Memorial () is an international human rights organisation, founded in Russia during the fall of the Soviet Union to study and examine the human rights violations and other crimes committed under Joseph Stalin's reign. Subsequently, it expanded the scope of its research to cover the entire Soviet period.

Prior to its dissolution in Russia in early 2022, it consisted of two separate legal entities, Memorial International, whose purpose was the recording of the crimes against humanity committed in the Soviet Union, particularly during the Stalinist era, and the Memorial Human Rights Centre, which focused on the protection of human rights, especially in conflict zones in and around modern Russia. A movement rather than a unitary system, as of December 2021 Memorial encompassed over 50 organizations in Russia and 11 in other countries, including Kazakhstan, Ukraine, Germany, Italy, Belgium and France. Although the focus of affiliated groups differs from region to region, they share similar concerns about human rights, documenting the past, educating young people and marking remembrance days for the victims of political repression.

Memorial emerged during the perestroika years of the late 1980s, to document the crimes against humanity committed in the USSR during the 20th century and help surviving victims of the Great Terror and the Gulag and their families. Between 1987 and 1990, while the USSR was still in existence, 23 branches of the society were established. When the Soviet Union collapsed, branches of Memorial in Ukraine remained affiliated to the Russian network. Some of the oldest branches of Memorial in northwest and central Russia, the Urals and Siberia later developed websites documenting independent local research and published the crimes of the Soviet regime in their region.

After the Russian foreign agent law was passed in July 2012, Memorial came under increasing government pressure. On 21 July 2014, the Memorial Human Rights Centre was declared a "foreign agent" by the Ministry of Justice. The label was extended in November 2015 to the Research & Information Centre at St. Petersburg Memorial, and on 4 October 2016 to Memorial International itself. On 28 December 2021, the Supreme Court of Russia ordered Memorial International to close for violations of the foreign agent law. A lawyer for Memorial said it would appeal. The Memorial Human Rights Centre was ordered shut by the Moscow City Court on 29 December 2021; state prosecutors accused it of breaching the foreign agent law and supporting terrorism and extremism. On the same day, the European Court of Human Rights applied an interim measure instructing Russia to halt the forced dissolution of Memorial, pending the outcome of litigation.

On 29 December 2021, HRC Memorial as a legal entity in Russia was closed and liquidated by the Moscow City Court as violating the "Foreign Agent" Law. On April 5, 2022, the Russian Court of Appeal confirmed the dissolution. Some of Memorial's human rights activities continued in Russia. Memorial continues to operate in other countries, notably in Germany where its oldest and largest non-Russian chapter is based. In October 2022, Memorial was one of the three laureates of that year's Nobel Peace Prize, alongside Ukrainian human rights organisation Centre for Civil Liberties and Belarusian activist Ales Bialiatski, for their efforts in "document[ing] war crimes, human rights abuses, and the abuse of power".

Early history and predecessors
Memorial's creation was a response to growing public awareness of historic abuses within the Soviet Union (USSR) during the 1980s, as well as concern about contemporary human rights, especially in certain hotspots around the USSR. This took place within the context of  (reconstruction) and  (openness), policies pursued by president Mikhail Gorbachev which led to increased government transparency and tolerance of civil society. An earlier statement of the goals later pursued by the Memorial Society was made by Brezhnev era dissidents in February 1974, following the deportation of dissident writer Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn from the USSR. They called for publication in the USSR of Solzhenitsyn's The Gulag Archipelago, the opening of all secret police archives relating to the past, and the organization of an international tribunal to examine the crimes of the Soviet secret police.

Some of these goals became feasible in the late 1980s when several activists such as Lev Ponomaryov, Yuri Samodurov, Vyacheslav Igrunov, Dmitry Leonov, and Arseny Roginsky proposed a complex to commemorate the victims of Stalinism. Their concept included a monument, a museum, an archive, and a library. An "all-Union informal movement" organized and submitted a petition to the 19th All-Union Conference of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (CPSU) in 1988, and that body supported Politburo proposals for the creation of a monument to the victims of political repression during the cult of personality under Stalin. A similar decision by the 22nd Congress of the CPSU in 1961 had been ignored for many years.

A significant juncture in Memorial's development was its Moscow conference on 29–30 October 1988. After the failure of officialdom to force the postponement of the conference, it gathered 338 delegates from 57 cities and towns. In a report to the Politburo dated 16 November the new KGB head, Vladimir Kryuchkov, observed that 66% of the delegates came from Moscow and the Moscow Region. Kryuchkov decried "provocative statements" made by dissidents and young activists during the two-day event.

Secretaries of several creative unions (architects, designers, artists and filmmakers) were present as potential trustees of the proposed organization. More radical voices were also heard, including those of the Moscow Popular Front, the newly founded Democratic Union, and uncensored periodicals such as Glasnost and Express Chronicle. Members of the Moscow Action Group of Memorial were among the radicals. The conference was addressed by dissidents Larisa Bogoraz and Elena Bonner (wife of dissident scientist Andrei Sakharov), and by the octogenarian writer Oleg Volkov, an early inmate of the Gulag's Solovki camp. In a report to the Politburo, KGB head Kryuchkov singled out Arseny Roginsky, future chairman (1998–2017) of International Memorial, as particularly outspoken. Memorial should become an heir to the Helsinki Groups of the late Soviet period, said Roginsky, and he named the Chronicle of Current Events (1968–1982) and its compilers as a model to be emulated.

Memorial was founded on 26–28 January 1989 as a "historical and educational" society at a conference held in the Moscow Aviation Institute. Two years later a distinct Memorial Civil Rights Defense Center was also set up. In a random poll conducted on the streets of Moscow, respondents named many whom they thought suitable candidates for the Memorial Society's board of trustees. The second most popular was Andrei Sakharov, who had won a Nobel Peace Prize in 1975 for his efforts to promote civil liberties within the Soviet Union; Sakharov became the first Memorial chairman. The exiled Solzhenitsyn was also named but he declined the invitation, saying he could do little to help from abroad; in private, he told Sakharov that the scope of the project should not be restricted to the Stalin era because repressive measures had begun with the October Revolution under Vladimir Lenin.

Memorial was not formally recognized until 1990 when the organization acquired official status. On 19 April 1992, after the dissolution of the Soviet Union, Memorial was reconstituted as an International NGO, a "historical, educational, human rights and charitable society", with organizations in several post-Soviet states (Russia, Ukraine, Kazakhstan, Latvia, and Georgia), as well as in Germany, the Czech Republic, Italy, and France.

Mission and activities
According to its post-Soviet 1992 charter, Memorial pursued the following aims:

To promote mature civil society and democracy based on the rule of law and thus prevent a return to totalitarianism;
To assist the formation of public awareness based on the values of democracy and law, to extirpate totalitarian patterns [of thought and behaviour], and to firmly establish  human rights in everyday politics and public life;
To promote the truth about the historical past and perpetuate the memory of the victims of political repression carried out by totalitarian regimes.

Its online database contains details of the victims of political repression in the USSR; the fifth version contains over three million names, although Memorial estimated that 75% of victims had not yet been identified and recorded.

Memorial organized assistance, both legal and financial, for the victims of the Gulag. It conducts research into the history of political repression and shares the findings in books, articles, exhibitions, museums, and the websites of its member organizations.

Day of Remembrance
Moscow Memorial was among the organisations that persuaded the Russian authorities to follow the long-standing dissident tradition of marking 30 October each year, transforming it into an official Day of Remembrance of the Victims of Political Repressions. Over the next thirty years this date was adopted across Russia: by 2016 annual events were held on 30 October at 103 of the 411 burial grounds and commemorative sites included on the "Russia's Necropolis" website.

Memorial worked on the law "On Rehabilitation of Victims of Political Repression".

Research and education
Throughout its existence, but particularly since 2012, the International Memorial Society has widened its range of activities. Today these include the Last Address project and, following the example of Berlin and its Topography of Terror excursions and exhibitions, the society has organised similar educational ventures about the Soviet era in Moscow and other Russian cities.

Archives and online database
In 2005, Memorial's database contained records of more than 1,300,000 victims of political repression in the Soviet Union. First issued as a CD, by 2020 the fifth edition of the database was available online and held over three million entries of those shot, imprisoned or deported during the Soviet period.

Another project is the "Open List" database, created in several languages of the former Soviet Union (Russian, Ukrainian, Georgian and Belarusian) to encourage relatives and descendants of those shot, imprisoned and deported to contribute information about the victims and their families. This expanded sources of information beyond the case files kept on individuals by the Soviet security services or the police.

Memorial's archives have been used by historians such as Briton Orlando Figes.

School programmes
Since 1999, Memorial has organised an annual competition for secondary school students around the theme of "The Individual and History: Russia in the 20th century". It received between 1,500 and 2,000 entries each year. Authors of the 40 best contributions are invited to Moscow to attend a special school academy and the awards ceremony. The jury has been headed in the past by Otto Sigurd, Svetlana Aleksiyevich and Ludmila Ulitskaya. To date, 26 collections of winning entries have been published: the majority of these can be found on the "Lessons of History" website.

"Virtual Gulag" museum and Russia's Necropolis website
In the early 21st century, Memorial in St. Petersburg worked to create the "Virtual Gulag" Museum in order to bring together research and archives from all over the former Soviet Union and to commemorate and record the existence of the Gulag and the lives of its inmates.

Disrupted by the 2008 seizure in St. Petersburg of much of the materials on which the project was based (see  for further information), and faced with a need to update the information (and the technology), it was decided to create a map of the burial grounds, graveyards and commemorative sites across Russia. Launched in Russian in 2016, an English-language version, "Russia's Necropolis of Terror and the Gulag" followed in August 2021. This resource documents over 400 sites, some dating back to the Russian Civil War, noting their state of preservation, monuments and ceremonies, and whether they have protected status. It includes the killing fields of the Great Purge such as Krasny Bor, the abandoned burial grounds of the Gulag, and also 138 graveyards of the "special" settlements to which "dekulakized" peasant families and then Poles, Lithuanians and others were deported in their tens of thousands.

At the Kovalevsky Woods near St. Petersburg, Memorial attempted to construct a National Memorial Museum Complex to commemorate the 4,500 victims who were killed and buried there during the Red Terror. Memorial workers discovered the bodies in 2002. A memorial complex already exists at the Sandarmokh killing field (1937–1938) in Karelia, thanks to the efforts of Yury A. Dmitriev.

In July 1997, a joint expedition of the St. Petersburg and Karelian Memorial Societies led by Dmitriev, Irina Flige, and Veniamin Joffe found 236 common graves containing the bodies of at least 6,000 victims of Stalin–era purges, executed in 1937 and 1938. In 2016, the Russian government attempted to revise this account, claiming that among the dead were Soviet POWs shot by invading Finns in 1941–1944. Memorial representatives challenged both the motivation behind this claim and the purported new evidence intended to support it.

A Chronicle of Current Events (1968–1982)
In 2008, Memorial HRC launched an online version of the noted  publication A Chronicle of Current Events, which had been distributed in the Soviet Union. Appearing at irregular intervals during the year, it was circulated in typescript form () in the USSR from 1968 to 1983. All of its 63 issues were also translated into English and published abroad. Western observers and scholars considered it to be a key source of trustworthy information about human rights in the post-Stalin Soviet Union.

The launch of the online version was held at Memorial's office in Karetny.  Many former editors of the underground publication attended, including Sergei Kovalev and Alexander Lavut.

Media
Memorial has funded or helped to produce various publications and films related to human rights. This included the documentary The Crying Sun (2007), which focused on the village of Zumsoy in Chechnya, and the struggle of its citizens to preserve their cultural identity in the face of military raids and enforced disappearances by the Russian army and 'guerilla' fighters. The 25-minute film was produced in collaboration with WITNESS.

International Memorial outside Russia
International Memorial has branches in several European countries.

Memorial Germany was founded in 1993 in Berlin to support the organization in Russia. Over time it has become an independent human rights organization based in Germany. Memorial Italia has been operating since 2004. Memorial Belgium was founded in 2007.

Later, branches of the International Memorial were also set up in the Czech Republic (2016) and most recently a French branch came into existence in April 2020.

In eastern and southern Ukraine, as noted earlier (§), Memorial organisations set up during the late Soviet period have remained affiliated with the Russian network. A noted centre for work both on historical materials and current human rights concerns is the Kharkiv Human Rights Protection Group, an affiliate organisation since February 1989, which today runs the "Human Rights in Ukraine" portal.

Awards and nominations
In 2004, the Memorial Human Rights Centre (HRC) was among the four recipients of the Right Livelihood Award, for its work in documenting violations of human rights in Russia and other former states in the USSR. Quoting the RLA jury: " for showing, under very difficult conditions, and with great personal courage, that history must be recorded and understood, and human rights respected everywhere if sustainable solutions to the legacy of the past are to be achieved."

In the same year, the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) named Memorial HRC as the winner of the annual Nansen Refugee Award for its wide range of services on behalf of forced migrants and internally displaced people in the Russian Federation, as well as refugees from Africa, Asia and the Middle East.

In 2008, Memorial won the Hermann Kesten Prize. In 2009, Memorial won the Sakharov Prize of the European Union, in memory of murdered Memorial activist Natalya Estemirova. Announcing the award, President of the European Parliament Jerzy Buzek said that the assembly hoped "to contribute to ending the circle of fear and violence surrounding human rights defenders in the Russian Federation". Oleg Orlov, a board member of Memorial, commented that the prize represents "much-needed moral support at a difficult time for rights activists in Russia". A cash reward, which comes with the prize, of €50,000 was awarded to Memorial in December 2009.

The writer and historian Irina Scherbakowa, a founder and staff member of Memorial, was given the Ossietzky Award and the Goethe Medal for her work relating to Memorial's activities.

In 2009, Memorial HRC was awarded the Victor Gollancz Prize by the Society for Threatened Peoples.

In 2012, Memorial was awarded the Custodian of National Memory prize by the Institute of National Remembrance.

On 4 February 2015, Lech Wałęsa nominated Memorial International for the 2014 Nobel Peace Prize.

Memorial was awarded the 2022 Nobel Peace Prize along with Belarusian human rights activist Ales Bialiatski and the Ukrainian human rights organisation Centre for Civil Liberties. Berit Reiss-Andersen, the head of the Norwegian Nobel Committee, stated that the recipients "have made an outstanding effort to document war crimes, human rights abuses and the abuse of power", however the committee stated that the choice was not made against Putin, who launched an invasion of Ukraine in February of that year.

Memorial also received the 2022 Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe Democracy Defender Award, jointly with Ukrainian Human Rights Centre ZMINA, for courageous and important efforts to promote human rights and democracy.

Recent operations

International Memorial
In April 2021, Memorial researchers Sergei Krivenko and Sergei Prudovsky published a study of the "national" operations conducted by the NKVD during the Great Terror, 1937–1938. Examining the available documents, they noted that the FSB, successor to the NKVD and KGB, had not fulfilled the terms of a June 1992 edict issued by President Boris Yeltsin. This demanded that all legislative acts and other documentation that "served as the basis for mass repressive measures and violations of human rights" should be declassified and made publicly available within three months.
The Great Terror involved "crimes against humanity" and was therefore subject to no statute of limitation. In 1968, the USSR acceded to the UN Convention on the Non-Applicability of Statutory Limitations to War Crimes and Crimes Against Humanity. Decades later, and thirty years after the 1992 presidential edict, the researchers were filing cases in the courts to pressure regional branches of the FSB to release documents about the Great Terror over 80 years earlier. Krivenko was an academic and a founding member of Memorial, while Prudovsky began by researching the fate of his grandfather and has spent the last ten years on a wide-ranging study of political repression in the 1930s.

Memorial Human Rights Centre
The growing list of prisoners of conscience and political prisoners in Russia (the Memorial Human Rights Centre issued a list of 377 names on 9 November 2021) reflected the link always drawn by Memorial between past atrocities and present-day violations of human rights. This referred, on the one hand, to hotspots around the Soviet Union and Russia, the two wars in Chechnya, conflicts with neighbouring countries, especially Georgia and Ukraine, and, on the other hand, to the regime within Russia under Vladimir Putin and his administration.

Persecution

In the 1990s, Memorial researchers gained access to central FSB archives and many significant documents about collectivisation, the Gulag and the Great Terror were found and published. Outside the capital, the situation across the country varied considerably. After the third-term re-election of Vladimir Putin in 2012, civil society as a whole and Memorial, in particular, were increasingly out of favour. Memorial's chronicling of historic purges frequently conflicted with Putin's attempts to venerate Soviet history.

Confiscation of the digital archive, 2008

On 4 December 2008, Memorial's St. Petersburg office was raided by the authorities. Officers confiscated 11 computer hard disks containing 20 years of research. The information was being used to develop "a universally accessible database with hundreds of thousands of names." Director Irina Flige thought Memorial was being targeted because it was on the wrong side of Putinism, specifically the idea "that Stalin and the Soviet regime were successful in creating a great country".

The raid was supposedly related to a xenophobic article in a June 2007 issue of the Novy Peterburg newspaper. Memorial denied any link to the publication. Some human rights lawyers in Russia speculated that the raid was a retaliation for the St. Petersburg Memorial screening of the banned film Rebellion: the Litvinenko Case (2007), which is about the murder of Russian ex-spy Alexander Litvinenko in Great Britain in 2006.

Allison Gill, director of Human Rights Watch in Moscow, said, "This outrageous police raid shows the poisonous climate for non-governmental organisations in Russia […] This is an overt attempt by the Russian government […] to silence critical voices". Academics from all over the world signed an open letter to then-President Dmitry Medvedev that condemned the seizure of disks and material. The United States declared itself "deeply concerned" about the raid: State Department spokesman Sean McCormack said, "Unfortunately, this action against Memorial is not an isolated instance of pressure against freedom of association and expression in Russia".

On 20 March 2009, the city's Dzerzhinsky district court ruled that the December 2008 search and confiscation of 12 HDDs were carried out with procedural violations; the actions of law enforcement bodies were illegal. Eventually, the 12 hard drives, plus optical discs and some papers, were returned to Memorial in 2009.

Chechnya and the North Caucasus, 1994–2018

Activists linked to Memorial played a key role during the first Chechen conflict (1994–1996) when Russia's human rights ombudsman Sergei Kovalyov spent days in Grozny under bombardment by federal aviation. They moved between the two sides of the conflict, searching for the missing and arranging exchanges of those killed during the fighting.

It became much harder for human rights activists to act impartially during the second Chechen conflict (1999–2005). Memorial's office in Grozny was frequently raided by the authorities. Memorial activist Natalia Estemirova, a close colleague of the murdered journalist Anna Politkovskaya (1958–2006), investigated murders and abductions in Chechnya until she herself was kidnapped in Grozny and shot dead in neighbouring Ingushetia on 15 July 2009. BBC reporters suggested her death was connected to her investigations of government-backed militias in the country. Three days later, Memorial suspended its activities in Chechnya, stating "We cannot risk the lives of our colleagues even if they are ready to carry on their work."

Oleg Orlov, a Memorial board member with experience in the North Caucasus, accused Chechen president Ramzan Kadyrov of being behind the murder, and claimed that Kadyrov had openly threatened her. Kadyrov denied his involvement and sued Memorial for defamation, naming Orlov specifically in his complaint. Several years later the case was yet to be resolved.

On 17 January 2018, masked arsonists set fire to Memorial's North Caucasus office in Nazran, Ingushetia.

"Foreign agent" status, 2014–2020

According to the 2012 foreign agent law, "groups must register with the Justice Ministry as "foreign agents" if they receive even a minimal  amount of  funding from any foreign sources, governmental or private, and engage in 'political activity'". The first part of Memorial to be declared a "foreign agent" was its Moscow-based Human Rights Centre in July 2014. The following year, the Ministry of Justice designated the Research & Information Centre at St. Petersburg Memorial, two Memorial organisations in Yekaterinburg and another one in Ryazan "foreign agents". On 4 October 2016, the law requiring organizations that accepted funds from abroad and engaged in "political activities" to register and declare themselves as a "foreign agent" was applied to Memorial International.

Memorial HRC and International Memorial disputed this designation of their status in the courts and, having exhausted such legal recourse with the Russian judicial system, applied to the European Court of Human Rights (ECHR) in Strasbourg. The Research & Information Centre at Petersburg Memorial declared that it would continue its work and projects but "did not intend to mark all its publications with such a stamp", designating it a foreign agent. It informed, "all interested persons that RIC Memorial's public activities would be continued by the Joffe Foundation".

In its 2015 annual "foreign agent" audit, Russia's Ministry of Justice accused the Memorial Human Rights Centre of "undermining the foundations of the constitutional order of the Russian Federation" and of calling for "a change of political regime" in the country.

Memorial International's designation as a "foreign agent" was part of the State's ongoing battle with NGOs and civil society. By autumn 2019, Memorial and its new chairman, Yan Rachinsky, faced fines of 3,700,000 roubles for infringing the terms of the foreign agent law: a sum that was raised through crowdfunding. In 2020, Memorial submitted a complaint to the ECHR about excessive fines and harassment.

Intimidation and order to close, 2021

On 14 October 2021, around 20 men broke into the Moscow offices of Memorial and interrupted a public film screening of Mr Jones with hostile chants. Memorial staff called the police, but by the time the officers arrived most of the intruders had dispersed, and police led away the three who remained. Then, without explanation, the police shut the people who had been watching the film in the Memorial building and held them there for hours, late into the night. Everyone was forced to provide full personal details from their passports, their residential address and phone number, as well as information about their education, workplace, and work title.

The first calls for the closure of Memorial were made in 2014 by Minister of Justice Aleksandr Konovalov in an application to the Supreme Court. If Memorial was closed, commented its chairman Arseny Roginsky, then the organisation's many branches would have to re-register and thereafter restore contacts with one another across the country. In January 2015, the Court announced that it would not uphold the Ministry's request.

On 11 November 2021, the Russian Prosecutor General's Office announced that it had submitted a lawsuit to the Supreme Court, seeking to close Memorial International over violations of the Russian foreign agent law. The following day, it became known that the Moscow City Prosecutor's Office filed a lawsuit with the Moscow City Court requesting the closure of the Memorial Human Rights Centre. The lawsuits would be heard on 26 and 23 November, respectively. More than 120,000 people signed a petition to save the group.

On 28 December 2021, the Supreme Court of Russia ordered the International Memorial Society and its regional branches to close because it had violated the 2012 foreign agent law. During the court hearing, state prosecutor Zhafyarov accused Memorial of "creating a false image of the Soviet Union as a terrorist state" and "making us repent for the Soviet past, instead of remembering glorious history […] probably because someone is paying for it". A lawyer for Memorial said it would appeal against the decision in both Russian courts and the European Court of Human Rights (ECHR) in Strasbourg, which has jurisdiction over Russia. The following day, the Moscow City Court announced its decision to shut down the Memorial Human Rights Centre.

International response to the threat of closure
On 29 December, the UN Human Rights Office in Geneva described the Russian courts' rulings as "further weaken[ing] the country's dwindling human rights community". This was followed by the application of an emergency interim measure by the European Court of Human Rights (ECHR), ordering the Russian government to halt the abolition of the two organisations. , both organisations were party to a pre-existing ECHR complaint concerning the Russian foreign agent law.

On 31 December 2021, a joint statement was released by the European Union, the United States, Australia, Canada, and the United Kingdom criticising the Russian courts' decisions to shut Memorial and calling on Russia "to uphold its international human rights obligations and commitments".

See also
 Day of Remembrance, 30 October each year
 Kommunarka "firing range"
 Last Address project
 Arseny Roginsky
 Sandarmokh forest and memorial
 Solovki "special" prison
 Solovetsky Stone, Moscow
 Topography of Terror excursions

References

Further reading

 Cathy Merridale (2000), Night of Stone: Death and Memory in Russia, Granta publishers: London
 Anne Applebaum (2003), Gulag: A History of the Soviet camps, Allen Lane: London

External links

 Victims of Political Terror in the USSR (Memorial). Online database with over 3 million entries (in Russian)
 Russia's Necropolis of Terror and the Gulag (Joffe Foundation). A select directory of burial grounds and commemorative sites (in English)
 Open List of the Victims of the Soviet Regime, 1917–1991 Moscow (in Russian, Ukrainian, Georgian and Belarusian)

1989 establishments in the Soviet Union
Organizations established in 1989
Post-Soviet states
Political repression in the Soviet Union
Commemoration of communist crimes
Sakharov Prize laureates
Non-profit organizations listed in Russia as foreign agents
2021 disestablishments in Russia
Organizations disestablished in 2021
Organizations awarded Nobel Peace Prizes
Nansen Refugee Award laureates

Memorial (society)


An Elymus athericus in uska species han Liliopsida nga syahan ginhulagway ni Heinrich Friedrich Link, ngan ginhatag han pagkayana nga asya nga ngaran ni Michel François-Jacques Kerguélen. An Elymus athericus in nahilalakip ha genus nga Elymus, ngan familia nga Poaceae. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Mga sumpay ha gawas

Elymus

Elymus athericus


Et gårdhavehus er et enfamilieshus der er bygget forskudt sammen med lignende huse, så der dannes en have med mure på flere sider.

Noter

Hustyper

Gårdhavehus


The Swedish Women's Voluntary Defence Organization ( (SLK) communicatively, , and Riksförbundet Sveriges lottakårer juridically, ) is an independent auxiliary defence organization in Sweden. The organisation is part of the Swedish Total Defence (Totalförsvaret), the national defence strategy of Sweden.

The organisation was created in 1924 as a Swedish version of the Finnish equivalent organisation Lotta Svärd (created in 1918), which subsequently inspired other Scandinavian and the Baltic states to create their own organisations based on the same principles. These are collectively called "Lotta movements" as the majority of these organisations have adopted the name Lotta as the general designation for organisation members.

Organisation

The organization currently consists of approximately 5,000 women of all ages throughout Sweden. Svenska Lottakåren's purpose is to recruit and educate women for tasks in the Swedish total defence, and to conduct comprehensive defence training. Svenska Lottakåren works in both the Armed Forces and in Civilian Emergency Preparedness. The organization is politically neutral, and is one of the country's largest female networks.

Members are called lotta (singular) or lottor (plural).

History

Origin

Svenska Lottakåren was created in 1924 with the Finnish women's auxiliary organization, Lotta Svärd (founded in 1920), as a direct role model. The name Lotta comes from a poem by Johan Ludvig Runeberg, about a fictional woman named Lotta Svärd, who took care of wounded soldiers during the Finnish War.

The organisation was founded by a Swedish woman named Tyra Wadner, whom also became the organization's first chairperson, and was originally an auxiliary aid unit for the Swedish landstorm militia, then named Sveriges Landstormskvinnor (Sweden's Landstorm Women).

The organisation's original mission was non-militant and primarily aimed at collecting money for the landstorm militia. However, by the late 1930s it became apparent that the organisation was needed for militant missions during wartime, however not of combatant nature. In 1936 rules were laid down that regulated the organisation's activities in peacetime and wartime.

In peacetime, the activities would be concentrated in four areas:
Collection of funds for the landstorm militia
Provide service at landstorm militia exercises
Training of their own members
Information work to "raise the motherland and homeland patriotism feeling and strengthen the nation's defence".

During the war, Svenska Lottakåren instead had to undertake various forms of assistance for defence in the homeland, especially during mobilization. Members were divided into army, navy and airfields.

World War II

During World War II, the organization received many new duties. Due to limited manpower it was decided to let organisation members perform service duties of non-combat nature in Sweden's army, navy and air force branches. It was during this period that members of the organisation started being called lottor, as their original name "Landstormskvinnor" did not fit their new roles. This soon became official as the Swedish landstorm militia was scrapped and replaced with the Swedish home guard in 1942, turning the organisation independent. The new organisation name became Riksförbundet Sveriges lottakårer ("The national federation of Sweden's Lotta corps").

The war also rapidly increased the number of organisation members and by the end of the war the organization had more than 110,000 members, which meant that about five percent of Sweden's women over 15 years were part of the organisation.

Postwar

Post World War II, SLK continued to perform many non-combatant roles tasks and roles in the Swedish Armed Forces-organization.

In 1989 the Swedish military started allowing women into all positions within the Swedish armed forces. This meant that the Swedish Women's Voluntary Defence Organization was no longer the only true option for women to get an active role in the defence of Sweden. An equivalent change in Denmark the same year had led to the dissolution of their "Lotta movement" Lottekorps. However in Sweden the organisation would remain as they still held important roles in the Swedish defence, as well as their cultural value.

In 2008 the organisation updated their graphical profile and changed their communicative name into Svenska Lottakåren ("The Swedish Lotta Corps"). The old name "Riksförbundet Sveriges lottakårer" was however kept as the official juridical name.

Awards and decorations
Members and non-members of the Swedish Women's Voluntary Defence Organization which have benefited the organization can be awarded different awards and decorations, for example the Swedish Women's Voluntary Defence Organization Royal Medal of Merit in gold and silver (awarded since 1943) and the Swedish Women's Voluntary Defence Organization Medal of Merit in gold (awarded since 1967) and silver (awarded since 1944).

Heads
1924–1931: Tyra Wadner
1931–1945: Maja Schmidt
1945–1959: Märta Stenbeck
1959–1966: Ingrid Norlander
1966–1974: Louise Ulfhielm
1974–1978: Alice Trolle-Wachtmeister
1978–1986: Christine Malmström Barke
1986–1994: Marianne af Malmborg
1994–2002: Nini Engstrand
2002–2008: Elisabeth Falkemo
2008–2014: Annette Rihagen
2014–2018: Barbro Isaksson
2018–2022: Heléne Rådemar
2022-    : Eva Nolsäter

Other Lotta movements
: Lotta Svärd (1918–1944)
: Naiskodukaitse "NKK" (1925–onward)
: Norges Lotteforbund "NFL" (1928–onward)
: Lottekorps (1946–1989)

Footnotes

References

Notes

Print

Web

External links

Military of Sweden
All-female military units and formations
Military units and formations established in 1924
Volunteer organizations in Sweden


Der Premabüba ist eine seit 1948 regelmäßig stattfindende Fastnachtsveranstaltung im Saarland. Diese Veranstaltung war eine Zeitlang die größte ihrer Art in diesem Bundesland. Das Akronym steht für "Presse-Maler-Bühnen-Ball".

Geschichte

Vorläufer des Premabüba waren das "Saarbrücker Presse- und Künstlerfest", das erstmals am 7. März 1914 stattfand. Ab 1927 wurde der "Presse- und Bühnenball" (Prebüh) veranstaltet, der auch vom Namen her Vorläufer der Faschingsveranstaltung war, und mit dem Zutritt der Kunstmaler zum "Premabüh" ausgebaut wurde.

Die erste Veranstaltung unter dem Namen Premabüba fand am 7. Februar 1948, drei Jahre nach dem Ende des Zweiten Weltkriegs statt. Die Premiere wurde im Saarländischen Staatstheater veranstaltet. Dort fanden bis 1967 alle Veranstaltungen statt. Aus Sicherheitsgründen musste der Veranstaltungsort geändert werden, und seit 1967 wird die Congresshalle als Veranstaltungsort genutzt.

Die Faschingsfeier fiel in seiner langjährigen Geschichte nur viermal aus: 1962 wegen des schweren Grubenunglücks von Luisenthal, 1991 wegen des Ersten Golfkriegs, 2007 wegen Umbauarbeiten und 2021 wegen der COVID-19-Pandemie.

Konzept

Das Konzept der Veranstaltung wurde mehrfach überarbeitet, zuletzt 2012. Geblieben ist über die Jahre ein bestimmtes Motto, das die jeweilige Dekoration vorgab, zum Beispiel "Ein Blumenfest in Peru" (1956) oder "Südsee Romatik" (1982). Bereits 1948 wurde die Veranstaltung durch den freiwilligen Einsatz von verschiedenen Verbänden auf zwei, später dann auf drei Tage ausgedehnt. 1986 kam ein Jugendball hinzu und 1987 wurde mit dem "Firmabüba" eine Veranstaltung für Firmen und Behörden geschaffen. 1999 musste die Veranstaltung auf zwei und 2004 auf einen Tag reduziert werden. Zu seinem 60-jährigen Jubiläum 2008 wurden wieder zwei Tage veranstaltet. Der Erlös der Veranstaltung kam zunächst der Reparatur und dem Wiederaufbau des Staatstheaters zugute, danach wurden "die Sozialkassen der Bühnenkünstler und -techniker, der Maler und Journalisten" finanziert.

Zu seinen Hochzeiten zog der Premabüba 15.000 Zuschauer an. An Stargästen traten unter anderem Zarah Leander, Udo Jürgens, Marlène Charell und Rudi Carrell auf. 2010 waren es noch 4.300 und 2011 3.500 Besucher. Seit 2012 setzt das Congress Centrum Saar auf Künstler aus der Region. Zwischenzeitlich wurde die ebenfalls vom Congress Centrum Saar veranstaltete Weiberfaasenacht (ebenfalls in der Congresshalle) zur meistbesuchten Hallenveranstaltung im saarländischen Karneval.

Mottos

Weblinks
 Offizielle Website
 Saarländische Faasenaachd

Einzelnachweise

Faschingsball
Kultur (Saarbrücken)
Veranstaltung im Saarland

Premabüba


Samuel "Sam" Groth (* 19. Oktober 1987 in Narrandera, New South Wales) ist ein ehemaliger australischer Tennisspieler. Er hält mit 263 km/h den Rekord für den härtesten Aufschlag im Tennis.

Karriere
2005 erreichte Groth an der Seite des Briten Andrew Kennaugh das Junioren-Doppelfinale von Wimbledon. Seit seiner ersten Profisaison 2006 ist er hauptsächlich auf der ATP Challenger Tour unterwegs. Im Einzel gewann er seinen ersten Titel erst 2014 in Rimouski, während er im Doppel bereits 15 Titel gewann. Sein Grand-Slam-Debüt gab er 2009 dank einer Wildcard bei den Australian Open. Dort schied er jedoch trotz 1:0-Satzführung am Ende mit 1:3 Sätzen in der Auftaktrunde gegen Mardy Fish aus. Mit Chris Guccione gewann er mit dem Sieg in der Doppelkonkurrenz in Bogotá im Juli 2014 seinen ersten Titel auf der ATP World Tour. In den folgenden Monaten erreichte er mit Leander Paes das Finale in Washington und mit Guccione die Finals von Shenzhen und Moskau. Seine höchste Einzelplatzierung in der Weltrangliste erreichte er im Oktober 2014 mit Platz 87 im Einzel und Rang 31 im Doppel.

Im Mai 2012 schlug er beim Challenger-Turnier im südkoreanischen Busan in der Partie gegen den Belarussen Uladsimir Ihnazik den schnellsten jemals gemessenen Aufschlag mit 263 km/h. Er übertraf damit den im März 2011 aufgestellten Weltrekord von Ivo Karlović um 12 km/h.

Nach den Australian Open 2018 beendete er seine Karriere und gab bekannt fortan Australian Football zu spielen.

Im September 2014 debütierte er für die australische Davis-Cup-Mannschaft.

Von 2009 bis 2011 war er mit der Tennisspielerin Jarmila Gajdošová verheiratet.

Erfolge

Einzel

Turniersiege

Doppel

Turniersiege

ATP World Tour

ATP Challenger Tour

Finalteilnahmen

Weblinks

Einzelnachweise

Davis-Cup-Spieler (Australien)
Olympiateilnehmer (Australien)
Teilnehmer der Olympischen Sommerspiele 2016
Australier
Geboren 1987
Mann

Sam Groth


An Poa trichophylla in uska species han Liliopsida nga ginhulagway ni Pierre Edmond Boissier. An Poa trichophylla in nahilalakip ha genus nga Poa, ngan familia nga Poaceae. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Poa

Poa trichophylla


Le mot paraense est originellement un adjectif ou un gentilé portugais signifiant « habitant le (ou originaire du) Pará ». On l'utilise aussi en français, avec le même sens.

Les mots paraensis (masculin ou féminin) et paraense (neutre) sont les deux formes du nominatif singulier d'un adjectif du latin scientifique, de même signification.

Sciences et techniques
 En taxonomie, les mots paraensis et paraense sont employés comme épithètes spécifiques pour nommer diverses espèces animales et végétales découvertes au Pará. Pour les articles consacrés à de telles espèces, consulter les listes générées automatiquement : paraensis, paraense.

Culture et société
 Un Paraense est un habitant ou une personne originaire du Pará (un État du nord du Brésil).
  est une compagnie aérienne brésilienne (1952-1970).
 Le Museu Paraense Emilio Goeldi est un musée d'histoire naturelle et d'ethnographie et un institut de recherche situé à Belém (Pará, Brésil).
  (« Le Paraense ») est le premier journal publié dans l'État du Grão Pará (l'actuel Pará), de  à .

Patronyme
 Guilherme Paraense (1884-1968)  est un tireur sportif brésilien.

Toponyme

 le Sud-Est Paraense, l'une des six mésorégions de l'État du Pará ; elle réunit trente-neuf municipalités regroupées en sept microrégions ;
 le Sud-Ouest Paraense, l'une des six mésorégions de l'État du Pará ; elle réunit quatorze municipalités regroupées en deux microrégions.

Épithète spécifique

Paraense


Aceasta este o listă a obiectelor NGC cu numerele între 4001 și 5000. Lista cuprinde obiecte ce fac parte din conținutul New General Catalogue; alte obiecte pot fi găsite la pagina listei obiectelor NGC.

Datele furnizate în aceste tabele provin din the Historically Corrected New General Catalogue, corectat și revizuit de Dr. Wolfgang Steinicke.

4001-4100

4101-4200

4201-4300

4301-4400

4401-4500

4501-4600

4601-4700

4701-4800

4801-4900

4901-5000

Bibliografie
  NGC/IC Project

Referințe

Vezi și
 New General Catalogue
 Catalogul Messier

Note

Liste astronomie

Listă a obiectelor NGC (4001–5000)


Eugen Nosko (* 15. Oktober 1938 in St. Martin, Tschechoslowakei) ist ein deutscher Fotograf und Journalist.

Leben

In St. Martin, wo Nosko zweisprachig aufwuchs, besuchte er die Grundschule. 1946 musste die Familie nach Erlass der Beneš-Dekrete die Tschechoslowakei verlassen und siedelte sich im mecklenburgischen Teterow an. Nach seiner Schulausbildung erlernte Nosko in Radeberg den Beruf des Funkmechanikers, übte diese Tätigkeit jedoch nie aus.

Von 1961 bis 1963 absolvierte er ein Redaktionsvolontariat bei der Dresdner Tageszeitung Die Union. Parallel dazu nahm er ein Fernstudium an der Fachschule für Journalistik in Leipzig auf und schloss als Journalist ab. Seit 1964 arbeitete Nosko freiberuflich, anfangs überwiegend für zentrale Presseorgane der DDR. Er betätigte sich als Textautor sowie als Fotograf und Bildjournalist. Seine Kenntnisse in diesem Bereich erwarb er autodidaktisch. Ab 1967 verlagerte er im Auftrag von Volkseigenen Betrieben und Kombinaten der DDR den Schwerpunkt seiner Arbeit auf Industriefotografie. Es entstanden umfassende Bildserien. 1985 siedelte er in die Bundesrepublik Deutschland über, wo er weiter als freiberuflicher Industriefotograf tätig war. Seit Beendigung seiner fotografischen Tätigkeit aus gesundheitlichen Gründen im Jahr 2000 lebt er wieder in Dresden.

Werk

Das Grundthema seines Schaffens bildeten Mensch und Technik im Industriealltag der DDR. Seine Bildserien haben vor allem Bergbau, Hüttenwesen, Metallindustrie sowie Bau- und Transportwesen zum Gegenstand. Daneben entstand auch eine umfangreiche Sammlung von Stadtansichten. Im Jahr 1998 konnte die Abteilung Deutsche Fotothek der SLUB Dresden die etwa 11.000 Mittelformat-Aufnahmen seiner Industriefotografie in ihren Bestand aufnehmen. 2008 folgten ca. 26.000 Aufnahmen zur DDR-Industrie, von Städten der DDR, von Kabaretts und Varietés. 3000 Aufnahmen zur Industriefotografie der Bundesrepublik Deutschland aus den Jahren 1986 bis 1995 befinden sich seit 2008 ebenfalls im Bestand der Deutschen Fotothek.

Einzelnachweise

Weblinks

 Informationen zu Eugen Nosko in der Deutschen Fotothek
 Bilder von Eugen Nosko in der Deutschen Fotothek
 Eugen Nosko – "Besonderes wird im Alltäglichen entdeckt" (mit Porträt)

Deutscher
Fotojournalist
Fotograf (Dresden)
Fotograf (20. Jahrhundert)
Geboren 1938
Mann
Bestand in der Deutschen Fotothek

Eugen Nosko


La Escuela de Fútbol Enrique Happ es una reconocida institución formadora de jugadores de fútbol de primer nivel de la ciudad de Cochabamba en Bolivia, similar a la Academia Tahuichi Aguilera.

Algunos de sus egresados jugaron en la Selección de fútbol de Bolivia, destacándose Jhonny Villarroel, William Ramallo y Marco Antonio Sandy que participaron en la Copa Mundial de Fútbol de 1994.

Historia
La Escuela de Fútbol Enrique Happ fue fundada el 24 de septiembre de 1968 por su impulsor y benefactor Enrique Happ Krell, como una institución socio deportiva sin fines de lucro, destinada a la recreación sana y a la práctica del fútbol.

Un hecho anecdótico de esta institución se dio entre 1988 y 1992, cuando la institución renunció en 2 ocasiones al ascenso a la primera división del Fútbol Boliviano atribuyendo que la Escuela de Fútbol Enrique Happ solo era una institución formadora de jugadores de fútbol.

El reconocimiento de la escuela de fútbol Enrique Happ no solo es deportivo sino social ya que en la actualidad cuenta con cerca de 2000 niños provenientes de familias pobres, los cuales se recrean formándose y educándose a través del fútbol.

Infraestructura
La Escuela de Fútbol Enrique Happ cuenta con 2 complejos deportivos.

El primero y principal, se ubica en la zona de Cala-Cala en la parte sud del Estadio Félix Capriles, en este complejo se encuentra su sede social, su cancha de fútbol principal y departamentos tipo vivienda donde se hospedan los mejores futbolistas o futbolistas becados.

El segundo complejo se ubica en la parte sud de la Laguna Alalay, donde practican niños de diferentes edades provenientes de toda la zona sud de Cochabamba.

Auspiciadores
Los actuales auspiciadores del club deportivo Enrique Happ en sus diferentes categorías son:

Jugadores

Palmarés

Campeonatos locales
 Asociación de Fútbol Cochabamba (3): 1993, 2008, 2010.
 Subcampeón (6): 1989, 1991, 1992, 1998, 2009,2011.

Torneos nacionales
 Copa Simón Bolívar (3): 1989, 1991, 1992

Referencias

Enlaces externos

Equipos de fútbol de Cochabamba
Equipos de fútbol fundados en 1968
Escuelas de fútbol de Bolivia

Escuela de Fútbol Enrique Happ


Antonio de la Cruz (født 7. maj 1947) er en spansk fodboldspiller.

Spaniens fodboldlandshold

|-
|1972||3||0
|-
|1973||0||0
|-
|1974||0||0
|-
|1975||0||0
|-
|1976||0||0
|-
|1977||0||0
|-
|1978||3||0
|-
!Total||6||0
|}

Eksterne henvisninger

Fodboldspillere fra Spanien
Deltagere ved verdensmesterskabet i fodbold 1978

Antonio de la Cruz


Hōjō Tamio (japanisch 北条 民雄; geboren 22. September 1914 in Seoul (Korea); gestorben 5. Dezember 1937 in Tokio) war ein japanischer Schriftsteller.

Leben und Wirken
Hōjō Tamio wurde im damals unter japanischer Herrschaft stehenden Korea geboren. Er infizierte sich im Alter von 20 Jahren mit Lepra. Ermutigt durch Kawabata Yasunari verfasste er über seine Erfahrungen in Leprahospitälern den Roman "Maki rōjin" (間木老人) – "Der alte Mann Maki", der auf eigenen Erfahrungen basierte und der 1935 in dem Magazin Bungakukai (文学界) erschien.

Bis zu Hōjōs frühen Tod folgten die Romane "Inochi no shoya" (いのちの初夜) – "Der erste Abend des Lebens", "Rai Kazoku" (癩家族) – "Eine Lepra-Familie",  "Raiin jutai" (癩院受胎) – "Schwanger in der Leprakolonie", "Bōkyōka" (望郷歌) – "Ein nostalgisches Lied" und andere Werke.

Literatur

 S. Noma (Hrsg.): Hōjō Tamio. In: Japan. An Illustrated Encyclopedia. Kodansha, 1993. ISBN 4-06-205938-X, S. 550.

Weblinks
 Hōjō Tamio in der Kotobank, japanisch

Autor
Roman, Epik
Literatur (Japanisch)
Literatur (20. Jahrhundert)
Japaner
Geboren 1914
Gestorben 1937
Mann

Hōjō Tamio


102 (مائة واثنان) هو عدد صحيح. يلي العدد 101 ويسبق العدد 103 وهو عدد طبيعي موجب.

مراجع

أعداد صحيحة
أعداد موجبة

102 (عدد)


Die ADAC-Procar-Saison 2012 umfasste 8 Rennen, die in Deutschland, Österreich und den Niederlanden ausgetragen wurden. In der Division 1 wurde Jens-Guido Weimann erstmals Meister. Guido Thierfelder sicherte sich in der Division 2 seinen fünften Meistertitel vorzeitig.

Teilnehmerliste

Rennkalender

Rennergebnisse und Punktetabelle

Die Wagen der Divisionen 1 und 2 wurden getrennt voneinander gewertet. Die ersten 8 Fahrzeuge waren punkteberechtigt nach folgendem System: 10-8-6-5-4-3-2-1. Es gab keine Zusatzpunkte für die Pole-Position oder die Schnellste Runde.

Teamwertung

Motorsportsaison 2012

ADAC-Procar-Saison 2012


Aa fiebrigii é uma espécie de orquídea do gênero Aa . É encontrado na Bolívia e noroeste da Argentina.

Referências

fiebrigii
Plantas descritas em 1912

Aa fiebrigii


Die Pinjarra-Aluminiumoxidraffinerie ist eine von drei Raffinerien, die Alcoa of Australia in Western Australia in Australien betreibt. Die nächste größere Stadt ist Mandurah. In der Raffinerie sind etwa 1000 Personen beschäftigt. Sie liegt unweit von Pinjarra und ist mit einer jährlichen Kapazität von 4,2 Millionen Tonnen Aluminiumoxid, das sind etwa 7 % der Welterzeugung, die nach dem Bayer-Verfahren hergestellt werden, eine der größten der Welt.

Herstellung
Das Bauxiterz aus der Darling Scarp hat lediglich einen Aluminiumgehalt von 30 %, der zu Aluminiumoxid verarbeitet werden kann. Zur Energieerzeugung befinden sich unweit der Raffinerie seit einigen Jahren zwei Gas-und-Dampf-Kombikraftwerke, die gemeinsam 280 MW elektrischen Strom zu erzeugen. Die Kraftwerke, die etwa 6 km östlich von Pinjarra liegen, wurden in Kooperation von Alcoa und dem Gaslieferanten Alinta Energy 2006/2007 erneuert und der jetzige durchschnittliche Ausstoß von CO2 beträgt jährlich 474.500 Tonnen. Das sind 15 % weniger als in den Jahren zuvor.

Im Bayer-verfahren wird das fein gemahlene Bauxit mit konzentrierter Natronlauge bei ca. 7 bar und etwa 180 °C versetzt. Dabei ist ein hoher Energieaufwand erforderlich und bei der Lösung des Bauxits entsteht basischer Rotschlamm, der deponiert und sicher gelagert werden muss.

Siehe auch
 Liste von Aluminiumoxid-Fabriken
 Bauxitbergbau in Australien

Weblinks
 Alcoas Webseite der Pinjarra-Raffinerie

Einzelnachweise

Aluminiumoxidhersteller
Produzierendes Unternehmen (Western Australia)

Pinjarra-Aluminiumoxidraffinerie


Genenet al asmak es una película egipcio-francoalemana del año 2008.

Sinopsis
Laila trabaja en un programa de radio al que los oyentes llaman y hablan de su vida amorosa. En su tiempo libre, juega al squash, practica natación, lleva a los hijos de su mejor amiga al circo o va a bailar con sus amigos a una discoteca de moda. Youssef es anestesista. Trabaja en un centro privado por la mañana y en una clínica abortista clandestina por la tarde. Oye el programa de Laila. A veces pasa parte de la noche en casa de una mujer a la que tiene cariño. Los dos personajes no se conocen, aunque acabarán por encontrarse. Sus vidas no cambiarán, pero quizá se den cuenta de su soledad.

Referencias

Genenet al asmak


Religija u Poljskoj zastupljena je s nekoliko vjerskih zajednica.

Povijest
Poljska je tradicijski katolička zemlja. Do dolaska kršćanstva slavensko stanovništvo štovalo je slavenske bogove. Susjedna baltička plemena štovala su u biti iste bogove. Na istočnom rubu srednjovjekovne poljske države u starom vijeku prostiralo se Kazarsko Carstvo. Od 9. do 12. stoljeća u ove se krajeve proširilo kršćanstvo. Sjeveroistočni krajevi pokršteni su od 12. do 14. stoljeća.
Pokrštavana je postupno do kraja u srednjem vijeku. Pripadala je krugu zapadnog kršćanstva. Nakon velike podjele, ovaj prostor dio je rimokatoličkog svijeta. Zapadni raskol odrazio se da je Poljska ostala uz rimskog papu. Husitski ratovi su se osjetili u Poljskoj. Wieluński edikt 1424. rezultirao je tenzijama. Pojava protestantizma ostavila je neki trag u Poljskoj, premda su rimokatolici ostali prevladavajući. Varšavska konfederacija 1573. jamčila je vjersku toleranciju. U Poljskoj-Litvi Židovi su našli utočište zbog čega su mnogi doselili. Zbog dinastijskog braka s katoličkim poljskim vladarom, litvanska je dinastija Jagelovića i Litvanci prešli na katoličanstvo. U 14. stoljeću doselila je skupina Tatara, t.zv. Lipčani (poljsko-litvanski Tatari). Prvi su bili šamanisti i naselili su se kod još nepokrštenih Litvanaca. Drugi val tih Tatara pozvao je Vitold Veliki. Prvotno vojna kasta, poslije su preselili u gradove, izgubili tatarski jezik i postali obrtnici. U Poljskoj su usvojili poljski jezik. Muslimanske su vjere, njihovih potomaka ima i danas, ali su malobrojni. Protureformacija nije dobro primljena kod protestanata. Poznato je Krvoproliće u Torunu 1724. godine. Nakon podjela Poljske Poljaci su bili izloženi vjerskoj diskriminaciji sa strane gospodara iz proširenih protestantskih njemačkih država na zapadu i pravoslavne carske Rusije na istoku. 1791. carska Rusija odredila je Područje naseljavanja u koju su se smjeli naseliti Židovi. To područje obuhvaćalo je i poljske krajeve. Brojni poljski rimokatolici i grkokatolici, osobito s istoka zemlje prisilno su prevedeni na pravoslavlje. Osamostaljenjem Poljske rimokatolici dolaze opet na prvo mjesto po ulozi u društvu. Njemačko-sovjetskim napadom na Poljsku rimokatolici opet su izloženi pritiscima. U okupiranoj Poljskoj, brojna židovska zajednica strahovito je stradala u Holokaustu, gotovo 90%. Poslije drugog svjetskog rata Poljska doživljava veliku promjenu granica. Njemačko je stanovništvo ili iselilo ili kao drugdje po Europi, prisiljeno na odlazak u Njemačku, a s njima i brojni protestanti. Poljaci iz izgubljenih zemalja i iz drugih država istočno od Željezne zavjese prisilno su doseljeni u matičnu domovinu. Gubitkom ozemlja na istoku opao je udio poljskih grkokatolika i pravoslavaca. Sve skupa povećao se udio rimokatolika. Komunistička vlast u Poljskoj promicala je ateizam, ali ateizacija nije uspjela zahvatiti društvo. Danas je Poljska najkatoličkija velika država u Europi.

Vjerska struktura
Procjene koje navodi CIA za 2012. godinu govore o sljedećem vjerskom sastavu:
 katolici 87,2% (rimokatolici 86,9%, zatim grkokatolici, armenski katolici te katolici bizantsko-slavenskog obreda 0,3%)
 pravoslavni (gotovo svi Poljska pravoslavna Crkva) 1,3%
 protestanti 0,4% (uglavnom augsburški evangelici i pentekostalci)
 ostali 0,4% (uključuje Jehovine svjedoke, budista, štovatelji Hare Krišne, gaudiya vaišnavizam, muslimane, židove, mormone)
 nespecificirani 10,8%

Galerija

Izvori

Religija u Poljskoj


The Brussels Journal este un blog conservator, fondat de jurnalistul flamand Paul Beliën. El este numit în mod constant ca unul dintre principalele canale media ale mișcării antijihadiste. A fost fondat în 2005 și are atât o secțiune în limba engleză cu diverse colaborări internaționale, cât și o secțiune în limba neerlandeză.

The Brussels Journal se prezintă ca membru al Federației OpinionJournal, dar nu apare în lista de membri de pe site-ul propriu al OpinionJournal. El este publicat de Societatea pentru Promovarea Libertății în Europa (SAFE), o organizație non-profit elvețiană.

Afilieri politice

Soția lui Paul Beliën, Alexandra Colen, a fost membru al Parlamentului din partea partidului Vlaams Belang. Cu toate acestea, Beliën însuși a fost uneori în contradicție cu partidul, criticându-l pentru populism. Beliën a fost angajat în calitate de consilier de către Geert Wilders, liderul Partidului pentru Libertate, mișcare politică flamandă de aripa dreaptă. Potrivit The Brussels Journal, blogul este o publicație nepartizană, iar majoritatea scriitorilor săi, atât belgieni, cât și nebelgieni, nu fac parte din niciun partid politic sau organizație.

Dezbateri notabile

Acuzații de rasism
Potrivit unui articol publicat în Wall Street Journal de Bret Stephens, după ce un băiat belgian în vârstă de 17 ani, Joe Van Holsbeeck, a fost ucis de romi originari din Polonia, Paul Beliën a scris un articol în care a cerut dezincriminarea posesiei de "arme de auto-apărare". Articolul a fost intitulat "Geef ons Wapens!" (Dați-ne arme!). Agenția guvernamentală pentru combaterea discriminării Centrul pentru Egalitatea de Șanse și Lupta împotriva Rasismului a susținut că articolul constituie o incitare la violență și a avertizat că, dacă articolul nu va fi înlăturat, va declanșa urmărirea penală la adresa proprietarilor blogului, citând următoarea afirmație:Musulmanii sunt prădători care au învățat încă din copilărie (...) în timpul sărbătorii anuale a sacrificiului (...) cum să căsăpească turma de animale.Beliën a înlăturat articolul. Articolul a fost remarcat ca un eveniment important în dezvoltarea unei atitudini tot mai reci față de imigranții din Belgia. Acest incident a determinat site-ul să elaboreze o versiune în limba engleză în scopul de a fi în măsură să prezinte în viitor astfel de cazuri în mass-media internațională.

În luna iunie, poliția belgiană l-a citat pe Beliën pentru a-l interogat cu privire la mai multe articole pe care le-a scris pentru The Brussels Journal. Potrivit lui Beliën poliția a continuat să-l invite la audieri, dar el a refuzat să se prezinte.

Pe 27 iulie 2011 mass-media belgiană a raportat că agențiile de securitate belgiene urmau să ceară procurorului federal să deschidă un dosar de cercetare a relațiilor dintre The Brussels Journal și Anders Behring Breivik, autorul atacurilor teroriste din Norvegia din 2011. Agențiile de securitate doreau clarificări cu privire la o serie de articole care au fost publicate pe site-ul web și care fac parte din 2083: O declarație europeană de independență, manifestul lui Breivik.

Scandalul caricaturilor cu Mahomed din Jyllands-Posten
The Brussels Journal a fost primul site de știri și de opinie care a prezentat scandalul caricaturilor cu Mahomed din Jyllands-Posten în limba engleză, aducându-le în atenția bloggerilor americani, printre care Michelle Malkin, și a mass-mediei.

The Brussels Journal a republicat caricaturile. Această acțiune a fost numită o "provocare deliberată a neoconservatorilor" într-un editorial din revista în limba olandeză Knack. Potrivit Knack, scopul blogului The Brussels Journal a fost să-i "facă pe americani și pe europeni să creadă că toți musulmanii sunt violenți și periculoși, după care ciocnirile militare din Palestina, Iran și Siria puteau într-adevăr să înceapă".

Colaboratori notabili
Printre colaboratorii The Brussels Journal se numără  Diana West, Daniel Hannan, John Laughland, Fjordman, Tiberge, Koenraad Elst, Takuan Seiyo, Jos Verhulst și Matthias Storme.

Referințe

Legături externe
 The Brussels Journal
 OpinionJournal Federation
 Interview with Seiyo on Dunedain.net

Fondări în 2005

The Brussels Journal


Elke Decker (* 23. Februar 1957 in Köln-Mülheim) ist eine ehemalige deutsche Sprinterin, die sich auf den 400-Meter-Lauf spezialisiert hatte.

Bei den Leichtathletik-Europameisterschaften 1978 in Prag erreichte sie im Einzelwettbewerb das Halbfinale und kam mit der bundesdeutschen Mannschaft in der 4-mal-400-Meter-Staffel auf den fünften Platz.

1980 siegte sie bei den Leichtathletik-Halleneuropameisterschaften in Sindelfingen.

1979 wurde sie Deutsche Meisterin, 1978 und 1980 Deutsche Vizemeisterin. In der Halle errang sie 1977 und 1980 den nationalen Titel und wurde 1979 Vizemeisterin.

Elke Decker startete für den TuS 04 Leverkusen.

Persönliche Bestzeiten
 100 m: 11,88 s, 26. Juli 1979, Dormagen
 200 m: 23,47 s, 26. Juli 1979, Dormagen
 400 m: 51,59 s, 19. August 1979, Köln
 Halle: 52,28 s, 2. März 1980, Sindelfingen
 800 m: 2:07,72 min, 6. Juni 1981, Neapel

400-Meter-Läufer (Deutschland)
4-mal-400-Meter-Staffel-Läufer (Deutschland)
Deutscher
Frau
Geboren 1957

Elke Decker


An Kaokochloa nigrirostris in uska species han Liliopsida nga ginhulagway ni De Winter. An Kaokochloa nigrirostris in nahilalakip ha genus nga Kaokochloa, ngan familia nga Poaceae. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Kaokochloa

Kaokochloa nigrirostris


Örümcek, eklembacaklılar (Arthropoda) şubesinin örümceğimsiler (Arachnida) sınıfından Araneae takımının üyelerine verilen genel ad. Hemen hemen dünyanın her tarafında yaşar. 2012 rakamlarına göre 112 familyada ve 3879 cinste toplanan 43.244 türü bilinmektedir.

Örümceklerin baş ve göğüsleri kaynaşmıştır. Karınları, göğüsü ince bir bel (pedisel) ile bağlanmıştır. Aynı büyüklükte başka hiçbir bir hayvanın beli bu kadar ince değildir. İçinden sindirim borusu, kan damarları soluk boruları ve sinir sistemi geçer. Örümceklerin boyları, birkaç cm'den 35 cm'ye kadar değişir. Ağzının önünde iki zehir çengeli (keliser) ve iki his ayağı (pedipalp) yer alır. Göğüslerinde ise, gelişmiş dört çift yürüme bacağı vardır; bacakların uçları, tarak gibi dişli iki çengelle sonlanır. Örümcek bunların sayesinde ağ üzerinde rahatça dolaşır. Bir kısmı ileriye, geriye ve yanlara doğru yürüyebilir. Çoğunun başında 3 veya 4 çift osel (basit) göz bulunur. Gözlerin dizilişi, sınıflandırmada önemli bir özelliktir. Yuvarlak olan karın kısmı yumuşak ve esnek olup, alt kısmında solunum delikleri, ipek bezleri, anüs ve eşey organları yer alır.

Örümcekler, dünyanın birçok ekosistemine uyum sağlamış, böylece çok farklı ekosistemlerde yaşayan bir grup halini almıştır. Örümceklere Everest tepelerinden kanyonların derin çukurlarına, akarsu veya göl içlerine kadar değişik yaşam ortamlarında rastlamak mümkündür. Bütün örümcekler etoburlardur. Bazıları serbest dolaşıp avlandığı halde diğer bazıları örmüş oldukları ağa bağımlı olarak yaşamaktadır.

Güney Amerika'da yaşayan Goliath Kuş öldürücü, 175 g kütle ve 13 cm'e çıkan vücut uzunluğuyla dünyanın en büyük örümceğidir.

Genel özellikleri

Örümcekler, yırtıcı hayvanlardır. Birbirlerine saldırmaktan çekinmezler. Avları çok çeşitlidir. Çoğu, böceklerle beslendiklerinden faydalı sayılırlar. Bazı tropikal türler amfibyum, sürüngen, küçük kuş ve memeli gibi omurgalıları avlarlar. Örümceklerin hepsi avlarını yakalamak için tuzak ağları kurmaz. Bir kısmı avlarını kovalayarak veya üzerlerine sıçrayarak yakalar. Suda böcek, kurbağa ve balık avlayanlar da vardır. Yakaladığı avını, kıskaçlarına açılan zehir salgısı ile felce uğratır. Sonra ısırarak avının iç organlarına, eritici enzimler ihtiva eden tükürük salgısını akıtır. Kısa bir zaman zarfında, avın iç organları eriyerek sıvı haline gelir. Örümcek, emici midesini bir pompa gibi kullanarak bu sıvıyı emer. Av, kısa bir sürede içi boş kabuğa döner. Örümcek, bu boş kabuğu ya olduğu yere bırakır veya başka bir yere atar. Böcekler, küçük kuşlar bu avlar arasındadırlar.

Güney Amerika'da yaşayan, bacakları hariç 10 cm boyunda olan, toprakaltı inlerinde barınan bazı türler, tavşan ve tavukların içini boşaltabilecek güçtedir. Örümceklerin özofagusları (yemek borusu) çok dar olduğundan böyle beslenmek zorundadırlar. Ayrıca, ağız parçaları da bir sineği bile parçalayacak güçte değildir. Zehir çengelleri, avı delmeye ve zehir akıtmaya yarar. Uçtaki iğneli kısımları, bir şırınga gibi birer yan delikle biter. Deliğin böyle enjektörvari oluşu, tıkanma tehlikesini önler.

İğne ava girince, zehir bu delikten sızar. Örümcekler, iki keliseri de kullanırlar. Isırdıkları zaman yan yana iki delik olması bu yüzdendir. Keliser, aynı zamanda, delik açma ve küçük cisimleri taşıma işlerine de yarar.

Örümceklerin böceklerden ayrılan birçok özelliği vardır. Böceklerin çoğu kanatlı olduğu halde, örümcekler kanatsızdır. Böceklerde 6 bacak olmasına karşılık örümceklerde 8 bacak vardır. Antenleri olmadığından, ağız önündeki pedipalpler bu görevi üstlenirler. Dış görünüşleri bacağa benzediğinden bunlara duyu bacakları da denir. Üzerleri duyu algılayıcı tüylerle kaplı olup, dokunma, tat alma ve çevreyi koklayıp araştırma gibi görevler yaparlar. Üreme dönemlerinde erkeklerde spermaları biriktirip dişiye aktaran bir kopulasyon (çiftleşme) organı olarak da iş görürler.
ve her tehlikeye karşı sperleri vardır.
Örümceklerde trakealar (solunum boruları), akreplerde olduğu gibi karın altında kitap akciğerleri tipindedir. Kitap yaprakları şeklindeki deri kıvrımlarından dolayı solunum organları bu adı alır. İki veya dört tane kitap akciğerleri vardır. Eğer örümcekte bunlar iki ise, eksikliği ek solunum boruları ile tamamlanır.

Örümcek ağı

Örümceklerde, diğer eklembacaklılar gibi açık bir dolaşım sistemi bulunur. Kılcal damarları yoktur. Hemen hemen her yerde rastlanan örümcek ağı, aslında bir sanat şaheseridir. Yapılış maksadı avlanmak olan ağ, bir nevi tuzaktır. Fakat her örümcek türü ağ yapmaz. Ancak bütün örümcekler ağ tellerinden yumurtalarının etrafını saran kozalar yaparlar. Bazıları da ağ bezlerini, yaprakları yapıştırmakta, yuvalarının içini döşemede, açtıkları çukurun çevresini kapatmakta vs. işlerde kullanırlar. Ağ kurmayan bu tür avcı örümcekler de, arkalarında ağdan bir iz bırakarak, rüzgarla sürüklenmekten korunurlar. Erkekler, dişileri bulmakta da bu izlerden faydalanırlar.

Karın altlarının arka taraflarında üç çift ağ organları bulunur. Her birinin dışarıya ayrı bir çıkışı vardır. Bezlerden meydana gelen yapışkan ve sıvı iplik maddesi, havayla temas edince sertleşir. Her ağ memeciğinde 100 kadar ince ve küçük kanalcıklar bulunur. Bu ince kanalcıklardan sızan iplikçikler bir araya gelerek büküldükleri zaman tek iplik durumuna gelirler. Esnek ve yapışkandırlar. Bir sinek ne kadar sert çarpsa da kopmazlar. Ağ yapmak isteyen örümcek, ağ organlarını bacaklarının bir kısmı ile bastırarak ağ maddesinin akışını başlatır. Örümcekler, iplik deliklerinden çıkan tellerin hepsini toplayıp bir tek tel halinde kullandıkları gibi bunlardan ayrı ayrı incecik tel de yaparlar.

Düşme esnasında bir yere taktığı ağ telini, kendisi yere varıncaya kadar uzatabilir. Genç örümcekler, ağ tellerinin sayesinde uzun mesafelere uçabilirler. Bunun için telin bir ucunu bir yere bağlayarak kendilerini hava akımlarına bırakırlar. Böylece yerlerinden havalanan örümcekler, karada 5 km, denizde ise yüzlerce km uzaklara savrulabilirler. Okyanuslardaki ıssız adalarda yaşayan örümcekler, hep böyle havadan gelmişlerdir. Sonbaharda bol bol rastlanan ağ telleri de uçan genç örümceklerden kalmıştır.

Ağ yapacak olan bir örümcek, önce yüksekçe bir yere tırmanarak, ağın ucunu bulunduğu kısma yapıştırarak ipek iplik yardımıyla aşağı süzülür. Gözüne kestirdiği bir dala ulaşarak bağlantı kurar. Sonra o iplik üzerinde gidip gelerek ağı kalınlaştırır. Daha sonra vücudundan çıkmakta olan ipliğin bir ucunu ilk ipliğe tutturarak kendisini boşluğa bırakır. Ağa bağlı halde bir yere varınca, o ucu vardığı yere yapıştırır. Bu yolla birkaç gidiş gelişte ağın kaba iskeleti meydana gelir. Bundan sonra iskeletin merkezi çevresinde dairevi halkalar yaparak ağı tamamlar.

Ağ örümü çoğunlukla gece olur. Örülmesi en fazla 60 dakika alır. Ağın ortasında spiral ve yapışkan bir yer vardır. Diğer iplikçikler kurudur. Bir sinek ağa konsa hemen yapışır. Kurtulmak için çırpındıkça daha da yapışır. İkaz iplikçiği ile avın yakalandığını anlayan örümcek gelerek avını zehirler. İkaz iplikçiğinin bir ucu ağa bağlı, diğer ucu ise daima kendisindedir.

Ağlar, genellikle yere dik vaziyettedir. Maksat, uçan arı ve sinekleri yakalamaktır. Her örümcek türünün, kendisine has ağ örme stili vardır. Ancak dikkati çeken nokta, ağlarda geometrik inceliklerin her zaman varlığıdır. Ağ örme işi örümceklerin, doğuştan kazandıkları bir sanattır. Küçük bir örümcek, daha önce hiç ağı görmemiş ve örmemiş olmasına rağmen büyüklere benzer ağlar örer.

Düşmanlardan korunma
Bazı örümcekler düşmanlarından korunmak için çeşitli hilelere başvururlar. Güneydoğu Asya'da bir örümcek türü yaptığı büyük ve dairevi ağının ortasında durur. Bu duruş örümcek yiyen kuşlar için kolay bir hedef teşkil eder. Örümcek, düşmanlarını yanıltmak için, birkaç adet sahte ağ merkezi tesis eder. Yediği avlarının kalıntılarını da ağ merkezlerine takarak manken örümcekler kullanır. Başka bir örümcek çeşidi de diken ve ağaç kabuklarından manken örümcekler yapar. Örümcek ağlarının ipleri ipektir. Bu iplikler, aynı çaptaki çelik telden daha sağlamdır.

Örümceğin ipeği, ipekböceğinin ipeğinden daha ince ve daha dayanıklıdır. Üstelik bildiğimiz ipekten daha güzeldir. Ancak yapılan araştırmalar göstermiştir ki, örümcek ipeği tellerinden ince ipek elde etmeye imkân yoktur. Daha doğrusu, çok pahalıya mal olmaktadır. Bunun başlıca sebebi, örümcekleri bir arada tutmanın zorluğudur. Zira bir arada bulunan örümcekler birbirini yerler.

Üreme

Örümcekler ayrı eşeyli canlılardır. Dişileri erkeklerden daha iridir. Bazı türlerde erkekler de ağ yapar. Örümceklerde bir arada yaşamak, toplum ve aile hayatı yoktur dense de bazı türlerin birkaç birey olarak yaşadıkları literatüre geçmiştir. Erkekten daha iri olan dişiler, çiftleşme sonrası diğer örümceği yiyebilirler. Örümceklerde en ilgi çekici hususlardan biri de erkeklerde duyu bacaklarının eşleşme organı vazifesi görmesidir. Erkek önce bir sperma ağı örerek üzerine bir damla spermatozoon sıvısı bırakır. Sonra ters dönerek bu sıvıyı şırıngaya çeker gibi pedipalplerin şişkin kısmına doldurur. Bundan sonra dişiyi aramaya çıkar.

Örümceklerin çiftleşmesinde erkek örümcek, daima ölümle karşı karşıyadır. Çiftleşme zamanında erkek örümcekler dişilerin karşısında çeşitli hareketlerle, dişilere açlığını unutturmaya çalışırlar. Sıçramalarla yaptığı bu hareketlere örümceğin sevgi dansı denir. Dişi örümceğe açlığını unutturmak için dans yaparken ondan uzak durmaya da dikkat eder. Zira bir anda yakalanmak tehlikesi vardır. Bazıları, çiftleşme öncesi dişi örümceğe bir böcek ikram ederek açlığını giderir. Bir tehlike kalmadığını anlayınca dişiye yaklaşır. Açlığını hatırlayan dişi, erkeği yemeyi düşündüğü için, erkekler çiftleşmeden sonra hemen kaçarlar. Genelde erkek, dişi aramaktan, sevgi dansından ve çiftleşmekten yorulduğu için dişi için çiftleşme sonrası en yakın protein kaynağı olarak görülür ve birçok örümcek kaçmaya fırsat bulamadan dişi örümceğe yem olur. Fakat her çiftleşmeden sonra dişinin mutlaka erkek örümceği yediği söylenemez.

Dişi örümcekler yumurtalarını, ağ ipiyle yaptıkları kokon adı verilen kozalara (torbalara) bırakırlar. Bir kozada bazen yüzlerce yumurta olabilir. Genellikle yazın sonlarında döllenen yumurtalar, ilkbaharda yavru verir. Yaz başlarında döllenen yumurtalardan 20-60 gün içinde yavru çıkar. Örümcek, sonbaharda sarımsı beyaz renkli kokon adı verilen ipek bir koza içine bıraktığı yumurtalarına karşı çok şefkatli olmasına rağmen dişilerin yumurtaları veya yavruları yediği de olur. Bu durum yumurtaların döllenmemiş olduğunu gösterebilir. Yumuşak ve çok küçük olan bu yumurtalarla dolu kozayı bir dala, taş altına duvar yarığına, ağaç kovuğuna veya çalılıklar arasına emin bir yere yapıştırır. Kokon, anne örümcek tarafından çevrilerek alttaki yavrularında hava alması sağlanır. İlkbaharda doğan yavrular ana-babalarına benzerler. Doğduktan birkaç gün sonra iyi bir ağ kurup kendi kendilerine beslenirler. Çoğu türlerde, yavrular erişkinliğe erdiği zaman babaları çoktan ölmüş olacaktır. Zira erkek örümcekler erişkinlikten sonra birkaç yıl yaşarlar.

Avrupa'daki durumu
Avrupa'da yabancı türler hariç 4491 yerli örümcek türü bulunur ve bunların 2041 tanesi endemik ya da tek yerden kayıtlıdır. Avrupa örümcek tür (alt türler ve yabancı türler dahil değil) sayısının kesinleşmiş familyalara göre dağılımı 2012 yılı itibarıyla şöyledir:

Türkiye'deki durumu

Örümceklerin Türkiye'de 2012 rakamlarına göre 53 familyada toplam 958 türü bulunur.. 131 tür ile Gnaphosidae familyası ilk sıradadır ve bunu Linyphiidae (105 tür), Salticidae (98 tür), Thomisidae (87 tür), Theridiidae (77 tür), Lycosidae (73 tür), Agelenidae (55 tür), Araneidae (54 tür), Dysderidae (49 tür) ile Philodromidae (39 tür) takip eder.

Türkiye'deki örümcek familyaları göz sayısına göre 6 ya da 8 gözlüdür.
 Altı gözlüler: Dysderidae, Segestridae, Scytodidae
 Sekiz gözlüler: Erinesidae, Titanoecidae, Filistatidae, Pholcidae, Zodariidae, Salticidae, Lycosidae, Pisauridae, Zoridae, Gnaphosidae, Clubionidae, Miturgidae, Oxyopidae, Theridiidae, Nesticidae, Agelenidae, Tetragnathidae, Thomisidae, Philodromidae, Sparassidae, Linyphiidae, Araneidae.

Kaynakça

Dış bağlantılar
 spidersofturkey.com : Spiders of Turkey (Türkiye Örümcekleri)
 arachnology.be : The Arachnological Hub of the World Wide Web

Arachnida

Örümcek


L'indice des prix à la consommation (IPC) est un outil pour mesurer l'inflation. Il mesure, entre deux dates, la variation des prix de produits consommés par les ménages.

Il a été introduit au Grand Duché de Luxembourg en 1921 par l'Office de la statistique générale. Au Luxembourg, depuis 1962, l'indice des prix à la consommation est calculé et publié mensuellement par le STATEC (Institut national de la statistique et des études économiques du Grand-Duché de Luxembourg). L'IPC est présenté sous forme d'indice-chaîne, c'est-à-dire en enchaînant les indices des prix .

Depuis les années 1920, les instances officielles au Luxembourg s'intéressent à l'évolution des prix. En effet, entre 1913/1914 et 1921, les prix ont quadruplé, équivalant à une augmentation annuelle de plus de 20%. Cette hausse est due principalement au manque de vivres. Les années d'après-guerre étaient marquées par des fortes perturbations économiques et par une inflation considérable.

Pour maintenir le pouvoir d'achat des ménages par rapport à ces tendances inflationnistes importantes, l'échelle mobile des salaires a été introduite progressivement au Luxembourg. Régulièrement les revenus augmentent en fonction de l'indice des prix à la consommation. Si les prix augmentent, les revenus y sont adaptés et augmentent aussi.

Les instruments pour calculer et mesurer l'inflation

La crise économique après la Première Guerre mondiale a vu l'instauration d'un indice « du coût de la vie » afin de calculer et analyser l'évolution des prix à la consommation.

Le premier indice de ce genre était établi en 1921, dont la base 100 correspondait aux prix moyens de la période de juillet 1913 à juin 1914. Les prix pris en considération dans les calculs étaient ceux de 19 articles de première nécessité, tels que le pain, le beurre, les œufs, le charbon, le gaz ou les vêtements. Ce premier indice avait toutefois ses lacunes puisque plusieurs facteurs n'étaient pas intégrés dans les calculs. Premièrement, seules les « quantités physiques (unités, kg) théoriquement consommées » par une famille composée des parents et de trois enfants ont été prises en compte. Deuxièmement, certains produits étaient ignorés dans les calculs bien que l'évolution de leur prix touchât fortement le budget familial, tel que les produits d'hygiène, de santé et de l'éducation, mais aussi le poisson ou les fruits et légumes.

Pour lutter contre ces lacunes du premier indice, un deuxième a été introduit en janvier 1948. La base 100 correspondait donc aux prix de janvier 1948. Plusieurs articles sont ajoutés dans les calculs, tel que les journaux et le tabac, mais aussi l'évolution du prix de l'électricité a été prise en compte. Toutefois, cet indice était critiqué fortement parce que « sa représentativité à l'égard de l'ensemble de la consommation des ménages est néanmoins restée très insuffisante».

Un troisième indice a été instauré en 1967, dont la base 100 correspond aux prix de janvier 1965. C'est le premier indice avec une base scientifique, analysant la consommation privée dans son intégralité. À partir de 1984, de nouveaux produits sont régulièrement ajoutés aux calculs de l'indice, tels que le loyer en 1987. En 1990, une pondération de tous les ménages et non plus des ménages les plus modestes est ajoutée (à l'exception des indépendants et des agriculteurs). En 1999, afin de répondre aux exigences de la Communauté Européenne, établies dans le Traité constituant l'Union Européenne, l'indice des prix à la consommation a été adaptée. L'indice-chaîne est établi pour ajuster annuellement la pondération. À côté de l'évolution des prix, les habitudes de consommation sont analysées également. Ainsi, l'indice des prix à la consommation harmonisé est introduit.

On distingue ainsi entre l'indice des prix à la consommation harmonisé (IPCH) et l'indice des prix à la consommation national (IPCN). L'IPCH est un indicateur économique, qui mesure les évolutions des prix des biens et services au fil du temps et l'inflation dans la zone euro. Ainsi, il devient un critère de la politique monétaire de la zone euro et permet de converger l'inflation selon les critères établis dans le traité de Maastricht. L'IPCN mesure aussi l'inflation, mais il ne prend en considération que les dépenses des résidents au Luxembourg. L'IPCN se base sur les dépenses de consommation des résidents sur le territoire national, tandis que l'IPCH tient aussi compte des dépenses des non-résidents sur le territoire national.

Pour des fins d'analyse économique, la base 100 correspond actuellement aux prix de 2015. Pour les besoins d'échelle mobile des salaires, la base 100 correspond aux données de janvier 1948.

La création d'une échelle mobile des salaires

Afin de maintenir le pouvoir d'achat de la population face à l'augmentation des prix due à l'inflation, des mesures devaient être prises. L'échelle mobile des salaires adapte les rémunérations à l'évolution du coût de la vie. Cette adaptation est liée à l'indice des prix à la consommation.

Le 1er juin 1921, ce système d'échelle mobile des salaires a été introduit pour la première fois en faveur des agents des chemins de fer et le 1er juillet pour les fonctionnaires d'État. Une indexation progressive des revenus des ouvriers s'ensuit. Jusqu'à la Deuxième Guerre mondiale, la plupart des contrats collectifs au Luxembourg contenaient une clause liée à l'échelle mobile des salaires.

Après 1945, l'indexation des revenus est devenue une réelle question de sécurité sociale. Ainsi, de nouvelles adaptations ont été faites. Les lois des 10 avril et 29 août 1951 prévoyant une réforme de l'assurance-pension pour tous les employés privés, ont introduit l'échelle mobile dans le système des pensions. Par la loi du 12 juin 1965, toute convention collective doit contenir une clause d'indexation. Par la loi du 27 mai 1975 l'échelle mobile des salaires et des traitements est généralisée. Il est écrit : « Les taux des salaires et traitements résultant de la loi, de la convention collective et du contrat individuel de travail sont adaptés aux variations du coût de la vie ». C'est donc seulement depuis 1975 que toutes les rémunérations salariales et prestations pour les pensionnés et retraités du secteur public et privé sont adaptées à l'évolution des prix à la consommation.

Toutefois, en 1982, l'échelle mobile des salaires a été temporairement suspendue afin de maintenir l'emploi et la compétitivité des entreprises luxembourgeoises, fortement touchées par la crise des années 1970. La relance économique, la restructuration et la modernisation de l'économie luxembourgeoise ont permis le rétablissement du système d'indexation des revenus par les lois du 24 décembre 1984 et du 30 juin 1986.

Limites et critiques

Conflits réguliers entre le patronat et le salariat

L'ajustement automatique des salaires à l'évolution des prix ne s'est pas déroulé sans embûches. En effet, l'indice n'est guère apprécié par les employeurs pour trois raisons principales.

Premièrement, l'adaptation des salaires et revenus à l'IPC consiste en des coûts supplémentaires pour les patrons, auxquels ces derniers ne sont pas forcément préparés, puisque, deuxièmement, l'IPC ne tient pas compte de la productivité et des bénéfices de l'entreprise. Une entreprise en difficulté et pertes doit tout aussi bien adapter ses salaires qu'une entreprise qui fait des bénéfices. Troisièmement, l'ajustement automatique des salaires entraîne des hausses de prix défavorables à la compétitivité des entreprises luxembourgeoises.

En revanche, pour de nombreux salariés, l'IPC est l'unique moyen de voir leur revenu augmenter. Cet ajustement des revenus face à l'évolution des prix est d'ailleurs un facteur important pour la paix sociale au Luxembourg. Ainsi, l'échelle mobile des salaires est l'une des plus grandes réalisations sociales du siècle dernier.

La désindexation des allocations familiales en 2006
La loi du 27 juin 2006 prévoyait la désindexation des allocations familiales. Auparavant, cette aide étatique augmentait tout comme les revenus et les pensions, en fonction de l'IPC.

Selon Jean-Claude Juncker, ministre d'État et des Finances à l'époque, « l'accord que nous avons conclu est un accord pour plus d'emploi, pour plus de compétitivité, pour plus de chances dans la vie, pour plus de solidarité et en même temps c'est un accord pour moins d'inflation et pour des finances publiques plus consolidées ».

Cet accord a été conclu par le comité de coordination tripartite le 28 avril 2006. Dans cet accord, il est écrit : « Afin de créer les marges budgétaires suffisantes pour financer les nouvelles priorités dans le domaine de la politique familiale, les partenaires sociaux et le Gouvernement conviennent de désindexer le forfait d'éducation et les prestations versées par la Caisse nationale des prestations familiales ».

Cette désindexation des allocations familiales a suscité de vives critiques notamment de la part des représentants des salariés et employés. Pour la Chambre des salariés du Luxembourg, la désindexation des allocations familiales a diminué le pouvoir d'achat. Dans un rapport on lit : « Si les prestations familiales étaient toujours indexées, elles seraient aujourd'hui, après 5 tranches indiciaires, de 13,1% supérieures à leur montant figé en 2005 ». Pour l'ALEBA, l'association luxembourgeoise des employés de banques et assurances, la désindexation des allocations familiales fait partie d'un « démantèlement social ». Dans une publication, l'ALEBA regrette que « les salariés et les retraités subissent des pertes substantielles » et que ces « pertes de revenus sont provoquées en plus par la désindexation des prestations familiales et du forfait d'éducation ».

Dans son discours sur l'état de la nation, le Premier ministre Xavier Bettel a annoncé en octobre 2021 que l'allocation familiale va être réindexée. Dès le 1er janvier 2022, le nouvel indice sera appliqué « rétroactivement dans la réindexation de l'allocation familiale ».

Plafonner l'échelle mobile des salaires

Depuis plusieurs décennies, des débats autour d'une échelle mobile des salaires plafonnée apparaissent régulièrement. À partir d'un certain montant, le revenu ne serait donc plus adapté à la hausse des prix.

D'où vient cette idée de plafonner l'échelle mobile des salaires ? Pour ceux qui gagnent seulement un revenu minimal, une nouvelle tranche indiciaire n'est qu'une petite augmentation, bien que ce sont eux qui souffrent de plus des hausses de prix et qui sont les premiers à perdre leur pouvoir d'achat. Pour ceux qui perçoivent par contre un salaire plus élevé la hausse est plus élevée en chiffres. Le risque de voir diminuer leur pouvoir d'achat est moindre. C'est par conséquent paradoxal que les syndicats et les représentants des salariés ne soutiennent pas l'idée d'un plafonnement de l'échelle mobile des salaires.
Avec une nouvelle tranche de l'index, tous les revenus augmentent. Les gains absolus varient ainsi fortement. Voici un exemple concret de 2013, lorsque les salaires augmentaient de 2,5%.

Une personne qui gagne 1,5 fois le salaire social minimum non-qualifié, soit environ 2.770€, bénéfice uniquement d'une tranche indiciaire de 67,5€. Cependant, un salarié qui gagne 5 fois le salaire social minimum empoche une tranche indiciaire de 225€. Dans son intervention, Carlo Thelen, membre de la Chambre de commerce en 2013, se demande : « Est-ce bien juste ? Est-ce bien légitime ? Notre heureux salarié gagnant 5 fois le salaire social minimum a-t-il réellement besoin de 225€ pour compenser la hausse du prix du lait et du pain, alors que son collègue moins bien loti doit se contenter de 67,5€ ? ».

L'idée de plafonner l'échelle mobile des salaires est surtout soutenue par le patronat et l'Union des entreprises luxembourgeoises. Cependant, les syndicats en restent réticents. Pour eux ce plafonnage se fait au détriment des salariés. L'ALEBA par exemple note qu'un plafonnement affecte « la hiérarchie des salaires à partir d'un niveau relativement bas. La limitation se répercuterait directement sur les bénéficiaires de salaires moyens qui forment la très grande majorité des salariés du secteur financier et qui seraient les grands perdants ». La Chambre des salariés du Luxembourg note : « Plafonner l'indexation n'apportera rien de plus dans la poche du bas ou du milieu de l'échelle salariale. Le seul bénéficiaire de ce plafonnement sera l'entreprise qui verra ses marges progresser davantage encore, alors que même hors finance, les entreprises luxembourgeoises sont les plus rentables d'Europe ». Par ailleurs, « un plafonnement amènera un désordre dans l'échelle des salaires et un risque de démotivation ».

Conclusion
L'indice des prix à la consommation est devenu au cours des derniers 100 ans un outil efficace pour calculer l'évolution des prix. Sur base de l'IPC, les revenus sont régulièrement adaptés à l'augmentation des prix afin de maintenir le pouvoir d'achat des ménages. Cette mesure sociale s'est installée progressivement au Luxembourg, pour finalement être généralisée en 1975. Toutefois, l'indice et l'indexation des revenus sont régulièrement sujets de discussions. Faut-il plafonner l'indexation ? Est-ce qu'une désindexation des allocations familiales était légitime ? Et puis, l'échelle mobile des salaires n'est guère appréciée par le patronat puisqu'une nouvelle tranche indiciaire signifie une hausse des salaires, à charge des patrons. L'indice des prix à la consommation et l'échelle mobile des revenus restent en fin de compte une réelle « success story » : l'économie luxembourgeoise est le bénéficiaire puisque le pouvoir d'achat des ménages est maintenu.

Notes et références

Économie au Luxembourg

Indice des prix à la consommation au Luxembourg


Constantijn Huygens (Haia, 4 de setembro de 1596 - Haia, 28 de março de 1687) foi um poeta e compositor holandês da Idade de Ouro. Foi secretário de dois príncipes de Orange: Frederico Henrique e Guilherme II, e pai do cientista Christiaan Huygens.

Vida
Segundo filho de Christiaan Huygens (sênior), Secretário do Conselho de Estado, e Susanna Hoefnagel, sobrinha de o pintor de Antuérpia Joris Hoefnagel, ela foi um dos principais poetas clássicos da Idade de Ouro holandesa.

Casado com Susanna van Baerle, foi pai de cinco filhos: Constantijn, secretário do príncipe Guilherme III de Orange e excelente desenhista, o famoso cientista Christiaan Huygens, descobridor das luas e do anel de Saturno, Lodewijck, membro da primeira missão diplomática holandesa enviada à Espanha após o efetivo reconhecimento de sua independência, da qual deixou um diário de viagem.

Nascido em uma família aristocrática de Haia, Constantijn Huygens recebeu uma sólida formação humanística que lhe permitiu, já em sua juventude, escrever versos em latim e francês, holandês e ocasionalmente espanhol, e sabia mais duas línguas, grego e inglês. Como diplomata e secretário da corte da Holanda, manteve vários contatos internacionais com os literatos, cientistas e filósofos da época (por exemplo, Descartes). Em conformidade com o ideal aristocrático renascentista do uomo universale, praticou diferentes "artes" (engenheiro, tradutor, músico...) com igual facilidade, mas sobretudo poesia.

Bibliografia

 Spaense wijsheit (sem ano)
 1621 Batava Tempe, dat is 't Voor-hout van 's-Gravenhage
 1623 De uytlandighe herder
 1622 Kerkuria mastix, satyra, Dat is, 't costelick mal
 1624 Stede-stemmen en dorpen
 1624 Zedeprinten
 1625 Otiorum libri sex
 1638 Dagh-werck
 1641 Ghebruyck en onghebryck van 't orgel
 1644 Momenta desultoria (republicado em 1655)
 1647 Eufrasia, Ooghentroost. Aen Parthenine, bejaerde maecht, over de verduysteringh van haer een ooghe
 1647 Heilighe daghen
 1647 Pathodia sacra et profana
 1653 Trijntje Cornelis
 1653 Vitaulium. Hofwijck, Hofstede vanden Heere van Zuylichem onder Voorburgh
 1656-1657 translated proverbs
 1658 Korenbloemen (republicado em 1672)
 1667 Zee-straet
 1841 Cluys-werck (publicado por WJA Jonckbloet )

Ligações externas
 The Constantijn Huygens Web - coleção de poemas

 The Correspondence of Constantijn Huygens - EMLO
 Hofwijck
 Portraits of Constantijn Huygens
 Correspondence of Constantijn Huygens

Poetas dos Países Baixos

Constantijn Huygens


John Barran,  baronnet ( - ) est un fabricant de vêtements britannique et homme politique du Parti libéral.

Vie publique
Barran est le fils de John Barran et de sa femme Elizabeth Fletcher, et fonde la société John Barran and Sons, fabricants de vêtements, de Leeds. Il est juge de paix pour Leeds et le West Riding of Yorkshire et est maire de Leeds de 1870 à 1871. En 1876, il est réélu au Parlement en tant que l'un des trois représentants de Leeds, siège qu'il occupe jusqu'en 1885, puis siège pour Otley de 1886 à 1895. La dernière année, il est créé baronnet de Chapel Allerton Hall à Chapel Allerton dans la circonscription ouest du comté d'York et de Queen's Gate, paroisse St Mary Abbots, à Kensington dans le comté de Londres.

Famille
Barran épouse Ann Hirst (morte en 1874) en 1842. Il se remarie à Eliza Bilton, née Brown, en 1878. Il a six fils et quatre filles. Son plus jeune fils Rowland Barran est également député. Barran est décédé en mai 1905, âgé de 83 ans, et est remplacé dans le baronnet par son petit-fils John, son fils aîné John Barran l'ayant précédé dans la tombe.

Fabrication de vêtements

John Barran est un pionnier dans la fabrication de vêtements de prêt-à-porter. Il s'installe à Leeds en 1842 et ouvre bientôt sa propre boutique de couture au 30 Bridge End South. En 1851, il déménage à Briggate et en 1856, il a une usine avec 20 à 30 machines à coudre. Après avoir vu une scie à ruban être utilisée pour couper des placages de bois en 1858, il introduit son utilisation pour couper le tissu, une innovation majeure. Dans les années 1870, il possède 2 000 machines et, en 1904, il emploie 3 000 personnes.

Son fils Charles prend la présidence de la société en 1903, et un autre fils Rowland devient président en 1918.

St Pauls House, Leeds à Park Square, Leeds est construit comme entrepôt pour Barran en 1878. Il est conçu par Thomas Ambler et est de style mauresque.

Son buste sculpté par Joseph Gott fils de son rival Benjamin Gott se trouve à la Leeds Art Gallery .

Références

 Kidd, Charles, Williamson, David (éditeurs). La pairie et le baronnet de Debrett (édition 1990). New York : St Martin's Press, 1990,

Liens externes

Député du 25e Parlement du Royaume-Uni
Député du 24e Parlement du Royaume-Uni
Député du 22e Parlement du Royaume-Uni
Député du 21e Parlement du Royaume-Uni
Député du Parti libéral (Royaume-Uni)
Baronnet
Décès en mai 1905
Naissance en août 1821
Décès à 83 ans

John Barran (1er baronnet)


La isla Assateague () es una isla estadounidense de 60 km de largo que constituye una barrera situada en la costa oriental de los estados de Maryland y Virginia. Es conocida por sus manadas de caballos salvajes, playas vírgenes y el faro de Assateague. La isla también contiene numerosos pantanos, bahías y caletas, incluyendo Toms Cove. Existen puentes de acceso para vehículos desde Maryland y Virginia, aunque no hay un camino que recorra toda la longitud de la isla.

La isla tiene una superficie de 63,21 km² y no tiene población residente, ni en Maryland ni en Virginia, aunque algunos retuvieron los derechos de propiedad hasta el año 2006. Se trataba principalmente de campos de caza.

Véase también
 Geografía de América
 Geografía de Estados Unidos

Referencias

Enlaces externos
 Mapa de localización de la isla

Archipiélagos e islas de Maryland
Archipiélagos e islas de Virginia
Archipiélagos e islas del océano Atlántico de Estados Unidos

Isla Assateague


Regeringen Carlsson I var Sveriges regering fra den 12. marts 1986 og til den 27. februar 1990. Det var en socialdemokratisk mindretalsregering. Regeringen afløste Regeringen Palme II, og den blev efterfulgt af Regeringen Carlsson II.

Regeringens dannelse
Regeringen blev dannet efter mordet på statsminister Olof Palme den 28. februar 1986.

Regeringens afgang
I februar 1990 trådte Regeringen Carlsson I tilbage, efter at den havde tabt en afstemning i Riksdagen. Carl Bildt (Moderaterne) forsøgte forgæves at danne en borgerlig regering. Derefter blev Regeringen Carlsson II udnævnt.

Markante ministre
 Justits-, arbejdsmarkeds- og ligestillingsminister Anna-Greta Leijon
 Justitsminister Laila Freivalds
 Skoleminister Göran Persson
 Arbejdsmarkedsminister Mona Sahlin
 Civil- og kirkeminister Bo Holmberg, gift med den senere udenrigsminister Anna Lindh.
 Kirke-, forbruger- og ungdomsminister Margot Wallström

Carlsson I, Regeringen
Etableret i 1986
Ophørt i 1990

Regeringen Carlsson I


Gravelle ist der Familienname folgender Personen:

 François de Gravelle, Sieur d' Arpentigny (* um 1545; † 1608), französischer Autor und Philosoph
 Gerry Gravelle (1934–2022), kanadischer Skispringer
 Jean Gravelle (1927–1997), kanadischer Eishockeyspieler
 Matthew Gravelle (* 1976), britischer Schauspieler und Synchronsprecher
 Trystan Gravelle (* 1981), walisischer Schauspieler

Gravelle


Aarhus Amatørsymfoniorkester er et amatørsymfoniorkester med hjemsted i Aarhus.

Historie
Orkestret blev dannet den 7. september 1926 under navnet Aarhus Privatorkester med kun 8 musikere, men voksede sig hurtigt større. Orkestrets første dirigent var den fra Italien indvandrede Rafael Medici. Repertoiret omfattede populære værker, som kendtes fra de etablerede orkestre og radioen, suppleret med klassiske værker, ouverturer og symfonier, som ikke krævede så stor besætning. Beethoven, Haydn og Mozart var blandt favoritterne.

Under d. 2. verdenskrig måtte orkestret indstille sin virksomhed, men i 1945 startede man igen med lærer ved Det Jyske Musikkonservatorium Johannes Nørgaard og senere violinist ved Aarhus Byorkester Arvid Andersen som dirigent. Mange konservatoriestuderende i Aarhus spillede i orkestret. Det var reelt deres eneste mulighed for at få lidt orkesterrutine og for nogles vedkommende solistopgaver.

Efter Arvid Andersen fulgte en kortere årrække med skiftende dirigenter indtil violinist og seminarielektor Erling Bisgaard overtog dirigenthvervet. Det blev til mange frugtbare år, hvor blandt andet samarbejdet med Århus Studiekor førte til store musikalske oplevelser ikke mindst med en række opførelser af Händels oratorium Messias i Aarhus Domkirke. Der findes en indspilning af en af disse opførelser på 3 LP-plader med Else Paaske, Bodil Gøbel, Kurt Westi og Ulrik Cold som solister.

I de seneste 30 år har Erwin Chmiel ledet orkestret, som i dag består af ca. 70 musikere

Repertoiret
I løbet af årene har man spillet en lang række korte og lange værker af anerkendte komponister. Gennem samarbejde med forskellige midtjyske kor, medlemmer af Aarhus Symfoniorkester og en imponerende række sang- og instrumentalsolister fra ind- og udland, har der været få grænser for hvad Aarhus Amatørsymfoniorkester har kunnet påtage sig af opgaver.

Kilder
 Orkestrets netsted
 LP-pladerne

Amatørsymfoniorkestre fra Danmark
Amatørsymfoniorkester

Aarhus Amatørsymfoniorkester


كاتاوبا Catawba، المعروفة أيضًا باسم إيسا Issa أو Essa أو إيسوا Iswa (وتعني بلغتهم شعب النهر)، هي قبيلة معترف فيدراليا ضمن قبائل الأمريكيين الأصليين، والمعروفة باسم أمة كاتاوبا الهندية. وهم يعيشون في جنوب شرق الولايات المتحدة، في منطقة كارولاينا. كانت كاتاوبا تعتبر من أقوى قبائل السيو في الجنوب. ويعتقد أن كاتاوبا وشعوب السيو أخرى قد تفرعت كقبائل فردية في الجنوب الشرقي.

عمل الكاتاوبا أساسا في الزراعة، وكانوا على علاقة ودية بالمستعمرين الأوروبيين الأوائل. وخاضوا حروبا مستمرة مع القبائل الرئيسية الأخرى: الإيراكوي الذين سكنوا منطقة البحيرات العظمى ونيويورك؛ والألجونكين مثل الشاوني واللينابي (ديلاوير)؛ والشيروكي الذين قاتلوا من أجل السيطرة على وادي أوهايو الكبير (بما في ذلك منطقة فيرجينيا الغربية الحالية).  تحالف الكاتاوبا مع الوطنيين ضد البريطانيين خلال حرب الاستقلال الأمريكية. وقد تراجعت أعداد الكاتاوبا بشكل ملحوظ في أواخر القرن الثامن عشر وأوائل التاسع عشر، وذلك بسبب الدمار الذي خلفته أوبئة الجدري والحروب القبلية والاضطرابات الاجتماعية. تنازلت القبيلة عن وطنها إلى ولاية كارولينا الجنوبية في عام 1840 بموجب معاهدة؛ لم تتم الموافقة عليها من قِبل مجلس الشيوخ الأمريكي وتم تعطيل المعاهدة تلقائيًا.

أنهت الحكومة الفدرالية وضع أمة كاتاوبا الهندية كقبيلة في عام 1959، ثم أعادت كاتاوبا تنظيم نفسها لإعادة تأكيد حكومتها. في عام 1973 بدأت العمل للحصول على اعتراف فدرالي، وهو ما تم في عام 1993، إلى جانب تسوية بقيمة 50 مليون دولار من قبل الحكومة الفيدرالية وولاية كارولينا الجنوبية لمطالباتها بالأراضي. كما تم الاعتراف بها رسميا من قبل ولاية كارولينا الجنوبية في عام 1993. ويقع مقرها في روك هيل في كارولينا الجنوبية.

حتى عام 2006، ارتفع تعداد كاتاوبا إلى حوالي 2,600 نسمة، ومعظمهم في كارولينا الجنوبية، مع مجموعات أصغر في أوكلاهوما وكولورادو وأوهايو وأماكن أخرى. محمية كاتاوبا ()، والتي تقع في قسمين منفصلين في مقاطعة يورك شرق روك هيل، سجلت التعداد السكاني لعام 2010 بمجموع 841 نسمة. لغة الكاتاوبا هي جزء من عائلة السيو وفرع الكاتاوبا، وقد أعيد إحياؤها.

مراجع

كاتاوبا
أمريكيون أصليون
الأمم الأولى

السكان الأصليين في الولايات المتحدة في الثورة الأمريكية
قبائل أمريكية أصلية في كارولاينا الجنوبية
قبائل الأمريكيين الأصليين في كارولينا الشمالية
مجموعات عرقية في الولايات المتحدة

كاتاوبا


Sándor Szinberger () a fost un critic muzical și regizor evreu din Transilvania. Între anii 1957-1973 a fost director al Operei Maghiare de Stat din Cluj.

Biografie
În anul 1945 a fost eliberat din Lagărul de concentrare Buchenwald.

Nașteri în 1921
Decese în 2008
Clujeni
Evrei din Transilvania
Regizori români
Români expatriați în Israel

Sándor Szinberger