البَج أو القط الأنمر ويسمى أيضا السرفال  هو إحدى أنواع السنوريات المتوسطة الحجم التي تعيش في إفريقيا، وهو وثيق الصلة بعناق الأرض والسنور الذهبي الإفريقي. يبلغ طول البج 85 سنتيمترا (34 إنش)، يضاف إليها 40 سنتيمترا للذيل (16 إنش)، ويبلغ ارتفاعه عند الكتفين حوالي 53 سنتيمتر (21 إنش)، ويتراوح وزنه من 9 إلى 20 كيلوغراما (20 - 44 رطل)، ويمكن للبج أن يعمّر لما بين 12 و 20 عاما. يعتبر هذا الحيوان نحيلا، ذو قوائم طويلة وذيل قصير نسبيّا، بالإضافة لأذان طويلة بيضاوية الشكل قريبة من بعضها، وللبج أنماط متنوعة على فرائه تختلف باختلاف الحيوانات، إلا أنها إجمالا ما تكون مرقطة برقط سوداء على جلد أسمر، وللبعض من هذه الحيوانات نمطا خطيّا يعرف بالإنكليزية باسم «servaline = سرفلين» وتكون الحيوانات ذات هذا النمط مرقطة بشكل أقل من تلك العاديّة، وبالإضافة إلى ذلك هناك نمط أسود نادر يشابه بشكله النمر الأسود، كما أن هناك نمط أبيض يظهر لدى البج المستأنس فقط، وتكون هذه الحيوانات البيضاء مرقطة برقط رمادية ضاربة إلى الفضي.

تعتبر السفانا المسكن الرئيسي للبج، على الرغم من أن معظم الأفراد ذات النمط الأسود تعيش في بيئات جبلية عادة، ويحتاج البج إلى مصدر دائم للمياه في منطقته ولهذا فإنها لا تعيش في المناطق شبه الصحراوية أو السهوب الجافة، وهي حيوانات قادرة على التسلق والسباحة إلا أنها نادرا ما تقوم بذلك، وقد تناقصت أعدادها حاليا بسبب استصلاح البشر للمناطق التي تسكنها بالإضافة لصيدها للحصول على فرائها. يحظى البج بالحماية في معظم البلدان التي يقطنها، وهو مصنّف من قبل الإتفاقية الدولية لحظر الإتجار بالأنواع المهددة (CITES) على أنه ليس من الحيوانات المهددة بالانقراض حاليا، لكنه قد يصبح كذلك ما لم يتم التحكم بالتجارة بفرائه بصورة فعّآلة.

أصبح البج يُعتبر مؤخرا أحد الحيوانات الأليفة المفضلة في الولايات المتحدة خصوصا، إلا أن الخبراء ينصون على أن استئناس هذه الحيوانات ليس بسهولة اقتناء قط مستأنس، على الرغم من أن البج الأليف يبدو وديعا كالهر، فهذه الحيوانات يجب أن تمضي فترة طويلة في منزل مالكيها وتتفاعل معهم، كما يجب عليهم أن يقوموا بتدريبها على بعض العادات الخاصة بالهررة الأليفة، بما أن البج لا يكتسبها تلقائيا كما الهر، وحتى هريرات البج المولودة في منزل تتصرف بناءً على غريزتها البريّة وتحتاج إلى وقت طويل لتعتاد التصرّف كالقطط. كما وإن الهريرات غالبا ما تُلاعب أصحابها بخشونة تفوق خشونة الهررة، لذا فإن مالك هذه الحيوانات يجب أن يكون ذا خبرة في مجال التعامل مع الحيوانات كما يجب أن يكون صبورا بعض الشيء. وقد تمّ التهجين بين البج والقطط المستأنسة في محاولة للحصول على حيوان يحمل خصائص من الجانبين، وقد أدى هذا إلى الحصول على حيوان هجين يٌعرف باسم «قط سفانا|السفانا»، وهو من أكبر سلالات الهر المستأنس وأطولها، حيث يعطيه قده ونحوله مظهرا يوحي بأنه أثقل مما هو عليه.

السلالات
هناك 18 سلالة من هذا النوع:
 السلالة البجيّة (Leptailurus serval serval)، تقطن إقليم رأس الرجاء الصالح
 السلالة الموزمبيقيّة (Leptailurus serval beirae)، تعيش في موزامبيق
 سلالة الساحل (Leptailurus serval brachyurus)، تعيش في أفريقيا الغربية، الساحل الإفريقي، والحبشة

 سلالة قسطنطين (Leptailurus serval constantinus)، تتواجد في الجزائر، تونس، والمغرب (مهددة)
 Leptailurus serval faradjius
 Leptailurus serval ferrarii
 سلالة هاميلتون (Leptailurus serval hamiltoni)، تقطن شرقي إقليم الترانسفال
 السلالة التنزانيّة (Leptailurus serval hindei)، تعيش في تنزانيا
 سلالة أوغندا (Leptailurus serval kempi)، تعيش في أوغندا
 سلالة الكونغو (Leptailurus serval kivuensis)، تعيش في الكونغو
 السلالة الأرنبيّة (Leptailurus serval lipostictus)، تعيش في شمالي أنغولا
 سلالة لونغبيرغ (Leptailurus serval lonnbergi)، تقطن جنوبي أنغولا
 Leptailurus serval pantastictus
 سلالة بوتسوانا (Leptailurus serval mababiensis)، تقطن شمال بوتسوانا
 سلالة فيليبس (Leptailurus serval phillipsi)
 سلالة بوكوك (Leptailurus serval pococki)
  سلالة روبرت (Leptailurus serval robertsi)، تعيش في غرب الترانسفال
 سلالة توغو (Leptailurus serval togoensis)، تقطن توغو وبينين

السلوك والتزاوج
على الرغم من أن البج متخصص في اصطياد القوارض، إلا أنه يعتبر مفترسا انتهازيا حيث تشمل حميته أيضا: الأرانب البرية، الوبر، الطيور، الزواحف، الحشرات، الأسماك، والضفادع ، وقد تمت مشاهدة البج وهو يقتنص حيوانات أكبر منه حجما من شاكلة الظباء الصغيرة، إلا أنه إجمالا ما تزن 90% من فرائس هذه الحيوانات أقل من 200 غرام (7 أونصات). ويعرف عن البج أنه يقتات بسرعة كبيرة حالما يمسك بطريدته، وبحال كانت الطريدة كبيرة لدرجة معينة فمن الممكن للبج أن يتقيأ بسبب سرعة أكله التي تسبب انسداد الحلق.

يمتلك البج قوائم طويلة تعدّ الأطول بين جميع السنوريات، بالمقارنة مع حجم الجسد، بالإضافة لأذنين طويلتين جدا، وتعتبر هذه الأعضاء مهمّة لهذا السنور حيث أنه لولاها لما كان باستطاعته التأقلم مع حياة الصيد في السفانا. وتساعد القوائم والعنق الطويل البج على الرؤية فوق الأعشاب العالية، وتساعده أذناه على تحديد موقع القوارض بالضبط، حتى تلك التي تحفر تحت الأرض، ويقوم البج بالوقوف ثابتا دون حراك لمدة 15 دقيقة عندما يصطاد ويغمض عينيه وينصت إلى أي صوت صادر عن حركة. وعندما يحدد البج موقع طريدته يقفز قفزة عمودية في الهواء ليهبط بعدها على الفريسة، وتعتبر هذه القفزة مميزة لهذا الحيوان حيث يعتقد بأنه تأقلم ليقفز بهذا الشكل ليمسك بالطيور التي تقلع بعد أن تجفل. يعتبر البج صيادا ناجحا حيث تتكلل حوالي 50% من محاولات صيده بالنجاح مقارنة بحوالي 1 أو 10% لمعظم الأنواع من فصيلة السنوريات، كما ويعرف بأن البج يحفر الجحور في بعض الأحيان للإمساك بالفريسة.

هذه السنوريات حيوانات انفرادية تتخاطب مع بعضها عن طريق رش البول على النباتات والشجيرات وتعليمها باللعاب، كما وتتخاطب بواسطة بعض الأصوات مثل الصراخ الحاد، الزمجرة، والخرخرة. تتفادى هذه الحيوانات النزاع مع بعضها إجمالا، إلا أنه يمكنها أن تتقاتل بحال تقاطعت مناطقها مع بعضها، وعندما يفاجأ البج فسوف يحتمي في مكان آمن، وبحال فوجئ أو تهدد على حين غرّة فسوف يرفع ذيله ويهرب بسرعة مغيرا اتجاهه بشكل فجائي أو قافزا. يعتبر البج حيوان غسقيّ حيث تكون ذروة نشاطه بين الساعة العاشرة والحادية عشر ليلا، وبين الخامسة والرابعة فجرا. تبلغ فترة حمل الأنثى قرابة الثلاثة أشهر، عادة ما بين 66 و 77 يوما، ويتألف البطن من صغيرين أو ثلاثة تسمّى بالهريرات، وقد يحوي البطن أحيانا صغيرا واحدا فقط، كما وقد يصل عدد الصغار فيه إلى 5. وتقوم الأم بتربية صغارها في موقع محميّ جيدا مثل جحر خنزير أرض مهجور، وبحال لم يوجد مكان كهذا فإنها تكتفي بمكان أقل تحصينا كأن تخبئها وراء أو تحت الأجمات. يشغل الصيد وإحضار الطعام إلى الصغار معظم وقت الأم خلال النهار، وتستمر الأم بإحضار الفرائس لصغارها الذكور إلى أن يصبحوا قادرين على الصيد بأنفسهم، أما الإناث فإنها تتحمل وجودها إلى جانبها بشكل أكبر ولعلّ هذا ما يشرح سبب القرابة بين الإناث التي تتقاطع مناطقها مع بعضها.

تفترس النمور وغيرها من السنوريات الكبيرة البج بحال أمسكت به، إلا أن أخطر عدو على هذه الحيوانات يبقى الإنسان، فهذه الحيوانات تصاد بكثرة للحصول على فراؤها مما أدى إلى انقراضها من إقليم رأس الرجاء الصالح في جنوب إفريقيا، وندرتها في المناطق شمال الصحراء الكبرى، إلا أنها من ناحية أخرى لا تزال وافرة العدد في إفريقيا الغربية والشرقية.

إصدار الأصوات
ينتمي البج لمجموعة «الهررة المخرخرة»، أي الصوت الذي من صفاته أنه يصدر عن طريق استنشاق وزفير الهواء في الوقت نفسه. يمكن سماع بج يخرخر على موقع خطاب الخرخرة لروبرت إيكلوند  أو على صفحة روبرت إيكلوند للحياة البرية. يصدر البج أيضا عدد من الأصوات الأخرى بما فيها السقسقة الحادة، الهسهسة، السعال، الزمجرة، القباع، والمواء.

الأنماط اللونيّة

للبج ثلاثة أنماط لونيّة رئيسيّة، أكثرها شيوعا هو «النمط المألوف» الذي يكون فيه الحيوان أسمر اللون ومرقط برقط سوداء، وهناك أيضا «النمط الأسود» حيث يكون البج أسود بالكامل، وقد وردت تقارير تفيد بوجود هذا النمط في البريّة وفي الأسر على حد سواء. وبالإضافة لهذين النمطين فهناك أيضا «النمط الأبيض» الذي يكون صاحبه أبيض اللون ومرقط برقط سوداء، ولم يتم التبليغ عن وجود هذا النمط في البرية أبدا كما أنه لم يظهر في الأسر سوى في أربع حالات. إحداها كانت في كندا، حيث ولد بج أبيض ومات عندما بلغ الأسبوعين من العمر خلال أوائل التسعينات في القرن العشرين؛ أما الثلاثة الباقون (جميعهم ذكور) فقد ولدوا في إحدى مؤسسات الحياة البرية في عاميّ 1997 و1999 إلا أن أحدهم، والذي أطلق عليه اسم «كونغو» نفق، أما الإثنين المتبقيين فقد أطلق عليهما اسم «تونغو» و«فرعون».

استئناس النوع
كان البج قد أستؤنس من قبل الأفارقة في العصور القديمة، كما كان المصريون القدماء يعبدون هذه الحيوانات بصفتها ألهة ويحتفظون بها كحيوانات أليفة. تطوّر هذه الحيوانات رابطة وثيقة جدا مع مالكيها من البشر، وهي غالبا ما تختار فرد واحد من الأشخاص الموجودين في المنزل كي ترتبط به بشكل وثيق، إلا أنه عندما ترتبط هذه الحيوانات بعائلة معينة فإنه يصبح من الصعب جدا عليها تقبّل عائلة أخرى بحال تم نقلها إليها، ويمكنها أن تظهر علامات عن عدم الرضى بحال حصل ذلك، لذلك فإنه يُنصح أن يكون الشخص الراغب بتربية بج قادرا على إبقائها في منزله طيلة حياتها. وفي الولايات المتحدة يتطلب الاحتفاظ ببج الحصول على ترخيص مناسب من الوكالة المحلية أو الفدرالية المناسبة. يتطلب الاحتفاظ بالبج التزاما فائقا وتخطيطا مناسبا من قبل الملاّك، وبالنسبة لأولئك الذين يتبعون هذا الأسلوب فإن البج يُشكل حيوانا أليفا ممتازا ومحبا.

التهجين مع أنواع أخرى من السنوريات

تم تهجين البج مؤخرا مع الهررة المستأنسة لإنتاج هجين جديد من القطط الأليفة تدعى «بالسفانا». تميل هذه الحيوانات لأن تكون أصغر حجما من البج لكنها تمتلك رقطا مماثلة لرقطه كما يكون لونها مماثلا للونه. تعتبر هذه الحيوانات قادرة على تحمّل وتقبّل تغيّر العائلات التي تتبناها، كما يمكنها تعلّم بعض عادات الهررة المستأنسة التي لا يتعلمها البج بسهولة مثل التبرّز في المكان المخصص لها، كما تكون أكثر ودّا واجتماعيةً مع الغرباء. تكون الحيوانات من الجيل الأول للتهجين مرتفعة الثمن، وذلك يعود لصعوبة تزويج البج بالهررة، وفي الولايات المتحدة فإن معظم الولايات تنظر على الهجين بين سنور بري وهر مستأنس على أنه قط مستأنس بدوره، ولذا فإن الشروط اللازم توافرها لاقتناء هذه الحيوانات هي نفسها المتطلبة للاحتفاظ بقط أليف. كما تمّ تهجين البج مع عناق الأرض أيضا.

تمثيل البج في الأدب والملكيّة
كان البج (بالإيطالية: gattopardo = غاتو باردو = القط النمر) رمزا لعائلة توماسي وهم أمراء جزيرة لامبيدوسا الإيطالية الذي كان أحد أبرز أعضائها أحد أهم الأدباء الإيطاليين في القرن العشرين وهو غوسيب توماسي دي لامبيدوسا.

مصادر

وصلات خارجية
 serval-cats.com - صور، مربين، وبعض المعلومات حول البج وسلالات الهررة المستأنسة
 موقع الاتحاد العالمي للحفاظ على الحياة البرية – معلومات مفصلة
 cat survival trust – معلومات أساسية وبعض الرسوم
 موقع السنوريات الكبيرة – بعض المعلومات
 موقع حديقة حيوانات سيارا سفاري – بعض المعلومات العامة
 موقع البج – البج في البرية وكحيوان مستأنس
 ExoticCatz.com – البج كحيوان مستأنس

أصنوفات سماها يوهان كريستيان دانيل فون شربر
أنواع القائمة الحمراء غير المهددة
ثدييات إفريقيا
ثدييات أنغولا
ثدييات أوغندا
ثدييات الجزائر
ثدييات المغرب
ثدييات بوتسوانا
ثدييات بوركينا فاسو
ثدييات تنزانيا
ثدييات تونس
ثدييات جمهورية الكونغو الديمقراطية
ثدييات جنوب إفريقيا
ثدييات زامبيا
ثدييات غرب إفريقيا
ثدييات في إفريقيا جنوب الصحراء
ثدييات في شمال إفريقيا
ثدييات كينيا
ثدييات مالي
ثدييات ناميبيا
ثدييات وصفت في 1776
حيوانات الصحراء الكبرى
حيوانات شرق إفريقيا
حيوانات مفترسة
سنوريات إفريقيا
لواحم
فصيلة السنانير الفرعية

بج


Clause IV is part of the Labour Party Rule Book, which sets out the aims and values of the UK Labour Party. The original clause, adopted in 1918, called for common ownership of industry, and proved controversial in later years; Hugh Gaitskell attempted to remove the clause following Labour's loss in the 1959 general election.

In 1995, under the leadership of Tony Blair, a new Clause IV was adopted. This was seen as a significant moment in Blair's redefinition of the party as New Labour, but has in the years since survived beyond the New Labour branding.

Text

The original version of Clause IV was drafted by Sidney and Beatrice Webb in November 1917, and adopted by the party in 1918. It read, in part 4:

This section was widely seen as the Labour Party's commitment to socialism, even though the word "socialism" is not explicitly mentioned. The Manchester Guardian heralded it as showing "the Birth of a Socialist Party", stating that:

In 1918, nationalisation was seen by many voters as akin to modernisation – the nationalisation of the railways was a widely supported policy, for instance, as it would reduce the plethora of uncoordinated and competing companies. This text is usually assumed to involve nationalisation of the whole economy, but close reading of the text shows that there are many other possible interpretations. Common ownership, though later given a technical definition in the Industrial Common Ownership Act 1976, could mean municipal ownership, worker cooperatives or consumer cooperatives.

In December 1944, the Labour Party adopted a policy of "public ownership" and won a clear endorsement for its policies – the destruction of the "evil giants" of want, ignorance, squalour, disease and idleness (identified by William Beveridge in the Beveridge Report) – in the post-war election victory of 1945 which brought Clement Attlee to power. However, the party had no clear plan as to how public ownership would shape their reforms, and much debate ensued.

The nationalisation was led by Herbert Morrison, who had had the experience of uniting London's buses and underground train system into a centralised system in the 1930s. He started with the Bank of England in April 1946, whereby stockholders received compensation and the governor and deputy governor were both re-appointed. Further industries swiftly followed: civil aviation in 1946, and railways and telecommunications in 1947, along with the creation of the National Coal Board, which was responsible for supplying 90% of the UK's energy needs. 1946 also saw the establishment of the National Health Service, which came into force in July 1948; railways, canals, road haulage and electricity were all also nationalised in 1948. By 1951, the iron, steel and gas industries had also been brought into public ownership.

Hugh Gaitskell's fight
After losing the 1959 general election, Labour Party leader Hugh Gaitskell came to believe that public opposition to nationalisation had led to the party's poor performance and proposed to amend Clause IV. The left wing of the party fought back and managed to defeat any change: symbolically, it was then agreed to include Clause IV, part 4, on Labour Party membership cards.

The economic crisis of the 1970s, and the defeats suffered by the trade union movement, as well as the decline in influence of the British Communist Party, led to a strengthening of the position of Labour Party members who were opposed to Marxism.

Tony Blair's alteration

Tony Blair had in 1993, before becoming Leader of the Labour Party, written a pamphlet for the Fabian Society which criticised the wording of Clause IV for not clearly stating the means and ends of the party. Blair put forward a case for defining socialism in terms of a set of values which were constant, while the policies needed to achieve them would have to account for a changing society. At the conclusion of the 1994 conference, after becoming Leader, Blair proposed that the Labour Party needed a new statement of aims and values and stated that he would draw one up and present it to the party. This astonished many people, as the last time such a move had been taken in the late 1950s, it had been a failure. The new version was adopted at a Special Conference at Easter 1995 following a debate, and reads, in part:

This version of Clause IV  on the back of individual Labour Party membership cards today.

Presentationally, the abandonment of the socialist principles of the original Clause IV represented a break with Labour's past and, specifically, a break with its 1983 Manifesto (dubbed "the longest suicide note in history", by Gerald Kaufman, one of the party's MPs), in which greater state ownership was proposed.

Jeremy Corbyn's leadership
The , Jeremy Corbyn, was a consistent supporter of renationalising public utilities, such as British Rail and energy companies, to bring them back into public ownership. He also ignited controversy within his party when, in an interview with The Independent on Sunday, he said that: "I think we should talk about what the objectives of the party are, whether that's restoring the Clause Four as it was originally written or it's a different one, but I think we shouldn't shy away from public participation, public investment in industry and public control of the railways. I'm interested in the idea that we have a more inclusive, clearer set of objectives. I would want us to have a set of objectives which does include public ownership of some necessary things such as rail". Although this has been seen by some as an endorsement for the reinstatement of the original Clause IV, Corbyn denied this and said that more discussion within the party was needed.

Other uses

Clause Four was also the name of a campaigning group within the Labour Party's student wing (now Labour Students), which succeeded in ending its control by the Militant group in 1975. However, the attempt of the Clause Four group to oppose Militant in the Labour Party Young Socialists (LPYS) was a failure, and LPYS was eventually dissolved.

Clause Four moment
The changing of Clause IV was seen by political commentators as the defining moment at which Old Labour became New Labour. The phrase "Clause Four moment" has subsequently become a metaphor for any need or perceived need for a fundamental recasting of a political party's principles or attitudes.

References

Further reading
Clause IV, current and original
Emily Robinson. Recapturing Labour's Traditions? History, nostalgia and the re-writing of Clause IV (PDF) University of Nottingham

History of the Labour Party (UK)
Politics of the United Kingdom
Nationalisation in the United Kingdom

Clause IV


Die Wiener Neustädter Stadtwerke und Kommunal Service GmbH (WNSKS) sind ein in Wiener Neustadt ansässiger Kommunalbetrieb, der hauptsächlich die Verkehrsbetriebe und die Müllentsorgung der gesamten Region betreibt. Das Unternehmen wurde im Jahre 2003 gegründet.

Verkehrsbetrieb

Linien

2020 wurde das Liniennetzkonzept überarbeitet um u. a. den Hauptplatz zu entlasten und um umliegende Gemeinden mit den Stadtbus anbinden zu können. € 800.000,- wurden vom Nahverkehrsfinanzierungs-Programm des Landes Niederösterreich investiert.

Fuhrpark
Die Stadtwerke haben in den letzten Jahren massiv in die Modernisierung des Fuhrparks investiert. 2005 waren noch ausschließlich gebraucht übernommene Einzel-Fahrzeuge im Einsatz (die Bandbreite reichte von MAN-Gelenkbussen bis hin zu Kleinbussen der Type Neoplan Metroliner).

Seit 2012 werden ausschließlich Niederflurbusse mit CNG-Antrieb von MAN eingesetzt. Der Fuhrpark beinhaltet Gelenkbusse sowie zwei- und dreiachsige Solobusse.

Abfallwirtschaft und Abwasserbeseitigung
Die WNSKS betreiben die gesamte Müllabfuhr des Bezirks. Weiters sind sie für die Abwasserkanäle zuständig.

Sonstiges
Weitere Dienste, die von den Stadtwerken angeboten werden:
 Bestattung (Friedhof)
 Forste (Erhaltung des Waldes)
 Bewirtschaftung landwirtschaftlicher Flächen (Gutshof)
 Installation (Energieservice)
 Busreisen
 Wasserversorgung

Quellen und Weblinks
 Website des Unternehmens
 Website der Stadt Wiener Neustadt zum Thema Öffentlicher Verkehr
 WNSKS im Stadtverkehr-Austria-Wiki

Einzelnachweise

Stadt- oder Gemeindewerke (Österreich)
Busunternehmen (Österreich)
Unternehmen (Wiener Neustadt)

Wiener Neustädter Stadtwerke


Jim Gottfridsson (Ystad,  2. rujna 1992.) švedski je rukometaš koji igra za SG Flensburg-Handewitt i reprezentaciju Švedske.

Sa švedskom reprezentacijom sudjelovao je na ljetnim Olimpijskim igrama u Rio de Janeiro, na rukometnom natjecanju.

Vanjske poveznice
 Jim Gottfridsson na stranicama SG Flensburg-Handewitt

Izvori

Švedski rukometaši

Jim Gottfridsson


Koláre este o comună slovacă, aflată în districtul Veľký Krtíš din regiunea Banská Bystrica. Localitatea se află la , se întinde pe o suprafață de  și în 2017 număra 258 de locuitori. Comunele vecine sunt Balassagyarmat, Ipolyszög, ,  și .

Istoric
Localitatea Koláre este atestată documentar din 1257.

Note

Legături externe

Localități din Slovacia

Koláre


Klarnet (klarinet ya da gırnata), sert ve dayanıklı ağaçlardan genellikle de abanoz ağacından yapılan üflemeli bir çalgı türüdür. Bir çeşit sert kauçuk olan ebonitten, ayrıca metalden yapılanları da vardır.

Tanımı
Klarnetler, beş parçanın birleşmesinden oluşur, bunlar:

 Ağızlık (Bek)
 Fıçı (Barel)
 Üst gövde
 Alt gövde
 Kalak (Pavillon da denir)

Klarnetin gövdesi silindir biçimindedir. Kalak bölümü ise obuanın kalağına oranla daha geniştir. Dikkatlice yontulup biçimlendirilen bu kamış parçası, ağızlık üzerine takılır. Çalıcının nefesi ile titreşime geçirilen kamış, boru içindeki havayı titreşime geçirerek ses elde edilmesini sağlar. Çalıcının sol eli yukarıda, sağ eli ise aşağıda olmak üzere az bir eğimle yere doğru tutulur.

Flüt ve obuada olduğu gibi, klarnetin gövdesinde de ses deliklerini açmaya ve kapatmaya yarayan metal bir mekanizma vardır. 1840 sıralarında "Boehm sistemi" flüte uygulandıktan sonra, Paris Konservatuvarı öğretim üyesi ve klarnetçi Klosé, bu sistemin klarnete de uygun olduğunu görmüş ve Boehm sistemi klarnete uygulanmıştır. Daha sonra farklı zamanlarda farklı kişiler tarafından bu sistem geliştirilmiştir.

Klarnetin tarihçesi
Klarnet, tarihi 19. yüzyılda Chalumeau (Şalümo) adıyla orkestralarda icra edilen bu nefesli saz klarnetin atasıydı. Fransızcadan gelen bu isim nefesli sazların genel adıydı. Aynı yüzyılda Denner adlı çalgı yapım ustası Şalümo'yu geliştirerek bugünkü sisteme doğru ilk adımı atmıştır. 18. yüzyılda keşfedilen enstrümanın orkestraya dâhil edilmesi 1750 yılında olmuştur. 1800'lü yıllarda klarnetin oda orkestralarında yaygınlaşmasında Mozart'ın rolünün büyük olduğu bilinmektedir. 1812'de Paris Konservatuvarında öğretim üyesi olan Ivan Müller klarnete farklı mekanikler ekledi. Müller'in 13 tuşlu hale getirdiği enstrüman Denner'in sistemine göre daha karmaşıktı. 1840 yılında ses sistemleri için metal tuş mekanizması flüt ve obuada olduğu gibi klarnette de kullanılmıştır. Paris Konservatuvarı Klarnet bölümü öğretim üyesi Klose, Boehm Sistemi'ni klarnete uyguladıktan sonra 1860 yılına kadar enstrüman üzerinde mekanik gelişmeler devam etti. 1900-1925 yılları arasında klarnet artık radyo ve stüdyo kayıtlarında önemli yer tutmaya başladı. Perde sistemlerinin esas amacı akustiğin daha kaliteli elde edilmesi yönünde idi. Şalümo ile 1600'lerde 1,5 oktav ses genişliğiyle yola çıkan klarnet Mozart'ın konçerto ve Quintetlerinde yumuşak ve koyu sesiyle klasik, caz ve pop orkestralarının vazgeçilmez nefesli sazı olarak bugün konservatuvarlarda eğitim metotlarında ve müzik literatüründe yerini almıştır.

Klarnet türleri
Klarnetlerin Çok kalabalık bir ailesi vardır.Buna benzer birçok türden oluşur..
 Mi bemol küçük klarnet (yazılan notanın küçük üçlü ince sesini duyurur)
 Re küçük klarnet * Do klarnet (yazılan notanın aynısını duyurur)
 Si bemol klarnet (yazılan notanın büyük ikili kalın sesini duyurur)
 La klarnet (yazılan notanın küçük üçlü kalın sesini duyurur)
 Basset horn (Fa) (Yazılan notanın tam beşli kalın sesini duyurur)
 Mibemol alto klarnet (yazılı notanın büyük altılı kalın sesini dyurur)
 Si bemol basklarnet (yazılan notanın büyük dokuzlu kalın sesini duyurur)
 La basklarnet (yazılı notanın 1 oktav ve küçük üçlü kalın sesini duyurur)
 Si bemol kontrabasklarnet (yazılı sesin 2 oktav ve büyük ikili kalın sesini duyurur)

Bu çalgıların tümünün çalınışı aynıdır. Bir tanesinin iyi çalmayı öğrenen, çok kısa bir alışma devresinden sonra, herhangi bir diğerini çalabilir. Yalnızca dört tanesi sürekli orkestrada kullanılır.

 Mi bemol küçük klarnet
 Si bemol klarnet
 La klarnet
 Si bemol basklarnet

Bu dört çalgının da dördü birden her yapıtta kullanılmaz. Genellikle besteciler iki si bemol klarnet kullanırlar. Üçlü orkestra kuruluşu ise, bunlara bir de bas klarnet eklenir. Daha büyük orkestralarda mi bemol klarnet ve bir si bemol klarnet daha eklenebilir.

La klarnet Si bemol klarnete çok yakın bir çalgıdır. La klarnetin boyu Si bemol klarnete göre biraz daha uzun, ses rengi biraz daha koyudur. Çalınışı ve ses genişliği aynıdır. Yalnız, Si bemol klarnet yazılı olan notanın büyük ikili kalınını, La klarnet ise küçük üçlü kalınını seslendirir. Besteciler bu iki klarnet türünden birini kullanırlar. Bunun en önemli nedenleri şunlardır:

 Daha koyu bir ses rengi isteniyorsa.
 Yapıtta çok diyez varsa.
 Klarnet partisinin en kalınından Do diyez sesinin kullanılması gerekiyorsa.

Ses genişliği
Klarnetin notaları sol anahtarı üzerine yazılır. Ses genişliği neredeyse 4 oktav kadardır. Bu genişlik içinde tüm diatonik ve kromatik sesler elde edilebilir. Dördüncü ek çizgideki sol notasından daha ince notaların çalınması biraz güç olduğu için bu sesler pek kullanılmaz. Eğer kullanılması isteniyorsa da küçük klarnet kullanılır. En kalın mi notasından bir sonraki oktav içerisindeki si bemol notasına kromatik olarak olarak, aşağıdan yukarıya doğru ses deliklerinin sırasıyla açılması yoluyla elde edilir. Bu Si bemolün incesindeki seslerin elde edilişi, flüt ve obuadakinden biraz farklıdır. Flüt ve obuada en kalındaki esas seslerden sonra gelen sesler, bu esas seslerin ikinci doğuşkanları (bir oktav incesi) olarak, daha incelerde ise, esas seslerin genellikle dördüncü doğuşkanları (iki oktav incesi) olarak elde edilirler. Klarinette ise (gövdesi silindir biçiminde olduğundan) elde edilen doğuşkanlar tek sayılıdır (3, 5, 7, 9). Üçüncü çizgi Si sesi klarnetin yazılı en kalın sesi olan mi sesinin dudak ve nefes ayarı, ayrıca bir yardımcı perde yardımı sonucunda çıkarılabilen üçüncü doğuşkanıdır yani 1 oktav ve tam 5'li. bu Si sesinden üçüncü ek çizgi Fa' ya kadar olan sesler kromatik olarak bu yolla elde edilir. Fa' nın daha incesindeki sesler çeşitli yollardan, her klarnetçiye  ve klarnet yapısına göre değişebilen yollarla elde edilir.

Galeri

Klarinetin tınlama bölgeleri

Klarinetin dört farklı tınlama bölgesi vardır:

 Kalın ses bölgesi : En kalın ses olan Mi' den bir oktav incesi Fa diyez notasına kadar olan bölgedir. Zengin, madeni, gizemli, karanlık ve dramatik sözcükleri ile tanımlanabilir. Bu ses bölgesine "Şalümo" (Chalumeau) bölgesi de denir. "Şalümo" klarnetin atası olan eski bir çalgının adıdır.
 Kötü sesler : Sol notasından üç yarım perde sonraki si bemol notasına kadar olan bölgedir, klarnetin en kötü sesleridir, zayıf, soluk hem de elde edilmesi biraz daha güçtür.
  Orta ses bölgesi : Si notasından ikinci ek çizgi Do notasına kadar olan ve klarnetin en güzel sesleridir. Bu bölgeye "Klarino" (Clarino) ses bölgesi denir. En güzel ve en etkili klarnet soloları bu ses bölgesinde yazılmıştır. Bu sesler duru, parlak, ılık ve etkileyicidir.
 İnce ses bölgesi : İkinci ek çizgi Do' dan sonraki daha ince seslerdir. Gür çalındığında sert ve rahatsız edici fakat kısık sesle çalındığında ılık ve yumuşak, flüt ses rengine yakın bir tını özelliği gösterir.

Teknik özellikleri

Klarnet, çeviklik bakımından flüte çok yakındır. Her çeşit hızlı, parlak, gösterişli pasajlar, diziler, arpejler, grupetto ve benzeri figürler, tril ve tremololar rahatlıkla çalınabilir. Genellikle tek dil kullanırlar. Çift dil ve üç dil çok zor olduğundan, özel durumlar olmadıkça kullanılmaz. Bir ses bölgesinden başka bir ses bölgesine geniş aralıklı atlamalar, klarnete özgü kolaylıklardan biridir. Ancak hızlı tekrarlanan sesleri çalmakta oldukça sınırlıdır. Klarnetin en önemli özelliklerinden biri de, gürlük kontrolü bakımından son derece yetenekli olmasıdır. Çok kısık sesle ve çok gür sesle çalınabilir.

Orkestradaki önemi
Klarnete orkestrada hızlı, akıcı, parlak, gösterişli pasajlardan geniş duygusal ezgilere dek her türlü görev verilir. Duru ve parlak ses rengi ile birleşen etkili kreşendo ve dekreşendo yeteneği, klarnetin "Espressivo" solo pasajlarda sık sık görevlendirilmesine neden olur. Ses rengi diğer tahta üflemeliler ile iyi kaynaşır. Başka çalgılardaki temaları katlamak, gerekirse arka plandaki armonileri sağlamak ve eşlik figürlerini seslendirmek klarnetin yapabileceği en önemli görevlerdir.

Ayrıca bakınız
 Klarnetçiler listesi
 Tahta nefesli çalgılar

Alman icatları
Tahta nefesli çalgılar

Klarnet


Alt Penedès () is a comarca (county) in the Penedès region, in Catalonia, Spain. The capital is Vilafranca del Penedès.

Municipalities

References

External links
Official website

Comarques of the Province of Barcelona

Alt Penedès


බුදු දහමේ චිර පැවැත්ම සඳහා සිදු කෙරුණ විවිධ ක්‍රියාකාරකම් අතර ධර්ම සංගායනා ප්‍රමුඛ ස්ථානයක් ගනියි. ධර්ම සංගායනාවක් යනු ''බුදුරජාණන් වහන්සේ විසින් දේශනාකරන ලද ධර්මය හා පනවන ලද විනය භික්ෂූන් වහන්සේලා එක් වී සජ්®ායනා කිරීම˜ යැයි සරල ව අර්ථකථනය කළ හැකි ය.
එය තරමක් විස්තරාත්මක ව ඉදිරිපත් කළ හොත්,ඉන් අදහස් වන්නේ ශාසනාභිවෘද්ධිකාමී මහ තෙරවරුන් විසින් බුද්ධ වචනය ඒකරාශි කොට වැරැදි අදහස් ඇතුළත් වී ඇත්නම් එAවා නිවැරැදි කොට ඇති වන ගැටලූ ධර්ම විනයට අනුව විසඳමින්, ශාසන ශෝධනයක් ඇති කරලීම අරමුණු කොට ගෙන සිදු කරන ක්‍රියාවලියකි.

මේ උතුම් අරමුණ පෙරදැරි ව සිදු කළ සංගායනා පිළිබඳ ව ශාසන ඉතිහාසයේ සඳහන් වේ. එ් අනුව ථේරවාදී බෞද්ධ සම්ප‍්‍රදාය මගින් පැවැත්වූ සංගායනා හයකි. ඉන් පළමු වැන්න බුද්ධ පරිනිර්වාණයෙන් තෙමසක් ගිය තැන මගධ රාජ්‍යයේ රජගහ නුවර දී ද, දෙවැන්න බුද්ධ පරිනිර්වාණයෙන් වසර සියයක් ගිය තැන විශාලා මහනුවර දී ද, තෙවැන්න බුදුරදුන් පිරිනිවන් පා වසර 236 ක් ගිය තැන පැළලූප් නුවර දී ද පවත්වා ඇත. හතර වන ධර්ම සංගායනාව ක‍්‍රි.පූ. පළමු වැනි සියවසේ ලංකාවේ මාතලේ අලූවිහාරයේ දී ද, පස් වන හා හය වන සංගායනාව මියැන්මාරයේ දී (බුරුමය) ද පවත්වා ඇත. මීට අමතරව භාරතයේ ම පැවති හතර වන ධර්ම සංගායනාවක් ගැන ද ඉතිහාසයේ සඳහන් වෙයි. එය ථේරවාදී සම්ප‍්‍රදායට අයත් නොවෙයි.

 මාමක භාණක තෙරවරුන් විසින් මුඛ පරම්පරාවෙන් පවත්වාගෙන ආ ත‍්‍රිපිටක ධර්මය ග‍්‍රන්ථාරූඪ කිරීම මෙහි දී සිදු විය. එය ශී‍්‍ර ලාංකික ගෞරවනීය මහා සංඝරත්නය විසින් කරන ලද උතුම් යුග මෙහෙවරකි.

සංගායනාව පැවැත්වීමට හේතු

ශාසන ඉතිහාසය විමසීමේ දී පුස්තකාරූඪ සංගීතිය පැවැත්වීමට ලාංකේය භික්ෂූන්
වහස්සේලා පෙළඹවූ හේතු ගණනාවක් හඳුනා ගත හැකි ය.

1.බුදු දහම ලංකාවට ලැබුණු දා පටන් එය ආරක්ෂා කරමින් පවත්වා ගෙන එනු ලැබුවේ මහා විහාරීය භික්ෂුන් වහන්සේලා විසිනි. එ් සඳහා රාජ්‍ය අනුග‍්‍රහය නොමඳ ව ලැබුණි. නමුත් ක‍්‍රි.පූ. පළමු සියවසේ බලයට පත් වට්ඨගාමිණි අභය හෙවත් වළගම්බා රජු දෙවන වර බලයට පත් වීමත් සමග මේ තත්ත්වයේ වෙනසක් ඇති විය. එම රජු විසින් තමන්ට දෙවන වර බලයට පත් වීමට උපකාර කළ කුපික්කල මහා තිස්ස හිමියන්ට ප‍්‍රතිඋපකාරයක් වශයෙන් අභයගිරිය කරවා පූජා කිරීමත් සමග ශාසනික අර්බුදයක් මෙරට නිර්මාණය විය. රජු අභයගිරි පාර්ශ්වයට හිතවත් ව කටයුතු කිරීමත් එම පාර්ශ්වය ඉන්දියාවෙන් පැමිණි ධර්මරුචි නම් භික්ෂුවගේ ඉගැන්වීම් ගුරුකොට ක‍්‍රියා කිරීමත් නිසා මහාවිහාරික භික්ෂූන් වහන්සේලා ආරක්ෂා කළ ථේරවාද බුදු දහමට අභියෝගයක් එල්ල විය. ධර්මරුචි තෙරුන් වහන්සේගේ ඉගැන්වීම් ථේරවාදී බුදුදහමට පටහැනි විය. අනාගතයේ දී එම දහම ථේරවාදී බුදු දහමට හානි කරනු ඇතැයි ලක්දිව තෙරවරුන් තුළ ඇති වූ සැකය මෙම සංගීතිය පැවැත්වීමට හේතු වූ එක් කරුණකි.කෙටියෙන්

2.වළගම්බා රාජ්‍ය සමයේ බැමිණිතියා නම් සාගතයක් ද ඇති විය. මේ සාගතයට වසර දොළහක් මුළුල්ලේ පැවති මහා නියඟය බලපෑවේ ය. එම වකවානුවේ ගිහි ජනතාව මෙන් ම භික්ෂූන් වහන්සේ ද ආහාර අහේනියෙන් පෙළුණහ. ත‍්‍රිපිටකය කට පාඩමින් පවත්වා ගෙන ආ සමහර භික්ෂූන් වහන්සේලා මෙම සාගතය නිසා අහේනියෙන් අපවත් වූහ. ඇතැම් භික්ෂූන් වහන්සේලා ඉන්දියාවට වැඩම කොට ජීවිතය ආරක්ෂා කර ගත්හ. තවත් පිරිසක් හාමතේ මියයතත් ලක්බිම හැර නොයාමට තීරණය කොට මහවැලි ගගේ වැලි තලාවේ වැතිර ත‍්‍රිපිටකය කට පාඩම් කළ බව සඳහන් වේ. සාගතය අවසානයේ ඉතිරි වූ භික්ෂූන් වහන්සේලා මහා විහාරයට රැුස්වූ අතර දහම කට පාඩමින් ම පවත්වා ගෙන යාම මෙවන් තත්ත්වයක් යටතේ අනතුරුදායක බව අවධානයට යොමු කළහ.

3.වළගම්බා රාජ්‍ය සමය යුද ගැටුම්වලින් පිරුණකි. සිහසුනට පත් ව නොබෝ කලකින් දකුණු ඉන්දියාවෙන් පැමිණි ආක‍්‍රමණිකයෝ වළගම්බා රජතුමා පළවා හැර සිහසුන අත්පත් කර ගත්හ. ආක‍්‍රමණිකයන් සත් දෙනෙකු සිටි බව ද ඔවුන් එකිනෙකා මරා ගනිමින් දාහතර වසරක් රට පාලනය කළ බව ද සඳහන් වේ. භික්ෂූන් වහන්සේලාගේ මග පෙන්වීම ද දේශ හිතෛෂී ජන නායකයන්ගේ හා ප‍්‍රජාවගේ අනුග‍්‍රහය ද ඇති ව වළගම්බා රජතෙමේ අවසන් ආක‍්‍රමණිකයා පළවා හැර සිහසුනට පත් විය. මෙම දීර්ඝකාලීන යුද වාතාවරණය ශාසනික සංවිධානයේ යහපැවැත්මට මෙන් ම ථේරවාද බුදු දහමේ චිරස්ථිතියට ද හානිකර ලෙස බලපෑවේ ය. මුඛ පරම්පරාවෙන් ධර්මය පවත්වා ගෙන ගිය ගුරු ශිෂ්‍ය භික්ෂූහු විසිර නොමිලේ බෙදාහැරීම ස`දහාය 104ගියහ. යුද බිය නිසා විටෙක වනගත වූහත හුදෙකලා වූහ. ධර්මය මුඛ පරම්පරාවෙන් ගෙන යාමට අවශ්‍ය කාය චිත්ත විවේකය ද නැති විය. මේ තත්ත්වය තුළ යුද ගැටුම් අවසන් වූ පසු ති‍්‍රපිටක ධර්මයේ සුරක්ෂිත බව සඳහා එය ග‍්‍රන්ථාරූඪ කිරීමේ වැදගත්කම තෙරුන් වහන්සේලාට පෙනී ගියේ ය.

4.ලක්දිව ඇතැම් භික්ෂූන් වහන්සේලා ශාසනික පිළිවෙතින් පිරිහී යාම ද අලූවිහාර සංගායනාව පැවැත්වීමට මහ තෙරවරුන් පෙළඹවූ තවත් කරුණකි. ධර්ම විනය මුඛ පරම්පරාවෙන් පවත්වාගෙන යෑමේ වගකීම පිළිවෙතින් පිරිහී යමින් සිටින ස`ග පරපුර විසින් නිසි ලෙස ඉටු නොකරනු ඇතැයි මහ තෙරවරුන් තුළ සැකයක් ඇති වී යැයි සිතිය හැකි ය. මහා නිද්දේසයට ඇතුළත් ධර්ම කරුණු දැන සිටි එක ම භික්ෂුව ද දුසිල් ජීවිතයක් ගතකළ බව සඳහන් වේ. මේ තත්ත්වය ද ත‍්‍රිපිටක ධර්මය ග‍්‍රන්ථාරූඪ කිරීමේ අවශ්‍යතාව ඇති කළ බව සැලකිය හැකි ය.

5.ලාංකේය භික්ෂූන් වහන්සේ මෙකල කණ්ඩායම් දෙකකට බෙදී සිටියහ. ග‍්‍රන්ථ ධුරය වඩන භික්ෂූන් හා විදර්ශනා ධුරය වඩන භික්ෂූන් වශයෙනි. ග‍්‍රන්ථ ධුරය වැඩූ භික්ෂූහු විදර්ශනා ධුරය වැඩූ භික්ෂූන්ට වඩා ප‍්‍රබල වූහ. ග‍්‍රන්ථ ධුරය වැඞීම
සඳහා ත‍්‍රිපිටකය ලේඛනාරූඪ කිරීම වඩාත් වැදගත් වීම ද මෙම සංගායනාව පැවැත්වීමට හේතු වී තිබේ.

6.මේ වන විට ධර්මය ඇසීමටත්, ඉගෙනීමටත්, එ් පිළිබඳ පර්යේෂණ පැවැත්වීමටත් ඇතැමුන් තුළ උනන්දුවක් ඇති වී තිබේ. එබඳු කටයුතු මුඛ පරම්පරාවෙන් පමණක් පවත්වාගෙන යාම අපහසු බව ඔවුනට වැටහිණි. ත‍්‍රිපිටකය ලේඛනගත කිරීමෙන් එයට විසඳුම් ලබා ගත හැකි බව තේරුම් ගැනිණි. මෙබඳු හේතු ගණනාවක් පදනම් කරගෙන ක‍්‍රි.පූ. පළමු සියවසේ මාතලේ අලූවිහාරයේ දී ප‍්‍රදේශීය නායකයෙකුගේ අනුග‍්‍රහ ඇති ව භික්ෂූන් වහන්සේ පන්සීයකගේ සහභාගිත්වයෙන් හතර වන ධර්ම සංගීතිය පවත්වන ලදි. එහි දී සිදු වූයේ පාලි භාෂාමය වූ ථේරවාද ති‍්‍රපිටකය ග‍්‍රන්ථාරූඪ කිරීමයි.

උපුටා ගැනීම

☻ ○ බුද්ධ ධර්මය 10 ශ්‍රේණිය පොතේ 19 වන පාඩමින් උපුටා ගන්නා ලදී. ○ ☻

බුදු දහම සහ බුද්ධාගම

සසුන සුරැකි සංගායනා


Grameen Bank () is a microfinance organisation and community development bank founded in Bangladesh. It makes small loans (known as microcredit or "grameencredit") to the impoverished without requiring collateral.

Grameen Bank originated in 1976, in the work of Professor Muhammad Yunus at University of Chittagong, who launched a research project to study how to design a credit delivery system to provide banking services to the rural poor. In October 1983 the Grameen Bank was authorised by national legislation to operate as an independent bank.

The bank grew significantly between 2003 and 2007. As of January 2022, the total borrowers of the bank number nearly 9.5 million, and 96.81% of those are women. In 1998 the Bank's "Low-cost Housing Program" won a World Habitat Award. In 2006, the bank and its founder, Muhammad Yunus, were jointly awarded the Nobel Peace Prize.

The bank's success has inspired similar projects in more than 64 countries around the world, including a World Bank initiative to finance Grameen-type schemes.

History
Muhammad Yunus was inspired during the Bangladesh famine of 1974 to make a small loan of US$27 to a group of 42 families as start-up money so that they could make items for sale, without the burdens of high interest under predatory lending. Yunus believed that making such loans available to a larger population could stimulate businesses and reduce the widespread rural poverty in Bangladesh.

Yunus developed the principles of the Grameen Bank from his research and experience. Grameen Bank is Bengali for "Rural" or "Village" Bank. He began a research project, together with a national commercial bank and the University of Chittagong, extending microcredit to test his method for providing credit and banking services to the rural poor. In 1976, the village of Jobra became the first to be served by the project. Over the next two years, the project expanded to other villages in the area. The project, with support from the Bangladesh Bank, was extended in 1979 to the Tangail District (to the north of the capital, Dhaka). The project's services expanded to other districts of Bangladesh over the next few years.

By an ordinance of the Bangladesh government dated 2 October 1983, the project was converted into the Grameen Bank. Bankers Ron Grzywinski and Mary Houghton of ShoreBank, a community development bank in Chicago, helped Yunus with the official incorporation of the bank under a grant from the Ford Foundation. The bank's repayment rate suffered from the economic disruption following the 1998 flood in Bangladesh, but it recovered in the subsequent years. By the beginning of 2005, the bank had loaned over US$4.7 billion and by the end of 2008, $7.6 billion to the poor.

In 2011, the Bangladesh government forced Yunus to resign from Grameen Bank, saying that at age 72, he was years beyond the legal limit for the position.

Grameen Bank soon began expanding into wealthy countries as well. As of 2017, Grameen America had 19 branches in eleven US cities. Its nearly 100,000 borrowers were all women.

Funding

"The bank has gained its funding from different sources, and the main contributors have shifted over time." In the initial years, donor agencies used to provide the bulk of capital at low rates. By the mid-1990s, the bank started to get most of its funding from the central bank of Bangladesh. More recently, Grameen has started bond sales as a source of finance. The bonds are implicitly subsidised, as they are guaranteed by the Government of Bangladesh, and still they are sold above the bank rate. In 2013, Bangladesh parliament passed 'Grameen Bank Act' which replaces the Grameen Bank Ordinance, 1983, authorising the government to make rules for any aspect of the running of the bank.

Application of microcredit
Grameen Bank is founded on the principle that loans are better than charity to interrupt poverty: they offer people the opportunity to take initiatives in business or agriculture, which provide earnings and enable them to pay off the debt.

The bank is founded on the belief that people have endless potential, and unleashing their creativity and initiative helps them end poverty.
Grameen has offered credit to classes of people formerly underserved: the poor, women, illiterate, and unemployed people. Access to credit is based on reasonable terms, such as the group lending system and weekly-instalment payments, with reasonably long terms of loans, enabling the poor to build on their existing skills to earn better income in each cycle of loans.

Grameen's objective has been to promote financial independence among the poor. Yunus encourages all borrowers to become savers, so that their local capital can be converted into new loans to others. Since 1995, Grameen has funded 90 percent of its loans with interest income and deposits collected, aligning the interests of its new borrowers and depositor-shareholders. Grameen converts deposits made in villages into loans for the more needy in the villages (Yunus and Jolis 1998).

It targets the poorest of the poor, with a particular emphasis on women, who receive upwards of 95 percent of the bank's loans. Women traditionally had less access to financial alternatives of ordinary credit lines and incomes. They were seen to have an inequitable share of power in household decision making. Yunus and others have found that lending to women generates considerable secondary effects, including empowerment of a marginalised segment of society (Yunus and Jolis 1998), who share betterment of income with their children, unlike many men. Yunus claims that in 2004, women still have difficulty getting loans; they comprise less than 1 percent of borrowers from commercial banks (Yunus 2004). The interest rates charged by microfinance institutes including Grameen Bank is high compared to that of traditional banks; Grameen's interest (reducing balance basis) on its main credit product is about 20%.

Grameen has diversified the types of loans it makes. It supports hand-powered wells and loans to support the enterprises of Grameen members' immediate relatives. It has found that seasonal agricultural loans and lease-to-own agreements for equipment and livestock help the poor establish better agriculture. The bank has set a new goal: to make each of its branch locations free of poverty, as defined by benchmarks such as having adequate food and access to clean water and latrines.

Grameen Bank is best known for its system of solidarity lending. The Bank also incorporates a set of values embodied in Bangladesh by the Sixteen Decisions. At every branch of Grameen Bank, the borrowers recite these Decisions and vow to follow them. As a result of the Sixteen Decisions, Grameen borrowers have been encouraged to adopt positive social habits. One such habit includes educating children by sending them to school. Since the Grameen Bank embraced the Sixteen Decisions, almost all Grameen borrowers have their school-age children enrolled in regular classes. This in turn helps bring about social change, and educate the next generation.

Solidarity lending is a cornerstone of microcredit, and the system is now used in more than 43 countries.  Repayment responsibility rests solely on the individual borrower. No formal joint liability exists, i.e. group members are not obliged to pay on behalf of a defaulting member. But, in practice the group members often contribute the defaulted amount with an intention to collect the money from the defaulted member at a later time. Such behaviour is encouraged because Grameen does not extend further credit to a group in which a member defaults.

No legal instrument (i.e. no written contract) is made between Grameen Bank and its borrowers; the system works based on trust. To supplement the lending, Grameen Bank requires the borrowing members to save very small amounts regularly in a number of funds, designated for emergency, the group, etc. These savings help serve as an insurance against contingencies.

In a country in which few women may take out loans from large commercial banks, Grameen has focused on women borrowers; around 97% of its members are women. While a World Bank study has concluded that women's access to microcredit empowers them through greater access to resources and control over decision making, some other economists argue that the relationship between microcredit and women-empowerment is less straightforward.

In other areas, Grameen has had very high payback rates—over 98 percent. However, according to The Wall Street Journal, in 2001 a fifth of the bank's loans were more than a year overdue. Grameen says that more than half of its borrowers in Bangladesh (close to 50 million) have risen out of acute poverty thanks to their loan, as measured by such standards as having all children of school age in school, all household members eating three meals a day, a sanitary toilet, a rainproof house, clean drinking water, and the ability to repay a 300 taka-a-week (around US$4) loan.

The bank is also engaged in social business and entrepreneurship fields. In 2009, the Grameen Creative Lab collaborated with the Yunus Centre to create the Global Social Business Summit. The meeting has become the main platform for social businesses worldwide to foster discussions, actions and collaborations to develop effective solutions to the most pressing problems plaguing the world.

Village phone program
The bank has diversified among different applications of microcredit. In the Village Phone program, women entrepreneurs can start businesses to provide wireless payphone service in rural areas. This program earned the bank the 2004 Petersburg Prize worth EUR 100,000, for its contribution of Technology to Development. In the press release announcing the prize, the Development Gateway Foundation noted that through this program:

... Grameen has created a new class of women entrepreneurs who have raised themselves from poverty. Moreover, it has improved the livelihoods of farmers and others who are provided access to critical market information and lifeline communications previously unattainable in some 28,000 villages of Bangladesh. More than 55,000 phones are currently in operation, with more than 80 million people benefiting from access to market information, news from relatives, and more.

Struggling members program
In 2003, Grameen Bank started a new program, different from its traditional group-based lending, exclusively targeted to the beggars in Bangladesh. This program is focused on distributing small loans to beggars.

Housing loans

In 1984, Grameen applied to the Central Bank for help setting up a housing loan program for its borrowers. Their application was rejected on the grounds that the US$125 suggested loan could not possibly build a suitable living structure. So Grameen instead proposed the idea of "shelter loans". They were again rejected, this time on the grounds that their borrowers could not afford non-income generating loans. Grameen changed tactics and applied a third time, this time to make "factory loans", the explanation being that borrowers worked from home, so the home was also a factory that made it possible for borrowers to earn income. Grameen was rejected for a third time.

After this third rejection, Yunus, the bank's founder, met personally with the Central Bank governor to plead for their application. When asked if he thought the borrowers would repay the loans, he replied, "Yes, they will. They do. Unlike the rich, the poor cannot risk not repaying. This is the only chance they have." Grameen was then allowed to add housing loans to their range of services.

As of 1999, Grameen made housing loans totalling $190 million to build over 560,000 homes with near-perfect repayment. By 1989, their average housing loan had grown to $300. That year, the Grameen housing program received the Aga Khan International Award for Architecture.

Grameen Bank's perception of people with economic disadvantages

When Muhammad Yunus took the first steps toward establishing Grameen Bank in Bangladesh and began to provide micro-credit loans to those living in abject poverty in the rural area surrounding Jobra

In his book Banker to the Poor: Micro-lending and the Battle Against World Poverty, Muhammad Yunus shows the outlook behind why Grameen Bank runs the way it does, saying, "When you hold the world in your palm and inspect it only from a birds eye view, you tend to become arrogant, you do not realize things become blurred when viewed from an enormous distance. I opted instead for the" worms eye view." …  The poor taught me an entirely new economics. I learned about the problems they face from their own perspective. " Here we see his willingness to immerse himself with the people he is aiming to help.   We get our first look at Muhammad Yunus's perception of the absolute poor when he meets Sufiya Begum, a bamboo stool maker who was trapped in poverty's vicious cycle due to a lack of 27 cents. That is where we find that what will become Grameen bank, is founded upon one man's heart for those that society and big corporations could or would not help.  Taking productive action, Yunus worked with the banks and community around to empower people like Sufiya to be able to apply for credit, and use it in the best and most productive way that she knows how in her unique situation.  Grameen Bank would need to be a bank of unusual standards. It would have to be, as Yunus put it, "an institution that would lend to those that had nothing. " Later, as time progressed, more situations would arise, such as battling for those who were landless, or small-time farmers such as those in Jobra who could not use a deep tube-well that was available to them.

As Grameen bank has developed and expanded in the years since its beginning, it continues to operate on those same two principles. Today, Grameen bank still assumes that when individuals are provided credit, they will be able to initiate upward social mobility for themselves through entrepreneurial endeavours. As a result, Grameen differs from many other social justice efforts in that it does not include intensive rehabilitation training programs for the disadvantaged persons it serves. Instead, Grameen gives its borrowers freedom to pursue a better future using the skills they already possess in the best way they can with membership in a five-person support group being the only requirement.

The Grameen Bank encourages its members to create a positive impact by becoming actively involved in the politics of their country. According to Muhammad Yunus's book, Banker to the Poor, Yunus commissioned his bank staff to encourage Grameen borrowers to vote; however, the staff were not to influence the voters' decisions on which political party to support. While all Grameen groups are required to exhibit a form of democracy (such as electing a chairperson and secretary), the Grameen staff were surprised to find that borrowers were thrilled with the opportunity to display their voting rights as citizens of Bangladesh in the 1991 national election. The work of the Grameen staff initiated a sharp increase in political activity which continued into the 1992, 1996, and 1997 elections. Since the Grameen Bank caters to women, the 1996 elections received more women voting than men, which led to the removal of political parties opposing women's rights. Not only did more women participate in political activism, but over 1,750 Grameen members, 268 male and 1,485 female, were elected to local offices in 1997.

In an interview with PBS in 2006, (after sixteen years of experience with Grameen Bank as a social business) Yunus expressed satisfaction with the micro-credit system of Grameen bank as a motivation and an opportunity for the poor to improve their own situations. He stressed that he has observed that Grameen's borrowers attain a sense of confidence and self-sufficiency when they pay back their loans from Grameen bank. While being careful not to criticise charity's rightful place, he added that the recipient of a charitable gift does not experience these long-term emotional benefits in the same way.

Operational statistics
Grameen Bank is owned by the borrowers of the bank, most of whom are poor women. Initially, of the total equity of the bank, the government owned 60% in 1983. This then dropped over time to a single-digit percentage by the early 2010s. However, by the mid-2010s, this number increased again to 25%.

The bank grew significantly between 2003 and 2007. As of January 2022, the total borrowers of the bank number nearly 9.5 million, and 96.81% of those are women.
The number of borrowers has more than tripled since 2003, when the bank had 3.12 million members. Similar growth can be observed in the number of villages covered. As of October 2007, the Bank had a staff of more than 24,703 employees; its 2,468 branches provided services to 80,257 villages, up from the 43,681 villages covered in 2003. By the end of 2021, the bank's coverage expanded to 81,678 villages out of the country's total 87,223, for a national coverage rate of around 94%.

As of the end of 2021, cumulative loan disbursements since inception reached in excess of 2.5 trillion taka (US$33.767 billion), and the bank claims a loan recovery rate of around 95%. David Roodman has critiqued the accounting practices that Grameen used to determine this rate.

The global number of potential micro-borrowers is estimated to be 1 billion, with a total loan demand of $250 billion. The present microfinance model served 100 million people with $25 billion of loans as of the late 2000s.

Staff training
The Grameen Bank staff often work in difficult conditions. Employees receive 6 months of on-the-job training while shadowing qualified and experienced individuals from various branches of Grameen. The goal of this training is for the trainee to "appreciate the unexplored potential of the destitute" and to discover new ways to solve problems that arise within the Grameen branch. After completing the 6-month period, trainees return to Dhaka headquarters for review and critique before appointment to a bank branch.

Honours
 In 1994, Grameen Bank received the Independence Day Award, which is the highest government award.
 13 October 2006, the Nobel Committee awarded Grameen Bank and its founder, Muhammad Yunus, the 2006 Nobel Peace Prize "for their efforts to create economic and social development from below." The award announcement also mentions that:
From modest beginnings three decades ago, Yunus has, first and foremost through Grameen Bank, developed micro-credit into an ever more important instrument in the struggle against poverty. Grameen Bank has been a source of ideas and models for the many institutions in the field of micro-credit that have sprung up around the world.

On 10 December 2006, Mosammat Taslima Begum, who used her first 16 euro (US$20) loan from the bank in 1992 to buy a goat and subsequently became a successful entrepreneur and one of the elected board members of the bank, accepted the Nobel Prize on behalf of Grameen Bank's investors and borrowers at the prize awarding ceremony held at Oslo City Hall.

Grameen Bank is the only business corporation to have won a Nobel Prize. Professor Ole Danbolt Mjøs, Chairman of the Norwegian Nobel Committee, in his speech said that, by giving the prize to Grameen Bank and Muhammad Yunus, the Norwegian Nobel Committee wanted to encourage attention on achievements of the Muslim world, on the women's perspective, and on the fight against poverty.

Citizens of Bangladesh celebrated the prize. Some critics said that the award affirms neoliberalism.

Related ventures

The Grameen Bank has grown into over two dozen enterprises of the Grameen Family of Enterprises. These organisations include Grameen Trust, Grameen Fund, Grameen Communications, Grameen Shakti (Grameen Energy), Grameen Telecom, Grameen Shikkha (Grameen Education), Grameen Motsho (Grameen Fisheries), Grameen Baybosa Bikash (Grameen Business Development), Grameen Phone, Grameen Software Limited, Grameen CyberNet Limited, Grameen Knitwear Limited, and Grameen Uddog (owner of the brand Grameen Check).

On 11 July 2005 the Grameen Mutual Fund One (GMFO), approved by the Securities and Exchange Commission of Bangladesh, was listed as an initial public offering.  One of the first mutual funds of its kind, GMFO will allow the more than four million Grameen bank members, as well as non-members, to buy into Bangladesh's capital markets. The Bank and its constituents are together worth over US$7.4 billion.

The Grameen Foundation was developed to share the Grameen philosophy and expand the benefits of microfinance for the world's poorest people. Grameen Foundation, which has an A-rating from [Charity Watch], provides microloans in the USA (the only developed country where this is done), and supports microfinance institutions worldwide with loan guarantees, training, and technology transfer. As of 2008, Grameen Foundation supports microfinance institutions in the following regions:
 Asia-Pacific: Bangladesh, China, East Timor, Indonesia, India, Lebanon, Pakistan, Philippines, Saudi Arabia, Yemen
 Americas: Bolivia, Dominican Republic, El Salvador, Haiti, Honduras, Mexico, Peru, United States
 Africa: Cameroon, Egypt, Ethiopia, Ghana, Morocco, Nigeria, Rwanda, Tunisia, Uganda

From 2005, Grameen Bank worked on Mifos X, an open source technology framework for core banking solutions. Since 2011, Grameen Bank released this technology under the stewardship of Mifos Initiative, a US Non Profit organisation.

Criticism
Some analysts have suggested that microcredit can bring communities into debt from which they cannot escape. Researchers have noted instances when microloans from the Grameen Bank were linked to exploitation and pressures on poor families to sell their belongings, leading in extreme cases to humiliation and ultimately suicides.

The Mises Institute's Jeffrey Tucker suggests that microcredit banks depend on subsidies to operate, thus acting as another example of welfare. Yunus believes that he is working against the subsidised economy, giving borrowers the opportunity to create businesses. Some of Tucker's criticism is based on his interpretation of Grameen's "16 decisions", seen as indoctrination, without considering what they mean in the context of poor, illiterate peasants.

The Norwegian documentary Caught in Micro Debt claims that Grameen evaded taxes. The Spanish documentary Microcredit also suggested this. The accusation is based on the unauthorised transfer of approximately US$100 million, donated by the Norwegian Agency for Development Cooperation (Norad), from one Grameen entity to another in 1996, before the expiry of the Grameen Bank's tax exemption. However, Norad published a statement in December 2010 clearing Yunus and the Bank of any wrongdoing on this point, following a comprehensive review of Norad's support commissioned by the Minister of International Development.

Yunus denies that this is tax evasion:

David Roodman and Jonathan Morduch question the statistical validity of studies of microcredit's effects on poverty, noting the complexity of the situations involved. Yoolim Lee and Ruth David discuss how microfinance and the Grameen model in South India have in recent years been distorted by venture capitalism and profit-makers. In some cases, poor rural families have suffered debt spirals, harassment by microfinance debt collectors, and in some cases suicide.

Peter Singer  claims that microcredit has a limited ability to transform lives, and that other interventions are more effective.

Representation in other media
 The film To Catch a Dollar (2010) documents the process of establishing Grameen America programs in Queens, New York in 2008. It premiered at the 2010 Sundance Film Festival.
 The documentary film Living on One Dollar (2010) includes Grameen Bank providing microcredit to start small home businesses in a rural Guatemalan village. The documentary is available directly from the organisation "Living on One" , and on Netflix.

See also

 Accion International
 Acción Emprendedora
 Accion USA
 Cooperative banking
 Count Me In
 Flat rate (finance)
 Grama Vidiyal, Indian Microfinance Bank
 Islamic banking
 Kiva
 Micro credit for water supply and sanitation
 Microgrant
 Opportunity International
 Project Enterprise

Notes

References

Further reading

 "Micro Loans for the Very Poor", The New York Times, 16 February 1997

External links
   Grameen.com: official Grameen Bank website
   Grameen Bank old website
 GramBangla.com: Australian Bangladeshi Community Grameen Support Group
 Grameen Bank: Taking Capitalism to the Poor, Mainsah, E. et al., Chazen Journal of International Business, Columbia Business School, 2004
  Video by Muhammad Yunus talking about Grameen Bank

 Grameen Bank History
 The crushing burden of microcredit F24 international report
 Grameen America – Grameen's microfinance operations in the US
  with the prize motivation

Banks of Bangladesh
Cooperative banking in Asia
Microfinance companies of Asia
Microfinance banks
Rural community development
Bangladeshi Nobel laureates
Organizations awarded Nobel Peace Prizes
Development innovation in Bangladesh
Recipients of the Gandhi Peace Prize
Recipients of the Independence Day Award
Companies based in Dhaka
Organisations based in Motijheel
Banks established in 1983
Bangladeshi companies established in 1983
Cooperatives in Bangladesh
Muhammad Yunus

Grameen Bank


රමළාන් (අරාබි: رمضان Ramaḍān, IPA: [ramaˈdˤaːn];) ව්‍යවහාරිකව රාමසාන් යනු ඉස්ලාමීය දින දසුනේ නවවැනි මාසයයි. මෙහි විශේෂත්වය වන්නේ මුස්ලිම්වරුන්ගේ දින 30ක උපවාස කාලය මෙම රමළාන් මාසය වීමත්, මුස්ලිම්වරුන්ගේ ප්‍රධාන ආගමික ග්‍රන්ථය වන කුර්ආනය සර්වබලධාරි අල්ලාහ් දෙවියන් විසින් පුදකෙරුණු ලැබූ මාසය වීමයි. වසරක් පාසා මුස්ලිම්වරු රක්ෂා කරන අනිවාර්ය උපවාසය යෙදී තිබෙන මෙම මාසය ආරම්භ වන්නේ ෂඃබාන් මාසය අවසන් වී මෙම මාසය සදහා චන්ද්‍රකලාව නැරඹීමෙන් අනතුරුවය.

රමළාන්


Valentina Raposo Ruiz de los Llanos (Salta, 28 de janeiro de 2003) é uma jogadora de hóquei sobre a grama argentina, medalhista olímpica.

Carreira
Raposo integrou a Seleção Argentina de Hóquei sobre a grama feminino nos Jogos Olímpicos de Verão de 2020 em Tóquio, quando conquistou a medalha de prata após confronto contra a equipe holandesa na final da competição.

Jogadores de hóquei sobre a grama olímpicos da Argentina
Jogadores de hóquei sobre a grama nos Jogos Olímpicos de Verão de 2020
Medalhistas nos Jogos Olímpicos de Verão de 2020

Valentina Raposo


කලම්පය යනු යම් කිසි උපකරණයක් චලනය වීම වැලැක්වීම සඳහා පීඩනයක් යෙදීමට භාවිතා කරන උපකරණයකි. ඔස්ට්‍රේලියාව වැනි රටවලදී නම් කලම්පය විවිධ ක්ෂේත‍්‍රවලදී ඒ ක්ෂේත‍්‍රයට ගැලපෙන ලෙස නිපදවා ඇත.

ඒ අනුව විවිධ කාර්යයන් සඳහා භාවිතාවන විවිධ වර්ගයේ කලම්ප ඇත. මෙහිදී සමහර කලම්පයන් කෙටිකාලීනව භාවිතා කරන ඒවා වන අතර තවත් සමහර ඒවා දිගු කාලිනව භාවිත වේ. සත්ව පාලනයේදී විවිධ කලම්පයන් භාවිතා කරන අවස්ථා ඇත. සත්වයන්ගේ චලනය සීමා කිරීම සඳහා ද, ශල්‍යකර්ම ආදී කටයුතු වලදී විවිධ අවයව වල චලනය සීමා කිරිම සඳහා ද, කලම්පයන් භාවිතා වේ.

විවිධ අවස්ථා වලදී භාවිතා වන විවිධ කලම්පයන් මෙසේ දැක්විය හැකිය. බැන්ඞ් කලම්ප, බාර් කලම්ප, බෙන්ච් කලම්ප, කාඩෙලිනි කලම්ප, සී කලම්ප, ෆ්ලෝරින්ග් කලම්ප, ග‍්‍රයිප් , හැන්ඞ්ස්කෘ, චුම්භකමය කලම්ප, මීටර් කලම්ප, පයිප් කලම්ප, සෑෂ් කලම්ප, සෙට් ස්කෘ, ස්පීඞ් කලම්ප, ටොග්ල් කලම්ප, සහ ටුල්මේකර්ස් කලම්ප වේ.ඒවායින් සමහරක් තාවකාලිව විවිධ උපාංග ස්ථානගත කර එකට සවිකර තබා ගැනීමට භාවිතා කරන අතර අනෙක්වා ස්ථිරව සවිකර තැබේ.

සත්ත්වයින් යොදාගෙන කරන කෘෂිකාර්මික කටයුතු වල දී ද සත්ත්වයෙකු නිශ්චල වස්තුවකට ගැටගසා තැබීමට ද කලම්ප භාවිතා කෙරේ. කලම්පයක කාර්යය ඉටුකරන සෑම වස්තුවක් ම පාහේ කලම්පයක් ලෙස හැඳින්වෙන අතර මේ නිසා විවිධ කේෂ්ත්‍රයන්හි භාවිතා වෙනු කලම්ප වර්ග විශාල ප්‍රමාණයක් ඇත. පහත එවැනි බහුලව භාවිතා වන කලම්ප දැක්වේ.

ඉහළ - පයිප්ප කලම්පය
ඉහළ සිට දෙවන පේළිය - ෆ කලම්පය/ දඩු කලම්පය, තනි අත් දඩු කලම්පය, තුන්වන පේළිය - දුනු කලම්පය, G කලම්පය (C - කලම්පය), දැවමය භුමි කලම්පය

පහත දැක්වෙන කලම්ප තාවකාලිකව උපකරණ ස්ථානගත කිරිමට යොදා ගනී.
•	පටි කලම්පය (Band clamp)
•	F - කලම්පය (පින්තූරයේ වම්පස ඉහළ කෙළවරේ)
•	බංකු කලම්පය (Bench clamp)
බංකුවක් මත උපකරණ සවිකිරිමට භාවිතා වේ. බංකුව මෙහි දී එක් බාහුවක් ලෙස ක්‍රියා කරයි.
•	කාඩ්ලිනි කලම්පය (cardellini clamp)
මෙය රවුම්, සමචතුරස්‍රාකාර, සෘජුකෝණාස්‍රාකාර බට වලට හෝ පැතලි වස්ත+න් මතට සවිකෙරේ. (උදා( ලී දඩු, ප්ලයිවුඩ් ෂීට්)

•	C - කලම්පය (Gකලම්පය&
පින්තූරයේ පහළ මැද දැක්වේ
•	ෆ්ලෝරින් ක්රෑම්ප් (Flooring cramp)
වඩුවන් විසින් බිම ලෑලි සවිකිරීමේ දී තද කොට තැබීමට භාවිතා කරයි.
•	ග්‍රයිප් (Gripe)
ක්ලින්කර් (clinker) බෝට්ටු නිර්මාණයේ දී දෙණ නියමාකාරයෙන් තබා ගැනීමට කුඤ්ඤයකින් සවිකොට භාවිතා කරන විශේෂිකලම්පයකි.
•	අත් දඩු කඳ
(පින්තූරයේ ඉහළ දකුණු කෙළවරේ)
•	චුම්බක කලම්පය (magnetic clamp)

කලම්පය


Barbara Crampton (* 27. Dezember 1958 in Levittown, Long Island, New York) ist eine US-amerikanische Schauspielerin und Scream Queen.

Leben
Crampton wurde in Levittown, Long Island, New York geboren und wuchs in Vermont auf, wo ihr Vater als Polari auf Jahrmärkten und Karnevalveranstaltungen arbeitete. Sie begann mit dem Schauspielern in der 7. Schulklasse und nahm Schauspielunterricht an ihrer High School. Crampton machte ihren Bachelor of Arts am Castleton State College in Vermont.

Schauspielkarriere
Theater

Nachdem sie ihre Schauspielausbildung abgeschlossen hatte, ging sie zurück nach New York und spielte die Cordelia in King Lear am American Theater of Actors.

Crampton arbeitete von 1976 bis 1981 am Castleton State College.

Film

Anfang der 80er verließ sie New York und ging nach Los Angeles. Dort begann sie ihre Filmschauspielkarriere und wurde als Scream Queen in den Kult-Horror Filmen Re-Animator, From Beyond und Castle Freak berühmt. Sie hatte auch kleine Rollen in Puppet Master und Fraternity Vacation. 1986 stand sie gemeinsam mit Kelli Maroney in Jim Wynorskis Kult-Film Chopping Mall vor der Kamera, welcher ihr endgültig den Durchbruch als Scream Queen verschaffte. Im Mai 2010 war sie Teil der "Re-Animator Reunion" auf dem Creation's Weekend of Horrors. Rob Zombie castete sie im Oktober 2011 für die Rolle der Virginia Cable in seinem Thriller The Lords of Salem.

Fernsehen

Ihre erste Rolle als Fernsehschauspielerin hatte sie als Trista Evans Bradford in der Drama-Serie Zeit der Sehnsucht. Von 1987 bis 1993 porträtierte sie Leanna Love in Schatten der Leidenschaft, wo sie den Soap Opera Digest Award gewann. Sie kehrte 1998 in die Serie zurück und spielte ihre Rolle als Leanna Love bis 2002. Zwischen 2006 und 2007 kehrte sie nochmals für einige Folgen in die Serie Schatten der Leidenschaft zurück. Crompton spielte die Melinda Lewis von 1993 bis 1995 in Springfield Story. In Reich und Schön spielte sie von 1995 bis 1998 die 'Maggie Forrester'.

Modelkarriere
Im Dezember 1986 posierte sie unter dem Titel "Einfach Tierisch. Hinter jedem erfolgreichen Monster steht eine Frau." im amerikanischen Playboy.

Privates
Am 1. Oktober 1988 heiratete sie den Kameramann David Boyd, das Paar ließ sich 1990 aber wieder scheiden. Im April 1995 gab Crampton bekannt, dass sie mit dem Schauspieler und Regisseur Kristoffer Tabori liiert ist. Das Paar lebte bis zu seiner Trennung im September 1995 gemeinsam in Los Angeles. Im Dezember 2000 heiratete sie Robert Bleckman.

Filmografie (Auswahl)
 1984: Der Tod kommt zweimal
 1985: American Eiskrem
 1985: Re-Animator
 1986: Shopping (Chopping Mall)
 1986: Entführt (Kidnapped)
 1986: From Beyond – Aliens des Grauens (From Beyond)
 1989: Puppet Master
 1991: Trancers II
 1993: Robot Jox 2 (Robot Wars)
 1995: Castle Freak
 1996: Space Truckers
 1998: Disaster Zone – Der Countdown läuft (Cold Harvest)
 2000: The Neighbor's Wife
 2001: Wenn die Welt untergeht – Das Wetter-Inferno
 2012: You're Next
 2013: The Lords of Salem
 2015: We Are Still Here
 2015: Tales of Halloween
 2016: Day of Reckoning
 2017: Death House
 2017: Replace
 2017: Dead Night
 2018: Puppet Master: Das tödlichste Reich (Puppet Master: The Littlest Reich)
 2018: Reborn
 2019: Stay out stay alive
 2019: Deathcember
 2020: Run Hide Fight
 2021: Jakob's Wife
 2021: Alone with You
 2021: King Knight
 2021: Superhost
 2023: Onyx the Fortuitous and the Talisman of Souls
 2023: Suitable Flesh
 2023: Blackout

Weblinks

Einzelnachweise

Filmschauspieler
Kinderdarsteller
US-Amerikaner
Geboren 1958
Frau

Barbara Crampton


Olaylar

 4 Şubat - George Washington, ABD'nin ilk başkanı olarak seçildi.
 7 Mayıs - III. Selim Osmanlı tahtına çıktı.
 14 Temmuz - Paris hapishanesi Bastille düştü. Bu olay Fransız Devrimi'nin başlangıcı kabul edilir.
 26 Ağustos - Fransa Meclisi, İnsan ve Yurttaş Hakları Bildirgesi'ni kabul etti.
 21 Kasım - Kuzey Karolina, Amerika Birleşik Devletleri anayasasını onaylayan 12. eyalet oldu.

Tarihi bilinmeyenler
 İlk anayasa ABD'de kabul edildi.
 Lavoisier'nin, 33 elementi sıraladığı ve bu elementlerin adlandırılması ile ilgili modern sistemi sunduğu Traité Élémentaire de Chimie yayımlandı.

Doğumlar
 6 Ağustos - Friedrich List, Alman ekonomist (ö. 1849)
 Kavalalı İbrahim Paşa, Mısır ve Sudan valisi (ö. 1848)

Ölümler
 28 Mart - I. Abdülhamid, Osmanlı padişahı (d. 1725)

1789


Ordu, bir devletin silahlı kuvvetlerinin tümü ya da herhangi bir askerî kuvvetin en büyük birliği. Ordular 4 ila 6 kolordudan oluşur Günümüz orduları çoğunlukla en az orgeneral rütbesini haiz askerler tarafından komuta edilir. Ordunun görevi devlete karşı gelecek iç ve dış tehditlere karşı koymaktır. Buna karşın günümüzde veya geçmişte çeşitli ülkelerde ordunun yönetime el koyması da görülmüştür.

Ordu, üç ana bölümden oluşur: Kara Kuvvetleri, Hava Kuvvetleri ve Deniz Kuvvetleri. Bazı ülkelerde bu üç bölüme ek olarak Jandarma, Sahil Güvenlik, Hava Savunma Kuvvetleri, Füze Kuvvetleri, Uzay Kuvvetleri ve Özel Kuvvetler gibi alt bölümler de orduların bünyelerinde vardır.

Bazı ülkeler ise kendi silahlı kuvvetlerine içinde Kara Kuvvetleri, Hava Kuvvetleri, Deniz Kuvvetleri vb. kuvvetler bulunmasına rağmen "silahlı kuvvetler" ismi yerine "ordu" ismini verir (Örn: Çin Halk Ordusu, Vietnam Halk Ordusu gibi). Bazı ülkeler ise Kara Kuvvetlerini silahlı kuvvetlerin ana ve baş ordusu olarak kabul eder ve Kara Kuvvetlerinin bayrağını veya amblemini silahlı kuvvetlerin amblemi yapar.

Ayrıca bakınız
 Kara Kuvvetleri
 Hava Kuvvetleri
 Deniz Kuvvetleri
 Pretoryanizm

Ordu (askeriye)


دائرة ميلة إحدى دوائر ولاية ميلة. وتضم بلديات:
 ميلة
 عين التين
 سيدي خليفة

مصادر

ميلة

دائرة ميلة


සමහර විට දී සරලව අභ්‍යන්තර මුහුද () ලෙස කෙටි කොට දක්වන , ජපානයේ ප්‍රධාන දූපත් සතරෙන් (4) තුනක් (3) වන හොන්ෂූ (Honshū), ෂිකෝකු (Shikoku), සහ කියුෂූ (Kyūshū) වෙන් කරන ජල තලයයි.

මූලාශ්‍ර

භාහිර සබැඳි
 Seto Inland Sea National Park නිල වෙබ් අඩවිය (ජපන් බසින්)

ජපානයේ මුහුදු
Seas of the Pacific Ocean
Landforms of Ehime Prefecture
Landforms of Yamaguchi Prefecture
Landforms of Hiroshima Prefecture
Landforms of Okayama Prefecture
Landforms of Hyōgo Prefecture
Landforms of Fukuoka Prefecture
Landforms of Ōita Prefecture
Landforms of Kagawa Prefecture

සෙටෝ අභ්‍යන්තර මුහුද


Juniperus blancoi ist eine Pflanzenart aus der Familie der Zypressengewächse (Cupressaceae). Sie ist in Mexiko heimisch.

Beschreibung
Juniperus blancoi wächst als immergrüner Strauch oder kleiner Baum, der Wuchshöhen von 8 bis 15 Meter und Brusthöhendurchmesser von bis zu 50 Zentimeter erreichen kann. Die Äste gehen gerade oder aufsteigend vom Stamm ab und bilden eine pyramidenförmige Krone, die mit zunehmendem Alter breiter oder unregelmäßiger wird. Die lockeren Zweige werden 0,8 bis 1,3 Millimeter dick und haben einen viereckigen Querschnitt. Die glatte, rotbraune oder purpurne Borke wird mit der Zeit grau und blättert in kleinen Schuppen ab. Dickere Stämme haben eine rissige Borke. Das Kernholz ist hell purpur bis purpurbraun gefärbt.

Die schuppenartigen, grau- bis gelbgrünen Nadeln erreichen eine Länge von 1,3 bis 2 Millimeter und eine Breite von 0,7 bis 1 Millimeter. Ihre Spitze ist stumpf oder spitz zulaufend und die Nadelränder sind ganzrandig. Auf ihrer Oberfläche befinden sich mehrere auffällige Drüsen, wobei die größeren meist inaktiv sind. Die Nadeln stehen kreuzgegenständig an den Zweigen.

Juniperus blancoi ist zweihäusig-getrenntgeschlechtlich (diözisch) und die Zapfen reifen nach ein bis zwei Jahren. Die beerenförmigen Zapfen stehen an 3 bis 6 Millimeter langen Stielen und sind bei einer Länge von 5 bis 7 Millimeter und einer Dicke von 5 bis 9 Millimeter kugelig bis nierenförmig geformt. Anfangs sind sie grün gefärbt und verfärben sich zur Reife hin purpurrot, dunkelblau oder hellbraun und haben eine blaugrüne Tönung. Jeder der fleischigen Zapfen trägt ein bis fünf hellbraune Samenkörner. Die gerillten Samen erreichen eine Länge von 3 bis 5 Millimeter und eine Breite von 2 bis 4 Millimeter. An ihrer Basis befinden sich kleine Harzgruben.

Verbreitung und Standort
Das natürliche Verbreitungsgebiet von Juniperus blancoi liegt in Mexiko. Es umfasst dort die Bundesstaaten Chihuahua, Durango, México, Michoacán, Sonora und Tlaxcala.

Juniperus blancoi gedeiht in Höhenlagen von 1100 bis 3270 Metern. Man findet die Art vor allem in trockenen Pinyon-Kiefern-Wäldern sowie in entlang von Flussbetten wachsenden Kiefern-Eichen-Wacholder-Mischwäldern. Sie wächst sowohl auf Felsgestein wie auch auf dünnen Böden, die sich auf Basalt bildeten. Vor allem var. mucronata bildet Mischbestände mit der Mexikanischen Zypresse (Cupressus lusitanica), dem Alligator-Wacholder (Juniperus deppeana) sowie mit verschiedenen Eichen (Quercus).

Systematik
Die Erstbeschreibung als Juniperus blancoi erfolgte 1946 durch Maximino Martínez in "Anales del Institutó de Biología de la Universidad Nacional Autonoma de México, Série Biologia", Band 17, Nummer 1, Seite 73.

Die Art wird in bis zu drei Varietäten unterteilt:
 Juniperus blancoi var. blancoi ist die Nominatform und kommt fast im gesamten Verbreitungsgebiet vor.
 Juniperus blancoi var. huehuentensis  kommt nur in der Gipfelregion des südlich von Huachichiles gelegenen Cerro Huehuento im Bundesstaat Durango vor. Sie wächst nur als Strauch.
 Juniperus blancoi var. mucronata  kommt entlang des Flusslaufes des Maicoba Rivers sowie der benachbarten Flüsse an der Grenze zwischen Sonora und Chihuahua vor. Ihre Nadeln sind stumpf und das Kernholz ist hell purpurn gefärbt. Sie wird von manchen Autoren als eigenständige Art Juniperus mucronata  angesehen.

Gefährdung und Schutz
Juniperus blancoi wird in der Roten Liste der IUCN als "gefährdet" geführt. Es wird jedoch darauf hingewiesen, dass eine neuerliche Überprüfung der Gefährdung notwendig ist. Die Varietät mucronata wird ebenfalls als "gefährdet" gelistet. Es wird angenommen, dass es von dieser Varietät weniger als 1000 ausgewachsene Bäume gibt.

Quellen

Einzelnachweise

Wacholder
blancoi

Juniperus blancoi


بناة الأديتوم Builders of the Adytum) B.O.T.A) مدرسة تعاليم أسرارية غربية Western mystery tradition مقرها في لوس أنجلس وهي مسجلة كمنظمة دينية غير ذات نفع تجاري معفاة من الضرائب. تأسست من طرف الدكتور بول فوستر كيس Paul Foster Case وجذورها تمتد إلى منظمة الفجر الذهبي وإلى نظام المحافل الزرقاء الماسوني.
المدرسة توسعت لاحقا على يد الدكتورة أن ديفييس Ann Davies.
التعليم لدى بناة الأديتوم يتم بالمراسلة، ويغطي المنهاج علم النفس الإيسوتيريكي، التارو الأسراري occult tarot ، حكمة القبالة الهرمسية ، الأسترولوجيا وتقنيات التأمل. تدير المدرسة كذلك عدة أنشطة طقوسية ومجموعات دراسة، بعض منها مفتوح للعامة.

أصول التسمية
كلمة " أديتوم" الإغريقية تعني "الضريح الباطني" أو " قدس الأقداس" و"البناة" تحيل على الاقتداء بنجار بلدة الناصرة، يسوع ، الذي يؤمن عديد من أعضاء B.O.T.A بأنه خبير في أسرار بناء هيكل حي دون الحاجة لإعمال يديه (إنجيل مرقس الأصحاح الرابع عشر : 58 ).

معتقدات بناة الأديتوم
"بناة الأديتوم" ليست منظمة مسيحية خالصة، ولا هي بيهودية. المدرسة تؤمن بأن حكمة القبالة هي الأساس الميستيقي لليهودية القديمة كما المسيحية الأصلية، ذلك لا يمنع المدرسة من قبول أشخاص من جميع الديانات من ذوي النزوع الميستيقي.
بالنسبة للمنتسبين ل"بناة الأديتوم" السبيل إلى تحقيق الوعي الأعلى، أو التنور يمر عبر دراسة نظرية ورياضة تطبيقية. تلك التعاليم، إضافة لأسرار ذات طابع تطبيقي، تشكل ما يصطلح "بناة الأديتوم" على تسميته بالحكمة السرمدية. "سرمدية" لإيمانهم بتنزه جوهرها عن تقلبات الأزمان. هذه الحكمة السرمدية لا ينظر إليها على أنها بالأساس نتاج العقل الإنساني، بل "خطها الله على محيا الطبيعة"، وهي هناك دوما للرجال والنساء في جميع العصور لمن استطاع قراءتها.

الفروع الجهوية

1.شمال شرق الولايات المتحدة

2.الوسط الغربي/ الجنوب الشرقي للولايات المتحدة

3.الجنوب الغربي للولايات المتحدة / جبال الروكي

4.الشمال الغربي للولايات المتحدة

5.جنوب كاليفورنيا / أريزونا / نيفادا

6.أمريكا الجنوبية والمكسيك وكولومبيا

7.أستراليا ونيوزلندا

8.أوروبا

مجموعات الدراسة
هذه المجموعات مفتوحة أمام الجميع وهي توفر فرص التفاعل مع أشخاص يتشاركون نفس الدراسات والممارسات الروحية. تشمل أهداف "مجموعات الدراسة"
(1) خلق محبة وانسجام أخوي.
(2) تطوير وعي أعلى.
(3) إدماج تعاليم ومبادئ الحكمة الأزلية في الحياة اليومية.
(4) تعلم الاستمتاع الجماعي بفعل "الإرادة الواحدة" (الإرادة الإلهية).
(5) توفير "باب مفتوح" نحو "الأسرار" لكل من يسعى مخلصا إليها.

الطقوس الجماعية
لقد وظفت "أشغال الطقوس الجماعية" Group Ritual Work منذ القديم في سياق التعاليم الأسرارية الغربية كوسيلة ديناميكية لتحقيق تبصرات روحية وأخوية. هذه الأنشطة الطقوسية مفتوحة حصريا أمام المنتسبين للمدرسة، وهي تجري ُبعيد الإستبداء initiation للفضاء الداخلي للمعبد Pronaos وهو أمر يستتبع قسما بالكتمان. الغاية منها طبع الرمزية على نفسية المريد بكيفية أقوى عبر تمثيل دراماتيكي يضفي حركية على الصور الثابتة لمجموعة أوراق تارو B.O.T.A . بعد التدرج عبر المراحل الطقوسية الأولية، يمكن أن تتم دعوة أحد أعضاء B.O.T.A للالتحاق بمجموعة الطقوس Chapter ritual group (أو لا) حسب مدى أهليته.

المصادر

 David Allen Hulse: The Western Mysteries; 2000

الوصلات الخارجية
 [ http://www.bota.org الموقع الرسمي]

مدارس فلسفية
هرمسية
منظمات سحرية

بناة الأديتوم


The Movement for a New Society (MNS) was a U.S.-based network of social activist collectives, committed to the principles of nonviolence, who played a key role in social movements of the 1970s and 1980s.

According to a description from the MNS publication, Building Social Change Communities (1979),

Movement for a New Society (MNS) is a nationwide network of groups working for fundamental social change through nonviolent action. Together we are developing an analysis of present-day society; a vision of a decentralized, democratic and caring social order; a nonviolent revolutionary strategy; and a program based on changed values and changed lives.

History
The precursor to the MNS was A Quaker Action Group (AQAG), founded by Lawrence Scott (Quaker) in 1966. Dissatisfied with the response of the mainstream Quaker church to the United States involvement in the Vietnam War, Scott founded AQAG with the intention of sparking a renewed commitment to the Quaker Peace Testimony.

Frustrated by their failure to achieve this end, AQAG members including Scott and Quaker George Willoughby, refashioned the group as the Movement for A New Society in 1971. Other founding members included Bill Moyer, Berit and George Lakey, Phyllis and Richard Taylor, Lynne Shivers, and Lillian Willoughby.

The members of MNS consciously sought to develop tools and strategies that could be employed to bring about revolutionary change through nonviolent means. The three-part focus of MNS included training for activists, nonviolent direct action and community. The main location for MNS activity was in West Philadelphia. Other locations included Atlanta, Boston, Minneapolis, Ohio, San Francisco, Seattle, Toronto, Tucson, Western Massachusetts and more.

During the 1970s and early 1980s Philadelphia was the base for weekend, two-week and nine-month programs that trained US and international activists in direct action organizing, group process, consensus decision-making, liberation/oppression issues and more. Activist training also happened in other locations and through traveling trainers programs.

MNS did not focus its energies exclusively on one issue or injustice. Its members were involved in working for social change on many fronts, most notably in the movement to end US involvement in the Vietnam war, and during the citizen-led opposition to the expansion of the US nuclear power industry in the mid to late 1970s. MNS members were also active in the anti-nuclear weapons movement, the Pledge of Resistance (anti-US intervention in Central America), feminism, LGBTQ, civil rights, community organizing, and food and worker cooperatives.

MNS was unusual in combining feminist group process, broad analysis of interrelated people's struggles including class and culture, and personal empowerment techniques ranging from music and street theater as political organizing tools to Re-evaluation Counseling. With their group process skills, MNS members often played roles of facilitating meetings and training peacekeepers for large protests. Many MNS-developed techniques, including small-to-large-group consensus decision making, an action structure based on affinity groups, and the idea that proper training was key to successful actions, were widely adopted and adapted by numerous social change campaigns and movements. Prominent among these was the Clamshell Alliance occupation of the Seabrook nuclear power plant construction site May 1, 1977, continuing through the network of affinity-group-based alliances that took direct action for safe energy nationwide and worldwide. MNS also heavily influenced later movements such as the 1999 World Trade Organization protests in Seattle and the Occupy movement of 2011-2012. In turn, MNS was greatly influenced by its association with academics and authors, notably Gene Sharp, nonviolent action theoretician, founder of the Albert Einstein Institution (Cambridge, Mass.), and a major global influence on the nonviolent liberation of South Africa, the Arab Spring and other social justice movements.

The sense of community and the quality of interpersonal relationships was important to MNS members and many lived in cooperative households, practiced Re-evaluation Counseling, and addressed issues of race, class, gender and sexual orientation in their activist training and lives. In West Philadelphia MNS members established a land trust incorporated as a nonprofit "Life Center Association", initially comprising several land trusted buildings to provide training spaces and an organizational office, then expanding to include about 20 cooperative houses at its height. It survives to this day, though far smaller.

Through the cooperatively owned and managed New Society Publishers, MNS members published numerous pamphlets and guidebooks, as well as republishing important works on nonviolence (e.g. We Are All Part of One Another a Barbara Deming Reader in 1984). NSP's cooperatively authored Resource Manual for a Living Revolution (known affectionately as the "monster manual") and similar publications inspired and guided activists on every continent, even the Tasmanian Wilderness Society's campaign to prevent the damming of the Franklin River in southern Australia. NSP also published Marshall Rosenberg's Handbook on Nonviolent Communication which became the basis for Rosenberg's work with the Center for Nonviolent Communication.

After several years of decline, MNS membership decided to disband in 1988, due to internal differences regarding priorities, lack of success in becoming multicultural, and the decline of its training programs in Philadelphia. However, its most skilled trainers and organizers redirected their efforts, joining or founding a range of organizations and campaigns across the U.S. Many believed MNS had achieved its primary goal of furthering the understanding and use of Gandhian style nonviolent action to effect significant change. MNS records are archived at the Swarthmore College Peace Collection.

Legacy
New Society Publishers, now based in British Columbia, continues to publish social-change related titles, with an increased emphasis on the practical aspects of environmental sustainability. Douglas & McIntyre bought New Society Publishers in 2008. It was repurchased by the original Canadian New Society publishing group in 2013.

Until his death in October, 2002, Bill Moyer continued to teach his influential Movement Action Plan, eight-stage model for social change movements, to activists around the US and around the world.  George Lakey, as founder of the Philadelphia-based Training for Change organization, continued to promote nonviolence as a powerful technique for resisting injustice, along with other MNS members Betsy Raasch-Gilman and Erika Thorne. MNS alum Steve Chase started an activist training program at Antioch University New England  and is now Assistant Director of Solidarity 2020 and Beyond,. Shel Horowitz and Dina Friedman promote environmentally and socially responsible business. Other former MNS members (Felice Yeskel, Chuck Collins, Betsy Leondar-Wright, Jerry Koch-Gonzalez, Anne Slepian Ellinger, Christopher Mogil Ellinger) were key in founding and sustaining organizations focused on class issues, such as United for a Fair Economy, Class Action, Bolder Giving, and the Program on Inequality and the Common Good of Institute for Policy Studies. Many continue collaborative leadership in a range of causes and one hundred MNS alumni took part in its 50th Anniversary Reunion November 2022.

References

Further reading
Cornell, Andrew (2011). Oppose and Propose: Lessons from Movement for a New Society: AK Press.
Coover, Virginia ... [et al.] (1985). Resource Manual for a Living Revolution. Philadelphia, PA : New Society Publishers.

External links
Movement for a New Society
New Society Publishers
Training for Change
The Movement Action Plan by Bill Moyer
The Movement Action Plan by Bill Moyer (text)
"Heaven is a mixed neighbourhood"

Nonviolence organizations based in the United States
Feminist organizations in the United States

Movement for a New Society


Lorenzo Ilarione Randi (Bagnacavallo,  - Roma, ) foi um cardeal italiano.

Ele era filho de Paolo Antonio e Condessa Arcangela Biancoli.

Biografia
Após estudos particulares, ingressou no Seminário de Faenza e depois na Pontifícia Academia Eclesiástica de Roma.

Foi ordenado sacerdote em Faenza em . Ingressou na prelazia romana sob a proteção do cardeal Giacomo Antonelli. Foi delegado apostólico em Rieti de 1852 a 1854, depois em Perugia até 1856. Aqui teve algumas divergências com o então arcebispo Gioacchino Pecci e no Conclave de 1878 que elegeu o último papa, foi um de seus adversários. De 1856 a 1860 foi delegado apostólico em Ancona e depois até 1865 em Civitavecchia. De 1865 a 1870 foi ministro da polícia do Estado Papal e governador de Roma. O Papa Pio IX elevou-o ao posto de cardeal no consistório de 17 de setembro de 1875,  com o título de cardeal diácono de Santa Maria in Cosmedin. Em 24 de março de 1884 optou pelo diaconato de Santa Maria in Via Lata, mantendo o de Santa Maria in Cosmedin em comenda. Ao mesmo tempo, ele também se tornou um cardeal protodiácono.

Ele nunca teve a consagração episcopal.

Morreu aos 69 anos e foi sepultado inicialmente no Cemitério Verano em Roma e depois o corpo foi transferido para o túmulo da família em uma vila na via Entirate n'63 em Traversara, uma aldeia de sua cidade natal.

Link Externo

Naturais de Bagnacavallo
Alunos da Pontifícia Academia Eclesiástica
Cardeais da Itália
Cardeais nomeados pelo papa Pio IX
Cardeais protodiáconos

Lorenzo Ilarione Randi


Arthur Floyd Gottfredson (født 5. maj 1905 i Kaysville, Utah, død 22. juli 1986 i Californien), var en amerikansk tegneserietegner, bedst kendt for sit arbejde med Mickey Mouse-tegneserierne. I 1928 flyttede han med sin familie til Californien, og der blev han i 1929 ansat hos Disney.

Gottfredson og Mickey
I 1930 begyndte han at arbejde på Mickey Mouse-avisstriben. Hans første tegneserie var Mickey Mouse in Death Valley der kørte fra april til september 1930. Han havde bl.a. Ted Osborne, Merrill De Maris og Bill Walsh som medforfattere. Gottfredson skabte f.eks. Politimester Striks, Sorte Slyngel og Alfa Beta. Men han arbejdede også med figurer som Sylvester Snyd og Sorteper. I 1975 gik han dog på pension og stoppede med at lave Mickey Mouse-tegneserier.
På dansk er hans værker udgivet i Den Store Mickey Mouse og Hall of Fame - Floyd Gottfredson.

Kilder
 Floyd Gottfredson på INDUCKS
 Floyd Gottfredson  på Lambiek Comiclopedia

The Walt Disney Company
Tegneserietegnere fra USA

Floyd Gottfredson


An Tragus andicola in uska species han Liliopsida nga ginhulagway ni M.A.Zapater ngan Sulekic. An Tragus andicola in nahilalakip ha genus nga Tragus, ngan familia nga Poaceae. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Tragus

Tragus andicola


The term potential function may refer to:

 A mathematical function, whose values are given by a scalar potential or vector potential
 The electric potential, in the context of electrodynamics, is formally described by both a scalar electrostatic potential and a magnetic vector potential
 The class of functions known as harmonic functions, which are the topic of study in potential theory
 The potential function of a potential game
 In the potential method of amortized analysis, a function describing an investment of resources by past operations that can be used by future operations

Potential function


An Stipa pungionata in uska species han Liliopsida nga ginhulagway ni José Aristida Alfredo Caro ngan Evangelina A. Sánchez. An Stipa pungionata in nahilalakip ha genus nga Stipa, ngan familia nga Poaceae. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Stipa

Stipa pungionata


Die Evonik Tego Chemie GmbH (bis Oktober 2007: Tego Chemie Service GmbH) war eine Tochtergesellschaft der Evonik Industries AG, ein international agierendes Chemieunternehmen mit Sitz in Essen. Sie entwickelte, produzierte und vertrieb Additive, Spezial- und Co-Bindemittel, sowie Nanokomposite für die Farben-, Lack- und Druckfarbenindustrie.

Geschichte
Im Oktober 1984 gründete die Th. Goldschmidt AG am Standort Essen die Tego Chemie Service GmbH als Vertriebsgesellschaft für die seit 1978 entwickelten und hergestellten Lack- und Farbenadditive auf Silikonbasis. Die neue Tochtergesellschaft nahm am 1. Januar 1985 ihre Geschäftstätigkeit auf und übernahm den bisher vom Verkauf Silikone wahrgenommenen Vertrieb von Additiven für die Lack- und Druckfarbenherstellung, sowie von Silikonharzen als Spezialbindemittel für hitzebeständige und hoch korrosionsschützende Beschichtungen.

1999 wurde die Tego Chemie Service GmbH zusammen mit ihrer Muttergesellschaft, der Goldschmidt AG, Teil der SKW Trostberg AG. 2001 fusionierten die Degussa-Hüls AG und die SKW Trostberg AG zur Degussa AG. Damit wurde die Tego Chemie Service GmbH Teil des Chemiekonzerns Degussa. Am 12. September 2007 wurde die Eingliederung von Degussa in den Evonik-Industries-Konzern bekanntgegeben.

Die Umbenennung der Tego Chemie Service GmbH in Evonik Tego Chemie GmbH erfolgte am 16. Oktober 2007.

Akquisitionen
Seit August 2004 vertreibt die Evonik Tego Chemie GmbH Lackadditive der Wacker Chemie AG.
Im April 2011 übernahm die Evonik Tego Chemie GmbH im Rahmen des Verkaufs der hanse chemie Gruppe an die Evonik Goldschmidt GmbH, den Vertrieb der Nanokomposite für die Lack- und Farbenindustrie.

Produkte
Die Evonik Tego Chemie GmbH entwickelte, produzierte und vertrieb Additive, Co- und Spezialbindemittel, sowie Nanokomposite, die Fehlstellen und unerwünschte Effekte im Lack verhindern. Die Produktpalette umfasste: Entschäumer, Entlüfter,
Netz- und Dispergieradditive, Substratnetzadditive, Hydrophobierungsmittel, Silikonharze, Silikonpolyesterharze, Silikonepoxidharze, Kunstharze, Haftharze.
Probleme bei der Herstellung und beim Auftrag lösemittelfreier Lacke und UV-Lacke, wie z. B. die starke Schaumentwicklung dieser Lacksysteme erschwerten noch zu Beginn der 1980er Jahre deren kommerziellen Einsatz. Die Entwicklung von Additiven, die diese Schaumbildung wirkungsvoll verhindern konnten, unterstützten den Durchbruch innovativer und umweltfreundlicher Lacke. An diesen Entwicklungen war die Evonik Tego Chemie GmbH maßgeblich beteiligt. Diese Produkte gehörten zum Kerngeschäft des Unternehmens.

Literatur
Ralf Peters, Annette Zehnter: Grenzen überwinden. 150 Jahre Th. Goldschmidt. Hrsg. Th. Goldschmidt GmbH, Essen 1997, ISBN 3-89355-158-1.

Weblinks
 Offizielle Website TEGO - Additives and Resins for Coatings
 Website Evonik Industries
 Evonik, Standort Goldschmidtstraße

Einzelnachweise

Chemieunternehmen (Deutschland)
Produzierendes Unternehmen (Essen)

Evonik Tego Chemie


Kravljak (lat. Carlina), biljni rod iz porodice glavočika kojemu pripada 35 priznata vrsta dvogodišnjih biljaka i trajnica.

Rod kravljak kojega u Hrvatskoj zastupa oko 16 vrsta i podvrsta, poznat je po tome što se pred pojavu kiše veliki cvjetovi ove biljke zatvaraju, kako bi zaštitile pelud, dok su po sunčanom vremenu cvjetovi otvoreni.

Stabljika velikog kravljaka je niska, često polegnuta, cvjetne glavice su velike i zvjezdaste. Listovi su bodljikavi i perasto iscjepkani, dugi do 30 cm i skupljeni u prizemnoj rozeti. Cvjetovi su dvospolni i cjevasti, skupljeni u cvjetne glavice, a latice su bijele. Cvate u kolovozu i rujnu.

Kravljak voli suha i sunčana mjesta, pa je čest po pašnjacima i livadama srednje i južne Europe.

Latinsko ime Carlina dolazi po Karlu Velikom (742 – 814) koji ju je koristio kao lijek protiv kuge kod svoje vojske. Mladi listovi i cvjetne glavice su jestivi.

Riječki kravljak (C. frigida subsp. fiumensis (Simonk.) Meusel & Kästner), podvrsta je hladnog kravljaka.

Vrste

 Carlina acanthifolia All.; primogolisni kravljak
 Carlina acaulis L.; vrijemekaz
 Carlina atlantica Pomel
 Carlina balfouris Sennen
 Carlina barnebiana B.L.Burtt & P.H.Davis
 Carlina biebersteinii Bernh. ex Hornem.
 Carlina brachylepis (Batt.) Meusel & Kästner
 Carlina canariensis Pit.
 Carlina comosa (Spreng.) Greuter
 Carlina corymbosa L.;  vršikasti kravljak
 Carlina curetum Heldr. ex Heldr.
 Carlina diae (Rech.f.) Meusel & Kästner
 Carlina frigida Boiss. & Heldr.; hladni kravljak
 Carlina graeca Heldr. & Sart.
 Carlina guittonneaui Dobignard
 Carlina gummifera (L.) Less.
 Carlina hispanica Lam.
 Carlina involucrata Poir.
 Carlina kurdica Meusel & Kästner
 Carlina lanata L.
 Carlina lanata Pall. ex DC.; vunenasti kravljak
 Carlina libanotica Boiss.
 Carlina macrocephala Moris
 Carlina macrophylla (Desf.) DC.
 Carlina nebrodensis Guss. ex DC.
 Carlina oligocephala Boiss. & Kotschy
 Carlina pygmaea (Post) Holmboe
 Carlina racemosa L.
 Carlina salicifolia (L.f.) Cav.
 Carlina sicula Ten.
 Carlina sitiensis Rech.f.
 Carlina tragacanthifolia Klatt
 Carlina vayredrae Gaut.
 Carlina vulgaris L.; obični kravljak
 Carlina xeranthemoides L.f.

Vanjske poveznice

Izvori

Carlininae

Kravljak (biljni rod)


Hagstofa Evrópusambandsins eða Eurostat er stjórnarsvið Evrópusambandsins sem hefur það hlutverk að gefa út tölfræðigögn fyrir stofnanir Evrópusambandsins, og samræma tölfræði milli aðildarlanda sambandsins og EFTA. Höfuðstöðvar hagstofunnar eru í hverfinu Kirchberg í Lúxemborg.

Stjórnarsvið Evrópusambandsins
Hagstofur

Hagstofa Evrópusambandsins


Solaris, Stanislaw Lem'in çok tanınan bilimkurgu romanı. 1961 yılında basılmış, üç defa sinemaya uyarlanmıştır (Nirenberg 1968, Tarkovski 1972, Soderbergh 2002).

Hikâye

Romanda dünyaya yakın bir gezegen olan Solaris ile girilen etkileşimden ve bu etkileşim sonucunda oluşan olaylar üzerinden felsefe, din, psikoloji gibi çok çeşitli konular üzerine gönderme yapılmaktadır. Solaris, dünyada bir bilimdir. İnsanlar bu yakın fakat garip gezegen hakkında olabildiğince bilgi toplamaya ve nihayetinde gezegenden pratik faydalar sağlamayı hedeflemektedir ve bu da gezegen hakkında çok daha ayrıntılı bilgi sahibi olmayı, yani gezegeni yerinde tanımayı gerektirmektedir. Roman tam da bu çabaların sıkıştığı bir noktada başlamakta ve aynı karamsarlıkla bitmektedir.

Kevin kendinden daha önce gezegeni inceleme göreviyle Solaris'e gönderilen bilim insanlarının durumunu gözetlemesi ve onlara destek olması için bir psikolog olarak Solaris'e gönderilir. Kevin için Solaris beklentisinden farklı bir deneyimi yansıtır. Karşılaştığı şey(ler) Solaris'teki sorunun çok daha karmaşık olduğunu göstermektedir. Bir bilim insanı intihar etmiştir, diğeri bir şeyler gizlemekte, bir diğeri de yönelimsiz, belirsiz hareketlerde bulunmaktadır.

Solaris bilinçsiz denebilecek bir sıvı organizmadır, fakat bu bilinçsizliğine rağmen kendi bütünlüğüne karşı oluşan tehditlere tepki vermektedir. Solaris'e insansal bir bilinçten çok hayvansal bir bilinç atfetmek daha doğru olur. Gezegen çok çeşitli moleküler gerçeklikler yaratarak kendisi üzerindeki yabancı faktörleri dışlamaya çalışmakta, onlarla mücadele etmekte, organizmasını korumaya çalışmaktadır. Gezegenin yaptığı şey, spesifik olarak, mücadele ettiği virüs-insanların karşısına bu insanların bilinçaltlarında ve hafızalarında saklı olan sorunlu bazı bastırılmış duyguları, bu duyguların nedeni olan kişiler aracılığıyla yaşatmaktır. Gezegen üzerindeki insanlarla psikolojik bir savaşa girmekte ve bu savaştan galip çıkmaktadır. Kevin'in durumu da bunun bir diğer örneğidir. Gezegen Kevin'in karşısına ölmüş karısı Rheya'yı çıkarmaktadır. Rheya, Kevin üzerinde sorun yaratmaktadır, bu salt Rheya'nın ölmüş olması ve yarattığı şaşkınlıktan değil, Rheya'nın bir bedensel bütünlükten çok, bir çeşit moleküler organizasyonu ya da bir çeşit herkesin gördüğü halüsinasyon olmasından kaynaklanmaktadır. Bir anlamda, gezegen Rheya'yı, Kevin üzerinde en etkili olduğunu çıkarsayıp, bilinçaltından çekmiş ve onun üzerinden Kevin üzerinde mümkün olan en yüksek tahribatı yapmıştır. Nihayetinde Kevin de diğer bilim insanları gibi başarısız olacaktır.

Tüm bu yukarıda anlatılardaki psikolojik bilimkurguya ek olarak, Lem başka dünyaların ve insanoğlunun dışa dönük, bilimsel-teknolojik hırsının en nihayetinde kendi içindeki birtakım sorunlar tarafından ikinci planda bırakılacağını öngörmektedir. Bu noktada Lem'in seküler bilime ve onun ilerleyişine karşı edilgen dinsel-mistik düşünceyi savunduğunu düşünmek, çıkarmak biraz öte bir düşünce olacaktır. Lem'in durduğu nokta pozitivist-ilerlemeci düşünceye karşı olmaktan çok, ona fazla değinmeden ya da bu düşünceye karşı olmadan fazlaca dışa-dönük 20. yüzyıl dünyasında insan içselliğinin önemini belirtmektir.

Kaynakça

Dış bağlantılar
 İletişim Yayınları

Stanislaw Lem romanları
Bilimkurgu romanları
1961 romanları
Sinemaya uyarlanmış Rus romanları
Felsefi romanlar

Solaris (roman)


Argyrocytisus battandieri, the pineapple broom or Moroccan broom is a species of flowering plant in the legume family, Fabaceae, subfamily Faboideae. It is the only member of the genus Argyrocytisus (formerly Cytisus battandieri).

It is native to the Rif and Middle Atlas mountains of Morocco. It is a substantial deciduous shrub growing to  tall and wide, with trifoliate grey-green leaves, and erect racemes of yellow flowers with a distinctive pineapple scent. Grown in a sheltered location, it is hardy down to .

The cultivar 'Yellow Tail' has gained the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit. It was introduced to the UK as recently as 1922, and for a long time was thought less hardy than plants have proved.

References

Genisteae
Monotypic Fabaceae genera
Taxa named by René Maire
Endemic flora of Morocco

Argyrocytisus


Afrika kökenli ölü diller listesi aşağıdadır:

Angola
 Kwadi

Çad
 Horo
 Muskum

Demokratik Kongo Cumhuriyeti
 Ngbee

Eritre
 Geez

Etiyopya
 Gafat
 Geez (bkz. yukarıda Eritre)
 Weyto

Gine
 Baga Kaloum
 Baga Sobané

Fildişi Sahili (Côte d'Ivoire)
 Esuma
 Qwedziona

Güney Afrika Cumhuriyeti
 ǀXam diliǀǀXamca
 ǀXegwi diliǀǀXegwice
 Seroaca

Kamerun
 Duli
 Gey
 Nagumi
 Yeni

Kenya
 Elmolo
 Kore

Mısır
 Coptic
 Eski Mısır Dili
 Eski Nubice

Nijerya
 Ajawa
 Auyokawa
 Basa-Gumna
 Gamo-Ningi
 Kpati
 Kubi
 Mawa
 Teshenawa

Sudan
 Baygo
 Berti
 Birked
 Eski Nubice
 Gule
 Homa
 Mittu
 Togoyo
 Torona

Tanzanya
 Kw'adza

Tunus
 Lingua franca
 Sened
 Vandalca

Uganda
 Nyang'i
 Singa

Ölü diller listesi

Afrika kökenli ölü diller listesi


Descendants er en amerikansk musikalsk eventyr-/fantasyfilm produceret for TV af og for Disney Channel. Filmen er instrueret af Kenny Ortega og skrevet af Josann McGibbon og Sara Parriott. Blandt medvirkende er Dove Cameron, Cameron Boyce, Booboo Stewart, og Sofia Carson som spiller nogle teenagebørn, hvis forældre er de kendte skurke fra Disneys klassikere. Den havde premiere 31. juli 2015.

Rolleliste

Efterkommere
 Dove Cameron som Mal
 Cameron Boyce som Carlos
 Booboo Stewart som Jay
 Sofia Carson som Evie
 Mitchell Hope som Prince Ben
 Sarah Jeffery som Princess Audrey
 Jedidiah Goodacre som Prince Chad Charming
 Dianne Doan som Lonnie
 Brenna D'Amico som Jane
 Zachary Gibson som Doug

Skurke
 Kristin Chenoweth som Maleficent
 Wendy Raquel Robinson som Cruella de Vil
 Maz Jobriani som Jafar
 Kathy Najimy som den onde dronning

Eksterne henvisninger

Amerikanske film fra 2015
Disney Channel Original Movies

Descendants