La censure en URSS, ou censure en Union soviétique,  est le contrôle, de la part des autorités de l'URSS, du contenu et de la diffusion de l'information, y compris par les imprimés, les œuvres musicales, scéniques, les beaux-arts, le cinéma, la photographie, les émissions de radio et de télévision, afin de supprimer toutes les sources d'information alternatives aux sources officielles, pour limiter ou en empêcher la diffusion d'idées et d'informations considérées comme nuisibles ou indésirables.

Le système de censure politique générale comprenait diverses formes et méthodes de contrôle idéologique et politique - en plus des méthodes directes (interdiction de publication, censure, rejet des manuscrits), une grande variété de méthodes indirectes touchant au personnel, à l'édition, à la politique de redevances étaient utilisées.

Les fonctions de contrôle de la censure ont été confiées à des institutions étatiques spéciales. La censure contrôlait tous les canaux officiels internes de diffusion de l'information : livres, périodiques, radio, télévision, cinéma, théâtre, les informations venant de l'extérieur (brouillage des radios étrangères diffusant dans les langues des peuples de l'URSS, contrôle scrupuleux des produits imprimés des médias étrangers sur le thème de l'« anti-soviétisme »). L'autocensure était également répandue.

Les principaux objets de la censure étaient la soi-disant propagande « anti-soviétique » (qui comprenait tout ce qui ne correspondait pas aux idéologies en  vigueur), les secrets militaires et économiques (par exemple, les informations sur les lieux de détention et les cartes géographiques), les informations négatives sur l'état du pays (catastrophes, problèmes économiques, conflits ethniques, phénomènes sociaux négatifs), et toute information susceptible de devenir une cause d'agitation ou  d'allusions dérangeantes.

La censure en URSS était principalement idéologique. Certains chercheurs notent que la censure soviétique, en particulier, n'empêchait pas la projection de scènes de violence si elles correspondaient aux orientations idéologiques en vigueur - par exemple, si elles démontraient la destruction des ennemis du gouvernement soviétique ou dénonçaient la brutalité de l'ennemi, mais d'autres chercheurs notent que pendant toute la période de l'histoire audiovisuelle soviétique, il n'y a pas eu de diffusion télévisée d'images de violence posant problème.

La plupart des chercheurs notent la nature totalitaire de la censure soviétique et la subordination des organes de censure au contrôle du Parti communiste d'Union soviétique . Les militants des droits de l'homme ont soutenu que la pratique de la censure violait les obligations internationales de l'URSS .

Les opinions divergent quant à l'existence de censure de l'information scientifique et technique. Vladimir Solodin, un cadre du Glavlit , a soutenu que «  la censure n'a jamais contrôlé la littérature technique et scientifique »  ; cependant, un certain nombre de chercheurs écrivent que des pans entiers des sciences telles que la physique nucléaire, la psychologie, la sociologie, la cybernétique, la biologie ou la génétique ont fait l'objet d'interdictions et de censure, et systématiquement pour la littérature scientifique en provenance de l'étranger. En outre, en cas de censure portant sur des auteurs individuels, la totalité de leurs œuvres a pu être interdite à compter de 1937. .

Selon le spécialiste de la sécurité de l'information en URSS N. V. Stolyarov, il y avait une « présomption de secret d'État » et une « aliénation de la société à l'institution du secret ». De ce fait, le fonctionnement de cette institution « n'a pas fait l'objet d'une analyse critique sérieuse ».

Historique

Contexte historique

L'URSS, dans le domaine de la censure comme dans d'autres, est héritière de l'Empire russe, un des premiers états policiers de l'Histoire.

La Révolution de février supprime la censure tsariste.

Mise en place

Dès le début de la Révolution d'octobre 1917, Lénine remet en place une censure. Le Tribunal révolutionnaire de la presse est créé en janvier 1918 puis, en 1922, le Glavlit qui, malgré des réformes, restera en place jusqu'à la chute de l'URSS.

Fonctionnement

Organes de censure
 Le Gosizdat était l'organe central de la censure de la presse en RSFSR avant l'avènement du Glavlit.
Le Glavlit - le principal organisme de censure, à partir de 1922 , contrôlait tous les documents imprimés pour se conformer au contenu de l'idéologie d'État et à la présence de secrets d'État .
 Le Glavrepertkom  - Comité pour le contrôle des spectacles et du répertoire, dans les années 1920-1930, contrôlait tous les spectacles et performances publics, depuis les conférences et reportages jusqu'aux soirées pop et même musicales et dansantes.
 Le Goskino assurait la censure des films.

La radio et la télévision d'État de l'URSS ont censuré les émissions de télévision et de radio.

Les « premiers départements »  procédaient à la censure de l'information scientifique et technique dans les instituts de recherche , les usines et autres organisations qui avaient la capacité de copier l'information .

Le KGB de l'URSS et les douanes ont soigneusement contrôlé toutes les tentatives d'importation de livres, de magazines (et d'autres imprimés), de matériel audio et vidéo de l'étranger. Cependant, malgré tous leurs efforts, ils n'ont pas pu résister à l'importation illégale/non autorisée de films étrangers (surtout après la distribution de magnétoscopes dans le pays ), de disques d' artistes étrangers, etc.

Les départements spéciaux n'étaient pas les seuls engagés dans la censure. Presque tous les travaux devaient être coordonnés avec le service concerné par ces travaux qui devait délivrer une autorisation de publier. Par exemple, si un écrivain écrivait sur des sujets militaires, il était auparavant censuré par la Direction politique principale du ministère de la Défense, si un écrivain écrivait sur la métallurgie, la censure prenait en compte les opinions des dirigeants de l'industrie métallurgique.

Un grand nombre de "censeurs volontaires" ont recherché les défauts idéologiques manqués par la censure officielle, les signalant aux organes de l'État et du parti. Les critiques littéraires officiels ont également pris une part active à la persécution post-censure d'un certain nombre d'auteurs et d'œuvres. Plusieurs films soviétiques ont été censurés à la demande des dirigeants chinois, et l'interdiction de publication du roman d'Hemingway Pour qui sonne le glas en 1960 a été influencée par la critique négative de Dolores Ibarruri.

Mais le verdict final sur toute question controversée était toujours pris par les organes du parti , qui supervisaient toute la censure en URSS.

Impact et conséquences

Résistances et contournement

Annexes

Bibliographie

Articles connexes
 Censure des images en Union soviétique
 Glavlit, organisme de censure
 Censure dans l'Empire russe (avant l'URSS)
 Censure en fédération de Russie (après la dislocation de l'URSS)
 Samizdat

Notes et références

Censure en Union soviétique


මෙම ලිපිය විසින් විවිධ  ගණිත මාතෘකාවන්හී ලැයිස්තු ලැයිස්තුගත කරයි.

Mathematics

ලැයිස්තු

ගණිත ලිපි ලැයිස්තුව


ෆුලරීන් යනු, කුහරමය ගෝලයක,  ඉලිප්සොයිඩයක හෝ නලයක ආකාරයේ ව්‍යුහයකින් යුතු, පූර්ණ වශයෙන් කාබන් වලින් සමන්විත වූ, ඕනෑම අණුවකි.

මෙහි දැනට බහුලවම ඇති අණුව කාබන් පරමාණු 60ක් එකිනෙකාට සම්බන්ධ වී ඇත.

ෆුලරීන්


Murat Beşer, (d. 1962, İstanbul) müzik yazarıdır. Dört yıl Milliyet gazetesinde yazdı. Ayrıca TRT Radyo 3'te üç sezondur "Cazda Modern Kavramlar" adlı radyo programını ve NTV Radyo'da Rıza Okçu ile birlikte, "Dünyadan Sesler" programını yapıyor. Halen soL Haber Portalında köşe yazarlığı yapmaktadır.

Yaşamı
1980 yılında Pertevniyal Lisesini bitirdi. 1983-84 yılları arasında Marmara Üniversitesi Tatbiki Güzel Sanatlar Dekoratif Resim bölümüne devam ettikten sonra, 1985-92 yılları arasında Mimar Sinan Üniversitesi Güzel Sanatlar Fakültesinde, Resim bölümünde okudu.

Öğrenciliği sırasında çeşitli dergi ve gazetelerde yazmaya başladığı müzik ve popüler kültür makalelerine, okul sonrasında da devam etti. Zamanının önde gelen gazete ve dergilerine düzenli olarak yazmasının dışında, bir dönemin ünlü rock müzik dergisi Stüdyo İmge'nin editörlüğünü yaptı. Yıllarca Cumhuriyet gazetesinin de müzik yazarlığını üstlendi.

Murat Beşer, Senem Göl ile evli ve Temmuz Beşer'in babasıdır.

Kaynakça

Müzik yazarları
1962 doğumlular
Yaşayan insanlar

Murat Beşer


Himmerland Rundt var et endags cykelløb i Danmark for professionelle cykelryttere. Cykelløbet var arrangeret som en del af UCI Europe Tour i Himmerland i Danmark. Den første udgave af løbet blev arrangeret i 2011.

Vindere

Eksterne henvisninger

UCI Europe Tour

Etableret i 2011

Himmerland Rundt


Otto Zoeller (* 14. Januar 1872 in Zweibrücken; † nach 1937) war ein deutscher Reichsgerichtsrat.

Leben
Sein Vater war Ludwig von Zöller (1831–1897), Präsident des Oberlandesgericht Zweibrücken und Reichsrat des Bayerischen Landtags. Zoeller war evangelisch und wurde nach dem Abitur am Herzog-Wolfgang-Gymnasium in Zweibrücken 1891 als Stipendiat der Stiftung Maximilianeum in München aufgenommen. Er bestand die erste juristische Staatsprüfung 1894 mit der Note "befähigt", die zweite 1897 mit "II". 1898 wurde er bei der Oberstaatsanwaltschaft Zweibrücken Rechtspraktikant. Zum Neujahrstag 1900 wurde er III. Staatsanwalt beim Landgericht Zweibrücken. Zwei Jahre später wurde er Amtsrichter beim Amtsgericht Landau/Pfalz. 1904 wurde er zum II. Staatsanwalt beim Landgericht in Landau ernannt. 1910 kam er als Rat an das Landgericht München I. Am Ersten Weltkrieg nahm er zuletzt im Rang als Major der Landwehr teil. 1923 wurde er Landgerichtsdirektor am Landgericht München I. 1928 wurde er zum Oberstaatsanwalt beim Oberlandesgericht München ernannt. 1929 kam er an das Reichsgericht. Am 1. Juli 1937 trat er in den Ruhestand.

Schriften (Auswahl)
 Weingesetz vom 7. April 1909, München Berlin 1909.

Literatur
 Friedrich Karl Kaul: Geschichte des Reichsgerichts, Band IV (1933–1945), Ost-Berlin 1971, S. 301.

Weblinks
 PA Otto Zoeller im Online-Findmittel des Bayerischen Hauptstaatsarchivs

Einzelnachweise

Richter (Reichsgericht)
Richter (Landgericht München I)
Person im Ersten Weltkrieg (Deutsches Reich)
Maximilianeer
Deutscher
Geboren 1872
Gestorben im 20. Jahrhundert
Mann

Otto Zoeller


The Douglas A-4 Skyhawk is a single-seat subsonic carrier-capable light attack aircraft designed and produced by the American aerospace manufacturer Douglas Aircraft Company, and later, McDonnell Douglas. It was originally designated A4D under the United States Navy's pre-1962 designation system.

The Skyhawk was developed during the early 1950s on behalf of the US Navy and United States Marine Corps as a replacement for the propeller-driven Douglas A-1 (AD) Skyraider. The A-4 is by comparison, a compact, straightforward, and lightweight aircraft for the era. Its maximum takeoff weight of  being roughly half of the Navy's weight specification. The Skyhawk has a short-span delta wing configuration, a tricycle undercarriage, and is powered by a single turbojet engine. The US Navy issued a contract for the aircraft on 12 June 1952. On 22 June 1954, the XA4D-1 prototype performed its maiden flight; it went on to set a world speed record of 695.163 mph on 15 October 1955. On 1 October 1956, the Skyhawk was introduced to operational service.

The Skyhawk's five hardpoints support a variety of missiles, bombs, and other munitions. It is capable of carrying a bomb load equivalent to that of the World War II-era Boeing B-17 bomber, and can deliver nuclear weapons using a low-altitude bombing system and a "loft" delivery technique. Furthermore, it pioneered the concept of "buddy" air-to-air refueling, enabling an aircraft to supply others and reduce the need for dedicated aerial tankers. The Skyhawk was originally powered by the Wright J65 turbojet engine; from the A-4E onwards, the Pratt & Whitney J52 engine was used instead. The Skyhawk was in production through to February 1979, by which point 2,960 aircraft had been delivered to a variety of operators. 555 aircraft alone were built as dedicated two-seat trainers.

The Skyhawk saw active combat on several occasions. The US Navy operated the type as its principal light attack aircraft during the Vietnam War, carrying out some of the first air strikes by the US during the conflict. The Skyhawk was the Israeli Air Force's main ground attack aircraft during both the War of Attrition and the Yom Kippur War. In the Falklands War, Argentine Air Force Skyhawks bombed Royal Navy vessels, sinking the Type 42 destroyer  and the Type 21 frigate . Kuwaiti Air Force Skyhawks saw action during Operation Desert Storm. In 2022, nearly seven decades after the aircraft's first flight in 1954, a number of Skyhawks remain in service with the Argentine Air Force and the Brazilian Naval Aviation.

Design and development

The Skyhawk was designed by Douglas Aircraft's Ed Heinemann in response to a United States Navy call for a jet-powered attack aircraft to replace the piston-powered Douglas AD Skyraider (later redesignated A-1 Skyraider). Heinemann opted for a design that would minimize its size, weight, and complexity. The result was an aircraft that weighed only half of the Navy's weight specification. It had a wing so compact that it did not need to be folded for carrier stowage. The first 500 production examples cost an average of $860,000 each, less than the Navy's one million dollar maximum. The diminutive Skyhawk soon received the nicknames "Scooter", "Kiddiecar", "Bantam Bomber", "Tinker Toy Bomber", and, on account of its speed and nimble performance, "Heinemann's Hot-Rod". The XA4D-1 prototype set a world speed record of 695.163 mph on 15 October 1955.

The aircraft is of conventional post-World War II design, with a low-mounted delta wing, tricycle undercarriage, and a single turbojet engine in the rear fuselage, with two air intakes on the fuselage sides. The tail is of cruciform design, with the horizontal stabilizer mounted above the fuselage. Armament consisted of two 20 mm (.79 in caliber) Colt Mark 12 cannons, one in each wing root, with 100 rounds per gun (the A-4M Skyhawk II and types based on the A-4M have 200 rounds per gun), plus a large variety of bombs, rockets, and missiles carried on a hardpoint under the fuselage centerline and hardpoints under each wing (originally one per wing, later two).

The short-span delta wing did not require the complexity of wingtip folding, saving an estimated . Its spars were machined from a single forging that spanned across both wingtips. The leading edge slats were designed to drop automatically at the appropriate speed by gravity and air pressure, saving weight and space by omitting actuation motors and switches. Similarly the main undercarriage did not penetrate the main wing spar, designed so that when retracted only the wheel itself was inside the wing and the undercarriage struts were housed in a fairing below the wing. Thus the wing structure was lighter with the same overall strength. The rudder was constructed of a single panel reinforced with external ribs.

The turbojet engine was accessed for service or replacement by removing the aft section of the fuselage and sliding out the engine. This obviated the need for access doors with their hinges and latches further reducing weight and complexity. This is the opposite of what can often happen in aircraft design where a small weight increase in one area leads to a compounding increase in weight in other areas to compensate, creating a demand for more powerful, heavier engines, larger wing and empennage area, and so on in a vicious circle.

The A-4 pioneered the concept of "buddy" air-to-air refueling. This allows the aircraft to supply others of the same type, reducing the need for dedicated tanker aircraft—a particular advantage for small air arms or when operating in remote locations. This allows for greatly improved operational flexibility and reassurance against the loss or malfunction of tanker aircraft, though this procedure reduces the effective combat force on board the carrier.

A designated supply A-4 would mount a center-mounted "buddy store", a large external fuel tank with a hose reel in the aft section and an extensible drogue refueling bucket. This aircraft was fueled up without armament and launched first. Attack aircraft were armed to the maximum and were given as much fuel as was allowable by maximum takeoff weight limits, which was far less than a full tank.

Once airborne, they topped off their fuel tanks from the tanker using the A-4's fixed refueling probe on the starboard side of the aircraft nose. They could then sortie with both full armament and fuel loads. The A-4 was rarely used for refueling in U.S. service after the KA-3 Skywarrior tanker became available aboard the larger carriers.

The A-4 was also designed to be able to make an emergency landing, in the event of a hydraulic failure, on the two drop tanks nearly always carried by these aircraft. Such landings resulted in only minor damage to the nose of the aircraft which could be repaired in less than an hour.

The Navy issued a contract for the type on 12 June 1952, and the first prototype first flew from Edwards Air Force Base, California on 22 June 1954. Deliveries to Navy and Marine Corps squadrons (to VA-72 and VMA-224 respectively) commenced in late 1956.

The Skyhawk remained in production until 1979, with 2,960 aircraft built, including 555 two-seat trainers. The last production A-4, an A-4M of Marine squadron VMA-331 had the flags of all nations that operated the A-4 painted on its fuselage sides.

Operational history

United States

The Skyhawk proved to be a relatively common United States Navy aircraft export. Due to its small size, it could be operated from older, smaller World War II-era aircraft carriers still used by smaller navies during the 1960s. These older ships were often unable to accommodate newer Navy fighters such as the F-4 Phantom II and F-8 Crusader, which were faster and more capable than the A-4, but significantly larger and heavier.

The Navy operated the A-4 in both Regular Navy and Naval Reserve light attack squadrons (VA). Although the A-4's use as a training and adversary aircraft would continue well into the 1990s, the Navy began removing the aircraft from its frontline attack squadrons in 1967, with the last ones (Super Foxes of VA-55/212/164) being retired in 1976.

The Marine Corps would not take the U.S. Navy's replacement, the LTV A-7 Corsair II, instead keeping Skyhawks in service with both Regular Marine Corps and Marine Corps Reserve attack squadrons (VMA), and ordering the new A-4M model. The last USMC Skyhawk was delivered in 1979, and they were used until the mid-1980s before they were replaced by the equally small, but more versatile STOVL AV-8 Harrier II.

VMA-131, Marine Aircraft Group 49 (the Diamondbacks) retired its last four OA-4Ms on 22 June 1994. Trainer versions of the Skyhawk remained in Navy service, however, finding a new lease on life with the advent of "adversary training", where the nimble A-4 was used as a stand-in for the Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-17 in dissimilar air combat training (DACT). It served in that role at TOPGUN until 1999.

The A-4's nimble performance also made it suitable to replace the McDonnell Douglas F-4 Phantom II when the Navy downsized its aircraft for the Blue Angels demonstration team, until McDonnell Douglas F/A-18 Hornets were available in the 1980s. The last U.S. Navy Skyhawks, TA-4J models belonging to the composite squadron VC-8, remained in military use for target towing, and as adversary aircraft, for combat training at Naval Station Roosevelt Roads. These aircraft were officially retired on 3 May 2003.

Skyhawks were well loved by their crews for being tough and agile. These attributes, along with their low purchase and operating cost as well as easy maintenance, have contributed to the popularity of the A-4 with American and international armed forces. Besides the U.S., at least three other nations have used Skyhawks in combat (Argentina, Israel, and Kuwait).

Vietnam War era

Skyhawks were the US Navy's primary light attack aircraft used over North Vietnam during the early years of the Vietnam War; later supplanted by the A-7 Corsair II in the US Navy light attack role. Skyhawks carried out some of the first air strikes by the US during the conflict, and a Marine Skyhawk is believed to have dropped the last American bombs on the country. Notable naval aviators who flew the Skyhawk included Lieutenant Commanders Everett Alvarez, Jr. and John McCain, and Commander James Stockdale. On 1 May 1967, an A-4C Skyhawk piloted by Lieutenant Commander Theodore R. Swartz of VA-76 aboard the carrier , shot down a North Vietnamese Air Force MiG-17 with an unguided Zuni rocket, serving as the Skyhawk's only air-to-air victory of the Vietnam War.

From 1956 onwards, Navy Skyhawks were the first aircraft to be deployed outside of the US armed with the AIM-9 Sidewinder. On strike missions, the Skyhawk's normal role, air-to-air armaments were used for self-defense. In the early to mid-1960s, standard U.S. Navy A-4B Skyhawk squadrons were assigned to provide fighter protection for anti-submarine warfare aircraft operating from some Essex-class anti-submarine warfare carriers; these aircraft retained their ground- and sea-attack capabilities. The A-4B lacked an air-to-air radar, and it required visual identification of targets and guidance from either ships or an airborne Grumman E-1 Tracer AEW aircraft.

Lightweight and safer to land on smaller decks, Skyhawks would later also play a similar role flying from Australian, Argentinean, and Brazilian upgraded World War II surplus light ASW carriers, which were unable to operate most large modern fighters. Primary air-to-air armament consisted of the internal 20 mm (.79 in) Colt cannons and ability to carry an AIM-9 Sidewinder missile on both underwing hardpoints, later additions of two more underwing hardpoints on some aircraft made for a total capacity of four AAMs.

The first combat loss of an A-4 occurred on 5 August 1964, when Lieutenant junior grade Everett Alvarez, of VA-144 aboard , was shot down while attacking enemy torpedo boats in North Vietnam. Alvarez safely ejected after being hit by anti-aircraft artillery (AAA) fire, and became the first US Naval POW of the war. He was released as a POW on 12 February 1973. The last A-4 loss in the Vietnam War occurred on 26 September 1972, when USMC pilot Captain James P. Walsh, USMC of VMA-211, flying close air support from Bien Hoa Air Base, South Vietnam, was hit by ground fire during the Battle of An Lộc. Captain Walsh ejected safely and was the last U.S. Marine to be taken prisoner during the war. He was released as a POW on 12 February 1973.

Although the first A-4Es were flown in Vietnam in early 1965, the A-4Cs continued to be used until late 1970. On 1 June 1965, the Chu Lai Short Airfield for Tactical Support (SATS) was officially opened with the arrival of eight Skyhawks from Cubi Point, Philippine Islands. The group landed with the aid of arresting cables, refueled and took off with the aid of JATO, with fuel and bombs to support Marine combat units. The Skyhawks were from Marine Attack Squadron VMA-225 and VMA-311.

Lieutenant commander Michael J. Estocin of Attack Squadron 192 was posthumously awarded the Medal of Honor for his actions while flying surface-to-air missile (SAM) suppression during coordinated strikes against targets in Haiphong, North Vietnam, on 20 April and 26 April 1967.

On 29 July 1967, the aircraft carrier  was conducting combat operations in the Gulf of Tonkin during the Vietnam War. A Zuni rocket misfired, striking an external tank on an A-4. Fuel from the leaking tank caught fire, creating a massive conflagration that burned for hours, killing 134 sailors, and injuring 161.

During the conflict, 362 A-4/TA-4F Skyhawks were lost due to all causes. The U.S. Navy lost 271 A-4s, the U.S. Marine Corps lost 81 A-4s and 10 TA-4Fs. A total of 32 A-4s were lost to surface-to-air missiles (SAMs), and one A-4 was lost in aerial combat to a MiG-17 on 25 April 1967.

Training and adversary role
The Skyhawk, in the two-seat TA-4J configuration, was introduced to a training role replacing the TF-9J Cougar. The TA-4J served as the advanced jet trainer in white and orange markings for decades until being replaced by the T-45 Goshawk. Additional TA-4Js were assigned to Instrument Training RAGs at all the Navy master jet bases under RCVW-12 and RCVW-4. The Instrument RAGs initially provided jet transition training for Naval Aviators during the time period when Naval Aviation still had a great number of propeller-driven aircraft and also provided annual instrument training and check rides for Naval Aviators. The assigned TA-4J models were installed with collapsible hoods so the aviator under training had to demonstrate instrument flying skills without any outside reference. These units were VF-126 at NAS Miramar, California; VA-127 (later VFA-127; NAS FALLON, NV) at NAS Lemoore, California; VF-43 at NAS Oceana, Virginia; and VA-45 (later VF-45) at NAS Cecil Field, Florida until its later move to NAS Key West, Florida.

Additional single-seat Skyhawks were also assigned to composite squadrons (VC) worldwide to provide training and other services to deployed units. These included VC-1 at NAS Barbers Point, Hawaii; VC-7 at NAS Miramar, California; VC-5 at NAS Cubi Point, Philippines; VC-8 at NS Roosevelt Roads, Puerto Rico; VC-10 at NAVBASE Guantánamo Bay, Cuba, and Naval Reserve squadrons VC-12 (later VFC-12) at NAS Oceana, Virginia and VC-13 (later VFC-13) at NAS Miramar, California until its later move to NAS Fallon, Nevada.

With renewed emphasis on Air Combat Maneuvering (ACM) training brought on with the establishment of the Navy Fighter Weapons School (TOPGUN) in 1969, the availability of Skyhawks in both the Instrument RAGs and Composite Squadrons at the master jet bases presented a ready resource of the nimble Skyhawks that had become the TOPGUN preferred surrogate for the MiG-17. At the time, the F-4 Phantom was just beginning to be exploited to its full potential as a fighter and had not performed as well as expected against the smaller North Vietnamese MiG-17 and MiG-21 opponents. TOPGUN introduced the notion of dissimilar air combat training (DACT) using modified A-4E/Fs. Modified aircraft, called "Mongoose", lost the dorsal hump, the 20 mm cannon with their ammo systems, and the external stores, although sometimes the centerline station was kept. The slats were fixed.

The small size of the Skyhawk and superb low speed handling in the hands of a well trained aviator made it ideal to teach fleet aviators the finer points of DACT. The squadrons eventually began to display vivid threat type paint schemes signifying their transition into the primary role of Adversary training. To better perform the Adversary role, single-seat A-4E and F models were introduced to the role, but the ultimate adversary Skyhawk was the Super Fox, which was equipped with the uprated J52-P-408 engine. This variant had entered service in 1974 with VA-55/VA-164/VA-212 on the final USS Hancock cruise and had been the variant that the Blue Angels had selected in 1973.

The surplus of former USMC Skyhawks resulted in A-4M versions being used by both VF-126 and TOPGUN. Even though the A-4 was augmented by the F-5E, F-21 (Kfir), F-16, and F/A-18 in the adversary role, the A-4 remained a viable threat surrogate until it was retired by VF-43 in 1993 and shortly thereafter by VFC-12. The last A-4 fleet operators were VC-8, which retired its Skyhawks in 2003.

The A-4M was also operated by the Operations Maintenance Detachment (OMD) in an adversary role based at NAS Dallas, Texas for the Naval Air Reserve. Many of the aviators that flew the four jets were attached to NAS Dallas, including the Commanding Officer of the air station. The aircraft were instrumental in training and development of ACM for Naval Air Reserve fighter squadrons VF-201 and VF-202 flying the F-4 Phantom II and later the Grumman F-14 Tomcat. The unit also completed several missions involving target towing to NAS Key West, Florida; NAS Kingsville, Texas, and deployments to NAS Miramar, California and NAS Fallon, Nevada for adversary support. The detachment was under the operational command of the Commander Fleet Logistics Support Wing (CFLSW), also based at NAS Dallas.

Israel

Israel was the largest export customer for the Skyhawk. The first Israeli request for the type was issued in 1964; it would not be until February 1966 that the US agreed to supply Skyhawks under certain conditions. The US gradually provided numerous conventional munitions to arm the aircraft with, but was initially limited, refusing to  supply cluster bombs or napalm. Nevertheless, the Skyhawk became the first US warplane to be offered to the Israeli Air Force (IAF), marking the point where the U.S took over France as Israel's chief military supplier. Deliveries began after the Six-Day War, and A-4s soon formed the backbone of the IAF's ground-attack force. In IAF service, the Skyhawk was named as the Ayit ( for Eagle).

The aircraft had a relatively low cost, a quarter of what a Phantom II cost, while carrying half of its payload. Israel purchased 217 A-4s, plus another 46 that were transferred from U.S. units in Operation Nickel Grass to compensate for large losses during the Yom Kippur War. The first deliveries took place in December 1967. Skyhawks promptly began to replace Dassault Ouragan and Dassault Mystère IV in IAF service, providing greater speed, range, and lift capacity in comparison to these older types. The first combat mission took place on 15 February 1968, attacking artillery and military bases along the border with Jordan.

In the late 1960s and 1970s, IAF Skyhawks were the primary ground attack aircraft in the War of Attrition and the Yom Kippur War. During July 1969, in response to Egyptian shelling of Israeli positions in the Sinai Peninsula, air strikes were conducted against Egyptian missile sites. On 6 February 1970, Skyhawks attacked the Egyptian port of Gardaka, sinking a minelayer as a result. Furthermore, skirmishes between IAF Skyhawks and Arab aircraft of various sorts frequently occurred. In May 1970, an Israeli Skyhawk piloted by Col. Ezra Dotan shot down two MiG-17s over south Lebanon (one with unguided rockets, the other with 30 mm cannon fire) even though the Skyhawk's head-up display had no "air-to-air mode". However, up to three Skyhawks were downed by Egyptian MiG-21s, plus two were downed by Soviet-piloted MiG-21s during the War of Attrition.

During the Yom Kippur War, IAF Skyhawks carried out numerous bombing missions, flying a considerable proportion of the tactical sorties made throughout the conflict. The vast majority of losses incurred were from surface to air missiles (SAMs); as many of 30 IAF aircraft were lost in a single day while resisting Egyptian and Syrian advances. To counter the radar-guided SAM threat, the Skyhawk's air brakes were used as improvised chaff dispensers. Improvements in tactics, such as the adoption of toss-bombing attacks, were also adopted in the latter part of the conflict. ACIG.org claims that at least nine Skyhawks were downed by MiG-21 and MiG-17 fighters during the Yom Kippur War. Formal Israeli sources claim only five IAF aircraft of any type were shot down in air-to-air duels.

A special version of the A-4 was developed for the IAF, the A-4H. This was an A-4E which featured improved avionics and the improved thrust J52-P-8A engine. Armament consisted of twin DEFA 30 mm cannon in place of the Colt Mk.12 20 mm cannons. Later modifications included the avionics hump and an extended tailpipe, implemented in Israel by IAI. The extended tailpipe gave greater protection against heat-seeking surface-to-air missiles. A total of 90 A-4Hs were delivered. In early 1973, the improved A-4N Skyhawk for Israel entered service, based on the A-4M models used by the U.S. Marine Corps. The different model Skyhawks carried out bombing missions in the Yom Kippur War, and a considerable proportion of the tactical sorties. They also attacked in Operation Peace for the Galilee, and one of them shot down a Syrian MiG-17.

The IAF also operated two-seat models, for operations as well as advanced training and retraining. The first training models arrived in 1967, with the first batch of Skyhawks. During the Yom Kippur War, the Skyhawk order of battle was reinforced with TA-4F and TA-4J models. In January 2003, the IAF selected RADA Electronic Industries Ltd. to upgrade its A-4 trainer fleet with weapon delivery, navigation and training systems. Integration of a multifunction and Head-up Display produced an advanced Lead in fighter trainer for the IAF's future fighter pilots.

According to acig.org, Syria claimed that two Israeli Skyhawks were downed by Syrian MiG-23s over northern Lebanon on 26 April 1981. However, official IAF statistics do not list any downing of Israeli warplanes since the Yom Kippur War, and no loss of aircraft was reported on that date.

During the 1982 Lebanon War, an Israeli A-4 piloted by Aharon Achiaz was shot down over Lebanon by a SA-7 on 6 June 1982. Israel reported this was one of its only two fixed-wing aircraft shot down over the Beqaa Valley during air battles spanning from 6 June 1982 to 11 June 1982 where 150 aircraft took part, including the battle on 9 June 1982 known as Operation Mole Cricket 19.

In October 2008, it was decided that, due to maintenance issues, the Skyhawk fleet would be withdrawn and replaced by more modern aircraft, able to perform equally well in the training role and, if required, close support and interdiction missions on the battlefield. Some of Israel's A-4s were later exported to Indonesia. The Skyhawks have been replaced by F-16s in combat roles but are still used for pilot training. All the remaining A-4s were to be fully phased out beginning by 2014 as the IAF accepts delivery of Alenia Aermacchi M-346 Master jets. Skyhawks were last used in combat operations in the Israeli air force in 2012, when they dropped leaflets over Gaza.

In July 2013, Israel began a program called Teuza (boldness) for the purpose of turning some military bases into sales lots for obsolete IDF equipment. Older models that are not suited for Israel's modern high-tech forces will be sold off, or sold for scrap if there are no buyers. Skyhawks are among those being offered.

On 13 December 2015, all remaining IAF Skyhawks were retired from service. The retirement ceremony took place at Hatzerim IDF base.

Argentina

Argentina was the first foreign user of the Skyhawk and had nearly 130 A-4s delivered since 1965. The Argentine Air Force received 25 A-4Bs in 1966 and another 25 in 1970, all refurbished in the United States by Lockheed Service Co. prior to their delivery as A-4P, although they were still locally known as A-4B. They had three weapon pylons and served in the 5th Air Brigade (). During 1976, 25 A-4Cs were ordered to replace the North American F-86 Sabres still in service in the 4th Air Brigade (). They were received as is and refurbished to flight status by Air Force technicians at Río Cuarto, Córdoba. The C model had five weapon pylons and could use AIM-9B Sidewinder air-to-air missiles.

The Argentine Naval Aviation also bought the Skyhawk known as A-4Q in the form of 16 A-4Bs in 1972, which unlike the Air Force's A-4Ps, were powered by  J-65-W-20 engines and fitted to use Sidewinder air-to-air missiles. They were received in 1972 to be used mainly from the aircraft carrier ARA Veinticinco de Mayo by the 3rd Fighter/Attack Squadron (). The first combat use of Argentina's Skyhawks took place amid a military revolt during December 1975, performing a single strike against rebels in Buenos Aires.

The U.S. placed an embargo of spare parts in 1977 due to the Dirty War, backing the Humphrey-Kennedy amendment to the Foreign Assistance Act of 1976, the Carter administration placed an embargo on the sale of arms and spare parts to Argentina and on the training of its military personnel (which was lifted in the 1990s under Carlos Menem's presidency when Argentina became a major non-NATO ally). Ejection seats did not work and there were many other mechanical faults. In spite of this, A-4s were still active during the 1982 Falklands War.

Falklands War

During the 1982 Falklands War, Argentina deployed 48 Skyhawks (26 A-4B, 12 A-4C and 10 A-4Q aircraft). Armed with unguided bombs and lacking any electronic or missile self-defense, the Skyhawk could not effectively dogfight with Fleet Air Arm (FAA) British Aerospace Sea Harriers. Despite this, Argentine Air Force Skyhawks conducted numerous bombing missions against Royal Navy vessels, sinking the Type 42 destroyer  and inflicted a variety of damage on several others: Type 21 frigate  (subsequently sunk during attempted disposal of unexploded bombs), RFA Sir Galahad (subsequently scuttled as a war grave), Type 42 ,  , Type 22 frigate , and RFA Sir Tristram.

Argentine Navy A-4Qs, flying from Río Grande, Tierra del Fuego naval air station, also played a role in the bombing attacks against British ships, destroying the Type 21 .

In all, 22 Skyhawks (10 A-4Bs, nine A-4Cs, and three A-4Qs) were lost to all causes in the six-week-long war. These losses included eight to FAA Sea Harriers, seven to ship-launched surface-to-air missiles, four to ground-launched surface-to-air missiles and anti-aircraft fire (including one to "friendly fire"), and three to crashes. According to aviation author Jim Winchester, the Skyhawk was the most effective Argentine aircraft of the conflict.

Postwar

After the war, Argentine Air Force A-4Ps and A-4Cs survivors were upgraded under the Halcón (Spanish for "falcon") program with  DEFA cannons, air-to-air missiles, and other minor details, and merged into the 5th Air Brigade. All of these were withdrawn from service in 1999, and they were replaced with 36 of the much-improved Lockheed Martin OA/A-4AR Fightinghawk (rebuilt and modernised ex USMC A-4M). Several TA-4J and A-4E airframes were also delivered under the A-4AR program, mainly for spare parts use. The A-4AR was in service between the late 1990s and 2016 when the majority of the fleet was grounded for serviceability and age. A small number of airframes remained in service for limited roles.  Three aircraft were lost to accidents.

In 1983, the United States vetoed the delivery by Israel of 24 A-4Hs for the Argentine Navy as the A-4Q replacement. The A-4Qs were finally retired in 1988.

Kuwait
During November 1974, the Kuwaiti government announced its intention to purchase 36 new-build Skyhawks, along with AIM-9 Sidewinder missiles, support apparatus, and spares in exchange for $250 million. The majority of aircraft were supplied as single-seat A-4KUs while a handful of twin-seat TA-4KUs were also procured. By the end of 1978, all aircraft had been delivered and entered service with the Kuwaiti Air Force. During 1984, Kuwait reportedly put its Skyhawk fleet up for sale, but none were actually sold around this time.

In 1991, Kuwaiti Skyhawks participated in Operation Desert Storm. When Iraq invaded Kuwait, all available Skyhawks conducted attack missions against the advancing Iraqi forces, being operated from deserted roads after their bases were overrun; numerous Iraqi assault helicopters were destroyed by the Skyhawks prior to their withdrawal. As many as five aircraft were captured on the ground by Iraqi forces. Twenty-four of the 29 A-4KUs that remained in service with Kuwait escaped to Saudi Arabia. These Skyhawks (along with escaped Dassault Mirage F1s) operated as the Free Kuwait Air Force, flying 1,361 sorties during the liberation of Kuwait. Twenty-three A-4s survived the conflict and the Iraqi invasion, with only one A-4KU (KAF-828, BuNo. 160207) shot down by Iraqi radar-guided SAM on 17 January 1991. The pilot, Mohammed Mubarak, ejected and was taken prisoner.

During the early 1990s, as Kuwait awaited delivery of more capable McDonnell Douglas F/A-18 Hornet, protracted efforts were made to sell its remaining Skyhawks. Assisted by the US State Department, fruitless negotiations took place with both Bosnia and the Philippines; in 1998, the fleet was sold to Brazil, where they served aboard the aircraft carrier NAe São Paulo prior to its decommissioning in February 2017.

Australia

Twenty A-4G Skyhawks were purchased by the Royal Australian Navy for operation from . The aircraft were acquired in two batches of 10, in 1967 and 1971, and were primarily used to provide air defence for the fleet. Ten of the A-4Gs were destroyed in accidents, and all the survivors were sold to the Royal New Zealand Air Force in 1984.

New Zealand

During the 1960s, New Zealand considered various aircraft types, such as the Northrop F-5 Freedom Fighter and the F-4 Phantom II, before choosing to order 14 Skyhawks for the Royal New Zealand Air Force (RNZAF) under a $23 million deal for the aircraft themselves, spare parts, support, and initial training. In 1970, 10 single-seat A-4Ks and 4 TA-4Ks were delivered to the RNZAF, joining 75 Squadron. Various early modifications were made, including the adoption of a cranked aerial refueling probe in place of the straight counterpart initially used. Various overseas deployments, often to conduct ANZUS exercises, were conducted by the Skyhawk fleet throughout the 1970s and 1980s, often being escorted by up to three C-130 Hercules transport planes (carrying spares, support equipment, and ground crew) and a P-3 Orion to assist in navigation and communication.

In 1983, addition Skyhawks were acquired in the form of 8 A-4Gs and 2 TA-4Gs from the Royal Australian Navy in 1984, which allowed a second Skyhawk-equipped squadron, 2 Squadron, to be formed. During 1986, Project Kahu was launched to upgrade the RNZAF's Skyhawks with new avionics, including an AN/APG-66NZ radar based on that used by the F-16, and weapons, as a lower-cost alternative to buying new replacements. All 10 ex-RAN and the 12 surviving original RNZAF aircraft were converted to the A-4K Kahu standard. In addition to its primary duties, the type became heavily involved in training not just for the RNZAF but also RAN, the latter financially contributing to their operating costs through the 1990s as a result.

During 2001, the three Air Combat Force squadrons (Nos 2, 14, and 75) were disbanded and the Skyhawks put into storage awaiting sale. They were maintained, with occasional servicing flights, and then moved to RNZAF Base Woodbourne, where they were preserved in protective latex. Draken International signed an agreement with the New Zealand government in 2012 to purchase eight A-4Ks and associated equipment for its adversary training services. Six were former RAN A-4G airframes which as carrier aircraft had logged significantly fewer flying hours. These were subsequently relocated to the U.S. at Draken's Lakeland Linder International Airport facility in Lakeland, Florida. The other A-4K aircraft were given to museums in New Zealand and Australia.

Indonesia

Due to the declining relationship between Indonesia and the Soviet Union after the events of G30S, there was a lack of spare parts for military hardware supplied by the Communist Bloc. As a consequence, many of the Indonesian Air Force's modern combat aircraft, such as its MiGs and bomber fleet consisting of Il-28 Beagles and Tu-16 Badgers, were effectively inoperable by the late 1970s, and were subsequently grounded. During May 1978, US vice-president Walter Mondale offered 16 Skyhawks to Indonesia; during the following year, Indonesian proceeded to acquire Skyhawks via a covert, joint operation with Israel. The operation was done confidentially because the two countries had no official diplomatic relations. These A-4s were chosen because the IDF were planning to retire its A-4 squadrons. Some of the Israeli-built avionics were stripped from the aircraft prior to being transferred.

During 1982, an additional 15 Skyhawks were purchased directly from US stocks, undergoing refurbishment prior to delivery under a $27 million deal. Several more twin-seat Skyhawks were procured during the 1990s. Several aircraft allegedly engaged in combat against separatist forces during the 1980s and 1990s. By 1999, there were only 19 aircraft left operational, partially due to a lack of spare parts. The arrival of Sukhoi Su-27s during 2003 quickly led to the withdrawal of the Indonesian Air Force's remaining Skyhawks. Today, a few of the A-4s are preserved as museum pieces or gate guardians; one is displayed in Satria Mandala Military Museum, and the other in the Dirgantara Mandala Air Force Museum.

Malaysia
In 1982, Malaysia purchased 80 refurbished A-4C and A-4L under a modernization program called PERISTA. Forty of the airframes were upgraded with the Hughes AN/ASB-19 Angle Rate Bombing System, air refueling capability, and increased payload, while the rest were kept in the US as a reserve and as a source of spare parts. This modified version was redesignated as A-4PTM and were unique to Malaysia. Deliveries took place between 1984 and 1985.

The Skyhawks were operated by the Royal Malaysian Air Force (RMAF), serving in the No.6 and No.9 RMAF Squadrons, based at Kuantan air base. During the late 1980s, Argentina attempted to barter for Skyhawks from Malaysia in exchange for FMA IA-63 Pampa aircraft and ground vehicles, but no such transaction took place. While in RMAF service, the type suffered from frequent maintenance issues and a high accident rate; it is believed that this contributed to the type's relatively short service life. In 1995, the Skyhawk fleet was retired and remaining examples were stored outside, while the RMAF replaced the type with the BAE Systems Hawk. Malaysia reportedly expressed interest in acquiring Skyhawks from New Zealand during the 2000s.

Brazil
As of 2014, Brazil is the latest Skyhawk customer. In 1997, Brazil negotiated a $70 million (~$ in ) contract for purchase of 20 A-4KU and three TA-4KU Skyhawks from Kuwait. Kuwait's Skyhawks, modified A-4Ms and TA-4Js delivered in 1977, were among the last of those models built by Douglas. The aircraft were selected by Brazil because of their low flight time, excellent physical condition, and a favorable price. The Brazilian Navy re-designated AF-1 and AF-1A Falcões (Hawks), the Kuwaiti Skyhawks arrived in Arraial do Cabo on 5 September 1998.

On 18 January 2001, an AF-1 trapped aboard the Brazilian aircraft carrier  was later successfully catapulted, making Brazil's fixed-wing carrier force operational again after nearly two decades. To replace the aging Minas Gerais, Brazil purchased the surplus  on 15 November 2001. Renamed , the "new" carrier received extensive refitting before becoming operational during 2003. Minas Gerais was decommissioned that same year and later put up for sale.

On 14 April 2009, Embraer signed a contract to modernize 12 Brazilian Navy aircraft, nine AF-1s (single-seat) and three AF-1As (two-seat), with the aim of restoring the operating capacity of the Navy 1st Intercept and Attack Plane Squadron. The program includes restoring the aircraft and their current systems, as well as implementing new avionics, radar, power production, and autonomous oxygen generating systems. The first of the 12 modified Skyhawks was delivered on 27 May 2015. Embraer stated the modifications will allow the aircraft to remain operational until 2025.

In 2017, the Brazilian Navy indicated that it was reconsidering the total number of aircraft to be modernized to AF-1B/C standard due to budget constraints and the decommissioning of the São Paulo. Two AF-1Bs were delivered in 2015 and a further two of undisclosed type are to be delivered in 2017. It is believed that despite the loss of its only carrier, the Navy wants to retain the experience of carrier-based operations, and thus will not rescind the contract outright. As of 2022, there are 3 A-4s in service, with 3 used for training and the other aircraft on display.

Others

Top Aces, formerly Discovery Air Defense Services, a private Canadian company contracted by the Canadian Armed Forces, Australian Defence Force, and Bundeswehr to provide air combat and fighter training, imported and registered ten A-4N and TA-4J aircraft. Discovery upgraded and modified the jets to be capable of Electronic Warfare training. Top Aces also operates A-4Ns under contract for training of the German Armed Forces (Bundeswehr). Another major civil user of A-4s for training support to military forces is US-based Draken International, which operates ex-New Zealand A-4Ks as part of a diverse fleet of jets. A-4s have previously been operated in the target support role in Germany by Tracor Flight Systems.

Variants

Original production variants
XA4D-1 Initial prototype, one built.
YA4D-1 Flight test prototypes and pre-production aircraft; redesignated YA-4A in 1962, then A-4A, 19 built.
A4D-1 (A-4A) Initial production version; redesignated A-4A in 1962, 166 built.
A4D-2 (A-4B) Strengthened aircraft and added air-to-air refueling capabilities, improved navigation and flight control systems, provision for AGM-12 Bullpup missile; redesignated A-4B in 1962, 542 built.
A4D-2N (A-4C) Night/adverse weather version of A4D-2, with AN/APG-53A radar, autopilot, LABS low-altitude bombing system. Wright J65-W-20 engine with  of takeoff thrust; redesignated A-4C in 1962, 638 built.
A4D-3 Proposed advanced avionics version, none built.
A4D-4 Proposed long-range version with new wings; none built.
A4D-5 (A-4E) Major upgrade, including new Pratt & Whitney J52-P-6A engine with  of thrust, strengthened airframe with two more weapon pylons (for a total of five), improved avionics, with TACAN, Doppler navigation radar, radar altimeter, toss-bombing computer, and AJB-3A low-altitude bombing system. Many later upgraded with J52-P-8 engine with  thrust; redesignated A-4E in 1962, 499 built.
A4D-6 Proposed enlarged version of the A4D-5, none built.
A-4F Refinement of A-4E with extra avionics housed in a hump on the fuselage spine (this feature later retrofitted to A-4Es and some A-4Cs), wing-top spoilers to reduce landing roll out, nose wheel steering, and more powerful J52-P-8A engine with  of thrust, later upgraded in service to J52-P-408 with , 147 built. Some served with Blue Angels acrobatic team from 1973 to 1986.
A-4G Eight aircraft built new for the Royal Australian Navy with minor variations from the A-4F; in particular, they were not fitted with the avionics "hump". Subsequently, eight more A-4Fs were modified to this standard for the RAN. Significantly the A-4G were modified to carry four underwing Sidewinder AIM-9B missiles increasing their Fleet Defense capability. Sold in 1984 to the Royal New Zealand Air Force and later rebuilt in Project KAHU as A-4Ks.
A-4H 90 aircraft for the Israeli Air Force based on the A-4F. Used 30 mm (1.18 in) DEFA cannon with 150 rpg in place of U.S. 20 mm (.79 in) guns. Later, some A-4Es later locally modified to this standard. Subsequently, modified with extended jetpipes as protection against heat-seeking missiles.
A-4K 10 aircraft for Royal New Zealand Air Force. In the 1990s, these were upgraded under Project KAHU with new radar and avionics, provision for AGM-65 Maverick, AIM-9 Sidewinder, and GBU-16 Paveway II laser-guided bomb. The RNZAF also rebuilt an A-4C and 10 A-4Gs to A-4K standard.
A-4M Skyhawk II Dedicated Marine version with improved avionics and more powerful J52-P-408 engine with  thrust, enlarged cockpit, IFF system. Later fitted with Hughes AN/ASB-19 Angle Rate Bombing System (ARBS) with TV and laser spot tracker, 158 built.
 117 modified A-4Ms for the Israeli Air Force.
TA-4F Conversion trainer – standard A-4F with extra seat for an instructor, 241 built.
TA-4G two trainer versions of the A-4G built new, and two more modified from TA-4Fs.
TA-4H 25 trainer versions of the A-4H. Upgraded with more modern avionics.
 Dedicated trainer version based on A-4F, but lacking weapons systems, and with down-rated engine, 277 built new, and most TA-4Fs were later converted to this configuration.
TA-4K Four trainer versions of the TA-4J. A fifth, non-flying display example was later assembled in NZ from spare parts.

Upgraded, modified and export variants
TA-4E Two A-4Es modified as prototypes of a trainer version.
EA-4F Four TA-4Fs converted for ECM training.
A-4L 100 A-4Cs remanufactured for Marine Corps Reserves and Navy Reserve squadrons. Fitted with A-4F avionics (including the fuselage "hump") but retaining J-65 engine and three-pylon wing.
OA-4M 23 TA-4Fs modified for Forward Air Control duties.
A-4P Remanufactured A-4Bs sold to Argentine Air Force, known as A-4B by the Argentines.
A-4Q Remanufactured A-4Bs sold to Argentine Navy.
A-4Y Provisional designation for A-4Ms modified with the ARBS. Designation never adopted by the U.S. Navy or U.S. Marine Corps.
A-4AR Fightinghawk 36 A-4Ms refurbished for Argentina.
OA-4AR Fightinghawk Refurbished two-seat training version for Argentina.
CA-4F A proposed two seat variant for the Royal Canadian Navy based on the A-4E with a dorsal conformal fuel tank instead of an avionics hump, it was to have replaced the F2H-3 Banshee on HMCS Bonaventure.  Canada expressed little interest and so it was never placed in production.
A-4KU 30 modified A-4Ms for the Kuwaiti Air Force. Brazil purchased 20 of these second-hand and redesignated them AF-1. Now used by the Brazilian Navy on carrier duty.
TA-4KU Three trainer versions of the above. Brazil purchased some of these second-hand and redesignated them AF-1A.
A-4PTM 40 A-4Cs and A-4Ls refurbished for Royal Malaysian Air Force, incorporating many A-4M features (PTM stands for Peculiar to Malaysia).
TA-4PTM Unique trainer version for Royal Malaysian Air Force. Converted from A-4C/L airframes with 28" fuselage plug and second cockpit, similar to TA-4F/J (PTM stands for Peculiar to Malaysia).
A-4S 50 A-4Bs remanufactured for Republic of Singapore Air Force.
TA-4S Seven trainer versions of the above. Different from most TA-4 trainers with a common cockpit for the student and instructor pilot, these were essentially rebuilt with a  fuselage plug inserted into the front fuselage and a separate bulged cockpit (giving better all round visibility) for the instructor seated behind the student pilot.
A-4S-1 50 A-4Cs remanufactured for the Republic of Singapore Air Force.
TA-4S-1 Eight trainer versions of the above. These were designated as TA-4S-1 to set it apart from the earlier batch of seven airframes.
A-4SU Super Skyhawk Extensively modified and updated version of the A-4S-1, exclusively for the Republic of Singapore Air Force, fitted with a General Electric F404 non-afterburning turbofan engine, and modernized electronics.
TA-4SU Super Skyhawk Extensively modified and updated version of the TA-4S & TA-4S-1 to TA-4SU standard.
AF-1/1A Brazilian Navy designation applied to 23 A-4KU and TA-4KU aircraft acquired from the Kuwaiti Air Force.
AF-1B/C Brazilian Navy upgraded version of AF-1/1A by Embraer and AEL Sistemas. Changes from analog to digital avionics, new radar systems, improved communications equipment and weapons.

Operators

 Argentine Air Force – use the modernized version A-4AR as fighter and fighter trainer.

 Brazilian Navy – 4 modernized A-4KUs in operation and 3 A-4KUs for training

 Top Aces Inc. - Owns and operates thirteen A-4N and one TA-4J for use as trainer and aggressor aircraft.

 Draken International – owns and operates 7 former New Zealand A/TA-4Ks and 6 former Israeli A-4Ns.
 AeroGroup, a private American commercial company operating previously owned A-4 aircraft.
 A-4L, LLC - Owns seven and currently operates three A-4L (A4D-2N) Skyhawks based at KGYI North Texas Regional Airport/Perrin Field in Denison Texas.

Former operators

 Argentine Navy

 Royal Australian Navy – sold to RNZAF

 Indonesian Air Force (TNI-AU) – retired in 2003

 Israeli Air Force – retired from frontline duty in 2008, retired from training flights in December 2015.

 Kuwait Air Force – sold to Brazilian Navy

 Royal Malaysian Air Force – retired from service

 Royal New Zealand Air Force – retired in 2001

 Republic of Singapore Air Force retired from frontline service in 2005, and were transferred to France (Cazaux Air Base) as advanced jet trainers. The Skyhawks were retired from training flights from 2013 and replaced by the Alenia Aermacchi M-346. 1 RSAF A-4SU was donated to the Institute of Technical Education (ITE College Central) for vocational and training purposes.

 United States Navy
 United States Marine Corps

Aircraft on display

Given the number of air forces that operated the Skyhawk, a significant number have been preserved, either airworthy or on display. Preserved A-4s can be found in Argentina, Australia, Brazil, France, Israel, Japan, Netherlands, New Zealand, Singapore, United States, and others.

Specifications (A4D-5 / A-4E Skyhawk)

Notable appearances in media

See also

References

Notes

Citations

Bibliography

 "ASN Wikibase Occurrence # 153270." aviation-safety.net. Retrieved: 5 May 2013.

Further reading

External links

 Royal Australian Navy Fleet Air Arm Museum Skyhawk information
 A-4 Skyhawk page on Boeing.com
 RNZAF Museum Skyhawk page
 Serial number history of Australian A-4 Skyhawks, prefix N13
 A-4 at Combat Air Museum
 A-4 Skyhawk  from reference book American Combat Planes of the 20th Century by R. Wagner
 AeroWeb.org A-4 Skyhawks on display
 restoration to flight of a TA-4J
 "A-4D Skyhawk" a 1958 Flight article
 "Tantalizing Tinker Toy" (pilot report), Budd Davisson, March, 1975, Air Progress.

A-004 Skyhawk
1950s United States attack aircraft
Single-engined jet aircraft
Carrier-based aircraft
Cruciform tail aircraft
Low-wing aircraft
Aircraft first flown in 1954

Douglas A-4 Skyhawk


An Dactylorhiza ruppertii in uska species han Liliopsida nga syahan ginhulagway ni Carl Theodor Maximilian Schulze, ngan ginhatag han pagkayana nga asya nga ngaran ni Olga Borsos och Károly Rezsö Soó von Bere. An Dactylorhiza ruppertii in nahilalakip ha genus nga Dactylorhiza, ngan familia nga Orchidaceae. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Dactylorhiza

Dactylorhiza ruppertii


Amanda Kelly Gentil Guimarães Rosa (Caxias, 25 de dezembro de 1998) é engenheira e política brasileira filiada ao PP, eleita Deputada Federal pelo Maranhão.

Biografia
Amanda começou a sua carreira política sendo secretária de Governo de Caxias-MA, abandonando sua posição para ser candidata à deputada federal nas eleições de 2022, no qual foi eleita com uma votação de 108.699 votos.

Amanda filha do prefeito de Caxias: Fábio Gentil (PP).

Referências
Nascidos em 1998
Naturais de Caxias (Maranhão)
Deputados federais do Brasil pelo Maranhão
Membros do Progressistas
Membros do Progressistas do Maranhão
Mulheres do Maranhão na política

Amanda Gentil


, née Langlade le  à Orthez (Pyrénées-Atlantiques), est une haute fonctionnaire française.

Conseillère d'État, elle est présidente de la section du rapport et des études du Conseil d'État depuis , après avoir été directrice des Archives de France de 2001 à 2010 et présidente de la Cour administrative d'appel de Versailles de 2010 à 2017.

Biographie

Formation
Elle est élève de l'École normale supérieure de jeunes filles de Sèvres et diplômée de Institut d'études politiques de Paris. Elle est ensuite admise à l'École nationale d'administration en 1983 (promotion Solidarité) et intègre à sa sortie le Conseil d'État.

Carrière
Elle est la dernière directrice des Archives de France du  au , la direction étant ensuite requalifiée en service interministériel des archives de France.

Elle est ensuite présidente de la Cour administrative d'appel de Versailles du  au , date à laquelle elle est nommée présidente de la section du rapport et des études du Conseil d'État. Elle est également président du conseil d'administration de l'Institution nationale des Invalides depuis le .

En 2021, son nom est cité pour succéder à Bruno Lasserre à la présidence du Conseil d'État. C'est finalement Didier Tabuteau qui est nommé vice-président le 5 janvier 2022.

Décorations
  en 2022 (officière en 2010).
  en 2017.

Références

Liens externes

Naissance en août 1957
Naissance à Orthez
Femme politique française
Vice-président du Conseil d'État français
Commandeur de la Légion d'honneur promu en 2022
Commandeur de l'ordre national du Mérite
Élève de l'École normale supérieure de jeunes filles
Élève de l'Institut d'études politiques de Paris
Élève de l'École nationale d'administration (France)

Martine de Boisdeffre


Die von Kutzleben sind ein thüringisch-schwarzburgisch-hohnsteinisches, noch heute blühendes Uradelsgeschlecht mit gleichnamigem Stammsitz Kutzleben bei Weißensee.

Geschichte

Das Geschlecht erscheint erstmals in einer Erfurter Klosterurkunde aus dem Jahre 1120, in der Ritant de Cuczeleiben als Zeuge genannt ist. Nachfolgend wird die Familie urkundlich 1221 mit Rudolfus de Kozeleibin und 1263 mit Heinrich von Kutzleben erwähnt. In einer schwarzburger Urkunde werden als Zeugen 1338 die Ritter Heinrich von Kutzleben und Heinrich von Wiehe erwähnt. Besitzungen und Güter hatte die Familie in Schloss Grüningen, Nausitz, Westgreußen, Straußfurt und Freienbessingen (Betzingen, Freyen-Bessingen).

Wappen

Das Wappen zeigt in Silber eine schrägrechts liegende schwarze Säule. Auf dem Helm mit schwarz-silbernen Decken zwischen schwarzen (und silbernen) Hahnenfedern zwei von Silber und Schwarz geteilte Fähnlein, die eine spitze weiße Feder einschließen.

Mit den von Reiche, von Zenge(n) und von Wiehe stammes- und wappenverwandt.

Eine wappengeschmückte Grabplatte des Ritters Caspar von Kutzleben († 1606) findet sich in der Wand der Dorfkirche von Schloss Grüningen.

Literatur
 Wolfgang Brauner: Geschichte(n) von, aus über die von Kutzleben, Hrsg.: Gemeindeverwaltung Kutzleben. Kutzleben [1996]. Hier besonders für den obigen Text »Die Historie«, Teil 1, S. 2–68.
 Genealogisches Handbuch des Adels, Adelslexikon Band VII, Band 97 der Gesamtreihe, C. A. Starke Verlag, Limburg (Lahn) 1989,
 Georg v. Kutzleben: Die von Kutzleben, Coburg 1954
 Deutsche Adelsgenossenschaft (Hrsg.): Jahrbuch des Deutschen Adels, Band 2, 1898, Verlag von W. T. Bruer, S. 371 - Digitalisat

Einzelnachweise

Sächsisches Adelsgeschlecht
Thüringer Adelsgeschlecht
Ersterwähnung 1120

Kutzleben (Adelsgeschlecht)


يعبر مصطلح الهجين، وفقًا لعلم الأحياء، عن النسل الناتج عن جمع صفات كائنين من سلالات أو أصناف أو أنواع أو أجناس مختلفة عبر التكاثر الجنسي. لا يمثل الهجين دائمًا شكلًا وسطيًا بين الوالدين (كما هو الحال في الوراثة الخلطية)، ولكنه قد يحمل ميزة قوة الهجين؛ فقد ينمو أحيانًا ليصبح أكبر من الوالدين أو أطول منهما. يُقارَب مفهوم الهجين بشكل مختلف في مجال تنشئة الحيوانات والنبات، إذ ينصب الاهتمام فيه على النسب الفردية. في علم الوراثة، يتركز الاهتمام على أعداد الكروموسومات، بينما يهتم علم التصنيف بمدى قرابة نوعي الوالدين.

تعزل الأنواع تكاثريًا بحواجز قوية أمام التهجين، وهذه الحواجز تتضمن: اختلافات وراثية ومورفولوجية واختلاف أوقات الخصوبة وسلوكيات وإشارات التزاوج والرفض الفسيولوجي لخلايا الحيوانات المنوية أو الجنين النامي. تؤثر بعض هذه الحواجز على مرحلة ما قبل الإخصاب والبعض الآخر بعدها. توجد حواجز مماثلة في النباتات كاختلاف أوقات الإزهار وناقلات اللقاح وتثبيط نمو أنبوب اللقاح والعقم الجسمي والعقم الذكري السيتوبلازمي وبنية الكروموسومات. تنتج بعض الأنواع الحيوانية والعديد من الأنواع النباتية عن الانتواع التهجيني، بما في ذلك نباتات المحاصيل المهمة، كالقمح مثلًا الذي تضاعف فيه عدد الكروموسومات نتيجة هذا النوع من العمليات.

أدى التأثير البشري على البيئة إلى زيادة التهجين بين الأنواع المحلية. كذلك، أدى تكاثر الأنواع المستقدمة في جميع أنحاء العالم إلى زيادة التهجين. قد يهدد المزج الوراثي هذا العديد من الأنواع بالانقراض، وقد يؤذي التآكل الوراثي، الناجم عن الزراعة الأحادية للمحاصيل، الأحواض الجينية للعديد من النباتات التي ستتكاثر مستقبلًا. يكون تهجين الأنواع البرية والمستأنسة في كثير من الأحيان شكلًا من أشكال التهجين المتعمد، ويعتبر ذلك أمرًا شائعًا في البستنة التقليدية والزراعة الحديثة؛ فقد أنتجت العديد من أنواع الفواكه والزهور وأعشاب الحدائق والأشجار المفيدة تجاريًا باستخدام التهجين. تعتبر الأخدرية اللاماركية إحدى هذه الزهور، فقد كانت محط تركيز الأبحاث الوراثية المبكرة حول التطفرية والتعدد الصبغيٍ. يحدث ذلك الأمر بشكل أكثر تردد بين الماشية والحيوانات الأليفة، ومن الأنواع الهجينة بين الحيوانات المحلية البرية والمستأنسة: البيقر والكلب الذئبي. أدى التكاثر الانتقائي البشري للحيوانات والنباتات المستأنسة إلى تطور سلالات متميزة (يطلق على هذه النباتات عادةً اسم المستنبتات)، وفي بعض الأحيان، يطلق على محصول التزاوج بينهم (دون استخدام حيوانات برية) اسم الهجين على نحو غير دقيق.

عاشت أنواع بشرية هجينة في فترة ما قبل التاريخ. على سبيل المثال، يعتقد أن البشر البدائيين والحديثين تشريحيًا قد تزاوجوا منذ 40000 عام تقريبًا.

ظهرت المخلوقات الهجينة الأسطورية في الثقافة البشرية على هيئات متنوعة كالمينوتور مثلًا، أو مزيج بين الحيوانات والبشر والوحوش الأسطورية، كمخلوقات القنطور والسفنكس والنفليم، المذكورة ضمن نصوص الأبوكريفا المقدسة، والتي تشير إلى الأبناء الملعونين للملائكة الساقطة والنساء الجذابات.

علم الأحياء

التعبير عن السمات الوالدية

عندما يتكاثر نوعان مختلفان من الكائنات الحية مع بعضهما البعض، فإن الهجين الناتج عادةً ما يملك سمات وسطية (على سبيل المثال، إن كان أحد النباتين المهجنين يملك أزهار حمراء، والآخر أزهار بيضاء، ستملك الزهور الهجينة أزهار وردية). يجمع الهجين على نحو شائع أيضًا بين السمات المشاهدة بشكل منفصل لدى أحد الوالدين فقط (على سبيل المثال، قد يجمع الطائر الهجين بين الرأس الأصفر لأحد الوالدين مع البطن البرتقالي للآخر).

آليات الانعزال التكاثري
تأتي الكائنات الهجينة بين النوعية من تزاوج فردين من نوعين مختلفين، وعادةً ما يكونان من الجنس (مرتبة تصنيفية) نفسه. يظهر النسل الناتج بهذه الطريقة سمات وخصائص من الوالدين كليهما، ولكنه غالبًا ما يكون عقيم، ما يمنع التدفق الجيني بين الأنواع. غالبًا ما يعزى العقم إلى اختلاف عدد الكروموسومات بين النوعين. على سبيل المثال، تملك الحمير 62 كروموسوم، بنما تملك الخيول 64 كروموسوم، ولهذا تملك البغال أو النغال 63 كروموسوم. لا تنتج البغال والنغال، وغيرها من الكائنات الهجينة العقيمة، عادةً أي أمشاج قابلة للحياة، إذ يمنع اختلاف بنية الكروموسومات تنفيذ عمليتي الاقتران والفصل بشكل صحيح أثناء الانقسام، وبهذا الشكل تختل عملية الانقسام، ولا تتشكل حيوانات منوية وبويضات عيوشة. مع ذلك، سجلت بعض الحالات لإناث بغال خصبة، وفي هذه الحالات كان الأب حمارًا.

تحد مجموعة متنوعة من الآليات من نجاح التهجين، بما في ذلك الفرق الوراثي الكبير بين معظم الأنواع. تتضمن الحواجز التي تعيق ذلك ما يلي: الاختلافات المورفولوجية واختلاف أوقات الخصوبة وسلوكيات وإشارات التزاوج والرفض الفسيولوجي لخلايا الحيوانات المنوية أو الجنين النامي. تؤثر بعض هذه الحواجز على مرحلة ما قبل الإخصاب والبعض الآخر بعدها.

وفي النباتات، تتضمن الحواجز التي تحول دون نجاح التهجين ما يلي: اختلاف أوقات الإزهار وناقلات اللقاح وتثبيط نمو أنبوب اللقاح والعقم الجسمي والعقم الذكري السيتوبلازمي وبنية الكروموسومات.

الانتواع
نتجت بعض الأنواع الحيوانية عن عملية التهجين، وتعتبر ذبابة اللونسيرا إحدى الكائنات الهجينة طبيعيًا. يبدو الذئب الأحمر الأمريكي كهجين بين الذئب الرمادي والقيوط، ومع ذلك، كان وضعه التصنيفي موضع جدل. يعتبر الضفدع الأوروبي الصالح للأكل هجين شبه دائم بين ضفادع البركة وضفادع الماء الأخضر، وتعداده يتطلب استمرار وجود نوع واحد على الأقل من الوالدين. تشير رسومات الكهوف إلى أن البيسون الأوروبي هجين طبيعي بين حيوانات الأرخص والبيسون بريسكس.

يعتبر تهجين النبات أشيع من تهجين الحيوانات، فالعديد من أنواع المحاصيل هجينة، وخصوصًا القمح متعدد الصيغ الصبغية؛ إذ يحمل بعضه أربع مجموعات من الكروموسومات (رباعي الصيغة الصبغية) أو ست مجموعات (سداسي الصيغة الصبغية)، بينما تحمل أنواع القمح الأخرى (كمعظم الكائنات حقيقية النواة) مجموعتين (ثنائية الصيغة الصبغية). بهذا الشكل، يرجح أن تسبب عملية التهجين مضاعفة المجموعات الصبغية، وبالتالي تؤدي إلى عزل جيني مباشر.

قد يكون التهجين مهمًا في انتواع بعض المجموعات النباتية. ومع ذلك، قد يكون الانتواع الهجين متماثل الصيغة الصبغية (دون زيادة في عدد مجموعات الكروموسومات) نادرًا، فبحلول عام 1997، لم توصف بشكل كامل سوى 8 أمثلة طبيعية. تشير الدراسات التجريبية إلى أن التهجين يوفر طريقًا سريعًا للانتواع، وهو افتراض تؤكده الحقيقة التي تقول إن الجيل الأول من الأنواع الهجينة والأنواع الهجينة القديمة تملك جينومات متطابقة، ما يعني أنه بمجرد حدوث التهجين، يمكن أن يبقى الجينوم الهجين الجديد مستقرًا.

تعرف المناطق الهجينة بالمكان الذي يلتقي فيه النطاق الخاص بكائنين من نوعين مختلفين، وفيها يستمر إنتاج النسل الهجين دومًا وبأعداد كبيرة. تفيد هذه المناطق الهجينة باعتبارها نظم بيولوجية نموذجية لدراسة آليات الانتواع. مؤخرًا، أكد تحليل الحمض النووي الريبوزي منقوص الأكسجين، لدب مصطاد في الأقاليم الشمالية الغربية، وجود هجائن طبيعية وخصبة من الدببة القطبية الرمادية.

معرض صور

مراجع

تسميات علم النبات
تهجين
دواجن
عرق (أحياء)
علم الأحياء التطوري
متعضيات هجينة
مصطلحات علم الأحياء
وراثيات سكانية

تهجين (أحياء)


Sneakers (US) or trainers (UK), also known by a wide variety of other names, are shoes primarily designed for sports or other forms of physical exercise but which are also widely used for everyday casual wear.

Since their popularization by companies such as Converse, Nike and Spalding in the mid 20th century, they have become attire, with variety growing in many global markets exponentially. Like other parts of the global clothing industry, shoe manufacturing is heavily concentrated in Asia with nine in ten shoes produced there.

Contemporary sneakers are largely made from synthetic materials, and the materials and manufacturing process produce, on average, about  of CO2 emissions. Some companies are trying to substitute more sustainable materials in their manufacture. About 90% of shoes end up in landfills at end of life.

Names

Sneakers have gone by a variety of names, depending on geography and changing over the decades. The broader category inclusive of sneakers is athletic shoes. The term 'athletic shoes' is typically used for shoes utilized for jogging or road running and indoor sports such as basketball, but tends to exclude shoes for sports played on grass such as association football and rugby football, which are generally known in North America as "cleats" and in British English as "boots" or "studs".

The word "sneaker" is often attributed to American Henry Nelson McKinney, who was an advertising agent for N. W. Ayer & Son. In 1917, he used the term because the rubber sole made the shoe's wearer stealthy. The word was already in use at least as early as 1887, when the Boston Journal made reference to "sneakers" as "the name boys give to tennis shoes." The name "sneakers" originally referred to how quiet the rubber soles were on the ground, in contrast to noisy standard hard leather sole dress shoes. Someone wearing sneakers could "sneak up", while someone wearing standards could not. Earlier, the name "sneaks" had been used by prison inmates to refer to warders (guards) because of the rubber-soled shoes they wore. The term "sneakers" is most commonly used in Northeastern United States, Central and South Florida, Australia, New Zealand, and parts of Canada. However, in Australian, Canadian, and Scottish English, running shoes and runners are synonymous terms used to refer to sneakers, with the latter term also used in Hiberno-English. Tennis shoes and kicks are other terms used in Australian and North American English.

The British English equivalent of sneaker in its modern form is divided into two separate types: predominantly outdoor and fashionable trainers, training shoes or quality 'basketball shoes' and in contrast cheap rubber-soled, low cut and canvas-topped plimsolls, daps, or flats. In Geordie English, sneakers may also be called sandshoes, gym boots, or joggers.

Several terms for sneakers exist in South Africa, including gym shoes, sports shoes and takkies. Other names for sneakers includes rubber shoes in Philippine English, track shoes in Singapore English, canvas shoes in Nigerian English, camboo ("camp boot") in Ghana English, and sportex in Greece.

History

These shoes acquired the nickname 'plimsoll' in the 1870s, derived according to Nicholette Jones' book The Plimsoll Sensation, from the colored horizontal band joining the upper to the sole, which resembled the Plimsoll line on a ship's hull. Alternatively, just like the Plimsoll line on a ship, if water got above the line of the rubber sole, the wearer would get wet.

Plimsolls were widely worn by vacationers and also began to be worn by sportsmen on the tennis and croquet courts for their comfort. Special soles with engraved patterns to increase the surface grip of the shoe were developed, and these were ordered in bulk for the use of the British Army. Athletic shoes were increasingly used for leisure and outdoor activities at the turn of the 20th century - plimsolls were even found with the ill-fated Scott Antarctic expedition of 1911. Plimsolls were commonly worn by pupils in schools' physical education lessons in the UK from the 1950s until the early 1970s.

British company J.W. Foster and Sons designed and produced the first shoes designed for running in 1895; the shoes were spiked to allow for greater traction and speed. The company sold its high-quality handmade running shoes to athletes around the world, eventually receiving a contract for the manufacture of running shoes for the British team in the 1924 Summer Olympics. Harold Abrahams and Eric Liddell won the 100 m and 400 m events, kitted out with Foster's running gear.

This style of footwear also became prominent in America at the turn of the 20th century, where they were called 'sneakers'. In 1892, the U.S. Rubber Company introduced the first rubber-soled shoes in the country, sparking a surge in demand and production. The first basketball shoes were designed by Spalding as early as 1907. The market for sneakers grew after World War I, when sports and athletics increasingly became a way to demonstrate moral fiber and patriotism. The U.S. market for sneakers grew steadily as young boys lined up to buy Converse All Stars sneakers endorsed by basketball player Chuck Taylor.

During the interwar period, athletic shoes began to be marketed for different sports, and differentiated designs were made available for men. Athletic shoes were used by competing athletes at the Olympics, helping to popularise them among the general public. In 1936, a French brand, Spring Court, marketed the first canvas tennis shoe featuring signature eight ventilation channels on a vulcanised natural rubber sole.

Adolf "Adi" Dassler began producing his own sports shoes in his mother's wash kitchen in Herzogenaurach, Bavaria, after his return from World War I, and went on to establish one of the leading athletic shoe manufacturers, Adidas. He also successfully marketed his shoes to athletes at the 1936 Summer Olympics, which helped cement his good reputation. Business boomed and the Dasslers were selling 200,000 pairs of shoes each year before World War II.

During the 1950s, leisure opportunities greatly expanded, and children and adolescents began to wear sneakers as school dress codes relaxed. Sneaker sales rose so high, they began to adversely affect the sales of conventional leather shoes, leading to a fierce advertising war for market share in the late '50s. In the 1970s, jogging for exercise became increasingly popular, and trainers designed specifically for comfort while jogging sold well. Companies also started to target some of their products at the casual fashion market. Soon, shoes were available for football, jogging, basketball, running, etc. Many sports had their relevant shoe, made possible by podiatrist development of athletic shoe technology.

During the 1990s, shoe companies perfected their fashion and marketing skills. Sports endorsements with famous athletes grew larger, and marketing budgets went through the roof. Sneakers became a fashion statement and were marketed as a definition of identity and personality rather than simply athletic aids.

Also during the 1990s, various vendors began producing "walking shoes" for adults using the construction technology of sneakers but visually resembling traditional leather shoes. The combination of a traditional look with increased comfort rapidly achieved wide popularity and by 2010 was displacing sales of leather shoes for adults in a parallel with the post-1950 success of sneakers among children. The shift was especially noticeable in combination with business-casual clothing.

From 1970 (five models), to 1998 (285 models), to 2012 (3,371), the number of sport shoe models in the U.S. has grown exponentially.

Use in sports

Sneakers intended for sports have a flexible sole, appropriate tread for the function, and ability to absorb impact.  As the industry and designs have expanded, the term "athletic shoes" is based more on the design of the bottom of the shoe than the aesthetics of the top of the shoe. Today's designs include sandals, Mary Janes, and even elevated styles suitable for running, dancing, and jumping.

The shoes themselves are made of flexible compounds, typically featuring a sole made of dense rubber. While the original design was basic, manufacturers have since tailored athletic shoes for their specific purposes. An example of this is the spiked shoe developed for track running. Some of these shoes are made up to unusually large sizes for athletes with large feet.

Sneakers intended for running come in a range of shapes suited to different purposes. Generally, they are divided by running style: the majority are for heel-toe joggers/runners which are further subdivided into 'neutral', 'overpronation' and 'underpronation'. However, most evidence-based comparisons show no reduction in lower-limb running injuries from prescribing different types of shoe for different foot types. The shoes are constructed with a complex structure of "rubber" with plastic/metal stiffeners to restrict foot movement. More advanced runners tend to wear flatter and flexible shoes, which allow them to run more quickly with greater comfort.

According to the NPD Group, one in four pairs of running shoes that were sold in the United States in 2016 were bought from an online retailer.

Notable brands
, brands with global popularity include:

Culture

Sneakers have been an important part of hip hop (primarily Pumas, Nike, and Adidas) and rock 'n roll (Converse, Vans) cultures since the 1970s. Hip hop artists sign million dollar deals with major brands such as Nike, Adidas, or Puma to promote their shoes. Sneaker collectors, called "sneakerheads", regard sneakers as fashionable items. Sneaker companies encourage this trend by producing rare sneakers in limited numbers, often at very high retail prices. Artistically-modified sneakers can sell for upwards of $1000 at exclusive establishments like Saks Fifth Avenue. In 2005, a documentary, Just for Kicks, about the sneaker phenomenon and history was released.

See also
 Biodegradable athletic footwear
 Comparison of orthotics
 List of shoe styles
 Shoe tossing

References

External links

20th-century fashion
21st-century fashion
Athletic shoes
Footwear
History of clothing (Western fashion)
Shoes

pt:Tênis (vestuário)

Sneakers


Nikíti, en , est un village côtier du dème de Sithonie, district régional de Chalcidique, en Macédoine-Centrale, Grèce.

Selon le recensement de 2011, la population du village s'élève à .

Notes et références

Voir aussi

Liens externes

Village en Macédoine-Centrale

Nikíti


Sonido Gallo Negro est un groupe de cumbia mexicain, originaire de Mexico. Leur style musical est principalement basé sur la cumbia péruvienne et l'inclusion de sons et d'instruments de musique des années 1970 ainsi que l'esthétique du psychédélisme.

Biographie
Sonido Gallo Negro a été formé en 2010 par des membres de groupes principalement surf tels que Espectroplasma, Twin Tones et Telekrimen, ainsi que par l'artiste graphique Dr Alderete qui, en plus de jouer du thérémine, réalise des œuvres d'art en direct. Certains des membres de Sonido Gallo Negro sont des habitants de San Juan de Aragón, un quartier de l'est de Mexico. Ses membres se retrouvent dans les concerts organisés à l'Alicia Cultural Multiforo.

Discographie

Albums studio
 2011 :
 2013 :
 2016 :
 2018 :
 2019 :

EP
 2018 : , sur

Notes et références

Liens externes

Groupe musical mexicain
Groupe de cumbia
Groupe musical formé en 2001

Sonido Gallo Negro


Ljestvice i sastavi liga šestog stupnja hrvatskog nogometnog prvenstva u sezoni 2020./21.
Kao posljedica pandemije COVID-19 u svijetu i Hrvatskoj odigravanje natjecanja je bilo otežano, te je dolazilo i do prekida pojedinih liga.

2. ŽNL Bjelovarsko-bilogorska

 Izvori:
 rsssf.com
 nsbbz.hr, "Nogomet"
 nsbbz.hr, "Nogomet" br. 23/21

2. ŽNL Brodsko-posavska

Skupina A
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: right"
!mj. !!klub !!ut. !!pob. !!ner. !!por. !!gol+ !!gol- !!bod !!bod-
|- bgcolor="gold"
|1. ||align="left"|Gundinci ||15 ||13 ||1 ||1 ||88 ||7 ||40 ||
|-
|2. ||align="left"|Raketa Beravci ||15 ||12 ||1 ||2 ||48 ||18 ||36 || -1
|-
|3. ||align="left"|Sapci ||15 ||7 ||2 ||6 ||34 ||23 ||23 ||
|-
|4. ||align="left"|Sava Svilaj ||15 ||7 ||1 ||7 ||36 ||28 ||22 ||
|-
|5. ||align="left"|Mladost Čajkovci ||15 ||7 ||1 ||7 ||33 ||32 ||22 ||
|-
|6. ||align="left"|Šokadija Sredanci ||15 ||6 ||2 ||7 ||25 ||56 ||20 ||
|-
|7. ||align="left"|Mladost Divoševci ||15 ||5 ||0 ||10 ||29 ||42 ||15 ||
|-
|8. ||align="left"|Mladost Bicko Selo ||8 ||1 ||2 ||5 ||6 ||25 ||5 ||
|-
|9. ||align="left"|Posavac Kupina ||15 ||1 ||0 ||14 ||7 ||75 ||3 ||
|-
| ||align="left"|Omladinac Novi Grad ||colspan="8" align="center"|<small> odustali nakon 2. kola
|-
!colspan="10"|
|-
|colspan="10" align="left"|<small> "Mladost" – Bicko Selo odustali nakon 9. kola, te su dotadašnji rezultati priznati u poretku
|}
 Izvori:
 rsssf.com
 sofascore.com
 tipsscore.com

 Skupina B

 Izvori:
 rsssf.com

 Skupina C

 Izvori:
 rsssf.com

 Skupina D

 Izvori:
 rsssf.com

 2. ŽNL Istarska

 Izvori:
 rsssf.com
 nszi.hr, "Bilten"
 nszi.hr, "Bilten" br. 64
 istrasport.eu, ljestvica
 istrasport.eu, ljestvica, wayback
 istrasport.eu, ljestvica
 sofascore.com

 2. ŽNL Karlovačka

 Izvori:
 rsssf.com
 nskz.hr, 2. ŽNL Seniori
 nskz.hr, Službene vijesti, 2020.
 nskz.hr, Službene vijesti, 2021.
 Službene vijesti, br. 20/2021
 sofascore.com

 2. ŽNL Koprivničko-križevačka

 Izvori:
 rsssf.com
 ns-kckz.hr, 2. ŽNL
 ns-kckz.hr, 2. ŽNL, wayback
  ns-kckz.hr, Službeno glasilo NS KKŽ
 sofascore.com

 2. ŽNL Krapinsko-zagorska

 Izvori:
 rsssf.com
 sofascore.com

 2. ŽNL Međimurska

 Skupina A

 Izvori:
 rsssf.com
 mns.hr, Goolovi
 mns.hr, "Gool", br. 1685

 Skupina B

 Izvori:
 rsssf.com
 mns.hr, Goolovi
 mns.hr, "Gool", br. 1685

 2. ŽNL Osječko-baranjska

 NS Beli Manastir

 Izvori:
 rsssf.com

 NS Đakovo

 Izvori:
 rsssf.com
 sofascore.com

 NS Našice

 Izvori:
 rsssf.com

 NS Osijek

 Izvori:
 rsssf.com
 nsosijek.hr
 sofascore.com

 NS Valpovo / Donji Miholjac

 Izvori:
 rsssf.com

 2. ŽNL Požeško-slavonska

 Izvori:
 rsssf.com

 2. ŽNL Primorsko-goranska

 Izvori:
 rsssf.com
 nspgz.hr, 2. ŽNL
 nspgz.hr, 1. ŽNL, "Glasilo", br. 25
 sofascore.com

 2. ŽNL Varaždinska

 Izvori:
 rsssf.com
 zns-varazdin.hr, 2. ŽNL
 zns-varazdin.hr, 2. ŽNL, wayback
 zns-varazdin.hr, "Nogomet"
 zns-varazdin.hr, "Nogomet", br. 1368
 sofascore.com

 2. ŽNL Virovitičko-podravska

 Istok

 Izvori:
 rsssf.com
 znsvpz.hr, 2. ŽNL Istok, 2020./21.
 znsvpz.hr, "Bilteni" II. ŽNL Istok
 znsvpz.hr, znsvpz.hr, II. ŽNL Istok, 14. kolo
 sofascore.com

 Zapad

 Izvori:
 rsssf.com
 znsvpz.hr, 2. ŽNL Zapad, 2020./21.
 znsvpz.hr, "Bilteni" II. ŽNL Zapad
 znsvpz.hr, znsvpz.hr, II. ŽNL Zapad, 22. kolo
 2. ŽNL Vukovarsko-srijemska

 NS Vinkovci

 Izvori:
 rsssf.com
 znsvs.hr
 sofascore.com
 tipsscore.com

 NS Vukovar

 Izvori:
 rsssf.com
 znsvs.hr
 sofascore.com
 tipsscore.com
 sportalo.hr

 NS Županja

 Izvori:
 rsssf.com
 znsvs.hr
 sofascore.com
 tipsscore.com

 Splitsko-dalmatinska županija

 NL otoka Hvara

Također i pod nazivom 3. županijska nogometna liga – Hvarska liga, Hvarska liga – HEP, HEP Liga otoka Hvara''.

Povezani članci
 1. HNL 2020./21.
 2. HNL 2020./21.
 3. HNL 2020./21.
 4. rang HNL-a 2020./21.
 5. rang HNL-a 2020./21.
 7. rang HNL-a 2020./21.
 Hrvatski nogometni kup 2020./21.

Vanjske poveznice

Izvori

  rsssf.com, Croatia 2020/21 – Sixth Level

2020-21
 6

6. rang HNL-a 2020./21.


You-You est une opérette en 3 actes de Jacques Ardot et Jacques Sirrah.

Fiche technique

 Texte (livret) : Jacques Ardot et Jacques Sirrah
 Musique : Victor Alix
 Chef d'orchestre : Florent d'Asse (Théâtre de l'Apollo), Labusquière (Théâtre des Ternes)
 Décors : Chambouleron et Mignard (Théâtre des Ternes)

Distribution

À l'Apollo
 Georges Morton : Sin-Sin-Gum
 Paul Faivre : Fauzi
 Roland Lenoir : Gontran
 A. Deriane : Yo-Ki-Ki
 Simone Judic : You-You
 Mary Richard : Tige de Bambou
 Yama : Kokoro et Pomme d'Amour
 Hélène Barty : Plume d'Alouette
 Robert Burnier : Jean

Au Théâtre des Ternes
 Blanche Velna
 Daisy Montho
 Etiennette
 Simona
 Christiane Dalléry
 Donnio
 Berthier
 Rayval
 Forget
 Raclès

Musique
 Pour l'amour de You-You
 Le Shimmy du chien

Représentations
Représentations à l'Apollo en 1922.

Repris au Théâtre des Ternes à partir de juillet 1922.

Notes et références

Opérette

You-You (opérette)


Kamrusepa veya Katahziwuri (ayrıca Ana Kamrusepa), Hitit mitolojisinde şifa ve tıp tanrıçasıdır. Ay-tanrı'nın cennetten düşüşüne tanık olmuş ve bunu bildirmiştir. Aruna'nın annesidir. Bir tablette ateş büyüsü kullanarak çeşitli hastalıkları nasıl giderdiği anlatılmaktadır. Hitit'in yanı sıra Hurrilerce de inanılırdı.

Kaynakça
 Encyclopedia Mythica
  -

Konuyla ilgili yayınlar
 Archi, Alfonso. "Kamrusepa and the Sheep of the Sun-God". Orientalia 62/4 (1993) 404-409.
 Beckman, Gary. "Religion of Hittites". The Biblical Archaeologist, Vol. 52, No. 2/3, Reflections of a Late Bronze Age Empire: The Hittites. (Jun. - Sep., 1989).

Hitit mitolojisi
Sağlık tanrıçaları

Kamrusepa


Aderus subcrassicornis é uma espécie de inseto besouro da família Aderidae. Foi descrita cientificamente por Maurice Pic em 1912.

Referências

subcrassicornis
Insetos descritos em 1912
Espécies descritas por Maurice Pic

Aderus subcrassicornis


Kenya Barris (Inglewood, 9 de agosto de 1973) é um roteirista, produtor, realizador e ator americano. Ele é mais conhecido por ser o criador da sitcom black-ish da ABC (2014–2022).

Biografia
Barris nasceu em Inglewood, Califórnia, o segundo de cinco filhos. Ele recebeu seu nome após a visita de seu pai a Quênia. Os pais de Barris se divorciaram quando ele tinha cinco anos. Ele é um ex-aluno da Universidade de Atlanta.

Ligações externas

Naturais de Inglewood (Califórnia)
Cineastas dos Estados Unidos
Produtores de cinema dos Estados Unidos
Produtores de televisão dos Estados Unidos
Roteiristas de televisão dos Estados Unidos

Kenya Barris


Las células de Ito, también llamadas células estrelladas hepáticas, o adipocitos hepáticos, se encuentran en el espacio perisinusoidal de Disse. Tienen en su citoplasma gotas de vitamina A, por lo cual se le ha añadido la función de células de almacenamiento de retinoides (vitamina A); otra función que poseen estas células es la de producción de matriz extracelular y colágeno de tipo III tras lesiones hepáticas.

Reciben su nombre por Toshio Ito (1904-1991), doctor japonés que la descubrió en 1956.

Activación en la fibrosis
Parece que cuando el hígado sufre una lesión, estas células se activan y dejan de almacenar los retinoides. Adquieren entonces propiedades contráctiles, producen inhibidores tisulares de metaloproteinasas, proliferan y producen las proteínas de la matriz extracelular. Finalmente, el aumento en la población de este tipo celular acaba produciendo cicatrices en el hígado.

Referencias

Hígado

Célula de Ito


Die Schweizer Badmintonmeisterschaft 2009 fand vom 29. Januar bis zum 1. Februar 2009 in Genf statt.

Medaillengewinner

Weblinks
http://www.tournamentsoftware.com/sport/tournament.aspx?id=856BF1D4-6E00-4A26-97EC-C3422D13C61B

2009
Badminton 2009
Badmintonwettbewerb in Genf

Schweizer Badmintonmeisterschaft 2009


Lituya Bay (; Tlingit: Ltu.aa, meaning 'lake within the point') is a fjord located on the coast of the south-east part of the U.S. state of Alaska. It is  long and  wide at its widest point. The bay was noted in 1786 by Jean-François de Lapérouse, who named it Port des Français. Twenty-one of his men perished in the tidal current in the bay.

Description

The smaller Cascade and Crillon glaciers and the larger Lituya Glacier all spill into Lituya Bay, which is a part of Glacier Bay National Park and Preserve. Cenotaph Island is located roughly in the middle of the bay. The entrance of the bay is approximately  wide, with a narrow navigable channel.

The bay is known for its tremendous size tides, which have a range of approximately . Tidal currents in the entrance reach . The entrance is considered dangerous to navigation, especially when the tidal currents are running, but the interior of the bay provides good protection to anchored ships.

Lituya Bay is also famous for four recorded tsunamis, in 1854, 1899, 1936, and 1958.

The bay is mentioned in Jack London's short story, "The Unexpected". (In that story, the name of the bay is spelled "Latuya".)

1958 megatsunami

The same topography that leads to the heavy tidal currents also created the tsunami with the highest runup against a hillside in recorded history. On the night of July 9, 1958, an earthquake caused a landslide in the Gilbert Inlet at the head of the bay, generating a massive megatsunami which had sufficient energy to run up the hill slope just opposite of the landslide to a height measuring , taller than the Empire State Building. There were three fishing boats anchored near the entrance of Lituya Bay on the day the giant wave occurred. One boat (the Sunmore) was sunk by the wave and debris as it attempted to exit the bay, and the two people on board (a married couple, the Wagners) were killed. The second boat (the Badger) was carried across the la Chasseuse, spit into the ocean, hit by a floating log and sunk but not before its occupants (a married couple, the Swansons) in spite of injuries, managed to board a skiff ultimately to be rescued. The third boat, the Edrie, crewed by father and son the Ulriches, was anchored at the opposite side of the bay entrance. The father, Howard, turned the boat to face the wave, which picked her up, snapped her anchor chain, carried her above the trees but then washed her back into the bay with no major damage. William A. Swanson and Howard G. Ulrich provided accounts of what they observed. Based on Swanson's description of the length of time it took the wave to reach his boat after overtopping Cenotaph Island near the bay's entrance, the wave may have been traveling . When it reached the open sea, however, it dissipated quickly. This incident was the first direct evidence and eyewitness report of the existence of megatsunamis.

See also

Lituya Mountain

References
Guinness World Records Ltd. (2005). Guinness World Records 2006: 84.
Mega-tsunami: Wave of Destruction. Horizon. BBC Two, 12 October 2000

External links
E. W. Eickelberg, Lituya Bay, Gulf of Alaska. U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey FIELD ENGINEERS BULLETIN no. 10, December 1936
World's Biggest Tsunami: The largest recorded tsunami with a wave  tall in Lituya Bay, Alaska
Photos of damage from the 1958 tsunami

 Eyewitness reports of the tsunami
 Video interview with survivors Howard and Sonny Ulrich (boat "Edrie"). "Mega-tsunami: Wave of Destruction". Air Date: BBC2, October 12, 2000.
 Full BBC Program Transcript: "Mega-tsunami: Wave of Destruction". Air Date: BBC2, October 12, 2000. (Video interview with survivors Howard and Sonny Ulrich can be found online.)
History of Lituya Bay, Tsunami and Laperouse (in French)
Giant Waves in Lituya Bay, Alaska; USGS PP 354-C

Bays of Alaska
Bays of Hoonah–Angoon Census Area, Alaska

Lituya Bay


Baloane de curcubeu este un film românesc din 1983 regizat de Iosif Demian. Rolurile principale au fost interpretate de actorii Dorel Vișan, Magda Catone și Alexandru Széllyes.

Rezumat

Distribuție
Distribuția filmului este alcătuită din:

 Dorel Vișan — Ene Lelea, președintele C.A.P.-ului din comuna Doi Brazi
 Magda Catone — Gia, tânăra soție a lui Ene Lelea, apoi amanta lui Bigu
 Sándor Széllyes — ing. Cristea, tatăl Nuțicăi, revizorul C.A.P.-ului
 Mitică Iancu — Bigu Alexandru Zanfirescu, gestionarul magazinului sătesc și trompetist amator, condamnat anterior la 1 an închisoare pentru braconaj
 László Botka — Papa Leon, țăran bătrân și cam scrântit de origine grecească
 Anton Aftenie — Vili Anghel Paradis, scamator amator, fost coleg de pușcărie cu Bigu, țăranul care și-a părăsit concubina cu trei copii
 Ágnes Kakassy — Sorica, zootehnistă, femeia care-l iubește pe Ene Lelea
 Nicolae Budescu — Gogodita, președintele cooperativei de consum
 Marcela Andrei — Nuțica, telefonista comunei
 George Negoescu — Șerban Tătaru, socrul lui Ene Lelea, casierul C.A.P.-ului
 Nae Lăzărescu — Victor, țăran localnic, prietenul lui Ene Lelea
 Catrinel Paraschivescu — Wanda Eforie, iubita lui Victor
 Romica Puceanu — Romica, femeia care a venit la ghicit
 Teodor Sugár — reporterul care-l caută pe Ene Lelea (menționat Theodor Sugar)
 Petre Gheorghiu Goe — Dumitru Tarachiu, cârciumarul satului
 Anica Preda
 Elisabeta Pop
 Elena Cernat
 Romeo Profit
 Ion Bologa
 Olga Adamescu
 Florin Drăghici
 Anca Lăzărescu
 Gheorghe Pomojnicu Leandru
 Horia Baciu
 Constantin Ciutac
 Virgil Călugăru

Primire
Filmul a fost vizionat de 986.608 spectatori de spectatori în cinematografele din România, după cum atestă o situație a numărului de spectatori înregistrat de filmele românești de la data premierei și până la data de 31 decembrie 2014 alcătuită de Centrul Național al Cinematografiei.

Note

Legături externe

Vezi și
 1983 în film

Filme din 1983
Filme regizate de Iosif Demian
Filme românești
Filme în limba română
Filme de comedie românești

Baloane de curcubeu