In labor law, a union shop, also known as a post-entry closed shop, is a form of a union security clause. Under this, the employer agrees to either only hire labor union members or to require that any new employees who are not already union members become members within a certain amount of time. Use of the union shop varies widely from nation to nation, depending on the level of protection given trade unions in general.

Canada
In 1946, Justice Ivan Rand of the Supreme Court of Canada crafted what became known as the "Rand formula". Appointed as arbiter to settle the Ford Strike of 1945, Rand concluded that both federal and provincial labor law made strong trade unions national policy. If workers were allowed to opt out of paying union dues, the free rider problem would undermine this policy. Rand went further to argue that the free rider problem undermines workplace order by causing resentment between union and non-union employees.

Rand's decision required all workers to pay union dues, but protected the right of workers to not join the union or otherwise participate in sustaining it. In the late 1940s and 1950s, many Canadian provinces incorporated the "Rand formula" into their labor laws. By 1997, the federal government and six provinces (British Columbia, Manitoba, Newfoundland, Ontario, Quebec, and Saskatchewan) imposed the Rand formula on labor relations. Most of the laws provided for a religious exemption that imposed donation to a charity rather than union dues.

By 1994, 9 percent of collective bargaining agreements in Canada required the closed shop, while 42.3 percent required the union shop and 39.2 percent used the Rand formula. Just 3 percent used the agency shop, while 6.5 percent had the open shop. Alberta appointed an investigative committee in 1994 to see if adoption of American-style "right to work" laws would benefit the province. The committee strongly rejected the policy after Albertan employers strongly supported the union shop. Union shop clauses in Canadian collective bargaining agreements were enforceable.

The closed shop is legal in all Canadian jurisdictions as of 2006, and unions may (if they wish) negotiate forms of union security agreements that provide less than the union shop.

Japan
Article 7, Section 1 of the Trade Union Act of 1949 of Japan specifically permits the negotiation of union shop provisions, provided that the union represents a majority of workers at the worksite. However, Article 28 of the Constitution of Japan protects freedom of association. Japanese courts have wrestled with the two conflicting legal values, and found that the right to organize is superior to the right to freedom of association. However, court have crafted five conditions for a union shop agreement to be accepted:

Workers must remain free to join a union that does not represent a majority of workers in the plant.
If a worker withdraws from the majority union to join the minority union, the union shop agreement may no longer cover the withdrawing worker.
New workers retain the right to join a union that does not represent a majority of workers in the plant, and cannot be forced to join the majority union.
The union shop agreement is nullified if a union no longer represents a majority of workers at the worksite.
If a worker withdraws from the majority union to form a new union, the union shop agreement may no longer cover the withdrawing worker.

Article 17 of the Trade Union Act requires that the collective bargaining agreement be extended to all workers of the same type if 75 percent of that class of the employer's workers are already covered by the agreement. Although this may appear to impose the union shop, in practice defining what constitutes a "similar type of worker" has proven too difficult and Section 17 is rarely enforced.

In 1996, 62.1 percent of all Japanese collective bargaining agreements contained a union shop provision. As of 1999, 60 percent did so. Other forms of union security agreements, such as the closed shop and agency shop, are extremely rare.

Japanese labor law treats large employers differently from small employers, and union shop provisions are much less likely to be negotiated in small workplaces. For example, Chalmers cites 1979 data showing that 50 percent of all workplaces in Japan had a union shop provision. But while 73 percent of employers with more than 1,000 workers had such agreements, just 59 percent of employers with 500 to 999 workers did so. Some agreements are ambiguously worded, making their enforcement problematic. Other union shop provisions are tied to various requirements that the union promote "industrial peace", such as mandatory arbitration for all disputes and a relinquishment of the right to strike.

United States
The Labor Management Relations Act of 1947 (also known as the Taft-Hartley Act) made the closed shop illegal in the United States.  The Supreme Court in Pattern Makers v. NLRB, 473 U.S. 95 (1985), also held that a union member may resign from the union at any time without notice, thereby enabling the worker to work during a strike without being subject to sanctions from the union. Under the National Labor Relations Act (NLRA), as amended by the Taft-Hartley Act, and held by the Supreme Court in Communications Workers of America v. Beck, in a union security agreement, unions are authorized by statute to collect from non-members only those fees and dues necessary to perform its duties as a collective bargaining representative known as agency fees. Compelling payment of agency fees from non-union employees in the public sector was held unconstitutional in Janus v. AFSCME, in June 2018. The agency fee is that portion of union dues that is attributable to the cost of representing employees in collective bargaining and in providing services to all represented employees, but not, with certain exceptions, to the union's political activities or organizing employees of other employers. Additional restrictions apply to unions covered by the Railway Labor Act (RLA) and unionized governmental employees.

The NLRA requires that employees must be given at least 30 days from the date of hire to join the union before they may be subject to being fired for failure to join the union or pay dues; shorter periods apply in the construction industry. The RLA gives employees 60 days to join the union. The union cannot, however, require that an employee become a member "in good standing" — that is, do more than pay dues or their equivalent. While a union shop agreement that, by its literal terms, requires an employee to become a member in good standing might appear to be unlawful on its face and therefore unenforceable, the National Labor Relations Board (NLRB) and the courts have uniformly interpreted such clauses to require no more than what the law permits (such as payment of dues).

Under United States labor law, a private sector union can expel a member from the union for any number of reasons, so long as it provides the member with the minimum due process required by the Labor Management Reporting and Disclosure Act (LMRDA) and does not do so for reasons prohibited by law (such as the member's race or protected political activities within the union). The union cannot, on the other hand, use a union shop agreement to require an employer to discharge a member for failure to maintain membership in good standing unless that member has been expelled from the union for failure to pay uniformly required union dues and fees. If the union expels a member for some reason other than failure to pay dues, it effectively terminates any right it might have had to demand that the employee pay dues thereafter or request that the employee be discharged for failure to do so.

The NLRA imposes additional requirements before a union can invoke a union shop agreement clause to require an employer to fire an employee who has failed to pay dues. While the union does not have to give the individual employee the sort of trial-type hearing required by the LMRDA to expel a union member for other reasons, the union must give the employee a detailed written explanation of the amount of delinquent dues that the employee owes and how those dues were calculated, and allow the employee a reasonable opportunity to pay those delinquent dues and fees before it asks that the employee be fired. In addition, the union must give all employees roughly the same opportunity to cure any delinquencies before requesting discharge; if the union gives one employee two weeks to pay delinquent dues, it must do the same for all others. The union is not, on the other hand, required to withdraw a request that an employee be fired for failure to pay delinquent dues if the employee makes the payment after the deadline but before the employer has effected the discharge. A union may owe back pay to employees who have been fired without these procedural protections; the employer may be liable if it effects the discharge when it knew or should have known that the union had not complied with the minimum requirements of the NLRA.

Under the NLRA, the union may demand payment only of those dues for periods when an employee was covered by a collective bargaining agreement that contained a valid union shop agreement. A union shop agreement may not be made retroactive to a period prior to the execution of the agreement. The union may not demand that an employee be fired for failure to pay extraordinary assessments that are not part of regularly, uniformly imposed dues. The LMRDA sets standards for the procedures that the union must follow when asking members to approve an increase in dues.

Union-represented employees covered by a union shop agreement may ask the NLRB to hold a "deauthorization election" to allow all bargaining unit employees to vote to determine whether the clause will continue to remain in effect. No such procedure exists under the RLA.

United Kingdom
The term "union shop" is not used in the UK but it appears to be equivalent to a post-entry closed shop.

Holy See
The lay employees of the Vatican are members of a union shop, the Association of Vatican Lay Workers, making the Vatican the world's most unionized sovereign state.

See also

 Agency shop
 Closed shop
 Open shop
 Right-to-work law
 Union security

References

Bibliography
Arnold, Roger A. Economics. Florence, Ky.: Cengage Learning, 2008.
Chalmers, Norma. Industrial Relations in Japan: The Peripheral Sector. Florence, Ky.: Routledge, 2002.
Hanami, Tadashi and Komiya, Fumito. Labour Law in Japan. The Netherlands: Kluwer Law International, 2011.
Kagawa, Kozo. "Legal Problems With Multiple Labour Unions in a Japanese Company." In Work and Society: Labour and Human Resources in East Asia. Ian Nish and Keith Thurley, eds. Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press, 1996.
Kaufman, Bruce E.  Government Regulation of the Employment Relationship. Madison, Wisc.: Industrial Relations Research Association, 1997.
Miller, Roger LeRoy and Jentz, Gaylord A. Business Law Today. Florence, Ky.: Cengage Learning, 2012.
Morely, Michael J.; Gunnigle, Patrick; and Collings, David G. Global Industrial Relations. Florence, Ky.: Routledge, 2006.
Nakakubo, Hiroya. "Individualisation of Employment Relations in Japan: A Legal Analysis." In Employment Relations: Individualisation and Union Exclusion. Stephen Deery and Richard Mitchell, eds. Leichhardt, NWS, Australia: The Federation Press, 1999.
Rees, Albert. The Economics of Trade Unions. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1989.
Western, Bruce. Between Class and Market: Postwar Unionization in the Capitalist Democracies. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1999.

External links
5.7 Union Shop. Article 5: Union Representative, Dues Deduction, Activities. University of Washington/SEIU, Local 1199 Contract, July 1, 2009 - June 30, 2011. (Example of a union shop agreement)

Labor relations
Criticism of trade unions

Union shop


Die Copa del Generalísimo 1966/67 war die 63. Austragung des spanischen Fußballpokalwettbewerbes, der heute unter dem Namen Copa del Rey stattfindet.

Der Wettbewerb startete am 23. Oktober 1966 und endete mit dem Finale am 2. Juli 1967 im Estadio Santiago Bernabéu in Madrid. Titelverteidiger des Pokalwettbewerbes war Real Saragossa. Den Titel gewann der FC Valencia durch einen 2:1-Erfolg im Finale gegen Atlético Bilbao. Damit qualifizierte sich Valencia für den Europapokal der Pokalsieger 1967/68.

Vorrunde
Die Hinspiele wurden am 23. Oktober 1966, die Rückspiele am 29. Januar 1967 ausgetragen.

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Entscheidungsspiele
Die Spiele wurden am 22. Februar und 8. März 1967 in Madrid und Saragossa ausgetragen.

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Runde der letzten 32
Die Hinspiele wurden am 30. April, die Rückspiele am 7. Mai 1967 ausgetragen.

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Entscheidungsspiele
Die Spiele wurden am 9. Mai in Bilbao, Valencia und Murcia ausgetragen.

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Achtelfinale
Die Hinspiele wurden am 14. Mai, die Rückspiele am 21. Mai 1967 ausgetragen.

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Entscheidungsspiele
Das Spiel wurde am 23. Mai in Madrid ausgetragen.

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Viertelfinale
Die Hinspiele wurden am 4. Juni, die Rückspiele am 11. Juni 1967 ausgetragen.

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Entscheidungsspiele
Das Spiel wurde am 13. Juni in Madrid ausgetragen.

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Halbfinale
Die Hinspiele wurden am 18. Juni, die Rückspiele am 24. Juni 1967 ausgetragen.

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Finale

Weblinks
 Spielplan und Ergebnisse (linguasport.com)

1967
Fußballsaison 1966/67

Copa del Generalísimo 1966/67


.om Umman için internet ülke kodu üst seviye alan adıdır. (CcTLD)

Om
om

.om


Reception har flere betydninger:

 Reception (film fra 2013) - En dansk kortfilm fra 2013.
 Reception (arrangement) - Et kortvarigt arrangement, i anledning af eksempelvis et jubilæum, med f.eks. taler og småretter der indtages stående.
 Reception (kontor) - En  kontorplads eller et område, f.eks. på et hotel eller i en virksomhed, specialiseret i at modtage besøgende.
 Receptionsteori - En variant af litteraturanalysen, med vægt på læserens opfattelse af et litterært værk.

Se også
 Receptor - Et biokemisk molekyle.
 Recept - En ordination om udlevering af lægemidler.
 Receptur - Det sted i et apotek, hvor lægemidler fremstilles.
 Receptar - En farmaceut der fremstiller lægemidler efter recept.

Reception


Stjernekigger er en dansk portrætfilm fra 2002 instrueret af Christina Rosendahl.

Handling
I januar 2001 udkom den danske gruppe Swan Lee's debut-cd "Enter". Året efter opnåede bandet ikke færre end seks nomineringer ved Danish Music Awards 2002. Umiddelbart en knastfri succeshistorie. Men forud for gennembruddet lå fire år med op- og nedture, udskiftninger af bandmedlemmer, frustrerende forsøg på at få en pladekontrakt og hårdt arbejde rundt om på landets mange små scener. Med under hele processen var dokumentaristen Christina Rosendahl, søster til sangerinden og frontfiguren i Swan Lee, Pernille Rosendahl. I filmen berettes om den energi, der skal til for at realisere en drøm. Og om at det stadig er tro, håb og kærlighed, der driver musikken frem - selv om branchen i stadig højere grad forsøger at beregne sig frem til succes.

Medvirkende

 Pernille Rosendahl
 Jonas Struck
 Emil Jørgensen

Referencer

Eksterne henvisninger

Dokumentarfilm fra Danmark
Portrætfilm fra Danmark
Danske film fra 2002

Stjernekigger (dokumentarfilm)


Rosalba Oxandabarat (* 12. Oktober 1944 in Salto, Uruguay) ist eine uruguayische Journalistin und Kritikerin.

Oxandabarat gehörte der Grupo de Cine de Arquitectura und von 1969 bis 1973 der Cinemateca del Tercer Mundo an. Die Journalistin, die unter dem Pseudonym La Chica de los lentes für die Wochenzeitung Marcha schrieb, übersiedelte 1974 nach Peru. Zu jener Zeit etablierte sich in Uruguay eine zivil-militärische Diktatur. Es folgte eine Tätigkeit bei La Crónica. Dort schrieb sie unter anderem die Kulturnotizen in der Beilage Variedades und lieferte auch Beiträge in der Nachrichten- und der internationalen Sparte der Zeitung. Anschließend arbeitete sie für die El-Diario-Kultur-Beilage El Caballo Rojo. Die jeweils zum Gründerteam der Monatszeitschrift 30 Días und der Wochenzeitung El Búho gehörende Oxandabarat ließ sich nach ihrer 1985 erfolgten Rückkehr nach Uruguay in Montevideo nieder und arbeitete fortan für die Marcha-Nachfolgerin Brecha. Dort wurde sie insbesondere als Film- und Literaturkritikerin wahrgenommen. Derzeit (Stand: Juni 2011) ist sie Direktorin der Brecha.

Literatur
 Nuevo Diccionario de la Cultura Uruguaya von Miguel Ángel Campodónico, Librería Linardi y Risso, 2003, S. 245f

Einzelnachweise

Journalist (Uruguay)
Uruguayer
Geboren 1944
Frau

Rosalba Oxandabarat


Jasper Tudor, hertug af Bedford, jarl af Pembroke, KG, (walisisk: Siasbar ab Owain ap Maredudd ap Tudur ap Goronwy) (født ca. november 1431, død 21. eller 26. december 1495) var farbror til kong Henrik 7. af England, og han var arkitekten bag den succesfulde erobring af England og Wales i 1485.

Familie
Jasper Tudor var en yngre søn af Owen Tudor og den tidligere engelske dronning Katherine af Valois.

Jasper havde flere helsøskende deriblandt Edmund Tudor, 1. jarl af Richmond, der blev far til kong Henrik 7. af England,

Jasper var også halvbror til Henrik 6. af England.

Kilder

Eksterne henvisninger

Huset Tudor

Jasper Tudor, hertug af Bedford


විෂ්ණු

පිං දීමේ ගාථාව (පාලි)

සම්බුද්ධ සාසනවරං යතිපුඞගවංච

සම්පාලනාය පටිලද්ධ වරෝ මහිද්ධි

පුඤ්ඤාානිමානි අනුමෝදිය වාසුදෙවෝ

පාලේතු මං සත්ත සා හිතාවහන්තතෝ

විෂ්ණු දෙවියන්ට පිං දීම


José Bruno Carranza Ramírez (October 5, 1822 – January 25, 1891) was briefly President of Costa Rica (albeit with the title Temporary Head of the Republic) in 1870. Bruno Carranza came to power in the coup d'état of 27 April 1870  that deposed President Jesús Jiménez. He resigned three months later.

His parents were Miguel Carranza Fernández (Vice-Head of State between 1838 and 1841) and Joaquina Ramírez y García. In 1847 he married Gerónima Montealegre, sister of President José María Montealegre Fernández. His great-great-granddaughter is actress Madeleine Stowe.

Studies and career

Carranza graduated in medicine from the University of San Carlos in Guatemala.

After returning to Costa Rica he practiced both privately and in the State-run Hospital San Juan de Dios. He was inspector general of vaccinations and proto-medicines. He served in Nicaragua as a military doctor during the 1856 Campaign against William Walker, but had to return almost immediately due to a Costa Rican Army retreat and a cholera epidemic.

He also worked as a journalist, publishing several newsletters and newspapers such as El Álbum ("The Album") and La Estrella del Irazú ("The Irazú Star"). He was also active in other diverse economic and commercial ventures, and among other businesses, he owned coffee plantations, a book store, and a boutique. From 1855 to 1859 he was awarded the administration of the National Liquor Factory and thus became the only official State supplier of alcohol.

Public office

He was deputy for several periods under the Mora Porras administration. He became the Costa Rican ambassador to El Salvador in 1857. He represented San José in the Constituent Assembly of 1869, although he stepped down soon after his election. Politically he was considered a liberal, sometimes even anti-clerical, and was exiled more than once because of his political beliefs.

The coup d'état of 27 April 1870 turned him into the head of state with the official title of Temporary Head of the Republic (in Spanish Jefe Provisorio de la República). During his administration the district of Limón was created, laws outlining personal and religious freedoms were dictated, and a law of guarantees was passed which for the first time in the country's history banned the death penalty. The so-called Secretarías de Estado were also regulated and new elections for a Constituent Assembly were held.

The principal figure in his administration and author of his policies towards external relations and freedom of creed was the Guatemalan lawyer Lorenzo Montúfar y Rivera, noted advocated of anti-clericalism. Other notable Secretaries of State during his time in office were Joaquín Lizano Gutiérrez (government, police, justice, agriculture, and industry), Rafael Gallegos Sáenz (housing and commerce), and Buenaventura Carazo Alvarado (war, navy, and public works).

Due to differences with Tomás Guardia Gutiérrez on August 8, 1870, he presented his resignation to the Constituent Assembly, which was accepted the next day on August 9. General Guardia succeeded him.

He was later a member of the Grand National Counsel and Plenipotentiary Minister of Costa Rica in El Salvador, where he signed the Carranza-Arbizú Accord.

References
Bruno Carranza Ramírez

1822 births
1891 deaths
People from San José, Costa Rica
Costa Rican people of Basque descent
Costa Rican people of Spanish descent
Presidents of Costa Rica
Members of the Legislative Assembly of Costa Rica
Ambassadors of Costa Rica to El Salvador
Leaders who took power by coup
19th-century Costa Rican people
Costa Rican physicians
Costa Rican journalists
Male journalists
Costa Rican businesspeople
Costa Rican liberals

Bruno Carranza


Linia Árpád (în limba ) a reprezentat un ansamblu de lucrări de fortificații realizat în Carpații Orientali în perioada celui de al Doilea Război Mondial, în principal de către Ungaria horthystă. Scopul acestei linii a fost acela de a realiza apărarea Transcarpatiei și Transilvaniei de Nord, dinspre est. Linia, edificată în perioada 1940-1944 conform specificațiilor teoriei apărării flexibile a generalului Teofil Hárosy, a fost depășită în luna octombrie 1944 de către Armata Roșie.

Numele ei a fost dat după cel al dinastiei arpadiene maghiare și s-a întins din pasul Ujok (actual situat în Ucraina) până în  pasul Oituz din România. Astăzi, fostul ei traseu geografic este împărțit între Ucraina și România, alături de Slovacia și în mai mică măsură, de Polonia.

În porțiunea nordică, aflată în zona munților Beșkizi și a Munților Maramureșului, linia principală a fost întărită în timpul războiului de două poziții fortificate avansate. Cea mai îndepărtată a fost Poziția Hunyadi (în limba ), care închidea drumurile care duceau spre versanții estici ai Beșkizilor și ai Munților Maramureșului, la intrarea în văi. Cea mai apropiată a fost Poziția Sfântul László (în limba ). Aceasta a fost gândită ca linie de repliere pentru închiderea direcțiilor de acces din Beșkizii estici și Munții Maramureșului, în zona graniței ungare a acelor timpuri, spre punctele de trecere ale Liniei Árpád.

În spatele ei, în Ținutul Secuiesc, a fost gândită o poziție fortificată circulară.

Edificarea liniei

Premise teoretice

Metodologia linilor flexibile de apărare, cum a fost Linia Árpád, a fost pusă în practică pentru prima dată de armata finlandeză în cazul construcției Liniei Mannerheim, dar îi revine generalului maghiar Teofil Hárosy, meritul de a fi elaborat în detaliu și de a fi dezvoltat în anii 1939-1940, teoria apărării flexibile. Aceste tipuri de linii de apărare nu se bazau pe linii dense de cazemate de beton mari, costisitoare și puternic înarmate, astfel cum a fost edificată Linia Maginot. În schimb, capacitatea de protecție a acestora depindea de existența mai multor linii de obstacole bine concepute, astfel încât să se încadreze mediului înconjurător. În consecință, orice drum de acces cu capabilități de a fi operat de tancuri sau camioane trebuia închis de câte un obstacol. În cazul de față, o fortăreață anume (numit în ) trebuia să închidă o vale. Zonele intermediare rămâneau neprotejate, apărarea flexibilă urmând să închidă numai posibilele linii de alimentare. Deși inamicul putea depăși astfel linia fortificată, fiecare grup de luptă, în absența realimentării cu resurse urma să rămână rapid fără muniție și alimente, putând fi înfrânt ulterior de o forță militară mobilă amică, de o putere mult mai mică.

Astfel, linia Árpád s-a bazat mai degrabă pe zone fortificate mici, bine protejate circular, mai degrabă decât pe o linie continuă de fortărețe impenetrabile. Cele mai multe dintre drumuri au fost distruse în zonele montane, împădurite și mlastinoase, dintre forturi. De aceea, sarcina apărătorilor urmărea să protejeze obstacolele și să nu se lupte cu principalele forțe atacatoare.

Metoda principală folosită de acest tip de fortificație de câmp a fost reprezentată de închiderea potențialelor căi de transport și de atac, prin intermediul mai multor șanțuri antitanc, arici, dinți de dragon și câmpuri de mine. În continuarea acestor zone de obstacole, se afla un sistem destul de mic, dar deosebit de complex, de șanțuri și obstacole din sârmă ghimpată, care protejau bariera antitanc împotriva geniștilor, tancurilor purtătoare de poduri și a echipelor de ingineri. Punctele principale de luptă erau deservite de echipe semi-mobile, deoarece soldații luptau din poziții de tragere deschise, buncărele servind drept adăpost numai în timpul bombardamentulor. Astfel, era posibilă realocarea rapidă a soldaților de la o poziție defenisvă la alta (forța umană nu era blocată în cazemate) și erau posibile contraatacuri realizate de forțele de apărare. De asemenea, acest tip de linie defensivă a necesitat la construcție de 5-10 ori mai puțină forță de muncă și beton per kilometru decât liniile Maginot sau Siegfried, cu o eficacitate egală (sau chiar mai mare) decât acestea. Reversul medaliei a fost reprezentat însă de faptul că a fost nevoie de mult mai multă imaginație din partea constructorilor, deoarece fiecare parte a liniei a avut în mod inevitabil un design unic, adaptat condițiilor locale.

Principala linie de apărare se afla, de obicei pe un vârf de deal la marginea pădurii, fiind împărțită în sectoare circulare independente. Acestea erau gândite astfel încât să fie operate de subunități de mărimea unui pluton, într-o manieră care oferea apărătorilor posibilitate de a executa foc, pe întreaga circumferință de 360 de grade a perimetrului defensiv. Un astfel de sector includea trei sau mai multe inele de tranșee și unul sau două adăposturi din beton armat, înconjurate de o zonă largă în care se aflau obstacole anti-personal (sârmă ghimpată, garduri electrice, o mare varietate capcane neexplozive), precum și două sau mai multe șanțuri antitanc în formă de "V" sau "U", ori ziduri antitanc. Sectoarele independente erau conectate de tranșee de comunicație, într-o zonă defensivă sau într-un fort (în  – fort de vale), cu capabilitate de a fi operart de câtre o companie sau un batalion.

Distrugerile provocate de atacurile inamice asupra elementelor neconstruite din beton ale liniei erau ușor de reparat, în timpul în care forțele principale efectuau contraatacuri scurte. Prin urmare, apărarea nu era numai pasivă, ci se baza, de asemenea, pe contraatacuri obișnuite și pe atacuri  prin infiltrare. Flexibilitatea liniei însemna, de asemenea, că aceasta era concepută pentru a ajuta la executarea operațiilor ofensive ale ariergărzii și pentru a oferi sprijin de foc grupurilor mobile de forțe amice. Ca atare, au fost edificate elemente de infrastructură necesare pentru acest scop și au fost destinate acestor tipuri de obiective multe unități mici și rapide (schiori, călăreți și cicliști, în principal), de dimensiuni variabile, de la un pluton la o companie.

Spre deosebire de liniile de tip Maginot și Siegfried, întregul sistem de apărare care bara o zonă precum și sistemul de tranșee al apărării flexibile erau greu de detectat, fiind în fapt o rețea complexă de obiective mici, toate adaptate în întregime la topografia naturală a locului (de exemplu pante naturale abrupte cu caracter de ziduri antitanc, șanțuri curbate ca izolinii). Toate clădirile, adăposturile blindate și obstacolele erau adaptate peisajului și nu existau obiective mari ușor de țintit, spre diferență de buncărele de tip Maginot, care erau imposibil de camuflat în mod suficient. În mod ideal, pozițiile defensive erau situate în anfiladă sau în apărare în pantă inversă, pentru a nu fi expuse în mod direct focului inamic.

Cazematele dotate cu mitraliere și tunuri din liniile Mannerheim și Árpád au fost camuflate în mod particular și, aproape toate au avut un câmp de tragere în anfiladă (cele mai multe în anfiladă – defiladă) pentru a apăra obstacolele antitanc împotriva geniștilor, astfel încât nici una dintre acestea nu vizau direct spre liniile inamicului. Deoarece aceste construcții nu erau expuse artileriei tragerilor directe ale artileriei inamice, acestea au putu fi realizate cu pereți mai subțiri în raport cu cele de tip Maginot, prin urmare, cantitatea de beton folosită per kilometru a fost mai mică, în comparație cu alte linii.

Prin urmare, inamicul era forțat să atace tranșeele defensive prin intermediul unor atacuri de infanterie convenționale (la fel ca în timpul Primului Război Mondial), cu prețul unor pierderi teribile și fără ajutorul forțelor blindate sau a tunurilor aflate la limita vederii. Era un tip de linie de apărare "flexibilă"" deoarece soldații nu erau blocați în buncăre și plutoanele defensivei puteu fi regrupate între pozițiile de tragere deschise (întărite cu lucrări din lemn și pământ și cu adăposturi blindate) și sectoarelele independente. În plus, soldații puteau efectua cu ușurință un contraatac susținut de armamentul greu al liniei, la nevoie. De asemenea, datorită posibilității redistribuirii, era necesară o forță umană mult mai redusă decât aceea care asigura apărarea de tip Maginot. În plus, semi-mobilitatea era preferabilă din punct de vedere psihologic, pe termen lung, în raport cu sentimentul claustrofobic dezvoltat în buncărelor de tip Maginot.

Construcția propriu-zisă

După căderea liniilor Maginot și Metaxas, o comisie maghiară a evaluat experiența germană în ceea ce privește fortificațiile. Potrivit recenziilor făcute de comisie, buncărurile de tip Magiont și Siegfried aveu multe puncte slabe. Prizele de aer și deschiderile puteau fi distruse de echipe mici de geniști infiltrate, buncărele în sine erau prea mari (din punct de vedere al camuflajului și al costurilor) și puteau fi orbite de ecrane mici de fum concentrate, pe deasupra necesitând resurse umane mari pentru operare. De asemenea, în timp ce Linia Mannerheim a dovedit că liniile de apărare flexibile sunt aproape imune la echipele mici de geniști și la ecranele mici de fum, la Sedan, un grup german de geniști a reușit să depășească apărarea principală în 41 de minute. Este de remarcat de asemenea că, după Dictatul de la Viena, trupele române au trebuit să evacueze Linia Carol al II-lea, cedată aproape în întregime, Ungariei. Înainte ca armata ungară să distrugă fortificațiile respective, acestea au fost inspectate de inginerii militari maghiari și s-au desfășurat exerciții militare, pentru a fi testate modalități de cucerire a sistemului de fortificații.  Experiența dobândită astfel, de maghiari, a fost folosită la construcția ulterioară a liniei Árpád.

Construcția propriuzisă a liniei, a început în anul 1940.  Dat fiind că reprezenta linia principală, Linia Árpád a concentrat principalul efort, de construire.

În zona de nord și de est a Transilvaniei, construția fortificațiilor a fost asigurată de către noua administrație maghiară prin intermediul detașamentelor de muncă forțată, formate din români și evrei. De asemenea, concentrați în lagăre militare de muncă din estul statului ungar, membrii de sex masculin ai populației rome au servit în 1944 la edificarea fortificațiilor liniei de apărare.

Datorită lipsei de fonduri, aproape nici una dintre fortărețe nu a ajuns să fie finalizată, la momentul în care linia a trebuit să fie operațională. Cele mai multe dintre ele aveau în mod semnificativ mai puțină forță umană, sârmă ghimpată, arme de foc și armament greu decât standardul care fusese prevăzut în specificațiile oficiale (cu o medie de finalizare de 60-80% la momentul respectiv). O serie de adăposturi au fost pur și simplu substituite cu lăcașuri individuale de tragere, iar câteva dintre fortărețe nu aveau șanțuri antitanc. În cazul a două dintre fortărețe, mai puțin de 50 % din munca de construcție a fost executată. Cel mai mare deficit a fost în ceea ce privește dotarea cu grenade și armament antitanc; astfel, fortărețele nu au primit niciodata tunuri antitanc cu un calibru de peste 47 mm. Cele mai multe dintre ele au primit doar trei sau mai puține tunuri antitanc învechite de tipul Pak 36, cu calibrul de 37 mm. În speță, companiile maghiare de pază a frontierei au fost de fapt unitățile cu aproape cea mai slabă dotare din întreaga armată a Ungariei. Ele au fost echipate cu tunuri vechi iugoslave și armament învechit, rămas din Primul Război Mondial. În pofida acestei situații, fortărețele au fost bine concepute să s-au dovedit a fi surprinzător de eficace.

Structura

Pozițiile fortificate avansate

Linia Hunyadi
Linia Hunyadi, a urmărit traseul punctelor înalte de pe dealurile de la poalele munților și a constat dintr-o serie de puncte întărite înconjurate de sârmă ghimpată și bazate pe existența unor buncăre de lemn îngropate în pământ. Existau și șanțuri antitanc.

Punctele respective, erau ocupate de subunități de mărimea unei companii sau a unui batalion.

Linia Sfântul László
A urmărit vechea graniță ungaro-poloneză și a fost realizată pe crestele munților, între Linia Hunyadi și linia principală. A inclus multe poziții preexistente realizate în Primul Război Mondial, inclusiv tranșee. Deoarece scopul ei era doar acela de a bloca inamicul pentru a acoperi replierea pe linia principală, nu i s-au adăugat multe lucrări noi.

Linia a fost ocupată de către subunități de dimensiunea unui batalion.

Linia principală

Conform lui János József Szabó, linia principală a constat dintr-o serie de 99 de puncte întărite, fiecare cu 15-20 de buncăre. Fiecare din aceste 99 de puncte întărite a fost deservită de câtre o companie de fortăreață, de până la 300 de oameni. Acestea blocau accesul pe văile înguste sau la nivelul trecătorilor, fiind poziționate pe flancurile de deal la 1 km distanță sau chiar mai mult. Au fost astfel construite din beton armat 759 de buncăre și 394 de poziții de tragere săpate în pământ. Au fost săpați aproximativ 400 de km de tranșee și șanțuri și au fost construite obstacole antitanc și antipersonal în lungime de aproximativ 135 de km.

Numai una singură dintre fortărețe a constat dintr-un sistem de buncăre edificate pe scară largă, toate celelalte fortificații constând din buncăre ne-luptătoare, cu o suprafață mai mică de 8x8 m2. Deoarece metoda impunea un aliniament în mod definitoriu raportat la teren, nu există un aspect standard, fiecare fortăreață fiind unică. Acest fapt a sporit eficiența apărării, deoarece nu era posibil să fie înfânte diferite völgyzár-e, prin adoptarea unei metodologii uniforme.

Au fost amplasate mine antipersonal și rețele de sârmă ghimpată. Una dintre poziții a fost apărată de o rețea de sârmă electrificată , alimentată de 2 generatoare (eficacitatea acestui tip de obstacol fiind chestionabilă). Construcțiile de apărare antitanc au inclus dinți de dragon și șine metalice înglobate vertical, în beton. Au fost amplasate de asemenea, mine antitanc.

În spatele liniei, la o distanță de 5-10 km a fost edificată o a doua linie, secundară. De asemenea, în spatele liniei principale, în Ținutul Secuiesc, a fost gândită o poziție fortificată circulară.

Structura unei fortărețe tipice
Pe Linia Árpád se găseau 29 de fortărețe ( în ). O astfel de fortăreață era operată de către o companie de cetate, formată din 200-300 de soldați. Spre comparație, o zonă defensivă de dimensiuni similare de la nivelul Liniei Maginot era operată de o forță de dimensiunea unei divizii.

Trupele companiei erau distribuite în 3-4 sectoare circulare independente, în subunități de mărimea unui pluton, dotate fiecare cu câte două puști-mitraliere și câteva pistoale-mitraliere. Fiecare dintre grupele de soldați, precum și fiecare piesă de armament greu, aveau propriul adăpost.

Un pluton avea la dispoziție trei sau mai multe inele concentrice de tranșee și câteva adăposturi blindate, înconjurate de o zonă cu obstacole anti-personal având o lățime de 30-50 m. Sectoarele independente erau interconectate de tranșee de comunicație și de linii telefonice. Fortăreața avea armele grele concentrate, în zonele cele mai vulnerabile. În mod tipic, o fortăreață era dotată cu patru mitraliere grele, între două și patru tunuri antitanc cu calibrul de 37 sau 40 mm și câteva mortiere. Toate acestea erau operate de pe poziții de artilerie, cu întărituri de lemn și pământ. În partea din spate se găseau între două și patru cazemate cu mitraliere, bine camuflate, pentru cazul în care ar fi venit vreun atac din direcția respectivă. Fortăreața avea de asemenea un buncăr de comandă, un punct medical, câteva adăposturi blindate pentru muniție și echipament, o mică grupă de ingineri (echipată cu mine și aruncător de flăcări), precum și o bucătărie. Întreaga fortăreață era înconjurată de două sau mai multe șanțuri antitanc în formă de "V" sau "U" ori de pereți antitanc, de câmpuri minate și de obstacole naturale (de exemplu, povârnișuri sau pante abrupte); astfel, nu exista  posibilitate ca tancurile să se poată apropia de fortăreață.

Atât soldații cât și armamentul greu aveau trei sau mai multe poziții deschise de tragere conectate prin tranșee, pentru a face dificilă menținerea lor sub foc. Buncărele de beton erau adesea numai cu rol de adăposturi, fiind necesare doar în cazul în care poziția ar fi fost supusă unui bombardament de artilerie. Doar cazematele dotate cu mitraliere aveau fante. De asemenea, cazematele pentru mitraliere și tunuri erau în mod particular bine camuflate și aproape toate aveau posibilitatea de a executa foc în lateral, pentru a apăra obstacolele antitanc împotriva geniștilor; de aceea, nici un adintre acestea  nu era menită să execute foc direct către inamic. Nefiind expuse tragerilor directe ale artileriei inamice, pereții acestor construcții puteau fi mult mai subțiri decât cele ale celor de tip Maginot, ceea ce a făcut necesară folosirea unei cantități mai mici de beton, raportată per kilometru, comparativ cu alte linii. Puține tipuri de clădiri de pe linia Árpád au fost construite după planuri unificate, principalele modele fiind: cazemata pentru mitralieră grea (4.6 x 4.6 m), cazemata pentru mitralieră ușoară (1.2 x 1.2 m), adăpostul cu acoperiș rotunjit pentru o grupă (5 x 4 m), adăpostul pentru tun sau mortier (7x4 m), buncărul de comandă (6 x 4 m), buncărul medical (7 x 4 m), postul de observare (1,2 x 1,2m), dinții de dragon.

Depășirea liniei de către forțele sovietice

Premise
România și Ungaria au avut un rol critic în apărarea perimetrului Reichului în anul 1944, nu numai ca urmare a asigurării petrolului necesar Germaniei precum și ca urmare a faptului că prin intermediul lor, Germania domina Peninsula Balcanică, ci și prin faptul că împreună cu statul marionetă slovac au deținut pe teritoriul lor bariera naturală a Carpaților, capabilă să asigure un perimetru defensiv dinspre nord împotriva trupelor sovietice, în condițiile în care acestea urmau să ajungă în cîmpia poloneză. Astfel, în timp ce trupele române urmau să asigure cu sprijinul celor germane defensiva Liniei Carol, edificată la vechea frontieră în partea de est înainte de război, precum și a propriilor trecători, Armata I Ungară a ocupat părțial Transilvania și Rutenia Subcarpatică, ameliorându-le în acest timp capacitatea de apărare.

La mijlocul lunii martie însă, trupele germane au ocupat Ungaria și armata țării a fost pusă sub autoritatea militară a Reichului. Armata I Ungară a primit ordinul de a avansa peste Carpați pentru a ataca forțele sovietice și pentru a a participa la construcția Liniei Prinz Eugen, lăsând în spate numai batalioane de pază ale frontierei. În acest timp, detașamentele de construcție ale Armatei I Ungare au primit misiunea de a edifica Linia Hunyadi.

Preludiu
La 26 iulie trupele maghiare au abandonat Linia Prinz Eugen și contrar ordinelor germane, trupele armatei s-au retras spre Linia Hunyadi pentru a-și apăra propriul teritoriu,  instalându-se în dispozitiv la începutul lunii august 1944. La 23 august însă România a ieșit din război, două armate germane fiind cu această ocazie prinse în capcană în timp ce încercau să se degajeze spre liniile amice ungare, iar la 9 septembrie Bulgaria s-a predat și ea.

Pozițiile Axei în Balcani au devenit astfel de nesusținut și trupele ungare au stabilizat frontul de-a lungul Carpaților. În luna septembrie acestea erau deja retrase în dispozitivul Liniei Árpád, într-o manevră executată sub acoperirea trupelor aflate în Linia Hunyadi. De asemenea, formațiunele de mărime unui batalion lăsate la nivelul Liniei Sfântul László au încetinit avansul sovietic, după abandonarea Liniei Hunyadi.

Depășirea liniei

Sovieticii au găsit o cale de acces prin trecătorile lăsate deschise  de către trupele române, astfel că în luna octombrie au intrat în Transilvania și au început să avanseze de-a lungul Dunării, fiind gata să debușeze în Câmpia Ungariei.

Dat fiind că la mijlocul lunii octombrie 1944 formațiunile sovietice avansând spre vărsarea Dunării, ajunseseră să flancheze prin zona sudică trupele ungare, acestea au executat retragerea generală de pe aliniamentul rămas al Liniei Árpád, ceea ce a permis și avansul trupelor ruse dinspre nord-est.

Eficiența

Potrivit opiniei autorilor maghiari József János Szabó și Mihályi Balázs, după bătălia de la Kursk, Linia Árpád a reușit să rețină armata rusă timp de mai mult de 3 săptămâni. De asemenea, în ceea ce privește eficacitatea sa raportată la rata costurilor, respectiva linia s-a dovedit a fi cel mai puternic sistem de fortificații din timpul celui de-al Doilea Război Mondial. Construcția sa a fost de 5-10 ori mai ieftină per kilometru decât cea a liniilor de fortificații germane și franceze și a reușit să rețină inamicul o perioadă mai lungă. Pe de altă parte, pierderile apărătorilor au fost extrem de scăzute, în ciuda superiorității numerice a inamicului și a slabei echipări a forțelor armate maghiare.

Chiar dacă superioritatea din punct de vedere numeric a forțelor sovietice a fost de peste zece ori mai mare, acestea nu au reușit să ocupe nici măcar o singură fortăreață. Sovieticii au provocat daune grave doar la câteva dintre acestea, la fel cum s-a întâmplat la nivelul Liniei Mannerheim. În mai multe cazuri (de exemplu la Ghimeș-Făget), subunități defensive cu efective asemănătoare unei companii (250 de soldați din trupele de grăniceri) s-au confruntat cu succes cu forțe sovietice superioare ca efectiv unei divizii ruse (10.000-15.000 de soldați). Fiecarui soldat ucis din dispozitivul Liniei Árpád i-au corespuns 483 de militari sovietici uciși, chiar și în condițiile de echipare precară a fortărețelor.

La sfârșitul lunii octombrie forțele maghiare s-au retras în mod ordonat de pe Linia Árpád, ca urmare a flancării acestora de către forțele sovietice în Transilvania și a avansului acestora de-a lungul Dunării, ceea ce a determinat descoperirea liniei.

Aceeași teorie a apărării flexibile, care a fundamentat construcția Liniei Árpád, a stat ulterior și la baza construcției Liniei Bar-Lev de către Israel.

Linia Árpád pe teritoriul României
În Carpații Orientali românești, perimetrele în cadrul cărora au fost executate lucrări de fortificații pentru Linia Árpád au fost de la nord la sud, următoarele:

 Pasul Prislop: Poienile de sub Munte, Valea Vaserului, Borșa
 Pasul Rotunda (Rodna): Rodna, Ilva Mică, Ilva Mare
 Pasul Tihuța (Bârgău): Mureșenii Bârgăului
 Pasul Tulgheș: Borsec, Sălard

 Pasul Pângărați (Bicaz): Bicaz Chei
 Pasul Ghimeș: Lunca de Sus
 Valea Uzului
 Pasul Oituz: Cașinu Nou, Bixad

La nivelul anului 1920, cercetarea liniei Árpád și cartografia rămășițelor sale nu intrase încă în atenția istoricilor militari și a cercetătorilor români, subiectul beneficiind până la acel moment însă de articole, studii și cărți, din partea omonimilor maghiari ai acestora.

Valorificare turistică
Pentru Ucraina, existența elementelor fostei Liniei Árpád reprezintă în acest moment o resursă turistică, fiind creată ruta turistică de istorie militară cu același nume. Astfel în Transcrapatia, unul dintre punctele semnificative de atracție ale turismului cultural a ajuns să îl constituie sistemul de buncăre ale Liniei Árpád, de lângă Verhnea Hrabivnîțea.

Relevanța turistică a structurilor antropice supraviețuitoare ale fostei linii defensive este crescută actual de procesele carstice, care procese au dus la crearea în unele dintre cazemate sau buncăre, de speleoteme de picurare (stalactite sau stalagmite) și de prelingere gravitațională (pânze, sau draperii). În România, există unui sit aparținând fostei Linii Árpád în zona Ghimeșului care ameliorează valoarea peisajului cultural local, crescându-i astfel valoarea din punct de vedere al turismului negru.

Note

Bibliografie
  Kaufmann, H.W. & Kaufmann, J.E.; The Forts and Fortifications of Europe 1815-1945: The Central States: Germany, Austria-Hungary and Czechoslovakia; Pen and Sword Military; USA; 2014; ISBN 978-1848848061
  Szabó, József János; Az Árpád-vonal. A Magyar Királyi Honvédség védelmi rendszere a Keleti-Kárpátokban 1940-1944 [Linia Árpád. Sistemul de apărare al Armatei Regale Ungare în Carpații Orientali între 1940-1944]; Timp Kiadó; Budapest; 2002
  Balázs, Mihályi; Az Árpád-vonal története 1939-1944; Kárpátia Stúdió Kft. Kiadó; 2014; ISBN 9786155374135
  Toth Szilárd; Erődrendszerek Erdélyben a második világháborúban; Várak, erődök, kastélyok az erdélyi régiségben. Erdélyi Évszázadok. A kolozsvári Magyar Történeti Intézet Évkönyve, V.; Egyetemi Műhely Kiadó; Kolozsvár; 2020; ISBN: 978-606-8886-58-9, ISSN: 2558-8761; pp. 151-174
Lectură suplimentară
  Smyrnov, Igor Georgiyovych & Tsui Jibo; Actual problems of military tourism development in Ukraine under COVID-19 pendemic conditions in Economic strategies for the developement of the society; Boston, USA; 2020; pp. 218-235 (English version)
  Гречко А. А. [Grecico, A. A.]; Через Карпаты [Prin Carpați], Изд. 2-е; Воениздат; 1972
  Gastony, Endre B.; The Formidable "Arpad Line" of Hungary, 1944; Aspert Publishers; 2000; ISBN: 9789463389198

Legături externe

  Hartă a liniilor defensive ale Ungariei, în timpul celui de-al Doilea Război Mondial
 Perspective turistice & fotografii actuale (pentru aspectele științifice/istorice, accesați însă doar surse de încredere potrivite):
  БУНКЕРУ "Лінія Арпада"; arpad-line.com
  Bădescu, Nicolae Cristian; nicolaecristianbadescu.blogspot.com:
 Linia Arpad - moștenirea horthystă a Carpaților Orientali (partea I)
 Linia Arpad - moștenirea horthystă a Carpaților Orientali (partea a II-a)
  Árpád vonal ; arpad.lapok.hu

Vezi și
 Dictatul de la Viena
 Divizia Secuiască de Frontieră
 Turism negru

Árpád, Linia
Árpád, Linia

Linia Árpád


The Mainland, also known as Hrossey and Pomona, is the main island of Orkney, Scotland. Both of Orkney's burghs, Kirkwall and Stromness, lie on the island, which is also the heart of Orkney's ferry and air connections.

Seventy-five per cent of Orkney's population live on the island, which is more densely populated than the other islands of the archipelago. The lengthy history of the island's occupation has provided numerous important archaeological sites and the sandstone bedrock provides a platform for fertile farmland. There is an abundance of wildlife, especially seabirds.

Etymology
The name Mainland is a corruption of the Old Norse . Formerly the island was also known as  meaning 'horse island'. The island is sometimes referred to as Pomona (or Pomonia), a name that stems from a 16th-century mis-translation by George Buchanan. The term eventually fell out of widespread use by the early 1800s, yet has aided in differentiating the "Isle of Pomona" from "Mainland Scotland" by emigrants to Canada, England, and other regions, so clings on tenaciously and can still be rarely found locally, retained in the name of the Pomona Inn at Finstown in the parish of Firth, as well as a local café in the capital of Kirkwall also known as the Pomona.

Geography
The island is relatively densely populated and has much fertile farmland. The bulk of the Mainland is west of Kirkwall and is low-lying, with coastal cliffs to the north and west and two sizeable bodies of freshwater, the lochs of Stenness and Harray.

The eastern part of the Mainland is shaped like the letter "W", the easternmost peninsula being known as Deerness. To the south, causeways called Churchill Barriers connect the island to Burray and South Ronaldsay via Lamb Holm and Glimps Holm.

Mainland effectively provides the core of the Orkney Islands, linking the northern members of the archipelago with the southern ones. At the east, and west ends, islands proceed to the north and south, somewhat in the shape of an "X".  The western part of the island is part of the Hoy and West Mainland National Scenic Area, one of 40 in Scotland.

The population in 2011 was recorded as 17,162, an increase of just over 12% on the 2001 population of 15,315.

Parishes
There are 13 parishes on the island. Sandwick, Birsay and Stromness lie on the west coast, Rendall and Evie to the north west. Holm, Deerness and St Andrews are located to the east of central St Ola, which contains Kirkwall city. Firth, Orphir, Stenness and Harray lie west of Kirkwall and east of the westernmost parishes. Harray has the unique distinction of being the only landlocked parish in Orkney, although it too has a significant coast along the Loch of Harray, albeit a freshwater one.

Economy
The economic sectors include agriculture, fisheries and aquaculture as well as oil and gas. A 2020 report states that "over the last 20 years there has been a growth in ... manufacturing, tourism, food and drink processing and, more recently, renewable energy". Tourism is certainly significant with over 190,000 visits to the islands, many on cruise ships, in 2019.

Tourism was negatively impacted by the COVID-19 pandemic during 2020 and into 2021. A September 2020 report stated that "The Highlands and Islands region has been disproportionately impacted by the COVID-19 pandemic to date, when compared to Scotland and the UK as a whole". The industry required short-term support for "business survival and recovery" and that was expected to continue as the sector was "severely impacted for as long as physical distancing and travel restrictions". A scheme called A Support for businesses - Island Equivalent was introduced by the Scottish government in early 2021 to financially assist hospitality and retail businesses "affected by Level 3 coronavirus restrictions". Previous schemes in 2020 included the Strategic Framework Business Fund  and the Coronavirus Business Support Fund.

Main settlements

The three main settlements on Mainland, in order of magnitude are Kirkwall and Stromness, both of which are burghs, and Finstown.

Kirkwall
Kirkwall, the capital of the islands, is on the isthmus between west Mainland and east Mainland, which historically enabled it to have highly active harbours facing in two directions for the southern and northern Orkney Islands; the southern one, Scapa Flow, is a large, calm and immediately ocean-accessible natural harbour. Kirkwall has the seat of the Bishop of Orkney, and St. Magnus Cathedral is to be found there. It is also one of the island's ferry ports.

Stromness
A long-established seaport that grew with the expansion of whaling, Stromness has a population of approximately 2,200 residents. The old town is clustered along the main street, flanked with houses and shops built from local stone, with narrow lanes and alleys branching off it. There is a ferry link to Scrabster in Caithness on the Scottish mainland as well as the Isle of Hoy.

Finstown
Finstown is the third largest settlement, and used to be known as the "Toon o' Firth". The origin of its name is thought to be from an Irishman named David Phin who came to the area in 1811. It is on the direct Stromness to Kirkwall road.

Geology

In common with most of the Orkney isles, Mainland rests almost entirely on a bedrock of Old Red Sandstone, which is about 400 million years old and was laid down in the Devonian period. These thick deposits accumulated as earlier Silurian rocks, uplifted by the formation of Pangaea, eroded and then deposited into river deltas. The freshwater Lake Orcadie existed on the edges of these eroding mountains, stretching from Shetland to the southern Moray Firth. As in nearby Caithness, these rocks rest upon the metamorphic rocks of the eastern schists, and in Mainland where a narrow strip is exposed between Stromness and Inganess, they are represented by grey gneiss and granite.

The Lower Old Red Sandstone is represented by well-bedded flagstones over most of the islands; in the south of Mainland these are faulted against an overlying series of massive red sandstones.

Many indications of glacial action exist in the form of striated surfaces in Kirkwall Bay, with boulder clay with marine shells, and many boulders of rocks foreign to the islands made of chalk, oolitic limestone, flint, &c. Local moraines are found in some of the valleys.

The soil generally is a sandy loam or a strong but friable clay, and very fertile. Large quantities of seaweed as well as lime and marl are available for manure.

Surrounding islands

 There are numerous smaller Orkney islands surrounding the mainland, some which are islets only separated at higher stages of the tide, or skerries which are only exposed at lower stages of the tide. These include Barrel of Butter, Bo Skerry, Bow Skerries, Braga, Brough of Bigging, Brough of Birsay, Damsay, Holm of Houton, Holm of Grimbister, Holm of Rendall, Iceland Skerry, Inner Holm, Kirk Rocks, Little Skerry, Mirkady Point, Nevi Skerry, Outer Holm, Oyster Skerries, Puldrite Skerry, Quanterness Skerry, Scare Gun, Seal Skerry, Skaill Skerries, Skerries of Clestrain, Skerries of Coubister, Skerries of Lakequoy, Skerry of Work, Skerry of Yinstay, Smoogro Skerry, Thieves Holm, Whyabatten, and Yesnaby Castle.

The other islands in the Orkney Islands are generally classified as north or south of the Mainland. The exceptions are the remote islets of Sule Skerry and Sule Stack, which lie  west of the archipelago, but form part of Orkney for local government purposes.

History and notable sites

The western section of the island contains numerous Neolithic and Pictish constructions.

Most of the best known Neoloithic ancient monuments are located in west Mainland, which includes the "Heart of Neolithic Orkney", a UNESCO World Heritage Site. This comprises the large chambered tomb of Maes Howe, the ceremonial stone circles the Standing Stones of Stenness and the Ring of Brodgar and the Neolithic village of Skara Brae, together with a number of unexcavated burial, ceremonial and settlement sites. The group constitutes a major prehistoric cultural landscape which gives a graphic depiction of life in the north of Scotland some 5,000 years ago. Nearby is the Barnhouse Settlement, a smaller cluster of prehistoric buildings.

Other sites of interest include St. Magnus Cathedral and the ruin of the Bishop's Palace in Kirkwall, the Earl's Palace, a ruined 16th-century castle in Birsay parish, and Skaill House, a manor house and museum near Skara Brae.

Viking settlers comprehensively occupied Orkney, and Mainland became a possession of Norway until being given to Scotland during the 15th century as part of a dowry settlement. Evidence of the Viking presence is widespread, and includes the site of a settlement at the Brough of Birsay, the vast majority of place names, and runic inscriptions at Maeshowe and other ancient sites.

Stromness is of relatively recent origin, being first recorded as the site of an inn in the 16th century, although the name is of Norse origin. Stromness became important during the late 17th century, when England was at war with France and shipping was forced to avoid the English Channel. Ships of the Hudson's Bay Company were regular visitors, as were whaling fleets.

The Churchill Barriers are a series of four causeways with a total length of . They link the south of Mainland in the north to the island of South Ronaldsay via Burray and the two smaller islands of Lamb Holm and Glimps Holm. On 14 October 1939, the Royal Navy battleship HMS Royal Oak was sunk at her moorings within the natural harbour of Scapa Flow, by the German U-boat U-47 under the command of Günther Prien. U-47 had entered Scapa Flow through Holm Sound, one of several eastern entrances to Scapa Flow. To prevent further attacks, Winston Churchill ordered the construction of permanent barriers. They now serve as road links, carrying the A961. Work began in May 1940 and the barriers were completed in September 1944, but were not officially opened until 12 May 1945, four days after the end of World War II in Europe.

Climate

The climate is remarkably temperate and steady for such a northerly latitude. The average temperature for the year is , for winter  and for summer .

The average annual rainfall varies from . Fogs occur during summer and early autumn, and furious gales may be expected four or five times in the year.

To tourists, one of the fascinations of the islands is their nightless summers. On the longest day, the sun rises at 03:00 and sets at 21:29 GMT and darkness is unknown. It is possible to read at midnight and very few stars can be seen in the night sky. Winter, however, is long. On the shortest day the sun rises at 09:05 and sets at 15:16.

Transportation and infrastructure

Road
Mainland contains the vast majority of the island's roads, and is also connected to those on the main south east islands, such as South Ronaldsay and Burray thanks to the Churchill Barriers.

There are ideas being discussed to build the Orkney Tunnel, an undersea tunnel between Orkney and the Scottish Mainland, at a length of about  or (more likely) one connecting Orkney Mainland to Shapinsay. The Orkney-Caithness route would be connected to Mainland, via the Churchill Barriers, but would make landfall on South Ronaldsay, if constructed.

Air
The main airport in Orkney is Kirkwall Airport, operated by Highland and Islands Airports. Loganair, a franchise of Flybe provides services to the Scottish Mainland (Aberdeen, Edinburgh, Glasgow and Inverness), as well as to Sumburgh Airport in Shetland. Most of the scheduled flights within Orkney depart/arrive at Kirkwall from one of the other islands.

Ferry

Ferries serve both to link Orkney to the rest of Scotland, and also to link together the various islands of the Orkney archipelago. Ferry services operate between Orkney and the Scottish Mainland and Shetland on the following routes:

 Lerwick to Kirkwall (operated by NorthLink Ferries)
 Aberdeen to Kirkwall (operated by NorthLink Ferries)
 Scrabster to Stromness (operated by NorthLink Ferries)
 Gills Bay to St Margaret's Hope (operated by Pentland Ferries)
Two services also connect Caithness, with South Ronaldsay, which is in turn connected to Mainland by road.

Inter-island ferry services connect all the inhabited islands to Orkney Mainland, and are operated by Orkney Ferries, a company owned by Orkney Islands Council.

Flora and fauna

Mainland has a great deal of marine life surrounding it, especially seabirds. Corncrakes can also be found in some parts. The Loch of Harray can host up to 10,000 wintering duck and is important for pochard.

There are few wild land mammals although there is an endemic  sub-species of the common vole, the Orkney vole or cuttick, (Microtus arvalis orcadensis) found only in the Orkney archipelago. It may have been introduced by early settlers about 4,000 years ago. Brown hares and rabbits can be found and there are frogs, but no toads.

There are six hundred recorded species of plant on the Orkney Mainland. Two rarities to be found here are the oyster plant (Mertensia maritima) and the Scottish primrose (Primula scotica). The latter is endemic to the north coast of Scotland, including Orkney and nearby Caithness. It is closely related to the Arctic species Primula stricta and Primula scandinavica.

Notable people from Mainland
 William Balfour Baikie, explorer, naturalist and philologist (Kirkwall)
 Thomas Clouston, psychiatrist (Birsay)
 Stanley Cursiter, painter (Kirkwall)
 Magnus Erlendsson, Earl of Orkney
 John Firth, author of Reminiscences of an Orkney Parish
 Rögnvald Kali Kolsson, who initiated the building of St. Magnus Cathedral
 George Mackay Brown, writer, (Stromness)
 Eric Linklater, writer, (Kirkwall)
 Ernest Marwick, antiquarian, (Evie)
 Edwin Muir, writer and translator, (Deerness)
 John Rae, Arctic explorer (Orphir)
 Cameron Stout, TV personality (Stromness)
 Thomas Stewart Traill, professor of medical jurisprudence at the University of Edinburgh (Kirkwall)
 William Walls, lawyer, industrialist and Dean of Guild of Glasgow (Kirkwall)

Gallery

See also

 Geology of Orkney
 List of islands of Scotland
 List of places in Orkney
 Mainland, Shetland

Footnotes

External links

Virtual Orkney: The directory of Orkney Archived from the original on 2011-07-17. Retrieved on 2018-06-20.

Islands of the Orkney Islands
Orkneyinga saga places

Mainland, Orkney


Estadio Saroldi, Uruguay'ın başkenti Montevideo'da çok amaçlı olarak inşa edilen bir stadyumdur.

Çoğunlukla futbol müsabakalarının yapıldığı stadyum, 12.000 seyirci kapasitelidir.

Uruguay'daki stadyumlar

Federico Omar Saroldi Park Stadyumu


An Stenorrhynchos speciosum in uska species han Liliopsida nga syahan ginhulagway ni Nikolaus Joseph von Jacquin, ngan ginhatag han pagkayana nga asya nga ngaran ni Louis Claude Marie Richard. An Stenorrhynchos speciosum in nahilalakip ha genus nga Stenorrhynchos, ngan familia nga Orchidaceae. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Mga sumpay ha gawas

Image gallery

Stenorrhynchos

Stenorrhynchos speciosum


Wigwag is a nickname for a type of railroad grade crossing signal once common in North America, referring to its pendulum-like motion that signaled the approach of a train. The device is generally credited to Albert Hunt, a mechanical engineer at Southern California's Pacific Electric (PE) interurban streetcar railroad, who invented it in 1909 for safer railroad grade crossings. The term should not be confused with its usage in Britain, where "wigwag" generally refers to alternate flashing lights, such as those found at modern level crossings.

Rationale
Soon after the advent of the automobile, travel speeds were increasing and the popularity of enclosed cars made the concept of "stop, look, and listen" at railroad crossings difficult. Fatalities at crossings were increasing. Though the idea of automatic grade crossing protection was not new, no one had invented a fail-safe, universally recognized system. In those days, many crossings were protected by a watchman who warned of an oncoming train by swinging a red lantern in a side-to-side arc, used universally in the U.S. to signify "stop". This motion is still used today by railroad workers to indicate stop per the General Code of Operating Rules (GCOR) Rule 5.3.1. It was presumed that a mechanical device that mimicked that movement would get the attention of approaching motorists and give an unmistakable warning.

Design

The earliest wigwags used by Pacific Electric, built in the railroad's shops, were gear-driven, but proved difficult to maintain. The final design, first installed in 1914 at a busy crossing near Long Beach, California, utilized alternating electromagnets pulling on an iron armature. A red steel target disc, slightly less than  in diameter was attached, which served as a pendulum. There was a red light in the center of the target, and with each swing of the target a mechanical gong sounded.

The new model, combining sight, motion and sound, was dubbed the magnetic flagman, and was manufactured by the Magnetic Signal Company of Los Angeles, California, though it is unclear exactly when production began. After the distinctive signals were installed, train and car collisions decreased at PE grade crossings. The signs became so common throughout the area that they were near-icons of Southern California motoring. Their popularity led to Magnetic Signal wigwags appearing at railroad crossings across the United States—including on Alaska's Copper River and Northwestern Railway and on several Hawaiian railroads—and across Canada, Mexico, and as far away as Australia. There are also photographs of the Magnetic Flagman in use in Europe.

Three mechanically-identical versions were produced. The upper-quadrant model was mounted directly atop a steel pole and waved the target above the motor box. It was intended for use where space was limited. Since the target could not serve as the pendulum, a cast iron counterweight opposite the target was used.  Accurate computer-generated animation of that type of signal can be seen in the 2006 movie, Cars. The lower-quadrant version waved the target below the motor box and was intended to be cantilevered from a pole, over road traffic (see above photos). Some railroads, especially in the north-western US, mounted their lower quadrant versions directly on top of a tall steel pole similar to the upper quadrant signal. They were placed on one side of the road, or on an island in the center of the road, and often had crossbucks fastened on top of the motor box.  A lower quadrant signal of that kind is seen in the 2004 film Lemony Snicket's A Series of Unfortunate Events.

Though Magnetic Signal manufactured a steel pole and cast-iron base for the purpose (which served as a cabinet for backup batteries and relays), PE often mounted the cantilevers on the wooden poles that also supported the overhead catenary providing power for streetcars. That rendered batteries unnecessary, since any failure of PE's generators resulted in a shutdown of the railway. It also permitted the relays to be housed in a separate, inexpensive cabinet, reducing the cost of the installation.

The third and least common version was a pole-mounted lower-quadrant signal, with the motor box fixed to the top of an octagonal steel frame that surrounded the target, presumably to protect both banner and motor box from being damaged by road vehicles. Dubbed the "peach basket" because of the protective framework, the apparatus was crowned by another visual warning, the traditional X-shaped "RAILROAD CROSSING" sign, or crossbucks. The majority of peach baskets were used by the Union Pacific Railroad. One version of the signal had the lower stripe on the banner replaced with the word stop that was lighted.  When the signal was at rest, the words were hidden behind a screen that was painted to look like the missing stripe.  They were either mounted on an island in the center of the road or on the side of the road.

The Magnetic Flagman wigwag waves its target using large, black electromagnets pulling against an iron armature. Sliding contacts switch the current from one magnet to the other. Each Magnetic Flagman includes a builder's plate (bottom center) detailing patent dates and power requirements.

There were a few other models that were either manufactured by Magnetic Signal or customized by the different railroads. Some examples included two signals on the same pole for different traffic approaches, a circular upper quadrant signal in which the target swung in a circular frame, and three-position signals where the target was hidden behind a sign when the signal was inactive. The Norfolk and Western Railway decided to make a change in which the motion-limiting bumpers were placed on the front of the signal instead of inside at the rear, so that the torque on the armature was reduced. They also had unique lights on their banners.

Any version could be ordered to operate using the railroad signal standard of 8 volts DC (VDC) current, or the 600 VDC used to power streetcars and electric locomotives, with little more than a change in the electromagnets. Most, if not all, of the 600 VDC units were used by PE. With the conversion to diesel power after PE sold its passenger operations in 1953, those 600 VDC wigwags were gradually converted to 8 VDC units. There were also some 110 volt AC models of Magnetic Flagman used on several railroads, including Norfolk and Western, Winston-Salem Southbound, and the Milwaukee Road. Since AC power did not generate good torque, a coil cutoff device was installed that utilized all four magnets until full motion of the banner was obtained, then two of the magnets went off line and movement was maintained by the remaining two magnets.

Various options were available. One was a round, counterbalancing "sail" for use in windy areas and which was sometimes painted in the same scheme as the main target. A warning light with adjustable housing was offered, as was an "OUT OF ORDER" warning sign that dropped into view if power to the signal was interrupted. There was a rare adjustable turret-style mount for properly aiming the signal if space did not allow the cantilever to fully extend over the roadway. The last known example of the turret-mounted wigwag was removed from service in Gardena, California in 2000, while the versions with the warning signs were mostly shipped to Australia. One surviving example is on display at the Newport Railway Museum in Melbourne, Victoria, and one has been restored and now operates on the Puffing Billy Railway. An example or two of each signal still survive with collectors.

A ruling by the United States Interstate Commerce Commission mandated a change in the target in the early 1930s. It required a change in the paint scheme from solid red to a black cross and border on a white background, but there was no other change until a ruling that required the alternating red lights in use today. That, along with other rules about grade crossing signaling that the wigwags were unable to meet due to their power requirements, rendered them obsolete for new installations after 1949, but grandfathering laws allowed them to remain until the crossings they protected were upgraded. The Magnetic Signal Company was sold to the Griswold Signal Company of Minneapolis shortly after WWII. Production of new signals continued until 1949, and replacement parts until 1960.

The symbol of a black cross on a white background was adopted in the US as the traffic sign warning drivers about an unprotected grade crossing and was incorporated into the corporate logo of the Santa Fe Railroad. It remains in use today, although with a yellow background and the cross rotated 45 degrees into an "X". Some railroads, among them the Louisville and Nashville Railroad, used a concentric black circle on a white background, resembling a bullseye, but that scheme was rare, partly because the L&N used few wigwags.

In modern America and elsewhere
Few wigwag signals currently remain in place, and the number dwindles as crossings are upgraded and spare parts become scarce. Once broken down and sold (or given away) as scrap as modern flashers took their place, they are now railroad collectibles, commanding a hefty price and winding up in personal collections of railroad officials, train spotters, and other individual collectors. Magnetic Flagman made in Minneapolis, Minnesota after production was moved from Los Angeles are especially rare and are valued by collectors.

Although many wig wags are still used by heritage railroads and railroad museums, there are only 14 railroad crossings with at least one wigwag remaining in use for regular railroads in the United States as of 2022. All 14 are in California. There is also a non-working example located in Pullman, Washington. This is stark contrast from Federal Railroad Administration data from 2004, showing there were 1,098 railroad crossings in the United States having one or more wigwags as their warning device. Of those 1,098 crossings having wigwags, 398 were in California, 117 in Wisconsin, 97 in Illinois, 66 in Texas and 45 in Kansas. The 2004 data showed a total of 44 states have at least one railroad crossing having a wigwag as its warning device. A previous FRA publication from 1983 showed 2,618 crossings equipped with wigwags.

The last wigwag on a main rail line, a Magnetic Flagman upper-quadrant at a rural crossing in Delhi, Colorado on the BNSF Railway, was removed in March 2021 and now resides at the Colorado Railroad Museum. Until destroyed by a truck in April 2004, a lower-quadrant Magnetic Flagman wigwag protected a private crossing of a BNSF line hidden from public view by a sound barrier in Pittsburg, California. The wigwag, the last "Model 10" in active use, was replaced by standard highway flashers. The Model 10 was distinguished by its short, low-hanging cantilever and use of crossbucks mounted higher than the cantilever. They were almost exclusively used by the Santa Fe, although there were also a few of this model on the Southern Pacific. In 2011–12, working replica wigwags were installed at Disney California Adventure Park in Anaheim, California along the Red Car Trolley as well as show wigwags that were placed in Radiator Springs Racers.

Anaheim had a working signal along the Union Pacific Costa Mesa branch at Lemon and Santa Ana Streets before being removed on February 25, 2019. This same signal may have been featured in the 1922 Magnetic Flagman catalog.

Collector and notable film director, Chris M. Allport owns and operates a restored, lower-quadrant Magnetic Flagman (made in Minneapolis) wigwag at his studio in Los Angeles, California.

A single lower-quadrant wigwag in the industrial city of Vernon, California, once protected a crossing on 49th Street with eight separate tracks on the BNSF Harbor Subdivision. A link between downtown Los Angeles and the ports of Los Angeles and Long Beach, this line currently sees less traffic since the completion of the more direct Alameda Corridor between downtown and the harbor. This project eliminated many at-grade crossings along Alameda Street and a number of Southern Pacific wigwags remaining from the PE era. Those remaining protect crossings of lightly used spur lines primarily in California and Wisconsin, the latter state featuring a different signal produced by Bryant-Zinc purchased by the Railroad Supply Company, which later became the Western Railroad Supply Company (WRRS).

The signal was removed sometime in late April 2020. Its removal and that of the Anaheim signal the previous year marked the end of Southern California wigwags still in revenue service.

Wigwags manufactured by WRRS and its predecessors were once numerous in the Midwest, with almost every town using them to protect their main crossings. The most common model was called the Autoflag #5. They functioned in much the same way as the Magnetic Flagmen. They utilized alternating electromagnets to swing a shaft with an attached illuminated banner. Bells were not integral to the devices as with the Magnetic Flagmen. They employed standard bells that were used on other types of signals, and mounted either to the mast or to a bracket on the top of the center harp style, as in the Devil's Lake, WI photo.

Autoflag #5s were widely used on the Chicago & North Western (C&NW), Chicago, Burlington & Quincy (CB&Q), Illinois Central, Soo Line and the Milwaukee Road Railroads. A few were also used on the Louisville & Nashville and the Gulf, Mobile & Ohio (GM&O) as well as other roads in the US and Canada. Most of these wigwags were removed in the 1970-1980s as crossings were updated. They were made in both a lower quadrant style and a center harp style similar to the Magnetic Flagman's peachbasket style. Early on, there were Autoflag  #5s that would hold the banner behind a shield much like the Magnetic Flagman disappearing banner-style.  These were replaced as time went on with the standard two-position banner that hung vertically when not energized. Several railroad, such as the GM&O and CB&Q, had a second light below the main light on the banner. This served as a second reserve light in case of failure of both bulbs in the main light and as a signal maintainers' warning of a burned-out bulb without having to climb up and open the main light to check each bulb. If the secondary light was illuminated, there was an issue with burned out bulbs in the main light.

Wigwags were also manufactured by Union Switch and Signal (US&S). They were primarily used in the northeastern US, with a few in Florida, although the Frisco had some in the Great Plains. An example was also pictured in a review of Hawaiian sugar cane railroads from the 1940s. They were manufactured in both a disappearing banner style in the East and standard two-position in the Great Plains.  While there are a few examples in museums, the sole surviving US&S wigwag in service in the US is a two-position style in Joplin, MO on an ex-Frisco industrial spur. It was not destroyed in the May, 2011 Joplin tornado, being a few blocks outside the damage path. These were a bit different in design from the Autoflag #5 and the Magnetic Flagman. The swing of the banner was produced through a drive shaft. Some of them, particularly on the Boston & Maine Railroad, had chase lights mounted above the banner that simulated the movement of the banner. The last one of this type with the chase lights was removed in 1985 and US&S wigwags were thought to have disappeared from the USA until the discovery of the specimen in Joplin. There are a number of US&S wigwags that have been preserved and restored by museums.

US&S and WRRS wigwags were also used by the CPR on its Canadian lines. There were two wig-wags in service in Canada, located on the CN CASO sub near Tilbury, Ontario. Both were WRRS Autoflag #5s with disappearing banners. Disappearing banners were the only style of wigwag approved for use in Canada. They were slated to be removed in early 2009, although they were still in place as of November 2009. In 2011, the CASO sub was abandoned and the wigwags were removed.

The wigwags at the crossing that mark the location of the western terminus of the BNSF Railway (successor to the Santa Fe) in Point Richmond, CA became pawns in a fight over local control in 2001 when BNSF said it was going to remove them once they installed more modern devices, after the state's transportation authority pressured it to upgrade the crossing. Nevertheless, in July 2019 the two upper wig wags were put operative again after the Richmond community raised funds ($2,000) to restore the devices, which had been out of use for 18 years. The two upper-quadrant wigwags are the last of their kind paired together in active use. Both wigwags remain as non-operative decorations at the crossing, coexisting with the modern gates, red lights and bells. In the interest of safety, information signs were posted at the wigwags stating that the wigwags are non-operational. The ability to be activated by trains was retained, but only for special events.

On the episode of American Restoration aired on April 16, 2013, a pair of WRRS Autoflag #5 wigwag signals were restored for the Nevada Northern Railway Museum in Ely, Nevada.

In Australia, a wigwag is left preserved along the abandoned Victor Harbor railway line in Mount Barker, South Australia.

Preservation
Several wig-wag signals have been preserved at heritage railroads and museums, including, but not necessarily limited to the following:

 Arizona Railway Museum
 California State Railroad Museum
 Colfax Railroad Museum
 Colorado Railroad Museum
 Conway Scenic Railroad
 East Troy Electric Railroad Museum
 Edaville Railroad
 Elgin County Railway Museum
 Frisco Heritage Museum
 Heart of Dixie Railroad Museum
 Hoosier Valley Railroad Museum
 Illinois Railway Museum
 Mid-Continent Railway Museum
 Monticello Railway Museum
 Nevada Northern Railway Museum
 North Carolina Transportation Museum
 Orange Empire Railway Museum
 Oregon Electric Railway Museum
 National Railway Museum, Port Adelaide
 Rosenberg Railroad Museum
 San Luis Obispo Railroad Museum
 Tennessee Valley Railroad Museum
 Virginia Museum of Transportation
 Western Pacific Railroad Museum
 Whippany Railway Museum
 Old Prairie Town
 Texas Transport Museum

See also
 Grade crossing signals
 Crossbuck

References

External links

 Dan's wigwag site
 Southern California Railway Museum
 Last Wig-Wag in Vernon Located on 49th Street (archived, 4 Dec 2004)
 Link to information about the Richmond wigwags
 Going Wiggy over Wig-Wags By Jim Mallory on San Francisco Bay Crossings (archived, 15 Nov 2002)
 Wig Wag archive via Google Maps
 Wigwag crossings on YouTube

Railway safety
Railway signaling in the United States
Railway signalling in Australia
History of Los Angeles
Level crossings

Wigwag (railroad)


Ljetnikovac Šimić Morović u mjestu Igranama, općina Podgora, zaštićeno kulturno dobro.

Opis dobra
Ljetnikovac Šimić Morović, izvorno Ivanišević, sagrađen je u južnom dijelu naselja Igrane, uz more. Glavnim pročeljem okrenut je jugu, sjeverno je veliki ograđeni vrt, a zapadno je sagrađeno manje kolonsko naselje s gospodarskim dvorištima i nizom stambenih prizemnica, u kojem su stanovali koloni koji su obrađivali posjede obitelji. Stambeno naselje, iako izvorno dio sklopa, zbog kasnijih preinaka nije uvršteno u obuhvat zaštićene cjeline. Neobarokni ljetnikovac sagrađen krajem XVIII. ili početkom XIX. stoljeća, nastao je preoblikovanjem ranije građevine iz kasnog XVII. stoljeća, gradi ga makarska obitelj Ivanišević, a kasnije ženidbenim vezama dolazi u posjed igranskih obitelji Šimić i Morović, po kojima danas nosi ime. Neostilska dvokatnica širokim je zabatom okrenuta k jugu. Zidana je priklesanim kamenom u mortu, a pročelja su ožbukana. U osi prizemlja izvorno je postojao ulazni portal, od kojeg se sačuvao samo profilirani nadvoj, dok su otvori prizemlja preoblikovani zbog imovinskih podjela građevine. Na prvom katu je balkon izgrađen na četiri dvostruke konzole, građen na plitkim svodovima, a podest je opremljen kamenim vijencem. Izvorna ograda od lijevanih vertikala s arabesknim profilacijama sačuvana je samo djelomičnoo, uglavnom je zamijenjena jednostavnom ogradom od vertikala izrađenih u kovanom željezu. Na prvom i drugom katu ljetnikovca otvori su raspoređeni u pet vertikalnih osi, prozori i vrata opremljeni su kamenim pragovima s profiliranim nadvojima. U osi drugog kata izveden je manji kameni balkon na konzolama profiliranim u obliku voluta. Katovi su razdijeljeni jednostavnim kamenim vijencima, a zabat je ukrašen neobaroknim volutama, u osi kojeg je postavljen zabatni prozor. Na istoku i zapadu izvedena je kamena gurla na konzolama. Na otvorima je sačuvana izvorna stolarija, dok su vanjski zatvori – grilje na kovanom okovu sačuvane samo djelomično. Sjeverno pročelje je zidano kamenom, a prozorski otvori su opremljeni kamenim pragovima bez dekoracije. U unutrašnjosti su sačuvane drvene međukatne konstrukcije, kao i drvena dvostrešna krovna konstrukcija s pokrovom od kupa kanalica. Izvorna dispozicija prostora nije sačuvana zbog vlasničkih podjela kuće.

Zaštita
Pod oznakom Z-6188 zaveden je kao nepokretno kulturno dobro - pojedinačno, pravna statusa zaštićena kulturnog dobra, klasificirano kao "stambene građevine".

Izvori

Zaštićene stambene građevine u Splitsko-dalmatinskoj županiji
Građevine u Podgori

Ljetnikovac Šimić Morović u Igranama


An Dyckia tenebrosa in uska species han Liliopsida nga ginhulagway ni Elton Martinez Carvalho Leme ngan Hans Edmund Luther. An Dyckia tenebrosa in nahilalakip ha genus nga Dyckia, ngan familia nga Bromeliaceae. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Dyckia

Dyckia tenebrosa


Die Morceaux de fantaisie (dt. Fantasiestücke) op. 3 sind eine Sammlung von fünf 1892 komponierten Solostücken für Klavier von Sergei Rachmaninow. Er widmete sie Anton Arensky, seinem Lehrer am Moskauer Konservatorium, der für seine prägnanten lyrische Miniaturen bekannt war.

Das frühe Werk lässt in Tonsprache und dem originellen Klaviersatz seinen Personalstil deutlich erkennen – eine charakteristisch-melancholische Klangsprache mit dramatischen Akzenten und dynamischen Steigerungen sowie den geschickten Umgang mit den technischen Möglichkeiten des Klaviers.
Die schwermütige Elegie, vor allem aber das berühmte cis-Moll-Prélude gehören zum Standardrepertoire vieler Pianisten.

Inhalt

Nr. 1 – Elegie

Die meditative, an ein Nocturne von Chopin erinnernde Elegie in es-Moll (Moderato, 4/4) überrascht mit einer vom tiefen Contra-Es bis b' weit ausladenden Achtel-Begleitfigur, die einen düster-wehmütigen Klangraum eröffnet, in den die schlichte Melodie eintritt und langsam nach unten sinkt. Im Mittelteil (Piu vivo) kehrt Rachmaninow das Bewegungsverhältnis um: Die Rechte spielt eine nervöse Begleitfigur, die Linke eine einfache Melodie, bis es zu Abwechselungen der Funktionen und einer strahlenden Crescendo-Episode kommt, die in A-Dur mündet. In der Reprise wird die Melodie durch eine Sexte verstärkt.

Nr. 2 – Prélude

Das Prélude (Lento, 4/4) ist das berühmteste Werk seines gesamten Schaffens. Mit seinem russischen Glockentimbre, dem schicksalsträchtigen Pochen des markant abfallenden, monomanisch sich wiederholenden Dreitonmotivs, der dramatischen Steigerung des Ausdrucks durch den erregten Triolensturm des Mittelteils, der in eine toccataartig niederfallende Kaskade mündet, sowie der gewaltigen akkordischen Vervielfachung des Motivs bis forte fortefortissimo über vier Notensysteme im Schlussteil – mit all diesen geschickt arrangierten Mitteln zeugt es von seinem Gespür für neuartige, aber auch effektvoll-expressive Klangwirkungen. Diese machten ihn zu einem der letzten Romantiker einer Epoche, welche die Romantik in den musikalisch fortgeschritteneren Werken hinter sich gelassen hatte, so dass er später in strenger Opposition zur Avantgarde um Arnold Schönberg und seiner Schule stehen sollte.

Folgerichtig polemisierte Theodor W. Adorno gegen das Prélude wie gegen das Gesamtwerk des Komponisten und suchte es ideologiekritisch zu deuten. Es sei ein oberflächliches Bravourstück, mit dem Dilettanten Kraft und Virtuosität vortäuschen könnten. Das Werk halte einen "Kindertriumph für infantile Erwachsene" fest. Es klinge ungeheuer schwierig, sei aber tröstlich leicht, so dass ein spielendes Kind spüre, dass die kolossale Stelle nicht fehlgehen könne.

Nr. 3 – Melodie
Mit der an dritter Stelle stehenden Melodie in E-Dur (Adagio sostenuto, 4/4) demonstriert der Komponist seine Vorliebe, eine Kantilene mit stellenweise wuchtiger Akkordbegleitung in den Tenor zu legen oder oktaviert auf beide Hände zu übertragen. Das mit seiner Vorhaltsexpressivität stellenweise an sentimentale Salonmusik der Jahrhundertwende erinnernde Werk scheint an manchen Stellen der gehobenen Unterhaltungsmusik entlehnt.

Nr. 4 – Polichinelle
Die Polichinelle in fis-Moll (Allegro vivace, 4/4), ein bewegtes, kräftiges und dramatisch gut strukturiertes Stück, lässt die parfümierte Salonatmosphäre hinter sich. Der Titel bezieht sich auf die Pulcinella der Commedia dell'arte. Das dreiteilige Gebilde beginnt mit einem wilden Abschnitt, der die bizarre Erscheinung eines Zwerges ausmalt und an Mussorgskis Porträt eines Gnoms aus den Bildern einer Ausstellung erinnert. Ein betont einfaches Motiv wird von banalem Schellengeklingel gebrochener Akkorde, brillanten Läufen und wuchtigen, rastlos rhythmisierten Akkordschlägen umspielt, bis eine sehnsüchtige Melodie, der Mittelteil des Werks, das aufgeregte Gepolter wie ein kurzer Hoffnungsschimmer unterbricht. Die von beiden Händen unisono gespielte Kantilene wird von wirkungsvollen Akkordbrechungen begleitet, bis der Schlussteil die wilden Passagen des Anfangs aufgreift und die Hoffnung des missgestalteten Wesens mit zwei Schlägen abrupt zerstört.

Nr. 5 – Serenade
Die Sammlung endet mit einer kurzen Serenade in b-Moll (Sostenuto, 3/8), ein zögernder, an einen Walzer erinnernder Tanz, der zu schweben scheint und sich dem harmonischen Grundton verweigert.

Hintergrund und Rezeption

Der Einfluss von Liszt und Chopin ist in vielen Werken des Komponisten spürbar, während sein Klaviersatz meist üppiger als der seiner einflussreichen Vorbilder ist. Mit den massigen, mitunter überladenen Akkorden konnte er je nach dynamischer und agogischer Verwendung dramatische Effekte erzielen, ohne den traditionellen Rahmen der diatonischen Tonalität zu verlassen. Rachmaninow, der nicht als Neuerer gelten wollte, hat als vom Klavier aus komponierender Pianist die Möglichkeiten seines Instruments ausgeschöpft und dabei einen leicht wiederzuerkennenden persönlichen Stil entwickelt, eine Klangsprache, die vor allem in den Vereinigten Staaten sehr einflussreich war.

Viele seiner Werke tragen einen Zug von Fatalismus, der im Gegensatz zu dem Tschaikowskis weniger tragisch, als resignativ und elegisch ist. So wurde kritisiert, dass sein klangvolles Aufbäumen gegen das Schicksal rhetorisch-äußerlich und kein wirklicher Ausdruck von Leidenschaft sei und der Weltschmerz ein wenig zu elegant und raffiniert wirke. Für Adorno gibt gerade das affirmative Moment der Tonalität dem Amateur die Möglichkeit, sich mit kräftiger Geste in der Schlusskadenz zu beweisen. Das Prélude erlaube dem Größenwahn, sich auszutoben, und der Anfänger schwinge sich in einem verwegenen Tagtraum der Musik zum Weltbeherrscher auf, dessen Triumph noch größer sei, wenn er das Stück im halb abgedunkelten Saal spiele.

Rachmaninow spielte diese Werke bis zu seinem Lebensende. Alle 5 Stücke nahm er für Ampico Klavierrollen in den Jahren 1919, 1923 (Serenade) bzw. 1928 (Elegie) auf; außerdem für Schellack-Platte (RCA Victor) dreimal das Prélude (1919, 1921, 1928), zweimal die Serenade (1922 und 1936), 1923 die Polichinelle und 1940 die Melodie. Von der Melodie und der Serenade erschien 1940 eine im Satz überarbeitete Version im Druck, die Melodie stärker überarbeitet als die Serenade. In seiner 1923er Rollenaufnahme der Serenade finden sich bereits Elemente dieser Überarbeitung, aber auch Abänderungen der Originalfassung, die in der 1940er Druckversion nochmals anders gelöst sind. Die Melodie ist in der Rollenaufnahme dagegen weitgehend die Originalfassung von 1893. Die elektrischen Aufnahmen von 1936 bzw. 1940 entsprechen weitgehend der Druckfassung von 1940.

Einzelnachweise

Werk von Sergei Wassiljewitsch Rachmaninow
Klaviermusik
Musik 1892

Morceaux de fantaisie (Rachmaninow)


Et dybdeanslag er et beslag som er fastmonteret bore-, og skruemaskiner og kan indstilles i længden.
Dybdeanslaget hænger ud fra værktøjet med en indstilbar afstand og vil støde ind i boreemnet ved en given længde.
Det gør det mulig at indstille hvor dybt man ønsker at bore.

Værktøj

Dybdeanslag


James Abankwah, né le  à Letterkenny en Irlande, est un footballeur irlandais qui évolue au poste de défenseur central à l'Udinese Calcio.

Biographie

En club
Né à Letterkenny en Irlande, James Abankwah est formé par le St. Patrick's Athletic FC. Le , il signe son premier contrat professionnel alors qu'il est âgé de 17 ans.

Abankwah participe à la finale de la coupe d'Irlande 2021, qui a lieu le  face au Bohemians FC. Il entre en jeu et son équipe s'impose après une séance de tirs au but. Il s'agit du premier trophée de sa jeune carrière.

En janvier 2022, James Abankwah quitte le club et rejoint l'Italie afin de signer en faveur de l'Udinese Calcio. Il est toutefois prêté directement au St. Patrick's Athletic FC jusqu'en juin 2022.

En sélection nationale
James Abankwah joue son premier match avec l'équipe d'Irlande des moins de 19 ans le 8 octobre 2021, face à la Suède. Il entre en jeu et les deux équipes se neutralisent (2-2 score final).

Palmarès

En club
 St. Patrick's Athletic FC
 Coupe d'Irlande
 Vainqueur : 2021.

Notes et références

Liens externes

Footballeur irlandais
Joueur du St. Patrick's Athletic FC
Naissance en janvier 2004
Naissance dans le comté de Donegal

James Abankwah


Enthusiast Gaming est une entreprise canadienne de médias numériques spécialisée dans le journalisme de jeux vidéo. Fondée en 2014 par l'entrepreneur Menashe Kestenbaum, la société possède les sites Destructoid et Escapist Magazine, ainsi que la convention de jeu vidéo Enthusiast Gaming Live Expo (EGLX).

Histoire

Activités
La société se concentre sur la construction de plate-formes médiatiques pour les fans de jeux vidéo. Elle opère dans le domaine des médias, ainsi que dans le domaine du divertissement. Enthusiast Gaming possède une centaine de sites Web liés aux jeux et autant de chaînes YouTube.

Site web

 Daily Esports (fondé en 2018)
 Destructoid (acquis en 2017)
 Flixist (acquis en 2017)
 Japanator (acquis en 2017)
 DiabloII Net & Wiki (acquis en 2018)
 The Escapist (acquis en 2018)
 Gameumentaire (acquis en 2018)
 Only Single Player (acquis en 2016)
 Gaming Street (fondé en 2019)
 Nintendo Enthusiast (fondé en 2011 par le fondateur d'Enthusiast Gaming)
 Gamnesia (acquis en 2018)
 Opération Sports (acquis en 2018)
 PC Invasion (acquis en 2018)
 Planet Destiny (acquise en 2019)
 PlayStation Enthusiast  (fondé en 2015)
 Steel Media (Pocket Gamer) (acquis en 2019)
 The Sims Resource (acquise en 2019)
 Siliconera (acquis en 2019)
 Passionné de Xbox (fondé en 2015)
 Omnia Media (acquis en 2020)
 Icy Veins (acquis en 2021)
 Upcomer (fondé en 2021)
 Tabstats (acquis en 2021)
 GameKnot (acquis en 2021)

EGLX
Enthusiast Gaming Live Expo (EGLX) est une convention de jeu annuelle organisée au Metro Toronto Convention Centre. Il est présenté comme la plus grande convention de jeux vidéo au Canada, avec un pic signalé de 30 000 participants. En octobre 2018, Enthusiast Gaming a annoncé qu'EGLX accueillera le championnat canadien des jeux de sports électroniques mondiaux.

Notes et références

Liens externes

Entreprise Internet ayant son siège au Canada
Site web vidéoludique
Site web en anglais

Enthusiast Gaming


An Aloe cipolinicola in uska species han Liliopsida nga syahan ginhulagway ni Joseph Marie Henry Alfred Perrier de la Bâthie, ngan ginhatag han pagkayana nga asya nga ngaran ni J.-b.Castillon och J.-p.Castillon. An Aloe cipolinicola in nahilalakip ha genus nga Aloe, ngan familia nga Xanthorrhoeaceae. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Aloe

de:Aloe capitata#var. cipolinicola

Aloe cipolinicola


Tyron Lakent Woodley (født 7. april 1982 i Ferguson, Missouri i USA) er en amerikansk professionel MMA-udøver og skuespiller, der er forhenværende UFC-weltervægts-mester. Woodley har været professionel siden 2009 og har også kæmpet i Strikeforce. I september 2018 var han nummer 7 på UFC's officielle pund-for-pund-rangliste.

Tidlige liv
Woodley er født og opvokset i Ferguson, Missouri. Han var Sylvester og Deborah Woodley 11. af 13 børn. Han blev opfostret af sin mor, efter at hans far forlod familien tidligt i hans liv. I high school dyrkede Han to idrætter, Amerikansk fodbold og brydning.

Efter sin dimission fra McCluer High School i 2000 gik Woodley på University of Missouri og blev en del af deres bryderhold. Der blev han to gange amerikansk mester, i hhv. 2003 og 2005. Woodley dimitterede i 2005 med en grad i landbrugsøkonomi.

MMA-karriere
Woodley kæmpede sin første professionelle kamp den 7. februar, 2009 mod Steve Schnider. Det blev afholdt af Headhunter Productions på Holiday Inn Select Executive Center i Columbia, Missouri. Woodley vandt via submission i 1. omgang.

Woodley anden professionelle kamp var mod Jeff Carstens den 30. april, 2009. Han vandt kampen via submission i 1. omgang.

Strikeforce
Woodley fik sin Strikeforce debut mod Sal Skoven i sin hjemby, St. Louis, Missouri. Kampen fandt sted ved arrangementet Strikeforce: Lawler vs. Skjolde den 6 juni, 2009. Woodley vandt kampen ved submission sent i første omgang Efter sejren, underskrev Strikeforce en  en seks-kamps-aftale med Woodley.

Ultimate Fighting Championship
Woodley mødte Jay Hieron den 2. februar, 2013, ved UFC 156 i sin debutkamp for organisationen, hvor han erstattede en skadet Erick Silva. Woodley vandt kampen via KO på blot 36 sekunder i 1. omgang.

Woodley mødte Jake Shields den 15. juni, 2013, ved UFC 161. Woodley tabte kampen via split decision.

Woodley mødte herefterJosh Koscheck ved UFC 167 den 16. november, 2013. Han vandt kampen via knockout i 1. omgang. Sejrenindbragte ham også hans første Knockout of the Night bonus-pris.

Woodley mødte herefter den tidligere Interim-Weltervægt mester Carlos Condit, ved UFC 171. Woodley vandt via TKO efter at Condit, blev ramt af en knæskade i 2. omgang.

Woodley skulle have mødt Johny Hendricks den 3. oktober, 2015, ved UFC 192. Det blev annonceret den 2. oktober, 2015, at Hendricks blev tvunget ud af kampen på grund af komplikationer med at klare vægten.

UFC Welterweight Mesterskab
Woodley mødte weltervægt-mesteren Robbie Lawler den 30. juli, 2016, i hovedkampen på  UFC 201. Han vandt den kamp via knockout halvvejs gennem første 1. gang og vandt dermed UFC-weltervægt-titlen. Denne sejr indbragte hamPerformance of the Night-prisen.

Woodley havde sit første titelforsvar mod Stephen Thompson den 12. november, 2016, ved UFC 205.  Kampen endte uafgjort med to dommere, der scorede kampen 47-47 og den tredje 48-47 til fordel for Woodley. Efterfølgende, blev begge kæmpere tildelt Fight of the Night bonus-prisen.

Revanchekampen mod Thompson fandt sted den 4. marts 2017 som hovedkampen på UFC 209. Det var endnu en tæt kamp hvor Woodley vandt via en tæt afgørelse.

I sit tredje titelforsvar, mødte Woodley Demian Maia den 29. juli, 2017, i en af hovedkampene på UFC 214. Han vandt kampen via enstemmig afgørelse. Woodley udtalte efter konkurrencen, at han havde revet hans labrum i sin højre skulder i 1. omgang. Woodley, blev senere opereret for at reparere skaden.

Woodley forsvarede sin titel mod Darren Till den 8. september, 2018 på UFC 228. Han vandt kampen via submission i 2. omgang. Denne sejr indbragte ham Performance of the Night-prisen. Woodley modtog også sit Brasilianske jiu-jitsu sort bælte i buret fra Din Thomas efter sin sejr.

Mesterskaber og resultater

MMA

 Ultimate Fighting Championship
 UFC Welterweight Championship (Én gang; nuværende)
 Tre vellykkede titelforsvar
 En titelbehold (Uafgjort, UFC 205)
 Knockout of the Night (Én gang) vs. Josh Koscheck
 Udførelse af Natten (Tre gange) vs. Dong-Hyun Kim, Robbie Lawler, og Darren Till
 Fight of the Night (En gang) vs. Stephen Thompson
 Bedste takedown-forsvar i procent i UFC historie (97.6%)
 Strikeforce
 2010 Rising Star of the Year
 ULTMMA
 2009 Prospect of the Year

MMA-rekordliste

Rekordliste

Filmografi

Referencer

Eksterne henvisninger

MMA-udøvere fra USA

Tyron Woodley