İzmir ( ,  ; ) is a metropolitan city on the west coast of Anatolia, and capital of İzmir Province. It is the third most populous city in Turkey, after Istanbul and Ankara, and the largest urban agglomeration on the Aegean Sea.

In 2019, the city of İzmir had a population of 2,965,900, while İzmir Province had a total population of 4,367,251. Its built-up (or metro) area was home to 3,209,179 inhabitants. It extends along the outlying waters of the Gulf of İzmir and inland to the north across the Gediz River Delta; to the east along an alluvial plain created by several small streams; and to slightly more rugged terrain in the south.

İzmir has more than 3,000 years of recorded urban history, and up to 8,500 years of history as a human settlement since the Neolithic period. In classical antiquity the city was known as Smyrna ( ; ) – a name which remained in use in English and various other languages until around 1930, when government efforts led the original Greek name to be gradually phased out internationally in favor of its Turkish counterpart . Until the 1923 population exchange between Greece and Turkey, İzmir had a very large Greek population.

The modern name İzmir is the Turkish rendering of the Greek name Smyrna and "Smyrne" (). In medieval times, Westerners used forms like Smire, Zmirra, Esmira, Ismira, which was rendered as İzmir into Turkish, originally written as  with the Ottoman Turkish alphabet.

Lying on an advantageous location at the head of a gulf running down in a deep indentation, midway along the western Anatolian coast, İzmir has been one of the principal mercantile cities of the Mediterranean Sea for much of its history. It hosted the Mediterranean Games in 1971 and the World University Games (Universiade) in 2005. The city participated in Climathon in 2019.

Main features

İzmir has over 3000 years of recorded urban history and up to 8500 years of history as a human settlement since the Neolithic period. Set in an advantageous location at the head of a gulf in a deep indentation midway along the western Anatolian coast, the city has been one of the principal mercantile ports of the Mediterranean Sea for much of its history. When the Ottomans took over İzmir in the 15th century, they did not inherit compelling historical memories, unlike the other key points of the Ottoman trade network, namely Constantinople (Istanbul), Damascus, Baghdad and Cairo.

The emergence of İzmir as a major international port by the 17th century was largely a result of the attraction it exercised over foreigners and the city's European orientation. Politically, İzmir is considered a stronghold of Kemalism and the Republican People's Party (CHP).

Izmir's port is Turkey's primary port for exports in terms of the freight handled and its free zone, a Turkish-U.S. joint-venture established in 1990, is the leader among the twenty in Turkey. The workforce, and particularly its rising class of young professionals, is concentrated either in the city or in its immediate vicinity (such as in Manisa and Turgutlu), and as either larger companies or SMEs, affirm their names with an increasingly wider global scale and intensity.

İzmir hosted the Mediterranean Games in 1971 and the World University Games (Universiade) in 2005. In March 2008, İzmir submitted its bid to the BIE for hosting the Universal Expo 2015, but it was won by Milan, Italy.

History

Ancient times

Alexander the Great
Alexander the Great re-founded the city at a new location beyond the Meles River around 340 BC. Alexander had defeated the Persians in several battles and finally the Emperor Darius III himself at Issus in 333 BC. Old Smyrna on a small hill by the sea was large enough only for a few thousand people. Therefore, the slopes of Mount Pagos (Kadifekale) were chosen for the foundation of the new city, for which Alexander is credited, and this act laid the ground for a resurgence in the city's population.

Roman rule

In 133 BC, Eumenes III, the last king of the Attalid dynasty of Pergamum, was about to die without an heir. In his will, he bequeathed his kingdom to the Roman Republic, and this included Smyrna. The city thus came under Roman rule as a civil diocese within the Province of Asia and enjoyed a new period of prosperity. Towards the close of the 1st century AD, Smyrna appeared as one of the seven churches of Asia (Revelation 2:9). Apostle John urged his followers to remain Christians:  "Be faithful to the point of death, and I will give you the crown of life" (Revelation 2:10).

Given the importance of the city, Roman emperors who came to Anatolia also visited Smyrna. In early AD 124, Emperor Hadrian visited Smyrna on his journeys across the Empire and possibly Caracalla came in 214–215. Smyrna was a fine city with stone-paved streets.

In AD 178, the city was devastated by an earthquake. Emperor Marcus Aurelius contributed greatly to the rebuilding of the city. During this period the agora was restored. Many of the works of architecture from the city's pre-Turkish period date from this period.

After the Roman Empire was divided into two distinct entities, Smyrna became a territory of the Eastern Roman Empire. The city kept its status as a notable religious center in the early Byzantine period, but never returned to the Roman levels of prosperity.

Medieval period

The Turkic peoples first captured Smyrna under the Seljuk commander Çaka Bey in 1076, along with Klazomenai, Foça and a number of the Aegean Islands. Çaka Bey (known as Tzachas among the Byzantines) used İzmir as a base for his naval operations. In 1097, the Byzantine commander John Doukas recaptured the city and the neighboring region. The port city was then captured by the Knights of St John when Constantinople was conquered by the Crusaders during the Fourth Crusade in 1204, but the Nicaean Empire would reclaim possession of the city soon afterwards, albeit by according vast concessions to their Genoese allies who kept one of the city's castles and the lordship of the towns of Old Phocaea and New Phocaea (now part of the İzmir Province) from 1275 to 1340.

Smyrna was captured again in the 14th century by Umur Bey, the son of the founder of the Beylik of Aydın who first took the upper fort of Mount Pagos (thereafter called Kadifekale), and then the lower port castle of Neon Kastron (called St. Peter by the Genoese and as "Ok Kalesi" by the Turks). As Tzachas had done two centuries before, Umur Bey used the city as a base for naval raids. In 1344, a coalition of forces coordinated by Pope Clement VI took back the lower castle in a surprise attack in the Smyrniote crusades. A sixty-year period of uneasy cohabitation between the two powers, the Beyliks holding the upper castle and the Knights the lower, followed by Umur Bey's death in 1348.

Ottoman rule

The upper city of İzmir was captured from its Aydinid rulers by the Ottomans for the first time in 1389 during the reign of Bayezid I, who led his armies toward the five Western Anatolian Beyliks in the winter of the same year he had come to the throne. In 1402, however, Timur (Tamerlane) won the Battle of Ankara against the Ottomans, putting a serious check on the Ottoman state for the two following decades and handing back the territories of most of the Beyliks to their former ruling dynasties. Timur attacked and destroyed Smyrna and was responsible for the massacre of most of the Christian population, which constituted the vast majority in Smyrna. In 1415, Mehmet I took back İzmir for the Ottomans for the second time. With the death of the last bey of Aydın, İzmiroğlu Cüneyd Bey, in 1426 the city passed fully under Ottoman control. İzmir's first Ottoman governor was Alexander, a converted son of the Bulgarian Shishman dynasty. During the campaigns against Cüneyd, the Ottomans were assisted by the forces of the Knights Hospitaller who pressed the Sultan to return the port castle to them. However, the sultan refused to make this concession, despite the resulting tensions between the two camps, and he gave the Hospitallers permission to build a castle (the present-day Bodrum Castle) in Petronium (Bodrum) instead.

In a landward-looking arrangement somewhat against its nature, the city and its present-day dependencies became an Ottoman sanjak (sub-province) either inside the larger vilayet (province) of Aydın part of the eyalet of Anatolia, with its capital in Kütahya or in "Cezayir" (i.e. "Islands" referring to "the Aegean Islands"). In the 15th century, two notable events for the city were a surprise Venetian raid in 1475 and the arrival of Sephardic Jews from Spain after 1492; they later made İzmir one of their principal urban centers in Ottoman lands. İzmir may have been a rather sparsely populated place in the 15th and 16th centuries, as indicated by the first extant Ottoman records describing the town dating from 1528. In 1530, 304 adult males, both tax-paying and tax-exempt were on record, 42 of them Christians. There were five urban wards, one of these situated in the immediate vicinity of the port, rather active despite the town's small size and where the non-Muslim population was concentrated. By 1576, İzmir had grown to house 492 taxpayers in eight urban wards and had a number of dependent villages. This corresponded to a total population estimated between 3500 and 5000.

International port city
İzmir's remarkable growth began in the late 16th century when cotton and other products of the region brought French, English, Dutch and Venetian traders here. With the privileged trading conditions accorded to foreigners in 1620 (these were the infamous capitulations that were later to cause a serious threat and setback for the Ottoman state in its decline), İzmir began to be one of the foremost trade centers of the Empire. Foreign consulates moved from Chios to the city by the early 17th century (1619 for the French Consulate, 1621 for the British), serving as trade centers for their nations. Each consulate had its own quay, where the ships under their flag would anchor. The long campaign for the conquest of Crete (22 years between 1648 and 1669) also considerably enhanced İzmir's position within the Ottoman realm since the city served as a port of dispatch and supply for the troops.

Despite facing a plague in 1676, an earthquake in 1688, and a great fire in 1743, the city continued to grow. By the end of the 17th century, the population was estimated at around ninety thousand, the Turks forming the majority (about 60,000); there were also 15,000 Greeks, 8,000 Armenians and 6,000 to 7,000 Jews, as well as a considerable section made up of French, English, Dutch and Italian merchants. In the meantime, the Ottomans had allowed İzmir's inner bay dominated by the port castle to silt up progressively (the location of the present-day Kemeraltı bazaar zone) and the port castle ceased to be of use.

In 1770, the Ottoman fleet was destroyed by Russian forces at the Battle of Çeşme, located near the city. This triggered fanatical Muslim groups to proceed to the massacre of c. 1,500 local Greeks. Later, in 1797 a riot resulting from the indiscipline of janissaries corps led to massive destruction of the Frankish merchant community and the killing of 1,500 members of the city's Greek community. In 1818, traveller William Jowett described the distribution of Smyrna (now Izmir)'s population: Turks 60,000, Greeks 40,000, Jews 10,000, Latins 3,000, Armenians 7,000.

The first railway lines to be built within the present-day territory of Turkey went from İzmir. A  İzmir-Aydın railway was started in 1856 and finished in 1867, a year later than the Smyrna-Cassaba Railway, itself started in 1863. In 1865 the population was estimated by the British (Hyde Clarke) at 180,000 with minorities of 80,000 Greeks, 8,000 Armenians and 10,000 Jews.The wide arc of the Smyrna-Cassaba line advancing in a wide arc to the north-west from İzmir, through the Karşıyaka suburb, contributed greatly to the development of the northern shores as urban areas. These new developments, typical of the industrial age and the way the city attracted merchants and middlemen gradually changed the demographic structure of the city, its culture and its Ottoman character. In 1867, İzmir finally became the center of its own vilayet, still called by neighboring Aydın's name but with its own administrative area covering a large part of Turkey's present-day Aegean Region.

In the late 19th century, the port was threatened by a build-up of silt in the gulf and an initiative, unique in the history of the Ottoman Empire, was undertaken in 1886. In order to redirect the silt, the bed of the Gediz River was redirected to its present-day northern course, so that it no longer flowed into the gulf. The beginning of the 20th century saw İzmir take on the look of a global metropolis with a cosmopolitan city center. According to the 1893 Ottoman census, more than half of the population was Turkish, with 133,800 Greeks, 9,200 Armenians, 17,200 Jews, and 54,600 foreign nationals. According to author Katherine Flemming, by 1919, Smyrna's 150,000 Greeks made up just under half of the population, outnumbering the Turks in the city two to one, while the American Consul General, George Horton, records 165,000 Turks, 150,000 Greeks, 25,000 Jews, 25,000 Armenians, and 20,000 foreigners (Italians, French, British, Americans). According to Henry Morgenthau and Trudy Ring, before World War I, the Greeks alone numbered 130,000, out of a total population of 250,000. Moreover, according to various scholars, prior to the war, the city hosted more Greeks than Athens, the capital of Greece.  The Ottoman ruling class of that era referred to the city as Infidel Smyrna (Gavur İzmir) due to its strong Greek presence.

Modern times

Following the defeat of the Ottoman Empire in World War I, the victors had, for a time, intended to carve up large parts of Anatolia into respective zones of influence and offered the western regions of Turkey to Greece under the Treaty of Sèvres. On 15 May 1919, the Greek Army landed in Smyrna, but the Greek expedition towards central Anatolia was disastrous for both that country and for the local Greeks of Anatolia. By September 1922 the Greek army had been defeated and the last Greek soldiers left Smyrna on 8 September 1922.

The Turkish Army retook possession of the city on 9 September 1922, effectively ending the Greco-Turkish War (1919–1922). Four days later, on 13 September 1922, a great fire broke out in the city, lasting until .  The fire completely destroyed the Greek and Armenian quarters, while the Muslim and Jewish quarters escaped damage. Estimated Greek and Armenians deaths resulting from the fire range from 10,000 to 100,000 Approximately 50,000 to 400,000 Greek and Armenian refugees crammed the waterfront to escape from the fire and were forced to remain there under harsh conditions for nearly two weeks. The systematic evacuation of Greeks on the quay started on 24 September when the first Greek ships entered the harbor under the supervision of Allied destroyers. Some 150,000 to 200,000 Greeks were evacuated in total.  The remaining Greeks left for Greece in 1923, as part of the population exchange between Greece and Turkey, a stipulation of the Treaty of Lausanne, which formally ended the Greco-Turkish War.

The war, and especially the events that took place in İzmir, such as the fire, probably the greatest disaster the city has ever experienced, continue to influence the psyches of the two nations to this day. The Turks have claimed that the Greek army landing was marked from the very first day by the "first bullet" fired on Greek detachments by the journalist Hasan Tahsin and the bayonetting to death of Colonel Fethi Bey and his unarmed soldiers in the city's historic barracks (Sarı Kışla — the Yellow Barracks), for refusing to shout "Zito o Venizelos ("Long Live Venizelos"). The Greeks, on the other hand, have cited the numerous atrocities committed by the Turkish soldiers against the Greeks and Armenians (locals or hinterland refugees) in İzmir. These include the lynching of the Orthodox Metropolitan Chrysostomos following the recapture of the city on 9 September 1922 and the slaughter of Armenian and Greek males, who were then sent to the so-called labour battalions.  The city was, once again, gradually rebuilt after the proclamation of the Turkish Republic in 1923.

In 2020, the city was damaged by the Aegean Sea earthquake and tsunami, which was the deadliest seismic event of that year. 117 people died and 1,034 more were injured in Turkey, all but one of whom were from the city of İzmir.

The city of İzmir is composed of several metropolitan districts. Of these, the district of Konak corresponds to historical İzmir, with this district's area having constituted the city's central "İzmir Municipality" () until 1984. With the formation of the "İzmir Metropolitan Municipality" (), the city of İzmir at first grouped together its eleven (initially nine) urban districts – namely Balçova, Bayraklı, Bornova, Buca, Çiğli, Gaziemir, Güzelbahçe, Karabağlar, Karşıyaka, Konak, and Narlıdere – and later consolidated them with an additional nine of the province's districts outside the city proper. In 2013, the passing of Act 6360 established all thirty of İzmir Province's districts as part of İzmir's metropolitan area.

Demographics

The period after the 1960s and the 1970s saw another blow to the fabric of İzmir, when local administrations tended to neglect İzmir's traditional values and landmarks. For many inhabitants, this was as serious as the 1922 fire. Some administrators were not always in tune with the central government in Ankara and regularly fell short of government subsidies, and the city absorbed huge waves of immigration from inland Anatolia, causing a population explosion. Today, it is not surprising that many inhabitants of İzmir (similar to residents of other prominent Turkish cities) look back with nostalgia to a cozier, more manageable city, which came to an end in the last few decades.

The Floor Ownership Law of 1965 (Kat Mülkiyeti Kanunu), allowing and encouraging arrangements between house or land proprietors and building contractors by which each would share the benefits of renting out eight-floor apartment blocks built to replace former single-family houses, proved especially disastrous for the urban landscape.

Modern İzmir is growing in several directions at the same time. The north-western corridor extending to Aliağa brings together both mass housing projects, including villa-type projects and intensive industrial area, including an oil refinery. In the southern corridor towards Gaziemir yet another important growth trend is observed, contributed to by the Aegean Free Zone, light industry, the airport and mass housing projects. The presence of the Tahtalı Dam, built to provide drinking water, and its protected zone did not check urban spread here, which has offshoots in cooperatives outside the metropolitan area as far south as the Ayrancılar–Torbalı axis.

To the east and the north-east, urban development ends near the natural barriers constituted respectively by the Belkahve (Mount Nif) and Sabuncubeli (Mount Yamanlar-Mount Sipylus) passes. But the settlements both above Bornova, inside the metropolitan zone, and around Kemalpaşa and Ulucak, outside the metropolitan zone, see mass housing and secondary residences development.

More recently, the metropolitan area displays growth, especially along the western corridor, encouraged by the Çeşme motorway and extending to districts outside the city of İzmir proper, such as Seferihisar and Urla.
The population of the city is predominantly Muslim, but it was predominantly non-Muslim up to the earlier quarter of the 20th century.

İzmir is also home to Turkey's second largest Jewish community after Istanbul, numbering about 2,500. The community is still concentrated in their traditional quarter of Karataş. Smyrniot Jews like Sabbatai Zevi and Darío Moreno were among famous figures in the city's Jewish community.  Others include the Pallache family with three grand rabbis: Haim, Abraham, and Nissim.

The Catholic Levantines of İzmir, who are mostly of Genoese and to a lesser degree of French and Venetian descent, live mainly in the districts of Bornova and Buca. One of the most prominent present-day figures of the community is Caroline Giraud Koç, wife of the renowned Turkish industrialist Mustafa Koç, whose company, Koç Holding, is one of the largest family-owned industrial conglomerates in the world.

İzmir once had a large Greek and Armenian community, but after the great fire of 1922 and the end of the Greco-Turkish War, many of the Greeks remaining in the city fled, were killed or forced to leave from their land that they inhabited for thousands of years to what is now modern day Greece under the terms of the 1923 population exchange between Greece and Turkey.

Turkey is home to tens of thousands of black citizens descended from the African slave trade in the Ottoman Empire that can be traced back to the 14th century. Known as Afro-Turks, İzmir and the surrounding areas on the Aegean coast is a central hub for this population.

Climate
İzmir has a hot-summer Mediterranean climate (Köppen climate classification: Csa, Trewartha climate classification: Cs), which is characterized by prolonged, hot, dry summers, and mild to cool, rainy winters. İzmir's average yearly precipitation is quite ample, at ; however, the vast majority of the city's rainfall occurs from November through March, and there is usually very little to no rainfall from June through August, with frequent summer droughts. The city received its greatest rainfall, , on September 29, 2006, while the highest wind speed of  was recorded on March 29, 1970.

Maximum temperatures during the winter months are mostly between . Although it is rare, snow can fall in İzmir from December to February, which usually stays for a few hours rather than a whole day or more. The record  of snow depth was recorded on January 31, 1945. Frost does occasionally occur at night almost every winter. During summer, the air temperature can climb as high as  from June to September; however, the high temperatures are usually between .

Etesian winds (Turkish: meltem, Greek: μελτέμι meltemi) of the Aegean Sea occur regularly in the Gulf and city of İzmir.

Main sights

Standing on Mount Yamanlar, the tomb of Tantalus was excavated by Charles Texier in 1835 and is an example of the historic traces in the region prior to the Hellenistic Age, along with those found in nearby Kemalpaşa and Mount Sipylus.

The Agora of Smyrna is well preserved, and is arranged into the Agora Open Air Museum of İzmir, although important parts buried under modern buildings wait to be brought to light. Serious consideration is also being given to uncovering the ancient theatre of Smyrna where St. Polycarp was martyred, buried under an urban zone on the slopes of Kadifekale. It was distinguishable until the 19th century, as evident by the sketches done at the time. At top of the same hill stands an ancient castle, one of İzmir's landmarks.

One of the more pronounced elements of İzmir's harbor is the Clock Tower, a marble tower in the middle of the Konak district, standing  in height. It was designed by Levantine French architect Raymond Charles Père in 1901 to commemorate the 25th anniversary of the ascension of Abdülhamid II to the Ottoman throne in 1876. The tower features four fountains placed around the base in a circular pattern, and the columns are inspired by North African themes.

The Kemeraltı bazaar zone set up by the Ottomans, combined with the Agora, rests near the slopes of Kadifekale. İzmir has had three castles historically – Kadifekale (Pagos), the portuary Ok Kalesi (Neon Kastron, St. Peter), and Sancakkale, which remained vital to İzmir's security for centuries. Sancakkale is situated in the present-day İnciraltı quarter between the Balçova and Narlıdere districts, on the southern shore of the Gulf of İzmir. It is at a key point where the strait allows entry into the innermost tip of the Gulf at its narrowest, and due to shallow waters through a large part of this strait, ships have sailed close to the castle.

There are nine synagogues in İzmir, concentrated either in the traditional Jewish quarter of Karataş or in Havra Sokak (Synagogue street) in Kemeraltı, and they all bear the signature of the 19th century when they were built or re-constructed in depth on the basis of former buildings.

The Atatürk Mask () is a large concrete relief of the head of Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, founder of modern Turkey, located to the south of Kadifekale the historical castle of İzmir.

The İzmir Bird Paradise (İzmir Kuş Cenneti) in Çiğli, a bird sanctuary near Karşıyaka, has 205 recorded species of birds, including 63 species that are resident year-round, 54 species of summer migratory birds, 43 species of winter migratory birds, and 30 transient species. 56 species of birds have bred in the park. The sanctuary, which covers 80 square kilometres, was registered as "the protected area for water birds and for their breeding" by the Turkish Ministry of Forestry in 1982. A large open-air zoo was established in the same district of Çiğli in 2008 under the name Sasalı Park of Natural Life.

Culture

İzmir International Fair

İzmir prides itself with its busy schedule of trade fairs, exhibitions and congresses. The fair and the festival are held in the compound of İzmir's vast inner city park named Kültürpark in the first days of September, and organized by İZFAŞ, a depending company of İzmir Metropolitan Municipality.

Festivals

The annual International İzmir Festival, which begins in mid-June and continues until mid-July, has been organized every year since 1987. During the festival, many world-class performers such as soloists and virtuosi, orchestras, dance companies, rock and jazz groups have given recitals and performances at various venues in the city and its surrounding areas; including the ancient theatres at Ephesus (near Selçuk) and Metropolis (an ancient Ionian city situated near the town of Torbalı.) The festival is a member of the European Festivals Association since 2003.

The İzmir European Jazz Festival is among the numerous events organized every year by the İKSEV (İzmir Foundation for Culture, Arts and Education) since 1994. The festival aims to bring together masters and lovers of jazz with the aim to generate feelings of love, friendship and peace.

The International İzmir Short Film Festival is organized since 1999 and is a member of the European Coordination of Film Festivals.

İzmir Metropolitan Municipality has built the Ahmet Adnan Saygun Art Center on a 21,000 m2 land plot in the Güzelyalı district, in order to contribute to the city's culture and art life. The acoustics of the center have been prepared by ARUP which is a noted company in this field.

Music
In 2015 the Barış Youth Symphony Orchestra was founded, incorporating children with limited opportunities in low-income regions of the city, with the purpose to keep them away from crime on the street. The orchestra, grown up to nearly one hundred members, gives concerts accompanied by notable classic music artists.

Cuisine
İzmir's cuisine has largely been affected by its multicultural history, hence the large variety of food originating from the Aegean and Mediterranean regions. Population movement from Eastern and South East Anatolia regions has enriched the local cuisine. Another factor is the large and fertile area of land surrounding the region which grows a rich selection of vegetables. There is considerable culinary usage of green leaf vegetables and wild plants amongst the residents, especially those with insular heritage, such as the immigrants from Crete. Some of the common dishes found here are the tarhana soup (made from dried yoghurt and tomatoes), "İzmir" köfte, sulu köfte, keşkek (boiled wheat with meat), zerde (sweetened rice with saffron) and mücver (made from zucchine and eggs). A Sephardic contribution to the Turkish cuisine, boyoz and lokma are pastries associated with İzmir. Kumru is a special kind of sandwich that is associated particularly with the Çeşme district and features cheese and tomato in its basics, with sucuk also added sometimes.

Economy

The port of Izmir is Turkey's main port for exports in terms of the freight handled and its free zone is the leader among the twenty in Turkey.

Trade through the city's port had a determinant importance for the economy of the Ottoman Empire at the beginning of the 19th century and the economic foundations of the early decades of Turkey's Republican era were also laid here during the İzmir Economic Congress.

At present, İzmir area's economy is divided in value between various types of activities, as follows: 30.5% for industry, 22.9% for trade and related services, 13.5% for transportation and communication and 7.8% for agriculture. In 2008, İzmir provided 10.5% of all tax revenues collected by Turkey and its exports corresponded to 6% and its imports to 4% of Turkey's foreign trade.

The province as a whole is Turkey's third largest exporter after Istanbul and Bursa, and the fifth largest importer. 85–90% of the region's exports and approximately one fifth of all Turkish exports are made through the Port of Alsancak with an annual container loading capacity of close to a million.

Sports

Several important international sports events have been held in İzmir:
 26–28 April 2013 – 2012–13 FIBA EuroChallenge Final Four,
 18–19 June 2011 – 2011 European Team Championships First League,
 28 August – 2 September 2010 –  Group D of the 2010 FIBA World Championship,
 3–13 September 2009 – Groups A, C, E, Semifinals & Final of the 2009 Men's European Volleyball Championship,
 7–11 May 2008 – The 7th WTF World Junior Taekwondo Championship,
 4–9 July 2006 – The 2006 European Seniors Fencing Championship,
 14–23 July 2006 – The U20 European Basketball Championship for Men,
 7–22 August 2005 – The 2005 Summer Universiade, the International University Sports Games,
 2–7 September 2005 – Preliminary games of the 2005 European Women's Basketball Championship,
 6–17 October 1971 – The 1971 Mediterranean Games.

The 51,295 capacity (all-seater) İzmir Atatürk Stadium regularly hosts, apart from Turkish Super League games of İzmir-based teams, many other Super League and Turkish Cup derby matches.

The three big football clubs in İzmir are Altay (42 seasons in Süper Lig), Göztepe (30 seasons in Süper Lig), and Karşıyaka (16 seasons in Süper Lig). Other notable football clubs include: Altınordu, Menemenspor, Ci Group Buca, Bucaspor, and İzmirspor. Bucaspor were relegated from the top tier, Turkish Super League, at the end of the 2010–11 season.

Göztepe made sports history in Turkey by having played the semi-finals of the Inter-Cities Fairs Cup (which later became the UEFA Cup) in the 1968–69 season, and the quarter-finals of the UEFA Cup Winners' Cup in the 1969–70 season; becoming the first ever Turkish football club to play a semi-final game in Europe and the only one for two decades, until Galatasaray reached the semi-finals of the 1988–89 European Cup.

Göztepe and Altay have won the Turkish Cup twice for İzmir and all of İzmir's teams have periodically jumped in and out of Süper Lig. Historically, İzmir is also the birthplace of two Greek sports clubs, namely the multi-sport club Panionios and association football club Apollon Smyrni F.C. which were founded in the city and moved to Athens after 1922.

Karşıyaka's basketball department Karşıyaka Basket won the Turkish Basketball League twice (in the 1986–87 and 2014–15 seasons), the Turkish Cup once (in the 2013–14 season) and the Presidential Cup twice (in 1987 and 2014). The team plays its games at the Karşıyaka Arena. The 10,000 capacity (all-seater) Halkapınar Sports Hall is currently İzmir's largest indoor sports arena and was among the venues of the 2010 FIBA World Championship in Turkey.

Arkas Spor is a successful volleyball club in the city, having won the Turkish Men's Volleyball League and the Turkish Cup several times, and the CEV Challenge Cup in the 2008–09 season. İzmir Atatürk Volleyball Hall regularly hosts the games of the city's volleyball teams.

The city boasts of several sports legends, past and present. Already at the dawn of its history, notable natives such as the son of its first port's founder Pelops had attained fame and kingdom with a chariot race and Onomastus is one of history's first recorded sportspeople, having won the boxing contest in the Olympiad of 688 BC.

Born in İzmir, and nicknamed Taçsız Kral (The Uncrowned King), 1960s football star Metin Oktay is a legend in Turkey. Oktay became the first notable Turkish footballer to play abroad, with Palermo in Italy's Serie A, during the 1961–1962 season. Two other notable football figures from İzmir are Alpay Özalan and Mustafa Denizli, the first having played for Aston Villa F.C. between 2000 and 2003 and the second, after a long playing career as the captain of İzmir's Altay S.K., still pursues a successful career as a coach, being the only manager in Turkish Super League history to win a championship title with each of Istanbul's "Big Three" clubs (Galatasaray, Fenerbahçe S.K., and Beşiktaş J.K.) and having guided the Turkish national football team to the UEFA Euro 2000 Quarter-Finals.

İzmir Metropolitan Municipality (İBB) Sports Club's ice hockey team began playing in the Turkish Ice Hockey Super League during the 2011–2012 season

Politics

The current Mayor of the İzmir Metropolitan Municipality is Tunç Soyer from the Republican People's Party (CHP), in office since 2019.  His predecessor, the previous mayor Aziz Kocaoğlu (CHP) was first elected in 2004, and he was re-elected in both 2009 and 2014.

İzmir has traditionally been a stronghold for the CHP, the centre-left Kemalist political party which forms the main opposition in the Grand National Assembly of Turkey. Being the third largest city in Turkey, İzmir is viewed as the CHP's most prized electoral stronghold, since the party has a more limited support base in both Istanbul and Ankara. Since the right-wing Justice and Development Party (AKP) gained power in 2002, the electorate of İzmir has been notable for voting strongly in favour of the CHP in every general and local election. In the 2007 and 2010 and 2017 referendums, the İzmir electorate strongly rejected the AKP government's constitutional reform proposals. Almost all of the city's districts have returned strong pluralities or majorities for the CHP in past elections, although the party lost ground in the 2014 local elections.

Due to the economic and historical importance of the city, İzmir has long been a strategic electoral target for the AKP, since beating the CHP in their most significant stronghold would be politically substantial. The majority of the citizens in İzmir have continued to vote for the centre-left political parties (in particular the CHP), despite large-scale pledges by the AKP promising investment and new infrastructure. For general elections, İzmir returns 28 members of parliament to the Grand National Assembly of Turkey. The province is split into two electoral districts which roughly divide the city into a northern and southern district, each electing 14 MPs. Anti-government protests in 2013 and 2014 against the AKP were particularly strong in İzmir.

During the 2014 presidential election, 58.64% of the city's electorate voted for the CHP candidate Ekmeleddin İhsanoğlu. In contrast, the AKP candidate Recep Tayyip Erdoğan received 33.38% of the vote. The pro-Kurdish candidate Selahattin Demirtaş received 7.98%.

Media
Izmir has its own local media companies: there are 9 TV channels headquartered in İzmir and broadcasting in the Aegean Region, 26 local radio stations and 15 local newspapers. TRT Belgesel (TRT Documentary) is a Turkish national TV channel broadcasting from the TRT building in Izmir.

TV channels broadcasting in Izmir

▪Ege TV |Local TV ▪Kanal 35 |Local TV ▪Sky TV | Local TV ▪Kordon TV | Local TV ▪FRM TV | Online TV ▪Ege Üniversitesi TV |Local TV ▪Ben TV | Online TV Ben TV - Ege ve İzmir Haberleri, Güncel Haberler▪Yenigün TV | Online TV ▪TRT Belgesel | National TV

Local radio stations

▪Radyo İzmir ▪Romantik Radyo ▪Romantik Türk ▪Radyo 35 ▪Kordon FM ▪İmbat FM ▪Radyo Kordelya ▪Radyo Efe ▪Oynak FM ▪Duygusal FM ▪Sky Radyo ▪Radyo Pause ▪Radyo Ege ▪Ege FM ▪Ege'nin Sesi Radyosu ▪Herkül FM ▪Can Radyo ▪Batı Radyo ▪Radyo Gökkuşağı ▪Yıldız FM ▪Buca FM ▪Radyo Ege Kampüs 100.8 ▪Rock City FM ▪öRT FM ▪Y.Tire FM ▪DEÜ FM

Newspapers and magazines

▪Ege Telgraf ▪Ekonomik Çözüm ▪Gözlem ▪Haber Ekspres ▪Ticaret ▪ Gazete Yenigün  ▪Yeni Asır ▪Yeni Ekonomi ▪Yenigün Gazetesi ▪9 Eylül Gazetesi ▪Küçük Menderes Gazetesi ▪Büyük Tire ▪Ege Gazetesi Tüm adresleri tek adreste

Izmir in notable literary and artistic works

 The play L'impresario delle Smirne by Carlo Goldoni (1759).
 The poem "The Turkish Captive" in the poetry volume Les Orientales by Victor Hugo (1828).
 The solo piano piece "In Smyrna" by Edward Elgar (1905).
 The novel Mask of Dimitrios, Eric Ambler (1939)
 The film You Can't Win 'Em All, directed by Leo Gordon and starring Tony Curtis and Charles Bronson (1970).
 The travel book Scotch and Holy Water, John D. Tumpane (1981)
 The novel Farewell Anatolia, Dido Sotiriou (1962)
 The novel İzmir, E. Howard Hunt (2006)
 The novel Middlesex, Jeffrey Eugenides (2002)
 The novel/TV series The Witches of Smyrna by Mara Meimaridi (2004).
 The novel Birds Without Wings, Louis de Bernières (2005)

Health

Air pollution in Turkey is a problem in the city, in part due to vehicle exhaust: a 2020 study of coal-fired residential heating estimated the cost of replacing it versus the reduction in illness and premature death. There are 21 public hospitals in Izmir. The healthcare system in Turkey consists of a mix of public and private hospitals. Turkey also has a universal health care insurance system (SGK) which provides medical treatment free of charge in public hospitals to residents registered with a Turkish identity card number. One of the largest hospitals in the Aegean Region is currently under construction in the Bayraklı district of İzmir, with a reported cost of 780 million Euros.

Education
There are a total of nine active universities in and near İzmir. The city is also home to well-rooted higher-education establishments that are renowned across Turkey, such as the İzmir Anatolian Vocational High School of Commerce (İzmir Anadolu Ticaret Lisesi) established in 1854, and the American Collegiate Institute (ACI) which was established in 1878.

Historically, during the late 19th and early 20th centuries, the city was an educational center of the Greek world, with a total of 67 male and 4 female schools. The most important Greek educational institution was the Evangelical School which operated from 1733 to 1922.

İzmir is also home to the third U.S. Space Camp in the world, Space Camp Turkey.

Universities established in İzmir

 Ionian University, the first university of the city, established in 1920. It was organized by the Greek mathematician and close friend of Albert Einstein, Constantin Carathéodory, on the instructions of the Greek government. However, it never operated due to the developments of the Greco-Turkish War.
 Ege University – Founded in 1955.
 Dokuz Eylül University – Founded in 1982.
 İzmir University of Economics – Founded as a private sector initiative in 2002 by the İzmir Chamber of Commerce, İzmir University of Economics is a specialized university with a campus in the metropolitan district of Balçova.
 Yaşar University – Founded in 2001 by Yaşar Holding, the School of Foreign Languages is located in the central Alsancak neighborhood, while the main Selcuk Yasar campus is located in Bornova.
 University of İzmir – Founded in 2007, closed in 2016. Former campus now used by İzmir Democracy University.
 İzmir Kâtip Çelebi University – Founded in 2010.
 Şifa University – Founded in 2010, closed in 2016. Former campuses now used by AK Party and Ministry of Health (Turkey).
 İzmir Democracy University – Founded in 2016.
 İzmir Tınaztepe University – Founded in 2018.

Universities established near İzmir

 İzmir Institute of Technology – Founded in 1992, İzmir Institute of Technology is the city's first institute of technology, while the campus, is located in the nearby district of Urla.
 University of Gediz  – Founded in 2009, it was located in the nearby district of Menemen. The university had another campus in Çankaya district. There was a medical campus project in Çiğli district. It was closed in 2016. Former campus now used by İzmir Bakırçay University.
 İzmir Bakırçay University – Founded in 2016.

International schools in İzmir
 Deutsche Schule Izmir (German school)
 Scuola Primaria e dell'Infanzia Italiana di Smirne (Italian school)

Transport

İzmir is served by domestic and international flights through the Adnan Menderes International Airport and by modern rapid transit systems serving the entirety of İzmir's metropolitan area. The city has attracted investors through its strategic location and its relatively new and highly developed technological infrastructure in transportation, telecommunications, and energy.

Inter-city transport

Air
The Adnan Menderes International Airport (ADB) is well served with connections to Turkish and international destinations. It is located in the Gaziemir district of İzmir.

Bus
A large bus terminal, the Otogar in the Pınarbaşı neighborhood of the city, has intercity buses to destinations across Turkey. Bus companies' shuttle services pick up customers from each of their branch offices scattered across the city at regular intervals, often free of charge. To facilitate easier access, a Halkapınar—Otogar metro line has long been deliberated but construction has never begun – though throughout his campaign and upon his election as mayor of İzmir in 2019, Tunç Soyer has outlined it as one of his priorities.

Rail

İzmir has two historical rail terminals in the city center. Alsancak Terminal, built in 1858, and Basmane Terminal, built in 1866, are the two main railway stations of the city. The Turkish State Railways operates regional service to Ödemiş, Tire, Selçuk, Aydın, Söke, Nazilli, Denizli and Uşak, as well as longer-distance intercity service to Ankara, Afyon and Bandırma (and from there to Istanbul via İDO connection).

Inner-city transport
Coordinated public transportation was introduced to İzmir in 1999. A body known as UKOME gives strategic direction to the Metro, the ESHOT bus division, ferry operations, utilities and road developments. İzmir has an electronic, integrated pre-pay ticket known as the İzmirim Kart ('My Izmir' Card). The card is valid on all metro and commuter rail lines, buses, ferries, trams, and in certain other municipal facilities.  The İzmirim Kart allows for the use of multiple forms of transport within a 120-minute window, combining for a single fare price.

Bus
All of İzmir's major districts are serviced by a dense, comprehensive municipal bus network under the name ESHOT. The acronym stands for "E elektrik (electricity); S su (water); H havagazı (gas); O otobüs (bus) and T troleybüs (trolleybus)." Electricity, water and gas are now supplied by separate undertakings, and İzmir's trolleybus system ceased to operate in 1992. However, the bus operations, the O of the acronym ESHOT, has retained the original name. ESHOT operates 322 lines with about 1,500 buses and a staff of 2,700. It has five garages at Çakalburnu, Çiğli, Adatepe, Aktepe, and Mersinli. A privately owned company, İzulaş, operates 400 buses from two garages, running services under contract for ESHOT. These scheduled services are supplemented by the privately owned minibus or  services.

Urban ferries

Taken over by İzmir Metropolitan Municipality since 2000 and operated within the structure of their private subsidiary company (İzdeniz), İzmir's urban ferry services for passengers and vehicles are very much a part of the life of the city's inhabitants. 24 ferries shuttle between 9 quays (clockwise: Bostanlı, Karşıyaka, Bayraklı, Alsancak, Pasaport, Konak, Karantina, Göztepe and Üçkuyular.) Special lines to points further out in the gulf are also put in service during summer, transporting excursion or holiday makers. These services are cheap and it is not unusual to see natives or visitors taking a ferry ride simply as a pastime.

Metro

İzmir has a metro network that is constantly being extended with new stations being put in service. The "İzmir Metro" network, currently consisting of one main line, starts from the Fahrettin Altay station in Balçova in the western portion of the metropolitan area and runs northeast through the city to Bornova. The line is  long.

Regional rail

İZBAN, formerly known as Egeray, is a commuter rail system connecting metropolitan and suburban area of İzmir. It is the busiest commuter railway in Turkey, serving about 150,000 passengers daily. İZBAN is a portmanteau of the words "İzmir" and "Banliyö".

Established in 2006, İZBAN was formed to revive commuter rail in İzmir. İZBAN began operations in 2010 and currently operates a  long system with 40 stations, consisting of two lines: the Southern Line and the Northern Line.

İZBAN A.Ş. operates the railway and is owned 50% by the Turkish State Railways and 50% by the İzmir Metropolitan Municipality.

Tram

İzmir's latest tram system is owned by the metropolitan municipality and operated by İzmir Metro A.Ş. in two independent lines – one in Karşıyaka, opened in 2017, and the other in Konak, opened in 2018.

Public transportation statistics
The average amount of time people spend commuting with public transit in İzmir, for example to and from work on a weekday is 62 minutes, and 13% of public transit riders ride for more than 2 hours every day. The average amount of time people wait at a stop or station for public transit is 15 minutes, while 27% of riders wait for over 20 minutes on average every day. The average distance people usually ride in a single trip with public transit is 10.4 km, while 22% travel for over 12 km in a single direction.

Notable people

Twin towns and sister cities
The following is a list of İzmir's sister cities:

Europe
 Aarhus, Denmark, since 1991
 Ancona, Italy, (Cooperation Agreement) since 2005
 Bălți, Moldova, since 1996
 Bremen, Germany, since 1993
 Constanța, Romania, since 1995
 Famagusta, Cyprus / Northern Cyprus
 Kardzhali, Bulgaria, since 2008
 Mostar, Bosnia and Herzegovina, since 1996
 North Nicosia, Cyprus / Northern Cyprus, since 2019
 Plzeň, Czech Republic, since 1987
 Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina, since 2022
 Split, Croatia, since 1996
 Turin, Italy, (Goodwill Agreement) since 2012
 Volgograd, Russia, since 2006

Asia
 Baku, Azerbaijan, since 1985
 Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan, since 1991
 Mumbai, India, since 1997
 Shymkent, Kazakhstan (Cooperation Agreement) since 2004
 Bukhara, Uzbekistan (Cooperation Agreement) since 1992
 Tel Aviv, Israel, since 1996
 Tianjin, China, since 1990
 Türkmenabat, Turkmenistan, since 1994
 Wuhan, Hubei, China, since 2013
 Xiamen, Fujian, China, since 2018

Africa
 Sousse, Tunisia, since 2006
 Cape Town, South Africa, (Cooperation Agreement) since 2014

Americas
 Havana, Cuba, since 1996
 Tampa, Florida, United States, since 1990
 Long Beach, California, United States, since 2004
 São Paulo, Brazil, since 2007

See also

 Pasaport Terminal
 IAOIZ
 List of people from Izmir
 List of museums in Izmir
 List of parks in İzmir
 List of hospitals in Izmir Province
 List of mayors of İzmir
 List of Ottoman mosques in Izmir
 Yeni Kavaflar Market

İzmir Metropolitian Municipality mayors
 1984-1989 Burhan Özfatura ANAP
 1989-1991 Yüksel Çakmur SHP
 1991-1994 Yüksel Çakmur DSP
 1994-1999 Burhan Özfatura DYP
 1999-2002 Ahmet Piriştina DSP
 2002-2004 Ahmet Piriştina CHP
 2004-2019 Aziz Kocaoğlu CHP
 2019-since Tunç Soyer CHP

Notes

References

Further reading
 Atay, Çinar. "Once upon a Time, İzmir", Skyline (Istanbul), no. 172 (Nov. 1997), pp. 62–64, 66, 68, [70], 72. N.B.: Amply ill. with reproductions of 19th-century black and white photos.

 Philip Mansel, Levant: Splendour and Catastrophe on the Mediterranean, London, John Murray, 11 November 2010, hardback, 480 pages, , New Haven, Yale University Press, 24 May 2011, hardback, 470 pages,
Ilias Chrissochoidis,  "The Burning of Smyrna: H. C. Jaquith's Report to Admiral Bristol," American Journal of Contemporary Hellenic Issues 14 (Summer 2023).

External links

 İzmir City Portal
 Visit İzmir

Populated coastal places in Turkey
Roman sites in Turkey
New Testament cities
Aegean Sea port cities and towns in Turkey
World Heritage Tentative List for Turkey

İzmir


ضغط الفيديو  هي عملية يشار بها عادةً إلى تحويل فيلم على قرص دي في دي من صيغته على القرص البصرى دي في دي إلى ملف فيديو ذو تنسيق يقرأ على جهاز الحاسوب. والغاية من نقل الفيلم من القرص البصرى إلى الحاسوب أن يتم التعامل معه بحرية؛ مثل تحرير الفيلم، أو تغيير صفاته وحجمه، كي يمكن تشغيله على أجهزة متعددة مثل الهاتف المحمول، أو أجهزة الوسائط المتعددة المحمولة، أو حتى بهدف الأرشفة، أو ليمكن تشغيله بدون الحاجة للقرص البصري كما مع ملفات إم بي ثري وغيرها.

غالبًا مايكون الفيلم ذو حجم اقل من الحجم على القرص نتيجة الضغط.وتكون جودة الفيلم بهذه الصيغة عالية وممتازة وبحجم مقبول نسبيًا مقارنة بطرق النقل الأخرى. ويعود تقليص حجم الفيلم إلى خوارزمية تجاهل الإطارات الساكنة حيث يتم حذف الكادرات الساكنة أو أجزاء الكدرات الساكنة في الفيلم كالخلفية الثابتة مثلًا. وتسجيل البيانات المتحركة في المشهد فقط كحركة الاشخاص؛ مما يقلل حجمها، لكن لا تصبح الصورة بسلاسة ونعومة الحركة كالفيلم الاصلي. وغالبًا مايتراوح حجم الملف المضغوط لمتوسط زمن الأفلام السينمائية العادية من 650 إلى 800 ميجابايت.

برامج يمكن ضغط الفيديو بها
 DVD Decrypter.
 أوتو جيه كيه.
 AnyDVD برنامج مجاني على الإنترنت لفك التشفير.
 CloneDVD وهو برنامج لنسخ أقراص الديفيدي المحمية.
 DVDFab.
 DVD Shrink.
 هاندبريك.
 K9Copy.
 مينكودر.

مراجع

وصلات خارجية
 Etymology of ripping
 LAME Open source encoder

ضغط فيديو
برمجيات تحويل الفيديو
تخزين الصوت
تخزين الصوتيات
تخزين الفيديو
حقوق التأليف والنشر
دي في دي

ضغط فيديو


Peter Waldron Yates (August 23, 1747 – 1826) was a lawyer and statesman from Albany, New York. He was a delegate to the Continental Congress in 1786.

Yates was the son of John G. and Rebecca Waldron Yates. His father was a blacksmith in Albany, but also owned a farm in Rensselaerswyck (in what is today the town of Bethlehem). Despite his background as one child in a large working-class family, Peter acquired an education, and read for the law. In 1767 he was admitted to the bar and married Ann Margarita Helms of New York City.

In 1768 Yates opened a law practice in Albany. His practice was very successful for over thirty years, even though interrupted by the Revolutionary War. In its later years he trained a number of young men in the law. His political career began in 1772 when he was elected to the Albany city council. He would be reelected annually for several years until the last council meeting under the colonial government in March 1776.

American Revolutionary War
The revolution was a difficult time for Yates. He had been elected to the Committee of Correspondence for Albany in 1775 but resigned after only two months. He wrote an essay that expressed doubts over the direction of the revolution. When asked to rejoin the revolutionary committee, he declined and was never again entirely trusted by the rebels. He had close connections with the colonial establishment and ties to the landed interests. He took several steps to counter this. He left the Anglican Church and joined the Dutch Reformed Church in Albany. On June 28, 1775 he was appointed lieutenant colonel of the 2nd New York Regiment. He was a colonel of the Albany County militia from 1779 to 1780, and saw action around Lake Champlain. He continued to expand his law practice throughout the revolution.

After War Years
When the active fighting in the revolution ended, Yates again entered politics. A long-time Freemason, he became an officer in the Albany lodge and was the Senior Grand Warden of the Grand Lodge of New York in 1784-1788.  In 1784 he ran for the state assembly. He represented Albany there in 1784 and 1785. In 1786 they sent him to New York City as a delegate in the Continental Congress. This would be his last major office. During the debate over ratification of the United States Constitution, Yates was an active Anti-Federalist.

When removed from politics, his practice and investments thrived, and he became one of the most prosperous men in Albany. In 1794 his wife died, and in 1798 he remarried, this time to Mary Terbush (Ter Boss). He would have three more children with Mary, bringing his large family up to eleven children. He built a mansion on the south side of town, and only the Philip Schuyler house was more impressive.

In 1808 he was made a state judge for the western district of New York. In 1810 he moved to Montgomery County, New York, living on another property that he owned. He died there in Caughnawaga (now Fonda, New York) on March 9, 1826.

References

External links
Yates's Congressional Biography
New York State Museum biography page

1747 births
1826 deaths
Continental Congressmen from New York (state)
18th-century American politicians
New York (state) lawyers
Continental Army officers from New York (state)
New York (state) militiamen in the American Revolution
Politicians from Albany, New York
Lawyers from Albany, New York
19th-century American lawyers

Peter W. Yates


Mythimna separata es una polilla de la familia Noctuidae. Se encuentra en China, Japón, Taiwán, Sureste de Asia, India, este de Australia, Nueva Zelanda , y algunas Islas del Pacífico. Es una de las peores plagas del maíz en Asia

La envergadura es de 35 a 50 mm. La polilla vuela entre enero y abril dependiendo de la ubicación.

Las larvas se alimentan de una amplia gama de plantas agrícolas, como Zea mays, Sorghum bicolor y Oryza sativa y por lo tanto es considerada como una plaga de estos cultivos. Pasan por cinco estadios. Las pupas son amarillentas y brillantes.

Es una especie migratoria. Una forma de combatir esta plaga es identificar en que parte del ciclo migratorio se encuentra.

Referencias

Enlaces externos

separata
Migración de los insectos

Mythimna separata


Salix lutea es una especie de sauce perteneciente a la familia de las salicáceas. Es nativa de Norteamérica, incluido el centro de Canadá y  parte del oeste y centro de los Estados Unidos, con la excepción de la Gran Cuenca. Se puede encontrar en los tipos de hábitats húmedos y muy húmedos, como orillas de los ríos, prados y barrancos.

Descripción
Es un arbusto que alcanza un tamaño de hasta 7 metros de altura, a veces formando colonias de matorrales  o llega a estar erecto y forma un árbol. Las hojas en forma de lanza pueden crecer más de 11 centímetros de largo y son suaves suaves, ligeramente dentadas, onduladas, o con glándulas repletas de aristas. La inflorescencia es una amento de hasta 4 o 5 centímetros de largo, de grueso a fino en la forma.

Usos
Esta y otras especies de sauce se utilizan en la reforestación en los proyectos de ribera del hábitat donde la erosión es un problema.  Esta especie se reproduce vegetativamente por brotes de trozos del pedúnculo, pero su principal método de reproducción es sexual, por la dispersión de una gran cantidad de semillas por el viento.

Taxonomía
Salix lutea fue descrita por Thomas Nuttall y publicado en The North American Sylva 1(2): 63, pl. 19, en el año 1842.
Etimología
Salix: nombre genérico latino para el sauce, sus ramas y madera.

lutea: epíteto latino que significa "dorada".
Sinonimia
Salix cordata var. lutea (Nutt.) Bebb
Salix cordata var. platyphylla (C.R.Ball) Kelso
Salix cordata var. watsonii Bebb
Salix flava Rydb.
Salix eriocephala var. watsonii (Bebb) Dorn
Salix lutea var. platyphylla C.R. Ball
Salix lutea var. watsonii (Bebb) Jeps.
Salix ormsbyensis Seemen
Salix rigida var. watsonii (Bebb) Cronquist
Salix rigida subsp. watsonii (Bebb) A.E.Murray
Salix watsonii (Bebb) Rydb.

Referencias

Enlaces externos

 Jepson Manual Treatment
 USDA Plants Profile
 Flora of North America
 Photo gallery

lutea
Flora de América del Norte
Plantas descritas en 1842
Plantas descritas por Nuttall

Salix lutea


Haven je peti studijski album Dark Tranquillityja, švedskog sastava melodičnog death metala. Objavljen je 17. srpnja 2000. Prvo je izdanje na kojem se pojavljuju glazbenici Michael Nicklasson i Martin Brändström te prvi uradak na kojem je Martin Henriksson svirao bas-gitaru.

Glazbeni stil
Haven sadrži elemente elektroničke glazbe i uglađeniju produkciju. Kao što je bio slučaj na prethodnom albumu Projector, Mikael Stanne pjeva čistim glasom i služi se death growlom.

Popis pjesama

Osoblje

Dark Tranquillity

 Mikael Stanne – vokal
 Anders Jivarp – bubnjevi
 Niklas Sundin – gitara, omot albuma, dizajn
 Martin Henriksson – gitara
 Michael Nicklasson – bas-gitara
 Martin Brändström – elektronika

Ostalo osoblje
 Fredrik Nordström – produkcija, inženjer zvuka
 Göran Finnberg – mastering
 Ulf Horbelt – re-mastering
 Anders Fridén – inženjer zvuka
 Lindor Tidäng – slike
 Kerstin Rössler – slike
 Christer Lundberg – kreativna pomoć

Izvori

Albumi sastava Dark Tranquillity
Albumi iz 2000.

Haven (album)


An Aechmea esseri in uska species han Liliopsida nga ginhulagway ni Gross ngan Werner Rauh. An Aechmea esseri in nahilalakip ha genus nga Aechmea, ngan familia nga Bromeliaceae.

Mabibilngan ini ha Paraguay. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Aechmea

Aechmea esseri


Ivan Pilip, né le  à Prague, est un économiste et homme politique tchèque.

Biographie

Situation personnelle

Parcours politique

Notes et références

Voir aussi

Articles connexes
 Gouvernement Tošovský
 Gouvernement Klaus II
 Gouvernement Klaus I

Naissance en août 1963
Naissance à Prague
Ministre tchèque des Finances
Personnalité politique tchèque
Ministre tchèque de l'Éducation
Naissance en Tchécoslovaquie

Ivan Pilip


Bruty este o comună slovacă, aflată în districtul Nové Zámky din regiunea Nitra. Localitatea se află la , se întinde pe o suprafață de  și în 2017 număra 599 de locuitori.

Istoric
Localitatea Bruty este atestată documentar din 1223.

Note

Legături externe

Localități din Slovacia

Bruty


Bjelice је bilо jedno od najbrojnijih crnogorskih plemena koje se razvilo uz još osam plemena u Katunskoj nahiji. To su bila plemena: Cetinjsko, Njeguši, Ćeklići, Cuce, Ozrinići (Čevo), Pješivci, Zagarač i Komani. Danas je "Bjelice" i geografska odrednica i odgovara teritoriju nekadašnjeg plemena.

Bjelice se kao teritorij prvi put spominje 1430. godine, o čemu piše češki povjesničar Konstantin Jireček ("de zente Bielice"). Godine 1431. se spominju i u kotorskim zapisima. U turskom defteru iz 1521. godine se o njima piše kao o selu od 80 kuća i četiri zaseoka: Lješev Stup (Lješev Stub), Prediš, Rešna (Resna) i Staković. Prema narodnom predanju, Velje Cuce, Bajice, Bjelice i još neka plemena vode porijeklo od kosovskih junaka Orlovića, tj. od braće Pavla Orlovića, koji su se, bježeći od Turaka poslije Kosovske bitke prvo naselili u Gacku i okolnim mjestima (Čarađe, Bjeletaci), a docnije prešli u Banjane, i konačno na prostore Stare Crne Gore - Cuca, Bjelica, Bajica i još nekih bratstava i plemena.

Prostor na kome je živjelo pleme Bjelice nalazi se na 20-50 km sjeverozapadno od Cetinja. Ovaj prostor je u prosjeku velike nadmorske visine (800-900 m) i sa svih strana je okružen visokim planinama - Čelinac (1300 m), Štavor (Stavor) (1200 m) i Čevski lisac (1100 m).

Pleme Bjelice dijelilo se na Donje i Gornje Bjelice. Kao i sva veća crnogorska plemena, i ovo se sastojalo iz mnogobrojnih bratstava i rodova. Najpoznatije i najstarije bratstvo su Milići, a među starijima su i Abramovići, Andrići, Pejovići, Jovanovići, Kuzmani, Lončarevići, Bekteševići, Popivode, Tomići, Vukčevići, Vušurovići, Mikulići i Crvenice. Broj bratstava i rodova je znatno veći.

Prezime "Bjelica" nose osobe koje vode porijeklo iz plemena Bjelica. Veliki broj iseljenika je uzimao "Bjelica" za svoje prezime i otud je to prezime prisutno u Srbiji, Crnoj Gori i Bosni i Hercegovini, i u manjem dijelu u Hrvatskoj.

Bjelice


Río Cerrillos es un río en Ponce, Puerto Rico.

Véase también
 Geografía de Puerto Rico

Referencias

Enlaces externos
Mapa de localización

Ríos de Puerto Rico
Ríos de Ponce, Puerto Rico

Río Cerrillos


Monica and Friends (Portuguese: Turma da Mônica), previously published as Monica's Gang in Anglophone territories, is a Brazilian comic book series and media franchise created by Mauricio de Sousa.

The series originated in a newspaper comic strip, in which the protagonists were Blu (Bidu) and Franklin (Franjinha), launched by the newspaper Folha da Manhã in 1959. As the series continued, the central characters became Jimmy Five (Cebolinha) and Monica (Mônica), both of whom began to appear in eponymous series in addition to the renamed Monica's Gang (Turma da Mônica). The English title of the series was later changed to Monica and Friends. The characters and comics were subsequently adapted into, among other media, an animated television series; as well as films, most of which are anthologies.

The stories revolve around the adventures of Monica and her friends in the fictional Lemon Tree Street (Rua do Limoeiro), inspired by the neighborhood of Cambuí in Campinas and the city of Mogi das Cruzes, where de Sousa spent his childhood. The Monica and Friends umbrella title also encompasses Chuck Billy 'n' Folks, Tina's Pals, Lionel's Kingdom and Bug-a-Booo, among other series.

Monica and Friends was previously published by Abril and Globo and has been published by Panini Comics since 2007. In 2008, a spin-off series, Monica Teen, was created in a manga style and features the characters as teenagers.

Publication history
Maurício de Sousa, then-reporter for Folha da Manhã, in 1959, decided to enter the field of comics hitherto disputed in the country. In the same year made his first characters Blu and Franklin, and decided that Blu would be the protagonist. Both were based on his own childhood, Franklin based on Maurício himself and Blu on his pet dog Cuíca. The main inspirations of Monica and Friends were through American comics like Peanuts and Little Lulu, which have inspired some recurring themes like the boys' club. In the following year of 1960, the characters gained ground through the children's magazine Zaz Traz by publisher Editora Outubro, later getting their own comic titled Bidu by Editora Continental. However, the magazines were canceled that same year.

After that the characters returned to newspaper strips, the character Jimmy Five which had won great popularity in the previous magazines has become protagonist of their own strips of newspaper next to Blu and Franklin in 1961. Seeing potential in the character, Mauricio went on to create several supporting characters to appear in the Jimmy Five strips, like Smudge and Specs. But after so long Maurício received a complaint for the lack of feminine characters in his comics. So to avoid further controversy, in 1963 Monica was created, initially as a supporting character in the Jimmy Five strips (at first as the Specs' little sister) based on Mauricio's real daughter Mônica Sousa. Over time, the success and the charisma of the character made her be the protagonist of the series alongside Jimmy Five which became her sidekick. Also in 1963, Mauricio began to create new projects of comic strips with other characters without links with Monica and Jimmy Five, like Zezinho and Hiroshi (now called Chuck Billy 'n' Folks), The Cavern Clan, Bug-a-Booo, The Tribe and Raposão (now called Lionel's Kingdom).

The characters only returned to be published in a monthly comic book from 1970, by publisher Abril, initially under the title of "Mônica e Sua Turma" (Monica and Her Gang), later being changed to "Mônica" and "Turma da Mônica" (Monica's Gang), the latter title used only for merchandising. With so many of the characters ever created by Mauricio in strips of newspaper also began to appear in the comics of Monica's Gang. At that time the area of comics was more competitive in Brazil, many Brazilian artists were trying to hold his own in the stalls along the publications of American comics like Donald Duck, José Carioca, Little Lulu, and many others. Even with these new comics, Monica's Gang remained with their good sales on newsstands and with this soon came to the Jimmy Five's solo comic book three years later. Sales were great and with that a contract with the footballer Pelé was made for the launch of a character based on him, the Pelezinho, which was a phenomenon among children at the time, marking time in the history of Brazilian comics. Pelezinho was one of the few black characters made by Maurício, and his design wasn't the most flattering to the black community, with a pale colored circle around the character's mouth to represent his lips, a concept made infamous by the black face depiction of African people. In late 2013, however, Pelezinho's design was updated to reflect more modern sensibilities.

The staff of cartoonists has grown, leading to the foundation of the Estúdios Maurício de Sousa, that produce comics with the characters created by Mauricio de Sousa, and other marketing projects and cartoons of the characters. The first attempts to make a Monica and Friends cartoon occurred in the late 60s during a deal with Cica food company that produced some commercials for television, these being commercial who originated the character Thunder, who is currently a main character of the Lionel's Kingdom stories. The first film was only released in 1982, As Aventuras da Turma da Mônica which was produced in partnership with Black & White & Color and distributed by Embrafilme.

Over the years, other characters  gained  their own comic books, like Smudge (1982), Chuck Billy (1982) and Maggy (1989). Other media have strengthened over the years and Monica-branded merchandise were launched, with products like books, toys, discs, CD-ROM and video games. A Monica-themed amusement park was created in 1993 in São Paulo, titled "Parque da Mônica" (Monica Park). In 2008 the franchise has received a manga-style comic entitled Monica Teen.

Nowadays the comics are sold in 40 countries in 14 languages.

Characters

The Monica and Friends series has an extensive amount of main and secondary characters. It has as main protagonists Monica, Jimmy Five, Smudge and Maggy and each has its own comic book. Other characters from other series created by Mauricio de Sousa are also included on Monica and Friends, making crossovers or quotations from each other in several stories, among several other characters. The main setting of the stories is the fictional Lemon Tree Street (Rua do Limoeiro).

Most stories focus on the daily lives of the main characters and occasionally on the secondary characters; the humour usually uses various types of repetitions, allusions, appeals to the nonsense, paranomasias, sarcasm and metalanguage. The stories with Monica and Jimmy Five revolve around the conflict between the two. Jimmy Five is a troublemaker and bully who always tries to scold Monica or steal her stuffed bunny to give knots in its ears (usually having Smudge or another boy accomplice), always having Monica get her revenge by hitting him with her stuffed bunny, often leaving him bruised and with black eyes. Often Jimmy Five makes plans against her with various traps, sometimes using Franklin's inventions or talking Smudge into helping, but he always loses to Monica at the end.

Smudge's stories often focus on his penchant for dirt and mess and his fear of water, having never bathed in his life, and constantly being threatened by villains or his friends to take a shower, with him always succeeding in not getting wet and staying dirty. The stories with Maggy generally focus on her gluttony, with a superhuman ability to eat more than a normal person without ever getting fat and sometimes stealing food from her friends.

Among the villains are Captain Fray, a supervillain with the power to control garbage and dirt, and Lord Raider, a space rabbit whose first appearance was in the movies. A joke often breaks the fourth wall.

Related works
Other related works which relate to the series are:
 Blu - Based on the first character of Monica and Friends, it shows the character Blu, a sentient blue dog of the Schnauzer breed, as acting as a mere actor in a studio of comics.
 Chuck Billy 'n' Folks - Focuses on the comic daily life of Chuck Billy, a lazy farmer boy and his friends who live on a farm in Brazil's countryside. He's the one that most often appears in contact with Monica and Friends. The character have his own spin-off comic book series. As Monica and Friends, he received a spin-off manga-style comic in 2013 called Chico Bento Moço (Chuck Billy Young Man).
 Bug-a-Booo - Focuses on comedy stories involving monsters of horror films (ghosts, vampires, werewolfs, Frankenstein and even the death) in a cemetery.
 Tina's Pals - Shows a daily routine of a group of college students and their daily lives as they date, go to college, among other issues. In 2014, it received its own spin-off comic book series.
 The Funnies - Focuses on the comic adventures of Bubbly, an astronaut, as he explores space.
 Lionel's Kingdom - Focuses on the daily lives of a group of anthropomorphic animals of different species in a forest led by a lion king.
 The Cavern Clan - Focuses on Pitheco, a caveman inventor who is living in the midst of pre-history and tries to revolutionize humanity with his inventions.
 Horacio's World - Focuses on the life of a young philosopher, the dinosaur Horacio, and his friends.
 The Tribe - Focuses on an Amazonian native, Tom-Tom, who lives in a tropical forest constantly threatened by white men.

Media

Publications

Monica and Friends and its related works are released in a number of different books. Firstly, they were published by Editora Abril, from 1970 to 1986, then Editora Globo, from 1987 to 2006. From 2007 on, Panini Comics was chosen to keep the publications. So far there are comic books starring many characters, among the best known and sold are the characters of Monica, Jimmy Five, Smudge, Maggy and Chuck Billy, plus almanacs with republication of classic stories with varying characters. In 2015 was released an app for smartphones gathering more than 500 editions of comics franchise for download.

Television and film adaptations

The characters of Monica and Friends are also the protagonists of which can be considered the first Brazilian animation series. After being introduced on television as advertising-boys in TV advertisements from the mid-1960s, complete stories began to be produced in 1976 and distributed through film-compilations during the 1980s and 1990s (initially released in movies in cinema in the 1980s and then directly to video in the 1990s).

In 1999, a series of shorts with the characters was produced to the children's programming of Rede Globo (which would display these episodes only between the years 2010 and 2014). A regular broadcast of the series on TV only occurred in 2004 after negotiations with the Cartoon Network that since this year began broadcasting new episodes exclusively on the channel, still remaining on the schedule together of sister channels Tooncast (currently transmitted in Cartoon Cartoons block) and Boomerang.

In addition to the animations, the characters also starred in two animated feature films who presents bigger stories instead of short compilations; these are: "A Princesa e o Robô" (1983) and "Uma Aventura no Tempo" (2007) - as well as two TV and video specials in live-action: "Mônica e Cebolinha: No Mundo de Romeu e Julieta" (1979) and "A Rádio do Chico Bento" (1989).

Compilations
 As Aventuras da Turma da Mônica (1982)
 As Novas Aventuras da Turma da Mônica (1986)
 Mônica e a Sereia do Rio (1987)
 O Bicho-Papão (1987)
 A Estrelinha Mágica (1988, direct-to-video)
 Chico Bento, Óia a Onça! (1990, direct-to-video)
 O Natal de Todos Nós (1992, direct-to-video)
 Quadro a Quadro (1996, direct-to-video)
 Videogibi: O Mônico (1997, direct-to-video)
 Videogibi: O Plano Sangrento (1998, direct-to-video)
 Videogibi: O Estranho Soro do Dr. X (1998, direct-to-video)
 Videogibi: A Ilha Misteriosa (1999, direct-to-video)
 Coleção Grandes Aventuras da Turma da Mônica (2002, recovery direct-to-video including new episodes)
 Cine Gibi: O Filme (2004)
 Cine Gibi 2 (2005, direct-to-video)
 Cine Gibi 3: Planos Infalíveis (2008, direct-to-video)
 Cine Gibi 4: Meninos e Meninas (2009, direct-to-video)
 Cine Gibi 5: Luzes, Câmera, Ação! (2010, direct-to-video)
 Se Liga na Turma da Mônica - Volume 1 (2011, direct-to-video)
 Se Liga na Turma da Mônica - Volume 2 (2012, direct-to-video)
 Cine Gibi 6 - Hora do Banho (2013, direct-to-video)
 Cine Gibi 7 - Bagunça Animal (2014, direct-to-video)
 Cine Gibi 8 - Tá Brincando? (2015, direct-to-video)
 Cine Gibi 9 - Vamos Fazer de Conta! (2016, direct-to-video)

Monica Toy
Series launched to promote "Monica Toy" line launched by Tok & Stok, which features an ultra-stylized version of the characters of Monica in traits that refer to Toy Arts and famous franchises like Hello Kitty, Pucca and Gogo's Crazy Bones. There are currently 9 seasons, with mini-episodes each with about 30 seconds long, with 2D animation and exclusive language for web delivery.

From the episode "Hiccups" (released on July 17, 2013), the series was renamed and had its shortened to just "Monica Toy" title. On October 7, 2013, the series premiered on Cartoon Network in the interprograma format, debuting two episodes a week and airing at various times.

Turma da Mônica: Laços
In 2019, in cooperation with Paris Filmes, Globo Filmes and Paramount Pictures, Mauricio de Sousa Produções released in Brazilian cinemas the movie Turma da Mônica: Laços, on June 27, being directed by Daniel Rezende. The movie was based on the best-selling eponymous graphic novel, written and drawn by siblings Victor Cafaggi and Lu Cafaggi. This was the first Monica and Friends live-action movie in which the main characters are played by real-life children, since the previous live-action movies were presented in the form of theater performances using adults in articulated mascots costumes.

The plot of the movie revolves around the relationship of the friends. When Jimmy Five's dog, Fluffy, is abruptly abducted, the children must unite and eventually overcome their differences while facing new adventures on the way so they can bring their loyal friend back home.

The movie presents Giulia Benite as Monica, Kevin Vechiatto as Jimmy Five, Laura Rauseo as Maggy and Gabriel Moreira as Smudge. It has been overly praised by Brazilian critics, who praises the balance between cartoonish situations with human conflicts. The movie represented one of the highest Brazilian box office of 2019.

Video games

In the 1990s, Westone developed three Monica and Friends—based titles for Tectoy for the Master System and Mega Drive, modified from installments in Westone's Wonder Boy series.

In the 1990s, MSP released three CD-ROMs with short stories complemented by minigames: Mônica Dentuça (1995), Cebolinha e Floquinho (1996) and A Roça do Chico Bento (1998). Two CDs for creating comic books with both Monica and Chuck Billy were also released.

In September 2010, Tec Toy announced that they would produce an exclusive game for videogame console Zeebo Turma da Mônica - Vamos Brincar Nº1, but the game was canceled months later. The idea was to create a series of eight puzzle games, but due to the end of the island the project was canceled.

In 2012, "Quero Ser da Turma da Mônica", a game where the user can create a digital avatar in the style of the characters, was released for iOS. In 2013 a game was released for iOS and Android called "Coelhadas da Mônica" (Bunny-Bashing Monica), a puzzle game like Angry Birds. And in 2014, the game "Jogo do Cascão" (The Smudge Game) was released as a 2D platform running game with multiple stages.

Mônica Park
An amusement park themed with Mauricio de Souza's characters is located at the Eldorado Shopping in São Paulo. It was opened in January 1993, and features a number of attractions, like the "Carrossel do Horácio" (Horacio's merry-go-round, a carousel featuring dinosaurs instead of horses), the 3-D cinema, and many more. The Parque da Mônica of Curitiba and of Rio de Janeiro were also created, in 1998 and 2001, respectively, but both were closed, in 2000 and 2005, respectively. Until the end of 2006, it had its own comic book, featuring adventures of Monica and her friends at the park. When Panini Comics started to publish Mauricio's works, this comic was replaced by Turma da Mônica (Monica and Friends).

The park was removed from Eldorado Shopping Center on early 2010, when the space occupied by it was asked back by the shopping administrators. Mauricio de Sousa had already announced that the mall had requested the area back in July 2009. The administration of the Shopping said that the mall was seeking more up-to-date alternatives, which fall under consumers' expectations.

In March 2015, it was announced that the park would be reopened at Shopping SP Market .

Merchandising
In the late 60s a line of dolls with characters Monica, Jimmy Five, Thunder, Horacio and Lucinda was manufactured by Trol Company, this was the first merchandising of the franchise. The character Thunder became mascot of a tomato sauce brand of the food company Cica in the late of 60s. An extensive line of toys and other products with the characters began to be manufactured since the 70s by various toy companies and remain heavily sold to the present in Brazilian stores.
During the 80s, the franchise also came to have its own store network. The Lojinha da Mônica and Trenzinho da Mônica, had branches in several states of Brazil, selling products related to characters. In 2013, the franchise was restarted in the form of an e-commerce portal.

International distribution
Monica and Friends and related works have been published in 40 countries in 14 languages, including Spanish, Greek and Japanese.

In Germany, comics were published between 1975 and 1980 under the name Fratz und Freunde and years later as Monica und Ihre Freunde. In the UK, comics have already been published under the name Frizz and Friends for a short time. In Italy, some comic books and classic episodes of cartoon were distributed on DVDs in the 90s, the cartoon was broadcast on Rai Due channel under the title La Banda di Monica. In Indonesia, the series is published under the title Monika dan kawan kawan, the comics are published there since 1997, along the comic books of the characters Jimmi Lima (Jimmy Five) and Ciko Bento (Chuck Billy N' Folks). In China the comics were distributed to schools in 2007, receiving years later adaptation of the cartoon, in 2011 one of the albums was awarded to children's literature.

There were plans for distribution in the United States and some Latin American countries, but they never came to fruition (with the exception of the proper cartoon broadcast dubbed into Spanish in some Latin American countries), however translated comics in English and Spanish are sold directly in Brazil. Episodes of the cartoon dubbed in English  are available on YouTube.

References

External links

Manga adaptation

Brazilian comic strips
Comic book digests
1959 comics debuts
Brazilian comics adapted into films
Comics about parallel universes
Fiction about size change
Metafictional comics
Brazil-exclusive video games
Humor comics
Satirical comics
Gag-a-day comics
Comics adapted into animated series
Comics adapted into television series
Comics adapted into video games

Monica and Friends


Kartaca (Arapça: قرطاج Qarṭāj) (Latince: Carthago), MÖ 814 yılında, Tunus yarımadasında kurulmuş olan bir Fenike kolonisidir. Kartaca, Fenike dilinde Kart-hadaşt yani "Yeni Kent" anlamına gelmektedir. Kart Hadaşt, 22 sessiz harften oluşan Fenike abecesiyle QRT-HDST olarak yazılmaktadır.

Hem Antik Yunanistan hem de Roma İmparatorluğu'nun, Kartaca ile tarihin büyük bir bölümünde Akdeniz ticareti için rekabet halinde olmaları ve bu rekabetin sıcak çatışmalara varmış olması nedeniyle bu tarihçilerin çalışmaları büyük ölçüde önyargılı çalışmalardır.

Kentsel yapı

Kartaca kenti, kuzey - güney doğrultusunda uzanan bir burun ve körfez üzerine kurulmuştur. Kentin bu konumu, deniz ticareti için çok uygun bir liman sağlamış ve Kartaca'yı Akdeniz ticaretinde etkin duruma getirmiştir. Deniz ticaretine çıkan tüm gemiler, Sicilya ile Tunus sahili arasından, bir başka açıdan, Kartaca açıklarından geçmek durumundadır.

Kent içinde iki büyük ve yapay liman inşa edilmiştir. Limanlardan biri, Kartaca'nın 220 savaş gemisinden oluşan donanması için, diğer ise deniz ticaret filosu içindi. Surlarla çevrili bir kule, her iki limanı da kuşbakışı görmektedir.

Kent, 37 km uzunluğunda tek bir sur tarafından kuşatılmaktadır. Bu sur uzunluğu, dönemin pek çok benzer kentindekilerden daha uzundur. Esasen surların büyük bir bölümü sahili örtmektedir. Kartaca'nın deniz gücü göz önünde bulundurulduğunda bu surlar daha az gerekliydi. Surların 4 – 5 km'lik bölümü batıdaki kıstak boyunca uzanmaktaydı. Aslında bu kesimden bir saldırı pek olası değildir.

Kentte, büyük bir nekropolü, dini yapıları, pazar yerleri, kuleleri ve bir amfitiyatrosu ve dört parça, eşit ölçüde konut alanları bulunmaktadır. Byrsa adı verilen bir hisar, kabaca kentin ortasında yükselmektedir. Kartaca, Helenistik dönem'in en büyük kentiydi. Bazı tahminlere göre sadece dönemin İskenderiyesi daha büyük bir kenttir. Ayrıca endüstri öncesi dönemlerin en büyük kentlerinden biriydi.

Tarih

Tarihsel belgelerin taraflı olması
Kartaca'nın tarihi üzerine yapılacak bir çalışma bir ölçüde sorunludur. Bugün için Kartaca ile ilgili yazılı kaynaklar, Romalı ve Yunan tarihçilerin çalışmalarıyla sınırlıdır. Gerek Kartacalıların gerekse de Fenikelilerin papirüs kullanmaları ve bu materyalin zaman içinde dağılması sonucu, Kartaca ve Fenike yazılı kaynakları zamanımıza kadar ulaşmamıştır. Bu sonuçta kuşkusuz Pön savaşları sonunda Roma ordusunun kentin kültürünün ve kayıtlarının  tahrip edilmiş olmasında yatar. Üçüncü Pön Savaşı sonunda kent büyük ölçüde yakıldı, yıkıldı ve yağmalandı, ilk elden kaynakların çok azı günümüze ulaşabildi. Kuzey Afrika'daki ortaya çıkarılan yapı ve yazıtlarda bulunanlarla birlikte Grekçe ve Latincede birkaç eski Pön çevirisi bulunmaktadır. Fakat esas kaynaklar, Titus Livius, Polybius, Appian, Cornelius Nepos, Silius İtalicus, Plutarkhos, Cassius Dio ve Herodot gibi Yunan ve Roma tarihçilerinin eserleridir. Bu yazarlar, Kartaca ile rekabet halinde olan dolayısıyla da sık sık çatışan toplumların insanlarıdırlar. Yunan şehir devletleri Kartaca ile Sicilya için rekabet halindeydiler. Öte yandan Roma üç devre halinde süren bir dizi muharebe içine girmiştir. (Pön Savaşları) Bekleneceği şekilde bu yazarların Kartaca ile ilgili yazdıkları, belirgin biçimde Kartaca aleyhtarı yazılardı. Kartaca hakkında daha tarafsız yazan birkaç Yunan yazarın eserleri ise günümüze ulaşamamıştır.

Kuruluş ve Kolonileşme

Kartaca kenti, Tyre (Sur) kenti kraliçesi Elishar tarafından (Yunan kaynaklarında Elissa ya da Elissar, Roma kaynaklarında Dido) MÖ 814 ya da 813 yıllarında kurulmuştur. Roma imparatorluğundan kaçan Elishar yandaşlarınıda yanına alarak Tunus'a kaçmış ve dönemin Tunus imparatorundan kendisine bir öküz postu kadar bir yer verilmesini istemiş. İmparator bu teklifi kabul edince öküz postunu ince ince iplik haline getirerek Akdeniz kıyısına Kartaca'yı kurmuştur.

Akdeniz'deki merkezi konumu Kartaca'ya deniz ticaretinde geniş olanaklar sağlamıştır. Fenikeli tüccarlar açısından geleneksel hale gelen Doğu Akdeniz ticaretinin yanı sıra Batı Akdeniz'e de aynı derecede yakın olmasıyla Kartacalı tüccarlar, Batı Akdeniz'de bağlı koloniler oluşturmakta gecikmediler.

Fenike kentleri, tarihlerinin hiçbir döneminde tam bağımsız kent devletleri olmamışlardır, komşuları olan güçlü devletlerin hegemonyalarını kabul etmiş, Akdeniz'de serbestçe ticaret yaparak servet edinmenin bir bedeli olarak gördükleri yıllık vergileri bu devletlere ödemişler, bunu ticari faaliyetlerin bir sabit maliyeti olarak görmüşlerdir. Dolayısıyla denizaşırı Fenike kolonileri de kendi politik ve ticari stratejilerini bağımsızca geliştirmişlerdir. Kartaca da bu denizaşırı kolonilerden biri olarak, konumunun getirdiği olanaklardan serbestçe yararlanmıştır.

MÖ 509 yılında Roma Cumhuriyeti ile Kartaca arasında, Akdeniz'in ticari ve politik etki alanları olarak iki devlet arasında bölüşümünü sağlayan bir anlaşma da, Kartaca'nın Batı Akdeniz ve Kuzey Afrika kıyılarındaki genişlemesine katkıda bulunmuştu.

MÖ 5. yüzyıl başlarında Kartaca artık Batı Akdeniz ve Kuzey Afrika kıyılarında geniş bir etki alanını kontrol etmektedir. Eski Fenike kolonilerini -yer yer zor kullanarak- kontrolü altına almış, Libya'daki göçebe çöl kabilelerini sindirmiştir. Akdeniz'de Kartaca genişlemesi, İspanya kıyılarından başlayarak iç kesimlere, Sicilya, Balear adaları, Sardinya ve Kuzey Afrika kıyılarındaki kolonileşmeyle altın devrine ulaşmıştır.

Kartaca İmparatorluğunun Siyasi Yapısı
Kartaca, iki kral, iki de kurul tarafından yönetiliyordu. İki kuruldan daha geniş yetkileri olan senato en varlıklı ailelerin reisleri arasından seçilen 300 kişiden oluşan bir kuruldu. Otuz kişilik bir iç kurul üyeliği ömür boyu olmakla birlikte diğer üyeler belirli aralıklarla seçim yoluyla yenilenirlerdi. Meclis ise belirli bir varlık düzeyinin üstündeki tüm özgür Kartaca vatandaşlarından oluşmaktaydı. Esasen seçilen kralların onaylanması dışında fazla bir yetkisi yoktur. Krallar bir yıllık görev süreleri için seçiliyorlardı. Yetkileri senatonun denetimi ve kamu kurumların yönetimi idi.

Kartaca Cumhuriyeti ve Roma Cumhuriyeti ilişkileri
MÖ 6. yüzyılın sonlarından itibaren Roma ile Akdeniz'in etki alanı olarak paylaşılmasında, Kartaca ile Roma arasında ufak sürtüşmeler dışında pek fazla sorun yaşanmadı. Ancak MÖ 3. yüzyılda dengeler değişmeye başlamıştır. İtalya yarımadasında Yunan kent devletleri üzerinde kesin hakimiyet kuran Roma, Akdeniz ticaretinden payını artırmaya gitmek yolundadır artık.

Akdeniz üzerindeki etki alanları çekişmesi, Pön savaşları olarak tarihe geçecek bir dizi çatışmaya yol açmıştır. Sicilya'daki Yunan kolonileriyle Kartaca arasında çıkan çatışmada, Yunan kolonilerinin Roma'nın yardımını istemeleri üzerine 1. Pön Savaşları çıkmıştır. MÖ 265 yılında, ağırlıklı olarak deniz savaşlarıyla süren bu savaşlar MÖ 241 yılında Kartaca'nın barış istemesiyle sonuçlanmıştır.

Bu yenilgiden sonra Kartaca İber yarımadası'na gözlerini dikmiştir. Kartaca, General Hamilcar Barca ve oğulları Hannibal ve Hasdrubal Barca İber yarımadasının neredeyse tümünü kontrol altına almıştır. Roma'nın elinde sadece Saguntum kenti kalmıştı. Gelişmeleri endişeyle izleyen ve Kartaca'yla yeni bir çatışmayı politik olarak gerekli gören Roma, MÖ 218 yılında, Kartaca ordularının Ebro nehrini geçmelerinin savaş durumu sayılacağını belirten bir girişimde bulunmuştur.

Bunun üzerine patlak veren 2. Pön Savaşlarında Hannibal kara ordusuyla İber yarımadasından kara yolunu kullanarak İtalya'ya ilerledi. 2. Pön Savaşları, Hannibal'in tarihin gördüğü en yetenekli komutanlardan sayılmasına neden olacak birbiri ardına kazanılan başarılarla sürdü. Ancak İtalya topraklarında kesin sonuçlu bir başarı sağlamayan Hannibal, Roma'nın MÖ 204 yılında Kartaca yakınlarına bir çıkartma yapması üzerine İtalya'dan ayrılmak zorunda kalmıştır. MÖ 203 yılında Zama savaşında Hannibal orduları Roma ordusu karşısında yenilgiye uğramış ve Kartaca, oldukça ağır barış koşullarını kabul etmiştir.

Bu iki yenilgi sonrasında gücünden çok şey kaybetmiş olan Kartaca'ya karşı Roma'nın son darbesi, MÖ 149 yılında başlayan ve MÖ 146 yılında Kartaca kentinin tümüyle yakılıp yıkılmasıyla son bulan Üçüncü Pön Savaşıdır.

Roma İmparatorluk dönemi Kartacası

Vandallar Krallığı başkenti

Bizans İmparatorluğu Ekşarjlık merkezi

Müslümanlar Fethi ve Ifrıkiyye'de Kartaca

Osmanlı ve Tunus Beyliği Kartacası

Önemli arkeolojik ve modern yerler

Genel görünüş

Görülebilecek turistik arkeolojik mevkiler

Görülecek modern yapılar

Ulaşım ve ekonomi

Kardeş şehirler

Kartaca sehir belediyesi ile şu yabanci kentler arasında resmi kardes sehir baglantisi bulunur{

Galeri

Ayrıca bakınız
 Antik Kartaca
 Vandallar

Kaynakça

Diğer kaynaklar
 Fantar, M'hamed Hassine Fantar (1995), Carthage. La cité punique; Tunus: Alif - Les éditions de la Méditerranée, ISBN 9973-22-019-6.
 Bénichou-Safar, Helene (2004) Le tophet de Salammbô à Carthage - essai de reconstitution, Roma:École Française de Rome,
 Hugoniot, Christophe (2000) Rome en Afrique - de la chute de Carthage aux débuts de la conquête arabe, Paris:Flammarion

Dış bağlantılar

 Kartaca Belediyesi resmi websitesi
  "Ancient History Encyclopedia" websiteinde Kartaca tarih akimi grafigi
  "Ancient Places TV" websitesi Kartaca HD Video

Kartaca tarihi

Kartaca


René Gaspard de La Croix de Castries est fils de Louise de l'Hôpital et de  de La Croix (baron de Castries et Premier Consul de Montpellier). Il est né en 1611 et est mort le  à Castries (Hérault). Il est l'un des acteurs majeurs du Languedoc du  et s'est vu décerner de nombreux titres au cours de sa carrière. Il est le seul fils du nom de La Croix à avoir une descendance encore existante aujourd'hui.

Biographie

Mariages et enfants
Le , René-Gaspard de La Croix se marie à Isabeau Bachet, Dame et Baronne de Pérusse et de Montagu. Leur mariage ne dure qu'un an à la suite du décès de cette dernière en . À cette période il vit à Paris, au quartier Faubourg Saint-Germain des Prés, rue des Boucheries. Il est alors seigneurs de Meyrargues chevalier, comte de Castries et capitaine de chevaux-légers depuis 1636.

Le , René-Gaspard de La Croix se remarie à Isabeau de Bonzi avec qui il a onze enfants : Élisabeth, Armand Pierre de La Croix de Castries, Louis-Languedoc, Roch-François, Marie-Henriette, Marie, Louise, Gabrielle, Renée-Angélique, Françoise et Joseph-François avec pour nom de famille commun De La Croix de Castries. Il obtient en dot, la baronnie du Crès, de Salaison et de Castelnau en 1645.

Carrière
En 1621, Réné-Gaspard de La Croix est déjà engagé dans la compagnie d'ordonnance du Duc de Montmorency et comptabilise plusieurs faits d'armes, par exemple à la Guerre de Trente Ans.

En , il fait ses débuts en tant que capitaine de la compagnie de Chevau-léger. Dès 1639, le roi , satisfait de René-Gaspard de La Croix de Castries, le nomme Gentilhomme ordinaire de la chambre du Roi. En guise de récompense, il lui offre une pension de  et lui cède son marquisat de Varambon. Mais le comte de Castries, remet  son marquisat à Christine-Claire de Haraucourt. Le roi rédige ensuite une lettre patente en 1639 et fait de René-Gaspard de La Croix, le premier marquis de Castries. En 1655, la pension du comte de Castries est doublé, il reçoit alors .

En , le roi  crée et érige la baronnie de Castries qu'il cède à René-Gaspard de Lacroix ;

Son nom devient René-Gaspard de La Croix de Castries. Il porte alors l'un des patronyme les plus prestigieux du .

Alors qu'il est député de la noblesse de sénéchaussée de Montpellier, René-Gaspard de La Croix de Castries est fait gouverneur de Sommelière le . En 1651, il est fait conseillé d'États-Epée puis Capitaine Lieutenant des gendarmes de Gaston Duc d'Orléans le  puis il est fait il est fait maréchal des Camps le . Le , il obtient le titre de gouverneur de Montpellier. L'année suivante, le  il est fait Lieutenant Général des armées du roi puis le  il est fait chevalier des ordres du roi devant le Duc de Mortemart et le Marechal d'Aumont. Le  il reçoit de collier de chevalier des ordres du roi à Pézenas.

Le , il devient Lieutenant Général au Gouvernement de Languedoc. Le roi lui donne l'ordre de se rendre en Vivarais pour calmer la révolte des partisans du roi voisin. Le roi lui envoi des troupes pour lui venir en aide. Ensemble, ils ont maîtrisés les révoltés et capturés le chef de la révolte qui a été assassiné par la suite.

En 1672, à la demande du roi, René-Gaspard de La Croix de Castries choisit tous les officiers des deux régiments du roi. En 1673, le roi lui donne pour ordre de lever deux autres régiments; l'Infanterie et la Cavalerie, ce qu'il fait. Avec l'accord du roi, René-Gaspard de Castries met le régiment d'infanterie au nom de son fils et le régiment de cavalerie au nom de son gendre, le marquis de Villeneuve.

Lorsqu'il dirigeait les États-Généraux du Languedoc, René-Gaspard de La Croix de Castries a su se distinguer car il portait autant d'importance aux intérêts du roi qu'à ceux du peuple. À sa mort, il fut grandement regretté.

Chronologie des titres
1621 :  Engagé dans la compagnie d'ordonnance du duc de Montmorency

1636 : Nommé capitaine d'une compagnie franche de Chevau-Légers

1637 : Premier mariage à Isabeau Brachet de Pérusse

1639 : Reçoit en récompense de ses services pour le roi, le titre de gentilhomme ordinaire de la chambre du roi. Il reçoit également le marquisat de Varambon ainsi qu'une pension de .

1639 : Fait  de Castries par lettre patente du roi

1643 : Rétablit en son droit du titre de Baron des Etas du Languedoc

1644 : Second mariage avec Isabeau de Bonzi

1645 : Obtint l'érection de la baronnie de Castries en marquisat

1645 :  de Castries

 : Fait Gouverneur de Sommelière

1651 : Fait Conseillé d'États-Epée

: Fait Capitaine Lieutenant des Gendarmes de Gaston duc d'Orléans

 : Fait maréchal des Camps

1655 : La pension donnée par le roi passe de  à .

 : Fait gouverneur de Montpellier

 : Fait Lieutenant général des armées du roi

 : Fait chevalier des ordres du roi devant le duc de Mortemart et le maréchal d'Aumont.

 : Reçoit de collier de chevalier des ordres du roi à Pézenas

 : Lieutenant général en  Languedoc

1672 : Il choisit tous les membres des deux régiments du roi.

1673 :  Levé des deux régiments du roi.

L'hôtel de Castries
En 1445, le château de Castries est acquis par Guillaume de La Croix. Deux siècles plus tard, en 1645, René-Gaspard de La Croix de Castries décide d'entreprendre des travaux. Il revisite son esthétique en s'inspirant de l'architecture gothique et fait appel à Jean Bonnassier. Dès 1656, le marquis fait réaliser le grand escalier, la grande salle ainsi qu'un salon dans l'aile ouest  En 1660, il fait appel et à André Le Nôtre pour créer un jardin à la française, qui s'étend autour du château, et dont la superficie est de quinze hectares. Le domaine prend alors le surnom du « Petit Versailles ». Entre 1670 et 1676, il fait appel à Pierre-Paul Riquet pour construire l'aqueduc de Castries. Ce dernier suggéra de faire venir de l'eau qui viendrait irriguer le jardin et le château. René-Gaspard fait alors construire l'aqueduc, d'une longueur de  et composé d'une centaine d'arches et dont les plans ont été réalisés par Pierre Paul Riquet. Ce serait l'aqueduc le plus le long de France jamais réalisé par un particulier. René-Gaspard de La Croix de Castries ne le verra jamais terminé puisqu'il décède en 1674.

Notes et références

Notes

Références

Liens externes

René-Gaspard
Personnalité liée à Montpellier
Naissance à Montpellier
Décès en août 1674

René-Gaspard de La Croix de Castries


Carlo Cardia, profesor je Crkvenog prava i predaje filozofiju prava na Sveučilištu Roma Tre. Bio je ustavni savjetnik predsjednika parlamenta te je 1984. bio imenovan u Paritetnu talijansko-vatikansku komisiju za određivanje konkordatskog predmeta s obzirom na ustanove i crkvena dobra i financijski odnos između države i Katoličke Crkve. Od 1984. do danas kao član vladinih vijeća o pitanjima vjerskih sloboda bio je među glavnim suautorima donošenja novoga crkvenog zakona. Autor je brojnih tekstova i članaka s područja povijesti, prava i filozofije, s posebnim osvrtom na teme vjerskih sloboda, ljudskih prava, etike i multikulturalnosti.

Izvori

Vanjske poveznice

Životopisi, Italija
Crkveno pravo
Talijanski povjesničari
Talijanski filozofi
Pravnici

Carlo Cardia