Anti-clericalism is opposition to religious authority, typically in social or political matters. Historical anti-clericalism has mainly been opposed to the influence of Roman Catholicism. Anti-clericalism is related to secularism, which seeks to separate the church from public and political life.

Some have opposed clergy on the basis of moral corruption, institutional issues and/or disagreements in religious interpretation, such as during the Protestant Reformation. Anti-clericalism became extremely violent during the French Revolution, because revolutionaries claimed the church played a pivotal role in the systems of oppression which led to it. Many clerics were killed, and French revolutionary governments tried to put priests under the control of the state by making them employees.

Anti-clericalism appeared in Catholic Europe throughout the 19th century, in various forms, and later in Canada, Cuba, and Latin America. According to the Pew Research Center several post-communist states are current practitioners of political anti-clericalism, including Uzbekistan, Azerbaijan, Kazakhstan, Tajikistan, Kyrgyzstan, Turkmenistan, Vietnam, China and North Korea.

Europe

During the Protestant Reformation, anti-clericalism resulted from opposition to the political and economic privileges of the clergy.

France

Revolution
The Civil Constitution of the Clergy was passed on July 12, 1790, requiring all clerics to swear allegiance to the French government and, by extension, to the increasingly anti-clerical National Constituent Assembly. All but seven of the 160 bishops refused the oath, as did about half of the parish priests. Persecution of the clergy and of the faithful was the first trigger of the rebellion; the second being conscription. Nonjuring priests were exiled or imprisoned and women on their way to Mass were beaten in the streets.

The anti-clericalism during the French Revolution initially began with attacks on church corruption and the wealth of the higher clergy, an action with which even many Christians could identify, since the Roman Catholic church held a dominant role in pre-revolutionary France.  During a two-year period known as the Reign of Terror, the episodes of anti-clericalism grew more violent than Europe would see until the rise of state atheism in communist Eastern Europe. The new revolutionary authorities suppressed the church; abolished the Catholic monarchy; nationalized church property; exiled 30,000 priests and killed hundreds more. Many churches were converted into "temples of reason", in which  services were held. There has been much scholarly debate over whether the movement was popularly motivated. As part of the campaign to dechristianize France, in October 1793 the Christian calendar was replaced with one reckoning from the date of the Revolution, and Festivals of Liberty, Reason and the Supreme Being were scheduled.  New forms of moral religion emerged, including the deistic Cult of the Supreme Being and France's first established state sponsored atheistic Cult of Reason, with all churches not devoted to these being closed. In April and May 1794, the government mandated the observance of a festival of the Cult of the Supreme Being. When anti-clericalism became a clear goal of French revolutionaries, counter-revolutionaries seeking to restore tradition and the Ancien Régime took up arms, particularly in the War in the Vendée (1793 to 1796). Local people often resisted dechristianization and forced members of the clergy who had resigned to conduct Mass again. Eventually, Maximilien Robespierre and the Committee of Public Safety denounced the dechristianization campaign and tried to establish their own religion, without the superstitions of Catholicism.

When Pope Pius VI took sides against the revolution in the First Coalition (1792–1797), Napoleon Bonaparte invaded Italy (1796). French troops imprisoned the Pope in 1797, and he died after six weeks of captivity.
After a change of heart, Napoleon then re-established the Catholic Church in France with the signing of the Concordat of 1801, and banned the Cult of the Supreme Being. Many anti-clerical policies continued. When Napoleonic armies entered a territory, monasteries were often sacked, and church property secularized.

Third Republic
A further phase of anti-clericalism occurred in the context of the French Third Republic and its dissensions with the Catholic Church. Prior to the 1905 French law on the Separation of the Churches and the State, the Catholic Church enjoyed preferential treatment from the French state (formally along with the Jewish, Lutheran and Calvinist minority religions, but in practice with much more influence than those). During the 19th century, public schools employed primarily priests as teachers, and religion was taught in schools (teachers were also obliged to lead the class to Mass). In 1881–1882 Jules Ferry's government passed the Jules Ferry laws, establishing free education (1881) and mandatory and lay education (1882), giving the basis of French public education. The Third Republic (1871–1940) firmly established itself after the 16 May 1877 crisis triggered by the Catholic Legitimists who wished for a return to the Ancien Régime.

During the 1880s, several anti-clerical international gatherings took place in Paris, leading to the establishment of the Fédération nationale de la libre pensée, a strongly anti-clerical society regrouping socialists, anarchists and liberals engaged for the separation of State and Churches.

In 1880 and 1882 Benedictine teaching monks were effectively exiled. This was not completed until 1901.

A law of 7 July 1904 preventing religious congregations from teaching any longer, and the 1905 law on separation of state and church, were enacted under the government of Radical-Socialist Émile Combes. Alsace-Lorraine was not subjected to these laws as it was part of the German Empire then.

In the Affaire des Fiches (1904-1905), it was discovered that the anti-clerical War Minister of the Combes government, General Louis André, was determining promotions based on the French Masonic Grand Orient's card index on public officials, detailing which were Catholic and who attended Mass, with a view to preventing their promotions.

In the years following their relocations, boarding schools of congregants were accused by some senators of trying to "recruit" French youth from abroad, placing the French Republic "in jeopardy":

Republicans' anti-clericalism softened after the First World War as the Catholic right-wing began to accept the Republic and secularism, which aimed to prevent socialist parties. However, the theme of subsidized private schools in France, which are overwhelmingly Catholic but whose teachers draw pay from the state, remains a sensitive issue in French politics and the Fédération Nationale de la Libre-Pensée, now commonly associated with the anti-clerical far-left, maintains its strongly anti-clerical stance.

Austria (Holy Roman Empire)
Emperor Joseph II (emperor 1765–1790) opposed what he called "contemplative" religious institutions – reclusive Catholic institutions that he perceived as doing nothing positive for the community. His policy towards them is included in what is called Josephinism.

Joseph decreed that Austrian bishops could not communicate directly with the Curia. More than 500 of 1,188 monasteries in Austro-Slav lands (and a hundred more in Hungary) were dissolved, and 60 million florins taken by the state. This wealth was used to create 1,700 new parishes and welfare institutions.

The education of priests was taken from the Church as well. Joseph established six state-run "General Seminaries". In 1783, a Marriage Patent treated marriage as a civil contract rather than a religious institution.

Catholic historians have claimed that there was an alliance between Joseph and anti-clerical Freemasons.

Germany

The Kulturkampf (literally "culture struggle") refers to German policies in reducing the role and power of the Catholic Church in Prussia, enacted from 1871 to 1878 by the Prime Minister of Prussia, Otto von Bismarck.

Bismarck accelerated the Kulturkampf, which did not extend to the other German states such as Bavaria (where Catholics were in a majority). As one scholar put it, "the attack on the church included a series of Prussian, discriminatory laws that made Catholics feel understandably persecuted within a predominantly Protestant nation." Jesuits, Franciscans, Dominicans and other orders were expelled in the culmination of twenty years of anti-Jesuit and antimonastic hysteria.

In 1871, the Catholic Church comprised 36.5% of the population of the German Empire, including millions of Germans in the west and South, as well as the vast majority of Poles. In this newly founded Empire, Bismarck sought to appeal to liberals and Protestants (62% of the population) by reducing the political and social influence of the Catholic Church.

Priests and bishops who resisted the Kulturkampf were arrested or removed from their positions.  By the height of anti-Catholic measures, half of the Prussian bishops were in prison or in exile, a quarter of the parishes had no priest, half the monks and nuns had left Prussia, a third of the monasteries and convents were closed, 1800 parish priests were imprisoned or exiled, and thousands of laypeople were imprisoned for helping the priests.

The Kulturkampf backfired, as it energized the Catholics to become a political force in the Centre party and revitalized Polish resistance. The Kulturkampf ended about 1880 with a new pope Leo XIII willing to negotiate with Bismarck. Bismarck broke with the Liberals over religion and over their opposition to tariffs; He won Centre party support on most of his conservative policy positions, especially his attacks against Socialism.

Italy
Anti-clericalism in Italy is connected with reaction against the absolutism of the Papal States, overthrown in 1870. For a long time, the pope required Catholics not to participate in the public life of the Kingdom of Italy that had invaded the Papal States to complete the unification of Italy, prompting the pope to declare himself a  "prisoner" in the Vatican. Some politicians that had played important roles in this process, such as Giuseppe Garibaldi and Camillo Benso, conte di Cavour, were known to be hostile to the temporal and political power of the Church.  Throughout the history of Liberal Italy, relations between the Italian government and the Church remained acrimonious, and anti-clericals maintained a prominent position in the ideological and political debates of the era.  Tensions eased between church and state in the 1890s and early 1900s as a result of both sides' mutual hostility toward the burgeoning Socialist movement.  Initially also anticlerical, fascist Benito Mussolini tempered such rhetoric to win support from Catholics and later as dictator, official hostility between the Holy See and the Italian state was finally settled by Pope Pius XI and him: the Lateran Accords were finalised in 1929.

After World War II, anti-clericalism was embodied by the Italian Communist (PCI) and Italian Socialist (PSI) parties, in opposition to the Vatican-backed party Christian Democracy (DC). Since the PSI joined DC-led coalition governments, the DC under Aldo Moro turned centre-left. In 1978, with support of the PSI, the DC-led coalition government legalized abortion despite strong opposition from the Catholic Church and DC conservative factions.

The revision of the Lateran treaties during the 1980s by the PSI Prime Minister Bettino Craxi, removed the status of "official religion" of the Catholic Church, but still granted a series of provisions in favour of the Church, such as the eight per thousand law, the teaching of religion in schools, and other privileges.

Since the 1990s, the Catholic Church has taken a more aggressive stance in Italian politics, in particular through Cardinal Camillo Ruini, who often made his voice heard commenting the political debate and indicating the official line of the Church on various matters. This interventionism increased with the papacy of Benedict XVI, culminating in the 2008 Italian political crisis caused due to Catholic politicians withdrawing their support from the government. Anti-clericalism, however, is not the official stance of most parties (with the exception of the Italian Radicals, who, however identify as laicist), as most party leaders consider it an electoral disadvantage to openly contradict the Church: since the demise of the DC as a single party, practicing Catholic votes are often swinging between the right and the left wing, and are considered to be decisive to win an election. In recent years, the rise of Populist and Anti-establishment politics, combined with a decline in the number of practicing Catholics has contributed to loosening of the Church's grip over Italian politics.

Poland
Your Movement is an anti-clerical party founded in 2011 by politician Janusz Palikot. Palikot's Movement won 10% of the national vote at the 2011 Polish parliamentary election.

Portugal

The fall of the Monarchy in the Republican revolution of 1910 led to another wave of anti-clerical activity. Most church property was put under State control, and the church was not allowed to inherit property. The revolution and the republic allegedly took a "hostile" approach to the issue of church and state separation, like that of the French Revolution, the Spanish Constitution of 1931 and the Mexican Constitution of 1917. As part of the anti-clerical revolution, the bishops were driven from their dioceses, the property of clerics was seized by the state, wearing of the cassock was banned, all minor seminaries were closed and all but five major seminaries. A law of February 22, 1918, permitted only two seminaries in the country, but they had not been given their property back. Religious orders were expelled from the country, including 31 orders comprising members in 164 houses (in 1917 some orders were permitted to form again).  Religious education was prohibited in both primary and secondary school. Religious oaths and church taxes were also abolished.

Spain

The first instance of anti-clerical violence due to political conflict in 19th-century Spain occurred during the Trienio Liberal (Spanish Civil War of 1820–1823). During riots in Catalonia, 20 clergymen were killed by members of the liberal movement in retaliation for the Church's siding with absolutist supporters of Ferdinand VII.

In 1836 following the First Carlist War, the Ecclesiastical Confiscations of Mendizábal () promulgated by Juan Álvarez Mendizábal, prime minister of the new regime abolished the major Spanish Convents and Monasteries.

Many years later the Radical Republican Party leader Alejandro Lerroux would distinguish himself by his inflammatory pieces of opinion.

Red Terror

The Republican government which came to power in Spain in 1931 was based on secular principles. In the first years some laws were passed secularising education, prohibiting religious education in the schools, and expelling the Jesuits from the country. On Pentecost 1932, Pope Pius XI protested against these measures and demanded restitution. He asked the Catholics of Spain to fight with all legal means against the injustices. June 3, 1933, he issued the encyclical Dilectissima Nobis, in which he described the expropriation of all Church buildings, episcopal residences, parish houses, seminaries and monasteries.

By law, they were now property of the Spanish State, to which the Church had to pay rent and taxes continuously in order to use these properties. "Thus the Catholic Church is compelled to pay taxes on what was violently taken from her". Religious vestments, liturgical instruments, statues, pictures, vases, gems and other valuable objects were expropriated as well.

During the Spanish Civil War  of 1936–1939, Catholics largely supported Franco and the Nationalist forces. Anti-clerical assaults called the  Red Terror  by Nationalists, included sacking and burning monasteries and churches and killing 6,832 members of the clergy.

This number comprises:
 13 bishops (from the dioceses of Sigüenza, Lleida, Cuenca, Barbastro Segorbe, Jaén, Ciudad Real, Almería, Guadix, Barcelona, Teruel and the auxiliary of Tarragona);
 4,172 diocesan priests;
 2,364 monks and friars, among them 259 Clarentians, 226 Franciscans, 204 Piarists, 176 Brothers of Mary, 165 Christian Brothers, 155 Augustinians, 132 Dominicans, and 114 Jesuits.
 283 nuns, according to one source, some of whom were badly tortured.

There are accounts of Catholic faithful being forced to swallow rosary beads, thrown down mine shafts and priests being forced to dig their own graves before being buried alive. The Catholic Church has canonized several martyrs of the Spanish Civil War and beatified hundreds more.

Prior to the Falangists joining Francisco Franco's unified alliance of right-wing parties, the party exhibited anti-clerical tendencies, and saw the Catholic Church as an elite institution that presented  an obstacle to the Falangist's full control the state. Despite this, the Falangists had not been involved in any massacres of Catholics, and it went on to support the Church as a result of their alliance to monarchists and other nationalist movements.

Philippines

Philippine anti-clericalism is rooted in the anti-clericalism of 19th-century Spain. José Rizal, a member of the ilustrado class during the Spanish colonial period and one of the most prominent of the Philippines' national heroes held anti-clerical views until his eventual recantation before his day of execution. The Katipunan, the secret society that spearheaded the Philippine Revolution after Rizal's execution, was also noted for its anti-clericalism. After Philippine independence was recognized by the United States, the inclusion of Rizal's novels Noli me tangere and El filibusterismo in the country's formal-education curricula was strongly opposed by the domestic Catholic Church hierarchy.

Rodrigo Duterte, the country's previous president, has adopted a combative verbal stance toward the Church hierarchy and its staunchest supporters. In 2015, he blamed and cursed Pope Francis for the traffic congestion in the national capital; he later apologized and clarified that it was the government's fault and not the pope's. In 2019, he predicted the Church's temporal demise in 25 years. Duterte, however, has underscored that his animosity toward the Church was purely personal and warned the otherwise uninvolved public against taking unethical action against the clergy.

Canada
In French Canada following the Conquest, much like in Ireland or Poland under foreign rule, the Catholic Church was the sole national institution not under the direct control of the British colonial government. It was also a major marker of social difference from the incoming Anglo-Protestant settlers. French Canadian identity was almost entirely centred around Catholicism, and to a much lesser extent the French language.  However, there was a small anti-clerical movement in French Canada in the early nineteenth drawing inspiration from American and French liberal revolutions.  This group was one current (but by no means the dominant) one in the  and its associated Lower Canada Rebellion of 1837. In the more democratic politics that followed the rebellions, the more radical and anti-clerical tendency eventually formed the  in 1848.

At the same time in English Canada, a related phenomenon occurred where the primarily Nonconformist (mostly Presbyterian and Methodist) Reform movement conflicted with an Anglican establishment. In Upper Canada, The Reform Movement began as protest against the "establishment" of the Anglican church.

The vastly different religious backgrounds of the Reformers and rouges was one of the factors which prevented them from working together well during the era of two-party coalition government in Canada (1840–1867).  By 1861, however, the two groups fused to create a united Liberal block. After 1867, this party added like-minded reformers from the Maritime provinces, but struggled to win power, especially in still strongly-Catholic Quebec.

Once Wilfrid Laurier became party leader, however, the party dropped its anti-clerical stance and went on to dominate Canadian politics throughout most of the 20th century.  Since that time, Liberal prime ministers have been overwhelmingly Catholic (St. Laurent, both Pierre and Justin Trudeau, Chrétien, Martin), but since the 1960s Liberals have again had a strained relationship with the Catholic church, and have increasingly parted with the Catholic church's teachings on sexual morality, as when Pierre Trudeau legalized homosexuality and streamlined divorce (as justice minister under Pearson), and Martin legalized same-sex marriage.

In Quebec itself, the Quiet Revolution of the 1960s broke the hold of the church on provincial politics.  The Quebec Liberal Party embraced formerly taboo social democratic ideas, and the state intervened in fields once dominated by the church, especially health and education, which were taken over by the provincial government. Quebec is now considered Canada's most secular province.

United States

Although anti-clericalism is more often spoken of regarding the history or current politics of Latin countries where the Catholic Church was established and where the clergy had privileges, Philip Jenkins notes in his 2003 book The New Anti-Catholicism that the U.S., despite the lack of Catholic establishments, has always had anti-clericals.

Latin America

Of the population of Latin America, about 71% acknowledge allegiance to the Roman Catholic Church. Consequently, about 43% of the world's Catholics inhabit the 'Latin' countries of South, Central and North America.

The slowness to embrace religious freedom in Latin America is related to its colonial heritage and to its post-colonial history. The Aztec, Maya and Inca cultures made substantial use of religious leaders to ideologically support governing authority and power. This pre-existing role of religion as ideological adjunct to the state in pre-Columbian culture made it relatively easy for the Spanish conquistadors to replace native religious structures with those of a Catholicism that was closely linked to the Spanish throne.

Anti-clericalism was a common feature of 19th-century liberalism in Latin America. This anti-clericalism was often purportedly based on the idea that the clergy (especially the prelates who ran the administrative offices of the Church) were hindering social progress in areas such as public education and economic development.

Beginning in the 1820s, a succession of liberal regimes came to power in Latin America. Some members of these liberal regimes sought to imitate the Spain of the 1830s (and revolutionary France of a half-century earlier) in expropriating the wealth of the Catholic Church, and in imitating the 18th-century benevolent despots in restricting or prohibiting the religious orders. As a result, a number of these liberal regimes expropriated Church property and tried to bring education, marriage and burial under secular authority. The confiscation of Church properties and changes in the scope of religious liberties (in general, increasing the rights of non-Catholics and non-observant Catholics, while licensing or prohibiting the orders) generally accompanied secularist and governmental reforms.

Mexico

The Mexican Constitution of 1824 had required the Republic to prohibit the exercise of any religion other than the Roman Catholic and Apostolic faith.

Reform War

Starting in 1855, President Benito Juárez issued decrees nationalizing church property, separating church and state, and suppressing religious orders. Church properties were confiscated and basic civil and political rights were denied to religious orders and the clergy.

Cristero War

More severe laws called Calles Law during the rule of Plutarco Elías Calles eventually led to the Cristero War, an armed peasant rebellion supported by the Catholic Church, against the Mexican government.

Following the Mexican Revolution of 1910, the new Mexican Constitution of 1917 contained further anti-clerical provisions. Article 3 called for secular education in the schools and prohibited the Church from engaging in primary education; Article 5 outlawed monastic orders; Article 24 forbade public worship outside the confines of churches; and Article 27 placed restrictions on the right of religious organizations to hold property. Article 130 deprived clergy members of basic political rights. Many of these laws were resisted, leading to the Cristero Rebellion of 1927–1929. The suppression of the Church included the closing of many churches and the killing of priests. The persecution was most severe in Tabasco under the atheist" governor Tomás Garrido Canabal.

The church-supported armed rebellion only escalated the violence.  US Diplomat Dwight Morrow was brought in to mediate the conflict.  But 1928 saw the assassination of President Alvaro Obregón by Catholic radical José de León Toral, gravely damaging the peace process.

The war had a profound effect on the Church. Between 1926 and 1934 at least 40 priests were killed. Between 1926 and 1934, over 3,000 priests were exiled or assassinated.

Where 4,500 priests served the people before the rebellion, in 1934 there were only 334 priests licensed by the government to serve fifteen million people, the rest having been eliminated by emigration, expulsion and assassination. It appears that ten states were left without any priests.

The Cristero rebels committed their share of violence, which continued even after formal hostilities had ended.  In some of the worst cases, public school teachers were tortured and murdered by the former Cristero rebels. It is calculated that almost 300 rural teachers were murdered in this way between 1935 and 1939.

Ecuador
This issue was one of the bases for the lasting dispute between Conservatives, who represented primarily the interests of the Sierra and the church, and the Liberals, who represented those of the Costa and anti-clericalism. Tensions came to a head in 1875 when the conservative President Gabriel García Moreno, after being elected to his third term, was allegedly assassinated by anti-clerical Freemasons.

Colombia

Colombia enacted anti-clerical legislation and its enforcement during more than three decades (1849–84).

La Violencia refers to an era of civil conflict in various areas of the Colombian countryside between supporters of the Colombian Liberal Party and the Colombian Conservative Party, a conflict which took place roughly from 1948 to 1958.

Across the country, militants attacked churches, convents, and monasteries, killing priests and looking for arms, since the conspiracy theory maintained that the religious had guns, and this despite the fact that not a single serviceable weapon was located in the raids.

When their party came to power in 1930, anti-clerical Liberals pushed for legislation to end Church influence in public schools. These Liberals held that the Church and its intellectual backwardness were responsible for a lack of spiritual and material progress in Colombia. Liberal-controlled local, departmental and national governments ended contracts with religious communities who operated schools in government-owned buildings, and set up secular schools in their place. These actions were sometimes violent, and were met by a strong opposition from clerics, Conservatives, and even a good number of more moderate Liberals.

Argentina
The original Argentine Constitution of 1853 provided that all Argentine presidents must be Catholic and stated that the duty of the Argentine congress was to convert the Indians to Catholicism. All of these provisions have been eliminated with the exception of the mandate to "sustain" Catholicism.

Liberal anti-clericalists of the 1880s established a new pattern of church-state relations in which the official constitutional status of the Church was preserved while the state assumed control of many functions formerly the province of the Church. Conservative Catholics, asserting their role as definers of national values and morality, responded in part by joining in the rightist religio-political movement known as Catholic Nationalism which formed successive opposition parties. This began a prolonged period of conflict between church and state that persisted until the 1940s when the Church enjoyed a restoration of its former status under the presidency of Colonel Juan Perón. Perón claimed that Peronism was the "true embodiment of Catholic social teaching" – indeed, more the embodiment of Catholicism than the Catholic Church itself.

In 1954, Argentina saw extensive destruction of churches, denunciations of clergy and confiscation of Catholic schools as Perón attempted to extend state control over national institutions.

The renewed rupture in church-state relations was completed when Perón was excommunicated. However, in 1955, he was overthrown by a military general who was a leading member of the Catholic Nationalist movement.

Venezuela
In Venezuela, the government of Antonio Guzmán Blanco (in office from 1870–1877, from 1879–1884, and from 1886–1887) virtually crushed the institutional life of the church, even attempting to legalize the marriage of priests. These anti-clerical policies remained in force for decades afterward.

Cuba
Cuba, under the rule of atheist Fidel Castro, succeeded in reducing the Church's ability to work by deporting the archbishop and 150 Spanish priests, by discriminating against Catholics in public life and education and by refusing to accept them as members of the Communist Party. The subsequent flight of 300,000 people from the island also helped to diminish the Church there.

Communism

In the Soviet Union, anti-clericalism was expressed through the state; in the first five years alone after the Bolshevik revolution, 28 bishops and 1,200 priests were executed.

Anti-clericalism in the Islamic world
Traditionally,  Muslims who are not experts in Islamic jurisprudence (fiqh) are "legally required" in Islam to follow or "imitate" the instructions of the expert, i.e., the mujtahid", (but not in "matters of belief" or usulu 'd-din). to obey or "imitate" in a broad range of matters those who are -- a practice known as taqlid. In practice this means asking a cleric trained in Islamic law for a fatwa on the issue the Muslim is concerned about.

In Shia Islam, this practice was somewhat more systematic, and  as of the 19th century the Shia ulama taught believers to turn to  the highest ranking clerics, known as "sources of taqlid" (marja' at-taqlid).

Following the 1979 Islamic Revolution in Iran -- the one Muslim country where Shia form an overwhelming majority, even more systematic power was given to clerics. Under the doctrine of  rule by Islamic jurists, or velayat-e faqih, Islamic clerics must rule or Islam will whither away. a cleric is head of state and control many powerful governmental positions.

Iran

During the first democratic revolution of Asia, the Iranian Constitutional Revolution, the Shia Marja Akhund Khurasani and his colleagues theorized a model of religious secularity in the absence of Imam, that still prevails in Shia seminaries. In absence of the ideal ruler, that is Imam al-Mahdi, democracy was the best available option. He considers opposition to constitutional democracy as hostility towards the twelfth Imam. He declared his full support for constitutional democracy and announced that objection to "foundations of constitutionalism" was un-Islamic. According to Akhund, "a rightful religion imposes conditions on the actions and behavior of human beings", which stem from either holy text or logical reasoning, and these constraints are essentially meant to prevent despotism. He believes that an Islamic system of governance can not be established without the infallible Imam leading it. Thus the clergy and modern scholars have concluded that a proper legislation can help reduce the state tyranny and maintain peace and security. He said:

As "sanctioned by sacred law and religion", Akhund believes, a theocratic government can only be formed by the infallible Imam. Aqa Buzurg Tehrani also quoted Akhund Khurasani saying that if there was a possibility of establishment of a truly legitimate Islamic rule in any age, God must end occultation of the Imam of Age. Hence, he refuted the idea of absolute guardianship of jurist. Therefore, according to Akhund, Shia jurists must support the democratic reform. He prefers collective wisdom () over individual opinions, and limits the role of jurist to provide religious guidance in personal affairs of a believer. He defines democracy as a system of governance that enforces a set of "limitations and conditions" on the head of state and government employees so that they work within "boundaries that the laws and religion of every nation determines". Akhund believes that modern secular laws complement traditional religion. He asserts that both religious rulings and the laws outside the scope of religion confront "state despotism". Constitutionalism is based on the idea of defending the "nation's inherent and natural liberties", and as absolute power corrupts, a democratic distribution of power would make it possible for the nation to live up to its full potential.

In 1925, Rezā Khan proclaimed himself shah of the country.  As part of his Westernization program, the traditional role of the ruling clergy was minimized; Islamic schools were secularized, women were forbidden to wear the hijab, sharia law was abolished, and men and women were desegregated in educational and religious environments.  All this infuriated the ultraconservative clergy as a class.  Rezā Khan's son and heir Mohammad Reza Pahlavi continued such practices. They ultimately contributed to the Islamic Revolution of 1978–79, and the Shah's flight from his country.

When Ayatollah Khomeini took power a month after the revolution, the Shah's anti-clerical measures were largely overturned, replaced by an Islamic Republic based on the principle of rule by Islamic jurists, velayat-e faqih, where clerics serve as heads of state and judges, veto legislation they consider un-Islamic and control who may run for president or parliament. However, by the late 1990s and 2000s, anti-clericalism was reported to be significant in the Islamic Republic of Iran:

Demonstrators using slogans such as "The clerics live like kings while we live in poverty!" One report claims "Working-class Iranian lamented clerical wealth in the face of their own poverty," and "stories about Swiss bank accounts of leading clerics circulated on Tehran's rumor mill."

Indonesia

During the fall of Suharto in 1998, a witch hunt in Banyuwangi against alleged sorcerers spiraled into widespread riots and violence. In addition to alleged sorcerers, Islamic clerics were also targeted and killed,  Nahdlatul Ulama members were murdered by rioters.

Certain branches of Freemasonry

According to the 1913 Catholic Encyclopedia, Freemasonry was historically viewed by the Catholic Church as being a principal source of anti-Clericalism – especially in, but not limited to, historically Catholic countries.

See also

Age of Enlightenment
Agnosticism
Atheism
Anarchism
Anti-Catholicism
Anti-Christianity
Clericalism
Communism
Christian anarchism
Deism
Dechristianisation of France during the French Revolution
Denis Diderot
Dissolution of the Monasteries
Freethought
Laïcité
Left-wing politics
Liberalism
Nonsectarian
Relations between the Catholic Church and the state
Secular humanism
Secular liberalism
Secular state
Secularity
Secularization
Separation of church and state
Socialism
State atheism
Suppression of the Jesuits
Theocracy
Thomas Paine
Voltaire

Notes

Bibliography

 .

 Gross, Michael B. The War Against Catholicism: Liberalism and the Anti-Catholic Imagination in Nineteenth-Century Germany (University of Michigan Press, 2004)

 .

AḴŪND ḴORĀSĀNĪ, Encyclopædia Iranica

Liberalism and religion
Separation of church and state

Anti-clericalism


A Coruña (;  ; also informally called just Coruña; historical English: Corunna or The Groyne) is a city and municipality of Galicia, Spain. It is Galicia's second largest city, behind only Vigo. The city is the provincial capital of the province of the same name, having also served as political capital of the Kingdom of Galicia from the 16th to the 19th centuries, and as a regional administrative centre between 1833 and 1982, before being replaced by Santiago de Compostela.

A Coruña is located on a promontory in the Golfo Ártabro, a large gulf on the Atlantic Ocean. It is the main industrial and financial centre of northern Galicia, and holds the headquarters of the Universidade da Coruña. A Coruña is the Spanish city featuring the tallest mean-height of buildings, also featuring a population density of  of built land area.

Name

Origin
There is no clear evidence as to what the name derives from. It seems to be from Crunia, of unknown origin and meaning, documented for the first time at the time of Ferdinand II of León (reigned 1157–1188). As usual in Galician-Portuguese (as well as in Castilian Spanish), the cluster ni naturally evolved into the sound , written n, nn or nh in old Galician orthography, nn in Spanish (later abbreviated to ñ, like the original Latin cluster "nn"), and nh in Portuguese and alternative Galician spelling. "A" is the Galician-Portuguese article equivalent to English the; compare Castilian Spanish la ("the").

One proposed etymology derives Crunia from Cluny, the town in France. During its height () the Cluniac religious movement became very prominent in Europe. There is another town named Coruña in Burgos Province.

A more likely possibility is that the name simply means "The Crown", which in Galician is A Coroa and in Spanish is La Corona. It seems less likely that it traces back to the Galician clunia. The name is reputedly from the Greek Κορώνα (Crown), referring to the crown of Geryon that was buried by Hercules under the lighthouse he built to his honour. The hero Hercules slew the giant tyrant Geryon after three days and three nights of continuous battle. Hercules then—in a Celtic gesture—buried the head of Geryon with his weapons and ordered that a city be built on the site. The lighthouse atop a skull and crossbones representing the buried head of Hercules' slain enemy appears in the coat-of-arms of the city of A Coruña, Loukeris (2019).

A proxy evolution within the Portuguese language points out to the Latin word Colonya as its origin, where the L was transformed into R which occurs widely in Portuguese. A similar happening can be found today in Coronie, a Surinamese town which also made its course outside the Portuguese system.

A folk etymology incorrectly derives Coruña from the ancient columna, or Tower of Hercules.

Use
In English, use of the Spanish or Galician forms now predominates. However, the traditional English form Corunna  can persist, particularly in reference to the Battle of Corunna (1809) in the Peninsular War. Archaically, English-speakers knew the city as "The Groyne", probably from French La Corogne. In Spain, the official form of the name is now the Galician one: "A Coruña", though many Spaniards continue to use "La Coruña". Certain groups of people have advocated elevating the reintegrationist spelling "Corunha" to official status, pointing to the provisions of the Spanish Constitution of 1978 and claiming that it is unconstitutional to stipulate use of the Royal Galician Academy spelling, but they have not been successful .

Geography

A Coruña is located on a peninsula, and its isthmus was at times formed only by a small strip of sand. Erosion and sea currents caused a progressive accumulation of sand, enlarging it to its present dimensions.

Climate
A Coruña has a warm-summer Mediterranean climate (Csb) in the Köppen climate classification. Autumn is usually mild with spring-like temperatures, but winter is often unsettled and unpredictable, with strong winds and abundant rainfall coming from Atlantic depressions. The ocean keeps temperatures mild all year round (the variation between winter and summer temperatures is only  on average) and therefore frost and snow are extremely rare. In fact, the city has not received significant snowfall since January 1987. A Coruña lies in plant hardiness zone 10b.

Spring is usually warm and fairly calm, while summers are mostly sunny and humid, with occasional rainfall, usually in the form of drizzle; high temperatures are warm but rarely uncomfortably hot because of the sea's cooling influence during the day, most often being around  between July and September. Even the warmest month on record was relatively subdued, being August 2003, with an average high temperature of . Temperatures above  occur many days in the summer, while temperatures above  are infrequent.

Administrative divisions

Parishes
A Coruña has five parishes, or : A Coruña, San Vicente de Elviña, Santa María de Oza, San Cristóbal das Viñas, and San Pedro de Visma.

Districts

 Cidade Vella (Old town)
 A Mariña
 Os Cantóns
 Pescaría (Pescadería)
 Ensanche
 Cidade Xardín
 Riazor
 Catro Camiños
 A Gaiteira
 Os Mallos
 Zalaeta-Orzán
 Torre-As Atochas
 Monte Alto
 As Lagoas
 Falperra–Santa Lucía
 Juan Flórez–San Paulo
 Os Castros
 A Agra do Orzán
 O Peruleiro
 A Agrela
 Sagrada Familia-Campo de Vionho
 Labañou–San Roque
 Barrio das Flores
 Elviña
 O Ventorrillo
 O Castrillón
 As Durmideiras
 O Birloque
 O Martinete
 Matogrande
 As Roseiras (Rosales)
 Paseo das Pontes
 Mesoiro
 Novo Mesoiro
 Someso
 Eirís
 Monelos
 San Cristovo das Viñas
 San Pedro de Visma
 San Vicenzo de Elviña
 Bens
 Nostián
 O Portiño
 A Silva–San Xosé
 Palavea
 Santa Xema
 Casabranca–As Xubias
 Feáns
 A Zapateira
 Santa Margarida

History

Prehistory

A Coruña spread from the peninsula, the site of the later Tower of Hercules, onto the mainland. The oldest part, known popularly in Galician as Cidade Vella (Old City), Cidade Alta (High City) or the Cidade (City), is built on an ancient Celtic castro. It was supposedly inhabited by the Brigantes and Artabrians, the Celtic tribes of the area.

Roman times
The Romans came to the region in the 2nd century BCE; they made the most of the strategic position and soon the city became quite important in maritime trade. In 62 BCE Julius Caesar came to the city (known at the time as Brigantium) in pursuit of the metal trade, establishing commerce with what are now France, England and Portugal. The town began to grow, mainly during the 1st and 2nd centuries (when the Farum Brigantium Tower of Hercules was built), but declined after the 4th century and particularly with the incursions of the Vikings, which forced the population to flee towards the interior of the Estuary of O Burgo.

Middle Ages
After the fall of the Roman Empire, A Coruña still had a commercial port connected to foreign countries, but contacts with the Mediterranean were slowly replaced by a more Atlantic-oriented focus. The process of deurbanisation that followed the fall of the Roman Empire also affected A Coruña. Between the 7th and 8th centuries, the city was no more than a little village of labourers and sailors.

The 11th-century Chronica iriense names Faro do Burgo (ancient name of A Coruña) as one of the dioceses that king Miro granted to the episcopate of Iria Flavia in the year 572:

Mirus Rex Sedi suae Hiriensi contulit Dioceses, scilicet Morratium, Salinensem, (...) Bregantinos, Farum...

"[King Miro granted to his Irienses headquarters the dioceses of Morrazo, Salnés (...). Bergantiños, Faro...]"

The Muslim invasion of the Iberian peninsula left no archaeological evidence in the northwest, so it cannot be said whether or not the Muslim invaders ever reached the city. As Muslim rule in early 8th century Galicia consisted little more than a short-lived overlordship of the remote and rugged region backed by a few garrisons, and the city was no more than a village amidst Roman ruins, the invaders showed the same lack of interest in the ruined city as they did generally for the region.

As the city began to recover during the Middle Ages the main problem for the inhabitants was the Norman raids, as well as the ever-present threat of raids (razzias) from Al-Andalus to the south. During the 9th century there were several Viking attacks on the city, called at that time Faro or Faro Bregancio.

In the year 991, King Vermudo II began the construction of defensive military positions on the coast. At Faro, in the ruins of the Tower of Hercules, a fortress was built, which had a permanent military garrison. To pay for it, he gave power over the city to the bishop of Santiago. The bishop of Santiago became the most important political post in Galicia, and remained so until the 15th century.

In 1208, Alfonso IX re-founded the city of Crunia. Some privileges, such as those of disembarking and selling salt without paying taxes, were granted to the city, and it enjoyed a big growth in fishing and mercantile business. The city grew and extended through the isthmus. In 1446 John II of Castile granted to A Coruña the title of "City". The Catholic Monarchs established the Royal Audience of the Kingdom of Galicia in the city, instead of Santiago. A Coruña also became the headquarters of the Captaincy General. Later, in 1522, Charles V conceded to the city of A Coruña the license to establish the House of Spices, being this the port chosen by Jofre Garcia de Loysa to set his expedition to conquer the Moluccans.

In the late Middle Ages, before the expulsion of the Jews in 1492, a thriving Jewish community created a rich artistic heritage in the city. The most lavishly illuminated Hebrew Bible in medieval Spain was created in A Coruña in 1476. Known as the Kennicott Bible, it is currently housed in the Bodleian Library, Oxford.

Modern period
During the Modern period, the city was a port and centre for the manufacturing of textiles. In 1520, king Carlos I of Spain, met in the courts of A Coruña and embarked from its harbour to be elected Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire (as Charles V). He allowed the government of the Kingdom of Galicia to distribute spice in Europe between 1522 and 1529. Commerce with the Indies was allowed between 1529 and 1575. San Antón Castle was built as a defense of the city and its harbour.

From the port of Ferrol in the Province of A Coruña, Philip II left to marry Mary Tudor in 1554, and much later, in 1588, from the same port the Spanish Armada would set sail to the Spanish Netherlands and England.

In the following year, during the Anglo-Spanish War, Francis Drake besieged A Coruña, but was repelled, starting the legend of María Pita, a woman who took her dead husband's spear, killed the flag bearer of the British forces and rallied support to deny a breach in the wall to the enemy.

In the 16th and 17th centuries, the wars of the Spanish monarchy caused a great increase in taxes and the start of conscription. In 1620, Philip III created the School of the Boys of the Sea. In 1682 the Tower of Hercules was restored by Antúnez.

19th century

On 16 January 1809, A Coruña was the site of the Battle of Corunna during the Peninsular War, in which British troops fought against the French to cover the embarkation of British troops after their retreat. In this battle Sir John Moore was killed.

Spanish resistance during the war in Galicia was led by Sinforiano López, and A Coruña was the only Galician city that achieved success against the French troops. French troops left Galicia at the end of May 1809.

During the 19th century, the city was the centre of anti-monarchist sentiment. On 19 August 1815, Juan Díaz Porlier, pronounced against Fernando VII in defense of the Spanish Constitution of 1812. He was supported by the bourgeoisie and the educated people. But on 22 August he was betrayed and hanged in the Campo da Leña two months later. A Coruña supported the liberal side in all the 19th-century rebellions. A Coruña also played an important role in the Rexurdimento, and there were founded the Galician Royal Academy in 1906 and the Brotherhoods of the Galician Language in 1916.

Regarding the economy, in 1804 the National Cigarette Factory was founded, and there the workers' movement of the city had its origins. During the 19th century other businesses (glass, foundries, textiles, gas, matches, etc.) were slowly established, but it was maritime trade and migrant travel that attracted Catalan, Belgian, French and English investments. The Bank of A Coruña was founded in 1857. The new provincial division of 1832 also influenced economic development.

20th and 21st centuries
At the beginning of the 20th century, A Coruña had about 45,000 inhabitants. The Great Depression and the Spanish Civil War severely affected the economy through the 1930s to the mid-1950s. The 1960s and early 1970s saw a dramatic economic recovery, which was part of the wider Spanish Miracle. As elsewhere in Galicia, A Coruña attracted a massive influx of Galician-speaking rural dwellers, into their quickly developed neighbourhoods. The period between 1960 and 1980 saw a big transformation in most areas of the city from being agricultural dwellings to urban districts. The international oil shocks of the mid and late 1970s severely disrupted the economy, causing many bankruptcies and high unemployment until the mid-1980s, when slower but steady economic development was resumed.

Elections of 1931
In the Spanish general elections, 1931, all the political parties knew that the electoral results had important political consequences. The campaign of Unión Monárquica was very important in A Coruña and was supported by El Ideal Gallego. Republicans and socialists constituted a block, made up of ORGA, independent republicans, Spanish Socialist Workers' Party (PSOE) and the Radical Socialist Republican Party.

In the elections, the republican parties obtained 34 of the 39 council seats. The best results were of the ORGA and of the Partido Radical Socialista, and the Radical Republican Party lost a lot of support.

Democracy returns

From 1983 to 2006, the mayor of the city was Francisco Vázquez Vázquez (PSOE), and the city became devoted to services, but he also was criticised because of his being openly against Galician nationalism, favouring the already established Castillian-Spanish social dominance and extending the equally deep-rooted prejudice against Galician language and cultural expression. Another downside's of Mr Vazquez legacy would be his town-planning policies, with big-money pharaoh-like projects with little social impact (shopping centres, Millennium obelisk, etc.). However, on a positive note Mr Vazquez's 23 year-long mandate saw the European-funded Maritime Promenade and the city's Scientific Museums (Casa das Ciencias-Planetario-, Casa dos Peixes-Aquarium and Casa do Home-Domus).

On 20 January 2006 Vázquez was named ambassador to the Vatican City, and was later replaced by Francisco Javier Losada de Azpiazu. In 2007 Municipal Elections the local government was a coalition of the Socialists' Party of Galicia and the left-wing nationalist Galician Nationalist Bloc party. The city celebrated its first millennium in 2008.

In the 2011 Municipal Elections, the conservative candidate Carlos Negreira (PP) obtained a majority, the first one for the People's Party in the city since the arrival of democracy.

The mayor of the 2015–2019 mandate was Xulio Ferreiro, from the Marea Atlántica ("Atlantic Tide") party, who was elected in 2015 on an anti-corruption mandate. His remit was to improve the town planning of the city rather than to leave it to the mercy of corrupt, unregulated free-market policies which have left a negative legacy in many areas of the municipality. He has widespread support across the region in opposition to a project to sell off the city's port (a legacy of the preceding mayor Carlos Negreira) to a private equity firm, which wants to construct a gated community of high-rise apartment blocks for which there is no real market demand in a city with a population of fewer than 250,000 inhabitants. The plan is to put a covenant on the land and to encourage a civic consultation on redevelopment of the site.

The current mayor is Inés Rey of PSdeG-PSOE.

Population

The province and city of A Coruña during the 20th century
After the War of Independence (1808–1814), the fortunes of Ferrol began to deteriorate. The largest port in northern Spain, site of the Reales Astilleros de Esteiro, one of the three Royal Royal Dockyards together with Cartagena and Cádiz, almost became a "dead" town during the reign of Ferdinand VII. By 1833 the City and Naval Station of Ferrol saw its civilian population reduced to 13,000. During the administration of the marquess of Molina, Minister for Naval affairs in the mid-19th century new activities sprang up, but Ferrol never fully returned to its former glory. During those years, most of the Spanish colonies in Latin America succeeded in gaining independence from their former metropolis.

The population of the City of A Coruña in 1900 reached 43,971, while the population of the rest of the province including the City and Naval Station of nearby Ferrol as well as Santiago de Compostela was 653,556. A Coruña's miraculous growth happened during the aftermath of the Spanish Civil War at a similar rate to other major Galician cities, but it was after the death of Francisco Franco when the city of A Coruña (and Vigo) left all the other Galician cities behind.

The meteoric increase in the population of the City of A Coruña during the years which followed the Spanish Civil War in the mid 20th century was accompanied by the decline in the villages and hamlets of the province as it industrialized.

found: INE Archiv – graphic for Wikipedia

The city today

The municipality of A Coruña has 247.604 inhabitants and a population density of around 6,700 inhabitants per square kilometer.

In 2010 there were 12,344 foreigners living in the city, representing 5% of the total population. The main nationalities are Brazilians (10%), Colombians (8%) and Peruvians (7%).

By language, according to 2008 data, 7.75% of the population speak Galician as a primary language, 36% speak Spanish and the rest use both interchangeably.

A Coruña metropolitan area has 431.332 inhabitants.

Main sights

The city is the site of the Roman Tower of Hercules, a lighthouse which has been in continuous operation since possibly the 2nd century AD. It has been declared by UNESCO as a World Heritage Site. It is surrounded by a large public park with a golf course and the so-called Moor's Graveyard (Cemiterio do Mouro in Galician, Cementerio del Moro in Spanish) a building where in fact there were never burials, Muslim or not, which now houses the Casa das Palabras (Galician for House of Words) museum. The lighthouse features as the main emblem of the city's flag and coat of arms.

The city is also well known for its characteristic glazed window balconies, called galerías. Originally, this type of structure came about as a naval architecture solution for the challenging weather, particularly designed for rainy days. This fashion started in nearby Ferrol in the 18th century when some of the technicians working for the Royal Dockyards had the idea of using the shape of the back of a warship in a modern building. Soon afterward, most seaports in northern Spain, were adding these glazed window balconies to their city-port houses.

The Old Town (Ciudad Vieja in Spanish, Cidade Vella in Galician) is the name given to the oldest part of A Coruña. During the ninth and tenth centuries, the inhabitants of what was then called Faro Island (peninsula where the Tower of Hercules stands) were leaving the area due to constant attacks by the Viking fleet and settled in the area of Betanzos. In 1208 King Alfonso IX refounded the city at the present site of the Old Town and put it under his personal control, free from allegiance to the clergy or feudal lords. In the fourteenth century, the scarcely-surviving city walls of the Old Town were built, as well as three harbors: the Parrot and San Miguel. It also preserves the stronghold known as the Old Fortress, now converted into the Garden of San Carlos, in which Sir John Moore is buried. The Old City of A Coruña kept streets and squares that revive the city's history and noble mansions and residences such as Rosalia de Castro's house, located on Prince Street. Notable buildings are the Royal Galician Academy, the institution dedicated to the study of Galician culture and especially the Galician language, the Romanesque churches of Santiago and Saint Mary, As Bárbaras Monastery (Romanesque  and Baroque) and the headquarters of the Operational Logistics Force of the Spanish Army. In July, a Medieval Fair takes place in the streets of the Old City.

The city has several museums, such as the Castle of San Antón Archaeological Museum, Fine Arts Museum and the network of scientific museums (Casa das Ciencias, which also includes a planetarium, DOMUS, made by Arata Isozaki and Aquarium Finisterrae). In 2012, the National Museum of Science and Technology (MUNCYT) opened a branch in the city. A Coruña's social scene is most popular on Summer nights. Most bars and clubs are on Rua do Orzán, which runs directly parallel to Paseo Maritimo on the beach side. Another popular destination, for mostly a more youthful crowd, is Os Xardins (The Gardens), a park near the beginning of Rúa Real and the Os Cantons Village Shopping Centre.

Squares, parks and beaches

 María Pita Square, the most important square in the city. Notable landmarks are the City Hall and the statue of the local heroine Maria Pita. Nearby you can also find Church of Saint George, where first same-sex marriage in Spain took place between Elisa and Marcela in 1901, which is the basis for the movie of the same name.
 Mount of San Pedro Park, a former military area, with views over the city and the ria. Visitors can arrive by road or using an elevator from the promenade. It has a café, play areas, gardens and three restored artillery pieces.
 The promenade (Paseo Marítimo) is  long, one of the largest in Europe. It runs around the city's headland, passing sights such as its Aquarium, the Estadio Riazor and the Tower of Hercules. There used to be a functioning touristic tramway, opened between 1997 and 2002, which ceased operations after a derailment in 2011.
 In the summertime, the Orzán and Riazor beaches are immensely popular destinations, located directly opposite of the port in the central part of the city. During María Pita festivity, which takes place all through August, Riazor is the venue of Noroeste Pop Rock Festival, a free music festival with groups from Spain and abroad (Amaral, David Bisbal, Joe Cocker or Status Quo have played on it in last editions). Other beaches in the city smaller than Orzan and Riazor are As Lapas down Hercules Tower, O Matadoiro next to Orzan, San Amaro and Oza.

Economy

A Coruña is nowadays the richest region of Galicia and its economic engine. There have been various changes in the city's structure over the last few decades—it now shares some administrative functions with the nearby city of Ferrol. Companies have grown, especially in sectors such as finance, communication, planning, sales, manufacturing and technical services, making A Coruña the wealthiest metropolitan area of Galicia. The port itself unloads large amounts of fresh fish, and with the increase in other port activities like crude oil and solid bulk, which make up 75% of Galician port traffic.

In 1975, the clothing company Zara, founded by Amancio Ortega Gaona, opened its first store worldwide in this city and has since become a national and international clothing chain.

Inditex, the main textile manufacturer of the world, has its headquarters in the nearby town of Arteixo. A Coruña concentrates 30% of the GDP of Galicia and in the period between 1999 and 2001 it grew 35%, surpassing Vigo which was traditionally economically stronger. Other important companies of the city are Banco Pastor (owned by Banco Popular Español), Banco Etcheverría (oldest in Spain), Hijos de Rivera Brewery, Abanca, R Cable Operator, the Repsol refinery, Gas Natural combined cycle power plant, General Dynamics factory, Alcoa aluminium plant and La Voz de Galicia, a Spanish-language conservative daily newspaper, the one with the largest circulation in Galicia. A Coruña is also an important retail center. El Corte Inglés, the main department store chain in Spain, has two centers in the city, one of them in the new commercial area Marineda City, opened in April 2011, one of the biggest shopping centers in the EU, which also includes, among others, IKEA and Decathlon stores, cinemas, an ice rink, a bowling court and a kart circuit. Other hypermarket chains present in the city are Carrefour (two centers), Hipercor and Auchan (known in Spain as Alcampo).

Over the last few years, emphasis has been placed upon better access and infrastructure, especially cultural, sporting, leisure and scientific areas. Following a significant oil spill when the Aegean Sea wrecked and exploded, considerable resources have been used in the recovery of the shoreline and strengthening the tourist sector. All this has reaffirmed the city's existing character as a centre for administration, sales, port activities, culture and tourism. The city also has a regional airport, used by 1.025.688 passengers in 2015.

Tourism
Tourism in A Coruña has increased in recent years to the point of receiving 62 cruise ships a year.

The two main beaches of A Coruña (Orzán and Riazor) are located in the heart of the city and are bordered by the promenade above. This location makes them a great attraction for tourists, being also a meeting point for surfers much of the year. Moreover, the city has other beaches like As Lapas, San Amaro, Oza and Matadoiro. These four beaches, along with Riazor and Orzán, were recognized with blue flag certification in 2011.

An important holiday is on the night of San Xoán-Seaone (St John), celebrated with a massive fireworks celebration, parade, bonfires and the ancient fires on all city beaches well into dawn.

In 2006 and for the first time ever, the number of tourists has doubled the population of the city, virtually to 500,000 the number of people who chose the city as a tourist destination.

The city has an extensive network of hotels, with an offer of over 3,000 hotel vacancies. There are one five star-hotel and 11 four star-hotels, as well as many other hotels and hostels. The city is also focusing in business tourism, offering the Congress and Exhibition Centre PALEXCO, with room for more than 2,500 people; a new trade fair centre, EXPOCORUÑA, venue of concerts, exhibitions and festivals like Sónar.

The city is also located on the English Way a path of the Camino de Santiago.

Education and culture

There are 38 pre-school centres, 47 primary schools, 29 vocational schools and 33 secondary schools.

Higher education is represented by the University of A Coruña, a public university established in 1989, the UNED branch, and CESUGA, a private university centre in alliance with University College Dublin, which offers Bachelor of Commerce and Bachelor of Architecture Irish degrees. Escuela de Negocios NCG offers MBA and other master's degrees in business.

There are seven municipal libraries, one library that belongs to the provincial government and one public library, administered by the Xunta. The Archive of the Kingdom of Galicia (Arquivo do Reino de Galicia in Galician) is located in the Old Town.

There is an Escola Oficial de Idiomas (Spanish language school) centre, which offers classes in English, French, Galician, Italian, German, Portuguese, Arabic, Russian, Chinese, Japanese and Spanish as a foreign language.

Music studies are well represented by a Music school. A Coruña is also the base for the Orquesta Sinfónica de Galicia.

The city is home to two main theatres, Teatro Colón and Teatro Rosalía, with regular performances, music concerts and other representations. A multipurpose centre, the Coliseum, hosts a variety of concerts and cultural and sporting events. International artists like David Copperfield, Maná, Mark Knopfler, Shakira, Gloria Estefan, Iron Maiden, Deep Purple and Judas Priest among others have performed there. In summer it also serves as a bullring, and in winter as an ice rink.

A Coruña has several museums, such as the Castle of San Antón Archaeological Museum, its Fine Arts Museum, the Military Museum and the network of scientific museums (Casa das Ciencias, which includes a planetarium, DOMUS, made by Arata Isozaki and Aquarium Finisterrae). In 2012, the [National Museum of Science and Technology (MUNCYT) opened a branch in the city.

The city's principal festival is the María Pita Festival, which lasts from the end of July to mid September. The festival includes Noroeste Pop Rock (free concerts at Riazor beach), free concerts in venues all over the city, the Medieval fair in the Old Town, the International Folklore Festival, a book fair, Festival Viñetas desde o Atlántico, a comic fair and, for the first time in 2011, a recreation of the famous German Oktoberfest. Another very popular festival is Saint John's day, which is celebrated on 23 June with bonfires under the night sky on beaches and neighbourhoods all over the city. More than 150,000 people go out from afternoon to early morning in order to frighten the evil spirits away by jumping over the bonfires. Apart from that, Virxe do Rosario's day is also celebrated, but to such an extent as the festivities previously mentioned.

Transport

A Coruña is the destination of one of the radial roads originating in Madrid, (N-VI). Currently there is a highway (Autovía A-6) that runs parallel to the old radial road. Another major road running through the city is the toll motorway AP-9, which links Ferrol with the Portuguese border crossing the main cities of Galicia. AG-55 motorway links the city with the Costa da Morte, although currently only going as far as Carballo. The conventional road N-550 (A Coruña-Tui) is the main link to the airport while the new highway is still under construction.

A Coruña Airport, formerly known as Alvedro Airport, is located in the municipality of Culleredo, approximately  from the city centre. It serves mainly Spanish destinations, although there are regular services to London and Lisbon and, in the summer season, to Amsterdam and Paris. In 2010, 1,101,208 passengers used the airport.

Railway services depart from San Cristovo Station. The city will be connected with Madrid and Vigo by high-speed rail in coming years. Regional lines connect the city with Vigo through Santiago de Compostela and Pontevedra, Lugo and Monforte de Lemos. Intercity trains depart to Madrid, Barcelona and the Basque Country, passing through many other important northern Spanish cities. There is a freight train station that serves the port.

Regional and intercity buses depart from the Bus station at Caballeros Street. A Coruña is well connected with its metropolitan area and other Galician cities and towns. Intercity services connect the city with Madrid, Barcelona, Andalusia and the Basque Country among others and with European cities like Geneva, Paris or Munich.

Local transportation in A Coruña is provided by Compañía de Tranvías de A Coruña. Its network includes 24 lines served by 93 vehicles. There is also a regular taxi service from taxi tanks all over the city.

Sport

A Coruña has an extensive network of sports infrastructures. The most important one is the Riazor Sport Complex, which includes Estadio Riazor (home of Deportivo de La Coruña), the Palace of Sports (home of HC Liceo A Coruña), two indoor tracks, a pelota court and an indoor swimming-pool. La Torre Sport Complex hosts many football fields, a golf court and another pelota court. There are also five municipal football fields, 11 sports centres and several marinas (Real Club Náutico, Marina Coruña, etc.). In 2007 the Termaria Casa da Auga complex was opened, which has a gymnasium, a thalassotherapy centre and an indoor Olympic-sized swimming pool.

Founded in 1906, Deportivo competes in the third tier Primera Federación as of the 2023–24 season. Since the Spanish football league system was established in 1928, it has spent 46 seasons in the top division and 41 seasons in the second division. They won the league title once, in the 1999–2000 season, and finished as runners-up on five occasions. The club also won two Spanish Cups (1995 and 2002) and three Spanish Super Cups. Between 2000–01 and 2004–05, Deportivo played in the UEFA Champions League for five seasons in a row, and reached the semi-finals in 2004. The women's section of the club plays in Spain's second division as of 2023–24.

The city has a roller hockey team, HC Liceo, one of the most successful in Spain, and the team plays in the main League OK Liga. They became Europe's Champions in 2011.

The city's basketball team, Básquet Coruña, plays in LEB Oro league, the Spanish second division. Handball teams  and Balonman Xiria currently plays in the Spanish third division. The American football team Towers Football currently plays in LGFA, the Galician regional gridiron football league.

Two Gaelic football teams were founded in 2010 and 2011, A Coruña Fillos de Breogán (with men and women's teams) and Ártabros de Oleiros (also originating in A Coruña). They participate in the Iberian Championship and in the Galician League.

Casas Novas riding club, in the outskirts of the city, hosts many national and international championships.

In tenpin bowling, A Coruña is home to the annual Teresa Herrera de Bowling tournament, this year (2016) played from 24 to 28 August in the Pleno Bowling Centre, Marineda City. It attracts players from all over Spain.

Politics
Domingos Rafael Merino Mexuto was the first mayor after the Spanish Constitution of 1978 for the PSG party (he is now in the BNG party), and he currently works at the Galician Ombudsman's (Valedor) office.

Francisco Vázquez Vázquez from the PSOE became mayor of the city in 1983; however, on becoming the Spanish ambassador to the Vatican, he was replaced by Javier Losada on 10 February 2006.

The mayor between 2015 and 2019 was Xulio Ferreiro, from the Marea Atlántica ("Atlantic Tide") party, who was largely elected in 2015 on an anti-corruption mandate. One of his main priorities was to reverse some of the very worst examples of town planning policy which has left a negative legacy in many areas of the city and its immediate suburbs.

The current mayor is Inés Rey of PSdeG-PSOE.

Notable people
 Maria Pita, María Mayor Fernández de Cámara y Pita (1565–1643), a Galician-Spanish heroine of the defence of A Coruña in 1589 against the English Armada
 Ramón Dionisio José de la Sagra y Peris (1798–1871), botany teacher, philosopher and social economist
 Evaristo Martelo Paumán (1850-1928), poet and Rexurdimento activist
 Emilia Pardo Bazán (1851–1921), novelist, journalist, essayist and critic
 Eduardo Dato Iradier (1856–1921), lawyer and politician
 Ramón Menéndez Pidal (1869–1968), writer
 Eugenia Osterberger (1852–1932), pianist and composer
 Pablo Picasso, (1881–1973), artist, lived here for four years in the 1890s
 Santiago Casares Quiroga (1884–1950), lawyer and politician
 Wenceslao Fernández Flórez (1885–1964), narrator and journalist
 Salvador de Madariaga y Rojo (1896–1978), writer and poet
 Enrique Líster (1907–1994), communist politician and military general
 Irene González Basanta (1909–1928), Spain's first professional woman footballer
 Fernando Casado Arambillet (1917–1994), better known as Fernando Rey, actor
 Amando de Ossorio (1918–2001), film director
 Carmela Arias y Díaz de Rábago (1920–2009), first woman president of a bank in Spain
 María Casares (1922–1996), actress
 Manolo Sanchez (born 1929), long-time valet to U.S. president Richard Nixon.
 Luis Suárez Miramontes (born 1935), football player and manager
 Amancio Ortega, (born 1936 in Castilla y León), founder of fashion brand Zara (clothing)
 Amancio Amaro Varela (1939–2023), football player
 Emilio Pérez Touriño (born 1948), former president of the Spanish autonomous community of Galicia
 Manuel Rivas Barros (born 1957), writer, poet, essayist and journalist
 Fernando Romay, (born 1959), basketball player
 María Pujalte, (born 1966), actress
 Marta Sánchez, (born 1966), singer
 Nadia Calviño (born 1968), incumbent Minister of Economy and former director-general for Budget of the European Union
 Andrés Manuel Díaz, (born 1969), athlete
 Mario Casas, (born 1986), actor
 Lucas Pérez, (born 1988), football player for Deportivo de La Coruña
 Iñigo Quintero, (born 2001), musician, known for his 2022 song "Si No Estás"

International relations

Twin towns – sister cities
A Coruña is twinned with:

 Cádiz, Spain
 Limerick, Ireland
 Brest, France
 Turku, Finland
 Lavras, Brazil

Villages

Señoráns

See also

Celtic nations
Celts
Ethnic groups in Europe
Galician music
Galician nationalism
Galician people
Galician wine
Modern Celts
Timeline of Galician history
Way of St. James (Camino de Santiago)

Notes

References

External links

 Concello da Coruña
  Tourism Office website for A Coruña (Turismo Coruña – Town Council)
  Tourism website for A Coruña (TurGalicia – Regional Tourism Office)
 Tourism website – Travel Guide for A Coruña (TurEspaña – National Tourism Office)
 Pinocho in A Coruña: An illustrated guidebook to A Coruña

Populated coastal places in Spain
Port cities and towns on the Spanish Atlantic coast

A Coruña


Georg Maria Stenz (  , 22 de novembro de 1869 - 23 de abril de 1928 ) foi um missionário católico da Sociedade do Verbo Divino em Shandong durante o período de 1893 a 1927. Ele esteve envolvido em dois grandes incidentes em que a força foi usada contra missionários católicos em Shandong, o incidente de Juye e o incidente de Jietou . O incidente de Juye (1897) foi um ataque à estação missionária de Stenz na vila de Zhang Jia, no qual dois missionários alemães foram mortos. Stenz, que era o provável alvo do ataque, conseguiu se esconder e escapou ileso. O incidente foi usado pelo Império Alemão para justificar a ocupação de Qingdao . No incidente de Jietou, Stenz e um grupo de cristãos chineses foram maltratados e mantidos prisioneiros na vila de Jietou ( em Chinês, Rizhao) por três dias (8–11 de novembro de 1898), resultando em intervenção militar alemã e pedidos de indenização.

Alemães expatriados na China
Missionários católicos na China
Missionários católicos da Alemanha
Mortos em 1928
Nascidos em 1869
!Artigos com texto em chinês

Jorge Maria Stenz


Hjem til Århus er en sang skrevet af Niels Kirkegaard og Jens Folmer Jepsen til På Slaget 12 - inspireret af USA, hvor enhver by med respekt for sig selv har sin egen sang. Gruppen havde egentlig besluttet, at den ikke skulle med på debutalbummet i 1986, men producer Phil Barrett kunne fornemme, at den havde noget særligt, og derfor insisterede han på, at den skulle med. Den blev da også et stort hit for gruppen i 1987.

Hjem til Århus blev af det ansete musikmagasin Billboard kåret som Europas bedste nationale hit i 1987.

Sangen er streamet mere end 2,5 millioner gange på Spotify

Kilder

Sange fra 1987
Popsange

Hjem til Århus


Dazkaya, Tunceli ilinin Mazgirt ilçesine bağlı bir köydür.

Tarihçe
Köyün eski ismi "Hasorik" olup 1960 yılı nüfus sayımından itibaren Dazkaya adıyla kayıtlarda yer almaktadır.

Coğrafya
Tunceli il merkezine 34 km, Mazgirt ilçesine 21 km uzaklıktadır.

Nüfus

Kaynakça

Dış bağlantılar
 Yerelnet

Mazgirt belde ve köyleri

Dazkaya, Mazgirt


Otok Lively () najveći je u skupini otoka Lively Falklandskog otočja. Skupina otoka nalazi se istočno od istočnog Falklanda. Otok Lively najveći je otok bez štakora na Falklandima, zbog čega je važan za ptičji svijet. Na otoku se nalazi i farma ovaca.

Povijest
Španjolski naziv, Isla Bougainville (poput Port Louisa) nazvan je po francuskom moreplovcu Louisu de Bougainvilleu koji je osnovao prvo naselje u arhipelagu 1760-ih.

Krajem 19. i početkom 20. stoljeća otok je bio u vlasništvu Georgea Cobba. Prodana je nakon Prvog svjetskog rata radi plaćanja poreza.

U Falklandskom ratu bitka kod Seal Covea odigrala se u blizini otoka Lively. Seal Cove je zaljev u istočnom Falklandu točno na zapadu otoka.

Opis
Živahni otok ima površinu od 55,85 km2. Najviša mu je točka 37 m iznad mora. Postoji nekoliko potoka i ribnjaka, od kojih je najveći Enderby Pond, površine 7 hektara, važno mjesto za ptice močvarice. Lively je bez štakora, ali nakon stoljeća i pol ispaše malo je ostalo trave Poa flabellata i ima mnogo velikih područja erodiranog tla.

Otok Lively okružen je drugim, manjim otocima i otočićima iz skupine otoka Lively. Neki od tih otočića povezani su pješčanim sprudovima s otokom Lively. Sjeveroistočni otok udaljen je samo 350 m od obale Livelyja, i na njemu su 2003. godine sustavno iskorjenjeni štakori. (Ostali otoci Lively su slobodni od štakora.)

Važno područje za ptice
BirdLife International označio je grupu Lively Island kao važno područje za ptice. Ptice za koje je ovo područje od značaja za očuvanje uključuju patke Tachyeres brachypterus, guske Chloephaga rubidiceps, žutonoge pingvine (650 parova koji se gnijezde), magelanove pingvine, velike burnjake (40 parova), Melanodera melanodera, Cinclodes antarcticus i Troglodytes cobbi.

Izvori

 Stonehouse, B (ur. ) Enciklopedija Antarktike i Južnih oceana (2002., )

Vanjske poveznice

 Instagram page of Lively Island - includes information and pictures about farming on Lively's and wildlife

Otoci Falklandskog otočja

Lively (otok)


Virkelighedsklip er en dokumentarfilm instrueret af Louise Kamman efter manuskript af Louise Kamman.

Handling
Toiletter i København. Der 'leves' og opleves på de fleste offentlige og mere private toiletter i det indre København.

Referencer

Eksterne henvisninger

Danske film fra 1995

Dokumentarfilm fra Danmark

Virkelighedsklip


හයවන බුවනෙකබාහු රජතුමාගෙන් පසු බලයට පැමිණියේ ඔහු පුත් හත්වන පරාක්‍රමබාහු ය. ක්‍රිස්තු වර්ෂ 1480 සිට 1484 දක්වා ඔහු  රාජ්‍යත්වයේ සිටියේය.

අම්බුළුගල කුමරු කෝට්ටේට පැමිණ හත්වන පරාක්‍රමබාහු රජ මරා දමා අටවන වීර පරාක්‍රමබාහු නමින් කෝට්ටේ රජ විය. පෙළ පොතෙහි මෙම වර්ෂය ක්‍රිස්තු වර්ෂ 1490 ලෙස සඳහන් වෙතත් ඉන්ද්‍රකීර්ති සිරිවීර විද්වතාණන් ලියූ "රජරට ශිෂ්ඨාචාරය හා නිරිතදිග රාජධානි" නම් පොතෙහි සඳහන් වන්නේ මෙම වර්ෂය ක්‍රිස්තු වර්ෂ 1484 බවයි.

හත්වන පරාක්‍රමබාහු හා අටවන පරාක්‍රමබාහු රජවරු


La statue-menhir d'Anglas est une statue-menhir appartenant au groupe rouergat découverte à Anglas, commune de La Serre, dans le département de l'Aveyron en France.

Généralités
La statue a été taillée dans une dalle de grès permien. Elle était située sur une ligne de crête reliant la vallée du Dourdou à la basse vallée du Rance.

Description
La statue originale est perdue. Cette statue-menhir n'est connue que par la description qu'en a donné Frédéric Hermet en 1903 et un cliché photographique qu'il a réalisé de la face antérieure. On ignore si la face postérieure de la statue comportait des gravures/sculptures. Une copie a été installée sur site à proximité du hameau où elle fut découverte. C'est une statue-féminine. Elle comporte un visage (yeux, nez), des seins, des bras (le droit est beaucoup plus court que le gauche), des mains et des jambes disjointes avec pieds. Elle porte un collier à trois rangs avec une pendeloque triangulaire en sautoir et une ceinture.

Notes et références

Annexes

Bibliographie

Articles connexes
 Sites mégalithiques de l'Aveyron
 Liste des statues-menhirs de France

Anglas
Site mégalithique dans l'Aveyron

Statue-menhir d'Anglas


If You Don't Mask, You Don't Get était une peinture murale créée par Banksy en 2020. L'œuvre, inspirée de la Pandémie de Covid-19 en cours, a été supprimée en raison de la politique anti-graffiti de Transport for London.

Contexte

Banksy s'est fait passer pour un nettoyeur afin de peindre la peinture murale à l'intérieur d'un wagon du métro de Londres. On pense que le titre est un jeu de mots pour le dicton "Si vous ne demandez pas, vous n'obtenez pas." D'autres slogans liés au groupe britannique Chumbawamba ont été utilisés dans la peinture murale.

Références

Œuvre réalisée en 2020
Représentation médiatique de la pandémie de Covid-19 au Royaume-Uni
Mammifère dans l'art
Pandémie de Covid-19 dans l'art et la culture
Œuvre de Banksy
Histoire du métro de Londres

If You Don't Mask, You Don't Get


Manettia reclinata es una especie de plantas con flores perteneciente a la familia Rubiaceae. Es originaria de Centroamérica.

Descripción

Son enredaderas que alcanzan un tamaño de hasta 4 m de alto, glabrescentes a estrigosas. Las hojas elípticas a ovadas, de 2–10 cm de largo y 1–5 cm de ancho, el ápice agudo a acuminado, la base cuneada a aguda, papiráceas, con nervios secundarios en 4–6 pares; pecíolos 2–20 mm de largo; estípulas de 1–2 mm de largo. Las inflorescencias con 1–3 flores, con pedúnculos 1–3 cm de largo, pedicelos 5–15 mm de largo; lobos calicinos 6–8, 5–14 mm de largo, lineares a triangulares, reflexos a recurvados; la corola glabra, rosada a rojo obscura, con tubo de 6–13 mm de largo, lobos 2–2.5 mm de largo, lanceolados. Los frutos en cápsulas obovoides, de 6–10 mm de diámetro.

Distribución y hábitat
Es una especie ocasional en los bosques siempreverdes, que se encuentra a una altitud de 40–1400 metros, desde el sur de México hasta Brasil y en las Antillas.

Taxonomía
Manettia reclinata fue descrita por Carlos Linneo y publicado en Mantissa Plantarum 2: 558, en el año 1771.
Sinonimia

Referencias

reclinata

Manettia reclinata


Sega er en japansk producent af videospil.

Sega har også flere andre betydninger:
 Sega (musik) – en dansemusikstil
 Sega (Italien) – en by i Provincia di Verona, Italien

Sega (flertydig)


Olivier Deman, né le  à Anvers en Belgique, est un footballeur international belge qui joue au poste d'ailier gauche au Werder Brême.

Biographie

En club
Né à Anvers en Belgique, Olivier Deman commence le football à l'âge de 7 ans au FC Knokke avant d'être repéré par le Cercle Bruges, qu'il rejoint en 2007. Il fait un passage chez le rival du Club Bruges avant de revenir au Cercle Bruges.

Il joue son premier match en professionnel le , face au Standard de Liège, lors d'une rencontre de Jupiler Pro League. Il entre en jeu à la place d'Adama Traoré et son équipe s'incline par deux buts à un. Lors de ce même mois de mars, il prolonge d'un an avec son club formateur.

Deman inscrit son premier but en professionnel le , lors d'une rencontre de coupe de Belgique contre le KV Ostende. Il est titularisé et marque le but égalisateur de son équipe, qui l'emporte finalement (3-1 score final). Le , Olivier Deman prolonge son contrat avec le Cercle Bruges jusqu'en juin 2023.

Le , Oliver Deman rejoint l'Allemagne afin de s'engager en faveur du Werder Brême.

En sélection
Le , il joue son premier match avec l'équipe de Belgique espoirs, à l'occasion d'une rencontre face à la Turquie. Il entre en jeu à la place de Yari Verschaeren, et son équipe s'impose par deux buts à zéro. Le , Deman inscrit son premier but avec les espoirs, face aux Pays-Bas. Son équipe s'incline toutefois par deux buts à un.

Olivier Deman est convoqué pour la première fois avec l'équipe nationale de Belgique par le sélectionneur Domenico Tedesco le 6 juin 2023, pour des matchs comptant pour les éliminatoires de l'Euro 2024. Il fait partie des surprises de cette sélection. Il honore sa première sélection lors de ce rassemblement, le 20 juin 2023, contre l'Estonie. Il entre en jeu et les Belges s'imposent par trois buts à zéro.

Statistiques

En club

En sélections nationales
{| class="wikitable" style="font-size:95%; text-align:center;"
|+Statistiques d'Olivier Deman au
|-
! scope="col" width=80 rowspan=2 |Saison
! scope="col" width=150 rowspan=2 |Sélection
! scope="col" width=150 rowspan=2 |Campagne
! scope="col" width=80 colspan=3 |Phases finales
! scope="col" width=80 colspan=3 |Éliminatoires
! scope="col" width=80 colspan=3 |Matchs amicaux
! scope="col" width=80 colspan=3 |Total
|-
!!style="border-right-style:hidden;width:2em"|  !!style="border-right-style:hidden; border-left-style:hidden;width:2em"| !!style="width:2em"|Buts !!style="border-right-style:hidden;width:2em"| Sél. !!style="border-right-style:hidden; border-left-style:hidden;width:2em"| Cap. !!style="width:2em" | Buts !!style="border-right-style:hidden;width:2em"  | Sél. !!style="border-right-style:hidden; border-left-style:hidden;width:2em"| Cap. !!style="width:2em" | Buts !!style="border-right-style:hidden;width:2em" | Sél. !!style="border-right-style:hidden; border-left-style:hidden;width:2em"| Cap. !!style="width:2em" | Buts
|-
| 2021-2022 || rowspan=2 |  || rowspan=2 | Euro espoirs 2023 || colspan=3 | - ||5||3||0|| colspan=3 | - || bgcolor=#e5e5e5 | 5 || bgcolor=#e5e5e5 | 3|| bgcolor=#e5e5e5 | 0
|-
| 2022-2023 ||3||1||0|| colspan=3 | - ||4||4||1|| bgcolor=#e5e5e5 | 7 || bgcolor=#e5e5e5 | 5|| bgcolor=#e5e5e5 | 1
|-

|-
| 2022-2023 || rowspan=2 |  || rowspan=2 | Euro 2024 || rowspan=2 colspan=3 | - ||2||1||0|| rowspan=2 colspan=3 | - || bgcolor=#E5E5E5 | 2 || bgcolor=#E5E5E5 | 1 || bgcolor=#E5E5E5 | 0
|-
| 2023-2024 ||4||0||0|| bgcolor=#E5E5E5 | 4 || bgcolor=#E5E5E5 | 0 || bgcolor=#E5E5E5 | 0
|-

Matchs internationaux

Notes et références

Notes

Références

Liens externes

Footballeur international belge
Joueur du Cercle Bruges
Joueur du Werder Brême
Naissance en avril 2000
Naissance à Anvers

Olivier Deman


Mervi Markkanen (* 31. Mai 1984) ist eine ehemalige finnische Biathletin.

Mervi Markkanen gehörte im ersten und zweiten Drittel der 2000er Jahre zum finnischen Nationalkader. Ihr internationales Debüt gab sie im Rahmen der Juniorenweltmeisterschaften 2002 in Ridnaun, bei denen sie im Einzel hinter Kaja Eckhoff und Nina Karassewytsch die Bronzemedaille gewann. Im Staffelrennen verpasste sie als Viertplatzierte knapp eine weitere Medaille. Zudem wurde sie 14. in Sprint und Verfolgung. Auch bei den Juniorenrennen der Europameisterschaften 2002 in Kontiolahti verpasste sie wiederum als Viertplatzierte im Staffelrennen eine Medaille um nur einen Platz. Im Einzel erreichte sie den siebten, im Sprint den neunten und im Verfolgungsrennen den 12. Platz. Bei den Juniorenweltmeisterschaften 2003 in Kościelisko wurde die Finnin 16. im Einzel, 20. im Sprint, Zehnte der Verfolgung und Sechste im Staffelrennen. 2004 wurde Markkanen in Haute-Maurienne 15. im Sprintrennen, Elfte des Verfolgers sowie Fünfte  in Einzel und dem Staffelrennen. Sie beschloss ihre Karriere bei den Junioren, wie sie sie begann. In Kontiolahti gewann Markkanen 2005 im Einzel hinter Anne Preußler und Marija Kossinowa erneut die Bronzemedaille. Im Sprint wurde sie 27., 16. der Verfolgung und Staffel-Zehnte.

Markkanen debütierte zum Auftakt der Saison 2005/06 im Weltcup und wurde 97. eines Sprints und mit Eija Salonen, Outi Kettunen und Kaisa Mäkäräinen als Schlussläuferin 12. im Staffelwettbewerb. Im weiteren Verlauf der Saison erreichte sie mit diesen Dreien in Oberhof mit Rang neun ihr bestes Staffel-Ergebnis. Gegen Saisonende belegte sie in Kontiolahti im Sprint den 31. Platz. Nach der Saison, in der sie regelmäßig bei Weltcuprennen zum Einsatz kam, folgten in der Saison 2006/07 nur noch Einsätze im Europacup. Beste Ergebnisse waren ein 15. Rang im Einzel von Cesana San Sicario und Platz sechs mit Pirjo Urpilainen und Maija Holopainen mit der Staffel.

Weltcup-Platzierungen

Weblinks

Biathlet (Finnland)
Finne
Geboren 1984
Frau

Mervi Markkanen


Agrilus ibiscanus é uma espécie de inseto do género Agrilus, família Buprestidae, ordem Coleoptera.

Foi descrita cientificamente por Curletti, 2007.

Referências

ibiscanus

Agrilus ibiscanus


Meaux je drugi najveći grad u departmanu Seine-et-Marne koji se nalazi u pokrajini Île-de-France, Francuskoj. Prema popisu stanovništva iz 2016. Meaux je imao 56,249 stanovnika s gustoćom naseljenosti od 3800 stanovnika po kilometru2.

Izvori

Vanjske poveznice

Gradovi u Francuskoj

Meaux


صنع أو يصنع من الحبة قبة  مثل شعبي يكثر استخدامه في السعودية وخاصة من الطبقة العامة، وهو تعبير مجازي شهير في اللغة العربية والإنجليزية يُقصد به كل من يضخم الأمور التي لا تستحق التضخيم حسب وجهة نظر قائلها.

مراجع

أمثال
استعارات
كنايات إنجليزية
اللغة العربية

صنع من الحبة قبة


Hemanta Kumar Mukhopadhyay (Bengalí: হেমন্ত কুমার মুখোপাধ্যায়; Hemonto Kumar Mukhopaddhae) (Benarés, 16 de junio de 1920 - Calcuta, 26 de septiembre de 1989), también conocido como Hemanta Mukherjee, fue un cantante, compositor y productor indio de origen bengalí. Interpretó temas musicales para películas en lengua Hindi bajo el nombre de Hemant Kumar.

Biografía
Hemanta nació en la ciudad de Benarés, India, aunque su familia procedía de una aldea llamada Bahru en Bengala Occidental. Ellos emigraron a Calcuta a principios de la década de los años 20. Hemanta creció allí y asistió a una institución escolar de la zona de Bhowanipore, llamada Mitra. Allí se encontró con su viejo amigo, Subhas Mukhopadhyay, quien más tarde se convirtió en un poeta bengalí. Después de pasar los exámenes intermedios (12 º grado), cursó en la Universidad de Jadavpur Hemanta para matricularse en la carrera de ingeniería. Sin embargo, dejó sus estudios académicos para seguir una carrera musical, a pesar de la objeción de sus padres. Hizo un breve intento para dedicarse a la literatura y también publicó un cuento corto en una prestigiosa revista bengalí llamada Desh, pero a finales de los años 1930, se había comprometido finalmente con una carrera musical.

Filmografía y composición en inglés
1972: Siddhartha

Filmografía y composición en bengalí
Total de número de filmaciones: 138

1947: Abhiyatri, Purbaraag.
1948: Bhuli Naai, Padma Pramatta Nadi, Priyatama.
1949: Diner Par Din, '42, Sandipan Pathshala, Swami.
1951: Jighansa, Paritran
1952: Swapno O Samadhi-(Jointly with Khagen Dasgupta.)
1955: Shapmochan
1956: Suryamukhi
1957: Shesh Parichay, Taser Ghar, Harano Sur
1958: Lukochuri, Shikar, Surjatoran, Joutuk, Neel Akasher Neechey.
1959: Deep Jwele Jaai, Khelaghar, Marutirtha Hinglaj, Sonar Harin, Kshaniker Atithi.
1960: Baishey Shravan, Gariber Meye, Kuhak, Khoka Babur Prayabartan, Shesh Paryanta.
1961: Dui Bhai, Agni Sanskar, Madhya Rater Tara, Punashcha, Saptapadi, Sathi Hara, Swaralipi.
1962: Atal Jaler Ahwan, Agun, Dada Thakur, Hansuli Banker Upakatha, Nabadiganta.
1963: Badshah, Barnachora, Ek Tukro Agun, High Heel, Palatak, Saat Pake Bandha, Shesh Prahar, Tridhara.
1964: Arohi, Bibhas, Natun Tirtha, Pratinidhi, Prabhater Rang, Swarga Hotey Biday, Sindure Megh.
1965: Alor Pipasa, Ek Tuku Basa, Ek Tuku Chhonya Lage, Suryatapa.
1966: Kanch Kata Hirey, Manihar.
1967: Balika Badhu, Dushtu Prajapati, Nayika Sangbad, Ajana Shapath.
1968: Adwitya, Baghini, Hansamithun, Jiban Sangeet, Panchasar, Parisodh.
1969: Chena Achena, Man Niye, Parineeta, Shuk Sari.
1970: Deshbandhu Chittaranjan, Duti Mon.
1971: Kuheli, Malayadan, Nabarag, Nimantran, Sansar, Mahabiplabi Arabindo.
1972: Anindita, Shriman Prithviraj.
1974: Bikele Bhorer Phool, Thagini, Phuleshwari.
1975: Agniswar, Mohan Baganer Meye, Nishi Mrigaya, Raag Anuraag, Sansar Simantey.
1976: Banhi Sikha, Datta, Sankhabish, Pratisruti.
1977: Din Amader, Hatey Roilo Tin, Mantramugdha, Pratima, Proxy, Rajani, Sanai, Shesh Raksha, Swati.
1978: Ganadevta, Nadi Theke Sagare, Pranay Pasha.
1979: Shahar Theke Dooray, Nauka Dubi.
1980: Bandhan, Dadar Kirti, Paka Dekha, Pankhiraj, Shesh Bichar.
1981: Kapal Kundala, Khelar Putul, Meghmukti, Subarna Golak.
1982: Chhoto Maa, Chhut, Uttar Meleni, Pratiksha.
1983: Amar Geeti, Rajeshwari.
1984: Agni Shuddhi, Ajantay, Bishabriksha, Didi, Madhuban, Suryatrishna.
1985: Bhalobasa Bhalobasa, Tagari.
1986: Pathbhola, Ashirwad.
1987: Pratibha, Tunibou, Agaman, Boba sanai, Parasmani, Surer Sathi.

Filmografía y composición en Hindi
 A: Anand Math, Anjaan, Anupama, Arab Ka Saudagar.
 B: Bahu, Bandhan, Bandi, Bandish, Bees Saal Baad, Bees Saal Pehle, Bhagwat Mahima, Bin Badal Barsaat, Biwi Aur Makaan.
 C: Chand, Champakali.
 D: Daku Ki Ladki, Do Dil, Do Dooni Char, Do Ladke Dono Kadke, Do Mastane, Durgesh Nandini, Duniya Jhukti Hai, Devi Choudhurani.
 E: Ek hi Raasta, Ek Jhalak.
 F: Ferry, Faraar, Fashion.
 G: Girl Friend
 H: Hamara Watan, Hill Station, Hum Bhi Insaan Hai.
 I: Inspector
 J: Jagriti
 K: Khamoshi, Kohraa, Kitna Badal Gaya Insaan.
 L: Lagan, Laalten, Love in Canada.
 M: Maa Beta, Majhli Didi, Miss Mary.
 N: Nagin
 P: Payal, Police
 R: Rahgeer
 S: Sahara, Sahib Bibi Aur Ghulam, Samrat, Sannata, Shart.
 T: Taj
 U: Us Raat Ke Baad
 Y: Yahudi Ki Ladki

Otras composiciones y filmografías
Ayel Basant Bahar (1961)
Balma Bada Nadaan (1964)

Enlaces externos
Songs of Hemanta Mukherjee
Hemant Kumar home page
Mostly complete discography
Articles on Hemanta Mukherjee
Hemanta's Hindi Filmography
Hemanta's Bengali Songs
Hemanta's Bangla Gaan
Hemanta Mukherjee's Bengali Songs

Nacidos en Benarés
Cantautores de India
Premio Académico Sangeet Natak
Fallecidos en Calcuta

Hemanta Kumar Mukhopadhyay


Mitridat III. od Iberije (gruz. მირდატ III), iz dinastije Hozroida, bio je kralj Iberije (Kartlija, istočna Gruzija) od 365. do 380. godine (kao su-vladar od 370. do 378.)

Mitridat III. je naslijedio svog oca Varaz-Bakura I., prema rimskom povjesničaru Amijanu Marcelinu poznatog kao Aspagur. Aspagura je kao kralja postavio Šapur II., sasanidski vladar Irana na mjestu njegovog nećaka Saurmaga II. Mitridat je nepoznat Amijanu koji ga i dalje naziva Aspagurom (Amijan, 27.12; 30.2).

Oko 370. godine iranska intervencija u Iberiji izazvala je rimski odgovor, a Amijan izvještava o ekspediciji koju je car Valens poslao kako bi ponovo postavio Saurmaga na prijestolje Iberije. Kad su rimske legije stigle do rijeke Kure, njihov zapovjednik Terencije i Saurmag su sklopili dogovor s Aspagurom da kraljevstvo podijele na dva dijela, uz rijeku. Postojale su naznake da je Aspagur razmišljao o prebjegu u Rim, ali se bojao za život svog sina Vitre, koji je do tada bio talac na sasanidskom dvoru. Dopušteno mu je zadržati kontrolu nad sjeveroistočnom Iberijom, dok je Saurmag uspostavljen na jugozapadu. Ova se situacija ogleda u priči Leontija Mrovelija o prebjegu ljudi iz Klardžetije (na jugozapadu Iberije) Rimljanima.

Nakon rimskog poraza kod Drinopolja, Saurmag je vjerojatno svrgnut 378. godine i Aspagur je vjerojatno vratio cijelo kraljevstvo pod svoju kontrolu.

Izvori

Kraljevi Iberije

Mitridat III. od Iberije


Olaylar

Doğumlar
 17 Şubat - Nasîrüddin Tûsî, Fars bilim insanı ve İslam filozofu (ö. 1274)
 tarihi bilinmeyen
 Baycu Noyan, Batı Moğol orduları kumandanı (ö. 1260)

Ölümler
 31 Temmuz - İoannis Komnenos, III. Aleksios'tan imparatorluk tacını gasp etmeye teşebbüs etmiş Bizans soylusu
 tarihi bilinmeyen
 III. Boemondo, Antakya Prensliği prensi (d. 1144)
 İbnü'l Cevzî, Arap din, tarih ve tıp bilgini (d. 1116)

1201


Beim sogenannten Schloss von Commanster () handelt es sich um ein Herrenhaus im Ortsteil Commanster der belgischen Gemeinde Vielsalm in der Provinz Luxemburg. Es wurde im Jahre 1741 erbaut.

Beschreibung
Das Gebäude wurde von dem aus dem nahegelegen Recht stammenden Baumeister Andreas Starck geschaffen, die Jahreszahl 1741 befindet sich im Türsturz. Beim Bau wurde hauptsächlich Rechter Blaustein verwendet. Im Inneren befindet sich eine aufwändig geschnitzte Treppe. Auftraggeber war Henri-François Baptist, Magistratsbeamter am Hofe des Grafen von Salm und zeitweise Bürgermeister von Gouvy. Eine Verwendung des Gebäudes als Amtssitz ist nicht nachgewiesen.

Während der Ardennenoffensive im Winter 1944–1945, dienten die Gebäude zeitweise dem Generalfeldmarschall Gerd von Rundstedt als Kommandozentrale. General Hasso von Manteuffel hatte sich ebenfalls in Commanster aufgehalten.

Einzelnachweise

Bauwerk in der Provinz Luxemburg
Vielsalm
Commanster

Schloss Commanster


Die Liste der denkmalgeschützten Objekte in Veľké Turovce enthält die drei nach slowakischen Denkmalschutzvorschriften geschützten Objekte in der Gemeinde Veľké Turovce im Okres Levice.

Denkmäler

Legende

Einzelnachweise

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Velke Turovce