The fisher (Pekania pennanti) is a small carnivorous mammal native to North America, a forest-dwelling creature whose range covers much of the boreal forest in Canada to the northern United States. It is a member of the mustelid family (commonly referred to as the weasel family), and is in the monospecific genus Pekania. It is sometimes misleadingly referred to as a fisher cat, even though it is not a cat.

The fisher is closely related to, but larger than, the American marten (Martes americana) and Pacific marten (Martes caurina). In some regions, the fisher is known as a pekan, derived from its name in the Abenaki language, or wejack, an Algonquian word (cf. Cree ocêk, Ojibwa ojiig) borrowed by fur traders. Other Native American names for the fisher are Chipewyan thacho and Carrier chunihcho, both meaning "big marten", and Wabanaki uskool.

Fishers have few predators besides humans. They have been trapped since the 18th century for their fur. Their pelts were in such demand that they were extirpated from several parts of the United States in the early part of the 20th century. Conservation and protection measures have allowed the species to rebound, but their current range is still reduced from its historic limits. In the 1920s, when pelt prices were high, some fur farmers attempted to raise fishers. However, their unusual delayed reproduction made breeding difficult. When pelt prices fell in the late 1940s, most fisher farming ended. While fishers usually avoid human contact, encroachments into forest habitats have resulted in some conflicts.

Male and female fishers look similar, but can be differentiated by size; males being up to twice as large as the females. The fur of the fisher varies seasonally, being denser and glossier in the winter. During the summer, the color becomes more mottled, as the fur goes through a moulting cycle. The fisher prefers to hunt in the full forest. Although an agile climber, it spends most of its time on the forest floor, where it prefers to forage around fallen trees. An omnivore, the fisher feeds on a wide variety of small animals and occasionally on fruits and mushrooms. It prefers the snowshoe hare and is one of the few animals able to prey successfully on porcupines. Despite its common name, it rarely eats fish. The reproductive cycle of the fisher lasts almost a year. Female fishers give birth to a litter of three or four kits in the spring. They nurse and care for their kits until late summer, when they are old enough to set out on their own. Females enter estrus shortly after giving birth and leave the den to find a mate. Implantation of the blastocyst is delayed until the following spring, when they give birth and the cycle is renewed.

Etymology
Despite the name "fisher", the animal is not known to eat fish. The name is instead related to the word "fitch", meaning a European polecat (Mustela putorius) or pelt thereof, due to the resemblance to that animal. The name comes from colonial Dutch equivalent fisse or visse. In the French language, the pelt of a polecat is also called fiche or fichet. Alternatively, Dr. James DeKay, as reported by John James Audubon and John Bachman, claimed the name "fisher" may have been attributed to the animal's "singular fondness for the fish used to bait traps", although this may have been local lore.

Taxonomy

The Latin specific name pennanti honors Thomas Pennant, who described the fisher in 1771. Buffon had first described the creature in 1765, calling it a pekan. Pennant examined the same specimen, but called it a fisher, unaware of Buffon's earlier description. Other 18th-century scientists gave it similar names, such as Schreber, who named it Mustela canadensis, and Boddaert, who named it Mustela melanorhyncha. The fisher was eventually placed in the genus Martes by Smith in 1843. In 2008, advances in DNA analysis allowed a more detailed study of the fisher's evolutionary history. The fisher and the genus Martes were determined to have descended from a common ancestor, but the fisher was distinct enough to put it in its own genus. It was decided to create the genus Pekania and reclassify the fisher as Pekania pennanti.

Members of the genus Pekania are distinguished by their four premolar teeth on the upper and lower jaws. Its close relative Mustela has just three. The fisher has 38 teeth. The dentition formula is:

Evolution
Some evidence shows that ancestors of the fisher migrated to North America during the Pliocene era between 2.5 and 5.0 million years ago. Two extinct mustelids, Pekania palaeosinensis and P. anderssoni, have been found in eastern Asia. The first true fisher, P. diluviana, has only been found in Middle Pleistocene North America. P. diluviana is strongly indicated to be related to the Asian finds, which suggests a migration. P. pennanti has been found as early as the Late Pleistocene era, about 125,000 years ago. No major differences are seen between the Pleistocene fisher and the modern fisher. Fossil evidence indicates that the fisher's range extended farther south than it does today.

Three subspecies were identified by Goldman in 1935, Martes pennanti columbiana, M. p. pacifica, and M. p. pennanti. Later research has debated whether these subspecies could be positively identified. In 1959, E.M. Hagmeier concluded that the subspecies are not separable based on either fur or skull characteristics. Although some debate still exists, in general, the fisher is recognized to be a monotypic species with no extant subspecies.

Physical characteristics

Fishers are a medium-sized mammal, comparable in size to the domestic cat. Their bodies are long, thin, and low to the ground. The sexes have similar physical features, but they are sexually dimorphic in size, with the male being much larger than the female. Males are  in total length and weigh . Females measure  and weigh . Head and body lengths for both sexes range from ; the tail adding a further . The largest male fisher ever recorded weighed .

The fisher's fur changes with the season and differs slightly between sexes. Males have coarser coats than females. In the early winter, the coats are dense and glossy, ranging from  on the chest to  on the back. The color ranges from deep brown to black, although it appears to be much blacker in the winter when contrasted with white snow. From the face to the shoulders, fur can be hoary-gold or silver due to tricolored guard hairs. The underside of a fisher is almost completely brown except for randomly placed patches of white or cream-colored fur. In the summer, the fur color is more variable and may lighten considerably. Fishers undergo moulting starting in late summer and finishing by November or December.

Fishers have five toes on each foot, with unsheathed, retractable claws. Their feet are large, making it easier for them to move on top of snow packs. In addition to the toes, four central pads are on each foot. On the hind paws are coarse hairs that grow between the pads and the toes, giving them added traction when walking on slippery surfaces. Fishers have highly mobile ankle joints that can rotate their hind paws almost 180°, allowing them to maneuver well in trees and climb down head-first. The fisher is one of relatively few mammalian species with the ability to descend trees head-first.

A circular patch of hair on the central pad of their hind paws marks plantar glands that give off a distinctive odor. Since these patches become enlarged during breeding season, they are likely used to make a scent trail to allow fishers to find each other so they can mate.

Biology and behavior

Hunting and diet
Fishers are generalist predators. Although their primary prey is snowshoe hares and porcupines, they are also known to supplement their diet with insects, nuts, berries, and mushrooms. They have been observed eating small apples during winter. Since they are solitary hunters, their choice of prey is limited by their size. Analyses of stomach contents and scat have found evidence of birds, small mammals, and even deer—the latter indicating that they are not averse to eating carrion. While the behavior is not common, fishers have been known to kill larger animals, such as wild turkey, raccoon, fox, marten, mink, otter, bobcat, and Canada lynx. Raccoons may be killed by a large fisher in trees or on the ground. Fisher can also catch martens on the ground or in the trees, and usually there is either a good population of fisher or marten but not both. Researchers in Maine have found "about a dozen" cases of confirmed fisher predation on Canada lynx, and several more suspected cases, in a four-township area of Maine. According to Maine Department of Inland Fisheries and Wildlife wildlife biologist Scott McClellan, the fishers involved in these kills attacked lynx bedded down in snowstorms with a quick "powerful grip" bite to the lynx's neck. Signs of struggle indicated that some lynx attempted to defend themselves but McClellan states that "the fishers would finish the cats off pretty quickly. There was some struggle certainly, but it didn't appear to last very long. There were some broken branches, tufts of fur, and claw marks where the lynx was trying to get away." The McClellan study in The Journal of Wildlife Management documents 14 fisher-caused mortalities of Canada lynx from 1999 to 2011 in northern Maine, and found that predation was the leading source of mortality of lynx in the study area (18 deaths, 14 by fisher).

Fishers are one of the few predators that seek out and kill porcupines. Stories in popular literature indicate that fishers can flip a porcupine onto its back and "scoop out its belly like a ripe melon". This was identified as an exaggerated misconception as early as 1966. Observational studies show that fishers make repeated biting attacks on the face of a porcupine and kill it after about 25–30 minutes.

Reproduction
The female fisher begins to breed at about one year of age and her reproductive cycle is an almost year-long event. Mating takes place in late March to early April. Blastocyst implantation is then delayed for ten months until mid-February of the following year when active pregnancy begins. After gestating for about 50 days, the female gives birth to one to four kits. The female then enters estrus 7–10 days later and the breeding cycle begins again.

Females den in hollow trees. Kits are born blind, helpless, and are partially covered with fine hair. Kits begin to crawl after about three weeks. After about seven weeks, they open their eyes. They start to climb after eight weeks. Kits are completely dependent on their mother's milk for the first eight to ten weeks, after which they begin to switch to a solid diet. After four months, kits become intolerant of their litter mates, and at five months, the mother pushes them out on their own. After one year, juveniles will have established their own range.

Social structure and home range
Fishers are generally crepuscular, being most active at dawn and night. They are active year-round, and are solitary, associating with other fishers only for mating. Males become more active during mating season. Females are least active during pregnancy and gradually increase activity after birth of their kits.

A fisher's hunting range varies from  in the summer to  in the winter. Ranges up to  in the winter are possible depending on the quality of the habitat. Male and female fishers have overlapping territories. This behavior is imposed on females by males due to dominance in size and a male's desire to increase mating success.

Predators and parasites
As far as is known, adult  fishers are not regularly subject to predation. Predators of the fisher included bears (Ursus  spp), coyotes (Canis latrans), golden eagles (Aquila chrysaetos), bald eagles (Haliaeetus leucocephalus), lynxes (Lynx sp.), mountain lions (Puma concolor), wolverines (Gulo gulo), and possibly great horned owls (Bubo virginianus).

Parasites of fishers include nematode Baylisascaris devosi, tapeworm Taenia sibirica, nematode Physaloptera sp., trematodes Alaria mustelae and Metorchis conjunctus, nematode Trichinella spiralis, and Molineus sp.

Habitat

Although fishers are competent tree climbers, they spend most of their time on the forest floor and prefer continuous forest to other habitats. They have been found in extensive conifer forests typical of the boreal forest, but are also common in mixed-hardwood and conifer forests. Fishers prefer areas with continuous overhead cover with greater than 80% coverage and avoid areas with less than 50% coverage. Fishers are more likely to be found in old-growth forests. Since female fishers require moderately large trees for denning, forests that have been heavily logged and have extensive second growth appear to be unsuitable for their needs.

Fishers also select for forest floors with large amounts of coarse woody debris. In western forests, where fire regularly removes understory debris, fishers show a preference for riparian woodland habitat. Fishers tend to avoid areas with deep snow. Habitat is also affected by snow compaction and moisture content.

Distribution

Fishers are widespread throughout the northern forests of North America. They are found in the boreal and mixed deciduous-coniferous forest belt that runs across Canada from Nova Scotia in the east to the Pacific shore of British Columbia and north to Alaska. They can be found as far north as Great Slave Lake in the Northwest Territories and as far south as the mountains of Oregon. Isolated populations occur in the Sierra Nevada of California, throughout New England, in the Catskill mountains of New York and the Appalachian Mountains of Pennsylvania, Maryland, West Virginia, and Virginia.

In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, fishers were virtually eliminated from the southern and eastern parts of their range, including most American states and eastern Canada including Nova Scotia. Overtrapping and loss of forest habitat were the reasons for the decline.

Most states had placed restrictions on fisher trapping by the 1930s, coincidental with the end of the logging boom. A combination of forest regrowth in abandoned farmlands and improved forest management practices increased available habitat and allowed remnant populations to recover. Populations have since recovered sufficiently that the species is no longer endangered. Increasing forest cover in eastern North America means that fisher populations will remain sufficiently robust for the near future. Between 1955 and 1985, some states had allowed limited trapping to resume. In areas where fishers were eliminated, porcupine populations subsequently increased. Areas with a high density of porcupines were found to have extensive damage to timber crops. In these cases, fishers were reintroduced by releasing adults relocated from other places into the forest. Once the fisher populations became re-established, porcupine numbers returned to natural levels. In Washington, fisher sightings were reported into the 1980s, but an extensive survey in the 1990s did not locate any.

Scattered fisher populations now exist in the Pacific Northwest. In 1961, fishers from British Columbia and Minnesota were reintroduced in Oregon to the southern Cascades near Klamath Falls and to the Wallowa Mountains near La Grande. From 1977–1980, fishers were introduced to the region around Crater Lake. Starting in January 2008, fishers were reintroduced into Washington State. The initial reintroduction was on the Olympic peninsula (90 animals), with subsequent reintroductions into the south Cascade Mountains. The reintroduced animals are monitored by radio collars and remote cameras, and have been shown to be reproducing. From 2008 to 2011, about 40 fishers were reintroduced in the northern Sierra Nevada near Stirling City, complementing fisher populations in Yosemite National Park and along California's northern boundary between the Pacific Coast Ranges and the Klamath Mountains. Fishers are a protected species in Oregon, Washington, and Wyoming. In Idaho and California, fishers are protected through a closed trapping season, but they are not afforded any specific protection; however, in California the fisher has been granted threatened status under the Endangered Species Act. In June 2011, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service recommended that fishers be removed from the endangered list in Idaho, Montana, and Wyoming.

Recent studies, as well as anecdotal evidence, show that fishers have begun making inroads into suburban backyards, farmland, and periurban areas in several US states and eastern Canada, as far south as most of northern Massachusetts, New York, Connecticut, Minnesota and Iowa, and even northwestern New Jersey. Having virtually disappeared after the construction of the Cape Cod Canal in the early 1900s, some reports have shown that populations have become re-established on Cape Cod, although the populations are likely smaller than the populations in the western part of New England.

Relationship with humans
Fishers have had a long history of contact with humans, but most of it has been to the detriment of fisher populations. Unprovoked attacks on humans are extremely rare, but fishers will attack if they feel threatened or cornered. In one case, a fisher was blamed for an attack on a 6-year-old boy. In another case, a fisher is believed to be responsible for an attack on a 12-year-old boy.

Fur trade and conservation

Fishers have been trapped since the 18th century. They have been popular with trappers due to the value of their fur, which has been used for scarves and neck pieces. It is reported that fisher tails were used in the making of spodiks, a form of ceremonial hat worn by Jews of certain Hasidic sects.

The best pelts are from winter trapping, with secondary-quality pelts from spring trapping. The lowest-quality furs come from out-of-season trapping when fishers are moulting. They are easily trapped, and the value of their fur was a particular incentive for catching this species.

Prices for pelts have varied considerably over the past 100 years. They were highest in the 1920s and 1930s, when average prices were about US$100. In 1936, pelts were being offered for sale in New York City for $450–750 per pelt. Prices declined through the 1960s, but picked up again in the late 1970s. In 1979, the Hudson's Bay Company paid $410 for one female pelt. In 1999, 16,638 pelts were sold in Canada for C$449,307 at an average price of $27.

Between 1900 and 1940, fishers were threatened with near extinction in the southern part of their range due to overtrapping and alterations to their habitat. In New England, fishers, along with most other furbearers, were nearly exterminated due to unregulated trapping. Fishers became extirpated in many northern U.S. states after 1930, but were still abundant enough in Canada to maintain a harvest over 3,000 fishers per year. Limited protection was afforded in the early 20th century, but total protection was not given to the few remaining fishers until 1934. Closed seasons, habitat recovery, and reintroductions have restored fishers to much of their original range.

Trapping resumed in the U.S. after 1962, once numbers had recovered sufficiently. During the early 1970s, the value of fisher pelts soared, leading to another population crash in 1976. After a few years of closed seasons, fisher trapping reopened in 1979 with a shortened season and restricted bag limits. The population has steadily increased since then, with steadily increasing numbers of trapped animals, despite a much lower pelt value.

Captivity

Fishers have been captured live for fur farming, zoo specimens, and scientific research. From 1920–1946, pelt prices averaged about C$137. Since pelts were relatively valuable, attempts were made to raise fishers on farms. Fur farming was popular with other species such as mink and ermine, so the same techniques were thought to be applicable to fishers. However, farmers found it difficult to raise fishers due to their unusual reproductive cycle. In general, knowledge of delayed implantation in fishers was unknown at the time. Farmers noted that females mated in the spring but did not give birth. Due to declining pelt prices, most fisher farms closed operations by the late 1940s.

Fishers have also been captured and bred by zoos, but they are not a common zoo species. Fishers are poor animals to exhibit because, in general, they hide from visitors all day. Some zoos have had difficulty keeping fishers alive since they are susceptible to many diseases in captivity. Yet at least one example shows a fisher kept in captivity that lived to be 10 years old, and another living to be about 14 years old, well beyond its natural lifespan of 7 years.

In 1974, R.A. Powell raised two fisher kits for the purpose of performing scientific research. His primary interest was an attempt to measure the activity of fishers to determine how much food the animals required to function. He did this by running them through treadmill exercises that simulated activity in the wild. He compared this to their food intake and used the data to estimate daily food requirements. The research lasted for two years. After one year, one of the fishers died due to unknown causes. The second was released back into the wilderness of Michigan's Upper Peninsula.

Interactions with domestic animals

In some areas, fishers can become pests to farmers when they raid chicken coops, and instances of fishers preying on cats and small dogs have been reported. However, a 1979 study examined the stomach contents of all fishers trapped in the state of New Hampshire; cat hairs were found in only one of over 1,000 stomachs. An informal unfinished 2011 study in suburban upstate New York found no cat remains in 24 scat or stomach samples, and an earlier published study found no cat in 226 Massachusetts samples.

Poisoning

In 2012, a study conducted by the Integral Ecology Research Center, UC Davis, U.S. Forest Service, and the Hoopa tribe showed that fishers in California were exposed to and killed by anticoagulant rodenticides associated with marijuana cultivation. In this study, 79% of fishers that were tested in California were exposed to an average of 1.61 different anticoagulant rodenticides and four fishers died directly attributed to these toxicants. A 2015 follow-up study building on these data determined that the trend of exposure and mortality from these toxicants increased to 85%, that California fishers were now exposed to an average of 1.73 different anticoagulant rodenticides, and that 9 more fishers died, bringing the total to 13. The extent of marijuana cultivation within fishers' home ranges was highlighted in a 2013 study focusing on fisher survival and impacts from marijuana cultivation within the Sierra National Forest. Fishers had an average of 5.3 individual grow sites within their home range. One fisher had 16 individual grow sites within its territory.

Literature
One of the first mentions of fishers in literature occurred in The Audubon Book of True Nature Stories. Robert Snyder relates a tale of his encounter with fishers in the woods of the Adirondack Mountains of New York. He recounts three sightings, including one where he witnessed a fisher attacking a porcupine.

In Winter of the Fisher, Cameron Langford relates a fictional encounter between a fisher and an aging recluse living in the forest. The recluse frees the fisher from a trap and nurses it back to health. The fisher tolerates the attention, but being a wild animal, returns to the forest when well enough. Langford uses the ecology and known habits of the fisher to weave a tale of survival and tolerance in the northern woods of Canada.

Fishers are mentioned in several other books, including The Blood Jaguar (an animal shaman), Ereth's Birthday (a porcupine hunter), Egg Marks The Spot (a treasure hunter), and in The Sign of the Beaver, where a fisher is thought to have been caught in a trap.

Popular culture
The animal's common name is used for a minor league baseball team, the New Hampshire Fisher Cats.

References

Further reading

External links

 Fisher videos, photos and facts Arkive.org.
 Fisher Cat Screech Online community of fisher sightings, sounds, and videos.

Fauna of the Great Lakes region (North America)
Fauna of the Sierra Nevada (United States)
Mammals of Canada
Mammals of the United States
Martens
Mammals described in 1777
Taxobox binomials not recognized by IUCN

Fisher (animal)


Giovanni Battista Giorgi, OSB (1536 – 24 de novembro de 1608) foi um prelado católico romano que serviu como bispo de Ston (1606–1608).

Biografia
Giovanni Battista Giorgi nasceu em Raguse e foi ordenado sacerdote na Ordem de São Bento. No dia 14 de agosto de 1606, foi nomeado pelo Papa Paulo V como Bispo de Ston. Serviu como Bispo de Ston até à sua morte a 24 de novembro de 1608.

Nascidos em 1536
Bispos nomeados pelo Papa Paulo V
Mortos em 1608
Bispos do século XVII

Giovanni Battista Giorgi


Museo Municipal Carmen Funes, ou, o Museu Municipal Carmen Funes, é um museu de paleontologia na Plaza Huincul, província de Neuquén, Argentina. É mais conhecido por sua coleção de fósseis de dinossauros, incluindo o único espécime dos maiores restos de dinossauros registrados, Argentinosaurus huinculensis, e os únicos embriões de saurópodes conhecidos, que foram descobertos em um enorme local de nidificação em Auca Mahuida, na Patagônia. Sua abreviação padrão é MCF-PVPH, ou apenas PVPH para denotar a coleção paleontológica.

Carmen Funes

Museu Carmen Funes


بلدية أَركُش  هي إحدى بلديات مقاطعة برغش، التي تقع في منطقة قشتالة وليون، والتي تقع في شمال غرب إسبانيا.

يبلغ عدد سكانها 311 نسمة وفقا لإحصائية سنة 2002.

مراجع

بلديات برغش

أركش (برغش)


An Luzula caespitosa in uska species han Liliopsida nga syahan ginhulagway ni Ernst Meyer, ngan ginhatag han pagkayana nga asya nga ngaran ni Ernst Gottlieb von Steudel. An Luzula caespitosa in nahilalakip ha genus nga Luzula, ngan familia nga Juncaceae. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Luzula

Luzula caespitosa


Peter Therkildsen (født 13. juni 1998) er en dansk fodboldspiller, der spiller for den norske Eliteserien klub Haugesund.

Karriere
Peter Therkildsen spillede tidligere i HB Køge, hvor han også har optrådt i sine ungdomsår på HB Køges U19-hold, indtil han den 1. juli 2017 blev rykket op på seniorholdet.

Han skiftede herefter til Næstved Boldklub.

Han kom til den østjyske klub AC Horsens på en fri transfer efter et halvandet års langt ophold i Næstved Boldklub. Han er pt. på kontrakt til den 1. juli 2023.

Referencer

Eksterne henvisninger

Fodboldspillere fra Danmark

Peter Therkildsen (fodboldspiller)


Arthur Nicholas Tafoya (2 de março de 1933 - 24 de março de 2018) foi um ministro americano e bispo católico romano de Pueblo.

Arthur Nicholas Tafoya foi ordenado sacerdote pela Arquidiocese de Santa Fé em 12 de maio de 1962.

Em 1º de julho de 1980 foi nomeado terceiro bispo de Pueblo pelo Papa João Paulo II. Foi ordenado bispo por James Vincent Casey, arcebispo de Denver, em 10 de setembro de 1980; Os co-consagradores foram Robert Fortune Sanchez, arcebispo de Santa Fé, e seu predecessor no episcopado, Charles Albert Buswell.

Em 15 de outubro de 2009, o Papa Bento XVI aceitou a renúncia de Tafoya por motivos de idade.

Ver também

Bispos católicos dos Estados Unidos

Arthur Nicholas Tafoya


النيم الشائع أو النيم الهندي أو الأزدرخت الهندي أو شجرة النيم (الاسم العلمي:Azadirachta indica) هي شجرة () يتبع  النيم من ال الأزدرختية. يطلق عليها في الهند اسم (صيدلية القرية) فهي شجرة معروفة هناك منذ فترة طويلة جدًا. تتميز بقدرتها على تنقية التربة من الأملاح. وهي شجرة معمرة يصل عمرها إلى 180 عاماً، وقد يمتد عمرها في الغابة إلى 200 سنة.

موطن الشجرة
الموطن الأصلي لها مناطق الغابات والأخشاب في الهند وسري لانكا وتعرف بالهند باسم (المرجوسا). أول مكان وجدت فيه أشجار النِّيم هو شمال الهند، وخاصة منطقة تعرف باسم كازناتاكا. وتنتشر شجرة النِّيم كذلك في المناطق الاستوائية وتحت الاستوائية مثل إندونيسيا والسودان. وأدخلها المستوطنون الهنود إلى أفريقيا في أواخر القرن 19. ولقد ذكر عالم النبات الألماني د. «شموترر» في كتابه عن نبات النِّيم أن هذه الأشجار تُزرع في السودان منذ عام 1921؛ حيث تنتشر حول مجري نهر النيل الأزرق والنيل الأبيض. وفي الفترة الأخيرة تمت زراعة ما يقرب من 4000 شجرة نيم في مصر وخاصة في منطقة الدلتا، وتنمو بنجاح في المناطق الحارة. وتنتشر زراعته في شمال السودان ووسطه، وقد نجحت زراعته في جنوب المملكة العربية السعودية، وأدخل إلى منطقة مكة المكرمة ونجحت زراعته في جبل الرحمة ومنطقة عرفات وفي منطقة جازان.

الشكل
النيم شجرة سريعة النمو كثيفة الظل دائمة الإخضرار، تنمو بكثافة وتمثّل في الغابة مظهراً رئيسياً للخضرة. أما ارتفاعها فيَصِل إلى 16 متراً وأحياناً يبلغ 25 متراً، ويصل قطر مجموعها الخضري إلى عشرة أمتار. وهي من الأشجار الخشبية التي تتميز بكبر حجم جذرها حيث تمتد جذورها إلى مساحات كبيرة بشكل عرضي وليس في العمق؛ ولذلك عند زراعة أشجار النيم يجب ترك مسافات بين كل شجرة وشجرة لا تقل عن 3 أمتار على الأقل.
وتمتاز الشجرة بجذع قاس صلب، بني داكن، يتراوح قطره ما بين 75 و150 سنتيمتراً وهي ذات قشرة بنية متشققة. تتجمع الأوراق عند نهايات الأغصان، يصل طول الورقة إلى 30 سنتمتراً. أوراقها مركبة من عدد من الوريقات المتقابلة يصل إلى سبع عشرة وريقة. النورة جانبية عديدة الأزهار يصل طولها إلى 20 سنتميتراً. والزهرة بيضاء عطرية، أما الثمرة متطاولة يصل طولها إلى سنتميتر واحد وهي خضراء تتحول إلى اللون الأصفر عند نضجها. ذات بذرة واحدة ولب حلو يؤكل.

الفوائد والاستعمالات
مضادة للآفات والحشرات
 فائدة النيم الأساسية تكمن في قدرتها على منع مختلف أنواع الحشرات، وعلى وجه الخصوص البعوض والذباب من الدخول إلى المنزل.
 تأثير شجرة النِّيم الطارد للحشرات، وخاصة البعوض والمن، يأتي من قيام هذه الحشرات بامتصاص عصارة أوراق النيم أو أزهاره التي تسبب العقم لذكور البعوض، كما وجد لها تأثير طارد للذباب، كما أن زهرته تبعث بروائح لا يشعر بها البشر وتكون منفرة للحشرات.
وتحتوي شجرة النِّيم على مادة فعالة، هي مادة azadizachtin وهي توجد في جميع أجزاء الشجرة ولكن بنسب مختلفة، وتكون أكثر تركيزًا في البذور والثمار.
 أوراق الشجرة تحتوي على مواد فعالة مركزة في الأوراق هي triterpenoids، وهي ذات تأثير سام على الحشرات وفي مكافحة الآفات الزراعية فهي لها تأثير طارد للحشرات طارد الحشرات و مانع للتغذية antifeeding، حيث لا تستطيع الحشرات أن تأكل أوراق النِّيم أو الأوراق المرشوشة بمستخلص النِّيم، كما أنها مانعة للانسلاخ وتطور الحشرة، فهي تؤثر على هرمون معين في دم الحشرات هو هرمون «الشباب»، وتحدث تشوهات في الأطوار المختلفة للحشرات.
 مستخلص النِّيم له تأثير على إنتاجية الجيل الثاني، فتنخفض كمية البيض ونسبة الخصوبة به، ومن هذه الحشرات دودة القطن والمَنّ والذبابة البيضاء صانعة الأنفاق.
 يمكن استخدامها لمكافحة الآفات كالسوس والجراد والخنافس والديدان التي تصيب المحاصيل الزراعية بفعل المواد الفعالة في الشجرة، فتبتعد الآفات عن النبات نتيجة عدم استساغتها، وكذلك تبتعد الطيور بسبب المرارة التي توفرها هذه المواد.
 تقوم شجرة النيم أيضا بالتأثير على النظام الهرموني للآفات، فتحبط عملية نموها وبالتالي لن تتمكن من إكمال دورتها، فتموت في مرحلة مبكرة، ويتم التخلص منها دون إلحاق أي ضرر في المحصول.
 تستعمل أوراق النيم وثماره في وقاية مخزون محاصيل الأرز والقمح والشعير والذرة لفترة تصل إلى عام كامل.
 يعتبر زيت النيم فعالاً ضد الحشرات بالعديد من الطرق، فيبدو أنه شديد المرارة لدرجة أن الحشرات لا تقترب منه وإذا أكلته فإن النتيجة هو موتها المؤكد، وعلى الرغم من أن النيم غير مؤذٍ للبشر إلا أنه يسبب خللاً في هرمونات الحشرات خاصة هرمونات النمو Juvenile hormones مما ينتج عنه توقف عملية انسلاخ اليرقات أو الحوريات وإيقاف النمو وموت الحشرة في النهاية.
 اتضح أن النيم فعال ضد أكثر من 200 نوع من الحشرات ولا يحتاج إلى معدات متطورة لاستخلاص مركّباته أو فصلها عند استخدامه في المكافحة.
 اتضح أن خلاصة النيم التي تم اختبارها في معهد الملاريا في الهند تطرد البعوض الناقل للملاريا لمدة 12 ساعة، ولا يحمي النيم من البعوض فحسب بل أيضًا من الحشرات اللاسعة مثل البرغوث والبق، ومن التجارب الناجحة لمكافحة البعوض بواسطة النيم، التجربة التي قام بها عدد من الباحثين في حقول الأُرز في الهند، حيث قاموا بقطع بعض أغصان النيم وإلقائها في المستنقعات التي يزرع فيها الأُرز، وكانت النتائج مدهشة، فقد أدى ذلك إلى إبادة يرقات البعوض، وخفض نسبة الإصابة بمرض الملاريا بين المزارعين، والأكثر دهشة هو زيادة المحصول في ذلك الوقت، حيث اتضح أن النيم أدى إلى قتل الطفيليات النباتية، وزاد من خصوبة التربة.

منظف للأسنان
 أثبتت الدراسات استعمال النيم كمنظف جيد للأسنان.
 يمكن الاستفادة من عروق أوراق شجرة النيم واستخدامها كسواك لتنظيف الأسنان.
 عثر المحللون بالأغصان على مواد مضادة للبكتيريا والعفونة حيث يوجد بالأغصان مادة النيمبيدين التي تظهر تأثيرات قوية مضادة للبكتيريا ومضادة للفطريات وهي مادة مسكنة أيضاً.
 فرشاة النيم الطبيعية هي مطهر جيد للفم واللثة والأسنان، ومثلما هي معطر جيد للأفواه. ولأجل ذلك فقد عمدت بعض الشركات الدوائية مؤخراً إلى استخلاص المواد الفعالة من أغصان النيم ومن الأوراق بغية إضافتها إلى معجون طبي جديد للأسنان يفيد في علاج اللثات الملتهبة ويحفظ صحة الأفواه.

الاستعمالات الدوائية
 تستعمل قشرة سيقان نبات النيم كمادة مرة مقوية ومقبضة وخافضة للحرارة وتخفض العطش وضد الدوخة والقيء، وخارجياً تستعمل لعلاج الأكزيما والآفات الجلدية.
 الصمغ الذي تفرزه القشور فيستعمل كمهدّئ.
 الأوراق والبذور ولب البذور فتستعمل بشكل عام في الأمراض الجلدية.
 الثمار مسهلة وملطفة وجيدة ضد الديدان المعوية ومشاكل الجهاز البولي.
 يستعمل نخاع الخشب الداخلي لتخفيض هجمات الربو ومقيئة ومسهلة أيضاً.
 يستعمل قشور جذر النبات كطاردة للديدان.
 الزيت فيستعمل خارجياً ضد التشنج وآلام الأعصاب.
 يستخدم مقوي للشعر وتستخدم الأوراق ضد مرض السكري وضد الحمى وقرحة الإثني عشر.
 ثبت استعماله لعلاج الجرب.
 توجد بعض العناصر في لحاء النيم تعمل مضادة للسرطان بالإضافة إلى علاج بعض الأمراض الالتهابية الأخرى.

منع الحمل
 أُجريت دراسات على زيت البذور والذي يحتوي على مركب الكبريت حيث جرب هذا الزيت على الحيوانات ثم جرب على النساء فوجد أن هذا الزيت يقتل الحيوانات المنوية خلال 30 ثانية وعليه فإن هذا الزيت لا يعطي فرصة للحيوانات المنوية من الوصول إلى قناة فالوب.
 يدخل الزيت إلى المهبل قبل الجماع وقد جربت هذه الطريقة على عشرة أزواج ولمدة أربعة أشهر (4 دورات شهرية) دون إفساد الإباضة. ويستعمل زيت البذور حقناً مباشرة في المهبل.

فلاتر حيوية للهواء
 ندهش حين يحدثنا باحثو العقاقير عن أشجار النيم بوصفها مصانع نموذجية لإنتاج العقاقير الشافية لأوجاع الإنسان. كما ندهش حين يحدثنا باحثو وقاية النبات عن مبيدات النيم الحيوية وقدرتها الذكية في مكافحة الآفات الزراعية. ولكن شجرة النيم ليست هذا ولا ذاك فحسب، بل هي قبل كل شيء رئة من رئات الحياة على سطح الأرض. إن قدرة هذه الشجرة كمرشح حيوي للغازات الضارة الملوثة للهواء، شيء خيالي حقاً؛ فهذا «الفلتر» الطبيعي لديه كفاءة عالية على امتصاص ملوثات غازية عدة لا سيما أول أكسيد الكربون وأكاسيد النيتروجين وأكاسيد الرصاص. وينتج أول أكسيد الكربون عن ماكينات احتراق المركبات والتدفئة المنزلية والتدخين ويكثر بشكل خاص في المدن المزدحمة بالمواصلات. وهو بحد ذاته خطر كبير، بحسبانه لا يرى، ولا تشم له رائحة. وتتنوع مصادر أكاسيد الرصاص في الهواء وهي التي تتسرب رويداً رويداً إلى أبدان الأحياء. وإذا فحصنا أكاسيد النيتروجين فسوف نجد أن أول أكسيد النيتروجين وثاني الأكسيد، هما أهم الأنواع. وتتركز مصادرها فيما تقذفه بالعوادم وسائل المواصلات. ويمكن لأول أكسيد النيتروجين التحول في وجود الضوء إلى ثاني أكسيد النيتروجين ويمكن لهذا الغاز الاتحاد مع بخار الماء الموجود بالهواء، مكوناً حامض النيتريك الذي يعمل على تآكل النباتات، ويؤثر في المزروعات. ويالها من تأثيرات مدمرة. ولكن لحسن الحظ فقد اكتشف البيئيون أن بوسع كل شجرة نيم مزروعة على أرصفة الشوارع في المدن التي تعاني من أزمة تلوث الجو والهواء امتصاص تلك الغازات جميعها من مسافة تتراوح ما بين ثلاثة وخمسة أمتار. واكتشفوا أن حزاماً من الأشجار بعرض 30 متراً يستطيع خفض تركيز غاز أول أكسيد الكربون بنسبة تصل إلى 60%، كما يمكن لكيلو متر مربع من الأشجار أن تمتص يومياً قدراً من الغازات، يصل إلى 120 كيلو جراماً. وينبغي ألا ننسى دور الأشجار في تنقية الهواء من الجزيئات العالقة والغبار، فالأشجار الكثيفة في الغابة تستطيع خفض عدد الجزيئات العالقة بمعدل يتراوح ما بين 100-1000 مرة، كما تحتجز كميات من الجزيئات العالقة تتراوح ما بين 40-80% من كميتها الموجودة بالهواء. ولأجل أن تصنع الأشجار متراً واحداً من مادتها الخشبية الجافة فإنها تمتص من الهواء 1.83 طن من غاز ثاني أكسيد الكربون وتطلق بدلاً منه 0.23 طن من غاز الأكسجين. وتنطوي الأشجار على إمكانيات مذهلة بالنسبة إلى تلطيف الجو وإبطاء وتيرة ارتفاع درجة الحرارة. وفي هذا السياق يكفي أن نعلم أن خطة قومية لتشجير 20% من صحاري مصر تكفل إعادة الاتّزان الحراري بشكل ملموس لكوكبنا الأرضي، فهذه مزايا بيئية عظيمة ولئن كان في الطبيعة أنواع كثيرة من الأشجار تستطيع تحقيق بعضها بصورة جيدة، فإن أشجار النيم في مقدورها أن تحقق كافة المزايا البيئة وبطريقة أكمل وأفضل.

المصادر
 Alam, M.M., Siddiqui, M.B. and Husain, W. (1989). Treatment of diabetes through herbal drugs in rural India. Fitoterapia. Vol. LXI, No. 3. 240 - 242.
 Basak, S.P. and Chakraborty, D.P. (1968). Chemical investigation of azadirachta indica leaf (Melia azadirachta). Journal of the Indian Chemical Society. Vol 45 No. 5. p 466 - 467.
 Bawasakar, V.S., Mane, D.A., Hapse, D.G. and Zende, G.K. (1980). Use of neem (Azadirachta indica) cake as a blending material for economy in sugarcane Coop, Sugar. 11(8): 1-7.
 Bhatnagar, D. and Zeringue, H.J. (1993). Neem Leaf Extracts (Azadirachta Indica) inhibit biosynthesis in aspergillus flavus and A. parasiticus. Proceedings of the World Neem Conference, Bangalore, India. Feb. 24 - 28, 1993.
 Bhide, N.K., Mehta, D.J., and Lewis, R.A., Attakar, W.W. (1958). Toxicity of sodium nimbidinate. Indian Journal of Medical Science 12: 146-148.
 Chiaki, N., Yoshio, K., Shigehiro, Y., Masaki, S., Yasuko, T. and Takeo, N. (1987). Polysaccharides as enhancers of antibody formation. Japan Kokai Tokkyo Koho JP 62,167729 (Cl.A61K31/715) pp. 6.
 Khosla, P. Sangeeta, B. Singh, J. and Srivastava, R. K. (2000). Antinociceptive activity of Azadirachta indica (neem) in Rats. Indian Journal of Pharmacology. 32: 372-374.
 Nagpal, B.N., Srivastava, A,. Sharma, V.P., (1995). Control of mosquitoes breeding using wood scrapings treated with neem oil. Indian J. Malariol. (Jun32(2):64-9.
 Sharma, V.P., Ansara, M.A., (1994). Personal protection from mosquitoes (Diptera culicidae) by burning neem oil in kerosene. Malaria Research Centre (ICMR) Delhi, India.
 Talwar GP, Shah S, Mukherjee S, Chabra R (1997). Induced termination of pregnancy by purified extracts of Azadirachta Indica (Neem): mechanisms involved. Am J Reprod Immunol 1997 Jun;37(6):485-91.
 Upadhyay, S., Dhawan, S., Garg, S., Talwar, G.P. (1992). Immunomodulatory effects of neem (Azadirachta indica) oil. Int J Immunopharmacol. Oct; 14(7):1187-93.
 Ganguli, S. (2002). "Neem: A therapeutic for all seasons". Current Science. 82(11), June. p. 1304.
 Al Jazeera report on neemtree treatment in Senegal [1]

وصلات خارجية
 استعمالات النيم الطبية
 مؤسسة النيم
 فوائد النيم
 معلومات عن النيم)

انظر أيضًا
 نيم عالي
 أزدرخت شائع
 النيم

مراجع

نيم هندي
أشجار شبه القارة الهندية
بهارات هندية
طب بديل
نيم هندي
نباتات الهند الصينية
نباتات أسام
نباتات بنغلاديش
نباتات طبية
نباتات في الهندوسية
نباتات مجتاحة
نباتات مستخدمة في الأيورفيدا
نيم هندي
نباتات وصفها أدريان-هنري دو جوسيو
نيم (نبات)

نيم شائع


was a district located in Aichi Prefecture, Japan.

As of 2003, the district had an estimated population of 31,684 and a density of 3,331.65 persons per km2. The total area was 9.51 km2.

Municipalities
Prior to its dissolution, the district consisted of only one town:

 Kisogawa

Notes

History

District Timeline

Recent mergers
 On April 1, 2005 - The town of Kisogawa, along with the city of Bisai, was merged into the expanded city of Ichinomiya. Therefore, Haguri District was dissolved as a result of this merger.

See also
 List of dissolved districts of Japan

Former districts of Aichi Prefecture

Haguri District


Kevin Dorff (* 2. August 1966 in Chicago, Illinois) ist ein US-amerikanischer Schauspieler, Komiker und Drehbuchautor.

Dorf wurde als Sketchschreiber und Ensemblemitglied der US-amerikanischen Fernsehsendungen Late Night with Conan O'Brien und The Tonight Show with Conan O'Brien bekannt, wo er in wechselnden Rollen auftritt. Mit seinen Ko-Autoren gewann er 2007 für diese Arbeit den Primetime Emmy Award in der Kategorie "Drehbuch für eine Varieté-, Musik- oder Comedysendung".

Neben Kurzauftritten in Fernsehserien wie Parks and Recreation und Das Büro (der US-Version der britischen Serie The Office), spielte er in der ersten Staffel der Serie Delocated eine der Hauptrollen. Aufgrund seiner Verpflichtung für die Sendung mit Conan O'Brien, starb seine Figur mit Beginn der zweiten Staffel. Für die dritte Staffel war er als Drehbuchautor wieder aktiv.

In der Pilotepisode der Serie 30 Rock spielt in der ersten Szene an der Seite von Tina Fey. Seit 2013 trat er in mehreren Folgen der Sitcom Brooklyn Nine-Nine auf.

Weblinks

Komiker
Filmschauspieler
Drehbuchautor
US-Amerikaner
Geboren 1966
Mann

Kevin Dorff


Cet article présente la première saison de la série télévisée américaine The Witcher.

Synopsis de la saison
Situé dans un monde médiéval sur une masse terrestre connue sous le nom de « continent », The Witcher suit la légende de Geralt de Riv et de la princesse Ciri, qui sont liés par le destin l'un à l'autre

Distribution

Acteurs principaux

 Henry Cavill  : Geralt de Riv
 Anya Chalotra  : Yennefer de Vengerberg  (épisodes 2 à 8)
 Freya Allan  : Cirilla « Ciri » Fiona Elen Riannon
 Joey Batey  : Jaskier (épisodes 2, 4 à 6)
 MyAnna Buring  : Tissaia de Vries (épisodes 2, 3, 5, 7 et 8)
 Mimi Ndiweni  : Fringilla Vigo (épisodes 2 à 8)
   : Cahir Mawr Dyffryn aep Ceallach (épisodes 1, 2, 4 à 6 et 8)
 Anna Shaffer  : Triss Merigold (épisodes 3, 7 et 8)
 Royce Pierreson  : Istredd (épisodes 2, 3 et 7)
 Wilson Radjou-Pujalte  : Dara (épisodes 2 à 5)
   : Vilgefortz de Roggeveen (épisodes 7 et 8)

Acteurs récurrents

 Jodhi May  : la reine Calanthe (épisodes 1, 4 et 7)
   : Sac-à-Souris (épisodes 1, 4 à 7)
 Björn Hlynur Haraldsson  : le roi Eist Tuirseach  (épisodes 1, 4 et 7)
 Lars Mikkelsen  : Stregobor (épisodes 1 à 3, 7)
 Therica Wilson-Read  : Sabrina Glevissig (épisodes 2 et 3, 8)
 Terence Maynard  : Artorius Vigo (épisodes 3 et 7)
 Judit Fekete  :  Vanielle de Brugge (épisodes 3, 7 et 8)

Invités

 Emma Appleton  : Renfri de Creyden (épisodes 1 et 8)
 Mia McKenna-Bruce  : Marilka (épisode 1)
 Tobi Bamtefa : sir Danek (épisodes 1 et 7)
 Maciej Musiał  : Sir Lazlo (épisodes 1 et 7)
 Natasha Culzac  : Toruviel (épisode 2)
 Amit Shah  : Torque (épisode 2)
 Tom Canton  : Filavandrel (épisode 2)
 Shaun Dooley  : le roi Foltest (épisodes 3 et 7)
 Julian Rhind-Tutt  : Giltine (épisode 3)
 Jason Thorpe (VF : Christian Gonon) : Ostrit (épisode 3)
 Gaia Mondadori  : Pavetta (épisode 4)
   : Hérisson / Duny (épisode 4)
  : Eithne (épisodes 4 et 5)
 Nóra Trokán : la générale Dryad (épisodes 4 et 5)
  : Mage Ronin (épisode 4)
 Blair Kincaid  : Crach An Craite (épisode 4)
 Lucas Englander  :  Chireadan (épisode 5)
 Jordan Renzo  : Eyck de Denesle  (épisode 6)
 Ron Cook (VF : Gérard Darier) : Borch Trois-Choucas (épisode 6)
 Jeremy Crawford (VF : Stanislas Forlani) : Yarpen Zigrin (épisode 6)
  : Fola (épisode 7)
 Francis Magee (VF : Michel Voletti) : Yurga (épisode 8)
 Anna-Louise Plowman  : Zola (épisodes 7 et 8)
 Frida Gustavsson : Visenna, la mère de Geralt (épisode 8)

Liste des épisodes

Épisode 1 : Le Début de la fin ()

Épisode 2 : Quatre marks ()

Épisode 3 : Lune de trahison ()

Épisode 4 : Des banquets, des bâtards et des obsèques ()

Épisode 5 : Désirs inassouvis ()

Épisode 6 : Espèces rares ()

Épisode 7 : Avant la chute ()

Épisode 8 : Bien plus ()

Correspondance avec les livres
La première saison adapte des nouvelles des deux premiers volumes.

Les nouvelles La Voix de la raison et Un grain de vérité sont les deux seules des sept qui composent le recueil Le Dernier Vœu à ne pas avoir été directement adaptées dans un épisode de cette saison. Un grain de vérité est adaptée dans la saison 2. La Voix de la raison est une nouvelle un peu particulière et difficile à adapter : découpée en plusieurs parties et intercalée entre les autres, elle sert plus de fils conducteur pour les autres nouvelles et de présentations de certains personnages secondaires.

Trois nouvelles du second recueil L'Épée de la providence n'ont pas été adaptées dans cette saison : Éclat de glace, Le Feu éternel et Une once d'abnégation.

Notes et références

Witcher

Saison 1 de The Witcher


Elspeth Douglas McClelland (født 20. maj 1879, død 1920) var en engelsk suffragette og arkitekt.

Liv
Elspeth blev født i Keighley, Yorkshire hendes forælder var John McClelland, en revisor, og Epsey McClelland. Hun blev døbt i Ilkley den 19. juli samme år. Elspeth blev uddannet som arkitekt, den eneste kvindelige studerende blandt 600 mænd på den Polytechnic Architectural School i London, og er blevet beskrevet som den første kvinde til at praktisere som arkitekt.

Suffragette

Elspeth tid som suffragette er bedst kendt for, da hun blev sendt som "menneskelig post" til premierministeren, H.H. Asquith, den 23. februar 1909. På dette tidspunkt var reglerne således at det var tilladt for enkeltpersoner at blive "sendt" med express bud, så Elspeth og suffragette Daisy Solomon blev afsendt af Christabel Pankhurst fra Clemens Inn og blev taget af Mrs. Drummond til East Strand posthus.

Kilder

Aktivister fra England
Arkitekter fra Storbritannien
Kvinderetsforkæmpere

Elspeth Douglas McClelland


محافظة أرارات  محافظة تقع في المرتفعات الغربية لأرمينيا ومركزها مدينة أرتاشات، سميت بهذا الاسم لوجود سلسلة جبال أرارات. وتبلغ مساحتها 2,096 كم2 ويبلغ عدد سكانها 260,367 نسمة حسب تعداد عام 2011 . يسكن في المحافظة العديد من الإيزيديين والآشوريين.

دفين التي تقع في المحافظة عاصمة من عواصم أرمينيا التاريخية القديمة

مدن محافظة أرارات
 أرتاشات ، مركز المحافظة
 أرارات
 ماسيس
 فيدي

من البلدات الكبيرة والمهمة
 أزاتافان
 أفشار
 أورتزادزور
 أينتاب
 بوكرفيدي
 تابيراكان
 دفين
 سايات نوفا
 سورينافان
 سيسافان
 فاناشين
 فوسكيتاب
 فوستين
 فيرين أرتاشات
 فييرين دفين
 مارماراشين
 مكتشيان
 نوراشين

معرض الصور

جغرافيا أرمينيا
محافظات أرمينيا

أرارات (محافظة)


Deniz Burnham, née vers 1985 à l'Incirlik Air Base, lieutenant de l'US Navy, est une astronaute américaine sélectionnée en 2021 au sein du groupe d'astronautes 23 de la NASA.

Biographie

Deniz Burnham est une ancienne stagiaire au Ames Research Center de la NASA dans la Silicon Valley, en Californie. Burnham sert dans la United States Navy Reserve. Elle a obtenu un baccalauréat en génie chimique de l'Université de Californie à San Diego et un master universitaire en génie mécanique de l'Université de Californie du Sud à Los Angeles. Burnham est un leader expérimenté dans l'industrie de l'énergie, gérant des projets de forage sur site dans toute l'Amérique du Nord, y compris en Alaska, au Canada et au Texas.

Notes et références

Lieutenant de l'United States Navy
Astronaute américain
Femme astronaute
Étudiant de l'université de Californie à San Diego
Étudiant de l'université de Californie du Sud
Naissance dans la province d'Adana

Deniz Burnham


Bayt al-mal () er et arabisk begreb, der kan oversættes til "Pengenes hus" eller "Rigdommens hus". Historisk var det en finansinstitution, der var ansvarlig for administrationen af skatter i islamiske stater, især i det tidlige islamiske kalifat. Det fungerede som et royalt skatkammer for kalifferne og sultanerne, og håndterede deres personlige finanser samt regeringsudgifter. Herudover administrerede det også fordelingen af zakat-indtægter til offentlige arbejder.

Finansielle institutioner

Bayt al-mal


شارل ادوار غيوم (Charles Édouard Guillaume) (مواليد 15 فبراير، 1861 - 13 مايو، 1938) كان عالم فيزياء سويسري فرنسي. حصل على جائزة نوبل في الفيزياء عام 1920 عن أعماله في مجال القياسات الفيزيائية الدقيقة واكتشاف سبيلكة النيكل-فولاذ التي تدعى إنفار invar و إلينفار elinvar، حيث أن لمعدن إنفار معامل تمدد حراري قريب جداً من الصفر مما يعطي نتائج قياس دقيقة بغض النظر عن تغيرات درجة الحرارة.

روابط خارجية

مراجع

سويسريون في القرن 19
بروتستانت سويسريون
حائزون على جائزة نوبل في الفيزياء
خريجو المعهد الفدرالي للتكنولوجيا في زيوريخ
سويسريون حازوا جائزة نوبل
علماء الفيزياء التجريبية
فيزيائيو القرن 20
فيزيائيون سويسريون
فيزيائيون سويسريون في القرن 19
فيزيائيون سويسريون في القرن 20
مواليد 1861
وفيات 1938

شارل إدوار غيوم


Le gouvernement Kovačevski (en ) est le gouvernement de la république de Macédoine du Nord depuis le , sous la  de l'Assemblée.

Il est dirigé par le social-démocrate Dimitar Kovačevski, successeur de Zoran Zaev après sa démission, et repose sur une coalition de quatre partis. Il succède au gouvernement Zaev .

Historique du mandat
Ce gouvernement est dirigé par le nouveau président du gouvernement social-démocrate Dimitar Kovačevski, précédemment ministre adjoint des Finances. Il est constitué et soutenu par une coalition entre l'Union sociale-démocrate de Macédoine (SDSM), l'Union démocratique pour l'intégration (BDI/DUI), Alternative (A) et le Parti libéral-démocrate (LDP). Ensemble, ils disposent de , soit 53,3 % des sièges de l'Assemblée.

Il est formé à la suite de la démission de Zoran Zaev, au pouvoir depuis .

Il succède donc au gouvernement Zaev II.

Formation
À la suite de la lourde défaite de l'Union sociale-démocrate aux élections municipales, Zoran Zaev annonce le  son intention de démissionner de la direction du parti et du gouvernement. Une semaine plus tard, le dirigeant du principal parti d'opposition Hristijan Mickoski annonce déposer une motion de censure avec le soutien du Mouvement Besa, jusqu'ici membre de la majorité parlementaire, mais il échoue à une voix près lors du vote le .

Le , Zoran Zaev conclut un accord avec le parti albanais Alternative pour remplacer Besa au sein de la majorité parlementaire, assurant la stabilité de la coalition gouvernementale. Dimitar Kovačevski est élu le  président de la SDSM avec une confortable majorité, puis il se voit confier le  le mandat de constituer un nouveau gouvernement après que Zaev a formellement démissionné.

Il présente son programme et son équipe aux députés le , qui lui accordent leur confiance par  favorables.

Composition
 Par rapport au gouvernement Zaev II, les nouveaux ministres sont indiqués en gras et ceux ayant changé d'attributions le sont en italique.

Notes et références

Voir aussi

Articles connexes
 Élections législatives macédoniennes de 2020

Lien externe

Kovačevski
2022 en Macédoine du Nord
Macédoine du Nord
2022 en politique

Gouvernement Kovačevski


Iton Cox poyde tinmudlok ha:
Cox, Alicante, komyun ha departamento han Haute-Garonne ngan ha rehiyon han Midi-Pyrénées ha nasod han Fransya.
Cox, Haute-Garonne, munisipyo ha Probinsya han Alicante, Comunidad Valenciana, Espanya.
Cox (awtor)

Cox


Gülşen Bubikoğlu (d. 5 Aralık 1954, İstanbul), Türk sinema oyuncusudur.

Hayatı
Fatih Kız Lisesi'nde eğitim gördü. 1971'de Fatih Kız Lisesini bitirdi. Erken yaşta babasını kaybedince okulu bırakmıştır.L.C.C Kültür Merkezi'nde bir yıl lisan, mankenlik ve dans eğitimi aldı. 1973 yılında Ses Dergisi'nin açmış olduğu yarışmada Necla Nazır'ın ardından ikinci olur ve sinemayla tanışır. Kariyerine, Erler Film öncülüğünde Türker İnanoğlu'nun 1973 yılı yapımlı Yaban filminde başrolü oynayarak başladı. Yıllar sonra İnanoğlu yarışmada Bubikoğlu'nun ikinci olmasını ''O büyük dönemin en güçlü yapım şirketleri olan Erler Film, Arzu Film ve Akün Film olarak dereceye girenleri aramızda paylaşıyorduk. Sözleşmeler de bunlara göreydi. Bu yüzden Necla'yı birinci yaptık'' diyerek açıklamıştır. Bubikoğlu, 1974 yılında İnanoğlu ile birlikte gizli bir düğünle Kemal Utku'nun evinde evlenmiştir. İnanoğlu ile evliliğinden sonra Bubikoğlu Erler Film'in bir numaralı kadın yıldız oyuncusu oldu ve çevirdiği filmlerle güldürüye, drama, duygusal ve hareketli filmlere yatkınlığını göstererek hem seyircinin büyük beğenisini kazandı, hem de Türk sinemasının yıldızları arasında özel bir yer edindi Macaristan, Moskova, Kuveyt, Cannes gibi festivallerde ülkesini temsil etmiştir. İtalyanlarla Baş Belası, Üçkağıtçılar ve Mücevher Hırsızları gibi filmlerle Koprodüksiyon çalışmalarında bulunmuştur. Başrolünde oynadığı filmler çok sevilmiş ve büyük gişe başarıları yakalamıştır. Zirvedekiler ve Affet Bizi Hocam gibi TV dizileri ile sevenleriyle buluşmuş ve bu diziler televizyon izleyicisinden ilgi görmüştür.

Özel hayatı
1974 yılında Türker İnanoğlu ile evlendi. 28 Aralık 1977'de kızları Zeynep İnanoğlu dünyaya geldi.

Filmografisi

 1973: Bitirimler Sosyetede
 1973: Yaban
 1974: Ayrı Dünyalar
 1974: Cici Kız
 1974: Mahçup Delikanlı
 1974: Reisin Kızı
 1974: Yaz Bekarı
 1974: Yüz Lira ile Evlenilmez
 1975: Ah Nerede
 1975: Evcilik Oyunu
 1975: Şafakta Buluşalım
 1975: Üç Kağıtçılar
 1975: Ah Bu Gençlik
 1976: Baş Belası
 1976: Che Carambole Ragazzi
 1976: Kader Bağlayınca
 1976: Ne Umduk Ne Bulduk
 1976: Sıralardaki Heyecan
 1977: Bizim Kız
 1977: Ölmeyen Şarkı
 1978: İşte Bizim Hikayemiz
 1978: Vahşi Gelin
 1979: Canikom
 1979: Mücevher Hırsızları
 1980: Renkli Dünya
 1980: Tanrı'ya Feryat
 1981: Gırgıriye
 1981: Gırgıriyede Şenlik Var
 1982: Görgüsüzler
 1982: Kördüğüm
 1982: Leyla ile Mecnun
 1982: O Kadın
 1983: Gırgıriyede Cümbüş Var
 1983: İhtiras Fırtınası
 1984: Alev Alev
 1984: Gırgıriyede Büyük Seçim
 1985: Paramparça
 1986: Kıskıvrak
 1986: Savunma
 1988: Kızım ve Ben / Gurbet Kadını
 1988: Kurtar Beni
 1989: Dehşet Gecesi
 1989: Suçlu
 1990: Madde 438
 1994: Zirvedekiler
 1998: Affet Bizi Hocam

Ödülleri
 1988: 25. Altın Portakal Film Festivali - En İyi Kadın Oyuncu - Kurtar Beni
 2010: Altın Portakal Film Festivali - Yaşam Boyu Onur Ödülü

Ayrıca bakınız
 Yeşilçam oyuncuları
 Yeşilçam Türk Sineması

Kaynakça

Dış bağlantılar

 TSA'de Gülşen Bubikoğlu

Yaşayan insanlar
1954 doğumlular
Türk kadın sinema oyuncuları
Türk kadın dizi oyuncuları
İstanbul doğumlu kadın oyuncular
İnanoğlu ailesi

Gülşen Bubikoğlu


A gay bathhouse, also known as a gay sauna or a gay steambath (uncommonly known as a gay spa), is a public bath targeted towards gay and bisexual men. In gay slang, a bathhouse may be called just "the baths", "the sauna", or "the tubs". Historically, they have been used for sexual activity.

Bathhouses offering similar services for women are rare, but some men's bathhouses occasionally have a "lesbian" or "women only" night. Some, such as Hawks PDX, offer so-called "bisexual" nights, where anyone is welcome regardless of gender.

Bathhouses vary considerably in size and amenities—from small establishments with 10 or 20 rooms and a handful of lockers to multi-story saunas with a variety of room styles or sizes and several steam baths, hot tubs, and sometimes swimming pools. Most have a steam room (or wet sauna), dry sauna, showers, lockers, and small private rooms.

In many countries, bathhouses are "membership only" (for legal reasons); though membership is generally open to any adult who seeks it, usually after paying a small fee. Unlike brothels, customers pay only for the use of the facilities. Sexual activity, if it occurs, is not provided by staff of the establishment, but is between customers with no money exchanged. Many gay bathhouses, for legal reasons, explicitly prohibit and/or discourage prostitution and ban known prostitutes.

History

Records of men meeting for sex with other men in bathhouses date back to the 15th century. A tradition of public baths dates back to the 6th century BCE, and there are many ancient records of homosexual activity in Greece. In the West, gay men have been using bathhouses for sex since at least the late 19th and early 20th centuries, a time when homosexual acts were illegal in most Western countries and men who were caught engaging in homosexual acts were often arrested and publicly humiliated. Men began frequenting cruising areas such as bathhouses, public parks, alleys, train and bus stations, adult theaters, public lavatories (cottages or tearooms), and gym changing rooms where they could meet other men for sex. Some bathhouse owners tried to prevent sex among patrons while others, mindful of profits or prepared to risk prosecution, overlooked discreet homosexual activity.

Early records

 1492 Florence
 In Florence, Italy, in 1492 there was a purge against the "vice of sodomy". The places used for homosexual acts were taverns, baths, and  (sheds or houses used for illicit sex and gambling). The Eight of Watch (the city's leading criminal court) issued several decrees associated with sodomy, and on April 11, 1492, it warned the managers of bathhouses to keep out "suspect boys" on penalty of a fine. In the short period from April 1492 to February 1494, it convicted 44 men for homosexual relations not involving violence or aggravating circumstances.
 1492 Granada
 After the conquest of the Muslim city Granada in 1492, Queen Isabel the Catholic closed the public baths to suppress the homosexual activity they facilitated.
 1876 Paris
 In France the first recorded police raid on a Parisian bathhouse was in 1876 in the  on the . Six men aged 14 to 22 were prosecuted for an "offence against public decency" and the manager and two employees for "facilitating pederasty".
 1903 New York
 In the United States on February 21, 1903, New York police conducted the first recorded raid on a gay bathhouse, the Ariston Hotel Baths. 26 men were arrested, and 12 brought to trial on sodomy charges; seven men received sentences ranging from four to 20 years in prison.

Early gay bathhouses

In New York City, the Everard (nicknamed the Everhard) was converted from a church to a bathhouse in 1888 and was patronized by gay men before the 1920s and by the 1930s had a reputation as the "classiest, safest, and best known of the baths". It was damaged by fire on May 25, 1977, when nine men died and several others were seriously injured. The Everard closed in 1986. Also popular in the 1910s were the Produce Exchange Baths and the Lafayette Baths (403–405 Lafayette Street, which from 1916 was managed by Ira & George Gershwin). American precisionist painter Charles Demuth used the Lafayette Baths as his favorite haunt. His 1918 homoerotic self-portrait set in a Turkish bath is likely to have been inspired by it. The Penn Post Baths in a hotel basement (the Penn Post Hotel, 304 West 31st Street) was a popular gay location in the 1920s despite a seedy condition and the lack of private rooms.

The American composer Charles Griffes (1884–1920) wrote in his diaries about visits to New York City bathhouses and the YMCA. His biography states: "So great was his need to be with boys, that though his home contained two pianos, he chose to practice at an instrument at the Y, and his favourite time was when the players were coming and going from their games."

In London, the Savoy Turkish Baths at 92 Jermyn Street became a favorite spot (opening in 1910 and remaining open until September 1975). The journalist A.J. Langguth wrote: "...[The baths at Jermyn Street] represented a twilight arena for elderly men who came to sweat poisons from their systems and youths who came to strike beguiling poses in Turkish towels... although they were closely overseen by attendants, they provided a discreet place to inspect a young man before offering a cup of tea at Lyons." Regulars included Rock Hudson.

In the 1950s, the Bermondsey Turkish Baths were rated by Kenneth Williams as "quite fabulous" in his diaries.

Modern gay bathhouses

In the 1950s exclusively gay bathhouses began to open in the United States. Though subject to vice raids, these bathhouses were "oases of homosexual camaraderie" and were, as they remain today, "places where it was safe to be gay", whether or not patrons themselves identified as homosexual. The gay baths offered a much safer alternative to sex in other public places.

In the late 1960s and 1970s, gay bathhouses—now primarily gay-owned and operated—became fully licensed gay establishments which soon became major gay institutions. These bathhouses served as informal gay meeting places, places where friends could meet and relax. Gay bathhouses frequently threw parties for Pride Day and were usually open, and busy, on public holidays such as Thanksgiving and Christmas, when some gay men, particularly those who had been rejected by their families due to their sexual orientation, had nowhere else to go. The American writer Truman Capote was a regular at New York City baths in the 1970s, in particular the sauna at West 58th Street.

Another service offered by the baths was voter registration. In the run-up to the 1980 election, the New St. Mark's Baths in New York City, with the assistance of the League of Women Voters, conducted a voter registration drive on its premises.

In Australia, the first gay steam bath was opened in Sydney in 1967. This was the Bondi Junction Steam Baths at 109 Oxford Street. From 1972 through 1977 the following gay steam baths opened: Ken's Karate Klub (nicknamed "KKK"), later called Ken's at Kensington; No. 253; King Steam; Silhouette American Health Centre; Colt 107 Recreation Centre; Barefoot Boy; and Roman Bath (nicknamed "Roman Ruins"). In Melbourne the first gay bathhouse was Steamworks at 279 La Trobe Street, which opened in 1979 and closed 13 October 2008. Adelaide's Pulteney 431 is one of the oldest gay saunas in Australia still in operation, having opened its doors to Adelaide's gay community in 1977.

Gay saunas, as they are more commonly known in Australia and New Zealand, were present in most large cities in those countries by the late 1980s. As homosexuality was legalised in New Zealand and most Australian states during the 1970s and 1980s, there was no criminal conduct occurring on the premises of such "sex on site venues".

In Britain gay saunas were routinely raided by police up until the end of the 1980s; for example, raids in May 1988 on Brownies in Streatham resulted in the establishment's owner getting a six-month jail sentence and a £5,000 fine, and the Brooklyn House Hotel sauna in Manchester). By the 1990s, with increasing scrutiny of the costs of such operations (charges of gross indecency in a sauna normally needing the expense of undercover officers), a reduced likelihood of successful prosecution, concerns of being perceived as homophobic, and little public interest in victimless crime, gay saunas became free to operate without the risk of being raided by police. Also, police attitudes meant that they were more willing to turn a blind eye because they preferred such activity to take place in a contained environment rather than outdoors even though users were still committing the homosexual sexual offence of gross indecency, until gross indecency was wiped from the statute books following the Sexual Offences Act 2003.

Bathhouses today

Gay bathhouses today continue to fill a similar function as they did historically. The community aspect has lessened in some territories, particularly where gay men increasingly tend to come out.

Some men still use bathhouses as a convenient, safe place to meet other men for sex. In areas where homosexuality is more accepted, safety may no longer be a primary attraction.

Many bathhouses are open twenty-four hours a day, seven days a week. There is typically a single customer entrance and exit. After paying at the main entrance, the customer is buzzed through the main door. This system allows establishments to screen potential troublemakers; many bathhouses refuse entry to those who are visibly intoxicated, as well as known prostitutes. In some areas, particularly where homosexuality is illegal, considered immoral, or viewed with hostility, this is a necessary safety precaution.

Sexual encounters at bathhouses are frequently, but not always, anonymous. Some feel that the anonymity adds to the erotic excitement: that is what, for these patrons, one goes to the bathhouse for. Bathhouse encounters sometimes lead to relationships, but usually do not. Bathhouses are still used by men who have sex with men and do not identify as gay or bisexual, including those that are closeted or in heterosexual relationships.

In many bathhouses the customer has a choice between renting a room or a locker, often for fixed periods of up to 12 hours. A room typically consists of a locker and a single bed (though doubles are sometimes available) with a thin vinyl mat supported on a simple wooden box or frame, an arrangement that facilitates easy cleaning between patrons. In many bathhouses (particularly those outside the United States), some or all of the rooms are freely available to all patrons.

Some bathhouses have areas designed to facilitate impersonal sex. These areasrooms or hallwaysare illuminated only by a (dim) red exit sign. It is possible to have sex, but not to see with whom. Other bathhouses, such as the Continental Baths in New York or the Club Baths in Washington, D.C., have two or more bunkbeds in close proximity, in a public area. This provides a place to have sex for those who could afford only a locker, and facilitated exhibitionism and voyeurism for those so inclined. Baths often have a (porn) TV room or snack bar where patrons can recuperate between orgasms.

Some men use the baths as a cheaper alternative to hotels, despite the limitations of being potentially crowded public venues with only rudimentary rooms and limited or non-existent pass out privileges.

Bathhouses are not always identifiable as such from the outside. Some bathhouses are clearly marked and well lit, others have no marking other than a street address on the door. Bathhouses sometimes display the rainbow flag, which is commonly flown by businesses to identify themselves as gay-run or gay-friendly. Bathhouses commonly advertise widely in the gay press and sometimes advertise in mainstream newspapers and other media. In 2003 Australia began airing possibly the world's first television advertisements for a gay bathhouse when advertisements on commercial television in Melbourne promoted Wet on Wellington, a sauna in Wellington Street, Collingwood.

In many countries, being identified in such a sauna was still viewed by the press as scandalous. In Ireland in November 1994, the Incognito sauna made mainstream press as the gay sauna where a priest had died of a heart attack and two other priests were on hand to help out. Scott Capurro is known for his deliberately provocative comedy material and often refers to gay sexual culture including gay bathhouses.

Layout and typical amenities

On being buzzed in, the customer receives a towel (to wear, around the waist) and the key for his room or locker. The customer undresses, storing his clothing in the locker provided or room, and is then free to wander throughout the bathhouse which typically includes the amenities of a traditional bathhouse or steambath. In contrast with traditional bathhouses for bathing, the common areas of a modern gay bathhouse resemble a gym's locker room or a small lobby.

Many bathhouses also provide free condoms and lubricant. Some establishments require a piece of identification or an item of value to be left with the front desk on entry. Homosexualities emphasized the importance of a towel:

Bathhouses are often designed with imagery and/or music to create surroundings that are arousing to the visitors.

Bathhouses are usually dimly lit and play music, although an outdoors, enclosed rooftop or pool area is not uncommon. They are often laid out in a manner that allows or encourages customers to wander throughout the establishment; a space laid out in this way is often referred to as a "maze". Some bathhouses have a space where random, anonymous sex is all that can occur. These spaces—rooms, hallways, or mazes, sometimes with glory holes—have as their only illumination a (dim) red "Exit" sign, so one can have sex but one cannot see with whom. Other clubs, such as the Continental Baths or the Club Baths of Washington, D.C., would have two or more bunk beds placed near each other, in a public area, thus providing a place to have sex for those who can afford only to rent a locker, and also maximizing the chances of being watched, for the exhibitionists so inclined. Rooms are usually grouped together, as are lockers. Bathhouses are frequently decorated with posters of nude or semi-nude men, and sometimes explicit depictions of sex. It is not uncommon to see pornographic movies playing on wall-mounted televisions throughout the bathhouse. The same movies may be shown on smaller screens in the individual rooms, sometimes for an extra fee.

Most men, beyond footwear, typically just wear the towel provided. According to bathhouse etiquette, it is perfectly acceptable, even friendly, to put one's hand under someone else's towel to feel his penis, which, if well received, is the first step in sexual intimacy. Some bathhouses permit and others not only permit but encourage total nudity. In some bathhouses nudity is forbidden in the common areas of the establishments. Some men may wear underwear or fetish-wear, but it is unusual for customers to remain fully or even partially dressed in street clothes. Bare feet are frequent, though some men prefer to wear flip flops or sandals, sometimes provided by the establishment, for foot protection. The room or locker key is usually suspended from an elastic band which can be worn around the wrist or ankle.

Some bathhouses require customers to purchase yearly memberships and many offer special entry rates to members, students, military, or other groups. In some countries, bathhouses can restrict entrance to men of certain age ranges (apart from the general requirement of being an adult) or physical types, although in other places this would be considered illegal discrimination. Some bathhouses hold occasional "leather", "underwear", or other theme nights.

In the 1970s bathhouses began to install "fantasy environments" which simulated erotic situations that would be illegal or dangerous in reality:

Many bathhouses sell food and drinks, cigarettes, pornography, sex toys, lubricants, and toiletries. Some bathhouses also provide non-sexual services such as massage and reflexology.

Etiquette

Customers typically divide their time between the showers, saunas, and hot tub area and the main areas of the establishment. Customers who have rented rooms have free access to their room.

Customers who have rooms may leave their room doors open to signal that they are available for sex. An open door can also be an invitation for others to watch or join in sexual activity that is already occurring.

When a room is occupied only by a single person, some men will position themselves to suggest what they might like from someone joining them in the room: those who would like to be penetrated anally ("bottoms") will sometimes lie face down on the bed with the door open, while those who prefer to penetrate others ("tops") or to receive fellatio might lie face up.

In the past, the baths served as community spaces for gay men. Even now, some men choose to go to the baths with their friends (even though they may not necessarily have sex with each other). While many men talk to each other at the baths, even forming long-lasting friendships or relationships, many others do not, preferring, for various reasons, anonymity.

In this highly sexualized environment a look or nod is frequently enough to express interest. In darkened areas of the establishment including the mazes, video rooms, group sex areas, and the saunas or hot tubs (but not generally in the showers, toilets, hallways, gyms, café areas, and lounges), men are usually free to touch other patrons; it is expected, and often welcomed. A shake of the head, or pushing away the other's hand, means that the attention is not welcomed.

Some establishments allow or encourage sex in specific group sex areas. In some jurisdictions such activity is prohibited, and sex must be confined to private rooms. Some forbid sex in pools for hygiene reasons. In the United Kingdom, the requirement is often set by the local authority's Environmental Health department.

High-risk behavior

Sexually transmitted diseases

From the mid-1980s onward there was lobbying against gay bathhouses blaming them for being a focus of infection encouraging the spread of sexually transmitted diseases (STDs), in particular HIV, and this forced their closure in some jurisdictions (see Legal issues, below).

In some countries, fears about the spread of STDs have prompted the closing of bathhouses—with their private rooms—in favor of sex clubs, in which all sexual activity takes place in the open, and can be observed by monitors whose job it is to enforce safe-sex practices. However, proponents of bathhouses point out that closing these facilities does not prevent people from engaging in unsafe sex.

Neither the claim that bathhouses are responsible for the spread of sexually transmitted diseases, nor the claim that they are not, has been conclusively proved, but it is known that STDs are spread via unprotected sex, and as part of their membership agreement, or as a condition of entry, some bathhouses now require customers to affirm in writing that they will only practice safe sex on the premises, and venues frequently provide free condoms, latex gloves, and lubrication (and/or have them available for purchase). In New Zealand and Australia, the New Zealand AIDS Foundation and constituent members of the Australian Federation of AIDS Organizations provide safe sex information for sex on site venue users.

Some anti-bathhouse activists argue that these measures are not enough, especially given that it is virtually impossible to monitor sexual activity in a bathhouse; however, while they acknowledge that closing gay bathhouses may force some men into unsafe or illegal situations in public parks and lavatories, they point out that they may be less likely to engage in anal or multipartner sex—both of which put participants at risk for contracting STDs—in such situations.

Others counter these claims by pointing out that bathhouses are a major source of safer sex information—they provide pamphlets and post safer sex posters prominently (often on the walls of each room as well as in the common areas), provide free condoms and lubricants, and often require patrons to affirm that they will only have safer sex on the premises. In cities with larger gay populations, STD and HIV testing and counseling may be offered on-site for no charge.

Drugs and alcohol

In some countries bathhouses are prohibited from selling alcohol. (In Canada, where some bathhouses serve alcohol, a bathhouse holding a liquor license may be required to submit to liquor inspections, which activists claim are often a pretext for regulating gay sexual activity.) Many bathhouses deny entry to those who are visibly intoxicated but do not—or cannot—regulate the consumption of drugs (typically marijuana, poppers, ecstasy, cocaine, and crystal meth) by their patrons. The use of drugs and alcohol may make people more likely to engage in unsafe sex. Sex clubs with no private areas potentially find it easier to regulate consumption of drugs on their premises.

The use of crystal meth is also known to lead to riskier sexual behaviour, but since gay crystal meth users tend to seek out other users to engage in sexual activity, they often prefer to make such arrangements via the internet.

Prostitution

In some countries straight and gay bathhouses are used by rent boys to find customers by offering massage services, the "complete service" is often used as a euphemism for sex.

Legal issues

Canada

 Toronto bathhouse raids of 1981

 On February 5, 1981, 150 police raided four gay bathhouses in Toronto, Ontario: the Club Baths, the Romans II Health and Recreation Spa, the Richmond Street Health Emporium, and The Barracks. The Richmond Health Emporium was so badly damaged in the raid that it never reopened. Nicknamed Operation Soap, the raid resulted in the arrests of 268 men. There was an immediate and angry response from both the gay and lesbian community and over 3,000 people gathered in protest. A second demonstration which took place on February 20, included over 4,000 people who gathered at Queen's Park and marched to Metro Toronto Police's 52 Division.

 Raid on Toronto Women's Bathhouse
 In 2000, Toronto police raided a women's night at a bathhouse called Club Toronto. Police, almost all of them male, entered the establishment and walked around, taking the names and addresses of some 10 women and "aggressively questioned" volunteers. A Pussy Palace organizer stated "any women at the event were deeply angered and traumatized". A judge of the Ontario Court of Justice held that the police had violated the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms by using male police officers in the raid, describing the police actions as analogous to a strip search.

 Raid on Goliath's
 In December 2002, Calgary police raided Goliath's resulting in charges against 19 men. Fifteen men were arrested in the raid. Thirteen customers were charged as "found-ins" (found in a common bawdy house without a legal excuse) and two staff members were charged with the more serious offense of keeping a common bawdy house. The customers faced up to two years in prison. In addition, the owners of the bathhouse and a third staff member were later charged with keeping a common bawdy house.

 On May 27, 2004, a judge ruled that the police had reasonable justification to raid Goliath's. Defense lawyers countered that none of the anonymous information the police acted uponfor example that live sex shows were being staged and drugs sold on the premisesfeatured in the charges made against the seventeen men. They also pointed out that the police failed to call in the force's gay community liaison officer. Goliath's reopened a little more than a month after the raid.

 In November 2004, the Crown stayed the found-in charge against the last remaining patron, saying it was no longer in the public interest to pursue the case. The case against the owners and managers of Goliath's, however, was expected to come to trial in February 2005. Terry Haldane, the only "found-in" patron who was actively fighting the charge against him, accused the Crown of dropping the charge because Haldane and his lawyers had given notice of their plan to challenge the bawdy house law all the way to the Supreme Court.

 In February 2005, all remaining charges in the case were dropped. The court cited a lack of community support and evidence (from a poll) that the community supported the existence of gay bathhouses by a small margin.

 Raid on Hamilton's Warehouse Spa
 On August 3, 2004, Hamilton's Warehouse Spa and Bath was "inspected" by a task force of officers from the police, public health, the city's building and licensing department, the fire department, and the alcohol and gaming commission. Two men were arrested and charged with committing indecent acts.

United States

In California the "Consenting Adult Sex Bill", passed in January 1976, made gay bathhouses and the sex that took place within them legal for the first time. During the 1970s, the two most popular gay bathhouses in San Francisco, both located in the SOMA neighborhood, were the Ritch Street Health Club at 330 Ritch St., the interior of which was designed like a Minoan palace, and The Barracks, a BDSM bathhouse at 72 Hallam near Folsom in which each room was designed to accommodate a different BDSM sexual fantasy. In 1978 a group of police officers raided the Liberty Baths in the Polk Gulch neighborhood of San Francisco and arrested three patrons for "lewd conduct in a public place", but the District Attorney's office soon dropped the charges against them. In 1984, however, fear of AIDS caused the San Francisco Health department, with the support of some gay activists such as Randy Shilts, and against the opposition of other gay activists, to ask the courts to close gay bathhouses in the city. The court, under Judge Roy Wonder, instead issued a court order that limited sexual practices and disallowed renting of private rooms in bathhouses, so that sexual activity could be monitored, as a public health measure. Some of the bathhouses tried to live within the strict rules of this court order, but many of them felt they could not easily do business under the new rules and closed. Eventually, the few remaining actual bathhouses succumbed to either economic pressures or the continuing legal pressures of the city and finally closed. Several sex clubs, which were not officially bathhouses, continued to operate indefinitely and operate to this day, though following strict rules under the court order and city regulations. Bathhouses themselves, however, operate just outside the city, thus outside of their laws, such as in Berkeley and San Jose.

In 1985, the New York City Health Department ordered that the city's gay bathhouses be closed. As a result, heterosexual sex clubs such as Plato's Retreat had to shut down as well because the city had just passed a gay rights ordinance, and allowing the heterosexual clubs to remain open while closing the gay establishments would have been a violation of that ordinance.

Los Angeles, Chicago, Philadelphia, Atlanta, Seattle, Berkeley, San Jose, Cleveland, Portland, Reno, Las Vegas, Detroit, Indianapolis, Dallas, Houston, Denver, Miami and Fort Lauderdale are some American cities that have bathhouses in operation.

On October 8, 2010, ten patrons and one employee were arrested during a police raid at Club Dallas in Texas. The patrons were charged with either public lewdness or indecent exposure while the employee was charged with interfering with the police. The Dallas Police Department's liaison to the gay community stated that their actions were in response to a complaint.

China

In March 2008 a series of police raids in gay bathhouses and at gay meeting spots in Beijing have resulted in arrests and bathhouse closures. This included raids on two branches of the Oasis bathhouses, known to be the most popular in Beijing. In 2000, police arrested 37 men in a Guangzhou gay spa on charges of prostitution. Homosexuality was legalised in China in 1997.

Germany, Austria and Switzerland

The German-speaking countries have many gay bathhouses () since homosexuality had been legalized in 1969 (and later). The oldest ones are the Hotel Deutsche Eiche (German Oak) in Munich, the Vulcan-Sauna in Hanover and Kaiserbründ in Vienna.

Sweden
During the AIDS crisis in the 1980s, the Swedish government in 1987 banned gay saunas (), by amending the country's public health law, the Infections Protection Act under the law known informally as the Bastuklubbslagen (SFS 1987:375). The aim was to stop the spread of HIV and other sexually transmitted diseases. The law was criticised by noted gay rights organisation RSFL. Gay saunas were re-legalised on the 1 July 2004 due to a revision of law. The first gay sauna to be opened since the law was repelled was Klubb Vegas in Stockholm in April 2005.

Notable patrons

 Truman Capote
 Gay author Truman Capote wrote about his visits to the Everard Baths.
 Andrew Cunanan
Andrew Cunanan's membership card to the West Side Club NYC was recovered in Miami Beach close to where he killed designer Gianni Versace. It is not known if Cunanan visited the bathhouse during his murder spree or at some other time. Other receipts indicated he had visited New York in early May 1997 between the murder of Chicago developer Lee Miglin and Finn's Point National Cemetery caretaker William Reese.
 Justin Fashanu
 The first openly gay British footballer Justin Fashanu (1961–1998) spent his last night in Chariots Roman Spa. His suicide was due to press reports that the US authorities were planning to extradite him and charge him with sexual assault (there was in fact no warrant). His suicide note claimed that the sexual encounter had been consensual and that the youth contacted police only after Fashanu refused to pay him blackmail.
 Michel Foucault
 The influential 20th-century French philosopher Michel Foucault (1926–1984) visited bathhouses in California in the 1970s and early 1980s, and the Mineshaft in New York. He died of AIDS-related causes in 1984.
 Jack Fritscher
 Gay erotic author and editor Jack Fritscher (born 1939) made hundreds of visits to the Mineshaft (a bathhouse without the bath).
 Andrew Holleran
 Andrew Holleran (born 1943) has written both essays and fiction about his experiences at the baths. The fatal May 25, 1977 fire at the Everard Baths in New York is a crucial event in his novel Dancer from the Dance (1978). Edmund White recalls, "I used to see him years ago at the gay baths. But he wouldn't be having sex; he would just observe."
 Mikhail Kuzmin
 Russian poet, novelist and composer Mikhail Kuzmin (1872–1936) is known to have patronized bathhouses. Some of the bathhouses in St. Petersburg at the time became known as friendly to gay men and provided "attendants", who might provide sexual services for a fee. In his diary, Kuzmin writes of one bathhouse visit: "the evening I had the urge to go to a bathhouse simply to be stylish, for the fun of it, for cleanliness."
 Harvey Milk
 The openly gay American politician Harvey Milk (1930–1978) vowed to stop visiting gay bathhouses when he ran for supervisor in 1975.
 Rudolf Nureyev
 The Russian dancer Rudolf Nureyev (1938–1993) was known to frequent the baths in New York. He did not get past the door of the Mineshaft.
 Ned Rorem
 The composer Ned Rorem (1923-2022) wrote of his visits to the Everard Baths.
 Edmund White
 Novelist Edmund White acknowledges visits to the baths in New York (where he would see Andrew Holleran).
 Gore Vidal
 Bisexual author Gore Vidal (1925–2012) is a documented patron of the Everard Baths.

Celebrities and the Continental Baths

Singer Bette Midler is well known for getting her start at the famous Continental Baths in New York City in the early 1970s, where she earned the nickname Bathhouse Betty. It was there, accompanied by pianist Barry Manilow (who, like the bathhouse patrons, sometimes wore only a white towel), that she created her stage persona "the Divine Miss M". On getting her start in bathhouses, Midler has remarked:

See also

 Public bathing
 Public sex
 Hall–Carpenter Archives
 Homosocialization
 List of films featuring gay bathhouses
 Adult video arcade
 Sex club
 Caldron (sex club)
 Catacombs (sex club)
 Mineshaft (gay club)

Footnotes

References

 Books

 (2005 rev. ed. )

 Refereed articles and theses

 José Esteban Muñoz, "Ghosts of Public Sex. Utopian Longings, Queer Memories", in Policing Public Sex. Queer Politics and the Future of Gay Activism, Boston, South End Press, 1996, , pp. 355–372.

 Newspaper and magazine articles

 Barone, Joshua (June 6, 2022). "Andrew Holleran's Work Has Traced the Arc of Life. Now, He Takes on Death", The New York Times, Section C, Page 1.

External links

GayBathhouse.org
 historical directory of British Baths

Gay culture
Male homosexuality
Group sex
Sex industry
Casual sex

Gay bathhouse


Les Florenciellales sont un ordre d'algues de la classe des Dictyochophyceae.

L'espèce type, Florenciella parvula, a été isolée dans la Manche en décembre 2000.

Étymologie
Le nom de l'ordre, « Florenciellales », vient du genre type Florenciella, donné en hommage à Florence Le Gall, l'une des microbiologistes qui isola la culture de l'espèce type Florenciella parvula, la désinence latine ella, petite, littéralement « petite Florence », en référence à la petite taille de l'organisme.

Liste des familles et des genres
 n'a pas encore attribué de famille aux genres de cet ordre et les met dans la famille provisoire des « Florenciellales incertae sedis », laquelle comprend les genres :
 Florenciella Eikrem
 Pseudochattonella Hosoi-Tanabe & al.
 Verrucophora Eikrem, Edvardsen & Throndsen

Selon
 Florenciella Eikrem, Romari, Latasa, Le Gall, Throndsen & Vaulot, 2004
 Pseudochattonella Hosoi-Tanabe & al. (Y.Hara & Chihara) Hosoi-Tanabe, Honda, Fukaya, Inagaki & Sako, 2007
 Verrucophora Eikrem, Edvardsen & Throndsen  Eikrem, Edvardsen & Throndsen, 2007
accepté comme Pseudochattonella (Y.Hara & Chihara) Hosoi-Tanabe, Honda, Fukaya, Inagaki & Sako, 2007

Description
Les cellules de l'espèce type Florenciella parvula sont en général, sphériques, mesurent  et possèdent deux flagelles nettement inégaux ainsi que deux chloroplastes jaune-brun. Le long flagelle poilu tracte les cellules dans l'eau et le court flagelle est « acronématique ».

Notes et références

Notes

Références

Références biologiques

Images
 F.H. Chang et al.. Pseudochattonella : voir en ligne

Sites

Dictyochophyceae
Ordre d'algues (nom scientifique)
Nom botanique créé d'après un nom propre

Florenciellales


Blepharodera es un género de insectos blatodeos (cucarachas) de la familia Blaberidae, subfamilia Epilamprinae.

Dos especies pertenecen a este género:
 Blepharodera ciliata Burmeister, 1838
 Blepharodera discoidalis (Brunner von Wattenwyl, 1865)

Distribución geográfica
Se pueden encontrar en Sudáfrica.

Sinonimia
El género Blepharodera ha sido denominado de varios modos:
 Culama Walker, 1868
 Culamana Uvarov, 1939
 Hemiblatta Saussure, 1891
 Karnyia Shelford, 1909

Referencias

Blaberidae
Géneros de blatodeos

Blepharodera


HMS Ilex was one of nine s destroyer built for the Royal Navy during the 1930s. She is the only ship of the Royal Navy ever to have been named after Ilex, the genus of flowering plants commonly known as holly.

Description
The I-class ships were improved versions of the preceding H-class. They displaced  at standard load and  at deep load. The ships had an overall length of , a beam of  and a draught of . They were powered by two Parsons geared steam turbines, each driving one propeller shaft, using steam provided by three Admiralty three-drum boilers. The turbines developed a total of  and were intended to give a maximum speed of . Ilex only reached a speed of  from  during her sea trials. The ships carried enough fuel oil to give them a range of  at . Their crew numbered 145 officers and ratings.

The ships mounted four 4.7-inch (120 mm) Mark IX guns in single mounts, designated 'A', 'B', 'X' and 'Y' from bow to stern. For anti-aircraft (AA) defence, they had two quadruple mounts for the 0.5 inch Vickers Mark III machine gun. The I class was fitted with two above-water quintuple torpedo tube mounts amidships for  torpedoes. One depth charge rack and two throwers were fitted; 16 depth charges were originally carried, but this increased to 35 shortly after the war began. The I-class ships were fitted with the ASDIC sound detection system to locate submarines underwater.

Construction and career

1939
On the outbreak of war Ilex was deployed in the Mediterranean with the Third Destroyer Flotilla. She was immediately transferred to the Western Approaches for convoy escort duty with her flotilla. On 13 October under the command of Lieutenant Commander Philip Lionel Saumarez she attacked and sank  south-west of Ireland in company with the destroyer .

1940

The first half of 1940 saw Ilex conducting Fleet screening duties in and around the North Sea. In May she transferred to the Second Destroyer Flotilla for service in the Mediterranean.  On 27 June 1940, in company with , ,  and the Australian destroyer  she depth-charged the  off Crete. The submarine was forced to the surface and scuttled by her crew. Two days later, on 29 June, the same ships attacked and probably sank the  at around 0615, although the possibility exists that this submarine was sunk by an RAF Sunderland later that same day. Also on 29 June Dainty and Ilex shared in the sinking of the  south-west of Crete. Ilex participated in the Battle of Calabria and on 19 June she escorted  during the sinking of the  off Cape Spada, rescuing 230 survivors.

Continuous service with the Mediterranean Fleet continued through 1940, and on 11 November she was deployed as a screening destroyer for  during the attack on the Italian Fleet at Taranto.

1941
On 20 March she formed part of the destroyer screen for the fleet at the Battle of Cape Matapan. On 14 June she suffered major structural damage from dive-bombing near misses during an operation to prevent interference by Vichy French warships.  She was towed to Haifa and underwent a series of temporary repairs there, and at Suez, Aden, Mombassa and Durban, in order to reach the United States of America for a refit and full repair.

1942
It was not until September 1942 that Ilex was re-commissioned. She spent the rest of the year at Freetown, Sierra Leone, conducting convoy duties.

1943
In February 1943 Ilex returned to the Mediterranean, and in July and August she participated in the Sicily and Salerno landings. On 13 July, she sank, with assistance from , the  south east of the Straits of Messina. In December she was withdrawn from operational service because of a high defect load and poor availability.

1944
Ilex was laid up at Bizerte in Tunisia, then transferred to Ferryville in June, and laid up there.

1945
In March 1945 the destroyer was towed to Malta for repair, and in April reduced to "reserve category C", the survey declaring her "not required for further operational service".  She was placed on the disposal list in August.

Disposal
Ilex was sold for scrap at Malta on 22 January 1946 and broken up in Sicily in 1948.

Sea Cadet Corps
Salford Sea Cadets are affiliated with the ship and are named TS Ilex. Salford sea cadets are located in Worsley and provide youth services to young people aged 10–18 from across the City of Salford.

The unit was incorporated in 1936 during Eccles warship week and is one of the oldest continuously operating youth groups in the city. The current City of Salford Sea Cadets is an amalgamation of Eccles and District Sea Cadets (TS Ilex) and Salford Sea Cadets (TS Irwell). The unit moved to its present home in Worsley in the late 1980s.

City of Salford Sea Cadets while an independent charity in its own right is also part of the larger Sea Cadet Corps

Notes

Bibliography

I-class destroyers of the Royal Navy
Ships built on the River Clyde
1937 ships
World War II destroyers of the United Kingdom

HMS Ilex


To Record Only Water for Ten Days is the third studio album by American musician John Frusciante, released in 2001 through Warner Music Group. Unlike his previous two solo albums, Niandra LaDes and Usually Just a T-Shirt and Smile from the Streets You Hold, the record differs significantly in that Frusciante explores elements of electronica, synthpop and new wave.

Background
Following a month in rehab for his heroin addiction and his rejoining the Red Hot Chili Peppers, Frusciante felt deeply connected to the spiritual plane and was inspired by the many visions he had of spirits; the ideology of recording water for ten days refers to ten separate periods of time in which an album is conceived. In an interview he explained that the title comes from a symbolic picture of his body being a tape recorder that records the water for ten days as a way to take his "chemical makeup" off, in order to make a possible representation of the feelings and places he wanted to represent through music. Frusciante was encouraged to record the album by producer Jimmy Boyle who had helped him overcome his addiction. The lyrics express this theme and deal mostly with philosophical and spiritual matters as well as delving into his usual brand of psychedelia-tinged personalism.

Frusciante's main influences for this album were 1980s synthpop, post-punk and electronica bands that did their own programming, including bands such as Depeche Mode and New Order.

Recording and release
Frusciante recorded the album after kicking his addiction to heroin. As with his first two albums, Niandra Lades and Usually Just a T-Shirt and Smile from the Streets You Hold, Frusciante recorded this album at home. But while he had taken a conspicuously lo-fi approach on the earlier albums, using a 4-track cassette recorder and even a boombox, he produced To Record Only Water for Ten Days in much higher fidelity. Frusciante switched to a Yamaha MD8 – a digital 8-track recorder that used Minidisc technology – to record the raw tracks, which he later transferred to analog tape for further individual track equalization. All guitars were recorded direct-in without amplification.

Contrary to the title of the album, it took longer than ten days to record: according to Frusciante, he spent up to three days on each song.

Frusciante admitted his frustration with digital recording during the making of the album and has since felt inclined towards recording his albums with analog equipment. "When we came to mix that record, I realized how bad it sounded. After that album, I vowed that I wasn't going to record anything on digital anymore."

WMG released the album on February 13, 2001. It charted at #30 on Heatseekers. Vincent Gallo directed a video for every track on the record.

"Murderers" is featured in the "Invisible Boards" segment of the skateboarding home video Yeah Right!. The track "Remain" features on episode 18 of the hit Fox series 24.

In 2017, the Australian label Twelve Suns rereleased the album on vinyl in a limited edition of 1500 copies.

Track listing

Non-album tracks
Dozens of songs were recorded for the album but left off. The following have been released in some form. Many of these tracks have been released on Frusciante's first internet album, From The Sounds Inside.

Personnel
John Frusciante – vocals, electric guitar, acoustic guitar, synthesizer, drum machine, producer
Lawrence Azerrad – design, art assistant
Jimmy Boyle – mixing and production
Vladimir Meller – mastering

References

External links

John Frusciante albums
Warner Records albums
2001 albums

To Record Only Water for Ten Days