School discipline relates to actions taken by teachers or school organizations toward students when their behavior disrupts the ongoing educational activity or breaks a rule created by the school. Discipline can guide the children's behavior or set limits to help them learn to take better care of themselves, other people and the world around them.

School systems set rules, and if students break these rules they are subject to discipline. These rules may, for example, define the expected standards of school uniforms, punctuality, social conduct, and work ethic.  The term "discipline" is applied to the punishment that is the consequence of breaking the rules. The aim of discipline is to set limits restricting certain behaviors or attitudes that are seen as harmful or against school policies, educational norms, school traditions, etc. The focus of discipline is shifting and alternative approaches are emerging due to notably high dropout rates, disproportionate punishment upon minority students, and other educational inequalities.

The importance of discipline
Discipline is a set of actions determined by the school district to remedy actions taken by a student that are deemed inappropriate. It is sometimes confused with classroom management, but while discipline is one dimension of classroom management, classroom management is a more general term.

Discipline is typically thought to have a positive influence on both the individual as well as classroom environment. Utilizing disciplinary actions can be an opportunity for the class to reflect and learn about consequences, instill collective values, and encourage behavior that is acceptable for the classroom. Recognition of the diversity of values within communities can increase understanding and tolerance of different disciplinary techniques. In particular, moderate interventions such as encouraging positive corrections of questionable behavior inside the classroom by clearly showing the boundaries and making it clear that the behavior is unacceptable, as opposed to more severe punishments outside the classroom such as detention, suspension, or expulsion, can promote learning and deter future misbehavior. Learning to "own" one's bad behavior is also thought to contribute to positive growth in social emotional learning.

Theory
School discipline practices are generally informed by theory from psychologists and educators. There are a number of theories to form a comprehensive discipline strategy for an entire school or a particular class.

Positive approach is grounded in teachers' respect for students. Instills in students a sense of responsibility by using youth/adult partnerships to develop and share clear rules, provide daily opportunities for success, and administer in-school suspension for noncompliant students. Based on Glasser's reality therapy. Research (e.g., Allen) is generally supportive of the PAD program.
Teacher effectiveness training differentiates between teacher-owned and student-owned problems, and proposes different strategies for dealing with each. Students are taught problem-solving and negotiation techniques. Researchers (e.g., Emmer and Aussiker) find that teachers like the programme and that their behaviour is influenced by it, but effects on student behaviour are unclear.
Adlerian approaches is an umbrella term for a variety of methods which emphasize understanding the individual's reasons for maladaptive behavior and helping misbehaving students to alter their behavior, while at the same time finding ways to get their needs met. Named for psychiatrist Alfred Adler. These approaches have shown some positive effects on self-concept, attitudes, and locus of control, but effects on behavior are inconclusive (Emmer and Aussiker). Not only were the statistics on suspensions and vandalism significant, but also the recorded interview of teachers demonstrates the improvement in student attitude and behaviour, school atmosphere, academic performance, and beyond that, personal and professional growth.
Appropriate school learning theory and educational philosophy is a strategy for preventing violence and promoting order and discipline in schools, put forward by educational philosopher Daniel Greenberg and practiced by the Sudbury Valley School.
Some scholars think students misbehave because of the lack of engagement and stimulation in typical school settings, a rigid definition of acceptable behaviors and a lack of attention and love in a student's personal life. In the United States, scholars have begun to explore alternative explanations for why students are being disciplined, in particular the disproportionate rate of discipline towards African-American and minority students.
 Lack of engagement and stimulation – students are curious and constantly searching for meaning and stimulation in the school environment. Classes that are too one-dimensional, that fail to involve students sufficiently, are too challenging or are very much information heavy (leaving little room for discussion and consideration), will not satisfy students' curiosities or needs for authentic intellectual stimulation.
 A rigid definition of acceptable behavior – Most students, particularly older ones, are asked to sit at their desks for many minutes at a time and listen, read, and take notes. Teachers who fail to offer opportunities for movement and interpersonal engagement are likelier to have to use strictness and rules to maintain law and order.
 Lack of attention and love – When students fail to receive the attention that they crave, they are likelier to find other ways to get it, even if it means drawing negative attention to themselves and even negative consequences. The more teachers let their students know how much they care about them and value their work, the likelier they are to respect a teacher's request and conform to their expectation.

Disparities for black students in the United States

Federal level

Background
In the United States, many of the state and federal laws surrounding school discipline originate from zero-tolerance policies for student misconduct practiced by policy-makers from the 1980s and 1990s. With the increasing use of zero-tolerance policies, by 1997 the federal government was funding the use of police officers in schools, resulting in an increased use of discipline in schools across the country and an influx of students entering the juvenile justice system. By 2000, 41 states had laws in place requiring cases involving students who committed criminal violations in school, like drug possession, to be handled by law enforcement and juvenile courts, instead of the schools themselves. During this time, Black students accounted for over one-third of all corporal punishment and in-school and out-of-school suspensions, nearly one-third of all expulsions and school-related arrests, and over one-quarter of all referrals to law enforcement; rates around three times higher than that of white students.

Public schools are prohibited from using disciplinary practices as a form of discrimination. The Education Department's Office for Civil Rights is tasked with deciding whether or not to investigate students' reports of disciplinary racial discrimination. Former United States Secretary of Education Betsy DeVos enacted delays and eliminations of student discipline guidance under the United States Education Department. In 2016, the Obama administration required states to address racial disparities in special education under the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act, but DeVos delayed the implementation of these requirements. In 2014, the United States Department of Justice and the Education Department's Office for Civil Rights issued guidance to reduce racial disparities in suspension and expulsion. In 2019, DeVos defended the Education Department's choice to repeal this guidance.

Student protections
Today, schools across the U.S. suspend, expel, and punish Black students at a higher rate than white students. Despite these rates, there are multiple federal laws against racial discrimination in schools. There are two groups for these laws: disparate treatment and disparate impact.

Disparate treatment laws allow students the right to testify against schools and school districts for intentional racial discrimination. Under the equal protection and due process clauses of the 14th Amendment and Title VI of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, students who feel they have been intentionally racially discriminated against can testify against their schools or school districts.

Disparate impact laws, including the federal regulations of Title VI and the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act, allow federal agencies to testify against schools and school districts for policies they have put in place that ultimately result in racial discrimination, regardless of the intent behind the people practicing those policies. Violations of these regulations can cause schools and school districts to lose federal funding.

Mitigation and reform
Positive Behavior Intervention and Supports (PBIS) programs examine disciplinary issues, attempt to reduce the severity of punishment for students, and provide increased support for students who have emotional and behavioral disorders. PBIS programs are supported by the United States Department of Education Office of Special Education ProgramsTechnical Assistance Center and have been used by schools across the United States.

Across U.S. states

General trends
Racial disparities in suspension and expulsion vary across the United States. Atlanta, Georgia; Chicago, Illinois; Houston, Texas; and St. Paul, Minnesota possess schools and school districts that, on average, suspend Black students at least six times more than white students. A study by the University of Pennsylvania concluded that Alabama, Arkansas, Florida, Georgia, Kentucky, Louisiana, Mississippi, North Carolina, South Carolina, Tennessee, Texas, Virginia and West Virginia schools contribute over half of all suspensions and expulsions of Black students in America. In these thirteen states, Black students make up about 24% of the students in public schools, but 48% of suspension cases and 49% of expulsion cases. Today, 19 states allow the use of corporal punishment in schools, including Arkansas, a state that ranks 13th in the country for highest disciplinary disparity between Black and white students.

In New York State, Black students are suspended at a rate over four times higher than white students; in New York City, this figure increases, with Black students being suspended at a rate over five times higher than white students. Schools in New York suspend nearly one in five Black male high-schoolers. In California, Black males are suspended more frequently than any other racial or gender group, and Black females are the third most often suspended group. Black students with disabilities in California lose about 44 more days of school instruction due to disciplinary consequences than their white peers with disabilities.

Mitigation and reform
Schools across the country are making efforts to reform their disciplinary systems and practices to reduce racial disparities. A study in North Carolina found that having Black teachers is associated with lowered amounts of exclusionary discipline for Black students, across all age, gender, and income ranges. To reduce its racial disciplinary disparity, Arkansas' state regulations are beginning to request that school districts make an effort to racially diversify their staff. School disciplinary policies in Arkansas are technically decided by state laws and the Arkansas Department of Education, but schools within Arkansas have some decision-making authority, which allowed them the power to suggest the diversification of their staff, as well as other policies that are being put into place to reduce racialized disciplinary disparities, including but not limited to:

 Disciplinary punishments permitted for students are required to be written into a school district's policy.
 In school districts where corporal punishment is used, the district must establish specific policies for when and how to employ it.
 School districts are required to inform students' parents of disciplinary policies and provide written proof of the existence of said policies. These policies are required to be filed with the Arkansas Department of Education and include due process.
 All school personnel, including teachers, administrators, volunteers, and all employees are required to undergo student discipline training.

Similarly to Arkansas, schools in Virginia are attempting to improve training for teachers and administrators. In California, multiple school districts have completely eliminated suspensions for Kindergarten through twelfth grade in public schools. The New York State Education Department and the Board of Regents has included out-of-school suspensions in the Every Student Succeeds Act, attempting to hold schools accountable for the suspension rates of different groups of students, including Black students' higher suspension rates compared to that of other racial and ethnic groups.

Across school districts

Demographics
Within the United States of America, urban educational institutions service the largest portion of Black students in primary and secondary education. On a larger scale, urban educational institutions with a predominantly Black student body yield higher rates of punitive disciplinary actions in comparison to institutions with a predominantly white student body. Black students attending urban educational institutions are more likely to receive suspension and to be arrested than white students. On a smaller scale, rural school districts with a larger portion of Black students also yield higher rates punitive disciplinary actions than predominantly white school districts.

County-level
Individual school districts within a state have jurisdiction to implement and enforce education-related policies within their educational institutions. Dependent on a school district's approach to resolving behavioral conflicts, the disparities between rates and intensity of discipline between white and Black students can intensify or lessen. The subjectivity of approach to behavioral policies allows for external factors such as socioeconomic and racial demographic to factor into an institution's utilization of disciplinary actions.

Truancy
An example of the varying racial disparities in discipline across U.S. counties and school districts is the different disciplinary approaches to solving truancy, "any intentional, unjustified, unauthorized, or illegal absence from compulsory education". The Los Angeles County District enacted punitive to decrease the rate of absenteeism occurring within the district's educational institutions. It piloted the Abolish Chronic Truancy (ACT) program that would discipline absenteeism through penal punishments for both students and their parental guardians. Punishments for parental guardians include legal prosecution with maximum penalty of a fine up to $2,500 per child and up to a year sentencing. For students, punishments may be prosecution in juvenile court with potential penalties including fines, probation, community service, and mandated attendance of a truancy education program. Socioeconomic factors—lack of transportation, acting as a caregiver for siblings, etc.-- that affect a student's attendance and likelihood of penal punishments disproportionately affects low-income black students.

Another approach that some U.S. school districts have used to reduce truancy is rehabilitating students and accounting for external factors. For example, the office of Alameda County Assistant District Attorney Teresa Drenick within the Alameda County School District has piloted a diversion program to increase attendance. The program addresses students with high absenteeism rates with consistently absent students by providing access to therapy, health services, and resources such as bus passes. The county reports that the program has been "more than 90% successful at getting students back in class", decreasing absenteeism rates.

Students with disabilities
The disparity in punitive disciplinary actions between Black and white students is further widened for Black students with disabilities. National surveys on disparities in school discipline have found higher rates of suspension among Black students with disabilities. From 2014 to 2015, the national average of days lost per 100 enrolled for students with disabilities was 119.0 days for Black students and 43.0 days for white students.

An existent effort to decrease rates of disciplinary actions for Black students with disabilities have examined the effects of same-race teachers within the classroom. For example, from 2014 to 2015, North Carolina had a wider gap in disparities than the national average in which Black students lost 158.3 days per 100 enrolled and white students lost 64.1 days. North Carolina, like many states, has local school districts with a higher percentage of Black staff and teachers than other districts. A study by researchers Constance A. Lindsey and Cassandra M. D. Hart demonstrates that Black females reduced disciplinary rates for Black male students with disabilities by a "2 percentage points to approximately 14 percent" decrease. Additionally, students with Black male teachers within the study had a reduced disciplinary rate by "15 to 13 percent". The study suggests that school districts with an increased percentage of Black students may exhibit lower rates of punitive disciplinary actions for Black students with disabilities and have a lessened gap between Black and white students.

Within the classroom
In the United States, African-American students, particularly boys, are disciplined significantly more often and more severely than any other demographic. This disparity is very well documented and contributes substantially to negative life outcomes for affected students. The resulting tendency of minors and young adults from disadvantaged backgrounds to become incarcerated is widely referred to as the "school-to-prison pipeline".

According to data published by the U.S. Department of Education, African-American students are three times more likely to be suspended and expelled than their white peers. Research overwhelmingly suggests that when given an opportunity to choose among several disciplinary options for a relatively minor offense, teachers and school administrators disproportionately choose more severe punishment for African-American students than for white students for the same offense. Even when controlling for factors such as family income, African-American boys are more likely to receive out-of-school suspensions than white boys for the same behavior within the same school.

A recent study published by the National Academy of Sciences, using U.S. federal data covering more than 32 million students and around 96,000 schools, showed that "the disciplinary gap between black and white students across five types of disciplinary actions is associated with county-level rates of racial bias." Other high-powered studies have shown "increased racial and gender disproportionality for subjectively defined behaviors in classrooms, and for incidents classified as more severe", and that "Black-White disciplinary gaps . . . emerge as early as in prekindergarten and widen with grade progression." Such disparities in exclusionary forms of discipline have been shown to be mitigated in classrooms run by African-American teachers, with especially strong mitigation of office referrals for subjectively defined behavior such as "willful defiance".

When disparities occur within the classroom they are often covert and passive meaning that instead of outwardly discriminating against a student because of their color teachers discreetly give fewer advantages to students of color. Examples of this could include counselors or teachers influencing students of color to take easier classes or to not attend four-year universities, and teachers not learning the correct way to pronounce student names. This can also include white students being given more chances before serious discipline, such as suspension or expulsion, is enacted. According to a study published by the Association for Psychological Science, teachers often recognize second offenses in the classroom as the result of a pattern of wrongdoing when it comes to Black students while white students' offenses are often labeled as isolated incidents.

Black girls
While it has been proven that black boys in the U.S. tend to be disciplined more often and more severely, evidence also suggests that black girls experience more racial bias in their education. A research study conducted by the National Women's Law Center and the Education Trust observed that "Black girls are five times more likely than white girls to be suspended at least once and four times as likely as white girls to be arrested at school." The racial bias is compounded as girls also experience gender bias within the classroom, a phenomenon coined as educational inequality. Based on data published by The National Bureau of Economic Research on the short-term and long-term consequences of teachers' stereotypical biases, it was found that teacher biases have a positive effect on boys' achievements in class but have a negative effect on girls' achievements. This can have long-term consequences for the futures of Black girls as it can prevent them from enrolling in the advanced-level classes that are commonly required for STEM majors in college.

Socioeconomic status
Disciplinary methods also vary based on students' socioeconomic status. While high-income students are often reported to receive mild to moderate consequences (e.g. a teacher reprimand or seat reassignment), low-income students are reported to receive more severe consequences, sometimes delivered in a less-than-professional manner (e.g. being yelled at in front of class, being made to stand in the hallway all day, or having their personal belongings searched).

Some researchers argue that zero-tolerance discipline policies in effect criminalize infractions such as dress-code violations or talking back to a teacher, and that these policies disproportionately target disadvantaged students.

Implications
Due to increased suspension and expulsion rates, black students are losing instructional time by spending more time away from the classroom. Lost instructional time can result in lower retainment levels of educational material, lower graduation rates, and higher drop-out rates. Higher rates of punishment in schools can increase interactions between black students and law enforcement when black students are punished with referrals to law enforcement for disciplinary infractions. Referrals to law enforcement following the report of a student to a law enforcement agency or officer by a school employee can include citations, tickets, court referrals, and in some cases arrests, though not all referrals lead to arrests. These interactions with the law are a precursor for the school-to-prison pipeline, which disproportionately affects black students.

Corporal punishment

Throughout the history of education, the most common means of maintaining discipline in schools was corporal punishment. While a child was in school, a teacher was expected to act as a substitute parent, with many forms of parental discipline or rewards open to them. This often meant that students were commonly chastised with the birch, cane, paddle, strap or yardstick if they did something wrong. Around 69 countries still use school corporal punishment.

Corporal punishment in schools has now disappeared from most Western countries, including all European countries. In the United States, corporal punishment is not used in public schools in 36 states, banned in 33, and permitted in 17, of which only 14 actually have school districts actively administering corporal punishment. Every U.S. state except New Jersey and Iowa permits corporal punishment in private schools, but an increasing number of private schools have abandoned the practice, especially Catholic schools, nearly all of which now ban. Thirty-one U.S. states as well as the District of Columbia have banned it from public schools, most recently Colorado in 2023. The other 17 states (mostly in the South) continue to allow corporal punishment in public schools. Of the 17 which permit the practice, three – Arizona, North Carolina, Wyoming have no public schools that actually use corporal punishment as of 2023. In North Carolina however, all school districts have banned the practice. Paddling is still used to a significant (though declining) degree in some public schools in Alabama, Arkansas, Georgia, Louisiana, Mississippi, Missouri, Oklahoma, Tennessee and Texas. Private schools in these and most other states may also use it, though many choose not to do so.

Official corporal punishment, often by caning, remains commonplace in schools in some Asian, African and Caribbean countries.

Most mainstream schools in most other countries retain punishment for misbehavior, but it usually takes non-corporal forms such as detention and suspension.

In China, school corporal punishment was completely banned under the Article 29 of the Compulsory Education Act of the People's Republic of China, but in practice, beating by schoolteachers is still common, especially in rural areas.

In Australia, school corporal punishment has been banned in public schools in all states, but as of 2019, it is still permitted in private schools in Queensland and the Northern Territory.

Non-corporal forms of disciplinary action

Detention
Detention, sometimes referred to as DT, is one of the most common punishments in schools in the United States, the United Kingdom, Ireland, Singapore, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, South Africa, and some other countries. It requires the pupil to report to a designated room (typically after the end of school, or during lunch or recess period) to complete extra work (such as writing lines or an essay, or the completion of chores). Detention can be supervised by the teacher setting the detention or through a centralised detention system. Detention may require a pupil to report at a certain time on a non-school day, e.g. "Saturday detention" at some US, UK, and Irish schools (especially for serious offences not quite serious enough for suspension).
In UK schools, after-school detention can be held the same day as it is issued without parental consent, and some schools make a detention room available daily, but many will require a pupil to return to school 1–2 hours after school ends on a specific day, e.g. "Friday Night Detention". Failure to attend detention without a valid excuse can sometimes result in another being added, or a more severe punishment being administered, such as an in school or out of school suspension.

In Germany, detention is less common. In some states like Baden-Württemberg there is detention to rework missed school hours, but in others like Rheinland-Pfalz it is prohibited by law. In schools where some classes are held on Saturdays, pupils may get detention on a Saturday even if it is a non-school day for them.

In China, long-time detention is perhaps less common than in the US, the UK, Ireland, Singapore, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, South Africa, and some other countries. However, short-time detention by the teachers is still common. Teachers may ask the students to do some missed work after school.

In Australia, the school should consider circumstances when giving detentions. For example, in Victoria, it is recommended that no more than half the time for recess is used for detention, that detentions be held at a reasonable time and place, and when students are kept after school, parents should be informed at least the day before detention, and detention should not exceed 45 minutes.

Counseling
Counseling is also provided when students will have to see a school counselor (guidance counselor) for misbehavior. The purpose of counseling is to help the student recognize their mistakes and find positive ways to make changes in the student's life. Counseling can also help the student clarify the school's expectations, as well as understand the consequences of failing to meet those standards.

Suspension
Suspension or temporary exclusion is a mandatory leave assigned to a student as a form of punishment that can last anywhere from one day to a few weeks, during which the student is not allowed to attend regular lessons. In some US, UK, Australian and Canadian schools, there are two types of suspension: In-School (ISS, Internal Exclusion or Isolation) and Out-of-School (OSS, Off-Campus Suspension, External Exclusion). In-school suspension means that the student comes to school as usual, but must report to and stay in a designated room for the entire school day. Out-of-school suspension means that the student is banned from entering the school grounds, or being near their campus while suspended from school. A student who breaches an out-of-school suspension (by attending the school during their suspension) may be arrested for trespassing, and repeated breaches may lead to expulsion and/or possible criminal penalties. Students are also not allowed to attend after-school activities (such as proms, sporting events, etc.) while suspended from school. Some schools even utilize a loss of privilege policy that prohibits students returning from an out-of-school suspension from participating in the above mentioned school sponsored activities for as long as 2 weeks.

Schools are usually required to notify the student's parents/guardians and sometimes social worker if the suspended student is in special education, and explain the reason for and duration of a suspension. Students involved in physical altercations on campus can be suspended from school for a period of 5 days, while students who throw temper tantrums on campus, direct foul language at school staff members, or engage in verbal altercations with fellow students can be suspended for 3 days. Students are often required to continue to learn and complete assignments during their suspension, sometimes receiving no credit for it. This could include a written essay or journal detailing the reason for the student being suspended from school, which they would be required to hand in to a school administrator upon returning to school following their suspension. Sometimes schools will have meetings with the suspended student, the student's parents, a school administrator, and sometimes a social worker in the case of a special education student to discuss and evaluate the matter following an out-of-school suspension. Studies suggest that school suspension is associated with increased risk of subsequent criminal justice system involvement and lower educational attainment.
School suspension can also be associated with psychological distress, and to have a bi-directional link with mental illness. In the United Kingdom, excluded children have been targeted by "county lines" drug traffickers.

Expulsion

Expulsion, dismissal, exclusion, withdrawing, or permanent exclusion terminates the student's education. This is the last resort, when all other methods of discipline have failed.  However, in extreme situations, it may also be used for a single offense, such as setting fires on campus, the activation of false alarms, or assault and battery against faculty and staff members, or school administrators. Some education authorities have a nominated school in which all excluded students are collected; this typically has a much higher staffing level than mainstream schools. In some US public schools, expulsions are so serious that they require an appearance before the Board of Education or the court system. In the UK, head teachers may make the decision to exclude, but the student's parents have the right of appeal to the local education authority. It was completely banned for compulsory schools in China. This has proved controversial in cases where the head teacher's decision has been overturned (and his or her authority thereby undermined), and there are proposals to abolish the right of appeal. In the United States, when it comes to student discipline, there is a marked difference in procedure between public and private institutions.

With public schools, the school must provide the student with limited constitutional due process protections as public educational institutions operate as an extension of state governments. Conversely, with private schools, the student can be expelled for any reason – provided that the expulsion was not "arbitrary and capricious." In Virginia, as long as a private school follows the procedures in its student handbook, a court will likely not view its actions as arbitrary and capricious.

Restorative justice

In schools, restorative justice is an offshoot of the model used by some courts and law enforcement; it seeks to repair the harm that has been done by acknowledging the impact on the victim, community, and offender, accepting responsibility for the wrongdoing, and repairing the harm that was caused. Restorative practices can "also include preventive measures designed to build skills and capacity in students as well as adults." Some examples of preventative measures in restorative practices might include teachers and students devising classroom expectations together or setting up community building in the classroom. Restorative justice also focuses on justice as needs and obligations, expands justice as conversations between the offender, victim and school, and recognizes accountability as understanding the impact of actions and repairing the harm. Traditional styles of discipline do not always work well for students across every cultural community. As an alternative to the normative approaches of corporal punishment, detention, counseling, suspension, and expulsion, restorative justice was established to give students a voice in their consequences, as well as an opportunity to make a positive contribution to their community.

Restorative justice typically involves peer-mediation or adult-supervised conversations surrounding a perceived offence. Each student has the ability to contribute to the conversation, the person who has misbehaved has the opportunity not only to give their side of the story but also has a say in their consequence. Consequences defy the traditional methods of punitive punishment and instead give students an opportunity for restoration. Restorative justice focuses on relationship building and the community as a whole over the individual student and their offence, creating a sense that everyone has a part in the community and it is everyone's responsibility to uphold the values of the particular community. This is a method that not only increases an understanding of perceived community values, but is also a method thought to work well in cultures and communities where there is a high value on the community, rather than just on the individual.

In 2012, the U.S. Commission on Civil Rights released a report entitled "School Discipline and Disparate Impact," which was somewhat critical of the Department of Education's approach to school discipline.

See also

Footnotes

Sources

McIntyre, T. (2005) Assertive Discipline. Retrieved August 12, 2005

External links
School Climate and Discipline, U.S. Department of Education
Tutorial: Guide to School Discipline MATHguide

School and classroom behaviour

School discipline


Luca Marrone (Turín, Provincia de Turín, Italia, 28 de marzo de 1990) es un futbolista italiano. Juega de centrocampista y su equipo es la A. C. Monza de la Serie A.

Trayectoria
Marrone inició su carrera como futbolista en el equipo juvenil de la Juventus. En 2009 fue ascendido al primer equipo y su debut oficial en la Serie A se produjo el 23 de agosto de 2009 en la victoria de su club por 1-0 sobre el ChievoVerona. El 1 de julio de 2010, Marrone junto con su compañero de equipo Ciro Immobile fue cedido en préstamo al Siena durante una temporada.

Hizo su debut con la camiseta de Siena el 18 de septiembre de 2010, contra el Atalanta siendo sustituido en el minuto 76 del juego. Al finalizar la temporada el Siena obtuvo el ascenso a la Serie A y Luca Marrone regresó a la Juventus. Logró marcar su primer gol con la Juventus el 13 de mayo de 2012 contra el Atalanta en el último partido de liga donde su club se consagró campeón invicto.

El 29 de enero de 2015 se daba como oficial su cesión por 6 meses con opción de compra al Córdoba de la Primera División de España, sin embargo en las pruebas médicas (previas a la firma del contrato) se le detectó una lesión en el bíceps femoral, dolencia que incluso podría obligarlo a realizarse una operación, por lo que, a pesar de que parecía todo cerrado, el pase se frustró. En julio de 2015 fue cedido en préstamo al Carpi F. C.

Selección nacional
Ha sido internacional con la selección de fútbol de Italia en las categorías sub-17, sub-19 y sub-21.

Participaciones en Eurocopas

Clubes

Palmarés

Campeonatos nacionales

Referencias

Enlaces externos

 Perfil y estadísticas
 Ficha oficial de Luca Marrone en la Serie B

Futbolistas de la Juventus de Turín
Futbolistas de la Associazione Calcio Robur Siena 1904
Futbolistas de la Unione Sportiva Sassuolo Calcio
Futbolistas del A.C. Carpi
Futbolistas del Hellas Verona Football Club
Futbolistas del SV Zulte Waregem
Futbolistas del Football Club Bari 1908
Futbolistas del Football Club Crotone
Futbolistas de la Associazione Calcio Monza
Futbolistas de la selección de fútbol sub-17 de Italia
Futbolistas de la selección de fútbol sub-19 de Italia
Futbolistas de la selección de fútbol sub-21 de Italia
Nacidos en Turín

Luca Marrone


Nicolae (Niculae) Saramandu () este un filolog român, cercetător la Institutul de Lingvistică "Iorgu Iordan – Al. Rosetti" al Academiei Române, membru corespondent al Academiei.

Note

Legături externe
 Membrii ILIR – Institutul de Lingvistică al Academiei Române "Iorgu Iordan – Al. Rosetti"

Nașteri în 1941
Filologi români
Membri corespondenți ai Academiei Române
Lingviști aromâni

Nicolae Saramandu


Gunsmoke (dizi), 1955 yılından 1975 yılına kadar 633 bölüm yayınlanan Amerikan televizyon tarihinin en uzun süreli drama western dizisidir. Yayınlandığı 20 yıl boyunca onlarca farklı yönetmen tarafından yönetilmiş ve yüzlerce farklı kişi rol almıştır.

Gunsmoke, 1952 yılında yazar John Meston ve yapımcı Norman MacDonnell tarafından CBS için radyo serisi olarak yaratılmıştır. Dizinin erken dönemine ait birçok bölümü Meston'ın radyo yazılarından uyarlanmıştır. Radyo serisi 400'den fazla bölüm sürmüş ve 1961'de sona ermiştir.

James Arness ve Milburn Stone, 20 yıl süren dizinin başından sonuna kadar rol almışlardır.

1955'te başlayan Amerika Birleşik Devletleri televizyon dizileri
1975'te sona eren Amerika Birleşik Devletleri televizyon dizileri
1950'lerde Amerika Birleşik Devletleri televizyon dizileri
1960'larda Amerika Birleşik Devletleri televizyon dizileri
1970'lerde Amerika Birleşik Devletleri televizyon dizileri
1950'lerde radyo
1960'larda radyo
1970'lerde radyo
Amerika Birleşik Devletleri televizyon dizileri
Amerika Birleşik Devletleri'nde radyo programları
Dramatik televizyon dizileri
Siyah-beyaz televizyon programları
Radyo tiyatrosu
CBS ağı programları

Gunsmoke (dizi)


දහන ප්‍රතික්‍රියාවලින් නිකුත්වන කාර්යානුගත ශක්තියෙන් කිසියම් ප්‍රමාණයක් සැමවිටම උත්සර්ජනයට හෝ ඝර්ෂණයට හෝ හානි වන බවත් එබැවින් ඵලදායී කාර්යය බවට පරිණාමනය නොවන බවත් නිරික්ෂණය කිරීම් වලට ප්‍රතිචාර වශයෙන් එන්ට්‍රොපි  සංකල්පය විකාස කෙරිණි.

තාප රසායනය
තාපගති විද්‍යාව

එන්ට්‍රොපියෙහි ඉතිහාසය


Çayırgülü, Elazığ ilinin Karakoçan ilçesine bağlı bir köydür.

Tarihçe
Köyün adı, 1928 yılı kayıtlarında Badran ya da Badiran olarak geçmektedir.

Coğrafya
Köy, Elazığ il merkezine 115 km, Karakoçan ilçe merkezine 11 km uzaklıktadır.

Nüfus

Kaynakça

Dış bağlantılar

Karakoçan belde ve köyleri

Çayırgülü


Wellstedia, biljni rod smješten u vlastitu porodicu Wellstediaceae, dio reda Boraginales. Sastoji se od nekoliko vrsta koje rastu po Africi (Somalija, Etiopija, Namibija, Western Cape) i Sokotri

Ponekad se svrstava u potporodicu Wellstedioideae Pilg., dio porodice Boraginaceae

Vrste
 Wellstedia dinteri Pilg.
 Wellstedia filtuensis D.R.Hunt & Lebrun
 Wellstedia laciniata Thulin & A.Johanss.
 Wellstedia robusta Thulin
 Wellstedia socotrana Balf.f.
 Wellstedia somalensis Thulin & A.Johanss.

Izvori

Boražinolike

Wellstedia


La Estación Ferroviaria de Espinho, también conocida como Estación de Espinho, es una plataforma de la línea del Norte, que sirve a la ciudad de Espinho, en Portugal.

Descripción

Localización y accesos
Esta plataforma se encuentra junto a la Avenida 8, en el interior de la localidad de Espinho.

Historia

Siglo XX
En 1903, la Compañía Real de los Caminhos de Ferro Portugueses ordenó que fuesen instalados, en esta plataforma, semáforos del sistema Nunes Barbosa, debido al bueno desempeño que este equipamiento tuvo en otras estaciones.

El 28 de agosto de 1902, la Compañía Real instituyó, a partir del 1 de septiembre, una parada de un minuto en esta estación, de los convoyes expressos entre Porto y Lisboa-Rossio.

En 1932, la Compañía de los Caminhos de Ferro Portugueses abrió un pozo en esta estación.

Véase también
 Red Ferroviaria Nacional
 Comboios de Portugal

Referencias

Enlaces externos

Página con fotografías de la Estación de Espinho, en la web de Railfaneurope

Espinho
Espinho
Espinho
Espinho

Estación de Espinho


Geky Dor bila je talijanska serija stripova koju je kreirao i napisao Andrea Lavezzolo, a crtao Andrea Bresciani. Izlazio je tjedno u 20 brojeva od 1949. do 1950.

Pozadina
Inspirirana novinskom pričom, serija pripovijeda o pustolovinama Gekyja Dora, mladića koji se pretvara u detektiva kako bi očistio ime svog oca koji je pogrešno optužen za ubojstvo. Gekyja u njegovim pustolovinama prati Salvatore, skitnica s kojim se sprijateljio. Tajanstvena figura poznata samo pod nazivom "il fantasma" (duh) intervenira u različitim točkama kako bi spasila par od opasnosti. Geky Dor bio je treći glavni strip junak kojeg je stvorio Lavezzolo, a drugi na kojem su on i Bresciani surađivali. Prvo izdanje, objavljeno 20. studenoga 1949., nosilo je naslov Doloroso ritorno (Tužni povratak). Posljednje izdanje i završna epizoda, La vittoria del fantasma (Duhova pobjeda), objavljeno je 9. travnja 1950. Serija je ponovno objavljena 1954. u dječjem časopisu Il Giornalino di Lucky s promijenjenim imenom glavnog junaka u "Teddy Len". Čitava serija objavljena je faksimilom i pod svojim izvornim imenom 1978. godine od strane Associazione Nazionale Amici del Fumetto.

Vidi također
Ostale serije stripova koje je kreirao Andrea Lavezzolo:

 Gim Toro (1946. – 1951.)
 Tony Falco (1948. – 1949.)
 Kinowa (1950. – 1961.)
 Kit Teller (1958. – 1985.)

Izvori

Talijanski strip

Geky Dor


Jaxl er stór og flöt tönn aftast í munninum.

Tennur

Jaxl


එම්අයි6 (හමුදාමය බුද්ධිතොරතුරු, කොටස 6) ලෙසින් පොදුවේ හැඳින්වෙන, රහස් බුද්ධිතොරතුරු සේවාව (එස්අයිඑස්) යනු, බ්‍රිතාන්‍ය රජය වෙත විදේශ බුද්ධිතොරතුරු සපයන බ්‍රිතාන්‍ය බුද්ධිතොරතුරු කාර්යාංශය  වෙයි. අභ්‍යන්තර ආරක්ෂණ සේවාව (එම්අයි5), රජයේ  සන්නිවේදන මූලස්ථානය (ජීසීඑච්කිවු) සහ  ආරක්ෂක බුද්ධිතොරතුරු (ඩීඅයි) හා සමගින් එය ක්‍රියාත්මක වන්නේ,  ඒකාබද්ධ බුද්ධිතොරතුරු කමිටුවෙහි (ජේඅයිසී) විධිමත් මෙහෙයුම යටතෙහිය.

නිතොරම පාහේ එය හැඳින්වෙන්නේ එම්අයි6 (හමුදාමය බුද්ධිතොරතුරු, කොටස 6) යන නමින් වන අතර, පළමු ලෝක යුද්ධයෙහිදී විවිධ නම් වලින් එය හැඳින්වුනු සමයක පහසුව තකා භාවිතා වූවකි.  1994 වසර වන තුරුම, එම්අයි6 හි පැවැත්ම  නිල වශයෙන් පිළිනොගැනුනි.

එම කාර්යාංශයේ වසර-101ක ඉතිහාසයෙහි, නිලදරමින් සිටි ප්‍රධානියෙකු විසින් සිදු කල පළමුවැන්න ලෙස හැඳින්වුන ප්‍රසිද්ධ දේශනයක්,  2010 වසරෙහි අවසාන භාගයේදී එස්අයිඑස් ප්‍රධානියා විසින් සිදු කෙරිණි. රහස්‍යභාවය පිළිබඳ අවශ්‍යතාවය සහ බ්‍රිතාන්‍ය තුල ආරක්ෂාව පවත්වාගෙනයෑම අතර සබැඳියාව,  ප්‍රාථමික වශයෙන් ඉස්මතු කිරීමට,  ශ්‍රීමත් ජෝන් සෝවර්ස් මෙහිදී උත්සුක විය. කාන්දුවීම් සිදුවන හා තව-තවත් අනාවරණය කරනු ලෙසට පීඩනය  පවතින යුගයක, ආරක්ෂණය පවත්වා ගෙන යෑම තුලින්  ඇතිකෙරෙන  ආතතිය පිළිබඳව හෙතෙම එම දේශනය තුල සිදු කල  ප්‍රකාශය තුලින් පිළිගත්තේය.

1995 වසරෙහි සිට, එස්අයිඑස් මූලස්ථානය පිහිටා ඇත්තේ තේම්ස් නදියේ  දකුණු ඉවුරේ වොක්සෝල් ක්‍රොස් යන ස්ථානයෙහිය.

ඉතිහාසය සහ සංවර්ධනය

පදනම
1909 වසරෙහිදී සංස්ථාපනය කෙරුණු   රහස් තොරතුරු සේවා කාර්යාංශය වෙතින් මෙම සේවාව ව්‍යුත්පන්න වී ඇත.  නෞකා බලස්ථානය සහ යුද්ධ කාර්යාලය යන්නන්හී ඒකාබද්ධ උත්සාහයක් වූ මෙම කාර්යාංශය පිහිටවුනේ එරා සහ පාරසමුද්‍ර ප්‍රදේශයන්හී  රහස් බුද්ධිතොරතුරු මෙහෙයුම් පරිපාලනය කෙරුමට වන අතර, විශේෂයෙන්ම රාජකීය ජර්මානු රජයෙහි ක්‍රියාකාරකම් පිළිබඳ අවධානය යොමුකිරීමටය. නාවික සහ යුද්ධහමුදා අංශ ලෙසින් මෙම කාර්යාංශය වෙන් කෙරුණු අතර, කලක් ගතවත්ම, එම කොටස් පිළිවෙලින් විදේශ චරපුරුෂ සහ අභ්‍යන්තර ප්‍රති-චරපුරුෂ  කටයුතු විශේෂණිකෘත ලෙසින් හැසිරවූහ. මෙම විශේෂීකරණය පිළිබඳ අවශ්‍යතාවය පැනනැගුනේ  රාජකීය ජර්මානු නාවික හමුදාවෙහි සාමුද්‍රිය ප්‍රබලතාවය දැනගැනීමට නෞකා බලස්ථානයට අවශ්‍යවූ බැවිණි. මෙම විශේෂීකරණය රූපිකෘත කෙරුණේ  1914 වසරට පෙරදීය. පළමුවන ලෝක යුද්ධය අතරතුර 1916 වසරෙහිදී, මෙම අංශ දෙක පරිපාලනමය වෙනස්කම් වලට ලක්වුනු විට, හමුදාමය බුද්ධිතොරතුරු අධ්‍යක්ෂ මණ්ඩලය කෙටෙස 6 (එම්අයි6) බවට විදේශ අංශය පත්වූ අතර, වර්තමානයේදී ජනප්‍රිය සංස්කෘතිය තුල එය හැඳින්වීමට එම නම බොහෝ විට භාවිතා කෙරෙයි.

ආශ්‍රිත

1909 වසරෙහිදී එක්සත් රාජධානියේ සංස්ථාපිතයන්
දෙවන ලෝක යුද්ධයෙහි බුද්ධිතොරතුරු සේවාවෝ
බ්‍රිතාන්‍ය  බුද්ධිතොරතුරු කාර්යාංශ

රහස් බුද්ධි සේවය


Andy Selway () este un muzician englez, cel mai bine cunoscut pentru munca sa în trupa germană KMFDM.

Nașteri în 1970
Nașteri pe 3 septembrie
Muzicieni englezi
Oameni în viață

Andy Selway


A cruz cossaca () é um tipo de cruz pátea usada pelos cossacos, pelo Exército de Zaporozhian e pelas Forças Terrestres Ucranianas. É frequentemente utilizada na Ucrânia como um lembrança aos soldados mortos e como premiação militar.

Também foi adaptada como parte do emblema oficial das Forças Armadas da Ucrânia, do Serviço Estatal de Emergência da Ucrânia, do Serviço Estatal de Guarda de Fronteiras da Ucrânia, do Serviço de Segurança da Ucrânia e é retratada nas bandeiras e brasões de vários regiões, distritos e cidades ucranianas, como Konotop, Zinkov e Zolotonosha .

A partir de Setembro, durante a invasão russa da Ucrânia em 2022, as forças ucranianas começaram a pintar uma cruz cossaca branca simplificada em seus veículos como uma forma de se distingui-los das forças russas, semelhante ao "Z", "O" e "V" da própria Rússia.

Exemplos

Referências

Cossacos
Tipos de cruz

Cruz cossaca


Die Copa del Generalísimo 1956 war die 52. Austragung des spanischen Fußballpokalwettbewerbes, der heute unter dem Namen Copa del Rey stattfindet.

Der Wettbewerb startete am 6. Mai und endete mit dem Finale am 24. Juni 1956 im Estadio Santiago Bernabéu in Madrid. Titelverteidiger des Pokalwettbewerbes war Atlético Bilbao. Den Titel gewann erneut Atlético Bilbao durch einen 2:1-Erfolg im Finale gegen Atlético Madrid.

Achtelfinale
Die Hinspiele wurden am 6. Mai, die Rückspiele am 13. Mai 1956 ausgetragen.

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Viertelfinale
Die Hinspiele wurden am 20. Mai, die Rückspiele am 27. Mai 1956 ausgetragen.

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Halbfinale
Die Hinspiele wurden am 10. Juni, die Rückspiele am 17. Juni 1956 ausgetragen.

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Entscheidungsspiele
Das Spiel wurde am 19. Juni in Madrid ausgetragen.

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Finale

Weblinks
 Spielplan und Ergebnisse (linguasport.com)

1956
Fußballsaison 1956

Copa del Generalísimo 1956


Tomislav Zovko (Mostar, 1986.), hrv. slikar iz Bosne i Hercegovine.

Životopis
Rodio se u Mostaru. U Širokom Brijegu završio je Gimnaziju fra. Dominika Mandića. Magistrirao slikarstvo na Akademiji likovnih umjetnosti u Širokom Brijegu u klasi Ante Kajinića. Na toj akademiji je apsolvent na doktorskom studiju Ars sacra pod mentorstvom Antuna Borisa Švaljeka. Od 2015. godine predavač je na Visokoj školi Logos centar u Mostaru. Od 2018. godine u toj školi je voditelj studijskog programa Dizajn.

Sudjelovao je na mnogim likovnim kolonijama. Do sada je samostalno izlagao 10 puta i 70 puta na skupinim izložbama.

Član je Društva hrvatskih likovnih umjetnika u FBiH te član Udruženja likovnih umjetnika BiH.

Nagrade
2016. godine je dobio Prvu nagradu za djelo Težina promjene na skupnoj žiriranoj izložbi Društva hrvatskih likovnih umjetnika u FBiH.

Izvori

Životopisi, Mostar
Hrvatski slikari iz Bosne i Hercegovine
Dizajneri

Tomislav Zovko


Royal Armouries ist das nationale britische Museum für Waffen und Rüstungen. Das Museum geht auf die Waffenwerkstatt der englischen Könige im Tower of London zurück. Bei dem im 15. Jahrhundert gegründeten Museum handelt sich um das älteste Museum des Vereinigten Königreichs und eines der ältesten Museen der Welt. Heute ist der größte Teil der Sammlung in einem Museum in Leeds ausgestellt, kleinere Teile der Sammlung befinden sich weiterhin im White Tower des Tower of London, im Fort Nelson in Portsmouth sowie im Frazier History Museum in Louisville, Kentucky, USA.

Sammlung
Royal Armouries besitzt eine der größten Sammlungen für Waffen und Rüstungen der Welt. Neben diesen Sammlungen bewahrt Royal Armouries auch die Archive des Tower of London auf und sieht sich als Hüter von dessen Geschichte.

Personal
Das Museum ist seit dem National Heritage Act von 1983 eine rechtlich unabhängige Stiftung. Ursprünglich war es Teil des britischen Verteidigungs-, später des Umweltministeriums.

Das Personal des Museums ist oft mit der Ausstattung und der Beratung historischer Fernsehserien und Filme beschäftigt. Dazu gehörten bisher beispielsweise Heinrich V. von 1944 ebenso wie Henry V. von 1989, Hamlet von 1990, Robin Hood von 2010, Braveheart, Rob Roy oder Königreich der Himmel.

Geschichte

Spanish Armoury und Line of Kings
Der Tower war aufgrund seiner eindrucksvollen Gestalt, der Tower-Menagerie und seiner mit zahlreichen Legenden verbundene Geschichte schon früh Objekt von Interesse, und Menschen begannen ihn besuchen. Bald fanden auch die umfangreichen Waffenlager, die das Board of Ordnance unterhielt, Interesse. Die frühesten Nachweise über Besucher, die die Sammlungen des Towers gegen Eintrittsgeld besichtigen konnten, existieren von Paul Hentzner und vom Basler Joseph Platter 1599, der 21 Schilling für seinen Besuch der Sammlungen im White Tower bezahlte.

Die Idee, die Waffen und andere militärische Ausrüstungegenstände für Besucher herzurichten und sie gezielt auszustellen, stammt vermutlich aus der Regierungszeit von Karl II. Das ursprünglich The Spanish Armoury benannte Museum stellte im Tower of London vor allem Relikte des Siegs über die Spanische Armada aus, zeigte aber auch bereits in seinen Anfängen historische Stücke wie Rüstungen und Waffen von Heinrich VIII. oder Keulen, mit denen sich im 9. Jahrhundert sächsische Engländerinnen gegen angreifende Dänen gewehrt haben sollen.

Gleichzeitig mit der Spanish Armoury entstand die Line of Kings. Hier standen lebensgroße Figuren ehemaliger britischer Könige auf Pferden, ausgestattet mit Waffen und Rüstungen ihrer Zeit. Die Authentizität der Waffen und Rüstungen war dabei je nach König sehr unterschiedlich.

Im 17. Jahrhundert befand sich die Ausstellung in einem der Lagerhäuser, die nördlich des White Towers standen. Als diese in den 1680ern für den Bau des Grand Storehouses abgerissen wurden, zog die Spanish Armoury in ein neu gebautes Gebäude im innersten Festungsring um. Dieses stand in der Mauer nördlich des Wakefield Towers und ist heute auch nicht mehr vorhanden. Nach mehreren Jahren im Provisorium zog die Sammlung zu Beginn des 18. Jahrhunderts in die New Armouries.

Small Armouries und Artillery Room

Eine dritte Sammlung, die Small Armoury, entstand nach dem Bau des Grand Storehouse in dessen Obergeschoss. Hier standen vor allem 60.000 moderne Handwaffen, die zusammen mit geschnitzten Holzgerüsten in oft überlebensgroßen spektakulären Aufbauten und Figuren angeordnet waren. Die Small Armouries enthielten Drachen, Schlangen, Sonnen, Streitwagen, Wellen, Walknochen oder die "Hexe von Endor."

Während die Small Armouries von Beginn an für Besucher angelegt war, entwickelte sich der Artillery Room erst langsam dazu. Dieser befand sich im Erdgeschoss des Grand Storehouse, wo die Artillerie des Towers und des Board of Ordnance lagerte. Neben den eigenen Waffen nutzte die Army das Gebäude auch, um hier besondere Waffen oder Beutestücke zu lagern, die dann wiederum schnell Besucher anzogen.

Sowohl Small Armouries als auch Artillery Room gingen beim Brand des Grand Storehouses im Jahr 1841 verloren. Von beiden existieren zahlreiche schriftliche Beschreibungen, allerdings keine Bildzeugnisse.

Queen Elizabeth's Armoury
Unter dem Duke of Wellington, der in der ersten Hälfte des 19. Jahrhunderts als Konstabler des Tower diente, wurde die Ausstellung 1831 in Elizabeth's Armoury umbenannt. Der Duke trug damit der Tatsache Rechnung, dass mittlerweile die meisten Ausstellungsstücke nicht mehr von der Spanischen Armada stammten. Der neue Name geht auf Elisabeth I. zurück, die die Sammlung begründet hatte.

Die Ausstellung befand sich zu dieser Zeit in einem Raum im White Tower. Sie zeigte vor allem verschiedenste Waffen aller Zeitalter. Und obwohl sie auch noch Waffen zweifelhafter Authentizität zeigte (z. B. die Axt, mit der Anne Boleyn der Kopf abgeschlagen wurde, oder die Waffen legendärer englischer Könige), vermerkte der Katalog bereits, dass die Anekdoten und Geschichten oft wenig glaubwürdig seien.

Darüber hinaus fanden sich verschiedene Folterinstrumente in dem Ausstellungsraum. Sowohl Waffen als auch Folterinstrumente waren frei zugänglich, die Besucher durften sie berühren, hochheben und vorsichtig ausprobieren.

Am Ende des Raums stand eine Figur von Queen Elisabeth I. Ähnlich wie die Könige in der Line of Kings saß sie auf einem Pferd. Sie wurde dabei von einem Pagen unterstützt. Elizabeth trug dazu das Kleid, das sie auch trug, als sie in der St Paul's Cathedral Gott dafür dankte, die spanische Armada zurückgeschlagen zu haben.

Der Raum, in dem sich Queen Elizabeth's Armoury befand, diente zeitweise auch als Gefängniszelle. Verschiedene Gefangene hinterließen Inschriften und Bilder an den Wänden, die eine Ergänzung zur Ausstellung der Waffen und Folterinstrumenten bildeten. Vom Raum aus öffnete sich die Tür zu einem deutlich kleineren fensterlosen Raum. Dieser soll der Überlieferung nach die Zelle von Walter Raleigh gewesen sein.

Seit 1996
Im Jahr 1996 zog die Sammlung erstmals aus dem Tower of London aus. Im Zuge der Dezentralisierung des Vereinigten Königreichs sollten in den 1990ern erstmals große Museen London verlassen und in andere Bereiche des Landes ziehen. Für die Royal Armouries wurde ein spezieller Museumsbau in Leeds in Yorkshire im Norden Englands errichtet.

Eine besondere Ausstellung zeigte das Museum 2008 in Leeds, als es sich erstmals Waffen zuwendete, die für Kinofilme hergestellt worden waren. Das Herzstück der Ausstellung waren 120 Waffen und Rüstungsgegenstände, die von Weta Workshop für die Der-Herr-der-Ringe-Trilogie hergestellt worden waren. Diese Ausstellung wurde von insgesamt 160.000 Menschen besucht,

Gebäude

Ursprünglich befand sich Royal Armouries im Tower of London. Erst am Ende des 20. Jahrhunderts begann das Museum, weitere Gebäude zu errichten, um Ausstellungsstücke zu zeigen, die im Tower selbst keinen Platz mehr fanden.

Der größte Teil der Sammlung wird mittlerweile in Leeds ausgestellt. Nachdem die Räume im Tower schon seit Jahrhunderten zu klein waren und fast die gesamte Sammlung im Arsenal lag, schuf das Museum 1996 neue Räume, um zumindest einen größeren Teil der Sammlung ausstellen zu können. Das 1996 in Leeds nach Plänen von Derek Walker errichtet Gebäude ist das erste Gebäude, das als Haus eines nationalen Museums außerhalb von London eröffnet wurde. Es folgte damit dem politischen Programm der Devolution im Vereinigten Königreich, das die zentrale Rolle Londons aufbrechen sollte. Der 42,5 Millionen Pfund teure, als Public Private Partnership errichtete Bau sollte erst in Sheffield oder in Leeds in Yorkshire errichtet werden, dort konnte jedoch keine Einigung mit den Stadtvätern erreicht werden. Im Jahr seiner Eröffnung kamen 360.000 Besucher in das Museum, das damit zu den Top 20 der meistbesuchten Museen des Landes zählt.

Publikationen
Neben verschiedenen Büchern publizieren die Royal Armouries seit 2004 die wissenschaftliche Fachzeitschrift Arms & Armour als Nachfolger des Royal Armouries Yearbook.

Literatur

 Charles John ffoulkes: Inventory and survey of the armouries of the Tower of London. London 1916 (bei archive.org).

Weblinks
 Website des Museums

Anmerkungen

Waffensammlung
Militärmuseum im Vereinigten Königreich
Tower of London
Organisation (Portsmouth)
Organisation (Leeds)
Museum in London
Gegründet 1983
Stiftung (Vereinigtes Königreich)
Museum (South East England)
Museum (Yorkshire and the Humber)
Bildung in Leeds
Kultur (Leeds)

Royal Armouries


Еutih (Si. 380 – Si. 456) je prezbiter  i arhimandrit u Konstantinopolu koga se smatra začetnikom monofizitskog kršćanstva. Prvi put se istakao 431. godine na Efeškom saboru, kada je pokazao žestok otpor učenju Nestorija. Njegova osuda Nestorijanizma kao hereze dovela ga u jednako ekstremni položaj, iako je bio suprotnog gledišta, što je potaknulo njegovo osporavanje kao heretika.

Život
Еutih je bio arhimandrit samostana izvan zidina Konstantinopola, gdje je vladao nad više od tri stotine redovnika. On je uživao veliko poštovanje i bio je kum Krisafija, utjecajanog dvorjanina na dvoru cara Teodozija II.

Kontroverze

Nadbiskup Konstantinopola Nestorije, tvrdeći da Marija ne bi trebala biti nazvana "Majkom Božjom" ("Theotokos" na grčkom, doslovno znači "Božji nositelj", "Bogonosac"), osuđen je kao heretik. U borbi protiv ove tvrdnje Patrijarha Nestorija, Еutih je izjavio da je Isus Krist "spoj ljudskog i božanskog elementa", izvrgavajući samog sebe osudi kao heretika 451. godine na kalcendonskom Saboru koji je održan dvadeset godina nakon prvog Efeškog sabora.

Izvori

Kršćanstvo u Turskoj
Ekumenski sabori

Eutih


Fraxinus anomala er tegund af eskitré sem er ættað frá mið- og suður- Evrópu, Norður-Afríku og suðvestur Asíu.

Tilvísanir

Smjörviðarætt

Fraxinus angustifolia


معلم تأخذ أكثر من معنى حسب اللفظ:
 مُعلِّم، بضم الميم: يعرف أيضا باسم مدرس
 مَعلم، بفتح الميم: مفرد معالم
المعلم البوم غنائي للمنشد الإسلامي سامي يوسف
 الـمَعْلَم، وهي البارامتر أو القيمة الوسيطة أو المَعلَمة الإحصائية

 معلم سياحي
 معلم تذكاري

المصادر

معلم (توضيح)


Tchkalovskaïa (en  et en ) est une station de la ligne 1 du métro d'Iekaterinbourg.

Mise en service en 2012, elle est desservie par les rames de la ligne 1.

Situation sur le réseau

Établie en souterrain, la station Tchkalovskaïa, est une station de passage de la ligne 1 du métro d'Iekaterinbourg. Elle est située entre la station Gueologuitcheskaïa, en direction du terminus nord Prospekt Kosmonavtov, et la station Botanitcheskaïa terminus sud de la ligne.

Elle dispose d'un quai central encadré par les deux voies de la ligne.

Histoire
La station Tchkalovskaïa est mise en service le . La station est due aux architectes S. Ziganchine, A. Ziganchine.

Services aux voyageurs

Accès et accueil

Desserte
Tchkalovskaïa est desservie par les rames de la ligne 1.

Intermodalité

Notes et références

Voir aussi

Articles connexes
 Transcription du russe en français
 Métro d'Iekaterinbourg

Liens externes

 .

Station du métro d'Iekaterinbourg
Station de métro mise en service en 2012

Tchkalovskaïa (métro d'Iekaterinbourg)


Atarfe, İspanya'nın on yedi özerk bölgesinden, ülkenin güneyinde en fazla nüfusu sahip bulunan Endülüs özerk bölgesine bağlı sekiz eyaletten biri olan Granada'ya bağlı 170 belediyeden biridir. Atarfe belediyesinin nüfusu, 2005 yılı nüfus sayımlarına göre 12.355 kişidir.

Dış bağlantılar
 atarfe.net
 Konumu

Granada'nın belediyeleri

Atarfe


Patronyme

 Constantin Amilakvari (1904-1943), militaire français d'origine géorgienne, frère de Dimitri Amilakvari ;
 Dimitri Amilakvari ou Amilakhvari (1906-1942), militaire français d'origine géorgienne, frère de Constantin Amilakvari ;
 Guiorgui Amilakhvari (né en 1980), avocat, entrepreneur, académicien et homme politique géorgien.

Autre
 Dialogue Dimitri-Amilakhvari, page des relations entre la France et la Géorgie, ouverte en 2019.

Patronyme géorgien

Amilakhvari


Bulandet, tidligere kaldt Buelandet, er en øgruppe i havet mod vest i Askvoll kommune i Vestland fylke i Norge. Navnet kommer af bu i betydningen "rorbu".

Beskrivelse
Der er omkring 300 øer, holme og skær i gruppen, hvoraf omkring 15 er beboet. Bulandet havde 1. januar 2017 237 indbyggere. Efter at fiskelejet Utvær i Solund nedlagde, er Bulandet det vestligste aktive fiskeleje i Norge.

I 2003 blev vej- og broanlægget Nordsjøporten åbnet. Tidligere var der færgeforbindelse fra Askvoll/Fure/Værlandet til Bulandet. Nu går færgen til Værlandet, og derfra er der vej- og broforbindelse til Bulandet. Nordsjøporten består af i alt 6 nye broer og 5.240 meter ny vej.

Hovederhvervet er fortsat fiskeri og fiskeforædling, men turisme giver også arbejdspladser og indtægter og er et erhverv i vækst. Der er børnehave og kombineret børne- og ungdomsskole på Bulandet, hvor også børn fra Værlandet går.

Redningsdåden i 1885
Søndag 22. februar 1885 lå skonnerten Gugner af Tønsberg for anker udenfor Utsira, da en voldsom storm blæste op sydfra. Der var 12 mand om bord.

Den ene ankerketting brast, og for ikke at knuses mod klipperne, var mandskabet tvunget til havs i håb om at ride stormen af. Det sneede tæt. Skipet klarede sig, til det blev kastet over på siden om eftermiddagen og kantrede med masterne i vandet, vest for Espevær. Kokken Fredrik V. Aastrøm fra Haugesund druknede under dæk, da kabyssen fyldtes med vand. Resten af mandskabet klamrede sig fast, mens søerne skyllede over dem. Ved midnat knækkede masterne, og vraget rettede sig op, men matros Sjur Bleie fra Hardanger blev skyllet over bord, og forsvandt i bølger og mørke. Vraget holdt seg flydende, fordi det var fyldt med tomme tønder til sildefiskeriet. Men det lå så lavt, at mandskabet måtte klamrede sig fast til et udspændt tov oppe på kahyttaget. Mandag 23. februar omkring kl 4 morgen døde andenstyrmand Jens Bjerkan fra Tromsø og matros Nils Nielsen fra Nøtterøy af kulde og udmattelse. Begge lig blev skyllet over bord. Tirsdag aften døde matros Johan Eitzen fra Tønsberg. Først omkring kl 2 nat til onsdag 25. februar drev vraget ind i brændingerne omkring et skær udenfor Bulandet. De syv overlevende søfolk krøb forkomne i land på skæret i håb om at finde ferskvand, men fandt ikke noget. Først kl. 10 formiddag blev de reddet.

En båd blev sat ud, men måtte vende i uvejret. Datter af lodsen på Hillersøy, Berthe Hansen (f. 1859), løb hjem og hentede tjenestepigen Hansine Tistel  (f. 1864), samt skolelæreren Ole Rogne (f. 1859). De fik en båd sat i vandet, selv om vinden stadig var stærk. Gennemblødte måtte de øse båden, da de nåede frem til skæret. De hentede fire af de overlevende. Flere fik de ikke plads til, men på vej ind mødte de to ældre fiskere i en anden båd. Berthe Hansen sprang over i denne midtfjords, og dirigerede fiskerne ud til skæret, hvor de tre genværende blev reddet. Ifølge de overlevende førte Berthe kommandoen. Redningsdåden vakte betydelig opsigt, og der var tale om medaljer til redningskvinderne. Ole Rogne skrev i rapporten, at pigerne fortjente medalje, men at han selv ingen fortjente.

Lensmanden i Askvoll mente, at Berthe burde få seks eller tre sølvskeer som belønning, mens Hansine og Rogne burde betænkes med tre eller to hver. Amtmanden i Bergen var uenig, for "fordringerne derude ved kysten ere vistnok beskedne, så jeg tror nok, gerningen vil anses belønnet, om Berthe kun erholder tre og Hansine to skeer". Holdningen var, at den, der havde kun lidt fra før, fortjente kun lidt. Skolelærer Rogne havde som mand gjort en dårlig figur i samtidens øjne, og fortjente ingen sølvske overhovedet. Det var også penge sparet for statskassen.

Ifølge skibsregisteret blev Gugner bjerget og gennemgik en stor reparation samme år. I september 2007 blev der sat en statue af de to kvinder op på den vindblæste strand.

Anden verdenskrig
Under anden verdenskrig tjente Bulandet som havn for sejladser mellem Norge og Shetland/Skotland. I maj 1942 blev området ramt af en tysk straffeekspedition, hvor Asbjørn Melvær og Harald Myrvåg blev arresteret for blandt andet at have modtaget og opbevaret våben indført fra England. De blev sendt til Bergen og derfra til fangelejren Grini, senere til den eneste tyske koncentrationslejr etableret i Frankrig, Natzweiler-Struthof, hvor begge omkom.

Kilder

Eksterne lænker
 Opplev Bulandet og Værlandet Fotoserie fra nrk.no

Askvoll
Øer i Vestland

Bulandet


بيجو 106 (بالفرنسية: Peugeot 106) هي سيارة صغيرة فرنسية ركبت من طرف بيجو ما بين 1991 و2003 (تم تطوير التصميم في 1996) عرفت هذه السيارة رواجا كبيرا على طول 12 سنة من الوجود. عدد الوحدات المباعة هو 2798200 وحدة على مدار تاريخ التصنيع.

انظر أيضاً
 نانوفلوسيل

مراجع

سيارات اخترعت في 1991
سيارات بيجو
سيارات دفع أمامي
سيارات عقد 1990
سيارات عقد 2000
سيارات كهربائية
سيارات مدينة
هاتشباك
سيارات توقفت في 2003

بيجو 106


Bjerregrav Mose er et  stort eng- og moseområde med et areal på omkring  10 km², beliggende ca 8 km nordvest for Randers, nord for Fussing Sø og syd for Fårup, i Randers Kommune. Området der er delt mellem mange lodsejere består både af  dyrkede arealer, enge, krat og vandfyldte mosehuller fra den omfattende tørvegravning under anden verdenskrig.  Skals Å løber gennem mosen der også har forbindelse med Nørreåen i et vandskel ved Vejlebæk, sydvest for  Fussingø. Kousted Å løber i den nordøstlige del af området, og løber sammen med Skals Å.

Store dele af mosen er dækket med pilekrat og tagrør, og er hjemsted for mange fugle, bl.a.  nattergale og andre sangfugle. Man kan også møde store flokke af gæs, ænder, måger og terner. Der er også en koloni med fiskehejre . Fiskeørn og isfugle er set ligesom man kan høre  rørdrummen pauke  i området.

Natura 2000
Bjerregrav Mose er en del af Natura 2000-område nr. 30 Lovns Bredning, Hjarbæk Fjord og Skals Ådal, og rummer blandt andet naturtyperne hængesæk og store partier med skovbevokset tørvemose.

Eksterne kilder og henvisninger

Om Bjerregrav Mose på dn.dk
Ekskursionsbeskrivelse på dofbasen.dk

Moser i Danmark
Lokaliteter i Randers Kommune

Bjerregrav Mose


Die Curling-Weltmeisterschaft der Herren 1994 (offiziell: World Men's Curling Championship 1994) war die 36. Austragung (inklusive Scotch Cup) der Welttitelkämpfe im Curling der Herren. Sie wurde vom 10. bis 17. April des Jahres im deutschen Markt Oberstdorf im Eisstadion des Eissportzentrum Oberstdorf veranstaltet.

Die Curling-Weltmeisterschaft der Herren wurde in einem Rundenturnier (Round Robin) zwischen den Mannschaften aus Schottland, Kanada, den Vereinigten Staaten, Deutschland, Schweden, Australien, der Schweiz, Dänemark, Norwegen und erstmals den Niederlanden nausgespielt.

Die Spiele wurden auf zehn Ends angesetzt.

Kanada erweiterte seine Titelsammlung mit dem 22. Weltmeisterschaftsgewinn. Mit 3:2 Steinen bezwang man Schweden im Finale über zehn Ends. Den dritten Platz und damit Bronze teilten sich die Schweiz und Gastgeber Deutschland.

Teilnehmende Nationen

Tabelle der Round Robin

Ergebnisse der Round Robin

Runde 1

Runde 2

Runde 3

Runde 4

Runde 5

Runde 6

Runde 7

Runde 8

Runde 9

Tie-Breaker
Die punktgleichen Mannschaften aus Deutschland, den Vereinigten Staaten und  Schweden spielten die zwei offenen Plätze für das Halbfinale aus.

Runde 1

Runde 2

Play-off

Turnierbaum

Halbfinale

Finale

Endstand

Weblinks
 results.worldcurling.org: Ergebnisdatenbank der World Curling Federation (englisch)

Herren
Curling 1994
Sportveranstaltung in Oberstdorf
Wintersport (Oberstdorf)
Curling (Deutschland)


In mathematics, in particular in the theory of modular forms, a Hecke operator, studied by , is a certain kind of "averaging" operator that plays a significant role in the structure of vector spaces of modular forms and more general automorphic representations.

History

 used Hecke operators on modular forms in a paper on the special cusp form of Ramanujan, ahead of the general theory given by . Mordell proved that the Ramanujan tau function, expressing the coefficients of the Ramanujan form,

is a multiplicative function:

The idea  goes back to earlier work of Adolf Hurwitz, who treated algebraic correspondences between modular curves which realise some individual Hecke operators.

Mathematical description

Hecke operators can be realized in a number of contexts. The simplest meaning is combinatorial, namely as taking for a given integer  some function  defined on the lattices of fixed rank to

with the sum taken over all the  that are subgroups of  of index . For example, with  and two dimensions, there are three such . Modular forms are particular kinds of functions of a lattice, subject to conditions making them analytic functions and homogeneous with respect to homotheties, as well as moderate growth at infinity; these conditions are preserved by the summation, and so Hecke operators preserve the space of modular forms of a given weight.

Another way to express Hecke operators is by means of double cosets in the modular group. In the contemporary adelic approach, this translates to double cosets with respect to some compact subgroups.

Explicit formula

Let  be the set of  integral matrices with determinant  and  be the full modular group . Given a modular form  of weight , the th Hecke operator acts by the formula

where  is in the upper half-plane and the normalization constant  assures that the image of a form with integer Fourier coefficients has integer Fourier coefficients. This can be rewritten in the form

which leads to the formula for the Fourier coefficients of  in terms of the Fourier coefficients of :

One can see from this explicit formula that Hecke operators with different indices commute and that if  then , so the subspace  of cusp forms of weight  is preserved by the Hecke operators. If a (non-zero) cusp form  is a simultaneous eigenform of all Hecke operators  with eigenvalues  then  and . Hecke eigenforms are normalized so that , then

Thus for normalized cuspidal Hecke eigenforms of integer weight, their Fourier coefficients coincide with their Hecke eigenvalues.

Hecke algebras

Algebras of Hecke operators are called "Hecke algebras", and are commutative rings. In the classical elliptic modular form theory,  the Hecke operators  with  coprime to the level acting on the space of cusp forms of a given weight are self-adjoint with respect to the Petersson inner product. Therefore, the spectral theorem implies that there is a basis of modular forms that are eigenfunctions for these Hecke operators. Each of these basic forms possesses an Euler product. More precisely, its Mellin transform is the Dirichlet series that has Euler products with the local factor for each prime  is the inverse of the Hecke polynomial, a quadratic polynomial in . In the case treated by Mordell, the space of cusp forms of weight 12 with respect to the full modular group is one-dimensional. It follows that the Ramanujan form has an Euler product and establishes the multiplicativity of .

Other related mathematical rings are also called "Hecke algebras", although sometimes the link to Hecke operators is not entirely obvious. These algebras include certain quotients of the group algebras of braid groups. The presence of this commutative operator algebra plays a significant role in the harmonic analysis of modular forms and generalisations.

See also

 Eichler–Shimura congruence relation
 Hecke algebra
 Abstract algebra
 Wiles's proof of Fermat's Last Theorem

References

  (See chapter 8.)

 Jean-Pierre Serre, A course in arithmetic.
 Don Zagier, Elliptic Modular Forms and Their Applications, in The 1-2-3 of Modular Forms, Universitext, Springer, 2008

Modular forms

Hecke operator


"Republička nogometna liga Bosne i Hercegovine" je predstavljala ligu trećeg stupnja nogometnog prvenstva Jugoslavije u sezoni 1954./55.
Sudjelovalo je 10 klubova, a prvak je bila "Sloboda" iz Tuzle.
Nako ove sezone, "Republička liga BiH" je rasformirana, te je obnovljena tek za sezonu 1973./74.

Ljestvica

Rezultatska križaljka

 Izvori:

Unutrašnje poveznice
 Hrvatsko-slovenska liga 1954./55.

Vanjske poveznice

Izvori

 Limun Papić, Tomo Marić: FK Kozara 1913-1988, Bosanska Gradiška, 1989., str. 209
 Mehmed Čehajić: Almanah FK "Rudar" Kakanj 1927-1957, Kakanj, 1957., str. 37-38
 exyufudbal.in.rs, Nogometno prvenstvo FNRJ 1954./55.., Liga Bosne i Hercegovine, wayback arhiva

1954-55
BIH 1 republička
1954-55 1 republička
1954-55

Republička nogometna liga Bosne i Hercegovine 1954./55.


, better known by the pen name  was a Japanese author and critic who played a major role in the development of Japanese mystery and thriller fiction.  Many of his novels involve the detective hero Kogoro Akechi, who in later books was the leader of a group of boy detectives known as the .

Ranpo was an admirer of Western mystery writers, and especially of Edgar Allan Poe.  His pen name is a rendering of Poe's name.  Other authors who were special influences on him were Sir Arthur Conan Doyle, whom he attempted to translate into Japanese during his days as a student at Waseda University, and the Japanese mystery writer Ruikō Kuroiwa.

Biography

Before World War II
Tarō Hirai was born in Nabari, Mie Prefecture in 1894, where his grandfather had been a samurai in the service of Tsu Domain. His father was a merchant, who had also practiced law. The family moved to what is now Kameyama, Mie, and from there to Nagoya when he was age two. At the age of 17, he studied economics at Waseda University in Tokyo starting in 1912. After graduating in 1916 with a degree in economics, he worked a series of odd jobs, including newspaper editing, drawing cartoons for magazine publications, selling soba noodles as a street vendor, and working in a used bookstore.

In 1923, he made his literary debut by publishing the mystery story  under the pen name "Edogawa Ranpo" (pronounced quickly, this humorous pseudonym sounds much like the name of the American pioneer of detective fiction, Edgar Allan Poe, whom he admired). The story appeared in the magazine Shin Seinen, a popular magazine written largely for an adolescent audience. Shin Seinen had previously published stories by a variety of Western authors including Poe, Arthur Conan Doyle, and G. K. Chesterton, but this was the first time the magazine published a major piece of mystery fiction by a Japanese author. Some, such as James B. Harris (Ranpo's first translator into English), have erroneously called this the first piece of modern mystery fiction by a Japanese writer, but well before Ranpo entered the literary scene in 1923, a number of other modern Japanese authors such as Ruikō Kuroiwa, Kidō Okamoto, Jun'ichirō Tanizaki, Haruo Satō, and Kaita Murayama had incorporated elements of sleuthing, mystery, and crime within stories involving adventure, intrigue, the bizarre, and the grotesque. What struck critics as new about Ranpo's debut story "The Two-Sen Copper Coin" was that it focused on the logical process of ratiocination used to solve a mystery within a story that is closely related to Japanese culture. The story involves an extensive description of an ingenious code based on a Buddhist chant known as the "nenbutsu" as well as Japanese-language Braille.

Over the course of the next several years, Edogawa went on to write a number of other stories that focus on crimes and the processes involved in solving them. Among these stories are a number of stories that are now considered classics of early 20th-century Japanese popular literature: , which is about a woman who is killed in the course of a sadomasochistic extramarital affair, , which is about a man who kills a neighbor in a Tokyo boarding house by dropping poison through a hole in the attic floor into his mouth, and , which is about a man who hides himself in a chair to feel the bodies on top of him. Mirrors, lenses, and other optical devices appear in many of Edogawa's other early stories, such as "The Hell of Mirrors".

Although many of his first stories were primarily about sleuthing and the processes used in solving seemingly insolvable crimes, during the 1930s, he began to turn increasingly to stories that involved a combination of sensibilities often called "ero guro nansensu", from the three words "eroticism, grotesquerie, and the nonsensical". The presence of these sensibilities helped him sell his stories to the public, which was increasingly eager to read his work. One finds in these stories a frequent tendency to incorporate elements of what the Japanese at that time called . For instance, a major portion of the plot of the novel , serialized from January 1929 to February 1930 in the journal , involves a homosexual doctor and his infatuation for another main character.

By the 1930s, Edogawa was writing regularly for a number of major public journals of popular literature, and he had emerged as the foremost voice of Japanese mystery fiction. The detective hero Kogorō Akechi, who had first appeared in the story "The Case of the Murder on D. Hill" became a regular feature in his stories, a number of which pitted him against a dastardly criminal known as the , who had an incredible ability to disguise himself and move throughout society. (A number of these novels were subsequently made into films.) The 1930 novel introduced the adolescent  as Kogoro's sidekick, and in the period after World War II, Edogawa wrote a number of novels for young readers that involved Kogoro and Kobayashi as the leaders of a group of young sleuths called the . These works were wildly popular and are still read by many young Japanese readers, much like the Hardy Boys or Nancy Drew mysteries are popular mysteries for adolescents in the English-speaking world.

During World War II

In 1939, two years after the Marco Polo Bridge Incident and the outbreak of the Second Sino-Japanese War in 1937, Edogawa was ordered by government censors to drop his story , which he had published without incident a few years before, from a collection of his short stories that the publisher Shun'yōdō was reprinting. "The Caterpillar" is about a veteran who was turned into a quadriplegic and so disfigured by war that he was little more than a human "caterpillar", unable to talk, move, or live by himself. Censors banned the story, apparently believing that the story would detract from the current war effort. This came as a blow to Ranpo, who relied on royalties from reprints for income. (The short story inspired director Kōji Wakamatsu, who drew from it his movie Caterpillar, which competed for the Golden Bear at the 60th Berlin International Film Festival.)

Over the course of World War II, especially during the full-fledged war between Japan and the US that began in 1941, Edogawa was active in his local neighborhood organization, and he wrote a number of stories about young detectives and sleuths that might be seen as in line with the war effort, but he wrote most of these under different pseudonyms as if to disassociate them with his legacy. In February 1945, his family was evacuated from their home in Ikebukuro, Tokyo to Fukushima in northern Japan. Edogawa remained until June, when he was suffering from malnutrition. Much of Ikebukuro was destroyed in Allied air raids and the subsequent fires that broke out in the city, but the thick, earthen-walled warehouse which he used as his studio was spared, and still stands to this day beside the campus of Rikkyo University.

Postwar
In the postwar period, Edogawa dedicated a great deal of energy to promoting mystery fiction, both in terms of the understanding of its history and encouraging the production of new mystery fiction. In 1946, he put his support behind a new journal called  dedicated to mystery fiction, and in 1947, he founded the , which changed its name in 1963 to the . In addition, he wrote a large number of articles about the history of Japanese, European, and American mystery fiction. Many of these essays were published in book form. Other than essays, much of his postwar literary production consisted largely of novels for juvenile readers featuring Kogorō Akechi and the Boy Detectives Club.

In the 1950s, he and a bilingual translator collaborated for five years on a translation of Edogawa's works into English, published as Japanese Tales of Mystery and Imagination by Tuttle. Since the translator could speak but not read Japanese, and Edogawa could read but not write English, the translation was done aurally, with Edogawa reading each sentence aloud, then checking the written English.

Another of his interests, especially during the late 1940s and 1950s, was bringing attention to the work of his dear friend Jun'ichi Iwata (1900–1945), an anthropologist who had spent many years researching the history of homosexuality in Japan. During the 1930s, Edogawa and Iwata had engaged in a light-hearted competition to see who could find the most books about erotic desire between men. Edogawa dedicated himself to finding books published in the West and Iwata dedicated himself to finding books having to do with Japan. Iwata died in 1945, with only part of his work published, so Edogawa worked to have the remaining work on queer historiography published.

In the postwar period, a large number of Edogawa's books were made into films. The interest in using Edogawa's literature as a departure point for creating films has continued well after his death. Edogawa, who had a variety of health issues, including atherosclerosis and Parkinson's disease, died from a cerebral hemorrhage at his home in 1965. His grave is at the Tama Cemetery in Fuchu, near Tokyo.

The Edogawa Rampo Prize (江戸川乱歩賞 Edogawa Ranpo Shō?), named after Edogawa Rampo, is a Japanese literary award which has been presented every year by the Mystery Writers of Japan since 1955. The winner is given a prize of ¥10 million with publication rights by Kodansha.

Works in English translation
Books
 Edogawa Rampo (1956), Japanese Tales of Mystery and Imagination, translated by James B. Harris. 14th ed. Rutland, VT: Charles E. Tuttle Company. .
 Edogawa Ranpo (1988), The Boy Detectives Club, translated by Gavin Frew. Tokyo: Kodansha. .
 Edogawa Rampo (2006), The Black Lizard and Beast in the Shadows, translated by Ian Hughes.  Fukuoka: Kurodahan Press. .
 Edogawa Rampo (2008), The Edogawa Rampo Reader, translated by Seth Jacobowitz.  Fukuoka: Kurodahan Press. .  Contains many of Rampo's early short stories and essays.
 Edogawa Rampo (2009), Moju: The Blind Beast, translated by Anthony Whyte.  Shinbaku Books. .
 Edogawa Rampo (2012), The Fiend with Twenty Faces, translated by Dan Luffey. Fukuoka: Kurodahan Press. .
 Edogawa Ranpo (2013), Strange Tale of Panorama Island, translated by Elaine Kazu Gerbert. Honolulu: University of Hawaiʻi Press. .
 Edogawa Rampo (2014), The Early Cases of Akechi Kogoro, translated by William Varteresian. Fukuoka: Kurodahan Press. .
 Edogawa Rampo (2019), Gold Mask, translated by William Varteresian. Fukuoka: Kurodahan Press. .

Short stories
 Edogawa Ranpo (2008), "The Two-Sen Copper Coin," translated by Jeffrey Angles, Modanizumu: Modernist Fiction from Japan, 1913–1938, ed. William Tyler. Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press.  .  pp. 270–89.
 Edogawa Ranpo (2008), "The Man Traveling with the Brocade Portrait," translated by Michael Tangeman, Modanizumu: Modernist Fiction from Japan, 1913–1938, ed. William Tyler. Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press.  .  pp. 376–393.
 Edogawa Ranpo (2008), "The Caterpillar," translated by Michael Tangeman, Modanizumu: Modernist Fiction from Japan, 1913–1938, ed. William Tyler. Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press.  .  pp. 406–422.

Major works

Private Detective Kogoro Akechi series

Short stories

Novels

Juvenile novels

Standalone mystery novels and novellas
Available in English translation

Novels and novellas which have not been translated into English

 Based on the adaptation of the Meiji-period adaptation of Alice Muriel Williamson's A Woman in Grey by .

Short stories
Available in English translation

 Short stories which have not been translated into English

Adaptations of Western mystery novels
 Adaptation of The Red Redmaynes by Eden Phillpotts
 Adaptation of The Hanged Man of Saint-Pholien by Georges Simenon
 Adaptation of Murder among the Angells by Roger Scarlett

Essays
"The Horrors of Film" (1925)
"Spectral Voices" (1926)
"Confessions of Rampo" (1926)
"The Phantom Lord" (1935)
"A Fascination with Lenses" (1936)
"My Love for the Printed Word" (1936)
"Fingerprint Novels of the Meiji Era" (1950)
"Dickens vs. Poe" (1951)
"A Desire for Transformation" (1953)
"An Eccentric Idea" (1954)

These ten essays are included in The Edogawa Rampo Reader.

In popular culture

Director Teruo Ishii's Horrors of Malformed Men from 1969 incorporates plot elements from a number of Ranpo stories. Noboru Tanaka filmed Watcher in the Attic as part of Nikkatsu's Roman porno series in 1976.
The manga group CLAMP used Edogawa as one of the inspirations for the series Man of Many Faces (1990–1991).
Akio Jissoji's films Watcher in the Attic (1992) and Murder on D Street (1998) are both adaptations of Ranpo's works.  In both these movies Kogorō Akechi is played by actor Kyūsaku Shimada.
In 1994, a film entitled Rampo inspired by Ranpo's works was released in Japan (The film was retitled The Mystery of Rampo for its American release).  Ranpo himself is the lead character of the film and is portrayed by actor Naoto Takenaka.
The 1999 film Gemini by Shinya Tsukamoto is based on an Edogawa Ranpo story.
Some of Ranpo's stories were later turned into short films in the 2005 compilation Rampo Noir, starring the well-known actor Tadanobu Asano.
Barbet Schroeder's 2008 film Inju: The Beast in the Shadow is an adaptation of Ranpo's 1928 short story.
The horror manga artist Suehiro Maruo has adapted two of Ranpo's stories: The Strange Tale of the Panorama Island (2008) and "The Caterpillar" (2009).
In 2009 the Japanese Google homepage displayed a logo commemorating his birthday on October 21.
The manga and anime series Detective Conan (Meitantei Conan) has the main character's alias as 'Edogawa Conan', created from Sir Arthur Conan Doyle and Edogawa Ranpo's names. The detective that he lives with is called Mouri Kogoro, and Conan is part of a children's detective group called the Detective Boys (Shonen Tantei Dan); all apparent homages to the late Ranpo.
The video game Persona 5 has a detective character named Goro Akechi, which is a reference to Ranpo's character Akechi Kogoro.
The anime and manga Bungo Stray Dogs has a character named Edogawa Ranpo, who is incredibly talented at solving crimes the police have trouble with and other mysteries. He claims to have a skill called "Super Deduction", but in reality, he is one of the few members of the Armed Detective Agency not to have a special ability.
The last two episodes (10 and 11) of the 2013 Fuji Television (フジテレビ) series, Biblia Koshodō no Jiken Techō (ビブリア古書堂の事件手帖 Antiquarian Bookseller Biblia's Case Files), are constructed around two Edogawa Ranpo works, Boys Detective Club and The Man Traveling with the Brocade Portrait (translated as "The Traveler with the Pasted Rag Picture").
The online game Bungou to Alchemist featured Ranpo as one of the writers the player can get. In the game, he is portrayed as an eccentric man who hates mainstream things and enjoys creating new tricks, non-malicious pranks, and ways to defeat the enemy.
The 2015 anime Rampo Kitan: Game of Laplace was inspired by the works of Edogawa and commemorates the 50th anniversary of his death.
The 2016 anime Trickster takes Ranpo's characters and sets them in the 2030s. An unusual twist is that Kobayashi is not a boy detective, but instead a character with a supernatural power that keeps him from being killed or dying - but that also keeps him isolated and longing for death.
The Japanese heavy metal band Ningen Isu is named after the short story of the same name.
Several of his works have been adapted or expanded upon by manga artist Junji Ito, including "The Human Chair" and "An Unearthly Love".
The 2021 video game Lost Judgment features the character of Kyoko Amasawa, a teen girl detective and mystery enthusiast who names Edogawa as her favorite author. She also has a 'detective dog' named Ranpo, after the author. In the game, Ranpo is an intelligent Shiba Inu who finds clues by smell.

See also

Japanese literature
Japanese detective fiction
Japanese horror
Mystery Writers of Japan
Edogawa Rampo Prize
Detective Conan

References

Secondary sources
 Leigh Blackmore "Edogawa Rampo and The Red Chamber". Essay (liner notes) in Edogawa Rampo, The Red Chamber, vinyl LP, Cadabra Records (2022).
 Angles, Jeffrey (2011), Writing the Love of Boys: Origins of Bishōnen Culture in Modernist Japanese Literature. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press. .
 Jacobowitz, Seth (2008), Introduction to The Edogawa Rampo Reader. Fukuoka: Kurodahan Press. .
 Kawana, Sari (2008), Murder Most Modern: Detective Fiction and Japanese Culture. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.  .
 Silver, Mark (2008), Purloined Letters: Cultural Borrowing and Japanese Crime Literature, 1868-1937. Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press. .

External links

Edogawa Ranpo at  The Encyclopedia of Science Fiction

1894 births
1965 deaths
Japanese literary critics
Japanese mystery writers
Japanese detective fiction writers
Japanese crime fiction writers
20th-century Japanese novelists
Mystery Writers of Japan Award winners
Writers from Mie Prefecture
Edgar Allan Poe
Weird fiction writers
20th-century pseudonymous writers

Edogawa Ranpo


Danijel Lončar (Osijek, 26. lipnja 1997.) hrvatski je nogometaš koji igra na poziciji braniča. Trenutačno igra za poljski klub Pogoń Szczecin.

Hrvatski nogometaši
Nogometaši NK Osijeka
Životopisi, Osijek
Aktivni nogometaši

Danijel Lončar