Em relações internacionais, atores não estatais violentos, também conhecidos como atores não estatais armados ou grupos não estatais armados, são indivíduos ou grupos que são total ou parcialmente independentes dos governos e que ameaçam ou usam a violência para atingir seus objetivos.

Atores não estatais violentos variam muito em seus objetivos, tamanho e métodos. Eles podem incluir cartéis de narcóticos, movimentos de libertação popular, organizações religiosas e ideológicas, corporações (por exemplo, empresas militares privadas), milícias de autodefesa e grupos paramilitares estabelecidos por governos estaduais para promover seus interesses.

Enquanto alguns atores não estatais violentos se opõem aos governos, outros são aliados a eles. Alguns atores não estatais violentos são organizados como grupos paramilitares, adotando métodos e estrutura semelhantes aos das forças armadas estatais. Outros podem ser estruturados informalmente e usar a violência de outras maneiras, como sequestro, uso de artefatos explosivos improvisados ou invasão de sistemas de computador.

Descrição

Thomas, Kiser e Casebeer afirmaram em 2005 que "o ator não estatal violento desempenha um papel proeminente e muitas vezes desestabilizador em quase todas as crises humanitárias e políticas enfrentadas pela comunidade internacional". Como um novo tipo de ator nas relações internacionais, os atores não estatais violentos representam um afastamento do sistema tradicional de soberania de Estados da Vestfália de duas maneiras: fornecendo uma alternativa à governança estatal; e desafiando o monopólio da violência estatal.

Phil Williams afirmou em 2008 que, no século XXI, eles "se tornaram um desafio generalizado aos Estados-nação". Williams argumenta que os atores não estatais violentos se desenvolvem a partir da má governança de uma Estado, mas também contribuem para o enfraquecimento da governança do Estado. Ele explica que quando os Estados fracos são "incapazes de criar ou manter a lealdade e fidelidade de suas populações [...] indivíduos e grupos normalmente revertem ou desenvolvem padrões alternativos de afiliação". Isso faz com que a família, tribo, clã ou outro grupo se torne "os principais pontos de referência para a ação política, muitas vezes em oposição ao Estado". De acordo com Williams, a globalização "não apenas [...] desafiou a capacidade individual do Estado de gerenciar assuntos econômicos, mas também forneceu facilitadores e multiplicadores de força para os atores não estatais violentos". Os fluxos transnacionais de armas, por exemplo, não estão mais sob a vigilância exclusiva dos Estados. A globalização ajuda os atores não estatais violentos a desenvolver capital social e alianças transnacionais, bem como oportunidades de financiamento.

O termo tem sido usado em vários artigos publicados pelos Forças Armadas dos Estados Unidos.

Tipos
Atores não estatais violentos se envolvem em combate em todos os terrenos. Tipos comuns e influentes de atores não estatais violentos incluem:

 Organizações criminosas e cartéis de drogas, por exemplo, podem realizar assassinatos, sequestros, roubos, extorsões; operar esquemas de proteção; e defender seu território de grupos rivais e militares (guerra de territórios).
 Movimentos populares ou seções deles que escolheram táticas de guerrilha (também conhecidas como guerra assimétrica) para perseguir seus objetivos. Um exemplo é a insurgência Naxalita-Maoísta na Índia central.
 Piratas, bandidos que roubam navios ou fazem reféns para obter um resgate. Exemplos recentes incluem a pirataria na costa da Somália. Alguns piratas também afirmam que servem como "guarda costeira" no lugar de um Estado fracassado.
 Empresas militares privadas e corporações que possuem seus próprios serviços militares ou contratam serviços militares privados. Um exemplo são os  no Oceano Índico. As empresas militares privadas também são ativas na luta contra a pirataria e, portanto, fornecem um exemplo de atores não estatais violentos combatendo outros atores não estatais violentos.
 Atores não estatais violentos no mar. Tanto piratas quanto empresas militares privadas também fazem parte desse grupo, juntamente com outros atores menos maliciosos, como a Marinha de Netuno.
 Grupos religiosos ou ideológicos, como o Boko Haram na Nigéria e arredores, que defendem a violência armada como um dever moral ou sagrado.
 Milícia cidadã, que pode se formar para proteger uma localidade de (ou ameaçá-la com) ataques, como o movimento anti-balaka na República Centro-Africana.
 Grupos paramilitares, que fazem uso de métodos e estruturas militares para perseguir sua agenda, como o agora descomissionado Exército Republicano Irlandês Provisório.
 Senhores da guerra, que são líderes que usam a violência armada para exercer controle militar, econômico e político sobre o território dentro de um Estado soberano. Os senhores da guerra têm uma longa história no Afeganistão, por exemplo.

Phil Williams, em um artigo de visão geral, identifica cinco tipos de atores não estatais violentos:

 Senhores da guerra
 Milícias
 Insurgências
 Organizações terroristas
 Organizações criminosas e gangues

Relação com o terrorismo
Não há uma definição de "terrorismo" comumente aceita, e o termo é frequentemente usado como uma tática política para denunciar oponentes cujo status de terroristas é contestado. Uma tentativa de definição global aparece no projeto de trabalho da Convenção Global sobre o Terrorismo Internacional, que define o terrorismo como um tipo de ato, e não como um tipo de grupo. Especificamente, "terrorismo" no projeto refere-se à ameaça ou lesão intencional real a terceiros e danos graves à propriedade resultando em grandes perdas econômicas:Como a definição abrange as ações de alguns atores não estatais violentos (e de alguns atores estatais) e não de outros, as discordâncias permanecem e o tratado ainda não foi acordado, desde 2015. Por exemplo, a Organização para a Cooperação Islâmica pediu que os atos de terrorismo sejam distinguidos de:Essa definição significaria que as ações passadas do Exército Republicano Irlandês e as ações modernas do Hamas, entre outras, não poderiam ser declaradas terrorismo a priori, pois seria necessário debater para estabelecer se determinados atos eram "luta legítima [...] exercício de seu direito à autodeterminação" ou não, ainda que fosse universal a concordância de que "o objetivo da conduta é compelir um governo".

Uso de crianças

Atores não estatais violentos atraíram condenação internacional por dependerem fortemente de crianças menores de 18 anos como combatentes, batedores, carregadores, espiões, informantes e em outras funções (embora muitas forças armadas estatais também recrutem crianças). Em 2017, por exemplo, as Nações Unidas identificaram 14 países onde as crianças foram amplamente utilizadas por grupos armados: Afeganistão, Colômbia, República Centro-Africana, República Democrática do Congo, Iraque, Mali, Myanmar, Nigéria, Gaza (territórios palestinos), Filipinas, Singapura, Sudão do Sul, Sudão, Síria e Iêmen.

Nem todos os grupos armados utilizam crianças, e aproximadamente 60 que costumavam fazer isso firmaram acordos para reduzir ou acabar com a prática desde 1999. Por exemplo, em 2017, a Frente Moro de Libertação Islâmica nas Filipinas libertou cerca de 2 000 crianças de suas fileiras, e o movimento guerrilheiro FARC-EP na Colômbia concordaram em 2016 em parar de recrutar crianças. Em outras situações, o uso de crianças estava aumentando em 2017, particularmente no Afeganistão, Iraque, Nigéria e Síria, onde militantes islâmicos e grupos que se opunham intensificaram os esforços para recrutar crianças.

Engajamento humanitário
Pesquisadores do Overseas Development Institute propõem que o engajamento com atores não estatais violentos, que eles chamam de atores não estatais armados, é essencial para os esforços humanitários em conflitos. Afirmam que muitas vezes o engajamento é necessário para facilitar o acesso às pessoas afetadas e prestar assistência humanitária. No entanto, as agências humanitárias muitas vezes não conseguem se envolver estrategicamente com atores estatais não violentas. Essa tendência se fortaleceu desde o fim da Guerra Fria, em parte devido ao forte desencorajamento do envolvimento humanitário com atores não violentos estatais na legislação antiterrorista e nas restrições de financiamento de doadores. Na opinião deles, mais estudos são necessários para identificar maneiras pelas quais as agências humanitárias podem desenvolver um diálogo produtivo com os atores não violentos estatais.

O Departamento de Segurança Internacional e o Programa de Direito Internacional da Chatham House estão procurando entender a dinâmica que determinará o apoio a uma abordagem baseada em princípios para o envolvimento de atores humanitários com atores não violentos estatais.

Ver também
 Guerrilha
 Lobo solitário (terrorismo)
 Segurança nacional
 Ator não estatal
 Crime organizado
 Paramilitar
 Terrorismo
 Vigilante
 Guerra contra as drogas

Notas

Bibliografia

Leitura complementar

Ligações externas
 Transnational and Non-State Armed Groups Database

Violência política
Segurança internacional
Relações internacionais

Ator não estatal violento


Hans vanskeligste Rolle er en dansk stumfilm fra 1913, der er instrueret af August Blom.

Handling

Medvirkende
 Else Frölich - Komtesse Linda
 Ferdinand Bonn - Kurt Barner, skuespiller
 Robert Dinesen - Grev von Pfalz
 Henny Lauritzen - Grevinde Bernburg, komtesses mor
 Anton Gambetta Salmson - Grev Bernburg, komtessens far
 Alma Hinding
 Frederik Buch
 Frederik Jacobsen
 Axel Boesen
 Agnes Lorentzen
 Ingeborg Olsen
 Zanny Petersen

Eksterne henvisninger

Stumfilm fra Danmark
Danske film fra 1913

Hans vanskeligste Rolle


Pungudutivu (en tamil: புங்குடுதீவு) es una pequeña isla compuesta de varias aldeas que está justo al oeste de la península de Jaffna, en Sri Lanka, específicamente en la Provincia del Norte. Se divide en 12 barrios internos, correspondientes cada uno a una localidad importante. La mayoría de los residentes de la Isla son tamiles, de religión en su mayoría hindú y con una minoría cristiana. La isla fue conocida debido al número de casos de violaciones y asesinatos durante la guerra civil en Sri Lanka. La guerra civil también ha provocado que un gran número de personas tuviesen que emigrar de la isla a todo el mundo.

Véase también
 Geografía de Sri Lanka
 Geografía de Asia

Referencias

Enlaces externos
 Mapa de localización de la Isla en Wikimapia

Archipiélagos e islas de Sri Lanka

Pungudutivu


كوكبة القاعدة  أو الجؤجؤ (باللاتينية: Carina). تعتبر كوكبة القاعدة من كوكبات نصف  الجنوبي. يأتي هذا لإسم من «قاعدة السفينة» حيث يوحي شكل النجوم بشكل قاعدة سفينة.

وقد كان برج القاعدة جزءً من برج أكبر بكثير، والذي كان يسمّى الملاح الشمالي ؛ حيث كان يغطي حوالي 75 درجة في سماء .

وبسبب كبر مساحة برج الملاح الشمالي وعدم صلاحيته للاستعمال الفلكي، فقد تم تجزئته إلى أربعة أبراج هم: برج القاعدة، وبرج بيت الإبرة، وبرج الكوثل، وبرج الشراع.

يحتوي برج القاعدة على نجم غير مستقر يسمى إيتا القاعدة ، والذي يسحب الكتلة من سديم قريب منه؛ وكتلة النجم إيتا القاعدة عظيمة جداً ولا يستطيع حمل كل المادة التي يجمعها، وتنفخ بشكل دوري بسبب المواد الفائضة في انفجار هائل، يسمى نوفا.

وقد كان آخر انفجار للنجم إيتا القاعدة خلال القرنين الثامن عشر والتاسع عشر بعد الميلاد والذي توهج فيها بأكثر من 4000 مرة، والغيمة التي نتجت جراء الانفجار تسمى سديم حامل المفتاح  أو السديم (NGC 3372).

سديم القاعدة

من التجمعات النجمية التي يحتوي عليها برج القاعدة: NGC 2516 , NGC 2808، NGC 3114، NGC 3247، NGC 3324.
ومن السدم: إن جي سي 2867.

وأما أهم النجوم الموجودة في برج القاعدة فهي: ألفا القاعدة (النجم سهيل)، وبيتا القاعدة (نجم ميابالاسيدوس)، وإبسلون القاعدة (النجم أفيور)، وإيتا القاعدة (النجم توريس).

المصادر الخارجية
 موقع الكون
 The Deep Photographic Guide to the Constellations: Carina
 Starry Night Photography: Carina
 Eta Carina Nebula by Thomas Willig
 Star Tales – Carina
 Huge gamma-ray blast seen 12.2 billion light-years from Earth
 Carina Constellation at Constellation Guide

اقرأ أيضا
 إيتا القاعدة
 سحابة القاعدة
 إن جي سي 2516
 إن جي سي 3324
 غليزا 422
 كوكب جليسي 422 ب

المراجع

اكتشافات نيكولاس لويس دو لكيل
الكوكبات الجنوبية
كوكبات
كوكبة القاعدة

القاعدة (كوكبة)


Ustavni sud Bosne i Hercegovine je u srpnju 2000. godine donio povijesnu odluku U-5/98 o konstitutivnosti naroda u Bosni i Hercegovini, kojom se od dva entiteta, Federacije BiH i Republike Srpske (RS), tražilo da izmijene svoje ustave kako bi se osigurala puna ravnopravnost tri konstitutivna naroda na čitavom području BiH. Alija Izetbegović, u to doba predsjedatelj Predsjedništva Bosne i Hercegovine, je zahtjevom od 12. veljače 1998. godine pokrenuo postupak pred Ustavnim sudom Bosne i Hercegovine radi ocjenjivanja suglasnosti Ustava Republike Srpske i Ustava Federacije Bosne i Hercegovine s Ustavom Bosne i Hercegovine.

Odluka

Ustavni sud Bosne i Hercegovine na sjednici održanoj 30. lipnja i 1. srpnja 2000. godine, donio je djelomičnu odluku u pogledu Ustava Republike Srpske: proglasio sljedeće odredbe, odnosno dijelove odredbi, neustavnim:
a) stavove 1, 2, 3. i 5. Preambule, dopunjene amandmanima XXVI i LIV,
b) riječi "država srpskog naroda i" člana 1, dopunjenog Amandmanom XLIV.
U pogledu Ustava Federacije Bosne i Hercegovine, Ustavni sud je proglasio sljedeće dijelove odredbi neustavnim:
a) riječi "Bošnjaci i Hrvati kao konstitutivni narodi, zajedno sa ostalima, i" kao i "ostvarujući svoja suverena prava" člana I.1(1), zamijenjenog Amandmanom.

Odredbe ili dijelovi spomenutih odredbi ustava za koje je Ustavni sud ocijenio da su u suprotnosti s Ustavom Bosne i Hercegovine prestali da važiti danom objavljivanja ove odluke u Službenom glasniku Bosne i Hercegovine.

Značaj

U odluci Ustavnoga suda BiH U-5/98 eksplicitno je navedeno kako je konstitutivnost (ustavotvornost) tri naroda "natkrovljujuće načelo" Ustava BiH. Konstitutivnost podrazumijeva i zahtjeva:
 legitimno predstavljanje
 međusobnu jednakopravnost tri konstitutivna naroda.

Državni i entitetski domovi (konstitutivnih) naroda i tročlano Predsjedništvo BiH su izborna tijela koja je Ustav BiH namijenio legitimnom predstavljanju međusobno jednakopravnih konstitutivnih naroda: Bošnjaka, Hrvata i Srba. Stoga svaki konstitutivni narod mora u Izbornom zakonu BiH imati zajamčeno pravo i mogućnost samostalno izabrati svoje predstavnike u ta četiri tijela. Svako kršenje toga prava istovremeno krši i temeljno ili natkrovljujuće načelo Ustava BiH, a time i sam Ustav.

S obzirom na to da je Ustav BiH sastavni dio Daytonskog mirovnog sporazuma, kršenje načela legitimnog predstavljanja i međusobne jednakopravnosti konstitutivnih naroda nužno je okarakterizirati kao antiustavan i antidaytonski čin. Načelo međusobne jednakopravnosti konstitutivnih naroda ogleda se i kroz načelo pariteta u izvršnoj vlasti u BiH. Entitetskim ustavima i ustavom BiH točno je propisano koliko ministarskih pozicija pripada svakome konstitutivnom narodu, odnosno njegovim legitimnim predstavnicima u Vladi FBiH i Vladi RS, kao i na koji način se princip pariteta koristi u Vijeću ministara. Stoga se, u skladu s ustavima i Daytonom, izvršna vlast na državnoj i entitetskim razinama mora formirati od stranaka koje imaju većinski bošnjački/hrvatski/srpski izborni legitimitet. Svaki oblik kršenja toga načela je neustavan i antidaytonski čin, kao što je neustavan i antidaytonski i svaki pokušaj i oblik dekonstituiranja nekog konstitutivnog naroda.

Provedba

Ova odluka je nudila neponovljivu priliku da se ode što je dalje moguće, ali ipak ostane u okvirima Daytonskog mirovnog sporazuma, te da se omogući da BiH postane funkcionalna multinacionalna država. Daytonski model onakav kakav je on sada, s tri konstitutivna naroda i dva entiteta, suštinski je nestabilan. On se mogao pogurati u jednom od dva pravca: u pravcu priznavanja prava trećeg i najmalobrojnijeg naroda, Hrvata, na vlastiti entitet, ili u pravcu pretvaranja oba entiteta u istinski i stvarno multinacionalne entitete. Odluka o konstitutivnim narodima predstavljala je najbolji način da se postojeći entiteti reformiraju u okviru daytonske tvorevine i da se BiH pokrene u ovom drugom pravcu.

Protivnici su ubrzo osudili ovu odluku kao pokušaj da se obori Dayton. Pošto su uspjeli u jednoipolgodišnjem odlaganju ozbiljne rasprave o provedbi, svoje stavove su zaštitili razvodnjenjem budućih reformi što je vise moguće. Pristalice su pozdravili odluku Suda kao političku i ustavnu prekretnicu, te apelirali na domaće vlasti da se usaglase, odnosno na međunarodnu zajednicu da, ako to bude potrebno, nametne dalekosežne reforme kojima bi se poboljšale daytonske strukture.

Visoki predstavnik za Bosnu i Hercegovinu, Vijeće Europe i nekoliko zapadnih prijestolnica su od siječnja 2001. godine entitete gurkali u pravcu razmatranja i utvrđivanja ustavnih promjena neophodnih za provedbu odluke Suda. Ovaj proces uključivao je formiranje multietničkih ustavnih komisija pri entitetskim zakonodavnim tijelima, rad političkih stranaka na izradi njihovih vlastitih prijedloga, konzultacije s međunarodnim ustavnim ekspertima, period u kome se vodila javna debata, međustranačke pregovore, te, na kraju, mjesec dana intenzivnog pregovaranja u Uredu Visokog predstavnika (OHR).

Stranke su 27. ožujka 2002. godine u Sarajevu postigle politički dogovor, usuglasivši se oko paketa pravila i principa koje treba ugraditi u ustavne amandmane u oba entiteta. Visoki predstavnik, veleposlanik Sjedinjenih Država i španjolski ambasador (predstavnik Predsjedništva EU), koji su nadgledali maratonske sesije pogađanja, pohvalili su stranke zbog toga sto su imale hrabrosti da pristanu na kompromise, te se zavjetovali da će se pobrinuti da Sarajevski sporazum bude vjerno pretočen u provodljive amandmane. Iako taj sporazum nije predstavljao najbolje moguće tumačenje odluke Ustavnog suda, niti kompletan katalog svih potrebnih amandmana, njime je ponuđen prihvatljiv okvir zasnovan na kompromisu.

Posljedice

Izvedbena faza procesa dekonstituiranja Hrvata započela je amandmanima Roberta Barrya, tadašnjeg voditelja misije OESS-a u BiH, na propise Privremenog izbornog povjerenstva, samo mjesec dana pred opće izbore 2000. Barryjevi amandmani su 2001. rezultirali formiranjem Vlade FBiH ("Alijansa") bez stranaka koje su osvojile preko 90% hrvatskih glasova na izborima. Koaliciju je činilo 9 bošnjačkih stranaka i jedna hrvatska, koja je dobila oko 5% potpore Hrvata u FBiH.

Nastavak i vrhunac procesa ustavno-pravnoga dekonstituiranja uslijedio je kroz amandmane na Ustav Federacije BiH nametnute od strane OHR-a. Od 108 amandmana na Ustav FBiH, samo 39 je odobrio Parlament FBiH, a čak njih 69 su nametnuli visoki predstavnici Wolfgang Petritsch i Paddy Ashdown između 2002. i 2004. godine. Za Hrvate u BiH posebno su bili pogubni Petritschevi amandmani iz travnja 2002. godine koji su u međunarodnoj zajednici poznati pod ciničnim nazivom "airport decision" tj. "odluka iz zračne luke" jer ih je Petritsch potpisao doslovno u zračnoj luci, neposredno prije svog odlaska iz BiH. Nametnuti amandmani OHR-a na ustave FBiH i RS službeno su za cilj imali provedbu odluke U-5/98 Ustavnog suda BiH iz 2000. godine. Prije ove odluke u RS su samo Srbi bili konstitutivni, a samo Bošnjaci i Hrvati u FBiH. Nametnuti amandmani su de iure dodali sva tri naroda kao konstitutivne u ustave oba entiteta, ali de facto, Republika Srpska je ostala srpski entitet, a Federacija BiH je od bošnjačko-hrvatske federacije, koja je po Washingtonskom sporazumu trebala ući u konfederaciju s Republikom Hrvatskom, postala bošnjački entitet. Mogućom kontrolom oba doma Parlamenta FBiH, stranke koje predstavljaju bošnjačku izbornu volju imaju mogućnost samostalno formirati izvršnu vlast na razini FBiH (Predsjednik FBiH i dva dopredsjednika te Vlada FBiH).

Poveznice
 Federalizam u Bosni i Hercegovini
 Barryjevi amandmani
 Hrvatska samouprava u Bosni i Hercegovini
 Demokratska alijansa za promjene
 Sarajevski sporazum o ustavnim promjenama
 Majorizacija Hrvata u Bosni i Hercegovini

Vanjske
 Dražen Pehar: Petritsch namjerno podgrijava "vrući lonac" BiH nespojivim izjavama, i to čini već dva desetljeća Poskok.info, 26. veljače 2020.

Izvori

Povijest neovisne Bosne i Hercegovine

Odluka o konstitutivnosti naroda u Bosni i Hercegovini


No confundir con la película de Avi Nesher (2007), Los Secretos.

Dowaha es una película del año 2009.

Sinopsis
Aicha, Radia y su madre viven escondidas en el ala reservado a los criados en una casa deshabitada. El precario equilibrio de su vida cotidiana empeora cuando una joven pareja se muda a la parte superior de la casa. Empieza entonces una extraña cohabitación entre la pareja y las tres mujeres, que prefieren no revelar su presencia a los inesperados vecinos. No pueden dejar su escondite porque conserva secretos enterrados durante años. Pero Aicha, la más joven de las dos hermanas, se siente atraída por los recién llegados…

Premios
 Festival de Cine y de Culturas Mediterráneas Arte Mar (Bastia) 2009.

Referencias

Dowaha


Daniel Niclasen (født 13. oktober 1840 i Sørvágur, død 21. marts 1900), kaldet Ríki Dánjal ("Rige Daniel"), var en færøsk købmand og politiker. Han sad i Lagtinget fra 1891 til sin død i 1900, indvalgt fra Vágar. Niclasen var gift med Sigga Maria Rasmussen fra Miðvágur, som han fik sønnerne Rasmus Niclasen og Niclas Niclasen med.

Referencer
 Løgtingið 150 – Hátíðarrit, bind 2 (2002), s. 322. (PDF )

Købmænd fra Færøerne
Lagtingsmedlemmer fra Færøerne
Personer fra Vågø

Daniel Niclasen


منير حبيب رائد فضاء سوري شارك في الإعداد والتدريب والتجهيز للرحلة الفضائية السورية السوفيتية المشتركة عام 1987 وذلك ضمن إطار التعاون العلمي في مجال الفضاء بين سوريا سوريا والاتحاد السوفييتي، حيث شاركت الهيئة السورية العامة للاستشعار عن بعد. تم في البداية اختيار 50 طياراً سورياً، وبعد الاختبارت من قبل علماء روس وسوريين وقع الاختيار على اثنين هما رائد الفضاء محمد فارس ورائد الفضاء منير حبيب. استمر الإعداد والتدريب في مدينة الفضاء في روسيا لمدة قاربت السنتين قبل انطلاق الرحلة الفضائية.

رحلة الفضاء السورية السوفيتية

انطلقت الرحلة الفضائية السورية السوفيتية المشتركة على متن المركبة الفضائية صباح 22 تموز 1987 سويوز T.M.3 بطاقم مؤلف من رائد الفضاء الروسي ألكسندر فيكتورينكو ورائد الفضاء السوري محمد فارس ورائد الفضاء الروسي ألكسندر ألكساندروف، وكان رائد الفضاء منير حبيب رائد فضاء احتياطي في المحطة الفضائية. وقد التحمت المركبة سويوز بالمحطة مير حتى 30 تموز 1987 م وبقيت في الفضاء أكثر من سبعة أيام.

نقلت المركبة الفضائية - سويوز 3 -إلى محطة مير الفضائية المدارية طاقماً سوفيتياً سورياً اشتمل على روّاد الفضاء الروس إس فيكتورينكو، أي بي اليكساندروف ورائد الفضاء السوري محمد فارس لإجراء البحث والتجارب المشتركة مع روّاد الفضاء الروس واي رومانينكو ولافيكين الموجودين على المحطة وأرسى بميناء مير الخلفي في الساعة 3:30 بتوقيت غرينيتش في يوم 24 يوليو/تموز عام 1987م. وانفصلت المركبة بالميناء الخلفي 30 في يوليو/تموز وانفصل في الساعة 05:55 بتوقيت غرينيتش وفي 29 ديسمبر/كانون الأول أرجع اليكساندروف، ويوري رومانينكو المركبة (ع ت سويز -2)، وأناتولي ليفتشينكو المركبة (ع ت سويز -4) إلى الأرض. وهبطت المركبة في 29 ديسمبر/كانون الأول 1987م في الساعة 09:16 بتوقيت غرينتش. قرب آركاليك.
طاقم الإسناد: رائد الفضاء منير حبيب السوري الاحتياطي للرائد محمد فارس، سافينيخ، سولوفيوف

عربة الانطلاق: سويوز 11 511 U 2. البرنامج: مير. الصنف: بشري. النوع: المركبة الفضائية. المركبة الفضائية: ع ت سويوز. الحمولة: ع ت سويوز 11 F 732 s /n 53. الكتلة: 7,100 كيلو غرام. الحضيض: 297 كيلومتر. الأوج: 353 كيلومتر. الميل: 51.6 deg. الفترة: 91.0 min. الإشارات: 1، 2، 6، 51.

انطلقت الرحلة من بيكونور؛وهبطت في المنطقة الشمالية الشرقية لآركاليك بحوالي 80 كيلومتر بالمركبة الفضائية ع ت سويوز -2- ؛ وأرست على محطة مير الفضائية؛ وجراء تبادل طاقم جزئيا بحيث بقى اليكساندروف على محطة مير؛وتمّ تصوير سوريا من الفضاء الخارجي واجراء العديد من التجارب العلمية السورية.

ثم هبط اليكساندروف في 29.12.1987 بالمركبة الفضائية ع ت سويوز -3

التجارب العلمية السورية التي تمت في الفضاء

التجارب العلمية السورية التي أعدت لتنفيذها على المحطة الفضائية مير في هذه الرحلة من قبل الهيئة السورية العامة للاستشعار عن بعد وعددها 13 تجربة في عدة مجالات هي كالتالي:

الطب الفضائي: متضمنة تخطيط القلب والدورة الدموية والرياضة وألية التكيف والتغيرات في كتلة العضلات وتوازن الجسم واختلاف الرؤية.

التعدين الفضائي: متضمنة أنصاف النواقل، خليط معدني جديد وبلورات جديدة.
الغلاف الجوي للأرض: متضمنة ديناميكية الغلاف الجوي والإشعاع الشمسي.

مراقبة الموارد الأرضية: متضمنة تطبيقات الاستشعار عن بعد في مجال الزراعة والجيولوجيا والهيدرولوجيا والهيدروجيولوجيا والبيئة باستخدام الكاميرا MFK-6M والكاميرا KATE-140

انظر أيضاً
 محمد فارس
 الرحلة الفضائية السورية السوفيتية

المصادر

رواد فضاء سوريون
صفحات تحتاج تصنيف سنة الولادة (أشخاص أحياء)

منير حبيب


Jai Rodriguez  is an American actor and musician best known as the culture guide on the Bravo network's Emmy-winning American reality television program Queer Eye for the Straight Guy. He also co-wrote a book with the other Queer Eye hosts. Rodriguez starred as Geoffrey in the sitcom Malibu Country from 2012 to 2013.

Personal life
Rodriguez is of Puerto Rican and Italian descent, He performed with gospel choirs from the age of eleven, and studied musical theater at the Boces Cultural Art Center in Syosset, New York (now called Long Island High School for the Arts). He also attended Smithtown Christian School and Smithtown High School (now Smithtown West), where he performed in various plays. He is openly gay.

Career

Acting
Rodriguez is a stage actor and singer best known for his roles in the Toronto cast of Broadway stage musical Rent, as Angel, and the Off-Broadway musical Zanna, Don't!, as Zanna. He has acted in several plays, including Spinning into Butter at the Lincoln Center. In 2005, he created and performed his stage show Jai Rodriguez: xPosed. xPosed told the story of Rodriguez's life and struggle to come out to his religious family as well as his career on stage and in Queer Eye. His Queer Eye co-stars Ted Allen and Carson Kressley appeared as themselves.

In November 1993, at age 14, Rodriguez appeared in one episode of the daytime drama All My Children. In August 2005, he made a two-day guest appearance on the daytime drama One Life to Live.

In November 2005, while Queer Eye was on filming hiatus, he joined the cast of The Producers on Broadway for three months, playing the role of Carmen Ghia. He played a different role, that of Sabu, in the 2005 Producers movie.

In August 2007, Rodriguez filmed a guest-starring role in drama series Nip/Tuck, playing the character of Chaz Darling. The episode (also titled "Chaz Darling") aired in November 2007.

In March 2010, Rodriguez appeared as a newscaster in the music video for "Telephone", with Lady Gaga and Beyoncé.

In February 2011, Rodriguez appeared in an episode of the ABC series Detroit 1-8-7 titled "Legacy; Drag City", playing a drag queen.

In March 2011, Rodriguez made an appearance in an episode of NBC's Harry's Law, titled "Send in the Clowns", as a transgender woman fired after an affair with a club owner was exposed.

In November 2011, Rodriguez appeared in an episode of How I Met Your Mother titled "The Rebound Girl", playing the husband of Barney Stinson's brother. He appeared again in March 2014 in the episode "Gary Blauman".

Rodriguez regularly guest performs in Cookin' with Gas , a long-running all improv show, at The Groundlings Theatre in Los Angeles.

In April 2012, he appeared in an episode of Bones as a murdering hairdresser.

On Malibu Country, Rodriguez was a regular cast member, playing record industry executive, Geoffrey.

In November 2014, Rodriguez appeared as Diego Diaz in Kingdom as a physical therapist.

From August 2014, Rodriguez appeared as "Ritchie Valentine" in The Horizon.

Television hosting
In 2003, Rodriguez became Queer Eye resident "Culture Vulture", functioning as the show's expert on the topic of culture, and the show's success brought him increased exposure. He was a replacement host for the show's culture host who was originally cast, but has been part of Queer Eye since the third episode. This show includes five men who respectively are a grooming guru, food and wine connoisseur, fashion savant, a fashion stylist, and a culture vulture.

In April 2004, Jai hosted Bravo on with the Show. This was a contest on Bravo in which 50 actors and actresses won a trip to New York City to work with Broadway professionals. This three-day workshop helped these teens develop their acting skills.

In May 2007, Rodriguez announced he would be appearing as a regular judge on two new reality shows: MTV's Shower Power (an American Idol-type singing contest) and Court TV's The Jury, (a Judge Judy-type show where cases are decided by a panel of celebrity judges).

On November 3, 2007, Rodriguez started co-hosting Ultimate Style, with Daisy Fuentes, on the Style Network. The weekly series covered celebrities, fashion, beauty, home and all things related to style. Also in 2007, Rodriguez hosted one season of travel/style show Styleyes on Sí TV.

Rodriguez also hosted the TV show Groomer Has It, which premiered April 12, 2008 on Animal Planet. He also appears on GSN Live as a sub host.

Music
As a singer, Rodriguez has performed on stage and as a recording artist. In 2002, he created his own musical cabaret show, titled Monday Night Twisted Cabaret, which ran at New York gay club xl for a year. Rodriguez continued to perform Twisted Cabaret on a sporadic basis from 2004 to 2006.

Rodriguez released his first single, "Love Is Good", on the indie record label Arrive at Eleven Productions in March 2003. He then recorded his debut album for Airgo Records. "Broken", the first single from the album, was released on October 4, 2007.

Rodriguez appeared as one of the celebrity singers on the TV show Celebrity Duets, which premiered August 29. He was eliminated on September 22, 2006.

Writing
Rodriguez is also a co-author of the New York Times bestselling book Queer Eye for the Straight Guy: The Fab Five's Guide to Looking Better, Cooking Better, Dressing Better, Behaving Better, and Living Better (Published by Clarkson Potter, 2004).

Filmography

References

External links

Photoshoot with Jai Rodriguez

Living people
American television personalities
Primetime Emmy Award winners
American gay actors
American LGBT broadcasters
21st-century American male actors
American male television actors
Male actors from New York (state)
American musicians of Puerto Rican descent
American people of Italian descent
American male film actors
LGBT Hispanic and Latino American people
Year of birth missing (living people)

Jai Rodriguez


Le Tecnam P-mentor est un avion léger italien , destiné à l'entraînement en vol , conçu et produit par Tecnam Casoria.La conception aura d'abord été présentée publiquement à l'Aero Friedrichshafen en 2022. Il aura été introduit en avril 2022 et est certifié de type en Europe.

Design et développement

Cet avion a été conçu conformément à la réglementation Easa CS-23 de l'Agence européenne de la sécurité aérienne pour les avions légers certifiés. Il a reçu la certification le 7 avril 2022.

La conception comprend un cockpit fermé à deux places dans une verrière à bulles, un train d'atterrissage à tricycle fixe avec carénage de roue et un seul moteur dans la configuration tracteur, entraînant une Hélice à pas variable bipale.

L'aile de l'avion est alliage léger avec un bord d'attaque en polymère renforcé de fibre de carbone. L'aile a une envergure de  et est équipée de volets à fentes et d'ailerons. Le moteur employé est un Rotax 912isc de  à quatre temps, certifié.

La conception utilise une nouvelle aile trapézoïdale avec un profil aérodynamique laminaire. Celle-ci répond aux exigences de la certification EASA CS-23 concernant les manœuvres à basse vitesse et le décrochage sans parachute balistique.

Caractéristiques

Caractéristiques générales

 Équipage: un
 Capacité: un passager
 Longueur:
 Envergure:
 Hauteur:
 Poids vide:
 Poids brut:
 Capacité de carburant:
 Moteur électrique: 1 × Rotax 912isc à quatre cylindres, liquide et refroidi par air, moteur d'avions à quatre coups ,  (101 ch)

Performance

 Vitesse de croisière:
 Vitesse de décrochage:
 Plage:
 Plafond de service:

Avionique

 Affichage de vol Garmin G3X
 Instrument de sauvegarde Garmin GI275
 Automatique Garmin GFC 500

Liens externes
Aerobuzz
 Aero VFR
Aeroweb

Notes et références

Aviation légère
Avion à hélices
Avion civil
Avion construit en Italie
Premier vol en 2022

Tecnam P-Mentor


نظرية البجعة السوداء (بالإنجليزية:Black swan theory) هي نظرية تُشير إلى صعوبة التنبؤ بالأحداث المفاجئة. تقوم هذه النظرية على الفكرة السائدة بأن البجع كله أبيض أما وجود البجع الأسود فهو نادر ومفاجئ. كان ذلك قبل اكتشاف البجع الأسود في أستراليا الغربية الذي كان حدثًا غير متوقع. وتنطبقُ هذه النظرية على الأحداث التاريخية التي لم يكن من الممكن التنبؤ بها أو كان احتمال وقوعها غير وارد على الإطلاق. فمعظم الناس لم يروا بجعًا أسودَ، لذا يعتقدون بعدم وجوده، وذلك لأن عقلنا يركّز على أمور ويغفل عن أخرى.

خلفية
نسيم نقولا طالب فيلسوف ومفكّر أمريكي من أصل لبناني. صدر له عام 2007 كتاب بعنوان البجعة السوداء. تحدث فيه عن الاكتشافات العلمية الكبرى والأحداث التاريخية والإنجازات الفنية كأنها «بجعات سوداء» باعتبارها إنجازات غير متوقعة، كما تحدث نسيم طالب عن ظهور شبكة الإنترنت، والكمبيوتر وكذا الحرب العالمية الأولى، وهجمات 11 سبتمبر 2001 كأمثلةٍ على أحداث البجعة السوداء. تعود جذور مصطلح «البجعة السوداء» إلى القرن 17 حينما كان يَفترضُ الأوروبيون أنَّ جميع البجع أبيض؛ وعليه ترمزُ عبارة «بجعة سوداء» لشيء كان من غير المتوقع حدوثه أو مجرد تَخَيُل حدوثه.

التعامل مع أحداث البجعة السوداء
الفكرة الرئيسية في كتاب نسيم نقولا طالب ليست محاولة التنبؤ بالأحداث التي لا يمكن التنبؤ بها، ولكن هي محاولة بناء وتعزيز قوانا العقلية والنفسية وأفكارنا أمام الأحداث السلبية، مع محاولة الاستفادة من الأحداث الإيجابية. يَدَعِي نسيم نقولا طالب أن البنوك والشركات التجارية غير محصنه بشدة من الأحداث الخطرة التي لا يمكن التنبؤ بها، ولازالوا يتعرضون لخسائر فادحة حتى بَعدمَا تَتَنبأ به نماذجها المعيبة.

يخبرنا نسيم نقولا طالب أن أحداث البجعة السوداء تعتمد على المُرَاقِب (المُشَاهِد المُتَخَصِص في فرع ما)، على سبيل المثال، قد يكون ظهور حدث لا يمكن التنبؤ به هو أمر مفاجيء بالنسبة للديك الرومي ولكنه ليس مُفَاجِئًا بالنسبة للجزار! لذا فإن الهدف من النظرية هو «ألا يكون الأنسان مثل الديك الرومي». هذا يعني أن على الإنسان أن يمتلك القدرة على التنبؤ بالأحداث السيئة قبل وقوعها وتحويل البجعات السوداء إلى بيضاء.

تحديد حدث البجعة السوداء
استنادًا إلى معايير مؤلف كتاب البجعة السوداء:
 الحدث هو مفاجأة للمُرَاقِب.
 الحدث له تأثير كبير.
 بعد وقوع الحدث، نتعرض لِمَا يُسمَّى انحياز الإدراك المتأخر، بمعنى: رؤية الأحداث الماضية على أنه كان من الممكن التنبؤ بها قبل حدوثها.

النهج المعرفي
يختلف تناول مصطلح «البجعة السوداء» لنسيم طالب عما سبقه من طرح فلسفي للمشكلة خاصة فيما يتعلق بنظرية المعرفة. لأنها تتعلق بظاهرة ذات خصائص تجريبية وإحصائية محددة تسمى «الربع الرابع».

أيضًا يختلف تناول طالب عمن تعاملوا مع مفهوم غير المحتمل/الممكن مثل هيوم وميل وبوبر الذين ركزوا على مشكلة الإستقراء في المنطق، وتحديدًا «استنباط استنتاجات عامة من ملاحظات محددة». أما بجعة طالب السوداء بها سمة مركزية وفريدة من نوعها حيث تَبَنّىَ زعم «أن تقريبًا كل الأحداث اللاحقة في التاريخ جاءت مِمَّا هو غير متوقع، في حين أن البشر يُقنِعونَ أنفُسهم بأن هذه الأحداث يمكن تفسيرها عند وقوعها من خلال الإدراك المتأخر».

ثمة مشكلة واحدة فيما اقترحه نسيم نيكولاس طالب في كتابه البجعة السوداء (2007)، وصفت بالمغالطة السخيفة وهي «إساءة استخدام الألعاب لنمذجة مواقف من الحياة الواقعية».

ينبع هذا من افتراض أن غير المتوقع يمكن التنبؤ به بواسطة استقراء التغيرات والاختلافات في الإحصائيات بناءً على الملاحظات السابقة، خاصةً عندما يُفترض أن هذه الإحصائيات تمثل عينات من التوزيع الطبيعي.

غالبًا ما تكون هذه المخاوف وثيقة الصلة بالأسواق المالية، حيث يَفتَرِض اللاعبون الرئيسيون أحيانًا توزيعات عادية عند استخدام نماذج القيمة المعرضة للخطر، على الرغم من أن عوائد السوق عادةً ما يكون لها توزيعات كبيرة.

بوجهٍ عام فإن نظرية القرار التي تستند إلى عالم ثابت أو «نموذج» من النتائج المحتملة، تتجاهل وتقلل من تأثير الأحداث التي «خارج النموذج».

على سبيل المثال، قد يشمل نَمُوذَجًا بَسيطًا لعائدات سوق الأوراق المالية اليومية تحركات متطرفة مثل الأثنين الأسود (1987)، ولكن قد لا يتنبأ بانهيار السوق في أعقاب هجمات 11 سبتمبر. ظلت بورصة نيويورك وصرف ناسداك مغلقة حتى 17 سبتمبر 2001، وهي أطول مدة إغلاق منذ الكساد العظيم. مما يعني بشكل مبسط أن النموذج ثابت وربما يمكنه «التنبؤ بمجهول ما، بِنَاءً على ما سبق»، لكن بالطبع لا يمكنه التنبؤ بمجهول لم يسبق له مثيل من قبل.

يلاحظ طالب أن التوزيعات الأخرى غير صالحة للاستعمال بدقة، وهي في كثير من الأحيان وصفية أكثر منها عملية. كما يؤكد أن العديد من الأحداث هي ببساطة غير مسبوقة، مما يقوض أساس هذا النوع من التفكير تمامًا. ويدافع أيضًا عن استخدام المنطق المضاد عند التفكير في المخاطرة.

انظر أيضا
 العشوائية
 قوة قاهرة

المراجع

وصلات خارجية
 الربع الرابع وحدود الإحصاء -  فكرة طالب عن الحدود الإحصائيه
 نظرية البجعة السوداء من فرصة—أطروحه متعلقه بجوانب الحياة التي لا يمكن التنبؤ بها. صحف جارديان، أغسطس 2008.

عشاوة
فلسفة الرياضيات
مال
مجازات تشير إلى الطيور
مجازات تشير إلى حيوانات
مفاهيم فلسفية
نظريات معرفية
نظرية فوضى الكون
نظرية نظرية العلم

نظرية البجعة السوداء


Zdravstvena njega jedna je od kompetencija medicinske sestre - tehničara, definirana Zakonom i posebnim pravilnicima. Uključuje primjenu specifičnih znanja i vještina temeljenih na znanstvenim spoznajama iz područja sestrinstva, prirodnih, medicinskih i humanističkih znanosti, a provodi se na svim razinama zdravstvene zaštite, u djelatnosti socijalne skrbi i svim djelatnostima u kojima medicinske sestre pružaju izravnu zdravstvenu zaštitu.

Zdravstvena je njega profesija unutar sektora zdravstvene zaštite s fokusom na brizi o pojedincima, obiteljima i zajednicama tako da mogu ostvariti, održavati ili oporavljati optimalno zdravlje i kvalitetu života. Medicinske se sestre mogu razlikovati od ostalih pružatelja zdravstvene njege prema pristupu njege pacijenata, obučavanju i obujmu prakse. Medicinske sestre djeluju u mnogim specijalnostima s različitim razinama ovlašćenja za propisivanje. Mnoge medicinske sestre pružaju njegu u okviru zahtjeva liječnika i ova tradicionalna uloga oblikovala je javni imidž medicinskih sestara kao pružatelja njege. Međutim, u većini jurisdikcija medicinskim sestrama dozvoljeno je samostalno djelovati u raznim okruženjima. Nakon Drugog svjetskog rata, obrazovanje medicinskih sestara prošlo je kroz proces diverzifikacije prema naprednim i specijaliziranim kvalifikacijama, a mnogi tradicionalni propisi i uloge pružatelja usluga se mijenjaju.

Izvori

Zdravstvo

Zdravstvena njega


Die Philippstraße in der Kreisstadt Düren (Nordrhein-Westfalen) ist eine alte Innerortsstraße.

Lage

Die Straße ist vierspurig ausgebaut und beginnt am Platz der deutschen Einheit, einer seit 2011 so benannten Straßenkreuzung mit der August-Klotz-Straße, Schenkelstraße und Tivolistraße. In nördlicher Richtung verläuft sie bis zur Brücke der Bahnlinie Köln-Aachen. Dort geht sie nahtlos in die Veldener Straße über.

Geschichte
Die Straße hat ihren Namen vom größten und stärksten Stadttor, dem Philippstor. Es stand auf dem heutigen Platz der deutschen Einheit. Es wurde vermutlich nach dem Schöffen Philippus benannt, der im 14. Jahrhundert auch als Bürgermeister bezeugt ist.

Siehe auch
 Liste der Straßen in Düren

Quellen
 Straßenliste auf der Webseite der Stadt Düren (PDF; 58 kB)
 Josef Geuenich: Die Dürener Straßennamen, Düren 1965, herausgegeben von der Stadt Düren und dem Dürener Geschichtsverein

Einzelnachweise

Urbaner Freiraum in Düren
Straße in Düren

Philippstraße (Düren)


Bernhard IV (en all. Bernhard IV. von Paderborn ; mort le ) fut le premier Bernard de Lippe sur le trône épiscopal de Paderborn et régna de 1228 à 1247.

Biographie
Bernard est un fils du noble Bernard II de Lippe et de sa femme Heilwig von Are et fait partie d'une fratrie de 10 frères et sœurs. Presque sans exception, ces enfants étaient destinés aux offices administratifs. Quatre évêques et plusieurs religieuses sont issus de cette seule famille. Même son père, Bernard II, est entré dans un monastère à un âge avancé "avec le consentement de sa mère".

En tant que noble séculier, le père de Bernard fut l'un des fondateurs du  (aujourd'hui à Harsewinkel près de Gütersloh). En 1196, il entra dans ce monastère en tant que moine. À l'âge de 70 ans, il rejoint la mission de Livonie en 1211 et devient abbé à Dünamünde et évêque de Zemgale (Selburg; episcopus Selonensis).

Le frère (potentiel) de l'évêque Bernard, Gérard, fut le premier prévôt de la cathédrale de Paderborn et en 1219, il devint archevêque de Brême. Bernard fut le premier prélat à Utrecht. Son frère Otto II de Lippe était à l'époque Otton II, évêque d'Utrecht. Le  (ou le  août), les frères de Bernard sont tués lors de ce combat mené par leur frère Gérard contre les fermiers rebelles de Steding, à la bataille de Ane. L'évêque Otto II et Thierry de Deventer ont été pris en embuscade par le burgrave de Coevorden et mutilés et tués dans un marais. En conséquence, l'évêque de Paderborn, Wilbrand, a déménagé dans le diocèse plus important d'Utrecht et a ouvert la voie à Bernard pour prendre en charge le plus haut siège de l'église à Paderborn. Bernard a été consacré à Brême en 1228 par son frère l'archevêque Gérard. Une sœur de ces trois évêques fut abbesse de l'abbaye impériale de Herford sous le nom de Gertrude II.

Dans son nouveau diocèse de Paderborn, Bernard réussit très rapidement. Il se consacra notamment au renforcement des monastères de la région. Entre autres choses, il a attiré les premiers franciscains près du Pader et a soutenu la construction de leur monastère à Paderborn.

Au cours de son épiscopat, probablement dans la troisième décennie, la tour de la cathédrale s'est effondrée et a brisé 14 baies voûtées. Bernard IV dut vendre des biens appartenant à l'église épiscopale pour payer les frais de reconstruction. Bernard a certainement pu utiliser la reconstruction pour concrétiser ses idées.

Bernhard a également modernisé la structure constitutionnelle du diocèse. La dissolution du monastère de la cathédrale et l'introduction des curies et des prébendes pour les chanoines, qui étaient déjà courantes dans d'autres diocèses, ont accru l'attrait du chapitre de la cathédrale pour les candidats d'autres parties de l'empire. Cependant, le nouveau système a également encouragé l'économie sinécure.

Le diocèse est également réorganisé sous Bernard IV. Il créa les huit districts d'archidiacres ou archidiaconés de Horhusen/Marsberg, Warburg, Driburg/Brakel, Höxter, Steinheim, Lemgo et les archidiacres du prévôt de la cathédrale et du . Il a également participé à la fondation de la ville de Nieheim. Bielefeld, d'autre part, dans le comté de Ravensberg, qui avait tendance à être hostile à la domination du comté de Lippe, a été fondée en 1214 lorsque le père Bernard travaillait déjà en Livonie et que le fils Bernard ne siégeait pas encore à Paderborn.

Bernhard est décédé le  et a été enterré dans la cathédrale de Paderborn.

Ascendance

Notes et références

Bibliographie
 Julius Evelt, Bernardus, episcopus Selonensis. in Die Weihbischöfe von Paderborn. Ferdinand Schöningh, Paderborn 1869, bes.  (Google-Books)
 Hans J. Brandt, Karl Hengst, Die Bischöfe und Erzbischöfe von Paderborn. Paderborn 1984, ; p. 124ff.
 Lippe, (Bernhard der ältere Graf von der). in Johann Heinrich Zedler, Grosses vollständiges Universal-Lexicon Aller Wissenschafften und Künste. tome 17, Leipzig 1738, Sp. 1537.

Liens externes

Date de naissance non renseignée (XIIe siècle)
Lieu de naissance inconnu
Décès en 1247
Évêque de Paderborn

Bernard IV de Lippe


KX Velorum (KX Vel / f Velorum) es un sistema estelar situado en la constelación de Vela.
Tiene magnitud aparente +5,09 y se encuentra, de acuerdo a la nueva reducción de los datos de paralaje de Hipparcos, a una distancia aproximada de 983 pársecs (3205 años luz) del sistema solar; no obstante, debido al error en la medida del paralaje, su distancia podría ser de hasta 4400 años luz.

La componente principal de KX Velorum es una gigante blanco-azulada de tipo espectral B0III.
Tiene una elevada temperatura efectiva de 29.000 K y una luminosidad 120.000 veces superior a la del Sol.
Distintas fuentes estiman su masa entre 13,8 y 19,2 masas solares, en cualquier caso por encima del límite a partir del cual las estrellas finalizan su vida explosionando como supernovas.
Es una binaria espectroscópica —su naturaleza binaria es conocida por el desplazamiento Doppler de sus líneas espectrales— con un período orbital de 26,31 días.
La acompañante eclipsa la estrella principal produciendo una disminución de brillo de 0,08 magnitudes.

Una tercera componente completa el sistema KX Velorum.
Visualmente a 3,2 segundos de arco de la binaria espectroscópica se puede observar una estrella de décima magnitud que se piensa que también forma parte del sistema.
El conjunto tiene una edad aproximada de 6,1 ± 2,0 millones de años.

Referencias

Gigantes azules
Estrellas variables
Constelación de Vela

KX Velorum


الشبلي هي إحدى بلديات ولاية البليدة التابعة لـ دائرة بوعينان.
كان عدد سكانها عام 1998 يبلغ 21500 نسمة.

الوديان

يتضمن إقليم هذه البلدية العديد من الوديان منها:
 وادي الحراش

المراجع

شبلي

الشبلي (ولاية البليدة)


Alfa Romeo Spider (105/115 serien) er en tosædet cabriolet sportsvogn, der blev fremstillet af den italienske producent Alfa Romeo fra 1966 til 1993, samt en lille produktion til det nordamerikanske marked i 1994.

Produktion
Produktionen af den første generation af Alfa Romeo Spider gik fra 1966 til 1993, og kom op på 124.104 biler.

Referencer

Spider

Alfa Romeo Spider


The Selous Scouts  was a special forces unit of the Rhodesian Army that operated during the Rhodesian Bush War from 1973 until the reconstitution of the country as Zimbabwe in 1980. It was mainly responsible for infiltrating the black majority population of Rhodesia and collecting intelligence on insurgents so that they could be attacked by regular elements of the security forces. The unit did this by forming small teams that posed as insurgents and usually included captured insurgents. Over time, the Selous Scouts increasingly attacked insurgents themselves and operated in the countries that neighboured Rhodesia.

The unit developed a reputation for brutality, and was responsible for attacking and killing civilians. The Selous Scouts were also involved in the Rhodesian chemical and biological weapons program and used poisons and biological agents in some of its operations. The methods used by the unit led to the deaths of large numbers of insurgents, but proved counter-productive as they further alienated the black majority population from the white minority Rhodesian government and increased international opposition to the regime.

Following the disbandment of the Selous Scouts after Rhodesia's transition to Zimbabwe, many of its members were recruited into the Apartheid-era South African security forces. They contributed to the adoption of the Selous Scouts' methods by the South African Defence Force and South African Police, and some took part in operations to undermine the government of Zimbabwe.

Background

In November 1965 the government of the British colony of Southern Rhodesia issued an illegal Unilateral Declaration of Independence. This government represented the country's small white minority and was led by Prime Minister Ian Smith. The black majority of the population had little influence on the government, which sought to continue white racial privileges. At the time of independence the Rhodesian Security Forces were relatively large and well trained and equipped.

Two groups with armed elements emerged as the opposition to the white Rhodesian regime. These were the Zimbabwe African National Union (ZANU), whose military wing was the Zimbabwe African National Liberation Army (ZANLA), and the Zimbabwe African People's Union (ZAPU) and its armed wing the Zimbabwe People's Revolutionary Army (ZIPRA). Both groups were initially based in Zambia, and from the late 1960s began dispatching insurgents into Rhodesia who used guerrilla tactics. These attacks initially proved ineffective and the Rhodesian military, which had been bolstered by forces from South Africa, was able to effectively counter them. Rhodesia's security situation began to deteriorate from late 1972, when the guerrilla armies began making more effective attacks in the north-east of the country. The collapse of the Portuguese Empire in 1975 that led to the independence of Mozambique led to a further increase to the challenges facing the Rhodesian regime, with the guerrillas using that country as well as Botswana as bases.

A tactic in which security forces pose as 'pseudo' insurgents to gather intelligence was developed prior to the Rhodesian Bush War, and had also been used by police forces. Pseudo operations involve security force personnel being trained to closely imitate insurgents. Teams of these personnel then enter regions where insurgents are active and portray themselves as insurgents. After establishing credibility, the team collects intelligence on actual insurgents and their sources of support. These tactics can be most necessary in regions where the insurgents have eliminated the government's sources of intelligence, as was the case in north-eastern Rhodesia in 1973. In general, 'pseudo' teams undertake only intelligence collection work, and do not attack insurgents themselves. 'Pseudo' tactics are generally most effective when the teams include former insurgents who have been 'turned' to side with the government. The effectiveness of these tactics is partially dependent on their use not becoming known, as this will lead to insurgents improving their security processes. Internationally, there has also been a risk of pseudo units breaking the law. If local civilians learn that the security forces are posing as insurgents and using this as cover to break the law, the tactics can be counter-productive as they will erode support for the government. The British authorities used pseudo tactics during the Malayan Emergency, with this coming to the attention of the Rhodesians who took part in that conflict.

Unit history

Establishment
The British South Africa Police's Special Branch began pseudo operations to collect intelligence in 1966. The Rhodesian Army took part in a joint trial using these tactics with the British South Africa Police and Special Branch that year, but it was not successful for at that stage the black population was largely indifferent to the insurgents and so not able to provide intelligence on them.

The ZANLA began to gain control over north-eastern Rhodesia from 1971, and considerably strengthened its influence over the population in the region over the next year. This led to the networks of informers who had provided information to the Rhodesian Government ceasing to do so, which made it difficult for the security forces to locate and counter the insurgents. In response, Special Branch began to establish pseudo teams in January 1973. The Rhodesian Army also formed two such teams in February; these comprised members of C Squadron 22 (Rhodesian) SAS, black soldiers from the Rhodesian African Rifles and former insurgents. These teams enjoyed success, leading to a decision to expand pseudo operations.

Major Ronald Francis Reid-Daly was selected to command the unit that became the Selous Scouts in November 1973. He was personally selected for this role by Lieutenant General Peter Walls, the head of the Rhodesian Army. An initial group of 25 personnel were selected and trained at Makuti near Lake Kariba. The first troop completed training and began operations in January 1974, followed by two other troops in February and March that year. At this time, the Selous Scouts comprised about 120 personnel and all of its officers were white. Black soldiers were offered bonuses that almost doubled their salary if they agreed to serve with the Selous Scouts.

The unit was named after the British explorer Frederick Selous (1851–1917) and its motto was pamwe chete—a Shona phrase meaning "all together", "together only" or "forward together". The charter of the Selous Scouts directed them to "the clandestine elimination of terrorism both within and without the country".. The name Selous Scouts had previously been attached to the Rhodesian Armoured Car Regiment of the Federal Army of Rhodesia and Nyasaland.

The South African Police's Special Branch provided funding for the Selous Scouts. This formed part of the South African Government's extensive support for the Rhodesian counterinsurgency effort. Many South African Defence Force personnel served in the Selous Scouts between 1973 and 1979, including during operations in Rhodesia, Mozambique and Zambia. After the South African Government publicly withdrew the South African Police units which had been deployed to Rhodesia in 1975 SADF personnel continued to serve with the Selous Scouts. A witness who testified at the post-Apartheid South African Truth and Reconciliation Commission stated that the Selous Scouts were covertly funded by the South African Police and South African police officers also served in the unit.

Expansion
Due to the success of the Selous Scouts, Walls directed in mid-1974 that it be expanded from three to six troops. This process was completed by December 1974, and included 50 former insurgents being added to the unit. A Reconnaissance Troop was formed in the second half of 1976 to conduct scouting operations in Mozambique and Zambia; this unit had a peak strength of twelve men.

As part of the expansion of the Selous Scouts, the Rhodesian Army's Tracking Wing and Tracker Combat Unit were merged into it during 1974. The Tracking Wing became the Selous Scouts' Training Troop. The Selous Scouts continued to deliver training in tracking and trackers for the remainder of the war, with this forming a cover for the unit's actual role. The Tracker Combat Unit was made up of white reservists; while these men were not suitable for Selous Scouts operations, they were retained to help provide cover. These changes reduced the effectiveness of the Rhodesian Army's tracking capabilities.

The size of the Selous Scouts increased further over time, and eventually reached 1,800 men. Many of these were territorial soldiers who were not permanently attached. The rapid expansion of the Selous Scouts led to a drop in the quality of its personnel, which reduced the effectiveness of pseudo operations. This in turn caused the unit to increasingly undertake offensive operations where it directly attacked insurgents rather than gathered intelligence on them. From 1979 former Selous Scouts became part of a scheme where they were armed by the Rhodesian Army and paid bounties for killing insurgents.

The overlap in roles between the Selous Scouts and the SAS led to friction between the two units. They also competed for personnel, with the demands of the Selous Scouts leading to a decline in the effectiveness of the SAS as well as the Rhodesian Light Infantry and Rhodesian African Rifles.

The decline in the effectiveness and discipline within the Selous Scouts led to concerns from other elements of the Rhodesian Army. Selous Scouts were accused of poaching ivory, and Reid-Daly's office was bugged by investigators.  He was convicted by a court-martial after publicly confronting Lieutenant General John Hickman, the commander of the Rhodesian Army, over the bugging and left the Army afterwards.

Disbandment
Ahead of the multi-racial 1980 Southern Rhodesian general election the Selous Scouts and SAS were involved in preparing plans to annul its results. One of these plans would have involved killing the leadership of the black nationalist parties in Operation Hectic. Another, designated Operation Quartz would have involved attacking the insurgents in the camps where they had been concentrated within Rhodesia ahead of the election. These operations were not attempted.

Following the transition to majority rule and Rhodesia's reconstitution as Zimbabwe, Prime Minister Robert Mugabe decided in March 1980 to disband the Selous Scouts by April that year. Mugabe stated that the unit needed to be disbanded as part of reforms to provide Zimbabwe with a "respectable" army. At this time it was expected that many of its white members would leave the military. Walls received a hostile reception from the unit's officers and men when he visited its base in March 1980. During this visit members of the Selous Scouts called him a traitor. The Selous Scouts were disbanded without a formal ceremony to mark the occasion in April 1980. The unit had suffered between 30 and 35 fatalities during its existence.

Most of the white members of the Selous Scouts moved to South Africa to join that country's security forces. The 900 black members of the unit were offered other positions within Zimbabwe's security forces, and were mainly split across three battalions of the Rhodesian African Rifles. Many of the black former Selous Scouts were murdered following the transition to majority rule.

Structure
While an Army unit, the Selous Scouts came under the operational control of Special Branch from its establishment in November 1973. This involved Special Branch controlling where the unit operated and how the intelligence it collected was used. Special Branch also had some influence over the Selous Scouts' training. In terms of Army hierarchy, the Selous Scouts reported directly to Walls. The unit was under orders from Special Branch to not pass any information directly to the Rhodesian Directorate of Military Intelligence, which contributed to very little of the intelligence it collected being provided to Army units.

The Selous Scouts and other Rhodesian special forces continued to report directly to Walls for military purposes after he became the Commander of Combined Operations in 1977. The Army headquarters provided administrative and logistical support. As the Selous Scouts increased in size and increasingly undertook offensive operations it became impossible for Special Branch to adequately oversee the unit.

Each troop within the Selous Scouts comprised three sections, each usually with nine to twelve men. The size of sections varied, however, and could be as large as 30 men. Selous Scout teams usually included both black and white personnel, with the men forming close bonds. Until almost the end of the war, all of the officers in the Selous Scouts were white.

Tactics within Rhodesia
In line with 'pseudo' doctrine, the role of the Selous Scout was to infiltrate the black population of Rhodesia and penetrate networks of insurgents. They were to then collect intelligence on the locations of insurgent forces and guide attacks on them. Where possible, Selous Scout teams would remain in place for lengthy periods. Selous Scout teams were also used in a 'hunter killer' role, in which they followed insurgent supply networks from contested areas within Rhodesia to neighbouring countries and killed any insurgents they located during the process. Selous Scout teams were usually successful in impersonating insurgents, even though their tradecraft was at times poor. The unit was more successful in penetrating ZANLA than ZIPRA, as the latter was better disciplined and had stronger command and control processes.

To prevent the regular army or police from firing at Selous Scout teams while they were operating, authorities would declare "frozen areas", where all Army and Police units were ordered to temporarily cease all operations in, and withdraw from, without being told the actual rationale. Little information was provided to the Army units on the results of these operations or the intelligence that was collected. 'Freezing' areas generally proved operationally successful, but there were several occasions in which the security forces inadvertently attacked and killed Selous Scouts.

The Rhodesian military established fireforce teams to exploit the intelligence collected by the Selous Scouts. These initially involved groups of soldiers that were inserted by helicopter, and were later expanded with paratroopers. The Rhodesian Light Infantry often provided the soldiers for fireforce teams.

A key element of the Selous Scouts' methods was 'turning' captured insurgents to join the Rhodesian security forces. This was normally attempted shortly after insurgents were captured, with them being both threatened and offered incentives. The captured insurgent was usually approached by a former insurgent. In the resulting conversation, the former insurgent emphasised the hardships insurgents were experiencing and that those who were captured faced the death penalty under the Law and Order (Maintenance) Act. This legislation imposed severe penalties for people found to be members of subversive organisations, including the death penalty or long prison terms. The captured insurgent was also offered a lump sum payment as well as a soldier's salary if they agreed to fight for the Rhodesian government. If an insurgent agreed to be 'turned' and passed further vetting, they were assigned to a Selous Scout team and operated in regions in which they would not be recognised. Where possible, their family was housed on a Selous Scouts base. Only a small number of 'turned' insurgents ever deserted or betrayed the unit. Some of the prisoners captured by the Selous Scouts who refused to be 'turned' were killed.

One of the tactics used by the Selous Scouts was to violate local customs while posing as insurgents with the goal of reducing support for the actual insurgents. The Selous Scouts also sought to increase the divisions between the ZANLA and ZIPRA by posing as members of one group and then attacking members of the other group. These tactics became publicly known and embarrassed the government.

The Selous Scouts were probably responsible for killing black business owners in rural areas who provided support for the insurgents. These killings were conducted secretly.

Special Branch provided the Selous Scouts with poisoned clothing, food, beverages and medicines that the unit inserted into the guerrilla supply chains. The use of contaminated supplies resulted in the reported deaths of over 800 guerrillas, and the likely death toll probably reached well over 1,000.

The Rhodesian Directorate of Military Intelligence estimated in 1978 that the Selous Scouts were responsible for 68% of insurgent fatalities within Rhodesia. These casualties largely resulted from attacks by Rhodesian Army units on insurgents located by the Selous Scouts. However, the unit's ruthless tactics were counter-productive as they contributed to further alienating Rhodesia's black population from the government. This formed part of broader flaws in the Rhodesian counter-insurgency strategy, and the historian Jakkie Cilliers has written that "the Selous Scouts were merely the instruments of an overly aggressive and punitive strategy, simply directed at killing as many insurgents as possible and punishing the rural black population to force them to desist from support for the insurgent forces.

The apparent success of the Selous Scouts led to the unit being glamorised. However, the Rhodesian leadership considered the all-white SAS to be more professional and security conscious than the Selous Scouts.

External operations
The Selous Scouts were involved in the Rhodesian military's attacks on insurgents and their bases in neighbouring countries, often known as external operations. These operations became frequent from 1976. The unit's role in external operations included intelligence collection and directly attacking insurgents. In the intelligence gathering role, the Selous Scouts' Reconnaissance Troop conducted one or two man long-range reconnaissance patrols to locate or gather information on insurgent bases in Mozambique and Zambia. During direct attacks the Selous Scouts often impersonated soldiers of the country they were operating in.

The Selous Scouts operated in eastern Botswana. This included fighting small actions against insurgents and a raid in which ZAPU leaders were captured in Francistown. The Selous Scouts also used pseudo tactics to collect intelligence in Francistown.

Operation Long John was launched on 25 June 1976, against two guerilla bases located in Mozambique. This operation used 'flying column' tactics for the first time, which involved six vehicles manned by the Selous Scouts attacking the bases. Large quantities of munitions were destroyed, but few casualties were inflicted.

On August 9, 1976, the Selous Scouts carried out Operation Eland, a raid on a ZANLA and FRELIMO controlled refugee camp at Nyadzonia in Mozambique. The Selous Scouts, who were mostly black and disguised in FRELIMO uniforms, included former Portuguese Army soldiers and a former ZANLA commander. They drove into the camp past FRELIMO guards to the parade ground where many were assembled before the attack commenced. The head of the Selous Scouts, Ronald Francis Reid-Daly, claimed that captured ZANLA documents showed that the people killed in the raid were either trained guerrillas or were undergoing guerrilla instruction and training. Paul L. Moorcraft and Peter McLaughlin wrote in 1982, that "although the camp did contain trained guerrillas and young recruits, many of its inhabitants were old people, women and young children who had fled from Rhodesia as refugees". They further wrote in 2010, that "although nearly all the personnel in the camp were unarmed, many were trained guerillas or undergoing instruction" and that documents captured from ZANLA, revealed more than 1,028 were killed in the operation. A 1994 Amnesty International publication described the operation as a massacre and stated that the camp at Nyadzonya housed refugees, and that a soldier who participated in the raid later stated: "We were told that Nyadzonia was a camp containing several thousand unarmed refugees who could be recruited to join the guerrillas. It would be easier if we went in and wiped them out while they were unarmed and before they were trained rather than waiting for the possibility of them being trained and sent back armed into Rhodesia". According to Amnesty International, 1,000 people were killed and the operation was "a gross human rights violation and a war crime". The South African government was angered by this escalation of the war, and withdrew its military and diplomatic support for the Rhodesian regime. Pressure from South Africa led Prime Minister Smith to accept the principle of black majority rule in Rhodesia in September 1976.

The Selous Scouts unsuccessfully attempted to assassinate Joshua Nkomo, the leader of ZIPRA, while he was in Zambia.

While the attacks made outside of Rhodesia by the Selous Scouts were usually militarily successful, they worsened the country's political position. This was because they resulted in civilians and members of the armed forces in the neighbouring countries being killed.

Atrocities and illegal activities
The Selous Scouts had a reputation for brutality. The unit conducted a number of atrocities against villages that were believed to have collaborated with the guerrillas. Members of the units also poached ivory, smuggled guns and beat and killed civilians. During attacks into Botswana, the Selous Scouts committed arson and abducted civilians. The use of insurgent uniforms and civilian clothing by the Selous Scouts may also have violated the 1907 Hague Convention and the Geneva Conventions which prohibit military personnel from wearing enemy uniforms in most circumstances and require that they clearly distinguish themselves from civilians.

Some of the actions undertaken by the Selous Scouts were illegal under Rhodesian law. Selous Scout teams at times attacked Rhodesian Security Forces units and white farms in attempts to persuade local civilians that they were actually insurgents. Another tactic involved repeatedly calling in air strikes and fireforce attacks on insurgents after they had left a specific kraal leading the insurgents to kill innocent civilians in the kraal because they suspected civilians of informing on their positions; it was intended that this would sow divisions between the insurgents and civilians. The Selous Scouts also labelled insurgents as traitors to the insurgent cause and then publicly killed them leading to "disillusionment and bewilderment" among local civilians; this led to several murder investigations being opened into members of the unit. While these illegal activities provided substantial short-term benefits for the Rhodesian government, over the longer term they became well known among civilians and undermined the rule of law and the government's legitimacy.

Robert Mugabe accused the Selous Scouts of killing priests and missionaries. The New York Times noted in 1979 that while no evidence had been provided to support this claim the Rhodesian  Catholic Commission for Justice and Peace believed that an unnamed "rogue unit" of the Rhodesian security forces had been disciplined for killing seven religious figures in 1977. In 1980 The Washington Post reported that the Selous Scouts had bombed churches.

Atrocities conducted by Selous Scouts operating under the guise of insurgents were often blamed on the insurgents in Rhodesian propaganda publications and broadcasts. These atrocities included mutilating civilians, with photos of the victims being included in Rhodesian propaganda.

The unit was also involved with the Rhodesian chemical and biological weapons program. By 1975 some of the prisoners who were held at the Selous Scouts' secret detention centre at Mount Darwin were being used by the Central Intelligence Organisation (CIO) for human testing of chemical and biological weapons. The bodies of these prisoners were dumped in mine shafts. During 1976 members of the Selous Scouts disseminated v. cholerae in the Ruya River. The unit also used the material to contaminate the water supply of the town of Cochemane in Mozambique. Deaths from cholera occurred in both areas. The Selous Scouts may also have spread anthrax. According to former CIO Officer Henrik Ellert, an incident where Selous Scouts poisoned a well with unknown substances in an area of heavy rebel activity near Rhodesia's border with Mozambique killed 200 civilians.

Historians hold differing views on the extent to which the Selous Scouts committed atrocities. Paul L. Moorcraft and Peter McLaughlin argued in 1982 that the Selous Scouts' "notoriety for treachery and brutality was only partly deserved, for the bulk of its members were engaged on routine military tasks". They also stated that as the Selous Scouts came under the direct command of the Commander for Combined Operations, the most senior officers in the Rhodesian security forces were complicit in at least some of the atrocities the unit committed. Theodore L. Gatchel has written that the Selous Scouts were frequently accused of a wide range of crimes, but it is difficult to differentiate their real crimes from false accusations and atrocities committed by the actual insurgents. He noted that the unpopularity of the Rhodesian regime resulting from its colonial and racist policies meant that accusations made against the unit were widely believed. Michael Evans observed in 2007 that the Selous Scouts "became rogue elements, as guilty of illegal activities as the very guerrillas they were fighting" and "significant numbers" of the unit "became implicated in activities that included torture, field executions, political assassination, kidnapping and the use of chemical warfare". Mpho G. Molomo described the Selous Scouts in 2009 as "a terrorist unit within the Rhodesian security forces". Piers Brendon wrote in 2010 that "the Selous Scouts committed the worst atrocities" of any Rhodesian unit. Ian Martinez has written that the Selous Scout's killings of prisoners and use of chemical and biological weapons were war crimes.

Legacy
Following the dissolution of the Selous Scouts in 1980, most of its white soldiers emigrated to South Africa and were integrated into the South African Special Forces and the South African Police's special units. This formed part of an effort by the SADF to recruit white veterans of Rhodesian counter-insurgency units that was designated Operation Winter. Reid-Daly was among the Selous Scouts who moved to South Africa, and was appointed the head of Transkei Defence Force (the military of the nominally independent 'bantustan' of Transkei) in the early 1980s. He recruited other former Selous Scouts to train the force, but was forced to resign in 1987 after Transkei's rulers were overthrown by a military officer who had previously been trained by the Selous Scouts.

The former Selous Scouts contributed to the adoption by the South African security forces of the unit's ruthless tactics. For instance, former Selous Scouts comprised most of the initial personnel of the South African Koevoet unit, and it used similar tactics. This unit was responsible for many human rights violations. The South African Police's Vlakplaas paramilitary hit squad that was established in 1979 was also inspired by the Selous Scouts, as was the Civil Cooperation Bureau that was formed in 1986. Following the end of the Apartheid regime in South Africa some former Selous Scouts joined private military companies.

Reid-Daly's memoirs Selous Scouts: Top Secret War, which were first published in 1982, have had a strong influence on the historiography of the Rhodesian Bush War. It was among the first such works to be published, and was followed by many books by white veterans of the war. The book has been widely cited, with historians and commentators arguing that it clearly illustrated the tactics used by the Rhodesians. It does not mention any of the atrocities committed by the Selous Scouts. Many other books have since been published about the Selous Scouts. These works often glorify the unit.

In 2018 The New York Times reported that glorification of the Selous Scouts formed part of online nostalgia for Rhodesia and had been taken up by far-right movements that were sympathetic to the white Rhodesian regime. Items branded with  the slogan and insignia of the Selous Scouts were available for sale, and a company called the "Selous Armory" was selling a range of apparel glorifying the Rhodesian military. In 2021, the newly established Ranger Regiment in the British Army adopted a cap badge that was similar in appearance to the Selous Scouts' and may have been based on it. The Telegraph reported that "numerous officers have raised concerns" over the badge. The British Army stated that the badge was "designed around the peregrine falcon" and not the osprey as used by the Rhodesian badge.

See also
 Special forces of Rhodesia
 32 Battalion (South Africa)
 Flechas
 UR-416

Footnotes

References

Further reading

Counterinsurgency
Military units and formations disestablished in 1980
Military units and formations established in 1973
Military units and formations of Rhodesia in the Bush War
Regiments of Rhodesia
Special forces of Rhodesia

Selous Scouts


An Pitcairnia rectiflora in uska species han Liliopsida nga ginhulagway ni Werner Rauh. An Pitcairnia rectiflora in nahilalakip ha genus nga Pitcairnia, ngan familia nga Bromeliaceae. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Pitcairnia

Pitcairnia rectiflora


El Kawanishi K-10 fue un avión japonés fabricado por la compañía Kawanishi. Se trataba de un biplano dedicado al transporte de pasajeros y correo.

Historia y desarrollo

Su desarrollo por parte de Eiji Sekiguchi se inició en 1925, volviendo a un diseño biplano tras el modelo monoplano Kawanishi K-8. El objetivo principal era ser empleado en la ruta Seúl-Dalian de la compañía Nippon Koku. El K-10 fue el primer aparato civil japonés que incluía a bordo un radiotelégrafo.

Equipado con un motor Lorraine-Dietrich de 400 hp, el primer K-10 hizo su vuelo inaugural en agosto de 1926. Contaba con capacidad para dos pasajeros, que se ubicaban lado a lado en una cabina abierta frente a la del piloto. Sin embargo, el diseño fue pronto modificado, sustituyendo el motor por un Maybach de 260 hp, aumentando la capacidad de pasajeros a cuatro e instalándolos en una cabina cerrada justo tras el motor.

Especificaciones

Aeronaves relacionadas

Véase también

 Kawanishi Kōkūki

Referencias

Enlaces externos
 Información e imagen del Kawanishi K-10 (en inglés y checo)

K-10
Aviones comerciales de Japón de los años 1920

Kawanishi K-10


Seydiler, Türkiye Cumhuriyeti'nin Karadeniz Bölgesi'nde yer alan Kastamonu ilinin bir ilçesidir.

Seydiler, İnebolu-Kastamonu karayolu üzerinde çok eski tarihlere dayanan bir yerleşim yeridir. Kurtuluş Savaşı'nda eli silah tutanların cephede olduğu sıralarda İnebolu'ya çıkarılan silah ve cephanelerin Kastamonu üzerinden Ankara'ya ulaştırılmasında yarar sağlamıştır.

Cumhuriyet öncesi İnebolu ilçesine bağlı olan Seydiler 1926 yılında Küre'nin ilçe oluşu ile buraya bağlanmış, 4 Ağustos 1944 tarih ve 4642 sayılı kanunla ilçe olan Devrekani'ye bağlanarak uzun süre bucak statüsünde idare edilmiştir. 1967 yılında belediye teşkilatı kurulan Seydiler 20 Mayıs 1990 gün ve 3644 sayılı kanunla ilçe olmuş, 8 Mayıs 1991 tarihinde ilçe kaymakamının fiilen göreve başlaması ile Kastamonu ilinin 19. ilçesi olarak faaliyete geçmiştir.

Nüfus

Kaynakça

Seydiler


Elizabeta Brodić (Zagreb, 20. travnja 1995.) je hrvatska kazališna, televizijska i filmska glumica.

Životopis
Diplomirala je na Akademiji dramske umjetnosti u Zagrebu 2018. godine. Pažnju šire publike pridobila je glavnom ulogom u seriji Drugo ime ljubavi što joj je ujedno bio prvi veliki projekt.

Filmografija

Televizijske uloge
 "Drugo ime ljubavi" kao Dolores "Lola" Prpić (2019. – 2020.)
 "Besa" kao Besiana (2018.)
 "Počivali u miru" kao djevojka #2 (2018.)

Filmske uloge
 "Za ona dobra stara vremena" kao Marta (2018.)
 "Na vodi" kao Marta (2014.)

Voditeljske uloge
 "Dora" (sa Duškom Ćurlićem i Frankom Batelić) (2022.)

Sinkronizacija
 "Neparožderi" kao Žiletka (2017.)

Vanjske poveznice

Hrvatski filmski glumci
Hrvatski kazališni glumci
Hrvatski televizijski glumci

Elizabeta Brodić


Tepebaşı, Karaman ilinin Ermenek ilçesine bağlı bir köydür.

Tarihçe
Köyün adı, 1522 yılı kayıtlarında Bednam, 1928 yılı kayıtlarında ise Halimiye olarak geçmektedir. Daha önceleri Başyayla ilçesine bağlıyken, 12 Ocak 1993 tarihinde Ermenek ilçesine bağlandı.

Coğrafya
Köy, Karaman il merkezine 184 km, Ermenek ilçe merkezine 24 km uzaklıktadır.

Nüfus

Kaynakça

Dış bağlantılar

Ermenek belde ve köyleri

Tepebaşı, Ermenek


Mothais, gentilé des toponymes construits sur La Mothe
Le Mothais sur feuille, fromage de la région de La Mothe-Saint-Héray

Mothais


Yatton is a village and civil parish within the unitary authority of North Somerset, which falls within the ceremonial county of Somerset, England. It is located  south-west of Bristol. Its population in 2011 was 7,552. The parish includes Claverham, a small village which was originally a farming hamlet.

The origins of the village and its name are unclear; however, there is evidence of Iron Age hill fort and a Roman villa in the area. The arrival of the railway in the 19th century and more recent road building have led to expansion of the village with Yatton now acting as a home to many commuters, while also supporting manufacturing industry and commerce. The village is located on the North Somerset Levels, where the low-lying land, a mixture of peat, estuarine alluvium and low hills of sand and gravel, is crossed by a myriad of watercourses, providing a habitat for several scarce species.

St Mary's Church dates from the 14th century and there are a range of other places of worship. In addition to religious groups, Yatton has several sporting clubs and other community groups.

History

Toponymy
The origin of the name Yatton is uncertain. It may come from the Anglo-Saxon 'gatton' meaning 'village on the track'; the track in question is a path of limestone leading from Cadbury Hill. The village has at one time or another been called Jatune, Eaton (from ea [river] and tun i.e. the settlement on the River Yeo and Yatton Blewitt), and is recorded as Lature in the Domesday Book. West Yatton was also known as Yatton-Kaynes in the Elizabethan era.

Pre-history
Situated on an area of slightly higher, drained ground surrounded by moorland (locally called a 'batch'), Yatton was a well-established village by Norman times. The remains of an Iron Age hill fort at Cadbury Hill have been discovered, as well as a Roman villa, temple and hoard of coins. Older Christian burial grounds have also been discovered on Cadbury Hill.

The parish was part of the Winterstoke Hundred.

Railway

In the 1840s, the Bristol & Exeter Railway, with Isambard Kingdom Brunel as consulting engineer, was opened. It was initially leased to the Great Western Railway (GWR) but taken back into full ownership in 1849 and gained its own individuality which lasted until 1876 when all the broad gauge companies in the West Country merged into an enlarged GWR. The station was originally called Clevedon Road and renamed Yatton Junction when the Clevedon branch was built in 1847. Other branches followed, to Cheddar/Wells (1869) and the Wrington Vale Light Railway (1901) to Blagdon from Congresbury.
 Although the branch line to Blagdon was closed to passengers in 1932, and the Clevedon and Cheddar/Wells lines were closed during the 1960s, the classically Victorian station designed by Brunel is still in use. From 2001 to 2006 the station was operated by Wessex Trains when, in an echo of 1876, it was again absorbed into the new Greater Western Trains Co. It is now possible to walk or cycle along the former route of the Strawberry Line (so called because of the trade in Cheddar's strawberries) from Yatton to Cheddar. A local group successfully raised funding to establish a community cafe in the old waiting room building at the station, and the cafe opened for business in December 2010. Prior to local authority cutbacks, Bakers Dolphin maintained a replacement bus connection (route 66) between Yatton and Clevedon.  There is currently no public transport connection to Clevedon.

20th century

In 1922 the site formerly known as 'The Pound' was purchased and the Yatton Parish War Memorial was erected. The memorial is located at Top Scaur, at the Congresbury end of the High Street, and is inscribed with the names of Yatton villagers who died in the First and Second World Wars. Each year on Remembrance Sunday a march is held from St Mary's Church to the memorial, where wreaths are laid by villagers and local organisations.

The village has continued to increase in size with several new developments planned or currently being constructed north of the railway station near North End Road and Arnold's Way. Development to the south and east of the village has made the villages of Yatton, Claverham and Cleeve almost continuous as far as the A370. Cadbury House Country Club is being developed to become a 60-room hotel and leisure centre.

The hamlet of North End lies to the north of the North End roundabout, just before the junction for Kingston Seymour, and contains around 30 properties, including a number of farms and the Bridge Inn hotel.

Governance
The parish council, which has 18 members, has responsibility for local issues, including setting an annual precept (local rate) to cover the council's operating costs and producing annual accounts for public scrutiny. The parish council evaluates local planning applications and works with the local police, district council officers, and neighbourhood watch groups on matters of crime, security and traffic. The parish council's role also includes initiating projects for the maintenance and repair of parish facilities, such as the village hall or community centre, playing fields and playgrounds, as well as consulting with the district council on the maintenance, repair and improvement of highways, drainage, footpaths, public transport and street cleaning. Conservation matters (including trees and listed buildings) and environmental issues are also of interest to the council.

The parish falls within the unitary authority of North Somerset which was created in 1996, as established by the Local Government Act 1992. It provides a single tier of local government with responsibility for almost all local government functions within its area including local planning and building control, local roads, council housing, environmental health, markets and fairs, refuse collection, recycling, cemeteries, crematoria, leisure services, parks and tourism. It is also responsible for education, social services, libraries, main roads, public transport, trading standards, waste disposal and strategic planning, although fire, police and ambulance services are provided jointly with other authorities through the Avon Fire and Rescue Service, Avon and Somerset Constabulary and the South Western Ambulance Service.

North Somerset's area covers part of the ceremonial county of Somerset but it is administered independently of the non-metropolitan county. Its administrative headquarters is in the town hall in Weston-super-Mare. Between 1 April 1974 and 1 April 1996, it was the Woodspring district of the county of Avon. Before 1974 that the parish was part of the Long Ashton Rural District.

An electoral ward exists with the same name. The ward stretches to the Bristol Channel and therefore includes Kingston Seymour in addition to Yatton. The total ward population taken from the 2011 census was 9,273.

The parish is represented in the House of Commons of the Parliament of the United Kingdom as part of the North Somerset constituency. It elects one Member of Parliament (MP) by the first past the post system of election, currently Liam Fox, a Conservative.

Geography

The area around Yatton and Claverham, which falls within the North Somerset Levels, is a mixture of peat, estuarine alluvium and low hills of sand and gravel with, to the south the limestone ridge of Cadbury Hill, which rises to . On its summit stands an Iron Age hill fort known, in archaeological circles, as Cadbury-Congresbury in order to differentiate it from the Cadbury hillfort in South Cadbury. It appears to have been constructed in the Iron Age when one or more ramparts, with walls and ditches, were built on the steep slopes of the hill to defend an area covering some .

Biddle Street has been designated as a Site of Special Scientific Interest where management practices and the variation in the soils has resulted in the watercourses supporting a wide range of aquatic plant communities. Where open water occurs plants such as common water-starwort (Callitriche stagnalis), European frogbit (Hydrocharis morsusranae), fan-leaved water-crowfoot (Ranunculus circinatus). The calcareous influence of the underlying Compton soils also encourages whorled water-milfoil (Myriophyllum verticillatum) and stonewort (Chara sp). Also present are the nationally scarce rootless duckweed (Wolffia arrhiza) and hairlike pondweed (Potamogeton trichoides).

Along with the rest of South West England, Yatton has a temperate climate generally wetter and milder than the rest of England. The annual mean temperature is about 10 °C (50 °F) with seasonal and diurnal variations, but the modifying effect of the sea restricts the range to less than that in most other parts of the United Kingdom. January is the coldest month with mean minimum temperatures between 1 °C (34 °F) and 2 °C (36 °F). July and August are the warmest, with mean daily maxima around 21 °C (70 °F). In general, December is the dullest month and June the sunniest. The south-west of England enjoys a favoured location, particularly in summer, when the Azores High extends its influence north-eastwards towards the UK.

Cloud often forms inland, especially near hills, and reduces exposure to sunshine. The average annual sunshine is about 1,600 hours. Rainfall tends to be associated with Atlantic depressions or with convection. In summer, convection caused by solar surface heating sometimes forms shower clouds and a large proportion of the annual precipitation falls from showers and thunderstorms at this time of year. Average rainfall is around 800–900 mm (31–35 in). About 8–15 days of snowfall is typical. November to March have the highest mean wind speeds, with June to August having the lightest; the prevailing wind direction is from the south-west.

Demography
After the Second World War the size and population of Yatton expanded dramatically. With a railway providing good access to Weston-super-Mare, Bristol and London, and similarly good access by road, the village saw large amounts of new housing development. Today the number of pre-war buildings is much smaller than the number of more recent residential and commercial constructions. According to the 2001 census, Yatton's population was 9,176.

Economy

Today Yatton is a large village. Page's Court — the village's shopping precinct —  includes a supermarket and several local shops and takeaways.

There are a number of thriving local businesses, including Pullin's Bakers, Costain Technology Solutions (formerly Simulation Systems Ltd), Stowell Concrete, Smart Systems, Oxford Instruments,  and Bob Martin Petcare. Farming remains an important activity in the area.

Fairey Hydraulics was sited in Claverham, becoming Claverham Ltd in 1998. The site closed in 2017, and is today a housing estate.

Education
The local education authority is North Somerset Council. Yatton has a pre-school, infant and junior schools.

Secondary education is not available in the village, and so many of Yatton's children commute daily to the nearby village of Backwell in order to attend Backwell School. The school is a specialist Arts College, and includes a sixth form and takes pupils from the age of 11 (Year 7) to the age of 18 (Year 13). In November 2008, Backwell School was rated as outstanding by Ofsted.

Religious sites

St Mary's Church, in central Yatton, built around 1400, is often called the "Cathedral of the Moors" since it is so large compared to the village. The tower has three stages with diagonal weathered buttresses with crocketed pinnacles. There is a south-east hexagonal stair turret rising above the parapet with panelled sides to the top, and an open cusped parapet. There are stained glass windows with the coats of arms of local lords of the manor. It has been designated by English Heritage as a Grade I listed building. The Old Rectory was a Prebendary house, built in the 15th century and has been designated as a Grade I listed building.

As well as St Mary's (Church of England), Yatton has Methodist, Catholic and independent places of worship. Yatton Methodist Church is situated on the High Street, opposite the main shopping precinct. Horsecastle Chapel, an independent evangelical church, is on Horsecastle Farm Road. River of Life Church, (was YCF) affiliated to the Assemblies of God, meets in Yatton Infant School. St Dunstan's, a Roman Catholic chapel of ease to the parish in Clevedon, is on Claverham Road.

The church of St. Barnabas in Claverham, dates from 1879 and is a grade II listed building. Along with churches in Kenn, Cleeve and Kingston Seymour the churches are managed as part of the Yatton Moor Team Ministry.

Sports
There are active cricket, football and rugby clubs, two parks (Hangstones and Rock Road), a number of public houses, and many other leisure and sporting activities, including the Cleeve Claverham and Yatton Scout Group.

Yatton Rugby Club was founded in 1968 and as of the end of the 2015/16 season, were promoted to the Western Counties North division, having won the Tribute Somerset Premier League for 2015/16. They run three senior sides and have an extensive junior set-up.

Claverham (Yatton) Cricket Club was formed in 1905 and provides cricket to all playing levels and ages. The senior teams play in the ECB West of England Premier League.

Public services

Yatton fire station opened in 1947, after the Fire Services Act 1947, when fire service responsibility transferred from national government to local authority control after World War II. The current station was built in 1973. Today, Yatton fire station, which is part of Avon Fire and Rescue Service, runs with two appliances, a water tender ladder and a specialist hose-laying vehicle.

The Yatton firefighters work on a retained duty system, which means that they do not work at the fire station, but are called to the station when a fire breaks out. They respond to emergencies in a  area covering Yatton, Cleeve, Kingston Seymour, Congresbury, Wrington and Blagdon, with an average of 130–150 callouts per year. Calls vary from small grass fires to full major alerts and road traffic accidents on the busy A370 main road. The Avon Fire and Rescue Service named Yatton Fire Station was named "highest performing retained duty station" for 2010.

Notable people
George Lukins, also known as the Yatton daemoniac, was an individual famous for his alleged demonic possession and the subsequent exorcism that occurred in 1788. Ken Day was born in Yatton in 1919 and played first-class cricket for Somerset County Cricket Club in seven matches between 1950 and 1956. Major Richard Foord, Liberal Democrat MP for Tiverton and Honiton, lived in Yatton for nineteen years.

References

External links

Yatton Parish Council

Villages in North Somerset
Civil parishes in Somerset

Yatton


Wilhelm Reinecke ist der Name folgender Personen:

* Wilhelm Reinecke (Archivar) (1866–1952), deutscher Historiker und Archivar
 Wilhelm Reinecke (Musiker) (1870–1959), deutscher Gesangspädagoge
 Wilhelm Reinecke (Politiker) (1905–1981), deutscher Politiker (NLP)

Wilhelm Reinecke


Çakırcalı Mehmet Efe (1872, Ödemiş - 17 Kasım 1911 Nazilli), İzmir'in Ödemiş ilçesine bağlı Türkönü köyünde doğmuş Ege efelik kültürünün en ünlü simalarından biridir.

Çakırcalı Mehmet Efe'nin Hacı Mustafa tarafından öldürüldüğüne ve bir çatışma esnasında serseri kurşuna kurban gittiğine yönelik söylentiler bulunmaktadır.

Belirtildiğine göre, zaptiyelerle başlayan müsademede öldürülmüştür. Kızanları başını keserek tanınmasını engellemişlerdir. Cesedi ilk karısı Iraz (Raziye) Hanım tarafından tanınmıştır. Başsız cesedi Nazilli'de gömülmüştür. 1948 senesinde en küçük kızı Hatice Akkaş tarafından Nazilli'den alınarak dedelerinin vakfı olan Ödemiş Kayaköy mezarlığına defnedilmiştir.

Efeliği süresince birçoğu kendisi tarafından tam 1080 kişiyi öldürdüğü öne sürülmektedir. Adına yakılmış meşhur İzmir'in Kavakları türküsünde Çakıcı olarak anılan Çakırcalı Mehmet Efe'dir (türküde "Kamalı Zeybek" şeklinde anılan da bir başka efedir).

Çakıcı olarak da tanınan Çakırcalı Mehmet Efe, 1872 yılında İzmir'in Ödemiş ilçesine bağlı Türkönü Köyünde dünyaya geldi. Annesi Hatice, babası eski Zeybeklerden Çakırcalı Ahmet Efe idi.

Baba–oğul her iki zeybeğin de kullandıkları Çakırcalı lakabının, birtakım kaynaklarda mensup oldukları bir Yörük aşiretinden gelme olduğu belirtilir.

Babası eşkıyalığı bırakmış, düze inmiş, kendi halinde bir köylü olarak yaşarken bu durumdaki eski zeybeklerin yeniden dağa çıkmalarını önlemek amacıyla verilen gizlice öldürülmeleriyle ilgili bir emir doğrultusunda zaptiye çavuşu Boşnak Hasan çavuş tarafından öldürüldü. Babasının öldürüldüğünde Mehmet, henüz 11 yaşındaydı. Uzun süre tütün kaçakçılığı yaparak yaşamını sürdürdü. Bu işte en büyük yardımcısı babası Ahmet Efe'ye de yardım etmiş olan Hacı Eşkıya Mustafa idi. Bir zaman sonra Hacı Eşkiya'nın geçmişte kendisini bırakarak başka bir gençle kaçan karısını ve kaçtığı genci Ödemiş'teki evinde öldürür. Kısa bir süre sonra da babasını da tuzağa düşürerek öldüren Boşnak Hasan Çavuş tarafından yakalanarak hapse atıldı. Ancak delil yetersizliğinden dolayı mahkemede beraat ederek serbest kaldı.

Çakırcalı'nın bir gün başına bela olacağını bilen Hasan Çavuş'un yıllar önce işlenen bir hırsızlık olayını da ona mal edip takibe düşmesi ve köyüne baskın düzenleyerek annesi ve diğer akrabalarına türlü hakaretlerle işkence yapması Çakırcalı'yı çileden çıkardı. Bu olaylar ve babasının da öcünü almak amacıyla Çakırcalı, yanında Hacı Mustafa, Çoban Mehmet, Harmanlıoğlu Ahmet, Koca Mehmet, Arap Mercan, Kara Ali gibi yiğitlerle dağa çıktı ve Çakırcalı Mehmet Efe dağa çıktı, Osmanlı gelip de yakalasın diye Osmanlı'ya haber salar.

Halk arasında ün kazanan ve öyküsü destanlaşan Çakırcalı, diğer birçok efe gibi o da varlıklı kişilerden aldığı paraları kendisine yardım eden yoksullara dağıttı. Çevredeki birçok varlıklı kişiyi köprü, çeşme gibi yararlı işler yapmaya zorladı. Bu sayede halkın gözünde kısa bir sürede yüceldi. Çakırcalı, bir ara peşine düşmüş olan Hasan Çavuş ile Mülazım Hüsnü Efendi'yi de bir pusuda öldürdü.

1911'de Nazilli yakınlarındaki Karıncalıdağ mevkiinde yönetim güçlerince girdiği bir çatışma sonucu ölmüştür. Kendisinin 'eğer bana bir şey olursa sizi öldürürler, o yüzden benim başımı yok edin' tembihiyle kafası kesik şekilde Nazilli'de gömülmüş. Adına yakılmış pek çok türkü bulunan Çakırcalı için söylenen en ünlü türkünün sözleri ise şöyledir.

Popüler Kültürde Çakırcalı Mehmet Efe
Çakırcalı Mehmet Efe adına pek çok sinema filmi çekilmiştir. Bunlar sırasıyla;
 Çakırcalı Mehmet Efe, 1950 yapımı Faruk Kenç filmi.
 Çakırcalı Mehmet Efe'nin Definesi, 1952 yapımı Faruk Kenç filmi.
 Çakırcalı Mehmet Efe, 1969 yapımı Yılmaz Atadeniz filmi.
 Çakırcalı Mehmet Efe, 1987 yapımı T. Fikret Uçak filmi.

Çakırcalı Mehmet Efe'nin hayatı pek çok araştırmacı ve romancı tarafından da ele alınmıştır.

Bu konuda ilk yayınlanan roman Zeynel Besim Sun'un Çakıcı Mehmet adlı eseridir. Yazarın köy köy dolaşarak efeyi tanıyan ve onun yanında bulunmuş kişilerin anılarından yararlanarak ele aldığı romanı bir belgesel niteliği de taşır.

Kaynakça
 Çakıcı Efe, Zeynel Besim Sun, 1934, Ticaret Matbaası, İzmir, 640 sayfa
 Sabri Yetkin, Ege'de Eşkiyalar, Tarih Vakfı Yurt Yayınları, İstanbul, 2003
 Çakıcı Efe (Şeref Üsküp, Hür Efe Matbaası, Konak, İzmir, 2002)
 Yaşar Kemal'in de, genç bir gazeteci olduğu dönemde, 1950'li yıllarda Cumhuriyet Gazetesinde Çakırcalı Mehmet Efe hakkında kapsamlı bir araştırması yayınlanmıştır. Kitabı da bulunmaktadır.
 Türk Romanında Destan Etkisi, Muharrem Kaya, TC. Kültür ve Turizm Bakanlığı Yayınları, 2004, Ankara

1871 doğumlular
Ödemiş doğumlular
1911 yılında ölenler
19. yüzyılda Osmanlılar
Efeler
Aydın tarihi
Çatışmada ölen Türkler

Çakırcalı Mehmet Efe