Reformation. It permanently shaped the Church of England's doctrine and liturgy, laying the foundation for the unique identity of Anglicanism.

When Elizabeth inherited the throne, England was bitterly divided between Catholics and Protestants as a result of various religious changes initiated by Henry VIII, Edward VI and Mary I. Henry VIII had broken from the Catholic Church and the authority of the Pope, becoming the supreme head of the Church of England. During Edward's reign, the Church of England adopted a Reformed theology and liturgy. In Mary's reign, these religious policies were reversed, England was re-united with the Catholic Church and Protestantism was suppressed.

The Elizabethan Settlement was an attempt to end this religious turmoil. The Act of Supremacy of 1558 re-established the Church of England's independence from Rome. Parliament conferred on Elizabeth the title of Supreme Governor of the Church of England. The Act of Uniformity of 1559 re-introduced the Book of Common Prayer from Edward's reign, which contained the liturgical services of the church. Some modifications in the 1559 prayer book were made to appeal to Catholics and Lutherans, including giving individuals greater latitude concerning belief in the real presence of Christ in the Eucharist and permission to use traditional priestly vestments. In 1571, the Convocations of Canterbury and York adopted the Thirty-Nine Articles as a confessional statement for the church, and a Book of Homilies was issued outlining the church's reformed theology in greater detail.

The settlement failed to end religious disputes. While most people conformed, a minority of recusants remained loyal Catholics. Within the Church of England, a Calvinist consensus developed among leading churchmen. Calvinists split between conformists and Puritans, who wanted to abolish what they considered papist abuses and replace episcopacy with a presbyterian church government.  After Elizabeth's death, a high church, Arminian party gained power in the reign of Charles I and challenged the Puritans.

The English Civil War and the overthrow of the monarchy allowed the Puritans to pursue their reform agenda and the dismantling of the Elizabethan Settlement for a period. The Restoration in 1660 reestablished the settlement, and the Puritans were forced out of the Church of England. Anglicans started to define their Church as a via media or middle way between the religious extremes of Catholicism and Protestantism; Arminianism and Calvinism; and high church and low church.

Background

Elizabeth I inherited a kingdom bitterly divided over matters of religion. This division began during the reign of her father, Henry VIII. After his first wife, Catherine of Aragon, failed to produce a male heir, Henry applied to the Pope for an annulment of his marriage. When his request was denied, Henry separated the Church of England from the Catholic Church and claimed that he, rather than the Pope, was its supreme head on earth. Under Elizabeth's half-brother, Edward VI, the Church of England became more explicitly Protestant, projecting a "restrained" Calvinism, in the words of historian Christopher Haigh.

During Edward's reign, the Church of England preached justification by faith alone as a central teaching, in contrast to the Catholic teaching that the contrite person could cooperate with God towards their salvation by performing good works. The doctrines of purgatory, prayer for the dead and the intercession of saints were also rejected during this time. The Mass, the central act of Catholic worship, was condemned as idolatry and replaced with a Protestant communion service, a reminder of Christ's crucifixion. Christ's Real Presence in the Eucharist was no longer explained by the Catholic doctrine of transubstantiation; instead, the 1552 Book of Common Prayer promoted the Reformed teaching of Christ's spiritual presence. The veneration of religious images (icons, roods, statues) and relics were suppressed, and iconoclasm was sanctioned by the government.

Mary I, Elizabeth's half-sister, became queen in 1553. She reversed the religious innovations introduced by her father and brother. Under Mary's rule, England returned to the Catholic Church and recognised the Pope's authority. Mary died in November 1558 without a Catholic heir, leaving the throne to the Protestant Elizabeth.

Elizabeth's accession
Elizabeth's religious views were Protestant, though "peculiarly conservative". She also kept many of her religious views private, which can make it difficult to determine what she believed. She disliked married clergy, held Lutheran views on Eucharistic presence, and there is evidence she preferred the more ceremonial 1549 prayer book. At certain times, the Queen made her religious preferences clear, such as on Christmas Day 1558, when before Mass she instructed Bishop Owen Oglethorpe not to elevate the host. He refused, so the Queen left the chapel before the consecration. In effect, Elizabeth was declaring that she did not believe in the doctrine of transubstantiation. At Westminster Abbey—still a Benedictine monastery—the Queen disapproved of what she considered Catholic superstition, telling the monks bearing candles in procession, "Away with those torches, for we see very well". The Queen's principal secretary was Sir William Cecil, a moderate Protestant. Her Privy Council was filled with former Edwardian politicians, and only Protestants preached at Court.

To avoid alarming foreign Catholic observers, Elizabeth initially maintained that nothing in religion had changed. A proclamation forbade any "breach, alteration, or change of any order or usage presently established within this our realm". Nevertheless, Protestants were emboldened to practice illegal forms of worship, and a proclamation on 27 December prohibited all forms other than the Latin Mass and the English Litany. It was obvious to most that these were temporary measures. Her government's goal was to resurrect the Edwardian reforms, reinstating the Royal Injunctions of 1547, the 1552 Book of Common Prayer, and the Forty-two Articles of Religion of 1553.

Legislation

Reformation bill

When the Queen's first Parliament opened in January 1559, its chief goal was the difficult task of reaching a religious settlement. Twenty bishops (all Catholics) sat in the House of Lords as Lords Spiritual, and the Lords in general were opposed to change. In February, the House of Commons passed a Reformation Bill that would restore royal supremacy, the Edwardine Ordinal, and a slightly revised 1552 prayer book. It was not popular with the clergy, and the Convocation of Canterbury reacted by affirming papal supremacy, transubstantiation and the Mass as a sacrificial offering.

The lay peers joined the bishops in their opposition and succeeded in amending the bill considerably. The Ordinal and Prayer Book provisions were removed and the Mass left unchanged, with the exception of allowing communion under both kinds. The Pope's authority was removed, but rather than granting the Queen the title of Supreme Head, it merely said she could adopt it herself. This bill would have returned the Church to its position at the death of Henry VIII rather than to that when Edward VI died. It was a defeat for the Queen's legislative programme, so she withheld royal assent.

Act of Supremacy

Following the Queen's failure to grant approval to the previous bill, Parliament reconvened in April 1559. At this point, the Privy Council introduced two new bills, one concerning royal supremacy and the other about a Protestant liturgy. The Council hoped that by separating them at least the Supremacy bill would pass. Under this bill, the Pope's jurisdiction in England was once again abolished, and Elizabeth was to be supreme governor of the Church of England instead of supreme head. All clergy and royal office-holders would be required to swear an Oath of Supremacy.

The alternative title was less offensive to Catholic members of Parliament, but this was unlikely to have been the only reason for the alteration. It was also a concession to the Queen's Protestant supporters who objected to "supreme head" on theological grounds and who had concerns about a female leading the Church. John Calvin, an influential Continental reformer, had called Henry VIII's claim to supreme headship blasphemy. Thomas Sampson, a Marian exile, believed that "All scripture seems to assign the title of head of the Church to Christ alone".

The bill included permission to receive communion in two kinds. It also repealed the medieval heresy laws that Mary I had revived. Catholics gained an important concession. Under the bill, only opinions contrary to Scripture, the General Councils of the early church, and any future Parliament could be treated as heresy by the Crown's ecclesiastical commissioners. While broad and ambiguous, this provision was meant to reassure Catholics that they would have some protection.

The bill easily passed the House of Commons. In the House of Lords, all the bishops voted against it, but they were joined by only one lay peer. The Act of Supremacy became law.

Act of Uniformity and prayer book

Another bill introduced to the same Parliament with the intent to return Protestant practices to legal dominance was the Uniformity bill, which sought to restore the 1552 prayer book as the official liturgy. It encountered more opposition in the Lords than the Supremacy Act, passing by only three votes. Even this was possible only through political intrigue. Bishops Watson of Lincoln and White of Winchester were imprisoned in the Tower. Bishop Goldwell of St Asaph was never summoned to Parliament, and the elderly Bishop Tunstall of Durham was excused from attending on account of age.

The Act of Uniformity required church attendance on Sundays and holy days and imposed fines for each day absent. It authorized the 1559 prayer book, which effectively restored the 1552 prayer book with some modifications. The Litany in the 1552 book had denounced "the bishop of Rome, and all his detestable enormities". The revised Book of Common Prayer removed this denunciation of the Pope. It also deleted the Black Rubric, which in the 1552 book explained that kneeling for communion did not imply Eucharistic adoration.

The Ornaments Rubric was added as one of the concessions to traditionalists in order to gain passage in the Lords. The rubric provided instructions for clerical vestments, stating that until the Queen ordered otherwise ministers were to "use such ornaments as were in use by the authority of Parliament in the second year of the reign of King Edward VI". Edward's second regnal year ran from 28 January 1548 to 27 January 1549. During this time, priests said Mass in Latin wearing traditional Catholic vestments. Few thought this was the rubric's meaning, however. Since the Act of Uniformity 1549 which approved the first prayer book was passed in January, it is likely that the provisions of the 1549 prayer book were intended, even though Edward's second year ended several months before the book was published. The 1549 prayer book required clergy to wear the alb, cope and chasuble. Opposition to the so-called "popish wardrobe" made it impossible to enforce the rubric.

The most significant revision was a change to the Communion Service that added the words for administering sacramental bread and wine from the 1549 prayer book to the words in the 1552 book. When communicants received the bread, they would hear the words, "The body of our Lord Jesus Christ, which was given for thee, preserve thy body and soul unto everlasting life [1549]. Take and eat this in remembrance that Christ died for thee, and feed on him in thy heart by faith with thanksgiving" [1552]. This combination could be interpreted as an affirmation of an objective real presence to those who believed in it, while others could interpret it to mean memorialism.

Scholarly interpretation

In his "Puritan Choir" thesis, historian J. E. Neale argues that Elizabeth wanted to pursue a conservative policy but was pushed in a radical direction by a Protestant faction in the House of Commons. This theory has been challenged by Christopher Haigh, who argues that Elizabeth wanted radical reform but was pushed in a conservative direction by the House of Lords. Haigh argues that the Act of Uniformity "produced an ambiguous Book of Common Prayer: a liturgical compromise which allowed priests to perform the Church of England communion with Catholic regalia, standing in the Catholic position, and using words capable of Catholic interpretation". This made it easier for priests to "counterfeit" the Mass without risking arrest.

Another historian, Diarmaid MacCulloch, also finds Neale's thesis flawed. At the same time, he calls the idea that the prayer book modifications were concessions to Catholics "absurd", writing that "these little verbal and visual adjustments" would never satisfy Catholic clergy and laity after the loss of "the Latin mass, monasteries, chantries, shrines, gilds and a compulsory celibate priesthood". He argues the modifications were most likely meant to appease domestic and foreign Lutheran Protestants who opposed the memorialist view originating from reformed Zurich. In 1559, Elizabeth was still unsure of the theological orientation of her Protestant subjects, and she did not want to offend the Lutheran rulers of northern Europe by veering too far into the Reformed camp. "It was worthwhile for Elizabeth's government to throw the Lutherans a few theological scraps, and the change also chimed with the Queen's personal inclination to Lutheran views on eucharistic presence."

Historians Patrick Collinson and Peter Lake argue that until 1630 the Church of England was shaped by a "Calvinist consensus". During this time, Calvinist clergy held the best bishoprics and deaneries. Historians John Coffey and Paul C. H. Lim write that the Elizabethan Church "was widely regarded as a Reformed church, but it was anomalous in retaining certain features of late medieval Catholicism", such as cathedrals, church choirs, a formal liturgy contained in the prayer book, traditional clerical vestments and episcopal polity.

Implementation

Episcopal appointments
To enforce her religious policies, Queen Elizabeth needed bishops willing to cooperate. Seven bishops, including Cardinal Pole, Mary's Archbishop of Canterbury, died in 1558 and needed to be replaced. The remaining bishops were all Catholics appointed during Mary's reign, and Elizabeth's advisers hoped they could be persuaded to continue serving. Ultimately, all but two bishops (the undistinguished Anthony Kitchin of Llandaff and the absentee Thomas Stanley of Sodor and Man) lost their posts. Most of their replacements were not consecrated until December 1559 or early 1560.

Elizabeth chose Matthew Parker to replace Pole as Archbishop of Canterbury. Parker was a prominent scholar and had served as chaplain to Elizabeth's mother, Anne Boleyn. Also, like Elizabeth, Parker was a Nicodemite—someone who stayed in England during Mary's reign and outwardly conformed to Catholicism. Most of the other posts went to Marian exiles such as Edmund Grindal for London, Richard Cox for Ely, John Jewel for Salisbury, William Barlow for Chichester and John Scory for Hereford. Those exiles with ties to John Calvin's reformation in Geneva were notably excluded from consideration. The Queen never forgave John Knox for writing The First Blast of the Trumpet Against the Monstruous Regiment of Women, which denounced female monarchs, and the Reformation in Geneva was tainted by association.

Royal injunctions

In the summer of 1559, the government conducted a royal visitation of the dioceses. The visitation was conducted according to injunctions based on the Royal Injunctions of 1547. These new royal injunctions were meant to fill in the details of the settlement and were to be enforced nationwide by six groups of clerical and lay commissioners. All of the leading clergymen were Protestants and former exiles (Robert Horne, Thomas Becon, Thomas Bentham, John Jewel, Edwin Sandys, and Richard Davies), and they interpreted the injunctions in the most Protestant way possible.

According to the injunctions, church images that were superstitiously abused were condemned as idolatry, but the commissioners mandated the destruction of all pictures and images. Across the nation, parishes paid to have roods, images and altar tabernacles removed, which they had only recently paid to restore under Queen Mary. They would spend more money on buying Bibles and prayer books and replacing chalices with communion cups (a chalice was designed for the priest alone whereas a communion cup was larger and to be used by the whole congregation).

The Injunctions offered clarity on the matter of vestments. Clergy were to wear the surplice (rather than cope or chasuble) for services. In 1560, the bishops specified that the cope should be worn when administering the Lord's Supper and the surplice at all other times. Other provisions of the Royal Injunctions were out of step with the Edwardian Reformation and displayed the Queen's conservative preferences. These included injunctions allowing processions to take place at Rogationtide and requirements that clergy receive permission to marry from the bishop and two justices of the peace.

In some instances, the injunctions contradicted the 1559 prayer book. While the prayer book directed the use of ordinary bread for communion, the Injunctions required traditional wafers to be used. There were also conflicting directions for the placement of the communion tables that were to replace stone altars. According to the prayer book, the table should be placed permanently in the chancel oriented east to west. The injunctions ordered the "holy table" to be carried into the chancel during communion services but at all other times to be placed where the altar would have stood. When not in use, it was to be oriented north to south, the same as an altar. These provisions offended many Protestants, and in practice, the Injunctions were often ignored by church leaders.

The Queen was disappointed by the extreme iconoclasm of the Protestants during the visitations. In October 1559, she ordered that a crucifix and candlesticks be placed on the communion table in the Chapel Royal. Later, she decided that roods should be restored in parish churches. Elizabeth's bishops protested both moves as revivals of idolatry, arguing that all images were forbidden by the Second Commandment. In the end, the Queen and the bishops reached an unspoken compromise. She kept her crucifix and candles and dropped her plans to restore roods. In 1560, Bishop Grindal was allowed to enforce the demolition of rood lofts in London. A year later, the Queen herself ordered the demolition of all lofts, but the rood beams were to remain on which the royal arms were to be displayed. The Queen still believed there should be a division between the chancel and the rest of the church.

Many parishes were slow to comply with the injunctions. Many did so out of sympathy with traditional Catholic religion, while others waited to see if this religious settlement was permanent before taking expensive action. Churchwarden accounts indicate that half of all parishes kept Catholic vestments and Mass equipment for at least a decade. Gradually, however, parishes complied as bishops exerted pressure. Most of the parish clergy were Catholics. Through the mid-1560s, there were an estimated 800 clergy who resigned or were deprived for refusal to conform. Most parish clergy kept their posts, but it is not clear to what degree they conformed. The bishops thought that Catholicism was widespread among the old clergy, but priests were rarely removed because of a clergy shortage that began with an influenza epidemic in 1558.

Music
Music in the Church of England was limited to biblical texts and music sung during worship in the early church. Examples of permissible music included metrical psalms and liturgical texts such as the Te Deum. Although most people were able to sing, worship was dominated by choral liturgies, especially in the cathedrals. During this time, motets were replaced by anthems, and William Byrd's Great Service was composed for the royal chapel and cathedrals. Parish churches tended to have less music as Puritan influences argued against using of funds to pay for choristers. Churches employed singers for special occasions, which might be paid with money, wine, or ale and bread. The impressment of boys for service as singers in St. Paul's Cathedral and the royal chapel continued during this period.

Devotional singing at home was shared between family and friends. By far the most popular and reprinted metrical Psalter was Thomas Sternhold's Whole book of Psalms. Although it was not legally required, it was traditional for virtually all Protestant churches and was also used at home.

Thirty-nine Articles and the Homilies

The Elizabethan settlement was further consolidated by the adoption of a moderately Protestant doctrinal statement called the Thirty-nine Articles of Religion. While affirming traditional Christian teaching as defined by the first four ecumenical councils, it tried to steer a middle way between Reformed and Lutheran doctrines while rejecting Anabaptist thinking. The Thirty-nine Articles were not intended as a complete statement of the Christian faith but of the position of the Church of England in relation to the Catholic Church and dissident Protestants. In 1571, Convocation finalised the Thirty-nine Articles. It was given statutory force by the Subscription Act, which required all new ministers to affirm their agreement with this confessional statement.

With the Queen's approval, Convocation also issued a second Book of Homilies with sermons on 20 topics. One, "Of the Worthy Receiving of the Sacrament", added more detail to the church's doctrine of the Eucharist, which was described as "spiritual food" and "a ghostly substance and not carnal" made real by faith. This receptionist view had much in common with John Calvin's Eucharistic theology. "Of Common Prayer and Sacraments" taught that although only baptism and the Eucharist were sacraments instituted by Christ other rites such as ordination had a sacramental character.

Reception
The settlement of 1559 had given Protestants control of the Church of England, but matters were different at the parish level, where Catholic priests and traditional laity held large majorities. The bishops struggled for decades to impose the prayer book and Injunctions on reluctant parishes. "For a while, it was possible to sustain an attenuated Catholicism within the parish framework, by counterfeiting the mass, teaching the seven sacraments, preserving images of saints, reciting the rosary, observing feasts, fasts, and customs". Over time, however, this "survivalist Catholicism" was undermined by pressures to conform, giving way to an underground Catholicism completely separate from the Church of England.

Gradually, England was transformed into a Protestant country as the prayer book shaped Elizabethan religious life. By the 1580s, conformist Protestants (termed "parish anglicans" by Christopher Haigh and "Prayer Book protestants" by Judith Maltby) were becoming a majority. Efforts to introduce further religious reforms through Parliament or by means of Convocation were consistently blocked by the Queen. The Church of England's refusal to adopt the patterns of the Continental Reformed churches deepened conflict between Protestants who desired greater reforms and church authorities who prioritised conformity.

Catholic resistance

In the early years of Elizabeth's reign, most Catholics hoped the Protestant ascendancy would be temporary, as it had been prior to Mary's restoration of papal authority. There were priests who conformed to the prayer book while also providing the Mass to their parishioners. Others refused to conform. Large numbers of deans, archdeacons, cathedral canons, and academics (mostly from Oxford but also from Cambridge) lost their positions. In the early years, some 300 Catholics fled, especially to the University of Louvain. From there they wrote and published a large body of Catholic polemical work to counter Protestantism, particularly Thomas Harding, Richard Smyth, and William Allen. They also acted as a "Church government in exile", providing Catholics in England with advice and instructions. In 1568, the English College at Douai was founded to provide a Catholic education to young Englishmen and, eventually, to train a new leadership for a restored Catholic Church in England. Other leading Marian churchmen remained in England to serve as private chaplains to Catholic nobles and gentry. Many became leaders of an underground Catholic Church.

Catholics were forced to choose between attending Protestant services to comply with the law or refusing to attend. Those who refused to attend Church of England services were called recusants. Most Catholics, however, were "church papists"—Catholics who outwardly conformed to the established church while maintaining their Catholic faith in secret. Wealthy church papists attended their parish church but had Mass at home or hired two chaplains, one to perform the prayer book service and the other to perform the Mass. Initially, recusant priests advised the laity to simply abstain from Protestant communion. However, this stance hardened over time. In 1562, the Council of Trent ruled out any outward conformity or Nicodemism for Catholics: "You may not be present at such prayers of heretics, or at their sermons, without heinous offence and the indignation of God, and it is far better to suffer most bitter cruelties than to give the least sign of consent to such wicked and abominable rites." By the late 1560s, recusancy was becoming more common.

In 1569, the Revolt of the Northern Earls attempted to overthrow England's Protestant regime. The rebellion was defeated, but it contributed to a perception that Catholicism was treason. This perception was seemingly confirmed when Elizabeth was excommunicated by Pope Pius V in February 1570. The papal bull Regnans in Excelsis released Elizabeth's Catholic subjects from any obligation to obey her. Subsequently, two Catholics, John Felton and John Story, were executed for treason. The discovery of the Ridolfi plot–a Catholic conspiracy to overthrow Elizabeth and place Mary, Queen of Scots on the throne–further alarmed the English government.

By 1574, Catholic recusants had organised an underground Catholic Church, distinct from the Church of England. However, it had two major weaknesses: membership loss as church papists conformed fully to the Church of England, and a shortage of priests. The latter problem was addressed by establishing seminaries to train and ordain English priests. In addition to the English College at Douai, a seminary was established at Rome, the Collegium Anglorum or English College, and two more were established in Spain in  Valladolid and in  Seville. Between 1574 and 1603, 600 Catholic priests were sent to England. In 1580, the first Jesuit priests came to England.

The Queen's excommunication and the arrival of the seminary priests brought a change in government policy toward recusants. Before 1574, most laymen were not made to take the Oath of Supremacy and the 12d fine for missing a service was poorly enforced. Afterwards, efforts to identify recusants and force them to conform increased. In 1581, a new law made it treason to be absolved from schism and reconciled with Rome and the fine for recusancy was increased to £20 per month (50 times an artisan's wage). Afterwards, executions of Catholic priests became more common, and in 1585, it became treason for a Catholic priest to enter the country, as well as for anyone to aid or shelter him.

The persecution of 1581–1592 changed the nature of Catholicism in England. The seminary priests were dependent on the gentry families of southern England. As the older generation of recusant priests died out, Catholicism collapsed among the lower classes in the north, west and in Wales. Without priests, these social classes drifted into the Church of England and Catholicism was forgotten. By Elizabeth's death, Catholicism had become "the faith of a small sect", largely confined to gentry households.

Puritanism

Leading Protestants within the Church of England were attracted to the Reformed churches of south Germany and Switzerland led by theologians such as John Calvin, Heinrich Bullinger and others. In England, however, Protestants were forced to operate within a church structure unchanged since medieval times with the same threefold orders of bishop, priest and deacon along with church courts that continued to use medieval canon law. In addition, the liturgy remained "more elaborate and more reminiscent of older liturgical forms" and "took no account of developments in Protestant thinking after the early 1550s". According to historian Diarmaid MacCulloch, the conflicts over the Elizabethan Settlement stem from the "tension between Catholic structure and Protestant theology".

There were objections over the prayer book, including certain formulas and responses, the sign of the cross in baptism, the surplice and use of a wedding ring in marriage. Throughout her reign, the Queen successfully blocked attempts by Parliament and the bishops to introduce further change. The bishops were placed in the difficult position of enforcing conformity while supporting reform. This was particularly evident between 1565 and 1567 during the Vestments controversy over the refusal of some clergy to wear the clerical dress required by the Royal Injunctions. For many Protestants, clerical vestments symbolised a continued belief in a priestly order separate from the congregation, and could be interpreted by Catholics as affirmation of traditional doctrines. Bishop Jewel called the surplice a "vestige of error". In general, the bishops considered clerical dress adiaphora and tried to find compromise, but the Queen believed that the church—and herself as supreme governor—had authority to determine rites and ceremonies. In the end, Archbishop Parker issued a code of discipline for the clergy called the Advertisements, and the most popular and effective Protestant preachers were suspended for non-compliance.

The controversy over dress divided the Protestant community, and it was in these years that the term Puritan came into use to describe those who wanted further reformation. Some lost faith in the Church of England as an agent of reform, becoming separatists and establishing underground congregations. Most Puritans, however, remained in the Church of England. These Puritans were not without influence, enjoying the support of powerful men such as the Earl of Leicester, Walter Mildmay, Francis Walsingham, the Earl of Warwick and William Cecil.

In 1572, a bill was introduced in the Queen's 4th Parliament that would allow Protestants, with their bishop's permission, to omit ceremonies from the 1559 prayer book, and bishops would be further empowered to license clergymen to use the French and Dutch stranger church liturgies. Catholics, however, would have no such freedom. The Queen did not approve, disliking any attempt to undermine the concept of religious uniformity and her own religious settlement.

By 1572, the debate between Puritans and conformists had entered a new phase—church government had replaced vestments as the major issue. While Parliament still met, Thomas Wilcox and John Field published An Admonition to the Parliament that condemned "Popish abuses yet remaining in the English Church" and episcopal polity. It called for the church to be organised according to presbyterian polity. In November, A Second Admonition to Parliament was published—most likely authored by Thomas Cartwright or Christopher Goodman—which presented a more detailed proposal for church reform along presbyterian lines. John Whitgift of Cambridge University, a leading advocate for conformity, published a reply in October 1572, and he and Cartwright subsequently entered into a pamphlet war. The Admonition Controversy was not a disagreement over soteriology—both Cartwright and Whitgift believed in predestination and that human works played no role in salvation. Rather, the Admonition's authors believed that presbyterianism was the only biblical form of church government, whereas Whitgift argued that no single form of church government was commanded in the Bible. Under Field's leadership, the Classical Movement was active among Puritans within the Church of England throughout the 1570s and 1580s. Puritan clergy in this movement organised local presbyteries or classes, from which the movement took its name. Through the 1580s, Puritans were organised enough to conduct what were essentially covert national synods.

In 1577, Whitgift was made Bishop of Worcester and six years later Archbishop of Canterbury. His rise to power has been identified with a "conservative reaction" against Puritanism. It is more accurate to call Whitgift and those like him conformists, since the word conservative carries connotations of Catholicism. The majority of conformists were part of the Reformed consensus that included the Puritans; what divided the parties were disputes over church government. Whitgift's first move against the Puritans was a requirement that all clergy subscribe to three articles, the second of which stated that the Prayer Book and Ordinal contained "nothing ... contrary to the word of God". Whitgift's demands produced widespread turmoil, and around 400 ministers were suspended for refusal to subscribe. Under pressure from the Privy Council, Whitgift was forced to accept conditional subscriptions from defiant ministers.

In the Parliaments of 1584 and 1586, the Puritans attempted to push through legislation that would institute a presbyterian form of government for the Church of England and replace the prayer book with the service book used in Geneva. Both attempts failed, mainly because of the Queen's opposition. In response, a group of conformists including Richard Bancroft, John Bridges, Matthew Sutcliffe, Thomas Bilson, and Hadrian Saravia began defending the English Church's episcopal polity more strongly, no longer merely accepting it as convenient but asserting it as divine law.

In response to Bridges' A Defence of the Government Established in the Church of England for Ecclesiastical Matters, an anonymous Puritan under the pseudonym Martin Marprelate published a series of tracts attacking leading conformist clergy. The 1588 Marprelate Controversy led to the discovery of the presbyterian organisation that had been built up over the years. Its leaders were arrested and the Classical Movement disintegrated. This debacle occurred at the same time that Puritanism's most powerful defenders at Court were dying off. In the aftermath of the conformist assault, the 1590s were relatively free of theological controversy. Once Whitgift had destroyed presbyterian activism, he was content to leave the Puritans alone. Likewise, Elizabethan Puritans abandoned the hopeless cause of presbyterianism to focus on less controversial pursuits.

Aftermath

In 1603, the King of Scotland inherited the English crown as James I. The Church of Scotland was even more strongly Reformed, having a presbyterian polity and John Knox's liturgy, the Book of Common Order. James was himself a moderate Calvinist, and the Puritans hoped the King would move the English Church in the Scottish direction. James, however, did the opposite, forcing the Scottish Church to accept bishops and the Five Articles of Perth, all attempts to make it as similar as possible to the English Church.

At the start of his reign, Puritans presented the Millenary Petition to the King. This petition for church reform was referred to the Hampton Court Conference of 1604, which agreed to produce a new prayer book, the 1604 Book of Common Prayer, that incorporated a few changes requested by the Puritans. The most important outcome of the Conference, however, was the decision to produce a new translation of the Bible, the 1611 King James Version. While a disappointment for Puritans, the provisions were aimed at satisfying moderate Puritans and isolating them from their more radical counterparts.

The Church of England's dominant theology was still Calvinism, but a group of theologians associated with Bishop Lancelot Andrewes disagreed with many aspects of the Reformed tradition, especially its teaching on predestination. Like the Puritans, Andrewes engaged in his own brand of nonconformity. In his private chapel, he added ceremonies and formulas not authorised in the prayer book, such as burning incense. James I tried to balance the Puritan forces within his church with followers of Andrewes, promoting many of them at the end of his reign. This group was led by Richard Neile of Durham and became known as the Durham House group. They looked to the Church Fathers rather than the Reformers and preferred using the more traditional 1549 prayer book. Due to their belief in free will, this new faction is known as the Arminian party, but their high church orientation was more controversial.

During the reign of Charles I, the Arminians were ascendant and closely associated with William Laud, Archbishop of Canterbury (1633–1645). Laud and his followers believed the Reformation had gone too far and launched a "'Beauty of Holiness' counter-revolution, wishing to restore what they saw as lost majesty in worship and lost dignity for the sacerdotal priesthood." Laudianism, however, was unpopular with both Puritans and Prayer Book Protestants, who viewed the high church innovations as undermining forms of worship they had grown attached to. The English Civil War resulted in the overthrow of Charles I, and a Puritan dominated Parliament began to dismantle the Elizabethan Settlement. Episcopacy was replaced with a semi-presbyterian system. In 1645, the prayer book was made illegal and replaced by the Directory for Public Worship. The Directory was not a liturgical book but only a set of directions and outlines for services.

The Restoration of the monarchy in 1660 allowed for the restoration of the Elizabethan Settlement as well. The 1662 prayer book mandated by the 1662 Act of Uniformity was a slightly revised version of the previous book. Many Puritans, however, were unwilling to conform to it. Around 900 ministers refused to subscribe to the new prayer book and were removed from their positions, an event known as the Great Ejection. Puritans became dissenters. Now outside the established church, the different strands of the Puritan movement evolved into separate denominations: Congregationalists, Presbyterians, and Baptists.

The Church of England was fundamentally changed. The "Jacobean consensus" was shattered, and the Church of England began defining itself less broadly. The suppression and marginalisation of Prayer Book Protestants during the 1640s and 1650s had made the prayer book "an undisputed identifier of an emerging Anglican self-consciousness." Historian Judith Maltby writes that Anglicanism as a recognisable tradition "owes more to the Restoration than the Reformation". It was in the period after 1660 that Richard Hooker's thought became influential within the Church of England, as Anglicans tried to define themselves in ways distinct from Protestant dissenters.

Diarmaid MacCulloch states that Hooker's writings helped to create an "Anglican synthesis". From Hooker, Anglicanism "inherited its belief in the place of reason as an authority for action, its esteem for continuity over the Reformation divide, and a hospitality towards sacramental modes of thought". From the Arminians, it gained a theology of episcopacy and an appreciation for liturgy. From the Puritans and Calvinists, it "inherited a contradictory impulse to assert the supremacy of scripture and preaching". The clash between Calvinists and Arminians was never resolved, and the "seesaw battle between Catholic and Protestant within a single Anglican ecclesiastical structure has been proceeding ever since". The preface to the 1662 prayer book defined the Church of England as a via media "between the two extremes of too much stiffness in refusing and of too much easiness in admitting any variation". Although Elizabeth I "cannot be credited with a prophetic latitudinarian policy which foresaw the rich diversity of Anglicanism", her preferences made it possible.

See also
A View of Popish Abuses yet remaining in the English Church
Convocation of 1563
History of the Church of England
Liturgical struggle
Peace of Augsburg 1555
Religion in the United Kingdom

References

Citations

Bibliography

Further reading

External links

Elizabethan Religious Settlement - World History Encyclopedia
Documents Illustrative of English Church History

1558 in England
1559 in England
16th-century Christianity
Anglicanism
Protestantism in the United Kingdom
English Reformation
History of the Church of England
History of Catholicism in England
Elizabethan era

Elizabethan Religious Settlement


Die Liste der denkmalgeschützten Objekte in Topoľníky enthält die zwei eine nach slowakischen Denkmalschutzvorschriften geschützten Objekte in der Gemeinde Topoľníky im Okres Dunajská Streda.

Denkmäler

Legende

Einzelnachweise

!
Topolniky


Declassification is the process of ceasing a protective classification, often under the principle of freedom of information. Procedures for declassification vary by country. Papers may be withheld without being classified as secret, and eventually made available.

United Kingdom

Classified information has been governed by various Official Secrets Acts, the latest being the Official Secrets Act 1989. Until 1989 requested information was routinely kept secret invoking the public interest defence; this was largely removed by the 1989 Act. The Freedom of Information Act 2000 largely requires information to be disclosed unless there are good reasons for secrecy.

Confidential government papers such as the yearly cabinet papers used routinely to be withheld formally, although not necessarily classified as secret, for 30 years under the thirty year rule, and released usually on a New Year's Day; freedom of information legislation has relaxed this rigid approach.

United States

Executive Order 13526 establishes the mechanisms for most declassifications, within the laws passed by Congress.  The originating agency assigns a declassification date, by default 25 years. After 25 years, declassification review is automatic with nine narrow exceptions that allow information to remain as classified. At 50 years, there are two exceptions, and classifications beyond 75 years require special permission.  Because of changes in policy and circumstances, agencies are expected to actively review documents that have been classified for fewer than 25 years. They must also respond to Mandatory Declassification Review and Freedom of Information Act requests. The National Archives and Records Administration houses the National Declassification Center to coordinate reviews and Information Security Oversight Office to promulgate rules and enforce quality measures across all agencies. NARA reviews documents on behalf of defunct agencies and permanently stores declassified documents for public inspection. The Interagency Security Classification Appeals Panel has representatives from several agencies.

See also
Freedom of information
Freedom of information legislation
United States v. Reynolds

References

Classified information
Information privacy
Knowledge economy

Declassification


Maïyara (auch: Mayara, May Yara) ist eine Landgemeinde im Departement Dakoro in Niger.

Geographie
Maïyara liegt in der Sahelzone. Die Nachbargemeinden sind Kornaka im Norden, Attantané im Nordosten, Sarkin Haoussa im Osten, Saé Saboua im Südosten, Chadakori im Süden und Sabon-Machi im Westen. Bei den Siedlungen im Gemeindegebiet handelt es sich um 73 Dörfer und 47 Weiler. Zwei Siedlungen werden auch von der Nachbargemeinde Sabon-Machi beansprucht. Der Hauptort der Landgemeinde ist das Dorf Maïyara. Durch die Gemeinde verläuft das Trockental Goulbin Kaba.

Geschichte
Die Landgemeinde Maïyara ging 2002 bei einer landesweiten Verwaltungsreform aus dem südöstlichen Teil des Kantons Kornaka hervor.

Bevölkerung
Bei der Volkszählung 2012 hatte die Landgemeinde 62.441 Einwohner, die in 7369 Haushalten lebten. Bei der Volkszählung 2001 betrug die Einwohnerzahl 40.196 in 5362 Haushalten.

Im Hauptort lebten bei der Volkszählung 2012 1220 Einwohner in 173 Haushalten, bei der Volkszählung 2001 1035 in 138 Haushalten und bei der Volkszählung 1988 777 in 100 Haushalten.

In ethnischer Hinsicht ist die Gemeinde ein Siedlungsgebiet von Azna, Gobirawa und Tuareg.

Politik
Der Gemeinderat (conseil municipal) hat 17 gewählte Mitglieder. Mit den Kommunalwahlen 2020 sind die Sitze im Gemeinderat wie folgt verteilt: 6 PNDS-Tarayya, 3 LRD-Jimiri, 3 MDEN-Falala, 1 ADD-Zakara, 1 MNSD-Nassara, 1 MPR-Jamhuriya, 1 PNA-Al'ouma und 1 RSD-Gaskiya.

Jeweils ein traditioneller Ortsvorsteher (chef traditionnel) steht an der Spitze der 73 Dörfer in der Gemeinde, darunter dem Hauptort.

Wirtschaft und Infrastruktur
Die Gemeinde liegt in einer Zone, in der Regenfeldbau betrieben wird. Das staatliche Versorgungszentrum für landwirtschaftliche Betriebsmittel und Materialien (CAIMA) unterhält eine Verkaufsstelle im Hauptort. Im Hauptort ist ein Gesundheitszentrum des Typs Centre de Santé Intégré (CSI) vorhanden. Beim Centre de Formation aux Métiers de Maïyara (CFM Maïyara) handelt es sich um ein Berufsausbildungszentrum.

Literatur

Einzelnachweise

Ort in Niger
Maradi (Region)
Ort in Afrika

Maïyara


HMAS Encounter was a second-class protected cruiser of the  operated by the Royal Navy (RN) and Royal Australian Navy (RAN). She was built by HM Dockyard Devonport and completed at the end of 1905.

Encounter spent the first six years of her career operating with the RN's Australia Squadron, before being transferred to the newly formed RAN. During World War I, the cruiser became the first ship of the RAN to fire in anger when she bombarded Toma Ridge. Encounter operated in the New Guinea, Fiji-Samoa, and Malaya areas until 1916, when she returned to Australian waters. The ship spent the rest of the war patrolling and escorting convoys around Australia and into the Indian Ocean. In 1919, Encounter was sent to evacuate the Administrator of the Northern Territory and his family following the Darwin Rebellion.

Encounter was paid off into reserve in 1920, but saw further use as a depot ship until being completely decommissioned in 1929. In 1932, the cruiser was scuttled off Sydney.

Design and construction

Challenger class vessels had a standard displacement of 5,880 tons, a length of  overall and  between perpendiculars, a beam of , and a draught of . The cruisers were propelled by a Keyham 4-cylinder triple expansion steam engine, which provided 12,500 horsepower to two propeller shafts, allowing her to reach speeds just over . Her economical cruising speed was , which allowed the ship to travel  before exhausting her 1,314 tons of coal. In British service, the ship's company stood at 450, but while operated by the RAN, this was reduced to 29 officers and 269 sailors.

She was among the first ships of the Royal Navy to receive water-tube Dürr boilers.

As completed, the ship's armament consisted of eleven BL 6-inch Mk VII naval guns, nine QF 12-pounder 12 cwt naval guns, six 3-pounder guns, three machine guns, and two 18-inch (450-mm) torpedo tubes mounted broadside. By the 1920s, the 6-inch and 12-pounder guns had been reduced to three and four respectively, although a 12-pounder field gun was added to the ship's arsenal. A single QF 3-pounder Hotchkiss gun replaced the six 3-pounders, while the original three machine guns were supplanted by four Maxim guns and two Lewis guns.

Encounter was laid down for the RN by HM Dockyard at Devonport in Plymouth on 28 January 1901.  The ship was launched on 18 June 1902, when the naming ceremony was performed by Lady Sturges Jackson, wife of Vice-Admiral Sir Thomas Sturges Jackson, Admiral-Superintendent of Devonport Dockyard. She was commissioned into the Royal Navy on 21 November 1905, and completed on 16 December 1905. The ship sailed for Australia on 31 December.

Operational history

From April 1906 to June 1912, Encounter served as part of the RN Australia Squadron. In 1909, 15 of her crew drowned when a naval longboat was run over by the small coastal steamer Dunmore in Sydney Harbour. Herbert Wilson, a petty officer aboard Encounter, published his personal log covering 1910–1912, including an account of the British expeditions to Vavaʻu for the total solar eclipse of 28 April 1911. On 1 July 1912, the ship was commissioned into the RAN on loan, for use until  was completed.

World War I

Assigned to the Pacific Station during 1914–15, Encounter was part of the force which occupied German New Guinea. In the course of that operation, she captured the steamer Zambezi on 12 August and, on 14 September, bombarded Toma Ridge to support the Australian Military and Naval Expeditionary Force which was besieging the town. That action made her the first RAN ship to fire in anger. She covered the landing at Madang on 24 September. In October, she was sent to the Fiji-Samoa area. During a patrol of the region on 25 April 1915, Encounter captured the German sailing vessel Elfriede.

In 1915, Encounter underwent refit in Sydney, then sailed on 21 July to transport a garrison to Fanning Island. Sometime in 1915, the ship sustained hull damage from a coral reef at Johnson Island. Temporary repairs were made at Suva, before the ship sailed to Hong Kong for permanent repairs. The cruiser also operated in the Malay archipelago during early 1916, but was recalled to Australian waters on 11 February 1916, because all other RAN ships had been deployed elsewhere.

In July 1916, during a visit to an unnamed island off the coast of Western Australia, two bronze cannons were discovered by Encounter officers Commander C.W. Stevens and Surgeon Lieutenant W. Roberts. The latter described:

Because the guns were erroneously thought to be carronades, the place was named "Carronade Island".

On 12 January 1917, Encounter was ordered to New Zealand, where she met a convoy of Australian and New Zealand troopships. The cruiser remained with the convoy until a rendezvous point in the Indian Ocean, where responsibility was handed over to ships of the East Indies Station. On 6 July, Encounter assisted SS Cumberland, which had struck a mine off Gabo Island. In August, the cruiser assisted in the search for the missing merchantman SS Matunga; it was not known until 1918 that she had been a victim of the German raider . The ship visited Mopelia Island in September 1917, to search for the wreck of the German raider .

From December 1917 until April 1918, Encounter underwent refit in Sydney, and then returned to Western Australia. The ship travelled between Fremantle and Sydney several times before the end of the war. The cruiser's wartime activities were later recognised with the battle honour "Rabaul 1914".

Post-war
In early 1919, Encounter was sent to Darwin to protect Administrator John Gilruth, following the Darwin Rebellion. Gilruth and his family boarded her on 20 February 1919 and were taken to Melbourne. The ship was permanently transferred to the RAN on 5 December 1919. The ship was used in a training role, and acquired the nickname "the Old Bus".

Encounter paid off into reserve on 30 September 1920. She was assigned to the naval base at Garden Island as a depot ship in May 1923, and was renamed HMAS Penguin. The ship was decommissioned on 15 August 1929. She was scuttled on 14 September 1932 off Bondi Beach, Sydney. Encounter lies at a depth of around  and is dived regularly.

Citations

References

Books

News and journal articles

Other publications

Challenger-class cruisers of the Royal Navy
Ships built in Plymouth, Devon
1902 ships
Challenger-class cruisers of the Royal Australian Navy
World War I cruisers of Australia
Scuttled vessels of New South Wales
Shipwrecks in the Tasman Sea
Maritime incidents in 1932

HMAS Encounter (1902)


René Kanzuku est un Journaliste de presse écrite et entrepreneur congolais né à Kinshasa en République démocratique du Congo, le 26 juin 1990. Il est le Fondateur, Directeur général de Le Regard Sarl et Éditeur du journal Le Regard et www.leregard.info. Il est membre de l'Union Internationale de la Presse Francophone et de l'Union Nationale de la Presse Congolaise. Il est également journaliste accrédité à la MONUSCO (Mission de l'Organisation des Nations unies au Congo).

Biographie
René Kanzuku a commencé sa carrière de journaliste en mars 2013 au sein du Trihebdomadaire congolais AfricaNews paraissant à Kinshasa, comme journaliste-reporter et webmaster pour son site internet www.africanewsrdc.net où il a travaillé  pendant 5 ans durant.

Il a participé comme rédacteur principal à la rédaction du livre « Entre la drogue et la prison, je suis né » de Dieuleveut Butey Bulari paru en décembre 2020 aux Éditions Le Lys Bleu à Paris et exerce depuis des années la fonction de Responsable de communication au sein de l'Asbl Ciel-Bleu, une plateforme culturelle internationale.

Du mois d'octobre 2017 au mois de février 2020, il a été directeur de publication au sein du média en ligne congolais journaldesnations.net.

Il a milité, au cours de sa carrière, pour la conscientisation des jeunes congolais à la création de l'emploi en se basant de son parcours professionnel, son média et enfin, a prodigué quelques conseils à la nouvelle génération des presse rd-congolaise et aux diplômés en Sciences de l'information et de la communication encore en chômage.

Distinctions et formations
 Brevet de participation en Droits humains à l'Ecole de formation internationale en Droit de l'homme (EFIDH) avec les modules suivants :
 Monitoring des Droits humains
 Procédures pénales civiles
 Droit et protection de l'enfant
 ONU SIDA
 Notions élémentaires de développement
 Organisation et fonctionnement judiciaire
 Santé communautaire
 Guide formation aux Droits de l'Homme à l'intention des services de Police RDC
 Travail social
 Cour pénale internationale
 Août  2014 : Brevet de participation à la session de formation sur «La déontologie de la profession et les mécanismes d'autoprotection» avec l'ONG belge RCN Justice&Démocratie avec le financement du Royaume des Pays-Bas
 Octobre 2014 : Brevet de participation à l'Atelier de renforcement de la qualité du travail journalistique avec l'ONG belge RCN Justice & Démocratie avec le financement du Royaume des Pays-Bas.
 Mai 2014 : Brevet de participation à la session de formation sur « les notions élémentaires de droit » organisée par RCN Justice & Démocratie avec le financement du Royaume des Pays-Bas.
 Décembre 2019 : Brevet de participation à la session de formation sur « La justice pénale en matière de crimes internationaux » et «La couverture médiatique d'un procès pour crime international » organisée par RCN Justice & Démocratie avec le financement du Royaume de Belgique.
 Février 2018 : Brevet de participation à la session de Formation sur la communication sur les droits au travail organisée par l'Organisation Internationale du Travail (OIT) à Brazzaville au Centre International de Formation (CIF).
 Novembre 2020 : certificat de formation en « Entrepreneurship and Business Management » au Complexe Congo Japon (JCC).

Notes et références

Liens externes

 https://www.eventsrdc.com/rdc-medias-rene-kanzuku-invite-les-jeunes-diplomes-en-sic-encore-chomeurs-a-se-lancer-dans-lentrepreneuriat/
 https://acpcongo.com/index.php/2020/12/15/le-journal-le-regard-assure-la-releve-de-la-presse-traditionnelle-congolaise-selon-son-directeur-general/
 https://ciel-bleu.org/rene-kanzuku/
 https://www.herosmedias.net/les-senateurs-elus-de-kinshasa-se-joignent-au-ministre-guy-loando-pour-la-re-urbanisation-de-la-capitale/

Journaliste congolais (RDC)
Rédacteur en chef
Personnalité congolaise (RDC) du monde des affaires

René Kanzuku


Talos puede hacer referencia a:

 Talos, un gigante de bronce de la mitología griega.
 Talos, un videojuego para ZX Spectrum de 1985.
 Talos, un género extinto de dinosaurio terópodo carnívoro similar a un ave.
 Uno de los tres nombres con que se conocía al sobrino de Dédalo, Pérdix.
 El RIM-8 Talos, un misil superficie-aire estadounidense.
 Talos de Esparta, una novela escrita en 1986 por el escritor italiano Valerio Massimo Manfredi.
 Operativo Talos, la participación de la Armada Argentina en las sanciones resueltas por el Consejo de Seguridad de la ONU en Haití durante 1993 y 1994.
 T-A.L.O.S., un personaje ficticio de la serie de videojuegos Resident Evil.
 Talos era un hijo de Enopión.
 Talos es un dios en el videojuego de Bethesda Game Studios, The Elder Scrolls V: Skyrim.
 Talos, plural de talo; plato típico del País Vasco, Navarra y País Vasco francés, similar a la arepa de Colombia y Venezuela o a una tortilla de maíz grande de México.
 Talos el Indómito, un personaje de Marvel Comics.

Referencias

Talos (desambiguación)


William Rancic (; born May 16, 1971) is an American entrepreneur who was the first candidate hired by The Trump Organization at the conclusion of the first season of Donald Trump's reality television show The Apprentice. He is married to E! News host Giuliana Rancic and currently resides in Chicago, Illinois.

Early life
Rancic was born on May 16, 1971, in Chicago to Gail () and Edward Rancic, who died of cancer in 1999. Rancic has three sisters, Beth, Katie, and Karen. He grew up in the suburb of Orland Park, in a family of Croatian and Irish heritage. His paternal grandfather Nikola Rančić had immigrated to the United States from Split. Rancic attended St. Michael's School and graduated from Carl Sandburg High School. He earned a B.S. from Loyola University Chicago.

The Apprentice
Rancic was one of the job applicants in the first season of The Apprentice during the spring of 2004, as one of 16 contestants. Rancic was hired at the conclusion of the 14-week job interview after Donald Trump selected him over finalist Kwame Jackson.

For the final challenge against competitor Kwame Jackson, Trump gave Rancic the task of running a celebrity golf outing at Trump National Golf Club Westchester in Briarcliff Manor, New York, while Jackson was tasked to manage a Jessica Simpson concert. At the final board meeting, Jackson remarked that running a golf outing was the easier of the two tasks, which brought a disagreement from Trump VP Carolyn Kepcher, who was managing a golf course when Trump hired her. Trump hired Rancic.

Rancic was elected to take charge of the construction of the Trump Tower Chicago in his native Chicago, on the site of the demolished Chicago Sun-Times building. His other option was to oversee and manage a new Trump National Golf Course and resort in Los Angeles.

Rancic said that, after his one-year contract as Trump's Apprentice expired, he would leave the job and start his own company. He instead opted to remain part of the Trump Organization, and in some seasons filled in as a judge when regular judge George H. Ross was away on business.

Career after The Apprentice

Entertainment
In September 2007, Rancic co-hosted iVillage's In the Loop with iVillage, a TV show and webcast produced by NBC Universal. NBC commissioned a set at the Universal Orlando Resort in Florida. In September 2008, Rancic began as host for the A&E reality show We Mean Business, in which small business owners undergo business make-overs.

In 2008, Rancic and his wife, TV host Giuliana Rancic (née DePandi), started a joint television production company, You and I Productions, which produces reality and scripted programming for television. In 2009, they started their own reality-television show Giuliana and Bill which aired on the E! network. In 2010, Rancic started hosting a news program called America Now, which is broadcast across the United States on stations owned by Raycom Media. The following year, "America Now" was brought back for a second season, with Leeza Gibbons joining Bill Rancic. Originally, the show was on every weekend, but when Leeza Gibbons joined the show, it moved to a Monday through Friday timeslot.

In 2012, Rancic became a television spokesperson for the product Rogaine, appearing in national commercials detailing his experience with hair loss. In April 2014, Rancic began hosting the Food Network competitive cooking series Kitchen Casino, where chefs participate in three casino-themed challenges in an attempt to win up to $30,000.

In 2016, Rancic published his first novel, First Light, to mixed reviews.

Chicago real estate
In 2009, Rancic sold a century-old Gold Coast row house he had bought in 2007, after extensive renovations. In 2011, Rancic sold a condo on the 50th floor of the Park Tower building, on the Magnificent Mile in Chicago, less than 20 months after purchasing the unit.

Rancic owned a home in Hinsdale, Illinois, which was prominently featured on his reality show. He sold it in February 2011 after extensive renovations.

In 2013, Rancic and his wife purchased a 19th-century house on Bellevue Place, which they rehabbed and sold in 2019.

Restaurants
In August 2011, Rancic and his wife entered into a partnership with Lettuce Entertain You Enterprises to open an Italian restaurant in Chicago. The restaurant was named RPM Italian, and it opened in February 2012 in Chicago's River North District. They opened several more restaurants, including RPM Steak in Chicago, another RPM Italian in Washington, D.C., and a planned RPM On the Water opening in 2019 in Chicago. The restaurants have been popular with celebrities, including Barack Obama and Michelle Obama.

Personal life
In December 2006, he became engaged to Giuliana DePandi, and the couple wed in September 2007 in Chiesa di Santa Sofia, Capri.

On April 23, 2012, Giuliana and Rancic announced on The Today Show that they were expecting their first child via gestational carrier. In August 2012, the couple had a son in Denver, Colorado.

Published works

References

External links

 The Apprentice Rules Bill Rancic Bio
 Giuliana and Bill
 IVillage Official Website
 SupportSquad Ultra Fast Video

1971 births
Living people
Businesspeople from Chicago
American business writers
American people of Croatian descent
American people of Irish descent
Loyola University Chicago alumni
Writers from Chicago
Participants in American reality television series
People from Orland Park, Illinois
The Trump Organization employees
21st-century American businesspeople
21st-century American non-fiction writers
American restaurateurs
The Apprentice (franchise) winners

Bill Rancic