In a physical examination, medical examination, or clinical examination, a medical practitioner examines a patient for any possible medical signs or symptoms of a medical condition. It generally consists of a series of questions about the patient's medical history followed by an examination based on the reported symptoms. Together, the medical history and the physical examination help to determine a diagnosis and devise the treatment plan. These data then become part of the medical record.

Types

Routine
The routine physical, also known as general medical examination, periodic health evaluation, annual physical, comprehensive medical exam, general health check, preventive health examination, medical check-up, or simply medical, is a physical examination performed on an asymptomatic patient for medical screening purposes.  These are normally performed by a pediatrician, family practice physician, a physical therapist, physician assistant, a certified nurse practitioner or other primary care provider. This routine physical exam usually includes the HEENT evaluation. Nursing professionals such as Registered Nurse, Licensed Practical Nurses can develop a baseline assessment to identify normal versus abnormal findings. These are reported to the primary care provider. If necessary, the patient may be sent to a medical specialist for further, more detailed examinations.

The term is generally not meant to include visits for the purpose of newborn checks, Pap smears for cervical cancer, or regular visits for people with certain chronic medical disorders (for example, diabetes). The general medical examination generally involves a medical history, a (brief or complete) physical examination and sometimes laboratory tests. Some more advanced tests include ultrasound and mammography.

If done for a group of people the routine physical is a form of screening, as the aim of the examination is to detect early signs of diseases to prevent them.

Evidence
Although annual medical examinations are a routine practice in several countries, examinations performed on an asymptomatic patient are poorly supported by scientific evidence in the majority of the population. A Cochrane Collaboration meta-study found that routine annual physicals did not measurably reduce the risk of illness or death, and conversely, could lead to overdiagnosis and over-treatment; however, this article does not conclude that being in regular communication with a doctor is not important, simply that an actual physical examination may not be necessary.

Some notable general health organisations recommend against annual examinations, and propose a frequency adapted to age and previous examination results (risk factors). The specialist American Cancer Society recommends a cancer-related health check-up annually in men and women older than 40, and every three years for those older than 20.

A systematic review of studies until September 2006 concluded that the examination does result in better delivery of some other screening interventions (such as Pap smears, cholesterol screening, and faecal occult blood tests) and less patient worry. Evidence supports several of these individual screening interventions. The effects of annual check-ups on overall costs, patient disability and mortality, disease detection, and intermediate end points such a blood pressure or cholesterol, are inconclusive. A recent study found that the examination is associated with increased participation in cancer screening.

Some employers  require a mandatory health checkup before hiring a candidate, even though it is now well known that some of the components of the prophylactic annual visit may actually cause harm. For example, lab tests and exams that are performed on healthy patients (as opposed to people with symptoms or known illnesses) are statistically more likely to be "false positives"—that is, when test results suggest a problem that does not exist. Disadvantages cited include the time and money that could be saved by targeted screening (health economics argument), increased anxiety over health risks (medicalisation), overdiagnosis, wrong diagnosis (for example athletic heart syndrome misdiagnosed as hypertrophic cardiomyopathy) and harm, or even death, resulting from unnecessary testing to detect or confirm, often non-existent, medical problems or while performing routine procedures as a followup after screening.

The lack of good evidence contrasts with population surveys showing that the general public is fond of these examinations, especially when they are free of charge. Despite guidelines recommending against routine annual examinations, many family physicians perform them. A fee-for-service healthcare system has been suggested to promote this practice. An alternative would be to tailor the screening interval to the age, sex, medical conditions and risk factors of each patient. This means choosing between a wide variety of tests.

Prevalence
The routine physical is commonly performed in the United States and Japan, whereas the practice varies among South East Asia and mainland European countries. In Japan it is required by law for regular working employees to have a health check once a year.

History
The roots of the periodic medical examination are not entirely clear. They seem to have been advocated since the 1920s. Some authors point to pleads from the 19th and early 20th century for the early detection of diseases like tuberculosis, and periodic school health examinations. The advent of medical insurance and related commercial influences seems to have promoted the examination, whereas this practice has been subject to controversy in the age of evidence-based medicine. Several studies have been performed before current evidence-based recommendation for screening were formulated, limiting the applicability of these studies to current-day practice.

Comprehensive
Comprehensive physical exams, also known as executive physicals, typically include laboratory tests, chest x-rays, pulmonary function testing, audiograms, full body CAT scanning, EKGs, heart stress tests, vascular age tests, urinalysis, and mammograms or prostate exams depending on gender.

Pre-employment
Pre-employment examinations are screening tests which judge the suitability of a worker for hire based on the results of their physical examination.  This is also called pre-employment medical clearance. Some employers believe that by only hiring workers whose physical examination results pass certain exclusionary criteria, their employees collectively will have fewer absences due to sickness, fewer workplace injuries, and less occupational disease. A small amount of low-quality evidence in medical research supports this idea. Furthermore, the cost of staff health insurance will be lower. However, certain exams or tests that are requested by employers, such as a baseline low back x-ray, should not be performed, according to the American College of Occupational and Environmental Medicine. Reasons for this include the legality and medical necessity of the test as well as the inability of such testing to predict future problems, the radiation exposure to the worker, and the cost of the exam.

Insurance
A physical examination may be provided under health insurance cover, required of new insurance customers. This is a part of insurance medicine. In the United States, physicals are also marketed to patients as a one-stop health review, avoiding the inconvenience of attending multiple appointments with different healthcare providers.

Uses

Diagnosis
Physical examinations are performed in most healthcare encounters.  For example, a physical examination is performed when a patient visits complaining of flu-like symptoms.  These diagnostic examinations usually focus on the patient's chief complaint.

Screening
General health checks, including physical examinations performed when the patient reported no health concerns, often include medical screening for common conditions, such as high blood pressure.  A Cochrane review found that general health checks did not reduce the risk of death from cancer, heart disease, or any other cause, and could not be proved to affect the patient's likelihood of being admitted to the hospital, becoming disabled, missing work, or needing additional office visits. The study found no effect on the risk of illness, but did find evidence suggesting that patients subject to routine physicals were diagnosed with hypertension and other chronic conditions at a higher rate than those who were not. Its authors noted that studies often failed to consider or report possible harmful outcomes (such as unwarranted anxiety or unnecessary follow-up procedures), and concluded that routine health checks were "unlikely to be beneficial" in regards to lowering cardiovascular and cancer morbidity and mortality.

Doctor-patient relations

Physical examination has been described as a ritual that plays a significant role in the doctor-patient relationship that will provide benefits in other medical encounters. When a physical exam is expected by the patient but is not performed by the provider, patients may express concern for the lack of depth of investigation into their illness, the validity of treatment plans and exclusions, and the doctor-patient relationship.

Format and interpretation

A physical examination may include checking vital signs, including temperature examination, blood pressure, pulse, and respiratory rate. The healthcare provider uses the senses of sight, hearing, touch, and sometimes smell (e.g., in infection, uremia, diabetic ketoacidosis). Taste has been made redundant by the availability of modern lab tests. Four actions are taught as the basis of physical examination: inspection, palpation (feel), percussion (tap to determine resonance characteristics), and auscultation (listen).

Scope
Although providers have varying approaches as to the sequence of body parts, a systematic examination generally starts at the head and finishes at the extremities and includes evaluation of general patient appearance and specific organ systems. After the main organ systems have been investigated by inspection, palpation, percussion, and auscultation, specific tests may follow (such as a neurological investigation, orthopedic examination) or specific tests when a particular disease is suspected (e.g. eliciting Trousseau's sign in hypocalcemia).

While the format of examination as listed below is largely as taught and expected of students, a specialist will focus on their particular field and the nature of the problem described by the patient. Hence a cardiologist will not in routine practice undertake neurological parts of the examination other than noting that the patient is able to use all four limbs on entering the consultation room and during the consultation become aware of their hearing, eyesight, and speech. Likewise an orthopaedic surgeon will examine the affected joint, but may only briefly check the heart sounds and chest to ensure that there is not likely to be any contraindication to surgery raised by the anaesthetist. A primary care physician will also generally examine the male genitals but may leave the examination of the female genitalia to a gynecologist.

With the clues obtained during the history and physical examination the healthcare provider can now formulate a differential diagnosis, a list of potential causes of the symptoms.  Specific diagnostic tests (or occasionally empirical therapy) generally confirm the cause, or shed light on other, previously overlooked, causes. The physical exam is then recorded in the medical record in a standard layout which facilitates billing and other providers later reading the notes.
While elective physical exams have become more elaborate, in routine use physical exams have become less complete. This has led to editorials in medical journals about the importance of an adequate physical examination. Physicians at Stanford University medical school have introduced a set of 25 key physical examination skills that were felt to be useful.

Recording

Depending upon the chief complaint, additional sections may be included. For example, hearing may be evaluated with a specific Weber test and Rinne test, or it may be more briefly addressed in a cranial nerve exam. To give another example, a neurological related complaint might be evaluated with a specific test, such as the Romberg maneuver.

History
The medical history and physical examination were supremely important to diagnosis before advanced health technology was developed, and even today, despite advances in medical imaging and molecular medical tests, the history and physical remain indispensable steps in evaluating any patient. Before the 19th century, the history and physical examination were nearly the only diagnostic tools the physician had, which explains why tactile skill and ingenious appreciation in the exam were so highly valued in the definition of what made for a good physician. Even as late as 1890, the world had no radiography or fluoroscopy, only early and limited forms of electrophysiologic testing, and no molecular biology as we know it today. Ever since this peak of the importance of the physical examination, reviewers have warned that clinical practice and medical education need to remain vigilant in appreciating the continuing need for physical examination and effectively teaching the skills to perform it; this call is ongoing, as the 21st-century literature shows.

Society and culture

People may request modesty in medical settings when the health care provider examines them.

In many Western societies, a physical exam is required to participate in extracurricular sporting activities. During the physical examination, the doctor will examine the genitals, including the penis and testicles. The doctor may ask the teenager to cough while examining the scrotum. Although this can be embarrassing for an adolescent male, it is necessary to help evaluate the presence of inguinal hernias or tumors.

See also

References

Athletic training
Practice of medicine
General practice
Prevention

Physical examination


Cette page présente les albums musicaux numéro 1 chaque semaine en 2016 au Billboard 200, le classement officiel des ventes d'albums aux États-Unis établi par le magazine Billboard. Les cinq meilleures ventes annuelles sont également listées.

Classement hebdomadaire

Classement annuel
Les 5 meilleures ventes d'albums de l'année aux États-Unis selon Billboard :

 Adele - 25
 Drake - Views
 Justin Bieber - Purpose
 Beyoncé - Lemonade
 Rihanna - Anti

Article connexe
 Liste des titres musicaux numéro un aux États-Unis en 2016

Notes et références

Lien externe
Classement des albums sur Billboard.com

États-Unis
2016 aux États-Unis

Liste des albums musicaux numéro un au Billboard 200 en 2016


Underverden er en dansk film fra 2017 instrueret af Fenar Ahmad efter manuskript af Fenar Ahmad og Adam August.

Filmen blev hyldet af anmelderne og set af over 180.000 i biograferne. Den vandt prisen for bedste manuskript og årets publikumspris ved Bodilprisen 2018.

'Underverden' er Fenar Ahmads anden spillefilm. Han instruerede den, efter at han var slået igennem med dramaet Ækte vare.

Medvirkende
Dar Salim som Zaid
Roland Møller som Claus
Stine Fischer Christensen som Stine
Jacob Lohmann som Torben
Dulfi Al-Jabouri som Alex
Ali Sivandi som Semion
Joen Højerslev som Anton
Anis Alobaidi som Yasin
B. Branco som Branco
Mira Al-Ashawah som babyen

Referencer

Eksterne henvisninger

Danske film fra 2017
Actionfilm fra Danmark
Thrillerfilm fra Danmark
Dansksprogede film
Film instrueret af Fenar Ahmad
Værker om organiseret kriminalitet

Underverden (film)


Nirad Chandra Chaudhuri CBE (23 November 1897 –  1 August 1999) was an Indian writer.

In 1990, Oxford University awarded Chaudhuri, by then a long-time resident of the city of Oxford, an Honorary Degree in Letters. In 1992, he was made an honorary Commander of the Order of the British Empire (CBE).

Biography
Chaudhuri was born in Kishoregunj, Mymensingh, East Bengal, British India (now Bangladesh), the second of eight children of Upendra Narayan Chaudhuri, a lawyer, and of Sushila Sundarani Chaudhurani. His parents were liberal middle-class Hindus who belonged to the Brahmo Samaj movement.

Chaudhuri was a prolific writer even in the last years of his life, publishing his last work at the age of 99. His wife Amiya Chaudhuri died in 1994 in Oxford, England. He too died in Oxford, three months short of his 102nd birthday, in 1999. He lived at 20 Lathbury Road from 1982 until his death and a blue plaque was installed by the Oxfordshire Blue Plaques Board in 2008.

Dr. Sumantra Maitra named him the forgotten visionary of British India, in a review essay for The Spectator.

Major works
His masterpiece, The Autobiography of an Unknown Indian, published in 1951, put him on the long list of great Indian writers. Chaudhari had said that The Autobiography of an Unknown Indian is 'more of an exercise in descriptive ethnology than autobiography'. He is concerned with describing the conditions  in which an Indian grew to manhood in the early decades of the century, and as he feels that the basic principle of book is that environment shall have precedence over its product; he describes its affectionate and sensuous detail the three places that had the greatest influence on him: Kishoreganj, the country town in which he lived till he was twelve; Bangram; his ancestral village; and Kalikutch, his mother's village. A fourth chapter is devoted to England, which occupied a large place in his imagination. Later in the book he talks about Calcutta, the Bengali Renaissance, the beginnings of the nationalist movement, and his experience of the Englishmen in India as opposed to the idyllic pictures of a civilization he considered perhaps the greatest in the world. These themes remains preoccupations in most of Chaudhari's work, as does his deterministic view of culture and politics.  He courted controversy in the newly independent India due to the dedication of the book, which ran thus:

To the memory of the British Empire in India,
Which conferred subjecthood upon us,
But withheld citizenship.
To which yet every one of us threw out the challenge:
"Civis Britannicus sum"
Because all that was good and living within us
Was made, shaped and quickened
By the same British rule.

It is sometimes stated that 'Chaudhuri was hounded out of government service, deprived of his pension, blacklisted as a writer in India and forced to live a life of penury'. However, as sociologist Edward Shils, who helped Chaudhuri immigrate to the UK, stated in his article 'Citizen of the World' (American Scholar, 1988), Chaudhuri retired at the compulsory age of 55 but was not eligible for a pension because he had not completed sufficient years of service. It is also stated that - 'Furthermore, he had to give up his job as a political commentator on All India Radio as the Government of India promulgated a law that prohibited employees from publishing memoirs.' This is not the case. There was a pre-existing rule that employees must get clearance before publishing anything. Chadhuri was refused an extension of service. He was not asked to prepare any more talks on a free-lance basis because of severe criticism directed at him by senior figures - like Krishna Menon. However, he did publish in non-Government magazines.
Chaudhuri argued that his critics were not careful-enough readers; "the dedication was really a condemnation of the British rulers for not treating us as equals", he wrote in a 1997 special edition of Granta. Typically, to demonstrate his perceptions he drew on a parallel with Ancient Rome. The book's dedication, Chaudhuri observed, "was an imitation of what Cicero said about the conduct of Verres, a Roman proconsul of Sicily who oppressed Sicilian Roman citizens, who in their desperation cried out: "Civis romanus sum".

At the age of 57, in 1955 for the first time Chaudhuri went abroad. After coming back he wrote A Passage to England (1959). In this book he talked about his visit of five weeks to England, and more briefly about his two weeks in Paris and one week in Rome. During this time away from his home in Delhi, he visited museums, galleries, cathedrals, country houses, and attended plays and concerts. Chaudhuri reflects on his experiences from the perspective of a man who had grown up in the British Empire and was now the citizen of an independent India.

His later works include personal essays, biographies and historical studies.

Contemporary Discussions of Chaudhuri's Works

R. K. Dhawan's Nirad C. Chaudhuri: The Scholar Extra Ordinary (Prestige Books, India, 2001; )
Hemant Kumar Jha's Nirad C. Chaudhuri: His Mind and Art (LAP Lambert Academic Publishing, 2014; )
Ian Almond's The Thought of Nirad C. Chaudhuri: Islam, Empire and Loss (Cambridge University Press, 2015; )
Shakti Batra's critical study of Chaudhuri's Autobiography of an Unknown Indian (Surjeet Publications, India, 2019; ).
Alastair Niven provides a fresh view of Chaudhuri and his work, Knowing the Unknown Nirad C. Chaudhuri, which is due to be published for the 25th anniversary of his death (2024).

Honours

 Duff Cooper Memorial Award in 1967
 Ananda Purashkar in 1988
 DLitt from Oxford University in 1990.
 Vidyasagar Purashkar in 1997 by the Govt. of West Bengal
 Desikottama in 1997 by Viswabharati

Books
 The Autobiography of an Unknown Indian (1951)
 A Passage to England (1959)
 The Continent of Circe (1965)
 The Intellectual in India (1967)
 To Live or Not to Live (1971)
 Scholar Extraordinary, The Life of Professor the Right Honourable Friedrich Max Muller, P.C. (1974)
 Culture in the Vanity Bag (1976)
 Clive of India (1975)
 Hinduism: A Religion to Live by (1979)
 Thy Hand, Great Anarch! (1987)
 Three Horsemen of the New Apocalypse (1997)
 The East is East and West is West (collection of pre-published essays)
 From the Archives of a Centenarian (collection of pre-published essays)
 Why I Mourn for England (collection of pre-published essays)

References

External links

 Nirad C. Chaudhuri at the West Bengal Public Library Network
 Chadhuri's Blue Plaque at Lathbury Road in North Oxford
 Naras page
 Merchant Ivory documentary
 Facebook group dedicated to discussion of Chaudhuri and his work
 A page dedicated to research on factual questions regarding Chaudhuri and his work

1897 births
1999 deaths
Bengali historians
Bengali writers
Writers from Kolkata
Honorary Commanders of the Order of the British Empire
Historians of South Asia
Indian autobiographers
Indian centenarians
Indian male essayists
Indian literary critics
Indian memoirists
Indian political writers
Indian writers
Surendranath College alumni
Scottish Church College alumni
University of Calcutta alumni
Recipients of the Sahitya Akademi Award in English
Indian critics of Islam
20th-century Indian biographers
20th-century Indian historians
20th-century Indian essayists
20th-century Indian male writers
20th-century memoirists
Men centenarians
People associated with Shillong
People from Kishoreganj District

Nirad C. Chaudhuri


Sycamore Shoals eller mere korrekt Sycamore Shoals of the Watauga River er nogle strømfald på Watauga River i den nuværende by Elizabethton i Carter County i Tennessee, USA. Arkæologiske udgravninger i området har vist, at oprindelige amerikanere har boet nær strømfaldene siden forhistorisk tid. Stedet blev et samlingspunkt for cherokeserne, især den del af stammen, der kaldtes overhill-cherokees. Da europæerne kom til området, viste det sig, at Sycamore Shoals skulle blive et strategisk vigtigt sted under både den amerikanske uafhængighedskrig og under kampe mod indianere. I dag er området beskyttet som et National Historic Landmark og ligger inden for rammerne af Sycamore Shoals State Historic Park.

Den opdagelsesrejsende James Robertson, som senere grundlagde Nashville, opdagede de frugtbare sletter omkring Sycamore Shoals i 1770 og førte en gruppe nybyggere til området kort efter. I 1772 etablerede disse kolonister en form for lokalregering, Watauga Association, en af de første regeringer vest for Appalacherne baseret på en nedskrevet forfatning.

I 1775 forhandlede englænderen Richard Henderson med hjælp fra den opdagelsesrejsende Daniel Boone en traktat (The Sycamore Shoals Treaty) med cherokeserne. Ifølge denne traktat købte Hendersons firma, The Transyvania Land Company, et område, der omfattede en stor del af de nuværende stater Tennessee og Kentucky af stammen. Året efter angreb chickamaugaerne, en gren af cherokeestammen, bebyggelserne langs Watauga River. Angebet blev afvist, men har siden givet anledning til mange legender omkring nogle af de, der deltog, blandt andre John Sevier, senere guvernør over Tennessee, og Nancy Ward, en af cheroksernes "krigerkvinder". Også under uafhængighedskrigen kom området i fokus som samlingssted for nogle af de såkaldte "Overmountain Men", som var undervejs for at slås med "loyalisterne" i Slaget ved Kings Mountain.

Geografisk placering
Sycamore Shoals ligger ca. 37 km oppe ad strømmen i forhold til Watauga Rivers udmunding i Holston River. Holston River er en biflod til Tennessee River. Strømfaldene ligger ca. 5 km nede ad strømmen fra Doe Rivers udmunding i Watauga River. Området administreres af Tennessees Miljøministerium, men ligger inden for bygrænsen af Elizabethton.

Historie

Forhistorie og tidlig historie
Udgravninger på sletterne omkring Sycamore Shoals har fundet beviser for en betydelig beboelse, der daterer sig tilbage til Woodlandperioden (ca. 1000 f.Kr. til 1000). Beboelserne fortsatte, men var mere sporadiske gennem Mississippiperioden (900 – 1600). I 1567 kom et del af Juan Pardos ekspedition gennem Nolichuckydalen syd for området, hvor de angreb den befæstede landsby, Chisca, som formodentlig lå mellem nutidens byer Jonesborough og Erwin.. Ved udgangen af det 17. århundrede var de fleste af Mississippiperiodens beboere forsvundet og erstattet af cherokeserne, som brugte Sycamore Shoals som samlingssted og jagtlejr.

I 1760'erne var der flere europæiske jægere, som besøgte området i flere måneder ad gangen (såkaldte "longhunters"), og nogle af disse etablerede handelsstationer i Watauga floddalen. I 1769 byggede William Bean, der er kendt som den første permanente nybygger i Tennessee, en hytte ca. 25 km nede ad Watauga River fra Sycamore Shoals. Kort efter slog en anden nybygger, John Honeycut, sig ned ved floden, ca. 30 km oppe af floden fra strømfaldene ved udmundingen af Roan Creek. Dette sted eksisterer ikke mere, da det er oversvømmet af den opdæmmede Watauga Lake. De første jægere, der kom til området, kaldte dette Wataugas "Gamle Marker" fordi, der var meget få træer, meget græs og mange "rør" af en underart af bambus, Arundinaria, som man så på marker, der engang havde været dyrkede, men nu havde været forladt i mange år.

Bosættelse
I foråret 1770 kom James Robertson til området. Han havde muligvis forladt sin hjemstat, North Carolina på grund af det oprør, der på det tidspunkt fandt sted i North og South Carolina (War of the Regulation) mellem 1765 og 1771. Robertson mødte John Honeycutt som viste ham vej til "De gamle Marker". Robertson kaldte senere området for "a promised land", fordi frugtbare marker allerede var ryddet for den tætte skov, som ellers var karakteristisk for dette område af Tennessee. Robertson byggede sig en hytte og tilplantede nogle marker nær det sted hvor Watauga River og Doe River flyder sammen (i det nuværende Elizabethton). Derefter returnerede han til North Carolina for at fortælle om sine opdagelser. Da han vendte tilbage til Sycamore Shoals, var han ledsaget af 16 familier, og efterhånden kom der flere til det, der nu var kendt som Wataugabebebyggelsen.

Nybyggerne mente selv, at de havde slået sig ned på et område, der tilhørte Den Britiske Krone, da Watauga River efter deres mening hørte til det område, som briterne og cherokeserne havde indgået en aftale om 1770 ved The Treaty of Lochaber. En opmåling i 1771 udført af John Donelson, viste imidlertid, at såvel nybyggerne i Wataugabebyggelsen samt andre nybyggere i Nolichuckyfloddalen boede på et område, som tilhørte cherokeserne. Den øverste britiske ansvarlige for "indian affairs", John Stuart, beordrede derfor nybyggerne til at forlade området og vende tilbage til britisk territorium.

Watauga Association
I 1772 sendte nybyggerne, der stadig håbede at kunne blive boende, en delegation bestående af James Robertson og William Bean til Chota, overhill-cherokesernes daværende "hovedstad", for at forhandle om nybyggernes forbliven i området. Det lykkedes for de to forhandlere at opnå et 10-årigt lejemål af området i Wataugadalen. Imidlertid lå området uden for såvel Virginias som North Carolinas kontrol og lovgivning. Det betød, at nybyggerne ikke havde nogen formel myndighed til at håndtere eventuelle forbrydere og de havde heller ikke nogen "regeringsfunktioner"; fx havde de ikke myndighed til at registrere krav om fast ejendom eller til at afgøre stridigheder om samme. For at løse dette problem, udarbejdede man i 1772 et dokument "The Articles of the Watauga Assoiation", en af de første, hvis ikke den første, nedskrevne forfatning vest for Appalacherne. Watauga Association bestod af et råd (og en domstol) på fem medlemmer, som holdt deres møder i et domhus ved Sycamore Shoals. Denne gruppe betragtes ofte som grundlaget for det senere styre i Tennessee. Da State of Franklin forsøgte at "løsrive" sig fra North Carolina i 1784, kom mange af Wataunganybyggerne til at spille væsentlige roller i denne stat og senere i ledelsen af Southwest Territory og endnu senere ledelsen af staten Tennessee, da denne blev oprettet i 1796. Selv om senere forfattere, fx præsident Theodor Roosevelt, romantiserede nybyggerne som forløbere for uafhængighedskrigen, er moderne forskere ikke enige. The Wataua Association forsøgte ikke at løsrive sig fra britisk styre, men ville egentlig helst tilsluttes Kolonien Virginia.

Sycamore Shoals traktaten
I 1774 led shawneerne i Kentucky et stort nederlag i det, der blev kaldt Lord Dunmore's Krig. Det fik jordspekulanter specielt i North Carolina til at tro, at nu ville Kentucky og Tennessee snart være helt under britisk kontrol. En af disse jordspekulanter, juristen Richard Henderson, var gode venner med opdagelsesrejsende og pelsjæger, Daniel Boone. Denne fortalte ham, at cherokeserne var interesserede i at sælge en stor del af deres område vest for Appalacherne. Det fik Henderson til at stifte firmaet The Transylvania Land Company (eller bare Transylvania Company), og indlede forhandlinger med cherokesiske ledere. Mellem den 14. og den 17. marts 1775 mødtes Henderson, Boone og nogle af Hendersons samarbejdspartnere ved Sycamore Shoals med nogle af stammens ledere. Blandt disse var Attacullaculla, som på det tidspunkt var stammens overhøvding, krigshøvdingen Oconostota, Wilanawaw, Doublehead og Attacullacullas søn, Dragging Canoe. Det lykkedes for Henderson at forhandle en aftale igennem, på trods af Dragging Canoes forsøg på at påvirke sine medhøvdinge i den modsatte retning. Fiaskoen med at overbevise de øvrige forhandlere om, at de ikke skulle sælge, fik Dragging Canoe og andre unge høvdinge til at forlade mødet, idet Dragging Canoe sagde til Henderson: "You have bought a fair land but you will find its settlement dark and bloody", at han ville gøre landet "mørkt og blodigt", hvis nogen nybyggere prøvede at slå sig ned i området. Resten af forhandlingerne gik forholdsvist glat og den 17. marts 1775 blev traktaten underskrevet. Det nybyggere, som havde slået sig ned i Watauga- og Nolichuckeyfloddalene fik ved samme lejlighed forhandlet en aftale om overtagelse af den jord, de boede på.

Traktaten, der også kendes som The Transylvania Land Purchase efter Hendersons firma, hvis investorer finansierede købet, bestod i princippet af to dele. Den første handlede om Transylvania Companys køb af landområder i det sydvestlige Virginia (herunder det dele af nuværende West Virginia) og det nordøstlige Tennessee. Denne del af aftalen kaldtes Path Grand Deed. Den anden del af aftalen bekræftede selskabets køb af et 81.000 km2 stort landområde mellem Kentucky River og Cumberland River, svarende til store dele at nutidens stater Kentucky og Tennessee. Denne del af aftalen kaldtes Great Grant. Transylvania Company betalte købet med handelsvarer (ikke mindst våben og ammunition) til en værdi af 20.000 pund.

Efter at aftalen var indgået, fortsatte Daniel Boone sin opdagelsesfærd, da han ville finde en vej, der kunne forbinde det nye område med de nybyggere, der allerede havde slået sig med ved Holston River. Dette blev til The Wilderness Road. Kort efter at traktaten var indgået, trak fredshøvdingen Attacullacula sig tilbage fra posten som stammens overhøvding, og i stedet valgte man krigshøvdingen Oconostota. Dragging Canoe holdt sit løfte om at "gøre jorden blodig", og traktaten skulle blive startskuddet til 18 års kampe mellem dele af cherokeestammen og de amerikanske kolonister – de såkaldte Chickamaugakrige.

Fort Watauga

De to køb, henholdsvis Transylvanias køb og nybyggerne i de to floddales køb af deres lokalområder var dobbelt ulovlige. Dels havde høvdingene efter stammelovene ikke ret til at sælge stammeland, og dels var det en overtrædelse af en britisk kongelig proklamation fra 1763, der forbød private at købe land af indianerne. De styrende forsamlinger i såvel Virginia som North Carolina afviste da også købenes lovlighed. Da uafhængighedskrigen brød ud få måneder efter underskriften af traktaten, valgte nybyggerne at slutte sig til oprørerne, mens cherokeserne valgte at støtte briterne, da de håbede, at disse ville være mere tilbøjelige til at lade dem beholde deres jord. Nybyggerne i Wataugaområdet og Nolichucky-floddalen organiserede sig som Washington District og etablerede en såkaldt Sikkerhedskomite (Committee of Safety), som var en slags parlament, der skulle styre området. Sikkerhedskomiteen startede med at anskaffe våben og ammunition, og de planlagde og styrede bygningen af forter, fx Fort Caswell, der senere skulle få navnet Fort Watauga. Dette fort lå ved Sycamore Shoals.

I 1776 angreb cherokeserne bosættelserne ved floderne Nolichucky, Holston, og Watauga. Nybyggerne blev fordrevet fra Nolichucky og Carter's Valley nær Clinch River, men det lykkedes for nybyggerne i Holston dalen at forpurre Dragging Canoes planer i Slaget ved Island Flats, nær det nuværende Kingsport den 20. juli 1776. Næste dag nåede en cherokeserstyrke under ledelse af høvdingen Abraham (eller Abram, kilderne anvender begge navne) af Chilhowee frem til Fort Watauga. Desværre for Abraham var nybyggerne, der blev anført af John Carter, James Robertson og John Sevier særdeles velforberedte, da en af cherokesernes krigerkvinder, Nancy Ward, havde advaret dem om det forestående angreb. Abraham besluttede i stedet at belejre fortet. Under belejringen fangede indianerne en ung mand, som blev bundet til en pæl og brændt levende. Også William Beans hustru, Lydia Russell Bean, blev fanget og dømt til at lide samme skæbne. Igen intervenerede Nancy Ward, da hun som ghigau ("Beloved woman"/"Krigerkvinde") havde ret til at beslutte, hvad der skulle ske med krigsfanger. Lydia Bean slap for bålet, og boede i en længere periode hos Nancy Ward, som hun blandt andet lærte at væve.

Efter to uger ophørte belejringen, da cherokeserne trak sig tilbage. Et par uger senere ankom forstærkning under kommando af William Christian til fortet, og et år senere blev stammen tvunget til at underskrive Long Island traktaten, hvor de afgav landet ved Sycamore Shoals til USA. Dette fik dog ikke Dragging Canoe og chickamaugaerne til at stoppe deres angreb, da de ikke følte sig forpligtet af nogen traktat, der afgav land til de hvide. Først i 1794 sluttede chicamaugakrigene.

Overmoutain men

I 1776 sendte Washington District en forespørgsel til North Carolinas lovgivende forsamling, og bad om at blive optaget i staten. I november blev forespørgslen accepteret, og området blev en del af staten North Carolina under betegnelsen Washington County. Countyets milits udgjorde sammen med militser fra Holston bebyggelsen og fra det sydvestlige Virginia en grænsemilits, der gik under navnet "The Overmountain Men" fordi de kom fra den vestlige side af Appalacherne. Denne milits deltog i flere kampe under Uafhængighedskrigen, blandt andet i Belejringen af Charleston i South Carolina i 1779 samt Slaget ved Musgrove Hill i slutningen af 1780. Historikeren Samuel Cole Williams hævder at deltagelsen af militsen fra Washington County i belejringen af Charleston, betød, at de var Tennessees første "frivillige". Tennessess kælenavn er "Volunteer State", fordi staten netopc har sendt frivillige til mange slag, ikke mindst Krigen i 1812, hvor mange indbyggere fra Tennessee meldte sig frivilligt til Andrew Jacksons styrke. I slutningen af 1780 førte Major Patrick Ferguson en hær af loyalister ind i Appalacherne for at dække over General og øverstkommanderende over de britiske tropper, Lord Cornwallis' invasion af North Carolina. Ferguson sendte en besked til grænsemilitserne i det sydvestlige Virginia og det nordøstlige Tennessee, om at de skulle nedlægge deres våben. I modsat fald ville de blive tilintetgjort.

Militsssoldaterne var imidlertid ikke til sinds at overgive sig. Den 25. september 1780 samledes en styrke ved Fort Watauga. Styrken bestod af 400 militssoldater fra Virginia under ledelse af William Campbell, 240 fra Sullivan County under ledelse af Isaac Shelby og 240 fra Washington County under ledelse af John Sevier. De blev forsynet med proviant og krudt af de lokale beboere, og derefter marcherede hele styrken over Appalacherne. Undervejs sluttede de sig sammen med flere militsstyrker fra både North og South Carolina, og den 7. oktober nedkæmpede de Fergusons hær af loyalister i Slaget ved Kings Mountain. Militsen havde 100 døde og sårede under slaget, mens loyaliststyrken havde 157 dræbte, blandt andre Major Ferguson selv, og 163 sårede. Slagets udfald fik den øverstbefalende over de britiske styrker, Lord Cornwallis, til midlertidigt at opgive sine planer om at invadere North Carolina.

Sycamore Shoals State Historic Park

I løbet af det 20. århundrede fik flere og flere grupper øjene op for den betydning, som Sycamore Shoals havde haft for historien om Tennessee og grænseområderne vest for Appalacherne. I 1909 rejste Daughters of the American Revolution en obelisk i Elizabethton nær udmundingen af Gap Creek i Watauga River, hvor historikeren J. G. M. Ramsey i 1853 havde beskrevet i bogen The Annals of Tennessee to the End of the Eighteenth Century, at det oprindelige Fort Watauga havde stået. Obelisken var bygget af lokale sten, indsamlet fra Watagua River.

I 1960 blev Sycamore Shoals udnævnt til National Historic Landmark og optaget i National Register of Historic Places i løbet af 70'erne. I forbindelse med USA's 200-års jubilæum besluttede staten Tennessee at genopbygge (en kopi af) Fort Watauga. Staten købte Sycamore Shoals samt en lille ø midt i strømfaldene og et ubebygget område på sydsiden af Watauga River. Her skulle kopien af fortet opføres, og der skulle anlægges en statspark, som kunne fortælle om det, såvel som om Sycamore Shoals' øvrige historie. I 1975 åbnede Sycamore Shoals State Historic Park. I 1980 bevilgede USA's regering penge til etableringen af Overmountain Victory National Historic Trail, som forbinder Sycamore Shoals med Kings Mountain National Military Park.

I dag rummer parken en kopi af Fort Watauga (det oprindelige fort lå noget længere nede ad floden), et lille museum og en række udendørs picnic faciliteter. En spadseresti går langs floden ned til selve strømfaldene og undervejs fortæller skilte om de historiske begivenheder, der fandt sted.

Noter

Cherokeestammen
North Carolinas historie
Tennessees historie

Sycamore Shoals


Carolina Kostner (Bolzano, 8. veljače 1987.) talijanska je klizačica u umjetničkom klizanju.

Osvojila je brončanu olimpijsku medalju 2014. godine, svjetska je prvakinja iz 2012., pet puta europska prvakinja (2007., 2008., 2010., 2012. i 2013.) i finalna prvakinja u Grand Prixu 2011. godine. Osvajala je medalje na šest Svjetskih prvenstva od 2005. do 2014., na jedanaest europskih prvenstva od 2006. do 2018., brončanu medalju na Svjetskom juniorskom prvenstvu 2003. te je devet puta bila talijanska državna prvakinja. Carolina Kostner osvojila je 11 medalja na Ěuropskim prvenstvima, posljednji put 2018. godine te je najtrofejnija klizačica u pojedinačnoj konkurenciji u povijesti natjecanja.

Carolinina majka Patricia također je bila umjetnička klizačica koja se natjecala '70.-tih godina, dok je njen otac Ervin igrao za talijansku nacionalnu momčad u hokeju na ledu, sudjelujući pritom na raznim natjecanjima od Svjetskog prvenstva do Olimpijskih igara.

Njena rođakinja i kumče je Isolde Kostner, dobitnica srebrne medalje u alpskom skijanju na Zimskim olimpijskim igrama 2002. u Salt Lake Cityiju.

Carolina je bila i nositeljica talijanske zastave na otvaranju Zimskih olimpijskih igara 2006. u Torinu. Stefan Lambier, klizač i osvajač srebrne olimpijske medalje 2006., bio joj je partner.

Umjetnički klizači
Talijanski športaši

Carolina Kostner


Gruppe 47, Alman yazar Hans Werner Richter'in 1947'den 1967'ye kadar Almancada eser veren yazarları davet ederek oluşturduğu bir gruptu. Grubun buluşmaları, okunan metnin iki taraflı eleştirisi ve genç, daha tanınmamış yazarları destekleme amacı gütmekteydi. Demokratik bir oylamayla verilen Gruppe 47 Ödülü, birçok yazarın bu ödülü almasıyla kariyerlerinin başlangıcı anlamına gelmiştir. Gruppe 47, bağımsız bir örgütlenmeydi, üye listesi yoktu ve hiçbir edebî akıma dâhil değildi, ama Richter'in katılıma davet etme usulüyle belirgin biçimde şekillenmişti.

Gruppe 47, genç yazarlara II. Dünya Savaşı sonrasında Alman edebiyatını yenileyebilecekleri bir mecra, olanak sundu. İlerleyen yıllarda, toplantılarına en önemli çağdaş yazarların, edebiyat eleştirmenlerinin ve entelektüellerin katıldığı, Batı Almanya'nın kültür yaşamında etkili bir oluşum hâline geldi. Gruppe 47'nin kültürel ve siyasî etkisi, birçok tartışmanın konusu oldu. 1967'de topluluk kendini feshettikten sonra dahi, katılımcıları Alman edebiyatına liderlik etmeye devam etti.

Tarihi

İlk Davet
Çağrı: Alman savaş esirlerinin gazetesi (Der Ruf: Zeitung der deutschen Kriegsgefangenen), 1945 yılının ilk zamanlarında Rodos Adası'ndaki Fort Philip Kearney savaş esiri kampında Alman savaş esirleri için oluşturulan Amerikan "Yeniden Eğitim Programı"nın bir parçası olarak kurulmuştur. Curt Vinz tarafından yayımlanmıştır. Gazete, savaş esirlerinin Almanya'ya dönüşlerinin ardından Vinz Yayımevi'nde Çağrı – genç neslin bağımsız sayfaları (Der Ruf – unabhägige Blätter der jungen Generation) adıyla, ilk kez 15 Ağustos 1946'da basılmıştır. Gazetede edebi yazılar da basılmıştır, ama yayımcı Andersch ve Richter her şeyden önce bunu, özgür bir Almanya için doğu ve batı arasında bir köprü olması ve sosyal bir toplum biçimine geçiş amacıyla daha çok siyasi bir organ olarak kullanmak istemişlerdir. Bazı zamanlar Amerikan işgal güçlerini eleştiren yazılar yazmışlardır, bu yüzden Amerikan işgalcileri tarafından gazetenin yayımlanması yasaklanmıştır. Bu iki yayımcının salıverilmesinin ardından gazetenin farklı siyasi yönde basılmasına devam edilmiştir.

Çağrı'nın faaliyetinin sona ermesinin ardından Hans Werner Richter "Akrep" (Der Skorpion) adında yeni bir gazete yayımlamak istemiştir. Richter'in davetiyle 1947'de yazarlar buluşarak müsvedde yazılmış ve ortak tartışmalar yapılmıştır. "Akrep" gazetesi çıkarılamamış olmasıyla birlikte Grup 47'nin ilk toplantıları burada yapılmıştır.

Oluşumu ve Teşkilatlanması
Grup 47'nin ilk buluşmasına 16 kişi katılmıştır. Başlangıç olarak Wolfdietrich Schnurre Das Begräbnis (Mezar) adlı öyküsünü yazmıştır. Ardından diğer katılımcıların açık, kısmen sert, kendiliğinden oluşan, daha sonradan grup eleştirisi ritüeline dönüşecek olan, eleştirilerinin plansız biçimi ortaya çıkmıştır. Konuşmacı yazarın, Richter'in yanındaki –"elektrikli sandalye" diye esprili adla anılan- boş sandalyeye oturarak yaptığı okumanın tarzı bile aynı kalmıştır. Konuşmacı kendini savunmak zorunda olmadığından, söyledikleri en önemli vecizeler arasına girer, yani somut metnin eleştirisi merkezde durur. Grubu bölebilecek olan edebi veya siyasi tarzın temelde yatan tartışmalarına Richter hiçbir zaman kesin tavırlarıyla meydan vermemiştir. Harabe edebiyatı (Trümmerliteratur) için kendi gerçekçi tercihine rağmen, grup adına bir edebi program belirginleşmemiştir, hiçbir ortak şiir kuramsallık anlayışı egemen olmamıştır; kısacası, örneğin faşist veya militarist metinlere yasak durumu gibi herhangi bir ilke anlayışı söz konusu edilmemiştir.

Grup 47 adı ilk kez, Hans Werner Richter'in düzenli olarak planladığı toplantıların ilkinde ortaya çıkmıştır. Yazar ve eleştirmen Hans Georg Brenner, grubun ismini, İspanyol Generación del 98'e bir benzeşme niyetiyle önermiştir. Buluşmanın bütün kuruluş biçimlerini reddeden Richter; "topluluk, kulüp, birlik, akademi" önerilerine katılıp katılmayacağını şöyle açıklamıştır: ""Grup 47", tamamen isteğe bağlıdır ve esasında hiçbir şey ifade etmez."

İlk olarak 1962'de, topluluğun 15. Yıldönümü adına, Richter maziye bakarak Grup 47'nin "ideal çıkış noktalarını" ifade etmiştir:

1."Edebiyat ve gazetecilik (yayıncılık) alanlarında demokratik seçkinler oluşumu"

2."Uygulamalı demokratik yöntemlerle bireyci bir gruba sonradan daha yaygın toplum kesimlerine kadar ulaşabilecek etkinlik alanını belirleme umudunu sağlamak.

3."Bir program, bir topluluk, bir kuruluş ve herhangi bir kolektif düşüncenin araştırmalarını yerine getirmeden her iki hedefe de ulaşmak"

Grubun ilk yılları
İki aylık düzenlemenin ardından, Grup 47'nin ikinci toplantısı Ulm'de düzenlenmiştir. Katılımcı sayısı bu kez iki katına ulaşmıştır. Richter'in 'Davet'iyle gruba ilk kez dâhil olan katılımcılardan Alfred Andersch'in 'Alman Edebiyatı karar aşamasında' adlı denemesi gruba yön gösterici olmuştur. 'Gerçek sanatçılık', 'nasyonal sosyalizm karşıtlığının özdeşidir' tezinden yola çıkarak, Alman düşünce yaşamının yenilenmesi için orijinal bir yaratma sürecinin tamamlanması gerekliliğiyle 'genç nesilde sıfırdan başlamak'la yüz yüze olduğunu, belirtmiştir. Andersch'in bu taslağı, uzun süre boyunca grupta okunan tek deneme olmuştur.

Bunu takip eden yıllarda düzenlenen toplantılar çoğunlukla yılın ilk yarısında ve sonbaharda, farklı yerlerde vuku bulmuştur. 1950'de düzenlenen yedinci toplantıda ilk kez 'Grup 47 Ödülü' verilmiştir. Bu ödülün diğer edebiyat ödüllerinden farkı ise; tanınmamış genç yazarların desteklenmesinin hedeflenmiş olmasıdır. Ödül töreninde yazarların eserlerinin okunmasının ardından, grup üyeleri ödül alacak kişiyi demokratik bir seçimle belirlemişlerdir. İlk ödül, şair Günter Eich'a verilmiştir. Üçüncü ödül töreninde Heinrich Böll, 'Kara Koyunlar'öyküsüyle ödülü almıştır.

8 ay sonunda, 1952'de, Grup 47'nin bir yayın organını kalıcı kılmak ve yerleştirmek amacıyla edebiyat gazetesi 'Die Literatur', Richter'in çabasıyla yayımlanmıştır.

Realizm ve Modernizm
Grup 47'nin ününün yayılmasıyla her buluşmaya yurt içinden ve yurt dışından daha fazla misafir davet edilmiştir.
Grup 47'deki edebî paradigma değişikliğiyle, özellikle grubun ilk yıllarında belirleyici olan, "Alman Savaş Sonrası Edebiyat'ının sade realizm"inde yazılar yazılmıştır. Daha karmaşık yapıya sahip metinlerden yavaş yavaş uzaklaşılmıştır. 20 yy.'ın ilk yarısında gelişen, nasyonal sosyalizm zamanında yasaklanmış ve yakılmış olan "Modernist Edebiyat", Grup 47 ile dirilmiştir.

Genç yazarlar, 1950'li yıllardaki ilımlı modernizmi Grup 47'nin edebî simgesi olarak şekillendirirken, genel hatları ile deneysel edebiyat çalışmaları grubun içinde yerleşmede ve kalıcılaşmada epey zorlanmıştır.

Bir kurum olarak Grup 47
Grup, 1950'li yılların başından beri daha fazla ilgi odağı olmuştur. Başlarda katılımcılar, düzenlenen toplantılar hakkında röportaj vermişlerdir. 1956'dan sonra ise sadece yıllık, ilkbaharda düzenlenen toplantılar hakkında, resmi sonuçlar değerlendirilmiş ve medyaya sunulmuştur.

Grup 47'nin en büyük başarısı, "Grup 47 Edebiyat Ödülü"ne layık görülen Günter Grass olmuştur. Grass 1958 yılında daha yayımlanmamış romanı "Teneke Trampet"in ilk bölümüyle bu ödülü almıştır. Bu ödül ile, daha o zamana kadar tanınmamış olan Grass'ın ani bir şekilde ünlenmesini sağlamıştır. Grup 47 Edebiyat Ödülü'nün verilmesine 3 yıl ara verilmiştir. Grass, kamuoyunun algısında grup yoluyla belirgin hale gelmesinden sonra belirginleşen edebiyat başarısı tekrar gruba yönelik bir etki yaratmıştır; nitekim bu anlamda, Grup 47'nin edebiyat sahnesinde önemi derinleşmeye başlamıştır.

Ardından, yazarlar, eleştirmenler ve yayımcılar gruptan davet edilmekte ısrar etmişlerdir. Grup düzenleme süreciyle daha profesyonel bir hal almıştır ve önceki toplantılardaki dostça hava yok olmuştur. Richter katılımcıları 3 gruba ayırmıştır: bazı genç yazarlar, "her şeyi daha iyi bilen" pür eleştirmenler ve sadece üye olan büyük bir grup. Grubun eski üyeleri artık gitgide toplantılara katılmamaya başlamışlardır. Heinrich Böll grupla ilgili düşüncelerini şöyle bildirmiştir: "150 yazarın, eleştirmenin, yayımcının, sinemacının, televizyoncunun ve daha fazlasının katıldığı toplantılar, bana öylesine ıstırap veriyor ki, isteksizce gidiyorum. Grup 47 kurum olma tehlikesiyle karşı karşıyadır." Alfred Andersch de şu şekilde eleştiride bulunmuştur: "Grup edebi pazara dönüşecek." Grup 47 Edebiyat Ödülü'nün verilmesi sırasında müsvetteler teslim edilir, yazarlar grup önündeki okumalarına özenli bir şekilde hazırlanırdı. Okumanın başarılı olup olmadığına bakarak, artık orada bulunan yayınevi temsilcileri yazarın edebi kariyeri hakkında karar verirdi.

Metinler hakkındaki eleştiriyi artık gruptaki diğer yazarlar değil, ayrıcalıklı olarak toplantıların yapıldığı salonların ön sıralarında oturan meslek eleştirmenleri gerçekleştiriyordu; bu eleştirmenler örneğin: Walter Höllerer, Joachim Kaiser, Walter Jens, Walter Mannzen, Marcel Reich-Ranicki und Hans Mayer gibi isimlerdi.

1961 yılında Grup 47'nin daha devam edip etmeceği tartışmaları olmuştur. Eleştirilere dönük eleştiri özellikle de değerlendirmelerinden çok çekinilen Reich-Ranicki'nin şahsında alevleniyordu. Bu konuda farklı görüşler olmuştur. Grubun eski üyeleri gruptan tahliyesini istemiştir. Richter ise gecikmeli olarak, bu yönde hareket etmeyeceğini bildirmiştir.

Grup, Politika ve Toplum
60'lı yıllarda toplumun politikayla daha fazla ilgilenmesinin sonuçları Grup 47'ye de yansımıştır. Richter'in hareketi temelde sosyal politik bir haldeyken, Grup 47 varolduğu süre boyunca politik açıdan etkin olmamıştır. Ancak bu durum hiçbir zaman bütün grup adına geçerli olmamıştır.

Son toplantı
Son toplantı 1967'de düzenlenmiştir. Bu toplantı, Sosyal Demokrat Öğrenci Topluluğu'nun bazı üyelerince protesto edilmiştir. Öğrenciler grubu "politik olmayan bir duruş"la suçlamışlardır ve "grup 47 kâğıttan kedi" ve "Şairler! Şairler!" gibi alaycı sloganlar atmışlardır. Grup üyelerinin tepkileri farklılık göstermiştir. Bazıları rahatsız oldukları için kızarken, bazıları öğrencilerle diyaloğa girmeye çalışmışlardır. Grup içinde -özellikle iki öncü Günter Grass ve Reinhard Lettau arasında- ideolojik farklılıklar oluşmuştur.

Hans Werner Richter 1968'de bir kapanış toplantısı düzenlemiştir. Bu toplantıda grup dağılmıştır. Richter'e göre Grup 47 hiçbir zaman gerçekten kurulmamıştır, bununla birlikte hiçbir zaman resmi olarak da dağılmamıştır. Richter bundan sonra bir toplantı daveti göndermemiştir. Eski üyeler, ara sıra, küçük çaplı toplantılar düzenlemişlerdir.

Ardıllar
Günter Grass 2005 yılının Aralık ayında kurduğu "Lübeck Edebiyat Toplantısı"yla yeni edebiyat çevresini kurmuştur. "Günter Grass Evi"nde düzenlenen ilk toplantıya Thomas Brussig, Michael Kumpfmüller, Katja Lange-Müller, Benjamin Lebert, Eva Menasse, Matthias Politycki, Tilman Spengler und Burkhard Spinnen gibi isimler davet edilmiştir. Grup 47'yi taklit ederek derneğe "Lübeck 05" adı verilmiştir. Grass, her şeyden önce, Grup 47'nin yeniden hayata geçirilmesi düşüncesinden uzak olduğunu eski üslubuyla belirtmiştir: "Devam ettirilemez bir şeydir bu. Aramızda hiç Hans Werner Richter yok. 40'lı ve 50'li yıllarda hüküm sürdüğü gibi bir durum günümüzde söz konusu değil."

Edebiyat Ödülü
Grup 47 Edebiyat Ödülü 1950 yılından itibaren daha tanınmamış yazarlara verilmişir. İlk yıllardaki ödüllerde takdim edilen para (iki ödülde de 1000 Alman Markı), Amerikan reklam şirketi Coward McCann Company'nin bağışıydı. Daha sonradan –Hans Werner Richter tarafından düzenlenen ödüllerdeki- para farklı yayımevlerince ve radyo kuruluşlarınca bağışlanmıştır.

Ödüle alanlar
 1950: Günter Eich, Abgelegene Gehöfte (Virane Çiftlikler) adlı şiiriyle,
 1951: Heinrich Böll, Kara Koyunlar adlı öküsüyle,
 1952: Ilse Aichinger: Spiegelgeschichte (Ayna Hikâyesi) adlı öyküsüyle,
 1953: Ingeborg Bachmann, Ertelenmiş Zaman'dan dört şiiriyle,
 1954: Adriaan Morriën, Zu große Gastlichkeit verjagt die Gäste adlı öyküsüyle,
 1955: Martin Walser, Templones Ende adlı öyküsüyle,
 1958: Günter Grass, Teneke Trampet'in ilk bölümüyle,
 1962: Johannes Bobrowski, Sarmatlılar Dönemi'nden şiiriyle,
 1965: Peter Bichsel, Mevsimler adlı romanıyla,
 1967: Jürgen Becker, Ränder (Kenarlar) ile

Grup 47'nin etkisi ve tartışmalar
Heinz Ludwig Arnold'un görüşüne göre Grup 47 "20. yy'ın ikinci yarısındaki Alman Edebiyatı'nda belirgin bir iz bırakmıştır. Grubun edebiyat eleştirmenleri Federal Almanya Cumhuriyeti'ndeki edebî tartışmalara etkin olarak katılmışlardır ve gruptaki yazarlar Alman gazetelerinin kültür eki ve edebiyat çevrelerinde sansasyonel tartışmalar yürütmüşlerdir. Alman yazar Hans Magnus Enzensberger, Grup 47'yi "Alman edebiyat tarihinde örneği bulunmayan bir edebi topluluk" olarak nitelendirmiştir. Alman edebiyat tarihçisi Klaus Briegleb, grubu "günümüz Alman kültüründeki siyasî efsane" olarak adlandırmıştır. Alman yazar Alexander Kluge de, Grup 47'nin parladığı dönemde, Federal Almanya Cumhuriyeti'nin önemli edebi yeteneklerini bir araya getirdiğini ve asıl toplumsal sorunlara yönelik ortak bir tutumu ortaya koymak için onları etkilediğini belirtmiştir.
Grup 47 çoğu kez efsanevileştirilmiş, çok sayıda taklit örnekleri ile karşılaşılmıştır. Örneğin Grub 47'yi, Alman yazar Hans Werner Richter Edebiyat çevresi olarak, Heinrich Böll seyyar akademi olarak, Günter Grass bir tür edebî başkentin yedeği olarak, Hermann Kesten kendinden menkul yazarlar birliği olarak, Enzensberger de klik olarak görmüştür. Grup 47, farklı görüş açılarına göre; "edebiyat mafyası", "edebî […] deneme sahnesi", "Alman mucizesi", "özel komando birliği", "seyyar romantik kafe" veya "yazar pazarının acentesi" olarak da algılanmıştır.

Grup 47'nin kamusal etkisi üzerine tartışmalar
Sonraki eleştiriler, daha çok grubun kuruluşuna ve grubun kamu üzerindeki etkisine karşı yöneltilmiştir. Grup, yazar çevrelerince, aralarına başkalarını almayan, Alman Edebiyatı'nda hangi eserin iyi olup olmadığına, hangisinin okunup okunmayacağına karar vererek düşünce terörü yapan, diktatör bir grup olarak tanımlanmıştır. Sadece edebiyat alanında değil, kamusal alanda da çok etkili olan grup, edebi eserlerle ve içerikleriyle değil, politik tarzda tartışmalarla ilgilenen kamusal bir güç olarak değerlendirilmiştir. Heinrich Böll ve Hermann Kesten gibi Alman yazarlara göre; 1945 yılı sonrası Alman Edebiyatı, Grup 47 hiç var olmasaydı da farklı olmazdı. Grubun yararlarının ve zararlarının birbirini eşitlediği düşünülmüştür. Çoğu Alman yazar, Grup 47'nin dağılmasının ardından Alman Edebiyatı'nın artık rahat bir nefes aldığı yorumunu yapmıştır.

Politik müdahaleler
Grup, ilk yıllarında çoğunlukla tutucu eleştirmenlerce, sonraki yıllarda da parti politikacılarınca, politik odaklı yoğun karşı çıkışlara ya da saldırılara maruz kalmıştır.

Çoğu siyasetçiye göre grup, sadece kültürel alanda değil, politika alanında da etkisiyle gizemli meselelere yol açmıştır.
60'lı yıllarda politik havanın değişmesiyle ve grubun daha sağlam temellere sağlam olmasıyla eleştirilerin yönü de değişmiştir.

Sonraki çalışmalar
Grup 47'nin fiili olarak dağılmasından sonra, grubun gücü ve etkisi üzerine yapılan kamusal eleştirilerin sebebi ortadan kalkmıştır. Ardından grubun gelişmesi ve içeriksel öncelikleri arka planda kalmıştır. Nasyonal sosyalizm ve soykırım zamanında gerilemiş olan edebiyat çalışmalarını daha fazla yoğunlaştırmaya başlamışlardır.

Grup 47 üzerine çekilen film
 "Vom Glanz und Vergehen der Gruppe", belgesel, Almanya, 2007, 45 dk.

Ünlü üyeleri
 Ilse Aichinger
 Alfred Andersch
 Ingeborg Bachmann
 Heinrich Böll
 Paul Celan
 Hans Magnus Enzensberger
 Erich Fried
 Günter Grass
 Wolfgang Hildesheimer
 Erich Kästner
 Alexander Kluge
 Siegfried Lenz
 Reinhard Lettau
 Marcel Reich-Ranicki
 Hans Werner Richter (inisiyatif ve organizasyon)

Dış bağlantılar
 Grup 47 (Almanca)

Almanya merkezli kuruluşlar
Alman edebiyatı
1947'de kurulan kuruluşlar
1977'de feshedilmiş oluşumlar

Gruppe 47


Tod auf Rezept ist die 18. Folge der Fernsehfilmreihe Wilsberg. Die Erstausstrahlung erfolgte am 2. Dezember 2006 beim ZDF. Regie führte Marc Hertel, das Drehbuch wurde von Thorsten Näter geschrieben.

Handlung
Wilsberg befindet sich aufgrund eines Beinbruchs im Krankenhaus, wo er großzügig mit Schmerzmitteln versorgt wird. Seine zuständige Krankenschwester, Maike Söderbaum, stellt Unregelmäßigkeiten im Giftbuch und BTM-Schrank fest. Nachts beobachtet Wilsberg einen Streit zwischen Maike und Wilsbergs Chirurg Dr. Suhlke. Dieser erschlägt die Krankenschwester im stillgelegten Trakt des Krankenhauses mit einem Infusionsständer, was Wilsberg durch das Fenster seines Patientenzimmers zu sehen bekommt. Da vom durch Wilsberg informierten Sicherheitsdienst des Krankenhauses keine Leiche gefunden wird und Maike Urlaub beantragt hat, weswegen sie derzeit niemand vermisst, gehen das Krankenhauspersonal und Wilsbergs Freunde davon aus, dass Georg Wilsberg sich unter Einfluss der Medikamente den Vorfall lediglich eingebildet hat. Wilsberg wird aus dem Krankenhaus entlassen, kann sich zunächst jedoch ausschließlich mit Hilfe eines Rollstuhls fortbewegen. Das Angebot der befreundeten Kommissarin Anna Springer, ihm zu helfen, schlägt Wilsberg zunächst aus.

Kurz darauf wird im Hafen Münster eine Leiche gefunden, die zunächst nicht identifiziert werden kann, da ihr Gesicht stark misshandelt und entstellt wurde. Um Dr. Suhlke, der der Nachbar von Kommissarin Springer in der Coerdestraße ist, observieren zu können, quartiert sich Wilsberg bei seiner Bekannten unter dem Vorwand ein, sich von ihr helfen lassen zu wollen, solange er auf einen Rollstuhl angewiesen ist. Als Kommissarin Springer ihre Wohnung verlässt, nutzt Wilsberg die Gelegenheit, um in Dr. Suhlkes Wohnung einzubrechen, in der Hoffnung, ihm den Mord an Maike nachweisen zu können. Ekki und Alex treffen gerade noch rechtzeitig ein, um ihn zu warnen, dass Dr. Suhlke sich auf dem Weg zu seiner Wohnung befindet. Auf der Flucht aus Dr. Suhlkes Wohnung versucht Wilsberg dem Wohnungsbesitzer aus dem Weg zu gehen, indem er mit seinem Rollstuhl über die Treppe zu flüchten versucht. Dabei stürzt er, verletzt sich und muss erneut ins Krankenhaus gebracht werden.

Im Krankenhaus wird Wilsberg von Dr. Suhlke versorgt, der aber letztlich nicht seine Genesung, sondern sein Ableben im Sinn hat. Wilsberg kann sich gegen eine tödliche Überdosis Beruhigungsmittel erfolgreich wehren. Daraufhin werden Dr. Suhlke sowie die Krankenschwester Lena Schwab von Ekki und Alex zur Rede gestellt, warum sie Wilsberg nicht besuchen dürfen. Wilsberg nutzt die Gelegenheit und flüchtet aus dem Krankenhaus.

Er bringt in Erfahrung, dass Dr. Suhlke und Maike Söderbaum ein Paar waren, das sich erst kürzlich im Streit getrennt hatte. Maike war dahintergekommen, dass im Krankenhaus systematisch das Schmerzmittel verdünnt wurde, um aus dem BTM-Schrank Beruhigungsmittel entnehmen zu können, ohne dass dies bei den Einträgen im Giftbuch auffallen würde. Bei den zumeist wohlhabenden Patienten wurde gezielt eine Abhängigkeit von Schmerzmitteln provoziert, um sie später privat mit den im Krankenhaus unterschlagenen Schmerzmitteln auf eigene Rechnung zu versorgen. Es stellt sich heraus, dass Dr. Suhlke die Leiche der Obdachlosen Ida Gronau, die eines natürlichen Todes starb, mit der Leiche von Maike Söderbaum vertauschte, um sie unter falschem Namen in der Rechtsmedizin zu lagern, bis sie eingeäschert werden sollte.

Bei einem erneuten Einbruch in Dr. Suhlkes Wohnung entdeckt Wilsberg aus dem Krankenhaus entwendete Schmerzmittel-Ampullen sowie große Mengen Bargeld. Dr. Suhlke überrascht den Eindringling in seiner Wohnung und bedroht ihn mit einem Skalpell. Wilsberg kann sich gegen den Angriff zur Wehr setzen, indem er dem Arzt eine Betäubungsspritze, die er aus dem Krankenhaus mitgenommen hat, in den Oberschenkel rammt. Kaum ist Dr. Suhlke außer Gefecht gesetzt, betritt die Krankenschwester Lena Schwab mit gezückter Pistole die Wohnung. Weil Kommissarin Springer den Rollstuhl von Georg Wilsberg verwanzt hat, kann sie, nachdem die Krankenschwester in Wilsbergs Gegenwart ein Geständnis abgelegt hat, im richtigen Moment eingreifen und sowohl Lena Schwab als auch Dr. Suhlke festnehmen.

Alex Holtkamp hat unterdessen ihr Jura-Studium beendet, so dass sie mit Ekki und Georg Wilsberg anstoßen kann.

Hintergrund
Der Film wurde in Münster und Köln gedreht. Die Dreharbeiten begannen am 24. April 2006 und endeten am 25. Mai 2006. Der Dom sowie die Überwasserkirche werden eingangs des Films in einer Luftaufnahme gezeigt. Die Überwasserkirche ist ebenfalls bei den Szenen am Antiquariat Solder in der Frauenstraße zu sehen, in dem die Szenen gedreht wurden, die das Antiquariat Wilsberg zeigen. Weitere Aufnahmen entstanden an der Südseite des Hafens Münster, gegenüber dem Kreativkai, wo die Leiche gefunden wird. Ekki observiert Brombach auf dessen Anwesen an der Annette-Allee in direkter Lage am Aasee. Auf seinem Weg zur Wohnung von Kommissarin Springer passiert Wilsberg im Rollstuhl die Überwasserkirche und überquert den Prinzipalmarkt, wo im Hintergrund die Lambertikirche zu sehen ist. Die Aufnahmen auf dem Schrottplatz, auf den Ekki bei seiner Observierung Brombach folgt, entstanden am Südufer des Hafens, wobei im Hintergrund neben einem Backsteinschornstein, der am Nordufer steht, der Kirchturm der Herz-Jesu-Kirche zu sehen ist. Wilsberg trifft sich mit dem Journalisten Hannes im Café Bunter Vogel in der Nähe des Erbdrostenhofs, in der Wilsberg später die Veranstaltung "Münster zeigt Herz für Menschen mit Behinderung" aufsucht. Die Essensausgabe wurde am Dom gedreht. Die letzte Szene entstand am Juridicum der Westfälischen Wilhelms-Universität.

Am 15. Februar 2007 wurde die Folge zusammen mit der 17. Folge Falsches Spiel von Polarfilm auf DVD mit FSK-12-Freigabe veröffentlicht. Die DVD enthält neben den beiden Hauptfilmen als Bonusmaterial ein Making-of sowie ein Porträt über die Stadt Münster.

Der Running Gag Bielefeld verweist in dieser Folge auf einen Ausspruch von Alex Holtkamp, die, während sie zusammen mit Ekki ins Krankenhaus einbricht, äußert: "Ich komm' mir vor wie bei CSI Bielefeld."

Rezeption

Einschaltquoten
Die Erstausstrahlung von Tod auf Rezept im ZDF verfolgten 5,86 Millionen Zuschauer bei 19,5 Prozent Marktanteil. In der werberelevanten Zielgruppe lag der Marktanteil bei 14,9 Prozent.

Kritik
Nach Urteil von TV Spielfilm handele es sich um eine "flotte Variation des Hitchcock-Klassikers". Das Lexikon des internationalen Films zog denselben Vergleich und urteilte, der Film sei ein "in Münster spielender (Fernseh-)Serienkrimi, mit augenzwinkernden Anleihen bei Hitchcocks Das Fenster zum Hof". Für "spannend" hält Tilmann P. Gangloff bei kino.de den Film, wobei auch er den Vergleich mit Hitchcocks Werk zieht. "Gekonnt balanciert der von Marc Hertel unauffällig, aber stets fesselnd inszenierte Krimi auf dem schmalen Grat zwischen Thriller und Komödie", lautet sein Urteil.

Tod auf Rezept sei ein "wundervoller Film", der "spannende Elemente" sowie den "passenden Humor" enthalte, urteilt Manuel Weis von quotenmeter.de. Neben der Musik lobt Weis insbesondere das Schauspiel. Einzig das "Erzähltempo" vermag nicht mit den US-amerikanischen Formaten mitzuhalten.

Weblinks

 Tod auf Rezept bei beruehmtedetektive.de

Einzelnachweise

Filmtitel 2006
Deutscher Film
Fernsehfilm (ZDF)
Tod Auf Rezept

Wilsberg: Tod auf Rezept


Juan Vida Arredondo (Granada, 1955) es un pintor español conocido principalmente por su obra pictórica aun cuando también ha hecho aportes en el campo del diseño gráfico.

Biografía
Estudió Geografía e Historia en la especialidad de Historia del Arte y desde 2001 es académico numerario de la Real Academia de Bellas Artes de Granada. Desde 1968 ha venido exponiendo su obra que, a lo largo de su trayectoria, ha recibido numerosos premios y distinciones en el ámbito de la pintura. Ha participado además en diversas exhibiciones internacionales de arte, y ha realizado variadas exposiciones individuales en Europa y Estados Unidos.

Obra

Es uno de los representantes de la figuración, teniendo su pintura una  marcada tendencia narrativa de forma espontánea, sin dejar de lado el elemento pictórico. En lo conceptual, su pintura siempre se ha alimentado de la memoria, apareciendo articulados en ella una serie de elementos que despiertan en el espectador determinados resortes de  esa memoria a la vez personal y colectiva. El marcado carácter autobiográfico de su obra se hace presente en sus cuadros de gran formato, quizá una de las influencias más apreciables  fue la llegada de su hija, siendo su última exposición "Un cuento chino" testigo de ese cambio personal y artístico.

Referencias

Enlaces externos
 Espacio web de Juan Vida
 Imágenes de "Un cuento chino" en el Diario Ideal de Granada
   El País

Vida Arredondo, Juan
Pintores de Granada
Académicos de la Real Academia de Bellas Artes de Nuestra Señora de las Angustias
Ateneístas del Ateneo de Granada
Nacidos en Granada

Juan Vida


Susi Aeberhard (* vor 1964) ist eine Schweizer Kleinkünstlerin, Berner Chansonnière oder Hörspielinterpretin.

Von 1964 bis 1965 wirkte Aeberhard bei den Berner Troubadours mit bzw. war beim Theater am Zytglogge Mitglied des Cabaret Schifertafele. Zur selben Zeit interpretierte sie Liedtexte von Rosmarie Fahrer. Mit Urs Kräuchi und Hugo Ramseyer gab sie Schallplatten von Berner Chansons mit dem Titel I bi verliebt heraus. 1974 gründete sie mit Peter Hunziker und Artur Gloor die Berner Bankelsänger, die bis 1980 mit verschiedenen Programmen in vielen Kleintheatern der Schweiz auftraten, ebenso in der Radiosendung «AchtungStufe».

Die Hörspielfassung von Max Frischs Herr Biedermann und die Brandstifter ist das bekannteste Werk, bei dem Aeberhard mitwirkte. Aeberhards berndeutsche Version von Elfriede Jelineks wenn die sonne sinkt «gilt als Highlight im hiesigen Hörspiel-Schaffen».

Einzelnachweise

Kabarettist (Schweiz)
Schweizer
Geboren im 20. Jahrhundert
Frau

Susi Aeberhard


Georg Schönberger (auch Schonberger oder Schomberger, latinisiert Georgius Schönbergerus; * 1596 in Innsbruck; † 1. August 1645 in Gradisch bei Olmütz) war ein deutscher Jesuit und Mathematiker.

Schönberger studierte an der Universität Ingolstadt bei Christoph Scheiner, trat 1615 in den Orden der Jesuiten ein und wurde Lehrer für Literatur, Philosophie, Hebräisch, Theologie und Mathematik in Freiburg im Breisgau.
Danach ging er nach Böhmen und wurde Prorektor am jesuitischen Kolleg in Prag und danach Rektor in Olmütz, wo er 1645 starb.

In seinen Schriften befasste er sich mit der Konstruktion von Sonnenuhren und mit Fragen der Optik.

Der Mondkrater Schomberger wurde 1935 von der IAU nach ihm benannt.

Schriften
 Exegeses fundamentorvm gnomonicorum (mit Christoph Scheiner, Ingolstadt 1615)
 Demonstratio et constructio horologiorum novorum (Freiburg 1622)
 Sol illustratus (Freiburg 1626)
 Centuria Problematum Opticorum (Freiburg 1626)

Literatur
 Carlos Sommervogel: Bibliothèque de la Compagnie de Jésus. Brüssel & Paris 1890–1909, s.v. Schoenberger, George
 Grosses vollständiges Universal-Lexicon Aller Wissenschafften und Künste, Bd. 35, S. 508, online

Jesuit
Mathematiker (17. Jahrhundert)
Astronom (17. Jahrhundert)
Person als Namensgeber für einen Mondkrater
Deutscher
Geboren 1596
Gestorben 1645
Mann

Georg Schönberger (Mathematiker)


Corticosteroids යනු පෘෂ්ඨවංශීන්ගේ අධිවෘක්ක බාහිකයේ නිපදවෙන ස්ටෙරොයිඩ් හෝමෝන වර්ගයකි.

වර්ග

මූලාශ්‍ර

කෝර්ටිකොස්ටෙරොයිඩ


Opera Limited is a Norwegian multinational technology conglomerate holding company headquartered in Oslo, Norway with additional offices in Europe, China, and Africa. The company's total user base, including users of its desktop browsers, mobile browsers and other services exceeds 380 million monthly active users.

In 2016, Opera was acquired by an investment group led by a Chinese consortium. On July 27, 2018, Opera Software went public on the NASDAQ stock exchange, raising $115 million in its initial public offering.

History

Early development
Opera Software was founded as an independent company in Norway in 1995 by the Icelandic Jon Stephenson von Tetzchner and Geir Ivarsøy. They had initially begun development of the Opera web browser while both working at Norwegian telecommunications company Telenor.

Opera Software's first product, the Opera web browser version 2.10 for Windows, was publicly released in 1996. Opera began development of its first browser for mobile device platforms in 1998. Opera 4.0, released in 2000, included a new cross-platform core that facilitated creation of editions of Opera for multiple operating systems and platforms.

Up to this point, the Opera browser was trialware and had to be purchased after the trial period ended, however, this ended with version 5.0, released in 2000. Instead, Opera became ad-sponsored, displaying advertisements to users without a license, which was commonly criticized as a barrier to gaining market share. In newer versions, the user was allowed a choice of generic graphical banners or text-based targeted advertisements provided by Google based upon the page being viewed.

First IPO and public company
In February 2004, Opera Software announced it was preparing for an initial public offering on the Oslo Stock Exchange in March. On March 11, Opera's IPO opened, trading under the symbol OPERA.

In 2004, Opera Software settled a lawsuit with an "international corporation" paying  to Opera. It was speculated that the "international corporation" named in the statement announcing the settlement was Microsoft, which had previously blocked Opera users from correctly viewing MSN.com.

On 12 January 2005, Opera Software announced that it would offer free licenses to higher education institutions — a change from the previous cost of US$1,000 for unlimited licenses. Schools that opted for the free license included Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), Harvard University, University of Oxford, Georgia Institute of Technology, and Duke University.

With version 8.5 (released in 2005) the advertisements were removed entirely and primary financial support came through revenue from Google (Opera's default search engine). In August 2005, the company introduced Opera Mini, a new Java ME based web browser for mobile phones originally marketed not to end users but to mobile network operators to pre-load on phones or offer for their subscribers. In 2007, Opera filed a complaint against Microsoft in the European Commission, alleging that bundling Internet Explorer with Microsoft Windows is harmful to both the consumer and to other web browser companies. The complaint resulted in the creation of BrowserChoice.eu.

In 2011, development directors Rolf Assev and Christen Krogh, decided to quit Opera to try something new.

In 2012, Opera Software and Bharti Airtel signed an agreement to provide Opera Mini browsers to Airtel mobile customers. In 2013 Opera Software decided to not use their in-house rendering engine for the Desktop Browser anymore. From Version 15, the Opera browser for computers would be using the Blink rendering engine, a fork of Webkit developed together with Google.

In March 2015, Mobile World Congress in Barcelona, Opera won Global Mobile Award of Best Mobile Product, Initiative or Service in Emerging Markets for Opera Web Pass and Sponsored Web Pass. In April Opera Software decided to centre development of the Opera Desktop browser in Poland. On April 12, Opera TV AS (now Vewd Software AS) was established to separate TV-related business from all other assets, which became part of Opera Software AS; both companies became wholly owned subsidiaries of Opera Software ASA (now Otello). In September, the company announced a rebrand with a new three-dimensional "O" logo and brand identity. In the process, the company logotype changed from "Opera Software" to "Opera".

Sale to Chinese consortium
In 2016, the company changed ownership when a group of Chinese investors purchased the web browser, consumer business, and brand of Opera Software ASA. The remaining assets were renamed as the Otello Corporation. The ownership change was initiated in February 2016 when a group of Chinese investors offered US$1.2 billion ($8.31 per share) to buy Opera Software ASA, though the deal reportedly did not meet regulatory approval. On 18 July 2016, Opera Software ASA announced it had sold its browser, privacy and performance apps, and the Opera brand to Golden Brick Capital Private Equity Fund I Limited Partnership (a consortium of Chinese investors led by Beijing Kunlun Tech Co and Qihoo 360) for an amount of US$600 million. The transaction for sale of Opera's consumer business was approved on 31 October 2016 by the Committee on Foreign Investment in the United States. An earlier deal was not approved by Norwegian regulators. On 4 November 2016, Golden Brick Capital Private Equity Fund I L.P. completed the acquisition. After divesting itself of the Opera browser and brand, Opera Software ASA changed its name to Otello Corporation ASA.

Second IPO
In January 2017, the company introduced Opera Neon, a new concept browser that is intended as an exploration of browser design alternatives. The browser is built on top of the Blink engine similar to the original Opera browser, and it is available for Windows and macOS. In January 2018, Opera launched Opera News, an AI-driven news app dedicated to African users. It reached more than a million downloads in less than a month. In April, the company released a new mobile browser called Opera Touch. It includes an innovative user interface focused on ease of use and one-handed browsing. In July 2018, Opera filed for an IPO. The company went public on the NASDAQ on July 27 and raised over $115 million.

Acquisitions
In November 2019, Opera launched a new project called Opera News Hub. The platform helps bloggers create and share content. In January 2020, Opera acquired PocoSys, an Estonian startup that developed banking-as-a-service software. The deal also included an agreement to take over Pocopay, PocoSys's sister company. In June 2020, Opera partnered with APO Group to provide accurate information about COVID-19 in Africa. News articles from different health authorities are collected by APO and made available to Opera users through the Opera Mini browser and Opera News app.

Opera acquired YoYo Games from Playtech in January 2021, for , from which the company also announced the launch of its Opera Gaming division to promote game development within the Opera GX browser with YoYo Games and its GameMaker game development software.

In February 2021, Opera launched the fintech Dify, an in-browser payment app that includes cashback service and a digital wallet. Customers who use Dify get reimbursed when purchasing items from partner websites like Nike, Asos, and eDreams. The fintech was first offered in beta in Spain.

Products

Active products

 Opera desktop browser (Windows, macOS, Linux)
Opera Mobile
 Opera GX: Opera's gaming browser, released in June 2019. The browser allows users to customize how much RAM, CPU, and network bandwidth it uses, and reached 20 million monthly active users.
 Opera Mini: originally released in 2005, version 50 of the browser was released in May 2020. The redesign included a new UI, an improved data-saving mode, and a built-in file sharing service.
 Opera News: released in 2018, a news app with an AI-engine In 2020, Opera announced that its Opera News service had more than 200 million monthly active users.
 OPay: a fintech startup incubated by Opera, it is a mobile-based money platform in Nigeria released in 2018.
 Opera Ads: advertising platform which integrates into all of Opera's products released in May 2019.
Okash, Opesa and Credit Hela: Payday loan apps operating in Kenya.

Discontinued products
In February 2018, after previously announcing that the service and app would be shut down, the Opera Max app, a VPN based mobile data compression service, was sold to Samsung. It was rebranded as Samsung Max, but will only be compatible with eligible Samsung Galaxy smartphones going forward.

Since then, Opera has developed its own VPN available within its desktop and Android browser.

On March 22, 2021, in celebration of the three-year-anniversary of Opera Touch, it was announced that the iOS version of Opera Touch was rebranded to simply Opera, and it was also given a new, and refurbished UI.

In August 2017, Opera Coast was discontinued and removed from the Apple App Store. The reason is unknown, but some believed that the company is focusing on some products.

Controversy

Opera was involved in a years-long feud with Microsoft dating back to 2001. On at least three occasions, Opera accused Microsoft of deliberately breaking interoperability of its MSN services and the Opera browser or other non-Internet Explorer browsers. Microsoft denied that it was intentionally shutting out Opera users. In response, Opera released the "Bork Edition" of its web browser, causing MSN to display only the phrase, "Bork, bork, bork!" which was popularized by The Muppet Show character, Swedish Chef. In 2004, Opera received a confidential $12.75 million payment from an "international corporation" reported to be Microsoft.

In 2013, Opera switched from its rendering engine, Presto, to Chromium's Webkit (now Blink), a decision described as a "sad day for the web."

From 2018 to 2020, Opera was involved in the incubation of Kenyan loan companies OKash and Opesa. In January 2020, the then Opera-owned businesses were accused of offering predatory terms with interest rates of up to 876 percent per annum and employing unethical debt recovery practices such as debt shaming and abusing customer privacy. In August 2020, Opera announced its divestment from majority ownership of its microlending holdings, and in March 2022, Opera sold its stake outright.

Notes

References

External links

Companies based in Oslo
2016 mergers and acquisitions
Software companies of Norway
Software companies established in 1995
Norwegian companies established in 1995
Companies listed on the Nasdaq
2018 initial public offerings
Corporate spin-offs

Opera (company)


{{Infobox officeholder
| name                = Milan Babić
| native_name         = Милан Бабић
| native_name_lang    = sr-Cyrl
| image               = Milan Babić crop.jpg
| image_size          = 185px
| caption             = Milan Babić election photo,
| order               = 1st and 3rd President of Republic of Serbian Krajina
| primeminister       = Dušan Vještica
| term_start          = 19 December 1991
| term_end            = 16 February 1992
| predecessor         = position established
| successor           = Goran Hadžić
| predecessor1        = Goran Hadžić
| successor1          = Milan Martić
| term_start1         = 12 December 1993
| term_end1           = 23 January 1994
| order2              = 5th Prime Minister of Republic of Serbian Krajina
| president2          = Milan Martić
| term_start2         = 27 July 1995
| term_end2           = 7 August 1995
| predecessor2        = Borislav Mikelić
| successor2          = position abolished
| birth_date          =
| birth_place         = Kukar, PR Croatia, FPR Yugoslavia
| death_date          =
| death_place         = The Hague, Netherlands
| alma_mater          =
| profession          =
| spouse              =
| party               = Serb Democratic
| nationality         = Serb
| signature           =
| death_cause         = Suicide by hanging
}}
Milan Babić (; 25 February 1956 – 5 March 2006) was a Croatian Serb politician and war criminal who served as the first president of the Republic of Serbian Krajina, a self-proclaimed state largely populated by Serbs of Croatia that wished to break away from Croatia during the Croatian War of Independence.

After the war, he was indicted for war crimes by the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia (ICTY) in 2004 and was the first ever indictee to plead guilty and enter a plea bargain with the prosecution, after which he was sentenced to 13 years in prison.  Babić expressed "shame and remorse" in a public statement and declared that his plea bargain was intended to relieve the collective shame of the Croatian Serbs, and asked his "Croatian brothers to forgive their Serb brothers" for their actions.

After he was sentenced in 2004, Babić was found dead in his prison cell in The Hague in March 2006, in an apparent suicide.

Early life
Milan Babić, the son of Božo Babić, was born in 1956 in the village of Kukar near the town of Vrlika, in PR Croatia, FPR Yugoslavia. In 1981 he graduated from Belgrade University's School of Dentistry and became a stomatologist. In 1989, he became one of the directors of the medical centre in Knin, a largely Serb-inhabited town in southwestern Croatia. He entered politics in 1990, as Yugoslavia began to disintegrate, leaving his membership in the League of Communists of Croatia (SKH) and joining the newly established Serb nationalist party called the Serb Democratic Party (SDS) at its inception, on 17 February 1990. He was elected President of the Municipal Assembly of Knin shortly afterwards. At the time, Serbs comprised about 12.2% of Croatia's population, forming a majority in a strip of land known as "Krajina" along the Croatian-Bosnian border. Croatia's move towards independence following the election of President Franjo Tuđman in late 1990 were strongly opposed by its ethnic Serb minority, which was supported both politically and militarily by the Yugoslav People's Army (JNA) and SR Serbia under President Slobodan Milošević. Serb nationalists in the "Krajina" then established a Serbian National Council, a body designed to coordinate Serb opposition to Croatia's independence; Babić was elected its President.

Croatian war
Ethnic Serbs soon became hostile to remaining in an independent Croatia. After Tuđman was elected, Croatia's first democratic constitution was drafted, which demoted ethnic Serbs to a minority status within the country.

In September 1990, a referendum was held in the Krajina asking local voters if they agreed with Serb "sovereignty and autonomy" in Croatia, which was passed by a majority of 99.7%. The vote was declared illegal and invalid by the Croatian government. Babić's administration in Knin then announced the creation of a Serb Autonomous Region, named SAO Krajina, on 21 December 1990, and on 1 April 1991 it declared that it would secede from Croatia to join Serbia. Other Serb-dominated communities in eastern Croatia announced that they also would join the SAO.

Babić was elected President of the Executive Council of the SAO on April 30, and was subsequently appointed Minister of the Interior and Minister of Defence by the Krajina Serb Assembly. In this capacity, he established an armed militia which set up road blocks in its territory, effectively severing the southern Croatian coastal region of Dalmatia from the rest of the country. Clashes between Krajina Serbs and Croatian security forces broke out almost immediately after Croatia declared independence on June 25, leaving dozens dead.

Around August 1991, Babić became a party to what war crimes prosecutors would later describe as a "joint criminal enterprise" to permanently forcibly remove the non-Serb population of the territory under his control, with the ultimate goal of making the region part of a new Serb-dominated state. According to prosecutors, his chief accomplices included Slobodan Milošević, other Krajina Serb figures such as Milan Martić, the Serb paramilitary leader Vojislav Šešelj, and Yugoslav Army commanders including General Ratko Mladić, at the time the commander of JNA forces in Croatia. All of them were indicted for war crimes, and some have been convicted. According to Babić's testimony during his war crimes trial, during the summer of 1991 the Serbian secret police – under Milošević's command – set up "a parallel structure of state security and the police of Krajina and units commanded by the state security of Serbia". A full-scale war was launched in which a large area of territory, amounting to a third of Croatia, was seized and the non-Serb population was either massacred or ethnically cleansed. The bulk of the fighting occurred between August and December 1991. Thousands more died and were deported in fighting in eastern Slavonia, but the JNA was the principal actor in that part of the conflict.

The international community attempted to resolve the conflict in November 1991 by proposing a peace plan put forward by the United Nations Special Envoy Cyrus Vance, under which the Krajina would be demilitarised and protected by a UN peacekeeping force while political talks on its future took place. Babić strongly opposed this, instead renaming the SAO Republic of Serbian Krajina (RSK) on 19 December 1991 (which later absorbed the Serb-held areas of eastern Croatia in February 1992). He urged the Krajina Serb Assembly to reject the Vance plan. However, Milošević disagreed with this position: his strategic aims in Croatia had largely been achieved, and the JNA was needed for the looming war in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Babić was sidelined and the Vance plan was pushed through the RSK Assembly on 16 February 1992. On 26 February 1992, Milošević engineered Babić's removal in favour of Goran Hadžić, a more pliant figure who was reported to have boasted that he was merely "a messenger for Slobodan Milošević".

Although Babić remained active in RSK politics as its Minister of Foreign Affairs, he was by then a greatly weakened figure. Babić stated that Krajina policy was controlled from Belgrade via the Serbian secret police; Milošević later denied this, claiming that Babić had made it up "out of fear".

On 3 July 1992,  The Washington Post reported that aides to Milan Babic said he had been shot "...in an attack by bodyguards of a rival leader and was 'fighting for his life'..."

The Bosnian Serbs' military collapse in July–August 1995 propelled Babić into the post of RSK Prime Minister, but he held this for only a few weeks. In early August 1995, the Croatian government launched Operation Storm to retake the entire area of the Krajina (with the exception of the strip in eastern Slavonia, which remained under Serb control until 1998). Babić fled to Serbia along with the entire Krajina Serb leadership and 200,000 Serbian refugees from the region (most of the Serb population in the Krajina). He was said to have retired to a chicken farm in Vojvodina.

Trial and plea bargain

In December 2002, Babić was unexpectedly revealed as a witness against Slobodan Milošević as part of his plea bargain, testifying before the ICTY that Milošević had been personally involved in the war in Croatia. The following November, he was charged with five counts of crimes against humanity and violations of the laws and customs of war. Although he did not initially enter a plea, he pleaded guilty on 27 January 2004 to one count of crime against humanity in an apparent plea bargain with ICTY prosecutors under which the remaining charges were dropped. He expressed "shame and remorse" in a public statement and declared that he had acted to relieve the collective shame of the Croatian Serbs, asking his "Croatian brothers to forgive their Serb brothers" for their actions. His confession to the charge of persecution, a crime against humanity, marked a major victory for the ICTY prosecutors, as Babić was, prior to his death, the only participant in the Croatian war to admit guilt. His testimony was of great importance to the prosecution in bolstering their contention that Milošević was the main actor in the "joint criminal enterprise" in Croatia.

In his own trial, Babić gave testimony that was used to indict Milošević.  The former also appeared at the trial of the latter to give evidence.  In one case, Milošević denied that he supported Babić by quoting transcripts of his tapped telephone, where he referred to Babić as "an idiot", "ordinary scum" and "Tudjman's trump."

In June 2004, Babić was sentenced to 13 years in prison after the court rejected the prosecutors' recommendation for an 11-year sentence. The court found him more responsible than the prosecutor characterized him as, but also gave Babić credit for voluntarily surrendering and pleading guilty. The court found that while "Babić was not the prime mover... Babić chose to remain in power and provided significant support for the persecutions." Babić was sent to a secret location in Great Britain to serve his sentence, which was an unprecedented move by the court. This led to speculations that Babić had been given a privileged treatment in exchange for his testimony against other defendants. The official justification given for not disclosing his location was concern for his safety from people against whom he testified.

Fellow Serb leaders and commanders that Babić accused for war crimes in Croatia, during his trial in The Hague, involved Slobodan Milošević, Milan Martić, Jovica Stanišić, Franko Simatović, and Momčilo Krajišnik.

Death
Milan Babić was found dead after he reportedly committed suicide on 5 March 2006 while in the ICTY detention unit in The Hague, Netherlands, where he was in the midst of giving evidence against Milan Martić, his successor as President of the breakaway RSK. The New York Times reported that Babić had hanged himself "using his own leather belt."

Serbian Radical Party leader and fellow inmate, Vojislav Šešelj, claimed to have contributed to Babić's suicide by "making his life miserable." Šešelj added that the ICTY prosecution initially promised Babić that it would not press charges if he agreed to testify against fellow Serbs. The charges were pressed anyway (on one count).

Notes

External links

 "Milan Babić sebi presudio", Večernje Novosti'', 6 March 2006
 A. Samigullina. Milosevic's accuser commits suicide

1956 births
2006 suicides
2006 deaths
People from Vrlika
Serbs of Croatia
Croatian people who died in prison custody
Croatian Serbs convicted of crimes against humanity
Heads of government convicted of war crimes
Heads of state convicted of war crimes
People convicted by the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia
Politicians of the Croatian War of Independence
Republic of Serbian Krajina
Serbian people who died in prison custody
Serbian communists
Prisoners who died in Dutch detention
Serbian politicians who committed suicide
Mayors of Knin
Stomatologists
Suicides by hanging in the Netherlands
Serb Democratic Party (Croatia) politicians
League of Communists of Croatia politicians
Heads of state of states with limited recognition
Heads of state of former countries
Serbian nationalists
Serbian politicians convicted of crimes
Heads of government who were later imprisoned
People who died by suicide in prison custody

Milan Babić


سجنيات الشعر العربي هي تلك القصائد التي كتبها أصحابها خلف القضبان ومفردها «سجنية» وكل قصيدة كتبها صاحبها في سجنه سميت (سجنية) فيقولون سجنية علي بن الجهم، وسجنية المتنبي - وقد تجاوز البعض في العصر الحديث، واستخدم مصطلح السجنيات لكل أدب يكتب داخل السجون سواء كان قصة أم رواية أم نصاً أدبياً يصور معاناة صاحبه وأشواقه وصراعات جوانحه ، لكننا هنا معنيون أكثر بالقصيدة، لأن الشعر هو الأقدم بين كل فنون الأدب الأخرى، ولأن الشعر هو الأوفر حظاً في هذا الباب في كل العصور، ومرجع ذلك أن النفس المكلومة تلجأ للشعر لأنه الأكثف لغةً والأقدر على إجمال المعاني في قليل الكلام؛ علاوة على الإيقاع والموسيقى والأثر النفسي الذي يتحقق في الشعر دون بقية فنون الأدب الأخرى؛ مما يجعله قادراً على توجيه الرأي العام؛ ولعل مقولة عبد الله بن عمر: «أفضل صناعات الرجل بيت ٌ من الشعر يقدمه في صدر حاجته يستعطف به قلب اللئيم»، تبين لنا دور الشعر في العلاقة بين الحاكم والمحكوم، كما أن الشعر منذ بداياته الأولى قد عرف كسلاح مقاوم في مواجهة الظلم والاستبداد - والسجن تجربة ثرية لمن ابتلي بها من الشعراء والكتاب على مر العصور، والشعر العربي زاخر بآيات من الفن في هذا الباب، لشعراء وكتاب عانوا تجربة السجن أو الأسر؛ ففاضت قرائحهم شعرا ثائراً أبياً ناطقاً بروح المقاومة وإرادة الحياة، وعالج آخرون تلك التجربة علي أنها محنة ستنتهي؛ كما تنتهي كل المحن ومثلما تنتهي الحياة، فوضعوا في ذلك المقاربات والمقارنات، ولديهم الآمال الكبيرة بالخـلاص والحرية، ومنهم من روعته السجون والقيود، وحالت بينه وبين أحبائه، فراح يناجي أبناءه الصغار وزوجه وخلانه في ظلامها الحالك، وعيشها المنكود

تاريخ
عرف الادب العربي على مر العصور والحقب التاريخية المختلفة أدب الأسر وتجربة الاعتقال. للحطيئة حينما هجا الزبرقان عامل عمر بن الخطاب فيحبسه فيقول مستعطفاً بأبنائه الصغار في مطلع سجنيته:

غمد أبو فراس الحمداني في السجن وكتب أحد أبرز قصائده الروميات في الأسر. لنسمعه يقول في قصيدته الشهيرة «اراك عصي الدمع» التي غنتها المطربة أم كلثوم.

في حين نجد المعتمد بن عباد، قد صور عذابه وألمه وتجربته في السجن، بلغة شاعرية مؤثرة، وصور فنية، هو في أغمات:

ومن أشهر تلك السجنيات في الشعر العربي قصيدة الشاعر العباسي علي بن الجهم والتي قالها في الحبس - وهي قصيدة فيها إباء على الذل والاستعطاف:

وسجنية «عاصم بن محمد الكاتب» لما حبسه «أحمد بن عبد العزيز»، ويبدو أنه يعارض بها قصيدة «بن الجهم»، فهو يرد على نفس أفكاره وموضوعاته ويفندها.

وللعرجي شعر وهو محبوس - بسبب تعريضه بمحمد بن هشام، يقول من قصيدته؛ الذائعة الصيت:

العصر الحديث
من الأعمال الأدبية التي صورت التجربة الاعتقالية كتاب «السجن، الوطن» لفريدة النقاش الذي تحكي فيه عن فترة الأسر الممزوجة والمضمخة بالآلام والقهر الإنساني والتطلع إلى الآتي. وكذلك رواية شرق المتوسط لعبد الرحمن منيف، ورواية «تلك العتمة الباهرة» للطاهر بن جلون، ورواية «القلعة الخامسة» لفاضل الغزاوي، وسيرة شريف حتاتة «العين الزجاجية» وغيرهم.

ومن أبرز الذين مروا بتجربة الاعتقال، الروائي صنع الله إبراهيم، صاحب رواية "شرف"، نزيل السجون المصرية، الذي كتب عن هذه التجربة في روايته «تلك الرائحة». ويعتبر صنع الله إبراهيم السنوات التي قضاها خلف القضبان هي التي صنعت منه روائياً متميزاً:

المراجع
سجنيات الشعر العربي - خصائص وسمات (مخطوط) – تأليف / موسى إسماعيل الفقي (مصر)

أدب السجون العربي
شعر عربي

سجنيات الشعر العربي


An Luzula nodulosa in uska species han Liliopsida nga syahan ginhulagway ni Jean-Baptiste Bory de Saint-Vincent ngan Louis Athanase Anastase Chaubard, ngan ginhatag han pagkayana nga asya nga ngaran ni Ernst Meyer. An Luzula nodulosa in nahilalakip ha genus nga Luzula, ngan familia nga Juncaceae. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Luzula

Luzula nodulosa


Courcy (in the past sometimes spelled Courci etc.) is the name or part of the name of several communes in France:

Courcy, Calvados, in the Calvados département
Courcy, Manche, in the Manche département
Courcy, Marne, in the Marne département
Courcy-aux-Loges, in the Loiret département

Courcy is the name or part of the name of:
Robert De Coucy or Courcy, architect of Reims Cathedral, and his father of the same name.
Richard de Courcy, a Norman baron.
John de Courcy and many other members of this important medieval Anglo-Norman family,
 including 36 male de Courcy who have held the Irish title of Baron Kingsale.
John de Courcy (disambiguation)
William de Courcy (disambiguation)
De Courcy Island, near Nanaimo, British Columbia, Canada

Courcy


León (Leonca : Llión). İspanya Kastilya Leon Özerk Bölgesinde il ve bu ilin merkezi olan şehir. 2002 nüfusu 135.794 kişidir. Şehir Madrid'e 333 km Valladolid'e ise 134 km uzaklıktadır.

Coğrafya
Leon kenti bir nehir teras ve nehir ve Bernesga Torío ve izdiham at 840 metre yükseklikte bulunmaktadır. Olarak Galicia ve Asturias gitmek zorunda olduğu il merkezinde, yer Kuzey Yarımadası stratejik bir yerde, yer alıyor.

Hava
Her ne kadar biraz yazları en Cantabrian dağ aralığı için yakınlığı ile yumuşattığını Leon iklim Akdeniz, kıta olduğunu.

Sıcaklık, 10,9 °C, yıllık ortalama, soğuk kışlar ile sık frosts ile soğuk olan (ortalama yılda don 74 gün). Sırasında ağır snowfalls nadirdir Kar her yıl ortalama 16 gün boyunca, düşüyor. Summers şehrin yüksekliği ile 27 °C maksimum sıcaklıkları temperli vardır

Katedral

Leon bu harika gotik katedral için Onüçüncü yüzyılda Avrupa sanat mucize, vitray bir Avrupa'nın en büyük kabul etti ünlüdür

Dış bağlantılar
 León Şehir Konseyi (İspanyolca)
 León turizmi  (İspanyolca)

İspanya'daki şehirler
İspanya'daki Romalı arkeolojik sitler
León ili

León, İspanya


South River Township ist der Name folgender Townships in den Vereinigten Staaten:

 South River Township (Missouri)
 South River Township (North Carolina)

South River Township


Walther von Brauchitsch () a fost un feldmareșal german din Wehrmacht, care a îndeplinit funcția de comandant suprem al Armatei Germane de Uscat (Oberkommando des Heeres) în perioada 1938-1941.

Decorații
  Ordinul Militar "Mihai Viteazul", clasa III, clasa II și clasa I (14 octombrie 1941) "pentru modul strălucit cum a condus operațiunile giganticei armate germane, ducând-o fulgerător din victorie în victorie"

Note

Nașteri în 1881
Decese în 1948
Feldmareșali germani
Decorați cu Crucea de Cavaler al Ordinului Crucea de Fier
Germani ai Primului Război Mondial
Germani ai celui de-al Doilea Război Mondial
Decorați cu Ordinul "Mihai Viteazul"

Walther von Brauchitsch