Mormon fundamentalism (also called fundamentalist Mormonism) is a belief in the validity of selected fundamental aspects of Mormonism as taught and practiced in the nineteenth century, particularly during the administrations of Joseph Smith, Brigham Young, and John Taylor, the first three presidents of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints. Mormon fundamentalists seek to uphold tenets and practices no longer held by mainstream Mormons. The principle most often associated with Mormon fundamentalism is plural marriage, a form of polygyny first taught in the Latter Day Saint movement by the movement's founder, Smith. A second and closely associated principle is that of the United Order, a form of egalitarian communalism.  Mormon fundamentalists believe that these and other principles were wrongly abandoned or changed by the LDS Church in its efforts to become reconciled with mainstream American society. Today, the LDS Church excommunicates any of its members who practice plural marriage or who otherwise closely associate themselves with Mormon fundamentalist practices.

There is no single authority accepted by all Mormon fundamentalists; viewpoints and practices of individual groups vary. Fundamentalists have formed numerous small sects, often within cohesive and isolated communities throughout the Mormon Corridor in the Western United States, Western Canada, and northern Mexico. At times, sources have claimed there are as many as 60,000 Mormon fundamentalists in the United States, with fewer than half of them living in polygamous households. However, others have suggested that there may be as few as 20,000 Mormon fundamentalists with only 8,000 to 15,000 practicing polygamy. Independent Mormon fundamentalist Anne Wilde investigated demographics and, in 2005, produced estimates that fell between the prior two sources, indicating there to be 35–40,000 fundamentalists at the time.

Founders of mutually rival Mormon fundamentalist denominations include Lorin C. Woolley, John Y. Barlow, Joseph W. Musser, Leroy S. Johnson, Rulon C. Allred, Elden Kingston, and Joel LeBaron. The largest Mormon fundamentalist groups are the Fundamentalist Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints (FLDS Church) and the Apostolic United Brethren (AUB).

History
The LDS Church began prohibiting the contracting of plural marriages within the United States in 1890 after a decree by church president Wilford Woodruff. However, the practice continued underground in the U.S. and openly in Mormon colonies in northern Mexico and southern Alberta. According to some sources, many polygamous men in the United States continued to live with their plural wives with the approval of church presidents Woodruff, Lorenzo Snow, and Joseph F. Smith.

Some fundamentalists have argued that the 1890 Manifesto was not a real revelation of the kind given by God to Joseph Smith, Brigham Young, John Taylor, and others, but that it was rather a politically expedient document intended by Woodruff to be a temporary measure until Utah Territory gained statehood. They make their argument based on textual evidence and the fact that the "Manifesto" is not worded in accordance with similar revelations in the LDS scriptures. This argument further holds that after joining the Union, Utah would have had the authority to enact its own laws with respect to marriage, rather than being bound by U.S. territorial laws that prohibited polygamy. Before statehood could be granted in 1896, however, the federal government required Utah to include a provision in its state constitution stating that "polygamous or plural marriages are forever prohibited."  Fundamentalists (and many scholars of Mormon history) also believe that a primary impetus for the 1890 Manifesto was the Edmunds–Tucker Act of 1887, a stringent federal law that legally dissolved the LDS Church, disenfranchised women (who had been given the vote in Utah in 1870), and required voters to take an anti-polygamy oath before being permitted to vote in an election.

With the selection of Latter-day Saint Reed Smoot to be one of Utah's representatives to the U.S. Senate in 1903, national attention was again focused on the continuation of plural marriage in Utah, which culminated in the Reed Smoot hearings. In 1904, church president Joseph F. Smith issued a "Second Manifesto", after which time it became LDS Church policy to excommunicate those church members who entered into or solemnized new polygamous marriages. The seriousness with which this new measure was taken is evinced in the fact that apostle John W. Taylor, son of the church's third president, was excommunicated in 1911 for his continued opposition to the Manifesto.

Today, the LDS Church continues to excommunicate members who advocate early Mormon doctrines such as plural marriage, enter into or solemnize plural marriages (whether in the United States or elsewhere), or actively support Mormon fundamentalist or dissident groups. Although some LDS Church members continue to believe in the doctrine of plural marriage without practicing it, Joseph Smith's teachings on plural marriage remain part of the scriptural canon of the LDS Church. The LDS Church prevents any of its members who sympathize with Mormon fundamentalist teachings from entering its temples.

During the 1920s, a church dissenter named Lorin C. Woolley claimed a separate line of priesthood authority from the LDS Church's hierarchy, effectively setting in motion the development of Mormon fundamentalism. Most of the Mormon polygamous groups can trace their roots to Woolley's legacy.

For the most part, the Utah state government has left the Mormon fundamentalists to themselves, unless their practices violate laws other than those prohibiting bigamy. For example, there have been recent prosecutions of men who belong to fundamentalist groups for marrying underage girls. In one highly publicized case, a man and one of his polygamist wives lost custody of all but one of their children until the wife separated herself from her husband. The largest government effort to crack down on the practices of fundamentalist Mormons was carried out in 1953 in what is today Colorado City, Arizona, which became known as the Short Creek Raid.

Other fundamental doctrines of the Latter Day Saint movement besides polygamy, notably the United Order (communalism), while equally important in the practices of some fundamentalist sects, have not come under the same scrutiny or approbation as has plural marriage, and the mainline LDS Church has mostly ignored this aspect of fundamentalism; in any case, no revelation or statement condemning it has ever been issued.

Distinctive doctrines and practices
Most Mormon fundamentalists embrace the term Fundamentalist (usually capitalized). Mormon fundamentalists share certain commonalities with other fundamentalist movements, but also possess some clear distinctions of their own.

Fundamentalists within the Mormon tradition do see religious authority as inerrant and unchanging, but tend to locate this authority within their view of "Priesthood", which is conceived of as more of a charismatic authority and often physical lineage than an external organization. In this view, ordination lineage becomes all-important and an external organization such as a church may "lose" its theological authority while the "priesthood" (conceived in this abstract and individualistic sense) may continue via an alternative lineage. Mormon fundamentalists frequently assert that priesthood is prior to the Church.

Unlike more prevalent Biblical (non-Mormon) fundamentalist groups, who generally base their authority on an unchanging and closed canon of scripture, Mormon fundamentalists generally hold to a concept of "continuing revelation" or "progressive revelation," in which the canon of scripture may be continually augmented through the sermons and teachings of prophets whose preaching guides the community.

Another of the most basic beliefs of Mormon fundamentalist groups is that of plural marriage, which many of them view as essential for obtaining the highest degree of exaltation in the celestial kingdom. Mormon fundamentalists dislike the term "polygamy" and view "polygyny" as a term used only by outsiders. They also refer to plural marriage generically as "the Principle", "celestial marriage", "the New and Everlasting Covenant", or "the Priesthood Work."

The practice of plural marriage usually differs little from the manner in which it was practiced in the nineteenth century. However, in some fundamentalist sects it is considered acceptable for an older man to marry underage girls as soon as they attain puberty. This practice, which is illegal in most states, apart from polygamy itself, has generated public controversy. Examples include the Tom Green case, and the case in which a man from the Kingston clan married his 15-year-old cousin, who was also his aunt. Other sects, however, do not practice and may in fact vehemently denounce underage or forced marriages and incest (for example, the Apostolic United Brethren.)

In addition to plural marriage, Mormon fundamentalist beliefs often include the following principles:
 the law of consecration also known as the United Order
 the Adam–God teachings taught by Brigham Young and other early leaders of the LDS Church
 the principle of blood atonement
 the exclusion of black men from the priesthood
 the belief that missionaries should teach "without purse or scrip"

Mormon fundamentalists believe both that these principles were accepted by the LDS Church at one time, and that the LDS Church wrongly abandoned or changed them, in large part due to the desire of its leadership and members to assimilate into mainstream American society and avoid the persecutions and conflict that had characterized the church throughout its early years.

Terminology and relationship with the LDS Church
The term "Mormon fundamentalist" appears to have been coined in the 1940s by LDS Church apostle Mark E. Petersen to refer to groups who had left the LDS Church. However, Mormon fundamentalists do not universally embrace this usage and many simply consider themselves to be "Mormon". Today, the LDS Church considers the designation "Mormon" to apply only to its own members and not to members of other sects of the Latter Day Saint movement. One LDS leader went as far as claiming that there is no such thing as a "Mormon fundamentalist", and that using the two terms together is a "contradiction." The LDS Church suggests that the correct term to describe Mormon fundamentalist groups is "polygamist communities".

In rebuttal to this nomenclature argument, certain Mormon fundamentalists have argued that they themselves are in fact more correctly designated as Mormons in so far as they follow what they consider to be the true and original Mormon teachings as handed down from Joseph Smith and Brigham Young. Within this context, the LDS Church is often regarded by such fundamentalists as having abandoned several foundational aspects of Mormonism as noted above.

Mormon fundamentalist sects

The majority of Mormon fundamentalists belong to sects that have separated themselves from the LDS Church. As such, most are considered to be "Brighamite" sects within the Latter Day Saint movement.

Apostolic United Brethren
The Apostolic United Brethren (AUB) is estimated to have about 5000 to 10000 members throughout Utah, Montana, Nevada, Arizona, Wyoming, Missouri, and Mexico and is perhaps the largest Mormon fundamentalist group. Several of its towns are organized into United Orders; the church has established a temple in Mexico, an Endowment House in Utah, and operates several schools.

The AUB emerged when their leader, Joseph W. Musser, ordained Rulon C. Allred as an apostle and counselor, which led to a split between Mormon fundamentalists in Salt Lake City and those in Short Creek, Arizona.

The AUB is one of the more liberal of the Mormon groups practicing plural marriage. The leaders of the AUB do not arrange marriages nor do they authorize plural marriages for people under 18 or for those who are closely related.

Fundamentalist Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints

The Fundamentalist Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints (FLDS Church) is estimated to consist of 6000 members. A succession crisis has been brewing in the church since 2002, when Warren Jeffs (convicted of accessory to rape and sentenced to life in prison in 2011), became president of the church. There has been extensive litigation regarding the church, as property rights of disaffected members are weighed against the decisions of church leaders who hold trust to the land their homes are built on. A large concentration of members lives in the twin cities of Colorado City, Arizona, and Hildale, Utah, as well as in Bountiful, British Columbia. The church has built a temple near Eldorado, Texas. The members of the FLDS Church tend to be very conservative in dress and lifestyle.

Beginning April 4, 2008, over a four-day period, troopers and child welfare officials searched the church's YFZ Ranch and removed 416 children into the temporary custody of the State of Texas. Originally officials from the Texas Department of Family and Protective Services took 18 girls into temporary custody of the state, after responding to a phone call from the YFZ ranch alleging physical and sexual abuse of a 16-year-old girl, who also claimed to have been married at age 15 to a 49-year-old man. On the following day, Judge Barbara Walther of the 51st District Court issued an order authorizing officials to remove all children, including boys, 17 years old and under out of the compound. The children were being held by the Child Protective Services 45 miles away, north of the ranch. 133 women also voluntarily left the ranch with the children. On May 29, 2008 the Texas Supreme Court ruled that CPS must return all of the children. The court stated, "On the record before us, removal of the children was not warranted." The call that provoked the raid was a hoax. Despite this, investigations resulting from this raid resulted in charges against twelve men associated with the FLDS Church, six of which have resulted in convictions ranging from 5 to 75 years in prison.

The considerable hardship faced by wives and children pursuant to state evictions has been reported, with testimonies of those affected. The story of Warren Jeffs and the FLDS Church has been popularized in the Netflix documentary, "Keep Sweet, Pray and Obey". The treatment of the wives of Warren Jeffs has been discussed by testimony from escapees, who established a women's refuge in Church property.

Bountiful, British Columbia Community

The first member of the group that bought property near Lister was Harold (aka) Michael Blackmore, who moved there with his family in 1946.  Other members of the church who believed in the principles of plural marriages soon followed. After Winston Blackmore became the bishop in the 1980s, the group took the name of Bountiful.

In 1998 the estimated population was 600 and has since grown to about 1,000. Most of the residents are descended from only half a dozen men.  The current FLDS bishop is James Oler.

In 2002 the Mormon fundamentalists in Bountiful divided into two groups: about half are members of the Fundamentalist Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints (FLDS Church), and the other half are members of the Church of Jesus Christ (Original Doctrine) Inc.

Church of Jesus Christ (Original Doctrine) Inc.
The Church of Jesus Christ (Original Doctrine) Inc., is an FLDS-offshoot based on the teachings of Winston Blackmore, who split with the FLDS Church after concluding the president of the church, Warren Jeffs, had exceeded his authority and become too dictatorial.  This group was formed in September 2002, when FLDS Church president Warren Jeffs excommunicated Winston Blackmore, who was Bishop of the Bountiful, British Columbia group of the FLDS Church for two decades.  About 700 people continue to follow Blackmore, while about 500 follow Jeffs.

Latter Day Church of Christ (Kingston Clan or The Order)
The "Kingston Clan" or "The Order", officially known as the Latter Day Church of Christ, includes approximately 3500 members. This co-operative runs several businesses, including pawnshops and restaurant supply stores.

Righteous Branch of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints
The Righteous Branch of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints is a group of approximately 100 to 200 people; most live near Modena, Utah, or Tonopah, Nevada. The Righteous Branch was organized in 1978 by Gerald Peterson Sr., who claimed that he was ordained a High Priest Apostle by AUB leader Rulon C. Allred. Later, after he was murdered, Rulon C. Allred appeared to him as an angel to instruct him to  preside over the keys of the priesthood. This church has built a pyramid-shaped temple and Gerald Peterson Jr. is their current leader. Like the AUB they are modern in their dress and do not allow girls under 18 to be married.

True and Living Church of Jesus Christ of Saints of the Last Days
The True and Living Church of Jesus Christ of Saints of the Last Days (TLC) is headquartered in Manti, Utah. Membership is estimated at 300 to 500. Organized in 1994, the TLC was a new "restoration" for the "very last days" before the Second Coming of Jesus. While the church initially grew rapidly, it has since stagnated and declined in numbers and converts since it ceased missionary efforts in 2000.

Centennial Park group

About 1,500 people are members of a group located in Centennial Park, Arizona, called The Work of Jesus Christ. In the early 1980s there was a conflict of leadership in the FLDS Church. Some of the members were very unhappy with the changes being made by various influential men in the community. When the FLDS Church abandoned leadership by council and instituted a "one-man rule" doctrine, those who wanted to maintain leadership by a priesthood council founded Centennial Park in 1986, approximately 3 miles (5 km) south of the twin communities of Colorado City, Arizona, and Hildale, Utah. (Location of Centennial Park).

The name "Centennial Park" is a reference to the 1886 movement led by Lorin C. Woolley, which serves as the basis for fundamentalist claims of priesthood authority. Members of this group (referred to by members as "The Work") denounce all violence and abuse, do not permit marriage of young girls, and disavow the extreme practices of the FLDS Church. However, like the FLDS Church, they practice a form of arranged marriage. They dress in modern, modest attire.

The Centennial Park group has built a meetinghouse for weekly services and a private high school. A charter school was built in 2003 for the town's growing elementary-age population. About 300 members of this group live in the Salt Lake Valley, where they hold meetings monthly. Members living in Salt Lake City often travel to Centennial Park every month to help in building the community. This group is led by a Priesthood council.

The group was profiled on the ABC television program Primetime in a story entitled, The Outsiders, and also on The Oprah Winfrey Show.

The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints and the Kingdom of God
The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints and the Kingdom of God is based in the Salt Lake Valley, and has around 200 members. The sect was founded by Frank Naylor and Ivan Nielson, who split from the Centennial Park group, another fundamentalist church. This group trace their authority through Alma A. Timpson and Frank Naylor.  The church is estimated to have 200-300 members, most of whom reside in the Salt Lake Valley. Most—if not all—of the members of this group were previously associated with the Centennial Park or FLDS Church. The group is also known as the "Third Ward" or the "Naylor group", after Frank Naylor.

School of the Prophets
The School of the Prophets has its headquarters in the Salem, Utah area. In 1968 Robert C. Crossfield published revelations he had received in the Book of Onias, which (among other things) chastised certain LDS Church leaders; he was excommunicated in 1972.  In 1982 Crossfield established a School of the Prophets, overseen by a president and six counselors.  Ron and Dan Lafferty (convicted of the July 1984 murder of their brother's wife and infant daughter) served for a month as counselors in the Provo, Utah School of the Prophets in March 1984. Four months after being removed  from the school, they committed their crimes. The continuing revelations were later named the Second Book of Commandments; it has 275 sections, dating from 1961 to 2018. (2BC Website)

Independent Mormon fundamentalists
There is a small movement of independent Mormon fundamentalists. Independents do not belong to organized fundamentalist groups and do not generally recognize any man as their prophet or leader. Because Independents are not one cohesive group, they are very diverse in their beliefs and interpretations of Mormonism; therefore, their practices vary. Many Independents come from a background in the LDS Church, while others come from other Christian or Mormon fundamentalist backgrounds.

Independents rely on personal inspiration and revelation to guide them; there is no ecclesiastical structure among the Independents, although Independents often socialize with each other and may meet together for religious services.

Statistically, it is difficult to estimate how many Independents there are, but a recent estimate indicates that there may be more independent fundamentalists than there are in any one of the formally organized polygamous groups and may number as many as 15,000. According to this informal survey, about half of Mormon fundamentalists, both those in groups and those outside of groups, currently practice polygamy. There are many Independents in Utah, Arizona, Missouri and Brazil.

Two prominent figures among independent fundamentalists are the late writer Ogden Kraut as well as his plural wife Anne Wilde, both of whom maintained friendships with both independents and some members of the organized groups.

See also

 Big Love, an HBO series about a fictional independent polygamous Mormon fundamentalist family
 Brown v. Buhman
 Darger family
 Alex Joseph
 Ervil LeBaron
 Lost boys (Mormon fundamentalism)
 Messenger magazine, a fundamentalist publication
 Sister Wives
 Sons of Perdition
 Under the Banner of Heaven, a non-fiction book by Jon Krakauer

Notes

References
.

 Bradley, Martha Sontag, Kidnapped from That Land: The Government Raids on the Short Creek Polygamists

.

.

Further reading
.
.
.
.

External links

"The Primer: A Guidebook for Law Enforcement and Human Services Agencies Who Offer Assistance to Fundamentalist Mormon Families" (PDF document)
 Damned to heaven Documentary film about FLDS

Latter Day Saint terms
Mormonism and polygamy

Mormon fundamentalism


El 25 de diciembre de 2011 se produjeron diversos atentados en Nigeria contra la población cristiana residente en el norte del país, de mayoría musulmana. Los ataques, que se dirigieron contra iglesias cristianas en las que se estaba celebrando la Navidad, fueron atribuidos a la secta islamista radical Boko Haram, que se encuentra en una lucha abierta contra el ejército nigeriano en la zona septentrional del país.

Referencias

Nigeria en 2011
Atentados terroristas en Nigeria
Anticristianismo
Iglesia católica en 2011
Atentados del terrorismo islámico en 2011
Atentados en iglesias
Masacres perpetradas por Boko Haram

Atentados de Nigeria de diciembre de 2011


සයින් අගය යනු යම්කිසි කෝණයක් සඳහා ගණනය කරනු ලබන ත්‍රිකෝණමිතික අනුපාතයකි.  මෙය දත්ත ගොනු සඳහා වන මෘදුකාංගවල ද පැතුරුම්පත් සඳහා වන මෘදුකාංගවාල ද තවත්නොයෙක් පරිගණක භාෂාවල ද ත්‍රිකෝණමිතික ශ්‍රිතයක් ලෙසින් දක්නට ලැබේ.  මෙම අනුපාතය තේරුම් ගැනීම සඳහා ඍජුකෝණී ත්‍රිකෝණයක් භාවිතා කළ යුතුය.

ඉහත දැක්වෙන ABC ත්‍රිකෝණයේ ABC කෝණය α  වන අතර ACB කෝණය β  බව රූපයෙන් පැහැදිලි වනු ඇත. එසේම CAB කෝණය අංශක 90ක් බැවින් මෙය ඍජු කෝණී ත්‍රිකෝණයක් සේ සැලකේ.

යම්කිසි කෝණයක සයින් අගය යනු එම කෝණය සහිත ඍජුකෝණී ත්‍රිකෝණයක එම කෝණයට විරුද්ධ පාදය එහි කර්ණයෙන් බෙදූ  විට ලැබෙන ප්‍රතිඵලයයි.

එනම් සයින් අගය = විරුද්ධ පාදය / කර්ණය

මෙම නීතිය ABC හා ACB යන කෝණවලට යෙදූ විට

සයින් α  = AC / BC   හා  සයින් β  =  AB / BC බව පැහැදිලි වනු ඇත. කෝණය අංශකවලින් දී ඇති විට, විශේෂ කෝණ කිහිපයක සයින් අගයයන් පහත දැක්වේ.

සයින් 0   =

සයින් 30 =

සයින් 45 =

සයින් 60 =

සයින් 90 =

ත්‍රිකෝණමිතිය

සයින් අගය


USS Edsall (DE-129) was the lead ship of her class of destroyer escort in the United States Navy. She was the second Navy ship named in honor of Seaman Norman Edsall (1873–1899).

Edsall was laid down by the Consolidated Steel Corporation at Orange, Texas on 2 July 1942; launched 1 November 1942; sponsored by Mrs. Bessie Edsall Bracey, sister of Seaman Edsall; and commissioned 10 April 1943.

History
Edsall was a schoolship at Norfolk, 20 June to 6 August 1943, for pre-commissioning crews of escort vessels, then served at Miami with the Submarine Chaser Training Center.  In March 1944, she joined a tanker convoy at Galveston, Texas, assigned to Escort Division 59, whose flagship she became 24 March.  Edsall continued escort duty from the Gulf of Mexico to New York City and Norfolk, and with one convoy to NS Argentia, Newfoundland.  In May, she sailed to Bermuda for antisubmarine warfare tests using a captured Italian submarine.

Between 1 July 1944 and 3 June 1945, she ranged Atlantic sealanes guarding seven convoys carrying the very lifeblood to the Mediterranean and Britain.  While escorting the sixth convoy en route to New York from Liverpool on 10 April 1945, Edsall along with other escorts were quick to come to the assistance of two tankers in the convoy who had collided.  Edsall searched for survivors and helped extinguish fires which broke out.

Edsall sailed for the Pacific on 24 June 1945, but World War II ended while she was training at Pearl Harbor, and she returned East.  She was placed out of commission in reserve at Green Cove Springs, Florida, on 11 June 1946.

Edsall was stricken from the Naval Vessel Register on 1 June 1968, and sold for scrap in July 1969.

References

External links
    navsource.org: USS Edsall
 hazegray.org: USS Edsall

Edsall-class destroyer escorts
Ships built in Orange, Texas
1942 ships

USS Edsall (DE-129)


Why Don't We (ofte forkortet WDW) er et amerikansk pop-boyband, der blev dannet den 27. september 2016 bestående af Jonah Marais Roth Frantzich fra Stillwater i Minnesota, Corbyn Matthew Besson fra Fairfax i Virginia, Daniel James Seavey fra Portland i Oregon, Jack Robert Avery fra Susquehanna i Pennsylvania og Zachary Dean Herron fra Dallas i Texas, der alle havde indspillet musik som soloartister. Bandet har flere gange været på TV og i radio. Gruppens album 8 letters har givet WDW megen succes. Drengene var venner, før de blev dannet som en gruppe. Deres fans hedder limelights, fordi deres første sang "Taking you" indeholder teksten "I need you in my life like limelight"

Karriere

2016 – i dag

Boybandet blev dannet den 27. september 2016. Dagen efter blev det annonceret på deres YouTube-kanal. Bandet har senere udgivet tre EP'er og fem singler.

Debut-EP'en Only the Beginning indeholdt bl.a "Taking You", der blev bandets første single.

Bandet har arbejdet sammen med youTuberen Logan Paul, der har instrueret tre videoer med bandet. Deres nyeste Album hedder "8 letters"

Diskografi

EP'er

Singler
Som hovednavn

Som "featured artist"

Referencer

Boybands
Musikgrupper fra USA

Why Don't We


විශ්ව විසිරි වියමනේ විශේෂයෙන් සදහන් කරන ලද ලිපිනයක් සඳහා යොමුවීමට භාවිතා කරයි.

ඒකීය සම්පත් අනන්‍යකාරකය


Fra Stjepan (Stipan) Skopljanin, hrvatski kršćanski mučenik iz Uskoplja, zamjenik biskupa Bosne

Na glasu kao "redovnik vrlo krepostan i obdaren mnogim darovima pobožnosti i dobrote kršćanskog života".

Potkraj 16. stoljeća fratri su uzmaknuli s franjevačkog samostana na Visovcu pred Turcima. Fra Stjepan Skopljanin, tada zamjenik biskupa Bosne, vratio ih je nazad na Visovac. Samostan na Visovcu tada je pripadao provinciji Bosni Srebrenoj. Prema predaji, 1609. (1610.) godine došli su tada Turci u samostan na Visovcu, gdje su ih fratri morali pogostiti jelom i pićem. Kad su odlazili, sa sobom su poveli fra Stjepana i još jednog fratarskog momka. Kada su došli do sredine Visovačkog jezera Turci su obojicu ubili i bacili u vodu. Obojicu su Turci ubili kad su došli do sredine Visovačkog jezera. Fra Stjepana su Osmanlije zaklali.
Tijela su im bacili u vodu.

Fra Stjepanovo mrtvo tijelo nije potonulo. Prema predaji ostalo je u istom molitvenom, uspravnom stavu, držeći krunicu i brevijar u ruci, hodao po vodi i došao do obale i pao kod samostana. Začuđeni očevici prizora raširili su po provinciji priču o viđenom. Priča je ostala živa do danas. Zakopan je kod samostana.
Spomendan fra Stjepana Skopljanina obilježava se 30. lipnja.

Grob mu se nalazi uz Gospin oltar u crkvi na otočiću Visovcu. U kamenu je urezan natpis na hrvatskoj ćirilici: "Nek se znade. Ovde leži m.p.o.f. Stipan Skopljanin, vikario g biskupa Bosne, lita na 1610".

Fra Stjepanova upornost ostanka se isplatila. Sultanovim fermanom šezdeset godina poslije zemlju je sultan Mehmed IV. vratio fratrima kao i pravo izlova ribe u jezeru.

Izvori

Vanjske poveznice
Uskoplje Spomendan fra Stjepana Skopljanina, 30. lipnja 2007.
Uskoplje Čudo iz lita na 1610...., 30. lipnja 2011.

Bosanskohercegovački franjevci
Kršćanski mučenici
Životopisi, Uskoplje

Stjepan Skopljanin


كينو دون هوغو روزا  ويشتهر بدون روزا ، هو رسام قصص مصورة أمريكي المولد إيطالي الأصل اشتهر برسوماتها وسيناريوهاته المتقنة لعدد من شخصيات ديزني الكرتونية الشهيرة أمثال العم دهب وبطوط. ولد في ولاية كنتاكي الأمريكية عام 1951م, والتحق بجامعتها عام 1969م وحصل منها على درجة البكالريوس في الآداب.

سلسلة شباب دهب

هي سلسلة فنية من القصص المصورة مكونة من 12 حلقة تناولت حياة دهب منذ بداية حياته حتى الوقت الحاضر، ألفها ورسمها دون روزا، وأعتمدت لاحقاً كمرجع لشجرة عائلة البط، فاز دون روزا بجائزة إيزنر عام 1995 لتقديمه هذا العمل.

روابط خارجية

مراجع

أشخاص على قيد الحياة
أمريكيون من أصل ألماني
أمريكيون من أصل أيرلندي
أمريكيون من أصل إسكتلندي
أمريكيون من أصل إيطالي
خريجو جامعة كنتاكي
رسامون ورسامات أمريكيون
فنانو قصص ديزني المصورة
فنانو قصص مصورة أمريكيون
فنانون أمريكيون في القرن 20
فنانون أمريكيون في القرن 21
فنانون من لويفيل (كنتاكي)
كتاب قصص ديزني المصورة
كتاب من لويفيل (كنتاكي)
كتاب وكاتبات أمريكيون في القرن 20
كتاب وكاتبات أمريكيون في القرن 21
كتاب ومؤلفو قصص مصورة أمريكيون
مواليد 1951
مواليد في لويفيل (كنتاكي)

دون روزا


The Three Degrees is an American female vocal group formed circa 1963 in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. Although 16 women have been members over the years, the group has always been a trio. The current line-up consists of Valerie Holiday, Helen Scott, and Freddie Pool. Tabitha King is currently filling in for Helen Scott, who is currently suffering from coronavirus.  The group were particularly successful in the UK, achieving 13 Top 50 hit singles between 1974 and 1985.

The original members were Fayette Pinkney, Shirley Porter and Linda Turner. Porter and Turner were eventually replaced by Janet Harmon and Helen Scott and then subsequently by Sheila Ferguson and Valerie Holiday. The line-up from 1967 to 1976 was Pinkney, Valerie Holiday and Sheila Ferguson, who would go on to sing lead on most of the group's biggest hits. This line-up topped the US Hot 100 as featured vocalists on the MFSB single "TSOP (The Sound of Philadelphia)" in 1974, and had seven UK Top 40 hits, including the 1974 single "When Will I See You Again", which was a huge international hit, reaching the Top 5 in seven countries, including number two in the US and topping the UK Singles Chart. When Pinkney left the group in 1976, she was replaced by a returning Helen Scott. This line-up had four UK Top 20 hits, including "Woman in Love", which reached number three in 1979. Ferguson left for a solo career in 1986.

The group's most stable line-up was from 1989 to 2010, with Cynthia Garrison joining Holiday and Scott. They achieved a final UK chart entry, reaching number 54 in 1998 with a dance cover of "Last Christmas". Garrison left the band at the end of 2010 due to health reasons, and was replaced by Freddie Pool in 2011. The group's 2016 album, Strategy: Our Tribute to Philadelphia, was their first studio album release with Pool as a member.  Valerie Holiday is the longest serving Degree with almost 56 years of continuous service to her name. Helen Scott is the only member who was active during the Swan Records era.

Career

1960s
The Three Degrees were formed around 1963 in Philadelphia according to founder member, the late Fayette Pinkney: "it's about '63, last year in high school...and it was fun!". They were discovered by producer and songwriter Richard Barrett, who produced the original line-up on their first song, "Gee Baby (I'm Sorry)", for Swan Records, in 1965. Turner and Porter both left the group, leaving Fayette Pinkney the only original member. They were eventually replaced by Helen Scott and Janet Harmon  Barrett also became manager of Sheila Ferguson, who had been friends with Scott since high school. Barrett signed Ferguson to Swan Records in 1965. The Three Degrees released a number of singles, including "I'm Gonna Need You" and a cover version of "Maybe" in 1966. Fayette, Janet and Helen were often joined by Sheila on their Swan recordings and the Group often backed Sheila on her solo records during that time.

When Scott left the group in 1966 to start a family, Ferguson filled in for her. She remained for 20 years and was lead singer on most of the group's best-selling tracks. Harmon left by 1967 and, after brief stints by Sundray Tucker and Sonia Goring, she was replaced by Valerie Holiday that same year. Barrett signed the trio to recording contracts over the next three years with Warner Bros., Metromedia, and Neptune record labels, the latter owned by Kenny Gamble and Leon Huff, who would work with the group five years later. At this point, the group's close harmony singing made them a popular nightclub act, but a hit record still eluded them.

1970s

By 1970, they were signed to Roulette Records and they released their first album, Maybe. The title song, this time with Valerie Holiday taking the lead, took them to No. 4 on the US R&B chart. The singles, "I Do Take You" and "You're the Fool" followed, as did their second album, So Much Love. This success landed them a cameo appearance in the 1971 film, The French Connection, where they performed a cover of Jimmy Webb's "Everybody Gets to Go to the Moon", filmed during one of their appearances at the Copacabana nightclub in New York City.

In 1973, when their contract with Roulette ended, Barrett signed them to Philadelphia International Records under Kenny Gamble and Leon Huff, where they had their greatest successes. The first song they recorded for the label was with the studio band MFSB, titled "TSOP (The Sound of Philadelphia)", which was the theme song for Soul Train. In October 1973, the group also made an appearance on the American television sitcom Sanford and Son (season 3, episode 4), singing their song "I Didn't Know".

Their first album for the Philadelphia International label, The Three Degrees, spawned three hits: "Dirty Ol' Man" (which went gold in the Netherlands and Belgium), "Year Of Decision" (which made it to No. 13 in the UK Singles Chart), but it was the third single, "When Will I See You Again", that propelled the trio into the mainstream. It topped the UK Chart for two weeks in August 1974 (the first time this had been achieved by an all-female group since The Supremes in 1964,) and became the fourth best-selling single of the year. It also reached No. 2 in the US, where it sold over two million copies and earned the trio a gold record in December 1974 (at that time, Platinum certifications had not been assigned to singles).

The Three Degrees also recorded two live albums: one in Leicester in the UK, and the other in Tokyo in Japan, and released both in 1975. The trio's second studio album for the Philadelphia label, The Three Degrees International, was marketed internationally under different titles and in various languages. In Continental Europe, it was called With Love, and it spawned the hit single "Take Good Care Of Yourself", which reached the UK Top 10. The UK release of the album was actually titled Take Good Care Of Yourself and peaked at No. 6 in the UK Albums Chart, their highest ever chart placing for an album there. Two other songs from the album were big successes in Japan: "Midnight Train" and "", the latter having been recorded in Japanese.

In 1976, the Three Degrees parted company with Gamble and Huff and moved to CBS Sony/Epic Records where they released the concept album, A Toast Of Love, purely for the Far East market, although a single of the title track was released internationally. In 1976, Fayette Pinkney was replaced by former band member Helen Scott. The album, Standing Up For Love, released in 1977 was their last release for CBS/Epic.

In 1978, The Three Degrees signed to Ariola Records in Europe and the US and began working with Giorgio Moroder, who had become famous as a disco producer following his work with Donna Summer. Further success was to follow, and they released two disco-styled albums on Ariola (New Dimensions in 1978, and 3D in 1979) which delivered four UK Top 20 hits between them: "Givin' Up Givin' In", "Woman in Love", "The Runner" and "My Simple Heart".

The group performed for future British monarch Charles III at his 30th birthday party in 1978, and were guests at the pre-wedding party for his marriage to Lady Diana Spencer in 1981; whilst he was the Prince of Wales. His Majesty is arguably the most famous fan of the band and their 1978 hit, "Givin' Up, Givin' In", is said to be his favourite song. Their own television special, The Three Degrees at The Royal Albert Hall (aka An Evening with The Three Degrees), was recorded in October 1979 in which the trio were backed by the Royal Philharmonic Orchestra.

1980s
In 1980, the compilation album Gold was released and became a UK Top 10 hit. Featuring one side of their hits on the Ariola label between 1978 and 1979, and one side of live recordings from their 1979 Royal Albert Hall television special, this would be the trio's second "best of" compilation to make the UK Top 10 in less than two years, after CBS released A Collection of their 20 Greatest Hits in early 1979 (which featured their pre-Ariola material, and peaked at number 8 in the UK Albums Chart).

Between 1982 and 1985, The Three Degrees released two albums on their own 3D label; Album of Love and Live in the UK. On that label they also released "Liar", a single written by Sheila Ferguson. A third BBC Television show was also recorded in 1982, titled Take 3 Degrees, which included performances of their greatest hits, and also songs that the group were performing in their latest show, such as "I Can't Turn You Loose" and "Celebration".

They returned to the UK charts in 1985 with "The Heaven I Need" which was produced by Stock/Aitken/Waterman on Supreme Records, though the single narrowly missed the UK Top 40. The band expressed surprise the song did not chart higher, and spoke of their regret that their working relationship with the production team did not continue.

In 1986, Miquel Brown filled in for Scott while the latter was pregnant. That same year Ferguson decided to leave the group to focus on her family life and raising her daughters.   Scott and Holiday replaced Ferguson with Vera Brown of The Ritchie Family in 1986, and then Rhea Harris in 1987. In 1989, Scott and Holiday, along with new recruit Victoria Wallace, recorded the album Three Degrees ... And Holding on Ichiban Records. A single, "A Tender Lie" was also released. Following the album, the group recorded a live CD at London's Dominion Theatre, with Billy Paul and Harold Melvin & the Bluenotes in 1989. The group followed this with another tour of the UK and Japan at the end of the year.

In a 2006 documentary interview, which featured Ferguson and Holiday speaking about their time together in the group, it was revealed that when Ferguson decided to leave the group, she spoke to the group members on a phone call about her decision instead of in person and both parties felt that the conversation ended abruptly.  In addition, Holiday commented feeling upset that this specific conversation should have been in person and not on a phone call and said that it had been difficult to find a replacement for Ferguson. Since then, Ferguson has had limited contact with the members of the group and has never had any public appearances with The Three Degrees. In a 2011 interview on the British TV show, Lorraine, with The Three Degrees, they commented they may from time to time run into Ferguson in the United States. Often their encounters with Ferguson are only for brief moments; as Helen Scott had mentioned – it is like ships that pass in the night.

1990s onwards
In December 1989, Cynthia Garrison replaced Wallace forming the longest running line-up of the group.  In 1993, they were asked to record a new version of "When Will I See You Again" with Thomas Anders (of Modern Talking). He supplied three tracks for their album Out of the Past Into the Future, marking their return to Ariola Records and their most successful album for 15 years, Two further singles were released from the album, the re-recording of "Dirty Ol' Man" and new song "Hurry Hurry". In 1993 they released a new best of album, Best & New Hits: When Will I See You Again, which included 5 re-recorded hits and 5 cover songs. A seasonal album, Christmas With The Three Degrees, was also recorded in 1998. This album included a cover of Wham's "Last Christmas", which was released as a remixed dance single which gave the group their 15th (and final) UK top 60 single, reaching number 54.

Scott, Holiday and Garrison continued to tour. They made their first US TV appearance in over 20 years in 2003 on the PBS show, Rhythm, Love, and Soul with Aretha Franklin, Lou Rawls and Mary Wilson. They were also part of the 'Best Disco In Town 2004 Tour' with The Pointer Sisters, Chic, The Emotions, and Evelyn "Champagne" King.  They also took part in the 2007 'Best Disco In Town' tour of the United Kingdom in May 2007.

In 2008, the Group released the album Helen, Valerie, Cynthia: The Greatest Hits, which included completely new recordings of the group's biggest hits and some fan favourites.

The Group, together with founder member Fayette Pinkney, received various honours during 2007 and 2008, through BEMA (The Black Entertainment and Music Association) and the City of Philadelphia for their contribution to music over five decades, creating, for the first time, The Four Degrees.

Fayette Pinkney died on June 27, 2009, in Lansdale Hospital, Pennsylvania, after a short illness at the age of 61. Her 1979 solo album, One Degree, was re-released on CD shortly after her death.

In 2009, the group released their first studio album in over ten years, Undercover 2009. It contained a selection of eight cover versions of classic songs by ABBA, Stevie Wonder, Paul Simon and Bee Gees. The following year they released a new single "Holding Back".

In January 2011, Freddie Pool replaced Cynthia Garrison who was suffering from Piriformis syndrome.

In 2016, the Three Degrees released their first studio album with member Freddie Pool entitled Strategy: Our Tribute To Philadelphia, through Cherry Red Records.

The Holiday/Scott/Garrison version of The Three Degrees was the longest running formation of the group (1989–2010).

Solo material is available from Fayette Pinkney, Sheila Ferguson, Valerie Holiday, Freddie Pool and Tabitha King.

Since 2022, Tabitha King has filled in for Helen Scott, who had been suffering from coronavirus since November 2020.

Worldwide Discography

 Maybe (1970)
 The Three Degrees (1973)
 International (1975)
  Take Good Care Of Yourself (1975) UK.
 With Love  (1975) Benelux.
  So Much Love (1975)
  The Three Degrees Live (1975)
  The Three Degrees Live in Japan (1975)
 A Toast of Love (1976)
 Standing Up for Love (1977)
 New Dimensions (1978)
 3D (1979)
 Album of Love (1982)
 The Three Degrees Live in the UK (1984)
 …And Holding (1989)
 Out of the Past, into the Future (1993)
 Christmas with the Three Degrees (1998)
 Undercover 2009 (2009)
 Strategy – Our Tribute to Philadelphia (2016)

Filmography
 The French Connection (1971)
 Sanford and Son (Season 3, Episode 4 titled "Presenting the Three Degrees" aired October 5, 1973)
 Birds of Prey (2020)

See also
List of funk musicians
List of disco artists (S-Z)
List of people from Philadelphia
List of artists who reached number one in the United States
List of artists who reached number one on the UK Singles Chart

References

Further reading
The Three Degrees in-depth interview by Pete Lewis, 'Blues & Soul' February 2011
The Three Degrees interview, 'Yuzu Melodies' April 2013
Clemente, John (2000). Girl Groups — Fabulous Females That Rocked The World. Iola, Wisconsin: Krause Publications. p. 276.

External links

American dance music groups
African-American girl groups
American disco girl groups
American soul musical groups
Epic Records artists
Musical groups established in 1963
Musical groups from Philadelphia
Philadelphia International Records artists
Swan Records artists
Vocal trios

The Three Degrees


Unit generators (or ugens) are the basic formal units in many MUSIC-N-style computer music programming languages. They are sometimes called opcodes (particularly in Csound), though this expression is not accurate in that these are not machine-level instructions.

Unit generators form the building blocks for designing synthesis and signal processing algorithms in software. For example, a simple unit generator called OSC could generate a sinusoidal waveform of a specific frequency (given as an input or argument to the function or class that represents the unit generator). ENV could be a unit generator that delineates a breakpoint function. Thus ENV could be used to drive the amplitude envelope of the oscillator OSC through the equation OSC*ENV. Unit generators often use predefined arrays of values for their functions (which are filled with waveforms or other shapes by calling a specific generator function).

The unit generator theory of sound synthesis was first developed and implemented by Max Mathews and his colleagues at Bell Labs in the 1950s.

Code example
In the SuperCollider language, the .ar method in the SinOsc class is a UGen that generates a sine wave.  The example below makes a sine wave at frequency 440, phase 0, and amplitude 0.5.
<nowiki>SinOsc.ar(440, 0, 0.5);</nowiki>

See also
Tuning generator

Acoustics software
Audio programming languages

Unit generator


Die vorgezogene britische Unterhauswahl 1966 fand am 31. März 1966 statt. Bei der Wahl wurden die Abgeordneten für das Unterhaus (House of Commons) neu bestimmt.

Wahlsystem
Gewählt wurde nach dem einfachen Mehrheitswahlsystem. Eine Sperrklausel gab es nicht.

Wichtige Parteiführer

Wahlergebnis
Die bisher regierende Labour Party konnte ihre absolute Mehrheit festigen; sie baute ihren Vorsprung zur Conservative Party aus (48,1 zu 41,3 %; zwei Jahre zuvor waren es 44,1 zu 42,2 % gewesen). Auch die Liberal Party (1964: 11,2 %; 1966 = 8,6 %) erlitt Verluste.

Sonstiges
Mit der Unterhauswahl am 15. Oktober 1964 war eine 13-jährige Regierungsära der Tories zu Ende gegangen.
Alec Douglas-Home (1903–1995, Tories), der seit Oktober 1963 Premierminister war, hatte dadurch sein Amt verloren; der Führer der Labour Party Harold Wilson (1916–1995) wurde neuer Premierminister. Wilson und seine Regierung bekamen viel öffentlichen Zuspruch; darum führte Wilson 1966 vorgezogene Neuwahlen herbei (ein im Vereinigten Königreich übliches Prozedere).

Literatur

Siehe auch
 Politisches System des Vereinigten Königreichs
 Geschichte des Vereinigten Königreichs #Seit dem Zweiten Weltkrieg

Einzelnachweise

1966
Vereinigtes Konigreich #1966

Britische Unterhauswahl 1966


Prințesa Ernestine de Saxa-Weimar-Eisenach (Ernestine Auguste Sophie; 4 ianuarie 1740, Weimar – 10 iunie 1786, Hildburghausen) a fost o prințesă de Saxa-Weimar-Eisenach și prin căsătorie Ducesă de Saxa-Hildburghausen.

Biografie
Ernestine Auguste Sophie a fost fiica Ducelui Ernest August I de Saxa-Weimar-Eisenach și a ceei de-a doua soții, Prințesa Sophie Charlotte, fiica lui Georg Friedrich Karl de Brandenburg-Bayreuth.

La 1 iulie 1758, ea s-a căsătorit la Bayreuth cu Ernest Frederic al III-lea, Duce de Saxa-Hildburghausen (1727–1780). Căsătoria a fost aranjată la ordinul mătușii sale, regina Sofia Magdalena a Danemarcei, care fusese soacra mirelui în căsătoria anterioară. Ernest Frederic era puternic îndatorat, iar zestrea Ernestinei a fost semnificativă.

După moartea soțului ei în 1780 ea s-a retras complet. A trăit în așa numita casă Fischbergsche în Hildburghausen și s-a ocupat în principal de muzică. Prințul Joseph de Saxa-Hildburghausen a exercitat tutela asupra fiului ei Frederic, care era încă minor.

Copii
Ernestine a fost a treia soție a Ducelui Ernest. Ei au avut trei copii:
Ernestine Frederike Sophie (n. 22 februarie 1760, Hildburghausen – d. 28 octombrie 1776, Coburg), căsătorită la 6 martie 1776 cu Franz Frederick Anton, Duce de Saxa-Coburg-Saalfeld.
Christine Sophie Caroline (n. 4 decembrie 1761, Hildburghausen – d. 10 ianuarie 1790, Öhringen), căsătorită la 13 martie 1778 cu unchiul ei Eugen de Saxa-Hildeburghausen.
Frederic, Duce de Saxa-Hildburghausen (n. 29 aprilie 1763, Hildburghausen – d. 29 septembrie 1834, Altenburg).

Nașteri în 1740
Decese în 1786
Casa de Wettin
Casa de Saxa-Hildburghausen
Ducese de Saxa-Hildburghausen
Prințese germane

Ernestine de Saxa-Weimar


Allium lusitanicum es una especie de planta bulbosa geófita del género Allium, perteneciente a la familia de las amarilidáceas. Originaria de Europa.

Descripción
Allium lusitanicum es una planta bulbosa de hojas casi basales y glabras. El tallo es cilíndrico y lleva una umbela de flores lilas o rosadas. Los estambres son exsertos.
Hábitat
Se encuentra sobre todo en rellanos de roca, pero también en otros sitios rocosos, canchales, prados montanos, etc.
Citología
Número de cromosomas de Allium senescens subsp. montanum (Fam. Liliaceae) y táxones infraespecíficos: n=8; 2n=16.: 2n=32

Taxonomía
Allium lusitanicum fue descrita por Jean-Baptiste Lamarck y publicado en Encyclopédie Méthodique, Botanique 1: 70, en el año 1783
Etimología
Allium: nombre genérico muy antiguo. Las plantas de este género eran conocidos tanto por los romanos como por los griegos. Sin embargo, parece que el término tiene un origen celta y significa "quemar", en referencia al fuerte olor acre de la planta. Uno de los primeros en utilizar este nombre para fines botánicos fue el naturalista francés Joseph Pitton de Tournefort (1656-1708).

lusitanicum: epíteto geográfico que alude a su localización en Lusitania.

Sinonimia

Allium acutangulum
Allium acutangulum subsp. petraeum
Allium acutangulum var. montanum
Allium acutangulum var. petraeum
Allium ancipiticaule
Allium angulosum var. montanum
Allium calcareum Allium fallaxAllium fallax subsp. montanumAllium fallensAllium leptophyllumAllium montanumAllium montanum subsp. leptophyllumAllium montanum subsp. lusitanicumAllium montanum var. leptophyllumAllium petraeumAllium schoenoprasum subsp. lusitanicumAllium senescens subsp. lusitanicumAllium senescens subsp. montanumAllium spirale''

Referencias

Enlaces externos

lusitanicum
Flora de Europa
Plantas descritas en 1783
Plantas descritas por Lamarck

Allium lusitanicum


Nicopolis () or Actia Nicopolis was the capital city of the Roman province of Epirus Vetus. It is located near Preveza, Greece. The city was founded in 29 BC by Octavian in commemoration of his victory in 31 BC over Antony and Cleopatra at the Battle of Actium nearby.

Many impressive ruins of the ancient city may be visited today.

History

Foundation

In 29 BC, 2 years after his victory in the naval battle of Actium, Octavian founded a new city which he called Nicopolis (the City of Victory), located on the southernmost promontory of Epirus, and across the mouth of the harbour from the ancient town of Actium. This foundation echoed a tradition dating back to Alexander the Great, and more recently illustrated by Pompey, founder of Nicopolis in Little Armenia (63 BC). Symbolically, the new city represented one example of his successful unification of the Roman Empire under one administration. Geographically, it constituted a major transportation and communications link between the eastern and western halves of the Mediterranean. Economically, it served to reorganise and revitalise the region, which had never recovered from its destruction by Lucius Aemilius Paullus Macedonicus in the Third Macedonian War (171–167 BC), or the further destruction under Sulla in 87–86 BC.  It also established an important commercial centre and port at this strategic position on the Mediterranean sea routes.

On a hill north of Nicopolis where his own tent had been pitched, and north of the present village of Smyrtoula, Octavian also built a monument and sanctuary to Apollo, considered his patron god, and trophies to two other gods, Neptune and Mars for their contribution to its victory. This monument was adorned with the rams of captured galleys. In further celebration of his victory he instituted the quadrennial Actian games in honour of Apollo Actius.

In 27 BC, Octavian implemented an Empire-wide administrative reform. The new polis was considered capital of the territories of southern Epirus including Ambracia, most of Akarnania, and western Aetolia. Many inhabitants of the surrounding areas – Kassopaia, Ambracia, parts of Acarnania (including Leukas, Palairos, Amphilochian Argos, Calydon, and Lysimachia) and western Aetolia – were forced to relocate to the new city. Among other things, it obtained the right to send five representatives to the Amphictyonic Council. As a city in a senatorial province, Nicopolis began minting its own copper coins (until 268).

During the first five years or so of the city's foundation, local authorities supervised the construction of the city walls, the majority of the public buildings, including the theatre, stadium, gymnasium, odeion, and the aqueduct. The city's western gate was connected by a road to the Ionian harbour Komaros. The city eventually occupied a site of around 375 acres.

Although the exact legal status of Nicopolis is the subject of some dispute, unlike other Roman foundations in Greece contemporary with Nicopolis such as Patras, Philippi and, also in Epirus, Buthrotum and Epidamnus, the city was not, or was not only, a Roman colony (implying that Roman military veterans also settled there) but also a free city (civitas libera Nicopolitana) i.e. a polis (Greek city), free and autonomous, having the characteristics of civitas libera and civitas foederata, linked to Rome by a treaty (foedus).

1st century

Thus provided with considerable assets by its founder, the new city developed rapidly in Roman times; Augustus adorned it with monuments financed by the spoils of war, but it also owes much to the patronage of Herod the Great. The two ports, one on the Amvrakikos Gulf, probably Vathy, and one at Komaros on the Ionian Sea (Fig. 4), ensured the commercial development of the city which was built on the Roman orthogonal grid distinguished by its considerable size (about 180 ha).

Germanicus, nephew and adopted son of Augustus, visited the city en route to Syria and celebrated his second consulship there in 18 AD. In 30–31, the Roman consul Poppaeus Sabinus visited Nicopolis.

In the winter of 65–66, the Apostle Paul decided to spend the winter at Nicopolis and in his Epistle to Titus 3:12 invited his co-worker Titus to join him there from Crete. Apparently a Christian community was in existence in the city.

In 66, in the wake of a terror campaign and financial constraints in Rome, Emperor Nero made a more modest trip to Greece in lieu of a planned great journey to the east. He visited Nicopolis during his tour of Greece to take part in the Actian games and was crowned winner of the chariot race, as is indicated on coins minted in Nicopolis in his honor.

Around 94, Emperor Domitian expelled philosophers from Rome including the prominent Stoic philosopher Epictetus of Hierapolis, who went to Nicopolis. He founded his own school, and in the reign of Trajan counted Arrian among his students, thanks to the notes he made of his philosophy. He died there around AD 135.

2nd century
Around 110, under Emperor Trajan the Roman government carved out the province of Epirus from parts of Macedonia and Achaia, making it a separate province in its own right. A procurator Augusti headquartered at Nicopolis governed Epirus. The new province of Epirus included Acarnania to the south as far as the Achelous, but not Apollonia to the north, plus the Ionian Islands – Corfu, Leukas, Ithaca, Cephalonia, and Zacynthus. The reason for the reform was that the territory needed a stricter government to yield higher revenues. The new province was put under the control of an Imperial procurator, together with other special procuratores, including a procurator of the purple fisheries, whose sphere of office, however, extended to Achaea and Thessaly. This administrative set up appears to have remained intact through the reforms of Emperor Septimius Severus (193–211) and up until Emperor Diocletian (284–305).

In 128, Emperor Hadrian visited Nicopolis with his wife Sabina during his second voyage to the East (128–134). The imperial couple were received with the highest honours: small altars in the city attest to the worship of Hadrian and Sabina, respectively assimilated to Zeus Dodonaios, the most important deity of Epirus, (fig. 5) and Artemis Kelkaia, a manifestation of the goddess unknown outside Nicopolis. Hadrian took advantage of his stay to build a temple to his late protégé, Antinous.

Around this time the city's western gate was constructed, several hundred metres north of the south gate, becoming the main gate of Nicopolis.

Around 180, the next mention of Nicopolis in Church history concerns a bishop of Rome, Pope Eleutherius, who reigned from around 174–189. He was born in Nicopolis, according to the Liber Pontificalis, and served as a deacon in Rome. During his term in office as Bishop of Rome, the Church was involved in the Montanist controversy.

Around 193–198, Emperor Severus, based in Syria, campaigned in Mesopotamia, with indirect consequences for Achaea and Epirus: to help pay for these campaigns, Emperor Severus apparently required several cities to mint special coins, including Nicopolis, Patrae, Epidaurus, Apollonia, Thuria, Plautilla, and the Thessalian koinon.

Later Roman and Byzantine period

The late third century was a time of troubles for the whole Empire: the city was attacked by the Goths and Heruli, but managed to avoid looting thanks to makeshift fortifications.

In 268, the Goths launched a combined land-sea invasion against the Roman Empire, assisted by Heruli sailors and other tribesmen. Their naval forces ravaged Byzantium and Chrysopolis, though the imperial fleet successfully counter-attacked on the Propontis. Meanwhile, the land forces overran Thrace and continued into Achaea as far south as Sparta; the invading Goths and Heruli sacked Athens, crossed the isthmus, sacked and burned the lower part of Corinth, and advanced to Argos and Sparta, ravaging the countryside along the way and burning the two cities. Here imperial land and sea forces counter-attacked, and the invaders wandered their way through Boeotia, Acarnania, Epirus, Macedonia, and Thrace on their way back to Moesia.

In Epirus, while the inhabitants of Nicopolis made hasty repairs to fortifications and managed to avert the danger, the leaders of Corfu organised their own army, crossed over into Epirus and defeated the Goths on land.

The Roman army chased the Goths and their allies and defeated them at the Naissus. It seems that the city then lost much of its importance and reputation by becoming only a provincial centre.
In 293, as part of Diocletian's reforms, the province of Epirus became known as Epirus Vetus (including Adrianopolis, Phoenice, Ogchismos, and Buthrotum as the most northerly major cities, and Acarnania and the islands of Corfu, Ithaca, and probably Leucas to the south). The capital was Nicopolis.

Meanwhile, the territory of northern Epirus (including, Apollonia, Byllis and Amantia on its southern borders) became known as Epirus Nova, with the capital at Dyrrachium. Both provinces, along with Macedonia, Thessaly and Achaea, were included in the diocese of Moesia, which also included four provinces in the northwestern Balkans. The islands of Cephalonia, Zacynthus, and Cythera were included in the province of Achaea.

Both Epirus Vetus and Epirus Nova were governed by a praeses.

Writing around 300, one Arnobius of Numidia mentioned the existence of Christian communities in Achaea, Macedonia, and Epirus.

In about 330, the first great recorded Church historian Eusebius of Caesarea mentions that bishops from Epirus attended the first Ecumenical Council of Nicaea in 325. This implies that bishoprics and an episcopal administrative system had been set up some time before 325. Until the time of Constantine, it is supposed that the bishopric of Nicopolis came under the jurisdiction of the metropolitan of Corinth, but with the administrative reforms under Emperor Diocletian and Constantine (306–337), Nicopolis itself became the metropolitan city of Epirus Vetus. Eusebius also mentions that Origen of Alexandria went to Nicopolis in the first half of the third century and discovered a rare Greek translation of the Old Testament.

In 327, Emperor Constantine split the diocese of Moesia into Dacia and Macedonia. The two provinces of Epirus, along with the provinces of Macedonia, Thessaly, and Achaia, became part of the diocese of Macedonia (capital Thessalonica).

In 343, in the Acts of the Council of Sardica, we have the first mention by name of a bishop of Nicopolis, one Isidoros.

In 361, newly appointed Consul and rhetorician Claudius Mamertinus delivered a panegyric to the young Emperor Julian (360–363), mentioning heavy taxation in Dalmatia and Epirus. He emphasised the destruction of some of the most important monuments while congratulating the Emperor  for his restoration work.

Christian Nicopolis

Based on the record of Julian's close ties with certain leading men from Epirus involved in the Empire-wide cultural circuit led by Libanius and Themistius, it appears that Christianity was not widespread in Epirus in the mid-4th century (and as part of his pagan policy, Julian reactivated support of the Actian games), but after his death it spread far and wide in the region, judging from legislation issued by Valentinian in 371 and 372, trying to offset some negative effects of its rapid spread, and the fact that there is no written record of the bishops of the cities of Epirus until the 5th century, except for the bishop of Nicopolis in 343.

The Acts of the Council of Constantinople in 381, as well as of the Third (431) and Fourth (451) Ecumenical Councils, recognized the see of Thessalonica as holding sixth place in the Church administrative hierarchy, after the five patriarchs. Among the sees of Illyricum, Thessalonica held the first position in the hierarchy, followed by Corinth and Nicopolis.

In 431, the Acts of the Third Ecumenical Council at Ephesus list the bishops of Epirus, including metropolitan Bishop Donatus of Nicopolis (c. 425–432).

Atticus Bishop of Nicopolis was an attendee at Council of Chalcedon.

The majority of the bishops from Epirus and Illyricum and other representatives upheld the Orthodox theological position of the Bishop Celestine I of Rome (422–432) and Bishop Cyril of Alexandria against the Patriarch of Constantinople Nestorius. During this time, Bishop Donatus of Nicopolis maintained a correspondence with Bishop Cyril of Alexandria concerning Nestorianism.

In 451, six Epirote bishops attended the Fourth Ecumenical Council at Chalcedon, including Bishop Atticus of Nicopolis. All these bishops without exception signed the Council's decisions in favor of the Orthodox position of Dyophysitism, also backed by the bishop of Rome.

In 457-458 the bishops of Epirus then held a provincial synod to ratify the validity of the Fourth Ecumenical Council. We have a list of as many as nine bishops signing a letter written by Bishop Eugenius of Nicopolis to Pope Leo I of Rome.

This was also the time of Bishop Diadochos of Photiki (c. 450–458), a saint and Father of the Church. Not only was he the bishop of what was the capital of a wider district called Thesprotia, he was also the author of important theological treatises, three of which are extant.

In combination with the notice of the correspondence between the bishop of Nicopolis and the bishop of Alexandria mentioned previously, from the writings of Diadochos we can infer that learned texts, along with amphorae, traveled between the eastern Mediterranean and Epirus in the 5th century.

Diadochos' texts also show us that both theoretical and practical ideas about theology and the organization of monastic life also spread from the eastern Mediterranean to Epirus. In fact, a reference in one of Diadochos' own writings suggests he was also the hegumen of a monastery in Photiki and that Epirus in the 450s at least had both anchoretic and coenobitic monastic communities.

From around 460, a series of six basilicas were built, beginning with the five-aisled metropolitan basilica B. Artisans decorated many of the basilicas with high-quality mosaics, developing their own workshop, and operating until the 550s. Their influence extended to the rest of Epirus and perhaps further afield in eastern Illyricum.

Basilica B was the largest of the Nicopolis basilicas and probably served as the metropolitan bishop's main church. An inscription informs us that Bishop Alcison (491-516) sponsored some additions to the southern annex of Basilica B, possibly around 500.

In 474, Emperor Zeno initiated peace negotiations with the Vandals. But during the negotiations, in order to strengthen their position, the Vandals again devastated the coast of Greece during which they captured Nicopolis and took prisoners who had to be ransomed to secure their release.

Evidently the walls of Nicopolis built in the time of Augustus were not for defensive purposes, or at least were not functioning in 474, since the Vandals took the city apparently without being equipped with siege tools, while they failed to take the walled city of Taenarum. If this is so, the walls of Nicopolis attributed to Justinian, enclosing only one-sixth of the city founded by Augustus, were erected not before 474. In any case, the Nicopolis walls, probably of the 480s-510s period (like those of Dyrrachium), were made of bricks, mortar, and rubble.

This raid and prisoner-taking probably had a devastating effect on the infrastructure of Nicopolis and the mentality of its citizens, affecting the city's social and economic life. It is probably directly related to the reduction of the city's population to one-sixth of what it had been, confining it to the north-east section, the area where the citadel stood, and fortifying it with thick walls to provide better defence.

Around 500, as mentioned, Bishop Alcison (491–516), an opponent of the Monophysite policy of Emperor Anastasius, supervised the addition of annexes to the five-aisled metropolitan basilica B, which has taken his name.

Around 515, the three-aisled basilica Δ, with fragments of floor mosaics, was built.

In 516, all eight bishops of Vetus Epirus held a synod and elected Ioannes as successor to the martyred Bishop Alcison. Bishop Ioannes sent a deacon, Rufinus, with a letter to Pope Hormisdas, reaffirming their steadfastness in the Orthodox faith. The synod appears to be the seventh local episcopal synod for Epirus Vetus.

In 551, King Totila of the Ostrogoths, in response to reports of a Byzantine military build-up in the eastern side of the Adriatic, sent a 300-strong fleet to Corfu. The Ostrogoths sacked it and nearby islands. They also sacked the area around Dodoni inland and Nicopolis, and captured several Byzantine ships on their way to bring supplies to Narses.

Around 555, according to Procopius, Emperor Justinian renovated the fortifications of Nicopolis, as part of his huge program involving the renewal of city fortifications and the erection of new defences.

Construction of the three-aisled Basilica Α, decorated with an extensive series of extant floor mosaics. was begun. Bishop Dumetius I also made some additions (the pastophoria) to Basilica B, and the three-aisled basilica Ε, near the southern harbor Magaronas, was built.

Around 575, the three-aisled basilica Γ was built and Basilica Α was completed under Bishop Dumetius II.

In 587, the Avars allied with Slavic tribes invaded Thrace, Macedonia and Achaua, including Thessaly, Attica, Euboia, and Peloponnesos, as well as Epirus Vetus, where the invasion seems to have reached as far as Euroea, but not Cassope and Nicopolis.

In 625, Pope Honorius I sent a letter to Metropolitan Hypatius of Nicopolis referring to the difficult travel conditions that prevented the bishop from reaching Rome.

Middle Ages to present
The province of Epirus Vetus, of which Nicopolis was the capital, was part of the western patriarchate as arranged by Justinian I and was directly subject to the jurisdiction of the pope; but, about 732, Leo the Isaurian made it subject to the patriarch of Constantinople because of the pope's resistance to the emperor's iconoclastic policy.

The last known bishop of Nicopolis was Anastasius, who attended the Ecumenical Council of 787. Soon afterwards, owing to the decadence into which Nicopolis fell, the metropolitan see was transferred to Naupactus. which subsequently figured as such in the Notitiae episcopatuum.

In the course of the Middle Ages Nicopolis was supplanted by the town of Preveza.

In 1798 French Revolutionary troops, stationed in Preveza by Napoleon, dug into the graves and ruins of ancient Nicopolis and looted various treasures. These were later taken by the troops of Ali Pasha, who defeated the French and their Greek allies.

Various battles fought in this area, the latest in 1912, when it was captured by the Greek army during the First Balkan War, have been named "Battle of Nicopolis" rather than "Battle of Preveza".

Archaeology
The ruins of Nicopolis, now known as Palaea Preveza ("Old Preveza"), lie about 5 km north of the town, on a small bay of the Gulf of Arta (Sinus Ambracius) at the narrowest part of the isthmus of the peninsula which separates the Gulf from the Ionian Sea. Besides the Acropolis, the most conspicuous features are:
 The Actium monument of Augustus
a theatre ( with 77 rows of seats)
an Odeon
large sections of the original walls

an aqueduct which brought water to the town from the Louros river over a distance of about 50 km. The aqueduct bridge over the river downstream from the source is one of the very few remaining in Greece today. The water was finally brought to the Nymphaeum in the city which also contained a header tank from where it was further distributed. Remains of the aqueduct in several forms of construction are visible in the regions of Thesprotiko, Louros, Stefani-Oropos, Archangelos and Nicopolis. Recent research has assigned its construction to Hadrian's rule, in the 2nd century AD. Ancient sources mention that in the 4th C AD the aqueduct needed several repairs which were undertaken by Emperor Julian. The Aqueduct ceased to operate in the mid 5th century.

the nympheum or great fountain.
the baths (thermae)
the Roman villa of Antoninus with beautiful mosaic
the stadium, was the location of the famous Actian Games, together with the nearby gymnasium, theatre and hippodrome. It was located in the so-called 'Proasteion' (sacred grove) of Nicopolis. Dating from just after the city's foundation, the stadium has two semicircular ends (sphendones), typical of the Roman amphitheatre type. The stadiums of ancient Laodicea (near Pamukkale, Turkey) and Aphrodisias (Geyre, Turkey) have a similar architecture. The north side of the stadium, which must have held a capacity of at least 10,000 spectators, was built on the side of a hill, while artificial deposits were used for the other sides. The walls were made of a rubble core faced with several courses of bricks. On the west side of the stadium were three apsidal entrances leading to the gymnasium, the central one larger than the others. The entrances in the sphendone at the east led to the theatre nearby. On the sphendone at the south side there were residential rooms and facilities for athletes and spectators (inns, shops, lodgings etc.)
The nearby Archaeological Museum of Nikopolis contains many exhibits.

See also
 List of cities in ancient Epirus
 List of traditional Greek place names
 Early centers of Christianity#Greece

References

Parts of this page are translated from the French version of this topic.

External links

 Preveza Weather Station SV6GMQ – Live Weather Conditions (in English and Greek)

Roman towns and cities in Greece
Cities in ancient Epirus
Coloniae (Roman)
30s BC establishments
31 BC
Former populated places in Greece
Roman Epirus
Epirus (Roman province)
Populated places in ancient Acarnania
Populated places in ancient Epirus
Preveza
Catholic titular sees in Europe
Archaeological sites in Epirus (region)

Nicopolis


An Poa spicigera in uska species han Liliopsida nga ginhulagway ni Oscar Tovar. An Poa spicigera in nahilalakip ha genus nga Poa, ngan familia nga Poaceae. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Poa

Poa spicigera


Akgüney, Bayramören - Çankırı ili Bayramören ilçesine bağlı köy
 Akgüney, İspir - Erzurum ili İspir ilçesine bağlı mahalle
 Akgüney, Beylikova - Eskişehir ili Beylikova ilçesine bağlı mahalle
 Akgüney, İnebolu - Kastamonu ili İnebolu ilçesine bağlı köy
 Akgüney, Kabadüz - Ordu ili Kabadüz ilçesine bağlı mahalle
 Akgüney, Alaçam - Samsun ili Alaçam ilçesine bağlı mahalle
 Akgüney, Gerze - Sinop ili Gerze ilçesine bağlı köy

Akgüney


334 is a 1972 dystopian science fiction novel by American writer Thomas M. Disch. It is set in New York City in the year 2025, depicting a future marked by limited technological advancements, overpopulation, and stark class divisions. The title alludes to the address of the housing project where most of the characters reside, 334 East 11th Street, as well to the year 334 AD in the historical context of the decline of the Roman Empire; numerous comparisons are made between the decline of Rome and the future of the United States.

The dust cover design for the first edition was by Michael Hasted.

Plot summary
The future in 334 has brought few technological advances except for new medical techniques and recreational drugs. There have been no dramatic disasters, but overpopulation has made housing and other resources scarce; the response is a program of compulsory birth control and eugenics. A welfare state provides for basic needs through an all-encompassing agency called MODICUM, but there is an extreme class division between welfare recipients and professionals.

The novel consists of five independent novellas (previously published separately) with a common setting but different characters, and a longer sub-novel called "334" whose many short sections trace the members of a single family forward and backward in time. The sections are as follows:

 "The Death of Socrates": A high-school student finds that, due to poor scores on his Regents Examinations and his father's health history, he has been permanently forbidden to have children; he searches for ways to get extra credit.
 "Bodies": Porters at Bellevue Hospital moonlight as body-snatchers catering to a necrophiliac brothel. Their task is complicated by the desire of some patients to be cryonically preserved for a better future.
 "Everyday Life in the Later Roman Empire": A privileged government worker, trying to decide where to send her son to school, pursues a parallel existence in a hallucinogen-assisted role-playing game set in the year 334.
 "Emancipation: A Romance of the Times to Come": A young professional man and woman face marital conflicts and parenthood, with several twists unique to the 2020s.
 "Angouleme": A group of highly educated prepubescent children decides to commit a gratuitous murder in Battery Park.
 "334": Vignettes of the Hanson family from 2021 to 2025.

Characters
 Mrs. Hanson: An elderly widow living at 334. Mother to Lottie, Shrimp, and Boz.
 Lottie Hanson: An unemployed single mother living at 334.
 Shrimp Hanson: Considered genetically desirable for her unusual intelligence, therefore has a free pass from the government to have children, although she is actually motivated by a fetish for artificial insemination.
 Boz Hanson: Unemployed, former resident of 334, managed to leave by marrying Milly.
 Milly Holt: A professional sex demonstrator for the high schools. Was Birdie's girlfriend, now married to Boz.
 Ab Holt: Manages the morgue at Bellevue Hospital. Milly's father.
 Birdie Ludd: A high-school student living as a "temp" in a stairwell of 334.
 Frances Schaap: A prostitute living at 334. Like many people in the 2020s, she has lupus.
 Alexa Miller: A MODICUM administrator, responsible for the Hansons.
 Tancred Miller: Alexa's son.
 Amparo Martinez: Lottie's daughter.
 Bill Harper, aka Little Mister Kissy Lips: Son of a television executive, classmate of Tancred and Amparo.

Critical reception
334 was selected by David Pringle as one of the 100 best science-fiction novels written since World War II.

Samuel R. Delany's The American Shore (1978) is a book-length critical essay on the novella "Angouleme"; Delany argues that despite the lack of any scientific themes in "Angouleme", its speculative setting makes it inherently science fiction.

The novel was nominated for a 1974 Nebula Award. Previously, the novella "334" won a Locus Poll Award in 1973.

Release details
 Original publication of novellas:
 "The Death of Socrates": as "Problems of Creativeness", in The Magazine of Fantasy & Science Fiction, April 1967
 "Bodies": in Quark/ #4, 1971
 "Everyday Life in the Later Roman Empire": in Bad Moon Rising, 1973.
 "Emancipation": in New Dimensions #1, 1971
 "Angouleme": in New Worlds, 1971
 "334": in New Worlds, 1972
 1972, UK, MacGibbon & Kee, , hardcover
 1974, US, Avon Books, paperback
 1974, UK, Sphere, paperback
 1976, US, Gregg Press, hardcover
 1981, Australia, Magnum, paperback
 1987, US, Carroll & Graf, paperback
 1999, US, Vintage Books/Random House, , trade paperback

References

Works cited

External links

 334 annotations at Nitbar

1972 American novels
1972 science fiction novels
American science fiction novels
Dystopian novels
Fiction set in 2025
Novels by Thomas M. Disch
Novels set in Manhattan
Overpopulation fiction
MacGibbon & Kee books

334 (novel)


Jõgeva, Estonya'nın doğusunda 38.000 nüfuslu, merkezi ismi ile aynı adı taşıyan Jõgeva olan, 2.604 km2lik yüzölçümüne sahip bir il.

Şehir Belediyeleri
 Jõgeva
 Mustvee
 Põltsamaa

Belde Belediyeleri
 Jõgeva
 Kasepää
 Pajusi
 Pala
 Palamuse
 Puurmani
 Põltsamaa
 Saare
 Tabivere
 Torma

Galeri

Ayrıca bakınız
 Kuremaa Gölü

Kaynakça

Jõgeva (il)


În chimie, protonarea este reacția de adiție unui proton (H+) la un atom, o moleculă sau un ion, în urma căreia se formează acidul conjugat. Reacțiile de protonare sunt adesea etape în procesele stoechiometrice și catalitice. Unii ioni și molecule pot suferi mai multe reacții succesive de protonare, fiind specii polibazice, fapt cunoscut pentru majoritatea moleculelor biologice. Protonarea și respectiv deprotonarea (eliminarea de proton) au loc în majoritatea reacțiilor acido-bazice, fiind adesea și etape esențiale în cadrul desfășurării unor mecanisme de reacție în chimia organică.

Exemple
Câteva exemple sunt:
protonarea apei cu acid sulfuric:
H2SO4 + H2O  H3O+ +
protonarea izobutenei cu formarea unui carbocation:
(CH3)2C=CH2 + HBF4  (CH3)3C+ +
protonarea amoniacului cu acid clorhidric, cu formarea clorurii de amoniu:
NH3(g) + HCl(g) → NH4Cl(s)
 autoprotonarea apei din autoionizarea moleculară formând ionii hidroniu și hidroxid:
H2O + H2O   +
 autoprotonarea amoniacului din autoionizarea moleculară formând ionii amoniu și amidură:
NH3 + NH3   +

Viteza de reacție
Reacțiile de protonare au loc adesea rapid, în mare parte datorită mobilității ridicare a protonilor în mulți solvenți. Viteza reacției de protonare este strâns legată de aciditatea speciei chimice care protonează: acizii slabi vor protona mai greu o bază decât acizii tari. Vitezele reacțiilor de protonare și de deprotonare sunt în special scăzute atunci când reacțiile au ca rezultat inducerea unor modificări structurale.

Vezi și
 Constantă de aciditate
 Deprotonare
 Mecanism de reacție
 Proton

Referințe

Mecanisme de reacție

Protonare


Cloralhidratul este un diol geminal cu formula chimică C2H3Cl3O2. Este un solid incolor care era folosit în trecut ca medicament cu efect sedativ și hipnotic. Utilizările sale în prezent sunt cele de precursor în sinteza chimică. Este derivat de la cloral (tricloroacetaldehidă), printr-o reacție de adiție de apă.

Cloralhidratul a fost descoperit în anul 1832 de către Justus von Liebig, care a realizat o reacție de clorurare a etanolului. Primele informații referitoare la proprietățile sale sedative au fost publicate în 1869 iar ulterior, datorită sintezei sale ușoare, a fost utilizat pe larg.

Obținere
Cloralhidratul se obține în urma reacției dintre clor și etanol în mediu acid. În mediu alcalin are loc o reacție haloformă, când are loc descompunerea clorahidratului la cloroform.

4 Cl2 + C2H5OH + H2O → Cl3CCH(OH)2 + 5 HCl

De asemenea, o cantitate mică de cloralhidrat se regăsește în apele clorurate.

Proprietăți

Vezi și
 Cloral
 Sedativ

Referințe

Aldehide
Sedative
Hipnotice
Hidrați
Organocloruri
Dioli

Cloralhidrat


Tratatul de la Turkmenchay a fost un tratat de pace dintre Persia (Iranul contemporan) și Imperiul Rus care a pus capăt Războiului Ruso-Persan din 1826-1828 . A fost semnat la 10 februarie 1828 în Turkmenchay, Iran. Prin tratat Persia a cedat o serie de regiuni din sudul Caucazului: Hanatul Erevanului, Hanatul Nahicevan și ceea ce a mai rămas din Hanatul Talîș. Granița dintre Rusia și Persia a fost stabilită pe râul Aras. În prezent aceste teritorii cuprind Armenia, părțile sudice ale Azerbaidjanului, Nahicevan și provincia Iğdır din Turcia.

Tratatul a fost semnat de prințul moștenitor Abbas Mirza și Allah-Yar Khan Asaf al-Daula (cancelarul șahului Fath Ali) din partea Persiei, și de generalul Ivan Paskievici din partea Rusiei. Ca și în cazul Tratatului de la Gulistan din 1813, Imperiul Rus și-a impus condițiile în urma victoriei militare asupra Persiei, Paskievici amenințând că va ocupa în câteva zile Teheranul dacă tratatul nu este semnat.

Prin tratatele de la Gulistan (1813) și Turkmenchay (1828) Rusia a reușit să cucerească toate teritoriile Iranului din Caucaz, inclusiv Daghestanul, estul Georgiei, Azerbaidjanul și Armenia de astăzi, regiuni care înainte de asta au făcut parte din statul persan timp de secole.

O consecință directă a acestor două tratate a fost ocupația rusă a teritoriilor date pe parcursul următorilor 180 de ani, cu excepția Daghestanului, care se află în componență Rusiei până în prezent. După destrămarea Uniunii Sovietice în 1991 în această zonă a Caucazului s-au format trei state independente: Georgia, Azerbaidjan și Armenia. O altă consecință importantă a fost separarea atât a azerilor, cât și a talîșilor în două state diferite: Azerbaidjan și Iran.

Condițiile tratatului

 Articolul 3 și 4: Persia a cedat Rusiei Hanatul Erevanului (centrul Armeniei de astăzi), Hanatul Nahicevan (o mare parte din Republica Autonomă Nahicevan din Azerbaidjanul contemporan), Hanatul Talîș (sud-estul Azerbaidjanului), regiunile Ordubad și Mughan (de asemenea în componența Azerbaidjanului de astăzi) și s-au confirmat încă o dată cesiunile teritoriale făcute prin Tratatul de la Gulistan.
 Articolul 6: Persia a promis să plătească Rusiei 10 crore în aur sau 20 milioane de ruble de argint.
 Articolul 7: Rusia a promis să-l sprijine pe Abbas Mirza în calitate de moștenitor al tronului Persiei după moartea șahului Fath Ali (clauză care a devenit de prisos atunci când Abbas Mirza a decedat înaintea șahului).
 Articolul 8: Corăbiile militare persane au pierdut dreptul de a naviga în Marea Caspică, acesta devenind privilegiul exclusiv al Rusiei.
 Articolul 10: A fost confirmat din nou dreptul Rusiei de a trimite reprezentanți consulari și agenți comerciali oriunde în Persia.
 Articolul 13: Prevederi în privința schimbului prizonierilor de război.
 Articolul 15: Șahul Fath Ali a promis să nu persecute niciun locuitor sau oficial din provincia iraniană a Azerbaidjanului pentru acțiunile lor din timpul războiului sau al ocupației temporare rusești. În plus toți locuitorii din regiune au obținut dreptul de a se muta cu traiul din districtele persane în cele rusești sau invers (valabil timp de un an de la semnarea tratatului).

Tratatul a stipulat de asemenea strămutarea armenilor din Azebaidjanul iranian în Caucaz, ceea ce a inclus și eliberarea necondiționată a tuturor armenilor luați în captivitate de Persia începând cu anul 1804 sau 1795. Acest transfer de populație a înlocuit 20.000 de armeni care s-au mutat în Georgia între 1795 și 1827.

Iranul și teritoriile cedate înainte de tratat

Din Cambridge History of Iran:

Consecințe

Potrivit prof. Alexander Mikaberidze:

O consecință directă a acestor două tratate a fost ocupația rusă a teritoriilor date pe parcursul următorilor 180 de ani, cu excepția Daghestanului, care se află în componență Rusiei până în prezent. După destrămarea Uniunii Sovietice în 1991 în această zonă a Caucazului s-au format trei state independente: Georgia, Azerbaidjan și Armenia. O altă consecință importantă a fost separarea atât a azerilor, cât și a talîșilor în două state diferite: Azerbaidjan și Iran.

Masacrul de la ambasada rusă

După sfârșitul războiului și semnarea tratatului, în Persia au început să se răspândească sentimentele antirusești. La 11 februarie 1829 o mulțime furioasă a luat cu asalt ambasada rusă din Teheran și i-a ucis aproape pe toți cei din interior. Printre victime s-a aflat nou-numitul ambasador în Persia, Aleksandr Griboiedov, care pe lângă asta mai era și un compozitor renumit. Anterior acesta a jucat un rol important în cadrul negocierilor pentru semnarea Tratatului de la Turkmenchay.

Referințe

Bibliografie
 H. Pir Nia, Abbas Eghbal Ashtiani, B. Agheli. History of Persia. Tehran, 2002. p. 673-686. ISBN 964-6895-16-6

Tratate internaționale
Secolul al XIX-lea în Azerbaidjan

Tratatul de la Turkmenchay


Tra or TRA may refer to:

Biology
 TRA (gene), in humans encodes the protein T-cell receptor alpha locus
 Tra (gene), in Drosophila melanogaster encodes the protein female-specific protein transformer
 Tra gene, a transfer gene
 Triple releasing agent or serotonin-norepinephrine-dopamine releasing agent

Organizations
 Taiwan Railways Administration, the main railway system in Taiwan
 Tanzania Revenue Authority
 Telecommunications Regulatory Authority of Lebanon
 Telecommunications Regulatory Authority (UAE)
 Tennessee Regulatory Authority, for public utilities
 Theodore Roosevelt Association
 TRA, Inc., US ad measurement company
 Trinity River Authority, Texas, US
 Tripoli Rocketry Association, US

People
 Tra Hoa Bo Dê, King of Champa (in what is now southern Vietnam) 1342−1360
 Phạm Văn Trà (born 1935), Vietnamese general
 Trần Văn Trà (1918–1996), North Vietnamese general
 William Tra Thomas (born 1974), former US footballer

Other
 tRA (baseball statistic)
 Taiwan Relations Act of the US, 1979
 Tarama Airport, IATA code
 Tax Receivable Agreements, a type of legal contract
 Theory of reasoned action, a model of persuasion
 Threat and risk assessment
 Tirahi language of Afghanistan, ISO 639-3 code
 Constellation Triangulum Australe
 Transport Research Arena, European conference
 Trans Rights Activist
 "Tra", a song by Bad Gyal from her 2018 album Worldwide Angel
 "Tra", a song by Soto Asa featuring Bad Gyal

TRA


An Luisia primulina in uska species han Liliopsida nga ginhulagway ni E.C.Parish ngan Heinrich Gustav Reichenbach. An Luisia primulina in nahilalakip ha genus nga Luisia, ngan familia nga Orchidaceae.

Mabibilngan ini ha Myanmar. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Luisia

Luisia primulina


O Grande Prêmio da França de 2022 (formalmente denominado Formula 1 Lenovo Grand Prix De France 2022) foi a décima segunda etapa da temporada de  da Fórmula 1. Foi disputado em 24 de julho de 2022 no Circuito Paul Ricard, em Le Castellet, França.

Resumo

Contexto

Qualificação

Q1

Q2

Q3

Corrida

Resultados

Treino classificatório

 Notas
  – Carlos Sainz Jr. e Kevin Magnussen foram obrigados a iniciar a corrida na parte de trás do grid por exceder sua cota de elementos da unidade de potência.
  – Pierre Gasly e Lance Stroll definiram o tempo de volta idêntico na qualificação. Gasly foi classificado à frente de Stroll ao definir o tempo da volta mais cedo.

Corrida

Notas

 – Guanyu Zhou foi classificado ao completar mais de 90% da distância da corrida. Ele também recebeu uma penalidade de cinco segundos por causar uma colisão com Mick Schumacher. Sua posição final não foi afetada pela penalidade.

Curiosidades

 Max Verstappen conquista a 27ª vitória na carreira e iguala o mesmo número de vitórias do escocês Jackie Stewart.
 Quarto pódio consecutivo de Lewis Hamilton.
 Tricentésimo grande prêmio de Lewis Hamilton.

Voltas na liderança

2022 DHL Fastest Pit Stop Award

Resultado

Classificação

 Tabela do DHL Fastest Pit Stop Award

Tabela do campeonato após a corrida
Somente as cinco primeiras posições estão incluídas nas tabelas.

 Tabela do campeonato de pilotos

 Tabela do campeonato de construtores

Ligações externas

França
Desporto na França em 2022
2022
Eventos desportivos de julho de 2022

Grande Prêmio da França de 2022


The year 1933 in architecture involved some significant architectural events and new buildings.

Events
 The Bauhaus school in Berlin is permanently closed by the Nazi government.
 Modern Architectural Research Group (MARS Group) established as a think tank by younger architects and critics involved in the modernist movement in Great Britain.
 Completion of restoration of Herstmonceux Castle in England by Walter Godfrey.

Buildings and structures

Buildings opened
 February 21 – Nebotičnik skyscraper, Ljubljana, Yugoslavia, designed by Vladimir Šubic.
 July – New Midland Hotel, Morecambe, Lancashire, England, designed by Oliver Hill.
 August 23 – Leeds Civic Hall, Yorkshire, England, designed by Vincent Harris in 1926.
 November 29 – Schwandbach Bridge, Switzerland, designed by Robert Maillart.
 Royal Masonic Hospital (later Ravenscourt Park Hospital) at Ravenscourt Park in London, designed by Thomas S. Tait of Sir John Burnet, Tait and Lorne.
 Labworth Café on Canvey Island, England, designed by engineer Ove Arup.

Buildings completed

 St Gabriel's Anglican Church in Blackburn, England, designed by F. X. Velarde.
 Városmajori Roman Catholic church in Budapest, completed by Bertalan Árkay following the death in 1932 of his father Aladár Árkay.
 Myer Emporium renovation, Bourke Street, Melbourne, Australia.
 The Round House, designed by Berthold Lubetkin's Tecton Architectural Group to house gorillas at London Zoo, one of the first modernist buildings in Britain.
 Battersea Power Station, London, with Giles Gilbert Scott as consultant architect, begins operation.
 College Hall, Royal Air Force College Cranwell, England, designed by James Grey West.
 Mardon Hall, first of the University of Exeter Halls of Residence in England, designed by Vincent Harris.
 Darbishire Quad at Somerville College, Oxford, England, designed by Morley Horder.
 Mercado de Abastos de Algeciras (market hall), Spain, designed by Eduardo Torroja.
 Villa Markelius in Stockholm, designed by Sven Markelius for himself.
 Schminke house in Löbau, Germany, designed by Hans Scharoun.
 Engel House, White City (Tel Aviv), Mandatory Palestine, designed by Zeev Rechter.
 Töss Footbridge, Winterthur, Switzerland, designed by Robert Maillart.

Awards
 AIA Gold Medal – Ragnar Östberg.
 RIBA Royal Gold Medal – Charles Reed Peers.
 Grand Prix de Rome, architecture – Alexandre Courtois.

Publications
 John Betjeman – Ghastly Good Taste, or the depressing story of the rise and fall of British architecture.
 The Information Book of Sir John Burnet, Tait & Lorne.

Births
 February 2 – Rodney Gordon, British architect (died 2008)
 June 25 – Álvaro Siza Vieira, Portuguese architect and architectural educator
 July 23
 Raimund Abraham, Austrian architect (died 2010)
 Richard Rogers, Italian-born British modernist and functionalist architect (died 2021)
 October 29 – John Andrews, Australian architect (died 2022)
 November 4 – Terje Moe, Norwegian architect (died 2009)
 November 24 - Isaac Fola-Alade, Nigerian architect (1004 Estate) (died  2021)

Deaths

 January – Edward Lippincott Tilton, American architect based in New York (born 1861)
 March 10 – Émile André, French architect, artist and furniture designer (born 1871)
 April 16 – Harold Peto, English architect and garden designer (born 1854)
 August 8
 Luca Beltrami, Italian architect and architectural historian (born 1854)
 Adolf Loos, Austrian/Czechoslovak architect and writer (born 1870)
 December 4 – W. G. R. Sprague, British theatre architect (born 1863)
 December 24 – Sir Frank Baines, English architect (born 1877)

References

1933 in architecture


බාර්ක්ලේ ගෝර්ඩන් "බඩී" රීඩ් (උපත 4 නොවැම්බර් 1940) යනු, 1960 ගණන් වලදී,  ලංකාව වෙනුවෙන් පළමු-පෙල ක්‍රිකට්  ක්‍රීඩා කල, හිටපු ක්‍රිකට් ක්‍රීඩකයෙකි.

බඩී රීඩ් උගත් ශාස්ත්‍රාලයන් වූයේ,  ශාන්ත තෝමස් විද්‍යාලය, ගල්කිස්ස සහ, ඔහු වෛද්‍ය විද්‍යාව හැදෑරූ කොළඹ විශ්වවිද්‍යාලය වෙති. ලංකාවේ ක්‍රිකට් පාලක මණ්ඩල සභාපතිගේ XI වෙනුවෙන්, 1964 මාර්තු මාසයේදී,   ඔහු විසින් සිය පළමු-පෙල මංගලාවතරණය සිදු කලේ, මදුරාසි කණ්ඩායමට එරෙහිව ගෝපාලන් කුසලාන තරගයකදී වන අතර, තෙවන ස්ථානයේ පිතිකරණයේ යෙදෙමින් ලකුණු 46 (ඉනිමෙහි වැඩිම ලකුණු සංඛ්‍යාව) සහ ලකුණු 22 රැස් කරමින් කඩුළු-සයක ජයග්‍රහණයකට දායකත්වය සැපයීය.

ඊළඟ සය වසර තුලදී ලංකාව වෙනුවෙන් තරග බොහෝමයක ඔහු තරග කල අතර, සාමාන්‍යයෙන් පිතිකරණය ආරම්භ කල අතර විටන් විට පා-බිඳුම් පන්දු යැවීය. එම්සීසී සමාජයට එරෙහිව 1968-69 දී ලංකා කණ්ඩායම ඔහු විසින් මෙහෙයවන ලද අතර, ඔහුගේ වැඩිම ලකුණු සංඛ්‍යාව වන, නොදැවී ලකුණු 50, දෙවන ඉනිමේදී රැස් කලේය.  මින් පෙර තරග වාරයෙහිදී, ඔහුගේ හොඳම පන්දු වැවීම් සටහන වූ, ලකුණු 19 ලබාදී කඩුළු 4 දවා ගැනීම වාර්තා කලේ, ලංකා ගමනාගමන මණ්ඩලය වෙනුවෙන්,   මොයින්-අඩ්-ඩවුලා ගෝල්ඩ් කප් තරගාවලියෙහි ක්‍රීඩා කරමිනි.

ඔහු සහ ඔහුගේ බිරිය හා දුව, ඕස්ට්‍රේලියාවට සංක්‍රමණය වූ අතර, එහිදී ඔහු දිගටම වෛද්‍ය වෘත්තියෙහි නියැලිණි. ටේබල් ටෙනිස් ක්‍රීඩාවෙහිදීද ඔහු ලංකාව සහ ඕස්ට්‍රේලියාව නියෝජනය කර ඇත.

ආශ්‍රිත

1940 උපත්
ක්‍රිකට් ක්‍රීඩකයෝ

බඩී රීඩ්


Mary-Kate Olsen (n. 13 iunie 1986) este sora geamănă a lui Ashley Olsen. Ea a jucat cu sora ei în multe spoturi publicitare și filme din anii '90 și prima jumătate a anilor 2000, urmată de o perioadă în care a jucat singură până în 2012.

Note

Legături externe

Mary-Kate Olsen  la TV.com

Nașteri în 1986
Actrițe americane din secolul al XXI-lea
Americani în viață

Mary-Kate Olsen


San Fernando ist eine philippinische Stadtgemeinde in der Provinz Masbate, in der Verwaltungsregion V, Bicol. Sie hat  Einwohner (Zensus ), die in 26 Barangays lebten. Sie liegt auf der Insel Ticao. Ihre Nachbargemeinden sind San Jacinto im Nordwesten, Batuan im Südosten. Die beiden langen Küstenstreifen der Gemeinde liegen an der Samar-See.

Baranggays

Weblinks

Ort auf den Philippinen

San Fernando (Masbate)


හංගේරියානු භාෂාව () යනු හන්ගේරියාවේ නිල භාෂාවයි.

මූලාශ්‍ර

ආශ්‍රිත
 හන්ගේරියානු සමුහාණ්ඩුව
 යුරෝපියානු සංගමය

භාෂා

හංගේරියානු භාෂාව


A Cook's Tour: In Search of the Perfect Meal, sometimes later published as A Cook's Tour: Global Adventures in Extreme Cuisines, is a New York Times bestselling book written by chef and author Anthony Bourdain in 2001. It is Bourdain's account of his world travels – eating exotic local dishes and experiencing life as a native in each country.  The book was simultaneously made into a television series featuring Bourdain for the Food Network.

Locations
Bourdain's travels included Portugal, France, Vietnam, Russia, Morocco, Japan, Cambodia, Mexico, Spain, and French Laundry in Napa Valley.

Foods
He tries such exotic dishes as pufferfish, still beating cobra heart, "lobster blood" (a mix of lobster sexual organs and vodka), and soft-boiled balut - duck embryo with half-formed bones and feathers.

Award
The book was named 2002 Food Book of the Year by the British Guild of Food Writers.

Title
The title is derived from "Cook's Tour", a British idiomatic phrase meaning a brief or cursory guide to a subject or place. Its origin is in the trips organized by Thomas Cook in the 19th century.

References

External links
 New York Times review
 A Cook's Tour (Chapter 1)

Books about food and drink
2001 non-fiction books
American travel books
Bloomsbury Publishing books

A Cook's Tour (book)


එයාර් වය්ස් මාර්ෂල් චන්දන වැලිකල (ඉංග්‍රීසි: Chandana Welikala) USP යනු  ශ්‍රී ලංකා ගුවන් හමුදා නිලධාරියෙක් වන අතර ඔහු අධ්‍යක්ෂ පරිපාලන ශ්‍රී ලංකා ගුවන් හමුදාව තනතුර හොබයි.

චන්දන වැලිකල  කොළඹ නාලන්දා විද්‍යාලයයේ ආදි සිසුවෙකි.

ආශ්‍රිත

කොළඹ නාලන්දා විද්‍යාලයයේ ආදි සිසු හමුදා නිලධරයන්

 එයාර් වය්ස් මාර්ෂල් චන්දන වැලිකල  පරිපාලන අධ්‍යක්ෂක ශ්‍රී ලංකා ගුවන් හමුදාව

චරිත කතා
ශ්‍රී ලාංකිකයෝ
ශ්‍රී ලංකා ගුවන් හමුදා නිලධාරීන්
ශ්‍රී ලාංකික බෞද්ධයෝ
ලාංකික සිංහලයෝ
ආදි නාලන්දියයෝ

චන්දන වැලිකල


.tp Doğu Timor için internet ülke kodu üst seviye alan adıdır. (CcTLD) ISO kodu TL olarak değişti. Şimdilik .tp kullanılmıyor.

Doğu Timor'da iletişim
Doğu Timor medyası
tp

.tp


An Otochilus albus in uska species han Liliopsida nga ginhulagway ni John Lindley. An Otochilus albus in nahilalakip ha genus nga Otochilus, ngan familia nga Orchidaceae. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Otochilus

Otochilus albus