Skyglow (or sky glow) is the diffuse luminance of the night sky, apart from discrete light sources such as the Moon and visible individual stars. It is a commonly noticed aspect of light pollution. While usually referring to luminance arising from artificial lighting, skyglow may also involve any scattered light seen at night, including natural ones like starlight, zodiacal light, and airglow.

In the context of light pollution, skyglow arises from the use of artificial light sources, including electrical (or rarely gas) lighting used for illumination and advertisement and from gas flares. Light propagating into the atmosphere directly from upward-directed or incompletely shielded sources, or after reflection from the ground or other surfaces, is partially scattered back toward the ground, producing a diffuse glow that is visible from great distances. Skyglow from artificial lights is most often noticed as a glowing dome of light over cities and towns, yet is pervasive throughout the developed world.

Causes

Light used for all purposes in the outdoor environment contributes to skyglow, by sometimes avoidable aspects such as poor shielding of fixtures, and through at least partially unavoidable aspects such as unshielded signage and reflection from intentionally illuminated surfaces. Some of this light is then scattered in the atmosphere back toward the ground by molecules and aerosols (see ), and (if present) clouds, causing skyglow.

Research indicates that when viewed from nearby, about half of skyglow arises from direct upward emissions, and half from reflected, though the ratio varies depending on details of lighting fixtures and usage, and distance of the observation point from the light source. In most communities, direct upward emission averages about 10–15%. Fully shielded lighting (with no light emitted directly upward) decreases skyglow by about half when viewed nearby, but by much greater factors when viewed from a distance.

Skyglow is significantly amplified by the presence of snow, and within and near urban areas when clouds are present. In remote areas, snow brightens the sky, but clouds make the sky darker.

Mechanism
There are two kinds of light scattering that lead to sky glow: scattering from molecules such as N2 and O2 (called Rayleigh scattering), and that from aerosols, described by Mie theory. Rayleigh scattering is much stronger for short-wavelength (blue) light, while scattering from aerosols is less affected by wavelength. Rayleigh scattering makes the sky appear blue in the daytime; the more aerosols there are, the less blue or whiter the sky appears. In many areas, most particularly in urban areas, aerosol scattering dominates, due to the heavy aerosol loading caused by modern industrial activity, power generation, farming and transportation.

Despite the strong wavelength dependence of Rayleigh scattering, its effect on sky glow for real light sources is small. Though the shorter wavelengths suffer increased scattering, this increased scattering also gives rise to increased extinction: the effects approximately balance when the observation point is near the light source.

For human visual perception of sky glow, generally the assumed context under discussions of sky glow, sources rich in shorter wavelengths produce brighter sky glow, but for a different reason (see ).

Measurement
Professional astronomers and light pollution researchers use various measures of luminous or radiant intensity per unit area, such as magnitudes per square arcsecond, watts per square meter per steradian,(nano-)Lamberts, or (micro-)candela per square meter. All-sky maps of skyglow brightness are produced with professional-grade imaging cameras with CCD detectors and using stars as calibration sources. Amateur astronomers have used the Bortle Dark-Sky Scale to approximately quantify skyglow ever since it was published in Sky & Telescope magazine in February 2001. The scale rates the darkness of the night sky inhibited by skyglow with nine classes and provides a detailed description of each position on the scale. Amateurs also increasingly use Sky Quality Meters (SQM) that nominally measure in astronomical photometric units of visual (Johnson V) magnitudes per square arcsecond.

Dependence on distance from source
Sky glow brightness arising from artificial light sources falls steeply with distance from the light source, due to the geometric effects characterized by an inverse square law in combination with atmospheric absorption. An approximate relation is given by

which is known as "Walker's Law."

Walker's Law has been verified by observation
to describe both the measurements of sky brightness at any given point or direction in the sky caused by a light source (such as a city), as well as to integrated measures such as the brightness of the "light dome" over a city, or the integrated brightness of the entire night sky. At very large distances (over about 50 km) the brightness falls more rapidly, largely due to extinction and geometric effects caused by the curvature of the Earth.

Dependence on light source

Different light sources produce differing amounts of visual sky glow. The dominant effect arises from the Purkinje shift, and not as commonly claimed from Rayleigh scattering of short wavelengths (see ). When observing the night sky, even from moderately light polluted areas, the eye becomes nearly or completely dark-adapted or scotopic. The scotopic eye is much more sensitive to blue and green light, and much less sensitive to yellow and red light, than the light-adapted or
photopic eye. Predominantly because of this effect, white light sources such as metal halide, fluorescent, or white LED can produce as much as 3.3 times the visual sky glow brightness of the currently most-common high-pressure sodium lamp, and up to eight times the brightness of low-pressure sodium or amber Aluminium gallium indium phosphide LED.

In detail, the effects are complex, depending both on the distance from the source as well as the viewing direction in the night sky. But the basic results of recent research are unambiguous: assuming equal luminous flux (that is, equal amounts of visible light), and matched optical characteristics of the fixtures (particularly the amount of light allowed to radiate directly upward), white sources rich in shorter (blue and green) wavelengths produce dramatically greater sky glow than sources with little blue and green. The effect of Rayleigh scattering on skyglow impacts of differing light source spectra is very small.

Much discussion in the lighting industry and even by some dark-sky advocacy organizations (e.g. International Dark-Sky Association) of the sky glow consequences of replacing the currently prevalent high-pressure sodium roadway lighting systems with white LEDs neglects critical issues of human visual spectral sensitivity, or focuses exclusively on white LED light sources, or focuses concerns narrowly on the blue portion (<500 nm) of the spectrum. All of these deficiencies lead to the incorrect conclusion that increases in sky glow brightness arising from the change in light source spectrum are minimal, or that light-pollution regulations that limit the CCT of white LEDs to so-called "warm white" (i.e. CCT <4000K or 3500K) will prevent sky glow increases. Improved efficiency (efficiency in distributing light onto the target area – such as the roadway – with diminished "waste" falling outside of the target area and more uniform distribution patterns) can allow designers to lower lighting amounts. But efficiency improvement sufficient to overcome sky glow doubling or tripling arising from a switch to even warm-white LED from high-pressure sodium (or a 4–8x increase compared to low-pressure sodium) has not been demonstrated.

Negative effects

Skyglow, and more generally light pollution, has various negative effects: from aesthetic diminishment of the beauty of a star-filled sky, through energy and resources wasted in the production of excessive or uncontrolled lighting, to impacts on birds and other biological systems,
including humans. Skyglow is a prime problem for astronomers, because it reduces contrast in the night sky to the extent where it may become impossible to see all but the brightest stars.

Many nocturnal organisms are believed to navigate using the polarization signal of scattered moonlight.  Because skyglow is mostly unpolarized, it can swamp the weaker signal from the moon, making this type of navigation impossible. Close to global coastal megacities (e.g. Tokyo, Shanghai), the natural illumination cycles provided by the moon in the marine environment are considerably disrupted by light pollution, with only nights around the full moon providing greater radiances, and over a given month lunar dosages may be a factor of 6 less than light pollution dosage.

Due to skyglow, people who live in or near urban areas see thousands fewer stars than in an unpolluted sky, and commonly cannot see the Milky Way. Fainter sights like the zodiacal light and Andromeda Galaxy are nearly impossible to discern even with telescopes.

Effects on the ecosystem
The effects of sky glow in relation to the ecosystem have observed to be detrimental to a variety of different organisms. The lives of plants and animals alike (especially those which are nocturnal) are affected as their natural environment becomes subjected to unnatural change. It can be assumed that the rate of human development technology exceeds the rate of non-human natural adaptability to their environment, therefore, organisms such as plants and animals are unable to keep up and can suffer as a consequence.
Although sky glow can be the result of a natural occurrence, the presence of artificial sky glow has become a detrimental problem as urbanization continues to flourish. The effects of urbanization, commercialization, and consumerism are the result of human development; these developments in turn have ecological consequences. For example, lighted fishing fleets, offshore oil platforms, and cruise ships all bring the disruption of artificial night lighting to the world's oceans.

As a whole, these effects derive from changes in orientation, disorientation, or misorientation, and attraction or repulsion from the altered light environment, which in turn may affect foraging, predator-prey dynamics, reproduction, migration, and communication. These changes can even result in the death of some species such as certain migratory birds, sea creatures, and nocturnal predators.

Besides the effect on animals, crops and trees are also very susceptible to destruction. The constant exposure to light has an impact of the photosynthesis of a plant, as a plant needs a balance of both sun and darkness in order for it to survive. In turn, the effects of sky glow can affect production rates of agriculture, especially in farming areas that are close to large city centers.

See also
Light pollution
SKYGLOW
Urbanization
Polarized light pollution
Over-illumination
Dark-sky movement
International Dark-Sky Association (IDA)
Campaign for Dark Skies (CfDS)

Notes

References

External links
List of peer reviewed research papers about sky glow
Skyglow: the effect of poor lighting (CfDS) (examples of skyglow in the UK)
Skyglow across the Great Lakes (examples of skyglow in the US)
Filtering Skyglow (from CCD cameras)
Towns and Skyglow (UK skyglow image collection)
Loss of the Night an Android app for estimating skyglow by measuring naked eye limiting magnitude
Dark Sky Meter an iPhone app for measuring skyglow luminance
LED light pollution: Can we save energy and save the night? SPIE Newsroom article on reducing skyglow

Light pollution
Light sources
Night

Skyglow


Granica Iraka i Kuvajta duga je 254 km, a proteže se od tromeđe sa Saudijskom Arabijom na zapadu do obale Perzijskog zaljeva na istoku.

Opis

Granica započinje na zapadu, na saudijskoj točki u Wadi Al-Batinu, a zatim slijedi ovaj vadi dok teče sjeveroistočno. Granica zatim skreće prema istoku, slijedeći ravnu liniju od 32 km, lomi se, te slijedi još jednu ravnu liniju prema jugoistoku, dugu 26 km, završavajući na obali na spoju estuarija Khawr Abd Allah i Khor as Subije, nasuprot otoka Hajjam.

Povijest
Povijesno gledano nije postojala jasno definirana granica u ovom dijelu Arapskog poluotoka; na početku 20. stoljeća Osmansko carstvo kontroliralo je ono što je danas Irak, a Britanija je kontrolirala Kuvajt kao protektorat. Britanija i Osmansko carstvo teoretski su podijelili svoja područja utjecaja putem takozvanih "Plavih" i "Ljubičastih linija" 1913. – 14., Kojima su Osmanlije priznale britanske potraživanja nad Kuvajtom, podijeljenim od osmanske Mezopotamije duž Wadi Al-Batina (takozvana "zelena linija", vidi kartu desno ).

Tijekom Prvog svjetskog rata i arapskog ustanka, podržanog od Britanije, uspjelo je ukloniti Osmanlije s većine Bliskog istoka. Kao rezultat tajnog anglo-francuskog sporazuma Sykes-Picot iz 1916. godine, Britanija je stekla kontrolu nad osmanskim vilajetima Mosula, Bagdada i Basre, koje je organizirala u Irački mandat 1920. godine. 1932. godine, godine kada je Irak stekao neovisnost, Britanija je potvrdila da će se granica između Iraka i Kuvajta protezati duž Wadi Al-Batina, kao i da su otoci Bubiyan i Warbah kuvajtski teritorij, iako su sjeverni ravnolinijski segmenti u blizini Safwana ostali neprecizno definirani.

Kuvajt je stekao neovisnost 1962. godine, iako je Irak isprva odbio priznati zemlju, tvrdeći da se radi o dijelu Iraka, no kasnije se povukao nakon demonstracije sile Britanije i Arapske lige u znak podrške Kuvajtu. Ugovor o prijateljstvu potpisan je 1963. godine kojim je Irak priznao granicu iz 1932. godine. Unatoč tome, tijekom narednog desetljeća Irak je često postavljao pitanje pristupa moru i polaganja prava na Kuvajt, ponajviše tijekom sukoba na granici 1973.

U kolovozu 1990., Irak je napao i anektirao Kuvajt. Oko pola godine kasnije, međunarodna vojna koalicija na čelu sa SAD-om počinje Zaljevski rat kojim je Kuvajtu vraćen suverenitet. U srpnju 1992. pitanje demarkacije granice proslijeđeno je Ujedinjenim narodima, koji su točno mapirali granicu, a zatim je razgraničili na terenu, slijedeći liniju iz 1932. uz neke male prilagodbe. Granicu je prihvatio Kuvajt, ali ne i Irak. Promatračka misija Ujedinjenih naroda Irak i Kuvajt nadzirala je granicu u razdoblju 1991. – 2003. Odnosi dviju država poboljšali su se od pada Sadama Husseina 2003. godine.

Barijera
Iračko-kuvajtska barijera (, Hudud al-'Irāq-al-Kuwayt) je 190 km duga granična barijera koja se proteže 9.7 km u Irak, 4.8 km u Kuvajt i preko cijele dužine njihove međusobne granice od Saudijske Arabije do Perzijskog zaljeva. Izgrađeno po odobrenju Vijeća sigurnosti Ujedinjenih naroda, svrha mu je bila zaustaviti ponovnu invaziju Iraka na Kuvajt.

Granična barijera izrađena je od elektrificirane ograde i bodljikave žice, s obje strane okružena rovovima širine i dubine po 4.6 m. Rovove čuva na stotine vojnika iza 3-metarskog zemljanog nasipa, a opskrbljeni su s ophodnim brodovima (na mjestu gdje granica izlazi u Perzijski zaljev) i helikopterima.

U siječnju 2004. Kuvajt je odlučio instalirati novu željeznu barijeru uz granicu, dugu 217 km. Procijenjeno je da je barijera koštala 28 milijuna dolara. Pored toga, uz cijelu dužinu granice; su izgrađene asfaltirane ceste kako bi se olakšalo kretanje sigurnosnih snaga uz granicu.

Naselja u blizini granice
 Safwan
 Umm Qasr

Vidi također
 Iračko-kuvajtski odnosi

Izvori

Politika Kuvajta
Kuvajt
Državne granice

Iračko-kuvajtska granica


Live at the Playroom es un EP en vivo de la banda australiana de hard rock Airbourne.

Lista de canciones
 "Girls in Black" - 3:40
 "Too Much, Too Young, Too Fast" - 3:57
 "Cheap Wine & Cheaper Women" - 5:02
 "Runnin' Wild" - 4:32
 "Blackjack" - 5:40

Disponibilidad
El disco es un lanzamiento único de iTunes.

Personal
 Joel O'Keeffe - voz solista, guitarra solista
 David Roads- guitarra rítmica, coros
 Adam Jacobson - bajo, coros
 Ryan O'Keeffe - batería

Referencias

Álbumes de 2007
Álbumes de hard rock
Álbumes en inglés

Live at the Playroom


Der var 25 medlemmer af Lagtinget i valgperioden 1943 og 1945. Fólkaflokkurin havde næsten rent flertal med 12 mandater, mens Sambandsflokkurin og Javnaðarflokkurin havde henholdsvis 8 og 5 mandater. I lighed med den foregående periode var Sjálvstýrisflokkurin ikke repræsenteret.

Referencer
 Løgtingið 150 – Hátíðarrit, bind 2 (2002). (PDF )

Lagtingsmedlemmer fra Færøerne
Lister over personer fra Færøerne
Politik i 1943
Politik i 1944
Politik i 1945

Færøske lagtingsmedlemmer 1943-1945


Gabriel Pimba (født 4. juli 1990) er en brasiliansk fodboldspiller.

Eksterne henvisninger

Fodboldspillere fra Brasilien

Gabriel Pimba


كرانشبانج لينكس (إنجليزية:CrunchBang Linux) (غالباً ما يُرمز لها ب"#!" المستوحى من شعارها) هي توزيعة لينكس خفيفة الحجم مبنية على توزيعة دبيان سابقا كانت مبنية على أوبونتو، أنشأها Philip Newborough وهي تستخدم مدير النوافذ Openbox، وهي ملائمة خصيصاً لعتاد الحاسوب المنخفض والموارد المحدودة (على سبيل المثال ASUS Eee PC). التوزيعة متوفرة أيضاً على قرص حي قابل للتنصيب.

الخصائص
لقد صُممت CrunchBang Linux بغرض تقديم توازن معقول بين السرعة والوظيفية، ويفيد البعض بأنها تفوق أوبونتو في سرعة الإقلاع كما يذكر موقع Softpedia، لكنها تشتمل على عدد أكبر من التطبيقات الافتراضية مقارنة بالتنصيب القياسي لأبونتو نفسها. كم تعمل التوزيعة بشكل أفضل تحت موارد العتاد المحدودة وتؤدي بشكل أسرع من توزيعة أبونتو العادية.
طورت كرانشبانج لينكس بالكامل اعتماداً على مصادر أبونتو باستثناء بعض الحزم.

بخلاف أبونتو، تحتوي كرانشبانج على العديد من التطبيقات والمكتبات غير الحرة أو المصونة ببراءات الاختراع، كالدعم خارج الصندوق للعديد من أنساق الوسائط المتعددة مثل إم بي 3، أدوبي فلاش بل ودي في دي أيضاً، كما تقوم كرانشبانج باستبدال بعض التطبيقات المثبتة بتوزيعة أبونتو الافتراضية منها :
 مدير نوافذ اوبن بوكس بدلاً من بيئة Gnome المكتبية.
 تطبيقي ROX-Filer وثونار بدلاً من مدير الملفات نوتي.
 برنامج Abiword وبعضاً من مكونات جنوم المكتبية بدلاً من أوبن أوفيس.أورج.
 برنامجي Deluge وBitTorrent بدلاً من ترانزميشن.
 برنامج سكايب بدلاً من إيكيجا.
 تستخدم كرانشبانج أيضاً حلة GTK ،مجموعة أيقونات وخلفيات سطح مكتب افتراضية مختلفة.

الإصدارات
تتوفر كرانشبانج لينكس في ثلاثة طبعات أو إصدارات كما يلي :
 CrunchBang سطح المكتب Edition
 CrunchBang سطح المكتب Lite Edition وهي مطابقة للنسخة السابقة لكنها تأتي مع تطبيقات افتراضية أقل.
 CrunchEee Edition نسخة معدلة لحاسوب ASUS Eee PC.

وصلات خارجية
 موقع CrunchBang Linux.
 كرانشبانج لينكس على موقع DistroWatch.

مراجع

توزيعات لينكس
توزيعات لينكس اندثرت
توزيعات معتمدة على دبيان
مشتقات أوبونتو

كرانشبانج لينكس


The University of Chicago Booth School of Business, also known as Chicago Booth, is the graduate business school of the University of Chicago, a private research university in Chicago, Illinois. Founded in 1898, Chicago Booth is the second-oldest business school in the U.S. and is associated with 10 Nobel laureates in the Economic Sciences, more than any other business school in the world. The school has the third-largest endowment of any business school.

Notable Chicago Booth alumni include James O. McKinsey, founder of McKinsey & Company; Susan Wagner, co-founder of Blackrock; Eric Kriss, co-founder of Bain Capital; Satya Nadella, current CEO of Microsoft; and other current and former CEOs of Fortune 500 companies such as Allstate Insurance, Booz Allen Hamilton, Cargill, Chevron, Credit Suisse, Dominos, Goldman Sachs, IBM, Morgan Stanley, Morningstar, PIMCO, and Reckitt Benckiser.

History
The University of Chicago Booth School of Business traces its roots back to 1898 when university faculty member James Laurence Laughlin chartered the College of Commerce and Politics, which was intended to be an extension of the school's founding principles of "scientific guidance and investigation of great economic and social matters of everyday importance." The program originally served as a solely undergraduate institution until 1916, when academically oriented research masters and later doctoral-level degrees were introduced.

In 1916, the school was renamed the School of Commerce and Administration. Soon after in 1922, the first doctorate program was offered at the school. In 1932, the school was rechristened as the School of Business. The School of Business offered its first Master of Business Administration (MBA) in 1935. A landmark decision was taken by the school at about this time to concentrate its resources solely on graduate programs, and accordingly, the undergraduate program was phased out in 1942. In 1943, the school launched the first Executive MBA program. The school was renamed to Graduate School of Business (or more popularly, the GSB) in 1959, a name that it held till 2008.  That year alumnus David G. Booth gave the school a gift valued at $300 million, and in honor of the gift the school was renamed the University of Chicago Booth School of Business.

During the latter half of the twentieth century, the business school was instrumental in the development of the Chicago School of economics, an economic philosophy focused on free-market, minimal government involvement, due to faculty and student interaction with members of the university's influential Department of Economics.  Other innovations by the school include initiating the first PhD program in business (1920), founding the first academic business journal (1928), offering the first Executive MBA (EMBA) program (1943), and for offering the first weekend MBA program (1986). Students at the school founded the National Black MBA Association (1972), and it is the only U.S. business school with permanent campuses on three continents: Asia (2000), Europe (1994), and North America (1898).

Campuses
In Chicago, the Booth School has two campuses: the Charles M. Harper Center in Hyde Park, which houses the school's full-time MBA and Ph.D. programs, and the Gleacher Center in downtown Chicago, which hosts the part-time Evening and Weekend MBA Programs, Chicago-based Executive MBA Program,  and Executive Education courses. Chicago Booth also has a campus in London, a short walk from St Paul's Cathedral, hosting the EMBA Program in Europe and Executive Education classes. Lastly, Chicago Booth has a campus in Hong Kong, located in the Hong Kong Jockey Club University of Chicago Academic Complex.

Academics
Chicago Booth offers Full-time, Part-time (Evening and Weekend) and Executive MBA programs.  Starting in the 2024-2025 academic year, Booth is offering a Master in Management degree for ambitious recent college graduates who studied humanities, arts, social sciences, biological sciences, or physical sciences in college, and are interested in jobs that value business-oriented skills and knowledge.

The university is also a major center for educating future academics, with graduate programs offering the A.M. and Ph.D. degrees in several fields. In addition to conducting graduate business programs, the school conducts research in the fields of finance, economics, quantitative marketing research, and accounting, among others.

Honors
Chicago Booth grants "High Honors" to the top five percent of the graduating class and "Honors" to its next 15 percent, based on GPA averages of all MBA graduates from the previous academic year.

Research and learning centers

The school promotes and disseminates research through its centers and institutes; the most significant ones are:

Accounting Research Center
Applied Theory Initiative
Center for Decision Research
Center for Population Economics
Center for Research in Security Prices
Chicago Energy Initiative
Fama-Miller Center for Research in Finance
George J. Stigler Center for the Study of the Economy and the State
Initiative on Global Markets
Michael P. Polsky Center for Entrepreneurship and Innovation
The Becker Friedman Institute for Research in Economics
James M. Kilts Center for Marketing
Rustandy Center for Social Sector Innovation

Rankings

Chicago Booth was ranked #1 by both Forbes and The Economist in 2019.  U.S. News & World Report ranks Chicago Booth in 2023 as the #1 business school in the United States. U.S. News also ranked the school's executive MBA program #1 and its part-time program #1 in the U.S. In 2019, The Economist ranked the school's full-time MBA program as #1 globally. The Economist also ranked Chicago #1 each year from 2012 to 2016. The Financial Times Rankings 2019 gave Chicago Booth the third place in Open Executive Education. Poets and Quants ranked the school #2 in their 2019 ranking.

People

Faculty

The Booth school has 177 professors, and includes Nobel laureates Eugene Fama and Richard Thaler and MacArthur Fellow Kevin M. Murphy. Other notable economists at the school include John H. Cochrane, Luigi Zingales and Raghuram Rajan, and former Chairperson of the Council of Economic Advisers, Austan Goolsbee.

Alumni

The Chicago Booth Alumni has a community of over 49,000 members and is supported by 60+ alumni clubs worldwide. Alumni include Satya Nadella, Jon Corzine, Peter G. Peterson, Philip J. Purcell, Todd Young, Howard Marks, Megan McArdle, John Meriwether, and Susan Wagner.

Publications
Chicago Booth currently publishes three academic journals:
Journal of Accounting Research
Journal of Law and Economics
Journal of Political Economy (with the Department of Economics)

Chicago Booth Review
Chicago Booth Review is a magazine devoted to business research, particularly research conducted by Chicago Booth's own faculty. In addition to covering new findings in finance, behavioral science, economics, entrepreneurship, accounting, marketing, and other business-relevant subjects, the magazine features essays from Chicago Booth faculty and other academics. It is published quarterly in print and several times a week online.

Chicago Booth Review is the most recent of several successive vehicles Chicago Booth has used to convey its intellectual capital to an outside audience. Starting in the 1960s, the school published the Selected Papers series, a collection of articles written by faculty members or excerpted from faculty speeches. In 1997, Booth launched Capital Ideas () as a separate newsletter featuring articles about faculty research. That subsequently evolved into a quarterly magazine, which in 2016 relaunched as Chicago Booth Review.

See also
Glossary of economics
List of United States business school rankings
List of business schools in the United States

References

External links

Guide to the University of Chicago Graduate School of Business Records 1935-1976 at the University of Chicago Special Collections Research Center

University of Chicago Booth School of Business

Rafael Viñoly buildings
Universities and colleges established in 1898
Schools of the University of Chicago
1898 establishments in Illinois


KNN eller knn har flere betydninger:
 Kunstigt neuralt netværk
 K-nærmeste naboer
 ISO 639-3 kode for en specifik sprogvariant af konkani; maharashtriansk konkani.
 IATA lufthavnskode for Kankan Airport.

KNN


Barnsley Park est une maison de campagne et un parc à Barnsley, Gloucestershire, Angleterre .

Histoire
Une colonie de l'âge du fer est autrefois située dans Barnsley Park, et lors de l'invasion romaine, une villa romaine de 33 mètres de long est construite dans la colonie, au nord de la maison actuelle .

En 1693, Brereton Bourchier hérite du domaine et entreprend la construction de la maison actuelle . Sa fille, Martha, épouse Henry Perrot, député de l'Oxfordshire de 1721 à 1740  qui achève la maison dans les années 1720. L'architecte n'est pas connu bien que plusieurs auteurs aient spéculé sur son nom. Il appartient pendant un certain temps à la famille Perrot, et en 1819, il appartient à James Musgrave .

La maison est redécorée vers 1780 par Anthony Keck, avec d'autres travaux de John Nash, notamment la bibliothèque et le conservatoire, vers 1811  . Le jardin paysager est aménagé au  et a des arbres feuillus matures. En 1794, le parc est agrandi en détournant la route d'Abingdon .

Architecture
La maison géorgienne de trois étages a une façade ouest de neuf travées avec une porte centrale à frontons. La façade est comporte sept travées. L'intérieur est orné de nombreux plastrons, notamment dans l'escalier et les couloirs.

Les vastes terrains et parcs comprennent plusieurs bâtiments subsidiaires. La guérite construite par John Nash vers 1810 est maintenant connue sous le nom de Pepper-pot Lodge  une autre loge est ajoutée au milieu du . Nash est également responsable de l'orangerie de  à l'est de la maison. Il a un toit en ardoise soutenu par des colonnes ioniques.

Les écuries et les remises sont ajoutées au début du . Ceux-ci sont maintenant utilisés comme six ateliers pour les petites entreprises .

Le domaine possède sa propre maison de pompage qui est construite à la fin du  et une grande grange du . Il y a aussi un pigeonnier du  et une gamme de cottages construits à l'origine pour les ouvriers mais maintenant loués .

Les jardins à la française, proches de la maison, sont séparés par des haies plantées dans les années 1960. Plus loin de la maison se trouvent des plantations principalement constituées de hêtres, mais avec quelques spécimens de plantation, notamment Wellingtonia.

Références

Liens externes

Monument classé de Grade II dans le Gloucestershire

Barnsley Park


Regimentul 15 Infanterie a fost o unitate de nivel tactic care s-a constituit la 27 octombrie/9 noiembrie 1918, prin mobilizarea unităților și subunităților existente pe timp de pace care au aparținut de Regimentul Războieni No. 15. Unitatea a făcut parte din organica Brigăzii 13 Infanterie, fiind dislocată în timp de pace în garnizoana Piatra Neamț.
Unitatea a participat la acțiunile militare desfășurate pentru apărarea Marii Uniri,  în perioada de la declararea celei de-a doua mobilizări, la 27 octombrie/9 noiembrie 1918 și demobilizarea armatei, la 20 martie 1920; principalele operații s-au desfășurat în decursul războiului Româno-Ungar din 1919 (15 aprilie-6 august).

Anterior, în același an, unitatea a demobilizat după încheierea Păcii de la Buftea până la 23 mai/5 iunie. Ulterior, la 1/13 iunie 1918 comanda regimentului a fost preluată de către colonelul Alexandru Calmuschi, deoarece colonelul Teodor Pirici fusese mutat la comanda Regimentului 62 Infanterie.

Începând de la sfârșitul anului 1918 și pe parcursul anului următor, regimentul a fost mobilizat și a participat la operația de ocupare a liniilor de demarcație succesive în Transilvania. În acest cadru a fost implicat în lupta de la Zalău de la sfârșitul iernii 1919.

A participat ulterior la campania din Ungaria, luptând în acțiunile ofensive ale Armatei României din aprilie 1919 și, după un intermezzo de 2 luni în țară, în cea de la vest de Tisa, pentru a ajunge în final până la nord de Budapesta.

A revenit în Muntenia în octombrie 1919, cu scopul de a contribui la buna desfășurare a primelor alegeri generale de după Marea Unire. La data de 1 decembrie 1918 trupele regimentului ajuns înapoi la Piatra Neamț, pentru a se demobiliza treptat până în primăvara anului 1921.

Ocuparea liniei de demarcație din Transilvania

La 27 octombrie/9 noiembrie 1918 întreaga armată română a a trecut pe picior de război.Regimentul 15 Infanterie – care se găsea în garnizoana de reședință Piatra Neamț, a fost din nou mobilizat în cadrul Diviziei 7 Infanterie, aparținând astfel celor dintâi unități mobilizate în octombrie 1918, unități care urmau să opereze în Transilvania. Mobilizarea unităților și formațiunile diviziei s-a încheiat la 15/28 noiembrie 1918.
Aflat pe valea Bistricioarei, Tulgheș reprezenta prima localitate situată după graniță și în același timp punctul din care divergeau drumurile care mergeau spre Toplița și Ditrău.

Spre noile aliniamente
În acest timp, un pluton al regimentului ajuns la Tulgheș () s-a retras, pe fondul ostilității populației maghiare din zonă. Ca atare, la 4/17 noiembrie un detașament format din Compania a 6-a împreună cu o secție de mitraliere și condus de căpitanul Emil Curpen a plecat spre Tulgheș, pentru a restabili situația și a asigura paza localității. A ajuns acolo la 7/20 noiembrie, zi în care restul regimentului împreună cu o baterie a Regimentului 4 Artilerie si cu un escadron aparținând Regimentului 8 Calarași au plecat din Piatra Neamț sub comanda colonelului Anton Gherescu (comandantului Brigăzii 13 Infanterie), ca avangardă a Diviziei 7 Infanterie, divizie care urma să se concentreze în arealul Toplița (), Ditrău (), Gheorgheni ( ). Avangarda s-au deplasat prin Bicaz și apoi pe valea Bistricioarei () prin Borsec () spre Toplița, cu misiunea de a asigura calea ferată de pe văile superioare ale Mureșului () și Oltului () și a împiedica distrugerea lucrărilor de artă.

La 11/24 noiembrie trupele de avangardă au depășit frontiera, la 17/30 noiembrie - 18 noiembrie/1 decembrie au intrat în Reghin () și la 19 noiembrie/2 decembrie în Târgu Mureș (). Trupele regimentului au fost primele care au intrat în oraș.

Ajunse la linia de demarcație reprezentată în sector de râul Mureș, trupele române inițial s-au oprit. Ulterior delimitării unei noi linii de demarcație – mai înaintate, trupele Diviziei a 7-a au primit ordin să avanseze spre Cluj (). După ce au trecut prin Luduș (), pe data de 6 decembrie 1918 trupele regimentului au trecut Mureșul și au ocupat gara Cucerdea Secuiască (). La inițiativa maiorului Vasile Nădejde - comandantul trupelor intrate în localitate, gara a fost redenumită Războieni, iar numele satului aflat în apropiere (Feldioara) a fost schimbat în Războieni-Cetate (). Pentru apărarea nodului de cale ferată de aici, în zonă a fost lăsat un batalion. La 11/24 decembrie – alături de Regimentul 16 Infanterie, Batalionul 2 din Regimentul 15 Infanterie a intrat in Cluj sub comanda maiorului Dumitru Coroamă.

Ca efect al unei noi deplasări spre vest a liniei de demarcație, trupele diviziei a 7-a au avansat până la aceasta. Batalionul 1 a fost dislocat la Năsăud (), Batalionul 2 mai întâi la Dej () și apoi la 24 decembrie 1918/6 ianuarie 1919 la Baia Mare () pentru a asigura siguranța minelor din zonă, iar iar Batalionul 3 la Bistrița (), având misiunea de a asigura legaturile cu Moldova.

Deoarece în luna ianuarie detașamente ale Diviziei 7 Infanterie au întreprins acțiuni de dezarmare a localităților din zonele preluate, elemente ale Regimentului 15 Infanterie au dezarmat satele Bârsa () și Domnin (), Deja (), Sălățig (), Nadișu Român (), Giurtelecu Hododului (). Ca efect al comportării meritorii de la începutul campaniei și până în momentul respectiv, la 10/13 ianuarie unitatea a fost citată prin ordin de zi pe divizie. În ultima parte a lunii, trupele unității au fost dislocate pe linia de demarcație. Astfel Batalioanele 1 și 3 au preluat pozitiile de la Zalau () si Țigani (Crișeni) (), iar Batalionul 2 (care fusese o perioadă cantonat la Dej) s-a constituit din 15/28 februarie în rezervă a regimentului.

De ostașii unității este legat și un episod tragicomic petrecut în aprilie 1919, cum este cel al confiscării de către ostași a încălțămintei civililor din Jibou ().

Lupta de la Zalău

Aflate în zona Zalăului, în noapte de 22 spre 23 februarie/7 spre 8 martie (8 spre 9 martie după altă sursă) 1919 trupele românești au fost atacate prin surprindere de trupele maghiare. Astfel, Batalionul 1 a fost surprins de subunități ale Diviziei de Secui întărite de circa 500 de foști prizonieri de război reveniți din Rusia, care trecuseră linia de demarcație între Crișeni și Zalău. Nevoit să se retragă, batalionul a lăsat în Zalău 8 ofițeri si 40 de soldați făcuți prizonieri de trupele maghiare (preotul militar al Regimentului 15 Infanterie, Ioan Partenie, avea să-și povestească ulterior, experiența din prizonierat). Orașul a fost recucerit la 25 februarie/10 martie după 2 zile de ocupație, în urma unui contraatac susținut de Regimentul 15 Infanterie împreună cu rezervele Brigăzii 13 Infanterie și cu susținere de artilerie. Ca urmare a luptelor din zonă în care au intervenit Batalioanele 1 și 2 (venit în ajutor), pierderile regimentului au fost de 5 morți, 10 raniți și 73 de dispăruți.

La data de 26 februarie 1919, Marele Cartier General, a solicitat comandamentului trupelor din Transilvania o anchetă, apreciind că pierderile de materiale și de prizonieri de la Zalău  În urma raportului generalului Traian Moșoiu din 4 martie 1919 privitor la acest eveniment, Anton Gherescu – comandantul Brigazii 13 Infanterie și începând cu 1 aprilie 1919 colonelul Alexandru Calmuschi – comandantul Regimentului 15 Infanterie, au fost acuzați de incapacitate de acțiune și destituiți din funcție. De asemenea, generalul Constantin Neculcea a fost înlocuit la comanda Diviziei 7 Infanterie de generalul Constantin Dumitrescu. Comanda regimentului a revenit locotenent-colonelului Gheorghe Iordanescu.

Războiul româno-ungar din 1919

Ofensiva din aprilie 1919

După ce la date de 10 aprilie 1919 Guvernul României cu sprijinul  Regelui Ferdinand a decis trecerea la ofensivă, astfel încât trupele inamice să fie respinse dincolo de linia stabilită de Aliați la 26 februarie 1919, au avut loc unele restructurări ale dispozitivului trupelor și ale comandamentului acestora. Ca atare, Divizia 7 Infanterie a intrat în compunerea Grupului de Nord condus de generalul Traian Moșoiu. Planul de operații a atribuit acțiunea principală acestui grup, deoarece se afla în apropierea primelor obiective ce trebuiau atinse și dispunea de o configurație de teren și de căi de comunicație favorabile. De asemenea, planul a prevăzut ca Divizia 7 Infanterie să opereze în zona Hodod () – Zalău. Aceasta urma să înainteze pe trei coloane de tăria unui regiment pe direcția Carei () – Debrecen, având ca inamici în față pe soldații Regimentelor 23 și 32 Honvezi.

Fiind prevăzut să opereze la nord-vest de Zalău,Regimentul 15 Infanterie a intrat în compunerea coloanei de centru cu Batalionul 3 alături de Regimentul 27 Infanterie, două baterii de tunuri de câmp și una de obuziere, precum și în compunerea coloanei sudice cu Batalioanele 1 și 2 alături de o baterie de tunuri de munte.

Ofensiva a început în data de 16 aprilie 1919 la dimineața la ora 330, fiind devansată de atacuri ale trupelor ungare în diverse sectoare. Batalionul 1 alături de o baterie de tunuri munte – sub comanda maiorului Nădejde și Batalionul 2 împreună cu o baterie de tunuri de câmp – sub comanda maiorului Coroamă, au format două coloane. Cea condusă de maiorul Coroamă s-a lovit de o rezistență mai serioasă în pădurea Aranok. Aceasta a fost cucerită în timpul nopții și cele două coloane s-au reunit la data de 17 aprilie pentru a continua înaintarea spre Șimleul Silvaniei (), oraș în care au intrat în jurul orei 17 a aceleiași zile. De asemenea, coloana centrală a diviziei a cucerit în seara zilei de 17 aprilie, Borla (). La 19 aprilie subunitățile regimentului au intrat în Carei, iar la 23 aprilie și-au adus aportul la ocuparea orașului Debrecen, pe care trupele Diviziei 7 Infanterie l-au atacat pe la nord.
Odată cu ocuparea orașului Békéscsaba la 26 aprilie 1919 a fost finalizată ocuparea celei de-a doua linii de mari centre din câmpia Tisei. Pentru a acoperi retragerea unităților dinspre Oradea (), Debrecen și Békéscsaba – care se deplasau convergent spre Szolnok și pentru a întârzia trupele române,  armata maghiară a organizat o linie de apărare într-un vast arc de cerc în spatele râurilor Criș () și Barcău (). O linie înaintată de apărare la 6 km înaintea acestei linii principale a fost organizată de-a lungul canalului Hortobágy (), canal cu o lățime de 10 m și o adâncime de 3-4 m.

Poziția de pe canal a fost cucerită printr-un atac combinat în data de 28 aprilie, atac în care în timp ce un detașament din Divizia 6 Infanterie a atacat de front pe șoseaua Püspökladány – Karcag, trupele Diviziei 7 Infanterie – în cadrul cărora cele ale Regimentului 15 Infanterie au primit misiunea de a depăși canalul, au întors apărarea și au căzut în spatele liniei inamice. Astfel, dupa un bombardament puternic de artilerie, trupele inamice s-a retras. Sub comanda maiorului Coroamă, Batalionul 2 a preluat podul în seara de 28 aprilie și a format un cap de pod, la inițiativa comandantului. Tot din proprie inițiativă, Coroamă a trimis o companie în urmărirea inamicului. Aceasta a cucerit și orașul Karacag, astfel că la 29 aprilie dimineața, forțele principale ale unității au intrat în localitate. Ca efect, înaintarea trupelor Diviziei 6 Infanterie a fost ușurată.

La 30 aprilie Divizia 7 Infanterie a atins Tisa (), iar la 1 mai regimentul și-a adus aportul la cucerirea orașului Tiszafüred (punct secundar de retragere a trupelor inamice peste râu), respingând trupele inamice peste cursul de apă.

Unitatea a fost cantonată până la 14 mai în oraș, după care în perioada 15-31 mai 1919 trupele Diviziei 7 Infanterie au fost transportate în nordul Moldovei. Acestea au fost concentrate în zona Botoșani–Rădăuți–Suceava–Fălticeni, Regimentul 15 Infanterie rămânând dislocat la Rădăuți până la 23 iulie 1919. O evaluare făcută în data de 31 mai, a indicat un efectiv al unității de 65 de ofițeri, 1918 trupă și un inventar existent de 291 de cai, 20 de boi și 79 de trăsuri.

Trecerea Tisei și perioada de ocupație militară română a Budapestei
La 20 iulie 1919 armata ungară a declanșat o ofensivă împotriva trupelor române aflate pe malul vestic al Tisei, astfel că la 21 iulie Marele Cartier General râmân a hotărât ca Divizia 7 Infanterie sa fie pusă  la dispoziția  Comandamentului Trupelor din Transilvania, cu scopul de a întări forțele care luptau împotriva inamicului. Unitățile diviziei au început deplasarea la 23 iulie și au sosit în zona Tisei la 30 iulie. Dat fiind că trupele maghiare fuseseră oprite la 23 iulie, iar la 24 iulie Armata României declanșase contraofensiva, Divizia 7 Infanterie a ajuns într-un moment în care victoria trupelor române era deja conturată (la 26 iulie trupele inamice fuseseră deja azvârlite peste râu).
Debarcată la Püspökladány, Divizia 7 Infanterie a intrat în compunerea Grupului general Demetrescu. Acesta a început să treacă Tisa în noaptea de 30 spre 31 iulie, aflându-se în aripa dreaptă a ofensivei. Urmărirea inamicului s-a făcut în pustă, în spațiul dintre Tisa și Dunăre. După 1 august, Divizia 7 Infanterie a intrat tot sub conducerea lui Demetrescu în compunerea flancgardei grupului de manevră de sub comanda generalului Traian Moșoiu, având misiunea de a cădea în spatele trupelor ungare care operau în sectorul de nord, pentru a le tăia retragerea spre Budapesta

Regimentul 15 infanterie a trecut Tisa pe la Átány, continuând să se deplaseze spre vest pe ruta Átány – Jászberény – Dány – Rákoscsaba – Rákoskeresztúr – Kőbánya. Intrând în Budapesta la 8 august 1919, trupele Diviziei 7 Infanterie au schimbat pe cele ale Diviziei 1 Vanatori, iar batalioanele Regimentului 15 Infanterie au fost cantonate la Rákosfalva (Batalionul 1), Újpest (Batalionul 2) și Rákospalota (Batalionul 3).

În zona Budapestei regimentul a rămas până la data de 20 octombrie 1919, aducându-și contribuția la normalizarea vieții publice, la reluarea activității economice și la aprovizionarea populației cu cele necesare.

Revenirea în țară și demobilizarea

După ce la 9 octombrie 1919 Marele Cartier General a dispus ca trupele Diviziei 7 Infanterie să revină în Regatul României pentru a fi dislocate în Muntenia, cu scopul de a contribui la buna desfășurare a primelor alegeri generale de după Marea Unire, la data de 20 octombrie 1919 trupele regimentului au părăsit capitala Ungariei, pornind din gara Rákospalota.

Batalioanele 1 și 2 au fost dislocate la Ploiești, unde regimentul a sosit la 22 octombrie, iar Batalionul 3 la Buzău. După ce alegerile pentru Adunarea Deputaților (2-4 noiembrie) si pentru Senat (7-8 noiembrie) s-au încheiat, la 21 noiembrie 1919, Marele Cartier General a dispus ca Divizia 7 infanterie să-și deplaseze unitățile în garnizoanele de reședință. La data de 1 decembrie 1918 trupele regimentului ajuns înapoi la Piatra Neamț, fiind primite de către autoritățile locale și de către locuitorii orașului.

Trecerea unității la cadrul de pace s-a făcut treptat. Astfel, contingentele 1910-1915 au fost lăsate la vatră la 10 decembrie 1919 și respectiv la 1 februarie 1920. Demobilizarea completă s-a făcut în baza Decretului 287 din 1 aprilie 1921.

Recunoașteri, onoruri, in memoriam
În Zalău a fost îngropat sergentul-erou Ilie Popa, căzut în lupta din gara orașului. Mormântul acestuia a fost transformat în 1920 în ziua de Sânta Maria (15 august) în "Monumentul Unității Naționale", prin strădania avocatului Aurel Hețco.

Printre cărțile care au ca subiect regimentul se numără:
 Ante, Gheorghe; "Istoricul Regimentului No. 15 de Dorobanți"; Piatra Neamț; 1932 (reeditată în 2017).
 Otu, Petre

 Regimentul 15 "Războieni" (File dintr-o istorie eroică); Ed. A92; Iași; 1996
 De o vârstă cu independența. De la Regimentul 15 "Războieni" la Brigada 15 Mecanizată "Podu Înalt"; Editura Militară; București; 2011; ISBN 978-973-32-0884-6

Decorațiii militare

  Militari decorați cu Ordinul Militar de Război "Mihai Viteazul" (toți cu clasa a III-a).:

 sublocotenentul Gheorghe Ante: 1919 – pentru meritele dovedite la Zalău în 22-25 februarie 1919)
 maiorul Dumitru Coroamă (1919 – pentru meritele dovedite în aprilie-mai 1919 la Vârșolț () , Lzt. Agota, Tiszafüred
 căpitanul Constantin Ionescu (1919 – pentru meritele dovedite la Zalău în 22-25 februarie 1919)

Comandanți
În perioada operațiilor militare postbelice, regimentul a avut următorii comandanți:
 Colonel Alexandru Calmuschi, 1 iunie 1918 - 1 aprilie 1919
 Colonel Gheorghe Iordănescu, 1 aprilie 1919 - 16 noiembrie 1920

Personalități (1914-1920)
 Sublocotenentul Gheorghe Ante, publicist și poet.

Referințe

Bibliografie
 Grad, Cornel; ; Contribuția armatei române la preluarea puterii politico-administrative în Transilvania. Primele măsuri (noiembrie 1918-aprilie 1919); Revista de Administrație Publică și Politici Sociale, An II, Nr. 4(5)/Decembrie 2010; pp. 51–79
 Kirițescu, Constantin; Istoria războiului pentru întregirea României- Ediția a III-a, vol. II; Editura Științifică și Enciclopedică; București; 1989; ISBN 973-29-0048-2
 Abrudan, Mircea-Gheorghe; "În luptă cu bolșevismul" – Memoriile Preotului Militar Ioan Dăncilă despre Campania Armatei Române în Ungaria; Misiunea, Anul VI, Nr. 1 (6), 2019; pp. 164-177
 Otu, Petre; Regimentul 15 Războieni - File dintr-o istorie eroică; Ed. A92; Iasi; 1996
Lectură suplimentară
 Otu, Petre; De o vârstă cu independența. De la Regimentul 15 "Războieni" la Brigada 15 Mecanizată "Podu Înalt"; Editura Militară; București; 2011; ISBN 978-973-32-0884-6
 Moșneagu, Marian; Ghidul Arhivelor Militare Române ; Ed. Centrului Tehnic-Editorial al Armatei București; 2010; ISBN 978-606-524-078-0; pp. 263–264

Legături externe

 Portret: Mureșan, Daniel; 92 de ani de la moartea sergentului erou Ilie Popa; 31 ianuarie 2011; Magazin Sălăjean

Vezi și
 Regimentul 15 Infanterie (1916-1918)
 Regimentul 15 Infanterie (1941-1945)

Unități militare române participante la operațiile militare postbelice (1918-1920)
Unități militare din România cu monografii

Regimentul 15 Infanterie (1918-1920)


Çufut Qale este o cetate medievală în Munții Crimeii la 3 km est de Bahcisarai. Ea este monumentul național al culturii karaite din Crimeea.

În tătara crimeeană și turcă Çufut Qale înseamnă "Cetatea Evreiască" (çufut/çıfıt - evreu, qale/kale - cetate), în timp ce karaiții crimeeni o numesc pur și simplu "Cetatea", considerând locul un centru istoric al comunității lor din Crimeea. În evul mediu era cunoscută sub numele de Qırq Yer (trad: Locul Celor Patruzeci), iar pentru karaiți, care constituiau majoritatea populației în așezare, era Sela' ha-Yehudim (trad: Stânca Evreilor).

Etimologie

 Чуфут-Кале (în rusă, transliterat: Ciufut-Kale) este menționată în literatura științifică sovietică și în lucrările autorilor karaiți care au folosit rusa în a doua jumătate a sec. XIX și în perioada sovietică, cum ar fi de exemplu Seraia Șapșal.
 Juft Qale este folosită de liderii contemporani ai karaiților crimeeni, care susțin că este numele original al cetății (traducere din turcă: Cetatea Dublă) și că a evoluat pe parcursul timpului "într-un nume greșit , dar mai ușor de pronunțat Ciufut-Kale sau Ciuft-Kale".
 Qırq Yer, Qırq Or, Kyrk-Or, Gevher Kermen Çufut-Qale, Çıfut-Qalesi - denumirile din timpul Hanatului Crimeii.
 Kale (karaimă: קלעה, къале, kale - cetate).
 Sela Yuhudim (ebraică: סלע יהודים - "Stânca Evreilor"), a fost folosită în literatura karaită crimeeană până în a doua jumătate a sec. XIX.
 Sela ha-Karaim (ebraică: סלע הקראים - "Stânca Karaiților") - utilizată de karaiții crimeeni începând cu a doua jumătate a sec. XIX.

Istorie

Cercetătorii nu au o părere unanimă în privința originii cetății. Orașul a fost probabil o așezare fortificată la periferia Imperiului Bizantin în sec. V-VI. Alții afirmă că așezarea fortificată a apărut în sec. X-XI. În perioada timpurie a istoriei sale orașul a fost populat în special de alani, cel mai puternic dintre triburile sarmate. Ei au început să pătrundă în Crimeea în sec. II p.Chr. După ce s-au stabilit în regiunile muntoase ale Crimeii, alanii au adoptat creștinismul. Sursele scrise din sec. XIII menționează cetatea sub denumirea de Kyrk-Or (trad: Patruzeci de Fortificații). Acest nume s-a păstrat până la mijlocul sec. XVII. Hoarda tătară a lui Nogai Han a făcut o incursiune în peninsula Crimeea în 1299 și Kyrk-Or a fost una dintre așezările prădate de acesta. După ce au preluat controlul asupra orașului, tătarii și-au încartiruit propria garnizoană acolo. La începutul sec. XV tătarii le-au permis meșteșugarilor karaiți să se stabilească în fața liniei estice de fortificație și au construit un al doilea zid defensiv pentru a-i proteja, astfel formându-se o nouă parte a orașului.

În sec. XV primul han al Crimeii, Hadji Ghirai I, înțelegând avantajele pe care le prezenta cetatea, a transformat partea veche a orașului în reședința sa fortificată. După înfrângerea Hoardei de Aur, Hanatul Crimeii a devenit mult mai puternică. În schimb importanța lui Kyrk-Or ca fortificație a decăzut și hanul Crimeii, Mengli Ghirai, a mutat capitala la Bahcisarai. Aceasta și-a păstrat însă funcția de cetate și de temniță pentru prizonierii aristocrați. La mijlocul sec. XVII tătarii au părăsit așezarea, acolo rămânând doar karaiții și câteva familii de crîmceaci - evreii nu aveau dreptul să se stabilească în alte orașe ale Hanatului Crimeii. Tătarii îi considerau evrei pe karaiți, astfel că așezarea a căpătat treptat denumirea de Çufut Qale, ceea ce în turcă înseamnă "Cetatea Evreiască", cu înțeles negativ și disprețuitor.

După cucerirea și anexarea Crimeii de către Imperiul Rus locuitorii cetății aveau dreptul să se mute oriunde pe peninsulă. De atunci Çufut Qale a fost treptat părăsită, iar de la mijlocul sec. XIX așezarea nu a mai avut niciun locuitor.

Legende

Există mai multe legende legate de acest loc. Potrivit uneia dintre ele cetatea era numită odată "Qırq Yer" deoarece hanii Mengli Ghirai și Tohtamîș au adus cu ei acolo patruzeci de familii karaite și în cinstea lor au numit-o "Locul Celor Patruzeci".

O altă legendă, promovată de karaiți fiindcă ar demonstra vechimea sectei lor, spune că ei au fost aduși în regiune din Persia pe vremea Exilului babilonian. Primii locuitori ai orașului au avut o influență considerabilă asupra vecinilor lor, hazarii. Hahamul Abraham Firkovici, care era foarte priceput în falsificarea inscripțiilor funerare și manuscriselor, a insistat că a găsit în cimitirul din Çufut Qale pietre funerare datate din sec. VI a.Chr., și că a descoperit mormântul lui Sangari. Potrivit lui Abraham Harkavi, însă, cel mai timpuriu epitaf din cimitir este din 1203, iar mormintele nu aparțin karaiților, ci crîmceacilor.

Galerie

Referințe

Cetăți din Ucraina

Çufut Qale


RFA Salviola (A502) was a British salvage vessel of the Royal Fleet Auxiliary.

Built by Wm. Simons & Co Ltd., of Renfrew, she was launched on 9 July 1945, commissioned on 25 July 1945, and decommissioned in November 1958. The ship was sold to Turkish Navy on 28 August 1959, renamed Imroz II, and renamed Cemil Parman in 1985. The ship arrived at Aliağa for scrapping on 2 October 1992.

King Salvor-class salvage vessels
Ships built on the River Clyde
1945 ships

RFA Salviola


Tablice

Bilješke
NK Sloga Draganić odustaje od natjecanja prije početka proljetnog dijela prvenstva

Izvori

 Krešimir Perušić - 100 godina nogometa u Karlovačkoj županiji 1903-2003, Karlovac 2004., ISBN 953-9969-0-6, str. 292

1953-54 zona
Karlovac-zona

Zonska nogometna liga Karlovac 1953./54.


Gunnar Solvang (født 1941) er mag.art. i etnologi, ph.d. i kulturstudier, forfatter og fhv. museumsinspektør ved Køge Museum. Medlem af Landbohistorisk Selskab. Han har skrevet en lang række artikler og bøger om kulturhistoriske emner fra nyere tid.

Gunnar Solvang er født og opvokset på gården Baaslund, Sottrupmark ved Øster Sottrup. 1959 tog han realeksamen i Sønderborg, kom i handelslære som isenkræmmer (1959-63), herefter to år i militærtjeneste og siden rejser, ophold på Askov Højskole og arbejde i en sportsforretning. Efter at have arbejdet to år med udstillinger for Grundfos i Bjerringbro påbegyndte han i 1968 en uddannelse som reklametegner på  Akademiet for fri og merkantil Kunst, afsluttet med diplomeksamen i 1970, hvorefter han indtil 1974 arbejdede som tegner, grafiker og fotograf på reklamebureauet Lund & Lommer. Fra 1973 til 1980 havde han sin egen tegnestue. 1973 blev han optaget på Københavns Universitet, hvor han læste europæisk etnologi. 1980 blev han mag.art. i etnologi og i 2001 ph.d. i kulturstudier fra Syddansk Universitet. Fra 1986 til 2007 var han museumsinspektør ved Køge Museum. Fra 1998 til 1999 var han med forskningsmidler fra Statens Humanistiske Forskningsråd ansat ved Museet på Sønderborg Slot. 1988-2006 medlem af Amtsmuseumsrådet for Roskilde Amt, 1989-2007 Køgefonden, 1999-2006 Kulturmiljørådet for Roskilde Amt, heraf to år som formand.

Gunnar Solvangs forskningsinteresser er blandt andet, husmænd, bygningskultur, kulturlandskab, kulturmiljø, håndværk og landindustri samt byhistorie. Han har blandt andet udført feltarbejde i statshusmandskolonien Rønhave på Als (1975-99), i Vestsjællands Amt (1981-82) med projektet De kulturhistoriske interesser i fredningsplanlægningen, på Rømø (1983-85) med projektet Vadehavsregionens Kulturhistorie og feltarbejdet med højskolen J.C. Campbell Folk School i Brasstown, North Carolina, USA i 2014.

Litteratur
 Husmandsliv. En etnologisk skildring af livsvilkårene i Rønhave-kolonien på Als 1925-80. Landbohistorisk Selskab. Odense 1984.
 Forandringsprocesser og social konflikt i et sønderjysk husmandssamfund. Sydjysk Universitetscenter. Esbjerg 1986.
 Vadehavsbønder på Rømø. Landbrugsudvikling og livsvilkår i det 20. århundrede Forlaget BYGD. Esbjerg 1986.
 De nye husmandskolonier – eller husmændenes landboreformer i det 20. århundrede. Danske Husmandsforeninger. Viborg 1986.
 Hegnetslund teglværk og lervarefabrik. Køge Museum 1997.
 Husmandsliv under afvikling. Udvikling og forandring i et sønderjysk landbosamfund 1975-2000. Landbohistorisk Selskab og Historisk Samfund for Als og Sundeved, 1999.
 Åbassinet i Køge - Kulturhistorisk rapport. Historie - erhverv – kulturmiljø. Køge Museum 2000.
 Kalkudvinding på Køgeegnen. En kulturhistorisk skildring af egnens kalkværksindustri og dens kalkværksarbejdere. Køge Museum 2002.
 Dansk flinteindustri. En kulturhistorisk skildring af en glemt landindustri. Køge Museum 2006.
 En østsjællandsk husmand i en brydningstid. Køge Museum 2010.
 En sønderjysk rømningsmand i Grønland. Historisk Samfund for Sønderjylland 2018.
 Grønlandsbilleder  fra Ivigtut 1916-1919. Det Grønlandske Selskab 2021.
 Georg Bidstrup & John C. Campbell Folk School – en dansk højskolemand i North Carolina, USA. Forlaget SOLVANG 2023

Udvalgte artikler
 "Myten om de hvide vinkelbygninger med de røde tegltage" (I: Folk og Kultur, årbog for dansk etnologi og folkemindevidenskab 1978, s. 5-20).
 "Sønder Store" - en gård i Vendsyssel. (I: Vendsyssel NU og DA, 1979, s. 5-48).
 "Den vingeløse mølle". (I: Skalk nr. 6, 1979, s. 25-29).
 "Fredningsplanlægning og kulturhistorie". Metoder og resultater fra et pilotprojekt i Vestsjællands Amt. (I: Antikvariske studier 6, 1983. Fredningsstyrelsen, s. 9-35).
 "Husmandsbevægelsen i Danmark". (I: Bol og By. Landbohistorisk Tidsskrift 1985:1, s. 59-86).
 "Worker-peasants i europæisk perspektiv". En komparativ oversigt. (I: Tidsskrift for Landøkonomi, 1/87, 174. årgang. Det kgl. danske Landhusholdningsselskab, 1987, s. 61-76).
 "Folk i Køge – middelklassen". (I: Køge By's Historie 1288-1988, bd. II - 1850-1988. 1988, s. 155-204).
 "Økologisk tilpasning i et vadehavsøsamfund – Rømø". (I: Bol og By. Landbohistorisk Tidsskrift, 1992:1-2, s.152-172).
 "Grevindevæveren på Køge Museum" - En kulturhistorisk skildring af en sydsjællandsk væverslægt. (I: Årbog for Køge Museum 1994 Køge, s. 53-88).
 "Vand- og vindmøller". (I: Kulturhistorien i planlægningen. De kulturhistoriske interesser i landskabet. Miljø- og Energiministeriet - Skov- og Naturstyrelsen 1996. s. 98-125).
 "Kirkegården som kulturhistorisk kilde" - generelt og lokalt. (I: Årbog for Køge Museum 2001, s. 73-96).
 "Dobbeltportræt af to Køge-kunstnere" - Østed og Bärenholdt. (I: Årbog for Køge Museum 2002, s. 75-112).
 "De nye tilflyttere i landdistrikterne" (I: Landbohistorisk Tidsskrift, 2004:1, s.95-109).
 "Oldtidssamlingen fra Baaslund". (I: Skrift for lokalhistorisk forening for Sundeved 2011, s. 19-38).
 "Højskolemanden Georg Bidstrup" – en bornholmsk udvandrer til Brasstown, North Carolina, USA. (I: Bornholmske Samlinger 2017, s. 72-101).
 "Husmændenes landboreformer i det 20. århundrede". (I: Årsskrift for Det grønne Museum, 2019)."årsskrift+for+det+grønne+museum.+årgang+2019"&select_material_type=bibdk_frontpage&op=Søg&year_op=%2522year_eq%2522&year_value=&form_build_id=form-n8KM95Rx7ygFC2DUmwA-D3HP77rCbx1busm5jGaT_Yk&form_id=search_block_form&sort=rank_frequency&page_id=bibdk_frontpage#content
 "De nye statshusmandskolonier". (I: Sønderjysk Månedsskrift 7, 2021).

Eksterne kilder/henvisninger

 www.kulturarv.dk
 www.kristeligt-dagblad.dk

Etnologer fra Danmark
Museumsfolk fra Danmark
Faglitterære forfattere fra Danmark

Gunnar Solvang


ඉන්දීය ක්‍රිකට් කණ්ඩායම 2010 ජූලි 18 සිට අගෝස්තු 7 දක්වා ටෙස්ට් තරග තුනකට ක්‍රීඩා කරමින් ශ්‍රී ලංකාවේ සංචාරය කළේය.

සංචිත
තරගාවලියට සහභාගි වන කණ්ඩායම් හතරේ සංචිත අදාළ ක්‍රිකට් පාලක මණ්ඩල විසින් ජුනි මස මුලදී ප්‍රකාශයට පත් කරන ලදී.

ටෙස්ට් තරගමාලාව

1 වන ටෙස්ට් තරගය

2 වන ටෙස්ට් තරගය

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ශ්‍රී ලංකා පාලක මණ්ඩලයේ සභාපතිගේ XI එ ඉන්දියාව

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ශ්‍රී ලංකාව තුළ ක්‍රිකට්

ඉන්දීය ක්‍රිකට් කණ්ඩායමේ ශ්‍රී ලංකා තරග සංචාරය 2010


El VII Censo Nacional de Población y III Censo Nacional de Vivienda de Costa Rica se llevó a cabo en el año 1973 encargado por la entonces denominada Dirección General de Estadística y Censos, predecesora del actual INEC. La población total del país según el censo 1973 fue de 1,871,780 habitantes.

Resultados

Referencias

Véase también
 Demografía de Costa Rica
 Instituto Nacional de Estadística y Censos (INEC)

Enlaces externos
 Censo 1973. División Territorial Administrativa de Costa Rica. Documento del Centro Centroamericano de Población (CCP).

1973
Costa Rica
Costa Rica en 1973

Censo costarricense de 1973


Günther Prien (16 January 1908 – presumed 8 March 1941) was a German U-boat commander during World War II. He was the first U-boat commander to receive the Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross and the first member of the Kriegsmarine to receive the Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves of Nazi Germany. It was Germany's highest military decoration at the time of its presentation to Prien.

Under Prien's command, the submarine  was credited with sinking over 30 Allied ships totalling about , along with the British battleship  at anchor in the Home Fleet's anchorage in Scapa Flow.

Early life and career
Prien was one of three children of a judge and completed his basic education. At the age of five, Prien had been living with relatives, the notary Carl Hahn and his wife, in Lübeck. There he attended the Katharineum, a humanistic secondary school. After his parents separated, Prien moved with his mother and siblings to Leipzig where she eked out a living selling peasant lace. Prien joined the Handelsflotte (German merchant marine) in mid-1923 to ease the financial burden on his family. He applied to and joined the Finkenwerder–Hamburg Seaman's School. After eight years of work and study as a seaman, rising from cabin boy on a sailing ship, Prien passed the required examinations and became the fourth officer on a passenger liner, the . Prien learned telegraphy, ship handling, leadership, and laws of the sea. In 1931 he became first mate and attended school for a commission. Prien received his sea master's certificate in January 1932.

Unable to find work due to the severe contraction of the German shipping industry during the Great Depression, he was forced to turn to the Freiwilliger Arbeitsdienst ('Voluntary Labour Service', FAD). He earned a living dredging fields and digging ditches. Prien joined the Nazi Party in May 1932, but had to resign his membership upon joining the navy prior to Hitler's ascent to power. His membership of the party cemented Prien's image as a Nazi supporter, though his actions have been described as career advancing opportunism rather than genuine political conviction; one author wrote "it is hard to determine his politics." However, Donald Macintyre described Prien as "the most Nazified U-boat captain", "an ardent ruthless Nazi". Prien applied to the Reichsmarine in January 1933 when he found the navy was offering officer-candidate programs for merchant marine officers. He was integrated into the Reichsmarine as a member of "Crew 31" (the incoming class of 1931), but had the age and experience of a 1926 class.

Prien received his military basic training in the 2nd company in the 2nd department of the standing ship division of the Baltic Sea in Stralsund (16 January 1933 – 31 March 1933). During this time frame in Stralsund, he advanced in rank to Fähnrich zur See (naval cadet) on 1 March. He then attended the main cadet course at the Naval Academy Mürwik and various weapons courses for cadets at Kiel (1 April 1933 – 30 September 1934). From 1 October 1934 to 30 September 1935, Prien served as watch and division officer on the light cruiser Königsberg. On this assignment, he was promoted to Oberfähnrich zur See (senior midshipman) on 1 January 1935 and to Leutnant zur See (acting sub-lieutenant) on 1 April 1935. Prien then joined the U-boat training force. Prien attended the U-boat school in Kiel from 1 October 1935 to 30 April 1936. His training included a specialized U-boat torpedo course which was held on .

On 11 May 1936, Prien was appointed first Watch Officer on , serving under the command of Werner Hartmann after forming a bond at the training school. At Hartmann's request Prien was assigned to his submarine, which served in the Spanish Civil War in 1937. Prien rose steadily in rank, from midshipman in 1933 to Oberleutnant zur See (sub-lieutenant) on 1 January 1937. On 1 October 1937, Prien was ordered to the Germaniawerft, the shipbuilding works in Kiel, for construction training of the new Type VIIB . He commissioned U-47 on 17 December 1938 which was part of the Wegener Flotilla. Prien was promoted to Kapitänleutnant (Captain lieutenant) on 1 February 1939.

Prien married in 1939 to Ingeborg; the couple had two children. Ingeborg Prien later married an Oberstleutnant in the Bundeswehr and changed her name to Inge Sturm-Prien.

World War II
World War II commenced during Prien's first patrol in U-47, following the German invasion of Poland on 1 September 1939. Prien had departed Kiel on 19 August for a patrol lasting 28 days. On 5 September, he sank the British Bosnia of , the second ship of the war to be sunk by a U-boat. The prize regulations were in force at the time, so Prien was obliged to stop the ship. After identifying  her as British he surfaced alongside her and fired a warning shot from the deck gun. The ship turned away to escape and it took six hits and a fire in her hold full of sulphur to bring it to a stop. Prien asked a passing neutral Norwegian ship to take the crew. The damaged ship was finished with a torpedo. His boat sank two British vessels, Rio Claro of  on the 6th, and Gartavon of  on the 7th. The sinkings were notable for Prien's use of the deck gun, which was rare. U-47 returned to Kiel on 15 September having sunk a total tonnage of . Prien was recalled by Dönitz to prevent all boats returning simultaneously leaving none on patrol.

Second patrol: Scapa Flow
On 1 October 1939, Karl Dönitz became a Konteradmiral (rear admiral) and "Commander of the Submarines" (Befehlshaber der Unterseeboote, BdU). Dönitz had been encouraged in operations against warships by the sinking of aircraft carrier Courageous in September 1939. On 28 September 1939 he said, "it is not true Britain possesses the means to eliminate the U-boat menace." Dönitz was busy convincing Hitler of the need for 300 operational boats to achieve decisive success against Britain. Dönitz was attracted to the prospect of attacking the Royal Navy anchorage at Scapa Flow at the outbreak of war, to win a victory for his command. In World War I, two German submarines had tried and failed. Undaunted he ordered German submarine U-16 to reconnoitre the region and requested Luftwaffe reconnaissance. From the air and sea reports Dönitz concluded that there was an 18-yard gap in the northeast entrance, between blockships sunk to bar the gap from Lamb Holm and the mainland. Dönitz selected Prien and U-47 for the task. Prien was his favourite, and according to Dönitz "possessed all the personal qualities and professional abilities required."

Prien left port to navigate the shallow North Sea on 8 October and did not brief his crew until mid-mission. He avoided all shipping and sat on the sea bed in daylight if possible. Prien approached Orkney in the evening of the 14 October. He surfaced four-hours sailing time from the anchorage. While surfaced Prien observed the aurora borealis, which exposed the German submarine. In a post-patrol account Prien remarked it was "disgustingly light" and that – in his words – "the whole bay is lit up". At 22:00 the Orkney navigation lights came on for thirty minutes which allowed Prien to fix his position. His watch officers spotted a merchant ship and Prien dived to avoid it, but shadowed the vessel and carried out a practice attack. Despite the presence of the lights he could not see the ship through the periscope. With visibility poor while submerged he decided to carry out the attack on the surface.

Prien pressed on and passed through the narrow entrance to the sound. He selected the wrong channel—between Lamb Holm and Burray—recognising the mistake in time. He disregarded Dönitz's idea to pass south of the two blockships and instead sailed between the centre and northern block ship. The tide allowed the entry to be made rapidly. Prien and his crew were temporarily snared, or ran aground. Only by reversing at maximum revolutions did the U-boat free itself. U-47 entered the Flow at 00:27. Prien and his watch officers found the anchorage to be empty. Eventually they spotted "two battleships", in reality, just one; . The other was the  seaplane tender Pegasus. Prien began the attack at 00:55 and concluded it at 01:28. He fired seven torpedoes, some of which failed or ran widely off target. Nevertheless, the battleship was struck by several of the second salvo and sank in 13 minutes. The sinking killed 835 of her crew, including Rear Admiral Henry Blagrove, commander of the 2nd Battle Squadron. At 02:15 U-47 exited the Flow and ordered flank speed to escape. He logged in the war diary, "a pity that only one was destroyed." Prien thought he had damaged the Repulse lying behind Royal Oak, but it was not present—the Pegasus was not hit. In the U-boat's war diary at 02:15 he wrote, "I still have five torpedoes for any merchant targets that come our way."

He returned to Germany on 17 October to instant fame. Prien and his crew were flown to Berlin aboard Hitler's personal aircraft. At the Reich Chancellery the following day, Hitler awarded Prien the Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross (). For Dönitz, the operation was a personal triumph. U-boat production did not increase immediately, but he had succeeded in securing Hitler's attention. Nazi propaganda exploited the success and gloated over damaged British morale. The Home Fleet did not return to Scapa Flow until March 1940, until the entry points were closed and air defences improved. The fleet was moved to Loch Ewe, but on the way the battleship Nelson was damaged by a mine laid by U-31.

Purportedly Prien did not enjoy being a propaganda tool, but he cooperated with the Reich Ministry of Public Enlightenment and Propaganda, and conferenced with Joseph Goebbels. The conference was unique in that it was the first time the Nazis showcased an individual military success. American journalist William L. Shirer met Prien but was not impressed by his lack of humility and wrote of Prien that he appeared "cocky" and a "fanatical Nazi." The story that Prien had simply followed a ship into the harbour was rightly disbelieved; Prien said nothing of his route in. Prien wrote a book of his experiences during the war, Mein Weg Nach Scapa Flow (My way to Scapa Flow), released in the autumn, 1940. One historian wrote, "for a story of potentially high propaganda value, it is told with striking restraint." The media compensated for this apparent modesty. The Illustrierter Beobachter lionised Prien. It provided plenty of images of Prien, his crew and Hitler, exalting him as a hero. These sentiments were picked up and spread throughout Germany by other state-controlled media outlets.

Prien received the nickname Der Stier von Scapa Flow ("The Bull of Scapa Flow"); the emblem of a snorting bull was painted on the conning tower of U-47 and soon became the emblem of the entire 7th U-boat Flotilla. The reason, given by 1st watch officer Engelbert Endrass for this, was the sight of Prien's demeanour as U-47 entered Scapa Flow, "his frowning face and hunched shoulders reminded him of a bull in a ring." All U-boats had their number removed from the conning tower in wartime, and commanding officers often applied their own motifs. Two members of the Scapa Flow crew earned the Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross during World War II: the chief engineer (Leitender Ingenieur) Johann-Friedrich Wessels and 1st watch officer (I. Wachoffizier) Engelbert Endrass.

Kept secret by the German naval command was the fact that Prien had fired a total of seven G7e torpedoes at his target; only one from the first salvo hit the target and exploded on the bow, near the anchor chain. The stern torpedo also failed to hit or detonate. The second salvo did strike and explode. The navy had long-standing problems with their depth, steering and their magnetic detonator systems. These problems continued to bedevil the German submariners for a long time. In 2002, part of a torpedo fired during the attack resurfaced near to an anchored tanker. The warhead had detached but the missile contained compressed air necessitating its destruction by a bomb disposal team.

The historian Riederer argues that Sonderunternehmen P (Special Operation P), the codename for the attack on Scapa Flow, was very likely predominantly motivated by Nazi propaganda. Following World War I, the German High Seas Fleet was interned at Scapa Flow under the terms of the Armistice whilst negotiations took place over the fate of the ships. Fearing that all the ships would be seized and divided amongst the Allies, Admiral Ludwig von Reuter decided to scuttle the fleet. Whilst the internment was considered a national humiliation by the Kriegsmarine, the scuttling of the fleet was romanticised as an act ridding the navy of the shame associated with the Kiel mutiny of 3 November 1918. The NS-propaganda spread the interpretation that Prien's success at Scapa Flow turned the symbolic triumph of scuttling the fleet, and had finally rid the older generation from the Scapa Flow traumata.

Third patrol
U-47 under the command of Prien with 1st watch officer (I. WO) Oberleutnant zur See Engelbert Endrass and chief engineer Oberleutnant (Ing.) Johann-Friedrich Wessels left Kiel on 16 November 1939. U-47 attacked a British cruiser on 28 November 1939. Prien had identified the ship to be a London-class cruiser. Prien intended to launch a spread of three torpedoes, but only a single torpedo cleared the tube and detonated in the wake of the cruiser. When the periscope cleared the surface, Prien observed what he believed major damage to the stern of the cruiser, her starboard torpedo launchers dislodged and an aircraft tilted. U-47 surfaced and tried to pursue the cruiser but was driven off by depth charges dropped from the escort. It turned out the cruiser was  which was slightly damaged by the detonation. The war diary of the Befehlshaber der U-Boote (BdU) on 17 December 1939 stated that even though a hit was observed the cruiser was not sunk.

On 5 December 1939, U-47 spotted nine merchant vessels escorted by five destroyers. At 14:40, Prien fired one torpedo. U-47 continued to attack Allied shipping in the Western Approaches, however eight out of twelve G7e U-47 carried, failed to detonate either missing or malfunctioning. On 18 December 1939, U-47 returned to Kiel via the Kaiser Wilhelm Canal. The claims made by Prien are noted in the war diary of the BdU on 17 December 1939:
 steamer of unknown origin
 Norwegian tanker
 Dutch tanker
for a total of  plus one British warship damaged, while the actual tonnage was only . Three ships were confirmed sunk, along with one warship damaged. The identity of the vessels were SS Navasota from OB 46 south of Fastnet was the first, tanker MV Britta south of Longships Lighthouse, and finally Tanjandoen south-southeast of The Lizard. From convoy OB 46, 37 sailors died aboard SS Navasota, another 45 were rescued by other merchant vessels Escapade and Clan Farquhar. Louis Scheid rescued 62 men from Tanjandoen, but six perished. Britta lost six men, a Belgian ship rescued 25.

Fourth patrol
Prien's fourth patrol started on 29 February 1940 from Kiel. The former 1st watch officer Endrass had been replaced by Oberleutnant zur See Hans-Werner Kraus. On this patrol, U-47 headed for the North Sea, the Shetland Islands and the Orkney Islands. On 1 March, U-47 arrived in Heligoland for a four-day stop. Back at sea again on 11 March, U-47 sank the Britta on 25 March. U-47 returned to Wilhelmshaven again on 29 March, ending this patrol. The ship was torpedoed without warning northwest of Sule Skerry. 13 men died and five were rescued by the Danish ship Nancy.

Torpedo failures still afflicted the U-boat fleet but the number of sinkings rose in the first months of 1940. U-boat commanders, determined to enter the ranks of "aces" such as Prien, were prepared to take greater risks, most often attacking at night on the surface—the Admiralty noted that by February 1940 these reached 58 percent.

Fifth patrol: Weserübung
In April 1940 the OKM planned Operationsbefehl Hartmut to support  Operation Weserübung, the invasions of Denmark and Norway. The purpose was to provide seaborne protection for the German amphibious landings on Norway's large coast line from the Royal Navy and French Navy. The German surface fleet could not fight a large-scale surface action against the British and win. Dönitz hoped the U-boats could compensate for this weakness. The faulty G7e torpedo rendered the German submarine fleet useless for the duration of Weserübung. The failure of torpedoes was a factor in the German naval defeat in the Battles of Narvik.

Prien formed part of a group patrolling east of the Shetland Islands, Vagsfjord and Trondheim. U-47 left Wilhelmhaven on its fifth patrol on 3 April, which ended on 26 April in Kiel. Prien's 1st watch officer was again Oberleutnant zur See Kraus. The boat formed part of a 28-strong fleet, practically the entire operational force, committed to waters off the Norwegian and British coast. The German operation attracted an immediate counterattack by the Royal Navy, intense battles were fought at Narvik. The BdU's opposition, the Royal Navy Submarine Service, achieved some success: the Karlsruhe was crippled and scuttled off Kristiansand.

Prien succeeded in penetrating an Allied-held anchorage again at Vagsfjord fjord. Prien counted three large and three small transport ships, two cruisers, all slightly overlapping—he described it as a "wall of ships". Prien fired eight torpedoes, but none hit. The first four were fired at two of the large transports and two cruisers under the cover of darkness from ranges of 750–1,500 metres. Unable to explain the failure, Prien surfaced after no discernible action was taken by the British. He went over the torpedoes and firing control data personally before another four-missile salvo was fired. The same result was observed. The torpedoes either missed, failed to detonate or struck rocks after running off course. While on manoeuvres to fire his stern torpedo on the surface, he ran aground damaging his starboard diesel engine as he attempted to break free. He could not wait for high tide to assist while within range of British guns, and  daybreak, he noted, was only hours away. His crew eventually rocked the U-boat loose and U-47 escaped.

On the way home Prien intercepted the battleship Warspite on 19 April. He stalked her and fired two torpedoes with the same result—one exploded at the end of its run, alerting the escorts which counterattacked with depth charges. A convoy was sighted later, but Prien did not bother attacking; he had lost faith in his main weapons. Prien angrily signalled Dönitz to tell him they had been sent into battle with "wooden rifles." A full report was made by Prien: "we found ourselves equipped with a torpedo which refused to function in northern waters either with contact or magnetic pistols. To all intents and purposes, the, U-boats were without a weapon." The report was crushing to Dönitz.

The commander-in-chief of U-boats conceded of the U-boat operation, "I doubt whether men have ever had to rely on such a useless weapon." In no fewer than 40 attacks on Allied warships, not a single sinking was achieved. Dönitz appealed to Erich Raeder, and he was forced to agree on the hopeless situation. He ordered all but three submarines to port. The remaining trio were ordered to continue reconnaissance patrols.

Sixth patrol
On his sixth war patrol (3 June – 6 July 1940), Prien intercepted Convoy HX 47, part of the HX convoys. This patrol, again Kraus served as 1st watch officer, started and ended in Kiel and targeted the shipping routes in the North Atlantic and the Bay of Biscay west of the English Channel.

Prien was a Wolfpack leader and made the tactical decisions for this patrol line. Wolfpack Prien planned to attack HX 47,  west of Lorient prior to its rendezvous with its home–home bound escort. He sank the  ship Balmoralwood. The merchant had fallen behind. The ship carried 8,730 tons of wheat and four aircraft.

The  San Fernando from HX 49 was sunk on 21 June. The ship carried 13,500 tons of crude oil and 4,200 tons of fuel oil; all the crew appear to have survived the sinking. The patrol yielded another six ships sunk. The most notable victim was the passenger liner Arandora Star, sunk west of the Aran Islands. The 14-year old ship sank with heavy loss of life. It was transporting hundreds of German and Italian internees to Canada. Of the approximately 1,300 people, 200 guards, and 174 crew on board, 805 died. The BdU credited Prien with ten ships sunk totalling . This made Prien's sixth war patrol the most successful U-boat operation to date.

Seventh patrol
U-47 remained in Kiel until 27 August 1940 when it sortied again. The 1st watch officer on Prien's seventh patrol was again Kraus. Upon the conclusion of the patrol, which had taken U-47 into the North Atlantic west of the Hebrides, Prien was ordered to the U-boat base at Lorient, in occupied France where it arrived on 26 September 1940. The Battle of France and the occupation of the Atlantic coast afforded the BdU bases. They allowed German submarines to strike deeper into the Atlantic and spend much longer on patrol.

Prien accounted for the destruction of six ships plus a further vessel damaged. His largest victim was Titan, over  from convoy OA 207. Prien lost one man overboard during the patrol. 89 men survived and six were killed. His greatest success was against the large Convoy SC 2. He attacked and claimed four ships sunk after U-65 led him to the scene. The attacks were carried out on the surface in dark Atlantic night during poor weather.  U-28 sank another ship, but Otto Kretschmer in U-99 failed. Dönitz was disappointed, it was not the annihilation battle he hoped for. Dönitz ordered Prien to act as a weather-boat at a point 23° west, mainly for Luftwaffe air fleets engaged in the Battle of Britain.

The signals from the 53-strong convoy were decoded on 30 August which gave the time, position and arrival times enabling the BdU to order Prien and a Wolfpack into action. Prien had known where to search. Dönitz and the BdU were reading Admiralty codes and this information had been passed to Prien. The information led to the sinking of Ville de Mons in ten minutes. All but one of the crew were saved. The captain reported the sighting of three U-boats, two of which approached him and asked for his ship's identity. They were eventually rescued by an Allied merchant ship.  The U-boats were forced to abandon the attack when a Short Sunderland appeared and they lost contact with the convoy.

Prien formed part of a Wolfpack that attacked Convoy HX 72. While searching for the previous convoy they ran into HX 72. While the operation was a German success, Prien damaged only one ship with his only remaining torpedo. Six ships were sunk by other U-boats. The Germans waited for the sole escort, Jervis Bay to turn away. Prien maintained contact to guide U-29, U-43, U-46, U-48 and U-65 into attack. 12 ships were sunk from the convoy amounting to . On the patrol Prien sank  of shipping, with another 5,156 damaged. On 21 September U-48 relieved Prien on shadowing duties.

Eighth patrol: Oak Leaves
Prien took U-47 on its eighth war patrol on 14 October 1940, the last with Kraus as 1st watch officer, patrolling the sea routes in the North Atlantic, from the North Channel to Rockall. A five-strong U-boat pack that were too far away to tackle Convoy SC 7 was called into assist. Prien, who was trying to reach SC 7, formed a wolfpack with U-28, U-38, U-48 and U-100.  Convoy HX 79 was spotted by U-47 in the morning of the 19 October, just as its 10-ship anti-submarine escort arrived. Only U-28 failed to get into an attack position by evening. On 20 October 1940, Prien attacked  Convoy HX 79 and sank the transports La Estancia, Bilderdijk and Wandby. Shirak is also believed to have been sunk by Prien and his crew in the battle. When added to Prien's hits, the Focke-Wulf Fw 200s of I. Gruppe of Kampfgeschwader 40 increased the tally to 12 ships sunk.

While at sea, Prien received the message on 21 October that he had been awarded the Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves () the day before. He was the fifth member of the Wehrmacht and first of the Kriegsmarine to be so honored. U-47 returned to Lorient on 23 October.

Heinz Rühmann, Hans Brausewetter and Josef Sieber sang a persiflage of the 1939 song "Das kann doch einen Seemann nicht erschüttern" ("That won't shake a sailor"), written by Michael Jary from the film Paradies der Junggesellen—Bachelor's Paradise, on occasion of the Oak Leaves presentation to Prien. The reworded lyrics are "Das muss den ersten Seelord doch erschüttern" ("That must shake the First Sea Lord", alluding to Winston Churchill). The lyrics also refer to Neville Chamberlain and mock the song Rule, Britannia! by adapting an English phrase into German: "die Waves zu rulen ist jetzt schluß" ("the rule of the waves is over").

Ninth patrol
The ninth war patrol began on 3 November 1940 from Lorient and took U-47 to the North Atlantic, west of the North Channel. After 34 days at sea, U-47 returned to Lorient on 6 December. On this patrol, Prien damaged the Gonçalo Velho on 8 November, and sank the Ville d'Arlon and damaged Conch on 2 December 1940. The tanker survived Prien's attack, then withstood a three torpedo salvo from U-95. The ship finally sank after a single torpedo from Otto Kretschmer's U-99.

Tenth patrol and death
On 20 February 1941, U-47 departed from Lorient on its tenth and final war patrol. Prien located well south of the main wolfpack concentrations. He intercepted and repeatedly attacked convoy OB 290. The solitary attacks sank two ships. Prien continued to pursue the convoy but did not succeed again. West of Ireland, Fw 200s sank seven ships from this convoy making it the most successful intervention of German aircraft in the Atlantic. The success of the Fw 200s, well out to sea, depredations of U-boat concentrations between Iceland and Britain simultaneously with Operation Berlin, in which battleships Scharnhorst and Gneisenau cruised the convoy lanes was an anxious and operationally complex period for the German Admiralty.

U-47 went missing after intercepting Convoy OB 293 on 7 March. His attack prompted a five-hour chase from 00:23 on 8 March. At 05:19 Prien was caught on the surface and dived but could not escape the rapid depth charge attack from the escorts.  U-47 has generally been thought to have been sunk by the British destroyer  west of Ireland; the submarine was attacked by Wolverine and , which took turns covering each other's ASDIC blind spots and dropping patterns of depth charges until U-47 rose almost to the surface before sinking and then exploded with an orange flash visible from the surface. Other British reports of the action mention a large red glow appearing deep below the surface amid the depth charge explosions.

To date, there is no official record of what happened to U-47 or her 45 crewmen, though a variety of possibilities exists, including mines, a mechanical failure, falling victim to her own torpedoes, and possibly a later attack that did not confirm any kills by the corvette team of  and . Posthumously on 18 March, Prien was promoted to Korvettenkapitän (corvette captain/lieutenant commander), effective as of 1 March 1941.

Prien's death was kept secret until 23 May. Churchill had personally announced it to the House of Commons, and propaganda broadcasts to Germany had repeatedly taunted listeners with the question "Where is Prien?" until Germany was forced to acknowledge his loss. The announcement was made in the Wehrmachtbericht on 24 May 1941 stating: "The U-boat under the command of Korvettenkapitän Günter Prien did not return from his last patrol against the enemy. The loss of the boat has to be assumed." The importance of Prien was known to the Reich Ministry of Public Enlightenment and Propaganda. To offset the negative impact his death might have on the German population, the message was hidden among the information about the tonnage sunk by U-boats.

Commemoration and in popular culture
According to one biographer, in contrast with Kretschmer, Prien was purportedly a strict disciplinarian who rarely allowed humanity to compromise or interfere with the running of his boat. His crew despised him for it. He harboured much bitterness because of his difficult beginning. He could be genial among fellow officers but his reputation among subordinates was low.

The 1958 war film U 47 – Kapitänleutnant Prien, directed by Harald Reinl, was loosely based on Prien's combat record and command of U-47. Prien was portrayed by the German actor Dieter Eppler. Prien was portrayed by Werner Klemperer in the 1957 US TV series The Silent Service in the episode, "The U-47 in Scapa Flow".

Prien was a subject of a hagiographic 1981 account by German author Franz Kurowski, Günther Prien, der Wolf und sein Admiral (Günther Prien, the Wolf and his Admiral). The German scholar  classifies Kurowski's book, published by extreme right-wing publisher , as an "almost perfect example of a skillful distillation of the Nazi understanding of the Second World War". The Canadian historian Michael Hadley commented on the narrative's goals as follows:
Here he [Kurowski] wished to commemorate the "meritorious soldier and human being Günther Prien [who is] forgotten neither by the old submariners nor" —and this would have startled most observers in Germany today [in 1995] —"by the young submariners of the Federal German Navy".

The West German navy, at the time named the Bundesmarine (Federal Navy), had considered Prien as namesake for the 1967 commissioned guided missile destroyer Lütjens. However the legend surrounding Prien, that he had distanced himself from Nazism and had become an active member of the German resistance and was held captive at the Wehrmachtgefängnis Torgau (Torgau Wehrmacht Prison), turned out to be false. Consequently, the name Lütjens, named after Admiral Günther Lütjens, was chosen instead.

The street "Günther-Prien-Straße" in Schönberg, Plön, is named after him.

Summary of career
According to Busch and Röll, Prien sailed on ten war patrols and sank 30 commercial ships of , one warship with a displacement of , and damaged eight commercial ships for  and one warship of .

Awards
 Wehrmacht Long Service Award 4th Class (22 January 1937)
 Iron Cross (1939)
 2nd Class (25 September 1939)
 1st Class (17 October 1939)
 U-boat War Badge with Diamonds
 Diamond-studded Navy Honour Dagger
 Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves
 Knight's Cross on 18 October 1939 as Kapitänleutnant and commander of U-47
 5th Oak Leaves on 20 October 1940 as Kapitänleutnant and commander of U-47

Dates of rank

Translation notes

Notes

References

Citations

Bibliography

1908 births
1941 deaths
People from Burgenlandkreis
Military personnel from the Province of Saxony
U-boat commanders (Kriegsmarine)
Kriegsmarine personnel killed in World War II
Recipients of the Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves
People lost at sea
Reichsmarine personnel
Missing in action of World War II
Military personnel from Saxony-Anhalt

Günther Prien


Megreller (Megrelce: მარგალეფი  Margalepi; Lazca მარგალეფე Margalepe; Gürcüce: მეგრელები Megrelebi; Svanca: tekil ზანა̈რ Zanär, çoğul მჷზან Mәzan; Abhazca: а́гырқәа Agrwa), Gürcistan'da Karadeniz'e kıyısı olan Megrelya'nın yerli halkı. Önemli bir Megrel nüfusu da başkent Tiflis'te ve Abhazya'da yerleşiktir. 1990'ların başında, Gürcü-Abhaz savaşı sırasında, ayrılıkçı yönetim tarafından Abhazya'dan göç ettirilen halkın yaklaşık 180.000-200.000 kadarı Megrel'di. Göç edenlerden önemli bir kısmı geri dönebilmiştir. En yakın akrabaları Lazlar olup birlikte Zanlar adıyla ele alınır ve Zan dilinin birbirine yakın iki kolunu konuşurlar.

Gürcüler, Zanlar (Megreller ile Lazlar) ve Svanlar tarih öncesi ortak bir proto-halkın mensuplarıyken bu halkın sonradan üç farklı halka bölünmesiyle ortaya çıkmışlardır.

Nüfus
Rusya'da 1897 yılında yapılan ilk genel nüfus sayımından iki yıl önce "Rus İmparatorluğu'nda Yaşayan Halkların Alfabetik Listesi" başlığıyla bir ön çalışma yapılmış. 1895 yılında Petersburg'ta yayınlanan bu listede Rusya halklarının değişik yayınlarda yer alan ve farklı yıllara ait nüfus bilgileri derlenerek dilleri, dini inançları ve yaşadıkları bölgeyle ilgili kısa bilgiler verilmiştir. Buna göre Megrellerin (Мингрельцы = Mingreller) 1891 yılındaki nüfusu 214.000 kişidir.

Dil

Megrellerin çoğunluğu iki dilli olup Megrelce ve Gürcüceyi bir arada konuşur, ancak yazı dilleri sadece Gürcücedir. Megrelce, kuzeybatı (Zugdid-Samurzakan) ve güneydoğu (Senaki) olmak üzere iki ana diyalekte ayrılır. Lazca ve Megrelce birbirine yakın dillerdir. Megreller ve Lazlar birbirinin şivesini rahatça anlayabilmektedirler.

Tarih

Karadeniz kıyısındaki çoketnikli bölgede kurulan Kolhis Krallığı (Egrisi), bilinen en eski Zan-Svan devletidir. Coğrafi konumu nedeniyle ağırlıklı olarak Zanların yaşadığı krallığın başkenti bugünkü Kutais ve Fasis şehirleri olmuştur. MÖ 5. yüzyıldan itibaren Perslerin, Büyük İskender ve ardıllarının, Pontus Krallığı'nın ve Romalıların saldırılarıyla karşılaşan krallık MÖ 1. yüzyılda Romalılar tarafından yıkılmıştır. MS 2. yüzyılda aynı bölgede Lazika Krallığı kurulmuştur. 778 yılında Lazika, 1008 yılına kadar bölgede varlığını sürdüren Abhazya Krallığı'na bağlanmıştır. Ardında bölgede Megrelya'yı da içinde alan Gürcistan Krallığı kurulmuştur. Megrellerin yaşandığı Megrelya bölgesi, 1200'lü yıllardan 19. yüzyıla kadar Dadiani hanedanı tarafından yönetilmiştir. 1557'ye kadar bölgeyi dük (eristavi) olarak yöneten Dadiani'ler 1557'de Megrelya Prensliği'nin kurulmasıyla Prens unvanını almıştır. Bu prenslik 1867'de Rus İmparatorluğu'na bağlanana kadar varlığını korumuştur. Gürcistan'da Sovyet yönetiminin kurulmasından sonra, Megreller 1930'lara değin nüfus sayımlarında ayrı halk olarak sayılmış, daha sonraki sayımlarda ise Gürcü olarak kaydedilmiştir.

Sovyet dönemi sonrasındaki bağımsız Gürcistan'ın ilk devlet başkanı olan Zviad Gamsahurdia (1939-1993) bir Megrel'di. 1992'de Tiflis'te başlayan iç savaşta iktidardan indirildi ve yerine Eduard Şevardnadze devlet başkanı oldu. Bu sırada Megrelya'da gerçekleşen iç savaşlarda Gamsakhurdia'nın destekçileri kaybetti.

1990'ların başındaki Abhaz-Gürcü ihtilafında yaklaşık 180.000-200.000 Gürcü ve Megrel Abhazya'da Gürcülere uygulanan etnik temizlik kapsamında Abhazya'dan sürgün edilmiştir. Yerlerinden edilmiş 40.000-60.000 kişi evlerine geri dönmüştür. Megreller günümüzde daha çok Gürcistan'ın Samegrelo-Zemo Svaneti bölgesinde yaşamaktadır.

Kültür

Mutfak

Geleneksel Megrel yemekleri baharatlı ve bol çeşnili olmalarıyla öne çıkar. Bunun sebebi, eski zamanlarda ılıman, subtropikal iklim nedeniyle Megrelya için en büyük tehdidi sıtma hastalığının oluşturması ve bu bölgenin sakinlerinin en başından beri çok miktarda biber tüketmenin bu korkunç hastalığın gelişimini bir dereceye kadar engellediğini fark etmesidir.

Megrelya mutfağı, başta soslar olmak üzere çeşitli çeşniler kullanır. Geleneksel yemekler arasında Megrel Haçapurisi, Ghomi (mısır unuyla yapılan bir meze), Sulguni (yağlı peynir) ve baharatlı soslarla (örneğin Acika) kızartılmış etler bulunur. İki özel yemek - Elarci ve Satsivi bayramlarda ve onur konukları için yapılır. Bu yemekler, Gürcistan genelinde Megrel mutfağının güzelliği olarak kabul edilir.

Şarap

Gürcistan'da 500'den fazla asma çeşidi var ve bunların 60'ı Megrelya'da yetişiyor. Bunların en ünlüsü, en iyi şarabın yapıldığı Ocaleşi üzümüdür; Hafif bir yabani gül aroması ve parlak kırmızı bir renge sahip yarı tatlı bir kırmızı şaraptır.

19. yüzyılın ikinci yarısında Ocaleşi neredeyse tamamen ortadan kayboldu. O zamana kadar üzümler, Avrupa'da olduğu gibi bağda bile değil, ağaç dallarında yabani liana şeklinde yetiştiriliyordu; Daha sonra, bu şaraba olan talebin artması, Ocaleşi üzümünün neslinin neredeyse tükenmesine yol açtı (Megrelce'de "Ocale" kelimesi "ağaçta yetişen" anlamına gelir). 19. yüzyılın ortalarında, Megrelya'nın son prensinin kız kardeşi Salome Dadiani'nin kocası Fransız Achilles Murat, şarap üretme ve satma planının bir parçası olarak Ocaleşi üzümünü Avrupai tarım uygulamalarına göre yetiştirmeye başladı. Böylece Ocaleşi üzümü kurtulmuş oldu ve bu şarap Megrelya'nın Tsageri ve Martvili semtlerinde yapılmaktaydı. Bu şarabın üretimi Gürcistan'ın diğer bölgelerine de yayılmıştır.

Müzik

Megrel halk müziği çok seslidir ve şarkı sözleri yalnızca Megrelce söylenir. Şarkılar melankolik ve hüzünlü bir tempo ile karakterize edilir. Megreller, müziklerinin sürekli süregelen savaşlardan dolayı zarar görmüş ve yoksullaşmış Megrelya'nın trajik tarihini yansıttığına inanırlar. Megrel romantik şarkılarına genellikle Çonguri (dört telli ahşap bir enstrüman) eşlik eder.

En ünlü Megrel halk şarkısı İavnana veya "Megruli Nana" dır. Bazı araştırmacılar, şarkının sözlerine eşlik eden gizemli "Nana Nanina" kelimelerinin, Hristiyanlık öncesi bir yaz tanrıçasının adı olduğunu düşünüyor. "Megruli Nana" şarkısının ezgilerinden biri Rus besteci Pyotr İlyiç Çaykovski tarafından ünlü Noel balesi "Fındıkkıran" da kullanıldı. Bir başka ünlü Megrel şarkısı - "Dadiani'nin Çağrısı" Dadiani ailesine adanmıştır.

Din
Megrellerin tamamına yakını Ortodoks Hristiyan olup Tiflis'teki Gürcü Kilisesi'ne bağlıdır. Geçmişte her Megrel klanının ruhsal şefaat elde etmek için kullandığı kendi koruyucu azizi ve ikonu (cincinhati) bulunmaktaydı. Kemikleri İlori köyündeki Megrel kiliselerinde tutulduğu iddia edilen Aziz Giorgi en önemli aziz kabul edilmekteydi. Hristiyanlık öncesi pagan inanışların izleri özellikle ağaçlarla tapınma ile ilgili adetler ise hala yöre folklorunda doğum, evlilik ve ölüm, yeni yıl adetleri ile hasat festivallerinde görmek mümkündür. Megrelya'da en önemli dini yapı Martvili Manastırı olup, Megrel başpiskoposu Giorgi Çkondideli'nin makamı bu manastırın içindedir. Martvili'nin eski adı Çkondidi olup, Megrelce "Koca Meşe ağacı" anlamına gelmekteydi ki başpiskopos burada ikamet ettiği için Çkondideli (Çkondidili) unvanını taşımaktaydı.

Komşuluk

Karaçay-Balkar komşuluğu
Karaçaylar arasındaki Aydabul soyu Megrel kökenli olup zamanla Karaçaylaşmışlardır.

Ünlü Megreller
 Konstantine Gamsahurdia (1893–1975), 20. yüzyılın en etkili Gürcü yazarlarından biri
 Zviad Gamsahurdia (1939–1993), ilk Gürcistan başbakanı (1991–1992)
 Lavrentiy Beria (1899–1953), Stalin döneminde Sovyet gizli polis şefi
 Merab Kostava (1939–1989), Gürcistan Ulusal Kahramanı
 Şevkefza Sultan (–1889), Osmanlı Valide Sultanı
 Khvicha Kvaratskhelia, Napoli Fc'de oynayan Megrel asıllı Gürcü Kanat futbolcusu

Notlar

Kaynakça

Dış bağlantılar

Gürcistan'daki etnik gruplar

Megreller